A Bioarchaeological Analysis of Neolithic Alepotrypa Cave, Greece 9781841711812, 9781407353111

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Title Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1. ANALYTICAL CONTEXT
CHAPTER 2. ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND BIOARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
CHAPTER 3. COMPARATIVE BACKGROUND MATERIALS
CHAPTER 4. METHODS
CHAPTER 5. RESULTS
CHAPTER 6. DISCUSSION
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
TABLES
FIGURES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX I: STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS SAMPLES PER SITE
APPENDIX II: ALEPOTRYPA CAVE OSTEOLOGICAL CATALOG

Citation preview

A Bioarchaeological Analysis of Neolithic Alepotrypa Cave, Greece

Anastasia Papathanasiou

BAR International Series 961 2001

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 961

A Bioarchaeological Analysis of Neolithic Alepotrypa Cave, Greece © Anastasia Papathanasiou and the Publisher 2001 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711812 paperback ISBN 9781407353111 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711812 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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A Bioarchaeological Analysis of Neolithic Alepotrypa Cave, Greece

T o my p a ren t s , G eo rge , a nd a l l t h e p eop le w ho c an g i ve mo re t h an t h ey h ave .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

L IST O F TABLES L IST O FF IGURES I NTRODUCT ION R e sea r ch o b jec t ive s a nd h ypo the se s C hap te r s CHAPTER 1 . ANALYT ICAL CONTEXT P a rad igm s h if t s Mo r tua ry a na ly s is o fc u l tu ra lr ema in s A na ly s is o fo s teo log ica l r ema in s S umma ry CHAPTER 2 . ARCHAEOLOG ICAL AND B IOARCHAEOLOG ICAL CONTEXT N eo l i th ic A ge B ioa rchaeo logy a nd t h e s h if tt oa g r icu l tu re S umma ry CHAPTER 3 . CO MPARAT IVE BACKGROUND —MATER IALS B ioa rchaeo logy i nN eo l i th ic E a s te rn Med i te r ranean B a s in P re l im ina ry b ioa r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i sa tA lepo t rypa C ave S i te d e sc r ip t ion Ma te r ia l sa nd p re l im ina ry o b se rva t ion s S umma ry CHAPTER 4 . METHODS F une ra ry O s teo log ica la na ly s i s D ie ta ry a na ly s is S umma ry CHAPTER 5 . RESULTS D e sc r ip t ion o fe xcava t iona l d a ta C la s s if ica t ion O s teo log ica la na ly s is D ie ta ry a na ly s is S t a t i s t ica li n f e rence s S umma ry CHAPTER 6 .D ISCUSS ION Mo r tua ry b ehav io r H ea l th T oo th u se A c t iv i ty a nd l i f es t y le B iod i s tance D ie ta ry r e con s t ruc t ion I n teg ra ted a s se s smen t S umma ry SUMMARY AND CONCLUS IONS B IBL IOGRAPHY A PPEND IX I :S TABLE I SOTOPE ANALYS IS SAMPLES P ER S ITE A PPEND IX I : ALEPOTRYPA CAVE O STEOLOG ICAL CATALOG

i n

P age i v 1 1 2 3 3 4 6 8 1 0 1 0 1 8 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 6 2 7 2 7 2 7 3 0 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 6 1 08 1 22 1 30

L IST OF TABLES

T ab le 1 . T ab le 2 . T ab le 3 . T ab le 4 . T ab le 5 . T ab le 6 . T ab le 7 . T ab le 8 . T ab le 9 . T ab le 1 0 . T ab le 1 . T ab le 1 2 . T ab le 1 3 . T ab le 1 4 . T ab le 1 5 . T ab le 1 6 . T ab le 1 7 . T ab le 1 8 . T ab le 1 9 . T ab le 2 0 . T ab le 2 1 . T ab le 2 2 . T ab le 2 3 .

P ub l i shed N eo l i th ic s i te sf r om t h eE a s te rn Med i te r ranean B a s in M in imum n umbe ro fi n d iv idua l s s o r ted b y l o ca t ion S ke le ta lr ep re sen ta t ion b ye l emen t . A du l tm ean a ge f r om N eo l i th ic s i te s . S ubadu l ta g ing f r om l o ng b one s L if ee xpec tancy t a b le C ran ia lp a tho log ica lc ond i t ions p e ri n d iv idua l I n c idence o fp a tho log ica lc ond i t ion sa nd n on -me t r ic v a r ia t ion s D en ta lp a tho log ica l c ond i t ion s p e ri nd iv idua l H ypop la s ia a nd c a r ie s f r equency ( % )p e rt oo th t y pe Muscu lo ske le ta l s t re s s ma rke r s A du l tf emo ra m ea su remen t sa nd i n dexe s . F emu rh ead v e r t ica ld i ame te r F emu rb i condy la rb read th T ib ia p rox ima lb read th T ib ia d i s ta lb r ead th R ad iu sh ead d i ame te r H ume rus h ead v e r t ica l d i ame te r H ume ru se p icondy la rb r ead th A du l ts t a tu re Mean a du l ts t a tu re f r om N eo l i th ic s i te s S t ab le i s o tope a na ly s is r e su l t s S t ab le i s o tope m ean v a lue sp e rs i te

P age 4 7 4 8 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 7 5 8 6 0 6 1 6 4 6 5 6 7 6 8 6 8 6 9 6 9 7 0 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 4 7 5 7 8

L IST OF F IGURES F igu r e 1 . F igu r e2 . F igu re 3 . F igu re 4 . F igu r e5 . F igu re 6 . F igu re 7 . F igu re 8 . F igu re 9 . F igu re 1 0 . F igu r e 1 . F igu r e 1 2 . F igu r e 1 3 . F igu r e 1 4 . F igu r e 1 5 . F igu r e 1 6 . F igu r e 1 7 . F igu r e 1 8 . F igu r e 1 9 . F igu r e2 0 . F igu r e2 1 . F igu r e2 2 . F igu r e2 3 . F igu r e2 4 . F igu r e2 5 . F igu r e2 6 . F igu r e2 7 . F igu r e2 8 . F igu re 2 9 . F igu r e3 0 . F igu r e3 1 . F igu r e3 2 . F igu r e3 3 . F igu r e3 4 . F igu r e3 5 . F igu r e3 6 . F igu r e3 7 . F igu r e3 8 .

Map o fN eo l i th ic G reece Map o fA lepo t rypa C ave ( c ou r te sy o fG . P apa thana s sopou lo s ) . O s sua ry I O s sua ry I O s sua ry I S ing le p r ima ry b u r ia l Mu l t ip le p r ima ry b u r ia l Mu l t ip le p r ima ry b ur ia l Mo r ta l i ty c u rve C r ib ra o rb i ta l ia ( A2227 ) P o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i s( A237 ) P o ro t ic h ype ro s to s is a nd h ea led d ep r e s sed c r an ia lf r a c tu re ( A238 ) H ema toma ( A 111) O s teomye l i t i s ( A 133 ) C upped w ea r ,p remor tem t o o th l o s s ,c a r ie s ( A 139 ) L inea re name lh ypop la s ia ( A2228 ) C upped w ea r , p remo r tem t o o th l o s s ( A2 197 ) A ng led w ea r ,p remor tem t o o th l o s s ,a nd t o o th r o ta t ion ( A 1890 ) Me top i sm ( A235 ) E x t ra su tu ra lb one s ( A241) S p ina lo s teoa r th r i t i s( A 1673 , A 1433 ) S chmo r l 's n ode s ( A638 ,A 597 , A 1454 , A 10 18 ) E n thesopa thy ( A2 197 ) E n thesopa thy ( A2197 ) E n the sopa thy ( A 1370 ) P e r io s tea l r e ac t ion ( A 1627 ) I n f ec t ion ( A 1539 ) I n f ec t ion ( A 1946 , A 870 , A 579 ) C o l le 's f r ac tu re ( A 1824 ) F rac tu red m e taca rpa l s( A2076 , A 2077 ) R ib f r ac tu re ( A 1262 ) F rac tu red f emo ra l h ead ( A 1562 ) T a lu so fa bno rma l s hape ( A 1664 ) K l ippe l -Fe i l s ynd rome ( A 1496 ) Ap robab le c a se o fr i cke t s( A 1947 ) C ono id j o in t( A 1680 ) B owed m e ta ta r sa ls ( A 1527 , A 12 14 ) G row th a r re s tl i ne s ,r i cke t s (? ) ( A 1947 ) , a nd o s teopen ia ( A819 ) i nf emo ra ( A819 ,A 1947a , A 2037 ,A 1947b ,A 974 ) F igu r e3 9 . G row th a r re s tl i ne s i nh ume r i ( A2197 , A 904 , A 1594 ) F igu r e4 0 . I s o top ic c ompo s i t ion o fh uman b one c o l lagen c ompa red t oi s o top ica l ly d i s t inc td i e t s F igu re 4 1 . S tab le i s o tope p lo t( c o l lagen ) F i gu re 4 2 . I so top ic c ompo s i t ion o fh uman d i e t sb a sed o nb one a pa t i te c a rbona te 8 13C a nd b one c o l lagen 8 15N

P age 7 9 8 0 8 2 8 3 8 4 8 5 8 6 8 7 8 8 8 9 8 9 9 0 9 0 9 1 9 1 9 2 9 2 9 3 9 3 9 4 9 4 9 5 9 5 9 6 9 6 9 7 9 7 9 8 9 8 9 9 9 9 1 00 1 00 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 02 1 02 1 03 1 04 1 05 1 06 1 07

a va i lab le , s ke le ta l mo rpho logy ,p a tho logy a nd c hem is t ry c an p rov ide e s t ima te so fc ommun i ty h ea l th a nd d i sea se ,a sw e l l a si n fo rma t ion o ng en e ra l s oc ia lb ehav io ra nd o nh uman a dap ta t ion t ot h e e nv i ronmen t . My r e sea r ch f o cu se so n aL a te a nd F ina l N eo l i th ic A ge s i te f r om s ou the rn G reece c a l led A lepo t rypa C ave . Iu se t h is l o ca l i ty i no rde rt ot r ace t h e i mpa c ta nd t h e n a tu re o f N eo l i th ic l i f eway si na ne nv i ronmen to the rt h an t h e N ea r E a s t . A lepo t rypa C ave i so ne o ft h er i ches tN eo l i th ic s i te si n G reece ( Papa thana ssopou lo s 1 996 ) . I ti so fs pec ia l i mpo r tance b ecau se i tb e long st ot h el a te rp ha ses o ft h e N eo l i th ic , w hen t r an sfo rma t ion sw e r e f u l ly d eve loped , a nd i t c on ta in sb o th h ab i ta t ion d eb r i sa sw e l l a sa nu ncommon v a r ie ty o fm o r tua ry l o c i . S uch d i ve r s i ty c an p o ten t ia l ly r evea l s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica ld i f f e rence s w i th in t h i ss oc ie ty . F ina l ly , t h eb u r ia l l o c ip rov ide a ni mpor tan tc o l lec t ion o fv e ry w e l l p r e se rved h uman o s teo log ica lm a te r ia l i na na r ea o ft h e w o r ld w he r eh uman o s teo log ica lr ema in sa r eg ene ra l ly s c a r ce a nd l i t t le a t ten t ion h a sb een g i ven t ot h e i ra na ly s i s .

I NTRODUCT ION T he p e r iod b e tween 9 , 000 a nd 2 , 500 BC c omp r i se st h e N eo l i th ic A ge i nt h eM idd le E a s ta nd E u rope . T he e xa c t b eg inn ing a nd e nd ing d a te sd epend o nt h eg eog raph ica l l o ca t ion .T h i sp e r iod i so ne o ft h em o s ta c t ive i nt e rm so ft h e s oc iopo l i t ica ld ynam ic so fc u l tu ra ld eve lopmen t . D u r ing t h e N eo l i th ic ,e conom ie sc hanged t oi n c lude d ome s t ica ted p l an t s a nd a n ima l s , w h ich i n vo lved av a r ie ty o ft e chno log ica l d eve lopmen t sa sw e l la si n c rea sed s eden t i sm . T he se c hanges p rof ound ly a f f ec ted h uman l i f e ,p a r t icu la r ly h ea l th , s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion ,a nd t h ee conom ic i n f ra s t ruc tu re . A l though t h e re i s ac on sen su st h a tt h eN eo l i th ic r ep re sen t sa f undamen ta lc hange i nh uman l i f eway s ,q ues t ion se x i s ta bou t t h en a tu r ea nd r a te o fs u ch c hange si nv a r ied e nv i ronmen t s a nd f o rl o ca lp opu la t ion s . T he t r ad i t iona l m ode li st h a tt h e t r an s f o rma t ion sw e re r ap id ,u n ifo rm ,a nd r e su l ted i n b ene f ic ia la l te ra t ion si nh uman c u l tu r e ( Ch i 1de 1 936 , R edman 1 978 ) . H oweve r , mo re e x ten s ive r e sea rch i n n ume rou ss i tes w o r ldw ide s ugge s t st h a ts eden t i sm ,r e l iance o nd ome s t ica tes ,a nd s o c iopo l i t ica lc hange sh appened a t d i f f e r en tr a te s , w e r en o tn eces sa r i ly c o te rm inou s ,a nd l e dt oa v a r ie ty o ft r an sfo rma t ion si nt h ed i f f e ren tp a r t so ft h ew o r ld (Wh i t t le 1 996 ,B oguck i 1 996 , B a i te r 1 998 , F l anne ry 1 973 , R en f r ew 1 987 ) . D ome s t ica t ion a nd s eden t i sm a l so r e su l ted i n c hange si nd i e ta ry h ab i t s w h ich c ommon ly , b u tn o t u n ive r sa l ly o rp red ic tab ly ,r e su l ted i nl owe rn u t r i t iona l q ua l i ty a nd ad e te r io ra t ion o fc e r ta in a spec t so fh uman h ea l th ( La r sen 1 987 , 1 995b ,C ohen a nd A rme lago s 1 984 ) . Many a u tho r sn ow e nv i s ion aw ide s pec t rum o fl o ca l c hange sa nd d i f f e ren t ia l g eog raph ica l , s oc ia l ,e conom ic ,c u l tu ra l , a nd b io log ica lt r an sfo rma t ion s ,t h a ti n ten s if ied a nd w e r e i n s t i tu t iona l ized i nt h el a te rN eo l i th ic (Wh i t t le 1 996 , B oguck i 1 996 ,A nd r eou e ta l . 1 996 ) .T h i sr e sea r ch i n ve s t iga te st h e i mpac to ft h eN eo l i th ic i ns ou the rn G reece b ye xam in ing mo r tua ry a nd o s teo log ica ld a ta .

R e search o b jec t ives a nd h ypo the ses R e sea r ch o nG reek N eo l i th ic s ke le ta l ma te r ia l h a sb een l im i ted d e sp i te t h ef a c tt h a tt h ei n ves t iga t ion o fh uman r ema in si sn o tp rob lema t ic a si ti si nt h eU n i ted S ta te s . T hu s , t h i st h e s i s , f o cu s ing o nt h e a na ly s i so ft h e h uman s ke le ta la nd mo r tua ry d a ta f r om A lepo t rypa C ave , w i l l m ake as i gn if ican t c on t r ibu t ion t ot h e f i e ld . F ou rm a in a spec t so fa na ly s is h ave b een u nde r taken . F i r s t , Ir e con s t ruc tt h ep a leodemog raph ic a nd p a leopa tho log ica lp rof i le o ft h eN eo l i th ic p opu la t ion t h a t l i ved a tA lepo t rypa . T he p re sen ts amp le o f 1 6 1 i n d iv idua l s , t h ee n t i re e xcava ted p opu la t ion o fA lepo t rypa C ave u pt ot h e p re sen t , w h ich a r en o ta l c on tempo raneou sb u tr ep r e sen t d i f f e r en tc h rono log ica lc on tex t so ft h e L a te a nd F ina l p e r iod s ,p rov ided ar obu s td a ta b a se f r om w h ich Ic ou ld d e te rm ine t h ed emog raph ic a nd p a tho log ica lc ha rac te r is t ics o ft h ep opu la t ion ,t h e s t r e s se st h a ti tw a s s ub jec ted t o , a nd t h e i n te rac t ion b e tween c u l tu re , h ea l th , a nd e nv i ronmen t . Two o u tcome s w e re p o s s ib le ,e i the rt h a tt h ep a tho log ica l c ond i t ion sa nd d emog raph ic p a rame te r sf a l l w i th in t h e e xpec ted r a nge f o rN eo l i th ic G reece a nd t h eE a s ter n Med i te r ranean r e g ion ,o rt h a tt h e se p a rame te r se xh ib i t s i gn if ican tv a r ia t ion .

Mo r tua ry b ehav io ra nd h uman s k e le ta lr ema in sc on s t i tu te s om eo ft h e mo s ti mpo r tan td a ta f o ra r cha eo log i s t s a t t emp t ing t od raw c onc lu s ion sc on ce rn ing s oc ia l ,c u l tu ra l , a nd b i o log ica lc ond i t ion si nt h ep a s t . N ume rou s a r chaeo log ica ls t ud ie sh ave i n ve s t iga ted t h er e la t ion sh ip s b e twe en v a r ia t ion si nm o r tua ry b ehav io r ,s oc ia ls t a tu s ,a nd p o l i t ica lc omp lex i ty ( Saxe 1 970 , B in fo rd 1 971 ,T a in te r 1 978 , Mo r r i s 1 992 ,B rown 1 995 ) . H uman s ke le ta lr ema in sa l low a r cha eo log is t st or e con s t ruc td emog raph ic p rof i les ,t o i n ve s t iga te p a leopa tho logy ,p a leod ie ta nd n u t r i t ion . O s teo log ica l ma te r ia lr e p re sen t s ac umu la t ive r e co rd o fp a s t e ven t sa nd a c t iv i ty p a t ter n sf o rb o th t h e i n d iv idua la nd t h e p opu la t ion . When ar ep re sen ta t ive s amp le o fi n d iv idua l si s

S econd , Id e sc r ibe t h ev a r iou sb u r ia l p rac t ice sr ep re sen ted a t A lepo t rypa C ave a nd e xam ine t h e i rp o s s ib le m ean ing i n r e la t ion t os oc ia l s t a tu s . T he d i ve r s i ty o ft h e f une ra ry p ra c t ice s s ugge s t s i n c r ea sed a t ten t ion t oa nd c oncer nf o rt h e d ead . F o l low ing f r om t h e B info rd -Saxe p rog ram , t h e p ropo s i t ion st ob et e s ted a r et h a t( 1 )f une ra ry d ive r s i ty r ef lec t s i n c r ea s ing s oc ia lc omp lex i ty a nd d i ve r s if ica t ion t h rough t ime ; a nd t h a t( 2 ) i nt h ec a se o fc on tempo raneou s p ra c t ice s , m o r tua ry d i ve r s i ty c o r re la te s w i th s t a tu s d i f f e rences w i th in o n et empo ra l a nd o ccupa t iona l u n i t . T h i rd , Ic ompa re t h e s t ab le c a rbon a nd s t ab le n i t rogen i s o tope l e ve l sf r om i n d iv idua ls f r om s i xG reek N eo l i th ic 1

t h e i rs ke le ta l mo rpho logy . T he a f o remen t ion ed a dap ta t ion s , r e la ted w i th f ood c ompo s i t ion , g row th a nd e nv i ronmen ta l s t re s se s ,i n f ec t ion s , a c t iv i ty p a t ter n s , a nd d i e t ,a r e p re sen ted b a sed o n an umbe ro fb i oa r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s wo r ldw ide .

s i te s l o ca ted i nt wo d i f f e ren tg eog raph ica ls e t t ing s : i n land s i tes i n c lud ing T ha r roun ia ( s amp le n =20 i n d iv idua ls ) , T heope t ra ( s amp le n = 1 4 ) , a nd K ouve le ik i ( s amp le n =5 ) ; a nd c oa s ta l s i te si n c lud ing A lepo t rypa ( s amp le n =26 ) , F ranch th i ( s amp le n = 18 ) ,a nd K epha la ( s amp le n =18 ) .T h is p e rm i t sm e t oa s se s st h el o ca l s ub s i s tence p rac t ice su t i l ized b yt h e se p opu la t ion s . W i th in A lepo t rypa C ave Is amp led v a r iou s l o c i , p a r t icu la r ly f r om d i f f e ren t mo r tua ry t y pe s , i no rde rt o i d en t ify d i e ta ry d i f f e r ence sw i th in t h i s s pec if ic p opu la t ion , a nd i nt h er e s to ft h e s i tes ,w hen a va i lab le n ame ly a t F ranch th ia nd T heope t ra , Is amp led i n d iv idua ls f r om e a r l ie r N eo l i th ic p e r iod sa sw e l l a st h e Me so l i th ic . T he h ypo the s i s t h a th a sb een t e s ted i st h a ti nN eo l i th ic G r eece ,d e sp i te t h e r e sou rce d i ve r s i ty a ppa r en ti nt h ef a una l a nd f l o ra lr e co rd , a nd d e sp i te t h ec l o se p rox im i ty o f an umbe ro fs i te st ot h e s e a ,t h e N eo l i th ic p opu la t ion sl i ved o nd i e t sc on s is t ing p redom inan t ly o ft e r re s t r ia l f ood s ,p r ima r i ly g ra in s .T h i s c ompa ra t ive s t ab le i s o tope e v idence a l so p rov ide s av a luab le s e to fb a se l ine d a ta f o rf u tu re a na ly se si nt h e Med i te r ranean r e g ion .

T he t h i rd c hap te rd ea l s w i th b ioa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ies , w h ich a r e s pec if ica l ly l im i ted o nt h e N eo l i th ic s h if tt oa g r icu l tu r e i n t h eE a s te rn Med i te r ranean , a nd p r e sen ta ne s t ima te o ft h e h ea l th s t a tu s i nt h a t r e g ion . T hen i tf o cuse so nt h e o ve ra l l b ioa r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch i nG r eece c ove r ing t h e N eo l i th ic A ge . I nt h i sc on tex t Ia dd r e s st h er e la ted i s su e s , s uch a s a nem ia s , s e t t lemen t s ub s is tence , a nd t h ee f f e c t so n h ea l th s t a tu s . T he l a s tp a r to ft h i sc hap te rc on ta in st h ed esc r ip t ion o f t h e A lepo t rypa C ave s i te a nd t h e u ncove r ed c u l tu ra l a nd s ke le ta l m a te r ia l . I nt h e f our th c hap te r ,t h es pec if ic t e chn ique sa nd t h e r e su l t s o ft h e a na ly se sf r om t h et h ree p a r t so f my r e sea rch a r e p re sen ted : a )f une ra ry p rac t ices , w h ich c on ta in st h e c l a s s if ica t ion c r i te r ia , t h ed e sc r ip t ion o ft h eb u r ia l c us tom s , a nd t h e i ri n te rp r e ta t ion ; b )o s teo log ica l a na ly s i s , w h ich c on ta in st h er e su l t so fp a leodemog raph ic ,p a leopa tho log ica l , a nd m o rpho log ica l s t ud ies a nd t h e s pec if ic t e chn iques u sed i ne a ch c a se ; a nd c )s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s is , w h ich c on ta in s t h et h eo r e t ica lb ackg round o ft h em e thod , ad e sc r ip t ion o f t h ec o l lec t ion p roce s so ft h e s ke le ta l s amp le s ,t h e s pec if i c p rocedu re so ft h el a bo ra to ry a na ly se s , a nd t h er e su l ts w e o b ta ined .

F ina l ly ,a tA lepo t rypa Ii n teg ra te t h es t ab le i s o tope , p a leopa tho log ica l ,p a leodemog raph ic , a nd mo r tua ry a na ly s i s r e su l t s . Iw a st h en a b le t oi d en t ify i ft h ev a r iou sb u r ia lt y pe s c o r re la te w i th ( 1 )d i e ta ry d i f f e rence s ; ( 2 )p a tho log ica l c ond i t ion s ; ( 3 )p a r t icu la ra c t iv i ty m a rke r s ; o r( 4 )n on -me t r ic s ke le ta l i n d ica t ion so fk i n sh ip s im i la r i t ie so rd i f f e r ences . Chap ter s

I nt h e f i f th c hap te r ,t h e s yn the s i s ,a na ly s is ,a nd p o ss ib le e xp lana t ion so ft h er e su l t sp re sen ted i nt h ep r ev iou s c hap t e r i sc onduc ted . T h i s i n c lude st h e h i gh l igh t ing o ft h e ma jo r p o in t so ft h er e su l t s ,t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h es t a t is t ica l r e su l t s , a nd t h e i n teg ra t ion o ft h e d a ta o ft h et h r ee t ypes o f a na ly s i st h a t s how st h eo u tcome o ft h e N eo l i th ic o ft h e s pec if ic l o ca t ion t h rough t h e mor tua ry a r cha eo log ica lr e co rd .

I nt h e f i r s tc hap te r , Ip r e sen tt h et h eo r e t ica la nd m e thodo log ica lb ackg round o ft h i st h e s is ,u pon w h ich t h e t h eo re t ica la pp roach t ot h e s ub jec ti sb a sed . Ip resen tb r ief ly t h e h i s to ry o ff une ra ry a nd o s teo log ica lr e sea rch a nd h ow t h i sd eve loped t h rough v a r ious s t ud ie s . T he f o cu si so nt h e i n fo rma t ion t h a tw ec an e x t ra c tf r om t h ea na ly s i so fb o th f une ra ry c u s tom sa nd o s teo log ica lm a te r ia l ,a sw e l la st h e a dvan tage sa nd p i tf a l l so ft h e a na ly s i so ft h e mor tua ry a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd .

C hap te rs i xc on ta in s ab r ief s umma ry o ft h ea f o r emen t ioned r e su l t sa nd s yn thes i s ,t h ec onc lu s ion st h a tc an b ed rawn f r om t h i s w o rk ,t h eb i gp i c tu re , a nd d i r ec t ion sf o rf u tu re r e sea r ch .

T he s e cond c hap te ri sc omp r i sed o ft wo p a r t s . T he f i r s tp a r t d ea l s w i th t h ec u l tu ra la nd c h rono log ica l b a ckg round o ft h e s t udy , w h ich i st h eN eo l i th ic A ge . Ib r ie f ly d e scr ibe t h e o r ig in so ft h eN eo l i th ic i nt h eN ea rE a s ta nd h ow i ts p read t o E u rope . Ie xpand t ot h ec ha ra c te r i s t ic so ft h eN eo l i th ic i n G reece , a st h ey r e la te t ot h eo r ig in s ,s e t t lemen tp a t ter n , s ub s is tence ,t e chno logy ,a nd s oc ia la nd i d eo log ica l l i f e . I a l so g ive s pec ia la t ten t ion o nh ow t h eN eo l i th ic s p read i n E u rope ,t h ec ha rac te ri ta s sumed o u t s ide t h ec o r ea r ea o ft h e L evan t , w ha tw e r et h es oc ia la nd e conom ic t r an sforma t ion s t r igge red b yt h eN eo l i th ic i nE u rope a nd t h er e su l t ing v a r iab i l i ty ,a nd w hy a nd h ow a g r icu l tu ra ls eden ta ry e conom ie sa nd l i f eway sw e re a dop ted .T he s e cond p a r t f o cu se so nt h ei n fo rma t ion t h a tb ioa r chaeo log ica ls t ud ies h ave p rov ided i nr e la t ion w i th t h es h if tt oa g r icu l tu re d u r ing t h eN eo l i th ic .H uman sh ave p rofound ly c hanged t h e i rd i e t a nd l i f eway sw i th t h ea dop t ion o fa g r icu l tu re a nd s eden ta ry e conom ie s ,w h ich c on sequen t ly a f f ec ted t h e i rh ea l th a nd 2

p e r iod o fa r chaeo logy ,b efo r e t h e 1 9 th c en tu ry ,p eop le c ame i nc on tac t w i th v a r iou s f o rm so fm onumen ta l b u r ia ls , w h ich w e r eb e l ieved t ob e long t ot h e a nce s to r so fl o ca lp opu la t ion s i nt h e O ld Wo r ld o rt od i s tan tp rom inen tO ld Wo r ld g roup s i nt h e N ew Wo r ld . I nt h e 1 9 th c en tu ry , ac h rono log ica l a pp roa ch w a sa dop ted , b a sed p r inc ipa l ly o nt h e l aw o f a s soc ia t ion o ft h e g rave g ood s ,c oncu r r en t ly w i th t h e f i r s t s y s tema t ic e xcava t ion sa nd t h ed eve lopmen to ft h e t h r ee A ge s y s tem ( S tone —B ronze —I r on ) ,a nd ag r ea te rc once rn w i th a c u l tu ra l e vo lu t iona ry f r ame a ppea r ed a s ar e levan tv a r iab le i n t h eu nde r s tand ing o ft h e s oc ia l r e l ig iou so rgan iza t ion o ft h e o b se rved m o r tua ry p ra c t ice s . I nt h e 2 0 th c en tu ry ,t h e c h rono log ica l , s oc ia l ,a nd r e l ig iou sa pp roache s ,a sw e l la s t y po log ie sa nd s e r ia t ion o fm a te r ia lf r om mo r tua ry s i te s c on t inued t ob e u sed , i na na t temp tt oa na lyze t h e s pa t ia l a nd t empo ra l v a r ia t ion o ft h ec u l tu re ,b u ta r chaeo log ica lt hough t w a sd om ina ted b yt h en o rma t ive c u l tu ra l a pp roach , a r e a c t ion a ga in s tt h ep r ev iou st h eo ry o fu n i l inea re vo lu t ion . U nde rt h en o rma t ive v i ew ,c u l tu r e w a sd ef ined b yt ype s , b y c ommon p a t te rn so fb ehav io r ,w h ich p roduced s pa t ia la nd t empo ra lr egu la r i t ie sa nd t r a i t s , i n c lud ing mo r tua ry p rac t ice s . C on sequen t ly ,c u l tu r e s w e re e qua ted w i th e t hn ic ,r a c ia lo r l i ngu i s t ic g roup s . S im i la r i t ie sa nd d i f f e rence sb e tween c u l tu r e s w e r e i n te rp r e ted i nt e rm so fd i f f us ion o rp opu la t ion movemen t ( W i l ley a nd S ab lof f 1 980 , C hapman a nd R and sbo rg 1 981) . A f te rt h e m id -20 th c en tu ry ,r ad ioca rbon d a t ing r e so lved t h ec h rono log ica lp rob lem . I nt h e 1 970 s ,t h e N ew A rchaeo logy c r i t ic ized t h en o rma t ive ,c u l tu ra l v i ew , a nd i n t roduced as y s tema t ic a pp roa ch a sw e l l a st h e s ea rch f o r at h eo re t ica lb a s i s u pon w h ich a r cha eo log i s t sc ou ld c on s t ruc tr e la t ion sh ip sb e tween m a te r ia lc u l tu r e a nd o the r p a r t so ft h et o ta lc u l tu ra l s y s tem . Mo r tua ry p rac t ice sw e re u sed t od emon s t ra te t h ev e rac i ty o ft h ese a r gumen t s ( Chapman a nd R andsbo rg 1 981) . T oday ,r e sea r ch h a s c onc luded t h a tt h e re i sg r ea te r mor tua ry v a r iab i l i ty t h an w a s p rev iou s ly a s sumed e ven i ns imp le s oc ie t ie s , a nd mo r tua ry b ehav io rc an o n ly b e u nde r s tood t h rough t h ea na ly s i so f many f a ce t so fd ea th r i tua l i nt h e a r cha eo log ica lr e co rd , w h ich i sp o s s ib le t h rough ar eg iona l s cope o fa na ly s i s ( La r sen 1 995b , Mo r r i s 1 992 ,B rown 1 995 ) .

CHAPTER 1 . ANALYT ICAL CONTEXT Mo r tua ry s t ud ie so f f e r aw indow o n to p a t ter n so fh uman b ehav io rt h a ta r el e s st r aceab le t h rough o the rl i ne so f a r cha eo log ica li n qu i ry ( La r sen 1 995a ) . Mo r tua ry a na ly s is o f c u l tu ra la nd h uman o s teo log ica lr ema in sc on s t i tu te s ome o f t h em o s ti mpo r tan td a ta f o ra r chaeo log i s t s a t temp t ing t o d raw c onc lu s ion sc once rn ing s oc ia l ,c u l tu ra l a nd b i o log ica l c ond i t ion si nt h ep a s t . T h i st ype o fa na ly s i s a l so a low s r e sea r che r st ot a ck le c once rn s h av ing al ong h i s to ry o fs t udy i na r chaeo logy a nd a n th ropo logy i ng ene ra l , s uch a se t hn ic , p o l i t ica la nd s oc ia l i d en t i ty ,r e sou r ce c on t ro l ,s oc ia l i n equa l i ty ,r i tua la nd s ymbo l ic m ean ing ,p opu la t ion d ynam ic s ,e conom ic a nd s ub s is tence o rgan iza t ion ,c on f l ic t , h ea l th ,b ehav io r ,a nd a dap ta t ion . Mo r tua ry r ema in sa r eo f ten h i gh ly p a t te rned a nd a r ed i f f e ren t ly s oi ns oc ie t ie so f d i f f e r ing o rgan iza t ion ,s e em ing t op rov ide i n fo rma t ion o f s oc ia ld imen s ion sn o tr e ad i ly v i s ib le i no the ra r chaeo log ica l m a t e r ia l ( T r inkaus 1 995 ) .C on sequen t ly ,t h e r ei s ac u r ren t q ue s t ion ( t he u nde r s tand ing o ft h es oc ia ld imen s ion so f p reh i s to r ic s oc ie t ies )a nd al a rge b ody o fs e em ing ly p a t ter n ed m a te r ia l . T he p rob lem f o ra r cha eo log i s t si st oc o r r e la te m ean ingfu l ly a nd r e l iab ly t h et wo o ft h em .N ume rou s a r cha eo log ica la na ly se sh ave i n ves t iga ted t h er e la t ion sh ip v a r ia t ion i n mo r tua ry b ehav io r , s oc ia ls t a tus , a nd p o l i t ica l c omp lex i ty ,c l a r if ied t h ec ommon a s sump t ion s ,a nd d eve loped t h et h eo re t ica l a nd m e thodo log ica lb ackg round f o r m o r tua ry s t ud ie s( Saxe 1 970 ,B in fo rd 1 971 ,T a in te r 1 978 , Mo r r i s 1 992 ,B rown 1 995 ) . T h eu s eo ft h ec omb ina t ion o fc u l tu ra la nd o s teo log ica l a r chaeo log ica ls e r ie sb ecomes e spec ia l ly i mpor tan t w hen c on c lu s ion sa r ed rawn a bou ti n t rapopu la t ion c ha ra c te r i s t ic s a nd v a r iab i l i ty f o r ar a nge o ft op ic s . S ke le ta la nd d en ta l t i s sue sf r om a r chaeo log ica ls e t t ing sr ep re sen t ac umu la t ive r e co rd o fp a s te ven t sa nd a c t iv i ty p a t tern sb u ta l so r e vea l l i f e h i s to ry a tb o th t h e i n d iv idua la nd t h ep opu la t ion l e ve l s ( La r sen 1 997 ) . When ar ep re sen ta t ive s amp le o fi n d iv idua l s i sa va i lab le ,s ke le ta lm o rpho logy ,p a tho logy a nd c hem i s t ry c an p rov ide e s t ima te so fp a s th ea l th ,d i sea se ,d emog raphy a nd n u t r i t ion ,a sw e l la si n fo rma t ion o ng ene ra l s oc ia l b ehav io ra nd o nh uman a dap ta t ion st ot h ee nv i ronmen t ( La r sen 1 987 , 1 997 ,H u s s -A shmo re e ta l . 1 982 ) . T he p r esen t w o rk f o cuse so nw ha tt h ea na ly s i so fc u l tu ra la nd h uman o s t eo log ica lm o r tua ry r ema in sc an r e vea l , a nd u nde rw h ich c on s t ra in t sa nd a s sump t ion st h i sc an b ea ch ieved .

I np hy s ica la n th ropo logy ,t h e i n i t ia l s c ien t if ic s t udy o f r e la ted i s sue s ,c u lm ina ted i nt h e w o rk o fS . Mo r ton ( 1839 ) , C ran ia Amer icana , w h ich l i nked N a t ive Ame r ican s w i th a nce s to r sf r om A s ia r a the rt h an N o r se ,I s ra e l i te s , H indu so r o the rs pecu la t ive g roup s . P hy s ica l a n th ropo logy c ame t ot h e s uppo r to fa r chaeo logy w i th t h eu se o fc epha l ic i n d ices , v a r iou sc r an iome t r ic m ea su r emen t s ,a nd c l a s s if ica t ion so f t ype so fh uman s , i no rde rt od ef ine d i f f e ren tr a c ia l g roup s a nd ,c on sequen t ly ,r e con s t ruc t l a rge s c a le p opu la t ion m ig ra t ion s a nd t i et h em t op a s tc u l tu ra ld eve lopmen t s ( Kon ig sbe rg a nd B u ik s t ra 1 995 , C hapman a nd R and sbo rg 1 981) . O nt h eo the rh and , i nt h ep a s t , mo s to s teo log ica l a nd p a tho log ica la na ly se s w e r ep r edom inan t ly d esc r ip t ive a nd o r ien ted t owa rd sc a se s t ud ie s ,r e f lec t ing t h eh i s to r ica lr o le o f m ed ica lp ra c t i t ione r s , w i thou ta na n th ropo log ica lp e r spec t ive b u t w i th e mpha s i so nd i agno s t ic a pp roa che st ot h e s t udy o f a nc ien th uman b one ( La r sen 1 997 ) . C u r r en tr e sea rch s how s

l ' arad igm s h if t s T h e a na ly s is o f mo r tua ry r ema in s h a s al ong a nd v a r ied h i s to ry i na r chaeo logy . I nt h ep r e sc ien t if ic o rs pecu la t ive

3

p r inc ip le su nde r ly ing t h ea s soc ia ted c ommun i ty ( Brown 1 995 , C hapman a nd R and sbo rg 1 981) . B in f o rd a r gued t h a t t h e re i s ah i gh d eg ree o fi s omo rph ism b e tween t h e c omp lex i ty o fs oc ia l s t ruc tu re a nd t h ec omp lex i ty o f mo r tua ry c e remon ia l ism , a sr ega rd st h ed i f f e r en t ia lt r ea tmen t o ft h ed ead o fd i f f e ren ts t a tus p o s i t ion s . H e f o und t h a tt wo a spec t so fs oc ia lo rgan iza t ion m igh tb e s ymbo l ized i n b u r ia ls ,f i r s t ,t h e s oc ia lp e r sona o ft h e d ecea sed , w h ich i s" a c ompo s i te o ft h e s oc ia l i d en t i t ie s m a in ta ined i nl i f e a nd r e cogn ized a sa pp rop r ia te f o rc on s ide ra t ion a f te rd ea th" a nd , s e cond ," t he c ompo s i t ion a nd s i ze o ft h e s oc ia lg roup r e cogn iz ing s t a tu sr e spon s ib i l i t ies t ot h ed ecea sed" ( B info rd 1 971) . I ti sa s sumed t h a tt h en umbe ro fp e r son sh av ing d u ty s t a tu sr e la t ion sh ip s w i th t h ed ecea sed i sp ropo r t iona l t ot h e r ank o ft h es oc ia lp o s i t ion h e ld b yt h ed ecea sed .T he refo r e , p a r t ic ipa t ion i nt h e mo r tua ry r i tua lc o r re la te sd i r ec t ly w i th t h e r e la t ive r ank o ft h e s oc ia lp e r sona a nd t h ep o s i t ion t h a t t h ed ecea sed o ccup ied i nl i f e .

t h a tc l a ss if ica t ion sb e tween h uman t ype se xh ib i t ag r ea t d eg ree o fo ve r lap a nd n od i s t inc tb ounda r ie s , w h ich m ake s t h em n o ts u i tab le f o rs c ien t if ic p u rpo ses . I n s tead , c on tempo ra ry a na ly se s empha s ize amo re h o l i s t ic p opu la t ion a pp roa ch w h ich i sc r i t ica l f o rc ha rac te r iz ing p a t tern so f b ehav io r , l i f e s ty le ,d i sea se , a nd o the ra spec t st h a t f o rm t h e f a b r ic o ft h eh uman c ond i t ion ( La r sen 1 997 ) ,a nd i nc a se so f p opu la t ion a ff in i ty s t ud ies , s ma l l s c a le i s sues o fl o ca lo r r e g iona l s e t t ing ,s uch a sf am i l ia l r e la t ion sh ip sa nd p o s t m a r i ta lr e s idence . Mor tuary a na lys i so fc u l tura lr e ma ins "Mo r tua ry e v idence i sa ne x t reme ly v a luab le a r chaeo log ica l r e sou rce ,s i nce i tr ep r e sen t st h ed i r ec ta nd p u rpo sefu l c u lm ina t ion o fc on sc ious b ehav io r ,r a the rt h an i t si n c iden ta l r e s idue" ( O 'Shea 1 981) .T he s t udy o f mo r tua ry b ehav io ri n p a s ts oc ie t ie sh a sb ecome r e cogn ized a sa ni mpo r tan t -i fn o t i n d i spen sab le - a venue f o rd ocumen t ing a nd u nde r s tand ing s oc ia l b ehav io ra nd o rgan iza t ion b ecau se l i nk s h ave b een a s sumed t oe x i s tb e tween f o rm so f mo r tua ry t r ea tmen t ,t h e i d eo logy o fd ea th ,a nd s oc ia ls t ruc tu re ( La r sen 1 995a ) . B u r ia ls ,a l though t h ey a r ed i f f icu l tt oi n te rp re t , c an g i ve a d ynam ic a ccoun to fs oc ia l s t ruc tu re a nd h ow i tc hanged i n a n t iqu i ty . S oc ia l s t ruc tu r e i sc ruc ia l ly i mpor tan tb ecau se t h e d eg ree o fs oc ia ld i f f e ren t ia t ion i s am ea su re o ft h e s i ze a nd c omp lex i ty o ft h es o c ia l s y s tem , a nd t h ee me rgence o f i n equa l i t ie sa nd r a nk ing c ha rac te r ize st h ei n c rea sed e l abo ra t ion o fs o c ia ls y s tem s ,t h eb eg inn ing so fw h ich a r e n o t y e ta dequa te ly k nown ( Mor r i s 1 992 , B rown 1 981) . F a r f r om e s tab l i sh ing as imp le s e t o fr u les t h a t g ove rn sb u r ia lo f t h ed ead i nh uman s o c ie t ie s , an umbe ro fi n ves t iga t ion sh a s r e vea led t h a tb yv i r tua l ly a ny m ea su re ( body t r ea tmen t , o r ien ta t ion ,g r ave o f f e r ing s , d emog raph ic c ompo s i t ion , t empo ra la nd c u l tu ra la s soc ia t ion ) mo r tua ry b ehav io ra nd e xp re s s ion i sh i gh ly v a r iab le a nd i n ten se a st od ef ea ta ny c a tego r iza t ion a nd g ene ra l iza t ion .I na dd i t ion t h e re a r e s t i l l i n te rmed ia te t r an sfo rma t ion sb e tween t h e mo r tua ry p rac t ice s e mp loyed b y as oc ie ty a nd t h e e v idence o fs uch p ra c t ice s o b se rved a r chaeo log ica l ly , i n c lud ing b o th p re se rva t ion a nd s ymbo l ic f a c to r ss i nce t h ea r chaeo log ica l ly o b servab le p hy s ica ld i spo sa lo ft h ed ead i so n ly o ne p a r to ft h ef une ra l r i tua l , n o ta lway st h e mo s ti mpo r tan to ne . T he p rob lem i sb y w ha tm ean s as e cu r ea nd c r ed ib le a r t icu la t ion o ft h em a te r ia l m an if es ta t ion so ft h eb u r ia lr i tua la nd f e a tu re so fs oc ia l o rgan iza t ion c an b ea ch ieved ( Brown 1 995 ,L a r sen 1 995a ) .

T he m a in d imen s ion so ft h e s oc ia lp e r sona , w h ich a r e r e cogn ized i n mor tua ry p rac t ice sa r e a ge , s ex ,s o c ia lp o s i t ion , s oc ia l a f f i l ia t ion ,a nd l o ca t ion o fd ea th . A f te rt e s t ing h i s mode la ga in s t as ub s tan t ia lb ody o fe t hnog raph ic d a ta , B in fo rd a s soc ia ted v a r iab i l i ty i n ac u l tu r e 's b u r ia l s w i th a f unc t ion o fs oc ia ld i f f e ren t ia t ion . S im i la r ly , S axe ( 1970 )e mpha s ized h i sc oncern w i th p roce s sua lr egu la r i ty , i n s tead o ff o rma l , i no rde rt os ugges ta w ay t o mon i to rs oc ia lc omp lex i ty , a nd at e chn ique f o r i n f e r r ing s oc ia lo rgan iza t ion t y pe . L ike B info rd ,h ea dop ted a c ro s s -cu l tu ra lp e r spec t ive t ot e s te i gh t h ypo the s e sr e ga rd ing t h eo rgan iza t ion o f mo r tua ry p rac t ice s i nt h r ee m ode r n s oc ie t ie s . I nh i s f o rma l a na logy , h e a l so u sed c on cep ts o fr u le t h eo ry ( Goodenough 1 965 )t od ef ine d i spo sa l t y pe s , wh ich r ep re sen ted d i f f e r en t s oc ia lp e r sonae . T he e i gh th ypo theses r e ce ived v a r iab le s uppor t f r om t h e t h r ee s oc ie t ie sb u tt he se mode rn t e s tc a se sc onf i rmed t h e s oc ia l a pp roach t o mo r tua ry p ra c t ice sa r gued b yB info rd ( Chapman a nd R and sbo rg 1 981) . T a in te r( 1975 , 1 978 )h a se xpanded o nB in fo rd 's i d ea s , r e la t ing e ne rgy e xpend i tu re a nd c e remon ia l ism t ot h e d i f f e ren th i e ra r ch ica l s t a tus o ft h ed ead i n1 03 e t hnog raph ic c a se s . H ep ropo sed t h a t -h ighe rs oc ia lr ank o f ad ecea sed i n d iv idua l w i l l c o r r e spond t og r ea te ra moun t so fc o rpo ra te i n vo lvemen t a nd a c t iv i ty d i s rup t ion , a nd t h is s hou ld r e su l t i n t h ee xpend i tu re o fg r ea te ra moun to fe ne rgy i nt h ei n te rmen t r i tua l" ( Ta in te r 1 978 ) . E ne rgy e xpend i tu re w i l l b er e f lec ted i nt h ec omp lex i ty o fb ody t r ea tmen t , t h e l o ca t ion a nd c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e b u r ia lc on ta ine r , a nd t h ee x ten ta nd d u ra t ion o fr i tua l mo r tua ry b ehav io r . H oweve r ,p rob lem s a r i se i nt h e a c tua lm ea su remen to fe ne rgy e xpend i tu re , a nd a pa r tf r om p rob lem so fp re se rva t ion o fa u tho r i ty s ymbo ls o r e ne rgy e xpend i tu r em ea su remen t s ,t h er e l iance u pon as i ng le d imen s ion o f mo r tua ry p rac t ice sh a sb een c r i t ic ized ( Brown 1 981 ,O 'Shea 1 981) .

T he moder na na ly s i so f mor tua ry r ema in s h a sb een e s tab l i shed b yt h eB in fo rd -Saxe p rog ram ( Saxe 1 970 , B in fo rd 1 971) ,w ho se w o rk h a sb een f undamen ta lt om any s ub sequen ta t temp t st oa na lyze t h e s oc ia l d imen s ion so f mo r tua ry p ra c t ice s . B in fo rd a nd S axe w o rked o nt h ef i e ld o f mo r tua ry s t ud ie s ,o nh ow a r gumen t sc ou ld b ec on s t ruc ted t h a t w ou ld a l low s oc io log ica l i n fo rma t ion t ob ee x t rac ted f r om p a t ter n si nt h et r ea tmen t a nd f i na ld i spo s i t ion o ft h e d ead . T hey b o th s aw c eme te r ie sa nd t h e i rc on ten t sa sh av ing s t ruc tu re i nt h es y s tem ss en se , w h ich c ou ld h ave t h ep o ten t ia l o fi n fo rm ing t h eo b se rve ra bou tc e r ta in o rgan iza t iona l 4

a x ioma t ic" ( Brown 1 995 ) . D e sp i te t h ec r i t ic ism o fc ro s s c u l tu ra l a na ly s is ,t h eo ve ra l lp a t ter no fr e gu la r i t ie sp o in t st oa s ma l l n umbe ro ff a c to r s i n f luenc ing t h e f o rm st h a t mo r tua ry t r ea tmen tt a kes . T he q ue s t ion i sh ow t oc hoo se a pp rop r ia te e xamp les a nd b yw h ich l o g ic a nd s e to fp r io r i t ie s .

A l though t h eB in fo rd -Saxe t h eo ry h a sf o rmed t h eb a s i so fa n umbe ro fs oc ia la na ly se so f mor tua ry p ra c t ice su nde r taken i nt h e l a s tt wo o rt h ree d ecade s , t h e i rp rog ram h a sa l so r e ce ived c on s ide rab le c r i t ic i sm a nd b o th mod if ica t ion sa nd r e jec t ion s .T he s oc ia lp e r spec t ive so fm o r tua ry p rac t ice s h ave b yn om ean sc onv inced a l la r chaeo log i s t s , an umbe ro f w hom s t i l lv i ew t h ed i spo sa lo ft h ed ead w i th in t h e i n tang ib le c on tex to fr e l ig iou sb e l ief s ( Brown 1 981) ,f e e l u ncom for tab le w i th t h eu se o fe t hnog raph ic e v idence i n a r chaeo logy ,a nd t h ey u sua l ly d e r ive s uppo r tf r om a c au t iona ry p ape rb yU cko ( 1969 ) . I nf a c t ,U cko p o in ted o u t t h ed ange ro fu s ing e thnog raph ic a na log ie so u t s ide o ft h e i r p a r t icu la rc u l tu ra lc on tex t . Among o th e rt h ing s ,h ep o in ted o u tt h a tb u r ia lp rac t ice s a r en o tn ece s sa r i ly i nd ica t ive o fa f te r w o r ld b e l ief s ,t h a tg rave g ood sd on o ta lway sr e ach t h e g rave ,t h a ta b sence o fg rave g ood sc anno tb ee qua ted w i th l ow s t a tu so rp over ty , l a rge c on s t ruc t ion sa r en o ta lway s a s soc ia ted w i th r u le r s , a nd t h a tb ody o r ien ta t ion v a r ies i n many w ay s .

O nt h eo the rh and , m o r tua ry r i te sa r e t ob e u nde r s tood l i ke o t he r" r i tes o fp a s sage ," a sm a rk ing t h e t r an s i t ion i nt h e s t a tu so fi n d iv idua l s , i nt h i sc a se i n to t h ea f te rwo r ld . H oweve r ,t h e m ean ing o ft h e s ymbo l ism o fa ny r i tua l i s , w i th in c e r ta in l im i t s ,o pen t oi n te rp r e ta t ion . Mo s tr i tua l s t ud ie s h ave b een i n te l lec tua l i s t , a nd t a ke as imp l i s t ic ,d i rec t i n te rp re ta t ion o fs ymbo l i sm . A mo re c r ed ib le a pp roa ch c ou ld b e ac on tex tua l a na ly s i s , w h ich s e e st h er o le o fr i tua l a c t ion a sp a r to f as y s tem o fr e la t ion s , a nd i sl o ok ing a tt h ee v idence a tt h e mo s tf undamen ta l l e ve l , i nt h et e rm so ft h ep eop le w ho p roduced i t ,w hen s e a r ch ing f o rp a t te rn si nt h e b u r ia lr e co rd . A s Mo r r i sp u t i t ,w ec anno ta s sume a ny th ing a bou tw ha tt h e p a t te rn s m ean . B u t w ec an r ange t h ee v idence i ns ea rch ing f o rp a t te rn sa nd t h e i rs i gn if icance , a l ong a xe s ( t ypo logy , t ime ,c on tex t , s pa ce ,d emog raphy ) w ho se r e su l t sw i l l b e c umu la t ive ( Mo r r i s 1 992 ,P u l len 1 988 ,N o rdqu i s t 1 988 ) .

Mo reove r ,H odde r( 1982 ) w a rned t h a ti mpo s ing t h es ame r u le so fe v idence o na l l s oc ie t ie sd oe sn o tw o rk , a nd h e h a s h eav i ly c r i t ic ized t h eB in fo rd -Saxe p rog ram . C annon ( 1989 ) o b se rved i n ac ompa ra t ive h i s to r ica la na ly s i st h a tm o r tua ry b ehav io rr evea l st ha ti ti se xp l icab le i nt e rm so fc yc l ica l c hange i nd i sp lay o s ten ta t ion . H ep o in t so u tt h a tt h e o pe ra t ion o fh i s to r ica lp roce s se sa pp l ie sb eyond p a r t icu la r s oc ia la nd c u l tu ra lc i r cum s tance sa nd c an e xp la in af r equen t l a ck o fe qu iva lence a mong d eg ree so fs t a tu s , s en t imen t , a nd mo r tua ry o s ten ta t ion . Mo r r i s( 1992 ) a l so n o ted t h a tt h e p red ic ted c i rcum s tance sc an b ed i s to r ted w hen d ea l ing w i th mu l t i s tage b u r ia ls a nd c an b em i s lead ing w hen e mo t iona l f a c to r sa r e i n vo lved . C hapman a nd R and sbo rg ( 1981) a nd O 'Sh ea ( 1981) d i scu s sed t h e i mpo r tance o ff o rma t ion a nd t r an sfo rma t ion p roce s se so ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd , t h e i n adequa te t r ea tmen to fs ymbo l i sm ,a nd t h ei mpo r tance o f s pa t ia lp a t te rn ing .

D e sp i te t h ef a c tt h a tt h e B info rd -Saxe t h eo ry w a si n tended f o ru se i na r chaeo log ica lc on tex t s , s ub sequen ta r chaeo log ica l e v idence h a sc on t r ibu ted l i t t le t ot h ef o rmu la t ion o rt ot h e t e s t ing o ft h e g ene ra lt h eo ry ( O 'Shea 1 981) . T hough B in fo rd a nd S axe h ad b a sed t h e i rt h eo re t ica lp o s i t ion o ng l oba l a r gumen t s , w ha ti sa t t rac t ive i st h e i rt h eo ry 's u t i l i ty i n a r t icu la t ing s pec if ic a r gumen t s( O 'Shea 1 984 , B rown 1 981 , 1 995 ) . T hu s , i n as en se , mo r tua ry a na ly s i sb ecome s am idd le r ange t h eo ry u sefu lf o ra dvanc ing p a r to f al a rge ra r gumen t i nf a vo ro fa ne xp lana t ion a bou ts pec if ic i s sue s ( B rown 1 995 ) . S axe 's h ypo the s i s 8 ,f o re xamp le ,h a st a ken o na n i n dependen te x i s tence . I ts t a te st h a tg roup sa r e mo re l i ke ly t o m a in ta in f o rma l d i spo sa l a r ea sf o rt h ed ead ,r a the rt h an d i spe r se g rave s i te s , w hen c on t ro lo fr e s t r ic ted r e sou rce si s c r uc ia l . T h i sp ropo s i t ion w a sa pp l ied ,v e r if ied , a nd mod if ied a r cha eo log ica l ly b yG o ld s te in ( 1976 ) , a nd C ha r le sa nd B u ik s t ra ( 1983 ) . W i th t h e se a dd i t ion s , S axe 's p ropo s i t ion move si n to a r cha eo log ica l ly f r u i tfu lt e r r i to ry , l e av ing b eh ind t h eo r ig ina lc omponen t ia l f r amewo rk w i th w h ich h ei n i t ia l ly s e to u t , a sB rown ( 1995 ) n o te s .

T he m a jo rc r i t ic ism sa ga in s tt h eB in fo rd -Saxe t h eo ry c an b e s umma r ized i n to t wo c a tego r ie s : a )t h er e l iance o n e t hnog raph ic d a ta ,a nd b )t h er o le o fr i tua l a nd s ymbo l i sm . Mo r r i s( 1992 )s umma r ized t h e c r i t ique sa sf o l low s : " B in fo rd l e ave sn or oom f o rr i tua l s t a temen t s : w e move s t ra igh tf r om g rave st os oc ia lc omp lex i ty . P rob lem so fs ymbo l i sm w e r e c i r cumven ted b yb e ing i gno r ed . C ro s s -cu l tu ra lt e s t sa ga in s t e t hnog raph ic d a ta r ep laced c on tex t -dependen ta na ly s i sa st h e s t anda rd o fv a l ida t ion . T he b ehav io ra l mode lo fB in fo rd a nd S ax e w ou ld b e i mpo s s ib le i fr e a lp eop le w e r e a c t ing" . P e rhap s Mo r r is ' c r i t ic i sm i se x t reme . C ro s s -cu l tu ra l s t ud ies e s tab l i sh g ene ra l iza t ion st h a ta r ee s sen t ia li na r t icu la t ing s t a temen t sc oncer n ing p a t ter n so fm a te r ia lr ema in si nt h e g round a nd b r idg ing t h em w i th a c t ion sa nd b ehav io rt h a t c r ea ted t h ep a t ter n s ." De sp i te t h ec ommon c omp la in tt h a t c r o s s -cu l tu ra lg ene ra l iza t ion sa r ev i t ia ted b yt h e i re xcep t ion s , t h e l a t te ra r er e a l ly as ou r ce o fm e thodo log ica l s t reng th . I ti s f a rt o o much t oe xpec tt h a ta ny s i ng le g ene ra l iza t ion w ou ld e ve rc ove ra l lc a se s ,o r mo r et ot h ep o in t ,t h a tt h eo n ly g ene ra l iza t ion s w o r thy o fr ega rd a r et ho se t h a ta r e

T he refo r e ,e mpha s i so fc ur ren tr e sea r ch o n mo r tua ry a na ly s is i sh eav i ly s h if t ed a )f r om mo r tua ry r ema in st ot h et o ta l mor tua ry r i tua l a nd i t ss ymbo l i sm ,a s ap o l i t ica la c to f a l loca t ion t h a t s u rv ivo r sc on f e ru pon t h ed ead , a nd b )f r om t h ea na ly s i so fs im i la r i t ies a nd d i f f e rence sa mong i n d iv idua l f une ra ry e ven t s , a sa na dequa te b a se f o rs oc ier in f e rence , i na r eg iona l s c a le . I tb ecame o bv iou st h a ti ns i ng le g r aveya rd c o l lec t ion s t ud ie s ,m any o bv iou sb u t u ncon t ro l led b i a se s o pe ra te , a nd a na ly s i si sc onf ined i np ecu l ia r i t ie so ft h e s amp le a nd i ns i te f o rma t ion p roces se s . T he i n d iv idua l c eme te ry i sn o ta lway sr ep re sen ta t ive o ft h ee n t i r e f r amewo rk , a sp eop le o fd i f f e ren t s t a tu sm ay b eb u r ied i n d i f f e ren tp l ace s a nd i nd i f f e ren t w ay s . Mo r tua ry r i t e s s hou ld b et r ea ted a s ap roce s sn o ta ne ven t , a nd s epa ra t es t ages o f 5

c ompa r ed m o r ta l i ty p rof i le sf r om b u r ia lr e co rd s , a nd h uman r ema in so ft h e s i te i n ah i s to r ic c eme te ry ( M i s s ion L a P u r is ima , C a l ifo rn ia ) . Wh i le t h er e co rd sd ocumen tt h a tm o s t i n d iv idua ls w e r ee i the ri n f an t so re l de r ly a du l t s ,t h e e xcava ted s amp le w a sc omp r ised p r ima r i ly o fy oung a du l t s . I n comp le te ly o s s if ied s ke le ta l e l emen t so fj uven i les , a sw e l l a so s teopo ro t ic b ones f r om o l de ri n d iv idua ls a r e mo re s u scep t ib le t od i s in teg ra t ion a f te rb u r ia l ( La r sen 1 987 ) .

r i te s mu s tb et r aced i no rde rt og e tt h ec omp le te p i c tu r e . T he g rea te s t s ucce s so f mo r tua ry a na ly s is h a sb een i nt h e e xam ina t ion o f mor tua ry v a r iab i l i ty u nde r ar eg iona l p e r spec t ive ,i ns t ud ie s s uch a s Mo r r i s ' ( 1987 ) ,B rad ley 's ( 1990 ) ,a nd P u l len 's ( 1988 ) . A l so , t h i sr enewed a r chaeo log ica l f o cu si n mo r tua ry s t ud ie sa nd e mpha s is o n e co log ica l / reg iona la na ly ses h ave e ncou raged p hy s ica l a n th ropo log i s ts t oa pp ly p opu la t ion b io log ica la pp roa che st o av a r ie ty o ft op ics ,i n c lud ing p a leodemog raphy , p a leopa tho logy ,p a leonu t r i t ion , a nd b i o log ica lr e la t ion sh ip s o ft h e mo r tua ry r ema in s( Kon ig sbe rg a nd B u ik s t ra 1 995 , M i lne r 1 995 ,B u ik s t ra 1 981 , C ook 1 981) .

C u l tu ra l p ra c t ice sa l so d i s to r ta r chaeo log ica ld emog raph ic p rof i le s , b ecau se t h e r i tua ls t h a tc r ea ted t h e b u r ia l r e co rd m ay h ave s kewed i ta sw e l l . D if f e r en ts egmen t so f ap a s t p opu la t ion m ay h ave r e ce ived d i f f e ren t ia lt r ea tmen ti n a r chaeo log ica l ly mo re o rl e s sv i s ib le d i spo s i t iona l c on ten t s . P low ing o rl a te rb u r ia l sm ay a l so d i s to r tb u r ia lc on tex t s . A nge l ( 1975 ) , Mo r r i s( 1992 ) ,P u l len ( 1988 ) ,a nd C u l len ( 1995 )h ave n o t iced ac on s ide rab le b i a si ns k e le ta l s amp le s i nG reece ,f r om t h e Me so l i th ic t ot h e moder np e r iod s , L a r sen ( 1982 )d ea l t w i th as i tua t ion i nc oa s ta lG eo rg ia , w he re u nde r r ep r e sen ta t ion o fp r e -adu l t s " r ef lec t se i th e ra n u nknown mo r tua ry p ra c t ice , s e lec t ing a ga ins t y oung i n d iv idua l so r p oo rp r e se rva t ion o ft h et h in b ones o fp re -adu l t s" ( La r sen 1 987 ) . B u ik s t ra ( 1981) i nt h eA r cha ic r ema in sa t Modoc a nd K o s te rs i te s f r om I l ino is , r e po r ted ap r edom inance o fo l do r i n ju r ed i n d iv idua l sa tt h e se t wo c eme te r ies . When s he c ompa red t h e s amp les w i th o t he rc on tempo ra ry s i tes , s h e c onc luded t h a tt h e Modoc a nd K o s te rs e r ie sw e r en o t r ep r e sen ta t ive o ft h ep opu la t ion t h ey w e re d r awn f r om ,b u t r a the r as e c t ion o fo ld a nd i n f i rm i n d iv idua l s , w ho w e re b u r ied a pa r tf r om t h em a jo rp a r to ft h ep opu la t ion .

A na lys is o fo s teo log ica l r ema ins B ioa rchaeo logy i st h ed i sc ip l ine t h a te mpha s izes t h e h uman b i o log ica lc omponen to ft h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd ,a nd s e ek s t ou nde r s tand t h ec ause sa nd c on sequences o fa dap t ive a nd b ehav io ra ls h if t si nt h ep a s t . H uman r ema in sa r e a ni n teg ra l p a r to ft h em o r tua ry a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd a nd t h e i rs t udy p rov ide sk ey i n fo rma t ion o np a s tb ehav io ra lp a t te rn s( La r sen 1 987 ) . " Human s ke le ta la nd d en ta lt i s sue sa r er ema rkab ly s en s i t ive t ot h ee nv i ronmen t ,a nd a sG a rn ( 1976 )r e f e r red t o t h em ,t h ey a r e ar i ch s t o r ehouse o fi n d iv idua lh i s to r ica l e ven t s" ( La r sen 1 997 ) . D emog raph ic ,p a tho log ica l , ma c ro scop ic ,m ic ro scop ic ,a nd c hem ica la na ly s is o fh uman o s teo log ica lr ema in sc an y i e ld s i gn if ican ti n fo rma t ion o n p a s tp opu la t ion b ehav io ra nd a dap ta t ion ,i n c lud ing p hy s ica l a c t iv i ty ,p hy s io log ica ls t re s s , e xpo su re t op a thogen ic a gen t s , i n ju ry a nd v i o lence ,s ke le ta l s t ruc tu ra l f unc t ion ,d i e ta nd n u t r i t iona li n f e rence ,a nd p opu la t ion h i s to ry ( La r sen 1 997 ) . H oweve r ,t h ea s se s smen to fp a s th ea l th , n u t r i t ion , a nd b ehav io rf o rb o th t h ei n d iv idua la nd t h e p opu la t ion i s e x t reme ly c omp lex a nd d i f f icu l t . Many p o ten t ia l s amp l ing d i s tor t ion sa r ea s soc ia ted w i th d emog raph ic a r ea so f p opu la t ion r e con s t ruc t ion , a nd i ts e em st h a tt h ep rob lem s a r e i n na te i nt h en a tu r eo ft h e s ke le ta l s amp le , w h ich i sa c umu la t ive a gg rega te o f mu l t ip le g ene ra t ion so fi n d iv idua l s a nd n o t ab i o log ica lp opu la t ion . T he p rob lem sr e la te t o d i f f e ren t ia lp r ese rva t ion , s ex ing a nd a g ing d i sc repanc ies , p a leopa tho log ica li n te rp re ta t ion ,a nd d emog raph ic r e con s t ruc t ion b i a se s ,a l lo fw h ich c an p rofound ly d i s to r t d emog raph ic p rof i le s . H oweve r ,t h o se p rob lem sa s ide , w h icheve rm e thod o ra pp roach i sa dop ted ,t h e s i gn if icance o f a ny p opu la t ion s pec imen u nde ra na ly s is r ema in st h e s ame , a s as t imu lu st on ew h ypo the s i sb u i ld ing p roce s se sa bou tt h e m echan ism si n vo lved i np a s th uman a c t iv i t ies .

D e t erm ina t ion o fs ex a nd a ge I na dd i t ion t ot h ep r e serva t iona lp rob lem s , b i a se sc an b e i n t roduced d u r ing t h ep roce s so fs amp le s ex ing a nd a g ing . O n ly a du l t i n d iv idua l s w i th m a tu re c ha rac te r i s t ic sc an b e a ccu ra te ly s exed , a nd e ven t h en t h e re i sc on s ide rab le o ve r lap a tt h ec en te ro ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion o f ma le a nd f ema le c ha ra c te r is t ics . T he re i s ,b yd ef in i t ion , al im i ted a ccura cy w hen e s t ima t ing t h es ex a nd a ge o fa ny s ke le ta le l emen t . I n a dd i t ion ,t h ep r e se rva t ion o fc e r ta in s ke le ta l f r agmen ts d ef ines t h e m e thod st h a tm igh tn o tb e a pp l icab le t oo the r p a r t s . T he s ma l le ra nd mo re u nba lanced t h e s amp le ,t he h i ghe rt h ep robab i l i ty o fe scape s . O nt h eo the rh and , i mpo s ing t h es ame s t anda rd s ex a nd a ge d e te rm ina t ion m e thod so na l l p opu la t ion s ,r e ga rd le s so ft h e i ri n d iv idua l v a r ia t ion , s wamp sp opu la t iona ld i f f e rence s a nd m ay i n te r f e r e w i th a ccu ra te s ex ing a nd a g ing o f ap opu la t ion a sw e l l a s w i th e s t ima t ion o fc e r ta in d emog raph ic p a rame t e r s s uch a s s t a tu r ea nd m ean a ge .

D if f eren t ia lp r eser va t ion D if f e r en t ia lp r e se rva t ion i n c lude sn a tu ra la nd c u l tu ra l f a c to r s . A na ly s i so fp re se rva t iona lb i a si nr e la t ion t os o i l a c id i ty ( Go rdon a nd B u ik s t ra 1 981) h a ss hown t h a t , a ss o i l p Hd ec r ea se st h e re i si n c r ea s ing d e s t ruc t ion o fb one . Mo reove r ,i na c id ic s o i l s ,b one so fi mma tu r ei n d iv idua l so r v e ry o ld o ne s ,e xh ib i t ar e la t ive ly g r ea te rd e s t ruc t ion t h an b one so fm a tu r ei n d iv idua l s . I no rde rt oe xam ine p re serva t ion b i a se si nd e ta i l , Wa lke r (Wa lke re ta l . 1 988 )h a s

U be lake r( 1974 , 1 981) f ound s uch i n con s i s ten c ie s i nt h e s amp le o fN an jemoy , Ma ry land ,a nd i n ap opu la t ion o fu rban b l a ck sf r om S an to D om ingo ,D om in ican R epub l ic . I nt h e l a t te r ,c on s i s ten td i sc repanc ie so fa bou tf i ve y ea r sw e re i n te rp re ted a sr e f lec t ing d i f f e rence st h e s amp le o nw h ich t h e m e thod w a sa pp l ied a nd t h e s amp le f r om w h ich i tw a s d eve loped f r om ( wh i te Amer ican s ) . A l so , i nP eco sP ueb lo 6

w ho c l a im t h a t mo r ta l i ty a nd s u rv ivo r sh ip p a t ter n so f a r chaeo log ica l s e r ie sa r e t h ep roduc t so fw rong a na ly t ica l m e thod sa nd s y s tema t ic e r ro r ,r a the rt h an b i o log ica lr e a l i ty , b ecau se a ge d e term ina t ion m e thod sa r en o ta ccu ra te ( La r sen 1 987 ) . A n swe r ing t ot h is , B u ik s t ra a nd K on ig sbe rg ( 1985 ) s t a ted t h a t s imu la t ion sa nd s t a t i s t ica l a na ly se si n d ica te t h a t t h ec r i t ic i sm o fb yB ocque t -Appe l , a nd Ma s se t i se x t r eme . C on s is ten tp a t te rn se me rge i nr e la t ion t os ub s i s tence e conomy . C ompa r i son o fl a rge s e r ie se xh ib i t st wo g ene ra l p a t te rn s : h un te r -ga the r e r s s howed mo r ta l i ty c u rves t h a t r o se s ha rp ly , w h i le a g r icu l tu ra l i s t ss howed f l a t te r mo r ta l i ty c u rves . T hey a ccep ted , h oweve r ,t h a ti mp r ec i s ion i na ge i n d ica to r se x i s t s w hen a pp l ied t oo lde ra du l t s , a sw e l la s i n te rob se rve re r ro r , b u ta sl o ng a sp rope rc on t ro l sa r e e xe r c i sed , i mpo r tan tc onc lu s ion sc an b ed rawn .

R uf f( 1 98 1) f ound ac on s i s ten to ve r e s t ima t ion o fa ge o ft h e a du l t sa tr ibu ted t ot h ec r i te r ia u s ed f o ra ge e s t ima t ion . R uf f ( 1981) a l so r e por ted as y s tema t ic b i a si ns ex ing o ft h eP eco s s amp le ,w h ich w a se xp la ined a st h a tt h eo r ig ina lr e sea r che r s w e re u np r epa red f o rt h e m a rked r obu s t ic i ty o fb o th m a le s a nd f ema le so ft h es amp le . F ina l ly , We i s s( 1972 )o b se rved t h a tt h e r ei sar egu la ra nd s y s tema t ic t e ndency t oi n co r r ec t ly s ex f ema le s ke le ton sa sm a le ,a bou t 1 2% o ft h et ime , e spec ia l ly i np oo r ly p r e served s amp le s (Whe lan 1 991a , 1 991b ) . P a l eopa tho logy T he s k e le ton r e co rd so n ly af r a c t ion o fs t re sse sa nd d i sea se s a f f ec t ing t h el i v ing i n d iv idua l a sm o s ti lne s se sa f f ec to n ly t h ep e r i shab le s of tt i s sue s .T he r efo re ,s ke le ta l l e s ion sr e f lec t c h ron ic o rl o ng te rm l e s ion s . A dd i t iona l ly , g i ven t h e p o lymo rph i sm o ft h e g enom ic p r ed i spo s i t ion ,d i f f e ren t d i sea se st e nd t ol ook a l ike i nt h e s ke le ton . I n p a leopa tho log ica lr e con s t ruc t ion s ,t h ef r equenc ie so ft h e o b se rved l e s ion so nt h e s ke le ta ls amp le sc anno tb ee qua ted w i th d i sea se p reva lence a mong t h el i v ing p opu la t ion ,w h ich s hou ld b el e s st h an t h eo b se rved o nt h ea r chaeo log ica l s amp le ( Wood e ta l . 1 992 , Wood a nd M i lne r 1 994 ) . S im i la r ly ,w h i le t h ep r e sence o f al e s ion i se v idence f o ra d i sea se ,t h ea b sence o fl e s ion si sm o re d i ff i cu l tt oi n te rp r e t , s i nce i tm ay m ean e i the ra b sence o ft h ed i sea se o re a r ly d ea th ,b efo re as ke le ta lr e spon se c ou ld d eve lop . A dd i t iona l ly ,o ne o ft h em a jo rd rawback si n p a leopa tho log ica lr e con s t ruc t ion s t ud ie s , i st h eg ene ra l ized n a tu r eo fb one r e spon se t os t r e sso r s ,a sw e l la st h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o fn on spec if ic p a tho log ica lc ond i t ion s , i . e . t h e d i f f icu l ty o fa s s ign ing as ke le ta ll e s ion ,u namb iguous ly t oa p a r t icu la rc au se (Wood a nd M i lne r 1 994 ,H u s s -A shmo re e t a t . 1 982 ) .

T he o s t eo log ica lp aradox O n as ame l i ne o fa r gumen t , Wood e ta l . ( 1992 ) a dd re s st h e i s sue o fb i o log ica l s e lec t iv i ty i no s teo log ica l s e r ies , t h e " o s teo log ica lp a radox ," w h ich b ecame t h e s ub jec to f ah ea ted d eba te .T hey f o cu sed o nt h r ee a spec t so fp opu la t ion c ha rac te r i s t ics : a )d emog raph ic n on s ta t iona r i ty a sd e sc r ibed a bove ,n ame ly t h a tt h em ean a ge a td ea th i ss en s i t ive t o f e r t i l i ty i n s tead o f mo r ta l i ty ,b )s e lec t ive mo r ta l i ty , w h ich m ean st h a tt h e s amp le o fi n d iv idua l si n ag i ven a ge g roup i s s e lec t ive f o rl e s ion st h a ti n c rea se t h er i sk o fd ea th f o rt h a t a ge ,a nd o ve ra l lp rov ide ab i a sed r e su l t , w h ich d oes n o t a ccu ra te ly r ep re sen tt h ee n t i r ep opu la t ion a tr i sk . I ns um , l e s ion f r equenc ie si s ap oo ri n d ica to r , w h ich o ve re s t ima te s l i v ing p opu la t ion p r eva lence ,c )h idden h e te rogene i ty , w h ich r e f e r st ot h eo b se rva t ion t h a tt h ep opu la t ion f r om w h ich t h e s ke le ta l s e r ie si sd rawn w a sm ade u po fa nu nknown m ix tu r e o fi n d iv idua l s , w ho v a r ied i nt h e i ru nde r ly ing f r a i l ty o r s u scep t ib i l i ty t od i sea se a nd d ea th . T hu s ,t h ey c l a im t h a t s i nce i ti si mpo s s ib le t od e te rm ine t h e n umbe ro fs ubg roup s w h ich a r ep re sen t i n ap opu la t ion , a nd w h ich o ft h em a r e a t r i sk , i ti s ,t h e refo r e , i mpo s s ib le t od raw i n f e rence sa bou tt h e h ea l th o ft h ep opu la t ion a s aw ho le ( Wood e ta l . 1 992 ) .

D emog raphy P rob lem sa r e mo re a gg rava ted i nd emog raph ic p rof i le r e con s t r uc t ion s ,l i f e tab le s ,a nd a ve rage a ge a td ea th . L if e tab le sa s sume s t a t ic p opu la t ion sw he re b i r th a nd d ea th r a t e sb a lance e ach o the ra nd t h e r ei sn op opu la t ion movemen to rf l uc tua t ion , a na s sump t ion w h ich d oe sn o tf i t a ny r e a lp opu la t ion ,a nd ,t h e refo re ,i t su se i n vo lves ac e r ta in a moun to fa b s t rac t ion ( La r sen 1 997 , Wood e ta l . 1 992 , Mo r r i s 1 992 ) . C on sequen t ly ,i fw eu se mode rn l i f e tab le s , a s t h eo n e so fC oa le a nd D emeney ( 1983 ) , w e s hou ld a ga in b e p r epa r ed t ow o rk a t ah i gh l e ve lo fg ene ra l i ty , s i nce a nc ien t p opu la t ion sc anno tb ee qua ted w i th i n du s t r ia l ized o ne s ( Sa l la r e s 1 991) . A dd i t iona l ly , i nn on s ta t iona ry p opu la t ion s , a g ea td ea th d oe sn o ti n d ica te m o r ta l i ty a nd l i f ee xpec tancy b u tr a the rf e r t i l i ty a nd b i r th ra te s . A c tua l ly ,i na r chaeo log ica l p opu la t ion s ,t h ep re sence o fh igh n umbe r so fy oung i n d iv idua l s( l ow m ean a ge a td ea th )r ep r esen t s mo re i n d iv idua l se n te r ing t h ep opu la t ion t h rough h i ghe rf e r t i l i ty , w h i le h i gh m ean a ge a td ea th i n d ica te s ad ec rea se o fb i r th s ( La r sen 1 997 ) .T he u se o fd emog raph ic p rof i le s ,i ng ene ra l , h a sb een c r i t ic ized b yB ocque t -Appe l ,a nd Ma s se t( 1982 ) ,

Wood a nd c owo rke r sr e exam ined t h ec onc lu s ion so f G oodman a nd A rme lago s( 1988 )o n al a te p r eh i s to r ic s ke le ta l s e r ie s f r om D ick son Mound s , I l ino i s . B a sed o nt h e a s sump t ion t h a tt h es ke le ton i st h e l a s tp ar to ft h eb ody t ob e a f f ec ted b y ad i sea se c ond i t ion ( O r tne ra nd P u t scha r 1 985 ) , t h ey c on c luded t h a tt h ep reva lence o f al e s ion m ean st h a tt h e i n d iv idua l s w i th l e s ion ss u rv ived as t re s se p isode a nd e n joyed h i ghe rf e r t i l i ty ,t h an t h e i n d iv idua l st h a td id n o tl i ve l o ng e nough f o rt h ed i sea se t oa f f ec tt h e s ke le ton a nd p roduce al e s ion . T he re fo re ,t h et empo ra li n c r ea se s i n s ke le ta l l e s ion s ,s uch a se name ld ef ec t s ,p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i s , a nd p e r io s tea lr e a c t ion si n as e r ie s m ay n o tm ean d ec l in ing c ommun i ty h ea l th b u t ,o nt h ec on t ra ry ,t h ey m ay i nd ica te i mp rovemen to fh ea l th , a nd t h a tt h e i n d iv idua l s w i th l e s ion s m ay a c tua l ly h ave b een d rawn f r om t h ea dvan taged g roup o f t h ep opu la t ion .

7

G oodman ( 1993 )i nh i sr e spon se p o in t so u tt h a t Wood e ta l . f o cus o ns i ng le r a the rt h an mu l t ip le i n d ica to r so fh ea l th , m i s in te rp re tt h eg oa l so fp a leoep idem io logy , a nd c on s t ruc t m ode ls t h a td on o tr e f lec tb io log ica lr e a l i ty a nd c r ed ib le c on tex ts b u ta r eo n ly m a thema t ica lc a lcu la t ion s . T he g oa l o f p a leoep idem io logy a nd b ioa r chaeo logy i sn o tt od e term ine t h ec ause o fd ea th o rt h ea ccu ra te a ge a td ea th , w h ich i s i n deed d i ff i cu l t ,b u tt oa s se s sp a s th ea l th o ft h e i n d iv idua l a nd t h ec ommun i ty . I nt h is f r amewo rk ,d i sea se i si n te re s t ing n o to n ly a s am ea su r eo f mo r ta l i ty b u tb ecau se o fi t s s i gn if ican te f f ec ts o nw o rk c apa c i ty ,r ep roduc t ion , a nd m any a spec t so fc u l tu r e ,e conomy ,a nd s oc ie ty . T hu s ,t h ed ef in i t ion o fh ea l th o f ap opu la t ion i sn o t as imp l i s t ic , a lmo s t " Da rw in ian f i tnes s ," mode l b a sed o n ly o n mo r ta l i ty r a tes b u t a no ve ra l le s t ima t ion o ff unc t iona lc apa c i ty a nd q ua l i ty o f s u rv iva l . C lea r ly t h ed e te rm ina t ion o ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween c ommun i ty h ea l th a nd s k e le ta l s i gna tu re so f m o rb id i ty i sn o t as imp le e xe rc i se .

c on s i s ten t p a t te rn o fi n c r ea sed mo rb id i ty a nd al ow p o in to f h ea l th i nt h eH o locene ( La r sen 1 997 ) . B u tr e ga rd les so f w he the rh uman h ea l th d e te r io ra ted o ri mp roved w i th a g r icu l tu re " t he c on s is tency o fp a t tern so b se rved b yv a r ious r e sea rche r s s ugge s t st h a tb i o log ica l s e lec t iv i ty h a s n o t a pp rec iab ly h ampe red b i oa r chaeo log i s t s ' e f f o r t st oe va lua te a nd c ha ra c te r ize h ea l th i nt h e p a s t" ( La r sen 1 997 ) . F u r the rmo re , w hen t e x tua le v idence i sa va i lab le ( h is to r ic , e t hnog raph ic ) ,i ta l so v e r if ie st h e r e su l t so fb i oa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ies . F o re xamp le , moder nh un te r -ga th e r e r s s im i la r ly d i sp lay l ow r a te so fj uven i le i n f ec t ion , m a lnu t r i t ion a nd p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s is a st h e i rp r eh i s to r ic c oun t erpa r t s , a sK en t a nd D unn 's ( 1 993 ) s t udy s how s ( Cohen 1 994 ) . T he c hange i nc ommun i ty h ea l th a nd s t ruc tu re i nt h e Ame r ican M idwe s t a nd S ou thwe s t ,e v iden ti nb i oa rchaeo log ica l s t ud ies , i s c on s is ten t w i th h i s to r ica le v idence ( La r sen 1 997 ) . A lso , s t ud ies o fe name l h ypop la s ia s ,o ne o ft h ef ew s ke le ta l p a tho log ica lc ond i t ion st h a tc an r e ad i ly b es e en i nl i v ing p opu la t ion s , h ave r epea ted ly f ound t h a t i to ccu r s among l i v ing p eop le o fl owe rc l a s s ,r e f lec t ing p hy s io log ica l a nd n u t r i t iona l s t r e s s i nt h ep a t ter nt h a tG oodman 's mode l p r ed ic t s ( Cohen 1 994 ) .

Many o the rl i ne so fe v idence s hou ld b et a ken i n to a ccoun t s u ch a ss ub s is tence , s e t t lemen t , e nv i ronmen ta l ,a nd c u l tu ra l c on tex t , a nd p opu la t ion s t ruc tu r e ( La r sen 1 997 ) . I no rde rt o b e s ta s se ss a nd i n te rp r e tp a s th ea l th s t a tu s ,a sG oodman ( 1993 )p o in ted o u t , m u l t ip le i n d ica to r so fs t re s ss hou ld b e c on s ide r ed . S t re s si sd ef ined a s" t he p hy s io log ica ld i s rup t ion o fa no rgan i sm r e su l t ing f r om e nv i ronmen ta lp e r tu rba t ion" ( Hu s s -A shmo r ee ta l . 1 982 ) .T he d eg ree o fp hy s io log ica l d i s rup t ion i s af unc t ion o ft h e s eve r i ty o ft h es t re s so r ,t h e a dequacy o fh o s tr e spon se , a nd t h eb uf f e r ing o fc u l tu ra l s y s tems ( Hu s s -A shmo r ee ta l . 1 982 ,G oodman a nd A rme lago s 1 988 ,L a r sen 1 997 ) . A l though s t re s sc anno tb e d i r ec t ly o b served o na r chaeo log ica lp opu la t ion s ,t h e i mpa c t o fg ene ra la nd s pec if ic s t res so r so nt h es ke le ta l s y s tem c an b ed e term ined ,a sw e l la st h et im ing a nd t h e s eve r i ty o f s t r e s s . S imu l taneou sc on s ide ra t ion o fa l lm ea su r es a va i lab le t op roduce ac omp le te p i c tu r eo fp opu la t ion s t re s sr e spon se i s n eeded , i na ni n teg ra ted e co log ica la nd p opu la t iona l a pp roach ( Hu s s -A shmo re e ta l . 1 982 ) . C ohen ( 1994 ) a l so a dd st h a tt h ea c tua ld ea th c oho r t sf o r ap opu la t ion a r e af a i r ly g ood r ep resen ta t ion o ft h e l i v ing o ne b ecau se o ft h er andom n a tu re o fu n se lec ted d ea th s .

I ns um , g rea tc au t ion i sn eeded w hen d raw ing i n f e rence s f r om c on tex tua lo b se rva t ion s , a nd e va lua t ing o s teo log ica l s e r ies . T he a c tua l m ean ing a nd i n ten t ion o ft h e Wood e ta l . ( 1992 )p ape rw a sn o tt od i sc r ed i tb ioa r cha eo logy b u tt o e mpha s ize t h a tw ec an i n te rp r e tt h eo s teo log ica lr e co rd m ean ingfu l ly , o n ly i fw eh ave a ne xp l ic i tm ode l f o rt h e f o rma t ion o ft h e mo r ta l i ty s amp le , w h ich w ec u r ren t ly l a ck . Wood a nd M i lne r( 1994 ) s t a te t h a t" t he b i a sc au sed b y s e lec t ion m ay b el a rge o rs ma l l ,p o s i t ive o rn ega t ive ; b u t m a thema t ica l ly i tmu s te x i s t ." I tr ema in st oe s tab l i sh t h a t t h e b i a si sc on s i s ten t ly i n s ign if ican t , a nd u n t roub l ing , a s S aunde r sa nd H oppa 's ( 1993 )s t udy s ugge s t sf o rt h e c a se o f g row th a nd s t a tu re ,a f t e rc ompa r ison si nl o ng b one l e ng th si n s u rv ivo r sa nd n on surv ivo r si np a s tp opu la t ion s . S ummary I nt h is c hap te rt h et h eo re t ica l a nd a na ly t ica lb a ckg round o f t h ef une ra ry a nd o s teo log ica lr e sea rch h ave b een p resen ted u pon w h ich t h i st h e s i si sb a sed ,a sw e l l a s ab r ie fh i s to ry o f h ow t h is r e sea r ch e vo lved t h rough t ime . Mo r tua ry b ehav io r c on s t i tu te so ne o ft h e mo s t .i mpo r tan tr e sou r ce sf o r a r chaeo log i s t sa dd re s s ing s oc ia lc omp lex i ty a nd o rgan iza t ion i s sue si np a s ts oc ie t ies b u ti t sh i gh ly v a r iab le e xp res s ion d oe s n o tp erm i td i r ec tc ompa r ison sa nd g ene ra l iza t ion s . An umbe r o fe t hnog raph ica l s t ud ie s h ave i n ves t iga ted t h er e la t ion sh ip s b e tween v a r ia t ion si n mo r tua ry b ehav io r ,s oc ia l s t a tus , a nd p o l i t ica lc omp lex i ty ( Saxe 1 970 , B info rd 1 971 ,T a in te r 1 978 ) , a nd an umbe ro fa r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie sh ave a pp l ied a nd t e s ted t h e se m ode l so np a s tp opu la t ion s( B rown 1 995 , Mo r r i s 1 992 ,O 'Shea 1 981 ,G o ld s te in 1 976 , C ha r les a nd B u ik s t ra 1 983 )r e vea l ing t h e m e r i t sa nd p i tf a l l so f mor tua ry a na ly s i s .

I ti st r ue t h a tw hen ap a r t icu la rs k e le ta ll e s ion o n as i ng le s i te i ss t ud ied ,t h eo s teo log ica lp a radox u ndoub ted ly i n te r f e re si n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion . B u ti n ap opu la t ion b a sed p e r spec t ive , w hen a l lt h eh ea l th i n d ica to r sa r ec on s ide red s imu l taneou s ly , a sw e l l a sg row th a nd mo r ta l i ty r a te s ,n u t r i t ion ,a nd e co logy , a nd t h ey a l lp o in tt ot h e s ame t r end s ,t h en , mo s tp robab ly , t h e eme rg ing i n te rp re ta t ion sa r er e l iab le , a nd t h es ke le ta l s e r ie s , a tl e a s to nt h ea ve rage , i sr e a sonab ly r ep r e sen ta t ive o f t h e l i v ing p opu la t ion t h a tp roduced t h em . O b se rva t ion so na r a nge o fd a ta s e t ss e rve t od ocumen t ac on s i s tency o f p a t te rn s . S uch a na na ly s i si nd ica te st h a t i n c rea ses i ns ke le ta l l e s ion s i nt h es h if tf r om f o rag ing t of a rm ing d oe sn o t r ep re sen ta ni mp rovemen to fh uman h ea l th . As i gn if ican tn umbe ro fc omp r ehen s ive b i oa r chaeo log ica l s t ud ies f r om av a r ie ty o fl o ca t ion s w o r ldw ide s how ah igh ly 8

On t h eo t he rh and ,h uman s k e le ta lr ema in sr e p r e sen ta c umu la t ive r e co rd o fp a s te ven t sa nd o fh ea l th a nd a c t iv i ty p a t ter n sf o rb o th t h ei n d iv idua l a nd t h ep opu la t ion . When a r ep re sen ta t ive s amp le i sa va i lab le ,d emog raph ic p rof i le s , s ke le ta lm o rpho logy ,p a tho logy a nd c hem i s t ry c an p rov ide i n fo rma t ion i no rde rt or e con s t ruc tp a s th ea l th ,d i sea se ,d i e t , s oc ia lb ehav io r ,o ve ra l l s t re s s ,a nd a dap ta t ion t ot h e e nv i ronm en t . H oweve r , m any p o ten t ia l s amp l ing d i s to r t ion s h ave b een a s soc ia ted w i th t h er e con s t ruc t ion o fp opu la t ion p rof i le s ,e mana t ing f r om t h en a tu re o ft h es k e le ta lm a te r ia l . T he p rob lem sa r er e la ted t od i f f e r en t ia lp r e se rva t ion , s ex ing a nd a g ing d i sc repanc ie s ,p a leopa tho log ica l i n te rp r e ta t ion s , a nd d emog raph ic r e con s truc t ion b i a se s b u ta sl o ng a st h ey a r e a cknow ledged a nd p rope r ly a dd re s sed ,t h e a fo remen t ioned f a c to r sd on o ti n te r f e r e w i th t h e s i gn if icance o ft h ea na ly s i so fa ny p a s tp opu la t ion s pec imen .

9

e i gh th m i l lenn ia . G ene ra l ly ,t h e s e t t lemen t so ft h is p e r iod i n t h e L evan t w e re l a rge a nd p r edom inan t ly s e den ta ry w i th s ub s tan t ia l m udb r ick o rp i sé a r ch i tec tu re o ns t one f ounda t ion s( Me l laa r t 1 975 ,R edman 1 978 ) .T he i r t e chno logy i sc ha ra c te r ized b ys oph is t ica ted f a c i l i t ies , c h ipped s t one t oo l s w i th h i gh p ropo r t ion so fm icro l i th s , a b sence o fp o t te ry , a nd aw ide r ange o fi mp lemen ts s uch a s c ompo s i te t o o l s , h ook s , a nd g r ind ing s t one s . T he Na tuf ian s w e re p u rpo sef u l ly b u ry ing t h e i rd ead i n t ramu ra l ly . T he i r s ub s is tence w a sb ym ean so fi n ten se h un t ing a nd g a the r ing o f av a r ie ty o fr e sou r ces . A l though t h e w i ld p rogen i to r so f d omes t icab le p l an t sa nd a n ima l s w e r ec ommon ly e xp lo i ted , t h e re i sn oe v iden ce f o rt h ed omes t ica t ion b e fo re t he s even th m i l lenn ium ( Me l laa r t 1 975 ,R edman 1 978 ) . S im i la r s ub s is tence ,t e chno log ies a nd b u r ia ls ,b u tl e s sp ermanen t s e t t lemen t s ,c ha ra c te r ize c on tempo ra ry c u l tu r e s i nt h eZ ag ro s Moun ta in s( Me l laa r t 1 975 ,R edman 1 978 ) .

CHAPTER 2 . ARCHAEOLOG ICAL AND B IOARCHAEOLOG ICAL CONTEXT N eo l i th ic A ge I n 1 936 ,V .G o rdon C h i lde f i r s tp ropo sed t h ep h ra se N eo l i th ic R evo lu t ion t od rama t ize t h e s i gn if icance o ff ood p roduc t ion i nh uman h i s to ry . T he N eo l i th ic i n vo lved n ew s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s ,n ew t e chno log ie s ,d i f f e r en t s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion ,a sw e l la sd i f f e ren ts ub s i s tence s t ra teg ies ,a nd i ta c tua l ly c on s is t s ac r uc ia lt r an s i t ion t h a tm ade u sw ho w e a r et oday .N ow ,h oweve r , w eu nde r s tand t h a td omes t ica t ion , t h ec h ief c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h e N eo l i th ic ,a sw e l la sa l lt h e s ub sequen tN eo l i th ic d eve lopmen t sd on o tr e a l ly c on s t i tu te a r e vo lu t iona ry e ven t ,b u tr a the r ,a ne vo lu t iona ry p roce s s w i th l o ng t e rm b iocu l tu ra lc on sequence s (Wh i t t le 1 996 ,L a r sen 1 995 , B oguck i 1 996 ) . S eve ra le xp lana t ion sh ave b een p ropo sed f o rt h eo r ig in so fd omes t ica t ion ,w h ich i nt h eO ld Wo r ld o ccu r r ed a round 9 ,000 BC .T hese i n c lude e nv i ronmen ta le xp lana t ion ss uch a st h eo a s i sh ypo thes i s ( Ch i 1de 1 928 ) ," nuc lea rz one s " ( Bra idwood a nd B ra idwood 1 983 ) ,a nd t h em a rg ina lz one a nd s ymb io s is h ypo the ses ( F lanne ry 1 973 ) ; d emog raph ic e xp lana t ion ss uch a s p opu la t ion p r e s su re ( Cohen 1 977 ,B o serup 1 965 )a nd t h e p ack ing mode l( B info rd 1 983 ) ; mu l t iva r ia te t h eo r ie ss uch a s R edman ' s( 1978 ) ; a nd t h e s oc ia lf a c to r st h eo ry ( Bende r 1 985 ) .

A ta round 8 , 000 BC ,d ome s t ic s heep a nd c u l t iva ted c rop s a ppea red o u t s ide t h e i rn a tu ra l h ab i ta t s . A f te r7 , 500 BC ,t h e f i r s t a g r icu l tu ra lc ommun i t ies w e re f o rmed i nt h eL evan t ine s i tes o fJ e r icho ( PPNB ) ,a nd B e idha ,t h e A na to l ian C ayonu , a nd t h e Me sopo tam ian J a rmo a nd A l i K o sh ,a l l o ca ted i n a r ea so fe co log ica ld i ve r s i ty a nd c l o se t o aw a te rs ou rce ( Redman 1 978 ) . T he c u l tu r eo ft h i sp e r iod w a sc ha rac te r ized b yv i l lage so f5 0t o2 00 i n hab i tan t s , mudb r ick ,r e c tangu la r h ou ses o ns t one f ounda t ion s , u sua l ly w i th s ha r ed w a l l s , c ompo s i te t o o l s ,t r ade o fo b s id ian a nd m a r ine s he l ls , f i gu r ine s ,o rnamen t s ,a nd u n ifo rm i ty o fb u r ia lp rac t ices . Af t e r7 ,000 BC p o t te ry mak ing s p r ead t h roughou tt he e n t i r e r eg ion . A ta r ound 6 , 000 BC , ad ry ing o ft h ec l ima te i nt h e L evan tr e a che s am ax imum . I tb ecame t oo d r yf o rf a rm ing a nd f o rs uppor t ing d en se p opu la t ion s . F rom t h i st ime o n ,t h e L evan tc ea sed t ob e ap r ima ry c en te r , a nd e conom ic a nd o rgan iza t iona ld eve lopmen t ss h if tt on o r the rn A na to l ia ( Konya b a s in ) ,i nc ommun i t ies l i ke V a ta l H üyük a nd H a Oa r , a nd t o Me sopo tam ia i nc u l tu re sl i ke H a souna , S ama ra , a nd H a la f( Me l laa r t 1 975 , R edman 1 978 ) . B yb lo si st h e o n ly s i zab le s i te i nt h e L evan td u r ing t h ep o t te ry p ha se o ft h e N eo l i th ic . F rom 6 , 000 BC t o4 , 500 BC t h ea g r icu l tu ra l v i l lage s w e r e w e l le s tab l i shed . T h i st ime p e r iod i s c ha rac te r ized b yr a in f a l l a g r icu l tu re a nd i r r iga t ion , s p lend id p o t te ry ,t e x t i le s ,v a r iou sd omes t ic e qu ipmen t ,c on t inua t ion o f t h e s ame b u i ld ing a nd l i th ic t e chn ique s , f l ou r ish ing t r ade , i n c rea se i ns oc ia lc omp lex i ty a nd r i tua l is t ic a c t iv i ty , a r t i s t ic s ymbo l ic i t em s ,a nd s ub s i s tence b a sed o nd ome s t ica ted emme r( T r i t icum d i coccum ) ,e i nko rn ( T r i t icum m onococcum ) ,w hea t( T r i t icum a es t ibum ) ,b a r ley ( Hordeum ) ,s heep ( Ov i sa r ie s ) ,g oa t( Capra h i r cus ) a nd c a t t le ( Bo st a urus ) .A ta round 4 , 500 BC i st h ee nd o ft h e N eo l i th ic i nt h eN ea rE a s t( Me l laa r t 1 975 ) .

N ear E a s t A r chaeo log ica le v idence i n d ica te st h a tt h e re i sn or eg ion i n w h ich a g r icu l tu re d eve loped e a r l ie rt h an i nt h eN ea rE a s t . T he e a r ly d eve lopmen t s i nt h e N ea rE a s th ad ag r ea te f f ec t o nt h en a tu r eo fw es ter nc i v i l iza t ion t h rough l i nk sw i th t h e e a r ly Med i te r ranean a nd B a lkan o ne s , w h ich a r ea nce s t ra lt o t h e moder nE u ropean c i v i l iza t ion ( Redman 1 978 ) .T he a r ea t h a tc omp r i se st h en a tu ra l m a t r ix i nw h ich t h eN eo l i th ic c u l tu ra ld eve lopmen tt ook p l ace i sd ef ined b yt h eZ ag ro s , T au ru sa nd P on t ic Moun ta in sa nd t h ee a s te rn c oa s to ft h e Med i te r ranean . I ti n c lude sm any a l luv ia lv a l ley s ,h i l l s , u p land p l a teau sa nd t h eb road v a l ley o ft h eT ig r i sa nd E uph ra te sr i ve r s . C ha rac ter i s t ic so ft h is b road a r ea a r et h e p rox im i ty o fd i f f e ren te nv i ronmen ta lz one s ,t h el o ca l ized n a tu r eo fc er ta in r e sou rces ,t h e Med i te r ranean c l ima te w i th t h e w in te rr a in f a l l f a c i l i ta t ing t h eg row th o fa nnua lg ra s se s , a nd t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fi r r iga t ion c u l t iva t ion o nt h ea l luv ia l v a l ley sa d ja cen tt ot h eu p land s( M i l le r 1 980 ,R edman 1 978 ) .

G r eece A f te rd ome s t ica t ion a nd f ood p roduc t ion w e r ea dop ted i n N ea rE a s t ,t h ey g radua l ly s p r ead t ot h ea d ja cen ta r ea so f E u rope . F rom ag l oba lp e r spec t ive ,t h e s p r ead o ft he N eo l i th ic i nE u rope h appened v e ry q u ick ly ,b u t when s t ud ied

T he f i r s te v idence o ft h es ubsequen td eve lopmen t sc omes f r om t h eL evan t ,t h eN a tuf ian s i te so f Mu reyb i ta nd J e r icho , t h eP r e -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic A ( PPNA ) ,d u r ing t h e n in th a nd

1 0

Me so l i th ic s i tes i nG reece i np a r t icu la r ,h oweve r , may b e a t t r ibu ted t or e sea r ch b i a se s . I nf a c t ,t h e r e i se v idence f r om a f ew Me so l i th ic s i te s ( F ranch th i , T heope t ra ) t h a t s how s o ccupa t ion o ft h e s ame l o ca t ion b o th i nt h e Me so l i th ic a nd t h e N eo l i th ic A ge ( J acob sen 1 969b , 1 973a , 1 973b , K ypa r i s s i -Apo s to l ika 1 995 ) .

i nd e ta i l ,t h e s pu r t sa nd h a l t sb ecome mo r e a ppa r en t ( Boguck i 1 996 ) . A ta pp rox ima te ly 6 , 800 BC t h ee a r l ie s t t r an s i t ion t ot h eN eo l i th ic i nE u rope t o ok p l a ce i nG reece . E a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te si nG reece a nd t h eB a lkan ss how d i s t inc t s im i la r i t ie st ot h e i rN ea rE a s te rn p r ecu r so r s , i nt h e i rs u i te o f d ome s t ica te s , s e t t lemen tp a t ter n s ,a nd m a te r ia lc u l tu re , b u t f r om t h ev e ry b eg inn ing t h ey i n d ica te t h e i ro wn c ha ra c te r a nd as u cce ssfu la dap ta t ion t o an ew e nv i ronmen t ,o u t s ide t h ec o r ea r ea o fd omes t ica t ion i nt h e L evan t . I ti su nc lea ri fi t r ep r e sen t st h ea dop t ion o f af a rm ing e conomy b y i n d igenou s p eop le o rt h ei n te rm ix ing o fl o ca lf o rage r sa nd g roup so f i n t ru s ive a g r icu l tu ra l is t s ( Boguck i 1 996 , Wh i t t le 1 996 , R enf r ew 1 987 ) .

A tt h e momen t , i ta ppea r st h a t e v idence f o rt wo p roce s se s i s v i s ib le i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd : c o lon iza t ion b yn ew i n hab i tan ts a nd c on t inu i ty b yt h eo r ig ina lp opu la t ion s . T he re m ay h ave b een l im i ted c o lon iza t ion o fu npopu la ted a l luv ia l z one s ,b u te v idence o fc on t inu i ty o fi n d igenous p opu la t ion s s ugge s t s s ome f o rm o fi n te ra c t ion w i th t h e n ewcome r s , w i th m u tua l ly b enef ic ia lc on tac t sa nd c u l tu ra lc onve rgence .

T h r ee d i f f e r en te xp lana t ion sh ave b een o f f e red f o rt h es p r ead o ft h ef a rm ing e conomy . T he f i r s ta nd mo s tc ommon ly a ccep t ed e xp lana t ion i nt h ep a s ti sc o lon iza t ion b ym ig ra t ing p opu la t ion sf r om t h eN ea rE a s tw ho b rough td ome s t ica ted s pec ie sw i th t h em ( Ch i lde 1 926 , D emou le a nd P e r ls 1 993 , v an A nde la nd R unne l s 1 995 ,B oguck i 1 996 ) . B yw ha tr ou te a nd i nw ha tn umbe r sp eop le i mm ig ra ted t oG r eece ,h oweve r , a r e s t i l lo pen q ues t ion s . T he re i sn oa r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r ap l a ce w i th ap opu la t ion s ol a rge t h a ts i zab le g roup s c ou ld m ove o ve rl ong d i s tances t oc o lon ize n ew l a nd s . I t mus tb en o ted ,h oweve r ,t h a tt h e r e a r en og ood p opu la t ion e s t ima te sf o rt h ev a r iou sr eg ion so ft h eN ea rE a s t ,a nd e spec ia l ly f o r Ana to l ia ,d u r ing t h eN eo l i th ic .

S e t t lemen tp a t te rn s T he G reek N eo l i th ic A ge l a s ted f r om 6 , 800 BC t o3 , 200 BC , a nd i sd i v ided i n to E a r ly ( 6 ,800 BC t o5 , 800 BC ) , M idd le ( 5 ,800 BC t o5 , 300 BC ) ,L a te ( 5 ,300 BC t o4 , 500 BC ) , a nd F ina l ( 4 ,500 BC t o3 , 200 BC )p e r iod s ( Papa thana s sopou lo s 1 996 ,A nd r eou e ta l . 1 996 , C o leman 1 992 , D emou le a nd P e rr e s 1 993 ) . T he m a jo rN eo l i th ic s i te sa r ed ep ic ted i n F igu re 1 , mo s t ly t h o se w i th f une ra ry s amp le s . I nt h eE a r ly a nd M idd le p e r iod s , mo s to ft h es i tes w e re c oncen t ra ted i nt h e l ow land so fc en t ra lG reece ,u sua l ly i n r i ve r ine o rc oa s ta l a r ea s . T he p a tch ine s so fE a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion i nG reece i ss t r ik ing . T he d en se s i te p a t ter ni nT he s sa ly c on t ra s t s s ha rp ly w i th t h e s pa r se s c a t te r o fs i te so rt h e i ra b sence i n Macedon ia ,T h ra ce , We s ter na nd S ou the rn G reece a nd t h ei s land s . T h i sv a r iab i l i ty i n d i s t r ibu t ion , a l though p rev iou s ly a t t r ibu ted t ou neven r e sea rch , s e em st or e f lec ta c tua lN eo l i th ic p r ef e rence sf o r s e t t lemen t s i te s ( van A nde la nd R unne ls 1 995 ) .

S econd ,g r adua ld em ic d i f f u s ion h a sb een p ropo sed i nt h e w ave o fa dvance mode lo f Ammerman a nd C ava l l i -Sfo rza ( 197 1 , 1 984 ) ,a nd a sl a te r mod if ied b yR enf rew ( 1987 ) .T h i s e xp lana t ion i n c lude s s l ow , s ma l l sca le c o lon iza t ion a nd m ig ra t ion o fp opu la t ion so r ig ina t ing f r om A na to l ia , w ho moved i n to n e ighbo r ing a r ea s , w hen t h en eed w ou ld a r i se d ue t op opu la t ion g row th . R en f rew i d en t if ied t h e se m ig ran t s a st h eI n do -Eu ropean s .T he d rawback o ft h e Amme rman a nd C ava l l i -Sfo rza mode l ,a l though i tm ay b e a pp l icab le t o c en t ra lE u rope ,i st h a ti td oe sn o tc on fo rm t od a ta f r om t h e Me so l i th ic a nd E a r ly N eo l i th ic i nG r eece .T he w eakne s so f R en f r ew 's a pp roach ,o nt h eo the rh and ,i st h a th ee qua te st h e s p read o fa g r icu l tu re w i th t h e s p read o fI ndo -Eu ropean c u l tu r ea nd l a nguage ( Ma l lo ry 1 989 ) . H oweve r ,t h e r ei s s t rong h i s to r ica ll i ngu i s t ic e v idence f o r al a te rr a the rt h an e a r l ie rI n do -Eu ropean d i spe r sa l . Mo r ec ompa ra t ive s t ud ie s a r en eeded t or e conc i le a r chaeo log ica la nd h i s to r ica l l i ngu i s t ic e v idence ( Yof f ee 1 990 ) .

T he t opog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e s i te sp o in t st owa rd sa s t rong p re sence c l o se t ow a te ri nt h ea l luv ia l f l ood p l a in s , w h ich o f f e rd ry d we l l ing p l ace sa nd a r ab le l a nd ( van A nde l a nd R unne l s 1 995 ) . N eve r the le s s , w h i le f l oodp la in s i te sa r e p ropo r t iona l ly p redom inan t ,t h e re a r e as i gn if ican t n umbe ro f s i te si nt h eT he s sa l ian h i l l s . A bou t 5% o ft h e t o ta l s i te sa r e a t o ra bove 5 00m a bove s e al e ve l ( Ga l l i s 1 989 , D emou le a nd P e r ls 1 993 ) .T he m a jo r i ty o ft h es i te sa r e s i tua ted i na d i ve r se l a nd scape w i th a cce s st od i f f e ren tk ind so fr e sou rce s . T he t yp ica lo ccupa t ion i nT he s sa ly i sc omp r i sed o fs ma l l c ompa c tv i l lage s ,o na ve rage o n ly 5 km a pa r t , c ompo sed o f c l o se ly s paced s ma l l ,r e c tangu la r , u sua l ly f r ee s tand ing h ou se s ,b u i l to fe i the r mudb r ick so rw add le a nd d aub , s ome t ime so ns t one f ounda t ion s . R epea ted r ebu i ld ing o f h ou se sr e su l ted i nt h ec ha ra c te r i s t ic t e l l se v iden ti nt h e M idd le N eo l i th ic ( magou le s ) . Q ue s t ion se x i s ta bou tt h e d u ra t ion a nd t h e s t ab i l i ty o ft h eo ccupa t ion s . U pt o7 5% o f t h e s i te s w e re o ccup ied d u r ing b o th t h eE a r ly a nd t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic . H a l s tead s ugge s t sy ea rr ound o ccupa t ion d emon s t ra ted b yt h e a ge o fd ea th o fp i g s ( Ha l s tead 1 984 ) , a s w e l la s an umbe ro fs e t t lemen t s t ra t ig raph ie s . Wh i t t le ( 1996 ) , h oweve r , s ugges t st h a tt h ee a r ly p opu la t ion w a s s t i l l mob i le

T he t h i rd e xp lana t ion , w h ich i s mo r er e cen ta nd mo r e p l au s ib le ,i si n d igenou sa ccu l tu ra t ion , a sp ropo sed b y Wh i t t le ( 1996 ; a l so T heocha r i s 1 973 ,K o t sak i s 1 994 ,A nd reou e ta l . 1 996 ) . Wh i t t le h a s made ac a se t h a tt h et r an s i t ion t ot h e N eo l i th ic w ay o fl i f ei nE u rope g ene ra l ly d oe sn o ti n vo lve a ny p opu la t ion movemen tb u tw a sd ue t og radua l a dop t ion o f n ew w ay sb yt h ep rev iou s i n d igenou s Me so l i th ic f o rage r s . H oweve r ,t h e re i sl i t t le e v idence f i r s tf o rt h ee x i s tence o f s t rong f o rag ing p opu la t ion si ne ve ry p a r to fE u rope ,a nd s e cond f o rt h ec oex is tence o ff o rage r sa nd s e t t led c ommun i t ies i nt h e s t ra t ig raph ic s equence s .T he s c a rc i ty o f 1

A egean s i nce t h eU ppe rP a leo l i th ic a nd c on t inued t ob ev e ry p opu la r . C h ick p ea s( C icer a r ie t inum )a nd h o r sebean s ( V ic ia f aba ) w e re i n t roduced l a te ri nt h e L a te N eo l i th ic when t h e r e i sa no ve ra l l i n c rea se i nt h e u se o fl e gume s( Han sen 1 988 ) . A sf a ra so l ive s ( 0 /ca e uropea v ar . o l eas te r )a nd g rape s ( V i t i ss y lve s t r i sa nd t h ed ome s t ica ted V i t i sv i n if era ) a r e c once rned ,p robab ly w i ld v a r ie t ie so fb o th e x i s t i nN eo l i th ic s i t e sb u t n e i the rm a c rofo s s i ln o rp a lyno log ica le v idence s uppo r tt h e i re xp lo i ta t ion a nd d omes t ica t ion u n t i l t h e B ronze A ge o r , a tt h ee a r l ie s t , l a te i nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic ( Han sen 1 988 ) . H a l s tead s ugge s t st h a tt h ey w e r e u sed a s av iab le a l te rna t ive t of a i led c rop s a t amuch e a r l ie rd a te ( Ha l s tead 1 981) b u tt h is i sn o t w ide ly a ccep ted . S heep a nd g oa t ( ov icap r id s ) ,a nd e spec ia l ly s heep , s e em t op r edom ina te o ve r c a t t le a nd p i g( Sus s c rof a )i nt h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic . A st h e N eo l i th ic p rog re s ses ,t h e u se o fs heep a nd g oa tg radua l ly g i ve s w ay t oc a t t le ,a nd t o al e s se re x ten t ,p i g s , b u t o v icap r id sb ecome d om inan t a ga in i nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic ( Ha l s tead 1 981) . C ompa r i son so fa n ima l m o r ta l i ty p rof i le s s ugges t aj uven i le p eak , w h ich i n d ica te sp rodu c t ion p r ima r i ly f o rf ood ( mea t )b u t l o om w e igh t s a nd s p ind le w ho r ls , a nd t h e l a rge p ropo r t ion o ff ema le a n ima ls i mp ly a tl e a s t mode ra te u s eo fs e conda ry p roduc t s ( woo l ,m i lk ) , w h ich p robab ly i n ten s if ied d u r ing t h e L a te N eo l i th ic .

a nd n o ta l lt h es i te sw e r eo ccup ied a tt h es ame t ime . A bandonmen ta nd t h es h if t ing o ccupa t ion o fs i te s ,e i the r s e a sona l ly o ro nl o nge rt e rm s , a r es ugge s ted b a sed o n e v idence f r om s t e r i le s t ra ta f r om s eve ra l s i tes , s u ch a s S e sk lo ,F ranch th i ,G end ik i ,a nd S ou th Magou la o rt h e p r e sence o ff l uv ia t i le l o am i nt h e s t ra t ig raphy o fP la t ia Magou la Z a rkou . T he b es tk nown E a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic s i te sa r et h ef o l low ing : S e sk lo ( T soun ta s 1 908 , T heocha r i s 1 973 ,K o t sak i s 1 994 ) ,P la t ia Magou la Z a rkou ( Ga l l i s 1 982 ) ,A ch i l le ion ( G imbu ta se ta l . 1 989 ) ,A rg i s sa ( Han schmann a nd M i lo je id 1 976 ) , F ranch th i ( J acob sen 1 969a ,b , 1 973a ,b ) ,N ea N ikomede ia ( Rodden 1 962 , 1 965 ) , a nd G end ik i . D u r ing t h eL a te N eo l i th ic , w h ich o f ten e vo lved w i thou ta b reak , i n c r ea sed s eden t i sm i so b served ,j udg ing f r om t h e p e rmanen tt e l l l ike s i te s ( f o re xamp le a tS esk lo ,D im in i [ T soun ta s 1 908 , H ou rmouz iad is 1 979 ] ,A g ia S of ia [ M i lo je id 1 976 ] ) . H ab i ta t ion i nc ave s i n c rea sed ( A lepo t rypa [ Papa thana s sopou lo s 1 971a , 1 971b , 1 971c ] ,T ha r roun ia [ Samp son 1 993 ] ,K a s t r ia [ Ka t sa rou a nd S ampson 1 996 ] , K i t so s [ Lambe r t 1 981 ] ) , a nd o t he ra r ea so fG reece w e r e a l so i n hab i ted : p a r t so f Ma cedon ia ,T h race ,A egean i s land s ,a nd s ou the rn G reece ,p o s s ib ly i n d ica t ing p opu la t ion g row th ( S i tag ro i [ Ren f rew e ta l . 1 986 ] ,T he rm i [ G rammeno s 1 990 ] , A g io sP e t ro s [ Ef s t ra t iou 1 985 ] , K epha la [ Co leman 1 977 ] , A lepo t rypa ,T ha r roun ia , K a s t r ia ) ( Demou le a nd P e r le s 1 993 , Wh i t t le 1 996 ) .T he s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o fs i tes b ecome sm o re r e gu la ra nd t h ep r ef e rence f o ra l luv ia lp l a in l o ca t ion i n c rea se s . H oweve r ,s ome s i tes w e r ea bandoned a nd t h e p opu la t ion s e emed t oc oncen t ra te i n to f ewe r , l a rge r s e t t lemen t s . A rch i tec tu ra l ly ,c i rcu i t so fw a l ls a ppea red a nd p rom inen tb u i ld ing sw e re c on s t ruc ted i nc en t ra ll o ca t ion s ( D im in i a nd A g ia S of ia ) ,p o s s ib le i n d ica to r so fh i e ra r ch ica l s t ra t if ica t ion o ft h es oc ie ty ( And r eou e ta l1 996 ) .

A sf a ra sl a nd s e lec t ion a nd f a rm ing p rac t ice sa r ec once rned , c u r ren tr e sea r ch s ugges t st h a t l i gh t s o i l so fg ood w a te r h o ld ing c apac i ty ,c omb ined w i th r e l iab le a nnua l f l ood s , a l lowed c u l t iva t ion o ft h e l ow lands w i th ah i gh e re xpec ta t ion o f ag ood h a rve s tt h an r a in f e df a rm ing o nf a n sa nd t e r race s , a sk nown f r om t h eN ea rE a s t ,c ou ld p rov ide ( v an Ande la nd R unne ls 1 995 ) . S t i l l ,j u s t al ow y i e ld a nd s e ed t oh a rves t r a t io c ou ld b ea ch ieved ,r ang ing f r om 2 . 5 t o 4( Sa l la res 1 991) . T he d i ff i cu l ty o fc l ea r ing t h eo ak w ood land a nd t h e t e r races ,c ompa red w i th t h eo pen v ege ta t ion o ft h e f l ood p l a in , may h ave b een a na dd i t iona l a dvan tage t ou s ing t h i s t y pe o fl a ndfo rm ( v an Ande l a nd R unne ls 1 995 ,S her ra t t 1 980 ) . I nf a c t , N eo l i th ic p o l len r e co rd sd on o tr e f lec t m a jo r w ood land c l ea r ing i nG r eece u n t i l 2 ,000 BC ,w e l l i n to t h e B ronze A ge ( Bo t tema a nd Wo ld r ing 1 990 ,v an A nde l a nd R unne l s 1 995 ) .

T he F ina lN eo l i th ic r ep re sen t s as i gn if ican tc hange . Mo r e l a nd w a su t i l ized ,t h en umbe ro fs ma l l s i tes i n c r ea sed ,a s w e l l a sc ave o ccupa t ion ,a nd p opu la t ion sb ecame mo r e n uc lea ted a r ound b i gc en te r s . T he F ina lN eo l i th ic i s c ha rac te r ized b ye x ten s ion a nd d i spe r sa lo fs i te si n to mo re m a rg ina la g r icu l tu ra la r ea s . I nT he s sa ly ,i nc on t ra s t ,t h e r e i s am a rked d ec l ine i nt h en umbe ro fs i te s (Wh i t t le 1 996 ) .

As l igh t ly d i f f e ren ti n terp re ta t ion i sp ropo sed b yH a ls tead ( 1981) . H es ugge s t st h a tt h ef a rm ing p ra c t ice so ft h e s ma l l s i zed G reek N eo l i th ic c ommun i t ies w e r e s ma l l sca le s t ab le g a rden ing i nt h e l ow land s w i th c rop r o ta t ion b e tween c e r ea l s a nd p u lse sa nd r e gu la r manu r ing , a nd t h a to n ly l a te rd id t h ey u se a g r icu l tu ra l ly m a rg ina l a r ea s s uch a su p land sa nd w ood land c l ea r ing s .

S e t t lemen ts ub s is tence R e sea rche r sg ene ra l ly b e l ieve t h a tc e rea l sw e re i n t roduced t o G r eece f r om t h eN ea rE a s t( Demou le a nd P e r le s 1 993 ) .T he mo s tc ommon w e r ee mme r ,e i nkor n , a nd b a r ley . B read w hea ta l so e x is t sb u tn o tt ot h es ame e x ten t ,p e rhap sb ecau se i ti s amo r ed emand ing c rop ( Han sen 1 988 ,R en f rew 1 973 ) . B a r ley ,t h es i x row v a r ie ty ( Hord eum v u lgare ) ,b ecame d om inan to ve rw hea t ,e spec ia l ly i ns ou the rn G reece d u r ing t h e L a te rN eo l i th ic . Two row b a r ley ( Hordeum d i s t ichum ) o ccu r st oge the rw i th s i x row b a r ley i nt h ee a r ly N eo l i th ic b u t s oon i tw a sc omp le te ly r ep laced b yt h e mo re p roduc t ive s i x r ow v a r ie ty ( Han sen 1 988 ) . L en t i ls ( Lens c u l inar i s ) ,p ea s ( P i sum s a t ivum )a nd v e tch ( V ic ia e rv i l ia ) w e re n a t ive t ot h e

T echno logy D ome s t ic e qu ipmen ti sr i ch a nd v a r ied c on s i s t ing o ff ea tu r e s a nd f a c i l i t ie ss uch a sh ea r th s ,o ven s , s t o rage p i t s ,f i re p i t s , p ebb led a nd p l a s te red f l oo r sa nd w o rk ing a r ea s ,a nd i mp lemen t ss uch a sw oven m a t s ,c l ay s p ind le w ho r l s , l oom w e igh t s ,c l ay s poon s , s t one p e s t le s , g r inde r s ,q ue rn s , a xe s , c e l t ,c h i se ls ,a nd b one a w l s ,p in s , n eed les , s pa tu lae , 1 2

b a rn i she r sa nd h ook s . I nt h e L a te a nd F ina lN eo l i th ic , a n i n c rea se i ns t o rage f a c i l i t ies a nd l a rge s t o rage v e sse ls i s o b se rved ( Papa thana s sopou lo s 1 996 ,T heocha r i s 1 973 ) .

d eco ra t ion , a nd t h ec omp lex f i r ing t e chn ique s . T h i sf o rmed a v a s tk o ine ( c ommon s t y le )o fb l ack b u rn ished a nd b l a ck p a in ted w a r e s , a sw e l l a sm any s pec if ic s t y le s w i th r e s t r ic ted d i s t r ibu t ion s . L a rge s t o rage v e s se l sa l so a ppea r ed . I nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic , r e in fo rcemen to fi n t ra s i te s pec ia l iza t ion , d eve lopmen to fs pec ia l ized c en te r so fp roduc t ion , a nd i n c r ea sed r a te o fe xchange a r eo b se rve . I nt h e F ina l N eo l i th ic , t h eq ua l i ty o fp o t te ry d ec l ined a nd t h ed ome s t ic u t i l i ta r ian p o t so u tnumbe red t h e f i ne w a re s , w h i le l a rge s t o rage j a r sp r eva i l ( Demou le a nd P e r le s 1 993 ) .

S tone t o o la s semb lage sc on s is t m a in ly o fu n r e touched o b s id ian b l ades a nd b l ade le t s ,a nd f l in ta nd j a spe rb l ade s w i th l a te ra lr e touch o fv a r iab le e x ten t . I ng ene ra l ,u se o fn on l o ca lr aw m a te r ia lp redom ina ted .T he l i t h ic ss how n o r eg iona lv a r iab i l i ty i nt y pe y e tr aw m a te r ia l sw e re o b ta ined f r om c on s ide rab le d i s tances ( Pe r le s 1 990 ) .T h i sr a ise st h e p rob lem o fw ho o b ta ined t h ea l loch thonou sr aw ma te r ia l ,a nd w ho m ade t h et oo l s . A ne xp lana t ion o f f e r ed b yD emou le a nd P e r le s ( 1993 ) ,a l though n o tb road ly a ccep ted , i st h a t p a r t icu la rg roup s s pec ia l ized i nt h ea cqu i s i t ion o fo b s id ian a nd i t sd i s t r ibu t ion t h roughou tG r eece a sp r efo rmed o r p a r t ia l ly f o rmed c o re s . P roduc t ion m u s ta l so h ave b een t e chn ica l ly s pec ia l ized b ecau se ,a l though t h eo ve ra l l r a te o f p roduc t ion i sl ow f o re ach s i te a nd d i ff icu l tt e chn iques w e r e r equ i r ed ,t h es t udy o ft h ou sand so fb l ade s s how s ar a te o f e r ro rt h a tw a sa lmo s tn i l . I nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic s ub t le s t y l is t ic d i f f e r ence si nt e chn ique so fp roduc t ion a nd r e touch p o s s ib ly i mp ly mo re d i rec tp rocu remen ta nd l o ca lm anuf ac tu re o ft h e s imp ler t o o lf o rm s .I na dd i t ion ,t h ep ropo r t ion o fo b s id ian i n c rea se si nr e la t ion t of l in ti ns ou ther nG reece . T h i st r end b ecome s mo r eg ene ra l ized i nt h eF ina lN eo l i th ic w hen a d ec l ine i nl i th ic c raf t sman sh ip s ugge s t se ven l e s sp roduc t ion b ys pec ia l i s t s .

A l though c oppe r ,g o ld a nd s i lve ro b jec t so ccu ri ne a r l ie r c on tex t s( S i tag ro i , D ik i l iT a sh ,Z a s , D im in i , S e sk lo , K epha la , K a ly th ie s , A lepo t rypa , K i t so s ) ,c oppe rw a sa c tua l ly p roduced i nG reece o n ly d u r ing t h e F ina l N eo l i th ic i n K epha la ,G ia l i , a nd S i tag ro i a st h e e v idence o fc r uc ib le sa nd s l ag s ugge s t s( McGeehan a nd L i r i tz is 1 983 ) .T he a b sence o f l o ca l m anuf a c tu r eb efo re s how st h a tt h em e ta l a r t if ac t s ( b ead s ,p endan t s ,b ra ce le t s ,d agge r s ,p in s ) w e re t r aded o r e xchanged a sf i n i shed p roduc t s , mo s tp robab ly f r om t h e B a lkan s w he re m e ta l lu rgy w a s mo re d eve loped , a nd s p ec if ica l ly , f r om B u lga r ia a st h e s t y l i s t ic a nd t y po log ica l s im i la r i t ie s s ugge s t( Demou le a nd P e r le s 1 993 ) . T rade w a s w ide sp read d u r ing t h ee n t i re N eo l i th ic . T raded g ood s ,u sua l ly moved o ve rl o ng d i s tance s , i n c luded l i th ic m a te r ia l , u sua l ly o fo b s id ian , a nd s ymbo l ic o rp r e s t ig iou s i t em ss uch a ss t one s ea l sa nd v a ses , s he l l or namen t so f S pondy lus a nd m e ta lo b jec t s . I no the rw o rd s ,t h e r e w a so ne l o ng d i s tance e xchange o fs pec ia l ized g ood s ,r e la ted t o t e chn ica l n eed s , a nd as e cond s y s tem o fe xchange o fn on u t i l i ta r ian ,r a r e ,v a lued , s ymbo l ica l ly l o aded g ood s . At h i rd k i nd o fe xchange e x i s ted i n c lud ing t h e s ho r td i s tance c i r cu la t ion o fp o t te ry a s soc ia ted w i th s oc ia li n te rac t ion sa nd a l iance s a mong g roup s ,r a the rt h an f o re conom ic n eed ( Demou le a nd P e r le s 1 993 ) .

D u r ing t h eE a r ly N eo l i th ic b o th t h e s hape sa nd t h es i ze o f c e ram ic v es se ls i nd ica te o n ly s imp le m anuf a c tu r ing t e chn ique s . F i r ing w a sa tl ow t empe ra tu r e s ,o fo ne p o ta ta t ime , i mp ly ing av e ry l ow a nnua lp roduc t ion ( V i te l l i 1 989 ) . T he s t y le sw e r eh omogeneous t h roughou tG reece w i th monoch rome p reva i l ing o ve rt h es c a r ce rp a in ted ( r ed o r b rown o nl i gh t ) . T he f unc t ion o ft h ee a r ly p o t si sr e a l ly i n t r igu ing . T he i rs i ze e xc lude s s t o rage b u tt h e re i sn o i n d ica t ion o ft h e ir u se i nc ook ing .T h ea b sence o fc oa r se g ra ined f a b r ic a nd s oo td epo s i t sn ea rt h eb a se , w e l lp re se rved b u rn i sh ing g lo ss , a nd o pen s hape ss ugge s tt h a tt h ee a r ly p o t s w e re n o tp l a ced i nf i re b u tr a the ru sed f o rf ood d i sp lay o r p r epa ra t ion ( V i te l l i 1 989 , 1 99 1 ,P e r le sa nd V i te l l i 1 994 , Wh i t t le 1 996 ) .

S oc ia la nd i d eo log ica l l i f e D u r ing t h e E a r ly a nd t h e M idd le N eo l i th ic p r ima ry b u r ia l s p r eva i li nN ea N ikomede ia ,F ranch th i , A rg i ssa , a nd S ouf l i Magou la . U sua l ly t h e d ead ,a du l t sa nd c h i ld ren a l ike , w e re b u r ied i nf l exed p o s i t ion i ns ha l low p i t s , w i thou to f f e r ing s , c ove red w i th e a r th a nd s t one s . T he b u r ia l s w e r eu sua l ly s i ng le a nd e x i s tw i th in t h eh ab i ta t iona l a r ea s ( Ga l l is 1 996 , A l ram -S te rn 1 996 ) ,a l though as e conda ry b u r ia l w a s u ncove red a tP rod romo s( Hou rmouz iad i s 1 971) a nd ac a se o f c r ema t ion a tS ouf l i Magou la ( Ga l l i s 1 975 , 1 996 ) .

D u r ing t h eM idd le N eo l i th ic s t r ik ing d eve lopmen t sa nd i n nova t ion sh appened i na l la spec t so fc e ram ic p roduc t ion s uch a sh i ghe rt empe ra tu re f i r ing t e chn iques ,d i ff icu l ta nd d i ve r se s hapes ,v a r ied s u r f ace t r ea tmen t ,r i ch a nd v a r ied d eco ra t ion ,u se o fd i f f e r en tf ab r ic sf o rd i f f e ren t w a re s , a nd t h e a ppea rance o fb o th f i ne a nd c oa r se w a r e s .P roduc t ion w a s mo s t ly l o ca l , w i th m any r e g iona ls t y le s( U rf i rn i sa nd p a in ted ) .C i rcu la t ion o fp o t si sa l so e v iden t .T he h i gh s t anda rd sa ch ieved i nc e ram ic p roduc t ion ,a sw e l la st h e h i gh r isk v es se ls p robab ly i n tended f o rs p ec ia l s oc ia lo r s ymbo l ic r o le s , s ugge s t ,a cco rd ing t oV i te l l i ( 1991) ,p o s s ib le p a r t t ime s pec ia l iza t ion .

D u r ing t h eL a te a nd F ina lN eo l i th ic t h es ame t y pe so f f une ra ry p ra c t ice sc on t inued t ob eu sed b u ti nt h ese p e r iod s s epa ra te b u r ia l g round s w e r eu sua l ly e s tab l i shed , s eg rega t ing t h es pa ce o ft h e l i v ing f r om t h a to ft h ed ead . T he f i r s t e xamp le i st h ec r ema t ion c eme te ry o fP la te ia Magou la Z a rkou . ( Ga l l i s 1 996 ,A l ram -S ter n 1 996 ) . C eme te r ies o ft h e F ina lN eo l i th ic e x i s ti nK epha la ( Kea ) ,T ha r roun ia ( Eubo ia ) , a nd G ia l i ( Dodecane se ) . A l lo ft h em a r el o ca ted i na r ea s s epa ra te f r om t h e s e t t lemen ta nd i n vo lve p r ima ry i n termen t s ,

D u r ing t h eL a te N eo l i th ic p o t te ry a ch ieved n ew a nd s t r ik ing e f f ec t se spec ia l ly i nt h eq ua l i ty ,p r ec i s ion ,d en s i ty o f 1 3

( Sa l la re s 1 991 ) .T h i s mode l a ddres ses t h e s oc ia l a nd c u l tu ra l t r an sfo rma t ion st h a ta ccompan ied t h e a dop t ion o fa g r icu l tu re i nC en t ra lG reece . P opu la t ion g row th , ma rg ina l l a nd e xp lo i ta t ion , s o c ia l s t o rage , a nd e xchange o fc r af tg ood s a ro se f r om a t temp t sb ye a r ly f a rm ing h ou seho lds t oc ope w i th s ea sona lp roduc t ion v a r iab i l i ty a nd c rop f a i lu r e . H oweve r ,t h e se m echan ism sr epea ted ly c r ea ted n ew p rob lem so fp roduc t ion i n s tab i l i ty , a nd t r igge r ed s oc ia la nd e conom ic c hange s . T h is p rocedu re h ypo the t ica l ly t r an sfo rmed e ga l i ta r ian s oc ie t ie s i ns t ra t if ied o ne s w i th t h e eme rgence o fe l i te s w ho d om ina ted a nd c on t ro l led p roduc t ion a nd s o c ia l s t o rage t r an sac t ion s .

c h i ld b u r ia l si nv es se l s , s ome r e use o fg raves ,a nd f ew o f f e r ing s . T h eg rave s w e re b u i l ta nd c ove red w i th s l ab s . I ng ene ra l , w eo b se rve i n c rea sed r i tua l iza t ion a nd g r ea te r a s soc ia t ion o fo f f e r ing sw i th b u r ia l s . T h i s i n c r ea sed a t ten t ion t ot h e a nce s to r s ,e spec ia l ly w i th t h ee s tab l i shmen to fs epa ra te b u r ia l g round se i the rf o rp r ima ry , s e conda ry o rc r ema t ion b u r ia l s , i sc l o se ly r e la ted t ot h ee s tab l i shmen to fl i neage sa nd c l a im s o ve rc r i t ica lr e sou r ce s( Chapman 1 981) . I nN eo l i th ic G reece f i gu r ine sa r ea bundan t . C e ram ic f ema le f i gu r ine sw i th w e l lm a rked s exua lc ha rac te r i s t ics ,s t and ing o r s i t t ing o nc ha i r s ,a r et h e mo s tc ommon . Ma rb le ,s t one ,o r b one f i gu r ine sa r er a re r . A n ima l f i gu r e s ,h ou se mode l s ,a nd a n th ropomo rph ic v a se sb e long t ot h e s ame c a tego ry . T hey a r e mos t ly s ma l la nd s t y l ized b u tt h ey v a ry g r ea t ly i n t e chn ique a nd s t y le ( Ga l l i sa nd O rphan id i 1 991) . Mo s t f i gu r ine so ccu ri nd omes t ic c on tex t s ,e xcep tf o rt h eF ina l N eo l i th ic C yc lad ic f i gu r ine s ,w h ich a r e a s soc ia ted w i th b u r ia l s a nd ,p o s s ib ly ,a na nces to rc u l t . T he d ome s t ic c on tex t o ft h e i rd i scove ry h a sn o th e lped i nt h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o f m ean ing o rf unc t ion . Ad om inan t i n te rp re ta t ion i st h a tt h ey r e p re sen tg oddes se s ,g od sa nd my th ica l f i gu re s , w h i le t h e h ou se st ha tt h ey w e r ef ound i na r er e ga rded a ss h r ine so r t emp les ( G imbu ta se ta l . 1 989 ) . A l te rna t ive ly ,T a la lay ( 1987 a nd 1 993 )b e l ieve st h a tt h ey m igh th ave b een s ymbo l ic t oken so fk in o ra l l iance b e tween i n d iv idua l so r c ommun i t ie s , w h i le at h i rd i n te rp re ta t ion r ega rd st h em a s ma rke r so fp e r sona li d en t i ty ,a s ar ep re sen ta t ion so fa nces to r s o rl i v ing i n d iv idua l s (Wh i t t le 1 996 ,B a i ley 1 994 ) . H oweve r , a l lo ft h e se i n te rp re ta t ion sa r es omewha tc i rcu la ra nd mo re a na ly s is i sc l ea r ly n eeded ( Demou le a nd P e r ls 1 993 ) .

Europe Two m a jo rd i r ec t ion so f movemen t a r ev i s ib le i nt h e s p r ead o ft h e E u ropean a g r icu l tu re a f t e ri t se s tab l i shmen ti nG r eece . One p rog r e s s ion c o r r espond st ot h e B a lkan s , c en t ra l , a nd w es ter nE u rope , a nd t h e s e cond t ot h e Med i te r ranean c oa s ta l z one . B a lkan s Am i l lenn ium a f te rt h e i ra ppea rance i nG reece ,a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i t ie s w e r ee s tab l i shed i nt h e s ou the rn B a lkan s . A si n G reece , s t ud ie so nt h eo r ig in so ft h e N eo l i th ic i n s ou thea s te rn E u rope h ave b een h ampe red b y as ca rc i ty o f Me so l i th ic s i te s . Mo s to ft h e Meso l i th ic s i te s w e r e c oncen t ra ted a tt h eD anube g o rge so fI r on G a te s( Lep in sky V i r , P ad ina , V la sa c ,I coana )a nd o n ly as ca t ter ing o fs i te s h ave b een r epo r ted i na r ea s w he re s ub sequen tN eo l i th ic s i tes a r e f ound (Wh i t t le 1 996 , B oguck i 1 996 ,v an A nde l a nd R unne ls 1 995 ) ,a l though mo r er e cen tr e sea r ch t e nds t of i l l t h i sg ap s i n ce mo r et r an s i t iona l Meso l i th ic s i te sa r e d i scove red i nS loven ia a nd B u lga r ia . T hu s ,e xp lana t ion s o sc i l la te b e tween c o lon iza t ion f o l low ing t h ed i spe r sa lo f a g r icu l tu ra lp opu la t ion sf r om G reece ( van A nde la nd R unne l s 1 995 ) , a nd i n d igenou sa ccu l tu ra t ion a nd i n co rpo ra t ion o fd omes t ica ted s pec ie s i n to f o rage r s ' e conomy a nd l i f eway s ( G reenf ie ld 1 993 , B oguck i 1 996 ) . T he f i r s tN eo l i th ic c ommun i t ies a ppea ri nt h ev a l ley so ft h e Ma r i t sa , V a rda ra nd Mo rava r i ve r s , a nd l a te ri nt h eD anube v a l ley , l o ca t ion st h a ts how ap ref e rence f o rl ow land s ,a l luv ia l s o i l s , a nd f l oodp la in s( Ka ranovo , C hevda r , K azan luk , A zmak , S t a r cevo ,A nza , D ivo s t in I ,a nd t h eT i sza -Kö rö s -C r i * n e two rk )( Boguck i 1 996 , v an Ande l a nd R unne l s 1 995 ) . T e l l si nt h ee a s te rn B a lkan s , s ome o fw h ich a r e4 ha a nd 1 2m h i gh , c on ta in t h er ema in so fc l o se ly s paced ,f r ee -s tand ing , p o s t -f ramed ,o ne r oomed ,a nd l a te rt wo r oomed ,h ou se s w i th w a l ls o fw add le a nd d aub o rm udb r ick s .

A r ch i tec tu r ea nd t h eu se o fs pace d oe sn o tp o in tt oa ny s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i nt h eE a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic , w i th t h e p o s s ib le e xcep t ion o ft h eM idd le N eo l i th ic S e sk lo , w he r e a r ch i tec tu ra ld i f f e rence sa nd r e s t r ic ted a cce s sa r ec o r re la ted w i th d i f f e ren tq ua l i ty g ood s( Ko t sak i s 1 983 , 1 986 ) .I nt h e L a te N eo l i th ic ,a r ch i tec tu ra lv a r ia t ion s ,p o s s ib ly i mp ly ing s oc ia l i n equa l i ty ,a sw e l la st h ee s tab l i shmen to fl a rge c en t ra l b u i ld ing s ,a r ec l ea r ly s e en i nt h e mu l t ip le c oncen t r ic w a l l so f D im in i , o rt h ed i tch e nc lo sed p l a t fo rm o fA g ia S oph ia ( And r eou e ta l . 1 996 ,D emou le a nd P e r le ' s 1 993 ) . I ng ene ra l ,f o rt h eE a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic ,t h e r e s e em s t o b en o empha s i so nt h ev i s ib i l i ty o ft h ed ead , n oi n d ica t ion o f e l abo ra te r i tua l so rs epa ra te s h r ine s ,a nd v e ry l i t t le o rn o i n d ica t ion f o rs oc ia li n equa l i ty . E v idence e x is t so n ly f o rc r a f t s pec ia l iza t ion ,e xchange a nd s oc ia la nd e conom ic c on ta c t s b e tween c ommun i t ie s .T he se t r end sb ecome e ven mo re e v iden ti nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic . B yt h eF ina lN eo l i th ic n ew e conom ic p a t ter n sa r i se ,c on s ide rab le c r a f t s pec ia l iza t ion a nd e xchange sa r ef ound ,a nd s oc ia ls t ruc tu r e sa dvanc ing c hange (Wh i t t le 1 996 ) .

A f te r5 000 BC ,e v idence f o rp opu la t ion a nd s e t t lemen t e xpan s ion i ss e en . T e l l sc on t inue t ob eb u i l tu p ,n ew o ne sa r e a dded ( Ka ranovo ,E ze ro , D o lno s lav ,G omo lava ) , s ma l l e nc lo sed s e t t lemen t sa ppea r( Ovea rovo , P o l jan ica , G o lyamo , T a rgov i § te ) , a nd V inea i nt h ew es tr ep lace st h e S t a rcevo K ö rö sc omp lex ( V inea , G omo lava , S e levac , O povo ) . A f te r

A mode lp ropo sed b yH a l s tead ( 1989 ) ,a l though c r i t iqued b y v an A nde la nd R unne l sf o rE a r ly N eo l i th ic a pp l ica t ion ( 1995 ) ,r ema in sc ompe l l ing a tl e a s tf o rt h eL a te N eo l i th ic 1 4

Wh i t t le 1 996 , B oguck i 1 996 ,C on s tan t in ie ta l . 1 987 ) . T ran sfo rma t ion sa ppea rt om ove n o r thwa rds t on or thern I t a ly ,F rance , S pa in a nd P o r tuga l .

4 000 BC s t ra t ig raph ic h i a tu se sa nd a bandonmen t sa r e c ha ra c te r i s t ic (Wh i t t le 1 996 ) . T h ed ome s t ic s pec ie so ft h e B a lkan sc on s i s ted o ft h e s ou thwes te rn A s ia t ic c omp lex w i th c a t t le a nd p i gp r eva i l ing o ve rs h eep a nd g oa t ,a nd b a r ley b ecom ing as umme rr a the r t h an aw in te rc rop ( Boguck i 1 996 ) . Ma te r ia lc u l tu r e c on s i s ted o fa bundan tp o t te ry ,v a r ied i nf o rm , s i ze a nd d eco ra t ion ( wh i te o nr e d ,r e do n w h i te , i n c i sed ,i mp res sed , b i ch rome ,t r ich rome ,a nd g raph i te p a in ted a nd b l ack b a rn i sh ed ) ,c l ay s t ud s ,b ead s ,s poon s ,s e a l s ,b ra ce le t so ft h e a l loch thonou sS pondy lus s he l l s ,s t on et oo l sa nd f i gu r ine s , p r in c ipa l ly i n ad ome s t ic c on tex t . C oppe ra nd g o ld w o rk ing b egun i n dependen t ly o fA s ia i ns ou thea s tern E u rope a f t e r 5 000 BC ,r e a ch ing h i gh l e ve l so fs pec ia l iza t ion a nd s oph i s t ica t ion . L i t t le c oppe ro rg o ld h a sb een f ound i n s e t t lemen t s ; mos ti sa s soc ia ted w i th g r aves . I n te r e s t ing ly , l i t t le c oppe rh a sb een f ound o ns i tes l i ke V inea , K a ranovo , o r A zma cd e sp i te t h e i rp rox im i ty t ot h ee x t rac t ion s i te s , w he r ea su nu sua l a moun t s h ave b een r e po r ted f r om t h e c em e te r ies o ft h eB la ck S ea c oa s t ,n o tab ly f r om V a rna , D u ranku lak ,D o lno s lav , a nd V in ica ( Wh i t t le 1 996 ) .

N eo l i th ic s i te sa r e k nown i nv a r ied s e t t ing s ( c oa s ta l ,i n land , a nd c ave s ) . I nI t a ly , a l ong w i th t h eo ccupa t ion o fc aves , s o c a l led v i l lag it r incera t ia r e f ound , w h ich a r e i n te rp r e ted a s h ou se c omp lexes s u r rounded b y ad i tch o nt h eT avo l ie r e p l a in ( Pa so d iC o rvo , Amend° la ,T aver no la ,P o s td 'I nnanz i ) a nd i nn o r the rn I t a ly a gg rega t ion so fs ma l l o pen s i te s ( San Ma r co ,R ipab ianca , M i le to , V ho , F io rano , P e sca le , I s o l ino , R emede l lo ,R ivo l i ) . I nF rance a nd I b e r ia , e a r ly s i te sa r e f ound i nc ave sa nd r o ck s he l te r s( G ro t te L omba rd ,G ro t te G aze l ,A b r iJ ean C ro s ,C ou r thdzon , C ova d el 'O r , L a C a r igüe la , G ru ta d oC a lde i rao ,F o rna d aT e lho ) ( B inde ra nd C ou r t in 1 987 ,Z i lhäo 1 993 ) . Ag ene ra lc ha rac te r i s t ic o f s ou ther nE u ropean s i te s i st h a tt h e re i sl i t t le e v idence o f h ou se s t ruc tu re sa nd , c on sequen t ly , l i t t le d a ta f o re s t ima t ing t h ed en s i ty o fo ccupa t ion ( Vague r 1 990 , Wh i t t le 1 996 ) . A f te r 3 500 BC w a l led s i tes a ppea ri nF ran ce l i ke L dbou s , C ambou s , a nd B ou s sa rgue s , a nd a f te r4 000 BC ar ange o f m ega l i th ic c on s t ruc t ion sa nd w a l led s i te sa ppea ri nI b e r ia s u ch a sV i la N ova d e S ao P ed ro ,Z ambu ja l ,a nd L o s M i l la re s ( Chapman 1 990 ) .

R ega rd ing b u r ia ls ,d u r ing t h eE a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic mo s tb u r ia ls w e re s i ng le ,g rave g ood sw e re f ew a nd s imp le , a nd m a les ,f ema le s ,a nd c h i ld ren w e r er ep re sen ted i ns imp le g rav e sw i th in t h es e t t lemen ta r ea ( Ba i ley 1 993 ) .

B u r ia l so ft h ee a r ly p e r iod w e re s imp le a nd e v idence c ome s f r om c ave s ,r o ck s he l te r s ,a nd r o ck c u tt omb s , a nd s he l l m idden s . Af t e r5 000 BC c eme te r ie s w i th g r ea td i f f e r en t ia t ion a ppea ri nI t a ly , w h i le i nF rance a nd I b e r ia , a f te r5 000 BC , b u r ia l so ccu ri np i t s a nd m ega l i th ic c i s t s ( do lmen s ,c a i rn s , mound s ) a nd t h ree -d imen s iona l monumen t sw i th g r ea t v a r ia t ion t h rough t ime .

D u r ing t h eL a te N eo l i th ic b u r ia lg round sa ppea ri nt h e H unga r ian p l a in ,n o r thea s tB u lga r ia ,t h el owe rD anube a r ea , a nd t h eB lack S ea c oa s t( Todo rova a nd D imov 1 989 ) . I n t h e se c eme te r ie sg rave s w e re s imp le ,e a r th -cu t ,a nd m a rked s i nce t h ey r a r e ly i n te r sec t , w i th f ew g r ave g ood sa nd l i t t le v a r ia t ion i ns i ze o rt h et r ea tmen to ft h ed ead .E xcep t ion t o t h i sp a t t e rn a r et h e s pec tacu la r ,l a rge b u r ia lg round so nt h e B lack S ea c oa s ta nd t h el owe rD anube v a l ley ( 300 -1000 g rave s )( I vanov 1 988 )w i th e v idence o fg ende ra nd s t a tu s d i f f e r en t ia t ion ,a nd r ema rkab ly r i ch c eno taph s .

T he s ub s i s tence p a t ter no fs ou the rn E u rope i sv a r ied a nd i n c lude s aw ide s pec t rum o fr e sou r ce s . T he f a una l a s semb lages w e r ed om ina ted b y s heep a nd g oa t w i th w i ld g ame i nv a r ied p ropor t ion s . Aw ide r a nge o fc e rea l s a nd l e gumes w a su sed , e spec ia l ly i nt h el ow land s , a nd t h i s i n c r ea sed w i th t ime . T he i rm a te r ia lc u l tu re c on s is t so f p o t te ry , i n c lud ing I mp r e s sed w a re i ne a r ly p e r iod s ,a nd p l a in w a r e i nl a te rp e r iod s , a l ong w i th f i ne w a re p o t te ry ,o b s id ian s t one t oo l sa l ong w i th f l in t sa nd c he r t s ,c oppe ra nd m e ta l w o rk ing o fl o ca ld eve lopmen t , a nd i d o l si nI b e r ia .

Cen t ra l a nd Wes te r n Med i ter ranean

A sa g r icu l tu re w a ss p read ing n o r thwa rd s ,i tw a sa l so s p r ead ing w e s twa rd s ,a l ong t h e Med i t e r ranean c oa s t . I nt h i s r eg ion ,t h ei n d igenou sp opu la t ion ss e em t oh ave s e lec t ive ly a dop t ed s ome o ft h ec ha ra c te r i s t ic so f af ood p roduc ing e conomy ,w h ich w e re t h en i n teg ra ted i n to t h e i rf o rag ing s ub s i s tence ,a nd g radua l ly b ecame s eden ta ry . A sB oguck i ( 1996 )o b se rve s ,i nt h e se r eg ion s" t he l a s th un te r sw e re t h e f i r s tf a rm e r s ."

C en t ra l a nd We s te rn E u rope C en t ra l E u rope c on s t i tu te s ad i f f e ren tc a se o fN eo l i th ic t r an sfo rma t ion . T he e a r ly f a rm ing c u l tu re so fc en t ra la nd w e s ter nE u rope a ppea ra r ound 5 400 BC .T he L inea rP o t te ry c u l tu r e ( LBK ) w a st h ef i r s tN eo l i th ic c u l tu re a nd i te x tend s f r om t h ew e s te rn U k ra ine t ot h e s ou the rn N e the r land sa nd t h e P a r is b a s in , a nd f r om w e s te rn H unga ry a lmo s tt ot h e B a l t ic a nd N o r th S ea s . G ene ra l ly s peak ing , i t sn o r the rn l im i t s c o inc ide w i th t h en o r the rn l im i t so fl o e s ss o i l ,a l though i mpo r tan to u t l ie r se x i s ti nP o land , b eyond t h e l o es sb e l t ( Boguck ia nd G ryg ie l 1 993 , B oguck i 1 996 ) .

F o rt h et r an s i t ion t ot h eN eo l i th ic i nc en t ra la nd w e s ter n Med i t e r ranean r e sea r che r sc ommon ly p ropo se al im i ted d eg ree o fs eabor n ec o lon iza t ion , mo s tp robab ly f r om G reece t ot h ea r ea o fT avo l ie re a nd l a te rt oP o r tuga l . I nt h er e s to f t h er e g ion i n d igenou sf o rage rc ommun i t ie s , w he reve rt h ey e x i s ted b efo re 6 000 BC , a r et h ough tt oh ave g radua l ly a nd s e lec t ive ly a dop ted e l emen t so ft h eN eo l i th ic l i f es ty le ( G ro t ta N ev iga ta ,G ro t ta d e l l ' U zzo ) ( v an A nde la nd R unne l s 1 995 , 1 5

o ft h e se t wo p r ima ry a nd t h ev a r iou s s ub s id ia ry s p ec ie s . C a t t le a dap ta t ion t o af o re s ted e nv i ronmen t i sa l so r ema rkab le s i nce f a una la s semb lages a r e a lmo s ta lway s c ompo sed p r ima r i ly o ft h eb ones o fc a t t le w i th s h eep , g oa t s a nd p i g sb e ing r e p r e sen ted i nc on s ide rab ly s ma l le r p ropo r t ion s .

T he L inea rP o t te ry c u l tu re w a ss ucceeded a round 5 000 BC b yt h e S t roke O rnamen ted P o t te ry ( SBK )a nd L engye l ,a nd a r ound 3 500 BC t h ey w e re f o l lowed b yt h e B aden , F unne l B eake r( TRB ) ,G lobu la r Ampho ra , E r te l )0 1 1e ,C e rny , C ha s seen , SOM ,R ö s sen , P fyn ,C o r ta i led a nd H o rgen i nt h e v a r iou sE u ropean r e g ion s . C o rded Wa r ec u l tu re s ucceeded m o s to ft h eE u ropean c u l tu r e s i nt h e f i na lp ha se , l i t t le b efo r e 2 700 BC .T he mo s tv i ab le h ypo the s is r ega rd ing t h e e s tab l i shmen to ft h ee a r ly f a rm ing c ommun i t ies i nc en t ra l E u rope i st h a ti tr e su l ted f r om ap roce s so fc o lon iza t ion o r ig ina t ing i nt h eK ö rö sc u l tu re o ft h e H unga r ian p l a in a nd w a sd ue t op opu la t ion g row th (Wh i t t le 1 996 ,B oguck ia nd

N eo l i th ic E u rope v e r su st h eN ea rE a s t An umbe ro fg ene ra lc ha rac te r i s t ics a r es ha r ed b e tween E u ropean a nd N ea rE a s ter nc u l tu re s . Mo re s im i la r i t ies e x i s t b e tween s ou thea s te rn E u rope a nd t h eN ea rE a s t .N o t s u rp r i s ing ly ,t h e r e i s as t rong p ref e rence i nb o th a r ea s f o r s e t t lemen ti nr i ve rv a l ley sa nd l a ke b a s in s . S e t t lemen t s w e r e u ndef ended a nd h ou ses w i th in t h em w e re c l o se s e t , r e c t i l inea r ,a nd u n ifo rm , s ugge s t ing c ohes ive ,s u cces sfu l c ommun i t ie s . I nb o th t h eN ea rE a s ta nd s ou thea s tE u rope , s e t t lemen t su sua l ly e x is t i nt h e f o rm o ft e l ls , w h i le f l a ts i te s e x i s ta sw e l l . W i ld a n ima l s w e re h un ted b u ts h e ep ,g oa t s , c a t t le , a nd p ig s ,w e re u sua l ly f a r mo re n ume rou s . P eop le g r ew c e rea lc rop sa nd l e gume s , w i th w hea t ,b a r ley , l e n t i l s , p ea s ,a nd v e tches p reva i l ing . We l l -f i r ed a nd d e co ra ted p o t te ry w a su sed i na bundance f o rp r epa ra t ion a nd p re sen ta t ion o ff ood , a nd p e rhap s n o tf o rc ook ing . T he re w a s aw e l l -e s tab l ished f l ow o fr aw ma ter ia l sf o rs t one t oo l s a s w e l la sf i n i shed p roduc t sa nd e xo t ic g ood s . F igu r ines i n h uman a nd a n ima lf o rm w e re f i rm ly c en te red i n ad ome s t ic c on tex t . Ma te r ia lc u l tu re w a sd i ve r se a nd i n c luded ar ange o f d ome s t ic i mp lem en t sa nd f a c i l i t ie se x tended t oc l ay s ea l sa nd o rnamen ti t em s .

G ryg ie l 1 993 ) . L BK s e t t lemen t sa r et y p ica l ly f ound i ns e t t lemen tc e l l so n t h e f e r t i le l o e s ss o i ls ,n ea rw a te r , i nv a l ley sa nd f i oodp la in l ow land s ,c omb in ing av a r ie ty o fh ab i ta t sa nd r e sou r ce s ( Modde r rnan 1 988 ) . D i s t inc t ive a r e L BK c u l tu re l ong h ou ses , 1 0 -30m l o ng ,r e c tangu la r ,t imbe rf r amed ,f r ee s t and ing , ma s s ive s t ruc tu re s ( By lany ,t h eA ldenhoven P la teau , S t rögen ,L angwe i le r8 ,E ls loo , O lszan ica ) (Wh i t t le 1 996 , B oguck i 1 996 )a ccompan ied b ye a r thwo rk s ,c on s i s t ing o ff o rma l ized c i r cu la re nc lo su r e s ,d i tche s ,b ank s , a nd p a l i sades ( Da r ion ,L angwe i le r8 -9 ,K ö ln -L inden tha l , S vod in , V ochov [ Lün ing a nd S t eh l i 1 989 ] , a nd W indm i l l H i l l , D o r se t , S tonehenge [ Boguck ia nd G ryg ie l 1 993 ] ) .T he t r ad i t ion w a sc on t inued u n t i la f te r4 000 BC w hen t h e l ong h ou se s w e re a bandoned a nd t h e s e t t lemen tc onf igu ra t ion c hanged w i th w ide ly s p r ead s ma l lo ccupa t ion s . A cco rd ing ly ,d u r ing t h ee a r ly L BK ,t h ed ead w e r e b u r ied w i th in t h es e t t lemen ta r ea i ng r ave s ,p i t so rd i tche s ,a nd , s t a r t ing f r om t h em idd le L BK ,s imp le u n ifo rm b u r ia l g rounds a r ef ound w i th e qua lr ep re sen ta t ion o fm a les a nd f ema le s i ne a r th c u tg rave sw i th g rave g ood s ,d i s t ingu i sh ing s ex a nd a ge d i f f e r ences ( Boguck i a nd G ryg ie l 1 993 ) . B e tween 4 500 a nd 4 000 BC t h ef i r s tm ega l i th ic monumen t s ( l ong mound s ,c a ir n s ,b a r row s )a ppea r ,c onnec ted w i th t h e c o l lec t ive d i spo sa la nd t h ec u l to ft h ed ead .T hey a r e i mp re ss ive ,e l abo ra te ,t h ree d imen s iona l monumen t s ,a nd f o l lowed v a r ied t r ad i t ion s i nd i f f e ren ta r ea so fw es ta nd n o r thwes tE u rope ,t h eP a r i sb a s in , G ermany a nd S cand inav ia ( Menh i r , L e sF oua i l lage s , B a rnenez , B ougon ,E rG rah ,L e Mou s to i r ,G av r in i s , Emme ln 2 ,H ave l te )( K inne s 1 982 , P a t ton 1 993 , Wh i t t le 1 996 ) .

D if f e rence sa r ea l so a ppa ren tb e tween t h e N eo l i th ic o f E u rope a nd t h a to ft h eN ea rE a s t . F i r s to fa l l ,t h e E u ropean N eo l i th ic r ep r e sen t sa na dap ta t ion t o amo r e w ooded e nv i ronmen ti nc on t ra s t w i th t h eo pen v ege ta t ion o f s ou thwe s tA s ia . I ns ou thea s tE u rope , f l oodp la in c u l t iva t ion i s mo r e t yp ica lt h an t h ed ry l a nd r a in -f ed f a rm ing o ft h eN ea r E a s t . T he re w a sn eve ra ni n d ica t ion o fi r r iga t ion i nE u rope . I nh ouse a r ch i tec tu r e , mudb r ick s , w h ich a r et y p ica lf o rt h e N ea rE a s t ,a r er e s t r ic ted o n ly t o af ew s i te si nG reece , w h i le p o s t -f ramed h ou se sa nd w a t t le a nd d aub , w h ich a r er a re i n t h eN ea rE a s t ,a r ec ommon ly u sed i nE u rope . C on t iguou s h ou ses w e r et h er u le i nt h eN ea rE a s tb u tt h ey a r er a r e i n E u rope ,c on f ined i nf ew s ou thea s ter ns i te s , w h i le f r ee s tand ing h ou ses p reva i l . T e l ls t h a tc ommon ly e x is ti nt h e N ea rE a s ta r ef ound o n ly i ns ou thea s ter nE u rope . I nt h er e s t o fE u rope ,f l a ts i tes a r et y p ica l , w he r et imbe ra r ch i tec tu r e l e aves l e s sd eb r i st h an mudb r ick sa nd c l ay a nd ,t h e refo re , l e s sv e r t ica l a ccumu la t ion . F la ts i te s w i th w ide sp read s epa ra te h ou se sa nd s ho r t term o ccupa t ion ,a so ccu r si n c en t ra l E u rope , a r er a re ri no the rr eg ion so fE u rope ,a nd t h ey m ay b ec ha ra c te r i s t ic o f mo re w ooded e nv i ronmen t s , w he re r e juvena t ion o ft h ef o re s tp r ec ludes l o ng t e rm u se o ft h e f i e lds a nd ,t h e refo re ,o ccupa t ion o ft h e s i te ( Demou le a nd P e r le s 1 993 ) .I np o t te ry m ak ing ,d i f f e r en tt e chn ique se vo lved i nE u rope , a nd m e ta lwo rk ing w a s mo r e s oph i s t ica ted i n s ou thea s te rn E u rope ,t h an i nw es tA s ia .

I nc en t ra la nd w es ter nE u rope t h ee nv i ronmen ta la nd c l ima t ic c ond i t ion sw e re ma rked ly d i f f e ren tf r om t h o se i n s ou ther nE u rope .T he d ome s t ic s pec ie so fs ou thwes ter n A s ian s t ock ,w h ich h ad a dap ted t ot h es ou thea s te rn E u rope , w e r ee xpec ted t of l ou r i sh i na ne ven mo r et empe ra te c l ima te , w i th mo re r a in f a l l , s h a rpe rs e a sona ld i f f e r ence s ,i n ah eav i ly f o re s ted e nv i ronmen t ,a nd i nt h ed i f f e ren tb u tf e r t i le l o e s s s o i l s . A dap ta t ion o ft h e se c rop st ot h ec en t ra lE u ropean h ab i ta t si n d ica te st h eg ene t ic m a l leab i l i ty o ft h e se p l an t s , w h ich w e re c u l t iva ted i ns ma l lc l ea r ing si nt h ef o r e s t . Emme r a nd e i nkor nw hea tw e re t h e mo s t w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted c rop s w i th r eg iona la nd t empo ra ld i f f e rences i nc rop c ompo s i t ion 1 6

l a ck o fw ide sp r ead ,d en se p opu la t ion s ,e xhau s t ing a va i lab le r e sou r ce s . L im i ted a va i lab i l i ty o fp r ef e r red l a nd sa ta c on s ide rab le d i s tance f r om e ach o t he rd oe sn o t i mp ly al a rge o r ig ina lp opu la t ion .T he refo r e , ag ene ra l iza t ion c an b em ade a cco rd ing t ow h ich ,p ref e r ence f o ra luv ia lf l oodp la in sm ay i n d ica te c o lon iza t ion , w h i le c on t inuou so ccupa t ion o ft h e s ame l o ca t ion , f r om t h e Me so l i th ic t h rough t h eN eo l i th ic , m ay i n d ica te i n co rpo ra t ion o ft h eN eo l i th ic l i f eway si n to t h e p r eex i s t ing f o rag ing s y s tem s . A l though t h e re i st h e d ange ro f c i rcu la r i ty i nt h e l a s t a rgumen t ,t h e r e i sa c tua l ly e v idence t h a tt h et wo a r ea sd on o to ve r lap .

I nt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eN eo l i th ic t h e r e w e r e mo re s i te sa nd g rea te re v idence f o rd i ve r s if ica t ion a nd e xpe r imen ta t ion i n t h e L evan tt h an i nE u rope . F rom t h eP r e -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic p ha se ,t h e re i se v idence f o rp e rmanen to ccupa t ion s w i th i n ten se e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e , l a te r ,d ome s t ica ted s pec ies . T hu s , s eden ta ry c ommun i t ie sp receded a g r icu l tu ra l o ne s i nt h e N ea rE a s t . A dd i t iona l ly , f o rage rc ommun i t ie sc on t inued t o e x i s t f o rc on s ide rab le l e ng th so ft im e , a l ong s ide a g r icu l tu ra l c ommun i t ie s (Wh i t t le 1 996 ) .E xper imen ta t ion n eve r o ccu r r ed i nE u rope . F o rage r sn eve rr e l ied u pon t h e w i ld p recu r so r so fa ny o ft h ed ome s t ica ted s pec ie s .I n s tead ,t h ey c am e i nc on tac t w i th af u l l s u i te o fn ove l t ie s , a nd t h e d i lemma f o rt h em ( o rf o r moder na r chaeo log i s t s w ho t r yt o u nde r s tand t h em ) w a sw ha tw ou ld b et h e b ene f i to fa dap t ing ad i f f e r en tl i f eway . A l te rna t ive ly ,i no the ra r ea s ,p ionee r c u l t iva t ion o fa l loch thonou s s pec ie s w a se xe r c i sed .

T he s e cond q ue s t ion t h a tp uzz le sm any , i sw hy f o rage r s , w ho h ad a na ppa r en t ly s u cces sfu l l i f e s ty le , s h if ted t oa g r icu l tu re . T rad i t iona le xp lana t ion s s t r e s s ing t h er e l iab i l i ty a nd s t o rab i l i ty o fc u l t igen s , a nd t h e i rv e r sa t i l i ty a sf ood ( Cohen a nd A rme lago s 1 984 , R edman 1 978 ) ,a r e n o ts u f f ic ien t . G iven t h er i sk so fs e a sona l a nd a nnua l c r op f a i lu re ( Ha l s tead 1 989 )o nt h eo ne h and a nd t h ed i ve r s i ty o fu sab le n a t ive r e sou r ce so nt h eo t he r , t h e r e i sn oa ppa r en tr e a son f o r f o rage r st oa dop tf a rm ing . I nf a c t ,t h ed e lay o ft h et r an s i t ion i nt h e B a l t ic a nd A lp ine a r ea sm ay i mp ly t h a tf o rage r s s aw n oi mmed ia te u se f o rd ome s t ic p l an t sa nd a n ima l s ( P r ice 1 987 ) .P e rhap s ,a sB oguck i ( 1996 ) s ugges t s ,t h e s t ab i l i ty o f f o rage rs y s tem si si lu so ry a nd i tw ou ld b e mo re r e a l i s t ic t o a s sume t h a tf o rage r s w e r en o t i ne qu i l ib r ium w i th t h e i r e nv i ronmen to ve rt ime . T hey m igh th ave e xpe r ienced s ea sona la nd a nnua l f l uc tua t ion si nr e sou rce a va i lab i l i ty ,a nd i tm igh th ave b een d u r ing t h e se u n s tab le p e r iod st h a tt h ey a dop ted a g r icu l tu re . F o rage r sk new t h e i rf a una a nd f l o ra v e ry w e l l a nd m igh th ave e xpe r ienced m ixed c u l t iva t ion a nd f o rag ing i no rde rt oi n c rea se t h e i ry i e ld ,d u r ing d rama t ic c l ima t ic s h if t s .

C u r r en tr e sea rch o nt h e E u ropean N eo l i th ic f o cu se so nf i ve ma jo ri s sues : t h eo r ig in so ft h ec oncep ta nd t h e s pec ie s ; t h e p roce s se sb yw h ich t h et r an s i t ion t oa g r icu l tu re o ccu r red ; t h e r ea son sw hy ,e ven tua l ly , a g r icu l tu re w a sa dop ted t h roughou t t h e r e g ion ; t h ef o rm N eo l i th ic c ommun i t ie st ook ; a nd h ow t h e N eo l i th ic w o r ld e nded . T he p r o ce s sb yw h ich d ome s t ica t ion s p read t h roughou t E u rope h a sb een d eba ted f o ra lmo s t ac en tu ry . O lde r e xp lana t ion sf avo red c o lon iza t ion a nd t h ep hys ica lm ig ra t ion o fp opu la t ion s , s ome t ime sr e f e r r ing t ot h em a st h eI ndo E u ropean s( Ch i 1de 1 926 ,G imbu ta s 1 973 ) . R ecen tr e sea r ch h a s f o cu sed o ne xp lana t ion s l i ke d em ic d i f fu s ion , s ma l l s ca le m ig ra t ion o fp eop le i n to s pa r se ly s e t t led a d jacen ta r ea s when ev e rt h e re w a sp opu la t ion p r e s su re ( Ren f r ew 1 987 , Amme rman a nd C ava l l i -Sfo rza 1 971 ) ,o ri n d igenou s c on t inu i ty a nd c hange f r om t h e Me so l i th ic t ot h e N eo l i th ic Age t h rough t h ea dop t ion o fn ew s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s (Wh i t t le 1 996 , s e ea bove ) .

P e rhap se a r ly s oc ie t ies f ound i na g r icu l tu re a ne xce l len t l o ng te rm s o lu t ion t ot h e i re nv i ronmen ta lc ha l lenges . H oweve r ,i ts t i l lr ema in su nc lea rw hy p eop le e ven tua l ly b ecame t r ue a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s . F u r the rmo r e ,t h e p r ec ise c onnec t ion o ff a rm ing t os e t t led v i l lage l i f e ,e ven a tt h ec o re a r ea so fd omes t ica t ion , i ss t i l l o b scu re ( P r ing le 1 998 ) . Wh i t t le ( 1996 ) ,o nt h eo the rh and ,s ugges t st h a td ome s t ica tes a nd p o t sm igh th ave b een i n i t ia l ly a dop ted a sn ove l t ie si n t h e i ro wn r i gh t ,c ompa t ib le w i th t h ee x i s t ing l i f es ty le , a nd n o ta ss o lu t ion t os ub s i s tence s ho r tages . T hu s ,t h e i n i t ia l a dop t ion sc an b e s epa ra ted f r om t h e s ub sequen t d eve lopmen t s .

T he r ei sn o to n ly o ne p r ima ry m echan ism b y w h ich E u rope made t h es h if tt of ood p roduc t ion . A c tua l ly ,t h e re a r et wo f undamen ta lp roce sse s . I ns ome c a se s ,w hen Me so l i th ic a nd E a r ly N eo l i th ic p opu la t ion sd on o to ve r lap , a g r icu l tu ra l p eop le m ove i n to a na r ea ,b r ing ing t h e i rc rop sa nd l i ve s tock w i th t h em .I no the rc a se s ,t h ei n d igenous f o rage r so f ar eg ion c ame i nc on tac tw i th a g r icu l tu ra ls oc ie t ie s ,g radua l ly a dop ted e l emen t so ft h eN eo l i th ic s ub s i s tence a nd t e chno logy , i n teg ra ted t h em i n to t h e i rs ub s i s ten ce p a t te rn s , a nd e ven tua l ly b ecame f u l ly s eden ta ry ,w h i le c on t inu ing t o o ccupy t h es ame l o ca t ion s( Boguck i 1 996 ) . A na t t rac t ive mode lh a sb een p ropo sed b yv an A nde la nd R unne l s( 1995 ) , wh ich s e t t les t h ei s sue i ns ome d eg r ee .T hey n o t iced as t rong p ref e r en ce o fe a r ly a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lemen t sf o rf l oodp la in si n Ana to l ia a nd G reece ,a sw e l la si nB u lga r ia ( Denne l l a nd Web ley 1 975 ) ,Y ugo s lav ia ( Ba rke r 1 985 )i nH unga ry ( Ko sse 1 979 ) ,a nd s ou thea s tI t a ly ( De lano Sm i th 1 987 ) .T hey e xp la ined t h i sp a t ter na s aq ues to fc o lon ize r sf o rs pec if ic l a nd t y pe s ,w i th empha s i so ns o i l m o i s tu r e . T h i sw ay t h ey r e so lve t h er ap id i ty o ft h e movemen t ,w h ich c ou ld n o tb e c omfo r tab ly a t t r ibu ted t op opu la t ion g row th ,a sw e l la st h e

T he t h i rd q ue s t ion i sw ha t s oc ia la nd e conom ic t r an sfo rma t ion s w e r et r igge red b yt h eN eo l i th ic . I ns p i te o f c omp lex m a te r ia lc u l tu re a nd e xchange s y s tem s ,e v iden ce o f s oc ia ld i ve r s if ica t ion i sl im i ted ,c onf ined t ot h e l a te rp ha se s o ft h eN eo l i th ic , a f te r4 , 500 BC , a nd mo r ea ppa ren ti n w es ter na nd n o r thwe s te rn E u rope . I nt h e se a r ea st h e monumen ta l ,c o l lec t ive a r ch i tec tu r e ( mega l i th ic monumen t s , f o r t if ica t ion s ,r i ch b u r ia l s ,d epo s i t ion p l a ce s w i th v a luab le o b jec t s )s how at r end t owa rd s l i neage c ompe t i t ion a nd s o c ia l d i f f e r en t ia t ion ,u n le s sw e i n te rp r e tt h em a sc o rpo ra te a t temp t sf o rl a rge sca le a gg rega t ion . I n mo s to ft h e 1 7

H oweve r ,b yg ene ra l iz ing , w e u nde re s t ima te v a r iab i l i ty , w h ich i st h ev e ry e s sence o ft h e E u ropean N eo l i th ic . T he r ei s n ot yp ica ls i te s amp le o fw ha tt h e E u ropean N eo l i th ic w a s ,a s i ti sp o s s ib le t od o w i th t h eN ea rE a s tern N eo l i th ic . I ti st h e v a r iab i l i ty a nd t h e m any d i f f e ren t ia l a dap ta t ion s , wh ich a r e s t r ik ing i nN eo l i th ic E u rope .

r ema in ing r e g iona la nd t empo ra l c on tex t s ,c ommun i t ies s e emed t om a in ta in a t tachmen tt o ap l a ce ,o ve ra l l e ga l i ta r ian i sm ,a nd c on t ro lo ft h e i ro wn p roduc t ion ,s u rp lu s , a nd p rocu r emen to fe xo t ic g ood s . T he s t ab le ,a nce s t ra l s e t t lemen ts e em st oh ave b een t h e i d eo log ica l f o cu s ( Demou le a nd P e rf e s 1 993 ) .P e rhap s ,a sC hapman ( 1989 ) , B oguck i a nd G ryg ie l( 1993 ) ,B oguck i ( 1996 ) , Wh i t t le ( 1996 ) , a nd D emou le a nd P e r ls ( 1993 )s ugge s t ,t h e i n dependence o ft h eh ou seho ld ,a ss oc ia l ,e conom ic ,a nd r i tua lu n i t ,e xp la in s w hy w ide rs oc io -econom ic u n i t sa nd b i g c en te r sn eve rd eve loped i nN eo l i th ic E u rope ,a si nt h e N ea r E a s t .

B ioarchaeo logy a nd t he s h if tt oa gr icu l ture U n t i l r e cen t ly , t h e l i t e ra tu r e l a cked d a ta t h a tc ou ld b e u sed t o d ocumen ta nd i n te rp r e t b i o log ica lc hanges i nh uman p opu la t ion s w i th t h et r an s i t ion t of ood p rodu c t ion ( La r sen 1 987 , 1 995a ) . O ve rt h e l a s tt wen ty y ea r s , al a rge c o rpu so f d a ta h a sb een a ccumu la ted p e r ta in ing t oh uman b io log ica l c hange i nr e la t ion t ot h e s h if tf r om f o rag ing t of a rm ing , i n c lud ing i nt h ee a s ter n Med i te r ranean ( Ang e l 1 984 ) . I nt h i s c hap te r , Id ea l w i th t h em ean sb y w h ich h uman s ke le ta l r ema in sc an b eu sed f o ru nde r s tand ing t h ep roces se s t h a t u nde r l ie h uman b ehav io r ,a nd h ow o s teo log ica l ma te r ia l p rov ide s ar e co rd o fh uman e ven t sd u r ing t h el i f eo ft h e i n d iv idua l sa nd t h e p opu la t ion st h ey b e longed t o . T he s t udy o ft h e s h if to fa g r icu l tu re h a sr evea led an umbe ro fc ommon t h eme s , w h ich r e f lec tt h e i mpa c to ft h e se c hanges t oh ea l th a nd b ehav io r . T h i sc an b eo rgan ized a round an umbe ro f c ommon ,u sua l ly i n te r re la ted ,t op ics s uch a sf ood c ompo s i t ion , g row th d i s tu rbances , i n f ec t ion s ,a c t iv i ty , g ene t ic r e la t ion sh ip s ,a nd n u t r i t ion . I ts hou ld b en o ted , h oweve r ,t h a ta l though b i o log ica l c hanges h ave b een i d en t if ied w i th a g r icu l tu ra l s h if t s w o r ldw ide ,t h ey d id n o t o ccu ru n ifo rm ly w i th in a l lp opu la t ion s . Wo r ldw ide a nd r e g iona l v a r iab i l i ty e x i s t , a nd l o ca le nv i ronmen ta nd c u l tu ra l f a c to r ss e em t ob eo fg r ea ts i gn if icance e a ch t ime .

T he movemen to fa g r icu l tu re i n to E u rope i sp a r t icu la r ly i n te r es t ing b ecau se t h e r e w a sn os i ng le mode b yw h ich E u ropean sm ade t h es h if tf r om f o rag ing t of ood p roduc t ion . I nf a c t ,t h et r an s i t ion o ccu r r ed m any t ime sb yd i f f e ren t m odes i nd i f f e r en te nv i ronmen t sa nd i tw a sd i s t inc ti ne ach r e g ion . A l though t h ep r ima ry c rop sa nd s ome o ft h e l i ve s tock ,a sw e l la st h en ew t e chno log ie s , w e re o f s ou thwe s te rn A s ia t ic o r ig in ,t h en ew l i f eway sa nd d omes t ica te sw e r es p read o ve rt h ee n t i r ec on t inen ta nd ,i n r e la t ion w i th l o ca lf a c to r s ,r e su l ted e ach t ime i nr ema rkab ly v a r iab le a dap ta t ion s , amo sa ic o fa g r icu l tu ra lc ommun i t ie s . S ome o ft h i sv a r iab i l i ty c an b ea t t r ibu ted t or e g iona l d i f f e rences i nc l ima te ,o rt ot h es i ze a nd o rgan iza t ion o ft h e p r e -ex is t ing f o rag ing p opu la t ion s ,o rt ot h e c ho ice s made b y t h ef a rm ing p eop le t oe n su r et h e i rs u cce s sb a sed o nt h e i r i n d iv idua ln eed s( Boguck i 1 996 ) . T hu s ,t h ei n t roduc t ion o fa g r icu l tu r et oE u rope d oe sn o t a ppea rt ob e au n ifo rm p roce s s i nw h ich a" Neo l i th ic p a ckage" o fd ome s t ica ted s pec ie sa nd n ew t e chno log ie s s p read s t ead i ly a c ro s st h ec on t inen t ,n o rw e r et h er e su l t ing t r an sforma t ion st h es ame f o re ve ry p l ace . I n s tead ,t h e r ew a s c on s ide rab le g eog raph ic a nd t empo ra lv a r iab i l i ty .T he E u ropean N eo l i th ic i n c lude sf a rm ing a nd h e rd ing c ommun i t ie s ,d e r iv ing f r om p r eex i s t ing f o rage r so rb y c o lon iz ing n ew p l ace s ,s e t t led w i th t h e i ri mpo r ted d omes t ica te so nf e r t i le v a l ley s ,n ea rw a te r ,o ns ma l l s i te s , w h ich b ecame l a rge ra nd mo re n uc lea ted w i th t ime , b u t n eve rr e ached t h ed eg ree o fu rban i sm o ft h eN ea rE a s t . C ommuna ll i f e ,e ga l i ta r ian i sm , s e lf su s ta ined h ou seho ld e conom ie s ,c omp lex ,m a te r ia l c u l tu re a l ong w i th w ide c on tac t sa nd e xchange s y s tem sf o rm t h e f r ame o fN eo l i th ic E u ropean l i f e . Much a t ten t ion w a sg i ven t ot h ed ead ,b y s eg r ega t ing t h ec eme te r ie si n amo re o rl e s se l abo ra te w ay , a nd b u r ia l sa r et h e mo s tc ommon c on tex ti nw h ich i n d ica t ion so fg ende rd i s t inc t ion sa nd s oc ia ld i f f e ren t ia t ion b ecome a ppa r en t ,o n ly i nt h el a te rp ha se s . I nc ompa r ison w i th t h eA na to l ian ,L evan t ine ,a nd Me sopo tam ian s i te s , E u ropean N eo l i th ic s i te sd i f f e ri na r ch i tec tu r ea nd s e t t lemen t l a you t s ,c u l t iva t ion p rac t ice s ,a nd s oc ia lo rgan iza t ion . B y b e ing e ga l i ta r ian ,h ou seho ld c en te red c ommun i t ie s ,w i th n o c on s ide rab le s u rp lu sa ccumu la t ion ,t h ey n eve re vo lved t o l a rge c en te r s ,w h ich c ou ld h ave t h ep o ten t ia lt ot r an sfo rm , e ven tua l ly ,t ou rban c en te r s .

F ood c ompos i t ion a nd ma s t ica tory a dap ta t ions T he r educ t ion i nc on s is tency , h a rdness o ra b ra s ivene s so f f ood sc on sumed b ya g r icu l tu ra l is t s , w h ich i sr e la ted t ot h e i n t roduc t ion o fp o t te ry ,e x tended c ook ing ,p r epa ra t ion p rac t ice s ,a nd p roce s s ing t e chno log ies , a f f e c t st oo th w ea r t h a tr e su l t sf r om f ood p roce s s ing b y ma s t ica t ion a st e e th c ome i n to c on tac t w i th f ood a nd w i th e ach o t he r . C ompa r ison sb e tween h un te r -ga the re ra nd a g r icu l tu ra l p opu la t ion sr e vea l g ene ra ld ec l ines i nt h ed eg ree a nd s e ve r i ty o ft oo th w ea ri n aw ide r ange o fs e t t ings ( L a r sen 1 995b ) . T ypes o rp a t te rn so fw ea rh ave a l so c hanged w i th t h e t r an s i t ion t of ood p roduc t ion . H un te r -ga the r e r sg ene ra l ly h ave e ven ly d i s t r ibu ted f l a t w ea ra nd a g r icu l tu ra l is t s h ave h i gh ly a ng led w ea r , w h ich Sm i th ( 1984 ) ,h a sa s soc ia ted w i th ar educ t ion i nt o ughne s so fa g r icu l tu ra ld i e t s . I ns pec if i c r eg ion s ,d i s t inc t ive w ea rp a t te rn sh ave b een o b served t o e xh ib i t at empo ra l c hange f r om f l a to fh un t e r -ga the re r st o c upped w ea ro nt h eo cc lu sa ls u r f aces o fm o la r s a nd i n c i so r s o fa g r icu l tu ra l i s t s ( Sm i th 1 984 i n aw o r ldw ide s t udy , Wood J one s 1 910 i nN ub ia , L ube l le ta l . 1 994 i nP o r tuga l , S c iu l l i a nd C a r l i s le 1 977 i nw es te rn P enn sy lvan ia ) . H oweve r , G lan tz ( 1998 ) ,i n as t udy o fL evan t ine p opu la t ion s w i th k nown d i e t s ,h a sf ound t h a t mo re f a c to r sa r eo pe ra t ing f o r t h is t r end , m a in ly ar educ t ion o ff a c ia l a nd m and ibu la r 1 8

i n c lud ing n u t r i t iona l d ef ic ienc ie sa nd i n f ec t iou sd i sea se s , w h ich r e su l t i ne name l g row th a r r es t . C ompa r i son sb e tween f o rage r sa nd f a rme r sg ene ra l ly r e vea lt h e l a t te rt oh ave m o r e h ypop la s ia s , w h ich i si n te rp re ted t or ep r e sen t a ni n c rea se i n p hy s io log ica lp e r tu rba t ion .

r obu s t ic i ty , a nd s ub sequen tr eo r ien ta t ion . I nf a c t , i n c r ea sed u s eo fs of te rf oods c ooked i n mu sh e sa nd ar e duc t ion i n m a s t ica t ion f o rce sr e su l ted i n ag en e ra l c r an iof a c ia l g r a c i l iza t ion , i n c lud ing s ho r te rr ounde rc r an ia lv au l t s , s ma l le ra nd mo re p o s te r io r ly p l a ced f a ce s , a nd r educed m a s t ica t ion musc les a nd r obu s t ic i ty ,a nd ,a cco rd ing ly , a r e duc t ion i nt oo th s i ze ( Nub ia : C a r l son 1 976 , C a r lson a nd v an G e rven 1 977 , 1 979 , L evan t : Sm i th e ta l . 1 984 ,E u rope : y 'Edynak a nd F l e i sch 1 983 , N ew Wo r ld : L a r sen 1 982 , 1 987 , 1 995b , 1 997 ) .

Many s i t e spec if i c s t ud ie sh ave a na lyzed L EH p reva lence i n p a s tp opu la t ion s . G oodman e ta l . ( 1 980 , 1 984 ) i nd en t i t ion s f r om D ixon Mounds h ave s hown t h a tt h e n umbe ro f i n d iv idua ls w i th o ne o r mo r e h ypop la s t ic l i ne si n c rea sed a c ro s st h e L a te Wood land ( 4 5% ) , M i s s is s ipp ian A ccu l tu ra ted L a te Wood land ( 60% ) ,a nd t h eM idd le M i s s i s s ipp ian ( 80% ) p e r iod s ,a s soc ia ted w i th a ni n c rea sed r e l iance o nm a ize a g r icu l tu r e , w h ich l e dt oi n c rea se si ng row th s t re s s . T hey a l so s howed h i ghe rh ypop la s ia r a te si nf ema le sr a the rt h an i n m a le s i nt h eL a te Wood land P e r iod , p o s s ib ly r ep re sen t ing d i f f e ren t ia l w ean ing s t ra teg ie s . H u tch in son a nd L a r sen ( 1988 )i nd en t i t ion s f r om S t . C a the r ine sI s land , G eo rg ia , h ave f ound g ene ra l ly g r ea te rw id th so fh ypop la s t ic e ven t si n t h e L a te rC on tac tp e r iod t h an i nt h ep recon tac tp e r iod , s ugge s t ing l o ng te rm m e tabo l ic s t r e s se sa s soc ia ted w i th t h e a r r iva lo ft h eE u ropean s .

D ep r iva t ion —G row th a nd e nv i ronmen ta ls t r e s ses S t a tu re G row th i sa f f ec ted b yv a r ious f a c to r ss uch a sg ene t ic i n f luence sa nd ma in ly n u t r i t ion , a sw e l l a sh o rmone d ef i c ienc ie sa nd p hy s io log ica l s t r e s se s . T he g ene ra lp a t te rn o fg r ow th i np a s tp opu la t ion si ss im i la rt ot h a to fl i v ing p opu la t ion s .T hu s , s t re s s i np a s tp opu la t ion sc an b ei n f e r red f r om d ev ia t ion si ng row th f r om t h en o rma lr a te s . S eve ra l g eog raph ica l s e t t ing ss how g row th r e ta rda t ion a nd s t a tu r e d ec l ine sw i th t h ea dop t ion o fa g r icu l tu r e ,a l though i ti sn o ta u n ive r sa lp a t te rn . L a r sen o b served ar e duc t ion i ns t a tu re o f G eo rg ia m a ize f a rme r s , a sc ompa red t op reh i s to r ic c oa s ta l f o rage r s ,o f 3% f o rf ema le s a nd 1 % f o r ma le s . S im i la rs t a tu re r e du c t ion sh ave b een o b se rved i nS udane se N ub ia ( v an G e rven e ta l . 1 995 ) , Me soame r ica ( S to rey 1 992 ) ,a nd N eo l i th ic E u rope ( Ange l 1 977 , Me ik le john e ta l . 1 984 ) . A l so C ook ( 1984 ) ,i nt h el owe rI l ino i sR ive rv a l ley ,c onc lude s t h a tm a tch ing o ff emu rl e ng th a nd d en ta l a ge o fc h i ld r en r e vea l sg row th r e ta rda t ion i na g r icu l tu ra l is t s w hen c ompa red t oe a r l ie rf a rme r s ,a sw e l la s ac o r re la t ion w i th o ve ra l lp oo r h ea l th a nd mo rb id i ty .

A nem ia Many a r chaeo log ica l s ke le ta l s e r ie se xh ib i th i gh f r equenc ie s o fc r ib ra o rb i ta l ia a nd p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s is ,w h ich a r e i n d ica t ive o fa nem ia , w h ich c u r r en tr e sea rch a t t r ibu te s m a in ly t oi r on -poo rd i e t sa nd p a ra s i t i sm . S eve ra l s t ud ie s h ave d ocumen ted ah i ghe rp reva len ce o fc r ib ra o rb i ta l ia a nd /o rp o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i s i ns eden ta ry a g r icu l tu ra l is t s c ompa r ed t of o rage r s . H oweve r ,t h e r e a r ee xcep t ion st ot h i s p a t te rn w i th l ow p r eva lence o fa nem ic c ond i t ion si n a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s ( Powe l l 1 988 , S t o r ey 1 992 ) a nd h i gh i n f o rage r s ( Cybu lsk i 1 977 , L ambe r ta nd Wa lke r 1 991) , i n d ica t ing t h a tg ene ra l i r on b i oava i lab i l i ty a sw e l l a sn on d i e ta ry f a c to r ss uch a sp a ra s i t i sm a r e i mpo r tan t ( La r sen ,R uf f e ta l . 1 992 ,L a r sen 1 995b ) . S tud ie so na nem ic c ond i t ion s i n c lude A nge l ( 1966 , 1 971 , 1 977 ) , w ho a s soc ia ted p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i s w i th m a la r ia i nN eo l i th ic G reece a nd T u rkey , C a r l son e ta l . ( 1974 ) i nS udane se N ub ia ,R a thbun ( 1984 )i n p reh i s to r ic I r an a nd I r aq , E lN a j ja re ta l . ( 1976 ) , w ho f ound e l eva ted l e ve l so fa nem ia a nd a s soc ia ted t h em w i th o ve r r e l iance o nm a ize i ns ou thwe s t Ame r ican P ueb loan s i te s , C ook ( 1984 )a nd G oodman e ta l . ( 1984 ) ,w ho f ound r e la t ive ly h i gh p reva lence i nM idwe s te rn a g r icu l tu ra l is t s , a nd L a r sen ,R uf fe ta l . ( 1992 ) ,w ho o b se rved ad rama t ic i n c r ea se o fp o ro t ic h ype ro s to s is i np o s tcon ta c t S t . C a the r ine sI s land , G eo rg ia ,p o s s ib ly r e la ted w i th b o th d i e ta ry a nd n on -d ie ta ry f a c to r s .

T oo th r educ t ion L ik eb one s i ze ,t oo th s i ze i n vo lve s ac omp lex i n te rp lay b e tween t h ee nv i ronmen ta nd h e r ed i ty ( La r sen 1 997 ) . A l though h e red i ty c on t ro l sa bou t 8 0 -90% o ft oo th d eve lopmen t( Town send e ta l . 1 994 , K ie se r 1 990 ) ,t h e p r e sen ce o fs ma l lt e e th i np hy s io log ica l ly s t re s sed i n d iv idua l si nl i v ing p opu la t ion ss ugge s t st h a te nv i ronmen t a l so i n f luences t oo th s i ze ,b u tt o al e s se rd eg ree . T he refo re , t oo th s i ze r ep r e sen t s am ea su re o fd ev ia t ion f r om t h eg ene t ic g row th p o ten t ia li nr e spon se t os t re s so r s . T oo th s i ze r e duc t ion h a sb een o b se rved i na r chaeo log ica lp opu la t ion s a f te rt h e s h if tt oa g r icu l tu r e . An umbe ro fs t ud ie sd ocumen t t h ef a i lu re o ft e e th t or e ach t h e i rg ene t ic s i ze p o ten t ia li n n u t r i t iona l ly s t res sfu l s e t t ing s ( c oa s ta lG eo rg ia : L a r sen 1 982 , 1 997 ,D ick son Mound s ,I l ino i s : G oodman a nd A rme lago s 1 988 ) . I nd iv idua l sw i th s ma l le rt e e th h ad r educed l o ngev i ty , i mp ly ing u nde rnu t r i t ion a nd i n c rea sed mo rb id i ty .

I nf ec t ions C a r ie s

L inea re name lh ypop la s ia s ( LEH ) O ne o ft h e mo s tf r equen ti n f ec t ion p roce s se si n a r chaeo log ica lp opu la t ion si sd en ta lc a r ie s ,t o o th d ecay a s soc ia ted w i th d i e ta ry c a rbohyd ra te s . A bundan td a ta

T h em o s tf r equen t ly o b se rved d en ta lg row th d ef ec t sa r e e name lh ypop la s ia s ,w h ich a r ed ue t o as u i te o fc au se s 1 9

1 977 , 1 980 ) ,n od ef in i t ive p a t ter ne x i s t sr e la t ing t h e i r p r eva lence w i th s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s ( La r sen 1 995b ) .

i n d ica te ac l ea ra nd m a rked i n c rea se i nt h e f r equency o f c a r iou sl e s ion s i na g r icu l tu ra l is t s , w ho se d i e ti sb a sed o n s t a rchy f oods tuf f s ,c ompa r ed t oe a r l ie rf o rage r si nE u rope , A s ia , A f r ica ( Cohen a nd A rme lago s 1 984 ) ,J apan ( Tu rne r 1 979 ) , a nd N o r th a nd S ou th Ame r ica ( Hus s -A shmo r ee ta l . 1 982 ,M i lne r 1 984 , Wa lke r 1 986 ,L a r sen e ta l . 1 991) . E xcep t ion so ccu rw i th f o rage r sb a sed o ns t icky c a r iogen ic f ood s , s uch a st h eC hanne l I s land si nC a l ifor n ia (Wa lke ra nd E r land son 1 986 ) , S i c i ly ( Bo rgogn in iT a r l ie ta l . 1 993 ) ,a nd P o r tuga l ( Lube l le ta l . 1 994 ) .F ood c ompo s i t ion a nd f ood p r epa ra t ion t e chn ique sa r e i mpor tan tf a c to r si nt h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fc a r iou sl e s ion s . Many a g r icu l tu ra l i s t p opu la t ion sp repa re c e rea l a nd p l an tf ood si n to as of t ,g rue l l i ke c on s i s tency ,w h ich p romo te st h eg row th o fb ac te r ia i n f i s su res a nd g roove so ft e e th ( La r sen 1 995b ) .O nt h eo t he r h and ,f ood p r epa ra t ion w i th g r ind ing s t one si n t roduce s a b ra s ive p a r t ic le s ,w h ich p romo te t oo th w ea ra nd ,t h e r efo r e , r emova lo fa r ea so ft h et oo th p rone t oc a r iogen ic a c t iv i ty ( Powe l l 1 985 ) .T he f l uo r ide c on ten to ft h e w a te rh a sa l so b een a s soc ia ted w i th c a r ie ss i nce h i gh f l uo r ide p reven t s c a r iogen ic a c t iv i ty ( Mo lna ra nd Mo lna r 1 985 ,H ad j ima rko s a nd B onho r s t 1 962 ) . F u r the rmo r e ,i ns ome r eg ion s , f ema les e xh ib i t ah i ghe rp r eva lence o fc a r ie st h an m a le s i n d ica t ing g ende r -ba sed d i f f e r ence s i np r epa ra t ion a nd c on sump t ion o f f ood ( La r sen e ta l . 1 991 ,L ukac s 1 992 ,L a r sen 1 995b ) .

D is t inc t ive p a t te rn so fn on -pa tho log ica lo s teoa r th r i t i s , r e la ted w i th h ab i tua l a c t iv i ty , h ave b een i d en t if ied i nh un te r g a the re r sa nd a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s . E xamp les a r eb i la t e ra l e l bow o s teoa r th r i t i s i nt h e Ame r ican S ou thwes t , p re sumab ly r ef lec t ing g r ind ing o fc e rea l i n to f l ou r( M i l le r 1 985 ) ,a nd e x ten s ion o ft h ea r t icu la rs u r f ace so fm e ta ta r sa l si ns ke le ta l s amp le sf r om S y r ia a nd E cuado r , i n d ica t ing e x t r eme k nee l ing p o s tu re s ,a l so a s soc ia ted w i th g r ind ing s t one u se ( Mo l le son 1 989 ,L a r sen 1 995b ) . G ene t i cr e la t ionsh ip s

A s w i th c a r ie s ,c on sump t ion o fs o f tc a rbohyd ra te f ood s p romo te sp e r iodon ta ld i sea se , a nd c au ses d egene ra t ion o ft h e a l veo la rb one s uppor t ing t h et e e th i nt h ej aw sr e su l t ing i n e x fo l ia t ion o ft e e th ( La r sen 1 995b , H i l l son 1 986 ) . Many s t ud ies r e po r ta ni n c rea se i np e r iodon t i t i sa nd t oo th l o s s a s soc ia ted w i th e l eva ted l e ve l so fc a r ie s s ugge s t ing as t rong r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h et wo . A lso ,h i gh w ea rr a te s ,p u lpa l e xpo su r ea nd p l aque ( La r sen 1 995b )c an c au se t o o th l o s sa nd s p ec if ic i n f ec t ious d i sea ses .

B io log ica ld i s tance o rb iod i s tance i st h e m ea su r emen to ft h e r e la tedne s so rd i ve rgence b e tween p opu la t ion so rs ubg roup s w i th in p opu la t ion sb a sed o na na ly s is o fp o lygen ic s ke le ta l a nd d en ta lt r a i t s( Bu ik s t ra e ta l . 1 990 ) . T he d eg r ee o f r e la tedne s sp re supposes t h a tp opu la t ion s s ha r ing a t t r ibu tes a r e mo re c l o se ly r e la ted t h an p opu la t ion se xp re s s ing many d i f f e rence s . B iod i s tance a na lys i s i sc omp lex ,e spec ia l ly w hen i tc ome st oi d en t if y ing m ean ingfu l p a t tern s ,a nd g r ea t a t ten t ion i sn eeded o w ing t ot h e mu l t if ac to r ia l n a tu re o ft h e t r a i t sb e ing s t ud ied a nd t h e h i gh d eg ree o fv a r ia t ion i nh uman p opu la t ion s . Two c l a s se so fd a ta a r e c on s ide red i n b ioa r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch : m e t r ic ( l inea rm ea su r emen ts a nd i n d ice so fl e ng th s ,b r ead th s ,r ad i i ) a nd n on -me t r ic t r a i ts , n ame ly o s s ic le sw i th in c r an ia l s u tu r e s ,h ype ro s to t ic c ha rac te r i s t ics ,o s s if ica t ion d ef ic ienc ies , a nd f o ramen v a r ia t ion . T he r e i s ad ec l ine i nb iod i s tance r e sea r ch t oday r ef l ec t ing as h if t a way f r om t h ep a s tp a rad igm w he re b iod i s tance w a su sed f o rr a c ia l s t ud ie s . H oweve r ,b iod i s tan ce p rov ide si n s igh t i n to p a s tp opu la t ion s t ruc tu re i nr e la t ion w i th o the rp a rame te r s ( d ie t ,d i sea se , a c t iv i ty ) , m a r r iage p a t ter n , a nd p o s t -ma r r iage r e s idence p a t te rn s a sa pp l ied b y K on ig sbe rg a nd B u ik s t ra ( 1995 ) a nd S pence ( 1974a , 1 974b ) .

P e r io s t i t i s

D ie t

I n c rea sed s eden t i sm ,p oo rs an i ta t ion a nd h yg iene i ns yne rgy w i th p oo rn u t r i t ion h ave r e su l ted i nh i ghe rp reva lence o f n on spec if i ci n f ec t ion so rg ene ra l ized s ke le ta li n f lamma t ion s c a l led p e r io s tea lr e ac t ion s ,a sw e l l a ss ome s pec if ic i n f ec t ious d i sea se s( t ube rcu lo s i s ,t r eponema to s is ) i n mo r e d en se , s e t t led a g r icu l tu ra l s oc ie t ie st h an i ne a r l ie rf o rag ing g roup s ( Cohen a nd A rme lago s 1 984 , L ambe r ta nd Wa lke r 1 991) .

D ocumen ta t ion o fp a s td i e tp rov ide st h er equ i s i t ec on tex tf o r e va lua t ing t h ee f f ec t so fn u t r i t ion o ng row th a nd d eve lopmen t ,t h ea s se s smen t o fs t re s sa nd d i sea se , s ub s is tence a dap ta t ion , a nd n u t r i t iona le co logy . T he re i sa r ange o fc onven t iona la pp roache s f o rc ha ra c te r iza t ion o fp a s t d i e t s b u tt h ea pp l ica t ion o fi s o top ic a nd e l emen ta la na ly s is [ a lka l ine e a r th e l emen t s( s t ron t ium , b a r ium ) , m u l t i -e lemen ta l a na ly se s ,a nd s i ng le e l emen ta na ly se s( i ron ,z i n c ,l e ad ) ] p rov ide s an ea r ly d i rec tr e co rd o fd i e t .

P e r iodon ta ld i sea se a nd t oo th l o s s

A c t iv i ty p a t t erns A l though e l emen ta la na ly s is i ss t i l lc omp l ica ted b y an umbe r o ff a c to r so fc on tam ina t ion o ft h e s amp les ,s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i sp rov ide s ab a s is f o ro b ta in ing d i rec t ,s p ec if ic , a nd d e ta i led d i e ta ry i n fo rma t ion ( Amb ro se a nd N o r r 1 992 , D eN i ro 1 985 ) . Many f ood sa r e i s o top ica l ly d i s t inc t , a nd w hen c on sumed ,t h e i ri s o top ic c ompo s i t ion i si n co rpo ra ted i n to b one t i s sue . A na ly s i so fb one t i s sue s ( co l lagen a nd a pa t i te )p rov ide si n fo rma t ion a bou tt h e d i e t ( Amb ro se a nd

A r t icu la rj o in tp a tho log ica la nd n on -pa tho log ica la l te ra t ion s O s teoa r th r i t i s ,d egene ra t ive c hanges i nj o in t s ,r e su l t sf r om p hy s ica l s t re s sa nd i ti si nd ica t ive o fh i gh a c t iv i ty p a t ter n s . H oweve r ,a l though h un te r -ga the re r st e nd t os how mo re o s teoa r th r i t i sa nd o s teophy to s i st h an a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s( J u rma in

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N o r r 1 993 , D eN i ro a nd E p s te in 1 978 , 1 981 , S choen inge re t a l . 1 983 ,S choen inge r 1 989 , N on 1 995 ) . S t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i sh a s b een u sed t od e te rm ine t h e e xac t b eg inn ing o fm a ize a g r icu l tu re i nN o r th Ame r ica , i n N o r thea s te rn a nd M idwe s te rn s i te s ( Voge la nd v an d e r Me rwe 1 972 , S chwa r cz e ta l . 1 985 ) ,a nd c ompa re t o S ou the rn s i te sa nd Me soame r ica ,w he re t h et r an s i t ion o ccu r r ed e a r l ie r( DeN i ro a nd E p s te in 1 981) o rC en t ra l Ame r ica , w he re i to ccu r red l a te r( Non 1 991) ,a sw e l l a st o i d en t if yi n c rea sed r e l iance o nm a ize ( La r sen ,S choen inge re t a l . 1 992 ) . I tw a sa l so u sed t od i s t ingu ish b e tween s t a tu s ( Reed 1 994 ) ,a nd g ende rd i f f e ren ce s( Reed 1 994 , Wh i te 1 994 ) i nS ou th a nd C en t ra l Ame r ica . I nE u rope , s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i sh a sd ocumen ted t h es h if tt oa g r icu l tu r ea nd t e r r e s t r ia lv e r sus ma r ine f ood s( Taube r 1 981 ,L ube l le ta l . 1 994 ,P apa thana s iou e ta l . 1 995 ) . S ummary I nt h e s e cond c hap te r ar e v iew o ft h ec h rono log ica l , a r chaeo log ica l ,a nd b i oa r chaeo log ica lb ackg round o ft h i s s t udy i sp r e sen ted . T he N eo l i th ic A ge i st h ep e r iod b e tween 9 , 000 a nd 2 , 500 BC f o rt h ea r ea e x tend ing f r om t h e M idd le E a s tt oE u rope . At r an s i t ion f i r s ts t a r ted i nt h eN ea rE a s ta nd i n vo lved t h ed ome s t ica t ion o fp l an t ss uch a se mme ra nd e i nko rn w hea t ,b a r ley ,a nd l e gume s ,a nd a n ima l ss uch a s s h eep , g oa t ,c a t t le , a nd p ig ,a sw e l l a si n c r ea sed s eden t i sm a nd t e chno log ica lc hange s , w h ich a f f ec ted h uman l i f eway s , h ea l th , s o c ia lo rgan iza t ion , a nd e conomy . A f te rt h eN eo l i th ic t r an sfo rma t ion sw e re e s tab l ished i nt h ec o re a r ea o f d ome s t ica t ion ,t h ey g radua l ly s p read t ot h ea d jacen ta r ea s , e i the rb yc o lon iza t ion o rb ys e lec t ive a dop t ion o fn ew s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ies b yi n d igenou sp opu la t ion s . A t6 , 800 BC t h ee a r l ie s tt r an s i t ion t ot h eN eo l i th ic i nE u rope t o ok p l a ce i nG reece ,a nd i ts p r ead n o r thwa rd st ot h eB a lkan s , C en t ra l , Wes te rn ,a nd N o r the rn E u rope ,a nd w es twa rd sa l ong t h e Med i te r ranean c oa s t s . A l though t h e s ame , a l loch thonou s , a l r eady d omes t ica ted s pec ie s , a sw e l la st h ef u l l s u i te o f n ove l t ie sw e re a dop ted i na l l a r ea s ,g r ea td i ve r s i ty e x i s t si n t h ef i na lo u tcome i ne ach r eg ion , d epend ing o nf a c to r ss uch a sc l ima te ,t h ee x is tence a nd c u l tu ra l b ackg round o fp r e N eo l i th ic f o rage rp opu la t ion s a nd t h el o ca lr e sou r ce sa nd l a nd scape s . T he s h if tt oa g r icu l tu re h ad ag r ea ti mpac to ns eve ra la spec t s o fh uman h ea l th i np a r t icu la r . G en e ra l ly , s eden t ism a nd r e l iance o np l an td omes t ica te sr educed t h ev a r ie ty i nh uman d i e t s a nd r e su l ted i nl o ng te rm m a lnu t r i t ion ,g row th d i s tu rbance s( s ho r te rs t a tu re a nd g row th a r r e s tl i ne si nt h e d en t i t ion a nd t h el ong b one s ) ,h i gh e rf r equency o fa nem ic c ond i t ion sd ue t ol ow p ro te in a nd i r on d i e t s ,a nd i n c r ea sed r a te so fi n f ec t ion , w h i le t h es of te rc ompo s i t ion o ff ood a nd t h em ann e ro fi t sp repa ra t ion r e su l ted i nc r an iof ac ia l g r a c i l iza t ion ,d i s t inc tt oo th w ea rp a t te rn s ,a nd d ec l in ing o ra l h ea l th ,s how ing a no ve ra l ld eg rada t ion o ft h eq ua l i ty o f h uman l i f ew i th f ew e xcep t ion sw o r ldw ide .

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t h eo lde rp a rad igm . T hey w e re c once rned w i th v a r ia t ion i n c r an iome t r ic m ea su remen t sa nd r a c ia lc l a s s if i ca t ion o f h uman t y pes o ft h ep opu la t ion . H oweve r , A nge l w a sa l so c oncer ned w i th p a tho logy a nd d emog raphy ,a nd c onduc ted a p ionee r ing r e sea r ch i n to p roce s sua l q ue s t ion sr e ga rd ing t h e p o s s ib le n ega t ive i mpac to fa g r icu l tu re o nh uman b i o logy , a nd s od i d Ame r ican p hy s ica l a n th ropo log i s t s mo r er e cen t ly i nt h e L evan t . A s s hown i nT ab le 1 ,A nge l h a sp ub l i shed F ranch th i ( 1969 , 1 973a ) ,L er na ( 1971) , N ea N ikomede ia ( 1973b ) , K epha la ( 1977 ) , V a ta lH üyük ( 1971) , a nd as ho r te r r epo r to nS erv ia ,T sang l i ,A s tako s , C ho i ro sp i l ia ,A go ra , H ageo rg i t ika a nd N emea ( 1945 ) . Z a f e i ra to sa nd F oundou lak is h ave p ub l ished t h ed en t i t ion so fK a ly th ies , R hodes ( 1987 ) ,S t ravopod i h a sp ub l ished p r e l im ina ry r epo r t s o nT ha r roun ia ( 1993 )a nd T heope t ra ( 1995 ) ,P apa thana s iou p ub l i shed A lepo t rypa C ave ,D i ro s( 1994 , 1 995 , 1 998 ) , Sm i th e ta l . r e v iewed t h eL evan t ine N eo l i th ic a nd N a tuf ian e v idence ( 1972 , 1 984 ) , S chu l tz e ta l . ( 1998 )p ub l i shed B a s ta , J o rdan ,T eegen a nd S chu l tz ( 1997 , 1 998 )p ub l i shed N eva l i C o r i ,T u rkey ,P e te r son ( 1997 )p ub l ished N a tuf ian s i t e s f r om J o rdan a nd P a le s t ine ,A ren sbu rg a nd B a r -Yo sef ( 1973 ) p ub l i shed N a tuf ian p opu la t ion s , a nd A l -Aba s s ia nd S a ne ( 1998 )p ub l ished d en t i t ion sf r om t h e L evan ta nd J o rdan .

CHAPTER 3 . CO MPARAT IVE BACKGROUND MATER IALS B ioarchaeo logy i nN eo l i th ic E as tern Med i terranean B a s in A l though t h e r ei se v idence o fs ome p reh is to r ic a g r icu l tu ra l p opu la t ion st h a te xh ib i tg ood n u t r i t ion a nd s ucce s sf u l a dap ta t ion s( Wood e ta l . 1 992 ,L a r sen 1 995b ) ,s ke le ta l l e s ion s a nd s ke le ta lm a rke r so fs t re s sa r e u sua l ly r epo r ted i n h i ghe rf r equenc ie si na g r icu l tu ra lp opu la t ion s .P re -Neo l i th ic p eop le u t i l ized av a r ie ty o fw i ld s pec ie st h roughou tt h ey ea r , b u tt h e s t ra tegy o fm any N eo l i th ic s oc ie t ies w a st or e duce t h e d i ve r s i ty o ft h e i rd i e t s( La r sen 1 987 , 1 995 ,C ohen a nd A rme lago s 1 984 ) . N eo l i th ic d i e t st e nded t ob es t a r chy , d ef ic ien ti nb o th p ro te in a nd e s sen t ia la m ino a c id s . R e l iance o ne a s i ly s t o red a nd p roce s sed c a rbohyd ra te sc ou ld r e su l ti n l o ng t e rm m a lnu t r i t ion a nd r e la ted p a tho log ica lc ond i t ion s s uch a sg row th a r re s tl i ne s ,i n f ec t iou sd i sea se s ,g row th r e ta rda t ion ,d en ta lc a r ie s ,t oo th w ea r ,c r an io f ac ia l g r ac i l iza t ion ,m a locc lu s ion ,a nd d en ta lc rowd ing ( La r sen 1 987 , 1 994 , 1 995 ,C ohen a nd A rme lago s 1 984 ) .F ood sa l so c on ta ined p hy ta tes ,c hem ica ls ub s tance st h a tb i nd w i th i r on ( phy t ic a c id )i n h ib i t ing i r on a bso rp t ion b yt h eb ody a nd p o ten t ia l ly l e ad ing t oa nem ic c ond i t ion s . T he a f o remen t ioned c ond i t ion s h ave b een o b served i ns ke le ta l s amp le s f r om t h e E a s ter n Med i te r ranean w i th t h ea dven to fa g r icu l tu r e .

I nG reece ,f r om t h ea bove p ub l ica t ion s w ec an c onc lude t h a t t h e l i f ee xpec tancy a tb i r th i sa bou t 2 0y ea r s ,t h e m ean a du l t a ge i si nt h er ange b e tween 2 8 .5 y ea r s ( F ranch th i )t o3 1 .7 y ea r s ( Kepha la —2 8 .7 f ema le s , 3 4 .7 m a les ) ,t h em ean m a le s t a tu r e i sf r om 1 59 .3cm ( D i ro s )t o 1 68 .8cm ( Ler na ) , a nd t h e m ean f ema le s t a tu re i sf r om 1 52 .9cm ( Kepha la ) t o1 59 .9cm ( F ranch th i ) . C ha ra c te r is t ics a r e ah igh i n c idence o fc h i ld mo r ta l i ty , h i gh p r eva lence o fa nem ic c ond i t ion s , u sua l ly h i gh i n c idence o fd en ta lp a tho log ica l c ond i t ion s -p r edom inan t ly d en ta lc a r ie s -al ow r a te o fo s teoa r th r i t is a nd v i o len t f r ac tu re sa nd ac on s is ten tp r eva lence o fg row th a r r es ts i gn s s uch a sH a r r is l i ne so n l o ng b ones a nd d en ta l e name l h ypop la s ia s . T he r e i sa l so e v idence f o rs om e g ene t ic a f f in i t ie sb a sed o n mo rpho log ica l n on -me t r ic t r a i t ss uch a s p e r s i s ten tm e top ic s u tu r e ( Papa thana s iou , 1 994 ) a nd s p ina b if ida ( S t ravopod i 1 993 ) .

T he E a s te rn Med i te r ranean r eg ion i sd ef ined f o rt h ep u rpo ses o ft h is p ape ra si n c lud ing G reece ,T u rkey , a nd t h eL evan t , w h i le t h et imef rame e x tend sf r om 1 0 ,000 BC t o3 , 000 BC . P rob lem so fa r chaeo log ica l s amp l ing a sw e l la sp rob lem so f p r e se rva t ion a r ec on s ide rab le .T he h uman o s teo log ica l c o l lec t ion sf o rt h i sa r ea a r ev e ry f r agmen ta ry ,u sua l ly c on s i s t ing o f as ma l ln umbe ro fi n d iv idua ls , mo s to fw hom a r eo n ly p a r t ia l ly r e p re sen ted .T h i sr e su l t si n al im i ted s amp le s i ze ,m ak ing s t a t i s t ica l i n f e r ence sv e ry d i f f icu l t . I n t h e L evan ti np a r t icu la r ,s pec imen sh ave b een r e so r ted a nd r e labe led s eve ra lt ime s ,m ak ing i td i f f icu l tt od e te rm ine t h e o r ig ina la s soc ia t ion so fm any s pec imen s . I no the rc a se st h e d a ta a r ed rawn f r om f i e ld n o te s( Sm i th e ta l . 1 984 ) .I n a dd i t ion ,t h er o le o fp hy s ica l a n th ropo logy w a sn o t w ide ly r e cogn ized b ya r chaeo log is t s w ho h ave s hown m in ima l i n te re s tt ot h ea na ly s i so fh uman s ke le ta lr ema in s . O nt h e o t he rh and ,a l though t h eL evan t ine r e co rd i se x ten s ive ly s t ud ied ,t h eg r ea tm a jo r i ty o ft h e m a te r ia l f r om G reece a nd T u rkey ,u n t i lr e cen t ly ,h ad b een s t ud ied a nd p ub l i shed b ya s i ng le r e sea rche r ,t h el a te J .L aw rence A nge l .

T he a f o r emen t ioned c ond i t ion s i mp ly t h a tt h eN eo l i th ic p opu la t ion s w e re u nde rgo ing h ea l th s t r es se p i sode s ,p o s s ib ly r e la ted t ot h e i rl i f e s ty les ,d i e t ,a nd /o rs e t t lemen t l o ca t ion s . D ec l in ing h ea l th i sn o tc l ea rs i nce t h e Meso l i th ic ( i . e . F ranch th i ) , i ng ene ra l ,r ep re sen t s al ow p o in t i no ve ra l l h ea l th a nd s t a tu r e . A nge l ( 1966 ) a t t r ibu ted mo s to ft h e h ea l th p rob lem st om a la r ia a nd t h a la s sem ia . T he r e co rded p reva lence so fp o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i sa nd /o rc r ib ra o rb i ta l ia b r eak d own a sf o l low s : N ea N ikomede ia ,6 0% ; V a ta l H üyük , 4 1% ; F ranch th i ,3 1% ; C h i rok i t ia , 9% ; a nd K epha la , 7% . A nge l a t t r ibu ted t h e se c ond i t ion st ot h a la s sem ia ,a g ene t ica l ly d e r ived a nem ia . H oweve r , h i se xp lana t ion s e em s t ob ep rob lema t ic , s i nce i tr e su l t s i na ne x t r eme ly h i gh i n c idence o ft h a la s sem ia . A nge l s ugges ted ( Ange l 1 973b ) t h a to the rt y pe so fa nem ia c an a l so a ccoun tf o rt h i s p henomenon , s u ch a s al ow i ron d i e tt h a tc an c au se i r on

T he l a rge p ropo r t ion o ft h es t ud ie s ,b o th b yA nge la nd t h e F rench a n th ropo log i s t si nt h eL evan t , w e re p e r fo rmed u nde r

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f r om r e d m ea t , b )f r om r e s t r ic t ion o fb l ood c a lc ium o r v i tam in D p r ecu r so r s ,c )f r om i r on a nd z i nc d ef ic iency d ue t o t h e i n ge s t ion o ft o o much p hy t ic a c id i nt h ed i e t , a nd d )f r om a ni n c rea se i nd i sea se , w h ich r e ached h i gh f r equen c ie si nt h e N eo l i th ic ( i nc lud ing h ookwo rm ,d y sen te r ia , a moeb ia s i s ,a nd m a la r ia ) . D a ta f r om v e ry h i gh s i te -co r rec ted s t ron t ium l e ve l f r om K a l inkaya ,a ne a r ly f ou r th m i l lenn ium s i te i nA na to l ia ( B ise l 1 980 ) i n d ica te ad i e tp oo ri np ro te in . Mo reove r , e s t ima te ss how p opu la t ion s 1 0t o5 0t ime sd en se rt h an t h e P a leo l i th ic . A tV a ta l H üyük , ad en s i ty o f7 5 p e r son s /km 2 i s e s t ima ted ( Ange l 1 971) ,g i v ing af a i ro ve ra l l f o rt h eE a s te rn Med i te r ranean o f2 5 p e r son s /km 2.A tV a ta lH üyük t h e r e w ou ld b ef ood e nough f o r5 000 t o7 000 p eop le a t3 00kg o f g ra in p e rp e r son a nnua l ly . F o rm ea t ,s uch ap opu la t ion w ou ld c on sume t h ree h ead so fc a t t le d a i ly o ra lmo s t 100 a nnua l ly ( Ange l 1 971) . T h i s w ou ld b ed i f f icu l tt oa t ta in e ven i n o p t ima l s i tua t ion s .T he r efo r e , w i th r e a sonab le e s t ima te s ,t h e m ea tc on sumed w ou ld h ave b een o n ly 1 0 -20% o ft h eU ppe r P a leo l i th ic o p t imum .

d ef ic iency a nem ia ,w h ich m ay o rm ay n o tr e su l ti nd ea th d epend ing o ni t ss eve r i ty . V e ry i n te r es t ing i st h ec a se o fK epha la , w he re al ow i n c iden ce o fa nem ia ,e name l h ypop la s ia s ,a nd d en ta lc a r ie s h a sb een o b se rved ( Ange l 1 977 ) ,p e rhap sd ue t o as ugges ted m a r ine d i e to rt h eh i gh f l uo r ide c on ten to ft h es o i l ( Had j ima rkos a nd B onho r s t 1 962 ) . D ocumen ta t ion o ft h e K epha la d i e tc ou ld s hed s ome l i gh ti nt h i sd eba te . Al ow i n c iden ce o fp o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i si sa l so o b se rved i n C h i rok i t ia ,C yp ru s ,w h ich i ss i tua ted o n ar o cky l o ca t ion s im i la rt oK epha la .A sf a ra st h eo ccupa t ion so ft h eN eo l i th ic p eop le ,A nge lh a sf ound e v idence f o rr obu s t ic i ty r e la ted w i th f a rm ing a nd f i sh ing i nK epha la ( Ange l 1 977 ) ,a nd c l imb ing , s qua t t ing , w eav ing ,g r ind ing a nd n e ta nd p o t te ry m ak ing i n N ea N ikomede ia ( Ange l 1 973b ) . I nT u rk ey ,a tV a ta lH üyük ,t h er e co rded s t a tu re i s1 70cm f o r m a le sa nd 1 56cm f o rf ema le s ,a nd t h ea ve rage a du l tl e ng th o f l i f e i s3 4 .3 f o rm a le a nd 2 9 .8 f o rf ema le s( Ange l 1 971) . T he m o s ti mpo r tan tp a tho logy i nt h i sp opu la t ion i s ,a sm en t ioned a bove ,p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i s . T hey d o , h oweve r ,e xh ib i ta r e la t ive ly l ow i n c idence o fd en ta ld i sea se a nd as i gn if ican t d eg r ee o fd en ta l w ea r .I n te re s t ing i st h eo b se rva t ion f o r c y l ind r ica l ,g rooved w ea ro nt h e i n c i so r so f af ema le i n d iv idua l ,p robab ly r e su l t ing f r om t h eh ab i tua lu se o ft h e se t e e th a st oo ls . I nN eva l i C o r i , aP PNB s i te i nT u rkey ,T eegen a nd S chu l tz ( 1997 , 1 998 )f ound 1 4o u to f2 0i n d iv idua l s w i th d en ta le name lh ypop la s ia s , a nd t wo f ema le so ve r4 5 y ea r so f a ge w i th t h ick g roove so nt h eo cc lu sa l s u r f a ce o ft h ei n c iso r s a nd t h ec an ines d ue t or epe t i t ive u se o ft h ef r on tt e e th a s t o o l s .

I nt h e L evan t ,d u r ing t h eP r ePo t te ry N eo l i th ic B , s amp le s s how t h a t ac l ea rd i v i s ion e x i s t sb e tween n o r the rn a nd c en t ra l g roup s , w h ich w e r e a dop t ing a g r icu l tu re ,a nd t h es ou ther n S ina i g roup , w h ich c on t inued t od epend o nh un t ing a nd g a the r ing . T h i sl a t te rg roup e xh ib i ted ac l o se r e semb lance t o t h eN a tuf ian si ns t a tu re ,a nd i nm any c r an iofac ia l m ea su remen t sa nd c ha rac te r i s t ic s . I nt h en o r the rnmo s ts i tes , am a rked i n c rea se i nm a le s t a tu re i sf ound i na l l s amp le s ( J e r icho . A bu G o sh , B e i samun ) , w h i le f ema le s t a tu r es howed n os t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if ican t i n c rea se o ve rt h e s ame p er iod o f t ime . H oweve r ,t h ei n c r ea sed m a le s t a tu r e w a s n o t m a in ta ined i nl a te rp e r iod s ( Sm i th e ta l . 1 984 ) . C ran iof ac ia l mo rpho logy a l so s how ss i gn if ican tc hange sf r om t h e N a tuf ian t ot h eN eo l i th ic , w i th s ho r te rc r an ia a nd r e duced b i zygo rna t ic b r ead th ,r e su l t ing i n mo r e g l obu la rs ku l l sw i th l o nge r , n a r rowe rb i te sa nd m and ib les . T oo th s i ze s how sn o s i gn if ican tc hange i nt h eN eo l i th ic ,b u t as t a t is t ica l ly s i gn if i can tu n id i rec t iona lr e duc t ion i nt o o th s i ze i se v iden t b e tween t h eN eo l i th ic a nd t h e B ronze A ge . S im i la rc hanges h ave b een d e scr ibed i no the rp opu la t ion sa dop t ing a g r icu l tu r e ( Ca r l son a nd v an G e rven 1 977 ) ,a nd h ave b een i n te rp re ted a sb e ing a s soc ia ted w i th ar educ t ion i nt h e s e lec t ive p re s su re so fm a in ta in ing l a rge t e e th a nd p owe r fu l m a s t ica to ry a c t iv i ty . B u t s i nce t e e th a r eg ene t ica l ly c on t ro l led a nd mo re r e s i l ien tt oe nv i ronmen ta l f a c to r s , r educ t ion i nt oo th s i ze u sua l ly t a ke s mo re t ime t ob ecome a ppa ren t i np opu la t ion s .

I n as t udy s umma r iz ing t h ee f f ec t so ft h et r an s i t ion t o a g r icu l tu r eo nh uman b io logy i nG r eece a nd T u rkey ,A nge l ( 1 984 )o b served t h a tt h e N eo l i th ic p opu la t ion a s aw ho le w a s l ow i ng ene ra lh ea l th a nd a t al ow p o in ti nn u t r i t iona lh ea l th . I nt h eb eg inn ing o ff a rm ing ,s ome s t ab i l iz ing o fg ene ra l h ea l th o ccu r red w i th a tl e a s tm a in tenance o ff ema le l o ngev i ty n ea rt h eP a leo l i th ic a ve rage .T h i sp romo ted as l igh t e xce s si ns u rv iva ls o ve rd ea th si nj uven i les a nd ac on sequen t , f a i r ly r a p id ,p opu la t ion i n c r ea se . An umbe ro fo the rf a c to r s a l so c on t r ibu ted t ot h ep opu la t ion i n c r ea se .T he e nd o f n omad ism m ean ts ho r te ri n te rb i r th i n t e rva l s , a nd b e t te r p o s tna ta la d ju s tmen ta nd a dap ta t ion t oe ndem ic d i sea se , w h i le c e rea lp rov ided a na dequa te w ean ing f ood ,a nd amo re r e l iab le f ood s upp ly d u r ing w in te ra nd e a r ly s p r ing f o rt h e w ho le p opu la t ion .

Mor ta l i ty i sn o rma l ly h i ghe s ti nt h e f i r s t y ea ro fl i f e , f a l l s s l igh t ly i ne a r ly c h i ldhood ,a nd i sl owe s t i nl a te c h i ldhood a nd a do le scence .I n f an td ea th s m ay e xceed 4 0% . T h i si s a s soc ia ted w i th ah i gh f r equency o fy oung a du l td ea th s , w i th o n ly af ew i n d iv idua l s s u rv iv ing t om idd le o ro ld a ge ( Sm i th e ta l . 1 984 ) . A ren sbu rg a nd B a r -Yo sef ( 1973 )e s t ima ted a n a ve rage l i f e s pan o f3 0y ea r si nN a tuf ian s , i n c rea s ing t o3 4 i n t h e N eo l i th ic . T he re i sn o m en t ion o fc r ib ra o rb i ta l ia i nt h e a na ly se so fN eo l i th ic s pec imen s ( Sm i th e ta l . 1 984 ) .T h i s m ay r e f lec t ar e sea r ch b i a s s i nce mo re c on tempo ra ry

W i th r e ga rd t on u t r i t ion a nd g row th , A nge l( 1984 )c onc luded t h a tt h el a rge ly c e rea ld i e ts upp l ied e nough c a lo r ie sf o r m a in tenance o fs t a tu r ea t as ubadequa te l e ve l .N one o ft h e s l igh tU ppe rP a leo l i th ic t o Meso l i th ic s t a tu re l o s sw a s r e ga ined . Ow ing t op oo rn u t r i t ion t h roughou tc h i ldhood ,t h e d imen s ion so ft h es ku l lb a se , p e lv ic i n le t ,a nd l o ng b one s ha f t s ,a sw e l la sd en ta lh ea l th , w e r ed ep re s sed b e low a ny r e a sonab le h ea l th n o rm . T h i sg row th d ep re s s ion c ame a ) f r om i n suf f ic ien tp ro te in ,e spec ia l ly e s sen t ia la m ino a c id s 2 3

b a lanced p o lymo rph ism w h ich i sf a ta l f o rt h eh omozygo tes o ft h ed i sea se b u tg ave a na dap t ive a dvan tage t ot h e h e te rozygo te so ft h ed i sea se , s i nce t h ey w e r er e s i s tan tt o m a la r ia , w h ich w a ss uppo sed ly f r equen t i nt h i sp a r to ft h e w o r ld . T he p rob lem w i th t h is e xp lana t ion i s ,a se ven A nge l h im se lf a dm i t ted ( 1973b :105 ) ,t h a tt h e i n c idence o f t h a la s sem ia s e em st ob e s oh i gh i nG reece t h a t m o r ep eop le w ou ld h ave d i ed f r om t h a la s sem ia t h an f r om m a la r ia . Mo r eove r , S a l la r e s( 1991) d oub t st h a t ma la r ia w a sp r e sen t i n N eo l i th ic c ommun i t ie sd ue t ol ow p opu la t ion d en s i ty a nd t h e s i gn if ican t ly c oo le rs umme r s . I na dd i t ion , i nt h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd t h a la s sem ia p roduce sv e ry s e ve r e m a lfo rma t ion s , w h i le i r on -def ic iency a nem ia c an r e su l ti na r ange o f ma lfo rma t ion sa nd s ome t imes w e m ay o b se rve h ea led c a se s .

r e sea rche r sf i nd ap e rcen tage o fa pp rox ima te ly 2 0% i nB a s ta , J o rdan ( Schu l tz e ta l . 1 998 ) . O s teoa r th r i t i si sp resen tb u ti ti s r e la t ive ly m i ld ,a nd a tB a s ta t h e re i se v idence o fh ea led c r an ia l f r a c tu re si nf i ve o u to f2 9i n d iv idua ls ( Schu l tz e ta l . 1 998 ) . E name l h ypop la s ia w a so b se rved i n2 0 -30% o fp e rmanen t t e e th i nN a tuf ian sa nd w a s mos tc ommon ly o b served o nt h e c erv ica l t h i rd t oh a lf o ft h ec an ine s ,t h ep o r t ion o ft h et o o th f o rm ing b e tween t h ree a nd f ou ry ea r so fa ge , a nd p re sumab ly r ep re sen t sd i e ta ry d i s tu rbances a s soc ia ted w i th w ean ing . E name lh ypop la s ia i s mo re p r eva len ti nt h eN eo l i th ic s amp le s ,a bou t4 0% ,a nd w a sa l so f ound o nt h ef i r s t p ermanen t mo la r sa nd i n c iso r s ,s ugges t ing w ean ing a ta n e a r ly a ge . A l -Aba s s ia nd S a ne ( 1998 )i nt h e i rs t udy o fd en ta l e name lh ypop la s ia si nt h e L evan t ,c ompa red t h ep r eva lence a nd t h eo ccu r r ence o ft h ed i sea se i nN eo l i th ic p eop le o fA in G haza l a nd Wad i S hu 'e ib i nJ o rdan a nd c onc luded t h a t , a l though t h eh ea l th s t a tu si nA in G ha za li nP PNB p e r iod w a s b e t te rt h an t h a to ft h e i rc on tempo ra ry n e ighbo r sa t Wad i S hu 'e ib ( 22% v s . 3 8 .4% o fd en ta le name lh ypop la s ia s , a nd 3 8 .5% v s . 6 8 .8% o fg roove s ) , d u r ing t h eP rePo t te ry N eo l i th ic C p e r iod ,h ea l th a nd n u t r i t iona l s t a tus d e te r io ra ted i nA in G haza l , w i th h ypop la s ia sr e a ch ing 3 8 .3% a nd g roove s 6 1 .3% . A cco rd ing t ot h e a u tho r s ,t h e se t r ends a r ec on s i s ten t w i th t h ec o l lap se t h eo ry o ft h e N eo l i th ic s i tes i nt h e L evan t a f t e rt h eP PNB .T he r ema in ing d en ta ld i sea se p a t te rn so f N eo l i th ic s i te sc on s i s to fs l igh t ly m o re c a r ie s ,p e r iodon ta l d i sea se , a nd a n temo r tem t o o th l o s st h an i nN a tuf ian si n g ene ra l ( howeve r ,N aha lO r en r e semb le st h e N eo l i th ic p a t te rn sa nd i sa s soc ia ted w i th as t i cky c a rbohyd ra te d i e t ) . L a te ra g r icu l tu ra l i s t se xh ib i ta ne ven g r ea te rd e te r io ra t ion i n d en ta lh ea l th ( Sm i th e ta l . 1 984 ) .

I nG reece , w e r a r e ly o b se rve t h e s eve re d efo rma t ion st h a t a ccompany t h a la s sem ia o nc h i ld ren 's p o s tc ran ia l b on e s , h oweve r , m i ld a nd h ea led c a ses o ccu rf r equen t ly . T h i s e v idence p o in t s mo re t owa rd s i r on d ef ic iency a nem ia ,c au sed b y ac e rea ld i e tl ow i np ro te in a nd i r on , w i th t h e s yne rgy o f p a ra s i t ic d i sea se s , i n f an td i a r rhea a nd g ene ra l i r on b ioava i lab i l i ty a s mo r er e cen tc l in ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch s ugge s t s ( S tua r t - Ma cadam 1 989 , 1 992 , S a l la r e s 1 991 ,P apa thana s iou 1 994 ) .T h i sc onc lus ion i si na c co rdance w i th A nge l 1 984 a nd B ise l 1 980 , w ho a l so p o in tt o ad i e t i n suf f ic ien ti np ro te in a nd h igh i np hy t ic a c id , a nd a n i n c r ea se i nd i sea se , a sm en t ioned a bove . Ah i gh p r eva lence o fi r on d ef ic ien cy a nem ia a tA lepo t rypa C ave ,h oweve r , i s i n con s i s ten t w i th t h ec l o se p rox im i ty o ft h e s i t et ot h e s ea , w h ich s hou ld h ave p rov ided a ni r on r i ch ma r in ed i e t . S t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i so f as ma l l s amp le r e vea led am a in ly t e r re s t r ia l ( C 3)d i e t , w h ich l e d t o ar e con s ide ra t ion o ft h e A lepo t rypa p opu la t ion a so ne r e ly ing o na g r icu l tu r ea nd t e r r e s t r ia lr e sou r ce si n s tead o f ma r ine e xp lo i ta t ion ( Papa thana s iou 1 994 ) .

P re l im inary b ioarchaeo log ica l a na lys is a t A lepo trypa C a ve

I nG reece , w hen d i e ta ry i n f e rence s n eeded t ob ed r awn , r e sea rche r sb a sed t h e i rc onc lus ion so nt h e f a una l a nd f l o ra l r e co rd a l one . T he p r e sen tr e sea rch w i l l a pp ly s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s is d i r ec t ly t ot h e h uman p opu la t ion si no rde rt oa s se ss p reh i s to r ic d i e t . U pt on ow ,t h e p rox im i ty o fG reek N eo l i th ic s i te st ot h ec oa s t w a s ap r io r ie qua ted w i th am a r ine d i e t . G iven t h e a bundan tn a tu ra lr e sou r ce sa va i lab le , N eo l i th ic p opu la t ion sw e re e xpec ted t ou t i l ize av a r ie ty o fr e sou rce s a nd t oh ave a na dequa te a nd w e l l b a lanced d i e t . H oweve r , t h ep re l im ina ry w o rk o nA lepo t rypa C ave c ha l lenge st h i s a s sump t ion ( Papa thana s iou 1 994 ) . I ft h e a na ly s i s s how st ha t t h em a in p o r t ion o ft h e s ub s i s tence o ft h eG reek N eo l i th ic p opu la t ion s w a sb a sed o nc u l t igen s , w i th l i t t le i n co rpo ra t ion o fr ed m ea to rf i sh ,c on s ide rab le r e l iance o na g r icu l tu r e i s s ugges ted . T h i sf a c tw ou ld b eo ft r emendou s i mpo r tance i n a s se ss ing t h e s i gn if i cance o fa g r icu l tu re i nL a te N eo l i th ic G reece . C e r ta in ly ,d ome s t ica ted o rh un ted a n ima lm ea ta nd f i sh c omp r i sed ap o r t ion o ft h eN eo l i th ic d i e t ,a si sa ppa ren t f r om t h ef a una lr e co rd o ft h ea r chaeo log ica ls i te .T h e e v idence f r om t h e s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s is c ou ld s ugges ta p ref e rence f o rd ome s t ica ted c e rea l sa nd l e gumes . T h i s

Ap r e l im ina ry a na ly s i sw a sc onduc ted o n as ma l ls amp le o f 1 9 i n d iv idua ls f r om t h eN eo l i th ic m o r tua ry ma te r ia l o ft h e A lepo t rypa C ave s i te ( Papa thana s iou 1 994 ) . H oweve r ,t h e s amp le w a ss pa t ia l ly a nd t empo ra l ly r e s t r ic ted a nd t h e r e su l t s m igh tn o tb er e p r e sen ta t ive o ft h ee n t i re s i te .T he p a leopa tho log ica la na ly s i sf r om t h e se 1 9i n d iv idua l s , w ho w e re p redom ina te ly r ep re sen ted b yc r an ia lb one sa nd as ma l l n umbe ro fn on -a r t icu la ted p o s tc ran ia lb one s , i n d ica ted t h a t t h i sp opu la t ion f a l l s w i th in t h ep ub l i shed G reek N eo l i th ic r anges f o rm ean a du l ta ge a nd s t a tu r e . T he p opu la t ion e xh ib i ted as e r ie so fp a tho log ica lc ond i t ion s , i n c lud ing p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i sa nd c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia ,o s teoa r th r i t is ,d en ta l c a r ie s ,d en ta le name lh ypop la s ia s , a nd c r an ia lf r a c tu re s .T he s e r ie sr evea led e l eva ted c h i ld mo r ta l i ty a sw e l la s ah i gh p reva lence o fa nem ia , w h ich Ii n te rp re ted a s ac on sequence o fp oo rn u t r i t ion b a sed o n ac e rea ld i e t . S im i la rc ond i t ion sh ad b een o b se rved o nt h e s ke le ta lr ema in s f r om o the rG r eek N eo l i th ic s i te s( Ange l 1 969 , 1 973a , 1 973b , 1 977 ) . A sm en t ioned a bove ,A nge l( 1966 ) s ugge s ted t h a tt h e o b se rved a nem ic c ond i t ion s w e re ar e su l to ft h a la s sem ia , a 2 4

p ref e r ence w ou ld b ep e rp lex ing b u tp o s s ib le e xp lana t ion s c ou ld b et h ea t t rac t ivene s so fc u l t igen sa s ar e l iab le s t o rab le f ood w i th h igh c a lo r if ic v a lue ,t h e i rv e r sa t i l i ty a sf ood , a s t a tu sv a lue r e la ted t ot h em ,o rp o s s ib le s c a r c i ty o fo the r r e sou r ce s . I nc on junc t ion w i th s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i s ,t h e f auna l a nd f l o ra la r chaeo log ica lr e co rd s hou ld b ee va lua ted . F u tu r e w o rk b yf a una l a nd f l o ra le xpe r t sa tA lepo t rypa C ave a nd o t h e rs i te si sa n t ic ipa ted b u ti sb eyond t h es cope o ft h e c u r r en tr e sea rch p ro jec t .

a r ea s a nd m o r tua ry l o c i . T he s i te e xpo se s ab road p l an e , r e vea l ing m any a spec t so ft h e l i f eway so ft h is N eo l i th ic c ommun i ty ( Papa thana s sopou lo s 1 971a ,b ,c ,1 983 ) . C u l tu ra l d epo s i t s a r e b e tween 5 0c ma nd 5 . 5 mi nt h icknes s t h roughou tt h ec ave . T he f r equency ,q ua l i ty , a nd v a r ie ty o fa r t if a c t s , e cof ac t s , a nd f e a tu re st e s t ify t o ad i ve r se a nd s oph i s t ica ted w ay o fl i f e . T he p o t te ry i st y p ica lo ft h e s ou the rn G reek L a te a nd F ina l N eo l i th ic w i th s im i la r i t ie st ot h e s ub sequen tE a r ly H e l lad ic p e r iod o ft h e B ronze A ge . D ive r se v e s se l s hape s , s i ze s ,a nd d eco ra t ive f o rm s h ave b een r e cove red . O the rN eo l i th ic a r t if ac t s i n c lude o b s id ian a nd f l in tl i t h ic t o o l s ( i nc lud ing b l ade s , a r row a nd s pea rp o in t s ) ,h and a xe s ,a nd g r ind s tone s u sed f o rf ood p r epa ra t ion . B one n eed le s ,c l ay s p ind le w ho r l s , s h e l l a nd s t one b ead s , s i lve rj ewe l ry i t em s ,b race le t sm ade f r om i mpo r ted S pondy lu sg aed eropus s h e l l ,a sw e l la sm a rb le a nd c l ay f i gu r ine sh ave b een f ound ( Papa thana ssopou lo s 1 996 ) . F ou rc oppe rd agge r s ,u nwo rked c oppe rn ugge t s , a nd c oppe rs l ag h ave b een r e cove red i nt h eu ppe rmo s tl a ye r s , p o s s ib ly i n d ica t ing t h ee me rgence o f al o ca l m e ta l lu rgy i n du s t ry a tt h ea dven to ft h e B ronze A ge .

S i te d e s cr ip t ion T he A lepo t rypa C ave i so ne o f ag roup o ft h ree c ave sl o ca ted a round t h er ocky , l imes tone D i ro sB ay o nt h e w e s te rn c oa s t o ft h eT a ina ron P en in su la o fs ou the rn G reece ( s ee F igu re 1 ) . When d i scove r ed b yt h eG r eek S pe leo log ica l S oc ie ty i n 1 958 ,t h ec ave e n t rance w a sl im i ted t o an a r row o pen ing , p roh ib i t ing r e ady a cces s . V iewed a s ap o ten t ia l ly i mpo r tan t t ou r i s ts i te ,t h eG r eek O rgan iza t ion o fT ou r i sm g rea t ly i n c r ea sed t h e s i ze o ft h ee n t rance w i th d ynam i te e xp lo s ives , a l te r ed t h ef l oo ra nd i n te r io ro ft h ec ave , a nd r emoved r o ck s a nd o t he ro b s truc t ion s . I no rde rt op r even tf u r the rd es t ruc t ion o fp o ten t ia l ly i mpo r tan ta r chaeo log ica ld epo s i t s ,t h eG reek A r ch aeo log ica lS e rv ice o ft h e M in i s t ry o fC u l tu re a s sumed managemen to ft h es i te , t h u sh a l t ing t o u r i s ta cce s sa nd o t he r p o ten t ia l ly d e s t ruc t ive a c t iv i t ie s( Papa thana s sopou lo s 1 971a , b ,c ,1 983 ) .

E conom ic d a ta a r ea l so a bundan t . Al a rge n umbe ro fa n ima l b one sf r om d omes t ica ted s pec ie s , i n c lud ing s heep ,g oa t , c a t t le , a nd p i g s , h ave b een r e cove r ed . D ee r( Cer vus e l aphu s , C apr io lus c apr io lus , Dama d ama ) , s he l l f i sh , a nd m a r ine f i sh b one i n d ica te t h a t w i ld r e sou rce sc on t inued t ob eh a rve s ted . F ea tu re s i n c lude h ea r th s ,d eep s t o rage p i t s ,r ound c l ay o ven s , a nd c oncen t ra t ion so fs t ones ( Papa thana s sopou lo s 1 971b ) .

L a rg e s ca le a r chaeo log ica le xcava t ion sc ommenced a tt h e s i te i n1 970 ,a nd c on t inue t ot h ep r e sen td ay u nde rt h e d i rec t ion o fG . P apa thana s sopou lo s . C o l lec t ive ly ,t h i s w o rk h a sr e vea led t h a te xcep tf o rt h e s u r f a ce o ft h ec ave f l oo r— w h ich w a s mo s t ly d e s t royed b yt h e a f o r emen t ioned a c t iv i t ie s —a rchaeo log ica l d epo s i t sw e r e l a rge ly i n ta c t . A r cha eo log ica lw o rk h a sf o cu sed o nc o l lec t ing a nd s av ing t h ee xpo sed c ave f l oo r ,e xcava t ing k ey d epo s i t s ,a nd c onduc t ing as u r f ace s u rvey o ft h ea r ea s u r round ing t h ec ave ( Papa thana s sopou lo s 1 971a ,b ,c ,1 983 ) .

A lepo t rypa C ave c on ta in sn o to n ly s i gn if ican th ab i ta t ion d eb r i sb u ta l so a ni mpo r tan tr e co rd o fm or tua ry p rac t ice s d u r ing t h e f i na l 2 , 000 y ea r so ft h eG r eek N eo l i th ic . B u r ia l t y pe s i n c lude s imp le , s i ng le ,p r ima ry b u r ia l s ; c o l lec t ive b u r ia l s ; s e conda ry b u r ia l s ; a nd c r ema t ion ( Papa thana s sopou lo s 1 971c ,L amber t 1 971 , 1 972 ) . I na dd i t ion t ot h e h ab i ta t ion i n s ide t h ec ave ,t h e r e i se v iden ce o fN eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion o ft h e s u r round ing a r ea . U nfo r tuna te ly ,e r o s ion i ss oe x ten s ive t h a td u r ing s u r f ace s u rvey s w e w e r ea b le t of i nd o n ly s t one t o o lf l ake sa nd af ew c e ram ic f r agmen t s . R e sea r ch a to the rc on tempo ra ry s i tes s ugges t st h a td u r ing t h ep e r iod i nq ue s t ion t h e s ea l e ve l w a s a bou t 5m e te r sl owe rt h an i ti st o day a nd t h e l a ndscape c on s i s ted o fm ixed g r een w ood land s ( v an A nde l a nd S u t ton 1 987 ) .

S i tua t ed a bou t2 0m a bove s e al e ve l ,i na na r id a nd r ocky l ime s tone e nv i ronmen tt h ec ave i sa bou t3 00m l o ng , e x tend ing a l ong a ne a s t -we s ta x i s . Af l oo rp l an o ft h ec ave i s d ep ic ted i nF igu re 2 ,o nw h ich t h ea c t iv i ty a r ea sa r e a nno ta t ed . I t se n t rance i sa bou t5 0m f r om t h ep r e sen t Med i te r ranean s ho re l ine .T he c ave c on ta in s al a rge m a in c hambe r( c a . 1 30m x5 0m ) ,v a r iou sp a s sageway s ,o the r s ma l le rc hambe r s , al a rge f r e shwa te rl a ke ,a nd s eve ra l s ma l le rl a ke sw i th b rack ish , b u tp o tab le ,w a te r .T he se i n ter io rl a kes may w e l lh ave a t t ra c ted N eo l i th ic p opu la t ion s t os e t t le i na nd a round t h ec ave ,e spec ia l ly g i ven t h es ca r c i ty o fp o tab le w a te ro u t s ide t h ec ave i np a r t icu la ra nd i nt h e r eg ion i ng ene ra l .

G eo log ica l i n d ica t ion s s ugge s tt h a t l i f ea tA lepo t rypa C ave w a sd i s rup ted b ye a r thquake a c t iv i ty , w h ich s ea led t h e o r ig ina l e n t rance o ft h ec ave a nd c u to f ft h ea cce s st ot h e l a ke ( Papa thana s sopou lo s 1 996 ) . A tt h et ime o fi t sd i scove ry , e xpo sed o nt h ec ave f l oo rt h e re w e re b roken p o t s , a n ima l a nd h uman b one sa nd o the rc u l tu ra l m a te r ia lc on so l ida ted u nde r t h ick s t a lagm i te ( c a lc ium c a rbona te )f o rma t ion s . T he a r ea w a se s sen t ia l ly a bandoned a f te rt h i sp e r iod a nd t h ec ave r ema ined u nd i s tu rbed u n t i l 1 958 .

B a sed o nc e ram ic t ypo log ica ld a ta ,t h ec ave w a so ccup ied f r om a pp rox ima te ly 5 , 000 t o3 , 200 BC ,w h ich c o r re spond s t ot h eL a te a nd F ina lN eo l i th ic P e r iod s( Papa thana s sopou lo s 1 996 ) . A long t h e 3 00m l e ng th o ft h ec ave mo r et h an f i f ty a c t iv i ty a r ea sh ave b een i d en t i f ied ,i n c lud ing b o th h ab i ta t ion 2 5

Ma ter ia l sa nd p re l im inar y o bserva t ions

i ni r on d ef ic iency a nem ia s , w h ich w e r e a l so i n c rea sed d ue t o h i gh l e ve l so fp a thogen s ,p a ra s i tes , a nd c on sequen t ly i n f ec t ion s .

T he s ke le ta lm a te r ia lu sed i nt h i s s t udy i st h ee n t i re e xcava ted s e r ie sf r om A lepo t rypa C ave . A l lo ft h eh uman r ema in sa r ec u r r en t ly c u ra ted a nd s t o red a t ap ermanen t l a bo ra to ry f a c i l i ty a tt h e s i t e . I n i t ia l ly a l e xcava ted m a te r ia l w a sk ep ti nt h es t o re room so ft h e Mu seum o fS pa r ta . A f te r t h ec omp le t ion o ft h el a bo ra to ry f a c i l i t ie sa tt h e s i te ,t h e e n t i re c o l lec t ion , i n c lud ing t h eo s teo log ica l ma te r ia l ,w a s moved b ack t ot h e s i te . T he e xcava t ion p rocedu r ef o rh uman r ema in si n vo lved e xpo s ing t h eb one si ns i tu ,d e sc r ib ing , m app ing , a nd p ho tog raph ing t h em ,a nd t h en r emov ing t h em w i th a sl i t t le d amage a sp o s s ib le . B ecau se t h es o i li n s ide t h ec ave i s a lways muddy ,s t icky a nd c ompa c ted ,f r ag i le b one so f ten c r umb le u pon r emova l . F o l low ing r emova l ,a l lh uman r ema in s w e r em echan ica l ly c l eaned w i th w a te r , s of tb ru she s , a nd d e l ica te i n s t rumen t s . P a ra lo id a ce ton w a su sed f o rb one c on so l ida t ion a nd p r ese rva t ion a f te rt h eb one sw e re d r ied , a nd d en ta lp l a s te r ,w ax a nd D uco c emen tw e re u sed f o rt h e i r r e con s t ruc t ion . B one p re serva t ion r ange sf r om g ood t oe xce l len td ue t ot h e h i gh h um id i ty a nd t h ec on s tan tt empe ra tu re o f 1 8 °C ( 64°F )o f t h ec ave m ic roenv i ronmen t ,a nd t h em ine ra lc on s is tency o f t h es o i l . S ome b one sa r ec omp le te b u tt h e ma jo r i ty a r e f r agmen ta ry . D ue t ot h i sf r agmen ta ry n a tu re o ft h em a te r ia l a nd t h e b u r ia lp rac t ice si tw a si mpo s s ib le t oi d en t ify c omp le te i n d iv idua l s .I n mo s ti n s tance s ,o ne i n d iv idua l i s r ep re sen ted m e re ly b yo n ly o ne e l emen t . T he c o l lec t ion i n c ludes o n ly s even n ea r ly c omp le te i n d iv idua ls , w ho a r e r ep re sen ted b y mo s ts ke le ta le l emen t s . T he f r agmen ta ry n a tu re o ft h em a te r ia lp r even ted t ho rough s ex a nd a ge d e te rm ina t ion . S ummary I nt h i sc hap te rt h eb ioa r chaeo log ica l b ackg round mo r e c l o se ly r e la ted w i th t h i ss t udy i sp r e sen ted ,a sw e l la st h e d e sc r ip t ion o ft h eA lepo t rypa C ave s i te ,a nd t h eu ncove red c u l tu ra la nd s ke le ta lm a te r ia l . T he h uman o s teo log ica lm a te r ia lo ft h ee a s te rn Med i te r ranean i su sua l ly f r agmen ta ry , l im i ted i ns i ze ,a nd n o ta lway sa pp rop r ia te ly h and led b y a r cha eo log i s t s . H oweve r ,s ke le ta ls t ud ie so nN eo l i th ic G r eece , Ana to l ia , a nd t h eL evan tr e vea l an umbe ro fc ommon a dap ta t ion s w i th t h e s h if tt oa g r icu l tu r er e la ted t o ad ec l ine o fh ea l th s t a tus . C ha ra c te r is t ic a r e ah igh i n c idence o fa nem ic c ond i t ion sa s r evea led b yc r ib ra o rb i ta l ia a nd p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i s ,h i gh i n c idence o fc h i ld mor ta l i ty ,a nd d en ta lp a tho log ie s , p redom inan t ly c a r ie sa nd e name lh ypop la s ia s , wh i le l ow f r equency o fo s teoa r th r i t i s ,f r a c tu re s , a nd p e r io s tea lr e ac t ion h ave b een o b se rved . S t a tu r e w a sm a in ta ined i n as ub a dequa te l e ve la nd t h em ean a du l ta ge i ss im i la rf o r mo s t s i te s ( abou t3 0y ea r s ) . A sf a ra sd i e ti sc oncer n ed ,s eve ra l s t ud ie sp o in tt owa rd s am a in ly c e r ea ld i e t( Ange l 1 971 ,B i se l 1 980 ,P apa thana s iou 1 994 ) ,l ow i ni r on a nd p ro te in ,r e su l t ing

2 6

t wo p roce s se s : a )t h er educ t ion p roce s so rp roce s se s , a nd b ) t h e s e conda ry o rf i na l d i spo sa l . S imp le d i spo sa lc on s i s t so ft h r ee p o s s ib i l i t ie s : a )i n huma t ion , b )a qua t ic d i spo sa l ,o rc )s u r f ace d i spo sa l . I nhuma t ion , i n te rmen to rb u r ia l i sd ef ined a st h ep ra c t ice o fc on cea l ing t h eb ody i nt h e g round o ri na ny mound a bove t h e g ene ra l l e ve lo ft h eg round . A qua t ic d i spo sa li st h e s i nk ing o ft h e r ema in so rs e t t ing t h em a f loa tt od r if ta way . S ur f a ce d i spo sa l i n c lude st h ea bandonmen to ft h eb ody o nt h e s u r f ace o ra p l a t fo rm , at r ee a nd e xpo su re t ob i rd s , a n ima l s , a nd i n sec t s u n t i le ven tua ld ecay . S p rague ( 1967 )d oe sn o ti n c lude c r ema t ion i ns imp le d i spo sa lb ecau se h ec on s ide r si tn o ta sa m e thod o fd i spo sa lo ft h ed ead b u ta s am ean so fr e duc ing t h er ema in s , w h ich mu s tt h en b ed i spo sed o f . H oweve r , i n o u rc a se ,c r ema t ion s e em st ob e a no the rm e thod o fd i spo s ing o ft h ed ead a nd i ts hou ld b e i n c luded i nt h e s imp le d i spo sa l c a tego ry a s af ou r th p o ss ib i l i ty .

CHAPTER 4 . METHODS F unerary T he f i r s tp ha se o f my r e sea r ch f o cu sed o nt h ef une ra ry b ehav io ro ft h eA lepo t rypa C ave p opu la t ion . A ni n t r igu ing a spec to ft h eA lepo t rypa C ave s i t ei st h e d i ve r s i ty o ff une ra ry c u s tom st h a th a sb een r e vea led ,w h ich i sr ema rkab le f o ra s i ng le s i t e . I no rde rt om ake s en se o fp a t te rn sa nd t h e i r s i gn if icance , Ic o l lec ted i n fo rma t ion a nd r a nge t h ee v idence o nf i ve c a tego r ie so fv a r iab le sf o l low ing Mo r r i s( 1992 )a nd S p rague ( 1967 ) : t y po logy ,c on tex t ,t ime , s pace ,a nd d emog r aphy . F i r s t , Id e sc r ibed a nd c l a s s if ied t h ev a r iou s b u r ia lt y pe sa cco rd ing t oa )t h e i rf o rm o fd i spo sa l , b ) i nd iv idua l i ty ( how many i n d iv idua l sa r ei n vo lved i na b u r ia l ) ,c )a r t icu la t ion .d )p o s i t ion o fb ody , s ku l l ,a nd l imb s i nr e la t ion t oe a ch o the r ,e )d epo s i t ion ( t he m anne ri nw h ich t h eb ody h a sb een d epo s i ted i nt h ee a r th ) ,f )o r ien ta t ion ,a nd g )b ody p r epa ra t ion . I t em s ( d )t h rough ( g )a r er e levan to n ly t op r im a ry b u r ia l s . S econd , Ii n ve s t iga ted t h ec on tex to ft h e d i spo sa l sa nd p o s s ib le e v idence o fg rave g ood so ro t he r i n c lu s ion s ,n o t ing t h e i rt y pe s ,p l a cemen ta nd f r equency . T h i rd .t h es pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e b u r ia l sh a sb een e xam in ed . Im apped t h ep hy s ica ll o ca t ion o ft h ed i spo sa l s w i th in t h ec ave ,i nr e la t ion t ot h e i rp rox im i ty t ot h e h ab i ta t ion a r ea s ,s ea r ched f o rb u r ia le v idence o u t s ide t h e c ave ,a nd i d en t if ied h ow t h e se p l a ce s w e r eu t i l ized b yt h e i nhab i tan t s ,b o th i nt h ep a s ta nd t h ep r e sen t , i no rde rt o d i s t ingu i sh i ft h e re w e r ec u l tu ra l ly p r ef e r r ed p l ace so f d i spo sa lf o rs p ec if i cp u rpo se s . F ou r th , w he r eve rp o s s ib le , I e s tab l i sh ed t h ec h rono log ica lc o r r e la t ion b e tween d i f f e ren t b u r ia lt y pe s . F ina l ly , i no rde rt oe va lua te t h e s oc ia ls t a tu s i mp l i ca t ion so ft h ed i f f e r en tf une ra ry p rac t ices , Ii n teg ra ted t h e f une ra ry d a ta w i th t h er e su l t so ft h ed emog raph ic , p a tho log ica l ,a nd d i e ta ry a na ly se s . S pec if i ca l ly , It r i ed t o d e term in ei ft h ei n d iv idua l si n ap a r t icu la rt y pe o fb u r ia l d i f f e rf r om i n d iv idua l si na no the rt y pe o fb u r ia li nt e rm so fa ) d i e ta ry h ab i t s s u ch a si n co rpo ra t ion o fd i f f e r en tq uan t i t ie so f mea t ,m a r ine f ood s ,a nd /o rc e r ea li nt h e i rd i e t ,b ) p a tho log ica lc ond i t ion sa nd a c t iv i ty m a rke r ss uch a sd i f f e ren t i n c iden t so fa nem ia s ,o s teoa r th r i t i s ,a nd g row th a r res t e p isode s ,a nd c )k in sh ip b a sed o nt h e h i ghe ro rl owe r p re sence o fn on -me t r ic t r a i t s ,w h ich i mp ly g ene t ic a f f in i t ie s .

I n ac ompound d i spo sa l ,t h er educ t ion p roce s sm ay i n c lude b u r ia la nd s ub sequen td i s in te rmen to re xhuma t ion ,e xpo su re t ot h e a i ro rt oa n ima l s , m echan ica ld e f le sh ing ,c r ema t ion ,o r a r t if ic ia lc hem ica l d ecompo s i t ion . T h i s ,i nt u rn , i sf o l lowed b yt h e s e conda ry a nd u sua l ly f i na ld i spo sa l , w h ich i n c lude s t h ef o rm sl i s ted i nt h e s imp le d i spo sa lc a tego ry a bove . O s teo log ica l a na lys is T h e s e cond s t ep i nt h is r e sea rch w a st h eo s teo log ica la na ly s is o ft h eA lepo t rypa p opu la t ion , f o l low ing s t anda rd a na ly t ica l p rocedu r e sd e sc r ibed b yU be lake r( 1974 )a nd B u ik s t ra a nd U be lake r( 1994 ) , i no rde rt od e sc r ibe t h eb a s ic d emog raph ic , m o rpho log ica l , a nd p a tho log ica lp a rame te r so ft h e p opu la t ion . Da ta c o l l ec t ion Mea su remen t s w e r et a ken b yu s ing s l id ing a nd s p read ing c a l ipe r s a nd a no s teome t r ic b oa rd . A l lt h em a te r ia l w a s r e co rded b yt h e a u tho rf o l low ing t h e f o rma tp ropo sed b y B u ik s t ra a nd U be lake r( 1994 )f o rc omm ing led o ri n comp le te r ema in s , mod if ied b ya dd ing an umbe ro fn ew e n t r ie s . A l l e l emen t sw e re p ho tog raphed i nc o lo rf i lm s ,a nd p a tho log ica l c ond i t ion s a nd s pec ia l s t ruc tu r e s w e re p ho tog raphed i nc o lo r s l ide sa nd b l ack a nd w h i te f i lm s . I ns i tu p ho tog raph sw e re t a ken b y ap rof e s s iona lp ho tog raphe r .T he r e co rd ing , s t udy ing , a nd p ho tog raph ing o ft h e ma te r ia l w a sc onduc ted i np a r ta tt h es i te a nd i np a r t a tt h e Ma lcom W iene r L abo ra to ry a tt h e Ame r ican S choo lo fC la s s ica l S tud ie sa t A then s . R ad iog raph sw e re k ind ly t a ken b yr a d io log ica l t e chn ic ian sa tt h e G ene ra l H o sp i ta lo fL am ia , G reece .

B efo r ed e sc r ib ing t h ef une ra ry p ra c t ices o fA lepo t rypa , i ti s n ece s sa ry t oc l a r ify t h et e rm ino logy i n vo lved i nt h e d e sc r ip t ion a nd c l a s s if ica t ion . F o l low ing S p rague ( 1967 ) ,I u t i l ize t h et e rm ss imp le a nd c ompound d i spo sa l w hen c l a s s ify ing t h ef o rm o fd i spo sa l . S imp le d i spo sa li st h e u t i l iza t ion o fo n ly o ne ,b a s ic m e thod a to ne s pec if ic p o in ti n t ime a nd s pace ,w h i le c ompound d i spo sa li n vo lve s a tl e a s t

M in imum n umber o fi nd iv idua l s T he m in imum n umbe ro fi n d iv idua l sp rov ide st h em in imum n umbe ro fi n d iv idua ls e xcava ted . T h i sf i gu re may n o t r ep re sen tt h e s ame n umbe ro fi n d iv idua l si n i t ia l ly b u r ied b ecau se s ome m ay h ave d ecayed o rb een l o s td ue t oh uman

2 7

o ra n ima la c t iv i ty i nt h ec ave .T he m in imum n umbe ro f i n d iv idua l sw a sd e te rm ined b yi d en t ify ing a l ls ke le ta l e l emen t sa nd b ya s s ign ing t h ef r equency o ft h e mo s t p r eva len tb one c a tego ry f o l low ing p rocedu re so u t l ined b y U be lake r( 1 974 ) . A dd i t iona ld i s t inc t ion s w e re made b y t a k ing i n to a ccoun tb one st h a tc l ea r ly d id n o tb e long t ot h e i n d iv idua l sr e p re sen ted b yt h e mo s tp r eva len t b one c a tego ry , o n ab a s i so fa ge -a t -dea th , s i ze ,s i de , p r e se rva t ion , a c tua l m a tch ing o ft wo o r mo r eb one s , a nd l o ca t ion i nt h ec ave .

L =

+ 1 ,) 2

w he re / „i st h en umbe ro fs urv ivo r so ft h e a ge i n terva l f o l low ing x .T he v a lue o f Tii sd e r ived f r om Lx. a sf o l low s :

T x

S ex d e term ina t ion S ex d e te rm ina t ion w a sp e r fo rmed f o l low ing t h em e thod s d i scu s sed i nB u ik s t ra a nd U be lake r( 1994 ) ,U be lake r( 1989 ) , B a s s( 1987 ) , Wh i te ( 1991) ,M i lne r( 1992 ) ,K rogman a nd I s can ( 1986 ) ,a nd P hen ice ( 1969 ) ,i n c lud ing p a t te rn so f r obu s t ic i ty ,a nd c r an ia la nd p e lv ic mo rpho logy . O n ly a du l t i n d iv idua l sw i th ma tu re c ha ra c te r i s t ics w e re s exed , w h i le s ubadu l t sw e r en o t .

w he re w i st h et o ta ln umbe ro fa ge i n terva l s . F ina l ly ,t h e l i f ee xpec tancy i st h en c a lcu la ted f o re ve ry a ge i n te rva l b yt h ef o rmu la :

Age d e t erm ina t ion

T he f e r t i l i ty i n dex ( F I )w i l l b ec a lcu la ted b y :

V a r ious m e thod sh ave b een u sed f o rt h ed e te rm ina t ion o ft h e a ge -a t -dea th ,u s ing w ha teve rm e thod sw a s mo s ts u i tab le f o r e a ch c a se ,i na na t temp tt oa ch ieve t h eb e s ta pp rox ima t ion . Me ind l a nd L ove joy ' s( 1985 )m e thod f o re c toc ran ia l s u tu re s w a su sed f o rc r an ia b e long ing t oa du l ti n d iv idua l s . L ove joy ' s ( 1985 ) m e thod f o rs t age so fd en ta l w ea rw a su sed f o ra du l t d en t i t ion s ,k eep ing i nm ind p o s s ib le p opu la t ion d i f f e r ence s . T he m e thod so fT odd ( 1920 , 1 921) a nd B rook sa nd S uchey ( 1990 )f o r mo rpho log ica lc hange so ft h ep ub ic s ymphe sea l f a ce w e r eu sed f o ra du l ti n d iv idua l s . U be lake r ' s( 1989 ) m e thod f o rt o o th f o rma t ion a nd e r up t ion w a sa pp l ied t o s ubadu l t s( w i th t h er e se rva t ion t h a tt h e mode l w a sp r ima r i ly d rawn f r om ,a nd a pp l ie s mo s t ly t o , Ame r ican I nd ian s ) . McKe rn a nd S tua r t 's ( 1957 )m e thod f o re p iphy sea lf u s ion w a su sed f o ra g ing mo s t ly s ubadu l ta nd y oung a du l t p o s tc ran ia lb one s . S ubadu l ta ge w a sa l so e s t ima ted b yt h e l o ng b one d i aphy sea l l e ng th a nd i l i a cb r ead th f r om t h e a va i lab le c omp le te b one s ,f o l low ing U be lake r( 1989 ) .A ge a t -dea th e s t ima te sw e r et h en u sed t oc on s t ruc t amo r ta l i ty p rof i le b yf i ve -yea ra ge i n c remen t s .T he a du l ti n d iv idua l s t h a tc ou ld n o tb ea dequa te ly a s s igned t oa ny p a r t icu la ra ge g roup w e r ed i s t r ibu ted o ve rt h ea du l ta ge g roup sf o l low ing t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ea du l ti n d iv idua l st h a tc ou ld b e a s s igned t ot h e se g roup si no rde rt oa vo id b i a s ing t h er e su l t t owa rds s ubadu l t s .

F l =D , „ + Ds + w he re D3 i st h en umbe ro fd ea th so ve ra ge 3 0a nd D„ t h e n umbe ro fd ea th so ve ra ge 5( Bu ik s t ra e ta l . 1 986 ) . N onme tr ic v ar ia t ion Mo rpho log ica ln onme t r ic v a r ia t ion w a sl im i ted t o o b se rva t ion o fc r an ia ln onme t r ic t r a i t s . T he se o bse rva t ion s a r e u sed t oi n f e rp opu la t ion v a r ia t ion , g ene t ic a f f in i t ie s , a nd g ene ra lr e la tedne s so ft h e i n d iv idua ls o ft h es amp le . F ive d i sc re te c r an ia lt r a i t sw e re s e lec ted f o rs t udy o nt h e b a s i so f w he the rp ub l i shed s ou r ce sr e vea l ag ood u nde r s tand ing o f t h e i rd eve lopmen t ,t h ey d emon s t ra te p redom ina te ly g ene t ic c on t ro l ,h i gh l e ve lo fi n he r i tab i l i ty , a nd l ow s e n s i t iv i ty t o p a tho log ica lo re nv i ronmen ta l f a c to r sa f f ec t ing t h e ir o ccu r rence f r equency ,a nd c ompa rab le d a ta e x i s t . T hese t r a i t s ,n ame ly m e top i sm , s up rao rb i ta l s t ruc tu r e s , l ambdo id o s s ic le s ,s ag i t ta lo s s ic le s ,a nd i n ca b one w e r er e co rded b y p re sence -ab sence ,f o l low ing H ause ra nd D eS t efano ( 1989 ) . T he p e r cen tage sr e f lec tt h eo b served o ve rt h eo b se rvab le , t h a ti st h en umbe ro fi n d iv idua l s w ho d i sp lay t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic o ve rt h en umbe ro fi nd iv idua l sw ho se b one p r ese rva t ion i ss uch t h a tt h i sc ha rac ter i s t ic c ou ld b e o b se rved .

T he l i f et a b le w a sc ompu ted a sf o l low s( f rom U be lake r 1 989 ) : xr e p re sen t st h et o ta ls pan o fy ea r sc on ta ined i ne a ch a ge i n te rva l . Dxr ep re sen t st h et o ta ln umbe ro fd ea th si ne a ch a ge i n te rva l ,w h ich i sg i ven a s ap e r cen tage o ve rt h et o ta l d ea th sb yc /x.T he s u rv ivo r sf o re a ch i n te rva l ( 1 )a r e c ompu ted b ys ub t rac t ing t h ep e r cen tage o fd ea th si ne a ch i n te rva lf r om t h et o ta ln umbe ro fs u rv ivo r se n te r ing t h a t i n te rva l .T he i n i t ia ln umbe ro fs u rv ivo r s i s1 00 . T he p robab i l i ty o fd ea th ( qx)i sc ompu ted b yd i v id ing t h e p e r cen tage o fd ea th si nt h a ti n te rva lb yt h es u rv ivo r so ft h a t i n te rva l .T he v a lue o f Lxi sd e te rm ined b y :

Me top i sm ,t h ef i r s tc r an ia ln on -me t r ic t r a i tt h a tw a s r e co rded ,i st h er e ten t ion o ft h em e top ic s u tu r ea f te rt h ea ge o ft wo y ea r s . L ike o t he rc r an ia l s u tu re s ,t h em e top ic s u tu re s e rve sa sa n a r ea t h a tp e rm i t sb one g row th . A tb i r th i ti ss t i l l s epa ra te b u ta f te rt h en i n th p o s tna ta l mon th i tb eg in st ou n i te a nd , i ng ene ra l ,b yt h es e cond o rt h i rd y ea ro fl i f eo b l i te ra t ion i sc omp le te ( Hau se ra nd D eS t ef ano 1 989 ) . D eve lopmen ta l d e lay o ft h ep r ecu r so r so ft h ef r on ta l b one i nt h e b la s tema l s t age c an p reven tt h em e top ic s u tu r e f r om f u s ing e i the r

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r e spon se t ov a r ious t ype so fa nem ia a nd i n c rea sed p roduc t ion

c omp le te ly o rp a r t ia l ly ( Ba rne s 1 994 ) . A cco rd ing t og ene t ic s t ud ies ,m e top i sm i st ob ec on s ide red ah e red i ta ry c ha rac te r a l though t h eh e r i tab i l i ty e s t ima te sa r en o te xp l ic i t .

o fr e d b lood c e l l s ( La r sen 1 995b ) . I na r cha eo log ica lr ema in s , w h i le e a r ly s t ud ie se mpha s ized h e r ed i ta ry a nem ia s( Hu s sA shmo re e ta t . 1 982 ) ,c u r ren tr e sea r ch h a s a t t r ibu ted t h e se l e s ion s mo s t ly t oi r on d ef ic iency a nem ia c au sed b yi r on -poo r d i e t , p a ra s i t ism ,a nd o the rc h ron ic s t re s so r st h a ti n f luence i r on m e tabo l ism . A l though p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i s a nd c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia a r ep re sen ti no l dj uven i le sa nd a du l t si n a r chaeo log ica lr ema in s , mo s ti n d iv idua ls w i th a c t ive l e s ion s a r eu nde rf i ve y ea r so fa ge ( La r sen 1 997 ) , w h i le t h em a jo r i ty o fa du l t c a ses a r er emode led a nd h ea led . T hu s ,t h i sa ge p a t te rn i n d ica te st h a tt h e l e s ion s f o rm d u r ing c h i ldhood ( S tua r t -Ma cadam 1 985 ) . P o ro t ic h ype ro s to s is a nd c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia a r en o tt h em se lves d i agno s t ic o f as pec if ic a nem ia , t h ey a r e , n eve r the le s s , au sefu lt oo l f o ri n ve s t iga t ing n u t r i t iona l s t re s si na r cha eo log ica lp opu la t ion s w i th in t h e c on tex to fa ne co log ica l a na ly s i so f ag roup 's t o ta la dap ta t ion ( Hu s s -A shmo r ee ta l . 1 982 ) .

Med ia ls up rao rb i ta lf o ramen a nd s up rao rb i ta ln o tch w e re r e co rded . B o th s t ruc tu r e ss e rve f o rt h ep a s sage o fv e s se l sa nd n e rve sf r om t h eo rb i tt ot h ef o r ehead a nd t h ee a r ly man if e s ta t ion o ft h e se t r a i t s s ugge s t st h ee x i s tence o fa g ene t ic b ackg round t ot h e i re xp r e s s ion a nd d i f f e ren tg row th p a t ter n so fn e rves a nd v e s se l s ,c onnec t ive t i s sue a nd b one . E x t ra o s s ic les (Wo rm ian b one s ) a r ec ommon ly f ound w i th in t h e l ambdo ida l s u tu r ea nd o cca s iona l ly w i th in o the rc r an ia l s u tu r es . S u tu r eo ss ic le sg ene ra l ly d eve lop i nr e spon se t o g ene t ic p rog ramm ing b u tt h ey c an a l so f o rm w i th in t h e s u tu r e m emb rane sa f te rt h ef o rma t ion o ft h eb l a s tema l c r an ia l b one s( Ba rne s 1 994 ,H au se ra nd D eS tef ano 1 989 ) . T hu s , a l though t h ey a r eg ene t ica l ly d e te rm ined , e nv i ronmen ta lf a c to r sm ay a f f ec tt h e i r man if e s ta t ion .

O ne o ft h e mo s tf r equen t i n f ec t ion p roce s se s i nh uman si s d en ta l c a r ie s . " Den ta l c a r ie si s ad i sea se p roce s s i n vo lv ing l o ca ld em ine ra l iza t ion o fd en ta lh a rd t i s sue sb yo rgan ic a c id s p roduced b yb a c te r ia l f e rmen ta t ion o fd i e ta ry c a rbohyd ra te s , e spec ia l ly s uga r s" ( La r sen 1 987 , 1 995b ) . T he mo s t f r equen t ly o b served d en ta lg row th d ef ec t s a r ee name l h ypop la s ia s , w h ich a r ed ef ic ienc ie so fe name le xp r es sed a s c i r cumf e ren t ia l l i ne s , g roove so rp i t sr e su l t ing f r om t h ed ea th o rr educed f unc t ion o fe name l -p roduc ing c e l l s ( ame lob la s t s ) a nd f a i lu re t of o rm e name lm a t r ix . As u i te o fc au se so f e name ld ef ec t sh ave b een i d en t if ied , i n c lud ing v a r iou s i n f ec t ious d i sea se sa nd n u t r i t iona ld ef ic ienc ie s . S tud ie so f l i v ing p opu la t ion sd emon s t ra te as t rong l i nk w i th n u t r i t iona l s t a tu s . A l though m any s t ud ies o fp hy s io log ica l s t r e s si n p reh i s to r ic a g r icu l tu ra l is t si d en t ify n u t r i t ion a s ap r ima ry c au se , mo s ta cknow ledge t h ei mpo r tan ts yne rgy b e tween p oo rd i e ta nd i n f ec t ion : U nder nou r i shed i n d iv idua l sa r e mo re p rone t oi n f ec t ion , a nd i n f ec t ion d e t r imen ta l ly a f f ec t s n u t r i t iona l s t a tu s ( La r sen 1 995b ,G oodman a nd R o se 1 990 , 1 991 ) .

O cca s iona l ly ,t h ei n te rpa r ie ta la nd s up raocc ip i ta lp o r t ion so f t h e o cc ip i ta lb one d on o tu n i te a tt h ep r emo rd ia l ( mendoza ) s u tu r et h a ts epa ra te st h em a tt h es upe r io rn ucha ll i ne a nd t h e i n te rpa r ie ta lb ecome s as epa ra te b one ,u sua l ly r e f e r r ed t oa s t h e i n ca b one b ecau se i tw a sc ommon ly o ccu r r ing i nS ou th Ame r ican I nd ian s( Ba rne s 1 994 ) . G ene t ic s t ud ie s s ugge s ta s t rong g ene t ic b a s i sf o rt h ei n he r i tab i l i ty o ft h i st r a i t . P a l eopa tho logy S eve ra lp a tho log ica lc ond i t ion sc r ea te a l te ra t ion so nt h e b one s , i n d ica to r so ft h e se c ond i t ion s . P a tho log ica l c ond i t ion s w e re i d en t if ied f o l low ing O r tne ra nd P u t scha r( 1985 ) , R esn ick ( 1995 ) , B u ik s t ra a nd U be lake r( 1994 ) , a nd T y son a nd A lcau ska s( 1980 ) . A l l o b se rva t ion s w e r em ade u nde rn o rma ll i gh tc ond i t ion s w i thou tt h e a i do fm ic ro scopy . T he p a tho log ica lc ond i t ion s w e r er e co rded b yp r e sence -ab sence .A ga in ,t h ep e r cen tage s r e f lec tt h eo b se rved o ve rt h eo b se rvab le ,t h a ti st h en umbe r o fe l emen t s ,w h ich d i sp lay t h ec ha ra c ter i s t ic o ve rt h et o ta l n umbe ro ft h es ame e l emen t .A no the rt a b le s hows t h e n umbe ro fo b se rva t ion sf o re a ch c ond i t ion o ve rt h em in imum n umbe ro fi n d iv idua l s . I nt h e c a se o ft h e a nem ic a l te ra t ion s , e xcep tf o rt h ep resen ce o fl e s ion s ,t h ed eg r ee o fs eve r i ty w a s a l so r e co rded .

A n temo r tem t oo th l o s si sc au sed b y ar ange o ff a c to r s i n c lud ing d en ta lc a r ie s ,p e r iodon ta l i n f ec t ion o rt r auma , h oweve r , i ti sd i f f icu l tt oi d en t ify t h e s pec if ic c au se i n mo s t i n s tance s . C a lcu lu so rd en ta l p l aque c on s i s t so f m ic roo rgan ism sa ccumu la ted i nt h e mou th a nd i mbedded i n am a t r ix c ompo sed o ft h eo rgan i sm st h em se lve sa nd p a r t ly d e r ived f r om p ro te in si nt h e s a l iva . A b sce s sf o rma t ion c an o ccu rt h rough t h ee xpo su re o ft h ep u lp c av i ty f r om a t t r i t ion , c a r ie s ,t r auma o rp e r iodon ta ld i sea se , w h ich i n i t ia te t h e i n f i l t ra t ion o fb a c te r ia i nt h ep u lp c av i ty a nd c ause t h e f o rma t ion o f ap u sc av i ty i n to t h ej aw b one s .

S pec i f ica l ly ,o b serva t ion sw e re m ade f o rp o ro t ic h ype ros to s is a nd c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia f o ri d en t if ica t ion o fa nem ia , p er io s tea lr e a c t ion f o ri n f lamma to ry r e spon se ,o s teoa r th r i t i s a nd mu scu lo ske le ta ls t r e s s ma rke r sf o rw o rk load a nd a c t iv i ty ,c r an ia l i n ju r ie s( d ep re s sed f r a c tu r e s )a nd p o s tc ran ia l f r ac tu re sf o rt r auma ,d en ta lc a r ie s ,a n temor tem t oo th l o s s , a nd d en ta l w ea rf o rd en ta lh ea l th a nd u se ,a nd e name ld ef ec t s ( l inea re name lh ypop la s ia s ) f o rp hy s io log ica ls t re s s . A na ly t ica l ly ,s i eve l ike c r an ia l l e s ion si nt h ee ye o rb i t s ( c a l led c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia )a nd f l a tv au l tb one s( c a l led p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s is ) ,t yp ica l ly a r e a ccompan ied b ye xpanded b l oodf o rm ing m a r row a nd i n d ica te t h a tt h ec ond i t ion r ep r e sen t sa

D en ta l a t t r i t ion i sn o t ad i sea se p e rs eb u t an a tu ra lr e su l to f t h ep roce s s ing o ff ood w i th m a s t ica t ion a st e e th c ome i n to c on ta c t w i th f ood a nd w i th e a ch o the r . T he w ea rr a te sa r e h i gh ly i n f luenced b yt h ec on s i s ten cy a nd t h et e x tu r eo ff ood , t h e m anne ro fi t sp r epa ra t ion , a nd t h ee x i s tence o fa b ra s ive e l emen t s i ni t .

2 9

K rogman a nd I s can ( 1986 ) . T he f o l low ing d imen s ion s w e r e t a ken : a )v er t ica l f emo ra l h ead d i ame te r ,b )f emo ra l b i condy la rb r ead th , c )t i b ia l p rox ima le p iphy s i sb r ead th , d )t i b ia ld i s ta le p iphy s i s b r ead th ,e ) max imum r a d ia l h ead d i ame te r , 0v e r t ica l h ume ru sh ead d iame te r ,a nd g )h umer u s e p icondy la rb r ead th .

" Os teoa r th r i t is i s ad i so rde ri n vo lv ing t h em echan ica l d egene ra t ion o fs k e le ta la r t icu la t ion s ,r e su l t ing i nb u i ld ing o f b one a l ong j o in tm a rg in s ( l ipp ing ) , l o ss o fb one o nj o in t s u r f a ce so r ac omb ina t ion o fb o th" ( La r sen 1 995b ) . O s teoa r th r i t ic c hange so fv er teb ra ld i sk sr e su l ti nl i pp ing o r o s teophy to s is . B ecau se d egene ra t ive c hange si nj o in t sr e su l t m a in ly f r om p hy s ica ld emands , t h e i rp reva lence i np a s t p opu la t ion sp rov ide sa ne s t ima te o fp a s ta c t iv i ty p a t te rn s . A lso , S chmo r l 's n odes a r e a s soc ia ted w i th o s teophy to s i sa nd d egene ra t ion o ft h ei n te rve r teb ra ld i sk si nw h ich t h ed i sk c on ten t se xe r tp r e s su re o nt h ev e r teb ra l b ody s u r fa ce s .

S ta ture e s t ima t ion B efo re t h ed e te rm ina t ion o fs t a tu r e i nt h e s e r ie s ,t h e d i sc r im inan t f unc t ion t e chn ique w a s u sed i no rde rt o d e te rm ine t h e s e xo ft h e l o ng b ones . S ta tu r ee s t ima t ion w a s c onduc ted u s ing t h ea va i lab le l o ng b one s( h umeru s , u lna , r a d ius ,f emu r ,t i b ia , f i bu la ) , a cco rd ing t ot h ef o rmu la so f T ro t te r( 1970 )f o rw h i te m a le sa nd f ema le s . Wheneve rt h e b one w a s i n comp le te , b u tt h ec omp le te l e ng th c ou ld e a s i ly a nd a ccu ra te ly e s t ima ted ,t h ee s t ima t ion w a sg i ven i n p a ren the se s . When t h e s ex c ou ld n o tb ed e te rm ined , s t a tu re w a sd er ived a st h ea ve rage o ft h ec o r respond ing e s t ima te sf o r ma les a nd f ema le s .

O the rd egene ra t ive c ond i t ion so b se rved i nt h e s e r ie s i n c lude e n the sopa th ie s . E n the sopa th ies ,o s s if ied t e ndon a nd mu sc le i n ser t ion s ,d eve lop a s ar e su l to fp ro longed a nd e xce s s ive muscu la ra c t iv i ty ,a nd t h e i rl o ca t ion o nt h es ke le ton g i ve sa n i n d ica t ion o fh ab i tua la c t iv i t ie s i n vo lv ing s pec if ic mu sc le s . S im i la r ly , i n d ica t ive o fa na c t ive l i f e s ty le b u tn o ty e t p a tho log ica l ,a r em a rked musc le i n se r t ion so nb one s .T hey a r e c on s ide r ed t ob e long t ot h es ame c a tego ry o f n a uscu lo ske le ta ls t re s sm a rke r sa s ap r eced ing s t age o ft h e p a tho log ica le n the sopa th ie s .

R ad iograph i ca na ly s i s As ma l l n umbe ro fb one s w e r es e lec ted f o rr ad iog raph ic a na lys i si no rde rt oa n swe rs ome v e ry s pec i f ic q ue s t ion s : a ) t ov e r ify t h ef r a c tu re so b se rved b yv i sua l i n spec t ion , a nd b )t od e te rm ine i ft h e re w e r e i n c iden t so fo s teopen ia o r g row th a r re s tl i nes , w h ich c ou ld b er e la ted w i th a nem ic c ond i t ion so ro t he rn u t r i t iona ld ef ic ienc ie sa nd /o rg row th d i s tu rbances . S pec ia lc a r e w a st a ken t os e lec t l o ng b one s f r om i n d iv idua l st h a te xh ib i ted c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia o rp o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i sa nd ,a l so ,t oi n c lude b o th a du l ta nd s ubadu l t i n d iv idua l s . T he b one sw e r e s p l i ti n to t h r ee a ge g roup s ( l e s s t h an f i ve , 5t o1 8 , a du l t s ) a nd b one so fs im i la ra ge a nd , t h e refo r e , s im i la rd en s i ty , w ep u to n t h e s ame p l a te .

P e r io s tea lr e ac t ion i st h ei n f lamma t ion o ft h ep e r io s teum , i n c lud ing p e r io s tea le xpan s ion a nd r e ac t ive s u r fa ce s , a nd i ti s c aused b y av a r ie ty o fn on spec if ic r e a son s , s uch a si n f ec t ion o rl o ca l ized t r auma . P os tcran ia lm ea sur emen t sa nd s hapes V a r ious m ea su r emen t sw e re t a ken f r om w ho le l o ng b one si n o rde rt oo b ta in t h er obu s t ic i ty a nd p i la s te r ic i n dexe sa sw e l l a st od raw b ehav io ra l i n f e r ence s . F o rb o th r obu s t ic i ty a nd p i la s te r ic i n dexe st h ef o l low ing m ea su remen t sw e r et a ken f r om c omp le te o ra lmo s tc omp le te f emo ra : max imum l e ng th , m id sha f tm ed io la te ra lb r ead th , m id shaf tc i rcumf e r ence ,a nd m id sha f ta n te ropo s te r io rb r ead th . T he r obus t ic i ty i n dex ( R I ) w a sc a lcu la ted b y :

D ie tary a na lys i s S tab l eI so tope A na l y s i s

T he s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s is i sb a sed o nt h ep r em ise " you a r e w ha t y ou e a t " ( DeN i ro a nd E p s te in 1 978 , 1 981 ; v an d e r f emur l e ng th Me rwe a nd V oge l 1 978 ; N on 1 995 ; Amb ro se a nd N on 1 993 , Amb ro se e ta l . 1 997 ) . F i e ld a nd l a bo ra to ry s t ud ies h ave s hown t h a ts t ab le i s o tope r a t io so fb o th c a rbon ( 1 3 C/ 1 2 C) t h ep i la s ter ic i n dex ( P I )w a sc a lcu la ted b y : a nd n i t rogen (1 5 w 4N — )i nt i ssue s , i n c lud ing b one , r ef lec t s im i la rr a t io si nt h ed i e t( Amb ro se a nd N on 1 993 , D eN i ro b read th a nd E p s te in 1 978 , 1 981 , S choen inge re ta l . 1 983 , P I = " i lx 100 b read tha p S choen inge r 1 989 , NM 1 995 ) . Many f ood sa r e i s o top ica l ly d i s t inc t , a nd w hen c on sumed ,t h e i ri s o top ic c ompo s i t ion i s i n co rpo ra ted i n to b one t i s sue . C er ta in c a tego r ie s o ff ood s a nd t h em id sha f ti n dex w a sc a lcu la ted b y: v a ry p red ic tab ly i nt h e i ri s o top ic c ompo s i t ion , s pec if ica l ly i n t h er a t io so f1 3 C/ 1 2C a nd 1 5N /1 4N , a nd c on t inua l c onsump t ion \I m id shaf tb read th. , xm id shaf tb read th, o f af ood r e su l t s i na na logou sr a t io si nt h e b on e . Ana ly s i so f M I = x 100 b one t i s sue s( c o l lagen a nd a pa t i te )p rov ide si n forma t ion f emur l e ng th a bou tt h ed i e t ,g i ven t h a tt h e a r chaeo log ica lb one i sc a refu l ly p r epa r ed s ot h a tt h er e su l t ing s t ab le i s o tope r a t ios i nt h e b one A dd i t iona l ly ,t h ed i sc r im inan tf unc t ion t e chn ique w a su sed r ef lec tt h ed i e ta nd n o ts o i l o rp l an tc on tam inan ts . V a luab le i no rde rt od e te rm ine t h e s ex o fl o ng b ones f o l low ing d i e ta ry i n fo rma t ion c an b e o b ta ined b yt h e a na lys is o ft h e R I

=m id shaf tb read th„ +m id shaf tb read th a p

3 0

s t ab le c a rbon a nd n i t rogen i s o tope so fc o l lagen , w h ich i st h e o rgan ic m a te r ia lo fb one ,t h ep r ima ry b one p ro te in . I s o tope v a lues d e r ived f r om b one s amp le sa r er epo r ted h e r ea sa

t h e w ho le e ne rgy o ft h ed i e t ,t h u sc omp lemen t ing t h e c o l lagen a na ly s is .

d e l ta ( 5 )v a lue i np ar t sp e rm i l ( % 0 )r e la t ive t oe s tab l i shed s t anda rd s : f o rc a rbon , am a r ine l ime s tone ( Peedee b e lemn i te , o r PDB ) ,a nd f o rn i t rogen , a tmo sphe r ic n i t rogen ( Amb ien t I nha lab le R e se rvo i r ,o rA IR ) ( C ra ig 1 957 ; S choen inge ra nd Moo r e 1 992 ) .

T he t h i rd s t ep i n my r e sea rch w a st ou se s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i st oe xam ine t h e G reek L a te N eo l i th ic d i e t , s i nce i mp rope rd i e ta nd m a lnu t r i t ion c an i n te r f e re w i th t h eh ea l th s t a tu so fi n d iv idua l sa nd e xp la in p a tho log ica lc ond i t ion s o b served o nh uman s ke le ta lr ema in s . T he u nde r r ep re sen ta t ion o fp l an tr ema in s i nt h e a r cha eo log ica lr e co rd c an l e ad t o ad i s to r ted p i c tu re o fp a s t s ub s i s tence a si tr e la tes t op l an tu se .

( 13 c/ 1 2 c )v amp le

8 1 3c

5 1 5N

( PDB)

( AIR ) =

( 13 c/ 1 2 c )pDB

( 13 c/ 1 2 c )pDB

( 1 5N 11 4N ) , , „ , p i e—( 1 5N 11 4N ) A I R (1 51 \ 11 1 4

X 1000 % 0

X 1000% 0

N) A I R

T he c a rbon i s o tope sa r eu sed t od i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h r ee m a jo rd i e ta ry c a tego r ie s ( Schoen inge ra nd D eN i ro 1 984 ) . F i r s t ,t od i s t ingu i sh c on sume r s o fp l an t s w i th d i f f e r en t p ho to syn the t ic p a thway s , n ame ly c on sume r so f C4 p l an t s ( s uch a st r op ica lg ra s se s , m a ize ,s uga rcane , s o rghum , s ome a ma ran th s , s ome c henopod s )f r om c on sume r so f C3 p l an t s ( s uch a s mo s tl e a fy p l an t s ,t empe ra te g ra s se s l i ke w hea ta nd r i ce , a l t r ee a nd s h rub s , n u ts a nd f r u i t s ) ( Amb ro se 1 987 ) . B ecau se t h ese p l an t sd i f f e ri nt h e i rp ho to syn the t ic p a thway s , t h ey d i f f e ri nt h e amoun to f1 3C t h ey i n co rpo ra te .T he C4 p l an t s , w h ich f i xv i r tua l ly a l la va i lab le a tmo sphe r ic CO 2,a nd t h e a n ima ls a nd p eop le w ho c on sume t h em ,h ave mo re p o s i t ive v a lues ,c l o se t ot h a to ft h ea tmo sphe re ,t h a td i f f e rb y a bou t 1 4% 0f r om C3 p l an t sa nd c on sume r s . S econd ,m a r in e

I no rde rt od eve lop ab roade rp i c tu re o fG r eek N eo l i th ic s ub s i s tence , i n c lud ing b o th c oa s ta l a nd i n land l o ca t ion s ,I e xam ined f i ve d i f f e ren t s i te si na dd i t ion t oA lepo t rypa C ave . T he t h ree c oa s ta l s i te sa r e A lepo t rypa C ave ( Papa thana s iou 1 994 ) , a nd F ranch th i C ave ( Ange l 1 969 , 1 973a ) f r om S ou ther nG r eece ,a nd K epha la ( Ange l i nC o leman 1 977 ) f r om K ea I s land . T he t h ree i n land s i te s a r eT heope t ra ( Kypa r r i s s i -Apo s to l ika 1 995 ) a nd T ha r roun ia ( S t ravopod i 1 993 )f r om c en t ra lG reece ,a nd K ouve le ik i( S t ravopod i , p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) f r om s ou the rn G r eece . C o l l ec t ion o fs ke l e ta ls amp l e s T he c r i te r ia f o rs e lec t ing t h ese s i t e s w e re a )g eog raph ica l l o ca t ion ( i n land a nd c oa s ta l ) ,b )a va i lab i l i ty o fe xcava t ion r e co rd s ,c )a dequa te a moun t so fh uman s ke le ta lr ema in s , d )g ood p re serva t ion o ft h eo s teo log ica l m a te r ia l , e )p ub l ica t ion o fa no s teo log ica l a na ly s i s , a nd 0t ime r ange ( La te a nd F ina lN eo l i th ic ) . Is amp led h uman b one sb e long ing t os eve ra ld i f f e r en t i n d iv idua l st oa vo id b i a se s i nt h e a na ly s i s . T he s ex a nd a ge o ft h e i n d iv idua l w e re r e co rded w heneve rp o s s ib le . I na ne f fo r tn o tt oi n te r f e r e w i th o t he r s t ud ie s ,o n ly n on -pa tho log ica l b one w a s s amp led f r om n on d i agno s t ic p a r t so ft h e s pec if ic b one . H ighe s tp r ef e ren ce w a s g i ven t os amp le sf r om f emu ra ,t h en t h eo t h e rl ong b one s , a nd f i na l ly f r om r i b s . T he w o rk w a sd one i nc oope ra t ion w i th t h e r e sea r che r s l e ad ing t h ee xcava t ion e f fo r t sa tt h ese s i te s .

f i sh a nd m amma l sh ave mo re p o s i t ive 51 3C v a lue sc ompa r ed t ot e r re s t r ia l C3 f ood s ,a nd l e s sp o s i t ive v a lue st h an t e r r e s t r ia l C4 f ood s . C a rbon i s o tope r a t io s w i l ld i s t ingu i sh b e tween ma r ine d i e t sa nd e i the r C3 o r C4 d i e t s ,b u tn o tb e tween ma r ine d i e t sa nd am ix tu re o f C3 a nd C4 d i e t s . N i t rogen i s o tope sp rov ide i n forma t ion a bou tf ood r e sou rce s t h a tc omp lemen t st h a to fc a rbon i s o tope s . T he i s o tope ' 5N a ccumu la te sa l ong t h ef ood c ha in f r om s o i lt oh e rb ivo r e sa nd t oc a rn ivo re s , w h i le m a r ine e nv i ronmen t sh ave h i ghe r' 5N v a lue st h an t e r re s t r ia lo ne s ( Amb ro se 1 987 , M inagawa a nd Wada 1 984 ) .T hu s ,n i t rogen i s o tope r a t io sc an b eu sed t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween m a r ine a nd t e r r e s t r ia lp ro te in c on sump t ion , w i th c on sume r so ft e r r es t r ia l f ood sg ene ra l ly b e ing l e s sp o s i t ive t h an c on sume r so f ma r ine f ood s .T he r e a r e e xcep t ion st ot h is p a t te rn b u tt h ey a r en o tr e levan th e r e .

T he h uman s amp le f o ri s o top ic a na ly s i sc on s i s t so f9 1 s pec imen s , i n c lud ing 1 6i n d iv idua l sf r om A lepo t rypa , 1 8 f r om F ranch th i , 1 8f r om K epha la , 1 4 f r om T heope t ra , 2 0 f r om T ha r roun ia , a nd 5f r om K ouve le ik i . I no rde rt oi n te rp re t c o r rec t ly t h ei s o top ic r e su l t s , s amp le s f r om moder na nd a r chaeo log ica lf ood s w e re t a ken t od e te rm ine t h e i s o top ic c ompo s i t ion o ft h e p o ten t ia lf ood r e sou rce s . T he v a lues a r e a d ju s ted b y+ 1 .5% 0f o r 51 3C t oc ompen sa te f o r1 2C e n r ichmen t i nt h e mode rn a tmo sphe re f o rm odern s amp le s . F o ra r chaeo log ica l f a una l s amp le s ,t h ev a lue so f 51 5N a r e a d ju s ted b y+ 0 .6% 0a nd 51 3C v a lue sb y— 2 .4% nt or ep r e sen t t h ei s o top ic c ompo s i t ion o ft h ee d ib le f l e sh ( Amb ro se e ta l . 1 997 ,N on 1 995 ) .T he s t ab le c a rbon a nd n i t rogen i s o tope v a lues f o rt h e se f ood s w i l lb eu sed i nt h ee va lua t ion o ft h e i s o tope r e su l t s f r om t h eh uman m a te r ia l . T he f a una l a nd f l o ra l s amp le c on s is ted o f3 1 s pec imen s , i n c lud ing 1 3 a r chaeo log ica la n ima lb ones f r om b o th h e rb ivo re sa nd c a rn ivo re s( s heep ,g oa t ,c ow , p i g ,d ee r ,d og ,f i sh ) , a nd 1 8

I na dd i t ion ,t h ec a rbon i s o tope r a t io so fc a rbona te i nb one a pa t i te c an p rov ide a dd i t iona l d i e ta ry i n fo rma t ion a sw e l l a s c o r robo ra te t h er e su l t so ft h e b one c o l lagen a na ly s is ( Non 1 995 , S u l l ivan a nd K ruege r 1 983 , Amb ro se a nd N on 1 993 , S choen inge ra nd D eN i ro 1 983 , Amb ro se e ta l . 1 997 ) . E xpe r imen ta l s t ud ie sh ave s hown t h a tb one c o l lagen r ef lec t s t h ep ro te in i n take o ft h ed i e tt o ag r ea te re x ten t , mo s tl i ke ly d ue t oe s sen t ia l a m ino a c id s , w h i le a pa t i te c a rbona te r e f lec t s

3 1

c en t r ifuged ,d ecan ted , a nd r e f re shed u n t i lo rgan ic s w e r e r emoved . F o l low ing n eu t ra l iza t ion w i th d i s t i l led w a te r ,t h e s amp les w e r ep u t i n 1M a ce t ic a c id t or emove n on s t ruc tu ra l c a rbona te s , n eu t ra l ized a ga in , a nd f r eeze -d r ied f o r4 8 h ou r s . We igh t %C o fa pa t i te c a rbona te w a sd e te rm ined b y c ombu s t ing 0 . 5 -1 .0mg o fs amp le i nt h e CNS A na lyze r , a s d e sc r ibed a bove . B one a pa t i te c a rbona te w a sr e a c ted u nde r v acuum w i th 1 00% p ho spho r ic a c id a t9 0 °C i n am u l t ip r ep s y s tem t op roduce CO 2.T he m u l t i -p rep i sa l so i n te r f aced w i th t h e m a s s s pec t rome te rf o ri s o tope r a t io a na ly s i s .

m ode rn f ood s tuf f s( i nc lud ing f r u i t s ,n u t s ,o l ive s ,b e r r ie s , r a bb i t ) . C a r e w a st a ken t oc o l lec t m ode rn s amp les t h a tw e r e f r ee f r om f e r t i l ize r sa nd p es t ic ide s , w h ich d i d n o tp e rm i tt h e c o l lec t ion o fa ny g ra in s . L abora tor ya na ly s i s A f te rt h eh uman a nd n on -human s amp le s w e re c o l lec ted , t h ey w e re t r an spo r ted t ot h e B one C hem is t ry L abo ra to ry , D epa r tmen to fA n th ropo logy o ft h e U n ive r s i ty o fF lo r ida , G a ine sv i l le ,d i r ec ted b yP rof . L yne t te N o r r . S amp le p r epa ra t ion sf o rs t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i s w e re p er fo rmed b y T he re sa S chobe r . T he p repa ra t ion sf o l low p rocedu r e s d e sc r ibed i n Amb ro se ( 1990 ) , Amb ro se a nd N o r r( 1992 ) , H u tch in son a nd N o r r( 1994 ) ,a nd N o n ( 1995 ) .

T oa na lyze d i e t ,b i va r ian tp l o t sa r ep roduced w he r e c a rbon i s o tope v a r ia t ion i sd ep ic ted a l ong t h ex -ax i s a nd d i s t ingu ishe st e r r e s t r ia l C3, m a r ine , a nd t e r r es t r ia l C4 r e sou rce s , a nd n i t rogen i s o tope v a r ia t ion i sd ep ic ted a l ong t h e y -ax i s ,a nd d i s t ingu ishe sb e tween t e r re s t r ia l a nd m a r ine d i e t sa nd r e sou rce s( Hu tch in son a nd N o n 1 994 , No n 1 995 , S choen inge re ta l . 1 990 ) .

T he h uman a nd a n ima lb one s amp le sw e r es c raped c l ean w i th s ca lpe l sa nd s on ica ted i na nu l t ra son ic c l eane rf o ra t l e a s t 5m inu te s . D r ied b one w a st h en g round b yh and i na mo r ta ra nd p e s t le a nd s i eved t o ac oa r se p owde r( 0 .25 t o0 . 5 mm ) f o rc o l lagen e x t rac t ion . A pp rox ima te ly 0 . 75g o fc oa r se b one p owde rw a sd em ine ra l ized i n0 . 2M HC 1 ,r i n sed t o n eu t ra l i ty ,a nd t h en s oaked f o ra pp rox ima te ly 2 0h ou r si n 0 . 125 M N aOH t or emove h um ic a c id s . D e l ica te s amp le st h a t p a r t ia l ly d i s so lved d u r ing s on ica t ion a nd t h o se t h a t d em ine ra l ized e x t reme ly q u ick ly i nw eak a c id , w e re t r ea ted w i th 0 .0625 M N aOH i n s tead . F o l low ing t h is t r ea tmen t , s amp les w e r en eu t ra l ized a ga in a nd s o lub i l ized i n1 0 -3 M HC 1a t9 5 °C f o r 1 0h ou r s . T he s o lub i l ized c o l lagen w a st h en p a s sed t h rough af r i t ted -g la s s f i l te r ,c onden sed , a nd t h en f r eeze -d r ied f o r4 8h ou r s .

C o l lagen r ef lec t st h ed i e ta ry p ro te in a nd a pa t i te r ef lec t st h e e n t i r ed i e t( No r r 1 995 , Amb ro se e ta l . 1 997 ) . T hu s , i n i n te rp re t ing t h ea pa t i te a nd c o l lagen 81 3 Cc a r b o n a i e _ c o l i a g e n v a lues , w ee xpec tt h ed i f f e r ence b e tween t h e b one a pa t i te a nd c o l lagen v a lue st oh ave a )a n i n te rmed ia te s pa c ing w hen t h e d i e ta ry p ro te in a nd e ne rgy s ou r ces h ave as im i la ri s o top ic v a lue ,b ) as ma l ls pa c ing w hen t h e d i e ta ry e ne rgy i s mo r e n ega t ive t h an t h ed i e ta ry p ro te in , a nd c ) al a rge s pac ing w hen t h ed i e ta ry p ro te in i s mo r e n ega t ive t h an t h ed i e ta ry e ne rgy ( No r r 1 995 , Amb ro se e ta l . 1 997 ) . A f te rt h er e su l t so ft h e s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i s h ad b een r epo r ted , as i te p rof i le w a s c on s t ruc ted f o ra l l s i te s , a nd c ompa r ison sb e tween s i tes w e re made .

As i gn if ican ta dvan tage o ft h i st e chn ique i st h ec on t ro l o ve r s amp le p u r i ty ,b ecau se i ti se a sy t or emove t h e m ine ra l c omponen to fb one ,a sw e l l a sl i p id sa nd h um ic c on tam inan t s . H oweve r , b ecau se c o l lagen d ecompo se s s l ow ly a f t e rd ea th , am in imum o f 1 % o ft h eo r ig ina l v a lue mu s t i d ea l ly b ep re sen ti no rde rf o rt h ea na ly s i st ob e v a l id ( Amb ro se a nd N o n 1 993 ) .T h eC /N r a t io a l so p rov ide sa c on t ro lo ve rs amp le q ua l i ty ; i fi ti si nt h er ange 2 . 9 -3 .6 , i t g ene ra l ly r ef lec t st h ei s o top ic c ompo s i t ion o ft h ed i e t ( DeN i ro 1 985 , Amb ro se a nd N on-1 992 , Amb ro se e ta l . 1 997 ) . S amp le c ompo s i t ion a nd m a s ss pec t rome t ry a na ly s is w a sc onduc ted i nt h eD epa r tmen to fG eo logy ' s Ma s s S pec t rome t ry L abo ra to ry b yD r .J a son C u r t i s . A pp rox ima te ly l mg o ff r eeze -d r ied c o l lagen w a s w e ighed i n to t i nb oa t sa nd c ombu s ted b y aC a r lo E rba NA 1 500 CNS A na lyze rt o d e te rm ine %C a nd %N o fe ach s amp le . B a sed o nt h e se p e rcen tage s ,a dd i t iona ls amp le w a sw e ighed ,c ombu s ted t o p roduce CO 2 a nd N2. T he C a r lo E rba i si n te r f aced w i th a M ic roma s s( VG )P R IS M I s t ab le i s o tope m a s ss pec t rome te r w h ich a na lyzed t h eg a ses f o rc a rbon a nd n i t rogen i s o tope r a t io s ,r e spec t ive ly . B one p owde rs i eved t ol e s st h an 0 . 25mm f r om t h ec l eaned a nd c r ushed b one w a su sed f o rh uman b one a pa t i te c a rbona te e x t ra c t ion , f o l low ing t h em e thod d e scr ibed b y L ee -Tho rp e ta l . ( 1989 a nd 1 991) ( Non-1 995 ) . A pp rox ima te ly 0 . 1g o ff i ne p owde rw a sp u t i n5 0% C lo rox s o lu t ion ( a c t ive i n g red ien t : s od ium h ypoch lo r i te ) ,

S ummary I nt h is c hap te rt h e m e thod sa nd s pec if ic t e chn ique st h a t w e r e f o l lowed i nt h i sr e sea rch a r ep r e sen ted : a )t h e c l a s s if ica t ion c r i te r ia o ft h ef une ra ry p rac t ice so b se rved i nA lepo t rypa i n t e rm so ft ype ( i nc lud ing f o rm o fd i spo sa l ,i n d iv idua l i ty , a r t icu la t ion ,p o s i t ion ,d epo s i t ion ,o r ien ta t ion , a nd b ody p repa ra t ion ) ,c on tex t , s pace ,t ime , a nd t h e i ri n te r r e la t ion s , b ) t h e m e thodo logy o ft h eo s teo log ica l a na lys i s , n ame ly t h e p rocedu re sf o l lowed a f te rt h ee xcava t ion o ft h e m a te r ia l s , a nd t h e m e thod s f o re s t ima t ing t h e m in imum n umbe ro f i n d iv idua l s , s ex ,a ge a td ea th , l i f et a b le ,c r an ia l ,d en ta l a nd p o s tc ran ia lp a tho log ies ,c ran ia ln on -me t r ic t r a i t s ,r obu s t ic i ty , p i la s te r ic , m id shaf ti n dexes , s t a tu r e , a nd d i sc r im inan t f unc t ion a na ly s i s , a nd c )t h et h eo r e t ica l b ackg round o ft h e s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i sa nd ad e sc r ip t ion o ft h ep roce s sf r om s amp l ing a nd d a ta c o l lec t ion t ot h e s pec if ic p rocedu re so ft h e l a bo ra to ry a na ly se s .

3 2

mand ib le , i n d ica tes t h a tt h ey w e re b rough tt ot h eo ssua ry f r om ad i sa r t icu la ted s ke le ton . O ssuary I O ssua ry Ii sl o ca ted i nt h ef i r s tc hamber o ft h ec ave ,a tt h e n o r th p a r to fC hambe r Ai n an i che i n ad ec l in ing l e ve l , a d jacen tt ot h ec ave w a l la nd i tw a sp a r t ly e xcava ted i n1 970 1 971 ( s ee F igu re 2 ) . A dd i t iona le xcava t ion i n1 994 h a s r e ached t h eo r ig ina l n a tu ra l f l oo ri n as ma l lp ar to ft h e o s sua ry . O s sua ry Ii s mo re e x ten s ive a nd t h icke rt han O ssua ry I ( F igu re 5 ) . T he p i c tu re i so fa ne no rmous , d i sa r t icu la ted ma ss o fh uman b ones ,c r an ia l a nd p o s tc ran ia l , p acked t oge the r , w i th o n ly s ma l l q uan t i t ies o fs o i l among t h em . N oo the ra r t if ac t s w e re r e covered e xcep tf o ro cca s iona l p o t s he rds , w h ich s e em t ob eh ab i ta t iona ld ebr is r a ther t h an g rave g oods . T he o n ly of e r ing sa s soc ia ted w i th t h e b u r ia ls a r et h es ku l ls o ft wo d og sa nd t h e mand ib le o f ac ow o r p o ss ib ly ad onkey , w h ich s e em t oi n ten t iona l ly a ccompany t h ed ead :S ome b ones , a sw e l l a s as ku l l , s e em t ob e s u r rounded b y ac i rc le o fs t one s ,p robab ly i n ten t iona l , a si n O s sua ry I . When e xcava t ion c on t inued a t as ma l l p o in ta t t h en o r the rn e dge o ft h eo ssua ry ,a nd a t al owe rl e ve l , i nt h e s ame s t ra tum , ac h i ld s ke le ton w a su ncove red . I t sb ones w e re g a the red t oge the r , b u tt h ey w ere n o ta r t icu la ted ,t h ey r e s ted o n al a yer o fs t ones o nt h e i rf l a t s i de , a nd t h ey w e re p ropped w i th w e l l -a r ranged s t ones .

CHAPTER 5 . RESULTS D e scr ip t ion o fe xcava t iona ld a ta O s suary I I nt h ef our th c hamber o fA lepo t rypa C ave ( F igu r e 2 ) , i nt h e a r ea sn umbe red 9a nd 1 0 , a ne x ten s ive o s sua ry w a s u ncovered af ew c en t ime te r sb e low t h e s u r f ace w h ich c on ta ined 1 4 s ku l ls a nd n umerous o the rh uman c r an ia l a nd p o s tc ran ia l b ones ( F igu res 3a nd 4 ) . T he o ssua ry i sl o ca ted a t t h ef oo to f al a rge b ou lde r , wh ich f e l li n to p lace b efo re t h e c r ea t ion o ft h eo ssua ry . T he w e s ter ne dge o ft h eo s sua ry c anno tb ea ccu ra te ly d e te rm ined b ecau se i th a sb een d es t royed b yc ons t ruc t ion w o rk ,b u tt h e n o r the rn , n o r thea s te rn a nd s ou the rn b o rde r sa r ew e l ld ef ined b yt h e w a l ls o ft h ec ave . O ssua ry I c on s i s t so ft wo ma in l a yer s . T he u ppe rl a ye ri so fb rown s o i la nd 2 5 cm t h ick . I tc on ta ined n o a r t if ac ts o rb ones . T he s e cond l a ye rw a so fd a rk b rown s o i l a nd 2 0 cm t h ick . I tc on ta ined s t ones ,p o t te ry s he rds a nd a n ima l b ones . I nt h e l owe rp a r to ft h is l a ye r ,t r ace so fs ma l l f i res a nd t h eb a ses o fl a rge p o t s ,o ne o nt op o ft h eo the r , w e re f ound , a l ong w i th h uman s ku l ls a nd o the rn on -a r t icu la ted a nd u n re la ted h uman p os tc ran ia lb one s . S ome o ft h e s ku l ls w e re a tt imes e nc i rc led b ys t ones i no rder t o moun ta nd s epa ra te t h e s ku l l sf r om e ach o the r . T he s ku l ls ,t h ec i rcu la rs t one s t ruc tures , a nd t h ep o t te ry b a ses w e re a l lf ound i na p rev iou s ly p repa red f l oo ro fs ma l l s t ones o fv e ry d a rk c o lo r . T he e xcava to r sc onc luded t h a tt h e s ku l ls w e re b u r ied t h e re a t t h e s ame t ime a nd t h en c ove red b ys o i l , a nd t h a tt h e w ho le o s sua ry r e f lec ts o ne b u r ia l i n c iden t ( Papa thana s sopou lo s 1 971c ) . Af ew o the ra r t if ac t s h ave b een f ound w i th in t h e o ssua ry s uch a s as ma l ln umbe ro fp o tshe rd sa nd ah and a xe ( Papa thana s sopou los 1 971c ,L amber t 1 971 , 1 972 ) . Howeve r , i ti sd i f f icu l tt od i s t ingu ish i ft h ey w e re i n ten t iona l g rave g ood so rh ab i ta t iona l d ebr is f o r tu i tous ly m ixed w i th t h e b u r ia l .

U nde rnea th t h is c h i ld s ke le ton , as e cond s t ra tum c ame t o l i gh tc on s i s t ing o ft h e mos t ly a r t icu la ted b u r ia lo fa no ther c h i ld ,a ga in o n ap repa red f l oo ro fs t ones a nd w i th c a refu l p ropp ing a nd c over ing o ft h e b u r ia l w i th s t ones ,a nd w i th t h e f l a ts i de f a c ing t h e b ones . F ina l ly ,a f te rt h er emova lo ft h e b ones a nd t h e s t one st h e l a s t s t ra tum w a su ncove red . O nt h e n a tu ra l r o ck o ft h ec ave ,a f te rs moo th ing s ome g rooves w i th s o i la nd s ma l l s t ones , at i ny h eap o fb ones b e long ing t o n ewbor nt w in s w a sl a id . A round t h em s ome o the ru n re la ted b ones w e re f ound . T hu s , w ec an c onc lude t h a tt h e s pace o f t h eo s sua ry h ad b een r epea ted ly u sed t h rough t ime f o r s ucces s ive d i sposa l s , n o ta lway sf o rs e conda ry b u r ia ls ,b u t a lways a s ab ur ia l s i te ,p robab ly s a c red . I n many i n s tances s pec ia la t ten t ion h ad b een g iven t ot h eb one sb yc a refu l ly p ropp ing t h em w i th s t ones o r /and l a y ing t h em o n ap repa red f l oo r made o fw e l l a r ranged s t ones .

T he re i sc on s ide rab le e v idence t h a tO ssua ry I c on ta ins a s e conda ry b u r ia l a nd t h a t i tr ep resen t st h ef i na l s t age o fa c ompound d i sposa l . O ssua ry I , i nt e rm so fi n d iv idua l ism a nd a r t icu la t ion ,c an b ec ha rac ter ized a s ad i sa r t icu la ted ma ss , whe re c r an ia l b ones r ep resen ta tl e a s tt w ice t h e n umbe ro fi n d iv idua ls t ha tp o s tc ran ia l b ones d o ,t h us , p o in t ing t o as e lec t ive r ebu r ia l , w he re p ref e rence w a sg iven t ot h es ku l l . R oden tg naw ma rk so nh uman b one si n d ica te t ha t f o l low ing d ea th t h e i nd iv idua ls r ep resen ted b yt h ese r ema in sh ad b een e xpo sed o rt empo ra r i ly b u r ied i ns ome o the rl o ca t ion a nd t h en t r an spo r ted t ot h ec ave f o rf i na l d i spo sa l i nt h eo ssua ry . D epo s i t ion o ft h e s ku l ls i n av er t ica l p os i t ion o nt h eb a se o ft h ec r an ium , u sua l ly w i thou tt h e

C r ema t ion Ap robab le c a se o fc r ema t ion h a sa l so b een r evea led i nt h e A lepo t rypa c ave . I ti st h ec a se o ft h ec r ema t ion o ft wo c h i ld ren , w h ich s eem st oh ave o ccu r red d u r ing ar i tua lt h a t i n vo lved t h eb reak ing o f ama ss ive q uan t i ty o fp o t te ry a bove t h em . T h is i s ad i s t inc tc e remony a nd i to ccup ie s as ma l l , r emo te , i n access ib le n i che i nt h e i nne r mo s tp a r to ft h ec ave , r i gh ta tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e l a rge s tc hambe ro ft h ec ave ,t h e c hambe ro ft h e l a kes . Two c h i ld ren o fo ne -and -a -ha lf a nd t h ree -and -a -ha lf y ea r so ld or namen ted w i th s he l lb eads w e re l a id o nt h e s t a lagm i t ic f l oo ra nd t h en c ove red b yh uge amoun t so fb roken p o t te ry b o th o fe ve ry d ay u se a nd ma in ly 3 3

o fm a t te p a in ted d eco ra t ion . T he f i nd ing c on s is ted o f as i ng le s t ra tum a bove t h es t er i le l a ye r . T he h uman s ke le ta lr ema in s a r ev e ry f ew ,t h ey a r ec er ta in ly a s soc ia ted w i th a sh d epo s i t s b u tt h ey s e em o n ly s upe r f ic ia l ly b ur n t .

b ody p repa ra t ion ,v eh ic le o fd i spo sa l o rs pec if ic o r ien ta t ion o ft h e b ody h a sb een n o t iced .

S ing l ep r imar yb ur ia l s

I ti sd i f f icu l tt od i s t ingu ish i n ten t iona l g rave g ood sf r om h ab i ta t iona ld eb r i si n c luded i nt h e f i l l ing o ft h e g rave sb u t p o t s he rd sa r ef r equen t , a nd s t one sa nd p ebb le sa r e u sed i n v a r iou s w ay s . Mo s tb u r ia ls s e em n o tt ob ea ccompan ied b y a ny of e r ing s ,e xcep t f o rt h e i n c lu s ion o fa n ima ls o ra n ima l b one sw i th t h ed ead ,a nd t h ec a se o ft h ec r ema ted c h i ld ren w ho w e re a ccompan ied b ys he l l a nd s t one b ead s ,p robab ly i t em so fp e r sona l or namen ta t ion . T he re i sa l so a na mb iguou s c a se o fp l a c ing t h ed ead b y ah ea r th . V a r ia t ion e x is t s i ng rave s i te r i tua l i n c lud ing , i nt h ec a se o ft h ec r ema ted c h i ld ren ,t h e b r eak ing o f al a rge q uan t i ty o fp o t te ry , a nd i nt h e s e conda ry b u r ia l s ,t h ec a r ef u l , i n ten t iona lp l acemen to fs ku l l sa nd o t he r b one so nf l a tp ebb le so rt h ee nc i rc l ing a nd p ropp ing o ft h e s ku l ls o ft h ed ecea sed i n as t and ing p o s i t ion .

C on t ex t

S ing le p r ima ry b u r ia l sa l so e x is ti nA lepo t rypa b u ta r er a r e r t h an i no t he rN eo l i th ic s i tes , w he re s i ng le p r ima ry b u r ia ls s e em t ob et h ep r eva len tp ra c t ice .O n ly t wo i n s tance sh ave b een e xcava ted i nA lepo t rypa C ave ( F igu r e6 ) . B o th a r e v e ry s imp le w i th n oo f f e r ing s a nd a r e s i tua ted w i th in t h e h ab i ta t ion a r ea s . O ne i n s tance c on s i s t so f as i ng le f l exed b u r ia l n ex tt o ah ea r th , w h ich m igh tb ec on tempo ra ry a nd a ccompany t h eb u r ia l . Mu l t ip l ep r imary b ur ia l O ne l o cu sc on ta in ing amu l t ip le p r ima ry b u r ia l w a sf ound i n p i t B ,a t ad ep th o f5 . 50m ( F igu r e s 7a nd 8 ) . I th a sb een p a r t ia l ly u ncove red ,s i nce t h er e s ti sb eyond t h ep i tw a l l a nd i ss t i l l i nt h eg round b e ing e xcava ted . I tc on s i s ts o fs eve ra l i n d iv idua l s ,p robab ly s i xt ot e n , mo s t ly y oung a du l t sa nd a do lescen t s ,r ep re sen ted b yt wo ,a lmo s tc omp le te ,a r t icu la ted s ke le ton sa nd m any a r t icu la ted l imb sa sw e l la ss ome d i sa r t icu la ted b one s .T he t wo a r t icu la ted s ke le ton sa r e p r ima ry b u r ia l s ,o ne f l exed o nt h e s i de ,a no the re x tended f a c ing t ot h eg round .N oo f f e r ing sa ccompan ied t h ed ead e xcep tf o rs ome p o ts he rd s ,p robab ly n o t i n ten t iona l . H oweve r ,a bou t am e te ra way ,a tt h es ame l e ve l , ab ody o fa n a n ima l , ( s heep o rg oa t )i sb u r ied m is s ing t h e s ku l l a nd a l l i t s f ou rl imb s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a ti ti s as i ng le g rave d ug i n to t h e c ave m idden , w h ich w a sr eopened p e r iod ica l ly t oa ccep tn ew b u r ia ls ,p e rhap sf o rg roup o rf am i ly m embe r s ,w h ich d i s tu rbed t h ep r eex is t ing o nes .

S pace I nt e rm so ft h el o ca t ion o ft h ed i spo sa l a r ea s , a l c a se sa r e c ha rac te r ized b yc l o se p hy s ica l p rox im i ty b e tween t h ep l ace s o ft h e l i v ing a nd t h ed ead . N og r ea td i s tance s epa ra ted t h e g raves o fd ecea sed f r om t h e i rd e scendan t s , w h i le t h e b u r ia l s i te s h ave b een d ug i no rf i l led w i th d epo s i t sr ep le te w i th t h e d eb r i so fe veryday a c t iv i ty . H oweve r ,t h e r e i se v idence t h a t c er ta in b u r ia l s i te sw e r e s pec ia l ,d e l im i ted a r ea s s e ta s ide f o r t h ed ecea sed ,c i rcum sc r ib ing t h ed ecea sed o wn s pace a pa r t f r om t h e l i v ing . T he se a r ea s w e re e xc lu s ive ly r e se rved f o r t h ed i spo sa lo ft h ed ead , w e r e u sed f o rs ucce ss ive i n termen t s o ve r ap e r iod o ft ime ,t h ey a r e s epa ra ted f r om t h e s pa ce o f t h e l i v ing b u tt h ey o ccupy s t ra teg ic a r ea s i nt h ec ave . I t s hou ld b en o ted t h a t n ob u r ia ls o re ven s ca t te r ed h uman b one h a sb een f ound o u t s ide t h ec ave . H oweve r ,t h i sc ou ld b e a r e sea rch p rob lem d ue t ot h ee x tended e ro s ion o ft h e a r ea s u r round ing t h ec ave .

C la s s if ica t ion T ype

T ime I nA lepo t rypa w eo b serve t h e f o l low ing t ypes o fd i spo sa l : a ) s imp le s i ng le p r ima ry i n huma t ion ,b )s imp le mu l t ip le p r ima ry i n huma t ion ,c )c r ema t ion a s ad oub le s imp le d i spo sa l ,a nd d )c ompound d i spo sa l i n c lud ing b u r ia la nd s ub sequen td i s in te rmen ta nd e xpo su r et oa n ima ls a sa r educ t ion p roce s s ,a nd s e conda ry i nhuma t ion o ft h er ema in s .

T he d i f f e rences s e en i nt h et ype so fb u r ia l sc ou ld b ed ue t o c u l tu ra lc hange st h rough t ime . H oweve r ,r e sea r ch o n N eo l i th ic mo r tua ry p rac t ice si nG reece ( A l ram - S t e rn 1 997 , Wh i t t le 1 996 ,P apa thana s sopou lo s 1 996 ,G a l l i s 1 975 , 1 982 , C u l len 1 995 ) ,s how st h a tp eop le f r om o the r ,c on tempo ra ry s i te su sed e i the rc o l lec t ive b u r ia l so rs i ng le b ur ia ls o r c r ema t ion . S ing le b u r ia ls p r eva i l a s ac u s tom i n mo s t s i tes t h rough t h ee n t i re N eo l i th ic a nd o f ten c oex i s t i n va r iab ly w i th o the rt ype so fb u r ia l , w h ich a r e l e s sf r equen t . T hu st h e re i s n ok nown c h rono log ica l s equence i nt h ed i f f e ren tb u r ia l t ypes ,e xcep tf o rt h ee s tab l i shmen to fc eme t e r ie s , w h ich o ccu r sd u r ing t h eL a te a nd F ina lp er iod s .

I nt e rm so fi n d iv idua l i ty ,t h e r ea r ec a se so ff r agmen ta ry r ep re sen ta t ion i nt h ec r ema t ion , s i ng le o r mu l t ip le f o rt h e p r ima ry i n huma t ion s ,a nd m a s si nt h es e conda ry b u r ia ls . I n t e rm so fa r t icu la t ion ,t h ep r ima ry i nhuma t ion sa r ea r t icu la ted o rs em i -a r t icu la ted ,w h i le t h e s e conda ry i n huma t ion sa r e d i sa r t icu la ted ,a sw e l la st h ec r ema ted b one s . I nt e rm so f p o s i t ion a nd d epo s i t ion ,c ha rac te r i s t ic st h a ta pp ly o n ly t o p r ima ry b u r ia l s ,t h e r ea r ec a se so ff l exed b od ies l y ing o n t h e i rs i de ,u sua l ly o nt h er i gh t , w i th a rm sf o lded o nt h ec he s t a nd ac a se o fa ne x tended s ke le ton , l y ing f a ce d own , w i th a rm sa l ong t h es i de s ,a nd t h eh ead r o ta ted t ot h el ef t . N o 3 4

O s teo log ica la na lys is S ex a nd a g e c ompo s i t ion M in imum n umber o fi nd iv idua l s A s s e en i nT ab le 2 ,o ft h e i n d iv idua l so ve r 1 8y ea r so fa ge f o rw hom s ex c ou ld b ed e te rm ined , s even teen a r e ma le o r p robab le ma le s ,a nd f i f teen a r ef ema le so rp robab le f ema le s . T he r ema in ing i n d iv idua l s a r eo fi n de te rm ina te s ex . T he d e te rm ina t ion o fs ex f o rt h ea f o remen t ioned i n d iv idua l si s b a sed mo s t ly o nc ha rac te r i s t ic so fc r an ia l mo rpho logy .

B a sed o nc oun t so fs ke le ta l e l emen t s ,t h e re a r e am in imum o f 1 6 1 i n d iv idua l si nt h eA lepo t rypa s amp le . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e i n d iv idua l sa r er ep r e sen ted b yo n ly o ne o r af ew e l emen t s . O n ly s even i n d iv idua l sc an b e i d en t if ied w ho a r e r e p re sen ted b yr e la t ive ly c omp le te s ke le ton s . T ab le 2 p r e sen t st h e 1 61 i nd iv idua l s , a nd t h e i rs ex , a ge ,a nd c a ta log n umbe r ,w h ich s how sw h ich b one r e p re sen t se a ch i n d iv idua l ( by r e f e r r ing t oA ppend ix I ) ,g rouped b yt h e l o ca t ion i nt h e c ave t h ey o r ig ina ted f r om . T he MN I w a sd e r ived a s sum ing t h a te ach b u r ia ls i te i si n dependen tf r om t h er e s ta nd t h e i n d iv idua l si no ne s i te a r e n o tr ep r e sen ted i na ny o t he rs i te . T he MN If o re a ch s i te w a sd e te rm ined b yt h e mo s tp r eva len t b one t y pe w h i le o the rf a c to r sw e r et a ken i n to a ccoun t , p r ima r i ly a ge ,a nd t o al e s se re x ten t s i ze a nd a c tua lm a tch ing o ft h eb one s . T hen ,t h e MN If r om i n d iv idua l s i te sw e r e s ummed u pt op roduce t h e MN If o rt h ee n t i r eA lepo t rypa s i te . A l te rna t ive ly ,i fw e w e r et ov i ew t h ee n t i re s i te a so ne e n t i ty a nd d educe t h e MN I b a sed o nt h e mo s tp r eva len tb one c a tego ry ( f emu r ) ,t h e MN Iw ou ld b e 1 00 .

O ft h e 1 6 1 i n d iv idua ls o ft h es amp le , 8 1 w e re a du l t sa nd 8 0 w e r e s ubadu l t s u nde r 1 8y ea r so fa ge ,a ne xpec ted p rof i le f o r a na r chaeo log ica l ,p r e indus t r ia lp opu la t ion . T he a ve rage a ge a td ea th f o ra du l t si s2 8 .8 y ea r s , w h ich i ss im i la rt oo the r N eo l i th ic a s semb lage sf r om G r eece ( s ee T ab le 4 ) . T he a ge s r a nge f r om n ewbor no rp o s s ib ly f e ta l ,u pt o5 0y ea r so fa ge . S ubadu l ta ge w a sd e te rm ined e i the rb y l o ng b one d i aphy sea l l e ng th ( s ee T ab le 5 )a nd t oo th e r up t ion a nd d eve lopmen t p a t ter n s . A so b se rved i nt h e l i f ee xpec tancy t a b le ( Tab le 6 ) , t h el i f e e xpec tancy a tb i r th f o rt h ep opu la t ion i s1 7 .87 . A f te r t h ec r i t ica la ge o f 1 0y ea r s ,i n d iv idua l sc an b ee xpec ted t o l i ve t o am a tu r e a ge . T he a ge -a t -dea th c u rve ( F igu r e9 )s how s ap eak f o rt h eg roup so f0 -5 a nd 5 10 y ea r s ,w i th 3 4a nd 3 2 i n d iv idua l sr e spec t ive ly , i n d ica t ing a n u nusua l ly h i gh i n c idence o fc h i ld mo r ta l i ty . T he n ex tp eak i sf o rt h e2 0 -25 a ge g roup , w h ich i ss l igh t ly l e s st h an e xpec t ed . T he s amp le i n d ica te sh i gh f e r t i l i ty l e ve l s .T he Dm, ID, i n dex i s0 . 276 , i n d ica t ive o f al a rge n umbe ro fy oung i n d iv idua l se n te r ing t h e s ke le ta lp opu la t ion ( La r sen 1 997 , B u ik s t ra e ta l . 1 986 ) . T hu s ,t h e A lepo t rypa p opu la t ion i sc ha ra c te r ized b yh i gh f e r t i l i ty r a te si nc on junc t ion w i th h i gh c h i ld mo r ta l i ty .

T he l i s to fe l emen t si nt h e s e r ie si ss hown b yT ab le 3 .A l l b one e l emen t sw e re c oun ted e xcep tf o rs ma l lf r agmen t s . T he r efo r e , mo re t han o ne e l emen tm ay b e long t ot h e s ame b one . A l so , s i nce s i de c ou ld n o tb ed e te rm ined f o ra l l e l emen t s ,a l lp a i red b one sw e r eg rouped t o ge the r ,r e ga rd le s s o fs i de . T he r efo re ,t h ea b so lu te n umbe ro fe l emen t s may e xceed t h em in imum n umbe ro fi n d iv idua ls . T he p a t tern o f s k e le ta lr ep re sen ta t ion o ft h e s e r ie si sa ne xpec ted o ne , w i th a p r eva lence o fl a rge ra nd mo r er e s i l ien tb one s . F emo ra a nd h ume r i ia r e mo r ef r equen t s i nce t h ey a r e mo re r e s i s tan tt o d ecompo s i t ion .T he h i gh n umbe r so fv e r teb ra e ,r i b s , m e ta ca rpa ls ,m e ta ta r sa l sa nd p ha lange s s imp ly r e f lec tt h e f a c tt h a tt h ey a r et h e mo s tn ume rous i nt h eh uman s k e le ton . T ib iae a r ec on s ide rab ly l e s st h an t h ef emo ra , w h i le f i bu lae a r ee ven l e s ss i nce t h ey t e nd t ob r eak a nd s c a t te r mo r ee a s i ly . U lnae a nd r a d i if o l low a pp rox ima te ly e qua lr ep re sen ta t ion s . I ng ene ra l ,t h e re a r e s l igh t ly mo re l e gb one st h an a rm b one s . F oo tb one sa r eb e t te rr ep re sen ted t h an h and b one s ,p robab ly r e f lec t ing t h eg r ea te rt e ndency o ft h el i gamen t so ft h ef oo tt o r e s is td ecompo s i t ion a nd a l low b one st or ema in a r t icu la ted .

C ran ia lp a tho log ica lc ond i t ions C ran ia lp a tho log ica l c ond i t ion sa r e l i s ted i nT ab le s 7a nd 8 . C r ib ra o rb i ta l ia ( F igu r e 1 0 )i st h e mo s tp r eva len tc ond i t ion w i th af r equency o f6 0 .0% o r2 1 o f3 5 o b se rvab le i n d iv idua l s . Mo s to ft h ec a se sa r em i ld a nd o n ly t h ree a r e s e ve re . T h i sp e r cen tage i n c lude sa no the rt wo c a se sn o t c ha rac te r i s t ic o fc r ib ra o rb i ta l ia : o ne o fh ype rva scu la r iza t ion o nt h er oof o ft h ee ye o rb i ta nd as e cond o fp o ro s i ty o n e x t r eme ly t h in o rb i ta l w a l l s ,h oweve r , n o to ft h e t yp ica l p a t te rn o fc r ib ra o rb i ta l ia . T he s e cond mo s tf r equen tc r an ia l p a tho logy i sp o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i s ( F igu r e s 1 a nd 1 2 ) w i th a f r equency o f5 0 .0% o r2 9o u to f5 8 i n d iv idua l s . A ga in , mo s t o ft h e se c a se sa r em i ld o rh ea led a nd o n ly f ou ra r e s eve r e . T he p a t te rn o ft h i sc ond i t ion c on s i s t so fi n c rea sed p o ro s i ty o nt h ep a r ie ta l a nd f r on to cc ip i ta lb one sb u tn o te xce s s ive t h icken ing o re xpan s ion o ft h ed ip loe . T he t h ickne s so ft h e c r an ia lb one r ange sf r om 3t o 1 mm . P o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i si s r e la ted w i th c r an ia lt h ickne s so fo ve r5 mm w h i le s eve re c a se sa r e 9mm o ra bove . B o th c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia a nd p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i ss ha re ac ommon e t io logy a nd a r ei n d ica t ive o f a nem ic c ond i t ion s . T he A lepo t rypa p opu la t ion e xh ib i t sa v e ry h i gh f r equency o ft h i sp a tho logy .

F rom t h ec r an ia lb one s ,p a r ie ta l sa r ep r eva i l ing ,p robab ly b ecau se t h ey a r et h el a rges tc r an ia lb one s , a l though t h ey a r e u sua l ly o ccu ri ns ma l lf r agmen t s .O cc ip i ta l sa nd t empo ra l s f o l low i nf r equency s i nce t h ey a r e mo re r e s i s tan tt o d ecompo s i t ion .A lso , mo re mand ib le sa r er ep re sen ted t han max i l la ef o rt h es ame r e a son . T ak ing i n to a ccoun tt h e f a c t t h a t mo s to ft h e ma te r ia lc ome sf r om s e conda ry b u r ia l s , t h e d i f f e r en t ia lr ep re sen ta t ion o fb one m ay r e f lec tf a c to r s s uch a s a )l o s so fb one p r io rt os e conda ry b u r ia l ,b )i n ten t iona l c u l tu ra ls e lec t ion a tt h et ime o fo s sua ry d epo s i t ,c ) p o s tdepo s i t iona ld i s tu rbance o ft h es ub s t ra te b y s ub sequen t c u l tu ra la c t iv i ty . D if f e ren t ia ld ecompo s i t ion i nt h eg round a nd a cc iden ta ll o s sd u r ing o ra f te rt h ee xcava t ion m ay a ccoun tf o ro n ly as ma l l f r ac t ion o fb one s .

C ran ia ld ep r e s sed f r ac tu re sa r ea l so r e la t ive ly f r equen t i nt h e s e r ie sr ep r e sen t ing 1 3 .0% o r 9o u to f6 9i n d iv idua l s . A l l f r a c tu r es a r es ma l l ,c i r cu la r ,s ome t ime s mu l t ip le , a nd w e l l

3 5

a l veo l i , af a c tt h a t i mpede s s e cu re o b se rva t ion . O n ly t wo c a se s w e re p o s i t ive ly i d en t if ied ( 2 .7% )b u tt h ea c tua l i n c idence mu s tb eh i ghe r .

h ea led a tt h et ime o fd ea th ( F igu re 1 2 ) , w h ich s e em st o i n d ica te t h a tt h ey d i d n o tc au se s i gn if ican td amage .T hey a r e f ound i na du l tm a les a nd f ema le s , a sw e l l a ss ubadu l t s ,w h ich i ss ugge s t ive o fi n te rpe r sona l a gg re s s ion a nd c on f l ic tb u tn o t l e tha l e ncoun te r s . A dd i t iona l ly ,t h e r e i s ap o s s ib le c a se o f h ema toma ( A 111) o nt h ef r on ta l b one o f ao ne -and -a -ha lf y ea ro ld ,p robab ly r e f lec t ing t r auma ( F igu re 1 3 ) .

D en ta l a t t r i t ion ( F igu re s 1 5a nd 1 7 ) i sp re sen ti n2 6o u to f7 0 i n d iv idua l so r3 7 .1 % . A no the r 5o u to f5 5 l o o se t e e th o r 9 . 1% a l so e xh ib i t sd en ta l a t t r i t ion . T he A lepo t rypa p opu la t ion e xh ib i t s ad i s t inc t ive p a t tern o fs eve re c upped w ea ro n t h eo cc lu sa l s u r f ace s ,a sw e l l a st h r ee c a ses o f e x ten s ive a ng led w ea r( F igu r e 1 8 ) . T he p a t te rn o fc upped w ea ri sr e la ted b yw o r ldw ide s t ud ie s ( Sm i th 1 984 )w i th a g r icu l tu ra lp opu la t ion s . I nt h eA lepo t rypa p opu la t ion , h oweve r , i ti s mo re e x ten s ive ,o ccu r s mo r er ap id ly , e spec ia l ly o nt h ef i r s tp e rmanen t mo la r s . A na t temp tt o d e te rm ine t h ea ge a td ea th f o l low ing t h em e thod o ft o o th w ea r( Love joy 1 985 )c onf l ic ted w i th t h e s eve r i ty o fc upped w ea ro ft h e a f o remen t ioned p opu la t ion a nd r e vea led g r ea t d i sc repanc ie s ,m a in ly i n vo lv ing t h e f i r s tp e rmanen t mo la r s , w h ich a lway se xh ib i ted h ighe rl e ve l so fd en t ine e xpo su r e .

S ix c r an ia e xh ib i te v idence o fn on spec if i c i n f ec t ion , e x ten s ive p ro l if e ra t ive s ubpe r io s tea ll e s ion sp robab ly i n duced b yt r auma ,r e su l t ing i n as c a lp i n f ec t ion ,f o l lowed b y b one i n f ec t ion .T hey o ccu rb o th i na du l t sa nd s ubadu l t s ' p a r ie ta ls ,f r on ta l s ,a nd o cc ip i ta l sa nd t h ey a r eu sua l ly s ma l l a nd l o ca l ized l e s ion s ,e xcep tf o ro ne w h ich i s ac a se o f e x ten s ive o s teomye l i t is ( F igu r e 1 4 ) . H a lf o fa na du l t 's o cc ip i ta li sa f f ec ted b yt h e i n f ec t ion ,w h ich i n vo lve s e ndo s tea la nd p e r io s tea l b one d e s t ruc t ion a nd p u sc on ta in ing a b sce s se s . T he i n f lamma to ry p roce s s w a sa c t ive a tt h et ime o fd ea th ,p robab ly w a sl e tha l ,b u ti th ad n o ta f f ec ted t h e i n ter na l s u r f a ce o ft h eb one .A no the ra du l ti n d iv idua l e xh ib i t sa ne x ten s ive c y s t , 2 2mm i nd i ame te r ,o ve rt h er i gh t o rb i t , w i th s moo th i n ne rl i n ing a nd r ounded w a l l sw he r et h e b one h a sb een d es t royed ,p robab ly i n d ica t ive o fa ni n f ec t ion o rt umo r . F ina l ly ,t h e re a r et wo i n d iv idua l sw i th b en ign o s teoma ta ,s ymp tom le s s ,s ma l l ,r ound ,s moo th p ro jec t ion so f d en se b one ,o ne o n af r on ta l a nd o ne o na no cc ip i ta l .

F ina l ly ,t h e s e r ie se xh ib i t s ma le rup t ion i n1 4 .5% ( 1 1 o f7 6 ) o ft h ec a se s , i n c lud ing t oo th r o ta t ion ( F igu r e 1 8 ) ,c rowd ing , a p la s ia ,r e ten t ion o fd ec iduou st e e th ,a nd s uper nume ra ry t e e th . C ran ia ln on -me tr i c t r a i t s

D en ta lp a tho log ica lc ond i t ions

A l l n on -me t r ic t r a i t sa r e l i s ted i nT ab le s 7a nd 8 . Mo rpho log ica l n on -me t r ic v a r ia t ion w a sg i ven a t ten t ion b ecause i tp o ten t ia l ly p rov ide ss ome i n s igh ti n to g ene t ic a f f in i t ie s a nd p opu la t ion h i s to ry . T he mo s tp reva len tn on m e t r ic t r a i to ft h eA lepo t rypa p opu la t ion i sm e top i sm ( F igu r e 1 9 ) . T h is p opu la t ion d i sp lay s ah igh f r equency o fc omp le te m e top i sm i no l de rs ubadu l t sa nd a du l t sa t1 4 .7% o r 5o u to f 3 4 i n d iv idua l s . I n te re s t ing ly ,f ou ro u t o ff i ve i n d iv idua ls w i th m e top i sm c ome f r om O s sua ry I , w h ich h a sa n i n c idence o f4 o u to f 1 3o r3 0 .8% .

D en ta lp a tho logy i sr ep r e sen ted b yd en ta lc a r ie s ,e name l h ypop la s ia s ,c a lcu lus ,a n temo r tem t oo th l o ss a nd c upped w ea r . T he r e su l t sf o rd en ta lp a tho logy a r e s hown i nT ab le s 8 , 9 ,a nd 1 0 .T he mo s tc ommon p a tho log ica lc ond i t ion si n a r chaeo log ica lp opu la t ion s ,d en ta l c a r ie sa nd e name l h ypop la s ia s ,e xh ib i t al ow f r equency i nt h eA lepo t rypa p opu la t ion . D en ta lc a r ie s( F igu r e 1 5 )h a s af r equency o f 3 . 2% o r 1 4o f4 36 t e e th ,n i ne o np e rmanen tt e e th a nd f ou ro n d ec iduou so ne s . F ive o ccu ro ni n te rp rox ima lf a ce t so nt h e d en t ine -ename lj unc t ion a nd e i gh to nt e e th c rown s .L inea r e name l h ypop la s ia ( F igu r e 1 6 ) i n c idence i sa l so r e la t ive ly l ow , o n ly 8 . 3% o r3 6o u to f4 36 t e e th ,a nd i ti so b se rved o n a n te r io rt e e th ,m a in ly o nc an ine sa nd p r emo la r s , a l lo n p e rmanen td en t i t ion .

F rom t h et wo s up rao rb i ta l s t ruc tu res r e co rded , s up rao rb i ta l f o ramen ( med ia l )d i sp lays ar e la t ive ly l ow f r equency o f 2 1 .2% o r 7o u to f3 3 i n d iv idua l s , w h i le s up rao rb i ta l n o tch ( med ia l ) i sp re sen ta t ar e la t ive ly h i gh f r equency o f7 8 .8% o r 2 6o u to f3 3 i n d iv idua l s . L ambdo ida l b one s( F igu r e 2 0 )a r e p re sen ta t4 3 .8% o r 1 4f r om 3 2i nd iv idua l s ,b e ing a s soc ia ted w i th c omp lex s u tu r e s ,a nd s ag i t ta l b one sa t5 . 6% o r 2f r om 3 6i n d iv idua l s . I n ca b one i sp r e sen ta t ar e la t ive ly h i gh f r equency o f8 . 3% o r 3o u to f3 6i nd iv idua l s .

A n temor tem t o o th l o s s( F igu r e s 1 5a nd 1 7 ) i sp re sen ti n 1 8 .4% o r 1 4o f7 6i n d iv idua l s , ar e la t ive ly h i gh p e rcen tage . T he ma jo r i ty o fp remo r tem l o s tt e e th a r ep remo la r sa nd mo la r s .

F rom t h ep o s tc ran ia ln on -me t r ic v a r ia t ion ,f o ramen s ep tum w a sr e co rded a tt h eh ume r i io fs i xi n d iv idua ls ( A263 ,A 1025 , A 1354 , A 1739 ,A 1761 ,A 1796 ) . One i n d iv idua l w i th c l av icu la rn o tch ( A 1055 ) a nd o ne w i th s capu la rn o tch ( A1380 ) h ave b een a l so r e co rded . A t la s b r idg ing i sp re sen ti n 4o f2 2e l emen t so r 1 8 .2% ( A592 ,A 634 , A 677 ,A 1103 ) .

C a lcu lus ( F igu r e 1 7 )i sr e la t ive ly c ommon a t1 8 .6% o r 1 3 o u to f7 0i n d iv idua ls .A dd i t iona l ly , a no the rt we lve l o o se t e e th a r ea f f ec ted w i th c a lcu lu s , r e p r e sen t ing a tl e a s tf ou r mo re i n d iv idua l s ,t hu si n c rea s ing t h ei n c idence t oa tl e a s t 2 4 .3% . A l lc a se si nt h i ss e r ie sa r eo ft h es up rag ing iva lt ype ( a bove t h eg um ) .

P os tcran ia lp a tho log ica lc ond i t ions F ou ro u to f7 6i n d iv idua l so r5 . 3% e xh ib i td en ta la b sces se s . P e r iodon ta ld i sea se ( F igu re 1 7 )w a sn o te a s i ly a nd a ccu ra te ly d i agno sed i nt h es e r ie sd ue t od e s t ruc t ion o re ro s ion o ft h e

P o s tc ran ia lp a tho log ica lc ond i t ion s a r ep re sen ted i nT ab le s8 a nd 1 . T he mo s tf r equen t ly o b se rved p a tho log ica lc ond i t ion

3 6

( A 1947 ) ( F igu re 3 5 ) , v i tam in D d ef ic iency . w h ich p roduced c h ron ic a bno rma l i t ie s i nt h e s ke le ton . V i tam in D i sn ece s sa ry f o ra b so rp t ion o fc a lc ium a nd p ho spho ru s a nd t h e m ine ra l iza t ion o ft h eo s teo id a nd c a r t i lage ,a nd i t sd ef ic iency l e ad s t o a" sof ten ing" o fa l lb one sr e su l t ing i nb ow ing o ft h e w e igh t -bea r ing b one s . I nA lepo t rypa t h e r em igh tb ea r a ch i t ic c h i ld ,t h ree t of ou ry ea r so fa ge , s i nce t h e r e i s e v iden to fi t st wo b en t f emo ra . H oweve r ,n one o ft h eo t he r s ke le ta l e l emen t ss e em st ob e a f f ec ted . T h i rd i s ar a re f i nd ing o f ac ono id j o in t ( A 1680 ) ( F igu r e 3 6 )o rp roce s so na c l av ic le , ar a i sed p l a teau l ike b ony e x ten s ion t h a ta r t icu la te s w i th t h e s upe r io rs u r f ace o ft h ec o raco id p roce s so ft h e s c apu la , a nd i ti so fn onpa tho log ica l i mpo r tance .

i so s teoa r th r i t i s ,t h ed egene ra t ive c hange o fs ke le ta lj o in t s d ue t oh ab i tua lb ody movemen t s . I nt h es e r ie s i ti s man if e s ted b y ma in ly s p ina lj o in to s teoa r th r i t i s ( F igu re 2 1) , n ame ly ma rg ina l l i pp ing a f f ec t ing t h e v e r teb rae ,a ta f r equency o f 1 2 .2% o r4 4o u to f3 60 o b se rvab le v e r teb rae b od ie sa nd i tr ange sf r om mode ra te t os e ve re s p ina l o s teophy to s i s . Add i t iona l ly ,n i ne v e r teb rae ( two t ho rac ic a nd s even l umba r )d i sp lay S chmo r l 's n ode s ( F igu re 2 2 ) . L e s s s eve r ec a se so fo s teoa r th r i t i s ,m an if e s ted a sl i pp ing , a r e p re sen to no the re l emen t s ( p rox ima lu l nae ,d i s ta lh ume r i i , g l eno id f o s sae , me ta ta r sa l s ,a nd r i b s ) . T he s e r ie sa l so i n c lude sf ou rc a se so fs e conda ry o s teoa r th r i t i s ,j o in t d egene ra t ion a nd l i pp ing i n duced b yt r auma t ized ,o s s if ied mu sc le o ri n f lamma t ion .

N onpa tho log ica l p o s tc ran ia l mo rpho log ica l i r regu la r i t ie s i n c lude 2 9v e r teb ra lb od ie so fa symme t r ica l s hape , t wo s t e rna ( A2197 ,A 2198 ) ,o ne u l na ( A1149 )w i th f l a red s hape , t wo m e ta ta r sa l s ( A1395 , A 1902 ) w i th as e em ing ly r o ta ted s hape , a nd o ne p ha lanx ( A2197 ) a nd t wo m e ta ta r sa l s ( A1214 ,A 1527 )o fi nwa rd sf l exed s hape ( F igu re 3 7 ) . N on p a tho log ica ll e s ion sa r e a l so t h ee v idence o fp o ro s i ty a nd t h e r emode l ing s ca r s ,w h ich o ccu ro nt h ef emo ra ln eck o f j uven i le i n d iv idua l s , w h ich i sn o rma lf o rj uven i le m e taphy se se spec ia l ly d u r ing p e r iod so fr a p id g row th . T he s ame r e ac t ion o ft h ef emo ra ln eck w a sc on s ide red i nt h ep a s t a sp a tho log ica l a nd a s ar e su l to fd ynam ic f a c to r sp r ima r i ly i nt h e i n te rac t ion o f mu sc le s ( i l iop soa s )a nd l i gamen t s ( z ona ) w i th g rav i ty a nd l e ve rage i ne x t reme e x ten s ion ( Ange l 1 964 ) .

O th e rd egene ra t ive c ond i t ion so b se rved i nt h e s e r ie si n c lude e n th e sopa th ie s . T he i rf r equency i sl i s ted b yb one i nT ab le 1 . Mo r ef r equen ta r et h ei n ser t ion so ft h e s o leus mu sc le ( F igu r e 2 3 ) ,t h ep a te l la rl i gamen t ,t h eq uad r icep sg roup o f mu sc le s , t h e g l u teu sg roup o fm usc le s ,t h eA ch i l le st e ndon ,t h e i n te ro s seou sl i gamen t ,t h ed e l to id ,t h e s up ina to r ,t h eb i cep s b rach i i ,a nd t h ef l exo r ,e x ten so ra nd a bduc to ro ft h ea rm ( F igu r e2 4 )a nd d ig i t s( F igu re 2 5 ) ,s ugge s t ive o fe xce s s ive w a lk ing a nd r unn ing ,h eavy l o ad c a r ry ing ,k nee l ing , t h row ing a nd u se o ft h e f i nge r s . P e r io s tea lr e a c t ion i sr e la t ive ly l ow a nd m i ld i n man if e s ta t ion s eve r i ty i nt h eA lepo t rypa p opu la t ion ; t h i r teen c a se s i n c lud ing t h r ee f emo ra ( A266 ,A 815 ,A 1608 ) ,o ne t i b ia ( A892 ) ,o ne f i bu la ( A 1627 )( F igu re 2 6 ) ,o ne h ume rus ( A1539 )( F igu re 2 7 ) ,o ne i l i um ( A 1046 ) ,o ne c a lcaneu s ( A 1181 ) ,o ne r i b( A1309 ) ,o ne s t er num ( A 1435 ) ,o ne me ta ca rpa l( A579 ) ,o ne p ha lanx ( A 1946 ) ,a nd t wo m e ta ta r sa l s( A870 ,A 1471) ( F igu r e2 8 ) .

P o s tcran ia lm easur emen t s a nd s hapes T he r obu s t ic i ty ,p i la s te r ic a nd m id sha f ti n dexe s w e re c a lcu la ted f r om t e ni n d iv idua l sf o rt h eA lepo t rypa p opu la t ion ( Tab le 1 2 ) . T he m ean v a lue i s1 2 .74 f o rt h er obus t ic i ty i n dex , 9 2 .75 f o rt h ep i la s te r ic i ndex ,a nd 6 . 36 f o rt h em id sha f t i n dex . T h i sf a l l s w i th in t h er a nge o fo the rG r eek N eo l i th ic s i te ss uch a sN ea N ikomede ia w he re t h em ean ( f o rb o th ma le s a nd f ema le s )r obu s t ic i ty ,p i la s te r ic a nd m id sha f t i n dexe sa r e 1 2 .59 , 1 09 .25 , a nd 6 . 29 r e spec t ive ly ( Ange l 1 973b ) ,a nd K epha la w he r et h em ean i n dexe s a r e 1 3 .25 ( n=3 ) , 1 09 .8 ( n=28 ) , a nd 6 . 62 ( Ange l 1 977 ) .

A l though t r auma r ep r e sen ted b y c r an ia lf r a c tu re sw a s r e la t ive ly h i gh ,p o s tc ran ia li n ju ry i sr e la t ive ly l ow a nd a cc id en ta l i nc ha ra c t e ri n c lud ing o ne C o l le 's f r ac tu re o na d i s ta lr a d iu s( A1824 )( F igu re 2 9 ) ,t wo f r ac tu red m e taca rpa l s ( A2076 ,A 2077 )( F igu re 3 0 ) ,t wo r i b s( A471 ,A 1262 ) ( F igu re 3 1) ,a l lh ea led a nd s u r rounded b y c a l lou sf o rma t ion . D is lo ca t ion i n c lude so ne f emo ra lh ead ( A1562 ) ( F igu r e 3 2 ) d i s loca t ed a nd s u r rounded b y l i pp ing ( mu sh room h ead , s e conda ry a r th r i t is ) ,o ne i n nom ina te ( A316 )w i th e v idence o f ad i s loca ted f emo ra la r t icu la t ion ,a nd o ne p robab ly d i s lo ca t ed t a lu s( A1664 ) ( F igu re 3) .

D i scr im inan tf unc t ion t e chn ique T he r e su l t so ft h ed i sc r im inan tf unc t ion t e chn ique a r e p r e sen ted i nT ab le s 1 3 -19 . A l though t h eu se o fc r an ia l mo rpho log ica lc ha ra c te r i s t ics t os ex i n d iv idua l sy i e lded a n a lmo s te qua ln umbe ro f ma le sa nd f ema le s ,t h ed i sc r im inan t f unc t ion t e chn ique r e su l t s i nc on s ide rab ly mo r ef ema le t h an m a le i nd iv idua l s . H oweve r ,t h e re a r e n oe s tab l i shed s t anda rd sf o rt h i s s pec if ic p opu la t ion ,a nd n o te nough c omp le te s ke le ton sp o s i t ive ly s exed , t os e tt h e s t anda rd s ,a nd t h ed ema rk ing p o in tl im i t sf o rt h i sp opu la t ion .I no rde rt o a t ta in m ean ingfu lr e su l t s ,t h e s e cu re ly s exed i n d iv idua l so f t h ec o l lec t ion w e re u sed , i nc on junc t ion w i th t h ep ub l i shed d a ta . B o th o ft h em w e re i d en t if ied a sf ema le s . F o rt h e se i n d iv idua l s mo s to ft h em ea su remen t sf a l l w i th in t h e p ub l ished r a nge f o rf ema le s , e xcep tf o rt h eh ume rus d i s ta l ( e p icondy la r )b read th a nd t h et i b ia d i s ta lb r ead th , w h ich a r e

L e s sc ommon p a tho log ica lc ond i t ion se ncoun te red i nt h e s e r ie sa r e ,f i r s t ,o ne c a se o ft h eK l ippe l -Fe i l s ynd rome ( A1496 )( F igu re 3 4 ) , ac ongen i ta l s e gmen ta t ion e r ro r ,a f a i lu r eo ft h es c le ro tom ic f i s su re t oa ppea rw i th in t h e d eve lopmen ta lu n i tp roduc ing ac on t inuou sb lock o f b la s tema lt i s sue a nd r e su l t ing i n ab l ock v e r teb ra n o tf u sed b u tn eve rs epa ra ted . T h i sc ongen i ta lf u s ion o fc erv ica l v er teb ra ep roduces as ho r tn eck ,l ow p o s te r io rh a i r l ine a nd l im i ted movemen to ft h en eck ( Ba rne s 1 994 ) .T he a fo remen t ioned c a se b e long st ot ype I ( Ba rnes 1 994 ) w i th o n ly t h es e cond a nd t h i rd c e rv ica l s e gmen t sa f f ec ted , at y pe f o rw h ich t h e r ei se v idence o fa u to soma ld om inan t t r an sm i s s ion . S econd ,t h e r ei so ne p o s s ib le c a se o fr i cke t s 3 7

e xceed ing ly h i gh ,f a l l ing i n to t h ep ub l ished ma le r ange . T he h i gh ly d imo rph ic ma le so ft h is p opu la t ion , a l though c on s ide rab ly l e s s ,w e re u sed t od e term ine t h e m a le u ppe r r a nge . T he l owe rp o in to ft h e ma le r ange c anno tb e a ccu ra te ly i d en t if ied . T hu s , t h eo ve r lapp ing a r ea , w h ich m ay i n c lude i n d iv idua l so fi n de te rm ina te s ex , i n c lude st h e mo r e g rac i le ma le i n d iv idua l s .

D ie tary a na lys i s D e scr ip t ion o fa r chaeo log ica ld a ta T he d ocumen ta t ion o fd i e t i nr e con s t ruc t ing n u t r i t iona l e co logy a nd p reh i s to r ic d i e th a sb ecome ac r i t ica le l emen ti n t h e s t udy o fp a s tb i ocu l tu ra l a dap ta t ion . T he u nde r s tand ing o f d i e ta ry p a t te rn sh a sb een e spec ia l ly u sefu l i ni d en t ify ing l i nkage sb e tween w ha tp eop le c on sume a nd t h e i rn u t r i t iona l a nd g ene ra l h ea l th a nd a c t iv i ty p a t te rn s .

B a sed o nt h ea f o remen t ioned o b serva t ion sw ec an c onc lude t h a tt h e a pp l ica t ion o ft h is t e chn ique o nt h eA lepo t rypa p opu la t ion i sp rob lema t ic b ecause i tc on t rad ic t st h e ma le t o f ema le r a t io c a lcu la ted b y t h ec r an ia l mo rpho log ica l c ha ra c te r i s t ic s .T he ma in r e a son sf o rt h i s may b ea )l ow d eg ree o fs exua ld imo rph i sm , b )r obu s tp o s tc ran ia l b one sd ue t oh igh a c t iv i ty l e ve l s ,a nd c )t h e l a rge d imen s ion so ft h e d i s ta lh ume ru sa nd t i b ia , w h ich m igh tb e ac ha ra c te r i s t ic o f t h e s pec if ic p opu la t ion . O nt h eo ne h and t h ec ha rac te r i s t ic s m ea su red b yt h i sm e thod e xh ib i t al o to fo ve r lapp ing b e tween m a le sa nd f ema le s ,a nd o nt h eo the rh and ,p robab ly , t h e s pec if ic p opu la t ion h a ss l igh t ly d i f f e ren tp ropor t ion s a nd d imen s ion st h an Ame r ican w h i te s ,a sA nge l ( 1973b )a l so o b se rved f o rt h eN ea N ikomede ia p opu la t ion .

T he a f o remen t ioned a n ima la nd p lan t s pec ie sf o und i nt h e c ave 's a r chaeo log ica ld epo s i t sc on s t i tu te ar a nge o fp o ten t ia l f ood r e sou r ce s . Ow ing t ot h ep r e l im ina ry n a tu r eo ft h e s t udy o ff ood r ema in sr e cove r ed f r om A lepo t rypa C ave ,d i e t so f t h ep opu la t ion so ccupy ing t h e s i te a r e e s sen t ia l ly u nknown . N of o rma l p a lyno log ica l ,e t hnobo tan ica l , z ooa r chaeo log ica l , t a phonom ic ,o re co log ica l s t ud ie sh ave b een u nder taken t o d a te . H oweve r , a na ly s i so fo the rN eo l i th ic s i te s f r om G reece p rov ide sa ni mpor tan tc on tex tf o rt h e a na ly s i so ft h e N eo l i th ic d i e ta tA lepo t rypa C ave . T he o ve ra l lp i c tu re f o rt h e N eo l i th ic i ss im i la rf o r much o fG reece . A sp r ev iou s ly d i scu s sed ,t h er e co rd s how st h a t , i na dd i t ion t ot h ec o l lec t ion o fw i ld s pec ie so fp l an t s , t h ef o l low ing p l an ts p ec ies w e r e c u l t iva ted : e i nko rn w hea t ,e mme rw hea t ,b r ead w hea t , t wo a nd s i x row b a r ley , m i l le t( Pan icum m i l iaceum ) , o a t s ,p ea s , g r a s sp ea s( La thyrus s a t ivus ) , v e tch , l e n t i ls ,a cor n s , o l ive s , p i s tach io s( P i s tac ia a t lan t ica ) ,c orne l l ian c h e r ry ,p lum s , b ean s , f i g s , a lmond s , a nd p ea r s( Renf r ew 1 973 ,H an sen 1 988 ) . R ema in so fd ome s t ica ted a n ima ls [ s h eep , g oa t , c a t t le , p i g , a nd d og ( Can i sf am i l iar i s ) ] a nd n ondome s t ica ted a n ima l s [ d ee r , w i ld p i g( Sus s c rof a ) , f ox ( Vu lpe sv u lpes ) , s he l lf ish , f i sh ] r e vea lt h ep r e sence o f ad i ve r s i ty o fa n ima l f ood s a nd t h ea va i lab i l i ty o fa n ima l p ro te in ( R en f rew 1 973 ) . H oweve r , a sp r ev iou s ly m en t ioned , t h e re m ay b e a n o ver rep r esen ta t ion o fa n ima lr ema in sr e la t ive t op lan t r ema in s , s i nce t h ey a r e b e t te rp re se rved a nd m o re e a s i ly f ound t h an p l an t s . P lan t s( s eeds , f r u i t s , g ra in s )d ecay mo r e r ap id ly t h an a n ima l b one b u tc ou ld h ave c on t r ibu ted s i gn if ican t ly t op a s td i e t . S t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i so f f e r sa p e r spec t ive o nd i e tn o ta va i lab le f r om t h e s t udy o fa n ima lo r

S ta tur e T he s t a tu re w a se s t ima ted o n ly f r om s e cu r e ly s exed b one s , n o tt h eo ne so fi n de te rm ina te s ex ( s ee T ab le 2 0 ) .T he s t a tu re o fb ones o fi n de te rm ina te s ex w a sc a lcu la ted a st h em ean o f t h e ma le a nd f ema le s t a tur ec o r re spond ing t ot h ep a r t icu la r l e ng th o ft h eb one .T he a ve rage s t a tu r e f o r ma le sc ome st o 1 69 .7cm a nd f o rf ema le st o1 53 .8cm . B ecau se o ft h e l ow d eg ree o ft h es exua ld imo rph i sm o ft h es e r ie s ,i fw ea t t r ibu te t h e b one so fi n de te rm ina te s ex t o ma le s , w h ich i sr a the r c o r rec t s i nce i tw i l li n co rpo ra te b o th r obu s ta nd g ra c i le m a le i n d iv idua l s ,t h ea ve rage ma le s t a tu re c ome st o 1 66 .3cm . T he m ean s t a tu r eo ft h eA lepo t rypa p opu la t ion f a l l sw i th in t h e p ub l i shed s t a tu re r ange o fo the rG reek N eo l i th ic s i te s( Tab le 2 1) . R ad iograph i ca na l y s i s T he r ad iog raph ic a na lys is v e r i f ied t h ef r ac tu re st h a tw e re o b se rved m a c ro scop ica l ly .T he c ha rac te r i s t ic o b l ique l i ne o f c o r t ica lb one a l ong w i th t h ec a l lou sf o rma t ion a r ound t h e f r a c tu re w a so b se rved . E ven t h ough t h e re w a s ad e l ibe ra t e a t temp tt os e lec tl o ng b one sf r om i n d iv idua l s w ho se c r an ia l b one se xh ib i ted a nem ic c ond i t ion s ,e i the rc r ib ra o rb i ta l ia o r p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i s ,o n ly o ne i n d iv idua l ( A2197 )m e tt h i s c r i te r ia . T h i si n d iv idua le xh ib i ted c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia a sw e l la s o s teopen ia i nt h ef emu ra nd g row th a r r e s t( Ha r r i s ) l i nes i n t h eh umeru s . An umbe ro fo the rl o ng b one sa l so e xh ib i ted e i the ro s teopen ia o rg row th a r re s t l i ne s ,a l though t h e re w a s n od i rec tc o r r e la t ion w i th c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia o rp o ro t ic h ype ro s to s i ss i nce t h ey w e re n o tr e la ted w i th a ny c r an ia l b one s ( F igu r e s3 8a nd 3 9 ) . Mu l t ip le g row th a r re s tl i ne sw e re a l so o b se rved o nt h ef emu r so fa ni n d iv idua l w i th p robab le c a se o fr i cke t s( F igu re 3 8 ) ,a l though r i cke t s w a sn o t p o s i t ive ly i d en t if ied b yt h er ad io log i s tw ho e xam ined t h e p l a te .

p l an tr ema in sf r om t h e s i te . S tab l e i s o tope a na l y s i s T he r e su l t so ft h ec o l lagen a nd c a rbona te a na ly ses o ft h e A lepo t rypa s amp le sf o rc a rbon a nd n i t rogen s t ab le i s o tope s a r e s hown i nT ab le s2 2 a nd 2 3 , a nd F igu re s4 0 -4 2 . T he 2 6 s ke le ta lr ema in s f r om A lepo t rypa h ave am ean b one c o l lagen 81 3C v a lue o f— 19 .95±0 .45 a nd am ean 81 5N v a lue o f 7 . 17± 1 .0 1 . A l lo ft h e s amp le sc l u s te ri nt h ea r ea o fa p r ima r i ly C3 t e r r e s t r ia ld i e t( F igu re 4 1) . T h e 81 5N v a lue sa r e l ow a nd i n d ica te t h a tv e ry l i t t le o ft h ed i e ta ry p ro te in w a so f m a r ine o r ig in . A dd i t iona li s o top ic e v idence c omes f r om t h e c a rbon i s o tope r a t io si nt h eb one a pa t i te c a rbona te . T he 2 6 i n d iv idua l sf r om A lepo t rypa h ave am ean a pa t i te c a rbona te 3 8

— 18 .66±0 .78 , K epha la — 19 .09± 1 .24 ,T ha r roun ia — 19 .99±0 .22 ,T heope t ra — 19 .83±0 .86 , a nd K ouve le ik i

81 3C v a lue o f— 12 .89±0 .9 1 . A ga in t h e 4 3 `3C v a lues r ep re sen ta p r ima r i ly C3 t e r re s t r ia l d i e t . T he m ean d i f f e r ence b e tween h uman b one c a rbona te a nd c o l lagen 4 5 '3C v a lue s( A1 3C c a -c o ) i s7 . 07±0 .89 ,w h ich i sa ni n te rmed ia te v a lue i mp ly ing t h a t p ro t e in a nd e ne rgy d e r ived f r om f ood s tu ff st h a th ave s im i la r i s o top ic c ompo s i t ion s ,c om ing p r ima r i ly f r om C3 p l an t s a nd a n ima l s . B o th c o l lagen a nd c a rbona te a na ly s i sp o in t c on s i s ten t ly t owa rd s C3 r e sou r ce s .

— 19 .84±0 .04 .T he m ean a pa t i te c a rbona te 5 '3C v a lue sa r e : F ranch th i— 12 .92±0 .99 , K epha la — 12 .66± 1 .96 ,T ha r roun ia — 11 .83± 1 .05 ,T heope t ra — 12 .30± 1 .42 , a nd K ouve le ik i — 12 .38±0 .71 ( s ee T ab le 4 2 ) . T he m ean d i f f e rence b e tween c a rbona te a nd c o l lagen 8 "C v a lue sa r e : F ranch th i 5 . 73± 1 .40 , K epha la 6 . 43± 1 .26 ,T ha r roun ia 8 . 16± 1 .12 ,T heope t ra 7 . 53± 1 .37 ,a nd K ouve le ik i 7 . 46±0 .75 . A l lo ft h er e su l t sf a l l w i th in at e r re s t r ia l C3 d i e t f o rb o th c oa s ta l a nd i n land p opu la t ion s .

T he c u r ren tr e su l t sa r ec on s is ten tw i th t h er e su l t si nt h e p r e l im ina ry s t udy ( Papa thana s iou 1 994 ) ,r e a f f i rm ing t h e h ypo the s is t h a t ,a l though A lepo t rypa C ave i s ac oa s ta l p opu la t ion ,t h e re i se v idence o f at e r r e s t r ia l ,p redom inan t ly C3 d i e ti n s tead o f am a r ine o ne . Ic anno t s ay f o rc e r ta in s pec if ica l ly i ft h ed i e tw a sa g r icu l tu ra l . H oweve r ,t h e s t rong ly t e r re s t r ia l s i gna l ,c omb ined w i th t h ep r esence o f r ema in so fc u l t iva r si nt h ea r chaeo log ica ld epo s i t sa t A lepo t rypa C ave s ugge s ta na g r icu l tu ra l l i f eway f o rt h is p opu la t ion . Is ugges t ,t h e r efo r e ,t h a tt h ep opu la t ion f o cu s sed t h e i rd i e t so n C3 p l an t s— such a sw hea t ,b a r ley , a nd o l ive s— s i nce t h en i t rogen v a lue sa r en o tv e ry p o s i t ive a sw ou ld b e e xpec ted i n ad i e ti n co rpo ra t ing m a r ine f ood s . A tt h i sp o in t , i tc anno tb ed e te rm ined h ow much t e r re s t r ia la n ima lp ro te in t h ey i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e i rd i e t , b u tt h e se d a ta s ugge s tt h a t t h e a moun tw a s n eg l ig ib le .

S ta t is t ica l i n f erence s T he s t a t i s t ica l i n f e rence s f o rt h e A lepo t rypa C ave p opu la t ion w e re b a sed o nt h e f r equenc ie so ft h ep a tho log ica lc ond i t ion s a nd t h en on -me t r ic t r a i t sa sw e l l a st h er e su l ts o ft h e s t ab le i s o tope a na ly s i s . T h e s i gn if i can ce l e ve lt h a t w a su sed f o ra l t e s t s w a sp 7 6 .

S ex F F M F M

S pec imen # 1 891 1 964 1 966 2 197

D imen s ion ( mm ) 7 7 7 6 ( 72 ) 7 2

S ex M M F F

T ab le 1 5 .T ib ia p rox ima l b r ead th . S pec imen # 1 36 2 70 3 08 3 82 8 65 1 481 1 482

D imen s ion ( mm ) 6 8

S ex F

6 5 6 8 6 7

F F F F F F

2 197

S ex F ? I ? I ? I ? F M

S pec imen # 1 021 1 431 1 483 1 794 1 806 2 197

6 3 6 1 6 6

S pec imen # 1 585 1 587 1 590 1 705 1 794 1 797

D imen s ion ( mm ) 6 2 ( 7 5 ) 6 7 8 0 7 3 6 4 6 8

S ex F M F M I ' ? F F

N o te : f ema le < 7 3 , m a le > 7 4 .

T ab le 1 6 .T ib ia d i s ta lb r ead th . S pec imen # 1 36

D imen s ion ( mm ) 4 6

3 08 5 03 7 23 8 65 8 92

4 5 4 5 4 6 4 2 5 3

N o te : f ema le 4 5 .

D imen s ion ( mm ) 5 2 4 5 5 0 4 5 4 3 4 6

S ex M I ? M I ? F F ?

T ab le 1 7 . R ad iu sh ead d i ame te r . S pec imen # 1 36 2 94 5 71 6 17 6 25 6 26 6 29 6 30 7 31 8 16 8 51 9 09 1 0 12 1 022

D imen s ion ( mm ) 1 9 .5 2 0

S ex F F

2 4 1 9 1 9 1 9 2 1

M F F F F ?

2 1 2 1 2 2 1 8 .5 2 5

F ? F ? M? F M

2 1 2 0

F ? F

S pec imen # 148 1 230 1 297

D imen s ion ( mm )

1 352 1 443

1 8 1 8 .5 1 9 1 9

1 8 1 7 1 8

1 457 1 552 1 598 1 600 1 624 1 626

1 8 2 2 2 2 2 3

1 748 2 197

2 0 1 9

D imen s ion ( mm ) 3 7 4 3

S ex F F F F F F F I ' M? M? M F F

N o te : f ema le < 2 1 ,m a le >2 2 .

T ab le 1 8 . H ume ru sh ead v e r t ica ld i ame te r . S pec imen # 1 36 2 63 3 14 7 10

D imen s ion ( mm ) 4 0 3 9 3 8 4 4

S ex F F F I

S pec imen # 1 415 1 666 1 76 1 1 762

8 57 1 232 1 251 1 3 15

4 6 3 5 3 3

M? F F F

1 796 1 826 2 197

3 5

N o te : f ema le 4 7 .

3 3 3 7 3 4 4 6 3 8

S ex F I F F F M? F

T ab le 1 9 . H ume ru se p icondy la rb r ead th . S pec imen # 1 36 2 63 3 19 6 15 7 89 7 91 8 52 9 04 9 88 1 025 1 290 1 300

D imen s ion ( mm ) 5 2 .5

S ex F

5 4 .5 5 4 5 3

F ? F ? F ?

5 4 5 4

F ? F ?

5 1 6 1

F ? M? I

5 7 ( 56 ) 5 1 .5 5 9

N o t e :f ema le < 5 0 ,m a le >6 4 .

F ? F ? I

S pec imen # 1 539 1 594 1 597 1 649 1 652 1 660 1 739 1 76 1 1 796 1 838 1 959 2 197

D imen s ion ( mm ) 5 3 5 5 6 3 5 3 5 4 5 9 5 8 4 6

S ex F ? I M? F ? F ? I I F

5 6 4 8

F ? F

6 0 5 6

M? F ?

T ab le 2 0 . A du l ts t a tu re . S pec imen #

B one t ype

1 36 2 66 2 69 2 71

F emu r

6 16 8 15 9 54 1 085 1 798 1 966 2 187

F emu r F emu r F emu r F emu r F emu r 54 F emu r1

2 197

F emu r F emu r F emu r

F emu r F emu r

1 36 2 63 3 14 7 91

H ume ru s

1 594 1 597

H ume ru s H ume ru s

1 761 1 796

H ume rus H umeru s H ume rus H umeru s T ib ia

2 197 2 197 1 36 2 70 3 79 8 65 1 705 1 794 2 197 1 36 2 94 6 17 6 29 6 30 8 51 148 1 598 1 599 1 600 1 824 2 197 2 197 1 36 2 75 6 81 8 53 9 05

H ume rus H ume ru s H umerus

T ib ia T ib ia T ib ia T ib ia T ib ia T ib ia R ad iu s R ad iu s R ad ius R ad iu s R ad ius R ad iu s R ad iu s R ad iu s R ad ius 76 R ad iu s1 R ad iu s R ad iu s R ad iu s U lna U lna U lna U lna U lna

149 1 212 1 490

U lna U lna 64 U lna1

1 749 1 792

U lna 61 U lna1

S ex F F F F ?

D imen s ion ( mm ) 4 00

F

3 80

4 12 4 06 4 04

H e igh t( cm ) 1 53 1 56 1 54 1 54 1 48

6 1 ( 420 )1 66 ( 440 )1 5 1 ( 392 )1

M M F F F? F ?

47 ( 376 )1 4 02 ( 4 10 ) 4 07

F F F F

2 90 2 89 3 00 59 ( 300 )1 69 ( 325 )1 7 1 ( 325 )1

F I M F F ? F F F F F F M I F F F F

2 66 ( 285 ) 2 85 2 89 3 40

1 47 1 54 1 54 1 55 1 60

3 33 3 21 3 14 3 90

1 58

3 38

1 62 1 6 1 1 55 1 56

3 42 2 10 2 13 1 98 2 23 2 26 2 04

F F ? F F F F M?

1 90 2 09 2 08 2 57 2 15

I F F F F I

1 55 1 53 1 77

1 49 1 60 1 62 1 5 1 1 45 1 54 1 54 1 59

2 28 2 24 2 40

1 63 1 63 1 60

2 32 2 43

1 57 1 63

49 ( 2 13 )1 1 6 ( 2 50 ) 7 2 31

F M F ?

1 55 1 55 1 55 1 55 1 59

1 56

F

2 19 2 46

1 59

F

2 23 2 38

1 53

7 2

2 197 2 197 1 36 2 82 3 09 3 8 1 6 18 7 39 1 795 2 197

U lna U lna F ibu la F ibu la F ibu la F ibu la F ibu la F ibu la F ibu la F ibu la

F F F

2 49 2 45

1 64 1 65 1 54

F F F

3 20 3 21 3 15 3 10

F F

( 298 ) ( 3 15 )

1 47 1 52

F ? F

( 320 ) ( 3 35 )

1 54 1 58

1 54 1 53 1 5 1

T ab le 2 1 . Mean a du l ts t a tu re f r om N eo l i th ic s i tes . S i te D i ros N ea N ikomede ia K epha la L ema F ranch th i N eo l i th ic F ranch th i Meso l i th ic V a ta l H üyük G enera l N eo l i th ic G enera l Meso l i th ic

m a le ( cm )

f ema le ( cm )

R ef e rences

1 69 .7 ( 166 .3 ) 1 68 1 67 1 68 .8 1 57 1 70

1 53 .8 1 55 .5 1 53 1 54 .2 1 59 .9 1 37 1 56

Ange l ( i nC o leman 1 977 ) Ange l ( i nC o leman 1 977 ) A nge l 1 971a Ange l ( i nJ a cob sen 1 973b ) Ange l ( i nJ acob sen 1 969a ) Ange l ( i nC o leman 1 977 )

1 65 .5 1 72 .5

1 54 .9 1 59 .7

A nge l 1 984 Ange l 1 984

T ab le 2 2 . S tab le i s o tope a na ly s i sr e su l t s . S amp le

51 5N

4 51 3C co

51 3C ca

81 3C ca -co

%c o i l y i e ld

%N

%C

C :N

%c a rb y ie ld

A lepo t rypa 1 999 AP 100

8 . 13

20 .67

1 1 .51

9 . 16

3 . 34

8 . 66

2 5 .60

2 . 96

2 7 .84

AP 10 1

6 . 74

1 9 .65

12 .66

6 . 99

4 .05

7 . 70

2 2 .47

2 . 92

3 6 .13

A P 102

5 . 80

1 9 .42

12 .60

6 . 82

3 . 41

7 . 09

2 0 .63

2 . 91

3 6 .12

A P 103

8 . 09

1 9 .70

12 .98

6 . 72-

4 . 23

5 . 33

1 6 .30

3 . 06

3 7 .02

AP 104

7 . 92

19 .95

12 .67

7 . 28

7 . 02

7 . 94

2 4 .10

3 . 04

3 4 .23

A P 105

6 . 70

19 .92

12 .21

7 . 71

6 . 51

7 . 56

2 3 .23

3 . 07

3 2 .69

AP 106

5 . 64

20 .29

14 .40

5 . 89

8 . 79

1 .97

3 6 .20-

3 . 02

3 5 .32

A P 107

7 . 47

1 9 .27

10 .48

8 . 79

7 . 41

7 . 99

2 4 .21

3 . 03

2 9 .43

A P 108

8 . 48

1 9 .48

13 .07

6 . 41

2 . 46

5 . 09

1 5 .15

2 . 98

4 4 .17

AP 109

7 . 21

1 9 .95

12 .99

6 . 96

6 . 49

1 0 .39

3 1 .80

3 . 06

3 6 .97

AP 110

6 . 62

20 .33

12 .54

7 . 79

8 . 91

1 0 .35

3 3 .08

3 . 20

2 8 .31

b ad c o l lagen

4 5 .30

AP 111

1 . 80

12 .52

AP 112

7 . 82

20 .13

14 .77

5 . 36

6 . 90

8 . 08

2 5 .58

3 . 17

4 2 .18

A P 113

4 .46

2 1 .55

13 .72

7 . 83

9 . 22

7 . 39

2 3 .58

3 . 19

3 7 .21

A P 114

7 . 47

1 9 .85

1 1 .83

8 . 02

3 . 44

5 . 55

1 7 .42

3 . 14

3 0 .64

A P 115

8 . 73

20 .03

12 .95

7 . 08

5 . 85

2 . 43

7 . 96

3 . 28

4 0 .43

DA 1

6 . 00

20 .00

12 .60

7 . 40

4 . 96

1 3 .58

3 7 .47

3 . 22

3 1 .25

DA 2

7 . 00

20 .00

12 .80

7 . 20

9 . 54

1 5 .79

4 2 .78

3 . 16

3 7 .75

1 3 .65

3 6 .75

3 . 14

3 9 .90

A lepo t rypa 1 994

DA 3

8 . 12

1 9 .80

12 .33

7 . 47

DA 4 DA 5 DA 6

4 . 80

7 . 65

20 .17

14 .13

6 . 04

4 . 39

1 3 .40

3 6 .67

3 . 19

3 7 .25

8 . 00

20 .00

13 .80

6 . 20

1 .41

1 5 .29

4 1 .65

3 . 18

3 3 .67

6 . 90

19 .70

13 .10

6 . 60

9 . 53

1 5 .75

4 2 .85

3 . 18

3 6 .86

DA 7

5 . 80

19 .90

13 .50

6 . 40

1 0 .32

1 5 .16

4 1 .73

3 . 21

4 3 .45

DA 8

7 . 40

19 .50

12 .80

6 . 70

1 2 .56

1 5 .09

4 1 .27

3 . 19

3 8 .12

DA 9

8 . 10

19 .50

1 3 .10

6 . 40

1 4 .33

1 5 .23

4 1 .0 1

3 . 14

3 5 .00

DA 1 0

6 . 90

20 .00

13 .60

6 . 40

1 2 .21

1 5 .38

4 1 .80

3 . 17

3 8 .51

DA 1

7 . 20

20 .00

1 1 .90

8 . 10

4 . 50

1 2 .81

3 5 .00

3 . 19

4 2 .57

b ad c o l lagen

4 0 .17 3 4 .63

F ranch th i 1 999 14 .21

AP 121

2 . 32

AP 122

8 . 16

19 .30

12 .53

6 . 77

1 . 66

2 . 75

8 . 98

3 . 27

AP 123

9 . 74

1 8 .96

13 .92

5 . 04

1 0 .27

9 . 52

2 9 .43

3 . 09

2 5 .23

A P 124

8 . 16

19 .64

12 .62

7 . 02

3 . 23

5 . 74

1 8 .22

3 . 17

4 0 .44

AP 125

9 .08

1 8 .63

13 .53

5 . 10

6 . 79

1 0 .59

3 3 .03

3 . 12

3 1 .52

b ad c o l lagen

3 6 .23

AP 127

1 0 .44

1 7 .77

1 1 .78

5 . 99

3 . 29

8 . 97

2 5 .35

3 . 30

3 5 .38

AP 128

9 . 52

1 8 .18

12 .23

5 . 95

1 . 49

5 . 73

1 6 .40

3 . 34

2 4 .38

20 .74

14 .14

b ad c o l lagen

3 3 .16

19 .23

12 .47

1 . 95

7 . 24

2 0 .37

3 . 28

2 6 .00

19 .37

13 .60

0 . 55

1 . 72

4 . 35

2 . 95

3 7 .57

AP 126

AP 129 AP 130

1 . 83

14 .38

7 . 79

AP 131

0 . 39 6 . 76

AP 132

8 . 38

19 .14

13 .83

5 . 31

3 . 97

1 .63

3 3 .23

3 . 33

3 0 .40

AP 133

7 . 84

1 8 .97

12 .56

6 . 41

5 . 17

1 0 .64

3 0 .26

3 . 32

3 1 .43

2 3 .59

12 .77

1 . 04

0 . 61

1 . 14

2 . 18

3 8 .54

1 8 .43

1 1 .79

1 . 53

8 . 52

2 4 .59

3 . 37

2 9 .0 1

AP 136

20 .51

13 .22

0 . 81

1 . 57

3 . 55

2 . 64

3 4 .14

AP 137

2 5 .30

1 3 .47

1 . 38

0 . 91

1 . 64

2 . 10

4 1 .15

A P 134 AP 135

8 . 30

6 . 64

7 5

AP 138

1 4 .11

16 .96

14 .90

2 . 06

9 . 52

1 3 .87

3 9 .47

3 . 32

3 7 .55

1 . 10

0 . 74

2 . 09

3 . 30

3 6 .49

K epha la 1 999 AP 139

27 .56

1 1 .61

18 .59

10 .93

6 . 19

1 3 .26

3 7 .93

3 . 34

2 5 .64

AP 14 1

2 7 .0 1

13 .53

0 . 97

0 . 47

1 . 29

3 . 20

4 1 .19

AP 142

32 .25

14 .51

1 . 17

0 . 61

1 . 28

2 . 45

5 3 .20

AP 143

30 .76

14 .18

0 . 92

0 . 58

1 . 38

2 . 78

4 8 .50

AP 144

28 .77

13 .88

0 . 82

0 . 76

1 . 37

2 . 10

5 0 .42

AP

3 1 .97

14 .62

1 . 29

0 . 57

1 . 23

2 . 52

3 2 .19

0 . 54

1 . 16

2 . 51

5 5 .97

AP 140

8 . 68

145

7 . 66

AP 146

3 1 .74

15 .21

1 . 07

AP 147

2 1 .11

12 .31

0 . 65

1 . 35

3 . 59

3 . 10

6 1 .38

AP 148

27 .72

1 5 .11

0 . 52

0 . 99

1 . 56

1 . 84

4 3 .76

19 .26

13 .84

1 . 04

4 .47

1 2 .73

3 . 32

3 5 .08 5 4 .16

AP 149

1 0 .56

5 . 42

AP 150

28 .40

13 .58

1 . 27

0 . 66

1 . 47

2 . 60

AP 151

36 .75

14 .96

0 . 63

0 . 90

1 . 54

2 . 00

5 0 .72

AP 152

37 .56

14 .62

0 . 71

0 . 68

1 . 45

2 . 49

4 7 .12

18 .52

13 .44

3 . 24

9 . 81

2 8 .26

3 . 36

4 3 .16

33 .52

13 .74

1 . 22

0 . 56

1 . 28

2 . 67

4 3 .78

17 .94

10 .27

7 . 67

4 . 43

1 2 .78

3 6 .53

3 . 34

3 6 .97

6 . 33

0 . 91

1 . 78

5 . 33

3 . 49

5 0 .38

AP 153

7 . 98

AP 154 AP 155

9 . 65

14 .82

5 . 08

AP 156

8 . 98

2 1 .15

AP 165

8 . 75

19 .92

1 1 .36

8 . 56

7 . 22

1 2 .4 1

3 6 .53

3 . 44

4 4 .77

AP 166

8 . 38

20 .16

1 1 .87

8 . 29

1 .77

1 4 .19

4 2 .23

3 . 47

3 9 .81

AP 167

7 . 55

20 .28

12 .84

7 . 44

8 . 56

1 2 .81

3 7 .56

3 . 42

4 1 .99

AP 168

9 . 41

19 .55

12 .47

7 . 08

6 . 98

1 2 .30

3 6 .31

3 . 45

4 8 .65

AP 169

6 . 93

19 .90

12 .09

7 . 81

5 . 34

8 . 86

2 6 .02

3 . 43

5 2 .60

6 . 80

4 . 75

1 .49

3 4 .19

3 . 47

5 3 .87

T ha r roun ia 1 999

13 .19

8 . 93

19 .99

AP 171

8 . 60

19 .77

1 1 .04

8 . 73

9 . 38

8 . 70

2 5 .60

3 . 43

5 1 .75

AP 172

7 . 47

20 .31

1 1 .04

9 . 27

7 . 35

1 2 .64

3 7 .15

3 . 43

4 1 .0 1

AP 173

8 . 24

20 .02

1 1 .27

8 . 75

5 . 62

1 2 .17

3 6 .08

3 . 46

4 7 .15

AP 174

8 . 20

19 .72

12 .68

7 . 04

7 . 52

1 2 .46

3 6 .87

3 . 45

4 7 .20

AP 175

7 . 92

19 .97

1 1 .87

8 . 10

6 . 59

1 2 .82

3 7 .67

3 . 43

4 8 .43

AP 176

7 . 57

20 .09

10 .15

9 . 94

6 . 09

1 .0 1

3 2 .85

3 . 48

4 1 .4 1 4 0 .96

AP 170

AP 177

8 . 71

20 .27

12 .79

7 . 48

6 . 69

1 2 .48

3 7 .03

3 . 46

AP 178

7 . 79

20 .00

12 .74

7 . 26

1 3 .68

1 4 .44

4 2 .45

3 . 43

AP 179

8 . 52

19 .83

13 .34

6 . 49

1 6 .59

1 4 .89

4 3 .81

3 . 43

3 3 .14

AP 180

6 . 77

20 .09

12 .35

7 . 74

2 0 .48

1 4 .83

4 3 .63

3 . 43

2 8 .16 2 8 .77

AP 181

7 . 72

19 .55

12 .36

7 . 19

2 0 .44

1 3 .67

4 0 .33

3 . 44

AP 182

7 . 68

20 .17

10 .04

1 0 .13

4 . 34

1 0 .94

3 2 .40

3 . 46

3 7 .59

AP 183

7 . 54

20 .24

1 1 .38

8 . 86

1 .12

1 3 .53

3 9 .88

3 . 44

4 0 .00

AP 184

8 . 15

19 .98

9 .74

1 0 .24

4 . 79

9 .06

2 6 .79

3 . 45

3 9 .19

AP 185

7 . 81

20 .39

12 .77

7 . 62

1 2 .18

1 4 .09

4 1 .81

3 . 46

3 2 .21

4 . 15

1 .87

3 4 .99

3 . 44

3 6 .51

T heope t ra 1 999 7 . 69

20 .23

10 .85

9 . 38

AP 187

8 . 36

19 .32

13 .80

5 . 52

1 9 .90

1 5 .47

4 5 .22

3 . 41

2 1 .48

AP 188

7 . 55

20 .0 1

1 1 .10

8 . 91

4 .09

8 . 17

2 3 .98

3 . 43

3 6 .14

AP 189

7 . 29

20 .15

12 .93

7 . 22

5 . 02

1 2 .36

3 5 .94

3 . 39

3 3 .25

AP 190

7 . 68

19 .89

10 .82

9 . 07

5 . 16

1 0 .60

3 0 .87

3 . 40

3 0 .71

AP 191

8 . 70

19 .80

1 3 .68

6 . 12

1 .76

1 4 .30

4 1 .92

3 . 42

3 6 .39

AP 192

7 . 24

20 .30

10 .94

9 . 36

1 . 79

9 . 79

2 8 .93

3 . 45

3 9 .72

8 . 89

1 4 .19

4 1 .58

3 . 42

3 9 .18

AP 186

AP 193

6 . 71

20 .51

14 .62

5 . 89

7 6

A P 194

7 . 14

A P 195

20 .40

1 1 .97

3 1 .33

1 3 .23

8 . 43

10 .23

6 . 99

3 3 .24

7 . 40

1 3 .0 1

3 8 .48

3 . 45

1 . 28

0 . 63

1 . 49

2 . 76

3 7 .28

8 . 16

1 2 .93

3 7 .54

3 . 39

2 8 .99

AP 196

4 . 38

1 7 .22

AP 197

7 . 48

20 .13

1 3 .70

6 . 43

2 . 57

7 . 21

2 0 .87

3 . 38

3 5 .73

A P 198

8 . 13

19 .46

12 .51

6 . 95

2 . 55

9 . 93

2 8 .97

3 . 40

3 9 .90 5 1 .87

K ouve le ik i 1 999 2 1 .78

AP 199

10 .31

1 . 95

1 . 25

3 . 57

3 . 33

12 .85

2 . 17

0 . 93

3 . 20

4 .02

6 6 .73

2 7 .30

12 .92

1 . 10

0 . 67

1 . 77

3 . 08

4 3 .58

AP 1 200 AP 1 20 1 AP 1 202

8 . 32

19 .86

1 1 .87

7 . 99

2 . 96

5 . 32

1 5 .47

3 . 39

4 5 .33

AP 1 203

7 . 85

19 .81

12 .88

6 . 93

6 . 18

9 . 10

2 6 .40

3 . 39

4 6 .17

T ab le 2 3 . S t ab le i s o tope m ean v a lues p e rs i te . S i te A lepo t rypa

81 5N 7 . 17± 1 .0 1

F ranch th i K epha la

9 . 23± 1 .83 9 . 17±0 .98

T ha r roun ia T heope t ra K ouve le ik i

8 . 04±0 .67 7 . 40± 1 .05 8 . 09±0 .33

4 51 3C co 19 .95±0 .45 1 8 .66±0 .78 19 .09± 1 .24 19 .99±0 .22 19 .83±0 .86 19 .84±0 .04

Su C ca 12 .89±0 .91 12 .92±0 .99 12 .66± 1 .96 1 1 .83± 1 .05 12 .30± 1 .42 12 .38±0 .71

81 3C ca -co 7 .07±0 .89 5 . 73± 1 .40 6 . 43± 1 .26 8 . 16± 1 .12 7 . 53± 1 .37 7 . 46±0 .75

G o

i t sos e pha la Si

CND Z as

Me l o

te 5

V

t

)i

4 t )

K a i

F igu re 1 . Map o fN eo l i th ic G reece .

7 9

F igu re 2 . Map o fA lepo t rypa C ave ( c ou r te sy o fG .P apa thana s sopou lo s )

8 0

•

8 1

F igu re 3 .O ssua ry I .

8 2

F igu r e4 .O s sua ry I .

8 : 3

F igu re 5 .O s sua ry I .

8 4

F igu re 6 .S ing le p r ima ry b u r ia l .

8 5

F igu re 7 . Mu l t ip le p r ima ry b u r ia l .

8 6

/ / .(

F igu re 8 . Mu l t ip le p r ima ry b u r ia l .

8 7

4 5 5 0

F igu r e9 . Mo r ta l i ty c u rve .

8 8

5 0+

F igu r e 1 0 . C r ib ra o rb i ta l ia ( A2227 ) .

F igu r e 1 .P o ro t ic h ype ro s to s is ( A237 ) .

8 9

F igu re 1 2 . P o ro t ic h ype ros tos is a nd h ea led d ep res sed c r an ia l f r ac tu re ( A238 ) .

F igu re 1 3 . H ema toma ( A111) .

9 0

F igu r e 1 4 . O s teomye l i t i s( A 133 ) .

F igu r e 1 5 . C upped w ea r , p remo r tem t oo th l o s s ,c a r ie s ( A 139 ) .

9 1

F igu re 1 6 . L inea re name lh ypop la s ia ( A2228 ) .

F igu re 1 7 . C upped w ea r ,p r emo r tem t oo th l o s s( A2 197 ) .

9 2

F igu r e 1 8 .A ng led w ea r ,p remo r tem t o o th l o s s ,a nd t oo th r o ta t ion ( A 1890 ) .

F igu re 1 9 . Me top i sm ( A235 ) .

9 3

F igu re 2 0 . E x t ra su tu ra l b ones ( A241) .

F igu re 2 1 . S p ina l o s teoa r th r i t is ( A1673 , A 1433 ) .

9 4

F igu r e 2 2 . S chmo r l 's n ode s( A638 ,A 597 ,A 1454 , A 10 18 ) .

F igu r e2 3 . E n the sopa thy ( A2197 ) .

9 5

F igu re 2 4 . E n the sopa thy ( A2197 ) .

F i gu re 2 5 . E n the sopa thy ( A1370 ) .

9 6

F igu r e2 6 . P e r io s tea lr e ac t ion ( A 1627 ) .

3 1 1 . F igu r e2 7 . I n f ec t ion ( A 1539 ) .

9 7

1 3 1

V A

F igu re 2 8 . I n f ec t ion ( A1946 ,A 870 , A 579 ) .

F igu re 2 9 . C o l le 's f r ac tu re ( A1824 ) .

9 8

F igu r e 3 0 .F ra c tu red m e taca rpa l s( A2076 ,A 2077 ) .

F igu r e 3 1 .R ib f r a c tu r e ( A 1262 ) .

9 9

F igu re 3 2 . F rac tu red f emo ra l h ead ( A1562 ) .

F igu re 3 3 . T a lus o fa bnorma l s hape ( A1664 ) .

1 00

F igu r e 3 4 . K l ippe l -Fe i l s ynd rome ( A 1496 ) .

F igu r e3 5 . Ap robab le c a se o fr i cke t s ( A1947 ) .

1 01

F igu re 3 6 . C ono id j o in t( A1680 ) .

F igu re 3 7 . B owed m e ta ta r sa ls ( A1527 ,A 1214 ) .

1 02

F igu r e 3 8 . G row th a r re s tl i ne s ,r i cke t s (? ) ( A 1947 ) , a nd o s teopen ia ( A819 ) i nf emo ra ( A819 ,A 1947a ,A 2037 ,A 1947b ,A 974 ) .

1 03

F igu re 3 9 . G row th a r res tl i ne s i nh ume r i ( A2197 , A 904 , A 1594 ) .

1 04

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7

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1 05

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ö n c c o% c F igu re 4 1 . S t ab le i s o tope p lo t( co l lagen ) .

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F igu re 4 2 . I s o top ic c ompo s i t ion o fh uman d i e t s b a sed o nb one a pa t i te c a rbona te 8 13C a nd b one c o l lagen 5 15N .

1 07

Ammerman , A .J . ,a nd L .L .C ava l l i -Sfo r za . 1 984 .T he N eo l i th ic t r an s i t ion a nd t h eg ene t ics o f p opu la t ion i nE u rope . P r ince ton : P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P re s s . A nd reou , S . ,M . F o t iad i s , a nd K . K o t sak i s . 1 996 .T he N eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge o fn o r the rn G reece . Ame r ican J our na l o fA r chaeo logy 1 00 ( 3 ) : 5 37 -597 .

B IBL IOGRAPHY

A nge l ,J .L . 1 945 . N eo l i th ic a nce s to r so ft h e G reek s . Ame r ican j ou rna lo fA rchaeo logy 4 9 : 2 52 -260 .

A l -Aba ss i ,S .A . ,a nd I .S ane . 1 998 .N eo l i th ic c o l lap se i nt h eL evan tv i ewed f r om d en ta le name lh ypop la s ia . P re sen ted a tt h e Ame r ican A s soc ia t ion o fP hy s ica l A n th ropo log i s t s Mee t ing , S a l t L ake C i ty , UT .

A nge l ,J .L . 1 964 .T he R ea c t ion A rea o ft h e F emo ra l N eck . C l in ica l O r thoped ic s 3 2 : 1 30 142 .

A l ram -S te rn , E . 1 996 . D ie A ga ische F ruhze i t . W ien : D e rO s te r re ich ischen A kadem ie d e rW i s sen scha f ten .

A nge l ,J .L . 1 966 . P o ro t ic h ype ro s to s is , a nem ia s , m a la r ia s , a nd ma r she si nt h ep reh i s to r ic e a s ter n Med i te r ranean . S c ience 1 53 : 7 60 -763 .

Amb ro se , S .H . 1 987 . C hem ica la nd i s o top ic t e chn ique so fd i e t r e con s t ruc t ion i ne a s ter nN o r th Ame r ica . I n Eme rgen t h o r t icu l tu ra le conom ie so ft h ee a s tern Wood land s ,e d . W .F .K eegan . C en te rf o rA rchaeo log ica l I nves t iga t ion s ,S ou thern I l ino i sU n ive r s i ty a t C a rbonda le ,O cca s iona lp ape r7 :8 7 -107 .

A nge l ,J .L . 1 969 . H uman s ke le ta l m a te r ia lf r om F ranch th i C ave . A ppend ix I .I nT .W .J acob sen , H e spe r ia 3 8 : 3 43 -381 . A nge l ,J .L . 1 971 . E a r ly N eo l i th ic S ke le ton sf r om C a ta lH üyük : D emog raphy a nd P a tho logy . Ana to l ian S tud ies 2 1 : 7 7 9 8 .

Amb ro se ,S .H . 1 990 . P r epa ra t ion a nd c ha rac te r iza t ion o fb one a nd t oo th c o l lagen f o ri s o top ic a na ly s i s . J ou rna lo f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 1 7 :4 31-451 .

A nge l ,J .L . 1 973a . E xcava t ion s i nt h eF ranch th i C ave , 1 969 -1971 , p a r tI .I nT .W .J acob sen ,H e spe r ia 4 2 : 2 53 -283 .

Amb ro se ,S .H . ,a nd L .N o r r . 1 992 . O ns t ab le i s o top ic d a ta a nd p reh i s to r ic s ub s i s tence i nt h eS oconusco r eg ion . C u r ren tA n th ropo logy 3 ( 4 ) : 4 0 1-404 .

A nge l ,J .L . 1 973b . E a r ly N eo l i th ic p eop le o fN ea N ikomede ia . F undamen ta . 1 03 -112 .

Amb ro se ,S .H . ,a nd L .N on . 1 993 . E xper imen ta le v idence f o rt h er e la t ion sh ip o ft h e c a rbon i s o tope r a t io so fw ho le d i e ta nd d i e ta ry p ro te in t ot ho se o fb one c o l lagen a nd c a rbona te .I nP reh i s to r ic h uman b one : A rchaeo logy a tt h e mo lecu la rl e ve l .e d s . J .B .L ambe r t ,a nd G . G rupe . N ew Y o rk : S p r inge rV e r lag .

A nge l ,J .L . 1 975 . P a leoeco logy ,p a leodemog raphy a nd h ea l th . I n P opu la t ion , E co logy a nd S oc ia l E vo lu t ion . S .P o lga r ( e d . ) , 1 67 190 .T he H ague : Mou ton . A nge l ,J .L . 1 977 . A ppend ix 5 :H uman s ke le ton s . I nK epha la : Al a te N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ta nd c eme te ry . J .E .C o leman . 1 33 1 56 .

Amb ro se , S .H . ,B .M . B u t le r , D . B . H an son , R .L .H un te r A nde r son ,a nd H .W . K ruege r . 1 997 . S tab le i s o top ic a na ly s i so fh uman d i e ti nt h e Ma r iana sA r ch ipe lago , We s te rn P a c if ic . Ame r ican J ou rna lo fP hy s ica lA n th ropo logy 1 04 : 3 43 -361 .

A nge l ,J .L . 1 984 . H ea l th a s ac ruc ia l f a c to ri nt h ec hange sf r om h un t ing t od eve loped f a rm ing i nt h ee a s t er n Med i te r ranean . I nP a leopa tho logy a tt h eo r ig in so f a g r icu l tu re . M . N . C ohen a nd G . J .A rme lago se d s . 5 17 3 . O r lando : A cadem ic P re s s .

Amme rman ,A .J . ,a nd L .L .C ava l l i -Sfo rza . 1 971 . Mea su r ing t h er a te o fs p read o fe a r ly f a rm ing i n E u rope . Man 6 :6 74 -678 .

1 08

A ren sbu rg ,B . ,a nd 0 . B a r -Yo sef . 1 973 . H uman r ema in sf r om E in G ev I ,J o rdan V a l ley , I s ra e l . P a leoo r ien t 1 :2 20 1-2206 .

B i se l , S .L .C . 1 980 . Ap i lo t s t udy i na spec t so fh uman n u t r i t ion i nt h e a nc ien t E a s t Med i te r ranean , w i th p a r t icu la ra t ten t ion t o t r a ce m ine ra l s i ns e ve ra lp opu la t ion sf r om d i f f e r en t t ime p e r iod s . P h . D .t h e s i s : U n ive r s i ty o fM inne so ta , M inneapo l i s .

B a i ley ,D .W . 1 993 . C h rono typ ic t e n s ion i nB u lga r ian p r eh is to ry : 6 500 3 500 BC . Wo r ld A r chaeo logy 2 5 : 2 04 -222 .

B iegen ,C .W . 1 937 . P ro symna . C amb r idge . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s .

B a i ley ,D . W . 1 994 . R ead ing p r eh i s to r ic f i gu r ine sa si n d iv idua l s . Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 2 5 : 3 21-331 .

B ocque t -Appe l ,J . ,a nd C . Ma s se t . 1 982 . F a rewe l l t op a leodemog raphy . J ourna l o fH uman E vo lu t ion 1 : 3 21-333 .

B a i te r ,M . 1 998 .A rchaeo logy : T ran s i t ion si nP r eh i s to ry . S c ience 2 52 : 1 441-1458 .

B oguck i ,P . 1 996 . T he s p r ead o fe a r ly f a rm ing i nE u rope . Ame r ican S c ien t is t 8 4 : 2 42 -253 .

B a rke r ,G . 1 985 .P reh is to r ic f a rm ing i nE u rope . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

B oguck i ,P ,a nd R .G ryg ie l . 1 993 .T he f i r s tf a rme r so fn o r th -cen t ra l E u rope .J ou rna l o fF i e ld A r chaeo logy 2 0 (3 ) : 3 99 -426 .

B a rn e s ,E . 1 984 .D eve lopmen ta l D ef ec t so ft h eA x ia l S ke le ton i n P a leopa tho logy . Un ive r s i ty P re s so fC o lo rado .

B o rgogn in i T a r l i , S . ,A . C anc i , M . P ipe rno ,a nd E .R epe t to . 1 993 . D a t i a r chaeo log ic i ea n th ropo log ic i s u l le s epo l tu r e m e so l i th iche d e l la G ro t ta d e l l ' U zzo ( T rap in i ) . B u l le t t ino d iP a leoe tno log ia h a l iana 8 4 : 8 5 -179 .

B a s s ,W . M . 1 987 .H uman o s teo logy . 3 rd e d i t ion . C o lumb ia : M is sou r i A r chaeo log ica lS oc ie ty . B eck ,L .A .e d . 1 995 .R eg iona la pp roaches t om o r tua ry a na ly s i s . N ew Y o rk : P lenum .

B o serup , E . 1 965 .T he c ond i t ion so fa g r icu l tu ra lg row th : t h e e conom ic so fa g ra r ian c hange u nde rp opu la t ion p r e s su r e . C h icago : A ld ine .

B ende r ,B . 1 985 . Eme rgen tt r iba lf o rma t ion si nt h e Ame r ican m id c on t inen t . Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 5 0 (1) : 5 2 -62 .

B o t tema , S . , a nd H . Wo ld r ing . 1 990 . A n th ropogen ic i n d ica to r si nt h ep o l len r e co rd o f t h ee a s te rn Med i te r ranean . I n Man 's r o le i nt h e s hap ing o ft h ee a s te rn Med i te r ranean l a nd scape . S .B o t tema e t a l . ( e d s . ) . p p . 2 31-264 . R o t te rdam : B a lkema .

B inde r ,D . ,a nd J .C ou r t in . 1 987 . N ouve l le sv ue ss u rl ep roce s su sd e n eo l i th i sa t ion d an sl es ud -es td e l aF rance .I nP r em ie r sc ommunau tes p ay sannes e n Med i te r ranee o cc iden ta le .J .G u i la ine ,J . C ou r t in ,J .R oud i l ,a nd J . -L .V er n e t( e d s . ) .p p .4 91-499 . P a r i s : CNRS .

B rad ley ,R . 1 990 .T he p a s sage o fa rm s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s .

B in f o rd ,L .R . 1 971 . Mo r tua ry p rac t ice s : T h e i rs t udy a nd t h e i rp o ten t ia l . I nA pp roache st ot h es oc ia ld imen s ion so f mo r tua ry p ra c t ices . J .A . B rown e d . Memo i r so ft h eS oc ie ty f o r Ame r ican A rchaeo logy 2 5 :6 -29 .

B ra idwood , R .J . ,a nd L .S .B ra idwood . e d s . 1 983 .P r eh i s to r ic a r chaeo logy a l ong t h eZ ag ro sf l ank s . C h icago : O r ien ta lI n s t i tu te . B rook s ,S .T . , a nd J .M . S uchey . 1 990 . S ke le ta l A ge D e te rm ina t ion B a sed o nt h eO sP ub i s : Ac ompa r ison o ft h e A scad i -Neme ske r i a nd S uchey B rook sm e thod s . H uman E vo lu t ion 5 :2 27 -238 .

B in f o rd ,L .R . 1 983 .I np u r su i to ft h ep a s t . N ew Y o rk : T hame s a nd H ud son .

B rown ,J .A . 1 981 .T he s e a r ch f o rr ank i np reh i s to r ic b u r ia l s . I nT he a r chaeo logy o fd ea th . R .C hapman ,I .K i rmes ,a nd K . R and sbo rg e d s .p p . 2 5 -38 . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

1 09

C a r l son , D . S . , G . J .A rme lagos , a nd D . P .v an G erven . 1 974 . F ac to r s i nf luenc ing t h e e t io logy o fc r ib ra o rb i ta l ia i np r eh i s to r ic N ub ia . J ou rna l o fH uman E vo lu t ion 3 : 4 05 -410 .

B rown ,J .A . 1 995 . O n mo r tua ry a na ly s is -w i th s pec ia lr e f e rence t o t h e S axe -B in fo rd p rog ram . I nR eg iona l a pp roache st o mo r tua ry a na ly s is . L .A . B eck e d . 3 26 . N ew Y o rk : P l enum .

C hapman ,J .C . 1 989 .T he e a r ly B a lkan v i l lage . I nN eo l i th ic o fS E E u rope a nd i t sE a s te rn c onnec t ion s . S .B ököny i ( e d . ) . p p . 3-53 . V a r ia A r chaeo log ica H unga r ica I . B udape s t .

B rune ,M . ,L .R o s sande r ,a nd L .H a l lbe rg . 1 989 . I r on a b so rp t ion : n oi n te s t ina l a dap ta t ion t o ah i gh p hy ta te d i e t . Ame r ican J ou rna l o fC l in ica l N u t r i t ion 4 9 :542 -545 .

C hapman , R . 1 981 .T he e me rgence o ff o rma ld i spo sa l a r ea sa nd t h e " p rob lem" o fm ega l i th ic t omb s i np reh i s to r ic E u rope . I nT he a r chaeo logy o fd ea th . R . C hapman , I .K inne s , a nd K . R and sbo rg ( e d s . ) . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

B u ik s t ra ,J .E . 1 981 . Mor tua ry p rac t ice s ,p a leodemog raphy a nd p a leopa tho logy : Ac a se s t udy f r om t h eK o s te rs i t e ( I l l ino i s ) . I nT he a r chaeo logy o fd ea th . R .C hapman , I . K inne s ,a nd K . R and sbo rg e d s .p p . 1 23 -132 . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s . B u ik s t ra ,J .E . ,a nd D . H . U be lake re d s . 1 994 . S t anda rd sf o rd a ta c o l lec t ion f r om h uman s ke le ta l r ema in s . A rkan sa sA rchaeo log ica l S u rvey R esea r ch S e r ie s4 4 .

C hapman , R . 1 990 . Eme rg ing c omp lex i ty : t h el a te rp r eh i s to ry o fs ou th e a s t S pa in ,I b e r ia a nd t h e w e s t Med i te r ranean . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P r e s s .

B u ik s t ra ,J .E . ,a nd L .W . K on ig sbe rg . 1 985 .P a leodemog raphy : c r i t ique sa nd c on t rove r sy . Ame r ican A n th ropo log i s t8 7 : 3 16 -333 .

C hapman ,R . 1 995 .T en y ea r s a f te r -m ega l i th s , mo r tua ry p rac t ice s , a nd t h et e r r i to r ia l mode l . I nR eg iona la pp roaches t o mo r tua ry a na ly s is . L .A . B eck e d . , 2 9 -51 . N ew Yo rk : P l enum .

B u ik s t ra ,J .E . ,L .W . K on ig sbe rg ,a nd J .B u l l ing ton . 1 986 .F e r t i l i ty a nd t h ed eve lopmen to fa g r icu l tu r ei nt h e p reh i s to r ic M idwes t . Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 5 1 : 5 28 -546 .

C hapman , R . , a nd K . R and sbo rg . 1 981 . A pp roa che st ot h ea r chaeo logy o fd ea th . I nT he a r chaeo logy o fd ea th . R .C hapman , I .K inne s , a nd K . R and sbo rg e ds . p p . 1 24 .

B u ik s t ra ,J .E . , S .R .F rankenbe rg ,a nd L .W . K on ig sbe rg . 1 990 . S ke le ta lb i o log ica ld i s tance s t ud ie si n Ame r ican p hy s ica la n th ropo logy : r e cen tt r end s . Ame r ican J our na l o fP hy s ica lA n th ropo logy 8 2 : 1 7 .

C hapman , R . ,I .K innes ,a nd K . R and sbo rg . 1 981 .T he a r chaeo logy o fd ea th . C amb r idg e : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r es s .

C annon ,A . 1 989 .T he h i s to r ica ld imen s ion i n mo r tua ry e xp re s s ion s o fs t a tu sa nd s en t imen t . C u r ren tA n th ropo logy 3 0 (4 ) : 4 37 -458 .

C ha r les , D . K , a nd J .E .B u ik s t ra . 1 983 . A rcha ic m o r tua ry s i te si nt h ec en t ra l M i ss is s ipp i d ra inage : d i s t r ibu t ion , s t ruc tu re , a nd b ehav io ra l i mp l ica t ion s . I nA r cha ic H un te r sa nd G a the re r s i nt h e Ame r ican M idwes t .J .L .P h i l l ip s a nd J .A . B rown ( e d s . ) , 17 -145 . N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P r e s s .

C a r l son ,D . S . 1 976 .T empo ra lv a r ia t ion i np r eh i s to r ic N ub ian c r an ia . Ame r ican j our na lo fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 4 5 :4 67 4 84 .

C h i lde , V . G . 1 926 .T he A ryan s , as t udy o fI ndo -Eu ropean o r ig in s . L ondon : K egan P au l ,T rench & T rubne r .

C a r l son , D . S . ,a nd D . P .v an G e rven . 1 977 . Ma s t ica to ry f unc t ion a nd p o s t -P le i s tocene e vo lu t ion i nN ub ia . Ame r ican J ou rna lo fP hy s ica l An th ropo logy 4 6 : 4 95 -506 .

C h i lde , V . G . 1 928 .T he m o s ta nc ien tE a s t . L ondon : R ou t ledge a nd K egan P au l .

C a r l son ,D . S . ,a nd D .P .v an G e rven . 1 979 . D if fu s ion ,b io log ica ld e te rm in i sm , a nd b iocu l tu ra l a dap ta t ion i nt h eN ub ian C o r r ido r . Ame r ican A n th ropo log i s t8 1 : 5 61-580 .

C h i lde , V . G . 1 936 . Man m ake sh im se lf . L ondon : Wa t t s .

10

C oa le ,A .J . ,a nd P .D emeney 1 983 .R eg iona l mode l l i f et a b le s a nd s t ab le p opu la t ion s . N ew Y o rk .

C u l len ,T . 1 995 . Me so l i th ic mo r tua ry r i tua l a tF ran ch th i C ave , G r eece . A n t iqu i ty 6 9 : 2 70 -289 .

C ohen ,M .N . 1 977 .T he f ood c r i s is i np reh is to ry : o ve rpopu la t ion a nd o r ig in so fa g r icu l tu r e . Y a le U n ive r s i ty P r e s s : N ew H aven , CT

C ybu l sk i ,J .S . 1 977 . C r ib ra o rb i ta l ia , ap o s s ib le s i gn o fa nem ia i ne a r ly h i s to r ic n a t ive p opu la t ion so ft h e B r i t i sh C o lumb ia c oa s t . Ame r ican J ou rna lo fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 4 7 : 3 1-40 .

C ohen ,M . N . 1 994 .T he o s teo log ica lp a radox r e con s ide r ed . C u r r en t A n th ropo logy 3 5 (5 ) : 6 29 -631 .

D e lano Sm i th , C . 1 987 .T he N eo l i th ic l a nd scape o ft h eT avo l ie re , A pu l ia . I nT he N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ti nt h eT avo l ie re . G . B . J one s ( e d . ) . p p . 1 26 . L ondon : S oc ie ty o fA n t iqua r ies . R epo r t4 4 .

C ohen ,M . N . ,a nd G .J .A rme lago se d s . 1 984 .P a leopa tho logy a tt h eo r ig in so fa g r icu l tu re . O r lando : A cadem ic P res s .

D emou le ,J . -P . ,a nd C .P e r ls 1 993 .T he G r eek N eo l i th ic : An ew r e v iew . J ou rna lo f Wo r ld P r eh i s to ry 7 (4 ) : 3 55 -416 .

C o leman ,J .E . 1 977 .K epha la : Al a te N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ta nd c eme te ry . Ame r ican S choo lo fC la ss ica l S t ud ies ,P r ince ton .

D eN i ro , M .J . 1 985 . P o s tmo r tem p r e se rva t ion a nd a l te ra t ion o fi nv i vo b one c o l lagen i s o tope r a t io si nr e la t ion t op a leod ie ta ry r e con s t ruc t ion . N a tu r e 3 17 :806 -809 .

C o leman ,J .E . 1 992 .G reece ,t h eA egean , a nd C ypru s . I nC h rono log ie s i nO ld Wo r ld a r chaeo logy ,e d . R .W . E h r ich . L ondon . T he U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r e s s .

D eN i ro , M . J . ,a nd S .E p s te in . 1 978 . I n f luence o fd i e to nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fc a rbon i s o tope s i na n ima l s . G eoch im ica a nd C o smoch im ica A c ta 4 2 : 4 95 -506 .

C on s tan t in i ,L . , M . P ipe rno , a nd S .T u sa . 1 987 .L an eo l i th isa t ion d e l aS i c i le o cc iden ta ld 'a p r e s l e s r e su l ta t sd e sf ou i l le s al ag ro t te d el 'U zzo ( T rapan i ) . I n P r em ie re sc ommunau tes p ay sannes e n Med i te r ranee o cc iden ta le .J .G u i la ine ,J .C ou r t in ,J .R oud i l ,a nd J . -L . V e rne t( e d s . ) .p p . 3 97 -405 . P a r i s : CNRS .

D eN i ro , M . J . ,a nd S .E p s te in . 1 981 . I n f luence o fd i e to nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fn i t rogen i s o tope s i na n ima l s . G eoch im ica a nd C o smoch im ica A c ta 4 5 : 3 4 1-351 .

C ook ,D .C . 1 981 . Mo r ta l i ty ,a ge s t ruc tu re a nd s t a tu si nt h e i n t e rp re ta t ion o fs t r e s si nd ica to r si np r eh i s to r ic s k e le ton s : ad en ta le xamp le f r om t h el owe rI l ino is v a l ley . I nT he a r cha eo logy o fd ea th . R .C hapman ,I . K inne s ,a nd K . R and sbo rg e ds . p p . 1 33 144 . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P r e s s .

D enne l l ,R . , a nd D . Web ley . 1 975 . P reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen ta nd l a nd u se i ns ou ther n B u lga r ia . I nP a leoeconomy . E .S .H igg s( e d . ) . p p . 9 7 11 0 . E f s t ra t iou , N . 1 985 .A g io sP e t ro s : AN eo l i th ic s i te i nt h e N or the rn S po rade s . A egean r e la t ion sh ip sd u r ing t h e N eo l i th ic o f t h e 5f i M i l len ium . O x fo rd : BAR I n ter na t iona l S e r ies .

C ook ,D .C . 1 984 .S ub s i s tence a nd h ea l th i nt h el owe rI l ino i sV a l ley : o s teo log ica le v iden ce .I nP a leopa tho logy a tt h eo r ig in s o fa g r icu l tu re . M . N . C ohen ,a nd G . J .A rme lago se d s . 2 37 -269 . O r lando : A cadem ic P re s s .

E h r ich ,R .W . 1 992 . C h rono log ie si nO ld Wo r ld a r cha eo logy . L ondon . T he U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s .

C o s ta ,R .L . ,a nd W . S .G reave s . 1 981 .E xpe r imen ta l ly p roduced t o o th w ea rf a ce t sa nd t h e d i r ec t ion o fj aw mo t ion .J our n a lo fP a leon to logy 5 5 : 6 35 -638 .

E l -Na j ja r , M . Y . , D .J .R yan ,C .G . T u rne rI ,a nd B .L ozof f . 1 976 .T he e t io logy o fp o ro t ic h ype ro s to s is a mong p r eh is to r ic a nd h i s to r ic A na saz i I nd ian so f s ou thwe s te rn U n i ted S ta te s . Ame r ican J our na lo f P hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 4 4 : 4 77 -488 .

C ra ig , H . 1 957 .I s o top ic s t anda rd sf o rc a rbon a nd o xygen a nd c o r r ec t ion f a c to r sf o r ma s ss pec t rome t r ic a na ly s i so f c a rbon d iox ide . G eoch im ica a nd C o smoch im ica A c ta 1 2 : 1 33 -149 .

F lanne ry , K . V . 1 973 .T he o r ig in so fa g r icu l tu r e . A nnua lR ev iew o f A n th ropo logy 2 :2 71-310 . 11

G oodman , A . H . 1 993 . O nt h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fh ea l th f r om s k e le ta l r ema in s . C u r ren t A n th ropo logy 3 4 : 2 8 1-288 .

G a l l i s , K . I . 1 975 .K au se i sn ek ron a po t iN eo l i th ik ie poch i s t in T he s sa l ia . A then s . A r cha io log ika a na lek ta e xA th inon V I I I : 2 4 1-258 .

G oodman , A . H . , a nd G . J .A rme lago s . 1 988 . C h i ldhood s t re s s ,c u l tu ra l b uf f e r ing ,a nd d ec rea sed l o ngev i ty i n ap reh is to r ic p opu la t ion . Ame r ican A n th ropo log i s t9 0 : 9 36 -944 .

G a l l i s , K .I . 1 982 . K au se i sn ek ron a po t i na r cha io te ran N eo l i th ik in e poch in e i st i nT he s sa l ia . A then s . T ame io a r cha io log ikon p o ron k a i a pa l lo t r io seon .

G oodman , A . H . , G . J .A rme lago s , a nd J .C .R o se . 1 980 . E name lh ypop la s ia sa si n d ica to r so fs t ress i nt h r ee p r eh is to r ic p opu la t ion s f r om I l ino i s . H uman B io logy 5 2 : 5 12 -528 .

G a l l i s , K . I . 1 989 .A t la sp ro i s to r ikon o ik i smon t i sa na to l ik is t h e s sa l ik i sp ed iada s . T he s sa l iko I me ro log io 1 6 : 6 144 .

G oodman , A . H . , D . L . Ma r t in ,G . J .A rme lago s , a nd G . C la rk . 1 984 . I nd ica t ion so fs t re s sf r om b one sa nd t e e th . I n P a leopa tho logy a tt h eo r ig in s o fa g r icu l tu re . M . N . C ohen a nd G . J .A rme lago se ds . 1 3 -49 . O r lando : A cadem ic P re s s .

G a l l i s , K . I . 1 996 .T aph ika e t h ima . I nN eo l i th ic C u l tu re i nG reece . G . P apa thana s sopou lo s ( e d . ) . A then s : G ou land r i s F ounda t ion . G a l l i s , K . I . ,a nd D .L .O rphan id i . 1 991 . P or t re ta a po t iN eo l i th ik iT hes sa l ia . A rha io log ia 3 8 :4 4 -49 .

G oodman , A . H . ,a nd J .C .R o se . 1 990 . A s se s smen to fs y s tema t ic p hy s io log i ca l p er tu rba t ion sf r om d en ta le name lh ypop la s ia sa nd a s soc ia ted h i s to log ica l s t ruc tu re s . Y ea rbook o fP hy s ica l An th ropo logy 3 3 : 5 9 -110 .

G a rn , S .M . 1 976 .T he i n s ide so ft h eb one sa nd t h em a s so fh uman i ty . A nna l so ft h e XL II n te rna t iona lC ong re s so f Ame r ican i s t s3 :4 53 -457 . G imbu ta s ,M . 1 973 .T he b eg inn ing o ft h e B ronze A ge i nE u rope a nd t h e I ndo -Eu ropean s .J our na lo fI ndo -Eu ropean S tud ie s 1 : 1 63 -214 .

G oodman , A . H . , a nd J .C .R o se . 1 991 . D en ta le name lh ypop la s ia sa si n d ica to r so f n u t r i t iona ls t a tu s . I nA dvances i nd en ta la n th ropo logy , e d s . M . A . K e l ly , a nd C .S .L a r sen , 2 79 -294 . N ew Y o rk .

G imbu ta s , M . ,S .W inn ,a nd D . S h imabuku . 1 989 .A ch i l le ion : AN eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ti nT hes sa ly . L o s A nge le s .

G o rdon , C . C . ,a nd J .E .B u ik s t ra . 1 981 . S o i lp H ,b one p r e se rva t ion ,a nd s amp l ing b i a sa t mor tua ry s i t e s . Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 4 8 : 5 66 -571 .

G lan tz , M .M . 1 998 . Ar e a s se s smen to ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween d en ta l w ea ra nd s ub s is tence i nt h e L evan t . P re sen ted a tt h e Ame r ican A s soc ia t ion o fP hy s ica l A n th ropo log i s t s Mee t ing ,S a l tL ake C i ty , UT .

G rammeno s , D . V . 1 990 . A na skaf iN eo l i th ikou o ik i smou T h e rm is . Makedon ika 2 8 (1990 ) : 2 23 -287 . G reenf ie ld ,H . 1 993 . Z ooa r chaeo logy ,t a phonomy ,a nd t h eo r ig in o ff ood p roduc t ion i nt h ec en t ra l B a lkan s . I nC u l tu re a nd e nv i ronmen t : af r ag i le c oex i s tence . R .W .J am ieson , S . A bony i , a nd N . A . M i rau ( e ds . ) . p p . 1 1117 . C a lga ry : Un ive r s i ty o fC a lga ry A r chaeo log ica lA s soc ia t ion .

G o ld s te in ,L .G . 1 976 . S pa t ia ls t ruc tu re a nd s oc ia lo rgan iza t ion : R eg iona l man if e s ta t ion so fM i s s i s s ipp ian s oc ie ty . P h . D . D i s se r ta t ion . N o r thwe s ter nU n ive r s i ty ,E van s ton , I l ino i s .

H ad j ima rko s , D . M . , a nd C .W . B onho r s t . 1 962 . F luo r ide a nd s e len ium l e ve l s i nc on tempo ra ry a nd a nc ien tG r eek t e e th i nr e la t ion t od en ta lc a r ie s . N a tu r e 1 93 : 1 77 178 .

G oodenough ,W . H . 1 965 . R e th ink ing " s ta tu s" a nd " r o le" : T owa rd ag ene ra l mode lo ft h ec u l tu ra l o rgan iza t ion o fs oc ia l r e la t ion sh ip s . I nT he r e levance o f mode l sf o rs oc ia l a n th ropo logy . M . B an ton e d . A . S .A . Monog raph s 1 : 1 24 .

H a l lbe rg ,L . , L .R o s sande r , a nd A . B . S kanb e rg . 1 987 . P hy ta te sa nd t h ei nh ib i to ry e f f ec to fb r an o ni r on a b so rp t ion i n man . Ame r ican J our n a lo fC l in ica l N u t r i t ion 4 5 : 9 88 -996 .

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H u tch in son , D . L . , a nd C .S .L a r sen . 1 988 . D e te rm ina t ion o fs t re s se p i sode d u ra t ion f r om l i nea re name l h ypop la s ia s : ac a se s t udy f r om S t . C a the r ine sI s land , G eo rg ia . H uman B io logy 6 0 : 9 3 10 .

H a l s tead ,P . 1 98 1 .C oun t ing s heep i nN eo l i th ic a nd B ronze A ge G reece . I nP a t te rn o ft h ep a s t . I .H odde r ,G .I s aac , a nd N . H ammond e d s . C amb r idge . H a l s tead ,P . 1 984 . S t ra teg ies f o rs u rv iva l : A ne co log ica la pp roach t o s o c ia la nd e conom ic c hange i ne a r ly f a rm ing c ommun i t ies o fT he s sa ly , N . G r eece . P h . D .T he s i s . U n ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge , C amb r idge .

H u tch in son , D . L . , a nd L .N o r r . 1 994 . L a te P reh i s to r ic a nd e a r ly H is to r ic d i e ti nG u lf C oa s tF lo r ida . I nI nt h e w ake o fc on tac t : B io log ica l r e spon se st oc onque s t . e d s . C .S .L a r sen a nd G . R . M i lne r . N ew Y o rk : W i ley -L i s sI n c .

H a l s t ead ,P . 1 989 .T he e conomy h a s an o rma l s u rp lu s : e conom ic s t ab i l i ty a nd s oc ia lc hange a mong e a r ly f a rm ing c ommun i t ies o fT he s sa ly , G r eece . I nB ad y ea r e conom ics : c u l tu ra lr e spon se st or i sk a nd u nce r ta in ty . e d s .P .H a l s tead a nd J .O 'Shea . p p . 6 8 -80 . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s .

I vanov , I . 1 988 . D ie A u sg rabungen d e sG rabe r f e lde sv on V a rna ( 1972 -1986 ) . I n Ma ch t , H e r r scha f tu nd G o ld : d a s G rabe r f e ld v on V a rna u nd d i e A nf ange e i ne rn euen e u ropa i schen Z iv i l i sa t ion . A . F o l , a nd J .L icha rdu s ( e d s . ) . S aa rb rucken : Mode rne G a le r ie d e s S aa r land Mu seum s .

H an schmann , E . , a nd V . M i lo je id . 1 976 . D ie d eu t schen A u sg rabungen a uf d e rA rg i s sa Magu la i nT he s sa l ien I I : D ie f r uhe u nd b eg innende m i t t le re B ronzeze i t . BAM 1 3 : B onn .

J acob sen ,T .W . 1 969a . E xcava t ion sa tP o r to C he l i a nd v i c in i ty , p re l im ina ry r epo r t ,I :t h eF ranch th iC ave , 1 967 -1968 . H e spe r ia 3 8 : 3 43 -381 .

H an sen ,J . 1 988 .A g r icu l tu re i nP r eh i s to r tc A egean : D a ta v e r su s s p ecu la t ion . Ame r ican J ou rüa lo fA rchaeo logy 9 2 : 3 9 5 2 .

J a cob sen ,T .W . 1 969b . I nve s t iga t ion sa tP o r to C he l i . A r cha io log iko D e l t io 2 4 : 1 24 -130 .

H au s e r ,G ,a nd G . F .D e S t ef ano . 1 989 . E p igene t ic v a r ian t so ft h eh uman s ku l l . S tu t tga r t : E . S chwe ize rba r t ' sche V e r lagbuchhand lung .

J acob sen ,T .W . 1 973a . E xcava t ion i nt h eF ranch th i C ave , 1 969 1971 ,p a r t I .H e spe r ia 4 2 : 4 5 -88 .

H i l l son ,S . 1 986 .T ee th . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

J a cob sen ,T .W . 1 973b . E xcava t ion i nt h eF ranch th i C ave , 1 969 -1971 ,p a r t I . H e spe r ia 4 2 : 2 53 -283 .

H odde r ,I . 1 982 .T he p re sen tp a s t . L ondon .

J u rma in , R . D . 1 977 . S t re s sa nd e t io logy o fo s teoa r th r i t i s . Ame r ican J ou rna lo fP hy s ica lA n th ropo logy 4 6 : 3 53 -366 .

H ou rmouz iad i s ,G . 1 971 . D yo n ea ie gka ta s ta se i st i sa r cha io te ra sN eo l i th ik i s e i st i nD y t ik in T he s sa l ian . A r cha io log ika C h ron ika : 1 64 -175 .

J u rma in , R . D . 1 980 .T he p a t ter no fi n vo lvemen to fa ppend icu la r d egene ra t ive j o in td i sea se . Ame r ican J our na lo f P hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 5 3 : 1 43 -150 .

H ou rmouz iad i s ,G . 1 973 .T a f ika e t h ima . I nN eo l i th ic G reece ,e d . D . R . T heocha r i s ,2 0 1-212 . A then s : N a t iona lB ank o fG r eece .

K a t sa rou , S . ,a nd A . S amp son . 1 996 . Ia na ska f ik ie r eyna s t os p i la io t o nL imnon s t a K a s t r ia K a lav ry ton . A then sA nna l so fA r cha eo logy ,p p . 1 6 1-170 .

H ou rmouz iad i s ,G . 1 979 .T oN eo l i th iko D im in i . E ta i re ia T he s sa l ikon E reynon : V o lo s .

K en t , S . , a nd D . D unn . 1 993 . E t io logy o fh ypo f e r rem ia i n ar e cen t ly s eden ta ry K a laha r iv i l lage . Ame r ican J our na lo fT rop ica l Med ic ine a nd H yg iene 4 8 : 5 54 -567 .

H u s s -A shmo re ,R . ,A . H . G oodman , a nd G .J .A rme lago s . 1 982 .N u t r i t iona li n f e rence f r om p a leopa tho logy . A dvances i nA r chaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry 5 : 3 95 -474 .

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L ambe r t ,N . 1 981 . L ag ro t te p reh i s to r ique d e K i t so s ( A t t ique ) . R eche r che s s u rl e s g rande sc i v i l iza t ion s . P a r is .

K ie se r ,J .A . 1 990 . H uman A du l tO don tome t r ic s : T he S tudy o f V a r ia t ion i nA du l tT oo th S i ze . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . K inne s ,I . 1 982 . L e sF oua i l lages a nd m ega l i th ic o r ig in s . A n t iqu i ty 5 6 : 2 4 -30 .

L ambe r t , P .M . ,a nd P .L . Wa lke r . 1 991 . P hy s ica l a n thropo log ica l e v idence f o rt h ee vo lu t ion o fs oc ia lc omp lex i ty i nc oa s ta l s ou the rn C a l ifo rn ia . A n t iqu i ty 6 5 : 9 63 -973 .

K on ig sbe rg ,L .W . ,a nd J .E .B u ik s t ra . 1 995 .R eg iona la pp roache st ot h e i n ves t iga t ion o fp a s t h uman b i ocu l tu ra l s t ruc tu r e .I nR eg iona l a pp roache st o mo r tua ry a na ly s i s . L .A . B eck e d . 1 91-219 . N ew Y o rk : P l enum .

L a r sen , C . S . 1 982 .T h e a n th ropo logy o fS t . C a the r ine sI s land . 3 : P reh i s to r ic h uman b io log ica la dap ta t ion . A n th ropo log ica lp ape r so ft h e Ame r ican m u seum o f N a tu ra lH i s to ry 5 7 (3 ) .

K o s se , K . 1 979 . S e t t lemen te co logy o ft h e E a r ly a nd M idd le N eo l i th ic K ö rö sa nd L inea rP o t te ry c u l tu r e i nH unga ry . O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t s .

L a r sen ,C . S . 1 987 . B ioa r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion so fs ub s is tence e conomy a nd b ehav io rf r om h uman s ke le ta lr ema in s . A dvance si na r chaeo log ica l me thod a nd t h eo ry 1 0 : 3 39 -345 .

K o t sak i s , K . 1 983 . K e rame ik it e chno log ia k a ik e rame ik id i afo ropo i i s i . P rov l ima ta t i sg rap t i sk e rame ik i st i sm es is e poh i st o u S e sk lou . D idak to r ik iD ia t r iv i . T he s sa lon ik i .

L a r sen , C . S . 1 994 . I nt h e w ake o fC o lumbus : n a t ive p opu la t ion b i o logy i nt h ep o s tcon ta c t Ame r ica s . Y ea rbook o f P hy s ica lA n th ropo logy 3 7 : 1 09 -154 .

K o t sak is ,K . 1 986 .A spec t so ft e chno logy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f MN P o t te ry o fS e sk lo . I nS c ience i nA rchaeo logy . R . E . J one s ,a nd H . W .C a t l ing ( e d s . ) .Br i t ish S choo l a t A then s .F i tch L abo ra to ry O cca s iona lP ape r2 ,p p . 1 2 .

L a r sen , C . S . 1 995a . R eg iona lp e r spec t ive st o mo r tua ry a na ly s i s . I n R eg iona la pp roache st o mo r tua ry a na ly s i s .L .A . B eck e d . 2 47 -264 . N ew Y o rk : P l enum . L a r sen ,C . S . 1 995b . B io log ica lc hange si nh uman p opu la t ion s w i th a g r icu l tu r e . A nnua lR ev iew o fA n th ropo logy 2 4 : 1 85 2 13 .

K o t sak i s ,K . 1 994 .T he u se o fh ab i ta t iona l s pace i nN eo l i th ic S esk lo . I nL aT h e s sa l ie ,C o l loque i n ter na t iona l d 'a r cheo log ie : 1 5m ime sd er e che r che s( 1975 1990 ) b i lan se t p e r spec t ives ,L yon , 1 990 . J . -C . D ecou r t ,B . H e l ly , a nd K . G a l l i s( e d s . ) .p p . 1 25 -130 .A then s : T ame io A rha io log ikon p o ron k a ia pa l lo t r io seon .

L a r sen , C . S . 1 997 . B ioa r cha eo logy : I n te rp re t ing b ehav io rf r om t h e h uman s ke le ton . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s .

K rogman ,W .M . ,a nd M . Y . I s can . 1 986 .T he H uman S k e le ton i nf o ren s ic Med ic ine . S p r ingf ie ld I L : T homa s .

L a r sen ,C . S . , a nd G . R . M i lne r . 1 994 .I nt h e w ake o fc on ta c t : B io log ica l r e spon se st o c onque s t . N ew Y o rk : W i ley -L is sI n c .

K ypa r i ss i -Apo s to l ika ,N 1 995 . P reh i s to r ic i nhab i ta t ion i nT heope t ra c ave , T he s sa ly .I nL aT he s sa l ie ,C o l loque i n te rna t iona ld ' a r cheo log ie : 1 5a nnees d er e che r che s ( 1975 -1990 ) b i lan se tp e r spec t ive s ,L yon , 1 990 .J . -C . D ecour t , B . H e l ly ,a nd K . G a l l i s ( e d s . ) .p p . 1 03 -108 . A then s : T ame io A rha io log ikon p o ron k a i a pa l lo t r io seon .

L a r sen ,C . S . , C .B . R uf f , M . J .S choen inge r , a nd D . L . H u tch in son . 1 992 . P opu la t ion d ec l ine a nd e x t inc t ion i nL aF lo r ida . I n D i sea se a nd d emog raphy i nt h e Ame r ica s .J .W . V e rano ,a nd D . H . U be lake re d s . 2 5 -39 . Wa sh ing ton , DC : Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P re ss .

L ambe r t , N . 1 971 . F ou i l le sF ranco -He l len ique s al ag ro t te d ' A lepo t rypa . A then sA nna ls o fA rchaeo logy 4 :1 99 -202 .

L a r sen , C .S . , M . J .S choen inge r , N . J .v an d e r M e rwe , K . M . Moo re , a nd J .L ee -Tho rp . 1 992 . C a rbon a nd n i t rogen s t ab le i s o top ic s i gna tu res o f h uman d i e ta ry c hange i nt h e G eo rg ia B igh t . Ame r ican j ou rna lo fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 8 9 : 1 79 -2 14 .

L ambe r t ,N . 1 972 . G ro t te d 'A lepo t rypa ( Magne ) . B u l le t in d e c o r re spondance h e l len ique 9 6 : 8 45 -871 . 14

Me ik le john , C . , C .S chen tag , A . V enema , a nd P .K ey . 1 984 . S oc ioeconom ic c hange a nd p a t te rn so fp a tho logy a nd v a r ia t ion i nt h e Me so l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic o fw es ter n E u rope : s ome s ugge s t ion s . I nP a leopa tho logy a tt h e o r ig in so fa g r icu l tu r e . M . N . C ohen ,a nd G . J . A rme lago se d s . 7 5 100 . O r lando : A cadem ic P r e s s .

L a r sen ,C . S . ,R . S hav i t , a nd M . C .G r iff in . 1 99 1 . D en ta lc a r ie se v idence f o rd i e ta ry c hange : a n a r chaeo log ica lc on tex t . I nA dvances i nd en ta l a n th ropo logy . M . A . K e l ley ,a nd C . S .L a r sen e d s . N ew Y o rk : W i ley -L i s s . L ee -Tho rp ,J .A . , a nd N . J .v an d e r Me rwe . 1 99 1 .A spec t so ft h ec hem i s t ry o f mode rn a nd f o s s i l b i o log ica la pa t i te s .J ou rna lo fA r chaeo log ica l S c ience 1 8 : 3 43 -354 .

Me ind l , R . S .a nd C .0 . L ove joy . 1 985 . E c toc ran ia l s u tu r ec l o su r e : Ar e v ised m e thod f o r t h ed e te rm ina t ion o fs ke le ta l a ge a td ea th b a sed o nt h e l a te ra l a n te r io rs u tu r e s . Ame r ican J ou rna lo fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 6 8 : 5 7 -66 .

L ee -Tho rp ,J .A . ,J .S ea ly , a nd N . J .v an d e r Me rwe . 1 989 . S t ab le c a rbon i s o tope r a t io d i f f e rence sb e tween b one c o l lagen a nd b one a pa t i t e , a nd t h e i rr e la t ion sh ip t od i e t . J ou rna lo fA r chaeo log ica l S c ience 1 6 : 5 85 -599 .

Me l laa r t ,J . 1 965 . E a r l ie s tc i v i l iza t ion so ft h e N ea rE a s t . N ew Y o rk : McG raw -H i l l .

L iden ,K . 1 995 . Mega l i th s , a g r icu l tu re , a nd s oc ia lc omp lex i ty : a d i e ts t udy o ft wo Swed i sh m ega l i th p opu la t ion s . J our na lo f An th ropo log ica lA r chaeo logy 1 4 :404 -4 17 .

Me l laa r t ,J . 1 975 .T he N eo l i th ic o ft h eN ea rE a s t . N ew Y o rk : C ha r les S cr ibne r ' s S on s . M i l le r ,R . 1 980 . Wa te ru se i nS y r ia a nd P a le s t ine f r om t h eN eo l i th ic t ot h e B ronze A ge . Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 1 : 3 31-341 .

L ove joy ,C . 0 . 1 985 .D en ta l w ea ri nt h eL ibben p opu la t ion : I t s f unc t iona lp a t te rn a nd r o le i nt h ed e term ina t ion o fa du l t s k e le ta la ge a td ea th . Ame r ican J our na lo fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 6 8 : 4 7 -56 .

M i l le r ,R .J . 1 985 . L a te ra le p icondy l i t i s i n ap reh i s to r ic c en t ra l A r izona I nd ian p opu la t ion f r om N uvakwew taqa ( Chavez P a s s ) . I nH ea l th a nd d i sea se i nt h ep r eh i s to r ic S ou thwe s t . C .F . Me rb sa nd R . J .M i l le re d s . 3 91-400 . A r izona S t a te U n ive r s i ty A n th ropo log ica lR esea rch P ape r s3 4 .

L ube l l ,D . ,M .J acke s , H . S chwa r cz , M . K nyf ,a nd C . Me ik le john . 1 994 .T he Me so l i th ic -Neo l i th ic t r an s i t ion i nP o r tuga l : i s o top ic a nd d en ta le v idence o fd i e t . J our na lo f A r cha eo log ica l s c ience 2 1 : 2 0 1-216 .

M i lne r , G . R . 1 984 . D en ta lc a r ie si nt h ep e rmanen td en t i t ion o fa M i s s i s s ipp ian p e r iod p opu la t ion f r om t h e Ame r ican M idwe s t . C o l leg ium A n th ropo log icum 8 :7 7 -91 .

L uka cs ,J .R . 1 992 .D en ta lp a leopa tho logy a nd a g r icu l tu ra l i n ten s if ica t ion i nS ou th A s ia : n ew e v idence f r om B ronze A ge H a rappa . Ame r ican j ou rna lo fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 8 7 : 1 33 -150 .

M i lne r , G . R . 1 992 . D e te rm ina t ion o fs ke le ta l a ge a nd s ex . U n ive r s i ty P a rk : T he P enn sy lvan ia S t a te U n ive r s i ty .

L ün ing ,J . ,a nd P .S t eh l i . 1 989 .D ie B andke ram ik i nM i t t e leu ropa : v on d e rN a tu r z u rK u l tu r land schaf t . S pek t rum d e rW i s sen scha f t 1 989 : 7 8 -88 .

M i lne r ,G . R . 1 995 . A no s teo log ica lp e r spec t ive o np r eh i s to r ic w a r f a r e . I nR eg iona l a pp roache st om o r tua ry a na ly s i s . L .A . B eck e d . 2 21 -244 . N ew Y o rk : P lenum .

Ma l lo ry ,J .P . 1 989 .I ns e a r ch o ft h eI ndo -Eu ropean s . L ondon : T hame s a nd H ud son .

m i l o j e i d ,V . 1 976 . D ie G rabung a uf d e rA g ia S of ia -Magu la . I nD ie d eu t schen A u sg rabungen a uf Magu len um L a r i s sa i n T he s sa l ien . e d s . V . M i lo jié e ta l . BAM 1 3 : B onn .

McGeehan ,V . ,a nd K . L i r i tz is . 1 983 .T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween m e ta lwo rk ,c oppe r s ou r ce sa nd t h ee v idence f o rs e t t lemen ti nt h eG reek L a te N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge . O xfo rd J our na l o fA rchaeo logy 2 :1 47 -180 .

M inagawa , M . , a nd E . Wada . 1 984 . S t epw ise e n r ichmen to f1 5N a l ong f ood c ha in s : F ur the re v idence a nd t h er e la t ion b e tween ( 11 5N a nd a n ima la ge . G eoch im ica e tC o smoch im ica A c ta 4 8 :1135 -1140 .

McKer n ,T .W . a nd T . D . S tua r t . 1 957 . S ke le ta la ge c hanges i ny oung Ame r ican m a le s . U . S .A rmy Q ua r te rma s te rR e sea r ch a nd D eve lopmen t C ommand ,T echn ica lR epo r tE P -45 . 15

Modde rman ,P .J .R . 1 988 .T he L inea rP o t te ry c u l tu r e : d i ve r s i ty i nu n ifo rm i ty . B e r ich ten v an d eR i jk sd ien s tv oo rb e tO uhe ikund ig B odemonde rzoek 3 8 : 6 3 -139 .

O r tne r , D . J . ,E .H . K imme r le ,a nd M . D iez . 1 999 . P robab le e v idence o fs cu rvy i ns ubadu l t s f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i te s i nP e ru . Ame r ican J ou rna lo f P hy s ica lA n th ropo logy 1 08 :321-331 .

Mo l le son ,T . 1 989 . S eed p r epa ra t ion i nt h e Me so l i th ic : t h eo s teo log ica l e v iden ce .A n t iqu i ty 6 3 : 3 56 -362 .

O r tne r , D . J . ,a nd W . G . J .P u t scha r . 1 985 . I d en t if ica t ion o fp a tho log ica lc ond i t ion s i nh uman s ke le ta lr ema in s . Wa sh ing ton : Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s .

Mo l le son ,T . ,a nd K .J one s . 1 991 . D en ta le v idence f o rd i e ta ry c hange a tA bu H u rey ra . J our na lo fA rcha eo log ica l S c ience 1 8 : 5 25 -539 .

P apa thana s iou , A . 1 994 . B ioa r chaeo log ica l i n f e rence s f r om aN eo l i th ic o s sua ry a tA lepo t rypa C ave , D i ro s ,G r eece . Ma s te r 's t h e s is : P u rdue U n ive r s i ty .

Mo lna r , S . ,a nd I .M . Mo lna r . 1 985 .O b se rva t ion o fd en ta l d i sea se sa mong p reh i s to r ic p opu la t ion so fH unga ry . Ame r ican J ou rna lo fP hy s ica l An th ropo logy 6 7 : 5 1-63 .

P apa thana s iou , A . , C . S .L a r sen , a nd L .N o r r . 1 995 . Ab i oa r chaeo log ica l a na ly s is o f aN eo l i th ic o s sua ry f r om A lepo t rypa C ave ,D i ro s , G reece . P o s te rp r e sen ted , Ame r ican A s soc ia t ion o fP hy s ica l A n th ropo log i s t s , O ak land , CA .

Mo r r i s , I . 1 987 . B u r ia l sa nd a nc ien ts oc ie ty .T he r i se o ft h eG reek c i ty s ta te . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s .

P apa thana s iou ,A . ,C . S .L a r sen , a nd L .N o r r . 1 998 . B ioa r cha eo log ica li n f e rences f r om aN eo l i th ic o ssua ry f r om A lepo t rypa C ave , D i ro s ,G reece . S ubm i t ted t ot h eI n te rna t iona lJ ou rna lo f O s teoa r chaeo logy .

Mor r i s ,I . 1 992 . D ea th r i tua la nd s oc ia l s t ruc tu re i nc l a s s ica l a n t iqu i ty . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Mo r ton , S .G . 1 839 . C ran ia Ame r icana . P h i lade lph ia : J ohn P enn ing ton .

P apa thana s sopou lo s , G . A . 1 971a . S pe lea D i rou , 1 971 . A then sA nna ls o f A rcha eo logy 4 :2 89 -303 .

N o rdqu i s t ,G . 1 988 . M idd le H e l lad ic b u r ia ls i tes : S ome s pecu la t ion s . C e leb ra t ion so fd ea th a nd d i v in i ty i nt h e B ronze A ge A rgo l id : P roceed ing so ft h es i x th I n te rna t iona l S ympo s ium a tt h e S wed ish I n s t i tu te a tA then s , 1 -13 J une 1 988 . R . H agg a nd G .N o rdqu i s te d s . 3 5 -4 1 . A then s .

P apa thana s sopou lo s ,G . A . 1 971b . S pe lea D i rou , 1 971 ( Ek t on a na ska fon t i s A lepo t rypa s ) . A then sA nna ls o fA rcha eo logy 4 :1 49 1 54 . P apa thana s sopou lo s ,G . A . 1 971c . S pe lea D i rou , 1 971 ( A i a na ska f a it ou 1 970 1971) . A then s A nna l so fA r chaeo logy 4 :1 2 -26 .

N o r r ,L . 1 991 . N u t r i t iona lc on sequences o fp reh i s to r ic s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie si nl owe rC en t ra l Ame r ica . P h . D . D i s ser ta t ion ,U n ive r s i ty o fI l ino i s ,U rbana -Champa ign .

P apa thana s sopou lo s ,G . A . 1 983 . 0N au t iko s C ha rak t i ra s t ou N eo l i th ikou D i rou . P roceed ing so ft h eF i r s tL oca l C on f e rence o fL a con ic S tud ie s : 2 21 -224 .

N o r r ,L . 1 995 . I n te rp r e t ing d i e ta ry m a ize f r om s t ab le i s o tope si n t h e Ame r ican t r op ic s : T he s t a te o ft h e a r t .I n A r chaeo logy i nt h el ow land Ame r ican t r op ics : C u r ren t a na ly t ica lm e thod sa nd a pp l ica t ion s .P .W . S tah le d . . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

P apa thana s sopou lo s , G . A . e d . 1 996 . N eo l i th ic c i v i l iza t ion i nG reece . A then s : G ou land r i sF ounda t ion .

O 'Shea ,J . 1 981 . S oc ia lc on f igu ra t ion s a nd t h ea r chaeo log ica ls t udy o f mo r tua ry p ra c t ice s : ac a se s t udy . I nT he a r chaeo logy o fd ea th . R .C hapman ,I .K inne s ,a nd K . R and sbo rg e d s .p p .3 9 -52 . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

P a t ton , M . 1 993 . S ta temen t si ns t one : monumen t sa nd s oc ie ty i n N eo l i th ic B r i t tany . L ondon : R ou t ledge . P e r ls , C . 1 990 .L ' o u t i l lage d ep i e r re t a i l lee n eo l i th ique e nG rece : a pp rov i s ionnemen te te xp lo i ta t ion d es ma t ie r e s p rem ie re s . B u l le t in d eC o r re spondance H e l len ique 14 : 1 42 .

O 'Shea ,J . 1 984 . Mo r tua ry v a r iab i l i ty . N ew Y o rk . 16

R eed , D . M . 1 994 . A nc ien t Maya d i e ta tC opan , H ondu ra s ,a s d e term ined t h rough t h ea na ly s i so fs t ab le c a rbon a nd n i t rogen i s o tope s . I nP e leonu t r i t ion : T he d i e t a nd h ea l th o fp r eh i s to r ic Ame r ican s . K . D . S obo l ik e d . 2 10 -221 . S ou the rn I l ino i sU n ive r s i ty a tC a rbonda le ,C en te rf o r A rchaeo log ica l I n ve s t iga t ion , O cca s iona l P ape r , 2 2 .

P e r le s ,C . ,a nd K . D . V i te l l i . 1 994 .T echno log ie se tf onx t ion d e sp r em ie re sp roduc t ion s c e ram iques d eG r ece . I nT e r r ec u i te e ts oc ie te : l a c e ram ique ,d ocumen tt e chn ique ,e conom ique e t c u l tu r e ! : p p . 2 25 -242 .J uan le s -P in s : E d i t ion s APDCA . P e t e r son ,J . 1 997 .T he N a tuf ian h un t ing c onund rum : s pea r s ,a t la t ls , a nd b ow s? Mu scu lo ske le ta la nd a rma tu re e v idence . P re sen ted a tt h e Ame r ican A s soc ia t ion o fP hy s ica l A n th ropo log is t s Mee t ing , S t . L ou is , MO .

R enf r ew , C . 1 987 . A r chaeo logy a nd l a nguage . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . R enf rew , C . ,M . G imbu ta s ,a nd E .S .E l s te r . 1 986 . E xcava t ion sa tS i tag ro i : Ap r eh i s to r ic v i l lage i n n or thea s tG r eece . L o sA nge les .

P h en ice ,T .W . 1 969 . An ew ly d eve loped v i sua lm e thod o fs ex ing t h eO s P ub i s . Ame r ican J ou rna lo fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 3 0 : 2 97 -302 .

R en f rew ,J . 1 973 .A g r icu l tu re . I nN eo l i th ic G reece . D . R .T heocha r i s , 1 47 -164 . A then s : N a t iona l B ank o fG reece .

P ow e l l ,M . L . 1 985 .T he a na ly s is o fd en ta lw ea ra nd c a r ie sf o rd i e ta ry r e con s t ruc t ion . I nT he a na ly s is o fp r eh i s to r ic d i e t s . R .I . G i lbe r tj r . ,a nd J .H . M ie lke e d s . 3 07 -338 . O r lando : A cadem ic P re s s .

R e sn ick , D . 1 995 . D iagno s i so fb one a nd j o in td i so rde r s . W . B . S aunde r sC o . U SA

P ow e l l ,M . L . 1 9 88 . S t a tu sa nd h ea l th i np r eh i s to ry : Ac a se s t udy o ft h e Mondv i l le C h iefdom . Wa sh ing ton , DC : Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P re s s .

R odden , R .J . 1 962 . E xcava t ion a tt h e E a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te a tN . N ikomede ia . P PS NS : 2 67 -288 .

P r ic e ,T .D . 1 987 .T he Meso l i th ic o fw e s te rn E u rope . J our na lo f Wo r ld P reh is to ry 1 :2 25 -305 .

R odden ,R .J . 1 965 . A ne a r ly N eo l i th ic v i l lage i nG reece . S c ien t if ic Ame r ican 2 12 ( 4 ) : 8 3 -92 .

P r ing le ,H . 1 998 .A r chaeo logy : T ran s i t ion s i nP r eh i s to ry . S c ience 2 52 : 1 441-1458 .

R uf f , C . B . 1 981 . Ar e a s se s smen to fd emog raph ic e s t ima tes f r om P eco sP ueb lo . Ame r ican J ou rna l o fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 5 4 : 1 47 -151 .

P u l len ,D . J . 1 9 88 .E a r ly H e l lad ic b u r ia ls a tA s ine a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge mo r tua ry p ra c t ice s . C e leb ra t ion so fd ea th a nd d i v in i ty i nt h eB ronze A ge A rgo l id :P roceed ing so ft h e s i x th I n te rna t iona l S ympo s ium a tt h e S wed i sh I n s t i tu te a tA then s , 1-13 J une 1 988 . R . H agg a nd G . N o rdqu i s t e d s .9 12 . A then s .

S a l la re s , R . 1 991 . T he e co logy o ft h ea nc ien tG r eek w o r ld . I t haca , NY : C o rne l lU n ive r s i ty P r e s s . S amp son ,A . 1 993 . S ko te in iT ha r roun ion .T o s pe leo , oo ik i smo sk a it o n ek ro taphe io . A then s : TAPA .

R a thbun ,T .A . 1 984 .S ke le ta lp a tho logy f r om t h eP a leo l i th ic t h rough t h e M e ta lA ges i nI r an a nd I r aq . I nP a leopa tho logy a tt h e o r ig in so fa g r icu l tu re . M . N . C ohen a nd G . J . A rme lago se d s . 1 37 -167 . O r lando : A cadem ic P re s s .

S andbe rg , A . -S . 1 996 . F ood p roce s s ing i nf luenc ing i r on b ioava i lab i l i ty . I n I r on N u t r i t ion i nH ea l th a nd D i sea se . L .H a l lbe rg a nd N . -G . A sp e d s . p p .349 -358 . L ondon : J ohn L ibbey .

R edm an ,C .L . 1 9 78 .T he r i se o fc i v i l iza t ion . S an F ran c i sco : W . H . F r eeman a nd C ompany .

S and s tead , H . H . 1 992 . F ibe r ,p hy ta tes , a nd m ine ra ln u t r i t ion . N u t r i t ion R ev iew s5 0 :30 -31 . S aunde r s ,R . S . , a nd R .D . H oppa . 1 993 . G row th d ef ic i t i ns u rv ivo r sa nd n on su rv ivo r s : B io log ica l mo r ta l i ty b i a s i ns ub -adu l ts ke le ta l s amp les . Y ea rbook o fP hy s ica lA n th ropo logy 3 6 : 1 27 -151 . 17

S axe , A . A . 1 970 . S oc ia ld imen s ion so f mor tua ry p rac t ices . P h .D . t h e s i s . U n ive r s i ty o fM ich igan , Ann A rbo r , M ich igan .

Sm i th , P . 1 972 . D ie ta nd a t t r i t ion i nt h e N a tuf ian s . Ame r ican J ou rna l o fP hy s ica l An th ropo logy 3 7 : 2 33 -238 .

S choen inge r ,M .J . 1 989 . R econ s t ruc t ing p reh i s to r ic h uman d i e t . I n C hem is t ry o fp r eh i s to r ic h uman b one ,e d .T .D oug la s P r ice ,3 8 -67 . N ew Y o rk .

Sm i th , P . , 0 . B a r -Yo sef , a nd A . S i l ien . 1 984 . A r chaeo log ica l a nd s ke le ta le v idence f o rd i e ta ry c hange d u r ing t h e l a te P l e i s tocene / ea r ly H o locene i n t h e L evan t . I nP a leopa tho logy a tt h eo r ig in so f a g r icu l tu r e . M . N . C ohen , a nd G . J .A rme lago se d s . 1 0 1136 . O r lando : A cadem ic P res s .

S choen inge r ,M .J . ,a nd K . Moo r e . 1 992 . B one s t ab le i s o tope s t ud ie s i na r chaeo logy .J our na l o f Wo r ld P reh i s to ry 6 :2 47 -296 .

S pence , M . W . 1 974a . R e s iden t ia lp rac t ice sa nd t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o f s ke le ta lt r a i t si nT eo t ihuacan , Mex ico . Man 9 :2 62 -273 .

S choen inge r ,M .J . ,a nd M .J .D eN i ro . 1 984 . N i t rogen a nd c a rbon i s o top ic c ompo s i t ion o fb one c o l lagen f r om m a r ine a nd t e r r es t r ia l a n ima l s . G eoch im ica e tC o smoch im ica A c ta 4 8 :625 -639 .

S pence , M . W . 1 974b .T he s t udy o fr e s iden t ia l p rac t ice sa mong p reh i s to r ic h un te r sa nd g a the re r s . Wo r ld A r chaeo logy 5 :3 46 -357 .

S choen inge r ,M .J . ,M .J .D eN i ro ,a nd H .T aube r . 1 983 . S t ab le i s o tope n i t rogen r a t io so fb one c o l lagen r e f lec tm a r ine a nd t e r re s t r ia lc omponen t so fp r eh i s to r ic h uman d i e t . S c ience 2 20 : 1 381-1383 .

S p rague ,R . 1 967 .A bo r ig ina lb u r ia lp ra c t ice s i nt h eP la t eau r eg ion o f N o r th Ame r ica . D oc to ra ld i s ser ta t ion . T u c son : T he Un ive r s i ty o fA r izona .

S choen inge r ,M .J . ,N .J .v an d e r Me rwe ,K . Moo re .J .L ee T ho rp ,a nd C .S .L a r sen . 1 990 .D ec rea se i nd i e tq ua l i ty b e tween t h ep r eh i s to r ic a nd c on tac tp e r iod s .I nT he a r cha eo logy o fM is s ion S an ta C a ta l ina d eG ua le : 2 .B iocu l tu ra li n te rp re ta t ion so fa p opu la t ion i nt r an s i t ion ,e d . C . S .L a r sen . A n th ropo log ica lP ape r so ft h e Ame r ican mu seum o f N a tu ra lH i s to ry 6 8 : 7 8 -93 .

S to rey , R . 1 992 . L i f ea nd d ea th i nt h ea nc ien tc i ty o fT eo t ihuacan : A mode rn p a leodemog raph ic s yn thes i s . T u s ca loo sa : U n ive r s i ty o fA labama P r es s . S t ravopod i ,E . 1 993 . A na n th ropo log ica la s ses smen to ft h eh uman f i nd ing s f r om t h ec ave a nd t h e c eme te ry . I nS ko te in i T ha r roun ion . A . S amp son e d . A then s : TAPA .

S chu l tz , M . ,M . B er n e r ,a nd T .H . S chm id t -Schu l tz . 1 998 . Mo rb id i ty a nd mo r ta l i ty i nt h e L a te P PNB p opu la t ion f r om B a s ta ( J o rdan ) .P r esen ted a tt h e Ame r ican A s soc ia t ion o fP hy s ica l An th ropo log i s t s Mee t ing ,S a l tL ake C i ty , UT .

S t ravopod i ,E . 1 995 .T he h uman f i nd ings f r om t h e c ave . I nK ypa r is s i A po s to l ika 1 995 .

S chwa rcz ,H . P . ,J . Me lbye , M . A . K a tzenbe rg , a nd M . K nyf . 1 985 . S t ab le i s o tope s i nh uman s ke le ton so fs ou the rn O n ta r io :r e con s t ruc t ing p a leod ie t . J ou rna lo f A r chaeo log ica lS c ience 1 2 : 1 87 -206 .

S t ravopod i ,E . P e r sona lc ommun ica t ion . S tua r t - Macadam ,P . 1 985 . P o ro t ic h ype ros to s i s : R ep re sen ta t ive o f ac h i ldhood c ond i t ion . Amer ican J our na lo fP hy s ica lA n th ropo logy 6 6 :391-398 .

S c iu l l i ,P .W . ,a nd R .C a r l i s le . 1 977 . A na ly s i so ft h ed en t i t ion f r om t h r ee w es te rn P enn sy lvan ia L a te Wood land s i tes .I . Wea ra nd p a tho logy . P enn . A r chaeo l .4 7 : 5 3 -59 .

S tua r t - Ma cadam ,P . 1 989 . N u t r i t iona ld ef ic iency d i sea se s : As u rvey o fs cu rvy , r i cke t s ,a nd i r on -def ic iency a nem ia . I nR econ s t ruc t ion o fl i f e f r om t h e s ke le ton ,M . Y . I s can , a nd K . A . R . K ennedy e d s . , 2 0 1-222 . N ew Y o rk : W i ley -L i s s .

S he r ra t t , A . 1 980 . Wa te r ,s o i la nd s ea sona l i ty i ne a r ly c e rea l c u l t iva t ion . Wo r ld A rcha eo logy 1 : 3 13 -330 . Sm i th , B . H . 1 984 . P a t ter n so f mo la rw ea ri nh un te r -ga the re r sa nd a g r icu l tu ra l is t s . Ame r ican J our na lo fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 6 3 : 3 9 -56 .

S tua r t - Ma cadam , P . 1 992 .A nem ia i np a s th uman p opu la t ion s .I nD ie t , D emog raphy , a nd D isea se ,e d . P .S t ua r t -Macadam , S . K en t ,p p . 1 51-170 .

18

T odo rova , H . , a nd T .D imov . 1 989 .A u sg rabungen i nD u ranku lak 1 974 1987 . In N eo l i th ic o fs ou thea s te rn E u rope a nd i t sN ea rE a s te rn c onnec t ion s . S .B ököny i ( e d . ) . p p . 2 91-310 . B udape s t : I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy , H unga r ian A cademy o f S c iences .

S u l l ivan ,C . H ,a nd H . W . K ruege r 1 983 . C a rbon i s o tope r a t io so fb one a pa t i te a nd a n ima l d i e tr e con s t ruc t ion ( w i th t h er ep ly b y S choen inge ra nd D eN i ro ) . N a tu re 3 0 1 :177 -178 . T a in te r ,J .A . 1 975 . S oc ia l i n f e r ence a nd m o r tua ry p rac t ice s : a n e xpe r imen ti nn ume r ica lc l a s s if ica t ion . Wo r ld A r chaeo logy 7 :1 15 .

T own send , G . , P .D emp sey ,T .B rown ,J .K a idon i s ,a nd L . R icha rd s . 1 994 .T ee th , g ene sa nd t h ee nv i ronmen t . P e r spec t ive si n H uman B io logy 4 :3 5 -46 .

T a in te r ,J .A . 1 978 . Mor tua ry p ra c t ice sa nd t h es t udy o fp r eh i s to r ic s o c ia l s y s tem s .I nA dvance s i na r chaeo log ica l m e thod a nd t h eo ry . M .S ch if f e re d . 1 :1 05 141 . N ew Y o rk , N ew Y o rk : A cadem ic P re s s .

T r inkau s ,K . M . 1 995 . Mo r tua ry b ehav io r , l a bo ro rgan iza t ion ,a nd s oc ia l r ank . I nR eg iona l a pp roa che st o mor tua ry a na ly s i s . L . A . B eck e d . , 5 3 -71 . N ew Y o rk : P l enum .

T a la lay ,L .E . 1 987 .R e th ink ing t h e f unc t ion o fc l ay f i gu r ine l e g sf r om N eo l i th ic G r eece : A na r gumen tb ya na logy . Ame r ican J ou rna lo fA rchaeo logy 9 1 : 1 6 1169 .

T ro t te r , M . 1 970 . E s t ima t ion o fs t a tu r e f r om i n tac tl imb b one s . I n P e r sona l i d en t if ica t ion i nm a s sd i sa s te r s ,e d . T .D . S tua r t . Wa sh ing ton : Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P r es s .

T a la lay ,L .E . 1 993 . D e i t ies ,d o l l s , a nd d ev ice s : N eo l i th ic f i gu r ines f r om F ranch th iC ave ,G reece .E xcava t ion sa tF ranch th i C ave ,f a sc . 9 .B loom ing ton / Ind ianapo l i s : I nd iana U n ive r s i ty P r es s .

T soun ta s , C . 1 908 . A ip ro i s to r ika i a k ropo le is D imen iou k a i S e sk lou . A then s : S ake l la r iou .

T aube r , H . 1 981 . 1 3C e v idence f o rd i e ta ry h ab i t so fp reh is to r ic m an i nD enma rk . N a tu re 2 92 : 3 32 -333 .

T u rne r ,C . G . , I . 1 979 . D en ta l a n th ropo log ica l i n d ica t ion so fa g r icu l tu r e a mong t h eJ omon p eop le o fc en t ra lJ apan : X . P eop l ing t h eP ac if ic . Ame r ican J our na l o fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 5 1 : 6 19 -636 .

T eeg en ,W . -R . ,a nd M . S chu l tz . 1 997 .T ran sve r se l i nea re name lh ypop la s ia i nt h eP PNB p opu la t ion o fN eva l i C or i( Tu rkey ) .P re sen ted a tt h e Ame r ican A s soc ia t ion o fP hys ica lA n th ropo log i s t s Mee t ing ,S t . L ou i s , MO .

T y son , R .A . , a nd E .S .D . A lcau ska se d s . 1 980 . C a ta logue o ft h e H rd l icka p a leopa tho logy c o l lec t ion . S an D iego : S an D iego Mu seum o f Man . U be lake r , D . H . 1 974 .T he c on s t ruc t ion o fd emog raph ic p rof i les f r om o s sua ry s ke le ta l s amp le s . Wa sh ing ton : Sm i th son ian I n s t i tu t ion P r e s s .

T eegen ,W . -R . ,a nd M . S chu l tz . 1 998 .T ee th a st oo l s i nt h eL a te P PNB p opu la t ion f r om N eva l i C o ry ( Tu rkey ) . P r e sen ted a tt h e Ame r ican A s soc ia t ion o fP hy s ica l A n th ropo log i s t s Mee t ing , S a l t L ake C i ty , UT .

U be lake r , D . H . 1 981 .T he A ya lan c eme te ry : AL a te I n teg ra t ion P e r iod b u r ia l s i te o nt h e s ou th c oa s to fE cuado r . Sm i th son ian C on t r ibu t ion st oA n th ropo logy ,2 9 .

T h eo cha r i s , D . R . 1 973 .N eo l i th ic G reece . A then s : N a t iona l B ank o f G r eece .

U be lake r ,D . H . 1 989 . H uman s ke le ta lr ema in s : E xcava t ion s , a na ly s is , i n te rp re ta t ion . 2 nd e d i t ion . Wa sh ing ton : T a raxacum .

T odd ,T .W . 1 920 .A ge C hange s i nt h eP ub ic B one .I .T he Wh i te Ma le P ub i s . Ame r ican j our na l o fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 3 : 2 85 -334 .

U cko ,P .J . 1 969 . E thnog raphy a nd a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o f f une ra ry r ema in s . Wo r ld A r cha eo logy 1 :2 62 -280 .

T odd ,T .W . 1 92 1 .A ge C hange s i nt h eP ub ic B one . I ,I I , I V . Ame r ican j ourna lo fP hy s ica lA n th ropo logy 4 : 170 .

v an A nde l ,T .H . , a nd C . N . R unne ls 1 995 .T he e a r l ie s tf a rme r s i nE u rope : S o i lp r ef e r ence s a nd d em ic d i f f u s ion p a thway s . A n t iqu i ty 6 9 : 4 81-500 .

19

Webb , S . 1 995 . P a laeopa tho logy o fA bo r ig ina l A us t ra l ian s : H ea l th a nd D i sea se A c ro ss aH un te r -Ga the re rC on t inen t . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s .

v an A nde l ,T .H . ,a nd S .B .S u t ton . 1 987 . L and scape a nd p eop le o ft h eF ranch th ir eg ion . B loom ing ton : I nd iana U n ive r s i ty P re s s . v an d e r Me rwe ,N .J . ,a nd J .C .V oge l . 1 978 . 1 3C c on ten to fh uman c o l lagen a s am ea su re o f p reh i s to r ic d i e ti n Wood land N or th Ame r ica . N a tu r e 2 76 : 8 15 -816 .

We i s s , K . M . 1 972 . O nt h e s y s tema t ic b i a si ns ke le ta l s ex ing . Ame r ican J ou rna l o fP hy s ica l A n th ropo logy 3 7 : 2 39 -249 . Whe lan , M . K . 1 991a . G ende ra nd a r chaeo logy : Mo r tua ry s t ud ie sa nd t h e s ea rch f o rt h eo r ig in so fg ende rd i f f e r en t ia t ion . I nT he a r chaeo logy o fg ende r ,e d s . D . Wa lde a nd N . Wi l l iam s . p p . 3 85 -365 . U n ive r s i ty o fC a lga ry A r chaeo log ica l

v an G e rven ,D . P . , S .G . S he r idan ,a nd W . Y . A dam s . 1 995 .T he h ea l th a nd n u t r i t ion o f am ed ieva lN ub ian p opu la t ion :t h ei mpac to fp o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic c hange . Ame r ican A n th ropo log i s t9 7 : 4 68 -480 .

A s soc ia t ion .

V ague r ,J . 1 990 .L aN eo l i th ique e nL anguedoc o cc iden ta l . P a r i s : CNRS .

Whe lan , M . K . 1 991b . G ende ra nd h i s to r ica l a r chaeo logy : E a s te rn D ako ta p a t ter n s i nt h e 1 9 th c en tu ry . H i s to r ica l A r chaeo logy 2 5 ( 4 ) : 1 7 -32 .

V i te l l i , K . D . 1 989 . We r ep o t sf i r s tm ade f o rf ood s? D oub t s f r om F ranch th i . Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 2 1(1) : 1 7 -29 .

Wh i te ,C . D . 1 994 . D ie ta ry d en ta lp a tho logy a nd d i e ta ry c hange i nt h e Maya . I nS t r eng th i nd i ve r s i ty : Ar e ade ri np hys ica l a n th ropo logy . A . H e r r ing , a nd L .C han e d s . 2 79 -302 . T o ron to : C anad ian S cho la r s ' P re s s .

V i te l l i , K . D . 1 991 .T he p o s s ib le u se so fp l an te x t ra c t sb yp reh is to r ic p o t te r s .P ape rp r e sen ted a tt h e 1 991 SAA m ee t ing ,N ew O r lean s , LA .

Wh i te ,T .D . 1 991 . H uman O s teo logy . O r lando : A cadem ic P res s .

V oge l ,J .C . ,a nd N .J .V an d e r Me rwe , 1 972 .I s o top ic e v idence f o re a r ly m a ize c u l t iva t ion i n N ew Y o rk S t a te . Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 4 2 : 2 38 -242 .

Wh i t t le , A . 1 996 . E u rope i nt h eN eo l i th ic . C amb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P r e s s .

Wa lke r , P .L . 1 986 . S ex d i f f e ren ce s i nt h ed i e ta nd d en ta lh ea l th o f p reh is to r ic a nd modem H un te r -ga the re r s . P ape r p re sen ted a tt h eE u ropean Mee t ing o ft h e P a leopa tho logy A s soc ia t ion , Mad r id ,S pa in .

W i l ley , G . R . ,a nd J .A . S ab lof f . 1 980 . Ah i s to ry o f Ame r ican A rchaeo logy , 2 nd e d i t ion . S an F ranc i sco : F reeman .

Wa lke r ,P .L . 1 989 . C ran ia li n ju r ie sa se v idence o fv i o lence i n p reh i s to r ic s ou the rn C a l ifor n ia . Ame r ican J our na lo f P hy s ica lA n th ropo logy 8 0 :313 -323 .

Wood J one s ,F . 1 910 . G ene ra lp a tho logy ( i nc lud ing d i sea se so ft h e t e e th ) . I nT he a r chaeo log ica l s u rvey o fN ub ia ,r e po r t f o r 1 907 1 908 . E . Sm i th , a nd F . Wood J one se d s . 2 63 -291 . C a i ro : N a t iona l P r in t ing C ompany .

Wa lke r ,P .L . ,a nd M .J .D eN i ro . 1 986 . S tab le n i t rogen a nd c a rbon i s o tope r a t io si nb one c o l lagen a si n d ice so fp reh i s tor ic d i e ta ry d ependence o nm a r ine a nd t e r re s t r ia lr e sou rce si ns ou the rn C a l ifor n ia . Ame r ican J our na lo fP hy s ica lA n th ropo logy 7 1 : 5 1-61 .

Wood ,J .W . ,a nd G . R . M i lne r . 1 994 . R ep ly . C u r ren tA n th ropo logy 3 5 : 6 31-637 . Wood ,J .W . ,G . R .M i lne r , H . C . H a rpend ing ,a nd K . M . We i s s . 1 992 .T he o s teo log ica lp a radox . C u r ren tA n th ropo logy 3 3 (4 ) : 3 43 -370 .

Wa lke r , P .L . ,a nd J .M . E r land son . 1 986 . D en ta le v idence f o rp reh i s to r ic d i e ta ry c hange o n t h en o r ther nC hanne l I s land s ,C a l ifor n ia . Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 5 1 : 3 75 -383 .

y 'Edynak ,G . ,a nd S .F l e i sch . 1 983 . M ic roevo lu t ion a nd b io log ica la dap tab i l i ty i nt h e t r an s i t ion f r om f ood -co l lec t ing t of ood -p roduc ing i nt h e I r on G a te so fY ugo s lav ia . J our na l o fH uman E vo lu t ion 1 2 : 2 79 -296 .

Wa lke r , P .L . ,J .J ohn son , a nd P .L ambe r t . 1 988 . A ge a nd s ex b i a ses i nt h ep rese rva t ion o fh uman r ema in s . Ame r ican J our na lo fP hy s ica l An th ropo logy 7 6 : 1 83 -188 . 1 20

Y o f f ee ,N . 1 990 .B efo re B abe l : Ar ev iew a r t ic le . P roceed ing so ft h e P reh i s to r ic S oc ie ty 5 6 , 2 99 -313 . Z a f i ra to s ,K . ,a nd M . F oundou lak i s . 1 987 .N eo l i th ic d en ta lr ema in so ft h eK a ly th ie sc ave i n R hode si s land . 6 3rd C ong re s s o ft h e E u ropean O r thodon t ic S oc ie ty , R hode s , G reece . Z i lhäo ,J . 1 993 .T he s p read o fa g ro -pa s to ra le conom ie sa c ro s s Med i te r ranean E u rope : av i ew f r om t h ef a rw e s t . J ou rna lo f Med i te r ranean A r chaeo logy 6 :5 -63 .

1 21

APPEND IX I :S TABLE I SOTOPE ANALYS IS S A MPLES P ER S ITE

1 22

A lepo t rypa S amp le c ode

B one

Age a nd s ex i n fo

E xcava t ion d a ta

A l

A 1100

T ib ia

A 2

A 1101

H umerus

A 3

A 1102

h ume ru s

X3 3

A 4

A 1103

r i b

A8 0

A S

A 1104

l ong b one

A2 69 09 / 1 1 1 I IA / 184

A 6

A 1105

l o ng b one

A 7

A 1106

f emu r?

A1 020 A /7 /73 8 12 -70

A 8

A 1107

r i b

A6 40 A /3A / 10 1-8 -70

A 9

A 1108

l ong b one

A6 16 A /3A /7 1-8 -70

A 10

A 1109

f emu r ' ?

A3 05 0E1 '1 1 / 19

A ll

A 1110

f emu r?

A2 85 A /OET 1 /240 . 14

A l2

A 1111

t i b ia?

A1 4 13 B /7 / 130 1 5 -2 -71

A l3

A 1112

h ume rus?

A 1 844 0 .49A 2 4 -7 -70

A l4

A 1113

r i b

A l5

A 1114

f emu r

A1 294 s ubadu l t

s ubadu l t

s ubadu l t

3 ,4 1

A4 22 -318 B /09 / 144 , 0 10 /d I I I I IA /1 8 5

A1 256 B /3 / 125 1 -2 -7 1 A 1 603 0 .24 1 8 -7 -70

A l6

A 1115

r i b

A '17

A 1116

s heep -goa t

Z /22 /666 T 2 83 1 6 -10 -97

A '18

A 1117

c ow?

B /2B / 107 2 6 -1-71

A '19

A 1118

c ow

B /2 / 110 1 2 -71

A '20

A 1119

c ow

Z /22 /T227 /661

A '21

A 1120

g oa t

Z /22 /665 /T255

f ema le

A1 36 Who le s ke le ton

F ranch th i B one

S amp le c ode F l

A 1121

f emu r+ l o ng b one

F 2

A 1122

l o ng b one

F 3

A 1123

r i b

F 4

A 1124

F 5

1125 'A

A ge a nd s ex i n fo

E xcava t ion d a ta F r 1G I :60 m eso l i th ic F r6 1 Q 5NE :2 -11

i n f an t

F r4 8 F /A 1 415 b u r ia l

f emu r t ib ia

F r5 9 Q 55 :156 b u r ia l

r i b

F r3 1 H 2A :93 F r 3G 1 :65 meso l i th ic

F 6

A 1126

f emu r

F 7

A 1127

r i b s +l o ng b one

F 8

A 1128

f emu r

F 9

A 1129

f emu r

F IO

A 1130

l ong b one

F r I8Q6NE :1 ,6 ,10

F l!

A 1131

f emu r

F r 4G I :65 meso l i th ic

F 12

A 1132

l ong b one

F r3 44 F F 1 :6

F 13

A 1133

v er teb ra

F r7 7 -78 Q 55 :2I6 .

F 14

A 1134

f emu r

F r3 31 F F 1

F 15

A 1135

f emu r

F r6 2a Q 5NE :2 -11 S k 1

F 16

A 1136

l o ng b one

F 17

A 1137

F 18

A 1138

i n f an t

F r 1 05 Q6N F r2 34 Q 5NE :17

f ema le

F r 5G 1 :65 m eso l i th ic

F r6 3 Q 5NE :2 -11 S k2 F r 1 9 Q 5N :19

r i b +l ong b one

s ubadu l t

F r6 6 H2A 1 94+210

K epha la S amp le c ode

B one

A ge a nd s ex i n fo

E xcava t ion d a ta

K 1

A 1139

r ad iu s

K 2

A 1140

h ume ru s

12K G r5 9 -42

K 3

A 1141

l ong b one

8 12K O ss V

K 4

A 1142

l ong b one

3 0K G r XV I I I

K 5

A 1143

l o ng b one

3 5K G r XX

K 6

A 1144

l o ng b one

2 8K G rX I I I*8

K 7

A 1145

l o ng b one

1 6K G rV I I

K 8

A 1146

l o ng b one

3 3K G rX IX

K 9

A 1147

l o ng b one

7 0K G r XXX IX

K IO

A 1148

l ong b one

1 4 -15K G rV I

K ll

A 1149

u l na

7 1K G r XL

K 12

A 1150

t i b ia

1 4K G r 1

K 13

A 1151

r ad ius

3 2K G rX IX

1 3K O s sV

K 14

A 1152

l o ng b one

3 4K G rX IX

K 15

A 1153

u l na

5 3K G r5

K 16

A 1154

f emu r

2 1K G rX I I I

K 17

A 1155

u l na

9 1K G r3 8

K 18

A 1156

r ad ius

1 02K G r5 0

K '19

A 1157

s heep /goa t

K '20

A 1158

s heep /goa t

K '21

A 1159

c a t t le

K '22

A 1160

c a t t le

K '23

A 1161

p ig

K '24

A 1162

p ig

K '25

A 1163

d og

K '26

A 1164

d ee r

T ha r roun ia S amp le c ode

B one

Age a nd s ex i n fo

E xcava t ion d a ta

S1

A 1165

o cc ip i ta l

T cp . 6K p . I

S 2

A 1166

o cc ip i ta l

T c u p . 3K p . 4

S 3

A 1167

c r an ia l b one

S 4

A 1168

o cc ip i ta l p a r ie ta l

T op . 4K p . 1 0 s ubadu l t p o ro t ic h ype ros t .

T a g ) . 3K p . 7

S 5

A 1169

f r on ta l

T op . 4K p . 9

S 6

A 1170

p a r ie ta l

T op . 3K p . 5

S 7

A 1171

p a r ie ta l

T op . 8K p . 2

S 8

A 1172

c ran ia l b one

T op . 4K p . 8

S 9

A 1173

p a r ie ta l

T ap . 3K p . 3

S1 0

A 1174

u lna

T op . 1

S1

A 1175

t i b ia

T cp . 4

S 12

A 1176

t i b ia?

T op . 5

S 13

A 1177

p a r ie ta l

T ap . 8

S 14

A 1178

l ong b one

B7

S 15

A 1179

c a rpa l

S 16

A 1180

c a rpa l

S 17

A 1181

r i b

S 18

A 1182

u lna?

T ogf i NA mcp cna c pc iou

S 19

A 1183

r ad iu s

T4

S 20

A 1184

u l na

T5

V6 s ubadu l t

19 A 4-T 8

T heope t ra S amp le

B one

c ode

A ge a nd s ex i n fo

E xcava t ion d a ta

T1

A 1185

f emu r

H 6 0 . 70 meso l i th ic

T 2

A 1186

u l na

E 12 -Z12 0 . 93-0 .63 E tp . e c o. r*

T 3

A 1187

p a r ie ta l

T 4

A 1188

c a rpa l

T 5

A 1189

r i b +l o ng b one

1 40 . 29

H 7 -H8 0 . 37 -0 .58

2 1 1i r pobac ca r i 0 . 5 1 . 1 l yr 4i r pog A 4

T o

A 1190

r ad iu s

H 8 -H9 r KpE t l i s 3 1 . 1a T i a AV . Ii t p iAU . , . ;

T 7

A 1191

r ad iu s?

Z 12 0 . 30

1 8

A 1192

l o ng b one

Z 11 0 . 52

1 9

A 1193

l o ng b one

Z 12 0 . 30 -0 .40

T IO

A 1194

c l av ic le

Z 12 0 . 30 -0 .40

T 11

A 1195

c r an ia lb one

1 4n po; B 4 0 . 20 -0 .30

1 12

A 1196

r i b

1 13

A 1197

c r an ia l b one

T1 4

A 1198

_mand ib le

1 12 1 . 20 -1 .31 p o ro t ic h ype ros t

r 7 0 . 22 -0 .30 1 ' 90 . 43-0 .55

K ouve le ik i B one

S amp le c ode

A ge a nd s ex i n fo

E xcava t ion d a ta

BI

A 1199

r i b

B2

A1 200

c r an ia l b one +f emu r

E x2

B3

A1 20 1

c r an ia l b one

_ 1 : C3

B4

A1 202

f emu r -t i b ia -v er teb ra

1 , K2

B5

A1 203

mand ib le r i b

. 1 ‹ 1

i n fan t

EK3

Mode rn f oods tuf f s S amp le c ode

f ood

MF 1

A 1204

a lmond

MF2

A 1205

w a lnu t s c hes tnu t s

MF3

A 1206

MF4

A 1207

w i ld c he s tnu t s

MF5

A 1208

o l ives

MF6

A 1209

a co rn s

MF7

A 1210

w i ld a co rn s

MF8

A 1211

b er r ies ( A )

MF9

A 1212

b er r ies ( B )

MF 10

A 1213

f i g

MF 11

A 1214

b l ack t i g

MF 12

A 1215

w i ld p ea r

MF 13

A 1216

a pp le

MF 14

A 1217

w i ld a pp le

MF 15

A 1218

q u ince

MF 16

A 1219

p omeg rana te

MF 17

A 1220

h are

'

_

APPEND IX I : ALEPOTRYPA CAVE OSTEOLOGICAL CATALOG

1 30

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3

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K

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2

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max i l la ,p a la te . RMI23 .P3 . LM12 -

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. 9 ,

f r on ta l

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3 2 ,49

4 6

I

f r agm en t

gg g5

p a r ie ta l

f r agm en t

f r ag m en t

f r agmen t

f r agm en t

g g eeg

o cc ip i ta l

0 .24 ,18-7-70

0 .24 ,18-7-70

0 .24 ,18-7-70

_ 3 .24 ,18-7-70

0 .24 ,18-7-70

f

0 .24 ,18-7-70

0 .24 ,18-7-70

0 .24 ,18-7-70

0 .24 ,18-7-70

0 .24 .18-7-70

0 .24 ,18-7-70

0 .24 ,18-7-70

. 2 ) .24 ,18-7-70

0 .24 .18-7-70

0 .24 ,18-7-70

9 .24 ,18-7-70

0 .24 ,18-7-70

A .24 ,18-7-70

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f r on ta l

f r agmen t f r agmen t

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p a r ie ta l

3 .

p a r ie ta l

f r agmen t

f r agmen t

f r agm en t

f r agmen t

f r agm en t

0 .24 ,18-7-70

0 .24 ,18-7-70

0 .24 .18-7-70

0 .24 ,18-7-70

r J .. J .

p a r ie t a l

e g, e . . .

t empo ra l

m ) . 1 . f r agmen t

0 .24 ,18-7-70

,,

f r agn ien t

ge t ‘

f r agm en t

4 . 0 .24 .18-7-70

3c 4

1

I

c a lcu lus ,s e ve r ea ngu la rw ea r

p o ro t ic h yp e ro s to s is -h ea led 6 num

f o ramen

a ib ra o rb i ta l ia -a c t ive . s up rao rb i ta l

s up rao rb i ta l n o tch

c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia . 4mm , l ambdo ida l b one .

h ype ro s to s is 6 -9mm

I

I

d ep r e ssed f r ac tu re o nr i gh t p a r i e ta l .p o ro t ic l

R .e

0 .24 ,18-7-70

d ep res . s ed

3 nun .sup rao rb i ta l n o tch .p os tco rona l

p o ro t ic h yp e ro s to s i s -m i ld 3 -5nun

s e ve re w ea r

p re tno r tem t oo th l o s so f M3 . M Io rP 4 .

2 . L ;

f r agm en t

f r agm en t

0 .24 ,18-7-70

r l, i . .

s am e a sA l2

f r agmen t

1 Z

o cc ip i ta l

K, eg

o cc ip i ta l

‚ , -

f r agmen t

f r agm en t

f r agm en t

f r agm en t r •

ü3 ,

mand ib le . dM1 M2 . M1 u nerup ted

E r j •

o cc ip i ta l

I

E f r agmen t

A /2 /6 .17 -7 -70

r , -r2-

2, 40 S

1

p a r ie ta l

i , . , A /2 /3 ,16 -7 -70

A / 11 2 . 1 6 -7 -70

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m

4

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-..

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f r agm en t

n

f r agmen t

9

. . .

A /30 /7 ,11-8-70

A f 3a /7 ,11-8-70

p o ro t ic h yp e ro s to s is -m i ld

k 2 2

f r agmen t

( 137 .7-8-70

( 128 ,7-8-70

0 .28 ,7-8-70

5 g

f r agm en t

f r agm en t

p o ro t ic h ype ro s to s is 5 -6 1 m 0 .38 ,25-7-70

h ypop la s ia so nc an ines 9 .36 ,25-7-70

0 .36 .25-7-70 8 3 .85 ,1799

p o ro t ic h yp e rodo s i s

c r ib ra o rb i ta l ia -a c t ive

h ypop la s ia o n l e f t a nd r i gh t 1 2

0 .36 ,25-7-70

9 .36 ,25-7-70 8 4 ,85 .1799

9 .36 ,25-7-70

0 .36 ,25-7-70

0 .36 ,25-7-70

9 .36 ,25-7-70

0 .49 15 2 4-7-70

0 .49 1 3 ,24-7-70

9 .20a , 2 4-7-70

a nd mo la r s

1

mand ib le , L dM 1 ,2

.

. ,

o cc ip i ta l

M

mand ib le RC ,L I1 , 12

e . ,

mand ib le , LM I.P3 ,4 ,C .RP3 .4 a nd r oo t s

P

mand ib le ,P 2

.2 m is ses l ambdo ida l s u tu re

P .' ; . : 12 4 ( 9 . 1 :

p a r ie ta l

,

o cc ip i ta l

2 . 1 7

p a r ie ta l

, . ,

oo

f r on ta l

3 , . Ig

0 .20a , 2 4-7-70

( 1 5d

s ame a sA 7 I

7 4

0 .20a , 2 4-7-70

,

mand ib le LM I .

7 5

9 .20a , 2 4-7-70 9 .20a , 2 4-7-70 p remoder nt oo th l o ss o fr i gh tp remo la r s

c upped w ea r 0 .20a , 2 4-7-70

p o ro t ic h yp e ros to s is 4 -8mm

c a l cu lus ,c upp ed n ea r

f o ram en

1

r i gh t s up r ao rb i t a l n o tch , l e f ts up rao rb i ta l 1

M

r 1M1 .2 , 12 , 1 1 124M1 .2 ,M 1

f r agm en t

p a la te ,a l veo lus

.

,

mand ib le dM2 i na l veo lus M I ,M2

.

.

f r agm en t

s

f r agm en t

< : 0 .20 ,24-7-70

'

0 .20 ,24-7-70

E '

f r agm en t

9 . 18a , 2 4-7-70 0 .18a , 2 4-7-70

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m and ib le dM I. 2i na l veo lus LM 1 .2 .R 12

1

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,

m and ib le , LM1 ,2 .P3 ,4

E

f r agm en t

v 9 . 18 ,24-7-70

0 .27y , 2 3-7-70

p o ro t ic h ype ro s tos is

2 2

o cc ip i ta l

0 .27 ,22-7-70

9 .25 ,22-7-70

0 .25 ,22-7-70

0 .25 ,22-7-70

0 .24 ,22-7-70

9 .17 ,18-7-70

0 .24 , 1 8-7-70

.

f r on ta l

f r agm en t

f r agmen t

f r agmen t

f r agmen t

9 .24 ,18-7-70

OO

p a r ie ta l

1

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4 8 S' 9 S

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s ame a sA 32

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p a r ie ta l

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s z2eas‚e r seee .

M

g a . _

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c 4 3

r e72

4 .

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: = < < A g I ,

e

g

2

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8

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F . ; , - , ‚ : . 12

1 9 -8 -70

2 0 -8 -70

1 A /4 /3 1 .

1 A /4 / 36 .

ä

-

= 7 ,, e

2 1-8 -70

= . Z

e

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-

' A A ' P s ;' i l9 , 7 ,

x 1 1

2 a

i l iec tp .1a /42 ,

2 1-8-70

11 3c9 . 1a 742 ,2 1-8-70

I A /4 /38 . 2 1 -8 -70

I A /4 / 38 ,

A /4 /38 .2 1-8 -70

B / I/35 . 2 0 -8 -70

„ d

a lmo s t w ho le .m is s ing i n aud ib le

A /36 /33 . 1 9 -8 -70

A /4 /31 . 1 9 -8 -70

i ,

F

a lmo s t who le . m is s ing m and ib le

g g

f r agmen t

m is ses 3 / 4o fr i gh t p a r t

A /4 /9 , 1 2 -8 -70

g

i .

a

1

E

e

s ke le ton

U

r ` ' ee

p a r ie ta l

s

g

mand ib le . RMI ,d M 1,2

I

a lmo s t w ho le

66 6 6 2 2 2 6 6 6 0 2 2 0 = = v A = , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . 5 • 5 = =
t . : . .2 ,P7 1` , ! . ', 'Z 2 i 25 , ` . 0 - 5 g ; ? ^ : 2 1 . 6 ' ,'fs ;1-g j ' 7 2A2. : '"2 r .' , . ; :22' 22• 9 - F , i .gE c , ‘i :gAAAAAg c • . 1 ' „ i ' a < ä ' 2 1 ä ä 2

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