A Brief History of the Chinese Language V: Middle Chinese Lexicon 1 [1 ed.] 9781003365563

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Series
Title
Copyright
Contents
1 Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese
2 Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese
3 Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese
Bibliography
Index

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A Brief History of the Chinese Language V

As the fifth volume of a multi-volume set on the Chinese language, this book studies the development of monosyllables and polysyllables in Middle Chinese and the overall evolution of lexical meanings during the period. Focusing on lexicons in Middle Chinese, the Chinese language used between the 4th and the 12th centuries CE, the book first introduces the monosyllabic neologisms of Middle Chinese, including characters and words derived from Old Chinese lexicons and those newly created. It then examines the development of polysyllabic words in Middle Chinese, ranging from single-morpheme words to tautologies and compound words. The final chapter discusses the changes and extension of word meanings in medieval Chinese. Illustrated with abundant examples, this comprehensive groundwork on Chinese lexical history will be a must read for scholars and students studying ancient Chinese language and linguistics and especially for beginning learners of the Middle Chinese lexicon. Xi Xiang is Professor at Sichuan University (China) and a distinguished linguist. His research interests are focused on Chinese language history and Chinese linguistics. His major works include A Brief History of Chinese, Dictionary of Poetry Classics, Commentary on the Translation of Poetry Classics, Dictionary of Ancient Chinese Knowledge, Concise Ancient Chinese Dictionary, and so on.

Chinese Linguistics

Chinese Linguistics series selects representative and frontier works in linguistic disciplines including lexicology, grammar, phonetics, dialectology, philology and rhetoric. Mostly published in Chinese before, the selection has had far-reaching influence on China’s linguistics and offered inspiration and reference for the world’s linguistics. The aim of this series is to reflect the general level and latest development of Chinese linguistics from an overall and objective view. Titles in this series currently include: A Brief History of the Chinese Language IV Old Chinese Lexicon Xi Xiang A Brief History of the Chinese Language V Middle Chinese Lexicon 1 Xi Xiang A Brief History of the Chinese Language VI Middle Chinese Lexicon 2 Xi Xiang A Brief History of the Chinese Language VII Modern Chinese Lexicon 1 Xi Xiang A Brief History of the Chinese Language VIII Modern Chinese Lexicon 2 Xi Xiang Modern Chinese Complex Sentences III Adversative Type XING Fuyi For more information, please visit www.routledge.com/Chinese-Linguistics/ book-series/CL

A Brief History of the Chinese Language V Middle Chinese Lexicon 1

Xi Xiang

This translation is published with financial support from the Chinese Fund for the Humanities and Social Sciences (20WYYB011) First published in English 2023 by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 Xi Xiang Translated by Hulin Ren, Lifei Wang, Xiaofeng Zhan, Zihui Yang, Gang Dong, Li Xia, Yikun Li and Tanith Booth The right of Xi Xiang to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. English version by permission of The Commercial Press, Ltd. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Xiang, Xi, author. | Ren, Hulin, translator. Title: A brief history of the Chinese language / Xi Xiang ; translated by Hulin Ren [and 7 others]. Other titles: Jian ming han yu shi. English Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. | Series: Chinese linguistics | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Contents: v. 1. The basics of Chinese phonetics — v. 2. From old Chinese to middle Chinese phonetic system — v. 3. From middle Chinese to modern Chinese phonetic system. Identifiers: LCCN 2022025941 (print) | LCCN 2022025942 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032381077 (vol. 1 ; hardback) | ISBN 9781032381107 (vol. 1 ; paperback) | ISBN 9781032381084 (vol. 2 ; hardback) | ISBN 9781032381114 (vol. 2 ; paperback) | ISBN 9781032381091 (vol. 3 ; hardback) | ISBN 9781032381121 (vol. 3 ; paperback) | ISBN 9781003343516 (vol. 1 ; ebook) | ISBN 9781003343523 (vol. 2 ; ebook) | ISBN 9781003343530 (vol. 3 ; ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Chinese language—Phonetics—History. | Chinese language—History. Classification: LCC PL1205 .X5313 2023 (print) | LCC PL1205 (ebook) | DDC 495.1/15—dc23/eng/20220718 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022025941 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022025942 ISBN: 978-1-032-43061-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-43067-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-36556-3 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003365563 Typeset in Times New Roman by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Contents

1

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

1

2

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

57

3

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese

131

Bibliography Index

177 178

1

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

1.1 Introduction China has experienced great socio-political, economic, and cultural changes from the Wei and Jin dynasties to the Tang and Song dynasties. Accordingly, the Chinese lexicon also developed greatly. This developmental trend started as early as the Eastern Han dynasty. As a result of the exchange between Chinese and Western cultures and the introduction of Buddhism, a large number of foreign and translated words were added to the Chinese lexicon. Especially after the Six dynasties, a literary language (vernacular) relatively close to the spoken language of Chinese gradually emerged, which undoubtedly exerted great impact on the development of the Chinese lexicon. The proliferation of new words or characters, especially the emergence of many polysyllabic characters, became an important feature of the lexical development of the Middle Chinese. As a result, the meaning of many characters began to change. Synonyms were further enriched, and idioms and proverbs proliferated in the Middle Chinese language.

1.2 New words derived from Old Chinese lexicon Most characters produced in Middle Chinese were disyllabic characters, but there were some monosyllabic characters, which were further enriched, as exemplified in the following. Some newly created monosyllabic characters in Middle Chinese were derived from characters of Old Chinese words, which are related to the original characters in a sense, as can be seen in the following characters. Bù 步 The character bù 步 means docks for docking boats, which appeared in the Six dynasties. In the Southern dynasties, Liang Renfang 梁任昉, in the second volume of Shùyìjì 述異記 [A Collection of Ghost Stories], wrote that “Guābù zài wúzhōng, wúrén màiguā yú jiāngpàn, yòngyǐ míngyān. Wúzhōng yòuyǒu yúbù, guībù; xiāngzhōng yǒu língfēibù. Fǎng’àn: wúchǔ wèi pǔ wéi bù, yǔzhī è ěr. 瓜步在吴中，吴人買瓜於江畔，用以名焉. 吴中又有魚步, 龜步; 湘中有靈飛 DOI: 10.4324/9781003365563-1

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

步. 昉案：吴楚謂浦為步, 語之訛耳. . .” (Mount Guabu is located in Wuzhong. Wu people sold melons on the riverbank and hence got the name. There also existed other names such as Yubu and Guibu in Wuzhong. And Xiangzhong had Lingfeibu. As is noted by Liang Renfang: It is a mispronunciation, for 浦 pŭ used to be pronounced as 步 bù in Wu and Chu.) In the Tang dynasty, Liu Zongyuan 柳宗元, in Yǒngzhōu tiělúbù zhì 永州鐡爐步志 [Record of Yongzhou Iron Furnace Dock], wrote that “jiāng zhī hǔ, fán zhōu kě mí ér shàngxiàzhě yuē bù, yǒngzhōu běiguō yǒu bù yuē tiělúbù. 江之滸，凡舟可縻而上下者曰步，永州 北郭有步曰鐡爐步.” (The river banks, where a boat can be tied so that people can get on and off are called bù 步. There is a bù 步 in a north village in Yongzhou called Tielubu.) In the Tang dynasty, Han Yu 韓愈, in Liǔzhōu luóchímiào bēi 柳州羅池廟碑 [Stele in Luochi Temple of Liuzhou], wrote, “Zhái yǒu xīnwū, bù yǒu xīnchuán. 宅有新屋，步有新船.” (A residence may add new rooms and a dock may welcome new boats.) In the Song dynasty, the third volume of Wu Chuhou’s 吳處厚Qīngxiāng zájì 青箱雜記 [Green Box Miscellaneous Notes] stated that “gài lǐngnán wèi shuǐjīn wéi bù, yán bù zhī suǒjí. Gùyǒu zēngbù, jí yúzhě shīzēngzhě; yǒu chuánbù, jí rén dùchuánchù. 蓋嶺南謂水津為步，言步 之所及. 故有罾步，即 渔者施罾者；有船步，即人渡船處.” (People to the south of the Five Ridges named a ferry as bù 步, dock, which can be reached by one step. As a result, there are fishnet docks for fishermen to cast fishnets as well as ferries for people to get on and off boats.) After the Song and the Yuan dynasties, bù 步 was written as bù 埠. In the Qing dynasty, Zhai Hao 翟 灏, in Tōngsúbiān·Dìlǐ 通俗編 · 地理 [Commonplace Compilation – Geography], wrote that “sú wèi wèndùchù yuē bùtóu, jù zhūshū dāngzuò bù zì, ér sòngshǐ jiē cóngsú zuò bù. 俗謂問渡處曰埠頭，據諸書當作步字，而《宋史》皆從俗 作埠.” (The commonly known dock is called bùtóu 埠頭. Many books wrote it as bù 步, while “History of the Song dynasty” adopted the usage of bù 埠.) The bù 步 meaning a dock may be derived from the bù 步 meaning walking, which is a variation of the meaning of the character, or may be a phonetic load character of pǔ 浦, a deformation of the character. Later on, it is written as bù 埠, whose origin is not well understood by the general public. Chèn 襯 Chèn 襯 means underclothing or tunics. Yùpiān·Yībù 玉篇 · 衣部 [Yi Group of Jade Articles] stated that “chèn, jìnshēn yī. 襯，近身衣.” (Chèn 襯 means underwear.) It was extended to mean close fitting. In the Tang dynasty, Yàntái 燕臺 (The Golden Platform), one of the four poems composed by Li Shangyin 李商隱, stated that “jiáluó wěiqiè dānxiāoqǐ, xiāngjī lěngchèn chēngchēngpèi. 夾羅委 箧 單綃起，香肌冷襯琤琤珮.” (She puts the striped clothes in the bamboo box, then picks up the single silk clothes. Her fragrant cold white skin sets off the gleaming jade pendant.) Chèn 襯 was also used as gaskets. In the Tang dynasty, Li Kuangyi 李匡乂, in Zīxiájí·Huātuōzi 資暇集 · 花托子 [Notes on Textual Dialectics in the Tang dynasty – Flowerpots], wrote that “jiànshǐzhōng, shǔxiàng cuīníng zhīnǚ, yǐ chábēi wú chèn, bìngqí yùnzhǐ, qǔ diézi chéngzhī. 建始中，蜀相崔 寜之女，

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 3 以茶盃無襯，病其熨指，取楪子承之.” (During the mid-Jianshi Period, the daughter of Cui Ning, the prime minister of Shu, put a saucer under the tea cup because she was afraid that the hot teacup might hurt her fingers since it had no cushion.) Chèn 襯 also means to set off. In the Tang dynasty, Si Kongtu 司空圖, in Yángliǔzhī shòubēicí 楊柳枝壽盃詞 [Lyrics for the Longevity of Willow Branches], wrote, “dàdī shíjié jìn qīngmíng, xiáchèn yānlŏng rào jùnchéng. 大堤 時節近清明，霞襯煙籠繞郡城.” (Qingming is about to come to Dadi, and the county is surrounded by mist against the rosy clouds.) Notes: Chèn 襯 is derived from qīn 親, relatives, and hence is of the same origin as chèn 櫬. Shuōwén·Mùbù 説文木部 [Mu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] stated, “Chèn, guānyě. Chūnqiūzhuàn yuē: shì yú chèn. 櫬，棺也. 《春秋傳》曰： ‘士輿櫬.’” (Chèn 櫬 means coffin. Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals stated, “The scholar officials carry the coffin.”) In the Qing dynasty, Wang Yun 王筠, in Shuōwénjùdòu 説文句讀 [Annotation to Origin of Chinese Characters], wrote, “chèn, fùshēn guān yě. . . . Tiānzǐ zhī guān sìchóng, zhūgōng sānchóng, zhūhóu zàichóng, dàfū yìchóng, shì bùchóng, qí qīnshēnyìchóng wèizhī chèn, yì wèizhī bì. 櫬，附身棺也.. . . 天子之棺四重，諸公三重，諸侯再重，大夫一重，士 不重，其親身一重謂之櫬，亦謂之椑.” (Chèn 櫬 refers to the innermost layer of a coffin directly holding the body. . . . The coffin of an emperor has four outer layers, that of a prince or a duke has three, that of a second-rank duke has two, that of a senior official has one, and that of a scholar official has none. The layer closest to the body is called chèn 櫬 or bì 椑.) Zuǒzhuàn·Xiānggōngsìnián 左傳 · 襄 公四年 [Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals – Fourth Year of Xianggong’s Reign] stated, “qiū, dìngsì hōng, búbìn yúmiào, wúchèn, bùyú. 秋， 定姒薨，不殯於廟，無櫬，不虞.” (Ding Si died in the autumn. Her coffin was not allowed to park in the ancestral temple. No inner coffin was used. No funeral was held.) Du Yu 杜預 noted that “chèn, qīnshēn guān. 櫬，親身棺.” (Chèn 櫬 refers to the innermost layer of a coffin.) Chèn 櫬 is the innermost layer of a coffin, while chèn 襯 is the clothing right next to skin, both of which are derived from qīn 親, closeness. Cūn 村 The character cūn 村 means villages, which originated in the Six dynasties. In the Jin dynasty, Ge Hong 葛洪, in Bàopǔzi·Nèipiān·Dàoyì 抱朴子内篇道意 [Holding Cynanchum Komarovii – Inner Chapter – Bodhicitta], wrote that “yúshì cūnlǐ wénzhī, yīn gòngwèi qǐwū lìmiào. 於是村裏聞之，因共為起屋立廟.” (People in this village heard about this, so together they built houses and temples for them.) In the Jin dynasty, Tao Qian 陶潛, in Táohuāyuánjì 桃花源記 [Record of the Peach Blossom Garden], wrote that “cūnzhōng wén yǒu cǐrén, xiánlái wènxùn. 村中聞有此人，咸來問訊.” (People get the message that there is one such person in the village, so they all come to inquire about the related information.) Cūn 村 was extended to mean being vulgar or rustic. In the Song dynasty, Dai Fugu 戴復古, in Wàngjiāngnán 望江南 [Looking at the South of the River], wrote that “Jiǎdǎo xíngmó yuánzìshòu, dùlíng yányǔ bùfángcūn. 賈島形模元自瘦，杜陵

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

言語不妨村.” (Jia Dao and Du Fu themselves are thin and weak due to poverty, and they naturally do not shy away from using simple words in their poems.) In the Six dynasties, there were also polysyllabic characters such as cūnluò 村落, cūnwū 村塢, cūnxū 村墟, and so on. Sānguózhì Wèishū·Zhènghúnzhuàn 三國 志 魏書 郑浑傳 [History of the Three Kingdoms – Book of Wei – Zheng Hun’s Biography] stated that “rù wèijùnjiè, cūnluò zhěngqírúyī. 入魏郡界，村落整齊 如一.” (When people enter the boundary of Wei County, they can see the village is neat and uniform.) In the Northern Zhou dynasty, in the poem Xìnghuā 杏花 [Apricot Blossoms], Yu Xin 庾信 wrote that “yīxī yìng cūnwū, lànmàn kāi shānchéng. 依稀映村塢，爛熳開山城.” (People can see these fire-like apricot blossoms, which can be faintly distinguished from the village in the distance, or are dazzling in the nearby mountain city.) In the Tang dynasty, Wang Wei 王維, in Shānzhōng yǔ péidí xiùcái shū 山中與裴迪秀才書 [A Letter to Pei Di Scholar Written in the Mountain], wrote that “cūnxū yèchōng, fùyǔ shūzhōng xiāngjiàn. 村墟夜舂，復與疏鐘相間.” (The sound of pounding rice came from the village, which intertwined with the sparse bells.) Cūn 村 was originally written as cūn 邨, the same origin as tún 屯, both derived from the meaning of jùjí 聚集 (gathering). The third volume of Guǎngyǎ·Shìgǔ 廣雅釋詁 [Broadened Erya – Exegesis] stated that “tún, jùyě. 屯，聚也.” (Tún 屯 means to gather.) Chǔcí·Lísāo 楚辭離騷 [On Encountering Trouble of Poetry of the South] stated that “tún yúchē qí qiānshèngxī, qí yùdài ér bìngchí. 屯餘車其千乘兮，齊玉軑 而並馳.” (I gathered thousands of cars again, aligned the jade wheels and drove them together.) Hong Xingzu’s 洪興祖 supplementary note quotes five scholars as saying “tún, jùyě. 屯，聚也.” (Tún 屯 means gathering.) Hence, the place where people congregate was also called tún 屯. In the Jin dynasty, Huan Xuan 桓玄, in Shātàizhòngsēngjiào 沙汰眾僧教 [The Teaching of Selecting the Monks], wrote that “nǎizhì yíxiàn shùqiān, wěichéng túnluò. 乃至一縣數千，猥 成屯落.” (There were even thousands of deserters in one county, and they gathered together to form a village.) Shuōwén Yìbù 説文邑部 [Yi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] stated that “cūn, dìmíng. 邨，地名.” (Cūn 邨 is the name of a place.) In Shuōwénjiězì 説文解字 [Origin of Chinese Characters], Xu Xuan 徐鉉 wrote that “chén xuànděng yuē, jīn súzuò cūn. 臣鉉等曰，今俗作村.” (According to Minister Xu Xuan and others, cūn 邨 is now commonly used as cūn 村.) Duan Yucai noted that “cǐ zūnqiè, shí’èr bù. Àn běnyīn tún, túnjù zhīyì yě. Súdú cǐ zūnqiè, yòu biànzì wéicūn. 此尊切，十二部. 按本音豚，屯聚之意 也. 俗讀此尊切，又變字為村.” (Cūn 邨, spelt by cĭ 此 and zūn 尊, belongs to group 12. Its literal pronunciation is tún 豚, meaning gathering. With commonly known pronunciations as cĭ 此 and zūn 尊 qiè, it was then changed to cūn 村.) Děng 等 The character děng 等 means waiting, a new word coined in the Six dynasties. Zìhuì·Zhúbù 字彙竹部 [Chinese Characters – Zhu Radical] stated that “děng, hòudàiyě. 等，候待也.” (The meaning of děng 等 is waiting.) In the Tang dynasty, Lu Deyan 路德延, in Xiǎoérshī 小兒詩 [Poem for Children], wrote that “děngquè

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 5 qián lípàn, tīngqióng fú qìbiān. 等鵲潛離畔，聽蛩伏砌邊.” (People are waiting for the magpies to fly by the fence, lying on the stone masonry and listening to the crickets.) In the Song dynasty, in the 27th volume of Bùdàihéshàng 布袋和 尚 [Monk in Cloth Bag] in Jǐngdéchuándēnglù 景德傳燈録 [Jingde’s Recording of the Chances of Passing Zen Buddhism Through the Ages], Shi Daoyuan 釋 道元 wrote that “shī zài jiēqú lì, yǒusēng wèn: héshàng zài zhēlǐ zuòshénme? Shīyuē: děnggèrén. 師在 阶衢立 ，有僧問：‘和尚在遮裏做什麼？’ 師曰： ‘等個人.’” (The teacher was standing at the step, and a monk asked: “What are you doing here?” The teacher replied: “Waiting for someone.”) (According to Shuōwén·Zhúbù 説文 · 竹部 [Zhu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it was written that “děng, qíjiǎnyě. 等，齊簡也.” (Děng 等 means neat brochures.) The original meaning of the character děng 等 is to make neatly the bamboo jade, which is extended to the meaning of equality or rank, and so on. Waiting to be with someone may have a meaningful connection with equality. Diàn 店 The character diàn 店 is derived from diàn 坫. Éryǎ·Shìgōng 尔雅· 釋宮 [Erya – Explanation of Gong] stated that “guǐ wèizhī diàn. 垝謂之坫.” (People call guǐ 垝 diàn 坫.) Originally, it was an indoor mound to hold things. The character diàn 店 shares the same pronunciation with diàn 坫 and refers to a mound where goods were placed. In the Jin dynasty, Cui Bao 崔豹, in Gǔjīnzhù·Dūyì 古今注 都邑 [Archaic and Modern Notes – County], wrote that “diàn, suǒyǐ zhì huòyù zhīwù yě. 店，所以置貨鬻之物也.” (Diàn 店 is a place to put goods for sale.) So it was extended to mean stores. In the Southern Song dynasty, Liu Yiqing 劉 義慶, in Shìshuōxīnyǔ Rèndàn 世説新語 任 诞 [A New Account of Tales of the World – Unconventionality], wrote that “ruǎnxuānzi cháng bùxíng, yǐ bǎiqián guà zhàngtóu, zhì jiǔdiàn, biàn dú hānchàng. 阮宣子常步行，以百錢掛杖頭，至酒 店，便獨酣暢.” (Ruan Xuanzi often walked with a hundred dollars hanging on the head of a stick. When arriving at a public house, he would drink his fill by himself.) Nánqíshū·Liúlínzhuàn 南齊書劉林傳 [Book of South Qi – the Biography of Liu Lin] stated that “Míngdì lìngxiū yú zháihòu kāi xiǎodiàn, shǐ wángshì qīnmài sàozhǒu, zàojiá yǐ rǔzhī. 明帝令休於宅後開小店，使王氏親賣掃帚、 皂莢以辱之.” (Emperor of the Ming dynasty ordered Liu Xiu to open a small store at the back of the house, forcing his wife Wang to sell brooms and Chinese honey locusts to humiliate her.) Diàn 店 was also extended to mean inns. In the Tang dynasty, Yuan Zhen 元稹 wrote in Liánchānggōngcí 連昌宮詞 [Lianchang Palace Poems] that “chūguò hánshí yìbǎiliù, diànshè wúyān gōngshùlǜ. 初過寒 食一百六，店舍無煙宮樹緑.” (It is just after the Great Cold Food Day and turns to the Minor Cold Food Day. There is no smoke from the kitchen chimneys of the inns. Only the willows of the palace are green.) In the Tang dynasty, Cen Shen 岑參, in the poem Hànchuān shānxíng chéng chéngshǎoyǐn 漢川山行呈 成少尹 [Hanchuan Mountain Journey – Writing to Cheng Shaoyin], wrote that “shāndiàn yún yíngkè, jiāngcūn quǎn fèichuán. 山店雲迎客，江村犬吠船.” (The inn on the mountain bestowed its welcome to the guests and the dogs of

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

the river village barked at the boat.) The polysyllabic characters diànsì 店肆 and diànpù 店鋪 also appeared in Middle Chinese, both having the meaning of stores. Yuèfǔshījí·Dúqǔgē 樂府詩集 · 讀曲歌 [Yuefu Poetry – Song Story] stated that “jiāpín jìn diànsì, chūrù yǐn chángshì. 家貧近店肆，出入引長事.” (I worked in a shop because of family poverty, relying on my personal skills to make some money.) In the Tang dynasty, volume six of Feng Yan’s 封演 Fēngshì wénjiànjì 封氏聞見記 [What Feng Has Seen and Heard] said that “duō kāi diànpù, jiānchá màizhī. 多開店鋪，煎茶賣之.” (People open more shops and make tea to sell.) Huān 歡 In Old Chinese, Huān 歡 was a verb meaning cheer. Shuōwén·Qiànbù 説文 · 欠部 [Qian Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] stated that “Huān, xǐlèyě. 歡，喜樂也.” (The meaning of huān 歡 is being joyful.) In the Six dynasties, huān 歡 was a term to address one’s sweetheart. Jiùtángshū·Yīnyuèzhì 舊唐 書 · 音樂志 [The Book of the Old Tang dynasty – Music] said that “jiāngnán wèi qíngrén wéi huān. 江南謂情人為歡.” (Sweethearts were called huān 歡 in the south of the Yangtze River.) Yuèfǔshījí·Mòchóulyuè 樂府詩集莫愁樂 [The Collection of Yuefu Poems – Mochou Song] said that “wénhuān xià yángzhōu, xiāngsòng chǔshān tóu. 聞歡下揚州，相送楚山頭.” (Hearing that the beloved man was going east to Yangzhou, the little girl saw him off on the top of Mountain Chu.) Zǐyègē 子夜歌 [The Song of Midnight] stated that “nóngzuò běichénxīng, qiānnián wú zhuǎnyí, huānxíng báirìxīn, zhāodōng mù huánxī. 儂作北辰星，千 年無轉移，歡行白日心，朝東暮還西.” (My feelings are like the North Star, not being changed for thousands of years. But the heart of my love is like the sun during daytime, being in the east in the morning but hanging in the west upon sunset.) In the Tang dynasty, Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 wrote in Tàgēcí 踏歌詞 [The Song of the Stepping Music] that “chàngjìn xīncí huān bújiàn, hóngxiá yìngshù zhègū míng. 唱盡新詞歡不見，紅霞映樹鷓鴣鳴.” (After singing all the new songs, my sweetheart disappeared, and the partridges crowed in the trees against rosy clouds.) In the folk songs of the Southern dynasties, huān 歡 was often used in contrast to nóng 儂, a term used by women to address themselves, under which circumstances huān 歡 referred to men. Mián 棉 The character mián 棉 means Ceiba or Bombax ceiba. Mián 棉 refers to a deciduous tree with many white fibers in its seeds, which can be woven into cloth and used as a cushion mattress or pillow core. Guǎngyùn·Xiānyùn 廣韻 · 仙韻 [Various Rhymes – Xian Rhyme] said that “mián, mùmián, shùmíng. Wúlù yún: ‘qíshí rú jiǔbēi, zhōngyǒu mián rú cánmián, kě zuòbù, yòumíngyuē xiè’. Luófúshānjì yuē: ‘zhēngyuè huārú fúróng, jiézǐ fāng shēngyè, zǐnèi miánzhì cánchéng jíshú’. Guǎngzhōujì yún: ‘zhī sì tóngzhī, yè rú hútáoyè ér shāodà yě’. 棉，木棉，樹 名. 《吴録》云：‘其實如酒杯，中有綿如蠶綿，可作布，又名曰緤.’《羅浮 山記》曰：‘正月花如芙蓉，結子方生葉，子内綿至蠶成即熟.’《廣州記》

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 7 云： ‘枝似桐枝，葉如胡桃葉而稍大也.’” (Mián 棉 is Ceiba, the name of a tree. Wúlù 吴録 [Wu’s Note] wrote, “Its fruit is like a wine glass with cotton inside like silk, which can be used to make cloth. It is also called xiè 緤.” Luófúshānjì 羅浮 山記 [Luofu Mountain Records] wrote that “its flowers bloom in the first month and are like hibiscuses. It will only grow leaves after it bears fruits. It becomes mature when the cotton inside resembles silk.” Guǎngzhōujì 廣州記 [Guangzhou Records] wrote that “its branches resemble those of a sycamore tree, and its leaves resemble those of walnut, but are slightly larger.”) In the Tang dynasty, Yuan Zhen’s 元稹 poem Sòng lǐngnán cuīshìyù 送嶺南崔侍御 [Seeing off Attendant Cui in Lingnan] said that “huǒbù gòuchén xū huǒhuàn, mùmián wēnruǎn dāng miányī. 火布垢塵 须火浣 ，木綿温軟當綿衣.” (The dust on the fire cloth needs to be removed with fire, and the soft cotton can be used as cotton-padded clothes.) Mián 棉 gets its name because there is cotton in the fruit like silk. Artificial grass cotton appeared at a later time. In the Ming dynasty, Li Shizhen 李時珍, in Běncǎogāngmù shíyí·Cǎobùxià Cǎomián 本草 纲目拾遗草部下草棉 [Supplements to Compendim of Materia Medica – Cao Group – Grass Cotton], wrote that “(Mián) Sìcǎozhě yuē gǔzhōng, jīn súhū miánhuā, nǎi cǎomiányě. (棉) 似草者曰 古終，今俗呼棉花，乃草棉也.” (The grass – like mián 棉 – was called gǔzhōng 古終, commonly known as cotton today, and is actually grass cotton.) Dùn 囤 Dùn 囤 is a circular utensil made of bamboo gabions, wattle, and the like for holding grain. In the Yuan dynasty, Dai Dong 戴侗, in Liùshūgù·Gōngshì 六書 故 · 工事 [Liushugu – Work], wrote that “dùn, qūnlèi, zhī zhúguī yǐ zhùgǔyě. 囤，囷類，織竹規以貯穀也.” (囤, qūn 囷 category, means weaving bamboo strips to store grains.) Wèishū·Gāozǔjìshàng 魏書高祖紀上 [Collected Works in the dynasty of Wei – Biographies of Great-Great-Grandfathers] said that “(Yánxīng sānnián) sānyuè rénwǔ, zhào zhūcāng dùn gǔmài chōngjīzhě, chūcì pínmín. (延興三年) 三月壬午，詔諸 仓囤穀麥充積者，出赐貧民.” [(The third year of Yanxing’s reign) On the sixth day of the third month, the emperor issued an edict to the various official warehouses to stock up on the excess of grain and wheat, giving them out to the poor.) In the Tang dynasty, the 17th poem Guan Xiu’s 貫休 Shānjūshīèrshísìshǒu 山居詩二十四首 [Twenty-Four Poems on Living in the Mountain] said that “qiěwèi xiǎodùn chéng hóngsù, biéyǒu zhēnqín sheng báiōu. 且為小囤盛紅粟， 别有珍禽勝白鷗.” (The grain is so plentiful that the rice in the small grain store turns red after being left for a long time. There are birds that are more treasured than the white gulls on the sea in the house.) Dùn 囤 is derived from tún 屯, which means to gather or accumulate. While dùn 囤 is a circular utensil for gathering grain, so the radical of dùn 囤 is kǒu 口. Tiān 添 Tiān 添 means to add, to have more of the same kind, which originated in the Six dynasties. Yùpiān·Shuǐbù 玉篇 · 水部 [Shui Group of Jade

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

Articles] said that “tiān, yìyě. 添，益也.” (The meaning of tiān 添 is increasing.) Sānguózhì·Wúshū·Lǚméngzhuàn 三國志吴書 吕蒙傳 [History of the Three Kingdoms – Book of Wu – Biography of Lv Meng] stated that “Quán qīnzhēng wǎn, yǐnjiàn zhūjiàng. 權親征皖，引見諸將.” (Sun Quan personally conquered Wan County and summoned all the generals.) Pei Songzhi’s 裴松之 note quoted from Wúshū 吴書 [The Book of Wu] and said that “zhūjiàng jiēquàn zuò tǔshān, tiān gōngjù. 諸將皆勸作土山，添工具.” (The generals all suggested to build a mountain of dirt and produced more tools to defend the city.) In the Tang dynasty, Du Fu 杜甫, in Fèngxiān liúshàofǔ xīnhuà shānshuǐ zhànggē 奉先劉少府新畫 山水障歌 [Song for Newly Painted Landscape Screen by County Lieutenant Liu of Fengxian], wrote, “dà’ér cōngmíng dào, néng tiān lǎoshù diānyálǐ. 大兒聰明 到，能添老樹 巔崖裏.” (The eldest son has a talent for painting and can add archaic trees climbing rock on cliffs.) In the Tang dynasty, Han Yu’s 韓愈 poem Jìlútóng 寄盧仝 [For Lu Tong] said that “qùsuì shēng’ér míng tiāndīng, yìlìng yǔguó chōng yúnzǐ. 去 歲生兒名添丁，意令與國充耘耔.” (I gave birth to a son last year, and I named him Tiāndīng 添丁, which means to add a new farmer to the country.) It should be noted that tiān 添 was derived from zhān 沾. It is written in Shuōwén Shuǐbù 説文水部 [Shui Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “zhān, yìyě. 沾，益也.” (The meaning of zhān 沾 is increasing.) Duan Yucai 段玉裁 noted that “zhān, tiān gǔjīnzì, súzhì tiān wéi zēngyìzì, ér zhān zhī běnyì fèiyǐ. 沾，添古今字，俗制 ‘添’ 為增益字，而 ‘沾’ 之本義廢矣.” (Zhān 沾 was the old form of tiān 添. People produced the new character tiān 添 to refer to increase, and thus the original meaning of zhān 沾 was abolished.) However, the forms, sounds, and meanings of tiān 添 and zhān 沾 have diverged, and they should be considered two separate characters. Wān 灣 Wān 灣 refers to the place where the water bends. Guǎngyùn·Shānyùn 廣韻 删韻 [Various Rhymes – Shan Rhyme] said that “wān, shuǐqǔ. 灣，水曲.” (Wān 灣 is water bend.) In the Jin dynasty, it is written in the 11th volume of Gan Bao’s 干 寶 Sōushénjì 搜神記 [Searching Deities] that “wǎng shìzhī, chá nǎi yíqù, yánliú xià shùlǐ, zhù wānzhōng. 往視之，槎乃移去，沿流下數裏，駐灣中.” (People went to watch. The raft was removed, and it floated down the river for several kilometers, staying in the river bend.) In the Northern Zhou dynasty, Yu Xin’s 庾 信 poem Wàngwèishuǐ 望渭水 [Looking at the Wei River] said that “shùsì xīntíng àn, shārú lóngwěi wān. 樹似新亭岸，沙如龍尾灣.” (The trees here look like the shore of Xinting, and the sands are like the bay of a dragon’s tail.) In the Tang dynasty, it is written in Lu Guimeng’s 陸龜蒙 poem Xiāoxiàwān 銷夏灣 [Xiaoxia Bay] that “xiāotiáo qiānlǐ wān, dúzì qīng rúqiū. 蕭條千裏灣，獨自清 如秋.” (The lakeside of Tai Lake stretches for thousands of miles, with a depressing scenery. Walking here alone, it feels as clean as autumn all around.) Wān 灣 was derived from wān 彎. The original meaning of wān 彎 is to hold a bow and set up an arrow. It is recorded in Shuōwén·Gōngbù 説文弓部 [Gong Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “wān, chígōng guānshǐyě. 彎，持弓關矢

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 9 也 .” (Wān 彎 means to draw a bow and arrow.) When the bow is pulled, the body bends, so it was extended to mean bending. It is recorded in Zìhuì·Gōngbù 字彙 · 弓部 [Chinese Characters – Gong Radical] that “wān, qǔyě. 彎，曲也.” (Wān 彎 means to bend.) In the Northern Zhou dynasty, It is recorded in Yu Xin’s 庾信 poem Yìnglìng 應令 [A Poem Written at the Behest of the Crown Prince] that “Wàngbié fēi xīnguǎn, kāizhōu jí jiùwān. 望 别非新館，開舟即舊彎.” (The place where we were leaving is the old place, and the harbor from which the ship sails is familiar as well.) Later on, the character wān 灣 was created to refer to the place where the water bends. Yǐ 椅, zhuō 桌 Before the Six dynasties, people were seated on the floor without tables or chairs. There were stools to lean on and narrow tables on which put food utensils. Both of them were very short and small, so Meng Guang 孟光 in the Han dynasty was able to “jŭ’àn qímé 舉案齊眉” (raise his table to his eyebrows), meaning that husband and wife treat each other with courtesy. By the Tang dynasty, Chinese people had the habit of sitting on chairs and stools, and the short narrow tables had turned into long-legged ones accordingly. Hence the characters yǐ 椅 and zhuō 桌 (棹) appeared in the Chinese lexicon. In the Tang dynasty, it is recorded in Japanese Yuan Ren’s 圓仁 Rùtáng qiúfǎ xúnlǐ xíngjì 入唐求法巡禮行記 [Travel Notes in the Tang dynasty for Learning Buddhism] that “xiànggōng kànsēng shìbì, jí yúsìlǐ dūnjù dàyǐshàng, bèidān érqù. 相公看僧事畢，即於寺裏蹲踞大椅上，被擔而 去.” (After seeing the monk, Messire squatted on a chair in the temple and was carried away.) And “Dào cìshǐ qián, zhuó yǐzi hézuò. 到刺史前，著椅子合坐.” (In front of the governor, they sit together on chairs.) The character yǐ 椅 was originally written as yǐ 倚, because it could be leaned on. The character zhuō 桌 was originally written as zhuó 卓, high narrow tables. In the Song dynasty, it is recorded in the second volume of Shi Shengzu’s 史繩祖 Xuézhāizhànbì 學齋佔 畢 [Academic Notes] that “gài qí xídì érzuò, búshè yǐzhuó, jí gǔzhī fūyán shèxíyě. 蓋其席地而坐，不設倚卓，即古之敷筵設席也.” (He sat down on the ground with no tables or chairs, and with just mats for dinner as ancient times.) In the Song dynasty, it is written in Huang Chaoying’s 黃朝英 Jìngkāng xiāngsù zájì 靖康緗 素雜記 [Notes Before Jingkang Event] that “Yǐzhuó zhīzì, suī bùjīngjiàn, yǐ bǐyì cèzhī, gài rénzhī suǒyǐzhě wéiyǐ, zhuózhī zàiqiánzhě wéizhuó. 倚卓之字， 虽不 經見，以鄙意測之，蓋人之所倚者為倚，卓之在前者為卓.” (Although the characters of yǐ 倚 and zhuó 卓 no longer exist today, in my opinion, probably yǐ 倚 is something people can lean on, and zhuó 卓 is something in front of yǐ 倚.) In the Song dynasty, it is recorded in Kong Pingzhong’s 孔平仲 Hénghuángxīnlùn 珩璜新論 [New Discussions of Henghuang] that “gǔzì tōngyòng, hòurén cǎozé jiācǎo, mùzé jiāmù, suì xiāngchéng ér bùzhīyě, rú yǐzhuó suìzuò yǐtóng zhīyǐ, zhuōchuán zhīzhuō. 古字通用，後人草則加草，木則加木，遂相承而不知 也，如倚卓遂作椅桐之椅，棹舡之棹.” (Ancient characters used to be used interchangeably. Later generations add radical grass to things made of grass and radical wood to those made of wood, so they lost trace of their origins. For

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

instance, yǐ 倚 was changed into yǐ 椅 as in yǐtóng 椅桐, two kinds of trees, and zhuó 卓 into zhuō 棹 as in zhuōchuán 棹舡, an oar to roll the boat.) In the Ming dynasty, Fang Yizhi’s 方以至 Tōngyǎ 通雅 [Tong Ya] quoted Yang Yi’s 楊億 Tányuàn 談苑 [A Collection of Discussions] in the Northern Song dynasty that “Xiánpíng, jǐngdézhōng gōngyuán 998–1008 nián, zhǔjiā zào tánxiāngyǐ, zhuó, súyǐwéi yǐzi, zhuōzi. 咸平，景德中（公元 998–1008 年），主家造檀 香倚、卓，俗以為椅子，桌子.” (In the year of Xianping, Mid Jingde’s Reign [998–1008 CE], the master of the house made yǐ 倚 and zhuó 卓 using sandalwood, which were commonly taken as yǐzi 椅子 (chairs) and zhuōzi 桌子 [tables].) Up until the Ming dynasty, the characters of zhuō 棹 and yǐ 椅 were still taken as nonstandard characters. In the Ming dynasty, it is recorded in the third volume of Lu Rong’s 陸容 Shūyuánzájì 菽園雜記 [Shu Garden Notes] that “jīn súlì yú yíwén zhōng, rú jiàzhí zhīzhí zuòzhí, qiāngdāo zhīqiāng zuòqiāng, ànzhuó zuò ànzhuō, jiāoyǐ zuò jiāoyǐ. 今俗吏于移文中，如價直之直作 值，槍刀之槍作鎗，案卓 作案棹，交倚作交椅.” (Now ordinary officials use different forms of characters in their official documents. For example, jiàzhí 價直 is written as jiàzhí 價 值, qiāngdāo 槍刀 is written as qiāngdāo 鎗刀, ànzhuó 案卓 is written as ànzhuó 案棹, and jiāoyǐ 交倚 is written as jiāoyǐ 交椅.) Zhuō 桌 and yǐ 椅 are both newly created characters resulting from the meaning extension and deformation.

1.3 New characters unrelated to Old Chinese lexicon Most of the neologisms of Middle Chinese are unrelated to old characters in terms of the meaning. There are two types of such neologisms from the perspective of their construction, as described in the following. 1.3.1 New words with old forms Some of the characters in this category have the same pronunciations and forms as their old counterparts but are unrelated to them in meaning. 1.3.1.1 Nouns FĀNG 坊

Fāng 坊 is a general term for streets and lanes of a city or town, which came into being during the Six dynasties. In Běishǐ·Wèizhūzōngshìzhuàn·Tuòbázhēn 北史 魏諸宗室傳拓跋禎 [The History of Northern dynasties – Biographies of the Wei Clan – Tuoba Zhen], it is written that “huáinánrén xiāngshuài tóufùzhě sānqiān yújiā, zhìzhī chéngdōng rǔshuǐ zhīcè, míngyuē guīyìfāng. 淮南人相率投附者 三千餘家，置之城東汝水之側，名曰歸義坊.” (More than 3,000 households from the south of the Huai River surrendered and were placed next to the Rushui River in the eastern part of the city, which was called Guiyifang.) In the Northern Wei dynasty, it is recorded in Yang Xuanzhi’s 楊衒之 Luòyángqiélánjì·Chéngxī 洛陽伽藍記 · 城西 [Buddhist Temples in Luoyang – West of the City] that “qíjiàn

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 11 dōngxī èrlǐ, nánběi shíwǔlǐ, bìng míngwéi shòuqiūlǐ, huángzōng suǒjūyě. Mínjiān hàowéi wángzĭfāng. 其間東西二里，南北十五里，並名為壽丘里，皇宗所居 也. 民間號為王子坊.” (The city is one kilometer wide from east to west and 7.5 kilometers long from north to south. The overall name is Shouqiuli. This is the place where the emperor’s clan lives, and the folks call it Wangzifang.) Fāng 坊 also refers to workshop, the workplace for small handicrafts. For example, it is written in Suíshū·Shíhuòzhì 隋書 · 食貨志 [Book of Sui – Monograph on Food and Currency] that “xiānshì shàngyī zhōumò zhībì, guānzhì jiǔfāng shōulì; yánchí yánjǐng, jiē jìn bǎixìng cǎiyòng. 先是尚依周末之弊，官置酒坊收利； 盐池盐 井，皆禁百姓採用.” (Prior to this, according to the drawbacks of the last years of the Zhou dynasty, the official position set up a wine shop to collect profits; the salt ponds and wells were forbidden to be used by common people.) Fāng 坊 also refers to stores. In the Song dynasty, it is recorded in Meng Yuanlao’s 孟元老 Dōn gjīngmènghuálù·Pānlóudōngjiēxiàng 東京夢華録 · 潘樓東街巷 [Commentaries of Dongjing – Streets and Lanes in the East of the Pan Building] that “Cháfāng měiwǔgēng diǎndēng, bóyì mǎimài yīfú, túhuà, huāhuán lǐngwà zhīlèi. 茶坊每五 更點燈，博易買賣衣服、圖畫、花環領襪之類.” (The tea house turns on the lights from three to five o’clock every day for people to buy and sell clothes, pictures, garlands, scarves, socks and so on.) Note: Fāng 坊 was the same as fáng 防 in Old Chinese, referring to dike. It is recorded in Lǐjì·Jiāotèshēng 禮記 · 郊特牲 [The Book of Rites – Sacrifice with Red Calves] that “Jì fāng yǔ shuǐyōng, shìyě. 祭坊與水庸，事也.” (To make sacrifice to prevent floods.) Kong Yingda 孔穎 達 noted that “Fāngzhě suǒyǐ xùshuǐ, yìyǐ zhàngshuǐ; yōngzhě suǒyǐ shòushuǐ, yìyǐ xièshuǐ. 坊者所以蓄水，亦以障水；庸者所以受水，亦以泄水.” (A dam can be used to store water, and can also be used to block it; a pool can be used to hold water, and can also be used to discharge floods.) Fāng 坊 also refers to precaution. It is recorded in Lǐjì·Fāngjì 禮記 · 坊記 [The Book of Rites – The Chapter of Fang] that “gù jūnzǐ lǐ yǐfāngdé, xíng yǐfāngyín, mìng yǐfāngyù. 故君 子禮以坊德，刑以坊淫，命以坊欲.” (Therefore, gentlemen use courtesy and righteousness to guard against moral degeneration, punishment to guard against debauchery and licentiousness, and laws to guard against the spread of greed.) The character fāng 坊 in jiēfang 街坊 and zuōfang 作坊 has nothing to do with this specific meaning. CHŪN 春

The character chūn 春 originally refers to the first season of the year. It is recorded in Gōngyángzhuàn·Yǐngōngyuánnián 公羊傳 · 隱公元年 [Gongyang’s Explanation of Spring and Autumn Annals – First Year of Yin Gong’s Reign] that “chūnzhě hé, suì zhīshǐyě. 春者何， 歲之始也.” (Chūn 春 is the beginning of a year.) He Xiu 何休 noted that “chūnzhě, tiāndì kāipì zhīduān, yǎngshēng zhīshǒu, fǎxiàng suǒchū, sìshí běnmíngyě. 春者，天地開闢之端，養生之首，法象所出，四時 本名也.” (Chūn 春 is the beginning of the heaven and the earth, the first thing of the nourishment of life, the sources of all phenomena and the original name of the four seasons.) In the Tang dynasty, wine was called 春, a new character of the time.

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

It is recorded in Zhèngzìtōng·Rìbù 正字通 · 日部 [Zheng Zi Tong – Ri Group] that “chūn, tángrén mìngjiǔ wéichūn. 春，唐人名酒為春.” (people called wine chūn 春 in the Tang dynasty.) In the Tang dynasty, it is written in the second volume of Li Zhao’s 李肇 Guóshǐbǔ 國史補 [Supplement of National History] that “jiǔ zéyǒu yǐngzhōu zhī fùshuǐ, wūchéng zhī ruòxià, xíngyáng zhī kūchūn, fùpíng zhī shídòngchūn, jiànnán zhī shāochūn. 酒則有郢州之富水，烏程之若下，滎 陽之窟春，富平之石凍春，劍南之燒春.” (There are many kinds of wine, such as Fushui in Yingzhou, Ruoxia in Wucheng, Kuchun in Xingyang, Shidongchun in Fuping, and Shaochun in Jiannan.) In the Tang dynasty, Wang Ji’s 王績 poem Tiánjiā 田家 [Tian Jia] said, “qín bàn qiántíng yuè, jiǔ quàn hòuyuán chūn. 琴伴 前庭月，酒勸後園春.” (I play the zither alone under the moonlight above the front courtyard, and take a sip of drink and enjoy the spring scenery in the rear garden.) In the Tang dynasty, it is written in Si Kongtu’s 司空圖 Shīpǐn·Diǎnyǎ 詩品 · 典雅 [Poetry Appreciation – Elegance] that “yùhú mǎichūn, shǎngyǔ máowū. 玉壺買春，賞雨茅屋.” (I buy wine in a jade pot and enjoy the rain in the hut.) GĒ 哥

The original meaning of the character gē 哥 was singing. It is recorded in Shuōwén·Kěbù 説文 · 可部 [Ke Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “gē, shēngyě. Cóng èrkě. Gǔwén yǐwéi gēzì. 哥，聲也. 從二可. 古文以為謌字.” (Gē 哥 means voice, formed by èr 二 and kě 可. It was written as gē 謌 in Old Chinese.) Duan Yucai 段玉裁 noted that “Hànshū duōyòng gē wéi gē. 《漢書》多 用哥為歌.” (The Book of Han mostly uses gē 哥 for gē 歌.) Xu Hao noted that “gē, gē gǔjīnzì. 哥、歌古今字.” (Gē 哥 is the old form of gē 歌.) People in the Tang dynasty began to call elder men of the same parents or the same clan gē 哥 or gē 歌. It may be a new character influenced by the languages of the minority groups in the north. It is recorded in Guǎngyùn·Gēyùn 廣韻 · 歌韻 [Various Rhymes – Ge Rhyme] that “gē, jīn hūwéi xiōngyě. 哥，今呼為兄也.” (Gē 哥 is called xiōng 兄, brother, at present.) In the Tang dynasty, it is recorded in Bai Juyi’s 白居易 Jìfúliángdà xiōngwén 祭浮梁大兄文 [A Tribute to Big Brother of Fuliang] that “zàibài guìdiàn dàgē yú zuòqián, fúwéigē xiàoyǒu cíhuì, héyì qiāngōng. 再拜跪奠大哥於座前，伏惟哥孝友慈惠，和易謙恭.” (I bowed and knelt to my eldest brother before the seat again to pay tributes to him, who was always filial, kind, gentle and courteous.) In the Tang dynasty, it is recorded in the fourth volume of Zhao Lin’s 趙璘 Yīnhuàlù 因話録 [Collection of Oral Stories] that “shàng (xuánzōng) yòuyǔ zhūwáng huìshí, nìngwáng duì yùzuò pēn yìkǒu fàn, zhíjí lóngyán. Shàngyuē: nìnggē hégù cuòhóu? Fānchāo xiàoyuē: cǐfēi cuòhóu, shì pēntì. 上（玄宗）又與諸王會食， 寜王对御坐噴一口飯，直及 龍颜. 上曰： ‘寜哥何故錯喉？’ 幡綽笑曰： ‘此非錯喉，是噴嚏.’” (Emporer Xuanzong had dinner with the princes again. Prince Ning spouted his meal at the throne. Xuanzong asked: “Why did you choke?” Fan Chao smiled and said: “He did not choke. This is a sneeze.”) In the Song dynasty, it is recorded in Zhuang Ji Yu’s 莊季裕 Jīlèibiānshàng 雞肋編上 [Volume One of Jilei] that “zhì hūfù wéidiē, wèimǔ wéimā, yǐxiōng wéigē, jǔshì jiērán. Wèn qíyì, zé wúshuō, ér

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 13 mòzhī yǐwéi kuì. 至呼父為爹，謂母為媽，以兄為哥，舉世皆然. 問其義，則 無説，而莫知以為愧.” (All people in the nation call father as diē 爹, mother as mā 媽, and brother as gē 哥 without exception. However, when asked about the meanings of such addresses, it is a shame that no one could manage an explanation.) In the Qing dynasty, it is recorded in Zhai Hao’s 翟灝 Tōngsúbiān·Chēngwèi 通俗編 · 称謂 [Common Sense Notes – Appellation] that “guǎngyùn shǐyún ‘Jīn hūxiōng wéigē,’ zé cǐchēng zìtáng shǐyě. 《廣韻》始云 ‘今呼兄為哥’, 則此稱自唐始也.” (That “Now people call brother as gē 哥” first appeared in Guang Yun, so this appellation dated back to the Tang dynasty.) It is recorded in Jìnshū·Xīróngzhuàn 晉書 · 西戎傳 [The Book of Jin – Biographies of Xi Rong] that “tǔgŭhún yǔdì fēnyì, dì zhuīsī zhī, zuò āgànzhīgē. āgàn, xiānbēi wèixiōngyě. Āgē dāngjí āgàn zhīzhuàn. 吐穀 浑與弟分异，弟追思之，作《阿干之歌》. 阿 干，鲜卑謂兄也. 阿哥當即 ‘阿干 ’之轉.” (Tuyu Hun was separated from his younger brother, who missed him and composed “A’gan’s Song.” A’gan is what Xianbei people call their elder brothers. Ā’gē 阿哥 could be the transformation of A’gan.) In the Tang dynasty, fathers were also called gē 哥. It is recorded in Jiùtángshū·Wángjūzhuàn 舊唐書 · 王琚傳 [The Old Book of Tang – Biography of Wang Ju] that “Xuánzōng qìyuē: ‘sìgē rénxiào’. 玄宗泣曰： ‘四哥仁孝’”. (Xuanzong sobbed and said, “The fourth father is benevolent and filial.”) The term sìgē 四哥 referred to Rui Zong, the father of Emperor Xuanzong, because he was the fourth one of his generation. It is also recorded in Dìwángyǎnzhuàn 棣 王琰傳 [The Biography of Di Wangyan] that “wéi sāngē biànqí zuìrén. 惟三哥 辯其罪人.” (Only the third father took him as a sinner.) This is Li Yan’s reply to Xuanzong. Sāngē 三哥 referred to Xuanzong, Li Yan’s father, because he was the third one of his generation. It is recorded in Dūnhuángbiànwénjí·Sōushénjì 敦煌 變文集 · 搜神記 [Collection of Narrative Literatures in Dunhuang – Searching Deities] that “Qí tiánzhāng niánshǐ wǔsuì, nǎi yújiā tíkū, huàn gēgē niángniáng. 其田章年始五 歲，乃於家啼哭， 唤歌歌娘娘.” (At that time, Tianzhang was just five years old, and he cried at home and called his father and mother.) It seems that such a manner of address is also related to the custom among some northern peoples in China that the eldest son inherits the wife and concubines of his deceased father (except his biological mother). HÀN 漢

The character hàn 漢 was originally the word for water, which originated in Shaanxi. Liu Bang 劉邦 was the King of Hanzhong. In 206 BCE, Liu Bang destroyed the Qin dynasty and established the Han dynasty. Ethnic minorities in the north called Chinese men hàn 漢. After the Six dynasties, it became a general term for men, who were also called hànzi 漢子. In the Song dynasty, it is written in the third volume of Lu You’s 陸遊 Lǎoxué’ānbǐjì 老學庵筆記 [Learning Notes in Old Learner’s Study] that “hélǜ wúrén zuò guānzhí, kǔyòng cǐhàn héwéi? Fàngqí huánjiā, yǒngbù shōucǎi. 何慮無人作官職，苦用此漢何為？放其還家，永不 收採.” (You do not have to worry that no one would take the official position. Why do you insist on giving the post to him? Let him go home and never appoint

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

him again.) It is recorded in Gǔxiǎoshuōgōuchénlù·Yōumínglù 古小説鈎沈録 · 幽明録 [Salvaged Ancient Stories – Records of the Nether World] that “míngzhāo qǐ, zì bùjué, ér rén xījīng zǒucáng, yún: nàhàn héchù lái? 明朝起，自不覺，而 人悉驚走藏，云： ‘那漢何處來？’ ” (The next morning, when he woke up, he did not notice it, but people were so scared to run away and hide, asking, “Where did that person come from?”) In the Tang dynasty, it is recorded in Wang Fanzhi’s 王梵志 poem Tānbàowúyònghàn 贪暴無用漢 [Greedy and Useless Man] that “tānbào wúyòng hàn, zīcái wéi tāshǒu. 貪暴無用漢，資 财為他守.” (The greed, cruel, and useless man is responsible for guarding the money and assets.) In the Five dynasties, it is recorded in the 12th volume of Wang Dingbao’s 王定 保 Tángzhíyán 唐摭言 [T’ang Chih-Yen] that “Gōng lǚshǎng ōuyánglín wénxué, gǔn nìzhī yuē: mínggōng héláo zàisān chēng yí fùxìng hàn? 公屢賞歐陽琳文 學，袞睨之曰： ‘明公何勞再三稱一複姓漢？’ ” (Huan Gong often appreciated Ouyang Lin’s literature. Chang Gun squinted at him and asked “Ming Gong, why do you praise the man with compound surname again and again?”) In the Tang dynasty, it is recorded in the 253rd volume of Han Shan’s 寒山 Shī 詩 [Poems] that “lùlù qún hànzi, wànshì yóu tiāngōng. 碌碌群漢子，萬事由天公.” (Everything of incompetent men depends on destiny.) LIÁO 獠 (䝤)

In Old Chinese, the character liáo 獠 referred to hunting at night and also referred to hunting in general. It is written in Éryǎ·Shìtiān 尔雅· 釋天 [Erya – Shitian] that “xiāotián wéiliáo, huǒtián wéishòu. 宵田為獠，火田為狩.” (Hunting at night is 獠, and hunting during the day is shòu 狩.) It is recorded in Shuōwén·Quǎnbù 説文 · 犬部 [Quan Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “liáo, lièyě. 獠，獵也.” (Liáo 獠 means hunting.) After the Wei and Jin dynasties, historical texts called some minority groups distributed in current Sichuan, Shaanxi, Yunnan, Guangxi, Hunan, and Guangdong provinces liáo 䝤, a new word with a slanderous nature. Later on, it was written as liáo 獠, and liáo 䝤 thus disappeared. It is recorded in Wèishū·Liáozhuàn 魏書 · 獠傳 [The Book of Wei – Biographis of Southerners] that “liáozhě, gài nánmán zhī biézhǒng, zì hànzhōng dáyú qióngzé chuāndòng zhījiān, suǒzài jiēyǒu. 獠者，蓋南蠻之 别種，自漢中达於邛笮川洞之間，所 在皆有.” (Liáo 獠 is probably a branch of southerners, distributing everywhere from Hanzhong to Qiongze.) In the Tang dynasty, Duan Chengshi 段成式 wrote in Yǒuyángzázǔ·Jìngyì 酉陽雜俎 · 境異 [Youyang Miscellaneous – Realm of Differences] that “Liáo zài zāngkē, qífùrén qīyuè shēngzǐ sǐ, zé shùguān zàngzhī. 獠在牂 牁，其婦人七月生子死，則豎棺葬之.” (There was a southerner in Zangke. His wife died in July during laboring. He buried her in a vertical coffin.) It is recorded in Jìnshū·Lǐshòuzǎijì 晉書 · 李壽 载記 [Book of Jin – Biography of Li Shouzai] that “chū shǔtǔ wúliáo, zhìcǐ shǐ cóngshān érchū. 初蜀土無獠，至此始從山而 出.” (There were no southerners in Shu at first, but since then they began to come out from the mountain.) In the Tang dynasty, people also cursed southerners as liáo 獠. It is recorded in Xīntángshū Chǔsuíliángzhuàn 新唐書 · 褚遂良傳 [The New Book of the Tang – Biography of Chu Suiliang] that “Wǔshì cóng wòhòu hūyuē: ‘hébù pūshā cǐliáo!’ 武氏從幄後呼曰： ‘何不撲殺此獠！’ ” (Wu cried out from

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 15 the back of the shading, “Why do not you kill this southerner!”) This meaning has nothing to do with liáo 獠 as in xiāotián wéiliáo 宵田為獠. MÁ 麻

The character má 麻 referred to hemp in Old Chinese, whose stem bark fibers could be used to weave cloth. It is recorded in Shī·Chénfēng·Dōngménzhīfén 詩 · 陳風 · 東 門之枌 [The Book of Songs – Odes of Chen – The White Elm at the East Gate] that “bú jì qímá, shì yě pósuō. 不績其麻，市也婆娑.” (The beautiful girl put aside her numb work and danced cheerfully in the market.) After the Eastern Han dynasty, hemp was also used to make paper. During the Tang and Song dynasties, edicts were issued on jute or white hemp paper, so the edicts were called má 麻. The edicts on the appointment and dismissal of generals and ministers were transcribed on white linen paper, which were called báimá 白麻 (white hemp). The edicts on condolence to the military were transcribed on jute paper, which were called huángmá 黄麻 (yellow hemp). It is recorded in Jiùtángshū·Wěihóngjǐngzhuàn 舊唐書 · 韋弘景傳 [Old Book of the Tang dynasty – Biography of Wei Hongjing] that “Pǔrùn zhènshǐ Sūguāngróng wéi jīngyuán jiédùshǐ, hóngjǐng cǎomá, lòuxù guāngróng zhīgōng, bà xuéshì. 普潤 鎮使蘇光榮為涇原節度使，弘景草麻，漏叙光榮之功，罷學士.” (The envoy of Purun town Su Guangrong was Jingyuan Jiedu envoy. Tao Hongjing’s edict omitted to describe the merits of glory, and dismissed his bachelor.) It is written in Xīntángshū·Lǐqījūnzhuàn 新唐書 · 李棲筠傳 [New Book of the Tang dynasty – Biography of Li Qijun] that “shǐ, qījūn jiàndì, fūzòu míngbiàn. Bù ēfù, dìxīn shànzhī, gù zhìmá zìzhōng yǐshòu, cháotíng mòzhīyě, zhōngwài sǒngyí. 始，棲筠見帝，敷奏明辯，不阿附，帝心善之，故制麻自中以授，朝延莫 知也，中外竦眙.” (At the beginning, when Li Qijun presented oneself before Emperor Xiaozhuang, he made edicts, clearly argued, and did not flatter him. The Emperor was fond of him from heart, so he bestowed hemp to him. The court did not know it, and both inside and outside the court stared at him.) It is recorded in Jiùtángshū·Xiànzōngjìxià 舊唐書 · 憲宗紀下 [Old Book of the Tang dynasty – Biography of Xianzong II] that “jiàngxiàng chūrù, hànlín cǎozhì, wèizhī báimá. 將 相出入，翰林草制，謂之白麻.” (Every general’s edicts were made from grass by Hanlin, which was called white hemp.) In the Tang dynasty, it is recorded in Bai Juyi’s 白居易 poem Jiànyújǐshìxiárìshàng zhíjìnánshěngzhūlángguānshī yīnyǐxìzèng ？ 見於給事暇日上直寄南省諸郎官詩因以戲贈 [Poems to Officials of Southern Province] that “huángmáchì shèng chángshēnglù, báizhùcí xián nèijǐngpiān. 黄麻敕勝長生籙，白紵詞嫌内景篇.” (Edicts written in jute are better than longevity poems, and dance music is better than landscape essays.) NÒNG 弄

The character nòng 弄 referred to fiddling around in Old Chinese. It is recorded in Shuōwén·Gǒngbù 説文廾部 [Gong Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “nòng, wányě. 弄，玩也.” (Nòng 弄 means to play around.) It is written in Shī·Xiǎoyǎ·Sīgān 詩 · 小雅 · 斯干 [The Book of Songs – Minor Odes – Sigan]

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

that “nǎi shēng nánzǐ, zǎinòng zhīzhāng. 乃生男子，載弄之璋.” (If the baby boy was born, buy the exquisite precious jade for him to play.) After the Six dynasties, nòng 弄 means alley or Hutong, which was a new meaning. It is recorded in Nánshǐ·Qíyùlínwángjì 南史 · 齊郁林王紀 [History of the Southern dynasties – Biography of King Qi Yulin] that “Xiāochén lǐngbīng xiān rùgōng. . . . [dì] chū xīlòng, yùshì. 蕭諶領兵先入宮. . . [帝] 出西弄，遇弑.” (Xiao Chen led the troops into the palace first. . . . [Emperor] ran away from the West Lane but was killed.) This has nothing to do with nòng 弄 referring to fiddling around. Nowadays, nòng 弄 in wánnòng 玩弄 (fiddle around) is pronounced as nòng 弄, and the character nòng 弄 in lǐlòng 里弄 (alley) is pronounced as lòng 弄. They are different in pronunciation. PÓ 婆

The word pósuō 婆娑 meant the pose of dancing in Old Chinese. It is recorded in Shī·Chénfēng·Dōngménzhīfén 詩 · 陳風 · 東 門之枌 [The Book of Songs – Odes of Chen – The White Elm at the East Gate)] that “Zǐzhòng zhīzǐ, pósuō qíxià. 子仲之子，婆娑其下.” (The young girl from Zizhong’s cardamom years dances gracefully under the green trees.) It is written in Máozhuàn 毛傳 (Mao’s Exegesis on the Book of Poetry) that “pósuō, wǔyě. 婆娑，舞也.” (Pósuō 婆娑 means dancing.) In the Six dynasties, pó 婆 referred to mothers, which was a new character. It is recorded in Yuèfǔshījí·Zhéyángliǔgēcí 樂府詩集 · 折楊柳歌辭 [Yuefu Poetry – Willow Song] that “Āpó bú jiànǚ, nàdé sūnér bào? 阿婆不嫁女，那得 孫兒抱？” (If a mother does not marry her daughter, she will have no chance to hold her grandchild.) The parents together were called lángpó 郎婆 or yēpó 耶婆. It is recorded in Wèishū·Jīgùzhuàn 魏書 · 汲固傳 [Book of Wei – Biography of Ji Gu] that “xiàn wéi gù chángyù, zhì shíyúsuì, héng hū gùfūfù wéi lángpó. 憲為固 長育，至十餘 歲，恒呼固夫婦 為郎婆.” (Ji Gu has been raising Li Xian until he was more than ten years old, and Li Xian has always called Ji Gu and his wife as his parents.) It is written in Yuèfǔshījí Huānwénbiàngē 樂府詩集 · 歡聞變歌 [Yuefu Poetry – Happy Song of Changing] that “huānlái bù xúxú, yángchuāng dōu ruìhù. Yēpó shàng wèimián, gānxīn rú tuīlǔ. 歡來不徐徐，陽窗都鋭 户. 耶婆尚 未眠，肝心如推櫓.” (The woman is worried that her sweetheart will not be careful about being hurt by the sharp window when he secretly enters the door, and her parents are not asleep yet and are more likely to notice, so she is anxious.) Pó 婆 was also the mother of the husband. It is recorded in Yùpiān·Nǚbù 玉篇 · 女部 [Nǚ Group of Jade Articles] that “pó, pómǔyě. 婆, 婆母也.” (Pó 婆 means husband’s mother.) In the Tang dynasty, it is written in the anonymous poem Xiūxǐhóng 休洗 紅 [Not Wash Off the Red] that “rénshòu bǎinián néng jǐhé? Hòulái xīnfù jīn wéipó. 人壽百年能幾何？後來新婦今為婆.” (How many people can live to a hundred years? The new wife is now other’s mother-in-law.) In the Tang dynasty, grandmothers were also called pó 婆. In the Tang dynasty, it is written in Quan Deyu’s 權德輿 Jìsūnnánfǎyán shīwén 祭孫男法延師文 [A Tribute to the Grandson of Fa Yanshi] that “wēngwēng pópó yǐ rǔguǒ zhīdiàn, zhìjìyú jiǔsuì sūnnán fǎyán shī zhīlíng. 翁翁婆婆以乳果之奠，致祭於九 歲孫男法延師之靈.” (Grandfather and grandmother took the milk fruit to pay tribute to the spirit of the nine-year-old

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 17 grandson Fa Yanshi.) Pó 婆 also generally referred to elderly women. It is written in Guǎngyùn·Gēyùn 廣韻戈韻 [Various Rhymes – Ge Rhyme] that “pó, lǎomǔ chēngyě. 婆，老母稱也.” (Pó 婆 means elderly women.) In the Song dynasty, it is written in Fan Zhengmin’s 范正敏 Dùnzhāixiánlǎn Pórányìwēnggōngrányìpó 遯 齋閑覧 · 皤然一翁公然一婆 [Leisure Tour in Dun Zhai] that “Jìnshì lǐjūrén zhāi báifà(xū), qíyǒu jīngyuē: xīrì fánrán yìwēng, jīnzé gōngrán yìpó. 進士李居仁摘 白髮（鬚），其友驚曰： ‘昔日皤然一翁，今則公然一婆.’ ” (Jinshi Li Juren shaved off his white beard and hair, and his friend said in surprise: “In the past, you looked like an old man, and now you look like an old woman.”) All of these have nothing to do with pó 婆 in pósuō 婆娑. YÉ 耶 (爺)

In Old Chinese, this character was a question character. It is written in Zhànguócè·Zhàocèsān 戰國策 · 趙策三 [Strategies of the Warring States – Strategies of Zhao III] that “shírén ércóng yìrén zhě, nìng lì búshèng, zhì búruòyé? 十人而從一人者， 寜力不勝，智不若耶？” (Ten servants serve one master, is it because the strength and wit of them are not as good as him?) In the Six dynasties, the character yé 耶 began to be used as the meaning of father and was also a new character, which was also written as yé 爺. It is written in Mùlánshī 木蘭詩 [The Poem Mulan] that “jūnshū shí’èrjuàn, juànjuàn yǒu yémíng. 军書十二卷， 卷卷有爺名.” (There are twelve volumes of military documents, and each is with the name of my father.) Gǔwényuàn 古文苑 [Collection of Ancient Writings] used it as yé 耶. Zhang Qiao 章樵 noted that “yé, sú hūfù wéiyé, tōngzuò yé. 耶，俗呼 父為爺，通作耶.” (People commonly called father as yé 爺, which was the same as yé 耶.) It is written in Yùpiān·Fùbù 玉篇 · 父部 [Fu Group of Jade Articles] that “yé, súwéi fùyézì. 爺，俗為父爺字.” (Yé 爺 is a popular term for father.) In the Tang dynasty, it is written in Du Fu’s 杜甫 Bīngchēxíng 兵車行 [Chariots March] that “yéniáng qīzǐ zǒu xiāngsòng, chén’āi bújiàn xiányángqiáo. 耶娘 妻子走相送，塵埃不見咸陽橋.” (Their fathers, mothers, wives, and children were running to see them off, and the dust raised by the carriages even covered the Xianyang bridge.) In the Tang dynasty, it is written in Wang Fanzhi’s 王梵志 Fùmǔshì yuānjiā 父母是冤家 [Parents Being Enemy] that “āyé tì yìshēn, ā’niáng qì bìngsǐ. 阿耶替役身，阿嬢氣病死.” (His father had to take his place to serve in the army, and his mother died of anger.) Yé 耶 is borrowed to address noblemen. In the Qing dynasty, it is written in Zhao Yi’s 趙翼 Gāiyúcóngkǎo Yé 陔餘 叢考 爺 [Notes on Academic Study – Master] that “yé, jīn bú tèhū fù, fán núpú zhīchēng zhǔjíliáoshǔ zhīhū shàngguān jiē yòngzhī. . . . Jīn tōngyòngwéi zūnguì zhīchēng, gài qǐyú tángshì. àn tōngjiàn, gāolìshì chéng’ēnjiǔ, zhōngwài wèizhī, tàizǐ yìhū wéixiōng, zhūwáng zhūgōng hūwéi wēng, fùmǎ zhíhū wéiyé. Kějiàn cóngqián dànhūfù, wèiyǒu yǐhū guìguānzhě. Zìcǐ yǐhòu, suì xiāngyánwéi zūnguì zhīchēng. Jīn shìsú suǒchēng wángyé, gōngyé, lǎoyé suǒ zìláiyǐ. 爺，今不特呼 父，凡奴僕之稱主及僚屬之呼上官皆用之. . . 今通用為尊貴之稱，蓋起于唐 世. 按《通鑒》，高力士承恩久，中外畏之，太子亦呼為兄，諸王諸公呼 為翁，駙 马直呼為爺. 可見從前但呼父，未有以呼貴官者. 自此以後，遂相

18

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

沿為尊貴之稱. 今世俗所稱王爺、公爺、老爺所自來矣.” (Today yé 爺 is not only referred to as father. People also call masters and superior officers yé 爺. . . . Present usage of yé 爺 to address nobles started from the Tang dynasty. According to Tōngjiàn 通鑒 [General Mirror for the Aid of Government], Gao Lishi was favored by the Emperor for such a long time that people inside and outside the court were all afraid of him, so the crown prince also called him xiōng 兄, princes and dukes called him wēng 翁, while the Emperor’s son-in-law directly called him yé 爺. Hence it can be seen that people used yé 爺 to only address father instead of superior officers. Ever since then, it has been used to address the nobles. Today’s popular terms such as wángyé 王爺, gōngyé 公爺 and lǎoyé 老爺 are all derived from it.) This has nothing to do with the Old Chinese question character yé 耶. ZHĀI 齋

The character zhāi 齋 originated in the Six dynasties. It is written in Nánshǐ·Xúlíngzhuàn 南史 · 徐陵傳 [History of the Southern dynasties – Biography of Xu Ling] that “Xuāndì yì yōulǐ zhī, zhàojiàng zuòwéi zào dàzhāi, lìnglíng jiùdì shèshì. 宣帝亦優禮之，詔將作為造大齋，令陵就第攝事.” (Emperor Chen Xuan was also particularly generous and courteous to him, and issued an edict to build a big house for him and let him handle affairs in the house.) In the Jin dynasty, it is written in the 12th volume of Gan Bao’s 干寶 Sōushénjì 搜神記 [Searching Deities] that “wén zhāinèi chuángxià yǒu quǎnshēng, qiú’ér bùdé. 聞 齋内床下有犬聲，求而不得.” (He heard the barking of a dog under the bed in the study, so he searched everywhere but could not find it.) Zhāi 齋 especially referred to study rooms and school houses. In the Southern Song dynasty, it is written in Liu Yiqing’s 劉義慶 Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Yányǔ 世説新語 · 言語 [A New Account of Tales of the World – Utterance] that “zhāiqián zhòng yìzhū sōng, huán shǒu zìyōng zhìzhī. 齋前種一株松，桓手自壅治之.” (In front of his study there was a pine tree, which was fertilized by myself.) It is written in Sòngshǐ·Xuǎnjǔzhì 宋史 · 选舉志 [History of the Song dynasty – Records of Election] that “dàxué zhì bāshí zhāi, zhāi gè wǔyíng, róng sānshí rén. 大學置八十齋，齋各五楹，容三 十人.” (Dàxué 大學, the highest imperial institute for great learning, has 80 classrooms, each with five columns, being able to accommodate 30 people.) Note: Zhāi 齋 means fasting in Old Chinese, that is, cleansing the body and mind before a sacrifice or ceremony to show sincere respect. For example, it is written in Hánfēizǐ·Wàichǔshuìzuǒshàng 韓非子 · 外儲説左上 [Works of Hanfeizi – Wai Chu’s Exhortation I] that “bì sānyuè zhāi ránhòu néng guānzhī. 必三月齋然後能 觀之.” (One must go through three months of fast before watching it.) That zhāi 齋 that refers to houses and schools has nothing to do with this meaning. 1.3.1.2 Verbs BŌ 波

The character bō 波 means to escape or to flee, which was a new character from the Middle Chinese. In the Ming dynasty, it is written in Li Yi’s 李翊 Súhūxiǎolù

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 19 俗呼小録 [Records on Popular Words] (quoted by Zheng Zhihong’s 鄭志鴻 Chángyǔxúnyuán 常語尋源 [Sources of Popular Expressions]) that “pǎo wèizhī bō, lì wèizhī zhàn. 跑謂之波，立謂之站.” (Running is called bō 波, and standing is called zhàn 站.) It is written in Yuèfǔshījí·Qǐyùgē 樂府詩集 · 企 喻歌 [Yuefu Poetry – Song of Qiyu] that “yàozǐ jīngtiān fēi, qúnquè liǎngxiàng bō. 鷂子經天 飛，群雀兩向波.” (The harriers flew across the sky, and the flocks flew to both sides like waves.) It is written in Dūnhuángbiànwénjí·Hánqínhǔhuàběn 敦煌變 文集 · 韓擒虎話本 [Collection of Narrative Literatures in Dunhuang – Han Qinhu’s Stories] that “suìnǎi bō táorù yì kūjǐng. 遂乃波逃入一枯井.” (Hence, he ran into a dry well.) In volume 263 of Tàipínguǎngjì 太平廣記 [Tales from the Taiping Era], quoting Zhang Zhuo’s 張鷟 Cháoyěqiānzǎi 朝野僉載 [Stories about the Government and the People] of the Tang dynasty, it was written that “shānglǚ jīngbō, xíngwǎng cèdǎn. 商旅驚波，行網側膽.” (The long-distance sales merchants ran away in horror, and the officials who escorted the government supplies also curbed their courage.) The original meaning of bō 波 in Old Chinese was the undulating surface of water and waves. The character bō 波 that means to escape has nothing to do with the surface of water and waves. BÓ 泊

The character bó 泊 means to dock a ship or to anchor, which was a new character from the Middle Chinese. It is written in Yùpiān·Shuǐbù 玉篇 · 水部 [Shui Group of Jade Articles] that “bó, zhǐzhōuyě. 泊，止舟也.” (Bó 泊 means to dock a boat.) In the Southern Song dynasty, it is written in Liu Yiqing’s 劉義慶 Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Déxíng 世説新語 · 德行 [A New Account of Tales of the World – Morality] that “Zhōuzhèn bà línchuānjùn huándū, wèijí shàngzhù, bó qīngxīzhǔ. 周鎮罷臨川郡 還都，未及上住，泊青溪渚.” (Zhou Zhen left Linchuan County and returned to the Capital. Having not enough time to find an inn on shore, he anchored the boat at the waterside of Qingxi.) In the Tang dynasty, it is written in the third poem Du Fu’s 杜甫 Juéjùsìshǒu 绝句四首 [Four Poems of Quatrain] that “chuānghán xīlǐng qiānqiū xuě, ménbó dōngwú wànlǐ chuán. 窗含西嶺千秋雪， 門泊 東吴萬里船.” (Snow accumulated through thousands of years on the Xiling Mountains could be viewed within a glance from the window, while ships from the Eastern-Wu State of miles away are anchoring in the dock outside the house then.) In the Song dynasty, it is written in Su Shunqin’s 蘇舜欽 Huáizhōngwǎnbódútóu 淮中晚泊犢頭 [Docking Boat at Night at Dutou in the Middle of River Huai] that “wǎnbó gūzhōu gǔcí xià, mǎnchuān fēngyǔ kàn cháoshēng. 晚泊孤舟古祠下， 滿川風雨看潮生.” (In the evening, the small boat was mooring under the archaic temple. There were wind and rain, and the tide gradually rose.) The meaning of bó 泊 is extended to mean to stop or to stay. In the Northern Wei dynasty, it is recorded in Li Daoyuan’s 酈道元 Shuǐjīngzhù·Gànshuǐ 水經注 · 贛水 [Commentary on the Waterways Classic – River Gan] that “xīyǒu luán’gāng, hóngyá xiānshēng chéngluán suǒ qìbóyě. 西有鸞岡，洪崖先生乘鸞所憩泊也.” (In the west there is Luangang, where Mr. Hong Ya rested with Luan, a kind of bird.) In the Tang dynasty, it is written in Chen Zi’ang’s 陳子昂 Gǔyìtíxúlìngbì 古意題徐 令壁 [Eulogy on the Wall of Xuling] that “wénjūn tàipíngshì, qībó língtáicè. 聞

20

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

君太平世，棲泊靈台側.” (I heard that you died in times of peace and rested on the side of the spiritual platform.) In Old Chinese, the character bó 泊 meant to be indifferent and tranquil. In chapter 20 of Lǎozǐ 老子 [Laozi], it is written that “wǒ dúbó xī qí wèizhào. 我獨泊兮其未兆.” (Before the storm was about to happen, I had already docked and took refuge in a safe haven.) Bó 泊 in tíngbó 停泊 (anchor) has nothing to do with this usage. DUǑ/DUÒ 垛, DUÒ 墮

In Old Chinese, the character duǒ 垛 referred to the rooms on both sides of the hall, which is pronounced as duǒ. It is written in Shuōwén·Tǔbù 説文土部 [Tu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “duŏ, tángshúyě. 垛，堂塾也.” (Duǒ 垛 referred to the rooms on both sides of the hall.) Duan Yucai noted that “wèizhī duŏzhě héyě? Méntáng shēnchūyú ménzhī qiánhòu, lüè qǔqíyì. 謂之 垛者何也？ 門堂伸出於門之前後，略取其意.” (What is duŏ 垛 ? It roughly means the doorway out before and behind the door.) In Middle Chinese, duò 垛 also meant piling up, which was a new character pronounced as duò 垛. This duò 垛 was unrelated to that duŏ 垛 with the meaning of tángshú 堂塾. In the Tang dynasty, the seventh volume of Xuan Ying’s 玄應 Yíqièjīngyīnyì 一切經音義 [The Sound and Meaning of the Tripitaka] quoted He Chengtian’s 何承天 Zuǎnwén 纂 文 [Compilation] from the Southern Song dynasty, “wúrén yǐ jītǔ wéiduòyě. 吴 人以積土為 垛也.” (Wu People regarded mound as duò 垛.) It is written in Dunhuang’s version of Shuāng’ēnjì 雙恩記 [Double Kindness] that “wǔbǎixiàng tuó ér yǐyèjìmíng, sìchéng ménduò ér zìgāojíxià. 五百象馱而以夜繼明，四城門 垛 而自高及下.” (Five hundred elephants carry around night and day, with gates in four directions from high to low.) Duò 垛 was also written as duò 墮. It is written in Dūnhuángbiànwénjí·Zhuōjìbùzhuànwén 敦煌變文集 · 捉季布傳文 [Collection of Narrative Literatures in Dunhuang – Catching Ji Bu] that “zhíráo duò què qiānjīn shǎng, zhēmò gāochuí wàntǐngyín. 直饒墮却千金賞，遮莫高捶萬挺銀.” (Even though he used to be awarded piles of gold and a lot of silver.) It is also written in Qiūhúbiànwén 秋胡變文 [The Stories of Qiu Hu] that “zòngshǐ huángjīn jīdào tiānbàn, luàncǎi duòsì qiūshān, xīnfù nìngyǒu liànxīn? 縱使黄金積到天半，乱 彩墮似丘山，新婦 寜有戀心？” (Even if gold and various velvet silks and satin pile up to form hills, how can the bride have the slightest love for these?) The character duò 墮 in the sentence is the same as duò 垛, both meaning piling up. QIÁN/GǍN 趕

The original meaning of the character qián 趕 was that beasts ran with their tails up, and it was written in Shuōwén·Zǒubù 説文 · 走部 [Zou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “qián, jǔwěi zǒuyě. 趕，舉尾走也.” (Qián 趕 means beasts run with their tails up.) This meaning cannot be found in ancient writings. 趕, pronounced gǎn, was a new character originating from the Middle Chinese. It was written in Zhèngzìtōng·Zǒubù 正字通 · 走部 [Zou Group of Zheng Zi Tong] that “gǎn, zhuīzhúyě, jīnzuò gǎn. 趕，追逐也，今作赶.” (Gǎn 趕 means

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 21 chasing, which is written as gǎn 赶 now.) In the Tang dynasty, it was written in the second volume of Zhang Zhuo’s 張鷟 Cháoyěqiānzǎi 朝野僉載 [Stories about the Government and the People] that “shí tóngsù sānwèizǐ bèichí gōngjiàn, chéngmǎ gǎn sìshíyúlǐ, yǐ gōngjiàn nǐzhī, jí xiàluó qǐsǐ. 時同宿三衛子被持弓 箭，乘馬趕四十餘里，以弓箭擬之，即下騾乞死.” (At that time, Sanweizi, holding bows and arrows, rode his horses to catch Wujie for more than forty li [miles]. Sanweizi aimed at Wujie with bows and arrows. Wujie dismounted the mule for death.) In the first volume of Zhūzǐyǔlèi 朱子語類 [Words of Zhuzi], it was written that “rú tiānxíng yì yǒuchā, yuèxīng xíng yòuchí, gǎntā búshàng. 如 天行亦有差，月星行又遲，趕它不上.” (Just as there are differences between the planets in the sky, the moon and stars travel relatively slowly and cannot keep up with it.) Gǎn 趕 was also used with a meaning of expelling or driving away. In the Southern Tang dynasty, it was written in the second volume of Liu Chongyuan’s 劉崇遠 Jīnhuázǐzábiān 金華子雜編 [Jinhuazi Miscellaneous Compilation] that “chúrén kuìshí yútáng, é shǒuzhōng pánzhuàn, jiēbèi zhòngqín bócuō, mòkě qūgǎn. 廚人饋食於堂，俄手中 盘馔，皆被眾禽搏撮，莫可驅趕.” (The cook offered food in the hall for sacrificial activity. But the food on plates was bitten by birds and they could not be driven away.) In the Song dynasty, it was written in one of Zhang zi’s 張鎡 Wǔjiālínsìshǒu 五家林四首 [Four Poems of Wujialin] that “fàngyā chéngqún chèn nuǎnhuī, cūntóng zhēhù zhī kuángfēi. Duōduō yìbàn zhēn nánshì, bànlǐ chēngchuán gǎnbùguī. 放鴨成群趁暖暉，村童遮護只狂飛. 多多益辦真難事，半里撐船趕不歸.” (The ducks were released in groups in the afterglow, and the village children drove the ducks to fly everywhere. This was really difficult; half-a-mile chasing cannot keep up with the ducks.) Later, gǎn 赶 replaced 趕, and the original meaning of 趕 was abolished. XIĀ 瞎

The original meaning of xiā 瞎 was one-eye blind, which was a new character in Middle Chinese. It was written in Yùpiān·Mùbù 玉篇目部 [Eye Group of Jade Articles] that “xiā, yímùhé. 瞎，一目合.” (Xiā 瞎 means one-eye blind.) In the Southern Song dynasty, it is written in Liu Yiqing’s 劉義慶 Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Páidiào 世説新語 · 排調 [A New Account of Tales of the World – Ridicule] that “mángrén qí xiāmǎ, yèbàn lín shēnchí. 盲人 骑瞎馬，夜半臨深池.” (The blind man rode a one-eye blind horse and was about to fall into the deep water in the middle of the night.) In the Song dynasty, it is written in Sima Guang’s 司馬光 Zīzhìtōn gjiàn·Jìnmùdìyǒnghéshíyīnián 資治通鑒 · 晉穆帝永和十一年 [General Mirror for the Aid of Government – 11th year of Yonghe’s Reign of Emperor Jinmu] that “Hóng cháng xìzhī yuē: ‘wúwén xiā’ér yílèi, xinhu?’ 洪嘗戲之曰： ‘吾聞瞎兒一 淚，信乎？’ ” (Hong once joked with him, “I heard that a one-eye blind child sheds only one line of tears. Is it true?”) Hu Sanxing 胡三省 annotated that “Xiā, yímù mángyě. 瞎，一目盲也.” (Xiā 瞎 means one-eye blind.) Xiā 瞎 is extended to mean two-eye blind. It is written in Jíyùn·Xiáyùn 集韻 · 舝韻 [Collected Rhymes – Xia Rhyme] that “xiā, mùmángyě. 瞎，目盲也.” (Xiā 瞎 means being blind.) It is recorded in Běishǐ·Yújùluózhuàn 北史 · 魚俱羅傳 [The History of Northern

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dynasties – Biography of Yu Juluo] that “zuǒyòu zhìròu bùzhōngyìzhě, yǐqiān cìxiā qíyǎn. 左右炙肉不中意者，以籤刺瞎其眼.” (He ordered the retinues to barbecue. Once someone had done something unsatisfactory, he blinded him with a bamboo stick.) In the Tang dynasty, it is written in Meng Jiao’s 孟郊 poem Jìzhāngjí 寄張籍 [For Zhang Ji] that “xīmíngsìhòu qióngxiā zhāngtàizhù, zòngěr yǒuyǎn shuíěrzhēn. 西明寺後 穷瞎張太祝，縱爾有眼誰爾珍.” (Even though Zhang Ji, a poor and blind poet living behind the Ximing Temple, has the ability to discern right from wrong, who would value him and put him in an important position?) In the Han dynasty, the character xiā 瞎 also existed. It is written in Liu Xi’s 劉熙 Shìmíng·Shìjíbìng 釋名 · 釋疾病 [Explanation of Names – Explanation of Diseases] that “xiā, qìyě. 瞎，迄也.” (Xiā 瞎 means so far.) The meaning was hard to understand. The character xiā 瞎 with the meaning of being blind had nothing to do with this. In the Qing dynasty, Bi Yuan 畢沅 noted that “Jìn yǐhòu shǐwèi miǎozhě wéixiā. 晉以後始謂眇者為瞎.” (After the Jin dynasty, people with one eye small or blind were called xiā 瞎 [blind].) 1.3.2 New words with old forms but different pronunciations Some of the new words use the same glyph as the old ones but with different pronunciation, as exemplified in the following. Gǎng/hòng 港 The character gǎng 港 originated in the Six dynasties period and referred to a small river connected with rivers, lakes, and seas. It is written in Yùpiān·Shuǐbù 玉篇 · 水部 [Water Group of Jade Articles] that “gǎng, shuǐpàiyě. 港，水派也.” (Gǎng 港 means the branch of river.) It is written in Jíyùn·Jiǎngyùn 集韻講韻 [Collected Rhymes – Jiang Rhyme] that “gǎng, shuǐ fēnliúyě. 港，水分流也.” (Gǎng 港 means the place where the water is diverted.) In the Tang dynasty, it is written in Han Yu’s 韓愈 Sòngwángxiùcáixù 送王秀才序 [Massage for Scholar Wang] that “dàoyú yáng, mò, lǎo, zhuāng, fó zhīxué, ér yùzhī shèngrén zhīdào, yóuháng duàn’gǎng juéhuáng yǐ wàngzhì yúhǎiyě. 道於楊、墨、老、莊、佛之 學，而欲之聖人之道，猶航斷港 絕潢以望至於海也.” (Looking for the right way to become a saint by following the way of Yang, Mo, Lao, Zhuang, and Buddhism is like travelling along a disconnected branch of river or dead-end pond by ship in hopes of reaching the sea.) Sòngshǐ·Héqúzhìshàng 宋史 · 河渠 志上 [The History of the Song dynasty – Canal History I] reads “Yánhé xià’àn, jīnggǎng jíduō. 沿河下岸，涇港极多.” (Along the lower bank of the river, ports are extremely numerous.) Gǎng 港 also referred to a river bend or bay where boats can be moored. In the Song dynasty, it is written in Yang Wanli’s 楊萬里 poem Zhōuzhōngmǎishuāngguìyú 舟中買雙 鳜魚 [Buying Two Mandarin Fish in a Boat] that “xiǎogǎng zǔfēng bó wūfǎng, fǎngqián yútǐng chén shōuwǎng. 小港阻 風泊烏舫，舫前漁艇晨收網.” (The small port can block the wind, so there are many watercraft, and fishermen in the fishing boats collect their nets in the morning.) In the Song dynasty, it is written in Fan Zhiming’s 范致明 Yuèyángfēngtǔjì

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 23 岳陽風土記 [Record of Yueyang’s Customs] that “Yuèyánglóu jiù’àn yǒugǎng, míngtuó hègǎng, shāngrén bóchuán yúcǐ. 岳陽樓舊岸有港，名駝鶴港，商人 泊船于此.” (There is a harbor on the old shore of Yueyang Tower, named Tuohe Harbor, where merchants moor their boats.) The character gǎng 港 can be found in the Han dynasty, which pronounced as hòng. Gǎnghòng 港洞 means being intercommunicative. In the Han dynasty, it is written in Ma Rong’s 馬融 Chángdífù 長 笛賦 [Flute Fugue] that “xiāojiào qiǎolǎo, gǎnghòng konggǔ. 庨 窌巧老，港洞 空谷.” (This is the appearance of a deep empty valley, where the pits and valleys are connected to each other.) Li Shan 李善 noted that “gǎnghòng, xiāngtōngyě. 港洞，相通也.” (Gǎngjòng 港洞 means interconnection.) The character gǎng 港 in gǎngkǒu 港口 (harbor) is unrelated to this meaning. Kēng 坑, kàng 炕 The character kēng 坑 means rectangular platform made of adobe or brick for sleeping in northern China, with an aperture underneath to burn a fire for warmth in winter. This character originated in the Six dynasties and was originally written as kēng 坑 and also as kàng 炕. It is written in Wèishū·Rúlínchénqízhuàn 魏書 · 儒林陳奇傳 [Book of Wei – Biography of Chen Qi of Confucianism] that “qǔqí suǒzhù lúnyǔ, xiàojīng fényú kēngnèi. 取奇所注《論語》、《孝經》焚於 坑内.” (Analects of Confucius and the Book of Filial Piety noted by Chen Qi were burnt in the pit.) It is written in Suíshū·Yǐnyìzhāngwénxǔzhuàn 隋書 · 隱 逸張文詡傳 [Book of Sui – Biography of the Hermit Zhang Wenxu] that “Wú zuó fēngxuàn, luòkàng suǒzhì. 吾昨風眩，落炕所致.” (I was dizzy yesterday because I fell in the pit.) It is written in Jiùtángshū·Gāolìzhuàn 舊唐書高麗傳 [Old Book of the Tang dynasty – Biographies of Gaoli] that “qí súpín jùzhě duō, dōngyuè jiēzuò chángkēng, xiàrán yūnhuǒ yǐ qǔnuǎn. 其俗貧窶者多，冬月皆作 長坑，下燃 煴火以取暖.” (Many of them are poor. They build a long heatable brick bed in winter and burn fires underneath to get warmth.) In Old Chinese, kēng 坑 had the meaning of gully. It is written in Yùpiān·Tǔbù 玉篇 · 土部 [Tu Group of Jade Articles] that “kēng, qiànyě, qiūxūyě, hèyě. Zhuāngzǐ yún: zàigǔ mǎngǔ, zàikēng mǎnkēng. (jīnběn Zhuāngzǐ tiānyùn zuòkēng) 坑，塹也，丘 虚也，壑也. 《莊子》云： ‘在谷滿谷，在坑滿坑（今本《莊子 · 天運》作 ‘阬’ ）.’ ” (Kēng 坑 means pit, rift, mound and gully. Zhuangzi wrote that “the valleys are full of valleys, and the puddles are full of puddles. [Present version of Zhuangzi – Heavenly Fortune took the usage of kàng 阬 as kēng 坑].”) Kàng 坑（炕） for sleeping in the north is pronounced differently from kēng 坑 for gully, and they also have different meanings as two different words. Suō 梭 The character suō 梭 means a shuttle, a tool for pulling weft threads in weaving. It is written in Guǎngyùn·Gēyùn 廣韻 · 戈韻 [Various Rhymes – Ge Rhyme] that “sūhéqiè, yīnsuō. 蘇禾切，音梭.” (Suō 梭 is spelt by sū 蘇 and hé 禾, pronounced as suō.) It was first found in the Six dynasties. It is written in Jìnshū·Táokǎnzhuàn

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

晉書 · 陶侃傳 [Book of Jin – Biography of Tao Kan] that “Kǎn shàoshí yúyú léizé, wǎngdé yì zhīsuō, yǐ guàyú bì. Yǒuqǐng léiyǔ, zì huàwéi lóng érqù. 侃少時 漁於雷澤，網得一織梭，以掛於壁. 有頃雷雨，自化為龍而去.” (When Tao Kan in his youth was fishing in Leize, he caught a weaving shuttle by casting a net and hung it on the wall. After a while, the weather was a thunderstorm, and it turned into a dragon and left.) In the Tang dynasty, it is written in Zhang Hu’s 張 祜 Dúqǔgē 讀曲歌 [Song Story] that “sāngēng jīdǐxià, mōzhe shìshuísuō. 三更機 底下，摸著是誰梭.” (Under the loom at the midnight whose shuttle is touched?) In Old Chinese, suō 梭 was the name of wood. It is written in Shuōwén·Mùbù 説 文 · 木部 [Mu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “suō, mùyě. 梭，木 也.” (Suō 梭 means wood.) Some people thought it referred to willow. It is written in Jíyùn·Zhǔnyùn 集韻 · 稕韻 [Collected Rhymes – Zhun Rhyme] that “xūrùnqiè. Yīnxùn. 須潤切. 音 xùn.” (Suō 梭 is spelt by xū 須 and rùn 潤, pronounced as xùn.) The character suō 梭 with the meaning of shuttle is unrelated to this usage. Tān 灘 The character tān 灘 means a place in a river with shallow, fast-flowing water and lots of sand and rocks, which was a character that originated in the Six dynasties. It is written in Guǎngyùn·Hányùn 廣韻 · 寒韻 [Various Rhymes – Han Rhyme] that “tān, shuǐtān, tāgānqiè. 灘，水灘，他干切.” (Tān 灘 means waterhole, spelt by tā 他 and gān 干.) Tān 灘 is pronounced as tān. In the Northern Wei dynasty, it is written in Li Daoyuan’s 酈道元 Shuǐjīngzhù·Jiāngshuǐ 水經 注 · 江水 [Commentary on the Waterways Classic – River] that “jiāngshuǐ yòu dōngjìng wényángtān, tānxiǎn nánshàng. 江水又東逕文陽灘，灘險難上.” (The river headed east again until the Wenyang beach, which was difficult to move forward.) In the Tang dynasty, it is written in Zhang Ji’s 張籍 poem Gūkèlè 估客 樂 [Gukele] that “shuǐgōng chíjí fáng’àntān, zhíguò shānbiān jí qiánlǚ. 水工持檝 防暗灘，直過山邊及前 侣.” (The boatman held the oar and looked around the water to prevent the boat from hitting the reef. He moved quickly and hurried to the side of the mountain to catch up with his previous companion.) It also referred to the place where mud and sand accumulated at the edge of rivers, seas and lakes. In the Tang dynasty, it is written in Cen Shen’s 岑參 poem Yúfŭ 漁父 [The Old Fisherman] that “zhāocóng tānshàng fàn, mùxiàng lúzhōng sù. 朝從灘上飯，暮 向蘆中宿.” (He ate on the river beach in the morning, and spent the night among the reeds.) In addition, it is written in Sòngshǐ·Héqúzhìsān 宋史 · 河渠志三 [History of the Song dynasty – River History III] that “cǐyóu huánghé běi’àn shēngtān, shuǐqū nán’àn. 此由黄河北岸生灘，水趨南岸.” (This is a beach on the north bank of the Yellow River, and the water is running to the south bank.) In Old Chinese, tān 灘 was a variant of tān m, referring to the withering of grasses due to waterlogging. It is written in Shuōwén·Shuǐbù 説文 · 水部 [Shui Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that “tān, shuǐrú érgānyě, cóngshuǐ, tānshēng. Shī yuē: tān (jīnzuò hàn) qígānyǐ. m ，水濡而乾也，從水， 聲. 《詩》曰： ‘m （今 作暵）其乾矣 ” (Tān m means the water evaporates to dryness, with shuǐ 水 as 作暵）其乾矣.’ its radical and is pronounced tān. It is written in The Book of Songs that “tān m

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 25 [today’s hàn 暵] means drying up.”) According to Guǎngyùn·Hànyùn 廣韻 · 翰 韻 [Various Rhymes – Han Rhyme], “hūhànqiè. Yīn hàn. 呼旰切 呼旰切. 音 hàn.” (Tān m is spelt by hū 呼 and hàn 旰 which is pronounced as hàn.) Both the pronunciation and the meaning of tān 灘 in shuǐtān 水灘 (ford) are different from this word. Ruò/rě 惹 The character 惹 had been seen in the Han dynasty and was pronounced ruò, and its meaning was to slander. In the Han dynasty, it was written in the 12th volume of Yang Xiong’s 揚雄 Fāngyán 方言 [Dialects] that “ná, yángzhōukuàijīzhīyǔyě, huòwèizhīrě, huòwèizhīyàn. 挐，揚州會稽之語也，或謂之惹，或謂之 䛳.” (Ná 挐 is the dialect of Yangzhou Kuaiji, which is also called rě 惹 or yàn 䛳.) Guo Pu 郭璞 noted that “yánwūyànyě. 言 诬 䛳 也.” (It means to slander.) In Middle Chinese, it was a new character with the meaning of to attract or to draw or to stain, which was pronounced rě. For example, in the Tang dynasty, it was written in Duan Chengshi’s 段成式 poem Liǔzhī 柳枝 [Willow Branches] that “zhǐxiàng jiāngnán bìng sàiběi, jiǔqí xiāngbàn rě xíngrén. 只向江南並塞北，酒旗相伴惹 行人.” (I went to the south of the Yangtze River and the north of the Great Wall all alone. What attracts me are wine flags on both sides of the road.) In the Tang dynasty, one sentence in Li He’s 李賀 poem Chānggǔběiyuánxīnsǔnsìshǒu 昌谷 北園新筍四首 [Four Poems on New Shoots in the North Garden of Changgu] says that “gǔzhú lǎoshāo rě bìyún, màolíng guīwò tàn qīngpín. 古竹老梢惹碧 雲，茂陵歸卧歎清貧.” (Although bamboos are old, they are still upright enough to touch the cloud. I am not old, but I can only hold poverty like Sima Xiangru.) In the Tang dynasty, it was written in Gui Shizi’s 歸氏子 Dárìxiūpíshìshī 答日 休皮氏詩 [A Poem in Reply to Pi Rixiu] that “yìbāo xiánqì rú chángzài, rětī zhāoquán zú wèixiū. 一包閒氣如長在，惹踢招拳卒未休.” (If you have always been frivolous, the slander will not stop until you die.) It is written in Dūnhuángb iànwénjí·Wéimójiéjīngjiǎngjīngwén 敦煌變文集 · 維摩詰經講經文 [Collection of Narrative Literatures in Dunhuang – Scripture on the Vimalakirti Sutra] that “dàiwù huāzhī xiāng lànmàn, rěyān fān’gài shì wēi’é. 戴霧花枝香爛熳，惹煙幡 蓋勢巍峨.” (The flowers and branches are brightly colored even in the mist, and the canopies with smoking show great majesty and solemnity.) Tòu 透 In Middle Chinese, the character tòu 透 was pronounced tòu and had two meanings: (1) to jump. It was written in Guǎngyùn·Hóuyùn 廣韻 · 候韻 [Various Rhymes – Hou Rhyme] that “tòu, tiàoyě, tāhòuqiè. 透，跳也，他候切.” (Tòu 透 means jumping, spelt by tā 他 and hòu 候.) In the Southern Song dynasty, it was written in Xie Lingyun’s 謝靈運 Shānjūfù 山居賦 [Mountain Dwelling] that “fēiyǒngchěngtòu, húkě gēnyuán? 飛泳騁透，胡可根源？” (For the birds flying in the sky, the fish swimming in the water, and the animals running and jumping on the ground, how can we trace the origin of these animals in detail?) Xie Lingyun noted that “shòu yǒu shùzhǒng. Yǒu téngzhě, yǒu zǒuzhě, zǒuzhě chěng, téngzhě tòu. 獸有數種. 有騰

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

者，有走者，走者騁，騰者透.” (There are several kinds of beasts. Some can fly, others can walk. Those who walk gallop, and those who fly jump.) It was recorded in Jìnshū·Wángxùnzhuàn 晉書 · 王遜傳 [The Book of Jin – Biography of Wang Xun] that “chóng zhuīzhì lúshuǐ, tòushuǐ sǐzhě qiānyúrén. 崇追至瀘水，透水死者 千餘人.” (Yao Chong chased to Lushui, and Li Xiang’s soldiers dived and drowned more than a thousand.) In the Tang dynasty, it was written in Duan Chengshi’s 段成式 Yǒuyángzázǔ·Zhīnuògāoshàng 酉陽雜俎 · 支諾 臯上 [Youyang Miscellaneous Banquets – Supplements for Summoning Deities I] that “hú jīngzǒu, tóu hòumén tóu yìjiù, qiánshēn cǎojī zhōng. 鵠驚走，透後門投驛 廄，潛身草積中.” (The swan was frightened and left, jumped into the back door, threw itself into the stables and dived into the grass.) (2) To pass through. In the Tang dynasty, it was written in Han Yu’s 韓愈 poem Nánshān 南山 [South Mountain] that “zhēnglán xiāng hòngdòng, biǎolǐ hū tōngtòu. 蒸嵐相澒洞，表裏忽通透.” (The mist in the mountains is pervasive, permeating everywhere without isolation.) In the Tang dynasty, it was written in Pi Rixiu’s 皮日休 poem Xiāngzhōuchūnyóu 襄州春遊 [Spring Journey to Xiangzhou] that “yìngliǔ rènrén duō cuòwù, tòuhuā kuīniǎo zuì fēnmíng. 映柳認人多錯誤，透花窺鳥最分明.” (It is always wrong to recognize people through the wickers, and seeing birds through flowers is the clearest.) In the Tang dynasty, it was written in Huang Chao’s 黃巢 poem Júhuā 菊花 [Chrysanthemum] that “Chōngtiān xiāngzhèn tòu cháng’ān, mǎnchéng jìndài huángjīn jiǎ. 冲天香陣透長安，滿城盡帶黄金甲.” (The scent of chrysanthemums permeates Chang’an, and the city is full of golden armor – like chrysanthemums.) This was a new character in the Middle Chinese. In Old Chinese, tòu 透 was pronounced shū, which meant being in panic. In the Han dynasty, it was written in the second volume of Yang Xiong’s 揚雄 Fāngyán 方言 [Dialects] that “jīng, tòuyě. . . . Sòng wèi nánchǔ fán xiāngjīng yuē shuò, huòyuē tòu. 驚，透也. . . 宋衛南楚凡相驚 曰 獡，或曰透.” (Tòu 透 means being frightened. . . . When people in the State of Song, Wei and the Southern region of Chu were frightened, they described it as shuò 獡 or tòu 透.) It was recorded in Guǎngyùn·Wūyùn 廣韻 · 屋韻 [Various Rhymes – Wu Rhyme] that “tòu, jīngyě, shìzhúqiè. 透，驚也，式竹切.” (Tòu 透 means frightening, spelt by shì 式 and zhú 竹.) The pronunciation and meaning of tòu 透 in Middle Chinese are different from this meaning. Xiá/jiǎ/yá 押 This character xiá 押 had been seen in Old Chinese and was pronounced xiá. It can be regarded as xiá 柙, which meant wooden box. In Hánfēizǐ·Wàichǔshuōyòuxià 韓非子 · 外儲説右下 [Works of Hanfeizi – Wai Chu’s Exhortation II], it was written that “Tiānyīng lìngguānjù xiáquàn dǒushí cānshēng zhījì, wáng zìtīngjì, jì búshèng tīng, bàshí, hòu fùzuò, búfù mùshíyǐ. 田嬰令官具押券斗石參升之 計，王自聽計，計不勝聽，罷食，後復坐，不復暮食矣.” (Tian Ying asked the officials to prepare the accounts and vouchers of the annual fiscal revenue. King Qi Xuan personally asked about the financial settlement, but he did not want to hear it anymore. After finishing eating, he sat down again, but was too tired to have dinner anymore.) Wang Xianshen’s 王先慎 collection of explanation quoted

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 27 Sun Yirang’s 孫詒讓 Shāngzǐ·Dìngfēnpiān 商子 · 定分篇 [Shangzi – Specifying Crime Names] that “ ‘Zhǔfǎlìng zhīlì, jǐnyǐ qíyòuquàn, mùxiá yǐshì cángzhī, fēngyǐ fǎlìng zhī chángyìn’. Cǐxiáquàn jí yòuquàn mùxiá. ‘xiá’, yǔ‘xiá’ tōng. 主 法令之吏, 謹以其右券, 木柙以室藏之，封以法令之長印. 此押券即右券木 柙. ‘押’ 與 ‘柙’ 通 .” (The official in charge of the decree carefully put the right piece into a wooden box, hid it in a room, and sealed it with the seal of the chief decree. Here xiá 押 in xiáquàn 押券 was the same as xiá 柙 in yòuquàn mùxiá 右券木柙. Xiá 押 and xiá 柙 were interchangeable in usage.) Xiá 押 was also pronounced as jiǎ, which meant assistance. It was written in Guǎngyǎ·Shìgǔsì 廣雅 · 釋詁四 [Broadened Erya – Exegesis IV] that “jiǎ, fǔyě. 押，輔也.” (Jiǎ 押 means assistance.) Wang Niansun 王念孫 noted that “Jiǎzhě, Mèngzǐ gōngsūnchǒupiān: xiāng yǔfǔ xiāngzhī. Dīnggōng zhùběn xiāng zuò jiǎ, yīnjiǎ, yǐn guǎngyǎ: jiǎ, fǔyě. Jiǎ, jiā shēngxiāngjìn. 押者，《孟子 · 公孫丑篇》： ‘相與 輔相之.’ 丁公著本 ‘相’ 作 ‘押’ ， 音甲，引《廣雅》： ‘押， 輔也.’ 押、挟 聲相近.” (In Mencius–Gongsun Chou, it reads “The two assisted him together.” The version by Ding Gongzhu wrote xiàng 相 as jiǎ 押, which is pronounced as jiǎ, quoting Broadened Erya that jiǎ 押 means assistance. The pronunciations of jiǎ 押 and 挟 jiā are similar.) Since the Six dynasties, xiá 押 has also been pronounced as yá, which meant to sign, that is, to sign or draw a number on an official document or contract as a certificate. This was a new character, which was unrelated to that of xiá 押 with the meaning of wooden box or jiǎ, assistance. It was written in Yùpiān·Shǒubù 玉篇 · 手部 [Shou Group of Jade Article] that “yá, shǔyě. 押，署也.” (Yá 押 means to sign.) However, in Guǎngyùn·Xiáyùn 廣韻 · 狎韻 [Various Rhymes – Xia Rhyme], it read that “yá, yáshǔ wénzì. 押，押署 文字.” (Yá 押 means signing in characters.) It was written in Zìhuì·Shǒubù 字彙 · 手部 [Shou Group of Chinese Characters] that “yá, qiānshǔ wénzìyě. 押，簽 署文字也.” (Yá 押 means signing in characcters.) In the Tang dynasty, it was written in the fourth volume of Zhang Yanyuan’s 張 彥遠 Shūfǎyàolù 書法 要録 [Calligraphy Marks] quoting Wei Shu’s 韋述 Xùshūlù 叙書録 [Books’ Notes] that “[Lù] yuántìděng yòu gēqù qiándài míngxián xiáshǔ zhījì, wéiyǐ jǐzhī míngshì dàiyān. [陆] 元悌等又割去前代名賢押署之跡，惟以己之名氏代焉.” (Yuan Ti and others got rid of the names signed by their predecessors only to replace it with their own names.) In volume 422 of Tàipíngyùlǎn 太平御覧 [Taiping Imperial Encyclopedia], quoting Zheng Huangu’s 鄭還古 Bóyìzhì 博異志 [Monstrous Stories], it said that “Xiěbì, lìngyǐ hànyáng zhīmíng yázhī. 寫畢，令 以漢陽之名押之.” (After writing, he ordered to sign with Hanyang’s name.) In the Song dynasty, it was written in Wang Pu’s 王浦 Tánghuìyào·Bǎiguānzòushì 唐會要 · 百官奏事 [Notes of the Tang dynasty – Statement to Emperor] that “[Jǐnglóng] Sānnián èryuè èrshíliùrì chì: zhūsī yùzòu dàshì, bìngxiàng qiánlù suǒzòuzhuàng yìběn, xiānjìn, lìng zhǎngguān qīnyá. [景龍] 三年二月二十六 日敕：諸司欲奏大事，並向前録所奏狀一本，先進，令長官親押.” ([Jinglong] The emperor’s edict on 26th day of the second month of the third year of his reign: each agency has to report important matters to the emperor, and submit a detailed memorial a few days in advance. He also orders the official who intends to report to submit the memorandum in person.)

28

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

Some of the previous examples have the same forms and pronunciations as their old counterparts, yet with a completely new meaning; some have the same forms with different pronunciations, meanings, and parts of speech. They are all new characters originating in Middle Chinese rather than extended meanings of old characters.

1.4 New words with new forms The meanings and forms of new words with new forms were all newly coined in the Middle Chinese instead of relying on Old Chinese forms, as can be seen in the following examples. 1.4.1 Nouns Ăo 襖 The word ǎo 襖 refers to a coat with a lining. In Guǎngyùn·Hàoyùn 廣韻 · 皓韻, it reads “ǎo, páo’ǎo. 襖，袍襖.” (Ăo 襖 refers to the robe coat.) In Sòngshū·Kŏng Līn zhīzhuàn 宋書 · 孔琳之傳 [Biography of Kong Linzhi in Book of the Song dynasty], it is written that “zhìyú páoǎo liǎngdāng, bìsì zhànzhèn, shízài kùcáng, yǒngwú sǔnhuǐ. 至於袍襖 裲 襠 ，必俟戰陣，寔在庫藏，永無損毀.” (As for campaign gowns, war jackets and waistcoats, they are all ready for wars. Now they are put away in the warehouse and will never get ruined.) In the poem Chóu CuīShíliù shàofǔ 酬崔十六少府 written by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “Shū sūn yào tóng chī, pò ǎo qǐng lái zhàn. 蔬飧要同喫，破襖請來 綻.” (I had to have dinner with him and asked him to mend my torn coat.) Wang Fanzhi 王梵志 in the Tang dynasty wrote in his poem Wú fù yŏuqiān shí 吾富 有錢時 [When I Was Rich] that “Wú fù yǒuqián shí, fùér kànwǒ hǎo. wú ruò tuō yīshang, yǔ wú dié páoǎo. 吾富有錢時，婦兒看我好. 吾若脫衣裳，與吾疊袍 襖.” (When I was rich, my wife and children liked me. If I took off my clothes, they would fold my robe and coat for me.) In Old Chinese, there are coats with two layers, jiá 袷 (裌) and dié 褶, and long gowns with wadding, páo 袍 and mǎn 襔.1 Ăo 襖 is a new word from the Six dynasties. Bà 壩 In the southwest region of China, flat or level land is called bà 壩, which is a dialect character that originated in the Six dynasties. In Yùpiān·tūbù 玉篇 · 土部 [Tu Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “bà, shǔrén wèi píngchuān yuē bà. 蜀人謂平川曰壩.” (People in Shu called flat land bà 壩.) The same explanation of the character is also mentioned in Guângyùn·máyùn 廣韻 · 禡韻 [Various Rhymes·Ma Rhyme]. In the third poem Xiè Yáng Lǚdào sòng yínjiā sìshǒu 謝 楊履道送銀茄四首 of Huang Tingjian 黃庭堅 in the Song dynasty, it is written that “jū jiā shuǐjiā báiyínsè, shū shèng bà lǐ zǐpéng hēng. 居家水茄白銀色，殊 勝壩裏紫彭亨.” (The eggplant my friend gave me is white and silver which is

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 29 better than the purple eggplant on the plains.) In Zīzhìtōngjiàn·Tángdàizōng dàlì shísìnián 資治通鑒 · 唐代宗大歷十四年 [14th Year of Dali of Emperor Daizong in the Tang dynasty in Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government] of Sima Guang 司馬光 in the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “dōngchuān chūbīng, zì jiāngyóu qū báibà, yǔ shānnánbīng héjī tǔzhù, nánzhào, pò zhī. 東川出兵，自 江油趨白壩，與山南兵合擊土著，南詔，破之.” (We marched the army in Dongchuan, from Jiangyou to Baiba, with soldiers from the south of the mountains, we attacked the aborigines and occupied Nanzhao.) Today, there are places such as Huaxiba, Majiaoba, and Chuanxibazi in Sichuan. Diàn 鈿 Diàn 鈿 refers to a flower-shaped ornament made of gold or flower-shaped gold piece attached to the temples, which came into being in the Six dynasties. In Yùpiān·Jīnbù 玉篇 · 金部 [Jin Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “Diàn, jīnhuā yě. 鈿，金花也.” (Diàn 鈿 refers to gold flowers.) In Shuōwénxīnfù 説文新 附 [Supplement to Origins of Chinese Characters], it is written that “diàn, jīnhuā yě. 鈿，金華也.” (Diàn 鈿 means gold flowers.) It is written in Liùshūgù·Dìlǐ I 六書故 · 地理一 [Analysis of Characters According to Six Classics·Geography I] by Dai Dong 戴侗 in the Yuan dynasty that “Diàn, jīnhuā wèishì, tiántiánrán. 鈿，金華為 飾，田田然.” (Diàn 鈿 means to use gold flowers to decorate with petals linked to each other.) In Cǎiliánqū 采蓮曲 [Picking Lotus Melody] by Liu Xiaowei 劉孝威 in the Liang dynasty, it is written that “lù huā shí shī chuàn, fēng jīng zhà fú diàn. 露 花時濕釧，風莖乍拂鈿.” (From time to time, dew wetted the bracelets, the breeze blowing, and the stems of lotus leaves in wind occasionally brushed the gold flower decoration on the face.) In poem Nǎogōng 惱公 by Li He 李贺 in the Tang dynasty, it is written that “diànjìng fēi gūquè, jiāngtú huà shuǐhóng. 鈿鏡飛孤鵲，江圖 畫水葓.” (There is one magpie carved on the gold mirror as well as watercress in the river painting.) Wang Qi 王琦 annotated that “Diàn, jīnhuā yě. 鈿，金華也.” (Diàn 鈿 are gold flowers.) In the fourth poem the Yǔ sìshǒu 雨四首 [Four Poems of Rain] by Du Fu 杜甫 in the Tang dynasty, it is written that “shénnǚ huādiàn luò, jiāorén zhīzhù bēi. 神女花鈿落，鮫人織杼悲.” (Goddess’s gold flowers fall, and mermaids weave sorrowfully.) Qiu Zhao’ao 仇兆鼇 annotated that “àn tángzhì, mìng fùzhī fúshì yǐ bǎodiàn jīnhuā yě. 按唐志，命婦之服飾以寶鈿金花也.” (According to Records of the Tang dynasty, the dresses of the women with official ranks should be decorated with gold floral ornaments set with precious stones.) In Tàgēcí 踏歌詞 by Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yuèluò wūtí yúnyǔ sàn, yóutóng mòshàng shí huādiàn. 月落烏啼雲雨散，遊童陌上拾花 鈿.” (The moon had gone down, crows were calling, cloud and rain had dispersed, and children were picking gold floral ornaments in the fields.) Cāo 糙 Cāo 糙 refers to shelled rice being unground or ground rice not well enough to eat. It is written as lì 糲 in Old Chinese, while cāo 糙 came into being in the Six

30

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

dynasties. In Yùpiān·Mǐbù 玉篇 · 米部 [Mi Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “Cāo, cūmǐ wèi chōng. 糙，粗米未舂.” (Cāo 糙 refers to unground coarse rice.) In Jiù Tángshū·Shíhuòzhì sháng 舊唐書食貨志上 [Records of Food I in Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “yífèng sìnián sìyuè, lìng dōngdū chū yuǎnnián cāomǐ jí sù, jiùshì gěi tiào, dòubié nà èqián bǎiwén. 儀鳳四年 四月，令東都出遠年糙米及粟，就市給糶，斗別納惡錢百文.” (In fourth month of the fourth year of Yifeng, the government ordered Luoyang to sell rice and millet stored for years in the market on the price of 100 poor-quality copper coins.) It is also written as cāo 㿷. In Kěnqìnglù·Lǐsú zìyì 肯綮錄俚俗字義 [Records of Significant Issues·Meanings of Unrefined Characters] by Zhao Shuxiang 趙叔向, it is written that “mǐ bùjiā yuē cāo, yǔ cāo tóng. 米不佳曰 㿷，與 糙同.” (Poor-quality rice is called cāo 㿷, the same as cāo 糙.) Dài 埭 Dài 埭 refers to an earth dam to block water so as to raise the water level and facilitate irrigation and navigation, reflecting the development of irrigation and water conservancy construction in China. This character came into being in the Six dynasties. In Yùpiān Tǔbù 玉篇 · 土部 [Tu Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “dài, yǐtǔ yè shuǐ. 埭，以土堨水.” (Dài 埭 refers to stopping water with soil.) In Shuǐjīngzhù·Jiànjiāngshuǐ 水經注 · 漸江水 [Commentary on the Waterways Classic·Jiangjiang River] by Li Daoyuan 酈道元 in the Northern Wei dynasty, it is recorded that “tàishǒu kǒnglíngfú è fēngshān qiánhú wèidài, dàixià kāidú, zhízhǐ nánjīn. 太守孔靈符遏蜂山前湖為埭，埭下開瀆，直指南津.” (The prefecture Kong Lingfu 孔靈符 built a dam in the lake in front of Mount Feng to stop the water. Followed the dam, a canal was dug to Nanjin.) In the 18th volume of Sōushén jì 搜神記 [In Search of the Supernatural] by Gān Bǎo 干寶 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “rìmù, yǐnchuán shàng, dāng dàdài, jiàn dàishàng yǒuyī nǚzǐ, nián shíqībā. 日暮，引船上，當大埭，見埭上有一女子，年十七八.” (At dusk, I directed my boat to the riverside in front of a huge dam, where I saw a girl at the age of 17 or 18.) In Mèngxī bǐtán·Guānzhèng èr 夢溪筆談 · 官政二 [Mengxi’s Essays·National Affairs II] by Shen Kuo 沈括 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “huáinán cáoqú, zhúdài yǐ xùshuǐ, bùzhī shǐyú héshí. 淮南 漕渠，築埭以蓄水，不知始於何時.” (Dài 埭, a dam was built to store water in canals of Huainan. Nobody knows when it started.) Dài 袋 (帒) Dài 袋 (帒) refers to a container made of cloth and leather and the like. In ancient China, there were náng 囊 and tuó 橐, both of which mean sacks. Dài 袋 is a new character dated back to the Six dynasties. In Yùpiān·Yībù 玉篇 · 衣部 [Yi Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “dài, nángshǔ, yìzuò dài. 袋，囊 屬，亦作帒.” (Dài 袋 belongs to the class of bags, also being written as dài 帒.) In Suíshū·Shíhuòzhì 隋書 · 食貨誌 [Book of the Sui dynasty·Monograph on Food and Currency], it is recorded that “yǒusī chángjìn gānjiāng, yǐ bùdài zhùzhī,

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 31 dì yòngwèi shāngfèi, dàjiā qiǎnzé. hòu jìnxiāng. fùyǐ zhāndài, yīnchī suǒsī, yǐwéi hòujiè yān. 有司嘗進乾薑，以布袋貯之，帝用為傷費，大加譴責. 後進香. 復以氊袋，因笞所司，以為後誡焉.” (An official once offered dried ginger to the Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty and stored it in cloth bags. The Emperor thought it was too wasteful and criticized it. Later, someone offered incense and stored it in felt bags, too, so the official was flogged to warn posterity.) It is written in volume 33 of Tàipíng yùlǎn 太平禦覽 [Taiping Imperial Encyclopedia], quoting Lúgōngfàn 盧公範 [Lu Gongfan] by Lu Shen 盧慎, that “jiǔlàrì, shàng zǎodòu dài jí tóugāo, miànzhī, kǒuzhī. 九臘日，上藻豆俗及頭膏，面脂、口 脂.” (Every year on the ninth day of the 12th month, bags of bean soaps, shampoo paste, face cream and lip cream would be presented to the Emperor.) Diē 爹 The word diē 爹 means father, appearing in the late Han dynasty. In Guǎngyǎ·Shìqīn 廣雅 · 釋親 [Broadened Erya·Explaining Terms for Relatives], it is recorded that “diē, fù yě. 爹，父也.” (Diē 爹 means father.) In Guǎngyùn·Máyùn 廣韻 · 麻韻 [Various Rhymes·Ma Rhyme], it is written that “diē, qiāngrén hūfù yě. zhìyé qiè. 爹，羌人呼父也. 陟邪切.” (Qiang people call their father diē 爹. It is spelt by zhì 陟 and yé 邪.) In Gěyùn 哿韻 [Ge Rhyme], it is written that “diē, běifāngrén hūfù, túkě qiè. 爹，北方人呼父，徒可切.” (The northerners call their father diē 爹. It is spelt by tú 徒 and kě 可.) In Nánshǐ·Liángzōngshìzhuàn II·Shǐxīngwáng Dān 南史 · 梁宗室傳下 · 始興王儋 [Shixingwang Dan of the Book of Liang of the History of the South dynasty], it is written that “zhàozhĭ yǐ běnhào huáncháo. réngē yuē: ‘shǐxīngwáng, rénzhī diē, fù rénjí, rú shuǐhuǒ, héshí fùlái bǔrǔ wǒ?’ jīngtǔ fāngyán wèi fù wéidiē, gùyún. 詔 徵以本號還朝. 人歌曰： ‘始興王， 人之爹，赴人急，如水火，何時復來哺乳我 ?’ 荊土方言謂父為爹，故雲.” (The Emperor issued an edict to have him resume his previous post. People praised him, “Prince of Shixing, the father of the people, saves people in great distress like being in water and fire. When will you come back again to help us?” As can be seen, Jing dialect refers to father as diē 爹.) In Jìnǚ Názi wén 祭女拏 子文 by Han Yu 韓愈 in the Tang dynasty, it is written that “wéinián yuèrì, ādiē ābā shǐ rǔnǐ yǐ qīngjiǔ shíguǒ shùxiū zhīdiàn, jìyú dìsì xiǎoniángzǐ Názĭ zhī líng. 維年月日，阿爹阿八使汝妳以清酒時果庶羞之奠，祭於第四小娘子拏子之 靈.” (On a certain day, with wine, fresh fruits and dishes, father and mother made a sacred sacrifice in front of the tomb of Nazi, our fourth daughter) Diē 爹 may have been a Qiang character at first, and it was introduced to the northern Chinese dialect in the late Han dynasty. After the Eastern Jin dynasty, with a large number of superior-class people moving southward, the southern people also began to call their fathers diē 爹, which is still the case in Hunan Province now. Diàn 淀 The word diàn 淀 is also written as diàn 澱, which refers to a shallow lake. The word diàn 淀 did not appear in Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters]; it

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is a new character produced in the Six dynasties. In Yùpiān·Shuǐbù 玉篇 · 水部 [Shui Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “diàn, qiǎnshuǐ yě. 澱，淺水也.” (Diàn 淀 means shallow water.) In Yánshì jiāxùn·Guīxīn 顏氏家訓 · 歸心 [Return to Heart in the Family Precepts of Yan Family] by Yan Zhitui 颜之推 in the Northern Qi dynasty, it is written that “jiānglíng gāowěi, suíwǒ rùqí, fán shùnián, xiàng yōuzhōu diànzhōng bǔyú. 江陵高偉，隨我入齊，凡數年，向幽州淀中捕魚.” (Gao Wei from Jiangling came to Qi with me. He has been fishing in the lakes of Youzhou for several years.) Zhao Ximing 趙曦明 annotated, “diàn, jīn běifāng tíngshuǐ zhīdì yě. 趙曦明注：淀，今北方亭水之地也.” (Diàn 淀 refers to places with pavilions and water in the north today.) In the Shuǐjīngzhù·Wènshuǐ 水 經注 · 汶水 [Commentary on the Waterways Classic·Wen River] by Lì Dàoyuán 酈道元 in the Northern Wei dynasty, it is recorded that “wènshuǐ yòuxī héwéi yī shuǐ, xīnán rù màodōudiàn. diàn, bēishuǐ zhī yìmíng yě. 汶水又西合為一水，西 南入茂都澱. 澱，陂水之異名也.” (Wen River was merged into one river in the west and flew down into Maodu Lake in the southwest. Diàn 澱 is a synonym of bēishuǐ 陂水, a pond.) Gǔ 牯 Gǔ 牯 first appeared in the Six dynasties and originally referred to cows. In the Yùpiān·Niúbù 玉篇 · 牛部 [Niu Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “gǔ, pìnniú. 牯，牝牛.” (Gǔ 牯 refers to cows.) After the Tang dynasty, it refers to bulls. In Guǎngyùn·Lǎoyùn 廣韻 · 姥韻 [Various Rhymes·Lao Rhyme], it is written that “gǔ, gǔniú. 牯，牯牛.” (Gǔ 牯 refers to bulls.) In Zhèngzìtōng·Niúbù 正字通 · 牛 部 [Zhengzitong·Niu Group], it is written that “gǔ, súhū mǔniú yuēgǔ. 牯，俗呼 牡牛曰牯.” (Gǔ 牯 is commonly known as bulls.) In Zhùniúgōngcí 祝牛宮辭 by Lu Guimeng 陸龜蒙 in the Tang dynasty, it is written that “sìzì sāngǔ, zhōngyī qùrǔ. tiānshuāng jiànghán, nà cǐshì chù. 四牸三牯，中一去乳. 天霜降寒，納 此室處.” (Four cows and three bulls, and one of them was just weaned. It was cold due to the frost outside, so they were brought to the shed.) In the poem Fēnyí dàozhōng 分宜道中 [On the Way to Fenyi] by Sun Di 孫覿 in the Song dynasty, it is written that “lǎogǔ wǎnlí ní mòxī, shànshàn qīngjiā zhēn shuǐchū. 老牯挽 黎泥沒膝，剡剡青梜鍼水出.” (An old bull pulled the plow with mud up to its knees, and the spindly seedlings shed green juice.) In the poem Tíqiūshānguó 題 秋山國 by Yang Weizhen 楊維楨 in the Song dynasty, it is written that “jiāngbiān hēigǔ sì chénxī, shuǐguài bùgǎn tuān jīndī. 江邊黑牯似沈犀，水怪不敢湍金 隄.” (The black bull on the riverside is like a rhinoceros in the water, and the water monsters dare not haunt the golden river.) Guǎi 柺 Guǎi 柺 means a cane, a walking stick for the elderly. Before the Tang dynasty, the stick was called zhàng 杖, and the character guǎi 柺 first appeared in the Tang dynasty. In Guǎngyùn·Xièyùn 廣韻 · 蟹韻 [Various Rhymes·Xie Rhyme], it is written that “guǎi, lǎorén zhǔzhàng yě. 拐，老人拄杖也.” (Guǎi 柺 refers to the

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 33 stick that the elderly lean on.) In Xīn Wǔdàishǐ·Hàngāozǔjì 新五代史 · 漢高祖 紀 [Record of Gaozu in the Han dynasty of The New Book of the Five dynasties History], it is written that “wáng qiǎn yájiāng wáng jùn fèngbiǎo qì dān, yēlǜ dé guāng hū zhī wèi ér, cì yǐ mùguǎi. 王遣牙將王峻奉表契丹，耶律德光呼之為 兒，賜以木拐.” (Wang Jun, deputy general, was ordered to present the letter to Qidan. Yelv Deguang called him a son and gave him a wooden crutch.) In the eighth volume of Lěngzhāi yèhuà 冷齋夜話 by Shi Huihong 釋惠洪 in the Song dynasty, it is written that “liúbōzĭ, qīngzhōurén, zhǔ yīguǎi, měisuì bì yīzhì luòzhōng kànhuā. 劉波子，青州人，拄一拐，每歲必一至洛中看花.” (Liu Bozi, a native of Qingzhou, is a cripple. Every year, he would go to Luozhong once to see flowers with his walking stick.) Jiǎn 筧 Jiǎn 筧 originated in the Six dynasties and refers to long bamboo poles or split bamboo tubes connected to guide water. In Yùpiān·Zhúbù 玉篇 · 竹部 [Zhu Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “jiǎn, yǐzhú tōngshuǐ yě. 筧，以竹通 水也.” (Jiǎn 筧 means to use bamboo for water transfer.) In Qiántánghúshíjì 錢 唐湖石記 by Bai Juyi 白居易, it is written that “qiántánghú yīmíng shànghú, zhōuhuí sānshí lǐ. běiyǒu shíhán, nányǒu jiǎn. fán fàngshuǐ gàitián, měijiǎn yīcùn, kěgài shíwǔ yúqǐng. 錢唐湖一名上湖，周廻三十里. 北有石函，南有筧. 凡放 水溉田，每減一寸，可溉十五餘頃.” (The Qiantang Lake, also known as the Shang Lake, is a lake with a radius of 30 meters. There is a stone bridge gate in the north and water pipes made of bamboo in the south. When irrigating fields, every inch of water level of the lake can irrigate more than fifteen hectares.) In the poem Tuìjū 退居 [Retirement] by Lu You 陸遊 in the Song dynasty, it is written that “xī yān mòmò yì qíxuān, jiǎnshuǐ chánchán zhǒng yàoyǔ. 溪煙漠漠奕 棋軒，筧水潺潺種藥圉.” (The stream was shrouded in mist, and several people gathered in the room to play chess. The water guided by bamboo pipes flowed to the medicine garden.) Lián 簾 Lián 簾, originating in the Tang dynasty, refers to the flag as a sign for restaurants in old times. It was made of cloth and placed in front of restaurants, commonly known as wàngzĭ 望子 (a sign). In Guǎngyùn·ányùn 廣韻鹽韻 [Various Rhymes· Yan Rhyme], it is written that “lián, qīnglián, jiǔjiā wàngzǐ. 簾，青簾，酒家 望子.” (Lián 簾 is a cyan flag and refers to the sign hanging in front of restaurants.) In Jiāngbiān yín 江邊吟 [Riverside Singing] by Li Bai 李白 in the Tang dynasty, it is written that “shǎnshǎn jiǔlián zhāo zuìkè, shēnshēn lǜshù yǐn tíyīng. 閃閃酒簾招醉客，深深綠樹隱啼鶯.” (The sparkling flags of restaurants attract drunken guests, and the deep green trees hide the nightingales.) In the poem Yúfù jiāngzhōng 魚腹江中 [Fishing Again in the Middle of the River]by Liu Yuxi 劉 禹錫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “fēngqiáng hǎozhù tānchéng qù, xiérì qīnglián bèi jiǔjiā. 風檣好住貪程去，斜日青簾背酒家.” (I bid a farewell and

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

sailed greedily for more journey. Now the sun is setting, and I turned my back to the restaurant with its shop flag.) In the poem Fànzhōu húzhōng 泛舟湖中 [Boating on the Lake] by Lu You 陸遊 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “chóngchóng hóngshù qiūshān wǎn, lièliè qīnglián shèjiǔ xiāng. 重重紅樹秋山 晚，獵獵青簾社酒香.” (Near evening in late autumn, the red maple trees in the mountains are stacked layer by layer. The evening wind is blowing slowly, and the blue flag is rustling. At this moment, it would be fun to taste a cup of newly brewed wine.) Niáng 娘 (孃) Niáng 娘 (孃) came into being in the Six dynasties, and its original meaning is a maiden. In Yùpiān·Nǚbù 玉篇 · 女部 [Nv Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “niáng, shàonǚ zhī hào. 娘，少女之號.” (Niáng 娘 refers to a maiden.) In Yuèfǔ shījí·Zǐyègē 樂府詩集 · 子夜歌 [Collection of Yuefu Lyric Poems·Song of Midnight], it is written that “jiàn niáng xǐ róngmèi, yuàndé jié jīnlán. 見娘 喜容媚，願得結金蘭.” (I was so excited when I saw the beautiful maiden and wanted to marry her.) In the third volume of Yīnyún xiǎoshuō 殷芸小説 [Novel by Yin Yun] by Yin Yun 殷芸 in the Liang dynasty, it is written that “fūzǐ yóuchén bì juéliáng, jiǔqǔ míngzhū chuān bùdé, zhuó lái wèn wǒ cǎisāngniáng. 夫子遊 陳必絕糧，九曲明珠穿不得，著來問我采桑娘.” (When Confucius lobbied at Chen, you would definitely run out of food. If you could not let the thread pass through the Pearl of Jiuqu, you have to ask us, maidens picking mulberry leaves, for help.) Niáng 娘 can also refer to daughter. In the second volume of Xuánguàilù 玄怪錄 [Mysterious Records] by Niu Sengru 牛僧孺 in the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “bùzhī zúxià shēng lái, yǒu lángniáng fǒu? 不知足下生來， 有郎娘否 ? ” (I wonder if you have sons or daughters.) 娘 niáng can also be a good name for women. In Běishǐ·Hòufēizhuànxù 北史 · 後妃傳序 [Biography of the Empress and Concubines of the History of the Northern dynasties], it is written that “wénxiāng jì shàng wèicháo gōngzhǔ, gù wú biéhào, liǎnggōng zì yújī shì, bìngchēng niáng éryǐ. 文襄既尚魏朝公主，故無別號，兩宫自余姬侍，併稱 娘而已.” (Wenxiang was a princess of Wei, so she had no title. The two palaces are served by Yuji, and they are together called niáng 娘.) Niáng 娘 can also mean mother. Volume 99 of Tàipíng guǎngjì 太平廣記 [Tales from the Taiping Era] quotes Fǎyuàn zhūlín 法苑珠林 [Index of Buddhist Scriptures] that “mǔ yǔ nǚ yán: ‘rǔ hái nǔlì wèi wú xiějīng’. nǚ yún: ‘niáng yù xiě hé jīng?’ 母語女言： ‘汝 還努力為吾寫經.’ 女云： ‘娘欲寫何經？’ ” (The mother said to her daughter, “You have to work hard to write scriptures for me”. The daughter asked, “What scripture do you want?”) In Dūnhuáng biànwén jí·Qiūhú biànwén 敦煌變文集 · 秋胡變文 [Collection of Narrative Literatures in Dunhuang·Stories of Qiu Hu], it is written that “tiān’ēn cìjīn, jiāoshōu guīshě, bàoniáng rǔbǔ zhī’ēn. 天恩賜金， 交收歸舍，報娘乳哺之恩.” (The emperor gave me money. Let me return home to repay my mother for her upbringing.) Niáng 娘 is also written as niáng 孃. In Yùpiān·Nǚbù 玉篇 · 女部 [Nv Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “niáng, mǔ yě. 嬢，母也.” (Niáng 孃 means mother.) In Mùlán cí 木蘭辭 [A Poem for

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 35 Mulan], it is written that “dàn cí yéniáng qù, mùsù huánghé biān. 旦辭爺嬢去， 暮宿黃河邊.” (In the morning I bid farewell to father and mother. In the evening, I slept by the Yellow River.) After the Song and Yuan dynasties, niáng 孃 was abolished and only niáng 娘 remained in usage. Pào 砲 (礟) The character pào 砲 (礟) came into being in the Wei and Jin dynasties, originally referring to machines that throw rocks to hit the enemy. In Yùpiān·Shíbù 玉篇 · 石部 [Shi Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “pào, pàoshí. 礮，礮石.” (Pào 礟 means the rocks that are used to hit the enemy.) In Jíyùn·Xiàoyùn 集韻 · 效韻 [Collected Rhymes·Xiao Rhyme], it is recorded that “pào, jīshí yě. 礮，機石也.” (Pào 礟 refers to rocks in a machine.) In Xiánjūfù 閒居賦 by Pan Yue 潘岳 in the Jin dynasty, it is written that “pàoshí léihài, jīshǐ méngfēi. 礮石雷駭，激矢䖟 飛.” (The sound of rocks is like thunder, and the arrows fly away like gadflies.) Li Shan 李善 annotated that “pàoshí, jīnzhī pāoshí yě. 礮石，今之拋石也.” (Pàoshí 礟石 refers to rock-throwing today.) In XīnTángshū·Lǐ Mì zhuàn 新唐書 · 李密 傳 [Biography of Li Mi of The New Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “yǐjī fāshí, wéi gōngchéng xiè, hào jiāngjūnpào. 以機發石，為攻城械，號將軍 礮.” (The machines used to send stones to attack cities were called general cannon.) After the invention of gunpowder, pào 砲 also refers to a long-range killing weapon fired with gunpowder.) In Sòngshǐ·Bīngzhìshí yī 宋史 · 兵志十一 [The History of the Song dynasty·Art of War 11], it is recorded that “huǒjiàn huǒpào bùnéng qīn. 火箭火砲不能侵.” (Flaming arrows and gunpowder cannons cannot defeat the enemy.) In Gāiyú cóngkǎo·Huǒpào huǒqiāng 陔餘叢考 · 火砲火 槍 [Essays Composed in Addition to Supporting Parents·Cannons and Firelocks] by Zhao Yi 趙翼 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “huǒpào shí qǐyú nánsòng jīnyuán zhījiān. . . wèishèng zhì pàochē, shī huǒshí kě èrbǎibù, qí huǒyào yòng xiāoshí, liúhuáng, liǔtàn wéi zhī. cǐ jìndài yòng huǒjù zhīshǐ. 火砲實起於南宋 金元之間. . . 魏勝製砲車，施火石可二百步，其火藥用硝石、硫磺、柳炭為 之. 此近代用火具之始.” (Artillery started during the Southern Song dynasty, Jin and Yuan dynasties. . . Wei Sheng produced cannons, which can throw fire stones for 200-bù 步, about 320m, away. Its gunpowder is made of saltpeter, sulfur, and willow charcoal. This is the beginning of using fire weapons in modern times.) In Modern Chinese, it is written as pào 炮, which refers to a heavy-duty shooting weapon with a caliber of more than two centimeters capable of firing shells. Qià 帢 (㡊) Qià 帢 (㡊) refers to a casual cap worn by ancient scholars, which is said to have been invented by Cao Cao 曹操. In Guǎngyùn·Qiàyùn 廣韻 · 洽韻 [Various Rhymes·Qia Rhyme], it is written that “qià, shìfú, zhuàngrú biàn, quē sìjiǎo, wèiwǔdì zhì. 帢，士服，狀如弁，缺四角，魏武帝制.” (Qià 帢 is scholar’s accessories with the shape of biàn 弁, only lack of four corners, and it is invented by Emperor Wu of the Wei dynasty.) Sānguózhì·Wèishū·Wǔdìjì 三國誌 · 魏書 · 武帝紀 [Record of

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

Emperor Wu of the Wei dynasty in Annals of the Three Kingdoms] by Pei Songzhi 裴松之 quotes Fùzĭ 傅子 that “wèitàizǔ yǐ tiānxià xiōnghuāng, zīcái fákuì, nǐgǔ píbiàn, cái jiānbó yǐwéi qià, héyú jiǎnyì suíshí zhīyì, yǐsè bié qí guìjiàn. 魏太祖以天 下凶荒，資財乏匱，擬古皮弁，裁縑帛以為帢，合於簡易隨時之義，以色 別其貴賤.” (During the Age of Taizu in the Wei dynasty, because of the shortage of money and wealth, qià 帢 were made with thin silk fabric, imitating leather biàn 弁 worn by the ancients. It was in line with the principle of simplicity and convenience. The grade of people is distinguished by its color.) In Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Fāngzhèng 世 説新語 · 方正 [A New Account of the Tales of the World·Righteousness] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 in the Song State of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “shāngōng (tāo) dà’ér (gāi) zhuó duǎnqià, chēzhōng yǐ. 山公 (濤) 大兒 (該) 著短 帢，車中倚.” (Wearing a short cap, Shantao’s eldest son leant on casually in the carriage.) In Bǔ Lóngshān Wén 補龍山文 [Essay about Bulong Mountain] by Su Shi 蘇軾 in the Song dynasty, it is written that “húgē yǎzòu, huǎndài qīngqià. 壺歌 雅奏，緩帶輕帢.” (At the banquet, songs fluttered, and girls began to play instruments. I put on my cap slowly.) It is also written as qià 㡊. In Jìnshū·Yúfúzhì 晉 書 · 輿服誌 [The Book of Jin·Records of Carriage, Hat and Clothing], it is written that “chéngdì xiánhé jiǔnián, zhì tīng shàngshū bāzuò chéngláng, ménxià sānxǐng chéngchē, báiqià dīwéi, chūrù yēmén. yòu èrgōng zhíguān zhuó wūshāmào, ránzé wǎngwǎng shìrén yànjū jiē zhuóqià yǐ. 成帝咸和九年，制聽尚書八座丞郎，門 下三省乘車，白㡊低幃，出入掖門. 又二宮直官著烏紗帽，然則往往士人宴 居皆著㡊矣.” (In the ninth year of Xianhe of Emperor Cheng in the Jin dynasty, it is allowed that the eight ministers in the Department of State Affairs came in and out through the side gate of the palace, wearing white qià 㡊 and low turban. The officials on duty in the palaces of the emperor and queen mother were allowed to wear black gauze hat. The scholars all wear qià 㡊 in their idleness.) Tán 壜 (罎) Tán 壜 originated in the Six dynasties and refers to round pottery with a small mouth and a big belly. In Yùpiān·Tǔbù 玉篇 · 土部 [Tu Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “tán, wǔqì. 壜，甒器.” (Tán 壜 refers a kind of crockery.) In Jíyùn·Tányùn 集韻 · 覃韻 [Collected Rhymes·Tan Rhyme], it is recorded that “tán, huòzuò tán. 壜，或作罎.” (Tán 壜 sometimes is written as tán 罎.) In the poem Yèguī yìlóu 夜歸驛樓 [Night at the Post] by Xu Hun 許渾 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “chuāngxià fùqí cánjú zài, qiáobiān gūjiǔ bàntán kōng. 窗下覆棋殘 局在，橋邊沽酒半壜空.” (Under the window left a game of chess. By the bridge there is a half-empty jar of wine.) In the poem Xiè Shānquán 謝山泉 [Spring in Mount Xie] by Lu Guimeng 陸龜蒙 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “juéjué chūnquán chūdòng xiá, shítán fēngjì yěrénjiā. 決決春泉出洞霞，石壜封寄野人 家.” (The spring comes out of the cave, and sealed jar drifts to someone’s house.) Tīng 廳 Tīng 廳 came into being in the Six dynasties, originally referring to the office of the government. It originates from tīng 聽. In Jíyùn·Qīngyùn 集韻 · 青韻

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 37 [Collected Rhymes·Qing Rhyme], it is written that “tīng, gǔzhě zhìguānchù wèizhī tīngshì, hòu yǔshěng, zhíyuē tīng, gù jiāguǎng. 廳，古者治官處謂之 聽事，後語省，直曰聽，故加廣.” (The place where government affairs were discussed in ancient times was called tīngshì 聽事. Later on, the language was simplified. To be specific, it was replaced by tīng 聽 with shì 事 being omitted with radical guǎng 廣 being added on top of it.) In Dào Dàsīmǎ Jìshìjiān 到大 司馬記室箋 by Ren Fang 任昉 in the Liang dynasty, it is written that “jǐn yì tīng fèng báijiān xièwén. 謹詣廳奉白箋謝聞.” (I entered the office respectfully and made suggestions with respect on the memorial to the throne.) In Xuěquán sòng 雪泉颂 [Ode to Snow Spring] by Luo Binwang 駱賓王 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “é’ér tīng jiē zhī xià. 俄而廳階之下.” (Soon after, I walked down the stairs of the office.”) In DàTángxīnyǔ·Cōngmǐn 大唐新語 · 聰敏 [New Stories of Da Tang·Wisdom] by Liu Su 劉肅 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yǎnzhī bù shàngtīng, yǔ zhǔ’ànzhě lüèyán qí shìyì, yǐzhù ér duànzhī. 琰之不上 廳，語主案者略言其事意，倚柱而斷之.” (Yanzhi did not go up to the office. He asked the man responsible for the case to report it roughly, and then he would offer judgement leaning against the pillar.) Tīng 廳 is extended to mean a large hall for reception, banquet, salute, or other work. In Wèishū·Yángbō zhuàn 魏書 · 楊播傳 [Biography of Yang Bo in The Book of the Wei dynasty], it is written that “xiōngdì dàn zé jùyú tīngtáng, zhōngrì xiāngduì. 兄弟旦則聚於廳堂，終 日相對.” (They gathered in the hall in the morning and stayed together all day long.) In Qímín yàoshù·Zhǒngwútóng 齊民要術 · 種梧桐 [Important Arts for the People’s Welfare·Planting Chinese Parasol] by Jia Sixie 賈思勰 in the Northern Wei dynasty, it is written that “míngnián sānyuè zhōng, yízhí yú tīngzhāi zhīqián, huājìng yányǎ, jíwéi kě’ài. 明年三月中，移植於廳齋之前，華凈妍雅，極為 可愛.” (In the middle of the 3rd month next year, I will transplant it in front of the hall to enjoy its pure, beautiful, elegant, and lovely flowers.) In Zhèngzhōu cìshǐ dōngtīngbì jì 鄭州刺史東廳壁記 [Essay on the Wall of the East Hall of Zhengzhou’s Governor] by Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “gǔ zhūhóu zhījū, gōngsī jiēyuē qǐn, qítā shì yuē biànzuò. jīn fán shìshì zhīsuǒ jiēyuē tīng, qítā shì yǐ biànfāng wéi chēng. 古諸侯之居，公私皆曰寢，其它室 曰便坐. 今凡視事之所皆曰廳，其它室以辨方為稱.” (The residence of ancient princes, be it public or private, was called qǐn 寝, and other rooms were called biànzuò 便坐. Today, rooms where officials work are called tīng 廳, and other rooms are known as biànfāng 辨方.) Shù 墅 The character shù 墅 originated in the Six dynasties and refers to a humble house in the field. In Yùpiān·Tǔbù 玉篇 · 土部 [Tu Group of Jade Articles], it is recorded that “shù, tiánlú yě. 墅，田廬也.” (Shù 墅 refers to a cottage in the field.) In the poem Tàishān Liángfǔ xíng 泰山梁甫行 by Cao Zhi 曹植 in the Three Kingdoms dynasty, it is written that “jùzāi biān hǎimín, jìshēn yú cǎoshù. 劇哉邊海 民，寄身於草墅.” (How hard it is for the poor people by the sea! They live in straw huts in the field.) In the poem Shàonián xīnhūn wèizhīyǒng 少年新婚為之 詠 by Shen Yue 沈約 of the Song Age of the Southern dynasties, it is written that

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

“shānyīn liǔjiā nǚ, mòyán chū tiánshù. 山陰柳家女，莫言出田墅.” (Do not say the daughter of Liu family who lived on the shade side of the mountain was born in a cottage in the field.) In the poem Cūnshù 村墅 of Huang Tao 黄滔 in the Tang dynasty, it is written that “zhēngyuè èryuè cūnshù jiān, yúliáng wèifá rénxīn kuān. 正月二月村墅間，餘糧未乏人心寬.” (The life in countryside is leisurely in the first and the second month. There is still surplus grain, so people feel relaxed since they do not have to worry about lack of food.) Shù 墅 also refers to the grange gardens built outside the house. In Jìnshū·Xiè Ān zhuàn 晉書 · 謝安傳 [Biography of Xie An in the Book of the Jin dynasty], it is written that “yòu yú tǔshān yíngshù, lóuguǎn línzhú shènshèng. 又於土山營墅，樓館林竹甚盛.” (He built a garden on a hill, with many tall buildings as well as lush trees and bamboos.) In Sòngshū·Kǒng Língfú zhuàn 宋書 · 孔靈符傳 [Biography of Kong Lingfu in the Book of the Song dynasty], it is written that “língfú jiā běn fēng, chǎnyè shènguǎng, yòuyú yǒngxīng lì shù, zhōuhuí sānshísān lǐ, shuǐlùdì èrbǎiliùshíwǔ qǐng, hándài èrshān. 靈符家本豐，產業甚廣，又於永興立墅，周回三十三 裏，水陸地二百六十五頃，含帶二山.” (Lingfu’s family had a rich estate and operated in a wide range of business. They built a garden in Yongxing, with a surrounding area of 33 miles and 265 hectares of land and water, including two mountains.) People in modern times still call such place biéshù 别墅 (villa).” Zòng 粽 (稯) Zòng 粽 (稯) refers to a kind of food, which is made of glutinous rice wrapped with indocalamus leaves, reed leaves, and so on. It is triangular and cooked for eating. Eating zongzi on the Dragon Boat Festival is a folk custom in China, which is said to be in memory of Qu Yuan 屈原. In Xùqíxié jì 續齊諧記 by Wu Jun 吴均 of the Liang dynasty, it is written that “qūyuán wǔyuè wǔrì tóu mìluóshuǐ, chǔrén āizhī, zhì cǐrì yǐ zhútǒngzǐ zhùmǐ, tóushuǐ yǐ jìzhī. hàn jiànwǔ zhōng, chángshā qūqū hū jiàn yī shìrén, zìyún sānlǘdàfū, wèiqū yuē: ‘wénjūn dāngjiàn jì, shénshàn, chángnián wéi jiāolóng suǒqiè, jīnruò yǒuhuì, dāngyǐ liànyè sāi qíshàng, yǐ cǎisī chánzhī, cǐ èrwù jiāolóng suǒdàn.’ qū yī qíyán. jīn wǔyuè wǔrì zuòzòng, bìngdài liànyè, wǔhuāsī, yífēng yě. 屈原五月五日投汨 羅水，楚人哀之，至此日以竹筒子貯米，投水以祭之. 漢建武中，長沙區 曲忽晃一士人，自雲三閭大夫，謂曲曰： ‘聞君當見祭，甚善，常年為蛟 龍所竊，今若有惠，當以楝葉塞其上，以綵絲纏之，此二物蛟龍所憚.’ 曲 依其言. 今五月五日作粽，並帶楝葉、五花絲，遺 風 也 .” (Qu Yuan threw himself into the Miluo River on the fifth of the fifth month, and the Chu people mourned him. On that day, rice would be stored in bamboo tubes, and people would throw them into water to pay their traditional respects to him. During mid Jianwu of the Han dynasty, Qu Qu from Changsha suddenly saw a scholar who claimed to be a minister of the state. He said to Qu, “I heard you offered sacrifices to Qu Yuan every year, which is very good, but the dragon always steals zongzi. If you throw zongzi into the river this year, they should be wrapped with the leaves of evodia glabrifolia and wound with color thread. The dragon was afraid of these two things.” Qu followed his words. Now people make zongzi on May

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 39 five, and using leaves of evodia glabrifolia and five-color thread is a custom left over from the past.) It is also written as zōng 稯. In Shuōwénxīnfù·Mǐbù 説文新 附 · 米部 [Supplement of Origin of Chinese Characters·Mi Group] by Xu Xuan 徐鉉 of the Five dynasties, it is written that “zòng, lúyè guǒmǐ yě. 糉，蘆葉裹 米也.” (Zòng 稯 is a kind of food with rice wrapped in reed leaves.) Volume 851 of the Tàipíng yùlǎn 太平御覽 [Taiping Imperial Encyclopedia] quoted Fēngtǔ jì 風土記 [Records of Local Customs] by Zhōu Chǔ 周處 of the Jin dynasty that “súyǐ gūyè guǒ shǔmǐ, yǐ chúnnóng huīzhī zhǔzhī lìng lànshú, yú wǔyuè wǔrì jí xiàzhì dànzhī. Yīmíng zòng, yīmíng jiǎoshǔ, gài qǔ yīnyáng shàng xiāng guǒ wèi fēnsǎn zhī shíxiàng yě. 俗以 菰 葉裹黍米，以淳濃灰汁煮之令爛熟，於五 月五日及夏至啖之 . 一名糉，一名角黍，蓋取陰陽尚相裹未分散之時象也.” (The common custom is to wrap rice with leaves of wild rice, and cook it well with thick gray juice, which will be eaten on the fifth day of the fifth month and the summer solstice. It is called zòng 稯 or jiǎoshǔ 角黍. Zongzi reflects that Yin and Yang is still not dispersed. To be specific, rice grains in leaves stick with each other, corresponding to the fact that Yang is extremely strong during the Dragon Boat Festival and summer solstice season and Yin and Yang is not divided.) In the poem Yújiā’ào 漁家傲 by Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 in the Song dynasty, it is written that “wǔsè xīnsī chán jiǎozòng, jīn án sòng, shēngxiāo huàshàn pán shuāngfèng. 五色新絲纏角糉，金盤送，生綃畫扇盤雙鳳.” (Multicolored silk threads are used to wrap polygonal zongzi, which are delivered on gold plates. Two phoenixes are drawn on a fan made of raw silk.) The custom of eating zongzi on the Dragon Boat Festival has been passed down to the present. 1.4.2 Verbs Āo 爊 (j 熝) The character āo 爊 means to heap food in cinders or simmer food in a light fire. It was originally written as āo 爊, and then āo j or āo 熝. It came into being in the Six dynasties. In Guǎngyùn·Háoyùn 廣韻 · 豪韻 [Various Rhymes·Hao Rhyme], it is written that “āo, máiwù huīzhōng lìngshú. j ，埋物灰中令熟.” (āo j means to cook food by burying them in hot cinders.) In Qímín yàoshù·Púlà 齊民 要術 · 脯臘 [Important Arts for the People’s Welfare·Jerky] by Jia Sixie 賈思勰 of the Northern Wei dynasty, it is written that “qíyú cǎoguǒ nífēng, tánghuīzhōng āo (yīzuò āo) zhī. 其魚草裹泥封，塘灰中爊（一作熝）之.” (The fish is wrapped in mud and grass and roasted [āo 爊, can also be written as āo 熝] in hot cinders.) In the poem Lùhúnshān huǒ hé Huángfǔshí yòng qíyùn 陸渾山火 和皇甫湜用其韻 [Fire on Luhun Mountain and the Rhymes Used by Huangfu Shi] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “xúnpáo wēi’āo shú fēibēn, zhùróng gàoxiū zhuó bēizūn. 燖炰煨j孰飛奔，祝融告休酌卑尊.” (We cooked food with fire, including barbecuing, steaming, burying food in hot cinders, and baking and stewing. The God of Fire rests today and drinks with us.) In “pēngyáng fŏu yáng” 烹羊炰羔 [boiled and roasted sheep] of Hànshū·Yáng Yùn zhuàn 漢書 · 楊惲傳 [Biography of Yang Yun in the Book of the Han dynasty],

40

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

Yan Shigu 顏詩古 annotated that “fŏu, máozhì ròu yě, jí jīn suǒwèi āo yě. 炰， 毛炙肉也，即今所謂爊也.” (Fŏu 炰 refers to roast, which means the same as āo 爊 we use today.) Stewing in water for a long time is also called āo 爊. Volume 250 of Tàipíng guǎngjì 太平廣記 [Tales from the Taiping Era] quotes DàTáng zhuàn 大唐傳 [History of the Tang dynasty] that “yǒu shìrén, píngshēng hàochī lù niútóu. 有士人，平生好吃熝牛頭.” (There is a scholar who likes eating stewed cow heads.) In Mèngliánglù·Jiǔsì 夢粱録 · 酒肆 by Wu Zimu 吴自牧 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “gèngyǒu jiǔdiàn, jiānmài xuèzàng dòufugēng, āo (yīzuò āo) luósī. 更有酒店，兼賣血臟豆腐羹﹑爊（一作熬）螺螄.” (There are also public houses selling tofu soup with viscera and stewed [āo 爊, can also be written as āo 熬] river snails.) Chī 喫 吃 Chī 吃 means to chew food in your mouth and swallow it, which was originally written as chī 喫. It came into being in the Six dynasties. In Yùpiān·Kǒubù 玉篇 · 口部 [Kou Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “chī, dàn yě. 喫，啖也.” (Chī 喫 means to eat.) In shìshuōxīnyǔ·Rèn dàn 世説新語 · 任誕 [A New Account of the Tales of the World·Indulgence] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Song Age of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “yǒuwén báiyáng ròuměi, yīshēng wèicéng déchī. 友聞白羊肉美，一生未曾得喫.” (I heard that the mutton of white goat was delicious and had never eaten it before.) In Běiqíshū·Yáng Yīn zhuàn 北齊 書 · 楊愔傳 [Biography of Yang Yin in The Book of the Northern Qi dynasty], it is written that “xiān shì tóngyáo yuē: ‘yángyáng chī yěcǎo, bùchī yěcǎo yuǎn wǒdào, bùyuǎn dǎ ěrnǎo. 先是童謡曰：‘羊羊喫野草，不喫野草遠我道，不 遠打爾腦 .’” (To begin with, a nursery rhyme goes, “sheep, sheep, you’d better eat grass obediently. If you do not eat grass, leave here early, or I’ll hit you on the head.”) Chī 喫 also means to drink. In Piānhǎilèibiān Shēntǐlèi Kǒubù 篇海 類編 · 身體類 · 口部 [Writings Classified According to Radicals·The Category of Body·Kou Group], it is written that “chī, yǐn yě. 喫，飲也.” (Chī 喫 means to drink.) In the poem Sòng Lǐ jiàoshū èrshíliù yùn 送李校書二十六韻 [A 26 – Rhyme Poem on Farewell to Li Jiaoshu] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “línqí yì pōqiè, duìjiǔ bùnéng chī. 臨岐意頗切，對酒不能喫.” (It was so sad to say goodbye to friends. We were not in the mood of drinking wine.) In Dūnhuáng biànwénjí·Chájiǔjì 敦煌變文集 · 茶酒記 [Collection of Narrative Literatures in Dunhuang·Tea and Wine], it is written that “zhōngcháo chīnǐ cháshuǐ, gǎndòng xiēxiē guǎnxián? 終朝喫你茶水，敢動些些管弦 ?” (If people drink your tea all day, do they dare to enjoy singing and dancing?) It began to be written as chī2 吃 since the Tang dynasty. In Wǔ Zǐxū biànwén 伍子胥變文 [The Story of Wu Zixu], it is written that “shuǐpàn cún (dūn)shēn, jízuò chīfàn. 水畔 o (蹲) 身，即坐吃飯.” (We sat by the water for dinner.) In Xuánguàilù bǔyí·Dùwū 玄怪録補遗 · 杜巫 [Supplement of Stories about Ghost·Wizard Wu] by Niu Sengru 牛僧孺 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “suìyú yǒu dàoshì zhì, shén niánshào, wū xúnzhī, dàoshì jiāoyǐ shí zhūròu, réng chīxuè. 歲餘有道士 至，甚年少，巫詢之，道士教以食豬肉，仍吃血.” (More than one year later,

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 41 a young Taoist priest arrived. Wizard Du asked him for advice. The Taoist priest told him to eat pork and drink pig’s blood.) Chuáng 噇 (l) The character chuáng 噇 (l) means to eat and drink, especially eating and drinking without restraint, and came into being in the Tang dynasty. In Jíyùn·Jiāngyùn 集韻 · 江韻 [Collected Rhymes·Jiang Rhyme], it is written that “chuáng, shí wúlián yě. huò cóngkǒu. 䭚 ，食無廉也. 或從口.” (Chuáng 䭚 means to eat and drink without restraint.) In the fifth volume of Cháoyě yúzài 朝野僉載 [Stories about the Government and the People] by Zhang Zhuo 張鷟 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “jiāng yīyè chuíbǐng yǔzhī yuē: ‘chuángquè! zuògè bǎosǐguǐ qù’. 將一楪槌餅與之曰： ‘噇却 ! 作個飽死鬼去.’” (Give him a plate of steamed pancakes and say, “Go ahead. Do not die hungry”) In Poem 74 of Shī sānbǎisān shǒu 詩三百三首 [Three Hundreds and Three Poems] by Han Shan 寒山 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “bèihòu chuáng yúròu, rénqián niàn fótuó. 背後噇 魚肉，人前念佛陀.” (Some people eat fish and meat behind people and bow to the Buddha in front of others.) Volume 176 of Tàipíng guǎngjì 太平廣記 [Tales from the Taiping Era] quotes from Yīn Ān 殷安 [Yin An] that “rǔ féitóu dàmiàn, bùshí gǔjīn, chuángshí wú yìzhì, búzuò zǎixiàng érhé? 汝肥頭大面，不識古 今，噇食無意智，不作宰相而何 ?” (You are fat with a big face. Being crazy about eating and know nothing. Why not to be a prime minister?) It is also written as chuáng l in modern times. In the first scene of Zuàn kuǎitōng 賺蒯通 [Cheating Kuaitong], written by an anonymous author of the Yuan dynasty, it is recorded that “shǎngwǒ yīdǒu hǎojiǔ, yījiān ròu, chuángde yòuzuì yòubǎo, zhěngzhěng tǎng le bàngèyuè. 賞我一斗好酒，一肩肉， l 的又醉又飽，整整儻了半個 月.” (He gave me ten liters of good wine and a hunk of meat. Being drunk and full, I was in a trance for half a month.) Dǎ 打 Dǎ 打 first appeared in the late Han dynasty. In Shuōwénxīnfù·Shǒubù 説文新 附 · 手部 [Supplement of Origin of Chinese Characters·Shou Group], it is written that “dǎ, jī yě. 打，擊也.” (Dǎ 打 means to hit.) In Guǎngyǎ·Shìyán 廣雅釋言 [Broadened Erya·Explainng Language], it is written that “dǎ, bàng yě. 打，棓 也.” (Dǎ 打 means to use a stick to hit.) In the first volume of Kang Mengxiang’s 康孟祥 translation of Xīngqǐ xíngjīng 興起行經 [Scripture on Rising and Walking] in the Eastern Han dynasty, it is written that “zhòngchén biàn fǎnfù lèwúwèi, kǎodǎ wèncí. 眾臣便反縛樂無為，拷打問辭.” (The ministers tied up Le Wuwei 樂無為 and tortured and interrogated him.) In Yánshìjiāxùn·Shèwù 顏氏家训 · 涉务 [Family Precepts of Yan Family·Dealing with Actual Business] by Yan Zhitui 顏之推 of the Northern Qi dynasty, it is written that “dǎ fú zhī, bǒ yáng zhī. 打拂之，簸揚之.” (People use flail to thresh so as to take off its skin, and then use dustpan to lift the skin.) There were many words with dǎ 打 as a morpheme in the Tang and Song dynasties. For example, cheering up is called dǎbān 打扳;

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

treating diseases, dǎbìng 打病; cleaning up sites, dǎcháng 打場; robbing, dǎjié 打 劫; extortion, dǎliāo 打撩; giving money in the theater, dǎqián 打錢; trying not to give up, dǎqiáng 打强 or dǎyìng 打硬, and so on. All of the words mentioned here have been recorded in the classics of the Tang dynasty. In the third volume of Lupu bǐjì 蘆蒲筆記 [Notebook by Lupu] by Liu Changshi 劉昌詩 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “ōuyáng gōng 《 Guītián lù 》 yún: ‘shìsú yányǔ zhī é, ér jūnzǐ xiǎorén jiē tóng qímiù, wéi dǎzì ěr. rú dǎchuán, dǎchē, dǎyú, dǎshuǐ, dǎfàn, dǎyī, dǎliáng, dǎsǎn, dǎnián, dǎliang, dǎshì, chùshì jiē wèizhī dǎ’ 《 Màn lù 》 yǐ shìwén qǔ piānpáng zhèngzhī, wèi dǎ zì cóngshǒu cóngdīng, gài yǐshǒu dāng qíshìzhě yě. cǐshuō dézhī yǐ. rán shìjiān yán dǎzì shàngduō: zuǒcáng yǒu dǎtàojú, zhūkù zhījiǔ wèizhī dǎfā, zhūjūn qǐngliáng wèizhī dǎliáng, qǐngyìn wénshū wèizhī dǎyìn, jiésuàn wèizhī dǎsuàn, màoyì wèizhī dǎbó, zhuāngshì wèizhī dǎbàn, qǐngjiǔcù wèizhī dǎcù, dǎjiǔ, yánchǎng zhuāngfā wèizhī dǎdài, xídì’érshuì wèizhī dǎpù, bāoguǒ wèizhī dǎjiǎo, shōushí wèizhī dǎdié, yòuyuē dǎbèng (yīzuò bìng). běnzhú zhījiān yǒu dǎhào, xínglù yǒu dǎhuǒ (yīzuò bàn), dǎbāo, dǎjiào. fùqián yúshēn wéi dǎyāo. yǐnxí yǒu dǎmǎ, dǎlìng, dǎzájù, dǎhùn. sēngdào yǒu dǎhuà, shèzhāi yǒu dǎgōng. héhúchuáng wéi dǎjiāoyǐ, wǔnuó wéi dǎqūnuó. yòu sòng gēqǔ cí: “dǎhuài mùlóuchuáng, shuí néng zuò xiāngsī.’ yòuyǒu dǎshuì, dǎtì, dǎhuà, dǎnào, dǎdòu, dǎhé, dǎhé (dúzuò gé), dǎguò, dǎgōu, dǎle, zhìyú dǎhú, dǎmiàn, dǎbǐng, dǎxiàn, dǎbǎisuǒ, dǎtāo, dǎlián, dǎjiàn, dǎxí, dǎlíbā. jiēshì xìxuè yǒu dǎqì, dǎdiào zhī lèi, yīnbìng jìzhī. 歐陽公《歸田録》云： ‘世俗言語之訛，而君子小人 皆同其謬，惟打字耳. 如打船、打車、打魚、打水、打飯，打衣、打糧、 打繖、打黏、打量、打試，觸事皆謂之打.’ 《漫録》以釋文取偏旁證之， 謂打字從手從丁，蓋以手當其事者也. 此説得之矣. 然世間言打字尚多：左 藏有打套局，諸庫支酒謂之打發，諸軍請糧謂之打糧，請印文書謂之打 印，結算謂之打算，貿易謂之打博，裝飾謂之打扮，請酒醋謂之打醋、打 酒，鹽場裝發謂之打袋，席地而睡謂之打鋪，包裹謂之打角，收拾謂之 打叠，又曰打迸（一作併）. 畚築之間有打號，行路有打火（一作伴）、 打包、打轎. 負錢於身為打腰. 飲席有打馬、打令、打雜劇、打諢. 僧道有打 化，設齋有打供. 荷胡床為打交椅，舞儺為打驅儺. 又宋歌曲詞： ‘打壞木 樓床，誰能坐相思.’ 又有打睡，打嚏，打話，打鬧，打鬥，打和，打合（ 讀作閣），打過，打勾，打了，至於打糊、打麺、打餅、打綫、打百索、 打絛、打簾、打薦、打席、打籬巴. 街市戲謔有打砌、打調之類，因 併 記 之.” (In Guītiánlù 歸田録 [Return to Field] by Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修, it is written, “a fallacy of secular speech has been commonly used and the gentleman and the villain all use it in the wrong manner. The fallacy refers to the use of dǎ 打. Such as dǎchuán 打船, dǎchē 打車, dǎyú 打魚, dǎshuǐ 打水, dǎfàn 打飯, dǎyī 打衣, dǎliáng 打糧, dǎsǎn 打繖, dǎnián 打黏, dǎliang 打量, dǎshì 打試.” Radicals in Shìwén 釋文 [Explaining Characters] were used to verify the meaning and use of dǎ 打 in Mànlù 漫録. It is written that the character is composed of shǒu 手 and dīng 丁, which means to use hands to do things. This explanation is reasonable. However, there are many more words that are composed of dǎ 打 in our daily life: the officials who are responsible for selecting goods, fragrances, sundries, etc. in one of the nationa Treasury is called dǎtàojú 打套局; allotting wine in warehouses is called dǎfā 打髮; request of grain in the troops is called dǎliáng 打糧; request for printing document is called dǎyìn 打印; financial settlement is called dǎsuàn

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 43 打算; trade is called dǎbó 打博; dressing up is called dǎbàn 打扮; buying wine and vinegar is called dǎcù 打醋 and dǎjiǔ 打酒 respectively; bagging in salterns is called dǎdài 打袋; sleeping on the ground is called dǎpù 打鋪; wraping is called dǎjiǎo 打角; packing is called dǎdié 打叠, dǎbèng 打迸, or dǎbìng 打併. There is dǎhào 打號 in working concerning construction. When we travel, there are dǎhuǒ 打火 or dǎbàn 打伴， dǎbāo 打包 and dǎjiào 打轎 on the way. Being in debt is called dǎyāo 打腰. There are dǎmǎ 打馬, dǎlìng 打令, dǎzájù 打雜剧 and dǎhùn 打諢 in places for drinking and merrymaking. Begging alms for monks and nuns is called dǎhuà 打化 and offering food to them is called dǎgōng 打供. Héhúchuáng 荷胡床, a portable seat that can be folded, is called dǎjiāoyǐ 打交椅, and wǔnuó 舞傩, one of the Chinese local operas, where actors wearing willow masks play the legendary god nuó 傩 who exorcises plague, is called dǎqūnuó 打驅傩, to send the ghost or god of plague away. Lyrics in the Song dynasty also read that “although the wooden bed can be dǎhuài 打坏, broken, who can bear the pain of lovesickness?” There are also dǎshuì 打睡, dǎtì 打嚏, dǎhuà 打話, dǎnào 打鬧, dǎdòu 打鬥, dǎhé 打和, dǎgé 打合, pronounced as gé 閣, dǎguò 打過, dǎgōu 打 勾, dǎle 打了, dǎhú 打糊, dǎmiàn 打麵, dǎbǐng 打餅, dǎxiàn 打綫, dǎbǎisuǒ 打百 索, dǎtáo 打條, dǎlián 打簾, dǎniān 打蔫, dǎxí 打席, dǎlíbā 打籬巴. Banter in the streets is described as dǎqì 打砌, dǎdiào 打調, etc. Thus, all of them are recorded.) Hence dǎ 打 was widely used in the Tang and Song dynasties. Duò 剁 Duò 剁 means to chop down with a knife or an axe, and so on. It came into being in the Six dynasties. In Yùpiān·Dāobù 玉篇 · 刀部 [Dao Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “duò, zhuó. 剁，斫.” (Duò 剁 means to chop with a knife or an axe.) In Guǎngyùn·Guòyùn 廣韻 · 過韻 [Various Rhymes·Guo Rhyme], it is written that “duò, cuò yě. 剁，剉也.” (Duò 剁 means to make smooth with a file.) In the poem Wén xiāng jiāng qī shàofǔ shè kuàixì zèng chánggē 閿鄉姜七少府設鱠戲 贈長歌 [A Long Poem to Minor Treasurer Jiang Qi in the Min County for Treating Us to Fish] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “wúshēng xìxià fēi suìxuě, yǒugǔ yĭduò zuĭ chūncōng. 無聲細下飛碎雪，有骨已剁觜春蔥.” (Fine snowflakes are flying down silently. The fishbone has been chopped. Our mouths are full of tender fish.) In the poem Yèguò Wáng Zhòngmiǎn jiā 夜過王仲勉家 [Overnight at Wang Zhongmian’s Home] by Liu Zihui 劉子翬 in the Song dynasty, it is written that “huācí tāngjiǔ yù shēngxiāng, zhúwài páochú wén duòròu. 花瓷 湯酒欲生香，竹外庖廚聞剁肉.” (The wine in the printed porcelain gave off an aroma, and the sound of chopping meat was heard in the kitchen across the bamboo.) This word has been retained in modern spoken language. Gǔn 滾 The character gǔn 滾 refers to the appearance of water rushing, which is not recorded in Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters], Yùpiān 玉篇 [Jade Articles], or Guǎngyùn 廣韻 [Various Rhymes], and it came into being in the Tang dynasty. In Jíyùn·Hùnyùn 集韻 · 混韻 [Collected Rhymes·Hun Rhyme],

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it is written that “gǔn, dàshuǐ liú mào. 滾，大水流貌.” (Gǔn 滾 refers to the appearance of big water flowing.) In the poem Dēnggāo 登高 [Climbing] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “wúbiān luòmù xiāoxiāo xià, bùjǐn chángjiāng gǔngǔn lái. 無邊落木蕭蕭下，不盡長江滾滾來.” (Leaves are falling endlessly, and the Yangtze River is rolling on eastwards.) Gǔn 滾 also refers to water boiling. In Tánsǒu 談藪 [On Lakes] by Pang Yuanying 龐元英 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “súyǐ tāngzhī wèigǔn zhě wéi mángyǎn, chūgǔn yuē xièyǎn, jiàndà yuē yúyǎn. 俗以湯之未滾者為盲眼，初滾曰蟹眼，漸大曰 魚眼.” (It is a common practice to regard the water that has not boiled as being blind. When it first boils, the bubble is called crab eye, and when the boiling bubbles become bigger and bigger, they are called fish eyes.) Gǔn 滾 can also refer to turning over and rolling forward. In the poem Mùchūn kānglè tú 暮春康樂圖 [A Painting about Joyous Late Spring] by Han Qi 韓琦 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “yúyè fēnfēn zhì luànqián, liǔ huā xiāngpū gǔn xīnmián. 榆葉紛紛擲 亂錢，柳花相撲滾新綿.” (Elm leaves fell in disorder like the poor-quality and cheap coins in the Han dynasty. Catkins fell to the ground and rolled into cotton balls.) In Zhūzǐ yǔlèi·Mèngzǐsān 朱子語類 · 孟子三 [The Analects of Zhuzi·On Mengzi III], it is written that “pìrú zèng zhēngfàn, qì cóng xiàmiàn gǔndào shàngmiàn, yòu gǔnxià, zhǐguǎn zài lǐmiàn gǔn, biàn zhēngdé shú. 譬如甑蒸飯，氣 從下面滾到上面，又滾下，只管在裏面滾，便蒸得熟.” (For example, when steaming rice with a boiler, the steam rolls from the bottom to the top, and then rolls down. It keeps rolling in it until the rice is cooked.) Huá 划 Huá 划 was originally written as huá 撶 and means to paddle the boat forward. It came into being in the Tang dynasty. In Guǎngyùn·Máyùn 廣韻 · 麻韻 [Various Rhymes·Ma Rhyme], it is written that “huá, bōjìn chuán yě. 划，撥進船也.” (Huá 划 means to make the boat move forward.) In the second chapter of Héxíměidiàolǚ 和襲美釣侶 [Fishing Couple] by Lu Guimeng 陸龜蒙 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yītǐng qīnghuá kàn xiǎotāo, jiē lí pāoxià lù chūnláo. 一艇輕撶看曉 濤，接䍦拋下漉春醪.” (Rowing a boat gently to see the waves in the morning, and spring wine oozed on the way.”) In volume 49 of Wǔdēng huìyuán 五燈 會元 by Shi Puji 釋普濟 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “quèxiàng gān dìshàng huáchuán, gāoshān tóu qǐlàng. 却向乾地上划船，高山頭起浪.” (People rowed a dragon boat on dry land and raised waves on high mountains.) In the poem Chóngdé Dàozhōng 崇德道中 [On the Road of Chongde] by Zhang Zi 張镃 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “pòtǐng zhēnghuá hū bàxuān, yětóng cūnnǚ chuǎng líbiān. 破艇爭划忽罷喧，野童村女闖籬邊.” (The children fought to row the damaged boat but suddenly they stopped shouting and rushed to the hedge.) Nà 捺 Nà 捺 (to press) came into being in the Southern and Northern dynasties. In Guǎngyùn·Héyùn 廣韻 · 曷韻 [Various Rhymes·He Rhyme], it is written that “nà,

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 45 shǒuàn. 捺，手按.” (Nà 捺 means to to press with a hand.) In Yóuxiānkū 遊仙窟 [A Tour in a God’s Cave] by Zhang Zhuo 張鷟 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “xiānxū nà hòujiǎo, ránhòu lēi qiányāo. 先須捺後腳，然後勒前腰.” (Press your hind feet first, and then pull your waist.) Volume 249 of Tàipíng guǎngjì 太 平廣記 [Tales from the Taiping Era] quotes Cháoyě qiānzài·Gāo Cuīwéi 朝野僉 載 · 高崔嵬 [Stories about the Government and the People·Gao Cuiwei] by Zhang Zhuo 張鷟 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “táng sànjìchángshì gāocuīwéi shàn nòngchī, tàizōng mìng gěishǐ nàtóu xiàng shuǐxià, liángjiǔ chū ér xiàozhī. 唐散騎 常侍高崔嵬善弄癡，太宗命給使捺頭向水下，良久出而笑之.” (Gao Cuiwei 高崔嵬, an emperor attendant in the Tang dynasty, was good at playing the fool. Taizong of the Tang dynasty ordered someone to press his head into the water. After a long time, he came out with a dopey grin on his face.) It is also written as nà 納 in modern times. For example, in chapter 23 of Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸 全傳 [Water Margin] by Shi Naian 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “[dàchóng] bèi wǔsōng jǐn qìlì nàdìng, nǎlǐ kěn fàng bàndiǎn’ér kuānsōng. [大蟲] 被武松 儘 氣力納定，那裏肯放半點兒寬鬆.” (The tiger tried to break free, but Wu Song pressed it firmly and did not dare to relax for a second.) Mì 覓 Mì 覓 means to look for, which came into being in the Jin and Song dynasties. In Yùpiān·Jiànbù 玉篇見部 [Jian Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “mì, suǒqiú yě. 覓，索求也.” (Mì 覓 means to seek.) In Shìshuōsīnyǔ·Yǎliàng 世説 新語 · 雅量 [A New Account of the Tales of the World·Generosity] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Southern Song dynasty, it is written that “wángjiā zhūláng yì jiē kějiā, wénlái mìxù, xiánzì jīnchí. 王家諸郎亦皆可嘉，聞來覓婿，咸自矜持.” (The sons of Wang’s family were all excellent. When they heard that someone was going to recruit a son-in-law, they became unnatural and reserved.) In Poem Four of the Záshī 雜詩 [Miscellaneous Poems] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “quèzào zhāoyíng shí, jiūmíng mù mìqún. 鵲噪朝營食，鳩鳴暮覓 群.” (Magpies are chirping in the morning, busy looking for food, while cuckoos are chirping in the evening, busy looking for flocks.) In the poem Sù zhōngqíng 訴衷情 [Pouring My Heart] by Lu You 陸遊 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “dāngnián wànlǐ mì fēnghóu, pǐmǎ shù liángzhōu. 當年萬裏覓封侯，匹馬戍梁 州.” (That year, I went to the frontier thousands of miles away, looking for opportunities to make contributions to my country and went to the border to defend Liangzhou alone.) Niǎn 捻 Niǎn 捻 refers to rubbing with your fingers and came into being in the Southern and Northern dynasties. In Shuōwénxīnfù·Shǒubù 説文新附 · 手部 [Supplement of Origin of Chinese Characters·Shou Group] by Xu Xuan 徐鉉 of the Five dynasties, it is written that “niǎn, zhǐ niǎn yě. cóng shǒu, niàn shēng. 捻，指捻 也. 從手，念聲.” (Niǎn 捻 refers to nipping, with the semantic radical of shǒu

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

手 and the pronunciation of niàn 念.) In Qímín yàoshù·Zhǒnglǐ 齊民要術 · 種 李 [Important Arts for the People’s Welfare·Planting Plum] by Jia Sixie 賈思勰 of the Northern Wei dynasty, it is written that “zuò báilǐ fǎ: yòng xiàlǐ, sèhuáng biàn zhāiqǔ, yú yánzhōng ruázhī, yánrù zhīchū, ránhòu héyán shài lìngwěi, shǒu niǎnzhī, lìngbiǎn. 作白李法：用夏李，色黄便摘取，於鹽中挼之，鹽入汁 出，然後合鹽曬令萎，手捻之，令褊.” (The method of making white plums: prepare summer plums, pick them when they turn yellow, dip them in salt, let salt come in the plums and juice come out, and then dry them to make them wither, twist them with hands, and press them flat.) Niǎn 捻 also means to pinch and hold, and its pronunciation is nié. In Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Róngzhǐ 世説新語 · 容止 [A New Account of the Tales of the World·Manners] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Southern Song dynasty, it is written that “xiè chējì (xuán) dào xiègōng (ān) yóusì, fù wúnǎi gāochàng, dàn gōngzuò niǎnbí gùlài, biàn zìyǒu qǐnchù shānzé xiányí. 謝 車騎 (玄) 道謝公 (安) 遊肆，復無乃高唱，但恭坐捻鼻顧睞，便自有寢處山 澤閒儀.” (Xie Xuan 謝玄 said that Xie An 謝安 did not need to sing loudly when he went out for relax. He just sat, pinched his nose and recited poems, and looked around, and there would be a detached manner naturally between mountains and rivers.) In Zhēngfù 筝賦 [Ode to Kites] of Emperor Jianwen 簡文 of the Southern Liang dynasties, it is written that “zhào qiónghuán ér fǔniǎn, dù yùzhǎo ér xúqiān. 照瓊環而俯捻，度玉爪而徐牽.” (The candlelight shines on the jade bracelet, and the beautiful woman leans over and twists the strings. Her nails slowly affect the strings.) Pāo 抛 The character pāo 抛 means to throw and came into being in the Six dynasties. In Yùpiān·Shǒubù 玉篇手部 [Shou Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “pāo, zhì yě. 拋，擲也.” (Pāo 抛 means to throw.) In Guǎngyùn·Yáoyùn 廣韻 · 肴韻 [Various Rhymes·Yao Rhyme], it is written that “pāo, qìzhì. 拋，棄擲.” (Pāo 抛 means to throw away.) In Nánshǐ·Huáng Fǎqū zhuàn 南史黄法l傳 [Biography of Huang Faqu of History of the Southern dynasties], it is written that “fǎqú wéi dūdu, chū lìyáng, yúshì wéi pāochē jí bùjiàn, shùpāi yǐ bīzhī, pào jiāqí qiángdié. 法 l 為都督，出暦陽，於是為拋車及步艦，豎拍以逼之，砲加其檣堞.” (Faqu was appointed military governor and sent troops to Liyang. They built machines and erected high poles to throw stones and fire on the city wall, and forced people in Liyang to surrender.) Pāo 抛 also means to abandon. In Shuōwénxīnfù·Shǒubù 説文新附 · 手部 [Supplement of Origin of Chinese Characters·Shou Group] by Xu Xuan 徐鉉 of the Five dynasties, it is written that “pāo, qì yě. 拋，棄也.” (Pāo 抛 means to abandon.) In HòuHànshū·Ānchéngxiàohóu cì zhuàn 後漢書安成孝 侯賜傳 [Biography of Anchengxiaohou of Book of Later Han dynasty], it is written that “cìyǔ [xiōng] xiǎn zĭxìn mài tiánzhái, tóngpāo cáichǎn, jiékè bàolì. 賜與 [兄] 顯子信賣田宅，同拋財產，結客報吏.” (Liu Ci 劉赐 and Liu Xin 劉信, the sons of Liu Xian 劉显, sold their fields and houses, and abandoned the property together, making friends with the professional counselors to get revenge on the officials.) In Dú Jiǎ Yì Zhuàn 讀賈誼傳 [Reading Biography of Jia Yi] by Li

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 47 Qunyu 李群玉 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “bēishī chángshā dì, kōngpāo chūshì cái. 卑濕長沙地，空拋出世才.” (With its low and wet land, Changsha is the birthplace of such a great talent.) Pá 爬 came into being in the Six dynasties and means to scratch with fingers. In Guǎngyùn Máyùn 廣韻麻韻 [Ma Rhyme of Various Rhymes], it is written that “pá, sāo yě. 爬，搔也.” (Pá 爬 means to scratch.) In Dòujīfù 鬥雞賦 [Ode of Cockfighting] by Fu Xuan 傅玄 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “huò pádì fǔyǎng, huò fǔyì wèijǔ. 或爬地俯仰，或撫翼未舉.” (Some cocks bend over with their feet scratching, while others are flapping their wings and have not leaped yet.) In Yǔzhōng jì Mèngxíngbù jǐdào liánjù 雨中寄孟刑部幾道聯句 [A Few Joint Sentences to Mr. Meng, Minister of the Ministry of Punishment in the Rain] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “qūfán lèi juéyōng, qièxīng jù pájiè. 祛煩類决癰，愜興劇爬疥.” (Not being bored is good for the treatment of carbuncle ulcer, and following one’s inclinations will make scabies more serious.) Pá 爬 also means to dig. In the poem Dú Gù Kuàng gēxíng 讀顧況 歌行 [Reading Gu Kuang’s Long Peoms by Guan Xiu 贯休 in the Tang dynasty, it is written, “yāohú páchū xīzǐ gǔ, léichē zāpò zhīnǚ jī. 妖狐爬出西子骨，雷車拶 破織女機.” (The demon fox dug out Xi Shi’s 西施 bones, and the cart of the thunder god crushed Zhi Nv’s weaver.) Pá 爬 is also used as a noun and refers to rake, a long-handled, toothed farm tool for loosening soil. Volume 339 of Tàipíng yùlǎn 太平御覽 [Taiping Imperial Encyclopedia] quotes Taigong’s 太公 Jīnguì 金匱 [Copper Cabinet] that “shǒuzhàn zhījù, jiēzài mínjiān; lěisì zhě, shìqí gōngnǔ yě; chúpá zhě, shìqí jǐmáo yě. 守戰之具，皆在民間；耒耜者，是其弓弩也；鋤 爬者，是其戟矛也.” (Weapons all come from people’s daily life: ploughs and plowshares become bow and arrow; hoe and rake, halberd and spear.) Piàn 騗 (騙) means to step out of a leg to ride on a horse and came into being in the Six dynasties. The seventh volume of Yīqiè Jīngyīnyì 一切經音義 [Pronunciations and Meanings of Characters in All Buddhist Scriptures] by Xuan Ying 玄 應 of the Tang dynasty quoted Zìlüè 字略 [Brief Introduction to Chinese Characters] that “piàn, yuèshàng mǎzhě yě. 騙，躍上馬者也.” (Piàn 騙 means to get on horse.) In Guǎngyùn·Xiànyùn 廣韻線韻 [Xian Rhyme of Various Rhymes], it is written that “piàn, yuèshàng mǎpǐ. 騗，躍上馬匹.” (Piàn 騗 means to get on the horse.) It can also be written as piàn 騗. In Jíyùn·Xiànyùn 集韻線韻 [Xian Rhyme of Collected Rhymes], it is written that “piàn, yuè ér chéngmǎ yě. huò shūzuò piàn. 騗，躍而乘馬也. 或書作騙.” (Piàn 騗 means to jump and get on a horse. It can also be written as piàn 騙.) In the fourth volume of Cháoyě yūzài 朝野僉載 [Stories about the Government and the People] by Zhāng Zhuó 張鷟 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yuányī yú yùqián cháo yìzōng yuē: ‘chánggōng duǎndù jiàn, shǔmǎ línjiē piàn. qùzéi qībǎi lǐ, wēiqiáng dúzì zhàn, jiǎzhàng zòng pāoquè, qízhū zhèng náncuān’. 元一於御前嘲懿宗曰： ‘長弓短度箭，蜀馬臨階騗. 去 賊七百里，隈墻獨自戰，甲仗縱拋却，騎豬正南躥.’” (Yuanyi 元一 mocked Yizong 懿宗 in front of Wu Zetian 武則天, saying: “with long bow and short arrow, Yizong got on the Sichuan horse and retreated when he heard the enemy was coming. More than 700 miles from the enemy army, he was scared out of his wits and hid alone in the city walls, wielding his weapon. When he reached the

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front line, he fled south on his pig as soon as he encountered the enemy army.”) In Nánshǐ·Lán Qīn zhuàn 南史 · 蘭欽傳 [Biography of Lan Qin in the History of the Southern dynasties], it is written that “sòngmò suí fù zǐyún zài luòyáng, héng yúshì piàn tuótuó. 宋末隨父子雲在洛陽，恒於市騙橐駝.” (At the end of the Song dynasty, he lived in Luoyang with his father, Ziyun. They often rode camels in the market.) In XīnTángshū·Bǎiguānzhìyī 新唐書 · 百官志一 [Hundreds of Officials I in the New Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “fán fǎnnì xiāngzuò, mòqí jiāpèi guāncáo. . . yuègōng, shòuyī, piànmǎ, diàomǎ, qúntóu, zāijiē zhīrén jiē qǔyān. 凡反逆相坐，沒其家配官曹. . . 樂工、獸醫、騙馬、 調馬、群頭、栽接之人皆取焉.” (Those charged with treason will implicate all related with them. Their possessions and offices will be confiscated. . . . Their musicians, veterinarians, horse riders, horse tamers, servant leaders and gardeners will all be captured.) Piàn 騙 also means to cheat and abduct, which began to be used in the Song dynasty. For example, In Gēngshēn zhàoduì 庚申召對 [Emperor Gengshen’s Summon] by Liu Kezhuang 劉克莊, it is written that “chén wéi guójiā sānshùnián lái, xiōngxiàng nòngquán, yǐ fùqiáng zìguǐ, fǔ shèngtiānzǐ ér xíng bàzhèng, wéi tiānxià zǎi ér shè piànjú. 臣惟國家三數年來，凶相弄權， 以富强自詭，輔聖天子而行霸政，為天下宰而設騙局.” (In my opinion, in recent three years, the ferocious prime minister manipulated power for personal ends, deceiving others that it was for the country’s prosperity. He executed tyranny under the disguise of supporting the emperor. As prime minister, he cheated the whole nation.) It has been widely used after the Yuan and Ming dynasties until modern times. 1.4.3 Adjectives Ăi 矮 The character ǎi 矮 appeared in the Tang dynasty, with the meaning of being short in stature. In Shuōwénxīnfù·Shǐbù 説文新附 · 矢部 [Supplement of Origin of Chinese Characters·Shi Group], it is written that “ǎi, duǎnrén yě. 矮，短人 也.” (ǎi 矮 refers to short people.) In Jiù Tángshū·Yángchéng zhuàn 舊唐書 · 陽 城傳 [Biography of Yángchéng in the Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “dàozhōu dì chǎnmín duō’ǎi, měinián chángpèi xiānghù, jìngyǐ qínán hàoyuē ǎinú. 道州地產民多矮，每年常配鄉戶，竟以其男號曰矮奴.” (Most people in Daozhou were short. They were bought as dwarf slaves to pay tribute to the Palace every year. They were called short slaves.) The meaning of ǎi 矮 is extended to mean being short and not high. In Guǎngyùn·Xièyùn 廣韻蟹韻 [Xie Rhyme of Various Rhymes], it is written that “ǎi, duǎn ér. 矮，短兒.” (ǎi 矮 means being short.) In Kāiyuán tiānbǎo yíshì·Yībīngshān 開元天寶遺事 · 依冰 山 [Incidents During the Years of Kaiyuan and Tongbao·Depending on Iceberg] by Wang Renyu 王仁裕 of the Five dynasties, it is written that “dàzhàngfū yǒu língyún gàishì zhīzhì, ér jūyú xiàwèi, ruò lìshēn yú ǎiwū zhōng, shǐrén táitóu bùdé. 大丈夫有淩雲蓋世之志，而拘於下位，若立身於矮屋中，使人擡頭不 得.” (I have lofty ambition, but always restricted by persons in the lower position.

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 49 It is like standing in a low house, which makes me impossible to lift my head.) In Yùtàn 寓歎 [Exclamation at Home] by Lu You 陸遊 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “zuìfǔ jiǔhú lián bà’ǎi, wòkàn xiāngxiù ài línxún. 醉撫酒壼憐矲矮， 卧看香岫愛嶙峋.” (Putting hands on the flagon, I got drunk and felt sorry for my short stature, lying on my back and enjoying overlooking the rugged mountains.) Bà’ǎi 矲矮 also means being short and low. Āo 凹 Āo 凹 means being low in the middle and high in the periphery, which is opposed to tū 凸. Āo 凹 is not found in Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters] and Yùpiān 玉篇 [Jade Articles]. It came into being in the Six dynasties. In Guǎngyùn·Qiàyùn 廣韻 · 洽韻 [Various Rhymes·Qia Rhyme], it is written that “āo, xià yě. 凹，下也.” (āo 凹 means being low.) In Jíyùn·Yáoyùn 集韻 · 爻韻 [Collected Rhymes·Yao Rhyme], it is written that “āo, wā yě. 凹，窊也.” (āo 凹 means being sunken.) In Shényìjīng·Běifāng huāngjīng 神異經北方荒經 [Stories on Gods and Spirits·Stories in Northern Wilderness] by Dongfang Shuo 東方朔 of the Han dynasty, it is written that “(běifāng huāngzhōng yǒu shíhú) qíhú wú āotū, píngmǎn wú gāoxià. (北方荒中有石湖) 其湖無凹凸，平滿無高下.” ([There is a stone lake in the northern wilderness.] The lake is neither concave nor convex. The lake is very flat and there is no height difference.) In Qīngtái fù 青苔賦 [Ode of Moss] by Jiang Yan 江淹 of the Southern Liang dynasty, it is written that “bēi āo xiǎn xī, wéi liúshuǐ ér chíwù. 悲凹險兮，唯流水而馳騖.” (I felt sorry that there were dented and dangerous rocks. And yet only water kept rushing forward swiftly.) In Jiànkāng shílù 建康實錄 [Records during the Years of Jiankang] by Xu Song 許嵩 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “yīchéng sì, liáng shàolíngwáng chúnzào, sìmén biǎnhuà, āotūhuā wéi zhāng sēngyáo shǒujì. 一乘寺，梁邵陵王純造，寺門匾畫，凹凸花為張僧繇手跡.” (Yicheng Temple was built by Chun 純, the prince of Shàolíng 邵陵 in the Liang dynasty. The temple gate is painted with concave and convex flowers, which is said to be made by Zhang Sengyao 張僧繇.) Cāng 傖 Cāng 傖 means being coarse and vulgar. In the Southern and Northern dynasties, people in the south of the Yangtze River disparaged northerners or Chu people as cāng 傖. In Yùpiān·Rénbù 玉篇人部 [Ren Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “cāng, 《 Jìn yáng qiū 》 yún:‘wúrén wèi zhōngguórén wéi cāng’.” 傖， 《晉陽秋》云： “吴人謂中國人為傖.” (In Jìnyángqiū 晉陽秋 [Autumn of Jinyang], it is written that “Wu people call midlanders cāng 傖.”) In Jíyùn·Gēngyùn 集韻庚韻 [Geng Rhyme of Collected Rhymes], it is written that “cāng, wúrén mà chǔrén yuēcāng. 傖，吴人罵楚人曰傖.” (Wu people call Chu people cāng 傖.) In Jìnshū·Zhōu Jǐ zhuàn 晉書 · 周玘傳 [Biography of Zhou Jǐ in the Book of the Jin dynasty], it is written that “jiāng zú, wèi zixié yuē: ‘shāwǒzhě zhū cāngzǐ, néng fùzhī, nǎi wúzǐ yě.’ wúrén wèi zhōngzhōurén yuēcāng, gùyún ěr. 將卒，謂子

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

勰曰： ‘殺我者諸傖子，能復之，乃吾子也.’ 吴人謂中州人曰傖，故雲耳.” (Upon dying, they said to Zixie 子勰, “Those who killed us are all vulgar villains, and those who can take revenge are heroes.” It is because Wu people called people of Zhongzhou vulgar villains.) In Chénshū·Zhōu Tiěhǔ zhuàn 陳書 · 周鐵 虎傳 [Biography of Zhou Tiehu in The Book of the Chen dynasty], it is written that “zhōu tiěhǔ, bùzhī héxǔ rényě, liángshì nándù, yǔyán cāngzhòng, lǚlì guòrén. 周鐵虎，不知何許人也，梁世南渡，語言傖重，膂力過人.” (No one knows where Zhou Tiehu came from. He crossed the river to the south during the Liang dynasty. He had a strong and rough accent and great physical strength.) In Chǔ Wàngfù 楚望賦 [Ode of Chuwang] by Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “cāngyīn lǐtài, yōuyuàn wěiqū. 傖音俚態，幽怨委曲.” (People there speak vulgarly and tactfully.) Bèn 笨 In ShuōwénZ húbù 説文竹部 [Zhu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “bèn, zhúlǐ yě. 笨，竹裏也.” (Bèn 笨 refers to the insides of bamboo.) It refers to the white film in the inner layer of bamboo and is a noun. Since the Six dynasties, bèn 笨 has taken on a completely new meaning and has become an adjective. First, it means being heavy and rough. For example, in Jìnshū·Yáng Dān zhuàn 晉書羊聃傳 [Biography of Yang Dan in the Book of the Jin dynasty], it is written that “dàhónglú chén liú jiāngquán yǐ néngshí wéi gǔbó, yùzhāng tàishǒu shǐ chóu yǐ dàféi wéi bènbó, sànjìláng gāo píng zhāng yí yǐ jiǎowàng wéi huábó, ér dānyǐ lánglì wéi suǒbó, gài nǐ gǔzhīsìxiōng. 大鴻臚陳留江泉以能食為 穀伯，豫章太守史疇以大肥為笨伯，散騎郎高平張嶷以狡妄為猾伯，而聃 以狼戾為瑣伯，蓋擬古之四凶.” (The administrators in charge of the affairs of princes and vassal states named Chen Liu and Jiang Quan are called Mr. BigBelly due to huge appetite. Shi Chou 史 疇, the prefecture chief in Yuzhang, is called Mr. Stupidity due to being fat and clumsy. Officials assisting in the management of government affairs in palaces of princes named Gao Ping 高平 and Zhang Yi 張 嶷 are called Mr. Fox because of being cunning and arrogant. Dan 聃 is called Mr. Tartar due to being fierce and violent. It is an imitation of four ancient villains.) In Sòngshū·Yán Yánzhī zhuàn 宋書 · 颜延之傳 [Biography of Yan Yanzhi in The Book of the Song dynasty], it is written that “chángchéng léiniú bènchē, féngjùn (yánzhī zǐ) lǔbù, jí bǐngwǎng dàocè. 常乘羸牛笨車，逢竣 (延之子) 鹵簿，即 屏往道側.” (He used to go out in a heavy carriage pulled by a thin old cow. On the road, he met Yán Jùn’s 颜竣 procession and immediately hid to the roadside.) Bèn 笨 also means being stupid and dull. For example, in Bào pǔzi·Xíngpǐn 抱 朴子行品 [Following Nature·Conduct] of Ge Hong 葛洪 in the Jin dynasty, it is written that “zhàng qiǎnduǎn ér duōmiù, ànqū shězhī zāngpǐ zhě, bènrén yě. 杖淺短而多謬，闇趨舍之臧否者，笨人也.” (One who is short sighted, always wrong and ignorant of loss is called a fool.) In Sòngshū·Wáng Wēi zhuàn 宋書 王微傳 [Biography of Wang Wei in The Book of the Song dynasty], it is written that “xiǎoérshí yóu cūbèn wúhǎo, chángcóng bóshì dú xiǎozhāngjù, jìngwú kědé. 小兒時尢粗笨無好，常從博士讀小章句，竟無可得.” (When I was a child, I

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 51 was clumsy. I often followed the court academicians to read small chapters and sentences, but failed to learn anything.) Here, the meaning of bèn 笨 has nothing to do with the inner film of a bamboo. Dāi 獃 The character dāi 獃 means stupid and inflexible, which came into being in the Tang and Song dynasties. In Guǎngyùn·Hāiyùn 廣韻咍韻 [Hai Rhyme of Various Rhymes], it is written that “dāi, dāichī, xiàngquǎn xiǎoshí wèiyǒu fēnbié. 獃，獃癡，象犬小時未有分別.” (Dāi 獃 means to be stupid, exactly the same as a puppy.) In Jíyùn Hāiyùn 集韻 · 咍韻 [Collected Rhymes·Hai Rhyme], it is written that “dāi, chī yě. 獃，癡也.” (Dāi 獃 means being stupid.) In the poem Qiáogēshàng·Niànnújiāo 樵歌上念奴娇 [Song of Woodcutting I·Thinking of Me] by Zhu Dunru 朱敦儒 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “cóng jiàotā xiào, rúcǐ zhĭ rúcǐ, zájù dǎliǎo, xìshān tuōyǔ dāidǐ. 從教他笑，如此只如此，雜 劇打了，戲衫脫與獃底.” (When the play is over, the curtain is pulled down, the costumes and make-up are removed, and you will find that the actors are far from glamorous, cute and even a little silly.) In Zhuāng qìzhī zuò “Wú yì ài wúlú” liùshī jiànjì yīncìyùn 莊器之作 < 吾亦愛吾廬 > 六詩見寄因次韻 [Reply of the Six Poems of ‘I Also Love My Hut’ by Zhuang Qizhi] by Zhang Yi 張 鎰 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “gèngyǒu yīgǔ dāi, wǎngnán kàn běidǒu. 更有一股獃， 往南看北鬥.” (He was a little silly and looked south for the Big Dipper.) According to Guǎngyùn 廣韻 [Various Rhymes], dāi 獃 is spelt by wǔ 五 and lái 來 with the pronunciation of dāi. In the northern dialect today, it is written as dāi 呆. Fēi 緋 The character fēi 緋 means being crimson. The meaning of most characters that are composed of the radical of fēi 非 is associated with red, and they are also derived from old characters. Fēi 緋 came into being in the Six dynasties. In Shuōwénxīnfù·Sībù 説文新附 · 糸部 [Supplement of Origin of Chinese Characters·Si Group], it is written that “fēi, bó chìsè yě. 緋，帛赤色也.” (Fēi 緋 means of a cloth being red.) In Guǎngyùn·Wēiyùn 廣韻微韻 [Wei Rhyme of Various Rhymes], it is written that “fēi, jiàngsè. 緋，絳色.” (Fēi 緋 means being crimson.) In Yǒuyáng zázǔ xùjí·ZhīZhíxià 酉陽雜俎續集 · 支植下 [Sequel of Youyang Miscellaneous·on Plants II] by Duan Chengshi 段成式 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “shāncháhuā, shānchá yèsì cháshù, gāozhě zhàngyú, huādà yíngcùn, sè rúfēi, shíèryuè kāi. 山茶花，山茶葉似茶樹，高者丈餘，花 大盈寸，色如緋，十二月開.” (The flowers and leaves of Camellia are like tea trees. Camellia is more than 3.3 meters high, and the scarlet flowers are very big, more than 3.3 cm in size. Its color is crimson and it blooms in December.) In the poem Tàn Fāngxùn húshàng chūnyóu jì cǎochuāng yùn 探芳訊湖上春遊繼草 窗韻 by Li Penglao 李彭老 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “zhèngfēi táo rúhuǒ, xiāngkàn zì yījiù. 正緋桃如火，相看自依舊.” (The scarlet peach blossoms are like fire, while I am still the same as before.)

52

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

Dǎi 歹 In Shuōwén·Bùbù 説文 · 步部 [Bu Group of Origin of Chinese characters], it is written that “è, liègǔ zhīcán yě. dúruò niè àn zhī niè. 歺，j 骨之殘也. 讀若 岸之 .” (è 歺 means the remains of the bone after the meat has been removed.) In Guǎngyùn·Héyùn 廣韻曷韻 [Various Rhymes·He Rhyme], it is written that “è, 《 Shuōwén 》 yuē: ‘liègǔ zhīcán yě. fán cóng’èzhě jīn yìzuò dǎi’. 歺，《説文》 曰： “j 骨之殘也 骨之殘也. 凡從歺者今亦作歹.” 凡從歺者今亦作歹 (In Shuōwén 説文 説文, it is written that “è 歺 refers to the remains of bones after removing the meat. It is written as dǎi 歹 now.”) The character dǎi 歹 here refers to the residual bone after removing the meat; it is a noun and is pronounced as è. After the Tang dynasty, the character dǎi 歹 means being bad and evil, becoming a new adjective, and is pronounced as dǎi. In Dūnhuáng biànwénjí Wéimó gǔjīng jiǎng jīngwén 敦煌變文集 · 維摩詁經講 經文 [Collection of Narrative Literature in Dunhuang·Explaining Vimalakīrti], it is written that “qiěxī jūshì hǎo tiáohé, bùdé yīnxún zòng bìngdǎi. 且希居士好調 和，不得因循縱病歹.” (This disease is easy to recuperate. One cannot ignore 和，不得因循縱病歹 it and let it get worse.) In Fùmǔ ēnzhòng jīng jiǎng jīngwén 父母恩重經講經文 [Explaining the Scripture on Parental Grace], it is written that “ruòshì chángxíng wǔnì dǎirén, zhèshēn wànjì yīng nánmì. 若是長行五逆歹人，這身萬計應難覓 若是長行五逆歹人，這身萬計應難覓.” (He might not be dressed like this if he were a thief.) Jiān 尖 Jiān 尖 means that the tip is thin and sharp and came into being in the Six dynasties. In Yùpiān·Dàbù 玉篇大部 [Da Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “jiān, xiǎoxì yě. 尖，小細也.” (Jiān 尖 means being small and thin.) In Xiǎobù 小部 [Xiao Group], it is written that “jiān, ruì yě. 尖，銳也.” (Jiān 尖 means being sharp.) In Guǎngyùn·Yányùn 廣韻盐韻 [Yan Rhyme of Various Rhymes], it is written that “jiān, ruì yě. zǐ lián qiè. 尖，銳也. 子廉切.” (Jiān 尖 means being sharp, spelt by zǐ 子 and lián 廉.) In the poem Diào Tái 釣臺 [Fishing Table] by Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “ǎifēng jiān sìbǐ, kānhuà bù kānshū. 靄峰尖似筆，堪畫不堪書.” (The peak of Mountain Ai is like a brush, and it can only be drawn but not described in words.) In Wèijiāngjūn gē 魏將軍歌 [Song for General Wei] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “wèihóu gǔsǒng jīngshuǎng jǐn, huáyuè fēngjiān jiàn qiūsǔn. 魏侯骨聳 精爽緊，華嶽峰尖見秋隼.” (The duke of Wei is tall, straight and spirited, like a falcon hovering at the summit of the Mountain Hua in autumn.) In the poem Yǔ Hàochūshàngrén tóngkàn shān jì jīnghuá qīngù 與浩初上人同看山寄京華 親故 [To Former Acquaintances in Jinghua: Enjoying Mountain Scenery with Master Haochu] by Liu Zongyuan 柳宗元 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “hǎipàn jiānshān sì jiànmáng, qiūlái chùchù gē chóucháng. 海畔尖山似劍铓， 秋來處處割愁腸.” (The high and sharp mountains on the seashore are like sharp swords, cutting off people’s sadness in autumn.) Jiān 尖 also refers to the thin and sharp part of an object. In Jiāngshàngzhīshān fù 江上之山賦 [A Poem about the Mountain Above River] by Jiang Yan 江淹 of the Southern Liang dynasty,

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 53 it is written that “yáoyí xī jiānchū, yánzú xī xuézáo. 嶤嶷兮尖出， 嵒 崒兮穴 鑿.” (Some places of the mountain are sharp and some places are sunken.) In the poem Yǒngfēng 咏蜂 [Chanting Bees] by Luo Yin 羅隱 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “bùlùn píngdì yǔ shānjiān, wúxiàn fēngguāng jìn bèi zhàn. 不論 平地與山尖，無限風光盡被佔.” (Whether on the flat or on the mountain, the beautiful scenery is occupied by bees.) In Shuōwén·Jīnbù 説文金部 [Jin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “jiān, tiěqì yě. Yīyuē xī yě. 鑯， 鐡器也 . 一曰鑴也.” (Jiān 鑯 refers to thin and sharp iron objects. It may also be written as jiān 鑴.) Xu Xuan 徐鉉 commented that “jīn súzuò jiān. 今俗作尖.” (Today people usually take the usage of jiān 尖.) Duan Yucai 段玉裁 annotated that “guō zhù 《 ěryǎ 》 yòngwéi jīnzhī jiānzì. 郭注《爾雅》用為今之尖字.” (Guo’s annotation of Êryǎ 爾 雅 used jiān 尖.) In Guǎngyǎ·Shìgǔsì 廣雅 · 釋詁 四 [Broadened Erya·Exegesis IV], it is written that “jiān, ruì yě. 鑯，銳也.” (Jiān 鑯 means being sharp.) In Zhèngzìtōng·Jīnbù 正字通金部 [Jin Group of Zheng Zi Tong], it is written that “jiān, jiān běnzì, fēngmáng ruì yě. 鑯，尖本字，鋒芒 銳也.” (Jiān 尖 is originally written as jiān 鑯 with the meaning of being sharp.) However, both jiān 鑯 and jiān 尖 are used in Yùpiān 玉篇 [Jade Articles] and Guǎngyùn 廣韻 [Various Rhymes], each with its own meaning, and it is not necessary to differentiate the ancient version from the modern one. Tū 凸 Tū 凸 means being high in the middle and low in the periphery, which is opposed to āo 凹 and came into being in the Six dynasties. In Guǎngyùn Méiyùn 廣韻 · 没韻 [Mei Rhyme of Various Rhymes], it is written that “tū, tūchū mào. 凸， 凸出貌.” (Tū 凸 means being convex.) In Míngxiángjì 冥祥記 [Fulfillment of Prophecy] by Wáng Yǎn 王琰 of the Southern Qi dynasty, it is written that “rénzài huòzhōng, suífèi chūmò, huòcè yǒurén, yǐchā cìzhī, huòyǒu pānhuò chūzhě, liǎngmù fèitū, shéchū chǐyú, ròujìn xīnlàn ér yóu bùsǐ. 人在鑊中，隨沸出沒， 鑊側有人，以 扠 刺之，或有攀鑊出者，兩目沸凸，舌出尺餘，肉盡炘爛 而猶不死.” (People in a big cauldron emerge from the boiling water. If there are people at the side of the cauldron, they will be stabbed by a big fork. Some climb out of it, with their eyes bulging out and their tongues sticking out more than 33 cm, and the meat is cooked but still alive.) In the poem Èshén xíngyǔ 惡 神行雨 [The Evil God Drives Rain] by Yao He 姚合 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “fēngjī shuǐ’āo bōpū tū, yǔzhuàng shānkǒu dìqiàn kēng. 風擊水凹 波撲凸，雨漴山口地嵌坑.” (The wind beat the water down, waves rolled up by the wind pounced on the bulged water. The rain hit the ground near the mountain pass, leaving many pits.) In Mèngxībǐtán·Qìyòng 夢溪筆談 · 器用 [Mengxi’s Essays·Utensils] by Shen Kuo 沈括 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “gǔrén zhùjiàn, jiàndà zépíng, jiànxiǎo zétū. fán jiànwā zé zhàorén miàndà, tūzé zhàorén miànxiǎo. 古人鑄鑒，鑑大則平，鑑小則凸. 凡鑑窪則照人面大，凸則照人 面小.” (When the ancients made mirrors, big mirrors were made flat and small mirrors were made convex. The image of the face in concave mirror is big, and the image of the face in convex mirror is small.)

54

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

Qià 恰 Qià 恰 is a new character produced in the Southern and Northern dynasties. In Yùpiān·Xīnbù 玉篇心部 [Xin Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “qià, yòngxīn yě. 恰，用心也.” (Qià 恰 means to be mindful and careful.) In Guǎngyùn·Qiàyùn 廣韻洽韻 [Qia Rhyme of Various Rhymes], it is written that “qià, yòngxīn. kǔ qià qiè. 恰，用心. 苦洽切.” (Qià 恰 means to be careful, spelt by kǔ 苦 and qià 洽.) In Zhèngzìtōng·Xīnbù 正字通心部 [Xin Group of Zheng Zi Tong], it is written that “qià, shìdāng zhīcí. 恰，適當之辭.” (Qià 恰 means to be appropriate.) In Shuōwénxīnfùkǎo·Qià 説文新附考 · 恰 [Qia of Study on Supplement of Origin of Chinese Characters·] by Zheng Zhen 郑珍 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “liùcháo yǐqián wú cǐzì, tángrén shī nǎi yòngzhī, yìwéi shìdāng, qíliáng yǐlái súyǔ yě. 六朝已前無此字，唐人詩乃用之，義為適當， 齊梁已來俗語也.” (This character did not exist before the Six dynasties. Poets in the Tang dynasty used the character in their poetry with the meaning of being appropriate. By the time of the Qi and Liang dynasties, the character had been commonly used.) Qià 恰 is often explained as being just right in literature. In Hòutáng wàng měirénshān míng 後堂望美人山銘 [Essay on Meiren Mountain Seen from the Back Hall] by Yu Xin 庾信 of the Northern Zhou dynasty, it is written that “qiàduì zhuāngtái, zhūchuāng zhòukāi. 恰對妝台，諸窗晝開.” (It is just in front of the dressing table, and the windows are all open.) In the poem Bīzèxíng 偪仄行 [A Short Trip]by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “sùyí xiāngjiù yǐn yībàn, qiàyǒu sānbǎi qīngtóngqián. 速宜相就飲一半， 恰有三百青銅錢.” (We should sit down face to face immediately, have some wine and drink together. I happen to have 300 copper coins now.) In the seventh volume of Xuěshān héshàng 雪山和尚 [A Monk on the Mountain Covered with Snow] in Zǔtángjí 祖堂集 [Collection in the Ancestral Temple] by Jing 静 and Yun 筠 in the Five dynasties, it is written that “shī hūrán jiàn yǒugè mǔzhūzĭ cóng shānshàng zǒu xiàlái, qiàdào shī miànqián. 師忽然見有個母豬子從山上 走下來，恰到師面前.” (The master suddenly saw a sow walking down the hill, just walking up to him.) In the poem Diéliànhuā·Shàngsì zhào qīnzú 蝶戀花 · 上巳召親族 [Butterfly Loves Flower·Invitation of Relatives on Shangsi Day] by Li Qingzhao 李清照 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “suíyì bēipán suī cǎo cǎo, jiǔměi méisuān, qià chèn rén huáibào. 隨意杯盤雖草草，酒美梅酸，恰稱 人懷抱.” (Although the food is ordinary, the wine is good, and the taste of plum is agreeable. Everything is satisfactory.) It is also an adverb and means just now and however. For example, in Dūnhuáng biànwénjí·Yànzi fù 敦煌變文集 · 燕 子賦 [Collection of Narrative Literatures in Dunhuang·Ode for Swallows], it is written that “zhěhàn dàchī, hǎobù zìzhī, qiàjiàn kuānzòng, jìtú (tú) guòshí. 者漢 大癡，好不自知，恰見寬縱，苟徒 (圖) 過時.” (You don’t know how stupid you are. I just saw you eating and drinking. Do not delay the time and make a mistake.) In Yóuxiānkū 遊仙窟 [A Tour in a God’s Cave] by Zhang Zhuo 趙鷟 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “shíniáng fēizhí cáiqíng, shínéng yínyǒng; shuízhī yùmào, qiàyǒu jīnshēng. 十娘非直才情，實能吟詠；誰知玉貌，恰有金聲.”

Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese 55 (Shiniang not only has the ability for poetry, but also can chant. Who knows she is not only beautiful, but also has a nice voice.) Yìng 硬 Yìng 硬 is used to describe that objects are hard in nature and is opposed to being soft, which came into being in the Six dynasties. In Yùpiān·Shíbù 玉篇石部 [Shi Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “yìng, jiānyìng. 硬，堅硬.” (Yìng 硬 means being hard.) In Qímín yàoshù·Gēngtián 齊民要術 · 耕田 [Important Arts for the People’s Welfare·Till the Field] by Jia Sixie 賈思勰 of the Northern Wei dynasty, it is written that “bù rúcǐ ér hàngēng, kuàiyìng miáohuì tóngkǒng chū, bùkě chúzhì, fǎnwéi bàitián. 不如此而旱耕，塊硬苗穢同孔出，不可鋤治，反 為敗田.” (If it does not rain and farmers plough on the dry field, seedlings will come out in the same hole due to the hard soil, and they cannot hoe them any longer. As a result, the crops will not grow well.) In the poem Zèng Liúshīfú 贈 劉師服 by Han Yu 韓愈 in the Tang dynasty, it is written that “xiànjūn chǐyá láo qiě jié, dàròu yìngbǐng rú dāojié. 羨君齒牙牢且潔，大肉硬餅如刀截.” (I envy you that your teeth are firm and clean which can cut meat and hard pancakes like knives.) In the poem Lǎojiàng 老將 [Veteran] by Zhang Ji 張籍 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “bùpà qí shēngmǎ, yóunéng wǎn yìnggōng. 不怕騎生 馬，猶能挽硬弓.” (He is not afraid of riding a horse and can still shoot arrows.) The meaning of yìng 硬 is extended to mean being rigid and strong here. In the poem Fèngcí yúntái tí Chén Xīyí Huàxiàng 奉祠雲台題陳希夷畫像 [A Poem for the Portrait of Chen Xiyi on the Cloud Platform] by Zhang Zi 張镃 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “shìjiān dàshì yìnghàn liǎo, wù yǒu suǒ zhòng yǒu suǒ qīng. 世間大事硬漢了，物有所重有所輕.” (Great men solve big problems, and we should distinguish the priorities of things.) In Sòngshǐ·Gāo Sīdé zhuàn 宋史 · 高斯德傳 [Biography of Gao Side in the History of the Song], it is written that “lǐzōng yuē:‘gāomǒu yìnghàn, ān dé yǒu shì?’ 理宗曰： ‘高某硬漢，安得有 是 ?’” (Emperor Lizong said, “Gao is a tough guy, isn’t he?”) 硬 yìng is also written as yìng 鞕. In Yùpiān·Gébù 玉篇革部 [Ge Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “yìng, jiān yě. 鞕，堅也.” (Yìng 鞕 means being hard.)

1.5 Conclusion We have roughly discussed the emergence of mediaeval characters here. It can be seen that some were created to account for the appearance of new things and concepts so as to meet the needs of social communication. Some words emerged as the result of the inner metabolism of ancient Chinese vocabulary. From a developmental point of view, some characters produced in the Middle Ages have been preserved until now, and some have disappeared with the disappearance of the objects or have been replaced by other characters. In this way, the whole Chinese lexicon develops further towards a new historical stage.

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Development of monosyllabic words of Middle Chinese

Notes 1 In Shuōwén·Yībù 説文衣部 [Yī Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it reads “Jiá, yī wúxù.” 袷, 衣無絮。 [Jiá 袷 refers to lined garment without wadding.] “Mǎn, páoyī yě. Yĭxù yuēmǎn, yĭyùn yuēpáo.” 襔, 袍衣也。以絮曰 襔，以緼曰袍。 [Mǎn 襔 means a robe. Those stuffed with new floss are called mǎn 襔, and those with old one, páo 袍.] In Lĭjì·Yùzǎo 禮記 · 玉藻 [Book of Rites·Jade Strings Hanging on a Coronet], it reads “Dān wéi jiŏng, bó wéi dié.” 禪為綗, 帛為褶。 [The unlined one is called jiŏng 綗, while the lined but not wadded one, dié 褶.] According to the annotation by Zheng Xuan 鄭玄, “Dié, wèi yŏu biǎolĭ ér wúzhuó.” 褶, 謂有表裏而無著。 [Dié 褶 refers to lined coat without wadding.] 2 The original meaning of chī 吃 is stuttering and speaking, being not fluent. In the Shuōwén Kǒubù 説文口部 [Kou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “chī, yán jiǎn nán yě.” 吃，言蹇難也。 (Chī 吃 means to be hard to speak fluently.)

2

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

2.1 Introduction The emergence of numerous polysyllabic words marks one of the most important features in the development of Middle Chinese words. Words were monosyllable oriented in Old Chinese, and polysyllabic words came to have priority in spoken language in the Middle Ages. Chinese phonological rhythm appeared in couples as a result of a majority of dissyllabic compounds in the Middle Ages. Many monosyllables can be replaced by dissyllabic compounds in the Middle Ages, which can be clearly exemplified from the notes in Old Chinese books by scholars after the Wei and Jin dynasties. Typical examples can be seen as follows. In Ěryǎ·Shìgǔ 爾雅· 釋詁 [Close to Standard Language·Exegesis], it is written that “wù, wù, qiángyě. 騖、務 . . . 强也.” (Wù 騖 is wù 務 with the meaning of trying to do everything or making every effort), which was annotated by Guo Pu, “chíwù shìwù miǎnqiǎng. 馳騖、事務、皆自勉强.” (Chíwù 馳騖 and shìwù 事務 both mean trying to do everything. In addition, it is written that “bāo, wǔ, mào, fēngy. 苞、蕪、茂, 豊也.” (Bāo 苞, wǔ 蕪 and mào 茂 all mean being luxuriant.) As Guo Pu 郭璞 noted, “Bāocóng, fánwǔ, jiē fēngshèng. 苞叢, 繁蕪, 皆豊盛.” (The meanings of bāocóng 苞叢 and fánwǔ 繁蕪 are being prosperous.) It is written in Shī·Zhōunán·Jiūmù 詩· 周南· 樛木 [The Book of Songs Zhounan·Jiumu] that “Gélěi lěizhi” 葛藟纍之. (Rounds twine a pine). As Kong Yingda 孔穎達 explains, “Lěi, chánràoyě. 纍, 缠绕也.” (The meaning of lěi 纍 is to intertwine.) In Shī·Weìfēng·Méng 詩· 衞風· 氓 [The Book of Songs·Odes of Wei·Meng], it is written that “Jìngyán sīzhī, gōngzì dàoyǐ. 静言思之, 躬自悼矣.” (Recalling what I have done, I am sad.) As is annotated by Kong Yingda 孔穎達, it is written that “Jìng’ĕr sīzhī, shēnzì āishāng. 静言思之, 身自哀傷矣.” (Recalling what I have done, my body feels sad.) The word “monosyllable” means there is one syllable for every word. There are only 212 syllables in Old Chinese, which is not enough to meet the needs of lexical development of the Chinese language. Old Chinese explicitly tended to be bisyllablized in its late period (the Southern Han dynasty). For example, Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals] and Lùnhéng 論衡 [Discourses Weighed in the Balance] have almost the same number DOI: 10.4324/9781003365563-2

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Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

of words. There are about 200,000 words in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], including only 284 bisyllables, while there are about 210,000 words and more than 2,000 bisyllables in Lùnhéng 論衡 [Discourses Weighed in the Balance]. The number of polysyllables in the latter is nearly eight times that of the former. After the Wei and Jin dynasties, especially in the Tang dynasty, there was an urgent need to use newly invented words to express the emerging novelties and conceptions as a result of the development of economy and culture as well as the reform of society. Monosyllables can be used as morphemes to combine in an infinite number of polysyllabic words. The two morphemes of the combined disyllabic words complement and denote each other, exemplifying the meaning of the words more clearly to serve the communicative goals better. Take Ěryǎ·Shìgǔ 爾雅· 釋詁 [Close to Standard Language·Exergesis] as an example in the following. “Jiè, shàng, yòuyĕ. 介、尚，右也.” (Jiè 介 and shàng 尚 are equal to yòu 右, to assist.) As Guopu 郭璞 annotated, “shàojiè, quànshàng, jiē xiāng yòuzhù. 紹介、勸尚，皆相佑助.” (Shàojiè 紹介 and Quànshàng 勸尚 both mean to help or assist.) “Cóng . . . bì, chóng, chóng yě. 從 . . . 弼、崇，重也.” (Cóng 從 equals bì 弼 and 崇chóng equals chóng 重, which means repetition or multiplication.) As Guo Pu 郭璞 noted, “Suícóng, bìfǔ, zēng chóng, jiē suǒyǐ chóngdié. 隨從、弼輔、 增崇，皆所以重叠.” (Suícóng 隨從, bìfǔ 弼輔 and 增崇zēngchóng all mean overlap or repetition.) “Fàn, shē, guǒ, yì, shèngyĕ. 犯、奢、果 、毅, 勝也.” (Fàn 犯, shē 奢, guǒ 果, and yì 毅 all equal shèng 勝, gaining an advantage in a certain aspect.) As Guo Pu 郭璞 annotated, “língfàn, kuāshē, guǒyì, jiē déshèng yĕ. 陵犯 、 誇奢 、 果毅, 皆 得勝也.” (Língfàn 陵犯, kuāshē 誇奢, and guǒyì 果毅 all mean triumph.) The previous annotated words such as “jiè 介, shàng 尚,” “cóng 從, bì 弼, chóng 重,” “fàn 犯, shē 奢, guǒ 果, and yì 毅,” as well as the annotated ones, including “yòu 右,” “chóng 重,” and “shèng 勝” are all polysemous, so the interpretations in Ěryǎ 爾雅 are prone to ambiguity. The disyllabic words annotated by Guo Pu make the meaning unequivocal. In addition, it is a natural trend that Chinese phonemes show a unity of tidiness and harmony. A typical example is the parallel prose that began in the Six dynasties, when four- and six-character sentences predominated. This also affects the bisyllablization of the Chinese lexicon, which can be reflected from the translation of Buddhist scriptures. It needs to fit with the patterns of the original text. Meanwhile, colloquial words and the four-character sentences are used to make it easier for Buddhists to comprehend and remember. To achieve this goal, some unnecessary Chinese function words are employed to create four-character sentences. For example, the following sentences in Bǎi Yù Jīng 百喻經 [One Hundred Buddhist Parables] of the Southern dynasty show these features. The word zhī 之 in the sentence “wǒbù yùxià, èrchóng zhīwū. 我不欲下, 二重 之屋.” (I do not need the two lower floors) is a particle. [Sānchóng lóu yù 三重 樓喻, The Parable of Three-Story Building.]

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 59 The word zhī 之 in the sentence “jíwéi dúshé, zhī suǒ zhē shì. 即爲毒蛇，之所 蛰螫.” (It was the place that was attacked by the poisonous snakes) is a particle. [Dé jīnshǔláng yù 得金鼠狼喻, The Parable of Gaining a Gold Yellow Weasel.] The word zhī 之 in the sentence “fánfū zhī rén, yì fù rúshì. 凡夫之人, 亦复 如是.” (So the same is true of many mediocre people) is a particle. [Wéi è’zéi suǒjié shīdié yù 為惡賊所劫失㲲喻, The Parable of Losing Coats Suffered from Robbery.] The word bìng 並 in the sentence of “dàobǐ guówáng, wǔbǎipǐmǎ, bìng jí bǎowù. 盗彼國王, 五百匹馬, 並及寳物.” (The king’s five hundred super strong horses and treasure were stolen) is a particle. [Wǔbǎi huānxǐwán yù 五百歡喜丸喻, The Parable of Five Hundred Happiness Cookies.] More importantly, translators would try to choose or create a number of disyllabic words, which can still be seen from Bǎi Yù Jīng 百喻經 [One Hundred Buddhist Parables]. “Xūyú yǒuzéi, rùjiā tōudào, qǔ qí cáiwù. 須臾有賊, 入家偷盗, 取其財物.” (In a while, a thief intrudes into the room and robs their belongings.) [Fūfù shíbǐng gòngwéi yào yù 夫婦食餠共為要喻, The Parable of the Agreement of Eating Pies between the Couple.] “Xī yǒu guówáng, chǎnshēng yīnǚ. Huàn yī yǔyán, wèi wǒ yǔyào, lì shǐ zhǎngdà. 昔有國王，産生一女. 唤醫語言，爲我舆薬，立使長大.” (There was a queen who had a girl. The king called a doctor and urged him to make up a prescription which could enable the girl to grow up immediately.) [Yīyǔ wángnǚ yào lìngzú zhǎngdà yù 醫與王女藥令卒長大喻, The Parable of Miraculous Growth Medicine.] “Rén shuō guòè, ér qǐ yuànzé, shēnwèi zhòngrén, guài qí yúhuò. 人説 過惡，而起怨責，深爲衆人，怪其愚惑.” (The man burst into a rage for having his own flaws pointed out. The people present are shocked at his behavior.) [Shuōrén xǐchēn yù 說人喜嗔喻, The Parable of being Thought of Fractious.] “Shīzī jiànzhī, fènjī mínghǒu, téngyuè érqián, yuǎnrén jīngbù, Jíbiàn shàngshù. 師子 見之，奮激鳴吼，騰躍而前，遠人驚怖，即便上樹.” (Seeing the man, the lion roars excitedly and rushes in front of him. The man is so rattled that he climbs up the tree immediately.) [Wǔbǎi huānxǐwán yù 五百歡喜丸喻, The Parable of Five Hundred Happiness Cookies.] The previous sentences are all the four-character type. There are 17 disyllabic words. These words are xūyú 須臾, tōudào 偷盗, cáiwù 財物, guówáng 國王, chǎnshēng 産生, yǔyán 語言, lìshǐ 立使, guòè 過惡, yuànzé 怨責, zhòngrén 衆人, yúhuò 愚惑, shīzī 師子, fènjī 奮激, mínghǒu 鳴吼, téngyuè 騰躍, jīngbù 驚怖, and jíbiàn 即便. They are a combination of two synonymous monosyllabic morphemes, which undoubtedly facilitates the stable development of Chinese polysyllabic words to a large extent. There are different kinds of compound words in Old Chinese, such as single morpheme words, repeated words, additive compound words, juxtaposed compound words, subordinate compound words, governable compound words, predicate–object compound words, and so on. The words also dominate Middle Chinese as a result of multiple increases in number and enrichment in contents.

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Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

Meanwhile, there appear to be various new patterns of compound words such as complementary compound words, noun-plus-measure compound words, brief compound words, and super-hierarchical compound words, discussed in the following.

2.2 Single-morpheme words The single morpheme words in Middle Chinese include alliteration, rhyme, and non-alliteration and rhyming from the phonological perspective. These words are popular in spoken language, and some of them may have been used before Middle Chinese. 2.2.1 Alliterative words Bìbó 腷膊, also called bìbó 偪剥, is an onomatopoeia, starting from the Tang dynasty, which can be seen in the following poems. In the poem Menjī Liánjù 門雞聯句 [Joint Sentences on Roosters] by Han Yu 韓愈 and Meng Jiao 孟郊 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “bìbó zhànshēng xuān, bīnfān luò yǔcuī. 腷 膊 戰聲喧，繽翻落羽皠.” (The sound of bìbó 腷膊 marks the beginning of the fight between the chickens. The white feather falls off when they jump to fight.) In volume 12 of Yǒuyáng zázǔ 酉陽雜俎 [YawYang Essays] by novelist Duan Chengshi 段成式 of the Tang dynasty, it was written that “bìbó yǒushēng, dìanhùrén guàirì chū bùqǐmén, chè ér shìzhī, yǒu xióng chòngr én zǒuchū, èrsēng yǐsǐ, háigǔ xīlù. 腷膊有聲，店户人怪日出不啓門，撤而視之，有熊衝人 走出，二僧已死，骸骨悉露.” (There is voice in the room while the guests do not check out the next day. The landlord smashes the door down and a bear bursts out. The two monks died, leaving the flesh and blood blurred bones.) In Yíjiān bǐngzhì Chéngfózǐ 夷堅丙志· 成佛子 [The Third Collection of Ghost Stories·Chéngfózǐ] by Hong Mai 洪邁 of the Song dynasty, it was written that “é wén wūzhōng bìbó sheng, xúe xì ér wàng, rú rén pāozhì sǎnqiánzhě. 俄聞 屋中腷膊聲，穴隙而望，如人抛擲散錢者.” (Suddenly, on hearing noise in the room, he spies through a crack in the door, looking as if someone handed out money.) In the poem Guān shè xíng 觀社行 [A Tour to Watch Sacrifice] by Liu Kezhuang 劉克莊 of the Song dynasty, it was written that “lúzhōng gùduò liáo shànluán, ménwài bàozhú rèn bìbó. 爐中榾㭾聊擅欒，門外爆竹任偪剥.” (The wood in the stove burns. People outside are playing the firecrackers.) Another pattern is bi alliteration, which can be seen from bìbì bóbó 腷 腷膊膊 or bìbì púpú 偪偪仆仆 in the following example. In the poem Liǎngtóu xiānxiān 兩頭纖纖 [Thin at Both Ends] by Yong Yuzhi 雍裕之 of the Tang dynasty, it was written that “bìbì bóbó xiǎoqín fēi, lěilěi luòluò qīuguǒ chuí. 腷腷膊膊曉 禽飛，磊磊落落秋果垂.” (The birds are flying and singing. The fruits cover the branches.) In Liǎngtóu xiānxiān 兩頭纖纖 by Wang Jian 王建 of the Tang dynasty, it was written, “bìbì púpú chūnbīng liè, lěilěi luòluò táohuā jié. 偪偪仆 仆春冰裂，磊磊落落桃花结.” (The spring is coming. The ice melts and peach blossoms are all open.)

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 61 Diān duō 敁敠 is also called diān duō 敁挅 or diǎn duō 點掇, which means measuring the weight by hands. It dates back to the Six dynasties, and its definition is recorded in different works. In Yùpiān 玉篇 [Jade Articles], it was written that “diān, diān duō, chēngliáng yě. 敁，敁敠，稱量也.” (Diān 敁 is equal to diān duō 敁敠, which means weighing.) In Jíyùn 集韻 (a collection of rhymes), it was written that “diān, diānduō yě, yǐ shǒu chēngwù. 敁，敁挅也，以手稱物.” (Diān 敁 is equal to diānduō 敁挅, which means weighing by hands.) In Kěnqǐlù lǐsú zìyì 肯綮録俚俗字義 [Keynotes on Common Colloquial Words of the Song dynasty] by Zhao Shuxiang 趙叔向, it was written that “chēnglíang yuē diān duō. 稱量曰敁敠.” (Chēnglíang 稱量 is equal to diān duō 敁敠, which means weighing by hand.) In Dá Wúzhí zhīshū 答吴直之書 [A Reply of Wu Zhi’s Letter] by Zhu Xi 朱熹, it reads “Zhīdé rúcǐ diǎnduō shuōguò, duōzhe yányǔ biànshuō shale. 只得如此點掇說過，多着言語便說殺了.” (He had to think it through before making a reply. Say more words and he might be killed.) Dīng dāng 丁當 is also called dīng dāng 丁璫, dīng dōng 丁冬, or ding dōng 丁東, which is onomatopoeia dating back to the Tang dynasty and can be traced in the following poems. In Huáqīnggōng sānshí yùn 華清宮三十韻 [Thirty Rhymes of Huaqing Palace] by Du Mu 杜牧 of the Tang dynasty, it was written that “shénxiān gāo piāomiǎo, huánpèi suì dīngdāng. 神仙高縹緲，環佩碎丁當.” (The celestial beings seem to appear in the sky. The jade tied on the belt breaks.) In Jīnyángmén 津陽門 [Jin Yang Gate] by Zheng Yu 鄭嵎 of the Tang dynasty, it was written that “yuèzhōng mìyuè tiān bànjiān, dīngdāng yùshí hé xūnchí. 月中秘樂天半間， 丁璫玉石和塤篪.” (Enjoy music in the midnight under the moon. The jade, stone, xun and chi are instruments.) In Yángchūn qǔ 陽春曲 [The Song of Spring] by Zhuang Nanjie 莊南傑 of the Tang dynasty, it was written that “zǐjǐng hóngnáng xiāng mǎnfēng, jīnluán yùshì yáo dīng dōng. 紫錦紅囊香滿風，金鸞玉軾揺 丁冬.” (The fragrance of the sachet emits with wind. The golden bird and the horizontal bar made of jade in front of a carriage for armrest are jingling.) In Zhījǐn cí 織錦詞 [A Poem of Weaving Silk] by Wen Tingyun 溫庭筠 of the Tang dynasty, it was written that “dingdong xìlòu qīn qióngsè, yǐngzhuǎn gāowū yuè chūchū. 丁東細漏侵瓊瑟，影轉高屋月初出.” (During the midnight, the tinkling sound like the sad sound made by the trumpet. The shadow of the plane tree moves with the rotary movement of the moon, reflecting on the window.) Hán hu 含糊 is also called hán hu 含胡, which means uncertainty. It dates back to the Tang dynasty and can be traced in the following works. In Yǔ Liǔzǐhòu shū 與柳子厚書 [A Letter to Liu Zihou] by Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 of the Tang dynasty, it was written that “xiánzhāng zhùchà, xiāorán màocún. Zhōng yǒu zhìyīng, hán hu fúwén. 弦張柱差，枵然貌存. 中有至音，含糊弗聞.” (The appearance of the musical instruments is not complete, with the chord stretching and the column broken. It can play melodious music and its sound spreads vaguely.) In Bìngzhōng shū huáichéng yǒurén 病中書懷呈友人 [A Letter to My Friend Written When I Was Ill] by Wen Tingyun 溫庭筠 of the Tang dynasty, it was written that “bǎishéng xīn fǎngfú, gūzú yùn hán hu. 百神歆仿佛，孤竹韻含胡.” (Thousands of celestial beings seem to admire. The musical instrument plays a sweet sound.) Hánhu 含胡 refers to sound in this context. As in Xīn Tángshū ·Yángǎoqīng zhuàn 新唐

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書· 顏杲卿傳 [The New Book of Tang History·Biography of Yan Gaoqing], it is recorded that “zéi gōuduàn qí shé, yuē: fù néng mà fǒu? Gǎoqīng hán hu ér jué. 賊 鉤斷其舌，曰：‘ 復能駡否？’ 杲卿含胡而绝.” (The villain cut off his tone and asked, “Can you make a fuss now?” Gao Qing can not make a speech and died.) In this context, hánhu 含胡 means speech. In Jiù Tángshū ·Lùzhì zhuàn 舊唐書· 陸贄傳 [Biography of Lu Zhi of The Old Book of Tang History], it was written that “jì xiāng zhìzhèng, lǐhé biànmíng, cháotíng meǐ wèi hán hu, wèi chángqióng jiū qū zhí. 既相質證，理合辨明，朝廷每爲含糊，未嘗窮究曲直.” (Since the two sides regard the guarantee as the evidence, the reason is justifiable. However, the government hold a disparaging attitude towards it and does not investigate the details.) In this context hánhú 含胡 refers to attitude. The bi alliteration of the previous words is hánhán húhu 含含胡胡, which can be traced from volume 130 of Zhūzǐ yǔlèi 朱子語類 [Analects of Zhuzi] that “rúhé hánhánhuhu, wǒ yě zuò xiē, nǐ yě zuò xiē, dōu bù yǔ wèn nàgè shìfēi. 如何含含胡胡，我也做些， 你也做些，都不與問那個是非.” (How can it be ambiguous? We fulfill our own duties and do not dispute over the issue.) Lóuluó 婁羅 is also called lóuluó 僂儸 or lóuluó 嘍囉 and is thought to be capable, clever, or cunning. It dates back to the Six dynasties and can be traced in works such as Sūshì yǎnyì 蘇氏演義 [The Stories of Sushi] by Su E 蘇鶚 of the Tang dynasty, where it was written that “lóuluó zhě, gàn bàn jíshì zhī chēng. Shì yuē lóu sàn dé luó, fēiyě. 婁羅者，幹辦集事之稱. 世曰婁散德羅，非也.” (Clever people are capable of dealing with everything. It is generally thought that Luo originates from San, which is thought to be false.) In volume 24 of Rìzhī lù 日 知録 [Daily Academic Notes] by Gu Yanwu 顧炎武, it was written that “hán jù lù, huá yán lóuluó yě, gài cōngmíng cáimǐn zhīyì. 含俱録，華言婁羅也，蓋聰明 才敏之意.” (Hanjulv 含俱録 is equal to louluo 婁羅exaggeratedly, which means being smart.) In Dūnhuáng qǔzǐcí Dìng fēngbō 敦煌曲子詞· 定風波 [Dunhuang Lyrics·Poems to the Tune of Ding Feng Bo], it was written that “gōng shū xué jiàn néng jǐ hé? Zhēng rú shā sài chěng lóuluó. 功( 攻) 書學劍能幾何？争如沙 塞骋僂儸.” (How much value do academic reading and sword bring? It makes people defend their countries in the frontier fortress.) In Tí zhōngshū bì 題中書 璧 [A Poem for the Wall of Zhongshu, a Civil Officer] by Zheng Qi 鄭綮 of the Tang dynasty, it was written that “cèpō qū kūnlún, yǐzi jìng lái tuō. Yī zhāo báiyǔ zhōng, wú dùn wú lóu luó. 側坡蛆蜫蜦，蟻子竟來拖. 一朝白雨中，無鈍無 嘍囉.” (The insects on the hillside are dragged by ants. In one morning, the heavy rain swept away the stupid and the sagacity.) In Xīn wǔdài shǐ ·Liúzhū zhuàn 新 五代史· 劉銖傳 [The New History of the Five dynasties·Biography of Liu Zhu], it was written that “zhūjūn kěwèi lóuluó ér yǐ. 諸君可謂僂儸兒矣.” (All of you are very clever.) In Hèlín yùlù 鶴林玉露 [Autumn Dew in the Woods Outside the Temple] by Luo Dajing 羅大經, it was written that “lóu luó, súyán jiǎohuá yě. 僂儸，俗言狡猾也.” (It is generally thought to be cunning.) “Yòu wéi hánhùn cáozá. 又爲含混嘈雜.” (Another explanation is ambiguity.) In Nánshǐ ·Gùhuān zhuàn 南史· 顧歡傳 [The History of Southern dynasties·Biography of Gu Huan], it was written that “fū dūnyí zhī yì, lóuluó zhī biàn, gè chū bǐ sú, zì xiāng líng jiě. 夫蹲夷之儀，婁羅之辯，各出彼俗，自相聆解.” (Your rude etiquette and

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 63 incisive words are out of your own customs, which can be understood.) In Běishǐ Wángxīn zhuàn 北史· 王昕傳 [The History of Northern dynasties·Biography of Wang Xin], it was written that “cháng yǒu xiānbēi jùyǔ, cūi áng xì wèn xīn yuē: pō jiě cǐ fǒu? Xīn yue: lóuluó, lóu luó, bǎo zì nán jiě. 嘗有鮮卑聚語，崔昂戲 問昕曰：‘ 頗解此否？昕曰：‘ 樓羅，樓羅，寳自難解.” (People of Xianbei minority usually gather and talk about the affairs. Mr Cui asks Xin, “Have you heard about it?” Xin replies, “The cunning people are difficult to cope with.”) Lóu luó 僂儸 also refers to the troops of robbers, which can be traced in the following works. In Xīxiāngjì zhū gōngdiào 西廂記諸宮調 [Tunes of Romance of Western Chamber] Zhu Gong Diao of Xixiangji (the rap lyrics collected in the Romance of West Chamber) by Dong Xieyuan of the Jin dynasty, it was written that “suì huàn jǐgè xiǎo lóuluó, chuán lìng zhòng cuānduō. 遂唤幾個小僂儸，傳令衆攛 掇.” (He summons some robbers soon and orders others help them.) In Shuǐhǔ quánzhuàn 水滸全傳 [Outlaws of the Marsh] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it was written that “xiǎo lóuluó tóujīn biān luàn chāzhē yěhuā. 小嘍囉頭 巾邊亂插着野花.” (There are some wild flowers tied on the robbers’ headband.) Xiāosǎ 瀟灑 is also called xiāosǎ 蕭灑, which means natural and unrestrained feelings. It dates back to Six dynasties and can be traced in the following works. In Běishān yíwén 北山移文 [A Prose about the North Mountain) by Kong Zhigui 孔稚圭 of the Southern dynasties, it was written that “Gěng jiè bású zhī biāo, xiāosǎ chū chén zhī xiǎng. 耿介拔俗之摽，瀟灑出塵之想.” (The upright and honest integrity. Generous and big-hearted spirit.) In Yǐnzhōng bāxiān gē 飲中 八仙歌 [Song of the Eight Immortals in Drinking] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it was written that “Zōng zhī xiāosǎ měi shàonián, jǔ shāng báiyǎn wàng qīngtiān. 宗之蕭灑美少年，舉觴白眼望青天.” (Zong is a handsome and rakish boy. When he drinks, he turns up his nose at the sky.) 2.2.2 Assonant words Bānlán 斒斕 is also called bānlán 斑斕 or bānlán 斑蘭, which means bright colored and beautiful. It dates back to the Six dynasties and can be traced in the following works. In the seventh volume of Yíqièjīngyīnyì 一切經音義 [Pronunciation and Meaning in the Complete Buddhist Canon] translated by Xuanying 玄應 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “bān, bān lán. 斒，斒斕.” (The meaning of bān 斒 is equal to that of bānlán 斒斕.) In Guǎngyùn·Shānyùn 廣韻 · 山韻 [Various Rhymes – Shan Rhyme], it is written that “bān, bān lán, sè bù chún yě.” 斒，斒斕，色不純也. (The meaning of bān 斒 is equal to that of bān lán 斒斕, which is multi-colored.) In Táizhōng jūyù yì kāiyuánguàn jiùshì 臺中鞫 獄憶開元觀舊事 [Memory of the Past Events at Kaiyuan Taoist Temple When Hearing Cases in Taizhong] by Yuan Zhen 元稹 of the Tang dynasty. It is written that “shí guò nǎi yì wǎng, suì chéng xiāng wǎng huán, yǐ wǒ wénzhāng juàn, wénzhāng shèn bān lán. 十過乃一往，遂成相往還，以我文章卷，文章甚 斒爛.” (Since he has passed by many times, he pays a visit and then they usually contact with each other. As to my works, their qualities are colorful.) In Jìwén 紀 聞 [Record of What I Heard and Saw] from volume 333 of Tàipínguǎngjì 太平

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Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

廣記 [Tales from the Taiping Era], it reads “hū jiàn liǎngshǒu jù cè, dà ěr shēn mù, hǔbí zhūyá, miànsè zǐ ér bānlán. 忽見兩手據廁，大耳深木，虎鼻豬牙， 面色紫而斒爛.” (Suddenly, he sees a monster with two big ears, whose nose is like that of one tiger and teeth is like that of one pig. Its face is purple and multicolored, giving a feeling of fear.) In Shíyí jì ·Dàiyú shān 拾遺記· 岱輿山 [Collection of Mystery Novels·Mount Daiyu] by Wang Jia 王嘉 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “běi yǒu yùliáng qiānzhàng . . . yùliáng zhīcè, yǒu bānlán zìrán yúnxía lóngfèng zhī zhuàng. 北有玉梁千丈 . . . 玉梁之側，有斑斕自然雲霞龍 鳯之状.” (In the north there is a stone bridge. Beside it, there is the shadow of the colorful clouds, like the dragon and phoenix reflected on the surface.) In Sòngbié Yuánfá 送別沅汎 [Farewell to Yuan Fan] by Quan Deyu 權德輿 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “bānlán wǔcǎi fú, qiánlù chūnwù xī. 斑斕五彩服，前路 春物熙.” (People wear colorful clothes. The beautiful scenery in the spring overspreads the way ahead.) In Xiàozǐ zhuàn 孝子傳 [Biography of a Dutiful Son] by Shi Jueshou 師覺授 of the Song of the Southern dynasties quoted by volume 413 of Tàipíng yùlǎn 太平御覽 [Taiping Imperial Encyclopedia], it is written that “lǎo láizǐ zhě, chǔrén, xíngnían qīshí, fùmǔ jùcún, zhìxiào zhēngzhēng, cháng zhuó bānlán zhīyī, wèi qīn qǔ yǐn. 老萊子者，楚人，行年七十，父母俱存，至孝 蒸蒸，嘗着斑蘭之衣，爲親取飮.” (Mr. Lai lives in country Chu. He is seventy years old and his parents are still alive; he is very filial and usually wears colorful clothes to take water for his parents.) Bótuō 餺飥 is also called bùtuō 不托, which is a kind of boiled wheaten food. Another name is tāng bǐng 湯餠, originating from the Six dynasties, as can be documented in the following works. In volume 9 of Bǐng fǎ 餅法 [Cooking Flatbread] in Qímín yàoshù 齊民要術 [Important Arts for the People’s Welfare] by Jia Sixie 賈思勰 of the Northern Wei dynasty, it is written that “bótún, ruó rú dàzhǐ xǔ, èrcùn yīduàn, zhuó shuǐpén zhōng jìn. Yí yǐ shǒu xiàng pén pang ruó shǐ jí bó, zhǐ jíhuǒ zhú fèi shúzhǔ, fēi zhí guāngbái kě ài, yì zì huáměi shūcháng. 餺飩， 挼如大指許，二寸一斷，着水盆中浸. 宜以手向盆旁挼使極薄，旨急火逐 沸熟煑，非直光白可愛，亦自滑美殊常.” (Rub the sliced noodles into pieces. The length of them is about two inches. The thickness should be very thin. Then put them into the boiling water until they come to be ripe. The cooked noodles are perfect combination of color, aroma, taste, and appearance.) In Zīxiá jí xià 資暇集下 [Readings during Spare Time I] by Li Kuangyi 李匡義 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “zhìyú bùtuō, yán wèi yǒu dāo jī zhī shí, jiē zhǎng tuō pēng zhī, dāo jī jì yǒu, nǎi yún ‘bùtuō’, súzǐ yǒu ‘bótuō’ guāizhī qiě shèn. 至於 不托，言未有刀機之時，皆掌托烹之，刀機既有，乃云‘ 不托，俗子有‘ 餺 飥’ 乖之且甚.” (As to butuo, it is said that when there was no knife, people hold it by hand and cook it. When knife appears, it is called butuo.) It is written in Jiù wǔdài shǐ Lǐmàozhēn zhuàn 舊五代史· 李茂貞傳 [Old Histories of the Five dynasties·Biography of Li Maozhen] that “jūn yǒu dòu ér sù zhě, màozhēn yuē: ‘chī lìnggōng yìwǎn bùtuō, yǔ ěr héjiě’. 軍有鬥而訴者，茂貞曰：‘ 喫令公一椀 不托，與爾和解’”. (Some soldiers in the military generate conflict and charge. Mao Zhen says, “have a bowl of butuo made by the secretary, you compromise”.) In Miǎnshuǐ yàn tán lù 澠水燕談録 [Casual Writings about River Mian] by

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 65 Wang Pizhi 王闢之 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “shìdàfū yán zhuàn, shuài yǐ bótuō, huò zài shuǐfàn zhīqián. 士大夫筵饌，率以䬪飥，或在水飯之 前.” (When the scholar–officials dine together, butuo is a necessary diet, or they have it before they have porridge.) In Guītián lù 歸田録 [Stories Composed after Retirement] by Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 of the Tang dynasty, it is written, “tāngbǐng, tángrén wèi zhī bùtuō, jīn súchēng zhī bótuō yǐ. 湯餠，唐人謂之不拖，今俗稱 之餺飥矣.” (Tangbing is called butuo in the Tang dynasty. It is generally called botuo now.) It can be seen from Qímín yàoshù 齊民要術 [Important Arts for the People’s Welfare] that bótuō 餺飥 is the autonym of the boiled wheaten food, while bùtuō 不托 comes later, whose literal representation varies in Zīxiá jí xià 資 暇集 [Readings during Spare Time]. Hence, it is inevitable that readers will catch the meaning literally. Cēngdēng 蹭蹬 means falling into a wrong path, dating back to the Six dynasties, and is documented in the following works. In Shuōwénxīnfù·Zú Bù 說文新 附· 足部 [Supplement to Origins of Chinese Characters·Zu Group], it is recorded that “cēng, cēng dēng, shīdào yě. 蹭，蹭蹬，失道也.” (Cēng 蹭 is equal to cēng dēng 蹭蹬, meaning going astray.) In volume 13 of Dàtáng xīnyǔ 大唐新語 [New Anecdotes of the Tang dynasty] by Liu Su 劉肅 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “shuí zhī jiǎo cēngdēng, jī luò xǐng qíangdōng. 誰知脚蹭蹬，幾落省墻東.” (Unexpectedly going astray, his feet were sleepy and frustrated, and he almost fell to the east of the provincial wall.) In Hǎi fù 海賦 [Ode to Ocean] by Mu Hua 木 華 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “huò nǎi cēngdēng qióngbō, lù sǐ yántián. 或乃蹭蹬窮波，陸死鹽田.” (Sometimes they may also be trapped in the beach when the tide goes out and then dies.) According to Li Shan 李善, cēngdēng 蹭 蹬 means losing power. In an extended sense, it is used to describe drawbacks in life. In Zèng zhāngxiàng gǎo 贈張相鎬 [A Letter to Prime Minister Zhang Gao] by Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “wǎntú wèi wén jǐ, cēng dēng zāo chán huǐ. 晚途未聞己，蹭蹬遭嚵毁.” (During the late period of my career, I do not hear any beneficial information concerning my job and come to be slandered by some people as well as losing power.) In Sòng càishānrén 送蔡山 人 [A Farewell to My Friend Cai Shanren] by Gao Shi 高適 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “wǒ jīn cēngdēng wú suǒ shì, kàn ěr bēngténg hé ruò wéi? 我今 蹭蹬無所似，看爾崩騰何若爲？” (I do not have any power now. Why do you work so hard?) Láng kàng 狼抗 means hubris, which is documented in the following works. In Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Shíjiàn 世説新語· 識鑒 [A New Account of the Tales of the World·Inspection] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶of the Song of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “sōng xìng lángkàng, yì bùróng yú shì. 嵩性狼抗，亦不容於 世.” (I am grumpy in nature and not tolerant of others.) In Jìnshū·Zhōu yǐ zhuàn 晉書· 周顗传 [The Book of Jin·Biography of Zhou Yi], it is written that “chǔ zhòng gāngbì qiáng rěn, lángkàng wú shàng. 處仲剛愎彊忍，狼抗無上.” (Chu Zhong is self-willed and arrogant. He does not respect his superiors.) In Sòng shū Shǐ’ānwáng xiūrén zhuàn 宋書· 始安王休仁傳 [The Book of Song·Biography of Shi’an King Named Xiuren], it is written that “Xiū yòu píng shēng lángkàng wúlài. 休佑平生狼抗無賴.” (God protects and connives at my tyrannies.)

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Liàn yàn 瀲灩 is used to describe the scene of rippling water, dating back to the Six dynasties, which is documented in the following works. In Yùpiān·Shuĭbù 玉篇 · 水部 [Shui Group of Jade Articles], it is written that “liàn, liàn yàn， shuǐ yì mào, yòu shuǐbō mào. 瀲，瀲灩，水溢貌，又水波貌 .” (Liàn 瀲 or liàn yàn 瀲灩 is equal to overflow or ripples)” In Guǎngyùn·Yànyùn 廣韻 · 豔韻 [Various Rhymes·Yan Rhyme], it is written that “liàn, liàn yàn, shuǐ bōdòng mào. 瀲，瀲灩，水波動貌 .” (liàn 瀲 or liàn yàn 瀲灩 is equal to ripples of water flowing.) In Hǎi fù 海賦 [Ode to Ocean] by Mu Hua 木華 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “ěr qí wèi zhuàng yě zé nǎi yóuyì liànyàn, fú tiān wú’ àn. 爾其 爲状也則乃浟 湙瀲灩，浮天無岸.” (Seeing upon the sea, it looks as if the ripples floated on its surface and it stretches towards the horizon of infinity.) In Yǐn húshàng chūqíng hòuyǔ 飲湖上初晴後雨 [The Beautiful Scenery of the West Lake] by Su Shi 蘇軾 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “shuǐguāng liànyàn qíng fāng hǎo, shānsè kōngméng yǔ yì qí. 水光瀲灩晴方好，山色空濛雨亦奇 .” (With rippling water, a clear day looks fair, in misty hills, rain appears peculiar.) Luòmò 落漠 ( 莫 ) means carelessness, sadness, or lonely, originating in the Six dynasties. For example, it is written in Zhōushì míngtōng jì 周氏冥通記 [Diaries Recording Conversation with Immortals in Dreams) by Tao Hongjing 陶 弘景 of the Southern dynasties that “jiē yīng dá duì, bùdé luòmò. 皆應答對，不 得落漠 .” (All should be answered correctly and carelessness should be avoided.) In Sòng shū Wángwēi zhuàn 宋書 · 王微傳 [The Book of Song·Biography of Wang Wei], it is written that “qiě chí yíng weì mǎn, zì shì jiā mén zuòfēng, hé wéi yí dàn luò mò zhì cǐ? 且持盈畏 满，自是家門作風，何爲一旦落莫至此？” (Complacency is a taboo for success. It is also the style of your family. How can it be neglected?) It is written in Chóngyìlǐ zhìyǔ 崇義裡滯雨 [Desperate Experience in Chongyili Village) by Li He 李賀 of the Tang dynasty that “luò mò shuí jiāzǐ, lái gǎn cháng’ ān qiū? 落漠誰家子，來感長安秋.” (A lonely man wanders on the street desperately, struck by the indifference in autumn.) 2.2.3 Non-alliterative and non-assonant words Gūmǔ 鈷䥈, also called gūmǔ 鈷 鉧, refers to iron, originating in the Six dynasties, and is documented in the following works. In Yùpiān·Jīnbù 玉篇· 金部 [Jin Group of Jade Article], it is written that “gū, gū mǔ. 鈷，鈷䥈. (Gū 鈷 is equivalent to gū mǔ 鈷䥈.) It is written in Suíshū Dìlǐzhì xià 隨書· 地理志下 [Geography Records of the Book of Sui dynasty] that “hūn jià yòng tiě gūmǔ wéi pìn cái. 婚嫁用鐵鈷䥈爲聘財.” (The iron is used as betrothal gifts). In Tōngyǎ·Gǔqì 通 雅 · 古器 [Tong Ya·Ancient Utensils], Fang Yizhi 方以至 of the Ming dynasty wrote that “gūmǔ, jí gūmǔ yě. 鈷䥈, 即鈷鉧也.” (The meaning of gūmǔ 鈷䥈 is the same as gūmǔ 鈷鉧.) In Cānluán lù 驂鸞録 [Travel Notes in a Carriage] by Fan Chengda 范成大 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “gū mǔ, yùndǒu yě” 鈷鉧, 熨斗也. (Gūmǔ 鈷鉧 is iron). In Gǔmǔtán jì 鈷鉧潭記 [The Description of Pond Gumu] by Liu Zongyuan 柳宗元 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that the pond gūmǔ 鈷䥈 in Liu’s work is inspired by iron for their similarities in shape. The word of gūmǔ 鈷鉧 also refers to cauldron. In Zuǎnwén 纂文 [Compilation]

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 67 by He Chengtian 何承天 of the Song of the Southern dynasties quoted from volume 757 of Tàipíng yùlǎn 太平御覽 [Taiping Imperial Encyclopedia], it is written that “qínrén yǐ gūmǔ wéi cuò luó. 秦人以鈷䥈爲銼鑼.” (People in the Qin dynasty regard gūmǔ 鈷䥈 as cuò luó 銼鑼.) Cuòluó 銼鑼 refers to pannikin. In Shuōwén·Jīnbù 説文· 金部 [Jin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “cuò, cuòluó, fù yě. 銼，銼鑼，鍑也.” (Cuò 銼 and cuòluó 銼鑼 refer to a cauldron.) Lángbèi 狼狽 originates from the Six dynasties. It is said that bèi 狽 is a kind of wild beast similar to wolf. Its forelegs are very short, and it walks on the wolf’s back. In Yǒuyáng zázǔ 酉陽雜俎 [YawYang Essays] by Duan Chengshi 段成式 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “huò yán láng bèi shì liǎng wù, bèi qián zú jué duǎn, měi xíng cháng jià lǐang láng, shī láng zé bù néng dòng, gù shì yán shì guāi zhě chēng láng bèi. 或言狼、狽是兩物，狽前足絶短，每行常鴐兩狼， 失狼則不能動，故世言事乖者稱狼狽.” (Láng 狼 and bèi 狽 are two kinds of different animals. The forelegs of the latter are very short, so it has to rely (lie) on the wolf’s back to walk. It is generally thought that láng bèi 狽 refers to those people who gang up with each other to hurt the interest of others.) It also refers to troublesome conditions. Li Mi of the Jin dynasty notes in Chénqíngbiǎo 陳情表 [Petition] that “chén zhī jìn tuì, shí wéi láng bèi. 臣之進退，實爲狼狽.” (I am in a dilemma now. The condition is troublesome.) Another explanation of the word is haste. Liu Yiqing of the Song of the Southern dynasties notes in Fāngzhèng 方 正 [Righteousness]of Shìshuōxīnyǔ 世説新語 [A New Account of the Tales of the World] that “míngdàn, bào zhòng zhì, zhòng zhì láng bèi lái. 明旦，報仲智，仲 智狼狽来.” (Zhongzhi is noticed in the next morning and comes immediately.) In Jìnshū Gěhóng zhuàn 晉書· 葛洪傳 [Biography of Gehong of The Book of Jin], it is written that “hòu hū yǔ yù shū yún, dāng yuǎn xíng xún shī, kè qī biàn fā. Yù dé shū, láng bèi wǎng bié. 後忽舆獄疏云，當遠行尋師，克期便發. 獄得疏， 狼狽往别.” (Later on, he writes to Deng Yue unexpectedly, saying that he will set out to find the magical master. Hearing from him, Deng sets out immediately to farewell.) Qiū bā 丘八 is the argot of bīng 兵, which dates back to the Six dynasties. It is documented in the following works. In volume 400 of Tàipíng yùlǎn 太平御覽 [Taiping Imperial Encyclopedia], Xù jìnyáng qiū 續晉陽秋 [Sequel to Autumn in Jinyang] is quoted that “chuí shì yè mèng xíng lù, lù qióng, gù jiàn kǒng zǐ mù páng yǒu bā, jiào ér xīn wù zhī. Zhào zhān mèng zhě zhān zhī, yuē: ‘xínglù qióng, dào jìn yě, bù kěxíng. Kǒng zǐ míng qiū, bā yǐ pèi qiū, cǐ bīng zì, lù bì yǒu fú bīng’. 垂是夜夢行路，路窮，顧見孔子墓旁有八， . . . 覺而心惡之. 召占夢 者占之，曰: ‘ 行路窮，道盡也，不可行. 孔子名丘，八以配丘，此兵字， 路必有伏兵.’” (Chui dreamed during the night that he walked to the end of the road and looked back, only to find that there were eight tombs around Confucius’s tomb. When he woke up, he was worried about the dream and sought help from the fortuneteller. The fortuneteller said that there was no hope at the end of the road so he should avoid going forward. Confucius is also called qiū 丘. When it is matched with bā 八, the word bīng 兵 is formed, which implies that there are ambushes forward.) In Jiànjièlù sì·Qīngbó jiè 鑒戒録四· 輕薄戒 [Warnings and

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Lessons·Abstinence of Philandering] by He Guangyuan 何光遠, it is written that “tài zǔ wèn jīlún zhī xì chuàng zì shuí rén, dà fū duì yuē: ‘qiūbāsuǒ zhì’. Shàng wèi dà xiào. 太祖問擊棆之戲創自誰人，大夫队曰：‘ 丘八所置.’ 上爲大笑.” (The emperor asks who invents the game jīlún 擊棆. The senior official answers that it was invented by qiūbā 丘八. The emperor makes a laugh.) Zhīwú 支吾 is also called zhī wú 支梧, which means tackle, dating back to the Tang dynasty, which is documented in the following works. In Zàijiā chūjiā 在家 出家 [To Practice Abstinence Like a Buddhist Monk] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yīshí zhīwú hūn jià bì, cóng jīn jiā shì bù xiāng réng. 衣食支吾婚嫁畢，從今家事不相仍.” (Food and clothing are easy to deal with. After marriage, family affairs are not the same.) In Sùshuǐ jìwén 涑水記聞 [Historical Events in Six dynasties] by Sima Guang 司馬光 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “xī zéi jiān jì, dà wèi kě liáng, cháo tíng dāng jiǎng lì gè lù shuài chéng, yù zuò zhīwú. 西賊奸計，大未可量，朝廷當奬勵各路帥臣，豫作支 吾.” (It is hard to predict the enemy’s trickeries. The government should award the ministers to encourage them to give suggestions for coping with the current condition.) In volume 128 of Tàipíng Guǎngjì 太平廣记 [Tales from the Taiping Era], Jíyì jì 集異記 [Collection of Legendary Stories], it is written that “yè yǒu èr dào yú qiáng ér rù, jiēzhí lì rèn, ān guó bù gǎn zhīwú. 夜有二盗逾墻而入， 皆執利刃，安國不敢支吾.” (There are two thieves jumping over the wall with sharp knives at night. An Guo is frightened and dare not defend himself.) The word is also noted as hesitation. In Huīchén yúhuà 揮塵餘話 [More Comments on Historical Events] by Wang Mingqing 王明清 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “Zhāng tài wèi lěng xiào: ‘wǒ bié yǒu dào lǐ, dài wǒ zhè lǐ bīng cái dòng, xiān shǐ rén jiāng wén zì qù yǔ fān rén. Wànyī zhīwú bù qián, jiāo fān rén fā rén mǎ zhù wǒ’. 張太尉冷笑：‘ 我别有道理，待我這裏兵才動，先使人將文字 去與番人. 萬一支吾不前，交番人發人馬助我’.” (Taiwei Zhang [the supreme government official in charge of military affairs] sneered and said, ‘I have a wellthought-out plan. I will first get in touch with the military troops in the Jin dynasty before the war. If we were located in inferior condition, I would ask them for help. If the enemy hesitate to move forward, please seek help from the Jin dynasty to defend them’.)

2.3 Tautologies Tautologies in Middle Chinese are mainly adjectives, such as those in Old Chinese, which can be seen in the following examples. Dāo dāo 叨叨, also called dāo dāo 刀刀, means redundancy in expressions, dating back to the Tang dynasty, as can be seen in the following works. In Zǔtáng jí 祖堂集 [Buddhist Collection] by Jing 靜 and Jun 筠 (two monks) of the Five-Period dynasty, it is written, “sēng yuē: ‘gǔrén wèishén módào, zhí dé shàngshàngzhě, yì xū jī fā qù?’ Yún: ‘zhuó rán, liáozhē qù, shuí yǒu nǐ dāo dāo?’ 僧曰 ： ‘ 古人爲什魔道，直得上上者， 亦須擊發去？’ 云：‘ 灼然，撩着去，誰有你叨叨？’” (The monk asks, “Why satanism in ancient times equipped with high degree of proficiency had to shoot?” He replies, “Actually, you are provocative and tortuous”.) In Guǐxīn záshí biéjí

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 69 ·Yínhuā 癸辛雜識別集· 銀花 [Collection of Thoughts Composed in the Year of Xinchou] by Zhoumi of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “chá yú zhōng sù, qiě mǐn yú dāo dāo yú chuí jìn zhī shí. 察余衷素，且悯余叨叨於垂盡之時.” (Observe my real feelings. And I feel concerned over the complaint made in the slight rest days.) In Yùpiān·Dāobù 玉篇· 刀部 [Dao Group of Jade Article], it is written that “dāo, yòu ding mē qiè. 刀，又丁么切.” (Redundancy in expressions is also stressed.) In Zhuāng 莊 [Words of Zhuangzi], it is written that “dāo dāo hū” 刀刀乎. (It is redundant.) In Zhuāngzǐ Qíwù lùn 莊子· 齊物論 [Words of Zhuangzi·On Uniformity], it is written, “Lì fēng jì, zé zhòng qiào wéi xū, ér dú bú jiàn zhī tiáotiáo zhī diāo diāo hū? 厲風濟，則衆竅爲虚，而獨不見之調調之刁 刁乎？” (The storm wind stops and all the sensory organs seem to stop working. Don’t you observe that the plants swing with wind?) Guo Xiang notes that tiáo tiáo 調調 and diāo diāo 刁刁 mean the state of swaying. They are also tautologies like dāo dāo 刀刀 and dāo dāo 叨叨. Chuíchuí 垂垂 originated in the Tang dynasty with the meaning of the state of drooping, as documented in Zhōuzhì guānshě xīnzhú 盩厔官舍新竹 [The New Bamboo of the Official Residence in Zhou Shi] by Xue Neng 薛能 of the Tang dynasty, where it is written that “xīn jué qīng liáng tǐ sì chuī, mǎn fēng qīng hàn yè chuí chuí. 心覺清凉體似吹，滿風輕撼葉垂垂.” (I feel quiet inside and the light wind breezes. The leaves of the bamboo sway and droop.) In Sòngrén huán wújiāng dàozhōng zuò 送人還吴江道中作 [The Poem Written During the Way to Send the Guest back to Wujiangdao] by Su Shunqing 蘇瞬卿 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “jiāngyún chūn chóng yǔ chuí chuí, suǒ mò qínghuái sòngkè guī. 江雲春重雨垂垂，索寞情懷送客歸.” (The rain is drooping during the spring of Jiangyun. I sent the guest back reluctantly.) Chuí chuí 垂垂 is also understood as the gradual change of the state. The following poems exemplify the meaning. In Hé péidí dēng shǔzhōu dōngtíng sòngkè féng zǎoméi xiàngyì jiànjì 和裴迪登蜀州東亭送客逢早梅相憶見寄 [A Reply to the Poem Cherishing the Moment When Chatting in East Pavilion in Shuzhou] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “jiāng biān yí shù chuí chuí fā, zhāo xī cuī rén zhì bái tóu. 江邊一樹垂垂發，朝夕催人至白頭.” (The tree by the river comes into bloom gradually. I am also getting old and anxious about the current situation.) In the poem Chángzhōu mèngjiànyì zuòshàng wén hányuánwài zhí fāngbiǎn guózǐ bóshì yǒugǎn 常州孟諫議座上聞韓員外職方貶國子博士有感 [Meng Jianyi’s Comments on the Demotion of Ministry Councilor Han] by Lu Tong 盧仝of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “lì xiǎo chuí chuí shàng, tiān’gāo yòu bù dēng. 力小垂 垂上，天高又不登.” (Limited strength leads to slow speed. The sky is high and it is impossible to climb.) Kěkě 可可means complacence. It is documented in Yóuxiānkū 遊仙窟 [A Tour in a God’s Cave] by Zhang Zhuo 張鷟 in the Tang dynasty that “shuāng yàn zi, kěkě shì fēng liú, jí lìng rén dé bàn, gèng yì bù xiāng qíu. 雙燕子，可可事風 流，即令人得伴，更亦不相求.” (There seems to be affairs between the lovers. They will get married soon and do not need to miss each other.) In Xiǎochóngshān lìng 小重山令 [Song-Poem of Overlapping Mountains] by Jiang Kui 姜夔 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “yáo lián huā kěkě, mèng yīyī. 遥憐花可可，夢

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依依.” (I only can only take pity on those beautiful flowers and dream of the gone days.) Kěkě 可可 also means indifference. In Huànxīshā 浣溪沙 [Silk-Washing Stream] by Xue Zhaowen 薛昭蕰 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “piē dì jiàn shí yóu kěkě, què lái xián chù’ àn sīliang. 瞥地見時猶可可，却來閑處暗思 量.” (Seeing the beautiful girl, I just caught a glimpse of her. Now I am missing her and it is too late to regret it.) Another explanation of the word kěkě 可可 is the exact degree. In Jīngjì xū píngzhí 經紀須平直 [Fair and Honest Business] by Wang Fanzhi 王梵志 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “jīng jì xū píng zhí, Xīn zhōng mò cè xián, xiēxiē wei bó lì, kěkě kǔ tā jiā. 經紀須平直，心中 莫側斜，些些微薄利，可可苦他家.” (Businessmen should be honest and fair. They should not trick the customers. The illegal profits exactly damage the interest of customers.) Liǎoliǎo 了了 means intelligence. In Hòuhàn jì ·Xiàndì jì 後漢紀· 獻帝紀 [History of the Later Han dynasty·Biography of Emperor Xian] by Yuan Hong 袁 宏 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “xiǎo shí liǎo liǎo zhě, zhì dà yì wèi néng qí yě. 小時了了者，至大亦未能奇也.” (People who are clever in childhood may not be intelligent when he/she grows older.) In Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Yányǔ 世説新語· 言 語 [A New Account of the Tales of the World ·Language] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶, it is written that “xiǎo shí liǎo liǎo, dà wèi bì jiā. 小時了了，大未必佳.” (People who are clever in childhood may not be intelligent when he/she grows older.) In this context, it is also interpreted as making sense of something. In Míngxiáng jì 冥祥記 [Fulfillment of Prophesy] by Wáng Yǎn 王琰of the South Qi dynasty, it is written, “Jiàn zài kōng zhōng shù shí zhàng shàng, liǎo liǎo fēn míng. 見在空 中數十丈上, 了了分明.” (It can be clearly seen standing some hundred miles above the sky.) In Searching Deities by Gan Bao of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “wèn hàn shí gōng zhōng shì, shuōzhī liǎo liǎo, jiē yǒu cì xù. 問漢時宫中 事，説之了了，皆有次序.” (When asked about the happenings in the palace of Han dynasty, he/she answered clearly and logically.) Téngténg 騰騰 means the state of leisure or carefree feelings. In Búzhǔn nǐ 不 准擬 [No Intention] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “lán yú téng téng yì lǎofū, hè qiú wūmào bái zīxū. 藍輿騰騰一老夫，褐裘烏 帽白髭鬚.” (An old man sits in the bamboo sedan chair carefreely, with white moustache, wearing coarse clothes and black hat.) In Túzhōng jìhuái 途中寄懷 [Desperate Feelings Expressed on the Way] by Luo Yin 羅隱 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “bù zhī hé chù shì qián chéng, hé zhǎng téng téng xìn mǎ xíng. 不知何處是前程，合掌騰騰信馬行.” (I am bewildered with my prospect. Let the horse take me somewhere leisurely.) Another meaning of téng téng 騰騰 is the state of mind in a fog. In Dōngyuàn 東院 [The East Courtyard] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “yǒu shí xián zhuó wú rén bàn, dú zì téng téng rù zhuì xiāng. 有時閑酌無人伴，独自騰騰入醉鄉.” (Sometimes I drink alone during my free time. Then I get drunk and feel dizzy and sleepy.) In a poem on Zèng Xiūxiánghé 增休祥和 [A Letter to Xiu Xianghe] by Du Xunhe 杜荀鶴 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “dì zǐ zì zhī xīn liǎo liǎo, wú shī yīng wéi zhuì téng téng. 弟子自知心了了，吾师應爲醉騰騰.” (I am self-aware clearly. My teacher should be very proud of it.) In Modern Chinese, it is used to

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 71 describe an ongoing state. For example, the meanings of rè qì téng téng 熱氣騰 騰 (steaming) and shāqì téng téng 殺氣騰騰 (murderous) are different from those in Middle Chinese. Tiētiē 貼貼 or tiètiè 怗怗 means calm or silence. In Gāohuā 高花 [Flowers Blossoming High] by Yuan Zhen 元稹 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “bù xué zhuó shuǐ quán, yí zhòng zhǎng tie tie. 不學着水荃，一種長怗怗.” (It does not like zhuoshuiquan [a kind of plant], which always grows in a calm state. It is a metaphor. The poet underlines that man should be ambitious and bravely face challenges.) In Shēnshì wǔyīnchéng 身是五陰城 [In Wuyin City] by Wang Fanzhi 王梵志 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yú yǒu jǐu qiān jiā, chūmò tóng jūzhù. Rǎng rǎng xiāng shí dàn, tiētiē wú yán yǔ. 余有九千家，出没同居住. 攘攘 相食噉，貼貼無言語.” (There are about nine thousand families living together. They strive to be the first when taking meals while they do not speak to each other.) Tautologies in Middle Chinese also include some verbs and nouns, which can be documented in the following works. Nniángniáng 孃孃 ( 娘娘) means mother. In Dūnhuáng biànwénjí ·Dàmù qiánlián míngjiān jiùmǔ biànwén 敦煌變文集· 大目乾連冥間救母變文 [Rhyming Prose Discovered in Dunhuang·Damuqianlian Saved His Mother in the Nether World], it is written, “ā shī shì niángniáng xiàoshùnzǐ, yúwǒ lěngshuǐ jì xūcháng. 阿師是孃孃孝順子，與我冷水濟虚腸.” (I am your faithful son, so I will take some cool water to relieve your pain.) In Lóngchuān biézhì 龍川別志 [Writings at Longchuan] by Su Zhe 蘇轍 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “Rén zōng wèi Liú shì dà niáng niáng, wèi Yáng shì xiǎo niáng niáng. 仁宗謂劉氏大孃孃，謂 楊氏小孃孃.” (The emperor Renzong calls Mrs Liu his first mother and Mrs Yang his milk mother.) Niángniáng 孃孃( 娘娘) also means the emperor’s harems. In Cháoyě yíjì ·Guāngzōng yù sùdé zhèngwèi 朝野遺記· 光宗欲速得正位 [Legacies about the Government and Common People·Emperor Guang Zong Is Eager to Hold Power], it is recorded that “hòu xún jìng shì dà chén lǚ pái dāng wèi hé gù. Páng cè yǒu zòu yuē: ‘yìwàng niáng niáng wéi qù shàng ěr’. 后詢近侍大臣屢 排當位何故. 旁側有奏曰：‘ 意望孃孃爲趣上爾. ’” (Then he asked the minister why they execute the duty in turns so frequently. The minister nearby said to the emperor, “it is hoped that the harems will bring you fun”.) In Tiěwéishān cóngtán 鐵圍山叢談 [Essay Collection in Tiewei Moutain] by Cai Tiao 蔡條 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “guó cháo jìn zhōng, zhì wèi mǔ hòu, yì tóng chén shù jiā yuē niáng niáng. 國朝禁中 . . . 至謂母后, 亦同臣庶家曰娘娘.” (In the palace of the court, the ministers also call the queen mother niang niang 孃孃.) Xīngxīng 星星 means stars in the sky. In Gǎnfěng 感諷 [Allegory] by Li He 李賀 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “guì lù duì xiān’ é, xīng xīng xià yún dòu. 桂露對仙娥，星星下雲逗.” (The slim Cháng É on the moon fits very well with the charming bay tree on the earth. Naughty stars hiding under the clouds, flashing bright eyes to amuse each other.) Yángyáng 羊羊 means sheep. In Běiqí shū Yángyīn zhuàn 北齊書· 楊愔傳 [The Book of the North Qi dynasty·Biography of Yang Yin], it is written that “yáng yáng chī yěcǎo, bù chī yěcǎo huái wǒ dào. 羊羊喫野草，不吃野草遠

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我道.” (Sheep, please eat the grass on the road. If you do not, please get out of the way.) Middle Chinese tautologies are widely used in kinship terms. The following documents exemplify this trend. In Běishǐ ·Nányángwáng chāo zhuàn 北史· 南陽 王綽傳 [The History of the Northern dynasties·Biography of Emperor Nanyang Named Chao], it is written that “chuò xiōng dì jiē hū fù wéi xiōng xiōng, dí mǔ wéi jiā jiā, rǔ mǔ wéi zǐ zǐ, fù wéi mèimèi. Yòu zǔ fù wéi wēng wēng, zǔ mǔ wéi pó pó. 綽兄弟皆呼父爲兄兄, 嫡母爲家家，乳母爲姊姊，婦爲妹妹. 又祖父 爲‘ 翁翁’, ‘ 祖母’ 爲 ‘ 婆婆’”. (Gao Chuo and his brothers call their father xiongxiong 兄兄, legal mother [address for father’s wife by children of concubines] Jiajia 家家, mother zizi 姊姊 and the ladies meimei 妹妹. They call their grandfather wēng wēng 翁翁 and grandmother popo 婆婆.) In Jì sūnnán fǎyánshī zhīmù 祭孫男法延師之墓 [A Memorial Ceremony for Grandson Fa Yanshi] by Quan Dexing 權德興 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “wēngwēng pópó yǐ rǔguǒ zhī diàn, zhì jì yú jiǔsuì sūn nán fǎ yán shī zhīmù. 翁翁婆婆以乳果之奠，致祭 于九歳孫男法延師之墓.” (The grandparents use fruits to hold a memorial ceremony for their nine-year-old grandson.) The sisters of one’s mother are called yíyí 姨姨 (aunts). In the second volume of Xuánguài lù 玄怪録 [Ghost Stories] by Niu Shengru 牛僧孺 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “jiān qū liú jiā liùyí, shíliù jiùmǔ, nán lín qiàoqiào xiǎoniángzǐ, bìng jiāng shìnú lái. 兼屈劉家六姨、十六 舅母、南鄰翹翹小娘子，並將諡奴来.” (Invite the sixth aunt at Liu’s family, the sixteenth aunt, the wife of mother’s brother, and the beautiful neighborhood. Let the servants come and stand here.) The sisters of one’s father are called gūgū 姑姑 (aunts). In the third volume of Dōngpō zhìlín 東坡志林 [Collected Writings by Dongpo] by Su Shi 蘇軾 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “wēn chéng huánghòu rǔmǔ jiǎshì, gōngzhōng wèi zhī jiǎpó, jiǎ chāngcháo liánjié zhī, wèi zhī gūgu. 温成皇后乳母賈氏，宫中謂之賈婆，賈昌朝連結之，謂之姑姑.” (The nursing mother of prince WenCheng is called Mrs Jia. When she married Jia Changchao 賈昌朝, she was called gūgū 姑姑, father’s sister.) In Middle Chinese, father is called diē diē 爹爹 and mother is called nǎi nai 奶奶 or mā ma 媽媽, which can be documented in the following two works. In Dài xiǎozǐ guǎngsūn jì wēngwēng 代小子廣孫寄翁翁 [A Letter Written for My Son to His Grandfather] by Kong Pingzhong 孔平仲 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “diē diē yǔ nǎinai wúrì bù sī ěr. 爹爹與奶奶無日不思爾.” (Grandparents, father and mother miss you every day.) In Yíjiān yǐzhì 夷堅乙志 [Collection of Ghost Stories] by Hong Mai 洪邁 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “dà jiě nǎi qián lái māma suǒ sheng, èrjiě zé jīn māma suǒ sheng yě. 大姐乃前來媽媽所生，二姐則今媽 媽所生也.” (My first older sister was born by the former mother, my father’s first wife. My second older sister was born by blood mother.) Xiōng 兄 is the older brother, while dì 弟 is younger brother. Jiě 姐 is the older sister. In Huànxīshā 浣 溪沙 [Silk Washing Stream] by Sun Guangxian 孫光憲 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “zuì hòu ài chēng jiāo jiějie, yè lái liú dé hǎo gēge, bù zhī qíng shì jiǔ cháng me. 醉後愛稱嬌姐姐，夜來留得好哥哥，不知情事久長麽.” (When getting drunk, he always calls her beautiful sister. She also falls in love with him at first glance and calls him older brother. Whether such kind of love can be

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 73 forever remains to be tested.) In Jīlèi biān 雞肋編 [Collection of Unimportant Writings] by Zhuang Jiyu 莊季裕 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “dàn púyuán yòu wèn shīfù dēng kē, jìng guó zhōng cí yǐ děng, yú zhī huànzuògēge, bǔ zhī hū wéi dìdi. 但仆元佑問詩賦登科，靖國中詞乙等，禹之唤作哥哥，補之 呼爲弟弟.” (Pu helps consult the man who has received the government degrees. It is said that they call Yu the older brother and Bu the younger brother.) These examples did not exist in Old Chinese. There are also a few verbs in tautologies. Bōbō 波波 means rush. That is, someone is busy doing something. It originates in the Tang dynasty, as in Wénxiāng sòng shàngguān xiùcái guī guānxī biéyè 閿鄉送上官秀才歸關西別業 [Seeing off Scholar Shangguan at Min Village to His Villa in Guanxi] by Cen Shen 岑參 of the Tang dynasty, whose record is that “feng chén nài rǔ hé, zhōngrì dú bōbō. 風塵奈汝何，終日獨波波.” (I am busy with my life regardless of the obstacles.) In Dūnhuángbiàn wénjí·Mùlián yuánqǐ 敦煌變文集· 目連緣起 [Origin of Mulian of Songs and Rhymes Story Collection of Dunhuang], it is recorded that “sǐ duò sāntú wú jiān yù, zhōng zhāo shòuzuì kǔ bōbō. 死堕三途無間獄，終 朝受罪苦波波.” (The spirit fell into hell and suffered excruciation.) In Wéimó gǔjīng jiǎng jīngwén 維摩詁經講經文 [Explaining Vimalakīrti], it is written that “bōbō qiú fǎ, wú shū chèn yǐng zhī rén; jié jié qū míng, bú yì yìng bīng zhī shì. 波波求法，無殊趁影之人；劫劫趨名，不異映冰之士.” (There are no differences between those seeking for dharma urgently and those joining the fun. The same is true of those seek for fame unreasonably and those reflecting themselves on the ice.) In Shūnánshì 書南事 [A Poem about Southern History] by Mei Yaochen 梅堯臣 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “dà liáng guó nán mén, yì qí fāng téng qū. Bō bō yì hé jí, mán kòu wéi fān yú. 大梁國南門，驛騎方騰趨. 波 波一何急，蠻寇圍番禺.” (The postman rides the horse hurriedly towards the south gate of country Liang. Why does he ride in a rush? Because the bandits surround the country.) Bōbō 波波 also denotes the sound of shivering, which is onomatopoeia. In the eighth volume of Léngyánjīng 楞嚴經 [Surangama Sutra] translated by Shamenban Lamidi 沙門般剌密諦 in Tianzhu, it is written that “èr xí xiāng líng, gù yǒu zhàzha bōbo luóluo. 二習相陵，故有吒吒、波波、羅羅.” (The screams made by spirits in hell.) Wang Xuanyi notes that bōbō 波波 means the sound of shivering. Chīchī 嗤嗤 means jeer. In Dēng guǎngwǔ gǔ zhànchǎng huáigǔ 登廣武古 戰場懷古 [Mediating on the Past in the Ancient Battlefield of Guangwu] by Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “fǔ zhǎng huánghé qū, chīchī ruǎn sìzōng. 撫掌黄河曲，嗤嗤阮嗣宗.” (I stand by the yellow river, laughing at the emperor Ruan Sizong.) Hènhèn 恨恨 means regret. In Gǔshī wéi jiāozhòngqīng qī zuò 古詩為焦仲 卿妻作 [The Poem for Jiao Zhongqing’s Wife], it is written that “shēng rén zuò sǐbié, hèn hèn nà kě lùn? 生人作死别，恨恨那可論？” (Living people bid farewell as if they would not meet each other in the future. The regret in mind is beyond description.) In Sòng shū ·Kǒnglínzhī zhuàn 宋書· 孔琳之傳 [The Book of Song·Biography of Kong Linzhi], it is written that “hàn wén yí miù, chéng ér fú gé, suǒ yǐ qián xián hèn hèn, yì zhī ér wèi biàn. 漢文一謬，承而弗革，所以

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前賢恨恨，議之而未辯.” (The error or fallacy made by emperor Hanwen was inherited by his successor who refused to reform. So the old sages regretted and reproached that they did not argue about it.) In Suí shū Xuēxùnzhuàn 隨書· 薛 濬傳 [The Book of Sui·Biography of Xue Xun], it is written that “dàn niàn ěr língpīng gū huàn, yuǎn zài biān fú, gù cǐ hèn hèn, rú hé kě yán? 但念爾伶俜孤 宦，遠在邊服，顧此恨恨，如何可言？” (Think that you work alone on the frontier with low pay and conditions. With regard to the regret, how can it be poured out?)

2.4 Compound words Compound words in Middle Chinese center on juxtaposed and subordinate compound words. Other types of compound words also reached a new developmental stage. 2.4.1 Supplementary compound words There is an increasing number of additive compound words composed of prefix ā 阿 and lǎo 老, as well as affix zǐ 子, ér 兒, tóu 頭, and so on. Nouns predominate, and there are also other kinds of word class. See the following examples. Ā yí 阿姨 is the sister of one’s mother, also called yímǔ 姨母. It is documented in the following works. In the third volume of Xuánguài lù 玄怪録 [Ghost Stories] by Niu Shengru 牛僧孺of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “quán sù zhì dēng qián gong yuē: ‘ā yí wànfú’. Yòu yuē: ‘yí fū ānhé. 全素至燈前拱曰： ‘ 阿 姨萬福.’ 又曰： ‘ 姨夫安和’.” (Quan Su bows and says, “wish my aunt all happiness and good luck!” Then he says, “May everything go well with my uncle-inlaw.”) It is also the salutation to the relatives of the same generation with mother such as jì mǔ 繼母 (stepmother), shù mǔ 庶母 (concubine of father), yang mǔ 養 母 (adoptive mother), and so on. They are documented in the following works. In Nán shǐ ·Jìn’ānwáng zǐmào zhuàn 南史· 晉安王子懋傳 [The History of Southern dynasties·Biography of Jin’an King Named Zimao], it is written that “shùmǔ Ruǎn Shūyuán cháng bìng wēidǔ, qǐng sēng xíng dào. Zǐmào liútì lǐfó yuē: ‘ ruò shǐ āyí yīn cǐ hé shèng, yuàn zhūfó lìng huá jìng zhāi bù wěi’. 庶母阮淑媛嘗病 危篤，請僧行道. 子懋流涕禮佛曰： ‘若使阿姨因此和勝，願諸佛令華竟齋 不萎.’” (My mother, the concubine of my father, is critically ill. Monk, I beg you to use magical arts to save her. Zi Mao cries and pays respect to buddha, “if I vow to keep the lotus fresh, I hope that my mother will recover soon”.) In Pípa xíng 琵琶行 [Song of Pipa] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is written, “dì zǒu xíng jūn ā yí sǐ, mù qù zhāo lái yánsè gǎi. 弟走行軍阿姨死，暮去朝來顔色 改.” (My younger brother was forced to join the army. The adoptive mother died. Time goes by, my beauty fades.) Another meaning is wife’s sisters. In Yángtàizhēn wàizhuàn 楊太真外傳 [The Anecdotes of Mr Yang] by Song Shi 宋史of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Qíngguó yue: ‘qǐ yǒu dàtáng tiānzǐ ā yí wúqián yòng yē!’ Suì chū sānbǎiwàn wéi yī jú yān. 秦國曰: ‘ 豈有大唐天子阿姨無錢用耶!’ 遂出三百萬爲一局焉.”

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 75 (Qinguo said, ‘How can the wife’s sister of emperor in the Tang dynasty be so poor? Please give her three million yuan’.) It is also noted as Buddhist nun, as in Bínàiyē 鼻柰耶 [Binaiye] by Zhu Fo 竺佛 of the Later Qin dynasty, it reads “Jí Zhǔzhōu fàn bǐqiūní. Yōu pó sāi wèn: ‘ā yí, yǒu hé huàn kǔ, yú lù cèwò?’ 即煮粥飯比丘尼. 優婆塞問： “ 阿姨，有何患苦，于路側卧？’” (It is the nun who makes meals. A woman asks, ‘nun, why do you lie on the road? Is there any suffering?’) Ā nú 阿奴 is the nickname used by the elder for the younger. It is documented in the following works. ā nú 阿奴 is used for a brother. In Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Déxíng 世説新語· 德行 [A New Account of the Tales of the World·Virtue] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶of the Song of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “jiàn yuē: ‘ā xiōng, lǎowēng kě niàn, hé kě zuò cǐ?’ Yì yúshì gǎi róng yuē: ‘ā nú yù fàng qù yé!’ Suì qiǎn zhī. 諫曰： ‘ 阿兄，老翁可念，何可作此？’ 奕於是改容曰： ‘ 阿奴欲 放去邪！’ 遂遣之.” (Younger brother says, ‘My elder brother, how can you do this for such a pathetic old man?’ The brother replies, ‘You mean letting him go?’ Then, the old man was discharged.) It also refers to a son. In Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Róngzhǐ 世説新語· 容止 [A New Account of the Tales of the World·Manner] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Song of the Southern dynasties, it reads “Wáng Jìngyù yǒu měixíng, wènxùn wánggōng. Wánggōng fǔ qí jiān yuē: ‘ā nú, hèn cái bú chèn’. 王敬豫有美形，問訊王公. 王公拊其肩曰： ‘ 阿奴，恨才不稱’.” (Wang Jingyu is handsome. One day, he visited his father. His father patted him on the shoulder and said, ‘To my regret, your handsome appearance does not fit with your talent’.) Another denotation is grandson. In Nánshǐ ·Yùlínwáng běnjì 南史· 郁林 王本紀 [The History of the Southern dynasties·Biography of King Yulin], it reads “Wǔdì lín bēng, zhí dì shǒu yuē: ‘ā nú, ruò yì wēng, dāng hǎo zuò’. 武帝臨崩， 執帝手曰： ‘ 阿奴，若憶翁，當好作.’” (Emperor Qiwu came to his final hour and said to his grandson, ‘My dear, if I pass away, please succeed the crown and be a wise emperor’”) It is also used as salutation between fellows. First, it refers to a wife. In Nánshǐ ·Yùlínwáng héfēi jì 南史· 郁林王何妃紀 [The History of the Southern dynasties Biography of Concubine He of King Yulin], it is recorded that “dì wèi huánghòu wéi ā nú, yuē: ‘ā nú zàn qù’. 帝謂皇后爲阿奴, 曰： ‘阿奴暫 去.’” (The emperor calls the queen wife, saying, “wife temporarily goes by herself.”) Second, it is used as a self-claim. In Dūnhuáng biànwénjí·Hánqínhǔ huàběn 敦煌變文集· 韓擒虎話本 [Collection of Narrative Literature in Dunhuang·The Story of Han Qinhu] The Changing Articles Collection of Dunhuang, it is written, “shí yǒu jīn lín chén wáng, zhīdào yáng jiān wéijūn, xīn shēng búfù, xuānzhào hé cháo dàchén, zǒng zài diànqián, dāngshí xuān wèn: ‘ā nú jīn nǐ xīng bīng, shōufú kuáng qín, qīng yìzhě hé?’ 時有金璘陳王，知道楊堅爲君，心生不負，宣詔 合朝大臣，總在殿前，當時宣問： ‘奴今擬興兵，收伏狂秦，卿意者何？’ ” (There was an emperor Cao Zhi in country Wei who knew that Yang Jian was a loyal minister. He held a grudge about it. One day he invited all the ministers to the royal court and declared, “I intend to develop the military force to overpower the country Qin. What is your opinion?”) Lǎoshǔ 老鼠 means mouse in a general sense. In Yōumíng lù 幽明録 [Stories in the Nether Life] quoted by volume 442 of Tàipínguǎngjì 太平廣記 [Tales from

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Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

the Taiping Era], it is written that “qīng fēi húli, jí shì lǎoshǔ. 卿非狐狸，即是老 鼠.” (Since you are not a fox, you are a mouse). In Shī sānbǎi yīwǔ shǒu 詩三百一 五首 [Three Hundred and Fifteen Poems] by Han Shan 寒山 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “lǎo shǔ rù fànwèng, suī bǎo nán chūtóu. 老鼠入飯甕，雖飽難 出頭.” (The mouse entered into the rice jar. Although it is full, it is hard to jump out of the jar.) In Dònglín 洞林 [Caves] quoted by volume 911 of Tàipíng yùlǎn 太平御覽 [Taiping Imperial Encyclopedia], it is written that “yǒu yī lǎo shǔ sè zhèng cāng huáng, jìng jìu qíqián, yǎn yǎn fú ér bú dòng. 有一老鼠色正蒼黄， 逕就其前，噞噞伏而不動.” (People see a yellow mouse and walk directly to it. The lively mouse hides there calmly.) Lǎoshǔ 老鼠 is also used as abuse, referring to those who are timid and inappreciable. In Nánshǐ Xiāoyǐngdá zhuàn 南史· 蕭 穎達傳 [The History of the Southern dynasties·Bibliography of Xiao Yingda], it is written that “Yǐngdá dàmà yuē: ‘wǒ jīnrì xíngróng, zhèngshì rǔ lǎoshǔ suǒwéi, hé rěn fù quàn wǒ jiǔ?’ 穎達大駡曰： ‘ 我今日形容，正是汝老鼠所爲，何忍 復勸我酒？’” (Yingda cursed, “my current condition is caused by your villain. How shameless you are to urge me to drink?”) Lǎoyā 老鴉( 鵶) means crow. In Měirén shūtóu gē 美人梳頭歌 [The Poetry of Combing the Beautiful Lady’s Hair] by Li He 李賀of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “xiān shǒu xì pán lǎo yā sè, cuì huá bǎo chāi zān bù dé. 纖手郤盤老 鴉色，翠滑寶釵簪不得.” (The delicate hands smooth the black hair. The hair is so slippery that the comb is unable to stand on it.) In Wūyè tí 烏夜啼 [The Caw of Crows at Night] by Gu Kuang 顧況 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “cǐ shì tiān shàng lǎo yā míng, rén jiān lǎo yā wú cǐ shēng. 此是天上老鴉 鳴，人間老鴉無此聲.” (This kind of crow is from heaven while crows on earth do not crow like that) In Zhíxù guǎngwénshě xià 直宿廣文舍下 [Lodge for the Night in Guangwen’s Dormitory II] by Mei Yaocheng 梅堯臣 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “yì cháng kǔ lǎo yā, míng zào měi qiè qiè. 亦嘗苦老 鵶，鳴躁每切切.” (The crows once emit a desolate sound.) In Hòu kǔhán gē 後苦寒歌 [A Later Poem Bitter and Cold] by Yang Wanli 楊萬里 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “sān zú lǎo yā hán bù chū, kàn yún sù tiān tiān bú qì. 三足老鴉寒不出，看雲訴天天不泣.” (The three-legged crow does not fly on cold days. They stare at the cloud, whimpering their sorrow, while they cannot obtain sympathy.) Dàizī 袋子 means pocket. In Qímín yàoshù·Yǎngyáng 齊民要術· 養羊 [Important Arts for the People’s Welfare·Raising Sheep] by Jia Sixie 賈思勰 of the Northern Wei dynasty, it is written that “qū mù wéi quān, yǐ zhāng sheng juàn dài zī, lǜ shú rǔ, zhuó wǎ píng zhōng wò zhī. 屈木爲棬，以張生絹袋子，濾熟乳， 著瓦瓶中卧之.” (The cup is made of wood. Put a piece of filter screen on the cup and filter the boiled milk. Pour the boiled milk into a china bottle and lay it on the ground.) In Yǒuyáng zázǔ·Zhī nuògāo zhōng 酉陽雜俎· 支諾臯中 [YawYang Essays·Sequel of Summoning Ghosts II] by novelist Duan Chengshi 段成式 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “zhān ǒu jìan qí yīdài shàng yǒu zào dài zī, yīn lìng shì bì jiě shì zhī. 瞻偶見其衣帶上有皂袋子，因令侍婢解視之.” (Seeing that there is a soap bag attached to his belt, he commands the servants to untie it and stare at it.)

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 77 Niángzǐ 娘子 is a polysemous word originating from Middle Chinese. The explanations are as follows. First, it is used as an honorific title for girls or women. The following two examples show this meaning. In Jì zhōushì zhínǚ wén 祭周氏侄女文 [Condolence to Niece Zhou] by HanYu 韓愈 in the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Jì yǔ zhōushì shí èr niáng zǐ zhī líng. 祭与周氏 十二娘子之靈.” (Sacrificing the twelfth beautiful lady of Surname Zhou.) In Mèngliáng lù ·Jiàqǔ 夢梁録嫁娶 [Marriage of Dream of Millet] by Wu Zimu 吴自牧of the Song dynasty, it is written that “nǚ jiā huí dìng tiē, yì rú qián kāi xiě, jí yì qīng dì jǐ wèi niáng zǐ. 女家回定怗，亦如前開寫，及議親第幾位娘 子.” (The bride’s side wrote back a certificate for the marriage, which includes the contract made by the two sides and the rank of the daughter in her family.) Second, it refers to wife. In Běiqí shū ·Zǔtǐng zhuàn 北齊書· 祖珽傳 [The Book of the North Qi dynasty·Biography of Zu Ting], it is recorded that “yī qī ěr shun, shàng chēng niáng zǐ. 一妻耳順，尚稱娘子.” (Although his wife is more than sixty years old, he still calls her niáng zǐ 娘子 [the salutation is used for young couples].) In Dūnhuáng biànwénjí·Nántuó chūjiā yuánqǐ 敦煌 變文集難陀出家緣起 [How Nantuo Became Monk of Collection of Narrative Literature in Dunhuang] The Changing Articles Collection of Dunhuang, it is recorded that “Nán tuó xiàng qī dào: ‘niáng zǐ! niáng zǐ! 難陀向妻道：‘娘 子！娘子！’” (Nan Tuo said to his wife, “Oh, my dear wife! My dear wife!”) Third, it refers to the hostess. In Xùqí xiéjì 續齊諧記 [Sequel of Humorous Stories of Qi] by Wu Jun 吴均 of the Liang of the Southern dynasties, it is recorded that “hū yǒu qīngnián bìnǚ shíwǔliù qíanyuē: ‘wáng jiā niáng zǐ bái fú chí, wén jūn gēshēng, yǒu mén rén zhú yuè yóu xì, qiǎn xiāng wèněr’. 忽有 青年婢女十五六前曰：‘ 王家娘子白扶持，聞君歌聲，有門人逐月遊戲， 遣相問耳.’ ” (There is a girl about fifteen to sixteen years old, saying: “I am the hostess of Mr Wang’s family. Hearing that you are singing, I am fascinated by it.”) In Wúshuāng zhuàn 無雙傳 [Biography of Wu Shuang] by Xue Diao 薛調 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “yǒu qīng yī gào xiān kè yuē: ‘niáng zǐ dí yǐ qīng qíng shì yán yú ā láng’. ā láng yún: ‘xiàng yì wèi xǔ zhī, mó yàng yún yún, kǒng shì cēn cīyě’. 有青衣告仙客曰： ‘ 娘子適以親情事 言于阿郎.’ 阿郎云： ‘ 向亦未許之，模様云云，恐是參差也’.” (A girl tells Xianke, “the hostess has transmitted the message to the host”. He says that he never promises marriage. It seems that the marriage will fail.) Fourth, it is used for the imperial concubines. In Jiù tángshū Yángguózhōng zhuàn 舊唐書楊國 忠傳 [Biography of Yang Guozhong of The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is recorded that “Yáng guì fēi gōng zhōng hū wéi niáng zǐ, lǐ shù shí tóng huáng hòu. 楊貴妃宫中呼爲娘子，禮數實同皇后.” (Yangguifei is respectfully called a concubine and received the same etiquette as that of the queen.) In The Old Book of Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “Guó zhōng dà jù, guī wèi zǐ mèi yuē: ‘wǒ děng sǐ zài dàn xī, jīn dōng gōng Jiān guó, dāng yǔ niáng zǐ děng bìng mìng yǐ. 國忠大懼，歸謂姊妹曰： “ 我等死在旦夕，今東宫 監國，當與娘子等並命矣.” (Guozhong is extremely afraid and says to his brothers and sisters, ‘I am on the verge of dying. Donggong now is in charge of the national affairs. The concubines and I should surrender’.)

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Yú’ér 魚兒 means fish. In Shuǐkǎn qiǎn xìng 水檻遣興 [An Impromptu Poem at Riverside Railing] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “xì yǔ yú ér chū, wēi fēng yàn zi xiá. 細雨魚兒出，微風燕子斜.” (When it drizzles, the fishes sway and spurt bubbles, coming to the surface leisurely. The swallow leaning in the sky driven by the gentle breeze.) Què’ér 雀兒 means siskin. In Dūnhuáng biànwénjí·Yànzǐ fù 敦煌變文集燕 子賦 [Swallow Odes of Collection of Narrative Literature in Dunhuang], it is recorded that “què ér chū lái, bú wèn hǎo è, bá quán jí cuō. 雀兒出來，不問好 惡，拔拳即差( 搓).” (When the siskin comes out, they do not mind whether it is good or evil and give it a punch.) Mántóu 饅頭 is a kind of steamed food made from fermented flour. In Chéngwài tǔ mántóu 城外土饅頭 [The Tombs Outside the Town] by Wang Fanzhi 王 梵志 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “chéng wài tǔ mán tou, xiàn cǎo zài chéng lǐ, yì rén chī yí gè, mò xián méi zīwèi. 城外土饅頭，錎草在城裏，一人 喫一個，莫嫌没滋味.” (Mán tóu 饅頭 is used metaphorically, referring to tombs here. The implication is everyone living in the city cannot escape the fate of dying and they have to enter the tomb once they leave the world.) In Jīshén lù 稽神録 [Stories about Spirits] by Xu Xuan 徐鉉 of the Five dynasties, it is recorded that “yǐ sīgēng zhuì shí ér cè zhī, shù shí zhàng nǎi jí dǐ, dé yī xīn mán tou ér chū, yǔ rénjiān cháng shí zhě wú yì yě. 以絲絙縋石而測之，數十丈乃及底，得一新 饅頭而出，與人間嘗食者無異也.” (Fasten a stone at the end of the string to measure the depth. The string comes to the bottom at about a hundred feet depth. A stemmed bun is also discovered, which is the same as what people eat.) Xīntóu 心頭 means keeping in mind. In Jì huángfǔ bīnkè 寄皇甫賓客 [To the Guests in Huangfu] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “shí bǎo mó shā fù, xīn tóu wú yí shì. 食飽摩挲腹，心頭無一事.” (The material life is satisfying. Someone does not keep anything in mind.) In Lǚguǎn yùyǔ 旅 館遇雨 [Raining Night in the Hotel] by Du Xunhe 杜荀鶴 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “bàn yè dēng qián shí nián shì, yì shí suí yǔ dào xīn tóu. 半夜燈 前十年事，一時隨雨到心頭.” (I recall the past in the raining midnight. The past events drove me to the deep feeling.) 2.4.2 Juxtaposed compound words Juxtaposed compound words are some of the most popular compound words in Middle Chinese and can be classified into three types according to the relations between the two morphemes. 2.4.2.1 Synonymous relations of two morphemes Géshì 格式 is a typical example. Gé 格 and shì 式 both mean model or standard. When they are combined, it means the rules that officials execute. In Běishǐ Cuīzhòngfāng zhuàn 北史催仲方傳 [Biography of Cui Zhongfang of The History of the Northern dynasties], it is recorded that “Zhòng fang xi àn shí èr cè, dì dà qí zhī, fù yǔ shào nèi shǐ zhào fēn shān ding gé shì. 仲方獻十二策，帝大奇之，

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 79 復與少内史趙芬删定格式.” (Zhong Fang put forward twenty strategies, which made the emperor feel astonished. Later on, the emperor negotiated with the minister and decided the rules.) In Táng lǜ shūyì Duànyù 唐律疏議斷獄 [Hearings of Commentaries on the Codes of Tang] by Zhangsun Wuji 長孫無忌of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “zhū duàn zuì jiē xū jù yǐn lǜ lìng gé shì zhèng wén. 諸斷罪皆須具引律令格式正文.” (The crime should be judged by the rules.) In Lóngjīn fèngsuǐ pàn 龍筋鳳髓判 [Valuable Legal Cases] by Zhang Zhuo 張鷟 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “Jǔ zhāng tài zhī gū, wú kuī gé shì. 舉張泰 之辜，無虧格式.” (The accusation of Zhang Tai should be based on the rule.) In Xīnshū 新書 [The New Book] by Ye Shi 葉適 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “běn cháo yǐ lǜ wéi jīng, ér chì lìng gé shì suí shí xiū lì. 本朝以律爲經，而敕 令格式隨時脩立.” (The country is governed by rules. The revision of the rule is determined by the national conditions.) Géshì 格式 is also extended to the meaning of the format or outline. The following examples document this explanation. In Běishǐ Hánqílín zhuàn 北史韓麒麟傳 [Biography of Han Qilin of the History of the Northern dynasties], it is recorded that “jí xiōng zhī lǐ, bèi wéi gé shì. Lìng guì jiàn yǒu bié, rén guī pǔ sù. 吉凶之禮，備爲格式. 令貴賤有别，人歸檏素.” (The rituals of marriage and funerals should be uniform. There should be differences between the rich and the poor. Everyone should be plain.) In Qīngbō zázhì 清波雜志 [Miscellanies by Qingbo] by Zhou Hui 周煇 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “yuán lǐ sì nián, yú tián guó shàng biǎo, chēng ‘yú tián guó lóu luó dà fú lì liang zhī wén fǎ hēi hàn wáng, shū yú dōng fāng rìchū chù dà shì jiè tián dì zhǔ hàn jiā ā jiù dà guānjiā’ yúnyún rú cǐděng yǔ yán, kǒng fān fú zì yǒu gé shì. 元豊四年，于闐國上表，稱‘ 于闐國僂儸大福力量知文法黑汉王，書 與東方日出處大世界田地主漢家阿舅大官家’ 云云，如此等語言，恐藩服 自有格式.” (In the Yuan dynasty, Yutian country submits advice to the emperor and says, “the robbers in Yutian country are of good luck and great strength. They write to the officers in the east and so forth”. It seems that they gang up with Fanfu [an area] and this area has formulated its own format.) Múyàng 模様 means appearance or model. In NánqíshūWèilǔ zhuàn 南齊書魏 虜傳 [Biography of Wei Lu of the Book of the Northern Qi dynasty], it is recorded that “qún chén zhān jiàn míng táng mú yang, mò bù qiān rán sù yù zào. 群臣瞻 見明堂模様，莫不僉然欲速造.” (The ministers see the model of the palace and they are eager to build it.) In Cháng’ān dàozhōng yǒuzuò 長安道中有作 [A Poem Composed on My Way to Chang’an] by Du Xunhe 杜荀鶴 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “zǐ xì xún sī dǐ mú yàng, téng téng yòu guò yù guān dōng. 仔 細尋思底模様，騰騰又過玉關東.” (Think of the real appearance carefully. Go through the northeast area rapidly.) Múyàng 模様 also means the current situation. In Qǐng bàbīng dìsān zhuàng 請罷兵第三狀 [The Third Request for Cease Fire] by Bai Juyi 白居易of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “yì zhǒng bà bīng, hé rú zǎo bà, bì dài shì bù dé yǐ rán hòu bà zhī, zhǐ shǐ bì xià wēi quán zhuǎn xiāo, tiān xià mú yàng gèng è. 一種罷兵，何如早罷，必待事不得已然後罷之，只 使陛下威權轉銷，天下模様更惡.” (The appropriate time to cease fire has gone. It is the last resort since it will weaken your prestige, making the situation in the world worse.) In addition, múyàng 模様 means making a portrait. In Qínmèng jì

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Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

秦夢記 [The Dream of the Journey to Country Qin] by Shen Yazhi 沈亞之 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “qí fāng shū míng mèi, bǐ bù kěmú yàng. 其芳姝 明媚，筆不可模様.” (Her beauty is beyond sketching.) Qūgàn 軀幹 means the body. In Jìnshū Liúyàozǎi jì Lǒngshàng gē 晉書劉曜 載記隴上歌 [Songs from Longshang·of Biography of Liu Yaozai of the History of the Jin dynasty], it is recorded that “lǒng shàng zhuàng shì yǒu chén’ ān, qū gàn suīxiǎo fù zhōng kuān. 隴上壯士有陳安，軀幹雖小腹中寛.” (There is a man called Chen An who is brave and kind-hearted. Although he is thin, he is open-minded.) In Sòng wéishíliù píngshì chōng tónggǔjùn fángyù pànguān 送韋 十六評事充同谷郡防御判官 [A Farewell to the Defense Judge] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “zǐ suī qūgàn xiǎo, lǎo qì héng jiǔ zhōu. 子 雖軀幹小，老氣横九州.” (Although you are thin and short, your inner qualities overwhelm others.) Bāodàn 包彈 is also called bó dàn 駁彈, which means criticism. In book two of the fourth volume in Cháoyěqiānzǎi 朝野僉載 [Stories about the Government and the People] by Zhang Zhuo 張鷟of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “xiǎo rén zài wèi, jūn zǐ bó dàn. 小人在位，君子駁彈.” (When the villain governs, the gentlemen are always criticized.) In Bùdá shíyí 不達時宜 of the first volume in Yìshān zázhuàn 義山雜篆 [Miscellanies Composed in Yi Mountain] by Li Shangyin 李商隱 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “yàn shàng bāo dàn pǐng wèi. 筵上包彈品味.” (Criticize the self-cultivation at the feast) In Qiang Hui, it is recorded that “jiàn tā wén zì bó dàn. 見他文字駁彈.” (Criticize him face to face.) Liáobō 撩撥 means provocation. In Yóuxiānkū 遊仙窟 [A Tour in a God’s Cave] by Zhang Zhuo 張鷟 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “lián cháng hū yù duàn, yì yǎn yǐ xiān kāi. Qú wèi xiāng liáo bō, jiāo cóng hé chù lái. 憐膓忽 欲斷，憶眼已先開. 渠未相撩撥，嬌從何處来.” (I express extreme mercy and deep sentiment of feeling. No one provokes you. How can you be so effeminate?) In Yùtángxiánhuà Gěcóngzhōu 玉堂閑話葛從周 [Ge Congzhou of Casual Writings at the Jade Hall] by Fan Zhi 范志 quoted by volume 177 of Tàipínguǎngjì 太平廣記 [Tales from the Taiping Era], it is recorded that “Hé běi yàn yuē: ‘shān dōng yì tiáo gě, wú shì mò liáo bō’. 河北諺曰：‘ 山東一條葛，無事莫撩撥. ’ ” (There is a saying in the northern area of the Yellow river. It says that Mr Ge is brave and clever so people are afraid to provoke him.) Sīxiǎng 思想, xiǎng niàn 想念, or sī niàn 思念 means missing or yearning for something. In Pánshí piān 盤石篇 [On Monolith] by Cao Zhi 曹植 of the Wei during the Three Kingdoms Period, it is recorded that “yǎng tīān cháng tài xī, sīxiǎng huái gù bāng. 仰天長太息，思想懐故邦.” (I look up to the skies and sighed, missing relatives and friends in the hometown.) In Wèiluè 魏略 [A Brief History of Wei] by Yu Huan 鱼豢 from Wei, quoted by Sānguó zhì Shǔshū Xǔjìng zhuàn 三國志· 蜀書· 許靖傳 [The History of the Three Kingdoms·The Book of Shu·Biography of Xu Jing], it is recorded that “shí wén xiāo xi yú fēng shēng, tuō jiù qíng yú sīxiǎng. 時聞消息於風聲，託舊情於思想.” (Sometimes I just hear your conditions from others’ voices faintly. I miss the days we spent together in honor of our friendship.)

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 81 Yánjiū 研究 is the process of exploring the truth, nature, or the rule. In Gǎidìng xíngyù biǎo 改定刑獄表 [Memorial to the Emperor on Amendments of Legal Penalties] by Xie Zhuang 謝莊 of Song of the Southern dynasties, it is recorded that “dū yóu jiàn lì, fēi néng yì yú guān zhǎng, yǒu àn yàn zhī míng, ér wú yán jiū zhī shí. 督郵賤吏，非能異於官長，有案驗之名，而無研究之實.” (The official status of DuYou [assistant to head of a prefecture in Han dynasty] is lower than that of the chancellor. DuYou only test cases and is unable to explore it.) In Shìhuìyuǎn dá yáoxīng shū 釋慧遠答姚興書 [A Reply Letter of Shi Huiyuan to Yao Xing] of the sixth volume in Gāosēng zhuàn 高僧傳 [Biography of Eminent Monk] by Shi Huijiao 釋慧皎 of Liang of the Southern dynasties, it is recorded that “yuán lái gào zhī zhòng, zhé cū zhuì suǒ huái; zhì yú yán jiū zhī měi, dāng fù qīzhū míng dé. 緣来告之重，辄粗綴所懷；至於研究之美，當復期諸明德.” (Serendipity should be cherished when it is encountered. However, the reality is always the opposite. As to the value of research, your virtue should be expected.) Yǔnxǔ 允許 means agreement. In Lùn kǒngkuí zhìshì zhuàng 論孔戣致仕狀 [Discussion of the Appeal to Retirement from Kong Kui] by Han Yu 韓愈of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “chén zhī kuí shàng shū qiú zhì shì, gù wǎng kàn kuí. Kuí wèi chén yán, yǐ méng shèng zhǔ yǔn xǔ. 臣知戣上疏求致仕， 故往看戣. 戣爲臣言，已蒙聖主允許.” (I know minister Kui has appealed to retirement. Therefore, I want to follow him. He has pleaded with the emperor and the emperor agrees with it.) In Zhèdōng lùn bàjìn hǎiwèi zhuàng 浙東論罷 進海味狀 [Discussion Among Scholars in the East Prefecture of Zhejiang on the Issue of Stopping Offering Seafood] by Yuan Zhen 元稹 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “rú méng shèng cí, tè cì yǔn xǔ. 如蒙聖慈，特賜允許.” (I hope that the emperor will be merciful and agree with it.) In Jīngdōng mènghuá lù ·Qǔfù 京東夢華録娶婦 [Marrying a Lady of the Dream of Prosperous Jingdong], it is recorded that “fán qǔ xí fù, xiān qǐ cǎo tiězi, liǎng jiāyǔn xǔ, rán hòu qǐ xì tiězi. 凡 娶媳婦，先起草帖子，兩家允許，然後起細帖子.” (If the couple want to get married, they have to make a first draft about their marriage to get the consent of their families. If their parents agree, then they can make detailed contracts.) Duāndì 端的 means the whole process from beginning to the end. In Dúqǔ gē 讀曲歌 [Song of Reading a Melody] from Yuefu Poem the Northern dynasties, it is recorded that “kuò miàn xíng fù qíng, zhà wǒ yán duān dì. 闊面行負情，詐我 言端的.” (Because we have not met each other for a long time, he rebels against me and falls in love with someone else. He deceives me and should explain it to me from the beginning to the end.) In Zhēngbù yuè 征部樂 [Music on Recruiting Soldiers] by Liu Yong 柳永 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “píng shuí qù, huā qú mì, xì shuō cǐ zhōng duān dì. 慿誰去，花衢覓，細説此中端的.” (Who can find her at the red-light district and tell her my conditions from the beginning to the end?) In addition, the word means something in accordance with truth or fact, which is the explanation of the word real or indeed. In Sòng shàomíng shàngrén zhī pílíng 送紹明上人之毗陵 [Sending Master Shaoming to Piling] by Li Zhong 李中 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “huí qī duān dì fǒu, qiān lǐ lù yōu yōu. 回期端的否，千里路悠悠.” (The date of coming back remains to be be tested, leaving long miles of homesickness.) In Dūnhuáng biànwénjí·Wéimó

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gǔjīng jiǎng jīngwén 敦煌變文集· 維摩詁經講經文 [Collection of Narrative Literatures in Dunhuang·Explaining Vimalakīrti Scriptures], it is recorded that “duān dì hūrán zhī chūchù, jiāng shēn yuàn rù fǎ wáng jiā. 端的忽然知出處，將 身願入法王家.” (He really retires and devotes himself to Buddhism.) Huìxiè 穢褻 refers to licentious deeds and words between a man and woman. In Běi qíshū Sīmǎ zǐrú zhuàn 北齊書司馬子如傳 [Biography of Sima Ziru of the Book of the Northern Qi dynasty], it is recorded that “zǐ rú xìng huá jī, bú zhì jiǎn cái, yán xì huì xiè, shí zhě fēi zhī. 子如性滑稽，不治剪裁，言戲穢 褻，識者非之.” (Zi Ru is funny by nature. He is also unrestricted when speaking. Sometimes his licentious words and deeds bring reproaches.) In Jiǔguó zhì jiǔ ·Nánhàn sūzhāng 九國志九· 南漢蘇章 [Chapter Nine of the History of Nine Kingdoms·Su Zhang of Southern Han] by Lu Zhen 陸振 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “chéng shàng wàng lóu zhōng yǒu rén mà yǐn, yán pōhuì xiè. Yǐn chán shèn, bù gǎn shì zuǒyòu. 城上望樓中有人駡隱，言頗穢褻. 隱慚甚，不 敢視左右.” (There was a man in the gate tower scolding Liu Yin. The words were indecent. Liu Yin felt embarrassed and was afraid to look around.) Zǐ ì 子細 or zǐxì 仔細 means carefulness. In Běishǐ Yuánhè zhuàn fù yuánsīlǐ 北史· 源賀傳附源思禮 [The History of the Northern dynasties·Biographies of Yuan He and Yuan Sili], it is recorded that “héng yǔrén yuē: ‘wéi zhèng guì dāng jǔ gāng, hé bì dé tài zǐ xì yě’. 恒語人曰：‘ 爲政貴當舉綱，何必得太子細也’.” (It is generally thought that governance should center on the essentials and there is no [need] to focus on everything.) In Jùtán lù 劇談録 [A Novel on Legacies] by Kang Ping 康軿 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “kè wèi zhī zǐ xì, xīn fù zhuàng yǒng wú dí, zhòng jiēwèi jù. 客未知子細，新婦壯勇無敵，衆皆畏懼.” (The guests do not know my son is very careful. The wife is so brave and strong that people are all afraid of her.) In Jiǔrì lántián cuīshì zhuāng 九日藍田崔氏莊 [Gatherings During the Double-Ninth Festival at Mr Cui’s Manor] by Du Fu 杜 甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “míng nián cǐ huì zhīshuí jiàn, zuì bǎ zhūyú zǐ xì kàn. 明年此會知誰健，醉把茱萸仔細看.” (We are not sure whether we are still alive during the meeting of next year. We should enjoy and cherish the time we are spending together. Looking forward to gathering again next year.) 2.4.2.2 Same-category morphemes with different meanings Jīzhóu 機軸 is equivalent to a very important position. In Hòuhànshū·Féngyì zhuàn 後漢書· 馮異傳 [The History of the Later Han dynasty·Biography of Feng Yi], it is recorded that “jīn yì shǒu luò yáng, jiāng jūn zhèn mèng jīn, jù jù xiè zhóu, qiān zǎi yí huì, sī chéng duàn jīn. 今軼守洛陽，將軍鎮孟津，俱 據機軸，千載一會，思成斷金.” (Now we are guarding Luoyang and you are guarding Mengjin. The two places are in key positions. It happens only once in a thousand years so we should unite in a concerted effort.) Li Xian 李賢 denotes that jī 機 is the crossbow and zhóu 軸 is the axle. They are metaphors and function as the most important part of the instruments. In Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Chánxiǎn 世 説新語· 讒險 [A New Account of the Tales of the World·Slander and Treachery] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Song of the Southern dynasties, it is recorded that

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 83 “Yuán yuè yǒu kǒu cái, shuì sīmǎ xiào wén wáng, dà jiàn qīng dài, jīluàn jīzhóu, é ér xiàn zhū. 袁悦有口才 . . . 説司馬孝文王，大見親待，幾亂機軸，俄而見 誅.” (Yuan Yue is talkative and eloquent. He gives suggestions to Emperor Sima Xiaowen and is given warm hospitality. However, his suggestions disturbed the administration so he was executed soon after.) Míngshèng名勝means prestigious talents or celebrities. InShìshuōxīnyǔ·Wénxué 世説新語· 文學 [A New Account of the Tales of the World·Literature] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Song of the Southern dynasties, it is recorded that “Xuān wǔ jí zhū míng shèng jiǎng yì, rì shuōyí guà. 宣武集諸名勝講《易》，日説一 卦.” (There are celebrities gathering at Xuanwu to explain the Book of Changes. They explain one image of the trigram every day.) In Jìnshū·Wángdǎo zhuàn 晉 書· 王導傳 [The Book of the Jin dynasty·Biography of Wang Dao], it is recorded that “huì sān yuè shàng sì, dì qīng guān xì, chéng jiān yú, jù wēi yí, dūn, dào jí zhū míng sheng jiēqí cóng. 會三月上巳，帝親觀禊，乘肩轝，具威儀，敦、 導及諸名勝皆騎從.” (It coincides with Shangsi Festival in March. The emperor comes to see the rituals [taking a shower]. He sits in the sedan chair, behaving with great dignity. Celebrities like Wang Dun and Wang Dao follow him.) In Běi qíshū·Hánguǐ zhuàn fù hánjìngmíng 北齊書· 韓軌傳附韓鏡明 [The Book of the Northern Qi dynasty·Biography of Han Gui and Hang Jingming], it is recorded that “fèi rén yǐn měi jiǔ, duì míng shèng, ān néng zuò dāo bǐ lì fǎn pīgù zhǐ hū? 癈 人飮美酒，對名勝，安能作刀筆吏返披故紙乎？ ”(How could Feiren be suitable for being the officer in charge of issuing official documents, since he was indulged in drinking and tourism?) Xiōngjīn 胸襟, also called xiōng jīn 胷衿, means ambition or mood. In Zèng cuīshìyù 贈崔侍御 [The Poem to Assistant Minister Cui] by Li Bai 李白 in the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “Luò yáng yīn jù mèng, tuō sù huà xiōng jīn. 洛 陽因劇梦，託宿話胸襟.” (You are eloquent like Ju Meng in the city of Luoyang. We lay down head to head, talking about our ambition.) In Zǔyǔ bùdé guī ràngxī gānlín 阻雨不得歸瀼西甘林 [The Rain Blocked My Way back to Rangxi] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “xūxú wǔ zhū tài, cè sāi fán xiōng jīn. 虚徐五株態，側塞煩胸襟.” (I hold an unruffled attitude towards the career while I am bothered by the ambition.) In Nánqíshū·Jìnglíngwáng xiāozǐliáng děng zhuànlùn 南齊書· 竟陵王蕭子良等傳論 [The Book of the Southern Qi dynasty·Biographies of King Jingliang Named Xiao Ziliang and Others], it is recorded that “qíng wěi zhīshì, bù jīng ěr mù; yōu jù zhī dào, wèi shè xiōng jīn. 情僞之事，不經耳目；憂懼之道，未涉胸衿.” (The false-hearted words or actions are not my care. Be ambitious and not afraid.) Zhǐbǐ 紙筆 means the written evidence. In Dūnhuáng biànwénjí·Yànzǐ fù 敦 煌變文集燕子賦 [Swallow Odes of Collection of Narrative Literatures in Dunhuang], it is recorded that “hái yǒu zhǐ bǐ dāng zhí, mò yán kōng shǒu lěng miàn. 還有紙筆當直，莫言空手冷面.” (There is the written evidence. Do not think that the judgement is unreasonable.) In Qiánrén xīnlǐ qiè 前人心裡怯 [Predecessors Were Timid] by Wang Fanzhi 王梵志 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “zhǐ bǐ guǐ xù dào, rén sòng yī jiān xiāng. Qián duō zǎo fā qiǎn, wù shǎo bèi jié wán. 紙筆鬼續到，仍送一縑箱. 錢多早發遣，物少被頡頑.” (The written

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Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

evidence is constantly provided. Another box of calligraphy and paintings is given. Equipped with more belongings, it will be easy to dispatch, while fewer belongings lead to difficulty.) Àihù 愛護 means cherish and protect. In Yánshì jiāxùn·Zhìjiā 顏氏家訓· 治 家 [The Family Precepts of Yan Family·Homemaking] by Yan Zhitui 颜之推 in the Northern Qi dynasty, it is recorded that “Jiè rén diǎn jí, jiē xū ài hù. 借人典 籍，皆須愛護.” (Every classic borrowed from others should be cherished and protected.) In Língjǐngyùshì suìhán shānjū 陵井喻氏歲寒山居 [Mr Lingjingyu’s Days in Mountains during Cold Winter] by Wen Tong 文同 in the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “jìyǔ hòu rén xū ài hù, mò jiāo kōng yǒu lìng míng cún. 寄語 後人須愛護，莫教空有令名存.” (I hope that the later generations will cherish the fame.) Bōxuē 剥削 means exploiting people’s wealth. In Liángshū Hèchēn zhuàn 梁書· 賀琛傳 [The Book of the Liang dynasty·Biography of He Chen], it is recorded that “gù wéi lì mù mín zhě, jìng xiāng bōxuē. 故爲吏牧民者，競相剥 削.” (The officers who govern the people actually exploit the people’s wealth.) In Běishǐ Ēnxìng zhuàn Liúshèng 北史· 恩倖傳· 劉勝 [The History of the Northern dynasties·Biography of En Xing·Liu Sheng], it is recorded that “bō xuē liù zhèn, jiāo tōng dǐ jié, suì rù lìxīyǐ jù wàn jì. 剥削六鎮，交通底節，歳入利息以巨萬 計.” (They exploit the people’s wealth and do private transactions. The illegal profit annually is staggering.) In Wèi lǐmì xí yíngyáng shǒuxún wángqìng wén 為 李密檄滎陽守郇王慶文 [A Call for Li Mi to Accuse Mayor Wang Qing in Rongyang] by Wei Zheng 魏徵 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “bō xuē qián lí, tú dú tiān xià. 剥削黔黎，塗毒天下.” (Exploiting the people will be harmful to the governance of the world.) Chǔfèn 處分 means arrangement or disposition. In Gǔshī wéi jiāozhòngqīng qī zuò 古詩為焦仲卿妻作 [The Poem for Jiao Zhongqing’s Wife], it is recorded that “chǔ fèn dí xiōngyì, nà dé rèn zì zhuān. 處分適兄意，那得任自専.” (I am at your disposal and I am unable to make my own decisions.) In Liángshū Wéifàng Zhuàn 梁書· 韋放傳 [Biography of Wei Fang of the Book of the Liang dynasty], it is recorded that “Niàn miǎn zhòu xià mǎ, jù hú chuáng chǔ fèn, yú shì shì jiē shūsǐ zhàn, mò bù yǐ yī dāng bǎi. 乃免胄下馬，據胡床處分，於是士皆殊死 戰，莫不以一當百.” (Wei Fang takes off the helmets, standing on the Huchuang [a kind of portable chair] to fight. The soldiers cheer up and fight to death. They are one worth a hundred.) In addition, the word refers to punishment. In Zuǒjiàngguān jí liúrén 左降官及流人 [Demoted Officers and Exiled People] in volume 41 of Tánghuìyào 唐會要 [Regulations of the Tang dynasty] by Wang Pu 王溥 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded, “liú rén yā lǐng, gāng diǎn huà shí, dì xiāng fēn fù, rú gēng yīn xún, cháng yǒu chǔ fèn. 流人押領，綱典畵時，遞 相分付，如更因循，當有處分.” (The escort of the prisoners should be on time and follow the order. If procrastinating, the escorts will be punished.) Another meaning of the word is command or order. In Guò luófūshuǐ 過羅敷水 [Crossing the River of Luofu] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “chuí biān yù dù luó fūshuǐ, chǔ fèn míng zōu qiě huǎn qū. 垂鞭欲渡羅敷水， 處分鳴騶且缓驅.” (Hang the scourge and cross the Luofu river. Command the

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 85 cavalryman drive slowly.) In Xuējīn 薛矜of volume 331 in Tàipínguǎngjì 太平廣 記 [Tales from the Taiping Era] Tai Ping Guang Ji, it is recorded that “fùrén shǐ shì bì wèn jià, yún: ‘cǐ shì cháng’ ān xuēshào fǔ wù, chǔfèn lìng chēzhōng ruò wèn, pián yì xiǎng zhī. 婦人使侍婢問價，云： ‘此是長安薛少府物，處分令車中 若問，便宜餉之’.” (The woman lets the waitress ask the price. The opposite side replies, “this thing belongs to Mr Xue in our palace”. He orders that I give it to her if the woman in the sedan chair asks about it.) Liàolǐ 料理 means arrange or take care of. In Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Déxíng 世説新 語· 德行 [A New Account of the Tales of the World·Virtue] by Liu Yiqing 劉義 慶of the Song of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “rǔ ruò wèi xuǎnguān, dāng hǎo liàolǐ cǐrén. 汝若爲選官，當好料理此人.” (If you want to secure an official position, you should take good care of him.) In Jìnshū·Wánghuīzhī zhuàn 晉書· 王徽之傳 [The History of the Jin dynasty·Biography of Wang Huizhi], it is recorded that “Huánchōng cháng wèi huī zhī yuē: ‘qīng zài fǔ rìjiǔ, bǐ dāng xiāng liàolǐ. 桓沖嘗謂徽之曰：‘卿在府日久，比當相料理.’” (Huan says to him, “You have come here for a long time. It is time to deal with the government affairs”.) In addition, the word means recreation. In Yǐn chéngnán dàobiān gǔmùshàng féng zhōngchéng guò 飲城南道邊古墓上逢中丞過 [Encounter to an Official Entitled Zhongcheng While Drinking at a Tomb by the Roadside of the South of the City] by Han Yu 韓愈 in the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “wèi féng táoshù xiāng liào lǐ, bù jué zhōng chéng hè dào lái. 爲逢桃樹相料理，不 覺中丞喝道来.” (When they have fun under the peach tree, they do not realize that the minister is coming with bureaucratic style.) In Cuīgōng jìng niǎnchá 催 公靜碾茶 [Grinding Tea] by Huang Tingjian 黃庭堅 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “shuì mó zhèng yǎng chá liàolǐ, jí qiǎn xītóng niǎn yù chén. 睡 魔正仰茶料理，急遣溪童碾玉塵.” (The sleepy man is facing upward the tea ceremony. Suddenly, he arranges for the children to grind the tea.) Another meaning of liàolǐ 料理 is tease or trick. In Jiāngpàn dúbù xúnhuā qī juéjù 江畔獨步尋 花七絕句 [Encountering Blossom Flowers Beside the River] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “chóuhuā luànruǐ guǒ jiāngbīng, xíngbù qīwēi shí pà chūn. shījiǔ shàng kān qū shǐ zài, wèi xū liàolǐ báitóurén. 稠花亂蕊裹江 濱，行步欹危實怕春. 詩酒尚堪驅使在，未須料理白頭人.” (The flowers are in bloom beside the river. I pass through the sea of flowers and a feeling of being afraid of spring comes into being. The poem and the wine are at my disposal. I will not be teased by them.) In Duìjìng ǒuyín 對鏡偶吟 [Chant Before the Mirror] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yǎn hūn jiǔ bèi shū liào lǐ, fèi kě duō yīn jiǔ sǔnshāng. 眼昏久被書料理，肺渴多因酒損傷.” (The blurred vision results from long time reading. Too much cough results from too much excessive wine.) Táijǔ 擡舉 means hold high or elevate. In Gāohé 高荷 [The Striving Lotus] by Yuan Zhen 元稹 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “tíngtíng zì tái jǔ, dǐngdǐng nán cáng yè. 亭亭自擡舉，鼎鼎難藏擪.” (The lotus protrudes high above the surface. Grand appearance firmly manifests its beauty and ambition.) In Níshang yǔyī gē 霓裳羽衣歌 [Melody of White Feathers Garment] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “Yán chī yōuliè nìng xiāng

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yuǎn, dà dū zhī zài rén tái jǔ. 妍蚩優劣寜相遠，大都祗在人擡舉.” (There are great differences between the good and the bad. Most of the time it depends on people’s judgement.) In Guǎngyì jì ·Huáyuè shénnǚ 廣異記· 華岳神女 [Broad Collection of Ghost Stories·Goddess of Mount Hua] quoted in volume 302 in Tàipínguǎngjì 太平廣記 [Tales from the Taiping Era], it is recorded that “jūn sù pínshì, wǒ xiāng tái jǔ, jīn wéi guìrén, cǐ yì yú jūn bù báo, hé gù shǐ fùjiā shúfú xiāng jiàn. 君素貧士，我相擡舉，今爲貴人，此亦於君不薄，何故使婦家書 符相間.” (You were a poor scholar. It is me who helps you live a better life now. I have helped you so much and why do you let your wife swear at me?) Táijǔ 擡舉 also means to take care of. In Dūnhuáng biànwénjí·Fùmǔ ēnzhòngjīng jiǎng jīngwén 敦煌變文集· 父母恩重經講經文 [Collection of Narrative Literatures in Dunhuang·Explaining Scriptures about Parents’ Grace], it is written that “rè shí tài rè wéi ēn lián, hán jí jìn hán wéi tái jǔ. 熱時太熱爲恩憐，寒即盡寒爲擡舉.” (It is the mercy that on hot days the son helps his parents cool the skin. On cold days, he takes care of them and gives them warmth.) Liáodǎo 潦倒 means sloppy or lazy. In Yǔ shānjùyuán juéjiāo shū 與山巨源絕 交書 [A Diffidation Letter to Shan Juyuan] by Ji Kang 嵇康 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “zú xià jiù zhī wú liáodǎo cū shū, bú qiè shìqing. 足下舊知吾潦 倒麤疏，不切事情.” (You knew that I was sloppy and lazy as well as stubborn.) The extended meaning is frustrated. In Kuífǔ shūhuái sìshíyùn 夔府書懷四十韻 [Forty Rhymes in the Prose Composed in Kui Mansion] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “xíngróng zhēn liáodǎo, dá xiào mò zhīyuán. 形 容真潦倒，答效莫支援.” (The appearance is frustrating. Try your best to pay back and do not give any help.) In Yànzuò xiányín 晏坐閑吟 [Chant in the City Yan] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “xī wéi jīng luò shēng huákè, jīn zuò jiānghú liáodǎo wēng. 昔爲京洛聲華客，今作江湖潦倒 翁.” (I used to live a life of debauchery, while now I am a frustrated and desperate old man.) Língluàn 零亂 means messy. In Yuèxià dúzhuó 月下獨酌 [Drinking Alone Under the Moonlight] by Li Bai of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “wǒ gē yuè páihuái, wǒ wǔ yǐng líng luàn. 我歌月徘徊，我舞影零亂.” (I read the poems under the moonlight. I dance with the shadow whirling.) In Wēnrì guān huà pútáo 溫日觀畫蒲萄 [Weng Riguan Drawing Grapes] by Zheng Yuanyou 鄭元祐 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “què jiāng shūfǎ huà pútáo, zhāng diān cǎo shèng hé língluàn. 却將書法畫蒲萄，張颠草聖何零亂.” (Someone regards calligraphy as drawing pictures. How messy the famous calligrapher Zhang is!) Wénruò 文弱 means gentle and delicate. In Shìshuōxīnyǔ Shǎngyù 世説新語 賞譽 [Appreciation of New Account of the Tales of the World] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Song of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “lùshìlóng wéi rén wén ruò kěài. 陸士龍爲人文弱可愛.” (Mr Lu is gentle, delicate and clever.) In Xù jìnyáng qiū 續晉陽秋 [Sequel to Autumn in Jinyang], it is written that “huánwēng yǒu píng luòshǔ zhī xūn, shàn qiáng xī shǎn, mùdì zì liào wén ruò, wú yǐ kàng zhī. 桓温有平洛蜀之勳，擅彊西陝，穆帝自料文弱，無以抗之.” (Huan Weng has captured the Luoshu areas. He intends to invade the west Shaan area. Emperor Mu thinks himself delicate and weak, and unable to combat.)

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 87 Wěndāng 穩當 means proper or appropriate. In Xuānchéng liúzèng 宣城留 贈 [A Complimentary Poem at Xuan City] by Du Mu 杜牧 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “wèi bào yǎnbō xū wěn dang, wǔ líng yóudàng mò zhī wén. 爲 報眼波須穩當，五陵遊宕莫知聞.” (The report of the look should be appropriate. The rich ignore their proper occupation and they should not be informed.) In Dá fànbóchóng 答范伯崇 [Reply to Fan Zhongbo] by Zhu Xi 朱熹 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “Zǐ gòng suǒyǐ qǐngwèn qí cìzhě, gài wèi zì xǐng jiàn dé yǒu wèi wěn dang chù. 子貢所以請問其次者，蓋謂自省見得有未穩當處.” (The reason why Zi Gong consults from the one who is inferior to him is that he introspects and finds there exists inappropriate aspects.) 2.4.2.3 Antonymous relations between morphemes of two words See the following examples. Fangyuán 方圓 is also written as fāng yuán 方圜 or fāng yuán 方員. The two words co-occur in Old Chinese, referring to squares and circles. In Mèngzǐ Lílóu shàng 孟子離婁上 [Li Lou I of Works of the Mencius], it is written that “bù yǐ guījù, bùnéng fang yuan. 不以規矩，不能方圓.” (Nothing can be done without rules.) In Xúnzǐ·Lǐlùn 荀子· 禮論 [Works of XunZi·On Rites], it is written that “guījù zhě, fāng yuán zhī zhì. 規矩者，方圓之至.” (Nothing can be done without rules.) Fangyuán 方圓 evolved into disyllabic words in Middle Chinese and meant the heaven and the earth, as people in ancient China thought that the heaven was round and the earth was square. In Jiāojū fù 郊居賦 [The Poem Suburb] by Shen Yue 沈約 in the Liang Age of the Southern dynasty, it is written that “luó fāng yuán ér qǐ cuò, qióng hǎi lù ér jiān jiàn. 羅方員而綺錯，窮海陸而兼瀳.” (The earth and the heaven counterchange. The land and the sea are clearly bound, with water leaching.) Fang yuán 方圓 also refers to the rules. In Yǒngshǐ 詠史 [Poems on History] by Li Hua 李華 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “rúhé dé liánglì, yī wéi zhì fāngyuán. 如何得良吏，一爲制方圓.” (The way to cultivate well behaved officials is to make rules.) In Dūnhuáng biànwénjí·Wángzhāojūn biànwén 敦煌 變文集· 王昭君變文 [Collection of Narrative Literatures in Dunhuang·Stories of Wang Zhaojun], it is written that “shànyú dīngníng sàishàng wèilǜ, lìng zhī zàngshì, yí yī fānfǎ, bùqǔ hànyí. Guānguǒ qiónglú, gēng qǔ fāng yuan. 單于丁 甯塞上衛律，令知葬事，一依番法，不取漢儀. 棺槨穹廬，更取方圓.” (The chief of the Xiongnu Shan Yu in ancient China urged Wei Lǜ at the frontier that he should notice Han dynasty about the death of Wang ZhaoJun. The funeral would be by the law of Xiongnu instead of Han’s rituals. The coffin and the tomb would be designed as the round shape and the square shape.) In addition, fang yuán 方圓 means scheme or strategy. In Dūnhuáng biànwénjí·Lǐ líng biànwén 敦煌變文集· 李陵變文 [Collection of Narrative Literature in Dunhuang·Stories of Li Ling], it is written that “xìng qǐng fāng yuan, nǐ qiú shēnglù. 幸請方圓，擬求生路.” (I am lucky to ask strategies from you that can save me.) In Jiù tángshū ·Fēngchángqīng zhuàn 舊唐書· 封常清傳 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty·Biography of Feng Changqing], it is written that “gōng ruò yǐ fāng yuán qǔ rén, zé shìdàfū suǒwàng; ruò yǐmào qǔrén, kǒng shī zǐ zhī yǔ yě. 公若以方圓取人，則士大夫所望；若

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Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

以貌取人，恐失子之羽也.” (If you select talents by the strategies, the way is in line with the ministers’ expectations. If you judge a book by its cover, you may miss the talents.) Fang yuán 方圓 is also a verb that means plan and prepare. In Zòu yín zhuāng jù zhuàng 奏銀妝具狀 [Memorial to the Emperor on Tribute of Silver and Decorations] by Li Deyu 李德裕 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “zhìyú Língshā děng wù, yóu shì běnzhōu suǒchū, yì yú fāng yuan. 至於 綾紗等物，猶是本州所出，易於方圓.” (As for things like Lingsha [one kind of soft cloth], it should be provided by us so that it is easy to prepare.) In Jiù tángshū ·Yīnyuèzhì èr 舊唐書· 音樂志二 [Music II of the Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “jīn zhě tǎngcáng wèi chōng, gòngfèng duō quē, fán quē huòlì, búyì fāng yuan. 今者帑藏未充，貢奉多闕，凡闕貨力，不易方圓.” (The national treasury is in a strain. The tribute is cut down to a large extent. The shortage of finance and manpower results in the difficulties in planning.) It also means flexible or considerate. In Chánshū Dá hèlán yǒu shū 讒書· 答賀蘭友 書 [The Book of Chan·A Reply to He Lanyou], it is written that “fēi pú zhī bùkě gǒuhé, dàoyì zhīrén, jiē bùhé yě. Ér shòu xìng jiè pì, bùnéng fāngyuán. 非仆之不 可苟合，道義之人，皆不合也. 而受性介僻，不能方圓.” (It is not me who is unable to cater to one’s opinion without principles. People with morality and justice behave the same. However, you are eccentric and resolute. It is hard for you to be flexible when communicating with others.) In Jiù tángshū Shíhuòzhì shàng 舊 唐書· 食貨志上 [Foods I of the Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “suǒyǐ xiān yǒu gàoshì, xǔ yǒu fāng yuán, yì zài tā shí xíng fǎ búdài. 所以先有 告示，許有方圓，意在他時行法不貸.” (So official notice comes first and then flexibility is allowed, which means that there will be no tolerance when executing the power and the rules.) Jǔzhǐ 舉止 means behavior or action. In Hòuhànshū·Féngyì zhuàn 後漢書· 馮 異傳 [The History of the Later Han dynasty·Biography of Feng Yi], it is written that “guān qí yányǔ jǔzhǐ. Fēi yōngrén yě. 觀其言語舉止. 非庸人也.” (Judging from his actions and words, he is not an ordinary person.) In Xiánqíng fù 閑情 賦 [Ode to Carefree] by Tao Qian 陶潛of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “shényí wǔmèi, jǔ zhǐ xiáng yán. 神儀嫵媚，舉止詳妍.” (Her look is elegant and enchanting. Her behavior is serene and graceful.) In Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Yǎliàng 世説 新語雅量 [A New Account of the Tales of the World· Generosity] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶, it is written that “Péishū zé bèishōu, shénqì wú biàn, jǔzhǐ zìruò. 裴叔則 被收，神氣無變，舉止自若.” (Mr Pei was arrested. He stays calm and behaves as usual.) In Jiǔdé 酒德 [Drinking Manners] by Meng Jiao 孟郊 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “zuì jiàn yì jǔ zhǐ, zuì wén yì shēngyīn. 醉見異舉止， 醉聞異聲音.” (Drunk makes abnormal behavior. Drunk makes noise.) Zǎowǎn 早晚 means early or late. In Míngxiáng jì 冥祥記 [Fulfillment of Prophesy] by Wáng Yǎn 王琰 of the South Qi dynasty, it is written that “suī fùqù lái zǎo wǎn, wèi céng shī zhōngbū zhīqī. 雖復去來早晚，未曾失中晡之 期.” (Although he returns early or late, it should never be later than four o’clock in the afternoon.) It also means when. In Luòyángqiélánjì·Chéngxī 洛陽伽藍記· 城東· 景興尼寺 [Buddhist Temples in Luoyang·East of the City·The Temple of Jingxing] by Yang Xuanzhi 楊衒之 of the North Wei dynasty, it is written that

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 89 “tàiwèi fǔqián tuán fútú, xíng zhì shèn gǔ, yóu wèi bēng huǐ, wèizhī zǎowǎn zào? 太尉府前塼浮圖，形製甚古，猶未崩毁，未知早晚造？” (The monk made of bricks stands on the gate of Tai Wei’s [the official in charge of military affairs] mansion. Judging from its appearance, it has a long history and keeps well. When was it produced?) In Yánshì jiāxùn·Fēngcāo 顏氏家訓· 風操 [The Family Precepts of Yan Family· Moral Integrity] by Yan Zhitui 颜之推of the North Qi dynasty, it is written that “Zūnhóu zǎowǎn gù zhái? 尊侯早晚顧宅？” (When do you visit my house?) In Sòng guōyi 送郭乂 [A Farewell to Guo Yi] by Cen Sheng 岑參 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “héshí guò dōngluò, zǎo wǎn dù mèngjīn? 何時過東洛，早晚渡孟 津.” (When will you pass Dongluo? When will you ferry Mengjin?) Zǎowǎn 早晚 also means at any time or every day. In Jiāngyǔ yǒuhuái zhèngdiǎn shè 江雨有懷鄭 典設 [Think of Zheng Dianshe During the Raining Days Beside the River] by Du Fu 杜甫of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “chūnyǔ àn àn sàixiá zhōng, zǎo wǎn láizì chǔwánggōng. 春雨闇闇塞峡中，早晚來自楚王宫.” (The rain during the spring is drizzling in the valley. It comes from the palace of emperor Chu at any time.) In Sòng shānyīn yáochéng xiéjì zhīrèn . . . 送山陰姚丞攜妓之任 . . . [A Farewell to My Friend Yao . . .] by Han Hong 韓翃 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “tārì rú xún shǐ níngshù, tíshī zǎo wǎn jì xīrén. 他日如尋始寜墅，題詩早晚寄西人.” (If you want to resign in the future, please write to let me know at any time.) It also means how. In poem 31 of Shídé shī 拾得詩 [The Poem Collection] of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “gègè rù dìyù, zǎo wǎn chū tóu shí? 箇箇入地獄，早晚出頭時？” (So many spirits go to hell. How and when does it end?) In Tīyíndēng 剔銀燈 [Silver Lamp] by Liu Yong 柳永 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “rú sī jiāzhì, zǎo wǎn shì dúshū tiānqì? 如斯佳致，早晚是讀書天氣？” (Such beautiful scenery is not compatible with reading.) Hánwēn 寒温 means greetings, which is something friendly when people meet each other. In Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Wénxué 世説新語· 文學 [A New Account of the Tales of the World·Literature] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 in the Song of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “yīn shǐ zuò, cū yǔ hán wēn, suì jí yìlǐ. 殷使坐，粗 與寒温，遂及義理.” (Mr Yin let him sit down and greets him for a while. Then they discuss morals and ethics.) In Sōushénjì 搜神記 [Searching Deities] by Gan Bao 干寶 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “hū yǒu yí kè tōng míng zhǐzhān, hán wēn bì, liáo tán mínglǐ. 忽有一客通名詣瞻，寒温畢，聊談名理.” (Suddenly, there is a guest named Zhi Zhan who greets them and then talks about the principles of life.) Tǔnà 吐納 means getting rid of the stale and taking in the fresh, which is a way of keeping healthy in Taoism. In Yǎngshēng lùn 養生論 [Essentials for Keeping Health] by Ji Kang 嵇康 of the Three Kingdoms of Wei, it is written that “yòu hūxī tǔ nà, fú shí yǎngshēn, shǐ xíngshén xiāng qīn, biǎo lǐ jù jì yě. 又呼 吸吐纳，服食養身，使形神相親，表裏俱濟也.” (Keep a healthy life by a balanced diet and breathing to get rid of the stale and take in the fresh. This way combines the body and the spirit together so that the two jointly maintain health.) The extended meaning of tǔnà 吐納 is style of conversation or to talk about. In Shìshuōxīnyǔ·Qīyì 世説新語· 棲逸 [A New Account of the Tales of the World· Seclusion] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Song of the Southern dynasties, it is

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written that “yúgōng zhūrén duō wǎng kàn zhī, guān qí yǔnyòng tǔnà, fēngliú zhuǎn jiā. 庾公諸人多往看之，觀其運用吐納，風流轉佳.” (Many people including Mr Yu usually visit him, observing his styles of communication as well as his elegant demeanor.) In Wèishū ·Yuányì zhuàn 魏書· 元翼傳 [The Book of Wei·Biography of Yuan Yi], it is written that “měi zīmào, shàn tǔ nà, jiān yǒu shōu lüè. 美姿貌，善吐納，兼有收略.” (He is handsome and talkative.) Another meaning of tǔnà 吐納 is making a voice. In Wénxīn diāolóng ·Shénsī 文 心雕龍· 神思 [The Literal Mind and the Carving of Dragons·State of Mind] by Liu Xie 劉勰 of the Southern Liang dynasty, it is written that “yínyǒng zhī jiàn, tǔ nà zhūyù zhī sheng; méijié zhīqián, shūjuǎn fēngyún zhī sè. 吟詠之間，吐納 珠玉之聲；眉睫之前，舒卷風雲之色.” (When the poet was chanting, he as if heard sound of pearl and jade. When he is engaged in thinking, he as if looked the changing landscape like a storm cloud.) In Nénggǎizhāi mànlù 能改齋漫録 [Writings in Nenggai Study] by Wu Zeng 吴曾 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “Cuī jì jiào fang rénzhìfāng shàonǚ jiē shàn’gē, qízhōng èr nǚzǐ, tǔ nà qīwǎn, shōu liǎn hún lún. 崔計教坊任智方少女皆善歌，其中二女子，吐納凄 惋，收斂渾淪.” (The daughters of Mr Ren are all good at singing. His second daughter makes a sad voice and restrains herself naturally.) Tūntǔ 吞吐 means tūnjìn 吞進 and tǔchū 吐出, which means the tendency of loom or convergence and divergence. In Dēng dàléi’àn yǔmèi shū 登大雷岸與妹 書 [A Letter Composed at Dalei Coast to My Younger Sister] by Bao Zhao 鮑照 of the Song of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “tūn tǔ bǎichuān, xièxiè wànhè. 吞吐百川，寫泄万壑.” (The surge in the valley swallows and spits hundreds of rivers, pouring down innumerable valleys and mountains.) In Yuèshí 月 蝕 [The Poem the Lunar Eclipse] by Lu Tong 盧仝 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “nàihé wànlǐ guāng, shòu cǐ tūn tǔ è. 奈何万里光，受此吞吐厄.” (However, thousands of miles of light beam is sheltered from lunar eclipse.) In Wànghǎitíng fù 望海亭賦 [The Poem Written in Hai Wang Ting] by Fan Chengda 范成大 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “Jīng yùchí zhī pòsuì, yàng yínpán ér tūn tǔ. 驚玉池之破碎，漾銀盤而吞吐.” (Someone fears that the pool may be broken. The wine in the silver cup overflows so he swallows it.) Tūntǔ 吞吐 also refers to one of the exercises in Taoism. In Bàopǔzǐ ·Jíyán 抱朴子· 極言 [Seeking the Nature·Admonishment] by Ge Hong 葛洪 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “tiáo lì jīngǔ, yǒu yǎnyǎng zhī fāng; dùjí xiánxié, yǒu tūn tǔ zhī shù. 調利 筋骨，有偃仰之方；杜疾閑邪，有吞吐之術.” (Bending or lifting head makes the muscles and bones comfortable. Tūntǔ 吞吐 eradicates disease and guards against evil.) Among the previous three juxtaposed compound words, there are fewer synonymous and antonymous relation morphemes than there are morphemes with different meanings but belonging to the same category.

2.5 Subordinate compound words A subordinate compound word, as one type of the most developed disyllabic or polysyllabic words in China’s medieval period, enjoys more flexibility in

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 91 its structure than a juxtaposed compound word. A monophonic morpheme can modify and be subordinated by many other morphemes and thus construct more subordinate compound words. Given that juxtaposed compound words may draw a more explicit picture of monophonic words’ original meaning, subordinate compound words will be more easily used to express new meanings. For example, the nine-grade official selection system in Cao and Wei rigorously restricted the feudal family system. During the Jin and the Song dynasties, the reality that people excessively emphasized one’s parentage and family background was promptly reflected in middle archaic Chinese lexicon. Many related new words have appeared since then, most of which were subordinate compound words: guìzú 贵 族 (the noble class), hánhuàn 寒宦 (an official from a humble family), hánjiā 寒 家 (a humble family), hánjùn 寒俊 (a man of humble birth but great intellect), hánlíu 寒流 (a man of humble birth), hánmén 寒門 (a humble family), hánpǐn 寒 品 (a man of humble birth), hánshì 寒士 (a literate of humble birth), hánshù 寒庶 (an impoverished commoner), hánzú 寒族 (a humble clan), méndì 門地, ménpǐn 門品, ménsù 門素, ménzī 門资 (i.e., parentage, the family social status, and the family members’ educational level in feudal society), ménfá 門阀 (a noble family whose ancestors established meritorious service for the nation), ménfēng 門 風 (the family tradition), ménwàng 門望 (the seniority and prestige of a family), ménxù 門緖, ménzhòu 門冑 (parentage and family background), ményīn 門荫 (an official position from the ancestral merit), shìmén 势門 (a family of power and influence), shìzú 士族 (an aristocratic family belonging to the landlord class), and shìzú 勢族 (a family of power and influence). In the Wei and the Jin dynasties, owing to the high political pressure from the ruling class, bureaucrats and intellectuals were forced to divorce themselves from reality. Hence, it was prevalent to indulge in aimlessly discussing metaphysical theories and flattering each other. As a result, a large number of related words sprung up in Chinese, most of which were subordinate compound words. For example, qīngyán 清言, qīngtán 清談, xuánlùn 玄論, xuántán 玄談, and xuányán 玄言 (the talk to differentiate and analyze names and reasons based on Lao–Zhuang philosophy), xuánlǐ 玄理 (subtle and profound philosophical connotations), xuánxīn 玄心 (the heart that can penetrate the mysteries of things), xuánxúe 玄學 (philosophical thoughts based on Lao–Zhuang philosophy), xuányì 玄義, xuánzhǐ 玄旨, xuánzhǐ 玄指 (esoteric metaphysics), xuánzhì 玄致 (the profound purport), and xuánzōng 玄宗 (the deep meaning of Tao 道 from Buddhism or Taoism). Since phonological studies flourished in the Six dynasties and parallel prose prevailed, intellectuals created new ways of language use. The following examples of subordinate compounds are evidence reflecting the changes. Fǎnyǔ 反語 (fǎnqiè 反切 or argot) There are two meanings for fǎnyǔ 反語. One is fǎnqiè 反切, that is, the phonetic method to spell out the pronunciation of a Chinese character using two other Chinese characters. In the book Yánshì jiāxùn 颜氏家訓 [Family Instructions for the Yen Clan], Yan Zhitui 顏之推 (the Northern Qi dynasty) mentioned in the chapter of Shūzhèng 書證 [Evidence on Writing] that “qiě zhèngxuán yǐqián, quán

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Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

bùjiě fǎnyǔ; Tōngsú fǎnyīn, shènhé jìnsú. 且鄭玄以前, 全不解反語; 《通俗》 反音, 甚合近俗.” (Furthermore, before Chen Hsuan, scholars did not understand the argot system, and yet the author of the T’ung-su wen is very familiar with it.) In the chapter Yīncí 音辭 [On Phonology], he also commented that “Sūn Shūrán (Sūn Yán) chuàng Ěrzhì yīnyì, shì hànmòrén dúzhī fǎnyǔ. Zhìyú wèishì, cǐshì dàxíng. 孫叔然( 孫炎) 創《爾稚音義》, 是漢末人獨知反語. 至於魏世, 此事 大行.” (Sun Shu-yen wrote the Erh-ya yin-yi [Pronunciations and meanings of the Erh-ya], which proves that only near the end of Han did scholars begin using the argot spelling system. Its use became popular in the Wei Period.) Fǎnyu 反語 is also a kind of argot since the Six dynasties. Two new words can be generated through the process of zhèngqiè 正切 and dàoqiè 倒切. According to Héshuǐ 河水 [The Yellow River Water] in the fourth volume of Shuǐjīngzhù 水經注 [Commentary on the Water Classic] by Li Daoyuan 酈道元of the Northern Wei dynasty, it is written that “mínyǒu xìngliú míngduò zhě, sùshàn gōngniàng, . . . Páiyú sāngluò zhīchén, gù jiǔde qímíng yǐ. . . . Zì wánggōng shùyǒu, qiānfú xiāngzhāo zhě, měiyún ‘suǒláng yǒugù, sītóng lǚyǔ’. Suǒláng, fǎnyǔ wéi sāngluò yě. 民有姓劉 名墮者, 宿擅工釀, . . . 排于桑落之辰, 故酒得其名矣. . . . 自王公庶友, 牽拂 相招者, 每云‘ 索郎有顧, 思同旅語’. 索郎, 反語爲桑落也.” (There was a man named Liu Duo. He was pretty good at winemaking. . . . The making started when mulberry leaves fell, and that was how the wine got its name. . . . When people were jostling and dragging their companions for a drink, for the nobility or the commons alike, there would always be the urge: “Sir Suo Lang is waiting for us to have a hearty drink”. Suo and Lang is an argot from Sang and Luo.) Liǎoyǔ 了語 is also called jìntóuhuà 盡頭話, witty words in word games. In Páitiáo 排調 [Taunting and Teasing] in Shìshuō xīnyǔ 世説新語 [A New Account of Tales of the World] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Song of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “huánnánjùn yǔ Yīnjīngzhōu yǔcì, yīn gòngzuò liǎoyǔ. Gù Kǎizhī yuē: ‘huǒshāo píngyuán wúyíliáo’. Huán yuē: ‘báibù chánguān shùliúzhào’. Yīn yuē: ‘tóuyú shēnyuān fangfēiniǎo’. 桓南郡與殷荆州語次, 因共作了語. 顧愷之 曰:‘ 火燒平原無遺燎.’ 桓 曰:‘ 白布纏棺豎旒旐.’ 殷曰: ‘ 投魚深淵放飛鳥’.” (Southern Prefectural Duke and Jinzhou Prefectural Governor Yin conversed and co-created witty words, indicating the end of things. Gu Kaizhi said: “The big fire wiped out the plain”. Huan said: “White clothes wrapped the coffin and there rose the prayer flag.” Yin said: “Free the fish to the stream and the birds to the woods”.) Tǐyǔ 體語 is the argot adopting the spelling of fǎnqiè 反切. For example, bùlǜ 不律 is bǐ 筆, and zhōngkuí 終葵 is zhuī 椎. According to Xú Zhīcái zhuàn 徐之 才傳 [The Biography of Xu Zhicai] in Běiqíshū 北齊書 [The Book of the Northern Qi], it is written that “zhīcái cōngbiàn qiángshí, yǒu jiānrén zhīmǐn, yóu hǎo jùtán tǐyǔ, gong sīyánjù, duō xiāngcháoxì. 之才聰辯强識, 有兼人之敏, 尤好劇 談體語, 公私言聚, 多相嘲戲.” (Zhicai is so eloquent and knowledgeable that no one can beat his mental promptness and sensitivity. He is keen on haranguing using argot adopting. Whenever there is a public or private gathering, it is the time for mocking and ridiculing.) In Shēngyùn 聲韻 [On Phonology] in the second volume of Fēngshì wénjiànjì 封氏聞見記 [Hearings and Seeings of Mr. Feng], Feng Yan 封演 (the Tang dynasty) recorded that “Zhōu Yóng hàowéi tǐyǔ, yīncǐ qièzì

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 93 jiēyǒu niǔ, niǔ yǒu píngshǎng qùrù zhīyì. 周顒好爲體語, 因此切字皆有紐, 紐 有平上去入之異.” (Zhou Yong is fond of using argot adopting. Hence, the argot adopting spelling must be related to the doublet which can be distinguished by the level tone, the rising tone, the departing tone, and the entering tone.) During the Tang dynasty, the imperial examination system was put forward, and it continued in the Song dynasty. Accordingly, new words were coined due to this system, and a large number of these words were subordinate words. For instance: Bǎngyuán 榜元 or bǎngshǒu 榜首 refers to the candidate who ranks first in the imperial examination. In the second volume of Yúnxī yǒuyì 雲溪友議 [Notes of Yun Xi] by Fan Shu 范攄 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “(Wénzōng yuánnián qiūshì) Zhǔsī xiānjìn wǔrén, yīshī zuìjiāzhě zé Lǐ Gōng yě . . . Nǎiyǐ bǎngyuán jídì. ( 文宗 元年秋試) 主司先進五人, 一詩最佳者則李肱也 . . . 乃 以榜元及第.” ([In the autumn examination in the first year of Emperor Wenzong] the chief examiner initially handed in poems of five candidates, and it turned out Li Gong was the best. . . . He was thus granted as the candidate who ranked the first in the imperial examination.) In the document Fàngbǎnghòu lùn gòngjǔhéxíng shìjiàn 放榜後論貢舉合行事件 [Proposal for the Talent Selection System Integrating Gong and Ju after Grades Announcement] by Su Shi 蘇軾 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “zìlái shìhè jǔrén, wéinánshěng bǎngshǒu huò běnnchǎng dìyīrén chàngmíng jìnxiàzhě, huòyǒuzhǐ shēng yījiǎ. 自來釋褐 舉人, 惟南省榜首或本場第一人唱名近下者, 或有旨升一甲.” (It is a tradition that only the candidate who ranks the first in the imperial examination or the top candidate in the exam can stand out to be the Southern Provincial nominee and get the glory to be announced under the permission of the emperor.) Sèmùrén 色目人 or bǎnghuā 榜花 refers to candidates who are enrolled in the imperial examination for their rare family names. In the third volume of Nánbù xīnshū 南部新書 [The Southern New Book] by Qian Yi 錢易 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “dàzhōng yǐlái, lǐbù fābǎng, suìqǔ sān’èrrén xìngshì xīpìzhě, wèizhī sèmùrén, yì wèiyuē bǎnghuā. 大中以來, 禮部發榜, 歲取三二人姓氏稀 僻者, 謂之色目人, 亦謂曰榜花.” (Since the Dazhong time, there has been the custom of selecting two to three candidates with rare family names and rewarding them with the title Semuren, also Banghua when the Ministry of Rites announced the exam results.) Bǎngyǎn 榜眼 refers to the candidate who ranks the second in the imperial examination since the Song dynasty. In the poem Sòng dìsānrén Zhū Yán xiānbèi cóngshì hézhōu 送第三人朱嚴先輩從事和州 [A Farewell to the Third Ranking Distinguished Zhu Yan for the Trip to Hezhou as an Office Staff] by Wang Yucheng 王禹偁 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “lìnchuán dōngxià lìyánghú, bǎngyǎn kēmíng shìhèchū. 賃船東下歷陽湖, 榜眼科名釋褐初.” (You rent a boat and row towards the east through the Poyang Lake; as the candidate who ranks the second in the imperial examination, you’ll put on the robe and get into the office gate.) Bǎngtiē 榜帖 is the report verifying a candidate’s admission to the imperial examination. In the fourth volume of Tàipíng qīnghuà 太平清話 [Tales of Taiping

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Era] by Chen Jiru 陳繼儒of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “Sòngcháo Wújùnshì dēngkēzhě shǐyú GōngShí, qíjiā jū kūnshān huánggū, yóucáng dēngdìshí jīnhuā bǎngtiě. 宋朝吴郡士登科者始於龔識, 其家居崑山黄姑, 猶藏登第時金 花榜帖.” (The admission letter of the imperial examination in Wu County was first applied in Gong Shi period in the Song dynasty. He lived in Huanggu, Kunshan, and now the gilded report verifying candidate’s admission of the imperial examination is still enshrined at home.) Bǎngtóu 榜頭 is the first ranking in the examination grades announcement. In the poem Zèng yǒurén 贈友人 [A Farewell to a Friend] by Jia Dao 賈岛of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “quèguī dēngdìrì, míngxìng bǎngtóu pái. 卻歸 登第日, 名姓榜頭排.” (Wish you pass the exam and return one day; top in the examination grades announcement we see your name.) Biétóu 别頭 is the separate examination room to avoid suspicion for candidates who have kinship or other relations with the examiner in the imperial examination. In Dézōngjì xià 德宗紀下 [The Biography of Dezong Part II] in Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “shí’èryuè wùyín, bà lìbù fùkǎo pànguān jí lǐbù biétóu gòngjǔ. 十二月戊寅, 罷吏部復考判官及 禮部别頭貢舉.” (In December, year Wuyin, the re-examiner of the Ministry of Personnel and the separate examination room nominee of Ministry of Rites were suspended.) Bófàng 駁放, also bófàng 駮放, is the withdrawal of the enrollment and the suspension of the candidates in the imperial examination. According to Xīzōngjì xià 僖宗紀下 [The Biography of Xizong Part II] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “lìbù xuǎnrén sùcuò jíchú bófàngzhě, chú shēnmíng yúlàn qiànkǎo wài, bìngyǐ bǐyuǎn cánquè shōuzhù. 吏部選人粟錯 及除駁放者, 除身名渝濫欠考外, 並以比遠殘闕收注.” (If candidates are suspended by the Ministry of Personnel due to minor mistakes, they can be recruited with the label ‘Biyuan canque’ unless there is the illegal surrogating or absence in the examination.) In Zhìkē 制科 [On Talent Selection] of the second volume of Fēngshì wénjiànjì 封氏聞見記 [Hearings and Seeings of Mr. Feng], Feng Yan 封 演 of the Tang dynasty recorded that “jīn yuánwài chuīmáo qiúxiá, wùzài bófàng, zé xiǎorén yěquèxún guīlù. 今員外吹毛求瑕, 務在駁放, 則小人也却尋歸路.” (Now the ministry councillor keeps caviling to the withdrawal of the enrollment of the candidate. That is not decent.) Chūnbǎng 春榜 is the grades announcement of the imperial examinations held in spring. In the poem Zèng tónglú Fángmíngfǔ xiānbèi 赠桐廬房明府先 輩 [For Distinguished Tonglu County Magistrate Fang] by Xu Hun 許渾 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “dìchéng chūnbǎng zhélíngxiān, sìhǎi shēnghuá èrshínián. 帝城春榜謫靈仙, 四海聲華二十年.” (Listed in the grades announcement of the imperial examinations held in spring in emperor city, you are more intelligent than the celestials; well-known throughout the country; your reputation has shone for twenty years.) Chūnguān 春關 is the registration of the imperial examination nominees in the Tang and the Song dynasties. The certificate is also called chūnguān 春關. In the poem Chóu Lú Tīng jiànyì 酬盧汀諫議 [A Poem in Return to Censor Lu Ting]

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 95 by Yao He 姚合 of the Tang dynasty), it is written that “yáohè láinián èrsānyuè, cǎiyī xiānbèi guò chūnguān. 遥賀來年二三月, 彩衣先輩過春關.” (Wish you get enrolled in the registration of the imperial examination nominees and put on the glory robe; this will not be far in February or March next year.) In the poem Sòng Chén Tiānyǔ dàjiān tóngnián shǐmǐn 送陳天宇大監同年使閩 [A Sendoff for the Major Censor Chen Tianyu Enrolled the Same Year Leaving for Fujian Province] by Fan Chengda 范成大of the Song dynasty, it is written that “chūnguān shízǎi jì yīngyóu, zǎoxǐ shícái jìncǎiliú. 春關十載記英遊, 蚤喜時才近采旒.” (Ten years since the registration of the imperial examination nominees witnesses you as outstanding, your talent has been appreciated by the emperor.) Chūnxuǎn 春選 or chūnwéi 春闈 is imperial examinations held around the spring. In the Tang dynasty, the examination was between the spring and the summer; in the Song dynasty, the local examination was during August; the examination of the Ministry of Rites was in February the following year, and the palace examination was in April. In the poem Sòng Xiānglǐ xiùcái zhī Kuāngshān guózǐjiàn 送相里秀才之匡山國子監 [A Sendoff for Scholar Xiangli for Kuangshan Imperial College] by Li Zhong 李中of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yèchéng zǎofù chūnwéiyuē, yàoshǐ jiāmíng hǎinèiwén. 業成早赴 春闈約, 要使嘉名海内聞.” (As one completes his/her study, one must attend the examinations held around the spring, so that one will earn the reputation throughout the country.) In Zhíguānzhì èr 職官志二 [Civilian officials Records II] in Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “yìyǒu chūnzhōng xiàjiě ér hòují, wèizhī chūnxuǎn. 亦有春中下解而後集, 謂 之春選.” (There are also provincial examinations in the middle or late spring, which is called Chūnxuǎn 春選.) Cèxué 策學 is essay collections offering instructions to the imperial examination candidates. In Xuē Dēng zhuàn 薛登傳 [The Biography of Xue Deng] in Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “yúshì hòushēng zhītú, fùxiāng fǎngxiào, yīnlòu jiùguǎ, fùsù yāoshí, jīzhuì xiǎowén, míngzhī cèxué. 於是後生之徒，復相仿效, 因陋就寡, 赴速邀時, 緝綴小文, 名 之策學.” (Therefore, candidates afterward kept following the example, and were reluctant to improve the situation. They made haste and asked for speed. So, they edited and collected the short essays and named them cèxué 策學 [assistance in learning].) Cèmù 策目 or cètí 策題 refers to questions that were used in the imperial examination. In the poem Dàishū shīyībǎiyùn jì Wēizhī 代書詩一百韻寄微之 [One Hundred Rhyme Poems to Weizhi] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “cèmù chuānrúzhá, fēngháo ruìruòzhuī. Yuánzhù: ‘shíyǔ Wēizhī jiéjí cèlüè zhīmù, qíshù zhì bǎishí’. 策目穿如札, 鋒毫鋭若錐. 原注: ‘時與微之 結集策略之目, 其數至百十’.” (Questions in the paper are densely sequenced as wood chips, and tips of writing brushes are as sharp as awls. The origin note goes “at that time, Weizhi and I composed the examination question list, and there were hundreds and thousands of them”.) In the sixth volume of Lǎoxué’ān bǐjì 老學庵 筆記 [Notes in the Old Study] by Lu You 陸游 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “guóchū jǔrén duìcè, jiē xiānxiě cètí, rán cètí bùguò yī’èrshí jù. Qíhòu cètí

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Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

jìnduō, ér xiětí rúchū, jǔrén shèn yǐwéikǔ. 國初舉人對策, 皆先寫策題, 然策題 不過一二十句. 其後策題寖多, 而寫題如初, 舉人甚以爲苦.” (In the early days, when candidates attended the imperial examination, they always wrote questions first in that the passage only contained ten to twenty sentences. Later, despite the number of questions gradually increased, the custom of writing the questions first continued, which became a real burden to the candidates.) Tíngshì 廷試 or diànshì 殿試 refers to the final imperial examination for the top candidates. The emperor presides over the examination in the imperial palace. In Xuǎnjǔzhì yī 選舉志一 [Talent Selection History I] in Sòngshǐ 宋史 [History of the Song dynasty], it is written that “fán tíngshì, dì qīnyuèjuàn lěirì, zǎixiàng lǚqǐng yíguī yǒusī, shǐzhàosuì mìngguān zhīshì. 凡廷試, 帝親閱卷累日, 宰相 屢請宜歸有司, 始詔歲命官知事.” (Before the final imperial examination, the emperor grades exam papers in person for days, and the prime minister invites the related officials frequently. That is the beginning of appointing palace examination examiner every year.) Jièyuán 解元 or jiětóu 解頭 is the first ranking in the provincial imperial examination. In Yōuxián gǔchuī 幽閑鼓吹 [Drums and Pipes from Amidst the Dark] by Zhang Gu 張固 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Zhāng Zhèngfǔ wéi Hénányǐn, Péizhōnglìng xiánmìng dàihuáixī, zhìyàn fǔxītíng. Péigōng jǔyīrén cíyì hǎo jiětóu. Zhāngxiànggōng zhèngsè yuē: ‘Xiànggōng cǐxíng héwéi yě? Zhēngjìde Hénánfǔ jiětóu?’ zhōnglìngyǒu cánsè. 張正甫爲河南尹, 裴中令銜命 代淮西, 置宴府西亭. 裴公舉一人詞藝好解頭. 張相公正色曰:‘ 相公此行何爲 也? 争記得河南府解頭?’ 中令有慙色.” (Zhang Zhengfu was the chief commissioner of Henan County. The head of the secretariat Pei was ordered to subjugate Huaixi, and he feasted at Fuxiting. Sir Pei complemented one of the candidates who passed the provincial imperial examination as good first ranking on his excellent wording. Sir Zhang put on a stern countenance and said: “Sir have you forgotten your purpose of the trip? Do you only remember the first ranking of Henan?” The head of the secretariat blushed.) In Wéi děngdì hòu fāng jídì 爲等 第後方及第 [Upgradation from Provincial Examination Candidate to Imperial Examination Candidate] in Tángzhíyán 唐摭言 [Novel Collection in the Tang dynasty] by Wang Dingbao 王定保 of the Five dynasties), it is written that “nàihé qǔshě zhīyuán, dàibù zhǒngcǐ? Huò jièyuán yǒngchù, huò gāoděng xúnxiū. 奈何 取捨之源, 殆不踵此? 或解元永黜, 或高等尋休.” (The inclusion and the exclusion do not follow this rule. It may remove the title of the first ranking forever, or soon deny the academic excellence.) Jièfù 解副 is the second ranking in the provincial imperial examination in the Tang dynasty. In Yōuxián gǔchuī 幽閑鼓吹 [Drums and Pipes from Amidst the Dark] by Zhang Gu 張固 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “qiáoyí zhēngróng, shènyí yǐ jiěfù jiànzhī. 喬彝峥嶸, 甚宜以解副薦之.” (Qiao Yi was extraordinary; we should recommend him as the second ranking.) Jièshì 解試 is the imperial examination held in prefectures in the Tang and the Song dynasties, namely the provincial examination in the Ming and the Qing dynasties. In Huìhèn 恚恨 (Resentment) of Tángzhíyán 唐摭言 [Novel Collection in the Tang dynasty] by Wang Dingbao 王定保 of the Five dynasties, it is written

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 97 that “Lújí zhōuzhào, kāichéng zhōng, jiù Jiāngxī jièshì, wéi shìguān bùsòng. 蘆 吉州肇, 開成中, 就江西解試, 爲試官不送.” (In the middle of Kaicheng Era, Lu Zhao from Jizhou went to attend the imperial examination held in prefectures of Jiangxi. The examiner did not select him.) Jiěbǎng 解榜 is the enrollment announcement content of jièshì 解試 (prefectural imperial examination) in the Tang and the Song dynasties. In Bǔyí sān 補遺 三 [Supplementary III] in Tángyǔlín 唐語林 [The Jottings of the Tang dynasty] by Wang Dang 王讜 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “qíxī hūkòushì yuànmén . . . shìguān Shěnguāng fāzhī, yuē: ‘wén jiěbǎngnèi yǒurén, céngyǔ Lù Yán zuòwénshū zhě, yǎnglàxià’.” 其夕忽叩試院門 . . . 試官沈光發之, 曰: ‘ 聞解 榜内有人, 曾與路岩作文書者, 仰落下.’” (In the evening, suddenly someone knocked at the door of the examination institution. . . . The examiner checked the post and said: “It is reported that the candidate listed in the enrollment announcement content of Xieshi was once the assistant of Lu Yan; as a result, he will be disenrolled”.) Zhuàngyuán 狀元 or tíngkuí 廷魁 is the champion in the final imperial examination in the palace. In Xiè’ēn 謝恩 [Gratitude to the Chief Examiner] in Tángzhíyán 唐摭言 [Novel Collection in the Tang dynasty] by Wang Dingbao 王定 保 of the Five dynasties, it is written that “Zhuàngyuán yǐxià, dào zhǔsī zháimén xiàmǎ, zhuìxíng érlì, liǎnmíngzhǐ tōngchéng. 狀元已下, 到主司宅門下馬, 缀行 而立，斂名纸通呈.” (On the arrival at the chief examiner’s residence, the champion and other graduates all get off the horses, stand in a line according to their ranking, hand in their name cards, and wait for the notification.) In the second volume of Huīzhǔ qiánlù 揮麈前録 [The Former Record of Wielding Duster] by Wang Mingqing 王明清 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “hòu shùshínián, Lǐ Shìměi, Hé Wénzhěn yìyǐ tíngkuí zhìdǐngxí. 後數十年, 李士美、何文縝亦以 廷魁至鼎席.” (In the later decades, Li Shimei and He Wenzhen both served as prime minister since they were champions.) Jiǎdì 甲第 or yǐdì 乙第 refers to the first-class and second-class candidates in the imperial examination. In Yú Shào zhuàn 于邵傳 [The Biography of Yu Shao] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is recorded that “dúgū shòujǔ bóxué hóngcí, lìbù kǎowéi yǐděng, zài zhōngshū shēng jiǎkē, rénchēng qídāng. 獨孤授舉博學宏詞, 吏部考爲乙等, 在中書升甲科, 人稱其 當.” (Dugu Shou was enrolled as knowledgeable expert in literary, the secondclass candidate in the Ministry of Personnel, while he was upgraded to the firstclass candidate in the Central Secretariat, which was praised as more appropriate.) In Xuǎnjǔzhì shàng 選舉志上 [Talent Selection History I] of Xīntángshū 新唐書 [The New Book of the Tang dynasty], it is recorded that “fán jìnshì, shì shíwùcè wǔdào, tiě yīdàjīng, jīngcè quántōng wéi jiǎdì, cè tōngsì, tiěguò sìyǐshàng wéi yǐdì. 凡進士, 試時務策五道, 帖一大經, 經策全通爲甲第, 策通四, 帖過四以 上爲乙第.” (Imperial examination candidates were required to answer five questions on current affairs and cloze from essential classic books. Those who were both proficient in the classics and the policies were ranked as first-class candidate; those who managed four questions and four pieces of cloze were ranked as the second-class candidates.)

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Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

Kēchǎng 科埸 is the place where the imperial examination is held. It also refers to the imperial examination. In the first volume of Guītiánlù 歸田録 [Return to Nature] by Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “Sūn Hé yǔ Lǐ Shùjī tóngzài kēchǎng. 孫何與李庶幾同在科場.” (Sun He and Li Shuji were all at the place where the imperial examination is held.) It is recorded in Yǔ Zēng shěrén shū 與曾舍人書 [To Distinguished Zeng] that “jīnsuì kēchǎng, ǒuzhì xiájǔ, xùdé yǎngzhì, yùqī yuǎndào, cǐbǐliè zhīwàng yě. 今歲科場, 偶滯遐舉, 畜德養志, 愈期遠到, 此鄙劣之望也.” (This year in the place where the imperial examination is held, though lofty ambition was accidentally stagnated, you should maintain virtue and morale; be sophisticated with a big vision. It’s my humble wish for you.) Kēmù 科目 is the subjects that distinguish government official selection for different departments. In the sixth volume of Yúnlù mànchāo 雲麓漫抄 [Yunlu Notes] by Zhao Yanwei 趙彦衛 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “Táng kēmù zhìfán, Tángshū duō bùzài. 唐科目至繁, 《唐書》多不載.” (Until the Tang dynasty, subjects were especially complicated; there were few records in The Book of the Tang dynasty.) In Yáng Wǎn zhuàn 楊綰傳 [The Biography of Yang Wan] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is recorded that “suǒyǐ shí chuí’ěrzhě jiē xiǎoyú, jiù kēmùzhě jiē xiǎoyì. 所以食垂 餌者皆小魚, 就科目者皆小藝.” (Hence, only the tiddlers bite the bait, and only the under-intelligent attends the subjects.) Kēmíng 科名 is the scholarly honor or official rank drawn from the imperial examination. In Dá Chén Shēng shū 答陳生書 [A Reply to Chen Sheng] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “zǐ jíjíyú kēmíng, yǐ bùdéjìn wéi qīnzhīxiū zhě, huòyě. 子汲汲於科名, 以不得進爲親之羞者, 惑也.” (You are eager and anxious to attain the scholarly honour, taking the failure for not being the nominee as a shame for your parents. Addlehead!) In addition, it refers to the imperial examination subjects. In Qǐxiàn 企羡 [Admiration] of Tángyǔlín 唐語 林 [The Jottings of the Tang dynasty] by Wang Dang 王讜 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “yǒuyǐ kēmíng duìzhě, bìyǒuxǐ, biànwèn suǒfù shīfù tíbìng zhǔsī xìngmíng. 有以科名對者, 必有喜, 便問所賦詩赋題並主司姓名.” (If some courtiers replied with the scholarly honor, the emperor would be of great delight and further requested the poems and questions they made in the examination and even the name of the chief examiner.) As for Kǒushì 口試 and mòshì 墨試, the former is the oral examination; the latter is the written examination, and the candidates are required to write their answers on the paper. In Xuǎnjǔzhì shàng 選舉志上 [Talent Selection History I] of Xīntángshū 新唐書 [The New Book of the Tang dynasty], it is recorded that “fán míngjīng, xiān tiěwén, ránhòu kǒushì. Yòu: ‘Fan shūxué, xiān kǒushì, tōngnǎi mòshì Shuōwén, Zìlín èrshítiáo, tōngshíbā wéidì. 凡明經, 先帖文, 然 後口試. 又: ‘ 凡書學, 先口試, 通乃墨試《説文》、《字林》二十條, 通十八 爲第’.” (All the candidates of the classic books should take the exam of cloze from essential classic books and then the oral exam. Furthermore, “All the candidates of the calligraphy should take the oral exam first and then the written examination of Origin of Chinese Characters and twenty pieces of On Chinese Characters. Those who correctly answer eighteen pieces shall pass”.)

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 99 Regarding Kǒuyì 口義 and mòyì 墨義, the former is the oral exam of theories in the classic books in the imperial examination; the latter is the written exam of theories in the classic books in the imperial examination. In Xiànzōngjì shàng 憲 宗紀上 [The Biography of Xianzong Part I] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is recorded that “Rénshēn, lǐbù jǔrén, bàshì kǒuyì, shì mòyì shítiáo, wǔjīng tōngwǔ, míngjīng tōngliù, jífàng jìnshì. 壬申, 禮部舉人, 罷 試口義, 試墨義十條, 五經通五, 明經通六, 即放進士.” (In the year of Renshen, the Ministry of Rites selected talents. They proposed to cancel the oral exam and retained with a dozen pieces of classic theories. Candidates who accomplished five pieces of the five classics and six pieces of other classic theories would get the permission to be nominated.) Shěngshì 省試 is the examination held by the Ministry of Rites of the Department of State Affairs in the Tang and the Song dynasties. In the letter of Jì Yáng Màoqīng jiàoshū 寄楊茂卿校書 [A Letter to Jiaoshu Yang Maoqing] by Yao He 姚合 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “dàojīng jiùshěngshì, luòjí xiānyǒumíng. 到京就省試, 落籍先有名.” (I went to the capital for the examination held by province; before the exam my name was excluded.) In Guī Chóngjìng zhuàn 歸崇敬傳 [The Biography of Gui Chongjing] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is recorded that “shěngshì sānrì, guānqí suǒshí, yìshǎo liǎngdào, yìqǐng jiānshōu. 省試三日, 觀其所實, 義少兩道, 亦請兼收.” (During the three-day examination held by the province, we observed and judged his real performance. The candidate can be admitted with two pieces fewer than the official requirement in the classic theories exam.) Qiūshì 秋試 is the prefectural examination to select talents in the Tang and the Song dynasties. In the poem Zhōngqiūyè shìyuàn jì Zǐpíng 中秋夜試院寄子平 [A Mid-Autumn Letter to Ziping in the Examination Institution] (Wen Tong 文 同 of the Song dynasty), it is recorded that “rénjiān zhòngcǐxī, yīsuì hàojiāshǎng, érwǒ dūqiūshì, suǒsù mìrúcáng. 人間重此夕, 一歲號佳賞, 而我督秋試, 鏁宿 密如藏.” (The mortal world cherishes this night, and names it as annual glorious gift. Whereas tonight I am superintending the prefectural examination to select talents, locked up in this secret courtyard.) Qiūgòng 秋貢 or qiūfù 秋賦 refers to the prefectural examination held in autumn to recommend talents to the imperial court in the Tang and the Song dynasties. In the poem Sòng yǒurén xiàdì guīníng 送友人下第歸寧 [A Farewell to My Homecoming Friend Who Failed the Exam] by Yu Fu 喻鳧 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “xuányīng fùqiūgòng, jùde jiǔchénghuān. 旋應赴秋 貢, 詎得久承歡.” (Soon you will set out for the prefectural examination held in autumn; hardly possible to attend your parents again.) In Yǐ qírén bùchēngcái shì ér hòujīng 以其人不稱才試而後驚 [Astonishment at the Mismatch Between the Appearance and Talent after the Examination] in Tángzhíyán 唐摭言 [Novel Collection in the Tang dynasty] by Wang Dingbao 王定保 of the Five dynasties, it is recorded that “línghú wéngōng zhèn Sānfēng, shíjí qiūfù, tèzhì wǔchǎng shì. 令狐 文公鎮三峰, 時及秋賦, 特置五場試.” (Duke Wen of Linghu once reigned Sanfeng. When it was the time for the prefectural examination held in autumn, he particularly held five examinations.)

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Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

Qiūkè 秋課 refers to written exercises for imperial examination candidates. The poem Sòng yǒurén zhī lǐngwài 送友人之嶺外 [A Farewell to My Friend for Lingwai (South to the Five Ridges)] by Guan Xiu 貫休 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “yīnáng qiūkèkǔ, wànlǐ zhàngyúnkāi. 一囊秋課苦, 萬里瘴雲開.” (Though written exercises are onerous and suffering, the dense miasma will definitely disperse.) Qiūjuàn 秋卷 are the poems and essays composed by candidates who fail the imperial examination but hang on and study in the capital city through the summer. In the poem Sòng Cuī Yuē xiàdì guī Yángzhōu 送崔約下第歸揚州 [A Farewell to Cui Yue Back to Yangzhou after Failing the Imperial Examination] by Yao He 姚合of the Tang dynasty), it is recorded that “chūnfēng xiàdì shíchēngqū, qiūjuàn chéngqīn zìshùguī. 春風下第時稱屈, 秋卷呈親自束歸.” (It is unfair that the spring imperial examination disappointed you. Do take back your essays and we will appreciate them together.) Zuòzhǔ 座主 is the chief examiner in the imperial examination during the Tang and the Song dynasties. In the second volume of Tángguóshǐ bǔ 唐國史補 [Supplementary to the Tang dynasty History] by Li Zhao 李肇 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “[Jìnshì] hùxiāng tuījìn wèizhī xiānbèi, jùjié wèizhī tóngnián, yǒusī wèizhī zuòzhǔ. [ 進士] 互相推進謂之先輩, 俱捷謂之同年, 有司謂之座主.” ([Successful candidates in the highest imperial examinations] habitually called the former candidates distinguished brothers, graduates in the same examination as the same year, and the examination presiding officials as chief examiner.) In the poem Jiàoyì zèng Yǒngshū hé Yǔyù 較藝赠永叔和禹玉 [A Comparison Among Myself, Yongshu and Yuyu] by Mei Yaochen 梅堯臣 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “Jīnkàn zuòzhǔ yǔménshēng, shìshì xiāngtóng jǔshìróng. 今看座主 與門生, 事事相同舉世榮.” (Now you are the chief examiner and me the candidate; you row in one boat and enjoy the glory.) There are countless subordinate compound words for general object terms in Middle Chinese, among which some words reflect the development of technology, production, economy, and social life in the medieval times of China, as can be seen in the following examples. Fēichē 飛車 is a kind of vehicle that can fly with the wind. In the eighth volume of Bówùzhì 博物志 [A Natural History] by Zhang Hua 張華 of the Jin dynasty, it is recorded that “Qígōngguó, qímín shànjīqiǎo, yǐshā bǎiqín; néngwéi fēichē, cóngfēng yuǎnxíng. 奇肱國, 其民善機巧, 以殺百禽; 能爲飛車, 從風遠行.” (People in Qigong were proficient in making machinery. They killed hundreds of birds and manufactured flying coasters. It could fly to the far distance with the wind.) In the poem Jīnshān miàogāotái 金山妙高臺 [Miao Hathpace in Jinshan Mountain] by Su Shi 蘇軾of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “wǒyù chéngfēichē, dōngfǎng Chìsōngzǐ. 我欲乘飛車, 東訪赤松子.” (I’d like to ride the coaster with the wind, and visit the ancient celestial Chisongzi in the east.) Fēiqián 飛錢 is somewhat like the current cheque and bank draft, which can be traced back to the Xianzong era in the Tang dynasty. In Shíhuòzhì sì 食貨 志四 [Food and Money in Ancient China IV] of Xīntángshū 新唐書 [The New Book of the Tang dynasty], it is recorded that “shí shānggǔ zhìjīngshī, wěiqián

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 101 zhūdào jìnzòuyuàn jí zhūjūn, zhūshǐ fùjiā, yǐqīngzhuāng qūsìfāng, héquàn nǎi qǔzhī, hào fēiqián. 時商賈至京師, 委錢諸道進奏院及諸軍, 諸使富家, 以輕 裝趨四方, 合券乃取之, 號飛錢.” (At that time, when merchants arrived at the capital city, they entrusted their money to the various prefectural–capital office, military, and the well-offs, so that they could trade anywhere with a light pack. Two parts of the cheque joined together would enable the withdrawal. This was called feiqian 飛錢.) Gōngyì 工藝 refers to the skills of manufacturing hand-made crafts. In Tián Lìdé zhuàn 闐立德傳 [The Biography of Tian Lide] of Xīntángshū 新唐書 [The New Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “Fù Pí, wèi Suí diànnèi shàojiān, běnyǐ gōngyì jìn, gù Lìdé yǔdì Lìběn jiē jīqiǎo yǒusī. 父毗, 爲隋殿内少監, 本以 工藝進, 故立德與弟立本皆機巧有思.” (His father Pi was the supervisor assistant in the Sui court. Since the father was selected for his gift of craft, the elder son Lide and the younger son Liben were equipped with the mechanical thought.) Huǒchē 火車 is one kind of war wagon in ancient times used to conduct a fire attack. In Gāodìjì shàng 高帝紀上 [The Biography of Emperor Gao I] of Nánqíshū 南齊書 [The Book of the Southern Qi dynasty], it is written that “Éqǐng, zéimǎbù yǎnzhì, yòu tuīhuǒchē shùdào, gōngzhàn, xiāngchí yírì. 俄頃, 賊馬步奄至，又 推火車數道, 攻戰, 相持移日.” (In a moment, the enemy cavalry and infantry suddenly came with several fire wagons. The attack began and persisted for a long time.) In Mǎ Suì zhuàn 馬燧傳 [The Biography of Ma Sui] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “suì nǎilìng tuī huǒchē yǐ fén qízhà. 燧乃令推火車以焚其栅.” (Sui then commanded soldiers to push the fire wagons to fire the enemy camp.) Huǒjǐng 火井 refers to a natural gas well. China has a long history of using natural gas. In the areas of Ba and Shu, the digging of huǒjǐng 火井 had been started in the Western Han dynasty. The well was used to boil the salt off the water. Records about huǒjǐng 火井 could be easily found after the Wei and the Jin dynasties. In Shǔdū fù 蜀都赋 [The Ode of the Shu Capital] by Zuo Si 左 思 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “huǒjǐng shěnyíng yúyōuquán, gāoyàn fēishān yútiānchuí. 火井沈熒於幽泉, 高焰飛煽於天垂.” (The natural gas well deeply glimmers under the ground, but the flame can rise high to the skyline.) Liu Kui 劉逵 gave a further explanation that “Shǔjùn yǒuhuǒjǐng, zài línqióngxiàn xīnán. Huǒjǐng, yánjǐng yě. 蜀郡有火井, 在臨邛縣西南. 火井, 鹽井也.” (There is a natural gas well in Shu prefecture. It is located in the southwest of Linqiong county. The natural gas well is the salt well.) In Shǔzhì 蜀志 [The Record of Shu] of Huáyángguózhì 華陽國志 [Records of the Huayang Kingdom] by Chang Qu 常璩 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “Línqióngxiàn. . . . Yǒu huǒjǐng, yèshí guāngyìng shàngzhāo, mínyù qíhuǒ, xiānyǐ jiāhuǒ tóuzhī, qīngxǔ rúléishēng, huǒyàn chū, tōngyào shùshílǐ. 臨邛縣 . . . 有火井, 夜時光映上昭, 民欲其火, 先 以家火投之, 傾許如雷聲, 火焰出, 通燿數十里.” (There is a natural gas well . . . in Linqiong county. In the night, its flare illuminates the darkness. If people want it to inflame up, they must cast down fire as the lighter. After a short while, the flame will blow out and roar like thunder. Its brightness can travel for tens of li [a Chinese unit of length, approximately equal to 590 yards].) In the third volume of

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Bówùzhì 博物志 [A Natural History] by Zhang Hua 張華 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “Línqióng huǒjǐng yīsuǒ, zòngguǎng wǔzhàng, shēn èrsānzhàng. 臨 邛火井一所, 縱廣五丈, 深二三丈.” (The natural gas well in Linqiong County is five zhang [a Chinese unit of length, equal to three and one/third meters] wide and two to three zhang deep.) According to Jiāngshuǐ yī 江水一 [The Yangtze River I] of Shuǐjīngzhù 水經注 [Commentary on the Water Classic] by Li Daoyuan 酈道元 of the Northern Wei dynasty, it is written that “jiāngshuǐ yòujìng línqióngxiàn, Wángmǎng zhī jiānqióng yě. Xiàn yǒu huǒjǐng yánshuǐ, hūnyè zhīshí, guāngxīng shàngzhào. 江水又逕臨邛縣, 王莽之監邛也. 縣有火井鹽水，昏 夜之時，光興上照.” (The Yangtze River runs through Linqiong County, where Wang Mang reigns. There is a natural gas well and saltwater. When the night falls, its blaze can light up to the ground.) Huǒfǎng 火舫, huǒchuán 火船, or huǒjiàn 火艦 refers to warships that are equipped with fire attack devices. In Xú Shìpǔ zhuàn 徐世譜傳 [The Biography of Xu Shipu] of Chénshū 陳書 [History of the Chen dynasty], it is written that “Shí jǐngjūn shènshèng, Shìpǔ nǎi biézào lóuchuán, pāijiàn, huǒfǎng, shuǐchē, yǐyì jūnshì. 時景軍甚盛, 世譜乃别造樓船、拍艦、火舫、水車, 以益軍勢.” (At that time, the Jing army was quite strong, therefore, Shipu built other towered ships, catapult ships, warships with fire attack devices, and water racer ships to enhance their military power.) In Jìngzōngjì 敬宗紀 [The Biography of Jingzong] of Wèishū 魏書 [History of the Wei dynasty], it is written that “Dūdū Lǐ Miáo yǐhuǒchuán fénhéqiáo. 都督李苗以火船焚河橋.” (Governor Li Miao adopted warships with fire attack devices to burn down the bridge.) In Wáng Sēngbiàn zhuàn 王僧辯傳 [The Biography of Wang Sengbian] of Nánshǐ 南史 [The History of the Southern dynasties], it is written that “shìrì, zéifù gōngchéng bùkè, yòuwéi huǒjiàn shāozhà, fēng bùbiàn, zìfén értuì. 是日, 賊復攻城不剋, 又爲火艦燒栅， 風不便, 自焚而退.” (This day, the enemy restarted the siege but failed again. They used the warships with fire attack devices to attack the camp; but with no favorable wind, the warships with fire attack devices burned out themselves and retreated.) Huǒjiàn 火箭 refers to weapons that shoot lighters to start the fire attack. In Wèishū Míngdìjì 魏書· 明帝紀 [The Book of Wei The Biography of Emperor Ming] of Sānguózhì 三國志 [History of the Three Kingdoms], it is written that “Zhūgě Liàng wéi Chéncāng” 諸葛亮圍陳倉 (Zhuge Liang surrounded Chencang country.) It is recorded in the note from Wèilüè 魏略 [Chronicles of the State of Wei] by Yu Huan 魚豢 of the State of Wei that “(Hǎo) Zhāo yúshì yǐhuǒjiàn nìshè qíyúntī, tīrán, tīshàngrén jiē shāosǐ. ( 郝) 昭於是以火箭逆射其雲梯, 梯燃, 梯上人皆燒死.” ([Hao] Zhao hence ordered to shoot back to the scaling ladders using fire arrows. The ladders were soon in flame and people climbing up were all burned to death.) In the poem Wǎnqiū yǎnchéng yèhuì liánjù 晩秋郾城夜會聯句 [Night Meeting Composing Joint Sentence Poem in Late Autumn Yan County] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “É’é yúntī xiáng, hèhè huǒjiàn zhù. 峨峨雲梯翔, 赫赫火箭著.” (The scaling ladder rears into the clouds, and the raging fire arrow brightens the sky.) Jiǎojià 脚價, jiǎoqián 脚錢, jiǎoyōng 脚傭, or jiǎofèi 脚費 all refer to carriage expense. In Dōngzhì dàlǐ shèzhì 冬至大禮赦制 [A Great Bless of a General

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 103 Amnesty in Winter Solstice] by Lu Zhi 陸䞇 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “rú shānlù xiǎnzǔ, chēchéng nántōng, réngzhào pínrén, lìngqí bānyùn, yǐmǐ chōng jiǎojià. 如山路險阻, 車乘難通, 仍召貧人, 令其搬運, 以米充脚價.” (If danger and obstacles in the mountain road hinder the pass of vehicles, destitute people could be recruited as porters. The rice can be their carriage expense.) In Wèi Hénánfǔ bǎixìng sùchē 爲河南府百姓訴車 [A Plea for Wagons for Henan County Commons] by Yuan Zhen 元稹 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “měichéng měilǐ jiǎoqián sānshíwǔwén, yuējì cóngdōngdū zhìxíngyíngsuǒ bābǎi yúlǐ, qián èrqiānbāwén. 每乘每里脚錢三十五文, 約計從東都至行營所八百餘 里, 錢二千八文.” (If thirty-five coins expense for per vehicle per li, then the eight-hundred-li trip from Dongdu to the headquarter takes two thousand eight hundred coins.) In Zhāng Jiànfēng zhuàn 張建封傳 [The Biography of Zhang Jianfeng] of Xīntángshū 新唐書 [The New Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “shìshí huànzhě zhǔgōngshì. . . . Zé mògǎn shéihé, dàshuài yǔ zhíshí bùchángyī. Yòuyāo Hūntà suǒfèng jí jiǎoyōng, zhìyǒu zhònghè qūsì ér túfǎn zhě. 是時宦者主宫市 . . . 則莫敢誰何, 大率與直十不償一. 又邀阍闥所奉及脚慵, 至有重荷趨肆而徒返者.” (At the moment, it was the eunuch who presided over Gongshi. . . . No one dared to complain about anything even though the price could not cover one-tenth of the good’s value. The eunuch also intercepted the gate keepers’ goods and the carriage expense. There was a case that people carried great loads to the market but took back nothing.) In Yǔ yòuxiāng tiáojù shìyí zházi 與右相條具事宜劄子 [A Report Itemizing Related Affairs to the Right Minister] by Li Gang 李綱 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “zàimǐhú qiánqù Húběi huíyì, duìbō yīngfù Yuèfēi jūnzhōng, jìyǒu lìxī, yòushěng jiǎofèi, cǐbùkě bùzhī yě. 載米斛前去湖北回易, 兑撥應副岳飛軍中, 既有利息, 又省脚費, 此不可不 知也.” (The officer transported the grains to Hubei for trade and allocated the income to Yue Fei’s troop. It should be acknowledged by all that in this process, interests were generated yet carriage expense was saved.) Shātáng 沙糖, tángshuāng 糖霜, or shímì 石蜜 means sugar. The character táng 糖 cannot be found in the book Shuōwén 説文 [Origin of Chinese Characters]. In volume 13 of Fāngyán 方言 [Dialects], it is written that “xíng wèizhī táng. 餳謂 之餹.” (The maltose is called sugar.) This is the earliest origin of táng 糖 (sugar). Since the Six dynasties, the character has been officially written as táng 糖, referring to cerealose. In Yùpiān Mǐbù 玉篇米部 [Mi Group of Jade Article], it is written that “táng, yíyě. 糖, 飴也.” (Sugar is cerealose.) More disyllabic words appeared then, like shātáng 沙糖, tángshuāng 糖霜, and shímì 石蜜. shātáng 沙 糖is the granular crystalloid sugar that is refined from sugarcane juice. The note in Běncǎo 本草 [Chinese Materia Medica] by Liang Hongjing 梁弘景 of the Southern dynasties wrote that Guangzhou sugarcane can be used to “Qǔzhī wéi shātáng” 取汁爲沙糖 (Make sugar from the juice.) According to Táng běncǎo 唐本草 [Tang Materia Medica] by Su Gong 蘇恭 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “shātáng shēng Shǔdì, Xīróng Jiāngdōng bìngyǒuzhī, zuó gānzhèzhī jiānchéng, zǐsè. 沙糖生蜀地, 西戎江東並有之, 笮甘蔗汁煎成, 紫色.” (Granular crystalloid sugar is produced in the Shu area, both in Xirong and Jiangdong. By squeezing the sugarcane and decocting the juice, sugar is thus produced in the

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color of purple.) Tángshuāng 糖霜 is contemporary crystal sugar. There is the record in Tángshuāngpǔ 糖霜譜 [The Crystal Sugar Atlas] by Wang Zhuo 王灼 of the Northern Song that states “Tángdàlì niánjiān yǒusēng hào zōuhéshàng zhě, lǘfàn shānxià Huángshì zhètián, Huáng qǐngchángyú Zōu, Zōu yuē: ‘Rǔ wèizhī yìnzhè wéi tángshuāng, lìdāng shíbèi’. 唐大歷年間有僧號鄒和尚者, 驢犯山下 黄氏蔗田, 黄請償於鄒, 鄒曰: ‘汝未知窨蔗爲糖霜, 利當十倍.’” (In the Dali period of the Tang dynasty, there was a monk whose Buddhist name was Zou Heshang. His donkey trod on the sugarcane plantation of Huang, so Huang asked for compensation: “You have not been aware that the sugar will cellar into crystal sugar, which will be ten times more expensive”.) Shímì 石蜜 can be found in the Han dynasty, which is the granulated sugar. In Qībiàn 七辨 [Seven Strategies of Eloquence] by Zhang Heng 張衡 of the Han dynasty, it is written that “shāxíng shímì, yuǎnguó chǔzhēn. 沙餳石蜜, 遠國儲珍.” (Granulated sugar is the precious food from afar.) In volume 33 of Běncǎo gāngmù 本草綱目 [Compendium of Materia Medica], it is written that “shímì, jí báishātáng yě. 石蜜, 即白沙糖也.” (Shimi is the granulated sugar.) Shāojiǔ 燒酒 is one kind of liquor in the Tang dynasty that is different from current white wine. In the poem Lìzhīlóu duìjiǔ 荔枝樓對酒 [Enjoying Liquor in Lizhi Tower] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “lìzhī xīnshú jīguānsè, shāojiǔ chūkāi hǔpòxiāng. 荔枝新熟雞冠色, 燒酒初開琥珀 香.” (Newly ripened litchis are as red as the cockscomb; newly opened wine is as fragrant as the amber.) In the poem Dàoshǔhòu jì túzhōng jīnglì 到蜀後記途中經 歷 [A Travelogue on the Arrival of Shu] by Yong Tao 雍陶 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “zìdào Chéngdū shāojiǔshú, bùsī shēngēng rù Cháng’ān. 自到成 都燒酒熟, 不思身更入長安.” (The wine had aged since I arrived in Chengdu; its aroma erased my intention to return to Chang’an.) Yárén 牙人, yákuài 牙儈, yáláng 牙郎, or yábǎo 牙保 refers to people or agents setting up transactions in trade. In the second volume of Nìngwáng 甯王 [King Ning] of Jíyìjì 集異記 [A Collection of Legendary Novels] by Xue Yongruo 薛 用弱 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Nìngwáng fāngjí bīnkè, yànhuà zhījì, yùmǎ yárén Qū Shénnú zhě, qǐngchéng èrmǎ yān. 甯王方集賓客, 讌話之際, 鬻 馬牙人麹神奴者, 請呈二馬焉.” (At that moment, King Ning was entertaining guests. When they were chatting together, Qu Shennu, an agent trading horses, plead to present two horses.) In Ān Lùshān zhuàn 安禄山傳 [The Biography of An Lushan] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “jícháng, jiě liùfānyǔ, wèi hùshì yáláng. 及長, 解六蕃語, 爲互市牙郎.” (When he grew up, he could understand six minority languages, so he became an agent in the marketplace.) In Zhāng Yìxīn zhuàn 張義新傳 [The Biography of Zhang Yìxin] of Xīntángshū 新唐書 [The New Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “cháng mǎibì qiānyuē, wèi yákuài sōusuǒ língtū. 嘗買婢遷約, 爲 牙儈搜索陵突.” (He once bought a concubine but later broke the contract. The agent thus came to confiscate and humiliate him.) In volume 86 of Zhàoyànnú 趙燕奴 of Tàipíng guǎngjì 太平廣記 [Records of the Era Taiping], it is written that “xìngshèn jiǎohuì, . . . shìsì jiāoyì, bìwéi yábǎo. 性甚狡慧, . . . 市肆交易, 必爲牙保.” (He was so cunning and wise . . . that whenever there was a trade

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 105 in the market, he must be the agent.) If hù 互 is mistakenly written as yá 牙, then trades between nationalities and countries since the Han and the Wei dynasties should be called hùshì 互市. In Yīng Shào zhuàn 應劭傳 [The Biography of Ying Shao] of Hòuhànshū 後漢書 [The History of the Later Han dynasty], it is written that “(Xiānbēi) gù shùfàn zhàngsāi, qiěwú níngsuì, wéizhì hùshì, nǎilái mífú. ( 鮮卑) 故數犯障塞, 且無寧歲, 唯至互市, 乃來靡服.” ([Xianbei people] constantly invaded the frontier fortress and there were no peaceful days. Only after market began did they pledge allegiance.) Middlemen during trades in hùshì 互市 are called hùláng 互郎. Hù 互 is mistakenly written as yá 牙, so there are sayings of yáláng 牙郎 and yárén 牙人. In Gòngfù shīhuà 貢父詩話 [Notes on Poets and Poetry by Gongfu] by Liu Ban 劉攽of the Song dynasty, it is written that “gǔchēng zǎngkuài, jīnwèi yá yě. Liú Dàoyuán yún: ‘Běnchēng hùláng, zhǔ hùshì, tángrén shūhù wéiyá, yīn éwéi yá’. Lǐhuò xìnrán. 古稱駔儈, 今謂牙也. 劉 道源云: ‘ 本稱互郎, 主互市, 唐人書互爲牙, 因訛爲牙.’ 理或信然.” (In the old time, it was called zǎngkuài 駔儈 and now is called yá 牙. Liu Daoyuan said: “It was originally called hùláng 互郎, the people who will be in charge of trade conducts. While in the Tang dynasty, hù 互 was written as yá 牙, which was adopted in the later use”. This is reasonable and credible.) In Yùpiān Yábù 玉篇· 牙部 [Ya Group of Jade Article] of Chuògēnglù 輟耕録 [Story Recorded during the Farming Slack] by Tao Zongyi 陶宗儀of the Ming dynasty, it is recorded, that “jīnrén wèi zǎngkuàizhě wéi yáláng, běn wèizhī hùláng, wèi zhǔ hùshìshì yě. 今人謂駔 儈者爲牙郎, 本謂之互郎, 謂主互市事也.” (What we now call yáláng 牙郎 for those who trade horses was named as hùláng 互郎 managing transactions.) Yìnbǎn 印板 is the baseboard used for woodblock printing. This word can be traced back to the Five dynasties when the technique of printing was invented. In Jīngjí 經籍 [The Classics] of Wǔdài huìyào 五代會要 [Allusions in the Five dynasties] by Wang Pu 王溥of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “hòutáng Chángxīng sānnián èryuè, zhōngshū ménxià zòuqǐng yīshíjīng wénzì, kèjiǔjīng yìnbǎn. 後唐長興三年二月, 中書門下奏請依石經文字, 刻九經印板.” (Later in the February of the third year of Changxing, the Secretariat–Chancellery applied for engraving nine Confucianist classics baseboard used for printing in terms of classics engraved on stone tablets.) In volume 27 of Zhūzǐ yǔlèi 朱子語類 [Sayings of Zhuzi], it is recorded that “wǒ zhǐshì yīgè yìnbǎn yìnjiāng qù, qiānbù wànbù suīduō, zhǐshì yīgè yìnbǎn. 我只是一個印板印將去, 千部萬部雖多, 只是一個印板.” (I used one baseboard for printing; though hundreds and thousands of books to print, only one baseboard used for printing was enough.) Zuòjù 作具 is tools. In Wèishuǐ 渭水 [Weihe River] of Shuǐjīngzhù 水經注 [Commentary on the Water Classic] by Li Daoyuan 酈道元of the Northern Wei dynasty, it is recorded that “qiǎndìzǐ jí zhūshēng sìyí, fán shíyúwànrén, cāochí zuòjù, zhùjiāng zuòjué Fùhòuzhǒng. 遣弟子及諸生四夷, 凡十餘萬人, 操持作 具, 助將作掘傅后塚.” (More than hundreds of students, followers and people from afar were summoned. They took tools and dug the tomb of Empress Fu.) In the fourth volume of Sòngxíngtǒng 宋刑統 [The Criminal Law in the Song dynasty], it is recorded that “wènyuē: sīzhùqián shìfā, suǒhuò zuòjù jí qiántóng, huò wéifǎ shāmǎniú děngròu, rúcǐ zhīlèi, lǜlìng wúwén, wèizhī hémòguān yǐfǒu?

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問曰: 私鑄錢事發, 所獲作具及錢銅， 或違法殺馬牛等肉, 如此之類, 律令無 文, 未知合没官以否?” (Question: if private coin-making is exposed, then there will be the tools and the coins; if horses or cows are illegally killed, there will be the meat. Since there is no law or decree in response to these situations alike, is it eligible to confiscate them?) Zuòjù 作具 also particularly refers to instruments of punishment for torturing the criminals. In Yùshǐtáijì 御史臺記 [Records of Imperial Inspection and Supervision Official] of Tàipíng guǎngjì 太平廣記 [Records of the Era Taiping] (volume 267), it is recorded that “qiúrén wúguìjiàn, bìxiān lièjiā yúdì, zhàoqiú qiányuē: ‘cǐshì zuòjù’. Jiànzhī húndǎn fēiyuè, wúbù zìwū zhě. 囚人無貴賤, 必先列枷於地, 召囚前曰: ‘ 此是作具.’ 見之魂膽飛越, 無不自誣 者.” (Regardless of his nobility or ignobility, the criminals must first be presented with the cangues on the ground and informed: “These are tools”. Criminals would be half dead with fright once they see the instruments; as a result, they will confess everything.) Zuōfang 作坊 refers to factories that are responsible for manual manufacturing. In Qiánfú èrnián nánjiāo shè 乾符二年南郊赦 [Nanjiao Amnesty in the Second Year of Qianfu] of Dàtáng zhàolìngjí 大唐詔令集 [Collection of the Tang dynasty Imperial Edicts and Orders], it is recorded that “zhūchù běnzhì zuōfang, zhǐhé zhìzào gāngē bīngjiǎ jí jìnxiàn gōngxū. 諸處本置作坊, 只合製造干戈兵 甲及進獻供需.” (The originally established factories from place to place should only manufacture weapons and armor and provide the imperial demand.) In Qí Fù zhuàn 齊復傳 [The Biography of Qi Fu] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is recorded that “Xiānshí xījīng pànluàn, qiánhòu jīnglüè shǐ zhēngtǎo fǎnzhě, huòqírén jiēmòwéi guānnúbì, pèi zuōfáng zhòngyì. 先時西京 叛亂, 前後經略使征討反者, 獲其人皆没爲官奴婢, 配作坊重役.” (Previously, there were rebellions in the West Capital. The military commissioner sent armed forces to suppress them several times, and all the captured were assigned as servants that did the penal servitude in factories.) In Hòuhàn yǐndì qiányòu sānnián 後漢隱帝乾祐三年 [The Third Year of Qianyou of Emperor Yin in the Later Han dynasty] of Zīzhì tōngjiàn 資治通鑒 [History as A Mirror], it is written that “Chángyè wén zuōfang duànshēng, yíyǒu jíbīng, dádàn bùmèi. 嘗夜聞作坊鍛 聲, 疑有急兵, 達旦不寐.” (He frequently heard the forging sound from factories in the night. Suspecting that there would be a sneak attack, he kept awake until dawn.) In Note from Hu Sanxing 胡三省, it is recorded that “zuōfang, zàobīngjiǎ zhīsuǒ, zuōfangshǐ lǐngzhī. 作坊, 造兵甲之所, 作坊使領之.” (Zuofang, factories manufacturing armor, led by zuofang governor.) In the Old Chinese language, subordinate compound words are mostly nouns. This situation continued until the Middle Chinese language. Only small portions are verbs and adjectives, as shown in the following examples. Cùzhuāng 促裝 means to pack up in a hurry. In the poem Chūqùjùn 初去郡 [On the Way to the County] by Xie Lingyun 謝靈運of the Song of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “gōngchéng gǔrényì, cùzhuāng fǎnzǐjīng. 恭承古人 意, 促裝返紫荆.” (Deferring to ancients’ intentions with great respect, now I am packing up in a hurry to return to Zijing.) In Běishān yíwén 北山移文 [Arguments in Beishan] by Kong Zhigui 孔稚珪of the Qi of the Southern dynasties,

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 107 it is recorded that “jīnyòu cùzhuāng xiàyì, làngzhuài shàngjīng. 今又促裝下邑, 浪拽上京.” (Now he is busy packing the things. In a while he will row a boat to the capital city.) In the seventh volume of Hèlín yùlù 鶴林玉露 [Story Collection by Helin] by Luo Dajing 羅大經of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “jièjiārén bùxǔ shìyīwù, kǒnglèi guīdān, rìrìruò cùzhuāng zhě. 戒家人不許市一物, 恐累 歸擔, 日日若促裝者.” (He warned his family that they could not buy anything more, in case there was too much luggage when they returned. Therefore, they were like travelers packing up in a everyday hurry.) Fǎndòng 反動 is the act of betrayal. In Yáng Yīn zhuàn 楊愔傳 [The Biography of Yang Yin] of Běiqíshū 北齊書 [The Book of the Northern Qi dynasty], it is recorded that “Gāo Guīyàn chūsuī tóngdé, hòuxún fǎndòng, yǐ shūjì zhījì jìngào liǎngwáng. 高歸彦初雖同德, 後尋反動, 以疏忌之跡盡告兩王.” (Gao Guiyan was loyal at the beginning, but later he turned against his companion and leaked all the suspicious thought to the two kings.) Fǎndòng 反動 is also used as the meaning of overturning and reversing a conviction. In the fourth volume of Jíjiù piān 急就篇 [The Reading Primer] by Shi You 史游 of the Han dynasty, it is recorded that “cíqióng qíngde jùyùjiān. 辭窮情得具獄堅.” (The criminals were interrogated and had nothing to justify themselves. Cases were filed firmly for the unquestioning facts.) Yan Shigu 颜師古 noted that “jùchéng qíyù, duànliàn zhōumì, wénzhì jiānláo, bùkě fǎndòng yě. 具成其獄, 鍛煉周密, 文致堅牢, 不 可反動也.” (With all the facts the case was filed, the crime was reassembled without any loophole. Its wording was as strong as iron, so there would not be any reversion.) Hānshuì 鼾睡 refers to snoring during sound sleep. In the poem Sùtiánjiā 宿田 家 [Accommodating in a Peasant Family] by Tang Yanqian 唐彦謙 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “tíngchē xīmáodiàn, ānqǐn zhènghānshuì. 停車息茅 店, 安寢正鼾睡.” (Stop the coach and accommodate in the thatched cottage. In sound sleep they are snoring.) In Xú Xuàn rùpìn 徐鉉入聘 [The Recruitment of Xu Xuan] of Yíngshǐ 桯史 [The History of Yíng], it is recorded that “shàngyùzhī yuē: ‘bùxū duōyán, jiāngnán yìhézuì, dàn tiānxià yījiā, wòtà zhīcè, qǐróng tārén hānshuì yé?’ 上諭之曰: “ 不須多言, 江南亦何罪, 但天下一家, 卧榻之側, 豈 容他人鼾睡耶?’” (The Emperor instructed: “No more words needed. Despite Jiangnan being innocent, the country is like a single house. How is it possible for the master to yield his position in a couch to a stranger and let him sleep?”) Fēifán 非凡 means outstanding. In Lǐ Tōng zhuàn 李通傳 [The Biography of Li Tong] of Hòuhànshū 後漢書 [The History of the Later Han dynasty], it is recorded that “jūn zhuàngmào fēifán, jiāng yǐcǐ ānzhī? 君狀貌非凡, 將以此安 之?” (Gentleman, you are outstanding in character and appearance. How could you set yourself in this situation?) In volume 16 of Sōushénjì 搜神記 [Anecdotes about Spirits and Immortals] by Gan Bao 干寶 of the Jin dynasty, it is recorded that “chángyǒu hǎofùlái, měilì fēifán. 常有好婦來, 美麗非凡.” (A woman often comes to see me, and she is extraordinarily beautiful.) Mìyún 密雲 means the look of crying without tears. In Péiziyǔlín 裴子語林 [Master Pei’s Forest of Tales] by Pei Qi 裴啓 of the Jin dynasty, it is recorded that “yǒurén yì Xiègōng bié, Xiègōng liútì, rénliǎo bùbēi. Jìqù, zuǒyòu yuē: ‘kèshūzì

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mìyún’. 有人詣謝公别, 謝公流涕, 人了不悲. 既去, 左右曰: ‘客殊自密雲’.” (A guest visited Master Xie and bid farewell to him. Master Xie cried to snivel until the guest left. After his leave, attendants noted “This man cried with no tears at all”.) In Fēngcāo 風操 [Customs and Manners] of Yánshì jiāxùn 颜氏家訓 [Family Instructions for the Yen Clan] by Yan Zhitui 顏之推 of the Northern Qi dynasty, it is recorded that “hóusuì mìyún, nǎnrán érchū. 侯遂密雲, 赧然而出.” (The prince, though his countenance was gloomy, shed no tears but blushed as he went out.) Tuìhóng 退紅 is the color pink. In the poem Tí suǒlìnzhái mǔdānhuā 題所賃 宅牡丹花 [Poem Peony Flowers in the Rented House] by Wang Jian 王建of the Tang dynasty), it is recorded that “fěnxiān shēnzǐnì, ròusè tuìhóng jiāo. 粉先深 紫膩, 肉色退紅嬌.” (Pearl-like color to exquisite modern; dazzling flesh-color to tender pink.) In the poem Chānglóu xíng 娼樓行 [To the Bordello] by Wang Zhenbai 王貞白 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “lóngnǎo xiāngdiàoshuǐ, jiāorén rǎntuìhóng. 龍腦香調水, 教人染退紅.” (They mix the dipterocarpaceae into the wine; teach others to dye clothes into pink.) In Zuì gōngzǐ 醉公子 [The Drunk Prince] by Xue Zhaoyun 薛昭蘊 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “Chuángshàng xiǎoxūnlóng, sháozhōu xīntuìhóng. 床上小薰籠, 韶州新退紅.” (On the bed stands a tiny perfume burner; on the face powders the new Shaozhou pink.) Zhǎnxīn 斬新 is the status of being extremely new. In the poem Sānjuéjù 三绝 句 [Three Quatrains] by Du Fu 杜甫of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “qiūshù xīnxiāng yǐdiàojī, zhǎnxīn huāruǐ wèiyīngfēi. 楸樹馨香倚釣磯, 斬新花蕊未應 飛.” (The fragrant rowan leans to the fishing-platform; its extremely new blown flowers should not wither.) In the poem Xǐ shānshíliú huākāi 喜山石榴花開 [Rejoice in the Blossom of the Catunaregam Spinosa] by Bai Juyi 白居易of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yǐlián gēnsǔn zhǎnxīnzāi, háixǐ huākāi yījiùshù. 已憐根損斬新栽, 還喜花開依舊數.” (Planted an extremely new tree for the poor root; felt great delight today as it blossoms luxuriantly.)

2.6 Governable compound words Among compounds produced in medieval China, governable compounds only take a small portion, but there is a wider categorization with nouns and verbs as primary ones. See the following examples. Dāngguān 當關 is the official responsible for guarding the gate, or the doorkeeper. In Yǔ Shān Jùyuán juéjiāo shū 與山巨源绝交書 [Dear John Letter to Shan Juyuan] by Ji Kang 嵇康 of the Wei of the Three Kingdoms, it is written that “wòxǐ wǎnqǐ, érdāngguān hūzhī bùzhì, yībùkān yě. 卧喜晚起, 而當關呼之不置, 一不堪也.” (I feel like to sleep in. It is useless; even the official alarms me. This is the first unendurability.) In the poem Fù píngshàohóu 富平少侯 [The Junior Pingshao Marquis] by Li Shangyin 李商隱 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “dāngguān bùbào qīnchénkè, xīndé jiārén zìmòchóu. 當關不報侵晨客, 新得佳 人字莫愁.” (The official did not report the coming guest in the morning, because the Marquis gets a beautiful lady called Mochou 莫愁.)

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 109 Fēnxiāo 分宵 means at midnight. In Dá Xiāngdōngwáng shū 答湘東王書 [An Answer to Xiangdong King] by Liu Xiaochuo 劉孝綽of the Liang of the Southern dynasty, it is written that “Dàn zhānyán hànguǎng, miǎoruò tiānyá. Qūqū yīniàn, fēnxiāo jiǔshì. 但瞻言漢廣, 邈若天涯. 區區一念, 分宵九逝.” (Wistfully gazing towards Hanguang, it is as far as at the end of the world. Merely thinking of this, I lay sleepless at midnight.) In Gāozōngjì shàng 高宗紀上 [Records of Gaozong I] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is recorded that “yánniàn yōuyǔ, zàicè fēnxiāo. 言念幽圄, 載惻分宵.” (Every time I think of the prisoners, I will sympathize them even at midnight.) In Yè xiānshī 謁先師 [A Formal Visit to the Respectful Master] of Tángzhíyán 唐摭言 [Novel Collection in the Tang dynasty] by Wang Dingbao 王定保 of the Five dynasties, it is written that “yǐyè guānshū, fēnxiāo bùmèi. 乙夜觀書, 分宵不寐.” (Reading at ten in the night, I stayed up late until midnight.) Fúlǎo 扶老 is another term for qióngzhú 筇竹 (qiongzhuea tumidinoda), which can be used as materials for walking sticks. Some people call it lingshou wood or fulao cane. In Guīqùlái cí 歸去來辭 [Harmonizing Rhymes of Returning Home] by Tao Qian 陶潛 of the Jin dynasty, it is recorded that “cè fúlǎo yǐ liúqì, shí jiǎoshǒu ér xiáguān. 策扶老以流憩, 時矯首而遐觀.” (Take a walk and rest holding a walking stick; head high and look into the distance occasionally.) In volume 13 of Kùnxué jìwén 困學紀聞 [Records during Assiduous Study] by Wang Yinglin 王應麟 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “cè fúlǎo yǐ liúqì, wèi fú lǎoténg yě. 策扶老以流憩, 謂扶老藤也.” (Take a walk and rest holding a walking stick; the stick is also called fulao cane.) Jiēlí 接籬( 䍠) is a kind of cap from ancient times. In Rèndàn 任誕 [Indulgence] of Shìshuō xīnyǔ 世説新語 [The New Account of Tales of the World] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶of the Song of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “shāngōng yīshízuì, jìngzào gāoyángchí, rìmò dǎozàiguī, míngdǐng wúsuǒzhī. Fùnéng chéngjùnmǎ, dàozhù báijiēlí. 山公一時醉, 逕造高陽池, 日莫倒載歸, 茗 艼無所知. 復能乘駿馬, 倒著白接籬.” (Once upon a time, Sir Shan was drunk. He approached directly to Gaoyang Pond. When the night fell, he came back in the coach and was as bashed as a sow. Later he could ride a horse again, but with his white cap on backward.) In Yángliǔgē 楊柳歌 [The Song of Willow] by Yu Xin 庾信 of the Northern Zhou dynasty, it is written that “bùrú yǐnjiǔ gāoyángchí, rìmù guīshí dǎojiēlí. 不如飲酒高陽池, 日暮歸時倒接䍠.” (Why not drink at Gaoyang Pond; return with cap backward on at dusk.) Qūxī 屈膝 means the hasp and buckle of a door or window. In the fourth poem Wūqīqǔ 烏棲曲 [A Tune of Crows Roosting] by the Emperor Jianwen 簡文帝 of the Liang dynasty, it is written that “zhīchéng píngfēng jīnqūxī, zhūchún yùmiàn dēngqiánchū. 織成屏風金屈膝, 朱唇玉面燈前出.” (The weaved screen was equipped with golden hasp; red lips and fair skin out of lamps.) In the poem Gōngwágē 宫娃歌 [The Song of the Court Maid] by Li He 李賀 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Tígū diàoyuè gōulánxià, qūxī tóngpù suǒ’āzhēn. 啼 蛄吊月鈎闌下, 屈膝銅鋪鎖阿甄.” (The cricket is chirping for the moon under the handrail; the hasp and buckle of a window and the copper ring lock up Azhen inside.)

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Bàoyuàn 抱怨 means being resentful. In Liú Yì zhuàn 劉毅傳 [The Biography of Liu Yi] of Jìnshū 晉書 [The History of the Jin dynasty], it is written that “zhū shòuwǎngzhě bàoyuàn jīzhí, dú bùméng tiāndì wúsī zhīdé, érchángyōng bìyú xiérén zhīquán. 諸受枉者抱怨積直, 獨不蒙天地無私之德, 而長壅蔽於邪人 之銓.” (Those who suffered wrongful treatment were swelled with complaints. They were not grateful to the unselfish heaven and earth; rather, they blinded themselves to stay in the treacherous group.) Chènxū 趁虚 ( 墟) means to go to the market. In the poem Liǔzhōu dòngméng 柳州峒氓 [Dong People in Liuzhou] by Liu Zongyuan 柳宗元 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “qīngruòlǐ yánguī dòngkè, lǜhé bāofàn chènxūrén. 青箬 裏鹽歸峒客, 绿荷包飯趁虚人.” (Dong people took indocalamus leaves wrapped salt home; to go to the market people packed meals with green lotus leaves.) In Nánbù xīnshū 南部新書 [Southern New Book] by Qian Yi 錢易of the Song dynasty, it is written that “Duānzhōu yǐnán, sānrì yīshì, wèizhī chènxū. 端州以南, 三日一市, 謂之趁虚.” (To the south of Duanzhou, there is a market held every three days, which is called chenxu 趁虚.) In Yùzhāng nánpǔtíng bózhōu 豫章 南浦亭泊舟 [Anchoring the Boat at the Nanpu Pavilion in Yuzhang County] by Fan Chengda 范成大 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “Chènxū yóushìjǐng, shōuliáo zàigēngsāng. 趁墟猶市井, 收潦再耕桑.” (To go to the market is still full of people; farm work restarts after the rain.) Chēngshǒu 稱首 means being first-rate or the best. In Cáilüè 才略 [Ability and Sagacity] of Wénxīn diāolóng 文心雕龍 [The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons] by Liu Xie 劉勰 of the Liang of the Southern dynasties, it is recorded that “rán’ér wèishí huàyán, bìyǐ Yuánfēng wéichēngshǒu. 然而魏 時話言, 必以元封爲稱首.” (But for reasonable words in Wei period, talks of Yuanfeng must be seen as the best.) In Zhāng Pú zhuàn 張蒲傳 [The Biography of Zhang Pu] of Běishǐ 北史 [The History of the Northern dynasties], it is recorded that “Pú zài móuchén zhīliè, lǚchū wéijiàng, cháotíng lùnzhī, cháng yǐwéi chēngshǒu. 蒲在謀臣之列, 屢出爲將, 朝廷論之, 常以爲稱首.” (Pu is one of the emperor’s strategists. He takes the post of minister several times. Whenever the court talks about him, there will be the comment of him being the best.) In the fourth volume of Dàtáng xīnyǔ 大唐新語 [New Anecdotes of the Tang dynasty] by Liu Su 劉肅 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “fùzǐ xiōngdì, zuì bùxiāngjí, wēizhēn zhìxiàn, jùwéi chēngshǒu. 父子兄弟, 罪不相 及, 威臻至現, 俱爲稱首.” (Father, son, or brothers should not be implicated if any one of them commits a crime. The grace descends on the commons, so all of them praise the policy as the best.) Cángzhuō 藏拙 means to conceal shortcomings from others and is often used as a self-deprecatory expression. In the poem Hè Xíbā shíèr yùn 和席八十二韻 [Twelve Rhymes Together with Xiba] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “yǐyù náncángzhuō, chuīyú jiǔhùnzhēn. 倚玉難藏拙, 吹竽久混真.” (It is hard to conceal the shortcomings beside the true jade. A long-time muddling makes it somewhat genuine.) In the poem Zìyí 自貽 [Self-consolation] by Luo Yin 羅隱 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “zòngwú xiǎnxiào yìcángzhuō, ruòyǒu suǒchéng gānshǒuzhū. 縱無顯效亦藏拙, 若有所成甘守株.” (I’d rather conceal

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 111 the shortcomings than rush for a remarkable result; I’d rather wait for windfalls to gain some success.) In Suítáng jiāhuà xià 隋唐嘉話下 [Records of the Sui and the Tang dynasties II] by Liu Su 刘餗 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “Liáng chángshì Xú Líng pìnyú Qí, shí wèi shōu wénxué běicháo zhīxiù, shōulù qíwénjí yǐ yílíng, lìngchuánzhī jiāngzuǒ. Línghuán, jìjiāng ér shěnzhī, cóngzhě yǐwèn, Língyuē: ‘wúwéi Wèigōng cángzhuō’. 梁常侍徐陵聘于齊, 時魏收文學北朝之 秀, 收録其文集以遺陵, 令傳之江左. 陵還, 濟江而沈之, 從者以問, 陵曰: ‘吾 爲魏公藏拙’.” (Attendant Xu Ling in the Liang dynasty was ordered to visit Qi. At the moment, Wei Shou, as a rising star in literature in the Northern dynasties, transcribed his essays to Ling as a present. He also hoped Ling might transmit these works to the Jiangdong area. However, when Ling returned, he sank the book into the lake. His accompany asked for the reason, and Ling replied: “I am trying to conceal the shortcomings for Master Wei”.) Diǎnxīn 點心 is a verb with the meaning of having snacks before the meal to satisfy one’s hunger. In Hédōngjì 河東記 [Records of Hedong] of Tàipíng guǎngjì 太平廣記 [Records of the Era Taiping] (volume 286), it is recorded that “sānniángzǐ xiānqǐ diǎndēng, zhì xīnzuò shāobǐng yú shíchuángshàng, yǔkè diǎnxīn. 三娘子先起點燈, 置新作燒餅於食床上, 與客點心.” (Sanniangzi got up and lit the lamp. She put the newly made baked rolls on the eating bed for the guests to have snacks.) In the second volume of Jīlèibiān 雞肋編 [Chicken Ribs Collections] by Zhuang Jiyu 莊季裕 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “shàngjué wēiněi, Sūn jiànzhī, jíchū huáizhōng zhēngbǐng yún:‘kěyǐdiǎnxīn’. 上 覺微餒, 孫見之, 即出懷中蒸餅云: ‘可以點心’.” (Sun noticed that the emperor might feel a little hungry, so he took out the steamed cake from his pocket and said: “You can have snacks”.) Diǎnxīn 點心 is also a noun, referring to foods like cake or pastry and dishes in the meal. In Jīnhuázi zábiān xià 金華子雜编下 [Story Collections by Jinhuazi II] by Liu Chongyuan 劉崇遠of the Southern Tang dynasty and the Five dynasties, it is recorded that “Zǐgù qídì yuē: ‘wǒ wèijícān, ěr kěqiě diǎnxīn’. Zhǐyú shuǐfàn shùchí, fùbèi fūrén diǎnxīn. 姊顧其弟曰: ‘ 我 未及餐, 爾可且點心.’ 止于水飯數匙, 復備夫人點心.” (The sister looked at her brother and said: “I have not eaten yet, you can have some snacks first”. He finished several spoons of porridge. The maid had to prepare snacks for the madam again.) In Jiàndàn 健啖 [The King of Eaters] of Guǐxīn záshí qiánjí 癸辛雜識前 集 [Miscellaneous Notes in Guixin I] by Zhou Mi 周密 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “wén qīng jiàndàn, zhèn yùzuò xiǎodiǎnxīn xiāngqǐng, rúhé? 聞 卿健啖, 朕欲作小點心相請, 如何?” (I hear that you are the king of eaters. How about I make some small snacks for you?) Fùxīn 負心 means to betray the brotherhood. In Duìsú 對俗 [For the Commons] of Bàopǔzi 抱朴子 by Ge Hong 葛洪 of the Jin dynasty, it is recorded that “mínjiān jūnzǐ, yóunèi bùfùxīn, wàibù kuìyǐng, shàngbù qītiān, xiàbù shíyán. 民間君子, 猶内不負心, 外不愧影, 上不欺天, 下不食言.” (A gentleman in the society holds his inner principle not to betray, then he won’t be shameful in front of others. A gentleman will never cheat the God or lie to people.) In Huò Xiǎoyù zhuàn 霍小玉傳 [The Biography of Huo Xiaoyu] by Jiang Fang 蔣防 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “wǒwéi nǚzǐ, bómìng rúsī; jūnshì zhàngfū, fùxīn

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ruòcǐ. 我爲女子, 薄命如斯; 君是丈夫, 負心若此.” (I am just a woman suffering unlucky fates; you are such a man betraying like this.) Gàocí 告辭 means to bid farewell. In Bài zhōngjūnjìshì cí suíwáng jiān 拜中軍 記室辭隋王牋 [Mandated as Major Troop Clerk and Bid Farewell to King Sui] by Xie Tiao 謝朓 of the Qi of the Southern dynasties, it is recorded that “Lǎntì gàocí, bēilái héngjí. 攬涕告辭, 悲來横集.” (I wipe away my tears and said goodbye, but can not help being in grief.) In the first volume of Sōushénjì 搜神記 [Anecdotes about Spirits and Immortals] by Gan Bao 干寶 of the Jin dynasty, it is recorded that “bǎbì gàocí, tìqì liúlí, sùrán shēngchē, qùruò fēixùn. 把臂告辭, 涕泣流離, 肅 然昇車, 去若飛迅.” (She clasped his arm and said goodbye, while tears streamed down her cheeks. She mounted her coach in silence, and flew away.) Nàifán 耐煩 means to endure trouble. In Yǔ Shān Jùyuán juéjiāo shū 與山巨 源绝交書 [Severance Letter to Shan Juyuan] by Ji Kang 嵇康 of the Wei of the Three Kingdoms), it is recorded that “xīn bùnàifán, ér guānshì yāngzhǎng, jīwù chánqíxīn, shìgù fánqílǜ. 心不耐煩, 而官事鞅掌, 機務纏其心, 世故繁其慮.” (I am born with the character of impatience; however, if I agree to be an official, I will be trapped with official business and government affairs are like strings weaving around my heart. In addition, worldly sophistication breeds worries.) In the poem Qiūrì tí rǔyángtán bì 秋日題汝陽潭壁 [An Autumn Inscription on the Wall of Ruyang Pond] by Liu Xiyi 劉希夷 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “yōurén bùnàifán, zhènzhàng xiánbùjì. 幽人不耐煩, 振杖閑步寂.” (The solitary cannot endure the trouble; he wanders alone with a cane.) Qǔxiào 取笑 means to be ridiculed by others. In Gài Xūn zhuàn 蓋勳傳 [The Biography of Gai Xun] of Hòuhànshū 後漢書 [The History of the Later Han dynasty], it is recorded that “jīn bùjí jìngnán zhīshù, jùwéi fēicháng zhīshì, jìzú jiéyuàn yīzhōu, yòudāng qǔxiào cháotíng. 今不急静難之術, 遽爲非常之 事, 既足結怨一州, 又當取笑朝廷.” (Now if we do not concentrate on how to defeat the rebellion but rather eagerly on this strange policy, we will not only get hatred from one province, but be ridiculed by the court.) In the poem Zìjīng fù fèngxiānxiàn yǒnghuái wǔbǎizì 自京赴奉先縣詠懷五百字 [A Five-HundredWord Intoned Poem Composed on the Arrival on Fengxian County from the Capital] by Du Fu 杜甫of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Qǔxiào tóngxuéwēng, hàogē míjīliè. 取笑同學翁, 浩歌彌激烈.” (Though being ridiculed by my peers, with a resounding voice I sing.) Ruǎnjiǎo 軟脚 means to prepare drink and food for rewarding those who come back from afar, also called xǐchén 洗塵. In Zhuō Jì Bù zhuànwén 捉季布傳文 [The Biography of Ji Bu Being Caught] of Dūnhuángbiàn wénjí 敦煌變文集 [Songs and Rhymes Story Collection of Dunhuang], it is written that “guīzhái qīngù láiruǎnjiǎo, kāiyán lièzhuàn guǎngpūchén. 歸宅親故來軟脚, 開筵列饌廣 鋪陳.” (When relatives and friends return, they will come and prepare drink and food. The banquet with all kinds of foods is set as luxurious as possible.) In the poem Dá Lǚ Liángzhòng túntián 答吕梁仲屯田 [In Answering to Tuntian Zhong in Lvliang] by Su Shi 蘇軾 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “háixū gēngzhì ruǎnjiǎojiǔ, wèijūn jīgǔ xíngjīnzūn. 還須更置軟脚酒, 爲君擊鼓行金樽.” (More wine is needed on the table for rewarding; we strike drums and propose a toast to

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 113 you.) Ruǎnjiǎo 軟脚 is also the name of a disease, dermatophytosis. In Jì shíèrláng wén 祭十二郎文 [A Memorial Essay for Shierlang] by Han Yu 韓愈of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Rǔ qùnián shūyún: ‘bǐdé ruǎnjiǎobìng, wǎngwǎng érjù’. 汝去年書云: ‘比得軟脚病, 往往而劇’.” (You wrote last year: “Recently, I caught the disease. Occasionally it was aggravated”.) Xiànghuǒ 向火 means to warm oneself by a fire. In the poem Nǐzuì 擬醉 [Intention of Being Drunk] by Yuan Zhen 元稹 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Jiǔyuè xiánxiāo chūxiànghuǒ, yīzūn qīngjiǔ shǐxíngbēi. 九月閑宵初向火, 一樽清酒始行杯.” (In one boring September night we started to warm ourselves together; a glass of clear wine marked the beginning of passing-wine.) In Shī 詩 [Poem] (the second one) by Shi De 拾得 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “lúzibiān xiànghuǒ, huòzilǐ zǎoyù. 爐子邊向火, 鑊子裏澡浴.” ([People in hell were] burned at the stove; decocted in the pot.) In the poem Yǔ sānshānrén yèhuà 與三山人夜話 [A Night Talk with Three Hermits] by Li Qunyu 李群玉 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “jiǔsī tánqínyè, cháfāng xiànghuǒtiān, tùqiú duīxīnuǎn, jiūzhī yǐchuángpiān. 酒思彈琴夜, 茶芳向火天, 兔裘堆膝暖, 鳩枝倚 床偏.” (Drinking and playing the guqin in the night; appreciating tea and warm myself in the day. Rabbit fur coat warms the cold knees; a stick with pigeon-like head is tilted against the bed.) This word is widely adopted in the modern dramatic novel. For instance, in chapter ten of Shuǐhǔzhuàn 水浒傳 [All Men are Brothers] by Shi Nai’an 施耐庵 of the Ming dynasty, it is written that “zhōuwéi zuòzhe sìwǔgè xiǎozhuāngjiā xiànghuǒ. 周圍坐着四五個小莊家向火.” (He saw an old villager sitting by the fire around him were three or four small farmers.) In contemporary Sichuan dialect, we still find the use of this expression.

2.7 Descriptive compound words Descriptive compound words are also called predicate–object compound words. Descriptive compound words only account for a small portion in Middle Chinese, and most of them are nouns and verbs. For example, when a servant’s children still serve in their master’s family, they are called jiāshēng 家生in feudal society. In the poem Cháotíng shùshírén 朝廷數十人 [Tens of People in the Court] by Wang Fanzhi 王梵志 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “huànnǚ zuòjiāshēng, jiāng’ér zuònúshǐ. 唤女作家 生, 將兒作奴使.” (Servants’ children still serve in their master’s family.) In the poem Nányuán shì xiǎoyuè 南園試小樂 [Sing a Little Song in Southern Garden] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “hóngè zǐfáng jiēshǒuzhí, cāngtóu bìyù jìnjiāshēng. 紅萼紫房皆手植, 蒼頭碧玉盡家生.” (Red flowers with purple fruit are planted personally; young servants and fair maids are all servant’s children.) In Zhuō Jì Bù zhuànwén 捉季布傳文 [The Biography of Ji Bu Being Caught] of Dūnhuángbiàn wénjí 敦煌變文集 [Songs and Rhymes Story Collection of Dunhuang], it is written that “wù (kūn) fà jiǎntóu pīduǎnhè, jiǎzuò jiāshēng yījiànrén. 兀( 髡) 髮剪頭披短褐, 假作家生一賤人.” (Cutting his kun hairstyle short and wearing coarse short clothes, he pretended to be a cheap servant’s child.)

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Jièyán 戒嚴 is strict precautionary measures implemented in wartime or other special circumstances. In Wèishū·Jiǎ Kuí zhuàn 魏書· 賈逵傳 [The Book of Wei·The Biography of Jia Kui] of Sānguózhì 三國志 [History of the Three Kingdoms] notes and citation from Wèilüè 魏略 [Chronicles of the Wei], it is written that “Tàizǔ (Cáo Cāo) zhīqírán, kǒng wàiyǒu jiànzhě, jiàoyuē:‘jīngū jièyán, wèizhī suǒzhī, yǒu jiànzhě sǐ’. 太祖( 曹操) 知其然, 恐外有諫者, 教曰:‘ 今孤 戒嚴, 未知所之, 有諫者死’.” (The first emperor [Cao Cao] noticed the situation and was afraid that someone would expostulate outside. So he declared: “Today I announce strict precautionary measures; where to head is still under discussion, but whoever admonishes more will be killed”.) In Chǔ Póu zhuàn 褚裒傳 [The Biography of Chu Pou] of Jìnshū 晉書 [The History of the Jin dynasty], it is written that “jí Shí Jìlóng sǐ, Póu shàngbiǎo qǐngfázhī, jírì jièyán, zhízhǐ Qiúkǒu. 及石季龍死, 裒上表請伐之, 即日戒嚴, 直指泗口.” (After the death of Shi Jilong, Pou submitted a request of subjugating Zhao. The army prepared strict precautionary measures immediately and marched directly to Qiukou 泗口.) In Zōngshìzhuàn 宗室傳 [The Biography of the Imperial Clan] in Sòngshū 宋書 [Records of the Song dynasty], it is written that “Yùn yǐ jièyán, Jìngzé shuài zhuàngshì zhíqián, Yùn zuǒyòu jiēpīmǐ, yīn shāzhī. 韞已戒嚴, 敬則率壯士直前, 韞左右皆披靡, 因殺之.” (Yun had prepared strict precautionary measures while Jingze led the soldiers dashing forward. As a result, Yun army had been defeated, and Yun himself was killed.) Tóufēng 頭風 means having a headache. In Wèishū·Wáng Càn zhuàn 魏書· 王粲傳 [The Book of Wei·The Biography of Wang Can] of Sānguózhì 三國志 [History of the Three Kingdoms] notes and citation from Diǎnlüè 典略 [Records of Allusions], it is written that “Tàizǔ xiānkǔ toufēng, shìrì jífā, wòdú Chén Lín suǒzuò, xīrán érqǐ, yuē:‘cǐyù wǒbìng’. 太祖先苦頭風, 是日疾發, 卧讀陳琳所 作, 翕然而起, 曰: ‘ 此愈我病’.” (Cao Cao suffered from a headache. One day, when he was attacked by the headache, he read the work by Chen Lin while lying in the bed. Suddenly he got up and said: “The work cures me.”) In the poem Chóu Lǐliù zuìhòu jiànjì kǒuhào 酬李六醉後見寄口號 [In Requital for Liliu’s Oral Verse to Me When He Was Drunk] by Yuan Zhen 元稹 of the Tang dynasty), it is written that “dùnyù tóufēngjí, yīnyín kǒuhàoshī. 頓愈頭風疾, 因吟口號詩.” (Suddenly my headache is cured, so I chant an oral verse.) Chángduàn 腸斷 has two meanings. One is being in great sorrow. In Chánghèn’gē 長恨歌 [The Song of Eternal Sorrow by Bai Juyi], it is written that “xínggōng jiànyuè shāngxīnsè, yèyǔ wénlíng chángduànshēng. 行宫見月傷心色, 夜雨聞鈴腸斷聲.” (The moon viewed from his tent shed a soul-searing light. The bells heard in night rain made a heart-rending sound.) The other is the opposite meaning of sorrow, indicating a cheerful and agreeable status. In Làngshuǐgē 閬 水歌 [Langshui Song-Styled Verse] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “làngzhōng shèngshì kěchángduàn, Làngzhōu chéngnán tiānxiàxī. 閬 中勝事可腸斷, 閬州城南天下稀.” (Fine views in Langzhong are so cheerful; the south of Langzhou is rare worldwide.) In the poem Qiǎnhuái 遣懷 [Emotion Elicitation] by Du Mu 杜牧 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Luòpò jiānghú zàijiǔxíng, chǔyāo chángduàn zhǎngzhōngqīng. 落魄江湖載酒行, 楚腰腸斷掌

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 115 中輕.” (Led a wandering life and took my wine everywhere; joyfully entertaining with girls as they are fair.) Chǐlěng 齒冷 means to be ridiculed by others. Prolonged laughter requires one’s mouth to be open for a long time. As a consequence, the teeth become cold. In Lè Yí zhuàn 樂頤傳 [The Biography of Le Yi] of Nánqíshū 南齊書 [The Book of the Southern Qi dynasty], it is written that “rénxiào Chǔgōng, zhìjīn chǐlěng. 人笑褚公, 至今齒冷.” (People all laugh at Mater Chu; until now he will still be ridiculed by others.) Èfā 恶發 means get angry or lose one’s temper. In Nántuó chūjiā yuánqǐ 難 陀出家緣起 [The Origin of Nantuo becoming a monk] of Dūnhuángbiàn wénjí 敦煌變文集 [Songs and Rhymes Story Collection of Dunhuang], it is written that “Nántuó èfā bùtiān, jìndǎpò. . . . Sǎoyòusǎo bùdé, Nántuó yòupà qīguài, èfā biànmà shìzūn. 難陀惡發不添, 盡打破. . . . 掃又掃不得, 難陀又怕妻怪, 惡發 便罵世尊.” (Nantuo got angry. He stopped filling in the water and broke them all. . . . Nantuo could not clear away the debris. For fear of being condemned by his wife, he started to curse the bhagavat.) In Yùlóuchūn 玉樓春 [Spring in the Jade Tower] by Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “dàjiā èfā dàjiāxiū, bìjìng dàotóu shéibùshì? 大家惡發大家休, 畢竟到頭誰不是?” (It is said a couple will cease fire though they got angry; it is unnecessary to fuss about whose fault it is.) In Jīlèibiān 雞肋編 [Chicken Rib Collections] by Zhuang Jiyu 莊季裕 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “Shàoxīng sìnián, dàxiǎng míngtáng, gèngxiū shèdiàn yǐwéi xiǎngsuǒ, qíjī jí Qiánshì shíwò fàdiàn, wúrén yǔ’é, nǎiyún èfādiàn, wèi Qiánwáng nù jísheng cǐdiàn yě. 紹興四年, 大饗明堂, 更修 射殿以爲饗所, 其基即錢氏時握髮殿, 吴人語訛, 乃云惡發殿, 謂錢王怒即升 此殿也.” (In the fourth year of Shaoxing, the emperor worshiped the heaven in Mingtang Palace. Shedian Palace, the former Wofadian Palace in the Qian era, was renovated for sacrifice. The Wu people mistakenly interpreted Wofa as getting angry and created the story that King Qian built this palace for getting angry.)

2.8 Verb-complement compound words In Old Chinese, there were occasional cases of verb-complement compound words, and until Middle Chinese, this situation did not change too much. These compound words are composed of two morphemes – the former offers an action, and the latter indicates the result or the status of the action. The following are some examples. Bǎiluò 擺落 or bǎituō 擺脱 means to leave things aside or be untrammelled by constraints. In the twelfth poem Yǐnjiǔ 飲酒 [Kiss the Cup] by Tao Qian 陶潛 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “bǎiluò yōuyōuyàn, qǐngcóng yúsuǒzhī. 擺落 悠悠燄, 請從余所之.” (To leave things aside the tale of a tub; come with me to the seclusion.) In Jì wángyǒu wén 祭亡友文 [Mourning for My Friend] by Yuan Zhen 元稹 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Jūnsuī cùlíng, shídà qízhì, hūxī fēngyún, bǎiluò áonì. 君雖促龄, 實大其志, 呼吸風雲, 擺落鏖膩.” (Your life is like a flash, yet your ambition grand; You live with a high-mind, thus to leave dirt and dust aside.) In the poem Sòngrén qìguān rùdào 送人棄官入道 [A Farewell

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to My Friend Resigning to Be a Taoist] by Han Wo 韓偓 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Niǔní fēizhuàngzhì, bǎituō shìliángtú. 忸怩非壯志, 擺脱是良 圖.” (Hesitation is not a lofty ambition); To leave it aside is the best choice.) In Lǐ Yōng 李邕 of Xuānhé shūpǔ bā 宣和書譜八 [Xuanhe Principles of Calligraphy VIII] by an anonymous writer of the Song dynasty, it is written that “Yōng chūxué biànyòu jūnxíngfǎ, dùncuò qǐfú; jìdé qímiào, fùnǎi bǎituō jiùxí, bǐlì yīxīn. 邕初 學變右軍行法, 頓挫起伏; 既得其妙, 復乃擺脱舊習, 筆力一新.” (When Yong acknowledged Wang Xizhi as his master, he intended to recompose the writing style with melodious and vigorous brushwork; when he was much more skillful, he left aside the original writing habit and renewed his strokes.) Tuīdǎo 推倒 means to exert force on something in front of one to tear an upright object down. In the seventh poem Yǒumù 有木 [Chanting the Trees] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yīdàn shùtuīdǎo, dúlì zànpiāoyào. 一旦樹推倒, 獨立暫飄鹞.” (Once the tree is torn down, though [the trumpet creeper] stands yet drifts alone.) In Bǔyí èr 補遺二 [Supplementary II] of Tángyǔlín 唐語林 [The Jottings of the Tang dynasty] by Wang Dang 王讜 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “Yuánhézhōng, yǒu lǎozú tuīdǎo pínghuái xībēi, guānsī zhēn qíxiàng, yòuyǐ jiājī shǒuyùzhě. 元和中, 有老卒推倒平淮西碑, 官 司鍼其項, 又以枷擊守獄者.” (In the middle of Yuanhe period, an old soldier pushed over the stone tablet of Huaixi Suppression. The official tattooed his neck. He hit the prison guard with his cangue.) Gēliè 割裂 means to segment parts from the whole. In Huànzhězhuàn 宦者傳 [The Biography of a Eunuch] of Hòuhànshū 後漢書 [The History of the Later Han dynasty], it is written that “[Zhūyǔděng] yīngòng gēliè chéngshè, zìxiāng fēngshǎng. [ 朱瑀等] 因共割裂城社, 自相封賞.” ([Zhu Yu and so on] cut the cities and towns to reward each other in their group.) In Liùdàilùn 六代論 [Argumentation of the Six dynasties] by Cao Jiong 曹冏 of the Wei of the Three Kingdoms, it is written that “gēliè zhōuguó, fēnwáng zǐdì. 割裂州國, 分王子弟.” (Cut provinces and the nation, and distribute them to princes and marquises.) Liǎoquè 了却 means to get rid of something/somebody. In Cuī Xiàofēn zhuàn 崔孝芬傳 [The Biography of Cui Xiaofen] of Běishǐ 北史 [The History of the Northern dynasties], it is written that “Língtàihòu wèiyuē: ‘qīngnǚ jīnshì wǒ’ér, yǔqīng shìqīn, cénghé xiāngfù? Érnèitóu Yuánchā chēnèi, chēng cǐyù xūliǎoquè’. 靈太后謂曰:‘ 卿女今事我兒, 與卿是親, 曾何相負? 而内頭元叉車内, 稱此嫗 須了却’.” (Empress Dowager Ling said: “Since your daughter now serves my son, we are relatives. How come you betray us like so? Should you turn back to Yuan Cha in the coach and say this old woman must be killed”.) Liǎoquè 了却 also means to get through and end something. In the poem Dēngkuàigé 登快閣 [Climbing the Kuaige Pavilion] by Huang Tingjian 黄庭堅 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “chī’ér liǎoquè gōngjiāshì, kàigé dōngxī yǐwǎnqíng. 癡兒了卻 公家事, 快閣東西倚晚晴.” (What a stubborn guy, I finally get rid of the official affairs; eastwards and westwards I lean on Kuaige enjoying the sunset.) Shuōhé 説合 means to facilitate the accomplishment of others’ business by being the middle man. In Shíjiàn 識鑒 [Identification of Talents] of Shìshuō xīnyǔ 世説新語 [The New Account of Tales of the World] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 117 Song of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “Hé Yàn, Dèng Yáng, Xiàhóu Xuán bìngqiú Fù Gǔ jiāo, ér Gǔ zhōngbùxǔ, zhūrén nǎiyīn Xún Càn shuōhézhī. 何晏、鄧飏、夏侯玄並求傅嘏交, 而嘏終不許, 諸人乃因荀粲説合之.” (He Yan, Deng Yang, and Xiahou Xuan were all eager to build up a relationship with Fu Gu while Gu declined them all along. They hence asked Xun Can to facilitate the accomplishment.) Zhīchéng 織成 is one kind of precious silk fabric behavior in ancient times with figured designs woven by colored threads or golden silk. In Héhuānshī 合 歡詩 [The Poem Getting Together] by Yang Fang 楊方 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “Qǐngòngzhī chéngbèi, xùyòng tónggōngmián. 寢共織成被, 絮用 同功綿.” (When sleeping, we cover the silk fabric quilt; when padded, we select the gong floss.) In the first volume of Sōushénjì 搜神記 [Anecdotes About Spirits and Immortals] by Gan Bao 干寶 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “Fālù, qǔzhīchéng qúnshān liǎngfù yíchāo, yòu zèngshī yīshǒu. 發簏, 取織成裙衫兩副 遺超, 又贈詩一首.” (. . . from her box she took out two suits of silk clothes and presented them to him. She also composed a poem for him.)

2.9 Noun-quantity compound words Noun-quantity compound words are composed of a nominal morpheme and a quantifier morpheme. The meaning of the compound word is in accordance with the nominal morpheme plurality. A few cases occurred occasionally in the late period of Ancient Chinese. For instance, in Bǎiguān gōngqīng biǎo shàng 百官公卿表上 [Descriptions and Ranks of Officials I] of Hànshū 漢書 [The History of the Han dynasty], it is written that “Lìyuán zìzuǒshǐ zhìchéngxiàng, shí’èrwàn èrbǎi bāshíwǔrén. 吏 員自佐史至丞相, 十二萬二百八十五人.” (The number of Liyuan officials is 120,285 ranging from the associate officials to minister.) Lìyuán 吏員 in the sentence is the general term for officials. This sort of compound word continued to develop in Middle Chinese. For example: chēchéng 車乘 is vehicles. In Cài Yōng zhuàn 蔡邕傳 [The Biography of Cai Yong] of Hòuhànshū 後漢書 [The History of the Later Han dynasty], it is written that “jíbēi shǐlì, qí guānshì jí móxiězhě, chēchéng rìqiānyúliǎng, tiánsè jiēmò. 及碑始立, 其觀視及摹寫者, 車乘日千餘兩, 填塞街陌.” (Since the establishment of the tablet, visitors and imitators had constantly approached here in vehicles. Thousands of cars swarmed into the alley every day.) Chēliǎng 車兩 is the general term for vehicles. In Zhāng Chàng zhuàn 張暢傳 [The Biography of Zhang Chang] of Sòngshū 宋書 [Records of the Song dynasty], it is written that “jìnyǐ qízhì, chēliǎng zàihòu, jīn duānzuò wúwéi, yǒubójù kějiànjiè. 近以骑至, 車兩在後, 今端坐無爲, 有博具可見借.” (Recently our cavalry came first and cars soon after; now we have nothing to do but sit here, so should you have the gambling toy to lend us.) Chuánchéng 船乘 is boats and vessels. In Qiáogāngwáng Xùn zhuàn 譙剛王遜 傳 [The Biography of Xun, King Qiaogang] of Jìnshū 晉書 (The History of the Jin dynasty), it is written that “Dūn kǒngqí wéijǐhuàn, zhàchēng běifá, xīzhàochéng

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jìngnèichuán. 敦恐其爲己患, 詐稱北伐, 悉召承境内船.” (Dun was afraid that he would become a hidden danger to himself, so he pretended to conduct a northern expedition to expropriate all the boats under Chen’s control.) Guānyuán 官員 is nominated government officials with a certain rank. In Lú Biàn zhuàn 盧辯傳 [The Biography of Lu Bian] of Zhōushū 周書 (The History of the Zhou dynasty), it is written that “Xuāndì sìwèi, shìbù shīgǔ, guānyuán bānpǐn, suíyì biàngé. 宣帝嗣位, 事不師古, 官員班品, 隨意變革.” (After Emperor Xuan succeeded to the throne, he did not follow the suit of the ancestor. Government officials and their ranks could be changed at will.) In the poem Sòng Zhūgě Jué wǎng suízhōu dúshū 送諸葛覺往隨州讀書 by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “táigé duōguānyuán, wúdì jìyīzú. 臺閣多官員, 無地寄一足.” (Government officials in the crowd were in the palace; there is no place for another new one.) Regarding huāduǒ 花朵, duǒ 朵 is used as the quantifier to count the number of flowers (huā 花), and therefore, it is called huāduǒ 花朵. In the poem Hé lètiān chūncí 和樂天春詞 [A Chorus of Chunci by Letian] by Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 of the Tang dynasty), it is written that “xīnzhuāng fěnmiàn xiàzhūlóu, shēnsuǒ chūnguāng yīyuànchóu. Xíngdào zhōngtíng shǔhuāduǒ, qīngtíng fēishàng yùsāotóu. 新妝粉面下朱樓, 深鎖春光一院愁. 行到中庭數花朵, 蜻蜓飛上玉 搔頭.” (She put on her makeup and walked down the attic. Spring was locked in the deep yard swelling with a sentiment. She wandered in the courtyard but only flowers to count; while the dragonfly flew to her jade pin.) Màilì 麥粒 means wheat. In Nánfāng cǎomù zhuàng 南方草木狀 [Flora of the South] by Ji Han 嵇含 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “shānjiānghuā, jīngyè jíjiāngyě, gēn bùkānshí, yú yèjiān tǔhuā zuòsuì, rú màilì, ruǎnhóngsè. 山薑花, 莖 葉即薑也, 根不堪食, 於葉間吐花作穗, 如麥粒, 軟紅色.” (Hedychium’s fruit is the stem and leaves. Its root cannot be eaten. The spike-like flowers in soft red come out between the leaves like wheat.) In Zhìyīzhāi shùshì 致一齋述事 [Days in Zhiyizhai] by Fan Chengda 范成大 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “jīnzhāo màilì huángkānmiàn, jǐrì yāngtián lǜsìzhēn. 今朝麥粒黄堪面, 幾日 秧田绿似針.” (At the moment golden wheat are like flour, while days ago green seedlings were like needles.) Shūjuàn 書卷 is the general term for books. In Shāngchóng 商蟲 [The Autumn Worms] of Lùnhéng 論衡 [Of Balance] by Wang Chong 王充 of the Han dynasty, it is written that “shūjuàn bùshū yǒuchóng. 書卷不舒有蟲.” (If the book is folded, there will be worms.) In Zāng Tāo zhuàn fù Zāng Yán 臧燾傳附臧岩 [The Biography of Zang Tao attached Zang Yan] of Nánshǐ 南史 [The History of the Southern dynasties], it is written that “gūpín qínxué, xíngzhǐ shūjuàn bùlíshǒu. 孤貧勤 學, 行止書卷不離手.” (Isolated and impoverished, he studied extremely hard. No matter walking or resting, he held a book in his hand.) In the poem Shuǐgé zhāojì fèngjiǎn YánYúnān 水閣朝霽奉簡嚴雲安 [A Poem Written in the Bright Morning after the Rain for Yan Yun’an] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yǔkǎn wòhuācóng, sùchuáng zhǎnshūjuàn. 雨檻卧花叢, 夙床展 書卷.” (In the rain the handrail crouches in the flowering shrubs; with the wind the book is unfolded in the bed.)

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 119 Suànkē 蒜顆 is the general term for garlic. In the book Yánshì jiāxùn 颜氏家 訓 [Family Instructions for the Yen Clan] by Yan Zhitui 顏之推 of the Northern Qi dynasty mentioned in Shūzhèng 書證 [Evidence on Writing], it is written that “běitǔ tōnghūwù yīyóu gǎiwéi kē, suànkē shì sújiān chángyǔ ěr. 北土通呼物一 由改爲顆, 蒜顆是俗間常語耳.” (In the north, people usually call yīkē 一顆 [one piece]. Suànkē 蒜顆 was a popular term.) Yángqún 羊群 is herds of sheep. In the first volume of Sōushénjì 搜神記 [Anecdotes about Spirits and Immortals] by Gan Bao 干寶 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “hòurén yùfàngyú yángchéng shāntóu, yīnfù zhúzhī, suì zǒurù yángqún. 後人遇放於陽城山頭, 因復逐之, 遂走入羊群.” (Later on, he was spotted on the top of Mount Yangcheng. Because of being chased, he walked into a herd of goats.) Zōuchéng 舟乘 is boats and vessels. In the sixth volume of Hòuzhǔjì 後主 紀 [Records of the Later Emperor] of Chénshū 陳書 [The History of the Chen dynasty], it is written that “Dīngsì dàfēng zhǔzì xīběi, jītāo shuǐrù shítouchéng, huáizhǔ bàoyì, piāomò zhōuchéng. 丁巳大風主自西北, 激濤水入石頭城, 淮渚 暴溢, 漂没舟乘.” (In the year of Dingsi, the gale blew from the northwest, and the river water deluged into the Rocky Town. The water level of Huai River had suddenly risen so that all boats were flooded.)

2.10 Abbreviations An abbreviation is the short form of a compound word. To adapt to the disyllabification in the development of the Chinese vocabulary, abbreviations are mostly disyllable, but they can also be monophonic. For instance, gōngzhǔ 公主 can be abbreviated as zhǔ 主. Polyphonic words are still words after the abbreviation, yet phrases will become words instead. Abbreviation occurred before the Qin and the Han dynasties; after the Wei and the Jin dynasties, abbreviation was enriched in its number and range. For example, xīmǔ 西母, xīwáng 西王, and wángmǔ 王母 are all abbreviations of xīwángmǔ 西王母, referring to the Queen Mother of the West. In the chapter Xīshānjīng 西山經 [The Classic of Western Mountains] in Shānhǎijīng 山海經 [The Classic of Mountains and Seas], it is written that “Xīwángmǔ, qízhuàng rúrén, bàowěi hǔchǐ ér shànxiào. 西王母, 其狀如人, 豹尾虎齒而善嘯.” (In appearance, the Queen Mother looks like a human in shape, but she has a leopard’s tail and the fangs of a tigress, and she is good at whistling.) In Zhèngdūfù 正 都賦 [The Ode of Zhengdu] by Fu Xuan 傅玄 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “Dōngfù yìqīnggài ér xiáwàng, xīmǔ shǐsānzúzhī língqín. 東父翳青蓋而遐望, 西 母使三足之靈禽.” (Under the cyan imperial canopy, King East looked far into the distance; accompanied by the legendary beast, Queen Mother commanded her three-foot crow.) In Yú Chuò zhuàn 虞綽傳 [The Biography of Yu Chuo] of Suíshū 隋書 [The History of the Sui dynasty], it is recorded that “Xīwáng qīngniǎo, dōnghǎi chìyàn, qǐkě tóngnián éryǔ zāi? 西王青鳥, 東海赤雁, 豈可同 年而語哉?” (How can they be mentioned in the same breath with the bird messenger of Queen Mother or the red swan geese?) In the fifth of eight poems in

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Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

Qiūxīng 秋興 [Reflections in the Autumn] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Xīwàng yáochí jiàng wángmǔ, dōnglái zǐqì mǎnhánguān. 西望 瑶池降王母, 東來紫氣滿函關.” (One may descry the Queen Mother descending her Fairy Pond; Lao Zi passing Hangu Pass with purple mist around.) Hánguān 函關 is the abbreviation of hángǔguān 函谷關 (name of an old imperial palace), which is located in today’s Lingbao county, Henan Province. Mǎqiān 馬遷 is closely related to the abbreviation of Sīmǎ Qiān 司馬遷, who is the great historian of the Western Han dynasty. In the poem Wǔyán shùdé shūqíngshī yīshǒu sìshíyùn xiànshàng Dùqīxiōng púyè xiànggōng 五言述德抒 情詩一首四十韻獻上杜七兄仆射相公 [Forty Rhymes Five-Character Lyric Poetry Illustrating Morality to Seventh Brother Du as the Minister] by Li Shangyin 李商隱 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “dàoshāng pānyuèzhòng, shùlì Mǎqiānqīng. 悼傷潘岳重, 樹立馬遷輕.” (Pan Yue got great attainment in memorial poetry; though attainment he got, Maqian is of less significance.) Yánpíng 嚴平 is closely related to the abbreviation of Yán Jūnpíng 嚴君平. Jūnpíng 君平 was born in Shu County, the Western Han dynasty. He once made his living by telling the fortune for others in Chengdu, so today there is a street named Junping in the city. In Wáng Jí zhuàn 王吉傳 [The Biography of Wang Ji] of Hànshū 漢書 [The History of the Han dynasty], it is written that “Shǔyǒu Yán Jūnpíng, jiē xiūshēn zìbǎo, fēiqífú fúfú, fēiqíshí fúshí. 蜀有嚴君平, 皆修身 自保, 非其服弗服, 非其食弗食.” (In Shu County, there was a man called Yan Junping. He was inclined to cultivate his moral character and preserve himself. He rejected any clothes that did not belong to him and any food that did not fit him.) In Shǔshū – Xǔ Mí Sūn Jiǎn Yī Qín zhuàn 蜀書許麋孫簡伊秦傳 [The Book of the Shu – The Biography of Xu, Mi, Sun, Jian, Yi and Qin] of Sānguózhì 三國志 [History of the Three Kingdoms], it is written that “Quányuē: ‘Zhòngní 、Yánpíng, huìjù zhòngshū, yǐchéng Chūnqiū, Zhǐguī zhīwén, gù hǎiyǐ héliú wéidà, jūnzǐyǐ bóshí wéihóng’. Mìbào yuē: ‘Shūfēi shǐjì zhōutú, zhòngní bùcǎi; dàofēi xūwú zìrán, Yánpíng bùyǎn’. 權曰: ‘仲尼、嚴平, 會聚眾書, 以成《春秋》《 指歸》之文, 故海以合流爲大, 君子以博識爲宏.’ 宓報曰: ‘書非史記周圖, 仲 尼不采; 道非虚無自然, 嚴平不演’.” (Quan said: “For the constant endeavor of Zhongni and Yanping collecting various books, ‘Spring and Autumn Annals’ and ‘The Interpretation of Laozi’ were composed. Therefore, streams flow together into the sea; extensive reading accomplished a true scholar.” Mì replied: “Except for official history and literature of the Zhou dynasty, Confucius avoided accepting opinions from other books; except for admiring nothingness and nature as the law, Yanping did not conduct the deduction”.) Huǒbù 火布 is the abbreviation of huǒwánbù 火烷布, which is asbestos cloth. In Xīyùzhuàn·Dàqínguó 西域傳· 大秦國 [The Biography of Xiyu – The State of Daqin] of Hòuhànshū 後漢書 [The History of the Later Han dynasty], it is written that “zuò huángjīntú 、huǒwánbù . . . Fán wàiguó zhēnyì jiēchūyān. 作黄 金塗、火烷布 . . . 凡外國珍異皆出焉.” (They produced gilding and asbestos cloth. . . . All the foreign rare treasures were sold out.) In Yímánzhuànlùn 夷蠻 傳論 [The Biography of Minority Groups] of Sòngshū 宋書 [The History of the Song dynasty], it is written that “Tōngxī, cuìyǔ zhīzhēn, shézhū, huǒbù zhīyì. 通

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 121 犀、翠羽之珍, 蛇珠、火布之異.” (Treasures like rhinoceros horns and kingfisher feathers, exotic goods like snake pearl and asbestos cloth.) Lǎochūn 老春 is the abbreviation of lǎotóuchūn 老頭春, the name of a kind of wine in the Tang dynasty. In Jì Bù Shīyǒng 季布詩詠 [The Chant of the Ji Bu Poem] of Dūnhuángbiàn wénjí 敦煌變文集 [Songs and Rhymes Story Collection of Dunhuang], it is written that “qiānjīn bùfù lǎotóuchūn, zuìwò jiēqián wàngquèpín. 千金不傅老頭春, 醉卧階前忘却貧.” (You may have a thousand pieces of gold, yet the good wine of Old Spring is invaluable; with it you may have a drunken sleep, at the step you forget the rainy day.) In the poem Kū shànniàng Jì Sǒu 哭善釀紀叟 [Elegy on Master Brewer Ji] by Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Jìsǒu huángquánlǐ, háimì niànglǎochūn. 紀叟黄泉裏, 還密釀老春.” (For thirsty souls are you still brewing good wine of Old Spring, Master Ji?) Yuānwǎ 鴛瓦 is the abbreviation of yuānyāngwǎ 鴛鴦瓦, an upward–downward pair of tiles. In the poem Jiǎngxí jiāngbì fù sānshíyùnshī yīcìyòng 講席 將畢賦三十韻詩依次用 [Thirty Rhymes in Sequence Near the End of Sermon] by Xiao Tong 蕭統 of the Liang of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “rìlì yuānyāngwǎ, fēngdù zhīzhūwū. 日麗鴛鴦瓦, 風度蜘蛛屋.” (Sun shines upon tiles; the wind blows the spider-webbed house.) In the poem Dāngjù yǒuduì 當句 有對 [Couple in Every Sentence] by Li Shangyin 李商隱 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Mì’ěr píngyáng yīngshànglán, qínlóu yuānwǎ hàngōngpán. 密邇 平陽櫻上蘭, 秦樓鴛瓦漢宫盤.” (She lives in Pingyang Palace next to Shanglan temple; I guard Hangong plate, appreciating tiles on Qin Tower.) Yuānlǚ 鴛侣 is the abbreviation of yuānyānglǚ 鴛鴦侣, suggesting a loving couple. In the poem Ǒuyóu 偶遊 [Running into You While Wandering] by Wen Tingyun 温庭筠 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yǔjūn biànshì yuānyānglǚ, xiūxiàng rénjiān mìwǎnghuán. 與君便是鴛鴦侣, 休向人間覓往還.” (You and I are like a loving couple; do not fly back and forth to others’ hugs.) In the lyrics Yùchíbēi – Líhèn 尉遲杯· 離恨 [Yuchi Cup – Departure Sadness] by Zhou Bangyan 周邦彦 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “yǒuhérén niànwǒ wúliáo, mènghún níng yuānlǚ. 有何人念我無聊, 夢魂凝鴛侣.” (Nobody would know how lonely I am; in my sleep I dreamed of those loving couples.) Shíbìng 時病 is the abbreviation of shíxíngbìng 時行病, which is an epidemic or seasonal disease. In the third volume of Sōushén hòujì 搜神後記 [Postscript of Anecdotes About Spirits and Immortals] by Tao Qian 陶潛 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “Huányíwǔshí, yǒuyī dūjiāng, yīnshíxíngbìng hòuxūrè, gèngnéng yǐnfùmíng, bì yīhú èrdǒu nǎibǎo. 桓宜武時, 有一督將, 因時行病後虚熱, 更能 飲複茗, 必一斛二斗乃飽.” (In the year of Emperor Huan, Xuanwu, there was a provincial military governor who caught a seasonal disease and was subject to fever. He constantly drank tea that was made repeatedly. He would not stop drinking until it was enough to one hu [a dry measure used in former times, originally equal to ten dou, later five dou] and two dou [a unit of dry measure for grain, equal to one decaliter].) In Yìyuàn 異苑 [Collection of Mystery Novels] by Liu Jingshu 劉敬叔 of the Southern Song dynasties, it is written, “Èrshíbānián sānyuè, jǔjiā xīdé shíbìng, jì’ér jiànchā. 二十八年三月, 舉家悉得時病, 既而漸差.” (In March

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of the year twenty-eight, the whole family fell into seasonal disease and the situation became worse gradually.) Some abbreviations are compounds constituted by monosyllabic terms through the monophthongization of two-syllable terms and other morphemes. For example, chán 蟾, chú 蜍, chánguāng 蟾光, chángōng 蟾宫, chánpò 蟾魄, chán 蟾, and chú 蜍 are the abbreviations of chánchú 蟾蜍, meaning a toad. It is said that there is a toad in the moon; therefore, toad refers to the moon. Yúguāng 蝓光 is moonlight; yúgōng 蝓宫 is the Moon Palace, the palace in the moon lived in by Chang’e 嫦娥 in the legend; chánpò 蟾魄 is an alternative name for the moon and for moonlight. In Xījīngfù 西京賦 [The Ode of Xijing] by Zhang Heng 張衡 of the Han dynasty, it is written that “Chánchú yǔguī, shuǐrén nòngshé. 蟾蜍 與龜, 水人弄蛇.” (There are toads and tortoises, as well as the juggling of snake by people living near the waterside.) In the second poem Bāyuè shíwǔyè 八月十 五夜 [In the Night of Fifteenth August] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Diāodòu jiēcuīxiǎo, yúchú qiězìqīng. 刁斗皆催曉, 蟾蜍且自傾.” (The ring of Diaodou reminds the coming of morning; the light of toad steps down the dark sky.) In the poem Yǔhòu wàngyuè 雨後望月 [Gaze upon the Moon after the Rain] by Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “sìzhōu yīnǎisàn, kāihù bànchánchū. 四周陰靄散, 開户半蟾出.” (The gloomy haze disperses to the surrounding air; opening the window I see chán moon’s half face.) In the poem Huánghòugé duānwǔ tiězi 皇后閣端午帖子 [Fifth May Post of The Queen’s Palace] by Zhen Dexiu 真德秀 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “yùzhī tiānxī wújiāngshòu, rènqǔ xiānchán hànxiàshū. 欲知天錫無疆壽, 認取仙蟾頷下書.” (To affirm God blesses our Queen a long life, take the letter held in the celestial toad’s mouth.) In Jǐndàishū shíèryuè qǐ· Tàicù zhēngyuè 錦帶書十二月啓· 太簇 正月 [Literary Brocade, Twelve Months’ Letters – Taicu February] by Xiao Tong 蕭統 of the Liang of the Southern dynasties, it is written that “piāoyáo yúxuě, rùxiāoguǎn yǐchénggē; jiǎojié qīngbīng, duìchánguāng érxiějìng. 飄飖餘雪, 入 簫管以成歌; 皎潔清冰, 對蟾光而寫鏡.” (The snowflakes flutter into the flute and out with notes; the ice crystallizes under moonlight and is like a mirror.) In the poem Zhōngqiū yuè 中秋月 [The Mid-Autumn Moon] by Xu Zhou 許晝 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Yīngshì chángōng biéyǒuqíng, měiféng qiūbàn bèichéngqīng. 應是蟾宫别有情, 每逢秋半倍澄清.” (Moon Palace must be in particular ties of affection; she becomes pellucid times over every midautumn day.) In the poem Jìhuái zèng Lǐ liùhù 紀懷赠李六户 [A Commemoration to Li liuhu] by Yuan Zhen 元稹 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “huábiǎo dāngchánpò, gāolóu guàyùshéng. 華表當蟾魄, 高樓挂玉繩.” (Above the ornamental column moon hangs; onto the high-rise tower stars intersperse.) Táng 螳, tángbì 螳臂, tángfǔ 螳斧, or táng 螳 is also written as táng 螗, the abbreviation of tángláng (láng) 螳螂( 蜋). Tángbì 螳臂 is the propodeum of a mantis, indicating the overestimation of one’s strength. Tángfǔ 螳斧 also means the propodeum of a mantis, which is thus named for the similar shape of a sickle. In Lǐjì·Yuèlìng 禮記· 月令 [The Book of Rites Climate and Phenology in a Lunar Month], it is written that “xiǎoshǔzhì, tánglángshēng. 小暑至, 螳蜋生.” (When the slight heat arrives, mantis appears.) In one of the poems of Pínghuái yíyǎ

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 123 平淮夷雅 [Song of Huaiyi Suppression] by Liu Zongyuan 柳宗元 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “póuxiōng jūwán, fēngwèi fǔtáng. 裒凶鞠頑，鋒蝟斧 螗.” (In his group there are fierce and cruel gangsters; their weapons are weak like hedgehog spines and propodeum of mantis.) In Qiú Ránkè zhuàn 虬髯客傳 [The Biography of Qiu Ranke] by Du Guangting 杜光庭 of the Former Shu, it is written that “rénchénzhī miùsīluànzhě, nǎi tángbìzhī jùzǒulún ěr. 人臣之謬思 亂者, 乃螳臂之拒走輪耳.” (Courtiers who contrive to create a disturbance are just propodeum of mantis trying to block the running wheels.) In the poem Chán 蟬 [The Cicada] by Li Gou 李觏 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “tángfǔ bùláo yīnzhìhài, diāoguànyóu kěgòng chuánmíng. 螳斧不勞陰致害, 貂冠猶可 共傳名.” (Propodeum of mantis is not sharp but harmful; officer wearing minktail-cap still spreads his fame.) Tuó 駝, míngtuó 明駝, jīntuó 金駝, guāntuó 官駝, yětuó 野駝, tuófēng 駝 峰, tuójūn 駝鈞, tuónáng 駝囊, or tuó 駝 is the abbreviation of luòtuo 駱駝. For example, In Gěng Gōng zhuàn 耿恭傳 [The Biography of Geng Gong] of Hànshū 漢書 [The History of the Han dynasty], it is written that “jiànchū yuánnián zhēngyuè, gōngjiāo hékǒu. . . . Huò shēngkǒu sānqiānyúrén, tuó, lǘ, mǎ, niú, yángděng sānwàn qīqiāntóu. 建初元年正月, 攻交河口 . . . 獲生口三千餘人, 驼、驢、馬、牛、羊等三萬七千頭.” (In the first month of the year of Jianchu, they launched the attack to Jiaohekou . . . captured over 3,000 enemy soldiers, and 37,000 camels, donkeys, horses, cows, and sheep.) Míngtuó 明駝 are camels that are strong and apt to take long hikes. In Mùlán Shī 木蘭詩 [The Song of Mulan], it is written that “yuànjiè míngtuó qiānlǐzú, sòng’ér huángùxiāng. 願借明駝千里 足, 送兒還故鄉.” (I wish a camel fleet to carry me to my native place.) Jīntuó 金駝 is a cast golden camel. In Xīyùzhuàn 西域傳 [The Biography of Xiyu] of Wèishū 魏書 [History of the Wei dynasty], it is written that “Guówángyǒu huángjīndiàn, diànxiàyǒu jīntuó qītóu, gègāo sānchǐ. 國王有黄金殿, 殿下有金駝七頭, 各高三 尺.” (The King sits in the golden palace, under which there are seven cast golden camels with a height of three chi [a unit of length, equal to one-third meter].) Guāntuó 官駝 is a camel raised by a feudal official. In Rúrúzhuàn 蠕蠕傳 [The History of Ruru State] of Wèishū 魏書 [History of the Wei dynasty], it is written that “qǐnggěi Shuòzhōu mázi gānfàn èrqiānhú, guāntuó yùnsòng. 請給朔州 麻子乾飯二千斛, 官駝運送.” (Please grant Shuo State prosomillet and parched rice two thousand hu, delivered by camels raised by a feudal official.) Yětuó 野 駝 is a wild camel. In the poem Jiǔquán tàishǒu xíshàng zuìhòu zuò 酒泉太守 席上醉後作 [Poem Made on the Feast by Jiuquan Prefecture after Being Drunk] by Cen Shen 岑參 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “húnzhì líniú pēngyětuó, jiāohé měijiǔ guīpǒluó. 渾炙犁牛烹野駝, 交河美酒歸叵羅.” (Roasted yellow cattle and boiled wild camel; Jiaohe fine wine in drinking vessels.) Tuófēng 駝 峰 is the hump on the camel, which was one of the delicacies in ancient times. In Yǒuyáng zázǔ·Jiǔshí 酉陽雜俎· 酒食 [Miscellany in Youyang· Foods and Drinks] by Duan Chengshi 段成式 段成式 of the Tang dynasty, it is written, “Jiāngjūn Qǔ Liánghàn, néngwéi lǘjùn, tuófēngzhì. 將軍曲良翰, 能爲驢骏、駝 峰炙.” (The General Qu Lianghan was good at roasting donkey necks and the hump on the camel.) Ttuógōu 駝鈎 is the decoration on the back of a camel. In the

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Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese

poem Mèngyóu chūn qīshíyùn 夢遊春七十韻 [Seventy Rhymes Versing a Spring Tour in the Dream] by Yuan Zhen 元稹 of the Tang dynasty, it is written, “gézi bìyóuhū, tuógōu zǐjīndù. 隔子碧油糊, 駝鈎紫金鍍.” (The window is pasted with blue oil-paper; the decoration on the back of a camel is gilded with violet gold.) Tuónáng 駝囊 is a bag made of camel skin. In the poem Yànmén tàishǒu xíng 雁 門太守行 [Song for Yanmen Prefecture] by Zhang You 張祐 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Tuónáng xièjiǔ jiǔyībēi, qiántou dīxuè xīnbùhuí. 駝囊瀉酒酒一 杯, 前頭滴血心不回.” (Drink a cup of wine poured from a bag made of camel; no retreat though bleeding in the front line, and the like.) As for zhū 蛛, zhūwǎng (wǎng) 蛛網 ( 罔), zhūsī 蛛絲, or zhūchén 蛛塵, zhū 蛛 is the abbreviation of zhīzhū 蜘蛛 (spider). Zhūwǎng (wǎng) 蛛網 ( 罔) is the web that a spider makes out of its threads. This linguistic usage can be seen since the Han dynasty. Zhūsī 蛛絲is the threads a spider spins out of its excretion, also called zhūwǎng 蛛網. Zhūchén 蛛塵 is the dust on the spider web. In Guān Yǐnzi· Sānjí 關尹子· 三極 [Guan Yinzi·III The Saint], it is written that “shèngrén shīfēng lìjūnchén, shī zhīzhū lìwǎnggǔ. 聖人師蜂立君臣, 師蜘蛛立 網罟.” (The saint learns from bees to rule emperor and courtiers; he learns from spiders to establish the web of law.) In Shī 詩 [The Poem] of Gutai Chengji 故 台城妓 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “wǎngduàn zhūyóuzhī, liángchūn yànbùguī. 網斷蛛猶織, 梁春燕不歸.” (When the web is broken, the spider still tries to weave; spring comes again, previous swallows no longer nest on the beam.) In Tàixuán·Yù 太玄· 遇 [The Nothingness Encounter] by Yang Xiong 揚 雄 of the Han dynasty, it is written that “cìliù, bǐzhūwǎng, wǎngyùfēng, lì. 次六, 俾蛛罔, 罔遇蜂, 利.” (Divinatory symbol six, web made by the spider encounters the wasp; the result seems fruitful but think twice.) In Qiānniú zhīnǚ 牽牛 織女 [The Cowherd and the Weaving Lady] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “zhūsī xiǎoréntài, qǔzhuì guāguǒzhōng. 蛛絲小人態, 曲綴瓜果 中.” (There are tiny fitures of human beings on the spider silks, which stretch to the surface of melons and fruits.) In Huángquè shíxīn 黄雀食新 [New Food for the Siskin] by Yang Wanli 楊萬里 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “sānrì lìzhī xiāngwèibiàn, kuàngkāi jiàngbù fúzhūchén. 三日荔枝香味變, 況開醬瓿拂 蛛塵.” (The fragrance of litchi will change after three days; open the sauce jar to whisk away the dust.) Some words are composed of two monophthongized compound words, whose meaning still keeps the original meanings of the two compounds, as can be seen in the following examples. Huángyīng 皇英 collectively refers to the daughters of Emperor Yao, the wives of Emperor Shun: é huáng 娥皇 and nǚ yīng 女英 in the legends. In Xùchóufù 敘 愁賦 [The Ode of Melancholy] by Cao Zhi 曹植 of the Wei of the Three Kingdoms, it is written that “guāntúxiàngzhī yíxíng, qièshù jīhū huángyīng. 觀圖 像之遺形, 竊庶幾乎皇英.” (Whenever observing figures in the paintings, we inwardly and deeply admire the daughters of Emperor Yao.) In Yuǎnbiélí 遠别離 [Part Forever] by Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yuǎnbiélí, gǔyǒu huángyīngzhī èrnǚ, nǎizài dòngtíng zhīnán, xiāoxiāng zhīpǔ. 遠别離, 古有 皇英之二女, 乃在洞庭之南, 瀟湘之浦.” (The story of parting begins with two

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 125 daughters of Emperor Yao in the ancient times. It happens at the bank of Xiaoxiang in the south of Dongting Lake.) Niúnǚ 牛女 and nǚniú 女牛 are the simplified general terms of qiānniúxīng 牽 牛星 (the Cowherd Star), zhīnǚxīng 織女星 (the Weaving Star), or niúláng zhīnǚ 牛郎織女 in ancient mythology. In Yàngēxíng 燕歌行 [Song of a Lonely Wife] by Cao Pi 曹丕 of the Wei of the Three Kingdoms, it is written that “Qiānniú zhīnǚ yáoxiāngwàng, ěrdú hégū xiànhéliáng? 牽牛織女遥相望, 爾獨何辜限河 梁?” (The Cowherd from afar gazes on Weaving Star. What is wrong on their part to be kept far apart!) In Xīzhēngfù 西征賦 [The Ode of Expedition to the West] by Pan Yue 潘岳 of the Jin dynasty, it is written that “Yíjǐngxīng yútiānhàn, lièniúnǚ yǐshuāngzhì. 儀景星於天漢, 列牛女以雙峙.” (It is like Jing Star in the galaxy; with the Weaving Star and the Cowherd Star statue at both sides.) In the lyrics Quèqiáoxiān 鵲橋仙 [The Magpie Bridge Rendezvous] by Huang Tingjian 黄 庭堅of the Song dynasty, it is written that “niánnián niúnǚ hènfēngbō, pīncǐshì, rénjiān tiānshàng. 年年牛女恨風波, 拚此事, 人間天上.” (Wind and wave hinder the Weaving Star and the Cowherd Star’s reunion every year; talking about separation, celestial and commons feel similar.) In Yèbó dōngxī yǒuhuái 夜泊東溪有 懷 [A Reminiscence When Mooring at the Night’s East Stream] by Xu Qian 許 謙 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “jiǔxǐng tuīpéngzuò, qīliáng wàngnǚniú. 酒醒推篷坐, 凄凉望女牛.” (I open the awning window after sobering up; I sat in loneliness looking up at the Weaving Star.) In Mèngliánglù· Qīxī 夢粱録· 七夕 [Notes in a Fond Dream – Chinese Valentine’s Day] by Wu Zimu 吴自牧 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “suìlìng nǚláng wàngyuè, zhāndòu lièbài, cìqǐqiǎoyú nǚniú. 遂令女郎望月, 瞻斗列拜, 次乞巧于女牛.” (Daughters and sons are ordered to worship the moon and stars in line, then girls pray to the Weaving Star for a special gift.) Chénshè 沉麝 or shèchén 麝沉 is the abbreviation of chénxiāng 沉香 (agilawood) and shèxiāng 麝香 (musk). In the poem Yángpàn’ér 楊叛兒 [Yangpan’er] by Li Bai 李白of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “Bóshān lúzhōng chénxiānghuǒ, shuāngyān yīqì língzǐxiá. 博山爐中沈香火, 雙煙一氣凌紫霞.” (Behold the censer and the sandalwood in fire! Two wreaths of smoke combine and rise higher and higher.) According to Dōnghūnhóujì 東昏侯紀 [The Biography of Marquis Donghun] in Nánqíshū 南齊書 [The Book of the Southern Qi dynasty], it is written that “Shèxiāng túbì, jǐnmàn zhūlián, qióngjí qǐlì. 麝香塗壁, 錦幔珠簾, 窮極 綺麗.” (Walls were painted with musk and curtains were made of brocade, which were extremely gorgeous and luxurious.) In Wéimójiéjīng jiǎngjīngwén 維摩詰 經講經文 [Preaching the Vimalakirti Sutra] of Dūnhuáng biànwén jí 敦煌變文 集 [Songs and Rhymes Story Collection of Dunhuang], it is written that “gèqǐng qíngxiānhuā yúzhǎngnèi, wèiwú shāochénshè yúlúzhōng. 各請擎鮮花於掌内, 爲 吾燒沈麝於爐中.” (Each of them holds a bouquet with respect; burns agilawood in the censer for me.) In Kāiyuántiānbǎo yíshì· Jiáoshè zhītán 開元天寶遺事· 嚼 麝之談 [Incidents of the Era Kaiyuantianbao – The Story of Chewing Musk] by Wang Renyu 王仁裕 of the Five dynasties, it is written that “měiyǔ bīnkè yìlùn, xiānhánjiáo chénshè, fangqǐkǒu fātán, xiāngqì pēnyú xíshàng. 每與賓客議論, 先 含嚼沈麝, 方啓口發談, 香氣噴于席上.” (Every time when guests get together,

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he won’t start the discussion until he chews some Chinese eaglewood and musk in the mouth so that the whole room is filled with fragrance.) In Hánshíyè 寒 食夜 [The Night of Cold Food Festival] by Su Shi 蘇軾 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “chénshè bùshāo jīnyālěng, dànyún lóngyuè zhàolíhuā. 沉麝不燒 金鴨冷, 淡雲籠月照梨花.” (Without burning musk the duck-like golden censer feels cold; with clouds around the moon desolately overlooks pear flowers.) Shèchén 麝沉 and chénshè 沉麝 bear the same meaning; these appear in modern times. In the poem Cìyùn Wángcānyì jìshàngjīng Hú Āncháng zhūgōng 次韻王 參議寄上京胡安常諸公 [A Letter from Consultant Wang to Hu Anchang and All in the Capital (adopting the rhyme sequence of a poem)] by Ma Zuchang 馬祖常 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “shěngzhōng wēnshù zhòuyīnyīn, lángshǔ xūnyī jìnshèchén. 省中温樹晝陰陰, 郎署熏衣盡麝沈.” (In the court greenhouse trees are with exuberant foliage; for court attendants they perfume their clothes with musk.) There was an explanation of the extensive emergence of abbreviations in Middle Chinese from Qian Daxin 錢大昕 (scholar of the Qing dynasty), “Hànwèi yǐjiàng, wénshàng piánlì, shīyán shēngbìng, suǒyǐnyòng gǔrén xìngmíng, rènyì gēshěng, dāngshí bùyǐ wéifēi. 漢魏以降, 文尚駢儷, 詩嚴聲病, 所引用古人姓 名, 任意割省, 當時不以爲非.” (Since the Han and the Wei dynasties, the parallel style was prevailing in literature; poem compositions were restricted violating the rules of rhyme; therefore, the quoted ancient names were segmented at random, which was acceptable at the moment.)1 This explanation from Qian is also applicable to other abbreviations. Parallel prose and classical poetry require the antithesis of the level and oblique tones, which leads to the wide use of abbreviations in written language. The rule of conciseness instead of complication is also adopted in the spoken language. Hence, abbreviations are quite common in works with a certain degree of spoken language style. As for the construction of abbreviations, as long as the semantic expression is not influenced, there is no strict law on leaving out the word in the head or tail.

2.11 Trans-hierarchical compound words Two morphemes are semantically and grammatically unrelated originally, while normally, through the employment of allusions, these words are constructed. The employment of allusions refers to the reference to words and stories in ancient books and records. After the Wei and Jin periods, when parallel prose was popular, a great number of poems were produced with large-scale adoption of allusion in the written works. The employment of allusions might generate disyllabic words, which gave rise to the development of Middle Chinese vocabulary to some extent. The characteristics of this type of word can be concluded as: two morphemes bear little semantic relation, nor do they stay in the same grammatical level, and the meaning of the word generated is normally beyond their literal meanings, embodying the initial content of the ancient expressions and stories. As a result, it is difficult to fully master the correct word meaning without an understanding of the allusions. For example:

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 127 Érlì 而立 is the age of 30. In Wéizhèng 為政 [On Governance] in Lúnyǔ 論語 [Confucian Analects], it is recorded that “sānshí érlì, sìshí érbùhuò. 三十而立, 四十 而不惑.” (At thirty, I had planted my feet firm upon the ground. At forty, I no longer suffered from perplexities.) Ér 而 is a conjunction, which is combined with lì 立 as érlì 而立 after Middle Chinese, meaning the age of 30. Hóuqīnglù 侯鯖録 [Literary Delicacies] by Zhao Lingzhi 趙令畤 of the Song dynasty cited poems of Su Shi 蘇 軾 three times “Lìnggé fāngdāng érlìsuì, xiánfū yǐjìn gǔxīnián. 令閣方當而立歲, 賢夫已近古稀年.” (The wife just reaches thirty; the husband goes toward seventy.) Jǐngyǎng 景仰 means look up to someone. In Xiǎoyǎ·Chēxiá 小雅車舝 [Book of Odes – On the Way to the Bride’s House] of Shījīng 詩經 [Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “gāoshān yǎngzhǐ, jǐngxíng xíngzhǐ. 高山仰止, 景行行止.” (You are good like mountains high, like the road you go long.) Jǐng 景 and yǎng 仰 have no association with each other. In Middle Chinese, they are constituted into a compound word meaning looking up to someone. Liú Kǎi zhuàn 劉愷傳 [The Biography of Liu Kai] of Hòuhànshū 後漢書 [The History of the Later Han dynasty], it is recorded that “jīn Kǎi jǐngyǎng qiánxiū, yǒu bóyí zhījié, yíméng jīnyòu, cúnqí xiāngōng. 今愷景仰前修, 有伯夷之節, 宜蒙矜宥, 存其先功.” (Kai looked up to sages with a lofty moral character all through; his deed was just like Bo Yi. He should be rewarded with mercy and forgiveness, to retain achievements of their clan.) In volume 11 of Hèlín yùlù 鶴林玉露 [Story Collection by Helin] by Luo Dajing 羅大經 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “Shī yuē ‘gāoshān yǎngzhǐ, jǐngxíng xíngzhǐ’. Jǐng, míngyě, wèi suǒxíngzhī guāngmíng yě. Shìsúyǒu jǐngyǎng, jǐngmù zhīyǔ, suìshīqíyì’. 《詩》曰: ‘ 高山仰止, 景行 行止.’ 景, 明也, 謂所行之光明也. 世俗有景仰、景慕之語, 遂失其義’.” (The Poetry says: “Admire the mountain as it is pretty high; walk towards the road as it’s pretty bright”. “Jing” is the same as “Ming”, meaning the brightness on the way. People frequently use expressions like Jingyang [admire] or Jingmu [admire], the original meaning is thus left out.) Liányī 漣漪 is a ripple. In Wèifēng·Fátán 魏風· 伐檀 [Songs Collected in the Wei·The Woodcutter’s Song] of Shījīng 詩經 [Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “Héshuǐ qīngqiě liányī. 河水清且漣猗.” (The clear and rippling waters flow.) Yī 猗 is a modal particle. In Middle Chinese, it is combined with lián 漣 and turns into a compound. The writing of yī 猗 is also changed into yī 漪 following lián 漣. Liányī 漣漪 denotes a ripple. In Wúdūfù 吴都賦 [The Ode of Capital Wu] by Zuo Si 左思 of the Jin dynasty, it is recorded that “pōujùbàng yúhuíyuān, zhuómíngyuè yúliányī. 剖巨蚌於回淵, 濯明月於漣漪.” (Cut giant clams open in the abyss; wash moon pearls clean in ripple.) In the poem Nàliáng 納凉 [Enjoy the Coolness] by Wáng Wéi 王維 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “liányī hánbáishā, qīngwěi rúyóukōng. 漣漪涵白沙, 青鮪如遊空.” (Ripples pat the white sand; medaka hovers in the water.) The compound can be reversed into yīlián 漪漣 as well. In Wèi Héng zhuàn 衛恒傳 [The Biography of Wei Heng] of Jìnshū 晉書 [History of the Jin dynasty], it is recorded that “shìgù yuǎn’ér wàngzhī, ruò xiángfēng lìshuǐ, qīngbō yīlián. 是故遠而望之, 若翔風厲水, 清波 漪漣.” (Consequently, if observe from distance, it is like breeze blows over the water and generate clear waves and ripples.)

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Quántí 筌蹄 refers to tools or methods used to achieve some specific goals. Quán 筌 is also written as quán 荃. In Wàiwù 外物 [External Things] of Zhuāng Zǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it is recorded that “quánzhě suǒyǐ zàiyú, déyú’ér wàngquán; tízhě suǒyǐ zàitù, détù’ér wàngtí. 荃者所以在魚, 得魚而忘荃; 蹄者 所以在兔, 得兔而忘蹄.” (As a cage is for fishing, the cage’s forgot, when fish are caught; as a trap is for hares, the trap’s forgot, when a hare’s caught.) Quán 筌 is the fishing device made of bamboo, and tí 蹄 is the trap for catching hares. Quántí 筌蹄 in collocation refers to tools or methods used to achieve specific goals. In the Preface of Kǒng Yǐngdá shū 孔穎達疏 [A Detailed Annotation by Kong Yingda] of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “gù Yì yuē:‘shūbùjìnyán, yánbùjìnyì’. Shì yánzhě yìzhī quántí, shūyán xiāngshēngzhě yě. 故《易》曰: ‘書不盡言, 言不盡意.’ 是言者意之筌蹄, 書言相生者也.” (So as The Book of Changes says: “Written words cannot perfectly express spoken words, nor can spoken words perfectly express one’s thought”. Therefore, spoken words are the tools of thoughts; written words and spoken words inter-promote each other.) In the poem Jì Liúxiázhōu Bóhuà shǐjūn sìshíyùn 寄劉峽州伯華使君四十韻 [Forty Rhymes To Liu Bohua Xiazhou Governor] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “miàoqǔ quántíqì, gāoyí bǎiwàncéng. 妙取筌蹄棄, 高宜百萬 層.” (When composing an essay, it’s better to discard tools but concentrate on profound theme and implication.) In the poem Fènghè Lǐdàifū tí Zhèngpíngshì jiānglóu 奉和李大夫題鄭評事江樓 [In Response to Senior Officer Li’s Inscription on Jiang Tower of Judge Zheng] by Quan Deyu 權德輿 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “wǎngshì jìnquántí, xūhuái jìbēibiāo. 往事盡筌蹄, 虚懷寄杯 杓.” (The bygones are nothing but tools; empty your heart with a drink.) Rúmò 濡沫 is the act of mutual assisting and mutual compassionating between companions in times of predicament. In Tiānyùn 天運 [The Running of Heaven] of Zhuāng Zǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it is recorded that “quánhé, yúxiāngyǔ chùyúlù, xiāngx yǐshī, xiāngrú yǐmò. 泉涸, 魚相與處於陸, 相呴以濕, 相濡以 沫.” (The river dries, two fish cling to each other, blow wetness to each other and feed each other with saliva.) It refers to fish wetting each other with saliva. Later on, rúmò 濡沫 is used to represent the act of mutual assisting and mutual compassion between companions in times of predicament. In Zīgù dàoshì yíxiàlùn 諮 顧道士夷夏論 [Consultation about Chinese Race and Foreign Races to Taoist Gu] by Zhu Guangzhi 朱廣之 of the Southern Song dynasties, it is written that “jiǎnqíyán yě, bǐwǒ jùqiǎn; xúnqízhǐ yě, lǎoshì wújì. Jùqiǎn zé rúmò kěqiǎn, wújì zé bùfù gāoguì. 檢其言也, 彼我俱遣; 尋其旨也, 老釋無際. 俱遣則濡沫可遣, 無際則不負高貴.” (Viewing his wording, we find oblivion of oneself and others; searching his theme, we find no estrangement between Taoism and Buddhism. The entire oblivion also includes the act of mutual assisting; the tolerance lives up to the nobleness.) In Chāyú zhāo Zhānggōngcáo 叉魚招張功曹 [Inviting Magistrate Zhang to the Spearing Fish-Seeing] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “rúmò qíngsuīmì, dēngmén shìyǐliáo. 濡沫情雖密, 登門事已 遼.” (Fishes assisting each other seems intimate, yet dragon gate leaping seems impossible.) In the poem Chóu Lóuxiùcái jiāngzhī Huáinán jiànzèngzhīzuò 酬婁 秀才將之淮南見贈之作 [Farewell to Scholar Lou for his Leaving for Huainan]

Development of polysyllabic words of Middle Chinese 129 by Liu Zongyuan 柳宗元 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “hǎoyīn liánshāyǔ, rúmò wèiqiónglín. 好音憐鎩羽, 濡沫慰窮鱗.” (Sweet sound comforts the broken-winged bird; act of mutual assisting saves fish out of water.) In Hè Wáng Jìnqīng 和王晉卿 [Reply to Wang Jinqing] by Su Shi 蘇軾 of the Song dynasty, it is recorded that “wèiyán xiāngrúmò, wèizú jiùgōudú. 謂言相濡沫, 未足救溝 瀆.” (Though we intend to assist each other, pity that little help for the plight.) Wéichén 惟塵 is a villain. In Xiǎoyǎ·Wújiāng dàchē 小雅· 無將大車 [Book of Odes·– Cart without General] of Shījīng 詩經 [Book of Poetry], it is recorded that “wújiāng dàchē, wéichén míngmíng. 無將大車, 維塵冥冥.” (Don’t push an ox-drawn cart, or dust will dim your sight.) In Zhèngjiān 鄭箋 [Zheng’s Annotations], it is written that “Yóujìn jǔxiǎorén, bìshāng yǐzhī gōngdé. 猶進舉小人, 蔽傷已之功德.” (If we recommend some villain, our merits and virtues will be damaged.) Later on, wéichén 惟塵 is the expression indicating a villain. In Yōufèn shī 幽憤詩 [Hidden Rage] by Ji Kang 嵇康 of the Wei of the Three Kingdoms, it is recorded that “yuēyǔ bùmǐn, hǎoshàn ànrén, zǐyù zhībài, lǚzēng wéichén. 曰予 不敏, 好善闇人, 子玉之敗, 屢增惟塵.” (I can not be more stupid to make friends with this villain. Villains like the wrong recommendation of Ziyu keeps growing.) In Jiǔmǐn·Xiūshēn 九愍· 修身 [Nine Sorrows·Self-Cultivation] by Lu Yun 陸雲 of the Jin dynasty, it is recorded that “féngtiānnù érlífēn, gòushíjiù yúwéichén. 逢天怒而離纷, 遘時咎於惟塵.” (God loses its temper so people suffer; villain occurs so people confront with difficulties.) Yǒuyú 友于 is the brotherhood. According to Shàngshū·Jūnchén 尚書· 君陳 [Book of History·Yunchen], “Wéi xiàoyǒu yúxiōngdì. 惟孝友于兄弟.” (Be filial to parents and brothers.) Yú 于 is a preposition. In Middle Chinese, it is combined with yǒu 友 into yǒuyú 友于, suggesting brotherhood. In Shǐ Bì zhuàn 史弼傳 [The Biography of Shi Bi] of Hòuhànshū 後漢書 [The History of the Later Han dynasty], it is recorded that “Bìxià lóngyú yǒuyú, bùrěn èjué. 陛下隆于友于, 不 忍遏绝.” (Your Majesty cherishes brotherhood and is reluctant to wipe them out.) In Sòng Shìjǐng zhuàn 宋世景傳 [The Biography of Song Shijing] of Wèishū 魏 書 [History of the Wei dynasty], it is recorded that “Shìjǐng yǒuyú zhīxìng, guòjué yúrén. 世景友于之性, 過绝於人.” (Compared with others, Shijing particularly valued brotherhood in this character. It also refers to brothers.) In Qiú tōngqīn qīnbiǎo 求通親親表 [Memorial Pleading for Starting the Sibling Communication] by Cao Zhi 曹植 of the Wei of the Three Kingdoms, it is recorded that “jīnzhī fǒugé, yǒuyú tóngyōu. 今之否隔, 友于同憂.” (At present, we are in isolation; brotherhood is quite depressed.) In the poem Dōngnánxíng yībǎiyùn 東南行一百 韻 [A Hundred Rhymes for the Journey to the Southeast] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “wànlǐ pāopénglǚ, sānnián géyǒuyú. 萬里拋 朋侣, 三年隔友于.” (Thousands of li [a Chinese unit of length, equal to one/two kilometers] away friends are pushed; three-year-long brotherhoods are set apart.)

2.12 Conclusion Taken together, disyllabic words in Middle Ancient Chinese enjoy lexically comprehensive development in every aspect. Most of the new words produced are

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disyllabic words in this period, marking features of lexical development in the Middle Ancient Chinese language. All the disyllabic word structures in Modern Chinese were already available in the Middle Ancient Chinese language. Among these, the most crucial ones are juxtaposed compound words and subordinate compound words, making up more than 80% of the total number of disyllabic words, while other compounds are not very large in total numbers, in spite of the fact that they were developed.

Note 1 Qian Daxin 錢大昕, Shíjià zhāiyǎng xīnlù 十駕齋養新録 (volume 12) [Ancient Names Segregation].

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Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese

3.1 Introduction Semantic change is a major lexical development of Middle Chinese. Polysemies enrich the expressiveness of language. Monosyllabic words in common use were already polysemies in Old Chinese and acquired more meanings in Middle Chinese. Certain words had only one meaning in ancient times yet turned polysemous, with new meanings evolving in medieval times. The lexical system of Middle Chinese became richer. Some meanings have survived to this day, while others were eliminated over the course of time.

3.2 Emergence of new meanings of monosyllabic words in Middle Chinese A considerable number of monosyllables in Middle Chinese acquired new senses that cover a broad range. In some cases, one new meaning emerged in medieval times. Some examples are given as follows. The word cán 慚 (慙) originally meant to feel ashamed; as noted in Shuōwén Xĭnbù 説文心部 [Xin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], cán 慚 means feeling ashamed. In Gōngsūnchǒuxià 公孫丑下 [Kung-sun Ch’au, Part II] of the Works of Mencius, a line goes “wú shèn cán yú mèng zǐ. 吾甚慚於孟子.” (I feel very much ashamed before Mencius.) In medieval times, it also meant gratitude. In volume 20 of Sōushénjì 搜神記 [In Search of the Supernatural], written by Gan Bao 干寳 of the Jin dynasty, it reads “bú shèn duò jiāng, cán jūn jì huó. ruò yǒu jí nàn, dàng jiàn gào yǔ. 不慎堕江，慚君濟活. 若有急難，當見告语.” (In a moment of carelessness, I fell into the river and would have died but for your help. If you are ever in difficulty, please call on me.) In Biéfù 别賦 [Rhapsody on Separation], written by Jiang Yan 江淹 of the Southern Liang dynasty, it reads “nǎi yǒu jiàn kè cán ēn, shào nián bào shì. 乃有劍客慚恩，少年報士.” (Then there was a swordsman ashamed of unearned favor and a young knight bent on vengeance.) In Guò gù húsī xiàoshūzhuāng èrshǒu 過故斛斯校書莊二首 [Passing by the Estate of the Late Editing Clerk Husi], written by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “suì yǒu shān yáng zuò, duō cán bào shū zhī. 遂有 山陽作，多慚鮑叔知.” (Then I compose one of those Shanyang pieces; I am put DOI: 10.4324/9781003365563-3

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to great gratitude by how well Bao Shu knew me.) Compound words like cánhé 慚荷, cángǎn 慚感, cánxiè 慚谢, and cánkuì 慚愧 meant being grateful as well. In the fifth volume of Sōushénjì 搜神記 [In Search of the Supernatural], written by Gan Bao 干寳, it is written that “wēng zhī hòu yì, chū wěi xiāng dù, shēn yǒu cán gǎn, dàng yǒu yǐ xiāng xiè zhě. 翁之厚意，出葦相渡，深有慚感，當有 以相謝者.” (I owe you greatly for the ride across the river and feel obliged to return your kindness.) In Yóuxiānkū 遊仙窟 [Travel to the Divine Cave], written by Zhang Zhuo 張鷟 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “pú shí yōng cái, dé péi qīng shǎng, cì chuí yīn yuè, cán hé bù shèng. 仆實庸才，得賠清賞，賜垂 音樂，慚荷不勝.” (I am so common but bestowed with such pleasing music, so I am very grateful.) In Chǒunǚyuánqǐ 醜女緣起 [Story of an Ugly Maid] in Dūnhuángbiànwénjí 敦煌變文集 [Collection of Buddhist Transformation Texts in Dunhuang Grotto], it is written that, “gōngzhǔ yīnfó duānzhèng, shìxū cánxiè dàwáng. 公主因佛端正，事須慚谢大王.” (The Princess has become peaceful in mind due to her conviction in Buddhism. We owe great debt to you, Lord.) In Yànzifù 燕子賦 [Rhapsody on Swallow], it reads, “yīdōng lái jūzhù, wēnnuǎn yǎng qī ér, jì nǐ hé cánkuì, què bèi yuànbiàn zhī. 一冬來居住，温暖養妻兒， 記你合慚愧，却被怨辯之.” (In winter, we accommodate you and your family. I suppose you are grateful to us, but you bear resentment.) In Chóuchíbǐjì 仇池筆 記 [Records of Chouchi Pond], Su Shi 蘇軾 in the Song dynasty quoted Tan Xiu 曇秀, it is written that “cánkuì nánfēng zhī wǒyì, chuījiāng cǎomù zuò tiānxiāng. 慚愧南風知我意，吹將草木作天香.” (Thanks to the South wind that knows my mind and brings out the aroma of plants.) The word cuī 催 originally meant to urge, as noted in Shuōwén Rénbù 説文 人部 [Ren Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] as well as in Yùpiān Rénbù 玉篇人部 [Ren Group of Jade Article]. In Chénqíngbiǎo 陳情表 [A Memorial for Emperor Wu], written by Li Mi 李密, it is written that, “zǎi chén bī pò, cuī chén shàng dào. 宰臣逼迫，催臣上道.” (The commandery and prefectural authorities tried to pressure me and urged me to take the road up to the capital.) In medieval times, the word took on the meaning rapid or immediate. In volume 17 of Sōushénjì 搜神記 [In Search of the Supernatural] by Gan Bao 干寳, it is written that “gānzǐ zhèngshú, sānrén gòngshí, zhì bǎo. nǎi huái èrméi yùchū. wén kōngzhōng yǔ yún, ‘cuī fàng shuānggān, nǎi tīng rǔ qù’. 甘子正熟，三 人共食，致飽. 乃懷二枚欲出. 聞空中語云： ‘催放雙甘，乃聽汝去’.” (The oranges were fully ripe, so the three of them ate to their full and would take two more in their clothes to go. Right at the moment, they heard a voice in the air, “put down the two oranges immediately, then you could go!”) In Lǐyì 禮異 [Differentiated Propriety] in Yǒuyángzázǔ 酉陽雜俎 [A Table Full of Miscellaneous Writings from South of Mt. You], written by Duan Chengshi 段成式 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “fūjiā lǐng bǎi yú rén huò shí shù rén, suí qí shē jiǎn, xié jū jù hū, ‘xīn niáng zǐ, cuī chū lái. 夫家領百餘人或十數人，隨其 奢儉，挾車俱呼： ‘新娘子，催岀來’.” (The groom came to the bride’s home in company of hundreds or tens of men, poor or rich. Everyone shouted by the carriage, “Come out immediately, bride”.) This sense, however, has gone extinct in modern times.

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 133 The word jǐn (jìn) 僅 meant barely or only in ancient times. In Gōngyángzhuàn Huángōngsānnián 《公羊傳》桓公三年） [The Third Year of Duke Huan’s Reign (710 BCE) in Gongyang’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is written that “cǐ qí yuē yǒu nián hé, jǐn yǒu nián yě, bǐ qí yuē dà yǒu nián hé, dà fēng nián yě. 此其曰有年何？ 僅有年也，彼其曰大有年何？大豐年也.” (What does he mean by yǒu nián 有年 ? He simply means a year has passed. What does he mean by saying “dà yǒu nián” 大有年 ? He means “The year has seen a good harvest”.) In medieval times, the word took on the meaning near or approaching. In Bóyuèyángchéngxià 泊岳陽城下 [Mooring Below Yueyang County], written by Du Fu 杜甫, it is written that “jiāng guó yú qiān lǐ, shān chéng jìn bǎi chǐ. 江國踰千里，山城僅百尺.” (Through river lands I’ve passed a thousand leagues, I draw near this city of mountain of a hundred tiers.) In the poem Chūchūlántiánlùzuò 初出藍田路作 [Embarking on the Lantian Mail Road], written by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, a line goes “xún yáng jìn sì qiān, shǐ xíng qī shí lǐ. 潯陽僅四千，始行七十里.” (Xunyang is four thousand li away, but we have just traveled seventy li.) In Zhāngzhōngchéngzhuànhòuxù 張中丞傳 後敘 [Epilogue to the Biography of Grand Minister Zhang], written by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “chū shǒu suī yáng shí, shì zú jìn wàn rén. 初 守 睢陽時，士卒僅萬人.” (When we safeguarded Suiyang, we had an army of close to ten thousand.) In Shàngshūgùshí 尚書故實 [Conversations with Imperial Secretariat Zhang], written by Li Chuo 李綽 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “jiàn yī rén, nián jìn sì shí. 見一人，年僅四十.” (The man I saw is close to forty.) In Shuōwénjiězìzhù 説文解字注 [Annotations and Notices to Shuōwén], written by Duan Yucai 段玉裁 of the Qing dynasty, it is noted that “táng rén wén zì, jìn duō xùn shù jǐ zhī jǐ. 唐人文字，僅多訓庶幾之幾.” (In the writings of the Tang dynasty, jìn 僅 mostly means shùjǐ 庶幾. almost, practically.) This sense has disappeared in modern times. The word fá 乏 originally meant being devoid of in Old Chinese, as in Huángōngliùnián 桓公六年 [The 6th Year in the Reign of Lord Huan (706 BCE)] in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], where it reads “jīn mín gè yǒu xīn, ér guǐ shén fá zhǔ. 今民各有心，而鬼神乏主.” (But today, each person has his own intentions, and the ghosts and spirits lack a master.) In the part Qícèsì 齊策四 [Book Four of the Stratagems of Qi] in Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Stratagems during the Warring States Period], it is written that “mèng cháng jūn shǐ rén jǐ qí shí yòng, wú shǐ fá. 孟嘗君使人給其食用，無使乏.” (Lord Mengchang had food and necessities sent to him with nothing in short.) In medieval times, the word took on the meaning fatigue, as in Zhàibǎiqiányù 債 半錢喻 [The Parable of the Half-Qian Debt] of Bǎiyùjīng 百喻經 [One Hundred Buddhist Parables] translated by Qiunabadi 求那觱地 (Gunavrddhi) in the Southern Qi dynasty, it is narrated that “wèi bàn qián zhài ér shī sì qián, jiān yǒu dào lù pí láo fá kùn, suǒ zhài shèn shǎo, suǒ shī jí duō. 爲半錢債而失四錢，兼有道路 疲勞乏困，所債甚少，所失極多.” (To lose four coins for a half-coin debt, plus a fatiguing journey, the loss is even greater.) In Zhōudéwēizhuàn 周德威傳 [The Biographies of Zhou Dewei] in Xīnwǔdàishǐ 新 五代史 [The New History of the Five dynasties], it is written that “yīn qí láo fá ér chéng zhī, kě yǐ shèng yě. 因

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其勞乏而乘之，可以勝也.” (An attack in their exhaustion would defeat them.) Both of the two senses have remained in Modern Chinese. The word xún 燖 (燅) originally meant boiling sacrificial meat half done in Old Chinese, a sense no longer in use in Modern Chinese. In Yǒusīchè 有司 徹 [A Treat for the Surrogate of the Dead] (an ancient funeral rite in that a living person took the sacrificial meat in the place of the deceased] in Yílǐ 儀禮 [Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial], a sentence goes “nǎi xún shī zǔ. 乃燅尸俎.” (Boiling the sacrificial animals to serve the one who impersonates the dead.) Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 annotates that “gǔ wén xún jiē zuò xún, jì huò zuò xún. 古 文 燅皆作尋, 《記》或作燖.” (The word xún 燅 was written as 尋 in Old Chinese inscriptions or as 燖 in The Book of Rites) In Yányùn 鹽韻 [The Rhyme of Yán] in Jíyùn 集 韻 [Assembled Rhymes], it is written that “xún, shěn ròu yú tāng yě. 燖，沈肉於 湯也.” (Xún 燖 means boiling meat.) In medieval times, the word took on a new meaning to dehair chickens or ducks with boiling water, a sense still in use at present. In Yúnshuǐ 溳水 [The Yun River] of Shuǐjīngzhù 水經注 [The River Classic], written by Li Daoyuan 酈道元 of the Northern Wei dynasty, it is written that “wēn shuǐ chū jìng líng zhī xīn yáng xiàn dōng zé zhōng . . . qí rè kě yǐ xún jī. 温水出 竟陵之新 陽縣東澤中. . . 其熱可以燖雞.” (Hot water comes out of the eastern lake in Xinyang county of Jingling Prefecture . . . hot enough to dehair chickens.) In Fúshēngzhuàn 苻生傳 [Biography of Fusheng] of Wèishū 魏書 [The Book of the Wei dynasty], it reads “huò shēng bāo niú yáng lǘ mǎ, huó xún jī tún é yā, shǔ shí wéi qún, fàng zhī diàn xià. 或生剥牛羊驢馬，活燖雞豚鵝鴨， 數十爲群， 放之殿下.” (Skin cows, sheep, donkeys, or horses, or dehair chicken, pigs, geese and ducks alive. Prepare dozens of sacrifices outside the hall.) The word nǎo 惱 (㛴) originally meant anger, indignation, as noted in Shuōwén Nübù 説文 女部 [Nu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “nǎo, yǒu suǒ yuàn tòng yě, jīn rǔnán rén yán yǒu suǒ hèn yán dànǎo. 㛴，有所怨痛也. 今汝 南人言有所恨言大㛴.” (Nǎo 㛴 means to be angry at somebody. Dà nǎo 大㛴 in the dialect of Runan means resentment.) This sense has remained to modern times. In Middle Chinese, the word took on the meaning to flirt or seduce, as in the poem Zèngduànqīniáng 贈段七娘 [A Poem for Lady Duan], written by Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty, one line goes “qiānbēi lǜ jiǔ hécízuì, yímiàn hóngzhuāng nǎoshārén,” 千杯緑酒何辭醉，一面紅妝惱殺人. (Thousands of green spirits would not get me drunk, but the beautiful lady’s face does, which amuses me.) In Yèzhí 夜直 [Feelings at Night], written by Wang Anshi 王安石 of the Song dynasty, a line reads “chūnsè nǎorén miánbùdé, yuèyí huāyǐng shàng lángān. 春色惱人眠不得，月移花影上欄干.” (Spring steals my sleep; flower shadow on the fences in the moonlight have my gaze.) In Diéliànhuā 蝶戀花 [A Tune of Song Lyric; (lit.) A Butterfly in Love with a Flower], written by Su Shi 蘇 軾 of the Song dynasty, it reads “qiánglǐ qiūqiān qiángwài dào, qiángwài xíngrén, qiánglǐ jiārén xiào. xiàojiàn bùwén shēng jiànqiāo, duōqíng quèbèi wúqíng nǎo. 墙裏鞦韆墻外道，墻外行人，墻裏佳人笑. 笑漸不聞聲漸悄，多情却被無 情惱.” (Inside the wall, the swing flies; outside, the lane lies. A fair maid’s laughter rings inside; a gent passes by outside. The laughter waning, enchantment rises though.) (Without the wall there is a path, within a swing. A passer-by hears a fair

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 135 maiden’s laughter in the garden ring. The ringing laughter fades to silence by and by; for the the enchantress the enchanted can only sigh.) Some monosyllabic words took on two or three new meanings in medieval times. Some examples are given as follows. The word jiā 枷 meant flail, a farming tool threshing grains in ancient times. In Shìyòngqì 釋用器 [Explaining Utensils] of Shìmíng 釋名 [Explaining Terms], it is noted that “jiā, jiā yě, jiā zhàng yú bǐng tóu yǐ zhuā suì ér chū qí gǔ yě. 枷， 加也，加杖於柄頭以撾穗而出其穀也.” (Jiā 枷 means jiā 加 (to add), referring to flail, the tool used for threshing grain.) In Qíyǔ 齊語 [The Discourses of Qi] in Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it is written that “quán jié qí yòng, lěi sì jiā shān. 權節其用，耒耜枷芟.” (The four farm tools – handle of plow, the plow, flail, and scythe are used respectively by each one’s function.). The word took on the meaning cangue worn by criminals around the neck during the Six dynasties. In Yùpiān Mùbù 玉篇木部 [Mu Group of Jade Article], it is noted that jiā 枷 means jiāsuǒ 枷鎖 (the cangue). In Liúqiúguózhuàn 流求國傳 [Records of the State Liuqiu] of Běishǐ 北史 [The History of the Northern dynasties], it reads “yù wú jiā suǒ, wéi yòng shéng fù. 獄無枷鎖，唯用繩縛.” (If cangue is not available, ropes are used to confine prisoners.) In Xíngfǎzhì 刑法志 [Records of Penal Law] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is written that “yòu xì qiú zhī jù, yǒu jiā, niǔ, qián, suǒ, jiē yǒu cháng duǎn guǎng xiá zhī zhì. 又繫囚之具，有枷、杻、鉗、鎖，皆有長短廣狹之制.” (Tools for restraining prisoners are of four categories: jiā 枷 [cangue], niǔ 杻 [ancient instruments of torture], qián 鉗 [pincers] and suǒ 鎖 [padlock], either long or short, broad or narrow.) The word can also be used as a verb, meaning to place cangue around the prisoner’s neck. In Zhèngshìxià 政事下 [Part II of Political Affairs] of Tángyùlín 唐語林 [Forest of discussions about the Tang dynasty], written by Wang Dang 王 讜 of the Song dynasty, it reads “yǒu jūn shì fàn zuì, zhàng ér jiā zhī. 有 軍士犯 罪，杖而枷之.” (Flog and cangue the soldiers who violated rules.). In Modern Chinese, both of the senses of flail and yoke remain. The word guàn 串 originally meant habits or customs in Old Chinese. In Ěryǎ Shìgǔ 爾雅 釋詁 [Explaining Texts of Ěryǎ, the Litrary Expositor], it is noted that “guàn, xí yě.” 串， 習也.” (Guàn means habits.) In Dàlüè 大略 [The Grand Digest] of The Works of Xúnzǐ 荀子, it is written that “guó fǎ jìn shí yí, è mín zhī guàn yǐ wú fēn dé yě. 國法禁拾遺，惡民之串以無分得也.” (The laws of the state forbid picking up objects that have been left behind, since they condemn the people’s practice of obtaining thereby things that do not belong to their social station.) Yang Jing 楊倞 annotates that “guàn, xí yě” 串，習也. (Chuàn means habits or customs.) In medieval times, three new meanings emerged: (1) intimacy or intimate ones, as in Zhèngxúnyúzhuànfùzhèngtán 鄭珣瑜傳附鄭覃 [The Biographies of Zheng Xunyu and Zheng Tan] of Xīntángshū 新唐書 [The New Book of the Tang dynasty], where it is recorded that “tán qīng zhèng tuì yuē, yǔ rén wèi cháng chuàn xiá. 覃清正退約，與人未嘗串狎.” (Zheng Tan has always been upright and decent, kept promises and never intentionally built intimacy with others.) In the poem Qiūhuái 秋懷 [Memories of Autumn], written by Xie Huilian 謝惠連 of the Late Song dynasty, it reads “yīn gē suì chéng fù, liáo yòng

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bù qìng chuàn. 因歌遂成賦，聊用布親串.” (Make a rhapsody while singing to develop intimacy with friends.) Lü Xiang 吕向 annotates that chuàn 串 means to build intimacy. (2) Linking up, as in Bómìngqiè 薄命妾 [Ill-fated Concubine] by Emperor Jianwen of the Southern Liang dynasty, which reads “yù mào xiē hóng liǎn, zhǎng pín chuàn cuì méi. 玉貌歇紅臉，長顰串翠眉.” (The pretty maid turns red in shyness; her long, dark brows frown.) In the section Gun 丨 (vertical line) of the dictionary Zhèngzìtōng 正字通, it is noted that “chuàn, wù xiāng lián guàn yě. 串，物相連貫也.” (Chuàn 串 means to link things up.) (3) Things linked together, as in Hànlínzhì 翰林志 [Record of the Hanlin Academy] by Li Zhao 李肇 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “qí rì shàng gòngshí sùzhuàn, cì chá shíchuàn. 其日尚供食素馔，賜茶十串.” (On that day, vegetarian food and ten strings of tea bags were offered.) In Lùxuāngōng hànyuànjí xù 陸宣公翰苑集序 [Collection of Writings of Lord Lu Xuan in Hanlin Academy] by Quan Deyu 權 德與 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “zhāng yì yǐ quán huò shù wàn wéi jìn . . . gōng xī cí zhī, lǐng xīn chá yī chuàn ér yǐ. 〔張〕鎰以泉貨數萬爲贐. . . 公悉辭之， 領新茶一串而已.” (Zhang Yi presented too much money as parting gifts. . . . The lord accepted nothing but a string of newly picked tea.) In Modern Chinese, the first sense has disappeared, but the second and third remain.

3.3 Emergence of new meanings of monosyllabic polysemy Some ancient words took on one new meaning in medieval times. Some examples are given as follows. The word chāo 鈔, also written as 抄, originally meant to pluck with one’s fingers, as noted in Shuōwén Jīnbù 説文金部 [Jin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters]; Duan Yucai annotates that “chā zhě, shǒuzhǐ xiāngcuò yě, shǒuzhǐ tū rù qíjiān ér qǔ zhī, shì zhī wèi chāo” 叉者，手指相逪也，手指突入其間而取之， 是之謂鈔. (Chā 叉 means to stick one’s fingers into something to take.) The word took on the meaning to grab in ancient times, as in Quànjiàng 勸將 [Dissuasion for the General] of Qiánfūlùn 潛夫論 [Comments of a Recluse], it reads “dōng kòu zhào wèi, xī chāo shǔ hàn. 東寇趙魏，西鈔蜀漢.” (We rode the Shu and Wei states in the east and the Shu and Wei states in the West.) Its meaning evolved into “to transcribe” in medieval times. In the text Jīndān 金丹 [The Pill of Immortality] of Nèipiān 内篇 [Inner Chapters] in Bàopǔzǐ 抱朴子 [Master Embracing Simplicity], written by Ge Hong 葛洪 in the Jin dynasty, it is written that “yú jīn lüèchāo jīndān zhī dū jiào, yǐ shì hòu zhī tóng zhì hào zhī zhě. 余今略鈔《金 丹》之都較，以示後之同志好之者.” (I now transcribe the main parts of The Pill of Immortality for future devotees to follow.) In Qiǎoyì 巧藝 [Silk and Art] of Shìshuōxīnyǔ 世説新語 [A New Account of Tales of the World], written by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Southern Song dynasty, it is recounted that “dài āndào jiù fànxuān xué, shì fàn suǒ wéi, fàn dúshū yì dúshū, fàn chāoshū yì chāoshū. 戴安 道就范宣學，視范所爲，范讀書亦讀書，范抄書亦抄書.” (When Dai Andao modeled himself after Fan Xuan and did whatever Fan did, reading or transcribing just like Fan.) In the poem Zèng lǐbā mìshū bié sānshíyùn 贈李八秘書别三十韻 [Farewell to Librarian Li: Thirty Couplets] (Li was the eighth [bā 八 in Chinese]

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 137 son in his family and was therefore often called Lǐbā 李八), written by Du Fu 杜 甫 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “qǐ mǐ fán jiā kè, chāo shī tīng xiǎo xū. 乞米煩佳 客， 鈔詩聴小胥.” (I trouble my fine guest begging for rice, I copy poems heeding minor officials.) In Jìzhānzhuàn 紀瞻傳 [The Biography of Ji Zhan] of Jìnshū 晉書 [The Book of the Jin dynasty], it reads “hào dúshū, huò shǒu zì chāo xiě. 好 讀書，或手自抄寫.” (He is fond of reading and sometimes transcribes the readings.) In Modern Chinese, the ancient sense to pluck with fingers has disappeared, while the sense of to transcribe still remains. The word diǎn 典 originally meant canon or classics. In Shuōwén Qĭbù 説文丌 部 [Qi Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “diǎn, wǔ dì zhī shū yě. 典，五帝之書也.” (Diǎn 典 means Canons of the Five Emperors.) The word took on the senses of statues, rites, literary allusions, refinement, being in charge, and so on. In Wéiqīng 維清 [Wei Ts’ing] of Zhōusòng 周頌 [Sacrificial Odes of Chow] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], a line goes “wéi qīng jí xī, wén wáng zhī diǎn. 維清輯熙，文王之典.” (Clear and to be kept bright are the statutes of king Wan.) In Lǔyùshàng 魯語上 [Part I of The Discourse of Lu] in Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of the States], it is written that “gù shèn zhì sì, yǐ hóng guó diǎn. 故慎制祀，以鴻國典.” (Hence, sacrificial ceremonies are regulated to institute state laws.) In Zhāogōngshí wǔnián 昭公十五年 [The Year 15 in the Reign of Lord Zhao (527 BCE)] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads “shǔ diǎn ér wàng qí zǔ. 數典而忘其祖.” (He cites archival materials yet forgets his own ancestors.) In Zìjì 自紀 [Autobiography] in Lúnhéng 論衡 [Discussive Weighing], written by Wang Chong 王充 of the Han dynasty, it reads “shēn fù diǎn yǎ, zhǐ yì nán dǔ, wéi fù sòng ěr. 深覆典雅， 旨意難覩，唯賦頌耳.” (Only rhapsody depicts graceful, classical gist which is not easy to find.) In Shùndiǎn 舜典 [The Canon of Shun] of Shū 書 [The Book of Documents], it is written that “yǒu néng diǎn zhèn sān lǐ. 有能典朕三禮？” (Who could supervise the three rituals in my place?) In medieval times, it took on the sense of to pawn something or to mortgage something. In the second poem of the series Qǔjiāngèrshǒushī 曲江二首詩 [Two Poems of Qujiang River], written by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “zhāohuí rìrì diǎn chūnyī, měirì jiāngtóu jìnzuìguī. 朝回日日典春衣，每日江頭盡醉歸.” (I pawn my clothes every day to drink with satisfaction on the waterfront.) In Dùlíngsǒu 杜陵叟 [The Elder at Duling], written by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “diǎn sāng mài dì nà guān zū, míng nián yī shí qiāng hé rú. 典桑賣地納官租，明 年衣食將何如？” (To pay the taxation levied by officials, the elder pawned silk made of mulberry leaves and sold their lands. How will their cloth and food will be next year?) In Zhīfùtàn 織婦歎 [Signs from the Weaving Maid], written by Dai Fugu 戴復古 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “juàn wèi tuō zhóu nǐ shū guān, sī wèi luò chē tú shú diǎn. 絹未脱軸擬輸官，絲未落車圖贖典.” (The moment coarse silk wad was completed, it was taken to pay the official levy; the moment fine silk was off the spinning wheel, it was taken to redeem their propriety from the pawn shop.) In modern times, the senses from ancient and medieval times remain. It is the sense of being in charge seen in written words such as diǎnshì 典試 (supervise examinations) and diǎnyù 典獄 (in charge of prison).

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Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese

In Old Chinese, the word pī 批 was a polysemy, meaning to slap, to strike hard or to remove. In Zhuānggōng shí’èr nián 莊公十二年 [The 12th Year in the Reign of Lord Zhuang (682 BCE)] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is written that “sòngwàn yù chóumù yú mén, pī ér shā zhī. 〔宋萬 〕遇仇牧於門，批而殺之.” (Song Wan ran into Choumu at the gate and struck him dead.) In Yǎngshēngzhǔ 養生主 [The Secret of Longevity] of Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it is written that “pī dà xì, dǎo dà kuǎn. 批大隙，導大窽.” (Strike in the big hollows, guide the knife through the big openings.) In Wèiqí wǔānhóu lièzhuàn 魏其武安侯列傳 [The Biographies of the Marquises of Wei Qi and Wu An] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it is written that “jí wèiqí hóushīshì, yì yù yǐ guànfū yǐn shéng pī gēn shēng píng mù zhī hòu qì zhī zhě. 及魏其侯失勢，亦欲倚灌夫引縄批根生平慕之後棄之 者.” (When Marquis Wei Qi lost his power, he also intended to befriend Guan Fu and rely upon him to revenge those who sought his favor yet betrayed him later.) The word took on the meaning of writing comments in medieval times, as noted in Qíyùn 齊韻 [The Rhyme Qi] of Guǎngyùn 廣韻 [Extended Rhymes]. In Lǐfānzhuàn 李藩傳 [The Biographies of Li Fan] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The Old Book of the Tang dynasty], it is recorded that “zhì chì yǒu bù kě, suì yú huáng chì hòu pī zhī. 制敕有不可，遂於黄敕後批之.” (When there is inappropriateness in the imperial edict, write comments on the yellow paper attached.) [Yellow was the imperial color in ancient China.] In Shūshǐ 書史 [A History of Calligraphy], written by Mi Fu 米芾 of the Song dynasty, it reads “wáng xiànzhī rìhántiē yǒu tángshì záyìn, hòuyǒu liǎng háng xièān pī. 王獻之《日寒帖》有唐氏雜印， 後有兩行謝安批.” (On the scroll Rihantie by the calligrapher Wang Xianzhi of the Jin dynasty were various seals of Emperor Taizong of Tang and commentary remarks by Xie An.) In Modern Chinese, the medieval sense has been well kept, while the ancient sense of striking with the hand is in use in written language. For example, the short story ĀQ zhèngzhuàn 阿 Q 正傳 [The True Story of Ah Q], written by Lu Xun 魯迅, reads “fàng xià tā de biànzi, bìngqiě pī tā jǐ gè zuǐbā. 放 下他的辮子，並且批他幾個嘴巴.” (His long pigtail was cut short and he was slapped in the face.) The word tǎo 討 originally meant governance. In Shuōwén Yánbù 説文言 部 [Yan Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “tǎo, zhì yě. 討， 治也.” (Tǎo 討 means governance.) It also meant condemn; crusade against or make a thorough inquiry, and so on. In medieval times, it took on the meaning of demand or claim. In Wèihéngzhuàn 衛恒傳 [The Biographies of Wei Heng] of Jìnshū 晉書 [The Book of the Jin dynasty], it is written that “huò shí bù chí qián yì jiǔ jiā yǐn, yīn shū qí bì, gù guān zhě yǐ chóu jiǔ, tǎo qián zú ér miè zhī. 或 時不持錢詣酒家飲，因書其壁，顧觀者以酬酒，討錢足而滅之.” (He often went to pub without money but wrote on the wall. Those around him would pay for him in exchange for an appreciation of his calligraphy. When he got enough money, he would eliminate his writing.) In poem Number 98 of the collection Shī sānbǎi sānshǒu 《詩三百三首》 [Three Hundred and Three Poems], written by Han Shan 寒山 of the Tang dynasty, one verse goes “fán shì mò róng yì, jìn ài tǎo pián yí. 凡事莫容易， 盡愛討便宜.” (All things are not easy, but everyone

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 139 likes seeking short cuts.) In Dùjì 妬記 [Tales of Jealous Women] quoted in Tàipíngguǎngjì 太平廣記 [Extensive Records of the Taiping Era], it is recounted that “nǎi jiāng huáng mén jí bì èr shí rén, rù chí shí dāo, yù chū tǎo xún. 乃將黄 門及婢二十人，入持食刀，欲出討尋.” ([The jealous lady] ordered about 20 guards and servant-girls to start off, each with a kitchen knife, and have a row at the concubine’s.) In Modern Chinese, the sense of governance has disappeared, while the other ancient and medieval senses have remained. The word tàn 探 originally meant fishing for, as noted in Shìgǔ 釋詁 [Explaining the Old Words] of Ěryǎ 爾雅 [The Literary Expositor], and Guo Pu 郭璞 also annotated that “tàn zhě, mō qǔ yě. 探者，摸取也.” (Tàn 探 means to feel for something.) In ancient times, the word also meant to sound, pay a visit, detect, and so on, which have remained to the present time. In medieval times, it took on the meaning of asking for payment in advance. In volume five of Shīcíqǔyùcíhuìshì 詩詞曲語辭滙釋 [Explanations for Words Included in Poetry, Lyrics and Yuan Songs], written by Zhang Xiang 張相, it reads “tàn wéi yùzhī huò yùjiè zhī yù zì yí, cǐ zhuānyòng yú zhījiè yī lèi zhī cí. 探爲預支或預借之預 字義，此專用於支借一類之辭.” (The word tàn 探 meant to have an advance, and mainly referred to demanding advance payment.) In Mǐnhuáitàizǐzhuàn 愍 懷太子傳 [The Biographies of Prince Minhuai] of Jìnshū 晉書 [The Book of the Jin dynasty], it is narrated that “dōnggōng jiùzhì, yuè qǐngqián wǔshí wàn, bèi yú zhòngyòng, tàizǐ héng tànqǔ èryuè, yǐ gòng bì chǒng. 東宫舊制，月請錢五十 萬，備於衆用，太子恒探取二月，以供嬖寵.” (It was a customary practice of the Palace of Crown Prince that every month five hundred thousand qian 錢 was allocated for general purposes. Crown Prince Heng made a two-month overdraft for his amusement with concubines.) In the poem Wǔgōngxuánzhōngzuò 武功 縣中作 [A Poem Made in Wugong County], written by Yao He 姚合 of the Tang dynasty, it reads, “měi xún cháng qǐ jià, gé yuè tàn zhī qián. 每旬常乞假，隔月 探支錢.” ([He] demands leaves every ten days and asks for an advance of salary every other month.) In the poem Mǐnánghuā 米囊花 [Poppy Flower], written by Yang Wanli 楊萬 of the Song dynasty, one line goes “dōnghuáng yǔwèi wú gòngjǐ, tànjiè chūnfēng shírì liáng. 東皇羽衛無供給，探借春風十日糧.” (The guard of the God of Spring is short of supplies, asking for ten days’ advance of the spring wind.) The word zhù 助 originally meant help or assist, which remains in Modern Chinese. In Shuōwén Lìbù 説文力部 [Li Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that “zhù, zuǒ yě. 助，左也.” (Zhù 助 means assistance.) It is also said to refer to tax law in the Shang dynasty. In Téngwéngōngshàng 滕文公 上 [Book One of Duke Wen of T’eng] of the Mèngzǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], it reads “xiàhòu shì wǔshí ér gòng, yīnrén qīshí ér zhù， zhōurén bǎimǔ ér chè, qízhì jiē shí yī yě. 夏后氏五十而貢，殷人七十而助，周人百畝而徹，其實皆 什一也.” (In the Hsia dynasty, each family had fifty acres and paid a personal tax. In the Shang, each family had seventy acres and paid a mutual tax. And in the Chou, each family had a hundred acres and paid a communal tax. But in fact, the people always paid one part in ten.) In medieval times, it meant congratulations or sending one’s regards. In Fǎgòngyǎngpǐn 法供養品 [Sacrifices to Dharma]

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of Wéimójiésuǒshuōjīng 維摩詰所説經 [Vimalakirti’s Teachings] translated by Jiumoluoshi 鳩摩羅什 [Kumārajīva] of the Latter Qin regime in the Easter Jin dynasty from Sanskrit into Chinese, it reads “fó yán, shànzāi shànzāi, tiāndì. rú rǔ suǒ shuō, wú zhù ěr xǐ. 佛言： ‘善哉善哉，天帝！如汝所説，吾助爾喜’.” (The Buddha reads, “Very good indeed, Heaven! If it is what you said, I congratulate you.”) In the poem Hè xiāngyáng fùshǐ jiépàn tóngjiā zhāngshòu 賀襄 陽副使節判同加章綬 [Congratulations on the Appointments of Aide and Judge of Xiangyang], written by Xu Shang 徐商 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “fāng fēi jiě zhù jīn zhāo xǐ, nèn ruǐ qīng tiáo mǎn yǎn xīn. 芳菲解助今朝喜， 嫩 蘂青 條滿眼新.” (The fragrance of grass boosts today’s happy event; tender flowers and green branches refresh the eyes.) In Shùzǐbiàn 舜子變 [The Transformative Story of Sage Shun] of Dūnhuángbiànwénjí 敦煌變文集 [Collections of Transformative Texts of Dunhuang Grotto], it is written that “ménqián yǒu gè lǎorén, zuó cóng liáoyáng (liáo yáng) huílái, jīndé āyē shūxìn. liǎngbài zhù āniáng hánwēn, liǎngbài zhù āniáng tóngxǐ. 門前有個老人，昨從寮楊（遼陽）回 來，今得阿耶書信. 兩拜助阿嬢寒温，兩拜助阿嬢同喜.” (In front of our gate was an elderly [person], who came from Liaoyang yesterday. Today, I received a letter from my father at Liaoyang. Here I am bowing with regards for my mother’s health and happiness.) In the poem Sòng dǒng bóyì guī jízhōu 送董伯懿歸吉州 [Farewell to Dong Boyi back to Jizhou] composed by Wang Anshi 王安石 in the Song dynasty, it reads “qù nián fú chū chú, tīng shè xiāng zhù xǐ. 去年服初除， 聽赦相助喜.” (I have just taken off my mournful clothes and now gladly send my congratulations for your being absoluted.) The sense to congratulate has disappeared in modern times. Certain words took on two new meanings in medieval times. Some examples are given as follows. The word [dí, dì, de] 的 meant target center in archery, brightness, white color; or dot a red dot on the face, and so on in Old Chinese. In Bīnzhīchūyán 賓之初筵 [Guests Entering Dining Hall] in Xiǎoyǎ 小雅 [Minor Odes of the Kingdom] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it is written that “fā bǐ yǒu dì, yǐ qí ěr jué. 發彼有的， 以祈爾爵.” (I shall hit that mark and pray you to drink the cup.) In Zhōngyōng 中庸 [The Doctrine of the Mean] in Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it is written that “xiǎo rén zhī dào, dí rán ér rì wàng. 小人之道，的然而日忘.” (And it is the way of small man to seek notoriety, while he daily goes more and more to ruin.) In the section of Shuō 説 [Explanation of the Hexagrams and Trigrams] of Yì 易 [The Book of Changes], it reads “zhèn wéi léi, wéi dí sǎng. 震爲雷，爲的顙.” (Zhen 震 is thunder or having a white star on the forehead.) In Shìshǒushì 釋首 飾 [Head Adornments] of Shìmíng 釋名 [Explaining Terms]), it is written that “yǐ dān zhù miàn yuē dí. 以丹注面曰的.” (Dí 以 refers to marking a red dot on the face.) In medieval times, it had another two senses: (1) indeed or in certain, as in Cuīlínzhuàn 崔林傳 [The Biographies of Cui Lin] of Wèishū 魏書 [The Book of Wei] of Sānguózhì 三國志 [Records of Three Kingdoms], where it reads “yú guó gè qiǎn zǐ lái cháo, jiān shǐ lián zhǔ, lín kǒng suǒ qiǎn huò fēi zhēn dí. 餘國各遣 子來朝，間使連屬，林恐所遣或非真的.” (The other countries had sent their princes and constant envoys to visit us. I fear that the envoys sent to us do not

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 141 show their ruler’s sincerity indeed.) In the song lyric Wǔfújiàngzhōngtiān 五福降 中天 [Five Blessings Descending from the Sky] by Shen Duanjie 沈端節 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “tāshí hènchàng, quèyuè língfēng, yīnxìn nándí. 他時恨. 悵却月淩風，音信難的.” (The regret back then [is unforgettable.] . . . ride the wind under the forlorn crescent moon; how hard it is indeed to receive a message.) (2) For sure or certainly, as in Chūzhāirì xǐ huángfǔshí zǎofǎng 出齋 日喜皇甫十早訪 [A Warm Morning Welcome for Huangfu at the End of Fast], written by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “chú què lǎng zhī xié yī kē, dí yíng bú shì bié rén lái. 除却朗之攜一榼，的應不是别人來.” (Only you come with a bottle of wine; nobody comes – that is for sure.) In the poem Guānglùān 光禄菴 [Guanglu Monastery], written by Su Shi 蘇軾 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “chéng zhōng tài shǒu dí hé rén, lín xià xiān shēng fēi wǒ shēn. 城中太守的何人，林下先生非我身.” (Who on earth is the governor of the city? Neither could I be a recluse.) In Modern Chinese, the sense of target center of archery remains in mùdì 目的 [goal], yǒudìfàngshǐ 有的放矢 (shoot the arrow at the target), zhòngshǐzhīdì 衆矢之的 (a target for all), and so on. The sense of indeed remains in díquè 的確 (indeed) and dekuǎn 的款 (an available sum of money). Other senses have disappeared. The word mù 目 originally meant eyes. In Shuōwén Mùbù 説文目部 [Mu Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “mù, rén yǎn, xiàng xíng, zhòng tóng zǐ yě. 目，人眼，象形，重童子也.” (Mù 目, a pictograph word, refers to human eyes, pupil and socket.) It also meant to gaze, to give a hint with the eyes, or entry in Old Chinese. In Huángōngyuánnián 桓公元年 [The First Year in the Reign of Lord Huan (711 BCE)] in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is written that “sòng huáfù dū jiàn kǒngfù zhī qī yú lù, mù nì ér sòng zhī. 宋華父督見孔父之妻于路，目逆而送之.” (Zi Huafu, alias. ZiDu of Song met the wife of Kongfu on a road. He eyed her approach and depart.) Fu Xian 服虔 annotates that “mù zhě, jí shì jīng bù zhuàn yě. 目 者，極視精不轉也.” (Mù 目 means fix one’s eyes at someone or something.) In Zhōuyùshàng 周語上 [The Discourse of Zhou Part I] in Guóyǔ 國語 [Discourses of The States], it is written that “yú shì guó rén mò gǎn yán, dào lù yǐ mù. 於是 國人莫敢言，道路以目.” (Hence people within the country are frightened into complete silence but to express their anger with eyes.) In Yányuān 顔淵 (a disciple of Confucius) in Lúnyǔ 论語 [Confucian Analects], it is written that “yán yuān yuē, qǐng wèn qí mù. zǐ yuē, fēi lǐ wù shì, fēi lǐ wù tīng, fēi lǐ wù yán, fēi lǐ wù dòng. 顔淵曰： ‘請問其目. ’ 子曰： ‘非禮勿視；非禮勿聽，非禮勿言， 非禮勿動.” (Yan Yuan said, May I ask how to ago about this? The Master said, if it is contrary to ritual, do not look at it. If it is contrary to ritual, do not listen to it. If it is contrary to ritual, do not utter it. If it is contrary to ritual, do not act.) These meanings are still in use today. Two new meanings emerged in medieval times: (1) comment, as in Yìngshàozhuàn 應劭傳 [The Biographies of Ying Shao] of Hòutānshū 後漢書 [The Book of Latter Han], it is written that “cáocāo wēishí, cháng bēicí hòulǐ, qiú wèi jǐ mù. 曹操微時，常卑辭厚禮，求爲己目.” (When Caocao was not in power, he would gifts to ask valuable comment from talents for him.) In Zhèngshì 政事 [Affairs of State] in Shìshuōxīnyǔ 世説新語 [A New

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Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese

Account of Tales of the World], written by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 in the Southern Song dynasty, it is written that “shān sī tú jǔ wú shī cái, fán suǒ tí mù, jiē rú qí yán. 〔山司徒〕舉無失才，凡所題目，皆如其言.” (Minister Shan Tao had sharp eyes for talents. Never a talent he promoted failed his compliments.) (2) The title of a piece of writing, as in Xiāngkǎizhuàn 襄楷傳 [The Biographies of Xiang Kai] in Hòuhānshū 後漢書 [The Book of Latter Han], it is written that “lángyá gōngchóng yìquè, shàng qíshī gànjí yú qǔyángquán shuǐshàng suǒdé shénshū bǎi qī hí juàn, jiē piǎobáisù zhūjiè qīngshǒu zhūmù, hào tàipíng qīnglǐng shū. 琅邪 宫崇詣闕，上其師干吉于曲陽泉水上所得神書百七十卷，皆縹白素朱介青 首朱目，號《太平青領書》.” (Gong Chong of Langya County came to court and presented the 170-volume divine book Black Scarf Book of Supreme Peace, which his mentor Gan Ji obtained at the Quyan spring. The book was of bluish white silk, with red lines, black tabs, and red titles.) Li Xian 李賢 annotated that mù, tímù yě. 目，題目也. (Mù 目 means title.) In Liùjiā 六家 [The Six Historiographical Traditions] of Nèipiān 内篇 [Inner Chanpters] in Shǐtōng 史通 [Generality of Historiography], written by Liu Zhiji 劉知幾 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yòu lù kāihuáng, rénshòu shí shì, biān ér cì zhī, yǐ lèi xiāngcóng, gè wéi qí mù, lè chéng suítáng bāshí juàn. 又録開皇、仁壽時事，編而次之， 以類相從，各爲其目，勒成《隋書》八十卷.” (The affairs in the Kaihuang Reign [581–600 CE] and Renshou Reign [601–604 CE] were recorded, and the Book of Sui covered 80 scrolls, with the materials collected, edited, and put under various categories and sections.) The original meaning of the character xiū 羞 is to offer in Old Chinese. In Shuōwén Chǒubù 説文丑部 [Chou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is recorded that “xiū, jìn xiàn yě. 羞，進獻也.” (Xiū 羞 means to offer.) In Yǐngōngsānnián 隠公三年 [The Third Year in the Reign of Lord Yin (720 BCE)] in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads “kě jiàn yú guǐ shén, kě xiū yú wáng gōng. 可薦於鬼神，可羞於王公.” (It could be offered to ghosts and spirits or presented to kings and lords). It also meant exquisite food or shame. In Shànfū 膳夫 [Officer of Cooking] of Tiānguān 天官 [Offices of the Heaven] of Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The The Rites of Zhou], it reads “zhǎng wáng hòu zhī yìn shǐ shàn xiū. 掌王后之飲食膳羞.” (He is responsible for the Empress’s diets.) In the chapter Héng 恒 [Duration] of Yì 易 [Book of Changes], it reads “bù héng qí dé, huò chéng zhī xiū. 不恒其德，或承之羞.” (Who without enduring virtues would meet with disgrace.) In Gōngxùnchǒushàng 公孫丑上 [Kung-sun Ch’au Part I] of Mèngzǐ 孟子 [The Works of Mencius], it is written that “liǔ xià huì bù xiū wū jūn. 柳下惠不羞汙君.” （Liu Xiahui was not ashamed to serve an impure prince.） In Middle Chinese, two meanings emerged: (1) feel ashamed, as in the ballad Bìyùgē 碧玉歌 [A Song for Maid Biyu (Green Jade)] of Yuèfǔshījí 樂府詩集 [Collected Songs of the Music Bureau Style], it reads “bì yù pò guā shí, xiāng wèi qíng diān dǎo. gǎn láng bù xiū láng, huí shēn jiù láng bào. 碧玉破瓜時，相爲情顛倒. 感郎不羞郎，回身就郎抱.” (At sixteen, Biyu fell in love with me. She was not shy in intimacy and hugged me.) In Liúxiángzhuàn 劉祥傳 [The Biographies of Liu Xiang] of Nánqíshū 南齊書 [The Book of the Southern Qi dynasty], it reads “xiū ér jiàn rén, shàn zhàng hé yì. 羞

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 143 而見人，扇障何益.” (If she is too shy to meet outsiders, then the screen is to no avail.) (2) fear, as in the poem Zèngyǎnyī póluómén sēng 贈眼醫婆羅門僧 [Poems for Brahman Monk, eye physician], written by Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “kàn zhū jiàn chéng bì, xiū rì bù jīn fēng. 看朱漸成碧，羞 日不禁風.” (My eyes cannot tell red from green, vulnerable to sunlight or wind.) In “Tí zhījǐntú shàng huíwénshī 題織錦圖上回文詩” [A Palindrome Poem on Brocade], written by Su Shi 蘇軾 of the Song dynasty, it reads “xiūkàn yīshǒu huíwénjǐn, jǐnsì wénjūn biéhèn shēn. 羞看一首回文錦，錦似文君别恨深.” (Too ashamed to read the palindrome poem on the brocade, [I could barely face] the forbearance of Lady Wen in her weaving.) In the song lyric Zhùyīngtáijìn 祝 英台近 [To the Tune Zhu Yingtai jin (lit. revisiting the tale of Zhu Yingtai, the heroine in the tale of butterfly lovers)], written by Xin Qiji 辛棄疾 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “lǎoyǎn xiūmíng, shuǐdǐ kàn shānyǐng. 老眼羞明，水底 看山影.” (My sight is ageing; I mistake the wobbling of water for the shadow of mountain.) The meanings of shame, being shy, and exquisite food have survived in Modern Chinese. In the sense of exquisite food, it was written as xiū 饈 as in the idiom jīngxiū bǎiwèi 精饈百味. Some monosyllabic words took on three or more new meanings in medieval times. Some examples are given as follows: The word chàng 唱 originally meant to lead a chorus; as writtten in Shuōwén Kǒubù 説文口部 [Kou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], chàng 唱 meant dǎo 導 (to guide). It also meant to advocate or compliment in ancient times. It took on three new meanings in medieval times: (1) to sing, chant, as in Téngwánggéxù 滕王閣序 [Poems on the Pavilion of Prince Teng], written by Wang Bo 王勃 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “yúzhōu chàngwǎn, xiǎngqióng pénglǐ zhībīn. 漁舟唱晚，響窮彭蠡之濱.” (There comes a song from the fishboat. At dusk, the song rings across the Poyang Lake.) In Yángliǔzhīcí 楊柳枝詞 [A Tune of Song Lyric, (lit. willow branch)], written by Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 of the Tang dynasty, a line goes “qǐngjūn mòzòu qiáncháoqǔ, tīngchàng xīnfān yángliǔzhī. 請君莫奏前朝曲，聽唱新翻《楊柳枝》.” (Please do not strike up a tune inherited from the former dynasty, but listen to the newly compiled Willow Branch). (2) Song, singing, as in Xiàtǒngzhuàn 夏統傳 [The Biographies of Xia Tong] of Jìnshū 晉書 [The Book of the Jin dynasty], it is recorded that “wǔ zǐxū jiàn wúwáng, yán bù nà yòng, jiàn lù tóu hǎi. guó rén tòng qí zhōngliè, wèi zuò xiǎohǎichàng. 伍子胥諫吴王，言不納用，見戮投海. 國人 痛其忠烈，爲作《小海唱》.” (Wu Zixu expostulated Emperor Wu but was dismissed. Ashamed and despaired, he drowned himself in the ocean. Moved by his loyalty and patriotism, his fellow countrymen created the song “An Ocean Song” for him.) In the chapter Shītǐ 詩體 [Poetry Genre] in Cānglángshīhuà 滄浪詩話 [Poetry Talks of Canglang (art name of Yan Yu)], written by Yan Yu 嚴羽 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “yuē yǐn, yuē yǒng, yuē qǔ, yuē piān, yuē chàng. 曰 引, 曰詠，曰曲，曰篇，曰唱.” (The title of a ballad is also called yǐn 引, yǒng 詠, qǔ 曲, piān 篇, or chàng 唱.) (3) To cry, shout, as in Tándàojìzhuàn 檀道濟 傳 [The Biographies of Tan Daoji] of Nánshǐ 南史 [The History of the Southern dynasty], where sentence goes “dào jì yè chàng chóu liàng shā. 道濟夜唱籌量沙.” (At night, [General] Daoji cried out loud the volume of rice [mixed with sand] to

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pacify the soldiers.) In Nǎogōng 惱公 [Irritation to Heaven], written by Li He 李 賀 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “jī chàng xīng xuán liǔ, yā tí lù dī tóng. 雞唱星懸 柳，鴉啼露滴桐.” (The rooster crows, a star lingering over the willow; the croak gurgles, dew still on sycamore leaves.) In Xùdìngmìnglù 續定命録 [A Sequel to Tales of Destiny], included in Tàipíngguǎngjì 太平廣記 [Extensive Records of the Taiping Era], it is written that “zéi yān zhì, chàng shā shèn lì. 賊奄至，唱殺甚厲.” (The thieves rushed in, crying and killing wildly.) In Modern Chinese, the ancient sense has disappeared; the first sense of medieval times remained; the second and third are in chàngcí 唱詞 (lyrics of songs), chàngmíng 唱 名 (title of a song), qiāngǔ juéchàng 千 古絶唱 (everlasting songs), and so on. The word guāi 乖 meant deviation, abnormality, being uncoordinated, or separation in Old Chinese. In Xùguà 序卦 [Ordered Hexagrams] in Yì 易 [The Book of Changes], it is written that “jiā dào qióng bì guāi, gù shòu zhī yǐ kuí. kuí zhě, guāi yě. 家道窮必乖，故受之以睽. 睽者，乖也.” (When the way of THE FAMILY draws to an end, misunderstandings came. Hence there follows the hexagram of OPPOSITION. Opposition means misunderstandings.) In Zájì 雜 記 [Miscellaneous Records] or Yuèjì 樂記 [Records of Music] of Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it is that written that “luàn shì zhī yīn yuàn yǐ nù, qí zhèng guāi. 亂 世之音怨以怒，其政乖.” (The sound of troubled times is full of resentment and anger; the governance is perverse.) In Dàoshù 道術 [Administering Country] of Xīnshū 新書 [New Writings], written by Jia Yi 賈誼 in the Han dynasty, it reads “gāng róu dé shì wèi zhī hé, fǎn hé wéi guāi. 剛柔得適謂之和，反和爲乖.” (Hé 和 [harmony] is the balanced mix of force and delicacy and the imbalanced mix is named guāi 乖 [disharmony].) In Xiōngnúlièzhuàn 匈奴列傳 [Treatise on the Xiongnu] in Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “hàn shǐ liǎng shǐ zhě, yī diào chán yú, yī diào yòu xián wáng, yù yǐ guāi qí guó. 漢使 兩使者，一弔單于，一弔右賢王，欲以乖其國.” (When the child chief came to throne, the Han emperor dispatched two envoys, one to to mourn for the late chief, the other for the late Wise King of the Right, with a secret wish to disrupt the state.) Three new meanings emerged in Middle Chinese: (1) differentiation, as in Guōyùzhuàn 郭玉傳 [The Biographies of Guo Yu] of Hòuhànshū 後漢書 [The Book of Latter Han], where it is written that “zhēn shí zhī jiān, háo máng jí guāi. 針石之間，毫芒即乖.” (The differentiation between needle and stone lines in the miniscule part.) In Cíyí 辭義 [Writings and Ideas] in 抱朴子 Bàopǔzǐ [Master Embracing Simplicity], written by Ge Hong 葛洪 in the Jin dynasty, it reads “wǔ wèi chuǎn ér bìng gān, zhòng sè guāi ér jiē lì. 五味舛而並甘，衆色乖而皆麗.” (These fruits’ smell and color do not match up forever, but they all have delicious taste.) (2) Being untoward, as in Yòusòng zhènghùcáo 又送鄭户曹 [A Second Poem for Census Official Zheng Jin], written by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, where it is written that “lóu chéng jūn yǐ qù, rén shì gù duō guāi. 樓成君已去， 人事固多乖.” (The building stands erect, yet you are no longer here. The world affairs are untoward always.) (3) being clever, as in the poem Shànglìnghúshěrén 上令狐舍人 [To Retainer Linghu], written by Li Kuo 李廓 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “xiǔ kè xián yín kǔ, guāi tóng hèn shuì chí. 宿客嫌吟苦，乖童恨睡 遲.” (Guests do not like the chant; clever kids want to sleep early.)

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 145 The word kuài 快 originally meant happiness or euphoria. In Shuōwén Xīnbù 説文心部 [Xin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “kuài, xǐ yě. 快， 喜也.” (Kuài 快 means happiness.) In Fēngfù 風賦 [Rhapsody on Wind], written by Song Yu 宋玉 during the Warring States Period, a sentence goes “kuài zāi cǐ fēng. 快哉此風.” (The wind is so pleasing.) In Zhàocèèr 趙 策二 [Book Two of Qi Stratagems] in Zhànguócè 戰國策 [Stratagems during the Warring States Period], it is written that “gōng yú jiào ér búkuài, hé yú xià ér bùwēi. 恭於教而不快，和於下而不危.” (Abide by disciplines strictly without any compromise; treat the subordinates respectfully without haughtiiness.) There were four extended meanings in Middle Chinese: (1) straightforward, as in Miǎnxué 勉學 [Engage in studies] of Yánshìjiāxùn 顔氏家訓 [Family instructions of Master Yan], which reads “rénjiàn línlǐ qīnqì yǒu jiākuài zhě, shǐ zǐdì mù ér xuézhī. 人見鄰里親戚有佳快者，使子弟慕而學之.” (Those who are frank and excellent are the models that neighbors or relatives want their kids to follow.) In Zhāngyánshǎngzhuàn 張延賞傳 [The Biographies of Zhang Yanshang] of Jiùtángshū 舊唐書 [The First Book of The Tang dynasty], it is written that “wǔrén xìngkuài, ruò shì jiùè yú bēijiǔ zhījiān, zhōng huān kě jiě. 武人性 快，若釋舊惡於杯酒之間，終歡可解.” (Swordsmen are forthright in character. If they could clear the old grudges in drinks, they would eventually come to terms with each other.) (2) Being sharp. In Záshuō 雜説 [Miscellaneous Talks] in Qímínyàoshù 齊民要術 [Important Methods to Condition the People’s Living], written by Jia Sixie 賈思勰 of the Northern Wei dynasty, it reads “tiáoxí qìxiè, wùlìng kuàilì. 調習器械，務令快利.” (Maintain the devices and equipment and make sure they are sharp.) In the ninth poem of the series Záfěngjiǔshǒu 《雜諷九首》 [Nine Poems of Satire], written by Lu Guimeng 陸龜蒙 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “gǔtiě jiǔ búkuài, yǐtiān wúchù mó. 古鐵久不 快，倚天無處磨.” (The ancient weapons had long lost their sharpness; there was no place to sharpen the Yitian Sword.) (3) Being speedy, as in Tàichǐ 汰侈 [Extravagance and Ostentation] in Shìshuōxīnyǔ 世説新語 [A New Account of Tales of the World], written by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Southern Song dynasty, where it is recorded that “péngchéngwáng yǒu kuàiniú, shèn àixī zhī. 彭城王有 快牛，甚愛惜之.” (The Prince of Peng Cheng owned a fast ox which he cherished dearly.) In Yōuzhōumǎkèyíngēcí 幽州馬客吟歌辭 [Songs of Horsemen of Youzhou] in Yuèfǔshījí 樂府詩集 [Collected Songs of the Music Bureau Style], it is written that “kuài mǎ cháng kǔshòu, chāoér cháng kǔpín. 快馬常苦瘦，勦兒 常苦貧.” (Steeds are always lean; valiant fighters are always poor.) In the poem Jìhuánglóngshēnglǎo 寄黄龍升老 [To Chan Master Huisheng of Huanglong], written by Lu You 陸游 of the Song dynasty, it reads “kuài zāi tiān mǎ bù kě jī. 快哉天馬不可覊.” (The immortal horse is too fast to rein.) (4) Being able, as in volume five of Shīcí qǔyù cíhuìshì 詩詞曲語辭滙釋 [A Lexicon of Poetry and Song Lyrics], written by Zhang Xiang 張相, where it is written that “kuài, yóu huì yě, néng yě. 快， 猶會也， 能也.” (Kuài 快 is similar to huì 會 or néng 能, meaning being able to.) In the second of the poem series of Yǒugǎnsānshǒu 有感 三首 [Three Poems of Sadness], written by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “mǎ féi kuài xíng zǒu, jì zhǎng néng gē wǔ, sān nián wǔ suì jiān, yǐ wén

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Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese

huàn yī zhǔ. 馬肥快行走，妓長能歌舞，三年五歲間，已聞换一主.” (The steed is strong, able to travel afar; the maid is adept at singing and dancing. In just three to five years, they belonged to someone else.) In the song lyrics Sūwǔmàn 蘇武慢 [To the Tune Suwuman], written by Yu Ji 虞集 of the Yuan dynasty, it is written that “shù juàn cánshū, bàn méi pòyàn, liáobiǎo xiùcái ér yǐ. dào xiānshēng kuàixiě néngyín, zhí shì qù zhī yuǎn yǐ. 數卷殘書，半枚破硯，聊表秀才而已. 道先生快寫能吟，直是去之遠矣.” (With the several dilapidated books and a half-broken ink stand I can still be called a scholar. I used to be addressed as Master, adept at writing articles and composing poems, but these days have long gone.) In Modern Chinese, among its various meanings, its senses of being wanton and being able to are no longer in use, while the other four meanings still remain and are kept in use. The original meaning of the word tóu 投 in Old Chinese is to throw. In Shuōwén Shǒubù 説文手部 [Shou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is written that “tóu, shè yě. 投，攝也.” (Tóu 投 refers to absorbing.) It also referred to giving, putting into, and catering to. There were four new meanings in Middle Chinese: (1) refuge seeking, as in Páidiào 排調 [Taunting and Teasing] of Shìshuōxīnyǔ 世 説新語 [A New Account of Tales of the World], written by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 in Southern Song dynasty, where it reads “qiān lǐ tóu gōng, shǐ dé mán fǔ cān jūn. 千 里投公， 始得蠻府參軍.” (I came a thousand li to serve under Your Excellency’s command, only to be an aide in man–barbarian headquarters [Hsiang–yang, Hupei].) In Tūshān 秃山 [Bare Hills], written by Wang Anshi 王安石 of the Song dynasty, it reads “jiē cǐ hǎi shān zhōng, sì gù wú suǒ tóu. 嗟此海山中， 四顧無 所投.” (Alas! In the mountains and seas, I have no place to seek refuge.) In the essay 石壕吏 Shíháolì [The Officer at Stone Moat], written by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “mù tóu shí háo cūn, yǒu lì yè zhuō rén. 暮投石壕 村， 有吏夜捉人.” (At dusk I put up at Stone Moat village [and saw] a placeman conscripting by force at night.) In the poem Yè héngyuèmiào suì xiǔ yuèsì tí ménlóu 謁衡嶽廟遂宿嶽寺題門樓 [A Night over the Temple of Mt. Hengshan], written by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “yè tóu fó sì shàng gāo gé, xīng yuè yǎn yìng yún méng lóng. 夜投佛寺上高閣，星月掩映雲朦朧.” (At night I put up in the high temple of Buddha, the stars and moon veiled by cloud.) (2) Expressing, as in Shāngliǔyícáo 傷柳儀曹 [Sentimental Feelings at Revisiting Hengyang], written by Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “ér jūn mò yú nán zhōng, yīn fù shī yǐ tóu diào yì. 而君歿于南中，因賦詩以投弔意.” (Sad of your desease at Nanshong, I composed a poem to express my mourning.) (3) Being near, as in the poem Tí línxiàoshū huáyánsì shūchuāng 題林校書華嚴 寺書窗 [To Scribe Lin at Huayan Temple], written by Meng Jiao 孟郊 of the Tang dynasty, where is recorded that “nǐ gǔ tóu sōng zuò, jiù míng kāi zhǐ shū. 擬古 投松坐，就明開紙疏.” (Sit under the pine tree like the ancient people; enfold a sheet for writing in the daylight.) In Sòng chénggōng pìzhī yùzhāng 送程公辟之 豫章 [Farewell to Cheng Gongpi off to Yuzhang (today’s Nanchang, the capital city of Jiangxi Province)], written by Wang Anshi 王安石 of the Song dynasty, it reads “jiǔjiāng zuǒtóu gòng yú zhāng, yánglán chuīpiāo hào wú páng. 九江左 投貢與章，揚瀾吹漂浩無旁.” (Jiujiang County lies at the cross of River Gong

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 147 and River Zhang, the tides swaying and stretching to the infinite.) (4) Approaching, as in the preface of Qímínyàoshù 齊民要術 [Important Methods to Condition the People’s Living], written by Jia Sixie 賈思勰 of the Northern Wei dynasty, which reads “yòu kè mín wú niú zhě lìng chù zhū, tóu guì shí mài yǐ mǎi niú. 〔 顔裴〕又課民無牛者令畜豬，投貴時賣以買牛.” (Yan Fei ordered those without ox to keep pigs to be sold for oxen when the prices went high.) In the poem Guānmíngzhōutú 觀明州圖 [An Appreciation of the Painting of Mingzhou], written by Wang Anshi 王安石 of the Song dynasty, it reads “tóulǎo xīnqíng fēi fùxī, dāngshí shānshuǐ gù yīrán. 投老心情非復昔，當時山水固依然.” (I have approached the old age with a mood different from the old days, yet the landscape remains.) Among its meanings in Old Chinese and Middle Chinese, the lexicon senses of being close to and approaching are no longer in use, while the senses of refuge-seeking and expressing remain in Modern Chinese. The character lù 録 originally meant recording, writing down, and selecting in Old Chinese. In Zhíbì 職幣 [Salary Officer] in Tiānguān 天官 [Offices of the Heaven on General Governance] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rites of Zhou], it is written that “jiē biàn qí wù ér diàn qí lù. 皆辨其物而奠其録.” (All should be confirmed and recorded.) In Yǐngōngshínián 隠公十年 [The Tenth Year of Duke Yin’s Reign (713 BCE)] in Gōngyángzhuàn 公羊傳 [The Gongyang Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], a sentence goes “chūnqiū lùnèi ér lüèwài. 《春秋 》録内而略外.” (In the Spring and Autumn Annals, meticulous attention is given to the recording of internal events of the state of Lu, with less attention to foreign affairs.) In Biétōng 别通 [On Intelligence] of Lúnhéng 論衡 [Discussive Weighing], written by Wang Chong 王充 of the Han dynasty, it is written that “huò guān dú cǎi qǔ, huò qì juān bù lù. 或觀讀採取， 或棄捐不録.” (Select useful parts after reading it, or give up selecting.) In Middle Chinese, there were four new meanings: (1) collection, as in Zhèngshì 政事 [Affairs of State] of Shìshuōxīnyǔ 世説新語 [A New Account of Tales of the World], written by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Southern Song dynasty, where it is narrated that “táo kǎn zuò jīngzhōu shí, chìchuánguān xī lù jùmùxiè, bùxiàn duō shǎo. 〔陶侃 〕作荆 州時，敕船官悉録鋸木屑，不限多少.” (While he [Tao Kan] was the governor of Ching Province, he ordered the ship-building officers to save all the sawdust of whatever amount, much or little.) In Cǎopiān 草篇 [Chapters about Herb] of Yǒuyángzázǔ 酉陽雜俎 [A Table Full of Miscellaneous Writings from South of Mt. You], written by Duan Chengshi 段成式 of the Tang dynasty, it is recounted that “tiān míng jīng, yī míng lùhuócǎo . . . liú jǐn mìlù cǐcǎo zhòngzhī, duō zhǔ shāngzhé, sú hū liújǐ cǎo. 天名精，一名鹿活草. . . . 〔劉〕儘密録此草種之， 多主傷折，俗呼劉儘草.” (Tianmingjing, also called luhuocao [lit. a herb rescuing dying deer], is a herd-medicine. . . . Liu Jin ordered the herb to be cultivated to cure injury, so it was also named Liu Jin herb.) (2) Remembering, as in Gǔshī wéijiāozhòngqīngqīzuò 古詩爲焦仲卿妻作 [An Ancient Poem Written by Jiao Zhongqing’s Wife], which reads “jūn jì ruò jiàn lù, bù jiǔ wàng jūn lái. 君既若見 録， 不久望君來.” (Since you keep me in mind, I will await your coming soon.) In Jíyìjì 集異記 [Collection of Strange Stories] quoted in Tàipíngguǎngjì 太平廣 記 [Extensive Records of the Taiping Era], it is written that “zìhòu huò shínián

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wǔnián zhì jūjiā, ér wángshì bù fù lù yǐ. 自後或十年五年至琚家，而王氏不復 録矣.” (He came to the house of Wang Ju after ten or five years, and the Wangs no longer thought of him.) (3) Storing up, as in volume four of Sōushénhòujì 搜 神後記 [Sequel of In Search of the Supernatural], written by Tao Qian 陶潛 of the Jin dynasty, where it reads “wéi yú jìfà zhōng dé yī zhǐ, huàzuò dàhǔ, hǔbiān yǒu fú, zhōu mìlù zhī. 唯於髻髮中得一紙，畫作大虎，虎邊有符，周密録 之.” (Out of his chignon a piece of paper was found with a huge tiger painted and a spell. Zhou secretly kept the paper.) In Zhāngfūzhuàn 張敷傳 [The Biographies of Zhang Fu] in Nánshǐ 南史 [The History of the Southern dynasty], it reads “qiú mǔ yíwù, ér sànshī yǐ jìn, wéi dé yīshàn, nǎi zhēnlù zhī. měi zhì gǎn ēn, zé kāiqiè liútì. 求母遺物， 而散失已盡，唯得一扇，乃珍録之. 每至感恩，則開篋流 涕.” (He had been seeking the staff of his late mother but found nothing but a fan. He treasured it very much, so much so that every time he missed his mother, he would open the box to see the fan and wept.) (4) Arresting, as in Zhèngshì 政事 [Affairs of State] of Shìshuōxīnyǔ 世説新語 [A New Account of Tales of the World], written by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Southern Song dynasty, which reads “ān qī zuò dōng hǎi jùn, lì lù yī fàn yè rù lái. 安期作東海郡，吏録一犯 夜入來.” (When Wang Anqi was the governor of Donghai County, a subordinate official arrested a man breaking the night curfew.) In Zhīnuògāozhōng 支諾皐中 [A Call for Deities, II] of Yǒuyángzázǔ 酉陽雜俎 [A Table Full of Miscellaneous Writings from South of Mt. You], written by Duan Chengshi 段成式 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “huìchāng èrnián, qí yǒu lù xiūfú, hū mèng bèi lù zhì yī chù, yǒu zōu zú zhǐ zhī. 會昌二年，其友陸休符，忽夢被録至一處，有騶卒止之.” (In the second year of Huichang reign, his friend Lu Xiufu dreamed of being taken to a place with some coachmen standing nearby.) The word cǎn 慘 described the cruel character; miserable or sad mood; and the state of severity or sullen atmosphere and was also used as an adverb meaning of once or also in Old Chinese. In Yìbīng 議兵 [A Debate on Military Affairs] of the Xúnzǐ 荀子 [Works of Xunzi], it is written that “chǔ rén jiāo gé xī sì yǐ wéi jiǎ, jiān rú jīn shí, wǎn jù tiě shī, cǎn rú fēng chài. 楚人鮫革犀兕以爲甲，堅如金石，宛 鉅鐵釶，慘如蜂蠆.” (The people of Chu use shark skins and rhinoceros hides to make armor that is as hard as metal or stone. Their steel spears made in Wan are as killing as wasps and scorpions.) Yang Jing 楊倞 annotates that “yán qí zhōng rén zhī cǎndú yě. 言其中人之慘毒也.” (The remark is meant to describe the cruelty of the Chu people.) In Yuèchū 月出 [Yueh Ch’uh] of Chénfēng 陳風 [The Odes of Ch’in] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it is written that “yuè chū zhào xī, jiǎo rén liáo xī, shū yāo shào xī, láo xīn cǎn xī jū. 月出照兮，佼人燎兮，舒夭紹兮，勞 心慘兮疽.” (The rising moon shines mild and fair; the more bright is she, whose rare beauty fills my heart with longing. With eager wish I pine in vain for relief from constant pain, Which through my bosom thrills!) In Shìwén 釋文 [Textual Explanations of Classics] by Lu Deming 陸德明, it reads “cǎn, yōu yě. 慘，憂 也.” (Cǎn 慘 means grief.) In Āiyǐng 哀郢 [A Lament for Ying] of Jiǔzhāng 九 章 [Nine Pieces] in Chǔcí 楚辭 [The Songs of Chu], it is written that “cǎn yù yù ér bù tōng xī, jiǎn chà chì ér hán qī. 慘鬱鬱而不通兮，蹇侘傺而含戚.” (I am overcast with a sadness which cannot find expression; I am tied to one spot and

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 149 my mouth is full of gall.) In Píngzhǔnshū 平準書 [The Treaties on the Balanced Standard] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian]), it reads “lì yì cǎn jí, ér fǎ lìng míng chá” 吏益慘急，而法令明察. (The officer was strict in law enforcement, and law was clear and fair.) In Zhōuyuèjiě 周月解 [Explanations to the Month of Zhou] of Yìzhōushū 逸周書 [Superfluous Chapters of The Book of Zhou], a sentence goes “yīn jiàng cǎn yú wàn wù. 陰降慘於萬物.” (Yin 陰 falls and encompasses everything.) In Zhāogōngèrshínián 昭公二十年 [The Year 20 in the Reign of Lord Zhao (522 BCE)] of Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it is written that “wú cóng guǐ suí, yǐ jǐn wú liáng. shì è kòu nüè, cǎn bú wèi míng. 毋從詭随，以謹無良. 式遏寇虐，慘不 畏明.” (Do not forgive the artful and deceptive. Thus, make those who are in no way good cautious. Do put a stop to the rapacious and the cruel, who have never feared the illustrious standards.) In Middle Chinese, it had five extended meanings: (1) funeral, as in Wángchénzhuàn 王忱傳 [The Biographies of Wang Chen] in Jìnshū 晉書 [The Book of the Jin dynasty], where it is written that “fù fù dāng yǒu cǎn, chén chéng zuì diào zhī. 婦父嘗有慘，忱乘醉弔之.” (At the funeral of his father-in-law, he went mourning totally drunk.) (2) Pain, as in Hédōng jì 河東記 [Records of Hedong] included in Tàipíngguǎngjì 太平廣記 [Extensive Records of the Taiping Era], where it is narrated that “guóqīng yú shǐzhě jù rù chéngmén, hū jué mù zì wēi cǎn, yǐ shǒu sāo zhī, jì rán ér wù. 國清與使者 俱入 城門，忽覺目眥微慘，以手搔之，悸然而寤.” (Guo Qing entered the city gate with the envoys. Feeling a pain at the corner of his eyes, he scratched and woke up with a start.) (3) Shame, as in the poem Péichángshì yǐtíqiángwēijiàshíbāyùn jiànshì 裴常侍以〈題薔薇架十八韻〉見示 [A Response to Minister Pei’s Poem on Climbing Roses on Fence] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “huì cǎn wēi lán bì, lián xiū yìng pǔ cáng. 蕙惨偎欄避，蓮羞映浦藏.” (In shame, the orchards went hidden against the fence, and the lotuses went hidden deep in the waters.) (4) Frown, as in the ballad Xúntóngē 尋橦歌 [A Song for Pole Climbers] by Wang Jian 王建 of the Tang dynasty, where it is written that “xiǎo chuí yī shǒu dāng wǔ pán, xié cǎn shuāng é kàn luò rì. 小垂一手當舞盤，斜惨 雙蛾看落日.” (On the tiny palm a dance enfolds, frowning eyes squinting at the setting sun.) (5) of light color, as in Nuògāojìshàng 諾皐記上 [A Call for Deities, Part I] of Yǒuyángzázǔ 酉陽雜俎 [Table Full of Miscellaneous Writings from South of Mt. You] by Duan Chengshi 段成式 of the Tang dynasty), which reads “yǐ rì cháng yǒu liǎng qí, yī cǎn fēi. 乙日常有兩騎， 衣慘緋.” (On the second day two horsemen in light color attires would come along.) In Héróngjì 河荣記 [Records of He Rong], quoted in Tàipíngguǎngjì 太平廣記 [Extensive Records of the Taiping Era], it reads “yòu guò xī wǔ xià yī héng mén, mén wài duō shì zhuó huáng shān cǎn lǜ sè rén. 又過西廡下一横門，門外多是着黄衫慘緑色 人.” (Outside the gate of the west hall stood many people in light green clothes.) The word zhuō 捉 has two meanings in Old Chinese. The original meaning was to seize or to hold. In Shuōwén Shǒubù 説文手部 [Shou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], it is noted that “zhuō, è yě, yī yuē wò yě. 捉，搤也，一曰 握也.” (Zhuō 捉 or wò means to hold something in hand.) Another meaning was to urge. In Gēngsāngchǔ 庚桑楚 [Gengsang Chu] of Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Complete

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Works of Zhuangzi], it is written that “fū wài huò zhě bù kě fán ér zhuō. jiāng nèi jiàn. 夫外韄者不可繁而捉. 將内揵.” (When outside things trip you up and you can’t snare and seize them, then bar the inside gate.) In Middle Chinese, the character zhuō 捉 has five senses: (1) arrest, as in Mǎchāozhuàn 馬超傳 [The Biographies of Ma Chao] of Shǔshū 蜀書 [The Book of Shu] in Sānguózhì 三國 志 [Records of Three Kingddoms], where it reads “chāo fù qí duō lì, yīn yù tū qián zhuō cáo gōng. 超負其多力，陰欲突前捉曹公.” (Enboldened by his strength, Ma Chao intended to charge ahead and capture Cao Cao.) In the poem Shíháolì 石壕吏 [An Official at Stone Moat] of Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “mù tóu shí háo cūn, yǒu lì yè zhuō rén. 暮投石壕村， 有吏夜捉人.” (While I put up at Stone Moat village at dusk, [I witnessed] a clerk was catching people by night.) (2) drive (boat), as in Zhuógēxíng 棹歌行 [A Boat Song] by Emperor Jianwen of the Southern Liang dynasty, it reads “fēngshēng jiě cì làng, shuǐshēn néng zhuō chuán. 風生解刺浪，水深能捉船. (Ride the tide with the wind; steer the boat in water depth.) In the story “Khe sto che story id éhe stoyòng yù 口誦乘船法而不解用喻” [A Parable of a Failed Steering Instruction] in Bǎiyùjīng 百喻經 [One Hundred Buddhist Parables] translated by Qiunabadi 求 那觱地, Gunavrddhi of the Southern Qi dynasty, it is recorded that “cǐ zhǎng zhě zǐ shàn sòng, rù hǎi zhuō chuán fáng fǎ. 此長者子善誦，入海捉船方法.” (The oldest son was good at reciting the instruction to steer vehicles at sea.) (3) Safeguard, as in Zhǎngsūnlǎnzhuàn 長孫覽傳 [The Biographies of Zhangsun Lan] of Suíshū 隋書 [The Book of the Sui dynasty], where it is written that “dì yuē: ‘jīn xiāng zhōu zhī dì . . . fēi gōng mò kě’. yū shì qiǎn zhuō xiāng zhōu. 帝曰 ： ‘今 相州之地. . . 非公莫可.’ 於是遣捉相州.” (The emperor said, “Only you could safeguard Xiangzhou.” Then he was sent there.) In Shùnchāng zhànshèng pòzéilù 順昌戰勝破賊録 [A Record of the Victory at Shunchang against the Enemy] by Yang Ruyi 楊汝翼 of the Song dynasty, it is narrated that “yíng zhài guò dí, zé yòu bǎ lù zhuō xiàng. 營寨過敵，則又把路捉巷.” (Military camps were built and roads and lanes were safeguarded.) (4) Pick up, as in Déxíng 德行 [Virtuous Conducts] of Shìshuōxīnyǔ 世説新語 [A New Account of Tales of the World] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Southern Song dynasty, which reads “guǎn huīchú yǔ wǎshí bù yì, huā zhuō ér zhì qù zhī. 管揮鋤與瓦石不異，華捉而擲去之.” ([At the sight of gold] Guan Ning continued hoeing the land, taking the gold as no difference from a pebble, while Hua Xin picked it up but threw it away eventually.) In Wéiwángfùjīyù 爲王負機喻 [A Parable of Excessive Burden] of Bǎiyùjīng 百喻經 [One Hundred Buddhist Parables] translated by Qiunabadi 求那觱地, Gunavrddhi of the Southern Qi dynasty, it reads “ruò jiàn nǚ rén yī fā zài dì, zì yán chí jiè, bù kěn zhuō zhī. 若見女人一發在地，自言持戒，不肯捉之.” (If one saw a strand of female hair on the ground, he would refuse to pick it up on the excuse of abiding by the precepts.) (5) A preposition meaning treating someone or something in a certain way, as in Yànzifù 燕子賦 [Rhapsody on Swallow] of Dūnhuángbiànwénjí 敦煌變文集 [Collection of Buddhist Transformation Texts in Dunhuang Grotto], it is written that “fèng huáng chēn què ér, wéi hé zhuō tā qī. 鳳凰嗔雀兒，爲何捉他欺.” (Phoenix blamed the sparrow, ‘Why did you bully others?’) In Wángzhāojūn biànwén 王昭君變文 [The Story of Wang Zhaojun],

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 151 it reads “liáng yóu huà jiàng, zhuō qiè líng chí. 良由畫匠，捉妾陵持.” (It is all because the painter bullied me.) In Modern Chinese, the sense of arrest remains; the senses to seize or hold remain in the phrases zhuōbǐ 捉筆 (pick up a pen and compose a writing), zhuō jīn jiàn zhǒu 捉襟見肘 (lit. expose one’s elbow when drawing tight the lapel of one’s jacket; fig. be in straitened circumstances), and so on. The other senses of coerce, steer, safeguard, pick up, and treat have gone extinct completely. The word dài 带 originally meant broad belt, as noted in Shuōwén Jīnbù 説 文巾部 [Jin Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], “dài, shēn yě. 帶，紳也” (Dài 帶 refers to girdle.) It also meant to strap, to wear, or around in Old Chinese. In Middle Chinese, seven new meanings evolved: (1) an area, as in the poem Púsàmán 菩薩蠻 [To the Tune Pusaman (lit. kind-hearted person)] by Li Bai of the Tang dynasty, where a sentence goes “píng lín mò mò yān rú zhī, hán shān yī dài shāng xīn bì. 平林漠漠煙如織，寒山一帶傷心碧.” (Mist shrouds the stretch of trees, distant mountains immersed in green-blue hue.) In the poem Dùménsì 度門寺 [Dumen Temple] by Yuan Zhen 元稹 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “mén lín xī yī dài, qiáo yìng zhú qiān chóng. 門臨溪一帶，橋映竹千重.” (A stream winds past the door, streaks of bamboo mirrored under the bridge.) In Hānjiāng 漢江 [The Han River] by Hu Ceng 胡曾 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “hān jiāng yī dài bì liú zhǎng, liǎng àn chūn fēng qǐ lǜ yáng. 漢江一 帶碧流長，兩岸春風起緑楊.” (The green Han River stretches; spring breeze has greened poplar trees on both sides.) (2) Carry, as in Déxíng 德行 [Virtuous Conduct] in Shìshuōxīnyǔ 世説新語 [A New Account of Tales of the World] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Southern Song dynasty, which reads “chén yí yǐ jùliǎn dé shùdǒu jiāofàn, wèi zhǎn guī jiā, jí dài yǐ cóngjūn. 〔陳〕遺已聚斂得 數斗焦飯，未展歸家，即帶以從軍.” (Chen Yi had already saved several dipperfuls [tou] of scorched rice, but as he had not yet had leave to return home, he carried it with him to the battlefield.) In Chángxìnyuàn 長信怨 [Grievances from Changxin Palace] by Wang Changling 王昌齡 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yù yán bù jí hán yā sè, yóu dài zhāo yáng rì yǐng lái. 玉顔不及 寒鴉色，猶帶昭陽日影來.” (My beauty cannot even beat the jackdaw which still carries the grace and glory of Zhaoyang Palace.) (3) Hold concurrent posts, as in Yányù 言語 [A New Account of Tales of the World] of Shìshuōxīnyǔ 世 説新語 [A New Account of Tales of the World] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Southern Song dynasty, whcih reads “xiè wéi tài fù, zhǎng shǐ bèi tán, wáng jí qǔ zuò zhǎng shǐ, dài jìn líng jùn. 謝爲太傅，長史被彈，王即取作長史，帶晉陵 郡.” (When Hsieh, senior administrator under the Grand Tutor Sima Daozi, was impeached, Wang Gong appointed him the same position and put him in charge of Jinling County.) In Chénzhèngshìshū 陳政事疏 [Remarks on Social Governance] by Fan Ning 范寧 of the Jin dynasty, it is narrated that “dīng yòu jùnshǒu zhǎngshǐ, qiānzhì wúcháng, huòjiān táizhí, huòdài fǔguān. 丁又郡守長史，牽 置無常，或兼台職，或帶府官.” (Ding, the governor of You County, was also appointed as senior administrator, handling emergencies or being makeshift provincial supervisor.) In volume ten of Lǎoxuéānbǐjì 老學庵筆記 [The Old Scholar’s Travel Records] by Lu You 陸游 of the Song dynasty, it reads “chéngxiàng

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dài dūdū yì shùrén, ér tiānxià dú mù wèigōng wéi zhāngdūdū. 丞相帶都督亦數 人，而天下獨目魏公爲張都督.” (Under the prime minister there were several generals, yet only Lord Zhangwei was honored as General Zhang.) (4) Involve, contain, as in Běishānyíwén 北山移文 [Proclamation on North Mountain] by Kong Zhigui 孔稚珪 of the Southern Qi dynasty, which reads “fēngyún qī qí dài fèn, shíquán yàn ér xià chuàng. 風雲悽其帶憤，石泉咽而下愴.” (Winds and clouds within the mountain were full of grief and anger; rocks and rivers were sad and resentful.) In Chánghèngē 長恨歌 [The Song of Everlasting Regret] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “yùróng jìmò lèi lángàn, líhuā yīzhī chūndàiyǔ. 玉容寂寞淚闌干，梨花一枝春帶雨.” (Loneliness appeared on her pretty face with tear stains, a pear blossom in spring rain.) In Dá yángbājìng zhī juéjù 答楊八敬之絶句 [A Quatrain in Answer to Yang Bajing] by Liu Yuxi 劉禹 錫 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “bǎoshān gūzhú shēng piān qiē, dàihuǒ jiāotóng yùnběnbēi. 飽山孤竹聲偏切，帶火焦桐韻本悲.” (Weathered bamboo makes bitter sound; scorched sycamore wood produced sad music.) (5) Adjacent, connection, as in Qùgùxiāngfù 去故鄉賦 [Rhapsody on Home-Leaving] by Jiang Yan 江淹 of the Southern Liang dynasty, one sentence goes “qióngyīn yínghǎi, píngwú dàitiān. 窮陰迎海，平蕪帶天.” (The winter gloomy sky spans across the ocean; the glassland stretches to the horizon.) In the poem Yěwàng 野望 [View of the Wilds] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “yún shān jiān wǔ lǐng, fēng rǎng dài sān miáo. 雲山兼五嶺，風壤帶三苗.” (Cloudy mountains join together with the Five Alps, the environment here is close to the Three Miao.) In the poem Nánhú 南湖 [The Southern Lake] by Zhū Qìngyú 朱慶餘 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yě chuán zhù àn rù qīng cǎo, shuǐ niǎo dài bō fēi xī yáng. 野船著岸入青草，水烏帶波飛夕陽.” (Boat moored near the banks with green grass; birds flew toward the sunset, close to the water surface.) (6) mirror, as in the poem Dùqīngcǎohú 渡青草湖 [Crossing the Green-Grass Lake] by Chen Yinkeng 陳陰鏗 of the Southern dynasties, where it is written that “dài tiān chéng jiǒng bì, yìng rì dòng fú guāng. 帶天澄迥碧，映日動浮光.” (Turquoise waters stretch over to the horizon, simmering in bright light.) In the poem Zāofēngèrshíyùn 遭風二十韻 [lit. a 20-line poem on storms] by Yuan Zhen 元 稹 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “míng sè yǐ lóng qiū zhú shù, xī yáng yóu dài jiù lóu tái. 暝色已籠秋竹樹，夕陽猶帶舊樓臺.” (The dusk has shrouded trees and bamboo in autumn, the old terrace silhouetted in the sunset.) In the poem Jíshì 即事 [An Impromptu Poem] by Sikong Tu 司空圖 of the Tang dynasty, it is recorded that “bēi hén qīn mù mǎ, yún yǐng dài gēng rén. 陂痕侵牧馬，雲影 帶耕人.” (Horses loiter by the waters; herdsmen toll under the cloud.) (7) Wear (hat), as in the song lyric Yǒngyùlè yuánxiāo 永遇樂元宵 [To the Tune Yǒngyùlè (lit. Always Having Fun): The Lantern Festival] by Li Qingzhao 李清照 of the Song dynasty, which reads “pūcuì guān’ér, niǎnjīn xuěliǔ, cùdài zhēng jìchǔ. 鋪 翠冠兒，撚金雪柳，簇帶争濟楚.” (Putting on gemscapes and hats, wearing hairpins with gold thread, the pretty maids compete against each other.) Wang Xuechu 王學初 annotated that “ ‘cù dài’ sòng shí fāng yán, chā dài mǎn tóu zhī yì. “簇帶, 宋時方言，插戴滿頭之意.” (Cù dài 簇帶, a dialectcal phrase of the Song dynasty, meant to put on hairpins or other accessories on one’s head.)

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 153 Among the seven senses, number one, two, four and five are still in use today, while the other senses, numbers 3, 6, and 7, have gone extinct completely. The word diǎn 點 was polysemous in Old Chinese, meaning a black dot; stain; one stroke of the Chinese characters; erase a character with a dot of ink. In Shuōwén Hēibù 説文黑部 [Hei Group of Origin of Chinese Characters], one sentence goes “diǎn, xiǎo hēi yě. 點，小黑也.” (The character diǎn 點 refers to a black dot.) In Bàorènshǎoqīngshū 報任少卿書 [Letters to Official Ren] by Sima Qian 司馬遷 of the Han dynasty, it reads “ruò pú dà zhì yǐ kuī quē yǐ, suī cái huái suí hé, xíng ruò yóu yí, zhōng bù kě yǐ wéi róng, shì zú yǐ jiàn xiào ér zì diǎn ěr. 若僕大質已虧缺矣，雖才懷隨和，行若由夷，終不可以爲榮，適足以見笑 而自點耳.” (Now that I have a crippled body, even if I possess talent as rare as and the Marquis of Sui’s Pearl and the Jade of He and behave as virtuously as Xu You and Bo Yi, I feel no glory but ridicule at myself.) In Jiǔshì 九勢 [Nine Positions (in calligraphy)] by Cai Yong 蔡邕 of the Han dynasty, it reads “hù wěi, huà diǎn shì jìn, lì shōu zhī. 護尾，畫點勢盡，力收之.” (Make a solid end of the stroke dot with a forceful gesture.) In Shìqì 釋器 [Explaining Utensils] of Ěryǎ 爾 雅 [The Literary Expositor], it is noted that “miè wèi zhī diǎn. 滅謂之點.” (To dot means to come to an end.) Guo Pu 郭璞 noted that “yǐbǐ mièzì wéi diǎn. 以筆滅 字爲點.” (To dot means to end writing with the brush.) The word diǎn 點 had at least 16 senses in Middle Chinese: (1) to make the end of a sentence with a dot, as in the section of Wénxué 文學 [Letters and Scholarship] of Shìshuōxīnyǔ 世説新 語 [A New Account of Tales of the World] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Southern Song dynasty, where it is noted that “qí yú zhòng piān, huò dìng diǎn wén jù ér yǐ. 其餘眾篇，或定點文句而已.” (For the other texts, he merely adds punctuation.) (2) To mark approval with a dot, as in Jiàofāngjì 教坊記 [Records of Office in Charge of Imperial Music] by Cui Lingqin 崔令欽 of the Tang dynasty, where it is recorded that “fán yù chūxì, suǒsī xiānjìn qǔmíng, shàng yǐmò diǎnzhě, jí wǔ, bùdiǎnzhě jí fǒu. 凡欲岀戲， 所司先進曲名，上以墨點者，即舞，不點者即 否.” (The troup needs to report the title of the play to the bureau. The approved pieces are marked with a dot and would be performed; those without could not be performed.) (3) To drip, as in the third volume of Qiānjīnbǎoyào 千金寳要 [Invaluable Prescriptions] by Sun Simiao 孫思邈 of the Tang dynasty, where it is recorded that “àihāo yī dān, shāo zuò huī, yú zhújiǎn zhōng línqǔ zhī, yǐ yī èr huò shíhuī rú qūjiāng, yǐ zhēncì chuāng zhōng, zhì tòng, jí diǎn zhī, diǎn sānbiàn, qí gēn zìbá. 艾蒿一擔，燒作灰，於竹简中淋取汁，以一二合和石灰如麴漿， 以針刺瘡中，至痛，即點之，點三遍，其根自拔.” (Burn the felon herb into ashes and mix them with lime in bamboo tube until they become muddy. Sting the sore with a needle and drip in the mixture. After three dips, the sore could be cured.) (4) Stain, as in Yòutízhāngyìrényuánlín 又題張逸人園林 [A New Poem Written on The Garden of Zhang Yiren] by Han Hong 韓翃 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “lùsè diǎnyī gū yǔxiǎo, huāzhī fángmào xiǎo yuánchūn. 露色點衣孤 嶼曉，花枝妨帽小園春.” (At dawn, the heavy dew in the island moistened cloths. In spring, lush branches and leaves blocked the brim of a hat.) (5) Hit, as in Shèzhìfù 射雉賦 [Rhapsody on Shooting Pheasant] by Pan Yue 潘岳 of the Jin dynasty, where one sentence goes “xīn yú zhì zhī jīng ruì, nǐ qīng lú ér zhān xiàng.

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俽余志之精鋭，擬青顱而點項.” (Glad that my ambition is still great, capable to hit the pheasant on the neck though missing its head) and Lu Yanji’s annotation is that “qīng lú, tóu yě. diǎn zhòng yě . . . nǐ shè qí tóu ér zhōng yú xiàng yě. 青顱， 頭也. 點，中也. . . 擬射其頭而中于項也.” (Qīng lú 青顱 means head. Diǎn 點 means hit. The intention was to hit the head but hit the neck instead.) (6) Appointment, as in the ballad of Mùlánshī 木蘭詩 [The Ballad of Mulan], which reads “zuó yè jiàn jūn tiě, kè hán dà diǎn bīng. 昨夜見軍帖，可汗大點兵.” (But last night I read the battle-roll; the Khan has ordered a great levy of men.) (7) Checking, as in Sòngyīqǔ 送衣曲 [Clothes-Sending] by Wang Jian 王建 of the Tang dynasty, where it is written that “jiù lái shí yuè chū diǎn yī, yǔ láng zhù xiàng yíng zhōng jí. 舊來十月初點衣，與郎著向營中集.” (As October is approaching, here I have come to the camp to give my husband winter clothes.) (8) Hint, as in volume 18 of Jǐngdézhuàndēnglù 景德傳燈録 [Records of Lamps in Jingde Reign] by Shi Daoyuan 释道原 of the Song dynasty, where it is narrated that “zhì lǐ yī yán, diǎn fán chéng shèng, qǐng shī yī diǎn. 至理一言，點凡成聖，請師一 點.” (Your remarks are full of wisdom, able to deliver mortal beings to immortality. Please instruct me.) (9) Speck, as in the second poem in the series Qǔjiāngèrshǒushī 曲江二首詩 [Two Poems on Twisting River] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, where it is written that “chuān huā xiá dié shēn shēn jiàn, diǎn shuǐ qīng tíng kuǎn kuǎn fēi. 穿花峽蝶深深見，點水蜻蜓款款飛.” (Threading through flowers, butterflies appear deep within, specks on water, dragonflies wing on so leisurely.) (10) Dip, as in Lǐzhǔbùzhènglìng 李主簿政令 [Orders Issued by Master Li] by Fang Gan 方干 of the Tang dynasty, where it is written that “cuò dà chī jiǔ diǎn yán, jiāng jūn chī jiǔ diǎn jiàng. zhǐ jiàn mén wài zhù lí, wèi jiàn yǎn zhōng ān zhàng. 措大喫酒點鹽，將軍喫酒點醬. 只見門外著籬，未見眼中安 障.” (The housekeeper drank with salt; the general drank with sauce. One only saw a fence across the yard but never in the eye.) (11) Lighting up (fire), as in Diàolǚ 釣侣 [Fishing Friends] by Pi Rixiu 皮日休 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “yān làng jiàn péng hán bù shuì, gèng jiāng kū bàng diǎn yú dēng. 煙浪濺 篷寒不睡，更將枯蚌點漁燈.” (By the misty waters, the tent was too wet and cold for one to sleep. Let us do with a dried clamshell with some oil for light.) (12) Drop, as in Yǔzhōngzuò 雨中作 [Poem Made in the Rain] by Lu You 陸游 of the Song dynasty, where it is written that “fēng shēng rú fān tāo, yǔ diǎn rú sǎ sù. 風 聲如翻濤，雨點如撒粟.” (The wind sounds like roaring waves; the raindrop is like dropping millet.) (13) A measure of night time. In ancient times, one night consisted of five jing 更; one jing 更 consisted of five dian 点. In the poem “Zhìrì qiǎnxìng fèngjì běishěng jiùgélǎo liǎngyuàn gùrén 至日遣興奉寄北省舊閣老兩 院故人” [Getting Out What Stirs Me on Winter Solstice: Respectfully Sent to My Old Friends in the Secretariat and Chancellery I] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, one sentence reads “qù suì zī chén pěng yù chuáng, wǔ gēng sān diǎn rù yuān xíng. 去歲兹辰捧御床，五更三點入鵷行.” (Last year at this time I served the imperial throne, at the deep night I started off for the court.) (14) An ancient musical instrument, as in Púsàmán 菩薩蠻 [A Tune of Song Lyric, lit. KindHearted People] by Wen Tingyun 温庭筠 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “chūn hèn zhèng guān qíng, huà lóu cán diǎn shēng. 春恨正關情，畫樓殘點聲. (The

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 155 sorrow for the passing spring is exactly strong; the sound of the musical timer disturbed her sleep.) (15) Rhyme and beat, as in Huànxīshā 浣溪沙 [A Tune of Song Lyric; lit. Washing Clothes] by Li Yu 李煜 of the Southern Tang dynasty, where it is written that “hóng jǐn dì yī suí bù zhòu, jiā rén wǔ diǎn jīn chāi liū. 紅 錦地衣隨步皺，佳人舞點金釵溜.” (The dancer’s steps crumpled the red carpet made of brocade; the gold hairpin slipped from the hair along with the beating step of dancing maids.) (16) Used as a quantifier, as in Dòngxiānlù 洞仙録 [Records of the Immortal from the Cave] by Su Shi 蘇軾 of the Song dynasty, where it is written that “yòu mò shì dōng fēng zhú jūn lái, biàn chuī sàn méi, yī diǎn chūn zhòu. 又莫是東風逐君來，便吹散眉，一點春皺.” (I am afraid that only the wind of spring can smooth the frowning eyebrow.) In the song lyric of Xījiāngyuè – yèxíng huángshādàozhōng 西江月 – 夜行黄沙道中 [To the Tune of Xijiangyue (lit. Moon above the Western River): A Night Journey over Huangsha] by Xin Qiji 辛棄疾 of the Song dynasty, it is written that “qī bā gè xīng tiān wài, liǎng sān diǎn yǔ shān qián. 七八個星天外，兩三點雨山前.” (Seven or eight stars flicker at distance; two or three raindrops fall on the mountain.) The majority of the senses of diǎn 點 are still in use in Modern Chinese, and it is used as quantifier, except the senses of hit, appointment, rhyme, and beat.

3.4 Extension of meanings of disyllables with a single lexicon sense Although disyllabic words outnumber monosyllables during the Middle Chinese period, the majority of the former have a single meaning, with a small number with more than one meaning. In terms of semantic complexity, disyllabic words carry far more complex meanings than monosyllables, with more semantic shifts. Even though a small proportion of two-syllable phrases have only a single meaning from the Middle Chinese period to modern times, the shift of word sense occurred. The following are specific examples. The disyllabic phrase jìnshì 進士 has undergone three stages of semantic shift in the course of history. First, it was understood as the virtuous candidate locally recommended and hired by the imperial court before the Wei and Jin dynasties. In Wángzhì 王制 [The Royal Regulations] in Lǐjì 禮記 [The Book of Rites], it reads “dà yuè zhèng lún zào shì zhī xiù zhě, yǐ gào yú wáng ér shēng zhū sī mǎ, yuē jìn shì. 大樂正論造士之秀者，以告于王而升諸司馬，曰進士.” (The grand director of music having fully considered who were the most promising of the complete scholars, reported them to the king, after which they were promoted Minister of War and called scholars ready for employment.) Zheng Xuan’s annotation goes “jìn shì, kě yǐ jìn shòu jué lù yǐ. 進士，可以進受爵禄矣.” (Jìn shì 進 士 refers to the scholars who will receive official ranks and salary.) Second, in the period between the Sui and Tang dynasties during which the imperial examination was initiated, the meaning shifed to those who passed the exam held by the Ministry of Rites. In Huìbiàn 諱辯 [Debate on Name for the Respected People], written by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “yù yǔ Li He shū, quàn hè jǔ jìn shì, hè jǔ jìn shì yǒu míng, yú hè zhēng míng zhě huǐ zhī. 愈與李

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賀書， 勸賀舉進士. 賀舉進士有名，與賀争名者毁之.” (Han Yu wrote a letter to Li He, advising him to take the examination for virtuous candidate. When Li He passed the examination, those who had competed for fame with him slandered him.) In Jìjiùshānyìnzhě 寄舊山隱者 [To the Recluse in Mountains] by Yao He 姚合 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “míng zài jìn shì chǎng, bǐ háo zhēng děng lún. 名在進士場， 筆毫争等倫.” (One established his fame in the examination, his rank decided by his writings.) Third, a successful candidate in the highest imperial examinations was named jìn shì 進士 in the Ming and Qing dynasties. In the novel Rúlínwàishǐ 儒林外史 [Unofficial History of the Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, it is written that “dào jīng huì shì, yòu zhōng le jìn shì, diàn zài sān jiǎ, shòu le bù shǔ. 到京會試，又中了進士，殿在 三甲，授了部屬.” (He passed the highest imperial examination and ranked the third among those successful candidates with surbordiantes.) In Hónglóumèng 紅 樓夢 [A Dream of Red Mansions] by Cao Xueqin 曹雪芹, a contemporary of Wu Jingzi 吳敬梓, it reads “zhì dà bǐ zhī qī, bú liào tā shí fēn dé yì, yǐ huì le jìn shì, xuàn rù wài bān, jīn yǐ shēng le běn fǔ zhī fǔ. 至大比之期，不料他十分得意， 已會了進士，選入外班，今已升了本府知府.” (He did so well in the examinations that he became a palace graduate and was granted a provincial title. He had now been promoted to this prefectship.) The phrase jǔ rén 舉人 has undergone three stages of meanings shift, too. Initially, it meant talents recommended by states and hired by the court in the Han dynasty when the clear selection system had not been established. In Zhāngdìjì 章 帝紀 [The Annals of Emperor Zhang] in Hòuhànshū 後漢書 [The Book of Latter Han], it is recorded that “měi xún qián shì jǔ rén gòng shì, huò qǐ quăn mǔ, bù xì fá yuè. 每尋前世舉人貢士，或起甽畝，不繫閥閲.” (The intellectuals of the earlier times were promoted despite their humble origin outside hereditary houses.) Then, during the period between the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties, it referred to the talents recommended by different provinces to take imperial tests. In the poem “zǎosòng jǔrén rùshì 早送舉人入試” [Sending Locally Recommended Candidates to Take Imperial Examination] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “sù jià sòng jǔ rén, dōng fāng yóu wèi míng. 夙駕送舉人，東方猶未明.” (At dawn, the locally recommended candidates were bid farewell to take imperial examinations.) In Bai Juyi’s poem Bǎjiǔsīxiánshì 把酒思閑事 [Some Stupid Thoughts over Wine], it reads “qǐ qián jī kè miàn, luò dì jǔ rén xīn. 乞錢羈客 面，落第舉人心.” (Ashamed was the traveler who begged and the intellectual who failed the imperial exam.) It was not until the Ming and Qing dynasties that it was interpreted as a successful candidate in the imperial examinations at the provincial level, the common sense known in contemporary times. In chapter two of the novel Rúlínwàishǐ 儒林外史 [The Scholars] by Wu Jingzi 吴敬梓 of the Qing dynasty, it reads “nà wáng jǔ rén yě bù qiān ràng, cóng rén bǎi le yī tiáo dèng zi, jiù zài shàng shǒu zuò le. 那王舉人也不謙讓， 從人擺了一條凳子，就在上 首坐了.” (Juren 舉人 [lit. recommended man] Wang took the invitation without hesitation and sat on the stool offered by the servant.) The majority of disyllabic compounds with a single meaning became polysemous, with more senses than that in Middle Chinese. Some examples are given as follows.

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 157 The disyllabic compound kànglì 伉儷 only referred to wife in Old Chinese, as in Zhōuyǔzhōng 周語中 [The Discourse of Zhou Part II] of Guóyù 國語 [Discourses of The States], which reads “jīn chén hóu bù niàn yìn xù zhī cháng, qì qí kàng lì fēi pín, ér shuài qí qīng zuǒ yǐ yín yú xià shì. 今陳侯不念胤續之常， 棄其伉儷妃嬪，而率其卿佐以淫于夏氏.” (With no regard over the old days, Lord Chen abandoned his wife, leading his subordinates to wreak havoc on the Xia family.) In the seventh poem of the series Yǒngshǐ 詠史詩 [Poems on History] by Zuo Si 左思 of the Jin dynasty, one sentence goes “mǎi chén kùn cǎi qiáo, kàng lì bù ān zhái. 買臣困采樵，伉儷不安宅.” (Maichen made a living picking up firewood. Ashamed, his wife left him.) Zhang Xian 張銑 annotates that “kàng lì, wèi qī yě. 伉儷，謂妻也.” (Kàng lì 伉儷 refers to wife.) Later on, the word meant couple, and this sense has remained to the present day. In Sūnchǔzhuàn 孫楚傳 [The Biography of Sun Chu] of Jìnshū 晉書 [The Book of the Jin dynasty], it reads “chū, chǔ chú fù fú, zuò shī yǐ shì jì (wáng jì). Jì yuē; ‘wèi zhī wén shēng yú qíng, qíng shēng yú wén, lǎn zhī qī rán, zēng kàng lì zhī zhòng. 初， 楚除婦服， 作詩以示濟（王濟）. 濟曰： ‘未知文生於情，情生於文，覽之悽然，增伉 儷之重’.” (Back then, Chu took off his mourning clothes for his diseased wife and wrote a poem to Wang Ji. Upon reading, Wang Ji said, “I cannot say whether emotion breeds poem or vice versa. I just feel sad by your poem and honor the affection between the couple more”.) In Fàngwēng zhōngqíng qiánshì 放翁鍾情 前室 [Fangweng (art name of the poet Lu Yu 陆游) Misses His Ex Wife] of volume one in Qídōngyěyǔ 齊東野語 [Rustic Tales from Eastern Qi], it reads “kàng lì xiāng dé, ér fú huò yú qí gū. 伉儷相得， 而弗獲於其姑.” (The couple in love had to get divorced as the mother-in-law did not accept the daughter-in-law.) The disyllabic word guāilì 乖戾 referred to disharmony in Old Chinese, as in Tiānguānshū 天官書 [The Treatise on the Astrologer] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], which reads “sān néng sè qí, jūn chén hé, bù qí wéi guāi lì. 三能色齊， 君臣和，不齊爲乖戾.” (The three stars appear at the same time, indicating the harmony between the ruler and his officials, otherwise disharmony.) In Middle Chinese, it meant perverse behavior, a sense that has remained to the present. In the essay Shàngzǎixiàng qiú húzhōu dìyīqǐ 上宰相求湖州第一 啓 [First Request to Be Sent to Huzhou by Prime Minister] by Du Mu 杜牧 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “jí shì běn mò zhòng qīng, diān dǎo guāi lì, mò guō yú cǐ. 即是本末重輕，顛倒乖戾，莫過於此.” (This is nothing but putting the cart before the horse, reversing the natural order and being perverse.) The disyllabic compound word bēiwēi 卑微 meant in recession or decline in Old Chinese, as in the essay Guòqínlúnshàng 過秦論上 [Remarks on the Former Qin dynasty Part I] by Jia Yi 賈誼 of the Han dynasty, which reads “zhōu shì bēi wēi, wǔ bà jì mò, lìng bù xíng yú tiān xià. 周室卑微，五霸既殁，令不行於天下.” (The Zhou dynasty is weak and five war lords have been dead. Zhou’s commands no longer prevailed across the state.) In Tàishǐgōngzìxù 太史公自序 [Autobiography of The Grand Scribe] in Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian]. It reads “zhōu dé bēi wēi, zhàn guó jì jiāng, wèi yǐ xiǎo ruò, jiǎo dú hòu wáng. 周德卑 微，戰國既疆，衛以小弱，角獨後亡.” (The Zhou dynasty declined while the other states grew in strength. The weak Wei state was destroyed after the rebellion of the King Jiao.) In Middle Chinese, the word meant petty or low social status, as

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in Dádōngēwángshū 答東阿王書 [A Reply to Lord Dong E] by Wu Zhi 吴質 of the Kingdom Wei during the Three Kingdoms Period, which reads “fèng zhì zūn zhě, rán hòu zhī bǎi lǐ zhī bēi wēi yě. 奉至尊者，然後知百里之卑微也.” (From the petty social status to the Highest social reaches, one knows the hardships of the low social status.) In luòyùnbiǎn 落韻貶 (lit. An Unrhymed Poem of Irony) of Jiànjièlù 鑒誡録 [Book of Admonishment] by He Guangyuan 何光遠 of the later Shu Kingdom during the Five dynasties, which reads “tài zǔ chū shēn háng wǔ, lì zhí bēi wēi, wàn zhàn qiān zhēng, jiǔ shēng shí sǐ, fāng dé jié jū sì zhèn, wèi chù yī rén. 太祖出身行伍， 歷職卑微，萬戰千征，九生十死，方得節居四鎮， 位處一人.” (Born in a military family, Emperor Tai Zu was of low origin. After numerous battles and campaigns, life-and-death struggle, he conquered the state and took the throne.) The word xiānjìn 先進 means people who make progress and can be established as models in the Modern Chinese, but it was interpreted differently in Old and Middle Chinese. It meant people of former times in Old Chinese. In Xiānjìn 先進 [Earlier Development] in Lúnyù 論語 [Confucian Analects], it reads “xiān jìn yú lǐ yuè, yě rén yě; hòu jìn yú lǐ yuè, jūn zǐ yě. rú yòng zhī, zé wú cóng xiān jìn. 先 進於禮樂，野人也；後進于禮樂，君子也. 如用之，則吾從先進.” (The men of former times, in the matters of ceremonies and music, were rustics, it is said, while the men of these latter times, in ceremonies and music, are accomplished gentlemen.) and Zhu Xi’s annotation goes “xiān jìn hòu jìn, yóu yán qián bèi hòu bèi. 先進後進，猶言前輩後輩.” (Xiān jìn 先進 and hòu jìn 後進 is like the elder or younger generation.) The word also meant at first. In Xiāoyùzhuàn 蕭育傳 [The Biography of Xiao Yu] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Former Han], it reads “shǐ yù yǔ chén xián jù yǐ gōng qīng zǐ xiǎn míng, xián zuì xiān jìn, nián shí bā wéi zuǒ cáo, èr shí yú yù shǐ zhōng chéng. 始育與陳咸俱以 公卿子顯名，咸最 先進，年十八爲左曹，二十餘御史中丞.” (At the beginning Xiao Yu and Chen Xian both enjoyed a high reputation as scholars. Chen Xian was promoted faster, entered the court ministry at the age of 18 and was appointed censor-in-chief in his early twenties.) In Middle Chinese, the word meant to start off before others. In the essay Fèngzhì shìyuè wéiyùfù 奉制試樂爲御賦 [On Imperial Governance with Instituting Righteous Music] by Yuan Zhen 元稹 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “yú shì píng zào fù, mìng hòu kuí; huò wú shēng ér zhì yǐ, huò xiān jìn yǐ dǎo zhī. 於是屏造父，命後夔；或無聲而至矣，或先進以導之.” (Thereby keep horseman [Zaofu, a legendary horseman] at bay but give musicians full play. The most lofty music is silence; the advanced should lead.) The word xínglǐ 行李 meant envoy in Old Chinese, entirely different from its meaning in Middle and Modern Chinese. In Xīgōngsānshínián 僖公三十年 [The Year 30 in the Reign of Lord Xi (630 BCE)] in Zuǒzhuàn 左傳 [Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads “xíng lǐ zhī wǎng lái, gōng qí fá kùn. 行李之往來，共其乏困.” (The visiting envoys would be supplied with necessities.) Du Yu 杜預 annotates that “xíng lǐ, shǐ rén yě. 行李，使人也.” (Xínglǐ 行李 refers to envoy.) In the poem Hújiāshíbāpāi 胡茄十八拍 [Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute] by Cai Yan 蔡琰, it reads “zhuī sī wǎng rì xī xíng lǐ nán, liù pāi bēi lái xī yù bà tán. 追思往日兮行李難，六拍悲來兮欲罷彈.” (Back in old

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 159 days, how hard it was for an envoy to visit; too bitter to carry on in the middle of flute playing.) This sense was kept until the Middle Chinese period, when it was interpreted as luggage, which is the common sense at present. In Sòngshíchùshìxù 送石處士序 [Preface to Farewell to Master Shi] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “xiāo zé mù yù, jiè xíng lǐ, zài shū cè, xiàng dào suǒ yóu, gào xíng yú cháng suǒ lái wǎng. 宵則沐浴，戒行李，載書册，向道所由，告行於 常所來往.” (At night, he took a bath, got his luggage ready, loaded his books on the cart, after enquiring the route, he bid farewell to his friends.) In the poem Yánhuái 言懷 [An Outflow of My Thoughts] composed by Wang Yucheng 王禹偁 of the Song dynasty, it reads “què weì yóu shān zhì xíng lǐ. 却爲遊山置行李，漁家 船舫道家衣.” (For the mountain travel, I’ve got my luggage ready; for the ride across the river, I’ve put on the Taoist robe.) The word chóuchàng 惆悵 meant melancholy in Old Chinese. In Jiǔpián 九 辯 [Nine Changes] in Chǔcí 楚辭 [The Songs of Chu], it reads “kuò luò xī jī lǚ ér wú yǒu shēng, chóu chàng xī ér sī zì lián. 廓落兮羈旅而無友生，惆悵 兮而私自憐.” (Desolate: on his long journey he rests with never a friend; melancholy: he nurses a private sorrow.) It was annotated in Wuchenzhu 五臣注 [The Annotations by Five Scholars] that “chóu chàng, bēi āi yě. 惆悵，悲哀也.” (Chóuchàng 惆悵 refers to melancholy.) This sense is still in use at present. In middle times, the sense of easily or hastily evolved. In Chǒunǚyuánqǐ 醜女緣 起 [The Story of the Ugly Lady] of Dūnhuángbiànwénjí 敦煌變文集 [Collection of Buddhist Transformation Texts in Dunhuang Grotto], it is narrated that “dà wáng yòu xiàng chén xià dào: ‘qīng wéi chén xià wǒ wéi jūn, jīn rì shāng liáng zhǐ liǎng rén, zhāo mù (zhào mù) qiē xū kàn tīng (shěn) shěn, chóu chàng mò jiào (jiào) wài rén wén. 大王又向臣下道 ： ‘卿爲臣下我爲君，今日商量 只兩人，朝暮（召募）切須看聽（穩）審，惆悵莫交（教）外人聞’.” (The king said to his subordinates, “today the talk is just between you and me, the king and minister. Recruitment needs careful examination; do not leak the secret”.) In the song “Shísìshíwǔ shàngzhàncháng 十四十五上戰場” [On Battlefield at Fourteen] of Dūnhuáng duōsuǒ 敦煌掇瑣 [A Study of Dunhuang Manuscripts], it reads “zuó yè mǎ jīng jì duàn, chóu chàng wú rén zhē lán (lán). 昨夜馬驚髻 斷，惆悵無人遮爛（攔）.” (Last night, the horse had taken fright and bolted, and none would stop it easily.) The word qūnxún 逡巡 meant hesitated to move forward in ancient times. In Guōqínlúnshàng 過秦論上 [Remarks on the Former Qin dynasty Part I] by Jia Yi 賈誼 of the Han dynasty, it reads “qín rén kāi guān ér yán dí, jiǔ guó zhī shī, qūn xún (yī zuò ‘dùn táo’) ér bù gǎn jìn. 秦人開關而延敵，九國之師，遂巡（一作 ‘遁逃’）而不敢進.” (Qin opened their city gate to outsiders, but the armies of nine states hesitated to enter.) The word meant in a moment in Middle Chinese. In Yin Wenxiang 殷文祥 [Yin Wenxiang] of Xùxiānzhuàn 續仙傳 [Legends of Immortals] by Shen Fen 沈汾 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “měi zì zuì gē yuē: ‘jiěyùn qūn xún jiǔ, néng kāi qīng kè huā’. 每自醉歌曰 ： ‘解醖逡巡酒， 能 開頃刻花’.” (Every time he was drunk he would sing, “The moment the wind warms up, I would have a flower blossom”.) In Chūnrì dēngshàngyuán shítóu gùchéng 春日登上元石頭故城 [A Spring Tour to the Old Stone Town] by Luo

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Yin 羅隱 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “wàn lǐ shāng xīn jí mù chūn, dōng nán wáng qì zhī qūn xún. 萬里傷心極目春，東南王氣只逡巡.” (All I see is ruined scene in spring. Nothing I could do but sigh for the decayed prosperity of the capital city.) In the sutra “Fùmǔ ēnzhòngjing jiǎngjīngwén 父母恩重經講經文” [A Great Gratitude to Parents] of Dūnhuángbiànwénjí 敦煌變文集 [Collection of Buddhist Transformation Texts in Dunhuang Grotto], it reads “ruò shì yuān jiā tuō yīn lái, ā niáng shēn mìng qūn xún shī. 若是冤家托蔭來，阿娘身命逡巡失.” (If the baby comes to the world under the divine blessing, his mother is faced with grave instant danger.) The word xiǎngxiàng 想象 (想像) meant to imagine or to visualize in Old Chinese. In Yuǎnyóu 遠遊 [Far-Off Journay] of Chǔcí 楚辭 [The Songs of Chu], it reads “sī jiù gù yǐ xiǎng xiàng xī, cháng tài xī ér yǎn tì. 思舊故以想象兮，長太息 而掩涕.” (I pictured my dear ones in imagination; with a heavy sigh, I brushed the tears away.) Its meaning in Middle Chinese was as if. In the poem Huáinánduìxuě 淮南對雪 [Snow in Huainan] by Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “piāo piāo sì huāng wài, xiǎng xiàng qiān huā fā. 飄飄四荒外，想象千花發.” ([Snow] fluttering in the four wilderness, as if a thousand flowers.) In Yǒnghuáigǔjì 詠 懷古跡 [Singing My Feelings on Traces of the Past] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “cuì huá xiǎng xiàng kōng shān lǐ, yù diàn xū wú yě sì zhōng. 翠華想象空山裏，玉殿虚無野寺中.” (I envision the kingfisher insigniae within these deserted mountains, his marble palace hall lies illusory in a temple in the wilds.) Wang Zhu 王洙 annotates that “xiǎng xiàng, yóu fǎng fú. 想象，猶仿佛. (Xiǎngxiàng, similar to fǎngfú 仿佛, means as if or like.) In Jièwéiyán shuǐlián 界圍岩水簾 [Waterfall of Jie Wei Rock] by Liǔ Zōng yuán 柳宗元 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “dān xiá guàn qí diān, xiǎng xiàng líng xū yóu. 丹霞冠其巅，想 象凌虛遊.” (The rock top, glorious and brilliant, soars high into the heaven.) The word bóshì 博士 originally meant court academician from the Warring States Periods to the Qin and Han dynasties. In Xúnlìlièzhuàn 循吏列傳 [The Biographies of the Reasonable Officials] in Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it is narrated that “gōng yí xiū zhě, lǔ bó shì yě, yǐ gāo dì wéi xiāng lǔ. 公儀休者，魯博士也，以高第爲相魯.” (Gong Yixiu was an erudite of Lu. Because of his outstanding ability he was appointed prime minister.) The word meant to master in a certain area staring from the Tang dynasty. In Yìnchá 飲 茶 [Drinking Tea] in Fēngshìwénxiànjì 封氏聞見記 [Seeing and Hearing of Mr. Feng] by Feng Yan 封演 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “lǐ gōng xīn bǐ zhī, chá bì, mìng nú zǐ: “qǔ qián wǔ shí wén chóu bó shì. 李公心鄙之. 茶畢， 命奴 子： ‘取錢五十文酬博士’.” (With disdain, after tea, Lord Li ordered the servant, “Reward the master with 50 wen [a measure of money]”.) In Fēnchájiǔdiàn 分 茶酒店 [Pubs and Inns] in Mèngliánglù 夢粱録 [Records on Dreams of Millet; Records of Life in Hangzhou] by Wu Zimu 吴自牧 of the Song dynasty, it reads “fán fēn chá jiǔ sì, mài jiǔ shí pǐn chú zi, wèi zhī liáng jiǔ bó shì. 凡分茶酒肆 、 賣酒食品廚子，謂之量酒博士.” (Those who run teahouses, pubs and inns are called bóshì.) In volume ten of Jìngkāngyàolù 靖康要録 [Main Records from the Jing Kang Reign], written by an anonymous writer, it reads “yǒu nán jiàn zhōu tōng pàn cài zhuō zhě, xī jū xiāng wéi mù jiàng, jīn nán rén yǐ ‘tōng pàn bó shì’

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 161 hū zhī, gài qí qǔ wǔ duō yǐ. 有南劍州通判蔡淖者，昔居鄉爲木匠，今劍南人 以 ‘通判博士’ 呼之，蓋其取侮多矣.” (Cai Zhuo, controller -general in South Jianzhou county, once was a carpenter in his homeland. His fellow countrymen called him master controller teashingly.) In Modern Chinese, however, the word means the academic degree PhD. The disyllabic word yīnxún 因循 meant to continue in the same old rut in Old Chinese, as in “Tàishǐgōngzìxù 太史公自序” [Postface and Autobiography of the Grand Scribe] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads “qí (zhǐ dào jiā) shù yǐ xū wú wéi běn, yǐ yīn xún wéi yòng. 其（指道家）術以 虚無爲 本，以因循爲用.” (The Taoist School took emptiness as base and to follow as a guide in practice.) In middle times, the word meant indiscreet or careless, as in the text of Zhuō jìbù chuánwén 捉季布傳文 [Catching Ji Bu] of Dūnhuángbiànwénjí 敦煌變文集 [Collection of Buddhist Transformation Texts in Dunhuang Grotto], it reads “pú yáng zhī rì wéi yīn xún, yòng què bǎi jīn máng mǎi dé, bù céng zǐ xì wèn gēn yóu. 濮陽之日爲因循，用却百金忙買 得，不曾子細問根由.” (Back then in Puyang I bought you with a hundred gold out of convenience without inquiring of your true identity.) In the essay Zàilún ànchá guānlì zhuàng 再論按察官吏狀 [A Second Sue on Inspecting Officials] by Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修, it reads “jīn ruò jiàn guó jiā zé shí qiú zhì, zhú yī rén rén jīng bié, zé zhōng cái zhī rén jiē zì miǎn qiǎng, bù gǎn yīn xún. 今若見國家 責實求治，逐一人人精别，則中材之人皆自勉强，不敢因循.” (If the state is committed to governance and strict in talent selection, ordinary man would be self-motivated rather than behaving recklessly.) The word could be written as yīnxún 因巡. In Xiángmóbiànwén 降魔變文 [Conquering the Demons written in Bian-Wen] in Dūnhuángbiànwénjí 敦煌變文集 [Collection of Buddhist Transformation Texts in Dunhuang Grotto], it reads “qīng xū jìn zhōng cún jié, bù dé yīn xún yì zhì. 卿須盡忠存節，不得因巡易志.” (You must remain loyal rather than giving up your aspiration indiscreetly.) In the idiom of yīnxúnshǒujiù 因循 守舊 (to continue in the same old rut) in Modern Chinese, the sense of to follow was retained, while the sense of discreet has been lost. Shìgù 事故 meant affair in both old and middle times. In Xiǎoxíngrén 小行人 [Officer of Protocols] of Qiūguān 秋官 [Offices of the Autumn] in Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rites of Zhou], it reads “fán cǐ wǔ wù zhě, zhì qí shì gù. 凡此五物者，治 其事故.” (The five affairs are all in the range of governance.) In the poem Duìjiǔ quànlìnggōng kāichūn yóuyàn 對酒勸令公開春遊宴 [A Toast on a Spring Feast] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “zì qù nián lái duō shì gù, cóng jīn rì qù shǎo jiāo qīn. 自去年來多事故，從今日去少交親.” (Too engaged with affairs last year, I would cut contacts with friends until now.) In middle times, the word meant accident, losses, or disasters. In Xíngfǎzhì 刑法志 [Penal Law] in Jìnshū 晉書 [The Book of the Jin dynasty], it reads, “zì yuán kāng yǐ lái, shì gù jiàn zhēn, fǎ jìn zī màn. 自元康已來，事故薦臻，法禁滋漫.” (Since the Reign Yuankang, accidents grew in number and violations happened frequently.) In the text Shàng zhāngpú yè shū 上張僕射書 [A Letter to Governer Zhang] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “fēi yǒu jí bìng shì gù, zhé bù xǔ chū. 非 有疾病事故，輒不許出.” (None is allowed to go out except due to illness or

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emergency.) In Modern Chinese, the senses from ancient times have been lost, but those from middle times have been kept. In some words, two new meanings of one word emerged in middle times. Some examples are given as follows. Shìshí 事實 meant fact or actual phenomenon in ancient times, as in the text Cúnhán 存韓 [On The Preservation of Han] in Hánfēizǐ 韓非子 [The Works of Han Feizi], which reads “tīng jiān chén zhī fú shuō, bù quán shì shí. 聽奸臣之 浮説，不權事實.” (The flippant remarks of the wicked ministers are taken seriously with the actual conditions unobserved.) Two meanings evolved in middle times: (1) deed, as in Ōuyángshēngāicí 歐陽生哀辭 [A Mourning for Ouyang’s Talent] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “shì shí jì xiū xī, míng yù yòu guāng . . . mìng suī yún duǎn xī, qí cún zhě cháng. 事實既修兮，名譽又 光. . . 命雖云短兮，其存者長.” (Your have earned you a high fame . . . Despite your short life, you will be remembered.) (2) Being pragmatic, as in Shěnzǐlínzhuà 沈子林傳 [The Biography of Shen Zilin] in Sòngshū 宋書 [The Book of the Song dynasty], which reads “guó yuān yǐ shì shí jiàn shǎng, wèi shàng yǐ yíng jí shòu fá. 國淵以事實見賞，魏尚以盈級受罰.” (Guo Yuan was rewarded for being true to fact, while Wei Shang was punished due to his exaggeration on work.) In Yǔyúxiāngyángshū 與于襄陽書 [A Letter to Provincial Governor Yu of Xiangyang] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “cè wén gé xià bào bù shì zhī cái, tè lì ér dú xíng, dào fāng ér shì shí. 側聞閤下抱不世之才，特立而獨行，道 方而事實.” (I have heard that you have rare talent, act independently, observing laws and respecting facts.) The two senses used in middle times have been lost in Modern Chinese. The word zhēnzhòng 珍重 meant to treasure or to take care of in ancient times. In the preface of Yuǎnyóu 遠遊 [Wandering Far Away] in Chǔcí 楚辭 [The Songs of Chu] or [Poetry of the South], it reads “shì yǐ jūn zǐ zhēn zhòng qí zhì ér wěi qí cí yān. 是以君子珍重其志 而瑋其辭焉.” (Therefore gentlemen treasure their souls as well as their remarks.) In Yīngyīngzhuàn 鶯鶯傳 [The Tale of Ying Ying] by Yuan Zhen 元稹 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “lín zhǐ wū yān, qíng bù néng shēn, qiān wàn zhēn zhòng, zhēn zhòng qiān wàn. 臨紙嗚咽，情不能 申，千萬珍重，珍重千萬.” (While penning, I could not help weeping. Unable to express my feelings fully, I give you my very best wishes and regards.) In Yěrénxiánhuà 野人閒話 [Casual Talks of Country Men] of Tàipíngguǎngjì 太 平廣記 [Extensive Records of the Taiping Era], it reads “(zūn shī) yuē, ‘zhēn zhòng, shàn wéi bǎo ài!’ yán qì ér qù, chū mén bù zhī suǒ zhī. 〔尊師 〕曰： ‘珍重，善爲保愛！’ 言訖而去，出門不知所之.” (The sage answered, “Take good care of yourself ”. After that, he left with no one knowing where he went.) The sense has been used to present times. In middle times, two more senses evolved: (1) sincere thanks, as in the poem Liúfùmǎ shuǐtíng bìshǔ 劉附馬水亭 避暑 [Emperor’s Son-in-Law Escaping Summer Heat in Waterside Pavilion] by Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “jìn rì xiāo yáo bì fán shǔ, zài sān zhēn zhòng zhǔ rén wēng. 盡日逍遥避煩暑，再三珍重主人翁.” (I spend days in leisure, avoiding the summer heat. Master, thank you for receiving me again.) In Déjīngzhōngqìngyǒushū yǐshīdàixiè 得京中親友書以詩代謝 [A Poem

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 163 Gratitude in Reply to Friend’s Letter] by Wu Rong 吴融 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “zhēn zhòng gù rén zhī wǒ zhě, jiǔ xiāo xiū fù jì yīn huī. 珍重故人知我 者，九宵休復寄音徽.” (Sincere thanks go to the old friend who knows me and sends me a letter from afar.) (2) Fortunately or out of luck, as in the first poem of the series of Tuìjūmàntíshī 退居漫題七首诗 [Seven Poems Written after Retirement] by Sikong Tu 司空圖 of the Tang dynasty, where it is written that “xī chūn chūn yǐ wǎn, zhēn zhòng cǎo qīng qīng. 惜春春已晚，珍重草青青.” (Spring is not appreciated until its departure. Treasure the greenness at its prime time). In Cìyùn liúxiùcái zǎoméishī 次韻劉秀才早梅詩 [A Response to Scholar Liu’s Poem on Early Plum Blossom] by Zhu Xi 朱熹 in the Song dynasty, it reads “bù ài hóng fāng ài sù fāng, duō qíng zhēn zhòng lǎo liú láng. 不愛紅芳愛素芳，多 情珍重老劉郎.” (Not fond of red plum blossoms but white ones, Old Liu is one of affection.) In the poem Cháozhōngcuò 朝中措 [a tune of song lyric (remarks on court)] by Fan Chengda 范成大 of the Song dynasty, it reads “zhēn zhòng xī fēng qū shǔ, qīng shān zǎo qiè qiū liáng. 珍重西風祛暑，輕衫早怯秋涼.” (Thanks to the west wind removing the summer heat, I now feel the autumn cool in my light clothes.) Huīhuò 揮霍 meant agility in ancient times, as in Xījīngfù 西京賦 [Rhapsody of the Western Capital] by Zhang Heng 張衡 of the Han dynasty, which reads “tiào wán jiàn zhī huī huò, zǒu suǒ shàng ér xiāng féng. 跳丸劍之揮霍，走索上 而相逢.” (The players demonstrated their agility and skills in performing sword and cable juggling.) In Wénfù 文賦 [Literary Endowment] by Lu Ji 陸機 of the Jin dynasty, it reads “fēn yún huī huò, xíng nán wéi zhuàng. 紛紜揮霍，形難 爲狀.” (Things are endless and agile to change, and hence it is hard to depict the exact shape pf them.) Li Shan 李善 annotates that huīhuò is used to describe a rapid move. In Middle Chinese, two meanings emerged: (1) in haste, which remains in Modern Chinese. In Yùtáng xiánhuà 玉堂閒話 [Table Talk from the Hanlin Academy] quoted in Tàipíngguǎngjì 太平廣記 [Extensive Records of the Taiping Era], it reads “qí xióng ér yǒu háo zhě, wén rén quǎn zhī shēng, zé shě qún ér cuàn. pāo yī shù zhī, jiē yī shù zhī, qù zhī rú fēi, huò yú fán kē rǎng yè zhī nèi cáng yǐn zhī, shēn zì zhī róng hǎo, liè zhě bì qǔ zhī. qí cí yǔ nú, zé huǎn huǎn xuán shí ér fù qí shù, shū bù huī huò, zhī rén bù qǔ zhī. 其雄而有毫者，聞人犬 之聲，則捨群而竄. 拋一樹枝，接一樹枝，去之如飛，或于繁柯禳葉之内 藏隱之，身自知茸好，獵者必取之. 其雌與奴，則緩緩旋食 而傅其樹，殊 不揮霍，知人不取之.” (At the sound of hounds, the strong, furry male beasts would flee in terror, hiding themselves among the leaves and branches, knowing well that the hunters would pursue them for their fur. The female ones would loaf around slowly in the woods, knowing that the hunters had no interest in them.) In Sun Guangxian’s Běimèngsuǒyán 北夢瑣言 [Trivial Tales from the North of Meng] quoted in Tàipíngguǎngjì 太平廣記 [Extensive Records of the Taiping Era], it reads “táng huáng cháo zhī luàn, yǒu cháo shì péi mǒu, qiè qī zi nán qū hàn zhōng, cái fā jīng dū, qí shì nǚ bào wáng. bīng xióng huī huò, bù xiá zàng yì. 唐 黄巢之亂，有朝士裴某，挈妻子南趨漢中，纔發京都，其室女暴亡. 兵雄 揮霍，不暇葬瘗.” (During the rebellion of Huang Chao in the Tang dynasty, an official surnamed Chao was ready to flee to Hanzhong with his wife and daughter.

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But at the moment of leaving the capital, his wife and daughter died suddenly. As the armies were about to slaughter the capital, he had no time to bury them.) (2) Squandering money, as in Tángguóshǐbǔ 唐國史補 [Appendix to the History of Tang] by Li Zhao 李肇 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “huì dōng zhì, (zhào) xū jiā zhì yàn huīhuò. 會冬至，〔趙〕需家致宴揮霍.” (In the Day of Winter Solstice, the Zhao Family held a luxuriant banquet to celebrate.) In Modern Chinese, the ancient sense of rapidly and the medieval sense of hastily have disappeared completely, while the sense of squandering money has remained. Shēnghuó 生活 meant to live in ancient times. In Jìnxīnshàng 盡心上 in Mèng zǐ 孟子 [Works of Mencius], one sentence goes “mín fēi shuǐ huǒ bù shēng huó. 民非水火不生活.” (The people cannot live without water and fire.) In Jiāosìzhì 郊祀志 [The Treatise of Sacrifices] of Hànshū 漢書 [The Book of Former Han], it reads “jì zhě, bǎi gǔ zhī zhǔ, rén suǒ shí yǐ shēng huó yě. 稷者， 百穀之主，. . . 人所食以生活也.” (Millet is the master of a hundred grains. . . . It is what people eat to live.) Four new meanings emerged in Middle Times: (1) living conditions, as in Línchuān jìnghuìwáng lóng zhuàn 臨川静惠王寵傳 [The Biographies of Lord Jinghui, Wang Long] of Nánshǐ 南史 [The History of the Southern dynasties], which reads “dì wèi yuē: ‘ā liù, rǔ shēng huó dà kě’. 帝謂曰 ： ‘阿六，汝 生活大可’.” (The emperor said, “Ah Liu, you have managed a decent life”.) In Suǒlǔzhuàn 索虜傳 [The Biographies of Minority Peoples] in Sòngshū 宋書 [The Book of the Song dynasty], it reads “bǐ nián yǐ wǔ shí, wèi cháng chū hù, suī zì lì ér lái, rú sān suì yīng ér, fù hé zhī wǒ xiān bēi cháng mǎ bèi zhōng lǐng shàng shēng huó. 彼年已五十， 未嘗出户，雖自力而來，如三歲嬰兒，復何知我 鮮卑常馬背中領上生活.” (You are already over 50 and have never been in the battlefield. Now you venture a war, yet you are as weak as a three-year-old. How could you beat us Xianbei people who have been living a life on horseback?) In the poem Fèngchóu xíměi xiānbèi wúzhōng kǔyǔ yìbǎiyùn 奉酬襲美先輩吴中 苦雨一百韻 (A 100-Line Poem on Bitter Rain of Wuzhong in Response to Ximei [art name of the poet Pi Rixiu 皮日休 ]) by Lu Guimeng 陸龜蒙 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “suǒ tān jì rén yí, qǐ xiá lǐ shēng huó. zòng yǒu jiù tián yuán, pāo lái yì wú méi. 所貪既仁義，豈暇理生活. 縱有舊田園，抛來亦蕪 没.” (Since we desire benevolence and righteousness, we have no time on trivial matters of life. The old homeland could be deserted in the wildness.) (2) Make a living, as in Shǎngyù 賞譽 [Appreciation and Praise] of Shìshuōxīnyǔ 世説新 語 [A New Account of Tales of the World] by Liu Yiqing 劉義慶 of the Southern Song dynasty, which reads “zhū jiāng (jiāng bīn xiōng dì) jiē fù zú zì shēng huó. 諸江（江虨兄弟）皆復足自生活.” (Wang replied, “The Chiang brothers all live a sufficient, independent life”.) In Húsǒuzhuàn 胡叟傳 [The Biographies of Hu Sou] of Wèishū 魏書 [The Book of the Wei dynasty], it reads “wǒ cǐ shēng huó, sì shèng jiāo xiān. 我此生活，似勝焦先.” (My life is better than Jiao Xian of the Han dynasty.) (3) Growing, as in the essay Jì chénghuángshén qíyǔwén zhī èr 祭城隍神祈雨文之二 [A Sequel to Prayer to Rain God] by Du Mu 杜牧 of the Tang dynasty, where it is written that “jū jué qí gēn yǐ, miáo qù qí xiù yǐ, bù qīn bù dù, shēng huó zì rú. 疽抉其根矣，苗去其秀矣，不侵不蠹，生活自如.” (Gangrene must be rooted out; weed must be removed; be neither a bully nor a

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 165 parasite; live a free, comfortable life.) (4) A blessing or a promising future, as in Xiùshīyánjì 秀師言記 [Records of Master Shenxiu] by an anonymous author of the Tang dynasty, which reads “cuī yuē: ‘wǒ nǚ zòng bó mìng sǐ, qiě hé néng jià yǔ tián shè lǎo wēng zuò fù’. lǐ yuē: ‘bǐ zhāo jūn chū chán yú, yóu shì shēng huó’. èr rén xiāng gù dà xiào. 崔曰： ‘我女縱薄命死，且何能嫁與田舍老翁作 婦’.” 李曰： ‘比昭君出單于，猶是生活.’ 二人相顧大笑.” (Cui said, “Even if my daughter dies early, she couldn’t possibly marry an old farmer.” Li answered, “Lady Zhaojun married a chieftain – that is also a life.”) In the poem Chūnxiǎo 春曉 [Spring Dawn] by Yang Wanli 楊萬里 of the Song dynasty, it reads “yī nián shēng huó shì sān chūn, èr yuè chūn guāng jǐn shí fēn. 一年生活是三春，二月春 光儘十分.” (Spring is the prime time of a year; the Second Month [about March of today] is the prime time of Spring.) In Modern Chinese, the first and second sense remain; the third and fourth went extinct. Réncái 人才, also written as 人材, meant one’s talent in Old Chinese, as in Lèihài 累害 [Annoyances and Vexations] of Lúnhéng 論衡 [Discussive Weighing] by Wang Chong 王充 of the Han dynasty, which reads “rén cái gāo xià, bù néng jūn tóng. 人才高下，不能均同.” (Talents are of various levels, and cannot be weighed by the same standard.) In Tàizú 泰族 [The Exalted Lineage] in Huáinánzǐ 淮南子 [From the Works of Master Huainan], it reads “gù rén zhì, rén cái zhī měi zhě yě. 故仁智，人材之美者也.” (Thus, humaneness and wisdom are the splendid aspects of human talent.) Two new senses emerged in medieval times: (1) talented or outstanding person, as in Yìmín 逸民 [The Rusticating People] in Bàopǔzǐ 抱朴子 [Master Embracing Simplicity], written by Ge Hong 葛洪 of the Jin dynasty, which reads “bāo xián guì dé, lè yù rén cái. 褒賢貴德，樂育人才.” (Praise the outstanding and value the virtuous; glad to cultivate talents.) In Wénxuézhuànlún 文學傳論 [Annotated Biographies of Men of Letters] of Nánqíshū 南齊書 [The Book of the Southern Qi dynasty], it is written that “ruò zǐ héng (cáo pī) zhī pǐn zǎo rén cái. 若子恒 （曹丕） 之品藻人才.” (Like the talents of Cao Pi [Ziheng].) In Shàng rénzōng huángdì yánshìshū 上仁宗皇帝言事書 [Petition Presented to Emperor Renzong] by Wang Anshi 王安石 of the Song dynasty, it reads “zé tiān xià zhī rén cái, bù shèng yòng yǐ. 則天下之人才，不勝 用矣.” (The talents across the country could put their talents into full play.) (2) A person’s appearance, as in volume 17 of Běimèngsuǒyán 北夢瑣言 [Trivial Tales from the North of Meng] by Sun Guangxian 孫光憲, where it is recorded that “kǎi rén cái qǐn lòu, jiān wú dé xíng. 楷人才寢陋， 兼無德行.” ([Su] Kai was rather ugly and had no virtues.) In Modern Chinese, the three senses in ancient and medieval times have all survived. Shāngxīn 傷心 meant in pain due to misfortunes or unpleasant affairs in ancient times. In Jiǔgào 酒誥 [Announcement about Drunkenness] in Shū 書 [The Book of Documents], one sentence goes “mín wǎng bù xì shāng xīn. 民罔 不衋傷心.” (Among the people there were none who did not suffer and were not pained in their hearts.) In Bào rèn ān shū 報任安書 [Letters to Official Ren] by Sima Qian 司馬遷 of the Han dynasty, it reads “gù huò mò cǎn (cǎn) yú yù lì, bēi mò tòng yú shāng xīn” 故禍莫憯（慘）於欲利，悲莫痛於傷心. (Hence, there were no worse misfortune than from the pursuit for profits and no greater

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pain than heart-brokenness.) Two new meanings emerged in medieval times: (1) joy, as in Yóuxiānkū 遊仙窟 [A Tour to Deities’ Cave (fig. have sexual pleasure)], written by Zhang Zhuo 張鷟 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “yī chī yī kuài yì, yī lè yī shāng xīn. 一喫一快意，一勒一傷心.” (Kissing is so pleasing; throbbing is so sensational.) (2) To such an extent, as in the poem Púsàmán 菩薩蠻 [A Tune of Song Lyric] by Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “píng lín mò mò yān rú zhì, Han Shan yī dài shāng xīn bì. 平林漠漠煙如織，寒山 一帶傷心碧.” (The twilight smoke shrouded in mist over the stretched trees in the distance, and the areas of green-blue mountains were extremely deep.) In the poem Téngwángtíngzi 滕王亭子 [The Pavilion of the Prince of Teng] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “qīng jiāng jǐn shí shāng xīn lì, nèn ruǐ nóng huā mǎn mù bān. 清江錦石傷心麗，嫩蕊濃花滿目斑.” (The clear river’s brocade stones are heartbreakingly gorgeous, the tender stamens of deep-hued flowers fill the eyes, dazzling.) In Modern Chinese, the sense of joy has gone extinct completely while the other two senses still remain. The word shāngxīn 傷 心 is usually used as a complement in a sentence; for example, kū dé shāng xīn 哭 得傷心 means to cry bitterly. Less frequently, three (or more) new meanings of one polysyllabic word emerged in medieval times. Some examples are given as follows. The disyllabic word cēncī 參差 meant being irregular in a certain aspect in Old Chinese. In Guānjū 關雎 [Ts’ü-Kiu Bird] of Zhōunán 周南 [The Odes of Chow and the South] in Shī 詩 [The Book of Songs], it reads “cēn cī xìng cài, zuǒ yòu liú zhī. 參差荇菜，左右流之.” (Of varying length is the hing waterplant, to the left and the right we catch it.) In Qiūshuǐ 秋水 [Autumn Floods] in Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], one sentence goes “wú yī ér xíng, yǔ dào cēn cī. 無一而行，與道參差.” (Do not strive to unify your actions, or you will be at sixes and sevens with the Way!) It had six new meanings in Middle Chinese period, but none of them is kept in use today. (1) Complication, as in the poem Chóuwángjìn’ān 酬王晉安 [Rewarding Wang Jin’an] by Xie Tiao 謝朓 of the Southern dynasties, which reads “chàng wàng yī tú zǔ, cēn cī bǎi lǜ yī. 悵望 一塗阻，參差百慮依.” (With melancholy, I worry about my uncertain future; with trepidation, I have numerous worries.) In the essay Ēfánggōngfù 阿房宫賦 [On the Ah Fang Palace] by Du Mu 杜牧 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “wǎ fèng cēn cī, duō yú zhōu shēn zhī bó lǚ. 瓦縫參差，多於周身之帛縷.” (The uneven rows of tiles outnumbers the silk threads in the attires.) (2) Wasting time; miss (a chance), as in Sòng liángsì guī dōngpíng 送梁四歸東平 [Farewell to Liang Back to Dongping [Liang Ding was the fourth son in his family and was therefore called Liang Si 梁四 ]) by Li Bai 李白 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “mò xué dōng shān wò, cēn cī lǎo xiè ān. 莫學東山卧，參差老謝安.” (Do not learn from Xie An, who lived as a recluse in the Eastern Mountain and wasted his life.) In the poem Zì ràngxī jīngfēi yíjū dōngtún cǎowū 自瀼西荆扉移居東屯草屋 [From My Briarwood Door at Rangxi Temporarily Moving to a Thatched Cottage at East Camp] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “láo luò xī jiāng wài, cēn cī běi hù jiān, jiǔ yóu bā zǐ guó, wò bìng chǔ rén shān. 牢落西江外，參差北 户間，久遊巴子國，卧病楚人山.” (Dreary here beyond West River, not quite

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 167 even, my north-facing door. Long I have roamed the lodgings of Ba; I have lain sick in the mountains of Chu folk.) In Yúnxīyǒuyì 雲溪友議 [Writings by Yunxi] (volume eight) by Fan Shu 范攄 of the Tang dynasty, it is recounted that “zài shì, tuì jiě tóu sòngyán wéi dì liùshíwǔ rén, zhī wén lái yàn, sòng yuē ： ‘lái chūn zhī shì, gān yǐ cēncī ’ lǐbō shěrén fàngbǎng, yǐ yán wéi dìsì rén jídì, yán gǎn ēn shēn, shí wéi wàng wài yě. 再試，退解頭宋言爲第六十五人，知聞來唁，宋曰： ‘來春之事，甘已參差.’ 李播舍人放榜，以言爲第四人及第，言感恩深，實 爲望外也.” (In the second exam, Song Yan was demoted from the 1st place to the 65th place. Some came to comfort him, and he answered that it was just a miss that would be made up next spring. When the recruitment list was opened, Song Yan won the fourth place. He was very grateful and extremely happy.) (3) Almost; similarly, as in the fifth volume of Cháoyěqiānzài 朝野僉載 [The Sui dynasty and Tang dynasty Government Rumors] by Zhang Zhou 張鷟 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “cǐ chù yóu kě, ruò duì zhì jūn qián, gōng zuò rú cǐ shì, cēn cī kǎn què nǐ tóu. 此處猶可， 若對至君前，公作如此事，參差砍却你頭.” (It is OK that you do such thing here. However, if you are to be reported to the lord, you will well nigh be beheaded.) In the poem Chánghèngē 長恨歌 [The Song of Everlasting Regret] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “zhōng yǒu yī rén zì tài zhēn, xuě fū huā mào cēn cī shì. 中有一人字太真，雪膚花貌參差是.” (Among them was the one named Taizhen. Same flowery face and silky skin were reborn again.) In Shuǐlóngyín 水龍吟 [A Tune of Song Lyric (Song of Dragon)] by Xin Qiji 辛棄疾 of the Song dynasty, one sentence goes “lǎo lái céng shí yuān míng, mèng zhōng yī jiàn cēn cī shì. 老來曾識淵明，夢中一見參差是.” (At my elder age, I have followed Tao Yuanming; in my dream I saw a man like him.) (4) Error, as in the poem Dàijiǔjiǔ 代九九 [A Song for Maid Jiujiu] by Yuan Zhen 元 稹 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “měi cháng tóng zuò wò, bù gǎn zàn cēn cī. 每常同坐卧，不敢暫參差.” (Every time I sat with him, I behaved myself, fearful of any error.) (5) Blocking; in great distance, as in Yǔ zhījùn zhífāng shū 與 知郡職方書 [A Letter to Prefecture Administrator] by Fan Zhongyan 范仲淹 of the Song dynasty, which reads “fèng yōu zhī shì, gōng bì xī zhī, qí rú cēn cī, wú yǐ wéi lì, nài hé nài hé. 奉憂之事，公必悉之，其如參差，無以爲力，奈何奈 何！” (Please allow me to pay mournful duty for my deceased parent. If it is not allowed, I really cannot do anything about it.) (According to Confucian tradition, a court official needed to spend three years mourning for his deceased parents in Ancient China.) (6) Instantly or immediately, as in the poem Wényàn 聞雁 [The Honking of Home-Bound Geese] by Dù Mù 杜牧 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “guī mèng dàng shí duàn, cēn cī yù dào jiā. 歸夢當時斷，參差欲到家.” (My dream to return home had been broken at that time; how I wish to go back home immediately.) In the third poem of the series of Gǔsàiqǔ 古塞曲 [Songs of Ancient Fortress] by Guan Xiu 貫休 of the Former Shu dynasty, it reads “bǎi wàn jīng bīng dòng, cēn cī biàn dù liáo. 百萬精兵動，參差便渡遼.” (Millions of valiant troops moved, crossing the border to Liao in an instant.) Rénwù 人物 referred to people and things in Old Chinese, as in Gēngsāngchǔ 庚桑楚 [Gengsang Chu, a disciple of Taoism] in Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], which reads “fū zhì rén zhě, xiāng yǔ jiāoshí hū dì ér jiāolè hū tiān,

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bù yǐ rénwù lìhài xiāng yīng, bù xiāngyǔ wéiguài, bù xiāngyǔ wéimóu. 夫至人 者，相與交食乎地而交樂乎天，不以人物厲害相攖，不相與爲怪，不相與 爲謀.” (The perfect man joins with others in seeking his food from the earth, his pleasures in Heaven. But he does not become embroiled with them in questions of people and things, profit, and loss. He does not join them in their shady doings; he does not join them in their plots.) The word also referred to people, especially the talented or famed. In Huòzhílièzhuàn 貨殖列傳 [The Biographies of Money-Makers] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], one sentence goes “zé rén wù guī zhī. 則人物歸之.” (As a result, men and goods were reeled into the state like skeins of thread.) In Dìwǔlúnzhuàn 第五倫傳 [The Biography of Di Wulun] of Dōngguàntānjì 東觀漢記 [An Alternative History of the Later Han Period], it is narrated that “lún miǎnguān guī tián lǐ, bù jiāotōng rén wù. 倫免官歸田里，不交通人物.” (Removed from his office, Lun went back to his homeland, associating with no one.) Three new meanings emerged during the Middle Chinese period: (1) one’s character, talents, or aspiration, as in the appendix to Tángguóshǐ 唐國史補 [The History of Tang] by Li Zhao 李肇 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “zhēnyuán zhōng, yángshì, mùshì xiōngdì rénwù qìgài bùxiāng shàngxià. 貞元中，楊氏、穆氏兄弟人物氣概不相上下.” (During the Zhenyuan Reign [785–805 CE], the Yang brothers and the Mu brother are quite similar to one another in personalities and talents.) In Táng gù tōngyí dàfū hézhōu cìshǐ wújùn zhānggōng shéndào beaming xù 唐故通儀大夫和州刺史吴 郡張公神道碑銘序 [Preface to Stele Inscriptions for the Late Lord Zhang, Grand Master, Official of Hezhou Region and Prefecture Wujun] by Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it is written that “huò yǐ rén wù zhù, huò yǐ hūn fá chēng. 或 以人物著，或以閽閥稱.” (Some gained reputation by talents, some by noble lineage.) In Jìshī 記詩 [Collection of Poetry] of Nénggǎizhāi mànlù 能改齋漫 録 [Loose Records from the Studio Nenggai (Room for Improvement)] by Wu Zeng 吴曾 of the Song dynasty, it reads “gāo xiù shí mào huā, rén wù gāo yuǎn, yǒu chū chén zhī zī. 高秀實茂華，人物高遠，有出塵之資.” (Gao Xiushi, alias Maohua, is noble in character and extraordinary in talent.) (2) One’s appearance or demeanor, as in the fifth volume of Běimèngsuǒyán 北夢瑣言 [Trivial Tales from the North of Meng] by Sun Guangxian 孫光憲 of the Song dynasty, where it is recounted that “lú suī rénwù shèn lòu, guān qí wénzhāng yǒu shǒuwěi, sīrén yě, yǐ shì bǔ zhī, tārì bì wéi dàyòng hū. 盧雖人物甚陋，觀其文章有首尾. 斯人 也，以是卜之，他日必爲大用乎.” (Lu, though ugly in appearance, was articulate in writing and would make a great talent in the future.) It is also recorded that “Jiang Ning shìláng yì yǒu rénwù, měi dào cháo shì jiā, rén yǐ wéi xiáng ruì. 蔣凝侍郎亦有人物，每到朝士家，人以爲祥瑞.” (Shilang 侍郎 [gentleman in attendance] Jiang Ning is also outstanding in demeanor and welcomed as a blessing every time he visits other officials.) (3) To comment on people or affairs, as in Wǔ dìjì 武帝紀 [Annals of Emperor Wu] of Wèishū 魏書 [The Book of Wei] in Sānguózhì 三國志 [Records of Three Kingdoms], where Pei Songzhi 裴松之 quoted Sima Biao’s Xùhànshū 續漢書 [A Complement to the Book of the Later Han] that “xuán (qiáo xuán) zì gōngzǔ, yánmíng yǒu cáilüè, zhǎng yú rénwù. 玄（橋玄）字公祖，嚴明有才略，長於人物.” (Xuan [Qiao Xuan],

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 169 alias Gongzu, is impartial, farsighted, perceptive in recognizing talents.) (4) Chinese figure paintings, as in Zǐyóu xīnxiū rǔzhōu lóngxìngsì wúhuàbì 子由新修汝 州龍興寺吴畫壁 [On Ziyou Renovating the Wall of Master Wu’s Paintings in Longxing Temple of Ruzhou] by Su Shi 蘇軾 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “dān qīng jiǔ shuāi gōng bù yì, rén wù yóu nán dào jīn shì. 丹青久衰工不藝，人 物尤難到今世.” (The paintings have long lost their colors, the lines getting fuzzy, the figures barely surviving to the present.) In Modern Chinese, the two senses of the talented or famed people and Chinese figure paintings remain in use, while the other senses have disappeared. Zhǔzhāng 主 張 meant to dominate in Old Chinese. In Tiānyùn 天運 [The Turning of Heaven] of Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 [Works of Zhuangzi], it reads “tiān qí yùn hū? dì qí chǔ hū? rì yuè qí zhēng yú suǒ hū? shú zhǔ zhāng shì? shú gāng wéi shì. 天其 運乎？地其處乎？日月其争於所乎？孰主張是？孰綱維是？” (Does heaven turn? Does the earth sit still? Do sun and moon compete for a place to shine? Who masterminds all this? Who pulls the strings?) Four new meanings emerged during Middle Chinese period: (1) viewpoint, as in the essay Sòngqióngwén 送窮文 [Sending off Poverty] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, which reads “gè yǒu zhǔ zhāng, sī lì míng zì. 各有主張，私立名字.” (Each one has his own opinion and his own name.) (2) To advocate, as in Bálǐhànlínchāngwǔshū 跋李翰林昌武 書 [A Praise on the Calligraphy of Historagrapher Li Changwu] by Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 of the Song dynasty, which reads “xiàng shí sūméi èr zǐ, yǐ tiānxià liǎng qióng rén zhǔzhāng sīdào, yīshí shìrén qīngxiǎng qí fēngcǎi, bēnzǒu búxiá. 向時 蘇梅二子，以天下兩窮人主張斯道，一時士人傾想其風采，奔走不暇.” (At that time, Su Shunqin and Mei Yaochen advocated the [Classical Prose] movement for the absence [of clarity and precision]. The intellectuals then longed for the past tradition and strived to achieve it.) (3) To organize or make arrangements, as in Zuǎnyìjì 纂異記 [Records of Strange Tales], quoted in Tàipíngguǎngjì 太 平廣記 [Extensive Records of the Taiping Era], which reads “tā jīnxī zhǔzhāng yuègōng zhī yàn, fei bu qínqing er. 他今夕主張月宫之宴，非不勤請耳.” (It’s not that we slighted him. He is holding the banquet at the Moon Palace tonight.) In Sǎnxù 散序 [Preface] in Tángzhíyán 唐摭言 [Collected Stories from the Tang] by Wang Dingbao 王定保 of the Five dynasties, it reads “qí yǒu hé shì cān zhě, wéi zhī qiú shuài, yóu shàn zhǔzhāng yányàn. 其有何士參者，爲之酋帥，尤 善主張筵宴.” (Among those was one named He Shican, being the leader of the rebels, good at arranging for feasts.) (4) Affairs in one’s charge, as in the essay Zhīnuògāozhōng 支諾皋中 [A Call for Deities Part II] of Yǒuyángzázǔ 酉陽雜 俎 [A Table Full of Miscellaneous Writings from the South of Mt. You] by Duan Chengshi 段成式 of the Tang dynasty, where it is recounted that “jiàn dèngyǎn xǐ yuē: ‘wú zhǔzhāng shèn zhòng, jí ěr lù shǔbǎi fú shū yě.’ Jiang jiàn duī’àn ràobì, jiē ní niè chǔ zhū shū, nǎi dài yuē: ‘jìn sǔn yòu bì, bù néng nuò guǎn.’ 見鄧儼 喜曰： ‘吾主張甚重，籍爾録數百幅書也.’ 蔣見堆案繞壁，皆泥涅楮朱書， 乃紿曰： ‘近損右臂，不能搦管.’” (Seeing him, Deng Yan was quite happy, saying that “I have so many affairs to deal with. Please help me copying a few hundred of texts” Seeing the hundreds of books on the desks and shelves, written in black and red, he lied, “My right arm was wounded, and I cannot hold the

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brush.”) The first and second senses in Middle Chinese have remained in modern times; the senses from ancient times have disappeared.

3.5 Semantic extension of disyllabic polysemies in medieval times Although a considerable number of disyllables existed in Old Chinese, the number of polysemies was limited. Among them, a smaller number had new meanings in medieval times. Some examples are given as follows. Niánjì 年紀 meant the year number in a reign or the length of a reign. In Jìnshìjiā 晉世家 [The Hereditary House of Jin] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it is recorded that “jìnghóu yǐlái, niánjì kětuī. zì tángshū zhì jìnghóu wǔshì, wú qí niánshù. 靖侯以來，年紀可推. 自唐叔至靖侯五世， 無其年數.” (The length of a reign can be counted since the rule of Lord Jing. From Kang Shu to the fifth generation of Lord Jing, the term of the reign cannot be verified.) In Liǎngdōufùxù 兩都賦序 [Prologue of the Ode on Two Capitals] by Ban Gu 班固 of the Han dynasty, it reads “shén què, wǔ fèn, gān lù, huáng lóng zhī ruì, yǐ wéi nián jì. 神雀、五鳳、甘露、黄龍之瑞，以爲年紀.” (Phoenix, Five Phoenix, Sweet Dew, and Yellow Dragon are five reigns of Emperor Xuan of Han.) The Middle Chinese period saw two new meanings emerge: (1) one’s age, as in Ràngxiàn zìmíng běnzhì lìng 讓縣自明本志令 [Dismissing the Post of County Magistrate to Demonstrate Loyalty] by Cao Cao 曹操 of the Han dynasty, which reads “qù guān zhī hòu, nián jì shàng xiǎo. 去官之後，年紀尚 小.” (Resigning from my official career, I was still young.) In Jíyán 極言 [Words about the Extreme] of Bàopǔzǐ 抱朴子 [Master Embracing Simplicity], written by Ge Hong 葛洪 of the Jin dynasty, it reads “shì niánjì zhī shàozhuàng, tǐlì zhī fānggāng zhě, zì yì guō chāi, bǎibìng jiān jié. 恃年紀之少壯，體力之方剛者， 自役過差，百病兼結.” (Those who boast of youthful vigor and strength overused their energy and power but ended up suffering all kinds of illness.) In the poem Shùhuái 述懷 [An Account of my Mind] by Lady Cui (Cui Shi) 崔氏 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “bùyuàn lúláng niánjì dà, bùyuàn lúláng guānzhí bēi. 不怨盧郎年紀大，不怨盧郎官職卑.” (I do not hold a grudge on the old age and low rank of my husband Lu.) (2) Era, times, as in Suǒlǔzhuàn 索虜傳 [The Biographies of Minority Peoples] in Sòngshū 宋書 [Book of the Song dynasty], where it is recounted that “wǎng zhě liú, shí, fú, yáo, dì jù sān jùn, sī mǎ, láng yá, bǎo shǒu yáng yuè, mián mián lián lián, mián lì nián jì. 往者劉、石、苻、姚， 遞據三郡，司馬、琅邪，保守揚越，綿綿連連，綿歷年紀.” (Liu, Shi, Fu, and Yao in turn took the three counties into possession. Sima and Langye ruled the region Yang-yue. One era succeeded another, each in turn rising and falling.) In Modern Chinese, the sense age of medieval times remains, while the senses of era and times have completely disappeared. The word xiūlǐ 修理 had two meanings in ancient times (i.e., to curb and to finish). In Chénjiāng 沉江 [Drowning in the River] of Qījiàn 七諫 [The Seven Remonstrances] of Chǔcí 楚辭 [The Songs of Chu], one sentence goes “Míng fǎlìng ér xiūlǐ xī, lánzhǐ yōu ér yǒu fāng. 明法令而修理兮，蘭芷幽而有芳.”

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 171 (Govern a state with laws and codes; even in the remotest valley, there grow orchards of fragrance.) In Ren Yan zhuan 任延傳 [Biography of Ren Yan] of Dōngguān Hàn jì 東觀漢記 [East Hall Records of Han] written and compiled by Ban Gu 班固 et al. of the Han dynasty, it reads “Yán nǎi wéi zhì shuǐguānlì, xiūlǐ gōuqú, jiē méng qí lìyì. 延乃為置水官吏，修理溝渠，皆蒙其利益.” (Yan appointed an official in charge of water conservancy. The funnels and channels were repaired, which benefited the residents of the place.) In medieval times, the word had four meanings: (1) manage, handle, as used in Guān zuò píng yù 觀作 瓶喻 [A Tale of Watching Pottery-Making] of Bǎiyùjīng 百喻經 [One Hundred Buddhist Parables] translated by Qiunapidi 求那毗地 (Sanskrit. Gunavrddhi) of Qi, the Southern dynasties: “Yúrén yì ěr, xiūlǐ jiāwù, bùjué fēicháng. 愚人亦 爾，修理家務，不覺非常.” (So are fool men accustomed to family chores.) (2) Dispose, as in Shunzi biàn 舜子變 [The Story of the Sage Shun] of Dūnhuáng biànwén jí 敦煌變文集 [Transformation Texts of Dunhuang], where it is written that “yuán rénmìng zhì zhòng, rúhé dàn xiūlǐ tā? yǒu jì dàn zhī shuōlái, yīrèn yǔ niángzǐ biānchǐ. 緣人命至重，如何但修理他？有計但知說來，一任與娘子 鞭恥.” (Life is valuable. How could we dispose of him like this? If you have an idea, just say it. You can flog and humiliate him at will.) (3) Cook, as in Jiǔshí 酒 食 [Foodstuff] of Yǒuyáng zázǔ 酉陽雜俎 [Miscellaneous Morsels from South of Mt. You] by Duan Chengshi 段成式 of the Tang dynasty, where it is written that “shànjūn wǔwèi, cháng qǔ bàizhàngní húlù xiūlǐ shí zhī, qí wèi jíjiā. 善均五味， 嘗取敗障泥胡祿修理食之，其味極佳.” (He was good at cooking and once cooked a rather delicious meal with shabby leather saddle and arrow container.) In Cuī Shào 崔紹 (a person’s name) of Xuánguàilù 玄怪錄 [Mysterious Strange Records] by Niu Zengru 牛僧孺, quoted in volume 385 of Tàipíng guǎngjì 太 平廣記 [Extensive Records of the Taiping Reign (976–983)], it reads “Běn mǎi [lǐyú] chōng chúshàn, yǐ lángjūn jí jí, bù jí xiūlǐ. 本買 [ 鯉魚 ] 充廚膳，以郞君 疾急，不及修理.” (I bought the carp for a meal; now that you suddenly fall ill and need the fish, I haven’t time to cook it.) (4) Take care. It is quoted in Tàipíng guǎngjì 太平廣記 [Extensive Records of the Taiping Reign (976–983)] (volume 382) from Guǎngyìjì 廣異記 [Encyclopedia of the Supernatural] that “Wén dào dìyù, xīnshèn qīrán. Yīn gěngyè bēitì xiàng chéng yún: ‘mǔlǎo zǐyòu, piāojì yìchéng, nàihé ér sǐ, qiújiàn xiūlǐ.’ 聞道地獄，心甚凄然. 因哽咽悲涕向乘云： ‘母老子幼，漂寄異城，奈何而死，求見修理.’” (Told that he would be taken to Hades, he fell into despair and cried to the governor [Liang] Cheng, “my old mother and young kid are at a foreign place while I am going to die. Please take care of them.”) In modern times, the sense of curb remains; the other meanings having gone extinct completely. Dōngxī 東西 was a word of marking location in ancient times, meaning east and west, all the places in general. In Jié yòng zhōng 節用中 [Moderation in Use II] of Mò zǐ 墨子 [Works of Mozi], it reads “gǔzhě Yáo zhì tiānxià, nán fǔ jiāozhǐ, běixiáng yōudū, dōng xī zhì rì suǒ chūrù, mò bù bīnfú. 古者堯治天下， 南撫交阯，北降幽都，東西至日所出入，莫不賓服.” (In ancient times, Yao governed the state, befriending Jiaozhi and submitting Youdu; all the places were his subjects.) In Sòng zhī Wèijì 訟之未濟 [Change of Hexagram Song to Weiji]

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of Yilin 易林 [The Forest of Changes] by Jiao Gan 焦贛 of the Han dynasty, it reads “Bì huàn dōng xī, fǎn rù huòmén. 避患東西，反入禍門.” (Run all over to escape misfortune only to fall into it.) The word also means from east to west, as used in Jiàngrén 匠人 [Artisan] of Kǎogōngjì 考工記 [The Record of Trades] of Zhōulǐ 周禮 [The Rituals of Zhou]: “Zhōurén míngtáng, duó jiǔchǐzhī yán, dōngxī jiǔyán, nánběi qīyán. 周人明堂，度九尺之筵，東西九筵，南北七筵.” (The Bright Hall of Zhou was about nine yán from east to west and seven yán from north to south [yán 筵 was a measure unit; one yán is about 20 cm].) In medieval times, the word had four new meanings: (1) near, beside. In the poem Mǎ lí jiù 馬 離廄 [The Horse out of Stable] of Shílíshī 十離詩 [Ten Poems of Farewell], one sentence goes “Xuě’ěr hóngmáo qiǎnbì tí, zhuīfēng céngdào rì dōngxī. 雪耳紅毛 淺碧蹄，追風曾到日東西.” (Snow-eared, red-maned, grey-hoofed, the stallion races from east to west.) (2) 70s to 80s of age. In the Eastern Jin and Northern and Southern dynasties, a severe money shortage occurred. Seventy was taken as a hundred in the east, eighty as a hundred in the west; hence the meaning. In Yùzhāng Wénxiànwáng Yí zhuàn 豫章文獻王嶷傳 [Biography of Lord Wenxian, Xiao Yi, of Yuzhang County] of Nánqíshū 南齊書 [The Book of Southern Qi], Xiao Yi 蕭嶷 said to the emperor, “Since ancient times, everyone wishes his Majesty a life as long as the Southern Mountain, longevity of ten thousand years. This is sheer exaggeration. I only wish Your Majesty a life of 100 hundred years. That would be perfect. The emperor replied that a hundred was beyond reach. “Zhǐdé dōngxī yībǎi, yúshì yìjì. 止得東西一百，於事亦濟.” (Seventies to eighties would be fine.) (3) Escape, flee. In the poem Yéniáng nián qīshí 耶娘年七十 [Parents at 70] by Wang Fanzhi 王梵志 of the Tang dynasty, one sentence goes “Yéniáng nián qīshí, bùdé yuǎn dōngxī. 耶娘年七十，不得遠東西.” (When parents are in their 70s, their children should not travel far.) In Táohù 逃戶 [Evasion of Registration] of Táng huìyào 唐會要 [Institutional History of the Tang dynasty] by Wang Pu 王溥 of the Song dynasty, it was recorded that some farmers were fleeing temporarily (zànshí dōngxī 暫時東西); their land and houses were managed by their neighbors and officials who said they would pay taxes yet abused or demolished the properties. When the farmers returned, there was almost nothing left for them. (4) An array of things. In the poem Cì yùn jí lǎo 次韻吉 老 [Following the Rhymes of Chen Jilao] composed by Huang Tingjian 黃庭堅 of the Song dynasty, one sentence goes “Jiārén dǒu nánběi, měijiǔ yù dōngxī. 佳 人斗南北，美酒玉東西.” (At the moment of farewell, let us old friends drink a toast.) In the line, dōngxī 東西 means cup. The aforementioned semantic development of Middle Chinese has five consequences, as follows: (1) New and old meanings coexisted. Meanings both in ancient and medieval times were retained in modern times, for example, diǎn 典 (canon), fá 乏 (lack), jiā 枷 (cangue), pī 批 (mark), tǎo 討 (demand), réncái 人才 (talents), and so on. (2) Some new meanings were retained, whereas the old meanings went extinct. Meanings from ancient times went extinct, while those in medieval times were kept in Modern Chinese, such as chàng 唱 (sing), chāo 鈔 (money), chāo 抄 (scribe), xún 燖 (depilate), bēiwēi 卑微 (humble), kànglì 伉儷 (married couple),

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 173 guāilì 乖戾 (warped [mind]), shēnghuó 生活 (life), shìgù 事故 (accident), xíngli 行李 (luggage), zhǔzhāng 主張 (opinion). (3) The old meanings were retained, while the new meanings disappeared. The meanings from ancient times were kept, whereas the meanings used in medieval times went extinct. For example, cán 慚 (ashamed), cuī 催 (urge), jǐn 僅 (only), lù 録 (list), mù 目 (eye), nǎo 惱 (anger), tàn 探 (detect), zhù 助 (aid), shāngxīn 傷 心 (sad), cēncī 參差 (uneven), chóuchàng 惆悵 (forlorn), qūnxún 逡巡 (prowl), shìshí 事實 (fact), xiǎngxiàng 想像 (imagine), xiūlǐ 修理 (repair), yīnxún 因循 (follow), zhēnzhòng 珍重 (to value). (4) Some of the new meanings in medieval times survived, while some disappeared. One word had several meanings, some of which disappeared after some time, while some have been in use to the present, for example, chuàn 串 (string), dài 帶 (belt), de 的 (of), kuài 快 (quick), tóu 投 (throw), xiū 羞 (shy; shame), zhuō 捉 (capture), huīhuò 揮霍 (waste), niánjì 年紀 (age), rénwù 人物 (character), dōngxī 東西 (east and west), or dōngxi 東西 (stuff). (5) The meanings used in both ancient and medieval times disappeared. Some words such as bóshì 博士 (in ancient times, court academician; in modern times, PhD), fāngyuán 方圓 (ancient, circumference; modern, square and circle), and xiānjìn 先進 (ancient, men of former times; modern, model, advanced) are still in use but with different meanings. A more frequent case is that some words commonly used in ancient and medieval times are no longer used in modern times either because the objects they signified disappeared or because of internal changes of word form. Such a case is not semantic changes but the disappearance of old words, which is not covered in this section. Two aspects need to be noted concerning the semantic changes of the Middle Chinese language. First, industrial and commercial development during the Tang and Song dynasties brought new meanings to certain words. Some examples are given as follows. The word pù 鋪 was used as pùshǒu 鋪首 (brass beast head door ring) in Old Chinese. It was also a verb, meaning to arrange, lay. The meaning shop originated in the Tang dynasty. In the poem Sòng Yáng shàoyǐn fù Fèngxiáng 送楊少 尹赴鳳翔 [Farewell to Vice Governor Yang to Fengxiang County] by Zhang Ji 張 籍 of the Tang dynasty, a line goes “Déqián zhīle huán shūpù, jiè zhái chángshí shì yàolán. 得錢祗了還書鋪，借宅常時事藥欄.” (He had to pay the bookshop bill with his scant gains and borrowed money frequently to buy medicine.) In volume 16 of Mèngliánglù 夢梁録 [Records of the Dreams of the Past Splendors] by Wu Zimu 吳自牧 of the Song dynasty, it is noted that meat ròupù 肉鋪 (shops) were all over Hangzhou. The original meaning of tuán 團 was yuán 圓 (round). It is noted in Shuōwén Kǒubù 説文口部 [Kou Group of Origin of Chinese Characters] that tuán 團 means yuán 圓. The new meaning, markets with clusters of shops, was developed along with the urban commercial development of the Tang and Song dynasties. In Zhūháng 諸行 [Professions and Trades] of Dūchéng jìshèng 都城紀勝 [A Full Account of Capital Lin’an 臨安 (modern Hangzhou 杭州)] by Guanyuan

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Naideweng 灌園耐得翁 (pseudo-name, a carefree old man of a garden retreat), it is recorded that there were all kinds of markets: huātuán 花團 (flower markets) in the south of the city, qīngguǒtuán 青果團 (markets of nuts) by the muddy roads, xiǎngtuán 鮝團 (markets of dried fish) by the river, and júzituán 桔子團 (orange markets) in the lane. The word háng 行 was a polysemy in Old Chinese with the meaning of trades, a line in industry and commerce emerging with the industrial and commercial development of the Sui, Tang and Song dynasties. In Mínsú 民俗 [Folk Custom] of Mèngliánglù 夢梁録 [Records of the Dreams of the Past Splendors] by Wu Zimu 吳自牧 of the Song dynasty, it reads “Shìnóng gōngshāng zhūháng bǎihù, yījīn zhuāngzhuó, jiēyǒu děng chā. 士農工商諸行百戶，衣巾裝著，皆有等 差.” (People of varied professions and trades – scholars, farmers, artisans and merchants – are dressed differently by their ranks.) In Zhūháng 諸行 [Professions and Trades] of Dūchéng jìshèng 都城紀勝 [A Full Account of Capital Lin’an 臨 安 (modern Hangzhou 杭州)] by Guanyuan Naideweng 灌園耐得翁, it is noted that háng 行 means shops where whatever is useful, major or minor are sold and where government officials extort money. The word zuò 作 was a polysemy in Old Chinese with two meanings, which emerged along with the development of handicraft businesses: (1) workshop, handicraft work house. In Sun Li zhuàn 孫禮傳 [Biography of Sun Li] of Wèishū 魏書 [The Book of Wei] of Sānguózhì 三國志 [The Records of the Three Kingdoms], it reads “Míngdì fāngxiū gōngshì ér jiéqì bùhé . . . ér lǐ jìngzhì zuòsuǒ, búfù chóngzòu, chēng zhào bàmín. 明帝方修宮室而節氣不和. . . 而禮徑至作 所，不復重奏，稱詔罷民.” (Emperor Ming was ordering the palace being built. The climate did not agree with farming. . . . No longer reporting again, Sun Li came straight to the construction site and announced that the emperor had freed the workers from labor.) In Huo Xiaoyu zhuàn 霍小玉傳 [Story of Huo Xiaoyu] by Jiang Fang 蔣防 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “Lù féng nèizuò lǎoyùgōng. 路 逢內作老玉工.” (On the way, she met the royal jade artisan.) (2) Craftsman. In Zhūháng 諸行 [Professions and Trades] of Dūchéng jìshèng 都城紀勝 [A Full Account of Capital Lin’an 臨安 (modern Hangzhou 杭州)], it is recorded that there are also other craftsmen called zuò 作, such as mièrèn zuò 蔑刃作 (hacking knife maker), yāodài zuò 腰帶作 (belt maker), jīnyíndù zuò 金銀鍍作 (those who plate gold and silver wares), and sàzuò 鈒作 (maker of shearing tools). Second, the entry of Buddhism into China brought huge changes to the Chinese language, creating many new words as well as adding new meanings to existing ones. Some examples are given as follows. Dēng 燈 was originally a lighting tool. In Chéngcái 程材 [Weighing of Talents] of Lùnhéng 論衡 (Discourses Weighed in the Balance) by Wang Chong 王 充 of the Han dynasty, it reads “Rì zhī zhào yōu, bù xū dēngzhú. 日之照幽， 不須燈燭.” (The sun would illuminate dark places; lanterns and candles would not be needed.) Dēng 燈 could illuminate dark places; likewise Buddhism could illuminate the path to the Elysian field for the mortals, and therefore dēng 燈 is used as a metaphor for Buddhism. In the poem Wàng niútóu sì 望牛頭寺 [Gazing at Oxhead Temple] by Du Fu 杜甫 of the Tang dynasty, one sentence goes

Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese 175 “Chuándēng wú báirì, bùdì yǒu huángjīn. 傳燈無白日，布地有黃金.” (They transmit the lamp without regard for the daylight, spread out on the ground is yellow gold.) In the poem Sòng cēng Yuánhào nányóu 送僧元暠南遊 [Farewell to Monk Yuan Hao on South Tour] by Liu Yuxi 劉禹錫 of the Tang dynasty, a line goes “Chuándēng yǐwù wúwéi lǐ, rúlù yóuhuái wǎngjí qíng. 傳燈已悟無為 理，濡露猶懷罔極情.” (Transmitting the lamp, he already acquires the Buddhist wisdom of doing nothing; dwelling in the world of nature, he still has his parents deeply in his mind.) The original meaning of sú 俗 was custom. In Yuèshū 樂書 [The Treatise of Music] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads “yífēng yìsú, tiānxià jiēníng. 移風易俗，天下皆寧.” (Make changes in customs and traditions, and the whole world becomes peaceful.) The word also meant mediocre. In Yìbǎo 異寶 [Rare Treasure] of Lǚshì chūnqiū 呂氏春秋 [Master Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals], it reads “Qízhǔ, súzhǔ yě, bùzú yǔ jǔ. 其主，俗主也，不 足與舉.” (The master is mediocre, unworthy of support.) After Buddhism entered China, sú 俗 also meant chénshìjiān 塵世間 (the secular world), as opposed to chūjiā wéi sēng 出家為僧 (live a monasterial life). In Xu Zhanzhi zhuàn 徐湛之 傳 [Biography of Xu Zhanzhi] of Sòngshū 宋書 [The Book of the Song dynasty], it reads “Shíyǒu shāmén Shì Hùixiū. . . . Shìzǔ mìng shǐ huánsú. 時有沙門釋 惠休. . . 世祖命使還俗.” (Emperor Shizu ordered that the monk Huixiu could resume the secular life.) In Xu Chi Zhuàn 徐摛傳 [Biography of Xu Chi] of Nánshǐ 南史 [The History of the Southern dynasties], it reads “dàn jiǎng fójīng, wǎn jiǎng lǐ zhuàn, dàosú shòuyè zhě shùbǎirén. 旦講佛經，晚講《禮》傳，道俗受業者 數百人.” (He teaches Buddhist sutras during the day and the Book of Rites during the nights, which draws hundreds of followers, monks and secular believers alike.) In the poem Huà shān nǚ 華山女 [The Taoist Nun at Mt. Huashan] by Han Yu 韓愈 of the Tang dynasty, a line goes “Xiāntī nánpān súyuán zhòng, làngpíng qīngniǎo tōng dīngníng. 仙梯難攀俗緣重，浪憑青鳥通丁寧.” (It is too hard to climb the ladder of immortality for the mortal secular lovers, even if the message is delivered by the blue bird.) Yīnyuán 因緣 means opportunity. In Tianshu lièzhuàn 田叔列傳 [Biography of Tian Shu] of Shǐjì 史記 [Records of the Grand Historian], it reads “Qiú shì wéi xiǎolì, wèiyǒu yīnyuán yě. 求事為小吏，未有因緣也.” (He asked to be an ordinary clerk yet didn’t have the opportunity.) The word also meant thereby. In Huīguó 恢國 [Further Remarks on the State] of the Lùnhéng 論衡 [Discourses Weighed in the Balance], it reads “gǔdēng shuìpíng, yōngzhǔ yīnyuán yǐ jiàn dézhèng. 谷登稅平，庸主因緣以建德政.” (At the time of good harvest and stable taxation, a common emperor could thereby build on the politics of virtue.) Buddhists translate nidana (Sanskrit) into yīnyuán 因緣, meaning primary causes and secondary conditions for happening, transformation, or destruction. In Jiāshī míluó guó 迦濕彌羅國 [The State of Kasmira (today’s Kashmir)] of Dàtáng xīyù jì 大唐西域記 [The Great Tang Records of Travels to the Western Regions] by Xuanzang 玄奘 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “shí āluóhàn gào zhūrén yuē: ‘Wǔjīn wèirǔ shuō běn yīnyuán, cǐshēn zhīqián bàoshòu xiàngshēn, zài dōng yìndù, jū wáng nèijiù’. 時阿羅漢告諸人曰 ： ‘吾今為汝說本因緣，此身之前報受象

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Development of lexical meanings of Middle Chinese

身，在東印度，居王內廄.’” (Arhat told the mass, “I would tell you about my earlier lives. Before this life, I was an elephant living in the royal stable in the east of India.”) The word now means causes of the earlier life on the present life. In Sòngzhēngyī 送征衣 [Clothes for Journey] of Dūnhuáng qǔzicí 敦煌曲子詞 [Songs of Dunhuang], a line goes “jīnshìgòngnǐ yúhéshuǐ, shì qiánshì yīnyuán. 今世共你魚和水，是前世因緣.” (In this life we are couples; this is the karma of the earlier life.) The meaning extends to causes. In the poem Xīnfēng zhébì wēng 新豐折臂翁 [An Elderly Man with a Broken Arm of Xinfeng] by the poet Bai Juyi 白居易 of the Tang dynasty, it reads “wènwēng bìzhé lái jǐnián, jiānwèn zhìzhé hé yīnyuán. 問翁臂折來幾年，兼問致折何因緣.” (I asked the old man for how many years his arm had been broken and how it happened.) With regard to this, more discussion is given in the next chapter.

Bibliography

Chen, K 陈克炯. (1978). Zuozhuan fuyinci chutan 左传复音词初探. Journal of Central China Teachers College 华中师院学报, 4. Ji, X 季羨林. (1980). Jixianlin xuanji 季羡林選集. Hongkong: Hongkong Literature Research Publishing Co., Ltd. Siku quanshu四庫全書. (1924). Beijing: The Commercial Press. Xuxiu sikuquanshu 續修四庫全書. (2002). Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House.

Index

abbreviation 119 alliterative words 60 assonant words 63

monosyllable words 57

compound words 74

polysyllabic words 57

descriptive compound words 113 disyllabic words 58

Qian Daxin 126

fǎnyǔ 91

noun-quantity compound words 117

single-morpheme words 60 subordinate compound words 90 supplementary compound words 74

juxtaposed compound words 78

tautologies 68 tǐyǔ 92 trans-hierarchical compound words 126

liǎoyǔ 92

verb-complement compound words 115

governable compound words 108