Training in Developing Nations: a Handbook for Expatriates : A Handbook for Expatriates 9781315698625, 9780765614926

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TRAINING IN DEVELOPING NATIONS

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TRAINING IN DEVELOPING NATIONS

A

HANDBOOK FOR EXPATRIATES

JOHN

l.

DALY,

ROUTLEDGE

Routledge Taylor & Francis Group

LONDON AND NEW YORK

EDITOR

First published2005 by M.E. Sharpe Published2015 by Routledge 2 Park Square,Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017,USA

Routledgeis an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Copyright © 2005 Taylor & Francis.All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprintedor reproducedor utilised in any form or by any electronic,mechanical,or other means, now known or hereafterinvented,including photocopying and recording, or in any information storageor retrieval system, without permissionin writing from the publishers. Notices No responsibilityis assumedby the publisherfor any injury and/or damageto personsor property as a matter of productsliability, negligenceor otherwise,or from any use of operationof any methods, products,instructionsor ideas containedin the material herein. Practitionersand researchersmust always rely on their own experienceand knowledgein evaluatingand using any information, methods,compounds,or experimentsdescribedherein. In using such information or methodsthey shouldbe mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professionalresponsibility. Productor corporatenamesmay be trademarksor registered trademarks,and are usedonly for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of CongressCataloging-in-Publication Data

Training in developingnations:a handbookfor expatriatesI editedby JohnL. Daly. p.cm. Includesbibliographicalreferencesand index. ISBN 0-7656-1492-8(cloth: alk. paper) ISBN 0-7656-1493-6(pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Training-Developingcountries. 2. Teachers-Trainingof. 3. ExpatriationPsychologicalaspects.4. Cultural awareness.5. Adaptability (Psychology) I. Daly, John L., 1952LB1027.47.T742oo5 658.3'124'091724-dc22

2004023623

ISBN 13: 9780765614933(pbk) ISBN 13: 9780765614926(hbk)

Contents

Prefaceand Acknowledgments Introduction John L. Daly

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xi

Part I. Practical Strategiesfor Training in Developing Settings 1. Issuesof Safety,Security,and PersonalWell-being in DevelopingNations William A. Marjenhojf

2. StrategicSuggestionsfor Survival When Providing Public AdministrationTraining in UnderdevelopedSettings: The Caseof Swaziland John L. Daly

3

23

3. Genderas a Culture Challengefor the AmericanEducator in the DevelopingNations Classroom:Using the "Different Voice" Barbara S. Liggett

34

4. StrategicMarketing of Training Initiatives in Underdeveloped Countries:The Caseof Swaziland John L. Daly

49

Part II. Training in Specific Fields 5. Training for DevelopmentAdministration: Historical Perspectives Ambel.Njoh

63 v

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6. Training in the EconomicDevelopmentSector Willy Holleweg dit Wegman

85

7. Media Trainingin DevelopingNations JoyceE. Barrett

111

8. Mental Health CounselingGroupsin DevelopingCountries: The Preparationof GroupLeadershipTrainers RexStockton,D. Keith Morran, and LeannJ. Terry

129

9. Training Community NongovernmentalOrganizations Willy Hollewegdit Wegman

143

10. InternationalPrograms:Training in DevelopingCountries and Effective Training Strategiesfor Health CareProfessionals Working with HIV / AIDS Cherie Onkstand EknathNaik 160

Part III. Observationsand Conclusions 11. Synopsisof Ideas,FutureTrends,and Challenges JohnL. Daly

189

About the Editor and Contributors Index

199 203

Preface and Acknowledgments

Training in DevelopingNations: A Handbookfor Expatriates(also referred to hereas TlDN) is designedto provide usefulinsightsandhelpful tips for internationaltrainersand technicalconsultants(that is, "expatriate"experts)preparingto conductprofessionaltrainingin developingcountries. As might well be anticipated,training content,facilities, strategies, and outcomesvary substantiallywhen initiatives are offered in developing nations,far away from one'sdevelopednation's"comfort zone." Talk with anyonefrom an industrialized setting (mainly from the United Statesand WesternEurope)abouttraining in developingcountries. Inevitably, they will provide humorousstoriesand other tales of their fIrst-time attemptsat sharing their knowledge.Frequently,fIrsttimers feel energizedby the potential for sharing their knowledgefor the bettermentof otherswho live in lessfortunateconditions.Undeniably, many expatriate-trainingnewcomersarrive homefrom their experiencesquestioningtheir training abilities and effectiveness.No, they arenot ineffectivetrainers.They simply havenot learnedoneof the fIrst rules of training in developingsettings-thatis, training must be tailored to the audience'scultureand to its context,not vice versa.As will be witnessedthroughoutthis book, this takes substantialpreinitiative preparationand"on thejob" learningon the partof the expatriatetrainer. Origins of This Book The conceptfor this book initially formed in April 1998,following my selectionas a Fulbright SeniorScholar.Over a ten-monthperiod beginning in September1998I providedtechnicalassistanceand training for vii

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PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

officials in the Kingdomof Swaziland'sgovernment.Frankly, my preparation for cultural immersion into Swazilandas a technicalconsultant andtrainerwas meager,but it was not dueto a lack of effort on my part. My searchfor relevantpreparatorymaterialswent largely unmet.There wereno works in the field that could be locatedat the time that provided the knowledgeand assistancethat I neededto preparefor this type of experience.It is my belief that TlDN offers future trainerstraveling to parts unknown valuable"pretraining" assistance. During my FulbrightyearI providedtechnicalassistanceto the Swazi governmentthroughtraining initiatives and in-classexperiences.I realized increasingly that "industrialized nation" training methodologies requiredsignificantmodificationand adaptationto the local settingand the needsof local participantsif theseinitiatives hoped to prove successful.Unfortunately,this information dearth,as it relatesto training in developingnations,continuestoday. This effort seeksto resolve,in part, this knowledgegap. In January2000,at the 23rdNationaiConferenceon TeachingPublic Administration, in Ft. Lauderdale,Florida, I conveneda panel entitled "Providing Public AdministrationTraining and TechnicalAssistancein Under DevelopedCountries,"to begin addressingthese issues.I first met someof this book's contributors,who sharetheir knowledgeand expertisein this work, at this conference.At that time I also presented case-studyresearchon the strategicmarketingof training initiatives in developingnations.It appearsas one of the chaptersin this book. BarbaraLiggett, of WesternMichigan University, also presentedinformation on the challengesfor femaletrainersproviding training in developing settings.She kindly acceptedmy offer to contributea chapteron this subjectfor this book. Discussionandfeedbackfrom conferenceparticipants,andfrom subsequentdialoguewith othercolleaguesabout thechallengesof training in developingnations,provedinvaluableto thecontentconceptualization of this book. Upon further self-reflection on the developmentof this work, I cameto the realizationthat otherdisciplinary fields (outsideof my own in public administration)faced similar dilemmaswith expatriate trainerdevelopment.Thus, ratherthan limiting this book to training in the fields of public administrationand public policy, I decided to broadenthe contextand include other disciplinary fields facing similar challenges.Other areasrepresentedin this work includepublic health, mentalhealth/rehabilitativecounseling,journalismand mediarelations,

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ix

developmentadministration,nongovernmentalorganizations,and economic development. In reality, any overseastrainer will benefitfrom readingthis book. It providesa wealth of information about overcomingthe many barriers that the expatriatetrainer faces, at one time or another,in his or her internationaltraining career. Acknowledgments The developmentof an extensivework like this one could not be accomplished without the knowledge and cooperationamong many "voices." I am most appreciativefor the expertisefreely sharedby my colleaguesto produce this book. Readersare encouragedto review their biographicalstatementsat the end of the book. Eachcontributor willingly gaveof his or her timeto shareinsightsand experiences.For this I am most grateful. I also wish to thank and expressmy gratitudeto Mr. Harry Briggs, Ms. ElizabethGranda,and Ms. JenniferMorettini, all of M.E. Sharpe, for the insights, professionaladvice, editing expertise,and assistance providedduring the developmentand publicationof this book. Many othersalsodeservementionfor sharingtheir expertisethat has enrichedmy understandingof public policy and managementtraining in developingsettings.Pastmentorsat IndianaUniversity haveheightenedmy interestin, advancedmy knowledgeof, andsupportedmy travel to developingcountries.Of particularnote deservingmentionare Dean Patrick O'Meara,Dr. EugeneB. McGregor,and DeanCharlesBonser. Both loving family and lifelong friends have sustainedmy personal and professionalgrowth. One'sjourney through life in any field of endeavoris challengedby numerous"bumps" in the road. Clearly, I have been blessedto have friends who have made my travels easier;these friends includethe "three"Mikes-MichaelKuehn,Michael McAninch, and Michael Morone-all of Indianapolis, Indiana. Other friends for whom lowe my gratitudeincludeDr. Hubertand SusanDunsmoreand Drs. Emmettand Bridget Doerr. Families createthe backboneof any society. In my case,I have been blessedimmensely with the strongestof family support. I want to acknowledge my loving thanks to the late Dr. JosephM. Daly, Mary L. Daly, the late Dr. 1. GusLiebenow,and Beverly B. Liebenow.I havebeen eminently blessedto have had both selflessparentsand parents-in-law.

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As a father of two grown children-BeverlyD. Douglas and John L. Daly Jr.-I want to thank you (and your families) for your love and understanding. Finally, I want to expressmy deepestlove and appreciationto my soul mate,DebraL. Daly. For morethanthirty-five yearsshehasshown me the light and truths of life. Of all my accomplishments,nonecompareswith convincing her to be my lifelong partnerand bestfriend.

Introduction

John L. Daly

Training in DevelopingNations has been developed with both the academic and developmenttraining professionalin mind. TIDN will strengthenthe trainer's grasp of both theoreticalconceptsof training and pragmaticutilization of theseconceptsin developingtraining expertise.This work will help improve insights of training in developing settingswhetherone is a novice trainer or seasonedexpert.

Preparationfor UpcomingTraining andTravel Individualswith no pastexperiencein Third World training will find helpful tips on preparingfor both training and travel. The trip overseasdoes not begin and end in sequencewith the training being offered. Rather, from the time one commitsto conductthe training until the momentthe trainer stepsbackonto his nation'ssoil (in my case,the United States)he or sheis involved in training. Issuesof security,travel arrangements, and pretravellearningaboutthe new culturewill be just a few of the myriad of tasksthat onewill confront.Do not feel discouragedabouttheseinconveniences.Instead,feel betterpreparedto meetthe new challenge.

Reevaluationand Reflectionsof PastTraining TIDN is also a good sourcefor evaluatingone's own past training in developingsettingswith training providedby others.The book'scontent xi

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reflects on points of wisdom from a numberof seasonedtrainers.This information will enablethe readerto conducta personalcomparative assessment of pastexperiences.Ultimately, the intendedgoal hereis to provide points for reflection as a meansfor learningnew "skill sets"to employ in future initiatives. Adaptation of Future Training Carryingthis point forward, it hasalwaysbeenmy beliefthateventhings that are donewell can still be donebetter.TIDN, while primarily developed with the neophyteexpatriatetrainer in mind, also servesas a tool for seasonedindividuals preparingfor future training initiatives. Refer to this book wheneverplanning a return trip to a developingcountry. The complexity of internationaltraining is substantial.It is suspected that, even for seasonedtrainers,things will have beenforgotten in betweentraining initiatives. Most trainersdo not havethe luxury of spending their whole professionalcareersproviding training in the field. Many trainersperiodically breakaway from training in their own homeenvironmentto conducttraining in developingsettings.This book will provide assistance by taking the readerbackto theseenvironsprior to travel. It also will jog one'smemoryof the "dos" and "don'ts" of training as a gentle reminder of behaviorsthat will lead to enhancedlearning outcomesfor future targetaudiences. General Framework TIDN offers specific insights about training approachesin a variety of disciplinary fields. The contributors selectedare both academicsand seasonedexpertswith substantialtraining and field experienceand exceptionaleducationalbackgrounds. The book'sframework is divided into threepartsfor easeof reading and will allow individuals with particulardisciplinary field intereststo identify andreview their topic(s) of interest.Having statedthis, it is my belief that a greatdeal of informationand potentialfor cognitivegrowth is offered here.This knowledgeprovidesan exceptionalopportunityto gain enhancedunderstandingof training environmentsuniquelydissimilar (that is, "industrializedtraining") to those to which we are accustomed.A brief descriptionof eachsectionis presentedbelow.

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Part I. Practical Strategiesfor Training in DevelopingSettings The fIrst sectionof TlDN providespractical infonnation about preparing for, andexperiencing,the challengesof training in developingcountries. It consistsof four chapters,which havebeendevelopedto enhance the readers'overall understandingof the challengesthat will be faced when preparingfor and delivering training in developingnations.If the trainerplansto conducttraining in an underdeveloped settingor simply wants a bettergraspof the challengesthat trainersface when conducting training in thesesettings,then Part I will be essentialreading. In this section'sfIrst chapterWilliam Marjenhoff providesa highly useful primer on issuesof safety, security, and well-being that trainers must considerwhen planningfor, and offering, initiatives in developing nations.Evenif the readerneverprovidestraining in suchsettings,he or shewill fInd this infonnationeducationalandbenefIcial.Dr. MaIjenhoff conciselyprovideshelpful tips aboutpretravelrequirementsas well as in-country strategiesto help maintainone'ssafetywhile in that country. His chapteroffers excellentinsightsfor all who consideroverseastraveltrainersand nontrainers,alike. In Chapter2, I offer sevenstrategiesfor improving training effectivenessbasedon my observationswhile providing training and technical assistanceto Swazilandgovernmentofficials in 1998 and 1999. These "survival tips" are designed tohelp expatriatetrainers cope with the challengesandfrustrationsoftenfacedin developingsystems.Evensome of the most basic assumptionsprove to be wrong once in-country. For example,Americantrainersoften take comfort in the fact that their host nation'sofficial languageis English. Only when they arrive do they begin to realize that languagebarriersstill exist as languagecontext and syntaxvary greatlyevenacrossEnglish-speakingcountries.For example, in the caseof African nations, while English may be the official languagespokenin many countries,it is not necessarilythe dominantlanguageutilized there. BarbaraLiggett, in Chapter3, focuseson the challengesof being a female expatriatetrainer in internationalsettings.Dr. Liggett provides insights basedon her extensivebackgroundand describesthe special challengesof being a female trainer and educatorin cultural settings wherewomenoften arenot grantedequalstatusor treatment.Suggestions

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INTRODUCTION

offered in this chapterprovide a useful bridge for gaining commandof the training environment.By doing so, coursecontentcanbe transferred effectively from female teacherto student. Little hasbeenwritten abouteffective marketingstrategiesfor training initiatives in developingnations. Oftenexpatriatetrainersleavethe detailsof "getting the word out" to hostnation sponsors.In Chapter4, I offer eightcommonsense strategicrecommendations for enhancingtraining participationand for improving attendanceby host participantsat thesetraining initiatives. Simply put, the trainerseekingmaximumsuccessof a training initiative will leavenothing to chance,including considerationsabouthow to marketbest awarenessof and participationin the initiative. This chapterprovides useful ideas for achieving maximum exposurefor in-country training.

Part II. Training in SpecificFields The secondsectionof TIDN emphasizestraining in specific fields of interest.Chaptersin this sectionwill appeal,for varying reasons, tostudents,practitioners,andscholarsacrossa multitudeof disciplinaryfields, including public administration,political science,public policy, health sciences,mental health/rehabilitation,media/journalism,nonprofit service administration,and internationaldevelopment. In Chapter5, Ambe Njoh drawsattentionto historicaltrendsandprevious efforts by scholarsand developmenttrainersto improve administrative effectivenessin developingnations. His work places special emphasison administrativedevelopmentinitiatives offered in Africa following its postcolonial(1960 to present)period. Respectfully,Dr. Njoh suggeststhat administrativesystemsin manyAfrican governments have been (and still are) incapableof dealing with the range, variety, and complexity of administrativeproblemspresentedby development planning. His chapterdelineatespast and presentinstitutional models andthe strengthsand weaknesses that they exhibit in advancingadministrative systemsin thesenations. Next, in Chapter6, Willy Holleweg dit Wegmanfocuseson training methodsand structuraladjustmentpracticesthat he hasemployedover the past quarter of a century to create economicgrowth and job enhancementin developingnations.Dr. Holleweg dit Wegman'sinsights will broadenthe reader'sknowledgeas his writings reflect much of the thinking abouteconomicdevelopmentfrom a Europeanperspective.To

INTRODUCTION

xv

reinforce his conceptsabout economicdevelopmenttraining in developing systemsDr. Holleweg dit Wegmanoffers a numberof casestudies demonstratingsuccessandfailure of job creation,primarily through the utilization of small and mediumenterprisesand microenterprises. JoyceBarrett, in Chapter7, presentsa humorous,yet powerful, understandingof the training processesneededfor training mediaspecialists in Third World settings. Her extensiveexperiencein numerous developingnations reflects many practitioners'insights about what to anticipateas a journalist providing training assistanceto foreign developing nations'journalists.Ms. Barrett placessignificant emphasis,for example,on the issueof ethicalreportingof eventsin thesesettings.Her chapteris must readingfor anyoneconsideringtraining of media personneloverseas.It alsoshouldbe requiredreadingfor studentsof media andjournalismstudieshere in Americanuniversities. In Chapter8, Rex Stockton,Keith Morran, and LeannTerry address the challengesof preparingexpatriatetrainers who will, in turn, be responsiblefor teachinggroup counselingskills and knowledgeto mental healthcounselorsworking in developingnations.Dr. Stocktonet al. emphasizethe significanceof pretrainingexpatriatetrainersprior to placing themin overseastraining situations.They alsoemphasizethe importance of host country and local communitycommitmentto suchtraining prior to its offering. Providing sufficient institutional supportto the expatriate trainersis paramountprior to one'sdepartureandduring the implementation of training in-country. This includes assistingexpatriatetrainers to gain the neededknowledgeof local traditions, customs,and realities of the culture(s)necessaryto gain trust and credibility amongthe trainees. In Chapter9, Willy Holleweg dit Wegmanprovidesa detailedmodel demonstratingthe processesused for nongovernmentalorganization (NGO) developmentand training. He indicatesthat NGOs often serve as alternativesourcesto governmentin the provisionsof social service intervention for developingnations' citizens.This is particularly true when the intervention of governmentproves politically unwise. Dr. Holleweg dit Wegmanstressesthe significanceof training needsassessment as a fundamental process in any training developmentinitiative. He alsousesan exampleof a fictitious developingnationto demonstrate NGO developmentand training as well as to delineatehis model established in the chapter. Part II concludeswith the researchon training health care professionals of Cherie Onkst and Eknath Naik. Chapter 10 focuseson the

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specialtraining skills requiredto train healthcareworkersoffering health assistanceto individuals coping with HN/AIDS in developingnations. Drs. Onkst and Naik suggestthat appropriatetraining methodologies dependon the audiencebeing trained. Thus, the training strategyutilized will changeas the target audiencechanges;for example,training approacheswill vary acrossphysicians,other health care specialists, and health care workers. They also discussdistinctions betweenoneway and two-way communicationstyles and advisethe circumstances underwhich eachstyle shouldbe used. Part III. Observationsand Conclusions

In Chapter 11, I offer generalobservationsbasedon the information reportedin PartsI and II. Four critical factors are identified as influencesfor achievingdesiredprogramoutcomesand enhancedtraining initiatives. In addition,I offer a brief review of the challengesthat future expatriatetrainers will face in the coming years, as we move toward increasedglobalizationin the world community.

Part I Practical Strategies for Training in Developing Settings

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1 Issues of Safety, Security, and Personal Well-being in Developing Nations William A. Marjenhoff

Maintaining your personalsafety, security,and well-being, whetherat home or abroad,is largely a matterof commonsense.Commonsense andcautionare alwaysthe mostreliable measuresfor crime prevention. Follow your instincts.Your gut feelings abouta sketchyenvironmentor situationare usually right. That said, there is a greatdeal more you can do to help ensurethat your training experienceabroadwill end happily. A happyendingstarts with a smartbeginning,long beforeyou step aboardthat planeto your overseasdestination. BeforeYou Go Learn all you can about the countriesyou plan to visit and your host institution. Thorough library and Internet researchis essential.Bookstores,travel magazines,travel sectionsof major newspapers,travel agents,and foreign tourist bureausare good sourcesof information on everythingfrom discountairfaresto internationalhealthinsurance.

VlSasandWork Permits Most governmentsrequireforeignersto havean appropriatevisa to visit or reside in their country. This endorsementor stamp placed in your passportby a foreign governmentpermitsyou to enterthat countryfor a specified purpose.If you are planning to reside in a country for an 3

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indefinite period of time, most countrieswill require you to seekresidentstatus.In mostinstances,you mustobtainthe necessaryvisa before you leavethe United States.Apply for your visa directly from the embassyor nearestconsulateof the country you plan to visit. Your employer or host institution shouldprovide you with a letter or document that will help you obtain a visa. A work permit is usually requiredas a separatedocumentfrom your visa or residencypermit. It is necessaryif you plan to work in a foreign country. It may be obtainedeitherbeforeyou leavethe United Statesor after you arrive in the foreign country, dependingon the laws of the particularcountry. The Departmentof Statecannothelp you obtain visasor work permits.Rely on assistanceprovidedby your employerand! or host institution. Be particularly attentiveto visa requirementsfor countriesthat you may transit en route to your country of destination.

ConsularInformation Sheets The best sourcesof up-to-datetravel information about the countries you plan to visit are Departmentof Stateconsularinformation sheets.1 They can be accessedon the World Wide Web at http://travel.state.gov. They cover health conditions,unusualcurrencyand entry regulations, crime and securityconditions,drug penalties,and areasof instability. Much of the advice in consularinformation sheetsis generic.Here are somerandomexcerpts.Justfill in the nameof the developingcountry you are visiting: • As a visitor to , be alert to your surroundings.In large cities, take the sameprecautionsagainstassault,robbery, or pickpocketsthat you would take in any large U.S. city. Be awarethat womenand small children, as well as men, can be pickpocketsor purse-snatchers. Personscarrying valuablesin backpacks,in back pocketsof pants,and in coat pocketsare especiallyvulnerableto pickpockets.Keep your billfold in an inner front pocket,and wear the shoulderstrapof your purse,camera,or bag acrossyour chest. Walk awayfrom the curb andcarry your purseaway from the street. You aremostvulnerablein undergroundwalkways,subways,trams, overnighttrains,train stations,airports,markets,tourist attractions, restaurants,Internetcafes,hotel rooms,andresidences--even when locked or occupied.

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• Armedcarjackingshaveoccasionallyoccurredin . Travelers are urged not to try to resist or fight off robbers.Many are armed or have an accomplice.Automobile doors should remain locked at all times, windows should be rolled up, and valuables shouldbe placedin the trunk or underseatsand out of view. If you are driving, leave adequatemaneuverroom betweenyour vehicle andthe onein front of you at stop signs,red lights, androadblocks. • The useof public minibusesin is discouraged,due to widespreadunsafedriving and poor maintenance. • In , hotel breakfastrooms and lobbies attractprofessional, well-dressedthieves who blend in with guestsand target purses,briefcases,andcomputerbagsleft unguardedby unsuspecting tourists and businesstravelers. • The U.S. embassyin warns travelersto avoid travel after dark, and to avoid travel outsideof major metropolitan areas on unpavedroads at all times becauseof random banditry, carjackings,kidnappings,criminal assaults,and lack of police and road-servicefacilities. Most fatal traffic accidentsor robberiesand assaultsoccurduring the eveningor early morninghours.Travelers with conspicuousamountsof luggage,late-modelcars, or foreign licenseplatesare particularly vulnerable,evenin the capital. . It is safer to use • Do not hail taxis on the street in telephone-dispatched radio taxis or car servicesassociatedwith major hotels. • Despite efforts to increasepolice presencein areasfrequentedby foreigners,thepolice in arepoorly paid,poorly equipped, and lack the professionalismthat Americansare accustomedto in the United States.Also, it is not uncommonfor Americansto becomevictims of harassment, mistreatment, and extortionby law enforcementandotherofficials in . Try to obtaintheofficer's name,badgenumber,and patrol car number,and note wherethe incident happened,as this information assistslocal officials in identifying the perpetrators.Report crimes committed againstyou by personspresentingthemselvesas police or other governmentalauthorities to the U.S. embassyor the nearestU.S. consulate. • Travelersshouldbe awarethat certainactivities that would be normal businessactivities in the United Statesand othercountriesare or are considered eitherillegal underthe legal codeof suspectby the police or military authorities.

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• Themailsystemin canbe unreliableandmailedmonetary instruments(credit cards,checks,etc.) are frequently stolen. Internationalcouriersprovide the safestmeansof shipping envelopesand packages,and anythingof value shouldbe insured. Forewarnedis forearmed.Read the consularinformation sheetson the countriesyou plan to visit and heedtheir advice.The consularofficers who write and revisethesesheetsknow what they are talkingabout.

EmergencyDocumentKit Thievesarenot usually after your passport.They areaftercash,jewelry, and credit cards,but passportsare very often carried in the bags and pursesthat thieves snatch.Without proper identification and proof of U.S. citizenship,getting a replacementfor a lost or stolenpassportcanbe a real hassle.Beforeyou leavehome,makea documentkit thatcontainsa photocopyof the biographicalpageat the front of your passportand two recentpassport-sizephotos.Jot down the addressesand telephonenumbers of the U.S. embassiesand consulatesin the countriesyou plan to visit. It is also a good idea to write down your credit card numbersand contactinformation for reporting lost or stolen cards.Also, write down the numbersof your travelers'checksand airline tickets. Keep the document kit in a placeseparatefrom your passport,purse,or wallet. It is a goodideato leavea copy of the emergencykit documentswith a friend or relativeat home,as well, alongwith your travel scheduleand the names,addresses, andtelephonenumbersof the personsandinstitutions you plan to visit.

What Not to Pack Do not packanythingthat you would hateto lose, suchas valuablejewelry, family photos,or objectsof sentimentalvalue. Leaveclothesthat are flashy or too casual(halter-topscome to mind) at home. Pack to dressconservatively.Your Hawaiian shirts, Armani suits, short-shorts, and sequinedgownswill only attractthe attentionof thievesor con artists. Remember,thereare clothing shopswhereyou are going, and you can buy replacementsfor what you did not pack, if needbe. Do not take a lot of cash. Bring most of your money in travelers' checks.Convertyour travelers'checksto local currencyas you needit,

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7

not all at once.Most internationalairportshavemoneyexchangefacilities, and local banks generally give more favorable rates of exchange thanhotels,restaurants,or storeswhen you convertU.S. dollars or travelers' checksinto local currency.AutomatedTeller Machines(ATMs) areincreasinglyavailableoverseas,andgenerallyprovidegoodexchange rates.ATM availability is not universal,however,andATMs shouldbe used only as a backupmethod for your financial transactionsabroad. RememberthatATM machinesareprime locationsfor the operationsof thievesand con artists.

Health Insurance Beforeyou travel abroad,you shouldreview your healthinsurancepolicy. If your policy doesnot cover you abroad,purchasea short-termhealth insurancepolicy that is designedspecifically to covertravel. The U.S. governmentcannotpay tohaveyou medically evacuatedhome,and escortedmedicalevacuationcancostthousandsof dollars. Medical assistanceprograms, withor without healthinsurancecoverage,arewell worth consideration.They offer consultative andevacuationservices.Also, somecredit card and travelers'checkcompaniesoffer travel protection packagesthat provide benefitsfor accidentand illness while traveling. Be sure you have adequatecoverage,and be sure to carry your insurancepolicy identity cardsand claim forms with you when you travel. Older Americanstake note: The Social Security Medicareprogram doesnot provide for paymentof hospital or medical servicesobtained outsidethe United States.SomeMedicaresupplementplans offer foreign medical care coverageat no extra cost for treatmentsconsidered eligible underMedicare.Theseare reimbursementplans,and you must pay the bills first and obtain receiptsfor submittingthemlater for compensation.Many of theseplans havea dollar ceiling per trip.

Immunizations Information on immunizationsand healthprecautionsfor travelerscan be obtainedfrom the Centersfor DiseaseControl and Prevention'sinternationaltravelershotline, (404) 332-4559,and shouldalso be available from your personalphysician. Immunizationsrecommendedfor travelersto many developingcountriesinclude diphtheria,tetanus,polio, typhoid, and hepatitisA and B.

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Medication If you needmedicines,bring an amplesupply in their original containers. Do not use pill cases.There are strict laws concerningnarcotics throughoutthe world, so takecopiesof your prescriptionswith you and, if possible,carry a letter from your physicianexplainingyour needfor any drugs you are carrying. As an extra precaution,carry the generic namesof your medicationswith you. Pharmaceuticalsoverseasmay usedifferent namesfrom thoseprescribedin the United States. If you wear eyeglasses,take an extra pair in your hand luggage.At the very least,carry your eyeglassprescriptionwith you. If you have allergies or reactionsto certain medications,foods, or insectbites,or haveotherseriousmedicalproblems,considerwearinga "medical alert" bracelet.

Arrival Okay, you haveplannedyour trip well. You haveread up on the culture andcustomsof the country you arevisiting, gottenyour immunizations, madesurethat you haveadequatehealthinsurancecoverageand medications,and you havepackedwisely. You havearrived alive and your planeis taxiing to the terminal.You are excited. Most likely, you are also tired and jet-lagged,so be especially cautious. Perhapsthe mostdangeroustimes for travelersto be targetsof criminal activity are upon arrival at an airport, in transit from airports to hotels, andin transitfrom hotelsto airportsfor departure.Remember:Where therearetouristsandbusinesstravelers,therearethievesandcon artists. Travelersto developingcountriesshouldbe alert to the fact that some airport personnelmay attempt to perpetratea number of scams.In Luanda, Angola, even immigration and customsofficials sometimes detain foreignerswithout cause,demandinggratuitiesbefore allowing themto enterthe country.Airport health officialstherehavesometimes threatenedarriving passengerswith "vaccinations"with nonsterileinstrumentsif gratuitiesarenot paid. In thesesituations,the smarttraveler will askto consultwith airline personnelor demandto be put in contact with Americanconsularofficials. On our first trip to Paris, my wife and I landedat Charlesde Gaulle Airport, and I was trying to figure out how to buy a train ticket from a

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9

machine.A well-dressedyoung man saw my hesitationand confusion andofferedto assistme. He saidthe ticketscost50 francseach.I handed him the money,he slippedsomefrancsinto the machineandgaveus our tickets, happyto havebeenof assistance. Well, of coursehe was happy! The costof the tickets, I laterdiscovered,was 15 francseach,andhe had pocketed70 francs for his trouble. It was a cheaplesson:Do not acceptunsolicitedassistance from anyone. Gangsof thievescommonlyoperateon rail links from airports.They prey on jet-lagged, luggage-burdenedtourists and businesstravelers. Evenexperiencedtravelerscanberobbedwhenthey let their guarddown. On anothervisit to Paris, I found myself momentarily distractedby someonetugging at the cuff of my pantsas I tried to board the Metro from Garedu Nord to downtown. Meanwhile, anotherman was trying to block my entranceto the car. When I realized what was about to happen,I beganyelling at the top of my lungs, holding firmly to my luggageand shovingmy way onto the car. My shoutsdrew the attention of the other passengersand causedthe thieves to give up on me as a target. As the car door was closing, the thief who tried to block my entranceslippedout. The manwho hadbeentuggingat my cuff gaveme a sheepishgrin from the platform as the train pulled out. Later on that sametrip, I watchedin fascinatedhorror aspickpockets worked the turnstilesat crowdedMetro stations.Just as someonewas walking through a turnstile, the thief would boldly stick his hand into the victim's pocket or purse.Once the victim was on the other side of the turnstile, there was no easyreturn to the other side. The thief could leisurely nod and smile at his victim and nonchalantlywalk away. Pickpockets,luggagethieves,and purse-snatchers are active in most major cities and tourist sitesaroundthe world, especiallyin and around airportsand train stations. The usual scenariois for a thief to distract a tourist with a question about directions while an accomplicestealsthe tourist's momentarily unguardedbackpack,briefcase,or purse.Thieves on trains and trams time their thefts to coincide with stopsso they can quicklyexit the car. In a common scenario,a thief spills sodaor daubsmustardor other condimentson a victim's clothes; asecondthief assiststhe victim in cleaning up the mess;anda third discreetlytakesthe victim's belongings.Other forms of distractioninclude droppinga purseor a handful of coins, or an accompliceappearingto faint. As a good, but naIve Samaritanstoopsto help, his or her temporarilyunguardedpurse,luggage,or laptop is stolen.

10 PRAcnCAL STRATEGIES FOR TRAINING

It is amazingto seehow many peopleat train stationsand tram stops put their bagsdown while they turn to chatwith a friend, or reada magazine. In the internationalticketing lobby at Amsterdam'sCentral Station, thereare frequentpublic addresssystemannouncements warning aboutluggagethieves.Despitethe warnings,I have seenpeopleleave their luggageon a chair when their numberis called for serviceat a ticket window. It is surprisingthatevenmoreluggageis not stolenthere. Travelersalso make a mistakewhen they put their bagsin luggage racks at the endsof train cars, which are convenientlylocatednearthe exits for waiting thieves, or they put their luggageon the rack above their trainseat,thinking that its proximity meansthat it is secure.Some weary travelers will then evenproceedto take a nap. Hang onto your luggage,your purse,and your laptop bag! Loop the strap around your arm. At least keep a hand on your bag or purse in public places.And while I am on the subject,do not put your purse, briefcase,or computerbagunderthe tableandunattendedwhenyou are eatingin restaurants,train stations,and otherpublic places. Keep in touch with your possessions-literally. At Almaty InternationalAirport in Kazakhstan,menposingas"meet and greet" airport facilitators havebeenreportedto lure foreignersinto cars,purportedlyto takethemto their hotels.The driver, however,takes the passengers to a secludeddestinationandthen demands$100for gas to take the foreignerback to the city. In Venezuela,therehavebeennumerousincidentsof unlicensedtaxi piratas overcharging,robbing, and injuring passengers. Travelersarriving late at night at internationalairportsthere(andelsewhere)shouldbe awarethat piratas are known to prey on tourists arriving on late flights after licensedcabshaveleft for the evening. Your bestcourseof action, whateveryour destination,is to ask your hostinstitution to senda driver with specifiedidentificationto meetyou at the airport uponarrival. If that is not possible,askan airline representative to direct you to a licensedtaxi stand,or call a twenty-four-hour radio-dispatchedtaxi servicefrom a public phonein the airport terminal. A cabride downtownmay seemexpensive,but it may saveyou a lot more than you spend.

Rentinga Car Rentinga car via the Internetis often lessexpensivethan waiting to rent it upon arrival at your destination.

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Many countriesdo not recognizea U.S. driver's license.Some,however, will acceptan internationaldriver's permit (available from the AmericanAutomobileAssociation).If you plan to be in a foreign country for an appreciablelength of time, you may wish to apply for an incountrydriver's licenseassoonaspossible.Internationaldriver'spermits are not always valid in every country for the length of your stay. It is usually only a matter of courtesythat the holder of a U.S. driver's licenseor an internationaldriver's permit is allowed to drive with it for any length of time. Internationaldriver's permitsare usually valid only if presentedin conjunctionwith a valid U.S. or local license.

AutomobileInsurance U.S. auto insuranceis usually not valid outsideofthe United Statesand Canada.When youdrive in any othercountry, be sureto buy adequate auto insurancein that country.Whenrenting a car abroad,makecertain that adequateinsuranceis part of your contract.If necessary,purchase additionalinsurancecoveragein anamountsimilarto thatwhich you carry at home. Also, before driving in a foreign country, familiarize yourself with the metric system,sincemany countriesdisplay speedlimits in kilometersper hour. Do not forget which sideof the road to drive on! Unlike the United States,many countriesdrive on the left side of the road. A specialword of cautionaboutdriving in developingcountries:Be preparedfor the unexpected.Drive defensively.Drive defensively.Drive defensively. All of the following are commonin developingcountries: • • • • • • • •

unexpectedstopsor turns without signaling,for no apparentreason pedestriansseeminglycompletelyoblivious to oncomingtraffic completelyinattentivedrivers unskilled drivers horse-carts,donkey-carts,ox-carts,andfarm vehiclesat slow speeds animalson highways,including cows, goats,sheep,and wildlife at night, cars without lights-headlightsor taillights oncomingdrivers who play inscrutablelight games,flashing their headlightswhetheryou haveyour "brights" on or not

Be awarethat there are scamartists who targetdrivers. An increasingly commonscaminvolves travelersrenting carsat airportsand leaving, only to fmd that atire is leakingandgoingflat. Individuals,seemingly

12 PRAcnCAL STRATEGIES FOR TRAINING

stoppingto help, havethen robbedthem. If you experiencetire or mechanical problemswith your rental car, pull into a service station or other well-lit public placebeforeattemptingrepairs. Another common scam perpetratedon unwitting victims involves someonewho attractsyour attentionby motioning or sayingthat there is somethingwrong with your car. They encourageyou to pull over to the side of the road and then offer to help investigatethe "problem." Meanwhile, an accompliceremovesyour purseor luggagefrom your car. Worse,they stealthe car. Again: The smarttravelerdoesnot acceptunsolicitedassistancefrom anyone.Turn off the ignition, put the keys in your pocket,and lock the doors when you stepout to surveyauto damageor changea tire. Settling In

Now you have safely negotiatedthe airport and have arrived at your hotel. What is next? Do not keepvaluablesin your hotel room. Do not trust in-room safes. Most of them are not even firmly secured tothe floor, wall, or closet shelf. How hard would it be for a thief to walk away with the entire, locked room safe?It happens!If you must travel with valuables,keep them inthe hotel safebehindthe receptionarea. While many hotels have safety latchesthat allow gueststo secure their rooms from inside, this feature is not as universal as it is in the United States.If no chain or latch is present,a chair placedagainstthe dooris usuallyaneffectiveobstacleto surreptitiousentry during thenight. Sometimes,thievesbreakinto hotel roomson lower floors throughopen windows while the occupantsare sleeping.To guard againstthis, hotel room windows shouldbe kept locked at all times.

Registerat the NearestU.S. Consulate At your earliest opportunity, register with the nearestU.S. consulate. This is especiallyimportant if you are in an area where there is civil unrest.Until the StateDepartmentinstitutesthe on-line registrationsystem, expectedto be in placeworldwide by 2005, you shouldcomplete a registration form at the consulate.Alternatively, the staff of the consulate'sAmerican Citizen Services(ACS) unit may be willing to fax the form to your hotel or hostinstitution. If the consulatewill accept

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a faxed registration,you cansimply fill it out andfax it backwith a copy of the biographicalpageof your passport. Registrationis important in casesomeoneis trying to reachyou to confirm your safetyand welfare,or is trying to contactyou on an urgent matterthroughthe embassyor consulate.Also, you will wantto give the consulatecontactinformation in casethe ACS unit sendsout travelers' warnings,worldwide cautions,or other messagesof importanceduring your stay. Sinceyour passportinformation is recordedwhen you register, it will be easierfor you to apply for a replacementshouldyour passport be lost or stolen. If your passportis lost or stolen and has been returnedto the consulateby some kind soul, registrationwill make it easierfor the ACS unit to return it to you. It is alwaysa good idea to makea contactin the ACS unit. Embassy or consulatestaff can help find appropriatemedicalcare,contactfamily membersor friends, and explain how funds can be wired to you. The loss or theft abroadof a U.S. passportshouldbe reportedimmediately to the local police and the nearestU.S. embassyor consulate. Not only can consularofficers assistyou if you encounterserious legal, medical, or financial difficulties abroad,they can also provide nonemergencyservicessuchas providing information on absenteevoting and notarizingdocuments.

SeriousInjuries or Illnesses If you are injured or becomeseriouslyill abroad,a U.S. consularofficer canassistyou in finding a physicianor othermedicalservicesand, with your permission,will inform your family membersor friends of your condition.If needed,consularofficers canassistyour family in transferring money to pay for your treatment. Every year,aboutsix thousandAmericansdie abroad.Most areAmericanswho live abroad,but abouttwo thousandper yeardie while visiting abroad.Consularofficers will contactthe next of kin in the United States andwill explainthe local requirementsfor the dispositionof remains.The U.S. governmentcannotpay for shipmentof remainsto the United States.

In-Country So you have arrived alive and have settledin for your training assignment. Now all you needto do is keep safe,and stay secureand healthy for the durationof your stay.

14 PRAcnCAL STRATEGIES FOR TRAINING

Arrest When abroad,you are subjectto local laws. If you get in trouble with the local authorities,rememberthat American officials are limited by foreign laws, U.S. regulations,and geographyas to what they can and cannotdo to assistyou. The US. governmentcannot,for example,pay your legal fees or otherrelatedexpenses. If you find yourselfin a disputethat may lead to police or legal action, consultthe nearestUS. consularofficer. Although consularofficerscannot getyou out of jail, serveasyour attorneys,or give legal advice, they can provide lists of local attorneysand help you find legal representation.If you are arrested,immediatelyask to speakto the consular officer at the nearestUS. embassyor consulate.Under international agreementsand practice,you have a right to get in touch with the US. consul. If you are turneddown, keepasking-politely,but persistently. Consularofficers will do whateverthey canto protectyour legitimate interestsand ensurethat you are not discriminatedagainstunderlocal law. Upon learningof your arrest,a consularofficer will visit you, provide a list of local attorneysand,if requested,contactfamily andfriends. Consulscan help transfermoney,food, and clothing from your family and friends to you. They can also try to get relief if you are held under inhumaneor unhealthyconditionsor aretreatedlessequitablythanothers in the samesituation. Despiterepeatedwarnings,drug arrestsandconvictionsof American citizens remain a: major problem. If you are caught with any type of narcoticsoverseas,you aresubjectto local, not US., laws. Penaltiesfor possessionor trafficking are often the same.Few developingcountries provide a jury trial, and most countriesdo not acceptbail. Pretrial detention, often in solitary confinement,may last many months.Prisons may lack evenminimal comforts,and diets are often inadequate.Officials may not speakEnglish. Physical abuse,confiscationof personal property,degradingor inhumanetreatment,and extortion are possible. If you are convicted,you may face two to ten years'imprisonmentin many developingcountries. Learn what the local laws are and obey them!

Official Harassment Hopefully, you did not encounterany official harassmentat the airport upon arrival. But as you settlein, it is a good idea to be alert to the fact

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that official harassmentis not unheardof in the developingworld. Be preparedto respondwisely if it shouldhappento you. Be aware that in some developingcountries,certain activities that would be normalbusinessactivities in the United Statesandothercountries are eitherillegal underthe legal codeor are consideredsuspectby the police or military authorities. In Gabon,taking photographsof military or governmentbuildings is strictly forbidden. Taking photographsof U.S. embassiesand consulatesanywherein the world can get you in trouble with the local guards,Marines, and diplomatic security officers assignedto protect thosebuildings. In Guinea,not only criminals, but thieves,prostitutes,and beggars perceiveU.S. and other foreign visitors as lucrative targets.The U.S. embassythere warns travelersthat somecorruptmilitary and police officials also targetvisitors as easymarksfor "fines" and gratuities. In Belarusand someotherauthoritariancountries,securitypersonnel may, at times, place foreign visitors under surveillance.Hotel rooms, telephones,and fax machinesmay be monitored,and personalpossessionsin hotel roomsmay be searched.Taking photographsof anything that could be perceivedas being of military or security interest may result in problemswith authorities. Such sites are not always clearly marked,and the applicationof restrictionsis subjectto interpretation. Another instanceof Americancitizensbeing harassedby personsin official capacitiesalso involves Belarus, specifically, although similar circumstancescould presentthemselveselsewherein the developing world. Therehavebeennumerouscasesof Americanstravelingthrough Belarusby train in which they wererequiredto disembarkwhile in transit. In someinstances,local borderand train authoritieshavethreatened passengers with jail or extorted"fines" whenit waslearnedthat they did not possessa valid transit visa. In somecasesAmerican citizens have beensubjectedto rude and threateningtreatment,including body and baggagesearches.The U.S. embassyin BelarusadvisesAmericancitizensnot to pay any borderor train officials for transit visas.Theseofficials are not authorizedto issuesuchvisas. Nor shouldAmericanspay "transit visa fines." Americansfinding themselvesin situationsinvolving harassmentby borderor train personnel,governmentofficials, or personsclaiming to be governmentofficials, shoulddemandto be put in contactwith consular officials at the U.S. embassy.

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PRACTICAL STRATEGIES FOR TRAINING

In Bunna, U.S. citizens have beendetained,arrested,tried, and deportedfor, amongotheractivities,distributing prodemocracyliterature, photographingsitesand activities,andvisiting the homesand offices of Burmeseprodemocracyleaders.BurmeseauthoritieshavewarnedU.S. embassyofficials that future offendersof thesevague restrictionswill be jailed ratherthan deported. In Jordan,whereIslam is the statereligion, the governmentdoesnot interfere with public worship by the country'sChristian minority. Althoughthe majority of Christiansare allowed to practicetheir religion freely, someactivities, suchas proselytizingor encouragingconversion to the Christian faith-both consideredlegally incompatiblewith Islam-areprohibited.It is illegal for a Muslim to convertto Christianity. In the past, American citizens have beendetainedor arrestedfor discussingor trying to engageJordaniansin debateaboutChristianity. From Mexico to Kazakhstan,U.S. embassieswarn travelersto be wary of personsrepresentingthemselvesas police or other local officials. It is not uncommonfor Americansto becomevictims of harassment and extortion by law enforcementand other officials. A genuine police official shouldalwayspresentcredentialswhenapproachingsomeone on the street. If the officer cannot produceidentification, he is most likely not a real police officer. Never voluntarily handover your wallet to a police officer. Tell the officer that you will report his behavior to the U.S. embassyand his supervisors.Try to obtain the officer's name,badgenumber,andlicenseplatenumber,andnotewhere the incident happenedbecausethis information assistslocal officials in identifying the perpetrators. In the Kyrgyz Republic,personsin plainclothesclaiming to be police officers have stoppedvehiclesand robbedthe occupantsunderthe pretenseof a searchfor contraband. In Turkmenistan,the U.S. embassyhasreceivedreportsof police asking to view passports,andrefusingto returnthe passportsuntil the owner haspaid a "fine." In Bolivia, thievessometimesposeaspolicemen,andrequestthe person to accompanythem to the police station, using a nearby taxi. The responseof the visitor shouldbe to indicatea desireto contactthe U.S. embassyand not enterthe taxi. In Indonesia,the U.S. embassyreportsthat therehavebeena number of racially motivatedincidentsof harassmentand physical abuseover the last severalyears. Personsof African descent,including American

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citizens,havebeensubjectedto arbitrary stopsand questioningby privateandpublic securityofficials. Theembassyrecommendsthatto minimize the risk of an incident with local law enforcementauthorities, Americansshould carry photocopiesof their passportsat all times. If stoppedanddetained,you shouldcomply with all instructionsfrom law enforcementofficers, but also make it clear that you are an American citizen and that you wish to contactthe U.S. embassyor consulate. In Nairobi, Kenya, many scamsare perpetratedagainstunsuspecting tourists and foreign-looking residentsby personsimpersonating police officers and using fake police ID badgesand other credentials. A relatively new scaminvolvestouristsbeing approachedby someone who appearsto be a beggartelling a "sob story." The tourist may give the persona few coins, and is then approachedby "police officers" who tell him that he was seentalking to a drug dealeror counterfeit suspect.The "police" then demandmoney from the visitor to avoid arrestor further action. In Maputo, Mozambique,I once madea U-turn on a streetlate at night outsidemy hotel. I was motionedto pull over to the curb by two policemenon foot (or at least men dressedin police uniforms). Althoughthey spokelittle English,andI spokeno Portuguese,they made it clear that they wantedme to pay a sizablefine on the spot. When I refused,they tried to get me to drive them to the police station where my traffic violation could be sortedout. Keeping my car door locked and windows rolled up, I showedthem my diplomatic passport,and saidI wantedto contactthe U.S. embassy.We musthavediscussedthe situationthroughmy locked door and closedwindow for fifteen minutes.They continuedto insist that I pay a fine to themor drive themto the police station.I continuedto refuseand said that I wantedto contact the U.S. embassy.At one point, I said that I was willing to compromiseby meetingthemat my hotel registrationdesk,wherewe could seekresolution of the situation. Fortunately,they never pulled their gunsor becameaggressiveto the point of instilling real fear in me that the situation was getting out of hand.They finally gaveup and let me drive away with a verbal warning not to makeU-turns on the streetsof their fair city again. If you are harassedby law enforcementofficers, governmentofficials, or personswho claim to be governmentofficials-in fact, if you are the victim of any crime while overseas-report it to the local police and contactthe nearestU.S. embassyor consulatefor assistance.

18 PRACTICAL STRATEGIES FOR TRAINING

Crime Crime is a worldwide problem, particularly in urban populatedareas, but also in rural and borderareasof many countries. In 2003thirty-two Europeansweretakenhostagein the Saharadesert areasof southeastern Algeria. Fourteenof the hostageswere taken by the terroristsinto northernMali. One of the hostagesdied in captivity. In Guatemalaand Belize, armedrobberieshavebeenreported.In particular, criminals havetargetedpopulararcheologicalsitesin that region. One recentexampleoccurredin March 2004, when a group of eighteen U.S. touristswasattackedandrobbedby unknownassailantsas they preparedto visit the Tikal archeologicalsite in northernGuatemala. In 2002 a Europeancouple was attackedby a local mob in southern Bolivia. Therehad beenrumorsthat Europeanswere seekingbabiesfor their body parts. Onepersonwas killed, and the other severelyinjured. While this did not involve Americancitizens,it doeshighlight the risks inherentin travel in isolatedareas. Since 1998 at least eight U.S. citizens have been kidnappednear Ecuador'sborderwith Colombia.An American was murderedthere in 2001 by kidnappersholding him for ransom.Armed robberyof intercity busesis on the increasein Latin America. Passengerbusescarrying American citizens havebeenrobbedat gunpoint along the PanAmerican Highway. Four Americanswere kidnappedin separateincidentsin Nuevo Laredo,Mexico, in 2002. The U.S. embassyin Guatemalawarns visitors to avoid close contact with children, including taking their photographs,in rural areas with predominantlyindigenous populations. Such contact can be viewed with deepalarmand may provokepanic and violence.Rumors of foreigners stealingchildren to sell resurfaceperiodically and can provokea violent responsetowardstrangers.Foreigntouristshavebeen attackedand killed by mobs, including a Japanesetourist in the village of Todos Santosin 2000. In 2001 an American citizen was assaultedand murderedwhile driving alone in an isolated area in the Mexican stateof Michoacan. In the CentralAfrican Republic, armedhighway robbery in rural areasis common.To makemattersworse,the victim generallyhasto pay to senda vehicle to pick up police officers due to the shortageof police vehiclesin that country. If you must travel to rural areas,do not travel alone. Use toll roads

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and major highways, which are in general more securethan lesstraveledroads. If you must take public transportation,take a taxi. Do not hail taxis on the street,however,and do not entera taxi if it hasalreadyaccepted anotherpassenger.Robberyand assaultson passengers in taxis are frequent and violent in many developingcountries,with passengerssubject to beatings,shootings,and sexualassault.Radio-dispatchedtaxis summonedby telephoneare your best bet. Make a mental note of the licensetag number,just in casethereis a problem.Ask the driver if he will use a meter, if he has one, or agreeon the fare to your destination beforeyou get in. Justas the smarttravelerdoesnot acceptunsolicitedassistancefrom anyone,the smarttraveler doesnot acceptoffers of food or beverages from "friendly people"(including children)met by chance.Neverleave a drink unattendedin a bar or nightclub. Criminals are increasinglyusing scopolamine,Valium, Rohypnol,and other "daterape"drugsto disorient or incapacitatetheir victims. Thesedrugscanalsobe administered in cigarettes,chewinggum, or in aerosolform suchas "perfume"that a strangermay invite one to sniff. Tourists in developingcountries,as elsewhere,are increasinglybecoming thevictims of criminals at ATM machines.Be especiallyaware of personsstandingcloseenoughto seeyour PIN beingenteredinto the machine.If your ATM card becomesstuck, be wary of personswho offer to help or ask for the PIN to help get it unstuck.Not even bank employeeshave a reasonto ask for your PIN. One commoncriminal schemeinvolves sticking photographicfilm or piecesof paperin the card feederof an ATM so that an insertedcard becomesjammed.Once the cardholderhas concludedthat the card is irretrievable,the thieves extractboth the jamming material and the card, which they then use. The bestadviceon ATMs is to usethem as little as possible.Do not use ATMs in isolated,unlit areasor where loiterers are present.Only useATMs during the businessday at large protectedfacilities, preferably inside banksor commercialestablishments,rather than at glassenclosed,highly visible ATMs on the street. "Express kidnappings"are becomingmore frequent in developing countries.Theseare attemptsto get quick cash, often from ATMs, in exchangefor the releaseof an individual. The kidnappersoften target not just the wealthy, but middle-classtourists,as well. Your credit cardsshould neverleave your sight, in order to prevent

20 PRACflCAL STRATEGIES FOR TRAINING

card information from being copied for illegal use. It is a good idea to coordinateyour trip with your credit card companybefore you leave homesothat only hotel bills or otherspecifiedexpensesmay becharged. If you do usecredit cardsabroad,pay closeattention toyour credit card bills when you get home. Becauseof widespreadcredit card andATM fraud, the U.S. embassy in Ukrainerecommendsthat visitors refrain from using themat all. The sameis true in Ghanaand other developingcountries,where travelers are advisedto settlebills using travelers'checksor cash.

Health Issues If your residenceabroadhasgasappliances,be awarethat in somedeveloping countries,naturalgas is not scentedto warn occupantsof gas leaks or concentrations.In addition, heatersmay not always be well vented,therebyallowing excesscarbonmonoxideto build up in living spaces.Gas and carbon monoxide detectorsare not widely available overseas,and shouldbe purchasedbeforearrival. mY/AIDS is epidemicis sub-Saharan Africa and in many developing countriesworldwide. It is transmittedmainly through heterosexual contact.mv is found primarily in the bodily fluids of an infectedpersonandis spreadthroughintimatesexualcontact,needlesharingamong intravenousdrug users,and transfusionsof infected blood and blood clotting factors. Abstinenceis the best protection against infection. Condomsoffer the next bestprotection.Likewise, hepatitisB is a viral infectiontransmittedthroughactivitiesresultingin theexchangeof blood or blood-derivedfluids and/orthrough sexualactivity. Bacterialmeningitisis an infection in the lining of the brain or spinal cord, and is spreadwhen an infected person sneezesor coughs nearyou, as is tuberculosis.Both aresignificantrisks in crowded,confined spaces.Taking public transportation,particularly minibuses,is risky for this reasonin addition to the risks of poor vehicle maintenance,poor road conditions,and bad drivinghabits endemicin most developingcountries. Many diseasesin developingcountriesare transmittedthrough the bite of infectedmosquitoes,flies, fleas, ticks, and lice. Travelersshould protectthemselvesfrom insectbites by wearingproperclothing, using bednets,and applying the properinsectrepellent.Mosquitoesare most activebetweenduskanddawn.Travelersat risk for malariashouldconsult

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with a doctor for advice on whether or not it is necessaryto take Mefloquine or an alternativedrug. Yellow fever and denguefever are prevalentviral infections also transmittedby mosquitobites, primarily in sub-Saharan Africa. Food and waterbornediseasesalso causeillnessesin travelers,most frequently diarrhea.Drink only bottled, chemically treated,or boiled water. Avoid ice cubes. On our fIrst trip to Mexico, my wife and I were meticulousaboutnot drinking the water. Unfortunately,my wife rinsed her mouth once with tap water after brushingher teethand wasill for the durationof our visit. Unlessyou are sure that they are pasteurized,avoid dairy products. Eat only thoroughlycookedfood. Vegetablesandfruits shouldbepeeled or washedin a purifying solution.A goodrule of thumb is, "If you cannot peel it or cook it, don't eat it." Severelyill individuals should seek immediatemedical attention. Be particularly careful when swimming or engagingin other water sports.Oceancurrents,roughsurf, and strongundertowalongthe coasts of manycountriesmay betreacherous.Often,thereareno warningsigns, let alone lifeguards. In the CaymanIslands,the U.S. embassyreports that on average,oneAmericancitizen per month drownsor sufferscardiac arrestwhile snorkelingor scubadiving. The deathsmay be attributedin part totouristsattemptingto do morethanthey aretrainedto do, or may be dueto poorphysicalconditioningor preexistingmedicalconditions that are exacerbatedby theseactivities. Swimming in fresh water in rural areasof mostdevelopingcountriesshouldbe avoidedbecause of the risk of schistosomiasis, an infection that developsafter the larvae of a flatworm penetratethe skin. Medical facilities are limited in developingcountries,particularly in rural areas.If you becomeseriously ill or injured abroad,contactthe nearestU.S. embassyor consulate.A consularofficer can furnish you with a list of local hospitalsand English-speakingdoctors,and can inform your family or friends in the United Statesof your condition.

Departure You haveheededall the adviceso far, your training gig is over, and you are headedhome.Do not let your guarddown quite yet! One more tale from personalexperience:My wife and I had spenta gloriousChristmasholiday in England,andwereaboutto fly homefrom

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PRACTICAL STRATEGIES FOR TRAINING

Heathrow-makethatThiefrow-Airport. We weresitting in the arrival hall, going through our luggageto decide what to check and what to carry on. In a split second,my wife's pursedisappearedfrom the seat betweenus. It containedall our money,our planetickets, passports,and credit cards. Needlessto say, we were panickedand sickenedby the incident. We reportedthe theft to the police and airline counter, and made the necessarycalls to cancel our credit cards. I called the U.S. embassyto find out when we could apply for replacementpassports, and learnedthat the embassywas closedfor the remainderof the holidays, the next severaldays.We resignedourselvesto imposing on the generosityof friends in Londonfor a while longerand werejust leaving the airport whenwe werecalledoverthe public addresssystemto report to our airline counter. The purse had been found in a departurearea restroom,with everythingin it exceptour cash.We were able to raceto our departuregateandcatchour flight afterall. Despitethe lossof $600, we thoughtit was one of the luckiestdaysof our lives. We had momentarily forgotten that travelersare especiallyvulnerablein airports. Do not forget! By the way, you did not buy any souvenirsabroadmadefrom endangeredwildlife, did you? Many wildlife productsare prohibited for export from foreign countriesor areprohibitedfrom import into the United States.You will risk confiscationand a possiblefine if you attemptto import productsmadefrom ivory, seaturtles, furs from endangeredcat speciesand marine animals, feathersand feather products from wild birds, most crocodile and caiman leather,and most coral, whether in chunksor in jewelry. None of the information above on safety, security, and well-being abroadis intendedto dissuadeyou from traveling. To quotethe adventurer Sir Richard Burton, "Of life's gladdestmomentsis the departure upon a distantjourney to unknown lands."Have a wonderful trip and a wonderful training experienceabroad. And hey, be careful out there. Note 1. For additionalinformationon internationaltravel informationpleaseview the following Web sites: AmericanAutomobileAssociation-www.aaa.com Centersfor DiseaseControl and Prevention-www.cdc.gov United StatesDepartmentof State-http://travel.state.gov

2 Strategic Suggestions for Survival When Providing Public Administration Training in Underdeveloped Settings: The Case of Swaziland John L. Daly

This chapteroffers strategiesfor improving one'stechnicalassistance and training effectivenessin underdevelopedmanagerialsettings.My suggestionsare basedon observationsgainedwhile providing technical assistanceand training to governmentofficials and civil servants in the Kingdom of Swazilandduring 1998 and 1999 when I servedas a Fulbright SeniorScholarto Swaziland'sleadingtraining instituteon managementand public administration.In this capacity, I provided human resourcemanagementand public policy assistanceto this country'sexecutive-,senior-,and middle-levelmanagementcivil servants. Much of what was learnedfrom this experienceis sharedhere to aid othersin their training effectivenessin unfamiliar, underdeveloped settings.l The examplesprovidedrelateto Swaziland;nevertheless,they are applicablein many other similar settings.Thesesurvival strategieswill be of greatvalue to individuals seekingcoping skills in unfamiliar surroundings.This is particularly true for first-time international consultants. The advent of Internet accessibility,coupled with "light-year" advancementsin telecommunicationtechnology,has createdsignificant opportunitiesfor the sharingof programinitiatives and policy innovations acrossnations.From a managementand policy perspective,governmentsand their officials can now readily accessand observe 23

24 PRAcnCAL STRATEGIES FOR TRAINING

informationabouthow othernationsaddressnaggingsocialandadministrativeproblems.As our world's communicationstructureshrinks,we will witnessa rebirth of interestin comparativepublic administration. This trend has alreadycommenced. The destabilizationof Sovietbloc countries,along with their restructuring, also hasled increasinglyto calls for technicalsupportand training assistance.These new societies seek assistanceto rebuild democraticallytailored systems.World financial developmentsources (for example,theWorld Bankandthe InternationalMonetaryFund)and Westernindustrial nation donorsalso are heavily involved in the provisions of technical assistanceand managerialdevelopmenttraining to Third World countries.Often thesedonor sourcesdemandtechnicalassistanceas a condition for their funding support.On a daily basis,it is possibleto locate requestsfor developmentalassistanceand aid from Third World countries.For themostpart, academicsand seasonedpractitionersfrom the United StatesandEuropeannationshavesteppedin to meetthis need. StrategicSuggestionsfor Survival

Suggestion1. ExpectLanguageBarriers to Exist, Even Whenthe Host Country'sOfficial LanguageIs the Same as Your Own Language In Swazilandgovernmentthe official spokenand written languageis English.Naturally,the expectationwould bethata languagebarrierwould not exist, nor hinder, training effectiveness.Nothing could be further from the truth. In Swazilandthe official (that is, business)languagediffers from the spokennative language.This observationis significant. While English is the country'sofficial language,it is not the society'Sdominantlanguage.Thus, in family and community settingsSiSwati is widely spoken, evenby public officials, and is almostexclusively spokenin larger public settings.What becomes obvious almostimmediatelyin this environment is the fact that many public officials are uncomfortablewith English; it is not their first language. In training seminars,many participants,at best, had only a limited working knowledgeof English,therebylimiting the cognitivebenefitof the subjectat hand. Cognitive comprehensionwas further complicated

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by the fact that my English was a foreign form to Swazitrainees.While in London recently, I heardthe phrase,"The United Statesand Great Britain are two English-speakingcountriesdivided by a commonlanguage."This points to ambiguity in speech,even when the dominant languageis commonacrosstwo diversecultures.In Swaziland,barriers basedon my spokendialectprovedchallenging,asmanySwazisstruggled with my midwesternaccent.They were more accustomedto English as spokenby British or South African instructors.Thus, English dialect variations may createunexpectedproblems for instructors and those they are training. Finally, wide variancesexisted acrosstraining participantsin their comprehension of English.In partthis is explainedby thefact that, while Englishis the official language,evenin Swazilandschools,it is customarily not spokenin the homesnor spokenamongthe indigenouspopulation to one another. Those individuals who exhibited the greatest comprehension of my Englishoften hadexperiencesin travel to America and otherAnglophonecountries.They had beenimmersedin Englishas spokenby Americansor by otherEnglish-speakingsocieties.

Suggestion2. Do Not AutomaticallyExpectThat Your PresenceWill BeAppreciatedBy Your Host Institution, EvenWhenYou Have BeenInvited to Come Training and technical assistanceoften are initiated at the requestsof host governments.This might lead one to believethat one'spresenceis highly desiredby local institutionalassociates.Oftenthis is not the case. The presenceof an "outsideconsultant"may be perceivedas a threatto the organization'sstatusquooperatingapproaches. Thus,training means the potentialfor discovery andchangethat, in practice,might not be as appealingto existing personnel. For many on staff at my host institution, this was their first "upfront" exposureto an American. My nationality was foreign to them and somewhatof a novelty. Unfortunately,someof my new associates had formed negativepreconceivednotions of what to expectfrom an American scholar. Would he be arrogant and aggressive;rich and spoiled;overbearingand demanding?Sensingtheseconcerns,I chose a softer approachto utilize, so as to dispel these preconceived misperceptions.Gaining their trust and confidencewas a prerequisite for working positively with my Swazi colleaguesin order to sustain

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high-quality training effectiveness.This was accomplishedby gainingas much knowledgeas possibleaboutSwazi history, culture,and tradition.2 Considerable resentment for my presenceexisted,for example,due to the housingthat wasprovidedfor me throughthe Fulbrightgrant.The Swazilandgovernmentwasexpectedto providesafeand securehousing throughthe durationof my Fulbright researchandtraining. Therefore,a Swazigovernmenthousewas madereadyfor my arrival. Doing this led to resentmentfrom someinstitute associates,who had beenwait-listed for governmentalhousing,typically providedto higher-levelSwazicivil servants.The waiting period for housinghad beenlengthy in someinstances.Thus, my being placedat the front of the list for housing increasedresentmentand, ironically, reaffIrmed (in their minds) that I was a spoiledAmerican! Fortunately,I realizedearly on that resentment existedand thereforetook measuresto be overtly friendly and attentive to the needsof all institute colleagues. It is critical to be preparedpsychologicallyfor the potentialthat your presencemay be morethreateningthan welcomeduponarriving at your new destination.It is also important that, as the technical consultant, you set asideyour ego and seekacceptancefrom a potentially hostile host. By anticipatingpotential hostility, you can begin to devisestrategiesto win overthosepossessing ill-informed preconceptions. You might even be pleasantlysurprisedwhen the welcoming party appearsupon your arrival.

Suggestion3. Expectto Be Disappointedwith the Quality of Training ResourcesAvailableat Your Disposal Expect the unexpectedwhen conductingtraining in underdeveloped countries.Some of the most commonexpectationsin the classroom cannotbe takenfor grantedin theseinstances.Electricity, for example, can typically be expectedto flow without interruption, in most instances,in American and Europeanclassrooms.Suchis not necessarily so in many Third World training settings.As an instructor, you must always be preparedto work on an impromptubasis.Highly professionalpresentations caneasilybe demolishedshouldelectricity fail. Computer-based presentations,for example,will not help the instructor who randomly loseselectrical power in such cases.Even backup overheadtransparencies cannothelp in theseinstances.On numerous occasions,I experiencedthese power blackouts that required quick

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adaptationin presentationswith many being conductedin lowillumination classrooms. Instructorsshouldalsobe preparedfor otherchallenges.Expectation of equipmentavailability cannotbe takenfor granted.Eventhe smallest teachingaids canbe in limited supply.Photocopymachinesbreakdown; overheadtransparencies andphotocopypapersuppliesbecomedepleted without rapid replacement;and limited availability of chalk or usable white-boardmarking pensare all commonproblemsthat are frequently experiencedin Third World classroomsettings. Otherfactors may also inhibit one'sability to communicatethe messageeffectively. The loss (that is, theft) of scarceequipment(for example, desktopcomputers,videotaperecorders,and monitors) occurs with frightening frequencyin theseinstructionalsettings.Thepoint here is not to paint a bleak picture of training facilities in Third World settings. Rather,it is to suggestthat you must think strategicallyin planning for thesetypesof frustratingscenarios.The true testof your ability as an educatorand communicatoroccursin thesesituations,whereyou havelost many of the instructionalcrutchesthat we all counton in normal instructionalsettings.

Suggestion4. RealizeThat "Yes"DoesNot Necessarily Mean "Yes" Onemustbe carefulto readbetweenthe lines of the societythat he or she is interactingwith when askingfor training documentsor public records. Often, "yes" doesnot mean,"yes," when responsesto questionsabout information or assistanceare sought.Why shoulda responseof, "Yes, I will sendthis to you tomorrow," not be takenautomaticallyto signal that a desiredaction would occur?First, "yes" to requestsfor assistancemay simply indicate that the individual with whom you are talking doesnot understandyour question,but is afraid to acknowledgethis fact. Rather than askyou to restatethe question,sheor he will respondin the affirmative (for example,"yes," "okay," "yebo") to your request.This will mislead you into believing that somedesiredoutcomeswill occur. Having receivedwhat you believe to be assurancesof assistance,for example, you now will go back to your office and wait for results.Subsequently, you neverreceivethe information and/orthe outcomeyou expect. Faulty affirmative responsesto requestsalso may occur becausethe institution seeksto pleaseand/oraccommodateyou but doesnot have

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the financial meansto oblige your request.By providing an affirmative response,the respondingindividual ensuresthat he or she has not offendedyou, therebysavingface. In suchcases,the hopeis that someone elsewill oblige your need.Alternatively, the true hopemay be that you will becomefrustratedwith the systemand find anothermeansfor rectifying the situationyourself. In order to ensurethat you do get positive results, you need to be persistentwith the individual who is assistingyou. Speakingdirectly to the personwith authority to act and makedecisionsmay also be necessary. In one instance,I traveled to a store three times to purchaseresourcematerialsthat I neededquickly. Theseitems were in stock but could not be purchased,becausethe storeclerksdid not havethe authority to handle money or make the sales.Finally, I askedfor the shop owner'snameand hometelephonenumber.Subsequently,I called him to makean appointmentto buy what was readily availablein his shop. In this instance,his shopwasthe only storein the capitalcity, Mbabane, that had the neededitems. Realizing that "yes" might mean"maybe" or, "give me somemore time to think aboutit," or, "no, but I don't want to offend you" will help when seekingto reachdesiredoutcomes.Be a critical listener, ask for clarification, and seekconfrrmationof when to expectthe desiredoutcome. Be respectful,however! Theseapproacheswill all place gentle pressureon the individual helping you and may aid you in gaining what you needwhile retainingyour sanity.

Suggestion5. SeekMethodsfor OvercomingSilencein the Training Environment Training seminarsin American settingsoften evokea greatdeal of discussionand debate.This has beenparticularly the casewhen working with executive-andsenior-levelpersonnel.Theseofficials actively point to their own experiencesto add to the content underdiscussion. In Swaziland,training participationtendsto be more subdued.The Swazis are less willing to discussopenly points of disagreementwith their instructorsor fellow classmates.This holds true even with more senior civil servants.The Swazilandculture is one basedon nonconfrontation and nonconflict. Thus, normal points of disagreementoften are not presented,even when statementsshould elicit heateddebate. Furthermore,traineesin this setting often sit passively,to the point of

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not even signalingdisapprovalthroughtheir body language.Theseculturally specific behaviorscreatechallengesfor instructors,who come into the training sessionexpecting substantialinteraction and debate over the coursecontent.This might well be expectedin most settings, especiallywhen new ideasand approachesare introducedthat may not easily fit when transferredfrom one cultureto another. A U.S. Departmentof State(DOS) official to Swazilandtold me of onerecentexamplethat points out this problem.A DOS trainercameto provide better driving instructionsto local foreign national DOS employees.Shestartedthe training seminarby askingthe Swazidriversthe question,"How many of you consideryourselfto be good drivers?"To her amazement,not oneSwazidriver working for the embassyandother U.S.-affiliatedoperationsraisedhis hand.Shedid not realizethat, to do so, would be consideredbragging in the Swazi culture. She failed to take culture into accountand found great frustration from the lack of active participationamongcourseparticipants. Silencein the classroomis also relatedto the respectgrantedto the instructoras an authorityfigure. This surely is not confinedto the Swazis but is also commonin many othercultures.To overcomethis barrier,it is critical that one actively involves the participant base.Action-learning exercisesthat put the groupin the positionof decisionmaking or creating group-basedoutcomesis one successfulapproachoften used. Second, employing casestudiesthat have been developedfor, or revised to fit, currentcultural parametersalso can help move the group toward shared discussionandcognitivedevelopment.Breakingthroughthe cultural barriers is critical to sustaininga long-termimpact on learnedbehaviorsof courseparticipants.Clearly, researchpoints to higher levels of retention of trainingcontent,whentraineesareindividually challengedthroughactive learningtechniques.For this reason,instructorsshouldblend individual and groupdecision-makingexercisesandculturally designedcaseanalysis with conceptualandtheoreticalelementstypically associatedwith lecture-basededucation.What onehearsis likely not to be remembered,but what one doesin classis likely to be learnedand reapplied.

Suggestion6. Respectthe Fact That You Are an Outsider WhenTraining andWhenAskedfor Advice Visiting consultantsand trainers should be cautious when comparing the hostcountry'sadministrativepracticesandoperationalsystemswith

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thosepracticedin their own systems.Clearly, it is easyto find fault in underdevelopedgovernmentalstructures,as they often must cope with an inadequatefinancial basefor funding projects,outdatedtechnology to efficiently addressexisting problems,or inadequatelytrainedhuman resourcepersonnelto attackthe problem. Certainly, as an expert, there are a myriad of suggestionsthat you could provide to improve operational efficiency and organizationaleffectiveness.Be warnedthat your beststrategyis to listen carefully beforeproviding advice.Constructive criticism on your part can easily be perceivedas arrogance,especially whenyou begincomparinghow things aredonein the hostcountry with practicesin your own country. Unintentionally,it is easyto becomethe ugly Americanin the eyesof your hostinstitution or thoseyou aretraining. Whencomparativediscussionacross governmental contextoccurs, be careful to point out the benefits and drawbacksof both systems.If you are to err, err on the side of conservatismand be more critical of your own systemratherthan that of the host country. Take nothing for grantedwhen thematiccontentis presented.In one training session,for example, I was discussingthe topic, "Entrepreneurismin America."This led to deliberationsaboutBill Gatesandhow he had transformedMicrosoft Corporationfrom a small businessinto the worldwide leadingorganizationin computersoftwaredevelopment. Nearthe end of my presentation,one studentaskedme to explain again who Bill GatesandMicrosoft were. I had mentionedboth man and corporation,but not productsoftwarethat Microsoft produced.It was then that I realized theseparticipantsdid not recognizewho Bill Gatesor Microsoft was. Furtherdiscussionabouttheir link to "Office 97," which is heavily utilized in their agencies,helped them make the cognitive connection.

Suggestion7. SecureAllianceswith Other Institutionsto Gain Accessto LimitedAcademic Resources Trainers and technical advisors in Africa often face the challengeof working with severeshortagesof up-to-dateacademicresources.Fortunately, the World Wide Web is gaining accessibility in many African countries.This has aided trainersimmenselyin their efforts to provide credibleand up-to-dateinformation about managementactivities from a global perspective.As an example,I was asked to serve as a guest

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lecturer on "Entrepreneurismin America" at the University of Swaziland'sFaculty of Commerceand Business.I had no on-handresourceson this subject,and none were to be found at my host institution. Throughaccessto the Internet,andbasedon my knowledgeof this subject,I was able to provide a credible presentationof current activities from an Americancontext. This will not alwaysbe the casein Third World settings.Even with such Internet accessibility,it is prudentto develop a network of resourcesharing,so as to minimize the time neededto locateresources and materialsnecessaryfor enlighteningyour students.Libraries, in thesesettings,are often inadequatelyfunded with outdatedresources. Linking with regionaluniversities,training institutes,and private providers of training servicesis a valuablestart for locating periodicals, textbooks,video- and audiotapes,and the myriad of other resources usedto gain and retain students'interests.Another valuablesourceof assistancecancomefrom internationalagencieswithin the region.One examplemight be through the library resourcesof the United States Information Service(USIS.). Whereveryou find a U.S. embassy,you are likely also to find a USIS library. In my case,the American Cultural Centerin Mbabanewas a valuableresourcecenter.Otherembassies, the EuropeanUnion, and United Nations offices, among others, are also likely to rendertheir information, resources,and professional servicesfor your utilization. Networking with otherprofessionalsmay alsobe possiblethrough professionalassociations,governmentalagencies,and historical archives, which retain theirown distinct library and dataretrieval centers. The point being madehere is that you cannotanticipateall of the resourcesthat you will need when facing diverse training challengesin theseunderdevelopedsettings.You will be viewed as the expert in your disciplinary field and will be expectedto provide assistance.Most disciplines are quite broad in their scopeof knowledge. This is true in the field of human resourcemanagement(my areaof specialization).Nevertheless,even professionals and practitioners competentin thesefields will be stretchedwith the breadth of requestsfor training assistance.Therefore,to maximize your effectiveness,you should identify resourcebasesquickly, upon your arrival, and do somefriend-raising immediately.The returnson this investmentwill easily provide dividendsbeyondthe cost of the time and energyexpendedin developingthis network.

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Conclusion You are likely to face immensecultural shockthe first time you relocate to a Third World site as a technicalconsultantor trainerin a new, exciting, yet unfamiliar, cultural setting. Theself-imposedpressuresto perform will be great. Moreover,your life will be turned upsidedown for the first few months,until you havereadjustedto your new lifestyle. For thesereasons,as well as others,it is importantthat you enterthis challengewith realistic expectationsaboutwhat you canand cannotaccomplish. The sevensuggestionspresentedheredo not, nor cannot,capture comprehensivelyall that will be necessaryto be effective in your new position. Nevertheless,it is important to enter into this new challenge with your eyeswide open, so as not to be slowed in your progressby unrealisticexpectationsof what is to be. By focusingon thesesuggestions,as well aseffectively attemptingto preplanas much of your living and working arrangementsas possible prior to your arrival, you will find this adventureinto placesunknownto be both rewarding and memorable.Furthermore,you will understand betterhow to provide technicalconsultingand training assistancewhen dealing with culturesdiametrically oppositefrom your own. Theseexperienceswill also enrich your knowledgeof the dynamic breadthof public administrationand the complexity that culture places on effectively introducing new information in other social settings. Moreover,the knowledgeyou gain will provide additional enrichment and insight for studentsand practitionersin the classroombackat your own academicinstitution. Studentsof public administration,whetherat homeor abroad,are often eagerto learn how othercivil servantsthink, and how decisionsare made.You will find, throughsharingyour expertise while simultaneouslybeinga studentof the culturethat is receiving your technical assistance,that the outcomewill be one that provides greaterprofessionalgrowth, as well as significantpersonalsatisfaction. Notes This chapteris reprinted with permissionfrom Public PersonnelManagement,a publication of the InternationalPublic ManagementAssociationfor Human Resources(IPMA-HR) 30, no. 1 (Spring2001); www.ipma-hr.org. 1. The authorwishesto expresshis gratitudeto the William J. Fulbright Senior ScholarsProgramfor its supportof this research.Any andall commentsmentioned in this study, however,are attributableto the author and do not necessaryreflect

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uponthe policiesor opinionsof the Fulbright SeniorScholarsProgramor its administrativepersonnel. 2. For an excellentoverview of Swazi history, seeJ.S.M. Matsebula'sA History ofSwazilandandAlan R. Booth'sSwaziland:Tradition and Changein a Southern African Kingdom.SwazilandTraditional ReligionandSocietyby PeterKaseneneis also highly recommended for a basicoverview of religious and cultural traditions.

References Booth,Alan R. 1983.Swaziland:Tradition andChangein a SouthernAfrican Kingdom. Boulder, CO: WestviewPress. Kasenene,Peter. 1995. SwazilandTraditional Religion and Society. Mbabane, Swaziland:WebsterPublicationsInc. Matsebula,J.S.M. 1972.A History ofSwaziland.Johannesburg: LongmanSouthern Africa.

3 Gender as a Culture Challenge for the American Educator in the Developing Nations Classroom: Using the "Different Voice" Barbara S. Liggett

Whetheryou teachinternationalstudentsat your U.S. location or at a faraway site, therearemomentsof surprise,aha,and why did I not think of that?Thesemomentsmay corne when you realize you cannotpronouncenames,when you have insufficient equipment,when language contextscauseconfusion,when the pedagogyyou were trained in just doesnot seemto meetthe students'needs,and/orwhen the perceptions of genderserveas a barrierin the communicationprocess. Consideryour entranceinto the classroomat the U.S. location.As you walk into the assignedroom, you see the frrst three rows filled. These chairsarenot filled with Americanstudents;instead,non-Americanswith electronictranslatorsand English-translation dictionariesoccupythe frrst three rows. Thesenon-Americanstudentslook up at you and you hear words spoken,not to you, but to eachother, in a languageotherthanEnglish. The expectationappearsto be that you cannotunderstandthe languagespoken,but you can,andthis is what you hear:"She'sa woman."In such a situation, I am thinking (but do not say it!), "Of course,I am a woman.What did you expect?"But thenuponreflection,I rememberthat only the last nameis given on the courseschedule,and yes, thereare not many femaleprofessors,and yes, I may be the unexpected.Then, adding to the surprise,I give greetingsto the class in a languageother than English-thelanguage(s)Ijust heardspokenin my classroom!Aha! 34

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Gender asa Challenge The abovescenecanbe at WesternMichigan University in Kalamazoo, Michigan, with an internationalstudentpopulationof 2,059 with 108 countriesrepresented(as of January2004),or it canbe anywherein the world, where I am invited to presenta lecture, a seriesof lectures,or workshops.While many of the non-Americanuniversity settingsin the developedcountriesmay havefemale faculty as regularappointments, or exchangefaculty through sponsoredprograms,such is often not the casein the developingnations.Doesthe genderof the faculty member (the educator)seemto be a barrier?Doesthe genderof the students pose a barrier to the learningprocess? In the United States,researchershave examinedgender-relateddifferencesin school-agedchildren'sattitude,behavior,and achievement. of differential patternsare Yet "origins, maintenanceand consequences not well understood"(Wilkinson and Marrett, 1985, xi). Additionally, most of the researchaboutgender-relateddifferencesin educationhas focusedon children but not on adults.Thereis a needto addressinfluencessuchas gender,andotherinteraction-relatedinfluencesin a classroom (or otherlearningenvironments),in the adult studentpopulation, and specifically in multicuIturallearningenvironmentsand classrooms of the developingnations.I suggestthat genderis an influenceand,yes, a challenge,but only whenyou useit asa barrier,whenyou arebothered by the whisperof "She'sa woman," or when the femalesin the classroom are encouragedto dwell on or hide behindthe genderframework, or when you focus on this one variableandmakeit the variableof variablesin adaptation.In reality, I know that it is not easyto eraseperceptions, or to ignore the obvious-ourgenderdistinctions-nordo I want to ignorethe genderdistinctions.Thesedistinctionsare what allow us to see,hear,and experiencethe world in different ways, to teachwith different approaches,to learn with different minds, and as Carol Gilligan saidmorethantwenty yearsago, "in a different voice" (Gilligan, 1982). This chapteris written for female educatorswho are preparingto educateand train studentsfrom developingnations, whether the studentsare in the United Statesas guestsat U.S. collegesand universities, or the studentsare at home and serving as hosts to the educator.This chapteris alsowritten for maleeducatorswho may learnfrom the experiencesof femalesand recognizethat gender(especiallythe genderof students)is yet anothervariablethat can affect the learningprocess.

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GenderingHumanDevelopment What does genderhave to do with the learning process?"Education enablesand expandshuman capacity" (Staudt, 1998, 84). Analyzing educationis morethanlooking at enrollments,graduationrates,or grade point averageswith referenceto disaggregatingmales and femalesin reports.The United NationsEducational,Scientific, and CulturalOrganization (UNESCO)calls for a more comprehensive focus whenexamining education,includinghow studentsaretreated,thecurricularcontent, and who is teachingthe students(UNESCO, 1995). Stromquist(1992, 5) purportsthat educationis aboutrepresentations andbeliefs aboutthe appropriateand natural social order. Educationcalls attention, by its structure,to a gender-constructed socialorder.The very presenceof the "unexpectedgender" (the female) at the front of the classroomchallengesthe acceptedsocial order in many countries.In somecountries, the very presenceof femalesas studentschallengesthe acceptedsocial order, but educationneedsto do much more than reinforce a genderconstructedsocial order. "It should [also] provide an atmospherefor intellectualdevelopment.Comprehensiveeducationhasgreatpotential to facilitate awarenessof structuresof dominationand subordination" (Staudt, 1998, 84). The classroomenvironmentis critical to allowing intellectualdevelopment,with modelingby a female educator.Gender discussionsin educationcan be in terms of access,content,participation, and process.Worldwide, womenconstitutethe majority of people who areilliterate. Accordingto United NationsDevelopmentProgramme (UNDP) (1995,iii) andUNESCO(1995, 19), two-thirdsof all illiterates are female, totaling565 million people.Girls are pulled out or drop out of school earlier than boys in severalworld regions. Gendergaps are markedin Asia andAfrica. Many Third World countrieshavegirls "missing" in the classroom,andcertainly for the leaderof the classroomto be a female,would be a challengeto the expectedsocial order. UNDP reminds us that "humandevelopment,if not engendered,is endangered" (UNDP, 1995, 1). How do we "gender"humandevelopment?By education-in words and in actions!

Genderas a Cultural Referent We know that teachingand learning are the "pairing," the "twins" of education.Much has beenresearchedand written about teachingand

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learningstylesand aboutthe relationshipof communicationandculture with teachingand learning. Gay (2000, 77) statesthat "a semioticrelationship existsamongcommunication,culture,teachingand, learning." PorterandSamover(1991,21) supportedthis with "what we talk about; how we talk about it; what we see,attendto or ignore; how we think, and what we think aboutare influencedby our culture ... (and) help to shape,define,andperpetuateour culture." Brunner(1996,4) references that learning and thinking are always situatedin a culture setting and always dependentupon the utilization of culture resources.This provided the frame of referencefor this chapter'sreflection. Genderis part of the culture resourcesaddingto learning and thinking. The genderof the educatoras well as the genderof the studentscannotbe ignored.In fact, genderitself can be seenas a tool if we follow the thinking that genderis part of culture."Cultureprovidesthe tools to pursuethe search for meaningand to convey our understandingto others" (Gay, 2000, 77). Ladson-Billings(1992) placesthe responsibility upon the trainer (teacher)to developintellectual, social, emotional,and political learning by usingculturalreferentsto impactknowledge,skills, andattitudes. Diamond and Moore (1995) focused on key roles and responsibilities for teachersto be in three categories:cultural organizers,cultural mediators, and orchestratorsof social contextsfor learning. Thesesame three tasks were referencedas "cultural broker" years earlier by Gentemannand Whitehead(1983, 118). Genderis one of the cultural referents. Gender,of course,is not the only componentof culture or the only referentof culture.The socializationpractices,educationalexperiences, work philosophies,family formations, politicalinfluences,andreligious beliefs are all parts of the culture composition.The dynamicsbetween and amongall of the componentsin and of themselvesbecomeanother layer (or layers)of influence(s) of the cultureon the teachingand learning activities.The interaction-relatedinfluencesof the componentsplus the role of genderin eachof the componentsmake gendera powerful mitigating variablein theclassroom.I experiencedthesegenderedpower dynamicsas a female student,as a female university administrator,and as a faculty memberstriving to find my own voice in a male-dominated U.S. academicculture.The strugglecontinuesoutsidethe United States in numerousteaching-learningopportunitiesin Latin American,Asian, andAfrican male-dominatedacademiccultures.The struggleis to "move beyond gender(but not ignore it), be shapedby feminist theory and

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practice, beinfluenced by effective pedagogy formulticultural learning, and to be sensitizedto the needfor a processof empowermentfor individualsandgroupsthatexperiencemarginality" (Frankel,1993,101). The struggle is for the educatorin the internationalclassroomand also for the female student.The student,as receiver(and transmitterof knowledgein the bestopenclassrooms),hasgenderas a variable,along with all of the other cultural referents.The educator,as transmitterof knowledge(and receiver of knowledgein the best open classrooms), hasgenderas a variable,along with all of the othercultural referents,to influence the learning dynamics.It is not just the genderitself of both studentand educator,but also the perceptions(right or wrong) of both studentand educatorthat add to (or detractfrom) the learning.It is also the interactionsbetweeneducatorand studentthat add to (or detract from) the learning. How, then, doesone adaptto a new culture-whatever it may be, such as seeingthe female educatorwho just walked in the classroom,or the female educatoradaptingto the student'sworld? Culture Adaptation

There is no doubt that there is much needfor culture adaptation.From the educationalperspective,we have seenincreasinginternationalstudentpopulationsgrow by significantnumbersin the mostrecentthirtyplus years.In 1970, 134,959internationalstudentswere presentin u.s. collegesanduniversities.This numberjumpedto 582,996in 2002.Asians now representapproximatelyone-halfof the internationalenrollment,with Europeansin thenextlargestregionalgroup.Developingnationsarepresent in theAsian enrollment,as well as scatteredin the representationafterthe Europeanregion (Tomich, McWhirter, andDarcy, 2003, 22). In my classesof HumanResourcesAdministrationand Supervision in the GraduateProgramof the School of Public Affairs and Administration at WesternMichigan University, it is not unusualto have students from Cameroon,Congo, Indonesia,Liberia, Myanmar, Rwanda Burundi, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Senegal,Sierra Leone, Ethiopia, Nigeria, Kazakhstan,Turkmenistan,Pakistan,Malaysia, China, South Korea, Malaysia,Thailand,Taiwan,Zimbabwe,andJapan.How do they adapt? Tomich, McWhirter, and King (2000) haveidentified key variablesfor studentadaptationto a new culture: language,culture similarity/distance, reason/motivationfor transition, attachmentto home culture, preparation,interactionwith host-countrymembers,hostenvironment

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receptivity, gender,age, and personality. Kim (1988, 172) also notes personalityas a variable in communicationand cross-culturaladaptation andis insistentthat with all the variableslisted by researchers, "opennessand resilience"are the key variablesfor adaptation.

AdaptationVariables It is my experiencethat the variablesof opennessandresilienceprovide a frameworkfor an educatorto understandand usethe variablesidentified by Tomich, McWhirter, and King when working with students.If we assumethat the educator(acting as a studentadaptingto teachingin a multicultural setting)can usethe samevariablesfor himselfor herself as the studentsin the classroommust usefor adaptation,then the taskof interaction-relatedinfluences(including gender)serveas positivecatalysts for the learningsituation.How can the educatorusethe variables? Let us examinethem one by one.

Commandofthe Host-CountryLanguage If! am teachingin the United States,the expectationis that the language I will be using is English. However, there is English and there is English. When I use slangterms,colloquial terms and phrases,when I do not enunciateclearly, or when I drop the volume on the ends of the words,theelectronictranslatorsarein "full gear"andthelooks of puzzlement abound.Allow an example:In a simulationexerciseusedin a human resourcesclassroom,I have the studentsworking in teams to determinecompensationpackagesfor twenty employeesin a city governmentoffice. I providea narrativedescribingwork tasks,performance levels, demographicdata, and some interesting(but illegal and unusable) information abouteachof the employees.As a descriptorof performance,I state"J was promotedto the junior analystposition, but it was obviouswithin the first threemonthsthat J just did not cut the mustard. J'scolleaguesfelt that J was a loserand suggestedto the supervisor that J be returnedto the former position." Take the phrase-"Jjust did not cut the mustard."In many parts of the United Statesthis is easily understoodto meanJ could not do the work; J did not performthe work tasks as neededor as expected.However, if you were to translatethis phraseliterally, by useof a dictionary or electronictranslator,you would wonderhow onecan usea knife to cut througha condiment/spice(anda

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condiment/spicethatcanbe in groundfonn or as acreamyliquid). Imagine the looks on the facesof thosetrying to understandthe phrase"cut the mustard."Yes, the words are all English, but the phraseitself is an idiom, and not onetaughtin basic(or probablyevenadvanced)English languagecourses. Similarly, a few weekslater in the classroomwhen I was discussing workers' compensationpolicies and a legal case,the narrative talked about an injury, proper use of chemicalsin the workplace, and a supervisor'sdirectiveto an employeeto use"elbow grease"insteadof a harsh chemical cleaner.The legal record has several sentencesabout how the "elbow grease"causedrepetitive motion injury. Once again, severalperplexedfaces and then questionsfrom a studentwhose primary languagewas not English: "What is elbow grease?Wheredo you buy it? What can it do?" Once again, those from outside the United Statesdid not understanda commonEnglish phrase.In the classroom, one needsto be careful aboutsuchphrases. Genderalso plays a role in the language.Examplesin the classroom of comparisonto certainsportsactivities or sportslanguagemay be advantageousto one gender(the male)comparedto the female. It is no secretthat male English-speakingstudentsratherthan female Englishspeakingstudentsmore easily understandfootball tenns. Add to the confusiona lack of knowledgeof the sport itself, and the female nonEnglishstudentwill be lost in any analogythat was meantto be a learning moment.Examplesin the classroomof comparisonto motheringor "girlish" languagemay be advantageous to onegender(the female)comparedto the male. It is no secretthat referencesto cooking,recipemodification, cosmeticscomparison,menstruation,andmenopausalsymptoms often leave males wondering what languageare they hearing?So the languagedilemma is not just the translation,but also the culture, the genderedexperience,that surroundsthe word choice. Let us changethe location. Insteadof referencingyou as an educator in the United States,movethe languagediscussionto a remotesitewhere the non-U.S.site is the host country and the languageofthe host country is not English. What do you do? Expect your studentsto know English? It is probably not going to be so. Have a translatoravailable? Maybe, but somethingwill be "lost in translation"(as referencedin a 2003 movie by the samename). Cui and Awa (1992) demonstratethat the facility with a hostlanguageis the most importantfactor to successful internationaladaptations.While thesestudiesfocus on international

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studentscoming to the United States,I proposethat thefacility with the host languageis also appropriatefor the educatorwhen going to the remotesite. I suggestyou learn the languageof the host country. If you are unable to do this becauseof unavailabletime, or your inability to learn anotherlanguage,then, minimally, provide greetingsin memorized phoneticallyspokensoundsof the host-countrylanguage,or deliver an entirehour lecturein memorizedphoneticallyspokensoundsof the host-countrylanguage.You quickly will transcendthe barrierof language(and any genderissuewith it) and be listenedto, and accepted, and have taken the fIrst step of the communicationbridge. The crossover or acceptancewill not be becauseyou so brilliantly "spoke" the language,but becauseyou valuedthe host language,and wantedto be part of the environmentyou were in. Your effort (as meageras it may be to you) will be seenas respectfor the host country.

Cultural Similarity/Dissimilarity WhetherI teachin the United States,or outsideof the United States,I makesureevery conceptbeingtaughtis donein a comparativeframework. I am askedto teach human resourcessystemsor supervision practicesfrom anAmericanpoint of view. TheAmericanpoint of view comesalive only whenthereis understandingfrom the student'sexperience,from the student'sculture, from the student'scountry'sway of practicing humanresourcessystemsor supervision.The objective is to close the gap, or at least lessenthe gap, betweenthe educator's contentand the host country's content of a topic, as noted in signs, cues,beliefs, and values.

Reason/Motivationfor Transition Why is the educatorin the Third World country?Doesthe educatorsee himselfor herselfas a "sojourner,"as a "guest,"or as a "new residentone with a new horneT'Those with lesspermanentplans demonstrate lessacculturationinto the host environment,and lessacculturationis a needand desirefor lesscultural assimilation.The "less factor" will be obvious in the classroom.The female educatormay easily be seenas "one passingthrough," and "one passingthrough" may be seenas less credible.The educatorneedsto be clear about why she or he is in the developingnationand realizethat the reasonwill impactthe acceptance

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in the classroom.This statementis not madeto suggestthat the sojourners or the itinerantscannotbe effective; ratherthat such"sojourneying" can be a barrier. Other bridgesof communicationand acceptancewill needto be strongenoughto overcomethe sojournerperception.

Attachmentto Home Culture This variable is linked closely to the reason/motivationfor transition. J.H.W. Berry theorizedthat the mannerin whiCh one acculturatesinto the dominantculture is dependentupon how the nondominantculture's individual (the U.S. educatorin our examples)attemptsto resolvethe conflict resulting from coming into contactwith the dominantculture (cited in Sodowskyand Plake, 1992). Am I going to keep doing things the Americanway? Will I eat only Americanfood? Will I listen to only Americanmusic?Will I useonly Americanpedagogy?(This is a tough one to transcend.)Numerousstudiesdemonstratethat the longer one remainsin the hostcountry,the betteronewill adaptto it (Kealey, 1989). The educatorwho is on a semesterassignmentwill havelessacceptance than the educatorwho is on a three-year(or longer) assignment.Perhapsonly when our resistanceto change,to the new, breaksdown can we be seenas believable.

Preparation What canyou expect?How do you preparefor the adventure?Prior travel experience,formalizedcross-culturalor orientationtraining, and specific understandingof genderperceptionsin work, family, andeducationenvironmentsof the host country makethe transitionto the host country and the classroomeasier.Now allow me to be very specific for my female colleagues.You can read about gendercomparisonsand policy/practice implications in publishedresearchreports,and you can read about general suggestionsfor tourists(mostof theseguidesarewritten by men),but I have yet to find a handy guide that sayswhat I, as a woman, needto know aboutliving in a developingcountry.Are thereplacesI cannotgo? Are thererestaurantsI shouldnot enter?Are theretimes of day I should not be out and about?What about the availability of personalhygiene products?What do I need to know to be comfortable when using a restroom?Let me be specific. Many restrooms(okay, they are not restrooms,they are toilet areas)in Asia and Africa do not have a raised

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toilet (the Westernway). Rather,the toilet is a hole in the floor. Granted the hole may have a wood, stainlesssteel, or plastic ring aroundit, or it may bejust dirt, or the hole may be in a restroomareain a modembuilding. But the toilet (hole) probably sits all alone in an area,and is much closerto thegroundthanmostAmericanwomenareaccustomedto. There are likely to be no handholds,no wall to lean against,and no piece of furniture to hang onto. If you do not have the physicalcapacityto squat closeto the groundand maintainyour balancewhile you are holding up your skirt, pulling down your pants,andrelieving your body, you are in a difficult and awkward position. What travel guide suggeststhat women should practice squattingto have the "right musclesat the right time"? The point of this exampleis to know the physical requirementsof your location and be sureyou havethe physicalability beforeyou go there.

Interaction with Host Membersand the Host EnvironmentReceptivity While you, as an educator,cannotcontrol the host environmentreceptivity, you can be interactivewith the host population.Suchinteraction will result in a higher level of satisfactionwith the overseasexperience (Tomich, McWhirter, and King, 2000). Developing meaningful interpersonalrelationshipswith the "locals" is essentialto successfultransition and acceptance.It is likely that most of the assigned"hosts" of the classroomsponsorwill be male.After all, the majority of university and collegeadministratorsaremale.The leadersof the communityareprobably males. Theserelationships,by nature of most countries'perceptions of the roles of males and females,will needto be quite formal. Respectthat formality. As a female educator,look for opportunitiesto the neighborsworkinteractwith the "local females"-theshopkeepers, ing in their gardens,thosewalking pastyour residencedaily. The interactionswith the local femaleswill be an invaluableexperiencefor your understandingof genderin the locale whereyou are teaching.

Gender Somevariablescannotbe changed,or at leasteasilychanged-and gender is one suchvariable.The literaturehas numerousstudiesabout sex differencesin adjustmentto new environments,specifically studying! working abroad.While to date there is not an agreementabout which

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genderadjusts better to a sojournerexperience,Tomich, McWhirter, and King (2000,42) notethat thereis a slight genderbias favoring men in any adjustmentprocess.So, what doesthis meanfor the female educator?You go with what you have! If you focus on the other variables mentionedin this chapter,the gendervariable would not serveas your major barrier. In fact, in somesituationsthe female presencemay give you a listening ear, or at least a watchful eye, that you did not expect. The "different voice" will standout.

Age Among studentsojournerresearch,the youngerthe sojourner,thegreater the amount of contact he or she has with host nationals (Tomich, McWhirter, and King, 2000, 43). I have no explanationfor this, nor haveI seenany literature,post-1970s,that addressesthe educator'sage as a significant variable in educationof the developingnations.I have askedstudentsabout perceptionsof knowledgeand credibility of the educator,and since 1999,nearly 90 percentof the time, the developing nationstudentstressesthattheoldereducator"of coursehasmoreknowledge,moreexperience,andthereforeis morecredible."This may havea lot to do with culture expectationand respectfor the elders. More researchneedsto be donein this area.

Personality Kim (1988, 172) identifies the traits of opennessand resilienceas the most significantwithin the personalitydomainto be salientto the intercultural adaptationprocess.For the educator,this hasto meanyou need to be an adventurer.Where will the adventurespirit comefrom? There is plenty of literatureto suggestthat femalesare not risk-oriented,but I can only hopethat females,in orderto survive, havelearneda boatload of resiliencetechniques. Such are my reflections and observations,using the Tomich et al. researchaboutstudentadaptationandapplyingit to educatoradaptation.

Findings Since 1999 I have taught nearly three hundredgraduate-levelinternational students(including studentsfrom developingnations)in the United

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StatesandAsia, and I havepresentedworkshopsto more thantwo hundredparticipantsin the Asian businesssectors.At the end of eachclass, workshop, or businesspresentation,I survey the students/participants abouttheir perceptionsof the learningexperiencefor my class,andtheir perceptionsin relation to other classesor workshopstaughtby Americans within the last year. To shareall of thesedata would result in a chaptergreaterin volume than this book itself. However,I do mention for your considerationthreeconsistentfindings and elevensuggestions for educatorsin multicultural settings.

Finding 1 Always createan environmentof respect.Studentsreportthat "the gender of the instructoris not noticed" if the teachingand learningenvironmentis oneof respectfor all. Waysto showrespectincludepronouncing the student'snamecorrectly,usingappropriateeyecontactandgestures, and being interestedin the country of the student.The trainer shows respectwhensheor he is locationcomfortableandknowledgeable,makes an attempt at the local language,and is aware of local news and the global impact of the country one is in.

Finding 2 A comparativeapproachto the subjectmatteris preferred.Use the students'experiencesandknowledge,andthe hostcountry'sperspectivein comparisonto the United States,when teaching about U.S. policies, practices,andprocedures.If you are in a classroomwith mUltiple country experiences,the comparisonswill be evenricherfor the studentsand for the educator.

Finding 3 Make evaluationstandardsknown. In many learningenvironments,the final evaluationor grade of the studentdetermineswork opportunity, statusin the community, and assignmentof leadership.Provide feedback to the studentsat regularintervals in such a way that there is no surprisewhen a final gradeis issued.Also, stateearly your (the educator) position on negotiatinggrades.Somestudentscomefrom cultures wherenegotiatinggradesis as expectedand commonas breathing,eating, and drinking. If your standardsare set, say so and stick to them.

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Suggestions

All of the abovecan seemoverwhelming.Keep in mind that the question for us as educatorsis not only how and what we teach,but also how canwe createa circle of learnersthat accommodates the different needsand experiencesyet encouragesall to approachthe materials with a broader,multicultural vision? Genderis part of the different needs,different experiences,and broadermulticultural vision. Some suggestionsfor creatingthe circle of learners,no matterwhat thesubject matter, are: 1. Learn to pronounceall namesin the class. 2. Use groups-noone shouldhaveto learn alone.When assembling groupsusea different languageeachweekto "count off." 3. Combineand mix males and females;the young and the old; the U.S. studentwith the internationalstudent. 4. Mix teachingmethods-writing,reading,speaking;visual, oral, andauditorystimulation;groupandsolo; in-classandtake-home assignments. 5. Providea written note outline for eachclasssession. 6. Encouragetaperecordingin the classroom. 7. Where possible,have students"keyboard" (on a typewriter or computer)assignments. 8. Allow studentsto practicetheir presentations.Use the trial-run experience. 9. Sharethe ethnic and country affiliations-usethe comparative approach. 10. Be availablebeforeclass,after class,and during classfor question and answerdialogue. 11. Listen, look, and affirm the learners! Culture, with Gender, Is Dynamic and a Struggle

"Culture is dynamic,complex,interactive,and changing,yet a stabilizing force in humanlife" (Gay, 2000,77). Genderis part of cultureandis dynamic in our perceptions.Linda Frankel (1993, 100) provides the Kanter and Schusterand Van Dyne studiesto set the genderframe of reference.FrankelreferencesKanter'sstatement"literature on females in the workplacemakesclearthat women in positionsof authority call

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forth confusedandambivalentreactions."FrankelprovidesSchusterand Van Dyne to setthe cultural contextof genderfor us: "In orderto make senseof the anomalyof a woman with public power, thosewith whom they interactattemptto casttheminto morefamiliar roles, for example, 'mother'or 'battle-ax'(what Kantercalls the 'iron maiden').Therefore, the ability both to nurture studentsand to model respectof engagingin challenging intellectual work without being forced into a conflicting role is a constantstruggle" (Frankel, 1993, 100). The struggle-thechallengeof gender-ispresentfor educatorsand for students.The struggle,itself, however,canbe a catalystfor creating a circle of learners,worldwide.

References Brunner,A.1. 1996.The Culture ofEducation.Cambridge,MA: HarvardUniversity Press. Cui, G., and N.E. Awa. 1992."MeasuringInterculturalEffectiveness:An Integrative Approach."InternationallournalofIntercultural Relations16, no. 3: 311-328. Diamond,B.1., andM.A. Moore. 1995.Multicultural Literacy: Mirroring the Reality of the Classroom.New York: Longman. Frankel,L. 1993. "A Circle of Learners:TeachingAbout Gender,Raceand Class." In Multicultural Teachingin the University,ed.D. Schoem,L. Frankel,X. Zuniga, and E.A. Lewis, 95-109.Westport,CT: Praeger. Gay, G. 2000. Culturally ResponsiveTeaching: Theory, Research,and Practice. New York: TeachersCollegePress. Gentemann,K.M., and T.L. Whitehead. 1983. "The Cultural Broker Conceptin Bicultural Education."Journal ofNegro Education52, no. 2: 118-129. Gilligan, C. 1982.In a Different Voice. Cambridge,MA: HarvardUniversity Press. Kealey, D.1. 1989. "Explaining and PredictingCross-culturalAdjustmentand Effectiveness:A Study of CanadianTechnicalAdvisors Overseas."Unpublished doctoraldissertation,Queen'sUniversity, Kingston, Ontario,Canada. Kim, Y.Y. 1988. Communicationand Cross-cultural Adaptation: An Integrative Theory. Philadelphia:Multilingual MattersLtd. Ladson-Billings,G. 1992. "ReadingBetweenthe Lines and Beyond the Pages:A Culturally RelevantApproachto Literacy Teaching." Theory into Practice 31, no. 4: 312-320. Porter,R.E., and L.A. Samover.1991."Basic PrinciplesofInterculturalCommunication." In Intercultural Communication:A Reader,6th ed., ed. L.A. Samover and R.E. Porter,5-22. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Sodowsky,G.R., andB.S. Plake.1992."A Studyof AcculturationDifferencesAmong InternationalPeopleandSuggestionsfor Sensitivityto Within-groupDifferences:' Journal of Counselingand Development71: 53-59. Staudt,K. 1998. Policy, Politics and Gender.WestHartford, CT: KumarianPress. Stromquist,N. 1992. "Introduction." In Womenand Educationin Latin AmericaKnowledge,Power; and Change.Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.

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Tomich, P., J.J. McWhirter, and M.U. Darcy. 2003. "Personalityand International International Education33, no. 1: 22-39. Students'Adaptation Experience." Tomich, P., J.J. McWhirter, and W.E. King. 2000. "InternationalStudentAdaptation: Critical Variables."International Education29, no. 2: 37-46. United NationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP). 1995.HumanDevelopmentReport 1995. New York: Oxford University Press. United NationsEducational,Scientific, andCultural Organization(UNESCO).1995. World EducationReport1995. New York: Oxford University Press. Wilkinson, L.c., and C.B. Marrett (eds.). 1985. GenderInfluencesin Classroom Interaction. Orlando,FL: AcademicPress.

4 Strategic Marketing of Training Initiatives in Underdeveloped Countries: The Case of Swaziland John L. Daly

At the dawn ofthe twenty-first century,thereis growing interestin the sharing of policy and management"success"stories and innovative training methodologies.This is an importantpart of addressingpublic policy problems.Global training is gaining increasedapplicationespecially in underdevelopednations. This chapteroffers eight strategies for increasedparticipantacceptanceof training when providedin other cultural settings. Internationaltraining and useof technicalassistancearegrowing in underdeveloped nationstoday as neverbefore.In part, this escalation is due to a numberof factors: for example,the demiseof the Soviet Union, increasedemphasison democracyand self-governance,and the unrelentingmove toward the globalization of ideas and progressive administrativepractices.Alufohai (1997) indicatesthat political and businessleadersin Africa must continue in the global push for high standardsand professionalism,as they seekcreativeand flexible ways of managingorganizations.Otherwise,they face the risk of losing the opportunity to meet acceptableuniversal standards.The new focus is on actively involved leadership,linking humancapitalto measurableproductivity outcomes,and programsthat result in the continuousimprovementof goodsand/orservicesprovidedto customers, clients, or citizens. Calls for assistancefrom AmericanandWestEuropeanexpertsoccur almostdaily to aid underdeveloped nationsin effectively addressingmany 49

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naggingsocial andenvironmentalproblems.Sharingideasand successful methodologiesthatcanbereplicatedin underdeveloped governments is commendable.The hope is that by bringing in technical assistance programsand strategies,theseefforts will result in mitigating frequent persistentadministrativeand managerialproblems (for example,program inefficiency, high policy failure rates, internal fraud, corruption, and mismanagement). It is a great honor to be selectedto shareexpertisewith government officials and their civil servicepersonnelin an underdevelopedsetting. The trainermustcertainly havethe skills, knowledge,ability, and talent to assistthesenations'officials. Such ability is clearly necessaryto introduceideasthat effectively lead to change.Theseskills are a necessary condition, but they are not likely to be a sufficient condition if the desiredmaximumbenefitsare to be realized.In thesespecialsettings, understandingthe local culture and associatedorganizationalnorms placesa significantimpacton training outcomes(Kemper, 1998).Gaining the attentionof and participationfrom targetedofficials and managerswill requirethe skillful useof marketingstrategies.Thus,the problem identified here is that the context surroundingthe training is as important, and possibly more so, as the programcontentoffered. An understanding of the significanceof context is critical. In some instances expatriatemanagersand consultantsform negativeattitudesconcerning the abilities of their African colleagues(Maclachlan, 1993). Attitudes may be more associatedwith the trainer's misunderstandingof indigenousvaluesand culture ratherthan the trainees'cognitive abilities. This chapterposits eight marketing strategiesthat can be employed to enhancetraining effectivenessin underdevelopednations.This is an aspectof academictraining oftentimesmisunderstoodwhenAmerican and West Europeanpublic administrationconsultantsprovide training andtechnicalassistancein ''Third andFourthWorld" settings.The eight strategiesarticulatedhere are basedupon ten months of training and technicalconsultingexperiencesprovidedto the Kingdom of Swaziland governmentwhile serving as a Fulbright Senior Scholarin 1998 and 1999 with that nation'sleadingmanagementand public administration training institute. Thesestrategiesare presentedas "food for thought" for individuals who may be traveling to similar cultural settingsto provide training and technicalassistance.A caveatto theserecommendations, however,is that onealwaysmustbe vigilant to the specialaspects of the culturewhereonewill be interacting.What holdstrue in Swaziland

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may not necessarilybe completelyreplicatedin anothersetting.Nonetheless,the strategiespresentedherewill encouragetrainersto think beyond the contentof knowledgethat they wish to present.They will gain greater cognizanceof the importancethat context,especiallylocal culture, plays in successfullyintroducing meaningfulprogramsresulting in innovative changeand increasedprogramand policy successes.

The Use of Marketing-OrientationStrategies The implementationof marketingstrategiestailoredto theculturalnorms and needsof a local population adds significant value to a program's offering. In the caseof Swaziland,therewas a tendencyto questionthe applicability of "Western" training methodologiesin the operationof governmentalprograms.Concernsexistedamonglocal officials that what worked elsewhere wouldlose value in local governmentas the gaps betweenWestern"best practices"and local culture were just too great to bridge. Training credibility, legitimacy, and trust may be in jeopardy underthe bestof circumstances. Thus,proactiveefforts to gain increased visibility and credencefrom local governmentalleadersand program participantsshouldbe consideredintegralpartsof the training plan prior to launchingthe initiative.

The StrategicMarketing Gambit The eight strategicrecommendations are a meansfor fostering support and participation. Much of what is recommendedstemsfrom simple commonsense.Certainly, a trainer, undernormal circumstances,might well expectsimilar actionsto be takenin his or her homeenvironment. However,when overseasin underdeveloped countries,the guesttrainer might take for grantedthat the host country will automaticallyinsure that activeparticipationexistsfor useof outsideexpertise.During short trips (for example,two weeksor less),the visiting trainerprobablywill not be able to influencethe training environmentsignificantly, as time simply will not permit activeinvolvementin fosteringthe recommendations statedhere. Under these situations,the trainer must rely on the "host" government'sstaff to setthe stagefor implementingthesestrategic recommendations.While the trainer will not be presentto ensure that thesestrategiesarecarriedout, sheor he nonethelessshouldremain in contactwith the host staff, requestingthat efforts be madeto follow recommendations.

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Strategy1. Gain the HighestLevelofInstitutional SupportPossible The first strategyresults from the belief that training initiatives supportedby highly positioned,visible governmentofficials will increase the level of overall participationfrom lower-levelstaff. Thus,high-level supportfor a training initiative may well influencewho will attend,how many officials will attend, and what level of active participation will occuramongattendees.Clearly, initiatives gaining the approvaland attendanceof a nation'sprime ministerwill gamerthe attentionof cabinetlevel departmentsand their staffs. Strategicactionsthat can be taken underthesecircumstancesto get the highestlevel of supportinclude: • Seekwritten and verbal supportfrom highly placed officials, for example,the prime minister'soffice andcabinet-levelministers.In some instances,a central figure will serve as a gatekeeperfor executive-levelaccess.In the Swazilandgovernment,the civil service secretaryto governmentoften servesthis purpose.Clearly, obtainingcorrespondence on official letterheadwill addlegitimacy to the upcomingtraininginitiative. Verbal supportat regularlyscheduled meetingsof key governmentexecutivesis also a meansfor strengtheninglegitimacy and getting the announcementof the upcoming training disseminatedto all governmentaldepartments. • Publicizing training also will requirethe host agencyto sendout a known and respectedcontactpersonto spreadthe word in key departments.In Swaziland,well-respectedandhighly articulatemembers of the training staffs often servedas "training ambassadors" for thosetraining initiatives whereexecutive-and senior-levelparticipation was sought.Throughtheseefforts it was possibleto ascertainwhetheror not additionalexecutive-levelinterventionwould be neededto ensureparticipation.Generally,in thesesituationsa telephonecall from a highly placedofficial would suffice to ensure increasedparticipantenrollment. • Wheneverpossible,encouragea leading official to serve as the openingspeakerto the workshop. Officialsalso shouldbe encouraged to participatein closing ceremonies.If possible,have these officials handout "certification of completion"awardsto add further credenceto the initiative.

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Using thesemethodssendsforceful and positive signalsto prospective participants.Whenthey believethat the training initiative is consideredvaluableto their bossor their boss'sboss,they will be more likely to participate,if for no other reasonthan the desireto be seenin the presenceof other importantgovernmentofficials. Creatingthe impression in participants'mindsthat this training is respected,important,and valuedby the bestand brightestwill result in maximizing participation and interestin the subjectat hand.

Strategy2. SelectResidentCofacilitators as Coinstructors of the Training Initiative Successfultraining initiatives must be framed in a context familiar to the particular administrativeand managerialexperiencesof the audience.Gainingrapportwith one'saudienceis critical to passingon ideas and expertise.In certaincases,the trainer canaskfor a facilitator to aid in the translationof conceptsand ideas in a more relevantand understandableway to the participantpool. Put more succinctly, sometimes the meaningof one'sideasgetslost in the translation. The local "cofacilitator" who hasreceivedsometraining and education in an overseaseducationalinstitution will be particularly valuable in theseseminars.This personwill have both an understandingof the coursecontentas well as the ability to transformtheseconceptsinto local experiencesrelevantto the needsof the audience.Coproductionof training is also valuable, as it provides the "outside" trainer with increasedunderstandingof where content conceptsapply or are mismatchedwithin thelocal culture.Thus,theresidentfacilitator ascotrainer addsincreasedlegitimacy to the processandensuresthat the messageis transferredin a mannerunderstoodby the audience.This approachalso provides meaningful feedbackto the trainer that the audienceunderstandsher or his ideasand concepts.

Strategy3. SelectPrestigiousTraining SitesThat EncourageAttendance In Swaziland,the training location was critical. If a less-desirablelocation had been chosen,participation attendancewould have been lower. The more prestigiousthe site selected,the greaterthe likelihoodthat higherplacedofficials in governmentwould attend.Clearly,

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the preferredsites would be at those facilities that cateredextensively to internationaltourismandcasinogambling.Here,one could expectgreatercomfort in terms of food and lodging as well as better facilities and equipmentfor training. Such amenitieswere important to the Swazi officials as they consideredwhetheror not to participate in the initiative. Often these facilities were far away from the office. This helpedmaintainminimal interferenceof "emergency" phonecalls from their offices. Cellular telephonetechnology was being introducedto Swazilandin the late 1990s, so this advantagewill certainly be diminishedin future initiatives. In such cases,the trainer will haveto requestthat cellular phonesbe turned off and that messagesbe held by resort hotelstaff until scheduled seminarbreak periods.

Strategy4. Gain Training LegitimacyThrough External Funding and FinancialSupport Willingnessto attendand participatealsocanbe influencedpositively through the sponsorshipof internationallyrecognizedorganizations. Examplesof sponsorswho frequently lend their supportand financial assistanceto governmentaltraining initiatives include the United Nations (UN) agencies(for example,UN DevelopmentProgramme,Joint UN Programmeon HIV / AIDS, UN DevelopmentFund for Women), World Health Organization,InternationalMonetary Fund, European Community,U.S. agencies(for example,U.S. Agencyfor International Developmentas well asotheragencieswithin the Departmentsof State, Commerce,Defense, andAgriculture). In addition, private multinational corporationsandfoundationsoften supportdevelopmentcauses in underdevelopedsettings. Financial supportis a key aspectto successin introducing training initiatives. Often thereare few to no otherresourcesavailableto support suchendeavors.When the costsfor training are incurredby outside donors, and there is internal legitimacy signaledthrough active supportand involvementof national leaders,one shouldexpectminimization of barriers to the initiation of such programs.Under these circumstancesgreaterattentioncan be given to developingand delivering the training content rather than on the processof convincing officials to attend. Onecaveat,however,is warrantedhere.Financialsupportalonewill

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not be a sufficient condition for training successand/orchangeeffectiveness.Enthusiasticattendees,actively participatingin programs,are necessaryand conducivefor change,but thoseattendeesstill must be convincedthat changeis in their bestinterestsbeforeeffective behavior modification can occur. Strategy5. PromoteMedia SupportPrior to and Following the Training Seminar Training participationalso can be facilitated through active and effective useof the local media.This is particularly true with regardto print media. Participantsappreciateseeingthemselvesin action in the pagesof their local newspapers.Creating such visibility, both before the training seminarand especially immediately following the completionof the initiative, can reap major returns to the prestige of the training and the potentialfor future involvementof course participants.As a rule of thumb: • Picturesspeaklouderthanwords.Keepa cameraloadedandmake sure many photosare taken of the group in action. Aggressively seekto have thesephotos publishedin governmentand private newspapersandjournals.If the training occursover a numberof days,seekto havethe photospublishedwhile the seminaris still in session.This will createadditionalinterestamongparticipants, especiallywhen new photosare taken. • Be preparedto write short news releasesand summaryarticles about the seminar.This should occur both before and following the activity. Doing so beforehandalertsthe pressin casethey want to provide "free" advertising or wish to send a reporter to the event.Follow-upssignal to the pressthat individuals believethis to be a newsworthy activity. Often, the best meansof ensuring that the mediacoverthe training is to developthe productpersonally for mediareplication. • Promotionof theseeventsis important,not only to the successof the seminarbut also to the participantsin attendance.They want to believethat their training time was spentwisely and that others perceiveit to be of value to their development.Visible exposure of this natureis valuedby the participantsand keepsthem coming to theseevents.

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Strategy6. Keepthe Training ConceptsSimple,and in an "Unjargoned"Format

It is importantto rememberthat personalexperiences,the basisof understandingand thinking, comefrom anotherculture. Even simple assumptionsabouttraining,for example,themeaningof words,whenboth partiesspeakEnglish, will be testedin the training environment(Daly, 2001). Wordsoftenhavedifferentmeaningsin different societies.Simple practicessuchaseyecontactmay be expectedfrom one cultural framework but be offensivein another. Nothing should be assumedwith regardto the participants'knowledgebase,especiallywhendiscussingexperiencesfrom a cultural backgroundquite differentfrom thoseparticipants.Try to commencetraining usinglocal eventsandpublic policy initiatives to gain increasedvalidity and understandingamong the audience.The local expert cofacilitator will be an excellentsourcefor examplesand shouldbe preparedto intervenewhen she or he believesthat training conceptsare not understood(or are misunderstood)by courseparticipants. The bestrule of thumb is to keeplanguageand conceptssimple and to the level of the participants.Jargonand acronymsshouldbe avoided unlessthey arefirst explainedto ensurethe audiencehasfull awareness of concepts.Rememberthat nothing will be learnedunlesstrainerparticipantcommunicationis in sync. Strategy7. EngageYourAudienceThroughActive Participation. Place Themin the Position of Making SubstantiveContributions

In somecultural settings(Swazilandincluded) training can be a challenging anddifficult process.Someculturesplaceemphasison showing respectfor authority figures such as a group leaderor field expert. In part, this can result in deterringthe discussionbecausecourseparticipantsmay feel that respondingto questionstakesaway from the expertise of the instructor. In addition, participantsmay be concernedthat their peerswill perceivethemas "know-it-alls" who arepracticingselfpromotion tactics.Thus, engagingone'saudiencemay be challenging and will require"ice-breaker"and"warm-up" exercisesthat encourage them to speakfreely and frequently. On the other hand,excitementand enthusiasmcan result when asking the group to assessnonthreateninglocal public policy problems.

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Recentlypublishedarticles in local newspaperscan be excellenttools for dialoguedevelopmentas well as a meansfor introducingconceptsto reinforce in the minds of the participants.It is importantto chooseissuesthat areunderstoodby the audiencebut arenot politically threatening or highly controversial.One examplethat was usedin Swaziland revolvedaroundthe Swazirailroadsystem,which hada numberof years of profitability but experiencedlossesin the prior years.In this instance, participantshadknowledgeof the problem,wereprovidednewsarticles to provide summaryinformation, and spokefreely abouthow management might introducechangesto regain the railroad'sprofitability and stability. The caseexampleresultedin active participation.It was not politically threatening,and it reinforcedconceptsof managementthat had beenintroducedprior to discussionof the caseanalysis. Gainingactiveinvolvementis critical to training success.Participants want to sharetheir ideasandexperiences(especiallywhen their input is deemedacceptablein the seminarsetting).It is importantto remember that the facilitator is the outsiderwho knows the leastabout how local conditions influence managementconceptsand policy practicesto be implementedin the local context. Therefore,it is critical to inform and broadenthe knowledgebaseof attendeesso they can digestthesenew ideas and formulate the potential for application of thoseideas within their own governancestructures.The initiative will fail if more than 50 percentof training time is consumedby instructorlecturing. The audienceneedsto talk, think, and make decisionson how to integratethe ideasthat havebeenpresentedfor consideration.This will createa "feelgood" effect within the participantpool. Whenparticipantsbelievethey areactively contributingto the knowledgeandlearningbasein thecourse, they will increasetheir level of acceptanceof new conceptsandbe more likely to usethe ideasin their workplaces.

Strategy8. Producea Training ProceedingsDocument Shortly Following the Completionofthe Training Seminar. Make Sure That Each Participant Is Providedwith This Resource A [mal strategicrecommendation for strengtheningtheacceptance of training and learning potential is to developand distribute seminarproceedings following the completionof the initiative. This documentreviewsthe primary conceptspresentedin the coursetraining, reiteratesthe thoughtsof programparticipants,andprovidesthoughtful group-basedrecommenda-

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tions for changediscussedin seminarproceedings.The documentis valuable,as it becomesa meansfor review of materialsas well as a tool for implementationof new ideasand managementstrategiesdiscussed (and in someinstancesrecommended)throughgroup communication. Hard documentationis also important becauseit signifies that concreteand tangibleideaswere formulatedthroughthe training initiative. Suchdocumentationcanbecomea focal point of discussionwithin governmentand may be the impetusfor changein policy guidelinesand/or program practices.Furthermore,a proceedingsdocumentencourages executivegovernmentalofficials to recognizethat positive ideas and outcomesresultedfrom this program,and valuewas addedto the governanceprocessthroughthis initiative. Conclusion Launching training, under the best of circumstances,often results in less-than-optimaloutcomesin termsof changingtraineework behavior and performanceon the job (Kirkpatrick, 1996).The provision of training becomesevenmorechallengingwhenconductedby a trainerwhose cultural and organizationalcontextmay be far removedfrom the experiencesthe audiencehas in its members'own organizationalframework. Under theseconditions,where trainer and participantscome from different cultural settings,greatereffort may be neededto gain the attention of the participantandto overcomenaturalbarriersto acceptingwhat is beingcommunicatedthroughthe workshop.In theseinstances,greater strategicfocus must be given to the identification and utilization of effective marketingstrategies. Note This chapteris reprintedwith permissionfrom Public PersonnelManagement,a publication of the InternationalPublic ManagementAssociationfor Human Resources(IPMA-HR) 31, no. 3 (Fa112002);www.ipma-hr.org.

References Alufohai, DesmondU. 1997. "Africa Emerges:It Is Ready!" ManagementReview 86, no. 9: 62, 63. Daly, John L. 2001. "Strategic Suggestionsfor Survival When Providing Public AdministrationTraining in Under-DevelopedSettings:The Caseof Swaziland." Public PersonnelManagement30, no. 1 (Spring): 47-55.

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Kemper, CynthiaL. 1998. "Global Training's Critical SuccessFactors."Training and Development52, no. 2: 35-37. Kirkpatrick, DonaldL. 1996."GreatIdeasRevisited:RevisitingKirkpatrick's FourLevels." Training and Development50, no. 1: 54-57. Maclachlan,Malcolm. 1993."SustainingHumanResourceDevelopmentin Africa: The Influenceof Expatriates."ManagementEducationand Development(Summer): 167-172.

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Part II Training in Specific Fields

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5 Training for Development Administration: Historical Perspectives AmbeJ. Njoh

It is four decadessincerenowneddevelopmentplannerAlbert Waterston (1965;249) observedregrettablythat theadministrativesystemsof governmentsin less developedcountries(LDCs) are incapableof dealing with the range,variety, and complexity of administrativeproblemspresentedby developmentplanning. This statementholds as true today, especiallyin Africa, as it did whenit wasfirst madein the 1960s.At that time mostAfrican countrieshadjust won their independence from Europeancolonial powers.Thusit was conceivablethat developmentplanning could posea challengeto the emergingleadership.What is difficult to understandis that today, four decadeslater, African countriesremain incapableof administeringdevelopment.At the sametime the administrative problemshave grown more complex. Perhapseven more noteworthy is thefact thattheadministrativesystemsin thesecountriesremain virtually unchangedand unpreparedto deal with the new challenges.If the systemsare anachronistic,it is becausethey weredevelopedaround a nucleusthat was establishedby colonial authorities.The goalsof these authoritiesdiffer sharplyfrom, and in somecasesare in diametricopposition to, thoseof their contemporarygovernmentsin the region. Drawing attentionto administrativeineptitudein African countriesin particular and less developedcountriesin generalis not novel. To be sure, there is no shortageof works designedto identify and analyze factors impeding administrativeefforts in these countries.What is in 63

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short supply are works aimedat crafting sustainablestrategiesfor dealing with thesefactors. Thus, faced with an administrativeproblem,administratorsin Africa havefew or no sourcesto which they canturn for advice.This book in particularand this chapterin generalseekto close this lacuna.The purposeof this chapteris to draw attentionto previous efforts to improve administrativeeffectivenessin developingcountries in generalandAfrican countriesin particular. Major Trendsin Efforts to ImproveAdministrative Effectivenessin LDCs Efforts to improve administrativeeffectivenessin developingcountries in generaland African countries in particular have a long history. In Africa, theseactivities coincided with the widespreaddecolonization movementthat occurredduring the mid-twentiethcentury.Activities of this genrewerepartof a largereffort to improveliving conditionsthroughout the world during the post-WorldWar II era.At this time, the ideaof granting independenceto what were then Europeancoloniesin Africa had alreadybeenaccordedseriousthought. Consequently,there was a need to preparethe emergingnations for self-rule and governance. This needwas promptedby recognitionof a flawed characteristicof the administrativesystemsof thesecountries.The systemshad been establishedin the colonies as outpostsof the metropolitancivil service andassignedthe lesscomplextasksof maintaininglaw and order, as well as revenuecollection. Hence,they were in no way capableof coping with the more arduoustaskof implementingcomplexdevelopment policies. Before long, the needto developthe appropriatekinds of administrativemachineryin thesecountrieshad becomean overriding internationalconcern. The activities triggeredby recognitionof this needconstitutewhat becameknown in developmentcirclesasinstitutionaldevelopment.These activities can be convenientlydiscussedunder three major categories correspondingwith the three major phasesthey have undergonesince their inception in the 1950sas follows (Graham, 1968; Harnmergren, 1983; Israel, 1987): • classicaladministrativereforms (1950s-mid-1960s) • institution building (mid-1960s--early1970s) • institution development(mid-1970s-present)

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ClassicalAdministrative Reforms(1950s-mid-1960s) Although nevera colonial masternation, the U.S. governmentplayeda leadingrole in preparingthe erstwhileEuropeancoloniesin Africa for self-governance.Efforts in this regardtook the form of technicalassistanceprojectsand programsdesignedto accelerateeconomicdevelopment. Additional technical assistanceprojects were directed toward developingthe health,education,andagriculturalsectors.It did not take long for those chargedwith the responsibility to implement these projects-includingexpertsfrom various U.S.-baseduniversities and international governmentaland nongovernmentalorganizations-to encountera numberof difficulties in the process.Prominentamongthese difficulties was the problemof administrativeineptitude.Thus, for the first time, there was a growing consensusthat financial, human, and other materialresourceswere necessary,but not sufficient, for the successof efforts aimedat implementingsocioeconomicdevelopmentprograms in the developing world. This growing sentimentled to the incorporationof administrativestrengtheningactivities into technical assistanceprogramsandprojectson theAfrican continent.Accordingly, internationalchangeagentsensuredthe inclusionof a corpsof advisors whose primary role was to improve administrativeperformance,particularly as it had to do with developmentproject implementation. Like the otherresourcescommittedto the technicalassistance projects, the advisorsoriginatedmostly from the United States.Thus one notable featureof early efforts to strengthenadministrativecapacityin Africa is the fact that they wereexternallydriven. It is thereforehardly any wonder that elementsof the administrativesystemsof African countrieshavealways possessed a striking resemblanceto thoseof the West, particularly the United States.The advisors,particularlythosewho werechargedwith the responsibilityof crafting morefunctional systemsof administrationin theemergingnationsin Africa, drew generouslyfrom theworks of Chester Barnard(1938),Max Weber(1947),and membersof the classicalschool of organizationalthought,comprisingLutherGulick andLyndall Urwick (1937),FrederickTaylor (1911), and Henri Fayol (1949). To the extent that the early administrativereformersin Africa and otherdevelopingareasdrew from the works of the aforementionedthinkers, they concentratedtheir efforts on the internal componentsof administrative units. Accordingly, they emphasizedinternal aspectsof administrationsuch as structure,processes,personnel,budgeting,and

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management.A noteworthycontributionin especiallythe latter respect hasto do with the managementinstitutesthat were createdby the Ford and Rockefellerfoundations(Njoh, 1990; Israel, 1987). Other major contributionsin this connectionincludethe training andscholarshipprogramsthat were designedto improve the technicallevel of nationalbureaucraciesin the emergingnations(Hammergren,1983). The intellectualsophisticationof the modelsand theories,as well as the impressivequalificationsof the advisorsnotwithstanding,the classical administrativereform efforts registeredwoefully disappointing results. It took until the 1960sfor this failure to be widely acknowledged.Why did the models, which had proven quite successfulin the advancedworld, fail to registerpositive resultsin the developingcountries?Reasonsfor theseunimpressiveresultshavealwaysbeenplentiful but were generallyattributedto the lack of congruencebetweenthe origin of the modelsand wherethey were employed.More specifically as a number of early analystssuggested(for example,Eisenstadt,1967; EsmanandBruhns,1966;Riggs, 1964;Heady,1984;Bryant andWhite, 1982; and Corwin, 1987),the failure was a function of the fact that: (1) administrativesystemsin Africa were a melangeof traditional foundations andWesternconcepts/models, which were largely unableto function in the manner originally intended; (2) the entire processwas dominatedby foreign advisors,who knew little aboutthe environment in which they were operating;and (3) reform was seenas a one-step processwith a definite beginning and end. Perhapsthe most succinct andpersuasivecommentaryon why classicalreform efforts weregenerally unsuccessfulis that of LawrenceGraham(1968). Grahamcharges that the reform efforts had no chanceof succeeding,particularly becausethe techniquesof scientific managementwere indiscriminately applied without paying sufficient attentionto the humanelementsand the functional requirementsof preexistingadministrativestructures.He went on to argue(Graham,1968,38): "In many respectsthe administrative conceptsimported from abroadand the individuals identified with themhavesetthe sceneandconditionedthe solutionsofferedto specific problemsin the public personnelfield." The failure and consequentcriticisms of the classicalreform efforts signaleda needto uncovermore workable alternativesto dealing with the nagging problem of administrativeineptitude inAfrica. Efforts to respondto this needresultedin the birth of the institution building (IB) initiatives in the mid-1960s.

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The Institution Building Tradition (mid-1960searly 1970s) One featurethat distinguishedthe activities falling underthe rubric of IB from thosediscussedaboveis their recognitionof fact that improving administrativeperformancerequireda lot more than the simple injection of financial and cognateresources.Those involved in the IB movementwere bent on avoiding someof the pitfalls of previousefforts. One of the stepstakenin this regardentailedensuringthe establishmentof standards,norms,and basicvaluesof public administration commensuratewith the environmentin which they were working. As was the casewith the classicaladministrativereform efforts discussed above,thoseinvolved in this processoriginatedlargely from the United States,and includeduniversities,academics,and internationaldevelopment agencies.Their efforts were informed by the dogmathat "to build or changean institution is to establisha stableset of desiredbehaviors in a particularplace and time" (UNDTCD, 1982, 5). It is this doctrine that inspired the appellation"institution building" in referenceto the efforts of the scholarsand practitioners,who were on contractto internationaldevelopmentagenciesand as statedearlier, drawn in large part from university faculties in the United States. One of the earliestand best-knownactivities in this connectionwas thejoint funding by the Ford Foundationand the U.S. Agencyfor InternationalDevelopment(USAID) of the InternationalUniversity Research Programon Institution Building (IRPIB). This was a major IB program involving four major universities:the University of Pittsburgh(Graduate Schoolof Public and InternationalAffairs), Michigan StateUniversity, IndianaUniversity, andSyracuseUniversity. This was soonfollowed by the creation, under the auspicesof the Committeeon Institutional Cooperationof the Agency for InternationalDevelopment(CIC-AID), of the Midwest Universities Consortiumfor InternationalActivities (MUCIA). With memberuniversities,includingWisconsin,Ohio State, Purdue,North Carolina,Missouri, andUtah State,this consortiumwas headquarteredat the University of Wisconsin, Madison. These programshad slightly different focuses.While the IRPIB was focusedon improving the performanceof public administrationsystems,MUCIA's focus was on agricultural systems(Adeyemi, 1984,35).However,the objectiveremainedthe samein both cases:to build systemscapableof creatingeffective environmentallinkages.Again, as notedearlier, the

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emphasison establishinga bridge betweenadministrativesystemsand the environmentin which they operated-thatis, institutionalizationdistinguishedIB from classicalreform efforts. Thus ratherthan simply assumethe value-neutralityof Westernmodels and tools and proceed with transferringthemto Africa andotherdevelopingregions,therewas a well-orchestratedattemptto ensurea "fit" between formandsubstance (Njoh, 1990). A noteworthydevelopmentin the history of the IB tradition was the invention of the IB model. At the forefront of this effort was Milton Esmanof the University of Pittsburgh(for example,seeEsman,1972; EsmanandBruhns,1966;Eaton,1972;Blase,1986).The IB model was later to serveas the nucleusaroundwhich otherdevelopmentadministration modelswere developed.The uniquenessof the IB model derives from the fact that it paid more than passingattention to, and in fact incorporated,elementsof the surroundingenvironment.Particularly,the model is operationalizedby three setsof analytic conceptscategorized as "organizational,""interorganizational,"and "exchange"variables (Esmanand Bruhns, 1964, 328). The organizationalvariablescomprisethe following elementstypical of social organizations:(1) leadership,including the individuals responsiblefor formulating, guiding, and directing the organization's activities; (2) doctrine,including the specificationof values,objectives, and operatingproceduresthat guide the organization'sactivities; (3) program,consistingofthe organization'soutput, suchas the goodsand! or servicesit produces;(4) resources,including inputs such as equipment,infrastructure,manpower,funds, andso on; and(5) internalstructure,comprisingthe proceduresandpracticesadoptedby theorganization to facilitate the attainmentof its objectivesand goals. The interorganizationalvariablesconsistof the linkagesan organization createsbetweenitself and the other organizationsin its relevant environment.Theselinkagesmay be "enabling,""functional;' "normative," or "diffused." Enabling linkagesare relationshipsestablishedby an organizationwith other organizationsor social groups that control the resourcesit requiresin order to function properly. Functionallinkagesare relationships anorganization creates with other organizations undertakingactivitiesthatarecomplementaryto its own. Normativelinkagesare the relationshipsan organizationentersinto with otherorganizationsin its environmentin order to securethe legitimacy and values necessaryfor executingits functions. Diffused linkagesare contactsan

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organizationcreateswith the generalpublic in order to inform and be informed by the latter. Exchangevariablescomprisethe various contactsan organization createsin order to gain support from its relevantenvironmentby either structuringit, incorporatingits norms and values,or exchanging resourceswith it. Of particular significance for the purposeof this book is the fact that the IB efforts successfullycollapsedthe foregoing setsof analytic conceptsinto a dichotomycomprising"organizational" and "environmental"variables.While the organizationalvariablesremainedessentiallyunchanged,the environmentalvariableconstitutes a combinationof two variables,"interorganizational"and"exchange"both variablesexternalto the organization-inthe resultantIB model. Elsewhere(see Njoh, 1990), I further refined the model by isolating the interorganizationalvariables.As far back as the late 1970s,some analystshad underscored the needto adoptan interorganizationalperspectivein efforts to improve institutional and administrativecapacity in developingcountries(seeGanesh,1979). It is temptingto view the IB model as a theory. It is not. To be sure,it doesnot passa basiclitmus test fortheoreticalconstructs,as it is by no meansa universal statementof someregular and predictablerelationship betweentwo, or amongmore, variables.Rather,it is an analytical tool that may be usedto describesystematicallymacrosysteminteraction processesthat are designedto facilitate the developmentof social organizations(Eaton, 1972).Although it is not a theory, the IB model's ability to facilitate institutional strengtheningefforts rendersit an infinitely usefultool for management training purposes.However,the need to arm the model with predictive and explanatorypowersremainsone that hasto be met. To succeedin this endeavorwill invariably be to add yet anotherimportanttool in theadministrativecapacitybuilder'stoolbox. Unfortunately,efforts alongtheselines havebeenscantyat best.This chapterrecognizesthis gap in the literature and attemptsto addressit. An importantdistinguishingfeatureof the IB modelis that it doesmore than simply concernitself with the internal componentsof organizational units. Rather,it strivesto institutionalizenew andexistingorganizations. Efforts to improve administrativecapacity in any locale are unlikely to yield utility unlessthey are matchedwith identical efforts to institutionalize administrativeagencies.It is in this spirit that institutionality is often positedas an end stateof efforts to strengthen administrativecapacity (see for example,Ganesh,1979). From this

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vantagepoint, an organizationis said to have attainedthis stateor becomeinstitutionalized whenit is able to attract supportand legitimacy from its environment.In IB, therefore,an institution connotesa senseof permanencein termsof an organization'sbondwith, andacceptanceby, the environmentby which it is circumscribed.An institution is thus a specific form of organizationin that it includesmore than simply formal structuresand processes. As wasthe casewith the IB movement,the presentendeavorseeksto assistpracticinginstitutionbuildersasthey striveto accomplishthedaunting task of transformingadministrativeentities throughoutthe world, but especiallyin developingnations,into effective and efficient institutions. Accordingly, this chapter,like the others in this book, does not discusstheoreticalconstructsfor their own sake,but aspart of a broader schemeto improve administrativepractice. This said, we cannothelp but note that proponentsof the IB model failed to elaborateclearly the specific ways and meansthat can be employed by practitionersin orderto deal with the effectivenessproblematic that typifies a "real" organization.Nor, despiterhetoricto thecontrary, did they take the stepsnecessaryto incorporateexternalfactors in efforts to improvean organization'sperformance.Rather,IB efforts hadbecome synonymouswith social engineering,particularly becausethey incorporatednot only micro--butalsomacro--socialchangedimensions.This is evidencedby Milton Esman's(1972, 22) definition of the IB concept, which he considersto be "the planning,structuringand guidanceof new or reconstitutedorganizationswhich, (a) embodychangesin values,functions, physicaland/orsocialtechnologies,(b) establish,foster,and protect new normativerelationshipsand action patterns,and (c) obtain support and complementarityin the environment." Thoseinvolved in the IB movementwere neverable to demonstrate convincingly the ability to designinterventionmeasureswhoseinternal normsare not only toleratedby societybut are also capableof generating desirableresults.Therefore,while the IB perspectivewas successful in providing a descriptiveframework capableof highlighting areasin need of attention in organizations,it failed to go beyond the general conceptuallevel to tell practitionerswhat they had to do in order to improve the performanceof organizations.These,and other shortcomings, necessitated a rethinking of the model, which led to the emergence of the institutional development(ID) school of developmentadministration thought.

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Institutional Development (mid-1970s--present) Theterm institutionaldevelopmentin contemporarydevelopmentcircles constitutesan extensionof the conceptof institution building. However, ID is far more comprehensiveand constitutesa vast improvementover lB. The purposeof ID, like its predecessor IB, which is to improve the capacityfor developmentpolicy administration,remainsunchanged. The effort to addresssomeof the deficienciesinherentin the IB approachhasproducedseveralupshots(Brinkerhoff, 1986; Honadle,1981; Rondinelli, 1983). First, in ID, administrativecapacity takes on a new meaningin which the conceptis extendedto include questionsof organizationalbehavior.In other words, questionswith regardnot only to what an organizationis madeof in termsof structureandresources,but also(1) how these(the structureand resources)are employedto producegoods and/orservices,and (2) who are the organization'sbeneficiaries.A second departurefrom the IB and classicalreforms traditions by ID is the fact that the latter doesnot restrict itself to public-sectororganizationsas in the two former cases.In fact, lately there has beena proliferation of empirical work documentingthe importanceof strengtheningnonpublic institutions suchas local community developmentagencies,rural cooperatives,farmers' associations,rotating credit associations,and the like (Njoh, 2(03). In incorporatingtheseother entities in the conceptof ID, Brinkerhoff (1986, 19) statesthat it "involves creatingorganizationscapableof establishingand maintaininga partnershipbetweenexternalexpertiseand resourcesand local knowledgeand problem-solvingability." Third, and dovetailing into the second,ID concernsitself with developmentprojectsandtheir impacton the projectbeneficiaries.Wherenecessary, ID makesan effort to alter the behaviorof thesebeneficiaries.In this regard,"effective ID meansinfluencing client behaviorto utilize outputs so as to generateimprovedproduction,welfare, nutritional status,and so on" (Brinkerhoff, 1986, 18). Thus, ID doesnot concernitself simply with organizationsin the traditional sensebut extendsto all developmentactivities regardlessof the contextin which they occur.At present,what ID is all about is without bounds.This probably explainswhy there is currently a multitude of approachesto tackling problemsof administrative weaknessesin less developedcountries.Three principal approachesto improving institutional capacity that have been used under the general rubric ofID include(1) social learningprocess,(2) performanceimprovement, and (3) rural developmentcapacitybuilding.

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The SocialLearningProcessApproach The social learningapproachknits institutional strengtheningactivities around people.Thus it is "people-centered"developmentadministration. It sometimesconcentrates on people-centered developmentprojects and programswithin a servicedelivery system(Njoh, 1990). The approach constitutesan implicit rejection of the "cast iron" or "master plan" or blueprint approachto inducing or promotingchangein LDCs. The distinguishingmark of the social learning approachis that unlike the blueprintapproach,which emphasizesplanningfrom the top down, it advocatesthe involvementof project or programbeneficiariesfrom the formulationto the implementationstage.In effect, plansbecomethe product of a learning processin which there is a sincereexchangeof knowledgeand resourcesbetweenthe plannersand the plan beneficiaries. By creatinga conduciveenvironment,ID canmorereadily achieve a fit betweenthe needsand capacitiesof the beneficiariesand thoseof outsiderswho may be involved in the developmentprocess.This argument is intuitively appealing,particularly in light of what Rondinelli (1983) hasbrandedpolicy experiments.Developingcountriesare characterizedby uncertaintyand complexity about which plannersknow nothing,hencetheoriesof developmentwill continueto be,asthey have alwaysbeen,nothingmorethanuncertainpropositions.To translatethese propositionsinto meaningful actions, organizationsmust be open to experimentationand be preparedto acceptand learn from their errors and clients, and they must incorporatethe lessonslearnedfrom past experienceinto ongoingactions.Thosechargedwith the responsibility of providing training in LDCs will do well to underscorethe importance of acknowledgingthe uncertainnatureof the environmentand learning from history.

The PerformanceImprovementApproach The performanceimprovementapproachdrew its inspiration from the work of the U.S. Departmentof Agriculture'sProjectManagementCenter (USDA-DPMC). Someof the approach'sbasic featuresare similar to thoseof the sociallearningprocessapproachjust discussed.For instance, like the social learning processapproach,it is client-centeredand rejects predetailedproject or programdesigns. Its main objective is building, in organizations,changesthat are

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capableof causing and sustainingeffective performanceover a long period. The underlyingassumptionof this objectiveis that effective organizationsaremorelikely to win the trust of their constituencies,hence having a better chanceof being institutionalized(Brinkerhoff, 1986). Organizedactivity, accordingto this approach,must satisfy certainbasic functions, suchas clear and sharedobjectivesand agreed-uponand clearly definedroles and responsibilities.The task of the approachthus becomesoneof taking the stepsnecessaryto ensurethat the targetorganization accomplishesthesefunctions. The emphasisis on effectuating sustainedpositive changesin the organization.

The Rural DevelopmentCapacity-BuildingApproach Resultingfrom appliedresearchby a U.S.-baseddevelopmentconsulting agency,DevelopmentAlternatives Incorporated(DAI) under the auspicesof USAID, this approachessentiallycomprisesfeaturesthat were borrowedfrom the two approachesdiscussedabove.The approach has beendescribedas an "eclectic, practitioner-oriented"analytic perspectiveon ID. However,it is not asprescriptiveasthe learningapproach, nor is it as operationallyspecific as the performancemodel. One of the uniquefeaturesof the rural developmentcapacity-buildingapproachis its emphasison somedegreeof autonomouscontrol over resourcesby the organization'Sprimary beneficiaries.Suchautonomynot only actsas an incentive,but also is capableof expandingpeople'sopportunitiesto undertakesuccessfuldevelopmentby providing resourcesand servicesrequiredto enhancetheir productivity, income,andgeneralwell-being.The essenceof grantingprimary beneficiaries,the usersof the goodsand/or servicesan organizationproduces,some autonomycan be appreciated from a slightly different perspective.Here we hastento draw attentionto the fact that administrativesuccessis unlikely without participationby local people,especiallywith regardto controlling and managingthe resourcesrequiredin the developmentprocess. In practice, for instance,and with respectto agricultural improvement projects,encouraginglocal participationentails ensuringthat intendedbeneficiariescapturethe benefits accruing from projects and programs.It also meansensuringthat thosewhoseconditionsthe developmentinterventionsare intendedto improve are provided the knowledgenecessaryto determineandmanagetheir own projectsandprograms, particularly with respectto "who getswhat."

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Weaknesses ofthe ThreeApproaches Contemporaryapproachesto ID havea numberof weaknesses. The sociallearningapproach,for instance,hasbeencriticizedfor beingplagued with ideologicalovertones.It is difficult, if not impossible,to isolatein the contextof its normativeprescriptions,which recommendations are madebecauseof their comparativeadvantagein termsof costsand potential benefits and which are advancedas an expressionof a moral commitmentto "people-centereddevelopment."Furthermore,anyone knowledgeableabout thepower structureof LDCs would readily agree that the approach'sfocus on local community control is diametrically opposedto reality and indubitably posesa potential threat to political elitesin thesecountries.Thosewith experiencein LDC settingsare well awareof the fact that theseelites vehementlyopposeany reform efforts requiring them to sharepower. In essence,therefore,the approachmay standto defeatone of its paramountpurposes,namely finding the best fit betweenexisting norms, incentives,practices,and developmentinterventionstrategies. If the social learning approachgoesa little too far in its attemptsto confront the social realities of transitional societies,the performance improvementapproachfalls far short of doing so. This latter fails to confront importantissuesdealingwith neededchangesto extantconditions as they relate especiallyto the power structure,community control, andthedistributionof benefitsaccruingfrom development.Instead, it tendsto be conservative,emphasizingonly incrementalchanges.In this respectit risks perpetuatingthe statusquo. The rural developmentcapacity-buildingapproachis plaguedwith a set of problemsquite the oppositeof thosecharacteristicof the performanceimprovementapproach.Rural capacity-building'seclectic,hence synoptic or comprehensive,naturetendsto compromiseits practical capabilities. This is becausein practiceat any given point, an ID intervention strategyis likely to conformto no morethana subsetof its prescription. The foregoing criticisms are not meantto detractfrom what are essentially dramatic improvementsover previousefforts designed toaddressthe problemof administrativeweaknessesin LDCs. Rather,they are meantto alert practicinginstitutional developersto someof the pitfalls of extant models. Perhapsmore important, thesecriticisms will help sparkinterestin building on previousresearchefforts suchas those that culminatedin the productionof the modelsdiscussedabove.

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It is noteworthy that previousefforts to improve administrativeand

institutional capacityin LDCs, especiallythose efforts that have been championedby American-basedentities, have drawn their inspiration from organizationaltheory. The traditional schoolsof organizational theory sharea commonthread despite the fact that their differencestend to be overplayed.The common thread running through theories and modelsin this categoryis their focus on the internal, as opposedto the external,componentsof organizations. The Impact of Traditional Organizational Theories and Models on ID The traditional theories and models were in vogue and seldom challengedin theWestin the 1950s,wheninstitutionbuildersfrom the United Statesin particularand other developedcountriesin generalarrived in Africa andotherdevelopingpartsof the world. It is thereforehardly any wonderthat thesechangeagentsadoptedelementsof thesetheoriesas they embarkedon their missionto attain the laudablegoal of improving performanceof administrativesystemsin LDCs at that time. Accordingly, theseagentsequatedimproving administrativecompetencewith taking actionsnecessaryto transformadministrativeunits in LDCs into facsimiles or clones of those presentin the developedworld. As one commentatorputsit, in their extremedevelopment,changeagentsmoved toward a universalprescriptivemodel of reform, applicableto all political systems(Hammergren,1983). This explainsthe fact that administrativestructures,standardoperating procedures,and other major featuresof public administrationsystems in LDCs are identical from one country to another,and bear an incredibly striking resemblance to similar systemsin theWest.Attributes of the traditional model of organizationaboundin the administrative systemsofLDCs. Oneexampleis the groupingof mostof thesesystems into ministerial bodiesaccordingto function or geographicareaserved, or processesemployed,or somecombinationthereof,whoseorigins are traceableto the works of Luther Gullick and Lyndall Urwick (1937). Also tracingits rootsto the works of thesetwo importanttheoristsof the classicalschool, and as a secondexample,is the practicein LDC administrative systemsof drawing up organizationalchartsthat spell out in detail lines of responsibilityand authority. Ratherearly in the reform movement,the impactof the ideasof FrederickTaylor and Henri Fayol

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wasalreadyevident.This wasexternallymanifestedthroughthe projects and programsthat were initiated by changeagentssuchas the Ford and Rockefellerfoundationsto providetraining andscholarshipto functionariesfrom developingnationsduring the 1950s. It is equivocalthat the ideasof any otherorganizationaltheoristhad an impact of greatermagnitudethan Max Weber'son early efforts to improve administrativeperformancein LDCs. The ideasof Weberbecame operationalin the administrativesystemsof these countries through pyramidally structuredorganizations,whereindecisionmaking took placeexclusivelyat the top, and the responsibilityfor implementationresidedat the bottom. Theseideas are further reflectedin attemptsthat were madein thesecountries(especiallyunderthe auspices of classicalreformers)to incorporateinto public organizations Weberianfeaturessuchasfunctional specialization,autonomyof people andposition,impersonality,andthe employmentof functionariesbased on the merit criterion. By relying indiscriminatelyon theoriesand conceptsof traditional organizationaltheory, early changeagentsattemptingto improve administrativeperformancein LDCs assumed,like thosewho postulated thesetheoriesand concepts,that the Westernmodel of organization was "value-neutral."To makesuchan assumptionis to ignorethe crucial fact that organizationsare facsimilesof the culture in which they are nested(Corwin, 1987). The Weberianmodel'sroots for instance, are saidto be locatedin the cultural traditionsof Westernsociety,particularly Westernrationalism(Peters,1984).It is thereforeno surprise that the socioeconomicandcultural realitiesofLDCs havealwaysbeen unaccommodatingto this and similar models.Almost anyonein the developmentadministrationfield can cite his or her favorite example of a featureof this model, which failed to produceexpectedresultsor, evenworse,exacerbatedthe problemit was intendedto remedy.Take, for example,impersonalityin the executionof official duties,a structural hallmark of the Weberianmodel. This feature is intendedto ensure that the public official conductshis or her office without hatred and passion,hencewithout affection or enthusiasm.The underlying rationalewas that a detached approach is necessaryfor rational standardsto governoperationswithout interferencefrom personalconsiderationsof the organizationand its clients.This feature,to the dismay of classicalreformers,had no place in LDCs, where, contrary to the West, one'sprimary loyalty is reservedfor membersof one'sfamily

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and friends. During the 1960s in a study of public organizationsin Egypt, Eisenstadt(1967)concludedthat membersof the local population are not accustomedto treating othersimpersonallyin any situation. Rather, these people tend to regard others as individuals with families, friends, and communitiesbehind them. This trend, it turns out, is carried into realmswhererecentchangeshave establisheddifferent requirements. Another feature of the Westernadministrativemodel-division of labor-is not functional in LDCs particularly becauseof problemsof resourcescarcity.An underlying assumptionof the conceptof division of labor or specializationin organizationis that thereare sufficient specialists at every point in the organizationalhierarchyto whom different taskscan be assigned.This has seldombeenthe casein African countries. Scholarswho haveattemptedto analyzeadministrativesystemsin LDCs report an acuteshortageof talent, especiallyin the upperadministrative levels.Waterston(1965), for example,notedthat Kuwait, with a populationof 350,000at the time, hada public bureaucracyof 53,000; yet there was still a severeshortageof skilled personnel.He also observedthat in Africa, wheretherehavebeenconsciousefforts aimedat filling spotsin the bureaucracywith Africans as part of what is generally known ''Africanizing the bureaucracy,"therehasbeena problemof finding nationalswith the educationand experiencenecessaryfor the higher echelonsof public organizations.Today, forty years following Waterston's(1965)account,the shortageof skills continuesto be oneof Africa's leadinghandicaps.This problemhasrootsin the fact thatLDCs, almostby definition, lack the vital resourcesfor hiring or training highly skilled workers.Therefore,it is extremelydifficult for African countries to train or securehighly skilled technicaland administrativepersonnel to fill all vacantpositionswithin the bureaucracy.Additionally, current trendsin the global economyand the increasinginability of thesecountries to raise the revenuenecessaryto meetbasic humanneedssuggest that they are neithercapableof employingnor retaininga large pool of specialists. Thisproblemis compoundedby the effect of the brain-drain syndrome.In this connection,push factors contributetoward chasing away, while pull factors in the developedcountrieshelp to siphon,specialists from African countries. Autonomy of people and position is a prescriptionof the Western organizationalmodel intendedto ensurethat organizationalfunctioning is not interrupted by the absenceof any given employee(s).This

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prescription,which recommendsthat positionsand assignmentsin the organizationbe tailored to suit the needsof the job to be done, as opposedto the needsof thosedoing thejob, implies that humanlabor is an interchangeable commodity.Again, this prescriptionignoresthe fundamental reality of resourcescarcity in LDCs. For autonomyof people and position to work, there must be enoughresourcesavailableto enablethe training of specialistsaccordingto the way organizationaltasks are divided. For reasonsalready statedabove, this is not possiblein African countriesin particularand LDCs in general. Finally, centralizationof authority, a conspicuousfeatureof the bureaucraticmodel, is intendedto ensuresupervisionand coordination througha carefully definedhierarchyof superiors.In hierarchicalorganizations,decisionsare viewed as commandsthat mustbe obeyedwith limited friction. In practice,and particularly in Africa, becauseof too many uncertainties,implementationof decisionsor coordinationis at best difficult, and at worst impossibleto attain. The requirementfor organizationalcentralization,it would appear,stemsfrom a needto keep the organizationalive rather than a concernwith effectiveness,especially from a societalperspective.Waldo (1984, 134) lendscredenceto this assertionwhen he opines thus: "In the field of management... centralizationof generalbusinessoperationsreducesconflicts and overlappingjurisdictionsand services.Integrationof authoritiesand activities in a given areaproducesprovedbenefitsof large-scaleenterprises." Waldo further contendsthat the belief that all administrativeservices are betterexecutedwhen placedunderthe responsibilityof a single individual, the chief executive,is substantiatedneitherby reasonnor experience.In the contextof LDCs, centralizationhas beenlinked to the creationof small coteriesof public officials at or nearthe top level, who are far removedfrom the peoplethey professto serve (Huque, 1985; Heady, 1984; Rondinelli, 1981). Theseare only a few of the sourcesof disillusionmentwith instituthe tions basedon traditionalprinciplesof organizationthat accentuated needfor studentsof developmentadministrationto embarkon uncovering moreinnovativeapproachesto improving administrativecapacityin LDCs during the 1960s. The roots of the analytical frameworks (for example,m model) and approaches(for example,social learning) to improving institutionsin LDCs that have sincebeenadvancedas alternatives to the classicalreforms are traceableto contingencyor open systemstheory.

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ContingencyPerspectives The conceptof contingentor opensystemshasits roots in the physical andbiological sciences,whereit was developedas a conceptualapparatus to help scientistsexplorethe interdependence andinterconnectedness amongliving and nonliving organisms.Although the spillover of these developmentsinto the social sciencesoccurredas far back as the late 1940s,their incorporationinto theoretical andconceptual schemes by social scientistsis of recentvintage. In this latter instance,and particularly in relation to formal organizations,open systemstheory concentrates on system boundaries,differentiation, and integration of the subsystemscomprisingcomponentsof the targetsystem. Thetrendtowardperceivingorganizationsfrom this perspectivestarted gaining momentumamonganalystsaroundthe late 1970s.This trend is creditedfor sparkingthe interestto understandthe interactionbetween organizationsand their environmentamongsocial scientists.Interestin this phenomenonhas beenstimulatedby two different but interrelated concerns.The first is the growing awarenessthat social units constitute an integral part of the social systemand hencecan be properly understood only in the context of the other units comprisingthe whole system. The secondrelatesto the increasingawarenessthat apartfrom the internal components andstructureof individual organizations,social organizationsalso possessvery important external attributes.Perhaps more importantin this regard,organizationsareconstantlyinvolved in a variety of interactionswith their externalenvironments,especiallyother organizationswithin the immediateand remotesurroundings. Organizationsare said to be in a stateof interdependence when they interactwith oneanother.The term "organizationalinterdependence" is used to describethis situation and specifically refers to a situation in which the fulfillment of one organization'sdesiresis contingentupon conditionscontrolledby oneor moreotherorganizations.More straightforwardly, two organizationsare said to be interdependentif they need eachotherin order to achievetheir respectiveobjectives. Therehavebeensomeattemptsin the literatureto draw a clearline of demarcationbetweenintraorganizationalandinterorganizationalanalyses (Litwak and Hylton, 1962; Negandhi, 1980). It is possible,for instance,to distinguishthesetwo approaches to investigatingorganizations basedon how each deals with the issuesof conflict and authority in organizations,both of which are crucial to organizationalfunctioning.

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While the interorganizationalperspectivetakesconflict betweenorganizations as given, its opposite,the intraorganizationalapproach,perceivesconflict asa very likely sourceof breakdownin the organizational structure.An implied and perhapsmore basic distinction betweenthe two is the fact that while intraorganizationalanalystsrely exclusively on variationsin the internal componentsand structureof organizations to explainorganizationalperformance,interorganizationalanalystshold thatorganizationalperformanceis a function of conditionsresidingwithin theorganizationalenvironment.This is thecommondenominatorof studies that fall under the generalrubric of open systemsor contingency theory. However,what constitutesthe organizationalenvironmentis often a subjectof heateddebateamong studentsof organizationalenvironmentrelations. Organizational Environment: Definitional Context Thoseinterestedin improving organizationaleffectivenessin Africa and developingcountriesmust seekto understandthe environmentof the targetorganizations.At a very generallevel the organizationalenvironment consistsof everythingelsein the universebut the targetorganization (Katz andKahn, 1978).At a more specific level the environmentof a target organizationmay be defined as comprising the organizations with which it interactsin orderto obtain the resourcesit needsto function. Betweenthesetwo extremes,onefinds definitions of the organizational environmentthat distinguish among the different types of environmentthat an organizationmay comein contactwith. In this connection,Corwin (1987) has identified three types of organizationalenfactors such vironments:(1) the task environment,which encompasses asconsumersof the organization'sproductsandotherorganizationsand authoritiescontrolling the resourcesit needsin orderto function; (2) the institutional environment,including major institutions (economic,political, legal, and cultural) with which the organizationis associated; and(3) theecological-demographic environment,conceptualizedin terms of the distribution,complexity, and ratesof changein the opportunities and constraintsassociatedwith the organization'sconstituencies. As implied earlier, the concernwith the organizationalenvironment stemmedfrom a growing awarenessamongstudentsof organizationof the role of externalvariablesin conditioningorganizationalperformance. In incorporatingthe environmentinto oneof the earliestandbest-known

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studiesin the area,Emery and Trist (1965) focusedon environmental turbulence.Essentially,throughtheir characterizationof the interdependence with the environmentas "the causaltexture of the field," they underscoredthe influential nature of the organizationalenvironment. Katz and Kahn (1978, 31) observethat "changesin the environment leadto demandsfor changein the organization,andevenefforts to resist those demandsresult in internal change."Accordingly, they urge that "The study of organizationsshould include the study of organizationenvironmentrelations.We must examinethe ways in which an organization is tied to other structures"(p. 31). The importanceofthe orientationcharacterizedabovecannotbe overstated.It is only through an effort to treat organizationsor administrative units as part of the larger environmentin which they exist, that thoseseekingto improve institutional performancein LDCs are likely to succeed.An important,but often ignored,responsibilityof theseentities is to establishnew relationshipsandstrengthenexistingonesamong organizationsoperatingwithin commonpolicy fields. This proposition is anything but novel. In fact, a United Nations document(UNDTCD, 1984) written in the 1980ssummarizesthe aforestatedresponsibilityas involving simultaneouslythe building of viable organizationsand managinglinkagesor relationships-thatis, contactsbetweenorganizations. By executingthis task, institution builderswill more easily improve the effectivenessof administrativeorganizations.Perhapsmore important, we must statewithout equivocationthat unlessan effort is madefrom the onsetto definethe conceptof effectiveness,the taskis likely to be an elusiveone. ConceptualizingOrganizationalEffectiveness Although organizationaleffectivenesshasalwaysbeenthe guiding light of almost all the administrativereform efforts that have taken place in African countriessince the end of the colonial era, the term is yet to acquirea universalmeaning.Threedefinitionshave,however,beencommonly employedin the relevantliterature(Campbell,1973; Steers,1975; Cameronand Whetten, 1983; Cameron,1986). One of the definitions characterizesorganizationaleffectivenessin terms of an organization's ability to accomplishits statedgoals and objectives(Etzioni, 1964).A seconddefinition views organizationaleffectivenessin terms of an organization'sability to acquirethe resourcesit needsin orderto function

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(Yucthman and Seashore,1967). According to the third definition, an organizationis effective when it is capableof minimizing internal constraintsto its functioning (Nadler and Tushman,1983). Concluding Remarks

Efforts to improveadministrativeperformancehavea long way to go in Africa. However, what is of relatively new vintage in this region is the acknowledgmentof the needto visualizeadministrativeunits as part of the largerenvironmentin which they function. The purposeof this chapterhas beento acquaintthe readerwith the rich history of administrativereforms, and to underscorethe need to adoptan interorganizationalapproachin efforts to improve administrative effectivenessin developingcountries. Pastshifts in the institutional development enterprisehavehardly been spontaneous. Rather,they havebeenin responseto changesoccurringin organizationaltheory, the field of inquiry from which ID has traditionally drawn its inspiration. Administrative reforms, for instance, were influencedby conceptsand theoriesof the traditional school of thoughtin organizationtheory comprisingrational/scientificmanagement, human relations, and organizationalbehavior. These schools, which treat organizationsas closedsystems,thus focus exclusivelyon their internal dynamics.They were dominantand seldomchallenged prior to the late 1950s,when the open systemsschool emerged.This latter approach,which posited that organizationalfunctioning is as much conditionedby externalfactors as by factors within the organization, has since played a leading role in shapingthinking about ID. This thinking hasgrown arounda singleconceptualframework,the IB model, developedin the mid-1960s. As a theoreticalmodel, ID holds immensepromise for generating changesin accordancewith currentdevelopmentobjectivesin LDCs in generaland African countriesin particular. References Adeyemi,L.O.A. 1984."Institution Building Process:An Analytical Study of Publie HousingDelivery Systemin Nigeria." UnpublishedPh.D. thesis.University of Washington. Barnard,c.I. 1938. The Functionsofthe Executive.Cambridge,MA: HarvardUniversity Press.

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Blase,M.G. 1986. Institution Building: A Sourcebook.Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Brinkerhoff, D.W. 1986. "The Evolution of Current Perspectiveson Institutional Development:An OrganizationalFocus."In Politics, Projectsand People:Institutional Developmentin Haiti, ed. D.W. Brinkerhoff, and J.-C. Garcia-Zamor, 11-59. New York: Praeger. Bryant, C., andL. White. 1982.ManagingDevelopmentin the Third Word. Boulder, CO: Westview. Cameron,K.S. 1986. "EffectivenessParadox:Consensusand Conflict in Conceptions of OrganizationalEffectiveness."ManagementScience32: 539-553. Cameron,K.S., and D.A. Whetten. 1983. Organizational Effectiveness:A Comparison of Multiple Models. New York: AcademicPress. Campbell,J.P. 1973."Researchinto the Natureof OrganizationalEffectiveness:An EndangeredSpecies?"Working Paper,University of Minnesota. Corwin, R.G. 1987. The Organization-SocietyNexus:A Critical Reviewof Models and Metaphors.Westport,CT: Greenwood. Eaton,J.W. 1972. Institution Building and Development:From Conceptsto Application. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Eisenstadt,S.N. 1967. "Problemsof Emerging Bureaucraciesin DevelopingAreas."In Readingsin ComparativePublic Administration,ed. N. Raphaeli,220238. Jerusalem,Israel: Hebrew UniversityPress. Emery, F.E., and E.L. Trist. 1965. "The CausalTextureof OrganizationalEnvironments." Human Relations18: 21-31. Esman,M.L 1972. "The Elementsof Institution Building." In Institution Building and Development,ed. J.W. Eaton, 19-39. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Esman,MJ., and EC. Bruhns. 1966. "Institution in National Development:An Approachto InducedSocial Changein TransitionalSocieties."In Comparative Theoriesof Social Change,ed. W.P. Hollis, 318-342.Ann Arbor, MI: Foundation for Researchon HumanBehavior. Etzioni, A. 1964.Modern Organization.EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall. Fayol, H. 1949. General and Industrial Management(trans. from 1916 ed. by C. Storr). London: IsaacPitmanand Sons. Ganesh,S.R. 1979."From Thin Air to Firm Ground:Empirical Guidelinesfor a General ProceduralModel ofInstitution Building." HumanRelations32: 751-779. Graham,L.S. 1968.Civil ServiceReformin Brazil. Austin: University of TexasPress. Gulick, L., and L. Urwick. 1937. Papers on the Scienceof Administration. New York: Institute of Public Administration,ColumbiaUniversity. Hammergren,L.A. 1983. Developmentand the Politics ofAdministrativeReforms: Lessonsfrom Latin America. Boulder, CO: Westview. Heady,E 1984.Public Administration:A ComparativePerspective.New York: Marcel Dekker. Honadle,G. 1981. FishingforSustainability:The Roleof CapacityBuilding in DevelopmentAdministration.Washington,DC: DevelopmentAlternativesInc. Huque,A.S. 1985."On the Compatibility of BureaucracyandDevelopmentAdministration." PhilippinesJournal of Public Administration29, no. 2 (April): 109-119. Israel, A. 1987. Institutional Development:Incentivesto Performance.Baltimore: JohnsHopkins University Press. Katz, D., and R. Kahn. 1978. The Social Psychologyof Organizations.New York: JohnWiley.

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Litwak, E., and L.F. Hylton. 1962."InterorganizationalAnalysis: A Hypothesison Co-ordinatingAgencies."AdministrativeScienceQuarterly 6: 395-420. Nadler, D., and M. Tushman.1983. "Frameworksfor OrganizationalBehavior." OrganizationalDynamics9: 35-51. Negandhi,A. 1980. "Introduction and Overview." In InterorganizationalTheory, ed. A. Negandhi,1-15. Kent, OH: Kent StateUniversity Press. Njoh, AJ. 1990."InterorganizationalRelationsandEffectivenessin HousingPolicy Administration:The InstitutionalDevelopmentof the HousingDelivery System in Cameroon."UnpublishedPh.D. thesis,University of London. Njoh, AJ. 2003."The Role of CommunityParticipationin Public Works Projectsin LDCs: TheCaseof the Bonadikombo,Limbe (Cameroon)Self-HelpWaterSupply Project." International DevelopmentPlanning Review25, no. 1: 85-103. Peters,G.B. 1984. The Politics ofBureaucracy,2nd ed. New York: Longman. Riggs,F. 1964.Administrationin DevelopingCountries.Boston:HoughtonMifflin. Riggs, F. 1977. Bureaucracyand DevelopmentAdministration.Berkeley: University of California Press. Rondinelli, D. 1981. "GovernmentDecentralizationin ComparativePerspective: TheoryandPracticein DevelopingCountries."InternationalReviewofAdministrative Science2, no. 47: 133-145. Rondinelli, D. 1983. DevelopmentProjects as Policy Experiments:An Adaptive Approachto DevelopmentAdministration.London: Methuen. Steers,R. 1975. "Problemsin the Measurementof OrganizationalEffectiveness." AdministrativeScienceQuarterly 20: 546-558. Taylor, F. 1911. The Principles of Scientific Management.New York: Harper and Row. UNDTCD. 1982."Elementsofinstitution Building for Institutesof Public Administration and Management."DocumentNo. STIESNSER.El25of the United NationsDepartmentof TechnicalCooperationand Development,New York. UNDTCD. 1984.Issuesand Priorities in Public Administrationand Financein the Third United Nations DevelopmentDecade.DocumentNo. STlESNSERlE/84 of the United Nations Departmentof TechnicalCooperationand Development, New York. Waldo, D. 1984. The AdministrativeState.New York: Holmesand Meier. Waterston,A. 1965.DevelopmentPlanning: LessonsofExperience.Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press. Weber, M. 1947. The Theory of Social and EconomicOrganization (trans. A.M. Hendersonand Talcott Parsons).New York: Oxford University Press. Yucthman,E., and S. Seashore.1967."A SystemsResourceApproachto Organizational Effectiveness."AmericanSociologicalReview32: 891-903.

6 Training in the Economic Development Sector Willy Holleweg dit Wegman

Economicdevelopmentis key to humandevelopment(HD) andpoverty alleviation. When discussingHD, the key critical factors of sustained is and proportionategrowth needto be considered.If due consideration to be given to training in the economicdevelopmentsector,the aforementionedissueshave to be kept in perspective.The factors that best help in fostering HD are educationand training. They bring knowledge and know-how and give resourcesand meansto confront the growing competitiveand demandingsocieties.Long discussionsabout the impactof basiceducationand training arenot intendedhere,but ratherthe chapterfocusesdirectly on one particular issuethat has a tremendous impact on economicgrowth and welfare. It has been recognizedthat about80 percentof jobs are createdand exist within the small and medium enterprisesector.In a given setting,the significanceof small and mediumcarriesa different connotationaccordingto the prevailingeconomic, social,andcultural environment.The fact remainsthat whatever scaleis envisioned,jobs exist and are beingcreatedin that sectorof the economy.Recognizingthis, a lot of attentionhasbeendrawn to training of entrepreneurs that is the driving force for further growth andjob creation. Although this chapteris not primarily aboutentrepreneurship developmentor training, specifyingthe casemight prove useful to discuss training issuesin the developingsetting.One must remember that it is a particular area of training that impacts global training, becauseentrepreneursneedwell-trainedstaff and labor to achievethe businessgoals and strategiesthat sustaintheir businessplans. Programsin this field 85

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mostly have had a global approach,including the enhancement of educationalneedsand the refining of technicaland vocationaltraining. The needsfor an expatriatetraining componentare huge, because thereis still a call for transferof knowledgeandtechnologyto copewith fierce economiccompetition.Its organizationandpractice,however,are being hamperedby cultural challengesand lack of understandingof the real local needs.Training in the developingsetting differs from practices in developedeconomies,becauseit restsmore on elementaryhuman developmentskills and doesnot necessarilyrespondto immediate industrial needs.Languagebarriers have always hamperedthe understandingamongtrainersandtrainees,andparticularworriesremainabout the wordinessof translatorsand interpreters. The challengesfaced by internationalexpertswill not always be the expectedones but mostly those related to a given social and cultural setting.Real successes will be achievedonly if an appropriatecivil society coalition is formed (Brown andFox, 2000).Thesecoalitionsrequire the adhesionof all stakeholdersand respondto the expectations,goals, and strategiessetforth in the donor andbeneficiaryplan of action. Very often narrowly designedprogramshave beendoomedto fail, because they haveexpressedunilateralconcernsrelatedto institutional planning and havenot encompassed the verifiable and global needsof communities and populations.It is quite irrelevanttoperforma particularform of training if it doesnot respondto the expectationsof onegiven and welldefined societal entity. Trainers may come up with the best possible training packagesand be frustratedby the poor level of success.They may find that the target group was ill defined, the businessenabling environmentwasnot sufficiently permissiveto entrepreneurs' feedback, no trained labor was availablein quantity or quality, and the social and cultural environmentswere not prepared.The following caseis drawn from a North African setting. Human Development developmentgradually grew as a The conceptof sustainable human major concern.It was and remainsa worldwide discussionand policy formulation issue,in both developingand highly industrializedcountries. In the sameway that social movementsin WestEuropeancountries eventually obtain constitutionalrights in the workplace and in employment,people all around the world deservea legal right to

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claim dignity and equal treatmentwithout discrimination.Adverse economicenvironmentshave steadily hamperedthesetwo rights. If the right to work has slipped into a right for protection (Minimum InsertionWage in France,Minimex by social preventionservices in Belgium) for West Europeanpeople, the samecannot be said for the developingworld. In a sense,humanresourcedevelopment (HRD) aims to improve the "quality" of humanbeingsagainst economicperformanceand as a way to improve the effects of developmentcooperation.HD is now embracinga more global view of HRD with the ultimate goal of achievingthe samebut as an objective per se. Cognizantof the needfor sustainability-thatis, to make the processesnot only viable, but also durable and in constantapplicationfor the target groups-economic,social, cultural, and ethical concernsof mankind needthe label of sustainability.It becomesclear that sustainability,as applied to HD, embracesnot only concernfor economic growth, but also for poverty eradication, femalediscriminationalleviation, carefor youth and the handicapped,preventingrefugeeproblems,and tackling modernsocietal lethal developmentof healthdegradingdiseases(AIDS, tuberculosis, etc.), crime, drugs, and insecurity. Any projects in developing settings should take theseHD aspects into considerationand attachmore importanceto the shadoweffectsof economicsustainability.An exampleto demonstratewhat happensif no

attentionis drawnto the foregoing: labor-intensivework hasbeenpopular, becauseit canput large segmentsof the unemployedbackto work in a short time and alleviate political pressureon governments.Incomes rise immediately,but the quality of work doneand the social impact are not always of the highestconcern.Attained resultsare sometimesdramatic becausepeople will buy mostly immediateconsumptiongoods (TV sets, radios, and personaltransportationmeans),none of which would be producedlocally, thuscausingimport/exporttradeimbalances. Thus,the labor-intensiveprogramswould eventuallyleadto a new helix of unemployment,andpoverty would increasewith anotherdimension, that of urbanmigration. Income distribution is undergoingalarming changes,which emphasize societalwarning signals.The ratio of the highest20 percentto the lowest20 percenthaschangedfrom low ratios in incomeshareto alarming highs. This, again, stressesthe need for HD in the context of job creationadaptedto the open marketeconomyscenarios.The period of

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large andvery largeindustrialentitieshaslapsed,andthe time hascome for increasedself-employmentand mediumand small enterprisedevelopment,in a proportionateand sustainedmanner.Proportionalityis required becauseit encompasses market needs,is demandoriented,and emanatesfrom targetgroupsthemselves.No humandevelopmentstrategy shouldbe exemptedfrom this type of reorientation.Suchinitiatives require trust from the people andfrom governments,possibly in a tripartitesetting-employees-employers-governments-to moveto a rapid initiation base,to build trust andconfidence,andto preparechangesand initiate far-reachingstrategyimplication.

Social SafetyNet The social safety net, which is the policy limit that a governmentimposeson itself to hold a sustainedhumandevelopmentstrategyalive, must be a global policy approach.It cannotsimply satisfy vocal political pressureor self-interestgroups.It needsto be a proportionateundertaking that allows the national population to have improved standard-of-livingconditions.In most settingsscientistscan be jobless at the samerate as untrainedpeople.Unemploymentdoesnot necessarily affect only those with less education.Safety-netprogramsshould unequivocallyaddressall issues,becausetrainedscientistshaveincurred much highersocialcostsfor training than unskilled workers.It doesnot give them any priority but it does not put them at the bottom of lID concerns.The tripartite arrangementneedsstability and all macroeconomic reforms that are requiredto attain economicdevelopmentare to be implemented.Constitutionalrights with unequivocaltransparency are to be in place, guaranteeingthe supremacyof internationalnorms, humanrights, and the rule of law. Powerneedssomekind of centralization, with separatelegislative,executive,andjudicial branches. Theinteractionwith the stateis in permissivemotion throughintenseassociative life that needsto be very vocal and effective. The cost of social and economicreform is very high, but will eventuallypay dividends if reform tendenciesare pursuedat an acceleratedbut understandable-for the people-pace. A sustainablesocial and economicreform will greatly dependon the creationof the global enablingand permissiveenvironment,which is not opposedto, but is complementaryto, the businessconceptof enabling and permissiveenvironment.It encompasses the following aspects:

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• a comprehensivelegislativeframework • the implementationof marketeconomicpolicies with global view • large-scaleprivatization andpermissiveenvironment • theestablishmentof a business-enabling

The EnablingandPermissiveEnvironment The requirementsto establishan enablingand permissiveenvironment for small enterprises(SEs)arelargely the sameasfor mediumandlarger units. The differencesare mostly to be found in a more or less hidden discriminationthat exists in consideringSEs, becausethey are mostly not vocal groupsand originatein many casesfrom modestsocietallayers or artisans.The enablingenvironmentin this North African country is known, but theseparagraphsaredrawing specialattentionto the SEs. The environmentalso encompasses political and legal areas,monetary and credit facilities, and sectorsupport.

Political and Legal The partieshaverecognizedthis aspectof society as a fIrst priority. All legalistic conditionshavebeenmet, but the executionmeasuresare often not ready for application.It is the casefor taxation laws and property law as a tool for easingrelationswith banks.Proposalsare madein the strategyand operationalconceptto meetrequirementsin this fIeld.

Monetary and Credit Facilities The issuesrelatedto thesetopics haveto be treatedin a specialmanner for SEs without omitting the legal and regulatoryprerequisitesfor accessto credit. A secureway is the shelterconcept,which will be shown later and is already under implementation.If interest rates cannotbe subsidizedfor monetarypolicy reasons, then accessto investmentshould be facilitated throughother appropriatemeasures.Theseinclude facilitation of property acquisition through leasing or other programs,and the establishmentof rented pools of production or servicemachinery. Last, ratherthan giving periodsof gracein loan repayments,which often proveto be very expensivethroughcomplicatedbankingprocedures, it would be advisableto provide small conditional grants or start-up financial assistance.

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SectorSupport Flexibility of SEsis not to be found in their knowledgeof marketingor promotion,but ratherin skills and ad hoc expertise.Thesefacts should be rememberedwhen dealing with SEs, and rather than forcing them into new technologies,help themin choosingthe right marketnicheand improving their capacityto calculatecorrectpricesfor a given product. This sectorsupportwill prove to have immediatebenefitson margins and productivity, which are essentialsfor producersof all kinds. Often entrepreneursof SEs are forced into nicheswith so-calledappropriate technologies that finally pushthemout of business.This canbe achieved only throughspecializedinstitutions,enhancingthe needsfor a privatesectorapproach.Their field officers needto apply sectorand subsector exhaustivemarketingresearchwith the appropriateinterpretation.Of course,this can be subcontractedto externalconsultants.It is, however, important that the institutions establisha researchand study model, and that they monitor closely the consultantsin order to come to reliableand conclusivedecisions.The establishmentof a marketing departmentin the businesses may well proveto be an essentialtool for businessexpansion. Entrepreneurs know mostly the business-related glitchesthatthey face, but often they are not knowledgeableabout merchandisingor qualityorientedproduction.Providing training in elementarymanagementand marketing techniquesfrom an entrepreneurialperspectiveoften helps when it is well developedand well taught.For example,a footwearproducer knows how to cut patterns,how to assemblethe parts to a comfortable fit, and how to develop a lasting product. Adding quality improvementconceptsand elementarytraining in marketingand managementappropriatein this cultural contextwill be morebeneficialthan offering training in complex production layouts and sophisticatedoperationsmodels.Training methodologiesare plentiful. Nonetheless,it would be wise for institutions todeveloptheir own methodology,even basedon an internationallyrecognizedone, but with the specific country and institutional experiencein mind. Empowerment The group of issuesrelatedto social psychologyand the safetyconcept is perhapsthe mostusefuleducationtool for the SEgroupof enterprises.

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Becauseartisansor SE entrepreneurs aremuchcloser totheir labor than a corporatechairpersonof the board,they feel most the social pressure of unemployment,andtheir failure will be directly transmitted,personto-person,to thosewho work hard in their little factory and are not protectedby efficientsocialscreens.Helping the SEsdevelopa securitynet of their own, providing them with essentialassistancein building solidarity throughoutthe community and in business,will prove to be the bestempowermentstrategyfor the socially deprivedandpoor. Empowermentthrough socialization,in the end, is one of the best ways to develop the SE sector.Let therebe no misunderstanding:SE entrepreneurs will feel the sameneedto managetheir labor as any otherlarge company leaders.Any projectof SEdevelopmentshouldstressthe associativecharacterandpsychologyof laborleadership.Responsibilityshouldbe shared amongall groups.This createsa sensewhereindividualsfeel that they are a part of the undertakingas well as a part of the team. Safetynetsin SEsareof utmostimportance,becausethis is a demanddriven sectorthat hasimmediatefeelingsfor the poor and deprived.No action shouldbe takenthat doesnot include this elementaryconceptof humansolidarity. If it cannotbe achievedin this group, thereis no hope that any authority would reachit anywhereelse. Organizing Training A model of preprofessionaltraining could be provided by labor- and training-intensiveactivities. The purposeis the rehabilitation of sites that would be coveredby the institutions.The purposeis to labor intensify the activity but makeprovisionsfor regularpreprofessionaltraining for two daysa week.This meansthat at eachwork site a largenumberof peoplecould be put to work and be trained during three months of a normal rehabilitation year. Preprofessionaland advancedtraining for the more qualified peoplecould be provided as a meansof low-level businessincubation(for example,carpentry,construction,electricalrepair, furniture, plumbing).After the period of rehabilitation,and before the SEs enter the shelters,soft selectioncriteria shouldbe adoptedto determineentrepreneurialqualificationsand/orworkers'division of labor. All thoseenrolledcould have the opportunity to find a priority job in the shelter,when in full activity. A model of entrepreneurialtraining is neededto accompanytheeconomicvision change.As mentionedelsewhere,thereare a few, but only a few, outstandingexpatriatespecialists

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in this field, dependingon the content of the training desired. In the particular SE context, it is advisableto chooseinstitutions with broad experiencein humanresource(HR) rehabilitation and small business creation.A model would pertain to entrepreneurselectiontechniques and various training coursesrelated to opportunity and information buildup. It would espouseeffectiveness,risk taking, and soundmanagement principles. Courseswould lead to in-training business-creation systems,andpersonalempowermentand self-assertion.Courseswould befollowed by moretraditionalmanagement exercisesto highlight business life. The global approachis that the businessgrows out of the entrepreneur'spersonality.

Women in Business Womenentrepreneurs are often depictedas incapableof resistingstress andcontinuingpressure.Thesepreemptedideasarecontradictedby previous field experiencesandobservations.In our NorthAfrican casestudy country, womenare aptly qualified to meetthe challengesof entrepreneurial business.My personalin-field observations,so far, show high momentumof womenstriving to achieveprofitableeconomicoutcomes. They are organizedand function in well-establishednetworks.Income stabilizationhasoften beenthe only way to put womento work at times of high-level employmentrates.This hasundervaluedtheir activities to someextent in the past. Light manufacturingindustriesseemto offer positive benefits.The accompanyingservicescan emergeas they were mostly monopolizedby larger entities. There is no exhaustivelist of possibleSE involvementfor women.This shouldbe researchedsystematically for its high and immediatepotential.All activities are now accessibleto them.

The Global Approach Participationin societyis not merelytalking together.In well-construed societies,it is a form of direct democracy,which is gearedto the bottom up and policy influencing alike. Active citizen involvement is timely and politically most effective. It meansthat the influx of ideascomes from the socialroots andexpresses real needsasthey appearin a changing world. In industry, and SEshaveto be includedthere,participation has various connotations.Some large corporationsmay admit this if

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they really intend to confirm thesemanagerialoptions and strategies. Disturbancesin somehighly developedindustrieshave shown the impact of bottom-up empowermentwhen authoritiestry to passadjustment policies without consultingthe workforce. SEsare less prone to difficulties from large industrial movementsunder the condition that entrepreneurs keepa closewatchon their workforceandenablethemto live with their enterprise.Bottom up doesnot preventmanagementor entrepreneurs to enactvital strategicdecisions.Workerswill appreciate avoidanceof the headachesand the sleeplessnights that managersand entrepreneursendure,but they needto participatein global and conceptualdecision-makingprocesseswheretheir future is at stake.The InternationalLabor Office (ILO) hasadvocatedTripartismas a social reality since its inception nearly a century ago, but it is not always easy to understandthat it involves more than participation and that awarenessand knowledgeare required. Unions may have high-level specialiststo illustrate their casesand keepthem abreastof economic changesand conditions.Real Tripartism meansmaking the entire society responsibleand is necessarilybottom-updecision making and shopfloor empowerment. Training Barriers

Barriers to training programs(TP) and their executionhave to be divided into various sections,among which the most important are the following: TP in the generalcontext, preparation,and strategies;TP content;TP delivery; TP monitoring and assessment. TP in the generalcontext and the enablingenvironmenthave been discussedand highlighted in the introduction to this chapter.Remember, training is amongthe mostimportantissuesin development.That is why donorsand aid providersrequirethat importantsharesof their contribution be for training activitiesin field projects.The shareof the training componentis part of the developmentstrategyplanning with the recipientgovernmentandis often no lessthan30 percentof the project's globalbudget.In a recentinstitutional development projectin Swaziland (EuropeanUnion project assistanceto the SwazilandInstitute of ManagementandPublic Administrationand GovernmentCentralAgencies) the portion of training exceeded65 percent.Thesetraining components comprisea wide variety of activities rangingfrom educationalupgrading and leveling to attain required achievementstandardsdown to

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vocationaltraining, coaching,and on-the-spottraining that enableHR to betterperform technicaland nontechnicaltasks.Unlessone specific targetgrouphasbeendefined,this entirescopeof activities is embraced. The definition of a targetgroup is put in a global perspective.It doesnot makea lot of senseto targetcapacitybuilding at one particularlevel of a group of aid recipientsif all levels are not really treatedby concomitant upgrading.The dangerexists that powerful and vocal subgroups will get the major shareof the pie for political and strive-for-powerreasons,and that the ultimate goal of empoweringall its memberswill not be achievedreasonably.The power gap will remain, transparencyand good governancewill not be attained,and capacity will not be built at all. On the contrary,civil servantsacting in direct contactwith the public havethe sameoperationalimportanceas their headsof departments acting in their offices far from the public. It was observedin other cases(for example,improving the Indonesian leather, footwear, and allied industries)that it would make little senseif only managerswould receive managerialtraining assistance and labor would not be sufficiently skilled to pursueaddedtechnology becauseof lack of vocationaltraining and in-plant coaching.Building capacity needsa global approachand cannotbe achievedif not envisionedin a wide perspective. Cultural differencesplay an important,if not decisive, role.Societies are very different and group dynamicsmay not even exist in some of them. Managementmay well pursuethe soleaim to increaseimmediate power and influence. In that case,the training plannerwill have to design carefully the training roadmapsto achievethe goalssetforth in the overall developmentobjectives. Thesecultural differencesare farreachingand embracereligious aspects,social ranking, and genderdiscrimination. Very often, expatriatesdo not comprehendthe mental mechanismsbehindthesecultural behaviorsand equatethem with their own views and practices.It is true that the overall aim is global equity, democracy,andgenderequality.The pathto achievetheseaims mustbe laid tactfully and with respectfor the local culture and language.It implies influencing basic behavior and managementof change.It takes time, effort, andpatienceto find the appropriatecooperationatmosphere and, initially, has little to do with imported skills but rather with an immenseportion of understanding,goodwill, ability to draw on lessons to makeexperienceswork. The following casesin Indonesiaand Senegal set out to explain what worked and what did not.

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A Casein Indonesia Assistanceprogramsto the IndonesianLeather,Footwear,and Allied IndustriesResearchInstitute in Yogyakartaincludeda largecomponent of direct assistanceto small tanneriesand footwear and leathergoods manufacturingenterprises.The direct assistancehad not been fully worked out and, in the aftermath,this omissionprovedvery helpful for the teamof expatriateexperts.It becamepossibleto organizetechnical assistanceafter a thoroughsituationalinvestigationthat also comprised training needsassessments. This was carriedout in the light of the targeted region's own developmentneedsand goals. Plans were clearly spelledout, and the two residentexpatriateexpertscould makechoices of equipmentand materialsneeds,marketing requirements,logistics problem solving, and, last but not least, they could establishtraining plans for managementand labor in closecooperationand consultation with the assistancerecipients. It becamean integratedplan whereby activities were carriedout by the expatriateexpertsthemselvesto demonstratethe feasibility of the undertaking,producemodelsandpatterns, and deliver various samplesof leatherfor the productionof footwear and leathergoods.This preparatoryactivity not only producedstate-ofthe-art hardware,but it also createda climate of confidenceand trust amongthe participantsthat would prove essentialin further vocational and training activities. All knew exactly what was at stakeand participatedin the planning of further work. They could feel the immediate benefit of the on-the-spottraining and participatedin the marketingresearchactivities, which produceddirect gains. The expatriatescould work in perfectharmonyand symbiosis,pulling the entireprojectinto a successfulevent.The lack of full-fledged planningaheadof the project could be turnedinto a nonnegligiblecomparativeadvantage. .

A Casein Senegal An assistanceprogramto the private sectorwas initially designedfor the creation of small and medium enterprises.The project, entitled Assistanceala creationd'entreprisespour les deflates,was supposed to foster entrepreneurshipthrough entrepreneurtraining. It became obviousthat vocal groupswere activeand influenceddecisionmaking on loans and organizationalmatters.Entrepreneurscould not necessarily be chosenamongsuccessfulcandidates,but ratherhad to be part

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of socially deprivedand laid-off civil servants.The concomitanttraining programswere not designedto respondto needsand were tailored to suit political pressuregroups.The results were disastrous,because the expatriatestaff nevermanagedto comprehendthe political implications.Genderdiscrimination,which otherwiseis not a major feature in WestAfrican development,becamea predominantcultural controversy.The projectfailed with many financial inputs yielding little immediateresults. Training Delivery Strategiesand Training Content

Most effective strategiesare basedon completeanalysisof goals, potentials, and needs.If theseare quantified and qualified in a clear and understandable way for all stakeholders,therewill be an opportunityfor success.Various types of training are to be distinguished.There is, indeed,a differencebetweennormal basic and advancededucationleading to college degreesand training leading to skills developmentfor practitioners.Specifically,trainingcanbe summarizedaspreprofessional, vocational,technical,and managerial.Skills development,on the other hand,focusesmoreon managementand leadership,entrepreneurialand intrapreneurialdevelopment. Of course,many other forms and subdivisionsexist. The previous oneis only intendedto narrow down the extentof this chapter.All these forms of training havea commonfeature,that is, the needto be planned and organized.In otherwords, they respondto a needthat is expressed in the global developmentstrategy.This strategyresults from a farreaching situational analysis of the country. Figure 6.1 demonstrates that training needsmust be plannedand organized.They must be expressedas a part of a global developmentstrategy.This strategyresults from a far-reachingsituational analysis of the country. This analysis implies active participationof all stakeholders.It includesgovernment and governingbodies,executingagencies, nongovernmental organizations, and the public, but this list is not exhaustive.0I1ce this strategy hasgainedconsensus,implying that goalsat different levels havebeen agreedupon andconfirmed,operationalimplementationof the plan can beexecuted.Within this context,a training plan will exist that, like other operationalactivities, will follow clear policies. Thesepolicies in turn are the expressionof a common will to do whateveris neededto implement the plans. Training policies do not

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Figure 6.1 The Feedback and Result Loop ndependent ndependent ministerial

bodies ndependent

ministerial

ndependent

ndependent

ndependent ndependent

bodies ndependent

bodies bodies ndependent

T_rar:i_ni_ng

ndependent bodies

Inter· ministerial

Agencies

1ndependent bodies

Feedback and result loop

only encompassthe civil servicebut alsocontainprivate-sectorconcerns andregulations.Monitoring existingplansduring and afterexecutionis essentialnot only to have a result feedbackloop for governingbodies but also to give the neededfeedbackto improve ongoing activities and adaptpolicies to the presentsituation. This decision-makingsequence highlights the need for permanentdialogue betweenthe stakeholders andmakesthe training sceneacceptedandendorsedat all times.It is the key to successfor all training endeavors.With the schemein mind, all training programscan be adjusted,adapted,and included. It is impossibleto force peopleinto a role or situationthat they fail to comprehend.An approachto overcomefailures is to modify the global approachandproceedwith a deepanalysisthat is carriedout by specialists but with the full participation of the stakeholders.At the government level, where applicable,training developmentstrategicplans are to be produced,including rules and regulations,to ensureappropriate use of scarcefinancial and humanresources.Newcomersshould take time to understandthe environmentand move aheadslowly.

Training ProgramContents:Training NeedsAssessment Trainers are likely to be faced with a basic lack of industrial culture. Henceit is not sufficient to providethe practicalcomponentof onegiven

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training aspect.It is importantto go to the roots of the problem.A community or group of peopledefines industrial culture as the amountof acquiredand expressibleknowledgein all fields of industry. The latter termis not restrictedto manufacturingandmechanizedor modemmanual and nonmanualactivities. Hence,the Moroccanleatherindustry of Fez and Marrakechthat hasa long-lastingtradition is also consideredas an industry, and the artisansproducing high-quality skins have a welldevelopedindustrial culture. The sameconsiderationprevailsfor other artisan outputs worldwide. Traditional artifacts are the expressionof early artisanshipand artistry and in many casescan be improved and adaptedto modemtechniquesand technologies. The lack of industrial culture is mostly referred to in development settingsoutsideof the above-mentionedcases.It is then relatedto the absenceof prevocationaltraining during the educationalprocessat lower levels. It is also likely due to a very poor economicdevelopment,the absenceof natural resources,and a very landlockedenvironment.An examplewould be someof the small Pacific Oceanislandsthat, except for tourism, have restrictednatural resourcesand no real potential for economicdevelopment.The crafts are also the privilege of very few. It needsa high level of planning and strategicthinking to introducenew economicactivities. Oncethesehavebeendefined and agreedupon, the challengeis the lack of industrial culture that will facilitate running vocational training programsfor skill building. It has nothing to do with the intellectual level per se, but only with the opportunity to learn and practice. Most industrializedcountrieshavea high degreeof industrial culture that appearedin full after the nineteenth-centuryindustrial revolution. Nevertheless,highly industrializedcountrieslike Switzerlandstill attach a high priority to what is called preindustrialtraining. Theseprogramsfill knowledgeand skill gapswith youngstersintending to enter in apprenticeshipprograms. A meansfor resolvingthis problemwastackledin Benin with aWorld Bank labor-intensiveproject. Cheaplabor was employedin a road improvementprogram.It was combinedwith a specific training program intendedfor unskilled labor. The recipientswererequiredto participate in infrastructurerehabilitationprograms-forexample,electricity, water supply, plumbing, and bricklaying. This combinationof an unemploymenteradication project anda vocationaltraining componenthad a positive effect on the improvementof the industrial culture of the

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unemployedin the Cotonouurbanarea.This experiencegavebirth to a new approachof labor developmentprogramsthat often had createda stigmafor thosein poverty eradicationprograms. Prior to any training implementation,thoroughtraining needsanalysis (TNA) is neededthat is basedupon the developmentstrategyin general and the plans of operationin particular. The TNA is a complex processinvolving more than training specialists.It comprisessix stages that needto be accomplishedand studiesto be analyzed,for which conclusionsare drawn as appropriate.

Stage1 Gather all information pertaining to the HR involved, the production plan, and the expectedoutput. This nonexhaustiveenquiry requiresan updatedpersonnellist with gradesand seniority as well asprior training attendance.Theselists needto be complete,accurate,andupdated.They shouldyield all information that is neededto performfurther analysis.

Stage2 Put peopleand their job descriptionsin the generalbusinessperspective. This includes both private businessand governmentoffices that have becomeproductionunits in moderncivil society. Staffing tables, inputs, and outputsall mustbe analyzedin depthto measurethe degree of organizationaldevelopment.Job descriptionshave to be studiedto see if they coincide with the latest organizationalreview, and if they cover the jobs and job dimensionsas statedin the strategyand operational documentation.

Stage3 Analyze job descriptionsin the businesscontextand comparethem to the results,both expectedand attained.Job descriptionsare personnel relatedand needto be tailored to a job dimension.Personneloccupying the job shouldbe awareof the descriptionof their tasks.Thesehaveto be reviewedin an orderly manner,and changesshouldbe recordedand justified. Personnelshould be aware of changesand should have the appropriatequalification for the job that has beendescribed.This includesan insight into job performancerecords.

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Stage4 Interview HR with an appropriatetraining needsquestionnairethat has been explainedto all parties concernedand has been approved.It is important that peoplebe free to respondto direct questionsrelated to their jobs. This cannotbe sensedas an appreciationquestionnairefor management,but it shouldbe explainedto all partiesthat it is an important part of the TNA. It should thereforebe open and transparentand shouldnot be usedin any way againstone'semployees.

Stage5 Analyzethe questionnairein light of the findings from Stages2 and 3 to find the real needsfor training. The job requirementson a quality and quantity basiscanbejuxtaposedin orderto find possiblediscrepancies. Stages1 to 3 will havegiven correctinformation aboutwhat is needed in that particularjob dimension.Stages4 and 5 will now highlight the correctnessand adequacybetweenjob andjob incumbentqualities and performance.

Stage6 Discussfindings and conclusionswith managementand future trainees to determinethe bettersequencein the decision-makingprocess.Make proposalsto allocateresourcesfor training and development.To avoid tensionsand misunderstandings among staff it is important that managementbe very open and transparentabout the findings. If there are some sensitivequestionsrelatedto personsor, in general,to business conductthat cannotbe disclosed,all partiesshouldknow. The morethis processis transparentand conductedin the bestpossiblecorporatecitizenshipatmosphere,the betterthe training will respondto the needsand improve generalperformanceand personnelsatisfaction. From this it can be seenthat not only a training specialistis needed but alsoan industrialpsychologistandan organizationalspecialist.They can work only as a teamand reachcommon,agreed-uponconclusions. The regular feedbackto intervieweesis essential,becauseinterviews and researchin an organizationhave a destabilizingeffect that cannot be underestimated.Regularmeetingsand feedbackare the bestmeans to avoid the pitfalls of unnecessarysecrecy.

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Training Content Training is not a stand-aloneevent unlessit is for a very specific purpose.In almostall cases,training occurswithin a specific casethat has been analyzedas shown before. If we take an exampleamong others and look into small businessdevelopment,it is almost certain that a training mix will be required.The factors influencing the training mix are the organizationalculture, the existing strategies,and the thorough analysisof the humanresources.The best working practicesare based on the transmissionof immediateexperiencein the given field and the participatoryapproach.The Moroccanexampleincludesthe following aspects.First, therewas a needto developthe institution where the developmentwas going to take place.This includedorganizationaldevelopment and training of trainers. Second,the selectedand potential entrepreneurshad to be trained. Third, once the enterpriseshad been established,further training had to occur for labor. The entrepreneur was centralto the programand neededto be abreastof the entire training undertaking.This mix was relatedto his own practicaldevelopment as well as to the future expansionof his business.Entrepreneurship developmentin this casehad a multiplying effect not only for the entrepreneurhimself but also for the labor that was neededin the created small businesses. Projectsandenterprisescannotbe establishedundera vagueassumption of successor becausethere is a political will and a social request. Whatevertechnicaland financial assistanceis provided,in the end the successor failure will dependon the inexorablerule of the market.Strategiestoward businesscreationalways have to considerthis basic principle. In a given economicsetting,the importantissuesto be considered are thereforethe absoluteknowledgeof the marketand its consumers' behaviorwith a given productat a competitiveand proportionateprice. By proportionatean affordableprice tag is meant.It makesno senseto promote a luxurious product as import substitutionin an area where earningsfloat aroundthe vital and minimumsubsistencelevel. It is crucial to get the societalcoalition working and to developstrategiesthat mobilize all availableresources.One suchexamplewas successfullycarriedthroughin Morocco. This country is a world leaderin the productionand export of phosphateand its derivatives.This important industry is under the control of one seminationalcompany that employedat somestageup to 50,000laborers.In an attemptto reduce

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the labor costand improve its competitiveedge,it decidedto outsource someperipheralactivities that had no direct impact on the production process.The business-creation project occurredin that period, and the large multinationalcompanyusedthat tool to improveits imageof corporatecitizenship.The business-creation project receiveda large logistics support,productinformation,andfurtherfinancial support.A national and regional contestwas organizedwith importantgrantsas prizes for the best project with a high employmentfactor, the best entrepreneur, the mostinnovativeideas,andthe bestlink to environmentalissuesraised and solvedwithin the productionprocess.A nationalcampaignwas organizedto publicize the event involving the highest authoritiesof the kingdom and demonstratinga clear supportto the candidateentrepreneursand to strive for regionaldevelopment.Throughqualified public relationsit was possibleto convincethe public that this was an honest and transparenteffort to develop and support theindustry. In a sense, the largenationalandworld-famouscompanythat hasthe trustof people coveredthe operationnot only financially but also for its contentand methodology.All stakeholderswereinvolvedin the final decision-making process,andthe nationaland local governmentwas supportivein creating an enablingenvironmentconduciveto the successfuloutcomeof the small and mediumenterprisesthat were established. The nationalvocationaltraining andtechnicalinstitutein Casablanca ensuredappropriatetraining for labor and techniciansto be recruitedin the different enterprises.The conceptsummarizedhereafterbecamea nationaleventfor which the methodologywaspatentedunderthe name EMPRETECMAROc®. A mediapresentationwasproducedto disseminatethe productand attractpotential candidates.The presentationwas approachedin generalterms to make the candidatesawareof their involvementin the generaldevelopmentstrategyof the kingdom and enhance their senseof corporatecitizenship. The messagealso drew attention to the high risk involved in creating a business.The project was partially sponsoredby a large Moroccantransnationalcorporation, and the purposewas not to reducethe responsibilityof the candidates. The absenceof availablerisk capital is a major problemin the developing setting, whichmakesit sometimesdifficult to inducea real senseof risk taking. Entrepreneurshipdevelopmenthas expandedduring the last few decades,becauseit wasrecognizedthat small businessis the leadsectorin job creation.Hencethis training sectorcomprisestwo main branches:

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oneis relatedto existing businessesand the developmentof managerial capacitiesof the entrepreneurs;the other is relatedto businesscreation and the selectionand training of potential entrepreneurs.In industrialized countries,businesscreationhasremaineda private-sectorconcern. In the developingworld this aspectof private-sectorpromotionhasoften beenusedand misusedfor political reasons. During the 1970sand 1980sthe Bretton Woods Institutions implementedcampaignsfor structuraladjustments.This displacedidle civil servantsand createdvery high and rising unemployment.Poverty increaseddramatically, and to alleviate the political burden on governments,all kinds of programswereimplementedto help reducethis social pressure.Eventually,business-creation programswereoffered, withlaidoff civil servantsencouragedto attendthesetraining programs.The rate of failure was extremelyhigh. During that period, severalmethodologieswereexploredandput into placethat useddifferent types of training but aimed at the main objective. In summary,rememberthat American managementprinciples, in part, advancedthroughthe extensiveresearchof David McClelland and his testingmethodologiesduring World War II. The InternationalLabor Office hasdevelopedanothermethodologyknownas"ImproveYour Business"with a very large network. The GermanAid Organizationdeveloped yet another highly effective methodologyknown as Creation D'EntrepriseFormation D'Entrepreneurs(CEFE). Translatedinto English, this meansthe Creationof Enterprisesand Training of Entrepreneurs. UNCTAD is spearheadinganother developmentknown as EMPRETEC,which is more relatedto existingenterprises.Management SystemsInternational,a Washington,D.C.-basedcompany,is working with a self-mademethodologythat is very successful.The authorof this chapterhas developeda methodologythat has been in use in several northemAfrican countrieswith a fair amountof success.The methods employedall havecommonfeatures:bring the entrepreneurto his businesswith a good to very good chanceto succeedand be sustainedin time. The selectioncriteria for entrepreneursdiffer, becausethey are beingappliedin different settings,but the ultimategoalremainsthe same. Many moremethodsexist, andthis enumerationis in no way exhaustive nor does it give any indication about successrates and guaranteesfor duplicability or sustainability.Major world aid agencieshave now developedtheir own methodologiesto supporthomemadeprograms. The training programpresentationstartswith an introduction to the

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problemsrelatedto private-sectordevelopmentand businesscreation. The critical factors are then introduced,which arerelatedto individuals in thatdevelopmentsettingandwhich try to focus from theoutseton their personalresponsibilities.Specialistscoming from larger companiesestablishedin thecountryattendsomeof the training sessionsto give advice andjudgethe progressof the program.Many contactsareestablishedthat facilitate outsourcingfrom thesemediumand large enterprisesand promote future involvementof the small businessesin formation. The next presentationintroducesthe generaldevelopmentsetting in the country. It helpsthe candidatesunderstandtheir developmentalrole. It helps them understandthat personaldevelopmentis a humanright. However,this right haslimitations inasmuchas it doesnot give the right to misuseaid funding that belongsto the entire community. Many of thesecandidatesare unemployed.Failing a businesscreation project would turn them into the indebtedunemployedof a secondgeneration, which is evenworse. A third presentationshowsa practical schemewith, at the center,a critical vector moving along a horizontal line graduatedfrom 0 = failure, to 100 =completesuccess.This helpsbring attentionto its various critica~ factors: production,marketing, and social-economicand envifactors: ronmentalbehaviorof the entrepreneurand a visual aid to demonstrate that all the factors needto be in equilibrium at one ideal stage. The outlinesof the productionschemethen follow, emphasizingfeasibility andits requirements,which arethe majorissuesduring the training program. Social, economic,and environmentalbehaviors(SEEB) remaincentralin the training program,and if it is well acquiredby the candidates,it is certainlythe main reasonof successin the TP. This part coincideswith Period3 of theTP andis, togetherwith Period4 (marketing)' the most difficult and selectiveperiod. The durationof this period is open-endedand is dependenton the natureof the small enterprisesto be created.Figure 6.2 providesa brief visual overview of the element utilized in SEEB projectsand otherdevelopmentinitiatives. The marketingapproachis relatedto a difficult stagein the TP. Candidateshave to prove the marketability of their specified productsor servicesand haveto demonstratetheir technicalcapabilitiesto produce them. They haveto sell the productin the targetedmarket. Finally, the main issuesarereviewedthat havebeenraisedduring the foregoing training program. It is, in essence,a final brainstormingseries of sessionsduring which known entrepreneurscometo talk about

TRAINING IN THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT SECTOR 105 Figure 6.2 Social, Economic, and Environmental Behavior

SEEB INPUTS

Factual knowledge Innovativeness Insight Creativity

PRODUCTION

OUTPUTS

s1"

Projection ability Knowledge of alternatives Willingness to develop

MARKET

their successes and failures. The sessionis generallyconcludedwith an additionalstructuredinterview by the TP teamto finalize the ultimate assessment of the teamaboutthe candidate.This assessment is addedto the projectdocumentfor adviceto the financing institution. Training in Morocco

The particular training processpertaining to this business-creation schemeevolves over a period of approximatelyfour to six months (not including Period 4 describedbelow). It is a selectiveand allinclusiveprocesscoveringfour distinct periods.The candidateneeds to succeedin one periodto moveto the next one,and no onecanjoin the group without attendingand succeedingall periods.All candidatesare acceptedto start without discriminationof genderand origin. The groupsare not industry-relatedand naturally restrictedto a maximumof twenty participants.In the exampleof the nationalbusinesscreationcontest,the numberof candidatesfor all Moroccanregions was approximately3,000 covering four regions.After a first screening(eligibility andpresenceof a genuinepersonalproject)850 remainedto start the training processas describedhereafter.After the selectionin Period 1,200remainedspreadover the four regions. After the training period 80 remained,ready to create their own projects and requestfinancing. In the end, 52 projects could be achievedwithin a period of twelve months.This representsan averagesuccessof 6.1 percent,which corroboratesfigures of presenceof real entrepreneurswithin a given group of people. In view of the expectedhigh failure rate of candidates,it was crucial to inform and

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explain how the systemwould work and why it was so importantto perform this strong selectionprocess. Themain argumentthat was usedconsistedof giving participantsa first priority for vocationaltraining andrecruitmentin future projects.Also, in addition to the high level of risk generatedby businesscreationand the personalliability required by financing institutions,the training activities would increasethe selfemploymentopportunities.

The Process Period 1

Selectionin threestages: • Stage1: Preliminaryquestionnairebasedon Machiavellian characteristics • Stage2: ThematicApperceptionTest • Stage3: Structuralinterview Period 2

Businesscreationtraining in sevenstages: • • • • • • •

Stage1: The entrepreneurand his or her project idea Stage2: Technicaland technologyaspects Stage3: The marketingaspectsand research Stage4: Financialaspects Stage5: Organizationaland managementaspects Stage6: Contactwith financial institutionsand requestfor funding Stage7: Administrationfor businessestablishment

Period 3

• establishmentof the businessproject and start-up • training of staff and labor Period 4

• follow-up of the project • technicalassistanceand cooperation

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• networkingin businessclusters • possiblerewriting of the businessplan The aboveschemeis detailed in a separatetrainers and entrepreneurs manual.The training is part of the business-creation process.Clusters are formed on a voluntary and ad hoc basis.

Conclusionfor the Moroccan Training Project All prerequisiteswere put togetherto makethis training a success,including the total adherenceof all stakeholdersand the supportof the public sector.A thoroughinformation campaignwas launchedinforming the participantsof the pitfalls and difficulties inherentin business creation.A lot of time was spentto inform and explain the system.A multidisciplinary team was establishedto conduct the operation,and the trainerswere preparedto addressthe candidatesin their native language.The role of expatriateswas confined to ensureexpertiseand to frame the operationin a professionalmanner.

The Story of a Failure If the environmentis not preparedto meetthesetraining initiatives,and if the trainersor projectteamsdo not havethe full supportof the public service,the expectationsof the public may well rise abovereasonable possibilities.This has beenthe casein someother training programs. Mostly, the following problemswere at the origin of failures:

• hiddenagendasof the governmentwho wantedto divert attention from the real causesof economicproblems • lack of funding or absenceof public support • impossibility to clarify the economicsceneto the candidates • lack of appropriatefunding • unwillingnessof the bankingsectorto finance small businesses • inappropriateenablingenvironment • failure of the projectteamto explainthe realitiesand difficulties to createnew businesses • failure of the project to convincegovernmentand its agenciesthat it has an important roleto play in creatingan atmosphereof trust and confidencebetweenpublic and private sector

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• unavailability of trainedlocal staff • social unwillingnessto acceptconstrainingmeasuresto business creation As mentionedabove,thereis no needfor governmentinterventionin private-sectordevelopmentexceptwhengovernmentfunding is provided. That is wherethe role of nongovernmentalorganizationsis crucial, becausethey often drain private funding. Creatingspecialfunds that are managedby the private sectorare often alternativesif the government agreesto releasefinancing undercertainconditions.This requiresa perfect private-sectororganizationthat is sufficiently representativeand with a high degreeof endowment.

EvaluatingTraining ImpactandAssessing the Outcomes The basis for training impact assessment (TIA) is the initial training needsassessment document.It shouldincludejob performanceanalysis and organizationalimpact studies.Measurementsshouldbe quantified asmuchaspossibleandcomparedto previousmeasurements madewith similar standards.Thesestandardsshouldexist as a policy tool and be adaptedif needed.Training is a managementtool that shouldbe an essential link in the overall organizationalculture of the business entity underconsideration.It is a meansto empowerpeopleat all levels andto promotegenuinecorporatecitizenship.Continuingimpact assessments should be carried through.Yet somesmall enterprisesdo not have the meansandthe time to do so.Therefore,developmentcooperationprojects shouldtakechargeaspart of the assistanceeffort, and theyalsocanalso maximize aid funding. The foregoing should be included in training program strategies.Organizationaldevelopmentefforts are often neglected.Stand-alonetraining missesthe global aim if it is not included in that effort. The following schemeattemptsto clarify this and put the issuein a global strategicperspective.

The Strategicand OperationalLoops in the Training Process The scheme presented in Figure6.3 highlightsthe links betweenthe various components,and their quasi-interdependence, in an organizational

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Figure 6.3 The Training Strategy Loop

nization have nization

Job

Organizational development plan

dimensions

Job

Organizational Organizational

Organizational

Organizational

Job Organizational Organizational

have

Job Organizational

have

Job

setup.Trainingprogramsneedto takeinto considerationall components if successand sustainability are to be ensured.The different componentsneedto be consideredduring the negotiationsleadingto the organization of any given initiative. Once decisionshave been taken, and measuresfor implementationdecidedupon,a completeandfar-reaching information campaignneedsto take placeto ensurefull adherenceand participationof all stakeholders.

FutureChallengesand Conclusions There is a need to specify what type of training is envisaged,that is, what is the local settingin the humandevelopmentprocess,and how is thelocal economypositionedin theinternationalscene?Only thenshould training programsbe decidedand organized.To proclaim that the portion of training programsin global developmentassistancepackages should contain a predeterminedpercentageis not the correct way to allocatefunds. Due considerationshould be given to the strategicand operationaldecision-makingprocessand thorough analysis must be performed.Training initiatives should not be distributed basedon favors and/or privileges to vocal groups or decisionmakers.They must

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reflect real needsand solutionsto local problems.Neithermust the tendency prevail to fill second-or third-rank training institutions abroad with traineesfinancedby aid packages.Oncean aid packagehas been decidedand allocated,it shouldbelongto the aid recipient.The implementationis part of the empowermentprocesswithout which equaldistribution of wealth will neveroccur. This is a challengefor the future. Developingcountries,andAfrican countriesin particular,will neverreach an acceptableoverall developmentif the people are not trained in an appropriatemanner.Consumerismin the training businessshould not distort the basicneedsof the developingworld. The localizationprocessin the field of training is oneimportanttenet of success.Therefore,training should always be accompaniedwhenever possiblewith adequatetraining of trainers(TOT) programs.Such TOT programsdo widely exist, and their importancecannotbe overemphasized.They needto be the focus for the yearsto come,becausethey respondto the fundamentalrequirementsfor good training outcomes, which are embeddedin the local culture and respondto the immediate needsof the local population. Reference Brown, L. David, and Jonathan Fox. 2000. "TransnationalCivil SocietyCoalitions and the World Bank: Lessonsfrom Project and Policy Influence Campaigns." [DR Reports16, no. 1. Also availableat: www.jsi.com/idr/web%20reports/html/ 1fr-I.html.

7 Media Training in Developing Nations Joyce E. Barrett

Media training is rewarding.It is terrible. Therehavebeendays when I have laughedand clappedmy handsand cried in jubilation at the successof my students.Many more days, however, I have slammedthe door to my small, often shabbyapartment,numbly watchedold movie after old movie, andpretendedI was someplaceelsewhen I felt as if my bestefforts were not good enough,when I did not seeeven a ripple of changefrom all my hard work. My rote complainton thosedayswas,"I can't believe I've left my family, my white sofa, and my three cats for this." I have raged.I have sobbedin frustration, and I have stifled sarcasmas I havewatchededitorsand reporterscontinuethe bad practices I had spokenso vociferouslyagainst. I have been a media trainer across southernAfrica, in EasternEurope,andin the former SovietUnion. Eachregion hasits differencesbut also has remarkablesimilarities. In eachregion I have found reporters andeditorsindifferent to the standardstheir worldwide colleaguesseek. I have found journalists who readily acknowledgetheir inadequacies and lack of training and are hungry to improve. I havefound newspaper editors who would not return my phonecalls, and reporterswho text messageme from their hospitalbedsaskingfor readingmaterialso they can improve their skills. In manyplaces,journalismhasearneda badreputation.TheBotswana pressis, in general,soirresponsiblethat whenthe University of Botswana was making plans for its media studies department,my suggestion that the new school be called the journalismdepartmentwas rapidly voted down. Becausejournalists are held in such low repute there, 111

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schoolofficials thoughtthat toincludethe dreadedword in their department title would hamstringthem beforethey evenbegan. Much of the journalismtraining in emergingdemocraciesis long on theory and shorton practice.The schoolof journalismat the University of Belgradeis part of the political sciencedepartment,andgraduatesare well versedin governmenttheory but hard-pressed to namethe five elements of a lead. Critical thinking is scarce.After years of unqualified acceptance of whatgovernmenthassaid,journalistsrarely scrutinizegovernmentactions.Onestory in a Gaboronepaperabouta speechmadeby a memberof Botswana'sParliament,quotedhim announcingan empowermentprogramfor women.A few paragraphsdown into the story, he was also quotedabout the generally acceptedpracticeof men in a minority tribe who sometimeshold their wives hostagefor one reasonor another. Thepaperignoredthecontradictionof thesetwo statements. WhenI pointed this out to oneof my students,he lookedat me with this blank expression that seemedto ask,"Yes, and what exactly is your point?" The media in southernAfrica have a reputationso marredby irresponsibility and inaccuracythat governmentofficials usually demand that reporterssubmit written questionsthat get responseswhen inspiration strikes. Consequently,storiesare often incompletewhen reporters cannot wait for these often much-delayedanswers,or they are filled with interminablequotesthat are practically unintelligible with their jargon.Whenmy Gaboronestudentssentout on assignmentcomplained aboutthe difficulty of securingtimely, meaningfulresponsesfrom governmentofficials, I promisedthem that things would changeonce the mediashowedthemselvesto beresponsible,fair, accurate,andbalanced. I believethat, but it will only be after yearsof intensivemediatraining that it will happen.

Training Challenges

Lack of Money-forAnything The biggestchallengeI have confrontedin all of my mediatraining is the lack of resources.The most basicclassroomsuppliessuchas white boards,pens,paper,tape, staples,and copier machinesare rarely provided. At the University of BelgradeI was not given office space.Becausethe university copy shop required a two-day lead time for reproducingclasshandouts(which I had to pay for), I found a nearby

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private copierthat would makemy copieson short notice. I boughtmy studentsreporternotebooks,pens,and paper.In BotswanaI was given an office, but halfway throughthe semestermy telephonebrokeandwas neverrepaired.I boughtall of my office supplies,including printersand ink cartridges.In Tbilisi, Georgia,it was a good week in which we did not havepoweroutages.Water was out every night acrossthe city, and gasandelectricity outagesseemedto alternate,althoughthereweredays when we hadno utilities. Therewas little heatin the classroom,and we all bundledup indoorsand out. In summermonths,we sweltered.

Poor Internet Connections Internetaccessis unreliableat bestin many countries.I have taughtin computerlabs inwhich moreof thecomputerswerebrokenthanworked. I havetaughtcomputer-assisted reportingon systemsin which it would routinely take twenty minutesjust to open a Web page.While I have seenAmericansaccustomedto instantInternet servicego ballistic, my reportersand studentsusually sat calmly and waited for the pagesto open,probablybecausethey had neverworked on fasternetworksand so did not know what they were missing. Becauseof yearsspentworking in theseconditions,whenI washired to teachat a Virginia university and confrontedwith online blackboards and overheadprojectors,I reactedas I did on my first shoppingventure afterreturningfrom living two yearsin southernAfrica. I hadgonewith my daughter-in-lawto buy toothpaste,and for two yearsin Swaziland and BotswanaI had had one choice-Colgate.When we stood before the shelvesthat stretchedeight feet down the aisle and were stacked with limitless toothpastevarieties, I shouted,"Look at all this toothpaste."My daughter-in-law,a bit embarrassed by my outburst,immediately took charge,grabbeda tooth-whiteningbrandand usheredme up to the cashregister.I was overwhelmedat the possibilities.I think now I will be forever impressedand gratefulfor universitiesthat provide me copy servicesand paperclips. Membersof the working pressin the developingworld also confront economiclimitations that make their U.S. counterpartslook like pampered poodles. Even computerdiscs are in short supply, and I have watchedentire classroomspassaroundone disc so that storiescan be printed.A mediatrainershouldtravel with severalboxesof programmed discsfor students.

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Few reportershavetheir own carsand often mustrely on local taxi or tram servicesto get to their destinations.When American editors admonishtheir reportersto use shoeleatherto get stories,they speakeuphemistically.Wheneditorssay that in the developingworld, they speak literally. Telephonecalls cost by the minute. Internet-accessible computersin newsroomsare often locked up, becausethe telephonetime is too expensive.Reporternotebooksare unheardof, and reportersoften must keep track of one pen for weeks. I worked in one newsroomin which chairswere in short supply-seatswere missing,legs werebent, and backswere brokenoff. Expenseaccountsare unheardof. As a cub reportermy fIrst editor threatenedmy dismissalif I were everto eatany food servedat eventsI covered.African reportersfeast, becausethey have likely gone without breakfastor lunch.

Cultural Sensitivity Cultural differencescan blatantly slap Americansinto consciousness, or canbe so subtlethat theyarenot noticeduntil awkwardsilencesleave one wonderingwhat hasgone wrong. My departmentheadat the University of Botswanawas a Kenyan.When we were working togetheron a United StatesAgencyfor InternationalDevelopment(USAID)-funded projectto train SouthernAfrican DevelopmentCountries(SADC) journalists,he taughtme that theAmericanhabit of just talking aboutAfrica in generalterms,as if all of its fifty-three countrieswere one,wasoffensive. I have seenmedia trainers insult studentsand faculty with their frustration at the lack of facilities and equipment.One inexperienced trainer I know demandedtyped assignmentsof his students.Yet they often did not haveaccessto computers,and they certainly did not own computers.They had no money to work in Internetcafesand so turned in hand-writtenpapers.I felt badly for the studentswhen the trainer gradedthemdown becauseof that. Studentsin a photographyclass who must shareone cameramay appearas abusedchildren to the American who has neverhad to work under such limited conditions, but to ridicule or expressfrustration at the difficult circumstancescan be embarrassingfor all concerned. In someAfrican universities,equipmentis so scarceandprizedthat it is often lockedup out of students'reach.At the University of Botswana, the media studiescomputerlab, although barely functioning at best, was locked up from studentsfor fear they would abusethe equipment.I

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cameup with money to pay lab monitorschargedwith openingthe lab and keepingtrack of who camein and out. Rules were postedforbidding drinking and eating, and the studentsrose to the occasion.They insistedthe lab hours be extended,the monitorsendedup working unpaid hoursjust for the privilege of sitting beforethoseslow computers, andthe studentswererespectfulof the rules.They werechallengedwith high standards,and they roseto meetthem and evenexceededthem.

Be a History Student A generalunderstandingof the history of a region can be invaluable. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) bombing in Belgrade in 1999 left many suffering from post-traumaticstresssyndrome.One of my studentsdescribedthe day he had to take his final examswhile the Serbianarmy hid in the basementof his university building. "I was terrified the building would be bombed,"he told me. "I fearedI would die beforeI could take my test." Someof my female studentssaid they were so traumatizedby the weeks of bombing that they still trembled during thunderstorms. My journalistfriend who helpedme find an apartment by the DanubeRiver pointed out that one of the primary benefits of my building was that it had a good bomb shelter.Many of my students were refugeesfrom other parts of the former Yugoslavia.As the semesterwore on, and thesethings creptinto the classroomdiscussion, I devotedmore time to what I consideredpep talks, or therapysessions. How could my studentslearn if they were still traumatizedfrom the war or felt unrelentinginferiority becausetheir govemmenthad betrayed them, and now they were left with a crumbling economythat held no promisefor them?We talked about thepositive effects an independent presscould haveon their country.I told themit is a worldwide phenomenonof having to emigrateto find work, and that they werenot alonein this quandary.Oneof the biggestcomplimentsI haveeverreceivedfrom a studentwas when he said I had beenmore than a professorto them. I had beena mother.

All Alone Lonelinesshasafflicted all of my overseasassignments. Expatriatefriendshipsabroadare fast and deep;and I havefound they can continueforever,just out of simple gratitudethat this relationshipgaveme comfort

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during difficult times.Lonelinesspropelledme into beingthe voracious readerI alwaysclaimedto be. I havereadbooksI missedin my yearsof education,andbooksI would neverreadif I were homeand could vegetatefor hoursbeforea homeand gardenchannel. I have alwaystaughtin English, eventhoughit might have beenthe third or fourth languageof my students.Becauseof that, I am more forgiving of their usage,and focus insteadon the contentof the writing. As someonewho made Cs in collegeFrench,I was humbledby their ability to write at all in multiple languages.So, while I would correct their most blatanterrors, I focusedinsteadon their reporting abilities. Writing and reporting are two very different skills. At the end of an assignmentif I could leavebehinda classof goodreportersand mediocre writers, I consideredthe venturea success. Rules of the Road

I approachmy classroomsabroaddifferently than mine in the United Statesbecauseof cultural differences.I havestrict rules for attendance, cell phoneuse,and deadlinesin countrieswherethe work ethic is more lax thaD in the United States.I edit versionafter versionof assignments until my studentsget themright, reasoningit is moreimportantfor them to learnthe newconcepts.My SerbianstudentsweregratefulthatI learned their names,as their teachersoften did not. My African studentswere appreciativethat I did not give them final exams,eventhoughI loaded them up with writing assignmentsthroughoutthe semester.

Teachingoffthe News I cannotjustify admonishingmy studentsto stay abreastof local happeningsandthenignorethemin the classroom,so whenpossible,I have always tried to teachoff the local news. Translationof local news reports can be a problem. The U.S. embassyusually receivesreamsof translatednews.The trick is getting it to share.I was neversuccessful, but I recommenda try anyway. When I have been unable to use examplesfrom the local mediain the classroom,I haverelied on regional storiesin theAmericanpress.When teachingin Belgrade,I usedin one lessona 1999 Pulitzer prize-winning story in the Wall StreetJournal about the bombing raids over Belgrade,and a 1995 Pulitzer by the Christian ScienceMonitor aboutmassacres in Bosnia.The LosAngeles

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Timesfortuitously accommodatedmy needsthat semesterwith a piece aboutdepressionamongSerbsfollowing the bombingsandthe rampant useof antidepressants. While I was therePrimeMinister ZoranDjindjic was assassinated, andthe police respondedby arrestingmorethaneight thousandpeople in armed roadblocksset up acrossthe country. The English-languagepressswarmedinto Serbia, so I could keep up with the newsby readingtheir storiesonline.

Libraries, No; Media Centers,Yes I haveneverfound a university library abroadthat was of any use.Fortunately, there are mediacentersusually funded by Europeannongovernmentalorganizationsor the U.S. embassythatcanbeextremelyuseful. In Belgradethe EuropeanUnion-fundedmedia centerdowntown becamemy office. The library was well stocked,and almostweekly press conferenceswere held that provided insight into the behavior of the local media.No questionswere asked---ever.Reporterssatpolitely and sipped espressofreely distributed by the media center cafe while newsmakersreadtheir speeches. Whenan eventended,everyonepacked up and moved into the cafe for more espressoand cigarettes.I was the only reporterwho would dashto the headtable to pepperofficials with follow-up questionsand clarifications. Many reportersand editors abroadhave receivedno formal media training, andhavesomehowmigratedto the newsbusinessfrom numerous directions. Their training has come from the myriad training programsthat are often duplicativeand ineffective.Most of their training is on-the-job,and the naturaltalentthat can be found is impressive.Many are without the egotismthat often characterizesAmericanjournalists, andI am repeatedlyimpressedat their candorabouttheir shortcomings. Yet becauseof the natureof the business,many bad habits becomeingrainedand aredifficult to break.After a stint training working journalists, I havealwaysenjoyeda return to the classroom,becauseI feel the real future of an independent,fair, accurate,and balancedpressis conceivedthere.

AttendanceRules My rules on attendanceare flexible. In Belgrade,my course was an electiveand severalof my studentshadothercoursesat the sametime of

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day as mine. They would alternatecourses,and I was just grateful at their regular return. In Botswana,my courseswere required and I set stiff attendancerules. Studentswere allowedthreeunexcusedabsences; any more and theyfailed. Cell phonesare ubiquitousin the developing world, and I confiscateany that ring during class.

Death by Plagiarism My rules on plagiarismwere unforgiving-anyevidenceof it in a final assignmentand the studentfailed the course.I found that my students really did not understandwhat plagiarismwas,but they learnedbecause they were permittedmultiple submissionsof their work before a final version was accepted.

Lettersof Introduction Studentspreparingreporting assignmentsoften need introductory letters for their sources.I had a standardletter for Botswanathat described the assignment,and appealedto the strongsenseof nationalismthereby noting the important contribution the sourcecould maketo improving journalism standardsin the country by cooperatingwith the student.I also includedmy contactdetails. Training Content I havenevertaughtout of a textbook.Instead,I usea few favorite texts asoutlinesfor my lectures,thenI searchfor locally relevantmaterialfor classroominstruction.When I arrived in Belgrade,my departmenthead boastedthat the U.S. embassytherehad donatedtwo hundredcopiesof a U.S. journalismtextbookand an accompanyingworkbook. He carefully unlockeda cabinetin his office andpresentedme the texts with as much ceremonyas if he were offering me a sip of the first wine of the season.I sat while he weighedthe pros and consof letting the students write in the workbooks.He finally decidedthey could write in them,but they includedexerciseson covering city council, local schooldistricts, and the U.S. governmentand courts. I dutifully passedthem outto my studentsandnevermadean assignmentout of them.Everyonewashappy. Copyright laws are flagrantly violated in many parts of the world as studentscopy ancienttextbooksfor their coursework. My studentswere

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thrilled to own theseshiny texts with unbrokenspines;the department headwas ableto view himselfasa generousbenefactor,and Iwashappy becauseI could do what I wanted. Following are someclassroomactivities I havedevisedto minimize the time I spendlecturing and maximize the time my studentsspend learning.As fascinatingas my lecturesmay be, they learnmore if they are given active assignments.

Icebreakers On the fIrst day of class,to gaugethe expertiseof my studentsand to breakthe ice, I askthemto spenda few minutesinterviewing eachother and writing short storiesor headlinesaboutwhat they havediscovered. They thenreadtheir storiesto the class.I alsotalk the fIrst day aboutthe characteristicsof journalists.After discussingthe traits of persistence, curiosity, creativity, skepticism,discipline, commitment,and dependability, my studentssit a bit straighterwith their headsheld a bit higher. The only thing that is predictableis the unexpected.In my fIrst day of classin Belgrade,after writing their storiesabouttheir classmates,we went over the syllabusin excruciatingdetail. We talked about my expectationsof them; they told me their expectationsof me. At the end of the hour, I askedfor questions.A young woman in the front raisedher hand. "Where is your husband?"sheasked. Practical instruction in journalism is a rare commodity overseas.I have found that few of my studentshave ever written or produceda news story, and they jump at the chance.While the whisperof man-onthe-streetinterviews in Americannewsroomscan compeljournaliststo makethemselvesinvisible or suddenlyrememberforgottenassignments that simply cannotwait anotherminute,I havefound my studentsabroad jump at the chance.Armed with their little notebooksand their lists of preparedquestions,they raceout of the classroomonly to returnan hour or so later shouting out their quotesand competitively weighing the value of eachone.

Useful Internet Sites In any courseI havetaught,whetherit is computer-assisted reporting,or news writing, editing, or beat reporting, I have provided my students .with a list of Internet sites relevantto their countriesand regions and

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that provide links to local news. I encouragethem to supplementtheir reporting with Internetsearches,and it gives us anotheropportunity to talk aboutscrutinizingsources.

Critical Thinking I have devisedcritical thinking exercisesto remind my studentsthat the questfor questionsis as importantas the questfor answers.First, we evaluatetogethera local news story or a documentfor its context, the author,when, where,and why it was written. ThenI handout copies of anotherarticle or document,and their assignmentis to write a succinct summary,provide a critical evaluationof the purposeand point of the story or document,and write their analysisof the sources, content,and fairness. For example,a critical analysisof an article from a Botswanapaper headlined,''As crimeescalates,policesaythey arenot readyto be armed," points out that the article appearsto be making the casefor police to beararms.It quotesa Botswanapolice official as sayingthat Botswana robbers"don't shootas they know nobodyis armed,"but then describes a recentarmedcarjacking.The analysisconcludesthat robbersmay be emboldened,becausethey know the police force is unarmed,and there doesnot seemto be any real deterrentto crime in Botswana.This leads to a discussionof possiblefollow-up stories.

Ethics I sneakethicsinto all of my courses.Ethics is one of the biggestchallenges confronting the media, whether in the United States or Swaziland.It is all just a matter of degree.The disclosureof Jayson Blair's plagiarismand fiction-writing at the New York Times was perfectly timed for my ethicstalk in Belgrade.I broughtto classprintouts of the front-pageimageof the paperthat carriedthat famousapology, copiesof the apology, and copiesof someof Blair's problematicstories. My studentsdelightedin finding fault with the U.S. media,and I encouragedthem. I have never portrayedthe American pressas the icon of respectabilityand am ready to criticize its behaviorin a moment. That momentousincident at the New York Times allowed the class todiscusslying, plagiarism, irresponsiblereporting, and every aspectof mediaethics.

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Casestudieson ethicsare especiallyvaluable.WhereverI travel I try to collect local cases,but onecasefrom Botswanais discussedin all of my classeswhereverI am. Severalyearsago, a white woman shot and killed her lover's wife, then married him. She was ultimately charged with murderand imprisoned.Her jailors refusedher all visitors, but a SouthAfrican reportertraveledto Gaborone,told her jailers he was her attorney,and got his interview. Infuriated that it had beenscoopedon storiesof the day, one Gaborone what was one of the most sensational newspaperdid a story on whetherit is acceptableto lie to get a story. They interviewedevery newspapereditor in town, and me, and I am the only one who said reportersshouldnot lie to get stories. This casestudy opensdiscussionson the needfor readersto know, the potentialpublic benefit of publication,moral reasoning,and the responsibility of the mediato be ready to explaintheir actionswhen they are questioned. Many of my reportersin the developingworld find no fault with the practiceof misrepresentation.Somecommit sins of omissionand just do not mention to their sourcesthat they are journalists and doing a story. Others blatantly lie and justify it with the statementthat they will never get the story otherwise.I have spenthours debatingwith studentsthe casestudypresentedby theABC-FoodLion case,in which ABC reportersgot hired as grocery workers to surreptitiously take pictures and report on unsafemeat-handlingpractices.I admit there are no right and wrong answersin ethicaldilemmas,just goodchoices and bad choices. Yet in the classroom,I maintain zero toleranceon lying for stories. Oncethe lying begins,it is hardto stop,I tell my classes.Also, how can the mediaever hopeto be takenseriouslyand earntheir deservedpress freedomsif they are lying and deceivingtheir sources.I understandthat the medialie on a daily basisaroundthe world as they gathernews,but in countrieswhere the pressis struggling to gain legitimacy and freedom, I take a firm stand.

Codesof Ethics I always bring a variety of ethics codesto the classroom,and especially try to presentlocal codes.We go over them line by line, discuss eachissue,and then eachstudentwrites his or her own code.Cultural considerationsarenecessarywhen writing personalcodes.While U.S.

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journalistsare usually prohibited from supplementalemploymentthat could posea conflict of interestwhenworking for themedia,Third World journalistsoften needthe secondor third job to survive economically.

VulnerableSources I assigncasestudieson handlingvulnerablesourcesandjournalistic responsibility.At the Universityof Botswana,I would divide my class into three groups,give eacha casestudy, and tum them loose. They would debatethe pros and consof how to handleeachsituation,then presenttheir reasoningto the class.I watchedas their answersgrew increasinglysophisticatedand complex as the semesterprogressed and I admiredhow they becamemore comfortablespeakingin front of a group. Again, surpriseis to be expected.The treatmentof womenand children is especiallysensitivein southernAfrica, as they are the most frequently victimized. In one classdiscussion,the scenariowas this: You are doing a story on a traditional doctor who adviseshis male HIVpositive patientsto have sex with children for a cure. Who would you talk t6 and what would you ask?The first responsewas, "Well, I'd ask that little girl why she'shaving sex with men who are HIV positive." WhenI saidI did not think it wasa consensual situation especiallyif the girl is as young as eight, one of my female studentsasked,"Is it rapeto havesex with an eight yearold?"

Role Playing Usually a sourceof embarrassment or awkwardnessin Americanclassrooms, role playing was embracedby my studentsin southernAfrica. We had scenarioson interviewing techniquesfor them to portray. We had three stories: interviewing a local taxi driver about problemswith public transportation;an interview with a minister about the church's role in the battle againstHIV/AIDS; and an interview aboutstigmatization experiencedby a woman who is HIV positive. Each of the three groupsbrainstormedtheir questions,then choseone personto play the reporter,and the other the source.We critiqued eachperformance.By this practiceinterview, my studentsgainedexperiencein asking sensitive questions,in controlling an interview, and in being open to unexpectedstory possibilities.

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EvaluatingLocal Newspapers Local newspapersabroadhave neverfailed me in providing fodder for classroomdiscussions.I havegonethrough storiesparagraphby paragraph to point out loadedwords and cliches to be avoided.They have beenanalyzedfor genderand race representationand the questionof taste, the use of pictures has been analyzed,and headlineshave been critiqued.Most of my studentshaveneverhadthe chanceto readwhat I considerto be goodjournalismand, consequently,think their local press setsthe standard.After a few classesspentreviewing local stories,they view their mediadifferently and aspireto higher things. Oneof my favorite teachingtools in Gaboronewas a story that could not havebeenany worse.It includedloaded,opinionatedwords suchas "curiously," "surprisingly," and "interestingly."It featuredunattributed quotes,andpeoplewere allowedto criticize othersanonymously;it had exclamationpointsat the endof sentences,andthe tone of the story and eventhe headlinewere racist. I called on studentsto reada paragraph, and then tell me what was wrong with it. They neverfailed me in their observations. Questionabletaste is rampantin southernAfrican journalism. If a picture is available of blood on the sidewalk, dismemberedlimbs, or crime victims, it is spreadacrossthe newspages.Suchpicturesare useful when discussingjudgmentsfor news photos.Used in combination with the pictures of the bodies of U.S. contractorshanging from a EuphratesRiver bridge in Fallujah, the body of an American serviceman draggedthrough the streetsof Mogadishu,a nakedlittle girl running down a dirt road after a napalmattackin Vietnam, piles of stacked bodiesat Buchenwaldconcentrationcamp in 1945, and picturestaken in New York on September11,2001,a valuablelessonin tasteis ready made. I have shown 9/11 picturesof dismemberedlimbs on the sidewalk and peoplejumping out of windows of the World Trade Center, andcontrastedthemwith the Pulitzerprize-winningpictureby the New York Timesof the planeheadedtoward the towers,and madea powerful statementaboutgood tasteand the powerof photographs. Ratherthan standin front of my classesandrant about theabsenceof womenand minorities in the newspages,I had my classat the University of Botswanaanalyzethree papers.They found that one newspaper featuredinterviews from twenty-six men and five women, anotherincludedtwenty-eightpicturesof black men comparedto two picturesof

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white men,andanotherentirenewspaperincludedjust seveninterviews in all of its stories.My studentswere so enthusiasticaboutthe exercise that they carried their analysesfurther and scrutinizedthe stories for content,getting the point I had beenmaking all semesterthat politics dominatesthe newsto the expenseof othermore legitimatestoriesthat areignored. After an especiallytough week when it seemedthat I threw every newspaperI readacrossthe room after spying blatantly racist stories,I decidedto devotean entire classto racismin the media. I broughtexamplesof racism in the local pressto class. We defined racism, discussedhow cultureinfluencescoverage,racial profiling, the useof the term"minority," the useof irrelevantrace-identifyinginformation,and inflammatory language.They then tackledcasestudiesby examining a series of stories in the local media for racism. At the end of our three-hourclass,all studentsstill were in their seats,wanting to continue our discussion.

RewritingJargon Getting the jargon out of stories is a challengefor journalists everywhere. In countriesin which reportersare not given the chanceto specialize and really learn their beats,they tend to leave the jargon in to avoid mistakes,becausethey just do not know how to translateit into simple English. I havefound copiesof governmentreportsonline, and governmentspeeches,and after going over them in classto identify the jargon and discussthe real meaningbehind the words, have assigned studentsa rewrite of the report in simple language.

Note Taking Even though I require my studentsto take notesin class,they tend to forget and leavethe room with cleanpaper.As a note-takingand questioning exercise,we had a simulatedpressconferencein class.We first discussedhow pressconferencescan be usedto manipulatethe press, and how often the real news is discoveredin the questioningafterward andnot in the preparedpresentations.I gavea speechI hadfound online that had been given by a SouthAfrican minister. Even though I had advisedthem to write down every word, many of my studentssat with their handsneatly folded on their desksas I read the speech.Someof

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their storiesincluded fabricatedquotesand just wrong information. It was a good lesson.

HIVIAIDS Coverage While every perceivedtransgressionof membersof parliamentis coveredextensively inthe southernAfrica media,the story of HIV / AIDS is largely untold. The storiesthat are written are usually sensational,stigmatizing, and inaccurate.While governmentand nongovernmentalorganizationcampaignsagainstHIV IAIDS emphasizeusing condoms, African churches,a force to be reckonedwith in the culture, promote abstinenceand advisepeopleto avoid premaritalsex.The eyesof Africannewspapereditorsglazeover when I ask why thereis no morecoverage.They havebeensaturatedwith the anti-AIDS messagesthat are displayedon highway billboards, T-shirts, painted on buildings, and advertisedon TV and radio. They have told me that everyoneknows aboutthe diseaseand peopledo not want to hearany more. They have said the messagesare so negativeand inappropriatethey are sick of hearingthem. The diseasetoucheseveryone.In Gaborone,funeral homesadvertise on highway billboards and buy quarter-pageads in newspapers.Saturdays are consumedwith funerals, and cemeterieslook more like constructionsitesthanplacesof eternalrest. Oneof the main causesof debt in Botswanais socialpressureto stageelaboratefunerals.Severalof my studentsprivately confessedto metheir positivestatus.Bowls filled with condomsare everywhere. As so many conversationsin southernAfrica do, my studentsand I oftendrifted into talking aboutthe spreadofHIV /AIDS andhow it should be covered.In my beatreportingclass,manyof my studentschoseHIV / AIDS astheir beats.I got storiesaboutthe growing useof antiretrovirals, the role of gospelmusic in the fight againstthe disease,traditional doctors who prescribesex with little girls for a cure, and stigmatizationof families that havelost numerousmembers. Yet the languageofHIV/AIDS is becomingclichedandis often negative. The term "AIDS pandemic"is overused,the term "killer disease" is stigmatizing. In a SouthAfrican editing workshop with newspaper editors and writers, we searchedfor more preciseterminology to describethe diseaseandwhat it is doing to the population.We decidedthat brevity may not be the bestapproachwhen describingthe spreadof the

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disease.It wasbetterto mentionthe numberof peopleestimatedto have the diseaseratherthan just say "AIDS pandemic."We looked for story ideasto portray the diseasewith more hope and optimism ratherthan declaringa deathsentencewith our language.We discussedfact-based reporting versusrumor and innuendowhen discussingthe statusof a celebrity or of a personin the public eye. Evaluating Training

I have a standardevaluationform adoptedfrom a questionnairepreparedby the InternationalCenterfor Journalistsin Washington,D.C., that all of my studentscompleteanonymouslyat the end of every class or workshop.Here is a copy. 1. The instructorwas: I-poorly prepared,2-sometimesprepared,3-no opinion, 4-well prepared 2. The materialsprovidedwere: I-not useful, 2-sometimesuseful, 3-no opinion, 4-very useful 3. The coursewas: I-quite easy, 2-relatively easy, 3-somewhatdifficult, 4-extremelydifficult 4. Studentquestionswere: I-never welcome, 2-sometimeswelcome, 3-no opinion, 4-muchwelcome 5. The instructor'sexpertisewas: I-poor, 2-okay, 3-no opinion, 4-excellent 6. The classeswere: I-poorly organized,2-sometimesorganized,3-noopinion, 4-excellent 7. Coursematerial was presented: I-too quickly, 2-appropriately,3-noopinion, 4-tooslowly

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8. Studentopinionswere: I-not respected,2-sometimesrespected,3-no opinion, 4-well respected 9. My understandingimproved: I-very little, 2-somewhat,3-no opinion, 4-very much 10. The level of the materialcoveredwas: I-too elementary,2-appropriate,3-no opinion, 4-too advanced 11. I could understandthe lectures,explanationsand answers: I-almost never, 2-sometimes,3-no opinion, 4-all of the time 12. The instructorwas: I-alwaysunavailable,2-sometimesavailable,3-noopinion, 4-alwaysavailable 13. My interestin journalismwas: I-greatly decreased,2-somewhatincreased,3-no change, 4-greatlyincreased 14. Overall value of the coursewas: I-poor, 2-relatively valuable,3-no opinion, 4-excellent 15. Overall effectivenessof the professorwas: I-poor, 2-moderate,3-no opinion, 4-excellent I also leave them room for comments,in which they havetakenthe opportunityto commenton my apparel,or the possibilitiesof my return next semester.Studentseverywhere,however,are not shy aboutvoicing their opinions, and I have always maintainedan open-doorpolicy to listen to them. It is from individual commentsthat I am able to also of my training. assessthe strengthsand weaknesses

FutureChallenges As democracyspreads,the challengesfor establishingan independent, fair, accurate,and balancedpressaroundthe world will grow. The emphasison the location is likely to change.With the war in Iraq and

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upheavalin the Middle East, many resourcesare being diverted to media training in that region. Training in the former Soviet Union is flourishing as the former communiststatestry to find their place in the democratizingworld. While world changeshave diminishedthe strategic importanceof Africa, the spreadof mv/AIDS hassparkedrenewed mediatraining on the continent.There will alwaysbe training needsin the SouthernHemisphere. As technologicalimprovementsspreadand more peoplehaveaccess to the Internet,online instruction will be easierand more realistic. I found that I was teachingthe samething to mediaprofessionalsand aspiringjournalistsduring my first stint in Africa in 1999 that I did in 2004.The messageof fairness,accuracy,andbalancewill neverchange.

8 Mental Health Counseling Groups in Developing Countries: The Preparation of Group Leadership Trainers Rex Stockton, D. Keith Morran, and Leann j. Terry

This chapterfocuseson the preparationof expatriatetrainerswho will, in turn, be responsiblefor teachinggroup counselingknowledgeand skills to group leadersworking in developingnations. The preparationof thesegroup leadershiptrainersinvolvesa number of importantconsiderations.First, trainerswill needto have,or acquire, groupleadershipskills that areabovethe basicproficiencylevel. If these proficiencieshavenot beenpreviouslyacquired,educationalexperiences will needto be providedin order to help trainersmasterthe theoretical knowledgeand applicationskills that they will eventuallyteachto others. Second, trainerswill need to acquire knowledgeand skill in the application of one or more group counselortraining models that are basedon researchfindings andbestpracticesidentified within the field. Third, trainerswill needto acquireas much knowledgeand experience as possible concerningthe traditions, customs,and realities of the culture(s) with which they will eventually work. This would include, but not be limited to, the normsand traditionsof mentalhealthcounseling and group work within that culture. Finally, trainers will need to acquire the ability to adapt group leadertraining methodologiessuccessfullyto the settingsin which they work. The first two sectionsof this chapterwill discussthe currentstateof group leadertraining and the barriers that may be encounteredwhen training is conductedin developingcountries.The next two sections 129

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will presenta bestpracticesmodel for group leadertraining and discuss delivery strategiesfor applying the model in developingsettings.The final two sectionswill discussthe evaluationof training efforts and anticipatedfuture trendsand challengesfor expatriatetrainersworking in developingnations. Current State of Group Counselor Training Researchfindings in the group counselingareaconsistentlysupportthe efficacy of groups(McRoberts,Burlingame,and Hoag, 1998) acrossa wide areaof application,althoughthe researchbaseis less well developed in the area of appropriatetraining methods.However, there is a consensusamongleadingtheoristsand practitionersconcerningthe essential componentsof an effective training program. In reviewing the literature, Stocktonand Toth (1996) notedthat there was consensus on four basic elements:grounding in group theory and basic principles throughthe study of didactic material; opportunitiesto observegroups in action and to practicespecific leadershipskills before actually leading a group; a personal-growthgroupexperiencein orderto observethe group'sdevelopmentfrom a member'sperspective;andpracticein leading, or co-leading,a group undercareful supervision.Theseelements aredesignedto enabletraineesto gain a thoroughunderstandingof group processes,how theseprocessesrelateto outcomes,and how the leader may interveneto influencethesedynamics. Barriers Barrierscanincludebothpersonalreactionsandexternalcircumstances. Of coursetheseare not discreteentities but interact with each other. Theseproblemsare magnifiedgreatly for expatriates.It is not unusual, for example,for those spendingtime in anotherculture to experience initially a senseof alienation,isolation,andan intenselonging for home. Added to this can be difficult externalcircumstancessuch as interruptions in the mostbasicof services(for example,transportation,communications,electricity, duplicating services). Even in developedcountriesit is often difficult for training programs to consistentlyprovide all of the ideal training componentsthat help to insure group leadercompetency.For example,some small programs may lack appropriateaudiovisualtraining equipment,accessto a large

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enoughpool of group membersto provide adequatesupervisedpractice, or adequatenumbersof staffto take on the heavysupervisionload. Theseproblemsarefrequentlymagnifiedin developingcountries.The inability to communicatein a commonlanguagecan be a barrier. The first author, for example,conductedan extendedworkshop in Latin America where an interpreterhad to be provided. Although the participantsfelt the experiencewas valuable,thereis no questionthat the experiencewould havebeenimprovedhadthe trainerbeenconversant in Spanish. Other commonbarriers may be cultural or political in nature. Perhapsthe greatestsingle barrier to successof a programis in importing programsto a country that doesnot have the supportof grassrootsinvolvement. Brack, for example,who is well known for his life-skills training programin SouthAfrica, will not initiate a training programin an areaunlesshe first hasthe supportof local communityleaders.Additionally, he engageslocal mentalhealthworkersin focus groupsto help in selectingparticipantsand aiding in the modification of the program to thelocal culture(G. Brack,personalcommunication,March 31, 2004).

Best Practicesfor Training of Group Leaders Researchfindings haveconsistentlyindicatedthatgroupcounselingand individual counselingare essentiallyequal in terms of effectiveness (Fuhrimanand Burlingame,1994; Kivlighan, Coleman,andAnderson, 2000; McRobertset aI., 1998). Toselandand Siporin (1986), for example,reviewedthirty-two studiescomparinggroupandindividual counseling. They concludedthat the two approacheswere equally effective in 75 percentof the studies,with groupsmoreeffectivein the remaining 25 percent.However,groupcounselingoffers the advantageof economy, becauseit allows a group leaderto work with multiple clients at the sametime. Thus it is not surprisingthat group modalitieshave become increasinglypopularover the pastfew decades. Before addressingbestpracticesfor group leadertraining, it seems useful to commentfirst on some similarities and differencesbetween group and individual counseling.Individual counselorstypically work one-on-onewith clientsandseekto providedirectly the therapeuticconditions and interventionsthat lead to client change.Group counselors may at times employ these samedirect interventionsfor individuals within the group.However,the primary role of the groupcounseloris to

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facilitate the developmentof a groupatmospherecharacterizedby trust, openness,and cohesion.Suchan atmospherepromotesthe maximization of natural therapeuticforces within the group and encourages member-to-memberinteractionswhereby group memberslearn from and help eachother, with the group leaderacting in a facilitative role (Yalom, 1995). Dies (1983, 1994), in his extensivereview of the group counselingliterature,concludedthat althoughthe group leader'srole is essential,sharing and interaction among group membersis the most importantfactorin promotingindividual change.Modelsfor groupleader training generallyassumethat traineeswill have already acquiredthe basicproficienciesfor individual counseling.Groupleadertraining,therefore, is focusedon helpingtraineesto acquirenew group-specificknowledge and skills and to adapt their individual counselingskills to the group setting. The various modelsof group leadertraining havetypically focused on trainees'acquisitionof knowledgecompetencies, skill competencies, and clinical experiencecompetencies(for example,Corey and Corey, 2002; DeLucia, Bowman, and Bowman, 1989; Harvill, Masson,and Jacobs,1983; Robison, Jones,and Berglund, 1996; Smaby,Maddux, Torres-Rivera,and Zimmick, 1999; Stockton and Toth, 1996; Yalom, 1995). The emphasisamong thesethree competency areas has, however, differed widely acrosstraining models. Stockton(1992)emphasizedthe needto combineprocess-andskillbasedapproachesinto a singleintegrated,theoreticallydriven training model.His integrated,bestpracticesmodelfocuseson four basictraining components:(1) theoreticaland practical knowledgethrough the accumulationof didactic material;(2) opportunitiesfor traineesto observegroups in action and to learn and practice specificgroup skills before actually leading agroup; (3) participationas a group member in orderto promotepersonaldevelopmentandto providetraineeswith the opportunityto observegroup developmentfrom a member'sperspective;and (4) practicein leadingor co-leadinga group underclose supervision(Stockton,Morran, and Krieger, 2004; StocktonandToth, 1996). Stocktonand Toth (1996) note that there is generalagreement among group-work expertsthat thesecomponentsare essentialelements in the effective training of group leaders(Blum, 1983; Corey and Corey, 2002; Dies, 1980; Yalom, 1995). Theseelementsserveas the foundation of a group leader training model that includes three overlappingstages.

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In the fIrst stageof Stockton'smodel, didactic and related instructional techniques/materials areusedto helptraineesgain an understanding of group dynamics,therapeuticfactors, and other core principles underlyingall counselinggroups.Someof the majortopicsincludestages of group development,group memberroles, leaderstyles,curativefactors, and specifIctheoreticalapproaches.In additionto didactic instruction, traineesalso read selectedmaterials,engagein discussion,write reactionsto what they havelearned,and practicewhat is being learned in dyadsor small groups. In the secondstage,traineesobservegroups(via videotraining tapes andlor live peergroups)and learn and practicethe techniquesand interventionsthat are specifIc to the group setting. Such skills as protectingmembers,blocking, supporting,drawingout, feedbackexchange/ processing,and othersare the focus at this point. It is also importantto reintegratepreviously studiedtheoreticalprinciplesduring this stagein order to link them to the interventionsbeing learned. This helps the trainee understand both how to apply a given interventionandthe rationalefor usingit. Throughoutthis stage,traineesareprovidedthe opportunity to discussand practicetheir developinggroup skills within the safety of small peer groups.Within thesegroups,traineesare encouragedto discusstheir apprehensionsabout eventually leading a group. This allows traineesto dealdirectly with their anxietieswhile alsogaining experiencefrom a group memberperspective. In the fInal training stage,traineesactually lead or co-leadone or more group experiences.Thesegroups typically involve six or more group sessionsthat are observedby an experiencedsupervisorwho provides immediatefeedbackafter each session.Ideally, these sessions are videotapedso the supervisorcan point out specifIc critical incidentswithin the group interactions,help the traineeconceptualize what occurred,and aid the traineein consideringthe optionsavailable for intervening. Stockton'straining model (Stocktonet aI., 2004) also proposesthat, within eachof the training stages,threeinextricably intertwineddimensions should be addressed:(1) accuratelyperceivinggroup dynamics; (2) selectingappropriateinterventions;and (3) risking oneselfto actually apply the selectedintervention.In effect, thesedimensionsserveas instructionaltargetsthat must be attendedto within eachdidactic, skill practice,or experientialtraining activity. Traineeslearnto perceiveaccuratelygroupdynamicsby fIrst reading

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about and discussingthe typical stagesthat groups progressthrough. This understandingis strengthenedas the traineeobservesand participatesin groupexperiencesandreflectsuponthoseexperiences.Thus,as traineesbeginto learnaboutspecificgroupinterventiontechniques,they have a foundationof group knowledgeto help them recognizeand select potentialinterventionsthat are appropriateat a given time. Without suchfoundationalknowledge,beginninggroup leadersoften arbitrarily apply interventionsthatmay endup hinderingthegroup'sprogress.Once traineesdevelop sufficient insight to select appropriateinterventions, they may still be hinderedfrom actually risking themselves andintervening. This stemsnot from a lack of understandingbut from performance anxiety and feelings of inefficacy. Therefore,throughout the training stages,it is importantto addresspersonalanxiety issues.Helping traineesunderstandfrom the beginningthat suchanxiety is normal andexpectedcanoften be beneficial.The secondtraining stageincorporatesgroupmemberexperienceswheretraineesareencouragedto share and discusstheir own anxieties;the feelings of universalitythat emerge during this experiencecan often be quite helpful as traineesattemptto work through their fears. Additionally, when traineesprogressto the point of actually leadingor co-leadinga group,the supervisorshouldbe attunedto situationswherethe traineeis hinderedby anxiety and make this a topic for discussionin the feedbacksession. In orderto teachgroupleadershipskills effectively to othersin developing countries,trainerswill first needto becomeproficient in the proposedtraining model.For thosewho areexperiencedgroupleaders,this may requireonly a brief training period,while for thosewith little leadershipexperiencethe training will needto be more extensive.It is important,however,for all trainersto experiencefully the training model. In additionto extendingtheir own group leadershipskills, they will also have the chanceto observetheir instructorsas they model the various educationaltechniquesusedin the applicationof the training model.

Delivery Group work canbe a particularly useful systemto usewith peoplefrom developingcountries.In countrieswith a collectivistculture,which could include a focus on families, clans, or ethnicities, problems are often solvedin groups.Mental healthproblemsalso disproportionatelyaffect particular groups, including abusedwomen, people traumatizedby

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conflict and war, peopleliving in extremepoverty, refugees,and indigenouspopulationsin parts of the world (World Health Organization, 2003). The natureof someculturesto problem solve in groups,along with the mental healthburdensspecific groupsface, makegroup counseling an ideal modality in developingcountries. As notedin the previoussection,usefulmodelsexistfor training group leaders.However,eventhe most efficaciousmodel will not prove to be effective if the delivery is done poorly or insensitively.The questionis one of what training to presentand how to presentit. This sectionwill focus on issuesrelatedto how training can be deliveredeffectively. In the previous section, severalcompetencylevels were discussed. Theseassumedexpertisethat expatriateswould have,or obtain, before they train others. This knowledgeand skill set is essential,however, trainers also need to have the teaching skills that will allow them to presentthe training effectively. Levers (n.d.) found that someWestern organizationsin southernAfrica did not have adequateknowledgeof the needsof the local culture.Thus,althoughthereweregoodintentions to deliver the services,the implementationof the training or services was faulty. Teaching skills are necessaryto know how to deliver the training so it will be acceptedand incorporated.This is especiallysalient when the knowledgeis coming from a different system.This section will incorporatesomeusefullearningprinciplesthat,whencombined with cultural sensitivity, demonstratestrategiesfor applying the model of group counselingin developingsettings. Trying to implementa training programwithout an underlying understandingof how peoplelearn is futile. For a training programto be effective, expatriatesshould have an understandingof basic learning principles that are applicableto group leader education;additionally, they shouldbe able to incorporatethis knowledgeinto the implementation of their own training programs. While this chapteris not aboutlearningtheory,the authorshavefound that certainprincipleswork well in group leadertraining. For example, Tennysonand Cochiarella (1986) theorize that learning takes place throughassociations.In this way, retentionis enhancedwhennew information is linked with previousknowledge.This processof linking can take advantageof what traineesalreadyknow aboutindividual interactions. Thusinstructionaboutgroupcounselingcanbe madeeasierwhen linked to the domainof individual interpersonalinteraction.To be effective, theseinterpersonalexamplesshouldbe highly culturally relevant,

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thusreinforcingthe needfor expatriatesto haveknowledge,experience, and a strongcollaborationwith membersfrom the local culture. It is importantto teachtraineesdirectly aboutthe linking process,as it is usedto promotegroupinteractionandhelp membersbecomeaware of their feelings. A good exampleof associatingnew processeswith previous knowledgeand experience(through an existing known ceremony),can be seenin Loewy, Williams, and Keleta's(2002) usageof the Kaffa ceremonyas a group counselinginterventionwith EastAfricanfemalerefugees.For EthiopiansandEritreans,the coffeeceremony is an indigenoushealinginterventionthat hasa long history in EastAfrican culture (Kaffa and coffee can be usedinterchangeablyin this example).Briefly stated,the Kaffa ceremonyfirst involves an invitation to sharecoffee.At this stagein the counselinggroupthe leadercaninitiate trust and rapport, and establishconfidentiality throughthe privacy that is expectedwith the Kaffa ceremony.Next, the group gathersto roast the coffee beans.This roastingceremonycan serveas the beginningof the counselingsessionwhen the leadercan encouragediscussionand facilitate further rapportand a feeling of safety(Loewy et aI., 2002). In the ceremonythe coffee is pouredthreetimes, eachlasting aboutthirty minutes and allowing the leader time to facilitate group discussion. Through a deepeningof the dialogue the group membersare able to shareandgain social supportfrom eachother.During eachgroup counseling session,coffee is prepared.Through these sessionsthe group membersareableto acknowledgethe strengthandthe resiliencyof each member(Loewy et aI., 2(02). This exampleservesto highlight the importanceoflinking or associating known experienceswith new interventions.In this caseit was necessary to provide a familiar and safe environment,through the previously experiencedKaffa ceremony,to allow the participantsto experienceand sharedeep individual trauma.When working with strong and personal emotions,safety is crucial as it allows the participantsto take a risk and expresssomeof thedeepfeelingskeptinside.TheKaffa ceremonyworked with the EastAfrican refugeewomenbecauseit was a culturally relevant intervention.Expatriatetrainers should establisha strong collaboration with membersfrom the local culture to determinewhat interventionsand experiencescould serveas associations.By providing suchexamplesto trainees,and having them searchout similar rituals that are germane'to the cultureswith whom they will work, traineeswill be preparedto incorporatethe idea of linking to their own future training efforts.

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Another line of theory and inquiry that has importancefor group leadershiptrainers is information about the developmentof expert behavior.Ericsson,Krampe, and Tesch-Romer(1993) have amassed compelling evidencefor the role of extendedpractice,ratherthan inherentspecialability, in the developmentof expertise.Ericssonet al. (1993) posit that the most powerful strategyfor the developmentof expertbehavioris deliberatepractice.Mere repetitiondoesnot constitute deliberatepractice;rather it involves structuredpracticethat includesimmediateinformative feedbackand knowledgeof the results of one'sperformance.Expatriatetrainersprovide the initial stagesfor the developmentof expertbehavior,and they can establisha norm for providing feedback.For more guidanceon the use of feedback,see Morran, Stockton,Cline, andTeed(1998);Morran,Stockton,andHarris (1991); Morran,Robison,andStockton(1985); andMorran andStockton (1980). To give a specific exampleof the delivery of a training program,a descriptionwill be given of the authors'currentproject. The goal of the projectis to train humanservicepersonnelfrom Botswanain groupcounseling techniquesto enablethem to addressthe high numberof individuals living with mY/AIDS. As of 2002, Botswanahad the highest HN infection rate in the world, with 37 percentof the adult population infected(UNAIDSIWHO, 2003).In additionto the infectedindividuals, many others (for example,children, spouses,and other relatives) are also impacted.In many developingcountriesmedicinethat canprolong life is extremely expensiveand difficult to obtain. This can result in what is, in effect, a deathsentence.Thus it is important to help those infectedto live the highestquality life possibleandto makeappropriate plansfor themselvesand othersaffectedby the disease.Becauseof this, the groupcounselingprogramwill needto focus both on the expression of affect as well as cognitive and life skills. This projectwasinitiated by an invitation from leadingmembersof the counselingcommunity in sub-Saharan Africa for assistanceand help in developinga groupcounselingtrainingprogram.Thesemembershadidentified a needin Botswanafor group counselinginterventionsand looked for collaboratorswho wereexperiencedwith groupinterventions.We considerthis essential.Brack (personalcommunication,2004) hasindicated that a lack of grassroots participation in developingthe needfor a programas well as its contentand delivery is likely to lead to failure. The secondstep has been for the authors to becomeas culturally

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knowledgeableas possible,given the externallimitations and circumstancesof not beingableto live in Botswanaandbecomefully immersed over a long period of time. Even had the authorsbeenable to do this, collaborationwith membersfrom the local culture would be crucial. Consultationwith othercolleagueswho haveongoingtraining programs in nearbycountrieshas also takenplace. Another step has beencollaboratingwith our African colleaguesto developculturally relevanttraining materials.This processis cooperative; the authors'experiencewith training modelsand bestpracticesin groupcounselingarebeingadaptedand informedby feedbackfrom our colleaguesas to the bestimplementationof this in Botswana'ssociety. This processis ongoing and developmentalin nature throughoutthe entire training and delivery sequence. Evaluation

The evaluationof training programsin developingnations will most likely require both formative and summativeevaluation approaches. Formative evaluationinvolves gathering information throughoutthe stagesof the training program,with a focus on providing ongoingfeedbackthat can be usedto improve the programas it unfolds. Summative of the final effects or evaluation,in contrast, involves an assessment outcomesof the training effort in relation to establishedoutcomegoals. In contrastingformative and summativeevaluation,Stake(cited in National ScienceFoundation,2002)providesa commonsense explanation, "When the cook tastesthe soup,that'sformative; when the gueststaste the soup,that'ssummative"(section1, p. 8). As group leadertrainers are being preparedto work in developing nations,it will be important to use formative evaluationtechniquesto provide ongoing feedbackthat can be used to identify problem areas and suggestcorrective actions. This type of evaluation,for example, might employ interviewswith participants,surveysof participantsatisfaction with the training, observationof skill demonstrations,and tests that assessparticipants'understandingof what is being learned. Formativeevaluationtechniquesmay be particularly useful for trainers to employ when they are teachinggroup leadersin developingnations.As notedearlier,anytraining modelthat is utilized will necessarily need tobe adaptedand modified to make it maximally relevantto the culture within which it is used.Becauseformative evaluationis focused

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on providing feedbackfor ongoing improvementand adjustment,this approachshouldbe well suitedfor preparinggroup leadersin culturally relevantways. For example,a trainer might learn from group member feedbackthat, in a given culture, the discussionof family dynamicsis a taboosubject,and training could be modified accordingly. In addition to formative evaluation,summativeevaluationis also essential in order to assessthe ultimate impact of training efforts. This is usuallycloselytied to the specificoutcomegoal(s)ofthe training effort. For example,it would be useful to assessthe skill level of group leaders following completionof training and to reassessperiodically their skill levels as they continueto gain experience.Summativeevaluationmight also includesurveysof thosewho participateas membersin counseling groups. For example,surveyscould be used to assesssuch things as satisfactionwith the group experience,behavioralchanges,emotional changes,or the accomplishmentof personalgoals. Summative evaluationutilizes many of the sametechniquesas formativeevaluation(interviews,tests,surveys,observations)but frequently includesinformation that can be gatheredfrom such sourcesas school records,medicalrecords,governmentreports,and many other sources. For example,if the ultimate goal of training group leadersis to lower the rate of new HIV infections within a given population, it may be possibleto track changesin the rate of infection throughgovernmentor othersources.Anotherexamplemight be a life-skills group with a goal of future employmentfor members.In this case,job acquisitionstatus obtainedfrom employmentrecords would be an important sourceof data. Future Challenges

As any experiencedtrainerwill know, thereare alwaysgoing be logistical challenges.Trainerscanexpectin the future that theseproblemswill persist;however,they can be addressedin both ways that we havesuggestedand in other workablesolutionssparkedby the trainers'flexibility andwillingnessto adapt.Instead,we will turn our attentionbriefly to the largerandmoresystemicdifficulties. Unfortunately,theseproblems are not as easily solvedbut haveto be considered. Major societalproblemsin developingcountriesare not going to go away. For example,the AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa is catastrophic. Of the estimated40 million people living with HIV I AIDS

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worldwide, 66 percent live in sub-SaharanAfrica (UNAIDSIWHO, 2003). This problemimpactsboth the needfor servicesand the ability of societiesto respond.Donor agenciesthat often provide servicesare hard-pressedto keep up with the humanitarianneeds.It is critical that the cadreof helping professionalsbe increasedwith the corresponding increasein demand.Paradoxically,the cohortof peoplewho would normally get specializedtraining is within the age group that is most vulnerablefor developingAIDS. It will not be enoughsimply for trainers to provide specializedskills; they will also have to addressthe wellbeing of thosewhom they train. A relatedchallengeis the needfor trainersto make a sustainedcommitment to a given effort. Short-term,one-timetraining efforts will not establishthe credibility necessaryfor the intervention to be well received. Both organizationsthat provide resourcesand expatriateswho provide supportshouldrealizethat their efforts will be muchmorepowerful if they are able to makea commitmentto return until a programis self-sustaining.For this to becomea reality, thosewho are recipientsof group leadershiptraining haveto becomeskillful enoughto train others and be willing to make a commitmentto do that. While this commitment is necessaryfrom both expatriatetrainers and group leaders,it may be mostdifficult for expatriatetrainersto return periodically to the site. Oneway this challengemay be met is to providecontinuedtraining and contactthroughdistanceeducation. In today'sworld it is possibleto accessinformation through means suchas video conferencing,e-mail, instantmessaging,online academic databases, andWeb-basedtraining material.This technologyoffers much promise,but as any other solution it also createsits own problems.For example,in any given area,the accessto technologywill be disproportionate; it is often limited to cities, governmentaloffices, and universities. It is importantfor the trainerto utilize this resourceas a supplement to training, not as a substitute. In summation,through the combinationof systematictraining, acculturation efforts, and formative and summativeevaluation,it is possible to establishand maintain training programsto contribute to the resolutionof a variety of problemsassociatedwith expatriatestraining in developingnations.Perhapsthe mostimportantfactorsrelatedto successwill be in the trainers'willingnessto be flexible andto provide the impetusfor the establishmentof a sustainableintervention.Ultimately, successfultraining programs will be basedon the needsof a given

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population,and,afterinitial expatriatetraining, aretakenoverandimplementedby thosein the developingnation. References Blum, D.S. 1983. "Group LeadershipTraining: An Inclusive Model." The Journal for Specialistsin Group Work 8: 76-85. Corey, M.S., and G. Corey. 2002. Groups: Processand Practice. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. DeLucia, J.L., V.E. Bowman, and R.L. Bowman. 1989. "The Use of ParallelProcess in Supervisionof Group Counselingto Facilitate Counselorand Client Growth." The Journalfor Specialistsin Group Work 14: 232-238. Dies, R.R. 1980. "CurrentPracticein the Training of GroupPsychotherapists." InternationalJournal ofGroup Psychotherapy30: 169-185. Dies,R.R. 1983."Clinical Implicationsof Researchon Leadershipin Short-termGroup Psychotherapy."In Advancesin Group Psychotherapy:Integrating Researchand Practice, ed. R.R. Dies and KR. MacKenzie,27-78. American Group PsychotherapyAssociationMonographSeries.New York: InternationalUniversitiesPress. Dies,R.R. 1994."TherapistVariablesin GroupPsychotherapy Research."In Handbook of Group Psychotherapy:An Empirical and Clinical Synthesis,ed. A. Fuhrimanand G.M. Burlingame,114-154.New York: JohnWiley. Ericsson,KA., R.T. Krampe,andC. Tesch-Romer.1993."TheRoleof DeliberatePractice in theAcquisition of ExpertBehavior."PsychologicalReview100: 363-406. Fuhriman,A., and G.M. Burlingame. 1994. "Group Psychotherapy:Researchand Practice."In HandbookofGroup Psychotherapy:An Empirical andClinical Synthesis,ed. A. Fuhrimanand G.M. Burlingame,3-40. New York: JohnWiley. Harvill, R., R.L. Masson,and E.E. Jacobs.1983. "SystematicGroup Leadership Training:A Skills DevelopmentApproach:'TheJournalfor Specialistsin Group Work 8: 226-232. Kivlighan, D.M., M.N. Coleman,and D.C. Anderson.2000. "Process,Outcome, and Methodologyin GroupCounselingResearch."In Handbookof Counseling Psychology,3rd ed., ed. S.D. Brown and R. Lent, 767-796. New York: John Wiley. Levers,L.L. n.d. "DesigningCounselorEducationin a DevelopingContext:A Prospectusfor a SouthernAfrican RegionalCounselorTraining and ResourceCenter." RetrievedMarch 4, 2004,from KalamazooCollegeWeb site: www.kzoo.eduJ africalsar.html. Loewy, M.I., D.T. Williams, andA. Keleta.2002."Group Counselingwith Traumatized EastAfrican RefugeeWomen in the United States:Using theKaffa CeremonyIntervention."Thf Journalfor Specialistsin Group Work 27: 173-191. McRoberts,C., G.M. Burlingame,and MJ. Hoag. 1998."ComparativeEfficacy of Individual and GroupPsychotherapy:A Meta-analyticPerspective."Group Dynamics: Theory, Research,and Practice 2, no. 2: 101-177. Morran, D.K, EE Robison,andR. Stockton.1985."FeedbackExchangein Counseling Groups:An Analysis of MessageContentand ReceiverAcceptanceas a Functionof LeaderVersusMemberDelivery, Session,andValence."Journal of CounselingPsychology32: 57-67.

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Morran, D.K., and R. Stockton. 1980. "Effect of Self-concepton Group Member Receptionof Positiveand NegativeFeedback."Journal of CounselingPsychology 27: 260-267. Morran, D.K., R. Stockton,R.I. Cline, and C. Teed. 1998. "Facilitating Feedback Exchangein Groups:LeaderInterventions."The Journalfor Specialistsin Group Work 23: 257-268. Morran, D.K., R. Stockton, and M. Harris. 1991. "Analysis of Group Leaderand MemberFeedbackMessages."Journal of Group Psychotherapy,Psychodrama and Sociometry44: 126-135. National ScienceFoundation.2002. The 2002 User Friendly HandbookforProject Evaluation. Preparedby J.E Westat. (NSF: Directoratefor Educationand HumanResources,Division of Research,EvaluationandCommunication.)Retrieved March 26, 2004,Web site: www.nsf.gov/pubs/2002/nsf02057/nsf02057_2.pdf. Robison,EE, E.N. Jones,and D.E. Berglund. 1996. "Researchon the Preparation for GroupCounselors."The Journalfor Specialistsin Group Work 21: 172-177. Smaby,M.H., C.D. Maddux,E. Torres-Rivera,andR. Zimmick. 1999."A Study of the Effects of a Skills-basedVersusa ConventionalGroup CounselingTraining Program."The Journalfor Specialistsin Group Work 24: 152-163. Stockton, R. (Presenter).1992. Associationfor Specialistsin Group Work (Producer).DevelopmentalAspectsof GroupCounseling[Videotape].(Availablefrom the AmericanCounselorAssociation,Alexandria,Virginia.) Stockton,R., D.K. Morran, and K.M. Krieger. 2004. "An Overview of CurrentResearchandBestPracticesfor Training BeginningGroupLeaders."In Handbook ofGroup CounselingandPsychotherapy,ed. J.L. DeLucia-Waack,D.A. Gerrity, C.R. Kalodner,and M.T. Riva, 65-76.ThousandOaks,CA: Sage. Stockton,R., andP.L. Toth. 1996."TeachingGroupCounselors:Recommendations for Maximizing PreserviceInstruction." The Journal for Specialistsin Group Work 21: 274-282. Tennyson,R.D., and M.J. Cochiarella.1986."An Empirically BasedInstructional DesignTheory for TeachingConcepts."Reviewof EducationalResearch56: 40-70. Toseland,R., and M. Siporin. 1986. "When to RecommendGroup Treatment:A Review of the Clinical and Group Literature." International Journal of Group Psychotherapy36: 172-201. UNAIDSIWHO. 2003.AIDS EpidemicUpdate: December2003. Geneva,Switzerland: Joint United NationsProgrammeon HIV/AIDS andWorld HealthOrganization. World Health Organization.2003. The Mental Health Context. Geneva,Switzerland: World Health Organization. Yalom,I.D. 1995. The Theoryand Practice of Group Psychotherapy,4th ed. New York: Basic Books.

9 Training Community Nongovernmental Organizations Willy Holleweg dit Wegman

The birth of unionism and, ipso facto, of nongovernmentalorganizations (NGOs) beginsearly in history. From the outsetcomplex organizationsthat standfree from direct governmentfollow the rule of law. However,they havetheir own dynamicsandsenseof purpose.This chapter presentsthe kinds of issuesthe expert trainer will confront when engagingin cooperationwith, or in the nameof, NGOs. Citizen-basedorganizationswithin a given societal setting have always existed.We understandthat social and political competitionusually endsin a deep rift of understandingof purposeand goals of both communityandgovernmentleadershipby large portionsof the population. This helpsexplainswhy peopleprotestand resistexisting government policy. The statementneedssome clarification when trying to approachthe natureandessenceofNGOs,becausethe existenceof these organizationsdoesnot alwaysreflectantagonismfor government.Rather, it reflectsthe willingnessto do thingsdifferently, morerapidly, andwithout proceduralhassle,and is often gearedto specific targets and for more specific purposes.1 Governmentsvary accordingto the needsof a given society. One may also assumethat a given society or community is headedby the governmentit deserves.Furthermore,one can imagine that employees deservethe managementfor which they work. When communities,or groupsof individuals, are not entirely satisfiedwith the public action of their governments,for whateverreasonit may be, they createotherorganizationsto respondto their specific social needs.For example,the 143

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World Health Organization(WHO) is one of the organizationsbelonging to the family of the United Nations.Without making any comment on successes or failures of their worldwide activities,whatevertheWHO doesfalls underthe rule of a public and governmentalstructure.Even if the WHO is an independentorganization,it works underthe rule of law for governmentsestablishedby an assemblyof governments(that is, the United Nations).In principle, the WHO would suffice to caterto health problemsarising in all countries,industrializedand less industrialized. Yet the WHO, rightly or not, in the fulfillment of its statementof purpose,cannotaccomplishall fieldwork in healthcareasrequiredat present in many humanitariandisasters. "MedecinssansFrontieres-MSF,"DoctorsWithout Borders,do that kind of work but underthe coverof the NGO status(the Frenchtitle has beenput first becauseMSF is a Frenchand Belgian initiative and MSF is an abbreviationusedby the United Nations).The reasonfor this differenceis that MSF doesnot limit the decisionto intervenein health careand humanitariandisasterrelief to an externaldonor decision,political or not. It is not dependenton donorgovernments'rulesof engagement and requestsonly the approval of the recipientcommunity. This explanationdoes not denigratethe outstandingwork achievedby the WHO. It is simply an attemptto underscorethe differencesin organizational structure. TheMSF exampledemonstrates thepossiblecomplementaryor supplementaryaction with regardto governmentaction as plannedand implementedin theUN family of organizations.However,communitiesor groups canalsoantagonizegovernmentactionsandinterventionsbecauseof fundamentalpolitical or social dissent.An example,therefore, would be unions, professionalassociations,and socially oriented organizations. Nonprofit organizationsare not to be excludedfrom this list, and it is known that worldwide thereare millions of theseorganizations.The two schemesin Figure 9.1 and 9.2 summarizethe conceptualframework. Trying to establisha completelist of all thesegovernmentalorganizations(GOs),NGOs,and privatevolunteerorganizations(PVOs)would be an impossibletask. Interests,missionstatements,strategies,and unwritten or hiddenpurposesare so widespreadthat it would only confuse the reader.This chapterwill focus on organizationspertaining to the conceptualframeworkdemonstratedin Figure 9.2. Let us revert to Lysistrata,the Greekspouserefusing maritalobligation to protestthe warring husband.The caseis not a fortuitous choice,

TRAINING COMMUNnY NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS Figure 9.1

The Conceptual Framework for Government National Ministries and Agencies

National and regional organizations directly under government budgeting control

International Multilateral Bilateral Relations

• • • • •

Bretton Woods Institutions UN family European Union Political and economic cartels Etc., not exhaustive list

To serve the entire collectivity of people and interests

Figure 9.2 The Conceptual Framework for Community and

Nongovernmental Organizations

National coverage

Geared to internal and selective membership needs. Closed and secluded.

Established for external needs satisfaction. Representing specific expectations that are not or insufficiently met by the public sector.

International back link

Organizations established to satisfy specific needs of particular groups and/or communities that are not immediately met by govemmental organization, or to complemenVsupplement them. Undertaken nearly exclusively by private initiatives, but possibly also funded by govemments.

Nongovernmental organizations NGOs and PVOs

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becauseshe saw no other meansto convincethe Athens leadersto accept peaceother than to establisha women'smovementagainstthese warring men. Shetried to obtain supportfor her causefrom Athenians andall Peloponnesian womento strive for peace.The story contentmay remainirrelevantandjust to the tune of the fifth centuryBC social behavior. Sex playedan importantrole in theaterplays, and not many taboosexisted.The fact remainsthat Aristophanesusedthe creationof a social movementto expresshis own political views to influence the decision-makingprocessandthe well-being of his Hellenic community. Consideringthe activities of NGOs in the developingsetting, the same approachis taken. The matter of developmentassistanceand cooperationbecamea worldwide issueafter World War II. Not only had the Conferenceof SanFranciscoestablishedthe rules of cooperation betweennations, but it had also followed the trends set by the BrettonWoodsConferenceto stabilizeworld financein orderto avoid the pitfalls of the post-WorldWar I Treaty of Versailles.In the aftermath of the creationof the United Nations,and its strategyfor developmentof Third World countries(that is, developingcountries,DCs), ensuingconferences,for examplein 1975 at Lima, declaredthat by the year 2000, the world's industrial output of DCs should reach25 percentof global output. One or two decadeslater, it becameobvious that rather than attaining this strategicobjective, the shareof industrial outputby DCs was declining to under 10 percent.This declineis still ongoing.The developmentstrategyenforcedby bilateral andmultilateral donor agencieswas questioned,and the sustainability of projectswas regardedas poor or nonexistent.The modusoperandiof internationaltransfer of know-how came under scrutiny, and many countriessecededfrom the classicalmethodin a mood of frustration andinefficiency. The BrettonWoodsInstitutionsestablishedthe structural adjustmentprogramsduring that period. It is obvious that such programshavebeenbeneficialto many industrializedcountries,especially the smallerones. For many DCs, structuraladjustmentprogramshad becomea nightmare.This is not intendedto challengethe merits but to illustrate how poorly peoplehad beenprepared-thatis, trained-toface thesechallenges.African and Asian countrieswere plaguedwith a plethora of civil services,a colonial legacy. Displacing tens of thousandsof civil servantsin a short period to comply with prevailing monetarypolicies imposed by Washington was an impossible task without proper

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preparationand training for new jobs. Internationalorganizationswere also notpreparedto copewith the new macroeconomicsetting. Lately, controversiesoverdevelopmentpolicy themeshavecoincided with issuesrelatedto globalizationand the World Trade Organization. The Conferenceon Developmentin Johannesburg in 2002 was largely dominatedby widespreadprotestsarounda new developmentorder. To counterbalancethe World EconomicSummitsin Davos and the annual meetingsof the G-8, NGOs have organizedWorld Social Summitsin Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2002 and in Mumbai, India, in 2003. Charismatic personalities,like JoseBovey in France,havestrivedfor transparency and more equitabledistribution of wealth and social justice. In Europe,the agriculturalsceneis dominatedby strongcompetition,both from the United Statesand the developingworld, leaving protagonists with a senseof antinomy and confusionregardingits position toward developmentassistance.Povertyincreasedin industrializedcountriesat levels that could not be imaginedafter World War II. This is the time when the NGOs play their role as on-the-spotaid and cooperationfactors. Up-front considerationis to let the locals act themselves,be responsible,and increasea new senseof "corporatecitizenship." Strangelyenough,thereis a symbiosisof philosophyamongactors in the industrializedand developingworld. In Brazil and India they take commonstandsand defendapparentlyconcurrentvalues. Governments also view the interventionsof NGOs as a meansto takethe political pressureoff governmentandtransferformer public dutiesto the NGOs.When political or geopolitical cooperationis not possible,NGOs assumethe role ofleadershipin theseareas.Thusthey areableto protectthe political well-being of their country.Franceand Germanyhavenot participatedin the Iraq war for reasonsthat do not needto be explainedhere.Instead,the GermanNGO, Kappanamur,is known to havereceivedmassivegovernmentaid to interveneon the humanitarianfront. This is whenNGOsserve a hidden political agendaor achievetasks that could otherwisenot be performedby the public sector.Anotherexampleis found in many of the assistance programsfor joblessyouth in precarioussocialsituationsclose to delinquency.Finally, yet importantly,mostof the associationsbringing help and assistanceto legal or illegal immigrantsin Europeare NGOs. While NGOs servea multitude of purposes,in nearly all casescapacity building and training are always at the top of the agenda.If well conceivedandfollowing a strategyasappropriate,thesetraining programs take a similar route as depictedin Chapter6.

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Figure 9.3 Strategizing Training

Job analysis

Performanceappraisal

Performance Performance

Performance Performance

Performance Performance Job d,,,riptk,,

Job evaluation

~

~

Performancestandards Resultsassessments

The schemeof Figure 9.3 is explainedby the following example. To avoid indiscretion,and given the sensitivenatureof the situation, it is assumedthat the country was locatedin Africa and shall be referred to as Matimba.The casewas relatedto training assistanceand capacitybuilding in the contextof the HIV I AIDS crisis rampantin the country. The programconsistedof two parts: an initial study to formulate the needs;and the implementationof capacity building and managementtraining for NGOs and HIV/AIDS workers. The particularsof the casewere of equal concernto the public service and private sector.It was obvious that the governmentshould have beenin a leadershipposition. The needsof the public were spread over large urban and rural areasservedby NGOs and PVOs for adequatecapacitybuilding and managerialcompetence.Both training concernshad to be handledsimultaneouslyto cope with a real social, economic,and cultural crisis. Surveyand Training Scheme Sincethe first caseof AIDS wasreported,thefictional nationof Matimba becameoneof the countriesworstaffectedby the HIV I AIDS pandemic. Accordingto a sentinelsurveillancesurvey,morethan 35 percentof all antenatalclinic attendeeswere HIV positive. As predictedin the "SocioeconomicImpact of HIV I AIDS" study

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carriedout by expatriatespecialists,the economicimplicationsof HIV / AIDS in Matimba were serious.It affectedthe supply of labor, labor productivity, and the costs of employees'social welfare and benefits acrossall sectors.It presentednew andseriouschallengesfor Matimba's health and social welfare services.The governmentdeclaredit a national emergency.

Needfor This Program The Governmentof Matimbawasnot exemptfrom the problemof HIV / AIDS. Inevitably, it would suffer severelyfrom the economicimpacts of the disease.The impact study of HIV / AIDS on the educationsector emphasizedthis whenit found thatadditionalteachertraining costssimply to maintainthe currentteacher/pupilratio overthe next two decades would be as high as US$80million. Sicknessand deathbenefitcoststo the systemfor teachersfalling ill to mv/AIDS could be as high as US$220million. When expandedto the larger educationalsystem,additional costsfor teachertraining and sick/deathbenefitswould be as high as US$225million over that period. The core ministries wished to take a constructiverole in addressing the HIV / AIDS problem. Thus they initiated a review of the impact of mv/AIDS on the public sectorin Matimba.This would enablethe most appropriateresponseto the epidemic.Core ministriesneededto attain a clear understandingof the extent of the probableprevalenceof HIV / AIDS within the public sectorand the consequentsickness,mortality, and personneladministrationimpacts in order to minimize costs and maximizeresults.Recommendations for the formulation of appropriate policies in the areasof personnelrecruitment,training, management, promotion, health andwelfare, and retirementand associatedbenefits would haveto follow this. Clear communicationregardingthe extent of the problemwould be necessaryto promotea widespreadconsensusof the urgencyof the situation and commitmentto the implementationof appropriatepolicies. Therefore,it would be necessaryto considera national training institution (NT!) capableof playing a role in providing mv/AIDS prevention,control, and healthpromotion programsfor the public sector,and capacity-buildingprogramswith managerialtraining programsfor NGOs. An expatriatetraining team,in cooperationwith the counterpartstaff of NT!, hadbeenfundedthrougha privateexpatriatedonor,an important

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taskto train NGOsandorganizationsdealingwith HIV I AIDS. Of course, referencewas madeto managementand organizationaldevelopmentof theseunits andnot the puremedicotechnicaltraining.An importantbudget of severalmillion dollars had been allocatedfor the programthat would cover three years and start immediately. It would, without any doubt, be a real breakthroughfor the training team and especiallyits cooperationwith senior counterpartstaff. The national director of the teamwould be the project managerfor this part. Aim and Objectivesfor the Public Sector The aim of this study was to assistgovernmentin the developmentof a personnelpolicy relating to HIV/AIDS and to make public-sectorofficials more awareof the extentof the disease.An outcomeresultedin a training programfor NGOs in capacitybuilding. The goals of this initiative were to createan understandingof the probableHIV / AIDS prevalencein the public sectorand consequently enhanceawarenessof the sicknessandmortality rates.They alsosought to provide a clear understandingof the economicand institutional impactsofHIV/AIDS on Matimba'spublic service. They then were able to build and utilize appropriateand effective systemsof communicatingthe detailsof the HIV / AIDS situationto all sectorsof Matimba's public service. This promotedconsensusof the situationand encouragedcooperationamongall civil servants.The expatriateteamalso providedassistanceon the formulation of the personnel administrationpoliciesmentionedabovein theNeedfor This Program section, as well as recommendationsto minimize the impact of HIV / AIDS on the public service.The objectivesalsoconsideredthe needsof, and maderecommendationsfor, the developmentof a comprehensive program of HIV /AIDS prevention,control, and health promotion for public servants. Finally, the initiative addressedthe legal and humanrights implications of HIV / AIDS for the public sector.Expatriatetrainers,in cooperation with the Matimba NGO community, made recommendationsfor the best avenueto deal with theseimplications. They createdmethods for follow up to ensurethe implementationof the recommendations that resultedfrom this study.They alsoevaluatedcostsof implementingtheir recommendationsand consideredthe implications of these costs on Matimba'snational budget.

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The Objectives/orMatimba NGOs,and HIVIAIDS Workers The NGOs, PVOs, and individual HIV I AIDS workers operating in Matimba had their own objectives.The expatriateteamset up four primary objectiveswith respectto existing and future NGOs, PVOs, and individual AIDS workersoperatingin Matimba. First, they establisheda coordinatingbody with the Ministry of Health and Social Servicesand the Ministry of Public Servicewith the goal of promotingHIV/AIDS programsand activities betweenthe private and public sectors. Second,they createda linkage betweenall stakeholdersto disseminate information. Third, they also conductedtraining needsassessments designedfor the private sectorconsideringthe following aspects: • • • • • • •

project planning project management financial aid management administrationof NGOs and communities assistancein promotionof technicalmvI AIDS carecampaigns assistancein coachingactivities training of trainers

The trainers discussedthe assessment with public servicerepresentatives and the NGO community. Finally, the teamplannedandorganizedthe training programsin close consultationswith all stakeholders,and for all activities. This exampledemonstrateshow humanresourcemanagementin the public servicecan spill over to effective activities in the private sector. Matimba'sgovernmentrealizedthat it had an importantrole to play in alleviating the disastrousimpact of the pandemic.It would be quite ineffective,however,in carryingout immediateassistance to field-workers acting underan NGO umbrella. The symbiosisof efforts by all parties was efficient andthe resultswereencouraging.Fundssponsoredby private corporationswent to the NGOs and the private-sectorbeneficiaries.At the sametime, governmentministriesandagenciescould evaluate the impact and successof the program and take the necessarylegal, statutory,and regulatorystepsto improve their situation. This chapterdealswith training within the NGO scene.The Matimba

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exampledemonstrates the importanceof approachandstrategy.All these activities shouldbe coordinated,especiallyin developingsettings.The real challengeis that often NGOs respondto immediateneedsand are very closeto theenduser.Training inthis contexthasa morepronounced vocational character.The worst scenariooccurs when all the training activities in one given sectoror subsectorare not following a concise and comprehensivedevelopmentstrategy.Competitionoften existsbetweendonor agencies and institutionsacting in one given field. This is certainly not detrimental,becauseall groupsservethe purposeof fighting povertyandenhancingwell-being of people.It becomesa real problem, however,when methodsand methodologiesare too differentiated and not clearly spelledout for the beneficiaries.

Small and Medium Enterprises Businesscreationin the small and mediumenterprise (SME)sectorhas been,and still is, a major focus of UN agencieslike the United Nations Industrial DevelopmentOrganization(UNIDO), the InternationalLabor Office (lLO), and many othermultilateralor bilateraldonors.These institutions dependmainly on externalfinancing for the establishment of new SMEs or the improvementof their businesses.The financing always comesthrough the banking sector, which traditionally is not equippedor structuredto operatein the SME sector.Theproceduresand inquiries usedto determinethe financing of a $5,000projectare similar in complexityto financinga $500,000undertaking.Costsarequite similar for the banking institution, so it is more profitable to finance a larger project,andthe meansto evaluatethe risks involved areeasierto achieve. Failuresin the SME sectorare high, and it is estimatedthat within five years about 50 percentof projects will have failed. The technical and training effort neededis intenseand expensive. Business-creationprojects in the microenterprisessectorare easier to handle and are the typical field for NGOs. They bring their microfinanceschemesin the aid packageand are not confined to the bankingsector.In Moroccofor example,two largerNGOs are very active with a successrate of 80 to 90 percent.Successdependson government regulation and the enabling environmentthat has been created. Microenterprises(MEs) arecloseto, or within, the informal sector.The informal sectordoes not yield taxes and revenueto the government, otherthanputtingpeopleat work undermostly unknownsocialconditions

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of pay andjob stability. In Morocco, the institutional problemhasbeen with solvedin part throughlocal or municipal registrationof businesses concomitantlevies and monitoring. In other North African countries, this ME businessstructureis not possiblebecauseof size,political pressure,and otherexternalfactors. MEs are being established,but it is not the main strategyof governments.SMEscreatejobs, but they fall under strict regulationsfrom finance and social ministries and cannotescape the control of variousgovernmentagencies.MEs arelesscontrolledand alleviate unemployment. Training efforts in both sectorsare extensiveand necessary.Training SME entrepreneursrequiresmore effort than training in microbusiness settings.Thustraining MEs is a strategicchoiceutilized by governments to keep the political pressuredown while concurrentlyfighting against unemploymentand poverty. It is also a strategicchoice of the donor communityto help resolvethe burden.The UN systemis totally dependent on external financing, while other donors can make choicesbetween SMEs and MEs. Internationalexpertiseis mostly requestedin SME development,certainly at the inception stage.For microfinance, andotherME schemes,local expertiseis often used,andthat alsomakes it more attractive.The point is that there should be no competitionin substance,becausetraining an entrepreneuror his or her labor is a common task that is equally importantin both cases.Combiningor mixing the training methodsis possiblebut not without pitfalls. A similar experiencein Senegalwasfeasiblebecauseit waspossibleto train a homogeneousgroup,which in this casewasthe preselectedentrepreneurs acting in the samesectoror subsectorof industry. Capitalrequirementsplayed a majorrole and,of course,impactedthe sizeof the envisionedprojects. An enterprise-creationproject summarizedhereafterincluded the training sequence.The homogeneousgroup was established,and training the SME and ME entrepreneurstogethersavedtime and resources. They were able to maintain sufficient flexibility to shortenthe training inputsfor the MEs in accordancewith their needs.Therefore,especially during Module One of the training, a very elaboratetraining needsassessmentwas established(Module One consistedof scrutinizing the entrepreneurand finding the appropriateentrepreneurandprojectidea). To clarify the subject,a typical SME project might be related,for example,to cattlebreedingup to 120animalsrequiring investmentsspread over 24 months. Another type of SME project in the homogeneousgroup was an

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accountingcompanydealing with up-to-dateinformation technology meansto keep books and accountingsystemsfor up to ten projectsin the group.The introductionof this methodprovedto be very successful, becauseit helpedthe entrepreneursand allowed banksto standardize financial control procedures.Examplesof ME projectswould be a local transportationunit for labor andlogisticsor a small sheepor goatbreeding unit for local market supply and distribution. Tables9.1 and 9.2 summarizethe creationprocessof SME projects and ME smallholdings.This indicatesthe training mix involving a fullfledged technicalassistanceproject for SME developmentand the involvementof one or severalNGOs dealing with ME businesscreation. The implications of this mix are important,becausethey are preceded by a completeagreementon the development strategy,the training methodology, and the financing procedures.Obviously, the SME projects were financedthroughthe bankingsectorand the smallholdersthrough microfinancing schemesdelivered by the NGOs. Needlessto say, the processfor establishingSMEs would take up to fifteen months,including the training processes,whereasthe MEs could be in place within three to six months.Another advantagewas the enforcementof group solidarity. Attempts were madeto createMEs first and allow them, in time, to progressto larger undertakings. In this complex project, there were severalcategoriesof SME and ME entrepreneurtraineesto be considered: • long-termtraineesin the region • medium-and short-termtraineesabroad • medium-andshort-termtraineesin the regionanddistance-learning trainees • short-termlocal trainees(mostly ME entrepreneurs) The Training Plan Scheme A plan (summarizedin Table9.3 and Figure9.4) was establishedbased on job dimensions,skill building, and capacitybuilding. • Training providesknowledge,but skill building will still be needed after successfulcompletionof the training. This is mainly the case with training abroadat specializedinstitutions. The selectionprocessand the choice of the institution are largely dependenton the job dimensions.

SME

10 laborers and more Requires land Requires technical know-how

Around US$50,000

Registered company

Subject to government regulations (financial control, social system, environmental)

Extensive marketing research and plan covering minimum three years.

Organizational

Size

Finance

Legal

Regulatory

Marketing

SME and ME Creation Process-Training

Table 9.1

Opportunity study and case by case upon direct order

Subject to local and municipal rules (municipal and market fee)

Max. US$10,000

Less than 10 laborers, back yard Requires vocational training

ME, i.e., NGO

SME: 4 P (product, price, place, promotion) consciousness

SME: Requires chartered accounting firm ME: Mostly communal clerk

SME: Organizational development aspects ME: Informal structure

SME: accounting ME: simple books

Entrepreneur selection and introductory training.

Training sequence

155

156 TRAINING IN SPECIFIC FIELDS Table 9.2

SME and ME Creation Process-Time Frame Time frame

SME

ME, i.e., NGO

4to 6 weeks 1 to 3 weeks 2 to 6 weeks 2 to 6 weeks Unknown 1 to 14 days 1 to 6 months Total

Training modules 1: Selection and inception training

2: Technical update 3: Marketing module

4: Project banking document 5: Banking procedure 6: Registration 7: Project start

6 to 8

months

2 to 3 months

""""Crucial """Very Important ""Important "Not so important

Table 9.3

Training Plan Scheme-The Outcome Knowledge and technical based

Skill building (vocational)

Medium- and short-term training abroad: • Special techniques management • Special breeding programs • International marketing research • Logistics management

Courses at local agricultural technical school: • Induction • Health, safety, and ergonomics • Ad hoc requests: e.g., daily feeding allowances Regional: • Problem related: e.g., disease control • Technical attachments

Distance learning: • Same as above • With skill building content • With coaching and monitoring • Follow-up on the job

Project based: • Seminars, workshops, and modules • Intensive management training • On-the-spot training • In-basket training

• Local and regional training are gearedprimarily at skill building and the acquisitionof techniquesand new managementtechnologies and engineering.

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Figure 9.4 The Training Plan Scheme Performance-related ergonomics ergonomics

Technical: '" Job-related skills '" Procedural skills '" Factual job-related technical know· how

Communication

Managerial: '" Intergroup and interpersona I relations '" Communication ./ Behavior

Organizational: '" Performance-related ergonomics '" Organizational development orientation ./ Structure adjustment orientation

Communication

Communication Communication

Training needs assessment

• Distancelearningis very popularandprovidesadditionaltechnical know-how.Thetraining projectteamcanoperatea distance-learning coachingfacility to combine acquisitionsof know-how and skill building throughthe coachingsystem.

Training NeedsAssessment (TNA) TNA is a logical consequence of the abovescheme.If we want to determine what type of training is neededfor the entrepreneur,the abovementionedprocessneedsto be accomplished.In the end, the three elementswill interact The gradationin Figure9.5 indicatesif an individual is trainedto the taskdescribed(yesor no) or indicatesto whatextentthe individual needs A -B=C. additionaltraining to attain the requiredqualification. A -B The aboveexamplesillustrate the differencesthat can exist between the NGOsandotherstylesof training. In reality, thereis no differencein substance,but thereis a differencein approachand strategy.Remember that training is one aspectof humandevelopmentand an importantpart of job creationor stabilizationof existingjobs. In that sense,it can also assistin alleviating poverty. Strategiesfor NGO initiatives focus on vocationaltraining and combatingunemploymentto achievedesiredpositive employmentoutcomes. The expatriatetrainer will have to concentratemore on training of trainers'methodologies,becausethe NGO settingrestsmore on existing local expertiseor one that needsto be establishedin the shortest

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Figure 9.5 The Gradation The task and the description on how to perform as entrepreneur and intrapreneur

The individual, and his or her capacity to perform in that entrepreneurial job

The gradations, + or -, to perfectly interface the individual and his or her job

A

B

c

possibletime. The evaluationprocessesof training with NGOs are certainly more complexbecauseof the high mobility of the beneficiaries. Measuringoutcomesmay requirea longertime frame, becausethey are expressedthroughthe humandevelopmentindexesand social progress of the communities.The tasksare hugeand challenging. Worldwide, the trend is to expandthe utilizationofNGOs acting in the developingsettings.Internationaldonorshavebecomeincreasingly skepticalaboutthe low ratesof successin the traditionalprojectimplementationprocesses.This is combinedwith increasingscarcity of financial resourcesand the nearimpossibility of devoting 1 percentof GDP to developmentassistanceby the industrializedworld. The growing poverty in developingcountriesis certainly an importantfactor to be considered.Perhapsevenworse,however,is the sheerincapacityto coordinatedevelopmentefforts by so many donorswith different aid strategies. The United Nationshascreateda specialbody concentratingon donor aid. This is the United NationsDevelopmentProgram(UNDP). The United Nations has also createda similar body that focuseson NGOs. Web sites are indicatedat the end of this chapterwhere thereadercan obtain additional information.2 Notes 1. For additional informationon NGOs, seeOlenaP. Maslyukivska's"Role of NongovernmentalOrganizationsin DevelopmentCooperation,"UNDP/Yale ColResearchClinic. New Haven,CT. laborationProgramme-1999 2. For additionalinformation on internationalnongovernmentalorganizations, pleaseview the following Web sites: Directory of DevelopmentOrganizations-www.devdir.org NGOs andglobal policies-www.globalpolicy.orglngos/index.htm Political resources-www.politicalresources.netlint2.htm Union of InternationalOrganizationsin Belgium-www.uia.org

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United NationsUniversity-www.wider.unu.edu UNRISD (the autonomousUN agencythat carriesout researchon the social dimensionsof contemporaryproblemsaffectingdevelopment)-www.unrisd.org Web pageInstitutefor DevelopmentResearch-www.ocms.ac.uklidr Web pageNGOs-www.ngos.net

10 International Programs: Training in Developing Countries and Effective Training Strategies for Health Care Professionals Working with HIV/ AIDS Cherie Onkst and [knath Naik

Delivering training to healthcareprofessionalsin developingcountries involves many uniqueaspectsthat are unlike providing training to other participantpopulations.The particulardifficulties of working with health careprofessionalsincludeall of the usualproblemsof choosingthe content and structureof the training, the trainersthemselves,and the training participants,as well as working with the existing personneland structuresin the host developingcountry. The specific challengesinvolved in training medical professionals regardingmv/AIDS demonstratealmost all of the unique problemsa training developeris likely to encounterwith training health Care professionalsin developingcountries.HIV / AIDS is alsoa widespreadproblem in developingcountriesthat is likely to coexist with virtually any other field that might be the subjectof training medical professionals. Thereoften is a lack of adequateinformation regardingmY/AIDS, not only amonghealthcarepersonnel,but also amonggovernmentand local sponsoringagenciesand membersof the public. Similarly, trainers may encounterresistance,fear, reluctanceto acknowledgethe problem, and a stigmaattachedto mY/AIDS patients.The diagnosticand treatmentrequirementsfor HIV /AIDS tendto exposea country'slack of infrastructureandsupportcapacityto dealwith theproblem,suchasinsufficient supplies,drugs,laboratories,and hospitals.In addition,the treatmentand 160

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diagnosisof HIV/AIDS is a constantlychangingscience,regularly involving new diagnostictests,drugs,and treatmentmethodologies. On the positive side, there are numerouspossibilitiesfor grant support and partnershipswith local sponsorsregardingsuch a widespread and devastatingproblem. Similarly, there is considerableopportunity for educatingmedical professionals,governmentalofficials, and members of the public so as to diminish the spreadof the diseaseand improve the treatmentof thosewith the disease. In short, only the problem of vector control required with vectorbornediseaseis likely to presentsubstantialproblemsother than those involved in HIV/AIDS training.Therefore,the medicalandpublic health problemof HIV / AIDS will provide a framework for the processof developing effectivetraining programsfor healthcarepersonnelin developing countries.

The Characteristicsof Health CareProfessionalsin DevelopingCountries The Position of Health Care Professionalsin Society Healthcareprofessionalsin generalareconsideredthe creamof society in any country.In developingcountries,they often hold the highestlevel of educationavailableor commonlyseenin thatcountry.They are,therefore, in a high socialcategorywhereverthey go. As a consequence, they expectthe bestthat societyhasto offer and are likely to be lesstolerant of what they see as less than is due them. In this respect,they are no different from their counterpartsin more industrializednations. In addition to their currentstationsat the top of their country'ssociety, mostmedicalprofessionalsin developingcountriesoriginatedfrom the higherclassesin societybeforetheir training. Often HIV/AIDS patients come from the lower and less-educatedclassesin society. Thus health care professionalsfrequently have little experiencewith their patients' social level and the problemsthat accompanythat status in their society.Therefore,the trainer cannotassumethat healthcarepersonnelactually understandtheir patients'viewpointsand circumstances simply becausethey comefrom the samecountry or locality. Becausethey come from a higher social status,many professionals may treat patientsin generalas if they were from a lower classin society. In addition, in many societies,thereis a stigmaattachedto beingan

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mv/AIDS

patient or simply to being a memberof a lower group in society. Health care professionalsare not immune to treating persons from lower socialclassesas inferiors, and thereforelessworthy of their attention and direct communication.Also, even among the most educatedof physicians,it is not uncommonto seea lingering fear of treating mv/AIDS patients.Such fear can causehealth care personnelto discriminateagainsttheir patientsand to avoid direct contactor communicationwith them. A significantnumberof medicalprofessionalsin any developingcountry have studiedor traveledinternationally and can be expectedto be somewhatmore worldly and cosmopolitanin their experienceand outlook than others in their society, including those at their social level. Even among those professionalswho trained within their own countries, physicianshave usually traveled widely and often have participatedin internationalconferences.

The Demographicsof Health Care Professionals Demographically,more than half of the physiciansin developingcountries are male, with a substantialminority who are female. Nursesare overwhelminglyfemalein almostall countries.Most industrializedcountries now have additional categoriesof health care professionals,such asphysicians'assistantsand nursepractitioners.Theseprofessionalshave specializedtraining that allows them to treat patientsdirectly on their own initiative, underthe overall supervisionof a physician,ratherthan primarily carryingout the treatmentplansof others.Althoughmostdeveloping countriesdo not have a categoryof health care professionalthat correspondsto the physician'Sassistant,somecountriesmay acknowledgean equivalentto the nursepractitioner.Therefore,in mostcases,the populationof training participantscanbe brokendown into physicians,or thosewho treatpatientsdirectly, andnurses,or thosewho implementtreatmentplans anddeal personallywith patientson a daily basis. In certain countriesthe overall populationis ethnically, racially, or religiously diverse.In suchcountriestrainersshouldexpectthe participant populationof healthcareprofessionalsto be similarly diverse.Although there may be traditional or contemporarytensionsamong the variousgroupsin society,thosearelesslikely to causedisruptionamong professionalswho are more likely to see eachother as equalsdue to their specializedtraining and high statusin society.

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Most healthcare practitionersare a minimum of thirty years old in developingcountries.Becauseof the yearsof training requITed,younger individuals rarely have had the opportunity to completethe necessary education.With the older participant population comes maturity and experiencethat shouldguide the training developerin choosingcontent and structuring the training programs.However, the older age group alsobringsmorefixed attitudes,a beliefthat their way of doing things is the correctand only way to do something,and lesswillingnessto listen to othersor implementlarge-scalechanges.Thesefactors often makeit moredifficult to changepracticesamongphysiciansin developingcountries. Repeatedexposureto new ideasandpracticesdoes,however,make it much more likely that older practitionerswill be more willing to acceptnew information and implementnewerproceduresand treatments.

Dealing with Public Health Professionalsin DevelopingCountries The role of public health andpublic healthprofessionalsdiffers considerably in developing countriesfrom thesepositions in industrialized nations. In most Third World countriesthere are no schoolsof public health,andfew healthcareprofessionalswho trainedabroadaretrained specifically in public health. Therefore,for most professionals,public healthtraining is acquiredonly aspart of the preventiveandsocialmedicine portionsof the medicalcurriculum.For this reason,the entire public health systemin developingcountriesis dominatedby physicians; thereare few if any nonphysicianpublic healthpractitioners. In thesecountries,public health can be seenas a systemmanaged exclusively by physiciansand is more akin to medicinepracticedon a population scale rather than what is usually thought of as preventive public healthin First World countries.It is thereforeextremelyimportant for trainersto stressthe role of preventiveeducationand behavior changeamongthe populationratherthan relying on treatmentof problems oncethey develop.

SuccessfulTraining Approachesfor Health Care Professionals It is a peculiarity of trainersfrom the United Statesto assumethat their way of doing somethingis the only correct way to do it, and that they

164 TRAINING IN SPECIFIC FIELDS

arethereto showthe peoplefrom developingcountrieshow they should be doing it. This attitudecausesimmenseproblemsin communicating with participants,especiallyamonghealth care professionals.Universally, training participantsdo not enjoy being told that their way of doing things is incorrectandthat they mustchangetheir ways. The trainer who takesthis approachwill find it to be counterproductiveand bound to causeresentmentand resistanceamongthe participants. Trainers should rememberthat they are dealing with professionals who may be expertsin their own fields and haveskills and training that their counterpartsin the United Statesdo not have.Therefore,a far more profitable approachis to aim for an exchangeof knowledgeand ideas with the participantsratherthantelling themwhat to do or, worse,what they are doing wrong. If they aretreatedas equalpartnersin developing an approachto the problemat hand,medicalprofessionalsare far more likely to acceptthe new information and incorporateit into their routines. In this way, the trainer is more likely to get behaviorchangeand changeof practicesfrom the healthcareparticipants. In addition, trainersshouldalso be awarethat physicians,in particular, in all countriestend to believethey are of considerableimportance and shouldbe treatedwith respect.This aspectof the trainees'personalities can havea profoundinfluenceon the entire training relationship. Trainers must be certain to take their trainees'egosand expertiseinto accountwhen settingthe training agendaand content.

Health Care Professionals'Communicationswith Patients In developingcountries,health care personneloften do not communicatewith patientsasthey do in industrializedcountries.Medical professionals see their patients as the subject of their work rather than as individuals to whom they should speakindividually. Although this is true amongall health careprofessionals,including nursesand support staff, it is particularly true amongphysicians.It is not uncommonfor physiciansto examinebriefly andtreatpatientswithout speakingto them at all. This one-waystyle of communicationis evenmorepronouncedwith patientsin lower social and economicclasses.As in all countries,patients with sufficient funds get treateddifferently, andrich patientstend to get muchmoreindividualizedattentionandcommunicationfrom their treating professionals.

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Nevertheless,evenamongupper-classpatients,mostdevelopingcountries have a very paternalisticview of physiciansand medical professionals. Both patientsand physiciansexpectthe physician to tell the patient what to do without truly consulting with the patient. Because physiciansare very highly respectedin thesecountries,patientsusually listen carefully and comply with treatmentplans as fully as possible. Among the most industrializedof the developingcountries,trainers may find extremely advancedcapabilitiesright alongsideextremely undevelopedareas.This is particularly true in SoutheastAsia, India, and a few partsof Africa. In thesecountries,which are often striving to becomemore like the industrializedFirst World countries,the reverence for physiciansis changingand becomingmore like the current social and political climate in the United States.In thesecountriesit is far more likely now that patientswill sue, or at least complain about, their physicians.And in thosecountriesthe one-way,paternalistictype of communicationis slowly changingto onein which patientsare much greaterand more equalparticipants. There are other differencesamongphysicianapproachesto patient communicationsin developingcountriesas well. In particular, health care personneldo not have the samerequirementsfor complying with informed consentand institutional review boardsas in most industrialized countries.Therefore,while it is importantfor the training materials to cover ethical and legal issuesin treating mv/AIDS patientsin the hostcountry,it is not so profitableto spendmuchtime coveringcomplianceissues.

Selectionof Trainersfor Training Health Care Professionalsin DevelopingCountries

Foreign Professionalsas Trainers The properchoiceof trainersfor healthcareprofessionalsin developing countriesis an important aspectof a successfultraining program.Becausemedicalprofessionalsare amongthe higheststatusin their countries, they expecta similar level of expertiseand training amongthose who addressthem in training. For this reason,only medicalprofessionals and credentialedexpertswith terminal degreesshouldbe selectedas trainers.Medical students,no matterhow accomplished,cannotbe used successfullyas trainersin mostThird World countries.

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Physiciansfrom the United Statesand otherindustrialized nationsare generallyheld in higheresteemby local physiciansthanareprofessionals from the host developingcountry. This is true whetherthe audienceis health careprofessionals,governmentofficials, or membersof the general population.Therefore,Americanphysiciansand nonmedicalexperts with doctoratedegreesshouldbe chosenas trainersfor mostpurposes. Thereare, however,occasionallyissuesof credibility that may arise when local healthcareprofessionalsbelievethat foreign physicians,no matterhow well trained, do not adequatelyunderstandthe local situation andpractices.In thesecircumstances, the professionaltrainersfrom the developedcountriesshouldbe pairedwith local medical personnel as co-trainers.This lends legitimacy to the outsider'sview and proceduresin the eyesof the training participants.

Training Local Professionalsas Trainers Another approachto the problem of selecting trainersis to selectthe besttraineesfrom an early group of participantsand train them to becomelocal trainers.This procedureis particularlyeffectiveif therearea great many training programsto be presented,if the training participantsare unableto travel to a central training location, or if the local healthcarepersonnelwill not acceptoutsidersas trainers.By using the bestof the local traineesas trainers,or at leastco-trainers,the workload is reducedfor the foreign trainersand the local professionalsare more likely to seenew proceduresas acceptablemore rapidly. To convertparticipants intotrainers,the foreign trainersusuallyneed only half a day to one full day of additional information to train the trainersin techniquesfor teachingothers.This information shouldalso includethe basicelementsof instructionaldesignso that the local trainers will be able to modify the training programslightly for various localesand participantpopulations.

Communicationsin Training Health CareProfessionals in DevelopingCountries CommunicationStyles Whenusingtrainersfrom outsidethe participants'culture,it is extremely important that the trainers understand,and be able to presentin, the

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expectedcommunicationstyle of the hostcountry.The mannerin which the trainersaddressthe participantsandpresenttheir materialscanhave a greatdeal to do with how well the contentof the training programis receivedby the participants. Although thereare many different stylesof communicationthat vary markedlyfrom onecountryandpresenterto another,thesestylescanbe groupedinto two generalcategories-~)lle-way categories-~)lle-waycommunicationsandtwoway communications.In the United States,communicationsbetween trainersand participantsare usually two-way. Although the trainermay be the main speaker,Americanparticipantsusually feel free to interrupt the speakerto askquestionsandevento disagreewith the speaker.However,in many othercultures,the basicand acceptedmodeof communicationin training situationsis one-wayfrom the top down, with only the trainer speakingthroughoutthe presentation. In one-waycommunications,participantsmay feel that they cannot questionthe speaker,even if they do not understandor disagreewith somethingthe trainerhassaid.Indeed,in someareas,it is simply impermissibleto speakwhile someoneelseis speaking.In sucha situation,it would be unthinkablefor a personto interruptanotherspeaker,whether that speakeris the traineror a fellow participant.A trainerwho violates that socialconvention,evento correcta misconceptionor answera question, runs the risk of alienatingthe participantsand severelydiminishing the efficacy of the training program. This prohibition againstinterruptingor questioninga presentermay be particularly strong amongmedically trained personnel.Health care professionalsin developingcountriesreceivedtheir professionaltraining from medicalprofessionals,who are consideredthe most important peoplein their society,and thereforehavethe most importantthings to say. Appropriately chosentrainers, with medical or terminal research degrees,would be consideredextremelyimportant by the participants and equally worthy of speakinguninterrupted.In addition, the health careprofessionalparticipantsare alsoamongthe mostimportantpeople in their society. They thereforefeel that they should be accordedthe samedegreeof respectand right to speakuninterrupted. Thetrainershouldnot try to changethe participants'accustomedstyle of communicationduring the training, evenif it is 'just for this training session."For example,requestingthat participantsinterrupt the trainer with questionsmay be ineffective, at best, and counterproductive,at worst. Asking participantsto do away with their social conventions

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regardingteachingand learning may producea great deal of tension, or even animosity, and generally will make the overall training much less effective. Generalteachingand learning styles also may vary markedly from one culture to another.For example,if a speakeris expectedto provide visual aids or foster an interactivelearning experiencefor the participants, then a speakerwho only addressesthe participantsfrom a podium may be consideredboring, ineffective, or even ill-informed or incorrecton the presentationtopic. Conversely,if a speakeris expected only to addressthe participantsfrom a podium, then providing handouts, using a PowerPointpresentation,or evenshowingslidesmay prevent the participantsfrom focusing on the topic and makethemfeel that the presentationis scatteredand the speakerineffective or unable to provide a coherentlecture.

Languageand Interpreters It is obviousthat trainersmust considerthe language,or languages,of their participants.If the trainer is fluent in the participants'usual language,so much the better.Alternatively, if the participantsare conversantwith the trainer'slanguage,the training sessionsmay be conducted in the trainer'slanguage.However,ifthe training is to be conductedin a secondlanguagefor someor all of the participants,the trainer will need to discover how fluent the participantsare with the advanced vocabularyand colloquialismsthat might seemnatural to the trainer. If not all of the participantsare likely to be comfortablewith slang, idiomatic expressions,and more advancedor specializedvocabulary, thenthe trainershouldmakea specialeffort to useonly standardgrammar and vocabularyand commonlyunderstoodexpressionsduring the training sessions. Becauseof the high level of educationamonghealthcareprofessionals in developingcountries,the overall level of languageandvocabulary usedduring the training programcanbe quite high. Medical professionals expectto communicateat a technicallevel in any language.Therefore, training healthcarepersonnelmay be quite a bit easierthantraining participantswith a lower educationallevel. In addition, in all of the countriesfrom the former British Commonwealth, including India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh,medical training takes place in the English language.Trainers from English-speaking

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countrieswill find that this fact considerablyaids their easeof presenting the training program.In Spanish-speaking countries,the entireeducational experiencetakes place in Spanish.For those countries, a Spanish-speaking trainer is somewherebetweenan extremelyvaluable assetand an absolutelyessentialrequirement.In most other countries, professionalmedical training takesplacein the local language.In such countries,the training developercannotexpectthat the training participantswill speakEnglish. Therefore,trainersmusteitherspeakthe local languageor use interpreters. When the trainersand participantsspeaktwo or more different languages,and the training sessionshave to be conductedin the participants'language(s), the trainersmustarrangefor simultaneoustranslators or interpretersfor any oral presentations,as well as appropriatetranslations for any handoutsand training materialsprovided.Trainersshould strive to developa working relationshipwith their translatorsor interpretersas soonas possible.This includesbecomingawareof the speed and style of the translationso that the trainer and interpretercan work togetheras a seamlessteam rather than appearingto race or struggle with one anotherthroughoutthe presentations.The trainer should discussthe style and mannerof translationwith the interpreterat the earliest possibletime to establishboth parties'expectationsin this regard. Also, wheneverpossible,training programsshould use professionalor experiencedinterpretersrather than people who merely translateexactly what the trainersays.A goodinterpreterwill translatethe trainers' information accurately,but not exactly. An interpreterwill also make culturally and linguistically appropriatechoicesabout how to convey the meaningand intention of the trainers'presentations. In HN/ AIDS training, as well as training in other medically related subjects,training presentationsutilize a very specializedvocabulary.Althoughthe medicalprofessionals,both aspresentersandparticipants,can be expectedto understandthat vocabulary,many interpretersandtranslators will be unfamiliarwith sucha specializedvocabulary.Therefore,it is essentialthat the trainerspendtime with the interpreterbeforethe training sessionsto develop the specific vocabulary used for the presentations. This is particularlyimportantwhenthe vocabularywill benew not only to the interpreter,but alsoto the participants.This occursfairly frequentlyin situationsinvolving new diagnoses,drug therapies,treatments,and diseasetheories.Acronyms also can presentenormousproblemsfor interpretersand participantsalike, as they rarely translateexactly.

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In most cases,trainersshould speakdirectly to the participantsand allow the participantsto choosewhetherto focus on the trainer or the interpreter.Whom the participantschooseto focus on will vary from one culture to another.However,in general,the more comfortablethe participantsarewith the presenceof an interpreter,the morefrequently they focus visually on the presenterand simply hearthe translationin the background.Therefore,trainers should always assumethat they are the subjectof the participants'attention,evenwhen the interpreter is speaking. In addition to differencesin language,trainersand participantsfrom different culturescanbe expectedto havedifferent hand,head,andbody gesturesthat accompanytheir speech.Not all of thesegestureswill translate equally well from one culture to another.Occasionally,a gesture that onepersonassumeshasa clearmeaningactuallyconveysthe opposite meaningto the listener.For example,more than oneAmericanpresenterhas been confusedwhile speakingto professionalsfrom India when they shaketheir headsfrom side to side. While this headgesture usuallymeans"No" in the United States,this samegestureusuallymeans "Yes" in Indian discussions. While learning the local gesturesand conversationaletiquette,the trainer should be certain to learn what, if any, gesturesor seemingly ordinary actionsmay be consideredsocially offensiveor unacceptable. Obviously,trainersshouldavoid thosegesturesand actionsthroughout the entire visit to the host country.This is only one of many otherareas in which a professionalor experiencedinterpretercan be of immense assistance.An interpretershould be consideredan extremely valuable resourceon a variety of subjectsfor trainerswho are unfamiliar with the culture in which they are presenting.

The Use ojVzsualAids Regardlessof the languagein which the training takesplace,the use of visual aids canbe an extremelyimportantadjunctto the training experience.This is particularly true if the presentationsare in a languagethat is not the participants'fIrst language.Physiciansand other healthcare professionalsexpectthat training materialswill appearas polishedand up-to-dateas they assumethe contentwill be. Therefore,considerable time and attentionshouldbe paid to developingappropriatevisual aids to the training materials.

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All presentationsshould have a professionallook and feel throughout. Programsthat are sponsoredby certain funding sources.governmental agencies.nongovernmentalorganizations.or educational institutionsshouldinclude the requiredlogos and appropriatecolors. if any. in all training materials.The consistentuse of such recognizable visual attributescantie all of the materialstogetherinto a coherentwhole in the participants'minds. In addition, the properuseof logosand colors can"brand" boththetraining providerin generalandthe trainingprogram in particular.so that participantscometo associatea certainlevel of professionalismand useful, up-to-datecontentwith that appearance. For large programs.it is often a worthwhile investmentto hire a graphic arts professionalto assistwith designingcustomizedvisual presentations. This canbe evenmore valuablein programswherediagrams.photographs,charts.and graphsplay an importantpart in the training materials. ImplementingTraining for Health CareProfessionals in DevelopingCountries

Partnersin Implementation Before the training programcan take place.or evenbe developed,the training developermust havea partnerin the host country with whom to implementthe training. This essentialelementusuallytakesthe form of a group interestedin the subjectof the training as the local cosponsor of the training program.The interestedpotentialpartnerin the host countrycanbe a branchor departmentof the government,a local intrastateagency.a nongovernmentalorganization.a public or private hospital. or almostany availableagency,whetherpublic or private. local or international. After locating an appropriatetraining partner,the training developer must deal with all of the "gatekeepers"standingbetweenthe idea and the realizationof the training program.Whetheror not the government is a party to the training itself. the governmentis one of the biggest partnersthe developermust consider.In orderfor the training program to succeed,the governmentmust approveof the fact that the training programis occurring. One of the bestways to ensurethis approvaland support is to align the training program with existing governmental priorities. Also. by involving governmentalofficials and taking them

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into confidence,they are much more likely to supportthe programand be willing to assist,ratherthan hinder,the developmentand implementation of the program. Oncethe hurdleof the governmenthasbeenovercome,the developer must deal next with the administrationof the local implementingpartner. Again, it is essentialto understandtheir mission,goals,and priorities, so that the training programcanbe tailoredto fit themwell. Finally, the trainer must considerthe actual collaboratorsin the training programandcometo an agreementon who will take what roleswith regard to developingand presentingthe actualtraining content. Trainersfrom industrializedcountriesshould also be very awarethat their training programsareoften of extremevalueto the hostcountryand partnersin implementation.In fact, whenthe local government,administration, and implementingpartnerswant to ensurethat they will receive the training, they may try very hard not to disappointthe training developer for fear that the programmay not occur. However, while trying to meet all of the developer'sneeds,they may be overly enthusiasticand may tend to exaggeratetheir experience,abilities, materials,or facilities regardingcertainelementsessentialto the training program.In suchsituations,a commitmentto provide thoseelementsactually may be moreof an aspirationor wishful thinking than a realistic ability. Therefore,the training developershouldalways look carefully at exactly what is being promisedby the local training partnersand make an independentjudgment aboutwhetherthey can providethoseelementsrealistically.

Public Health Professionalsas Training Participants When the desiredparticipantsfor the training programarepublic health professionalsin a developingcountry, the training developermust deal directly with the local governmentin developingand implementingthe training program.Healthcareprofessionalswho are involved with public healthin developingcountriesare invariably employeesof the national or local government.Therefore, the training program can be accomplishedonly with the collaborationof local governmentalofficials, and their role as the gatekeepersof the target participantsbecomesextremelyimportant.In generalthis is somewhatmore difficult than working directly with othermedicalprofessionals.If the training program is not fully supportedby the government,accessto the participantsis going to be problematicat best.

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In addition, public health professionalsin developingcountriesas training participantsfit into a different categoryfrom medical and other healthcareprofessionalsin thosesamecountries.They aregovernmental employees,they are paid for their time on the job ratherthan for specific job outcomes,and they havelittle incentiveto participatein training programs to gain newer or additional information. Therefore,training designedfor public healthprofessionalsshouldfocuson thoseaspectsof the programthat are most likely to motivatetheseemployeesboth to attend the programand to listen attentively tothe trainers.Presentersfor public healthprofessionalsshouldbe extremelypersonableandengagingspeakers, and they shouldstrive to maketheir presentationsmore entertaining than would be necessaryfor private medical professionals.Additional value-addedmaterialsand items given to participantsalso tend to attract and hold the attentionof public healthparticipants.

The Contentof Training Programsfor Health Care Professionalsin DevelopingCountries Developingthe Curriculum Oncea local cosponsorhasagreedto becomeinvolved with the training program, the developerneedsto work closely with that cosponsorto determinethe contentof the training program.First, it is important to understandthoroughly thestrengthsand weaknesses of the local health careprofessionals.In developingcountries,medical professionalsmay haveextremelyadvancedinformationandexperiencein someareaswith little or no information or experiencein other, closely relatedsubjects. Discusstheseabilities andneedswith the cosponsoranddeterminewhat training would be most useful and valuableto the participants. Equally important is what the local professionalswant to learn, or what the cosponsorwantsthemto learn. Often thereis a distinct differencebetweenwhat the participantswant to learn and what the training developerthinks they needto learn. In thesesituations,it is importantto design the training to cover both areas.Specifically, the training must include what the local health care professionals,or the sponsor,have askedfor, as well as the informationthat the trainerwishesto convey.In other words, the training programmust give the participantswhat they want in orderto give them what they need. Thetrainingdeveloperandthe cosponsorshoulddecidejointly exactly

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what the training program will cover. With the involvementof larger groups,particularly if the local cosponsoris a governmentalagency,the developermay needto createa small curriculum committeeto do the actual work of deciding what to include in the training program.Once the subjectareashavebeendetermined,decisionsregardingthe breadth anddepthof the informationprovidedshouldbe guidedby the natureof the participantsand the informationthey alreadyhaveat their disposal. Occasionallya local cosponsoror the participantswill ask for informationthat the training developeris not equippedto supply.As the curriculum takes shape,the developermust constantlyexaminewhether the availabletrainerscanoffer what is beingrequested.Oncethe working relationshipbetweenthe government,the cosponsor,and the training developerhas beenestablished,it is importantfor the developerto avoid disappointingthe training partnersby being unableto providethe requested informationor training. Therefore,if the desiredtraining is beyondthe scopeof the availabletrainers,it shouldbe the developer's task to find anotherpartnerto associatewith the training programwho can fulfill the host country'srequests.The willingness to work to includeresourcesnot previouslyavailableto the participantsgoesa long way in establishingtrust and reliability betweenthe training developer and the local hosts. As the curriculumdevelops,trainersfrom developedcountriesmust be carefulnot to seekto impressWesternideason the participants.Physicians and nursesin developing countriesare highly trained, wellrespected,and successfulprofessionalswith their own establishedways of doing things that havedevelopedover long periodsof time. Ratherthan looking to the trainersto correcttheir errors,healthcare professionalsin developingcountries are looking for what value the newerinformation from Westernprofessionalscan add to their current proceduresand practices.Therefore,trainers should look specifically for ways in which their informationcancontributeto the existing structuresof the host country and expandthe abilities of the participants.

Practical Laboratory and PatientExaminationTraining Training in mv/AIDS often includesactual hands-ontraining in laboratory and patient examinationtechniques.This allows physiciansto seehow laboratoryanddiagnosticproceduresactuallyaredoneandgives them a valuableperspectiveregardingthe teststhey request.Including

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this material in a training programprovides a great deal of extremely useful informationfor the participants,but it requiresthe training developerto do a greatdeal of preparationwork beforethe training program can be presented. First, the developermust establisha relationshipwith locallaboratories andclinics to providethe training settingandmaterials.The laboratories shouldbe preparedto handlethe numberof participantsinvolved in the training and to demonstratethe appropriatetechniquesfor collecting samplesas well as how the tests are performed.The trainers should pr:eparethe participantswith information about the appropriate usesfor the tests before the visit to the laboratory. However, it is also extremelyimportantthat trainersbe on-siteat the laboratoryto answer questionsand reinforce the information previously provided. Similarly, training regardingpatientexaminationand diagnosisshould take placeusing actual patientsfrom the local population.Suchtraining may takeplaceat a local clinic, if that is readily available,or the volunteer patientsmay be broughtto the training site. If the latter is the case,the underlyinginformationaboutthe purposeof the examinationprocedures may be presentedat the sametime as the demonstration.However,if the participantsaretravelingto the clinic site, thenthatinformationshouldbe providedin advancewith a trainer accompanyingthe participants. Training information about laboratory and diagnostic procedures should include specific information about the reagents,supplies,and equipmentnecessaryto perform the test, as well as information about the availability of thosematerialsin the local area.Administrativeproblems and concernsof certain testing and diagnostic proceduresalso shouldbe includedin the presentation.

Public Health Training In developingcountries,basicpublic healthinformationand procedures are often notably lacking. Therefore,training developersshouldinclude this information in all of their programs.Knowledgeaboutbasicepidemiology and outbreakinvestigationis importantin any setting.In addition, developingcountriesusually do not collect healthcaredataanddo not have many healthcarerecordsavailablefor epidemiologicinvestigationsof local populations.Suchanalysesarecrucial to understanding the healthsituationin developingcountriesandoften arethe key to finding funding and resourcesfrom externalsources.

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In order to develop thedata necessaryfor that analysis,health care professionalsneedto betaughtproperrecord-keepinganddata-collection techniques,as well as hands-onclinical care and patientmanagement. Public health professionalsand physicianspracticing in larger hospital settingsalso needa basic understandingof datamanagementtechniques and managementof public health programs.Health care professionalswho have a working knowledge of effective recordkeeping and data collection and managementare capableof improving both their individual clinical practicesandthe overall level of public health in their country.

ContentAdjustmentsBasedon Infrastructure Challenges In developingcountries,it is often necessaryfor the trainerto adjustthe training contentto takeinto accountthe lack of basicinfrastructureavailable to the participants.Westerntrainersmay be more accustomedto a participantpopulation that receivesthe training and is able to execute the suggestedinnovationsimmediately.However, in developingcountries, the participantssimply may not havethe administrativecapability to do so. In particular,healthcareprofessionalsin mostdevelopingcountries do not havethe newestdiagnostictests,drugs,and methodologies availableto their patientpopulation.In somedevelopingcountries,such asIndia, it is not unusualto find characteristicsof a Third World country immediately next to modern facilities such as those found in a First World country. In other developing countries,such as the nations of Africa, no one has accessto the advantagesof the First World, regardless of their individual resourcesand wealth. Even in those countries wheresomemore advancedcapabilitiesexist, the economicburdenof a burgeoningpopulation causesovercrowdingand lack of personnelin governmentaland private hospitalsalike. While it is common to find areaswherethereareno hospitalsto servethe local population,it also is not uncommonto find existing hospitalsin which there simply are no health carepersonnel. In light of suchdisparitiesand lack of resources,it may seemimpossible to designa training programto cover all contingencies.However, as a generalrule, it is best for training programsto describethe latest information and best practiceswithin a subject and allow the participantsto determinehow bestto implementthat informationin their individual settings.

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Local practitionersare bestplacedto decidewhat procedurescan be implementedin their areas.Therefore,it also is important to explain clearly the minimum, basiclevel of carerequired,and allow the participantsto expandtheir practicesto cover any additional proceduresthey can. Similarly, practicalinformation aboutthe managementof patients is always valuable,evenif the proceduresand facilities in the host developing country are very different from thoseof the Westerntrainer. In resource-poorsettings,all of the training shouldinclude alternate procedures.For example,the recommendedproceduresfor collecting, preserving,and transportinglaboratoryspecimensmay be quite different in a resource-poorsetting from the best practicesestablishedin a resource-richcountry. Basic infection-controlproceduresalso demonstratethe problemsof implementingbestpracticesversusthe minimum requiredproceduresin a resource-poorsetting.Althoughinfection-control issuesare the sameeverywhere,Westernproceduressimply are not feasiblein manydevelopingcountries.While the standardprocedurefor dealing with HIV / AIDS patientsin Westernhospitalsis to wear two setsof gloves,this procedureobviouslycannotbe implementedwhereno gloves are availableat all. Therefore,trainersshouldbe preparedto explain the minimum requiredprocedures,suchas practitionerswashingtheir hands betweenpatients,whenbestpracticesarenot practical.If an intermediate procedureis available,such as wearing a single pair of gloves, trainers shoulddescribethat possibility as the next preferableprocedure. When training physiciansregardingthe latest pharmacotherapyfor mY/AIDS patients,the training program should be tailored to those drugsthat areavailablelocally. For example,physiciansin India usually haveaccessto all of the mostrecentHIV drugsexceptoneor two. Therefore, their training shouldincludeHighly Active Anti-RetroviralTherapy, or HAART, as practicedin Westerncountries.However, in Haiti, only one or two drugs are available at all. Training there should focus on thosecombinationdrugs rather than the ideal HAART treatments,becausethey simply are not availableto the participants.In Africa, access to any drug therapy may be extremely minimal. Training there should explain the hierarchyof desirabletreatmentso physicianscan take advantageof whateverthey may be able to locatefor their patients.There, it is importantto explain the bestalternativesand allow the participants to choosewhat they are able to implement.In many areas,private physiciansmay be able to obtain drugs that are close to the ideal therapy, while governmenthospitalshaveno ability to approachideal treatments.

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Providing PosttrainingContent After the training programhasbeenconcludedsuccessfully,the training developerand the local cosponsorshould continueto provide updated information to the participantson a regularbasis.This form of continuing educationis a valuableaddition to the actual training programthat allows the participantsto stay currentwith the latestknowledgeas new information becomesavailable.This is particularly importantfor medical professionals,as the information they rely on changesso rapidly. For those participantswho have electronic communicationsreadily available,the training developershouldprovide the latestinformation in the form of a listservby e-mail. This allows for rapid andextremelycosteffectivetransmissionof informationassoonasit becomesavailable.Training developersshould plan aheadand provide personnelwhosejob is to keepup with the latestinformationandtransmitit to participantsregularly. For participantswho do not haveelectroniccommunicationsavailable,occasionalnewslettersor periodic updatebrochuresshould be provided to training participantsby facsimile transmissionor by postalservice.

PracticalConsiderationsin DevelopingTraining Programs for Health CareProfessionalsin DevelopingCountries The Questionof Participant Paymentfor the Training Program Training developersoften questionwhetherparticipantsshouldbe asked to pay for attendingthe training program.Becausehealthcareresources areoften poor indevelopingcountries,developersmay believethat participantsshouldnot haveto pay for the training program,andthat a free programwill be more readily availableto a wider participantaudience. However,the participantpopulationsof medical professionalsare generally membersof the highest socioeconomicclass in their countries, and are well able to pay for a properly pricedtraining program.By contrast, health care professionalsgenerallyperceiveanything that is free as being substandardand less worthwhile.Therefore,they are unlikely to attenda training programthey perceiveas trainingjust for the sakeof training, and without any real value to them in their practice. Even if the prestigeof the training programsponsorsor presenters convincesthe participantsof its quality, providing the training program

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free of chargemakesthe participantsfeel that the sponsorsand presenters do not respectthem as equalsor believe them to be incapableof paying for their training. Obviously, the self-respectof the attending professionalsand their perceptionthat the programrespectsthem are crucial elementsfor a successfultraining experience. It is thereforea much betteridea to chargeparticipantsfor the training program. In addition, the participants' willingnessto pay for the programdemonstratesa commitmentto the programand an interestin the information to be covered.The interestof the participantsis every bit as crucial to the successof the training programas the competence of the presenters.

The Lengthofthe Training Program Training programsshouldbe kept short,but not too short. Probablythe ideal lengthfor healthcareprofessionalsinvolved in a full-time training programis approximatelyfive days. If the programis too short, it will havelittle or no impact on the participants.Generally,participantsconsider a programof less than threedays to be of lesserimportance,and they pay little attention to the information provided, if they bother to attend.By contrast,if the programis too long, physicianswill not be ableto takethat muchtime away from their patientsto attend.Full-time programslasting longerthan one week generallyare too long for most healthcareprofessionals. However,programsin urbancentersmay be structuredin a part-time format that provides appropriatetime for physiciansto continuetheir clinical practice.Sucha programmay last for up to two weeksand still be considereda reasonablelength.This part-time,longerprogramstructure hasthe addedbonusof attractingonly thoseprofessionalswho alreadyhavemadea commitmentto the training contentandareobviously interestedin the information the programhas to deliver. Training developersoften are temptedto sendmaterialsto their participants beforethe training programand askthem to read or study before they attend. However, this practice is unrealistic and doomed to failure. Medical professionals,in any country,arejust too busy to spend time preparingfor a programthey havealreadyinterruptedtheir schedules to attend. Therefore,the programitself should include all of the informationthe participantsneedto understandandimplementthe training content.

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The Structureofthe Training Program Oncethe conte!).tof the training programhasbeendetermined,it is up to the developerto structurethat information in a logical and workable format. In addition to lining up the necessarytraining presenters,the developermustdecideon the type and orderof the presentationsandthe overall length andstructureof the entiretraining program.Most important to the structureis a logical order of presentation.Many training programsfor medicalprofessionalswill fall automaticallyinto a logical structureaccordingto content, as certain information must be understood before it can be built on in later presentations.However, other information can be presentedin any order, and it is thesesectionsthat will determinehow the participantsperceivethe entire program. Information that is conceptuallydifficult shouldbe brokeninto manageablesectionsand separated.Othertypesof informationthat areconsideredboring or difficult to concentrateon for long periodsof time also shouldbe brokenapartand presentedseparately.Thesesectionsshould be presentedon different days or at least with considerablebreaktime betweenthe sections.For example,presentationson basic epidemiology, biostatistics,and immunology are generallyconsideredto be conceptuallychallenging,and theyshouldbe stretchedout over severaldays to allow for maximumunderstandingboth during andbetweenthe training sessions. The practice schedules of clinicians must also be takeninto account when structuringthe training program.It would be impossiblefor most practicingphysiciansto take two weeksoff for training. If the program is more than a few dayslong, physicianswill needtime away from the training programevery day to continueseeingtheir patients.This clinical practicetime will mostprofitably be scheduledduring the time when most patientswish to cometo office hours. One workable scheduleformat beginsdaily with sessionson epidemiology, biostatistics,or immunology that build on one anotherand progresslogically throughoutthe entire trainingprogram.A clinically relevant sectionon diagnostictechniques,drug therapy, or current researchfollows eachday. Then the participantsare allowed a long lunch breakwith the expectationthat physicianswould seetheir patientsbetween the morning and afternoon trainingsessions.Placing practical laboratory and clinical patient examinationtraining during the afternoonsessionsputsthe morning'sclinical sessionin contextandcapitalizes

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on the fact that the physicianparticipantsare alreadyawayfrom the training site. Concludingthe day with informationaboutrecord-keeping,data collection, and datamanagementappearsmore relevantimmediatelyafter seeingthe laboratorydemonstrationsandpatientexaminationsthat are the sourcesof the datato be collected.This type of overall structurecovers all of the relevantmateriallogically, keepsthe participantsinterested throughout,and allows physiciansto attenda much longertraining programthan they could otherwisefit into their busy schedules.

Training Materials and References Every training programshouldincludeappropriatetraining materialsto accompanythe actual presentations.Often thesematerialsinclude the notesor handoutsof the presentations.Healthcareprofessionalsexpect more from their training materials,and training developersshould expectto provide more.All participantswant backgroundreadingmaterials and referenceinformation that they can have available when they needit. Thesematerialsareparticularly importantif participantsareworking outsideurbancentersin less denselypopulatedareas.For suchprofessionals,the only referenceworks they haveavailablemay be thoseprovided with the training program.In addition,referencebookscanprovide the best practicesinformation for ideal situationsthat many medical professionalswill not be able to implement on a daily basis but will want to be able to consult as needed.In this way, practitionerswill be able to refer their patientsto the appropriateresourceswhen they need somethingthat is not availablein a resource-poorsetting. Training developersshouldalso carefully considerhow the training materialsand referencebooks will be transportedto the training site. Another important considerationis whetherthe materialsand books are consideredfree materials,are included in the fee for the training program,or will be sold at the program.Participantsmay considerthe materialsas somethingthey have paid for in the programfee; however, it is generallyleastproblematicfor the developerto considerthe materials as items the training program provides free in conjunction with the training. If the materialsare free, thereusually areno problems with customs,tariffs, and import regulationsin the host country. However, whenthe materialsor booksare to be sold at the program,trainers usually will not be permittedto include them with their luggage.If the

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developerplans to sell the materials,or is providing additional materials for the participantsto purchaseif they wish, thosematerialsshould be shippeddirectly to the training site well in advanceof the scheduled training program.

Food and Drink at the Training Program The presenceor absenceof food or drink during the training sessions may have considerablesocial significancein addition to the practical considerations.In somedevelopingcountries,group presentationsare consideredsocial events, and they cannot proceedprofitably without appropriatefood or drink being available.Although a few culturesconsiderthe presenceof food or drink to be completelyinappropriatefor a learning experience,many more cultures can accepteasily either the presenceor absenceof food or drink at the training. Often, the decision of whetherto include refreshments shouldbe governedby more practical concernssuchas time of day, convenienceand concentrationof the participants,and mattersof temperatureand hydration.Also, it may be consideredappropriateto furnish refreshments,but impolite to eat or drink during presentations.Therefore,in most countries,refreshments shouldbe permittedonly during scheduledbreaks. In some developingcountries,such as India, medical professionals expectfood anddrink to be providedwith all training programs,andfull mealsare servedregularly.This follows logically from the fact that physicians are at the highestlevel of their social structureand expectthe bestof everythingto be availableto them.At a minimum, medicalprofessionals usuallyexpectteaandcoffeeto be furnishedevery two hours or so, and, particularly in countriesfrom the former British Commonwealth, a breakwith refreshmentsdefinitely shouldbe scheduledevery day at tea time.

Schedulingthe Training Program At approximatelythe sametime the structurefor the training programis beingformulated,the training developerwill needto determineexactly what will be the schedulefor the program.This considerationincludes not only how much time the. programwill take overall but also exactly when and where the program will be presented.In many developing countries,changesin weatherand seasonscan play an importantrole in

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travel planningandmay be of considerableimportanceto the participants. The training venueshouldbe centrally locatedin an urban areaequally availableto all participantsor, if participantsare scatteredgeographically or basedoutsidethe urbancenters,morethanonevenueshouldbe chosen to allow the widest possibleattendanceat the training program. Oncethe datesand venue(s)have beenchosen,the prospectiveparticipantsmust beinvited. Be certainto include an appropriatemeansof respondingto the invitation. This shouldbe done atleastthree months before the training program is scheduledto start. The developeralso shouldmakethe necessarytravel and lodging arrangements for eachof the trainersat this time.

The Role of On-SiteFacilitators for the Training Program In addition to the training developerin the industrializedcountry, the training programshouldhavean on-sitefacilitator to assistthe program in the host country. This individual's role includeshandling all of the practicalandtechnicalconsiderationsat the training site, including providing electricity, air conditioning,and technicalequipment.The facilitatorshouldcheckthe presentationfacilities providedregardingacoustics, tablesand chairs,temperature,and technology.This last requirementis of greaterimportanceevery year as presentationsrely more and more heavily on matchingthe appropriateelectricity, plugs, computers,software, and transportablemedia. Regardlessof what electronic equipmentis promised or expected, trainers should always be preparedto offer their presentationseven if none of the technologyworks as planned.For example,it is always a good ideato haveoverheadtransparencies prepared,andpossiblyhandoutsof the essentialelementsof a presentation,just in casethe electronics and more advancedtechnologydo not work.

EvaluatingTraining Programsfor Health Care Professionalsin DevelopingCountries SettingMeasurableTraining Outcomes The evaluationcomponentof a training programis an extremelyimportant aspectof the overall training initiative. Typically, evaluationprovides accountabilityfor the programto the program'ssponsorsand any

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grant-fundingpartners.How well the training goalsand objectiveshave been met plays an important role in determiningwhetherthe training developeris likely to be supportedin future training activities. Typically, training outcomesmeasurechangesin the participants' knowledgedue to the training program.The mostcommonlyusedmeasureof a changein participantknowledgeis the pretest/posttest evaluation. With this technique,participantprofessionalsaregiven an objective teston the information to be coveredduring the training programbefore the programbegins.Pretestscoresare expectedto be low. Immediately after completingthe training program,the participantscompletethe test a secondtime. Posttestscoresare expectedto be substantiallyhigher, and are generallyconsideredto be the appropriatemeasureof how well the programcommunicatedits information to the participants. In addition to the immediateposttest,an extremely revealing measureof training outcomesis a long-termposttest.In this evaluation,the sametest is given to the participantsagain six months following the training program.The information that participantsretainedfor a sixmonthperiodof time is usuallythoughtto havebeenlearnedthoroughly and be availablefor applicationin practice. The sametest can be used three times for the pretest, immediate posttest,and long-termposttest.It is not uncommonfor participantsto remembersomeof the questionsfrom one administrationof the test to the next. However, as the participantsare never provided with the answersto the questions,thereis no validity problemwith using the same test repeatedly.

Evaluating Training Outcomes Training outcomesmust be measurableto be successful.Although the pretest/posttest evaluationadequatelymeasuresany increasein the participants'knowledgeasa resultof the training program,otheroutcomes candemonstratethe valueof a training programequally well. Theeasiest outcomesto reportpertainto the numberandtype of training programs conductedby the training partners,as well as the total numberof professionalparticipants.In addition,reportsshoulddetail the professional demographicsof the participants-thatis, whetherthe participantsare family physicians,specialists,nurses,public health professionals,and so on, and the level of previoustraining and experienceof the participants. It is also important to report from where the participantsorigi-

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nated. The greaterthe distancethe participantstraveled to attend the training program,the morehighly the participantsvaluethe information and experiencethe programhasto offer. The practicalinformation aboutclinical practiceand patientmanagement provided by the training can be evaluatedas well. To measurean increasein the participants'effectivenessas clinicians,the trainer should measurethe changein the numberof patientsthey seedaily or weekly sincethe training programand comparethosewith the daily or weekly totals frombeforethe program.Thosetotalsdemonstratechangesin their clinical practices.It is also appropriateto interview the medical professionalsto determinehow they use the information they acquiredduring the training program.Anotherimportantoutcomemeasureis whetherthe participantsare conductingany training of their own or otherwisedisseminatingthe information they obtainedduring the training program. Information that professionalspasson from one to anotheris highly relevantandtrustedinformation.Whenmedicalprofessionalschooseto distribute the information from the training programto other professionals, it is a strongendorsementof the value of the information provided. Finally, feedbackinformation from the participantsgives the training developera subjectivemeasureof how well the training servedthe participant healthcareprofessionals.This informationcanbe gatheredin the form of written surveystakendaily throughoutthe training as well as at the conclusionof the program. Participantsalso may be askedto commentor answerquestionswith a narrativedescribingtheir training experience,eitherin writing or to a follow-up interviewer.Oncethe feedback information has been collected, it should be reviewed carefully by the training developerand the trainers. This procedureallows the training programto be adjustedor correctedto reflect the training needsand expectationsof healthcareprofessionalsin developingcountries.

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Part III Observations and Conclusions

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11 Synopsis of Ideas, Future Trends, and Challenges John L. Daly

This concludingchapterbriefly summarizesthe key "findings" identified in earlier chaptersof this book. Furthermore,it discussesfuture challengesand trends associatedwith training in developingnations. Basedon the authors'comments,it is safeto say that the work of providing high-qualitytraining requiresconstanteffort andan ongoingwillingnessto learn new trainer skills. As mentionedpreviously, even well-performedtraining canstill be improved,providedexpatriatetrainers are willing to grow cognitively from their own, and others',experiences. Training in Developing Nations authors offer a wealth of information about preparingfor, providing, and evaluatingexpatriate initiatives in developingsystems.Rex Stocktonet al. in chapter8 reaffirm, for example,the importanceof evaluationwhen providing mental healthandrehabilitativecounselingtraining. They recommendcontinuous evaluationof training throughformative and summativeevaluation methodologies. Throughoutthis book the contributorsand I have expressedthe necessityto learn as much as possibleaboutthe developingcountry'sculture and languageprior to enteringinto any training initiative. The first rule of training developmentis mentionedin the Introduction.There I note that expatriatetrainersmust tailor their training to the audience's culture and to its context, rather than vice versa. Stockton et al. also advisethat the greatestsinglebarrierto successfultraining is in importing programsto a country that doesnot have the supportof grassroots 189

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involvement. Onkst and Naik in chapter10 also advise that involving governmentalofficials (even when they are not directly sponsoringthe training) createsa senseof partnershipthat will easerelationshipswhile in the country. Sustaininga clear grasp of local culture, context, and supportfor training in developingsystemsis critical to advancingeffective training, but training is more than simply imparting knowledge. The ultimate goal should be to changebehaviorto achieveimproved outcomesthat benefit both individual and society.Awarenessof culture and context will help the trainer achievedesiredgoals. In this chapter'snext section,four factors are advancedas key componentsfor enhancingtraining. The acronymICAP is applied to help expatriatetrainersrememberthesefour very critical factors for training ~ultural awareness, adaptabilityandflexsuccess:institutional support,support, ibility, and l2atience.TheseICAP factors are discussedbelow.

Key Componentsfor EnhancingTraining Institutional Support Institutional supportis the first critical factor influencing training success.This refers to the level of sustainedbacking that trainers receive from the industrializeddonor(s)andfrom the developing-nationhost(s). Expatriatetrainersoften bemoanthe lack of supportreceivedfrom funding institution(s) and/or from the developing-nationhost(s). Sufficient and sustainedexpatriatetrainer support, from all sources,facilitates smoothertrainer transition from industrializedto developing settings. Often insufficient institutional supportcreatesdistractionsfor the trainers.It pulls themawayfrom focusingfully on the training mission.Lack of support also increasestheir frustration, which can result in morale and motivationaldeclines.The expatriatetrainerwho asks,"What am I doing here?"or "Why did I cometo this Godforsakenplace?" is lamenting a lack of institutional supportfrom one or more sources. Many supporttools are overlooked(or bypassed)in the processof preparingexpatriatetrainersfor their mission.Fluencyin the hostnation's languageclearly is a desiredtrainertrait, but often the languageskills of the trainersdo not matchthe dominantlanguagespokenin the developing country.This mismatchis oneareawhereinstitutionalsupportcould, and should,be provided.Realistically,many funding donorssimply do not havesufficient resourcesto fund an expatriatetrainer'sfluency in a

IDEAS. FUTURE TRENDS. AND CHALLENGES 191

secondlanguage.Nevertheless,they can still assisttrainersby providing, or funding, brief "conversational"languagetraining when needed. This helps reducethe naturalcommunicationbarriersthat result when trainersand traineesdo not speaka commonlanguage.BarbaraLiggett notesthis observationin chapter3 when shesuggeststhat trainerseither learn the hostcountry'slanguageprior to travel or, minimally, memorize commonhost-country greetings.She notes that languageincongruence inhibits effective transfersof knowledge.She recommendsarticulating simplegreetingsin the trainees'languageto reducethe naturalcommunication barrier. Using this strategywill also enhancethe trainers'legitimacy and credibility with their audience.Furthermore,she suggests that evenlimited knowledgeof the host languagecreatesa senseof goodwill, becauseit signalsthe expatriatetrainers'respectfor both the traineesand their culture. Dr. Liggett and I differ on one minor aspectof language skills attainment.Sheplacestheresponsibilityfor skills developmentupon the trainers. I contendthat both institutional donors and the expatriate trainerjointly shareresponsibilityfor languageskills development.Thus I believethat greaterinstitutional donor efforts shouldbe placedon providing pretrainingfor expatriates(when needed)in the hostnation'slanguageprior to the expatriates'departureto conducttraining. A secondcontextual shortcomingoften experiencedby expatriate training entails living in substandardhousing conditions during their residencyin the host country. Adequate-qualityhousingshould be the responsibilityof both institutional sponsorand host nation. Often, donor agencieswill fund travel andtraining costsin exchangefor housing provisionssuppliedby the hostsponsor.TheFulbrightTraditionalScholarsprogramwould be an exampleof a donorwith suchan arrangement. Typically, developingnationsprovide housingneedsthat do not even meetminimal living standardsfor expatriatetrainers.When this occurs expatriatetrainers often find themselvesin the position of personally having to rectify this situation.Donors,rightfully, will point to the fact that contractuallythis is the obligation of the host nation. Host nations, on the otherhand,pleadthat this is the bestthey cando, in the hopesthat the donorwill rescuethe trainersfrom this plight. This "cat and mouse" gameoftencomesat thecostof the trainers,who sufferthe consequences of poor housingand the feeling of being hung out to dry by both donor agencyand host sponsor.JoyceBarrett mentionsthe challengesof living in woefully poor housingduring pasttraining initiatives in chapter 7. I alsohaveexperiencedsimilar frustratingsituations.I canassurethe

192

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

readerthat thereis little pleasurein working in settingswithout electricity, telephonecommunications,andrunningwaterfor bathingandcooking for extended(that is, weeksat a time) periods. Institutional supportalso comesin the form of ensuringthat training programsreceivesufficient marketingin the developingnation prior to initiation of the training. As I mentionin chapter4 on strategicmarketing, expatriatetrainers,as muchas is feasible,shouldencouragedonors andhostsponsorsto enticelocal attendanceat training initiatives through the selectionof desirabletraining locationswith superiorfacilities, effective communicationwell aheadof the training, and personalattendanceat theseevents.Internationaldonor sponsorshipof training can provide neededsupportthroughfinancial contributionsthat maketraining attendancemore desirable(for example,paying for and providing attendees'meals).OnkstandNaik remindthe trainerto incorporatesponsor logos into training materials.Host countriesalsocontributeby communicating,in a timely fashion, the training being offered and strongly indicating the necessityfor programparticipation. Institutional support for the expatriatetrainer can also be advanced through other simple ways without much institutional resourceoutlay. Pretrainerorientationprogramsproviding basic travel, safety. and security information (similar to information providedby William Marjenhoff in chapter1) will enhancethe trainers'understandingof the complexity andchallengesof travel in othercultures.Moreover.it will give trainersa realistic preview of what to expectduring their stay in the host'scountry. To summarize.a strong link must exist betweentraining successand institutional support.Both donor and developingcountry sponsoringthe initiative havethe responsibilityandobligationto createa supportivecontext thatallows trainersto focustheir attentionon impartingvaluableknowledge.Institutionalassistancecancomein manyforms. Fourbasicaspects of supporthave beendiscussedin this section: pretravellanguagetraining, assuranceand supportfor quality in-country housing,effective marketing of program offerings. and trainer orientationsprior to the commencement of travel. Clearly otherpointshavebeenidentifiedthrough the book. and I encouragethe readerto reexaminethesepoints.

Cultural Awareness The secondfactor in the ICAP "model" is cultural awareness.This is the most pervasivepoint mentionedby all contributors. The expatriate

IDEAS. FlIIURE TRENDS. AND CHALLENGES 193

trainers, with extensiveunderstandingof a developing nation's culture, will be betterable to integrateaspectsof culture into the training module.Threeelementsof culture are discussedhere:familiarity with the trainees'culture (for example,being knowledgeableaboutthe inhabitants'history, religion, ethnicity, and local customs),understanding existing genderdistinctions,and being cognizantof occupational statusdistinctions. Familiarity with the trainees'culture not only is prudentwhen conducting training but also may saveone from awkward momentsas a visitor. Bill Marjenhoff, for example,mentions the issuesof photographingchildren and buildings in anothersociety. In someinstances this could createa precariouspredicamentfor the trainer,namelyending up in jail. Joyce Barrett also refers to the significanceof culture in terms of ethical decisionmaking for journalists.As a trainer, one should gain a better understandingof predominantethical values of the host society juxtaposedto one'sown ethical standardsprior to training. In a similar vein, an experiencedinternationaltrainerrecentlyrelated a story to me aboutthe seriousnessof avoiding religious commentsin training settings.In this particularinstance,wanting toemphasizea key ideato his audiencehe imploredthem,"for Allah's sake,"to understand the critical natureof the point he was making. In his own cultural context, using the phrase"for God's sake,"generallyis acceptable,but referring to Allah wasnot in this instanceandprovedto be highly offensive to his audienceand embarrassingto him. Gaining a senseof history, religion, ethnicity, and customsis critical to tailoring one'spresentations,the commentsand examplesemployed during training, and eventhe dressand appearancethat trainersseekto project in training sessions.This leadsto the secondcultural awareness element-gender distinctions-thattrainersshouldgraspbeforebeginning training. In terms of dress, for example,I would advise female trainersneverto wearpantsuits,no matterhow tastefuland professional the apparelmight appear,when conductingtraining in southernAfrica. In Swaziland,a woman wearing slacks to work can be fired, as this practiceis culturally frowned upon. I haveeven seenfemale gardeners in southernAfrica who, while wearingpantsto tend gardensand lawns, also wore skirts over thesepants. In the caseof the female expatriate trainer, wearing pantscould prove to be a distractionin classand a deterrentto learning.The expatriatetrainer will haveto decidefor herself

194

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

about her wardrobebut is advisedto understandthe cultural norms of the local societybeforedressingfor the presentation. BarbaraLiggett notesthat the female trainer shouldexpectreservations from predominantlymaleaudiencesin societieswherestronggenderdistinctionsexist.At herown university(that is, WesternMichigan), which hasa robustforeign studentpopulation,shehasheardcomments from many internationalstudentswhisperingabout theinstructor"being a woman" in her new semester'sfirst classsessions.Refreshingly, Barbaraviews this as an opportunityand personalchallengeto change students'culturally imposed impressionsof females as instructors/ trainers.Shesuggestsgetting to know one'sstudentspersonallyand by name.Shealsorecommendsusingcomparativecountryproblem-solving exercisesto win the favor of students.The femaletrainershouldfollow Barbara'slead. Considerthe gender-biasedtraineeas a challengeand usepersonalteachingtalentsas a meansof reducingthe perceptionsof genderas a determinantof instructorquality. Lastly, Onkst and Naik observethat in somecultures occupational statusis significant and must be takeninto considerationwhen preparing for, andconducting,training.They notethat in somesettingsequivalent expertiseand professionalqualifications will be required of the trainersto gain the respectof their audience.Thus, an eminentlyqualified mv/ AIDS specialistwithout physiciancertification might find it difficult to gain a senseof legitimacy among a group of developingnation physiciansseekinginnovative and specializedmY/AIDS intervention techniques.Onkst and Naik also indicate that communication patternswill vary acrosssocietiesand must be understoodso as not to offend workshop participants.In some societies,for example,asking probingquestionsof thetrainermay beperceivedasoffensive,pushy,or rude and uncalledfor behavior.Trainersneedto understandthe distinctions of one-wayversustwo-way communicationand their prevalence in varying settingsprior to planningand initiating training.

Adaptability of the Trainer Adaptability andflexibility of thetrainersis a third commonthemenoted by our contributors.As I mention in chapter2, trainersshould "expect the unexpectedwhen conductingtraining in developingcountries."Life both in andout of the classroomcantesteventhe mostseasonedtrainer. Electricity andaudiovisualequipmentfail at a moment'snotice.Trainers

IDEAS, FUI1JRE TRENDS, AND CHALLENGES t 95

learnvery quickly to devisebackuptraining strategiesin anticipationof potentialcatastrophicpowerand equipmentfailures. Typically, in addition to having PowerPointpresentationsavailable,I would have handwritten lecturenotesjust in caseof electrical or equipmentfailures. In addition, teachingin unlighted classroomsoccurredfrequently due to electricaloutages.Having a backuplocationfor training-for example, under a shadytree on campus-isanotherapproachthat I would take whenthe needarose.Having a senseof humorhelps,as almostanything can happento interferewith training progressin developingsettings. Joyce Barrett's commentsin chapter7 also reflect similar frustrations with lack of training resourcesin the Third World classroom.In manyinstances,Joycewasableto overcomeresourcelimitationsthrough creativestrategizing.In otherinstances,she simply providedthe training resourcesherselfso studentscould continueto gain desiredlearning skills. Oneexamplesheprovidesis paying staffing coststo monitorsin the computerlab at the University of Botswana.This allowed her studentsto use an otherwiseclosedcomputerlab to write their pressstories. Think for a minute what the reaction would be at an American university if eachprofessorhad to provide out-of-pocketexpensesso that his or her students could usea university'scomputerlabs. Maintain flexibility in rethinking a personalparadigmaboutwhat shouldbe versus what is neededin host country facilities. Adaptability will alsobe neededoutsideof the classroom,as is mentioned by both Marjenhoff and Liggettin their chapters.As mentioned in chapter1, the expatriatetrainersmay be requiredto rethink traveling plans, especiallyafter dark, and adapttheir tastesto the local cuisine undercertaincircumstances.Women indevelopingcountriesmay face frustratingpersonalhygienesituations,like ground-leveltoilets, as discussedin BarbaraLiggett's chapter.Also, she suggests,women must evaluatetheir physical abilities and willingness to put up with the discomfortsthat developingsettingsoften present.

Patienceon the Part ofthe Trainer The last major factor influencing training effectivenessis patience.Expatriatetrainersmust learn this virtue when training in developingsystemsas a meansof personaland emotionalsurvival. Willy Hollewegdit Wegmansuggestsin chapter6 that training takestime, effort, and patienceto find the appropriateatmosphereof cooperationin developing

196

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

systems.Learningpatterns,methods,and attainmentvary from student to student.Someindividuals havea naturalaffinity to learn someskills while strugglingwith others.Trainersmust be sensitiveto variationsin learning outcomesacrossstudents.Having the patienceto smile and work again in assistinga studentto graspa conceptis a virtuous trait, especially when feelings of frustration occur. Attempt to practice patience wheneverpossible.In some instancesafter assessingthe situation, the trainers may have to lower their expectationsof achievable learning outcomes. Ultimate patienceon the part of the trainer also will easethe selfimposedpressuresthat trainersoften placeuponthemselves.They want their studentsto learnat their pace.In many developingsettingsthis just will not happen.Rememberthat training is highly influencedby cultural and contextualfactors that are out of the trainers'control. Thus, learnedpatienceon the part of the trainersundersuchtrying situations may be their bestmeansof coping with unmettraining expectations.

FutureTrainingTrendsand Challenges Over the next decadethe needsfor training in developingnationswill grow, ratherthan shrink. Calls for training assistanceand technicalsupport are also growing as we move toward an increasinglyglobal community. Travel, asidefrom the burdensof increasedsecurity following 9/11, has becomeeasierthan ever before.The demandfor assistanceis strong,but training assistance needsandmethodologieswill likely change over the next decade.Some of the changesthat can be expectedare discussedbelow.

Growing Utilization of E-training In America and in other industrializednations there has beena sharp increasein the utilization andavailability ofE-training: computer-based electronic training. In many instancesthis type of training is selfinstructivewherethe traineesits with computerand keyboardand masters new skill sets.Approximately one-third of all training provided in America today is conductedthroughE-training initiatives. It is my expectationthat E-training applicationswill grow in developing settingsoverthe nextdecade.In part, suchutilization will be driven by the donor'sdesire toreduceper capita training costs.The growing

IDEAS, FUTURE TRENDS, AND CHALLENGES

197

availability and utilization of information technologyin developingnations will alsoleadto increasedE-training.Also, E-trainingwill be mandated with growing frequency by industrializednations' corporations, which seekto sustainsuperior-qualitymanufacturingcriteria in developing countries'manufacturingsites. E-training success,just as in the casewith expatriatetraining, will hinge significantly on an understandingof local culture and context. One might assumethat the emergenceof E-training will lead to the decline of the expatriatetrainer. To the contrary,it is my expectationthat there will be a growing needfor expatriateinvolvement,especiallyin terms of developingnew training modulesthat integratecultural and contextualinfluences.The skills set,mission,and activities of the expatriate trainersmay change,but the needfor their serviceswill continue.

Growing LinkagesBetweenTraining and Democracy The growing needfor expatriatetrainers also will be the result of the expandinglinkages betweenjob creation and democracy.Advancing democracyrequires the developmentof improved skills sets of individuals in developingsocieties.Clearly, this is a major point enumerated by Holleweg dit Wegman'schapter6 on economicdevelopments. Industrializednations also will utilize training and developmentas a key componentof democracyand institutional stabilizationof developing nations.

IncreasingNeedfor Health Care Training Growing world healthconcernsregardingthe HIV / AIDS pandemicin Africa and increasinglyin Asia will ratchetupward the needfor additional expatriatetrainersin developingnations.Health careknowledge and the availability of qualified healthcareand mentalhealthpractitionersare in critical short supply in most developingnations.Stocktonet aI., for example,arecommencinginitial counselortraining in Botswana. Initiatives like theirs will continueto grow, possiblybeing stuntedonly by rising military costsfor the recentIraqi intervention.This may reducethe availability of donor contributionsfrom the United Statesand the United Kingdom. At present,more than 40 million peopleworldwide are HIV positive.Approximately 75 percentof infectedindividuals live in African nations.Given the presentmagnitudeof this world

198

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

healthcrisis and growing concernthat Asian nations(especiallyChina) will becomethe next Africa, it is inconceivablethat industrializednations' health services,as well as expatriatehealth care specialists,will declineover the next decade.

Concluding Comments Servingas an expatriatetrainerin a developingsettingcan be a rewarding experienceif onefollows muchof the wisdomin this book. Contributing one'stalents,skills, and abilities to the bettermentof society and the needsof othersless fortunatethan most of us in developednations can be an enrichingand life-altering experience.Clearly, this has been my experienceand that of the othercontributorsto this book. No book, by itself, can provide all the answersthat expatriatetrainers need to succeedonce"thrown" into the fIres of developing-nationtraining. It is our belief, however,that the information providedwill benefItboth seasonedtrainers and fIrst-timers alike in understandingthe complexities of training in different societalculturesand contexts. We trust the information provided in this book will be valuableand will help the readerto gain fIrmer graspson training in developednations. Theseexperienceswill be personallyrewardingand, yet, frustrating at times. Keepingthe ICAP model in mind helpstrainersto balance favorably this reward/frustrationcontinuum.Training is both personally enriching and professionallychallenging.What more could one wish for in life than to visit exotic places,to makelasting friendships,and to gain a true senseof the meaningof community services?

About the Editor and Contributors

JoyceE. Barrett hastrainedmediaacrosssouthernAfrica, in theformer SovietUnion, andthe formerYugoslavia.Shehashadtwo Knight International PressFellowshipsat the University of Botswana,and was a Fulbright scholarassignedto teachat the University of Belgrade.Barrett alsowasa founding instructorat the CaucasusSchoolof Journalismand MediaManagementin Tbilisi, Georgia.Barretthasbeena print journalist for more thantwenty yearsand spentten yearscoveringCapitol Hill for Fairchild Publications.She has a B.A. in journalismfrom the University of SouthCarolinaandan M.A. in internationaltransactionsfrom GeorgeMasonUniversity, Fairfax, Virginia. John L. Daly is associateprofessorof public administration,Departmentof Governmentand InternationalAffairs, at the University of SouthFlorida in Tampa.Johnreceivedhis doctoratein public policy from Indiana University's School of Public and EnvironmentalAffairs in Bloomington.Dr. Daly hasextensivelocal and international experienceworking with governmentand public administrators.In 1998-1999,he was selectedas the Fulbright Senior Scholarto the Kingdom of Swaziland,wherehe servedas a technicalconsultantto its national government.Daly actively publisheson policy issues focusing on human resourcemanagement,human rights, strategic managementand planning,and Africa. His researchhas appearedin both nationalandinternationalpublic administrationandpublic policy journals. Recentpeer-reviewedpublicationshave appearedin African StudiesReview, DevelopmentSouthernAfrica, and Public Administration Quarterly. 199

200

ABOUT lHE EDITOR AND CONTRIBUTORS

Willy Hollewegdit Wegmanhasmore than twenty-five yearsoffield experiencein developingcountries aschief of party of large-scale projectsfor various UN agencies.During nearly two decadeshe held seniormanagementpositionswithin the Belgian civil service.He was professorof managementat the AmericanCollegeof Switzerlandand at the American GraduateSchool of Businessof Montreux, Switzerland. His qualificationsare in the supportand assistanceof SMEs,the rehabilitationof humanresources,mainly in the contextof structural adjustment,and the supportto the private sector.He has lasting experience in the fields of employmentand self-employmentand the formulation of national and public-sectorpolicies. He has conducted feasibility studiesandestablishedfinancing schemeswith the ultimate goal to foster private-sectordevelopment.He holds a degreeof social and defensescience,an engineeringdegreein chemistry,an M.B.A., and a Ph.D. in international businessadministrationfrom Century University in Los Angeles. BarbaraS. Liggett is an associateprofessorat WesternMichigan University, Kalamazoo,Michigan, where she was also awardedher Ed.D. Prior to her full-time faculty appointment,she servedthe university as the AssociateVice Presidentfor Human Resourcesand Director of the Nonprofit LeadershipProgramfor GraduateStudies. Dr. Liggett's expertiseis in public and nonprofit organizations'human resourcessystemsand leadership.Sheteachesgraduatestudents in the university'sSchool of Public Affairs and Administration and is well-known for her innovative classroomlearning activities integratingthe experiencesof Americanandnon-Americanstudents.Her consultationpractice is extensiveand focuseson organizationsystem changesfor improved workplacerelationsand productivity. Dr. Liggett is also areviewer/editorfor Jossey-Bass Publications.In addition to numeroustechnical reports, she has published in Public Voices and Perspectives. WilliamA. Marjenhoffisa U.S. ForeignServiceOfficer. He hasserved tours of duty in Swaziland,Botswana,the Netherlands,and Washington, D.C. He waschiefof theAmericanCitizen ServicesUnit at the U.S. consulate general in Amsterdam.His careeralso includesa tour of duty in Greenlandwhile in the U.S. Air Force, and he traveled abroadfor three yearsteachingin the Navy's Programfor Afloat CollegeEduca-

ABOUT THE EDITOR AND CONTRIBUTORS

201

tion. He earneda Ph.D. in political scienceat The PennsylvaniaState University. D. Keith Morran is a professorin the Departmentof Counselingand EducationalPsychologyat Indiana University-PurdueUniversity in Indianapoliswherehe hastaughtsince 1980.His researchhasfocused on counselorcognitions,small groupprocessesand outcomes,andthe training of group leaders.He has been a longtime memberof such professionalorganizationsas the American Counseling Association, the American School CounselorAssociation,and the American PsychologicalAssociation.He is currently workingwith co-authorsStockton and Terry to develop culturally sensitiveproceduresfor training group leadersin sub-SaharanAfrica. Dr. Moran also holds a Ph.D. from Indiana University. EknathNaik is the Director ofthe Centerfor HIV/AIDS Researchand Training in India (CHART-India) and is an AssistantProfessorin the Departmentsof Global Health and Internal Medicine at the University of SouthFlorida (USF). He is oneof the coreAIDS EducationTraining Centerfaculty for the USFCenterfor HIV Education,a federally funded program.Dr. Naik is a graduateof LokmanyaTilak Medical Collegein Mumbai, India, andis boardcertified in PreventiveandSocialMedicine in India. Dr. Naik also holds a Ph.D. in Epidemiologyfrom the University of Alabamaat Birmingham. AmbeJ. Njoh is professorof governmentin theDepartmentof Government and InternationalAffairs, University of SouthFlorida-St. Petersburg. Dr. Njoh receivedhis doctorateof philosophyin planningstudies from the University of London in 1990. His researchspecializesin the areasof internationaldevelopment,urban public service,public housing, public transportationplanning, and institutional development.He has publisheda numberof books and peer-reviewedarticles on these topics, including Urban Planning, Housing and Spatial Structuresin Sub-SaharanAfrica. CherieLee Onkstis an assistantprofessorin the Departmentof Global Health at the University of South Florida College of Public Health in Tampa.Sheattendedlaw school at StetsonUniversity College of Law, acquireda J.D., practicedlaw, and taught law school for severalyears.

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ABOUT THE EDITOR AND CONTRIBUTORS

Dr. OnkstthenearnedherM.D. from Emory University Schoolof Medicine and trained in surgeryat the Mount Sinai Medical Centerin New York City. Most recently, sheobtaineda Master'sin Public Health and currently is completing a Ph.D. in InstructionalTechnologyfrom the USF Collegeof Education.

Rex Stocktonis chancellor'sprofessorin the Departmentof Counseling and EducationalPsychologyat Indiana University, Bloomington. He hasreceiveda numberof awardsfor his researchin the small group counselingfield. This researchhasresultedin the formation of bestpractice standardsfor group work. He is a former presidentof the group work divisionsof theAmericanPsychologicalAssociationandtheAmerican CounselingAssociation.Dr. Stockton has conductedtrainings in small group processesworldwide. With co-authorsMorran and Terry, he is engagedin developingtraining modelsin group work for human servicespersonnelin sub-SaharanAfrica. He was awardedhis Ed.D. from Ball StateUniversity. LeannJ. Terry is a doctoralstudentin counselingpsychologyat IndianaUniversity, Bloomington.Shegraduatedsummacum laudein psychologyfrom ScrippsCollegein Claremont,California. Shehaslived in Ecuadorand volunteeredthroughoutAustralia and New Zealand.Recently shetraveledto China on an Avery ChinaAdventureFellowship. She is currently working with Dr. Stocktonand Dr. Morran on the deAfrica. velopmentof a group training programin sub-Saharan

Index

A

ABC-FoodLion case,121 Agricultural improvementprojects,73 local participation,73 Almaty InternationalAirport, Kazakhstan,10 Alufohai, D., 49 AmericanAutomobileAssociation (AAA),ll AmericanCitizen Services(ACS), 12, 13 AmericanCultural Center,31 Amsterdam Central Station,10 Angola, Luanda,8 Aristophanes,146 Assistanceit la creationd'entreprises pour les deflates,95 Auto insurance,11 AutomatedTeller Machine(ATM), 7, 19,20 Awa, N.E., 40

Belgium, 87 Belize, Todos Santos,18 Benin, 98 Benin, Cotonou,99 Berry, J.H.W., 42 Bolivia, 16, 18 Bosnia,116 Botswana,111, 113, 118, 120, 121, 125,137-138,197 BotswanaParliament,112 Botswana,Gabarone,121, 123,125 Bovey, Jose,147 Brazil, 147 BrettonWoodsInstitution, 103, 146 Brinkerhof, D.W., 71 British Commonwealth,168-169, 182 Brunner,A. J., 37 Burma, 16 Burton, Sir Richard,22 Business-creation project, 102, 106-107,152

B

C BacterialMeningitis, 20 Bangladesh,168 Barnard,Chester,65 Belarus,15

Car rental, 10, 11 CaymenIslands,21 Cellular telephones,54, 116, 118 203

204

INDEX

Centerfor DiseaseControl (CDC), 7 healthprecautions,7 immunizations,7 CentralAfrican Republic, 18 Charlesde GaulleAirport, 8 China, 198 ChristianScienceMonitor, 116 Citizen-basedorganizations,143 Civil servants,94, 150 Clinicians, 180 Cochiarella,M.J., 135 Collectivist culture, 134 Colombia,18 Colonial authority, 63, 81 Colonial era, 81 Colonial legacy, 146 Conferenceof SanFrancisco,146 Conferenceon Developmentin Johannesburg 2002, 147 ContingencyTheory,79-80 Cooperationof the Agencyfor InternationalDevelopment (CIC-AID),67 Copyrightlaws, 118 Corwin, R. G., 80 CreationD'EntrepriseFormation D'Entrepreneurs,103 Crime, 18,87 narcotics,14, 19,87 theft, 27 Seealso AutomatedTeller Machine (ATM) Cui, G., 40 Cultural awareness,192 Cultural differences,116 Cultural shock,32 D

Development administeringdevelopment,63, 71 developmentcircles, 64

Development(continued) economicdevelopment,85 humandevelopment,85-88 generalsetting, 104 global development,96 institutionaldevelopment,64, 70-71 private sector, 108 productionscheme,104 Diamond,B.J., 37 Dies, R.R., 132 Djindjic, Zoran PrimeMinister, 117 Donor agencies.SeeInternational donoragencies E

EasternEurope,111 Economicreform, 88 Ecuador,18 Egypt, 77 Eisenstadt,S.N., 77 Emergencykit, 6 Emery,F.E., 81 EMPRETECMAROC®, 102-103 England,21 English. SeeLanguage Entrepreneurs artisan,91 development,102 risk capital, 102 women,92 Seealso training Ericsson,K.A., 137 Eritrea, 136 Esman,Milton, 68, 70 Ethics, 120-121,193 casestudies,121 code, 121 journalism,193 Ethiopia, 136 Evaluation feedback,185

INDEX

Evaluation(continued) follow-up interviews,185 formative, 138-139 knowledge,184 pretestscores,184 posttestscores,184 standards,45 sunnnative,138-139 Europeancolonies,64-65 EuropeanUnion, 31 fundedmedia, 117 Expatriate,U5, 129-130,151, 189, 194 adaptability,194 cultural differences,189 friendships,115 loneliness,U5, 130 teams,149, 151 Expertbehavior,137 F Facsimile,178 Fayol, Henri, 65, 75 Food, 114, 115,182 training events,182 Ford Foundation,66, 67,76 France,87, 147 France,Paris,9 Frankel,Linda, 46, 47 Fulbright, 23, 26,50,191 Traditional Scholars,191

G G-8 countries,147 Gabon,15 Gates,Bill, 30 Gay, G., 37 Gender,34-47,92,94,96,122,123, 162,194 barrier, 34-35, 194

205

Gender(continued) classroom,36 communication,34 cultural referent,37 discrimination,94, 96 in news stories,123 education,35,36 educators,35, 38,41, 43, 194 entrepreneurs, 92 learning,36 nurses,162 perceptionsof, 42 personalhygiene,42 respect,45 Gentemann,K.M., 37 Georgia,Tblisi, 113 Germany,147 Ghana,20 Gilligan, Carol, 35 Graham,L., 66 Groupcounseling,xv, 129-137 counselor,131 dialogue,136 training methods,130 Guatemala,18 Guinea,15 Gulick, Luther, 65, 75 H HAART. SeeHighly Active AntiRetroviralTherapy Handouts,U2, 183 Health careprofessionals,160-185 comunication,164, 165 public health, 172, 175 role, 163 Health insurance,7 HeathrowAirport, 22 HepatitisB, 20 Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy (HAART),l77

206

INDEX

mY/AIDS, xvi, 20, 87,'1.22,125, 126,128,137,138-139, 148-150,160-175,177 AIDS pandemic,126 gospelmusic, 125 medicalprofessionals,160, 194 patients,160- 162, 165, 177 examinationtechniques,174, 175 stigma, 160, 161 training, 161, 169 Host government,25 technicalassistance,25 Housing,111, 191 Housingconditions,191 Humanresourcemanagement,31,41, 150 personneladministrativepolicies, 150 I

ICAP. SeeInstitutionalSupport, Cultural Awareness,Adaptability and Flexibility, andPatience model ILO. SeeInternationalLabor Organization Immunizations.See Centerfor Disease Control (CDC) Incomedistribution, 87 InstitutionalSupport,Cultural Awareness,Adaptability and Flexibility, andPatiencemodel, 190-198 India, 147, 168, 176,182 IndianaUniversity, 67 Indonesia,16,94 IndonesianLeather,Footwear,and Allied IndustriesResearch Institute in Yogyakarta,94, 95 Industrialculture,97-98 Institution Building (IB), 64-78 capacity,71

Institution Building (IB) (continued) classicaladministrativereform, 64, 66 exchangevariables,69 opensystems,79, 82 rural development,73-74 socialleamingapproach,72-74 InternationalCenterfor Journalists, 126 Internationaldonoragencies,140, 158, 190,192 Internationaldriver's license,11 InternationalLabor Organization (ILO),93, 103, 152 InternationalMonetaryFund (IMF), 24,54 InternationalPublic Management Association,58 InternationalUniversity Research Programon Institution Building (IRPIB),67 Internet3,10,23,31,113,114, 119-120,128,140,178 cafes,114 e-mail, 140, 178 listserv, 178 Iraq, 127, 147,197 Iraq, Fallujah, 123

J Joint United NationsProgrammeon HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). See UNAIDS Jordan16 Journalists.SeeMedia and Media training K

Kaffa ceremony,136 Kahn, R., 81

INDEX

Katz, D., 81 Kazakhstan,16 Keleta,A,. 136 Kenya, Nairobi, 17 Kim, Y,Y., 44 King, W.E., 38, 39,44 Kingdom of Swaziland.SeeSwaziland Krampe,R.T., 137 Kuwait, 77 Kyrgyz Republic, 16 L

207

LessDevelopedCountries(LDCs) communicationtraining (continued) participants,167 technical,168 trainers,166-178 two way communication,167 culture, 193 healthcareprofessionals,160 hostcountrycommitment,xv, 171 marketingtraining, 192 public healthprofessionals,173 LessDevelopedCountries' governments.SeeLessDeveloped Countries(LDCs) Libraries, 31,117 Linkages,68 diffused,68 functional, 68 organizational,68 Loewy, M.I., 136 Los AngelesTimes, 116 Lysistrata,I44-145

LDCs. SeeLessDevelopedCountries Ladson-Billings,G., 37 Language colloquialisms,168 electronictranslator,39 English,24-25, 34, 39,40, 56,116, 124,168-169 British Commonwealthcountries, 168-169 comprehension, 25 phrases,40 M Englishtranslationdictionaries,34 gestures,170 Malaria, 20 hostcountry, 24,40,41,167, 169, Mali, 18 189, 190, 191 ManagementSystemInternational,103 interpreters,169-170 Marketing, xiv, 90 jargon,56, 124, 168 Seealso Small enterprise in journalism,124 McClelland,David, 103 languagebarriers,41, 86, 131 McWhirter, J.J.,38, 39,44 MedecinssansFrontieres(MSF), 144 translators,40, 169 Media, 124 vocabulary,168 Levers,L.L., 135 racism, 124 LessDevelopedCountries(LDCs), xiv, Media training, 111-128 63,72,74-82,160,166-168,173, Americanjournalists,117 journalists,111 192, 193 brain drain syndrome,77 editors,111 centralizationof authority,78 plagiarism,118 communicationtraining, 166-168 reporters,111, 112 one way communication,167 southernAfrica, 112

208

INDEX

Media training (continued) trainers'supplies,113 Medical students,165 Medicare,7 Mexico, 16-21 Michoacan,18 Michigan StateUniversity, 67 Midwest UniversitiesConsortiumfor InternationalActivities (MUCIA), 67 Microenterprises(ME), 152-156 Microsoft Corporation,30 Monetarypolicies,89 shelterconcept,89 Moore, M.A., 37 Moroccanleatherindustry,98 Fez and Marrakesh,98 Morocco, 101, 105-107,152-153 NGOs, 152 phosphateexport, 101 Morocco, Casablanca,102 Mozambique,Maputo, 17 N

NGOs. Seenon-governmental organizations National ScienceFoundation,138 NATO. SeeNorth AmericanTreaty Organization New York Times, 120, 123 Plagiarism,120 JaysonBlair, 120 Non-governmentalorganizations,xv, 143-158 capacitybuilding, 150 Kappanamur,147 rural areas,148 training evaluations,158 North AmericanTreaty Organization (NATO),115 Nurses,162, 174

o Opendoor policy, 127 Organizationaleffectiveness,81-82 Organizationalenvironment,80-82 ecological-demographic environment, 80 taskenvironment,80 Organizationalinterdependence, 79-81

p Peru,Lima, 146 Pharmaceuticals, 7 Pharmacotherapy, 177 Photographs,15 Physician'sassistant,162 Physicians,165,166,170, 174, 180. U.S. physicians,166 Seealso Training materials Porter,R.E., 37 Poverty, 103, 157 PowerPointpresentation,168, 195 Privatevolunteerorganizations,144, 148,151 Public Administration,32, 67, 75 PurdueUniversity, 67

R Referencebooks, 181 Religion, 16,94, 193 Islam as statereligion, 16 Residentstatus,4 Resources,177, 195 lack of, 177, 195 RockefellerFoundation,66,76 Role playing, 122 Rondinelli, D., 72 Rural development.SeeInstitution Building

INDEX

s SADC. SeeSouthernAfrican DevelopmentCommunity Samover,L.A., 37 Security,xi, 3 Senegal,94, 95, 152 Serbia,Belgrade,115, 116, 117, 119 bomb in Belgrade,115 Siporin, M., 131 SiSwati,24 Small and mediumenterprises(SMEs), 152-154 capitalrequirements,152 entrepreneurs,153 Small Enterprises(SE), xv, 89-93, 108 industrialculture,97-98 light manufacturing,92 marketingresearch,90 safetynets,91 Social,economicandenvironmental behaviors(SEEB), 104 Socialleamingapproach-see InstitutionBuilding Social safetynet, 88 Somalia,Mogadishu,123 SouthAfrica, 131 SouthAfrican editing workshop,125 SouthernAfrican Development Community(SADC), 114 Souvenirs,22 SovietUnion, 49, Ill, 128 Spanish,131, 169. Seealso Language Sri Lanka, 168 Stakeholders,109 Stromquist,N., 36 Swaziland,xiii, 23, 24,50, 51, 53, 54, 56,93, 113, 120 history, 26 language,24 schools,25

209

SwazilandInstituteof Management andPublic Administration,93 Swaziland,Mbabane,28, 31 Switzerland,98 SyracuseUniversity, 67

T Taxis, 10, 19 Taylor, Frederick,65, 75 Tennyson,D.R., 135 Tesch-Romer,C., 137 The Ohio StateUniversity, 67 Tikal archaelogicalsite, 18 Tomich, P., 38, 39, 44 Toseland,R., 131 Trainers age,44,163 attendance,117 communitysupport,131, 190 constructivecriticism, 30 cultural awareness,50, 51, 116, 136, 163, 189, 192 cultural mediators,37 cultural misunderstandings, 50. See also Gender cultural organizers,37 expatriatetrainer, xii, 129-130,136 female, xiii facilitator, 57 group leadershiptrainers,129, 131, 132, 134, 138 hostcountry,29 interpersonalrelations,43, 171 respect,29-30, 56 support,31,190 industrial psychologists,100 mentalhealthcounselors,129, 131 networking,31 organizationalspecialist,100 training of trainers(TOT), 101, 110 training planners,94

210

INDEX

Trainers(continued) Seealso LessDevelopedCountries (LDCs) Training action-learning,29 assignments,46 barriers,93 programsupport,131 weather,182 Seealso Language businesscreation,92 Seealso Businesscreationproject certificateof completion,52 cofacilitators,53, 172, 183 computer,26, 46, 113, 196-197 E-training,196-197 coproduction,53 economicdevelopment,85 entrepreneur,85,90,95,102 Seealso Entrepreneurs "Entrepreneurismin America", 31 expatriate,85, 96, 129, 135, 189 Seealso Expatriate field projects,93 financial support,52-53,54 global, 49, 85 humandevelopment,157 human resource management, 41 initiatives, 52-53,58, 107, 109 labor intensiveprograms,87 libraries, 31,117 location,53, 183 media,local, 55, 57,116 mediatraining. SeeMedia training methodologies,49, 51, 90, 157 participants,179 presentation,26-27 prevocationaltraining, 98 public administration,32 publicity, 52 photographs,55 seminars,24, 28

Training (continued) speakers,52 strategies,23, 50-58,97 syllabus,119 teachingaids, 27 textbooks,118 Seealso Training materials technicalassistance,25, 50, 65 training of trainers(TOT), 101, 110 training needsanalysis,99 Seealso Training needs assessment (TNA) vocationalrecruitment,106 westernadministrativemodel, 77 Training equipment,112-114,130, 183,194 audiovisualequipment,130, 194 electricity, 26, 113, 194 electronic,183 lack of, 112 overheadtransparencies, 27, 183 Training materials,170-171, 173-174,181,192 content,173 graphicarts, 171 physicians'materials,170-174 professionalappearance,171 sponsorlogos, 192 visual aids. SeeVisual aids Training needsassessment (TNA), xv, 157 questionnaires,100 Travel, xi, 183, 185, 192, 195 emergencykit documents,6 healthinsurance,7 medicalevacuation,7 security,xiii, 196 theft, 9-10 traveler'shotline, 7 traveler'schecks,6 work permit, 4

INDEX

Travel arrangements, xi packing,6 pretravel,xi Travel to rural areas,18 Traveler'shotline, 7 Treatyof Versailles,146 Tripartism, 93 Trist, E. L., 81 Tuberculosis,20, 87 Turkmenistan,16

u u.s.Agencyfor International Development(USAID), 54, 67, 73,114 U.S. baseduniversities,65 U.S. Consularofficer, 13, 14 sickness,13 physician,13 U.S. Consulate,12 on-line registration,12 U.S. Departmentof Agriculture's ProjectManagementCenter (USDA-DPMC),72 U.S. Departmentof State(DOS), 4 Swaziland,29 U.S. Embassy,S,6,15-18,21,22,31, 116-118 British,22 CaymanIslands,21 Guatemala,18 photographs,IS U.S. media.Seespecific newspapers U.S. trainers,163 Ukraine,20 UNDP. 137, 138,140 ~AIDS, UNDP. SeeUnited Nations DevelopmentProgramme UNIDO. SeeUnited NationsIndustrial DevelopmentOrganization Unions,93

211

United Kingdom, 197 United Nations,31,144,146,153,158 small enterprisesystems,153 United NationsDepartmentof TechnicalCooperationand Development(UNDTCD), 81 United NationsDevelopment Progranune(UNDP),36,54,158 United NationsEducational,Scientific, andCultural Organization (UNESCO),36 United NationsIndustrial Development Organization(UNIDO), 152 United StatesInformation Service (USIS),31 University of Belgrade,112 University of Botswana,111, 114, 122, 123,195 University of Missouri, 67 University of North Carolina, 67 University of Pittsburgh,67, 68 University of Swaziland,31 Facultyof Commerceand Business, 31 University of Wisconsin-Madison,67 Urwick, L., 65, 75 Utah StateUniversity, 67

v Venezuela,10 Videotape,133 Vietnam, 123 Visa, 3, 4 transitvisa, 15 Visual aids, 170

w Waldo, D., 78 Wall StreetJournal,116 War, 134-135

212

INDEX

Waterston,Albert, 63, 77 Webe~11ax,65, Webe~11ax,65, 76 Weberianmodel, 76 Western11ichiganUniversity Kalamazoo,35, 38, 194 Whitehead,T.L., 37 Williams, D.T., 136 World Bank, 24, 98 World EconomicSummit,Davos, 147 World Health Organization(WHO), 54, 135, 137, 140, 144

World SocialSummit, 147 Brazil, PortoAlegre 2002, 147 India, 11umbai2003,147 World TradeOrganization(WTO), 147 World War II, 103, 146, 147 WTO. SeeWorld TradeOrganization Worldwide Web, 30, 140

y Yugoslavia,115