A Brief History of the Chinese Language VII: Modern Chinese Lexicon 1 [1 ed.] 9781003365587

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Series
Title
Copyright
Contents
1 Emergence of modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu into the Chinese lexicon
2 Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese
3 Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

A Brief History of the Chinese Language VII

As the seventh volume of a multi-volume set on the Chinese language, this book studies the Mongolian influence on neologisms in Modern Chinese and innovations in word formation and lexical meanings during the period. Focusing on lexicons in Modern Chinese, the Chinese language used since the 13th century ce, this book first introduces new monosyllables and the entry of spoken idioms and dialects into the written language as well as the mingling of the Chinese language with the Mongolian and Manchu languages. It then focuses on the development and features of polysyllabic words in Modern Chinese, covering alliterative and rhyming compounds and trisyllabic and four-syllable words. The final chapter discusses the change of lexical meaning systems in Modern Chinese based on an analysis of monosyllables, disyllables, and polysyllables. Illustrated with abundant examples, this comprehensive groundwork on Chinese lexical history will be a must read for scholars and students studying the modern Chinese language and linguistics and especially for beginning learners of the modern Chinese lexicon. Xi Xiang is Professor at Sichuan University (China) and a distinguished linguist. His research interests are focused on Chinese language history and Chinese linguistics. His major works include A Brief History of Chinese, Dictionary of Poetry Classics, Commentary on the Translation of Poetry Classics, Dictionary of Ancient Chinese Knowledge, Concise Ancient Chinese Dictionary, and so on.

Chinese Linguistics

Chinese Linguistics series selects representative and frontier works in linguistic disciplines including lexicology, grammar, phonetics, dialectology, philology and rhetoric. Mostly published in Chinese before, the selection has had far-reaching influence on China’s linguistics and offered inspiration and reference for the world’s linguistics. The aim of this series is to reflect the general level and latest development of Chinese linguistics from an overall and objective view.

Titles in this series currently include: A Brief History of the Chinese Language III From Middle Chinese to Modern Chinese Phonetic System Xi Xiang Modern Chinese Complex Sentences II Coordinate Type XING Fuyi A Brief History of the Chinese Language IV Old Chinese Lexicon Xi Xiang A Brief History of the Chinese Language V Middle Chinese Lexicon 1 Xi Xiang A Brief History of the Chinese Language VI Middle Chinese Lexicon 2 Xi Xiang A Brief History of the Chinese Language VII Modern Chinese Lexicon 1 Xi Xiang For more information, please visit www.routledge.com/Chinese-Linguistics/ book-series/CL

A Brief History of the Chinese Language VII

Modern Chinese Lexicon 1

Xi Xiang

This translation is published with financial support from the Chinese Fund for the Humanities and Social Sciences (20WYYB011) First published in English 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Xi Xiang Translated by Hulin Ren, Lifei Wang, Xiaofeng Zhan, Zihui Yang, Gang Dong, Li Xia, Yikun Li and Tanith Booth The right of Xi Xiang to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. English version by permission of The Commercial Press, Ltd. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Xiang, Xi, author. | Ren, Hulin, translator. Title: A brief history of the Chinese language / Xi Xiang ; translated by Hulin  Ren [and 7 others]. Other titles: Jian ming han yu shi. English Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. | Series: Chinese linguistics | Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: v. 1. The basics of Chinese phonetics—v. 2. From old Chinese  to middle Chinese phonetic system—v. 3. From middle Chinese to modern  Chinese phonetic system. Identifiers: LCCN 2022025941 (print) | LCCN 2022025942 (ebook) |  ISBN 9781032381077 (vol. 1 ; hardback) | ISBN 9781032381107  (vol. 1 ; paperback) | ISBN 9781032381084 (vol. 2 ; hardback) |  ISBN 9781032381114 (vol. 2 ; paperback) | ISBN 9781032381091  (vol. 3 ; hardback) | ISBN 9781032381121 (vol. 3 ; paperback) |  ISBN 9781003343516 (vol. 1 ; ebook) | ISBN 9781003343523  (vol. 2 ; ebook) | ISBN 9781003343530 (vol. 3 ; ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Chinese language—Phonetics—History. | Chinese  language—History. Classification: LCC PL1205 .X5313 2023 (print) | LCC PL1205 (ebook) |  DDC 495.1/15—dc23/ eng/20220718 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022025941 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022025942 ISBN: 978-1-032-43063-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-43069-0 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-36558-7 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003365587 Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Contents

1

Emergence of modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu into the Chinese lexicon

1

2

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese

76

3

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times

139

Bibliography Index

188 189

1

Emergence of modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu into the Chinese lexicon

1.1 Introduction In the period of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, especially in the Late Qing dynasty, the society of China has undergone remarkable changes. The most direct and rapid Chinese word exchange reflecting the social reality has also undergone great changes, showing notably developmental characteristics different from that of the past. First, vernacular literature has developed to a peak level. Yuan Opera and novels of the Ming and Qing dynasties, such as All Men are Brothers, Journey to the West, The Dream of Red Mansions, The Scholars and so on, are popular and deeply rooted in the hearts of the mass. All these works are based on the northern dialect, but having different characteristics. So a large number of spoken and dialect words have been entered the literary language and were spread widely. Second, since the rulers of the Yuan dynasty were Mongolian nobles, while the rulers of the Qing dynasty were Manchu nobles. They all have to accept the original system and traditional culture of the Han nationality to a great extent. Objectively speaking, this trend has speeded and enhanced the mutual contact and/or influence between the Han people and the Mongolian and Manchu people. Reflected in the reality of language, Mongolian and Manchu have absorbed a large number of Chinese loanwords, and Chinese language has once absorbed some Mongolian and Manchu loanwords, some of which have been retained to this day. Third, in the 13th century (1275–1292), Italian Marco Polo came to China as a visiting official, who had won the trust of Yuan Emperor Kublai Khan. In the early 15th century, Zheng He made seven voyages to the West, reaching as far as the east coast of Africa, which promoted the economic and cultural exchanges between China, Asian and African countries. In the 16th century, China began to communicate with western capitalist countries. At the beginning of the Qing dynasty, it was closed to the outside world and reopened to the outside world in the 18th century. Since the 19th century, Western imperialism has invaded China, occupied the land, plundered the wealth, slaughtered the locals and committed heinous crimes. At the same time, with the introduction of modern western culture into China, people in the western countries and many Chinese young people study abroad to find ways to save the country. As such, a large number of western academic and scientific works had been translated and published in China, and the tide of this change was surging DOI: 10.4324/9781003365587-1

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Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu

and unstoppable. The life and understanding of the Chinese people have changed. Chinese is also inevitably greatly affected. There are a large number of loanwords, new words, words added with new meanings, and the toll of lexicon of Chinese words is richer than ever before. Fourth, in addition to the obvious advantage of disyllabic words, there are also a large number of polysyllabic words with three syllables and four syllables, and the structural forms of words are more diversified, featuring the important development of Modern Chinese words.

1.2 ThedevelopmentofmodernChinese monosyllabic words Most of the new words in Modern Chinese are polysyllabic, but there are also a certain number of new monosyllabic words, which are mainly nouns and verbs, as well as a few adjectives. Most of them come from folk colloquialisms and different dialects. There are three situations for these, as follows. 1.2.1 Newwordswrittenintheoldform This kind of word usually borrows the form of the old word to express new meanings, or the new word coincidentally matches the existing glyph. The new words are not related to the old words in terms of the internal meaning but are different from the extension of the semantic meaning. The following are specific examples. Bái 湃 is a verb with the meaning of soaking in ice or cold water. In the Ming dynasty, Louifox wrote in chapter twenty-nine of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Golden Lotus] that “yǒu méi tāng tí yī hú lái, fàng zài zhè bīng pán nèi pài zhe. 有梅湯 提一壶來，放在这冰盘内湃着.” (Bring a pot of plum soup here and put it into the ice tray to soak.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter sixty of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “shuō zhe, fāng guān zǎo tuō le yī bēi liáng shuǐ nèi xīn pài de chá lái. 説着，芳官早托了一杯凉水内新 湃的茶来.” (Fang Guan served a cup of tea soaked in cold water.) Contemporarily, Wen Kang wrote in the sixteenth chapter of Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄 傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “Nà lǎo tóu ér bǎ nà jiāng jí èr chǐ zhǎng de bái hú zǐ fàng zài liáng shuǐ lǐ pài le yòu pài, shàn le yòu shàn. 那老頭兒把那將及二尺長 的白胡子放在涼水里湃了又湃，汕了又汕.” (That old chap soaked his white beard which was almost two feet long in the cold water and washed over and over again.) In fact, the word 湃 first appeared in the Han dynasty and was read as pài 湃. In Shuǐbù 水部 [Water Group] of the Chinese character of yù piān 玉篇 [Jade Article], the jade 玉 categorization is pronounced as pài 湃, often used as pāng pài 滂湃, with the meaning of the grand situation of water. In this case, bái 湃 has nothing to do with the meaning of pài 湃. Bāng 梆 is a noun. A bāngzi 梆子 (clapper), made of a piece of bamboo or hollow wood, is used to keep night watch or gather and dismiss crowds. In the Ming dynasty, Wu Cheng’en wrote in chapter seventy-four of Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “Sūn wù kōng yě biàn zuò xiǎo yāo ér, yī zhào tā qiāo zhe bāng, yáo zhe líng, qián zhe qí. 孫悟空也變做小妖兒，依照他敲着梆，摇着鈴，掮

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 3 着旗.” (Sun Wukong was changed into the form of a little devil and imitated his action of knocking the wooden piece, ringing the bell and carrying the flag.) In the same dynasty, Tang Xianzu wrote in chapter seventeen of Mǔdan tíng 牡丹 亭 [Peony Pavilion] that “Fǔ zhǔ zuò huáng táng. fū rén chuán shì, yá nèi qiāo bāng. 府主坐黄堂. 夫人傳示，衙内敲梆.” (The head of the mansion sat in the central court of the imperial palace. The lady sent messages of welcome. There was a knocking sound inside.) In the Qing dynasty, Wung Jingzi wrote in chapter twenty-two of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] that “dāng xià liǎng rén bǎ niú pǔ chě zhe, lā dào xiàn mén kǒu, zhī xiàn cái fā èr bāng, bù céng zuò táng. 当下 兩人把牛浦扯着，拉到縣門口，知縣才發二梆，不曾坐堂.” (At that moment the two dragged Niu Pu to the door of the county government. The watchman’s clapper only knocked twice and the magistrate of a county has not been in the court house.) The word bāng 梆 used to be the name of a kind of tree. According to Jiangyun in Guangyun, the word bāng 梆 is the name of a tree. It was in the Song dynasty that the word bāng 梆 was formed into the words bāng zi 梆子. In more ancient times, bāng zi 梆子 was called tuò 柝. In Xìcí xià 繫辭下 [Copulative] of yì 易 [The Book of Changes], it reads “zhòng mén jī tuò, yǐ dài bào kè。重門击 柝，以待暴客.” (Set up many gateways and watch nights with clappers as warning in case of accidents.) The word dāi 呆 is an adjective, with the meaning of stupid, clumsy, or rigid. In the Yuan dynasty, Gong Dayong wrote in the second part of Fànzhāng jīshǔ 范张 鸡黍 [Profound Friendship] that “wǒ dài xué yú yuán de duàn gàn mù fēi wéi biē, chuí diào de yán zǐ líng bú shì dāi. 我待学逾垣的段干木非为憋，垂钓的严子陵 不是呆.” (That I am going to learn from Duan Ganmu who jumped over the wall to keep his principle was not stubborn and to learn from Yan Ziling who chose to angle rather than corrupt was not stupid.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Nai’an wrote in chapter thirteen of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “sān gè rén jí yào zǒu shí, jīng dé dāi le, zhèng zǒu bù dòng. 三個人急要走時，驚得呆了, 正走不動.” (When the three men were about to leave, they were too astounded to move.) In the Ming dynasty, Louifox wrote in chapter fifty-five of Jīn píng méi 金 瓶梅 [The Golden Lotus] that “zhǐ xiǎng zhe yǔ chén jīng jǐ gōu da, biàn xīn shàng luàn luàn de jiāo zào qǐ lái, duō shào cháng xū duǎn ， tuō zhe sāi er dāi dēng dēng. 只想着與陳經済勾搭，便心上亂亂的焦躁起來，多少長吁短欻，托着 腮兒呆登登.” (Indulged in thinking about flirting with Chen Jingji, she became anxious. She signed and groaned, holding her chin in her hands and in a daze.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in the fourth chapter of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓 夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “zhè xuē gōng zǐ de hùn míng, rén chēng tā ‘dāi bà wáng.’ 這薛公子的混名，人稱他 ‘呆霸王.’” (Mr. Xue has a nickname of King Clumsy.) The word dāi 呆 can be replaced by bǎo 保. According to Shuōwén Rénbù 説文人部 [Ren Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], the word dāi 呆 was used as bǎo 保 in ancient China. Hence, it has nothing to do with dāi 呆 in dāi bǎn 呆板, which means being rigid. Chòng 銃 is a noun, referring to the tubular firearm which shoots pills from gunpowder. The word was invented during the Song and Yuan dynasties. In dálǐ máshílǐ zhuàn 達理麻識理傳 [The Story of Dali Mashili] of the Yuán shǐ 元史

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Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu

[History of the Yuan dynasty], it is recorded that “jiū jí dīng zhuàng miáo jūn, huǒ chòng shén wǔ xiāng lián. 糾集丁壯苗軍，火銃什伍相聯.” (Adult men are recruited to form an army and equipped with blunderbuss.) In the Ming dynasty, Qiu Rui wrote in Qìxiè zhīlì 器械之利 [The Sharp Instruments] of Dàxué yǎnyì bǔ 大學衍義補 [The Supplement to the Derivation of the Great Learning] that “jìn shì yǐ huǒ yào shí tóng tiě qì zhōng, yì wèi pào, yòu wèi zhī chòng. 近世以 火藥實銅鐵器中,亦謂砲，又謂之銃.” (Recently, gunpowder was filled into the instruments made of copper or iron. It was called pào 砲 or chòng 銃.) Li Zhaoshan wrote in Jiāngnán chuánchǎng zhì 江南船廠志 [The Record of the Shipyard in Regions South of the Yangtze River] that “Àn wú gōng chuán zì jiā jìng sì nián shǐ, gài dǎo yí zhī zhì, yòng yǐ jià fú lǎng jī chòng zhě yě. 按蜈蚣船自嘉靖四年 始，蓋島夷之制，用以駕佛朗機銃者也.” (Since the fourth year of Jia Qing’s regime, ships were made like centipedes. In this situation, the ships could take the Western canon.) Jiao Xu wrote in Huǒgōng qièyào 火攻挈要 [The Key Points of Fire Attanck] that “jìn yǒu niǎo qiāng duǎn qì, bǎi fā kě yǐ bǎi zhòng yuǎn yǒu zhǎng dà zhū chòng, zhí jí shù shí lǐ zhī yuǎn, héng jí shù qiān zhàng zhī kuò. 近 有鳥鎗短器，百發可以百中;遠有長大諸銃，直撃數十里之遠，横撃數千丈 之阔.” (The shotgun can cover the short distance without one missing and the other big blunderbuss can reach miles.) In ancient times, the word chòng 銃 was the holes in the handle of axes. In the Shì qì 釋器 [Introduction of Instruments] in Guǎng yǎ 廣雅 [Guangya], it is recorded that “chòng wèi zhī qióng” 銃謂之銎 (chòng 銃 is 銎 qióng, which is the holes in the handle of the ax.) In this context, chòng 銃 is not related to weapons that have been mentioned. Zhuó 鐲 is a noun, referring to the annular ornaments worn on the wrist or the ankle. It usually refers to the bracelet, and sometimes it is also called zhuó tóu 鐲 頭 or zhuó zi 鐲子. In the Ming dynasty, Lu Rong wrote in the eighth chapter of Shūyuán zájì 菽園雜記 [Shu Yuan Za Ji], a book on the life in the Shu Yuan mansion, that “jīn rén míng bì huán wèi zhuó, yīn zhuó, gài fāng yán yě. 今人名臂環 爲鐲，音濁，蓋方言也.” (People call the armlet zhuó 鐲 whose sound is same to zhuó 濁 nowadays. Quite possibly, it is their dialect.) In the same dynasty, Wu Cheng’en wrote in chapter forty-three of Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “Pú sà kǒng nǐ yǎng bù dà, yǔ nǐ dài gè jǐng quān zhuó tóu lī. 菩薩恐你養 不大，與你戴個頸圈鐲頭哩.” (The Bodhisattva gave you a neck ring to wear in order to ensure your safe growing.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter forty-nine of Hónglóu mèng 紅棲夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “Píng ér dài zhuó zi shí, què shǎo le yī gè. 平兒戴鐲子時，却少了一個.” (When Ping’er was about to wear the bracelet, she found one was gone.) In Old Chinese, the word zhuó 鐲 was a kind of military instrument whose form was like the bell of the clock. According to Shuōwén Jīnbù 説文金部 [Jin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], the word “Zhuó, zhēng yě. 鐲，鉦也.” (Zhuó 鐲 is the same as the word zhēng 鉦.) In Zhōu lǐ 周禮 [The Rites of Zhou], it reads “Yǐ jīn zhuó jié gǔ. 以金鐲節鼓.” (Use the gold staff to hit the drum.) Hereby, the word zhuó 鐲 was not related to the word of shǒu zhuó 手鐲, which means bracelet. The word kè 锞 is a noun, a small head-shaped ingot made of gold or silver that weighs from one to five liang (a measurement of weight in ancient China which

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 5 is equal to 50 g.) In the Qing dynasty, Fan Tengfeng wrote in Tuó yùn 駝韻 [Tuo Yun] of Wǔfāng yuányīn 五方元音 [Wu Fang Yuan Yin] that “kè, jīn yín dìng yě. 锞，金銀錠也.” (Kè 锞 is the ingot of gold or silver.) In “wàn guì huáng jīn qiān xiāng huái. 萬櫃黄金千箱踝.” (There are thousands of gold or silver) in Yōngxī yuè fǔ 雍熙樂府 [Yong Xi Yue Fu], it says that “Wàn guì huáng jīn, qiān xiāng lù. 萬櫃黄金，千箱錄.” (Ten thousand boxes of gold and thousands of boxes of gold and silver ingots.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter eighteen of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “Bǎo chāi dài yù zhū zǐ mèi děng, měi rén xīn shū yī bù, bǎo yàn yī fāng, xīn yàng gé shì jīn yín kè èr duì. 寶釵黛玉諸姊妹等，每人新書一部，寶硯一方，新樣格式金銀锞二對.” (Baochai, Daiyun, and other sisters each got one new book, one precious inkstone, and two pairs of gold and silver ingots made in new styles.) In ancient China, the word kè 锞 used to be the container used in a carriage to carry the lubricating oil. It was pronounced as guǒ. In the Guǒ yùn 果韻 [Rhyme of Guo] of Jí yùn 集韻 [The Collection of Rhyme], it reads “kè, chē gāo qì yuē kè, huò cóng jīn. gǔ huǒ qiè. 锞，車膏器曰锞，或從金，古火切.” (Kè 锞 is a kind of container for the lubricating oil in the carriage. It is sometimes made of gold and is shaped and cut by fire.) Hereby, the word kè 锞 was not related to the sense in jīn yín kè zǐ 金銀 锞子, which means gold and silver ingots. The word liào 鐐 is a noun, referring to a tool of torture attached to one’s ankles. In the Ming dynasty, Fang Yizhi wrote in the Xíng fǎ 刑法 [The Law of Penalty] of Tōng yǎ 通雅 [Tong Ya] that “Gǔ zhī qīn, jīn yǐ liáo dài zhī. 古之欽，今以鐐 代之.” (The respect in the past time is replaced by the punishment of shackles.) In the Yuan dynasty, Yuwen Maozhao wrote in the kē tiáo 科條 [Articles] of Jīn zhì 金 制 [System of Punishment] that “jiǎo wàn yǐ tiě wèi liáo lián suǒ zhī, zuì qīng zhě yòng yī, zuì zhòng zhě èr zhī. 脚腕以鐵爲鐐鐮鎖之，罪輕者用一，罪重者二 之.” (The criminals are locked and chained by shackles on the ankles. Those who committed less serious crimes wore one and others with two fetters.) However, one of the Xíngfǎ zhì yī 刑法志一 [Penal Codes] of Míng shǐ 明史 [The History of the Ming dynasty] recorded that “liáo, tiě lián huán zhī yǐ zhí zú, tú zhě dài yǐ shū zuò, zhòng sān jīn. 鐐，鐵連環之以絷足，徒者帶以輸作，重三斤.” (Liào 鐐 is an iron chain that is used to tie one’s feet. Those who are sentenced will have to wear the chain which weighs three Jin [a measurement of weight which equals 500 g] to live.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume eleven of his Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] that “Yú jiān zhōng diào chū qún dào, yī gè gè jiǎo liáo shǒu niǔ, guì yú jiē xià. 於監中吊出群 盗，一個個脚鐐手扭，跪於階下.” (Groups of criminals were picked out of the prison. They all wore shackles, kneeling down under the order.) In Old Chinese, the word liào 鐐 referred to pure and precious silver. According to the Shì qì 釋 器 [Introduction of Basic Utensils] of Ěr yǎ 爾雅 [Er Ya], “Bái jīn wèi zhī yín, qí měi zhě wèi zhī liáo. 白金謂之銀，其美者謂之鐐.” (Báijīn 白金 [silver] is called yín 銀 and the pure and good one is called liào 鐐.) Hereby, the word liào 鐐 was not related to the sense in jiǎo liáo 脚鐐, which was a kind of tool used for torture. The word niū 妞 is a noun with the meaning of girl. It has a sense of intimacy and favor when used and is a word used in Beijing dialects. In the Qing dynasty, Hao

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Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu

Yixing wrote in the fourth volume of Zhèngsú wén 證俗文 [Zheng Su Wen] that “jīn jīng shī wèi nǚ yuē niū ruò dà yuē dà niū, cì yuē èr niū, yòu cì yuē sān niū. 今 京師謂女曰妞 . . . 若大曰大妞，次曰二妞，又次曰三妞.” (Nowadays, people in the capital of a country call the girls niū 妞 . . . The eldest one is called big girl dà niū 大妞. The second is called the second big girl èr niū 二妞, and the youngest one is called the third big girl sān niū 三妞.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter forty-two of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “wǒ yào shuō le, niū ér gāi mà wǒ le. 我要説了，妞兒該罵我了.” (The girl would blame me if I told you.) During the same dynasty, Wang Tingshao wrote in Yǒu yīgè niūniūér 有一個妞妞兒 [There Was a Little Girl] of the ní cháng xù pǔ 霓裳續 譜 [Mi Chang Xu Pu] that “yǒu yī gè niū niū ér zài mén qián lì, tái tóu kàn jiàn gè tiāo dān de. 有一個妞妞兒在門前立，擡頭看見個挑擔的.” (There stands a girl in front of the door. She raises her head and sees a man carrying a load.) Yu Zhengxie wrote in Guǐsì cúngǎo bǔpò 癸巳存稿補迫 [The Supplements to the Draft in Guisi Year] that “Niáng zhě, shào nǚ zhī chēng, yì zuò niáng, zhuǎn zuò niū. běi rén chēng niū niū, nán rén chēng niáng niáng shì yě. 孃者，少女之稱，亦作娘，轉作妞. 北 人稱妞妞，南人稱娘娘是也.” (Niáng 孃 was the name for little girls. It could be written as niáng 娘. Later on, it was changed to niū 妞. The word niū niu 妞妞 was used by people in the north, while niáng niang 娘娘 was used by people in the south.) The word niū 妞 first appeared in the Six dynasties, which was pronounced as hào at that time. According to Yùpiān Nǚbù 玉篇女部 [Nv Group of Jade Articles], “Niū, hū dào qiè, xìng yě. 妞，呼道切，姓也.” (Niū 妞 was a surname), which was different from the one which referred to girls. Òu 慪 (yikes) The word òu 慪, also written as òu 歐, is a verb which means to mock somebody or to make people anxious and angry. In the Qing dynasty, Shi Nai’an wrote in chapter sixty-one of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “yú lù shàng, wú yòng bèi lǐ kuí ōu de kǔ. 於路上，吴用被李逵歐的苦.” (On the way, Wu Yong was angry with Li Kui.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter twenty of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “nǐ zhǐ yuàn rén xíng dòng chēn guài nǐ, nǐ zài bù zhī dào nǐ òu de rén nán shòu. 你只怨 人行動嗔怪你，你再不知道你慪的人難受.” (You only care to blame me for my distant actions, yet you never care about what I have suffered due to your tricks.) During the same dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in chapter twenty-nine of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “Hé xiǎo jiě yī shí shuō dé gāo xìng, shuō dé wàng le qíng, bèi zhāng gū niáng yī òu, bù jué xiū dé xiǎo liǎn ér tōng hóng. 何小姐一時説得高興，説得忘了情，被張姑娘一慪，不覺羞得 小臉兒通紅.” (Miss He was so happy that she talked without noticing feelings of other people. When she was vexed by Miss Zhang, she blushed at once.) In Old Chinese, òu 慪 was to take pity on somebody or something. According to Yùpiān Xīnbù 玉篇心部 [Xin Group of Jade Articles], “Òu, lìn yě, xī yě. 慪，悋也，惜 也.” (Òu 慪 means to pity or to cherish.) In this context, it is different from the òu 慪 in òu qì 慪氣, which means to get angry. Pǎng 嗙 is a verb which means to boast. It is also written as bàng 傍 or bàng 鎊. During the Qing dynasty, Pu Songling wrote in chapter twenty-three of the Liáozhāi

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 7 lǐqǔ jí 聊齋俚曲集 [Ghost Stories] that “yī gè mó zhóu méi chù àn, yī bǎ zhuī zi méi chù rǎng, xiā de xiā, ǎn huì pǎng, piàn le sān guān yé yé yī dǐng jīn, zhēng le zhèn wǔ yé yé liǎng dǐng wǎng. 一個磨軸没處按，一把錐子没處攘，瞎的瞎， 俺會嗙，骗了三官爺爺一頂巾，挣了鎮五爺爺兩頂網.” (Although the grinding shaft and the awl were useless, I was good at selling them as I got a piece of cloth from Grandpa San Guan and two hats from Grandpa Zhen Wu.) It was also recorded in volume one of Xiàolín guǎngjì 笑林廣記 [Xiao Lin Guang Ji], a collection of amusing stories, that “Jué yǒu wǔ děng, gōng, hòu, bó, zi, nán hé shǔ bó? hú chuī luàn bàng guàn shuō bái. 爵有五等，公、候、伯、子、男 . . . 何属伯?胡吹亂 傍慣説白.” (There are five ranks of the nobility, namely Gong, Hou, Bo, Zi and Nan . . . what is Bo? Those who talk nonsense and boast.) In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in chapter twenty-one of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “Zhè dà yuē yào suàn tā píng shēng dì yī zhuāng dé yì de tòng kuài shì, biàn shì méi rén lái wèn, yīn huà tí huà, hái yào zhǎo zháo bàng liǎng jù, hé kuàng wèn huà de yòu zhèng shì hǎi mǎ zhōu sān niǎo yān zhàng qì zhè bān rén. 這大約要算他平生第一樁得意的痛快事，便是没人來問，因話提話， 還要找着鎊兩句，何況問話的又正是海馬周三鳥煙瘴氣這班人.” (This was almost the best thing he has ever met in his life. If there were no people to come to inquiry, he would have found reasons to bring this and boast. Fortunately, Hai Ma and Zhou San as well as a group of punks came to raise the topic.) Qiáo 瞧 is a verb meaning to look or to peek. In the Yuan dynasty, Guan Hanqing wrote a song in the Xīnshuǐ lìng 新水令 [Xin Shui Poem] that “pà bié rén qiáo jiàn zán, yǎn yìng zài tú mí jià. 怕别人瞧見咱，掩映在酴醾架.” (Afraid of being seen, we hide under the flower shelf.) In the Qing dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume twenty-one of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] that “Pà bié rén qiáo jiàn zán, yǎn yìng zài tú mí jià. 公子大喝道:什麽 人敢來瞧俺脚色? (The mister shouted aloud “how dare you look at my position.”) In the Yuan dynasty, Gao Ming wrote in his poem that “Piē dāi dǎ duò, zǎo bèi nà rén qiáo pò. 撇呆打墮，早被那人瞧破.” (His action of neglecting the clumsy and striking the lazy was seen through by that man.) In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in chapter four of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “Qiáo, zhè xié bù gēn jiǎo le. 瞧，這鞋不跟脚了.” (Look, the shoes do not fit.) The verb qiáo 瞧 was also used as shào 睄. In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in the sixth chapter of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “yě méi shèn de shuō, bù guò lái shào shào gū tài tài gū nǎi nǎi. 也没甚的 説，不過來睄睄姑太太姑奶奶.” (We just come to visit aunts and grand-aunts and that’s all.) However ， the verb qiáo 瞧 was different in Ji Kang’s essay, which discussed that difficulty in learning would trigger diligence. It reads “Dǔ wén jí zé mù qiáo, xiū yī ràng zé biàn yǔ. 睹文籍則目瞧，修揖讓則變伛.” (Reading books makes your eyes dry and uncomfortable while repairing references makes you tired and fatigued.) Here, the veb qiáo 瞧 means the eyes have become strained, which was also written as jiāo 燋. Du Zichun noted in the zhōu lǐ 周禮 [Rites of Zhou] that “Jiāo, dú xì mù jiāo zhī jiāo. 燋，讀细目燋之燋.” (Jiāo 燋 is to read in detail until the eyes become dry and sore.) Hereby, it is different from qiáo 瞧, which refers to the action of looking.

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Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu

Shān 跚 is a verb which means to step on. In the Yuan dynasty, Guan Huanqin wrote in the second piece of Huí yuán chūn 回園春 [Hui Tu Chun] that “zé wǒ zhè xiù xié ér bù shān zhe nà qīng chī liū. 则我這繡鞋兒不跚着那青笞溜.” (Then my exquisite shoes would not step on the moss.) In the third piece of the Wǔhóu yàn 五侯宴 [Wu Hou Yan], it is written that “yǐn zháo shā sān qù shān qiào, bàn zhe wáng liú xué diào guǐ. 引着沙三去跚撬，伴着王留學調鬼.” (Lead Sha San to walk on stilts and accompany Wang Liu to catch the ghosts.) In this context, shān qiāo 跚橇 means walking on stilts. In the same dynasty, Li Shouqin wrote in the first piece of Wǔyuán chuīxiāo 伍員吹簫 [Wu Yuan Chui Xiao] that “Wǒ pà fèi dé xióng zǎo xiān dào le, fǎn chū qí hòu, yǐ cǐ dān jī rěn è, rì yè bēn lái, wù de zhè liǎng jiǎo shàng bù shān chéng le jiǎn yě. 我怕費得雄早先到了，反出其 後，以此擔饥忍饿，日夜奔來，兀的這兩脚上不跚成了趼也.” (I was afraid that Fei Dexiong would come earlier than me. I bore hunger and walked both day and night. Suddenly, my feet could not walk any longer due to the calluses.) In the third piece of Zhūshā dān 硃砂擔 [Zhu Sha Dan], written by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it also reads “Tā ǒu rán shān pò le jiǎo, zài hòu biān màn màn de xíng lī. 他偶然跚破了脚，在後邊慢慢的行哩.” (He accidentally injured his feet while walking, so he had to move slowly behind.) The verb shān 跚 appeared in Middle Chinese. During the Tang dynasty, Pi Rixiu wrote in his poem Shàng zhēn guān 上真觀 [Shang Zhen Guan] that “tiān gōu míng xiǎng liàng, tiān lù xíng pán shān. 天钩鸣响亮，天禄行蹣跚.” (Tian Gou, the instrument from Heaven, sounds loud and clear while Tian Lu, the animal of auspiciousness, totters along the way.) The words pán shān 蹣跚 mean to stagger and totter, which differs from the word which means to step on. Shāo 梢 or shāo 稍 is a noun, which means money, cash, or capital. In the Ming dynasty, Shen Defu wrote in Wújiāng xuèyǔ 吴江謔語 [Language of Wu Jiang] of the Yěhuò biān 野獲編 [Ye Shou Bian], a collection of folk traditions and culture, that “yòu wú sú hū xiàn qián wèi shāo. 又吴俗呼现钱为梢.” (The folks called cash shāo 梢 in the Wu area.) Lu Dan’an wrote in Chai Shao, which interpreted the origin and use of shāo 梢 in Xiǎoshuō yǔcí huìshì 小説語詞滙釋 [The Interpretation of Words in Fictions], that “shāo shì qián de shì yǔ, chāi shāo jí qiāo zhà xiàn qián. 梢是钱的市語，拆梢即敲詐现钱.” (Shāo 梢 is the name of money in the market. The words chāi shāo 拆梢 means to blackmail for cash.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Nai’an wrote in chapter one hundred four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “qián rì fàn quán gē ge bǎ yǔ wǒ mǎi chái xīn de yī dìng yín zài cǐ, jiāng lái zuò gè shāo ér, yǔ nà sī zhì jǐ zhì, yíng jǐ guàn qián huí qù, mǎi guǒ ér chī. 前日范全哥哥把與我買柴薪的一锭銀在此，将来做個梢 儿，与那厮掷几掷，赢几贯钱回去，買果兒吃.” (A few days ago Brother Fan Quan left me one ingot of silver that we earned from selling the firewood. We could use this as capital to gamble with that man, make some money to buy some food.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter seventy-three of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “shū le jǐ guàn qián, méi de lāo shāo, suǒ yǐ jiè qù, bù xiǎng jīn rì nòng chū shì lái. 输了几贯钱，没的捞梢，所 以借去，不想今日弄出事来.” (He lost some money instead of getting some. As a result, he went to borrow money from others. Little did he think that he could

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 9 cause such trouble.) The word shāo 梢 was also written as shāo 稍. In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume twenty-one of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小 説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] that “róng zài xià huí jiā qù, zài qǔ shāo lái jué dǔ hé rú. 容在下回家去、再取稍来决赌何如.” (How about allowing me to fetch some more money from home and continuing our gambling.) In the same dynasty, Ling Mengchu wrote in the eighth volume of Pāi’àn jīngqí 拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales] that “Shěn jiàng shì dào: Wú suí shēn xiá zhōng yǒu zhēn bǎo qiān jīn, yòu yǒu èr sān qiān zhāng chá quàn zi kě yǐ wéi shāo. 沈将士道:吾随身 筪中有珍宝千金，又有二三千张茶券子可以为稍.” (General Shen said “I have thousands of treasures with me in my suitcase and I have two or three thousand tickets to be used as money.”) In volume twenty of Zhou Mi’s Qídōng yěyǔ 齊東 野語 [Qi Dong Ye Yu], it reads “Zhēng dì tú wáng shì yǐ qīng wú bǎ, bā qiān bīng sàn chǔ gē wú xián, wū jiāng bú shì wú chuán dù wú shāo, xiū xiàng dōng wú zài qǐ bīng wú miàn. 争帝圖王勢已傾 [無靶] ，八千兵散楚歌 [無弦] ，乌江不 是無船渡 [無弰] ，羞向東吴再起兵 [無面].” (The situation of fighting for the position of King has been settled. Eight thousand soldiers were ambushed with sad songs. It was not because of lack of ships or money but because of lack of face, courage, and dignity.) The word shāo 弰 sounds the same as shāo 稍. Xiang Yu could not go across the river because he had no shāo 稍 (money), which was a trick. The word shāo 梢 or shāo 稍 being used to refer to money may first have appeared during the Song dynasty. In ancient China, shāo 梢 referred to the end of the tree canopy or the branch. According to Shuōwén Mùbù 説文木部 [Mu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], shāo 梢 is the end of the branch. shāo 稍 is the end of the standing grain. In the Zhōulǐ 周禮 [Rites of Zhou], it reads “sì jiāo zhī fù, yǐ dài shāo mò. 四郊之赋，以待稍秣.” (The tax of this area is all waiting for the ripening of the grain.) In the Qing dynasty, Yu Yue wrote in his Qúnjīng píngyì 群經平議 [Qun Jing Ping Yi] that “Mò zì cóng hé cóng mò, yì jí cún hū shēng, hé mò yě. shāo mò lián wén, yì gài xiāng jìn, shāo yì hé mò yě. shāo zhī wèi hé mò, yóu shāo zhī wèi mù mò, cóng xiào yǔ cóng xiǎo tóng. 秣字從禾從末，義即存 乎声，禾末也. 稍秣連文，義盖相近，稍亦禾末也. 稍之为禾末，犹稍之为 木末，從肖與從小同.” (Mò 秣 consists of hé 禾 [the standing grain] and mò 末 [the end]. Its meaning is just like its form – the end of the standing grain. When shāo 稍 and mò 秣 are used together, their meanings are very similar, referring to the end of the grain.) In this context, it was different from the shāo 梢 or shāo 稍 which referred to money or cash. Zhōu 謅 is a verb, which means to make up words casually or to make irresponsible remarks. In the Yuan dynasty, Yang Wenkui wrote in chapter three of Érnǚ tuányuán 兒女團圓 [Er Nv Tuan Yuan] (The Reunion of Sons and Daughters) that “Yī mí lǐ biàn hú diào luàn shuō. 一謎里便胡調亂説.” (He speaks nonsense whenever he gets dazzled.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in chapter twenty-five of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] that “Xìn kǒu zhōu yī qǔ ér, huí jìng yī bēi. 信口謅一曲兒，回敬一 杯.” (He made up a song casually to pay back.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter nineteen of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢[A Dream in Red Mansions] that “Bīn yù shùn kǒu dào: Yáng zhōu yǒu zuò dài shān, shān shàng yǒu gè lín

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Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu

zi dòng. [賓玉] 顺口道:揚州有座黛山，山上有個林子洞.” ([Bao Yu] spoke naturally that “there was a Dai Mountain in Yangzhou and there was a Linzi cave in the mountain.”) The character zhōu 謅 can be written as zhòu 㑇. In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in chapter twenty-nine of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] that “wǒ men zhèng zài dé qù zhī shí, tā ruò lái le, biàn yǒu xǔ duō wén lái zhòu, zěn néng jìn xìng? 我們正 在得趣之時，他若來了，便有許多文來㑇，怎能尽兴?” (If he comes at the moment, we are having fun, he will bring about a lot of nonsense. How can we enjoy ourselves if so?) In the Yóu yùn 尤韵 [You Yun] of Guǎng yùn 廣韻 [Guang Yun], it interprets that zhōu 謅 means to gossip. It was pronounced as zhōu 謅. According to Yùpiān Yánbù 玉篇言部 [Yan Group of Jade Articles], “zhōu, nòng rén yán. 謅，弄人言.” (Zhōu 謅 means to make up words behind people.) It was pronounced as chǎo here. In this context, zhōu 謅 has changed both in its meaning and pronunciation. Zhòu 㑇 has three meanings. First, it is an adjective which means clever. In the Yuan dynasty, Zheng Guangzu wrote in the introduction of Chǐméi xiāng 侈 梅香 [Zhou Meixiang] that “tā hǎo shēng de guāi jué, dàn shì tā jiě jie shū zhōng zhī yì wèi jiě ā, tā xiān jiě le, yīn cǐ shàng dōu huàn tā zuò zhòu méi xiāng. 他好 生的乖覺，但是他姐姐書中之意未解呵，他先解了 . . . 因此上都唤他做㑇梅 香.” (He was very alert . . . he could understand what his sister had hidden under the words and thus he was praised as clever Mei Xiang.) Second, it is an adjective which means beautiful. In the Yuan dynasty, Yang Xianzhi wrote in the first chapter of the Xiāoxiāng yǔ 瀟湘雨 [Xiao Xiang Yu] that “biāo tí de míng xìng yòu xiāng, dǎ bàn de tǐ tài yòu zhòu, zhǔn bèi zhe chā gōng huā, yǐn yù jiǔ. 標题 的名姓又香，打扮的体态又㑇，準備着插宫花，飲御酒.” (Her fame is good and her figure is beautiful. She is ready to wear the woven flowers and drink the royal wine.) Third, it is an adjective which means stubborn and savage. In the Yuan dynasty, Wang Shifu wrote in the second chapter of the fourth series of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [Romance of the Western Chamber] that “lǎo fū rén xīn shù duō, qíng xìng zhòu, shǐ bù zháo wǒ qiǎo yǔ huā yán, jiāng méi zuò yǒu. 老夫人心数多， 情性㑇，使不着我巧語花言，將没做有.” (The old lady was sophisticated and cunning. She could see through me and pretend that nothing happened.) In the third chapter of the Shíliú guó 石榴國 [Pomegranate Nation], written by an anonymous author in the Ming dynasty, it reads “nà guān yún zhǎng wǔ yì gāo, zhāng chē qí qíng xìng zhòu, tā shā de nǐ shén háo guǐ kū bēi fēng hǒu, nǐ zhǔn bèi zhe luàn cuān dōng xī wàng fēng yě ér zǒu. 那关雲長武藝高，張車騎情性㑇，他殺的你神嚎 鬼哭悲風吼，你准备着亂撺東西望風也兒走.” (The Guan Yuanchang was good at martial arts and had peculiar characteristics. He would beat you to roar and cry. Prepare yourself to be walloped.) In the Yúyùn 虞韻 [Rhyme of Yu] of Guǎng yùn 广韻 [Guang Yun], it reads “Zhòu,《zuǎn wén 》yún: Chā zhòu, xiǎo rén mào.’ yòu 《yòu yùn: Bó, zhòu shēn rén yě 㑇， 《纂文》云: ‘偛㑇，小人貌’.” 又《宥 韻》:‘伯，㑇身人也’.” (Zhòu 㑇 refers to the look of a little child according to Zhú wén 築文 [Zuan Wen], whereas it refers to the pregnant women according to the Yòu yùn 宥韻 [You Yun].) Hereby, both of the two meanings are different from the three meanings that appear in modern times in Chinese.

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 11 1.2.2 Newwordswritteninnewforms Some Chinese words use new sounds and forms to express new concepts, while others use new forms to replace the original ones. The following are specific examples. Cǎi 睬 is a verb, also written as cǎi 采 or cǎi 倸, meaning to pay attention to or give a response. According to the Mù bù 目部 [Mu Group], the mù 目 group of the Chinese character in Zìhuì bǔ 字彙補 [Zi Hui Bu], it is written that “cǎi, sú yán chǒu cǎi. 睬，俗言偢睬.” (Cǎi 睬 in dialect means chǒu cǎi 偢睬to look at and to give a response.) In the Yuan dynasty, Wang Shifu wrote in the fourth chapter of the Pòyáo jì 破窯記 [Po Gao Ji] that “bú shì zhè lǎo tài shān wéi rén tè dǎi, qīn nǚ xù áng rán bù cǎi. 不是這老泰山为人忒歹，親女婿昂然不睬.” (This old chap is too mean to pay attention to the existence of his son in law.) In the Ming dynasty, Luo Guanzhong wrote in chapter forty-nine of the Sānguó yǎnyì 三國 演義 [Romance of the Three Kingdoms] that “shí yún zhǎng zài cè, kǒng míng quán rán bù cǎi. 時云長在侧，孔明全然不睬.” (Kong Ming gave no attention to Yun Chang who stood beside him.) In the Qing dynasty, Gao E wrote in chapter ninety-one of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “Dài yù kàn jiàn zhè yàng guāng jǐng, yě bù cǎi tā. 黛玉看见这样光景，也不睬他.” (Dai Yu saw what was happening and also turned a deaf ear to him.) Cǎi 睬 can also be written as cai 采 or cǎi 倸. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter one hundred four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “Dào tóng bù cǎi, zhǐ gù chuī dí. 道童不采，只顾吹笛.” (The child of Taoism played his pipe, paying no attention to him.) In the Qing dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume eighteen of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] that “Nà xiào tā de, tā yě bù cǎi lián tā de, tā yě bù shòu. 那笑他的，他 也不倸;怜他的，他也不受.” (He ignored those who laughed at him and refused to take sympathy from others.) Chá 搽 is a verb, meaning to paint or apply something. According to one chapter in the Zhāngxié zhuàngyuán 張協狀元 [Number One Scholar Zhang Xie], written by an anonymous author during the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279), “kǔ huì chā kē shǐ qì, hé lìn chá huī mǒ tǔ. 苦会插科使砌，何吝搽灰抹土.” (Being so diligent in amusing people, he was never lazy in painting his face to look amusing.) In the Yuan dynasty, Ma Zhiyuan wrote in the first chapter of Hàngōng qiū 漢宫秋 [Han Gong Qiu] that “Jiāng liǎng gè sài gōng yàng méi ér huà, bǎ yī gè yí shū lǐ liǎn ér chá. 將两個賽宫样眉兒画，把一個宜梳里脸儿搽.” (Draw the eyebrows that are royally styled and make up the face.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter eighty of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “liǎng biān liǎng zhī chuán, dōu zhǐ wǔ qī gè rén, chá hóng huà lǜ bù děng. 兩 邊两隻船，都只五七個人，搽红画绿不等.” (There are two boats on each side with five to seven people in each whose faces are all applied with red or green makeup.) In the Qing dynasty, Wu Jingzi wrote in chapter twenty-four of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] that “zhè hé shàng jī nián tì le guāng tóu, bǎ yán chá zài tóu shàng. 這和尚積年剃了光頭，把盐搽在頭上.” (This monk has shaved his hair for many years and he put salt on his head.) In the poetic dramas of

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the Yuan dynasty, there was a kind of character called chá dàn 搽旦, which could also be written as huā dàn 花旦, which was due to the fact that they had to wear colorful powder on their faces. In the Yuan dynasty, Guan Hanqin wrote in the first chapter of the Jīnxiàn chí 金綫池 [Jin Xian Chi] that “chá dàn bàn ér shàng, shī yún: Bù fǎng sī má bù zhǒng tián, yī shēng yī fàn kào huáng tiān, jǐn dào wú jiā pí jiě kù, yě zì rén jiān zuàn de qián. 搽旦扮ト儿上，詩云:不纺丝麻不種 田，一生衣飯靠皇天，尽道吾家皮解庫，也自人間赚得钱.” (The chá dàn 搽 旦 dressed up and went on the stage with the voice of a poem read as “he did not spin nor plow. He depended on God. They all said he was very poor, yet he earned money by himself,”) Cǎi 跴 or cǎi 踩 is a verb, which means to tread on. In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter forty of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “tā zhǐ shàng gù hé rén shuō huà, bù fáng jiǎo dǐ xià guǒ cǎi huá le, gū dōng yī jiāo diē dǎo. 他只上顾和人説話，不防脚底下果跴滑了，咕咚一 跤跌倒.” (He only cared to talk, never expecting to fall down to the ground while treading on the slippery area.) In chapter eighty-eight of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions], written by Gao E, it reads “lùn jiā shì, zhè lǐ shì cǎi le yī tóu ér, qiào yī tóu xiōng de, lián zhēn dà yé hái tán yā bú zhù. 論家事， 这里是踩了一頭儿，撬一頭兄的，連珍大爺还弹压不住.” (As for the family affairs, when you solve this event, another event appears. Even Zhen could not deal with them.) In the Ming dynasty, Xu Zhonglin and Li Yong wrote in chapter seventy-six of Fēngshén yǎnyì 封神演義 [The Apotheosizing Tales] that “Sān jūn yǒng yuè cóng zhēng tuó, mǎ cǎi rén shēn jìng guò. 三軍踴躍从征鼍，馬踩人 身徑過.” (The three armies moved forward bravely and the horses stepped above the bodies.) Chǒu 瞅 or chǒu 矁 is a verb, which means to look at something. In the Ming dynasty, Tao Zongyi wrote in chapter seventeen of the Chuògēng lù 輟耕録 [Chuo Geng Lu] that “Tián lián qiān mò xīn yóu zhǎi, jià chā shī shū yǎn bù chǒu. 田連 阡陌心猶窄，架插詩书眼不瞅.” (Though he has a wide range of field, he is narrow-minded. Though he has a shelf of books, he will not read one.) In the second chapter of Chénzhōu lǐmǐ 陳州鯉米 [Chen Zhou Di Mi], written by anonymous authors in the Yuan dynasty, it reads “zhè lǎo zi zěn mó chǒu wǒ nà yī yǎn, gǎn shì nà gè gào zhuàng de rén lái, wǒ zé zuò bù zhī dào. 這老子怎麽瞅我那一眼， 敢是那個告狀的人來，我則做不知道.” (How is the look of that old man? Is he the man who files a suit? If so, I will just pretend to know nothing.) In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter sixteen of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “San Zang looked at him and said ‘watch your words. Do not offend others without knowing the situation. In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in the sixth chapter of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “Bǎo yù zhǐ guǎn hóng zhe jiǎn bù yán yǔ, xí rén què chǒu zhe tā xiào. 宝玉只管红 着瞼不言語，襲人却瞅着他笑.” (Bao Yu kept silent with a flush while Xi Ren looked at him, smiling.) Gòng or Gòng is a verb, meaning to push with your head. Gu Xuejie and Wang Xueqi wrote in Yuánqǔ shìcí 元曲釋詞 [Yuan Qu Shi Ci], the interpretation of songs in the Yuan dynasty, that “gòng 龔 means to push forward with your

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 13 head, which can also be written as gòng 龔. They are the same word in different forms (Gòng 龔，用頭鑽人曰Gòng 龔，又作Gòng ，the same word with different spelling 同字異体). In the Yuan dynasty, Guan Hanqin wrote in the third chapter of Tiào fēngyuè 調風月 [A Girl Tricked into Amorous Relations] that “wǒ biàn shì Gòng qiáng zéi, xiē zhē jìn shēng. 我便似龔墙賊，蠍蜇噤聲.” (I was like the thief who broke up, silent and alert.) In the same dynasty, Shang Zhongxian wrote in chapter two of the Liǔyì zhuànshū 柳毅傳書 [Liu Yi Zhuan Shu] that “The dragon of the grand water area as Qian Tang, will cheer up when it is down, while the dragon in a small river area will only rush forward with its head (Gòng 龔). In the Ming dynasty, Xu Wei wrote in the first chapter of the Bàozi héshàng 豹子和尚 [Baozi Monk] that “Yuè hēi shí Gòng kū wān qiáng. 月黑時龔窟剜墙.” (Break the wall and dig a cave when it is dark.) This word is still used in dialects of certain regions including Hunan, Sichuan, Yunnan among other places in China. Niǎn 撵is a verb which means to expel or to throw somebody out. In the Ming dynasty, Louifox wrote in chapter twenty-one of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Golden Lotus] that “chèn zǎo yǔ wǒ chū qù, wǒ bù zhe yā tóu niǎn nǐ. 趁早與我出去，我 不著丫頭撵你.” (You had better go as soon as possible or I will ask my servants to expel you.) In chapter thirty-eight, he wrote that “nǐ lìng xù shàng le yǒu qián de hàn zi, bù lǐ wǒ le, yào bǎ wǒ dǎ kāi, gù yì de niǎn wǒ. 你另叙上了有錢的漢 子，不理我了，要把我打開，故意的撵我.” (You have got a new rich man so you do not care about me, you alienate me and expel me.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter twenty-two of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “mǎi mǔ yì zhī yīn jiǎ zhèng yī rén zài cǐ suǒ zhì, jiǔ guò sān xún, biàn niǎn jiǎ zhèng qù xiē xī. 買母亦知因贾政一人在此所致，酒過三巡， 便撵贾政去歇息.” (The old lady knew that the existence of Jia Zheng has made the situation. Therefore, she drove Jia Zheng away to leave after they finished the meal,) In chapter fifty-one, he wrote that “Shè yuè biàn jiāng píng ér suǒ shuō sòng mā zhuì ér yī shì, bìng qíng wén niǎn zhú chū qù děng huà, yī yī yě céng huí guò bǎo yù. 麝月便將平儿所説宋媽坠儿一事，並晴雯撵逐出去等話，一一 也曾回過宝玉.” (She Yue told Bao Yun what Ping Er had told her about Nanny Song and Zhui Er and about Qing Wen’s being expelled.) In the same dynasty, Wu Woyao wrote in the second chapter of the Èrshínián mùdǔ zhī guàixiànzhuàng 二 十年目睹之怪現狀 [Peculiar Things Seen in the Past Twenty Years] that “nǐ zěn me dōu tóng mù tóu yí yàng, hái bù gěi niǎn zhè wáng bā dàn chū qù. 你怎么都 同木頭一样，还不给撵这王八蛋出去.” (Why are you still like a plank of wood? Get the bastard out of here.) Kǎn 砍 is a verb with the meaning to hack with a knife or an ax. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter fifty-three of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “Lǐ kuí bá chū dà fǔ, xiān kǎn fān yī dǔ bì. 李逵拔出大斧， 先砍翻一堵壁.” (Liu Kui took out his ax and cut the wall into two.) In the Ming dynasty, Louifox wrote in chapter sixty-four of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Golden Lotus] that “suī shì shì dài fū, yě zhǐ shì xiù cái zuò de. lǎo gōng gōng kǎn yī zhī sǔn bǎi zhī, tù sǐ hú bēi, wù shāng qí lèi. 虽是士大夫，也只是秀才做的. 老公 公砍一枝損百枝，兔死狐悲，物傷其類.” (Although he is a scholar-official, he developed from Xiu Cai, the lowest of the low. The old man will destroy more

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when he tries to cut one branch. Fox will be sad about the death of the rabbit, which is to say, all beings grieve for their fellow beings.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Weimin wrote in the second chapter of Sēngní gòngfàn 僧尼共犯 [Conspiracy of the Monk and the Nun] that “dùn dāo mó de kuài, shuāng shǒu kǎn xī guā. 钝刀磨的 快，双手砍西瓜.” (The dull knife is blunted quickly so two hands are used to cut the watermelon.) In the same dynasty, Wu Cheng’en wrote in the fourth chapter of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “Wù kōng dào: Wǒ zhǐ zhàn xià bù dòng, rèn nǐ kǎn jǐ jiàn bà. 悟空道:‘我只站下不動，任你砍几劍罢’.” (Wu Kong said，“I will stand still and let you chop me for several rounds.”) Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter fifty-three of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “zhè gè lǎo kǎn tóu de jīn ér cái lái. 这個老砍頭的今兒才來.” (The man who always chops only came here today.) Qián 掮 is a verb, a dialectical word which means to carry things on the shoulder. In the Ming dynasty, Li Sufu wrote in the fourth volume of the Yuánxiāo nào 元宵鬧 [Yuan Xiao Nao] that “tā shì gè yǎ dào tóng, yǒu xiē mán lì, gù yòng tā qián xiē xíng tou. 他是個啞道童，有些蛮力，故用他掮些行头.” (He was a dumb Taoist boy who had quite some strength so I had him take things for me.) In the Qing dynasty, Wu Jingzi wrote in the sixth chapter of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外 史 [The Scholars] that “jiāng zhǎng shàn qián qǐ lái, sì gè dài hóng hēi mào zi de kāi dào. 將掌扇掮起來，四個戴红黑帽子的開道.” (Ask them to carry the fans and have those in red and black hats move the way.) Again, in chapter twenty-one, he wrote that “Niú pǔ qián zhe xíng lǐ, zǒu dào chuán wěi shàng, chuán jiā yī bǎ bǎ tā lā shàng le chuán. 牛浦掮着行李，走到船尾上，船家一把把他拉上了 船.” (Niu Pu carried his luggage to the end of the boat. The ship owner took him aboard with only one hand.) In the Qing dynasty, Liu E wrote in chapter thirteen of Lǎocán yóujì 老殘遊記 [The Travels of Lao Ts’an] that “Zhǐ jiàn wài biān yě yǒu rén qián le yī juǎn xíng lǐ, yóu huáng rén ruì dài zhe, sòng dào lǐ jiān fáng lǐ qù le. 只見外邊也有人掮了一捲行李，由黄人瑞带着，送到里間房里去了.” (There was a man carrying luggage outside. He was led by Huang Renrui and was sent to the inner room.) In the same dynasty, Li Baojia wrote in chapter fifty-three of the Wénmíng xiǎoshǐ 文明小史 [Brief History of Civilization] that “nǐ yòu lái le, zán men xiōng dì xiāng hǎo, yě fēi yī rì, wǒ yào shì ān xīn bǎ mù shāo gěi nǐ qián, wǒ hái chéng gè rén me. 你又來了，咱們兄弟相好，也非一日，我要是 安心把木梢给你掮，我还成個人么.” (You came again. We have been friends for more than a day. If I let you carry the trunk, what kind of person am I?) Here, to carry the trunk means to do something heavy but meaningless. Qín 噙 is a verb that means to contain something. In the Ming dynasty, Wu Cheng’en wrote in chapter thirteen of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “zhòng sēng bù rěn fēn bié, zhí sòng yǒu shí lǐ zhī yáo, qín lèi ér fǎn. 衆僧不忍 分别，直送有十里之遥，噙淚而返.” (All the monks were so unwilling to part that they sent him for quite a long way and returned with tears in their eyes.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Nai’an wrote in chapter twenty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “Wǔ èr shì gè dǐng tiān lì dì qín chǐ dài fà nán zǐ hàn, bú shì nà děng bài huài fēng sú méi rén lún de zhū gǒu. 武二是個顶天立 地噙齒戴髮男子汉，不是那等敗壞风俗没人倫的豬狗.” (Wu Er is a man who

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 15 stands upright with decency rather than those decadent souls.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter fifty-two of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “Shè yuè yòu pěng guò yī xiǎo dié fǎ zhì zǐ jiāng lái, hè yù qín le yí kuài. 麝月又捧過一小碟法制紫薑來，賀玉噙了一块.” (She Yue passed a dish of French-style purple ginger and Bao Yu put one into his mouth.) Wù 焐 is a verb which means to heat the cool things with warmer things. In the Yuan dynasty, Li Wenwei wrote in the third chapter of the Yànqīng bóyú 燕 青博魚 [Yan Qing Bo Yu] that “nǐ biàn lái shā le wǒ, dào nà hán dōng là yuè lǐ hài jiǎo lěng shuí yǔ nǐ wù jiǎo. 你便来杀了我，到那寒冬臘月里害脚冷, 誰 與你焐脚.” (Go and kill me. I wonder who will warm you in the cold winter.) Wù 焐 can also be written as wò 渥. In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter forty-nine of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “nǐ de shǒu lěng wǒ tì nǐ wò zhe. 你的手冷, 我替你渥着.” (Your hands are cold, I will warm you by holding your hands.) In chapter one hundred nine, written by Gao E, it reads “wǒ pà dòng zhe tā, hái bǎ tā lǎn zài bèi lǐ wò zhe ne. 我怕凍着 他，还把他揽在被里渥着呢.” (I do not want him to get a cold so I put him in the warm quilt.) Xué 踅 is a verb meaning both to walk around and something which comes and goes. In the Yuan dynasty, Wang Shifu wrote in the fourth chapter of the fourth series of the Xī xiāng jì 西廂記 [Romance of the Western Chamber] that “xià xià gāo gāo, dào lù qū zhé, sì yě fēng lái, zuǒ yòu luàn xué. 下下高高，道路曲折， 四野風來，左右亂踅.” (The roads are zigzagging and bumpy. Winds blow from all directions.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Nai’an wrote in chapter twenty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “zhèng yào guān mén, zhǐ jiàn xī mén qìng yòu xué jiāng lái, jìng qù dǐ xià nà zuò tóu shàng zuò le. 正要関門， 只見西門庆又踅將來，逕去底下那座頭上坐了.” (When he was about to shut the door, Ximen Qing came again and sat in the chair at the end of the room.) In the Ming dynasty, Luo Guanzhong wrote in the sixth chapter of the Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [Romance of the Three Kingdoms] that “Cāo dài jiàn táo mìng, xué guò shān pō. 操帶箭逃命，踅過山坡.” (Cao Cao ran away with the arrow in his bosom and bumped over the mountain slope.) In the Ming dynasty, Louifox wrote in the first chapter of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Golden Lotus] that “dà hù hòu wú rén, biàn xué rù fáng zhōng yǔ jīn lián sī huì. 大户候無人，便踅入房中與金蓮 廝會.” (No one was in the hall so he slipped into the room to meet Jin Lian.) In the Qing dynasty, Liu E wrote in the second chapter of Lǎocán yóujì 老殘遊記 [The Travels of Lao Ts’an] that “yáo zhe chuàn líng mǎn jiē xué le yī tàng, xū yīng yī yīng gù shì. 摇着串玲満街踅了一趟，虚应一应故事.” (He walked around the street, shaking his bells and gossiping about some stories with others.) 1.2.3 Newwordswithmultiplemeanings Polysemy is one of the most significant ways to enhance the expressive power of the Chinese lexicon. Ancient Chinese has polysemy, and Modern Chinese has even more obvious trends of polysemy. Many new words became polysemous soon after their appearance. The following are examples.

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The word chà 岔 has four meanings. First, it means the road, mountain, or river that branches off the main. According to the Shān bù 山部 [Shan Group], the mountain 山 radicals of the Chinese character in Zì huì bǔ 字彙補 [Zi Hui Bu] are a supplement to the words “chà, sān fēn lù yě. 岔，三分路也.” (Chà 岔 is a cross for three directions.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in the sixth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “lí le cūn zhèn, yòu xíng bù guò wǔ qī lǐ, dào yī gè sān chà lù kǒu. 離了村镇，又行不過五七里,到一個三 岔路口.” (They left the village and walked for around five to seven li [miles] at a junction of three roads.) In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in the fifth chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “nà liǎng gè luó fū zài chà dào kǒu tǔ shān qián xiān kàn jiàn de nà gè qí lǘ ér de, biàn shì zhè gè rén. 那兩個骡夫在岔道口土山前先看見的那個騎驴兒的，便是這個人.” (It was the person on the donkey who the two mule skinners saw at the junction of roads in front of the hill.) Second, it means to interrupt or to change the topic. In the Qing dynasty, Gao E wrote in chapter eighty-two of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “Xí rén jiàn tā shuō huà zào cì, lián máng chà dào: ‘Mā mā, nǐ fá le, zuò zuò chī chá bà.’ 襲人見他説話造次，連忙岔道: ‘媽妈，你 乏了，坐坐吃茶罢’.” (Seeing that she was talking nonsense, Xi Ren interrupted saying, “Mother, you are tired. You should have some tea and take a rest.”) Wen Kang wrote in chapter sixteen of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳[Legend of Heroes] that “chèn tā qǔ zhǐ de zhè gè cháng ér, shuō shū de dǎ gè chà. 趁他取纸 的這個常兒，説書的打個岔.” (When he went to take some paper, the storyteller said something about others.) Third, it means to make mistakes. Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter sixty-one of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “Huà chà le. 話岔了.” (You were not coming to the point.) Wen Kang wrote in the ninth chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “yù jiàn gè yǎn míng shǒu kuài zuò gōng de, yǒu gè bù pán wèn de ma? yī pán wèn yǒu gè bù chū chà ér de ma. 遇見個眼明手快作公的，有個不盘問的吗?一盘問 有個不出岔兒的嗎.” (Who would not inquire when he met with a quick-minded man, and who would not make mistakes when he talked too much?) Finally, it also means phonopathy. In chapter eighty-two of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions], written by Gao E, it is written that “Zǐ juān shuō zhe zhè jù huà shí, xīn zhōng yī suān, nà yǎn lèi zhí liú xià lái, shēng ér zǎo yǐ chà le. (紫鹃) 説着這 句 話時，心中一酸，那眼泪直流下來，聲兒早已岔了.” ([Zi Juan] felt bitter when she spoke. Her tears fell down, with a changed tone of her voice.) The word chuō 戳 has three meanings. First, it means to stab with the sharp end of something. In the Xíng fǎ zhì sān 刑法志三 [Regulation Three of Penalty Law] in Sòng shǐ 宋史 [The History of the Song dynasty], it reads “Sū zhōu mín zhāng cháo zhī cóng xiōng yǐ qiāng chuō sǐ cháo fù, táo qù. 蘇州民張朝之從兄以槍戳 死朝父，逃去.” (Zhang Chao’s father was stabbed to death with a spear by Zhang Chao’s second elder brother, a man from Suzhou, and the criminal ran away.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter thirty of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “Dài yù biàn yǎo zhe yá, yòng zhǐ tóu hěn mìng de zài tā é shàng chuō le yī xià zǐ. [黛玉] 便咬着牙，用指頭狠命的在他額上 戳了一下子.” ([Daiyu] clenched her teeth and pointed at his forehead hard with

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 17 her finger.) The second meaning is to erect. Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter fourteen of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “liǎng biān yī sè chuō dēng, zhào rú bái zhòu. 兩邊一色戳燈,照如白昼 (There stood lamps on both sides and they illuminated the night as if it were a bright day.) The word chuō 戳 can also be written as chù 擉. Gao E wrote in chapter one hundred five of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “hēi tóu nǚ zhǔ rén men dōu bèi shén mó fǔ lǐ yá yì qiǎng dé pī tóu sàn fà chuò zài yī chù kōng fáng lǐ. 黒頭女主人們都被 什麽府里衙役抢得披頭散髮擉在一處空房里.” (The bedraggled women were robbed by the yamen runners and stood with disheveled hair in an empty room.) Third, it means seals. In the Qing dynasty, Wu Jingzi wrote in chapter forty-five of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] that “tā zì jǐ zuò gǎo zi, nǐ tì tā téng zhēn, yòng gè chuō zǐ. 他自己做稿子，你替他謄真，用個戳子.” (He wrote by himself. You can do the copying and use a seal.) During the same dynasty, Huang Huihong wrote in the fourth volume of the Fúhuì quánshū 福惠全書 [Fu Hui Quan Shu] that “rú fā huí shū, jí yú qián jiàn xià zhù mǒu rì fā huí shū qì, shàng yòng xiāo hào xiǎo chuō. 如發回書，即於前件下注某日發回书訖，上用銷號 小戳.” (If you would like to write back, remember to send the information before you send it and use a seal to label.) The word diān 攧 has two meanings. First, it means to drop or fall down. In Dàtáng sānzàng qǔjīng shīhuà 大唐三藏取經詩話 [The Poem on Sanzang’s Pilgrimage for Buddhist Scriptures], It is written that “shī bú yào jìng (jīng), cǐ shì pán táo zhèng shú, diān xià shuǐ zhōng yě. 師不要敬(驚)，此是蟠桃正熟，攧下水 中也.” (Do not be frightened. It is the ripening time of the flat peach and they fall down to the water, making a sound.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in the fourth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “nà lǔ zhì shēn shēn shǒu bà shān mén jìn lì yī tuī, pū dì diān jiāng rù lái, chī le yī jiāo. 那魯 智深伸手把山門尽力一推，撲地攧將入來，吃了一交.” (Lu Zhishen stretched his hands to push the door and lurched forward, falling down to the ground.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume fifteen of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古 今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] that “Shǐ zhào hóng guǐ huāng pán shǎng qù rén jiā xiāo qiáng, chī yī huá, diān jiāng xià qù.〔史肇弘〕鬼慌盤上 去人家萧墙，吃一滑，攧將下去.” ([Shi Zhaohong] climbed up the wall in a great panic but he slipped and fell down.) Second, it means to stamp. In the Yuan dynasty, Guan Hanqing wrote in Shìxiāng jīntóng qū 侍香金童曲 [Shi Xiang Jin Tong Qu] that “Yù xún pín cuō, xiù xié zhòng diān. 玉荀频搓，绣鞋重攧.” (Twist her hands constantly and stamp her feet.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter sixteen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “Cháo gài dà xǐ, diān zhe jiǎo dào: Hǎo miào jì. 晁盖大喜，攧着脚道:‘好妙計’.” (Chao Gai was very delighted. He stamped his feet and shouted “good idea”.) Feng Menglong wrote in volume fifteen of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] that “sān zhuǎn shēn, diān liǎng jiǎo, xuán fēng xiǎng, wò niǎo míng. 三 轉身，攧兩脚，旋風響，卧鳥鸣.” (Turn around and stamp the feet. You will feel the wind and hear the titter of birds.) The word diān 掂 has six meanings. First, it means to weigh in the hand(s). In the Yuan dynasty, Wang Shifu wrote in the second chapter of the fourth series of

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the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [Romance of the Western Chamber] that “jǐn zhe nǐ shuō duǎn lùn zhǎng, yī rèn dài diān jīn liǎng. 侭着你説短論長，一任待掂斤两.” (No matter what you say, all things are to be weighed.) In the Yuan dynasty, Qiao Ji wrote in the poem Shuǐ xiān zǐ 水仙子 [Shui Xian Zi] that “shuì qián bǐ chá chuán shàng qiàn, jīn liǎng qù děng chēng shàng diān. 税钱比茶船上欠，斤两去等稱 上掂.” (The tax is less than it is on the boat. It should be weighed again.) In the Qing dynasty, Xi Zhousheng wrote in chapter twenty-six of the Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [Marriages to Awaken the World] that “Suī shì nà zhǔ rén jiā hēi hàn bái liú zhēng le lái, zì jǐ diān jīn gū liǎng de shě bù de yòng, nǐ què zhè bān sā pō, yě jiào shì zuì guò. 虽是那主人家黑汗白流挣了來，自己掂斤估两的捨 不得用，你却這般撒泼，也叫是罪過.” (Although they get this with the efforts of others, they cherish it so much that they weigh it a lot and also don’t want to use it by themselves. How could you be so selfish? Which is sinful.) Second, it means to beat. It is written by anonymous writers in the Yuan dynasty in chapter three of the Yuānyuān bèi 鴛鴛被 [Mandarin Duck Quilt] that “dòng bù dòng diān zhé wǒ tuǐ tǐng, dòng bù dòng dǎ suì wǒ tiān líng. 動不動掂折我腿脡，動不動 打碎我天靈.” (He frequently beat my legs and my head.) In the same dynasty, Zhao Yuhong wrote in the song Yī zhī huā 一枝花 [One Flower] that “Mén yǎn bàn ān pái gùn diān, yǒu kǔ wú tián. 門掩半安排棍掂，有苦無甜 (Locking the door when it is half open only makes for tragedies.) Third, it means to break off. In the Yuan dynasty, Guan Hanqin wrote in the second chapter of Chénmǔ jiàozǐ 陳母教子 [The Family Education of Mr Chen] that “wǒ jiāng zhè huái mù jiǎn lái diān zhé, lǜ luó lán zhuó shǒu jiū. 我將這槐木簡来掂折，绿羅襕着手揪.” (I can easily break off this wooden letter, reading them with hands at green gown.) In the same dynasty, Jia Zhongming wrote in the introduction of Duìyù shū 對玉梳 [Dui Yu Shu] that “Yòu yǒu zhè yù shū ér yī méi, shì qiè píng rì suǒ ài zhī zhēn, diān zuò liǎng bàn, jūn shōu yī bàn, qiè liú yī bàn. 又有這玉梳兒一枚，是妾平日所愛 之珍，掂做兩半，君收一半，妾留一半.” (This jade comb is my favorite. Now I split it into two. You keep one half and I will keep the other.) Fourth, it means to make a loss. Jia Zhongming also wrote in the second chapter of Duìyù shū 對玉 梳 [Dui Yu Shu] that “Xiū zhì ǎn zhè děng diān shāo shé běn péi qián huò, zé shǒu nèn nà hái hài quán shēn ān lè wō. 休置俺這等掂梢折本賠錢货，則守恁那还 害全身安樂窝.” (Do not give me the thing that will make me lose my money as well as my cozy life.) In the Yuan dynasty, Wang Ye wrote in the song Shuǐ xiān zǐ 水仙子[Daffodil] that “wǒ chuāi yǔ niáng tōng xíng chāo, diān le zán chuán shì bǎo, kàn shuí néng gòu fèng yǒu luán jiāo. 我揣與娘通行钞，掂了咱傳世宝， 看誰能够凤友鸾交.” (She caused us to lose our treasuries and so I took away her money. Let’s go and see who’s going to have a good day.) Fifth, this character can also mean to fall down from high places. In the Yuan dynasty, Qiao Ji wrote in Zuì tài píng 醉太平 [Zui Tai Ping] that “jì sōng chāi luò fèng huáng jīn, xiǎn diān zhé yù zān. 髻松钗落凤凰金，險掂折玉簪.” (Her topknot scatters and the jade hairpin are almost broken to fall down to the ground.) Wang Yuanheng wrote in Zuì tài píng 醉太平 [Zui Tai Ping] that “zhì jīn qián xué de shēn qū jū, piàn fěn qiáng diān de tuǐ tǐng zhé. 掷金錢踅的身躯趄，骗粉墙掂的腿脡折.” (Spending money all around makes my body tired, and climbing the wall breaks my leg.) It

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 19 can also be used as diān 踮, which means to raise your heels up and stand on your toes. In the Yuan dynasty, Yue Bochuan wrote in the fourth chapter of Tiě yīn lǎo 鐵阴老 [Tie Guai Lao] that “wǒ zhè lǐ diān jiǎo shū yāo bài. 我這里掂脚舒腰 拜.” (I give you a bow with my heels up.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter one hundred two of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “Wáng qìng dài zhe hù shēn jiā, āi rù rén cóng zhōng, diān qǐ jiǎo kàn nà hàn shǐ bàng. [王庆] 带着護身枷，挨入人叢中，掂起脚看那漢使棒.” ([Wang Qing] came to the crowds with the protective cangue and tiptoed to look at the man playing the wooden stick.) The word diǎn 踮 has two meanings. First, it means to raise your heels up and stand on your toes. In the Yuan dynasty, Wang Shifu wrote in the third chapter in the first series of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [Romance of the Western Chamber] that “diǎn zhe jiǎo jiān wán zǐ xì dìng jīng, bǐ wǒ nà chū jiàn shí páng ér yuè zhěng. 踮 着脚尖完仔细定睛，比我那初見時庞兒越整.” (He stood on tiptoe and fixed his eyes carefully, finding that she was even more beautiful than that of his first sight.) Second, it means to walk on tiptoes. In the Yuan dynasty, Liu Shizhong wrote in the song Xīn shuǐ lìng 新水令 [Xin Shui Ling] that “yī dì lǐ kuài cuān qīng diǎn, luàn zǒu hú bēn. 一地里快蹿輕踮，乱走胡奔.” (They are all rushing and tiptoeing in a mess.) Li Wenwei wrote in the first chapter of Yànqīng bóyú 燕青博魚 [Yan Qing Bo Yu] that “dài diǎn zhe gè xié dǐ ér qù jiǎn nà qiǎn zhōng xíng. 待踮着個 鞋底兒去揀那淺中行.” (He walked on tiptoes with his shoes and went through the shallow water.) In the Ming dynasty, Louifox wrote in chapter fifty-three of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Golden Lotus] that “zhí zhì huáng hūn shí hòu, gè fáng jiāng dài zhǎng dēng, jīn lián niè zú qián zōng, diǎn dào juǎn péng hòu miàn. 直至 黄昏時後，各房將待掌燈，金蓮蹑足潛蹤，踮到卷棚後面.” (After the dusk, there were lamps to light up in every room. Jinlian tiptoed to the back of the shed.) The word 刁 diāo has at least four meanings. First, it is an adjective which means cunning. In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter sixteen of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “Tiān wáng nà lǐ gǎn qù, pà tā méi de shuō zuò yǒu de, fàng qǐ diāo lái, kǒu guǒ lǐ hú shuō luàn dào, zěn shēng yǔ tā zhé biàn. 天王那里敢去，怕他没的説做有的，放起刁來，口裹里胡説亂道，怎 生與他折辨.” (He dared not to go to the Tianwang [king] because he was so cunning that he would make things up and speak nonsense. How could he deal with this situation?) In the Ming dynasty, Ling Mengchu wrote in the fourth volume of the Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Stories] that “guān fǔ xiǎo dé tā diāo, gōng rén pà tā de shì, méi gè gǎn zhèng yǎn qù tā. 官府曉得他刁，公人 怕他的勢，没個敢正眼觑他.” (The government knew he was cunning and the officials were all fearful of his power. No one dared to confront him.) In the Qing dynasty, Wu Jingzi wrote in the fifth chapter of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] that “dàn cǐ diāo fēng yě bù kě zhǎng. 但此刁風也不可長.” (Such cunning airs should not be spread.) Second, it is a verb which means to abduct or seduce. In the Yuan dynasty, Bai Pu wrote in the third chapter of qiángtóu mǎshàng 墻頭馬 上 [Over the Wall] that “Xiàng gōng, qī nián qián shè rén gē ge mǎi huā zāi zǐ shí, dōu shì zhè sī bān dà yǐn xiǎo zhe shè rén diāo jiāng lái de. 相公，七年前舍人哥 哥買花栽子時，都是這厮搬大引小着舍人刁將來的.” (Darling, brother Sheren

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bought Hua Zaizi. It was him that induced Sheren.) In the Ming dynasty, Huang Yuanji wrote in the fourth chapter of Liúxīng mǎ 流星馬 [Liu Xing Ma] that “pō nài huáng tíng dào wú lǐ, tā bēi zhe wǒ sī bēn táo zǒu, yòu jiāng wǒ chá chá xiǎo jiě diāo guǎi jiāng qù le. 颇奈黄廷道無礼，他背着我私奔逃走，又將我茶茶小 姐刁拐將去了.” (I hate Huang Tingdao because he ran away behind my back and induced my Miss Chacha, taking her away.) In the lǐ lǜ yī 禮律一 [Ritual Law] of Míng lǜ 明律 [The Laws of the Ming dynasty], It reads “fán sēng dào jūn mín rén děng, yú gè sì sī guān shén miào diāo jiān fù nǚ gè zhàng yī bǎi. 凡僧道軍民人 等，於各寺思观神廟刁姦婦女 . . . 各杖一百.” (All classes of people, including monks, Taoists, soldiers, and others will be punished with a hundred hits by the stick if they induce women in temples.) Third, it is a verb which means to grab. In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter sixteen of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “Èr pú sà jì shōu le qīng shī bái xiàng, zhǐ yǒu nà dì sān gè yāo mó bù fú, téng kāi chì, diū le fāng tiān jǐ, fú yáo zhí shàng, lún lì zhǎo yào diāo zhuō hóu wáng. 二菩薩既收了青狮白象，只有那第三個妖魔不伏，腾开 翅，丢了方天戟，扶摇直上，輪利爪要刁捉猴王.” (The bodhisattva subdued the green lion and the white elephant, only leaving the other demon to open its wings, drop its weapon and flying to catch the Monkey King.) Its fourth meaning is a verb, which means to carry something by biting a part of it in your mouth. In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in chapter fourteen of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “Gōng zǐ cái zǒu guò qiáo, yòu jiàn qiáo biān yī gè lǎo tóu zi shǒu zhe yī gè kuāng zǐ, diāo zhe gēn duǎn yān dài dūn zài hé biān, zài nà li xǐ cài. 公子才走過橋，又見桥邊一個老頭子守着一個筐 子，刁着根短煙袋蹲在河邊，在那里洗菜.” (The mister only walked through the bridge and found that there was an old man squatting alongside the bank, with a smoking pipe in his mouth. He was washing vegetables there next to a basket.) At the end of the Qing dynasty, Qu Yuan wrote in chapter twenty-seven of Fùpù xiántán 負曝閒談 [Fu Bao Xian Tan] that “nà gè diāo zhe xiǎo dài, yī shēng bù yǔ. 那個刁着小袋，一声不語.” (That man took a smoking pipe in his mouth, keeping silent without a word.) There was a disyllabic word, diāo dǒu 刁斗, which was a small bucket with a handle used in the army which could be used to cook in the day and to check by knocking it at night. In the Lǐjiāngjūn lièzhuàn 李將軍列 傳 [Legends of General Li] of the Shǐ jì 史記 [Shi Ji], it reads “Bù jī diāo dǒu yǐ zì wèi. 不击刁斗以自衛.” (Protect ourselves by not knocking at the Diao Dou.) Diāo 刁 cannot be used alone. In modern times, all the meanings of diāo 刁 are different from this specific meaning. Diū 丢 is a verb with eight meanings. First, it means to throw or to cast. In the Ming dynasty, Liu Tong and Yu Yizheng wrote in Chéngdōng nèiwài 城東内外 [In and out of the Eastern] of Dìjīng jǐngwù lüè 帝京景物略 [Sceneries in the Capital] that “Qī yuè qī rì zhī wǔ, diū qiǎo zhēn, fù nǚ pù àng shuǐ rì zhōng, qǐng zhī, shuǐ mó shēng miàn, xiù zhēn tóu zhī zé fú. 七月七日之午，丢巧針，婦女曝盎水日 中，頃之，水膜生面，绣鍼投之則浮.” (At noon on the lunar seventh of July, women were exposed to the sun to drop the needles into the water. When the needle fell into the water, there were ripples and the needle would float on the water.) Second, it means to abandon. In the Qing dynasty, Zhai Hao wrote in the first volume

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 21 of Tōngsú biān 通俗編 [Tong Su Bian] that “shě qù yuē diū, jiàn lǐ shì Sú hū xiǎo lù. 舍去曰丢，見李氏《俗呼小録》.” (To abandon something is diū 丢. Further references can be looked up in Su Hu Xiao Lu written by Li.) In the Yuan dynasty, Jin Zhi wrote in the first chapter of Lǐkuí fùjīng 李逵負荆 [The Apology of Li Kui] that “bǎ fán nǎo dōu yě bō diū, dōu diū zài nǎo bèi hòu. 把烦恼都也波丢，都丢 在脑背後.” (Cast the worries out of your mind.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in the tenth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “Bèi yǔ hú lú dōu diū liǎo bù yào, tí le chuàng, biàn chū miào mén tóu dōng qù. 被與葫蘆都丢了不要，提了愴，便出廟門投東去.” (He abandoned his basic things, a quilt and alcohol, and went to join them directly.) Third, it means to shelf something or leave something aside. In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in the first volume of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] that “Xìng gē yě zì gē shě bù dé, liǎng xià qī guài yī chǎng, yòu diū kāi le. 兴哥也 自割捨不得，兩下悽怪一場，又丢開了.” (Xing was also unwilling to part with them. However, he left the feelings aside and parted after some sentimentality.) In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in chapter twenty-nine of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “Chǔ yī guān biàn diū xià zhè de shì, máng zhe chuān yī fu, dài mào zi. 褚一官便丢下這的事，忙着穿衣服，戴帽 子.” (Zhu Yiguan left that thing aside and put on his clothes and hat in a hurry.) Fourth, it means to hand down or to leave over. In the Qing dynasty, Wu Jingzi wrote in chapter seventeen of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The scholars] that “Wǒ yī shēng shì gè wú yòng de rén, yī kuài tǔ yě bù céng diū gěi nǐ men. 我一生是個無 用的人，一塊土也不曾丢给你們.” (I am a loser that has nothing to give you to inherit.) In chapter twenty-one, he wrote that “wǒ lǎo nián bù xìng, bǎ ér zi xí fù dōu wáng huà le, diū xià zhè gè niè zhàng zhǒng zi. 我老年不幸，把兒子媳妇 都亡化了，丢下这個孽障種子.” (I was such a tragic old man that my son and daughter-in-law died, leaving that bastard grandson to me.) Fifth, it means to lose things. According to Yī bù 一部 [Yi Group] in zì huì 字彙 [Zi Hui], “Diū, yī qù bù hái yě. 丢，一去不还也.” (Diū 丢 means to lose and never get back.) In the Qing dynasty, Gao E wrote in chapter one hundred nineteen of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “Wǒ de ér, nǐ shū shū diū le, hái jìn dé zài diū le nǐ? 我的兒，你叔叔丢了，还禁得再丢了你?” (My child, your uncle was lost. I could not afford the loss of you either.) Sixth, it means to play something or to use. In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter sixteen of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “nà jǐ yǒu qī qiān èr bǎi jīn zhòng. wù kōng jiàn le, pǎo jìn qián jiē zài shǒu zhōng, diū jǐ gè jià zi, sā biàn gè xiè shù. 那戟有七千二百 斤重. 悟空見了，跑近前接在手中，丢幾個架子，撒變個解数.” (The halberd weighs 7,200 jin [unit of weight]. Wukong saw it and came closer to pick it. He acted with it and played for several rounds to try on it.) In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in the sixth chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “nà nǚ zǐ jiàn tā yī gǒng shǒu, yě diū gè mén hù, yī gè jìn bù biàn dào le nà hé shàng gēn qián. 那女子見他一拱手，也丢個門户，一個進步便到 了那和尚跟前.” (The woman also showed her identity when she saw him cup his hands so she walked forward before the monk.) The seventh meaning is to hit. In the third chapter of Zhūshā dān 硃砂擔 [Zhu Sha Dan], written by an anonymous

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writer in the Yuan dynasty, it reads “diū tiān líng, zhe líng chí, shòu mó nán, nà pà tā pō wán pí chuò hào zuò tiě fān gān. 丢天靈，着凌遅，受磨難，那怕他泼頑 皮绰號做鐵幡竿.” (He was hit on the head and was cut inch by inch. His naughty character was overwhelmed by his sufferings.) In the fourth chapter of Huánghuā yù 黄花峪 [Huang Hua Yu], written by anonymous people in the Yuan dynasty, it reads “wǒ kàn zhè mǎng quán tóu, xiàng zhè sī zuǐ chún shàng diū. 我看這莽拳 頭，向這厮嘴唇上丢.” (My tough fists punched his lips.) The eighth meaning is a word of measurement. In the Yuan dynasty, Zheng Guangzu wrote in the first chapter of Zhìyǒng dìngqí 智勇定齊 [Zhi Yong Ding Qi] that “Xú hóng jí, xú hóng yì, ǎn tǒng lǐng yī diū rén mǎ, shōu shí xíng zhuāng děng wù, gēn gōng zǐ dǎ wéi qù. 徐弘吉、徐弘義，俺統領一丢人馬，收拾行装等物，跟公子打围去.” (Xu Hongji and Xu Hongyi, you two follow me to lead a team of men to collect stuff and go hunting with the child.) In the Ming dynasty, Zhou Lvjing wrote in Jǐnjiān jì 錦 箋記 [Jin Jian Ji] that “qiào lì niáng niáng rù sì mén, dào rén hé shàng jǐn lái gēn, zhè diū ruò kěn qīng qīng shě, hé bì zhāi sēng yǔ sòng jīng. 俏麗娘娘入寺門， 道人和尚尽來跟，這丢若肯輕輕舍，何必齋僧與诵經.” (A beautiful woman walked into the temple. All the monks came after her. If these people can abandon things as required, they would not be asked to chant sutras.) The word gē 擱 has two meanings. The first is to put something into or onto something or someplace. In the Qing dynasty, Gao E wrote in chapter one hundred twelve of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “rú jīn wǒ de liǎn gē zài nà li ne. 如今我的臉搁在那里呢.” (Yet how could I put my face in front of others?) In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in chapter thirty-two of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳[Legend of Heroes] that “Chǔ dà niáng zǐ yǎo zhe yá, zòng zhe bí ér, xiào róng kě jū de shuō dào: Xiǎo jiù yé zi, gē zhe nǐ de shì le. 〔褚大娘子〕咬着牙，縱着鼻兒，笑容可掬的説道: ‘小舅爺子, 擱着你的是了’.”(Madame Chu ground her teeth and held her nose right, saying with a smile “dear brother-in-law, put your things in place and that’s all right”.) Second, it can be pronounced as gé 擱, which means to bear and tolerate. In the Qing dynasty, Gao E wrote in chapter ninety-eight of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “ruò shì jīn rì bù huí, shǐ bù dé ruò huí le, kǒng pà lǎo tài tài gē bú zhù. 若是今日不回，使不得;若回了，恐怕老太太擱不住.” (If we do not go back, it can be troublesome but if we do, the old lady might not be able to tolerate it and stay alive.) In the Qing dynasty, Shi Yunkun wrote in the sixth chapter of the qīxiá wǔyì 七俠五義 [Seven Heroes and Five Gallants] that “kàn nǐ lǎo yé men zhè gè jìn ér lì kè gěi wǒ gè yǎn lǐ chā bàng chuí, yě yào wǒ men gē de zhù xià. 看你老爺們這個勁兒立刻给我個眼里插棒槌，也要我們擱 的住嚇.” (Look at your men. You are acting like you are going to bear everything even if your eyes were to be stuck by sticks.) The word shuǎ 耍 has four meanings. First, it means to play and have fun. In the Song dynasty, Zhou Bangyan wrote a poem Chant for Unforgettable Things that “zhǎng pín zhī yǒu hèn, tān shuǎ bù chéng zhuāng. 長颦知有恨，贪耍不成 妆.” (She often frowns because she has some anxiety. She does not make up in that she is indulged in having fun.) In the second volume of qián hàn shū píng huà 前漢書平話 [Stories Written in the Early Han dynasty], it reads “Lǚ nǚ xián

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 23 bù zhì yú hòu yuán, jiàn yī xiǎo hái ér shuǎ. 吕女闲步至於後園，見一小孩兒 耍.” (Miss Lv walked at liberty to the backyard and saw a child having fun there.) In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in the first chapter of the Xīyóu jì 西遊 記 [Journey to the West] that “yī qún hóu zi shuǎ le yī huì, què qù nà shān jiàn zhōng xǐ zǎo. 一群猴子耍了一會，却去那山涧中洗澡.” (A group of monkeys played for a while and then went to shower in the mountain streams.) Second, it means to play tricks on somebody. In the first part of Hànshǐ shàng 漢史上 [The History of Han dynasty] in Xīnbiān wǔdàishǐ pínghuà 新編五代史平話 [Newly Organized Stories about the History of the Five dynasties], it reads “zán shì de gè tài jūn de yán yǔ, zěn shēng shì lái shuǎ nǐ. 咱是得個太君的言語,怎生是来 耍你.” (We have got the order from Tai Jun. Do you think we will play tricks on you.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter forty-nine of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “ruò tài tài bù zài wū guǒ, nǐ bié jìn qù, nà wū lǐ rén duō xīn huài, dōu shì shuǎ zán men de. 若太太不在屋裹，你別 進去，那屋里人多心壊、都是耍咱们的.” (If the madam is not at home, you’d better not enter the room. There are many people in the room whose hearts are so bad that they will play tricks on us.) Third, it means to play with instruments and weapons. In the fourth chapter of Shèliǔchuí wán 射柳捶丸 [She Liu Jiu], written by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it reads “kàn le zhè bù shǔ měi dǎ quán shuǎ néng, zhēn gè gāo qiáng. 看了這部署每打拳耍能，真個高强.” (The deployment was so awesome since everybody could do boxing and play with weapons.) In the Qing dynasty, Gao E wrote in chapter one hundred eleven of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “mèn lái shuì yī jué, xǐng shí biàn zài yuán lǐ shuǎ qiāng nòng gùn. 闷來睡一覺，醒時便在园里耍枪弄 棍.” ([He] slept when he felt bored and when he woke up, he played with weapons in the yard.) Its fourth meaning is to gamble. In the Song dynasty, Song Taogu wrote in the second volume of Qīng yì lù 清異録 [Qing Yi Lu] that “Liú chǎng zài guó, chūn shēn lìng gōng rén dòu huā . . . fù zhě xiàn jīn shuǎ yín mǎi yàn. 劉 鋹在国，春深令宫人斗花 . . . 負者獻金耍银買燕.” (At the reign of Liu Chang, he let servants in the palace to compete with flowers in the late spring. The one who lost the game would have to pay for the gambling and buy some swallows.) In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in the seventh chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “rén jiā dōu zhī dào zhēng qián yǎng jiā, dú tā hào chī lǎn zuò, hē jiǔ shuǎ qián. 人家都知道挣錢養家，獨他好吃懒 做，喝酒耍钱.” (Other people all strive for earning and making a living. He is the only one who remains lazy, eating his head off, hitting the bottles and gambling.) The word shuāi 摔 has six meanings. First, it means to throw something hard to the ground. In the Yuan dynasty, Kang Jinzhi wrote in the second chapter of Lǐkuí fùjīng 李逵負荆 [Apologies of Likui] that “shèng jiǔ wèng, shuāi zuò suì cí ōu. 盛 酒甕，摔做碎瓷甌.” (He dropped the bowl of liquor to the ground and it smashed into pieces.) In the Ming dynasty, Louifox wrote in chapter twenty-six of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅[The Golden Lotus] that “Huì lián tiào xià lái, bǎ jiǔ ná qǐ lái, cái dài gǎn zhe shuāi le qù, bèi yī zhàng qīng lán zhù le. 蕙蓮跳下來，把酒拿起來， 才待赶着摔了去，被一丈青拦住了.” (Huilian jumped over, took the liquor and was about to throw it to the ground but was stopped by Yi Zhangqing.) Second, it

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means to beat and hit others. In the third chapter of Géjiāng dòuzhì 隔江鬥智 [Ge Jiang Dou Zhi], written by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it reads “Jǐ shí dé shuāi pò yù lóng fēi cǎi fèng, dùn kāi jīn suǒ zǒu jiāo lóng. 几時得摔破玉 笼飛彩凤，頓開金鎖走蛟龍.” (When can we break the cage and free the phoenix or unlock the dragon and set it free?) In Jiǎntiē héshàng 簡帖和尚 [The Qiantie Monk] of Qīng píng shān táng huà běn 清平山堂話本 [Qing Ping Shan Tang Hua Ben], it reads “Huáng fǔ diàn zhí ná jiàn liáo zi zhú, qù nī zǐ tuǐ shàng biàn shuāi, shuāi dé nī zǐ shā zhū yě sì jiào. 皇甫殿直拿箭簝子竹，去妮子腿上便摔，摔 得妮子殺猪也似叫.” (Huangfu Dian got a stick of bamboo and used it to hit the girl, making her cry like a pig that was being killed.) Third, it means to brush off and get away. In the Ming dynasty, Ling Mengchu wrote in the ninth volume of the Èrkè pāiàn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Stories] that “shū shēng piāo rán ér qù, jì huá chě zhù bù fàng, bèi tā yòng páo xiù yī shuāi, shǎn dé yī diē. 書生 飘然而去，寄華扯住不放，被他用袍袖一摔，闪得一跌.” (The scholar went off with swaggers but Jihua would not let him go. She dragged him but only fell down while brushing off of the scholar.) In the Qing dynasty, Li Ruzhen wrote in chapter thirty-seven of Jìnghuā yuán 鏡花緣 [The Marriage of Flowers in the Mirror] that “Táng áo cuò shǒu bù jí, lián máng shuāi tuō è quǎn, jiāng shēn yī zòng, cuān shàng gāo qiáng. 唐敖措手不及，連忙摔脱恶犬，將身一纵，攛上高墙.” (Tangao was unaware, who immediately brushed off the fierce dog, jumping over and getting onto the high wall.) Fourth, it means to make with certain actions. In the Qing dynasty, Gao E wrote in chapter eighty-three of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “nǐ xuǎn shì wǒ de yā tóu, wèn nǐ yī jù huà, nǐ jiù hé wǒ shuāi liǎn zǐ, shuō sāi huà. 你選是我的丫頭，問你一句話，你就和我 摔脸子，説塞話.” (Now that you are still my servant girl, how could you make such a face to me and speak like that when I ask you?) In the Qing dynasty, Wu Woyao wrote in chapter eleven of Èrshínián mùdǔ zhī guàixiànzhuàng 二十年目 睹之怪現狀 [The Strange Things We Have Seen for Twenty Years] that “suī rán wèi jiàn dé dōu zuò le zhā fèi, rán ér gé wài duō shǎng xiē, shuāi kuò pái zi, yě shì tā men qí rén de cháng shì. 雖然未見得都做了劄费，然而格外多賞些，摔 濶牌子，也是他們旗人的常事.” (Although not all of them give fees, it is quite normal for their banner people to give more money to make them look generous.) Fifth, it means to fall down. In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in chapter three of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “Shuí zhī dào wa, tā shuāi le yī gè jīn dǒu jiù méi le qì ér le mó. 誰知道哇，他摔了一個筋斗 就没了气儿了麽.” (Who would know that he could fall down and die?) The sixth meaning is swiftness. In the Yuan dynasty, Zengrui wrote in a poem that “Sōu sōu sōu shuāi fēng guò zhǎng tíng, chū chū chū fāng xíng guò duǎn zhàn. 颼颼颼摔 風過長亭，出出出方行過短站.” (Swiftly the wind blows over the pavilion and instantly we come across the station.) In the fourth chapter of Suǒmó jìng 鎖魔 鏡 [Suo Mo Jing], written by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it reads “Hǎo tàn zǐ yě, liǎng zú qīng nuó shì shuāi fēng, yī shēng bào tàn yǔ rú zhōng. 好 探子也，兩足輕挪似摔風，一聲报探語如钟.” (A good scout needs to have two fast feet which enables him to walk like the swift wind and have a resonant voice which sounds like a tolling bell.)

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 25 The word shuò 搠 also has six meanings. First, it means to poke. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter twelve of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “Yáng zhì gǎn rù qù, bǎ niú èr xiōng pú shàng yòu lián shuò le liǎng dāo, xuè liú mǎn dì, sǐ zài dì shàng. 楊志趕入去，把牛二胸脯上又連搠 了兩刀，血流满地，死在地上.” (Yangzhi rushed there and poked into Niuer’s bosom for several times. There was blood on the ground and he died.) In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter forty-two of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “Què bèi wǒ yī qiāng shuò hú dé wú xíng wú yǐng qù le. 却被我一 鎗搠胡得無形無影去了.” (Everything disappeared because of my waving of the weapon.) In the Qing dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume twenty-one of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] that “yán yóu wèi bì, cǎo huāng zhōng zuān chū yī gè rén lái, shǒu zhí gāng chā, wàng gōng zǐ biàn shuò. 言猶未毕，草荒中鑽出一個人來，手執鋼叉，望公子便搠.” (The words were not over and a man jumped out of the grass with a steel fork in his hand. He poked the man upon seeing him.) Second, it means to stick in and make it erect. In the introduction of zhēng bàoēn 争報恩 [Zheng Bao En], written by anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it reads “Zhōng yì táng gāo shuò xìng huáng qí yī miàn. 忠義堂高搠杏黄旗一面.” (There was a yellow flag being erected in the loyalty hall.) In the Ming dynasty, Luo Guanzhong wrote in chapter fifty-one of the Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [Romance of the Three Kingdoms] that “Zhǐ jiàn nǚ qiáng biān xū shuò jīng qí, wú rén shǒu hù. 只見女墙邊虚搠旌旗，無人守護.” (There was a flag being erected over there around the parapet wall and no one was guarding.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in the third volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] that “Gù cǐ wò fáng lǐ miàn, bǎo ér de jiǎo yě shuò bù jìn qù. 故此卧房里面，鸨兒的脚也搠不 進去.” (Not even a foot can be set into this bedroom.) Third, it means to carry and hold something. In the Yuan dynasty, Guan Hanqin wrote in the third chapter of Bàiyuè tíng 拜月亭[Obeisance Moon Cabin] that “Shuò qǐ bǐng fū róng qī guì sān yán sǎn. 搠起柄夫榮妻貴三檐伞.” ([They] took an umbrella which symbolized prosperity and glory.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter eightyseven of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “Xiǎo jiāng jūn shuò jǐ zài shǒu, lēi mǎ zhèn qián, gāo shēng dà jiào. 小將軍搠戟在手，勒馬陣 前,高聲大叫.” (The young general held the halberd in his hand, rode the horse to the front, and yelled loudly to threaten.) Fourth, it means to push by hand. In the Jin dynasty, Dong Xieyuan wrote in the fourth volume of Xīxiāng jì zhū gōng diào 西廂記諸宫調 [The Style of Songs in the Romance of the Western Chamber] that “zì mán yuàn, zì shī xiào, zì jiě, zì dūn shuò. 自埋怨，自失笑，自解，自 敦搠.” (I complain, laugh, enjoy, and get down by myself.) In the Ming dynasty, Ling Mengchu wrote in the third volume of the Chūkè pāi’àn jīngqí 初刻拍案驚 奇 [Amazing Stories] that “nà fù rén jiāng pán zi yī shuò, qiě bù shōu shí. 那妇人 将盘子一搠，且不收拾.” (The woman took the plate and threw it aside, leaving it unclean.) The fifth meaning is to get something changed. In the second chapter of Yú qiáo jì 漁樵記 [YuQiao Ji], written by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it reads “huò shì tiào qiáng, mò quān, jiǎn liǔ, shuò bāo ér, zuò shàng mǎ qiáng dào, bái zhòu qiǎng duó. 或是跳墙，蓦圈，剪柳，搠包儿，做上马

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Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu

强盗，白晝抢夺.” (Some people jumped into others’ yards to steal, to rob and destroy, or change their luggage, even during the daylight; daylight robbery.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume thirty-six of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] that “Zhào sì qù huái lǐ bié shuò huàn bāo ér lái, cuō bǎi shí wán yǔ hóu xìng lǎo pó chī le. 赵四去怀里别搠換包儿 来，撮百十丸与侯興老婆吃了.” (Zhao si changed his package and searched for a while. Then he gathered hundreds of drugs and gave them to Houxing’s wife to take.) The sixth meaning is used as shuò 槊, which is a name for a kind of weapon like a spear. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter eleven of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “Rén rén dōu yàn líng dāo, gè gè jǐn tí yā zuǐ shuò. 人人都雁翎刀，个个尽提鸭嘴搠.” (Everyone takes a knife and all takes with a spear.) In the Ming dynasty, Xu Zhonglin and Li Yong wrote in chapter forty-two of Fēngshén yǎnyì 封神演義 [The Apotheosizing Tales] that “fǔ yǒu xuān huā suān zǎo shuò, hǔ tóu qiāng pèi yàn líng dāo. 斧有宣花酸枣 搠，虎頭枪配雁翎刀.” (There are flowers cured on axes and spears and there are tiger heads cured on a Yanling knife.) In the Jué yùn 覺韻 [Rhyme of Jue] from Jí yùn 集韻 [The Collection of Rhyme], it reads “Shuò, bó yǎ, tú yě. 搠,《博雅》, 塗也.” (Shuò 搠, according to Bo Ya, means to smear.) It is not related to the previous meanings. Moreover, shuò 搠 can no longer be found in Guǎng yǎ 廣雅 [Guang Ya] nowadays. The word tiǎn 捵 has four meanings. First, it means to support and push. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter thirty-seven of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “yí gè gōng rén biàn bǎ bāo guǒ diū xià cāng lǐ, yī gè gōng rén biàn jiāng shuǐ huǒ gùn chēn kāi le chuán. 一个公人便把包裹丢下 舱里，一個公人便將水火棍捵開了船.” (One officer threw his baggage onto the ship and the other used sticks to push the ship forward.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume twenty-one of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] that “zhī jiàn qián liú dà hè dào: ‘Wú míng xiǎo zi, gǎn lái ráo shé.’ jiāng tóu jīn wǎng shàng yī chēn, èr shí yú rén, yī qí fā zuò. 只见钱鏐 大喝道： ‘無名小子，敢来饶舌.’ 將頭巾往上一捵，二十余人，一齐发作.” (Qianliu shouted, ‘How dare you! You nobodies!’ Then he supported his headband a little bit and dealt with all 20 people on his own.) Second, it means to move. In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume seventeen of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] that “yuán lái guò qiān xiǎo de yǒu yín zài (xiāng) nèi, sī xià pèi gè shi de, yè jiān āi zhe fù qīn mèi zǐ shuì zháo, biàn qǐ lái qiāo qiāo chēn kāi, tōu qù huā fèi. 原來過遷晓得有銀在 [箱)内，私 下配個匙的，夜間挨着父亲妹子睡着，便起來悄悄捵開，偷去花费.” (The fact was that Guoqian knew that there was gold and silver in the box so he got the key in secret. At night, he slept next to his father and sister and when they were asleep, he moved them over and got up to steal the gold and silver.) In the Qing dynasty, Wu Jingzi wrote in chapter twenty-one of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The scholars] that “(Niú) pǔ láng bǎ suǒ chēn kāi. （牛）浦郎把锁捵开.” (Niu Pulang unlocked and moved the lock.) Third, it means to creep into somewhere. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter fifty-six of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸 全傳 [Water Margin] that “kàn kàn tiān sè hēi le, shí qiān chēn rù bān mén lǐ miàn.

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 27 看看天色黑了，時遷捵入班門里面.” (Now that it was dark, Shiqian crept into the prison.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume seventeen of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] that “Miáo quán chèn jiāo shì mài dé fáng jià, yè jiān chēn rù wò shì, tōu le yín liǎng, lǐng zhe lǎo pó, táo wǎng wéi fāng shòu yòng qù le. 苗全趁焦氏卖得房價，夜間捵入卧室， 偷了銀兩，領着老婆，逃往違方受用去了.” ([Miaoquan] knew that Jiaoshi got money after she sold the household so he crept into her bedroom, stole her money and took his wife far away along with the money.) Fourth, it can also be used as tiǎn 腆, which means to come out or to bulge. In the Yuan dynasty, Zhang Yanghao wrote in his song that “chēn zhe xiōng dēng yào lù, zhēng zhuó yǎn lǚ wēi jī. 捵 着胸登要路，睁着眼履危机.” (Walk through the steep with a puffed bosom and get through the trouble with open eyes.) In the Qing dynasty, Wu Jingzi wrote in chapter fourteen of Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] that “Mǎ èr xiān shēng yī fú wū hēi de liǎn, chēn zhe gè dǔ zi. [马二先生] 一幅乌黑的脸，捵着個肚 子.” ([Mr. Ma’er] had a dark face and a bulging stomach.) In middle ancient China, tiǎn 捵 referred to stretching something long and flat. It was pronounced as chēn 捵. In the Zhǔn yùn 准韻 [Rhyme of Zhun] from Jí yùn 集韻 [The Collection of Rhyme], it reads “tiǎn, shǒu chēn wù, chǒu rèn qiè. 捵，手抻物，丑刃切.” (Tiǎn 捵 means to use your hand to elongate something.) Hereby, the sound and meaning are both different from what has been mentioned. The word zá 砸 has two meanings. First, it means to crash into something with something heavy. In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter thirty-nine of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “wǒ men cūn zhuāng shàng de rén shāng liáng zhe yào yòng láng tou zá tā ne. 我們村庄上的人商量着要用 榔头砸他呢.” (Our villagers discussed hitting him with a hammer.) In the Qing dynasty, Liu E wrote in the first chapter of Lǎocán yóujì 老殘遊記 [The Travels of Lao Ts’an] that “Yì zhī xiǎo xiǎo yú chuán, zěn jìn dé jǐ bǎi gè rén yòng lì luàn zá. 一 只小小渔船，怎禁得几百個人用力乱砸.” (How could such a fishing boat survive from hard throws by hundreds of people?) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Weimin wrote in the first chapter of Sēngní gòngfàn 僧尼共犯 [The Conspiracy of the Monk and the Nun] that “nuó zhe bǐng xiáng mó chǔ shén tōng dà, zi dài bǎ tū lǘ tóu zá le hái zá. 挪着柄降魔杵神通大，子待把秃驴头砸了还砸.” (Zidai used his powerful pestle and hit the monk’s head over and over again.) In the Qing dynasty, Pu Songling wrote in the ninth chapter of Fùguì shénxiān 富貴神仙 [God of Wealth] that “Niáng zǐ shuō: ‘Gěi wǒ zá tā miē tuǐ lái!’ zhòng rén tīng shuō, zhǎo tiě chuí qù le. 娘子 说： ‘给我砸他乜腿来！’ 众人听说，找铁锤去了.” (The lady said, “Smash off his legs.” pon hearing this, all the people turned to search for hammers.) Second, it means to find fault with someone. In the Ming dynasty, Louifox wrote in chapter seventy-six of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Golden Lotus] that “wǒ zuó rì duì zhe dà jìn zǐ hǎo bù ná huā ér zá wǒ, shuō wǒ zòng róng zhe nǐ, yào tā tú nǐ xǐ huān lī. 我 昨日对着大妗子好不拿花儿砸我，説我纵容着你，要他图你喜欢哩.” (When I was together with the aunt yesterday, she tried to find faults with me from time to time, complaining that I spoiled you to make him fall in love with you.) The word zhá 鍘 has two meanings. First, it is a noun. zhá dāo 鍘刀 is a kind of tool used to cut grass or other things, and it also means a kind of instrument used

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for torture. The bottom of the instrument has been implemented with a knife, one edge was fixed to it, and the other edge had a handle. The knife could be moved up and down. In ancient times, it was called fū 鈇. In the Yuan dynasty, Li Zhifu wrote in the third chapter of Hǔtóu pái 虎頭牌 [Hu Tou Pai] that “jiāng tóng zhá lái, qiè le nǐ nà lǘ tóu. 将铜鍘来，切了你那驴頭.” (Bring the knife over and cut off your dumb head.) In the Yuan dynasty, Meng Hanqin wrote in the third chapter of Mó hé luó 魔合羅 [Mo He Luo] that “Chì wǎ bù lá hǎi hú sūn tóu, cháng wǒ nà míng huàng huǎng shì jiàn tóng zhá. 赤瓦不剌海猢孙头，尝我那明晃晃势剑铜 鍘.” (You damned soul! I will cut off your head with my shining sword.) Second, it is a verb which means to cut with a knife. In the second chapter of Shēngjīn gé 生金閣 [Sheng Jin Ge], written by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it reads “rú jīn zhe wǒ lái zhá le nǐ tóu lī. 如今着我来鍘了你頭哩.” (Now I was asked to cut off your head.) In the Qing dynasty, Shi Yunkun wrote in the sixth chapter of the Qīxiá wǔyì 七俠五義 [Seven Heroes and Five Gallants] that “xiàn zài lǎo zéi páng jí zài jīng, jiàn wǒ zhá le tā de ài zǐ, tā yān yǒu qīng qīng fàng guò zhī lǐ. 现在老賊庞吉在京，見我鍘了他的爱子，他焉有輕輕放過之理.” (The cunning Pangji was in the capital. Once he knew I had cut off his dear son’s head, how could he let me get away easily?) The word zhà 炸 could not be found in books until a 42-volume Chinese dictionary compiled during the reign of Kang Xi in the Qing dynasty. The character has two meanings. The first meaning is something that explodes suddenly. In the Ming dynasty, Fang Yizhi wrote in Wùlǐ xiǎoshí 物理小識 [Knowledge of Physics] that “shāo tàn ruò bào, lín yán zì zhǐ, cǐ yǐ zhà zhǐ zhà yě. 燒炭若爆，淋盐自止，此 以炸止炸也.” (If the charcoal exploded, spread some salts over it and it will stop the explosion. This is a way of using explosive materials to stop an explosion.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter forty-two of Hónglóu mèng 紅 樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “[Cū cí dié zǐ] bù ná zhī jiāng zhī zi hé jiàng yù xiān mǒ zài dǐ zi shàng kǎo guò, yī jīng le huǒ, shì yào zhà de. （粗磁 碟子）不拿汁姜汁子和酱预先抹在底子上烤過，一经了火，是要炸的.” (If the coarse porcelain plates are not preheated with ginger juice and sauce on the bottom, they are more likely to blow out when they are put on the fire.) Second, it can be pronounced as zhá, referring to a way of cooking by putting food into burning oil. In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in chapter twenty-one of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “wǒ lǐ tóu gǎn zhe gěi nǐ lǎo zhà diǎn ér guō zhā miàn jīn, xià diǎn sù miàn dān chī. 我里頭赶着给你老 炸點兒锅渣面筋，下點素面單吃.” (I was busy frying some food and cooking some noodles for you to eat.) It can also refer to the polishing of some old and worn metal tools to make them shiny again. In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter thirty-five of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “mèi mei de xiàng quān wǒ qiáo qiáo, zhǐ pà gāi zhà yī zhà qù le. 妹妹的項圈我 瞧瞧，只怕該炸一炸去了.” (Let me have a look at your neck ring. I am afraid it needs to be polished.) The word zhǎo 找 has two meanings; the first meaning is to look for something. In the Ming dynasty, Shenbang wrote in Wǎnshǔ zájì 宛署雜記 [Wan Shu Za Ji] that “xún qǔ yuē zhǎo. 尋取曰找.” (To search for something is zhǎo 找.) In the

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 29 Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter thirty of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “wú nài, zhǐ de nuò nuò gào cí, zhǎo lù ér qù. 無奈，只得喏喏告 辞，找路而去.” (Helplessly, he had to bid goodbye and found his way to go.) In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in chapter twelve of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “zhǐ pà dǎ zhe dēng lóng ér, yě zhǎo bù chū zhè yàng yī gè xí fù ér. 只怕打着灯笼儿，也找不出這樣一個媳婦兒.” (I am afraid you cannot find such a good wife even if you use a lamp.) Second, it means to make up a deficiency and return the redundancy. In the Ming dynasty, Jiaohong wrote in súshū kānwù 俗書刊誤 [Faults in Common Readings] that “bǔ qí bù zú zhī shù yuē zhǎo. 補其不足之数曰找.” (Making up the deficiency is 找zhǎo.) In the Qing dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume eleven of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] that “dāng xià xiān chēng le yī bàn chuán qián, nà yī bàn zhí dài dào xiàn shí zhǎo zú. 当下先稱了一半船錢，那一 半直待到縣時找足.” (At that time, he gave half of the fee and after they arrived at the destination he gave him the rest.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter forty-three of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “děng bù gòu le, wǒ zài zhǎo gěi nǐ. 等不够了，我再找给你.” (I will give you more when you run out of money.)

1.3 Dialectsandspokenidiomsinthe modern Chinese lexicon It was one of the characteristics of the development of Modern Chinese that a large number of elements of the spoken language, dialects, and common sayings went into the literary language. It has a wide scope, ranging from the names of people, the names of all things, social production, and material and spiritual cultural life to the customs and other aspects of words and argot. They spread through literature and co-existed with the corresponding common words. These words showed different vitality in development. Some had very strong vitality and gradually shifted into common words, which have been passed down throughout time and are still used now. Some words are no longer used in Mandarin Chinese yet exist in certain dialects. Some words have retained their form but have changed in meaning. Some other words vanished during the development of the vocabulary. These types of words could be written in different forms. They were easy for people during their times, but their descendants found it hard to understand them. Here we use three aspects and related examples to discuss this issue further. 1.3.1 Wordswithashortlife There are many such words with short lives, including some jargon and lingo, some of which were once widely used but no longer exist in modern Mandarin or other dialects. The following are examples. The word àn jiǔ 按酒 can be written as àn jiǔ 案酒, which refers to dishes that go with wine. In the Yuan dynasty, Xue Angfu wrote in the song Duān zhèng hǎo 端正好 [Duan Zheng Hao] that “wú àn jiǔ shí, zhāi jǐ gè shēng jiā ér lái jiàng mǒ.

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Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu

无按酒時，摘几個生茄儿来酱抹.” (When there were no dishes to go with the wine, he would pick some eggplant and rub some sauce to eat.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Nai’an wrote in the seventh chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “Zhāng jiào tóu jiào jiǔ bǎo ān pái àn jiǔ, guǒ zǐ, guǎn dài liǎng gè gōng rén. 張教頭叫酒保安排案酒，果子，管待两個公人.” (Instructor Zhang asked waiter to arrange some dishes to go with the wine and some snacks to serve the two officers.) In the Qing dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in the sixth volume of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] that “dāng xià jiǔ bǎo zhǐ dàng shì gè hào kè, zhé mò shén xīn xiān guǒ pǐn, kě kǒu yáo zhuàn, hǎi xiān, àn jiǔ zhī lèi, pū pái miàn qián, bān bān dōu yǒu. 當下酒保只当是個好客，折莫甚新鮮果品，可口肴馔，海鮮、 案酒之類，鋪排面前，般般都有.” (At that moment, the waiter thought he was a decent customer so he arranged many fresh fruit, seafood, and some dishes, almost anything he could think of to go with the wine.) In the Ming dynasty, Louifox wrote in chapter sixty-seven of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Golden Lotus] that “chá mǒ zhuō ér, ná shàng àn jiǔ lái. 搽抹桌儿，拿上案酒來.” (Clean up the table and bring some dishes to go with the wine.) Àn jiǔ 按酒 used to be a verb–object phrase which means to go with wine. It originated very early in history. In the Song dynasty, Luyou wrote in lǎoxuéān bǐjì 老學庵筆記 [Notes Taken in Lao Xue An] that “Méi wǎn líng shī hǎo yòng ‘àn jiǔ,’ sú yán ‘xià jiǔ’ yě. chū lù jī 《cǎo mù shū 》: Xìng, jiē yú yě, bái jīng, yè zǐ chì sè, zhèng yuán, jīng cùn yú, fú shuǐ shàng, gēn zài shuǐ dǐ, yǔ zhī shēn qiǎn, jīng dà rú chāi gǔ, shàng qīng xià bái, zhǔ qí bái jīng, yǐ kǔ jiǔ jìn zhī, cuì měi kě àn jiǔ. ‘jīn běi fāng duō yán’ àn jiǔ.’ 梅宛陵詩好用 ‘案酒,’ 俗言 ‘下酒’ 也. 出陸玑《草木疏》： ‘荇，接余也，白莖，叶紫赤色，正圆，莖寸餘，浮水上，根在水底，与之 深浅，茎大如釵股，上青下白，煮其白莖, 以苦酒浸之，脆美可案酒.’ 今 北方多言 ‘案酒’.” (Mei Wanling liked to use “àn jiǔ 案酒” in his poems and “xià jiǔ 下酒” is the common phrase for it. It was used in Luji’s Cǎo mù shū 草 木疏 [Cao Mu Shu] that “Xing,” also called Jieyu, has white stems and round purple-red leaves. The stems are not very long and float above the water. The roots are under the water, different in depth. The stems are as big as hairpins and are green in the upper and white below. After cooking the white stems, they are put into the bitter wine, making a delicious combination. Nowadays, people in the north often use “àn jiǔ 案酒.”) The words bā zi 羓子, also written as bā zi 巴子, mean a kind of cake. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter eleven of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “yǒu cái bó de lái dào zhè lǐ, jīng zé méng hàn yào má fān, zhòng zé dēng shí jié guǒ, jiāng jīng ròu piàn wèi bā zi, féi ròu jiān yóu diǎn dēng. 有財帛的來到这里，經則蒙汗药麻翻，重则登時结果，將精肉片 为羓子，肥肉煎油点灯.” (People with money came here and got themselves in danger. They were either knocked out by drugs or even killed directly. Their lean meat was made into cake and the fat meat was fried.) In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter eighty-six of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “zhǐ jiàn nà xiàng yáng chù yǒu jǐ gè xiǎo yāo, ná xiē rén ròu bā zǐ, yī kuài kuài lǐ zhe shài lǐ. 只見那向陽處有幾個小妖，拿些人肉巴子，一塊塊理着晒里.”

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 31 (There were some goblins in the sunny places carrying some cakes made from human meat and tied up one by one.) The words chóng yǐ 蟲蟻, also written as chóng yǐ 蟲翳, mean birds. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter one hundred four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳[Water Margin] that “Yàn qīng wèi wú xià fàn, ná le nǔ zi qù jìn biān chù xún jǐ gè chóng yǐ chī. 燕青为無下饭，拿了弩子去近邊處尋幾個蟲蟻 吃.” (Yanqing cooked for Wu. He took the crossbow and caught some birds to eat.) In the Jin dynasty, Dong Xieyuan wrote in the first volume of Xīxiāng jì zhūgōng diào 西廂記諸宫調 [The Style of Songs in the Romance of the Western Chamber] that “bù wéi dào shēng de gè páng ér měi, nà kān gèng xiǎo zì ér dé qiè rén yì, chóng yǐ ér xiè duō qíng de, yīng ér dì yī, piān chēng lǚ jīn yī. 不惟道生得个庞 兒美，那堪更小字兒得惬人意，蟲蟻兒亵多情的，莺兒第一，偏称缕金衣.” (She was not only good-looking but also had good handwriting. However, beautiful things like birds were often very amorous. Warbler was in particular but it was called gold cloth.) In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter thirty-two of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “The bird was neither heavy nor light. When it was weighed, it weighed only two or three liang [a measurement of weight which equals about 50 g]. The word gài lǎo 蓋老 is business jargon. Husbands are called gài lǎo 蓋老, and wives are called dǐ lǎo 底老. In the Qing dynasty, Zhaiyuan wrote in Tōngsú biān 通俗編 [Tong Su Bian] that “jiāng hú rén shì yǔ yóu duō, fāng jiān yǒu jiāng hú qiè yào yī kè, shì shì wù wù xī yǒu yǐn chēng, chéng suǒ wèi huò luàn tīng wén, wú zú cǎi yě. qí jiān yǒu tōng háng shì jǐng zhě, rú guān yuē gū sī, diàn yuē cháo yáng, fū yuē gài lǎo, qī yuē dǐ lǎo. 江湖人市語尤多，坊間有《江湖切要》一刻，事 事物物悉有隐稱，誠所谓惑亂听闻，無足采也. 其間有通行市井者，如官曰 孤司，店曰朝陽，夫曰蓋老，妻曰底老.” (People in the society spoke a lot of jargon. There was an “essentials of society” in the folk which said everything had another name. In fact, this was not reliable. However, some were actually used in reality. For instance, the government was called “gū sī 孤司,” stores were called “zhāo yáng 朝陽,” husbands were called “gài lǎo 蓋老” and wives were called “dǐ lǎo 底老”.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter twenty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “tā de gài lǎo, biàn shì jiē shàng mài chuī bǐng de wǔ dà láng. 他的蓋老，便是街上卖炊饼的武大郎.” (Her husband was no other than the Wu Dalang who sold steamed cake on the street.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in the Mountain Songs that “bā jiě piàn wǒ jìn fáng mén, hū dì lǐ gài lǎo guī lái jiào wǒ nà tuō shēn. 八姐騙我進房門，忽地 里蓋老歸來教我那脱身.” (The eighth sister cheated me to enter the room. Suddenly, the husband came back and helped me to escape.) In the Cultural Revolution, people in the towns of Chengdu called husbands gài gài er 蓋蓋儿 and wives hé hé er 合合儿, which was similar to the previous situations. The word liáo dīng 撩丁, also used as liáo dīng 寮丁 or liáo ding 遼丁, refers to currency of silver and gold. In chapter twenty-three of Zhāngxié zhuàngyuán 張協 狀元 [The Number One Scholar Zhangxie], written by anonymous people in the Southern Song dynasty, it reads “Qián yòu méi liāo dīng, mǐ yòu méi bàn shēng. 钱又没撩丁，米又没半升.” (There was no money and no food.) In the Yuan

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dynasty, Shi Junbao wrote in part two of Qǔjiāng chí 曲江池 [Qu Jiangchi] that “wǒ zhí zhe nǐ mèng sā le liāo dīng, dào zhé le běn. 我直着你夢撒了撩丁，倒折 了本.” (I thought you had no money and you even lost more.) In the Yuan dynasty, Jia Zhongming wrote in part one of Duì yù shū 對玉梳 [Dui Yu Shu] that “yǒu rì shǐ de lái chì shǒu kōng quán, mèng sā liāo dīng. 有ー日使的來赤手空拳，夢撒 撩丁.” (One day he spent all his money and left none.) Zhong Jixian wrote in the eighth volume of Tàipíng yuèfǔ 太平樂府 [Tai Ping Yue Fu] that “mèng sàn le àn dīng, tā cǎi nǐ yě bù jiàn dé. 夢散了案丁，他采你也不見得.” (He would not care about you now that you had no money.) The History of Zhou dynasty of Xīnbiān wǔdài shǐpínghuà 新編五代史評話 [Newly Organized Stories about the History of the Five dynasties] reads “Xiǎo rén shēn pàn méi gè liáo dīng, zěn shēng gǎn shuō hūn yān de huà. 小人身畔没個遼丁，怎生敢说婚烟的話.” (You had no money with you; how dare you speak of marriage.) The words miè piàn 篾片 mean accomplice, especially those helpers for the rich in gambling or whoring. In the Qing dynasty, Liyu wrote in Yìzhōng yuán 意 中緣 [Yi Zhong Yuan] that “wǒ dǔ huì jì shū yíng, piáo huì zuò miè piàn. 我赌會 記输赢，嫖会做篾片.” (I can remember those gains and losses in gambling and help others in whoring.) In the Ming dynasty, Gu Kuangsheng wrote in the eighth chapter of Zuìxǐng shí 醉醒石 [Zui Xing Shi] that “yǒu nà qiáng tuō sú zǐ dì, bì jìng jié nà xiē rén mò kè, tán shī lùn gǔ, xué wén mò shōu nà xiē miè piàn péi táng, tán qín gé wù, xué qīng zhì. 有那强脱俗子弟，毕竟结纳些オ人墨客，談诗論古， 學文墨；收納些篾片陪堂，谈琴格物，学清致.” (There were some awkward scholars who organized some real scholars to talk about poetry and history, study art, and collect some helpers to accompany them to play instruments, learn from new things, and act as if they were uncorrupted.) In the Qing dynasty, Buddhist Aina wrote in Dòupéng xiánhuà 豆棚閒話 [Dou Peng Jian Hua] that “gèng yǒu yì bān què shì làng lǐ fú píng, fèn chí lǐ chòu qū qū xiāng sì, lì biàn yī duī, zuò biàn yí kuài, bù zhāo ér lái, huī zhī bù qù, jiào zuò lǎo bái shǎng. míng miè piàn, yòu jiào hū bǎn, zhè dōu shì piáo xíng guǒ huà tóu. pì rú piáo kè běn lǐng bù jì de, wàng mén liú tì, bù dé shòu yòng, kào zhe yī tiáo miè piàn bāng tiē le, fāng dé jìn qù, suǒ yǐ jiào zuò miè piàn. 更有一般却是浪里浮萍，粪池里臭蛆蛆相似， 立便一堆，坐便一块，不招而來，揮之不去，叫做老白赏 . . . ー名篾片，又 叫忽板，这都是嫖行裹話頭. 譬如嫖客本領不済的，望门流涕，不得受用， 靠着一條篾片帮贴了，方得進去，所以叫做篾片.” [There were duckweed in the water and ugly worms in the manure pit as they stood together and sat close, coming without asking and would never leave. That’s where the nickname Lao Baishang comes from. An miè piàn 篾片 (a thin strip), also hū bǎn 忽板 (flick the board) were jargon words for whoring. For instance, if a whoremaster was not able enough to enter the brothel, then a thin strip would help him into the brothel; therefore, miè piàn 篾片 (a thin strip) was later used as an accomplice for them.] In the Qing dynasty, Liang Gongchen wrote in the fifth volume of collection three of Běidōngyuán bǐlù 北東園筆録 [Bei Dong Yuan Bi Lu] that “jū tíng zhǔ rén chái xìng, shì yǒu pū fù zài mén qián mǎi chái, yǒu rén xì chū duì yún: Chái mā mǎi chái dà dān xiǎo dān. jiē shà mén dì míng. mǒu yīng yuē: Miè piàn pò miè, zhǎng tuō duǎn tuō. jiē zhāng shuǐ dì míng. gài zuò zhōng shì guàn zuò méi zhě,

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 33 rén jiē xì hū zhī miè piàn. 居停主人柴姓，適有仆婦在門前買柴，友人戲出 對云： ‘柴妈買柴大担小担’. 皆厦門地名. 某应曰:‘篾片破篾，長拖短拖’.” 皆 漳水地名. 盖座中適慣作媒者，人皆戏呼之篾片.” (The owner of the house has a family name, Chai, which also means firewood. One day, there was a woman selling firewood outside the house, Chai’s friend joked that “the woman sold large and small loads of fire wood.” All the words are names of places in Xiamen. Then there was a sound replying to his joke. It said “the worn bamboo strips have long and short ones.” All the words are names of places in Zhangshui. And perhaps the one who joked before often worked as a media person so people nicknamed him Miepian 篾片.) The word niú zi 牛子 originated in middle Old Chinese with the meaning of cattle watcher. In recent China, it was used to refer to bumpkins. In the Song dynasty, Chen Yuanliang wrote in the eighth volume of Shìlín guǎngjì xùjí 事林 廣記續集[Sequel of Shi Lin Guang Ji] that “qǐ tán shì yǔ: Cūn rén, niú zǐ. 绮谈市 語:村人，牛子 (Folk language: Villagers were bumpkins.) In Innocent Death of Cuining of Jīngběn tōngsú xiǎoshuō 京本通俗小説 [Popular Fictions in Beijing Version], it reads “nà rén dà nù dào:’ Zhè niú zǐ hǎo shēng wú lǐ!’ lián shuò liǎng dāo, liú xiě zài dì. 那人大怒道: ‘这牛子好生無礼!’ 连搠兩刀，流血在.” (That man shouted “This bumpkin was too rude!” He stabbed him several times and the rude man fell on the ground, bleeding.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter ninety-three of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “nèi zhōng yī gè dà hàn dà mà dào:’ Lǎo niú zǐ, kuài bǎ nǚ ér hǎo hǎo dì sòng wǒ zuò hún jiā, wàn shì gān xiū, ruò shuō bàn gè bù zì, jiào nǐ men dōu shì gè sǐ. 内中一 個大漢大骂道:‘老牛子，快把女儿好好地送我做渾家，萬事干休，若説半个 不字，教你們都是箇死’.” (There was a big fellow inside the house. He swore, “Old man, you’d better give your daughter to me as my wife and then nothing will happen, or, you’ll all be dead.”) It was also jargon used by outlaws that meant a capture. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter seventy-three of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “ná dé yí gè niú zǐ, yǒu qī bā gè chē xiāng, yòu yǒu jǐ shù shào bàng. 拿得一个牛子，有七八個車箱，又有幾 束哨棒.” (They caught a capture with seven or eight boxes and a few bundles of sticks.) In the Qing dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume fifteen of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] that “Zhè niú zǐ hǎo shēng wú lǐ. 这牛子好生無礼.” (This capture was so rude.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in chapter thirty-seven of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] that “dà zì jiāo jí zài chuāng zi wài miàn tīng dé zǒu rén lái dào:” Gē ge, nǐ zhǐ hǎo tuī le zhè niú zǐ xiū! yuán lái qiǎng rén shì yǔ huà huàn shā rén zuò tuī niú zǐ. 大字焦吉在窗子外面听得 . . . 走人來道: ‘哥哥，你 只好推了這牛子休! 元來强人市语話唤殺人做推牛子 . ’.” (Dazi Jiaoji heard outside the window there came a person and said, “Brother, you have to kill the man.” In fact, outlaws referred to killing as “Tui Niu Zi.”) Niú zi 牛子can be shortened to niú 牛. In the Yuan dynasty, Qin Jianfu wrote in the third chapter of Zhàolǐ ràngféi 趙禮讓肥 [Zhao Li Rang Fei] that “jīn rì ná zhù yī tóu niú, yù dài shā hài tā, tā āi gào mǒu, gào yī gè shí chén jiǎ xiàn, xià shān cí bié tā nà lǎo mǔ hé xiōng zhǎng qù le. 今日拿住一頭牛，欲待殺害他，他哀告某，告一個時辰假限，下山辞

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Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu

别他那老母和兄長去了.” (Today we caught a man. When we were about to kill him, he begged to have an hour to see his mother and brother.) The words pū wò 鋪卧 mean quilts and bedding. In the Yuan dynasty, Shihui wrote in Yōuguī jì 幽閨記 [You Gui Ji] that “Yì chéng bù céng zhǔn bèi jí pū chén, bǎ zì jǐ de pù wò ná chū lái le. 驿丞不曾准备及鋪陈，把自己的鋪卧拿出來了.” (Yichen has not prepared any bedding and quilts, so he gave Yichen his own.) In the second chapter of Shén nú ér 神奴兒 [Shen Nu Er], written by an anonymous author, it reads “wǒ zé pà zǒu de nǐ shēn zi kùn, yòu xián zhè pù wò lěng, wǒ yǔ nǐ zhǒng zháo huǒ, tíng zhe cán dēng. 我則怕走的你身子困，又嫌这鋪卧冷， 我與你種着火，停着残燈.” (I am afraid you will be fatigued after walking, and you might mind that the quilts and bedding are not warm enough. I will set fire with you and light the candle.) All of these examples are nouns. The words ái guāng 挨光, also used as ái guāng 捱光, mean to have affairs between men and women. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Nai’an wrote in chapter twentyfour of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “dàn fán ái guāng zuì nán, shí fēn guāng shí, shǐ qián dào jiǔ fēn jiǔ lí, yě yǒu nán chéng jiù chù. 但凡 捱光最難，十分光時，使钱到九分九厘，也有難成就處.” (To have an affair is the hardest. It will be hard even if you spend almost a hundred percent of your efforts.) In the Ming dynasty, Louifox wrote in the third chapter of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Golden Lotus] that “dàn fán ‘āi guāng’ liǎng gè zì zuì nán. zěn de shì āi guāng? bǐ rú jīn sú hū ‘tōu qíng’ jiù shì le. 但凡 ‘挨光’ 两個字最難. 怎的是挨 光?比如今俗呼’ 偷情’ 就是了.” (挨光Ái guāng is the hardest. What is ái guāng 挨光? It is the same as what we call “love affair” nowadays.) In the Ming dynasty, Ling Mengchu wrote in the third volume of the Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Stories] that “Nǎi qián rì tōu mián, wàng xiǎng qiáng jìn āi guāng de suǒ zài. 乃前日偷眠，妄想强進挨光的所在.” (You slept secretly last night and hoped to break into where there was a love affair.) The words chán zhàng 纏仗, also used as chán zhàng 纏障 or chán zhàng 纏帐, mean to tangle with somebody or something. In the Yuan dynasty, Guan Hanqin wrote in chapter two of Bàiyuè tíng 拜月亭 [Bai Yue Ting] that “zěn shēng bān bù yīng dāng, tuō zhuó yī shang, gǎn de zhè xiē tiān xíng hǎo chán zhàng. 怎生 般不應当，脱着衣裳，感得这些天行好缠仗.” (How would it be like this? He took off his clothes and felt that these days were hard to deal with.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter eighteen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Water Margin] that “Gēge, nǐ xiū yào duō shuō, zhǐ gù ān pái zǒu lù, bú yào chán zhàng. 哥哥，你休要多说，只顾安排走路，不要纏障.” (Do not say too much, my elder brother, just arrange your trip and do not bother others or make any trouble.) In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter sixteen of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “Zhè hóu ér miǎn qiǎng chán zhàng, wǒ dào shǐ qiāng. tā què shǐ quán. 这猴儿勉强纏帐，我倒使枪. 他却使拳.” (The monkey struggled to fight back. I used the spear but he used only his fist.) In the Ming dynasty, Ling Mengchu wrote in the fourth volume of the Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Stories] “bù nài fán yǔ nǐ chán zhàng, qiě jiāng jú huā qù yǔ jiě jie chā dài zé gū. 不耐煩與你纏障，且將菊花去与姐姐插戴則箍.”

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 35 (I do not want to bother you. I am going to send the chrysanthemum to my sister to wear.) In the Qing dynasty, Yu Wanchun wrote in chapter seventy-two of Dàngkòu zhì 蕩寇志 [Dang Kou Zhi] that “wǒ liào tā zǎo wǎn bì yǒu rén lái chán zhàng, dài tā lái shí, nǐ xū yī wǒ rú cǐ rú cǐ zuò yòng. 我料他早晚必有人来缠障，待他来 時，你须依我如此如此作用.” (I knew he would come to bother sooner or later. When he comes, you have to do as I tell you.) The words fā jiāo 發蛟 mean the flood of mountain torrents. People in folk tales thought that the flood was caused by the dragon. In the Qing dynasty, Shi Menglan wrote in the fifth volume of Zhǐyuán bǐtán 止園筆談 [Zhi Yuan Bi Tan] that “Shuǐ píng fǔ fā bǐ jiē shān, shān shuǐ shù shí nián yī yì, lǜ jiē xué tián piāo wū, tǔ rén wèi zhī fā jiāo. 水平府發鄙皆山，山水数十年一溢，率皆穴田飘屋，土人谓 之發蛟.” (There were mountains all around the County Shuiping and the flood happened every ten years. Therefore, everywhere where there floated houses and villagers called this fā jiāo 發蛟.) In the Qing dynasty, Xunkun wrote in the second part of Xuǎnzhāi ǒubǐ 選齋偶筆 [Zhu Qi Ou Bi] that “yǒu yī dì liǎng shān xiāng duì, yī lǎo rén lóu jū, jiāng qǐn, yǔ zhōng hū jiàn chuāng shàng guāng míng rú zhòu, qǐ shì zhī, guāng zài duì shān, jīng yuē: Jiāng fā jiāo yǐ! 有一地兩山相對，一老 人楼居，將寝，雨中忽見窗上光明如昼，起视之，光在對山，惊曰： ‘將發 蛟矣!’” (There was a place where two mountains stood opposite. An old man lived in a house. One day, when he was about to sleep, he found there was something shining in the rain. He got up and observed that the light was from the opposite mountain. He cried “It is going to flood!”) Xia Jingqu wrote in the ninth chapter of Yěsǒu pùyán 野叟曝言 [Ye Sou Pu Yan] that “dào de háng zhōu, fāng zhī nà zéi tū zài líng yǐn sì guà tà, zhèng wǎng nà lǐ zhǎo tā, què yù xī hú hòu shān fā jiāo, xiǎn xiē ér nòng dào shuǐ guǒ qù. 到得杭州,方知那贼禿在靈隐寺挂遢，正往那里找 他，却遇西湖後山發蛟，险些兒弄到水裹去.” (When arriving in Hangzhou, he heard that the monk was in the Lingyin Temple. He was about to find the monk, only to come across the flood in the back mountain of the West Lake. He nearly fell down into the water.) The word shāo nǎo 蒿恼, also written as hāo nǎo 薅恼, means to harass or to make trouble. In the Yuan dynasty, Gaoming wrote in chapter thirty-three of Pípá jì 琵琶記 [The Story of Pipa] that “shuí zhī zhuàng zhe liǎng gè fēng zi, zì lái hāo nǎo rén yī chǎng. 誰知撞着两個風子，自來蒿惱人一場.” (Who would have known that they might confront two mad people who made a lot of trouble.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter ninety-two of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “rú shì de hāo nǎo le liǎng yè, tiān míng yòu lái gōng chéng: Jūn shì shí kè bù dé hé yǎn. 如是的蒿惱了两夜，天明又來攻城:軍士時 刻不得合眼.” (They were harassed by the enemies for two nights and at day they were intruded upon, making them unable to sleep totally.) In chapter twenty-four, he wrote that “Qīng hé xiàn guǒ yǒu jǐ gè jiān zhà de fú làng zǐ dì men, què lái tā jiā guǒ hāo nǎo. 清河縣裹有幾個奸詐的浮浪子弟們,却來他家裹薅惱.” (There were a few crafty bastards in Qinghe County who often came to his house to make trouble.) In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in chapter thirty-one of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “zhǐ shì wǒ zài cǐ zhù le duō nián, cóng bù céng hāo nǎo xiāng lín, qī yā liáng jiàn. 只是我在此住了多年，

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從不曾薅恼鄉邻，欺压良賤.” (Now that I have lived here for many years. I have never harassed the neighbors or bully the good and little.) The word also means to worry and feel anxious. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter one hundred seven of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “Dài wáng jiǔ bú dào duàn niáng niáng gōng zhōng le, duàn niáng niáng yīn cǐ hāo nǎo. 大王久 不到段娘娘宫中了，段娘娘因此蒿惱.” (The emperor has not visited the Imperial Mistress Duan, and that made her anxious.) In the Qing dynasty, Pu Songling wrote in one story of the Liáozhāi zhìyì 聊齋志異 [Ghost Stories] that “Shēng píng bù xí bá shè, pū miàn zhǔ shā, shǐ rén hāo nǎo. 生平不習跋涉，扑面麈沙，使人 薅惱.” (He had never traveled like this in his previous life, so he felt very anxious with the sand and dust coming right to his face.) The words hú chái 胡柴 mean to speak nonsense. In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter forty-one of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “Nà pō hóu tóu, wǒ yǔ nǐ yǒu shèn qīn qíng? nǐ zài zhè guǒ mǎn kǒu hú chái, chuò shèn me jīng ér? 那泼猴頭，我與你有甚亲情?你在這裹満口胡柴，绰甚 么經兒?” (You damned monkey. What do you think I am to you? How dare you speak nonsense here.) In chapter sixty-eight, he wrote that “Nǐ zhè hé shàng shén bù zhī lǐ, zěn mó gǎn zhè děng mǎn kǒu hú chái. 你这和尚甚不知礼，怎麽敢這 等満口胡柴.” (The official spoke to him madly, “What a rude monk you are to talk such nonsense.”) In the Yuan dynasty, Gaoming wrote in chapter seventeen of Pípá jì 琵琶記 [The Story of Pipa] that “chǒu bái nǐ bù wén kǒng fū zǐ shuō, yǒu mǎ zhě jiè rén chéng zhī, jīn wáng yǐ fū. mò bái kǒu hú chái. [丑白] 你不聞孔夫 子説，有馬者借人乘之，今亡已夫. [末白] ー口胡柴.” (Chou said, “Confucius once observed that the one who had a horse but could not tame it would let others ride it. This kind of spirit has been dead out now.” Mo said, “This is nonsense.”) Jǎnjìng 剪徑 (take a robbery), also written as jiǎnjìng 剪迳, means to take part in highway robbery. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter twenty-seven of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “xiǎo rén zhī zài cǐ dà shù pō xià jiǎn jìng. 小人只在此大樹坡下剪徑.” (I only rob under this tree.) In the Jīngběn tōngsú xiǎoshuō 京本通俗小説 [Popular Stories from Capital Editions], it reads “Nǐ zhè jiǎn jìng de máo tuán, xiǎo rén xū rèn dé nǐ. 你这剪徑的毛團，小 人須認得你.” (I should have known such a robber like you.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume twenty-one of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言.” [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] that “zhè zuò zhuāng, qián lín jiǎn jìng dào, bèi kào shā rén gāng. 这座荘，前臨剪徑道，背靠杀人岡.” (This mansion was in such a place where its front path was full of robbers and its back road full of murderers.) In volume fifteen of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World], he also wrote that “nǐ zhè jiǎn jìng de máo tuán, wǒ xū shì rèn dé nǐ. 你這剪逕的毛團，我須是認得你.” (I should have known such a robber like you.) Lè kèn 勒掯 has two meanings. First, it means to blackmail. In the Yuan dynasty, Guan Hanqing wrote in the first chapter of Lǔ zhāi láng 魯齋郎 [Lu Su Lang] that “xiū xiǎng kěn yú rén fāng biàn, zhūn yī piàn hài rén xīn, lè kèn le xiē yǎng jiā qián. 休想肯与人方便，衠一片害人心，勒掯了些养家钱.” (Do not wish to cheat others and earn their money by giving them a so-called advantage or

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 37 privilege.) In the Yuan dynasty, Zheng Tingyu wrote in chapter two of Kànqián nú 看錢奴 [Kan Qian Nu] that “wǒ mà nǐ gè lè kèn qióng mín hěn yuán wài, huò shì yǒu rén jiā diǎn duàn pǐ, huò shì yǒu rén jiā dāng huán chāi, nǐ zé dài jiā bèi fàng jiě. 我骂你個勒掯窮民狠员外，或是有人家典缎匹，或是有人家當鐶钗，你 則待加倍放解.” (I curse you as a ruthless ministry councillor who gained even more profits when others have to live on selling their clothes and jewelry.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter seventeen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “wǒ què yào nǐ yín zi shí, biàn shì lè kèn nǐ. 我却 要你銀子時，便是勒掯你.” (If I accept your silver, I was using you rather than being your real friend.) Second, it means to make difficulties for somebody or force others to do something. In the Yuan dynasty, Shang Zhongxian wrote in the second chapter of Dānbiān duóshuò 單鞭奪槊 [Dan Bian Duo Shuo] that “Gē ge yào ráo tā biàn bà, bù xiāo lái lè kèn wǒ. 哥哥要饶他便罢，不消来勒掯我.” (If [my elder brother] you want to forgive, just do as you want. Do not force me to follow your decision.) In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter eightyfour of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “gē ge, nǐ lè kèn nà gè lī, bù zuò hé shàng yě róng yì, zhǐ xiāo bàn nián bù tì tóu, biàn zhǎng chū máo lái yě. 哥哥,你勒掯那个哩，不做和尚也容易，只消半年不剃頭，便長出毛来也.” (You do not have to push yourself like this. If you are not willing to be a monk, it is as easy as abandoning shaving your hair and letting your hair grow.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in the eighth volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] that “Xiǎo rén yīn shì nián lǎo ài zǐ, yào zǎo yǔ tā wán hūn. jǐ cì yāng méi qù shuō, yào qǔ xí fù, nà liú bǐng yì zhǐ tuī nǚ ér nián jì shàng xiǎo, lè kèn bù xǔ. 小人因是年老爱子，要早與他完婚. 几次央媒去説，要娶媳妇，那劉秉义只推女儿年纪尚小，勒掯不許.” (I am the apple of my parents’ eye, and I have to marry earlier to comfort them. However, though I sent people to discuss with him about marrying his daughter several times, he gave excuses to say that she was too young to be pushed into marriage.) Luózào 囉唣, also used as luó zào 囉唕, means to harass or to wrangle. In The History of the Han dynasty of Xīnbiān wǔdàishǐ pínghuà 新编五代史平話 [Newly Organized Stories about the History of the Five dynasties], it reads “dì èr rì, zhǐ jiàn yī zhèn jūn mǎ zài zhuāng mén wài luō zào. 第二日，只見一阵军馬在莊門外囉 唣.” (The next day, there were a group of soldiers and horses making much noise outside the mansion.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in the second chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “zhè sī men dà nòng, bì rán zǎo wǎn yào lái ǎn cūn zhōng luō zào. 这厮們大弄，必然早晚要來俺村中 囉唣.” (These guys are such that they will make trouble for our village sooner or later.) In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter twenty-four of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “Táng sān zàng suī shì gù rén, xū yào fáng bèi tā shǒu xià rén luō zào, bù kě jīng dòng tā zhī. 唐三藏虽是故人，須要防備他 手下人囉唣，不可惊动他知.” (Although Tang Sanzang is our acquaintance, we have to prevent his apprentices from making trouble and bothering us and him.) In the Qing dynasty, Kong Shangren wrote in Táohuā shàn 桃花扇 [The Peach Blossom Fan] that “jiù jiāo yǔ fèng fǔ jiā rén, zǎo bì zhái mén, bù xǔ zài lái luō

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zào. 就交與凤抚家人，早閉宅門，不許再來囉唣.” (Let the Fengfu take care of the house and close the door early, having no one to bother.) All the previously exemplified words are verbs. Bèi lài 憊赖 (naughty), also used as bèi lǎn 憊懒, pō lài 潑赖, pài lài 派赖, or bèi lài 被赖, means rascal and to be dishonest. In the Yuan dynasty, Guan Hanqing wrote in the first chapter of Dòué yuān 實娥冤 [Dou E Yuan] that “měi fù rén wǒ jiàn guò wàn qiān xiàng wài, bù shì zhè xiǎo nī zǐ shēng de shí fēn bèi lài. 美 婦人我見過萬千向外，不似这小妮子生得十分憊赖.” (I have seen thousands of beauties but none of them had such naughty characters like you.) In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter thirty-nine of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “zhè hóu zi bèi lài lī, shuō qù jiù qù, zhǐ pà liū jìn lái jiù tōu. 這猴 子憊賴哩，説去就去，只怕溜進來就偷.” (This monkey was very much a rascal. He admitted at once, but turned to steal upon his entry.) In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in chapter fifteen of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “zhè rén qǐ bú shì bèi lǎn xiǎo rén de xíng jìng le. 这人岂不是 憊懒小人的行徑了.” (Does not he act like a rascal person?) In the Yuan dynasty, Shang Zhongxian wrote in the second chapter of Dānbān duó shuò 單般奪槊 [Dan Bian Duo Shuo] that “lǎo xú què yě tè bèi lài, zhè bú shì shuō huà, zhè shì hài rén xìng mìng lī. 老徐却也忒憊賴，這不是説話，這是害人性命哩.” (The old Xu was so sly that he was not telling the truth; rather, he was sending others to die.) In the second chapter of Jiàng sāng qí 降桑棋 [Jiang Sang Qi], written by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it reads “nǐ hái shuō zuǐ lī, nǐ píng cháng pài lài, dōng hán tiān dào, zhe wǒ zài zhè lǐ jiǔ děng, xiǎn xiē ér dòng de wǒ tuǐ zhuàn jīn. 你還説嘴哩，你平常派賴，冬寒天道, 着我在這里久等，險些 儿冻的我腿转筋.” (How could you still find excuses? You were often dishonest to make me wait on such a cold day and my legs were frozen into a cramp.) In the Ming dynasty, Liu Yuanqin wrote in the first volume of Xiányì biān 賢奕編 [Xian Yi Bian] that “Nài hé zhe yī gè bèi lài hé shàng wǎng lái qí zhōng zāi. 奈何着一 個被賴和尚往來其中哉.” (What could they do but to have one rascal monk to interrelate between them?.) Chē zhē 唓嗻 (very, excellent), also used as chē zh 嗻唓ē, zhā shā 查沙, or shē zhē 奢遮, means very or to a high degree. In the Yuan dynasty, Wang Shifu wrote in the fourth chapter of the fourth series of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [Romance of the Western Chamber] that “Bú shì wǒ xīn xié, zì bié lí yǐ hòu, dào xī rì chū xié, chóu dé lái dǒu jùn, shòu dé lái chē zhē. 不是我心邪，自别離已後，到西日初斜， 愁得來陡峻，瘦得來唓嗻.” (It is not my problem. Since we parted, I have a lot of anxiety and weight loss.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume fourteen of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] that “yòu xiě de suàn dé, yòu shì chē zhē dà guān fǔ dì chū shēn, zhǐ yào jià gè dú shū guān rén. 又寫得算得，又是唓嗻大官府第出身，只要嫁個读書官人.” (She could read and write, and she was born into such a rich and noble family, and yet all she wanted was to marry an official scholar.) In the song Jíxián shí 集 賢實 [Ji Xian Bao], written by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it reads “tā shēng de yù róng qīng guó yòu qīng chéng, jùn de chē zhē qiào de téng. 他生 的玉容傾国又傾城，俊的唓嗻俏的疼.” (His appearance was so handsome and

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 39 nice.) In the Yuan dynasty, Shang Zhongxian wrote in the third chapter of Qìyīng bù 氣英布 [Qi Ying Bu] that “Chá shā zhe dǎ sǐ qí lín shǒu, zhè bàn hé ér gǎn mà biàn le zhū hóu. 查沙着打死麒麟手，這半合兒敢骂遍了諸侯.” (He was so gallant that he killed the noble and cursed all the ducks in a moment.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter twenty-two of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸 全傳[Water Margin] that “dà hàn, nǐ bù rèn de zhè wèi shē zhē de yā sī. 大漢， 你不認的這位奢遮的押司.” (My king, do not you know this great leader of this region?) In the tenth volume of Jīngběn tōngsú xiǎoshuō 京本通俗小説 [Popular Stories from Capital Editions], it reads “tā yǒu gè huā zhī yě sì nǚ ér, xiàn zài yī gè shē zhē qù chù. 他有個花枝也似女兒，獻在一個奢遮去處.” (He had a very pretty daughter who was sent to a very decent place.) È chā 恶叉 (ugly and fierce), also used as è chà 恶姹, means fierce and monstrous. In the song Mǎntíng fāng 滿庭芳 [Man Ting Fang], written by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it reads “xīn è chā yòu dú zuì hěn, xìng sōu shǎo xǐ duō chēn. bǎi bān de dōu nán shì jìn. 心恶叉又毒最狠，性搜少喜多嗔.” 百 般的都難视近.” (She had a ferocious heart and a peculiar temper. She was very likely to be mad and very less likely to be happy and everyone would not dare to come close to her.) In the Ming dynasty, Yangna wrote in the seventh chapter of Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] that “Xiǎn è chà de yí róng, chōng tiān rù dì shì xióng, hàn lǐng bá shān wēi zhòng. 显恶姹的儀容，冲天入地勢 雄，撼嶺拔山威重.” (He has a fierce-looking, great air as if he can fly to the sky and plunge into the ground and powerful strength as though he can move the mountains.) In the second chapter of Yúqiáo jì 漁樵記 [Yu Qiao Ji], written by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it reads “Āi, liú jiā nǚ lái, nǐ zěn shēng zhǐ xué de zhè bān è chā bái lài! (è chā bái lài, xiōng hěn bù jiǎng lǐ.) 哎，劉家 女俫，你怎生只學的這般恶叉白赖!(恶叉白赖，凶狠不講理).” (Oh, Miss Liu, how can you become so ferocious and unreasonable?) Jiǎo chà 脚叉 (strange) means strange, suspicious, and queer. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter sixty-two of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Water Margin] that “wǒ diàn guǒ yǒu liǎng gè rén, hǎo shēng jiǎo yòu, bù zhī shì yě bú shì. 我店裹有两個人，好生脚又、不知是也不是.” (There were two strange men in my store. I did not know whether or not they should be suspicious.) In the Ming dynasty, Luo Guanzhong wrote in chapter twenty-four of the Sānsuì píngyāo zhuàn 三遂平妖傳 [Romance of the San Sui Ping Yao Zhuan] that “dài zhào dù nèi zì sī liang, liǎng gè yán yǔ bù shì dōng jīng rén, nèn dì gè gū diào diào de xíng, liǎng gè bù xiàng shì fū qī, shì bù yī xīn, yǒu xiē jiǎo chā yàng zi. 待詔肚 内自思量，两個言语不似東京人，恁地個孤調調的行，两個不像是夫妻，事 不一心，有些脚叉样子.” (When Zhao was pondering over, two strange people with different accents came closer, who were unlike a couple as they seemed not to think about the thing with the same heart, something like acting weird.) Mù gǔ 慕古 (worship or miss the past), also used as mù gǔ 暮古, means worship or miss the passing time or passing people. In the Jin dynasty, Dong Xieyuan wrote in the first volume of Xīxiāngjì zhūgōngdiào 西廂記諸宫調 [The Style of Songs in the Romance of the Western Chamber] that “xiū mù gǔ, rén shēng bǎi suì rú zhāo lù. 休慕古，人生百岁如朝露.” (Do not miss the events or people that had

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passed, one’s life, even though 100 years old, is short just like morning dew.) In the Yuan dynasty, Kang Jinzhi wrote in Lǐkuí fùjīng 李逵負荆 [The Appologies of Likui] that “Kān xiào shān ér tè mù gǔ, wú shì kōng jiāng tóu gòng dǔ. 堪笑山兒 忒幕古，無事空將頭共赌.” (It is funny that Shan [my son] is always missing the past that there is nothing to do but gambling.) In the Yuan dynasty, Guan Hanqing wrote in the first chapter of Wǔhóu yàn 五侯宴 [Wu Hou Yan] that “nèn shí jié, lǎo rén jiā mù gǔ, yǔ rén jiā zhòng shēng huó nán zuò. 恁時節，老人家暮古，與 人家重生活難做.” (The old man is missing the passing times at his age. It would be difficult for him to do heavy work.) In the Yuan dynasty, Lizhi wrote in Jìngqí zhàn jīnguī 敬齊占今鮭 [Jing Qi Zhan Jin Gui] that “jīn rén yǐ bù dá quán biàn zhě yuē mù gǔ, gài wèi gǔ ér bù jīn yě. 今人以不達權變者曰幕古，盖謂古而不 今也.” (Nowadays people take it as mù 慕古 [missing the old days] that changes do not take place, they call it gǔ 古 [old days, not belonging to the time of today].) Nāng chuài 囊揣 (weak), also used as nàng zhuì 儾惴, means weak and incapable or useless. In the Yuan dynasty, Wang Shifu wrote in the fourth chapter of the fifth series of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [Romance of the Western Chamber] that “Ǎn jiě jie gèng zuò dào ruǎn ruò nāng chuài, zěn jià nà bù zhí qián rén yàng zhū gǒu. 俺姐姐更做道軟弱囊揣，怎嫁那不值錢人样猪狗.” (My sister was so nāng chuài 囊揣 [vulnerable] that she was not able to be married to the shabby man.) In the Yuan dynasty, Di Jun Hou wrote in the first chapter of Jiè zhī tuī 介之 推 [Jie Zhitui] that, “dà tài zǐ shēn shēng ruǎn ruò, xiǎo tài zǐ zhòng ěr nāng chuài. 大太子申生軟弱，小太子重耳囊揣.” (The elder prince Shensheng [name] was weak and so 囊揣nāng chuài (weak) was the younger prince Zhong’er.) In the Yuan dynasty, Gao Maoqin wrote in the second chapter of Érnǚ tuányuán 兒女 團圆 [The Reunion of Children] that “dào jiāng wǒ pī miàn qiǎng bái, qī fù zán ruǎn ruò nāng chuài. 倒將我劈面搶白，欺負咱軟弱囊揣.” (He did critique me to my face just because I was nāng chuài 囊揣 [weak].) In the Ming dynasty, Yangna wrote in chapter twenty-one of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “zhuāng yán de wèi bì néng píng lùn, nàng zhuì de dào gǎn néng qín shèn. 庄 严的未必能評論，儾惴的倒敢能勤慎.” (Those who are powerful may not be able to make comments, but those who are nāng chuài 囊揣 [weak] can always do something great.) These examples are adjectives. 1.3.2 WordsremaininginmodernMandarindialects There are words that no longer exist in modern Mandarin. Among these, some words may still exist in certain dialects, as can be seen in the following examples. Gū guǎi 孤拐 (strange), also used as gǔ guǎi 古拐 (strange), has two meanings. First, it means the ankle bone as the projecting part of the foot on either side. In the Yuan dynasty, Gong Tianting wrote in the first chapter of Fànzhāng nánshǔ 范張難黍 [Fan Zhang Ji Shu] that “nǐ měi shuō dào jǐ shí, zǎo bú shì là yuè lǐ, bù dòng xià wǒ de gū guǎi lái. 你每説到几時，早不是腊月里，不凍下我的孤拐 來.” (Every time you talk for a long time, I always feel so cold that my legs are

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 41 frozen although it is no longer the cold winter.) In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter fifteen of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “Xíng zhě yuē: ‘Shēn guò hú guǎi lái, gè dǎ wǔ gùn jiàn miàn, yǔ lǎo sūn sàn sàn xīn. 行 者曰:‘伸過狐拐來，各打五棍見面，与老孫散散心’.” (Xingzhe said, “Stretch your hands and receive five hits for each of you to calm down”.) In the Yuan dynasty, Li Wenwei wrote in chapter three of Yànqīng bóyú 燕青博魚 [Teng Qing Bo Yu] that “Wǒ ruò fù le nǐ de xīn ā, dēng cǎo dǎ zhé jiǎo gǔ guǎi, xiàn bào zài nǐ yǎn lǐ. 我若負了你的心呵，灯草打折脚古拐，现報在你眼里.” (If I betray you, my legs shall be cut by grass. You can see the retribution at once.) Second, it means cheekbone. In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter thirty-six of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “zhǐ jiàn xíng zhě zhuàng jìn lái le, zhēn gè shēng de chǒu lòu, qī gāo bā dī gū guǎi liǎn. liǎng zhī huáng yǎn qíng, yī gè kē é tóu. 只見行者撞進來了，真個生得丑陋，七高八低孤拐脸. 兩隻黄 眼晴，一個磕額頭.” (Xingzhe came in, who was so ugly as his face was bumpy and rough with two yellow eyes and a projecting forehead.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter sixty-one of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “gāo gāo ér de gū guǎi, dà dà de yǎn jīng, zuì gān jìng shuǎng lì de. 高高儿的孤拐，大大的眼睛，最乾净爽利的.” (He had high cheekbones and big eyes which were very clean and fresh.) This word is still used in many northern dialects in China. Lǎo gōng 老公 (husband) is the vulgar word for husband. In the Yuan dynasty, Yang Xianzhi wrote in the third chapter of Kù hán tíng 酷寒亭 [Ku Han Ting] that “wǒ lǎo gōng bù zài jiā, wǒ hé nǐ yǒng yuǎn zuò fū qī. 我老公不在家，我 和你永远做夫妻.” (My husband was not at home. I can have fun with you all the time.) In Jīngběn tōngsú xiǎoshuō 京本通俗小説 [Popular Stories from Capital Editions], it reads “wǒ zài jiā zhōng yě jià le yī gè xiǎo lǎo gōng. 我在家中也嫁 了一個小老公.” (I am also married to a younger husband.) In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter twenty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “Dà guān rén zěn mó bù rèn dé tā lǎo gōng, biàn shì měi rì zài xiàn qián mài shú shí de. 大官人怎麽不認得他老公，便是每日在縣前卖熟食的.” (How could the official not know his husband who sold cooked food before the county?) Nowadays, in Guangdong and Ningbo, among other places in China, people still call their husband lǎo gōng 老公 (husband), and it is becoming popular in many other parts of the world as well. Wàng tóu 望頭 (looking forward) means hope. In the Ming dynasty, Ling Mengchu wrote in the second volume of the Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Stories] that “Fù mǔ jiàn tā nián zhǎng, yào tì tā qǔ qīn, guó néng jiù xīn guǒ yǒu wàng tóu le. 父母見他年長，要替他娶亲，国能就心裹有望頭了.” (His parents thought he was old enough to get married, so they planned to arrange the engagement. So Guoneng was hoping for his marriage.) In the Yuan dynasty, Wu Hanchen wrote in the first chapter of Lǎo shēng ér 老生兒 [Lao Sheng Er] that “Ǎn lǎo de ruò dà nián jì, jiàn yǒu xiē ér wàng tóu, huān xǐ bù jìn. 俺老的偌大年纪，見 有些兒望頭,欢喜不尽.” (At such an age as me, I feel so happy with hope in my heart.) This word still exists in dialects of the Wu and Xiang regions. In Mandarin Chinese, people usually say pàn tou 盼头 (hope).

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Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu

Zuǐ mǒ ér 嘴抹儿 (eloquence) means eloquence and the ability to make lyrical speech. In the Yuan dynasty, Qin Jianfu wrote in the third chapter of Jiǎnfà dàibīn 剪髮待賓 [Jian Fa Dai Bao] that “Ǎn liǎng gè bú huì yíng shēng mǎi mài, quán píng zuǐ mǒ ér guò qí rì yuè. 俺两個不会营生買卖，全凭嘴抹儿過其日月.” (We two are not good at doing business, so we had to depend on our eloquent speech.) In the Ming dynasty, Lan Ling Xiao Xiaosheng wrote in chapter twenty-one of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Golden Lotus] that “nǐ kàn zéi xiǎo yín fù xiōng, tā chuài zài ní guǒ, bǎ rén bàn le yī jiāo, tā hái shuō yǒu rén chuài ní le tā de xié qià shì nà yī gè ér, jiù méi xiē zuǐ mǒ ér. 你看贼小淫婦兄，他踹在泥裹，把人绊了一 交，他还説有人踹泥了他的鞋; 恰是那一個兒，就没些嘴抹儿.” (Look, that filthy woman who fell down in the mud tripped a man, yet she still claimed that he smudged her shoes. Unfortunately, the man was not good at talking that he could not reply.) In the south of Lu and north of Su in China, people call those talented ones yǒu mǒ ér 有抹儿, those who were craftsmen yǒu shǒu mǒ ér 有手抹兒 (hand skillful) and those eloquent people yǒu zuǐ mǒ ér 有嘴抹兒 (eloquent speech). All these examples are nouns. Bāng chèn 帮襯 (help), also used as bāng cùn 帮寸 (assist), means to help somebody with something. In the second chapter of Liúxié jì 留鞋記 [Liu Xie Ji], written by an anonymous author (or Zengrui, as is said by many people) of the Yuan dynasty, it reads “yì tiān dà shì dōu zài zhè diàn guǒ, nǐ qǐ kě bù bāng chèn zhe wǒ. 一天大事都在這殿裹，你豈可不帮襯着我 (All the big issues are solved in this hall; how can you not help me with these?) In the Yuan dynasty, Yuan Yujin wrote in the song Méng xīn 盟心 [Meng Xin] that “Piān yún xiàng gǎn hòu ēn, zì rán jí lì bāng chèn, chéng cǐ měi shì. 翩雲向感厚恩，自然極力幫襯，成此美 事.” (Pianyun was always very grateful, so he tried his best to help in completing things.) In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter twenty-four of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “yǒu jiàn shì qiú jiù jiù bāng chèn bāng chèn. 有件事求舅舅帮襯帮襯) (I have something that needs the help of my uncle.) In the Ming dynasty, Wu Chengen wrote in chapter thirty-eight of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [Journey to the West] that “zhè gè mǎi mài wǒ yě qù de, guǒ shì xiǎo de shí shí de bāng cùn, wǒ yě yǔ nǐ jiǎng gè míng bái. 这個买卖我也去得，果 是晓得實實的幫寸，我也與你講個明白.” (I have to get involved in this issue too since I know how to give real help and I will tell you honestly.) This word is still used in dialects in Beijing and in Mandarin; people usually say bāng zhù 帮 助 (help) or bāng bǔ 帮补 (help). Chě dàn 扯淡 (nonsense) means to make nonsense. In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in the seventh volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] that “Tā men hǎo sì jiàn guǐ yì bān, wǒ hǎo xiàng zuò mèng yì bān, zuò mèng de xǐng le, yě zhǐ chě dàn. 他們好似見鬼一般，我好 像做梦一般，做夢的醒了，也只扯淡.” (When they see me they act as if they have seen a ghost. I also feel like I am dreaming and when I wake up from the dream, I will make nonsense.) In the Qing dynasty, Xi Zhousheng wrote in the second chapter of Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [Xing Shi Yin Yuan Zhuan] “nǐ méi de chě dàn, nǐ rèn dé wǒ shì shuí. 你没的扯淡，你認得我是誰.” (Do not make nonsense. Do you know who I am?) In the Ming dynasty, Lan Ling Xiao

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 43 Xiaosheng wrote in chapter fourteen of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Golden Lotus] that “Xī mén qìng dào: Méi de chě dàn, zhè liǎng rì hǎo bù xún yè de shén jǐn, pà zěn de. 西門庆道:没的扯淡，这兩日好不巡夜的甚紧，怕怎的.” (Ximen Qing said, “Do not make bullshit. The night-watchers are quite cautious these days, so there is no need to worry about anything.”) In the Ming dynasty, Tian Rucheng wrote that “Yú háng yǒu huì běn yǔ ér qiǎo wèi qiào yǔ zhě, rú gòu rén cháo wǒ yuē zī yá, hú shuō yuē ‘chě dàn jū’ zhè gè cí xiàn zài bǎo cún zài jiāng zhè jí hú nán děng dì fāng yán lǐ. 余杭有諱本語而巧爲 俏語者，如垢人嘲我曰 淄牙，胡説曰 ‘扯淡疽’ 這個詞現在保存在江浙及湖南等地方言裏.” (There were people in Yuhang who were good at using words to critique and to call the action of playing tricks on others as zī yá 淄牙 [zi teeth] and making nonsense as chě dàn 扯淡 [nonsense].) This word still exists in certain dialects of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Hunan Provinces in China. Pá lā 爬拉 means to put food into your mouth with chopsticks constantly. In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter forty-nine of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “Bǎo yù děng bú dào, zhǐ ná chá pào le yī wǎn fàn, jiù zhe yě jī zhuǎ zǐ, máng máng de pá lā wán le. 宝玉等不到，只拿茶泡了 一碗飯，就着野鸡爪子，忙忙的爬拉完了.” (Baoyu could not wait. He dipped a bowl of rice in tea and ate with wild chicken claws. Thus, he finished all of these in haste.) This word still exists in northern dialects in China. Pái xuān 排揎 (scold) means to blame somebody or to rebuke. In the Qing dynasty, Cao Xueqin wrote in chapter fifty-nine of Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “nǐ lái qiáo qiáo, nǐ nǚ hái ér lián wǒ yě bù fú le, zài zhè lǐ pái xuān wǒ ne. 你來瞧瞧，你女孩兒連我也不服了，在這里排揎我 呢.” (Look at you, girl. You didn’t trust even me and came to blame.) In the Qing dynasty, Wen Kang wrote in the fifth chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英 雄傳 [Legend of Heroes] that “ruò lùn ān gōng zǐ zhǎng le zhè mó dà, dà yuē chú le shòu fù mǔ de jiào xùn, hái méi shòu guò zhè děng dà mǎ jīn dāo ér de pái xuān ne. 若論安公子長了這麽大，大約除了受父母的教训，還没受過這等大馬金 刀兒的排揎呢.” (Speaking of Mr. An, I am afraid he has never been treated with the rebuke of such knives other than the instruction of his parents.) Nowadays, this word still exists in some dialects throughout Beijing, China. All of the previous words are verbs. Áo zāo 鏖糟 (dirty), also written as áo cáo 鏖槽 (dirty) or áo zāo 熬糟 (dirty) means dirty and was probably transformed from the sound of yān zā 腌臜 (dirty.) In the Ming dynasty, Tao Zongyi wrote in the tenth volume of chuògēng lù 輟耕録 [Chuo Geng Lu] that “sú yǔ yǐ bù jié wèi áo zāo. 俗语以不洁为鏖糟 (People call dirty as áo zāo 鏖糟 [dirty] in vulgar language.) In the Yuan dynasty, Li Wenwei wrote in the first chapter of Yànqīng bóyú 燕青博魚 [Yan Qing Bo Yu] that “Yàn dà yún xiōng dì yě, wǒ zěn shēng dǐng zhe shǐ tóu zhōng zǒu. chá dàn yún nǐ gē ge gèng shì áo zāo tóu. [燕大云] 兄弟也，我怎生顶着屎頭中走. [搽旦云] 你哥 哥更是鏖糟頭.” (Yanda said, my brother, how could I live in filthiness. Chadan said, I lived in an even more dirty environment than you.) In the Yuan dynasty, Yue Bochuan wrote in the fourth chapter of Tiěguǎi lǐ 鐵拐李 [Tie Guaili] that “Zuò jiào mén yún yuè dà sǎo kāi mén lái, yù dàn kāi mén yún yí gè áo zāo jiào huà

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tóu, chū qù. [做叫門云] 岳大嫂开门来， [狱旦开门云] 一个鏖糟叫化頭，出 去.” (Someone was knocking at the door and shouting “Open the door, Mrs Yue.” The watcher answered “Get away, you dirty beggar.”) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume fifteen of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] that “Guō dà láng qǔ xià tou jīn, chú xià yī tiáo áo zāo chòu yóu biān zi lái. 郭大郎取下头巾，除下一條鏖糟臭油邊子来.” (Guo took off his headband and a dirty, smelly cloth.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume seventeen of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] that “Jīn rì zhè yù, jiù rú tuì pí tuì ké, shēn shàng áo zāo, zú zú xǐ le bàn gāng. 今日这浴，就如退皮退壳，身上鏖糟，足足洗了半缸.” (The shower taken today was like removing skin and shell. The dirty state of the body took half a tub of water to clean.) In the Ming dynasty, Huang Yuanji wrote in the second chapter of Liúxīng mǎ 流星馬[Liu Xing Ma] that “Áo zāo qín shòu wú lǐ. 熬糟 禽兽無礼.” (How rude the filthy monster was!) This word still exists in dialects throughout parts of Yunan and certain areas of Mengzi, Shandong Province, China. Bǎ xì 把细 (careful) means careful and cautious. In the Ming dynasty, Shi Naian wrote in chapter sixty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] that “nǐ ruò zhè bān bǎ xì, hé nián yuè rì néng gōu jiàn gōng. 你若这般把细，何 年月日能勾建功.” (If you continue to be cautious, you can build on your work with time.) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume nineteen of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Ordinary Words to Warn the World] that “nǐ ruò zhè bān bǎ xì, hé nián yuè rì néng gōu jiàn gōng. 你若这般把细，何年月日能勾建 功.” (Wanli was a careful and cautious man. How would he tell you everything within a short period of time?) In the Ming dynasty, Feng Menglong wrote in volume thirty-two of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] that “Dào shì yù é jiào tā: ‘Qiě màn, guì yì jiāo, fù yì qī, rén qíng hū, wèi zhī huáng láng zhēn xīn rú hé?’ zhè yě shì tā bǎ xì chù. 到是玉娥教他: ‘且慢， 貴易交，富易妻，人情乎，未知黄郎真心如何?’ 这也是他把细處.” (Yu’e told him that “The nobles are easy to make friends and the rich are easy to marry, which is common sense. I do not know what you really are.” That is where her carefulness lies.) Nowadays, people in the Sichuan, Hunan, and Wu areas of China still use this word in their dialects. For instance, Maodun wrote in series five of Zǐ yè 子夜 [Midnight] that “tā zhè rén, jiù shì bǎ xì de hěn, zhè yě shì tā de hǎo chù. 他 这人，就是把细得很，這也是他的好處.” (He was so careful and cautious, yet this was one of his advantages either.) Bèi huì 背晦 (stupid) known as Bèihuì 背悔 or Bèihé 背合, is used to describe someone who is confused, especially the elderly. It is used in many literary works. In Kū cúnxiào 哭存孝 [Mourning Cun Xiao], written by Guan Hanqin of the Yuan dynasty, in the second scene, it says “Cí wèi jǐn jiāng tā lái mà, kǒu wèi luò biàn quán dūn, cháng hǎo bèi huì yě xiāo chéng xiàng. 詞未盡將他來罵，口未落便拳 敦，常好背晦也蕭丞相.” (You are confused as Xiao in old age, as scolding him before he finished his words and beating him at the same time.) In Cao Xueqin’s Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “nǐ mā mā zài yào rèn zhēn pái shàn tā, kě jiàn lǎo bèi huì le. 你媽媽再 要認真排擅他，可見老背晦了.” (Your nanny is nagging at her forever. Old age

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 45 has befuddled her.) The word in the sentence of “Ǎn zhè gè bèi huì yé, tīng de bǎ gǔ shū shuō, tā biàn è fēn fēn nǎo liè, cū háo de gǔ jīn jiē jué. 俺這個背會爺，聽 的 把古書説，他便惡紛紛腦裂，粗豪的古今皆絶.” (My father is confused. He was in fury after hearing that message.) is from the third scene of Bàiyuè tíng 拜月 亭 [Baiyue Ting], also the work of Guan Hanqin. Nowadays, Bèihuì 背晦 remains in Beijing dialect and is written as Bèihuì 悖晦. Cù qiā 促掐(make fun of), or cùqià 促恰 or cùxiá 促狭, means mean or someone who likes playing a prank. It is written in Shēngjīn gé 生金閣 [The Raw Gold Pavilion] of the Yuan dynasty by an anonymous writer that “wǒ dǎ nǐ gè cù qiā de dì zǐ hái ér. 我打你個促掐的弟子孩兒.” (I beat you this prankish kid!) In Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Water Margin] by Shi Naian of the Ming dynasty, there are words “Yòu zuò zhè děng duǎn mìng cù qiā de shì. yú nǐ wú gàn, hé gù dìng yào hài tā? 又做這等短命促掐 的事. 於你無干，何故定要害他？” (You played the prank again! There is no business of yours, so why you must let him exposed to danger?) “Táo huā nǚ, nǐ hǎo cù qià yě. 桃花女，你好促恰也.” (You are so tricky, Taohua Nv.) is abstracted from Wang Hua’s táo huā nǚ 桃花女 [Taohua Nv] in the third scene of the Yuan dynasty. We also can know this word in Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream in Red Mansions] that “cù xiá xiǎo tí zi, zāo tà le huā ér, léi yě shì yào pī de. 促狹小蹄子，遭踏了花兒，雷也是要劈的.” (Wicked creature, you ought to be struck by lightning, throwing away good flowers like that!) and in Wen Kang’s Érnǚ yīngxióng Zhuán 兒女 英雄傳 [The Biography of Heroes – The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] in the Qing dynasty “Zhè jù huà, zhāng jīn fèng kě lái dé cù xiá, zhēn wěi qū le rén le. 張金鳳可來得促狹，真委屈了人了.” (These words from Zhang Jinfeng are so mean, which injured and did wrong to a good man.) Cùqiā 促掐 (make fun of) is maintained in dialects of the Jiangsu and Zhejiang areas in China. Kuài xìng 快性 (frank) is also written as shuǎng kuài 爽快and chàng kuài 畅快. A man who is Kuàixìng 快性 (frank) is frankly straightforward. Qin Jianfu in the Yuan dynasty wrote in the third scene of his work Zhàolǐ ràngféi 趙禮讓肥 [The Story of Zhaoli and His Families (Zhaoli Rang Fei)] that “Tài pú, xiǎo shēng lái le yě, yǔ gè kuài xìng, shā shā shā! 太僕，小生來了也，與個快性, 殺殺殺！ ” (Hero, I come back now. Just do it straightforwardly if you want to kill me.) In the second scene of Rèn fēng zi 任風子[Ren Fengz], the work of Ma Zhiyuan in the Yuan dynasty, the word kuài xìng 快性 is also used in the sentence “yě bà, yě bà, pín dào shòu sǐ, nǐ yǔ wǒ kuài xìng zhě. 也罷，也罷，貧道受死，你與我快性者.” (Fine, we both are straightforward, you can kill me.) In Shuǐhǔ quánZhuán 水滸全傳 [Water Margin/ The Outlaws of the Marsh], it also can be read “nú jiā píng shēng kuài xìng, kàn bù dé zhè bān sān dá bù huí tóu, sì dá hé shēn zhuǎn de rén. 奴家平生快性，看不得 這般三答不回頭，四答和身轉的人.” (I am a straightforward person, so I do not like the one who is weak and obtuse.) Kuàixìng 快性 has remained in the dialects of the Xiang River basin region. As for piě tuō 撇脱 (swift), the words piě tuō 撇脱 mean doing something quickly and swiftly. In the ninth book of Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Amazing Tales – Second Series], written by Ling Mengchu in the Ming dynasty, we know this word from the sentence “Sù méi yě dī dī dào, piē tuō xiē, wǒ yào huí qù.

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zhè shì zuò dé bù hǎo le, zěn mó chù? 素梅也低低道，撇 脱些，我要回去.” 這 事做得不好了，怎麽處？(Su Mei says in a low voice, “Quickly, I will go back to my room. If we couldn’t handle it well, what will we face?”) Similarly, in the xīhú èrjí 西湖二集 [Collected Stories Happened Around the West Lake] of Zhou Yi in the Ming dynasty, the word is used in the ninth book “Shǒu duàn gāo qiáng, shǒu jiǎo piē tuō. 手段高强，手脚撇脱.” (He is strong and can move quickly.) Piětuō 撇脱 has remained in dialects from the Si Chuan area, such as in Li Jieren’s work Bàofēngyǔ qián 暴風雨前 [Before The Storm] that “Tiě mín běn jiù shì gè piē tuō rén. 鐵民本就是個撇脱人.” (Tiě mín 鐵民 himself is a swift man.) These examples are adjectives. 1.3.3 Wordsstillinusewithunchangedmeaningsinmodern Mandarin There are words that are still popular in modern Mandarin with unchanged meanings; see the following examples. The word guāng gùn 光棍 (bachelor) originated in modern times with three meanings: (1) Local ruffian and hooligan. In the Yuan dynasty, Xiao Dexiang’s book Shāgǒu quànfū 殺狗劝夫 [Killing a Dog to Persuade a Husband] stated that “Què xìn zhe zhè liǎng gè guāng gùn ，bān huài le ǎn yì jiā ér yě. 却信着這兩個 光棍，搬坏了俺一家兒也.” (The reputation of the whole family was damaged only because of trusting the two guāng gùn 光棍 [bachelors].) In the Ming dynasty, the sixty-ninth chapter of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [Golden Lotus], written by Lan Ling Xiao Xiaosheng, states that “Wáng sān gōng zǐ shèn bù xué hǎo ，zuó rì tā mǔ qīn zài sān yāng rén lái shuō, dǎo bù guān tā zhè ér zi shì ，zhǐ bèi zhè gàn guāng gùn gōu yǐn tā. 王三公子甚不學好，昨日他母親再三央人來對我説，倒不关 他這兒子事，只被这干光棍勾引他.” (Since Mr. Wang did not want to pursuit his career, yesterday his mother asked her neighbors to tell me the fact again and again; that is, it was not because of his son’s intelligence or passion for the career, but because of his being seduced by 光棍 guāng gùn [bachelors].) In the twentyseventh volume of Feng Menglong’s Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Waking up the World and Constant Motto] of the Ming dynasty, it reads “Nà gē ge jiào zuò jiāo róng ，zhuān zài gè chōng mén dǎ gàn ，shì yí gè yóu lǐ huá de guāng gùn. 那哥 哥叫做焦榕，専在各衝門打幹，是一個油里滑的光棍.” (The brother is named Jiao Rong, a hooligan who is tricky and cunning.) (2) A single man, a man without a family fortune. In addition, in the first chapter of Ming Feng Weimin’s work Sēng ní gòng fàn 僧尼共犯 (Accomplice of Monks and Nuns), there was the description of “hǒng ǎn dì zǐ dōu zuò guāng gùn, yí shì méi gè lǎo pó. 哄俺弟子都做光 棍，一世没个老婆.” (Coax my disciples to be single and have no wife all their lives.) Yang Rousheng wrote in the book Yùhuán jì, Yùxiāo jìzhēn 玉環記玉簫寄 真 [Yu Xiao Ji Zhen of Yu Huan Ji] in the Ming dynasty that “zhī dào tā wú xià luò de guāng gùn zài nà li qù le, jiě jie, wǒ qù bù dé. 知道他無下落的光棍在那 里去了，姐姐，我去不得.” (We know the exact whereabouts of the bachelor. So, my elder sister, I am not able to go there.) Xi Zhousheng in the Qing dynasty wrote in the eighth chapter of Xĭngshìyuán zhuán 酲世缘传 [The Bibliography of

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 47 Predestined Marriage for Awakening the World] that “nǐ bù zhī dào, ǎn zhè guāng gùn xiǎo zi tīng shuō jiàn guān jiù hǔ dé nì cù lī. 你不知道，俺這光棍小子聽 説見官就唬得溺醋哩.” (You do not know that I am a single boy. On realizing that I have to meet with an official, I am so scared and frightened.) (3) Hero, one member of the Gang of Jianghu. Shi Chengjin of the Qing dynasty wrote in Chuán Jiābǎo, Sānjí, Súyàn 傳家寶三集俗 諺 [Proverb of Three Collections of Folk in Chuan Jiabao] that “guāng gùn bù chī yǎn qián kuī. 光棍不吃眼前虧.” (A hero does not suffer immediate coming losses.) Similarly, there are the writings in the one hundred and forty-ninth chapter of Shīgōng àn 施公案 [Shi Gong Case] by an anonymous writer of the Qing dynasty that “ruò shì gè guāng gùn, wǒ men qiáo zhe tā de miàn shàng ráo le nǐ, què shì shǐ de. 若是個光棍，我們瞧着他的面上 饒了你，却是使得.” (If you are a hero, we forgive you and let you go due to your good reputation, which is fair and square.) Wang Tingshao of the Qing dynasty wrote in Nícháng xùpǔ – guōjù máier 霓裳繽譜 – 郭巨埋兒 [Guo Ju Mai er in Ni Chang Xu Pu] that “Yán pèi wěi shì sū zhōu de dōu guāng gùn, shēng ài dǎ gè bào bù píng, wèi jiù xiāng qīn jiù sàng le mìng. 颜佩伟是蘇州的都光棍，生爱打個 抱不平，为救鄉親就喪了命.” (Yan Peiwei was a hero and loved to fight against injustice in Sūzhōu city, who lost his life in order to save his villagers.) These three meanings are still preserved today in the Modern Chinese language. The word jiāo yǐ 交椅 (an ancient folding chair) is a folding seat with crossed legs and a backrest. In ancient times, it was called Hú chuáng 胡床 [Hu bed] and Jiāo chuáng 交床 [Jiao bed]. It began to be called jiāo yǐ 交椅 in the Song dynasty and still kept its name to modern times. There was one example from the seventy-seventh volume of Zhūzi yǔlèi 朱子語類 [Zhuzi Language Category], saying that “rú zhè jiāo yǐ shì qì, kě zuò biàn shì jiāo yǐ zhī lǐ. 如這交椅是器, 可坐便是交椅之理.” (If this chair is a sitting device, then it is reasonable to sit on it.) Another example was from the eleventh chapter of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 許全传 [The Complete Biography of Shuixu], written by Shi Naian of the Ming dynasty, saying that “zhōng jiān jiāo yǐ shàng, zuò zhe yī gè hǎo hàn, zhèng shì bái yī xiù shì wáng lún. 中间交椅上，坐着一個好漢，正是白衣秀士王倫.” (There is one hero sitting in the middle of the chairs, whose name is Wang Lun, nicknamed as a scholar in white clothes.) An example from the eleventh volume of Feng Menglong’s Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Warning Words of the World] of the Ming dynasty says that “zhǐ jiàn xú yé jiāng yī zhāng jiāo yǐ, zhì yú miàn nán, qǐng sū yé shàng zuò, nà tóu biàn bài. 只見徐爷將一張交椅，置於面南， 請蘇爷上坐，納頭便拜.” (It was seen that Lord Xu placed a chair to the south direction, inviting Lord Su to sit on. Then Lord Xu got down on his knees and made a worship to Lord Su.) The twenty-fifth chapter in the biography of Sānsuì píngyāo zhuàn 三遂平妖傳 [The Three Suiping Demons] by Luo Guanzhong of the Ming dynasty described that “wěi guān zuò zài jiāo yǐ shàng, yā jí zài miàn qián guì xià. 委官坐在交椅上，押ト吉在面前跪下.” (The commissar sits in the chair, while Chuji was taken to kneel down in front of him.) The word jiāo yǐ 交 椅 is extended to the meaning of the position of leader. There is one example from Li Wenwei’s Yànqīng bóyú 燕青博魚 [Yan Qing Go fishing/Yan Qing Bo Yu] in the Yuan dynasty, recording that “yù zhe cháo gài gē ge, dǎ wén jiā suǒ, jiù mǒu

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shàng shān, jiù ràng mǒu dì èr bǎ jiāo yǐ zuò le. 遇着晁盖哥哥，打聞伽锁，救 某上山，就讓某第二把交椅坐了.” (On meeting with elder brother Chao Gai, he broke the gamma lock and saved me up to the mountain, letting me sit in the second chair position.) It is recorded in the fifth chapter of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 浒全傳 [Complete Biography of Water Margin] by Shi Naian of the Ming dynasty that “tā liú xiǎo dì zài shān shàng wèi zhài zhǔ, ràng dì yī bǎ jiāo yǐ jiào xiǎo dì zuò le. 他留小弟在山上为寨主，讓第一把交椅教小弟坐了.” (He recommends the younger brother to be the chief of brigands in the mountain and to be the owner of the first chair position.) Pù gài 鋪蓋 refers to quilts or bedclothes. In the Yuan dynasty, Su Yanwen’s cycle of songs entitled Mén ān chún· dōng jǐng 門鹌鹑· 冬景 [Fighting Quails·Winter Scenery], it is recorded that “zǎo shì wǒ yī fú pò suì, pù gài dān bó, dòng de wǒ shǒu jiǎo suān má. 早是我衣服破碎，鋪蓋单薄，凍的我手脚酸麻.” (My clothes were worn and broken into pieces, my bedding was thin and cold, making my hands and feet numb with coldness.) The third section of Guan Hanqing’s Xiè tiān xiāng 謝天香 [Xie Tian Xiang] of the Yuan dynasty recorded that “Ǎn ruò shì céng sù shuì ā, zé chú shì tiān zhī dì zhī. xiàng gōng nà pù gài ěr zhī tā shì héng de shù de. 俺若是曾宿睡呵，則除是天知地知. 相公那鋪蓋尔知他是横的竖 的.” (If I had been sleeping with a quilt at night, it would have been known by everyone. My dear, you know the exact direction and position your quilt was in.) The forty-fifth chapter of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水許全传 [The Complete Ciography of Shuixu], written by Shi Naian of the Ming dynasty recorded that “Wèi dào wǎn, xiān lái qǔ le pù gài qù, zì jiān guǒ shàng sù. 未到晚，先来取了鋪蓋去，自監 裹上宿.” (It was not the time of evening to sleep, [he] came up and took the quilt with him, getting ready for the sleep at deep night.) The ninety-seventh chapter of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Golden Lotus] of the Ming dynasty by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng recorded that “Chūn méi ná chū liǎng chuáng pù gài qīn zhěn yǔ tā ān xiē. 春梅拿出两床鋪蓋衾枕與他安歇.” (Chunmei takes out two quilts and the pillows to rest with him.) This word is still commonly used in Modern Mandarin. These examples are nouns. The following examples are verbs. There are two meanings for the word dǎdiǎn 打點: (1) Pack up and get ready. The first section of Féng yù lán 冯玉兰 [Feng Yulan] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty recorded that “wǒ bǎ zhè xíng lǐ yī yī shōu qià xià le, jiāng zhè chē liàng dǎ diǎn de tíng dāng. 我把这行李一一收恰下了，將這車辆打點的 停当.” (I have just collected and sorted out all the luggage here, one has the carriage packed very well.) The thirty-ninth chapter of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水浒全傳 [Complete Biography of Water Margin] by Shi Naian of the Ming dynasty stated, “let’s say that the magistrate Cai Jiu arranged two messengers to pack up the gold pearls and treasures sealed on the cover. The eighteenth volume of Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [Ancient and Modern Novels] by Feng Menglong of the Ming dynasty recorded that “bā lǎo shōu shí huò wù, dǎ diǎn qǐ shēn. 八老收拾貨物，打點 起身.” (The eight old men pack up their goods and get ready for their journey.) (2) Give people money and/or goods to maintain the relationship of being cared for. The first section of Huī lán jì 灰兰記 [Grey Orchid Chronicles] recorded that “nǐ kě qù yá mén dǎ diǎn, bǎ guān sī shàng xià bù zhì tíng dāng. 你可去衙門

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 49 打點，把官司上下佈置停当.” (You can go to the yamen [government office in old China] with money and gifts to make the lawsuit arranged to our expected favor.) The twenty-fourth volume of Feng Menglong’s Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Warning Words of the World] of the Ming dynasty recorded that “jīn rì zuò chū rén mìng lái, zhào jiān shēng shǐ zhe shěn jiā bù téng de yín zi lái yá mén dǎ diǎn, bǎ sū shì mǎi chéng sǐ zuì, tiān lǐ hé zài? 今日做出人命來，赵監生使着沈家 不疼的銀子來衙門打點，把蘇氏買成死罪，天理何在?” (Because a man got killed, Zhao Jiansheng went to the yamen [government office in old China] with enough money and gifts from the family of Shen, resulting in Su’s penalty of death. What the hell is the reason behind it?) The eighteenth chapter of Jīn píng méi 金瓶 梅 [The Golden Lotus], written by Lan Ling Xiao Xiaosheng of the Ming dynasty recorded that “bù shuō jiǎng zhú shān zài lǐ píng ér jiā zhāo zhuì, dān biǎo lái bǎo, lái wàng èr rén shàng dōng jīng dǎ diǎn. 不説蔣竹山在李瓶兒家招贅，单表來 保、來旺二人上東京打點 ([We] do not comment that Jiang Zhushan is taken as son-in-law at Li Pinger’s family, only commenting Lai Bao and Lai Wang go to Dongjing to seek relationship with money and gifts.) The two meanings are still popular in Modern Chinese, such as dǎ dian xíng zhuāng 打點行装 (packing up luggage) and shàng xià dǎ dian 上下打點 (dot up and down). The verb dū nāng 嘟囔 (mumbling) can also be pronounced as dū nóng 嘟哝 (mumbling), with the meaning of constantly and vaguely talking to oneself, mostly expressing feelings of dissatisfaction and complaint. The fifty-ninth chapter of Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Golden Lotus] of the Ming dynasty by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng recorded that “Hàn zi děng xián bú dào wǒ hòu biān, dào le yī zāo ér, nǐ kàn tā bèi dì luàn dū nāng, jī cā chéng yī duī. 漢子等闲不到我後邊，到了一遭兒，你 看他背地乱嘟囔，唧嚓成一堆.” (A man cannot wait to come behind me. When he comes to me on the scene, you can observe that he murmurs by himself, gossiping and chirping out of the scene.) The twentieth chapter of Hóng yīng yào 红櫻 要 [Red Cherry] by Cao Xueqin of the Qing dynasty recorded that “Yīng ér mǎn xīn wěi qū. kǒu nèi dū nāng shuō ‘yī gè zuò yé de, hái lài wǒ men jǐ gè qián.’ 莺 兒滿心委屈 . . . 口内嘟囔説 ‘一個做爷的，还赖我們幾個錢’.” (Yinger is full of grievances . . . muttering that [he] being a lord [a form of address for an official or rich man] still owe us very small amount of money.) The twentieth chapter of Lǎocán yóujì 老残遊記 [Old Stump Travelogue] by Liu E of the Qing dynasty recorded that “When little Xiaojin came out of the door, he murmured that ‘xiǎo jīn zi chū le fáng mén, zuǐ lǐ hái dū nóng dào: ‘Méi yǒu le yín zi, hái zuò dà yé ne, bù hài gè sāo?’ 小金子出了房門，嘴里还嘟噥道:‘没有了銀子，还做大爷呢,不害 個臊?’” (He is not ashamed to be a lord without silver?) The words still exist in Modern Mandarin, such as “lǎo rén yī biān dū nāng zhe, yī biān gàn huó. 老人一边 嘟囔着，一边干活.” (The old man began his work, murmuring at the same time.) The words guò jì 過繼 (adopt a young relative) and guò fang 過房 (adopt a brother’s son as one’s heir) mean to give one’s son to a brother or relative who does not have a son as a son; those who do not have a son take the son of a brother or relative as their brother and son, which might be called adoption or giving the house. The fourth section of Zhàoshì gūér 趙氏孤兒 [Orphans of the Zhao Clan] by Ji Junxiang of the Yuan Dynesty recorded that “Yǒu chéng yīng de hái ér, yīn

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wèi guò jì yǔ wǒ, huàn zuò tú chéng. 有程婴的孩兒，因为過繼與我，唤做屠 成.” (There was one child of Cheng Ying, who was named as Tu Cheng due to my adoption.) It was recorded in Yuándiǎn zhāng fángbù sān 元典章房部三 [Fangbu III of Yuandian Chapter] that “Lín jiāng lù jūn rén liú guì jiāng nán liú xián dì yú zhì yuán shí qī nián guò fáng yú mín hù yáng sì wǔ wèi nán. 臨江路軍人劉贵將 男劉賢弟于至元十七年過房于民户楊四五为男.” (A soldier at Linjiang Road named Liu Gui took the boy named Liu Xiandi as the adopted son of civilian Yang Siwu in the seventeenth year of zhi yuan [Chinese lunar year].) The ninety-first chapter of Hónglóu mèng 紅楼夢 [The Dream of Red Mansions] by Gaoe of the Qing dynasty recorded that “Qián yuè wǒ mā méi yǒu rén guǎn yī，bǎ wǒ guò jì lái de. 前月我媽没有人管衣，把我過繼來的.” (There is nobody who could give clothes to my mother and me last month, so I was adopted to be here.) The thirty-third volume of Chūkè pāi’àn jīngqí 初刻拍案惊奇 [Initial Surprise at the First Shot] by Ling Mengchu of the Ming dynasty recorded that “zhāng yuán wài kàn jiàn nǐ jiā xiǎo guān rén ，shí èr fēn dé yì ，yǒu xīn yào bǎ tā zuò gè guò fáng de ér zi. 張員外看見你家小官人，十二分得意，有心要把他做個過房的 儿子.” (Landlord Zhang saw guanren [wife’s term of address for husband] and was very happy, having the intention of adopting him as a son.) It was recorded in Gěshìzú mǎiqiè qiúsì 葛事足買妾求嗣 [Ge Shizu Buying Concubines to be Heirs] of the Ming dynasty that “Lǎo shēn xìng bīn ，xiǎo nǚ yù ér，xiè yīn fū rén guò shì, jiā yè diāo líng，nán yǐ dù rì，yù jiāng cǐ nǚ guò fáng yǔ rén. 老身姓賓，小 女玉兒，屑因夫人过世，家業凋零，難以度日，欲將此女過房與人.” (I am an old man with surname of Bin; my daughter named Yu’er has difficulty making a living because her husband died and her family was in extreme poverty. So I want her to be adopted by others.) The two words still exist in Modern Chinese, such as “Bǎ lǎo èr guò fáng zuò ér zi. 把老二過房作儿子.” (Take the second son as an adopted son) and “Tā de ér zi shì guò jì lái de. 他的儿子是過繼来的.” (His son is adopted from other families.) The word zuòsǐ 作死 is mostly applicable to someone who is reckless and has no appreciation of the importance of things. In the play Lǔzhāiláng 魯齋郎 [The Wife-Snatcher] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nǐ zhè dìzǐ hái’ér zuòsǐ yě, wǒ shì shéi, nǐ mà wǒ! 你這弟子孩兒作死也，我是 誰，你罵我！ ” (You reckless boy seeking death! Do you know who I am? How dare you curse me!) In chapter thirty-five of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐ zhèhuǒ zuòsǐ de máotuán, bùshí nǐ sūnwàigōng de shǒuduàn! 你這夥作死 的毛團，不識你孫外公的手段！ ” (You little monkeys are seeking death! You do not know your grandpa’s power yet!) In chapter twenty-seven of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhè zéipèijūn quèbúshì zuòsǐ, dàolái xìnòng lǎoniáng. 這賊配軍卻不是作死，倒來戲弄老娘.” (This filthy con is seeking death! How dare he tease me!) In chapter thirty-one of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaoshsng 蘭陵笑笑生 (The Scoffing Scholar of Lanling, pseudonym) of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “nèn bùféng hǎosǐ, sānděngjiǔzuò zéiqiángdào, zhèliǎngrì zuòsǐ yězěnde?

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 51 恁不逢好死，三等九做賊強盜，這兩日作死也怎的？” (This low-bred bandit is inviting death! He is seeking death these days!) In chapter eleven of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Fèngjiěr tīngle, hēngle yìshēng, shuōdào, ‘Zhè chùsheng hégāi zuòsǐ, kàntā láile zěnmeyàng!’ 鳳姐兒聽了，哼了一聲， 說道：‘這畜生合該作死，看他來了怎麼樣！’” (Upon hearing this, Xīfèng sneered, “The damned is seeking death! Let’s see his next move!”) The word is still being used currently, as in “Dàlěngtiān nǐ chuān zhèmediǎn’er yīfu, zuòsǐ à! 大冷天你穿這麼點兒衣服，作死啊！ ” (How can you wear so little on such a cold day! You are seeking death!) In chapter seventeen of the Chūkè pāi’àn jīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement I] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “xiǎofùrén zhàngfù wánggù, tājiù bùyóu xiǎofùrén guǎnshù, fánshì zìzuòzìzhǔ. 小婦人丈夫亡故，他就不由小夫人管束，凡事自做自主.” (I am only a poor widow unable to discipline him; he does everything at his own risk.) In chapter sixty-two of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zhèxiērén yīn Jiǎmǔ Wángfūrén búzàijiā, méile guǎnshù, biàn rènyì qǔlè, hūsānhèsì, hǎnqījiàobā. 這 些人因賈母王夫人不在家，沒了管束，便任意取樂，呼三喝四，喊七叫八.” (As the Lady Dowager and Lady Wang were not home, nobody disciplined them and they enjoyed themselves as they pleased, laughing and shouting merrily.) One example of Modern Chinese is “fùmǔ guǎnshù háizi, búràng luànpǎo. 父母管束孩 子，不讓亂跑.” (Parents discipline their kids, not allowing them to run at rovers.) 1.3.4 Existingwordswithsemanticchanges Semantic changes took place in two cases. One was that a multi-syllabic word had two meanings or more, with some senses retained yet some lost. Some examples are given as follows. In Modern Chinese, the word bājie 巴結 has two meanings: (1) expect; strive; win a position by one’s own effort. In the song “Zhéguìlìng: Yìbié” 折桂令憶別 [Plucking Laurel Branch (melody) Parting Recalled] by Liu Tingxin 劉庭信 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “dǔdǔ mòmò zhōngsuì bājie, gūgū línglíng chèyè zījiē. 篤篤寞寞終歲巴結，孤孤零零徹夜咨嗟.” (I have been expecting him earnestly for years, sighing for him in solitude over nights.) In chapter eightysix of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “yígèrén zhīshūdálǐ, jiùgāi wǎngshàng bājie cáishì. 一個人知書達理，就該往上巴結才是.” (An educated person is highly cultured and steeped in propriety, and thus, striving for promotion is reasonable.) In chapter forty of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “bùxiǎng nǐ jìng bājiedàoge èrpǐn dàyuán, gǎnshàng yéyele, bǐwǒqiáng. 不想你竟 巴結到個二品大員，趕上爺爺了，比我強.” (It is beyond my imagination that you could be obsequious to one senior officer at second rank, which goes just like your grandfather and is better than me) (2) Curry favor from someone. In chapter

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twenty-four of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of the Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “píngnǐ zěnde bājie tā, tā zěnkěn rěnxīn hàilǐ de wéitiān xíngshì? 憑你怎的巴結他，他 怎肯忍心害理的違天行事？ ” (No matter how hard you would try to curry favor from him, how would it be possible that he violate Heaven against his conscience?) There is no sense of expect, strive in contemporary Chinese. In Modern Chinese, the word chūsè 出色 had two meanings: (1) extraordinary, distinct. In the second scene of the play Qīngshānlèi 青衫淚 [Tears on the Blue Gown] by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “dōudào jiāngxīrén, búshì fēngliúkè. Xiǎozi dú fēngliú, jiāngxī zuìchūsè. 都道江西人，不 是風流客. 小子獨風流，江西最出色.” (It is said that Jiangxi folks are not talented; this guy, however, is talented beyond match.) In chapter three of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮 夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒmén shì ménhù rénjiā, kàozhe fěntóu guòhuó. Jiāzhōng suīyǒu sānsìgè yǎngnǚ, bìngméige chūsède. 我們是門 戶人家，靠著粉頭過活. 家中雖有三四個養女，并沒個出色的.” (We make a living by this brothel; there are several young girls here, yet none is extraordinarily beautiful.) (2) Work for, labor for someone. In chapter thirty-three of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施 耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “nǐ zhè jūnshìmén, bùzhī yuāngèyǒutóu, zhàigèyǒuzhǔ. Liú Gāo chāinǐlái, xiūyào tìtā chūsè. 你這軍士們，不知冤各有 頭，債各有主. 劉高差你來，休要替他出色.” (You soldiers do not know the wrongs Liu Gao has done on me. He has commanded you to come here, yet you shouldn’t labor for him.) In Book five of the Xīhú èrjí 西湖二集 [Memorable Stories of the West Lake (II)] by Zhou Ji 周楫 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “ruòshì shòule nǐ mǎntáng xiāngzhú, yìtán sùcài, biànyàolái hùduǎn, yǔnǐ chūsè, jiàoyuānguǐ búyào yǔnǐ tǎomìng. Shìshàng yòuméiyǒu zhèyàng bùpíngxīn de fópúsà. 若是受了你滿堂香燭，一壇素菜，便要來護短，與你出色，叫冤鬼 不要與你討命. 世上又沒有這樣不平心的佛菩薩.” (If I accept your incense and offerings, I’ll need to protect you and order the wronged ghosts not to seek revenge. There is no such goddess denying justice in the world.) The word does not have the sense of work for, labor for in contemporary Chinese. As a word in Modern Chinese, fāfàng 發放 had three meanings: (1) dispose of, deal with. In the second scene of the Jīnxiàn chí 金線池 [The Golden Thread Pond] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐ bù fāfàng wǒ qǐlái, biàn guìdào míngrì, wǒ yě zhǐshì guìzhe. 你不發放我起來，便 跪到明日，我也只是跪着.” (If you do not let me up, I will be on my knees till tomorrow.) In the second scene of the Dōngtáng lǎo 東堂老 [The Eastern Hall Elder] by Qin Jianfu 秦簡夫of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Zhèxí hǎojiǚ, nòngdelái bàixìng, suí nǐmen fāfàng le ba. 這席好酒，弄的來敗興，隨你們發 放了罷.” (How frustrating this feast is! I’ll leave it at your disposal.) In chapter fifty-eight of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵of the Ming dynasty, one sentences goes “dāngrì zhīfǔ xiěle qiújiù wénshū, xuǎnle sānge jūnguān, dōufāfàng liǎodàng. 當日知府寫 了求救文書，選了三個軍官，都發放了當.” (Back on that day, the magistrate

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 53 wrote a letter of request and dispatched three generals.) In chapter fourteen of the Chūkè pāi’àn jīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement I] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “zuì’àn yǐchéng, tàiyé zuórì yǐjīng bǎnǐ fāfàng guòle. 罪案已成，太爺昨日已經把你發放過了.” (The case has been closed; the lord already pronounced the sentence on you yesterday.) In the episode of Zhuàn Jiāng 賺將 [The General Tricked] in the play Táohuā shàn 桃花扇 [The Peach Blossom Fan] by Kong Shangren 孔尚任of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “běndāng jūnfǎ cóngshì, chìmà jǐshēng, yěsuàn cóngqīng fāfàngle. 本當軍法從事，斥罵幾聲，也算從輕發放了.” (He deserved a military penalty yet only received a verbal reprimand; it was quite a mild punishment.) (2) Mobilize. In chapter thirty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “quèshuō Huáng Xìn zì dào Qīngfēng zhènshàng, fāfàng zhènshàng jūnmín, diǎnqǐ zhàibīng, xiǎoyè dīfáng, láoshǒu zhàmén. 却說黃信自到清風鎮上，發 放鎮上軍民，點起寨兵，曉夜提防，牢守柵門.” (Upon his arrival at the town of Qingfeng, Huang Xin mobilized the townsfolk and army, placing guards at the gate of town day and night.) (3) Distribute money and goods among others. In chapter eighteen of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Yuánfēi cóngtóu kànle wúhuà, jímìng zhàocǐ érxíng. tàijiàn xiàlái, yīyīfāfàng. 元妃從頭看了無話，即 命照此而行. 太監下來，一一發放.” (The Imperial Consort Yuan examined the largess, agreed and ordered it to be distributed. The eunuch brought it down to distribute to everyone.) There is another example in chapter thirty-six, saying that “Tàitài huò kànzhǔnle nàge yātou hǎo, jiù fēnfu, xiàyuè hǎo fāfàng yuèqián de. 太 太或看准了那個丫頭好，就吩咐，下月好發放月錢的.” (If your ladyship likes that girl, just tell me, I will [buy her and] give her monthly allowance starting from next month.) The word does not have the sense of dispose of and mobilize in contemporary Chinese. The word guòhuó 過活 had two senses in Modern Chinese: (1) make a living. In the song Mǎntíngfāng: Yúfùcí 滿庭芳漁父詞 [Courtyard Full of Flowers (melody): A Song of Fisherman] by Qiao Ji 喬吉 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “yújiā guòhuó, xuěpéngyúnzhào, yǔlìyīsuō, yìshēng ǎinǎi wúrénzhī. 漁家過 活，雪篷雲棹，雨笠衣簔，一聲欸乃無人知.” (Fishermen make a living in the open, in all weathers, rain or shine, all quiet but the sound of sculling.) In chapter seventeen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “A sǎo dào: ‘A shū, nǐbùzhīdào, nǐgēge xīnlǐ zìguòhuó bùdeli.’ 阿嫂道：‘阿叔，你不知 道，你哥哥心裏自過活不得哩’.” (His sister-in-law said, “My dear uncle, you have no idea that your brother doesn’t feel well today.”) In the sixth chapter, the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Gǒu’ér suìjiāng yuèmǔ Liúlǎolao jiēguòlái yíchù guòhuó. 狗兒遂將岳母劉姥姥接過來一處過活.” (Thus, Gou’er brought over Grandma Liu, his mother-in-law, and they lived together.) (2) Family heirloom, possessions upon which one’s livelihood depends. In act two of the Chéngnán liǔ 城南柳 [The Willow in the South City] by Gu Zijing 谷子敬of the Yuan

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dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒ zěnshēng shědé zhèjiāyuán guòhuó, fūqī ēnqíng, biàn gēnsuínǐqù. 我怎生捨得這家緣過活，夫妻恩情，便跟隨你去.” (How can I let go of my possession and my wife but follow you?) In chapter twenty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Sòngjiāng jiāzhōng pōxiē guòhuó, qiě fàngzài nǐ shānzhàilǐ. 宋江家中頗些過活，且放在你山寨裏.” (Let me leave some of my home stuff here in the fortress, Song Jiang said.) In chapter forty-eight of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Jiāzhōng yěyoǔ èrsānqiānjīnde guòhuó. 家中也有二三千金的過活.” (The family has possession of two or three thousand gold.) The word has no sense of possession in contemporary Chinese. The word shuāzi 刷子 had two meanings in Modern Chinese: (1) a tool of cleaning and brushing. In chapter twenty-one of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “zhèbiān fàngzhege xǐshǒupén, yígè shuāzi, yìzhāng jīnqī zhuōzishàng, fàngzhe yíge xīdēngtái. 這邊放着個洗手盆，一個刷子，一張金漆 桌子上，放着一個錫燈檯.” (Over here there are a washing basin, a brush, and a gold-lacquered table on which was placed a tin candle stand.) In chapter nineteen of the novel Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “tā měirì zài diànlǐ, shǒulǐ názhe yígè shuāzi shuā tóujīn. 他每日在店裏，手裏拿着一個刷子刷頭巾.” (Every day, at the store, he cleaned his muffler with a brush.) (2) A fool, a loafer. In the second scene of the play Yuānjiā zhàizhǔ 冤家債主 [Debtor – brothers] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “bùyǎngcánlái búzhòngtián, quánpíngshuōhuǎng dùliúnián, wèishèn yánwáng bùgōuwǒ, shìjiān shuāzi shǎowǒqián. 不養蠶來不種田，全憑說謊度流年，為甚閻王不勾我， 世間刷子少我錢.” (I make a living neither by silkworm breeding nor by crop planting but by lying and deceiving; the Hades does not invite me as the fools in the world still owe me money.) In chapter twenty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “zhègè shuāzi xuédejǐn, nǐkànwǒ zhuóxiē tiántáng, mǒzài zhèsī bízishàng, zhǐjiàotā shìbùzháo. 這個刷子踅得緊，你看 我着些甜糖，抹在這廝鼻子上，衹叫他舐不着.” (This loafer is so eager. I would smear some sugar on his nose to tantalize him.) In the Náncí xùlù 南詞敘 錄 [Account of Southern Drama] by Xu Wei 徐渭of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Qín’ér, yánqí qínyú yuèsè, bùdānfányě, yìyuē shuāzi, yánqíluànyě. 勤兒， 言其勤於悅色，不憚煩也，亦曰刷子，言其亂也.” (He was called a loafer as he never got tired of loafing among women; he was quite a fool fooling around.) There is no sense of fool, loafer in contemporary Chinese. This word táoqì 淘氣, coined in modern times, has two meanings: (1) be cross. In the third scene of the Qiànnǚ líhún 倩女離魂 [The Soul of Qiannv Leaves Her Body] by Zheng Guangzu 鄭光祖 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “búshì wǒ xiántáoqì, biànsǐhe, sǐ’érwúyuàn. 不是我閑淘氣，便死呵，死而無怨.” (I am not cross for no reason; even if I have to die, I would die with no regret.) In

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 55 chapter thirty-six of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “nà póniáng nùqìchōngtiān, yàoyǔ lǎogōng sīnào, quèyòu jìsuàn, méiyǒu xǔduō xiángōngfu táoqì. 那婆娘怒氣衝天，要與老公廝鬧，卻又計算，沒有許多閒 工夫淘氣.” (The furious woman would start a big row with her husband, yet on a second thought, it would be quite a waste of time to get cross.) (2) Naughty. In the song Cǎichágē Guīzhōng wén dùjuān” 采茶歌閨中聞杜鵑 [Song of Picking Tea (melody): Hearing the Cuckoo in my Boudoir] by Zeng Rui 曾瑞of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wúqíng dùjuān xiántáoqì, tóuzhíshàng ěrgēndǐ, shēngshēng guōde rénxīnsuì. 無情杜鵑閑淘氣，頭直上耳根底，聲聲聒得人心 碎.” (The heartless cuckoo is so naughty and noisy that it annoys me head to toe, inside and out.) In chapter ninety-six of the novel Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “shìliǎnggè xuéchàngde yātóuzi, dōuyǒu shíliùqīsuì, chéngrì táoqì zàinàlǐ. 是兩個學唱的丫頭子，都有十六七歲，成日淘氣在那裏.” (It was two young girls learning singing, both 16 to 17 of age, being naughty all day long there.) In the second chapter of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “rújīn zhǎngle qībāsuì, suīrán táoqì yìcháng, dàn qí cōngmíng guāijué chù, bǎigè bùjí tā yígè. 如今長了七八歲，雖然淘氣異常，但其聰明乖覺處，百個不及他一 個.” (Now he is seven or eight years older, quite naughty, yet much wittier than the other kids.) In contemporary Chinese, the word only means naughty; there is no sense of angry, furious. The second case of the semantic change is that a polysyllabic Modern Chinese word has lost its original sense entirely but carries a different sense in its contemporary usage. Some examples are given as follows. In Modern Chinese, the word bǐjiào 比較 had two meanings: (1) in case that an official fails to accomplish a work on time, he will be cudgeled; such a penalty is called bǐjiào. In the fourth scene of the play Huòláng dàn 貨郎擔 [Traveling Salesman] (by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty), one sentence goes “Zhè liǎnggè míngxià, qīqīn wōtuōyín yìbǎiduōliǎng, dàilèi xiǎodemen bǐjiào, bùzhī tìtādǎle duōshǎo. 這兩個名下，欺侵窩脫銀一百多兩，帶累小的們比較，不 知替他打了多少.” (These two embezzled the yamen’s loan of more than 100 liang of silver, for which we were cudgeled and became their scapegoats.) In chapter forty of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小說 [Stories Old and New] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhōushǒu xiànggōng méinàihé, zhǐkǔde bǐjiào chāirén. 州守相公沒奈何，只苦得比較差人.” (The governor had no other solution but finding fault with his staff and punishing them.) In the story Shéntōu jìxìng yìzhīméi 神偷寄興一枝梅 [The Master-Thief with a Signature of a Branch of Plum Blossom], the collection of Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻 拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “shǐchén rénděng shòudào bǐjiào búguò, zhǐdé yòngxīn tǐfǎng. 使臣人等受到比較不過，只得用心體訪.” (Terrified by the penalty, we underlings could only endeavor in the investigation.) (2) Compete, fight. In chapter thirty-three of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu

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Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “ruòbúshì wǒdàiwáng jìngzhòng nǐzhèxíngrén, jiùhé bǐjiǎo qǐlái. 若不是我大王敬重你這行人，就和 比較起來.” (My Lord considers you fellows honorable; otherwise, he would have had a fight with you.) In contemporary Chinese, Bǐjiào means the contrast of two or more things to show the differences or merits; it also means relatively, to some extent. The contemporary senses are different from the modern ones. In Modern Chinese, the word kāichú 開除 had two meanings: (1) set free, expel. In the third scene of the play Huīlán jì 灰闌記 [The Chalk Circle] by Li Hangdao 李行道 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zéwǒzhè shēnshàngzuì hérì kāichú, fùzhōngyuān xiàngshuí sùyǔ? 則我這身上罪何日開除，腹中冤向誰訴 與？” (When can I free myself of the accusation? To whom shall I pour out the injustice done to me?) In the third scene of the Yùhúchūn 玉壺春 [Spring in the Jade Pot] by Jia Zhongming 賈仲明of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wǒ jiāngzhe wǔhuāgào yǔ tā kāichúle nàmiàn yānyuèpái. 我將着五花誥與他開除 了那面煙月牌.” (With the royal appointment on me, I would free her of a life in brothel.) (2) Get rid of, kill. In the fourth scene of the Zhàoshì gū’ér 趙氏孤 兒 [The Orphan of Zhao] by Ji Junxiang 紀君祥of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zài xiūxiǎng zán róngshù, wǒjiāngtā qīngqīng zhìxià, mànmàn kāichú. 再休 想咱容恕，我將他輕輕擲下，慢慢開除.” (On no account shall I pardon him; I will drag him off his horse and give him due punishment.) In the second chapter of the Shuǐhǔ hòuzhuàn 水滸後傳 [The Later Story of Water Margin] by Chen Chen 陳忱 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Ruǎn Xiǎoqī dào, ‘wǒ yìshí xìngqǐ, kāichúle tā, zhèngbùcéng suànde qùlù.’ 阮小七道, ‘我一時性起，開除 了他，正不曾算得去路’.” (Ruan Xiaoqi said, “In a fit of rage, I have killed him without having decided where to go.”) In contemporary Chinese, kāi chú 開除 means to expel someone from a community (such as school, government office, army, organization, etc.); it is a negative word denoting a penalty for someone who has committed a serious mistake. The contemporary sense is different from its modern sense. The development of polysyllabic words in Modern Chinese is to be discussed in Chapter 2. New words coined under the influence of western culture in the modern age are to be discussed in Chapter 4. No further discussion will be done here.

1.4 TheinfluenceofMongolianandManchu languages on the Chinese lexicon For a long time, the north of China has been the dwelling place for the Han and other nationalities. In 1279, Hubilie 忽必烈 (Emperor Shizu 世祖 of Yuan), the grandson of the Mongol Emperor Tiemuzhen 鐵木真 (Genghis Khan), united China and established the Yuan dynasty, which lasted until 1368 (the 28th year of the Zhizheng 至正 Era in the reign of Emperor Shundi 順帝 of Yuan); the Mongol nobilities ruled China for 90 years. Mǎnzú 滿族 (Manchu), offspring of the Nǚzhēn 女真 people, is an abbreviation of the race of Manchuria renamed by Nu’erhachi 努爾哈赤, that is, Emperor Taizu 太祖 of the Qing dynasty. (See the chapter “Tàizǔ běnjì” 太祖本紀 [The Imperial Biography of Emperor Taizu] in the

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 57 Qīngshǐgǎo 清史稿 [The Draft History of Qing] for reference.) In 1644 ce, Fulin 福臨 (Shunzhi 順治), Emperor Shizu 世祖 of the Qing dynasty, entered Beijing from Manchuria and made the city the capital. The Manchu nobilities ruled China for 276 years until the abdication of Puyi 溥儀, that is, Emperor Xuantong 宣統, in 1911. During the reign of Mongols and Manchus, the peoples of Han, Mongol, and Manchu had close interaction with each other. Chinese, Mongolian, and Manchu languages influenced and infiltrated each other. Consequently, some Mongolian and Manchu words entered the Chinese language. 1.4.1 LoanwordsofMongolianorigin The loanwords are mostly from zájù 雜劇 (drama) and history books of the Yuan dynasty, especially the former. Most of the words are the vernaculars of the northern people dwelling near Dàdū 大都 (i.e. Beijing) and reflect the mingling of Chinese language and the languages of the northern peoples, especially the Mongolian language. See the following examples. Bǎdōuér 把都兒 (warrior, samurai), bādōuér 巴都爾, bádū 拔都, or bátū 拔突 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word bagatur and baatur (colloquial), meaning warrior, cavalier, soldier. In the third scene of the play Yōuguī jì 幽閨記 [Story of a Quiet Garden] by Shi Hui 施惠 of the Yuan dynasty, one line goes “Bùmiǎnjiào bǎdōuérměi chūlái, yǔtā shāngyì. 不免叫把都兒每出來，與他商議.” (I might as well ask the warriors out and let them have a discussion with him.) In the fourth scene of the play Hàngōng qiū 漢宮秋 [Autumn in Han Palace] by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Bǎdōuér, bǎ Máo Yánshòu náxià, jièsòng Hàncháo chǔzhì. 把都兒，把毛延壽拿下，解送漢朝處治.” (Soldiers, hold Mao Yanshou and take him to the Han courtiers to sentence.) In the third scene of the Shèliǔ chuíwán 射柳捶丸 [Willow-Shooting and Ball-Hitting] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “bǎdōuér yǔwǒ bǎikāi zhènshì. 把都兒與我擺開陣勢.” (Warriors, stand in an array for battle.) In the prologue of the play Lǎojūn táng 老君堂 [Hall of the Venerable Sovereign] by Zheng Dehui 鄭德輝 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “dàxiǎo bādōuér, bǎikāi zhènshì! 大小巴都兒，擺開陣勢！ ” (All soldiers, stand in the array for a battle!) In the chapter Zhāngbádū zhuàn 張拔都傳 [Biography of the Warrior Zhang] of the Yuán shǐ 元史 [The History of the Yuan dynasty], one sentence goes “liúshǐ zhòngjiá, bùshǎoquè, dìwén ěr zhuàngzhī, cìmíng bádū. 流矢中頰，不少卻，帝 聞而壯之，賜名拔都.” (A shooting arrow hit him in the cheek, yet he did not retreat; upon hearing this, the emperor granted him the name “bádū” [warrior] for his valor.) In Huáiyáng xiànwǔwáng miàotáng zhī bēi 淮陽獻武王廟堂之碑 [Epitaph for Lord Huaiyang (Xianwu)] by Yu Ji 虞集 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Xiànzōng huángdì dāng cìmíng bátū. bátūzhě, guóyǔ yǒnggǎn wúdí zhīmíng yě. 憲宗皇帝當賜名拔突. 拔突者，國語勇敢無敵之名也.” (Emperor Xianzong should grant him the honor ‘bátū’, a warrior of audacity and superiority.) Bǎo’érchì 保兒赤 (cook, chef) is a transliteration of the Mongolian word bugurči,” buurč (colloquial), meaning a cook. In the second scene of the play Liúxīng mǎ 流星馬 [Courier] by Huang Yuanji 黃元吉 of the Ming dynasty, it is

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written that “zhōngzhāo shāmǎ zuòyànxí, jiāng chóuhuái láiqiǎn, qiǎn. Hǔ’érchì chuītán, bǎo’érchìgēròu, bìchèchìbǎtǐmiàn. 終朝殺馬做筵席，將愁懷來遣，遣. 虎兒赤吹彈，保兒赤割肉，畢徹赤把體面.” (We have been killing horses and holding banquets to relieve our anxiety. The musicians play the music, the cooks cut meat, and the civilian officials keep the etiquette.) Bichichi 必赤赤 (barely necessary), bichechi 畢徹赤, or bìdūchì 必闍赤 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word bičigeči and bičiyeči, referring to an official in charge of drafting and writing. In the Huáyí yìyǔ 華夷譯語 [A Glossary of Foreign Words] by Huo Yuanjie 火源潔 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “lì yuē bìdūchì. 吏曰必闍赤.” (An official is called bìdūchì 必闍赤.) In the third scene of the Shèliǔ chuíwán 射柳捶丸 [Willow-Shooting and Ball-Hitting] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “bìchìchì huáichuāizhe wénbù, chìwǔsèshíshǒujiàzhe cāngyīng. 必赤赤懷揣著文簿，赤五色石手架著 蒼鷹.” (The civilian official holds the book of rite; the eagle keeper holds a black eagle.) In the second scene of the Liúxīng mǎ 流星馬 [Courier] by Huang Yuanji 黃元吉 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “bìchèchì bǎtǐmiàn. 畢徹赤把體 面.” (A civilian official keeps the etiquette.) In the chapter Jìsìzhì sān 祭祀志三 [Treatise of Sacrifice III] of the Yuán shǐ 元史 [The History of Yuan dynasty], it is written that “shè shénwèi yú zhōngshūshěng, yòng dēnggēyuè, yíbìdūchì zhìjì yān. bìdūchì, yìyán diǎnshūjì zhě. 設神位於于中書省，用登歌樂，遺必闍赤致 祭焉. 必闍赤，譯言典書記者.” （After the shrine was honored in the cabinet of ministries and the grand ceremony music was played, a civilian official offered the sacrifice. The official was one who read and interpreted the laws and codes.） Dálàsūn 答剌孫, dálàsū 荅剌蘇, dǎlàsū 打剌蘇, or dàlàsū 大辣酥 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word darasun, meaning liquor, yellow wine. In the first scene of the play Kū cúnxiào 哭存孝 [Death of the Winged-Tiger General] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Sǎyīn dálàsūn, jiànle qiǎngzhechī. 撒因答剌孫，見了搶着吃.” (The wine is so delicious that everyone desires a sip.) In the song Shěnzuì dōngfēng 沈醉東風 [Drunk in the East Wind] by Yifen’er 一分兒 (a courtesan of the Yuan dynasty; stage name of the Yuan dynasty) one line goes “Dálàsū pínzhēn rùlǐ sīmá, búzuìhe xiūfú shàngmǎ. 答剌蘇頻斟入禮廝麻，不醉呵休扶上馬.” （The hospitable host keeps pouring the wine, getting me quite drunk and numb; he won’t stop until I have to be helped on the horse. ）In the second scene of the play Cúnxiào dǎhǔ 存孝打虎 [Cunxiao Fighting the Tiger] by Chen Yiren 陳以仁of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Jīnzhǎnzi mǎnzhēnzhe sàiyín dǎlàsū. 金盞子滿斟著賽銀打剌蘇.” (The gold wine cup is filled with the great wine to its rim.) In chapter twenty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “tājiāmài tuōzhēnghélòuzi, rètàngwēnhé dàlàsū. 他家賣拖蒸河漏子，熱燙溫和大辣酥.” (The family sold delicate flapjack and hot wine.) Gùgū 顧姑, gùgū 固姑, gǔgǔ 罟罟, gūgū 姑姑, or gùgù 故故 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word Kökül, referring to a hat worn by the Mongol ladies of nobility, commonly called gūgūmào 箍箍帽 (a hat for ceremonies or indicating one’s noble status). In the section Fùrén 婦人 [Females] of the Méngdábèilù 蒙韃備錄

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 59 [History of Mongol Tartars] by Zhao Gong 趙珙 of the Southern Song Period, one sentence goes “fán zhūqiú zhīqī, zéyǒu gùgūguàn. 凡諸酋之妻，則有顧故冠.” (All the wives of the chieftains wear gugu hats.) It is written in the poem Yǒngběi fù 詠北婦 [Ode to the Northern Women] by Nie Bichuang 聶碧窗 of the Yuan dynasty that “jiāngnán yǒuyǎn hé céngjiàn, zhēngjuǎn zhūlián kàn gùgū. 江南有 眼何曾見，爭捲珠簾看固姑.” (It is quite a new sight for the southerners. They roll up the curtain to see the ladies wearing gugu hats.) In the xiǎolìng 小令 (short song lyric) Liǔyíng qǔ: Fēngyuèdàn 柳營曲風月擔 [Willow Camp (melody): Burden of Love] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Dádá sōuwú sìliǎng, gǔgǔ chìchì língdīng, shě xìngmìng jiāng fēngyuè’er zhēng. 達達搜 無四兩，罟罟翅赤零丁，捨性命將風月兒爭.” (Though in dire poverty, having nothing but a broken red gǔgǔ hat, he would have some pleasure even at the risk of his life.) In the chapter Zázhì 雜制 [Systems] of the essay collection Cǎomùzǐ 草 木子 [Essays] by Ye Ziqi 葉子奇 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Yuáncháo hòufēi jí dàchén zhī zhèngshì, jiēdàigūgū, yī dàpáo . . . gūgū gāo yuán èrchǐxǔ, yòng hóngsèluó, gài Táng jīnbùyáoguàn zhī yízhì yě. 元朝後妃及大臣之正室，皆 帶姑姑，衣大袍 . . . 姑姑高圓二尺許，用紅色羅，蓋唐金步搖冠之遺制也.” [In the Yuan dynasty, the imperial consorts and the wives of the court ministers all wear gūgū hats and long gowns. The hat is round, as tall as about two chǐ 尺 (one chǐ 尺 is about 0.3 m), made of red cloth, in the style of the gold crown bùyáo 布 搖 of the Tang dynasty.] In the book Chángchūn zhēnrén xīyóujì 長春真人西遊記 [True Man Changchun’s Journey to the West] by Li Zhichang 李志常of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “fùrén guànyǐ huàpí, gāo èrchǐxǔ, wǎngwǎng yǐzàohè lóngzhī, fùzhě yǐ hóngxiāo, qímò rú é’yā, míngyuē gùgù. 婦人冠以樺皮，高二尺 許，往往以皂褐籠之，富者以紅綃，其末如鵝鴨，名曰故故.” （The women wear hats called gùgù 故故, which is made of birch bark with a black cloth cover, as tall as about two chǐ 尺; the hats worn by the rich are of red silk; the hat’s end looks like goose or duck feet. ）In the essay collection Zhēnzhūchuán: gùgū 真珠船顧 姑 [Pearl Boat Gugu Hat] by Hu Shi 胡侍of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Gùgū, gūgū, gǔgǔ, gùgū shí yíwù, yí jìn zhī yīn, wú zhèngzì yě. 顧姑，姑姑，罟 罟，固姑實一物，夷禁之音，無正字也.” (The words are of different characters but similar in sound – gugu; they all refer to one thing – hat; the loanwords are similar with the original words in sound, without specifically designated characters.) Hādūn 哈敦 or hātún 哈屯 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word hatun, meaning wife. In the first scene of the play Yuèfēi jīngzhōng 岳飛精忠 [The Loyal General Yue Fei] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Píchāi lǐ chlonesūlào, zhàngfánglǐ cángzhe jùnhādūn. 皮紁裏盛酥酪，帳房裏藏 着俊哈敦.” (Underneath the luxurious outfit lies delicacy; inside the military camp hides the beautiful wife.) In the second scene of the Liúxīng mǎ 流星馬 [Couriers] by Huang Yuanji 黃元吉 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “tōngshìyě, rùnǐ hādūn wǔdūhún. 通事也，入你哈敦五都魂.” (The diplomat had a ball with his wife.) In the essay “Ménggǔ cèxiáng biǎoxù” 蒙古冊降表序 [Preface of Petition to the Mongols], one sentence goes “Yuē hātún zhě shì fújìn, yuē gége zhě shì jùnzhǔ yě. 曰哈屯者視福晉，曰格格者視郡主也.” (Hātún 哈屯 refers to the wife of a prince; gége 格格 refers to the daughter of a prince.)

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Hālà 哈剌 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word hala, meaning to kill. In the third scene of the Yōuguī jì 幽閨記 [Story of a Quiet Garden] by Shi Hui 施 惠of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Bèitā názhù, tiělǐwēn dōu hālà. 被他拿 住，鐵裏溫都哈剌.” （Now that I’m in his hand, he’s going to kill me. ） In the fourth scene of the Jīn fèngchāi 金凤钗 [Gold Phoenix Hairpin] by Zheng Tingyu 郑廷玉of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “ruò bùráo, biàn hālà le ba. 若不 饒，便哈剌了罷.” （If you do not pardon him, just kill him. ） In the first scene of the Zhuàn Kuǎitōng 賺蒯通 [The Trick of Kuaitong] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhǐxiāo chāirén zhuànjiāng Hán Xìn dàolái, hālàle jiùshì. 只消差人賺將韓信到來，哈剌了就是.” （Just have someone trick Han Xin here, and then kill him. ） In the second scene of the Dānbiān duóshuò 單鞭奪槊 [General Yuchi 尉迟 Disarmed Prince Yuanji 元吉of Long Lance] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “liàngzhè Jìngdé dǎ shénmebùjǐn, chènzǎo jiāngtā hālàle, yěhái biànyì. 量這敬德打甚麼不緊，趁 早將他哈剌了，也還便宜.” (It would be fitful to kill Jingde first, as he is not a significant figure.) In chapter eighteen of the Shuōyuè quánzhuàn 說岳全傳 [The Story of Commander Yue Fei 岳飛], one sentence goes “jìshì jiānchén, fēnfù hālà leba. 既是奸臣，吩咐哈喇了罷.” (Just have the villain official killed.) Hútòng 胡同 or húdòng 胡洞 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word gudum, the original meaning being a water well, which later became a loan word in Chinese meaning lane, narrow street. In the third scene of the play Dāndāo huì 單刀 會 [Lord Guan Goes to the Feast] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhíshā yígè xiě hútòng. 直殺一個血胡同.” （I’ll fight my way through the lane by bloody killing. ） In the first scene of the Xiǎoyùchí 小尉 遲 [General Yuchi Jr.] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐbiànyǒunà yínshān tiěbì shù shíchóng, shāde nǐ rén sì xiě hútòng. 你便有那銀山鐵臂數十重，殺的你人似血胡同.” (Even if tens of soldiers in full armors come at me, I’ll have their blood run like a lane.) In the xiǎolìng 小 令（short song lyric ） of Zhài’érlìng: Yuányè jíshì 寨兒令元夜即事 [Military Camp (melody): A Note on the Eve of Lantern Festival] by Zhang Kejiu 張可久 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Húdòng zhǎi, dìxiōng cāi, shíxún bànzhāo bùshàngjiē. 胡洞窄，弟兄猜，十旬半朝不上街.” (The lane too narrow to pass, the brothers quite suspicious, I have not been able to come out for ten days.) As Zhang Qingchcng 張清常 explains in the article “hú tòng yǔ shuǐjǐng” 胡同與水 井 [Lane and Well], “wǒguó běifāng yìxiē chéngshì tèyǒu de ‘hútòng,’ zhègècí shǐjiànyú yuándài, kěnéng jièzì ménggǔyǔ de shuǐjǐng. 我國北方一些城市特有的 ‘胡同’ 這個詞始見于元代，可能借自蒙古語的水井.” (Hútòng 胡同 is a word in the northern dialect; it originated from the Mongolian language in the Yuan dynasty, originally meaning water well.) Some scholars think the mixture of the sounds hú 胡 and tòng 同 produces the sound hàng 巷（衖）. In the section Fēng bù 豐部 [The Rhyme of Feng] of the Shuōwén tōngxùn dìngshēng 說文通訓定聲 [A Phonetic Study of Shuōwén Jiězì 說文解字], Zhu Junsheng 朱駿聲 commented that “jīn jīngshī hū hàng yuē hútòng, hútòng héyīn wéi hàng yě. 今京師呼巷曰 胡同，胡同合音為巷也.” (The word hàng 巷 is a blend of the two syllables of hútòng 胡同, a word in the Beijing dialect.)

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 61 Hǔ’érchì 虎兒赤 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word xooči, meaning musician. In the fourth scene of the play Lìchūn táng 麗春堂 [Chamber of Pretty Spring] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “yíbìxiāng hǔ’érchì nàdū, zhuóyǔwǒ dòngyuè zhě. 一壁廂虎兒赤那都，著與我動樂者.” (Over there are the musicians getting ready to play music.) In the second scene of the Liúxīngmǎ 流星馬 [Courier] by Huang Yuanji 黃元吉of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “qiǎn hǔ’érchì chuītán, bǎo’érchì gēròu. 遣虎兒赤吹彈，保兒 赤割肉.” (Have the musicians play music and the cooks cut meat.) In the chapter Bīngzhì’èr 兵志二 [The Military Annals (II)] of Yuán shǐ 元史 [The History of Yuan], it is written that “Zòuyuèzhě yuē hǔ’érchì. 奏樂者曰虎兒赤.” (A musician is called hǔ’érchì 虎兒赤.) Hǔlàhái 虎剌孩, hǔlàhái 虎辣孩, hūlàhái 忽剌孩, or hūlàhǎi 忽剌海 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word xolakai, meaning bandit, thief. In the first scene of the Kū cúnxiào 哭存孝 [Death of the Winged-Tiger General] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “ruòshuōwǒ xìngmíng, jiājiàng bùnéng jì. Yíduì hūlàhái, dōushì gǒuyǎng de. 若說我姓名，家將不能記. 一對 忽剌孩，都是狗養的.” (The servants do not remember my name. We both are bandits, homeless orphans growing up in the wild.) In the first scene of the play Chénzhōu tiàomǐ 陳州糶米 [Selling Rice in Chenzhou] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐzhège hǔlàhái zuòsǐ yě. 你這個虎剌 孩作死也.” (You are a bandit seeking death.) In the third scene of the play Shèliǔ chuíwán 射柳捶丸 [Willow-Shooting and Ball-Hitting] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Kànle zhè hǔlàhái wǔyì wěishí gāoqiáng, ǎnliǎnggè jiázhemǎ pǎoleba. 看了這虎剌孩武藝委實高強，俺兩個夾着馬跑了 罷.” (Now that this bandit is superb in martial arts, let’s ride off as fast as we can.) Lǐlièmǎchì 裏列馬赤 or qìèlǐmǎchì 怯裏馬赤 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word kele mrči, meaning diplomat, translator, or interpreter. In the third scene of the Shèliǔ chuíwán 射柳捶丸 [Willow-Shooting and Ball-Hitting] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “lǐlièmǎchì, kǒuchuánzhe jiànglìng. 裏列馬赤，口傳著將令.” （An interpreter announced the order of the general. ） In the chapter Zázǔ 雜俎 [Notes] of the essay collection Cǎomùzǐ 草木 子 [Essays] by Ye Ziqi 葉子奇 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “(Běirén) lì qìèlǐmǎchì, gài yìshǐ yě, yǐtōng huáyí yányǔ wénzì. Xī Shìzǔ cháng wèn Kǒngzǐ hérúrén, huò yìngzhī yuē: ‘Shì tiānde qìèlǐmǎchì.’ [北人] 立怯裏馬赤,蓋譯史 也,以通華夷言語文字. 昔世祖嘗問孔子何如人,或應之曰: ‘是天的怯裏馬赤’.” (Among the northern people stands the interpreter who knows the Chinese and foreign languages. Emperor Shizu 世祖 once asked him who Confucius [Kongzi 孔子] was; he answered that Confucius was the interpreter of heaven.) In Wúshì wéifú zhāi suíbǐ 無事為福齋隨筆 [Essays in the Studio of Quietitude and Blessing] by Han Taihua 韓泰華 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Yuán qìèlǐmǎchì, hànyīn tōngshìyě. 元怯裏馬赤，漢音通事也.” (The person qìèlǐmǎchì 怯裏馬赤 of Yuan refers to an interpreter.) Mǎnggǔdǎi 莽古歹 or mánggǔdǎi 忙古歹 is a transliteration meaning pageboy, servant. In the third scene of the Kū cúnxiào 哭存孝 [Death of the Winged-Tiger General] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿of the Yuan dynasty, one line goes “(Zhèngdàn

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Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu

dǎ mǎnggǔdǎi shàng, yún) Zìjiā mǎnggǔdǎi biànshì, fèng ā’zhě de yányǔ, zhuó wǔ dǎting Cúnxiào qù. [正旦打莽古歹上，云] 自家莽古歹便是，奉阿者的言 語，着吾打聽存孝去.” (The servant, hit by the young lady, came up and said, “I’m just a servant. Madam has ordered me to ask the whereabouts of Cunxiao.”) In the second scene of the Liúxīng mǎ 流星馬 [Courier] by Huang Yuanji 黃元吉of the Ming dynasty, one line goes “Mǎnggǔdǎi jiāngjiǔlái. 莽古歹將酒來.” (Boy, serve us some wine.) In the song suites (sǎntào 散套) of Shàobiàn: Yángsùyuān 哨 遍羊訴冤 [Shaobian (melody): A Lamb Complaining of Injustice] by Zeng Hefu 曾褐夫, a playwright of the Yuan dynasty, it is written in the ninth volume of the ballad collection of Tàipíng Yuèfǔ 太平樂府 [Songs of Great Peace] that “huǒlǐchì móle kuàidāo, mǎnggǔdǎi shāoxià rèshuǐ. 火裏赤磨了快刀，忙古歹燒下熱水.” (The cook has sharpened his knife; the servant has boiled the water.) Mǐhǎn 米罕 or mǐhā 米哈 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word mihan, meaning meat. In the first scene of the Kū cúnxiào 哭存孝 [Death of the WingedTiger General] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one line goes “[Lǐ Cúnxìn yún] Mǐhǎn zhěngjīn tūn, mǒlín bú huì qí. [李存信云] 米罕整斤吞，抹 鄰不會騎.” (Li Cunxin said that he was a great meat eater but was unable to ride a horse.) In the third scene of the Shèliǔ chuíwán 射柳捶丸 [Willow-Shooting and Ball-Hitting] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one line goes “hǎo mǐhā chīshàng jǐkuài. 好米哈吃上幾塊.” (Let me have a feast of some good meat.) In sǎntào 散套 (the song suites) of Shàobiàn: Yīngquǎn cónglái wújià 哨遍鷹犬 從來無價 [Shaobian (melody): Eagles and Dogs Are Plentiful and Cheap] by an anonymous author in the Yuan dynasty in the collection Cílín zhāiyàn 詞林摘豔 [A Selection of Beautiful Songs], one sentence goes “Àolà zhūdúpán zhōng duīzhe mǐhā, àolà nàndúhú zhōng fàngzhe dálà. 奧剌朱獨盤中堆著米哈，奧剌難獨壺 中放著答剌.” (On the plates pile meat; in the bottles fill wine.) Mǒlín 抹鄰, mǔlín 母驎 or mǔlín 母鱗is a transliteration of the Mongolian word morin, meaning horse. In the first scene of the Kū cúnxiào 哭存孝 [Death of the Winged-Tiger General] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Mǐhǎn zhěngjīn tūn, mǒlín bú huì qí. 米罕整斤吞，抹鄰不會 騎.” (He was a great meat eater but was unable to ride a horse.) In the third scene of the Shèliǔ chuíwán 射柳捶丸 [Willow-Shooting and Ball-Hitting] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wǒ qí yìpǐ sǎyīn de mǒlín, zhòngxiǎofān dōuqí làixiàng. 我騎一匹撒因的抹鄰，眾小番都騎癩 象.” (I ride a brilliant horse; the foreign soldiers all ride elephants.) In the song Zhōnglǚfěndié’ér: Yīngquǎn cónglái wújià 中呂粉蝶兒鷹犬從來無價 [Zhonglv fendie’er (melody): Eagles and Dogs Are Plentiful and Cheap] from the collection of Shèngshì xīnshēng 盛世新聲 [New Tunes from a Properous Age], one sentence goes “jiāng mǔlín jí kuài shuān. 將母鱗疾快拴.” (Hurry! Hold the horse rein.) Nàyán 那顔, nàyǎn 那衍, or nàyán 那延 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word noyan, meaning officer, official; the word later refers to aristocrat. In Nèigāng’èr 內綱二 [Internal Structure II] of the Yuándiǎnzhāng 元典章 [The Statutes of Yuan dynasty], one sentence goes “Yuè’érlǔ nàyán wéi tóu, ǎn shāngliànglái, jīnhòu chāi jiānchá gèchùxíng zhě. 月兒魯那顔為頭，俺商量來， 今後差監察各處行者.” (I suggest that Lord Yue’erlu be appointed head and that

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 63 the supervisor go across the state to inspect from now on.) In the first scene of the Yuèfēi jīngzhōng 岳飛精忠 [The Loyal General Yue Fei] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Nàyán quézhetuǐ, xiǎofān ěr yòu lóng. 那顔 瘸著腿，小番耳又聾.” (The lord is lame, and his servant is deaf.) In the second scene of the Liúxīng mǎ 流星馬 [Courier] by Huang Yuanji 黃元吉of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Nàyán nàyán, yàbǔyàbǔ. 那顔那顔，亞卜亞卜.” (Lord! Run! Lord! Run!) In the chapter “Liú Yuánqīng Zhuàn” 劉源清傳 [Biography of Liu Yuanqing] of the Míngshǐ 明史 [The History of Ming dynasty], it is written that “Zhǐ dàifǔ yuē: ‘Yǐcǐ wéi nàyán jū. nàyánzhě, huáyán dàrén yě.’ 指代府 曰：‘以此為那顔居.’ 那顔者，華言大人也.” (He said of the deputy governor, “He considers himself as a nàyán, in Chinese ‘dàrén 大人,’ which means lord.”) In the epitaph “Yī’èrsìqīnián hùxiàn cǎotángsì kuòduān tàizǐ lìngzhǐbēi” 一二四 七年鄠縣草堂寺闊端太子令旨碑 (Epitaph on the Stele Erected in 1247 under the Command of Prince Kuoduan 闊端 in Temple Caotang 草堂in the Prefecture of Hu 鄠) from the collection of Yuándài Báihuà bēi jílù 元代白話碑集錄 [A Collection of Mongolian Epitaphs of Yuan dynasty Translated into Mandarin Chinese], it is written that “Tiěgē chéngxiàng chuán fèng huángtàizǐ lìngzhǐ, jiào duì jīnzhǎnglǎo dàoyǔ tiěgē dūyuánshuài, yěkěnàyǎn, liúwànhù, héshàng wànhù, chāolà qiānhù děngguān. 鐵哥丞相傳奉皇太子令旨，教對金長老道與鐵哥都 元帥、也可那衍、劉萬戶、和尚萬戶、抄剌千戶等官.” (Prime Minister Tiege delivered the command of the prince that the monks, masters, and disciples be granted official ranks including general, lord, battalion and army commander, etc.) Also in Yī’èrwǔ’èrnián ānyì Chángchūnguàn dàojiào zhēnrén zhábēi 一二五二年 安邑長春觀道教真人劄碑 [Epitaph of True Man of Taoism, Temple Changchun (everlasting spring), Anyi County, the Year of 1252], it is recorded that “méng’gē huángdì shèngzhǐ lǐ, xuānyù yǐfù hàn’ér tiándì lǐ yīng wéi de xiānshēng měide nàyán zhēnrén, xuándài yùqiánpái. 蒙哥皇帝圣旨裏，宣諭倚付漢兒田地裏 應為底先生每底那延真人，懸帶御前牌.” (By the royal decree of Emperor Meng’ge, the master monk will be honored as lord and granted a royal medal.) As for nǔmén 弩門 and sùmén 速門, nǔmén 弩門 is the transliteration of the Mongolian word nomon, referring to the weapon of bow; sùmén 速門 is the transliteration of the Mongolian word sumun, referring to the weapon of arrow. In scene three of the Shèliǔ chuíwán 射柳捶丸 [Willow-Shooting and Ball-Hitting] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one line goes “yě búhuì nǔmén sùmén. 也不會弩門速門.” (He knows nothing about arrow shooting.) In the third scene of the play Huóná Xiāo Tiānyòu 活拿蕭天祐 [Catching the Enemy General Xiao Tianyou Alive] by an anonymous author of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “yě bùsuǒ xiǎnyào jīmóu, ānpáizhe nǔmén sùmén. 也不索顯耀機謀，安排著弩 門速門.” (No sophisticated stratagem is needed; a simple arrangement of some hidden arrow shooters will do.) Qūdīng 驅丁 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word garin, meaning slave, servant. In the third scene of the play Yuānyāng bèi 鴛鴦被 [Mandarin-Duck Coverlet], it is written that “què jiāngwǒ zháiyuàn liángrén, shēngniǔzuò jiǔdiàn qūdīng. 卻將我宅院良人，生扭做酒店驅丁.” (I am a good girl of a noble family but have been made a servant in the inn.)

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Sǎdūn 撒敦 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word sadun, meaning a relative of a family. In the fourth scene of the play Tiáo fēngyuè 調風月 [A Girl Tricked into Amorous Relations] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Shuāng sǎdūn shì bùshàngshū, nǚxù shì shìxí qiānhù, yǒu èrbǎipǐ jīnlèmǎ, wǔshíliàng huàlúnchē. 雙撒敦是部尚書，女婿是世襲千戶， 有二百匹金勒馬，五十輛畫輪車.” (With two relatives being ministers, his son-in-law being a battalion commander [Qiānhù 千戶] by heredity, the household has 200 gold-rein horses and 50 carriages with painted wheels.) In the second scene of the Hǔ tóupái 虎頭牌 [Tiger-Head Plate] by Li Zhifu 李直夫of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒyěcéng chuītán nà guǎnxián, kuàihuóle wànqiān, kěbiànshì dàbàimén sǎdūnjiāde yányàn. 我也曾吹彈那管弦，快活了 萬千，可便是大拜門撒敦家的筵宴.” (I used to play music at the banquets of some top officials’ relatives and had a wonderful time.) In the fourth scene of the Jīn’ānshòu 金安壽 [Wits and Beauties] by Jia Zhongming 賈仲明of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Tècōngming, gèngjīngcǎi, duìzhe ǎn sǎdūnjiā xiǎnyào xiē táiyán. 忒聰明，更精彩，對著俺撒敦家顯耀些擡顔.” (I would present my wits and beauty in front of my relatives.) Sǎyīn 撒因 or sàiyín 賽銀 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word saїn, meaning excellent, good. In the first scene of the play Pòtiān zhèn 破天陣 [Defeating the Heavenly Battle Array] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “ruò búshì nǐzhèděngde sǎyīn dálàsūn mǐhǎn guǎndài wǒ he, wǒ zěnkěn tìnǐ qínná Yángliù’ér. 若不是你這等的撒因答剌孫米罕管待我呵，我怎肯替你擒 拿楊六兒.” (If you have not had treated me well with the excellent wine and meat, I would not have had caught Yangliu’er [楊六兒the sixth son of the Yang family] for you.) In the third scene of the Shèliǔ chuíwán 射柳捶丸 [Willow-Shooting and Ball-Hitting] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “búhuìqí sǎyīn mǒlín. 不會騎撒因抹鄰.” (He does not know how to ride this excellent horse.) In the second scene of the Cúnxiào dǎhǔ 存孝打虎 [Cunxiao Fighting the Tiger] by Chen Yiren 陳以仁of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “jīnzhǎnzi mǎnzhēnzhe sàiyín dǎlàsū. 金盞子滿斟著賽銀打剌蘇.” (The golden wine cup is filled with the great wine to the rim.) Sǎowū 掃兀 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word sagu meaning to sit. In the fourth scene of the play Táoyuán jǐng 桃源景 [The Scenery of the Utopia Peach Blossom Spring] by Zhu Youdun 朱有敦 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “tā dào sǎowū à, yuánlái shì zuòdì. 他道掃兀啊，原來是坐地.” (Well, he said, Sǎowū 掃兀, which means to sit down.) Téngkèlǐ 騰克裏is a transliteration of the Mongolian word tangri, meaning heaven, god. In the second scene of the play Wànguó láicháo 萬國來朝 [The Tribute Visit of Foreign Nations] by an anonymous writer, it is written that “Téngkèlǐ huànzuò qīngtiān. 騰克裏喚做青天.” (The word téngkèlǐ 騰克裏 means heaven.) Tiělǐwēn 鐵裏溫 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word terigün, meaning head (of a person). In the third scene of the Yōuguī jì 幽閨記 [Story of a Quiet Garden] by Shi Hui 施惠 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “bèitā názhù, tiělǐwēn dōuhālà. 被他拿住，鐵裏溫都哈剌.” (Now that I’m in his hand, he wants to kill me.)

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 65 Tǔlū 吐嚕 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word tulu, meaning pity. In the poem Chóufèn 愁憤 [Song of Anguish] by Princess A Jie 阿𧞔, it is written that “Tǔlū tǔlū Duàn’ānú, Shī Zōng Shī Xiù tóng nú dǎi. 吐嚕吐嚕段阿奴，施宗施秀 同奴歹.” (What a pity! What a pity! Lady Duan’s fortune is as bad as Shi Zong and Shi Xiu [who were killed in the war].) The original meaning of tǔlū 吐嚕 is pity. Wūlà 兀剌 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word ula, meaning shoes, boots. In tàoqǔ 套曲 (the song cycle) Shàobiàn: Píjiàng shuōhuǎng 哨遍皮匠說謊 [Shaobian (melody) The Lies of the Cobbler], it is written that “xīn xuēzi tóuzhì nénggòu wánbèi, jiù wūlà xiān móle bànjiédǐ. 新靴子投至能夠完備，舊兀剌先磨了半截 底.” (When my new shoes are done, my old ones would have been half broken.) In the second scene of the play Yúqiáo jì 漁樵記 [Story of a Fisherman and a Woodcutter] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhí děngde shéjiào sānshēng gǒuzhuàichē, wénzi chuānzhe wūlàxuē. 直等的蛇 叫三聲狗拽車，蚊子穿著兀剌靴.” (Snakes would bark, dogs would pull carts, and mosquitos would wear shoes!) Wūlāchì 兀拉赤 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word ulagači, meaning horseman, a man taking care of the horses of posts in ancient times. In the chapter Bīngbùsān 兵部三 [The Ministry of War III] of the Yuándiǎnzhāng 元典章 [The Statutes of Yuan dynasty], it is recorded that “zhàodé nèiwài zhū yámén bìng gèchù xíngshěng chūshǐ rényuán qízuò pùmǎ, wèi wú tuótuó mǎpǐ, duōyú wūlàchì mǎshàng shāodài zhāndài xíngli píqièzi chénzhòng huòwù. gèngyǒu bújìn, lìng wūlàchì, yánshēn fùdài. 照得內外諸衙門并各處行省出使人員騎坐鋪馬，為無 駝馱馬匹，多於兀剌赤馬上捎帶氈袋行李皮篋子沉重貨物. 更有不盡，令兀 剌赤，沿身負帶.” (It is arranged that the officials dispatched by state or local authorities would go on the journey on wagons. For the shortage of camels and horses, horsemen of posts would take the heavy luggage in thick felt bags or boxes on their horses. Other stuff will be taken along by the horsemen themselves.) In the Huáyí yìyǔ 華夷譯語 [A Glossary of Foreign Words] by Huo Yuanjie 火源 潔of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Mǎfū yuē wūlāchì. 馬夫曰兀拉赤.” (A horseman is called wūlāchì 兀拉赤.) In the story Fèngshǐ línfān 奉使臨番 [The Diplomat Visits the Foreign Land] in the Yōuguī jì 幽閨記 [Story of a Quiet Garden] by Shi Hui 施惠of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wūlāchì, wūlāchì, mén wài děng duō shí. 兀拉赤，兀拉赤，門外等多時.” (The horseman has been waiting outside for a long time.) In the tenth chapter of “Mǎlà” 馬剌 [Lord Mala] of the essay collection Chuògēng lù 輟耕錄 [Retirement to the Countryside] by Tao Zongyi 陶宗儀 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Suǒwèi wūlāchì zhě, xiàmǎ guìqì, ruò gàosù zhuàng; hūwèn héwéi, yì bìmù yáoshǒu fú dá. 所謂兀拉 赤者，下馬跪泣，若告訴狀；呼問何為，亦閉目搖手弗答.” (The horseman came down his horse, knelt down, and cried in tears, as if he was going to speak the injustice done to him; however, when asked, he shut his eyes and shook his hands but gave no answer.) Wǔliè mièdié 五裂蔑叠 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word ulu medel, meaning not knowing, having no idea. In the second scene of the play Kū cúnxiào 哭存孝 [Death of the Winged-Tiger General] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “(Lǐ Kèyòng yún) wǒ wǔliè mièdié. (Lǐ Cúnxìn

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yún) gēge, ā mā (fùqīn) dào wǔliè mièdié, zuìleyě, zěnshēngshìliǎo. (李克用云) 我 五裂蔑疊. (李存信云) 哥哥，阿媽（父親）道五裂蔑疊，醉了也，怎生是了.” (“I have no idea,” said Li Keyong. “Brother, Father said he had no idea. He is drunk. What could we do?” said Li Cunxin.) Yábù 牙不, yǎbù 啞步, yǎbù 啞不, yàbù 亞不, yēbù 耶步, or yábùyuē’erchì 牙 不約兒赤 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word yabu, meaning to walk. In the prologue (xiēzi 楔子) of the play Kāizhào jiùzhōng 開詔救忠 [Save the Loyal General by the Royal Decree] (by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty), one sentence goes “nǐ ruòyào shātā, biànshāle yěbà; bùshātāshí, tuīchū yuánmén, zhuó tā yábù le ba. 你若要殺他，便殺了也罷；不殺他時，推出轅門，著他牙不了 罷.” (If you want to kill him, just do it; if not, push him out and tell him to walk off.) In the second scene of the play Yīnshān pòlǔ 陰山破虜 [Defeat the Invaders at Mount Yinshan] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wǒ díbúguò tā yě, táomìng yǎbùyǎbù. 我敵不過他也，逃命啞步啞步.” (As I am not his match, I’ll just run for [my] life.) In the first scene of the Huánghuā yù 黃花峪 [Yellow Flower Valley] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “jiào sānshēng yìnán’ér, biàn shàngmǎ yǎbù yě. 叫三聲義男兒，便上 馬啞不也.” (Just call me “hero” thrice, and then I’ll ride off.) In the fourth scene of the play Hēi xuànfēng 黑旋風 [Dark Tornado] by Gao Wenxiu 高文秀 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “liǎnggè tiàoshàngmǎ, yábùyuē’erchì biàn zǒu. 兩個跳上馬，牙不約而赤便走.” (The two of them mounted their horses and rode off quickly.) In the first scene of the Jiàng sāngshèn 降桑椹 [Endownments of Mulberries from Heaven] by Liu Tangqing 劉唐卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Ǎn yábùyuē’erchì ba! 俺牙不約而赤罷！ ” (I might just as well run away!) In the second scene of the Liúxīngmǎ 流星馬 [Courier] by Huang Yuanji 黃元吉of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “nàyán nàyán, yǎbǔyǎbǔ. 那顔那 顔，亞卜亞卜.” (Lord! Run! Lord! Run!) Most of the previously mentioned loanwords from the Mongolian language do not signify new things or new concepts; neither do they follow the word-forming rules in Chinese. In the Chinese language, there are corresponding words denoting the same senses. In the Yuan dynasty, the northern dwellers, including both the Chinese people and the Mongols, could understand these words; with social transformation in the Ming and Qing dynasties, the loanwords had lost their value and were no longer in use. However, some have survived and entered the Chinese lexicon and are still in wide use today. Some examples are given as follows. Dābó 褡膊, dālián 褡連, dābó 褡䙏, dābó 搭膊, and dābāo 褡包 are transliterations of the Mongolian words takalimpa and talimp, referring to an oblong bag with an opening in the middle; things can be put in the two ends of the bag. Big bags could be carried over one’s shoulder; small ones could be fastened on one’s waist belt. In the first scene of the play Lǐkuí fùjīng 李逵負荊 [Likui Carries Thorns to Ask for Forgiveness] by Kang Jinzhi 康進之 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐzhè lǎorénjiā, zhèyīfu zěnme pòle, bǎ wǒzhè hóngjuān dābó yǔnǐ bǔzhè pòchù. 你這老人家，這衣服怎么破了，把我這紅絹褡膊與你補這 破處.” (Sir, your coat is broken. Cover the hole with my red bag.) In the Prologue of the play Yànqīng bóyú 燕青博魚 [Yanqing Peddles Fish] by Li Wenwei 李文

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 67 蔚 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zé wǒ zhè báizhānmào bàn qiǎngfēng, zé wǒ zhè pòdābó, luòkěde quán zhēyǔ. 則我這白氊帽半搶風，則我這破搭膊， 落可的權遮雨.” (Well nigh, this white felt hat could only half cover me from the wind. Let me use this poor bag as an umbrella.) In the second scene of the play Shāgǒu quànfū 殺狗勸夫 [Advising Husband by Killing a Dog] by Xiao Dexiang 蕭德祥of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Jiāng yìtiáo jiùdābó chězuòle qíjiǎo, jiāng yìlǐng pòbùshān bǎizuòle pùchí. 將一條舊褡䙏扯做了旗角，將一 領破布衫擺做了鋪遲.” (I have made a shabby coat with an old bag and an insole with a piece of worn cloth.) In chapter fifty-nine of the novel Jīn píng méi 金瓶 梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Chén Jīngjì . . . chūlái tīngshàng, fúqù chéntǔ, bǎ xíngli dālián jiào Wáng Jīng sòngdào jiāqù. 陳經濟 . . . 出來廳上，拂去塵 土，把行李褡連教王經送到家去.” （Chen Jingji . . . came onto the living room, had a wash, and told Wang Jing to take the luggage home. ）In chapter four of the novel Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “shàngtou zhàozhe lánbù pípajīn de dānjǐnshēn’er, jǐnshēn’er wàimiàn jìzhe hénán dābāo. 上頭罩著 藍布琵琶襟的單緊身兒，緊身兒外面系著河南褡包.” (The man wears a blue vest with buttons fastened on the right of the lapel; over the vest hangs a bag of Henan (河南 the south of Yellow River).) Dǎi 歹 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word tai, meaning not good, bad. In the third scene of the Dòu É yuān 竇娥冤 [The Injustice to Dou E] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “dìyě, nǐ bùfēn hǎodǎi hé wéi dì! 地也，你不分好歹何為地！ ” (Oh Earth! You cannot tell good from evil! How can you be the Earth!) In the first scene of the play Yànqīng bóyú 燕青博 魚 [Yanqing Peddles Fish] by Li Wenwei 李文蔚 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “gē, nín xiōngdì búshì dǎirén. 哥，您兄弟不是歹人.” (Brother, I am not a villain.) In chapter fifty-seven of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, a sentence goes “Tāmén zhèlǐ rénduō zuǐzá, shuō hǎohuà de rénshǎo, shuō dǎihuà de rénduō. 他們這裏人 多嘴雜，說好話的人少，說歹話的人多.” (There is too much gossip here; few speak kind, too many speaking evil.) Mógu 蘑菇 or mógū 蘑菰 is a transliteration of the Mongolian word moku, referring to a kind of high-quality edible mushroom which grows in the woods or on the grass. In the section Mógūxùn 蘑菰蕈 [Mushroom] of the chapter Cài bù 菜部 [Vegetables] of Běncǎo gāngmù 本草綱目 [The Compendium of Materia Medica] by Li Shizhen 李時珍 (a physician of the Ming dynasty), it is written that “mógū chū Shāndōng, huáiběi zhūchù, mái sāng, chǔ zhūmù yú tǔ zhōng, jiāo yǐ mǐgān, dài gū shēng cǎi zhī. 蘑菰出山東、淮北諸處，埋桑、楮諸木於土中， 澆以米泔，待菰生采之.” (Mushroom is a product of Shandong Province and the region Huaibei [north of River Huai]. Bury mulberry or paper mulberry wood in the earth, water the buried wood with slop from rinsing rice, and mushroom will grow out. After some time, it will be ready to pick.) In zhàn 站 or zhànchì 站赤, zhàn 站 functioned as a verb in Middle Chinese, meaning stand still, stand for some time. In the rhyme book of Guǎngyùn: Xiànyùn

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廣韻陷韻 [The Rhyme Guang and Rhyme Xian], it is recorded that “zhàn, súyán dúlì. 站，俗言獨立.” (Zhàn 站, a colloquial word, means to stand.) In Jíyùn: Xiànyùn 集韻陷韻 [The Rhyme Ji and Rhyme Xian], it is written that “zhàn, jiǔlì yě. 站，久立也.” (The word zhàn 站 means to stand for some time.) In the chapter Guō Zǐyí Zhuàn 郭子儀傳 [Biography of Guo Ziyi] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of Tang dynasty], one sentence goes “Jǐngyì zhēnjīng, cháiláng zhànháo. 井邑榛荊，豺狼站嗥.” (The town has grown desolate with wild animals roaming and howling.) The word zhàn 站is a transliteration of the Mongolian word jam referring to post, a stop-over for couriers on land to have a rest or change horses or for sailors to cast anchor. In the chapter Shìzǔ běnjì bā 世祖本纪八 [The Imperial Biography of Emperor Shizu, Section Eight] of Yuánshǐ 元史 [The History of Yuan], one sentence goes “Rénchén, gāolì guówáng Wáng Chūn yán, běnguó zhì yì sìshí, mínchù diāobì, chì bìng wéi èrshí zhàn, réng gěi mǎ jià bābǎi dìng. 壬 辰，高麗國王王春言，本國置驛四十，民畜凋弊，敕併為二十站，仍給馬 價八百錠.” (In the year of Renchen [1592 ce], as the Korean King Wang Chun 王春 said, there used to be 40 posts in the state, 20 of which had to be closed for the desolate social and economic conditions, but the state still paid a tribute with horses worthy of 800 dìng 錠 [One dìng is about 50 liǎng 兩 of silver].) In the section of Bīngzhì sì 兵志四 [The Military Annals IV] of Yuánshǐ 元史 [The History of Yuan], one sentence goes “fán zhàn, lù zé yǐ mǎ sì niú, huò yǐ lǘ, huò yǐ chē, ěr shuǐ zé yǐ zhōu. 凡站，陸則以馬似牛，或以驢，或以車，而水則以 舟.” (Horse, cows, donkeys, or wagons are used for land transport, boats and ships for water transport.) In the tenth chapter of the Chuògēng lù 輟耕錄 [Retirement to the Countryside] by Tao Zongyi 陶宗儀 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “jì’ér shàngmǎ, bǐshǔ, dǐ qiánzhàn. 既而上馬，比曙，抵前站.” (Then everyone mounted his horse and arrived at the post at daybreak.) In the section “Zázhì” 雜 制 [Systems] of Cǎomùzǐ 草木子 [Collection of Essays] by Ye Ziqi 葉子奇 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Chuánmìng, lùyǒu mǎzhàn, shuǐyǒu shuǐzhàn. 傳 命，陸有馬站，水有水站.” (There are posts on both land and water routes by which commands are passed.) Zhànchì 站赤is a transliteration of the Mongolian word jamči, referring to the person in charge of a post. In the chapter Shìzǔ běnjì shí 世祖本纪十 [The Tenth Section of the Imperial Biography of Emperor Shizu] of Yuán shǐ 元史 [The History of Yuan], one sentence goes “Zhūchù zhànchì fànshí, guān wèi zhīgěi. 諸處站赤飯食，官為支給.” (Meals at the posts are provided by the government.) It is also recorded in the section Bǎiguānzhì sì 百官 志四 [State Offices IV] that “shìnián liǎngdū réngzhì, zhǐ guǎn dádá zhànchì, . . . réng jiānlǐng hànrén zhànchì. 是年兩都仍置，止管達達站赤， . . . 仍兼領漢 人站赤.” (In that year, there were still two state capitals, both taking charge of Tartar and Chinese posts.) The word zhànchì 站赤 means the same as zhàn 站, both referring to post. In the section Bīngzhìsì 兵志四 [The Military Annals IV] of Yuánshǐ 元史 [The History of Yuan], it is written that “Yuánzhì zhànchì zhě, yìfù zhī yìmíng yě. gàiyǐ tōngdá biānqíng, bùxuān hàolìng, gǔrén suǒwèi zhìyóu ér chuánmìng, wèiyǒu zhòng yú cǐzhě yān. 元制站赤者，驿傅之译名也. 蓋以通 达邊情，布宣號令，古人所謂置郵而傳命，未有重於此者焉.” (The so-called “zhànchì” in the Yuan administration refers to the posts established to transmit

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 69 information and commands across the state; it is of great significance.) It is also mentioned that “fán zhàn, lù zé yǐ mǎ sì niú, huò yǐ lǘ, huò yǐ chē, ěr shuǐ zé yǐ zhōu. 凡站，陸則以馬似牛，或以驢，或以車，而水則以舟.” (Horses, cows, donkeys, or wagons are used for land transport, boats and ships for water transport.) In September, the first year of Hongwu (Emperor Taizu of the Ming dynasty) Reign (1368–1398 ce), it was commanded that zhàn 站be renamed as yì 驛 to be used nationwide. In the Qing dynasty, the words zhàn 站 and yì 驛 were both used. In contemporary Chinese, the word zhàn 站 is more widely used, having replaced the word yì 驛. A loop of borrowing also took place between Chinese and Mongolian languages. For example, the word bóshì 博士, originally a Chinese word, becomes the loan word pakci in Mongolian language, meaning master, teacher, but later returns to Chinese language as bǎshì 把勢 or bǎshì 把式, referring to someone with a skill or a very able person. In the second scene of the Yùhúchūn 玉壺春 [Spring in the Jade Pot] by Wu Hanchen 武漢臣of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “ruòshì wǒ lǎobǎshì, zhǎnqífān, lìmǎ tíngcān . . . 若是我老把勢，展旗幡，立馬停驂 . . .” (With my experience and expertise, I would ride my horse into the dark woods.) In chapter thirty-two of the novel Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “háishì gè bǎshì? háishìgè chú’ér? 還是個把勢？還是個雛兒？” (Is he an old master or an inexperienced kid?)1 Some other examples include gē bì 戈壁 (desert), a transliteration of the Mongolian word gobi; hābā 哈巴 (dog), a transliteration of the Mongolian word xaba; or lǎbā 喇叭 (a wind instrument with a thin top and a thick bottom), a transliteration of the Mongolian word labai. All these have become common words in Chinese. 1.4.2 LoanwordsfromtheManchulanguage The predecessors of Manchu were the Nǚzhēn 女真 people, who had had close contact with the Hàn 漢 people in North China. Some loanwords in Chinese are from Manchu. Some examples are given as follows. Ā’mǎ 阿馬 or ā’mā 阿媽 is a transliteration of the Nǚzhēn 女真 word ama, meaning father. In the first scene of the Tiáo fēngyuè 調風月 [A Girl Tricked into Amorous Relations] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “zhè shūfáng cúndé ā’mǎ, huìdé bīnkè. 這書房存得阿馬，會得賓客.” (The room is the study of father as well as the living room to receive guests.) In scene two of the play Bàiyuètíng 拜月亭 [The Pavillion of Moon-Worship] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zìcóng dūxià duì zūntáng, zǒumǎ lícháo, ā’mǎ jiànbié wúyàng. 自從都下對尊堂，走馬離朝，阿馬間別無 恙.” (Father, since you bid farewell with my mother and left the capital on a commission, how have you been?) In the xiēzi 楔子 (prologue) of Wǔhóuyàn 五侯宴 [A Banquet for Five Marquises], it is written that “jīn fèng ā’mā jiànglìng, chāi ǎn wǔbǎi yì’ér jiājiàng, tǒnglǐng xióngbīng, shōubǔ cǎokòu. 今奉阿媽將令，差俺五 百義兒家將，統領雄兵，收捕草寇.” (Father has ordered me to command 500 family guards to combat the bandits.) In scene one of the Cúnxiào dǎhǔ 存孝打虎

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Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu

[Cunxiao Fighting the Tiger] by Chen Yiren 陳以仁of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Ā’mā, huàn nǐ hái’ér nàxiāng shǐyòng?” 阿媽，喚你孩兒那廂使 用？(Father, what do you want me to do?) The address is still being used by the Manchu people nowadays. Āzhě 阿者 is a word in the Nǚzhēn 女真 language meaning mother. In the second scene of the Kū cúnxiào 哭存孝 [Death of the Winged-Tiger General] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “zuǒyòu bàofùzhě, dào yǒu āzhě láile yě. 左右報復者，道有阿者來了也.” (Servant, go tell your master that his mother is here.) In the second scene of the Tiáo fēngyuè 調風月 [A Girl Tricked into Amorous Relations] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Lǎo āzhě shǐ jiāng lái fúshì, nǐ zhǎnwūle zán shēnqǐ. 老阿者使將 來服侍，你展汙了咱身起.” (Mother told me to please you; I won’t get up until you are pleased to your heart’s content.) In the fourth scene of the Wǔhóuyàn 五 侯宴 [A Banquet for Five Marquises], it is written that “Āzhě de jiànglìng, zhuó wǒděngde wǔjiàng quánlehe, láihuí āzhě de yányǔ. 阿者的將令，著我等的五 將全了呵，來回阿者的言語.” (Mother has given the order that we go take her instruction when the five of us gather together.) Tùhú 兔鶻, tùhú 兔胡, or tǔhú 吐鶻is a transliteration of the word tuhu in Nǚzhēn 女真, meaning belt, loincloth. In the section Yúfúzhì xià 輿服志下 [Carriage and Attire, the Final Part] of the Jīnshǐ 金史 [The History of Jin], it is written that “Jīnrén zhī chángfú sì: Dài, jīn, lǐngpányī, wūpíxié. qí shùdài yuē tǔhú. 金人之 常服四：帶、巾、領盤衣、烏皮鞋. 其束帶曰吐鶻.” (A common outfit of Jin includes four items: waistbelt, head cloth, long gown of round collar, and black leather boots. The belt is called tǔhú 吐鶻.) In the third scene of the play Wǔhóuyàn 五侯宴 [A Banquet for Five Marquises], it is written that “nà guānrén jìzhe tiáo yùtùhú, liánzhū’ér shíniǎn. 那官人系著條玉兔鶻，連珠兒石碾.” (The gentleman wears a belt attached with a string of pearls and a roller-shaped piece of jade.) In the second scene of the play Tiáo fēngyuè 調風月 [A Girl Tricked into Amorous Relations] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhídào ge tiānhūn dì’àn, bùkěn gēnghuàn yīmèi, bǎ tùhú jiěkāi, niǔkòu xiānglí. 直到個 天昏地暗，不肯更換衣袂，把兔胡解開，扭扣相離.” (The belts and buttons unfastened, the two had a ball, totally ignorant of time and themselves, reluctant to get up and get dressed.) During the Qing dynasty, there appeared more loanwords from Manchu language. Some examples are given as follows. Ā’gē 阿哥 is a transliteration of the Manchu word a’ge, referring to the sons of an emperor. In the section of Zhūhuángzǐ 諸皇子 [Princes] of the Chēngwèilù 稱謂 錄 [A Dictionary of Terms of Address], it is written that “zhū huángzǐ yìyǒu chēng ā’gē zhě, zhī ā’gē dāngwéi huángzǐ zhī tōngchēng. 諸皇子亦有稱阿哥者，知阿 哥當為皇子之通稱.” (A prince is addressed as ā’gē; thus, we know that the word is a common address for princes.) In the first chapter of the Yànxiàxiāng cuǒlù 燕 下鄉脞録 [Stories at the County of Yànxià] by Chen Kangqi 陳康祺of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Qiánlóng chūnián, Nínghuà Léigōng yǐ shùjíshì méng tèzhào, shì ā’gē shūfáng jiǎngdú. 乾隆初年，寧化雷公以庶吉士蒙特召，侍阿哥 書房講讀.” (In the beginning of Qianlong Reign [1735–96 ce], Sir Lei, a renowned

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 71 civilian scholar at the prefecture of Ninghua, was asked to be a teacher of the imperial princes.) The word is also used by parents to call their sons. In chapter twelve of the novel Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Lǎoye tīngle zhèhuà, bǎ liǎn yì chén, wèndào: ‘Ā’gē, nǐ zàinàlǐ nòngdé xǔduō yínzi?’老爺聽了這話，把 臉一沉，問道： ‘阿哥，你在那里弄得許多銀子?’” (Upon hearing this, the lord got serious and asked, ‘Son, where have you got so much money?’) Bātúlǔ 巴圖魯 is a transliteration of the Manchu word baturu, meaning warrior, hero. In the Qing dynasty, the officials with military achievements were honored as Bātúlǔ. In the fifth chapter of the essay collection Lángqián jìwén 郎潛紀聞 [A Record of What I Have Heard] by Chen Kangqi 陳康祺 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Bātúlǔ, yìyán hǎohàn, yǔ Yuánshǐ chēng bádū, bátū, bàdūlǔ děng lèi zìyì yìtóng. 巴圖魯，譯言好漢，與《元史》稱拔都、拔突、霸都魯等類字異 義同.” (The word bātúlǔ 巴圖魯 means hero in the Manchu language. These words like bātúlǔ, bádū, bátū, and bàdūlǔ are different in form but convey one sense.) In chapter one hundred seventy-six of the Shīgōng’àn 施公案 [Criminal Cases of Judge Shi] by an anonymous writer of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “qiěshuō lǎofóyé yìwén Tiānbà zhèxiē yáncí, bùyóu lóngxīn dàyuè, diǎntóu kuājiǎng shuō: ‘Xiǎosī bātúlǔ mōuzāye!’ 且說老佛爺一聞天霸這些言詞，不由龍心大悅，點 頭誇獎說： ‘小廝巴圖魯哞紮耶！’” (Upon hearing what Tianba has said, Buddha, quite pleased, nodded in delight and complimented Tianba, “Quite a warrior!”) The word also means brave, heroic. In the novel Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “wǒmén zhèwèi xiǎoyé guǎn xiànggè nǚhái’ér sìde, mǎshàng kě bātúlǔ. 我們這位小爺管像個女孩兒似的，馬上可巴圖魯.” (Our young master is as gentle as a girl but quite a hero when riding a horse.) Bāoyī 包衣 is a transliteration of the Manchu word booi, short form for booiaha. The word refers to slaves who are possessed by aristocrats and do not have individual freedom and are forced to do miscellaneous family chores. As written in the essay Hànjūn chūzhì 漢軍初制 [Military System of the Army of Han] of the Xiàotíng zálù 嘯亭雜錄 [Miscellaneous Writings of the Whistle Pavillion] by Zhaolian 昭槤 of the Qing dynasty, “Yōngzhèng zhōng, dìng shàngsānqí měiqí zuǒlǐng sìshí, xiàwǔqí měiqí zuǒlǐng sānshí, qí bùzú zhě, bō nèiwùfǔ bāoyīlì yān, qízhì shǐdìng. 雍正中，定上三旗每旗佐領四十，下五旗每旗佐領三十，其不 足者，撥內務府包衣隸焉，其制始定.” (During the Yongzheng Reign [1722– 1735], it was established that the Upper Three Banners [shàngsānqí 上三旗] could have 40 companies, while the Lower Five Banners [xiàwǔqí 下五旗] could have 30 companies. The vacancy could be filled by the slaves of the Imperial Household Department [nèiwùfǔ 內務府].) In chapter eleven of the play Liùyuè shuāng 六月 霜 [Frost of June] by the writer Yingzongjinv 贏宗季女 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “tāměi nàlǐ xiǎodé, zánměi běnshì nèiwùfǔ de yígè bāoyī chūshēn, hécháng zhīdào shénme xīnmíngcí, hécháng zhīdào shénme zhǒngzújiè. 他每那 裏曉得，咱每本是內務府的一個包衣出身，何嘗知道甚麼新名詞，何嘗知 道甚麼種族界.” (What they do not know is that I was born a slave of the Imperial Household Department. How could I know the new words and the line between

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masters and servants?) In chapter sixteen of the novel Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女 英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Ān lǎoye tīng tā zhè huà shuōde líqí, yíxìn cānbàn, mángwèn: ‘Guì tángguān shì nàwèi?’Tā cáishuō: ‘Bāoyī ànbān Wū dàrén.’ 安老爺 聽他這話說得離奇，疑信參半，忙問： ‘貴堂官是那位？’ 他才說： ‘包衣按 班烏大人.’” (Shocked by what he said, Lord An, in half belief, asked him, “Who is your master?” “Lord Wu,” the servant answered.) Bèilè 貝勒 is a transliteration of the Manchu word beile, the short form of doroibeile, Prince of the Third Rank in the imperial clan of the Qing dynasty, second only to qīnwáng 親王 (Prince of the First Rank) and jùnwáng 郡王 (Prince of the Second Rank.) In the first volume of the Cháyú kèhuà 茶餘客話 [Talks over Tea] by Ruan Kuisheng 阮葵生of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “wǒcháo zōngshì shìjué, lièwéi jiǔděng: Héshuò qīnwáng, duōluó jùnwáng, duōluó bèilè, gùshān bèizǐ, zhènguógōng, fǔguówáng, zhènguó jiāngjūn, fǔguó jiāngjūn, fèngguó jiāngjūn. 我朝宗室世爵，列為九等：和碩親王、多羅郡王、多羅貝勒、固山 貝子、鎮國公、輔國王、鎮國將軍、輔國將軍、奉國將軍.” (There are nine imperial ranks: Prince of the First Rank, Prince of the Second Rank, Prince of the Third Rank, Prince of the Fourth Rank [Banner Prince], Defender Duke by Grace, Bulwark Duke by Grace, Defender General, Bulwark General, and Supporter General.) In chapter seventy-two of the novel Èrshí nián mùdǔzhī guàixiànzhuàng 二 十年目睹之怪現狀 [Strange Events of the Past Twenty Years] by Wu Woyao 吳沃 堯of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒjiālǐ shénme wángye, bèizǐ, bèile de fújìn, gūniáng, zhōngtáng, shàngshū, shìláng de fūrén, xiǎojiě, jǐmǎnle yìwūzi. 我 家裏甚麼王爺、貝子、貝勒的福晉、姑娘、中堂、尚書、侍郎的夫人、小 姐，擠滿了一屋子.” (In my family, there are plenty of noble ladies: The consorts and daughters of the imperial princes and dukes, ladies and daughters of Prime Minister, ministers, and assistant ministers.) In chapter one hundred fifty-seven of the Shīgōng’àn 施公案 [Criminal Cases of Judge Shi] by an anonymous writer of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Xiánqì, nǐ xiān qùjiànle zhèwèi bèile wǔdàrén, jiùshuō běnyuàn fāngdào guìjùn, tīngshuō bèileyé zàicǐ, lìkè bǐngjiàn. 賢契，你先 去見了這位貝勒五大人，就說本院方到貴郡，聽說貝勒爺在此，立刻稟見.” (My dear nephew, please take my word to the prince, telling him that I have just arrived on commission at this prefecture of his honor. Now that I have heard that he lives here, I have come to visit him as quickly as I can and would feel honored for a meeting with him.) Bèizǐ 貝子 is a transliteration of the Manchu word beise, a rank in the imperial clan of the Qing dynasty. The title means a born nobleman, ranking the fourth in the imperial order, lower than qīnwáng 親王 (Prince of the First Rank), jùnwáng 郡王 (Prince of the Second Rank), and bèile 貝勒 (Prince of the Third Rank.) In the Dá rénwèn guānnèihóu 答人問關内侯 [An Answer to the Question of Ruling inside the Shanhai Pass 山海關] by Gong Zizhen 龔自珍of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Qīnwáng yǐxià, bèizǐ yǐshàng, qíhùxià wǔqí bāoyī zhī rén, jiàn wáng, rú jiānú jiàn jiāzhǎng zhī lǐ. 親王以下，貝子以上，其戶下五旗包衣之人，見 王，如家奴見家長之禮.” (All the servants in the Five Banner households below the Prince of the First Rank and above the Prince of the Fourth Rank should follow

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 73 the code of honoring the patriarch.) In chapter eighty-nine, the Shīgōng’àn 施公案 [Criminal Cases of Judge Shi] by an anonymous writer of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “wúlùn wánggōng, hóubó, bèizǐ, bèilè, zhǐguǎn shuōlái. tā guǒrán shì jiǎoluàn wàngxíng, lǎoye zìyǒu bàn tāmén zhīfǎ, guǎnjiào tā qínggān rènzuì. 無 論王公、侯伯、貝子、貝勒，只管說來. 他果然是攪亂妄行，老爺自有辦他 們之法，管教他情甘認罪.” (Whoever has violated law and behaved recklessly will be disciplined by his Majesty. Whoever he is, either a prince, a duke, or a lord, would confess his crimes willingly.） É’niáng 額娘 is a transliteration of the Manchu word eniye, meaning mother. In the fifth chapter of the Tīngyǔ cóngtán 聽雨叢談 [Talks Collected while Listening to the Rain] by Fuge 福格 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “bāqírén chēng mǔ yuē é’niáng, yuē ā’jiā, yuē nǎi nǎi. e’niāng, ā’jiā jiē qīng yǔ. 八旗人稱母曰 額娘、曰阿家、曰奶奶.” 額娘、阿家皆清語.” (The Eight Banner people call mother é’niáng, ā’jiā, or nǎi nǎi. É’niáng and ā’jiā are both Manchu words.) In the story Jiě zài yuánzhōng qù cǎihuā 姐在園中去採花 (Sister Picking Flowers at the Garden) of the Nícháng xùpǔ 霓裳續譜 [Supplementary Formulary of the Rainbow Skirts] by Wang Tingshao 王廷紹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Bà, qiào yuānjiā, nǐ shì tīng, zán bǐbùdé dāngchū zuò nǚhái’ér, zài wǒ de é’niáng jiā. 罷，俏冤家，你是聽，咱比不的當初作女孩兒，在我的額娘家.” (OK, Pretty, listen well! I’m no longer the little lass living at my mom’s.) Fú’jìn 福晉 is a transliteration of the Manchu word fujin, referring to the wives of qīnwáng 親王 (Prince of the First Rank), jùnwáng 郡王 (Prince of the Second Rank), or shìzǐ 世子 (the first-born son) of qīnwáng 親王. The Chinese word fūrén 夫人 became a loan word in the Manchu language and was changed to fújìn 福 晋. In the first chapter of the Qīnghuì diǎn 清會典 [Collected Statutes of the Qing dynasty], it is written that “fán fújìn, shìfūrén zhī hào, gè shì qí fūrén zhī jué wéi chā. qīnwáng zhèngshì fēng qīnwáng fújìn, shìzǐ zhèngshì fēng shìzǐ fújìn, jùnwáng zhèngshì fēng jùnwáng fújìn; pángwáng fēng cèfújìn sìrén, shìzǐ, jùnwáng fēng cèfújìn sānrén. 凡福晉、世夫人之號，各視其夫人之爵為差. 親王正室 封親王福晉，世子正室封世子福晉，郡王正室封郡王福晉；旁王封側福晉 四人，世子、郡王封側福晉三人.” (The consorts of imperial princes are granted titles by those of their husbands, as follows: Princess Consort of the First Rank [the wife of the Prince of the First Rank], Hereditary Princess Consort of the First Rank [the wife of the Hereditary Prince], Princess Consort of the Second Rank [the wife of the Prince of the Second Rank.] Besides, the Prince of the First Rank has four secondary consorts [cèfújìn 側福晉]; the Hereditary Prince and the Prince of the Second Rank each has three secondary consorts.) In chapter twenty-three of the Lǚyuán cónghuà 履園叢話 [Collection of Talks whilst Strolling in the Garden] by Qian Yong 錢泳 of the Qing dynasty, it is said, “Zhì yī zhūmén dàzhái, jiàn qí nǚ jìn nèigōngmén qù, gài mǒu wángfǔ fùfújìn yě. 至一朱門大宅，見其女進內 宮門去，蓋某王府副福晉也.” (Ahead stands a mansion with a crimson-colored gate; the young woman who came inside should be the Secondary Consort of the Prince.) Gége 格格 is a transliteration of the Manchu word gege referring to unmarried daughter of a noble family. In the seventh chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn

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兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Gége’ér, nǐ kě biénázhe hé wǒde nǐ yíchòngzi xìng’er hé rénjiā nào, nǐqiáoqiáo, rénjiā jǐliáng shàng kě yè zhe bǎ dàdāo ne. 格 格兒，你可別拿著合我的你一銃子性兒合人家鬧，你瞧瞧，人家脊梁上可 掖著把大刀呢.” (Miss, do not throw tantrum at him as you do to me. Don’t you see the broad killing knife on his back?) In the chapter Wú Méicūn shī 吳梅村詩 [On Wu Meicun’s Poetry] of the Ōuběi shīhuà 甌北詩話 [Poetry Commentary by Zhao Oubei] by Zhao Yi 趙翼, it is written that “‘Yuǎnkuì Mùlán shēnshǒu jiàn, tìyé zhēngzhàn zài tāfāng,’ jìn zhù wèi ‘wéi dìng nán wáng kǒng yǒu dé nǚ sì zhēn zuò’ . . . Sìzhēn tuōguī jīngshī, cháotíng niàn qífù gōng, mìng zhào Héshuò gége shífèng, tōngjí gōngjìn. ‘遠愧木蘭身手健，替爺征戰在他方’，靳注謂 ‘為 定南王孔有德女四貞作.’ . . . 四貞脫歸京帥，朝廷念其父功，命照和碩格格 食俸，通籍宮禁.” (“As capable as Mulan [a woman warrior in ancient China], the young lady also went to the battlefield in her father’s place.” Note: The poem was composed for Sizhen, the daughter of the Prince of Dingnan [Stabilizing the South] Kong Youde. Back to the capital from the battlefield, Sizhen was honored as Princess Heshuo by the imperial court as a compliment on her father’s devotion to court.) Hālèibā 哈肋巴 is a transliteration of the Manchu word halba, referring to the side of the chest. In the sixth chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Tājiù bǎ quántou wǎngshàng piān zuǒ yìtí, zhào zuǒ hālèibā dǎqù. 他就把拳頭往上偏左一提，照左哈肋巴打去.” (He threw his fist upward left, striking the man at the left chest.) Hǎilǐbēn 海裏奔 is a transliteration of the Manchu word hailiben, meaning rare, a rare sight. In chapter thirty-seven of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “gǎn zézhèshì gūlǎoye tiāntiān’ér jiàode zhènxīn de tā nàwèi Chéng dàgē yà! Zhèháiyòng mǎn dàoshìchù zhǎozhe qiáo hǎilǐbēn qù ma? 敢則這是姑老爺天天 儿叫得震心的他那位程大哥呀！這還用滿到是處找著瞧海裏奔去嗎？” (This is Brother Cheng, whom my son-in-law has been talking about and missing greatly every day! There is no need to search everywhere for a greater hero!） Sàisīhēi 塞思黑 means an annoying person. As recorded in Shìzōng jì 世宗 紀 [Biography of Emperor Shizong] in the Qīngshǐgǎo 清史稿 [The Draft History of Qing], “(Yōngzhèng sìnián wǔyuè) yǐsì, gǎi Yìntáng míng sàisīhēi, jū yú bǎodìng . . . [bāyuè] dīnghài, Lǐ Fú zòu sàisīhēi zú yú bǎodìng. [雍正四年五月] 乙巳，改胤搪名塞思黑，拘於保定. . . . [八月] 丁亥，李紱奏塞思黑卒於保 定.” ([In May, the fourth year in the Yongzheng Reign (1726 ce)] In the Year of Yisi, Yintang was called Saisihei and prisoned in the county of Baoding 保定 . . . [In August] In the Year of Dinghai, Li Fu reported that Saisihei, this annoying person, died in Baoding.) Yuèbó 岳伯 is a transliteration of the Manchu word yobo, meaning to tease, joke about. In Kuòtán 括談 [Collected Talks] by Yi Geng 亦賡 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Sú yǐ xìyán zhījùnzhě yuē yuèbó, bù zhī yuèbó qīngyǔ yě, hànyǔ jí xìxüè ěr. 俗以戲言之俊者曰岳伯，不知岳伯清語也，漢語即戲謔耳.”

Modern neologisms and penetration of Mongolian and Manchu 75 (Good-looking guys are jokingly called yuèbó 岳伯, which originates from the Manchu language and is a word of teasing in the Chinese language.) Loanwords from Manchu in Chinese also include āiháng 艾杭 (aigan; shooting target), ānbǎn 諳版 (amban; official, minister), duō’ěrjí 多爾吉 (dorgi; inside), é’fù 額附 (efu; imperial son-in-law), shèlún 厙倫 (loop), lālāwěi 拉拉尾 (the ending part), ézhēn 額真 (ejen; emperor, lord), hūshū 忽舒 (hūsiha; wild walnut), lǎgū 蝲蛄 (lagu; cricket), sàqímǎ 薩其瑪 (sacima; a pastry of fried flour mixed with sugar), and so on. With the end of the Qing dynasty, the Manchu people spoke Chinese as their common communication tool, which led to the loss of value of the loanwords; the majority of the borrowed words are no longer in use, except sàqímǎ 薩其瑪.

Note 1 Zhang, Qingchang 張清常 “Màntán hànyǔ zhōng de méngyǔ jiècí” (漫談漢語中的蒙 語借詞) [On the Loanwords from Mongolian in Chinese Language], Zhōngguó Yǔwén 中國語文 (Chinese Language and Literature) [J], 1979, volume three, pp. 196–198.

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Innovationofpolysyllabic words of modern Chinese

2.1 Introduction The majority of new words in Modern Chinese are disyllabic words. There are also some trisyllablic or polysyllablic words. This is a feature of the development of the Modern Chinese lexicon, which becomes more distinct in the later modern period. Some of these polysyllabic words were coined to signify new concepts in cultural, scientific, and technological development; some are vernacular and colloquial words. Among the new words, some are literal words that have become ordinary in use; some remain vernacular and have gradually lost their value in the development of Chinese.

2.2 DevelopmentofdisyllabicwordsinmodernChinese The major feature of the development of disyllabic words in Modern Chinese lies in the increasing number of new compound words, the majority of which are coordinative and attributive compounds. There are also a large number of singlemorpheme words; double-barreled words; words with affixes; and subordinate, descriptive, and complementing compounds. 2.2.1 Single-morphemewords See the following examples. Tǎntè 忐忑 means perturbed, unnerved, timid. In the song Fēngrù sōng 風入 松 [Wind in the Pines] by Lv Zhi’an 吕止庵of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “jìzuòshí xiū tǎntè, ruò yìlǎn hòu zhòngshēng biàn jiǎn. 既做時休忐忑，若意懶 後衆生便減.” (Once one has made a decision, he should not get timid; life would be wasted with a lazy mind.) In chapter fifty-four of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Bājiè wényán, xīzhōng tǎntè. 八戒聞言，心中忐忑.” (Upon hearing the words, Piggy felt unnerved.) In the scene Zhēnbào 偵報 [The Report] of the play Chángshēng diàn 長生殿 [The Palace of Eternal Life] by Hong Sheng 洪昇of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “nà Lùshān jiànle cǐběnhe, yě bùmiǎn jiǎo’ér diē, kǒu’ér jiē, yì’ér zhōng tǎntè, xīn’ér lǐ qiè. 那祿山見了此本呵，也不免腳兒 DOI: 10.4324/9781003365587-2

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 77 跌，口兒嗟，意兒中忐忑，心兒裏怯.” (Upon reading the report, Lushan was agitated and terrified, unable to walk nor speak.) In the story Qiǎoniáng 巧娘 [The Tale of Qiǎoniáng] from Liáozhāizhìyì 聊齋志異 [Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Tīng sōng shēng sùsù, xiāochóng āizòu, zhōngxīn tǎntè, huǐ zhì rúshāo. 聽松聲謖謖，宵蟲 哀奏，中心忐忑，悔至如燒.” (Hearing the wind blowing in the pines, and night bugs crying, he felt quite unnerved and remorseful.) The word is often written as tǎntǎntètè 忐忐忑忑. In the fourth scene of the Bàozhuānghé 抱妝盒 [Treasure Box] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “jíde ǎn tǎntǎntètè bǎ huāyán qiǎoyǔ mán zhīwú. 急的俺忐忐忑忑把花言巧語謾支吾.” (How worried and nervous I am! I can only coax him with sweet words.) Shìshà 勢煞, shìshā 勢沙, shìshā 勢殺, or shìshà 勢霎means appearance, looks. In the fourth chapter of the Xīxiāngjì zhūgōngdiào 西廂記諸宮調 [Tunes of the Western Chamber] by Dong Jieyuan 董解元of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “wànbān āigào, shǒu mōzhe qúnyāo’ér zuò shìshà. 萬般哀告，手摸著裙腰兒 做勢煞.” (He begged her again and again, holding her by the waist.) In the first scene of the Hónglíhuā 紅梨花 [Red Pear Blossoms] by Zhang Shouqing 張壽 卿of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhènízi wǒ wènzhehe, méixiē’er shìshā. 這妮子我問著呵，沒些兒勢沙.” (I ask the girl a question, yet she does not give me a friendly look.) In the third scene of the Cūnyuètáng 村樂堂 [Music Hall of the Village] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “qùbùde pūméi shānyǎn qiáo shìshā, bǎimánglǐ biàn diàoyāo sǎkuà. 覷不的鋪 眉苫眼喬勢殺，百忙裏里便吊腰撒跨.” ([He] put on a show of anger with a frown and a sharp look, and busied himself having pleasure with the girl.) In the song Qīngxìngzi: Guīyǐn 青杏子歸隱 [Qīngxìngzi (melody, green apricot): Live in Seclusion] by Zhu Tingyu 朱庭玉of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “cóngrénxiào, cóngrénxiào, dào zán shèn niáng shìshà. 從人笑，從人笑，道咱甚娘 勢霎.” (How can I laugh with others? It is womanish.) The word is also used as shāshì 沙勢. In the third scene of the Xuē Rénguì 薛仁貴 [General Xue Rengui] by Zhang Guobin 張國賓of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhèdeshì shèn suǒ qiáo wéi, zhí chīde nènbān shāshì? 這的是甚所喬為，直吃的恁般沙勢？” (How he swallows the meal with such a nasty look!) Hútu 糊塗, hútū 糊突, or hútū 胡突means unclear, insensible, fail to see things clearly. In the poem Sòng Gāo Xìnqīng 送高信卿 by Yuan Ruwen 元如問of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “wànshì hútu jiǔ yìhú, biéshí liáo wéi gǔlónghú. 萬 事糊塗酒一壺，別時聊為鼓嚨胡.” (Let’s put all the affairs into the wine and whisper a message of farewell.) In chapter fifty of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Unofficial History of the Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “bùdàn rén náde hútu, liánzhè páipiào shàngde wénfǎ yěyǒuxiē hútu. 不但人拿的糊塗，連這牌票上的文法也有些糊塗.” (It is quite an insensible act to catch the man; the ticket is not written clearly, either.) In the third scene of the play Dòu É yuān 竇娥冤 [The Injustice to Dou E] by Guan Hanqing 關漢 卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “tiāndì yě zhǐ hé bǎ qīngzhuó fēnbiàn, kě zěnshēng hútū le dàotuò yányuān? 天地也只合把清濁分辨，可怎生糊突了盜 跖顔淵？(Heaven and Earth should tell purity from impurity, yet now they cannot

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tell a bandit from a respectable scholar!) In chapter twenty-one of the Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌 濛初 of the Ming Ddynasty, it is written that “lián xiǎorén xīnlǐ yě hútū, liǎngxià duōyí, liǎngxià duō yǒu biàn, shuō bù dé shì nǎ yí gè. 連小人心裏也胡突，兩 下多疑，兩下多有辨，説不得是那一個.” (I’m also confused and cannot tell which one is guilty, as both defend themselves on fair grounds.) Mótuó 磨陀, mótuó 磨佗, mótuó 磨跎, mótuó 磨駞, or mótuó 摩酡 means carefree, enjoy oneself. In the fourth scene of the play Lǔzhāiláng 魯齋郎 [The Wife-Snatcher] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒ zhèlǐ zì mótuó, yǐn xiāngláo, zuì yántuó. 我這裏自磨陀，飲香醪，醉顔 酡.” (Here I am, carefree, enjoying myself in the fragrant wine and getting drunk.) In the song Yíngxiānkè: Shí’èryuè 迎仙客十二月 [Receiving Immortal Guests: Twelve Months] by an anonymous writer, it is written that “dé mótuó, qiě kuàihuó, shìshì cóngtā. 得磨佗，且快活，世事從他.” (Let me be carefree, enjoy myself, and give no thought over the worldly affairs.) In the third scene of the Láncǎihé 藍 采和 [The Immortal Lan Caihe] by an anonymous playwright in the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “yù yǐnjiǔ shí xū yǐnjiǔ, dé mótuó chù qiě mótuó. 遇飲酒時須 飲酒，得磨跎處且磨跎.” (At the time of blessing, let’s have a drink; if we can be free, let’s be carefree.) In the song Zhéguìlìng: Dúshǐyǒugǎn 折桂令讀史有 感 [Plucking Laurel Branch (melody): Some Thoughts in Reading History] by Zhang Shuishan 張水山 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “zuìxiāng zhōng zhuàngshì mótuó, fùguì yóu tā. 醉鄉中壯士磨駞，富貴由他.” (The warrior freed himself in wine, giving no care to fame and fortune.) In the song Zhéguìlìng: Línchuān yìlǎo 折桂令臨川佚老 [Plucking Laurel Branch (melody): Hermits at Linchuan] by Wang Yuanheng 汪元亨 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zuìlǐ mótuó, xǐnghòu yín’é, bùqǔ qīngféi, miǎnjiàn gān’gē. 醉裏摩酡，醒後吟哦，不 取輕肥，免見干戈.” ([The hermit] is carefree in drinks and composes poem in sobriety; he does not mind what to wear nor what horse to ride, turning a blind eye to troubles and conflicts.) Yìdēng 忔登 means suddently, abruptly. In the song Zhéguìlìng: Yìbié 折桂令憶 別 [Plucking Laurel Branch (melody): Parting Recalled], it is written that “Yìdēng de rén zài xīntóu, méichuǎide chóulái zhěnshàng, qìchōude hènjiē méishāo. 忔登 的人在心頭，沒揣的愁來枕上，契抽的恨接眉梢.” (All of a sudden, he comes to my mind, and I fall into melancholy in bed with sorrows rising up to the brows.) In the song Xiǎotáohóng: Tíqíng 小桃紅題情 [Little Peach Blossom (melody): On Love] by Wang Yuanhe 王元和 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “tā dào wǒ fēngliúxìng rú zhú yáo, yìdēng de zài zán xīnshàng, mòde shuānláo. 他道 我風流性如竹搖，忔登的在咱心上，默地拴牢.” (He considered me a flirt as unsteady as bamboo shaking in wind, yet I fell in love with him suddenly and hold him dearly in my heart.) Gēda 疙瘩, gēda 疙疸, gēda 胳 , or gēda 肐 means lump, swelling on skin, muscle knot. In the second scene of the play Jiàngsāngshèn 降桑椹 [Endownments of Mulberries from Heaven] by Liu Tangqing 劉唐卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “yǒu yígè sīqù kànbìngde, zuǐshang jiù shēng jiāng gēda. 有一個 私去看病的，嘴上就生殭疙疸.” (Anyone who goes to see the doctor in secret

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 79 would have a fatal lump on the mouth.) In chapter fifty-three of the novel Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐ búshì shuǎ, ruò diē xiàlái, hǎoge dàgēda. 你不是耍，若跌下來，好個大疙瘩.” (Do not play naughty. In case you fall down, you will get a big lump on your head.) In addition, it is written in chapter twenty-five of the novel that “nǐ yào dézhī, bǎ shǒu lái mō wǒ tóushang gēda. 你要得知，把手來摸我頭上胳 .” (If you want to know the truth, you got to believe me as you can feel the knot on my head.) In the fifth chapter of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵 笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, the same sentence goes “nǐ yào dézhī, bǎ shǒu lái mō wǒ tóushang de gēda. 你要得知，把手來摸我頭上的胳 .” (If you want to know the truth, you’ve got to believe me as you can feel the knot on my head.) The word also refers to small ball-shaped stuff. In chapter twenty-four of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “zhǐjiàn chuānglíng shàng guàzhe yìtiáo chìjīn . . . yǒu zhǐtóu cūxì, dǐxià shì yígè suàngēda de tóuzi. 只見窗欞上挂著一條赤金 . . . 有指頭粗 細，底下是一個蒜疙瘩的頭子.” (On the window hangs the stuff made of pure gold, thin as a finger, with an end like an onion head.) The word is also a metaphor for a puzzle or a problem that is difficult to resolve. In chapter thirty of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “shuōdào tā qǔle Wáng tàitai de zhèxiē gēda shì, Dù Shènqīng dàxiào le yìfān. 説到他娶了王太太的這些疙瘩事，杜慎卿大笑了 一番.” (At the mentioning of those troubles of the man marrying Ms. Wang, Du Shenqing laughed heartily.) In the mentioned examples, tǎntè 忐忑 and shìshà 勢煞 are alliterative single-morpheme words; hútu 糊塗 and mótuó 磨陀 are rhyming single-morpheme words; yìdēng 忔登 and gēda 疙瘩 are single-morpheme words, neither alliterative nor rhyming. 2.2.2 Double-barreledwords In addition, there is the development of double-barreled words. Some examples of this type are given as follows. Bābā 巴巴 has four senses: (1) a respectful title for senior males. In the Lóngxìngcí jì 龍興慈記 [The Legend of Emperor Taizu Retold by Mother] by Wang Wenlu 王文祿 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “jì bābā, Wáng māma, shèngzǔ wēi shí yǒu’ēn línrén yě. 季巴巴、王媽媽，聖祖微時有恩鄰人也.” (Father Ji and Madam Wang were the neighbors kind to the emperor when he was in poverty.) In the section Fùbù 父部 [Father Group] of the Zhèngzìtōng 正字通 [Correct Character Mastery (Dictionary of Chinese Character)], one sentence goes “yíyǔ chēng lǎozhě wéi bābā huò bābā, hòurén yīn jiā fù zuò bā zì. 夷语称老者为 八八或巴巴，後人因加父做爸字.” (The foreign people call senior people bābā 八八 or bābā 巴巴; later on, the initial fù 父 [father] is added. Thus, the character bā 爸 [dad] is coined. (2) Dung, feces. In the second scene of the Cúnxiào dǎhǔ 存 孝打虎 [Cunxiao Fighting the Tiger] by Chen Yiren 陳以仁of the Yuan dynasty,

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one sentence goes “wǒ ruò shāde guò, zé guǎn shā; wǒ ruò shā bú guò, wǒ biàn zǒule, kàn nǐ zěnshēng làbābā. 我若殺的過，則管殺；我若殺不過，我便走 了，看你怎生剌巴巴.” (If I can beat him, I will try my best; if I cannot, I will run and see how you will get rid of your feces [a metaphor meaning handle the consequent trouble].) (3) Eagerly, anxiously. In the play Fēidāo duìjiàn 飛刀對 箭 [Flying Dagger against Shooting Arrow] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Kōng zhe wǒ biàn yǎnbābā pànbúdào Cháng’ān dào. 空著我便眼巴巴盼不到長安道.” (I have been anxious all along on my way to Chang’an.) In chapter twenty-seven of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “bābā xún nà féizào xǐliǎn. 巴巴尋那肥皂洗臉.” (You will not wash without the soap?) (4) Intentionally, deliberately. In chapter twenty-three of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭 陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “suí wèn jiào nàge shāoshāo’er ba, bābā zuòmíng’er jiào wǒ shāo. 隨問教那個燒燒兒罷，巴巴坐名兒教我燒.” (Ask someone else to do the cooking. Why do they ask nobody but me?) In chapter sixteen of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “fāngcái yímā yǒu shénme shì, bābā dǎfale Xiānglíng lái? 方才姨媽有什么事，巴巴打發了香菱來？” (What did Aunt ask [us] to do just now? Why did she send Xiangling over here deliberately?) (5) The word is used as a word ending to describe certain appearances. In chapter fifty-three of the Jīn píng méi cíhuà 金瓶梅詞話 [The Plum in the Golden Vase], it is written that “Chěn shuōzuǐ de, zài zhēnrén qián chìbābā diàohuǎng, nándào wǒ biàn xìnle nǐ? 硶説嘴的，在真人前赤巴巴吊謊，難道我便信了你？” (You are so nasty, lying right in front of the true man. How can I possibly believe you?) In the song Shènzhōnglóu: Shuāngdìng 蜃中樓雙訂 [Tower in the Mirage (melody): Two Engagements] by Li Yu 李漁 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “ruò bù huítā yíjù, jiàotā méi qù bābā. 若不回他一句，叫他沒趣巴巴.” (If I do not answer him, he will feel embarrassed.) The word guāiguāi 乖乖 has two senses: (1) an intimate address for someone. In the second scene of the play Liúxié jì 留鞋記 [Story of a Shoe Left] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒ zhèlǐ yìshuāng liǔyè méi’ér zhòu, tā nàlǐ liǎngduǒ táohuā shàngliǎn lái, shuō shèn guāiguāi. 我這裏一 雙柳葉眉兒皺，他那裏兩朵桃花上臉來，説甚乖乖.” (I cannot help frowning, while he is quite drunk. Oh dear dear!) In chapter forty-three of the Xīyóu jì 西 遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “wǒ nà guāiguāi, púsà kǒng nǐ yǎng búdà, yǔ nǐ zàige xiàngquān zhuótóu li. 我那乖乖，菩薩恐你養不大，與你載個頸圈鐲頭哩.” (My little kid, Bodhisattva put a bracelet around your neck for fear that you can not grow into a man.) (2) Obey someone, follow one’s words. In chapter one hundred fortyfour of the Guānchǎng xiànxíng jì 官場現形記 [Officialdom Unmasked] by Li Baojia 李寶嘉of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐ bǎ zhè yùzhī de niánlǐ, guāiguāide tìwǒ tùle chūlái, dàjiā kèkeqìqi. 你把這預支的年禮，乖乖的替我吐 了出來，大家客客氣氣.” (Follow my words and spit out the yearly tribute. Let’s pay some respect for each other.)

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 81 Shěnshen 嬸嬸 has two senses: (1) Aunt. In the play Tiānyǔhuā 天雨花 [Rain Flowers] by Tao Huaizhen 陶懷貞 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “yòu yǒuge shěnshen kāiyán dào: Mùjīn háiyǒu yìménqīn, guānwéi xúndào Yuán xiānghuàn, jiāzhōng yǒu nǚ wàng ménrén. 又有個嬸嬸開言道：目今還有一門親，官為巡 道袁鄉宦，家中有女望門人.” (An aunt said, “I know another family looking for a son-in-law. The family is a village gentry in the hometown of Inspector Yuan. They want the son-in-law to live in the girl’s household.”) (2) The wife of one’s father’s younger brother. In chapter twenty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “nà fùrén dào: ‘Mòbù biéchù yǒu shěnshen, kě qǔlái sīhuì yěhǎo.’ 那婦人道, ‘莫不別處有嬸嬸，可取來廝會也好.’” (The woman said, “Why not get your wife here for a meeting?”) In the fifth chapter of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Shěnshen xúndé yìdǐng hēijì yǔ nú huànle. 嬸嬸尋得一頂黑髻與奴換了.” (Aunt, please give me a black head cloth to wear.) The word tàitai 太太 has three meanings: (1) The wives of the imperial inspector (zhōng chéng 中丞) and the higher officials in the Ming dynasty were addressed as tàitai 太太, while officials’ wives were addressed as tàitai 太太 in the Qing dynasty. In the first chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “suīrán An lǎoye búshàn jīnglǐ jiājì, zhàngzhe zhèwèi tàitai de cāochí, yěhái kěyǐ miǎnqiǎng ānwěn dùrì. 雖然安老爺不善經理家計，仗著這位 太太的操持，也還可以勉強安穩度日.” (Although Lord An is not good at home management, the family lives a decent life with his wife’s management.) (2) A respectful address for senior females. In chapter forty-six of the Hónglóu mèng 紅 樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Fèngjiě’er xiàodào: ‘Dàodǐ shì tàitài yǒu zhìmóu, zhèshì qiān’ān wàntuǒ.’ 鳳姐兒笑道： ‘到底是太太有智謀，這是千安萬妥.’” (Xifeng smiled and said, “Indeed Your Ladyship is witty; this method is the best of all.”) (3) A respectful address for a mother in a wealthy family. In chapter fifty-four of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “(Jiǎmǔ) xiàng Bǎoyù shuō: ‘Nǐ āizhe nǐ tàitài’. [賈母] 向寶玉説： ‘你挨著你太太.’” (The Lady Dowager said to Baoyu, “You sit next to your mother.”) Bōbo 餑餑 means pastry. For example, miànbǐng 麺餅 (leavened pancake), jiǎozi 餃子 (rice dumpling), and mántou 饅頭 (steamed bread). In Yuándàn 元 旦 [The New Year’s Day] of the Yànjīng suìshí jì 燕京歲時記 [Folk Custom of Yànjīng] by Fucha Dunchong 富察敦崇of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “shìrì, wúlùn pínfùguìjiàn, jiē yǐ báimiàn zuò jiǎo ér shí zhī, wèi zhī zhǔ bōbo, jǔguó jiērán, wú bùtóng yě. fùguì zhījiā, àn yǐ jīnyín xiǎokè jí bǎoshí děng cángzhī bōbo zhōng, yǐbǔ shùnlì. 是日，無論貧富貴賤，皆以白麺作角而食之，謂之 煮餑餑，舉國皆然，無不同也. 富貴之家，暗以金銀小錁及寶石等藏之餑餑 中，以卜順利.” (On that day, both the poor and the rich make dumplings with white flour, the so-called bōbo 餑餑, which is done in every household all across the country. The rich put small gold or silver coins or gems in the dumplings as a

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wish for good fortune.) In the Miàoxiāngshìcónghuà 妙香室叢話 [A Collection of Essays of Fragrant Chamber] by Zhang Peiren 張培仁 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “běisú, héjǐn zhī xī, xīnrén bàitáng, jì jiē hóngjīn duìzuò, yǐn tóngxīnbēi, dàn zǐsūn bōbo. 北俗，合巹之夕，新人拜堂，既揭紅巾對坐，飮 同心杯，啖子孫餑餑.” (By the northern custom, at the wedding night, after the ritual bàitáng 拜堂 (The newlywed kowtow to Heaven and Earth, parents, and each other, the bridegroom takes off the red cloth over the bride’s head, the couple sit next to each other, drink wine together from the same cup, and have “bōbo” which is a token to pray for multiple offspring.) Qiàng qiàng 戧戧 means short and hard. In the third chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐 庵of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “nà dǎtiěde kànjiàn Lǔ Zhìshēn sāibiān xīntì bàocháng duǎnxū, qiàng qiàng de hǎo cǎnlàirén. 那打鐵的看見魯智深腮邊 新剃暴長短須，戧戧地好慘瀨人.” (The ironsmith was quite intimidated by Lu Zhishen, who wears very short whisker along the cheek.) Shàn shàn 訕訕means embarrassed. In chapter twenty-five of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Tādiē jiànle wǒ, shànshàn de, chī wǒ màle liǎngjù méi liánchǐ. 他爹見了我，訕訕的，吃我罵了兩句沒廉恥.” (Lord felt embarrassed in front of me, and I cursed him “shameless.”) In chapter thirty-six of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪 芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “(Bǎoyù) cónglái wèi jīngguò zhèfān bèirén qìyàn, zìjǐ biàn shànshànde hóngle liǎn, zhǐdé chūláile. (寶玉) 從來未經 過這番被人棄厭，自己便訕訕的紅了臉，只得出來了.” (Having never been so disliked before, Baoyu, feeling embarrassed, could only walk out.) In addition, it is written in chapter sixty-five of the novel that “jiàn tā láile, èr rén miàn shàng biàn yǒuxiē shànshànde. 見他來了，二人面上便有些訕訕的.” (Seeing him, the two of them felt embarrassed.) 2.2.3 Compoundwordswithaffixes Compound words with affixes are developed as well, which can be seen in the following examples. Bāngzi 梆子 means a sound instrument to tell time or gather (or drive away) people; the instrument is empty inside, made of wood or bamboo, and appeared first in the Song dynasty (960–1279 ce). In the second chapter of the Wǔlín jiùshì 武林舊事 [Tales of the Martial World] by Zhou Mi 周密 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “jǔ huángqí zhāo zhūjūn xiàng yùdiàn qiāo bāngzi. 舉黃旗招諸 軍嚮御殿敲梆子.” (By the time the yellow flag raised, the army stroke bāngzi towards the imperial hall.) In the second chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “sānsì bǎi Shǐjiāzhuāng hù, tīngde bāngzi xiǎng, dōu tuōqiāng zhuàibàng, jùqǐ sānsì bǎi rén, yìqí dōudào shǐjiā zhuāng shàng. 三四百 史家莊户，聽得梆子響，都拖槍拽棒，聚起三四百人，一齊都到史家莊上.” (At the sound of bāngzi 梆子, three to four hundred residents of the village Shi

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 83 gathered together with lances or rods in their hands.) In chapter seventy-four of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “yāojiān xuánzhe língzi, shǒulǐ qiāozhe bāngzi. 腰間 懸著鈴子，手裏敲著梆子.” (Everyone wears a bell around the waist to ring and bāngzi in the hands to strike.) It also refers to the music played with an instrument made of hard wood as an accompaniment instrument. In chapter thirty-nine of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “shénme jiàozuò bīnbái hétào, qièmò páichǎng, píngrì yígài bùcéng liú guò zhèfān xīn, gèng jiǎng búdào bāngzi, èr’huáng le. 甚麼叫做賓白合套，切末排場，平日一概不曾留過這番 心，更講不到梆子、二簧了.” (As he had never given any attention to play [jù 劇] at his leisure, he could not understand at all the speaking, song cycle, prop and stage design, not to say the singing of bāngzi 梆子 and èr’huáng 二簧.) Dāizi 呆子 has two senses: (1) idiot, a person of low intelligence without common sense. In chapter thirty-nine of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “bùzhī zhè jiārén xìngmíng jūzhǐ, wǒ quèzài chīxiǎng, kě búshì gè dāizi. 不知這佳人姓名居止，我卻在癡想，可不是個呆子.” (I do not know what her name is nor where she lives, but I keep thinking of her. What a fool I am!) In chapter fifty-seven of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “bié xiào tā shì dāizi, ruò gěi nǐmén jiā de gūniang kànle, yě dōu chéngle dāizi ne. 別笑他是呆 子，若給你們家的姑娘看了，也都成了呆子呢.” (Do not call her1 a fool; if you show it [a poem] to your young lady, you will see she is but another fool.) (2) A very pedantic scholar. In chapter fifty-four of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “huíjiā dàile yì juǎn shī, huànle jǐ jiàn bànxīn bújiù de yīfu, dài yìdǐng fāngjīn, dào láibīnlóu lái, wūguī kànjiàn tā xiànggè dāizi, wèn tā lái zuò shénmo. 回家帶 了一卷詩，換了幾件半新不舊的衣服，戴一頂方巾，到來賓樓來，烏龜看 見他象個呆子，問他來做甚麼.” (He came back home, took a book of poetry, putting on a half-worn coat and a square head cloth, and then came to the brothel. Judging that he looked like a fool, the servant asked him what he came here for.) Jiān’er 尖兒 means a brilliant, outstanding person. In chapter forty-six of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪 芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zhèxiē nǚháizi lǐtóu, jiù zhǐ nǐ shì gè jiān’er, múyàng’er, xíngshì zuòrén, wēnróu kěkào, yígài shì qíquán de. 這些女 孩子裏頭，就只你是個尖兒，模樣兒，行事做人，溫柔可靠，一概是齊全 的.” (Among all the girls, you stand out excellent in every way, in both character and conducts, good-looking, gentle, and trustworthy.) In chapter one hundred of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao È 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒmén jiālǐ gūniáng men jiù suàn tā shìgè jiān’er. 我們家裏姑娘們就算他是個尖兒.” (Among all the lasses of our family, she stands out.) Xiān’er 先兒means master, teacher. In chapter forty-five of the Xīyóu jì 西 遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty,

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Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese

one sentence goes “zhè xiān’er zhǐ hǎo hǒng zhè huángdì, tángsè límín, quán méixiē zhēnshí běnlǐng. 這先兒只好哄這皇帝，搪塞黎民，全沒些真實本領.” (This master does nothing but coax the emperor and pay lip service to the common mass; he does not have any real capabilities.) The word also refers to blind fortune tellers or performers who make a living by telling or singing stories. In chapter forty-three of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “búdàn yǒuxì, lián shuǎ bǎixì bìng shuōshū de nán nǚ xiān’er quányǒu. 不但有戲，連耍百戲并 説書的男女先兒全有.” (There are not only stage plays but also acrobatics and story-telling as well.) The word xiǎngtou 想頭 has two senses: (1) Idea, thought. In the YuánZhōngláng shī 袁中郎詩 [The Poetry of Yuán Zhōngláng] from Pínglùn 評論 [Commentary] of Yěhuòbiān 野獲編 [An Unofficial History of the Wan Li 萬歷Reign] by Shen Defu 沈德符of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “cǐděng yǔ yǒu hé jiāchù, qiě xiǎngtou yì qiàn chāoyì. 此等語有何佳處，且想頭亦欠超異.” (There is nothing brilliant in the language; neither is the thought.) In chapter seventeen of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “hǎo jīngzhì xiǎngtou, nánwéi zěnme xiǎng lái? 好精致想頭，難為怎麼想來？ ” (What a brilliant idea! Fancy he has such an idea!) (2) Expectation, wish. In chapter twenty-five of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通 言 [Stories to Caution the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “nǐ qù fēnfù ménshàng, rújīn zhè qióngguǐ lái shí búyào zhāojiē tā. děng de xìngjìn xīnhuī . . . méi shénme xiǎngtou, xiàcì zài bù láichánle. 你去 分付門上，如今這窮鬼來時不要招接他. 等得興盡心灰 . . . 沒什麼想頭，下 次再不來纏了.” (Go tell the doorman not to receive this pauper when he comes. When he gets frustrated and expects nothing more, he will stop coming.) In the sixth chapter of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “nà Liú lǎolao xiān tīngjiàn gào jiānkǔ, zhǐ dāng shì méi xiǎngtou le. 那劉姥姥先聽見告艱苦，只當是沒想 頭了.” (Having heard of the complaint of a hard life, Grandma Liu has considered her expectations hopeless.) The word xìngtou 興頭 has two senses: (1) Interest, enthusiasm. In the third scene of the Dōngtáng lǎo 東堂老 [The Eastern Hall Elder] by Qin Jianfu 秦簡 夫of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “zìcóng diūle zhè Zhàoxiǎogē, zài méi xìngtou. 自從丟了這趙小哥，再沒興頭.” (Since the young man Zhao is gone, I have lost interest in everything.) In chapter fifteen of the Hónglóu mèng 紅 樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Fèngjiě tīngle, biàn fāle xìngtou. 鳳姐聽了，便發了興頭.” (Fengjie was intrigued by the remark.) (2) Popular, happy. In the fourth chapter of the Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “búyào xìngtou de, zhǐyào lǎochéng de. 不要興頭的，只要老成的.” (He does not want the popular one but a mature one.) In chapter fifty-four of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓 夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐ shǎo xìngtou xiē, wàitou yǒurén, bǐ bùdé wǎngcháng. 你少興

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 85 頭些，外頭有人，比不得往常.” (Do not get overexcited. It is not like the usual days; there are some men outside today.) Lùlǎo 渌老, lǜlǎo 緑老, or liùlǎo 六老 refers to eye, eye ball. In the second scene of act one of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Western Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實 甫of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Húlíng lùlǎo bù xúncháng, tōujīngwàng, yǎn cuò lǐ mǒ Zhāngláng. 胡伶淥老不尋常，偷睛望，眼挫裏抹張郎.” (That clever girl with sharp eyes cast a secret glance at the young man Zhang from the corner of her eyes.) In tàoqǔ 套曲 (the song cycle) of Shàobiàn Sǎngtán xíngyuàn 哨遍嗓談行院 [Shaobian (melody): Talks on Opera] by Gao Andao 高安道, one sentence goes “Chǒuzhān de lǜlǎo gèng hūnhuā, bǎ péng de mǎngzhuàng zhēnniú. 矁粘的緑老更昏花，把棚的莽壯真牛.” (The gazer has got his eyes sore in watching; the shed keeper is strong and sturdy.) In the Shìnǚ yuánshèqìqiú shuāngguān 仕女園社氣毬雙關 [Pun of Girl Playing Soccer] of Cūnlǐ yágǔ 村裏 迓鼓 [Village Play], it is written that “bǎ xiánjiā zhādiàn de bǎo, liùlǎo’er suōchèn de zǎo, jiǎobù’er gǎn chèn de qiǎo, zhǐ xiūjiào xì tuì le, yǒng tuányuán zhídàolǎo. 把閑家紮墊的飽，六老兒睃趁的早，腳步兒趕趁的巧，只休教細褪了，永 團圓直到老.” (The player is quite ready. He has quick eyes and moves fast. Do not let it go. Let’s play until we get old.) Qūlǎo 軀老 means body. The character lǎo 老 is a suffix. In the third scene of act five of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Western Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Qiáo zuǐliǎn, yān qū lǎo, sǐshēn fèn. 喬嘴 臉，醃軀老，死身份.” (What an ugly man! Such an ugly face! So nasty!) Fang Zhusheng 方諸生makes a note that “běirén xiāngyǔ, duō yǐ lǎo zuò chènzì, rú yǎn wéi lùlǎo, bí wéi xiùlǎo, yá wéi cháilǎo, ěr wéi tīnglǎo, shǒu wéi zhuǎlǎo, quán wéi kòulǎo, dù wéi ānlǎo zhī lèi. 北人鄉語，多以老作襯字，如眼為淥老，鼻為 嗅老，牙為柴老，耳為聽老，手為爪老，拳為扣老，肚為菴老之類.” (In the northern vernacular, the character lǎo 老 is often used as a suffix. For example, eye is called lùlǎo 淥老, nose is called xiùlǎo 嗅老, tooth is called cháilǎo 柴老, ear is called tīnglǎo 聽老, hand is called zhuǎlǎo 爪老, fist is called kòulǎo 扣老, belly is called ānlǎo 菴老.) In the song Yìzhīhuā: Wénchóng 一枝花蚊蟲 [Yìzhīhuā (Melody, a Branch of Flower): Mosquito] by Song Fanghu 宋方壺, one sentence goes “xiánshíjié bùlí le huāxiāng liǔyǐng qīngyīn lǐ shuì, mèn shíjié zé jiùrìnuǎn fēnghé yèdǐxià yī, bù xiǎng shòuqūlǎorén gēnqián chěng jīngxì. 閑時節不離了 花香柳影清陰裏睡，悶時節則就日曖風和葉底下依，不想瘦軀老人根前逞 精細.” (At leisure time, I sleep in the shade of willow, immersed in the flower fragrance; at distress, I nestle under the shades of leaves in warm sunshine and gentle winds. Who knows a mosquito would come to annoy me, a skinny old man!) Liǎnnǎo 臉腦 means face. In the play Hēi xuànfēng 黑旋風 [Dark Tornado] by Gao Wenxiu 高文秀of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “pēi, liǎnnǎo’er qià sì ge zéi. 呸，臉腦兒恰似個賊.” (Gosh, how he looks like a thief!) In the play Duìyùshū 對玉梳 [A Match for the Jade Comb] by Jia Zhongming 賈仲明 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “dōushì ǎn ge bài rén jiā yóu díkuòde tàisuì, sòng rénmìng fěn liǎnnǎo xiōngshén. 都是俺個敗人家油䯼䯺的太歲，送人命粉臉腦 兇神.” (She is such a bewitching goddess with shining hair, on whom quite a fortune has been thrown! What a killing beauty!) In the song lyric of Zhéguìlìng: Yìbié

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Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese

折桂令 憶別 [Plucking Laurel Branch (melody): Parting Recalled] by Liu Tingxin 劉庭信 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “tā nàlǐ ān’er mǎ’er shēnzi’er lièqiè, wǒ zhèlǐ méi’er yǎn’er liǎnnǎo’er miēxié. 他那裏鞍兒馬兒身子兒劣怯， 我這裏眉兒眼兒臉腦儿乜斜.” (Over there, shaken, he cannot quite hold his reign steady; in here, I cannot help casting him a secretive glance.) 2.2.4 Coordinativecompoundwords In addition to the development of compound words with affixes, coordinative compound words develop at a fast rate, which can be seen in the following examples. Bóxiàng 脖項 means neck. In chapter fifteen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水浒全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Ruǎn Xiǎowǔ hé Ruǎn Xiǎoqī bǎ shǒu pāizhe bóxiàng dào: ‘Zhè qiāng rèxuè zhǐyào mài yǔ shíhuò de!’” 阮小五和阮小七把手拍著脖項 道：‘這腔熱血只要賣與識貨的！’” (With a slap on the neck, Ruan Xiaowu and Ruan Xiaoqi acclaimed, “We will only serve [our heads] for someone who recognizes our talent.”) In chapter thirty-three of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [Stories Old and New] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “liǎnggè méirén bàixiè le chūlái, dào Zhānggōng jiā, jiàn dàbó shēnzhe bóxiàng, yí sì wàng fēng sù é. 兩個媒人拜謝了出來，到張公家，見大伯伸著 脖項，一似望風宿鵝.” (The two match-makers bid thank you, walked out of the Zhang’s. Great Uncle was expecting earnestly, like an old goose on watch.) In chapter nineteen of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “dāngchū bái yàozi bóxiàng shàng dàizhe yígè xiǎo líng’er. 當初白鷂子脖項上帶著一個小鈴 兒.” (Back then, he saw a white eagle with a little bell around its neck.) The word dǐxì 底細 has two senses: (1) exact details, inside information. In chapter seventy-four of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “yīn kǒng rǔděng bùzhī dǐxì, fēnfù wǒ lái zhuóshí pánwèn nǐ li. 因恐汝等不知底細，吩咐我來著實盤 問你哩.” (In case you miss some important information, I am told to come ask you carefully for more details.) In chapter eighty-five of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓 夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Tàitài cǐshí qiěbúbì wèn nàxiē dǐxì, píng tā shì shuí, dǎsǐ le zǒngshì yào chángmìng de. 太太此時且不必問那些底細，憑他是誰，打死了總是要償命 的.” (Your ladyship does not have to ask about the exact details. He who kills will pay the forfeit of his life.) (2) Careful, in detail. In chapter twenty-three of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “lǎoye yǒuxīn jiào gūniang tīng ge dǐxì. 老爺有心叫姑娘聽個底細.” (His lordship meant to tell Miss to listen carefully.) Jiēfang 街坊 means neighbor. In the prologue of the play Shāgǒu quànfū 殺狗 勸夫 [Advising Husband by Killing a Dog] by Xiao Dexiang 蕭德祥 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhī tā shì shuí hào yóuxián shuí bùliáng, shuí qǐ fēngbō shuí yàoqiáng, mán bùguò línlǐ zhòng jiēfang. 知他是誰好遊閑誰不良，誰起風

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 87 波誰要強，瞞不過鄰里眾街坊.” (The neighbors know well who is a playboy, who is a villain, who often starts a row, and who is eager to excel.) In chapter fortyone of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹 雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒmén chéngrì jia hé shùlínzi zuò jiēfang, kùnle zhěnzhe tā shuì, fále kàozhe tā zuò. 我們成日家和樹林子作街坊， 困了枕著他睡，乏了靠著他坐.” (The woods are our neighbor. When sleepy, we have a nap in the woods; when exhausted, we sit for a while in the woods.) The word liǎnmiàn 臉面 has two senses: (1) face. In chapter fifty-two of the Hónglóu èng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “zhǐ jiàn Qíngwén dú wò yú kàng shàng, liǎnmiàn shāode fēihóng, yòu mō le yì mō, zhǐ jué tàngshǒu. 只見晴雯獨臥于炕上，臉 面燒的飛紅，又摸了一摸，只覺燙手.” (Coming in, he saw Qingwen lying on the ondol alone, her face red because of high fever and quite hot when he felt it.) In chapter fourteen of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “zhǐ yīn bànbǎi zhī nián jīngle zhèchǎng dàbìng, liǎnmiàn xiāoshòu, bìnfà cāngbái. 只因半百之年經了這場大病，臉面消瘦，鬢髪蒼白.” (The grave illness at the age of 50 got him quite haggard, hair and beard having turned grey.) (2) Honor, face. In chapter fifty of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Yīndì xíshàng bèi guānfǔ suǒ le kè qù, zhègè liǎnmiàn què yě búshèn hǎokàn. 姻 弟席上被官府鎖了客去，這個臉面卻也不甚好看.” (It was quite embarrassing that the guest was taken away by the captor at the banquet of my wife’s brother.) In chapter forty-seven of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “(Liǔ Xiānglián) hèn bùde yì quán dǎsǐ, fù sī jiǔhòu huīquán, yòu àizhe Lài Shàngróng de liǎnmiàn, zhǐdé rěn le yòu rěn. [柳湘蓮] 恨不得一拳打死，復思酒後揮拳，又礙著賴尚 榮的臉面，只得忍了又忍.” (Liu Xianglian could have beaten him to death, yet on a second thought, she had to endure for the sake of the host Lai Shangrong.) Tóukǒu 頭口 means livestock. In Tōu tóukǒu 偷頭口 [Theft of Livestock] of Xínglì 刑例 [Criminal Case] of Yuándiǎnzhāng 元典章 [The Statutes of Yuan dynasty], it is written that “fán dádá, hàn’er rén tōu tóukǒu yígè péi jiǔgè. 凡達 達，漢兒人偷頭口一個賠九個.” (The Tartar and Han people who steal one livestock will pay the forfeit of nine livestock.) In the second chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施 耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “xiǎorén mǔqīn qíde tóukǒu, xiāngfán jìyǎng, cǎoliào wàngqǐ yīngfù, yīfā bàihuán. 小人母親騎的頭口，相煩寄養， 草料望乞應付，一發拜還.” (Please keep and feed the mule my mother rides. When I get back, I will pay back in gratitude.) In the fourth chapter of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “jiùshi liǎnggè fūzǐ, huǎnhuǎn ér xíng yě bà, zhǐshì shǎoge tóukǒu. 就是兩個夫子，緩緩而行也罷，只是少個頭口.” (The two scholars are walking slowly; it could be better if they have a ride of a horse, mule, etc.) The previously mentioned words are nouns.

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Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese

Àn nà 按捺 or àn nà 按納 means suppress, endure. In the third scene of the play Biǎnyè láng 貶夜郎 [Banished to Yelang] by Wang Bocheng 王伯誠 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Àn nà dìng xīntóu qì, miǎnqiǎng shān hū wàn suì. 按捺 定心頭氣，勉強山呼萬歲.” (I’ll have to suppress my anger and shout ‘long live the emperor’ with reluctance.) In the third scene of act three in the play Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Western Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhēnjiǎ, zhè qījiān xìng’er nán àn nà, yídìlǐ húná. 真假，這期間性 兒難按納，一地裏胡拿.” (Honestly, I cannot hold myself and have been fooling around a lot in her absence.) In the third chapter of the novel Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “xīn tóu nàbǎ wúmíng yèhuǒ, yàn téngteng de àn nà búzhù. 心頭那把無明業火，焰騰騰的按耐不住.” (I simply could not hold back my burning anger.) Bānsuō 搬唆 means stir up trouble, talk behind one’s back. In the prologue of the play Liǔyì chuánshū 柳毅傳書 [Liu Yi Delivers a Letter] by Shang Zhongxian 尚仲賢 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wǒ jīn dào fùwáng miànqián bānsuō jījù yányǔ, niǎn tā qùle, què búshì hǎo. 我今到父王面前搬唆畿句言語，撚他去 了，卻不是好.” (Now I am going to see my father, the king, and talk behind his back. It would be quite nice to have him driven away.) In chapter twenty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Guǎfù guānnán, yì xí huà bānsuō zuòduì. 寡婦鰥男，一席話搬唆作對.” (Over a talk, she could stir a widow and a widower and make them a match.) In the story Kuàizuǐ LǐCuìlián jì 快嘴李翠蓮記 [Story of the Talkative Li Cuilian] of Qīngpíngshāntáng huàběn 清平山堂話本 [Stories from Qingping Mountain Studio], one sentence goes “wǒ ruò lüèlüè kāi de kǒu, biàn qù bānsuō yǔ gūjiù. 我若略略開得口，便去搬唆與 姑舅.” (If only I do not feel embarrassed, I would go tell the uncle of the trouble.) Chūtiào 出跳, chūtiāo 出挑, or chūluò 出落 means stand out, grow into; young man or girl growing more and more attractive. In chapter seventy-six of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵 笑笑生of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Bēnsì de nà háizi Cháng’ér, jīnrì yǔ wǒ kētóu, hǎo bù chūtiào de, hǎo ge shēnduàn’er. 賁四的那孩子長兒，今日與 我嗑頭，好不出跳的，好個身段兒.” (Chang’ér, the daughter of Bensi, came to kowtow to me today. How beautiful has the girl grown! Such a nice figure!) In chapter eleven of the novel Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [Marriage to Awaken the World] by Xi Zhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Xiāo fūrén dào: ‘Chūtiāo de bǐ wǎngshí yuè fā biāozhì, wǒ jiù búrèn de tā le.’ 蕭夫人道，‘出挑的比往時越發標致，我就不認的他了.’” (Lady Xiao said, “she is even more beautiful than before. I cannot even recognize her.”) In chapter seventy-two of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “zhè jǐnián wǒ suī méi kànjiàn, tīng jiàn shuō, yuèfā chūtiào de hǎo le. 這幾年我雖沒看見，聽見説， 越發出跳的好了.” (I have not seen him for a few years. It is said that he is becoming more outstanding.) In the second scene of act four of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Western Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 89 goes “Shì bǎ nǐ qún dài’er shuān, niǔ mén’er kòu, bǐzhe nǐ jiùshí féishòu, chūluò de jīngshen, biéyàng de fēngliú. 試把你裙帶兒拴，紐門兒扣，比著你舊時 肥瘦，出落得精神，別樣的風流.” (When you tie the belt and fasten the button, you could find yourself thinner, more beautiful and attractive.) In the seventh chapter of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “[Qiūfāng] kànkàn zhǎngchéng shíliù suì, chūluò de hǎogè nǚ ér, měiyàn fēicháng. [秋芳] 看看長成十六歲，出落得好個女兒，美艷非常.” (Now the girl Qiufang is at the age of 16 and has become quite a beauty.) Dāng gāi 當該 means be on duty; take charge of something. In the Lìxué zhǐnán 吏學指南 [Compass of Administrative Knowledge] by Xu Yuanrui 徐元瑞 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Chéng guǎn yuē dāng, shì néng xiángxì yuē gāi. 承管曰當，事能詳細曰該.” (The character dāng 當 means to take charge; the character gāi 該 means to manage an affair thoroughly.) In the third scene of the Móhéluó 魔合羅 [The Moheluo Doll] by Meng Hanqing 孟漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Jīnrì shēngtīng, zuòqǐ zǎoyá, zěnshēng bújiàn zhǎng àn dāng gāi sīlì? 今日升廳，坐起早衙，怎生不見掌案當該司吏？ ” [(The magistrate said,) ‘I’m already up early and in court. Where are the men on duty?’] In chapter twenty-seven of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “huàn dāng gāi wǔzuò xíngrén, wěi lì yìyuán, bǎ zhè yìgān rén yā dào Zǐshíjiē jiǎnyàn le fùrén shēnshī. 喚當該仵作行人、委吏一員，把這一干人押到紫石 街檢驗了婦人身屍.” (Have the coroner and a placeman on duty take these men to the Street Zishi, and examine the dead woman’s body.) In scene twenty-three of the play Mǔdāntíng 牡丹亭 [The Peony Pavillion] by Tang Xianzu 湯顯祖 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “pěng de shì gōngcáo lìngshǐ, shízì dāng gāi. 捧的 是功曹令史，識字當該.” (This position of administration should be honored; an official ought to be literate and know the codes.) The word gōujié 勾結 has two meanings: (1) conspire; work together in secret. In chapter thirty-six of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “yídìng shì nǐmén dào gōujié qǐlái zhuōnòng wǒ de, kuàikuài bǎ yínliǎng huánle biànbà. 一定是你們倒勾結起來捉弄我的，快快把銀兩還了便罷.” (It must be your conspiracy. Return my money and I will let go of you.) In the scene Zhēnbào 偵報 [The Report] of the play Chángshēng diàn 長生殿 [The Palace of Eternal Life] by Hong Sheng 洪昇of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Yòu zhū fān mìxiāng gōujié, gèng sīzhāo sìfāng wángmìng zhě, cháokūnèi jìncáng xiōngniè. 誘諸番密相勾結，更私招四方亡命者，巢窟內盡藏兇孽.” (He has conspired with the foreign lands, conscripted the bandits secretly, and hidden villains and criminals in his lair.) (2) Gang up with, collude with. In Pèidài 珮袋 [Jade Pocket] of the Jiānhùjí yī 堅瓠集一 [The Collection of Fragments I], it is recorded that “Jiājìng zhōng, shìmiào shēngdiàn, shàngbǎosīqīng Xiè Mǐnxíng pěng bǎo. yùpèi piāopiāo, yǔ shàngpèi gōulián bù tuō . . . yīn zhào zhōngwài guān jù zhì pèidài, yǐ fáng gōujié, jìnshēn biàn zhī. 嘉靖中，世廟升殿，尚寶司卿謝敏行捧寶. 玉 珮飄飄，與上珮勾連不脫 . . . 因詔中外官俱制珮袋，以防勾結，縉紳便之.”

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Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese

(In the reign of Emperor Jiajing, the Imperial Memorial was under innovation. In the ceremony, Xie Minxing, the Chief Minister of the Seals Office, held the Royal Seal. The jade he wore got tangled up with other ornaments. . . . Therefore, it was ordered that all the officials should wear a jade pocket to prevent the entanglement; the officials applauded the order for the convenience.) The previously mentioned words are verbs. The word diāozuān 刁鑽 has two senses: (1) cunning, sly. In the eighth chapter of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “wéirén jí shì diāozuān, zhuānyī dǎtīng rénjiā de xìshì, xǐtán lèdào. 為人極是刁鑽，專一打聽人家的細 事，喜談樂道.” (He is quite a sly who is always curious of others’ privacy and enjoys gossiping very much.) In chapter thirty-five of the Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻 拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “zhǐshì Fāng māma zuòrén diāozuān, xīnxìng xiōngbào, búshì hǎorě de rén. 只是方媽媽做人刁鑽，心性兇暴，不是好惹的 人.” (It is just that Mrs. Fang is cunning and ruthless, a person whom one dare not provoke.) (2) Eccentric, funny. In chapter sixty-eight of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “nà guówáng tīngde shēngyīn xiōnghěn, yòujiàn xiàngmào diāozuān, hǔde zhànjīngjīng, diēzài lóngchuáng zhī shàng. 那國王聽得聲音兇狠，又見相 貌刁鑽，唬得戰兢兢，跌在龍床之上.” (Aghast at the intimidating voice and the ghastly look, the king fell in bed.) In chapter fifty-eight of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “tā biānge mí’er yěshì diāozuān gǔguài de. 他編個謎兒也是 刁鑽古怪的.” (Even a puzzle he makes is funny.) È liè 惡劣 means very bad. In the first scene of the ChénBó gāowò 陳搏高 臥 [Chen Bo Rests on High] by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “cǐrén suī shì xìngzi è’liè, dào yě yǒuxiē kāngkǎi cūzhí. 此人雖 是性子惡劣，倒也有些慷慨粗直.” (Even though that he has got a bad temper, he is generous, frank, and somewhat coarse.) In the Làngyóu jìkuài 浪遊記快 [The Delights of Roaming Afar] of the Fúshēng liùjì 浮生六記 [Six Records of a Floating Life] by Shen Fu 沈復 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “xīnjìng è’liè, mò kě míng zhuàng. 心境惡劣，莫可名狀.” (I am in a very bad mood; the misery is unutterable.) Guāi jué 乖覺 means witty, sharp-minded. In the third scene of the Wàngjiāng tíng 望江亭 [The Riverside Pavillion] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhè liǎnggè xiǎode, cōngmíng guāijué, dōushì wǒ xīnfù zhī rén. 這兩個小的，聰明乖覺，都是我心腹之人.” (These two servants are clever and witty; I trust them very much.) In chapter eighty-one of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “gēge zài xuǎn liǎnggè guāijué de rén, duō jiāng jīnbǎo qiánqù jīngshī, tàntīng xiāoxi. 哥哥再選兩個乖覺的人， 多將金寶前去京師，探聽消息.” (My elder brother, you need to send two clever guys to the capital with some gold and treasure to know about the case.) In the second chapter of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 91 Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “suīrán táoqì yìcháng, dàn qí cōngmíng guāijué chù, bǎigè bùjí tā yígè. 雖然淘氣異常，但其聰明乖 覺處，百個不及他一個.” (Though he is quite naughty, he is much wittier than the other kids.) The word shuǎngkuài 爽快 has two senses: (1) comfortable, jolly. In the first scene of the Shēngxiān mèng 升仙夢 [A Dream of Immortality] by Jia Zhongming 賈仲明 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “jīnxiāo shuǎngkuài, chèn yìtiān fēngqīng yuèbái. 今宵爽快，趁一天風清月白.” (Tonight is a jolly night with gentle cool breeze and a shining moon.) In the tenth chapter of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒ cái gàosù tāshuō, xífù hūrán shēnzi yǒu hǎodà de bù shuǎngkuài. 我才告訴他説，媳婦忽然身子有好大的不爽快.” (I have just told him that our daughter-in-law is falling ill suddenly.) (2) Frank, straightforward. In chapter fourteen of the Lǎocán yóujì 老殘遊記 [The Travels of Laocan] by Liu E 刘鶚 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “cǐ zhǒng rén bùyí guò yú shuǎngkuài, nǐ guòyú shuǎngkuài, tā jiù juéde qíhuò kějū le. 此種人不宜過於爽 快，你過於爽快，他就覺得奇貨可居了.” (Do not be too quick in bargaining with him, or he would demand a high price.) The previously mentioned words are adjectives. 2.2.5 Attributivecompoundwords Some examples of attributive compound words are given as follows. Chūndèng 春凳means bench. In chapter seventy-six of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶 梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “liǎng biān ān fàng chūndèng, dìpíng shàng pū zhe zhāntǎn, ān fàng huǒpén. 兩邊安放春凳，地坪上鋪著氈毯，安放火盆.” (On both sides are two benches. The terrace is covered with felt carpet, with a brazier on it.) In chapter thirty-three of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “hái bù kuài jìnqù bǎ nà téngtìzi chūndèng tái chūlái ne. 還不快進去把藤屜子春凳擡出來呢.” (Go inside and bring the cane bench quickly.) In the story Zháiyāo 宅妖 [A Spirit in House] of the Liáozhāi zhìyì 聊齋志異 [Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “cháng jiàn shà yǒu chūndèng, ròuhóng sè, shèn xiūrùn. 嘗見廈有春凳，肉紅色，甚修潤.” (He once saw a bench in the hall. The bench was of crimson color and felt soft.) Guǐtāi 鬼胎 means secred idea, secret. In the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, one sentences goes “Liú tàigōng huáizhe guǐtāi, zhuāngjiāmen dōu niēzhe liǎngbǎ hàn. 劉太公懷著鬼胎，莊家們都捏著兩把汗.” (Lord Liu had a secret plan; the guards were all on nerves.) In the second scene of the Bàozhuāng hé 抱妝 盒 [Treasure Box] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “hézi lǐ cáng de shì chǔjūn, wǒ dùpí lǐ huáide shì guǐtāi. 盒子裏藏的是儲 君，我肚皮裏懷的是鬼胎.” (In the box hides the baby prince; in my mind hides a secret plan.) In chapter fifteen of the Chūkè pāi’àn jīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping

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Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese

the Table in Amazement I] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “yòu bìjìng bùzhī rén tuǐ láilì, dàodǐ huáizhe guǐtāi, zhǐdé rěnzhe bà le. 又畢竟不知人腿來歷，到底懷著鬼胎，只得忍著罷了.” (After all, he had no idea how came a dead man’s leg was found there; with the secret in his mind, he could only remain silent.) Kǒudài 口袋 means pocket. In the second scene of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒 女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “cóngcǐ yámen nèiwài rénrén bàoyuàn, bùshuō lǎoye qīnglián, dào dào lǎoye dāiqì, dōu pàn lǎoye gāoshēng, shuō: ‘Zài yào zuō xiàqù, dàjiā kě jiù dōu zhāshàng kǒudài zuǐ’er le.’ 從此衙門內外人人抱怨，不説老爺 清廉，倒道老爺呆氣，都盼老爺高升，説： ‘再要作下去，大家可就都紮上 口袋嘴兒了.’” (Since then, everyone in the office complained. Everyone considered the lord idiotic rather than uncorrupted, and expected Lordship’s promotion, saying if he remained at the position, everyone would have to hold fast the pocket.) The word also refers to containers made of cloth or leather. In chapter forty-two of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “zhè liǎngtiáo kǒudài shì nǐ zuórì zhuāng guāguǒzi lái de, rújīn zhè yígè lǐtou zhuāngle liǎng dǒu yù tián jīngmǐ. 這兩條口袋 是你昨日裝瓜果子來的，如今這一個裏頭裝了兩斗御田粳米.” (You brought the vegetable and fruits in these two sacks yesterday. Now, in one of them, there are two dǒu 斗 [measure unit, one dǒu is about 6.25 kg] of the imperial fine rice.) Shànggài 上蓋 means overcoat. In the first scene of the Shén nú’ér 神奴兒 [The Victim Boy Shennu’er] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Dàsǎo, jiǎn ge yǒu yánsè de duànzi, yǔ hái ér zuò lǐng shànggài chuān. 大嫂，揀個有顏色的段子，與孩兒做領上蓋穿.” (Cousin, pick a piece of bright color cloth, and make an overcoat for your child.) In chapter forty-two of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “bùshān xiān jiè yìlǐng, yǔ wǒ huànle shànggài. 布衫先借一領，與我換了上蓋.” (Please lend me a coat. Let me change this shabby coat of mine.) In chapter nineteen of the Xīyóu jì 西遊 記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “yòu jiāng sān lǐng miánbù biǎnshān, wéi shànggài zhī yī. 又將三 領綿布褊衫，為上蓋之衣.” (Then he offered them three overcoats made of fine cotton.) Shénfú 神福 means paper men, carriages, and horse, and so on for a sacrificial ceremony. In chapter sixty-one of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “dì sān rì, shāole shénfú, gěisàn le jiā zhōng dà nán xiǎo nǚ, yí gège dōu fēnfù le. 第三日，燒了神福，給散了家中大男小女，一個個都分付了.” (On the third day, the sacrifice was offered, and the servants, both young and old, male and female, all received some money and were sent off.) In chapter thirty-six of the Xǐngshìhéngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Guǎnjiā bān xíngli āndùn cāng nèi, qǐng lǎoye nǎinai xià chuán, shāole shénfú, chuántóu zhǐhuī zhòngrén kāichuán. 管家搬行李安頓艙內，請老爺奶奶下船，燒了神福，船頭指揮眾

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 93 人開船.” (The butler had the luggage moved into the cabin and asked the lord and the lady off board. When the sacrifice was burnt, the headman told the sailors to set sail.) In the first chapter of the Chūkè pāi’àn jīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement I] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “zhòng rén shìtǐ wánle, shāole shénfú, chīle jiǔ kāiyáng. 眾人事體 完了，燒了神福，吃了酒開洋.” (When all the businesses were done and the sacrifices were burnt, they had a dinner and set on sail.) Yǎnjìng 眼鏡 or ài dài 靉靆 means glasses to protect eyes and remedy eyesight. In the note Yǎnjìng 眼鏡 [Glasses] of the chapter Shìwù 事物 [Objects] of Qīxiū lèigǎo 七修類稿 [Notes of Seven Categories] by Lang Ying 郎瑛 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “shào cháng wén guìrén yǒu yǎnjìng, wǎn nián guānshū, xiǎozì kàn dà. 少嘗聞貴人有眼鏡，晚年觀書，小字看大.” (When I was little, I heard that rich men of age read with glasses with which the small characters looked bigger.) In Yǎnjìng 眼鏡 [Glasses] of Gāiyú cóngkǎo 陔餘叢考 [Collections of Miscellaneous Studies] by Zhao Yi 趙翼 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “gǔ wèiyǒu yǎnjìng, zhì míng shǐ yǒu zhī, běn láizì Xīyù. 古未有眼鏡，至 明始有之，本來自西域.” (Glasses, originally from the region of Xiyu [today’s Turkestan], did not appear in China until the Ming dynasty.) In the section Ài dài 靉靆 [Glasses] of the Liúqīng rìjì 留青日記 [Collection of Drafts] by Tian Yiheng 田藝衡 of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded that “Tíxué fùshǐ Cháoyáng Lín gōng yǒu èr wù, dà rú qián xíng, zhìbó ěr tòumíng, rú xiāozishí, rú liúlí, sè rú yúnmǔ. měi kànwénzhāng, mùlì hūnjuàn, bú biàn xìshū, yǐ cǐ yǎn mù, jīng shén bú sàn, bǐ huà xìnmíng. Zhōng yòng língjuān lián zhī, fù yú nǎohòu. Rén jiē bùshí, jǔ yǐ wèn yú. yú yuē: ‘Cǐ ài dài yě.’ 提學副使潮陽林公有二物，大如錢 形，質薄而透明，如硝子石，如琉璃，色如雲母.” 每看文章，目力昏倦， 不辨細書，以此掩目，精神不散，筆畫信明. 中用綾絹聯之，縛于腦後. 人 皆不識，舉以問余. 余曰： ‘此靉靆也.’” (Lin of Chaoyang county, the deputy supervisor of Minister of Education, has two objects of the size of coin, thin and transparent, like glass or colored glaze, and in the color of mica. When his eyes are sore and he cannot read well, he would put on the object; then he would be able to read on with clear sight. Later, he wears it with a string around his neck. Nobody knows what the object is. When he raised it and asked me if I knew it, I answered, “It is glasses.”) The previously mentioned words are nouns. Bāobàn 包辦 means to promise to do something well. In chapter fifteen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “ruòshì měicháng, yào sānshí wǔ wěi yěyǒu, mò shuō shí shù jīn, zài yào duōxiē, wǒ dìxiōngmen yě bāobàn de. 若是每常，要三十五尾也有，莫説十數斤，再要多些，我弟兄們也包辦得.” (On regular days, we could catch 30 to 50 fish [a day] easily, and we could easily offer dozens of kilograms of fish.) È shí 惡識 means offend, annoy. In the second scene of the Lǐkuí fùjīng 李逵負 荊 [Lǐkuí Carries Thorns] by Kang Jinzhi 康進之 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “bùzhēng jǐjù xián yányǔ, wǒ zé pà è’shí duōnián jiùmiànpí. 不爭幾句 閑言語，我則怕惡識多年舊面皮.” (There is no point to argue over the gossip;

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I don’t want to offend this old friend of mine.) In chapter sixty-one of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑 生 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “nǐ zhè wāigǒucái, búyào è’shí tā biànhǎo. 你這歪狗材，不要惡識他便好.” (You dog, do not offend him.) In the eighth chapter of the Lǜyě xiānzōng 緑野仙蹤 [Fairy Trace in Green Field] by Li Bochuan 李伯川 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “suī bùyǔ cǐdìrén jiāowǎng, quèyě bù è’shí tāmén. 雖不與此地人交往，卻也不惡識他們.” (Though I do not have much contact with the locals, I do not offend them, either.) Zuǒcāi 左猜means to suspect, doubt. In the song Yíbàn’er: Tíqíng 一半兒題 情 [Yībàn’er (melody): A Song of Love] by Wang Heqing 王和卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “dài bù shūzhuāng pà niáng zuǒcāi, bùmiǎn chā jīnchāi, yíbàn’er péngsōng yíbàn’er wāi. 待不梳粧怕娘左猜，不免插金釵，一半兒鬅 鬆一半兒歪.” (If I do not get dressed, Mother might be suspicious. I will put on a gold hairpin, yet my hair is still loose and messy.) In the first scene of the Cúnxiào dǎhǔ 存孝打虎 [Cunxiao Fighting the Tiger] by Chen Yiren 陳以仁 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “zhǔnbèi xià gāozhù huángjīn bàijiàngtái, qǐng nǐ ge yīngcái, xiū zuǒcāi, qiàbiàn shìhóngní bān pànwàng nǐ dàolái. 準備下高築黃金拜 將臺，請你個英才，休左猜，恰便是虹霓般盼望你到來.” (The golden stage has been built high for you, our hero. Do not have any doubt that we wish you to be our commander just like we expect a rainbow.) The previously mentioned words are verbs. Dàhóng 大紅 means bright red, scarlet. In the third chapter of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “yíjiàn èr sè jīn bǎidié chuānhuā dàhóng jiànxiù. 一件 二色金百蝶穿花大紅箭袖.” (He wears a bright red gown with archer’s sleeves and embroideries of golden butterflies and flowers.) In chapter thirty-five of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢, there is another sentence that reads “Yīng’ér dào: ‘Hànjīnzi shì shénme yánsè?’ Bǎoyù dào: ‘Dàhóng de.’ 鶯兒道： ‘汗巾子是什麼顏色？’ 寶玉道： ‘大紅的.’” (Ying’er asked, “What’s the color of the belt?” “Bright red,” Baoyu answered.) É huáng 鵝黃 means light yellow color, like the color of a little goose’s feather. In chapter thirty-two of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “shēn chuān éhuáng zhùsī nà’ǎo. 身穿鵝黃紵絲衲襖.” (He wears a satin jacket of light yellow color.) In chapter twenty-nine of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “qián’er kuī nǐ háiyǒu nàme dà liǎn, dǎfa rén hé wǒ yào éhuáng duànzi qù. 前兒虧 你還有那麼大臉，打發人和我要鵝黃緞子去.” (You were so shameless to send a servant over asking me for light yellow satin the other day!) Huǒsù 火速 means rapidly, at high speed. In the second scene of the Hàotiān tǎ 昊天塔 [Tower of Savior] by Zhu Kai 朱凱 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “mò búshì dàLiáo jūnmǎ sī chǎtà, wǒ yǔ nǐ huǒsù de biànqù shā. 莫不是大遼 軍馬廝蹅踏，我與你火速的便去殺.” (Is it the Liao army that are howling and marching aggressively? I would go to the battle with you at high speed.) In chapter

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 95 forty-seven of the Shuōyuè quánzhuàn 説岳全傳 [The Story of General Yue Fei 岳飛], one sentence goes “Ěr qí huǒsù lái jīng, qǐfù jiùzhí. 爾其火速來京，起復 舊職.” (Then he came to the capital at full speed and resumed his old position.) Liūjiān 溜尖 means (of shape) very pointed. In the sixth chapter of the Fùbào xiántán 負曝閑談 [Idle Talks by a Humble Person] by Quyuan 蘧園 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “nà fángzi què zàode shífēn huálì, shàngxià dōushì yòng hóngzhuān yíkuài yíkuài qì jiù de, dǐngshàng yǒu jǐchù xiàng bǎotǎ yíyàng liūjiān liūjiān. 那房子卻造得十分華麗，上下都是用紅磚一塊一塊砌就的，頂上有 幾處像寶塔一樣溜尖溜尖.” (The house is quite stately, built of red brick from top to bottom, with a few very pointed towers.) In chapter thirty-one of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “nà jiàntóu dōu shì chúngāng dǎjiù de, jiùrú yígè sìléngzi zhuīzi yìbān, liūjiān xuěliàng. 那箭頭都是純鋼打就 的，就如一個四棱子錐子一般，溜尖雪亮.” (The arrow heads are made of pure steel, like four-arris bodkins, pointed and shiny.) Shíqīng 石青 means a kind of blue color. In the third chapter of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “wàizhào shíqīng qǐhuā bātuán wōduàn páisuì guà. 外罩 石青起花八團倭緞排穗褂.” (He wore a turquoise fringed coat of Japanese satin with a raised pattern of flowers in eight bunches.) Shuǐlǜ 水緑means pale green color. In chapter forty-six of the Hónglóumèng 紅 樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zhǐjiàn tā chuānzhe bànxīn de ǒusè líng’ǎo, qīngduàn qiāyá kǎnjiān’er xiàmiàn shuǐlǜ qúnzi. 只見他穿著半新的藕色綾襖，青緞掐牙坎肩兒下面水緑 裙子.” (The maid was wearing a light purple silk tunic, none too new, a black satin sleeveless jacket with silk borders, and a pale green skirt.) Shànghǎo 上好 means the best, of superior quality. In the prologue of the play Liúxié jì 留鞋記 [Story of a Shoe Left] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty (Some people say the author might be Zeng Rui 曾瑞), it is written that “Méixiāng, qǔ shànghǎo de yānzhīfěn lái. 梅香，取上好的臙脂粉來.” (Meixiang, fetch the best rouge.) In chapter thirty-six, the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Jiāng Càiwǔ tèshēng le húguǎng jīngxiāng děngchù yóujī jiāngjūn, shì gè shànghǎo de měiquē. 將蔡武特升了湖廣荊襄等處遊擊 將軍，是個上好的美缺.” (Caiwu was promoted Mobile Corps Commander in charge of Hunan 湖南, Guangdong 广东, and Jingxiang 荆襄 [i.e., Hubei 湖北], a superior position.) In chapter forty-eight of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “shísì rì shì shànghǎo chūxíng rìqī. 十四日是上好出行日期.” (The fourteenth day is the best date to embark on a journey.) These words are adjectives. In Modern Chinese, attributive compounds changed a lot, the majority of which were nouns, while the number of verbs and adjectives increased, but not on a large scale.

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2.2.6 Subordinatecompoundwords The development of subordinate compound words is exemplified as follows. The word bāotóu 包頭 has two senses as noun: (1) scarf. In chapter sixteen of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言[Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “kělián Shòu’ér cóng bù céng chūmén, jīnrì shìzài wúnài, zhǐdé bǎ bāotóu qíméi dōule, suǒshàng dàmén, suíyóu zhòngrén wàng Hángzhōu fǔ lái. 可憐壽兒從不曾出門，今日事 在無奈，只得把包頭齊眉兜了，鎖上大門，隨由眾人望杭州府來.” (The girl Shou’er has never been outside home, yet at this time of misfortune, she could only put on a scarf over her head, lock the gate, and come to the prefecture court with others.) In chapter fourteen of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zhè liǎngjiàn ǎo’er hé liǎngtiáo qúnzi, háiyǒu sìkuài bāotóu, yìbāo róngxiàn, kě shì wǒ sòng lǎolao de. 這兩件襖兒和兩條裙子，還有四塊包頭，一包絨線，可 是我送姥姥的.” (Grandma, here are my gifts for you: two coats, two skirts, four scarfs, and a pocket of thread.) (2) Accessories that actresses wear on the head in performances. The word also refers to actress; female role in a play. In chapter thirty of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “dāngxià xìzi chīlefàn, yígège zhuāngbàn qǐlái, dōushì cùxīn de bāotóu, jí xīnxiān de zhězi. 當下戲子吃 了飯，一個個裝扮起來，都是簇新的包頭，極新鮮的摺子.” (After the meal, the players put on the costumes – brand new scarfs and colorful clothes.) In the part Mènghuá suǒbù 夢華瑣簿 [Random Thoughts on the Splendid Dream] of the Jīngchén zálù 京塵雜錄 [Anecdotes of the Capital], written by Ruizhujiushi 蕊珠舊史 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “sú hū dànjué yuē bāotóu, gài xīnián jù dài wǎngzi, gùyuē bāotóu. 俗呼旦角曰包頭，蓋昔年俱戴綱子，故曰 包頭.” (A female role is commonly called bāotóu. Players of the part wear a netlike headpiece; hence the name.) The word dǎjǐn 打緊 has four senses as an adjective word: (1) significant. In the section Chuánzhī 船只 [Water Vehicle] of the chapter Gōngbù’èr 工部二 [Board of Works II] of the Yuán diǎnzhāng 元典章 [The Statutes of Yuan dynasty], it is written that “Hǎidào lǐ guānliáng jiāoyùn jiāng dàdū lǐ láide zuì dǎjǐn de gòudàng. 海道裏官糧交運將大都裏來的最打緊的勾當.” (The most significant is the transport of food demanded by the court by water route.) (2) Indeed, honestly. In chapter seventeen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “dǎjǐn zhè zuò shān shēngde xiǎnjùn, yòu méi biélù shàngqù. 打緊這座山生的險 峻，又沒別路上去.” (Indeed the mountain is precipitous, with only this lane to its top.) In the story Kuàizuǐ Lǐ Cuìlián jì 快嘴李翠蓮記 [The Story of the Talkative Li Cuilian] in the Qīngpíngshān táng huàběn 清平山堂話本 [Stories from Qīngpíng Mountain Studio], one sentence goes “dǎjǐn tā gōnggōng nán lǐhuì, bùbǐ děngxián de. 打緊他公公難理會，不比等閑的.” (Honestly, her father – in – law is a difficult person to deal with.) (3) Quite, rather. In chapter twenty-eight of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 97 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “chī bù chī, suízhe Língūniang zǒu yì zāo, tā xīnlǐ dǎjǐn de bú zìzài ne. 吃不吃，隨著林姑娘走一遭，他心裏打緊的不自 在呢.” (Just go with Miss Lin whether you want to eat or not, as she feels rather frustrated.) (4) Always. In chapter seventy-six of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “dǎjǐn shuō wǒ piānxīn, wǒ fǎn zhèyàng. 打緊説我偏心，我反這樣.” (They have always complained that I have been partial. Alright, I am partial as told.) Dǎozào 倒竃 means unfortunate; misfortune falls. In chapter thirty-seven of the Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “qiánrìbúyìzhòng déle xiē fēifèn zhī cái, jīnrì jiù dǎozào le. 前日不意中得了些非分之財，今日 就倒竃了.” (The day before yesterday a windfall fell on me; today a misfortune falls on me.) In chapter twenty-five of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Xíngzhě xiàodào: ‘Nǐ yùzhe wǒ jiùgāi dǎozào, gān wǒ shèn shì.’ 行者笑道： ‘你遇著我就 該倒竃，干我甚事.’” (Monkey laughed and said, “Now that you see me, you are doomed to have a misfortune. It’s none of my business.”) In the third scene of the play Méixǐ yuán 梅喜緣 [The Sisterhood of Chunmei and A’Xi] by Chen Lang 陳 烺 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “[Chǒu shàng] dǎozào dǎozào, zhēnzhēn hǎoxiào, wàngcái búfù mìngqióngrén, bǎ shíliǎng yínzi yíyè dōu shūdiào. [丑上] 倒竃倒竃，真真好笑，旺財不富命窮人，把十兩銀子一夜都輸掉.” ([Clown enters] How unfortunate ！How unfortunate! A doomed poor man couldn’t have any fortune. I’ve lost the ten taels of silver over one night.) In the first chapter of the Kèchuāng xiánhuà 客窗閑話 [Leisure Talks over Neighbors’ Window] by Wu Chichang 吳熾昌 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Féng wǎng línjiā jiè kuì, lǔmǎng cóngshì, huī qù ěr dǎozào, qī yà yuē: ‘Zhēn dǎozào yǐ.’ 馮往鄰家借簣， 鹵莽從事，灰去而倒竈，妻訝曰： ‘真倒竈矣.’” (Feng came to his neighbor to borrow a basket to mend the fire place which was full of dust. Acting rashly, he cleared the dust but broke the fireplace. His wife sighed, “The fireplace is gone [a metaphor of misfortune in Chinese].”) Diējiǎo 跌腳 means stamp one’s feet, a behavior when one is overexcited. In chapter twenty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Xīmén Qìng diējiǎo xiàodào: ‘Mò búshì rén jiào tā sāncùn dīnggǔ shùpí de Wǔ Dàláng?’ 西門慶跌腳笑道：‘莫不是人叫他三寸丁谷樹皮的武大郞’.” (Laughing, XiMen Qing stomped his feet and said, “Can that be the Big Brother Wu whom everyone calls ‘ugly dwarf’?”) In chapter thirteen of the Chūkè pāi’àn jīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement I] by Ling Mengchu 凌 濛初 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Zhào Liùlǎo diējiǎo chuíxiōng, kūle yìhuí. 趙六老跌腳捶胸，哭了一回.” (Zhao Liulao cried out loud, stomping his feet and striking his chest.) Dǐnggāng 頂缸is a verb, meaning a metaphor of “becoming someone’s scapegoat. In the fourth scene of the Chénzhōu tiàomǐ 陳州糶米 [Selling Rice at Chénzhōu] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐ bù zhīdào, wǒ shì gùjiānglái de dǐnggāng wàiláng. 你不知道，我是雇將來的頂缸外郎.” (You do

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not know that I am an official paid to be a scapegoat.) In the second volume of book two of the Zhìshì yúwén 治世餘聞 [Talks on Governance] by Chen Hongmo 陳洪 謨of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “shí rén yǒu shī yún: ‘yǒuqián mǎide guǐ tuī mò, wúlì què jiào rén dǐnggāng.’ 時人有詩云： ‘有錢買得鬼推磨，無力卻教 人頂缸.’” (As one saying goes, with money, one can have a ghost push the grind (Money talks.); without power, no one would take blame for you.) In chapter thirtyseven of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Xíngzhě dào: ‘Míngrì yào nǐ dǐnggāng shòuqì zāowēn.’ 行者道： ‘明日要你頂缸受氣遭瘟.’” (Monkey said, “You need to be a scapegoat to be wronged and endure misfortune tomorrow.”) In chapter sixty-one of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Píng’ér tīngle xiàodào: ‘Zhèyàng shuō, nǐ jìngshì gè píngbái wúgū zhīrén, ná nǐ lái dǐnggāng de.’平兒聽了笑道： ‘這樣説， 你竟是個平白無辜之人，拿你來頂缸的.’” (Ping’er laughed and said, “Well, if so, you are innocent. They have made you take the blame.”) Liǎozhàng 了帳 is a verb, meaning to finish, be over. In the first scene of the Huīlán jì 灰闌記 [The Chalk Circle] by Li Hangdao 李行道 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Yuánwài, nǐ qìzěnde, zhǐshì dǎshā tā biàn liǎozhàng yě. 員外，你 氣怎的，只是打殺他便了帳也.” (Lord, do not get angry. Just beat him dead. The case will be over.) In chapter eleven of the Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚 奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming Ddynasty, it is written that “wéiyǒu fūqī shì zhōngshēn xiāngyī de, yìyǒu fùxīn, yìshēng yuànhèn, búshì dāngshuǎ kěyǐ liǎozhàng de shì. 惟有夫妻是終身相依 的，一有負心，一生怨恨，不是當耍可以了帳的事.” (Only husband and wife accompany each other for life; once one betrays the other, it will be a lifelong regret. Marriage is not something to fool around.) The word also means to die, be dead. In chapter forty-one of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “ruò búshì lǎozhū jiùnǐ a, yǐcǐ liǎozhàng le. 若不是老豬救你啊，已此了賬了.” (But for me Pig rescuing you, you are dead already.) Sāpō 撒潑 means throw tantrums. In the first scene of the Húdié mèng 蝴蝶 夢 [Butterfly Dream] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “sì zhèbān chěngxiōng sāpōgàn xíngzhǐ, wúguò shìzhe nǐ yǒuquánshì yǒu jīnzī. 似這般逞兇撒潑幹行止，無過恃著你有權勢有金貲.” (It is only on account of power and possession that you dare behave so aggressively and throw tantrums.) In chapter twenty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Wǔ Sōng dào: ‘Jiāxiōng cónglái běnfèn, bú sì Wǔ’èr sāpō.’ 武鬆道: ‘家兄從來本分，不似武二撒潑.’” (My brother always obeys rules, unlike me who always break rules.) In chapter eighty of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “tā suī bùgǎn huánshǒu, biàn yě sāpō dǎgǔn, xúnsǐ mìhuó, zhòuzé dāojiǎn, yèzé shéngsuǒ, wúsuǒ búnào. 他雖不敢還手，便也撒潑打滾，尋死覓活，晝則刀 剪，夜則繩索，無所不鬧.” (She did not dare to fight back but threw tantrums and threatened them with suicide either by knife or rope day and night.)

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 99 The word zuòshuǎ 作耍 has two senses: (1) play, have fun. In chapter thirtyeight of the Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming Ddynasty, it is written that “nà Lǐsān zhèng bàozhe zhè shílái de érzi, zài nàlǐ yǔ tā zuòshuǎ. 那李三正抱著這拾來的 兒子，在那裏與他作耍.” (Lisan was holding the son he picked the other day and playing with the boy.) In the story Fēng sān niáng 封三娘 [Dame Feng Sanniang] of the Liáozhāizhìyì 聊齋志異 [Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Qièjiā cǐqù shàngyuǎn, zài nàlǐ yǔtā zuòshuǎ. 妾家此去尚遠，在那裏與他作耍.” (My home is far and I will play with him there.) (2) Play a joke with someone. In the prologue of the Táohuānǚ 桃花女 [The Maid Peach Blossom] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐzhè pópo, zěnme shuō wǒ zuòshuǎ ！Wǒ de yīnyáng yǒuzhǔn, huòfú wúchā. 你這婆婆，怎麼説我作耍！我的陰陽有準， 禍福無差.” (Lady, how can you say I am joking! My fate and fortune have been predestined.) In chapter thirty-seven of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “ruò búshì jiàn wǒ jiētàn, tèlái ānwèi wǒ de, bìshì zuòshuǎ wǒ de. 若 不是見我嗟歎，特來安慰我的，必是作耍我的.” (Now that he saw me sighing, he might have come to comfort or tease me.) 2.2.7 Descriptivecompoundwords The progress of descriptive compound words is exemplified as follows. Dǐnglǎo 頂老 means courtesan as noun. In chapter twenty-seven of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施 耐庵of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “(Fùrén) yuánshì xī wǎzǐ lǐ chàng shuō zhūbān gōngdiào de dǐnglǎo. (婦人) 原是西瓦子裏唱説諸般宮調的頂老.” (The woman used to be a courtesan who knew all the melodies in the west market.) In chapter thirty-six of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [Stories Old and New] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “gào gōnggōng, wǒ búshì cāzhuó’ér dǐnglǎo, wǒ biàn shì Sūzhōu píngjiāng fǔ Zhào Zhèng. 告公 公，我不是擦卓兒頂老，我便是蘇州平江府趙正.” (Lord, I am not a courtesan singing and serving in the restaurant; I am Zhao Zheng from Pingjiang, Suzhou.) In chapter ninety-four of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “yìbān’er sìgè chàngde dǐnglǎo, dǎbàn de rúhuā sìduǒ. 一般兒四個唱的頂老， 打扮得如花似朵.” (A group of four singing courtesans were dressed as beautiful as flowers.) In the Náncíxùlù 南詞敘錄 [An Account of Southern Drama] by Xu Wei 徐渭 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Dǐnglǎo, jì zhī hùnmíng. 頂老， 伎之諢名.” (The word dǐnglǎo 頂老 is a joking term for a courtesan.) Hóují 喉急 means to be anxious. In chapter eleven of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Táng Niú’er dào: ‘Wǒ hóují le, yào xún gūlǎo, yídì’er lǐ bújiàn tā.’ 唐牛兒道： ‘我喉急了，要尋孤老，一地兒裏不見 他.’” (Tang Niu’er said, “I am just anxious to find my lord but cannot find him

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anywhere.”) In the first chapter of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [Stories Old and New] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐ qiěmò hóují, lǎoshēn zhèngyào xiāngqǐng, láide qiàhǎo. 你且莫喉急，老身正 要相請，來得恰好.” (Do not be anxious. I have just meant to ask you over, and here you come.) In the fourth chapter of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “tǎng yǒu bùdá shíwù de, zhuōkòng zhāile yìhuā yìshū, nà lǎo’ér biànyào miànhóng ěrchì, dàfā hóují. 倘有不達時務的，捉空摘了一花一蔬， 那老兒便要面紅耳赤，大發喉急.” (If some naughty guy picked a flower or a vegetable in his absence, the old man would be quite anxious and fly into a rage.) Huǒpīn 火拼, huǒbìng 夥併, or huǒbìng 夥並 means open fight between factions. In chapter nineteen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Jīnrì Línjiàotou bìrán yǒu huǒpīn Wáng Lún zhīyì. tā ruò yǒuxiē xīnlǎn, xiǎoshēng píngzhe sāncùn búlàn zhīshé, bùyóu tā bù huǒpīn. 今日林教頭必然 有火拼王倫之意. 他若有些心懶，小生憑著三寸不爛之舌，不由他不火拼.” (Today, it is certain that Coach Lin will take the position of Wang Lun by force. In case that he hesitates, with some persuading skills, I will talk him into the fight.) In addition, it is written in chapter forty-seven of the novel that “Ǎn liángshānpō hǎohàn, zìcóng huǒbìng Wáng Lún zhīhòu, biàn yǐ zhōngyì wéi zhǔ, quán shī réndé yú mín. 俺梁山泊好漢，自從夥併王倫之後，便以忠義為主，全施仁 德於民.” (Since we removed Wang Lun, we, warriors of Liangshan Marsh, have been observing the code of loyalty and righteousness and treating the common masses with benevolence.) In chapter thirty-one of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒 言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐmén bù xiǎodé zhèbānshì, cónglái zuòshì de rén, yìshēng xiánxì, bùzhīhuǒbìng le duōshǎo. 你们不晓得这般事，從来做事的人， 一生嫌隙，不知夥並了多少.” (You do not know about this kind of business. Once a subordinate gets angry in secret, he will take revenge by force.) In the fourth chapter of the Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初of the Ming Ddynasty, it is written that “Yáng’èr xiǎodé tā cúnxīn kèdú, hòulái wèibì bù huǒpīn zìjiā wūli. 楊二曉得他 存心克毒，後來未必不火拼自家屋裏.” (Yang’er knew that he [his brother] was cruel by nature and capable of killing his sister-in-law for wealth.) Kǒushùn 口順 means in casual talk. In the prologue of the play Lǔzhāiláng 魯齋郎 [The Wife-Snatcher] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Xiǎokě Xǔzhōu rénshì, xìng Lǐ, páiháng dìsì, rén kǒushùn huànzuò ‘yínjiàng Lǐ Sì.’ 小可許州人氏，姓李，排行第四，人口順喚做 ‘銀匠李四’.’’ (I am from Xuzhou. My family name is Li, and I am the fourth child in my family, so everyone calls me Lisi [the fourth child in the family Li], the silversmith.) In chapter sixty-one of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Běijīng chénglǐ rén kǒushùn, dōu jiàotā zuò làngzǐ Yànqīng. 北京城裏人口順， 都叫他做浪子燕青.” (The Beijingers call him by a nickname “Yanqing the Graceful.”) In chapter twenty-seven of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [Stories Old and

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 101 New] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “ránsuī rúcǐ, lǐzhōng kǒushùn, hái zhǐ jiàotā shì tuántóujiā, qī míng bù gǎi. 然雖如 此，里中口順，還只叫他是團頭家，其名不改.” (Even so, the locals still use the familiar term and call him head of beggars.) Lìbào 栗爆, lìbào 栗暴, líbào 梨爆, or líbào 藜暴 means a knock on one’s head with a knuckle; a flip on one’s head. In the fourth scene of the Huánghuāyù 黄花 峪 [Huanghua Valley] by an anonymous writer, one sentence goes “wǒ lái biànyào chījiǔ, ruò wú he, wǒ qù nǐtūtóu shàng zhí dǎ wǔshí ge lìbào (yī zuò ‘líbào.’)” 我来便要吃酒，若無呵，我去你禿頭上直打五十個栗爆（一作 ‘梨爆’ ）.” (I’ve come here for a drink. If you do not offer me one, I will flip your bald head 50 times.) In the second scene of the Jiàng sāngshèn 降桑椹 [Endownments of Mulberries from Heaven] by Liu Tangqing 劉唐卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Zǎozhī shàngshèng láidào, huāngmáng yíngxiào, ruò hái búxiào, záoge líbào. 早知上聖來到，慌忙迎笑，若還不笑，鑿個藜暴.” (Greet the lofty god respectfully, or you will be flipped on the head.) In chapter twenty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhè pózi yì tóu chā, yì tóu dà lìbào záo, zhí dǎchū jiēshàng qù. 這婆子一頭叉，一頭大栗暴鑿，直打出街 上去.” (The woman held him by the head, flipped his head hard, and drove him out to the street.) In chapter thirty-four of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Qiàzhèng zhuāzhù le dōudù, záoxià liǎngge lìbào. 恰正抓住 了兜肚，鑿下兩個栗暴.” (She held him right by his underwear and flipped his head heavily.) Xíngduǎn 行短 means villainous, mean. In the second scene of the play Jiànfúbēi 薦福碑 [The Monument of Blessing] by Ma Zhiyuzn 馬致遠 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nǐkuīxīn zhéjìn píngshēng fú, xíngduǎn tiānjiào yíshì pín. 你虧 心折盡平生福，行短天教一世貧.” (Your misconducts have cost you lifelong blessing; your villainies have brought you lifelong poverty.) In the fourth scene of the Huán láomò 還牢末 [Return to the Prison] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “bìjìng shì xíngduǎn de tiān jiào bài, shǎobùdé jiāng nǐ xīngān bǎiyè, zuò qī jiàn shì fēnkāi. 畢竟是行短的天教敗，少不得將你 心肝百葉，做七件事分開.” (Indeed, your villainies have brought forth your own downfall. You deserve the death penalty of dismemberment.) In chapter sixty-two of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “běn dài bānǐ zhòngrén shāle, xiǎnde wǒ liángshānpō xíngduǎn. 本待把你眾人殺了，顯得我梁山泊行 短.” (We have meant to kill all of you, yet we are the heroes of Liángshān Marsh who could not conduct ourselves like villains.) Yǎnshú 眼熟 means of a familiar look as one is unsure or fails to recognize somebody or something. In chapter thirty-one of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒ suī jiànnǐ yǎnshú, yìshí què xiǎngbùqǐ xìngmíng. 我雖見你眼熟，一時卻 想不起姓名.” (You look familiar, yet I cannot tell your name at the moment.) In chapter twenty-three of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase]

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by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “zhè yínzi dào yǒuxiē yǎnshú, dào xiàng diē yínzi bāo’er lǐ de. 這銀子到有些眼 熟，倒像爹銀子包兒裏的.” (The silver looks somewhat familiar, like the one in Dad’s pocket.) In chapter one hundred one of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao È 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Fèngjiě máng huítóu yíkàn, zhǐjiàn nàrén xíngróng jùnqiào, yīlǚ fēngliú, shífēn yǎnshú. 鳳姐忙回頭一看，只見那人形容俊俏，衣履風流，十分眼熟.” (Looking back hurriedly, Xifeng saw a pretty woman in fine, delicate dress and quite familiar.) Zháfù 札付 means official documents from supervisors to subordinates, usually hand-written. In chapter eighty of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Sòng Jiāng jiēdé shūmìyuàn zháfù, biànyǔ jūnshī Wú Yòng jìyì. 宋 江接得樞密院札付，便與軍師吳用計議.” (Upon receiving the document from the Ministry of Military Affairs, Song Jiang discussed with Advisor Wu Yong about the affair.) In chapter seventy-six of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “yímiàn shǐ Dài’ān sòng liǎnghé zuòròu yǔ Qiáo Dàhù jiā, jiùqǐng Qiáo Dàhù lái chījiǔ, yǔ tā zháfù qiáo. 一面使玳安送兩盒胙肉與喬大 戶家，就請喬大戶來吃酒，與他札付瞧.” (Then he sent Dai’an to the Qiao’s with two boxes of pork, invited Qiao Dahu over for dinner, and showed him the file.) The word is also a verb meaning to command. In chapter twenty of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [Stories Old and New] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Nánxióngfǔ fǔyǐn . . . zháfù xúnjiǎn, huǒsù dàilǐng suǒguǎn yìqiān rénmǎ, guǎnlǐng jūnqì, qiánqù shōubǔ, wùdé chíwù. 南 雄府府尹 . . . 札付巡檢，火速帶領所管一千人馬，關領軍器，前去收捕， 毋得遲誤.” (The governor of Nanxiong Province commanded that [the general] lead his force of about 1000 soldiers armed with weaponry to fight the bandits as quickly as possible.) Zuǐchī 嘴吃 is a noun meaning food, snack. In chapter seventy-six of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhèshì shénme sīfáng, dōushì yáchǐ shàng guāxià láide, wǒ shěbùdé mǎile zuǐchī, liúle mǎi pǐ bù’er zuò jiàn yīfu. 這是什么私房，都是牙齒上刮下 來的，我捨不得買了嘴吃，留了買匹布兒做件衣服.” (This is not some casedough. I squeezed the savings from food to buy a piece of cloth to make a coat.) 2.2.8 Complementingcompoundwords The progress of complementing compound words is exemplified as follows. Āimǎn 挨滿 is a verb meaning to be jammed with. In the third chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Lǔ Dá kànjiàn zhòngrén kànbǎng, āimǎn zài shízì lùkǒu, yě zuān zài cóng lǐ tīng shí, Lǔ Dá què bù shízì. 魯達看見眾人看榜，挨滿在十字路口，也鑽在叢裏聽時，魯達卻不識字.” (Seeing the intersection is crowded with people, Lu Da pushed his way in to listen as he was illiterate.)

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 103 The word dǎdòng 打動 has two senses: (1) strike something to make a sound. In the fourth chapter of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Chīle kāijīngmiàn, dǎdòng náo, bō, dīngdāng, niànle yíjuàn jīng, bǎishàng zǎozhāi lái. 吃了開經面，打 動饒、鈸、叮噹，念了一卷經，擺上早齋來.” (After having the veggie noodle before opening the scripture and playing the cymbals and bells, they read aloud one scroll of scripture, and then had breakfast.) (2) To move, tempt. In chapter twenty-four of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “nǐduō náxiē yínzi chūlái dǎdòng tā. 你多拿些銀子出來打動他.” (Tempt him with more silver.) In chapter twenty-six of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zhǐyīn tā yìyǎn kàndìng le gūniang shì gè qíngxìng zhōng rén, suǒyǐ zhǐbǎ qíngxìng huà dǎdòng tā. 只因他一眼看定了姑娘是個情性中人，所以只把情性話打動他.” (Only because he saw the girl as one of sensibility, he moved her with sweet loving words.) Jiézhù 結住means entangle, hold. In chapter thirty-five of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhè liǎngzhī jǐ shàng, yìzhī shì jīnqián bàozi wěi, yìzhī shì jīnqián wǔsè fān, què jiǎozuò yìtuán, shàngmiàn róngtāo jiézhùle, nǎlǐ fēnchāi de kāi. 這兩枝戟上，一枝是金錢豹子尾，一枝是金錢五色幡，卻 攪做一團，上面絨縧結住了，那裏分拆得開.” (The two halberts, one tied with leopard-colored tassel, one with five-color tassel, got entangled with each other, inseparable.) In chapter twenty-one of the novel, one sentence goes “(Pózi) bǎ Sòng Jiāng yìbǎ jiézhù, fāhǎn jiàodào: ‘yǒu shārénzéi zài zhèlǐ.’ (婆子) 把宋江 一把結住，發喊叫道： ‘有殺人賊在這裏.’” ([The old woman] stopped Song Jiang and shouted, “Here is a murder.”) Lālǒng 拉攏 means attempt to win somebody over to one’s side. In the ninth chapter of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “nà dōushì ménkè men jièzhe zhège shì tǎo lǎoye huānxǐ, wǎnghòu hǎo lālǒng de yìsi. 那都是門客們借著這個 事討老爺歡喜，往後好拉攏的意思.” (The protégés meant to please your Lordship with this affair for some future benefits.) Zhéshā 折殺 means cannot afford. In the fourth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuà 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Lǎorénjiā, rúhé nènde xiàlǐ, zhéshā nújiā. 老人 家，如何恁地下禮，折殺奴家.” (Sir, how can I afford your kowtow to me!) In chapter twelve of the Chūkè pāi’àn jīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement I] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Èrwèi zūnshén hégù jiànglín, zhéshā lǎofū yě. 二位尊神何故降臨，折殺老夫 也.” (Noble gods, what are you both here for? I can barely afford such an honor.) 2.2.9 Compoundwordswithnumberingnouns The development of compound words with numbering nouns is exemplified as follows.

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Chuánzhī 船隻 means boat. In chapter ninety-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “kàn húmiàn shàng, yòu méi yìzhī chuánzhī. 看 湖面上，又沒一隻船隻.” (There is no boat in sight on the lake.) (Zhī 隻is the measure word for boat in Chinese language.) Duànpǐ 段匹 means silk. In chapter forty-eight of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “fēnfù jiào qǔ yíduì duànpǐ yángjiǔ, . . . qīnzì shàngmén qù qiújiàn. 分付教取一對緞匹羊酒， . . . 親自上門去求見.” (Having ordered two rolls of silk and two bottles of wine ready, he himself went to the house asking for a meeting.) (Pǐ 匹 is a measure word in Chinese.) Jǐnpiàn 錦片means brocade, splendid. In the third scene of the Jiù fēngchén 救 風塵 [Rescued by a Coquette] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “wèizhè jǐnpiàn’er qiánchéng, dào péile jǐ dìng’er huāyín. 為這錦片 兒前程，倒賠了幾錠兒花銀.” (The splendid future has cost me a sum of money.) (Piàn 片 is a measure word in Chinese.) Niúzhī 牛只 means cow. In chapter twenty-seven of the Yuán diǎnzhāng 元典 章 [The Statutes of Yuan dynasty], one sentence goes “dǎo le wǒ niúzhī, sǔn le wǒ lípá. 倒了我牛只，损了我犁耙.” (My cows are wounded; my plows are broken.) (Zhī 只 is a measure word in Chinese language.) Wùjiàn 物件 means thing, object. In chapter forty of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “zhǐshì yòngzhe yíjiàn wùjiàn’er nán xúnzháo. 只是用 着一件物件儿难寻着.” (Only one thing is needed but not easily available.) (Jiàn 件 is a measure word in Chinese language.)

2.3 DevelopmentoftrisyllabicwordsinmodernChinese Trisyllabic words in Chinese have existed since ancient times and changed largely in the Yuan dynasty and onward. The words have five varied patterns. 2.3.1 Trisyllabicwordswithaffixes The words are in an AB–C scheme, with AB forming the root and C being an affix. AB are of varied categories, mostly nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Zǐ 子, ér 兒, jià 價, and tí 提 are some examples of affixes. Ěrguāzi 耳刮子, ěrguōzǐ 耳聒子, ěrkuòzǐ 耳括子, or ěrguāngzǐ 耳光子 means a box on the face, a slap on the face. The first two characters form a reverse of a verb–object pattern. In chapter twenty-one of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸 全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhè duǎnmìng děngde wǒ kǔ yě, lǎoniáng xiān dǎ liǎngge ěrguāzi zhe. 這短命等得我苦也，老娘先打兩個耳刮子著.” (I have been waiting anxiously for the damned; I got to slap him on the face.) In chapter seventeen of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “dǎtā jǐgè

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 105 ěrguōzǐ, jiètā xiàcì bùxǔ shuōhuǎng. 打他幾個耳聒子，戒他下次不許説謊.” (Slap him on the face so that he dares not tell lies next time.) In chapter seventynine of the Dàngkòu zhì 蕩寇志 [Conclusion of the Outlaws of the Marsh] by Yu Wanchun 俞萬春 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Bǎo’ér shàngqián yígè ěrguāngzǐ, dǎle gè lóngzhǒng, tíkū qǐlái. 鴇兒上前一個耳光子，打了個躘 踵，啼哭起來.” (The procuress walked up and slapped the girl on the face; the girl fell onto the ground, crying.) In chapter twenty of the Guānchǎng xiànxíngjì 官場現形記 [Officialdom Unmasked] by Li Baojia 李寶嘉 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Màle yìhuí, guǎnjiā láile, tā jiù shēnshǒu shàngqù, gěitā ge ěrkuòzi. 罵了一回，管家來了，他就伸手上去，給他個耳括子.” (After quite a while of swearing, he finally saw the butler coming. He walked up and boxed the butler on the ear.) Hánghuòzǐ 行貨子 is a swear word for villain. Hánghuò 行貨 is an attributive compound. In chapter fourteen of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “nǐzhè hánghuòzǐ, zhǐhǎo jiālǐ zuǐtóuzi bàle. 你這行貨子，只好家裏 嘴頭子罷了.” (You villains only talk big at home.) The word is often shortened as háng zǐ 行子. In chapter fifty-seven of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “dǎjǐn de nàqǐ hùnzhàng hángzǐmen bèidìlǐ shuō nǐ. 打緊的那起混帳行子們背地裏説你.” (What matters is that those villains would talk behind you.) In a different accent, the word becomes huángzǐ 黃子. In chapter sixty-eight of the Jìnghuā yuán 鏡花 緣 [Flowers in the Mirror] by Li Ruzhen 李汝珍of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Ǎn bǎ nǐ zhè méiliángxīn de hùnzhàng huángzǐ! 俺把你這沒良心的混帳黃 子！ ” (What an ungrateful villain you are!) Liǎngkǒuzi 兩口子 means husband and wife. Liǎngkǒu 兩口 is an attributive compound. In chapter eighteen of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “jìshì zhè děng shuō, wǒ qù le ba, liǎngkǒuzi zuòbùchéng le. 既是這等説，我去了罷，兩口子做不成 了.” (Since you said so, I will leave. We cannot be husband and wife any more.) In the fifth chapter of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐ liǎngkǒuzi tóngbài tiāndì zǔzōng, lì wéi zhèngshì, shuírén zàigǎn fàngpì. 你兩口子同拜天地 祖宗，立為正室，誰人再敢放屁.” (You two will kowtow to Heaven and Earth and the ancestors. She will be your wife. Who dares fart [a metaphor for talking nonsense] any more!) Rényá’er 人芽兒 means a person’s shadow. Rényá 人芽 is an attributive compound. In chapter seventeen of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “děngle bànrì, méi yígè rényá’er chūlái, jìng bùzhī zěnde. 等了半日，沒 一個人芽兒出來，竟不知怎的.” ([She] waited for half a day, yet saw no one come out. She could not help wondering what might have happened.) In chapter seventy-one of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “yīncǐ jiào gāibān de rén chuīdēng guānmén, shuízhī yígè rényá’er méiyǒu. 因此叫該班的人吹燈關門,

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誰知一個人芽兒沒有.” (Thus, ask the servants on watch to blow the candle and close the gate, yet not a single soul came to answer her.) The word rényá’er 人芽 兒 is different from rényázi 人芽子. The latter word means human trafficker. In chapter forty-six of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “xīnlǐ zàiyào mǎi yígè, yòu pà nàxiē yázi jiā chūlái de bùgān bújìng. 心裏再要買一個，又怕那些牙子 家出來的不乾不浄.” (We have meant to buy a maid, yet we are worried whether a girl in the hands of a human trafficker is clean or not.) Xiǎoyāo’er 小幺兒 means page boy. The word xiǎoyāo 小幺 is an attributive compound. In chapter twenty-two of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “yǒu liǎnggè xiǎoyāo’er zài nàlǐ cìhou. 有兩個小幺兒在那裏伺候.” (Two page boys are serving there.) In the eighth chapter of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “bùzhí shénme, nǐmén shuō gěi wǒde xiǎoyāo’er men jiùshì le. 不值什 么，你們説給我的小幺兒們就是了.” (It does not count much. Just tell my page boys.) In the third chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zánmen huílái dàizhe xiǎoyāo’er men zài zhè yuánzi zhōuwéi sàndàn sàndàn. 咱們回來帶著習小幺兒們在這園子周圍散誕散誕.” (When we get back, let us take the page boys to the garden for some fun.) Húlútí 葫蘆提, húlú 葫蘆, or hútu 糊塗 is a rhyming compound meaning in confusion, muddled. Tí 提 is a suffix. In the first scene of the Xīxiāngjì zhūgōngdiào 西廂記諸宮調 [Tunes of the Western Chamber] by Dong Jieyuun 董解元of the Jin dynasty, one sentence goes “yǎn mīxī de yàngdāi zhe, yíyè húlútí nào dào xiǎo. 眼瞇睎地佯呆著，一夜葫蘆提鬧到曉.” (With eyes half shut, he played dumb and muddled over the night until dawn.) It is written by Tang Xianzu 湯顯 祖 of the Ming dynasty that “húlútí, fāngyán, hútu yě. 葫蘆提，方言，糊塗也.” (Húlútí 葫蘆提 is slang, meaning in confusion or muddled.) In the third scene of the Móhéluó 魔合羅 [The Moheluo Doll] by Meng Hanqing 孟漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wǒ shì ge fùrénjiā, zěn áo zhèliùwèn sāntuī, húlútí qūhuà le zhāozhuàng. 我是個婦人家，怎熬這六問三推，葫蘆提屈畫了招狀.” (I am only a woman unable to stand the repeated interrogation. I confessed in a muddled mind.) Jìngtiānjia 競天價 means full of sky. Jìngtiān 競天 is an attributive compound. In the sixth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “còuqiǎo fēngjǐn, guāguāzázá de huǒqǐ, jìngtiānjia shāoqǐlái. 湊巧風緊，刮刮雜 雜地火起，競天價燒起來.” (It happens that, with a gust of wind rising up, a fire broke out, sweeping all the way to the sky.) Regarding kěliánjiàn 可憐見, jiàn 見 is the suffix. The word kěliánjiàn 可憐 見 has two senses: (1) show pity to someone. In the ninth chapter of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒmén zhèděng núcai báipéizhe āidǎ shòumà de, cóngcǐhòu yě kěliánjiànxie cáihǎo. 我們這等奴才白陪著挨打受罵的，從此後

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 107 也可憐見些才好.” (As we are your servants, we are also criticized and punished. Just show us some pity from now on.) (2) Pitiful, deserving pity. In chapter thirtyfive of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐyíniáng kěliánjiàn de, búdà shuōhuà, hé mùtou sì de. 你姨娘可憐見的，不大説話，和木頭似的.” (Your aunt is quite pitiful. She does not talk much, like a log.) Shēngshēngde 生生的 means indeed, technically. Shēngshēng 生生is a twobarreled compound. In chapter twenty-six of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [Stories Old and New] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “nǐdào zhǐyīn zhège huàméi, shēngshēngde hàile jǐtiáo xìngmìng. 你道 只因這個畫眉，生生的害了幾條性命.” (One could never imagine that technically it was on account of the thrush that several people lost their lives.) In chapter twenty-nine of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “yòu dāzhe tā lǎozi bīzhe tā niànshū, shēngshēngde bǎge háizi bīchūbìng láile. 又搭著他老子逼著他念書， 生生的把個孩子逼出病來了.” (Besides, his father forced him to study so much so that the child got ill indeed.) 2.3.2 Attributivetrisyllabicwords There are two main patterns of attributive trisyllabic words: AB–C and A–BC. Most of the words are nouns. As for the AB–C pattern, AB is the attribute part of two syllables. C, the root, is of one syllable. AB could be of varied structures, as exemplified in the following. Bànpíngcù 半瓶醋 refers to a person with a smattering of knowledge (of something.) Bànpíng 半瓶 is in the pattern of numeral + measure word. In the play Sīmǎ Xiàngrú tíqiáojì 司馬相如題橋記 [Inscription over Bridge by Sima Xiangru] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “rújīn nà jiēshì shàng chángrén, cūdú jǐjù shū, yǎowén jiáozì, rén jiào tā zuò bànpíngcù. 如今那街市 上常人，粗讀幾句書，咬文嚼字，人叫他做半瓶醋.” (Some guy in the neighborhood received some schooling and became pedantic. Everyone called him a smatterer.) In chapter sixty-four of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “yòuyǒu yìděng bànpíngcù de dúshūrén, shuō shì sànglǐ yǔqī shēyì, mòruò jiǎnqī de, yílù fēnfēn yìlùn bùyī. 又有一等半瓶醋的讀書人，説是喪禮與其奢易，莫若儉戚 的，一路紛紛議論不一.” (Some smatterers claimed that it would be preferable for the funeral to be simple but mournful rather than heavily ritualistic but less mournful. The men argued along the way with different opinions.) Chīqiāocái 吃敲才 or chīqiāozéi 吃敲賊 means damned (a swear word). Chīqiāo 吃敲 is the attributive component. In the song Shàngxiǎolóu: Guītíng hènbié 上小樓閨庭恨別 [A Gaze up the Tower (melody): Parting Regretted] by Wu Hongdao 吳弘道 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “ruò dàojiā, xiàdemǎ, rúhé gànbà, hé zhè chīqiāocái mànmànde shuōhuà! 若到家，下的馬，如何干 罷，和這吃敲才慢慢的説話！ ” (This is not the ending. When I get home and get off the horse, I will have a serious talk with the damned guy.) In the third scene of

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the play Qīngshānlèi 青衫淚 [Tears on the Blue Gown] by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “bǎ sì chuáng bù de shǎochī, zé bèinǐ yāngshà wǒ chīqiāozéi. 把似噇不的少吃，則被你殃煞我吃敲賊.” (I got to eat less, or you will swear to me.) Dìtóuguǐ 地頭鬼 means a villain in a village bringing over hooligans from outside and doing evils. Dìtóu 地頭 is the attributive part. In the third scene of the play Qīngshānlèi 青衫淚 [Tears on the Blue Gown] by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “shì xiǎozi xīnqǔ de xiǎoniángzǐ, zhī táozǒu nǎlǐ qùle. Yídìng yǒu ge dìtóuguǐ guǎizhe tāqù, nǐmén yǔ wǒ náyìná. 是小子新娶 的小娘子，知逃走哪裏去了. 一定有個地頭鬼拐著他去，你們與我拿一拿.” (That is my bride running away. There must be a local villain seducing her. You guys go search with me.) Qiàopihuà 俏皮話 means funny joking remarks. Qiàopi 俏皮 is the attributive component. In chapter forty-seven of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “rújīn tīngshuō dé zhè sòng dàngōng de zhèngshì ge bànbǎi lǎo’ér, kěbúshì Huà nǎigōng shìwùshuí? Yīncǐ nàole zhème yíjù qiàopíhuà. 如今聽説 得這送彈弓的正是個半百老兒，可不是華奶公是兀誰？因此鬧了這麼一句 俏皮話.” (Now that they heard an elderly who had brought over the sling, they assumed the person must be Grandpa Huá and therefore cracked a joke.) Shuǐhuǒgùn 水火棍 means the rod of a court guard, half red and half black in color. Shuǐhuǒ 水火 is one coordinative compound. In the eighth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Qǔle xíngli bāoguǒ, nále shuǐhuǒgùn, biànlái shǐchén fánglǐ qǔle Lín Chōng, jiānyā shànglù. 取了行李包 裹，拿了水火棍，便來使臣房裏取了林沖，監押上路.” (With the luggage and rod, the yamen runner took Lin Chong from the custody room and escorted him to exile.) Wāilàgǔ 歪剌骨, wāilàgǔ 歪辣骨, or wāilàgū 歪剌姑 means an evil bitch, a swear word for a woman. Wāilà 歪剌 is a rhyming morpheme. In the first scene of the Jiù fēngchén 救風塵 [Rescued by a Coquette] by Guan Hanqing of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “(Zhōu Shěyún) zhè wāilàgǔ hǎo dǎizuǐ yě. (周舍云) 這歪剌骨好歹嘴也.” (Zhu Sheyun acclaimed, “What a talking bitch!”) In the first scene of the Dòu É yuān 竇娥冤 [The Injustice to Dou E] by Guan Hanqing 關 漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhè wāilàgǔ biànshì huánghuā nǚ’er, gānggāng chěde yìbǎ, yě bùxiāo zhèděng shǐxìng. 這歪剌骨便是黃花女兒，剛 剛扯的一把，也不消這等使性.” (Even if this bitch is a virgin, she does not have to be so angry merely at a touch.) In the section of Líyǔ 俚語 [Slang] of chapter “Cíqǔ” 詞曲 [Song Lyrics and Opera] of the Yěhuòbiān 野獲編 [An Unofficial History of the Wan Li Reign] by Shen Defu 沈德符 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Yòu běirén lì fù zhīxià lièzhě yuē wāilàgǔ, xún qī gù, zéyún niúshēn zì máogǔ píròu yǐzhì tōngtǐ wú yī qìwù, wéi liǎngjiǎonèi tiāndǐngròu shǎoxǔ, qíhuì bīrén, zuìwéi jiànwù, yǐcǐ bǐ zhī cūbì. hòu yòu wén jīngshī zhī shú’ān shìyǔzhě, zé yòu bùrán. Yún wǎngshí Xuāndé jiān, wǎlà wéi zhōngguó pínzhēng, shuāiruò pínkǔ, yǐqí fùnǚ shòuyǔ biānrén, měikǒu búguò chóu jǐbǎi qián, míng yuē wǎlàgū,

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 109 yǐqí mào qǐn ěr jiàlián yě. èr shuō wèizhī shú shì. 又北人詈婦之下劣者曰歪辣 骨，詢其故，則云牛身自毛骨皮肉以至通體無一棄物，惟兩角內天頂肉少 許，其穢逼人，最為賤惡，以此比之粗婢. 後又聞京師之熟諳市語者，則 又不然. 云往時宣德間，瓦剌為中國頻征，衰弱貧苦，以其婦女售與邊人， 每口不過酬幾百錢，名曰瓦剌姑，以其貎寢而價廉也. 二説未知孰是.” (The northerners called an evil bitch “wāilàgǔ 歪辣骨.” When asked for the reason, they answered it was a metaphor. Each part of a cow, fur, bone, skin, or meat, was useful except the filthy, smelly meat inside the horn. A low maid was compared to this filthy part. However, there was another opinion from those who knew the vernacular of the capital well. According to this, the region of wǎlà 瓦剌suffered from frequent wars, and the people, in dire poverty, often sold women to another border people for merely a few hundred. The women, called wǎlàgū 瓦剌姑, were attractive and cheap. Which saying was correct is still unknown.) Xiǎo’èrgē 小二哥 means waiters in hotels, restaurants, or inns. Xiǎo’èr 小二 is the attributive component. In the tenth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “xiǎo’èrgē qǐng Lín Chōng dào lǐmiàn zuòxià. 小二哥請 林沖到裏面坐下.” (The waiter asked Lin Chong to sit inside.) In chapter twentyone of the Chūkè pāi’àn jīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement I] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “liǎnggè tóulǚ yú lǚdǐ, xiǎo’èrgē jiēyǐn, jiǎnle yìjiān kuāndà fángzi. 兩個投旅于旅邸，小二哥 接引，揀了一間寬大房子.” (The two of them arrived at a hotel, a waiter received them, and they chose a spacious room.) With regard to A–BC pattern, A is the attributive component of one syllable, while BC is the root of two syllables and of varied patterns. For example: Chòupínáng 臭皮囊 means body, bone, and flesh. Pínáng 皮囊 is an attributive compound. In the fourth scene of the play Nǚgūgū 女姑姑 [A Nun in a Taoist Temple] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “jīnzhāo tiánmǎn chòupínáng, hérì chāofán dēng bǐ’àn. 今朝填滿臭皮囊，何日 超凡登彼岸.” (Today I get my body full. When shall I ascend to Heaven?) In the eight chapter of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “nǚwā liànshí yǐ huāngtáng, yòuxiàng huāngtáng yǎn dàhuāng. Shīqù yōulíng zhēn jìngjiè, huànlái qīnjiù chòupínáng. 女媧煉石已荒唐，又向荒唐演大荒. 失去幽靈真境界，幻 來親就臭皮囊.” (Nvwa’s stone-smelting is a tale unfounded; on such weak fancies our Great Fable’s grounded. Lost now, alack! And gone my heavenly stone – transformed to this vile bag of flesh and bone.) Duōzǎowǎn 多早晚 means when, at what time, a time word. Zǎowǎn 早晚 is a coordinative compound. In the second scene of the play Qiángtóu mǎshàng 墻頭 馬上 [Over the Wall] by Bai Pu 白樸 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “xiǎojiě, zhè láishí kězhe duōzǎowǎn yě? 小姐，這來時可著多早晚也？” (Miss, when will you come again?) In chapter fourteen of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒ qiě wèn nǐ, nǐmén duōzǎowǎn cái niàn yèshū ne? 我且問你，你們多早晚 才念夜書呢？” (Hey, tell me when you are going to start your evening reading?)

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Húgūgū 胡姑姑 means fake relatives. Gūgū 姑姑is a two-barreled compound. In the first scene of the play Huòlángdàn 貨郎擔 [Traveling Salesman] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “dōushì xiē húgūgū jiǎyíyí tīngtáng shàng zuò, dàizhe wǒ gòng yùzhuàn yǐn jīnbō. 都是些胡姑姑 假姨姨廳堂上坐，待著我供玉饌飲金波.” (Those fake aunts are sitting in the hall, waiting for me to serve delicacies and good wine.) In chapter nineteen of the Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [Marriage to Awaken the World] by Xi Zhousheng 西周生of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “piān nǐ zhèxiē lǎopó men, yǒu zhèxiē húgūgū jiǎyíyí de. 偏你這些老婆們，有這些胡姑姑假姨姨的.” (Only old women like you have so many fake aunties.) The word mènhúlu 悶葫蘆 has two meanings: (1) a riddle that is hard to crack. Húlu 葫蘆 is a rhyming morpheme. In the fourth scene of the Zhàoshì gū’ér 趙 氏孤兒 [The Orphan of Zhào] by Ji Junxiang 紀君祥 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “hǎozhe wǒ chén yín bànshǎng wú fēnsù, zhè huà de shì xīxìng shā wǒ yě mènhúlu. 好著我沉吟半晌無分訴，這畫的是徯倖殺我也悶葫蘆.” (For quite a while, I could not utter a single word; neither could I decipher the picture.) (2) A toy. In the play Móhéluó 魔合羅 [The Moheluo Doll] by Meng Hhnqing 孟漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “tā yǒu nà qǐqiǎo de níxífu, xiāoyè de mènhúlu. 他有那乞巧的泥媳婦，宵夜的悶葫蘆.” (He has the earthen doll played on the Double-Seventh Day [Chinese Valentines’ Day] and the gourd to kill the night time.) Xiǎoxīnyǎn 小心眼means narrow-minded, short-sighted, suspicious, petty. The word came into use in the Qing dynasty. Xīnyǎn 心眼 is a coordinative compound. In chapter twenty-two of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Ān lǎoye yìtīng, zhè yòushì gūniang fànshàng xiǎoxīnyǎn’er láile. 安老爺一 聽，這又是姑娘泛上小心眼兒來了.” (Hearing her remarks, Lord An knew that the girl’s petty mind was working again.) 2.3.3 Subordinativetrisyllabicwords Words of this type are mainly verbs and are in the A–BC pattern, where A is a morpheme of a verb and BC could be of varied patterns. For example: Dǎqínláo 打勤勞 means do chores. Qínláo 勤勞 is a coordinative compound. In the second scene of the Dōngchuāng shìfàn 東窗事犯 [The Affair of the Eastern Window Exposed] by Kong Wenqing 孔文卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “yòu bùcéng lǐjīngchàn fǎtángzhōng, ǎn zéshì dǎqín láoshānsì lǐ. 又不曾禮經懺法 堂中，俺則是打勤勞山寺裏.” (I do not perform rituals nor read the scriptures; I just do chores in the temple.) In chapter eighteen of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “měirì qǐzǎo shuìwǎn, xīnxīnkǔkǔ, tì nǐjiā dǎqínláo’er. 每日起早睡晚，辛辛苦苦，替你家打勤勞兒.” (Every day, I rise early and sleep late, working hard and doing all kinds of chores for your family.) Luò biànyí 落便宜 means suffer losses. Biànyí 便宜is a coordinative compound. In the second scene of the Pòyáo jì 破窯記 [Love in a Hovel] by Wang Shifu

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 111 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Ǎn liǎngkǒu’er guò rìyuè, zhuó tā dúzì luòbiànyí, zěnkěn jiào shīle ǎn fūqīqíng dàolǐ. 俺兩口兒過日月，著他獨 自落便宜，怎肯教失了俺夫妻情道理.” (We two are husband and wife. How can I let him suffer alone, giving no regard to our love and affection?) In chapter twenty-nine of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [Stories Old and New] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it reads “yòng qiǎojì shí shāng qiǎojì, ài piányi chù luòbiànyí. 用巧計時傷巧計，愛便宜處落便宜.” (Playing smart, one himself would get smarted; attempting to gain advantage, one himself would suffer losses.) Pànchéngtú 盼程途 or pàntúchéng 盼途程 means go on a journey. Túchéng 途程 is a coordinative compound. In the second scene of the Miǎnchíhuì 澠池會 [Meeting at Mianchi] by Gao Wenxiu 高文秀 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “kànle nà sānchuān bāshuǐ xīqíndì, xiàng Miǎnchí fùhuì, wǒ zé pà pànchéngtú xīnjí mǎxíngchí. 看了那三川八水西秦地，向澠池赴會，我則怕盼程途心急馬 行遲.” (Across the rivers and mountains of the West Qin, I embark on a journey to Mianchi for a meeting. Anxiously, I ride on for fear of a delay.) In the fourth scene of the Jiàng sāngshèn 降桑椹 [Endownments of Mulberries from Heaven] by Liu Tangqing 劉唐卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “chuánxuān jiàngzhào fēi róngyì, zhěngbàn xíngzhuāng bùkěchí, ǎn kě biàn pàntúchéng qùdejí. 傳宣降 詔非容易，整辦行裝不可遲，俺可便盼途程去得疾.” (Now that it is critically important and difficult to deliver the royal decree, gather your luggage and go on the journey as quickly as possible.) Méifēnxiǎo 沒分曉 means mixed up, insensible. Fēnxiǎo 分曉 is a coordinative compound. In the second scene of the Tiěguǎilǐ 鐵柺李 [The Immortal Tieguaili] by Yue Bochuan 岳伯川 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Yuè Kǒngmù, nǐ hǎoméi fēnxiǎo, nǐ fāhūn bànrì, nǐ píngxī àichuān de hǎoyīfu dōu yǔnǐ chuānzài shēnshàng, kězhī chénzhòng. 岳孔目，你好沒分曉，你發昏半日，你平昔愛穿 的好衣服都與你穿在身上，可知沉重.” (Mr. Yue, you are quite insensible. You were unconscious for half a day and you are still wearing your favorite clothes. Can you not feel them? [Kongmu, a yamen officer in charge of documents, accounting, and details of legal procedures].) In chapter sixteen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Yáng Zhì dào: ‘Nǐ yě méifēnxiǎo, rúhé shǐdé! zhèlǐ xià gāngzi qù, wùzì yǒu qībālǐ méi rénjiā, shénme qùchù, gǎn zàicǐ xiēliáng!’ 楊 志道：‘你也沒分曉，如何使得！這裏下岡子去，兀自有七八里沒人家，甚 麼去處，敢在此歇涼！’” (Yang Zhi said, “You are out of your mind! How can this work? The closest house is seven or eight li away. How can you take a rest at such a wild place!” [One li 里 is about half a kilometer.]) Shuōbīngjī 説兵機 means talk big, bluff. Bīngjī 兵機 is an attributive compound. In the second scene of the Péidù huándài 裴度還帶 [Pei Du Returned the Belt He Found] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhèsī dédào kuā jīngjì, xué xiàng hē shuō shìfēi, wú bànxīng’er zhēnsuǒwéi, héng yíchàn shuōbīngjī. 這廝得道誇經紀，學相呵説是非，無半星兒真所為，衡一 剗説兵機.” (This guy claimed he had found the Way and known the world well, telling fortune and making all the judgments, yet he does not have any genuine

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abilities but bluffs all the time.) In scene three of the Bǎihuā tíng 百花亭 [Pavillion of Flowers] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “shēng zhèbān qióng zhìshí, zuò zhèbān zéisuǒwéi, zhuāng zhèbān qiáo yàngshì, Wáng Huàn yě, dào rújīn yóu wùzì shuōbīngjī. 生這般窮智識，做這般賊所為， 粧這般喬樣式，王煥也，到如今猶兀自説兵機.” (It could be nobody but the villain Wang Huan who flexed his wits and played handsome. He is still bluffing up until now.) Zhuàidàquán 拽大拳 means parade one’s wealth, squander money. Dàquán 大拳 is an attributive compound. In the third scene of the play Qīngshānlèi 青 衫淚 [Tears on the Blue Gown] by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nà a line gozhuàidàquán, shǐ dàqián. 那廝正拽大拳，使大錢.” (That guy is parading his wealth and squandering his money.) In the third scene of the Duìyùshū 對玉梳 [A Match for the Jade Comb] by Jia Zhongming 賈仲明 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “chàndì nǐ zhuàidàquán, rén miànqián chěng lóuluó. 剗地你拽大拳，人面前逞嘍囉.” (There! There! You are parading wealth and playing hero in front of the crowd!) In the first scene of the Liǎngshì yīnyuán 兩世姻緣 [Marriage in Two Lives] by Qiao Mengfu 喬夢符 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Ǎn niáng xiūxiǎng tóu kōngzhài, cháng zé dài zhuàidàquán. 俺娘休想投空寨，常則待拽大拳.” (Leave no chance for Mam, or she would start a scene.) Shuòbāo’er 搠包兒 or chuōbāo’er 戳包兒 means substitute (something or somebody) stealthily. Bāo’er 包兒 is a compound with a suffix. In the fourth scene of the Yángzhōu mèng 揚州夢 [A Dream in Yangzhou] by Qiao Mengfu 喬夢符of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “jiàn fàngzhe yùshǐtái búshùn rénqíng, shuí zhuónǐ diàoyǎnzǐ huàgé lántáng, shuòbāo’er jǐnzhèn huāyíng. 見放著御史臺不 順人情，誰著你調罨子畫閣蘭堂，搠包兒錦陣花營.” (Lord Censor does not look affected. Who has allowed you to play tricks in such an honorable hall and substitute the right maid?) In the third scene of the Jīn fèngchāi 金鳳釵 [Hairpin of Golden Phoenix] by Zheng Tingyu 鄭廷玉 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wǒ xiǎng nà chuōbāo’er zéihàn, zāipéi xià búyìzhīcái. 我想那戳包兒賊漢，栽 培下不義之財.” (I think it was the thief who substituted the hairpins and dumped the ill-gotten gains in here.) In the seventh chapter of the Shūyuán zájì 菽園雜記 [Miscellaneous Notes from the Pea Garden] by Lu Rong 陸容of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “jīngshī yǒu fùnǚ jià wàijīngrén wéi qīqiè zhě, chūkànshí, yǐ měizhě chūbài, jí línqǔ, yǐ chǒuzhě huàn zhī, míng yuē chuōbāo’er. 京師有婦女 嫁外京人為妻妾者，初看時，以美者出拜，及臨娶，以醜者換之，名曰戳 包兒.” (When the girls of the capital are to be married to outsiders, the beautiful girls are to be chosen in the first encounter; later on the day of wedding, those having been chosen will be substituted by the ugly ones. It is a trick of substitution.) Zuòshì’er 做勢兒 means strike an attitude, put on an act. Shì’er 勢兒 is a compound with a suffix. In chapter fifty-eight of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “dàodǐ shì nàxiǎoyínfù zuòshì’er duì nǐdiē shuō: ‘Wǒ zhōngrì bùdége xián shōushi wūlǐ, zhǐhǎo wǎnxī lái zhè wūlǐ shuì bàle.’ 到底是那小淫婦 做勢兒對你爹説： ‘我終日不得個閑收拾屋裏，只好晚夕來這屋裏睡罷了.’”

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 113 (It must be that bitch who put on a show and said to Dad, “I have been busy cleaning up all day. I could only come here for a rest by night.”) 2.3.4 Complementingtrisyllabicwords Most complementing trisyllabic words are adjectives with descriptive qualities, constituted by two patterns of A–BB and A–BC, where A is the central morpheme of an adjective, verb, or noun with a clear, specific meaning, and BB or BC is the affix, a complement to A, as exemplified in the following. The first one is A–BB pattern. Occasionally, A is an adjective morpheme. See the following examples. Chéndiàndiàn 沉甸甸 means with a heavy look. In chapter forty-three of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵 笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “lùn qǐlái, zhè jīnzi yě bùgāi náyǔ háizi, chéndiàndiàn, bīngzhe tā. 論起來，這金子也不該拿與孩子，沉甸甸，冰 著他.” (Anyhow, the gold should not be given to the kid to play [with]; it is heavy and cold.) In the eighth chapter of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “yěshì gè rén gěile liǎngjù jílìhuà zànshàngle, suǒyǐ tiāntiān dàizhe. Bùrán chéndiàndiàn de, yǒu shénme qù’er. 也是個人給了兩句吉利話鏨上了，所以天天帶著.” 不 然沉甸甸的，有什么趣兒.” (There is a motto on it which someone gave us once for luck and which we had engraved on it. That is the only reason I always wear it; otherwise it would be tiresome to have a heavy thing like this hanging around one’s neck all the time.) Chìtiáotiáo 赤條條 means naked, having nothing on. In the chapter Hànshǐ shàng 漢史上 [The History of Han I] of the Xīnbiān wǔdàishǐ pínghuà 新編五代史平話 [Newly Compiled Stories from the History of the Five dynasties], it is written that “Liú Zhìyuǎn shūle sānshíguàn qián, shēnpàn chìtiáotiáo de, zhèngsì wūyā zhòngdàn, yóuyú shībō. 劉智遠輸了三十貫錢，身畔赤條條地，正似烏鴉中彈，游魚 失波.” (Having lost 30 guàn 貫 [unit of currency in ancient China] in the gambling, Liu Zhiyuan got nothing left and was at the end dead, like a raven shot down or a fish out of water.) In chapter fifteen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “ruòshuō gēge bùyíng, wǒ yě shūde chìtiáotiáo de. 若説哥哥不贏， 我也輸得赤條條地.” (Brother, you are not the only loser. I also have nothing left.) Guāngliūliu 光溜溜 means slippery. In chapter eighty-two of the Xīyóu jì 西 遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “shānjiàoxià yǒu yíkuài dàshí, yuēyǒu shíyúlǐ fāngyuán, zhèngzhōngjiān yǒu gāngkǒudà de yígè dòng’er, páde guāngliūliu de. 山腳下有 一塊大石，約有十餘里方圓，正中間有缸口大的一個洞兒，爬得光溜溜的.” (At the mountain foot lies a boulder of an area of about ten li 里 [size or distance unit, one li is about 500 meters] square, there is a hole as big as a vat mouth in the middle, slippery with men climbing in and out.) Jiǎxīngxīng 假惺惺 means hypocritical. In chapter one hundred of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty,

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one sentence goes “kuàngqiě sāngūniang shì jí míngbai de rén, búxiàng nàxiē jiǎxīngxīng de rén, shǎo bùdé yǒu yìfān zhēnjiàn, tā yǐhòu biàn búshì zhèyàng le. 況且三姑娘是極明白的人，不像那些假惺惺的人，少不得有一番箴諫，他以 後便不是這樣了.” (Beside, Miss Tàn [the third daughter of the family] is quite an intelligent person, unlike those hypocrites. She will offer him some sound advice so that he would have a change.) Lěngsēnsēn 冷森森 means chilly, killing. In chapter fifty-seven of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施 耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “qī fózǔ, hè guānyīn, jièdāo chánzhàng lěngsēnsēn. 欺佛祖，喝觀音，戒刀禪杖冷森森.” (What a daring rebel against Buddha and Boddhisatva! Look at the killing knife and staff in his hands!) In the sixth chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “Yángliǔ yāojiān yìtuán lěngsēnsēn de shāqì. 楊柳腰間一團冷森森的殺氣.” (Tied around the waist was a long narrow lancet which sent a chill down one’s spine.) Xióngjiūjiū 雄赳赳 or xióngjiūjiū 雄糾糾 means robust, of strong build. In the first chapter of the play Dāndāo huì 單刀會 [Lord Guan Goes to the Feast] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “tā shàngzhènchù chìlìlì sānlǚ měirán piāo, xióngjiūjiū yízhàng hǔqūyáo. 他上陣處赤力力三綹美 髯飄，雄赳赳一丈虎軀搖.” (The general marches to the battlefield, his handsome beard swaying gently in the wind; he is as mighty as a tiger.) In chapter fiftythree of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “yòu jiàn nà bādà jīngāng, xióngjiūjiūde, liǎng biān jiǎozhù. 又見那八大金剛，雄糾糾的，兩邊攪住.” (On both sides stand the eight Buddha-Warriors who are robust and mighty and block their entry.) Occasionally, A is a verb morpheme in the pattern. For example, chóuqīqī 愁戚 戚 means a look of great anxiety. In the second scene of the Luólǐláng 羅李郎 [The Tale of Luo Lilang] by Zhang Guobin 張國賓 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhèxiē shí mènyānyān xīnbùhuān, chóuqīqī qíngbúyuè. 這些時悶懨懨心不 歡，愁戚戚情不樂.” (I have fallen in anguish, feeling miserable and melancholy recently.) In chapter twenty-five of the Yōuguī jì 幽閨記 [Story of a Quiet Garden] by Shi Hui 施惠of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “shì huānghuāng, chóuqīqī, lèiwāngwāng. 世慌慌，愁戚戚，泪汪汪.” (This chaotic world gave us nothing but anxiety and tears.) Xiàoxīnxīn 笑欣欣 means smiling, cheerful. In the song Zuìhuāyīn: Shēngrì 醉 花阴生日 [Mesmerized under Flowers’ Shade (melody): Birthday] by Wang Zhiwang 王之望 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Értóng shòujiǔ yāo wēng zuì, xiàoxīnxīn xiāngxì. 兒童壽酒邀翁醉，笑欣欣相戲.” (The kids made a toast for the senior old man on his birthday banquet. The grandpa got drunk, all smiling.) In chapter twenty-six of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Xiàoxīnxīn chūqù, què zěndi zhèbān guīlái. 笑欣欣出去，卻怎地這般歸來.” (You went out happily. How come you get back sadly?) Xǐdūdū 喜都都 means joyful, delighted. In the first scene of the Xuē Rénguì 薛 仁貴 [General Xue Rengui] by Zhang Guobin 張國賓 of the Yuan dynasty, it is

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 115 written that “chū yuánmén shǐcuàn lángbū, zěn rú nǐ xǐdūdū hòuyōng qiánhū. 出 轅門豕竄狼逋，怎如你喜都都後擁前呼.” (He went out of the camp, terrified and shattered, while you could not be happier, with everyone cheering for you.) Xǐzīzī 喜恣恣 means happy, joyful. In scene fourteen of the Xiǎo sūntú 小 孫屠 [Little Sun Tu] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “qùshíjié xǐzīzī qīnmǔ dēngshānlǐng, huíláihe, bēizhege chěnkěkě gǔxiá xiāngsuídìng. 去時節喜恣恣親母登山嶺，回來呵，背著個磣可可骨匣相隨 定.” (Mother and I went to the mountaintop quite happily, yet on my way back here, I was all alone with her ash box on my back.) Yǔlàlà 語剌剌 means voluble, babbling. In the first scene of the play Huòlángdàn 貨郎擔 [Traveling Salesman] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “tā nàlǐ jiānzheshé yǔlàlà, wǒ zhèlǐ yǎnzhe miàn xiàohēhē. 他 那裏尖著舌語剌剌，我這裏掩著面笑呵呵.” (He is babbling noisily, while here I am, covering my mouth and smiling.) Occasionally, A is a noun morpheme. For example, chéndèngdèng 塵鄧鄧 means quite dusty, all over the place. In chapter sixteen of the Jīn píng méi 金 瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Jīnlián biànwèn: ‘nǐ zuórì wǎng nàlǐ qùlái? shíshuō biànbà, bùrán wǒ jiù rǎngde chéndèngdèng de.’ 金蓮便問： ‘你昨日往 那裏去來？實説便罷，不然我就嚷的塵鄧鄧的.’” (Jinlian [golden lotus] then asked, “Where did you stay last night? Tell me honestly, or I’ll cry out loud so that everyone will know.”) Huīpūpū 灰撲撲 means cloddish. In chapter twenty-two of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Dǒng lǎoye kànjiàn nǐ zhè liǎnggè huīpūpū de rén, yě jiù gòuxiào de le. 董老爺看見你這兩個灰撲撲的人，也就夠笑的了.” (Lord Dong would have a hearty laugh at the sight of you two pieces of clod.) Huǒzázá 火雜雜 means with great force. In chapter nineteen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Lín Chōng bǎ zhuōzi zhǐ yìjiǎo tī zài yìbiān, táiqǐ shēnlái, yījīn dǐxià chèchū yìbǎ mínghuǎnghuǎng dāo lái, nuòde huǒzázá. 林沖把桌子只一腳踢在一邊，擡起身來，衣襟底下掣出一把明晃晃 刀來，掿的火雜雜.” (Lin Chong kicked off the table and rose, taking out a shining knife hidden under his clothes, quite threatening with the knife in his hand.) Qìhūhū 氣呼呼 means angry, infuriated. In chapter ninety-six of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “nà dāizi qìhūhū de, lìzài pángbiān, zài bù gǎnyán. 那獃子氣 呼呼的，立在旁邊，再不敢言.” (The idiot stood aside angrily and dared not utter a word.) Yǎnbābā 眼巴巴 means anxious, helpless. In the first scene of the Fēidāo duìjiàn 飛刀對箭 [Flying Dagger against Shooting Arrow] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “kōngzhe wǒ biàn yǎnbābā kànbúdào cháng’ān dào. 空著我便眼巴巴看不到長安道.” (I could do nothing but gaze anxiously towards Chang’an still too far to be seen.) In chapter twenty-two of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming

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dynasty, one sentence goes “nà dàshèng bǎozhe tángsēng, lìyú zuǒyòu, yǎnbābā wàngzhe tāliǎnggè zài shuǐshàng zhēngchí, zhǐshì tā bùhǎo dòngshǒu. 那大聖 保著唐僧，立于左右，眼巴巴望著他兩個在水上爭持，只是他不好動手.” (Unable to fight himself, Monkey escorted Tripitaka on the bank, watching the two fighting on water.) Zuǐzhāzhā 嘴喳喳 means noisy, babbling without stop. In chapter fifty-four of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳 敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “nǐfàng zhèyàng dāizi shàng wǒde lóu lái, wǒ bùshuō nǐbàle, nǐ háiyào lái zuǐzhāzhā. 你放這樣獃子上我的樓來， 我不説你罷了，你還要來嘴喳喳.” (I have not blamed you for letting such an idiot up to my place. You are still babbling!) The second one is an A–BC pattern. Some examples are given as follows. Cuòzhīlà 措支剌 or cuòzhīlà 錯支剌 means frightened, confounded. In the third scene of act two of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Western Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Jīngjílà zěndòng na, sǐméi téng wúhuíhuō, cuòzhīlà bú duìdá, ruǎn wù là wú cúnzuò. 荊棘剌怎動那，死沒騰 無回豁，措支剌不對答，軟兀剌無存坐.” (Terrified and dumbfounded, I find myself unable to move nor reply. I could barely sit.) In the third scene of the play Pòfēng shī 破風詩 [The Critique of the Poem on the Wind] by an anonymous author of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “wǒ cuòzhīlà jìntuì wúmén. 我錯支 剌進退無門.” (Confounded, I find myself in a dilemma.) Dāibùteng 呆不騰 means looking gawky, stupid. Bùteng 不騰 is a suffix. In the fourth scene of the play Yànqīng bóyú 燕青博魚 [Yan Qing Peddles Fish] by Li Wenwei 李文蔚 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wèi shénme gānzhīlà tùzhe shétou, dāibùteng dèngzhe ge yǎnnǎo. 為甚麼乾支剌吐著舌頭，呆不騰瞪著個 眼腦.” (Why are you sticking out your tongue and staring stupidly?) Regarding diānbùlà 顛不剌, diān 顛 is the root, and bùlà 不剌 is the suffix. The word has two senses: (1) reverse. In the song Zuìhuāyīn: Yuànhèn 醉花陰怨恨 [Mesmerized in the Shade of Flowers (melody): Bitterness] of the first volume of Yōngxīyuèfǔ 雍熙樂府 [Songs of Harmonious Peace], it is written that “xiū, xiū, xiū, kuīxīn de zìyǒu shénmíng jiàn; wǒ, wǒ, wǒ, diānbùlà de qínglǐ shì nángān. 休、休、休，虧心的自有神明鋻；我、我、我，顛不剌的情理是難甘.” (All right! All right! All right! Heaven will judge the evildoers! I, I, I cannot stand the justice reversed.) (2) Flirtatious, frivolous. In the first chapter of the Xīxiāngjì zhūgōngdiào 西廂記諸宮調 [Tunes of the Western Chamber] by Dong Jieyuan 董解元of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “pà qǔ’er niǎndào fēngliúchù, jiào pǔtiānxià diānbùlà de làng’erméi xǔ. 怕曲兒撚到風流處，教普天下顛不剌的浪 兒每許.” (The singing could be so provocative as to arouse the flirtatious guys.) In the first scene of act one of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Western Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Diānbùlà de jiànle wànqiān, sì zhèbān kěxǐniáng de páng’er hǎncéngjiàn. 顛不剌的見了萬千，似這般可喜 娘的龐兒罕曾見.” (I have seen thousands of flirty girls. Seldom have I seen such a lovely one with such a sweet face.) Huǒbùdeng 火不登 or huǒbùteng 火不騰 means furious. Bùdeng 不登 and bùteng 不騰 are suffixes. In the first scene of the play Érnǚ tuányuán 兒女團圓

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 117 [Reunion with Children] by Yang Wenkui 楊文奎 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “huǒbùdeng hóngle miànpí, méi chuǎi de biàn jiūzhù díjì. 火不登红了 面皮，没揣的便揪住䯼髻.” (His face red with rage, he grabbed her by the hair unexpectedly.) In the third scene of the Zhàoshì gū’ér 趙氏孤兒 [The Orphan of Zhao] by Ji Junxiang 紀君祥 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wǒ zhǐ jiàntā zuǒqiáo yòuqiáo, nùpáoxiào, huǒbùteng gǎibiànle zhēngníngmào. 我只見他左瞧 右瞧，怒咆哮，火不騰改變了猙獰貌.” (I saw him stare around and fly into a rage. He kept howling angrily, face almost deformed in fury.) Guāngchūlǜ 光出律 or huáchūlǜ 滑出律 means slippery. Chūlǜ 出律 is the suffix. In the third scene of the Huīlán jì 灰闌記 [The Chalk Circle] by Li Hangdao 李行道 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “xū shì zhè guāngchūlǜ de dōnglíng tiándì huá. 須是這光出律的冬凌田地滑.” (The icy ground in winter is quite slippery.) In the song Yìzhīhuā: Záqíng 一枝花雜情 [Yìzhīhuā (Melody, a Branch of Flower): Fickle Love] by Qiao Ji 喬吉 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “yuánlái shì huáchūlǜ shuǐjīng qiúzi zěnshēngná. 原來是滑出律水晶球子怎生 拿.” (The crystal balls are too slippery to hold.) Mèndáhái 悶答孩 or mèndǎkē 悶打頦 means gloomy, downcast. Dáhái 答孩 and dǎkē 打頦 are suffixes. In the song Bàn’ānchun 半鵪鶉 [Half a Quail (melody)] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “sōng què xiāng luó dài, yōng zhěng duǎn jīnchāi, wúyǔ wúyán mèndáhái. 鬆卻香蘿帶，慵 整短金釵，無語無言悶答孩.” (The belt loosened, the golden hairpin taken off, the maid sat quietly in melancholy.) In the fourth scene of the play Wútóng yǔ 梧 桐雨 [Rain on the Plane Tree] by Bai Pu 白樸 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “mèndǎkē héyī wòdǎo, ruǎnwùlà fāngcái shuìzháo. 悶打頦和衣臥倒，軟兀 剌方才睡著.” (Gloomy, he went to bed undressed; though fatigued, he was awake for quite a while.) Ruǎndálà 軟答剌 or ruǎnlàdá 軟剌答 means weak, not in good health. Dálà 答剌 and làdá 剌答 are suffixes. In the first scene of the Húdié mèng 蝴蝶夢 [Butterfly Dream] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “xuè móhū wūle yìshēn, ruǎndálà lěngle sìzhī. 血模糊汙了一身，軟答剌 冷了四肢.” (The body is covered in blood, the limbs gone weak and cold.) In the song Yìzhīhuā: Zèngyùzhīchūn 一枝花贈玉芝春 [Yìzhīhuā (Melody, a Branch of Flower): A Gift for the Courtesan Yuzhichun] by Tang Shi 湯式 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Fēngyùn sì ruǎnlàdá shíshàng yīlán, yǎdàn sì ǎipósuō yuèzhōng lǎoguì. 風韻似軟剌答石上猗蘭，雅淡似矮婆娑月中老桂.” (Delicate, she is like a pretty orchid blooming by the stone; elegant, she is like the laurel tree dancing in the moon.) Huāngdǔsù 慌篤速 means hurried, in a flurry. Dǔsù 篤速 is the suffix. In the third scene of the Shénnú’ér 神奴兒 [The Victim Boy Shennu’er] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “tā wèi shèn de biàn huāngdǔsù yíjùjù jǐn zhīwu, nín zhèngshì zéi’er dǎn dǐxū. 他為甚的便慌篤速一 句句緊支吾，您正是賊兒膽底虛.” (Why was he busy covering up hurriedly? You are being like a timid thief.) Èzhīshà 惡支煞 or èzhīshā 惡支沙 means an aggressive, threatening look. Zhīshā 支沙 is a suffix. In the fourth scene of the Yùjìng tái 玉鏡臺 [Jade Mirror

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Stand] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Ruǎnwùlà zǒuxiàng qiánlái, èzhīshà dàotuì huíqù. 軟兀剌走向前來，惡支煞倒退回去.” (Softly, he walked up; angrily, he walked off.) In the scene Héwéi 合圍 [Seige] of the play Chángshēngdiàn 長生殿 [The Palace of Eternal Life] by Hong Sheng 洪昇 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “nà yìyuán èzhīshā diāomù húyán. 那 一員惡支沙雕目胡顏.” (The eagle-eyed foreign villain looks quite aggressive.) Hūncǎnlà 昏慘剌 or hūncālà 昏擦剌 means dark, gloomy. Cǎnlà 慘剌 and cālà 擦剌 are suffixes. In the fourth scene of the play Wútóng yǔ 梧桐雨 [Rain on the Plane Tree] by Bai Pu 白樸 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “hūncǎnlà yíndēng zhào. 昏慘剌銀燈照.” (The silver light shines in the darkness.) In the second scene of the drama [zájù 雜劇] Yuèyì túqí 樂毅圖齊 [Yueyì’s Conquest of the Kingdom Qi] by a Ming playwright, it is written that “Hūncǎnlà dēngbànzhǎn. 昏 慘剌燈半盞.” (Only a dim light flickers in the darkness.) In the song Zhài’érlìng 寨兒令 [Song of Frontiers (melody)] by Liu Buzhai 劉逋齋 in the ballad collection of the first volume of the second edition of Yángchūnbáixuě 陽春白雪 [Highbrow Arts and Literature], it is written that “yèyǐlán, dēngjiāngmiè, shāchuāngwài hūncālà yuè’ér xié. 夜已闌，燈將滅，紗窗外昏擦剌月兒斜.” (It is already deep night, time to blow the light. The crescent moon looks gloomy outside the window.) Húngudu 渾古都 means muddy, unclean. Gudu 古都 is the suffix. In the song Jīnpénmùfà: Líqíng 金盆沐發離情 [Hairwash in a Gold Basin: Sorrow at Departure] from the ballad collection of Yuèfǔqúnzhū 樂府群珠 [A String of Lyric Pearls], it is written that “húngudu shuǐyān lánqiáo. 渾古都水渰藍橋.” (Muddy water overflows the bridge of love.) Rèhūlà 熱忽剌 or rèwùluó 熱兀羅 means intense, intimate. Hūlà 忽剌 and wùluó 兀羅 are suffixes. In the third scene of the Tiáo fēngyuè 調風月 [A Girl Tricked into Amorous Relations] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “hǎo qīngqǐliè bómìng, rèhulà yīnyuán, duǎngǔqǔ ēnqíng. 好輕乞列薄命，熱忽剌姻緣，短古取恩情.” (What a short life! Such a hot, quick wedding yet so short the love!) In the song Yìzhīhuā: Záqíng 一枝花雜情 [Yìzhīhuā (Melody, a Branch of Flower): Fickle Love] by Qiao Ji 喬吉of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “hàochī lán tóngchuáng gòngtà, rèwùluó guòfàn gōngchá. 好吃闌同床共榻，熱兀羅過飯供茶.” (The two get quite intimate, eating and sleeping together, chatting over meals and tea.) Huāngjíliè 慌急列 means in a flurry. Jíliè 急列 is the suffix. In the fourth scene of the Húdié mèng 蝴蝶夢 [Butterfly Dream] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “huāngjíliè jiàozán guānle yánsè, xuèmóhu wūjìn shīhái. 慌急列教咱觀了顏色，血模糊污盡尸骸.” (In a flurry, I was told to check the body. It was drenched in blood.) Qīngjíliè 輕吉列 or qīngqǐliè 輕乞列 means easily. Jíliè 吉列 and qǐliè 乞列 are suffixes. In the song Shuǐxiānzǐ: Cháoshàonián 水仙子嘲少年 [Daffodil (melody): A Mock on Young Man] by Qiao Ji 喬吉of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhǐhú qiāo qīngjíliè wǎng zhé jiān, ròubiāojiāo gānzhīlà yǒu shèn nián. 紙糊鍬輕 吉列枉折尖，肉膘膠干支剌有甚粘.” (A paper spade surely gets broken easily; dried fat won’t be sticky [sarcasm about sexual impotence].) In the third scene of

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 119 the Tiáo fēngyuè 調風月 [A Girl Tricked into Amorous Relations] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Hǎo qīngqǐliè bómìng, rèhūlà yīnyuán, duǎngǔqǔ ēnqíng. 好輕乞列薄命，熱忽剌姻緣，短古取恩情.” (What a short life! Such a hot, quick wedding yet so short the love!) Jiùliúdiū 舊留丟 means worn, old. Liúdiū 留丟 is the suffix. In the song suite Fěndié’er: Sàishèchùrénqí 粉蝶兒賽社處人齊 [Pink Butterfly (melody): The Crowd of Theatre] by Bai Pu 白樸 collected in the Cílínzhāiyàn 詞林摘豔 [A Selection of Beautiful Songs], it is written that “qià shàide bùbèidā shàng xié’er gān, yòu yānde jiùliúdiū qiánchānshī. 恰曬的布被褡上䙎兒乾，又淹的舊留丟 前襜濕.” (Before the hanged clothes went totally dry, the front piece was wet again, with only the sleeves gone dry.) Ruǎnwùlà 軟兀剌 means soft, powerless. Wùlà 兀剌 is the suffix. In the fourth scene of the play Zhūshā dàn 硃砂擔 [Loads of Cinnabar] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhèng huánghūn tíngyuàn jǐng còuliáng, zǒude wǒ ruǎnwùlà yìsī liǎngqì. 正黃昏庭院景湊凉，走的我軟兀剌一絲 兩氣.” (The yard is pretty cool at the evening. I am quite out of breath after such a long walk.) In the fourth scene of the play Wútóng yǔ 梧桐雨 [Rain on the Plane Tree] by Bai Pu 白樸of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “mèndǎkē héyī wòdǎo, ruǎnwùlà fāngcái shuìzháo. 悶打頦和衣臥倒，軟兀剌方才睡著.” (Gloomy, he went to bed undressed; though fatigued, he was awake for quite a while.) Wāibùléng 歪不楞 means ugly, ill-mannered. Bùléng 不楞 is a suffix. In chapter thirty-two of the novel Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “luòhòu cóng xiàchǎngmén’er lǐ zuānchū gè wāibùléng de dànǎodai xiǎodàn lái, yìshǒu chúnní de hóu’er zhǐjia, dào nàjiān lóushànglái. 落後從下場門兒裏鑽出 個歪不楞的大腦袋小旦來，一手純泥的猴兒指甲，到那間樓上來.” (After the curtain was down, out of the exit a big head poked out – a plain-looking young woman [xiǎodàn 小旦 role of a young woman in traditional opera], with rather dirty finger nails, who climbed up the stairs.) The three types of trisyllabic words were used mostly in the Yuan theatre, less in the novels of the Ming and Qing dynasties. The phenomenon reflects the theatrical quality of these words, possibly under the influence of Mongolian language. 2.3.5 Repetitivetrisyllabicwords There are two categories of repetitive trisyllabic words. The first one is the A bu A pattern, which is an emphasis of A; bu 不 (no) is for emphasis, not a negative word. For example, dànbudàn 淡不淡 means (of taste) light, not heavy. In the third scene of the Jǔ’àn qíméi 舉案齊眉 [The Humble (Couple Liang Hong 梁鸿 and Meng Guang 孟光)] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “qià pěng zhe pòbulà wǎn, xiālexiē dànbudàn báizhōu. 恰捧著破不剌碗，呷了 些淡不淡白粥.” (He is holding a broken bowl and drinking light rice porridge.) Dòngbudòng 動不動 means often, frequently, applicable in a situation which happens repeatedly. In the second scene of the play Xiǎo yùchí 小尉遲 [General Yuchi Jr.] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence

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goes “Fáng Xuánlíng, Xú Màogōng zhēn lǎoshǎ, dòngbudòng jiāngrénmà. 房 玄齡，徐荗公真老傻，動不動將人罵.” (Fang Xuanling and Xu Maogong are old fools who criticize others too sharply and too often.) In chapter seventy-six of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “zhǐ hèn tā dòngbudòng fēn xíngli sànhuǒ. 只 恨他動不動分行李散夥.” (What angers me is that he often wants to distribute our luggage and break up the group.) Hěnbuhěn 狠不狠 is the same as hěn 狠, meaning firm, stern. In the third scene of the Liǔyì chuánshū 柳毅傳書 [Liu Yi Delivers a Letter] by Shang Zhongxian 尚仲賢 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nǐ jiàntā hěnbuhěn, tā cónglái ēnbu’ēn. 你見他狠不狠，他從來恩不恩.” (He looks stern, indifferent and ungrateful.) Hènbuhèn 恨不恨 means hate. In the third scene of the Pòyáo jì 破窯記 [Love in a Hovel] by Wang Shifu 王實甫of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “hènbuhèn Mǎichénqī, xuébuxué zhuóshìnǚ. 恨不恨買臣妻，學不學卓氏女.” (Maichen’s snobbish wife is the one to hate; the loyal Miss Zhuo is the one to learn.) Jǐnbujǐn 緊不緊 is the same as jǐn 緊, meaning rapidly. In the first scene of act one of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Western Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “guīzhōu Jǐnbujǐn rúhé jiàn, qiàbiànsì nǔjiàn zhàlíxián. 歸舟緊不緊如何見，恰便似弩箭乍離弦.” (The back home ship goes as rapidly as a flying arrow just off the bow.) In the second scene of the Huánghè lóu 黃鶴樓 [Yellow Crane Tower] by Zhu Kai 朱凱 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nàpǐmǎ jǐnbujǐn jíbují dàng hóngchén yídào, fēngchuīqǐ bóxiàng shàng jiàngmáoyīng yísì huǒliáo. 那匹馬緊不緊疾不疾蕩紅塵一道，風吹起脖項上 絳毛纓一似火燎.” (The horse galloped along, dust rising in the wake, the purplered scarf around its neck blowing in the wind like a burning fire.) Jiǒngbujiǒng 窘不窘 means in poverty. In the first scene of the Wángcàndēnglóu 王粲登樓 [Wang Can Ascends the Tower] by Zheng Guangzu 鄭光祖 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “jiǒngbujiǒng lúwúyānhuǒ jiǔpínggān, chǎnde zài tiānyá lúnluò, hǎijiǎo piāolíng. 窘不窘爐無煙火酒瓶乾，剗的在天涯淪落，海角飄 零.” (What an impoverished life! No fire in the stove, no wine in the bottle, I wander in the wilderness, homelessly.) Liánbulián 連不連 means continuously. In the second scene of the Qiūhú xìqī 秋 胡戲妻 [Qiuhu Teasing His Wife] by ShiJunbao 石君寶 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒ zhèjǐrì shēnzi búkuài, zěnme liánbulián de yǎntiào, bùzhī yǒu shén shì lái. 我這幾日身子不快，怎麼連不連的眼跳，不知有甚事來.” (I am not feeling well these days; my eyelids keep twitching. Is something bad going to happen?) In the fourth scene of the Héhànshān 合汗衫 [The Marvellous Undershirt] by Zhang Guobin 張國賓 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “zěnme nà yǎnpí’er liánbulián de zhǐshì tiào, yěbùzhī shì tiàocái shì tiàozāi. 怎麼那眼皮兒連 不連的只是跳，也不知是跳財是跳災.” (How come my eyelids keep twitching? Is it a sign of fortune or misfortune?) Shìbushì 是不是 means constantly, often, the same as dòngbudòng 動不動. In the first scene of the Fēidāo duìjiàn 飛刀對箭 [Flying Dagger against Shooting Arrow] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 121 “dòngbudòng huángsāngbàng kǎozhéyāo, shìbushì zuò qiúláo. 動不動黃桑棒拷 折腰，是不是坐囚牢.” (Too often, the suspects are caned heavily and thrown into prison.) In the first scene of the Yùshàng huáng 遇上皇 [A Chance Meeting with the Emperor] by Gao Wenxiu 高文秀 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “dòngbudòng shuǎ shǒu mō, shìbushìqǔzhāozhuàng, qīfushà shòu jīhán qióng shèliáng. 動不動耍手摸，是不是取招狀，欺負煞受饑寒窮射糧.” (Quite constantly, thumbprint and confession are demanded! What an injustice done to a poor veteran!) The words of this pattern appear most frequently in Yuan drama, as a rhetorical device in most cases. The second one is the AAA pattern. The words of this pattern are onomatopoeic words with a very limited number. For example, chīchīchī 嗤嗤嗤 or chīchīchī 𢱟𢱟𢱟 means the sound of tearing something to pieces. In the second scene of the Liú xíngshǒu 劉行首 [The Head Courtesan Liu] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “chīchīchī chěsuìbùpáo. 嗤嗤嗤扯碎布袍.” (The gown is torn into pieces.) In the third scene of the Jīn’ānshòu 金安壽 [Wits and Beauties] by Jia Zhongming 賈仲明of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “chīchīchī chěsuìǎn yīnyuánbù, hūlàbājué duàn ǎn qiánchénglù. 嗤嗤嗤扯碎俺姻 緣簿，忽剌八掘斷俺前程路.” (Break! Break! The record of my marriage is torn into pieces; my future life is ruined abruptly!) Chìchìchì 赤赤赤 means the sound of whistling, often used as a cue sound in lovers’ secret dates in Yuan drama. In the third scene of the Yànqīng bóyú 燕青博 魚 [Yanqing Peddles Fish] by Li Wenwei 李文蔚 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “(Chádàn yún) chìchìchì; (Yáng yánèi yún) chìchìchì, (zhèngmò chàng) mòjiàn’ge nǚ pīngtíng yǐnzhe ge hòusheng. (搽旦云) 赤赤赤；(楊衙內云) 赤赤 赤，(正末唱) 驀見個女娉婷引著個後生.” ([The female clown whistles] There! There! [Palace Guard Yang whistles] Here! Here! [The leading actor sings] Look there! A pretty girl is leading a young man up here.) The word could also be written as 哧哧 chīchī. In the second scene of the Fēiyī mèng 緋衣夢 [A Dream of Red Dress] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Mméixiāng, chīchī, shì shénme dōngxi bànle wǒ yìjiāo, wǒ shì kànzan. 梅香， 哧哧，是什麼東西絆了我一交，我試看咱.” (Meixiang, what is the stuff tripping me? Let me see.) Máomáomáo 毛毛毛（眊眊眊） is a word used to tease or ridicule one’s conduct. In the prologue of the Táohuā nǚ 桃花女 [The Maid Peach Blossom] by Wang Hua 王嘩 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nín chángzài wǒ gēnqián màinòng zhè yīnyáng yǒuzhǔn, huòfú wúchā, jīnrì rúhé? hǎo kǒnghuāng rén yě! máomáomáo. 您常在我根前賣弄這陰陽有準，禍福無差，今日如何？好恐慌 人也！毛毛毛.” (You always lecture me that one’s life and death, fate and fortune have been predestined. How about today? How terrified I am! Pfff! Pfff!) In the first scene of the Dújiǎo niú 獨角牛 [Unicorn] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “pēi! Máomáomáo búhài nǐ niángxiū, nǐ yuánlái shì ge làqiāngtóu. 呸！眊眊眊不害你娘羞，你原來是個蠟槍頭.” (Alas! Pfff! Pfff! Shame on you! After all you are just a wax lance head [a metaphor referring to someone who pretends to be sharp and powerful]!)

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In late modern times, the number of trisyllabic words increased greatly. Many newly coined words under the influence of modern western culture are trisyllabic, as can be seen in the following examples. Yángwùjú 洋務局 (Bureau of Foreign Affairs), fānyìyuán 翻譯員 (translator, interpreter), píngyìyuán 評議員 (commentator), zhēngqìjī 蒸汽機 (steam engine), zīběnjiā 資本家 (capitalist), wénxuéjiā 文學家 (writer), zǔzhīlì 組織力 (organizational ability), dàiyìzhì 代議制 (representative system), dǎohuǒxiàn 導火線 (fuse), shìjièyǔ 世界語 (Esperanto), yìnshuājī 印刷機 (printing machine), and biānzhījī 編織機 (weaving machine). Trisyllabic words develop from monosyllabic and disyllabic words. New words are formed on the basis of existing words. Disyllabic words are the main parts of the Modern Chinese lexicon. With the further development of the lexicon and the emergence of new concepts in need of expression, it becomes natural that new words appear on the basis of the already existing disyllabic words, which is a trend of lexical development in Modern Chinese. For example, on the basis of zhéxué 哲 學 (philosophy) and kēxu 科學 (science), the two existing words, the new words of zhéxuéjiā 哲學家 (philosopher) and kēxuéjiā 科學家 (scientist) are formed to refer to those who conduct philosophical and scientific research. On the basis of yángwù 洋務 (foreign affairs), the word yángwùjú 洋務局 (Bureau of Foreign Affairs) is formed to refer to the bureau handling foreign affairs. Similarly, the word shíyànshì 實驗室 (lab) is coined for a place where experiments are done on the basis of shíyàn 實驗 (experiments). The emergence of trisyllabic words greatly increases the capacity and word-forming flexibility of Chinese lexicon, so that new and complex concepts can be conveyed much more clearly. Many trisyllabic words used to be phrases, with the auxiliary character zhī 之 in the middle. As the concepts they signify become increasingly significant and widespread and turn into independent concepts, the phrases turn into compound words gradually, as exemplified in the following. zǔzhīlì 組織力 ← 組織之力 zǔzhī zhīlì (organizational power) tuīlǐlì 推理力 ← 推理之力 tuīlǐ zhīlì (reasoning power) zhībùyè 織布業 ← 織布之業 zhībù zhīyè (weaving industry) gézhìxué 格致學 ← 格致之學 gézhìzhīxué (scientific rational thought; physics) mínyuēlùn 民約論 ← 民約之論 mínyuē zhīlùn (theory of social contract) sīfǎquán 司法權 ← 司法之權 sīfǎ zhīquán (judicial power) dàiyìzhì 代議制 ← 代議之制 dàiyì zhīzhì (representative system) xīshuǐjī 吸水機 ← 吸水之機 xīshuǐ zhījī (water scooping machine) The emergence of trisyllabic words is due to the incapabilities of disyllabic words to clearly express certain things or concepts. For example, the word zhēngqìjī 蒸汽 機 refers to a machine started with steam; qìjī 汽機 could not signify the characteristic of starting an engine with steam. Jīngjìxué 經濟學 is the science of studying social and economic phenomena and rules. The shortened form Jīngxué 經學 could be mistaken for a discipline by the same name – the exegesis of classical

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 123 Confucian texts. To call the discipline jìxué 計學 could be misunderstood as jìsuàn zhī xué 計算之學 (the science of computing); the connotation of studying social and economic phenomena and rules could not be clearly conveyed. Certainly, it is by social convention that certain words signify certain concepts. However, if new words are to be accepted and widely used, they should be formed on the basis of old words’ meanings. Words like jīngjìxué 經濟學 (economics), yìnshuājī 印刷機 (printing machine), and zhēngqìjī 蒸汽機 (steam engine) were translated as jìxué 計學, yìnjī 印機, and qìjī 汽機 in the beginning. These early translations are no longer in use now, mainly because of confusion in comprehension. Trisyllabic words coined under the impact of modern western culture are mostly attributive compounds morphologically. A trisyllabic word includes a disyllabic morpheme and a monosyllabic morpheme, the former being the attributive component, the latter being the central root in the pattern AB–C. Some examples are given as follows. (1) Qǐzhòngjī 起重機 (crane; industrial lifting equipment), fādòngjī 發動機 (engine), lìxiànpài 立憲派 (constitutionalist), gǎiliángpài 改良派 (reformist), zhībùyè 織布業 (weaving industry), qīngdàofū 清道夫 (street cleaner) (2) Yìhétuán 義和團 (the Boxers; the Righteous and Harmonious Fists), tàipíngjūn 太平軍 (Taiping Army), zhìzàojú 制造局 (Manufacturing Bureau), fānyìguǎn 翻譯館 (Translation Department), sīxiǎngjiā 思想家 (thinker), hánshǔbiǎo 寒暑表 (thermometer) (3) Zhéxuéjiā 哲學家 (philosopher), wénxuéjiā 文學家 (writer), rénlìchē 人 力車（rickshaw), dìpíngxiàn 地平線 (horizon), sānjiǎoxíng 三角形 (triangle), chángfāngxíng 長方形 (rectangle) (4) Zìmíngzhōng 自鳴鐘 (chime clock), zìxíngchē 自行車 (bicycle), zìzhuànmò 自轉磨 (automatic grinder), rénzàosī 人造絲 (artificial silk), rénxíngdào 人行道 (pavement), mǎzuìmù 馬醉木 (moorwort) (5) Mótuochē 摩托車 (motorcycle), kēluóbǎn 珂羅版 (collotype), dānníngsuān 單寧酸 (tannin), fàlángzhì 琺瑯質 (enamel), jīdūjiào 基督教 (Christianity), níngméngshù 檸檬樹 (lemon tree) The previous examples are of different patterns. Group (1) is of the subject– predicate type. Group (2) is coordinative. Group (3) is attributive. Group (4) is descriptive, and group (5) is single-morpheme words with two syllables. A small number of the attributive parts of trisyllabic words are monosyllabic morphemes, while the roots are disyllabic, as can be seen in the following examples. Húluóbo 胡蘿卜 (carrot), xīhóngshì 西紅柿 (tomato), yángguǐzi 洋鬼子 (foreign invaders), sānmáozi 三毛子 (mixed Chinese and Russian descendant with one/fourth Russian blood), huàxiázi 話匣子 (talkative person), fǎnzuòyòng 反作 用 (reverse effect.) Some monosyllabic morphemes in nouns are frequently used in the formation of trisyllabic words, as exemplified in the following. Jiā 家: gōngyèjiā 工業家 (industrialist), jiàoyùjiā 教育家 (educator), zhèngzhìjiā 政治家 (statesman), zhéxuéjiā 哲學家 (philosopher) Xué 學: jīngjìxué 經濟學 (economics), gézhìxué 格致學 (sciences), lúnlǐxué 倫理學 (ethics), tiānwénxué 天文學 (astronomy)

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Jī 機: zhēngqìjī 蒸汽機 (steam engine), fādòngjī 發動機 (engine), fādiànjī 發 電機 (power generator), yìnshuājī 印刷機 (printing machine) Jú 局: yángwùjú 洋務局 (Bureau of Foreign Affairs), zhìzàojú 製造局 (Manufacturing Department), yóuzhèngjú 郵政局 (post office), zhāoshāngjú 招商局 (Ministry of Commerce) Yuán 員: píngyìyuán 評議員 (commentator), sījīyuán 司機員 (conductor, driver), jīcháyuán 稽察員 (inspector), yíngyèyuán 營業員 (shop assistant) Huà 化: gōngyèhuà 工業化 (industrialization), jīxièhuà 機械化 (mechanization), zhuānyèhuà 專業化 (professionalization), yìtǐhuà 一體化 (integration) The appearance of trisyllabic words in large numbers prepared the development of the Modern Chinese lexicon. In contemporary Chinese, more trisyllabic words appear, which increases the richness of the Chinese lexicon.

2.4 Developmentofmodernfour-syllableChinesewords The four-syllable words that appeared early in Modern Chinese were mostly vernacular and fell into the three following types. 2.4.1 Four-syllablesingle-morphemewords A word of this type has one single meaning and could be written in different characters. Phonetically, the first and third characters rhyme, and the second and fourth characters rhyme. There are roughly 21 patterns of this category, as follows. (1) b–d–b (p)–d pattern. For example, the word bìdiūbùdā 必丟不搭, bìdiūpǐdā 必丟疋搭, or bìdiūbùdá 必丟不答is used to describe a continuous talking voice or other sounds. In the third scene of the Xiètiānxiāng [Courtesan Xie Tianxiang] 謝天香by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wǒ bùgāi bìdiūbùdā kǒunèi shī zūnbēi. 我不該必丟不搭口內失尊卑.” (I should not talk so much, which is disrespectful.) In the second scene of the Biǎn huángzhōu 貶黃州 [Demotion to Huangzhou] by Fei Tangcheng 費唐城 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “qízhe pǐ màntēngtēng shòujiǎn bìdiūbùdá jiàn. 騎著疋慢騰騰瘦蹇必丟不答踐.” (On this skinny donkey, I trudged slowly.) In the second scene of the Shāgǒu quànfū 殺狗勸夫 [Advising Husband by Killing a Dog] by Xiao Dexiang 蕭德祥 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “yuè rětā bìdiūpǐdā de xiǎngmà’er, zhè yìchǎng pūténgténg qì. 越惹他必丟疋搭的響罵兒，這一場撲騰騰氣.” (This will only give him a reason to swear and start a scene.) (2) p–d–p–d(t) pattern. For example, the word pīdiūpūdā 劈丢撲搭 , pǐdiūpūdōng 疋颩撲鼕 , pīdiūpūdōng 劈丟撲鼕, or pīdiūpūtǒng 劈颩撲桶is used to describe the sound of

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 125 squabbling, striking a drum, or a heavy object falling into water or on the ground. In the first scene of the Hǔtóu pái 虎頭牌 [Tiger-Head Plate] by Li Zhifu 李直 夫of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “yǎnnǎo yòu tīchōutūchuǎi de huāng, kǒujiǎo yòu pīdiūpūdā shānpēn. 眼腦又剔抽禿揣的慌，口角又劈丢撲搭山噴.” (Skewing around in fear, he squabbled on and on.) In the song Diǎnjiàngchún 點 絳唇 [Dotting Red Lips (melody)] by Wang 王 (the Grand Secretariat) of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “yígè jiāng Yáomín’gē luànchàng de lìng’erchà, yígè pǐdiūpūdōng léigǔ wú gāoxià. 一個將堯民歌亂唱的令兒差，一個疋颩撲鼕擂 鼓無高下.” (One sings the folksong of Emperor Yáo quite out of tune; another strikes drum without any rhythm.) In the second scene of the Liǔyì chuánshū 柳毅 傳書 [Liu Yi Delivers a Letter] by Shang Zhongxian 尚仲賢 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “sītuīsīyōng, pīdiūpūdōng, shuǐxīnlǐ dǎdǎ mùtǒng. 廝推廝擁，劈 丟撲鼕，水心裏打打沐桶.” (Everyone in the water pushes and squeezes, making such a loud noise of fighting and beating.) In the song Shuǐxiānzǐ 水仙子 [Daffodil (melody)] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “xiānggǔ’er pīdiūpūtǒng léi, huǒ bùsī bìliúbúlà zhēn. 香鼓兒劈颩撲桶擂，火不 思必留不剌針.” (The drum sounds thunderously, the fire burning fiercely.) (3) b–l–b–l pattern. For example, The word bìlǜbùlà 必律不剌, bìlìbùlà 必力不剌, bìliūbùlà 必溜 不剌, bìliúbùlà 必流不剌, bìlībōlā 嘩哩礴喇, or bìliūbìlà 必溜必辣 is used to describe the sound of continuous speaking. In a scene of the Kān tóujīn 勘頭巾 [Solving the Case of the Head Scarf] by Lu Dengshan 陸登善 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “tā kǒulǐ bìlǜbùlà shuōle bànrì, wǒ bù xǐngde yíjù. 他口裏必 律不剌説了半日，我不省的一句.” (He has been babbling for quite a while, yet I could not figure out his meaning a bit.) In the second scene of the Huīlán jì 灰 闌記 [The Chalk Circle] by Li Hangdao 李行道 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “kǒulǐ bìlìbùlà shuōshàng xǔduō, wǒ yìxiē yě bùdǒng de. 口裏必力不剌説 上許多，我一些也不懂的.” (He talks quite a lot, yet I do not understand him at all.) In the second scene of the Jiù xiàozǐ 救孝子 [Saving a Filial Son] by Wang Zhongwen 王仲文 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “lǎodìzǐ shuō cíyīn, liǎngpiànzuǐ bìliūbùlà xièmǎpìyǎn’er sìde. 老弟子説詞因，兩片嘴必溜不剌瀉 馬屁眼兒似的.” (This old man is articulate. He explained the reason eloquently with no pause.) In the second scene of the Lǐyúnqīng 李雲卿 [The Taoist Monk Li Yunqing] by an anonymous writer of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “píngzhe wǒ zhège zuǐtóuzi bìliúbùlà de, dǐngmíng’er yě chòng tā xiē jiǔròu chī. 憑著 我這個嘴頭子必流不剌的，頂名兒也沖他些酒肉吃.” (By my eloquence and this title of mine, I could receive a treat from him.) In chapter eighteen of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵 笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “wǒ dào bù yányǔ, nǐ zhǐgù zuǐtóuzi bìlībōlā de. 我到不言語，你只顧嘴頭子嘩哩礴喇的.” (I have been silent, while you have been babbling.) In chapter ninety-one of the Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [Marriage to Awaken the World] by Xi Zhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “yòu kànle Héyè de hǎoyàng, zuǐlǐ yějiù bìliūbìlà

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màmàkuòkuò de qǐlái. 又看了荷葉的好樣，嘴裏也就必溜必辣駡駡括括的起 來.” (Now that she saw the beauty of the maid Heye (lotus leaf), she also started cursing the man for his impartiality.) In contemporary Chinese, the word pīlǐpālā 劈裏啪啦 is still used to describe sounds. (4) p–l–p–l pattern. For example, the word pīliūpūlà 劈溜撲剌 is used to describe the sound of ceaseless talk. In the third scene of the Chénzhōu tiàomǐ 陳州糶米 [Selling Rice in Chenzhou] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒ yěshì gè shǎdìzǐ hái’er, yòu bùcéng chīge, zěnme liǎngpiàn kǒulǐ pīliūpūlà de. 我 也是個傻弟子孩兒，又不曾吃個，怎麼兩片口裏劈溜撲剌的.” (What a fool I am! I have not got a single bite. What is the use of so much talk?) Pīliúpūlù 劈留撲碌 is used to describe the sound of footsteps. In the first scene of the Kū cúnxiào 哭存孝 [Death of the Winged-Tiger General] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “hǔde nǐ pīliúpūlù zǒu rú fēi. 諕 的你劈留撲碌走如飛.” (You are frightened into such a scurry.) (5) d–l–d–l pattern. For example, the word dīliúdálà 低留答剌 or dīliúdálà 低留答臘 means a drooping look. In the song suite Duānzhènghǎo: Xúwǒtíng guītián 端正好徐我 亭歸田 [Right and Proper (melody): Xu Woting’s Retirement to Countryside] by Feng Weimin 馮惟敏 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “jiànle gè guānlái kèlái, jìshàngtiáo dīliúdálà de dài. 見了個官來客來，系上條低留答剌的帶.” (As an official is coming for a visit, I will tie a waist belt [to show respect].) Also in the song Bùchán’gōng: Shíliè: Wènnián 步蟾宮十劣問年 [A Rise to the Moon (melody): Ten Vices: Worry over Age], it is written that “nǎi’er cháng dīliúdálà, hái’er duō pízhòubāchá. 奶兒長低留答臘，孩兒多皮僽扒查.” (My breast is drooping, while my kids are still skinny and hungry.) (6) t–l–t–l pattern. For example, the word tīliútūlǔ 剔留禿魯, tīliútūluán 剔留禿圞, tīliútuánluán 剔留團欒, or tīliángtūluán 踢良禿欒 is used to describe a round, revolving object or a fat, overweight person. In the second scene of the Fēidāo duìjiàn 飛刀對箭 [Flying Dagger against Shooting Arrow] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “shuō nà mólìzhī, shēn lǐnlǐn, mào tángtáng . . . hénglǐ yízhàng, shùlǐ yízhàng, tīliútūlǔ, bùzhī shénme múyàng. 説那摩利支，身凜凜, 貌堂堂 . . . 橫裏一丈，堅裏一丈，剔留禿魯，不知甚麼模樣.” (The admiral is said to be quite imposing and threatening in looks, as tall and wide as one zhàng 丈 [a unit of measurement; one zhàng 丈 is about 3.33 m.] I do not know his real looks yet.) In the second scene of the Dújiǎoniú 獨角牛 [Unicorn] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nà dújiǎoniú . . . tīliútūluán, qiàsì gè xīguā múyàng. 那獨角牛 . . . 剔留禿圞，恰似個西瓜模樣.” (The unicorn is

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 127 round in shape, like a watermelon.) In the song Chán’guāngqǔ: Mèngzhōngzuò 蟾 光曲夢中作 [Song of the Moonlight: A Song in Dream] by Zheng Guangzu 鄭光 祖 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Xīliūxīlín mùyǔ chūqíng, jiǎojiǎo jiéjié lǔpéng tīliútuánluán yuèmíng. 淅溜淅淋暮雨初晴，皎皎潔潔櫓篷剔留團欒月 明.” (The sky is crystal clear after the evening drizzle, the bright moon shining above the boat.) In the second scene of the Biǎn huángzhōu 貶黃州 [Demotion to Huangzhou] by Fei Tangcheng 費唐城of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “hánsēnsēn shuòfēngshī liúshūlàchuàn, wǔpiāopiāo ruìxuě tīliángtūluán xuán. 寒森森朔風失留疏剌串，舞飄飄瑞雪踢良禿欒旋.” (Chilly north wind blows fiercely; thick snow dances wildly.) (7) d–s–d–s pattern. For example, the word dīxiūdǔsù 滴羞篤速, dīxiūdūsū 滴羞都蘇, dīxiūdūsù 滴 修都速, or dīxiūdiéxiè 滴羞蹀躞 is used to describe a look of trembling or shivering. In the first scene of the Xuē Rénguì 薛仁貴 [General Xue Rengui] by Zhang Guobin 張國賓of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “hǔdewǒ . . . shǒu’er jiǎo’er dīxiūdǔsù de sì dāichī. 諕的我 . . . 手兒腳兒滴羞篤速的似呆癡.” (Frightened, I trembled all over, looking like an idiot.) In the second scene of the play Qīngshānlèi 青衫淚 [Tears on the Blue Gown] by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “hǔdewǒ huānghuāngzhāngzhāng shǒujiǎo dīxiūdūsū zhàn. 唬的我慌 慌張張手腳滴羞都蘇戰.” (I am so frightened that my hands and feet tremble all over.) In the first scene of the Tì shāqī 替殺妻 [Killing the Adulterous Wife] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nǐ qìde wǒ shǒu’er jiǎo’er dīxiūdūsù zhàn. 你氣的我手兒腳兒滴修都速戰.” (You have made me tremble with rage.) In the third scene of the Qiūhú xìqī 秋胡戲妻 [Qiuhu Teasing His Wife] by Shi Junbao 石君寶 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Sāngyuán lǐ zhǐdài qiángbī zuò huānyú, hǔde wǒ shǒujiǎo’er dīxiūdiéxiè zhàndǔsù. 桑園裏只 待強逼作歡娛，唬的我手腳兒滴羞蹀躞戰篤速.” (The daring villain dares force me right in the mulberry garden; I’m shaking all over in fear.) (8) t–ch (sh)–t–ch (sh) pattern. For example, tīchōutūchuǎi 剔抽禿揣, tīchōutūshuā 剔抽禿刷, or tīshōutūshuā 剔收禿刷means the look of eyes rolling. In the first scene of the Hǔtóu pái 虎 頭牌 [Tiger-Head Plate] by Li Zhifu 李直夫of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “nǎoyǎn yòu tīchōutūchuǎi de huāng. 腦眼又剔抽禿揣的慌.” (He was so nervous that his eyes were rolling.) In the first scene of the Hòutínghuā 後庭花 [Backyard Flowers] by Zheng Tingyu 鄭廷玉 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “tā tīchōutūshuā sīqù, míliúmòluàn chóuchú. 他剔抽禿刷廝覰，迷留沒亂 躊躇.” (Eyes rolling, he cast a secretive look, too upset to make a decision.) In the first scene of the Zhuī hánxìn 追韓信 [Chasing after Han Xin] by Jin Renjie 金 仁傑 of the Yuan Dynasy, it is written that “tā bǎ wǒ tīshōutūshuā guānqù, zǐ jué wǒ jīngjīng zhànzhàn xīnpà. 他把我剔收禿刷觀覰，子覺我兢兢戰戰心怕.” (He kept looking at me, which gave me quite a fright.)

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(9) g–b–g–b pattern. For example, jíbiāogèbāng 急彪各邦, jíbìnggèbāng 急並各邦, or jíbènggébāng 急迸格邦 means the sound of objects cracking and breaking into each other. In the first scene of the Huánghuā yù 黃花峪 [Yellow Flower Valley] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “jíbiāogèbāng tàzhéle jiànchāngpú, jiàn yídào xiǎolù’er huāngshū. 急彪各邦踏折了劍菖蒲，見一道小路兒荒疏.” (The thorny calami were trodden down; a desolate path lay ahead.) In the first scene of the Huánghè lóu 黃鶴樓 [Yellow Crane Tower] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “xiābànjiě zài màichǎngshàng jiāng nà duìjiù’er jíbìnggèbāng de dǎo. 瞎伴姐在麥場上將那碓臼兒急並各邦的搗.” (The blind maid was working busily on the mortar at the mill.) In the scene of Héwéi 合圍 [Seige] of the play Chángshēngdiàn 長生殿 [The Palace of Eternal Life] by Hong Sheng 洪昇 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “zhè yìyuán jíbènggébāng de gōngkāi yuèmǎn, nà yìyuán huì dīliūpūlù de chuíluò xīnghán. 這 一員會急迸格邦的弓開月滿，那一員會滴溜撲碌的鎚落星寒.” (This warrior drew his bow to the fullest like the full moon; that warrior threw his hammer at a full arch, chilling the stars in the sky.) (10) g–d–g–d pattern. For example, jídīnggēdǎn 吉丁疙疸 or jídiūgēdǎn 吉丟疙疸 means bumpy, uneven look. In the first scene of the Pén’er guǐ 盆兒鬼 [The Ghost of Pot] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Ǎn shì zhà chūwài, bùcéng xíngdeguàn, zhè lùtú jídīnggēdǎn de, zǎo tàpò wǒ zhè jiǎo yěhe. 俺是乍出外，不曾行得慣，這路途吉丁疙疸的，蚤踏破我這腳 也呵.” (This is my first time to be on the road and I have not quite got used to it. The road is so bumpy that my feet got sore.) In the second scene of the Andù chéncāng 暗渡陳倉 [Advancing Secretly by an Unknown Path] by an anonymous playwright of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “nà shítou jíliúgǔdū, jídiūgēdǎn. 那石頭急流骨都，吉丟疙疸.” (The stone kept rolling; the road was quite bumpy.) (11) g–l–g–l pattern For example, the word jíliúgǔlù 急留骨碌 or jíliúgǔlǔ 急留古魯 is used to describe the sight of something rolling. In the second scene of Yànqīng bóyú 燕 青博魚 [Yanqing Peddles Fish] by Li Wenwei 李文蔚 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wǒ zé jiàn wǔge mán’er qǐdiūkētǎwěn, gèng hé yígè zì’er jíliúgǔlù gǔn, hǔde wǒ yǎodìng xiàchún, qiādìng zhǐwén. 我則見五個饅兒乞丟磕塔穩， 更和一個字兒急留骨碌滾，諕的我咬定下唇，掐定指紋.” (Thus, I saw my five coins rolling away and gone. In fear I bit my lips and crossed my hands tightly.) In the third scene of the Qìyīngbù 氣英布 [Provoking Yingbu] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zhíshāde mǎtóu qián jíliúgǔlǔ, jíliúgǔlǔ luàngǔn sǐ, sǐ, sǐ réntóu. 直殺的馬頭前急留古魯、急留古魯

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 129 亂滾死、死、死人頭.” (What a massive killing! Heads of dead bodies kept rolling in front of the horses.) (12) k–l–k–l pattern For example, qǐliúqǐliáng 乞留乞良 means a look of pain and sorrow. In the second scene of the Wàngjiāng tíng 望江亭 [The Riverside Pavillion] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nǐxiūdébiàn qǐliúqǐliáng, chuídiē zì shāngbēi. 你休得便乞留乞良，搥跌自傷悲.” (Do not play sorrowful and stamp your feet as if you are in distress.) In the Song dynasty, Bǎizì zhīqiū lìng qǔ 百字知秋令曲 [An Autumn Song of 100 Characters] by Wang Heqing 王和卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “bànqī bànzhěn qǐliúqǐliáng áichè jīnxiāo. 半 欹半枕乞留乞良捱徹今宵.” (In misery, he was awake for a whole night, tossing and turning.) Qǐliúqǔlǜ 乞留曲律, qǐliúqǔlǚ 乞留曲吕, qǐliúqūlǜ 乞留屈律, or qǐliángqǔlǜ 乞量曲律 means curvy, winding looks, not straight. In the second scene of the Huánghè lóu 黃鶴樓 [Yellow Crane Tower] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nǐ guòde zhè qǐliúqǔlǜ qūyán xiǎodào, tīngshuō bà guānrén nǐ jìzhe. 你過的這乞留曲律蛐蜒小道，聽説罷官人你記著.” (Listen carefully, sir. Take this narrow winding path.) In the song Shuǐxiānzǐ 水仙子 [Daffodil (melody)] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “guòlexiē qǐliúqǔlǚ jiàn, chóngchóngdiédié shān. 過了些乞留曲呂澗，重 重疊疊山.” (Winding rivers and high mountains have been crossed.) In the song Jīngkǒu dàozhōng 京口道中 [On the Way to Jingkou] by Tang Shi 汤式 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “qǐliúqūlǜ guīhóng xíngduàn, bìdiūbùdá jiǎnmǎ bùlǎn. 乞留屈律歸鴻行斷，必颩不答蹇馬步懶.” (The home-bound wild geese no longer fly in a single file; the lame donkey no longer strides with spirit.) In the second scene of the Shāgǒu quànfū 殺狗勸夫 [Advising Husband by Killing a Dog] by Xiao Dexiang 蕭德祥 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “jiāngzhè shuāng qǐliángqǔlǜ de gēxī’er, fátāqù zhí jiāngjiāng guì. 將這雙乞量曲律的肐膝 兒，罰他去直僵僵跪.” (I will bend my knees and kneel down in front of him.) (13) g–zh–g–zh pattern For example, jízhōugèzhī 急周各支 means the sound of breaking. In the third scene of the Huánghuā yù 黃花峪 [Yellow Flower Valley] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wǒ zhèlǐ jíjiānjiān zhěngdùnle yīfú, jízhōugèzhī dàngsànle qiānggānlǒu, jíbiāogèbāng tàzhéle jiànchāngpú. 我這裏急 煎煎整頓了衣服，急周各支蕩散了鎗竿簍，急彪各邦踏折了劍菖蒲.” (I hurriedly packed my clothes [and set off], racing through the bamboo woods, treading down the thorny calami.) Jízhāngjūzhū 急張拘諸, jízhāngjūzhū 急章拘諸, jízhāngjūzhū 急獐拘豬, or jídìjùsuì 急第拒遂 means anxious, unnerved looks. In the second scene of the play Lǐkuí fùjīng 李逵負荊 [Li Kui Carries Thorns] by Kang Jinzhi 康進之 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “tā zhèbān jízhāngjūzhū de lì, nà lǎo’ér yíhuìjiā biàn

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Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese

nùpànpàn zài nà cháiménwài. 他這般急張拘諸的立，那老兒一會家便怒畔畔 在那柴門外.” (The old man stood outside the gate, worried and furious.) In the first scene of the Móhéluó 魔合羅 [The Moheluo Doll] by Meng Hanqing 孟漢 卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wǒ yǔnǐ biàn jízhāngjūzhū mànxíng de chìliúchūlǜ qù. 我與你便急章拘諸慢行的赤留出律去.” (Here I am, worried. I will slip out with you quietly.) In the third scene of the Xuē Rénguì 薛仁貴 [General Xue Rengui] by Zhang Guobin 張國賓 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “hǔde wǒ xīn’er dǎn’er jízhāngjūzhū de zì hūnmí. 諕的我心兒膽兒急獐拘豬的自 昏迷.” (How frightened I am! My heart is fainting, and my liver is shutting down.) (14) k–ch–k–ch pattern For example, qǐchōugǔchā 乞抽扢叉 means the sound of cutting something large with a knife. In the second scene of the Hàotiān tǎ 昊天塔 [Tower of Savior] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Píngzhe wǒ zhè zhànjīn jùfǔ, qǐchōugǔchā, kǎntā bí’āo. 憑著我這蘸金巨斧，乞抽扢叉，砍他鼻 凹.” (I would slash his nose off with this giant gilded ax.) (15) m–d–m–d pattern For example, mídiūméidèng 迷丟沒鄧 , míbiāoméiténg 迷 沒騰 , or míbiāomódēng 迷 模登 means dizziness, trance. In the first scene of the Hǔtóupái 虎頭牌 [Tiger-Head Plate] by Li Zhifu 李直夫 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “wèi shénme dāodāoxùxù zhànzhe shì mídiūméidèng de hùn. 為甚麼叨叨絮絮占著是迷丟沒鄧的混.” (Why does she keep babbling like in a trance?) In the fourth scene of the Huángliáng mèng 黃粱夢 [Golden Millet Dream/Pipe Dream] by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒ zhèlǐ wěnpīpī tǔkàngshàng míbiāoméiténg de zuò. 我這裏穩丕 丕土坑上迷 沒騰的坐.” (Here I sit still on the kàng 坑 [bed-stove] like in a trance.) In the song Dāodāolìng: Bēiqiū 叨叨令悲秋[Chattering Song (melody): Autumn Sadness], composed by Zhou Wenzhi 周文質 from the ballad collection Yuèfǔ qúnyù 樂府群玉 [Selected Poems of Yuefu], it is written that “gūgūlìnglìng dānzhěnshàng míbiāomódēng kào. 孤孤另另單枕上迷 模登靠.” (All alone, lying on the solitary pillow in silence.) (16) m–l–m–l pattern For example, míliúmòluàn 迷留沒亂, míliúmōluàn 迷留摸亂, míliūmòluàn 迷 溜沒亂, méiliúmòluàn 沒留沒亂, or méiliáomòluàn 沒撩沒亂 means a look of uneasiness, at a loss for what to do. In the first scene of the Hétóng wénzì 合同文 字 [Story of a Contract] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Yípiànxīn míliúmòluàn jiāo, liǎngtiáotuǐ dīxiū dǔsùzhàn. 一片心迷留沒亂 焦，兩條腿滴羞篤速戰.” (In deep anxiety, he was at a loss of what to do, two legs trembling uncontrollably.) In the third scene of the Péidù huándài 裴度還帶 [Pei Du Returned the Belt He Found] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿of the Yuan dynasty,

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 131 it is written that “wǒ jiàn tā míliūmòluàn xīnyǎng nánróu. 我見他迷溜沒亂心癢 難揉.” (Seeing him, I am beyond myself, my heart pounding loudly.) In chapter sixty-nine of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “dāngrìLínshì bèi Wénsǎo zhèpiān huà shuōde xīnzhōng míliúmōluàn. 當日林氏被文嫂這篇話 説的心中迷留摸亂.” (Having heard what Mrs. Lin said the other day, Mrs. Wen was at a loss about what to do.) In the Song dynasty, Chán’gōngqǔ: Zhāojūn 蟾 宮曲昭君 [The Moon Palace (melody): The Maid Zhaojun] by Wu Linyin 武林 隱, it is written in the first volume of the ballad collection Tàipíng Yuèfǔ 太平樂 府 [Songs of Great Peace] that “Āiāi yuànyuàn, yìqǔ pípá, méiliáomòluàn líchóu, bēibēi qièqiè, hènmǎn tiānyá. 哀哀怨怨，一曲琵琶，沒撩沒亂離愁，悲悲切 切，恨滿天涯.” (Out of the flute rose the song of grief, the sadness at departure, the deep sorrow and anguish, and the profound regret ever.) (17) c–l–c–l pattern For example, qīliúqīlín 七留七林 or qīliúqīlì 七留七力 means quietly, slowly. In the third scene of the Xiè tiānxiāng 謝天香 [Courtesan Xie Tianxiang] by Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Kěyòu zǎo qīliúqīlì láidào wǒ gēndǐ, bù yányǔ lìdì. 可又早七留七力來到我跟底，不言語立地.” (Yet she had already come quietly before me but stood still without a word.) In the second scene of the Hēi xuànfēng 黑旋風 [Dark Tornado] by Gao Wenxiu 高文秀of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒ zhèlǐ qīliúqīlín xíng, tā nàlǐ bìdiūbùdā shuō. 我這裏七留七林行，他那裏必丟不搭説.” (While I am walking quietly, he keeps talking all the time.) (18) zh–l–zh–l pattern For example, zhíliúzhīlà 直留支剌 means talking continuously, babbling. In the first scene of the Shén nú’ér 神奴兒 [The Victim Boy Shennu’er] by an anonymous playwright of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Zhàngfu de shīle zūnbēi, xífù’er bù xiánhuì, tāliǎnggè yíshàng yíxià, zhíliúzhīlà, chàngjiào yángjí. 丈夫的 失了尊卑，媳婦兒不賢惠，他兩個一上一下，直留支剌，唱叫揚疾.” (The husband knows nothing of respect, and the wife knows nothing of chastity. The two of them keep talking, echoing each other.) (19) ch–l–ch–l pattern For example, the word chìliúchūlǜ 赤留出律, chìliúchūlǚ 赤留出呂, or chìliūchūlǜ 赤溜出律 is used to describe fleeing in disorder. In the third scene of the Huánghuā yù 黃花峪 [Yellow Flower Valley] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “Chìliúchūlǜ jīngqǐxiē yěyā ōuwù. 赤留出 律驚起些野鴨鷗鶩.” (Some wild ducks were startled and fled in fright.) In the original edition, the word was written as chìliúchūlǚ 赤留出呂. In the episode of Héxīkuǎnxí 河西款檄 [The Acceptance of War Proclamation of Hexi] of the

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Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese

Zǐchāi jì 紫釵記 [Purple Hairpin (song suite)] by Tang Xianzu 湯顯祖of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “jízhāngjūgōu de pěngtóuzhāng, chìliūchūlǜ de juékǒutù. 急張拘勾的捧頭獐，赤溜出律的決口兔.” (The river deer ran in panic; the rabbits fled in fright.) (20) sh–l–sh–l pattern For example, shīliúshūlà 失留疏剌, shīliúshūlà 失流疏剌, or shīliūshūlà 失溜 疏剌 means the sound of wind blowing or water running. In the second scene of the Biǎn huángzhōu 貶黃州 [Demotion to Huangzhou] by Fei Tangcheng 費唐城 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “hánsēnsēn shuòfēng shīliúshūlà chuàn, wǔpiāopiāo ruìxuě tīliángtūluán xuán. 寒森森朔風失留疏剌串，舞飄飄瑞雪踢 良禿欒旋.” (Chilly north wind blows fiercely; thick snow dances wildly.) In the third scene of the Huánghuā yù 黃花峪 [Yellow Flower Valley] by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “xīrǎnghūnóng níyòuhuá, shīliúshūlà shuǐxuāndeqú. 希壤忽濃泥又滑，失流疏剌水渲的渠.” (Such a slippery muddy road and torrential waters!) In the Song dynasty, Yuàn bié 怨別 [Lament at Departure] by Yang Ne 楊訥 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “shīliūshūlà jīnfēngsòng zhúpínyáo. 失溜疏剌金風送竹頻搖.” (Bamboo waves in the autumn wind.) (21) h–l–h–l pattern For example, xīliúhūlà 吸留忽剌 or xīlǐhūlà 吸裏忽剌 means the sound of wind blowing or water running. In the first scene of the Móhéluó 魔合羅 [The Moheluo Doll] by Meng Hanqing 孟漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nǐ kàn tā xīliúhūlà shuǐliú qǐliúqǔlǜ lù. 你看他吸留忽剌水流乞留曲律路.” (Look at the torrential river and the rough winding road!) In the second scene of the Shāgǒu quànfū 殺狗勸夫 [Advising Husband by Killing a Dog] by Xiao Dexiang 蕭德 祥 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “zé bèi zhè xīlǐhūlà de shuòfēng’er nàlǐhǎo dǔsùsù bì. 則被這吸裏忽剌的朔風兒那裏好篤簌簌避.” (Where can I find a shelter in such a killing north wind? I’m trembling all over.) Xīliúhélà 希留合剌 means a shabby, broken look. In the second scene of the Shāgǒu quànfū 殺狗勸夫 [Advising Husband by Killing a Dog] by Xiao Dexiang 蕭德祥 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “jiāng zhè lǐng xīliúhélà de bùshān’er chěde luànfēnfēn suì. 將這領希留合剌的布衫兒扯得亂紛紛碎.” (Oh the wind is tearing my shabby coat into pieces.) Xīliúhūlà 希留乎剌 means too agitated to know what to do. In the song suite Duānzhènghǎo: Xúwǒtíng guītián 端正好徐我亭歸田 [Right and Proper (melody): Xu Woting’s Retirement to Countryside] by Feng Weimin 馮惟敏 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “jiànle gè guānlái kèlái . . . qiàbiànshìtiānchāi dìchāi, zuòlexiē xīliúhūlà de tài. 見了個官來客來 . . . 恰便是天差帝差，做了些 希留乎剌的態.” (An official is coming for a visit . . . I will treat him as an imperial envoy and put on a look of agitation.) Xīliūhuālā 唏𠺕嘩喇, xīliūhuālā 嘻𠺕嘩喇, or xīliūhālā 唏溜哈拉 means the sound of things scattering or leaves falling in wind. In chapter sixty-four of the

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 133 Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “zhǐtīngde yuánnèide fēng zì xībiān zhítòudào dōngbiān, chuānguò shùzhī, dōu zài nàlǐ xīliūhuālā búzhù de xiǎng. 只聽得園 內的風自西邊直透到東邊，穿過樹枝，都在那裏唏𠺕嘩喇不住的響.” (The wind blows from west to east in the garden, through the woods, leaves falling and scattering all around.) In addition, one sentence in chapter sixty-four of the novel reads “yìyǔ mòliǎo, zhǐtīngdé wūlǐ xīliūhuālā de luànxiǎng, bùzhī shì héwù sǎle yídì. 一語末了，只聽得屋裏嘻𠺕嘩喇的亂響，不知是何物撒了一地.” (Right in the middle of the talk, there came some noise. Something had fallen and scattered all over the floor.) In chapter thirty-one of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女 英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “cáishàng fáng, hòujiǎo yídài, yòubǎ yìliūwǎ dàixiàlái, xīliūhālā, nàole bànyuànzi. 才上房，後腳一帶，又把一溜瓦帶下來，唏溜哈 拉，鬧了半院子.” (Jumping on the roof, he kicked off a file of roof tile, tiles cracking down over half a yard.) Occasionally, the first and third characters rhyme. For example, pìliúpūtóng (p~p~) 辟留撲同 means the sound of heavy objects falling on the ground. In the fourth scene of the Xuē Rénguì 薛仁貴 [General Xue Rengui] by Zhang Guobin 張國賓 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nǐ xiū tàzhe zhuānwǎ, pìliúpūtóng gǎn yàngwǒ zài jiēzhíxià búshì kēsuì nǎodài, jiùshì qiǎngle bí’āo. 你休踏著磚 瓦，辟留撲同敢漾我在階直下不是磕碎腦袋，就是搶了鼻凹.” (Watch your steps. Do not make me fall down the stairs; my head could get cracked or my nose get broken.) Occasionally, the second and fourth characters rhyme. For example, the word mídiūdádū 迷丟答都 (~d~d) is used to describe a person’s look in chattering. In the fourth scene, the Luólǐláng 羅李郎 [The Story of Luo Lilang] by Zhang Guobin 張國賓 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zǎoshìwǒ xībiāohúdū xǐ, zéguǎnlǐ mídiūdádū wèn. 早是我希 胡都喜，則管裏迷丟答都問.” (I cannot hide my happiness, so no wonder she keeps asking me.) (Xībiāohúdū 希 胡都 means cannot help doing something.) Qǐnǚhūnóng 乞紐忽濃 (~n~n) means a muddy look. In the first scene of the Móhéluó 魔合羅 [The Moheluo Doll] by Meng Hanqing 孟漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “zěn dāng tā qǐnǚhūnóng de ní, gèng hé pǐdiūpūdā de yū. 怎當他乞紐忽濃的泥，更和疋丟撲搭的淤.” (Oh my! Such dirty, filthy mud!) Xīlǐmáli 稀裏麻哩 (~l~l), means unclear; in confusion, unable to figure things out. In chapter fifty-five of the Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [Marriage to Awaken the World] by Xi Zhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “yě zhǐ xīlǐmáli de gòudàng, shēngxià shénme. 也只稀裏麻哩的勾當，生 下甚麼.” (It is nothing but fooling around, with no good end.) The word xīliújíle (~l~l) 希留急了 is used to describe the scene of trees violently shaking. In the first scene of the Móhéluó 魔合羅 [The Moheluo Doll] by Meng Hanqing 孟漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nǐkàn tā xīliúhūlà shuǐliú, qǐliúqǔlǜ lù, gèng hé zhè shīliúshūlà fēng bǎi xīliújíle shù. 你看他吸留 忽剌水流，乞留曲律路，更和這失留疏剌風擺希留急了樹.” (Look at the torrential river, the rough winding road, the violent wind, and the shaking trees!)

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Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese

Occasionally, none of the four characters rhyme with each other. Címéidáyàng 雌沒答樣 means cold, indifferent looks, in a low spirit. In chapter forty-five of the Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [Marriage to Awaken the World] by Xi Zhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Xuēpózi yěshìshènbùhǎo yìsi, kànzhe sùjiě chīle liǎngwǎnmiàn, címéidáyàng de jiāqùle. 薛婆子也是甚不好意 思，看著素姐吃了兩碗麵，雌沒答樣的家去了.” (Mrs. Xue felt rather embarrassed and left for home in awkwardness after Sister Su had two bowls of noodle.) Èrbùlēngdēng 二不稜登 means silly look. In chapter sixty-two of the Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [Marriage to Awaken the World] by Xi Zhousheng 西 周生 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “wéidú yígè èrbùlēngdēng de fùrén, zhìfú de nǐgǒuguǐ tīngtí, xiānyì chéngzhì, bǎishùn bǎicóng. 惟獨一個二不稜登 的婦人，制伏得你狗鬼聽提，先意承志，百順百從.” (You listen to nobody but this silly woman, serving her, pleasing her, and following every word of her.) Most of the four-syllable words mentioned previously are adjectives. Some words are used to describe sound and voice and others to describe manner or appearance, most of which are used in Yuan dramas. Sometimes they are shortened into words of two or three syllables. For example, the words describing sounds and voices such as pīliūpūlà 劈溜撲剌 and pīliúpūlù 劈留撲碌 are abbreviated as pūlàlà 撲剌剌 and pūlù 撲碌, jíbiāogènà 急彪各那 as gènà 各那, jízhōugèzhī 急周 各支 as gèzhī 各支, shīliúshūlà 失留疏剌 as shūlàlà 疏剌剌, and xīliúhūlà 吸留忽 剌 as hūlà 忽剌 or hūlàlà 忽剌剌; some descriptions of manners such as dīliúdálà 低留答剌 are shortened to dálà 答剌, dīxiūdǔsù 滴羞篤速 and dīxiūdiéxiè 滴羞 喋躞 to dǔsùsù 篤速速 and diéxièxiè 蹀躞躞, tīchōutūshuā 剔抽禿刷 to tūshuā 禿 刷, qīliúqīlín 七留七林 to qīlín 七林 or qīlínlín 七林林, and jíliúgǔgǔ 急留古骨 and jíliúgǔlù 急留骨碌to gǔlǔlǔ 古魯魯 or gǔlùlù 骨碌碌. Hence, some scholars claim that four-syllable words are formed by the repetition of disyllabic words, with some changes in the choice of characters. However, four-syllable, trisyllabic, and disyllabic words appeared during the same period rather than one type after another in time order. The emergence of four-syllable words might be out of the need for theatrical rhetoric in Yuan drama, and disyllabic and trisyllabic words are the abbreviations of four-syllable words. 2.4.2 Four-syllablecompoundwordswithaffixes One or two characters in a four-syllable word form the root morpheme with a specific meaning. The meaning of a compound can be seen in one or two morphemes (syllables), the other syllables being affixes without specific meanings. Words of this type fall into different patterns. Occasionally, the first or the first two characters form the root. Some examples are given as follows. The word fāngtóubúlǜ 方頭不律 or fāngtóubúliè 方頭不劣 is used to describe a person of integrity who is not quite flexible and looks somewhat blunt and impertinent. Fāngtóu 方頭 is the root morpheme. In chapter seventeen of the Chuògēng lù 輟耕錄 [Retirement to the Countryside] by Tao Zongyi 陶宗儀of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “sú wèi bùtōng shìyí zhě wéi fāngtóu. 俗謂不通事宜 者為方頭.” (The colloquial word fāngtóu 方頭 refers to someone who could not

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 135 handle affairs flexibly.) Búlǜ 不律 and búliè 不劣 are affixes without a concrete meaning. In the second scene of the Jīn fèngchāi 金鳳釵 [Hairpin of Golden Phoenix] by Zheng Tingyu 鄭廷玉 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “wǒ qià màile èr bǎi wén qián, jiàn yíge fāngtóubúlǜ de rén, qīfù yígè niánlǎode. 我恰賣了二百 文錢，見一個方頭不律的人，欺負一個年老的.” (I have just got 200 from the sale and saw an impertinent man taking advantage of an elderly person.) In the third scene of the Fēiyīmèng 緋衣夢 [A Dream of Red Dress] by Guan Hanqing 關 漢卿 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “Ǎn zhèlǐ yǒu ge Péi Yán, hǎoshēng fāngtóubúliè. 俺這裏有個裴炎，好生方頭不劣.” (In here lives a guy named Pei Yan, quite an impertinent villain!) Hēibùliūqiào 黑不溜偢 means of dark complexion. Hēi 黑 is the root of the word hēibùliūqiào 黑不溜偢. In chapter thirty-two of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “yígè nóngméi dàyǎn hēibùliūqiào de xiǎodàn jīliūle bàntiān. 一個濃眉大眼黑不溜偢的小旦唧溜了半天.” (A maid of heavy eyebrows, big eyes, and of dark complexion loitered here for a while.) The word màntiáosīlǐ 慢條斯理, màntiáosīlǐ 慢條廝禮, or màntiáosīlǐ 慢條絲 禮 means in a slow and poised manner. Màn 慢 is the root of the word. In chapter twelve of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “nà Chūnméi zhǐgù bú jìnfáng lái, jiàole bànrì, cái màntiáosīlǐ tuīkāi fángmén jìnlái. 那春梅只顧 不進房來，叫了半日，才慢條廝禮推開房門進來.” (Chunmei loitered outside the room for quite a while, finally pushing open the door and coming in after being called repeatedly.) In addition, one sentence in chapter eleven of the novel goes “nǐ wèn tā, wǒ qùshí háizài chúfánglǐ cízhe, děngtā màntiáosīlǐ’er cái huòmiàn’er. 你問他，我去時還在廚房裏雌著，等他慢條絲禮兒才和麵兒.” (You ask her. When I got there, she was still idling in the kitchen and had just started making dough slowly.) In the first chapter of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “lǎoye qīnzì zài zhèlǐ, chuán nǐjiā érzi shuōhuà, zěnde màntiáosīlǐ. 老爺親自在這 裏，傅你家兒子説話，怎的慢條斯理.” (Lord is here, ordering your son to come here to answer several questions. How can you be so slow?) The word pòbùliúdiū 破不留丟 means looking quite shabby, broken. Pò 破 is the root of the word. In chapter twenty-three of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “Guǎnjiā kànjiàn zhōngjiān xuánzhe yìfú xīpò de gǔhuà, liǎngbiān tiēle xǔduō dǒufāng, liùzhāng pòbùliúdiū de zhúyǐ. 管家看見中間懸著一幅稀破的 古畫，兩邊貼了許多斗方，六張破不留丟的竹椅.” (The butler saw an antique painting in a very poor condition hung in the middle, several inscriptions on square sheet pasted on both sides, and six shabby bamboo chairs as well.) Sometimes, the last or the last two characters form the root, which can be seen in the following examples. The word qǐliū’èlàn 乞溜惡濫 means a person’s ugly look in sleep. Èlàn 惡 濫 is the root of the word. In the fourth scene of the Huángliáng mèng 黃粱夢 [Golden Millet Dream/Pipe Dream] by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠 of the Yuan dynasty,

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one sentence goes “nà jiǎnlǘ’er liǔyīn xià shūzhezú qǐliū’èlàn de wò. 那蹇驢兒 柳蔭下舒著足乞溜惡濫的臥.” (The lame donkey is sleeping on its fours in the willow shade, looking rather ugly.) Occasionally, the first and the last characters form the root, while the two characters in the middle do not have a specific meaning, as exemplified in the following. Dāilǐsājiān 呆里撒奸 means play silly, mad. Dāi 呆 and jiān 奸 form the root. In the second scene of act three of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Western Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “nǐ xiūyào dāilǐsājiān, nǐ dàiyào ēnqíng měimǎn, què jiàowǒ gǔròu xiāngcán. 你休要呆里撒奸，你待 要恩情美滿，卻教我骨肉相殘.” (Do not play silly. You want a happy marriage, yet leave me and my child fighting against each other.) In chapter eighty-six of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “Wángpó dào: ‘Jīnlián, nǐ xiū dāilǐsājiān, shuōcháng dàoduǎn.’ 王婆道： ‘金蓮，你休呆里撒奸，説長 道短.’” (Dame Wang said, “Jinlian (Golden Lotus), do not play silly and gossip in here.”) Huālíhúshào 花狸狐哨, Huālìhúshào 花麗狐哨, or huālíhúshào 花蔾胡哨 means gaudy, garish. Huā 花 and shào 哨 form the root. In chapter twenty of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “tā zìjǐ chīrén, zài tā gēnqián nàděng huālìhúshào, qiáohǔhuàhǔ de liǎngmiàn sāndāo hǔ tā, jiùshì qiānhǎo wànhǎo de le. 他自己吃人，在他跟前那等花麗狐哨、喬虎畫虎的兩 面三刀唬他，就是千好萬好的了.” (He enjoys her wearing those gaudy dresses and coaxing him in disguise. He loves nothing and nobody better.) In chapter twelve of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承 恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “wǒ jiā shì qīngliáng wǎwū, búxiàng zhège hài huángbìng de fángzi, huālíhúshào de. 我家是清涼瓦屋，不像這個 害黃病的房子，花貍狐哨的.” (My home is a cool house of tile, not this sickly yellowish gaudy place.) In chapter twenty-nine of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “yìtóng jìndào fánglǐ, jiàn mǎnzhuō duīzhe dōushì xuǎnde kèběn wénzhāng, hóngbǐ duì de yàng, huālíhúshào de. 一同進到房裏，見滿桌堆著 都是選的刻本文章，紅筆對的樣，花蔾胡哨的.” (Entering the room together, they saw the desk decked with articles chosen for printing, the stylebook marked red with a gaudy look.) Yānlǐbāzā 醃里巴臢 means filthy, dirty. Yān 醃 and zā 臢 form the root. In the Súyòng zázì 俗用雜字 [Dictionary of Slang and Colloquial Words] complied by Jiao Hong 焦竑, it is written that “wù bùjié yuē ānzāng, yǒu yīn wú zì. 物 不潔曰㛺贜，有音無字.” (The word ānzāng 㛺贜 means something is dirty. There was no character for the sense; there exists only a sound.) Ānzāng 㛺 贜 is the same as Yānzā 醃臜 or āngzāng 骯髒. In chapter thirty-two of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Story of Hero Boys and Hero Girls] by Wen Kang 文康of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “lǐtou shì yānlǐbāzā de liǎngjiān tóufapù. 裏頭是醃里巴臢的兩間頭髪鋪.” (Further down are two dirty barber shops.)

Innovation of polysyllabic words of modern Chinese 137 2.4.3 Four-syllablecoordinativecompoundwords A four-syllable coordinative compound word includes two or more root morphemes. The number of these words is limited in Modern Chinese. Some examples are given as follows. Xiěhúlínlà 血糊淋剌, xiěhúlínlà 血胡淋剌, or xiěhūlínlà 血忽淋剌 means bleeding, mutilated. In the fourth scene of the play Qīngshān lèi 青衫淚 [Tears on the Blue Gown] by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “dài xíbà qiāotā yíxià, dào yēde ǎn lǎoqiánpó xiěhúlínlà. 待席罷敲他一下，倒噎的俺 老虔婆血糊淋剌.” (I have meant to blackmail him after the dinner, yet was bunted so harshly by him.) In the third scene of the Kān tóujīn 勘頭巾 [Solving the Case of the Head Scarf] by Sun Zhongzhang 孫仲章 of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “bǎ wángxiǎo’èr zhǐguǎn dǎ, dǎde Wángxiǎo’èr húnshēn xiěhúlínlà de. 把王 小二只管打，打的王小二渾身血胡淋剌的.” (They kept beating Wangxiao’er until he bled all over.) Bādāmáxié 八搭麻鞋 or bādámáxié 八答麻鞋 means shoes made of hemp, with ears for string, fit for long journey. In the first scene of the Hēi xuànfēng 黑 旋風 [Dark Tornado] by Gao Wenxiu 高文秀of the Yuan dynasty, one sentence goes “tuǐbēng hùxī, bādámáxié. 腿繃護膝，八答麻鞋.” (He wears leggings, knee pads, and a pair of hemp shoes.) In chapter twenty of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “xiàmiàn tuǐbēnghùxī, bādāmáxié, yāo jìzhe chándài. 下面腿絣護膝，八搭麻鞋，腰繫著纏袋.” (He wears leggings, knee pads, hemp shoes, and a broad waistbelt.) In chapter thirty-nine of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “kàn nàrén shí, sānshí duōsuì guāngjǐng, shēnchuān duǎn’ǎo, jiǎoxià bādāmáxié. 看那人時，三十多歲光景，身穿短 襖，腳下八搭麻鞋.” (The guy is about 30 years of age, wearing a short overcoat and a pair of hemp shoes.) Bùdāngrénzǐ 不當人子 means sinful, immoral. In chapter twenty-four of the Xīyóu jì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Cheng’en 吳承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “zhǎnglǎo dào: ‘luàntán luàntán, shùshàng yòuhuì jiéchū rén lái? ná guòqù, bùdāngrénzǐ!’ 長老道： ‘亂談亂談，樹上又會結 出人來？拿過去，不當人子！’” (The master said, “What a nonsense! How could a tree bear a baby? Take it away! This is sinful!”) In chapter fifteen of the Èrkè pāi’àn jīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [Slapping the Table in Amazement II] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “xiǎngdào yígè yǒu ēnyì de rén, dào rúcǐ cāi tā, yě bùdāngrénzǐ. 想到一個有恩義的人，到如此 猜他，也不當人子.” (It is immoral to suspect such a righteous and benevolent person.) Nǎodàiguāzi 腦袋瓜子 means one’s head. In chapter sixty-seven of the Hónglóu mèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “zàiyǒu yízì xūyán, nǐ xiān mōmō nǐ qiāngzi’er shàng jǐgè nǎodàiguāzi. 再有一字虛言，你先摸摸你腔子兒上幾個腦袋瓜子.” (Before you tell another lie, feel your head first. See how many heads have you got to lose!)

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Shuǐlǎoshǔhuā 水老鼠花 means a firework that could be played on water. In chapter forty-one of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of Officialdom] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “yòuyǒu nàxiē yóurén mǎile shuǐlǎoshǔhuā zài hénèi fàng, nà shuǐhuā zhí zhànzài hélǐ, fàng chūlái jiùhé yíshù líhuā yìbān. 又有那些遊人買了水老鼠花在河內放，那水花直站在 河裏，放出來就和一樹梨花一般.” (Some tourists bought some fireworks and played on the water. The fireworks bloomed right on the water, like a tree of pear blossom.) Xiǎohuāzi’er 小花子兒 means little kid. In chapter fifty-two of the Jīn píng méi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “bù zhǎngjùn de xiǎohuāzi’er, tìtóu shuǎle nǐle, zhèděngkū. 不長俊的小花子兒，剃頭耍了你了，這等哭.” (You timid little kid, what’s the harm to have a haircut? Stop crying like this!) The number of four-syllable words increased slightly in Modern Chinese, and they became further developed in the contemporary Chinese language.

Note 1 In Old Chinese, the pronoun tā 他 was not gender specific. It could refer to either a male or a female. Judging from the context in the novel, tā 他 refers to the maid Xiānglíng 香 菱 (Fragrant Water Caltrop).

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DevelopmentofChinese lexicon in modern times

3.1 Introduction A large number of new words appeared in Modern Chinese with the progress of the era. The appearance of new phenomena, the transformation of life and concepts in Chinese society, the spread of vernacular literature, and the introduction of modern western culture have offered great contributions to changes in the Chinese language. Meanwhile, a large number of monosyllabic and disyllabic words are used to convey new meanings, contributing to a richer and more complex semantic system of Modern Chinese.

3.2 Thesourceofnewmeaningsandtheword classes of new monosyllabic words The lexical meaning of monosyllabic words of Modern Chinese underwent dramatic development. Modern monosyllabic Chinese words convey an extensive range of meanings. The new senses fall into the following categories. 3.2.1 Newmeaningsappearingasaresultof theemergenceofnewthings New phenomena were not signified by newly coined words but by an extension of already existing words, which produced new meanings of old words. The power of the words was decided by the power of the phenomena signified, with some being retained and still in wide use, while some have become extinct with further social development. Biǎo 表 was a polysemous word in middle ancient times. As a component of the gnomon (a type of astronomic instrument), biǎo 表 referred to its vertical pole, which was used to measure the length of a shadow. The Shǐjì: Sīmǎ rángjū lièzhuàn 史記· 司馬穰苴列傳 [Records of the Grand Historian: A Biography of Sima Rangju] notes that “rángjū xiān chí zhìjūn, lìbiǎo xiàlòu dàijiǎ. 穰苴先馳至 軍，立表下漏待賈.” (The next day, Rangju arrived first at the camp gate and set up a clock and a clepsydra to wait for Zhuang Jia.) Sima Zhen 司馬貞 of the Tang dynasty wrote in the Suǒyǐn 索隱 [Index] that “lìbiǎo, wèi lìmù wéibiǎo, yǐshì DOI: 10.4324/9781003365587-3

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rìyǐng. Xiàlòu, wèi xiàlòushuǐ, yǐzhī kèshù yě. 立表，謂立木爲表，以視日影.” 下漏，謂下漏水，以知刻数也.” (Erecting a clock means setting a piece of wood upright to act as a clock for measuring the shadow; leaking downward refers to the water leakage used to know the number of minutes.) After the 18th century, modern clocks were invented; at that time, biǎo 表 was a mechanically made miniature metal timer. This type of clock could hang on the wall or be carried around, so the meaning of biǎo 表 changed dramatically. For example, in the thirty-fourth chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters], written by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “(Ān gōngzi) kànle qiángshàng guàde nàgè biǎo, yǐjīng chǒuzhèng le. 〔安公子〕看了 墙上掛的那個表，已經丑正了.” ([Child An] looked at the clock hanging on the wall and thought it was very ugly.) Shen Chu 沈初 of the Qing dynasty pointed out in the Xīqīngbǐjì: Jìzhí zhì 西清筆記：紀職志 [XiQing Notes: Records of the Official Duties] that “Zhūchén qūzhí, gè pèibiǎo yúdài, yǐyàn guǐkè. Yú Wénxiāng xiàngguó yú shàngwǎnshàn qián yīngjiāo zòupiàn, bì zhìbiǎo yàncè, shì yǐ qǐcǎo, lǜ chíwù yě. 諸臣趨直，各佩表於带，以驗晷刻.” 于文襄相國於上晚膳前應 交奏片，必置表硯侧，視以起草，慮遲誤也.” (All the officials go to the court wearing watches on their girdles for the sake of punctuality. Prime Minister Yu Wenxiang needs to hand in memorials to the throne before dinner, and due to worrying about the delay, he must put a watch on one side of the inkstone while drafting.) Biǎo 表 can also be written as biǎo 錶, which is shown in the sixteenth chapter of the Lǎo cán yóujì 老殘遊記 [Lao Can’s Travels] by Liu E 劉鶚 of the Qing dynasty that “rénruì yāolǐ mōchū biǎo lái yíkàn, shuō, ‘Sìxià zhōng le.’ 人瑞 腰裏摸出錶来一看，説： ‘四下鐘了.’” (The venerable old man brought out a watch from his girdle and had a look, then said, “It’s four o’clock.”) Chǎng 廠 originally referred to a shack in which there was a roof but not walls. Jíyùn: Yǎng yùn 集韻養韻 [The Rhyme Ji and the Rhyme Xian] reads “chǎng, wú bì yě. 廠，無壁也.” (The shack has no walls.) Jia Sixie 贾思勰 of the Northern Wei dynasty wrote in the Qímínyàoshù: Yǎng yáng 齊民要術· 養羊 [Techniques Essential for the Subsistence of Common People: Sheep Raising] that “jià běiqiáng wéi chǎng. 架北墙爲廠.” (A shed with the northern wall is a shack.) Han Wo 韩偓 of the Tang dynasty versified in the Nán ān yù zhǐ 南安寓止 [Lodging in Nan’an] that “cǐdì sānnián ǒu jìjiā, zhǐlí máochǎng gòng sāngmá. 此地三年偶寄家，枳籬 茅廠共桑麻.” (Away from home, I have lived here for three years; where there are fences made of trifoliate woods and shacks made of thatch and there are planted mulberry trees and hemp.) With the development of the modern industry, chǎng 廠 referred to the place where lots of people worked or participated in productive or other particular activities. The Míngshǐ: Shíhuò zhì wǔ 明史· 食貨志五 [The Ming History: Records of Food, Commodities and Currency V] records that “zhèngdé shísìnián, guǎngzhōu zhì tiěchǎng. 正德十四年，廣州置鐵廠.” (In the 14th year of Zhengde, ironworks were started in Guangzhou.) Later this meaning was widely applied. Liú 流 originally meant the flow of water. Shuōwén Shuǐ bù 説文水部 [Water Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters] interprets that “liú, shuǐ xíng yě. 流， 水行也.” (Liú 流 is the water in motion.) There were other meanings as well,

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 141 including move, change, spread, category, and so on, so liú 流 was a polysemous word. In minority areas during the Ming and Qing dynasties, the officials who were delegated and appointed by the central government were titled liú 流; the officials who were ethnic minority leaders or inherited positions were titled tǔ 土 (i.e., tǔsī 土司). Thus, liú 流 had a new political meaning. In the Xúxiákè yóujì: Diānyóu rìjì bā 徐霞客遊記· 滇遊日記八 [Xu Xiake’s Travels: The Eighth Traveling Diary in Dian] by Xu Hongzu 徐宏祖 of the Ming dynasty, the writer recalled that “jīn yǒu xúnsī, yìliú yìtǔ. 今有巡司，一流一土.” (There are two commissioners, one of which is liú, the other of which is tǔ.) Gu Zuyu 顧祖禹 of the Qing dynasty recorded in the Dúshǐfāngxìngjìyào: Yúnnán liù: Shùnníng fǔ 讀 史方興紀要· 雲南六· 順寧府 [Historic and Local Geography Records of Yunnan Ⅵ: The Prefecture of Shunning] that “Tǔzhīfǔ Měngmín, wànlì èrshísìnián, Měng dìng ruìpàn, tǎopíng zhī, gǎiwéi liúguān. 土知府猛民，萬曆二十四年， 猛定瑞叛，討平之，改爲流官.” (Tǔ prefect Meng sent army forces to suppress the rebellion of Ruì and defeated the rebel, then his title was altered to liú.) It was written in the seventh volume of the Shèng wǔ lì 聖武記 [A Tale of Warrior Sages] by Wei Yuan 魏源 of the Qing dynasty that “zhì yōngzhèngchū ér yǒu gǎitǔ guīliú zhīyì ， . . . lùnzhě wèi jiāngwài yítǔ bùyí liú, jiāngnèi yíliú bùyí tǔ. 至雍正初 而有改土歸流之議， . . . 論者謂江外宜土不宜流，江内宜流不宜土.” (During the age of Yongzheng, it was advocated that the tǔ 土 policy should be abolished and replaced by the liú 流 policy by some people; the supporters argued that it was more suitable to carry out the tǔ 土 policy in the west of the Lancang River, but the liú 流 policy was more proper in the east of the Lancang River.) This type of meaning has died out as social systems have transformed. The original meaning of lún 輪 is the wheel. According to the Shuōwén Chē bù 説文· 車部 [Car Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], “Lún, yǒufú yuē lún, wúfú yuē quán. 輪，有幅曰輪，無幅曰輇.” (The wheel with spokes is called lún, while the wheel without spokes is called quán.) There were also other meanings during ancient times, such as revolve, around, the length from north to south, and the craftsman who makes wheels. In modern times, a type of ship driven by machines was invented, which was called lúnchuán 輪船 (the steamship) and was also referred to as lún 輪 for short. Hence, lún 輪 had a new meaning reflecting modern science and technology. It is written in the Qīngshǐgǎo: Jiāotōng zhì èr 清史稿· 交通志二 [Qing History Draft: Transportation Records Ⅱ] that “qí yǔ dàlún bìngxíng yú nèijiāng wàihǎi, huò shǐxíng dàlún suǒ bùnéng dá zhīchù, zéyǒu xiǎolún. 其興大輪並行於内江外海，或駛行大輪所不能達之處，則有小輪.” (They sail together on rivers and seas, but when it comes to the places where river steamships and sea steamships could not go, small ships are needed.) It is pointed out in the Mèngpíng wōlǔ jì 夢平倭虜記 [The Dream of Suppressing the Japanese Pirates’ Invasion] authored by Gao Taichi 高太癡 of the Qing dynasty that “lún bùzú, bìngyǐ shānglún jìzhī. 輪不足，並以商輪繼之.” (Under the shortage of military steamships, mercantile ones should be employed.) This meaning is still used today. Méi 煤 referred to soot, namely black ash agglomerated by smoke. For instance, it is noted in the Lǚshìchūnqiū: Rènshù 吕氏春秋· 任数 [Mister Lv’s Spring and

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Autumn Annals: Tactics] that “méitái rù zèngzhōng, qìshí bùxiáng. 煤炱入甑中， 棄食不祥.” (When soot enters the utensil, abandoning food will be unfortunate.) Gao You 高誘 annotated that “méitái, yānzhǔ yě. 煤炱，煙主也. (Yāntái 煤炱 is the soot in nature.) The Mèngxībǐtán: Zázhì yī 夢溪筆談· 雜誌一 [Dream Pool Essays: Jottings Ⅰ], written by Shen Kuo 沈括 of the Song dynasty reads “yǔ yí qíyān kěyòng, shìsǎo qí méi yǐwéi mò, hēiguāng rúqī, sōngmò bùjí yě. 予疑其煙 可用，試掃其煤以爲墨，黑光如漆，松墨不及也.” (Since I wondered whether the smoke of soot is useful, I made ink by gathering soot tentatively. As a result, such ink is as black as black paint, much better than the ink made from pines.) Méitàn 煤碳 (coal), a type of solid fuel, was called shítàn 石炭 (pit coal) or shímò 石墨 (graphite) in ancient times. In modern times, its name changed to méi 煤 in accordance with phonetic changes. The Zhèngzìtōng: Huǒ bù 正字通· 火部 [A Dictionary of Chinese Characters] elucidates that “tàn, shítàn, jīn xīběi suǒshāo zhīméi, jí shítàn. 炭，石炭，今西北所焼之煤，即石炭.” (Tàn 炭or shítàn 石 炭is the coal fired in the northwest areas, namely the pit coal.) Gu Yanwu 顧炎 武 wrote in volume thirty-two of the Rìzhī lù 日知録 [The Daily Accumulation of Knowledge] that “shímò kěshū, yòu ránzhī nánjìn, yì wèizhī shítàn, shìzhī shítàn, shímò yíwù yě, yǒu jīngcū ěr. Běirén fán rùshēngzì jiē zhuǎnwéi píng, gù hūmò wéiméi, ér sú jìng zuò méizì, fēi yě. 石墨可書，又然之難盡，亦謂之石炭，是 知石炭、石墨一物也，有精粗耳.” 北人凡入聲字皆轉爲平，故呼墨爲煤， 而俗競作煤字，非也.” (Shímò 石墨 [graphite] is also called shítàn [pit coal], which is able to be used as a writing tool, but is also hard to burn out. This is because shítàn 石炭 [pit coal] and shímò 石墨 [graphite] are the same, they might be refined or coarse. As the entering tone is articulated in the way of the level tone in the North, mò is called méi, but it is wrong to write it as the same form, as the character méi.) As for the meaning of méi 煤, it is still universally used today. Qiāng 槍, the name of a weapon, referred to the stabbing weapon with a long handle and a pointed end, some of which were made of wood or were equipped with metal points. It is written in the Mòzi: Bèichéng mén 墨子· 備城門 [Mo-tse: The Town Gates for Guarding] that “qiāng èrshí méi. 槍二十枚.” (There are 20 spears.) In the 13th century, the Chinese invented the huǒqiāng 火槍 (firelock), which was filled with gunpowder, igniting sparks, or with iron sand. In volume eighteen of the Qídōng yěyǔ 齊東野語 [Folk Stories of Qidong], written by Zhou Mi 周密 of the Song dynasty, It is written in Èr zhāng yuán xiāng 二張援襄 [Two Zhangs Aided Xiang] that “yuè èrrì, yòujìn gāotóu gǎngkǒu jié fāngzhèn, gèchuán zhì huǒqiāng, huǒpào, chìtàn, jùfǔ, jìnnǔ. 越二日，又進高頭港口结方陣，各船 置火槍、火炮、熾炭、巨斧、勁弩.” (Two days later, they arrived at the Gaotou port and organized a phalanx, their ships were all loaded with firelocks, artillery, glowing red coal, giant axes, and arbalists.) In the 19th century, qiāng 槍 referred to the shooting weapon of a gun that could fire out bullets less than 2 centimeters in diameter. Therefore, the meaning of qiāng 槍 changed dramatically. For example, it is recorded in the Qīngshǐgǎo: Bīngzhì yì 清史稿· 兵志一 [Qing History Draft: Records of Soldiers Ⅰ] that “(Xiánfēng) shínián, cóng shèngbǎo qǐng, lìng bāqí jiāliàn qiāng, pào, táiqiāng. (咸豐)十年，從勝保請，令八旗加練槍、炮、擡 槍.” (In the tenth year of the age of Xianfeng, Sheng led armies to protect the Qing

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 143 government, who urged soldiers of the ‘Eight Banners’ to take more practice of guns, artillery, and blunderbusses.) This meaning is still universally used today. Yān 煙 (烟) was a gassy substance produced by the combustion of objects. According to the Shuōwén Shuǐ bù 説文水部 [Water Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], “Yān, huǒqì yě. Cóng huǒyīn shēng. Yān, huò cóngyīn. 煙，火 氣也.” 従火垔聲.” 煙，或從因.” (Yān 煙 is the gas of fire, whose pronunciation follows yīn.) Tao Qian 陶潛 of the Jin dynasty depicted in the poem Guīyuán tiánjū 歸園田居 [Return to Nature] that “Ǎiǎi yuǎnrén cūn, yīyī xūlǐ yān. 靄靄 遠人村，依依墟里煙.” (The remote inhabited village can be seen faintly, and the cooking smoke on the village rises gently with the wind.) Before the Yuan dynasty, Chinese people did not have the habit of smoking. Thus, Mínggāo gē 鳴 皋歌 [The Ode to Mount Minggao], written by Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty chants that “qīngsōng láifēng chuī shídào, lùluó huāfēi fù yāncǎo. 青松来風吹石 道，緑蘿花飛覆煙草.” (The wind blows through green pines to the stone path, away Scindapsus aureus and flowers blew, falling on grass.) Here, yāncǎo 煙草 refers to the grass blanketed with smoke rather than the sun-cured tobacco leaf that we call it today. In the middle of the Ming dynasty, tobacco was introduced to the south of China by Lü Song 吕宋. During the reign of ChongZhen 崇禎, smoking became a more gradual habit. Thus yān 煙 had a new meaning, namely tobacco or tobacco products. It is recorded in volume eleven of the Guǐsì cúngǎo 癸已存稿 [Draft of Guisi] authored by Yu Zhengxie 俞正爕 that “Chóngzhēn mò, Jiāxīng biànchù zāizhòng, sānchǐ tóngzǐ mòbù shíyān. 崇禎末，嘉興遍處栽種， 三尺童子莫不食煙.” (In the late Chonghen age, tobacco was planted everywhere in Jiaxing, and children as young as the age of three were able to smoke.) In the fourth chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters], written by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “wǒ jiù búhuì chīyān, wǒ yě méi jiàonǐ zhuāngyān. 我就不會吃煙，我也没叫你 装煙.” (I do not smoke, and I did not ask you to fill the pipe.) Since opium was transported to China via England in the 19th century, yān 煙 referred to the opium smoke in particular. Lin Zexu 林則徐 of the Qing dynasty put in his Jìnyān zhé 禁煙折 [Opium-Banning Statement] that “Yān bù jìnjué, guó rìpín, mín rìruò, shíyúnián hòu, qǐwéi wú kěchóu zhīxiǎng, jiānqiě wú kěyòng zhībīng. 煙不禁 絶，國日貧，民日弱，十餘年後，豈惟無可籌之餉，兼且無可用之兵.” (If opium is not prohibited with might and main, our country will be poorer and our people will be weaker. In ten years, there will be neither soldier’s pay nor qualified soldiers.) Zhang Weiping 张維屏 of the Qing dynasty sang in the poem Yuètái 越 台 that “mínghào shíōu shuǐ, fúróng wànguǎn yān. 茗䒵十甌水，芙蓉萬管煙.” (Ten cups of nice tea and ten thousand pipes of lotus smoke.) Yáng 洋 was a water-related name in origin. According to the Shuōwén Shuǐ bù 説文水部 [Water Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], “Yáng, shuǐ, chū qí Línqú gāoshān, dōngběi rù jùdìng. 洋，水,出齊臨朐高山，東北入鉅定.” (Yáng refers to the river, stemming from the Linqu Mountain in the State of Qi and flowing northeast into Juding.) This river is the current Mǐ River 瀰河 in Shandong province. Yáng 洋 also meant being numerous and vast. For example, it is written in the Shī Chénfēng: Héngmén 詩陳風衡門 [Poetry in the Pattern of

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Chen’s Melody: Hengmen] that “bìzhī yángyáng, kěyǐ lèjī. 泌之洋洋，可以樂 飢.” (The Bì 泌spring water is vast, which could satisfy people’s hunger.) After the Song and Yuan dynasties, as waterway transportation was gradually opened, the Chinese people’s horizons were broadened; thereupon yáng 洋 had a new meaning, referring to the wide area on the Earth covered by water. For example, Xu Jing 徐兢 wrote in volume thirty-four of the Xuānhé fèng shǐ gāolí yuánjīng 宣和奉 使高麗圆經 [Illustrative History of Gao Li] that “Hēishuǐyáng, jí Běihǎiyáng yě. 黑水洋，即北海洋也.” (Hēishuǐyáng 黑水洋is the Běihǎiyáng 北海洋 [i.e. the Yellow Sea at present].) In the first chapter of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West], written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence reads “dìzǐ piāoyáng guòhǎi, dēngjiè yóufāng, yǒu shíshùgě niántóu, fāngcái yóudào cǐchù. 弟子飘洋過海，登界遊方，有十数個年頭，方才游到此處.” (Crossing the seas and traveling around the world, I have spent more than ten years arriving here.) It is written in the Dōngxīyángkǎo Wénlái 東西洋考文莱 [Textual Research on Eastern and Western Countries] by Zhang Xie 张燮 that “Wénlái jí Póluóguó, dōngyáng jìnchù, xīyáng suǒ zìqǐ yě. 文莱即婆羅國，東洋盡處，西洋所自起 也.” (Wénlái is the Póluóguó 婆羅國, the boundary of oriental and occidental realms, which is located at the end of the eastern world and the beginning of the western world.) In addition, yáng 洋 also refers to foreign countries or foreigners/ exotic things. For example, chapter fifty-seven of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹of the Qing dynasty depicts one scene that “yìshí Bǎoyù yòu yìyǎn kànjiàn le shíjǐn gézishàng chénshède yìzhī jīn xīyáng zìxíng chuán. 一時寶玉又一眼看見了十錦槅子上陳設的一隻金西洋自 行船.” (For the moment, Baoyu saw a golden occidental automatic ship displayed on the multi-layer shelf.) Tan Sitong 譚嗣同 of the Qing dynasty wrote in the Shàng ōuyáng bànjiāng shīshū 上歐陽瓣薑師書 [A Letter to Ouyang Banjiang] that “qiě fūlì yángwùzhě néng bù yī yángbù, yòng yángwù hū?” 且夫詈洋務者 能不衣洋布，用洋物乎？(Since we advocate modernization, we could not resist foreign machine-made cloth and goods.) Yǐn 引 originally meant drawing a bow. As explained in the Shuōwén Gōng bù 説文弓部 [Bowstring Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], “Yǐn, kāi gōng yě. 引,開弓也.” (Yǐn is the drawing of a bow.) In addition to this meaning, there were also other meanings during ancient times such as pull, lengthen, permanent, guide, incur, and quote. Thus it was a polysemous word. In modern times, landlords restrained civilians from moving freely in order to reinforce their feudal regime. When people went out of town, they were to carry passes issued by government officials, which were called yǐn 引. Thereupon, yǐn 引 had a new meaning in modern times. For example, it is written in chapter sixty-one of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “shēnbiān qǔchū jiǎ wényǐn, jiào jūnshì kàn le. 身邊取出假文引，教軍士看了.” (The young fellow at his side takes out a fake pass and shows it to the soldiers.) It is written in the Hànfǔcháiníquánshū: Tuōrén gěiyǐn 翰府柴泥全書· 托人給引 [The Collections of Hanfu Chaini: Arranging Someone to Send the Pass], authored by Tang Yu 唐玉, that “mǒu yù tāwǎng, fángěi yìyǐn, shǐ bēn sìfāng pījīn chùsuǒ, déwú liúnán. 某欲他往，煩給

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 145 一引，使奔四方闢津處所，得無留難.” (I am going to other places, please give me a pass in case that there will be some challenges when traveling all around.) In the fifty-fourth chapter of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West], written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence reads “qǐng tóu yìguǎn zhùmíng shàngbù, dài xiàguān zhímíng zòujià, yànyǐn fàngxíng. 請投 驛館注名上簿，待下官執名奏駕，验引放行.” (Envoys coming afar can not enter the town arbitrarily. Please register your name at the courier stage, and wait here until I hand in the register to our queen and verify your pass.) It is reported in volume twenty-eight of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World], written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 that “jiàn le Dàyǐn, gěi yǐn huánxiāng. 見了大尹，給引還鄉.” ([He] met Da Yin and was given a pass to return to his hometown.) In volume nineteen of Feng Menglong’s 馮夢龍 other work Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World], it is written that “yòu qǔchū yìzhāng lùyǐn, yǐfáng yīlù pánjié. 又取出一張路引，以防一路盤詰.” (He then fetches out a pass in case of being cross-examined along the way.) However, this meaning has disappeared nowadays. Zhōu 洲 referred to a small piece of land deposited by sand, stone, and soil in rivers in ancient times. It is written in the Ěryǎ: Shì shuǐ 爾雅· 釋水 [Close to Specification: Explanation of Water] that “shuǐzhōng kějū zhě yuē zhōu. 水中可 居者曰洲.” (The place where people can live in the water is called zhou.) With the expansion of Chinese people’s understanding of the whole world in modern times, zhōu 洲 had a new meaning, referring to the large land on the Earth and its nearby islands. In the first chapter of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West], written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩of the Ming dynasty, one sentence reads “gǎn pángǔ kāipì, sānhuáng zhìshì, wǔdì dìnglún, shìjiè zhījiān, suì fēnwéi sìdà bùzhōu: Yuē dōngshèngshénzhōu, yuē xīniúhèzhōu, yuē nánzhānbùzhōu, yuē běijùlúzhōu. 感 盤古開闢，三皇治世，五帝定倫，世界之間，遂分爲四大部洲：曰東勝神 洲，曰西牛賀洲，曰南瞻部洲，曰北俱蘆洲.” (Thanks to Pangu’s creation of the world, the three emperors’ ruling, and the determination of order by the five emperors, the world is divided into four continents: Dongshengshenzhou, Xiniuhezhou, Nanzhanbuzhou, and Beijùluzhou.) It is recorded in the Míngshǐ: Wàiguó zhuàn: Yídàlìyà 明史· 外國傳· 義大利亞 [The Ming History: A Biography of Foreign Countries, Italy] that “wànlì shí, qíguó rén Lìmǎ Dòu lái jīngshī, wéi ‘Wànguóquányuán,’ yán tiānxià yǒu wǔ dàzhōu. 萬曆時，其國人利瑪寞竇来 京師，爲《萬國全圆》，言天下有五大洲.” (During the Wanli period, Matteo Ricci, an Italian, came to the capital, in his Complete Circle of All Nations, saying that there are five continents in the world.) 3.2.2 Newmeaningsofwordsderivedfromthefactthatdisyllabic orpolysyllabicwordschangeintomonosyllabicwords In Chinese, it is a general rule of the development of words that monosyllabic words develop into disyllabic or polysyllabic ones but disyllabic or polysyllabic words could also become monosyllabic for convenience. Hence, monosyllabic words have new meanings.

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For example: dōng 東 originally referred to the east but also meant eastward and east to west. In modern times, it also stood for the toilet, which might be abbreviated from dōngcè 東廁. Going to/being on/using the toilet was called dēng dōngcè 登東廁, which is shown in chapter one hundred three of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty: “xiǎosī diǎndēng, zhào wǒ wǎng hòumian qù dēng dōngcè. 小廝 點燈，照我往後面去登東廁.” (The manservant holding a lamp lights the road to the toilet for me.) It can be simply called dēngdōng 登東. It is written in the second volume of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小說 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍of the Ming dynasty that “yuánlái nà hànzi shì tāfāng kèren, yīn dēngdōng jiětuō le guǒdù, shū le yínzi, xúnzhǎo bùjiàn. 原来 那漢子是他方客人，因登東解脱了裹肚，輸了銀子，尋找不見.” (The man is a guest from afar, who lost his silver after taking off his stomacher on the toilet.) The Jīngběntōngsúxiǎoshuō Niù xiànggong 京本通俗小説· 拗相公 [The Capital Edition of Popular Fictions The Stubborn Man] reports that “Jīnggōng dēng le dōng, qù gè kōng, jiù zuǒjiǎo tuōxià yìzhī fāngquè, jiāng quèdǐ xiàng tǔqiángshàng mǒde zìjì hútu, fāngcái bàshǒu. 荆公登了東，覰個空，就左脚脱下一隻方舃， 將舃底向土墙上抹得字跡糊塗，方才罷手.” (After using the toilet, Jinggong squinted blankly, then took off his left shoe and used the sole to smear the writing on the wall until it looked unclear.) Fǔ 腐 originally meant decay. As explained in the Shuōwén Ròubù 説文肉部 [Meat Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], fǔ 腐 refers to the rotting state of something. The food made by coagulating boiling soybean milk added with gypsum or brine is called tofu 豆腐. It is written in Shū èrgōngshì 書二公事 [The Record of Two Official Affairs] by Lu You 陸游of the Song dynasty that “(Xiè È) chénxīng, pēng dòufu càigēng yìfǔ, ǒu yǒuròu, zé lǚqiē tóu qízhōng, kè zhì, yì búwèn hérén, zhé gòngshí. 〔謝愕〕晨興，烹豆腐菜羹一釜，偶有肉，則縷 切投其中，客至，亦不問何人，輒共食.” (In the morning, [he] usually cooks a pot of tofu soup, and occasionally adds some fine-cut meat. When guests come, he does not ask who they are but eats with them straightly.) In modern times, tofu 豆腐 is represented simply as fǔ 腐; thus, fǔ 腐 had a new meaning. In the Xúxiákèyóujì: Diānyóu rìjì jiǔ 徐霞客遊記· 滇遊日記九 [Xu Xiake’s Travels: The Ninth Traveling Diary in Dian] by Xu Hongzu 徐宏祖 of the Ming dynasty, one sentence goes “yòu yìlǐ, yǒu shù jiādàng qìngdǐ, shì wéi lěngshuǐqìng, nǎi fàn yú yùfǔ zhě jiā. 又一里，有数家當箐底，是爲冷水箐，乃飯於鬻腐者家.” (Walking west for another 500 meters, you will arrive at the bottom of the wooded valley, where a village called Lengshuiqing is located. The villagers living here make a living by selling tofu.) It is written in the fifth volume of the Qǐzhēn jìwén lù 啓楨 記聞録 [A Record of the Events during the Qizhen’s Era] by Ye Shaoyuan 葉紹 袁 that “càifǔděng jià rìzēng. 菜腐等價日增.” (The price of vegetables and tofu is mounting daily.) In chapter twenty-eight of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “zuórì sānwèi lǎoye jiàdào, pínsēng jīnrì bèi gè fǔfàn, qū sānwèi zuòzuò, jiùzài wǒmen zhè sìlǐ gèchù wánwán. 昨日三位老爺駕到，貧僧今日備個腐飯，屈三位坐 坐，就在我們這寺裏各處頑頑.” (My lords, considering that you just arrived

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 147 here yesterday, I prepared a tofu dish for you to eat. Please be kind to wait for a moment and see around our temple to while away the time.) Zhāng 張 originally meant stretching the bowstring over the bow. As explained in the Shuōwén Gōng bù 説文弓部 [Bowstring Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], “Zhāng, shī gōngxián yě. 張，施弓弦也.” (Zhang is the action of pulling the bowstring.) Extended from the meaning, there were also other meanings including hang, set up, enhance, and enlarge. The disyllabic word zhǔzhāng 主張 emerged in remote ancient times, standing for zhǔchí 主持 (to host) or zhǔzǎi 主宰 (to dominate). It is recorded in the Zhuāngzǐ: Tiānyùn 莊子· 天運 [Chuang Tzu: The Destiny] that “tiān qí yùn hū? Dì qí chù hū? Rìyuè qí zhēng yú suǒ hū? Shú zhǔzhāng shì? Shú gāngwéi shì? 天其運乎？地其處乎？日月其争於 所乎？孰主張是？孰綱維是？” (The heaven is running naturally, is not it? The Earth is staying alone calmly, is not it? The sun and the moon appear alternately to contend for the residence, do not they? Who is dominating these phenomena? Who is maintaining these phenomena?) The word zhāngwàng 張望 emerged in modern times, meaning looking around or afar or looking from a small hole or gap. It is written in the second chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “zhǐjiàn yígè rén tàntóu tànnǎo, zài nàlǐ zhāngwàng. 只見一個人探頭探腦，在那裹張 望.” (A man is seen poking his head and looking around.) In addition, zhǔzhāng 主張 and zhāngwàng 張望 are both represented simply as zhāng 張. Hence, there were two more new meanings for zhāng 張 in modern times: (1) to advocate for something. For example, it is written in chapter fifty-one of the Xīyóujì 西遊 記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “Xíngzhě zhè cáishì yǐxīn wènxīn, zìzhāng zìzhǔ, jí fānshēn, jiàqǐ xiángyún, zhízhì nántiānmén chù. 行者這才是以心問心，自張自主，急翻身，駕起祥雲，直至 南天門處.” (Sun Wukong introspects and proposes a solution on his own, then does a somersault and flies on a cloud to the South-sky gate.) It is recorded in the Qīngpíngshāntánghuàběn: Jiǎntiě héshàng 清平山堂话本· 簡帖和尚 [Storytelling Scripts of Qingpingshantang: Monk Jiantie] that “nà pózi tīngde jiào, shīzhāng shīzhì, chūqù yíngjiē lái jiàode guānrén. 那婆子聽得叫，失張失志，出去迎接 来叫的官人.” (Hearing the shouting, the old biddy has no idea, but goes out to welcome the woman’s husband who is calling.) (2) To look at somebody or something. For instance, in the third book of the Xīxiāngjì 西廂記 [The Romance of the West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, its prelude reports that “wǒ zhāngzhe jiějiě li. 我張着姐姐哩.” (I am looking at my sister.) It is written in the Shīhǒujì: Qídù 狮吼记· 奇妒 [A Tale of a Shrewish Wife: Extraordinary Jealousy] by Wang Tingne 汪廷訥 of the Ming dynasty that “nǐ qiě wǎng, wǒ qù zhāngyizhāng, ruòshì niányòude péngyou, bùxǔ nǐ chūqù. 你且往，我去張 一張，若是年幼的朋友，不許你出去.” (You just go; I will go over and take a look. If it is a juvenile friend, I will not let you go out.) Zuǒ 左 meant to assist a rule in governing a country, the left, towards the left, and so on in remote ages. The disyllabic word zuǒyòu 左右 was a polysemous word, meaning to help, to give unprincipled protection to someone/something, to dominate, both sides, at one’s sides, and the courtier whom the emperor trusts. In modern

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times, there was the other meaning of anyhow or anyway. For example, it is written in the prelude of Zhēng bàoēn 争報恩 [Striving for Paying a Debt of Gratitude] by an anonymous writer that “zuǒyòu zhèlǐ wú yǒu wàirén, zán liǎnggě mànmànde chī. 左右這裹無有外人，喒兩個慢慢的吃.” (There are no strangers anyway, we two can eat slowly.) It is written in volume twenty-six of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuì 古今 小說 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “yī bú zuò, èr bù xiū, zuǒyòu shì dǎi le. 一不做，二不休， 左右是歹了.” (In for a penny, in for a pound; it is bad anyhow.) The meaning was then simplified as zuǒ 左. Thereupon, the monosyllabic word zuǒ 左 had the meaning of anyhow or anyway in modern times. It is written in the Jīncuìhányījì: Xiē zǐ 金翠寒衣記· 楔子 [A Tale of Winter Clothing: The Prologue] that “nújiā xiégōng wàxiǎo, zuǒ zé zǒubùtuō. 奴家鞋弓襪小，左則走不脱.” (My feet are small, so I could not walk away quickly anyway.) In chapter fifty-four of the Hónglóumèng 紅 樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, one sentence goes “zhèxiē shū jiùshì yītàozi, zuǒ búguò shì xiē jiārén cáizǐ, zuì méiqùer. 這些書就是一套子，左不過是些佳人才子，最没趣兒.” (The books all follow the same route anyhow, telling love stories between beautiful women and talented men, which are really boring.) Another example is shown in chapter sixty-nine that “zuǒ bùguò zài zhè jǐgè yuànlǐ, nàlǐ jiù diū le tā. 左不過在這幾個院裹，那裹就 丢了他？(He is in the yard anyway, so he will not be missing.) 3.2.3 Newmeaningsofwordsresultingfrom constantuseoffigurativemeaning This phenomenon is very common in spoken Chinese, making expressions vivid and picturesque, as can be seen in the following examples. Cù 醋 originally referred to a sour liquid to add flavor to food. In the pre-Qin Period, it was called xī 醯. It is written in the Guǎngyùn Mùyùn 廣韻暮韻 [The Rhyme Guǎng and the Rhyme Mù] that “cù, jiàngcù. Shuōwén zuò cù. 醋，醬 醋.” 《説文》作酢.” (Cù 醋 is vinegar as a type of sauce, which is written as cù 醋 in the Shuōwén [Origin of Chinese Characters].) It is written in the Míngshǐ: Shíhuò zhì xià 明史· 食貨志下 [The Ming History: Records of Food, Commodities and Currency II] that “Màicù wúdé yuè jùnchéng wǔlǐ wài. 賣醋毋得越郡城 五里外.” (It is forbidden that peddlers sell vinegar across country towns far more than 2.5 kilometers.) In modern times, cù 醋 or chīcù 吃醋 figuratively represented people’s jealous mood in the relationship between a man and a woman. It is written in volume thirty-two of the Chūkè pāiànjīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [The Primary Edition of Slapping the Table in Amazement] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty that “zhǐpà nǐ yào chīcù niānsuān. 只怕你要吃醋拈酸.” (I suppose you will be jealous.) It is recorded in chapter twenty-one of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “tā cù nǐ shǐdé, nǐ cù tā shǐbude. 他醋你使得，你醋他使不得.” (He can make you jealous, but you cannot do the same thing to him.) Hóu 猴 originally referred to the monkey. It is written in the Lǚshìchūnqiū: Cháfù 吕氏春秋· 察傳 [Mister Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals: The Investigation

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 149 of Hearsay] that “gù gǒu sì fù, fù sì mǔhóu, mǔhóu sì rén, rén zhīyú gǒu zé yuǎn yǐ. 故狗似覆，覆似母猴，母猴似人，人之與狗則遠矣.” (Though dogs look like fù 覆, which resembles female monkeys, there are few similarities between dogs and human beings.) In modern times, a new figurative meaning came into being, that is, cuddling, climbing, or squatting mischievously like monkeys. It is recorded in chapter fourteen of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “Bǎoyù tīngshuō, biàn hóuxiàng Fèngjiě shēnshàng lìkè yào pái. 寶玉聽説，便猴向鳯姐身上立 刻要牌.” (Baoyu cuddled Fengjie for requesting cards immediately after he heard that.) Another example is shown in chapter fifteen: “nǐ shì gè zūnguì rén, nǚháier yìyàngde rénpǐn, bié xué tāmen hóuzài mǎshàng. 你是個尊貴人，女孩兒一様 的人品，别學他們猴在馬上.” (You are noble, like a fair lady, so do not climb on the horse like them.) Xù 絮 originally referred to coarse silk. The Shuōwén Shuǐ bù 説文水部 [Water Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters] explains that “xù, bì mián yě. 絮，敝綿也.” (Xù 絮 is shabby silk.) The Hànshū: Wéndìjǐ 漢書文帝紀 [The Book of the Han dynasty: The Emperor Wen’s Biography] records that “qí jiǔshí yǐshàng, yòu cì bó rén èrpǐ, xù sānjīn. 其九十以上，又賜帛人二匹，絮三斤.” (He who is over 90 years old will be bestowed further with two bolts of fine silks and 1.5 kilos of coarse silks.) With the gradual introduction of silk cotton and herbaceous cotton into China in middle ancient times, xù 絮 then referred to cotton wool. In the Yìwén lèijù 藝文類聚 [Collections of Art and Literature], volume eighty-five quotes a saying from the Guǎngzhōu jì 廣州記 [The Record of Guangzhou] that “mányí bù cán, cǎi mùmián wéixù. 蠻夷不蠶，采木棉爲 絮.” (These aboriginal tribes do not rear silkworms, but pick kapok for producing cotton wool.) Since xù 絮 is so soft that their pieces entwine with each other into circles, it was used to describe repeating oneself relentlessly or chattering. The poem Qiū 秋 [The Autumn] authored by Zhao Xianhong 趙顯宏 reads “shuāng yā de dānfēng sìrǎn, cù zhīérxùde rén lái yàn. 霜壓的丹楓似染，促織兒絮的人 来厭.” (The red maples covered with frost seem to be dyed, making cotton wool makers feel bored.) The Mǔdāntíng Jīngmèng 牡丹亭驚夢 [The Peony Pavilion: A Fright Dream] by Tang Xianzu 湯顯祖 of the Ming dynasty reads “qiànshēn cānlǐ mǔqīn, yòu bèi mǔqīn xù le xǔduō xiánhuà. 欠身参禮母親，又被母親 絮了許多閑話.” (I rose to pay my respect to my mother, and listened to lots of trivial things she chattered.) It is noted in the Tōngsúbiān: Yán xiào 通俗編· 言 笑 [Records of Common Words: Casual Talks] compiled by Di Hao 翟灝 of the Qing dynasty that “jīn yòu yǐ yán fánsuǒ wéi xù, suǒwèi xùdāodāo yě. 今又以言 煩瑣爲絮，所謂絮叨叨也.” (Nowadays talking about trivial things is called xù, namely babbling on and on.) The extended meaning of xù 絮 is being bored. It is recorded in chapter thirty-four of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹of the Qing dynasty that “zhǐ ná nà tángyānde méiguī lǔzi huò le chī, chī le bànwǎn, yòu xián chī xù le, bù xiāngtián. 只拿那 糖醃的玫瑰鹵子和了吃，吃了半碗，又嫌吃絮了，不香甜.” (He just stirred thick gravy added with roses pickled in sugar water to eat, but only had half a bowl, then felt bored and thought it was not palatable.)

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Yā 鴨 originally referred to ducks as poultry. Since ducks do not have regular mates and a female duck usually mates with several male ducks, yā 鴨 constitutes dirty talk in modern times, referring to the men whose wives have affairs. The second volume of the Jīlèi biān 雞肋編 [Records of Things of Little Value] compiled by Zhuang Jiyu 莊季裕 reads “Zhèrén yǐ yā wéi dàhuì, běirén dàn zhī yāgēng suī shènrè yì wúqì, hòu zhì nánfāng, nǎi zhī yā ruò zhǐ yìxióng, zé suī hé ér wúluǎn, xū èrsān shǐ cúnzi. Qí yǐwéi huì zhě, gài wéi shì ěr, bù zàiyú wú qì yě. 浙人以鴨 爲大諱，北人但知鴨羹雖甚熱亦無氣，後至南方，乃知鴨若只一雄，則雖 合而無卵，須二三始存子. 其以爲諱者，蓋爲是耳，不在於無氣也.” (People in the Liangzhe area regarded yā 鴨 as a big taboo, but people in the northern areas only knew even the very hot duck soup does not steam. Afterwards, when they arrived in the southern areas, people knew if there is only one male duck, though female ducks mate with it, they will find it hard to lay eggs, but they have to mate with two or three male ducks to give birth to small ducks. Therefore, it is the reason why yā 鴨 was regarded as a taboo, instead of the reason that northern people thought.) It is written in the third volume of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuì 古今小說 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “nǐ qīlǎo bālǎo, pà wù shuí, bù chūmén qián jiàomà zhè duǎnmìng duōzuǐde yāhuángér. 你七老八老，怕兀誰，不出門前叫駡這短命多嘴的鴨黄 兒！(You are 70 to 80 years old, so who are you afraid of? Why do not you go out to curse the short-lived and mouthy bastard!) It is noted in chapter twenty-five of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Kūngē dào: ‘Nǐ shuō méi màifū, zěndi zhǎndé féiyānyānde, biàn diāndǎo tí qǐlái yě bùfáng, zhǔ nǐ zài guōlǐ yě méi qì?’ Wǔdà dào: ‘Hán diǎo húsūn, dǎo màdé wǒ hǎo; wǒde lǎopó yòu bù tōu hànzi, wǒ rúhé shì yā?’ 鶤哥道： ‘你説没麥稃，怎地棧得肥腌腌地，便颠倒提起来 也不妨，煑你在鍋裹也没氣？’” 武大道： ‘含鳥猢猻，倒駡得我好；我的老 婆又不偷漢子，我如何是鴨？’” (Kunge said, “You said you do not have barley husks, but why are you so fat? Even if I lift you upside down, you won’t be mad, or if I throw you into the pot, you won’t steam!” Wuda replied, “Son of a bitch, a good curse! My wife does not have an affair, why am I a duck?” Pan Jinlian had an affair with Ximen Qing, so Kunge humiliated Wu Dalang by calling him the duck.) 3.2.4 Newmeaningscomingintobeingduetotaboos In communication, people will not use some words, such as when they do not dare or are unwilling to say words for certain reasons, so they choose other words to replace them instead. In terms of these chosen words, they, in turn, have new meanings. This situation happened both in ancient times and now, in modern times. See the following instances. Lǎo 老 and zǒu 走 are euphemisms for sǐ 死 (death). Since people are not willing to talk about death, there were many euphemisms in ancient times, including qùshì 去世, shìshì 逝世, qìshì 棄世, jíshì 即世, bǎisuì 百歲, chángshì 長逝, chángmián 長眠, xiānyóu 仙遊, and xiānshì 仙逝. In modern times, lǎo 老 and zǒu 走 were used, so they also had the meaning of death. It is written in chapter fifteen of the

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 151 Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “yuánlái zhè Tiějiànsì shì Níng, Róng èrgōng dāngrì xiūzàode, xiànjīn háiyǒu xiānghuǒdì, yǐ bèi jīngzhōng lǎole rénkǒu, zàicǐ tínglíng. 原来這鐵 檻寺是甯、榮二公當日修造的，現今還有香火地，以備京中老了人口，在 此停靈.” (It turned out that the iron threshold temple was originally built by Lord Ning and Lord Rong on that day. Now there are still incense, fields, and alms for parking the departed who are from the capital.) It is written in chapter thirty-two of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty that “jiānglái wǒ sāshǒu yìzǒu zhīhòu, jiào wǒmen gūyé, zài wǒ jìngtóulǐ lìqǐ yígè xiǎoxiǎode shítou jiézi lái. 將来我撒手一走 之後，叫我們姑爺，在我境頭裹立起一個小小的石頭碣子来.” (In the future, you need to ask our son-in-law to build a small stone tablet on my grave mound after I pass away.) This usage is still universal in current oral Chinese. Kuài 快 originally meant being happy or delightful. The Shuōwén Xīn bù 説文· 心部 [Heart Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters] states that “kuài, xǐ yě. 快，喜也.” (Kuài 快 is glad.) Its extended meanings are being straightforward, sharp, or quick. In the Ming dynasty, it also referred to kuàizǐ 筷子 (chopsticks), which are a couple of long and thin sticks used to take food or other objects, and it was a euphemism for zhù 箸. It is recorded in the first volume of Shūyuánzájì 菽園雜記 [Jottings of Shuyuan] compiled by Lu Rong 陸容 of the Ming dynasty that “mínjiān súhuì, gèchù yǒu zhī, ér wúzhōng wéi shèn. Rú zhōuxíng huì zhù, huì fān, yǐ zhù wéi kuàier, fānbù wéi mābù. . . . Jīn shìdàfū yìyǒu fànsú chēng kuàier. 民間俗諱，各處有之，而吴中爲甚. 如舟行諱住，諱翻，以箸爲快兒，幡布 爲抹布 . . . 今士大夫亦有犯俗稱快兒者.” (There are forbidden words in folk tradition everywhere, more seriously so in the Wuzhong area. For example, while a boat is sailing, it is forbidden to say zhù [to halt] or fān [to turn over]; thus zhù 箸 is replaced with kuàiér 快兒, fānbù 幡布 is replaced with mābù 抹布. . . . Until today some scholar-bureaucrats also say kuàiér 快兒 to adhere to the taboo.) It is written in the Súhū xiǎolù 俗呼小錄 [A Concise Record of Colloquialism] by Li Yi 李翊 of the Ming dynasty that “zhù wèizhī kuài. 筯謂之快.” (Zhù 筯 is called kuài 快.) It is written in volume forty-three of Gāiyúcóngkǎo 陔餘叢考 [Research of Taking Care of Parents] by Zhao Yi 趙翼 of the Qing dynasty that “sú hū zhù wéi kuàizi. 俗呼箸爲快子.” (Zhù 俗 is traditionally called kuàizǐ 快子.) The Xiǎotiǎn jìnián 小腆紀年 [The Chronological Record of Small Countries] by Xu Zi 徐鼒 reads “xiān shì yǒu gàizhě yǐ kuài qíng wǎn. 先是有丐者以快擎碗.” (Previously, beggars used chopsticks to take the bowl of milk.) In the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] and the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters], written by Wen Kang 文康, kuài 筷 had not emerged yet, with the phrase first being used in the late Qing dynasty. 3.2.5 Newmeaningsasanextensionofgeneralmeanings With the transmission of literature, new meanings started to be used more widely. In Modern Chinese, most of these extended meanings are still used, yet some of them just remain in certain dialects, while others have been abandoned.

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Chèn 趁 meant chase, follow, hurry to, utilize, and so on in ancient times, so it was a polysemous word. During the Song and Yuan dynasties, a new meaning came into being, that is, earn or gain. It is written in volume one hundred sixteen of the Zhūzǐ yǔlèi 朱子语纇 [The Book of Quotations from Zhuzi] that “rú rén chènqián yǎngjiā yìbān, yírì bù chèn, biàn shòu jīè. 如人趁錢養家一般，一日 不趁，便受飢餓.” (If he earns money for raising his family which could just afford the basics, the whole family will suffer from hunger when he does not earn money every day) It is noted in chapter thirty-one of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸 全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “wéishì tā yǒu yízuò jiǔròudiàn, zài chéngdōng kuàihuólín nèi, shènshì chènqián. 爲是他有一座酒肉店，在城東快活林内，甚是趁錢.” (He owns a restaurant which is located in the happy woods in the east of the town, which is very lucrative.) It is written in chapter ninety-one of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Gao E 高鶚 of the Qing dynasty that “shènzhì yǒu jiào tā zàinèi chènqián de. 甚至有叫他在内趁錢的.” (He is even incited to earn money by doing that.) It is written in the seventh chapter of the Guānchǎng xiànxíng jì 官場現形記 [Exposure of the Official World] by Li Baojia 李寶嘉 that “dǐnghǎo jiù bǎ zhè biàn jīqì de chāishi wěi le tā, děng tā hǎo chèn liǎnggè. 頂 好就把這辨機器的差使委了他，等他好趁兩個.” (You had better entrust him with buying machines and let him earn two of them.) The meaning still remains in modern Wu and Min dialects. Guǎi 拐 originally referred to the cane. The Guǎngyùn: Xièyùn 廣韻蟹韻 [The Rhyme Guǎng and the Rhyme Xiè] explains that “guǎi, shǒujiǎo zhī wùzhī yě. 拐，手脚之物枝也.” (Guǎi 拐 is the object made of branches to support human bodies.) It is written in the eighth volume of Lěngzhāi yèhuà 冷齋夜話 [A Night Talk in the Cold Room] by Shi Huihong 釋惠洪 of the Song dynasty that “Liúbǒzi, qīngzhōu rén, zhǔ yìguǎi, měisuì bì yì zhì luòzhōng kàn huā. 劉跛 子，青州人，拄一拐，每歳必一至洛中看花.” (Cripple Liu, a native of Qingzhou, walking with a cane, must go to Luozhong to appreciate the flowers every year.) In modern times, the new meaning of guǎipiàn 拐騙 (to deceive) appeared. It is written in the fourth act of the Luólǐláng 羅李郎 [Luo Lilang] by Zhang Guobin 張國賓 of the Yuan dynasty that “Hóu Xīng guǎichū wǒ lái, mài yǔ zhè lǎodiējiā. 侯興拐出我来，賣與這老爹家.” (Hou Xing abducted me and sold me to the strange home.) It is written in chapter thirty-three of the Rúlínwàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty that “Wáng Húzi zàilù jiàn búshì shì, guǎi le èrshíliǎng yínzi zǒu le. 王鬍子在 路見不是事，拐了二十兩銀子走了.” (Wang Huzi went back on their decision during the journey and then went off with twenty taels of silver.) It is written in the fourth chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹of the Qing dynasty that “nàrì mǎi le yígè yātou, bùxiǎng shì guǎizi guǎilái màide. 那日買了一個丫頭，不想是拐子拐来賣的.” (I bought a little girl that day, but did not discover that she was actually sold by abductors.) It is written in chapter seventeen of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康of the Qing dynasty that “dǎo hǎoxiàng shuí yào guǎi nǐ wù shìde. 倒好像誰要拐你物似的.” (It seems

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 153 that someone wants to steal your possessions.) This meaning is still universally used in the modern age. Huáng 黄 originally meant the color yellow. It is written in the Yì Kūn 易坤 [The Book of Changes: The Earth] that “tiān xuán ér dì huáng. 天玄而地黄.” (The heaven is black, while the Earth is yellow.) When leaves wither, they will turn to yellow and because of that, this color is used to figuratively express something failing or falling through, which is exactly what the new meaning expresses since coming into being during modern times. It is written in the fourth chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “Xuē Pán tīng le zhèhuà, yòu pà nàohuáng le Bǎochán zhīshì, máng yòu gǎnlái mà Xiānglíng. 薛蟠聽了這話，又怕鬧黄了寶蟾之事， 忙又趕来駡香菱.” (After Xue Pan heard that, he was afraid that his affair with Baochan would fall through, so he was hurried to scold Xiangling.) This meaning is still universally used in modern society. Zhuó 繳 originally referred to the raw silk thread, pronounced as zhuó. As explained in the Shuōwén Sībù 説文糸部 [Silk Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], “Zhuó, shēng sīlǚ yě. Cóng sī, jiǎo shēng. 𦅾，生絲縷也. 从糸，敫聲.” (Zhuó 𦅾 is the raw silk thread. Its pronunciation follows sī 糸 or jiǎo 敫. It also meant entwining and was pronounced as jiǎo.) It is noted in the Shǐjì Tàishǐgōng zìxù 史記太史公自序 [Records of the Grand Historian: Taishigong’s Preface] that “míngjiā kēchá jiǎorào. 名家苛察繳繞.” (The School of Logicians is rigorous, complicated, and winding.) In modern times, the meaning hand in came into being. It is written in chapter sixteen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸 全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “bùzhēng nǐ bǎ le shēngchéngāng qù, jiào ǎn rúhé huíqù jiàndé Liángzhōngshū, zhèzhǐ lǐngzhuàng xū jiǎo bùdé. 不争你把了生辰綱去，教俺如 何回去見得梁中書，這纸領状須缴不得.” (If you definitely took away birthday presents, how can I go to see Liang Zhongshu? The written pledge cannot be handed in.) It is written in chapter fourteen of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “jīnrì tāde nàn mǎn, wú děng huíjiàn rúlái, jiǎo cǐ fēngpí qù yě. 今日他的難滿，吾等回見如来，缴此封 皮去也.” (Today he has fulfilled his atonement. We need to go to see Tathagata and hand in this seal.) In volume forty of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty, it reads “jiù suǒzài dìfāng, tǎo gè bìngzhuàng huíjiǎo. 就所在地方，討個病状回 缴.” (Right here, he needs to ask for a plaint of illness to hand in.) The meaning is still universally used in the modern age. Sāo 臊 referred to the stench of pigs or dogs, pronounced as sāo. As explained in the Shuōwén Ròu bù 説文肉部 [Meat Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], “Sāo, chù gāo chòu yě. 臊，豖膏臭也.” (Sāo 臊 is the stench emitted from the grease of pigs.) It is noted in the Lǚshìchūnqiū: Běnwèi 吕氏春秋· 本 味 [Mister Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals: Original Flavors] that “shuǐjūzhě xīng, ròujuézhě sāo, cǎoshízhě shān. 水居者腥，肉貜者臊，草食者羶.” (The living beings dwelling at the water side or living in the water are stinking like the smell of fish; the ones preying on other creatures are foul, having a greasy taste;

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the herbivorous creatures are gamey like the smell of mutton.) In modern times, it had the meaning of being embarrassing or embarrassed and was pronounced as sào. It is written in chapter twelve of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹of the Qing dynasty that “Jiǎ Ruì búkàn zéyǐ, kànleshí zhēn sàode wúdì kěrù – nǐ dào shì shuí? Què shì Jiǎ Róng. 贾瑞不看則 已，看了時真臊的無地可入 – 你道是誰？却是贾蓉.” (Once Jia Rui looked at it, he felt extremely embarrassed. Can you guess who it is? It is Jia Rong.) It is written in chapter twenty-two of the Rúlínwàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty that “zěnme dāngzhe Dǒng lǎoye sào wǒ. 怎 麽當着董老爺臊我.” (How can you make me embarrassed under Master Dong.) The meaning is still existent in the modern age. Piàn 騙 originally meant lifting one leg to mount (a horse), namely riding. In the seventh volume of Yīqiè jīngyīn yì 一切經音義 [The Book on Exegesis and Phonetics of Scriptures] compiled by Tang Xuanying 唐玄應, there is a quotion from Zìluè 字略 written by Song Shiliang 宋世良 of the Later Wei dynasty saying that “Piàn, yuèshàng mǎ yě. 騙，躍上馬也.” (Piàn 騙 is mounting a horse.) The Nánshǐ: Lánqīnzhuàn 南史· 蘭欽傳 [The History of Southern dynasties: A Biography of Lan Qin] reads “Sòngmò suí fù zǐyún zài luòyáng, héng yú shì piàn tuótuó. 宋末隨父子云在洛陽，恒於市騙橐駞.” (In the late Song dynasty, Lan Qin lived in Luoyang along with his father, Lan Yun, where he often rode a camel at the fair.) It is written in the fourth volume of the Cháoyěqiānzǎi 朝野僉 載 [Collections of Court and Extra-Court Anecdotes] compiled by Zhang Zhuo 張鷟 that “chánggōng duǎn dùjiàn, shǔmǎ línjiē piàn. 長弓短度箭，蜀馬臨阶 騙.” (He equipped a long bow with a short arrow, and mounted a Shu horse near the stairs.) It started to have the meaning of cheat in the Song and Yuan dynasties, which is still preserved to this day. According to the Guǐxīnzáshí: Wūzéi démíng 癸辛雜識· 烏賊得名 [Jottings of Guixin: The Reason Why Cuttlefish Is Called Wuzei], written by Zhou Mi 周密 of the Song dynasty, it reads “gài qí fùzhōng zhīmò kě xiěwéi qìjuǎn, wǎnrán rúxīn, guò bànnián zé dànrán rú wúzì, gù jiǎozhě zhuān yǐwéi piànzhà zhīmóu, gù shì yuē zéi yún. 蓋其腹中之墨可寫僞契卷， 宛然如新，過半年則淡然如無字，故狡者專以爲騙詐之謀，故諡曰賊云.” (The ink in the belly of the cuttlefish can be used to write false deeds because it makes the deeds look as good as new, and there seems to be no writing after half a year. Therefore, cunning people take this as a trick, thus the cuttlefish is also called zéi). It is written in the Jīngzhōngjì: Zhēngcái 精忠记· 争裁 [A Tale of Absolute Devotion: Striving and Judging] by Yao Maoliang 姚茂良 of the Ming dynasty that “suī zé shì běnfèn yíngshēng, miǎn bùde dōngpiàn xīpiàn. 雖則是 本分營生，免不得東騙西騙.” (Although it is a legal business, I inevitably have to cheat others.) The Jīngběntōngsúxiǎoshuō: Púsàmán 京本通俗小説· 菩薩蠻 [The Capital Edition of Popular Fictions: Pusaman] reports that “wǒ yígè shēnzi bèi tā piàn le, xiānqián shuòguōde huà, rúhé làidé? 我一個身子被他騙了，先 前説過的話，如何赖得？” (My body was cheated by him; how can he detract what he said earlier?) Pò 破 originally meant cracking, which was already a polysemous word in ancient times. In modern times, it then referred to abandonment and ready to

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 155 risk everything. For instance, the first act of the Duìyùshū 對玉梳 [Bonding the Jade Comb broken in Half] by Jia Zhongming 賈仲名 of the Yuan dynasty reads “nǎinai, pòzhe wǒ èrshízǎi miánhuā, yě yào hé tā shuì yíyè, fāng suì wǒ píngshēng zhīyuàn. 奶奶，破着我二十載綿花，也要和他睡一夜，方遂我平生之願.” (Grandma, I must sleep with him one night, being ready to risk wasting the twenty wagons of cotton; then my lifelong wish will be fulfilled.) Chapter twenty-four of the Jīnpíngméi cíhuà 金瓶梅詞話 [One Edition of the Plum in the Golden Vase], written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, reads “wǒ pòzhe zhè mìng, bìnduì le nǐ, yě bùchā shènme. 我破着這命，擯兑了你，也不 差甚麽.” (I had risked my life to abuse you, so I’m not afraid of doing other bad deeds.) (Pò 破 is replaced by pīn 拼 in the Xīnbiān xiùxiàng pīpíng jīnpíngméi 新 编繡像批評金瓶梅 [A New Edition of Tapestry Portrait Criticism on The Golden Lotus].) It is written in chapter ninety-five of the Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻 緣傳 [The Predestined Marriage Stories to Awaken People] by Xi Zhousheng 西 周生 of the Qing dynasty that “wǒ pòzhe bù huí nǐ shāndōng qù, dǎsǐ méi zhàng. 我破着不回你山東去，打死没帳.” (I will not risk going back to your Shandong; you will be beaten to death without a cloth covering your body.) Tiǎn 腆 originally described a meal that is large and satisfying. As explained in the Shuōwén Ròu bù 説文肉部 [Meat Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], “Tiǎn, shè shàntiǎn, tiǎn, duō yě. 腆，設膳腆，腆，多也.” (Tiǎn 腆 means providing a hearty meal, tiǎn 腆is large.) In modern times, it means expand one’s chest and bulge out (one’s belly) in terms of the extended meaning. The fifth act of the Zhàoshì gūér 趙氏孤兒 [The Orphan of Zhao] by Ji Junxiang 紀君祥 of the Yuan dynasty reads “nǐ kàn tā tiǎnzhe xiōngpú, zhuāng xiēer shìkuàng. 你看 他腆着胸脯，粧些兒勢况.” (Look, he expands his chest to show his posture.) The Jiànfú bēi 薦福碑 [The Stone Tablet of Jianfu], written by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致 遠 of the Yuan dynasty reads “tā tiǎnzhe xiōngpú, yǎnjiàndé ángángào. 他腆着 胸脯，眼見得昂昂傲.” (He expands his chest in an evidently arrogant manner.) It is written in the third chapter of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty that “Túhù héngpī le yīfu, tiǎnzhe dùzi qù le. 屠户横披了衣服，腆着肚子去了.” (The butcher draped his clothes on his shoulder, then expanded his chest and went away.) The meaning is still existent in the modern age. From the perspective of the part of speech, sometimes the new meaning does not influence the part of speech. In other words, nouns are still nouns, verbs are still verbs, and so on. See the following examples. Huí 回 originally meant revolving or encircling, which was a verb. As explained in the Shuōwén Kǒubù 説文口部 [Eating Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], “Huí, rào yě. 回，繞也.” (Huí 回 is revolve.) In the Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], the Dàyǎ: Yúnhàn 大雅雲漢 [Major Elegance: The Milky Way] reads “zhuōbǐ yúnhàn, zhāohuí yútiān. 倬彼雲漢，昭回於天.” (How lofty the Milky Way is; white light shining revolves in the sky.) In modern times, it meant sell and buy by extension, which was still a verb. It is written in the Fěndiéer: Niú sùyuān 粉蝶兒· 牛訴冤 [The Pink Butterfly: A Cow’s Complaint] by Yao Shouzhong 姚 守中 of the Yuan dynasty that “hǎocáiér màiyǔ le xiéjiàng, pòpíer huíyǔ nóngfū.

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Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times

好材兒賣與了鞋匠，破皮兒回與農夫.” (The good leather is sold to the shoemaker, and the broken one is sold to the farmer.) In chapter thirty-two of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施 耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is noted that “zhǔrénjiā, nǐ zhēngè méi dōngxī mài? Nǐ biàn zìjiā chīde ròushí, yě huíxiē yǔ wǒ chī le, yìfā huán nǐ yínzi. 主人家，你 真個没東西賣？你便自家吃的肉食，也回些與我吃了，一發還你银子.” (Sir, do you really have nothing to sell? You just sell me some of the meat which is for your own family. I will pay the bills in total.) It is written in the eighth volume of the Chūkè pāiànjīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [The Primary Edition of Slapping the Table in Amazement] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty that “liǎngrén yītóng shàng jiǔlóu lái, Chén dàláng biàn wèn jiǔbǎo dǎ le jǐjiǎo jiǔ, huí le yìtuǐ yángròu, yòu bǎishàng xiē jī yú ròu cài zhīlèi. 两人一同上酒樓来，陳大郎便 問酒保打了幾角酒，回了一腿羊肉，又擺上些雞魚肉菜之類.” (They entered the restaurant together and then Chen Dalang ordered several cups of drink from a bartender, and bought one leg of lamb and other meat dishes such as chicken and fish.) In the sixth chapter of Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [The Predestined Marriage Stories to Awaken People] authored by Xi Zhousheng 西周生of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “guǒrán yòng le èrshíbā liǎng yínzi, xiàng huànjiā huí le yìdǐng quánfù dàjiào lái. 果然用了二十八兩銀子，向宦家回了一頂全副大轎 来.” (As expected, I spent 28 taels of silver on buying a complete big sedan chair from the officials.) Tǔ 吐 originally meant spitting something out of the mouth, which was used as a verb. In the Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], the Dàyǎ: Zhēng mín 大雅· 烝民 [Major Elegance: The Common People] reads “róu zé rú zhī, gāng zé tǔ zhī. 柔則 茹之，剛則吐之.” (The soft will be swallowed, while the hard will be spat out.) In modern times, it was a martial arts term, meaning showing moves or posing, which was also a verb. The third act of the Dújiǎo niú 獨角牛 [A One-Horned Cow] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty reads “wǒ qiàcái tǔ jiàzi zuǒshǎn lái yòushǎn. 我恰才吐架子左閃来右閃.” (I only posed and then dodged left and right.) It is noted in chapter seventy-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “(Yàn Qīng) bǎ bùshān tuōjiāng xiàlái, tǔ gè jiàzi. 〔燕青〕把布衫脱将下 来，吐個架子.” ([Yan Qing] took off his shirt and posed ready for fighting.) It is written in the sixth chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty that “zhǐjiàn nà shòuzi jǐn le jǐn yāo, zhuǎnxiàng nánbiān, xiàngzhe nà nǚzǐ tǔ le gè ménhù, bǎ zuǒshǒu lǒngzhù yòu quántou, wǎngshàng yīgǒng, shuō le shēng ‘qǐng.’ 只見那 瘦子緊了緊腰，轉向南邊，向着那女子吐了個門户，把左手攏住右拳頭， 往上一拱，説了聲 ‘請.’” (The thin man tightened his waist, turned to the south, showed the door to the woman, then made an obeisance by putting his left hand around his right fist and said, “Please!”) Some extended meanings will change the part of speech. For example, jiāng 漿 originally referred to a type of slightly sour drink, which was a noun. Xiǎoyǎ: Dàdōng 小雅大東 [Minor Elegance: The Far East] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs] reads “huò yǐ qí jiǔ, bùyǐ qí jiāng. 或以其酒，不以其漿.”

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 157 (The eastern people may think it is good wine, but the western aristocrats do not think it is sweet syrup.) In modern times, it meant washing and starching clothes, namely using starch or rice soup to make washed gauze, cloth, and clothes stiff when dried. In this case, it was a verb. The Rìcháng shísānyùn jì zhàobīn 日長十 三韻寄趙賓 [The Everyday Shisanyun Sent to Zhao Bin], written by Fang Hui 方 回 of the Yuan dynasty reads “bàixù xūn hái bào, cūchī xǐ gèng jiāng. 敗絮熏還 曝，麄絺洗更漿.” (The bad cotton is smoked dry in the sun, and the coarse kohemp cloth is washed and starched.) It is written in the ninth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “dàn yǒu yīfu, biàn nálái jiālǐ jiāngxǐ féngbǔ. 但有衣服，便拿来家裹漿洗縫補.” (Whenever your clothes need to be washed and starched or sewed, bring them straight to us.) In chapter seventy-two of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase], written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, it reads “chèn Hánmā zài zhèlǐ, tì diē jiāngchū zhè hànshānzi hé miánchōu kùzi lái. 趁韓媽在這裹，替爹漿出這汗衫 子和綿紬褲子来.” (While Mama Han is here, starch out the shirt and cotton pants for me.) Chapter forty-six of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “tā sǎozi yěshì lǎotàitài nàbiān jiāngxǐde tóuer. 他嫂子也是老太太那邊漿洗的頭兒.” (His sister-in-law is in charge of servants to wash and starch clothes for the old lady’s family.) Zāo 糟 originally referred to the residue left over in drink making. As explained in the Shuōwén Mǐbù 説文米部 [Rice Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], “Zāo, jiǔzi yě. 糟，酒滓也.” (Zāo 糟 is the dregs of alcohol.) The Xīnxù: Jiéshì 新 序· 節士 [The New Preface: Valiant Soldiers], written by Liu Xiang 劉向 records, that “jié wéi jiǔchí, zúyǐ yùn zhōu; zāoqiū, zúyǐ wàng qīlǐ. 桀爲酒池，足以運 舟；糟丘，足以望七里.” (Emperor Jie made people build an alcoholic pool, which is so large that ships can sail in it; dregs of alcohol pile up, which can be seen 10 li away.) In modern times, it meant decay and was a verb. The third act of Péidù huándài 裴度還带 [Peidu Returns Belts] by Jia Zhongming 賈仲明 of the Yuan dynasty reads “wǒ zé jiàn liángcáo chuán làn gēnzhù zāo. 我則見梁漕椽爛 根柱糟.” (I saw that the rafters and pillars along the water transport of liang had decayed.) It also meant bad, not good and was an adjective. It is written in the tenth chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty that “zhèshì gèng zāo le, zěnme héshang nǎodàishàng huì zhǎngchū bànzi lái ne? Zhè búshì yěchàér ma? 這事更糟 了，怎麽和尚腦袋上會長出瓣子来呢？這不是野岔兒嗎？” (It is worse! How is it possible that a monk has hair? Is not it an unconventional accident?)

3.3 Numberofnewmeaningsofmonosyllabicwords In Modern Chinese, the number of new meanings of different monosyllabic words is not balanced. Some of them only had one new meaning, while others had a couple of new meanings. In terms of the new meanings, some of them have been preserved until today, while some of them have been partly preserved and others have disappeared totally.

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For example, pá 爬 emerged in the middle ages, meaning scratch, tease. It is recorded in the Guǎngyùn: Máyùn 廣韻· 麻韻 [The Rhyme Guǎng and the Rhyme Má] that “sāo, pá shū. 搔，爬梳.” (Pá 爬 is scratching.) The Dòujīfù 鬥雞赋 [The Ode to a Gamecock], written by Fu Xuan 傅玄 of the Jin dynasty, reads “huò pádì fǔyǎng, huò fǔyì wèijǔ. 或爬地俯仰，或撫翼未舉.” (The cock sometimes scratches the ground with his head up and down, or soothes wings that hang down.) In modern times, at least two new meanings came into being: (1) to move forward or upward on the hands and knees. It is noted in the fifth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “dǎnào lǐ, nà dàwáng páchū fángmén, bēndào ménqián. 打鬧裹，那大王爬出房門，奔到門前.” (During the fight, the King crept on his hands and knees out of the house and ran to the door.) Chapter twentyseven of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “yuánlái páshàng gāozhīer qù le, bù bǎ wǒmen fàngzài yǎnlǐ le. 原來爬上高枝兒去了，不把我們放在眼裏了.” (No wonder she ignores us, it is because she climbed on a high branch [a higher status].) (2) To bend over; lay down with the chest and abdomen down to the ground. It is recorded in chapter sixteen of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty that “(Shísānmèi) chènshì jiùshì yígè pōjiǎo, bǎ Zhōusān tīdé pázài dìxià. 〔十三妹〕趁勢就是一 個潑脚，把周三踢得爬在地下.” ([The thirteenth sister] gave Zhou San a hard kick and made him fall down to the ground.) In the modern age, the first meaning is still universally used, but the second meaning is also retained in some dialects. Diào 掉 originally meant swinging or swaying. As explained in the Shuōwén Shǒubù 説文手部 [Hand Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], “Diào, yáo yě. 掉，摇也.” (Diào is swaying.) In the Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Chronicle of Zuo], the Zhāogōngshíyìnián 昭公十一年 [The Eleventh Year of the Age of Zhaogong] records that “mòdà bìzhé, wěidà bùdiào. 末大必折，尾大不掉.” (When the treetop is too big, it will break; when the tail is too big, it won’t shake.) By extension, it meant vibrate, rotate, exchange, straighten, fiddle with, and so on. In modern times, three new meanings came into being: (1) to fall down. The Mǎntíngfāng: Qíngwàng 滿庭芳· 晴望 [The Vernal Yard: Looking Afar in the Spring], written by Kang Hai 康海 of the Ming dynasty reads “yuánlín yídài qīng rú diào, shānsè zhōuzāo. 園林一带青如掉，山色周遭.” (In gardens everywhere is as green as the mountains covered with falling leaves.) (2) To lose. It is recorded in chapter twenty-six of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “Xiǎohóng jiàn Jiǎyún shǒulǐ ná kuài juànzi, dǎo xiàngshì zìjǐ yǐqián diàode. 小紅見賈芸手裹拿塊絹子，倒像是自 己以前掉的.” (Xiaohong saw Jia Yun holding a handkerchief in her hand, which seems to be the one that she lost before.) (3) It is used after certain verbs to express the completion of a motion. For instance, in the fifteenth chapter of the Lǎocán yóujì 老殘遊記 [Lao Can’s Travels] by Liu E 劉鶚 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “yīshang wǒ dōu yǐ chuānzài shēnshàng, bìng méiyǒu shāodiào. 衣裳我 都已穿在身上，並没有焼掉.” (I haven’t burned the clothes but worn them.) In Modern Chinese, all three meanings have been preserved.

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 159 Chě 扯 was originally written as chě 撦, which originated during the middle ancient times with the meaning of pulling. In the Dūnhuáng biànwénjí: Yànzifù 敦煌變文集 [Anthology of Dunhuang’s Chanting Literature], a work titled the Yànzifù 燕子赋 [The Ode to a Swallow] reads “suì bèi cuōtóu tuōyè, zhuōyī chěbò. 遂被撮頭拖曳，捉衣撦擘.” (Then the swallow was dragged with the head pinched and the body pulled broken.) In the third book of the Xīxiāngjì 西廂記 [The Romance of the West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, the third act reports that “chědào fūrén nàli qù. 撦到夫人那裹去.” (Pull him to our madam.) From the Song dynasty, it started to be written as chě 扯. It is written in volume forty-three of Gāiyú cóngkǎo 陔餘叢考 [Research of Taking Care of Parents] by Zhao Yi 趙翼 of the Qing dynasty that “Súyún yǐshǒu qiānwù yuē chě, rán jīngshū wú cǐzì. 俗云以手牽物曰扯，然經書無此字.” (As the saying goes: pulling objects with your hands is called chě. However, the word was not recorded in the Confucian classics.) The Sòngshǐ: Dùhóngfù 宋史· 杜紘宋史· 杜紘傳 [The History of the Song dynasty: Du Hongfu] reads “‘Bànxiàguóshǐ rùjiàn, xiàshǐ yù yǒusuǒ chénqǐ, Hónglián chě zhī nǎi bù gǎn yán.’ Chězì shǐ jiànyú cǐ. ‘伴夏國使入 見，夏使欲有所陳乞，紘連扯之乃不敢言.’ 扯字始見於此.” (Hongfu accompanied the envoy of the Xia State to present themselves before the emperor. When the envoy intended to tell his entreaty to the emperor, he pulled the envoy; then the envoy didn’t dare to say anything. It was the first time that chě 扯 appeared.) In modern times, chě 扯 had four new meanings: (1) to pull out. The second act of the Dù cuìliǔ 度翠柳 [Preach to Cuiliu] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty reads “nǐqūnà guǐtóudāo qīnxíngrèn, nǐbǎde lóngquánjiàn chězàishǒu. 你覷那鬼 頭刀親行刃，你把的龍泉劍扯在手.” (You look at the devil’s head blade and pull the dragon spring executioner out in your hand.) It is written in the Dàjiētiě: Jǐnyīxiāng 大揭帖· 錦衣香 [A Big Notice: The Fragrance of Fancy Clothes] by Zheng Xuzhou 鄭虛舟 of the Ming dynasty that “bìtáo huāxià, huánghuáng bǎ língmáo shēngchě. 碧桃花下，凰凰把翎毛生扯.” (Under the green peach blossom, the Phoenix pulls its feathers out.) (2) To tear or grin. The Xiānlǚ: Cuìqúnyāo 仙吕· 翠裙腰 [Xianlü: The Waist Tied with a Green Skirt] authored by Yang Guo 楊果 of the Yuan dynasty reads “mà nǐ gè fùxīnzéi kānhèn, bǎ yìfēng jìlái shū dōuchě zuò zhǐ tiáoér. 駡你個負心贼堪恨，把一封寄来書都扯做纸條兒.” (I have to scold you to vent my hate: You are a heartless thief, tearing a received letter into slips of paper.) It is noted in chapter forty-five of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Héshang chězhe kǒu xīxīde xiàodào. 和尚扯着口嘻嘻的笑 道.” (The monk grins broadly.) (3) To chat casually. It is written in the second chapter of Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [The Predestined Marriage Stories to Awaken People] by Xi Zhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty that “nǐ méidé chětán, nǐ rèndé wǒ shì shuí?” 你没得扯談，你認得我是誰？(Do not bullshit! Do you know who I am?) In chapter nineteen of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty, it reads “zhè jiù chěhuǎng, zìlái yě méiyǒu tīngjiàn zhèshān. 這就扯謊，自来也没有聽 見這山.” (You are telling a lie! I have not heard the mountain before.) (4) To rely on or place. It is written in volume eleven of the Èrkè pāiànjīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇

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Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times

[The Second Edition of Slapping the Table in Amazement] by Ling Mengchu 凌 濛初 of the Ming dynasty that “Jiāodàláng běnshì kāngkǎi xīnxìng, yùjiā chědà, dàoshì kàozhe nǚer, nǚxù, bù yōu xiàbànshì bù fùguì le. 焦大郎本是慷慨心性， 愈加扯大，道是靠着女兒、女婿，不憂下半世不富貴了.” (Jiao Tailang was generous essentially, but became more and more generous. It is said that he relies on his daughter and son-in-law, and does not worry that he will no longer be rich for the rest of his life.) In Modern Chinese, the first three meanings have remained, yet the last one has disappeared. Hún 混 originally meant water that is vast and violent. The Shuōwén Shuǐ bù 説文水部 [Water Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters] explains that “Hún, fēng liú yě. 混，豐流也.” (Hún is the abundant flow of water.) There were other meanings, including mingle, mix, muddy, muddled, and so on. In modern times, at least three new meanings came into being: (1) to stir or make a noise. The first act of the Qiànnǚ líhún 倩女離魂 [A Young Girl Died of Love] by Zheng Guangzu 鄭光祖 reads “tā shì chè fēngtāo hùnhǎi jīngbiē. 他是掣風濤混海鯨 鼈.” (He is like a whale or huge turtle pulling stormy waves and stirring seas.) It is noted in chapter thirty-seven of the Shuǐhǔquánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵of the Ming dynasty that “nà chuántóushàng lìde dàhàn zhèngshì hùnjiānglóng Lǐjùn. 那船頭上立的大漢正是 混江龍李俊.” (The big guy standing on the bow is the Dragon of Stirring Rivers, Li Jun.) (2) To deceive or pretend to be. It is written in chapter seventy-four of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “yǒu shèn huà, dāngmiàn láishuō biànhǎo, zěnme zhuāngzuò shānlín zhī lǎoyǎn lái hùn wǒ. 有甚話，當面来説便好，怎麽装做山林之老魘来混我.” (If you had anything to say, you could say it face to face, but why do you pretend to be the ghost of the forest to deceive me?) It is written in the fourth chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “Yítàitài de pái yě shēng le, zánmen yìchù zuò zhe, bié jiào Fèngyātou hùn le wǒmen qù. 姨太太的牌也生了，咱們一處坐着，别叫鳳丫 頭混了我們去.” (Our concubine is not adept with cards now, so we sit together and prevent Feng from deceiving us.) (3) To be teasing or casual. It is noted in chapter forty-nine of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “suīrán biérén jiào xiǎorén zhèděng hùnmíng, shí bù céng xiànhài liángshàn. 雖然别人叫小人這 等混名，實不曾陷害良善.” (Although we are called teasing nicknames, we have not framed any innocent person.) In Modern Chinese, the first two meanings have been preserved, yet the third meaning has disappeared completely. Bāng 幫 originally referred to the upper part of a shoe, namely the top of a shoe. The Guǎngyùn: Tángyùn 廣韻· 唐韻 [The Rhyme Guǎng and The Rhyme Táng] explains that “bāng, yī zhì xiélǚ. 幫，衣治鞋履.” (Bāng 幫 is the shoe made of clothing.) It is written in the Liǔshāoqīng: Yóunǚ 柳梢青· 遊女 [The Green Tip of a Willow: A Traveling Girl] by Jiang Jie 蔣捷 of the Song dynasty that “liǔyǔ huāfēng, cuìsōng qúnzhě, hóngrǎn xiébāng. 柳雨花風，翠松裙褶，红染鞋幫.” (With willows beaten by the rain and flowers blown by the wind, the ruffle of a skirt is as green as a verdant pine and the upper of a shoe is dyed bright red.) In

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 161 modern times, five extended meanings came into being: (1) the part on both sides of objects or the surrounding parts. It is written in the Míngshǐ: Héqú zhì èr 明史· 河渠志二 [The Ming History: Records of Rivers and Canals II] that “jù ànkuān bǎizhàng, shēnyú èrzhàng, nǎi tóngbāng tiědǐ gùdào yě. 俱岸寬百丈，深逾二 丈，乃銅幫鐵底故道也.” (It is 100 zhang wide and more than 2 zhang deep, which is known as the channel with copper sides and an iron base.) It is written in chapter thirteen of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “dàjiā kànshí, (guāncai) bāngdǐ jiē hòu bācùn, wén ruò bīngláng, wèi ruò tánshè. 大家看時，〔棺材〕幫底皆厚八寸， 紋若檳榔，味若檀麝.” (Everyone saw that the two sides of the coffin are both 8 cùn thick, with patterns like betel nuts and the similar smell of sandalwood and musk.) (2) To get close to or be near to. It is written in the third act of the Féngyùlán 馮玉蘭 [Feng Yulan] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty that “shāozi, jiāng ǎnde chuán luè nuó shàngqián, bāng zài nà kōngchuán yì dālǐ zhě. 梢子, 将 俺的船略挪上前，幫在那空船一搭裏者.” (Boatman, move my boat forward a little to get close to the empty boat so as to rely on it to sail.) Chapter fifty-one of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty says that “zhǐjiàn xiàshuǐtóu zhīzhīcháchá yòu yáo le yìzhī xiǎochuán lái bāngzhe bó. 只見下水頭支支查查又摇了一隻小船来幫着泊.” (I saw the head responsible for rowing the small boat noisily down river to get close to moor.) (3) To help. The first act of the Qì yīngbù 氣英布 [Angry Ying Bu], written by Shang Zhongxian 尚仲賢 of the Yuan dynasty reads “nǐ zhè yíqù ruò bùdé chénggōng, děng wǒ lái bāng nǐ. 你這一去若不得成功，等我来幫你.” (If you do not succeed this time, wait for me to help you.) It is noted in the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “wǒ hǎoyì lái bāng nǐ, nǐ dǎo fānchéng èyì. 我好意来幫你，你倒翻 成恶意.” (I came to help you with kindness, but you turned it into malice.) (4) To be seized on both sides by the arms. It is noted in chapter nineteen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施 耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Dùqiān, Sòngwàn, Zhūguì běn dàiyào xiàngqián lái qín, bèi jǐgè jǐnjǐn bāngzhe, nàlǐ gǎn dòng. 杜遷、宋萬、朱贵本待要向前来勤， 被幾個紧紧帮着，那裹敢動.” (Du Qian, Song Wan, and Zhu Gui were going to come forward to persuade, but they were seized by the guys tightly, so they did not dare to move anymore.) In chapter fifty-eight of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West], written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty, it reads “nǐ yígè bāngzhù yígè, děng wǒ ànniàn jǐngūérzhòu, kàn nàgè hàitòng biànshì zhēn, bùtòng biànshì jiǎ. 你一個帮住一個，等我暗念紧箍兒咒，看那個害痛便是 真，不痛便是假.” (One of you seizes the other forcefully and you two wait for me to read the incantation of the Golden Hoop so as to distinguish which one is real by observing who feels pain.) (5) A group or crowd. It especially referred to a group gathered for a certain purpose. The Qiánlóng shíyīnián rùn sānyuè chūyírì zòuzhuàng 乾隆十一年閏三月初一日奏状 [A Complaint to the Throne on the First Day of Leap March in the Eleventh Year of the Age of Qianlong], written by Yang Xifu 楊錫紱 of the Qing dynasty, reads “Chángshā chuánhù chēngwéi tǎnhù, zhé jiāng chāiyì ōudǎ, bìng yǔ tóngbāng shuǐshǒu wǔliùshí rén, shíshí luànzhì,

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jiāng zhīxiàn jiàochuāng dǎsuì. 長沙船户稱爲袒護，輒將差役毆打，並興同幫 水手五六十人，拾石亂擲，將知縣轎窗打碎.” (The Changsha boatman regards it as protection; usually beats up runners, and throws stones randomly to break the window of the magistrate’s sedan chair.) The Qīngshǐgǎo: Shíhuò zhì sān: Cáoyùn 清史稿· 食貨志三· 漕運 [Canal Transport of the Qing Draft: Records of Food, Commodities, and Currency] records that “Jiāngzhè liǎngshěng yùn báiliángchuán yuándìng Sūzhōu, Tàicāng wéi yìbāng, Sōngjiāng, Chángzhōu gè wéi yìbāng. 江 浙兩省運白糧船原定蘇州、太倉爲一幫，松江、常州各爲一幫.” (The ships carrying grain for the court and officials in Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces were originally scheduled to be divided into three groups, one for Suzhou and Taicang, and the other two for Songjiang and Changzhou, respectively.) In Modern Chinese, the first, third, and fifth meanings have been retained. Shǎn 閃 originally meant peeping from inside the door. As explained in the Shuōwén Ménbù 説文門部 [Gate Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], “Shǎn, kuī tóu ménzhōng yě. 閃，闚頭門中也.” (Shǎn 閃 is to peep out through the door.) It also meant a burst of light flashes suddenly or the light flickers. The Qīxī 七夕 [Double Seventh Festival] by Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 of the Tang dynasty reads “Yúxiá zhāng jǐnzhàng, qīngdiàn shǎn hóngxiāo. 餘霞張錦幛，輕電閃 红綃.” (The afterglow kindles the sky like a bright red silk scroll, with lightning flashing through it.) In modern times, five new meanings came into being: (1) to pop up. The first chapter of the Sānguó yǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty reads “wéishǒu shǎnchū yìjiāng, shēncháng qīchǐ, xìyǎn chángrán. 爲首閃出一將，身長七尺， 細眼長髯.” (At the front of the procession pops up a general, who is seven chi 尺 in height, with thin eyes and a long beard.) (2) To abandon. The second act of the Qīngshānlèi 青衫淚 [An Intellectual’s Tears], written by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠 of the Yuan dynasty, reads “nǐ hǎo xiàdé Bái Jièyuán, shǎnxià wǒ nǚshàonián. 你好 下得白解元，閃下我女少年.” (Bai Jieyuan, how can you bear to abandon me?) It is noted in chapter thirty-four of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “shǎndé wǒ yǒujiā nánbēn, yǒuguó nántáo. 閃得我有家難奔，有國難逃.” (It hardly makes me return to my home or to my country.) (3) To sprain or bruise. In the fourth book of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Romance of the West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, It is noted in the third act that “Fūrén xiū shǎnle shǒu, qiě xīnù tíngchēn. 夫人休閃了手，且息怒停嗔.” (Madam, be careful not to sprain your hand and do not be angry anymore.) It is noted in chapter forty-two of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “yǒu jǐgè diānfān le de, yě yǒu shǎnnà (nǚ) le tuǐ de, pá de qǐlái bēnmìng. 有幾個攧翻了的，也有 閃肭（朒）了腿的，爬的起来奔命.” (Some of them were thrown to the ground, and some of them bruised their legs before getting up with difficulty and running for their lives.) (4) To dodge. It is written in chapter eleven of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐 庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Línchōng gǎnjiāng qù, nàlǐ gǎndéshàng, nà hànzi shǎnguò shānpō qùle. 林冲趕将去，那裹趕得上，那漢子閃過山坡去了.”

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 163 (Lin Chong hurried to run after him but didn’t make it, because the fellow dodged over the hill and ran away.) It is noted in the second chapter of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty that “tā shǎnguò, náqǐ nàbǎn dàde gāngdāo, wàng Wùkōng pītóu jiù kǎn. 他閃過，拿起 那板大的鋼刀，望悟空劈頭就砍.” (He dodged, and then picked up the big steel knife to hit Wukong’s head.) (5) An unexpected error, a setback suffered unexpectedly. It is noted in chapter twelve of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “zhǐwàng bǎ yìshēn běnshì, biāntíngshàng yīyán yìdāo, bó gè fēngqī yīnzi, yě yú zǔzōng zhēngkǒuqì, bùxiǎng yòu chī zhè yìshǎn. Gāo tàiwèi, nǐ tuī dúhài, nènde kèbō. 指望把一身本事，邊庭上一檐一刀，博個封妻蔭子，也舆祖宗争口 氣，不想又吃這一閃.” 高太尉，你忒毒害，恁地克剥.” (I hoped to give full play to my ability and defend borders with the aim of my wife being conferred a title and my children inheriting an official position, that is, for bringing glory to my ancestors, but unexpectedly I suffered such a setback. Taiwei Gao, you are so poisonous to exploit people.) In Modern Chinese, except for the second meaning, the other four meanings all remain to date. Kòu 扣 originally meant holding (a horse). As explained in the Shuōwén Shǒubù 説文手部 [Hand Group of the Origin of Chinese Characters], “Kòu, qiānmǎ yě. 扣，牽馬也.” (Kòu is to hold a horse.) It also meant knock, touch, come close, ask for, and so on. In modern times, there were at least seven meanings: (1) to tie, to use a circular-shaped thing to loop something. Chapter eighty-three of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase], written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, reads “yǔ tā jǐzhōng jiǔ guànzuì le, dàokòu zài tā chúfáng nèi. 與他幾鐘酒灌醉了，倒扣在他廚房内.” (Get him drunk with several cups and tie him upside down in the kitchen.) It is noted in volume twentyeight of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 that “qǔ yuánkǒu xiāngluópà, xiàng yānhóu kòuzhù. 取原口香 羅帕，向咽喉扣住.” (Take the round fragrant kerchief and buckle it to the throat.) It is written in chapter thirty-eight of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters] by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty that “yìshǒu kòuzhe xiōngkǎner shàngde niǔzi, yìshǒu lǐzhe bìnjiǎoer. 一手扣着胸坎 兒上的鈕子，一手理着鬢角兒.” (He is buttoning the waistcoat with one hand, and tidying the hair at his temple with another hand.) (2) A knot. Chapter seventysix of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West], written by Wu Chengen 吴承 恩 of the Ming dynasty reports that “bǎ yì tóu shuānzhe yāoguàide xīngānshàng, dǎzuò gè huókòuer. Nà kòuer bùchě bùjǐn, chějǐn jiùtòng. 把一頭拴着妖怪的心肝 上，打做個活扣兒. 那扣兒不扯不緊，扯紧就痛.” (Fasten one end of the rope to the monster’s heart and liver and tie a slipknot. If the creature does not strain, the rope will not hurt it, but on the contrary, the creature will feel painful.) (3) To pull open. It is written in chapter twenty of the Sānguóyǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 of the Ming dynasty that “(Cáo) Cāo jiù tǎo tiānzǐ bǎodiāogōng, jīnpījiàn, kòumǎn yìshè, zhèngzhōng lùbèi, dǎoyú cǎozhōng. 〔曹〕操就討天子寶雕弓，金鈚箭，扣滿一射，正中鹿背，倒於 草中.” (Cao Cao asked for the emperor’s bow carved with treasure and the golden

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arrow. Pulling the bow to its full extent and shooting the arrow, he hit a deer’s back and then the deer fell into the grass.) (4) To place the utensil face down to cover something else. The Jīngjiāng dīgōng píngwěn zhé 荆江堤工平穩折 [A Report of the Jing River Dike Project being Smooth and Steady to the Throne] by Lin Zexu 林則徐 of the Qing dynasty records that “jīng chén mìshuǐ mō duōrén, rùshuǐ tànmíng suǒliè zhīchù, yòng miánbèi bāoguǒ shíhuī, jiēlián dǔsè, fù yòng dàguō kòuzhù. 經臣覓水摸多人，入水探明所裂之處，用棉被包裹石灰，接 連堵塞，復用大鍋扣住.” (By asking many people and diving into the river, I found the cracks, which were then blocked one after another with limes wrapped with quilts and subsequently covered with face-down big pots.) (5) To detain. It is noted in volume forty of the Gǔjīnxiǎoshuì 古今小說 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “nà zhīzhōu xìng Hè, fèngle zhèxiàng gōngshì, bùgǎn dàimàn, jíshí kòule diànzhǔrén dàolái, tīng sìrénde kǒucí. 那知州姓賀，奉了這項公事，不敢怠慢，即時扣了店主人 到来，聽四人的口詞.” (The prefect, whose surname is He, undertook the official affair. He didn’t dare to neglect it, so detained the shopkeeper and listened to the four confessions.) It is written in chapter thirty-six of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “wǒ dǎo lèdé gěi tāmen ne, zhǐshì wàitóu kòuzhe. 我倒樂得給他們呢，只是外頭扣 着.” (I am willing to give it to them, but it is still detained outside.) (6) To deduct, subtracting a part from the original amount. The fifth volume of the Lièhuáng xiǎoshí 烈皇小識 [Small History of the Emperor Lie], written by Wen Bing 文 秉, records that “yíngbīng měixiǎngyín èrliǎng èrqián, nǎi měimíng kòuchú sìqián, qīqián bùděng. 營兵每餉銀二兩二錢，乃每名扣除四錢、七錢不等.” (The soldiers in the camp are paid 2 taels and 2 qián, from which between 4 qián and 7 qián will be deducted.) The third volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty reads “cóng míngrì wéi shǐ, zhúrì jiāng běnqián kòuchū, yúxiàde jīzǎn shàngqù. 従 明日爲始，逐日將本錢扣出，餘下的積趲上去.” (From tomorrow, deduct the capital day by day and save the rest.) (7) The restrictive amount which does not exceed a particular amount. The ninth chapter of the Rúlínwàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty reads “wǒ zhèjiǔ shì kòuzhe shuǐ xiàde, háishì zhèbān dànbówúwèi. 我這酒是扣着水下的，還是這般淡薄無 味.” (I added the limited amount of water to the wine, but it’s so thin and tasteless.) The Děngyìyán jìn yāpiàn zhāngchéng zhé 等議嚴禁鴉片章程折 [A Memorial of Discussing Regulations on the Strict Prohibition of Opium to the Throne] by Lin Zexu 林則徐 of the Qing dynasty records that “zì fèngwén zhīrì qǐ, kòuzhì sāngè yuè wéi chūxiàn, rú xī zhī rén, yú xiànnèi gǎihuǐ duànjué fùguān tóushǒu zhě, . . . zhǔnyǔ miǎnzuì. 自奉文之日起，扣至三個月爲初限，如吸之人，於限内改 悔断絶赴官投首者， . . . 准予免罪.” (From the day of the article presented, if a man takes opium but could give up and confess his crime to the officials within three months, he will be exempt from penalties.) In modern times, the third meaning has disappeared, but the other meanings remain. Dōu 兜 referred to the helmet worn by soldiers in ancient times, namely zhòu 胄. As explained in the Shuōwén Gǔbù 説文· 部 [Dressing Group of the Origin

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 165 of Chinese Characters], “Dōu, dōu móu, shǒu kǎi yě. 兜，兜鍪，首鎧也.” (Dōu 兜 is the armor for protecting the head.) In modern times, nine extended meanings came into being: (1) the hood in the shape of the helmet. The Guītiánshīhuà: Sòng gùgōng 歸田詩話· 宋故宫 [Notes on Poetry When Regressing to the Fields: The Imperial Palace of the Song dynasty], written by Di You 翟佑 of the Ming dynasty, reads “Xīsēng jiē dài hóng dōumào yě. 西僧皆戴红兜帽也.” (Western monks all wear red hoods.) It is written in chapter forty-nine of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓 夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “jiàn Tànchūn zhèngcóng qiūshuǎng zhāi chūlái, wéizhe dàhóng xīngxīng zhānde dǒupéng, dàizhe guānyīndōu. 見探春正從秋爽齋出来，圍着大紅腥腥氈的斗 蓬，带着觀音兜.” (Tanchun is coming out of the Cool Autumn Room, wearing a gorilla felt cloak and a Guanyin hood.) (2) The pocket or other things like it. It is noted in chapter thirty-eight of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “(Lǐ Kuí) jiù dìxià lǔ le yínzi, yòu qiǎng le biérén dǔde shíláiliǎng yínzi, dōu lǒuzài bùshāndōu lǐ. 〔李逵〕就地下擄了銀子，又搶了别人賭的十来兩銀子，都 摟在布衫兜裹.” ([Li Kui] went underground and took the silver away and also robbed more than 10 taels of silver which was won by gamblers. All of the money was packed into the pocket of his cloth shirt.) (3) To contain things with the front part of a coat or robe. The second volume of the Xīn fāngyán 新方言 [New Dialects], written by Zhang Binglin 章炳麟, records that “jīn yǐ shǒu, shang chéngjiē zhě tōngwèi zhī dōu, dōu jí shòu yě. 今以手、裳承接者通謂之兜，兜即受也.” (The object that carries things by our hands or with clothes is commonly known as the pocket today, which is equivalent to shòu 受.) It is written in the eighth chapter of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “(Lú Xiānfēng) jí lìng chāiqiǎn qiánbù jūnbīng, gèrén dōu tǔkuài rénchéng. 〔盧先锋〕急令差遣前部軍兵，各人兜土 塊人城.” (Lu Xianfeng urgently dispatched the front soldiers to the city, each of whom carried clods.) It is written in volume thirty-six of the Èrkè pāiànjīngqí 二 刻拍案驚奇 [The Second Edition of Slapping the Table in Amazement] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty that “(Wáng Jiǎ) yírì zài jiāngbiān bǔyú, jiàn tānshàng yǒu liǎngjiàn xiǎobái dōngxī . . . jiāng yījīn dōuzhù, quèsì liánzǐdà liǎngkuài xiǎo shízǐ. 〔王甲〕一日在江邊捕魚，見灘上有兩件小白東西 . . . 将衣襟兜住，却似蓮子大雨塊小石子.” (One day, when Wang Jia was fishing by the river, he saw two small white things on the beach. . . . He held them with the front part of his coat, which was two small stones of similar size to lotus seeds.) (4) To cover something. It is noted in the eighth volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢 龍 of the Ming dynasty that “Bīnxiāng niànqǐ shīfù, qǐng xīnrén shàngjiāo, Yùláng dōushàng fāngjīn, xiàng mǔqīn zuòbié. 賓相念起詩賦，請新人上轎，玉郎兜上 方巾，向母親作别.” (The best man read a poem and let the new couple get on the sedan chair, then Yulang covered his face with a kerchief and said goodbye to his mother.) It is written in the second volume of the Chūkè pāiànjīngqí 初刻拍案驚 奇 [The Primary Edition of Slapping the Table in Amazement] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty that “(Wú Dàláng) jiēzhàng yíkàn, zhǐjiàn dōutóu

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shuìzhe, bùgǎn jīngdòng tā. 〔吴大郎〕揭帳一看，只見兜頭睡着，不敢 驚動他.” (Wu Dalang opened the canopy and saw that he was sleeping with his head covered and did not dare to disturb him.) (5) To move around. It is written in chapter twenty-three of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “nà dàchóng yòu jiǎnbùzháo, zài hǒu le yìshēng, yìdōudōu jiāng huílái. 那大蟲又剪 不着，再吼了一聲，一兜兜将回来.” (The big bug could not clip him; then it roared again and moved around and turned back.) In the sixth chapter of the Érnǚ yīngxióng zhuàn 兒女英雄傳 [The Tale of Heroic Sons and Daughters], written by Wen Kang 文康 of the Qing dynasty reads “zhǐjiàn nàrén tóushàng zhào yìfāng dàhóng zhòuchóu bāotóu, cóng nǎohòu yànwěibiān dōuxiàng qiánlái, shuāichéng shuānggǔer, zài éshàng zā yígè húdié kòuer. 只見那人頭上罩一方大紅縐綢包 頭，従腦後燕尾邊兜向前来，摔成雙股兒，在額上紮一個蝴蝶扣兒.” (It is seen that the man’s head was wrapped with a big red crepe, which was wrapped forward from the forked-tail braids at the back side of the head and was twisted into double strands and was tied in a bow on his forehead.) The sixth volume of the Zhōngxījìshì 中西纪事 [The Chinese and Western Chronicle] by Xia Xie 夏燮 of the Qing dynasty records, “Rú shěnghé dǎzhàng shí, kěyǐ chūqí yóu Huātán dōu qí hòulù. 如省河打仗時，可以出奇由花曇兜其後路.” (If there is a battle in the provincial river, Huatan can go around to the back and attack them unexpectedly.) (6) To ladle out. It is noted in chapter sixteen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “yígè kèren biànqù jiēkāi tǒnggài, dōu le yìpiáo, náshàng biàn chī. 一個客人便去揭開桶蓋，兜了一瓢，拿上便吃.” (A guest then uncovered the barrel lid and brought a bottle of good wine out to drink.) It is written in volume thirty-one of the Chūkè pāiànjīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [The Primary Edition of Slapping the Table in Amazement] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty that “Diūér jiù bǎ zhè liǎngtán hǎojiǔ tí chūlái, kāile nítóu, jiù dōu yìwǎn hǎojiǔ, xiān jìng Chén Lín chī. 丢兒就把這兩罈好酒提出来，開了泥頭，就兜一碗好酒， 先敬陳林吃.” (Diu-er then brought out the two jars of good wine. After opening the mud head, he ladled out a bowl of good wine and served it to Chen Lin first.) (7) To rein in or pull. It is noted in chapter thirteen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “zhèngpáijūn Suǒ Chāo chūmǎ zhídào zhènqián, dōuzhù mǎ, ná jūnqì zàishǒu, guǒshì yīngxióng háojié. 正牌軍索超出馬直到陣前，兜住馬，拿 軍器在手，果是英雄豪傑.” (Suo Chao, affiliated to the standard troop, went into action to the front of the battle. He reined in his horse and held the weapon in his hand. What a real hero he is!) Chapter thirty of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West], written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty, reports that “shì wēichén dōugōng yíjiàn, shèdǎo měnghǔ. 是微臣兜弓一箭，射倒猛虎.” (It was me who drew the bow and shot down the fierce tiger with an arrow.) (8) To or towards. Volume eleven of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World], written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍, reports that “Zàolì dōuliǎn dǎle yīcuì. 皂隸兜臉打了一啐.” (Zaoli spat on his face.) Chapter twenty-four of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 167 the Qing dynasty reads “Qiūwén dō liǎn cuìle yìkǒu dào, ‘Méiliǎnmiànde xiàliú dōngxī!’ 秋紋兜臉啐了一口道： ‘没臉面的下流東西！’” (Qiuwen spat on his face and said, “You are a shameless dirty thing!”) (9) At once. In the second book of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Romance of the West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王 實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, its first act reports that “cóng jiànle nàrén, dōude biàn qīn. 従見了那人，兜的便親.” (They, at once, have become very close since she met him.) Chen Dasheng 陳大聲 of the Ming dynasty wrote in the Hǎoshìjìn 好 事近 [Good Things Are Coming] that “dōushàng xīnlái, jiāo rén nánxiǎng náncāi. 兜上心来，教人難想難猜.” (It is hard to think and guess at once.) In Modern Chinese, the second, third, and fifth meanings remain, yet the other meanings have disappeared completely.

3.4 Developmentofthemeaningsofdisyllabicor polysyllabic words in modern Chinese The further polysemous variation of disyllabic or polysyllabic words is one of the characteristics of the development of word meanings in Modern Chinese. When disyllabic or polysyllabic words began to appear, their meanings were mostly simple. However, from remote ancient times to middle ancient times, these words have obviously developed in the direction of polysemy. In modern times, disyllabic or polysyllabic words with various meanings increased further. Most of the commonly used disyllabic or polysyllabic words have developed into polysemous words, while unusual words are still monosemous. In terms of the new meanings of disyllabic or polysyllabic words in modern times, some of them are more than others in number, and some are stronger than others in vitality. In Modern Chinese, they can be divided into the following five categories. 3.4.1 Coexistenceofwordmeaningsinoldandmoderntimes The fact that word meanings in old and modern times coexisted can be seen in the following examples. Bāobiǎn 褒貶 meant praising and mocking in ancient times. The Chūnqiūzuǒshì zhuànxù 春秋左氏傳序 [A Preface to The Spring and Autumn Annals], written by Du Yu 杜預, reads “Chūnqiū suī yǐ yīzì wéi bāobiǎn, rán jiē shùjù chéngyán. 《春秋》雖以一字爲褒貶，然皆數句成言.” (Though The Spring and Autumn Annals takes one word to praise or mock, it expounds in detail with several sentences.) In modern times, it only meant degrade, having the meaning of criticize or blame. Chapter seventy-four of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West], written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty, reports that “Bājiè xiàodào, ‘Nǐ zhè lǎogōnggōng bù gāoxìng, yǒuxiēér hǎo bāobiǎn rén.’ 八戒笑道： ‘你 這老公公不高興，有些兒好褒貶人.’” (Pigsy laughed, “Your father-in-law is unhappy, who is somewhat good at criticizing people.”) Chapter nineteen of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “Èrzé běnxìng yàoqiáng, bùkěn luòrén bāobiǎn, zhǐ zāzhèng zhe yú wúshìde rén yīyàng. 二則本性要强，不肯落人褒貶，只紮挣着與無事

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的人一様.” (Second, she is eager to excel in nature and reluctant to be criticized by others, so she is just struggling to act as if nothing had happened.) Biǎoyáng 表揚 meant praising in public in Old Chinese, that is, letting everyone know. It is written in the Sòngshū: Yǐnyì zhuàn, Wánghóngzhī 宋書· 隱逸 傳· 王弘之 [The Book of Song, Biographies of Anchorites: Wang Hongzhi] that “chuíjiàn cèwēi, biǎoyáng yǐnjiè. 垂鑒側微，表揚隱介.” (Take warning from superficial men, praise upright anchorites.) The fifth volume of the Shílín yànyǔ 石林燕語 [Swallows Singing in the Stone Forest], written by Ye Mengde 葉夢得 of the Song dynasty, reads “bāozhōngbēi zhě, huángdì shénbǐ biǎoyáng gùxiāng Qíguógōng Zhízhōng zhī yíliè yě. 褒忠碑者，皇帝神筆表揚故相岐國公執中之 遗烈也.” (Those who are awarded with the monument of loyalty will be praised by the emperor, so the emperor writes down praise in memory of the unyielding strong duke, Qiguogong, Zhizhong.) In modern times, it also meant to advocate or publicize. The Fù jiāoruòhóu shū 復焦弱侯書 [The Second Letter to the Duke of Jiao Ruo], written by Li Zhi 李贄 of the Ming dynasty, reads “cǐ yīděngrén xīnshēn jùtài, shǒuzú qīngān, jìwú liǎngtóu zhàogù zhīhuàn, yòuwú yǎngài biǎoyáng zhīchǒu, gù kě chēng yě. 此一等人心身俱泰，手足輕安，既無兩頭照顧之患，又無掩蓋 表揚之醜，故可稱也.” (These men are peaceful mentally and comfortable physically, who have neither the trouble of taking care of both parents, nor worry about covering up the publicized ugliness, so their lifestyle can be praised.) In Modern Chinese, the first meaning is commonly used, and the second meaning is occasionally used. For instance, the second act of the Tángdìzhīhuā 棠棣之花 [Flowers of Chinese Bush Cherries], written by Guo Moruo 郭沫若, reads “tāde xìngmíng yīnwéi yǒudiǎn yuángù, qǐng nǐ búyào tì tā biǎoyáng. 他的姓名因爲有點缘故， 請你不要替他表揚.” (For certain special reason, don’t call him by name.) Héjì 合計 meant add up to and count in Old Chinese. In the Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rites of Zhou], the Tiānguān: Xiǎozǎi 天官· 小宰 [The Official’s Name] reads “Tīng shītián yǐ jiǎnjī. 聽師田以簡稽.” (Judge wars and hunting to examine), and Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotated that “héjì qí shì zhī zúwǔ, yuè qí bīngqì, wéi zhī yào bù yě. 合計其士之卒伍，閲其兵器，爲之要簿也.” (It is an important book where the soldiers’ ranks are added up and their weapons are examined.) In modern times, the meanings conspire and consult together came into being. Volume twenty-four of the Jǐngshìtōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World], written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍, reports that “fēnmíng shì Píshì chuàntōng Wángpó, hé Zhào Jiānshēng héjì dúsǐ nánzǐ. 分明是皮氏串通王婆，和趙監生合計毒死男 子.” (Clearly, Ms. Pi colluded with old woman Wang and conspired with Jiansheng Zhao to poison the man.) The sixth volume of the Chūkè pāiànjīngqí 初刻拍案驚 奇 [The Primary Edition of Slapping the Table in Amazement] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty reads “Érjīn háiyǒu yígè zhèngjīngde fùrén, zhōng le nígū dújì, dàodǐ bùgān, yǔ fū tóngxīn héjì, nòngdé nígū sǐ wú zàngshēn zhīdì. 而今還有一個正經的婦人，中了尼姑毒計，到底不甘，與夫同心合計，弄 得尼姑死無葬身之地.” (Now there is also a decent woman who was harmed by a nun by her poisoned needle. Unwilling to reconcile, she conspired with her husband to make the nun die without a burial place.) In Modern Chinese, the two meanings both remain.

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 169 3.4.2 Existenceofmeaningsinmoderntimesandthe extinctionofmeaningsinancienttimes The existence of meanings in modern times and the extinction of meanings in ancient times can be seen in the following example. Guānsī 官司 referred to officials of all ranks and descriptions or feudal officials. In the Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Chronicle of Zuo], the Yǐngōng wǔnián 隱公五年 [The Fifth Year of the Age of Yingong] records that “ruò fū shānlín chuānzé zhīshí, qìyòng zhīzī, zàolì zhīshì, guānsī zhīshǒu, fēi zhūhóu zhī suǒqīn yě. 若夫山林 川澤之實，器用之资，皂隸之事，官司之守，非諸侯之所親也.” (As for the products of mountains, forests, and rivers, and the materials of general utensils, these are the things that servants are busy with and relevant officials manage according to their duties, which are not the things that dukes or princes should be involved in.) The Bàopǔzǐ: Jiǔjiè 抱朴子· 酒戒 [Keep Real: Stop Drinking], written by Ge Hong 葛洪 of the Jin dynasty, reads “yánlìng chóngshēn, guānsi sōuchá. 嚴令重申，官司搜查.” (The order should be strictly reiterated and the feudal official is responsible for searching.) In modern times, the meaning lawsuit came into being. The Yuānyāngbèi 鴛鴦被 [A Quilt with the Mandarin Duck Pattern] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty reads “kě bù liánlěi wǒ, dǎo tì nǐ chī guānsī. 可不連累我，倒替你吃官司.” (Do not get me into trouble by being sued in place of you.) The fourth chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “tā zhèjiàn guānsi bìngwú nánduàn zhīchù, cóngqiánde guānfǔ, dōu yīn àizhe qíngfèn liǎnmiàn, suǒyǐ rúcǐ. 他這件官司並無難断之處，從前的官府，都因礙着情分 臉面，所以如此.” (There was nothing difficult about his lawsuit. In the past, the officials could not deal with it for fear of hurting human feelings and losing face.) In modern times, it only refers to a lawsuit. Kèqì 客氣 had the meanings of speaking insincerely, exaggerate or boast, and do something on impulse in ancient times. The Sòngshū Yányánzhī fù 宋書· 顔延 之傳 [The Book of Song: A Biography of Yan Yanzhi] reads “nán xīnzhì bóliè, ér gāozì bǐnǐ, kèqi xūzhāng, céng wú kuìwèi. 難心智薄劣，而高自比擬，客氣虚 張，曾無愧畏.” (Although his mind is weak, he is self-glorifying and blows his own horn, and is never ashamed or afraid.) The Shǐtōng Záshuōzhōng 史通雜説 中 [Universal Chronicle: Miscellaneous Comments II] records that “Qí shū wén ér bùshí, yǎ ér wújiǎn, zhēnjì shènguǎ, kèqì yóufán. 其書文而不實，雅而無檢， 真跡甚寡，客氣尤烦.” (His writing is literary but not real, is elegant but without inspection, in which there are few authentic works, full of insincere expressions.) The Zhàozī zházi 趙滋劄子 [Letter of Expostulation about Zhao Zi], written by Sima Guang 司馬光 of the Song dynasty, reads “jīn Zī shùchéng kèqi yǐào shǐrén, zhēng xiǎoshèng yǐ tiāo qiánghú. 今滋数乘客氣以傲使人，争小勝以挑强胡.” (Nowadays Zhao Zi does things on impulse and is very arrogant, provoking the powerful barbarian tribes fighting for small victories.) In modern times, it had the new meanings be modest and be polite. The Yùsāotóu: Pìměi 玉搔頭· 媲美 [Jade Hairpin: Comparable Beauty], written by Li Yu 李渔 of the Qing dynasty, reads “nǐ èrrén dōu bùxiāo kèqi, guǎrén juébù wèi jiùrén qínghǎo, bódài xīnrén; yě juébù wèi

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xīrén yìzhòng, lěngluò jiùrén. 你二人都不消客氣，寡人决不爲舊人情好，薄 待新人；也决不爲新人義重，冷落舊人.” (You both don’t need to be modest. I will never be too kind to old lovers because of long-term affection while new ones are treated without generosity, and I won’t ignore old lovers due to the significance of new ones.) At present, it only means be modest and be polite. Quāntào 圈套 referred to a certain fixed method of work in middle ancient times. It is written in volume one hundred twenty of the Zhūzi yǔlèi 朱子語類 [Zhuzi’s Language Category] that “mǒu bùshì yào jiāorén bùbùxiāngxún, dōulái rùdào quāntào, zhǐshì yào jiāorén fēnbié shìfēi, jiào míngbái shìdǐ hái tā shì, búshìdǐ hái tā búshì. 某不是要教人步步相循，都来入道圈套，只是要教人分 别是非，教明白是底還他是，不是底還他不是.” (You should not teach people to follow the fixed method step by step, but teach them to distinguish right from wrong so that they can understand whether they are right or not.) In modern times, a new meaning came into being: It referred to the plot which traps or harms others. It is written in chapter thirty of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “huínài Zhāngdōujiān nàsī, ānpái zhèbān quāntào hài wǒ. 回耐張都監那廝，安排這般 圈套害我.” (I cannot tolerate that inspector Zhang planned such a plot to harm me.) Chapter twenty of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase], written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, reads “shuí zhīdào rén zài bèidìlǐ, bǎ quāntào zuòde chéngchéngde. 誰知道人在背地裹，把 圈套做的成成的.” (God knows that he made such a solid trap behind our backs.) In Modern Chinese, it only means the plot which traps or harms others. Wánjù 完聚 meant repairing city walls and gathering food in remote ancient times. In the Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Chronicle of Zuo], the Yǐngōng yuánnián 隱公元 年 [The First Year of the Yingong’s Age] records that “Dàshū wánjù, shàn jiǎbīng, jù zúchéng, jiāng xí zhèng. 大叔完聚，缮甲兵，具卒乘，將襲鄭.” (Dashu repaired city walls, gathered food, arranged armor and weapons, and prepared horses and chariots for attacking the state of Zheng.) In modern times, it had the meanings of get together and reunion. The Qīngpíngshāntánghuàběn: Fēngyuè ruìxiāntíng 清平山堂話本· 風月瑞仙亭 [Storytelling Scripts of Qingpingshantang: Wind-and-Moon Lucky Immortal Pavilion] reads “tǎng hòu fùqīn xiǎngniàn, bānhuí yìjiā wánjù, yě wèi kězhī. 倘後父親想念，搬回一家完聚，也未可知.” (If my father misses us later, he may possibly move back for a family reunion.) The third volume of the Èrkè pāiànjīngqí 二刻拍案驚奇 [The Second Edition of Slapping the Table in Amazement] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty reads that “wǒ hé nǐ zìyòu xiāngxǔ, jīnrì wánjù, bùzú wéiqí. 我和你自幼相許， 今日完聚，不足爲奇.” (It is not surprising that you and I have made a promise since we were young and we are reunited today.) Chapter seventy-two of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “Lǎoye cái láijiā, měirì huāntiānxǐdìde shuō gǔròu wánjù. 老 爺才来家，每日歡天喜地的説骨肉完聚.” (The master just came home and said happily every day that his kindred spirit was reunited.) In modern written Chinese, the usages get together and reunion remain.

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 171 Zhāngluo 張羅 meant setting a net to catch birds in remote ancient times. The Zhànguócè: Dōngzhōu cè 戰國策· 東周策 [Strategies of the Warring States: Strategies of the Eastern Zhou dynasty] reads that “pìzhīrú zhāngluozhě, zhāng yú wúniǎo zhīsuǒ, zé zhōngrì wú suǒdé yǐ. 譬之如張羅者，張於無鳥之所，則終 日無所得矣.” (For example, if you set a net in a place where there are no birds, you will have nothing to gain all day.) It also meant tracking down criminals. The Hòuhànshū: Kòu Xún chuán fù Kòu Róng 後漢書· 寇恂傳附寇榮 [The Book of the Later Han dynasty: Sending the Biography of Kou Xun to Kou Rong] records that “zhāngluo hǎinèi, shèzhì wànlǐ. 張羅海内，設置萬里.” (When tracking down criminals throughout the country, we should set up thousands of miles away.) In modern times, the new meaning arrange or engage in social activities came into being. The Zhòuyǔ dǎ xīnhé 骤雨打新荷 [Torrential Rain Hits New Lotus Leaves], written by Yuan Yishan 元遺山 of the Yuan dynasty, reads “qióngtōng qiándìng, hé yòngkǔ zhāngluó. 窮通前定，何用苦張羅.” (Whether you are frustrated or proud of yourself, the fate depends on the previous life, so why do you bother to arrange it?) Chapter thirty-eight of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “nǐ bú guàn zhāngluo, nǐ chī nǐde qù. 你不惯張羅，你吃你的去.” (You are not used to engaging in social activities, so just eat your food.) In Modern Chinese, it is only used to express arrange and to engage in social activities. 3.4.3 Existenceofmeaningsinancienttimesandthe extinctionofmeaningsinmoderntimes The ancient meanings of these words had been used widely, while meanings in modern times had the characteristics of their time. Due to the extinction of the objective things reflected by the modern meanings or substitution of other words, the modern meanings have disappeared with development. For example, bōlàng 波浪 referred to the rolling surface of rivers, lakes, and seas from middle ancient times to the contemporary age. The Yùpiān: Shuǐ bù 玉 篇· 水部 [The Jade Book: Shuibu] explains that “bō, bōlàng yě. 波，波浪也.” (Bō is Bōlàng [wave].) One of eight poems, the Qiūxīng 秋興 [Feelings in the Autumn], written by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty reads “jiāngjiān bōlàng jiān tiānyǒng, sàishàng fēngyún jiē dìyīn. 江間波浪兼天涌，塞上風雲接地陰.” (The waves in the gorge are surging, and the dark clouds above seem to be pressing on the ground, thus all over the place is gloomy.) In modern times, it had the meanings of talented and romantic and pretty and charming. The second act of the Qīngshān lèi 青衫淚 [An Intellectual’s Tears], written by Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠 of the Yuan dynasty, reads “Xiǎozi jīnyín yòu duō, yòu bōlàng, nǐ bù péi wǒ, què péide nàyàng rén? 小子金銀又多，又波浪，你不陪我，却陪的那樣人？” (I have much gold and silver, and I’m pretty and charming, so why don’t you accompany me but you accompany such a man?) The Fēngguāng hǎo 風光好 [The Scenery Is Good], written by Dai Shanfu 戴善夫 of the Yuan dynasty reads “yìhuàdì shūkuáng, qiānbānde bōlàng. 一劃地疏狂，千般的波浪.” (You are uninhibited, talented,

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and romantic.) At present, the meanings talented and romantic and pretty and charming have disappeared. Chuándá 傳達 meant conveying one party’s intention to the other in ancient times. In the Zhōulǐ 周禮 [Rites of Zhou], the Xiàguān: Tàipú 夏官· 太僕 [Official’s Name] reads “dàsāng, shǐ bēng, jiè gǔ, chuándá yú sìfāng. 大喪，始崩， 戒鼓，傳達于四方.” (As for the great funeral, when he just passed away, people beat drums to covey the information here and there.) The meaning is used both in ancient times and nowadays. Volume twenty-five of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世 通言 [Stories to Caution the World], written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍, reports that “Shī háizài mé shàng hòu le duōshí, shǒuménde tuīsānzǔsì bùyú tā chuándá. 施還在門上候了多時，守門的推三阻四不舆他傳達.” (Shi waited in front of the door for a long time, but the gatekeeper wasn’t willing to convey information to him.) In modern times, it had the meaning of transfer or delivery. The Yěhuòbiānbǔyí Jīfǔ Ānlètáng 野獲編補遺畿輔安樂堂 [The Supplement Edition of Wild Beasts: The Euthanasia Hall of National Capital] compiled by Shen Defu 沈德符 of the Ming dynasty records that “nèitíng gōngrén wú wèihàomíng ér bìnggù, huò yǐ qiǎnzé sǐzhě, qí shī chuándá ānlètáng. 内廷宫人無位號名而病 故，或以譴責死者，其尸傳達安樂堂.” (People in the inner court die of illness without a title, or die of condemnation, whose bodies will be delivered to the euthanasia hall.) This meaning is no longer used today. Fāngluè 方略 means plot and strategy both in ancient times and at present. The Xúnzǐ: Zhòngní 荀子· 仲尼 [Xunzi: Zhongni] reads “xiāng fāngluè, shěn láoyì, xùjī, xiūdòu ér néng diāndǎo qídí zhě yě. 鄉方略，審勞佚，畜積、修鬥而能顛 倒其敵者也.” (The rural strategy is to judge work and rest, accumulate livestock and repair utensils for grain; in this way could we destroy enemies.) It is noted in the Shǐjì: Huò Qùbìng lièzhuàn 史記· 霍去病列傳 [Records of the Grand Historian: Collected Biographies of Huo Qubing] that “tiānzǐ dāng yù jiāo zhī Sūn Wú bīngfǎ. Duìyuē, ‘Gù fāngluè hérú ěr, bùzhì xué gǔ bīngfǎ.’ 天子當欲教之孫吴 兵法. 對曰： ‘顧方略何如耳，不至學古兵法.’” (The emperor tended to teach him Sun Wu’s art of war. He replied, “It’s better to learn the policy and strategy of war than to follow the ancient art of war step by step.”) In modern times, the meaning tackle came into being. It is written in chapter eighty-eight of the Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [The Predestined Marriage Stories to Awaken People] by Xi Zhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty that “nǐ qiě shāotíng, wǒ fāngluè le zhè liǎnggě, zài yǔnǐ shuōhuà. 你且稍停，我方略了這兩個，再與你説話.” (Just stop for a while. After I have tackled these two, I will talk to you again.) In Modern Chinese, it does not have the meaning of tackle. Fùguì 富贵 originated in remote ancient times, meaning being rich and distinguished or rich and distinguished people and families. The Shǐjì: Chén Shè shìjiā 史記· 陳涉世家 [Records of the Grand Historian: Chen She’s Family] reads “gǒu fùguì, wú xiāngwàng. 苟富贵，無相忘.” (If you become rich and have honor one day, do not forget me.) In modern times, there were three new meanings: (1) finance, treasure. It is written in chapter fourteen of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水 滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “tā shì tiānxiàwénmíng de yìshìhǎohàn, rújīn wǒ yǒu yítào fùguì

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 173 shuōyǔ tā tīng, yīncǐ érlái. 他是天下聞名的義士好漢，如今我有一套富貴説與 他聽，因此而来.” (He is a well-known righteous man. Today I come here to tell him of a set of treasure.) (2) Be valuable, be precious. The Bǎihuā tíng 百花亭 [The Hundreds of Flowers Pavilion], written by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty, reads “yángliǔ yìng, xìnghuā zhē, dōngfēng wài, jiǔqí xié. Sìshízhōng wéiyǒu chūn sānyuè, guāngyīn fùguì, jǐngwù chóngdié. 楊柳映，杏花遮，東風 外，酒旗斜. 四時中惟有春三月，光陰富貴，景物重叠.” (Willows shine in the sun, which is covered by the apricot blossom. Blown by the east wind outside, the wine flag is slopping. As for the four seasons, there are only three months in the spring. The time is precious and the scenery overlaps.) (3) Be rich, be wealthy. The first volume of the Wǔwáng fá Zhòu pínghuà 武王伐紂平話 [The Story of King Wu Conquering King Zhou] reads “moreover, the storage of our warehouse is not scanty and my country is rich and wealthy. In Modern Chinese, the meaning originating in remote ancient times remains, but the three meanings from modern times have all disappeared completely. Jiāzhǎng 家長, as a phrase, is dated back to remote ancient times, referring to the head of a family. The Mòzi: Tiānzhìshàng 墨子· 天志上 [Mo-Tse: Heaven Will Ⅰ] reads “ruò chǔjiā dézuìyú jiāzhǎng, yóuyǒu línjiā suǒ bìtáo zhī. 若處家得罪於家 長，猶有鄰家所避逃之.” (If I offend the head of our family, I can escape to my neighbor’s house.) In modern times, there were two meanings: (1) husband. The second act of the Tiěguǎilǐ 鐵拐李 [Li Tieh – Kuai], authored by Yue Bochuan 岳 伯川 of the Yuan dynasty, reads “nǐ biàn shǒushà hē, gāng áidào fúmǎn sānnián, nǐ jià gè zhīxīnkěyìde xīn jiāzhǎng. 你便守煞呵，剛捱到服滿三年，你嫁個知 心可意的新家長.” (Do you want to stay with ghosts? You have been mourning for exactly three years, so you need to marry a nice new husband.) (2) Boatman, shipowner. The fifth volume of the Jǐngshìtōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World], written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 reports that “Lǚ Yù wénshuō jīnghuāng, jíjiào jiāzhǎng kāichuán, xīngyè gǎnlù. 吕玉聞説驚慌，急叫家長開 船，星夜趕路.” (After hearing of that, Lü Yu was alarmed and urgently called the boatman to set sail and hurried on his way through the night.) The Súhūxiǎolù: Shìsú yǔyīn 俗呼小録· 世俗語音 [A Concise Record of Colloquialism: The Secular Voice], written by Li Yi 李翊 of the Ming dynasty, reads “chuánjiā, shāozi yě. Yòu wéi shāogōng, jīn jiēchēng jiāzhǎng huò chuánjiāzhǎng. 船家，艄子也.” 又爲艄公，今皆稱家長或船家長.” (The boatman is the one who operates the rudder. He is also called shāogōng, which has been replaced by the title jiāzhǎng or chuánjiāzhǎng at present.) In Modern Chinese, the meaning from ancient times has remained, but the two modern meanings have disappeared. Nàifán 耐煩is also written as nàifán 奈煩, meaning enduring trouble. The Yǔ Shān Jùyuán juéjiāoshū 與山巨源绝交書 [A Letter for Breaking with Shan Juyuan], written by Wei Jikang 魏嵇康, reads “xīn bú nàifán, ér guānshì yāngzhǎng, jīwù chán qíxīn, shìgù fán qílǜ. 心不耐烦，而官事鞅掌，機務纏其 心，世故繁其慮.” (He hardly endures trouble, but he has to be busy with official affairs. The busy schedule and the art of dealing with people always bother him.) In modern times, there were two new meanings: (1) to be willing to. Chapter thirty-eight of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete

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version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty states “Lǐkuí dào, ‘Bù nàifán xiǎozhǎn chī, huàn gě dàwǎn lái shāi.’ 李逵道： ‘不奈烦小盏吃，换個大碗来 篩.’” (Li Kui says, “I am not willing to drink with a small cup. Change to a big bowl to pour wine!”) Chapter seventeen of Jīnpíngméi cíhuà 金瓶梅詞話 [One Edition of the Plum in the Golden Vase], written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭 陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, reads “tā zhúrì shuìshēng mèngsǐ, nú nàlǐ nàifán hé tā gān zhè guǎnshēng. 他逐日睡生夢死，奴那裏耐烦和他幹這管生.” (He lives in a muddle day by day, so I am not willing to do business with him.) (2) Be comfortable. Chapter fifty of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase], written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, reads “wǒ zhèlǐ bù nàifán, yòu shēnshàng láile, bù fāngbiàn, nǐ wǎng biérén wūlǐ shuìqù búshì. 我這裹不奈烦，又身上来了，不方便，你往别人屋裹睡去不是.” (I feel uncomfortable and have my period, so it is inconvenient that you sleep here; just sleep in somebody else’s room.) Chapter thirty-five of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓 夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “qǐngle bàntiān, zhǐyǒu Tànchūn, Xīchūn liǎnggě láile, Yíngchūn shēnshàng bú nàifán, bù chīfàn. 請了半天，只有探春、惜春兩個来了，迎春身上不耐烦， 不吃飯.” (I entreated them for a long time, but only Tanchun and Xichun came. Yingchun was uncomfortable and didn’t want to eat.) At present, the meaning to endure trouble remains, the meaning be willing to is preserved in the Yunnan dialect, and the meaning be comfortable has since disappeared. Shīfàn 師範 refers to the role model that others can learn from both in ancient and modern times. The Hòuhànshū: Zhào Yī zhuàn 後漢書· 趙壹傳 [The Book of the Later Han dynasty: A Biography of Zhao Yi] records that “jūn xuéchéng shīfàn, jìnshēn guīmù. Yǎnggāo xījì, lìnián zīduō. 君學成師範，縉紳歸慕. 仰高 希驥，歷年滋多.” (You have become a role model whom officials admire. There are more and more people who admire and hope for good virtue over the years.) The Běishǐ: Yáng Bōlún zhuàn 北史· 楊播倫傳 [The History of Bei dynasty: A Biography of Yang Bolun] reads “Gōngdé shènxíng, wéishì shīfàn. 恭德慎 行，爲世師範.” (The man who respects morality and is cautious in words and deeds can become a model for the society.) In modern times, it means master and teacher. The second act of the Jīnqiánjì 金錢記 [A Record of Money], written by Qiao Ji 喬吉 of the Yuan dynasty records that “zhuó Sòng Yù wéi shīfàn, Wūé zuò shēngyuán. 着宋玉爲師範，巫娥做生員.” (Song Yu is commissioned as a teacher and Wue becomes a student of the Imperial College.) Chapter seventyseven of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West], written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty, reports that “bǎohù Tángsēng, bài wéi shīfàn. 保護 唐僧，拜爲師範.” (You should protect Tang Monk and take him as your master.) In Modern Chinese, the meanings master and teacher are no longer used. Zhǔchí 主持 emerged in middle ancient times. It means take charge or take the responsibility for a decision. The Yuè 月 [The Lunar Eclipse], written by Lu Tong 盧仝 of the Tang dynasty, reads “xīngchén rèn tíngwèi, tiānlǜ zì zhǔchí. 星辰任廷 尉，天律自主持.” (Stars are appointed as judicial officers, and the law of heaven takes charge autonomously.) In modern times, there were three new meanings: (1) proposition, idea; used as a noun. In the fourth act of the Yùhúchūn 玉壺春

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 175 written by Wu Hanchen 武漢臣 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “duōxiè nǐ dàēnrén zuò zhǔchí. 多謝你大恩人做主持.” (Thank you for giving ideas kindly.) (2) Support. The Shìzhěyín 逝者吟 [The Ode to the Departed], written by Lü Kun 吕坤 of the Ming dynasty, reads “chēlún qiānlǐxíng, shìzhóu wéi zhǔchí. 車輪千 里行，恃軸爲主持.” (The wheel travels thousands of miles, which is supported by the axel.) (3) A title referring to the man who takes charge of temples. Volume twelve of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty reads “Shénzōng dào, ‘Qīng jì wéi sēng, jí wěi qīng xiélǐ zhāishì, yìrì jīng yán jièlǜ, biàn kězuò běnsì zhǔchí.’ 神宗道： ‘卿既爲僧，即委卿協理齋事，異日精嚴戒律，便可作本寺主持.’” (Shenzong said, “Since you are a monk, you are appointed to handle that. When discipline is more rigorous and strict one day, you can be the abbot of this temple.”) In Modern Chinese, the meanings take charge and take the responsibility for a decision remain, but the first and second meanings have disappeared completely, while the third meaning can be used in particular situations. 3.4.4 Extinctionofmeaningsinancientandmoderntimes Some words may become extinct, and their morphology and meaning disappear; some words have the same forms in Modern Chinese as in ancient or modern times yet have different meanings. See the following examples. Chéngshòu 承受 had the meaning accept from remote ancient times to modern times. The Zuǒfù: Yǐngōngbānián 左傳· 隱公八年 [Chronicle of Zuo: The Eighth Year of the Age of Yingong] records that “Guǎjūn wén mìng yǐ, gǎn bù chéngshòu jūn zhī míngdé. 寡君聞命矣，敢不承受君之明德？(When my king hears that, how dare he not accept your kings’ wise and good action!) Chapter twelve of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West], written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty, reports that “Xuánzàng fǎshī dà yǒuyuán, xiànqián cǐwù kān chéngshòu. 玄奘法師大有缘，现前此物堪承受.” (Making friends with Master Xuanzang is the fate. Now please accept this present.) In modern times, it also meant inherit. The tenth volume of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuì 古今小說 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty reads “ruòshì wéi tiándì shàng huàile shǒuzú qīnqíng, dào bùrú qiónghàn chìguāngguāng méidé chéngshòu, fǎnwéi gānjìng, shěngle xǔduō shìfēi kǒushé. 若是爲田地上壊 了手足親情，到不如窮漢赤光光没得承受，反爲乾净，省了許多是非口舌.” (If we hurt the brotherhood and family affection for the land, I might as well be a poor man without inheriting. In this way, everything is smooth and neat, and it can save a lot of quarrels about right and wrong.) In Modern Chinese, chéngshòu 承受 means undertake and undergo, which are totally different from the original meanings. Déxìng 德性 referred to the sincere character of people in ancient times and was a positive word. It is written in the Lǐjì: Zhōngyōng 禮記· 中庸 [The Book of Rites: The Golden Mean] that “gù jūnzǐ zūn déxìng ér dào wènxué. 故君子 尊德性而道問學.” (A gentleman should respect virtue and pursue knowledge.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotated that déxìng 德性 is the sincere quality of people. In

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modern times, the meaning character or quality emerged, which was a neutral word. The Fēngzhēngwù: Héyào 風筝誤· 和鹞 [A Misunderstanding Caused by a Kite: Singing with Snipes], written by Li Yu 李漁 of the Qing dynasty, reads “jiù dāng cáimào dōu yǒule, nà jǔzhǐ wèibì duānzhuāng, déxìng wèibì zhēnjìng. 就當 才貌都有了，那舉止未必端莊，德性未必貞静.” (If she is both talented and beautiful, her manner may not be dignified and her character may not be chaste.) During the contemporary age, déxìng 德性 only exists in some dialects. Some of them refer to unpleasing appearance or character. For instance, the third act of the Rìchū 日出 [The Sunrise] authored by Cao Yu 曹禺 reads “Dàyé yǒudeshì yángqián, kějiù yúnǐ zhè déxìng (xiàng Hēisān), yìgèzi yě bù zhí. 大爺有的是洋錢， 可就愚你這德性〔向黑三〕 ， 一個子也不值.” (I have plenty of silver dollars, but with your unpleasing appearance [towards Heisan], you are not worth a penny.) Some of them refer to the disposition or temperament. The Bàofēngyǔ qián 暴 風雨前 [Before a Storm], written by Li Jieren 李劼人 reads “tā sǎosǎo zhīyú tā chùdé hǎo, jiù yóuyú zàihòulái mōle tā zhèliǎngzhǒng déxìng, shànnéng yínghé lìyòng, shǐ tā wàngle zìjǐ. 他嫂嫂之與他處得好，就由於在後来摸了他這兩種 德性，善能迎合利用，使他忘了自己.” (His sister-in-law got along well with him because she later knew his two dispositions and then was good at catering to and making use of them, which made him forget himself.) Jíshì 即世 meant dying or passing away in ancient times. It is recorded in the Zuǒzhuàn: Chénggōng shísān nián 左傳· 成公十三年 [Chronicle of Zuo: The Thirteenth Year of the Age of Chenggong] that “Mù Xiāng jíshì, Kāng Líng jíwèi. 穆襄 即世，康靈即位.” (Mu Xiang passed away, and Kang Ling took the throne.) The Kū Wáng Péngzhōu lūn 哭王彭州掄 [Crying for Wang Pengzhou’s Choice], written by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty reads “Fūrén xiān jíshì, lìngzi gè qīngbiāo. 夫人先即世，令子各清標.” (My wife died earlier, my sons are all handsome.) In modern times, the meanings contemporary and be alive came into being. It is recorded in the second act of the Xièjīnwú 謝金吾 [Xiejinwu] by an anonymous writer that “piēxià le jíshìde pópó, què jiào ǎn zěn zhīyuán, zěn fāfù, zěn jiéshù? 撇下了即世的婆婆，却教俺怎支援，怎發付，怎结束？” (You passed away, but my mother-in-law is still alive. How could I support, deal with, and finish the situation?) The short poem entitled Qítiānlèguōhóngshānér: Húshàng shū suǒjiàn 齊天樂過紅衫兒· 湖上書所見 [Sky Is Happier Than Red Shirts: Writing on the Lake] by Zhang Xiaoshan 張小山 of the Yuan dynasty reads “xiǎo táohuā, bìnbiān chā, jíshìér fēngliú jùnshà. 小桃花，鬢邊插，即世兒風流俊煞.” (Small peach blossoms are inserted at the temples, which are harmed by contemporary charming and handsome men.) It also meant worldly-wise and crafty. The song circle Cūnbiānyàgǔ: Shìnǚ yuánshè qìqiú shuāngguān 村邊迓古· 仕女圓社氣球雙關 [Welcoming the Classic by the Village: The Pun of a Group of Noble Women Playing the Balloon], written by Deng Yubin 鄧玉賓 of the Yuan dynasty, reads “nǐ kàn tā xíngzhēn zǒuxiàn, niānhuā zhāiyè, jíshìlǐ dàizhe xūxiāo. 你看他行針走 綫，拈花摘葉，即世裏带着虚嚣.” (Look at his sewing; he embroidered flowers and leaves which are crafty but fake.) In the second book of the Xīxiāngjì 西 廂記 [The Romance of the West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, its third act reports that “shéi chéngwàng jíjí shìshì lǎopópó, zhe yīngyīng

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 177 zuò mèimèi bài gēge. 誰承望即即世世老婆婆，着鶯鶯做妹妹拜哥哥.” (Who hopes such a worldly-wise mother-in-law that asked Yingying to be my husband’s sister?) In Modern Chinese, the word is no longer used. Kǒuhào 口號 originated in Six dynasties and was used as a title in ancient improvised poems. For example, Jianwendi 簡文帝 of the Liang dynasty wrote a poem called Yǎnghé wèi wèi xīnyúhóu xúnchéng kǒuhào 仰和衛尉新渝侯巡 城口號. Zhang Shuo 張說 of the Tang dynasty wrote a poem entitled Shíwǔrì yùqián kǒuhào tàgēcí 十五日夜御前口號踏歌詞, and Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty wrote a poem called Kǒuhào wúwáng měirén bànzuì 口號吴王美人半醉. In modern times, two meanings came into being: (1) doggerel. The second act of the Jīnqián jì 金錢記 [A Record of Money], written by Qiao Ji 喬吉 of the Yuan dynasty, records that “wǒ yú shīfu zuòle jǐjù kǒuhào. . . . ‘Zhège xiānsheng shí bùzhōng, jiǔjīng sānshǐ jǐ céng tōng? Zìcóng nǐ dào shūfáng nèi, zì yòu bùxiě shū lǎngōng.’ 我舆師父做了幾句口號 . . . ‘這個先生實不中，九經三史幾曾通？ 自従你到書房内，字又不寫書懒攻.’” (I made a few sentences of doggerel with my master. . . . “My teacher is really not honest. Do you really know the nine classics and three histories? Since you came to the study, you haven’t written a word and haven’t bothered rectifying my work.”) (2) Word of command, verbally secret signal. It is written in the first act of the Zhēng bàoēn 争報恩 [Striving for Paying a Debt of Gratitude] by an anonymous writer that “Ǎn qù shāofánglǐ shuōhuà, xiǎo nǎinǎi, xiū dàjīngxiǎoguàide, wǒ yǒu gè kǒuhàoér, ‘Chì, chì, chì’. . . . Zhège hǎosì ǎn Liánshān shàng Sòng Jiāng gēgēde ànhào. 俺去稍房裹説話，小妳妳，休大 驚小怪的，我有個口號兒： ‘赤、赤、赤.’ . . . 這個好似俺梁山上宋江哥哥的 暗號.” (I go to the hut to talk. Concubine, do not make a fuss. I have a slogan, “Red, red, red.” This is like the secret signal of my brother Song Jiang living in Liangshan Mountain.) Chapter seventy-two of the Sānguóyǎnyì 三國演義 [The Romance of Three Kingdoms] by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 reads “Xià Hóudūn rù zhàng, bǐngqǐng yèjiān kǒuhào. 夏侯惇入帳，稟請夜間口號.” (Xia Houdun went into the tent and asked for a slogan at night.) Kǒuhào 口號 is a short sentence with a programmatic and encouraging effect for shouting verbally in contemporary Chinese. The original meaning only appears occasionally in the written language and is no longer used in spoken language. Lǐlùn 理論 originated in middle ancient times and means reason things out and comment according to the truth. The Běishǐ: Cuī Guāngsháo zhuàn 北史· 崔光 韶傳 [The History of the Northern dynasties: A Biography of Cui Guangshao] records that “Guāngsháo bóxué qiǎngbiàn, yóuhào lǐlùn, zhìyú rénlún míngjiào, déshī zhījiān, quèér lùnzhī, bùyǐ yìháo jiǎwù. 光韶博學强辩，尤好理論，至於 人倫名教，得失之間，榷而論之，不以一毫假物.” (Guangshao is erudite and eloquent, especially good at argumentative reasoning. He can accurately analyze and comment on the gains and losses of human relations as well as etiquette and law, without the help of other classics and ordinances.) It is written in the Gù Shàoshī cóngwēng zhuījì 故少師從翁追記 [The Memory of the late Shaoshi Uncle] by Zheng Gu 鄭谷 of the Tang dynasty that “lǐlùn zhī qīngyuè, shēngtú dé Lǐ Pín. 理論知清越，生徒得李頻.” (Reasoning can make people superb and outstanding. There are such satisfactory students as Li Pin.) There were three new

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meanings in modern times: (1) argue with reason or to debate. The first act of the Féngyùlán 馮玉蘭 [Feng Yulan] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty reads “nǐ héxū jǐn sīgēn, dǎng yānhóu qiǎng jiérén, hǎo jiàowǒ kūtítí nán lǐlùn, dài xiàngqián hái dǎotuì. 你何須緊廝跟，擋咽喉强劫人，好教我哭啼啼難理 論，待向前還倒褪.” (Why should you follow closely, block my throat and kidnap me forcefully so as to make me cry and make it hard to debate with you, and why go back when you should have gone forward?) It is written in volume thirty-four of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “ruò xiān rǎngpò le, fǎn bèitā zuòle zhǔnbèi, bùrú jìngdào guānsi, yǔtā lǐlùn. 若先嚷破了，反被他做了準備，不如 竟到官司，與他理論.” (If he shouts first and makes a preparation, we might as well go to the local authority and argue with him.) (2) Care about, pay attention to. The Zǐchāijì: Jiēzhēn xuānēn 紫釵記· 節鎮宣恩 [A Tale of the Purple Hairpin: Military Governor Proclaiming the Emperor’s Virtues] by Tang Xianzu 湯 顯祖 of the Ming dynasty reads “rújīn Lúfǔ zhemáng, bùxiá lǐlùndào cǐshì. 如 今盧府着忙，不暇理論到此事.” (Now the family of Lu is busy, I do not have time to notice it.) The Dìèrbēi: Shàng zhǒng 第二碑· 上塚 [The Second Tablet: Visiting Graves to Honor the Memory of the Dead] by Jiang Shiquan 蔣士銓 of the Qing dynasty reads “xiǎorénmen zǔfù jūcǐ, zàocè yǒugè gǔfén, xiànglái yě bù lǐlùn, jí bùzhèngsī Jiānyé láicǐ lìbēi, shǐzhī shì lóufēi jiùmù. 小人們祖父居此， 竈側有個古墳，向来也不理論，及布政司篯爺来此立碑，始知是婁妃舊墓.” (My grandfathers were buried here. There is an ancient tomb beside my family’s tomb. I had never paid much attention to it until Minister Jian came here to erect a monument that I started to know that it is Concubine Lou’s old tomb.) (3) Reason, truth. The third act of the Liúxiéjì 留鞋記 [A Tale of Leaving Shoes] by an anonymous writer of the Yuan dynasty reads “nǐ jìshì gè nǚzǐ, zěnshēng bù shǒu guīmén zhīxùn? Zhè xiùxiéér quèzài Guō Huá huáizhōng, yǒuhé lǐlùn? Cóngshí zhāolái, xiū tǎodǎ chī. 你既是個女子，怎生不守閨門之訓？這繡鞋兒却在郭華懷中， 有何理論？從實招來，休討打吃.” (As a woman, why do not you obey the rules of the conduct of women? The embroidered shoes are in Guo Hua’s arms; what’s the reason? Tell the truth or you will be beaten.) In Modern Chinese, lǐlùn 理論 refers to the systemic reasonable knowledge, whose meaning is different from the original meanings. Lóngzhòng 隆重 referred to high status in ancient times. The Sòngshū: Kǒng Línzhī zhuàn 宋書孔琳之傳 [The Book of the Song dynasty: A Biography of Kong Linzhi] reads “xiànzhī nèijū cháoyòu, wàisī niǎngū, wèirèn lóngzhòng, bǎipì suǒzhān. 羡之内居朝右，外司輦轂，位任隆重，百辟所瞻.” (Xianzhi’s inner room faces the right side, and he sits in the emperor’s sedan chair when he goes out. His position is grand and all officials pay homage to him.) The Liángshū: Fàn Yún zhuàn 梁書· 范雲傳 [The Book of the Liang dynasty: A Biography of Fan Yun] reads “jíjū xuǎnguān, wèishǒu lóngzhòng, shūdú yíngàn, bīnkè mǎnmén. 及 居選官，位守隆重，書犢盈案，賓客滿門.” (He selects officials at home, his position is high, on his table there are piles of books and documents, and guests arrive endlessly.) In modern times, it began to act as a verb, meaning to make much account of something. For example, it is written in chapter sixty-three of

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 179 the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “yuánlái tiānzǐ jíshì rénxiào guòtiānde, qiě gènglóngzhòng gōngchén zhīyì, yìjiàn cǐběn, biàn zhàowèn Jiǎ Zhèng hézhí. 原来天子極是仁孝 過天的，且更隆重功臣之裔，一見此本，便詔問賈政何職.” (It turns out that our emperor is very benevolent and filial and makes much account of the descendants of meritorious statesmen. As soon as he saw this, he asked Jia Zheng what position he wanted to hold.) In Modern Chinese, lóngzhòng 隆重 means grand and solemn, which is different from the previous two meanings. Zuòtóu 坐頭 meant seat of honor or the head of the table in the Tang dynasty. The second volume of the Yīnhuàlù 因話録 [The Record of Discourses] by Zhao Lin 趙 磷of the Tang dynasty reads “Lǐshàngshū yì, yǒu zōngrén shùzǐ tóngmíng. . . . Céng yīnzújiān yǒu lǐhuì, shàngshū guī, xiàowèi jiārén yuē, ‘Dà kānxiào, jīnrì júxí liǎnggè zuòtóu, zǒngshì Lǐ Yì.’ 李尚書益，有宗人庶子同名 . . . 曾姻族間有禮會，尚書 歸，笑謂家人曰： ‘大堪笑，今日局席兩個坐頭，總是李益.’” (The Minister is called Li Yi, and a concubine’s son of one of his clansman is also called this name. . . . One day he went to take part in a courtesy meeting among families related by marriage. After returning home, he told his family with laughter, “It’s ridiculous. Two seats of honor are always seated by Li Yi today.”) The Tōngyǎ: Chēngwèi 通雅稱謂 [Standard Annotations through Ancient and Modern Times: Titles] by Fang Yizhi 方 以智 of the Ming dynasty reads “shǒuzuò wèi zhī kè, Táng wèi zhī zuòtóu. 首座謂 之客，唐謂之坐頭.” (The seat of honor is called kè 客, which was called zuòtóu 坐頭in the Tang dynasty.) In modern times, it referred to the seat. For example, it is written in chapter twenty-nine of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Wǔ Sōng kànle, chǒuzhe zuìyǎn, jìng bēnrù jiǔdiàn lǐlái, biànqù guìshēn xiāngduì yífù zuòtóushàng zuòle, bǎ shuāngshǒu ànzhe zhuōzishàng. 武松看了，瞅着醉眼， 径奔入酒店裹来，便去櫃身相對一副坐頭上坐了，把雙手按着桌子上.” (Wu Song looked at it with his drunken eyes and then he ran into the hotel directly, went to a table opposite to the counter and sat down, putting his hands on the table.) The fifth volume of the Gǔjīn xiǎoshuō 古今小説 [The Ancient and Modern Stories] compiled by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty reads “zhòng kèren xúnxíng zhúduì, gè jù zuòtóu tǎojiāng suǒjiǔ. 衆客人尋行逐隊，各據坐頭討漿索酒.” (The guests marched in line, each occupying a seat and begging for drinks.) It is written in volume thirty-seven of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “zǒushàng jiǔlóu, jiǎn fù zuòtóu zuòxià. 走上酒樓，揀副坐頭坐下.” (He entered the restaurant, and chose a vice seat to sit down.) The word is no longer used nowadays. 3.4.5 Maintenanceofsomeexistingmeaningsinmoderntimes As for the cases in which two or more meanings come into being in modern times, some meanings persist, while others may have disappeared completely, as can be seen in the following examples. Chuàngjiàn/chuàngxiàn 創見 originated in modern times, meaning first appear. The Fēngshànwén 封禪文 [An Essay of Grand Ceremony of Worship of Heaven]

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by Sima Xiangru 司馬相如 of the Han dynasty reads “xiūliè jiāqià, fúruì zhòngbiàn, qīyìng shàozhì, bútè chuàngxiàn. 休烈浃洽，符瑞衆變，期應紹至，不特 創見.” (Your Majesty’s career is prosperous and desirable. There are many auspicious signs and changes. It comes as scheduled and continuously, not just for the first time.) In modern times, two new meanings came into being: (1) see for the first time, seldom see. The Yǐnjūtōngyì: Wénzhāng bā 隱居通義文章八 [The General Rules of Living in Seclusion: Essays VIII] by Liu Xun 劉壎 of the Yuan dynasty reads “yírì, fùzǐ dōngguī, chūwú qíjié, chūfēi shèn gāonán xíng zhīshì, sòngzhě chēshù bǎiliǎng, zhì qìxià zījiē. Zhì xiěwéi túhuà yǐchuán, qǐchū qí chuàng (chuàng) jiàn gù yē? 一日，父子東歸，初無奇節，初非甚高難行之事，送者 車數百兩，至泣下咨嗟.” 至寫爲圖畫以傳，豈出其剏（創）見故耶？ ” (One day, a father and son returned to their hometown. At the beginning, there was no strange ceremony and there was not anything difficult. They were seen off by people with hundreds of carriages and they cried and sighed. This matter was painted and handed down, is not it very rare to be seen?) The fifth chapter of the Pǐnhuā bǎojiàn 品花寶鑒 [Appreciation of Flowers and Treasure] by Chen Sen 陳森 of the Qing dynasty reads “Zǐyún, Cìxián lǐngzhe tā dào yuánnèi guàngle yīguàng, zhèxiē fángwū yǔ nà pūshè gǔwán děngwù, dōushì píngshēng chuàngjiàn, dǎo xìxìde yóuwán le yíhuì. 子雲、次賢領着他到園内逛了一逛，這些房屋舆那 鋪設古玩等物，都是平生創見，倒细细的遊玩了一會.” (Ziyun and Cixian led him around the garden. These houses were decorated with antiques and other things, which were rare to be seen in life. They played everywhere for a while.) (2) Unique viewpoint. The Yěhuòbiān bǔyí 野獲编補遺 [The Supplement Edition of Wild Beasts], the Zhùshù: Jìhànshū 著述· 季漢書 [Writing and Compiling: The Book of the Kingdom of Shu Han] by Shen Defu 沈德符 of the Ming dynasty reads “kějiàn qiánrén shíjiàn, gāochū hòuxué, yùshì biàn chūshǒu zuòchéng. Gài bútè Xièshēng zhīshū, fēichū chuàngjiàn, jí Wú zhī jiùběn, yì túzìkǔěr. 可見前人 識見，高出後學，遇事便出手做成. 蓋不特謝生之書，非出剏見，即吴之舊 本，亦徒自苦耳.” (It can be seen that the previous generation has higher knowledge than the present generation. When something happens, they would make it. Not only Xie Lingyun’s book, but also the old version of Wu must contain unique opinions which makes a scholar pained.) At present, the meaning unique viewpoint remains, but other meanings have disappeared. Jìliǎng 伎倆 originated in the Six dynasties, meaning skill and gift. The Rénwùzhì: Liúyè 人物志· 流業 [Records of Personages: Types of People of a Certain Social Status] by Liu Shao 劉劭 of the Kingdom of Wei reads “gài rénliú zhīyè, shíyǒu èryān, . . . yǒu jìliǎng. 蓋人流之業，十有二焉， . . . 有伎俩.” (There are 12 types of people of a certain social status, . . . they have skills.) In modern times, two meanings came into being: (1) means, trick. It is written in the seventh volume of the Xǐngshìhéngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “Dàyǐn hētuì Gāo Zàn, huàn Yóu Chén shànglái, màdào, ‘Nòngjiǎ chéngzhēn, yǐfēi wéishì, dōushì nǐ nòngchū zhège jìliǎng.’ 大尹喝退高贊，唤尤辰上来，駡道： ‘弄假成真，以非爲是，都是你 弄出這個伎倆.’” (Dayin shouted Gao Zan off, called You Chen over, and scolded, “It is you that played the trick which made the fake come true and took the wrong

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 181 as the right!”) (2) Cunning. Chapter twenty of the Jīnpíngméi cíhuà 金瓶梅詞話 [One Edition of the Plum in the Golden Vase], written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, reads “wǒ mà nǐ jùzhēn jìliǎng, mèirén húdǎng, chōng yìpiàn jiǎ xīncháng? 我駡你句真伎倆，媚人狐黨，冲一片假心腸？” (I scold you for being so cunning; you belong to the flattering fox group and have a dishonest heart.) Currently, the meanings means and trick have been preserved, but the other meanings have disappeared completely. Jiēguǒ 结果 was originally a term in Buddhism. According to Buddhism, planting trees is a metaphor for people’s actions, and jiēguǒ 结果 refers to people’s destinations. The Fóběnháng jíjīng 佛本行集經 [Buddhist Scriptures] translated by Genajueduo 阁那崛多 of the Sui dynasty reads “Yuǎnyīn jié yuǎnguǒ, jìnyīn jié jìnguǒ, shànyīn jié shànguǒ, èyīn jié èguǒ, wúyīn jié wúliàngguǒ. 遠因结遠 果，近因结近果，善因结善果，惡因结惡果，無因结無量果.” (Far cause bears far fruit, near cause bears near fruit, good cause bears good fruit, evil cause bears evil fruit, and no cause bears zero fruit). In modern times, four meanings emerged: (1) ending. The first act of the Qì yīngbù 氣英布 [Angry Ying Bu], written by Shang Zhongxian 尚仲賢 of the Yuan dynasty, reads “Yīngbù jīnfān qù Bō, bùzhēng wǒ fúshì zhòngtóng méi gè jiéguǒ. 英布今番去波，不争我服事重瞳没 個結果.” (Yingbu went to Bo this time, but I didn’t expect that there would be no ending that I serve the emperor.) The Jīngběntōngsúxiǎoshuō: Cùzhǎn Cuīníng 京本通俗小説· 錯斬崔寧 [The Capital Edition of Popular Fictions: Wrongly Beheading Cuining] reports that “zhǐguǎn zuò zhè méi tiānlǐde gòudàng, xū zhōng búshì gè hǎo jiéguǒ. 只管做這没天理的勾當，须终不是個好結果.” (Just do this immoral deed; it will not be a good ending.) (2) Finish. The second volume of the Xīxiāngjì zhūgōng diào 西廂記諸宫調 [Various Melodies of Romance of the Western Chamber], written by Dong Jieyuan 董解元 of the Jin dynasty, records that “luànjūn ménwài, yào yòunǚ yīngyīng, zěnshēng jiéguǒ. 亂軍門外，要幼女 鶯鶯，怎生结果.” (The young girls are frightened by the army in disarray outside; how to end it?) The fourth act of the Hónglí páo 红梨袍 [A Red Pear Robe] by Zhang Duqing 張毒卿 of the Yuan dynasty reads “suīrán shì Liúgōngbìshǐ de jībiàn, Zhào Rǔzhōu piānnéng gùliàn, dàodǐ shì hónglíhuā jiéguǒ le zhè yíduàn yīnyuán. 雖然是劉公弼使的機變，趙汝州偏能顧戀，到底是紅梨花结果了這 一段姻缘.” (Though the assistant of Duke Liu made the scheme, Zhao Ruzhou was not reluctant to leave him. It was the red pear flower that ended the predestined marriage.) (3) Execute. The first act of the Yàn Qīng bóyú 燕青博魚 [Yan Qing Winning Fish] by Li Wenwei 李文蔚 of the Yuan dynasty reads “yánèi, zhǐděng jiéguǒ le tā, jiējiù méirén guǎnzhe de le. 衙内，只等结果了他，喈就没人管着 的了.” (In the yamen, just wait for him to be executed and soon no one will care about it.) (4) Cash. It is noted in chapter twenty of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全 傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Sòng Jiāng yòu wèndào, ‘Nǐ yǒu jiéguǒ shǐyòng me?’ Yánpó dádào, ‘Shí bùmán yāsī shuō, guāncai shàngwú, nà tǎo shǐyòng?’” 宋江又問道： ‘你有 結果使用麽？’ 閻婆答道： ‘實不瞞押司説，棺材尚無，那討使用？’” (Song Jiang asked, “Do you have any cash to pay?” Old woman Yan replied, “I tell you honestly, I have not bought a coffin, how can I afford it?”) In Modern Chinese, the

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meanings ending, finish, and execute have been preserved, while the second and the fourth meanings have both disappeared completely. Tángkè 堂客 referred to the distinguished guest in middle ancient times. The Yuánzhōng mùzhì 元鐘墓誌 [The Epigraph of Yuanzhong] of the Sui dynasty reads “tángkè bùkōng, guìzūn héngmǎn. 堂客不空，桂罇恒滿.” (If the distinguished guests do not leave, their wine glass will always be full.) In modern times, there were four new meanings: (1) female guest. Chapter seventy-one of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “Níngguó fǔzhōng dānqǐng guānkè, Róngguó fǔzhōng dānqǐng tángkè. 寧國府中單請官客，榮國府中單請堂客.” (In the Ningguo mansion, only male guests are invited, while in the Rongguo mansion, only female guests are invited.) In the book Yángzhōu huàfǎng lù 揚州畫舫録 [A Record of the Gaily Painted Pleasure-Boat of Yangzhou] by Li Dou 李鬥 of the Qing dynasty, volume eleven Hóngqiáolù 虹橋録 [A Record of the Camel-Back Bridge] reads “huàfǎng yǒu tángkè, guānkè zhīfēn, tángkè wéi fùnǚ zhīchēng. 畫舫有堂客、官客之分，堂客爲婦女之稱.” (The gaily painted pleasure-boats are distinguished into ones for female guests and ones for male guests, and tángkè 堂客 refers to women.) (2) Women, especially married women. It is written in the fourth chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “kuàng tā shì gè jífēngliú rénpǐn, jiālǐ pō guòdé, sùxìng yòu zuì yānè tángkè, jīn jìng pòjià mǎinǐ, hòushì bùyán kězhī. 况他是個極風流人品，家裏頗過得，素性又最厭恶堂客，今競破價買你， 後事不言可知.” (Besides, he is a very dissolute man. He has a rich family and hates married women most. Now he bids for you at a low price. We can guess what will happen in the future.) In the fourth chapter of the Hédiǎn 何典 [A Novel about the Underworld] by Zhang Nanzhuan 張南莊 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “tā shuō búlùn niánjì, qióngfù, xìniáng, tángkè, zhǐyào shēngdé biāozhì. 他説不論年紀、窮富、细娘、堂客，只要生得標緻.” (He said he did not care about her age, no matter whether she is rich and married, as long as she is beautiful.) (3) Wife. It is written in chapter twenty-seven of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林 外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty that “dào míngrì, ná sìyàng shǒushì lái, réngjiù jiào wǒjiā tángkè sòngyǔ tā. 到明日，拿四樣首 飾来，仍舊叫我家堂客送與他.” (Tomorrow, bring four kinds of jewelry and still ask my wife to give them to her.) (4) Prostitute. The Báixuě yíyīn 白雪遺音 [Echoes of White Snow], the Mǎtóudiào: Wōchāng 馬頭調· 窩娼 [The Melody of Horse’s Head: Harboring Prostitutes] reads “yǒu yíwèi Wútàiyé, yídào jiù bǎ tángkè duàn. Xíngfǎer xīnxiān, jìnǚér tìqù le tóufà; bāojiāzi, xuēqù le méijiān. 有 一位吴太爺，一到就把堂客断. 刑法兒新鮮，妓女兒剃去了頭髪；包家子， 削去了眉尖.” (A magistrate whose surname is Wu settled the case as soon as he arrived. The penalty was novel: the prostitute’s hair and eyebrows were shaved.) Currently, it remains in some dialects, referring to women in general and wives in particular. These examples show that the tendency toward polysemy of polysyllabic words in Modern Chinese has been very significant. This tendency is also reflected in neologisms. Some polysyllabic words produced in late middle ancient times and

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 183 even in modern times soon became polysemous words, and these words were quite complex, as shown in the following examples. Hāonǎo 薅惱 is also written as hāonǎo 蒿惱, which has two meanings: (1) to harass, trouble. In the fifth play of the Zhāngxié zhuàngyuán 張協状元 [Number One Scholar Zhang Xie] by an anonymous writer of the Southern Song dynasty, it is written that “zhǐbèi dāngzhí hāonǎo, rìyè màzhe yī. 只被當直蒿惱，日夜駡 着伊.” (I am harassed by the servant, who scolds you day and night.) It is noted in chapter twenty-seven of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Shǐ Jìnguī dào tīngqián, xúnsi, ‘Zhè sīmén dànòng, bì yàolái hāonǎo cūnfāng. 史進歸到 廳前，尋思： ‘這廝們大弄，必要来薅惱村坊.’” (Shi Jingui went to the hall and thought, “These guys’ large-scale action will definitely harass the villagers.”) (2) Annoy. The Liáozhāizhìyì: Niàn yāng 聊齋志異· 念秧 [A Collection of Bizarre Stories: Nian Yang] by Pu Songling 蒲松齡 reads “shēngpíng bùxí báshè, pūmiàn chénshā, shǐrén hāonǎo. 生平不習跋涉，撲面麈沙，使人薅惱.” (I am not used to trekking in my life, and I feel annoyed when the dust blows on my face.) Gānjìng 乾浄 did not come into being until the Song dynasty, meaning simply. The Púsàmán 菩薩蠻 [Pusaman] by Shen Duanjie 沈端節 of the Song dynasty reads “Jiǔxǐng chūmèng pò, mèngpò chóu wúnà, gānjìng bùrú xiū, xiūshí zhǐ nènchóu. 酒醒初破夢，夢破愁無那，乾浄不如休，休時只恁愁.” (Waking up after drinking, I have endless worries. Simply have a rest; I will worry just like this.) After the Yuan and Ming dynasties, there were new meanings: (1) clean. The first act of the Tiěguǎilǐ 鐵拐李 [Li Tieh-Kuai] authored by Yue Bochuan 岳伯川 of the Yuan dynasty reads “zhenǐ xǐde bózi gānjìng, zhōuyálǐ shìjiàn lái. 着你洗的 脖子乾净，州衙裹試劍来.” (Ask him to wash his neck and officials of the state yamen will come to try swords tomorrow morning.) It is written in volume eleven of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 that “xiǎorén de chuán, xīn xiūzhěng dé hǎo, yòu jiāngù, yòu gànjìng. 小 人的船，新修整得好，又堅固，又乾浄.” (My boat is revamped, which is well repaired, strong and clean.) (2) (Describing the appearance) neat and comely. Volume sixteen of the Chūkè pāiànjīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [The Primary Edition of Slapping the Table in Amazement] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty reads “quèjiàn shì yígè zhōngnián póniáng, rénwù dàoyě shēngdé gānjìng. 却 見是個中年婆娘，人物倒也生得乾浄.” (It turns out that she is a middle-aged woman but comely.) (3) Quiet. The introduction part of the Zhúwǔ tīngqín 竹塢 聽琴 [Listening to the Guqin in a Bamboo House] by Shi Zizhang 石子章 of the Yuan dynasty reads “nǐ zháowǒ rújīn jià nàgèrén qù, bùrú chūjiā dàoyě gānjìng. 你 着我如今嫁那個人去，不如出家倒也乾浄.” (If you want me to marry that man now, I’d better become a nun to seek peace and quiet.) It is written in chapter thirtyone of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹 雪芹 of the Qing dynasty that “wǒ jīngbùqǐ zhè chǎo, bùrú qùle dào gānjìng. 我 經不起這吵，不如去了倒乾净.” (I cannot stand the noise. I might as well go to seek quiet.) (4) Purely. It is written in volume thirty-five of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “Lǎonú tuōlài èrwèi guānrén hóngfú, chúle běnqián pánfèi,

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gānjìng chèndé sìwǔshíliǎng. 老奴托赖二位官人洪福，除了本錢盤費，乾浄 趁得四五十兩.” (I relied on the good fortune of two officials, and made a pure profit of 40 or 50 taels of silver in addition to the capital and traveling expenses.) (5) Being left with nothing. Chapter forty-two of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase], written by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty, reads “Xīdà dúzì yígè, chīde lǐwài gānjìng. 希大獨自一個，吃的 裹外乾净.” (Xida ate alone and nothing was left.) It is written in volume twentyfive of the Xǐngshìhéngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “Xiáshū jiàn húnjiā yòu gēle yìqǔ, yùjiā fènhèn. Hènbúde yǎnlǐ fàngchū huǒlái, lián zhè Lónghuásì dōu shāogè gānjìng. 遐叔見渾家又歌了一曲，愈加忿恨. 恨不得眼裹放出火来，連這龍 華寺都焼個乾浄.” (Uncle Xia became angrier and angrier when he saw that his wife sang a song again. He wished he could make fire through his eyes, which could burn the Longhua temple to the ground.) (6) Entirely. In chapter twenty of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West], written by Wu Chengen 吴承 恩 of the Ming dynasty, it reports that “Lǎoguāner, nǐ ruò yǐmào qǔrén, gānjìng chàle. Wǒmen chǒuzìchǒu, quèdōu yǒuyòng. 老官兒，你若以貌取人，乾浄差 了. 我們醜自醜，却都有用.” (Old man, if you judge people by their looks, you are completely wrong. We are ugly, but are all useful.) Chapter thirty-nine of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭 陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty reads “Lǎoshēn gānjìng yǎnhuā le, zhǐ dāngzuò hūnde lái. 老身乾净眼花了，只當做葷的来.” (My eyes are totally blurred; I will eat it as a meat dish.) (7) So. Chapter forty-three of the Jīnpíngméi 金瓶梅 [The Plum in the Golden Vase] by Lanling Xiaoxiaosheng 蘭陵笑笑生 of the Ming dynasty reads “chíle yìhuí, fǎn luàn qǐlái, shuō bújiàn le yīdìng jīnzi. Gānjìng jiùshì tā xué Sāncùnhuò, shuō bùjiàn le, yóutā mànmàner xúnbà. 遲了一回，反 亂起来，説不見了一錠金子. 乾浄就是他學三寸货，説不見了，由他慢慢 兒尋罷.” (Being late once, things became disorderly and he said that he had lost an ingot of silver. So, it is the fact that he learned from Sancunhuo, saying that he had lost but he could find it slowly.) In Modern Chinese, the meanings clean and being left with nothing have been preserved, and the other meanings have since disappeared. Jiàzi 架子 is a word that began to emerge in modern times. There are more than four meanings: (1) things built by the intersection of bamboo, wood, and other materials, which are used to place utensils, support objects, or install tools. It is noted in chapter fifty-five of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty that “Dōngjīng xīn chāi yìgè pàoshǒu, hàozuò hōngtiānléi Língzhèn, jírì yú shuǐbiān shùqǐ jiàzi, ānpái shīfàng huǒpào. 東京新差一個炮手，號做轟天雷淩振，即日 於水邊豎起架子，安排施放火炮.” (In Dongjing, a new gunner was sent, and he was called Loud Thunder Lingzhen. He erected a shelf by the water and arranged artillery to fire.) The third chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “dāngdì fàngzhe yígè zǐtán jiàzi dàlǐshí píngfēng. 當地放着一個紫檀架子大理石屏風.” (There is a red sandalwood shelf and a marble screen.) (2) Put on airs. Volume twenty-one

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 185 of the Jǐngshì tōngyán 警世通言 [Stories to Caution the World], written by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 reports that “Shūfù mòguài wǒ shuō, nǐmen chūjiārén guàn zhuāng jiàzi, lǐwài bùyì. 叔父莫怪我説，你們出家人慣妝架子，裏外不一.” (Uncle, do not blame me for saying that you monks are used to putting on airs and being different inside and outside.) Chapter twenty of the Rúlín wàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty reads “fánshì lìqǐ tǐtǒng lái, bùkě zìjǐ dǎole jiàzi. 凡事立起體統来，不可自己倒了架子.” (Do everything decently, do not lose your dignity.) The second chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓 夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “rújīn wàimiàn de jiàzi suī méi hěndǎo, nèináng què yě jìn shànglái le. 如今外面 的架子雖没很倒，内囊却也盡上来了.” (Now it has not lost its reputation, but the family property is running out.) (3) A move in martial arts. Chapter twenty of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West], written by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty, reports that “nà yāojīng nàróng fēnshuō, jí màibù, diū gè jiàzi. 那妖精那容分説，急邁步，丢個架子.” (The goblin did not allow any explanation and hurried to take a small step and display a move.) (4) Quantifier. It is used to describe the clothes, namely a suit of. The first act of the Kànqián nú 看錢奴 [A Slave Taking Care of Host’s Money] by Zheng Tingyu 鄭廷玉 of the Yuan dynasty reads “wǒ ruò zuòle cáizhǔ hē, chuān yìjiàzi hǎo yīfu, qízhe yìpǐ hǎomǎ. 我若做了財主呵，穿一架子好衣服，騎着一匹好馬.” (If I were a rich man, I would wear a suit of good clothes and ride a good horse.) In Modern Chinese, the first and second meanings have been preserved, and the third meaning only exists in the oral language or in certain dialects. Tīji 梯己 is also written as tīji 體己, which originated in the Yuan dynasty, having five meanings: (1) the property saved by family members. Volume nineteen of the Chūkè pāiànjīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [The Primary Edition of Slapping the Table in Amazement] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty reads “Xiǎoé yě zì tījǐ chèngchū èrqián lái, sòng nà línrén. 小娥也自梯己秤出二錢来，送那鄰人.” (Xiao’e also weighed out two monies from her savings and sent it to her neighbor.) Chapter sixteen of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “zhīdào nǎinai yǒule tǐjǐ, tā háibù dàzhe dǎnzi huā me? 知道奶奶有了體己，他還不大着膽子花麽？” (Why did not he spend boldly when he knew that Grandma had savings?) (2) In private. In the Yuándiǎnzhāng 元典章 [Regulations of the Yuan dynasty], the chapter of Hùbù shísān 户部十三 [The Ministry of Revenue 13] reads “rúyǒu wèimín jièle, suī xiězuò tījǐ wénqì, yǎng zhàokān duānde. 如有爲民借了，雖寫作梯己文契，仰 照勘端的.” (If someone borrows for the public, although it is written as a contract in private, please verify the ins and outs.) Chapter forty-one of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “Bǎoyù biàn qīngqīng zǒule jìnlái, xiàodào, ‘Nǐmen hái chī tǐjǐchá ne?’ 寶 玉便輕輕走了進来，笑道：‘你們還吃體己茶呢？’” (Baoyu walked in quietly and said with a smile, “Are you still drinking tea in private?”) (3) Intimate, considerate. In chapter fifty-two of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty it is noted that “Gāolián shǒuxià yǒu sānbǎi tījǐ jūnshì, hàowéi fēitiānshénbīng. 高廉手下有

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三百梯己軍士，號爲飛天神兵.” (Gao Lian has 300 confidential soldiers under his command. They are called Flying Magic soldiers.) The ninth chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [ADream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “Èrrén jiǎzhuāng chū xiǎogōng, zǒuzhì hòuyuàn shuō tǐjǐhuà. 二人 假装出小恭，走至後院説體己話.” (The two pretended to go to urinate and went to the backyard to talk intimately.) (4) A heart-to-heart talk. Chapter twenty-seven of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “xiǎnjiànde shì gēgē mèimèi le, diūle biérén, qiěshuō tījǐ qù, wǒmen tīng yījùér jiù shǐbùdé liǎo. 顯見的是哥哥妹妹了，丢了别人，且 説梯己去，我們聽一句兒就使不得了.” (It is obvious that they are brother and sister, who leave others to say intimate words, and we can not hear a word.) (5) In person. Chapter sixty-two of the Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh (complete version)] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty reads “Sòng Jiāng dào, ‘Xiǎokě bùcái, xìngshí yuánwài. Láirì Sòng Jiāng tījǐ liáobèi xiǎozhuó, duìmiàn lùnxīn yíhuì, wùqǐng tuīquè.’ 宋江道： ‘小可不才，幸識員外.’ 来日 宋江梯己聊備小酌，對面論心一會，勿請推却.” (Song Jiang said, “I am not talented, but I am lucky to know you, ministry councillor. In the future, I will prepare a feast in person and we can have a heart-to-heart talk; please do not refuse.”) Chapter fifty-six of the Xǐngshì yīnyuán zhuàn 醒世姻緣傳 [The Predestined Marriage Stories to Awaken People] authored by Xi Zhousheng 西周生 of the Qing dynasty reads “Díxī Chén tījǐ sòngle Jìjiě yíduì yùpínghuā, liǎnggè sīchóu hànjīn. 狄希陳梯己送了寄姐一對玉瓶花，兩個絲綢汗巾.” (Dixi Chen personally sent her a pair of jade vases and a silk scarf.) In Modern Chinese, the first and third meanings are kept, whereas the other three meanings have disappeared completely. Zuǐliǎn 嘴臉 is also a word starting to emerge in modern times, having five meanings: (1) face. It is composed of two morphemes, one of which determines the meaning and the other of which acts as a foil. The eighth volume of the Chūkè pāiànjīngqí 初刻拍案驚奇 [The Primary Edition of Slapping the Table in Amazement] by Ling Mengchu 凌濛初 of the Ming dynasty reads “dàdà yígè miànpáng, dàbàn bèi chángxū zhēle. Kěshà zuòguài, méiyǒu xū de suǒzài, yòu duōyǒu máocháng cùnxǔ, shèngquè yǎnjīng wài, bǎ yígè zuǐliǎn zhēdé fèngdì yě wúle. 大大 一個面龐，大半被長鬚遮了. 可煞作怪，没有鬚的所在，又多有毛長寸許， 剩却眼睛外，把一個嘴臉遮得縫地也無了.” (It was a big face, most of which was covered by a long beard. It was very strange. Where there was no beard, there was long hair, about an inch long. Except for his eyes, all of his face was covered up.) (2) Appearance, looks. Chapter ninety-three of the Xīyóujì 西遊記 [The Journey to the West] by Wu Chengen 吴承恩 of the Ming dynasty reports that “nà yìchéng kànjiàn zuǐliǎn chǒulòu, ànzì xīnjīng, bùzhī shìrén shìguǐ. 那 驛丞看見嘴臉醜陋，暗自心驚，不知是人是鬼.” (The officer in charge of the post was frightened when he saw his ugly looks. He did not know whether it was a man or a ghost.) The first volume of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty reads “nà Yuèxiāng hǎofù zuǐliǎn, niányǐ zhǎngchéng. 那月香好副嘴臉，年已長成.” (Yuexiang has grown up with a good look.) (3) Especially referring to an ugly or

Development of Chinese lexicon in modern times 187 wretched appearance. The first act of the Dōngtánglǎo 東堂老 [Dongtanglao (a nickname of a man called Li Shi)] by Qin Jianfu 秦簡夫 of the Yuan dynasty reads “Nálái, nǐ nà zuǐliǎn shì zhǎngcái de? 挐来，你那嘴臉是掌財的？” (Nalai, is your ugly face in charge of money?) The sixth chapter of the Hónglóumèng 紅樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹 of the Qing dynasty reads “nǐlǎo suī shuōdeshì, dàn zhǐ nǐwǒ zhèyàng gě zuǐliǎn, zěnme hǎodào tāmén shàngqù de. 你老雖説的是，但只你我這様個嘴臉，怎麽好到他門上去的.” (You are right, but how can we enter his door as we are ugly?) (4) Face, self-respect. In the fifth book of the Xīxiāng jì 西廂記 [The Romance of the West Chamber] by Wang Shifu 王實甫 of the Yuan dynasty, its third act reads “xiǎoháiér yǒu shèn zuǐliǎn láijiàn gūniang. 小孩兒有甚嘴臉来見姑娘.” (He should feel ashamed and doesn’t dare to see her.) Volume thirty-seven of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty reads “rújīn háiyǒu shèn zuǐliǎn hǎoqù gānqiú tā? 如今還有甚嘴臉好去幹求他？” (Now how dare I beg him?) (5) The expression on one’s face and the way s/he treats people. It is written in volume twenty-seven of the Xǐngshì héngyán 醒世恒言 [Lasting Words to Awaken the World] by Feng Menglong 馮夢龍 of the Ming dynasty that “nà Jiāoshì yīn yòngle xǔduō yínqián, bù nénggòu zhòngxuǎn, xīnzhōng àohuǐ qìnǎo, yuán fān guò xiàngrì zuǐliǎn, hǎoyīfu yě bāoqù le. 那焦氏因用了許多 銀錢，不能够中選，心中懊悔氣惱，原翻過向日嘴臉，好衣服也剥去了.” (Because Jiao spent a lot of money, he failed to be elected. He was remorseful and angry. He turned over his previous attitude and stripped off his good clothes.) In Modern Chinese, it refers to face and expression on one’s face with a derogatory meaning.

3.5 Conclusion The development of the meaning system of Modern Chinese words can be summarized as follows: First, monosyllabic words have accumulated a large number of new meanings on the basis of polysemy, which is more complex. Second, the polysemous tendency of polysyllabic words is more obvious. Many polysyllabic words contain multiple meanings and enrich expressions. Third, to meet the needs of social communication, there is also a process of self-regulation in the development of word meaning. Different meanings of words have different destinies. Some have been widely used so far, while some have only been retained in certain dialects, and others have completely disappeared.

Bibliography

Change, G 長澤規矩也. (1989). Ming qing suyu cishu jicheng 明清俗語辭書集成. Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House. Lu Feikui, et al. (1915). Zhonghua dazidian 中華大字典. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. Siku quanshu 四庫全書. (1924). Beijing: The Commercial Press. Xuxiu sikuquanshu 續修四庫全書. (2002). Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House. Yuan, J 袁家驊. (2001). Hanyu fangyan gaiyao (2nd ed.) 漢語方言概要（第二版）. Beijing: Language Publishing House.

Index

attributive compound words 91 attributive trisyllabic words 107 complementing compound words 102 complementing trisyllabic words 113 compound words with affixes 82 compound words with numbering nouns 103 coordinative compound words 86 descriptive compound words 99 disyllabic words 76, 145, 167 double-barreled words 79 figurative meaning 148 four-syllable compound words with affixes 134

four-syllable coordinative compound words 137 four-syllable single-morpheme words 124 loanwords 57, 69 monosyllabic words 2, 139, 145, 157 polysemous words 167 polysemy 15 polysyllabic words 145, 167 repetitive trisyllabic words 119 semantic changes 51 single-morpheme words 76 subordinate compound words 96 subordinative trisyllabic words 110 trisyllabic words with affixes 104