Traditional Domestic Architecture Of The Arab Region [Hardcover ed.] 3932565304, 9783932565304

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Friedrich Ragette

Traditional Domestic Architecture of the Arab Region

Friedrich Ragette

Traditional Domestic Architecture of the Arab Region

Edition Axel Menges

© 2012 American University of Sharjah /SBN-13: 978-3-932565-30-4 3rd, unrevised edition All rights reseiVed, especially those of translation into other languages.

Reproductions: Friedrich Ragette Printing and binding: Graspo CZ, a. s., Zlin, Czech Republic Design: Friedrich Ragette Layout: Helga Danz Cover: Jidda, drawing by Jan Cejka

Contents

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8 9 12

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65 75

92

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281 292 294

Acknowledgements Preface 1. Introduction Tradition, domestic, architecture, natural and human context, Arab, region 2. The Arab Region Physical determinants: geography, climate, materials. Cultural determinants: history and tradition, socio-economics, values and ideology 3. The origins of architecture Human needs: physical and psychological. Comfort conditions. Macro and micro climates 4. Traditional materials for construction Organic materials: animal and vegetal. Inorganic materials: mud, brick, stone, coral, auxiliary materials 5. Traditional structures Foundations, bearing walls, suspended slabs, posts and beams, cantilevers and corbelling, arches, vaulting 6. Shelter in the Arab Region Informal and formal settlements. Traditional towns: organization, growth, community facilities 7. The planning elements Closed cell, transverse space, colonnade and arcade, porch, veranda and loggia, gallery, iwan, inverted T-arrangement. courtyard, courtyard house, central hall, qa'a, roof, basement 8. Water and waste management Water sources, water mining, water features. Waste management. Human sanitation 9. Traditional design strategies Designing for privacy and segregation of genders, for variable space needs and expansion, for a severe climate, for beauty 10. Exceptions to the rule Mountains of the Maghreb, the Lebanon, building tall, building for defense 11. Case studies Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan/Palestine, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen 12. Western vs Eastern ways Western vs Eastern principles of planning and design. The Western experience: Industrial Revolution, romantic and rational reactions. The Eastern experience: old restrictions, new freedoms. From masterbuilder to professional architect. The challenge of adaptation and integration, a choice of concepts. Can future learn from the past? Rescuing the built heritage 13. Appendix Hassan Fathy. The Aga Khan Program for Architecture. West learns from East. West vs East: comparison of two university designs in the Arab Gulf. Planning recommendations for Jubail and Yanbu, Saudi Arabia Glossary of Arabic terms Bibliography and credits Index

»Tradition ist Weitergabe des Feuers und nicht Anbetung der Asche.« Gustav Mahler »Tradition is to pass on the fire, and not to worship the ashes.« Gustav Mahler

Acknowledgements Above all my thanks go to His Highness Sheikh Dr. Sultan Bin Mohammad Al-Qassimi, Supreme Council Member, Ruler of Sharjah, Founder and President of the American University of Sharjah, who by creating this institution opened the way for my return to academia and the writing of this book. Many others have contributed in significant ways, the most important I shall list in alphabetic order: Jan Cejka, friend and colleague, whose parallel studies inspired me and whose superb draftsmanship graces much of this book; past and present colleagues, whose work I found in the libraries of many countries; Jean Falloux, who shared with me his atelier d'architecture in a village above the Cote d'Azur. His precision photocopier was essential for my work; Roderick French, Chancellor of the American University of Sharjah, who was instrumental in providing a research grant for the preparation of this book; Heinz Gaube, orientalist and arabist at the University of TObingen, being a great source of information and finding the most hidden references; Martin Giesen, Dean of the School of Architecture and Design, American University of Sharjah, who persuaded me to get out of retirement, refresh my lecture notes and give a course in Regional Architecture, thereby precipitating this book; Axel Menges, publisher of beautiful books in the fields of architecture, art and design. He took an immediate interest in the manuscript and made a thrifty offer to turn it into a book; Pierre Ratcliffe, my neighbor in France, without whose computer savvyness and tireless advice I could not have faced the publishing world of the 21st century; the sponsor of this work, a high-minded friend of the University and leading Sharjah citizen, for providing the subsidy needed to publish this book; Hannelore, my wife, last but not least, helping me all along the way with criticism, typing and tolerance for my preoccupation with the book. Friedrich Ragette

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Preface This book is dedicated to the future generations of Arab architects, who will more and more become the sole masters of the architectural evolution in their homelands. As globalized trade and know-how offer them a wealth of possibilities to face the professional challenge of their time, they will also wish to return to their roots and they will discover valuable insights for the correct approach to timeless problems. Balanced community organization, sustainable use of resources and effective environmental response are principal lessons to be learnt. This book has been written in the context of antithesis to the traditional qualities described therein. In a time of such rapid and fundamental change that nobody can tell where it will lead, amidst great hopes and expectations, we find also disorientation, doubt and anxiety. The Arab Region contains many contradictions, but its common culture, sustained by faith and language, a shared environment and history, gives promise for a bright future. May this book contribute to the deeper understanding of a great heritage.

»Time was when architecture was genuine construction, its effects noble because true to causes. The forms were sculpted from materials according to the nature of construction and the life of the time - decorated by indigenous carving and painting. (It was) organic building (which) is natural building: construction proceeding harmoniously from the nature of a planned or organized inside outward to a consistent outside.• Frank Lloyd Wright in Genius and the Mobocracy, 1949

»Every people that has produced architecture has evolved its own favourite forms, as peculiar to that people as its language, its dress, or its folklore. Until the collapse of cultural frontiers in the last century, there were all over the world distinctive local shapes and details in architecture, and the buildings of any locality were the beautiful children of a happy marriage between the imagination of the people and the demands of the countryside.• Hassan Fathy, 1973

8

1. Introduction To begin with, we should explain the title of this book.

Tradition Deriving from the Latin word tradire, or passing on - still used in the English word trading it means the passing-on of knowledge, from generation to generation, within the family and community, by example and the word of mouth, or by apprenticeship from master to disciple. It is based upon age-old practical experience, even elements of superstition, and conserved by isolation, which only recently was arrested by the force of globalization. Other labels used are native, indigenous or vernacular, meaning •home born• or •derived from the locality•. These refer to the principal roots of tradition, but exclude the evolutionary way of doing things by absorbing external influences over a length of time. In Europe the Age of Enlightenment challenged traditions by the scientific approach, culminating in our present-day system of research, testing, qualifying, quantifying, and continuous change. The result is an exaggerated reliance upon technology, mostly in the name of innovation and modernity. Along the way, much valuable knowledge on the traditional level was forgotten or put aside. Only recently, with the apparent loss of local traditions causing alarm, a renewed interest in traditional knowledge from a wide range of fields is on the rise. This book is part of that movement.

Domestic

The term domestic restricts the study to the accommodation of people, commonly called housing. Being one of the most basic needs of humanity, it reflects the aspirations and capabilities of a population. The homes of people mirror the values and economic conditions of a time better than palaces or places of worship. Buildings not directly related to housing have been excluded from the study.

Architecture

Meaning the ·Mastery of Tectonics•, or the Art of Building, architecture is the combination of construction and design. As the Roman writer Vitruvius stated, a work of architecture should offer commodity, firmness and delight. In simple terms this means, the plan should serve the building's purpose, construction should be sound and lasting, and we should delight in its appearance - it should be beautiful. Those are the requirements pertaining to any individual building, but architecture as a whole is subject to more profound infiuences. Architecture originates from man's need for permanent shelter. The temporary shelter of a tent will not result in architecture. Therefore, architecture starts with the settlement of man. The creation of shelter is our response to the environment and the context of our existence, which consists of a complex set of components.

The natural context - Location: Is the site accessible or isolated? Is it flat or hilly? - Climate: Is it predominantly hot and dry, or wet and cool? - Materials: Are earth, stone or timber readily available? These physical determinants are interdependent. in the pre-industrial world they constituted the constraints bearing upon architecture. They were so strong, that the builders could not possibly build in disharmony with their natural environment.

9

The human context The moment our ancestors settled and lived in permanent communities, they created three sets of human factors that started to influence architecture: Tradition - History: in isolated communities we may expect to find conservative traditions, while in settlements open to external influences more progressive attitudes will prevail. Socio - Economy: deriving from associated factors and particular local conditions, the society may be static or changing, poor or rich. Values - Ideology: depending on circumstances, society's values will be conservative, liberal or progressive. This will express itself in political and religious structures.

CONTEXT

)

human LOCATION

TRADITION - HISTORY

flat- hilly remote - accessible

isolated - influenced conservative - progressive

CLIMATE

SOCIO - ECONOMY

warm -cool dry-wet

static - changing poor- rich

MATERIALS

VALUES - IDEOLOGY

earth, stone, timber ..

dictatorial - liberal

C

ARCHITECTURE)

All the above factors manifest themselves in one way or another in any valid work of architecture. As the needs of each community and the approach towards satisfying them vary, architecture will evolve differently. It is the architect's task to respect and weigh all these factors in the search of a solution. In this way the architect is one of the few generalists in a time of ever increasing specialization. Location, climate and history cannot be changed, but material limitations have been eliminated in today's global market. Thi'lre is no better example than the Arab Gulf countries for drastic change in the economic situation, and the profound effect it has on society's values and ideology. No wonder, it is also reflected in the Gulf architecture of today.

Arab This is not the place to discuss the question of who qualifies as Arab or not. Let us agree that the active use of Arabic language and script shall circumscribe the quality Arab.

Region Since the excesses of nationalism and colonialism not long ago, a new interest in regionalism has set in. While nationalism was intent on centralized rule over whatever territory could be acquired by political or military means and while colonialism generally was ignorant of indige-

10

nous structures and dependencies, both carved up the world in spheres of influence. More often than not they imposed borders and divisions that violated existing natural and human interrelationships. In contrast, regionalism thinks in terms of natural entities, in geographic units which may not be fully homogeneous, but in which the various parts complement each other to create a harmonious interdependency. In the process of Europe's unification we witness a constant decrease in the impact of national boundaries and a slow emergence of new prospering regions. Thus a region may be defined as a broad geographical area of sufficient natural and cultural homogeneity to distinguish it from another. In chapter two we shall review the natural and human elements of context in detail and will discover that they perfectly define the Arab Region. In the following chapters we shall see how a common context generated an architecture with deep regional roots, being sustained by the accumulating wisdom of tradition. Chapter ten shows that even under circumstances which forced departures from the general pattern of architecture, certain common elements were preserved. Numerous case studies are given in chapter eleven, to demonstrate the architectural unity from the Atlantic to the Gulf, and to serve as a reminder of sound practices to build in harmony with a given context. Chapter twelve addresses the impact of western planning, design and technology on the recent evolution of architecture in the Arab Region and raises the question of how much regionalism is possible or appropriate under the auspices of globalization.

11

2. The Arab Region Physical determinants of the Arab Region Geography Practically all of the Arab Region lies between 15 degrees and 35 degrees latitude, encompassing the largest continuous desert zone in the world. People are concentrated in towns or oases. Low general population densities therefore do not mean low settlement densities. Of today's Arab states none is landlocked, even Jordan and Iraq have a seaport. Most of them have extensive coastlines, along the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the Arab Gulf or the Indian Ocean. Frequently, mountain ranges follow the coast, leaving coastal plains of limited width. The coastal mountains from time to time catch some rain which quickly gathers in sudden torrents, creating vast riverbeds (wadis) towards the sea. Only recently, most of this water is being retained by dams to replenish the coastal water table. Where there is no mountain barrier, the interior quickly turns into desert, for lack of internal water sources. The two exceptions to this pattern are Egypt and Iraq, those cradles of ancient civilization, which are the gifts of the river Nile and the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. These rivers originate outside the Arab Region, their abundance and regularity in water supply, together with a highly developed irrigation system, enable intensive farming, which till today supports large populations. But even these favored countries have large proportions of mostly worthless desert. Many important Arab cities, such as Casablanca, Algiers, Tunis, Beirut, Jidda, Kuwait, Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Muscat are coastal towns, benefiting from maritime trade. Others, like Fez, Kairouan, Cairo, Amman, Damascus, Baghdad, Riyadh or Sana'a were caravan based and

The Arab Region

12

enjoy a drier inland or high altitude climate. Generally, the contrast between coastal and inland dwellers manifests itself in different attitudes, the former being more open to external influences than the latter. Outside of cities or oasis the harsh climate makes permanent settlement impossible. In the desert's vastness independent nomadic tribes are constantly on the move, in order to sustain their herds and themselves. Geographically, we can conclude, there is a great normative similarity. The desert with its feeling of solitude is never far away, neither is the sea, and the awareness of a larger world.

Climate [72] The two principal determinants of climate are hours of sunshine and amount of precipitation. Let us look at the map of the Arab Region. Annual hours of sunshine and mean monthly temperatures Practically the whole region falls into the zone of more than 3000 hrs of sunshine per year (the possible maximum being about 4000 hrs). Below 2000 hrs per year people perceive a deficit in sunshine - hence an ever growing tourist movement to sun-rich regions such as North Africa and the Gulf countries. But above 3000 hrs the sun turns from friend into enemy and it is no surprise that people in sun parched lands and particularly herdsmen rather worshipped the moon. Excessive hours of sunshine create heat and as a result much of the Arab Region endures the highest summer temperatures in the world. Except in high altitudes, such as the Atlas Range (up to 4165 m), Yemen (3760 m), Saudi Arabia (3133 m), Lebanon (3083 m) or Oman (3005 m), freezing temperatures never occur. However, depending upon the immediate surrounding, temperature change between day and night can be considerable. There are exceptional situations in the Atlas Range of Morocco or the Lebanon Range, which receive regularly large amounts of snow. But early in spring most of it will have melted and a climate, typical of the whole region, will reign.

Annual and seasonal precipitation Annual precipitation is the sum total of rain, fog, dew, hail or snow reaching the ground on average per year, expressed in mm of liquid water equivalent. Next to sun, water is the basic ingredient for life on earth. Generally, areas receiving less than 250 mm water per year are called arid, that means, not suited for agriculture. Most of the Arab Region falls into this category, and those small areas which show 500 mm or more, receive this precipitation during a

Hours of sunshine per year

13

few winter months with long periods of draught between. As we said, the desert is never far away! Again, the big exceptions are Egypt and Iraq which are favoured by the great rivers; however, these produce not much more than a narrow, but long and fertile strip in the desert. 50% of Syria, 70% of Iraq, 97% of Egypt and 99% of Saudi Arabia and the Gulf countries are waterless sand and rock, unless artificially irrigated.

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Records of annual temperature and precipitation in towns of the Arab Region [72]. - Monthly temperature bars indicate the mean range of maxima and minima temperature. Since the whole Region enjoys a stable climate without major temperature fluctuations, the length of the bars generally indicates daily day-night temperature change. It is big in continental and small in maritime locations. - Monthly precipitation bars indicate mean values of liquid water equivalents in mm. - Mean annual precipitation is given in the middle of each diagram. As comparative example Marseilles with a moderate Mediterranean climate was chosen.

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highest recorded temperatures ...... .., ....... being only just over 40°C I100°F). Inland, summers are hot and dry ·-· - •• ·20 with bright sunshine. but near the -·- I ' • ... --~' . coast low cloud and fog are not .P!'r:i:i(li!i!M!ll .. infrequent. In winter the prevailing .•:ll"!"!lt7J11 10 winds are westerly, bringing rain from the Atlantic and often heavy snow over the High Atlas Mountains of the interior. Frosts have been recorded at Casablanca. 40

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inftuences of the Mediterranean Sea but is sheltered from the Sahara to the south by the high Atlas Mountains. The temperature range. both annual and diurnal, 0 is remarkably smaJI: annual 13"C 123°F1; diurnal 6"'C I11"FJ. Frosts have not been recorded. Rainfall has a winter maximum typical 10 of the Mecfiterranean region. with amounts varying greatly from year to year. The mountains to the south are often snow-covered ~ ·in winter.

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East of the Mediterranean Sea the annual rainfall decreases inland and the length of the summer dry season increases to more than five months. At over 700 m 12.250 ftJ, Jerusalem has lower temperatures and a greater range than the coastal regions of Israel. Tothesouth, 12 rainfall decreases rapidly to only 11'1 70 mm (2.5 inl in the rocky desert around the Dead Sea. There is an average daily sunshine total of over 9 hours, ranging from ~ 6-12 hours.

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Damascus is isolated from the maritime influence of the Mediterranean by the Lebanon Mountains. Rainfall, confined to winter. is less than on the coast and more variable. The Syrian winter becomes colder further to the east. and frost and snow are not uncommon. Frosts can occur at Damascus between November and March. On the higher mountains, patches of snow persist throughout the year. Summers are very hot and dry with a large diurnal range of temperature of up to 20"C l36"F].

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Being local;.i on lh• Arabian Gulf, Dubai has a maritime c:&nale. But tt Is open iowanls Iha southern desert and benefits from Iha c:hanglng alr1low between sea and land. The night breeze from the desert reduces humidity and daytime bn:ezo from Iha sea brings Alie! from peak temperabJres. Hence Iha lradi1lonal use of wlndoalche$ In towns on Iha Gulf. In aA Iha Emirates temperalunls are VOf"f high from mld-Aprl Iii early November and &trong winds cany . desert sand wllh lhem. The re

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2. Sana'a, tower house 1 [41] A narrow 7.5x11 m tower economizes space by eliminating a central hall. Three rooms plus toilet are reached directly from the stairway. The elevation shows a fine hierarchy of windows, expressing the relative importance of the rooms. Scale 1:250

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3. Sana'a, house Qadi [41 ]* The rooms in this house are either reached via a hall or through children's rooms. The third floor kitchen is attached to the stairwell and equipped with a hood. The rooftop mafraj dominates the design. Scale 1:250

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4. Sana'a, tower house 2 [102]' Every level of this building has a central hall distributing tg Jbree rooms and a toil~t.j!l_terme,Jjgte stairway_ · - spaces are used for storage. The two top ftoors have a mafraj and a manzar with large terraces. Stone is used up to 9 m, the remaining part is built with brick. Scale 1:400

Roof blind windows, machiculls

4th Floor few large windows, colored top lights, vents

3rd Floor many small windows, alabaster top llghts

2nd Floor few screened windows, ornamental top lights

1st Floor few small windows

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Hierarchy of windows

5. Sana'a, tower house 3 [41)* The lower part of this house is tied to neighboring buildings, restricting placement of windows. Alarge doublevolume entry (dihliz) gives to a narrow stairway. Only two living rooms per floor have independent access, the center being occupied by halls. The upper floors are only partly built up, giving rise to patios and terraces. The staggered section is taken through the service shafts, one down to the cesspit, another to the well. Scale 1:400

Ornamental plaster patterns

Yemen 233

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6. Shibam, house Alwi Bin Sumayt [20] The ground and first floor of this six-level house are reserved for storage (maysamah). It is said the occupants could survive one year of siege, as long as wate was available. The courtyard is for cattle. The second floor contains a 15 sq.m men's reception space (mahdarah) and guest rooms. The third and fourth floors an family quarters with women's mahdarah. The top floori are the most attractive due to their openness and terraces. They are used by the whole family. Floor-to-floor heights are about 2.7 m, living rooms ha• large screened windows with sitting height niches and ventilation openings under the ceiling. Multlfloor construction demands a rational structural system, which leads to regular window grids. · Scale 1:400

Courtyard houses in the lowlands (Tihama)

7. •Red Sea• House [71] Courtyard houses reappear as typical lowland dwellings, with the African habit of using raised rooms with axial stairs and side windows. There is little room for segregation on this 200 sq.m plot. Scale 1:400

8. Damar, house [102]• Three level house with services on the ground floor, reception and patio on the first floor and a second floor court with manzar. Many high openings for cross-ventilation. Scale 1:400

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9. Hais, house [41] Courtyard house with two indirect entrances. Next to the main entry is the water place, grand mother's room with veranda and the stair to the men's quarters on the first floor. Centered on the court are three raised rooms, the reception room facing north. Scale 1:250

Yemen 235

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10. Sabid, house [41] This highly ornamented, sculptural house has three courtyards. Next to the main entry is a door to the granary and the stairway to the men's quarters above. At the opposite side is a door to the service yard and a large qat storage. A small private court is reserved for the mother of the-family head .. lmportant-rooms are raised with few steps to the door in the middle. There are three separate toilet units, reflecting the importance given to users' convenience in the design of this house. Scale 1:250

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This house is a case of extreme multi-level juxtaposition of spaces as shewn by the two sections and the axonometric view. The split-level design of less than 10 m height has eighteen different floor or roof levels! To help visualization the rooms have been named and a set of sketches included. Scale 1:250

Yemen 237

13. al-Khawa, house [102) A frontyard leads to this mountainside terrace house with a freestanding corner tower. Cave-like rooms carved from the hill and receiving light through roof openings contain kitchen, family rooms and stable. The tower serves as granary and men's quarters. Scale: 1:400

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12. Saada, house [41) This family tower built of rammed earth has a 5.5 m square plan. One quarter is occupied by the stairway along which are attached at different landings toilet, family room, children's room, kitchen, majlis and roof terrace. The ground floor contains entrance, stable, storage and cesspit. The main elevation displays the hierarchy of spaces and the tectonic beauty of weight decreasing with height._ _ Scale: 1:400

238 Yemen

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12. Western vs Eastern ways A question of environmental determinism?

Hut in wet climate

0 Detached blockhouses: longitudinal spaces loosely grouped

The Megaron: porch and hall with columns, fire guarded under the roof, pedimented elevation

When we talk in broad terms of Western versus Eastern ways we mean essentially the difference between investigative and contemplative attitudes. These can be traced to ancient environmental conditions, which prepared the ground for a certain frame of mind. The early eastern river valley civilizations were thriving on community organization. Elaborate irrigation systems needed central planning and communal maintenance. Unless living on the fringes of civilization, the individual was part of a structured society and formidable hierarchies ruled seemingly everlasting empires. Yearly life cycles were predictable, and if once in a while a flood or a draught occurred, it was seen as a punishment by the Gods. A large slave class eliminated the incentive to invent new implements, or to change production methods. Imagine the world perception of an Egyptian towards the end of the New Empire: for two-thousand years nothing had changed, dynasties had come and gone, the Nile brought regular floods, every day the sun rose on a brilliant sky; how not to be convinced of the immortality of Ka and the need to concentrate on life after death? Contemplation was called for. Contrast to this the life of man in the northern reaches. A habitat had to be carved out of dense growth, along a stream, near a lake. Communication was difficult, because settlements were isolated. A family could exist on its own only if it planned ahead, because seasons changed rapidly and sometimes unpredictably. There was little time to worry about life after death, the problems of the day had to be solved. Nobody would survive a winter without provisions of food and fuel, there was no society to tie in; survival of the fittest was the rule. ·when the Achaeans moved southward to settle under the more favorable conditions of the eastern Mediterranean, they little by little adopted more easy-going ways, but Greece did not lend itself to empire building, it remained a number of competing city states and people kept their inquisitive and independent minds: they found time to think and their contact with ancient civilizations made them aware of the world at large. Eventually, the great thinkers of ancient Greece asked uninhibited questions and gave revolutionary answers as no people before. Most of this remained on the theoretical level and it were the Romans, of similar background, who put theory into practice. With the interruption of the Dark Ages - which luckily were bridged for the West by the flourishing Arabs - this mentality has sparked the Renaissance, the Age of Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution and, after devastating wars, hopefully will take us to a peaceful global community. The western investigative spirit brought us incredible achievements in science and technology, which keep changing the world swiftly and profoundly. Nobody knows where it will lead us, as the discrepancies between •haves« and •have nots« are increasing all the time on a local as well as global level. However, men's eternal question regarding the purpose of life demands reflection and remains a question of faith. No wonder, all great revelations of faith have originated in the contemplative East. It sees the world mirrored in human nature, which has not changed at all through the ages, despite all material progress. Western world-centeredness seems foolish to the eastern mind, which prefers to prepare for a better afterlife. Indeed, many aspects of western progress are questionable or downright destructive. The depletion of resources continues, not the least because new advances in science, technology and economic management regularly invalidate doomsday prognostics.

Western vs Eastern principles of planning and design

Roots and evolution What commonly is referred to as •Western« pertains to traditions and methods developed in the moderate climate zones of Europe. Climate barriers such as the Pyrenees, the Alps and the mountains across the Balkans are a dividing line, creating even in Europe a north-south contrast. which is somewhat similar to the broader West-East variant. Eastern in our case means also southern and includes the Arab Region. To understand the principal differences in Eastern and Western approaches to planning and design we apply the same criteria as used in defining the determinants of the Arab Region. First of all, we shall extend the climate study to include Europe. Immediately we see the critical sunshine line of 2200 hrs/year right on top of the climate barrier. North of it. people 239

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Limit of Roman Empire

experience a deficiency of sunshine. Building design will focus on catching as much sun as possible, instead of protecting against it. We also see that precipitation is everywhere well above arid conditions, ensuring abundant growth and a good supply of timber. Rain is not a precious commodity, but rather an unpleasant element, necessitating water shedding roofs and good drainage. To settle down, the all-covering forest had to be cleared, and the timber was best used for construction. The simplest shelter was a conical pile of timbers, covered with branches and hides, shedding rain and snow efficiently. The tipee of the Red Indians or the yurte of the north Asian people follow this principle. The next step was blockhouse 'construction. Tree-trunks are piled on top of each other to form a solid wall; door and windows are simply cut out. A saddle roof is easily built across and early forms of trusses allow a fairly large span. Along the large eaves rain is shed well away from the walls and left to drain. The single entrance is centered on the narrow side, under the projecting gable, which protects from rain. Thus a strong longitudinal axiality is introduced, accelerating progression towards the rear. There the all-important fire is kept alive, the smoke escaping below the gable top. Again we have a single, closed cell, very similar to the eastern one, but it is longitudinally approached and it cannot be agglutinated, because rainwater has to be shed. This is, why the detached house principle dominates western planning, each with four elevations, each an individuality, placing importance upon external appearance. And how about a courtyard? Well, the courtyard was the clearing around the house, the forestfumishing_a dense wall,_which might be_reinforced by_palisades andJhe like. It was always green and humid, anytime subject to a downpour. If additional rooms were needed, for extended family or for stores and stables, additional independent units were built, giving rise to a hamlet. It was necessary to have windows to let in the sun, but it was also pleasant to

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~ The 'Fertile Crescent Eastern and Western climate zones: The humid-cool region ( > 500 mm precipitation per year; < 2200 hrs sunshine per year) versus the arid-hot territory (< 250 mm precipitation per year; > 3000 hrs sunshine per year)

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Troy, 3000 BC

look out to the green landscape. Hence, an extroverted attitude took root, in contrast to the introvert disposition of the Arabs. The Achaeans, who moved into the Mediterranean basin from the north, carried with them the tradition of the detached longitudinal cell. It had become the megaron, a longitudinal space with four pillars inside and a two-pillared porch in front. While adapting to the different environmental conditions of the Mediterranean, they slowly turned to southern models of habitation, such as the atrium house. But nowhere are traditions better preserved than in religious buildings. The notion being that God is a sort of super-human, a super-house was built for the deity. This way the megaron became the prototype of the Greek temple. The Greek temple is extrovert architecture at its best. Built on a commanding site it opens to all sides in equal splendor - the front or the back cannot be distinguished. Groups of important buildings are loosely arranged, each vying for attention, the ensemble being buildings in space a basic western principle. The Doric order proves the timber origin of Greek temple construction and their northern ancestry. It emphasizes tectonics, the meaning of structure; a matter, which never interested the Arabs. The analytical attitude of the Greeks manifests itself in their quest for honesty by clear expression of structural relationships. Western architecture is characterized by this rationality, stated in the creed •form follows function«. Terminal phases of styles, when structural logic was deliberately disregarded in favor of other effects, did never last long. The Arabs, on the other hand, had no time to develop thorough structural understanding. They were more interested in internal space quality and surface decoration. The Romans became rulers of a vast empire and masters of architectural combination. Their favorite theme was the •grand axis«, a straightforward organization of elements as befitting an eminently military mind. Town plans were standardized; temples were put on a podium with one access from the front, most likely terminating a grand axis. Houses were having several yards, usually in longitudinal succession. The irregular old Forum Romanum was challenged by perfectly symmetrical Imperial Fora, containing veritable city centers for huge crowds. The mindset of the Romans was similar to the Greek one, but more western in its emphasis on practicality - the Romans turned most scientific theory defined by the Greeks into practical technology.

The Greek temple

The Acropolis of Athens; buildings freely placed in space

Greek column and beam construction

Post and lintel construction

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House of the Faun, Pompeii, 2nd c. BC. Key: 1, 2 atrium, 3 courtyard, 4 garden.

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Forum of Trajan, Rome 2nd c. Succession of gate, forum, basilica (transverse hall), library with courtyard and Trajan's column, temple precinct.

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But they were also subjected to eastern influences as their empire reached its eastern limits, encompassing most of today's Arab World. The transverse space of the Roman basilica, large peristylar courtyards, successions of gateways, they follow eastern concepts of approach and enclosure. Oriental architects were building in Rome, such as Apollodorus of Damascus for Emperor Trajan. A typical case of orientalization is the Temple of Jupiter in Baalbek. A massive tower of eastern fashion was built in the Great Court and Emperor Philip the Arab - himself from Syria - added a unique hexagonal court, with a duplicate gateway. Or the Temple of Baal in Palmyra, being used as a transverse space! Protected by the Pax Romana well-to-do Romans built individual villas outside of crowded towns. The Renaissance revived and further formalized the model with emphasis on appearance, where the arrangement of rooms follows the dictate of regular distribution of windows, the law of symmetry and appropriate over-all proportions. Stairs become design elements in their own right, strings of rooms of fixed functions eliminate flexibility and spontaneity. Having become the western bourgeois' ideal of habitation it is being copied by Arab builders everywhere. The medieval European city was as densely packed as its eastern counterpart, due to limited space within the ring of fortification. But this led to rows of narrow and deep plots, with distinct fa9ades of longitudinal houses facing the street, and gardens tucked behind them. Multi-floor construction enhanced the importance of building elevations. Although certain common rules were imposed, individualism was a must. Actually, the whole evolution of western architecture could be studied on changing fac;:ade design of town houses. The rule of

Temple of Jupiter, Baalbek. Succession of propylaea, hexagonal court, second gate, great court with observation tower and altar, temple proper.

242

Temple of Baal, Palmyra, 3rd c.

Peristylar temple with side entrance (transverse space).

axis, symmetry, applied orders and ornaments in ever changing patterns prevailed at all times. Never a wall was taken as a neutral element, through which holes were punched as required on the inside. Since Roman times there was a great tradition of road connections in Europe. The fairly dense spread of towns supported a trading network based upon horse or oxen drawn carriages. Two-way carriage traffic, the emphasis on fa9ades and the memory of the regular Roman castrum brought about fairly wide and straight city streets, connecting the various city gates via the town square with church and town hall. No wonder, the motor car was invented in the West, with all its consequences. In comparison, the Arab town up to the end of the 19th century, was a maze of narrow, crooked streets and dead-end alleys, serving distinct quarters and linked to some principal and secondary squares with public facilities. Goods were moved on the backs of donkeys or camels, or by porters. Inter-city traffic was carried out by caravan, giving rise to the caravanserai or khan. Roads were the exception. While under half-a-millennium of Ottoman rule the Arab Region subsided into stagnation, the western world passed through successive stages of evolution. There was political revolution, and more important, the scientific and industrial revolution, combining the ancient Greek quest for research and investigation with the Roman genius for application. In the space of 200 years it brought about changes to western society which people of the Arab Region have to absorb in a few generations. Let us review the western experience and compare it with the eastern, in order to appreciate the current impact, dislocation and problems facing the Arab Region. Cairo, Egypt, 19th c. and Culemborg, Holland, 17th c.

243

The Western experience Industrial Revolution At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, England's economy was based upon the resources of coal, ironore and power. Coal was needed for iron production as well as for fueling the steam engine, which itself was made of steel. Add to this the ingenuity of mechanical engineers, who invented ever new machinery to produce goods, and the revolution was on its way. The effects were the following: - concentration of industry near the available raw material; - migration of the population to new production centers; - unchecked growth of cities as centers of commerce, training and administration; - Loss of the social equilibrium by creating a largely poor industrial laborers' population, as well as an increasingly rich class of entrepreneurs; - lack of human scale in cities as mass transportation takes over; - the individual is reduced to an anonymous member of mass society; - pollution in the forms of noise, fumes and poor sanitary conditions; - everyday goods and utensils are now more cheaply produced with the aid of machines, but are generally crude and devoid of the quality of well crafted manual products.

Romantic reaction The initial reaction to the negative effects of industrialization was a return to the past. The rejection of machines in favor of manual production - particularly in the field of furnishings (Arts and Crafts movement), and a return to suburban communities of limited size (Garden City movement) represent a romantic turning back of the clock, which only a privileged minority could afford.

Rational reaction Soon after, more optimistic observers held that modern technology and administration would be capable of overcoming the drawbacks of industrialization. Their rational approach resulted in new theories of city planning, aiming at the separation of functions such as housing, industrial production, business and administration, or leisure and recreation. Communication would be ensured by highly efficient transport systems, such as subways within cities, inter-urban highways, and fast train or air services. Adopting high rise buildings, famous architects like Le Corbusier, proposed »radiant cities•, apartment-blocks like »machines for living«, and in the process hoped to reform the whole of society. During Europe's reconstruction after World War II, the traffic engineer was the head of most planning teams. Cars became more important than people! Even cities, which had not been touched by the war, changed beyond recognition (Jorg Muller's sequence of a Swiss city's transformation). Physical convenience was over-emphasized at the expense of psychological needs. Eventually, it turned ·out that more and bigger roads only attracted increased traffic, that extreme segregation of functions rendered cities and production centers lifeless after work, and that all that traffic and communication was very wasteful.

The Eastern experience If we compare the western experience since 1800 with the eastern evolution of the past fifty to hundred years (depending on the locality). striking similarities will be observed. But let us start from the beginning.

The olcl_Je§tric;tions Communities used to be organized according to the proximity of a water source, the need to share limited resources and for protection from heat, dust and attacks. This necessitated the

244

crowding behind a common fortification wall, and within the wall the formation of clan or ethnic quarters to enhance mutual support. Chapter 6 discussed the resulting urban setting in detail. An aerial view of a traditional Arab town clearly shows a tight social fabric, One wonders, how every house, every family could satisfy its daily needs. This was a service-intensive community, with a constant flow of hawkers, water carriers, fruit sellers and garbage collectors - the famous kaleidoscope of oriental life.

The new freedoms

The new villa concept: five bedroom villa in Kasab, Musandam, Oman Siting: Single floor house of ca. 180 sq.m sits on plot 14 x 24 m = 330 sq.m, with 1.6 m side setbacks, 4 m front and 3 m rear setback. Front setback too small to accommodate car, although large gate. Side spaces useless. Attempted planting failed. All AC-units discharge to· side space. Elevation: Front elevation is strictly symmetrical, with central entrance. Floor is raised for effect and control of sand. Front windows are elaborately framed, roof parapet has balusters over windows. However, front elevation is hidden behind 2.20 m high property wall. Floor plan: Recessed entrance porch is defined by pointed arch on columns. One space unit can be entered from the porch majlis. Central living/dining space has aspect of a covered courtyard and receives light from stairwell to roof. It is surrounded by four living/bedroom units. There are three bathrooms. The kitchen is placed in the left-hand rear corner, with external covered yard and entrance. When the house was adapted as tourist accommodation, each room was furnished with two beds and cabinets. The external kitchen entrance was abandoned in favor of direct access from the central space. The roof shows provision for vertical expansion (tie bars from columns) and Is littered with vent pipes, water tanks etc. It cannot be used for living in the cool period.

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Westernization of the Arab Region was for a long time limited to a few cities, usually the headquarters of a colonial power. In terms of architecture it generated government buildings in colonial style, some schools for expatriates and the local upper class, perhaps a hospital. More important was the introduction of railways and the improvement of roads. Modern infrastructure for the average person was costly and time consuming to create. Development was slow and colonial rule generally took more than it gave. A very different situation arose in those parts of the Arab Region where petroleum was found. In the beginning only some well placed locals benefited from the new source of wealth, by selling licenses and providing protection. War and political upheaval slowed the evolution down, but exploration continued and revealed enormous deposits of the liquid gold. With the end of World War II an unprecedented economic change swept over the oil rich countries. All concerned economies went through similar stages at various speeds, but nowhere was the change more profound and sudden than in the Gulf Region. It is a most fascinating turn of events that people, who lived under most restricted conditions in an extreme climate, should find themselves possessing the most important energy source of their time. In the space of a couple of decades one of the poorest corners of the world has been transformed into the richest, in terms of per capita income. Situated along an international ocean, export and import of mass goods is not a problem. The know-how and the technology of the whole world have become available over night. Modern technology rapidly removes the old restrictions: - Petroleum and natural gas provide seemingly limitless energy. - For seaside communities abundant water can be produced by desalination. - Energy in the form of electricity can be applied everywhere. - The adoption of the car, a rapidly expanding road system and general security, remove settlement restrictions. - This leads to individualism and decentralization of activities. - International media promote a foreign lifestyle: in architecture the western »Villa• concept is adopted - already introduced during colonial times. - Traffic engineering dominates the planning of new communities, building codes adopt western rules of setbacks and co-efficients of construction. - Global trade eliminates all restrictions of construction materials and techniques. - Climate control through air-conditioning and the use of high-tech materials allows the construction of high-rise buildings and renders shading seemingly obsolete. - The courtyard scheme is abandoned in favor of the »Villa• concept. - Fai;:ades are becoming all-important - extroversion is taking hold.

245

From masterbuilder to professional architect

Under marginal economic conditions or in tribal societies, construction is done on a self-help basis, following established ways. Some people will exhibit special skills and interests in the construction process, their talents will soon be in demand elsewhere, eventually a master builder may be born. With every year of work the master builder will expand his knowledge, he will obtain the help of apprentices and pass on his experience to them. As building tasks become more complex, specialized trades develop, for masonry, carpentry, ironwork, roofing; each having masters and apprentices. Then one master-in-chief will direct the whole project. Unless there is an interruption through invasion and destruction - as happened at the end of West Rome, the accumulated experience of generations of builders will be passed on by example and word of mouth. Once in a while an encyclopedic mind collects the knowledge of the time in a treatise (Vitruvius, Palladio). More often, such knowledge is considered secret; builders organize in guilds and try to keep their achievements to themselves. Projects, such as a Gothic cathedral, which would consume the efforts of several generations, are in the hands of special project related guilds, who continue the work with adaptations to changing styles and requirements - the final result being the product of an anonymous group of builders. The Renaissance introduces the architect as the individual mastermind. An example may illustrate this fundamental change. The community of Florence had begun a vast Gothic cathedral based upon the dimensions of the Basilica of Maxentius and the Pantheon in Rome. When in 1365 the walls of the transept are up, they face an octagonal space, 42 m across and nearly 60 m above ground. Nobody knows how to build a dome over this. Florence became the mockery of Italy until the city fathers decide something unheard of: they organize an international competition for the completion of the works, requesting a description, plans and a model. Brunelleschi, a well-known artist and architect of the town, gets the first price. The commission says »thank you, our dome guild will proceed accordingly«; but Bruneschelli says »Nol Either I shall be in charge of my project or it will not be done.« There was a lengthy tug of war, but Bruneschelli prevailes as the mastermind and sole author of the work. From here we can follow the architect's evolution from creator to dictator and technocrat. In schools and from books we learn about famous architects, their achievements in producing works of art, the monuments of their time, but we rarely find an honest assessment of the long-term usefulness, or the material quality of their buildings. The Aga Khan Foundation makes a laudable exception, in giving rewards to buildings only after they have been in use for at least five years and the users' opinion is taken into account. Because architecture is not just an art, it also has to serve a purpose. Very famous buildings had severe shortcomings - such as the Johnson Wax buildings by Frank Lloyd Wright - and it were the users who found out. Finally, if the professional architect becomes an accomplice of purely capitalist enterprise he may even be in its direct employment - or, if he becomes a government official who blindly executes political directives »for the common good«, as we saw in communist mass housing,. the results can be disastrous. In the Arab Region the building elements were common knowledge. The muhandis (the geometrician who plans and lays out) or the mimar (the builder who builds) would make an agreement with the client, to define a project, consisting of such and such rooms, of common sizes and familiar arrangement. A building to blend into the context was assured. Life went at a slow pace, unless a project was commissioned by an ambitious ruler, time was not of the essence. Above all, buildings were built in cooperation with the user; the builder knew exactly what was wanted. There was room for spontaneity of construction, things could be decided on the spot, craftsmen could use their individual judgement, apply their fantasy. Thus anonymous architecture does not so much express the decision of one individual but reflects a general order of life, including the religious and social concepts. Contrast this with today's situation. The architect predetermines every detail; an elaborate set of contract documents ties the contractor/builder to minute specifications, any deviation requires a variation order. The private home still receives the most personal input, but clients' preferences are often derived from western models, with emphasis on exterior appearance. More complex buildings require the input of specialists (industry, transport, health, education etc. and cannot follow traditional concepts). Very often investors build buildings with the sole aim of making money. They are designedfor unknown-users and the-principal question is: --what will most successfully sell? Thus architecture can no more grow organically. Even under the worst circumstances, a good architect will do better than a mediocre one, but architecture is an expression of the physical and cultural circumstances of its creation. 246

This includes the input of community and government. It expresses itself in planning standards and building codes. These should follow thoroughly researched principles, including local traditions. In the rush of development exactly this was lacking in most of the Arab Region. There were neither time nor vision to put solid regional and town planning standards in place, and all too often when restrictions were formulated, the power and the will to enforce them was missing. Generally, foreign firms produce 5 or 10-year development plans, but they usually lack the necessary follow-up, because it is difficult to create independent and effective local planning boards. Finally, it may be a matter of taste and personal preference, if we want to live in a quiet, harmonious community along traditional lines, or in an exciting city, full of contradictions, surprises and opportunities. Those city people who have romantic second homes in a remote countryside (and to whom we owe a lot in preserving our rural heritage) may dream of living out there all year round, but if they try, they soon go back to town for the action.

The impact of oil, trade and industry When western ideas, methods and products invaded the Arab Region, it had to lead to a confrontation with established values. As long as the majority of the population did not have the means to acquire foreign imports, the conflict was limited. Some Arab countries were gradually westernized under colonial administration and lacked the means for quick industrialization. But when sudden riches from the discovery of oil flooded a society, all western things were not only available over night, but even forced upon people by armies of eager western or western-trained salesmen. The physical and cultural effect was devastating. No wonder, that latecomers in this development, such as the Sultan of Oman, hesitated to open the borders to western influence. Fortunately, some learnt from the mistakes of others and planned ahead, established rules and regulations and are enforcing them. However, change has its own dynamics, and if we introduce modern medical facilities - as we must - babies will survive, while families remain large, triggering a population explosion, which soon has the community dominated by youths. Generous educational facilities eradicate illiteracy in a single generation, producing people who will no more work the fields or climb the date palms. That literacy is but a prerequisite in today's competitive world is hardly understood. These discrepancies are compounded in the most affluent parts of the Arab East by an inexhaustible and cheap supply of labor from the Indian subcontinent. Economic norms are further upset by huge subsidies for basic services such as power, water, health and education - necessary at the beginning of development, but increasingly redundant and wasteful. The challenge of change has generated varying responses, ranging from severe restriction to wholehearted acceptance of western influence. In the fields of planning and architecture the debate has been going on for years. The principal question is the sustainability of development in the interest of long-term benefit. Again two camps face each other. The pessimists, who worry about depleting resources, a degrading environment and a growing gap between rich and poor; and the optimists, who hold that science, technology and worldwide exchange will solve problems for the good of all mankind. The Wold Bank statistics of development indicate very well how traditionally poor countries have learnt to be resource efficient. A look at the statistics of per capita income and energy consumption shows the discrepancies in both, the West and the Arab Region. The harmonization of income and efficiency among nations is the most important task should globalization succeed.

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The challenge of adaption and integration

Critical debate [4a] A steady succession of articles, research projects and symposia deals with the clash of modernization and tradition at all levels. However, any critical dialogue is usually limited to academic or professional circles. The Arab public hardly participates, although there is a general feeling of unease. Often symposia dealing with matters of tradition are held in ultramodern buildings, underlining the contradiction at hand. The proceedings follow a familiar pattern: - A traditionalist bemoans the loss of traditional ways and Islamic values; he decries the imposition of western technology and suspects imperialist motives. Taking the high ground of . Islamic purity he chastises the westernized Muslims for betraying a sacred cause. - A modernizer proclaims the inevitability of change, especially in an age of globalization. He holds that restrictive measures will only prolong the pain and delay reaping the many benefits of modernization. - A synthesizer praises the wisdom of traditional ways as well as the importance of progress. He will extol the virtues of regionalism, which retains the good things of the past and combines them with the good things innovation can bring. (Unfortunately, such selection rarely succeeds, as invariably systems work as a whole, comprising their good and bad aspects). When discussing the role of Islam in contemporary Arab architecture I shall take examples from opposite ends of the spectrum. Dogan Kuban, Professor of Architecture at Istanbul Technical University will comment on a paper by the Iranian cultural historian and philosopher Professor Seyyed Hossein Nasr, entitled •The Contemporary Muslim and the Architectural Transformation of the Urban Environment of the Islamic World•. Professor Nasr enumerates the effects of westernization upon Muslims: - Spread of secularization in which the secularized wish to create an ambience in which God is forgotten. - Narrowing of tradition (al-din) to include only the principles of human action as embodied in the Sharia and not the principles of wisdom (hikma). Thus religion is reduced to its juridical aspect. - Disregard of the Islamic conception of •ilm• according to which all knowledge, including sciences, is sacred. - General loss of humility and dignity in favor of egotism and worldliness with a weakening of moral fiber and a divorce from ethical considerations in one's professional work. - Forms and symbols drawn from the Holy Koran which imbued the inner being with fundamental attitudes vis-a-vis God and His creation do no more determine the imagination of the modern Muslim. - There is no more awareness of •la• of the •shahada•, which reduces everything to nothing before the immutable Majesty of Allah. - The modernized Muslim, whose spiritual sense has become dulled by the force of secularization, has forgotten the ephemeral quality of human life on earth and the peace and harmony which is pervading nature. Regarding art and architecture he observes: - Space is no more the symbol of a Divine Presence, nor light of the Divine Intellect. - Beauty is no more considered to be the reflection of Divine Beauty and an intrinsic dimension of Truth. - It separates beauty from utility and art from making. - Architecture does not seek to avoid the grandiose and the worldly. Professor Kuban begins by saying that he was brought up during Ata!Ork's reforms with entrenched beliefs in modern state secularism, and he is amazed about the difference of interpretation based on similar observations. In particular he responds to Prof. Nasr's statements: - The blight of modern cities, the dilemma between new and old, chaotic developments, ugliness, and social disturbances are not specific to the world of Islam. These are universal characteristics of the contemporary world. Western scholars, explaining the passing of cities from the pre-industrial to the industrial age made similar observations a long time ago. - When we discuss modern Islam we cannot isolate it from the rest of the world. History is a total process of continuous change. The modernization efforts are the result of a disrupted Muslim World.

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- It is true that »the traditional symbolism filled with divine love« is forgotten. But forms never lose their symbolic values, whether divine or something else. - Transformations are so rapid that people feel alienated in the modern environment. Alienation, not only in its physical aspects, but also in the life of modern man, is a source of grave concern. But one cannot solve those problems by teaching modern architects the traditional crafts and history of architecture. - One cannot say that a modern secularized Muslim architect, being deprived of his religious sustenance, cannot create an Islamic architecture. But one cannot separate the architect from society. Creativity is not a personal gift from God; first the cultural environment must be creative. - If any kind of religiosity is attached to the phenomenon of artistic creativity, to a deepseated original religious or mystical attitude of the human mind, it is certainly not connected with a specific religion. - The transient aspect of Islamic architecture or environment cannot be generalized. For simple dwellings and in the general city structures we may speak of an Islamic spirit, which saw, or had to see the world in its transient changing form. But great works of architecture, where we find the creativity of Islamic culture at its best, are not the outcome of this spirit. Remember Mshatta, Fatepur Sikri, the great mausoleums like Taj Mahal, Mamluk madrasas, and caravanserais. - Unity is a totally abstract concept, especially when attached to God's will. It is an ideal never reached in human society. Islam as a unity is a myth created by western scholarship in its stage of infancy. Believing in one God and the Koran did not create unity in Islamic societies as overall institutions. The whole sickness comes from the speedy change from medieval society to a society, which tries to accommodate itself to the Industrial Age. - Islamic culture has a basic unity founded on the Koran, as the word of God. But quite a variety of forms of every order have been created during its history. What is important in their shaping is not the common ground of Islamic culture, but the local interpretation of it. - With the coming of industry, the craft base of our traditional architecture has died. Mr. Fathy may have had his beautiful experiments. A very limited revival of old crafts is possible as folkloric activity or for touristic purposes. Prof. Nasr's discourse reminds the western reader of the medieval world, when religion was all pervasive. Gothic architecture embodies all the qualities he praises in Islamic architecture. It achieved unity, a high degree of spiritualization and a rich body of symbolism, most of which is lost to today's observer. With the Renaissance began the slow emancipation from religious dogma, it took centuries of reforms and revolutions to lay the basis for modernization. Humanity's eternal struggle between progression and conservation (between left and right in parliamentary terms) has generally favored progress in the West. God was never forgotten in this process (where this was attempted, as in communism, it ended in failure), but his revelations were re-interpreted in the light of new insights and the more we learn about His creation, the more awe inspiring it gets. Prof. Nasr regrets that »not a single school of architecture in the universities of the Islamic world teaches traditional Islamic architecture and its principles in a serious manner«. To talk about Islamic architecture pre-supposes the authority of Islam over this aspect of human endeavor. Why does nobody refer to Christian architecture? Because there can neither be a Christian air terminal nor a Muslim train station (unless we introduce separate sections for men and women). A religious affiliation of architecture can only make sense, when society is fully governed by one faith; otherwise it will be limited to places of worship or religious communities (monasteries, ashrams etc.) It is precisely the return to a pre-industrialized condition when Prof. Nasr concludes: »Islamic architecture remained faithful to simple building materials and employed the elemental forces of nature such as light and wind for its sources of energy«. In the 21st century this is not possible unless one joins sects like the Mennonites.

A choice of concepts What used to be well-established and undisturbed lifestyles, is today subject to rapid transformation under-the impact of modern media. Under-the leadership of-the United States the world is being westernized, americanized. However, the benefits of this transformation are not distributed equitably, neither at home, nor in the world at large. This has led to opposition and corrective movements.

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Not long ago, Capitalism and Communism each claimed to best organize man's affairs. At the moment it is either capitalism pure, or enlightened socialism, or some third way, which promise salvation. In a democracy, different political parties usually present a choice of concepts. What is then that range of concepts? If we consider the world as one whole (»spaceship earth• as Buckminster Fuller said) and believe that every human being should have the same chance for fulfillment and happiness as laid down in the United Nation's Charter -we shall come to the conclusion that a more balanced state of economic and ecological affairs must be reached. Certainly, human and physical nature will never permit an ideal equilibrium, but to come closer, the world's ecology must be sustainable and backed by an appropriate technology. In the 1960ies, when the after-effects of World War II were overcome and a new affluent society formed in the West, the youth began to revolt against domination by Big Business, the demands of performance and conformity, excessive consumerism, the dictates of adult media. They lived in communes, dropped out as hippies, went to India to find a guru. This rebellion against the mechanistic - technological - profit oriented approach was expressed in concepts such as ,, The Greening of America• or •Small is Beautiful•. The Club of Rome published »Limits of Growth•, the environmentalist movement of the Greens gathered momentum, and the Energy Crisis triggered research into new power sources. Acid rain and dying rivers or lakes made industry clean up production processes. The depletion of forests and wild life, global warming due to traffic and industry emissions prompted the Rio de Janeiro conference. But the follow-up Kyoto agreement of corrective measures is being challenged these days for selfish economic reasons.

Can future learn from the past? It is remarkable, how similar many of the western environmentalists' concepts are to Islamic principles of community organization and design: - The notion of unity and the one-ness of the world; - that excess is contrary to the will of God; - that to live within your means is to live in harmony with nature = God; - that mutual equity and responsibility are required. In architecture the International Style and its sequels are challenged by a new Regionalism: - Attune architecture to climate and use low-energy technology; - evaluate the wisdom of vernacular design and use local materials; - create balanced communities by the co-existence of poor and wealthy, old and young; - promote the neighborhood concept (hara); - decentralize local government and integrate it into community centers with religious facilities, health care and social service; - revitalize local retailing facilities, bring goods to consumers via local markets, even street vendors; - strengthen multitude of transport modes, avoid grid concepts, keep through traffic out, introduce pedestrian zones; - use limited resources sparingly and efficiently; recycle water and waste; - control the use of land; strengthen land trust institutions (waq~ and cooperatives. Establiish mutual responsibility for common spaces; - combat social decay and slum generation, encourage self-help technology, provide scattered work opportunities, and do not suppress semi-mobile vending and services; - design for privacy without segregation. Achieve efficient space use and utility distribution through medium density planning. Carefully zone into public - semi-public - semi-private and private areas. Design from inside out. Use atrium houses, row houses, clusters. The West-East track of information transfer is speeding up due to the Internet, but this may rest on a superficial level. To truly change patterns of human behavior takes usually a generation. Therefore: - Recognize the danger of negative development repetition; - find ways to bridge the time lag in the transfer of concepts, which are a function of information diffusion and the resistance of established concepts; - use the primary level of education as the key to bridge the time lag in the transfer of concepts. This applies in particular to the notions of ecology, limited resources, individual responsibility, the unity of man and nature.

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The Western experience

The Eastern experience

Industrial Revolution - Migration from the countryside - Concentration of population - Unchecked growth - Loss of social equilibrium - No human scale - Pollution (noise, fumes, water)

The old restrictions - Proximity to water source - Sharing limited resources - Protection from heat, cold, dust - Security from attack - Crowding behind common wall - Clan and trtbe organization

Romantic reaction - Rejection of machine - Garden city movement

Hara information - Narrow, crooked streets: shade, pedestrian zones - Need for privacy - Closing to the outside

Rational reaction - Separation of functions - Priority of traffic engineering - Emphasis on convenience - Wastefulness

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Introversion Internal zoning for privacy Courtyard house Growth by agglutination Organic cell structure

The new freedoms - Adoption of the car - Utilities everywhere - Climate control - Security - Decentralization - Individualism Extroversion

INTERNATIONAL-ANONYMOUS TECHNOLOGY DOMINATED ENERGY INTENSIVE COMMERCIAL MOBILE MASS SOCIETY CENTRALLY CONTROLLED RATIONAUINTELLECTUAL

=

BALANCED ST ATE SUSTAINABLE ECOLOGY= APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY REGIONAL-VERNACULAR LOW TECHNOLOGY ENERGY EFFICIENT NON-COMMERCIAL STABLE CLAN SOCIETY LOCALLY CONTROLLED EMOTIONAUINTUITIVE

VJ

iii