Women Leaders : Advancing Careers [1 ed.] 9781617356438, 9781617356414

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Women Leaders Advancing Careers

A volume in Research on Women and Education Beverly Irby and Janice Koch, Series Editors

Research on Women and Education Beverly Irby and Janice Koch Series Editors

Defining and Redefining Gender Equity in Education Edited by Janice Koch and Beverly Irby Gender and Early Learning Environments Edited by Beverly Irby and Genevieve H. Brown Gender and Schooling in the Early Years Edited by Janice Koch and Beverly Irby

Women Leaders Advancing Careers

edited by

Genevieve Brown Sam Houston State University

Beverly J. Irby Sam Houston State University

Shirley Jackson Sam Houston State University

INFORMATION AGE PUBLISHING, INC. Charlotte, NC • www.infoagepub.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Women leaders advancing careers / edited by Genevieve Brown, Beverly J. Irby, Shirley Jackson. p. cm. -- (Research on women and education) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-61735-641-4 (pbk.) -- ISBN 978-1-61735-642-1 (hardcover) -ISBN 978-1-61735-643-8 (ebook) 1. Women school administrators--Selection and appointment--United States. 2. Educational leadership--United States. I. Brown, Genevieve. II. Irby, Beverly J. III. Jackson, Shirley. LB2831.82.W655 2011 371.20082--dc23                         2011038819

Copyright © 2012 Information Age Publishing Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America

Contents Preface.................................................................................................. vii

Pa rt I Women Leaders: Panorama 1 Historical Pathways of Women in School Executive Positions............ 3 Jackie M. Blount 2 Feminist Approaches to Educational Leadership: Relationships Based on Care....................................................................................... 13 Margaret Grogan 3 The Rise of the Feminine: What Women of Color Bring to Leadership Roles.............................................................................. 27 Linda Hampton Wesson and Johnetta Hudson

Pa rt I I Women Leaders: Power 4 Women as Successful Assistant Principals.......................................... 41 Elaine L. Wilmore 5 Leadership Role of Academic Chairpersons in Higher Education: Issues and Recommendations.......................................... 51 Sandra Lee Gupton

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6 Women Leaders: What They Bring to Today’s Executive School Positions.................................................................................... 69 Barbara Polnick, Luana Zellner, and Carole Funk Haynie

Pa rt I I I Women Leaders: Pathways 7 Pathways to Administrative Roles........................................................ 85 Marilyn Grady, Bernita Krumm, and Kaye Peery 8 Strategies for Advancing Your Career and Obtaining Your First School Executive Position.................................................................... 99 Genevieve Brown and Beverly J. Irby 9 Professional Development: A Paradigm Designed for Women........119 Carolyn S. Carr 10 The Balance Between Professional and Personal Life.................... 137 Sandra L. Tonnsen and Aretha B. Pigford

Pa rt I V Women Leaders: Practice 11 Riding the Glass Elevator.................................................................. 153 Trudy Salsberry and Kay Ann Taylor 12 Central Office Career Choices for Women...................................... 173 Anita M. Pankake and Ava J. Muñoz 13 A Coach‘s Lessons on Career Shifts and Leadership...................... 191 Beverly E. Jones 14 Narrowing the Wage Gap One Negotiation at a Time.................... 203 Kate C. Farrar and Annie S. Houle About the Editors............................................................................... 211 About the Contributors..................................................................... 213

Preface The initial purpose of Women Leaders: Structuring Success (1998) was to recognize that the majority of students enrolled in leadership preparation programs were women; yet, despite this fact, women’s advancement to top school executive positions was not comparable to that of men. Additionally, research demonstrated that leadership preparation programs in which the women were enrolled did not adequately address topics related to women attaining school executive positions and serving successfully in them. More than a decade later, the disproportionate number of women in leadership roles continues to be a problem. Despite significant gains in this area, the biased treatment of women continues to be a barrier to their obtaining top level administrative positions. Each author whose work is included in this updated volume has contributed significantly to the growing body of literature aimed at addressing this issue. Their research indicated that the concepts presented discussed herein are critical to preparation of women leaders as well as to their advancement, and success. Women Leaders: Advancing Careers continues to meld together history, theory, research, and practice to provide guidance to aspiring women administrators who are seeking to move forward on their career path, attain executive positions and successfully perform in those roles. Like its predecessor, Women Leaders: Panorama (Part I) consists of three chapters. In the first, Jackie Blount revisits her perspective on aspiring women administrators. She discusses where women have been and where they are today in terms of numbers in superintendencies. The second chapter, authored by Margaret Grogan, describes how caring relationships are key to successful leadership in the school setting. In the third chapter, JohnetWomen Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages vii–ix Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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ta Hudson and Linda Wesson focus on what women of color bring to the table. They also share powerful stories of successful Hispanic and AfricanAmerican women leaders. Three chapters comprise Part II, Women Leaders: Power. It begins with Elaine Wilmore describing commonalties among successful female assistant principals and sharing advice from these women. Sandra Gupton continues the discussion by identifying both issues surrounding, and recommendations for, the role of the academic chairperson in higher education. Chapter 6, by Barbara Polnick, Luana Zellner and Carole Funk Haynie, explore the salient characteristics, styles, and leadership processes of female leaders. It also argues that women are uniquely equipped for successful leadership in today’s schools. The four chapters that make up Part III, Women Leaders: Pathways, address the questions of career advancement and professional and personal development of women leaders. Marilyn Grady, Bernita Krumm and Kaye Peery all outline a variety of factors which contribute to women’s progress along the pathway to administrative positions. Chapter 8, by Beverly Irby and Genevieve Brown, contains specific strategies critical to success in securing the first school executive position. Carolyn Carr, in Chapter 9, advances the “continuum” definition of professional development which focuses on increasing capacity as well as performance. In Chapter 10, Sandra Tonnsen and Aretha Pigford provide an overview of various pathways along which women can proceed in order to bring balance and purpose into their professional and personal lives. The final section, Women Leaders: Practice, consists of four chapters which explore the successful practice of women in a variety of leadership roles. In Chapter 11, Trudy Salsberry and Kay Ann Taylor review experiences and summarize the insights of successful women secondary principals. In Chapter 12, Anita Pankake and Ava Muñoz provide a brief history and description of central office roles, a discussion of how such positions can help and/or hinder women’s career advancement. Also included here are recommendations for women regarding central office career choices. Beverly Jones, in Chapter 13, provides insight into what goes into making those all important career shifts that lead to leadership roles. Lastly, Kate Farrar and Annie Houle discuss ways in which women can become their own advocates when addressing the existing salary differences between men and women in comparable professional positions. Women Leaders: Advancing Careers is a sequel to Women Leaders: Structuring Success. Both books have been written for women who aspire to school leadership positions. The contributors, mentors to the women who read these pages, recognize the importance of preparing strong leaders, women who can successfully impact and reform schools. Their continued research substantiates the fact that women are uniquely suited to these challenges.

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Each author is committed to assisting them in structuring their own success in executive positions. By sharing advice and the lessons learned from their wealth of research and experience, the authors make it possible for women who aspire to such success to broaden their horizons, more clearly illuminate their professional pathways, and be well prepared for their practice. —Beverly J. Irby Genevieve Brown Shirley Jackson

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Part I Women Leaders: Panorama

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Chapter 1

Historical Pathways of Women in School Executive Positions Jackie M. Blount Ohio State University

Essentially, even though women have never held a majority of school leadership positions, they used to enjoy far more formally structured power than they do now.

Anyone who has observed public schools undoubtedly has noticed that women tend to teach and men tend to rule. Statistics bear out this conventional wisdom. While women hold nearly three-quarters of the teaching positions, they hold relatively few principalships and account for only 5% of superintendencies (National Center for Education Statistics, 1996; Blount, 1998). Those who defy the weight of these numbers are the women who expertly manage schools from the principalship or central office, or the men who, surrounded with happy children, teach in primary classrooms. In spite of the courage of these isolated individuals who transgress conventional gender roles, public schooling continues to be a highly gender segregated and stratified institution. There is, however, a danger in accepting this common-sense observation as a description of the natural, inescapable order of things. If we believe things have always been this way, then we fail to ask the

Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 3–11 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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deeper question about how the current state of affairs has evolved, and we limit ourselves in our aspirations for something better, something perhaps more noble and equitable. I began to question my own assumptions a few years ago after conducting a study in which I identified how many women had served as school executives, specifically as superintendents, throughout the twentieth century. Eventually, I compiled a database of well over 50,000 superintendents. I had expected to find that contemporary women were beginning to make important strides in school administration because of a series of hard-won legislative and judicial victories during the modern women’s movement. To my shock and dismay, however, I discovered instead that women held far fewer school superintendencies in 1990 than they had during the first half of the century (Blount, 1998). This discovery led me to undertake an historical study to explore the social contexts in which this change had occurred. As a result, I have developed the following chapter. It briefly sketches the story I have pieced together. Women’s First Public Profession: Liberation or Limitation? For centuries, only men taught. Few women received enough formal education to allow them to undertake instructional duties. Of those who did, middle-class, White women avoided teaching because earning wages meant a loss of social standing. Poor women often worked as domestic servants in others’ homes, and, by law, any money they earned belonged to male family members. These women could therefore not afford formal study. Black women labored in slavery. Not only were they denied opportunities to teach, but after Nat Turner’s uprising in 1831, legislation was passed which demanded the death of any slave who received formal education. In the nation’s early years, revolutionary fervor led some to reconsider the poor educational opportunities available to women as a class. After all, if the new democracy truly valued equality and liberty, should not basic rights and opportunities be extended to all persons, including women? Apparently some thought so, and as a result, women’s educational institutions emerged and proliferated in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Some schools existed only to train young women in the social graces and ornamental arts, but others quietly did something more radical—a rigorous academic curriculum that assumed women’s intellectual equality with men. Emma Willard’s Troy Seminary offered such an opportunity to its students, and the well-educated women who emerged from Troy became teachers, community leaders, and even activists for women’s rights (Scott, 1979).

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Eventually, growing numbers of educated women sought to create a profession for themselves—a vocation that would justify their years of formal study; a respectable, wage-paying occupation in the public sphere, and an opportunity to contribute to the larger social good. Teaching satisfied these conditions. Fortunately, this also meshed well with the dreams of advocates of common school who wished to see tax supported education made available to all children. If women could be recruited as teachers, then they could have what historian Thomas Woody (1929) called “their first public profession,” and common schools could tap a plentiful source of motivated, cooperative, and relatively inexpensive employees (p. 441). Although critics argued that women were not tough enough to face rebellious older boys, smart enough to teach challenging material, or independent enough to withstand the difficult conditions in schoolhouses scattered throughout the states and territories, eventually hundreds of thousands of women eagerly answered the call. Historians of education have often described the second half of the nineteenth century as the time when teaching became “feminized.” In a conventional sense, this means that the profession changed from one numerically dominated by men to one overwhelmingly comprised of women. However, feminization arguably also means that the nature of the work shifted to conform more readily to then-accepted notions of femininity. In other words, not only did women increasingly perform the work of teaching, but the structure of the work of teaching shifted to match social expectations for women. Previously, teachers had enjoyed a large degree of autonomy in making curricular and logistical decisions, but now they increasingly found that an emerging administrative class of men demanded obedience, much as women customarily yielded to male authority in the home. Whereas male teachers held that demands for acquiescence stripped them of their male prerogatives, women teachers, who had few other career opportunities, felt compelled to comply with these demands. In the end, as women became teachers, the structure of the work changed. Fearful that they might be associated with a feminized profession, men then followed one of several courses of actions: they abandoned the classroom; they remained in school teaching but endured public questions about their manliness; they banded together to form schoolmasters associations through which they might upgrade the status of male teachers; or they assumed one of the newly created, better-paid, and male-identified positions in education such as school administration. A Manly Place School supervisors appeared just as women began teaching in significant numbers. The men who filled these early administrative jobs did little more

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than ride from schoolhouse to schoolhouse inspecting and repairing facilities (Adams, 1880). Few of these men had teaching experience and some were poorly educated; therefore they generally had little professional expertise to offer (Cubberley, 1934; Ellsbree, 1934; and Aurner, 1939). Invariably, however, these early school administrators were men. They also received significantly higher salaries than the teachers they supervised. If these men contributed so little to the professional practice of teaching, one wonders why they were hired at all, especially when their salaries depleted already meager school funds. It is arguable, however, that with large numbers of women venturing out of the home and into the public workplace for the first time, male supervisors may have been hired to ensure that educated, independent, and single women did not step outside the carefully drawn bounds of their new profession and assume managerial responsibilities. In time, many school districts added superintendent positions. The work also became more complex and demanding as additional laws and regulations were put into effect. Some rural districts struggled to identify men to fill these positions; and in a few situations, women were tapped for the work. Ever-eager to demonstrate their capabilities when given the chance, early women superintendents reputedly performed as well if not significantly better than their male peers—and they did so for one-half to one-third the salary. One political science professor even argued that superintendent salaries should be lowered permanently, so men would be discouraged from the work. “It does not appear that the poorly paid . . . school superintendents are educationally inferior to the highly paid ones . . . .Reducing salaries might help, since it would increase the number of women school superintendents” (Chancellor, 1915, p. 449). Male superintendents did not want their salaries decreased, nor did they wish to see their new administrative realm feminized as the teaching field had been. Not surprisingly, they quickly constructed superintendent associations to help elevate school administration to a fully respectable profession worthy of executive salaries. Groups such as the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association (NEA) promoted camaraderie, defended schools and administrators against critics, lobbied for greater public recognition of schooling, and helped members advance to better positions. They also sought to create an exclusive profession that promoted the interests of its members while effectively keeping others out, particularly women who had begun encroaching on this male sanctuary. Women’s Push for Political Power Around the turn of the twentieth century, ambitious women seeking school leadership positions briefly enjoyed broad-based and enthusiastic

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support from a powerful emerging political constituency of women. Suffragist activism and the larger women’s movement effectively propelled women into school leadership positions, especially in districts where superintendents were elected rather than appointed. During these years hundreds of women waged and won campaigns for superintendencies, and by 1930 women accounted for nearly 28 percent of country superintendents and 11 percent of all superintendents nationwide (Blount, 1998). Activists hoped that women would eventually dominate school leadership just as they had teaching. Once swept into office they might purge corrupt administrative practices, bring an elevated moral purpose to schooling, and improve public education in the same way as they believed women already had improved teaching. Women school leaders would quickly meet resistance however. As the suffrage movement gained strength and women were elected to superintendencies, primarily male superintendent groups sought to transform superintendencies from elected to appointed positions. Schools needed expert administrators, they argued; and experts could hardly be chosen in public, politically charged contests. Rather, they believed that popularly elected politicians should select superintendents from pools of qualified, well-trained experts. It is hardly coincidental that the institutions providing this expert training tended to admit few women, if any. Newly enfranchised women activists doubted that the appointive system maintained the spirit of American democracy. As they eagerly prepared for their duties as voting citizens, they confronted a growing movement to take the superintendency out of politics (Blount, 1998). The Danger of Stepping Out Of Place During the early decades of the twentieth century, another important, yet little-documented obstacle emerged, one that would erode women’s access to school leadership positions—the practice of stigmatizing and suppressing women who crossed traditional gender role boundaries. With the social, economic, and political successes of the women’s movement, some men perceived that they were losing their power. Those who felt threatened trained their sights on women who defied traditional gender roles, including unmarried women educators. In 1900, around 95 percent of all female teachers were single, widowed, or divorced, and many women superintendents were single as well (Folger & Nam, 1967, p. 81). Critics portrayed single women or spinster teachers as threats to the masculinity of male educators and students (Hall, 1931). They accused spinsters of the demise of the (White) race. Finally, they used the works of turn-of-the-century sexologists to link spinsterhood with lesbianism, thus creating a climate in which

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single women teachers came to be viewed as socially dangerous (Gallichan, 1916; Chauncy, 1983; and Faderman, 1978). This change in ethos regarding single women educators eventually affected policy and hiring practices in the 1940s and 1950s. As a result, the proportion of unmarried women educators decreased rapidly, especially after World War II. In this context, women school administrators faced a particularly difficult dilemma. If they performed their supervisory and leadership roles well, they were perceived as masculine because men traditionally controlled social structures and issued orders in this gender-stratified employment scheme. Supposedly masculine women were considered abnormal and undesirable when it came to working with children. On the other hand, if women administrators performed their leadership roles with a feminine demeanor, they were regarded as weak and ineffectual. This increased gender role polarization essentially placed women school leaders in an extremely difficult double-bind. Gender Shifting World War II dramatically affected the structure and face of public school leadership. First, millions of veterans returned from service seeking civilian employment. Patriotic school districts enthusiastically recruited, hired, and promoted them in an effort to increase male presence in the schools. Second, organizational and psychological theories developed by the military later permeated educational administration training programs and eventually the structure of school systems. Third, credentials obtained at institutions of higher education soon replaced “rising through the ranks” as the predominant means of advancement in school administration. Male veterans with G.I. Bill benefits pushed large numbers of women out of their college and university enrollment slots to obtain these credentials a gender shift further exacerbated by the fact that many credentialing programs imposed low quotas on women. Finally, immense social pressures forced women who had worked outside the home during the war to return to the home, give their jobs to veterans, marry, and bear children. As a result, the post-war decades brought the lowest participation of women in school leadership of any time during the century. Few educators discussed this enormous shift in the gender composition of school administration, though. When the topic was raised, women were blamed for their lack of credentials and career commitment. Women administrators had, as one writer described the post-war trend, gone “the way of the buffalo” (Broadhead, Heald, Hecker, Leu & Rudman, 1966, p. 7).

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Contemporary Women School Leaders Eventually women’s rights advocates took note of the demise of women in school leadership positions. They did not blame them for failing to meet selection criteria, but instead located the problem in social and institutional sexism. The larger women’s movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s led women to search for ways to identify and combat this persistent discrimination. The judicial successes of the Civil Rights Movement inspired feminist groups to push for legislation and other legal remedies that might eliminate sexual inequities in school employment, especially including those that were keeping women out of school leadership positions. After much congressional wrangling, federal legislation such as Title IX (1972) was passed. A steady stream of court decisions has subsequently and slowly eroded some of the most egregious forms of institutional sexism. Unfortunately, however, agencies charged with monitoring compliance with these measures have performed anemically at best, and there has been effectively no enforcement of many of the provisions of gender equity legislation. Aspiring women administrators who chose to bring sex discrimination lawsuits against school systems find that the burden of proof is placed upon them. Even worse, women who bring suits, successful or not, tend to be branded as troublemakers who then face even more severe, although unwritten, sanctions. Even though some legal tools now exist with which women might fight such discrimination, there has not been a significant shift in the gender composition of school administrations. The percentage of women who hold school superintendencies has increased only marginally since the early 1980s (Montenegro, 1993), and women’s representation in this position is still far short of what it was during the first half of this century. Conclusion In the end, it is important to understand that women’s current underrepresentation in formal school leadership positions is not necessarily an inherent condition of the institution of schooling, but rather the result of social interactions that have unfolded in specific historical contexts. Still, women have not always been completely excluded from school leadership positions. Also, earlier in the century when many people thought that their access to administrative positions would continue to increase until they achieved parity with men, women were pushed out in very specific ways. Ultimately, however, mere parity may not be a desirable goal. The gendered structure of school leadership itself must be called into question. For example, it is arguable that a driving imperative in shaping the institution

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of superintendency throughout its history has been to create a comfortable masculine refuge for a few men who have found themselves in a profession numerically dominated by women. If this is true, then it is not enough to get more women into school leadership positions as they are now configured. Instead, it is important to consider how women can gain an equitable share of power, and then to determine how to structure it sensibly. A better understanding of the history of women leaders in education, then, may help to shatter the notion of women’s seemingly inevitable lack of access to formally structured power in education; it could also help those who wish to develop a different vision of school leadership. References Adams, C. F. (1880). The development of the superintendency. Addresses and journal of proceedings of the NEA 1880. Salem, OH: Allan K. Tatem. Aurner, C. R. (1914). History of education in Iowa (Vol. 2). Iowa City, IA: State Historical Society of Iowa. Blount, J. M. (1998). Destined to rule the schools: Women and the superintendency, 1873– 1995. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Broadhead, C., Heald, J. E., Hecker, S. E., Leu, D. J., & Rudman, H. C. (1966). The woman principal—Going the way of the buffalo? The National Elementary Principal 45(5), 6–11. Chancellor, W. E. (1915). The selection of country superintendents. NEA Bulletin 3(6), 175–179. Chauncey, G. (1983). From sexual inversion to homosexuality: Medicine and the changing conception of female deviance. Salmagundi 58–59, 114–46. Cubberley, E. P. (1934). Public education in the United States. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. Ellsbree, W. (1939). The American teacher: Evolution of a profession in a democracy. New York, NY: American Book Company. Faderman, L. (1978). The morbidification of love between women by 19th-Century sexologists. Journal of Homosexuality 4, 74–90. Folger J. K., & Nam, C. B. (1967). Education of the American population: A 1960 census monograph. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census. Gallichan, W. M. (1916). The great unmarried. London, England: T. Werner Laurie. Hall, G. S. (1931). Adolescence (Vol. 2). New York, NY: D. Appleton and Company. Montenegro, X. (1993). Women and minority representation in school administration. Arlington, VA: AASA. National Center for Education Statistics (1996). Table 66: Teachers in public and private elementary and secondary schools, by selected characteristics: 1993– 94. The Digest of Education Statistics 1996. (NCES 96–133). Retrieved from: http://nces01.ed.gov/NCES/pubs/d96/D96T066.html [1997, July 15].

Historical Pathways of Women in School Executive Positions    11 Scott, A. F. (1997). The ever widening circle: The diffusion of feminist values from the Troy Female Seminary, 1822–1872. History of Education Quarterly 19, 3–25. Woody, T. (1929). A history of women’s education in the United States (Vol. 2). New York, NY: Science Press.

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Chapter 2

Feminist Approaches to Educational Leadership Relationships Based on Care Margaret Grogan Claremont Graduate University

Women leaders often describe themselves as valuing the close relationships they form with administrators, teachers, parents, students and other community members. They demonstrate care by forming connections. In deliberately connecting with others, they see themselves as enhancing relationships that work to strengthen the possibility of collectively achieving the organizational goals. Feminist approaches to leadership are those that have been identified in studies of women in such positions. The term feminist simply indicates that many women leaders use preferred leadership strategies and styles that I argue characterize a feminist approach to leadership. Some men also use the same strategies and styles. Therefore such leadership approaches are not gender specific, but they are, on the whole, more often associated with women than other approaches more often associated with men. This distinction is important for two reasons. First of all, I argue that we know about Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 13–25 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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these approaches because, after a long silence on the issue of the influence of gender, researchers have recently focused on how women lead in education. Thus, we have learned that there are differences in the way many women lead. Second, I believe that women’s approaches themselves are good for students, parents, and community members, and that we therefore need to value them highly as appropriate responses to the challenges of leading America’s schools. Most of what we know about care comes from studying women’s lives. At the end of the twentieth century, we also know much more about how women lead than we did at the end of the nineteenth. In fact, at that time, the notion of a public woman leader was an oxymoron at worst and an anomaly at best. In the last thirty years, a significant body of research has been conducted with women in educational administration, providing us with a good understanding of women in leadership. Women leaders bring to public leadership many of the activities that characterize their private lives. For example, the development and maintenance of relationships infused with an ethic of care have been often associated with women’s leadership approaches (Beck, 1994; Grogan, 1996; Grogan & Smith, 1996; Marshal et al, 1996; Noddings, 1992; Starratt, 1994; Sergiovanni, 1992). The focus of this chapter is on care and on the challenges that sometimes arise for leaders who adopt a care perspective. I am interested in how care leads to relationships. To explore this, I look at two of the questions that commonly arise: What prompts an attitude of care? What kind of relationships do educational leaders form? First we need to ask: What characterizes care? Definitions of Care “Care as a practice involves more than simply good intentions. It requires a deep and thoughtful knowledge of the situation, and of all of the actors’ situations, needs and competencies” (Tronto, 1993, p. 136). In defining care, I want to distinguish it from a general feeling of goodwill that is sometimes conflated with it. One often hears, “Of course, teachers care about their students and principals care about their teachers.” Drawing on the work of Card (1991, 1995); Gilligan (1982); Hekman (1995); Held (1993, 1995); Jagger, (1991, 1995); Noddings (1984,1992); and Tronto (1993), I think of care as both a practice and a disposition. Building administrators, for example, can demonstrate care of teachers by ensuring teaching time. They do so by scheduling as few interruptions as possible and trying not to discipline students during class time. That is a practice of care. Another example might be found in the habits of those principals who care enough about the community to reach out and meet parents at local church gather-

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ings or social functions in an effort to serve community needs. Again, care is translated into action. Care is also a sensibility. It is an awareness of the needs of others and grows out of relationships. However, most feminist moral theorists would argue that care of others can only be achieved competently when caregivers attend to their own needs first. In the context within which I am using it, care should not be confused with a sense of personal sacrifice. Nor should sympathy be mistaken for care. While a caregiver’s feelings are engaged in the expression of care and must be invoked in the recognition that care is needed, a paternalistic approach to care can appear to involve disregard for the position of the individual who is being cared for a. Sympathy can blind the caregiver to the real needs of the recipient. For instance, a teacher who feels so sorry for the child who is unable to do homework that she waives the obligation to do any work outside of school is not meeting that child’s needs. Providing supervised homework opportunities either before or after school might better serve the child. To help clarify the distinction between care as a practice and a disposition, both Noddings (1992) and Tronto (1993) identify components of, or phases of caring. Noddings talks of engrossment, motivational displacement, and recognition. To be engrossed in another’s concern is to be attentive to her or his particular needs: ‘’When I care, I really hear, see or feel what the other tries to convey” (Noddings, 1992, p. 16). In response, the caregiver focuses on the other’s projects instead of on his or her own. That is motivational displacement. The third component, recognition, occurs when the other acknowledges the outreach effort as care. Thus, the first and last components emphasize care as a sensibility while the second suggests the possibility of action. Somewhat similar to Noddings, Tronto’s first and last phases are attentiveness and responsiveness. She defines attentiveness as “noticing the need to care in the first place” (Tronto, 1993, p. 127). Responsiveness is the response of the one cared for to the care being received. For Tronto though, responsiveness is intertwined with attentiveness. In other words, the response of the recipient must be interpreted from the position of the person caring for him or her. Responsiveness suggests a different way to understand the needs of others rather than to put ourselves into their position. Instead, it suggests that we consider the other’s position as that other expresses it” (Tronto, 1993, p. 136, my italics). Highlighting the position of the other is very important. It cautions us against assuming that if the intentions of the person giving the care are good, then the recipient of the care must recognize that the actions are motivated by care. Try as we might, we cannot really be another person, but we can increase our awareness of others’ situations by attending to their own interpretations of them. This awareness, in turn, allows us to moderate

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our responses to their needs, so that there is a greater chance that they will receive our efforts as gestures of care. Noddings’ second component, motivational displacement, is somewhat similar to Tronto’s second phase, responsibility, in that the caregiver accepts the challenge to care. Both terms suggest that the caregiver acts out of a moral sense of bettering the conditions of others. The caregiver is not motivated by a selfish wish to gain anything from the relationship. Noddings (1992) advises us against “thinking of caring as a virtue, an individual attribute” (p. 17). She stresses that it is the caring relation between caregiver and cared for that is, itself, the most important result of a person’s decision to care. “There is no recipe for caring . . . caring is a way of being in relation, not a set of specific behaviors” (Noddings, p. 17). However, being in relation suggests much more to me than simply performing acts of kindness or goodwill. Tronto includes a third phase, competence, that she believes must be present if good care is to be possible. The presence or absence of competence is assessed as a result of action. If we can measure the success of care by analyzing the outcome, only those competent to perform the caring activities are likely to get the desired results. A building administrator, for instance, who has a limited knowledge of instruction cannot provide good supervisory care of teachers. Tronto, too, reminds us that from a professional perspective, caring is much more than good intentions. What can be learned from this brief discussion of care is that it requires a conscious effort on the part of the care giver to observe when there is a need for care, to assess the situation so as to decide how best to provide it, and then to evaluate the outcome. Such evaluation involves determining whether or not the other’s needs are being met while, at the same time, taking into account the other’s position as she or he expresses it. The responsiveness of the individual being cared for is particularly important, and I consider it more fully below. Prior to that, I focus on the notion that care is essentially a capacity that one develops in relationships. Studies of women have helped us to recognize the importance of relationships. As Gilligan (1982) discovered, many women’s strong sense of connection to others defines their psychological development. What are the factors which define relationships in an administrative setting? What kinds of relationship develop? Educational Leaders in Relationship with Others Implicit in most considerations of care is the understanding that the relationship between the caregiver and cared for is an unequal one. That concept works quite well if we imagine caregivers as parents, doctors and

Feminist Approaches to Educational Leadership    17

nurses, teachers, members of the clergy and so on. However, when we transfer the image to the educational leader, it seems to reinforce traditional patriarchal notions of leadership. There is no doubt that an element of power shapes unequal relationships, for instance, those between administrators and teachers or parents and students. Depending on the circumstances, in supervisory or disciplinary cases, say, these relationships would have to be characterized as unequal. But relationships are also inherently contextual. Administrators not only have other kinds of relationships with teachers and parents, but also with many others in the community. And, relationships of the latter sort are much more equal. I prefer to think of educational administrators as being in different kinds of relationships—some more equal than others. Questions that arise from that line of thought include: Do all relationships prompt expressions of care? Or does there have to be an element of dependence in a relationship in order for care to emerge? How is relationship defined? Much has been written on various kinds of relationships in school organizations. From a leadership perspective, the best researched relationships are those between teachers and supervisors; parents and teachers; students, parents and administrators; school personnel and central office; and teachers’ and administrators’ relationships with the school community. They cannot be neatly categorized because they vary according to setting and leadership style, but most are formal, relatively impersonal and unequal. Card (1995) argues that such relationships are mainly focused on control. She describes this perspective as reflecting “administrative practical wisdom” and points out that traditional responsibility in administration “is a matter of supervision, management, accountability and answerability” (p. 88). While administrators do accept these responsibilities, I believe that their acceptance of them need not be associated with the desire for control. In contrast to this sense of responsibility, there is the type that Gilligan (1982) identified as emanating from women’s personal relationships. “[Gilligan] had in mind responsiveness to needs, to situations. . . . [perspectives] more congruent with the idea of taking responsibility for someone or something, committing oneself to look after its maintenance or well-being, preserve its value, even to make it good” (Card, 1995,p. 88, emphasis in original). In other words, learning to care comes from the experiences of personal, and often, informal relationships: it arises out of the sense of attachment that develops in healthy personal relationships. The two ideas of responsibility are not mutually exclusive. As Card argues, “Informal relationships tend to underlie formal ones, circumscribe them, come into play when formal ones break down” (p. 89, emphasis in original). If this is so, then even if most administrative relationships are characterized as formal ones, such relationships can surely benefit from consideration of them from a care perspective, ideally, before they break down. But administra-

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tive relationships can also be openly informal. One of the skills attributed to many women leaders is the ability to get to know the people with whom they work. It is not unusual to hear of women principals or superintendents taking a personal interest in the lives of their teachers and staff. Informal activities prompted by this knowledge include providing birthday cakes and sending cards of sympathy or celebration. Open expressions of interest in the personal lives of colleagues and support staff help to form informal relationships that coincide with formal ones. What this means to educational leaders is that, first and foremost, they must be conscious of the kinds of relationships that they have established and can establish. They must not be satisfied with formal and impersonal relationships. For instance, even if the primary relationship between principals and teachers is a supervisory one, principals must seek to add informal, personal dimensions to it. Women leaders often describe themselves as valuing the relationships they form with administrators, teachers, parents, students and other community members. They demonstrate care by forming connections. In deliberately connecting with others, they see themselves as enhancing relationships, those that work to strengthen the possibility of collectively achieving the organizational goals. Women leaders’ sense of connection to other people in the school community is powerful. I believe that this outcome cannot be realized in relationships that remain formal, impersonal and unequal; however, I am also aware that forming other kinds of relationships is not always easy. The intent to care is, in and of itself, not a guarantee of success. Administrators often find themselves in the frustrating situation of wanting to care for others but being unable to embrace their projects or ideas entirely. Issues of trust and accountability often cloud the picture. A superintendent’s wish to see site-based management implemented at the building level, for example, can require more formal disconnection than the superintendent is willing to allow. A fear of giving up control makes the superintendent unwilling to devolve complete authority to the site. Although the superintendent wants to be attentive to the principal’s needs and tries very hard to view the principal’s position as he or she expresses it, if there is not the kind of trust that grows from attachment on an informal level, it is unlikely that real autonomy will be granted at the building level. Does this mean that superintendents should know their principals well on a personal level? I think it does. This is what connection suggests in the fullest sense of the word. Collins (1991), in talking of the knowledge of others that comes from connection, makes the point that “connected knowers see personality as adding to an individual’s ideas and feel that the personality of each group member enriches a group’s understanding” (p. 217). Without con-

Feminist Approaches to Educational Leadership    19

nection, care is impossible as it is defined here. It is a circular concept: care prompts connection which then generates further care. But, do superintendents have to like their principals in order to connect with them? Do principals have to like their teachers? Do colleagues have to like each other? Noddings (1984) distinguishes between a natural desire to care and a moral one. The first, she argues, requires no effort on our part. It is often evoked in unequal relationships between parents and children or teachers and students, for instance. In the context of school administration, when an administrator feels a genuine liking for another person, I think a natural desire to care follows. However, when we are faced with others for whom we do not have such friendly feelings, we have a choice. We can connect with them in a caring relation or in an indifferent one or even in a hateful one. In the moral sense then, we would choose a caring relation instead of another relation because it is the better relation. I am not arguing for the traditional administrative response that treats “subordinates” as inferior. The patriarchal notion of care which was common in educational administration in the past encouraged the administrator to believe that he or she knew what was in the best interests of subordinates. To be in a truly caring relationship, the administrator must resist assuming that he or she does know what is best for others until she or he has moved through the phases of noticing to that care is needed, focusing on the ideas and projects of the other, and evaluating the other’s response. As for the questions posed earlier, I do not think that an element of dependence has to be found in a relationship in order for care to emerge. Although studying unequal relationships has allowed us to understand what care looks like when it is happening, I believe we can approach all relationships from a care perspective. However, I would concede that what is problematic about this position is that recognition or responsiveness, the final phase or component of both Noddings (1992) and Tronto’s (1993) conceptions of care, is sometimes missing. If we try to study care outside of the context of unequal relationships, we are unlikely to detect the same sense of reciprocity or acknowledgment of care that exists in successful dependent relationships. For administrators this can be very disheartening. Noddings (1992) states that careers experience a “dreadful loss of energy” when the cared-for doesn’t respond (p. 17). Certainly, many teachers and parents endure this too. However, in unequal relationships, particularly those that are also formal, the chances of accommodating one’s caring response to meet the needs of the cared-for are stronger than in more equal, but informal relationships. When a caring teacher’s attempts to discipline a student results in loss of student engagement in class activities, the teacher will seek different approaches to the problem. In equal relationships, responses from the cared-for that confirm the receipt of care are likely to be less explicit and harder to interpret. Equal and informal relationships can

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be more easily broken than formal, dependent ones. Still, the disposition to care provides the impetus for repairing relationships if one values the concept of being in a relationship. Above all, administrators must avoid aloofness. It is too tempting for some of them to stay away from others in the organization. Paperwork and the management of personnel can lead to a sense of disconnection. And, some administrators meet only briefly with others. However, Noddings (1992) goes so far as to say that every encounter can be seen as a potential occasion for caring. If this is the case, then our idea of relationship must be expanded. Margaret Wheatley (1992) applies insights she has gained from studying quantum physics to analyze organizations, and so tells us that “Nothing happens in a quantum world without something encountering something else. Nothing is independent of the relationships that occur” (p. 68). The new science that she speaks of reveals the participatory nature of the universe. Subatomic particles are described as “interrelated energy patterns in an ongoing dynamic process” (p. 71). The result of physicists’ studying these particles is that they detect “an intriguing network of interactions, a structure of processes and potential relationships” (p. 71). What leaders can learn from this, says Wheatley, is to focus on relationships. Connections and interactions with others facilitate energy flows that promise learning and growth. Obviously, some relationships conjure up this image better than others. I do not see relationships of control as being capable of facilitating such a dynamic process. On the other hand, relationships of care do suggest excellent possibilities for this. Instead of lines of organizational authority, Wheatley proposes the concept of reaction channels. In other words, as we connect with others in a caring relation, our attentiveness to their needs and our willingness to engage with them produces a generative force. What might this look like in schools and school systems? Worthwhile Connections The connections I am talking about include those that administrators are most familiar with and some new ones. Familiar are parent I caretaker I teacher relationships; administrator I community member relationships; supervisor I employee relationships; administrator I board member relationships; and administrator I service provider relationships. I am suggesting, however, that these formal and relatively impersonal relationships be expanded to include personal and informal dimensions. Teachers are often better at doing this than administrators. The press of time is given as an excuse, but I believe that these caring activities should become priorities. Meeting and getting to know people outside of the school contexts can, for example, add personal and informal dimensions. Opportunities for short

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retreats with community members in their settings are helpful. Small social gatherings at supervisor’s homes or restaurants can humanize otherwise distant relationships. When families invite school personnel into their homes, such visits can promote good understanding of the particular circumstances faced by individual students. I believe that it is more likely that expanded relationships prompt care. Caring relationships, in turn, promise more worthwhile outcomes than do other kinds of relationships. Many studies going as far back as the Hawthorne experiments in the 1920’s and 30’s, have shown that people who are cared for respond positively, learn more, and contribute more to their environments. Therefore, worthwhile outcomes include opportunities for hearing all of the voices in an organization, for shared governance, and for finding ways to serve the neglected populations in schools. New connections that might be very productive can be forged among educators and administrators at different educational levels. How often do high school principals sit down with kindergarten administrators or teachers? Increased interaction as a whole between educators at different levels, not just when they are serving on district-wide communities, offers opportunities for greater understanding of level specific needs. Middle school teachers need to observe high school and elementary classes. Elementary school principals need to team up with central office staff and visit community work sites. Superintendents need to drink coffee with the maintenance staff in the staff lounge. Interactions that take place outside administrators’ comfort zones are highly likely to break down formal barriers and add a personal dimension to a relationship. This is especially true if several people go outside their comfort zones connect. A case in point would be when a district team of parent representatives, teachers and principals visits another district site to study facilities design. When that happens, informal relationships are formed where they did not previously exist. Other kinds of informal and personal connections that may develop outside of their comfort zones but not necessarily familiar to administrators are those formed with bus drivers, custodians, secretaries, teacher aides, cafeteria workers, parole officers, speech pathologists, physical therapists, and others. Formal interactions certainly take place and sometimes are even given high priority, but the extent to which care emerges in such relationships depends on the efforts of the administrator. I am not talking about “photo opportunities” for the principal or the superintendent, but about genuine connections. Time must be devoted to getting to know the person who is immersed in the work of driving the school bus or providing physical therapy. When administrators see themselves as connecting with others instead of controlling them, the possibilities for collaboration and creative problem solving increase dramatically. As I have argued, if connection implies

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relationship, then the likelihood that care emerges from all connections is strong. Traditional administrative relationships are characterized by formality, inequality and impersonality. To be open to connections, and to actively seek interactions in schools and school systems therefore interferes with many established practices. Traditional models of administration are based on hierarchies and control of subordinates. But the encouragement to move towards participatory leadership comes from many different directions. Primarily it is fueled by a belief that we need to hear as many diverse voices as possible if we are to meet the needs of our pluralistic society. We need the ideas that can be generated by human interaction. Connections and interactions are associated with the production of energy as the image of the new science suggests; nevertheless, we have to be sure that it is produced in a caring environment so as not to exploit the human resources in educational organizations. Burn out can be a damaging side effect of poorly directed energy. Moreover, the explosion of ideas and suggestions that accompanies participatory leadership is often produced in an artificial environment. For example, in response to encouragement to share decisions and empower others, administrators sometimes try to involve everyone. Parent/ teacher advisory teams are formed to assist the principal, or councils of community members are set up to inform the superintendent. For these relationships to be caring ones, group members must first of all know what their function is. In other words, the group must know what kind of relationship exists between administrator and team or council. Is it an advisory one? Or is it a decision-making one? Is the relationship ambiguous? Without accurate knowledge of the role and function of such a group, connections can be severed, or it can happen that deep connections are not formed at all. Superficial, formal ones may remain, but they are not productive. Second, group members involved on such committees or task forces must find relevance in the work of the group. Their expertise must be acknowledged, and they must see themselves as being in a caring relationship with the administrator. If they perceive their usefulness to be only symbolic, again, no real connection will have been made. Educational leaders need to be able to understand this tension. For leadership to benefit from the collaborative power of bringing many minds together, the connections that form between administrator and council must be nurtured. On the one hand, connections and interactions create energy; but on the other hand, that energy is easily consumed or misdirected if it is not properly guided and appreciated. Conclusion As I have described it, adopting an attitude of care presents one final challenge. It is likely to spawn conflict. I have argued for increased connec-

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tions among school leaders and members of their communities. That is, not only among members they might dislike, but also members with whom they have had no prior connection for reasons of race, class, gender, disability or simple disinterest. To form relationships of care with persons who have very different lived experiences from our own can be a formidable task. We strive to do so, however, because only in shared interpretations of our world are we likely to come up with ways to overcome the deep social injustices that our educational systems continue to perpetrate. Only by seeing ourselves as in a relationship with the less powerful are we likely to begin to care on a level that is something more than a sympathetic response. I believe we have a chance of working together productively, if we also accept the fact that some conflicts are inevitably provoked by such relationships. Through conflict can come enlightenment; and when care replaces disgust, rage or indifference, the repair and maintenance of a relationship, now fragile, becomes possible. In the end, educational leaders who attempt to operate in the absence of caring human relationships will find themselves alone, unable to create a connected environment in which children learn and prosper. 2010 Update Interestingly, from a 2010 vantage point, I am pleased to say that there is now much more research which supports the ideas in this chapter. Of particular importance is the identification of five themes characterizing women’s ways of leading. These have emerged from the now available, robust body of literature on women’s leadership in education (Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2011). These themes are: Relational Leadership, Leadership for Learning, Leading for Social Justice, Spiritual Leadership and Balanced Leadership. Care informs several of them. First and foremost, relational leadership means that women are known for leading with and through others rather than for controlling others. Because women are connected to others, they are most likely to include a wide variety of individuals in their efforts to educate all children, community members as well as teachers, and staff. The advent of professional learning communities in many schools reinforces the value of the collective approach that has long been seen as a preferred mode for women leaders. In addition, the understanding that many women are inspired by a desire to fight injustice in schools and districts stems largely from an ethic of care. As defined above, care allows leaders to develop empathy for others both like and unlike themselves. Leaders who challenge the status quo in the name of ensuring that all students graduate knowing how to read, write and do math are motivated by care. There is little room for self-interest in the minds of those leaders. As indicated above,

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they have had to withstand conflict and resistance to their efforts as they engage teachers, parents and other caretakers in the hard work of school reform. Today, it is no longer fashionable to label any of these approaches feminist, but that does not mean they do not have utility. In our recent book, Charol Shakeshaft and I argue for the reinvention of leadership in such a way that it can embrace all of these approaches. They are good for children and what is good for children is good for communities. Adopting an ethic of care is necessary though not sufficient for this work. First leaders must care, then they must form a diverse collective for making the changes that will radically alter the business-as-usual mode of operating. References Beck, L. (1994). Reclaiming educational administration as a caring profession. New York: Teachers College Press. Card, C. (1991). The feistiness of feminism. In C. Card (Ed.). Feminist ethics (pp. 3–31). Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. Card, C. (1995). Gender and the moral luck. In V. Held (Ed.). Justice and care (pp. 79–100). New York: Teachers College Press. Collins P. (1991). Black feminist thought. New York: Routledge. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Grogan, M. and Smith, F. (1996, April). Exploring the perceptions of superintendents: Moral choices or procedural alternatives. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. Grogan, M. (1996). Voices of women aspiring to the superintendency. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Grogan, M., and Shakeshaft, C. (2011). Women and Educational Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Hekman, S. (1995). Moral voices, moral selves. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press. Held, V. (Ed.), (1995). Justice and care. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Jagger, A. (1991). Feminist ethics: Projects, problems, prospects. In C. Card (Ed.) Feminist ethics. (pp. 78–104). Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. Jagger, A. (1995). Caring as a feminist practice of moral reason. In V. Held (Ed.) Justice and care. (pp. 179–202). New York: Teachers College Press. Marshall, C, Patterson, J., Rogers, D., & Steele, J. (1996). Caring as a career: An alternative perspective for educational administration. Educational Administration Quarterly, 32(2), 271–294. Noddings, N. (1984). Caring: A feminine approach to ethics and moral education. Berkeley: University of California Press. Noddings, N. (1992). The challenges to care in schools. New York: Teachers College Press. Sergiovanni, T. (1992). Moral leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Starratt, R. (1994). Building an ethical school. Washington, D.C: Falmer Press.

Feminist Approaches to Educational Leadership    25 Tronto, J. (1993). Moral boundaries: A political argument for an ethic of care. New York: Routledge. Wheatley, M. J. (1992). Leadership and the new science: Learning about organization from an orderly universe. San Francisco: Barrett-Koehler Publishers Inc.

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Chapter 3

The Rise of the Feminine What Women of Color Bring to Leadership Roles Linda Hampton Wesson University of Memphis Johnetta Hudson University of North Texas

Although women and women of color have broken many of the educational barriers that kept them from gaining degrees that led to high level positions (Wilson, 2004), the resistance to hiring minorities into positions considered “powerful” in public education, namely, the secondary principal and superintendence positions, is well documented (Bell & Chase, 1993; Glass, 2002; Glass, Bjork, & Brunner, 2000). Recent research by Weiss (1999) and Wilson (2004) conclude that although women make up about half of the workforce, few of them hold leadership positions especially in the corporate and educational sectors. As recent research by Rivers (2007) indicates, when women of color are hired into the highest level of leadership in education tensions seem to Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 27–38 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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develop and polarize around race, class and gender. Four African American superintendents of large urban districts were part of River’s study. It was their perception that race, class, and gender issues contributed to their firing or forced resignations. The research concludes that although these women were hired because of their excellent credentials, all four of them reported that, when difficult situations arose in their school districts, their voices were not heard and they were not “taken seriously by the school board members” (Rivers, 2007, p. 116). These tensions may be connected to the rise of the feminine. Jean Houston describes it in this way: “The biggest change in human history over the last 5,000 years is the rise of the feminine . . . slowly, but surely, to full partnership with men over the whole domain of human affairs. This is shifting everything” (cited in Abcarian, 2008, p. 12). Houston adds that this trend has created a hostile reaction; she attributes this to the “fear of the rising feminine” (p. 12). During the 2008 presidential primaries, it was noted that the gender gap in the country was more real than the racial gap when the divisive contest between Senators Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton became heated. Jean Houston added another dimension to our understanding of the “fear of the rising feminine” when she shifted her support from Mrs. Clinton to Mr. Obama and expressed her opinion that Mr. Obama might get the nomination because he has “given a better voice to the new pattern of possibility and that he embodies a more female, inclusive approach to problem-solving,” while Mrs. Clinton has become “mired in proving herself capable of emulating the male model, which requires combat and the demonization of enemies” (cited in Abcarian, 2008, p. 12). In an attempt to understand whether or not the traits of successful women of color in leadership do indeed represent a rising feminine, this chapter provides portraits of Hispanic and African American women who are currently experiencing success as educational leaders. The stories of their challenges and success reveal that there are common threads running between them: their exceptional dedication to their career, their ability to find support outside of the system, and, often, their feeling of isolation. African American Educational Leaders African American women have assumed leadership positions at all levels within public education institutions. Loder (2005) confirms this by stating, “African American women born after the Civil rights Movement . . . have availed themselves to horizons of professional opportunity” (p. 10). Opportunities for leadership appear to come about as a result of the increasing diversity of student populations in urban profile schools and school districts that are largely African American and Hispanic. In a study of one southeast-

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ern state, it was found that African American principals were being assigned to campuses where the African American population was predominantly Black (McCray, Wright, & Beachum, 2007). Although African American women are being promoted to leadership roles, they are almost invisible in the literature discussing leadership. A search for descriptive information and qualitative or quantitative studies on the African American female principal and superintendent produced very limited results. This discussion is an attempt to fill that void. African American females are often given very difficult assignments in schools that are underfunded and under supported. The sole purpose of this is to have them salvage their own people (Bloom et al., 2003). And, they must fight many battles in order to be accepted, heard, and taken seriously. The experiences and struggles of African American women in school administration are described here through the individual and collective voices of five African American school leaders: Dr. Virginia Calvin, the first female and African American to hold the position of superintendent in her school district; Dr. Hortense Harrison, elementary school principal and winner of the prestigious Millikin award; Dr. Doris Walker, the first African-American assistant superintendent of her suburban school district; Mrs. Dorothy Shepard, principal of a nationally renowned performing arts high school; and Dr. Georgetta Johnson, the first African American female principal of a large, comprehensive urban high school. They spoke of the uniqueness of their situations, but also of their trials and tribulations. Four themes emerged from the four dialogues: strength and perseverance in dealing with both racism and sexism; advocacy for those who can-not, do not, and will not speak for themselves; a strong aspiration to be an educational leader; and a feeling of isolation. Strength and Perseverance Historically, African American women have demonstrated tremendous levels of strength and powers of to survival and perseverance. As slaves, they provided free labor, yet their value was based on their breeding capacity. They often conceived children as a result of forced sex, and their children were frequently taken from them while they stood by wretched, in almost unbearable pain. Many of these children were sold as slaves and never seen again by their mothers. Since White slave masters ignored the mother’s bond to her child and discounted the pain that was caused by this type of separation, women had to bury that pain and move on if they were to survive (Greene, 1995). Today, many African-American women school leaders are like their ancestors; they are characterized by courage, strength, perseverance and a

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strong self-image as they face both racism and sexism along their journey to success (Jones & Montenegro, 1982; Bloom et al., 2003) Mrs. Dorothy Sheppard spoke first of the ability to cope because, as she puts it, “The obstacles have historically been there. African American female educational leaders have learned to put up safety nets and to see the hidden agendas.” Dorothy went on to say that the feeling is there that women’s presence was not desired in the high school. “Not a week goes by when I’m not confronted with that.” Dr. Doris Walker also speaks of strength, “We (African American females) have been in situations where we have had to struggle to survive. So we are strong. We have a strong sense of accomplishment. We cannot simply be equal; we must be better.” Dr. Georgetta Johnson echoed this, “Female principals have to work twice as hard especially in the inner city.” Dr. Cindy Harrison stated, “I spend countless number of hours explaining myself. It has caused me to be very inclusive, almost to a fault.” To be a successful leader, “I have to work twice as hard to accomplish twice as much.” “A lot of prayer groups have helped me sustain my strength. This has been a turbulent superintendency even though I have loved every minute of it,” states Dr. Calvin. “Personnel lay-off and school closings have been difficult issues during my superintendency.” African American women school leaders continue, however, to strive for fair treatment and to maintain hope. As Dr. Walker stated, “It will be fortunate if the day comes when everyone is not defined by color.” Advocacy for All Children Lamotey (I989) identified three qualities which African American principals possess: commitment to the education of all students; confidence in the ability of all students to do well; and compassion for and understanding of all students and the communities in which they live. These qualities are akin to what Loder (2005) describes as “community other mothers” who have a special talent for “nurturance, teaching and leading.” All five African American female school leaders brought these qualities to their positions. They spoke of their passionate desire and willingness to address issues regarding equitable educational opportunities for all children. They were sensitive to racial, cultural, and socioeconomic differences. They challenged the status quo, thus raising the consciousness of right and wrong. And, they confronted incompetence. “I am sensitive to the fact that students from the inner city are literally hurting to have someone understand the source and magnitude of their pain. Many administrators do not possess the skills that can nurture deeply enough within to actually focus on eradicating that pain. My fifteen years as

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a counselor and my intuitiveness as a woman allowed me to know that we must dig deeper,” said Dr. Johnson. “One of the greatest strengths of women of color,” stated Dr. Calvin “is working with parents who can’t speak for themselves and the poor of all races.” Dr. Walker stated, “The older you get the less tolerant to people’s insensitivity you become.” In order to deal effectively with diversity issues, she uses what she calls a “care fronting” or addressing an issue with honesty, directness, and sensitivity. Dr. Harrison believes that her diversity is a strength which she brings to her school, community. She feels that the students’ parents appreciate this diversity and described a situation in which a parent went to great lengths to transfer her child into a school where an African-American female was principal. The parent wanted her child to be in a diverse environment. Dr. Harrison not only advocates for racially and culturally different children, she also advocates for the abused. During the past school year, she worked diligently to establish funds for children in the school who had tremendous needs. Advocating for children of color, particularly in situations where the faculty is predominantly White and the student body is predominantly African American, can place a strain on principal-teacher working relations, Mrs. Shepherd said, “If I tell faculty that Black students are not achieving, they respond that she wants Black students to pass regardless of their actual academic performance.” Isolation and Lack of Support African American women who pursue school leadership positions traditionally held by men of any race or ethnicity do encounter tremendous resistance where hiring is concerned, And, once they are hired, their efforts to provide leadership for school change are met with distrust and lack of support; hence their feelings of isolation. Dr. Georgetta Johnson experienced tremendous resistance from faculty and parents not because she did not have the credentials or the track record to demonstrate that she could do the job, but because she was a woman. Although she was appointed by the superintendent and the board, no support was provided for the transition. “No one introduced me to the area superintendent or the faculty. I just showed up and reported to my office. Needless to say, my first year was tumultuous. I had very little support and almost everyone, including most students, worked hard to make sure that almost nothing worked under my leadership that first year.” Dr. Johnson believes that a male would very likely have been given a different reception. “I truly feel that a male principal . . . would have fared much bet-

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ter, because women, who generally support administrators with timelines, presentations, reports, etc., stood back and refused to do so for me.” Dr. Virginia Calvin spoke of feeling disenfranchised, lonely, and rejected. She described how at lunchtime during the first state meeting for new superintendents, a session which was attended by predominantly male staff members, everyone paired off. Not a single individual extended an invitation to her to join them. She stepped into the line, got her lunch, and ate alone. “I felt as if I had invaded the system.” She says, “It is lonely at the top. My primary support is from home.” Dr. Calvin spoke of the “old boys’ network” in which friends take care of friends. Aspiration for Educational Leadership These five women moved into their respective roles for different reasons. Dr. Calvin decided early in her education career that she wanted to be a superintendent. “Big dreams are not new to southerners,” she said. Dr. Walker moved into central office administration because there “one can have a broader impact on educational programs and policy.” Dorothy Shepard said, “When the principalship became available, I was already in an administrative role. . . . They made me interim principal while they established the selection process. I perceived that I was not wanted in the position so I applied for the position to allow them an opportunity to tell me why.” She believes the reasons were bias, both racist and sexist. According to Mrs. Shepard, “The rumor mill indicated that central office wanted to put all males in each high school. The belief is that males can better control the students.” Nevertheless, the parents in her school community provided a tremendous amount of support for her successful candidacy. Dr. Harrison’s pursuit of the principalship was encouraged by White female principals who had been her colleagues. She had the dream of increasing the opportunities of impacting education for children in ways that were not yet possible. As a counselor, Dr. Johnson worked very closely with school administrators. Often she found herself attending administrative meetings on behalf of the principal and assuming a leadership role in the principal’s absence. Her leadership ability was recognized. She was therefore encouraged to pursue administrator certification. Realizing that she had a lot to offer students, parents and faculty in creating a positive climate in the school for instruction, she assumed a leadership role in the superintendent’s office then became a campus-based leader. All five women experienced a great deal of support from family, friends, and the community. They felt that their communities looked upon them with a tremendous sense of pride.

The Rise of the Feminine    33

Hispanic Educational Leaders A review of the literature yields little information about the experiences of Hispanic female administrators. Most of it with women in general, and when a study does address minority themes, it is usually based on the experiences of African-American females. This section of this study portrays the experiences of professional Hispanic women who are working as school administrators, and examines the challenges, accomplishments, successes, and failures of five Hispanic educational administrators. In coming decades, Hispanics will make up the largest segment of the country’s minority population. Demographic projections indicate that women in the workforce will increase significantly by the year 2000 (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1991), and the Hispanic population in the United States will also rise to nearly 64.2 million by the year 2040 (Wagonner, 1992).Still, many Hispanics are overwhelmed by stress, conflict, and guilt when they are faced with an American culture that promotes independence, self-fulfillment, and assertiveness, all characteristics which many Hispanics take to be culturally inappropriate (Gil & Vazquez, 1996). When Hispanic women with professional credentials enter the workplace, they face the discriminatory double bind of racism and sexism (Comas-Diaz & Greene, 1995). For purposes of this study five Hispanic educational administrators were interviewed. The interviews focused on the roles of these women as educational leaders. Specifically, they were asked to “speak to” the following questions: • What do you bring to the position that other women do not? • What inspired you to seek a position as a school leader? • How would you describe your leadership style? The collective and individual voices of Hispanic educational leaders are captured in the section which follows. Contributions to Leadership Two of the participants felt that the fact that they were able to make a unique contribution to leadership derives from their life experience. They came through the ranks, paid their dues, and are, as a result, are very practical in their approach to leadership. They clearly understand the trials and tribulations of their staff because, in their words, “They have been there and done that.” And, because of these experiences, they made sure that

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teachers and staff are protected from the daily minutiae that gets in the way of their doing the best job possible, All the women were very clear about their views on leadership when it came to issues of caring, collaborating and communication. Although one principal did not like the idea of stereotyping female and male traits and claimed that good leadership was androgynous, she did say that she thought that male leaders more focused more on ideas, whereas female leaders were centered on caring about people’s feelings. In her words, “I am interested in community and people’s feelings. Talk and process matter only when they get you to an end. I work on constructing understanding and building consensus. This is a tough job, you have to roll up your sleeves and work together.” As another respondent noted, “Stereotyping limits everyone including those who are making assumptions about someone. It also limits the chances for quality collaboration around the goals of the organization.” The respondents appeared to have a good sense of themselves as leaders and were focused on collaboration, leadership that works, and teamwork. Not surprisingly, they frequently repeated the common dictum, “work hard and be consistent.” Inspiration into Administration These women spoke about the intrinsic motivation of fulfilling a dream, or about having the desire to work with adults after years of working directly with children. One woman felt she had achieved her life-long goal and described her career advancement as the ultimate experience. She stated that her professional position did more for her self-esteem than anything else in her professional career. Finally all the hard work had paid off! “I was raised in extreme poverty by a single parent and had five siblings. I feel as though I have accomplished so much.” One principal described herself as a reluctant leader because she had never wanted to be an administrator. She stated “Life’s circumstances pushed me into leadership; I enjoy the role because I can help so many people.” Her first position was in a community with a large Hispanic representation, and although she had the advantage of communicating in the community’s native language, she felt she “had been placed” there chiefly because she was Hispanic and not necessarily because she was the best qualified for the position. Despite a great deal of objective evidence that attested to her competencies and qualifications, she continued to think of herself as a reluctant leader and was not able to develop full confidence in her capabilities. According to Chance and Imes (1979), this is termed the impostor syndrome. And although men often share these feelings of being

The Rise of the Feminine    35

an impostor, women are more thoroughly socialized into this kind of behavior and so find their careers often blocked by this debilitating syndrome (Bell, 1990). Hispanic women seem especially susceptible to this trait, since they consider that if they even talk about personal competencies, they are bragging (Gil & Vazquez, 1996). Leadership: Styles and Issues The women interviewed described their leadership styles as democratic, open, and participative. They saw themselves as flexible, situational leaders who were sometimes directive and sometimes totally removed from giving direction. “It (leadership style) continually evolves. Like a learner, you must step back and reflect. Then it plateaus, but you must step forward. Overall the key components do not change. I value human interaction, collaboration, collegiality, and respectful communication. I don’t want people to make assumptions about me because of my culture or gender before they even get to know me as a person.” One of the superintendents stated that she had difficulty telling others what to do or being directive when she had to correct problems. In her view, people should be self-directed, but she has also now come to understand that this is not always the case. One high school principal candidly reported, “I am not a helicopter administrator; I do not hover over everything.” One of the participants felt that her credibility was challenged because of both gender and race. Men seemed to question her more than the other females on her staff, and several, regardless of gender, will ask to see a specific policy (“to see it in writing) before accepting her response to a concern. She did not believe that a male principal would have to confront as much of this type of questioning. At the beginning of her career, one of the interviewees began to question her abilities and, felt as though everyone believed she was not capable because she was operating in a male-oriented world. In communities with less Hispanic representation, the gender-related issue of leadership weakness emerged. In several cases, women reported that parents openly questioned the quality of the school’s educational program merely because a Hispanic principal was at the helm. Many of the participants also noted that it was not uncommon for them to feel like imposters. One respondent, who had a distinct Spanish accent, said people sometimes speak to her in a louder voice as though she does not understand them. She is angered by the assumption that an accent would affect her hearing. She holds a Ph.D. and has worked hard to achieve her position but struggles with the way in which she is sometimes treated because of her strong Spanish presence. Two women protested the way in which their leadership was questioned in terms of gender and culture. One principal’s

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greatest challenge was convincing the school community and her staff that she could handle gang and drug-related issues, issues which the public perceives require strong, male leadership for their resolution. Having one’s leadership questioned in such ways created a highly stressful work environment for them. Both felt they constantly had to prove themselves. One respondent felt that she had been placed in her position because the school district had a high influx of Hispanic students and was facing many problems. Although she had a strong leadership style and excellent credentials, including a doctoral degree from a reputable school, she felt her placement there was pure “tokenism.” This principal claimed her perception of herself would have been different if she had been placed in a less segregated school. She also noted that, in her district, no superintendencies or other key positions were held by Hispanic or female professionals. Deitz (1992) states that people continue to hire people who are images of themselves and so do not hire Hispanics. When Hispanics are sometimes sought out, they are often placed into token positions, positions that are fraught with so many difficulties that failure is almost inevitable. Summary This chapter portrays the experiences of women of color who have been successful in leadership roles; it also points to the commonality of their experiences. They all felt pressure to conform to existing norms; they had a profound sense of personal agency and power, and recognized the oppression which they saw operating in covert and overt ways through the thoughts and actions of colleagues and community members. These women experienced entrenched the strains that come from continually confronting patriarchal systems, the patriarchal games that are played out on a day-to-day basis within complex layers of acts and responses, some at more conscious levels than others. Yet, in the midst of this game playing and professional stress, the women portrayed in this chapter seem to represent a rising feminine with those leadership traits documented by Yukl, 2001 as uniquely feminine: the use of interpersonal skills, concern for building both cooperation and trust, and feminine traits such as support, empowerment of others, and caring. This is a shift away from emphasis on the male leadership traits of rationality, and whiteness which are, often described as the norm in this country (Chisholm, 2001; Parker & Ogilvie, 1996; Yoder, 2001). Nevertheless, this study makes it apparent that Houston (as cited in Abcarian, 2008, p. 12) is correct when she says that the rising feminine can create a hostile reaction at the same time as it also gives voice to new patterns of possibilities.

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References Abcarian, R. 2008. (2008, May 12). Hillary Clinton failed to master the female approach, former mentor says. Los Angeles Times, p. 12. Bell, C. S., & Chase, S. E. (1994). The underrepresentation of women in school leadership. In C. Marshall, (Ed) The new politics of race and gender, Washington, D.C.: Falmer Press. Bell. L. A. (1990). The gifted woman as impostor. Advanced Development: A Journal on Adult Giftedness, 2, 55–64. Bloom, C. M., & Erlandson, D. A. (2003). African American women principals in urban schools: Realities, (re) constructions, and resolutions. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED ED399622). Chance, P. & Imes, S. (1979). The imposter phenomenon in high achieving women: Dynamics and therapeutic interventions. Psychotherapy: Therapy, Research & Practice, 75(3), 241–246. Chisholm, L. (2001). Gender and leadership in South African educational administration. Gender and Education, 13(4), 387–399. Comas-Diaz, L. & Greene, B. (1995). Women of Color. New York: Guildford Press. Deitz, R. (1992). Hispanics in educational policy making position: Where are they? The Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education, 2(12), 6–8. Gil, M. R., & Vazquez, C. (1996). The Maria paradox: How Latinos merge old world traditions with new world self esteem. New York: Putnam. Glass, T.E. (2000, June). Where are all the women superintendents? American Association of School Administrators, The School Administrator Web Edition, 25 (24), 3 pages. Glass, T.E., Bjork, L., & Brunner, C. C. (2000). The study of the American school superintendency 2000: A look at the superintendent of education in the new millennium. Arlington, VA: American Association of School Administrators. Greene, B. A. (1995). Racial socialization as a tool in psychotherapy with African American children. In L. A. Vargas & J. D. Koss-Chioino (Eds.), Working with culture: Psychotherapeutic interventions with ethnic minority children and adolescents. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Harvard, P. A. (1986). Successful behaviors of Black women administrators in higher education: Implications for leadership. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 272092), Jones, H. & Montenegro, X, P. (1982). Recent trends in the representation of women and minorities in school administration and problems in documentation. Arlington, VA: American Association of School Administrators. Lamotey, K. (1993). African American principals: Bureaucrat/administrators and ethno humanists. Urban Education, 27(4), 395–412. Loder, T. L. (2005). On deferred dreams, callings, and revolving doors of opportunity: African American women’s reflections on becoming principals. Urban Review: Issues and Ideas in Public Education, 37(3), 243–265. McCray, C. R., Wright, J. V., & Beachum, F. D. (2007). Beyond “Brown”: Examining the perplexing plight of African American principals. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 34(4), 247–255.

38    L. H. WESSON and J. HUDSON National Center for Education Statistics. (1991). Race and Hispanic origin (Report No. 2). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce. Parker, P. S., & Ogilvie, D. (1996). Gender, culture, and leadership: Toward a culturally distinct model of African-American women executives’ leadership strategies. Leadership Quarterly, 7(2), 189–214. Rivers, N. L. (2007). The rise and fall of Black women public school superintendents. Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. Wagonner, A. (1992). Dramatic changes in U.S. population. Numbers and Needs: Ethnic Linguistic Minorities in the United States, 2(6), 1–3. Weiss, A. E. (1999). The glass ceiling: A look at women in the workforce. Brookfield, CT: Twenty-First Century Books. Wilson, M. C. (2004). Closing the leadership gap: Why women can and must help run the world. New York: Viking Penguin. Yoder, J. D. (2001). Making leadership work more effectively for women. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 815–828. Yukl, G. (2001). Leadership in organizations (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Part II Women Leaders: Power

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Chapter 4

Women as Successful Assistant Principals Elaine L. Wilmore The University of Texas of the Permian Basin

Women mentoring women to avenues of mutual success is our key to mutual professional development and success.

Although the assistant principalship is frequently seen as a pathway to the principalship and other upper level administrative positions, little is documented in existing research about the role of women in these jobs. As early as 1968, the State of New York began studying women in administration and stressed the need for more female recruitment into preparation programs (Information Center on Education, 1990). This trend is further documented in New York and Pennsylvania with their encouragement of strategies of mentoring female administrators (Office of Educational Research, 1994; Pavan, 1986). Today females remain dominant in teaching positions, but are still under represented in administrative positions (Crabb, 1996; Cunanan, 1994; Mertz, 1988). What is it like to be a female assistant principal at this time? What criteria define success and what tips can current female assistant principals offer to others? This study focused on female assistant principals of public and private schools in the Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex area. It has been interesting to note that there are many commonly recurring themes regardless of school district, level, or sector. Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 41–49 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Assistant principals’ job responsibilities are busy, varied, and complex. Regardless of gender, they are asked to do everything from discipline management, textbook acquisition, admissions, staff review, deciding on times of dismissal for Special Education meetings, new teacher training, as well as faculty and staff observations and evaluations. They collaborate with parent training and community outreach programs to increase campus productivity and visibility. In addition, they work with at-risk and other special populations, in the role of instructional leader. They counsel and provide support to both students and teachers so that learning can take place. They also often manage and supervise student activities. And, they spend more time each day in the cafeteria than they would like. Their job includes building morale on campus and serving as additional communicators for public relations purposes and for the building of community support. In general, assistant principals do their assigned duties, and, also deal with everything the principal does not have time to do or does not wish to do. Frequent comments were made that addressed the fact that principals have more responsibility for public relations and problem solving from a global perspective, whereas assistant principals have to deal more directly with students and specific problems. Regardless, the primary goal of both is to make the school successful. The criterion for success in the assistant principalship is the same for both men and women. Each must prove themselves effective at generating student success, working cooperatively with others, developing a positive image for the school, and, in general, at problem solving. However, women still feel they must “do twice as much to get half as far.” Stereotypes and Perceptions For both male and female assistant principals, excellence is defined in terms of student success. Providing quality customer service by getting along with people, listening to their concerns, and acting upon them are also important. Women assistant principals frequently comment that stereotypes still persist. They are perceived as being more sensitive and nurturing, but also more emotional. They are more frequently asked to deal with issues or interpersonal sensitivity than men are. They are also expected to deal more specifically with curriculum and instruction issues, especially campus improvement projects. Women are perceived as more organized and so as doing a better job with details than men. Consequently, they are also more frequently given tedious assignments, such as scheduling, which takes vast amounts of time, often at night and on the weekends. There continue to be more female assistant principals on the elementary level and more male assistant principals on the secondary (Mertz, 1988). Men are more often

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expected to focus on athletics, the “dirty work” such as custodial responsibilities, and discipline management. One woman commented that breaking up fights was the only area in which she felt she was handicapped by her gender. Because of her petite size, she regularly works out. It increases both her muscle tone and her confidence. So, the stereotype still exists that men are better managers and decision makers. Needless to say, this is not a popular perception among women. If a man is aggressive, he is seen as a take charge person; if a woman is aggressive, she is perceived as “bitchy”. Women also have to work harder to gain professional respect than men do. They must be strong and hold themselves to a higher standard. Men are inclined to get respect simply due to their gender. People tend to respond better to unpopular decisions made by males than by females, and males are less likely to be held accountable for their actions. Female assistant principals also complain that parents are not generally as rude to men as they are to women. Gender-Related Obstacles, Benefits, and Experiences Sometimes it both helps and hurts to be a female seeking an administrative position. One woman commented that her gender helped her because the campus wanted a balance of male and female assistant principals. Personal issues such as the length of skirts and shorts for dress code purposes, restroom problems, searches, dispensing of feminine products, corporal punishment, and sexual harassment are problems that are often dealt with more comfortably by a female. Also, some women felt race was more of a factor than gender in getting a job. “White women have to work harder than White men or any other group to be promoted,” one assistant principal commented. Several felt that being a female directly hindered them in job searches. “I want someone with pants,” one woman was told, while another lost a computer programming job because she was perceived as not being able to lift the computer. A different woman reported another incident. “I had an interview that lasted approximately 45 minutes. For the same position, a male was interviewed, and his interview lasted all but 15 minutes. He was the one that received the position, and I often wondered about that situation.” It is also easier for males to be promoted within administration. “Two years ago I was mentoring a new male assistant principal with only three years teaching experience. A year later he was named my new principal. I had applied for the same position.” District concern over women being off the job during their child-bearing years still worries female administrators. But, this is a fact of life. It is also totally illegal to discriminate against someone where hiring or promotion

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are concerned due to these issues. Potential female administrators need to be clearly aware of their rights. The best way to avert this is to make yourself the best candidate who is available to a district, and this can be done by developing a quality work record. Then market yourself effectively. Letting others know that you are aware of your legal rights also signals your knowledge of the law on other legal issues. This is a positive attribute in a building administrator. However, while interpersonal skills are often a strength of women, they can also be a weakness. Women complain about petty jealousies and competitiveness among women. “Cat fights” are not good for anyone. “I’ve heard comments from women teachers that they would rather work for a man principal any day than to work for a female principal.” As women assume more positions of leadership, these are issues that need to be explored and addressed. Women are placed in paradoxical situations. “When we are soft, we are considered weak. When we are firm, we are considered to be harsh and uncaring.” It is a challenge to find the middle ground. Finding this balance and solving this paradox is a major issue for female career advancement both within the field of education and outside of it. Intimidation is another key gender issue. “Male parents sometimes do not take females seriously, and are more prone to call the superintendent to complain about them. They feel they can intimidate you,” a woman complained. But, parents can be rude to any administrator. The key is to never back down. Be polite, but also be confident and assertive when necessary. One assistant principal complained that the head coach tried to intimidate her with both his size and clout. It did not work. Hold your ground, and be strong to maximize credibility and earn respect. Dressing professionally is even more important for female administrators than for males. Males are perceived as being authoritarian by nature, whereas women are still seen by some as being more appropriately placed “behind the stove and having babies”. This problem exists more in rural and suburban districts than in urban ones, but it is still an issue. Women have to earn the same level of respect that is automatically bestowed on males. Dressing professionally at all times is a first step. The Glass Ceiling There was disagreement on the issue of the glass-ceiling and the degree to which it restrains women. With the advent of more women superintendents, most felt that this problem was slowly dissipating. Others still felt that men could move ahead professionally faster and with fewer credentials than women. Part of this was attributed to “male-bonding” and to the allegiances spawned from the “good old boy” networks. Some women felt these

Women as Successful Assistant Principals    45

were unconscious quirks of an old system. The issue of race verses gender resurfaces as one woman comments, “A glass ceiling exists for Anglo female administrators and some Black female administrators. The new push is for Hispanic bilingual female administrators especially those with doctorates. More often than not, a male would be picked over a female.” Mandated campus and district grading and accountability have served to raise the glass ceiling. “More emphasis is being placed on excellence rather than the male being the only one in charge. Women and men are being seen by what they do and how they lead. If you cannot help a school district grow, you will not last long. You have to stay current on issues and keep in touch with what it takes for students to succeed. Just being a man or a woman is not enough.” Women are also perceived as being stronger than men in the areas of curriculum and instruction. In light of the increase in accountability measures, they are also looked upon as stronger administrative candidates. Regardless, there is still strong sentiment that, while the glass ceiling problem has been alleviated to some degree, disparities still exists. Mentoring The need for quality mentoring programs has not changed. Most women assistant principals do not have a mentor. When they do, it is through an informal network. Although several feel they have a support network to call upon, they feel the male good old boy network is still alive and flourishing. “Females are expected to do twice the work for half the recognition.” Some women commented on the mentoring relationships that developed while they were in their university internships, but even these have faded with time. Of those that do receive personal guidance, some are from male mentors and some from female. Equal numbers of comments were made to the effect that women are better mentors than men because they are better at nurturing; women are sometimes viewed as not being successful mentors because of their “competitive spirits” and tendencies to “petty jealousy”. “It really depends on the personality of the female. If the female is strong and secure in her job, she will mentor any female around. If she is insecure, she won’t mentor or help.” Males simply, “pat each other on the back and promote someone because of who they are.” Informal networks made up primarily of other assistant principals are valuable for problem analysis and advice. It is important to note, however, that these are peer relationships and not equivalent to mentoring from principals or other senior administrators. These peer networks tend to last for years, even after assistants advance into other positions.

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Career Advancement Most female assistant principals want to advance. Principalship is the number one aspiration. Several wish to pursue central office positions, particularly in curriculum development, and some want to be superintendents. All feel that to advance they must keep up with cutting edge issues and educational trends at the same times as they are performing excellently in their current positions. Others advise them to work harder and smarter and to stay informed of new educational research and successful methods, and implement them: Become more politically savvy, communicate your successes in the right places, and be visible. Join district and community committees, generate success and positive public relations for your campus and district. See to it that those around you, particularly students, succeed. Success breeds success. And, express your desire to move up the career ladder. If no one asks, volunteer. Once again, “It seems that whatever women do, they must do it twice as well as men to be thought half as good. However, regardless of gender, once I really prove myself to be worthy, I have faith that I will prosper.” Some assistant principals do not wish to proceed to higher professional levels. They are happy where they are, since they feel the assistant principal has a more direct influence on students than the principal. Some do not wish to participate in the political games that they feel are necessary for professional advancement. One assistant principal felt so strongly about the subject that she has turned down several opportunities to become a principal. She likes being more directly involved with students and teachers and felt that this would not be possible in the position of principal. . In order for women to advance, each must make plans and take steps to toward their goals: Set clear goals, and devise strategies for achieving them. Include self–evaluation, reflection, and time-lines to help yourself stay focused. Maintaining a focus on what you are doing and on your larger purpose is essential to success. Tips for Others Some current female assistant principals offer a variety of tips for others seeking to enter their ranks, including: • • • •

Stay on top of issues. Know that just being a male or female is not enough. Know what you do, and do what you know well. Be yourself.

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• Do not try to be what you are not. (You will not be perceived as credible.) • Display an interest and involvement in all activities. • Be consistent and fair. • Work well with people. • Collaborate and cooperate with others. (Remember, facilitating success in others will always come back to you in a positive way. Be a life-long learner.) • Be flexible, friendly, and enthusiastic. • Have a sense of humor. • Walk the fine line of being assertive and proactive without being aggressive. (Know when to step back!) Covey says begin with the end in mind (Covey, 1990). Make your accomplishments known as well as your desire for advancement. Be proactive, but patient. Prove yourself through action, not through words. Be self-assured. Do not be intimidated. Do even the smallest things well. Be known for quality. Dream big. Never limit yourself or allow others to do so even when they try. Most of all, never give up your dreams. Capitalize on women’s nurturing skills and having an empathetic heart, but also develop an armadillo skin. You will not please everyone all the time. “Put your emotions in your pocket during stressful situations.” Be honest and sincere in all you do. Learn to manage your time properly. “When you can master juggling four balls, pick up a fifth.” If you do not have a mentor, find one. Select someone who has qualities you admire. Ask him or her to shepherd you, mentor you, and help you become all you can be. Most of the time they will be honored that you think this much of them. Do not be intrusive on their time. Because they are successful, they will have limited time for you; so plan for it, and use it efficiently. Solicit their input; then utilize it. Good mentoring relationships can produce professional growth and development for both the mentor and the mentee. In teaching the mentee, the mentor must be self-reflective. He or she needs to see what has worked and why. Inner reflection promotes growth. Despite differing role expectations for men and women, women will succeed as assistant principals if they look for mentoring assistance. Interestingly, female assistant principals in private schools view their jobs in much the same way as those in public schools. Their responsibilities, frustrations, and joys are similar. The one area where they deviated significantly was in a Catholic school. Catholic schools have traditionally been run by nuns, so by females, so “The good old boy network simply does not exist in Catholic schools.” Assistant principals there do not feel a glass ceiling exists. “In many Catholic dioceses, women hold most of the positions of power.” Because of that, this assistant principal does, “not see my gender as an ob-

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stacle or a benefit to my success now or in the future. I feel very fortunate to work in an environment that places no special emphasis on gender.” In closing, this study has allowed us to conclude that women assistant principals like their jobs. They feel they are having an impact on students. Although most of them desire to advance administratively, there are some who do not. They are content to do exactly what they are doing now. Gender-related barriers still exist and need to be carefully addressed. Women want and need strong mentors to help them address these issues and grow professionally, as well as to help them navigate the choppy political waters that educators face today. The development of formal and informal mentoring networks will be key to the professional development of all administrators in the twenty-first century. Growth will be enhanced for both the assistant principals and those that mentor them. The insights gained can only create a win-win situation. The benefits will then flow beyond administrators to the students they serve. Education at its finest is the experience of a life-long continuum of growth. Women mentoring women toward mutual success is the key to mutual professional development. The assistant principalship is an optimum circumstance for self-reflection and growth. By framing problems as opportunities, female assistant principals can capitalize on their chances for advancement. Learning from the experiences of successful women assistant principals in the field today provides opportunities for the development of wisdom and strength for the leaders of tomorrow. Carpe diem! Seize your day of opportunity! References Covey, S. R. (1990). The seven habits of highly effective people. New York: Simon and Schuster. Crabb, S. A. (1996, November). A comparison by gender of selected educational administration positions represented by NBTA membership in the Province of New Brunswick. Paper presented at the meeting of the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association, Tuscaloosa, AL. Cunanan, E. S. (1994, April). A comparative career profile in 1985–1990 female and male graduates of educational administration from a Midwestern research university. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Information Center on Education (1990). Women administrators in New York state public schools, 1986–1989. (Report NO. EA022519). Albany, NY: New York State Education Dept. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 326966). Mertz, N. T. (1988, April). The changing profile of school leadership: Women in administration. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Office of Educational Research. (1994). Assistant principals internship program’s graduates, 1991–1992. Follow-up evaluation (Report No. UD030289). Brooklyn, NY:

Women as Successful Assistant Principals    49 New York City Board of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 374539). Pavan, B. N. (1986, April). Mentors and mentoring functions perceived as helpful to certified aspiring and incumbent female and male public school administrators. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.

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Chapter 5

Leadership Role of Academic Chairpersons in Higher Education Issues and Recommendations Sandra Lee Gupton University of North Florida

Why is the academic chairperson’s role so ambiguous and variable? What are the primary expectations of this role in higher education? How is it perceived by faculty, chief administrators, and practicing chairpersons themselves? The role of the principal (similar in proximity to classrooms as the position of academic chair) has evolved quite dramatically over the past two decades. Where it was management-oriented, it now focuses more on instructional leadership. Given the increasing demands for accountability in effective instruction and student achievement, as these are reflected in accreditation requirements and program approval procedures, is it fitting that the position of academic chair should also evolve. Moreover, it is appropriate that it should change in the way that the school principalship has. Both of these are the administrative and supervisory personnel who work Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 51–67 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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most closely with faculty and who are in charge of their assignments and annual evaluations. Is such an evolution taking place in higher education? If so, how and where is it happening? If not, why not? And, whose responsibility should it be to oversee and take responsibility for instructional quality and programs in higher education? Examining various perceptions of the position of departmental chairperson in higher education today is one dimension of this study. The thesis of the current paper is that greater understanding of this position can help maximize its potential. It closely examines seven key topics related to academic chairpersons who have varying perceptions of this position. These contribute substantially to how one thinks about the role of the departmental chairperson and thus, warrant further study. We here consider such things as the complexity of the position; motivation for assuming it ; preparation for the work, ; workload; acquiring the position; chairperson as instructional leader; and changing role of the position. Description of Study This author’s research on departmental chairpersons began five years ago after she herself had served as a departmental chair for one year. She and a former colleague, Ric Keaster, a former departmental chair and then Associate Dean of the College of Education at Western Kentucky University, collaborated in the original study. It focused on the issues of brevity, variety, and fragmentation as characteristics of both the position of the school principal and the departmental chairperson (Keaster & Gupton, 2004). The data collected from the first study led this author to probe further into those aspects of the chairperson’s responsibilities that related most to her interest in the chair’s role in instructional leadership and also to inquire into the impact of the accountability movement on this position. A questionnaire was designed by the researcher and used to collect data for the study. It was an on-line survey which solicited information on personal profiles, job profiles, career paths, and perception of the evolution of the role and responsibilities of the department chair. Twenty-one questions were listed in several formats. The Likert scale was used to solicit perceptional responses from participants; text responses were requested where responses could express personal attitudes and perspectives; several yes or no responses were also options. The WebSurveyor® software program was utilized to construct the survey (Appendix A) and provided the URL for participants to access it and submit their responses. Universities (300+) with large student populations were randomly selected across the country for two separate survey e-mails. The first group included chairs across the campus in all colleges and had 53 respondents . The second group of surveys was sent to chairs in only colleges of education and produced 42 responses. 95 responses total were incoming

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from both groups. Participants were e-mailed a brief description of our research inquiry and asked to complete the survey and submit it electronically. The WebSurveyor® provided a compilation of the responses. This chapter expands on the data from past research methodology by drawing on 1) additional data from current literature reviews, and 2) current data collected from online websites of randomly selected higher education institutions. It provided job descriptions and information on recruitment and hiring strategies for academic chairpersons in these institutions. The several topics discussed are discussed here are those that emerged most frequently from an analysis of the accumulated data of this research. This data was compiled from the five year study of those topics which were taken to be most critical to any initiative aimed at better understanding and at maximizing the potential of the position of the academic chairperson. The Complexity of the Position The literature on critical issues relating to the position of academic chairperson may vary in many respects , but one thing it consistently points to is the complexity of the position. (i.e., Seagren et al, 1994; Lucas, 1994; Anderson, 1997). The position of department chair has the unique distinction among campus administrators in higher education of offering the maximal access to the core academic processes of a college or university. “Arguably,” posits John Bennett, “the most important leaders on campus, department and division chairs are located at just that point within the institution where academic services are actually delivered . . . or not” (Green, 1988, p. 57). He contends that, indeed, “. . . if chairs are not doing their jobs, the educational mission of the institution is truly jeopardized” (p. 57). As a lynchpin among a number of potentially competing entities (individuals and groups), the academic chairperson often plays a very key role—and so can be either an asset or a liability—in defining adepartment’s place within the larger institution. The role is characterized in the literature as being frustrating and time-consuming (Seedorf & Gmelch, 1989), difficult and time-consuming (Makosky & Roach, 1981), time-consuming (i.e., preventing research and writing, require that people stay current in their academic fields, limiting opportunities to teach, and restricting time for leisure) (Seedorf, 1991), and the chairperson is often ‘ caught in the middle.’ (Seagren & Miller, 1994). “No wonder,” Reed Anderson posits in his study on the nature of academic chairpersons, “higher administrators invariably characterize the chair’s job as the most difficult and complex on campus” (1997, p. 1). Seagren describes the position as being highly stressful and one “. . . squeezed between the demands of upper administration and institutional expectations on the one side and the expectations of faculty, staff, and students

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on the other, with both attempting to influence and shape the chair” (1994, p. 1). These competing populations all have varying perceptions of the chair’s role and such perceptions are undoubtedly a major reason the position remains so ill-defined. The term “situational leadership”—a frequently cited in today’s leadership literature—is particularly appropriate for this position since the skills, personality, and strategies needed to be successful vary widely and are thoroughly context-dependent. Despite the extensive literature that now exists on the topic of chairs, researchers Murry and Stauffacher from the University of Arkansas note that “what has not been addressed is how different internal constituents of chairs (deans, fellow chairs, and faculty) perceive the importance of certain skills and behaviors necessary for the effective administration of academic departments in research universities. . . . While chairs may well believe they are effectively performing the functions of department administration, what is far more important is the perception held by the primary internal constituents with whom chairs work” (2001, p. 63).If such widespread sentiment regarding the importance and complexity of the position is frequently found in the literature, then, why is it that, in academe, so little attention paid to the selection, development, and retention of departmental chairpersons? This issue is addressed frequently in current literature on the topic and was a key concern in 1988 in the book Madeleine Green edited on leadership in higher education.She noted even then that “higher education’s relative lack of interest in developing administrative leadership” is because places greater value on teaching, not administration. She faults the culture of higher educationas being one that sees administration as a “necessary evil requiring little special aptitude or preparation” (p. 2). Green makes an eloquent plea in this book, however, for more careful selection of administrators, particularly departmental chairpersons, because of the critical position they occupy as guardians of academic quality. Yet, it has been almost two decades since the publication of this book and research indicates that, despite mounting concerns about the importance of the academic chairperson’s position and its potential impact on the effectiveness of the institution, changes on campuses have been mininal. There has been little further clarification and revision of expectations for the position; similarly for preparation and motivation of potential chairs, or the consideration given to their recruitment, selection, and professional development. Motivation to Assume the Position Given the complexity of the position and the confusion that sometimes surrounds it, why would anyone want to take on such a responsibility? One of the most interesting dimensions of this researcher’s study is the findings re-

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lated to academic chairpersons’ reasons for assuming the position. Over a third of those who responded to the questionnaire said they were “drafted” into the position for various reasons: “no one else would do it,” “it was my turn,” “to avoid the alternative,” or “I gave in to a persuasive dean.” Further analysis of the responses pertaining to motivation to assume the position revealed a contrast between the respondents who were hired on a continuing basis and those who were interim (i.e. filling in for only the short term). The chairs who considered themselves permanent were more motivated take the the position because it offered the opportunity to make a positive impact and posed a leadership challenge. Those who indicated they volunteered to do it under pressure for a short while, who were coerced into it, or who took it because “someone had to do it” or “they begged me to take it” were significantly less interested in the leadership potential of the position; nor were they so concerned about the possibility of having a lasting, positive impact on the work of the organization. In three studies conducted by the Center for the Study of the Department Chair at Washington State University (Gmelch & Miskin, 1993), results pertaining to motivation were similar to the findings of this researcher. 46.8 % of their respondents said they were “drafted by their dean or colleagues” to assume the position. Although the two most common motive found in the Washington study and others for taking on the position , were “to make a difference” or “for the challenge of leadership,” the fact that such a large number of chairs said they were in the position because they had been drafted into doing it by others , should give pause for thought and concern. Various studies report over a third to a half of current chairs feel like they are in a temporary situation and are motivated to be there, not by the potential it offers for leadership or to make a difference (these being presumably the most honorable reasons for takein the position), but by having been asked to assume it for an interim period of time. But, howeffective are they likely to be when they do not really want to be in the position and are not motivated to make a difference or to provide leadership? Preparation for the Position Very few academic chairs have had formal training/education for administration or leadership. “One of the peculiar features of the position of department chair,” writes Hecht et al., “is that most individuals accepting the position have little, if any, previous administrative experience to match the nature and magnitude of their new roles and responsibilities” (1999, p. 7). In a major study conducted in 2001 at California State University. 66% of the 450 survey respondents report having “zero” hours of preparation for their new positions. In fact, both existing literature and this researcher’s data

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reaffirm the fact that the vast majority of practicing chairs report “learning on-the-job” (67% in the present study) and “having mentors” (35 %) as the primary ways they gained the skills and know-how to do the job. This is quite unlike the focus in public pre-K–12 schools. There, administrative positions require specified degrees and licensing and these are made accessible only to those who can demonstrate that they have already met certain requirements for assuming administrative positions. . When asked what kind of preparation they would like to have had respondents (23%) to this study chose “learning on-the-job,” (44%) “being mentored,” and (28%) “attending workshops and in-service training sessions” over any form of (3%) formal preparation or degree. Yet, increasingly, the literature is calling for better training and preparedness of chairpersons in higher education. For example, in her 1999 article on the preparation of department chairs, Jennifer Lindholm concludes, “In order for community colleges to continue to thrive in the coming century, it will be essential for chairs to have the necessary skills to perform effectively . . . it is perhaps time to endorse a conception of leadership at the department chair level that goes beyond the traditionally rigid leader vs. manager classification and to consider instead a new form of managerial leadership” (1999, p. 2). “Department faculty seek a strong advocate, a consensus builder, a budget wizard, and a superb manager,” claim Hecht et al. (1999, p. 1). “Academic deans and provosts seek department chairs who have superb managerial and communication skills and are able to implement university policies and directives.” Ann F. Lucas who has worked with thousands of academic chairs at many different campuses has concluded that chairs everywhere share two needs in common: 1) an understanding of small group dynamics and 2) team leadership (1994, p. xv) and that these are requisite to effective leadership. Other researchers suggest that no single set of skills is appropriate for all chairs. They go on to recommend that each situation be assessed and a match found between the needs of the particular department and college and the skills of the candidate selected. Still, none of the current literature included in this researcher’s review took the position that most department chairs’ training was sufficient and that special training and preparation needs to be supported by the institution for those who need it. Workload Throughout the literature as well as in this present study, the workload of chairpersons surfaces as a major reason for the average, brief tenure of chairs (4 years). People, are reluctant to assume the position, and so few will do it without coercion or under “temporary” conditions. (Well over a third of the survey respondents in this study reported filling such a position

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on an interim basis.) “The demanding, multifaceted role that these midlevel campus leaders fill,” posits Jennifer Lindholm, “is essential in ensuring effective day-to-day management of campus life. . . . The nature of the role itself may also lead to high levels of burnout, particularly for those who are not well prepared to handle the inevitable demands of administration” (1999, p. 1). Clearly, there is wide variation in the roles and responsibilities of chairs. However, one common characteristic of them all is stress. A host of situational variables impact the workload of chairs. They include such aspects as their department’s stage of development, the specific management function, the academic discipline, and the chair’s own style of leadership (Seagren et al., 1994, p. 2). The number of courses taught and the number of faculty supervised are two of the workload variables that were investigated in this study. Data from this research indicated that most chairs continue to teach at least one course a year with many reporting upwards of 4 courses per academic year. The expectation, of course, remains in place for a continuing commitment to scholarly work. . In this study, College of Education chairs teach the least (21% not at all). Over 80% supervise fewer than 20 faculty. COE chairs supervise decidedly larger numbers of faculty. Only 53 % of the COE chairs supervise fewer than 20 faculty. Forty-eight percent of COE chairs supervise over 20 fulltime faculty and another 20+ part-time faculty members. Sixty-nine percent of all other chairs supervise fewer than 10 part-time faculty. Questionnaire data from this study also revealed that most of the chairs experience high levels of stress in this position. The most frequently cited sources of stress are are “too much paperwork,” the current emphasis on accreditation documentation ( of student achievement. Overall, they note that the position involves so much responsibility, yet gives them so little power. These issues are not specific to this study; they surface time and again in the literature and in other studies on academic chairpersons (i.e., Chu & Veregge, The California State University Department Chair Survey Report, 2002). The nature of the chair’s role, the ways in which it varies contextually, and the sources of extreme malcontent and stress so often reported by chairs should be given careful consideration as universities and colleges configure policies and procedures. The aim should be to acquiring and maintaining chairs that are defined and managed more reasonably and facilitatea happier, more effective, less-stressed cadre of academic chairpersons. Acquiring the Position “One would think,” concludes John Bennett in his 1983 book, The Academic Department Chairperson, “that people would be carefully selected for the

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job on the basis of managerial experience and aptitude. In fact, of course, chairpersons are typically chosen—whether by colleagues or deans—for very different reasons . . . including the occasional judgment that it is an individual’s turn for the position or the even harsher realization that no one else will take the job” (1983, p. 3). Unfortunately, the processes for acquiring chairpersons have changed very little since Bennett made this observation over 20 years ago. Chairpersons in higher education are often selected (or coerced, or given their “turn” in the rotation process) from the ranks of faculty rather than being through a full-blown search which draws on external candidates. And, they are usually selected for short terms (3 to 5 years ), are not required to have had any administrative or leadership training or expertise, and are rarely expected to have be supported in acquiring specific on-the-job training. The present study asked respondents how they acquired the position. Over a third of them considered themselves ‘interim’ and stated that they had felt pressured into accepting the position from someone in their organization . . . the dean, the provost, colleagues. Not surprising is the additional finding that those who actually chose to take the position of chair were the ones who thought of it as long-term (“permanent”) and also those who “wanted to make a difference.” They stated that this was their primary motive for assuming the position. In their 1993 survey of over a thousand chairs, Gmelch and Miskin report similar findings. Almost half of their respondents said they were in the position because they were drafted. Either no one else would do it, or they agreed to do it out of a sense of duty, it was their turn, all clearly extrinsic motives. They distinguish the reasons cited for being in the position as being either extrinsic or intrinsic;and, they conclude that chairs motivated by intrinsic reasons (e.g., out of a commitment to the position and its challenges and responsibilities) are likely to be more effective and stay in the position longer. John Bennett (1983) suggests that the primary reason for such marginal treatment of the process of acquiring a department chair is the position’s relative newness in the organizational scheme of this country’s higher educational institutions. Departmental units in Cornell, Harvard, and Clark Universities only emerged around the end of the 1800’s. Not until the late 1960’s, however, was any training provided for department or division chairpersons. Whatever the reason may be for the current problematic state of this administrative position, the time seems ripe for the higher education community to decide with greater certainty what exactly the job of chairperson should be . They also need to determine how they can help best fulfill its mission, and then develop relevant policies and procedures for finding appropriately skilled and motivated people who might be appropriate for the position.

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Chairperson as instructional leader Although the complex nature and importance of the department chair is frequently underscored in the literature dealing with the role and expectations of the position, the specific skills, functions, and responsibilities associated with it vary widely. In particular, the literature offers only scant information on instructional leadership.(Seagren, 1993, p. 2). For example, higher education has historically given faculty a great deal of autonomy under the culturally established right to “academic freedom.” Thus, it is rare in higher education that faculty are observed for the purpose of giving them feedback on their performance so that they might improve,or for the purpose of monitoring of the curriculum. This stands in stark contrast to the role of today’s school principal (the K–12’s administrator with a parallel position in the administrative hierarchy)whose major responsibility is oversight and leadership in assuring the quality of classroom instruction and student achievement. In fact, in many universities such behavior on the part of department chairs would surely evoke strong protests and appeals from faculty, many of whom would view it as invasive and in violation of their right to academic freedom. This fiercely defended and often protected right is not nearly so prevalent among teachers in preK–12 schools. There they are routinely are observed and counseled by their principal, peers, and other supervisory staff with the aim of improving their instruction; and, this goes on throughout their careers. “If effective teaching is to become more important in higher education,” writes Ann Lucas (1994), “leadership of department chairs will be crucial in improving the overall quality of instruction in every department” (p. 99). However, the data also clearly indicate that few chairs are prepared to assume this responsibility even if the culture of their institution did support their functioning as key instructional leaders. The majority of the chairpersons in higher education has had little to no training for the job and sees no real benefit in any form of formal education except on-the-job, in-service workshops. Data indicate that what current chairs value most is a runaway preference for simply gaining experience on the job. Furthermore, in the questionnaire from this study, when data was collected from current chairs, in the overall averages, instructional leadership was ranked below the top three of the five prioritized functions which respondents were asked to assess. (i.e. personnel issues, instructional supervision, program oversight & curriculum development, dealing with students, and paperwork). Thus, the perception on the part of faculty and chairs regarding the importance of instructional leadership is that, while it has some importance, it was not selected (in this study) overall as one of the three most important functions, or one the functions to which a significant amount of time should be devoted. Yet, the literature of today’s researchers and authors often claim that instructional leadership

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ought to be a top priority for academic chairs. There seems to be, then, a perceptual gap here, one that warrants closer scrutiny and requires further deliberation about the importance of instructional leadership. This is, indeed, an important function of the work of today’s academic chairperson, and, that being the case, why is it not given higher priority in practice? This question needs to be asked with particular urgency givne the fact that the literature is so supportive of the role of the chair where educational quality is concerned. Who is better situated in higher education than the academic chairpersonto serve as the custodian of standards for student outcomes when it comes to accounting for the expenditure of the public’s tax dollar? Changing role of the Academic Chairperson A final section of this study’s questionnaire asked chairs to respond to an open-ended question: How do you think the role of the academic chair is evolving, particularly in light of the increased demand for accountability? And do you agree with the changing role? Chairs who responded were generally in agreement that the role of department chair is indeed changing—particularly where increased assessment and monitoring for accreditation purposes were concerned. Also, frequently mentioned, were the increased paperwork that accompanied this assessment and monitoring. It serves to allow departments to respond to stated standards and prepare reports required by various accreditation agencies. A number of respondents commented that they felt that the position of chair was becoming less powerful, at the same time, as it had come to require a good deal more work and responsibility. The increased quantity of meaningless paperwork was frequently cited as a major obstacle to effectiveness on the job. The overall tenor of the responses to these open-ended questions about the perceived changes in the role of academic chairperson suggested that most chairs are not content with their roles and often feel marginalized, powerless, and overburdened with cumbersome, menial tasks, responsibilities that amount to little more than useless paperwork. The chairs’ pervasive dissatisfaction with their work is underscored in similar findings regarding , stress level, and frustration. So, how successful can such unhappy people possibly be? Is the job ill-defined? Are the chairs poorly selected? Or, is the position as it is now conceived of unmanageable ? As a six-year veteran department chair, this author believes that it a great deal is is at issue here and that we ought not fail to pay attention to such pervasive concerns about the role and nature of this position.

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Further Questions How important are these findings? How should chairs be hired? If this research data is, indeed, indicative of the way in which larger population of chairs assess their professional positions, then is the current way in which they acquire their positions satisfactory? Does it facilitate leadership on the job? And, why is the position so often viewed by senior administrators, and even by chairs themselves, as short-term or interim? Is the common practice of rotating faculty into the chair’s position still a justifiable? Should it be the method by which we acquire the type of leadership that departments currently need? If leadership and administrative degrees are deemed necessary qualifications for a principalship, then why is the degree given so little regard where departmental chairs in higher education are concerned? Should instructional leadership be assigned higher priority among the many functions of chairs, given the increased demand in higher education for accountability for students’ instruction? How will colleges of education account for the impact that their students’ teaching has in pre-K–12 schools given that this assessment is now required by the National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education? What role should departmental chairpersons in higher education assume so as to ensure the quality of their department’s instruction? And what role should they play in accreditation processes? What is a reasonable workload for chairpersons given the expectations of the position? Why do chairs generally feel so powerless? How can this question be addressed in order to better meet the needs of departments and colleges and, so also, to increase the morale of their chairs? How should functions of today’s academic chairperson be revitalized and redefined in light of the current push for increased accountability for the quality of their department’s programs and student achievement? Recommendations The position of academic chairperson in higher education defies a onesize-fits-all job description. However, based on the practices and procedures most common in this country and, also, on the evidence collected from this study and other research from various types of institutions, the following recommendations are offered here. They are intended to assist in improving the effectiveness of the position where appropriate:

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1. Be strategic about the procedures used to select an individual for this position. In-house candidates and external candidates can both be effective, but the frequently used method of rotation among faculty and turn-taking for appointing chairs should be abandoned. Promoting from within without conducting a search can be a good method under the right circumstances, but the situation needs to be carefully considered and a decision needs to be reached on whether or not a full-scale search among external candidates is needed. 2. Seek candidates with administrative/leadership experience and/or acumen. 3. Review and update (or create) the chairperson’s job description and make certain it fits the current needs of the department, college, and university. 4. Review policies pertaining to the administrative hierarchy on campus to define the appropriate role for the chair in institutional decisionmaking (i.e., budgeting, personnel, and programs) and accreditation processes. 5. Seek ways to diminish unnecessary paperwork for chairpersons. 6. Deans, provosts, and presidents should have regular meetings with chairs to get their input on how they can be more effective, to exchange perspectives on campus issues. They need to listen carefully so as to learn how chairs view their work. This can facilitate the effectiveness of the position. Chairs should also meet regularly as a group across campus for networking, giving mutual support, and sharing ideas and concerns. 7. Provide top-quality, on-going training and mentoring for chairs; particular support should be given to new chairs with no administrative background. 8. Rethink the term of appointment. More chairs may have the potential for greater longevity as opposed to merely being interim or shortterm residents of their office (4 years or fewer, as is now typical). 9. Routinely revisit, review, and adapt the description of the position in order to ensure that what chairs are asked to do is actually what is most needed; it is also important that demands of the position be reasonable given the constantly changing circumstances in professional life on campuses. These recommendations are based upon data collected from the study that has been in progress over the past six years; they are also drawn from this researcher’s many years in education (as a K–12 public school educator and administrator, higher education faculty member, and for the past six years, departmental chairperson). As issues of accountability continue to mount and have greater impact on all of the institutions of education in

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this country, the question of who is responsible for day-to-day accountability are likely to loom larger. They may prove to be a topic which requiring s further study; additional deliberation may also be necessary to tap and maximize the leadership potential of this pivotal position. References Anderson, R. (Spring, 1997). Ex cathedra? The changing role of the department chair. ADFL Bulletin, 28(3). Bennett, J.B. (1983). Managing the academic department. American Council on Education & Macmillan Publishing Company: New York. Chu, D. & Veregge, S. (2002). The California State University Department Chair Survey Report. Office of the Chancellor and the Academic Senate at California State University: Chico. Gmelch, W.H. & Miskin,, V.D. (1993). Understanding the challenges of department chairs. Leadership skills for department chairs. Bolton, MA: Anker (pp. 3–18). Green, M.F. (1988). Leaders for a new era: Strategies for higher education. American Council on Education & Macmillan Pub. Co.: New York. Gupton, S.L. (February, 2006). Academic department chairperson as instructional leader: Oxymoron, critical need, or mission impossible? Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education, San Diego, CA. Gupton, S. L. & Keaster, R. (October, 2005). The nature of the work of academic chairs: Examination of full-time versus part-time perspectives. A paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Southern Regional Council of Educational Administration, Atlanta, GA. Hecht, I. W. D., Higgerson, M., Gmelch, W.H., & Tucker, A. (1999). Roles and responsibilities of department chairs (Chapter 2) in The department chair as academic leader. Phoenix, AZ: ACE Oryx Press. Jones, A.M. (1983). A study of superordinate, subordinate, and external role relations as determinants of principals’ perception of on-the-job stress. ED233437 Keaster, R. & Gupton, S.L. (November, 2004). Making sense of department chairs’ work. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Southern Regional Council of Educational Administration, Raleigh, NC. Kelley, C. & Peterson, K.D. (2002). The work of principals and their preparation: Addressing critical needs for the twenty-first century. In M.S. Tucker and J.B. Codding’s (Eds.) The Principal Challenge: Leading and Managing Schools in an Era of Accountability. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lucas, A. F. (1994). Strengthening departmental leadership. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco, CA. Lyons, J.E. (1999). How school principals perceive their roles, rewards, and challenges. ERS Spectrum, (Winter), 18–23. Lindholm, J. (September, 1999). Preparing department chairs for their leadership roles. ERIC Clearinghouse for Community Colleges, Washington, D.C. (ERIC

64    S. L. GUPTON Reproduction Document Service No. EDO-JC-99-08). Retrieved from http:// www.gseis.ucla.edu/ccs/digests/dig9908.html on 6/26/2007. Makosky, V.P. & Roach, J. H. L. (1981). Women and men who chair departments of psychology. (ERIC Reproduction Document Service ED203838). Morford, L.M. (2002). Learning the ropes or being hung: Organizational socialization influences on new rural high school principals. (ERIC Reproduction Document Service ED464783). Murry, J.W. & Stauffacher, K.B. (Summer 2001). Department Chair Effectiveness: What skills and behaviors do deans, chairs, and faculty in research universities perceive as important? Arkansas Educational Research & Policy Studies Journal, 1(1), 62–75. Peterson, K.D. (1982). Making sense of principals’ work. The Australian Administrator, 3(3), 1–4. Seagren, A.T. & Miller, M.T. (1994). Academic leaders and the community college: A North American profile. Academic Leadership: Journal of the National Community College Chair Academy, 1(1), 6–11. Seagren, A. T. et al (1993). The department chair: New roles, responsibilities and challenges. ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education, Washington D.C.: George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development. (ERIC Reproduction Document Service No. ED363165). Retrieved from http:// www.ericdigests.org/1994/chair.htm. Seedorf, R.G. (1991). The transition of the university department chair: What must be left behind? (ERIC Reproduction Service Document No. ED331453). Seedorf, R.G. & Gmelch, W.H. (1989). The department chair: A descriptive study. (ERIC Reproduction Service Document No. ED309713). Weldy, G. R. (1979). It’s a bird! It’s a plane! It’s super-principal! Clearing House, 52(5), 199–203. Willis, Q. F. (1980). Uncertainty as a fact of life (and work) for the school principal. The Australian Administrator, 1(4).

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Appendix A Academic Chairperson Survey 1. Title ______________________________________________________________________ 2. Nature of appointment ⃞   Department Chair ⃞   Department Head ⃞   Director

⃞  Temporary/Returning to Faculty after Designated ⃞  Permanent/Renewable (Hired as Administrator) ⃞  Other ___________________________________

3. Department programs (e.g., P–12 Administration, Higher Education Administration)

4. Teaching load (official or according to policy) ⃞  None ⃞   1 course per academic year ⃞   2 courses per academic year ⃞   3 courses per academic year ⃞   4 courses per academic year ⃞  Other _________________________________________________________________ 5. Number of full-time faculty ⃞   0–5 ⃞   11–15 ⃞   > 20 ⃞   6–10 ⃞   15–20 6. Number of sections per year taught by part-time faculty ⃞   0–5 ⃞   11–15 ⃞   > 20 ⃞   6–10 ⃞   15–20 7. Average number of hours per week on the job ___________ 8. Average number of hours per week working on job-related materials at home ___________ 9. Number of years in higher education (not counting doctoral work; count half year as 1) ___________ 10. Number of years in current position ___________ 11. Primary motivation for entering administration:

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12. How do you use your faculty’s ISQ data?

13. Please rank the following functions in regard to their importance to you in your job as Department Chair: (1 being the highest) ____  Instructional supervision (e.g., facilitating improved pedagogy) ____  Personal (e.g., recruiting, hiring, evaluating) ____  Program oversight & curriculum development ____  Dealing directly with students ____  Paper work ____  Other: ______________________________________________________________ 14. Please rank these same functions in regard to time consumption (1 being the most): ____  Instructional supervision (e.g., facilitating improved pedagogy) ____  Personal (e.g., recruiting, hiring, evaluating) ____  Program oversight and curriculum development ____  Dealing directly with students ____  Paperwork ____  Other: ______________________________________________________________ 15. Briefly describe what you do to supervise and develop instruction: Supervise :

Development :

16. What leadership/administration preparation do you have? ⃞   Degree in Leadership/Administration ⃞   Certification ⃞   CEU Credits in Leadership/Admin ⃞   Workshops ⃞   Learning from experience in the position ⃞   Mentoring by an administrator ⃞  Other _________________________________________________________________ 17. What preparation for the job do you think would have helped you to be more effective?

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18. Indicate by ranking which of the following leadership behaviors (as many as apply) you use to influence and motivate your faculty and staff. (1 being the most effective) Rank    Behavior _____  Praise and positive, specific feedback _____  High expectations _____  Involving faculty in management & operational decisions _____ Granting professional autonomy with regard to instruction and curriculum _____  Leading by standing behind with support resources _____  Gentle nudges: suggesting and directing _____  Positive use of formal authority _____  Personal role modeling and visibility _____  Other: ____________________________________________________________ 19. How, if at all, do you think that the role of department chairs is changing with the national movement toward holding institutions more accountable for student achievement? Do you agree with the changes you may have described?

Thank you for taking the time to respond to this survey, thereby assisting with research on the nature of the work of academic chairpersons. If you would like to see the results of this study, please let me know and I will share. —Sandra Gupton

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Chapter 6

Women Leaders What They Bring to Today’s Executive School Positions Barbara Polnick Sam Houston State University Luana Zellner Sam Houston State University Carole Funk Haynie Sam Houston State University

Inspired by the Henry Higgins’ quote “Why can’t a woman be more like a man?,” Funk (1998) asked, “Why can’t a male leader be more like a woman?”, the question being posed in the wake of needed change in leadership in today’s public schools. It served as a catalyst for the authors of this chapter to investigate the unique contributions that women leaders make to executive school positions and traditional male leaders do not. These contributions are explored here in light of their salient characteristics, the styles and leadership processes of the female leader in educational adminWomen Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 69–82 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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istration and the findings of researchers and theorists. The latter propose that through gender, socialization (both nature and nurture), attitudes, experiences and other factors, women leaders are uniquely equipped to provide the vision and voice needed for exemplary school leadership in the challenging climate of today’s public schools. In the history of our country, there has been a paucity of women in executive leadership positions in all areas of professional life from the very beginning of our nation until now (Fagenson, 1993; Lapovsky & Larkin, 2009). While some progress has been made toward placing more women in management positions, (women make up 69.5% of all medical and health service managers, 61.2 of all veterinarians, 73.8% of all tax examiners, revenue agents, 68.8% of all psychologists, and 62.6% of all education administrators) [U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009]), there still exists a leadership lid on top executive positions. And, these positons are where the real money is (Cubillo & Brown, 2003; Lapovsky & Larkin, 2009; Quindlin, 2008). Authors of The White House Project Report: Benchmarking Women’s Leadership reported that women make up 48% of the total workforce; however, slightly less than 20 percent are in executive leadership positions (Lapovsky & Larkin, 2009). This percentage is much lower in the military and Fortune 500 companies, but it is higher in nonprofits, where, not coincidentally, the salaries are lower (2009). According to Lapovsky and Larkin (2009): Much of the general public believes that women’s fight for parity in the workplace has already been won. After all, women are solidly entrenched in the workforce. Today, women receive the majority of all college degrees and are well represented in entry- and mid-level positions in most sectors of the economy. But equality still remains out of reach. In fact, women have made strikingly little progress in advancing to the boardrooms and the executive suites; in some sectors of the economy, their progress has been stalled for several years. Today women account for only 18 percent of our top leaders and make 78.7 cents to every dollar earned by a man—a wage gap that increases with age (p. 7). In some cases the percentage of women in top executive positions has actually dropped, such as in the State of Florida where the 2008 U. S. census report revealed that women held only 7.4 percent of the seats on corporate boards , an actual drop from the 8.7 percent reported in 2006 (Women Executive Leadership, 2010) . As women began to enter management positions in the private sector in the late 1960s and early 1970s, female public school teachers began to apply for and obtain a few administrative positions across the country (Funk, 1998). In the mid-1990s, cracks appeared in the male-controlled educational leadership establishment, and the result was an increase in the numbers of women seeking degrees and certificates in graduate leadership education programs; however, they soon found access to top leadership positions

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was not granted without difficulties (Hill & Ragland, 1995). The challenge of obtaining top executive seats in the education profession was created , in part, because of the expectations that were in place for male leadership behaviors. These correlated with those that had been used in the past, successful or not (Funk, 1998). Men with their unique talents had come to be viewed as the chosen ones when it came to administrative managerial roles, partly because females were stereotyped as weak, indecisive, and unfit for leadership (1998). When women followed male leaders who had been educated using military models of leadership, they were encouraged to emulate their male counterpart’s style. As McGrew-Zoubi (1993) and Bass and Bass (2008) note, for over 50 years, American schools utilized autocratic and bureaucratic leadership styles , thereby promoting a rigid hierarchical operational structure of male administrators that guarded and retained power by controlling information and distancing themselves from teachers, parents, and students (Funk, 1998). Some women soon discovered, however, that ‘acting like men’ or having ‘women try to fit in and become ‘male’ women,’ (Fagenson, 1993) was rarely compatible with their ‘innate’ leadership style. Additionally, female leaders in education were held to a double standard when they exercised authority;.in contrast, where the actions of men in similar leadership positions might appear assertive, those same actions by a female leaders can be interpreted as aggressive (Eagly and Carli, 2007b; Rudman and Glick, 2001; Babcock and Laschever, 2003). Perceptions of what a female educational administrator should look like and how she should behave create barriers to their obtaining and sustaining positions as school executives (Funk, 1998; Noel-Batiste, 2009). In a study of 208 female members of the Virginia Association of Secondary School Principals (VASSP), 84% reported feeling that the reasons for their lack of equitable representation in educational administration were: (a) cultural stereotyping of ‘appropriate roles’ for men and women and (b) insufficient role modeling, networking, and mentoring opportunities (2009). Coleman (2003) found that stereotypical, outdated norms of educational leadership that endorse masculine approaches to it, do continue to exist, and both male and female principals are aware of the expectation of an authoritarian traditional male. In her study of female and male principals in England, she concluded that knowing this stereotype exists “automatically acts against women, who by virtue of gender do not conform to what is a basically male blueprint” [and that women principals feel that they] “have to justify themselves as women and as leaders and that they have to prove their worth and work harder than the men” (p. 18). Over time, women principals learned how to adjust their natural styles of leadership in order to meet the expectations of their male superintendents and male-dominated school boards. Hill and Ragland (1995) reported, for example, that women principals and superintendents were sometimes set

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up as “messiahs, scapegoats, and sacrificial lambs” and given a “special challenge” to clean up a mess resulting from some type of financial disaster, accreditation failure, low staff morale, poor academic performance, and/ or lack of community support. However, ’challenging’ these roles may have been, female school executives grew as a result of their experiences and impressed others with their ability to handle crises and critical responsibilities. Such circumstances actually gave them a chance to demonstrate that they could effect sorely needed changes, make positive contributions, and “do things differently” (Hill & Ragland, 1995, p. 22). This may be due, in part, to increased communication among women about their unique style of leadership. Whereas the first generation of women corporate and educational leaders struggled to conform to male standards, the second generation has drawn upon skills and attitudes that they have developed from their shared experiences as women. Thus, Ely and Rhode report (2010) that, as women continue to enter leadership positions, new leadership styles emerge. So, too, do and different paths to success. These women leaders are succeeding because of, not in spite of, certain characteristics previously considered feminine and so inappropriate for leadership. According to Bass (2008), except in work situations in which male-favored characteristics such as upper body strength are required, the roles of women in society are primarily culturally determined. However, there is still a great deal of cultural support for maintaining differences in leadership style based on gender, and even though some beliefs, attitudes, and values about women leaders have begun to diminish. This may be due, in part, to new ways of studying executive leaders. While early research in the area of leadership was conducted mostly by white men about white men, the need to consider a population which includes women and minorities has introduced new dimensions into the concept of leadership (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Hill and Ragland, 1995; Irby, Brown, Duffy, & Trautman, 2002; Lord and Hall, 2005). This new body of research on women in educational leadership positions leads us to conclude that females appear to lead in ways that are significantly different from the leadership provided by their traditional male peers (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Brown, Duffy, & Trautman, 2002). Leadership Styles, Skills, and Characteristics of Women School Leaders “Women are communicative and integrative. Perhaps they can find a way of putting the world back together” (Durden-Smith & deSimone, 1983, p. 298). Until researchers began to study the characteristics of female leadership without comparing them to those of their male counterparts, little was known about the unique or innate styles of women leaders (Shakeshaft,

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Brown, Irby, Grogan, & Ballenger, 2007). More recently, serious examinations of women’s worldview and experience have replaced the traditional male-female comparison studies. In the last 20 years, research has focused on single-sex studies in an effort to more clearly identify the specific ways in which women lead. It has also attempted to describe best practices in school administration, irrespective of gender difference. . (Shakeshaft, 2009). The leadership styles most often used by women in educational administration have been described in many ways, among them, ‘democratic’, ‘participatory,’ ‘interactive,’ and ‘transformational’ (Aburdene & Naisbitt, 1992; Langford, 1993; Shakeshaft, Brown, Irby, Grogan & Ballenger, 2007). Women can be viewed as interactive leaders when they actively encourage the participation of their staffs, the sharing of information and power, and enthusiasm for work (Shakeshaft, Brown, Irby, Gogan, Ballenger, 2007). In slightly different terms, , Aburdene and Naisbitt (l992) described women as ‘’transformational leaders” who make information available, facilitate, remain flexible, network, invite others to speak out, and value creativity, thereby influencing others to link their personal and organizational goals so as to work more effectively for the greater good. Langford (1993) further illustrates the point that transformational leadership is a uniquely female stylewhen she states that: Females then appear to possess the attributes required to serve as creative, transformational, futuristic leaders with integrated analytical and conceptual abilities. Transformational leaders have the ability to change one’s leadership pattern to gain an internal unity—not polarized in their thinking processes but incorporating, both conceptual and analytical processes in a complementary way. (p. 17)

In their synthesis of 20 years of research on gender equity in educational leadership, Shakeshaft, et al. (2007) found that women leaders tend to: (a) Maintain a commitment to social justice issues; (b) see a relationship between spirituality and the ways they model behavior and inspire others; (c) prioritize elements important to building strong relationships, including communication, community connections, and collaboration; (d) link power to the ability to help others to strengthen relations; and (e) introduce and support programs with unique instructional approaches, such as staff development and innovations. These findings supported some of Shakeshaft’s (1987) earlier work. She there defined the female world of school administration as a feminine-culture, described the most significant leadership behaviors of female school leaders as: (a) making their relationships with others central to all their actions, (b) placing their major focus on teaching and learning, and (c) building community and ensuring inclusiveness through democratic, participatory styles.

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In addition to these characteristics, Hill and Ragland (1995) found in their exploration of the perceptions of the leadership of female school administrators that women were predominantly: (a) problem solvers, (b) creators of vision and ideas, and (c) modelers of high expectations of performance for themselves and others, (d) trustworthy, (e) fair, (f) dependable, and (g) honest. Helgesen (1995) added listening as an essential skill that women used for encouraging participation in others. They do this by gathering information and making people in their organizations feel that their ideas and beliefs have value. Helgesen predicted that, as women’s leadership qualities come to play a more dominant role in professional life, “their talents in long-term negotiating, analytic listening, and creating an ambiance in which people work with zest and spirit would help reconcile the split between the ideals of being efficient and being humane” (p. 249). Several recent meta-analyses suggest that women’s leadership is more transformational than men’s when it comes to providing support for subordinates (Eagly, Johannese-Schmidt, & van Engen, 2003). This may have developed when women tried to meet the traditional expectations of leadership by exhibiting more masculine traits often viewed as domineering, cold, and harsh (Ely & Rhode, 2010). They found that transactional approaches, e.g., ‘laissez-faire,’ ’hands-off,’ and more passive management, were not as effective for them as the more transformational approaches. The latter emphasized gaining the trust and confidence of followers and empowering them to develop their own potential. Eagly et al. (2003) concluded that transformational leadership may be especially advantageous for women, in light of the many challenges that women leaders face in male-oriented organizations, because it encompasses some behaviors that are consistent with the female gender role’s demand for supportive, considerate behaviors. Fagenson (1993) described this transformational style in women managers as a “web” style of leadership. As Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule (1986) elegantly describe them, “Webs and nets . . . suggest a complexity of relationships and the delicate interrelatedness of all so that tension and movement in one part of the system will grow to be felt in all parts of the whole. In the complexity of a web, no one position dominates over the whole. Each person—no matter how small—has some potential for power; each is always subject to the action of others” (p. 178). Helgeson (1990) added that women use “webs of inclusion” (not hierarchical) and include others through the sharing of information. Funk (1993) extended the research of Helgesen to female school executives who were asked to describe the advantages that women bring to school leadership roles. Her findings revealed that empathy, sensitivity, caring, nurturing, supportiveness , compassion, patience, organization, and attention to detail were the most important of these strengths.Consequently, women have found that transformational leadership provides them with a greater advantage in meeting

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the needs of campuses today (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans & May, 2004; Babcock & Lascherer, 2003; Davis, Darling-Hammond, LaPointe, & Meyerson (2005), Eagly & Carli, 2007a; Luthans & Avolio, 2003; May, Chan, Hodges, & Avolio; 2003). The Female Advantage in Transforming Schools Whether there are innately female leadership styles . . . is not really the right question. It is more important to ask why there has been so little attention paid to women leaders over the years as well as why the styles of leading more often exhibited by women are particularly useful at this critical moment in history. —Charlotte Bunch American Founder of the Center for Women’s Global Leadership

As the various dimensions of leadership and its associated tasks have expanded in 21st century schools, unique skill combinations are proving to be requisite. As Hill and Ragland (1995) noted, images and expectations of leaders have changed because of complexities within our contemporary culture. These complexities are nowhere more evident than in the field of education because schools and schooling have come to reflect the ills of our entire society. Extended visions of what schools can become are put into place as women assume leadership roles (Funk, 1993). As educational organizations realize that formerly abstract “buzz words”—restructuring, reform, site-based decision making, and new century visions—have now become reality, many have found that the transformational and interactive styles of most women leaders are advantageous in bringing about transformation of the schools (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & van Engen, 2003). Shakeshaft (1987) drew parallels between the female world of leading and the world of effective schools when she described female approaches to educational leadership as prescriptions for administrative behavior in schools which are in need of reform. Women’s ways of leading are uniquely necessary in schools today. Current views of successful leadership encourage collaboration and teamwork and they emphasize the ability to empower, support and engage workers (Senge,1994; Helgesen,1995). Sergiovanni (1996) describes the unique leadership for today’s school as being (a) based on a shared commitment to the common good, (b) more community-like and more democratic, and (c) more responsive to what we know about human nature and what we know about how students learn and develop. It is women’s typical communication and intuitive decision-making styles as well as their focus on cooperation and collaboration with stakeholders that help to facilitate the trans-

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lation of their visions into progress (Giese, Slate, Brown, & Delgado, 2009; Helgesen,1995). When they viewed leadership as a shared process in which everyone works together synergistically, female administrators in Funk’s (1993) study described their “work team” as a family. They used their skills to involve these family members in decision-making not through telling others but through asking them what needed to be accomplished. Funk surmised that the ability to listen, be flexible, think globally, be perceptive, and demonstrate tolerance and be willing to compromise, together with a strong work ethic were all female “advantages” in the world of school reform (1993). Funk, Polnick, Pankake, and Schroth (2004) studied the leadership characteristics, essential roles, necessary qualities, and critical skills that defined outstanding female superintendents. Specifically, female superintendents in their study believed that the following were important in leading their organizations: (a) being a visionary, (b) acting professionally and ethically, (c) allowing time for dreaming and creating, communicating effectively and often, (d) motivating staff and self, (e) being truly committed to their leadership role and to children, (f) having a strong work ethic, and (g) possessing the energy and stamina in order to do their jobs. In a similar study of 56 female high school principals, researchers found that principals viewed employee relationship skills and interactions as essential to their success as principals (Giese, Slate, Brown, & TejedaDelgado, 2009). These skills and characteristics included: (a) supporting employees by being helpful, (b) developing employee skills, (c) managing conflict, (d) involving their employees in decision-making practices when critically important decisions have to be made, (e) motivating and inspiring employees, (f) communication skills, (g) trustworthiness, (h) honesty and sincerity, and (i) good listening skills (2009). In their meta-analytic reviews of organizational studies, survey research, and experiments that equate the objective characteristics of men and women, Eagly and Carli (2003) concluded that women are slightly more likely than men to lead in the ways that managerial experts consider particularly effective and that have been shown to be effective in research. However, the relative success of women in leadership roles depends on context, especially in light of the challenges that they face given the incongruity of the traditional female role of professional administrator in the field of education and, of many other traditional leadership roles. Eagly and Carli (2003) concluded from their analyses that “successful female leaders generally work hard and seek leadership styles that do not unnecessarily elicit resistance to their authority by challenging norms dictating that women be egalitarian and supportive of others” (p. 825). Because of their traditional focus on instructional improvement, women seem uniquely prepared to meet the challenges of administration in the context of today’s efforts to reform schools. (Avila, 1993;

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Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May, 2004). Both making a difference and influencing the teaching process go hand in hand with the new leadership paradigm for women in education and with their responsibility as change agents (Funk, Polnick, Pankake, & Schroth, 2004). In responding to the needs of children through reform efforts, female principals, who typically spend more time on curriculum and instruction than do their male counterparts (Andrews & Basom, 1990), are more effective reformers since they are viewed by their staffs as true instructional leaders. Some may argue that it is because females often enter the ranks of school administration through the instructional path (i.e. subject area specialists, assistant principal for curriculum, federal programs director), and that this distinguishes their styles of leadership from the typical male’s. However, a recent research study commissioned by the Wallace Foundation, the School Leadership Study: Developing Successful Principals, Barber and Meyerson (2007) argued “even when prior experience leading instruction (e.g., literacy specialist, coach, etc.) are taken into account, that being female itself has a positive influence on instructional leadership and school improvement work” (p. 18). Women’s unique ways of working and leading (inclusion, communication across lines of authority, the work of caring, relationship building) can transform the workplace across all settings in the organization (Wilson, 2007). Schroth (1995) agrees that the research clearly indicates that women’s greatest strengths, (a) sharing power and information and (b) communication and collaboration, are the primary skills needed for effective site-based management (SBM), i.e. these female leadership strengths are a good match to the unique requirements of SBM. The various directions in the overall school reform movement all necessitate skills and working relationships that seem to come naturally to women (Hill & Ragland, 1995). Having been excluded from male work environments , these women leaders may seek to circumvent existing structures and define new traditions for themselves, all the while placing greater emphasis on relationships and social responsibility and working and living accordingly (Konek & Kitch, 1994). Empowerment is an issue that seems vital to educational reform (Horn, 2002). Those who can empower others hold the keys to real and meaningful changes in schools, hence female leaders who use these strategies will be the leaders of the school communities of the future (2002). Konek and Kitch (1994) note that females appear to see power as a personal, ever expanding attribute to be shared like the loaves and fishes—visualizing power “to” or power “with” others through affiliation rather than power “over” them. Shakeshaft (1987) agreed, in relating female leadership and power in educational organizations, she found that women use power to empower others and that women believe that power expands as it is shared, that it is not finite. Empowering others is apparently not as threatening to women

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as it is to men who, given their uniquely male style of leadership, tend to traditionally view themselves as centers of power.Men are in some ways also trapped by the stereotype of male dominance and the expectations held by many parents, other stakeholders, and other men in traditional executive management positions. Still, many of the characteristics and styles of leadership that prove to be an advantage for women, are also exhibited by some male leaders; however, past expectations and/or stereotyping seem to have squelched some men’s natural ways of leading. The outcomes of Coleman’s study of male and female principals (2003) revealed that there are considerable similarities in the ways that female and male principals viewed themselves as leaders. She found, for example, that more men than women identified themselves as caring and tolerant and more women than men identified themselves as disciplined (2003). While men were more likely than women to identify themselves as having masculine qualities, overall both the men and women in their study favored feminine qualities. Interestingly enough, women principals reported feeling that they had some advantage over males, in part because they felt freer to express themselves than did their male colleagues. This was the case even though the males also saw themselves as caring and tolerant (2003). In summary, women executives in today’s schools find themselves at an advantage when it comes to leading their institutions and this because of their innate and/or learned abilities to: (a) communicate and build relationships, (b) promote participation through shared power, (c) motivate employees to achieve goals, (d) focus on creative solutions to improve instruction, and (e) work towards social justice and the greater good. These advantages have emerged, in part, from the past experiences of women and their struggles to lead in previous male-dominated school cultures. These categories of skills and characteristics may prove advantageous to females, but they are also reflective of the practices of emerging male leaders involved in transforming schools. Summary Sergiovani (1996) proposed an image of effective school leadership that “returns all involved to our roots of (a) serving the common good, (b) ministering to the needs of the school, and (c) providing an vision and service which clarifies purposes, promotes unity, and helps people understand the problems they face and find solutions” (p. 3). In his informed judgment, he noted that the literature on successful schools shows that while women are underrepresented in principalships, they are overrepresented in successful principalships. There may, therefore be something to the view that women’s style of leadership is superior to men’s. (Brandt,

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1992). Shakeshaft (1987) supported Sergiovanni’s conclusions when she described women as overrepresented in principalships in schools identified as highly successful. It is evident from such conclusions and from the research on the leadership characteristics and styles of women, that women school leaders are gaining ground in administrative positions. They are acquiring the power to utilize their unique strengths in collaborative, interactive and transformational ways of leading so as to be able to focus effectively on curriculum and instruction. In addition, women’s expanded views of leadership in non-hierarchical school communities in which teachers, students, and parents are included in decision-making processes and empowered to carry out those decisions, enhance their ability to articulate new visions for their schools. These female school executives serve as innovative and effective change agents at a time when new leadership styles are desperately needed. Since women entered into management and had the impact they have had on the organizations in which they work, much discussion, investigation, and theorizing has taken place. It has been aimed at analyzing and explaining the experiences, actions, and impact of women in the workplace (Cubillo & Brown, 2003; Fagenson, 1993; Wirth, 2002). Whether it be in the field of education, in the corporate world, or in governmental positions, feminist leadership characteristics are becoming much sought after today. The increasing prominence of female leaders in executive political positions (i.e. Carly Fiorina, Hillary Clinton, Nancy Pelosi, and Condoleeza Rice) serve to highlight some changes our thinking about in gender roles and the expectations that we attach to them as these have developed during the last two decades in our formerly male-dominated political culture. (Ely & Rhode, 2010). Expanding this trend to the traditionally male-dominated executive school leadership positions is hopefully a development that is on the horizon. In light of the emerging research on the effectiveness of female leadership in today’s schools, perhaps we have now provided new answers to not only the question “Why can’t a male leader be more like a woman?” but also “How can a male leader be more like a woman?” References Aburdene, P., & Naisbitt, J. (1992). Megatrends for women. New York: Villard Publishing. Andrews, R. L., & Basom, M. R. (1990). Instructional leadership: Are women principals better? Principal, 70(2), 38–40. Avila, L.J. (1993). Why women are ready for educational leadership positions. In G. Brown & B. J. Irby (Eds.), Women as school executives: A powerful paradigm (p. 49). Huntsville, TX: Texas Council of Women School Executives, Sam Houston Press (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 383101).

80    B. POLNICK, L. ZELLNER, and C. F. HAYNIE Avolio, B.J., Gardner, W.L., Walumbwa, F.O., Luthans, R., & May, D.R. (2004). Unlocking the mask: A look at the process by which authentic leaders impact follower attitudes and behaviors. Leadership Quarterly 15:801–823. Babcock, L., and Laschever, L. (2003).Women don’t ask: Negotiation and the gender divide. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Barber, M.E., & Meyerson, D. (2007, April). The Gendering of school leadership: Reconstructing the principalship. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, Illinois, 1–22. Bass B.M. and Bass, R. (2008). 4th Ed. The handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial applications. New York: Free Press. Belenky, M., Clinchy, B. M., Goldberger, N. R., & Tarule, J. J. (1986). Women’s ways of knowing: The development of self, voice, and mind. New York: Basic Books. Brandt, R. (1992). On rethinking leadership: A conversation with Tom Sergiovanni. Educational Leadership, (2), 46–49. Coleman, M. (2003, September). Gender and School Leadership: The experience of women and men secondary principals. Paper presented at UNITEC, Auckland. Cubillo, L., & Brown, M. (2003). Women into educational leadership and management: International differences? Journal of Educational Administration, 41(3): 278–291. Davis, S., Darling-Hammond, L., LaPointe, M., & Meyerson, D. (2005). School leadership study: Developing successful principals (Review of Research). Stanford, CA: Stanford University, Stanford Educational Leadership Institute. Durden-Smith, J. D. & deSimone, D. (1983). Sex and the brain (p. 298). New York: Warner Books. Eagly, A., & Carli, L. (2003, December). The female leadership advantage: An evaluation of the evidence. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), 807–834. Eagly, A., Johannesen-Schmidt, A., and van Engen, M.L. (2003) “Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men.” Psychological Bulletin 95: 569–591. Eagly A., & Carli, L. (2007a.) “Overcoming resistance to women leaders.” In Women and leadership: The state of play and strategies for change, edited by B. Kellerman and D. Rhode, 127–148. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Eagly A., & Carli, L. (2007b) Through the labyrinth: The truth about how women become leaders. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Ely, R.J., and Rhode, D.L. (2010). Women and leadership: Defining the challenges. In N. Nohria,N. and R. Khurana, (Eds), Handbook of leadership theory and practice (pp. 377–410). Boston: Harvard Business Press. Fagenson, E. A. (Ed.) (1993). Women in management: Trends, issues, and challenges in managerial diversity. Newbury, California: Sage Publications. Funk, C. (1993). Leadership in school administration: The female advantage. In G. Brown & B. J. Irby (Eds), Women as school executives: A powerful paradigm (p. 38). Huntsville, Texas: Texas Council of Women School Executives, Sam Houston Press (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 383101). Funk, C. (1998). What women bring to executive school positions. In B. J. Irby & G. Brown (Eds.), Women leaders: Structuring success (pp. 33–42). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Women Leaders    81 Funk, C., Polnick, B., Pankake, A., & Schroth, G. (2004). Profiles of outstanding female and male superintendents: A comparative study of leadership dimensions. In Educational leadership: Knowing the way, showing the way, going the way, by C.S. Carr, C.L. Fulmer Ed. pp. 330–340. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Publications. Giese, T., Slate, J., Brown, M., & Delgado, C. (2009). Female high school principals: Leadership practices and individual traits. Advancing Women in Leadership Journal, 29(5). Retrieved September 9, 2010 from http://advancingwomen.com/ awl/awl_wordpress/ Helgesen, S. (1995). The female advantage: Women’s ways of leadership. Portland, Oregon: Broadway Books. Hill, M. S. and Ragland, J. C. (1995). Women as educational leaders: Opening windows, pushing ceilings. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press. Horn, R.A. (2002). Understanding educational reform: A reference handbook. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc. Irby, B. J., Brown, G., Duffy, J., Trautman, D. (2002). The synergistic leadership theory. Journal of Educational Administration, 40 (4), 304–322. Lapovsky, L., & Larkin, D.S., Eds. (Nov. 2009). The white house project report: Benchmarking women’s leadership. 1–133. New York: The White House Project. Retrieved August 9, 2010 from http://thewhitehouseproject.org/documents/Report.pdf Lord,R. and Hall,R. (2005). Identity, deep structure and the development of leadership skill. Leadership Quarterly 16:591–615. Luthans, F. and Avolio, B. (2003). Authentic leadership: A positive development approach. In Positive organizational scholarship, edited by Cameron, K.S., Dutton, J.E., and Quinn, R.E., 241–258. San Francisco, California: BerrettKoehler Publishers. May, D.R., Chan, A., Hodges, T., and Avolio, B.J.(2003). Developing the moral component of authentic leadership. Organizational Dynamics 32:247–260. Noel-Batiste, L. (2009, February). The perceptions of female school leaders of the obstacles and enablers that affected their career paths to educational administration. Academic Leadership 7(1). Retrieved on August 19, 2010 from http:// www.academicleadership.org/emprical_research/574.shtml Quindlin, A. (2008).The leadership lid. Newsweek. October 04, 2008. Retrieved September 9, 2010 from http://www.newsweek.com/2008/10/03/the-leadership-lid.html Rudman, L., & Glick, P. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues 57: 743–762. Senge, P.M. (1994). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday Currency. Sergiovanni, T.J. (1996). Leadership for the schoolhouse: Why is it different? How is it important? Retrieved on September 9, 2010 from http://www.julieboyd.com. au/ILF/pages/members/cats/bkovervus/leadrship_pdfs/leadership_for_ the_schoolho.pdf Shakeshaft, C. (1987). Gender and educational change. In International handbook of educational change, Hargreaves, A.; Lieberman, A.; Fullan, M.; Hopkins, D. (Eds.). New York: Springer Publishing. Retrieved on September 9, 2010 from

82    B. POLNICK, L. ZELLNER, and C. F. HAYNIE http://www.soe.vcu.edu/departments/el/faculty_publications/Shakeshaft_ Gender_Educat.pdf Shakeshaft, C., Brown, G., Irby, B.J., Grogan, M., & Ballenger, J. (2007). Increasing gender equity in educational leadership. Handbook for achieving gender equity through education (Klein, et al., editors), 2nd ed. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 103–129. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2009). Women in the labor source: A databook 2009 ed. Retrieved September 4, 2010 from http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/print.pl/cps/ wlf-intro-2009.htm Wilson, M.C. (2007). Closing the leadership gap: Add women, change everything published. New York: Penguin Books. Wirth, L. (2002). Breaking through the glass ceiling: Women in management. Paper presented at the First International Conference “Pay Equity between Women and Men: Myth or Reality?” Luxembourg, Germany, February 4, 2007. Retrieved on September 10, 2010 from http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q =women+in+management+positions&hl=en&as_sdt=10000000000001&as_ sdtp=on

Part III Women Leaders: Pathways

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Chapter 7

Pathways to Administrative Roles Marilyn Grady University of Nebraska-Lincoln Bernita Krumm Oklahoma State University Kaye Peery Retired Superintendent

Preparing for the job search, acquiring administrative skills, being part of a network, being in the “right place at the right time,” and being the most qualified for a position are all pathways to administrative roles. Throughout the United States, the majority of students enrolled in educational administration preparation programs are women; yet, their struggle to move into positions of leadership continues. In 1991, fewer than 6% of superintendents were female (Grady & Gosmire, 1995). However, as Montz and Wanat (2008) report, by 2003, 18% of superintendents nationwide were women (Brunner & Grogan, 2007), and, by 2006, 21.7% were women (Glass and Franceschini, 2007). According to the 2006 Digest of Education Statistics, “Principals were less likely than teachers to be women. Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 85–97 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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About 48% of public school principals were women, compared to 75% of teachers” (p. 2). Based on the findings of a series of studies concerning women in positions of educational leadership, women need to be encouraged to seek administrative roles. Assistance in doing this can and should be provided to them by a variety of sources including family, peers, colleagues, professional organizations and associations, school board members, state department officials, and college/university preparation programs. Further study is needed to investigate the role of women administrators in supporting other women seeking administrative positions in P–12 settings. Professional organizations and associations may be able to serve in a more systematic manner in this area as well. Continuing professional development seminars, courses, and workshops may be useful in increasing awareness levels as concerns the need to employ more women in P–12 educational administration positions (Grady & O’Connell, 1993). In a study of women who hold administrative certification, subjects were asked whether they were encouraged to become educational administrators. Thirty-seven percent indicated that they did. In a follow-up question, subjects were asked to indicate how this was done. The primary form of encouragement was shown to be verbal. In 21% of the cases, women were told of an administrative position (8% by a university professor), and they were encouraged to take graduate courses in educational administration (19%) (Grady, 1992). Those who were successful in acquiring administrative positions reported that their successes were the result of a variety of factors. Preparing for the job search, acquiring administrative skills, being part of a network, being in the right place at the right time, and being the most qualified for a position are all pathways to administrative roles. Credential Building Experiences Your credentials may be the key to an administrative role. They reflect your work experience, the network you develop and the mentoring you receive. They include the administrative certification you hold, and they reflect your administrative skills including scheduling, managing student discipline, providing staff or professional development opportunities, monitoring school attendance, engaging in teacher appraisal, and resolving conflicts. Many activities can be used to build your résumé; special training is an excellent résumé builder. Training in Balanced Leadership, Classroom Instruction that Works, School Safety, the Boys Town Model of Discipline,

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and Peer Mediation are examples. Coaching is one way of demonstrating that you have the skills to handle conflict and manage the activities of a diverse group of people. Individuals who seek to increase their administrative experiences might consider volunteering to coordinate activities or to serve as coaches or assistant coaches in sports programs. Skills Those who have succeeded in acquiring administrative positions recommend developing administrative skills. Career advancement is no longer based on seniority alone, but increasingly dependent on the competencies that individual workers have acquired (Quintero, 1995). Men and women have differing characteristic work behaviors and attitudes and these affect their career advancement. A study identified three abilities of successful women: (a) strong sense of self, (b) working hard and setting priorities, (c) interpersonal skills, including listening and mediating; and ability to act strategically (Albino, 1992). Responses from a survey of 175 administrators revealed that communication skills, goal setting, resource and stress management, and self-confidence were considered crucial characteristics of administrators (Bridges, 1996). Daresh and Playko (1992) reported that aspiring administrators placed a much higher value on the demonstration of technical managerial skills, while practicing administrators valued socialization skills. Those variables which generated highly positive responses for both workplace performance and career advancement were self-worth, educational level, verbal skills, writing skills, and leadership ability. Socialization and skill development continue to be important management training needs. The importance of communication, networking, power, and politics indicate areas that need significant training (Larwood & Wood, 1995). In a study of 325 K–12 and postsecondary education women administrators, the respondents reported a need for training in administrative skills. The skills included: motivating personnel, managing conflict, self-assessment of administrative strengths, evaluating and appraising personnel, and developing and training personnel (Grady & Bohling-Philippi, 1988). Women who are seeking administrative roles are advised to examine and adjust their leadership styles, become qualified, pursue administrative experiences, publicize career goals to influential persons, and form alliances (Gregory & Reid, 1983). Internships, practica, or working with mentors are other ways of gaining administrative experience. These experiences provide the basic administrative skills that are sought by hiring officials, e.g., include planning, organiz-

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ing, staffing, directing, coordinating, organizing, reporting, and budgeting. Internship or practicum experiences should be planned with a variety of individuals so that the aspiring administrator has the opportunity to learn from role models who have expertise in diverse areas. Mentoring Mentoring is also frequently cited in the literature as an ideal way of increasing one’s visibility. The ideal in mentoring is for one mentor to take someone along or pull someone else up the ladder. A university advisor can serve as an advocate for you. An initial step in mentoring is for the aspiring individual to ask for the help of a mentor. When seeking a mentor, it is useful to know who will be helpful and who will not. Some people are often criticized for stepping on the people below them as they climb the ladder of success. Mentoring requires that you think of those below you as well as those above you on that ladder. {t1}It is defined as the process of developing people in organizations. Successful mentoring occurs when top-level or senior executives teach selected juniors the rules of the game, provide opportunities for them to demonstrate their skills, challenge them, give them critical performance feedback, and sponsor their movement into higher level positions (Mertz, Welch & Henderson, 1987). Mentoring, which has become a vehicle for enhancing the skills and abilities of one’s associates, colleagues, and protégés is a creative alternative to direct instruction and teaching; it also provides an emotionally supportive relationship for the protégé. The skills of the mentor travel with the protégé long after the relationship has ended. Typically, an older, wiser adult is matched with a younger colleague in a relationship intended to foster growth and development (Shaughnessy, 1995). Carr-Fuffino suggests ways that a mentor can help a protégé. These include: (a) teach, advise, counsel, coach, guide, and sponsor; (b) give insights; (c) serve as a sounding board for decision-making; (d) be a constructive critic; (e) provide information for career advancement, and (f) show how to move effectively through the system (Hopson, 1995). Mentors can increase the visibility of the protégé, provide informal training, and expand the professional network (Fleming, 1991). The most frequently perceived functions of mentors are building selfconfidence, heightening self-esteem, and strengthening motivation. The second most frequently identified function is socializing protégés regarding role requirements, expectations, and organizational imperatives (Howard-Vital & Morgan, 1993). Mentoring is very important for females and minorities because of the obstacles they often face in career advancement; yet mentor pools are

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largely comprised of White males. Cross-gender mentoring also brings difficulties, particularly involving females who are reluctant to engage in late work sessions or socialize with their mentors for fear of negative outside reactions or gossip. Significant issues in mentoring are the cultural taboos that are associated with those advocating for someone of a different race or gender. Often men serve as hiring officials and so are taken to be the ideal mentors. Because of this, it is necessary for both men and women to overcome the taboos that bar men from serving as mentors for women and women from seeking men as mentors. According to Pavan & Robinson (1991), mentoring occurred as frequently with women as with men. External barriers tended to be systemically constructed and closely tied to sex stereotyping. Strategies used to overcome them include determination, open communication, and patience. If is is really the case that women who are mentoring other women seek out those most like themselves, women of color will seldom be sought out as protégés. But, by sharing power and mentoring women of color, administrators will build effective work teams and enhance cross-cultural understanding and appreciation (Hetherington & Barcelo, 1985). Matcynski and Comer (1991) identify four basic stages of a mentoring relationship: (a) initiation, (b) cultivation, (c) separation, and (d) redefinition. These define its progression beginning with the protégé’s need for help and support from an admired and respected mentor, to the protégé becoming independent and redefining the relationship into one of collegiality and friendship, or allowing anger to develop and the relation to deteriorate into a condition of permanent separation (Matcynski & Comer, 1991). Data suggest that there are four critical factors, above and beyond competence and potential, that mentors use, knowingly or unknowingly, in selecting potential mentees: fit, risk predictability, and payoff. A review of the research reveals that reliance on these factors in screening potential mentees helps explain why women may receive less mentoring and have a harder time attracting mentors (Mertz, Welch, & Henderson, 1990). Résumé Building Your résumé may be the most important means of communicating your qualifications to a potential employer. Use it to represent your professional accomplishments and work to build the strongest résumé you can. Women often have to take leaves of absence from the professional workforce. The résumé should therefore reflect the myriad civic and volunteer activities that they engage in during those periods. Individuals who are new to a career should maximize their professional experiences. No one is ever just a

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teacher. Community, church, and social activities often provide opportunities for leadership and application of administrative skills. Do not underestimate the value of the contributions you have made in these areas. Through your résumé you can project your professional identity and highlight your strengths. Be clear about your goals and your beliefs about education. Use the résumé to create the image of who you are and what you represent. The Job Search Letters of Application The letter of application may be the first and only paper that a potential employer sees before making a decision about you as an applicant. So, develop a spectacular letter of application! Look at various examples of these as you develop yours, making certain that you address the job requirements of the position you are applying for. References Include a list of references with your résumé and be sure to select individuals who are 100% supportive of your career. The individuals you ask to serve as references for you should be knowledgeable of your qualifications, your career accomplishments, and your aspirations. It is helpful to have references who are well known, respected educational professionals. Make sure that your references represent all the professional positions you have held and all the districts where you have worked. Ask permission to use their names and keep your references updated on your job search so that they can provide reliable and accurate information about you. Brock and Grady (2004) provide additional resources on the job selection process in Launching Your First Principalship. Interviewing Jobseekers are advised to look professional; know their audience and communicate properly; be informed about the school’s demographics, achievement trends, and successes; refrain from name-dropping; and respect interviewers (Pigford, 1995). In the interview, stress your strengths, model competence, and demonstrate decisiveness in your answers to their questions. This is what is expected in most administrative positions.

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As part of the interview, you may be asked to make a presentation. Consider the types of presentations you might be expected to provide as an administrator. These might include talking at faculty meetings, staff development activities, meetings with parents, and interaction with civic organizations. As you prepare the presentation keep the needs of these possible audiences in mind. Be prepared to answer questions about: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

your vision your values your skills your experiences your educational background your enthusiasm for the job what you will bring to the school what will make you an effective leader your leadership style your strongest attributes past successes what you have learned from past failures your long-range career plans (Brock & Grady, 2004, p. 131).

Portfolios Aspiring administrators may benefit from portfolio development. The administrative portfolio can be used to assess performance, encourage reflection on possible improvement, and assist in career advancement. Items selected reveal information about an individual’s philosophy, leadership capacity, commitment to professional growth, ability to anticipate problems, develop alternatives and take risks, and willingness to accept challenging assignments (Brown & Irby, 1995). If you choose to prepare a portfolio, focus on your professional accomplishments, growth and development. It might include: (a) vita (with reference list); (b) educational philosophy; (c) professional goals; (d) professional honors; (e) awards; (f) organizational memberships; (g) writing samples, articles, and pictures. The Principal Portfolio (Brown & Irby, 2001) and the Career Advancement Portfolio (Brown & Irby, 2000) are helpful resources for developing portfolios, electronic portfolios and web folios.

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Barriers Barriers still exist to women’s access to administrative roles. Focusing on the pathology of these problems is not our intent here, but women would be well advised to find ways to avoid the barriers noted in the literature. There are three general categories of these. They tend to keep women in traditional positions within the working world and lock them into the lower levels of organizational hierarchies. As far as personal barriers are concerned, the first category, personality characteristics, includes background influences and socialization patterns that can function to inhibit women’s progress in educational administration. The second category, interpersonal barriers, characterizes the interactions between aspiring women and the dominant power groups (which tend to be White and male). The major types of interpersonal barriers are sex role stereotyping and intergroup polarization. These function to perpetuate myths and biases about women’s abilities and to group women together in such a way that all of them suffer from the failures of a few. The third category, organizational/structural barriers, can be found in many aspects of an agency’s functions: recruitment, selection, placement, evaluation, norms and role expectations. Some strategies for combating these barriers are consciousness raising, career planning, management training, information sharing, mentoring, networking, and retraining (Gupta, 1983). Major difficulties faced by women include role conflicts, lack of support, and discrimination. Potential solutions involve adopting a personal strategy, changing the existing setting, and/or seeking out alternative settings (structural strategies). Barriers that may exist in graduate school include a paucity of female mentors and a lack of support for career development. And, after acquiring a job, women may still encounter problems with affirmative action, networking, and sexual harassment (Yoder, 1984). The glass ceiling refers to the complete set of existing barriers that have prevented the advancement of women and minorities into the top levels of executive management, among them: biased recruitment practices, lack of opportunities for professional development, general lack of ownership of equal opportunity principles, ambiguously defined performance measures, and limitations on mobility. The following are cited as successful approaches to removing these barriers: (a) tracking women and minorities with advancement potential, (b) ensuring access and visibility, (c) ensuring a bias-free workplace, and (d) continuing placement of women and minorities into entry-level professional positions. A major impediment to women’s successful pursuit of administrative careers appears to be their unwillingness to apply for administrative positions (Grady, 1992). In a study of women with administrative credentials, 127 (65%) of the 196 respondents had not applied for any administrative posi-

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tion during the last five years. The 69 (35%) women who had applied for administrative positions sent a total of 96 applications: 43 for elementary principalships, 19 for assistant principalships, 17 for coordinator positions, 5 for secondary principalships, 3 for superintendencies, 3 for special education directors, and 3 for directors of student services. Of the 69 respondents who applied for administrative positions within the last five years, 45 (65%) were interviewed, 22 one time, 9 four times, 1 five times, and 1 six times (Grady, 1992). In a recent survey of women principals, subjects were asked how they acquired their first principalships (Grady, Peery, & Krumm, 1997). The following comments represent their responses: I was approached. I was originally a Title 1 teacher in the district. I did my internship under the current principal at that time; he left and recommended me. I was hired at the next board meeting. I don’t know if the position was advertised. I got drafted into being a head teacher. Over the years I just got more and more skilled. I taught in this district for three years and was asked to prepare for the principalship. I was on the job before I got my Masters. I was a teaching principal for two years, half-time teaching principal for one year, then full time principal for four years. I was a teacher for 20 years; then I was a head teacher. I got my administrative certificate, applied for my first job and got it as principal. I applied, . . . I have been in the district for 16 years, 13 years as a teacher, 4 years as a principal. I taught for seven years and was then a counselor for four years. I was an assistant principal for four years, and I will soon be starting my third year as principal. This has all been in the same district. I was promoted from the classroom after 12 years of teaching experience to a position where I was acting assistant principal at one building, principal at another building, Title I coordinator for the district and special education director for the district. I taught for two years in the district with my administrative certificate before being promoted. I had applied for a principalship in one other district but didn’t get it. I was hired because I had an administrative certificate in place. I have people skills, and then I was asked by the special education director and principal to apply. I was teaching first grade for six years in the district. I applied for the principalship and got it.

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I was teaching here and had my administrative certificate. I was first a head teacher for one year. I taught for nine years. They came and asked if I would take it. I was in the district and was promoted from within. I didn’t apply for the position of principal. It was offered to me. I applied for three jobs before receiving this principalship. The administrator before had the Special Education and Federal programs. He left the system and that job was split up. My first administrative job was to do federal projects; then when this principalship came up, they asked if I could do this principalship plus the federal projects. That was three years ago. The jobs have tripled and the staff has tripled, and the kids since then. I’m still doing all those jobs. I applied for three jobs before this one. I was the assistant principal at another school after I had taught for two years at that school. We also asked women principals why they were hired and what qualities got them their jobs. Their comments follow: I believe I was hired because of the continuity I provide, my commitments, dependability, and the belief I have in others including staff and students. I will try things and will listen to unhappy staff. I am able to brush off criticism and stay focused. I am very assertive; I was vocal as a teacher. I am respected and listened to by others. I want what’s best for the children and use that guide in all my decisions. Everyone knows that. It was unusual for me to get this job because I was not from the community. Since high school I’ve always had leadership qualities. I am organized, and motivated. I have good communication and public relations skills. My speaking and counseling training have caused me to be a good communicator. I am a very good teacher. I have good organization skills; my background in personnel and business has helped. I had lots of supervisory work and had developed administrative qualities outside of education. I was hired because of my reputation as a strong disciplinarian, because I am a decision maker and not afraid to take risks. . . . my ability to do site-based management and my ability to be innovative and to create trends for the future. . . . They wanted a people person, someone who was not afraid to change things needing to be changed. . . . because I have been in education a long time. . . . I have served on many committees. I am bilingual, I have a bilingual and counseling

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degree with a Masters in Curriculum and Instruction, Drug Abuse Training, Gang Intervention, and I am very involved with parents. My leadership qualities, knowledge of school, and commitment to the community got me the job. I am also motivated and dedicated. I handle things with common sense. I am fair with people. . . . because I was motivated, enthusiastic. I have a positive attitude, and I am a doer. I was hired because of my perseverance, and I had been Federal Project Director before. . . . because I had done well at the junior high as an assistant principal. I knew what we were doing in the district. I knew what our discipline policies were, and I was hired because of my professionalism. Conclusion

For those who seek leadership positions, persistence is the key. Individuals who view the preparation and job search process as a competitive enterprise may be more resilient in the endeavor. Candidates must be willing to be contenders in more than one administrative search. Having the opportunity to move into a leadership role is worth the investment of your time and energy. It’s your future! References Albino, J. E., (992). Strategy: The dirty word that women must learn. Educational Record, 73(2),47–51. Bridges, C. R., (996). The characteristics of career achievement perceived by African American college administrators. Journal of Black Studies, 26(6), 748–767. Brock, B. L. & Grady, M. L., (2004). Launching Your First Principalship . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Brown, G., & Irby, B. J. (1995). The portfolio: Should it also be used by administrators? NASSP Bulletin, 79(560), 82–85. Brown, G., & Irby, B. J. (2000). The Career Advancement Portfolio. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Brown, G., & Irby, B. J. (2001). The Principal Portfolio. Second Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Brunner, C.C. U& Grogan, M. (2007). Women Leading School Systems: Uncommon Roads to Fulfillment. Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield Education. Daresh, J. C., & Playko, M. A (1992). What do beginning leaders need? Aspiring and practicing principals’ perceptions of critical skills for novice administrators. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA April 20–24.

96    M. GRADY, B. KRUMM, and K. PEERY Fleming, K. A (1991). Mentoring. Is it the key to opening doors for women in educational administration? Education Canada, 31(31), 27–33. Glass, T. E. & Franceschini, L. A. (2007). The State of the American School Superintendency: A mid-decade Study. Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield Education. Grady, M. L., (1992). Women and educational administration: Certified, but not employed. Educational Considerations, 20(1), 33–36. Grady, M. L., & Bohling-Philippi, V. (1988). Now that we have all these women graduate students, how should we train them? NFEAS Journal, 5(1), 85–90. Grady, M. L., & Gosmire, D. (1995). Topics of interest to women in educational administration. Educational Considerations, 22(2), 18–20. Grady, M. L, & O’Connell, P.A (1993). Women in K–12 educational administration: A synthesis of dissertation research. Journal of School Leadership, 3, 449–460. Grady, M. L., & Wesson, L. H. (1994). Two national studies of women superintendents. Resources in Education, Eugene, OR: (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 372474) (pp. 1–33). Gregory, C. A, & Reid, E. J. (1983). Breaking away from the pack. School Administrator, 40(11), 10–11. Gupta, N. (1983). Barriers to the advancement of women in educational administration: Sources and remedies. Austin, TX: Southwest Educational Development Lab, (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 257204). Hetherington, C., & Barcelo, R. (1985). Womentoring: A cross-cultural perspective. Journal of the National Association of Women Deans, Administrators, and Counselors, 49(1), 12–15. Hopson, C. S. (1995). Mentoring new administrators. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Southern States Communication Association, New Orleans, LA, April 5–9, 1995. Howard-Vital, M. R., & Morgan, R. (1993). African American women and mentoring. PA: Evaluative Report. IES National Center for Education Statistics (2007). Digest of Education Statistics 2006. Washington, DC: IES National Center for Education Statistics. Irby, B. J., & Brown, G. (1994). Establishing partnerships among women executives in rural school districts. In D. Montgomery (Ed.) Rural partnerships: Working together. Proceedings of the Annual National Conference of the American Council on Rural Special Education, Austin, IX, March 23–26. Johnson, J. R. (1991). Networking: How to penetrate the glass ceiling-some highlights from recent studies of networking among women. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, April 3–7. (ERlC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 332356). Larwood L., & Wood, M. M. (1995). Training women for management: Changing priorities. Journal of Management Development, 14(2), 54–64. Matczynski, T. J., & Comer, K. C. (1991). Mentoring women and minorities in high education: An anecdotal record. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 331376). Mertz, N., Welch, O., & Henderson, J. (1987). Why women aren’t mentored. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Portland, Oregon. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 292 953)

Pathways to Administrative Roles    97 Mertz, N., Welch, O. & Henderson, J., (1990). Executive mentoring: Myths, issues, strategies. Office of Educational Research and Improvement, US. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service. ED 323635). Montz, C. B. & Wanat, C. L. (2008). Slow path to the superintendency: Women’s social networks and negotiation skills. Journal of Women in Educational Leadership, 61, 29–47. Natale, J. A, (1992). Up the career ladder. The Executive Educator, 1–1(2), 16–23. Pavan, B. N., & Robinson, R. J. (1991). Reflections of female school administrators regarding their careers. Paper presented at the annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL April 3–7. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service. ED 334676). Pigford, A B. (1995). The interview: What candidates for administrative positions should know and do. NASSP Bulletin, 79(569), 54–58. Pipelines of progress: An update on the glass ceiling initiative. A Status Report. Washington, DC: Department of Labor, U.S. Government Printing Office. Quintero, N. (1995, Autumn). From seniority to employee competencies: A new approach to negotiating career paths. Career Training and Development, 5(21). Reisser, L. J., & Zurfluh, L. A. (987). Female administrators: Moving up, or moving out? Journal of the National Association of Women Deans, Administrators, and Counselors, 50(4), 22–29. Three voices of women school leaders. (1990). School Administrator, 47(2), 18–19. Yoder, J. D. (1984). Surviving the transition from graduate student to assistant professor. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada, August 24–28. Yoder, N. (1994). Teacher Leadership. An Annotated Bibliography, St. Louis, MO: Danforth Foundation.

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Chapter 8

Strategies for Advancing Your Career and Obtaining Your First School Executive Position Genevieve Brown Sam Houston State University Beverly J. Irby Sam Houston State University

Over two decades, the number of females holding executive positions at the elementary and secondary school levels has increased. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, women at both elementary and secondary levels accounted for 21.6% of public school principals nationally in 1987–88, and 34.5% in 1993–94 (U.S. Department of Education, 1993–1994). By 1999–2000 that figure had grown to 44% (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). From 1999–2000 to 2007–08, the percentage of public school principals who were female increased at both the elementary and

Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 99–117 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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secondary levels, although the gender distribution varied by level. The percentage of female principals increased from 52 to 59% at public elementary schools and from 22 to 29% at public secondary schools (National Center for Education Statistics, 2010). These are encouraging statistics for women aspiring to leadership roles in schools. However, just getting the first campus-level administrative job can prove challenging. As Dana and Bourisaw (2006) stated: Even when women have strong teacher leadership, have chaired task forces and committees for their schools, have served on district wide councils, have solid reputation as effective and successful educators, and have secured the necessary credentials, acquiring an assistant principal position remains challenging. (p. 35)

In the past, many women who have achieved school administrative positions have been willing to share their stories and to offer advice to other women seeking similar positions (Gupton & Slick, 1996; Duncan & Skarstad, 1986; Gregg, 2007; Harris & Crocker, 2008). We here share with readers who are seeking to advance in their school-based careers approximately 30 years of career advancement advice gathered from successful and experienced women. It focuses on obtaining the required certification and training for leadership positions, continuing professional development, building credibility and visibility, developing and effectively using networks, creating a professional portfolio, and proper preparation for interviews. In this chapter, we focus on specific strategies that are critical to securing the first school executive position: networking, building confidence, facing anxieties, projecting a professional image, determining the fit, and knowing the no’s. Networking Building a network of professional contacts is an important initial step in preparing to shift from the classroom to the administrative arena. Networks provide the opportunities to acquire the resources essential to career advancement, such as inside information, job opening, visibility to leaders, administrative strategies, recommendations for promotions, building trust, and social support (Coleman, 2010; Herminia, 1997; Shakeshaft, Brown, Irby, Grogan, & Ballenger, 2007; Silva, Dyer, & Whitham, 2007). Brown and Merchant (1993) stressed the importance of women’s valuing, and maintaining contacts as they move through their careers. They describe networking as a primary measure of the success that they have had in their own careers. Collier (1997) also addressed the importance of networking, indicating that many women believe that if they obtain the required credentials

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and do a good job in teaching, or whatever job they are doing, they will get the promotion they are seeking. In her experience, this is not always be true and networking is critical. Give that the importance of networking for career advancement is welldocumented, it would seem that women who aspire to leadership positions would develop networks and use them to their advantage. However, in a study of 69 aspiring women administrators, Brown and Irby (1995) found that over half of the respondents had inaccurate perceptions of the value of networking and networking groups, and that they had failed to establish the networks requisite to their career advancement. Thus, the first step in advancing your career is to recognize the importance of doing this. Networking Strategy 1: Create Many Networks While the workplace is the most obvious arena for creating such a network, contacts made in other settings can also be of great assistance. We suggest that you create a variety of formal and informal networks—neighborhood, community, church, etc., and that you consider everyone you meet to be a member of your network. The more people who know you and your capabilities and aspirations, and the more people you know, the greater your chances of learning about a position or having someone put in a good word for you. Networking Strategy 2: Get Acquainted and Get Involved It is beneficial to become well acquainted with administrators on individual school campuses, with central office administrators, and with other supervisory personnel in your district and region. Your willingness to participate in committee work and other special district and community projects promotes high visibility and affords many opportunities for connecting with people. (Madden, 1997). Additionally, volunteering to conduct faculty staff development sessions, attending conferences and workshops, and holding offices or committee chairs in professional organizations are important activities. In all these situations, you will have opportunities to demonstrate to others your commitment to the profession, your willingness to learn and to take on new challenges and your leadership skills. Additionally, you will have opportunities to meet others in the profession. Always be sure to introduce yourself to individuals you do not know and to exchange business cards with them.

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Networking Strategy 3: Get Your Name in Lights Expand your network by making presentations and publishing articles in professional publications. If you have been a part of program development or evaluation effort in your district, request that you be a part of the team that would present the results at a regional or state professional meeting, a community or parent-teacher group, the superintendent’s cabinet, or the school board. Also, you might report your experiences or research in an article and submit it to a journal or a newsletter that is read by administrators and board members. These efforts will not only demonstrate your knowledge and your presentation and writing skills; they will also expand your résumé and help you establish a broader base of contacts. Networking Strategy 4: Catch a Rising Star An important strategy for building a network is to link yourself to a rising star in the administrative field. Having a mentoring relationship with such an individual is important human capital (VanDerLinden, 2004) because it has the potential to increase career advancement opportunities (Cleveland, Stockdale, & Murphy, 2000). “Mentors have the special capacity to help women to garner the political support that they need from others, by sharing the inside information about the organization” (Gardiner, Enomoto, & Grogan, 2000, p. 27). Most excellent administrators are more than willing to mentor someone who is hard working, dedicated and shows potential for a promising future in administration. As Herman (1994) observed, mentors are able to learn of possible administrative positions through their own networks and can share that information with individuals seeking those types of positions. Other excellent contacts or potential mentors include your current school principal or university professors. Once you have begun to develop your network, do not hesitate to ask your mentors or contacts for advice. Networking Strategy 5: Don’t Burn Your Bridges Remember this cardinal rule of networking: Never burn any bridges! In our infinitely mobile and ever-shrinking world, it is imperative that positive connections be maintained. You never know when someone from your past can be your bridge to the future. Additionally, when your name comes up in any conversation, you want to be characterized as a person of integrity and professionalism.

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Enhance Your Confidence Successful women administrators exhibit high degrees of confidence (Gardenswartz & Rowe, 1987; Marshall, 1985; Sobehart, 2009). This is an area to which aspiring women administrators need to pay particular attention because some research indicates that aspiring women administrators lack self-confidence (Brown & Irby, 1995). Many interviewers have told us that, all other things being equal, they will offer the job to the person who projects the greatest confidence during the interview. But, feeling confident and projecting confidence requires planning and preparation. Confidence Strategy 1: Know Desired Skills and Traits Knowing what school administrators want in those individuals who will be filling entry level administration positions is important. It can enhance your confidence, because it makes it easier for you to showcase those characteristics. If you do not have experience in those areas, you will be able to plan ahead and seize opportunities to garner such experience if you need to. In general, employees want individuals who are team players and who are adaptive and flexible. They also value competency, problem-solving ability, willingness to be a continuous learner, integrity and initiative. They expect good command of the basics such as ability in reading, math, written and oral communication, and problem-solving (Carnevale, Gainer, & Meltzer, 1990). More specifically, the confidence of aspiring leaders will be enhanced by the knowledge of the expectations placed upon entry level administrators. At the turn of the century, Irby and Brown (2000) conducted interviews with 108 school administrators in an effort to identify desired characteristics of entry level administrators. As you review the list below, you will want to consider your strengths and weaknesses. If you wish to advance in your career, you should to highlight those areas that are strengths and minimize whose which are weaknesses. Continue to work on the latter. Confidence is built as you see yourself improving. The twenty-six characteristics identified in this study fall into in three categories: I. Instructional • Knowledge of teaching strategies • Knowledge of effective discipline techniques • Knowledge of various populations • Knowledge of current trends • Commitment to student learning • Technology skills • Learning as a priority

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II. Personal • Integrity, loyalty, and honesty • Strong interpersonal skills • Enthusiasm and energy • Professional appearance • Good judgment • Cooperative and positive • Openness to change • Sense of humor • Flexibility III. Leadership/Managerial • Team player • Organized • Visionary • Initiative • Strong communication skills • Creative problem-solver • Positive public relations • Professional development (self, administrators, teachers) • Leadership and success in current position Confidence Strategy 2: Do Your Homework If you are trying to secure an administrative position, it is particularly important that, you do your homework well ahead of the interview. Learn all you can about the position that is to be filled. Obtain a copy of the job description and ask questions of your contacts as appropriate. If you know the campus, the district, and the community well, you will be prepared to speak with confidence about issues and concerns raised during the interview and you will communicate your interest and preparedness to the interviewer(s). Homework sources include:

1. Campus Report Card 2. District or Campus Annual Performance Report 3. District or Campus brochures 4. District demographics, program information, achievement data 5. District/Campus mission or vision 6. Past board agendas 7. Local newspapers or school publications 8. A drive around the community 9. A talk with a local realtor

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Take note of important facts and make some general observations as appropriate. Your confidence will be boosted by doing this as well because you will be aware of major goals, issues, and concerns in the district and/or on the campus, issues which may come up in the interview. You will be able to discuss them, to ask related questions, or perhaps, even to anticipate those that may be asked of you during the interview. You will also know if there are any red herrings or hidden agendas. Equally importantly, you will be prepared to point out how your expertise can positively impact specific issues related to the campus, district, or community. Confidence Strategy 3: Review the Latest Educational Trends You will convey a sense of confidence during the interview if you are able to powerfully relate to the questioning by drawing on the latest research or trends regarding programs that are either currently in place, or are being considered by the campus or district. After doing your homework to determine what programs are currently being implemented or under consideration, you will want to do a brief literature review. It will make it possible to prudently incorporate current research, or even the latest educational buzzwords, into your questions or responses. Confidence Strategy 4: Anticipate and Develop Questions Confidence is enhanced not only when you know the types of questions that may be asked, but also when you have given careful thought to what constitutes appropriate answers to them. This will also enhance your confidence in your ability to ask specific and relevant questions about the position, campus or district, or about particular practices or programs. Our research indicates that several questions commonly recur during administrative interviews. They can be categorized into three types: (a) standard questions, (b) delicate questions, and (c) situational questions. Some examples are cited below. You may wish to conduct your own research by asking individuals who have recently interviewed for positions similar to that for which you are applying to provide you with several of the questions they were asked. Standard Questions Standard questions are those that we found to be asked consistently by principals, interview teams or personnel directors. These are usually very

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straightforward and frequently serve as icebreakers. While they may seem simple, the way in which you answer them is critical. Keep in mind that in asking any question the interviewer is endeavoring to gain greater insights into the applicant’s skills, attitudes, and motivation. You should never dread the questions, but rather view them as opportunities to showcase your abilities, your philosophy and your vision. Prepare and rehearse the answers to these or similar questions; remember to be brief and avoid digressing. 1. Tell me a little about yourself and your background. 2. What are the strengths that you would bring to this position? 3. Why are you interested in this position? Delicate Questions Questions in this category are often asked toward the middle of the interview and are considered by some to be “difficult,” “tricky,” or “loaded”. Remember that you are selling yourself and your expertise during the interview; a poorly thought-out answer could keep you from getting the job. Consider the following examples: 1. What do you consider your weaknesses? Poor answer: I have trouble with time management. I really need to work on that. (This response will put up a red flag to the interviewer(s); perhaps creating doubt in the mind of the interviewer(s) as to the ability of the applicant to get a job done in a timely and efficient manner.) Better answer: I always try to do my best. Because I like things to be done correctly, sometimes people perceive me as a perfectionist. (In this response the individual has answered the question, but has turned a potential weakness into a trait that many people consider a strength. Additionally, note that this applicant has not labeled herself a perfectionist, but has merely said that others might perceive her as such. This applicant actually never admits a weakness, and this is a rule of thumb for this type of question: never admit a weakness.) 2. What would be your concerns about accepting this position? Poor answer: Well, I have only taught in elementary school. Since this position is a junior high assistant principal position, I may not be as confident in working with this age group as I would with elementary school students. (Be careful about describing your concerns. Remember, you are marketing yourself as enthusiastic, confident, and competent. You do not want to give the interviewer(s) reason to have concerns about your abilities to handle the position. You want to be sincere, and you do not want to mislead anyone. If you are

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not prepared to handle the job, don’t apply for it. First develop the necessary expertise and confidence, then apply. Better answer: Of course, I will have many challenges as situations arise; however, I am eager to learn more about the position. I am very excited about what I do know and feel very well prepared for this position. (The response to this question portrays confidence and expresses an interest and a sincere willingness to learn. Note, however, that the applicant does not give the interviewer or team any reason to believe that she cannot meet the challenges of the job.) 3. Do you believe in phonics or whole language instruction? Poor answer: Oh, most definitely, I believe that phonics instruction is absolutely essential for all children to learn to read well. (It is very likely that the interviewer may have a hidden agenda in asking this question. Your interviewer or one member of the team may be a proponent of one approach or the other and you may not know that at this point. It is usually unwise to state emphatically that one approach or program is better than another or is a panacea for all children.) Better answer: As we know, there are various data supporting both methods of instruction. Because so many variables are involved in a child’s learning to read, many new reports are suggesting an eclectic approach to reading. So, I suppose that I would have to say that the type of reading instruction really depends on the child’s need and learning style and the expertise of the teacher. (This answer acknowledges that there are two sides to this issue. Additionally, the response indicates that the applicant is knowledgeable in the latest research and believes in meeting the individual needs of children. Children, not methodology, are first in this answer. Thus, the applicant is perceived as putting people before programs.) Situational Questions In a review of over 500 questions generally asked of entry level administrative candidates by interviewers, at least one-third of those were situational questions (Irby & Brown, 2000). Situational questions are aimed at ascertaining how the applicant would handle situations or issues that arise in the school setting and solve problems. Be sure that you are prepared to answer questions similar to those below. 1. How would you handle a parent who comes to you and is angry about the manner in which a teacher corrected his/her child? Your response to this question will give the interviewer valuable insights into your potential for communicating with parents and

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for handling conflict. Your response will also demonstrate how you would support your staff members. Additionally, it would reveal how you solve problems and gather data in order to do so. 2. How would you handle an experienced teacher who disagrees with the teaching evaluation that you have given her following an observation visit to her classroom? In addition to indicating how you would resolve this conflict, your response to this question will demonstrate your knowledge of the latest research on teacher evaluation, your thinking about the purposes of such evaluation, your expectations of teachers, and your philosophy of your role as an instructional leader and staff developer. Prepare Your Own Questions Usually, the interviewer(s) allows a few minutes for questions from the applicant. This often occurs near the close of the interview. You will feel more confident and will make a better impression if you have prepared one or two salient questions in advance. Applicants have suggested to us that this is a difficult task, as do not want to ask a question that would be controversial or would make them appear incompetent. As you develop your questions, keep in mind that your goal is to convince the interviewer(s) that you are interested in and well-prepared for the job. The questions you ask can afford you additional opportunities to showcase your abilities. For example, if you have had a great deal of experience in curriculum alignment, you might ask where the campus is in this process. Or, if you have served on campus or district decision-making teams or committees, you might ask about the activities or accomplishments of the site-based team. Additionally, you might want to develop a question related to campus or district organization; these questions are “safe,” i.e., how is the site-based team selected? Or, how are lunch and bus duties assigned? Questions to avoid during this time are those that might be controversial or those that deal with salary, time off, accrual of personal days, or insurance. After you have prepared your answers and formulated your questions, you may want to seek feedback from an administrator with whom you feel comfortable and whom you know well. And, you will certainly want to rehearse both your answers and your questions. Confidence Strategy 5: Develop Your Portfolio The use of a portfolio for career advancement can be of great benefit to aspiring administrators, both males and females; however, it is especially important for women administrators, because, as research confirms, it addresses several needs, concerns, and perceptions of them as these relate

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to career advancement. We believe it is critical for an aspiring woman administrator to present her credentials effectively and to establish herself as a viable candidate for a given position because (a) it generally takes three times as long for women to advance to administrative positions as it does for men f men. This was noted over two decades ago (Jeffords, 2008) and has been determined to still be the case (Grogan & Brunner, 2005), (b) there is often the perception that women must have higher qualifications than their male counterparts (Gorman & Kmec, 2007), and (c) women lack a sense of themselves as leaders (Sherr, 1995; Walker, 1995). A thoughtful, well-organized career advancement portfolio offers a concrete representation of the applicant’s qualifications and gives interviewers important information related to strengths, professional values and ethics, problem-solving ability, and objectivity, all aspects of her professional preparation that might not be revealed during the traditional interview. An administrative portfolio is a collection of thoughtfully selected items or artifacts and accompanying reflections that document an individual’s experiences and ability to lead (Irby & Brown, 2000). The career advancement portfolio: • assists in building self-confidence prior to going for an interview (This occurs because the applicant has carefully thought through and documented her strengths and is ready to discuss them and to respond positively to questions.) • provides specific directions for growth by demonstrating to the creator of the portfolio those areas in which she still needs to expanded her experiences in order to be well qualified for a particular position (Once the individual begins to reflect on and document past experiences in various leadership areas, she is able to focus on gaining experiences in areas critical to the position she hopes to attain. She can immediately begin doing this. Basically, this activity insures a more focused career plan.) • provides an opportunity to showcase/discuss strengths and successes (Brings the portfolio to the interview facilitates this process It allows the individual the opportunity to visibly demonstrate her successes and strengths through artifacts and reflections.) • gives interviewer(s) concrete examples of experiences • provides information typically not revealed in résumé or applications A career advancement portfolio includes: (a) a table of contents to guide the reader, (b) a current résumé tailored to the position, (c) a Leadership Framework (Irby & Brown, 2000), (d) a statement of five-year administrative goals, (e) artifacts and reflections which are correlated to various aspects of the position, or to state or national administrative criteria or proficien-

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cies, and (f) accolades from parents, teachers, administrators, community members, or students. The Leadership Framework developed by Irby and Brown (2000) has seven major areas that potential administrators consider to be reflective of the core of their personal beliefs as well as their vision for the school organization. Through the development of the Leadership Framework, the applicant increases her confidence prior to going into the interview by actually writing a paragraph of her thoughts in the seven relevant areas. She is then prepared to discuss these if asked to do so during the interview. These areas include:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Philosophy of Education Philosophy of Leadership Vision for Learners Vision for Teachers Vision for the Organization Vision for Professional Growth Method of Vision Attainment

Career advancement portfolios can be effective tools which not only highlight strengths and accomplishments, but also serve as reflective and predictive indicators of the leadership potential of the administrative candidate. In addition to the fact that the portfolio provides vital information to potential employers, preparing it also builds confidence in the aspiring administrator. Facing Anxieties There is always a certain degree of anxiety associated with interviewing for any position. The aspiring administrator can lessen her level of it by implementing the following simple strategies. Face your anxieties head-on by making a list of all the things that make you worried when you think about the interview. Be sure to be very specific. For example, don’t just list nervousness, rather list not knowing what to do with my hands or being afraid I will say ‘uh too many times. Don’t worry if your list seems too long. Your goal is to put in writing everything that makes you anxious. Reducing your anxiety to words on paper makes it seem more manageable. When you have completed the list, write down a specific technique for addressing each issue. For example, you might address the problem of the hands by writing that you will keep your hands folded loosely in your lap while you are seated.

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Facing Anxieties: Strategy 1: Image Develop mental images of yourself in the interview situation responding clearly and effectively to the questions being asked. Image yourself in the actual position for which you are applying. Picture yourself clearly as the leader and as perfectly capable of meeting the challenges it poses. Talk to yourself positively about your skills, knowledge, and successes. This is positive thinking; imaging and positive self-talk are powerful tools for reducing anxiety and enhancing self-confidence. Facing Anxieties: Strategy 2: Rehearse This strategy may be perceived as trite by some; however, women whom we have interviewed who gained new administrative positions indicated that they spent considerable time rehearsing for their interviews. They practiced articulating and sharing their philosophy and their vision and answering a variety of questions. They also rehearsed the questions they planned to ask. Several reported rehearsing in front of a mirror or videoplaying a practice interview. In one course that we taught, women identified a video-taped mock interview as one of the most helpful and relevant learning activities. This called for a practicing administrator to conduct a mock interview with the aspiring administrator and to provide feedback. The individual interviewed, as well as a peer and the professor, reviewed and gave feedback on the video. The women found this an effective rehearsal technique and stated that it greatly reduced their anxieties related to interviewing (Brown & Irby, 1996). Facing Anxieties: Strategy 3: Know Your Material When you have done your homework and developed your portfolio, you will have the information you need to go into the interview confidently. Review this information carefully prior to the actual interview and be prepared to explain in particular how your qualifications match the requirements of this position. Facing Anxieties: Strategy 4: Give Yourself Permission to Be Anxious; Be a Risk-taker Know that you will be anxious, but take the risk to go to interviews. Even though you may feel that your experience is limited, seize opportunities to

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interview. Aspiring administrators report that going to interviews provided extremely valuable “practice” and greatly reduced anxiety. You may ask, “How can this strategy lower anxiety?” During the interview you need to be able to focus totally on marketing yourself. Consider that you have purchased a new suit and the skirt is shorter than usual or the tag in the jacket is scratching your neck. This can be distracting in an interview and can interfere with your concentration. If you do purchase a new interview suit or a new pair of shoes, wear them several times prior to the interview so that you will feel comfortable and confident in them. Project a Professional Image Projecting a professional image refers not only to dress, but also to how you come across in the interview. The strategies below are important to developing such an image. Dress is important. Nine out of ten employers reject unsuitably dressed applicants without a second thought. Dressing for the position you want projects image of what you desire to become. The safest look for women is traditional, since most school professionals dress fairly conservatively. Suits are essential; colors such as gray, charcoal, black, or navy in a pin-stripe or solid are the best choices. If you are interviewing in a warm weather climate, a short-sleeved suit might be appropriate so long as the sleeves come just above the elbow. Blouses should be white, pale blue, gray, or light pink. Your shoes should always have a closed-in toe and heel; a basic 1½» heel pump in brown, black, or navy is the best choice. Hose should be neutral in color. Jewelry should be understated; gaudy, dangling, rattling or religious jewelry should not be worn. Perfume should be very light. Finally, you should always carry a briefcase and place your purse inside it. Looking capable and professional will give you confidence and communicate to others that you have pride and a sense of appropriateness. Projecting an Image: Strategy 1: Control the Interview It is important for you to actually take control of the interview. This does not mean that you are the interviewer; rather, it means that you have confidence and are prepared to respond to the questions. Remember, the interview is critical, not only for the interviewer, but also for you as the interviewee: You are interviewing the individual/district/school just as much as they are interviewing you! Be confident, but do not exude arrogance. At the beginning of the session, when the interviewers are being introduced, take note of names and titles. If you are able to use a note pad, jot down the names of the interviewers as they are introduced so that you can

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call them by name. Also take reminder notes that will prompt you to refer later to an item in your answers or your questions. Be aware of important issues that are implicit in the questions. Projecting an Image: Strategy 2: Be Sincere, Assertive, and Positive Your goal during the interview is to present yourself as the most qualified person for the position. Still, you never want to say anything that is misleading or insincere. Who you are relates to where you’ve been. Use positive words with regard to your present and past employers and job experiences If asked the reason you are seeking a new position, do not blame your boss, your colleagues, or work situation. In fact, your response should specifically relate to the job position you are seeking. Where many people would say, “I am seeking this position for a new challenge,” a better answer might be, “This position appeals to me because my leadership qualifications and experiences in curriculum development and alignment are very suited to the posted description of the curriculum director you are seeking.” When speaking, use positive, action vocabulary. The following are only a few examples of words you will want to incorporate into your responses: Affect, Analyze, Capable, Develop, Diplomatic, Drive, Effective, Enthusiastic, Evaluate, Excellence, Expedite, Facilitate, Focus, Improve, Initiate, Lead, Listen, Monitor, Motivate, Participate, Potential, Produce, Professional, Reliable, Responsibility, Results, Simplify, Solve, Strengths, Thorough, Vital

Additional tips for projecting a sincere, assertive, and positive image are as follows: • Project authority through your voice, pitch, intonation, and volume. • Communicate assertiveness, alertness, dependability, confidence, and responsibility through eye contact. • Make no apologies; project preparedness, confidence, calmness, and capability. • Ask questions and portray optimism in your answers. • Present yourself as a solution. • Elaborate on answers, but do not ramble. • Communicate a career direction. • Maintain a naturally alert head position; keep your head up and your eyes to the front; look directly at the person asking the question and respond accordingly. Of course, avert your gaze from time to time, so as to avoid the impression that you are staring; when you

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• • • •

do so, look confidently and calmly to the right or the left; never look down. Do not hurry any movement. Use “I think” versus “I feel.” Use specific examples to answer questions. Use “When I become your assistant principal. . . .”

Projecting an Image: Strategy 3: Leave a Good Impression The interviewers will forget 85% of what you say an hour after you have gone. So, in the final phases of the interview, just as at the beginning, you must make a positive impact. The interviewers should remember you as confident, enthusiastic, knowledgeable, and dependable. End the interview as you began, with a smile, direct eye contact, a firm but gentle handshake, and a few positive words: “It sounds like a great opportunity” or “I look forward to hearing from you.” A cardinal rule for interviewing is “the interview isn’t over ’til it’s over.” In other words, if the interviewer takes you to view the town, or out to lunch or dinner, continue to portray a professional image. Do not become overly confident and friendly with the interviewer—remember, the interview is not over. Determine the Fit Determining the fit between yourself and the campus or district is the best way to ensure a positive and productive experience for both parties. The interview should be as much your interview of the campus or district as it is an interview of you. Before accepting a position, carefully consider the expectations and roles which attach to it. Consider the priorities of the campus and district. Consider whether your leadership framework matches the campus or district philosophy, mission, and vision. Consider whether you can grow professionally and personally in this position. Consider the culture of the campus. Investigate any “red flags” and determine if you can live with them. Know The “No’s” Research on effective interviewing indicates that people who get the positions are aware of what not to do in interviews. Interviewers report that people who don’t get the job usually commit one or more of the following interview faux pas:

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• • • • • • • • •

fail to know about the campus or district display negative attitudes offer rambling, disconnected answers fail to make eye contact fail to ask questions dress improperly have no career direction/do not know self are unassertive or passive cancel or show up late.

Aspiring administrators should also be aware of the Don’ts: • • • • • • • • • • •

use first names smoke or drink (even if invited) sit down (until invited) show anxiety or boredom look at your watch discuss equal rights, sex, race, national origin, religion ask about benefits, salary, or vacation assume a submissive role press for an early decision show discouragement ask for an evaluation of the interview. Summary

Getting that first executive position can be challenging, frightening, and rewarding. In this chapter, we have reviewed numerous strategies for increasing the chances of your landing your first job. The factors and strategies discussed in this chapter have come from (a) extensive research we have conducted over several years, (b) women who have been successful in obtaining the positions they were seeking, and (c) personnel directors and administrators who have interviewed hundreds of applicants. Reflecting on, and acting in keeping with, this advice will provide you with the confidence you need to develop more effective career plans and improve your techniques for advancement. References Baccus, R . E. (1989). Not so random thoughts on that pursuit of the goal. Jump the Sun: Perspectives of Black women administrators. Annandale, VA: Northern Virginia Community College.

116    G. BROWN and B. J. IRBY Brown, G., & Irby, B. (1995). Perceptions of women aspiring to administrative positions. The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 61(4), 33–38. Brown, G., & Irby, B. J. (1996). Effectiveness of the career advancement portfolio for women. Catalyst for Change, 26(1), 21–24. Brown, G., & Merchant, I. (1993). Women in leadership: A support system for success. In G. Brown & B. J. Irby (Eds), Women as school executives. A powerful paradigm (pp. 87–91). Huntsville, TX: Texas Council of Women School Executives, Sam Houston Press (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 383101). Carnevale, A. P., Gainer, L. J., & Meltzer, A. S. (1990). Workplace basics: The essential skills employers want. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Cleveland, J., Stockdale, M., & Murphy, K. (2000). Women and men in organizations: Sex and gender issues at work. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Coleman, M. (2010) Women-only (homophilous) networks supporting women leaders in education, Journal of Educational Administration, 48(6), 769–781. Collier, V. (1997, April). Tips from a superintendent. Paper presented to Forward and Upward, Women in Educational Leadership Seminar, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas. Dana, J., & Bourisaw, D. (2006). Women in the superintendency: discarded leadership. Lanham, MD: The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. Dopp, B. K., & Sloan, C. A. (1986, November). Career development and succession of women to the superintendency. Clearing House, 60(3), 120–126. Duncan, P. K., & Skarstad, K. (1986). So you want to bring about change: Must you first change yourself? Catalyst for Change, 26(1), 54. Gardiner, M., Enomoto, E., & Grogan, M. (2000). Coloring outside the lines. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Gardenswartz, L., & Rowe. A. (1987). Getting to the top: The 5 success secrets of women administrators. Journal of Educational Thought, 19(2). Gorman, E. H., & Kmec, J. A. (2007). We (have to) try harder: Gender and required work effort in Britain and the United States. Gender and Society, 21(6), 828–856. Gregg, M. J. (2007). The female assistant principal: Stepping stone or stumbling block to the secondary school principalship. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http:// rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=miami1193805125 Gupton, S., & Slick, C. (1996). Highly successful women administrators. Thousand Oaks. CA: Corwin Press. Harris, S., & Crocker, C. (2008). Emerging gender issues between mentors and protégés in a principal preparation program. National Council of Professors of Educational Administration Connections Module. Retrieved from http://cnx.org/ content/m14497/latest/ Herman, J. J. (1994). Designing your own career: A job hunting guide for administrators (would-be administrators). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Herminia, I. (1997). Paving an alternative route: Gender differences in managerial networks. Social Psychology Quarterly, 60(1), 91–102. Irby, B. J. (1996, October). Paper presented to Instructional Leadership Seminar, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas.

Strategies for Advancing Your Career    117 Irby B. J., & Brown, G. (Eds.) (1995). Women as school executives: Voices and visions. Austin, TX: Texas Council of Women School Executives. Irby, B. J., & Brown, G. (2000). The career advancement portfolio. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Irby, B. J., Brown, G., & Zunker, W. J. (1996, July). A program evaluation seminar for women in educational leadership. Presentation at Women Leading: Bridges to the Future, annual conference of the Texas Council of Women School Executives, Austin. Irby-Davis, B. J., & Brown, G. (1992, June). Your interview image. The Executive Educator, 14(6), 22–24. Jeffords, C. W. (2008) Personal and institutional factors affecting school administrators’ career advancement decisions. Youngstown University. ProQuest Document ID 230682832. Retrieved from https://ezproxy.shsu.edu/docview/230 682832?accountid=7065. Madden, L. D. (1997). Landing your first administrative job. Unpublished manuscript, Sam Houston State University. Marshall, C. (1985). From culturally defined to self-defined: Career stages of women administrators. Journal of Educational Thought , 19(2), 60–61. National Center for Education Statistics (2010). Condition of education characteristics of school principals. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/ coe/2010/section4/indicator29.asp Shakeshaft, C., Brown, G., Irby, B. J., Grogan, M., & Ballenger, J. (2007). Increasing gender equity in educational leadership. In S. S. Klein (Ed.), Handbook for achieving gender equity through education (pp. 103–129), Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Sherr, M. W. (1995). Empowering students for leadership. Educational Considerations, 22(2), 12–14. Silva, C., Dyer, M., & Whitham, L. (2007). Career advancement in corporate Canada. Retrieved October 13, 2009, from http://www.catalyst.org/file/23/2007%20 vm%20critical%20relationships.pdf Sobehart, H. (2009). Women leading education across the continents: Sharing the spirit, fanning the flame. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education. U.S. Department of Education. (1993–1994). The condition of education. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. U. S. Department of Education. (2002). Digest of education statistics. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. VanDerLinden, K. E. (2004). Gender differences in the preparation and promotion of community college administrators. Community College Review, 31(4), 1–24. Walker, D. (1995). Patterns in women’s emerging leadership. Educational Considerations, 22(2), 15–17.

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Chapter 9

Professional Development A Paradigm Designed for Women Carolyn S. Carr Lewis and Clark College

Women, who find the balance between personal and professional life, who integrate successfully the three dimensions, interpersonal, task, and self, can be powerful architects of a new future for themselves and others. Their lives can hold a special sense of joy and self confidence.

The Gender Dilemma The increasing presence of women in school leadership roles has been well documented, but a significant gender gap remains between the numbers of males and females in leadership roles at all administrative levels (Brown & Irby, 1995; Catalyst, 2003; Levine, 1980; Montenegro, 1993; Schmuck, 1995). One explanation for this discrepancy involves the traditional paradigm for leadership in conceived “masculine” terms of competitiveness, hierarchical power, dominance, rationality and managerial skills, as opposed to the more “feminine” terms of collegiality, consensus-building, commuWomen Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 119–136 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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nication, reflection, and caring (Carr, 1995b; Gilligan, 1982; Hargreaves, 1995; Tannen, 1994). Another explanation may relate not to differences in cognitive or academic ability, but in how women learn and come to know (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986; Gallos, 1993). Where the issues of educational leadership, school improvement and restructuring arise, professional development and growth are often topics of conversation and debate. The term professional development is commonly taken to be interchangeable with the term in-service. In this chapter, however, it will be defined in much broader terms as a growth continuum, extending throughout a career: . . . the sum total of formal and informal learning pursued and experienced . . . in a compelling learning environment under conditions of complexity and dynamic change. (Fullan, 1995, p. 265)

Clearly, in-service programs, or workshops, that merely develop technical skills and management techniques, the “how to’s of the profession” are inadequate to meet the requirements of this definition. Indeed, such events, in so far as they are designed to transfer expertise, bring to mind the “gatekeeper” mentality of a hierarchical organizational model, a “maleoriented” one which de-emphasizes gender differences in values, knowing, and style. Expert and validated knowledge, the “male” approach to professional development, is contrasted with personal and subjective knowledge, the “feminine” approach (Craft, 1996; Gilligan, 1982). Under the broader “continuum” definition proposed here, professional development involves the concept of change and growth, the increase of capacity as well as performance. The former enables continuous improvement (Fullan, 1990). In this context, professional development necessarily has personal and professional, individual and collective, inquiry-based, and technical dimensions (Lieberman, 1996). This is the case for all educators, regardless of gender, if, as effective schools research has revealed, effective leadership requires a proper orientation toward people, willingness to negotiate solutions, collegiality, and the willingness to take risks (Carr, 1995a; Craft, 1996; Marzano, 2003), and if it also requires behaviors taken to be stereotypically male such as competitiveness, control, assertiveness and autonomy. “Problem solving, reflection, and rational discussion are not hierarchically or developmentally superior or preferable to care, connection, and emotion engagement” (Hargreaves, 1995, p. 23). Equity and the integration of both are required of school administrators, particularly those who are intent on recognizing and valuing the needs of all persons within the school community. (Regan & Brooks, 1995). For women, however, there are considerations which go beyond these. Culturally defined differences in the roles of men and women often give

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women the predominant role of focusing on home and family in addition to placing full-time demands on them in the world of work. In the male dominated professional world of educational administration, women find themselves struggling for equal access to leadership roles in a system in which few female models are to be found. Networking and mentoring are taken for granted among men, and women are left in the double bind of either becoming more like men, i.e. socialized to “fit-in,” or maintaining their female perspective and being excluded as either too accommodating and passive, or at the other extreme, too radical or feminist (Chase, 1995; Pigford & Tonnsen, 1993). Women can feel marginalized in male dominated work environments, and the “marginalization itself can hamper access to knowledge about how the often powerful informal structures work. These are the very structures within which norms are established and perceptions and judgments are formed about suitability for promotion and various other high profile professional activities” (Brown, 2000, p. 71). Gottfredson has provided another and more recent finding related to career development in education, one which places emphasis on gender appropriateness and status as critical factors in career decision making. She posits that, whereas young children hold positive views of all occupations early in their lives, they begin to eliminate from consideration areas of career choice as their gender identities as male or female are formed and come to be associated with certain gendered professions (2005, p. 79). What, then, can professional development do to address the unique needs of women in their struggle against the proverbial “glass ceiling,” and, at the same time, not deny their identity, their sense of self? Dimensions of Optimal Professional Development To attain the standards described above, professional development must move from the existing, outdated models of training, in-service learning, and workshops, which direct and control participants, toward a model that is based on capacity building. Further, as the work of Cook, Heppner, and O’Brien (2002) points out, we must challenge the prevalent career development theories that reflect male-oriented world views with their accompanying assumptions such as separation of work and family roles, reverence for autonomous individualism and linear career development paths. The capacity-building model addresses three dimensions of leadership: • The interpersonal dimension concerns the building and maintenance of satisfying interpersonal relations (Pigford & Tonnesen, 1993).

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Built around practice, this dimension takes into consideration the wide variety of political interests among the teachers, administrators, parents, and students in a community, and implements standards of mutual accountability among the parties (Smyth, 1995). Further, these collaborative and interactional communities sustain ongoing, intensive and supportive modeling, coaching, and collective problem solving (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1996). The processes of mentoring and networking are expressions of this dimension. • The task dimension addresses such areas as time management, communication skills, and effective interaction with subordinates (Pigford & Tonnsen, 1993). This experiential dimension is connected to, and derived from, the work environment, and therefore also connected to aspects of school reform and change. Participant-driven inquiry, reflection, and experimentation are essential in this form of professional development (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1996). Here knowledge is viewed as tentative and continually modified by changes in practice (Smyth, 1995). • The self dimension includes professional obligations such as remaining current on issues, trends, and events in the work setting; presenting a professional image; managing stress; and balancing personal life (Pigford & Tonnsen, 1993). It is situated within the ethical, social, and political context of the life of the individual (Smyth, 1995). The individual is assumed to be an active participant in the professional development experience rather than a passive recipient of information (Guskey, 1995). Professional development opportunities in this dimension make it possible to expend emotional energy on acknowledging and being sensitive to others. These opportunities nourish human growth and develop character. They include the sharing of perspectives with others in ways that exhibit individual integrity, support critical reflection, and require collaboration and consensus (Hurty, 1995). Addressing these three dimensions in the context of a discussion of women attaining leadership roles in schools makes clear the importance of career planning, positioning, and visibility (Hill & Ragland, 1995). For them, developing a climate of support and continuous learning becomes essential (Guskey & Huberman, 1995). And, the capacity for continuous learning requires: • personal vision building

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What difference am I really making personally? • inquiry Am I internalizing the habits of continuous learning: reflective practice, action? research, risk-taking, innovation, and interaction? • mastery Do I see mastery and competence as means as well as outcomes for achievement? • collaboration Am I committed to appreciating, working and learning with colleagues, trusting the process as well as the people? (Fullan, 1995). Developing these capacities is easier when personal mentors and collegial support groups are available. Mentoring: Following the Pathfinder’s Trail Career planning for women has traditionally been subject to external influences, and so involved a minimal amount of personal goal setting. Mobility was determined by a spouse’s job or transfer to a new location. Pregnancy and subsequent responsibilities for child care took precedence in a woman’s life. It has even been said that, “Female internal locus of control is a new concept” (Hill & Ragland, 1995, p. 76). Given that they often acquire little professional work experience until later in life, women frequently hold the opinion that hard work, good performance, and competence are sufficient for advancement and success (Hill & Ragland, 1995). Women may therefore keep their aspirations secret or apply only for acceptable support roles, out of fear of rejection by males, rejection that comes from breaking with the traditional and socially defined work roles. Fear of success can even be a factor in this, with accompanying burdens that it tends to provoke, namely, increases in scrutiny, hostility, or excessive workloads. (Pigford & Tonnsen, 1993). Research carried out by Catalyst (2003) found that 26% of women eligible for promotion to senior levels in their professions actually rejected such opportunities. Consequently, mentoring is essential for career entry, development, and promotion. Mentors are invaluable in explaining the other essential aspects of careers such as visibility, power players, and power structures. They can offer the mentee the psycho-social benefits of support, validation, and reassurance that are needed to enhance self confidence and improve professional outlook (Hill & Ragland, 1995). Career develop-

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ment research has shown that family members, high school counselors and other influential adults play critical roles as mentors for high school and college age women who are in the process of deciding upon careers. Women who choose female dominated careers generally received strong encouragement to do so from their parents. In this research, success in those traditional female-dominated roles was also supported by women’s spouses. Women who chose careers outside those gendered parameters did so at later points in their lives, and had generally been encouraged to do so by persons outside their families, such as guidance counselors, teachers, professors and bosses (Whitmarsh, Brown, Cooper, Hawkins-Rodgers, & Keyser Wentworth, 2007, p. 230). The Whitmarsh research also revealed that career obstacles or barriers were far less evident in traditional femaledominated careers than they were when women aspired to more genderneutral or male-dominated careers (2007, pp. 230–232). Mentors were able to provide assistance in developing the much needed workplace skills which can assist women in navigating these barriers. In the context of a complex and continually evolving relationship, mentors serve these key functions of providing support, challenge, and vision for the mentee. Mentoring is neither a controlling nor a “hands of f process,” but includes the following functions: • • • • • •

Relationship emphasis—to establish trust Information emphasis—to offer advice Facilitative focus—to introduce alternatives Confrontative focus—to challenge Mentor model—to motivate Mentee vision—to encourage initiatives (Cohen, 1995, pp. 2–3)

The process of finding a mentor can be a challenge since the relationship necessarily rests upon a strong foundation of mutual trust, respect, friendship, commitment, and communication (Pence, 1995). Desirable characteristics in a mentor include: few constraints on professional time as these preclude regular meetings, willingness to serve the profession, wisdom about the work setting, understanding of the power structure of the work setting, self confidence, the respect of others, and evidence of mature thinking (Hill & Ragland, 1995). Other considerations in the selection of a mentor include gender, age, and training. More men and fewer women are available and willing to serve as mentors since more of the former are in upper management positions and are familiar with the mentoring relationship at work. Men generally prefer to mentor other men because of shared experiences; there are also crossgender risks where they are mentoring a woman. Fear of future losses of opportunities for promotion can also be a factor because there are now new

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initiatives designed for, or developed by, women in the organization. Open communication about the discomfort involved can alleviate such hesitation. These points having been made, there is no reason why cross-gender mentoring cannot be successful. In fact, if men were more often mentored by women, then the male view of females in professional roles and their sense of their competence leaders might be enhanced! Also, age seems no longer to be a significant factor in mentor choice. With so many non-traditional students in preparation programs, the professors who are potential mentors are frequently younger than the students (Hill & Ragland, 1995; Witmer, 1995). Another alternative form of mentoring could be networking mentoring, or peer mentoring, both non-hierarchical by nature and involving a community, so more than the traditional one to one relation. The community of colleagues offers the possibility of “a wide range of opinions, advice, and perspectives, as well as social support, utilizing their strengths for the benefit of all” (Washburn, 2007, p. 69). Once a potential mentor is located who has the general character traits that an individual admires, it is generally advised to merely ask them directly about the possibility of becoming their mentee. If time is a concern, one might ask for a limited amount of advice on a particular area of expertise. The resulting interaction might subsequently lead to a more extended mentoring relationship. Mentoring relationships generally develop in stages. Initially, there is a time for mutual assessment of each other in a process of selection. This is followed by exchange of ideas and reflection as trust is developed. Gradually the mentor begins a growth nurturing process characterized by suggestion, strategy, and positioning. Active intervention in the mentee’s affairs frequently occurs in the form of open backing and support when she applies for her first job. After that initial success, the mentor usually disengages, refocuses the relationship in less active terms, and re-engages when opportunities for promotion arise (Matczynski & Comer, 1991). Mentoring can be both formal and so derived from structured training programs and official organizational policy, or informally arranged between two compatible persons. Formal programs which include a training component are often helpful to women and minorities who have entered the profession from outside traditional career patterns. Special advice on mentoring women includes: • Women require more feedback and frequent monitoring to develop personal confidence. • Mentors need to model and reinforce strategies more frequently with women. • Women need more mentor-initiated contact. • Relationships with women last longer than with men.

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• Women spend more time at each mentoring stage and have a higher fear of failure and a perceived need for more preparation time than men. • Mentors must expect that personal crises and individual needs will surface in the relationship. • Mentors report great satisfaction and personal pride in participation in the career development of their protégé (Witmer, 1995, p. 266). Well trained mentors facilitate the professional development of their mentees by: • posing hypothetical questions to expand individual views, • uncovering the underlying experiential and informational basis for assumptions, • presenting multiple viewpoints to generate a more in-depth analysis of decisions, • examining the seriousness of commitments to goals, • analyzing reasons for current pursuits, and • reviewing recreational and other vocational preferences (Cohen, 1995, p. 61). Benefits derived from the mentoring experience are numerous for both the mentor and the mentee. For mentors, there is the opportunity to refine and rethink their ideas. They can feel great satisfaction in supporting someone else’s growth. There can be a sense of rejuvenation and reconnection with their own past as they become both “pathfinder” and “passer of the torch.” For the mentee, there is the safety net of having a sounding board and assistance in establishing professional connections. Insights are gained into the history of the organization and the profession itself. Hearing broader and more balanced views and receiving constructive feedback increases self confidence and a sense of self worth (Hill & Ragland, 1995). Organizations themselves can also benefit from mentoring programs: Cultures supporting mentoring promote communication, cohesiveness, continuity, understanding and camaraderie, as well as an improved employee motivation and satisfaction. (Hill & Ragland, 1995, p. 81)

Networking-Essential for Success Networking is the next step after mentoring. It moves the mentee toward independence, self reliance and less dependency on others (Hill & Ragland, 1995). In a national survey, when asked to rank the top reasons for the

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under-representation of women in educational administration, school administrators listed as the second most important of these, insufficient rolemodeling, networking, and mentoring. (Brown & Merchant, 1993; Gupton & Slick, 1996). These have long been commonplace among men, to such a degree that they are the often taken for granted and even go unnoticed in the male-dominated professional world (Chase, 1995). Women, in particular, need supportive networks because relationships are a fundamental aspect of the female culture and leadership style. Networking does not happen naturally, but must be structured through contacts and follow-up if women are to achieve the organization most effective and comfortable to them. Networking is described as: . . . a support system and a means by which women can get ahead in their careers; the process of developing and using contacts for information, advice and moral support as one’s career progresses; and a strategy for solving problems and ultimately effecting change. (Witmer, 1995, p. 246) Feminine leadership style is based in participatory management of a shared vision and networking is an inherent part of achieving that vision. (Witmer, 1995, p. 258)

These support/networking groups are unlike therapy or counseling groups except for the trust and confidentiality they require; curbed defensiveness and increased problem solving skills are frequent outcomes (Witmer, 1995). Some of the purposes of networking are to provide information and legitimate social interaction. Student cohort groups which form as part of graduate academic programs are an initial level and type of networking. They provide support and motivation at a time when students are dealing with career issues such as gender and ethnicity. Beyond the period of preparation for career learning groups can be formed. These can extend these early networking efforts and move former teachers out of the isolation of their roles toward the mindset of a “community of learners”. This is more appropriate for leadership roles (Hill & Ragland, 1995). Characteristics of effective learning groups such as these include: • people-centered: caring, warm, informal, and respectful of each individual; • high levels of trust: openness to sharing information, ideas, thoughts, feelings, and reactions to issues being addressed; • ease of communication: people listen to one another and are accessible for dialogue; • collaborative atmosphere: cooperation overrides competitiveness as a group value;

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• acceptance of personal responsibility: people holding themselves accountable for their choices and behavior; and • clear and acknowledged learning goals: members of the group understand and value the goals of the meetings (Wlodkowski, 1990). Networking can take many forms, each of which serves a different and important function. Some of these can be lunches, celebrations, interest groups, action research teams, book review groups, outings and conferences, and more recently, Internet conversations and circulating newsletters. Other groups can be professional organizations such as the American Association of University Women, Phi Delta Kappa, Kappa Delta Pi, and Delta Kappa Gamma. Service organizations such as Rotary, Kiwanis, Optimists, and Lions have now opened membership to women as well and should be considered (Hill & Ragland, 1995). Barriers to networking still exist, however, cultural, social, emotional, mobility and attitudinal. Many women enter the field late following traditional patterns of childrearing and staying at home until children are more independent of their mother’s care. Female mentors, sponsors, and role models are still limited in number at the higher levels of most organizations. Women frequently lack interviewing skills and have a general lack of self-confidence. Training is often male-oriented. There is lingering discomfort among some men toward introducing women in male-dominated settings. This pattern is changing slowly as large companies such as IBM and Intel take steps to integrate a more comprehensive approach to cultural and gender integration and awareness training in their professional development programs (Catalyst, 2008). These factors can cause discouragement on the part of both men and other women who are seeking to establish themselves in traditional environments. Women can adapt their behaviors and help reduce this discomfort by not being too aggressive, volunteering, being visible, and enthusiastically attending meetings and taking on responsibilities that allow them to display their expertise. Since job retention is often something that can no longer be taken for granted, continuous improvement in skills is essential, skills ranging from budgeting to strategic planning. Working to understand the media and analyzing relevant political influences are also essential. Most importantly, women must work to overcome those competitive behaviors which cause them and other women to become discouraged. Forming supportive networks can combat the “loneliness at the top” syndrome. It can also enhance leadership opportunities through constructive self assessment and critical reflection on practice (Witmer, 1995).

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Personal and Professional: Plan for Balance So, now you have been mentored and have become active in a variety of networking relationships. What next? Let us look once more at the three dimensions of professional development described initially in this chapter and consider them from the perspective of the aspiring female educational leader. The Interpersonal Dimension It is here that women have enormous personal strengths and are able to apply them success in the work environment. However, recognizing and strategically acting upon them is the challenge! We are too accustomed to putting ourselves into lesser roles and allowing others to shine. Fears of various kinds, including fear of failure or fear of upstaging a male colleague or family member, often prevent women from seeking management roles in which they could influence policies. And, these policies often form barriers to a culture of caring as it can be paired with achievement of excellence. The ‘communal caring’ cultures that females tend to develop can be shaped within organizations through sharing data, use of intuition, application of effort and development of relationships and this can be done together with traditional thinking, analysis, inquiry, and task orientation. The enhancement of interpersonal effectiveness hinges on our becoming politically astute and discerning about power, both formal and informal. Becoming a politically powerful and critically reflective professional “means empowering and assisting others [students, parents, and colleagues] to reach higher levels of competence and commitment” (Hargreaves, 1995, p. 18). For women, this means not separating themselves from male peers and colleagues, but being part of the system and performing in the daily tasks: listening, communicating, and contributing. It also means experiencing and appreciating variety in other people and never forgetting to recognize and celebrate your own gifts, strengths, interests, and talents in the mix. Interpersonal effectiveness for women also means nurturing the growth of others by actively and intentionally supporting other women and men who choose administrative careers. Joining professional organizations is requisite to this, since they support gender-fair practices and policies; similarly for applying for positions in school districts which have a history of fair employment and promotion practices. This means focusing on your own professional growth. At the same, time, and in contrast to competitive and hierarchical thinking, this makes it possible for us to serve as role models for colleagues and even for our own children, and to encourage a gen-

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der- fair work ethic, conscientiousness, and foster a “learning organization” (Hill & Ragland, 1995). Once this philosophy has been accepted into the system, you ‘walk the talk’ of gender-fair practice, continue to work for inclusion, in policy and practice, of other women into the professional ranks, and do not desert them when male traditional attitudes threaten their professional status or advancement, or set up career barriers. Finally, interpersonal professional development for women means planning a career so that it includes political action and involvement in civic affairs. Such involvement builds networks of support both personally and professionally, formally and informally (Gupton & Slick, 1996). Participation will also serve another important function, namely, that of enabling you to learn from the powerful business leaders on boards and gain insights into such activities as fund raising and creative financing. All of these can prove useful in your leadership role (Hill & Ragland, 1995). The Task Dimension Here we are concerned with the work environment. Comments such as the following are familiar to women: You will need the necessary tickets, but the tickets do not guarantee you a position. (Gupton & Slick, 1996, p. 8) You will have to be better than your male counterpart. (Gupton & Slick, 1996, p. 9)

The only way to address these stereotypical barriers is for women to directly and strategically plan their own professional development and growth. Engagement of a mentor and participation in professional networks is highly advised as these can provide guidance and support in this process. In addition, it is imperative that women devote time and energy to learning every aspect of their job; by doing so, they gain a thorough knowledge of the organization, and thereby, become more valuable employees. For women, the professional growth and development that often occurs in the process of learning the job, often requires their “over credentializing” themselves in comparison with other men and women in the school, district, region, and state. Reading widely and on broad topics is vital to success. Consider developing special talents; taking course work; attending workshops; participating in teleconferences; and attending professional conferences at the local, state, national and international levels. Such conferences broaden networks. Broaden your skills by developing expertise in areas less common among women, such as law and finance. If at all pos-

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sible, take course work at the most prestigious institutions since their reputations are appreciated more widely than local ones (Hill & Ragland, 1995). Accepting diversity and persevering with diligence, courage and prudence are also important. Women must learn the often unfamiliar but proverbial art of choosing their battles carefully in order to survive the wars! In aiming toward these goals, they must maintain personal integrity, ethics and values. At the same time it is crucial not to risk personal well-being or positive energy as these can dangerously drain incentive. Ultimately, when they are in positions that allow them to make organizational and cultural changes, women must remain true to a learner-centered and caring philosophy (Carr, 1997; Gupton & Slick, 1996). Consider these final and well stated impressions. They may be relevant to the task dimension of professional development and career satisfaction: Work is likely to be satisfying when we value what we do, when it challenges and extends us, when we do it well and when we have ample evidence confirming our success. (Ashton & Webb, 1986, p. 162) Sustaining professional growth seems to require manageable working conditions, opportunities and sometimes demand to experiment modestly without sanctions if things go awry, periodic shifts in role assignments without a corresponding loss of perquisites, regular access to collegial expertise and external stimulation, and a reasonable chance to achieve significant outcomes. . . . (Huberman, 1995, p. 206)

The Self Dimension The concern here is to bring a sense of balance and wholeness into one’s personal and professional life, while, at the same time, continuing to be nurtured as a human being. Women often focus on being the nurturers of others and so tend to overlook their own needs. It is important to remember mutuality in relationships. There should be reciprocity in communication, neither party should be either dominant or mute. When critical reflection is most fruitful, there is mutual engagement with others and a sense of the value of the personhood (Hurty, 1995). Women should remember the following words of wisdom and practice them: • • • • •

develop an informal support group and play together; enjoy, and be enjoyable; laugh; stay healthy; develop tough skin in order to make decisions and receive blows;

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• keep a perspective on what is most important to you, your family, and • know yourself! (Hill & Ragland, 1995). Professional development then, like education, is, when examined from the perspective of the “self dimension,” a process involving change and personal growth. It is not merely accumulated facts and procedures, and attendance at workshops. “If you are questioning your ability, Stop! Desire propels if the desire is there” (Hill & Ragland, 1995, p. 69). Within the profession of educational administration, there exists a body of knowledge that is expressed in terms of abstract models and theories. But, it never fully explicates any particular professional situation or tells persons how to act in a given circumstance. The environments in which educational administrators work are characterized by ambiguity, and immediacy, and they are also are heavily value laden. There are rarely clearly identifiable touchstones of success toward which to aim. Each environment is unique in its setting, climate, constituents, clients, and colleagues. Each of us, both male and female, constructs our own reality based on our own life experiences. Consequently, we each “see” the world differently, and do not take the same course of action under the same conditions. Given all of these facts, there is probably no “one best way” of doing most things, in particular, complex things in complex situations. Hence, it is imperative for individuals to exercise initiative and define their vision, to state what they wish to do and how they intend to do it within the organization in which they find themselves, be they public schools, university classrooms, or research settings. Only then is there a chance of self-fulfillment. We must also foster among leaders an active and enthusiastic interest in studying the world through action research. Further, our mode of actions with others must focus on development of the whole person, not only the intellect. Leaders must provide a ‘safe’ setting for inquiry and an environment which entrusts to others their own intellectual and emotional growth toward the leadership roles to which they may aspire. Leaders must also have and maintain a commitment to special populations, defined by ethnicity, gender, age, or ability, one which allows them to do all in their power to see that they have an open door to a bright future rather than having to confront systematic and insurmountable obstacles. Women have special insights into paths which present obstacles to self-fulfillment, hence, they also have special obligations to help remove them. Relationships and communication, areas of special skill for women, are the key elements in effective leadership, and educators must foster the development of both. Individuals do know who they are in relationship with others, and with events, and thoughts. Relationships are the team: listening, communicating, supporting each other and solving problems together are

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crucially important behaviors for educational leaders and for organizations which envision themselves as impacting the future in positive ways (Carr, 1997). Involvement in community in this spirit is at the heart of professional life and personal service. Women who find the balance between personal and professional life, who successfully integrate the three dimensions (interpersonal, task, and self) can be powerful architects of a new future for themselves and others. Their lives can hold a special sense of joy and self confidence (Carr, 1996). These words from the remarkable voice of poet Maya Angelou capture the spirit of what appropriate personal growth and professional development can lead to for women: Now you understand Just why my head’s not bowed. I don’t shout or jump about Or have to talk real loud. When you see me passing, It ought to make you proud. I say, It’s in the click of my heels, The bend of my hair, The palm of my hand, The need for my care. ‘Cause I’m a woman Phenomenally. Phenomenal woman, That’s me. (Angelou, 1994, p. 131) From And Still I Rise by Maya Angelou. Copyright @ 1978 by Maya Angelou. Reprinted by permission of Random House, Inc.

References Angelou, M. (1994). The complete collected poems of Maya Angelou. New York: Random House. Ashton, P., & Webb, R. (1986). Making a difference: Teachers’ sense of efficacy and student achievement. New York: Longman. Belenky, M., Clinchy, B., Goldberger, N., & Tarule, J. (1986). Women’s ways of knowing: The development of self, voice, and mind. New York: Basic Books. Brown, G., & Irby, B. (1995, Summer). Perceptions of women aspiring to administrative positions. The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 61(4), 33–38. Brown, G., & Mercant, J. (1993). Women in leadership: A support system for success. In G. Brown & Irby (Eds.), Women as school executives: A powerful paradigm

134    C. S. CARR (pp. 87–92). Huntsville: Texas Council of Women School Executives, Sam Houston Press (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 383101). Brown, R. (2000, May). Personal and professional development programmes for women: Paradigm and paradox. International Journal for Academic Development, 5(1). Retrieved February 23, 2008, from Professional Development Collection database. Carr, C. S. (1997). Balancing power with caring: Impacting leadership among Mexican American future school administrators. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the National Council of Professors of Education Administration, August 11–17, 1997, Vail, Colorado. Carr, C. S. (1996). Female Mexican American principals: Caring and power-In search of democratic praxis. Journal of the California Professors of Educational Administration, 8, 93–102. Carr, C. S. (1995a). Female principals: Communicators of quality for the 90’s and beyond. In B. J. Irby & G. Brown (Eds.), Women as school executives: Voices and visions. Huntsville, TX: Texas Council of Women School Executives, Sam Houston Press (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 401252). Carr, C. S. (1995b). How female principals communicate: Verbal and nonverbal micropolitical communication behaviors for female Anglo and Hispanic school principals. Educational Considerations, 2(2), 53–62. Catalyst. (2008). Women in technology: Maximizing talent, minimizing barriers. New York: Catalyst Press. Catalyst. (2003). Women in U.S. corporate leadership. New York: Catalyst Press. Chase, S. E. (1995). Ambiguous empowerment. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press. Cohen, N. H. (1995). Mentoring adult learners: A guide for educators and trainers. Malabar, Florida: Krieger Publishing Company. Cook, E. P., Heppner, M. J., & O’Brien, K. M. (2002). Career development of women of color and White women: Assumptions, conceptualization, and interventions from an ecological perspective. The Career Development Quarterly, 50, 291–305. Craft, A. (1996). Continuing professional development. New York: The Open University. Darling-Hammond, L., & McLaughlin, M. W. (1996). Policies that support professional development in an era of reform. In M. W. McLaughlin & I. Overman, (Eds.), Teacher learning: New policies, new practices (pp. 202–218). New York: Teachers College Press. Fullen, M. G. (1990). Staff development, innovation and institutional development. In B. Joyce (Ed.). Changing school culture through staff development. Yearbook of ASCD (pp. 3–25). Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Fullan, M. G. (1995). The limits and the potential of professional development. In T. R. Guskey & M. Huberman. (Eds.), Professional development in education: New paradigms and practices (pp. 253–267). New York: Teachers College Press. Gallos, J. V. (1993). Women’s experiences and ways of knowing: Implications for teaching and learning in the organizational behavior classroom. Journal of Management Education, 17, 7–26. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard.

Professional Development    135 Gottfredson, L. S. (2005). Applying Gottfredson’s theory of circumscription and compromise in career guidance and counseling. In S. D. Brown & K. W. Lent (Eds.), Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research to work (pp. 71–100). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Gupton, S. L., & Slick, G. A. (1996). Highly successful women administrators: The inside stories of how they got there. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press. Guskey, T. R. (1995). Professional development in education: In search of the optimal mix. In T. R. Guskey & M. Huberman (Eds.), Professional development in education: New paradigms and practices (pp. 114–131). New York: Teachers College Press. Guskey, R. R., & Huberman. M. (Eds.) (1995). Professional development in education: New paradigms and practices. New York: Teachers College Press. Hargreaves, A. (1995). Development and desire: A postmodern perspective. In T. R. Guskey, & M. Huberman (Eds.), Professional development in education: New paradigms and practices (pp. 9–34). New York: Teachers College Press. Hill, M. S., & Ragland, J. C. (1995). Women as educational leaders: Opening windows, pushing ceilings. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, Inc. Huberman, M. (1995). Professional careers and professional development: Some intersections. In T. R. Guskey & M. Huberman (Eds.), Professional development in education: New paradigms and practices (pp. 193–224). New York: Teachers College Press. Hurty, K. S. (1995). Women principals: Leading with power. In D. M. Dunlap & P. A. Schmuck (Eds.). Women leading in education (pp. 380–406). Albany: State University of New York Press. Lieberman, A. (1996). Practices that support teacher development: Transforming conceptions of professional learning. In M. W. McLaughlin & I Overman, (Eds.), Teacher learning: New policies, new practices (pp. 185–201). New York: Teachers College Press. Levine, S. (1987, November). Peer support for women in middle management. Education Leadership, 74–75. Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Matczynski, T. J., & Comer, K. C. (1991). Mentoring women and minorities in higher education: An anecdotal record. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 331376). Montenegro, X. (1993). Women and racial minority representation in school administration. Arlington, VA: American Association of School Administration. Pence, L. J. (1995). Learning leadership through mentorships. In D. M. Dunlap & P. A. Schmuck (Eds.), Women leading in education (pp. 125–144). Albany: State University of New York Press. Pigford, A. B., & Tonnsen, S. (1993). Women in school leadership. Lancaster: Technomic Publishing Co., Inc. Regan, H. B., & Brooks, G. H. (1995). Out of women’s experience: Creating relational leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. Schmuck, P. (1995). Advocacy organizations for women school administrators 1977–1993. In D. M. Dunlap & P. A. Schmuck, (Eds.), Women leading in education (pp. 199–224). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

136    C. S. CARR Smyth, J. (1995). Teachers’ work and the labor process of teaching: Central problematic in professional development. In T. R. Guskey & M. Huberman. (Eds.), Professional development in education: New paradigms and practices (pp. 69–91). New York: Teachers College Press. Tannen, D. (1994). Talking 9 to 5: Women and men in the workplace. New York: Avon Books. Washburn, M. (2007, February). Mentoring women faculty: An instrumental case study of strategic collaboration. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 15(1), 57–72. Retrieved February 23, 2008, from Professional Development Collection database. Whitmarsh, L., Brown, D., Cooper, J., Hawkins-Rodger, Y., & Keyser Wentworth, D. (2007, March). Choices and challenges: A qualitative exploration of professional women’s career patterns. Career Development Quarterly, 55(3), 225–236. Retrieved February 23, 2008, from Professional Development Collection database. Witmer, J. T. (1995). Moving up: A guidebook for women in educational administration. Lancaster: Technomic Publishing Co., Inc. Wlodkowski, R. J. (1990). Enhancing adult motivation to learn. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Chapter 10

The Balance Between Professional and Personal Life Sandra L. Tonnsen Western Carolina University Aretha B. Pigford University of South Carolina

Seeing your life as a whole, not as disjointed and conflicting parts, is the first and most important step to balancing your life. Unfortunately, though, it is not the only step. In addition to changing your way of thinking, you must also take action in order to achieve the feeling of exhilaration having balance in your life brings. In Durban, South Africa, we watch as a tall, elegant woman enters the marketplace. On her head is a large bundle. She supports the bundle with one hand, while she uses the other to pat the infant who is bound tightly to her chest with a colorful blanket. Despite her load, she walks confidently, with her head held high. We watch her as she opens the bundle and begins to unpack its contents and spread them over a small space. She takes out chunky wooden carvings of zebras and elephants and tall, spindly renditions of giraffes. Then come wooden boxes, bowls and salad utensils bearing handles resembling various animals. Next, she removes strands of delicate, beautifully colored beads. They are necklaces, bracelets, earrings. Then, there are small stone Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 137–149 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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This scene, witnessed over a decade ago, is vividly etched in our minds. It transcends country, culture, race, and socioeconomic status to teach us two important lessons about having balance and harmony in our lives. First, the woman has found a way to work outside her home and still provide care for her child. In other words, she is able to balance, at least to some extent, her professional and her personal life. Secondly, her ability to balance the awkward bundle containing so many different items helps us to understand that having a multidimensional life is an asset. How boring her display would be if it contained only carvings of giraffes! And, her customers would lose out on the challenge, excitement, richness that such a variety brings. The Professional and Personal Lives of Women More and more women are entering the workforce. Whether by choice or necessity, the increase in the number of women working outside the home has had a profound impact on American society, on families, and on the individual women who strive to have a quality personal and professional life. In 2009, women composed 46.8% of the work force in the United States. They held 40% of the management, professional, and related positions. While female representation in superintendencies and high school principalships still remains lower than male, they hold 62.6% of all administrative positions in education and related fields (United States Department of Labor, 2009). Female school administrators work long hours. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that only a little over a third of educational administrators work more than 40 hours a week (2010), Hill and Ragland (1995), but it also found that female school administrators worked between 11 and 14 hours on “normal” days. Board or P.T.A. meetings required additional hours. Pavan, Richardson, Manning, Reid. & Dovey (1996) found that female superintendents attended from three to four evening meetings per week. The obvious question, of course, is “Don’t men work long hours, too?” And, the answer is a resounding “Yes.” In fact, their on-the-job hours tend to exceed those of women (Duxbury, Lee, Higgins, & Mills, 1992; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2010). The difference, however, lies in what men and women do during their off-the-job hours. Women have traditionally been responsible for most of the tasks not related to breadwinning. Proverbs 31:10–31 presents the prototype of a good woman. She is praised for her industry: the virtuous woman “. . . worketh willingly with her hands, . . . she riseth also while it is yet night, . . . her candle goeth

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not out by night, . . . she looketh well to the ways of her household . . . ” . The writer further describes her as being a faithful and good wife who buys property; plants a vineyard; weaves fabric; helps the poor; makes clothes for herself, her family, and the marketplace and furnishings for her home. This traditional description of the role of women has not changed much. Higgins, Duxbury, and Lee (1994) cite research which indicates that “employed women spend many more hours than employed men on family and household chores and more hours on work and family activities in total” (p. 145). For example, the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010) reports that 85% of women and only 67% of men do household chores on an average day. Men spend about 36 more minutes per day on leisure activities than do working women (over 3 hours per week). The good news, at least from a 1994 study by Higgins et al, is that there are no substantial gender differences in time spent on child care. Additionally, Higgins et al. report that the amount of time women spend on family activities diminishes as children grow older. The fact that women are more involved with outside-of-work activities is further enhanced by the reality that men more frequently have stay-athome wives, someone to pick up the laundry, go to the post office, send birthday cards, and do many of the other little things that are important for a smooth personal life (Helgesen, 1990). In Farmer’s words (1993), “Most successful women leaders measure themselves against 50-ish corporate men who enjoy the support of at home wives” (p. 55). Pigford’s personal revelation in Women in School Leadership (Pigford & Tonnsen, 1993) is poignant. During my tenure as principal, I arrived home one evening and found my husband, who was also a principal, lying down resting. Although we had both come home to a dirty house and two hungry children, I was the only one who seemed bothered. Sensing my frustration, my husband inquired, “What do you need?” With no hesitation whatsoever, I responded, “A wife.” His response, which was as spontaneous as mine had been, shocked me. “So do I,” he said. (pp. 70–71)

When both the husband and the wife have demanding careers, the stress on both partners is intensified, but, once again, women tend to bear the greater burden (Tack & Patitu, 1992). For example, Pavan et al. (1996) found that none of the female superintendents in her study felt their husbands were expected to attend school or social school board events. However, when the superintendent was a male and the spouse a female, the wife was indeed expected to be there supporting her spouse. Additionally, the mobility required for many women in administrative positions induces even more stress. Mobility by either partner typically causes feelings of rootlessness for the spouse (Sharpe & Walter, 1997). But those feelings may be exacerbated for males who traditionally have not followed their wives.

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Because women tend to feel a greater responsibility for the maintenance of their personal relationships (Grogan, 1996), stress on their partner often translates to stress on them. Another cause of stress which tends to affect women more than men is the expectation that women will care for family members who are ill or elderly (Tack & Patitu, 1992; Russo, 2010). Russo reported that 43.5 million American adults are taking care of older relatives or friends. Nearly 30% of that care is provided by daughters and 16% by sons (Duggan, 2003). O’Connell (1994) calls women “kin-keepers” (p. 37) who not only look after their own families, but their husband’s kin as well. With expected longevity increasing, we can anticipate even greater involvement of women in this. So, what does one do? Is it possible to have it all? We believe that it is, although probably not all at the same time. We tend to believe that, over a lifetime, a woman can do just about anything she desires, though in a given day, week, month, or even a year, she probably cannot. As Hill and Ragland (1995) quote one of the female administrators they studied, “I learned you can’t be a good teacher, (administrator), mother, and [lover] in the same day” (p. 107). But, given enough days and enough motivation, having and doing what is important to each of us is possible. The following section therefore offers a conceptual model for looking at your life and achieving balance. It is followed by suggestions that we hope will prove helpful on a day-to-day basis. The Web of Life The teeter-totter or seesaw has often been used to depict our lives and the balance between work and the entirety of our other obligations (Creswell, Olson, & Donovan, 1991). The decisions one is expected to make become hierarchically ranged. On this model, we are forced to ask ourselves, “Which is more important: my personal or my professional life?” This way of thinking about our lives fits well into the traditional male model of conceptualizing reality. However, the popularization of Covey, Merrill, and Merrill’s (1994) work and the slow acknowledgement of feminist theory have given us a different views—one that for women is more realistic: As Covey, et al., state, “Balance isn’t either/or, it’s and” (p. 118). We are fortunate to be women because we are more likely to see the “and”. Our conceptualization of our lives looks more like a web or a tapestry than a seesaw. According to Kerka (1991), “The myth that family and work occupy separate spheres is fast fading . . .” (p. 1). According to Grogan (1996), “The data (taken from her study of women aspiring to the superintendency) reveals [sic] that, at best, a woman . . . moves back and forth between . . . the professional and the personal, never at any time able or willing to abandon completely the practices that have constituted her

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as partner, mother, or homemaker” (p. 110). Helgesen (1990) found that successful female leaders understood themselves to be “complex and multifaceted” (p. 26). They were able to integrate the many pieces of their lives. The imagery of moving back and forth, of integrating, or seeing wholeness (not separate spheres) is captured in nature by the web and in art by the tapestry. Feminist literature frequently uses the web to represent women’s conceptualization of reality. Gilligan (1982) calls it the “web of interconnection” (p. 57). Helgesen (1990) calls it the “web of inclusion” (p. 46), saying that women felt they were . . . connected to those around them, bound as if by invisible strands or threads. This image of an interrelated structure, built around a strong central point and constructed of radial and orbs, quite naturally made me think of a spider’s web—that delicate tracery, compounded by the need for survival and the impulse of art. . . (p. 46)

The tapestry is also used to portray the lives of women. We note that the virtuous woman of Proverbs was a weaver: “She layeth her hands on the spindle, and her hands hold the distaff” (Proverbs 31:19). Helgesen (1990) relates that the typical female deity is pictured “. . . at the loom, knitting together the fabric of human life . . .” (p. 60). But, if women see their lives as a web or a tapestry, visualizing balance is much easier. The model we conceptualize allows you to build your life around all the things you value (the “and” approach) rather than forcing you to choose one over the other (the “either/or” approach). It helps you to visualize your life as a whole, rather than worrying about your agenda for tomorrow. Having said this, however, we realize (and advocate) that, at certain times, one area of your life may consume more of your time than others. Covey, Merrill, and Merrill (1994), for example, say, “There are times in our lives when imbalance is balance, when a short-term focus contributes to our overall mission in life” (p. 126). We like the fact that they call these periods of our lives “times of chosen imbalance . . .” (p. 126, underlining ours). When you approach your life from the concept of the web or tapestry, you see how much simpler it is to move from one part of your life to another—there is always a connection. There is a flow between all of life’s various parts. And, importantly, there is always some degree of security; the web or tapestry forms a safety net, the intricately woven fabric of our lives that includes our past experiences, our relationships, and all the wisdom we have gained through the building of our lives (our web or tapestry). The idea of a web as describing the work of balancing our lives is not new. Covey et al. (1994) talk about “interrelatedness” and portray life as four overlapping circles which end up looking very much like a web (pp. 48–49). Creswell, Olson, & Donovan (1991) propose a “web of four concentric circles” (p. 3). Our model is different in that it allows you to determine the

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number of dimensions your life will have and the size of each dimension. We see it as fluid, meaning that the number of dimensions and the size of each can change as you choose, so the web or tapestry can be in constant motion. For the sake of simplicity, the models we described in the first edition of this book had four (Pigford) and five (Tonnsen) dimensions. Within each dimension, we added the activities, categories, or people which were appropriate for us. The earlier versions of our individual webs are depicted below with brief biographies. They are intended to help to put in perspective the choices we made at that time in our lives. At prior times, our webs had been much different than they were then; also, they have continued to change. Notice that the edges of the web were left open; conceived this way, our webs/tapestries were forever growing, bringing new challenges and experiences to us, many of which we did not foresee. Tonnsen’s Story I am a divorced female with no children. I live alone. All of my immediate family members live within a one-hour drive. I have been a teacher, a school and district administrator, and am currently an associate professor. When I was married, I had not finished college and so I worked as a secretary to put my husband through college. I was the primary breadwinner and divided my time between earning a living for the two of us and building our relationship. During the course of my marriage, I returned to school, finished my degree and became a teacher. After my divorce, I entered graduate school and eventually became a school administrator, focusing most of my energies on my career. I continue to do this at this point in my life as I work toward becoming a full professor. (See Figure 10.1.) Pigford’s Story I am a married mother of two adult children. During their childhood, I was a graduate student, teacher, principal, and college professor. During my children’s pre-school years, my husband and I hired a housekeeper, so that the time we had at home could be spent with our children. As our children grew older and I sought advancement in my professional career, my priorities shifted from them to my career. When such shifts occurred, however, my husband provided both the needed support to both myself and them. Because of this, there was a balance where imbalance would likely have occurred. Now that our children are adults and I have achieved the rank of full professor, I am focusing on my personal life. As I contemplate retirement, I no longer seek to climb professional mountains. My tapestry is primarily one of relationships. (See Figure 10.2.)

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Figure 10.1  Tonnsen’s web.

Figure 10.2  Pigford’s web.

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But time moves on and our lives and priorities change. At present, Pigford is retired, and she and her husband, also retired, have relocated to another state to be close to their two married children and granddaughter. When contacted and asked to update her story for this chapter, she laughed and explained that her life is no longer focused on academic endeavors. As a new grandmother, she relishes the time she spends with her granddaughter and now realizes all that she missed during the early years of her own children’s development. In addition, she has continued her involvement with church and community activities. Tonnsen continues to work in higher education after leaving her position in academia for a superintendency and then returning to higher education in another state. With age and dreams of retirement, she says: Tonnsens’s Story Update After retiring from one state and taking a job in another and having the experience of being a superintendent, coupled with recent health issues, I have made the decision to focus more on myself, my family and friends. While I still work very hard, teaching, advising, serving on committees and helping with other administrative tasks that come with the role of being a professor, I take more time for myself and the people I love. For the first time since I was a young teen, I no longer work summers. Summers are my time for renewal and travel, a time for family and friends. A friend who has been retired for over 10 years has helped me realize that I am no longer building a career; I am maintaining one that is very comfortable for me. I have expertise! I enjoy the learning that goes with keeping up with the new literature in the field, with the new technologies, but they don’t consume me like they once did. So, my current, up-dated web looks like Figure 10.3. We found the web or tapestry to be the best format for visualizing the things which are important. For us, it represents the fluidity and the interconnectedness which brings richness to our lives. We see our lives as Carole King so aptly wrote as, “ . . . a tapestry of rich and royal hue/An everlasting vision of the ever changing view . . . ” . Once you conceptualize your life in this way, you can begin to lose some of the anxiety and guilt you feel about the decisions you make. You can honor your past, appreciate the variety of life, and find the patience to handle the mundane in your life and the strength to cope with the most trying circumstances. Such a conceptualization of your life does not, however, negate the need for strategies to help you move from one part of your web to another. The final section of this chapter therefore discusses a number of ideas you might find helpful.

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Figure 10.3  Tonnsen’s updated web.

Strategies for Balancing Your Life Seeing your life as a whole, not as disjointed and conflicting parts, is the first and most important step to balancing it. Unfortunately, though, it is not the only step. In addition to changing your way of thinking, you must also take action in order to achieve the feeling of exhilaration that balance brings. The following suggestions are intended to assist you with this. They are not presented in any particular order, but rather such that you can read through them, decide which of them rings true, and then incorporate them into your lifestyle. We have found that there are no easy solutions to this problem, each person must decide for herself what works best for her. Sometimes, trial and error is the best method. Still, the literature and our own experiences can perhaps serve as a guide. 1. Find ways to relax. Some of you may enjoy reading detective novels as you float on a raft in the pool. Others of you might prefer physically challenging activities. Hill and Ragland (1995) found the women they studied played as hard as they worked. They summarized, “. . . whatever gives release from the stress of the job is relaxation, even if it involves intense activity and lengthened days” (p. 109).

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2. Learn to say “no.” Drawing your web forces you to commit to writing those things which are important to you. Once you’ve done so, it will be easier to say “no” to those requests which do not enhance your tapestry of life (American Society of Clinical Oncology, 2009). As Covey et al. (1994) suggest, “It’s easy to say ‘no!’ when there’s a deeper ‘yes’ burning inside” (p. 103). 3. Develop a network of support at work and at home. We all need friends and colleagues we can trust, who give us “positive energy, inspiration, and direction” (Carter & Cunningham, 1997, p. 133). These are the people who celebrate our triumphs and offer us a shoulder to cry on or a hand to hold, or provide words of encouragement when we have to face the disappointments that life brings. 4. Be reflective. Each of us needs quiet time, a time to reflect and put everything in perspective. Some people use the first part of each day to get in touch with their spiritual side; others are able to find a few moments at other points throughout the day. Such times help us to “create tranquility” (Carter & Cunningham, 1997, p. 136). 5. Take breaks throughout the day. Helgesen (1990) found that the successful women leaders she studied took short breaks throughout their busy days. One stayed in her office during lunch, relaxing on the sofa with a book. Another tried to schedule an unencumbered 15 minutes between back-to-back meetings. 6. Arrive early. When you travel as a part of your job, whether it is to a conference or for some other purpose, arrange to arrive the afternoon before. Take a bath, order room service, catch up on a movie you missed. Be kind to yourself. 7. Develop an understanding with your spouse/partner and significant family members about the role your career will play in your (and their) lives. In our experience, failure to have a continued dialogue about expectations, obligations, trust, and need for support can damage a relationship. Honest and open discussions of these issues will not only free you from guilt and anxiety, but also energize the relationship for all parties. 8. Develop friendships with people outside your field. How refreshing it is to converse with people who do not want to talk “business.” Witmer (1995) suggests that these relationships help us in “. . . keeping a perspective on the world and in reminding [us] that [our] institutions are not the center of the universe” (p. 352). 9. Use one calendar for all the aspects of your life. By doing so, you gain a perspective on the many dimensions of your life and ensure that nothing important will be forgotten. Creswell, et al. (1991) found that the most balanced administrators in their study “put time

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10.

11.

12.

13.

for family and friends on their calendars” and “took time to mark important personal and family events” (p. 2). Hire someone to do household chores if you do not have the time, energy, or inclination to do them yourself. Yes, it is costly, but the peace of mind you achieve is worth it. And, yes, Pigford and her husband (in the “wife” story above) hired a housekeeper. Establish rituals. They are, in this sense, personal. They are practices that we ourselves or others come to expect. They are habits which, by their very nature, offer us, and those with whom we are close, a sense of community. Witmer (1995) suggests that these rituals be honored continuously; for example, if you are in the habit of calling home to let loved ones know you have arrived at your designation, do it religiously. Find ways to protect yourself and your family from work-related intrusions. Pavan et al. (1996) found that the female superintendents she studied saw living outside the district (when policy allowed it) or not being available on weekends as viable options. Set aside a nocomputer time. Get organized. Getting organized takes time and energy. Staying organized does as well. But after you have spent a few mornings going through your closet(s) and finding nothing to wear that isn’t soiled, wrinkled, torn, or too snug, you will realize the importance of organization. The more goals you have, the more roles you play, the more organized you must be, both at home and at work. The way we organize things is very personal and idiosyncratic, but each of us must do this if our lives are to be balanced, that we are to feel that we are in control. Summary

This chapter has reviewed the status of women in the workplace and at home, provided a conceptual model for balancing your life, and reviewed 13 tips for making the model work. Much of what we have said is probably not new to you. However, we hope that some things have piqued your interest or renewed your faith in your ability to achieve/maintain balance, or in some other way, touched you. Life is sometimes hard and disappointing, but when you look back over the tapestry of your life, we hope that you see purpose, excitement and love. We hope that you find a way to achieve a balance that makes you, like the South African vendor in the opening paragraph, stand tall and proud.

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References Carter, G. R., & Cunningham. W. G. (1997). The American school superintendent: Leading in an age of pressure. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Covey, S. R., Merrill, A. R. & Merrill, R. R. (1994). First things first. New York: Simon and Schuster. Creswell, J. W., Olson, B. J., & Donovan, J. (1991, December). Dimensions of balance in an administrator’s life. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 341 300). (Retrieved August 8, 2010 from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ ED341300.pdf Duggan, E.P. (2003). Be prepared to deal with parents’ aging before a crisis hits. Newsroom: Washington University in St. Louis. Retrieved August 4, 2010 from http://news.wustl.edu/news/Pages/435.aspx Duxbury, L., Lee, C., Higgins, C. A., & Mills, S. (1992). Time spent in paid employment. Optimum, 23, 38–45. Family Caregiver Alliance (May, 2003). Women and caregivers: Facts and figures. Retrieved from Aug.4, 2010 from www.caregiver.org/caregiver/jsp/content_ node.jsp?nodeid=892 Farmer, E. (1993). Paying our rent. In Brown, G. & Irby, B. J. (Eds.) Women as school executives: A powerful paradigm (p. 53–58). Austin, TX: Texas Council of Women School Executives, Sam Houston Press. Gilligan, C. (1982) In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Grogan, M. (1996). Voices of women aspiring to the superintendency. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Helgesen, S. (1990). The female advantage: Women’s ways of leadership. New York: Doubleday. Higgins, C., Duxbury, L., & Lee, C. (1994, April). Impact of life-cycle state and gender on the ability to balance work and family responsibilities. Family Relations, 43(2), 144–150. Hill, M. S. & Ragland, J. C. (1995). Women as educational leaders: Opening windows, pushing ceilings. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc. Kerka, S. (1991). Balancing work and family life. (ERIC Digest/ ed329810. Retrieved August 4, 2010 from www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED329810.pdf.ret King, C. (1971). Tapestry. On Tapestry revisited [CD]. New York: Lava Records. Lyrics retrieved August 4, 2010 from www.sing365.com O’Connell, H. (1994). Women and the family. London: Zed Books Ltd. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (2010). Usual working hours per week by gender. Retrieved from www.oecd.org/els/social/family/ database Pavan, B. B., Richardson, S. N., Manning, J., Reid, N. A., & Dovey, P. E. (1996, April). Moving the focus to children: Four female superintendents look at their first three years. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED396 445) Pigford, A. B., & Tonnsen, S. (1993). Women in school leadership: Survival and advancement guidebook. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.

The Balance Between Professional and Personal Life    149 Russo, F. (Feb 1, 2010). When elder care brings back sibling tensions. Time. Retrieved August 4, 2010 from www.time.com/time/magazine/article/ 0,9171,1955601,00.html Sharpe, W. L., & Walter, J. K. (1997). The school superintendent: The profession and the person. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company, Inc. Tack, M. W., & Patitu, C. L. (1992, September). Faculty job satisfaction: Women and minorities in peril (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED355859). Retrieved August 4, 2010 from www.ericdigests.org/1993/job.htm U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2010). American time use survey summary. Author. Retrieved August 4, 2010 from www.bls.gov/news.release/atus.nr0.htm U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2010). Occupational outlook handbook, 2010–2011 Edition. Author. Retrieved August 4, 2010 from www.bls.gov/oco/ocos007. htm U.S. Department of Labor. (2009). Quick statistics on women workers. Author. Retrieved August 4, 2010 from www.dol.gov/wb/stats/main.htm Witmer, J. T. (1995). Moving up! A guidebook for women in educational administration. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.

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Part IV Women Leaders: Practice

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Chapter 11

Riding the Glass Elevator Trudy Salsberry Kansas State University Kay Ann Taylor Kansas State University

A study conducted by the American Association of University Professors (West & Curtis, 2006) noted that, among all full professors nationwide, women held only 24 percent of the positions. At doctorate granting institutions, the percent is much lower, i.e., only 19 percent of the full professors are women. For the past three decades, the percent of full professors who are women has only increased from 10 to 24 percent (West & Curtis, 2006). Women and minorities in faculty positions in higher education (Tack & Patitu, 1992) face sources of stress that are internal, workplace-related, and lifestyle-related. Lifestyle-related causes of stress in particular usually have a more powerful impact on women than men because of society’s expectations that they family as a priority. Furthermore, women are less satisfied with their positions than their male counterparts, represent a small percentage of the faculty cohort, earn lower salaries, are often employed only part-time. They also represent disciplines that are typically reserved for females, work in less prestigious institutions, feel their supervisors do not value their input, are not as likely to be tenured, and are more often found Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 153–172 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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in the lower professional ranks (Tack & Patitu, 1992). Given all of these conditions, a more in-depth understanding of their personal and professional work lives could aid in developing some more powerful strategies for making positive changes. In this chapter, an oral history recounted to this end. The first female full professor in a college of education at Midwestern University will serve as the primary focus of this study. All identifying characteristics and names have been changed. “An oral history consists of gathering personal reflections of events and their causes and effects from one individual or several individuals” (Plummer, as cited in Creswell, 2007, p. 55). An oral history is a form of narrative research and may have a specific contextual focus, in this case an institution of higher education. Also, it may be guided by a theoretical perspective (Creswell, 2007). In this study, we report the story of this woman and her experiences in attaining the rank of full professor, and we do so from a feminist perspective. The methods used to capture the story of Maggie Drake included indepth interviews that took place over the period of about one month. Each interview in the series of three focused on various aspects of her personal life as it related to her career in higher education as well as on prominent events in her life; her reflections about her career are also included. Maggie has been both a friend and mentor to numerous graduate students and young faculty. She has shared personal artifacts, photos, and memorabilia that helped us [the authors] interpret or “restory” her experiences in a manner that makes sense to the reader. There has been no attempt to arrive at a singular truth or verification of the accuracy of her accounts. We purposely documented Maggie’s perspectives in her own words, from her own perspectives. We deemed the documentation of “her truth” to be a worthy undertaking . It is an exploration of a notable woman’s achievements, and an exposition of some thoughts on how we might learn from her. While this oral history of Maggie Drake serves to enrich the reader’s understandings of the role of female full professors in particular, it also is an open invitation to consider what successful women in varying forms of school leadership have encountered in general. The lessons outlined in this account should challenge our thinking about the past, about the gains that women have made, and also about what we need to do in the future to ensure that women are able to achieve in all areas of educational leadership. Maggie: The Early Years Maggie Drake was born during the Depression. She was the middle child in a family of three children, though she is quick to point out that she did not follow all the stereotypes that middle children face, e.g., as the maver-

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ick or the negotiator. She feels she “had it easy” since her father was always employed during the Depression. She considered her parents to be very intelligent and always a source of support throughout her life. Her father’s work took the family to Japan for two years while Maggie was in high school. While she was in college, her parents lived in Germany. Her life-long love for travel and exploring other cultures were clearly shaped by the family’s international experiences. Maggie was an avid reader even as a child and she explored what she refers to as the “classics” at a young age. She attended public schools most of her life except while in Japan and took a strong curriculum including Latin and advanced math classes. She was always a high achiever. In high school, I was dating the principal’s son, and he told me I had the highest grade point average out of all of them [in her graduating class]. The next year or two years later anyway, another high school opened, thus we had a really large class.

One of Maggie’s earliest memories of gender inequities was related to her experience in her solid geometry and trigonometry class in high school. When I moved back [from Japan] my senior year of high school, I took a class in solid geometry and trigonometry. I noticed everybody was looking at me, and I looked around. All of a sudden I noticed there was only one other girl in the room. Later on that year I wrote to [a major prestigious] university and two others asking for an application. I think it was [the first one] that wrote a one-sentence letter back stating flatly that ‘we don’t admit females’ and the other ones said, ‘we don’t admit females’. Well, what was there to do? So, I went to [a smaller, local college.]

Gender was still an obstacle to achievement as she began college. This little local paper had a photo of the people who were in the top 10 percent of the class. Of the 12 women in the photo, seven of them went on to [the same college she finally attended] and most of them were also in my sorority. I graduated high school, started college, and a guy I really liked said, ‘That wasn’t you on the honor roll was it?’ I made sure I didn’t quite make the honor roll after that.

Out of the 19 women in Maggie’s pledge class, two of them graduated from college. She stated, “All the rest married, or dropped out, and married.” When asked if college attendance was an expectation for her at that time, or if the primary expectation was to go to college to meet a man to marry rather than pursue a career, Maggie replied with an emphatic, “Oh, yes” [the expectation was to meet a man and marry]. This conjured up images of the popular movie, Mona Lisa Smile, where talented and bright

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young women attended college for the sole purpose of pursuing a marital partner. As noted by Maggie, “We only thought to the wedding day. I thought I’d be dancing through the rest of my life.” A career was always part of Maggie’s plan for her life. “In the ninth grade, I wanted to be a lawyer; in the tenth grade, a concert pianist. I took piano lessons and gave piano lessons in Japan. In the 11th grade, I wanted to be a physicist. . . I should have gone on with that one, and then when I was in college, I wanted to be a foreign diplomat.” Yet, this was during a time when society held very different views about the role of women. People still talk about . . . the tenor of the times, after the second world war, all the women in the factories, all the women who had been ferrying planes across the United States and serving as medics, etc., all went home in order that our boys could have a job. And June Cleaver was born, doing her housework in heels and makeup. It was just the times; we had the G.I. Bill, which sent guys to college who would have never had gone. I think only 25% of the men in the United States before the Second World War had even graduated from high school.

While in college, Maggie worked several different types of jobs from developing x-rays, to working on a switchboard, to grading papers. She also worked as the editor of a newspaper and that job, plus her interest in political science, were two things she attributes to helping her most in life. Those two experiences encouraged her to travel extensively and developed her understanding of political systems. We asked Maggie if she aspired to being a June Cleaver after college. What else was there to do? You know you got married. You never thought about a thing after. . . . I wanted to be a foreign diplomat. But I didn’t know how to go about it. So, I majored in history and political science because I wasn’t going to be a secretary, a teacher or a nurse which [were the only visible choices]. Do you know that women who were trained to be nurses would march two by two from their dorms to their training sessions and back again, and they couldn’t be married? In the state where I lived when first married, any married woman was a temporary teacher even if she’d been teaching for years and years. I married a fellow that I graduated with, and two years later we moved [to a Northern state]. First year I worked as a secretary; second year, I was a teacher. I just didn’t ever make it [to being] a nurse.

After marrying, Maggie had four children fairly quickly. The marriage did not go well and Maggie sought a divorce in spite of the negative reactions this would bring. I spent eight years in [a Northern state], did a lot of volunteer work, and moved back to the Midwest and had my fourth child. And three months later

Riding the Glass Elevator    157 I got a divorce, started work, paid work, for the first time in eight years and started my master’s degree at night. With four children [and no husband], it was socially awkward. Was I available? [Maggie implied that her situation made others uncomfortable. A single mother might be wanting to date someone’s husband. The world was made up of couples. What do you do with a single woman with children?] You can see a few years in these pictures of me where there’s no laughter in my eyes because people could misinterpret it [as flirting?]. Eventually I didn’t care anymore. I guess it was probably when I turned 60 that I realized people couldn’t misinterpret my status anymore, so I went back to laughing!

Probably the most revealing comment about Maggie’s divorce and her future achievements was when she mentioned, “I said to my mom, ‘I don’t know why I am divorced because I don’t believe in it, and she said, ‘Hun, it’s probably the only way you could’ve reached your full potential.’” Maggie: Experiences in Higher Education Maggie’s marriage typifies women’s experiences, particularly in the 1960s and 1970s. As noted earlier, although attending college was expected of her, the purpose of doing so was to secure a husband. Career planning was not as prevalent for women at that time, especially in comparison to more recent times. Instead, creating disjunctions and discontinuities in women’s lives to accommodate their husbands and children were more the norm for Maggie’s time, and they remain so for many women today. Men’s career moves are a typical disjunction that is caused for women (Bateson, 1990). Maggie’s experiences through this period in her life echo and parallel Warren’s (1988) statement: I found that for these late 1960s early 1970s women professors even the purportedly goal-organized career path of academia had indeed—and especially in the earlier stages—been characterized by drift and adaptation rather than goals, planning, and choice. . . . They—we—had been brought up to adapt to circumstances, often to men’s plans, rather than to make plans and seek goals. (p. 51)

After returning to her home state from living in the north with her husband and three children, Maggie had her fourth child. She divorced her husband three months later. Maggie clearly rejected the social norms of her time and sought a path of self-fulfillment. Helibrun (1988) further clarifies the situation in which women frequently found themselves , “For the most part, marriage has suited the man, and appeared to suit the woman because she was satisfied with the rewards offered in place of her own self-determi-

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nation” (p. 76). Maggie opted for her own self-determination. For the first time in eight years, she began paid work and started on her master’s degree at night with children ages seven, five, two and newborn. She said that her motto and motivation for going on to graduate school and work was, “If you want something done, do it yourself.” In entering master’s study, incoming students were given a battery of tests: The Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory had a pink sheet for girls and a blue sheet for boys. Our interests [girls and boys] were not scored against each other. For example, a boy couldn’t be a nurse. And a woman . . . an engineer? . . . psssss! Strong did not combine the two populations. . . . the women in the master’s program were told to take both the blue and the pink sheets because going on to higher education was not something women did.

The pink and blue sheets Maggie is referring to here are a clear demarcation of the embedded and stratified gender roles for women and men. Their use represents not only her experiences, but even extend into the current time (McCormick, 1994; Sadker and Sadker, 1995; Welter, 1966). Maggie went on to say that the test was supported by extensive research and that she did not know what population constituted the comparison at the time she took it. However, she noted, “Some of the scales had very low reliability.” In her master’s program, the classes were “pretty evenly male and female.” During this time, she worked from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. as the assistant director of a regional program. It was here that she developed her federal grant writing expertise. She stated, “Every one of the RFPs I answered was funded. We received something like three million dollars. One was funded after I left.” It also was during this time that Maggie began to be cognizant of equity issues and how the societal norms for women differed from those for men. She recalled, I remember this one fellow who came in and said, well, he had worked out something with the local factory. The men would make so much an hour and the women would make so much an hour—less. And, I said, ‘But they’re doing the same work. Why shouldn’t they make the same thing?’ And the men all looked at me with expressions that meant where did I get off saying that? It just stunned me.

Although Maggie said she never considered herself a feminist, the combination of her work experiences and her graduate coursework were heightening her awareness of hegemonic, patriarchal societal practices. Today, women still make only seventy-six cents for every dollar earned by a male. Maggie revealed that she believed in advanced education as a venue for social mobility. In one of her graduate classes, she was also gaining in-

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sight into other perceptions that men held of women in the work force. That’s where I learned some interesting things, such as what men think about women in the work force. One of them was that women were always taking off time to take care of their children, or they were using children as an excuse to never work. The Department of Labor showed that wasn’t so. Actually, men took off equal amounts or more. . . . I’m not accurate here, 4.6 days a year for sick leave; women took off 4.7 [days]. But this was not the perception. I also discovered that women who wanted to double their salaries had to have more education. That’s when I decided to go on for my Ph.D. because I was going to double my salary! I was bringing home $450 a month. . . . I spent a third for babysitting because I couldn’t go to work if I didn’t, a third for rent, a third for everything else. My father-in-law had given me a car. I sold it, bought an older one and lived on that money including paying the hospital bill for the birth of my last kid.

So, at this time, Maggie faced the same considerations that all women, and perhaps even more so, single women, still grapple with today. Although family configurations continue to take on numerous forms beyond that of the now outworn “traditional” two-parent family, women who seek a career and/or higher education continue to struggle with the same constraints and perceptions. Exacerbating the situation for her, as for women today, are the perceptions held by some men about women’s worth and societal roles. Maggie found her master’s program experience exciting. She felt as though she had been “under a rock for eight years”. She loved learning and reading. Following her work as assistant director for the regional organization, she worked part time as a graduate research assistant. During this time, she and her children lived on $200 a month and student loans for her tuition. She knew exactly how much food she could buy for the next week and exactly how long a three-pound jar of peanut butter would last! She said, “The only time I cried was when [one of her children] dropped the jar of peanut butter and broke it after we got home.” But, she had a constant support system with her parents and siblings. Her parents called her on weekends and asked her if she were going to visit them for the weekend. Maggie remembered: I was so tired, I’d say, ‘Ok, they need me’. I’d put the kids in the car and there was one driver: me. We had a hamburger that big [gesture with hands] which I’d buy and divide it into fourths halfway down there. Then we’d be there and there’d be all this food. I didn’t realize until we were there that we were starving.

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Thus, in a familial way, Maggie’s family showed their care, concern, and support for her and her children through their invitations to visit and share meals together. Maggie constantly demonstrates her self-determination in taking control of her life, education, future, and family. Some of her support structures were more fluid while she attended graduate school. She noted that the options for child-care depended on the ages of her children at the time. For example, she said: It changed all the time. Sometimes I had somebody come in. I had a relative live in one summer. Sometimes a relative would come and take a couple of them [kids] for a couple of months. Sometimes I would take them out to a sitter. Later on, I let each one of them . . . be in charge. That kid chose the cereal that week—sat “front mommy” [front passenger seat], chose the TV program, and earned a dollar for babysitting the night I had class.

Maggie herself was self-sufficient, so she also taught her children to be so. She told them, “If you have a problem, solve it.” She also cited her ability to compartmentalize her life and thoughts as a great asset in her home and in her life as a graduate student. I compartmentalize things so much, and as I said I had learned to concentrate. I learned it was easier to study by plunking myself down in the midst of them [the children]; otherwise they were knocking on my door all night interrupting me. And they learned to say, “Mommy, when you get to a stopping place. I’d like to ask you something.”

When asked about female professor role models during her master’s program experience, Maggie reported, “In my undergraduate days, I remember two. . . . I had no female professors in my master’s program.” She further noted that a common perception about her statistics professor, also a department head, was that, “He really despised women students, but I never really felt that. Of course, I liked statistics. My major professors were fine to me.” Maggie spent around five years total in graduate school—two years to complete her master’s and three years for her doctorate—as a single mother. And, during this time, she continuously worked in addition to pursuing her advanced education. As noted earlier, she was a graduate research assistant, as well as an assistant program director for two years, and also an instructor as part of her internship during her last year of work on the doctorate. Furthermore, she accomplished all this during a time when, even if a woman attended graduate school, the societal expectations were such that she was still pushed toward the “June Cleaver” role. However, Maggie

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was determined to make a better life for herself and her children, and also to achieve a fulfilling professional life that supported her love for learning. After completing her doctoral degree, she moved to a neighboring state and was employed there as an extension specialist for three years. During this time, she provided advice to the staff regarding the language and reading levels of their publications. She published extension publications and also published her own work for the first time in a refereed journal. She recalled that this was advantageous when she later moved into a faculty position. Maggie recalled her first rejection letter after submitting an article for publication in a refereed journal: One of the pieces of advice I always give friends, colleagues, [and] mentees is to pay no attention to a rejection. There’s always another game next week. . . . If a letter comes back, what you should already have in mind are two other journals you want to send it to. And be sure to . . . always send [it to] the refereed journal because that’s what gets you promoted.

She had her first rejection letter framed. Although she did not have the advantage of being mentored as a faculty member except by a couple of department heads, she became a mentor to others, e.g., her graduate students and colleagues. Maggie encountered a curious situation during her tenure as an extension specialist. She wanted to use her maiden name professionally and had her name changed legally. However, when the staff phone book was published, her name was listed as “Mrs.” She told them, “You can call me doc; you can call me Ms.; you can call me Maggie, but you can’t call me Mrs.” Nevertheless, she noted that ‘all the men that were doctorates were [listed] as Dr’. The end result was that, ‘After a few months the phone book came out and there was nothing in front of my name.’ Maggie acknowledged that her department chair let her challenge the system, a fact which represents another dimension of the gender inequity of the time. Maggie’s opportunity to move into a faculty position presented itself at the institution where she was employed as an extension specialist. The college of education advertised an opening. Maggie was invited for an interview and was offered the position. She observed, “What helped was that I had published in a refereed journal.” Interestingly, rather than commencing her faculty position as an assistant professor, she began at the associate level. She stated, “Master’s people in extension are assistant professors. I was never an assistant professor. What I brought to the college of education was my title [associate professor], but not my time in grade.” Being considered for tenure and promotion were two different things at that time and were done a year apart after some years of work at a lower rank. Again, she had a supportive department chair and this made a significant difference in her experience. When she started her faculty position,

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there were three departments and the college faculty were scattered across the campus in four or five different buildings. She recounted one telling experience that revealed some of the inequitable situations with which she was faced: Burt X mentioned there was a steak fry going to be held by Anthony K. Anthony K. invited all of the male faculty and male graduate students. I exclaimed to my faculty component, “That’s systemic discrimination!” I was thinking about our female doctoral students at the time. I surely didn’t want to go to it. I embarrassed people enough by being divorced, you know, it was a ‘couples’ world. So, Burt X. goes downstairs to the coffee shop, the coffee room with all the good ole boys down there in Marten Hall, and he gets them all fired up. . . . He went down there and told them what I had said. They got their noses all bent out of shape. I went out and had lunch with Lynn, who was the dean of women (back then we had a dean of women and a dean of men), and it never occurred to me to say anything about the incident. I was wandering back to the building and saw the assistant dean, a very good looking woman who was hired by Steve Kilborne, our dean and reportedly a womanizer. The hiring had been good for a good deal of gossip. Well, the assistant dean hauled me off into her office and said, ‘Are you going to sue the college of education?’ I said, ‘What?’ She said all these men had been in her office, flying off the walls and the ceiling, saying I was going to sue the college of education for systemic discrimination. I was stunned when I walked out of there. I hadn’t even thought to mention my perception to Lynn [dean of women]. But, I walked out of there, and I thought, if I’m going to be fired, at least it will be for something I believed in. So, I had developed some kind of awareness along the way. Now you could say maybe I was a feminist.

Maggie’s eyes were twinkling brightly as she relayed this account. The professional domains of women and men were delineated clearly during this time, as was evidenced by the fact that there were separate deans for women and men. The steak fry was a tradition open only to men in the good ole boys’ network. Maggie’s astute recognition of this discrimination alarmed and unsettled the status quo in her college. Whereas she perceived that she was making an observation, her male colleagues recognized the truth and accuracy in her statement. It caused them to “fly off the walls”. Equally interesting is the fact that the men apparently assumed that they were facing a lawsuit. However, as Maggie stated numerous times during the interviews, she “picked her battles”. She expressed her view that a law suit would require tremendous psychic energy on her part, and as she stated, it had never occurred to her to say anything about it while having lunch with the dean of women. Nevertheless, when it was brought to their attention, the men recognized that they had acted unjustly and they felt threatened by this truth.

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While reflecting on this experience, Maggie also recalled another event that demonstrated that gender discrimination prevalent in the college. She noted that the dean at the time did not care what rules he broke, i.e., that he held the power and used it the way he chose. A famous woman came to visit the campus and the college. When the dean introduced her to the audience, he put his arm around her. Maggie likened this to “that Australian prime minister putting his arm around the Queen of England, and then [the dean] saying, ‘I’m glad to see you here today, honey’.” Not surprisingly, Maggie eventually received an invitation to the steak fry, one that stated that she could bring a guest, “meaning a man”. Even though she herself had no interest in going, the male faculty also attempted to convince her she would not enjoy it. “The men kept saying ‘the flies are terrible; it’s not fun. Why do you want to come to it?’ “The steak fry tradition continued for a few years, but eventually was discontinued. At this time, women in faculty positions were in specialized areas, the most common among them being education, home economics, business, and reading. Maggie said, “That was the extent of the women that I ran into at that time.” However, women were prominent then, as now, in support staff positions, such as secretaries. Her experiences in the college taught her that “a secretary can sandbag you”. There was one secretary in particular who followed the inequitable male paradigm and treated Maggie differently than her male colleagues, all the while making Maggie’s job more difficult. She recounted one specific area in which she experienced continual resistance from the secretary: We were supposed to take our publication submissions over to have them formally typed by a department secretary. My manuscripts would always end up on the bottom. I know because people, men, tell me they take an article over and pick it up the next day. Mine were always at the bottom of the stack. Next, I won a grant . . . there were 13 people in the college and university who told me it wasn’t their job to do something that I needed done to get the grant. I had the first research grant in the college of education.

Barriers for women in Maggie’s institution were not limited to her college, but were in place university-wide. In spite of the obstacles confronting her, she was determined and persistent and forged ahead to accomplish her goals. She observed that technological advancements provided more freedom and support for her in her professional sphere. Personal computers gave her more control over her environment and made it easier to accomplish tasks that had formerly required that she be dependent on an uncooperative departmental secretary. Regarding grant writing as a professor in higher education, Maggie stated:

164   T. SALSBERRY and K. A. TAYLOR You will notice that after that first grant [when she became a professor in the college of education], none were ever funded. I had written grants for two years. I knew how to get grants funded. I also knew how to keep from getting funded. I didn’t get released from anything. I had to do everything from that grant. . . . for years I worked 70–80 hours a week.

Other factors entered into Maggie’s decision not to write any more grants. Besides lack of support where release was concerned, she learned that an administrator had deflected some of her grant money to pay a high starting salary for a new person he had brought to the college one year. She further opined about grants in general that, “The administrators take all the indirect [money] and do what they want with it.” Practices such as these moreover reflect the informal networks of male privilege and inequities within the environment. In response to a statement about current inequities in the salary structure, Maggie responded, “My view is that there’re always going to be [inequities] because the administrators are always going to reward their buddies.” Another secretarial incident Maggie encountered somewhat paralleled her experience in support services. One of the secretaries always called Maggie by her first name, but called all of the male professors “Dr”. When Maggie questioned her on this, she responded, “That’s the way I was brought up.” Maggie added, “Besides that, men had more prestige. You mean women actually had to go through the same rigors to get here? Whew! Unbelievable!” The grant referenced above by Maggie was planned for conducting research on why women were not treated fairly in academia or did not move into leadership positions. It offered addressed the question of how to reduce sex-biased barriers to women’s becoming qualified for vocational administration. Women who aspired to such positions in multiple locations across a Midwestern state were interviewed. The findings of the study indicated that there were two main obstacles to this: 1. It was said they had no experience making hard decisions, such as firing people. 2. It was also claimed that they had no experience with budgets. Those were the two things they had going against them. Of course, one male who was interviewed managed to mention women had a little trouble once a month. When asked in this context if Maggie thought this was some sort of residue of the seemingly general view that women are inferior intellectually, Maggie replied:

Riding the Glass Elevator    165 Well, when women were first . . . I believe I read this . . . when women were first admitted to Midwestern University, it was thought that women had small brains, so they had to be pampered. I know that in my mother’s and father’s generation, women still swooned. But that was women who could afford to swoon. Women, if you look at the real world, women always have worked their tails off.

When queried as to whether the male applicants had budgeting and firing experience, Maggie replied sarcastically “We didn’t ask that”. She continued by saying, “That’s a really good question and the answer is, of course not.” Several times Maggie reiterated the disadvantages of not having a mentor. The closest thing she had to this was her male department chair, who seemed to be supportive. Nevertheless, there were numerous times when she had no one to ask to answer her questions. “One of the things about not being mentored is you don’t know how things work if you don’t have someone to ask.” It has been demonstrated numerous times that mentoring is essential for the success of women in the workplace, especially in higher education or other upper-level positions (Belenky et al., 1997; Taylor & Robinson, 2008; Valien, 1999). In Maggie’s case, one example was when she was working on publishing her first hardcover textbook. She was the first in her college to do this. At that time, there was a secretarial pool in the college. Maggie was uncertain if her copyright would be maintained if she gave her manuscript to the pool. “There wasn’t anybody to ask. And, there wasn’t anybody who knew.” It was during this time that she devised a way to have her manuscript typed and alleviate her concern about copyright. Her son was attending college in a nearby city where there was an office of people who did word processing. “I would get my stuff, put it on the Greyhound bus here and [my son] would pick it up at the depot in [city], have it typed, and mail it back home, and then I’d mail it to the publisher.” Thus, Maggie was not deterred in her professional efforts and found creative ways to work around the barriers and obstacles placed before her by her institution and its systemic gender discrimination. Maggie also found support outside her department. She participated in the university faculty women’s caucus. Although it was not officially recognized at Midwestern University, she said, “We were tolerated.” She knew that the university president and provost were assessed their efforts favorably: Both [administrators] really liked the fact that we were there because we were taking care of some problems before they got out of hand, and so we were tolerated. . . . There are so many things that fester if they’re not addressed and you lose good people too.

Maggie noted that she learned through the caucus from another female colleague in horticulture that she had experienced similar treatment from

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her departmental secretary. “When she was talking about scientific issues, her secretary would roll her eyes.” Maggie also noted that one of the secretaries mentioned above, continued to sandbag her after her retirement, “She’d always forget to do things like you may have noticed in the case of my retirement—no one showed up to cut the cake, and I was not listed as retired nor emeritus status in the directory, unlike the two men who retired the same semester.” Double standards, one for men and one for women, were not uncommon during Maggie’s tenure in higher education. Although things are somewhat better today, these inequities remain. Inequity in merit increases was one area of concern. One year, Maggie filed a letter of protest as a result of this. However, she was not interested in pursuing the grievance process. They didn’t realize I had sat on so many grievance committees across the university—no one ever won. I wasn’t going to waste emotional energy on suing someone for what—half a percent salary increase? . . . It wasn’t worth my energy. But they didn’t know that. I got a great charge out of that.

The semester she was going to retire, a male colleague in the same situation was to be given the semester off, while Maggie continued her regular teaching load. During her career, Maggie graduated “25 doctoral students” and was “probably on three times that many committees”. She was a mentor to her students and formed her own scholarly community of learners in the process. She contributed to her professional community nationally, regionally, state-wide, and within the university and college. She published numerous refereed publications and books. She provided service and wrote a successful research grant in higher education, it being the first one in her college. Along the way, she reflected: The kind of information I would give to women, as women started to enter our doctoral program, was how things really worked. For example, and I told you about reading the last paragraph of a rejection letter to ascertain if it might be revised and re-submitted . . . I found out we are given rules, and they are waived if you know how to go about having them waived. . . . You have to go straight to the department head or dean or higher.

She elaborated on publishing, as well as presenting at national conferences: There is always another game next week. To start with, consider that you put all your ego into something such as sending that perfect article into the refereed journal. It comes back and it’s been criticized! So what! They’ll read it again if I revise it? May I? Please let me! It was no different than saying, “Oh, I’ve been scolded.”

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Maggie supported her graduate students in building their professional careers after graduation; “Eleven of my students gave ethics papers from my ethics class at national conventions. One carried through and published an article. She ended up as a professor.” Maggie saved her money to attend national and international conferences. She was major professor for some international students and the only one in her department to do that. When she went to other countries, she studied the country and its culture in advance; “I would learn to say ‘please,’—you can do a lot with that,” along with other useful phrases in the native language. Sometimes Maggie drove from the airport and went straight to campus to teach her classes. Twice, her male colleagues asked her to cover their classes when they were traveling. Maggie’s response is telling; “I’d say, yeah, if you’ll cover mine. They never showed up to cover mine, and I never agreed to do it after that.” During her travels, Maggie said that she would always buy some sort of artwork about women at work. She donated her display to the women’s study faculty when she retired. She also donated some of her artifacts from Japan, Greece, and China to the textiles department. She gave the library an ornate plaque with ivory figures on it and a painted ostrich egg. She indicated that she had taken some French and Japanese lessons and had a smattering of Greek and Russian. She always looked for books on different places before traveling to the sites. Maggie became a full professor in 1979. She said that one day there was a knock on her office door. A male colleague came in and said, “I want to see one.” Maggie asked, “One what?” He said, “The only female full professor in the College of Education.” She noted that, “This would have been about 20 years after I started. I was the only female full professor in the college of education.” She survived, whereas some of her other female colleagues did not. Two of her friends left Midwestern University and advised her to leave. They both told me to leave . . . that I had to get out of here because it was poisonous and not a good working environment. Well, I like my house, community and university. I moved seven times in five years with four kids. . . . I kept saying it’s going to be the same anywhere I go.

Maggie observed that her former colleagues were happy when they moved to a new setting. Nevertheless, Maggie made her way in the environment where she invested her time and energy and in the community where she made a home for her family. Maggie spent 28 years total as a faculty member in higher education. She achieved full professorship after five years of service in the college. She remained steadfast in her professionalism, convictions, and values. She has extensive honors, publications, served on numerous committees, has a

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number of honors to her credit, has provided outside consulting and traveled extensively both nationally and internationally. Importantly, she was a mentor for her graduate students, even though she never had a mentor herself, and she created her own community of scholarly learners with her students. She survived the institution’s hegemonic practices and gender discrimination in spite of the fact that multiple obstacles were placed in her path. She was a respected and valued colleague. She blazed a trail for women in higher education and was a support and inspiration for many along the way. Maggie: Reflections and Lessons Learned At Maggie’s retirement, the following words were said about her by her onetime department chair: [Two colleagues] stand above nearly all others. . . . Maggie because of the praiseworthy way she handles the prejudice and bigotry directed at her primarily because she is female. [Both X and Maggie has] over the years, handled the biased behaviors of others with a grace and skill demonstrated by only a select few. . . . Little did we know how hard it would be for those who blazed the trail. Dr. Drake has been at the forefront in destroying such thinking. Too often as we attempt reform, we harden into dogma centered around political, religious, racial, gender, sexual orientation, and ethnic groups. Each group believing, and claiming it can speak accurately only for itself. That rationale being, “If you’re not one of us, you can’t possibly understand.” Their [sic] wrong. Maggie does understand me. She does understand those who are different from her. She has pioneered and is still pioneering the pluralism which validates the goodness and worth of others. She stands as a quality example for all of us. Maggie has published more books than most—written more articles than most—finished more students than most. She also has been called by her first name rather than Dr. more than almost any male professor. Most importantly, she has educated and continues to educate many of us in ways of fairness, integrity, courtesy, and decency. Through all her pioneering at Midwestern University, Dr. Drake has not become bitter or angry. I once asked how she continued to be so gracious. Her response was, “One day at a time, and sometimes one hour at a time.

Maggie’s one-time department chair summed her accomplishments and trail-blazing well. Maggie is optimistic for the future for females in higher education. I think that women in higher ed at least have a support group now. Mentoring is

Riding the Glass Elevator    169 more common in higher education now, for both women and men; however, in some institutions, departments, and colleges, progress remains to be made. There’s going to be more acceptance [of women] as the older generation of men retire. There’s going to be more acceptance of women, because men are used to having them in the work force and earlier, they weren’t. But it’s always going to be a struggle in universities the size of Midwestern for people to make it.

Maggie remains realistic. She recognizes that progress has been made, and she helped make it, but that work remains to be done. Maggie emphasized that the “publish or perish” mindset still prevails in higher education. She surmised, “And on top of that, you’re supposed to be doing all of this public service and professional activities, and oh, by the way, teaching and advising you know. And that makes the profession difficult.” Salary equity was another area that Maggie identified as problematic. She compared salaries in higher education versus those in business and industry; “Another thing is that faculty are paid lower than people in business and industry and that means there’ll be more openings for women.” Her statement reflects the ongoing disparity in wages nationally between women and men. Another aspect of this phenomenon is that, for the most part, salaries in colleges of education remain lower on average when compared to some other disciplines, such as those in veterinary medicine and engineering, to name a few. Maggie sees women making progress in business. “There aren’t many women CEOs of the Fortune 500, but a lot of women own their own businesses now, and run them somewhat differently than men do.” She cited an example from 20 years ago when an American Psychological Association committee called the “Feminization of Psychology” addressed fear of salaries dropping because so many women were going into psychology. This parallels the ongoing discrepancies in K–12 education between teachers and administrators, as well as disparities in higher education between administrative and faculty salaries. Although there are more female principals, superintendents, department chairs, deans, and females in other administrative positions, the salary gaps persist and women continue to be underrepresented. Another interesting phenomenon that Maggie observed is the matter of ongoing salaries and income for males who retire. She said her son stated that CEOs, and as she noted, some university male administrators and faculty, are still paid their salaries for years after their retirement. She gave an example: “They [male administrators] drop back into town once a semester and it’s happened with a couple of male faculty, too, that I know about.”

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Maggie is, however, hopeful for the future, “I think there’s a whole generation of better educated men and women now who are more sensitive.” She also noted a shift in traditional gender roles. Husbands do more chores now and help with the kids more now as a general rule. In rural areas in the Midwest, the men and women have ALWAYS worked side by side, day in and day out, sharing some chores, being able to substitute for each other in other ways and sometimes they’re so isolated.

She identified improvements and changes in higher education practices since her retirement. “Midwestern University has changed a couple of things. I mentioned the family leave policy, delayed tenure, and that was a BIG change. Then, I heard after I left that people could elect to devote their time to teaching.” Maggie indicated that a considerable amount of her time as a professor was similar to “riding in a glass elevator”. She described her perception; You can look out and see what everybody around there is doing and everybody can look in and see what you’re doing, but you can’t communicate with everybody outside and the people outside don’t communicate with you. You’re riding up and down outside the department. That’s what I felt like. And so did [a colleague who left].

To that end, Maggie advised: You just have to be comfortable with yourself and enjoy what you’re doing and find your own support group that’s probably in your profession and in your commitments to whatever you like to spend your time and positive energy on. . . . I picked my battles. . . . You can only devote so much energy to anything when you have so many things on your plate.

Maggie’s insights, reflections, and prudent choices served her well. And, her experiences and words make for excellent advice for all women, in higher education or elsewhere. Conclusion Any woman or man who believes in the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes may be a feminist. Maggie did not identify herself as a feminist early in her life or career. However, as she entered the workforce, the inequality and inequity became blatant. Through her graduate studies, she gained more knowledge, understanding, and awareness of this. Her experiences as a professor in higher education revealed more challenges,

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awareness, and understanding about the inequality and hegemonic patriarchal practices of our society. It is through Maggie’s past and her experiences that we can become informed about our present, particularly, about professional life for women in institutions of higher education. Gender inequities have improved, but there is still work to do. Much of Maggie’s success can be attributed to her self-determination, her love of learning, and independence and strength of mind. Her experiences as a single mother will likely resonate with numerous women today as they face similar challenges in caring for family while pursuing an education and career. Maggie experienced resistance and obstacles in several arenas in her professional life in higher education. However, she picked her battles and did not waste psychic energy on counter-productive efforts. Instead, she was determined and persistent and often devised clever ways to achieve her goals, as is demonstrated in her sending her manuscript to her son in another city for word processing. In the absence of a mentor, Maggie created her own community of scholarly learners among her students. In this way, she also fulfilled her love of learning. She extended her learning and professional life through her travels and enjoyed getting to know new cultures and people. She made a concentrated effort to inform her female graduate students about negotiating the intricacies of life in higher education, about navigating through the formal and informal networks of male privilege and dealing with inequities in the professional environment. Maggie’s former department chair described her well he stated, “She has pioneered and is still pioneering the pluralism which validates the goodness and worth of others. . . . she has educated and continues to educate many of us in ways of fairness, integrity, courtesy, and decency.” Reflection on Maggie’s experience makes it possible to assess the gains women have made, and also to decide what we need to do in the future to ensure that women can achieve in all areas of educational leadership. Pioneering that remains to be done so that women are no longer confined to riding the glass elevator. References Bateson, M. C. (1990). Composing a life. New York: Penguin Books USA Inc. Belenky, M. F., Clinchy, B. M., Goldberger, N. R., Tarule, J.M. (1997). Women’s ways of knowing: The development of self, voice, and mind. New York: Basic Books. Columbia Pictures Corporation. (2003). Mona Lisa Smile. Film. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry & research design. Choosing among five approaches. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Heilbrun, C. G. (1988). Writing a woman’s life. New York: Ballantine Books.

172   T. SALSBERRY and K. A. TAYLOR McCormick, T. M. (1994). Creating the nonsexist classroom: A multicultural approach. New York: Teachers College Press. Sadker, M. & Sadker, D. (1995). Failing at fairness: How our schools cheat girls. Scribner. Taylor, K. A. & Robinson, D. C. (in press). Unleashing the potential: Women’s development and ways of knowing as a perspective for veterinary medical education. Journal of Veterinary Medical Education. Tack, M. W. & Patitu, C. L. (1992). Faculty job satisfaction: Women and minorities in peril. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report #4. Washington, DC: The George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development. Valian, V. (1999). Why so slow? The advancement of women. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Warren, C.A.B. (1988). Gender issues in field research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Welter, B. (1966). The cult of true womanhood. Available online: http://www. pinzler.com/ushistory/cultwo.html. Retrieved on June 1, 2008. West, M.S. & Curtis, J. W. (2006). AAUP faculty gender equity indicators 2006. Washington, DC: American Association of University Professors.

Chapter 12

Central Office Career Choices for Women Anita M. Pankake University of Texas—Pan American in Edinburg, Texas Ava J. Muñoz University of Texas at Arlington

A scarcity of literature and research exists regarding the who, what, when, where, and how of central office personnel in the educational systems of the United States. Yet, according to the National Center for Educational Statistics (May, 1995) over 31,000 positions currently comprise some aspect of central office operations other than the superintendent. According to Forsyth (2003), “Central administration in most districts now covers curriculum and staff development, student testing and assessment, school boardrelated functions, state and federal relations, legal services, supervision of maintenance and operations, transportation, food operations and other support services.” For example, in a recent administrative job bulletin these titles appeared among those in the category of “Central Office Vacancies”: Technology Coordinator, Business Manager, Energy Manager, Administrator for Guidance and Counseling, Executive Director of Secondary Education, Alternative Education Program Administrator, Chief of Staff, Assistant Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 173–190 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Superintendent of Curriculum and Instruction, Head Football Coach/Athletic Coordinator, Payroll Supervisor, Hearing Officer and Executive Director of Planning, Evaluation and Information Services. Some of the positions listed deal with specific academic areas such as music, social studies or English; others focused on specific services to students such as Guidance and Counseling or Special Education, or on organizational operations including Curriculum and Instruction and Maintenance and Transportation. Finally, there were those central office entities that had a responsibility to coordinate with external agencies and activities such as the tax office and community education. This myriad of positions represents a tremendous investment, i.e., approximately 4 to 5 % of an average school district’s budget (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2004; Robinson, 1992). The total central office administrative and professional staff represents less than 1% of all of the staff in the nation’s public schools (Forsyth, 2003). Even so, many resources (intellectual as well as monetary) are assigned to these positions, so information about who occupies them, why they are desirable or not, and how individuals move into and out of them should all be examined. Initially, the sheer number of central office positions seems to suggest that multiple opportunities exist as career choices for women in administration. In fact, in district central offices, 57% of the professionals are women (Keller, 1999). Experience tells us, however, that information about these issues may vary greatly between and among school districts and individual educators. Also, one position can either represent a link to other job opportunities or offer only a single opportunity for a central office administrative career. Specifically, for the purposes of this book, we have an interest in knowing if positions at central office offer women leadership opportunities to fulfill and/or develop their administrative careers. If women pursue positions at central offices, they need to know whether they are career destinations, barriers or detours, or simply good places to learn and develop on the way to their ultimate career goal. We have used a variety of resources in our presentation; additionally, this material is thoroughly laced with our own perceptions, opinions and experiences. In the summary section, we enjoin readers to investigate the many questions that are still unanswered regarding central office career choices, both generally and specifically, as these relate to women leaders. This chapter includes a brief history of central office administration, a description of how central offices have traditionally operated, and a summary of what can be expected for the future of the central office can help and/or hinder career development for women. Finally, we offer some recommended actions regarding career choices at central offices and suggest some important lines of inquiry in future research.

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The Central Office: Then, Now, and What’s To Come Then English (1992) pointed out that administrative roles other than the principal and superintendent have become a fixed part of our thinking regarding central office administration. According to Tyack and Hansot (1982), prior to the 1830s most of the schools in cities across the U.S. were controlled by lay school board members. The hiring of superintendents and some additional administrative personnel at the district level came as the result of reformers’ fascination with “. . . the possibility of applying to education some of the norms of technical unity they observed in factories where one ‘superintendent’ and a few foremen supervised the work of hundreds of operatives” (p. 95). Therefore, between the 1830s and the mid-century, school boards in most communities of any appreciable size had hired a superintendent to act as their agent. According to Blount (1998), “these district and city superintendents eased the workloads of school boards, who had increasingly taken on routine administrative and clerical work” (pp. 46–47). She went on to note that this was a time when districts began to add formal bureaucratic structures and administrative layers which. This, in turn, resulted in a proliferation of administrative positions. Women accepted positions such as lead teachers, teaching principals, supervisors, mid-level administrators, sometimes even going on to become superintendents (Blount, 1998). This scheme of organization continued to be adopted in school districts across the nation, until, “By the turn of the century, most of today’s administrative and supervisory roles in public education had been established” (English, 1992, p. 147). It was in these early decades of the twentieth century that thousands of women attained school leadership positions (Blount, 1999). A slightly different viewpoint was offered by Knezevich (1984) in his overview of the history of the central office. As he described it, the central office administration initially began as the one-person-office-of-the superintendent. He noted that the school superintendency was well established by the 1860s. However, during this time, it was not unusual for superintendents to teach one or two classes, coach and/or do the district’s clerical work. Knezevich identified three phases in the development of school district central offices, as we know them today. First, he says the initial advance came about when superintendents were relieved of non-administrative functions such as teaching and coaching. The next phase occurred when personnel were hired to assume the clerical and non-professional administrative responsibilities of the school district. The final phase occurred when enrollments in elementary and secondary units became large enough to merit their own

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full-time administrators. As might be expected, large districts were the first to move through these phases and actually develop a central office team. Even so, Knezevich (1984) noted some districts with enrollments as large as 75,000 students still maintained a one-person office at the district level well into the 1950s. He also noted that as late as the 1950s and early 60s, superintendents served as elementary or high school principals in many districts. Knezevich concluded that, “for most of the history of the American school superintendency, there were no, or very few, specialized line administrators between the superintendent and principals” (p. 308). Now Central office administrators work to facilitate the seamless operation of school districts. Their job responsibilities, at times specific, are for the most part vast in nature. Today, the various types of specialized management positions at the district level vary among school districts. They can even change from one year to the next in a single district. Additionally, little uniformity exists in titles and responsibilities commensurate with these positions. For example, “Members of the administrative team include personnel with such diverse titles as deputy, associate or assistant superintendent; director, supervisor; administrative assistant, coordinator, and consultant all of whom are attached to the office of the superintendent of schools.” However, the distinguishing characteristic of central office administrators is that they “are charged with responsibilities that are system-wide in scope but limited in range within the institutions. Thus, the supervisor of music’s functions are system-wide in scope but confined to music; the assistant superintendent in charge of elementary education is responsible for elementary education only, but in all parts of the system” (Knezevich, 1984, p. 312). The nature and number of positions created when a district expands central administration is influenced by numerous considerations. Different writers use different categorizing schemes to analyze central office development and operation. Each is useful. They merely represent different perspectives. • Wiles and Bondi (1984) identified the purpose and/or philosophy, size and wealth of the district as three factors. • Orlosky, McCleary, Shapiro, and Webb (1984) used the functions of the superintendent to describe how and why central office positions are created. • English (1992) and Wiles and Bondi (1983) categorized and assigned central office positions relative to the power and authority roles they play in the school system hierarchy.

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• Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) noted that some expansion of these positions has been due to the need to administer courtordered policies and state and federal funding guidelines. This includes the reassignment of top level administrators when new leadership is brought in, or the reassignment of principals that can, for a variety of reasons, no long remain on the campus. • Campbell, Cunningham, Nystrand and Usdan (1990) classified central office positions along a continuum of job focus and responsibility. • Ortiz (1982) used acquisition to the superintendency and participation in organizational governance as major tools for analysis. • Cross City Campaign for Urban School Reform (1995) recommended nine (9) services to be based in central office (superintendent and board, equity assurance office, budget, information services, legal/insurance/labor unit, personnel office, data collection and analysis, service departments—payroll, transportation and food service, and emergency fund. Each of these analyses helps us understand the traditional structures and operations of central office administration. Additionally, they help us appreciate that the changes being proposed (and, in some places, implemented) regarding the purposes and practices of central office administration truly are monumental. Details regarding some of these follow. School District Size Wiles and Bondi (1983) noted that a small district central administration may be comprised of a superintendent, a principal and a secretary; however, as a district’s student enrollment increases to 1,000 or more, additional central management personnel are needed. They explained that the category of responsibilities for added assistance is usually a result of the superintendent’s expertise. That is, if the superintendent is an expert in business then the added position will likely deal with curriculum and instruction and vice-versa. These two areas, curriculum and instruction and business, are the most common first additions for specialized positions. In most districts, if a third appointment is deemed necessary, it will likely encompass personnel responsibilities (Wiles & Bondi, 1984). Certainly this pattern is not fixed, but, it is nevertheless typical. Functions and Tasks Orlosky, McCleary, Shapiro, and Webb (1984) claimed that, “To understand the configuration of administrative and supervisory positions of a

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district central office, one can subdivide the responsibilities of the superintendent as required by the number, complexity and size of tasks into a range of positions occupied by specialists. This configuration is referred to as the superintendency” (p. 50). Central office management is created when a function or set of functions is divided into specific tasks and delegated to a specialist or specialists. In many larger districts, for example, one will likely find a specialist in each of the areas of business affairs, personnel, curriculum, buildings and grounds, pupil personnel, and community relations. If the tasks for a given function are sufficiently complex and numerous, a complete division may be created with a staff of specialists and clerical support. Depending on the nature of the tasks delegated, the administration will be structured into levels with assistant superintendents in charge of one or more functions. Major tasks may be assigned to directors under an assistant superintendent. Although titles may differ, two- and three-level hierarchies of administrative specialists are not uncommon. Additionally, some functions, such as curriculum and pupil personnel services, have responsibilities for tasks in the school. These may be assigned to staff positions that have no direct administrative authority in forming policy. Such positions are usually titled supervisor, coordinator or consultant (Orlosky et al., 1984). Power in the Hierarchy A third way in which central office administration has been categorized and responsibilities assigned relates to the hierarchical power and authority roles referred to as “line and staff.” English (1992) differentiates between the two types of positions by noting, “Line officers are directly concerned with implementation” and “Staff officers are those who support, but do not directly deliver instructional programs” (p. 147). Wiles and Bondi (1983) contrasted line and staff in terms of authority. They described line personnel as the “formal leadership” in the schools and staff personnel as those “who advise and consult others of the organization, formally and informally, but have no authority” (pp. 113–114). They mention that staff positions can be delegated temporary authority through a line administrator for special assignments. While there is no guarantee, position titles sometimes help in revealing the line or staff authority of central office administrative positions. For instance, directors, coordinators, specialists, and assistant superintendents for support services are usually staff positions. Deputy Superintendents and area or region superintendents tend to be line positions.

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Job Focus Yet another way of classifying central office staff focuses on position responsibilities, i.e., “generalists” or “specialists” (Campbell, Cunningham, Nystrand & Usdan, 1985, p. 226). The positions of generalists encompass a wide range of responsibilities. Superintendencies and principalships are generalist positions. Large school districts may call for additional generalists in the form of area superintendents or a deputy superintendent position. Individuals in positions who focus on one area or group of functions are specialists. Some of these positions are advisory (i.e., staff) positions. School districts need both kinds of positions to operate. Generalists need advice and information from a variety of specialists to make good decisions, and someone needs to see the big picture of the school system, to view its operation as going beyond any single specialty area. While it is not impossible, it can be difficult for an individual to be hired from one type of position to the other. Acquisition of the Superintendency and Participation in Governance Ortiz (1982) researched 31 school districts in southern California ranging in size from 3,000 to over 700,000 students. She located central office positions along a multi-dimensional continuum. Each of the dimensions she used emphasized the distance from the superintendency and from the core governance of the organization. According to Ortiz, central office positions can be categorized and evaluated based on their potential impact on a career. The distance from the governing core of the organization and the groups with which a position has significant contact (reference groups) influences the probability of acquiring the superintendency. Using this analysis, she identified four major administrative groups. The first group of administrative positions was likely to lead to the superintendency. According to Ortiz, administrative positions in this first group (a) have continuous formal and informal interactions with the superintendent, (b) often have been in the district fewer years than individuals in the other categories, and (c) have the school board as a reference group. Ortiz’s second administrative group consists of central office positions whose occupants hold long tenure in the school district and have principals and teachers as their reference groups. The third group is made up of those who hold the position of area administrators. They are generally appointed to contain the community; i.e., represent the school district in community affairs and “. . . see that community members do not bother principals” (p. 20). The reference group for area administrators generally consists of persons in the commu-

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nity. The last group is principals on special assignment at central office. These individuals are often persons who have erred and, for some reason, cannot be released from the school district. What’s to Come? The contemporary and futuristic views of central office operations tend to emphasize dimensions generally not referenced in the literature until recently. More and more, however, the literature on school improvement and reform is noting the importance of the central office (Cross City Campaign, 1995; Foley, 2001; Honig, 2003). At one time, central office positions were seen as less relevant to the overall educational process, “away from the action” of instructional and school improvement efforts; now these positions are viewed as having their own essential “actions”, actions that directly influence the efficiency and effectiveness of school level improvement efforts (Honig, 2003). Examples of this can be found as far back as 1990 when Campbell et al predicted the hierarchy of the school district would be influenced in five ways: • an increased focus on instruction at all levels of administration; • increased needs for specialization, especially for operating functions, disciplines relevant to school operations and curriculum subjects; • greater diversity (number) of roles as the district takes on more and more functions; and • increased care, together with the use of thorough screening techniques, in the selection and preparation of administrators, and greater political skills. Like all other organizations of this new century, school systems are trying to restructure by placing major emphasis on creating a flatter organization. According to Hord and Smith (1993), the traditional central office role of delivering and monitoring the policies that they, themselves, have made is being replaced by the roles of support agent and service provider. Thus, “Central staff are no longer the sole authority figures, distributing directives and monitoring compliance” (Hord & Smith, 1993, p. 23). Hanna (as cited in Tewel, 1995) claimed that, “In the new central office, staff members must learn to operate without the crutch of hierarchy and have only themselves to rely on” (p. 66). Accordingly, as Tewel (1995) admonished, “. . . success [in central office positions] now depends on figuring out whose collaboration is needed to act on good ideas. In short, the new work implies very different ways of obtaining and using power and influence” (p. 66).

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How these changes will influence the ways central office administrative positions are categorized and analyzed is yet to be determined. Certainly, the central administrator of some school districts would fit perfectly in one or more of the traditional schemes described earlier. Others are in the midst of trying to implement the new roles, relationships and responsibilities, all of which typically go along with the restructuring of a system. Some changes in central office administrative positions and practices (both real and predicted) include: • creation of many more channels for action, e.g., cross-department projects, inter-agency ventures, collaboration with various professional associations (Tewel, 1995); • creation of “more potential centers of power”, i.e., “the opportunity for greater flexibility” (Tewel, 1995, p. 66); • “along the way” reinvention of the roles and responsibilities of upper-level administrators (assistant superintendents, program director, managers or supervisors) (Tewel, 1995); • shifting to facilitation and provision of technical expertise to help site efforts to change (Hord & Smith, 1993); “enable principals and teachers to concentrator on the core business of schools” (Schlechty, 2001, p. 213); • sharing and, in some instances, relinquishing decision-making authority in many areas of school operations (Hord & Smith, 1993); • needing to “become leaner, less bureaucratic, and more entrepreneurial” (Tewel, 1995, p. 65); • movement towards cross-functional thinking and building multiple networks (Tewel, 1995, p. 67); supporting the development of “better schools by learning how to create coalitions around solutions to problems” (Schlechty, 2001, p. 213); • dependence on finding knowledge and services of value to individuals at the building sites (Tewel, 1995, p. 67); as Schlechty (2001) puts it, “you work for principals and teachers, they do not work for you” (p. 213); and • spending more time “working across boundaries with peers and other staff members over whom they have no direct control, their interpersonal and negotiating skills become essential assets. Power evolves from personal strengths, not from organizational structure” (Tewel, 1995, p. 67). An important point made by Tewel (1995) and one to be kept in mind as we try to link the traditional and contemporary models of central office administration is that, “While the old organization no longer exists on paper . . . it continues to haunt the minds, habits and performance of staff”

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(p. 76). Cross City Campaign (1995) describes the situation accurately when it states, “While central office personnel speak of themselves as support for the schools, in truth they are still too often regulators and monitors. Although school board members talk about giving decision-making authority to schools, school funds are still controlled by the central office.” (p. 3). Women need to take advantage of both the old and the new in terms of their own career development and leadership opportunities. Obviously, not all districts will have made the transition from the traditional, more centralized structure, to the more decentralized, autonomous site structure. Being able to analyze how a district actually operates (whether or not its operation conforms to what is described in the organizational chart) will be important for many who wish to make savvy career decisions. Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) provide a set of 11 questions for individuals who are considering a move to central office. The focus here is on job expectations, the balance between responsibility and authority, connections to other units within the central office, and benefits. Anyone, female or male, would do well to review these questions and bring them to bear on their decision to a move to central office administration. Central Administration and Women’s Career Development According to Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004), a career is “. . . a life-long sequence of working-related positions integrated with the attitudes and motives of the person as she engages in these positions” (p. 617). The definition they give to career development is “ . . . the methods and procedures used to plan and implement a career by means of education, training, job search, and work experiences” (p. 626). More specifically, career development, they say, consists of two important elements, i.e., career planning and career management. Career planning is “the personal process of planning an individual’s career path” while career management “focuses on plans and activities performed by the organization to enhance its employees’ careers” (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2004, p. 626). Whether initiated by the individual or the organization, both of these focus on developing the individual. Steps in this process would include: self-appraisal, exploring opportunities, setting goals, preparing plans, and implementing plans. Similarly, Orlosky et al (1984) claimed that, “Career routes can be charted so that qualifications and opportunities for entry and exit along the route can be ‘mapped’ . . . Certain constructs provide assistance in mapping careers . . . a knowledge of self, including an understanding of strengths and weaknesses, work values and attitudes, and self-perceived needs” (p. 21). They went on to comment that mismatches of individual abilities, needs and

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aspirations on the one hand and job opportunities or requirements on the other, do occur in educational administration (p. 22). Such mismatches are what women want to avoid as they create their career plan and implement their career development activities. The recognition that career paths can follow more than one route (Hauter, 1993) is a real boon to women leaders in educational administration. This is especially helpful given the shifting roles and relationships at central offices in school systems. The changes in central office administrative roles may cause some positions at that level to become more attractive options and others less attractive. There may now be several paths that lead to achievement of the same career goal. According to Hauter (1993) this recognition of that there can be multiple paths in one’s career allows for “stepping out”, for taking time off to do as schooling, starting a family or even just exploration of a different career area. Doing this no longer has to cause individuals to fall behind. Such a perspective allows careers not only to move up, but also to branch out. Glass (2000) proposed that the majority of central office administrators come from curriculum-related positions. He added that, “half of the 297 women superintendents surveyed in The Study of the American School Superintendency 2000 had experience in the central office” (p. 3). Hauter (1993) suggested that, “depending on your career aspirations, you may decide to make a lateral move that promises a better long-term payoff. By building skills and experience in a variety of areas, you will develop agility and balance and create a stronger foundation for a career that can weather the test of changing times. A mix of experiences broadens you[r] options” (p. 117). In education, this relates to the traditional path from principal, to central office, to superintendency. Other routes are beginning to emerge as well. Gaertner’s 1980 research (cited in Hoy & Miskel, 1996) identified three career paths or patterns for school administrators: (a) teacher, to secondary curriculum specialist, to assistant secondary principal to secondary principal to superintendent, (b) teacher, to secondary curriculum specialist, to administrator of instruction to assistant superintendent to superintendent, and (c) teacher, to elementary principal—a path that tops out at this level and does not move to higher levels of the hierarchy. Grogan and Brunner (2005) surmised that the path to the superintendency for 50% of the women was consistent with their male colleagues’ career paths, teacher to principal, principal to central office administrator, central office administrator to superintendent. Some women are finding that the route to the superintendency can be from teaching, to the central office, and then the supeintendency. Grogan and Brunner (2005) studied women central office administrators and found that 40% of them currently working in the capacity of central office administrator were interested in becoming superintendents. This path may become even more common (perhaps, even a new paradigm) if school systems continue to become flat-

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ter organizations with greater emphasis on collaboration, instructional issues, shared decision-making, facilitation, service and support. Organizations emphasizing collaboration, instruction, shared decisionmaking, facilitation, service and support will require individuals with skills and abilities beyond those that have been needed in the traditional, bureaucratic organizations. Indeed, if the literature regarding the leadership styles of women is accurate, the future development in the central office bodes well for their administrative careers. According to the Educational Development Center (August, 1990), “some recent approaches to management style seem to favor ‘feminine’ characteristics rather than ‘masculine’ ones. Theory Z and participatory management emphasize qualities that are associated with female stereotypes” (p. 20). Some characteristics of these feminine management styles include: • a greater people-orientation, more focus on curriculum management that is more consensus-driven (Educational Development Center Inc., 1990); • emphasis on relationships with others; a focus on teaching and learning, high value placed on building community (Shakeshaft, 1987); • empathy, sensitivity, caring, nurturing, supporting, compassion and patience (Funk, 1993); • strong belief in the importance of praise, rewards and modeling of professional development and teamwork (Funk, 1993); • a rich knowledge and experience base regarding people, feelings and relationships, an inclusive rather than exclusive approach to decision-making, the ability to develop leaders through sharing of power and authority with others (Hudson, 1996); and • sharing of power and information, communication and collaboration, knowledge of curriculum and instruction and concern for staff development (Schroth, 1995). These characteristics seem to align well with the needs of the restructured school organization. These strengths of women’s leadership styles seem predictive of success in work with the decentralized, shared authority roles that are required for site-based decision-making. They also appear to be foundational to the knowledge and skills necessary that are for success in the new service and support role of central office personnel. Increasingly, the superintendent’s role requires skills in collaboration, facilitation and work with support for groups and individuals both internal and external to the daily operations of the school system. In the future, successful administrative experience may come to be defined less in terms of the traditional criteria of line experience, accumulat-

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ed power and proximity to an organizational apex. Thriving organizations will require assessment of a given situation and a willingness to become what is needed in order to solve a problem. Power will be gained by those who can build teams and coalitions and facilitate transformation, and so bring about the required changes. The new benchmarks for successful administrative experience may be things like: (a) quality service to internal and external publics, (b) ability to help individuals and groups solve problems, (c) creation of opportunities to learn, and (d) the ability to bring a variety of elements and individuals together for collaboration. Benchmarks such as these will provide an arena in which women can use their strengths both to the advantage of the organization and for purposes of their own personal and professional development as leaders. Central Office Career Choices for Women: Actions to Take and Questions to Ask In order to make this information more practicable, we have reformulated what was previously presented into recommended actions for those who are looking at central office career choices. Additionally, we have developed questions for further research. Answers to them should be of interest to those who are either considering the central office as a part of their career, or who have chosen this. Neither the list of proposed actions nor questions should be considered complete. Instead, they represent a starting point in addressing the opportunities, barriers and unknowns of central office as a career choice for women. Actions to Take Make a decision regarding your preferred career goal. Be as specific as you can (though change is always an option); this one decision will be the reference point for every decision that follows. Continuously assess which positions lead to achievement of your ultimate career goal. Central office roles are continually shifting. At any given point in time, it can happen that what appeared earlier to be an excellent career move is no longer be a good choice. Keeping attuned to these changes can ensure that individuals do not unknowingly spend time in positions that do not conduce to their advancement. Conduct a thorough self-assessment to identify your professional strengths and challenges. Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) cite this as the first step in their career planning process, and they offer several assessment tools and books to get you started. The results of such an assessment can be used to

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help make the best match between central office administrative opportunities and your abilities. Draft a career plan and then design a career development program that will help you achieve it. Planning a career path and creating experiences and education that help you move along that path can help assure that you achieve what you desire. Both the plan and design should be flexible; they should make it possible to accommodate changing situations and goals. It is important to put the plan in writing so as to strengthen your commitment s implementing it. Excellent examples of some basic strategies for this can be found in Lunenburg and Ornstein’s (2004) Educational Administration (getting the knowledge, climbing the ladder, beginning the search, getting the interview and getting ready for the interview, p. 631). Develop a “business” type perspective on the central office function as well as skills in marketing and public relations. No matter which central office position you seek , these skills will be invaluable. Determining and meeting the needs of both internal and external customers will become increasingly important activities for all levels of central office administration. Also, central office administrators need to understand the perspective of the business community, particularly as it relates to interpretation of the school’s administrative function. Maintain the ability to work with groups in all areas of the operation including problem-solving and decision-making processes. For many, winning is no longer defined in individual terms, but rather in terms of the team. So, while personal strengths are still important, it is the ability to work with others and to lead and/or facilitate that will be valued. Leadership is used here in the most elevated sense: vision-building and the freeing of the creative potential in groups and individuals. Be sure that you are an expert in the administration of education. To serve as a leader in a school district you must be able to create and maintain a structure that insures that quality planning and learning can occur. Development of this expertise begins with classroom teaching and continues throughout your administrative career. Finding, joining and becoming active in relevant professional organizations are important strategies for accomplishing this. Know the literature. Education is a profession. Important advances from research and successful practices in the field are continually being reported in its professional literature. As a leader in the profession, and in order to maintain the broad perspective necessary for work in a central office position, it is imperative that you read, evaluate and make use of these writings. Seek a mentor or mentors. According to Little (1994), it is necessary for women to discover the ins and outs of moving up through the organization, “One way to discover the route is to learn how others have progressed: the experiences they were exposed to, who influenced them, how they broke

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out of the role of manager into the role of executive, the transitional stages of movement in their careers, and the role their occupation and environment played” (p. 19). A mentor can provide this information as well as invaluable support, specific feedback and assistance in building a network. Develop your knowledge and skills in leading and managing organizational change. During this time of change in our world, society and school, those who seek central office positions must be able to effectively lead the established organization as it is and help it transition to the future. Be realistic about the impact that your career can have on your person life. “Plenty of time with the family is a fringe benefit one must give up as an administrator” (Black & English, 1986, p. 18). Talk with those who are significant in your personal life about the impact that your career may have on your life and about the changes that may be required if you become a central office administrator. You and your family should thoroughly understand the issues that may arise such as limitations on mobility, becoming a public figure, and having to deal with reactions to unpopular decisions. They may also have to bear these burdens. Questions for Investigation 1. What are the demographics of central office administration and the relevant career paths available there? These could include information such as: who is in which position, how much are they paid, and are there differences between men and women’s pay? 2. Are the move to site-based decision-making and the increased emphasis on student performance and accountability creating a fourth phase for Knezevich’s model? To what extent will these three factors alone define the needs that, in turn, define the roles of central office personnel? 3. Do central office positions involve gender bias where promotion rates, time in position, compensation, span of control, and budget size and authority are concerned? What is the relationship between the principalship and central office position in regard to career paths for administrators? Given the increased emphasis on the principalship, how have compensation packages and patterns of advancement changed? 4. How often do individuals exit the school administration from central office positions other than the superintendecy? And, for what reasons? Where do they go? And are these moves distinguished by gender difference Has there been a change in the frequency with which the functions in central office are being performed by nontraditional service providers via contracting or outsourcing? Is there

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a change in the frequency with which positions in the central office are filled by individuals from professions other than education? (i.e., CPS. MBA, lawyers, etc.) Does gender seem to determine who makes these decisions or who obtains the positions? If so, which positions and functions are affected? 5. And, the question which overrides many of these is “Why?” Does the system make the difference or is it something that women do to themselves? A Final Thought We are all at our best doing something that we love and believe in. Opportunities to make career moves will come and go and those who know where they are going are able to take full advantage of them. For some, receiving a central office position will be the pinnacle of their career. For others, the central office will be an opportunity to gain the experiences needed to reach a career goal elsewhere. And for still others, the central office holds neither allure nor necessary opportunities. Know what you want and then choose carefully the actions that will help you attain it. Make sure that what you love and believe in is also what you do. References Black, J.A., & English, F.W. (1986). What they don’t tell you in schools of education about school administration. Lancaster, PA: Technomics. Blount, J. M. (1998). Destined to rule the schools: Women and the superintendency, 1873– 1995. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Blount, J. M. 1999. Turning out the ladies: Elected women superintendents and the push for the appointive system, 1900–1935. In Sacred dreams: Women and the superintendency, 9–27. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Campbell, R. F., Cunningham, L. L., Nystrand, R. O., & Usdan, M. D. (1990). The organization and control of American Schools. (6th ed.). Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill. Campbell, R. F., Cunningham, L. L., Nystrand, R. O., & Usdan, M. D. (1985). The organization and control of American Schools. (5th ed.). Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill. Cross City Campaign for Urban School Reform (1995). Reinventing central office: A primer for successful schools. Chicago, IL: Author. Educational Development Center, Inc. (1990, August). Women in school administration: Overcoming the barriers to advancement. Women’s Educational Equity Act Publishing Center Digest. Washington, DC: OERI. English, F. W. (1992). Educational administration: The human science. New York: Harper Collins.

Central Office Career Choices for Women    189 Foley, E. (2001). Contradictions and control in systemic reform: The ascendancy of the central office in Philadelphia schools. Philadelphia, PA: Consortium for Policy Research in Education. Forsyth, J. (2003). Are there too many administrators? The School Administrator. Funk, C. (1993). Leadership in school administration: The female advantage. In G. Brown and B. Irby, Eds. Women as school executives: A powerful paradigm. (pp.  35–42). Huntsville, TX: Texas Council of Women School Executives, Sam Houston Press (ERIC Document Reproduction Service o, ED 383101). Glass, T. E. (2000). Where are all the women superintendents? The School Administrator, electronic copy, pp. 1–6, http://aasa.org/publications/saarticledetail.cfm ?mnitemnumber=&tnitemnumber=951&ite Grogan, M. & Brunner, C.C. (2005). Women leading systems. School Administrator, 62(2), 1–4 (electronic copy). Hauter, J. (1993). The smart woman’s guide to career success. Hawthorne, NJ: Career Press. Honig, M.I. (2003). Building policy from practice: District central office administrators’ roles and capacity for implementing collaborative education policy. Educational Administration Quarterly, 39(3) 292–338. Hord, S., & Smith, A. (1993, Winter). Will the phones go dead? Insight, 23–26. Hoy, W.K., & Miskel, C.G. (1996). Educational administration: Theory, research, and practices (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Hudson J. (1996). Women administrators taking charge of change. Catalyst for Change, 26(1), 12–14. Keller, B. (1999). Women superintendents: Few and far between. Education Week, 19(11), 1. Knezevich, S. J. (1984). Administration of public education: A sourcebook for the leadership and management of educational institutions, 4th ed. New York: Harper & Row. Little, D. (1994). How women executives succeed: Lesson and experiences from the federal government. Westport, CT: Quorum Books. Lunenburg, F. C., & Ornstein, A. C. (2004). Educational administration: Concepts and practices. 4th Ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth National Center for Educational Statistics. (1995, May). Statistics in brief. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, OERI, NCES-95-213. Orlosky, D.E., McCleary, L.E., Shapiro, A., & Webb, L.D. (1984). Educational administration. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill. Ortiz, F.I. (1982). Career patterns in education: Women, men and minorities in public school administration. New York: Praeger Publishers. Robinson, G. (1992). School administration under attack: What are the facts? Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service. Schlechty, P.C. (2001). Shaking up the school house: How to support and sustain educational innovation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Schroth, G. (1995). Strengths women bring to site-based decision-making. In B. Irby & G. Brown, (Eds.). Women as school executives: Voices and visions (pp. 127–132). Huntsville, TX: Texas Council of Women School Executives, Sam Houston Press (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 401252).

190   A. M. PANKAKE and A. J. MUÑOZ Shakeshaft, C. (1987). The training of women in the principal’s office. Paper presented at the Thirtieth Anniversary Convention of the University Council of Educational Administration, October 30–November 1, 1987 in Charlottesville, VA. Tewel, K. J. (1995). Despair at the central office. Educational Leadership, 52(7), 65– 68. Tyack, D., & Hansot, E. (1982). Managers of virtue: Public school leadership in American, 1820–1980. New York: Basic Books. Wiles, J., & Bondi, J. (1983). Principles of school administration: The real world of leadership in schools. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.

Chapter 13

A Coach‘s Lessons on Career Shifts and Leadership Beverly E. Jones Clearways Consulting, LLC

My Personal Path to Coaching I’ve worked with hundreds of professionals to help them address leadership challenges or decide on directions for career shifts. Many of the lessons that shaped my approach as a coach came in the late 1960s and early ’70s, when as a very young woman, I had an opportunity to create an early university affirmative action program. In the spring of 1968, I was a senior majoring in journalism at Ohio University. Having completed my required courses, I was putting most of my academic energy into an honors project on comparative literature. My proposed thesis topic was “woman as existential being.” This may sound awfully pompous now, but I still think that my basic idea was a good one. I intended to argue that, in early novels, the female characters were more likely than the males to take responsibility for creating meaning in their own lives. In other words, characters like Jane Austen’s Elizabeth Bennet were presented as self-aware people because they could see absurdity Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 191–201 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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in the social restrictions imposed on the women of their day. My advisor rejected the topic on the grounds that, in existential terms, women cannot be fully actualized beings. He argued that Jean-Paul Sartre said a woman is merely “Other.” In other words, women are defined by their relationship to males. They are there to serve and support men, but they don’t have what it takes to become self-actualized, either in novels or in life. When I declined to switch topics, my advisor tried to give me an “F.” But somehow one could only get an “Incomplete” on an honors thesis, not an “F.” I could not graduate with an “Incomplete” on my record, even though I had met all the other requirements. Rather than try to untangle this administrative mess, I decided that I didn’t want to graduate from a university that required me to acknowledge that I had no hope of becoming a complete human being. And so, I finished that academic year without a diploma. Suddenly I felt like I was one of those Austen characters, noticing everywhere the absurdity of the closed doors and restrictions that shaped my ordinary life. Of course, I had been annoyed by the special rules that were in place for women, like curfews and dress codes. But it hadn’t hit me that these restrictions reflected a deeply held assessment of women as people, that they revealed that they were considered to be weaker, less talented and essentially inferior to men. Until then, I had accepted such disparate treatment for “co-eds” as normal, and not very important compared to other big issues of the time. Suddenly, I felt driven to speak up for change, even though I had no expectation of actually making a difference. I wanted to make something meaningful out of my failure to graduate, somehow turn the event into the kind of existential experience that I intended to write about. Then I remembered my “Sugar Grain Principle,” which dated back to high school years, when I was just starting to be conscious of my weight, and worried about putting too much sugar in my tea. My parents are New Zealanders, with British roots. When we were growing up, tea parties were the family’s standard form of celebration. Even the smallest child was free to regularly enjoy a cup of tea, loaded up with milk and a couple of spoonfuls of sugar. I wanted to break my sugar habit, but wasn’t about to give up the cups of tea I drank every day after school. Leaving out the sugar seemed just too hard, but one day I was inspired to reduce it so gradually that I’d never even miss it. As I sat there staring at a heaping teaspoon, I decided to start by trying to remove a single sugar grain. The next day, I removed a few more. And then every day I tried to reduce the amount in the spoon by another grain or two. After about a year, I had learned to enjoy sugarless tea without feeling deprived at all. I was intrigued by my own power to create change through tiny, painless steps, and found other ways to apply the Sugar Grain Principle in my own life. For example, I experimented with learning to enjoy new foods, liking

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broccoli, by eating tiny amounts mixed with something that tasted good, like ketchup. And, I became better at keeping my room neat by building little habits one at time, like shutting the closet door, or spending just five minutes cleaning every morning. In 1968, I didn’t expect that I could actually bring about change at my university, but I decided that the Principle could help me frame a meaningful gesture. I committed, for every day that I remained there in Athens, Ohio, to doing at least one small “thing” in support of greater equality for Ohio University women. At first, it was easy. That small thing might be as basic as speaking up to make a point during a class discussion, finding a way to say that women have equal abilities and deserve equal opportunities. But, with time it became more and more difficult to think up my thing for the day. I was forced to move out of my comfort zone and become more creative. As it turned out, this application of the Sugar Grain Principle grew into a longer term commitment than I first expected. On what should have been my graduation day, I married a classmate, Tom Price. He started working for the local newspaper, and so I settled down in a small university town. In those days of expansion, Ohio University often hired a few honors graduates from each class. Men were routinely brought in as junior administrators, and women were invited to join the secretarial ranks. I became a secretary in the office of the Executive Vice President, which gave me a good vantage point for both learning about how the University was managed and coming up with new ideas for doing my daily “things”. With a friend, I put an ad in the student newspaper inviting like-minded women to attend a meeting. Three of them showed up; we started a group, and we began working together to raise issues. I spoke to every class and club that would have me. After I had been working as secretary for just eight months, the young dean of the College of Business walked into the office I shared with another young woman, and pulled up a chair by my desk. He said that he had noticed my activity, and he wanted me to become the first woman to enter the MBA program. He said, “Bev, if you’re really interested in changing the way things work, you need tools, and you can get them in a business program.” The dean warned that it might not always be easy because many faculty and students were opposed to the idea of encouraging women to enter the graduate program. But his arguments made sense to me, and I was swayed by an offer to serve as his graduate assistant because he offered me a stipend that almost matched my secretarial wages. It was a smarter move than I could have come up with on my own. As a bonus, and once I had been accepted into graduate school, my undergraduate diploma mysteriously arrived in the mailbox.

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During the first year of my MBA program, classes were cancelled and the school year ended abruptly at OU because of unrest associated with anti-war activities. Around that time, I was offered a job writing for the campus radio and television station, WOUB TV and FM. So I shifted to parttime study, and turned more of my attention to Ohio efforts to support the Equal Rights Amendment. That move to the academic slow track meant that I would not be the first woman to get an MBA from OU. I was, however, thrilled to have a few women join me in the business classes that I continued to take over the next few years. The job at WOUB gave me the opportunity to create a weekly radio program interviewing women of achievement. Sometimes I spoke with women who were active feminists, but the main goal was simply to draw attention to some of the many women in the community who were engaged in creative and important activities. By now there were more of us working together in support of equal rights, but I had access to a microphone, so I remained prominent. By the time a new OU president, Claude Sowle, arrived (1969), the Women’s Movement was starting to reach Ohio, and I was taken to be the loudest feminist voice on campus. Eventually, Sowle summoned me to his office, and invited me to write a report substantiating my claims that the University was systematically discriminating against women. He hired me part time away from WOUB, and gave me an office adjoining his, which helped me get cooperation across the campus, as I sought the information I needed. Despite my great new office in historic Cutler Hall, I didn’t think that Sowle, a former law school dean, expected much from me and my report. If he were serious, wouldn’t he have appointed a blue ribbon committee, not a young graduate student? I wasn’t certain of my mandate, nor was I sure how to structure the project. So, I applied the Sugar Grain Principle and just started working. With the help of women of varied expertise, I developed a detailed questionnaire. Then I began interviewing women, methodically working through every unit and level at OU. I interviewed about 90 students, faculty members, and administrators, from housecleaners to the Dean of Women. I thought of myself as a journalist, not as a leader. As I listened to woman after woman, I began to see opportunities for making connections, and offering suggestions. I looked for ways to introduce women to one another, and to help them support each other’s professional growth. When I began, the term affirmative action was not yet in common use, and I was thrilled to stumble across it while researching equal opportunity requirements applicable to federal contractors. In writing the report, I tried to avoid becoming bogged down with rhetoric and only to build a case for the claim that the University was engaged in systematic discrimina-

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tion. Implicit in my approach was the empowering thought that we had the potential to bring a lawsuit. When he asked me to write the report, Sowle did not ask for recommendations. But I included a list of 21 recommendations ranging from adjusting faculty salaries and bringing women into the administration, to allowing female musicians to join the ranks of 110 Marching Men, the OU band. Once the report was submitted in 1972, Sowle accepted a surprising number of my recommendations. By that time, the voices of women were being heard on campuses across the country. At the same time, the groundbreaking Title IX of the Higher Education Act was making its way through Congress, bringing tremendous changes for women students. At Ohio University we were a little ahead of the curve, and Sowle asked me to serve as his assistant and to help implement Ohio’s first comprehensive collegiate affirmative action program. At 26, I knew little about career planning or leadership. But, at the same time as I was working for institutional change, I felt a sense of responsibility to individual women who were looking for guidance about how to seize newly available career opportunities. I stuck to what I knew, and remained focused on the principle that women are as capable as men and deserve the same access to education and professional growth. Continuing to work oneon-one with women who were eager to move into professional worlds that had long been closed to them, I kept the Sugar Grain Principle in mind. I would urge them to envision the careers they really wanted, and then start doing things that might move them in that direction, without worrying about the length or course of the ultimate path. It wasn’t until years later that I discovered that Kaizen is a term that describes the technique of creating big change with very tiny steps. The Kaizen approach to achieving excellence was rooted in the early days of World War II, when doing more with less was a patriotic mandate for U.S. manufacturers. After the war, Dr. W. Edwards Deming introduced American ideas for continuous improvement to the Japanese. They quickly became part of the business culture. Kaizen is roughly translated as “improvement.” In a Kaizen company, improving all processes and providing better service to customers is everybody’s job. Even the most modest suggestion for better performance receives consideration. Where individuals are concerned, Kaizen means that very small steps can lead to sweeping change. Even if you face serious obstacles, you can move toward big goals by starting with the tiniest steps. For example, you can apply Kaizen in your personal life by launching a fitness program with just one minute of walking each day. Part of why Kaizen works so well is that it helps a person overcome fear and resistance to change and build new behavior patterns.

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At Ohio University, as I spoke with woman after woman, I noticed that many—understandably—seemed angry, depressed or discouraged by their lack of career progress. Working with a support group of OU counselors and psychologists, I came to understand that professional advancement does not happen in isolation from the rest of your life. Progress is more likely if you not only focus on your next career move, but also seek growth and fulfillment in other arenas. From that time on, when I coached individuals on career issues, I often described a broader version of the Sugar Grain Process. I might ask a woman to envision not just the job she wanted, but also the broader goals she sought to achieve, the life she wished to create, and the kind of person she wanted to become. Then I asked her to commit to doing “things”—to Sugar Grains—that might move her forward in multiple spheres. Before most people thought much about fitness; I saw how critical exercise could be to one’s attitude and ultimate success. So, I often insisted that individuals commit to a fitness program if they wanted my coaching. It took me a long time to realize it, but a big part of my success in those OU days was that I had a clear, maybe even simplistic, vision of how things should be, and I stayed focused on that. It was easy to avoid becoming preoccupied with my own career trajectory because I never sought to advance in higher education. I always had in the back of my mind that I would do my best at OU then turn my attention to my own professional growth on some other path. In 1975, I felt as though I had done enough “things” at Ohio University, my starter marriage was coming to an amicable end, and I had finally finished my MBA. So, I joined the women who were flocking to professional programs, and headed off to Georgetown University Law Center. After graduating and passing the bar exam, I eventually became the first woman partner, then the first woman practice leader, in a Washington law firm. From there, I joined one of my clients, Consolidated Natural Gas Company (CNG), as the Vice President of External Affairs and Policy, ultimately managing a staff of about 70. For more than two decades after leaving OU, I remained fascinated by research related to leadership and career development. One of the many things I noticed was that, when people step into leadership in a meaningful way, i.e. when they stop being preoccupied with their own status and concentrate on getting things done, their careers can soar. In fact, that is what happened to me at CNG. Also, from my vantage point in Washington, I was intrigued by the way that some leaders move ahead despite setbacks, even overcoming dramatic crises and embarrassing scandals. Sometimes what helps them bounce back is the same approach that has served me so well: they just start doing things, every day, in new directions.

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Over the years, I found many ways to keep experimenting with the Sugar Grain Process, sometimes in my own career, and sometimes while supporting others. For example, as an attorney I enjoyed working with leaders, and I liked the role of coaching them through strategic challenges. I always maintained the practice of mentoring younger folks, some of whom I have now kept an eye on for more than 30 years. In 2000, a corporate merger gave me an opportunity to take early retirement, and shortly after that I launched a new career as an executive and leadership coach. My idea of leadership coaching is rooted in the belief that, to a large degree, we can choose what we are, and what we want to become. And, when we don’t get it right, we can always try again. Also, I believe that you can build momentum if you develop your career vision, steadily do things to support that vision, and focus most of your energy on the jobs at hand. You can act like a leader in any situation, regardless of your rank or role. Leaders are people who take responsibility for the jobs that need doing. When you act like a leader and you have a vision of the life you want, amazing growth is possible. Coach Yourself to Leadership or a New Career As I work with clients, including academic and government leaders, I often start with something much like the Sugar Grain Process that evolved for me back in the 1970s. At the beginning, I might spend a good bit of time with the client envisioning the kind of leader he or she wants to be, as well as discussing the kind of life that will make it possible. If you are seeking a career shift, or you want to step up to a higher level of leadership, you can move in that direction by coaching yourself through a process similar to the one that has worked for me. Begin by developing a picture of what your enhanced state of leadership and your new career phase will look like. Define that phase broadly, looking at the full scope of your life. Then commit yourself to regularly doing things that are consistent with moving toward that picture. Don’t try to define a complete path. Instead, gradually build a varied list of things that are aligned with your vision. The pace at which you move will depend on your sense of urgency about your advancing, but one key is that you commit to doing things at a certain rate in a given timeframe. When it gets tough to come up with new ones, you’ll probably become more creative as you push yourself to press on, to maintain a given rate of activity. Success often comes from long shots, from the wild ideas that come to you outside of your usual patterns. If your career aspirations include growth as a leader, you might start defining your vision by asking yourself questions like these: (a) What does leader-

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ship look like? (b) What is my vision of how leaders behave? (c) How will I look when I am acting like a leader? (d) What skills and attitude will I need? The concepts listed below are encompassed by my own vision of leadership. They can provide a starting point as you give new thought to the kind of leader that you want to be, regardless of where your career path may lead. Grow • Your development as a leader is tied to your development as a person. The more you evolve as an individual, the more you will be able to guide and assist others. • To lead change effectively, you must be engaged in changing yourself. Effective leaders frequently pursue some kind of program of learning or improvement. If you don’t know what to do next, learn something new. • To look like a leader in the workplace, demonstrate that you can manage yourself. Routinely practice managing your emotions, your energy, your time and your priorities. • You can practice behaving like a leader during any point of your career, even when you hold an entry level job. Be positive • A leader’s attitude has an enormous impact on the team. Most people are more productive when they are around positive people. • In the workplace, positive feedback is more effective than negative feedback in promoting change or fostering productivity. • Even if you were born a pessimist, you can learn to be more upbeat and optimistic. One way is to notice your internal voice, and then change its repetitive commentary to something more positive. Talk to yourself the same way that you talk to friends you love. • Practice smiling. When you present yourself as happy, happiness might follow. Develop your emotional intelligence • Management guru Daniel Goleman demonstrated that great leaders are distinguished from mediocre ones by their level of emotional intelligence. And, the most important type of emotional competence is

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self awareness—knowing your internal states, preferences, resources and intuitions. • To improve self-awareness, try writing in a journal, developing a meditation practice, or working with a coach. Experiment with keeping logs as a way to notice and change your habits. For example, if you want to become more positive at work, log the number of times you make positive and negative comments, and work to improve the ratio. Be mindful • When you are mindful, you are actually listening to and focusing upon the people around you. Being mindful of others can help you to feel centered, rather than bored or disconnected. • Try to catch yourself when you drift into mindless activity, like when you’re driving your car and realize you can’t recall the last few miles. Become more sensitive by noticing when others are mindless, like the guy at the meeting who is playing with his BlackBerry instead of listening to the discussion. • Other people can tell whether or not your state is mindful. If your team members sense that you are present, that you actually see and listen to them, they are more likely to see you as a genuine and charismatic leader. Get organized • Values such as compassion are not enough to assure successful leadership. To achieve their goals, effective leaders develop work habits and systems associated with productivity. • The tools like calendars and to-do lists that work well at one stage of your career might be insufficient as you move up the hierarchy. Periodically review your systems, and ask whether new tools or habits might bring greater productivity. Manage your energy • To be at your best, manage not just your time but also your energy. • Physical, emotional and intellectual energy are linked to exercise, nutrition, stress management and sleep.

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• Among the many other sources of energy are your family, community and social activity, as well as the time you spend in fun and creative pursuits. Connecting with the natural world can be a great way to restore your energy level. Map your life • Your career can’t thrive in a personal vacuum. To do your best as a leader you must remain aware of all the spheres of your life. • One way to do so is to create a diagram simply illustrating the full scope of your life. Consider creating a “mind map,” or “idea map” of your life. Maps are colorful, branching diagrams used to describe concepts, projects or situations. They can help you visualize a complex problem or opportunity, or the big picture of something like your career. See free mapping software at: http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/FreeMind • Some people find it helpful to draw a map of what their life looks like today, and also a map of the life they would like in the future. Each one-page map might include not only the various aspects of your career and leadership role, but also all the parts of your life that help you to be in shape to do your best, like your family and your spiritual and leisure interests. Use Kaizen • Once you have a broad leadership and career vision in place, even if it is tentative, find small ways to get moving. Very small steps can eventually lead to sweeping change. Even when you face serious obstacles, you can move toward big goals by starting with the tiniest actions imaginable. • To start a big project, do just one thing that seems to move you in the right direction, and then commit to another small thing every day this week. For example, you can apply Kaizen by launching a decluttering program with just five minutes spent speed cleaning your desk each day. • The things on your list needn’t be in a particular order. Don’t get bogged down because you cannot see a linear plan. Just keep on finding small ways to move in support of your vision. References Allen, D. (2001). Getting things done: The Art of stress-free productivity. New York: Penguin.

A Coach‘s Lessons on Career Shifts and Leadership    201 Begley, S. (2008). Train your mind, change your brain: How a new science reveals our extraordinary potential to transform ourselves. New York: Ballantine. Buzan, T., & Buzan, B. (1993). The mind map book: How to use radiant thinking to maximize your brain’s untapped potential. New York: Plume. Covey, S. R. (2006). The 8th habit: From effectiveness to greatness. Philadelphia, PA: Running Press. Goleman, D. (2007). Social intelligence: The new science of human relationships. New York, NY: Bantam. Hannon, K. (2010). What’s Next?: Follow your passion and find your dream job. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle. Jones, B. E. (2005, October). No girls aloud: A report on the “report on the status of women at Ohio University” during the 1970s. Archivist Lecture. OCLC No. 62456896. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Libraries. Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2008). The leadership challenge. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Langer, E. J. (2010). Mindfulness. Cambridge, MA: Lifelong /Da Capo Press. Loehr, J. E., & Schwartz, T. (2005). The power of full engagement: Managing energy, not time, is the key to high performance and personal renewal. New York: Free Press. Maurer, R. (2004). One small step can change your life: The kaizen way. New York: Workman Press. Price, B. J. (1972). Report on the status of women at Ohio University. OCLC No. : 213296587. Athens, OH: Ohio University Libraries. Rath, T., & Clifton, D. O. (2004). How full is your bucket?: Positive strategies for work and life. New York: Gallup. Seligman, M. E. P. (2006). Learned optimism: How to change your mind and your life. New York: Vintage. Strozzi-Heckler, R. (1997). Holding the center: Sanctuary in a time of confusion. Berkeley, CA: Frog Press. Zander, R. S., & Zander, B. (2002). The art of possibility. New York: Penguin.

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Chapter 14

Narrowing the Wage Gap One Negotiation at a Time Kate C. Farrar Leadership Programs AAUW Annie S. Houle The WAGE Project

Women gaining more PhDs than ever before . . . women out-earning their husbands . . . women keep their jobs while men lose theirs . . .

Glance at recent newspaper headlines, and it seems that women have “made it” in academia and the workforce. But, hiding below the headlines are data that reveals that the gender wage gap is still a barrier that women continually face in all sectors of the workforce. The Gender-Based Wage Gap According to the U.S. Census Bureau and Bureau of Labor (2009) statistics, women who work full time earn about 77 cents for every dollar men earn (p. 36). Women of color face an even greater disparity compared to White men. African American women make 67 cents on the dollar (African American men make 78 cents); Hispanic women make about 58 cents (Hispanic Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 203–210 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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men make almost 66 cents) (U.S. Census Bureau & the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008). For college-educated women, the pay gap begins immediately when they enter the workforce. One year after doing so, women with bachelor’s degrees make only 80 percent of what their male peers earn, a figure that drops precipitously to 69 percent after ten years (Dey & Hill, 2007, p. 2). Because of the pay gap, a college woman graduating today will, at the end of her career, have made roughly $1 million less than a man in a similar career (Boushey, Arons, & Smith, 2010). Even women in managerial roles in the workforce encounter a wage gap, although recent numbers have improved. Female managers earned 81 cents for every dollar earned by male managers in 2007, up 2 cents from 79 cents in 2000 (U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2010) Within the campus community, both female faculty and female campus administrators face a wage gap. The 2009–10 American Association of University Professors (AAUP) salary data revealed that the overall salary for women faculty members was 81 percent of that for men, the same disparity that existed for faculty salaries in 1975–76. Also, these data point out that women who are full-time faculty members earn less than their male colleagues at each of the traditional professorial ranks (professor, associate professor, and assistant professor), and overall in each institutional category (doctoral, master’s, baccalaureate, and associate). Similarly, female college administrators were found to earn 13 percent less than their male colleagues (Monks & McGoldrick, 2004). Women realize that there is a need to address this wage gap. A poll of issues identified as important to women, showed that 90 percent say equal pay for equal work is a priority (Center for the Advancement of Women, 2003). This is not surprising considering how pay disparities affect women of all ages and, consequently, their families. With a record 70.2 million women in the workforce, the wage gap hurts the majority of American families (U.S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau, 2007). Reasons for the Wage Gap The wage gap exists for a number of reasons. One of them is that women continue to occupy the majority of low-wage positions. A 12-state analysis of data from the Department of Education indicated that women are overwhelmingly clustered in low-wage, low-skill fields. For example, they constitute 98 percent of students in the cosmetology industry, 87 percent in the child care industry, and 86 percent in the health aide industry. Men entering these predominately female occupations tend to make more than women in these fields, but considerably less than men in traditional male

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occupations. In high-wage, high-skill fields, women fall well below the 25 percent threshold, a fact which qualifies these fields as “nontraditional.” For example, women account for 10 percent of workers in the construction and repair industry, 9 percent of students in the automotive industry, 6 percent of workers in the electrical industry, and 6 percent of workers in the plumbing industry (National Women’s Law Center, 2005). Women earn less than men in both the most common occupations for women (where 29 percent of all female workers are concentrated) and the highest-paying occupations for women (where under 4 percent of all female workers are concentrated) (Institute for Women’s Policy Research, 2010, pp. 1–3). Education makes a difference in the earning potential for women and men. But, while women with a college education earn considerably more than women without this credential, women continue with the degree continue to earn less than men with similar educational backgrounds (Economic Policy Institute, 2007). Women’s wages are also affected by their roles and responsibilities as mothers. On average, women who work part time, take leaves of absence, or take a break from the work force will have lower wages than will their continuously employed counterparts, further widening the pay gap (AAUW, 2007). The wage gap is also affected by workplace discrimination. AAUW’s 2007 report, Behind the Pay Gap, controlled for factors known to affect earnings such as occupation, industry, education and training, parenthood, and hours worked. The results indicated that college-educated women still earn five percent less than men one year out of college and 12 percent less than men 10 years out of college, after controlling for these other factors. Unexplained difference do not necessarily prove that discrimination is at work, but, still, most economists attribute some portion of the unexplained differences in men’s and women’s earnings to it. (Dey & Hill, 2007, p. 33). Gender discrimination can be conscious or unconscious. Gender bias has been demonstrated to negatively and subtly affect women who pursue careers in traditionally male fields. In in many cases, employers or managers make judgments about employees based on someone’s name, voice, or appearance (AAUW, 2010). A prime example of subtle discrimination against women in the workplace is the existence of the “double-bind” in male-dominated fields. Research by Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs, & Tamkins (2004) demonstrates that people view women in “masculine” fields as either competent or likeable, but not both. But, both competency and likeability matter for advancement. This same research found that a woman was rated as less competent as an identically described man, but equally likeable when success in the “masculine” job was ambiguous. However, when both male and female individuals working in the “masculine” job were clearly successful and competent, women were viewed as pushy and hostile. This “double-bind” was not found to be the case in “female” or “gender-neutral” fields.

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How to Close the Wage Gap Behind the Pay Gap highlights the number of ways in which the wage gap can be closed, e.g., encouraging women to enter the fields of science, technology, math and engineering; supporting mothers in the workforce through quality part-time opportunities; protecting and extending the Family Medical Leave Act; supporting high-quality and affordable child care; and addressing issues of discrimination (AAUW, 2007). There are several action steps that each individual can take to diminish the pay gap for themselves and other women. Negotiation First, you can become your own best advocate by negotiating your own salary and benefits. “Mary Anne” graduated with honors from an Ivy League school and received an excellent job offer from a company where she had interned. When asked about her salary requirements, her response was “Whatever you want to pay me!” Now you may be shrinking in horror at her response, or you may be thinking back to a situation when you said the same thing. You wanted the job, you wanted the employer to like you, and you wanted your family and friends to be proud of you. You were not thinking about the long-term repercussions of accepting a job offer that was not commensurate with your skills, education and experience.

Researchers have found that women have learned limiting behaviors and that they have expectations in place that minimize their pay. Women tend to expect less, view the world as offering fewer opportunities for negotiation, and act for what they care about rather than act for pay (Babcock & Laschever, 2003). Also, the type of scenario that is set up for negotiation can determine the differences of outcomes for men and women. Research found these differences when “(1) the opportunities and limits of the negotiation are unclear and (2) situational cues in these ambiguous situations trigger different behaviors by men and women” (Pradel, Bowles, & McGinn, 2006). Given the societal expectation that men are more successful in competitive environments, competitive negotiations can trigger gender bias. In high-ambiguity industries that have less evident compensations standards (i.e. media, health services, real estate), male MBAs negotiated salaries that were $10,000 higher, on average, than those negotiated by female MBAs (Pradel, Bowles, & McGinn, 2006).

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Negotiating salaries is a challenge for women at all stages of their careers, as they are less likely than men to ask for what they deserve. The keys to salary negotiation are: • Understanding the personal consequences of the gender wage gap throughout one’s lifetime: The knowledge of how the wage gap affects your long-term financial future provides you with the incentive to ask for what you deserve. Understanding how the pay gap contributes to differences in retirement income can help drive home the point that paycheck fairness has lifetime implications. • Establishing a target salary for the specific job through research and benchmarking techniques: By researching the market and the occupation, you can determine the target salary that will be the foundation of your negotiation. • Practicing negotiation tone, tips and tactics, the sequence of salary negotiation through role play exercises: You need to practice negotiation with others in order to gain confidence and skills that lead you to your target salary. • Establishing a bottom-line salary through developing a “bare bones” budget to pay rent, buy groceries, repay student loans, and other basic expenses: In addition to a target salary, a bottom-line salary helps you identify what you need to meet your basic needs. To close the wage gap at your institution, you can also become an advocate for your staff. Research has found that women are better at negotiating for someone else rather than themselves. Women business executives were eager to negotiate when representing another person’s interests because they had a sense of responsibility (Pradel, Bowles, & McGinn, 2006). You can actively help the next generation of female job seekers. Many college women are not aware of the pay gap, how it affects their long-term financial future, and how critical their first job offer is to affecting their finances over the long haul. A key program which addresses this need is $tart $mart Salary Negotiation Workshops. A collaboration of AAUW and The WAGE Project, it provides college women who are approaching the job market with the knowledge and skills to negotiate salaries and benefits so that they receive fair and realistic compensation. WAGE also developed Work $mart for women already in the workforce who are facing discrimination and other job related issues; Return $mart for women who are returning to work after being at home; and Trade $mart for women returning to the workforce to a non-traditional job.

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Promote Awareness and Activism More people must become aware of this and engage in community activism in order to make substantial progress in closing the gap. As an individual you can become more cognizant of your own biases by taking the Implicit Association Test (www.implicit.harvard.edu), designed by social cognition psychologists. It measures implicit beliefs and attitudes that you may be unaware are operating as your interpretive frameworks.  Another way to engage students around the issue of pay equity is to organize an on-campus project to attract the attention of other students/ faculty/staff/administrators. For example, in 2007-08 AAUW’s Campus Action Projects (CAP) granted funds to 10 campuses across the country to implement projects that took AAUW’s Behind the Pay Gap report (2007) recommendations into action on their campuses. These projects were planned and implemented by a team of students with a faculty member and an AAUW member as advisors. For instance, the University of Alaska, Fairbanks held the “Behind the Pay Gap: The Now You Know Campaign”. The project was intended to raise awareness of the gender pay gap. It taught students practical skills in negotiation strategies, and initiated commemoration of Equal Pay Day at the university. One creative element of it was the public service campaign. It featured vignettes developed and performed by the Now You Know Players student performance group and highlighted issues related to the gender pay gap; it also demonstrated how to negotiate for salaries, benefits, and other job conditions. The CAP team developed a salary negotiation brochure which included useful tips for students preparing for job interviews and organized awareness events on Equal Pay Day. In their On Campus with Women online newsletter (http://www.aacu.org/ ocww/volume39_1/director.cfm), The Association of American Colleges and Universities suggested other ideas for active student learning about the pay gap. Advocating with local, state and federal policymakers for stronger legislation and enforcement that supports pay equity will also help diminish the wage gap. A glance at past legislation reveals many disparities still need to be addressed. For example, the Equal Pay Act is limited in scope and fails to cover wage discrimination based on race (although Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act does). It also does not provide equal pay for jobs that are comparable but not identical, excludes part-time or temporary workers, and does not allow groups of workers to file class action suits. Several recent legislative efforts are attempts at expanding the Equal Pay Act. However, in addition to legislative efforts, remedies can come from the executive branch via regulations, and from executive orders, and enforcement efforts. Up-to-date information on legislative actions concerning pay equity and related resources can be found at www.aauw.org/payequity.

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Now, for the first time in our country’s history, women make up nearly half of the workforce. Yet, in spite of this fact, and regardless of their many other achievements over the past 50 years, discrimination is still an obstacle to true equality. But, women can do something immediately to start to close the gender wage gap. They can learn and practice negotiating skills, empower others to negotiate, and also promoting awareness and activism about this issue. Each of these individual actions is a step toward equal pay for equal work. And, this can become a reality for the working women of both today and tomorrow. References AAUW. (2007). Behind the pay gap. Retrieved from http://aauw.org/learn/research/upload/behindPayGap.pdf AAUW. (2010). Why so few? Women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Retrieved from http://www.aauw.org/learn/research/upload/whysofew.pdf American Association of University Professors. (2010). 2009–10 Report on the Economic Status of the Profession. Retrieved from http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/ comm/rep/Z/ecstatreport09-10/ Babcock, L. & Laschever, S. (2003). Women don’t ask: Negotiation and the gender divide. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Boushey, H., Arons, J., & Smith, L. (2010). Families can’t afford the gender wage gap. Center for American Progress. Retrieved from http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/04/equal_pay.html Center for the Advancement of Women. (2003). Progress and Perils: New Agenda for Women. Retrieved from http://www.advancewomen.org/learn/progress_ perils/ Economic Policy Institute. (2007). The state of working America 2008–2009. Retrieved from http://www.stateofworkingamerica.org/index.html Heilman, M. E., Wallen, A. S., Fuchs, D., & Tamkins, M. M. (2004). Penalties for success: Reaction to women who succeed in male gender-typed tasks. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(3), 416–27. Monks, J. W., & McGoldrick, K. (2004, October). Gender earnings differentials among college administrators. Industrial Relations, 43(4), 742–58. National Women’s Law Center. (2005). Tools of the Trade: Using the Law to Address Sex Segregation in High School Career and Technical Education. Retrieved December 11, 2008, from http://www.nwlc.org/pdf/NWLCToolsoftheTrade05.pdf. Pradel, D. W., Bowles, H. R., & McGinn, K. L. (2006, February 13). When gender changes the negotiation. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge. Retrieved from http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/5207.html U.S. Census Bureau. (2009). Income, poverty, and health insurance coverage in the United States. (U.S. Census Bureau Publication No. P60-236). Retrieved from www. census.gov/prod/2009pubs/p60-236.pdf

210    K. C. FARRAR and A. S. HOULE U.S. Census Bureau, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2008). Annual demographic survey. Retrieved from http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032008/perinc/new05_000 .htm U.S. Department of Labor, Women’s Bureau. (2007). Employment status of women and men in 2006. Retrieved from http://www.dol.gov/wb/factsheets/Qf-ESWM06.htm U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2010). Women in management: Female managers’ representation, characteristics, and pay. Retrieved from http://www.gao. gov/new.items/d101064t.pdf

About the Editors

Genevieve Brown, Ed.D. Dean College of Education Sam Houston State University Huntsville, Texas. Email: [email protected] Beverly J. Irby, Ed.D. Texas State University System Regents’ Professor and Associate Dean for Graduate Programs College of Education Sam Houston State University Huntsville, Texas. Email: [email protected] Shirley Jackson, Ed.D. Adjunct Curriculum and Instruction Sam Houston State University Huntsville, Texas. Email: [email protected]

Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, page 211 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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About the Contributors

Jackie M. Blount, Ph.D. Associate Dean of Academic Affairs College of Education and Human Ecology at Ohio State University in Columbus. Email: [email protected]; [email protected] Carolyn S. Carr, Ph.D. Department Chair and Doctoral Program Director for Educational Leadership at Lewis and Clark College Portland, Oregon. Email: [email protected] Kate C. Farrar, MPA Director of Leadership Programs AAUW at Washington, D.C. Email: [email protected] Marilyn Grady, Ph.D. Professor Educational Administration University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Email: [email protected] Margaret Grogan, Ph.D. Professor and Dean School of Educational Studies Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, California. Email: Margaret. [email protected] Sandra Lee Gupton, Ph.D. Professor Department of Educational Leadership University of North Florida at Jacksonville. Email: [email protected] Carole Funk Haynie, Ph.D. Professor (retired) Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling Sam Houston State University Huntsville, Texas. Annie S. Houle National Director of Campus and Community Initiatives: The WAGE Project at Portland, Maine. Email [email protected] Women Leaders: Advancing Careers, pages 213–215 Copyright © 2012 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Johnetta Hudson, Ph.D. Associate Professor, College of Education University of North Texas at Denton. Email: [email protected]; [email protected] Beverly E. Jones, MBA, JD, PCC. President, Clearways Consulting, LLC Washington, D.C. and Senior Fellow and Strategic Coach Voinovich School of Leadership and Public Affairs Ohio University at Athens. Email: [email protected] and www.clearwaysconsulting.com Bernita Krumm, Ph.D. Professor Oklahoma State University at Stillwater. Email: [email protected] Ava J. Muñoz, Ed.D. Assistant Professor Educational Leadership and Policy Studies College of Education and Health Professions University of Texas at Arlington. Email: [email protected] Anita M. Pankake, Ed.D. Professor College of Education University of Texas—Pan American at Edinburg, Texas. Email: [email protected]; [email protected] Kaye Peery, Ph.D. Retired Superintendent Miami, New Mexico. Email: [email protected] Aretha B. Pigford, Ph.D. Professor (retired) College of Education University of South Carolina at Columbia. Email: [email protected] Barbara Polnick, Ed.D. Associate Professor Educational Leadership and Counseling Sam Houston State University Huntsville, TX. Email: [email protected] Trudy Salsberry, Ph.D. Professor Department of Educational Leadership Kansas State University at Manhattan. Email: [email protected] Kay Ann Taylor, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Department of Curriculum and Instruction Kansas State University at Manhattan. Email: [email protected] Sandra L. Tonnsen, Ph.D. Department of Educational Leadership and Foundation Western Carolina University at Cullowhee, North Carolina. Email: [email protected] Linda Hampton Wesson, Ph.D. College of Education, Department of Leadership University of Memphis Memphis, Tennessee. Email: lwesson1@ memphis.edu; [email protected]

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Elaine L. Wilmore, Ph.D. Professor, Chair, and Doctoral Director Educational Leadership, Counseling and Foundations The University of Texas of the Permian Basin Odessa, Texas. Email: [email protected] Luana Zellner, Ed.D. Assistant Professor Department of Educational Leadership and Counseling Sam Houston State University Huntsville, Texas. Email: [email protected]