Town Planning and Architecture in Provincia Arabia: The cities along the Via Traiana Nova in the 1st-3rd centuries C.E. 9780860545415, 9781407347004
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English Pages [262] Year 1988
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
List of Illustrations
Preface
Introduction
Chapter I: Philadelphia
Chapter II: Gerasa
Chapter III: Bostra
Chapter IV: Philippopolis (Shuhba)
Chapter V: Urban Architecture in Arabia
List of Abbreviations
Select Bibliography
Illustrations
Citation preview
Town Planning and Architecture in Provincia Arabia The cities along the Via Traiana Nova in the 1st-3rd centuries C.E.
Arthur Segal
BAR International Series 419 1988
B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.
BAR -8419, 1988: 'Town Planning and Architecture in Provincia Arabia'
© Arthur Segal, 1988
The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545415 paperback ISBN 9781407347004 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545415 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
C ONTENTS P ART I L ist o f I llustrations
V II-xIx
P reface
X XI
I ntroduction
1 -2
C hapter I : C hapter I I:
P hiladelphia G erasa
C hapter I II: C hapter I V :
B ostra P hilippopolis
A ppendix t o C hapter I V C hapter V :
U rban A rchitecture i n A rabia
L ist o f A bbreviations S elect B ibliography L ist o f I llustrations
P ART I I I llustrations:
F igs. 1 -176.
3 -18 1 9-48 4 9-73 7 5-94 9 5100 1 01-117 19 1 21-126
P ublication o f t his b ook w as m ade p ossible b y ag rant f rom t he G ottlieb S chumacher I nstitute f or t he R esearch o f t he C hristian C ontribution i nto t he D evelopment o f t he 1 9th C entury P alestine . S pecial t hanks a re d ue t o P rof . A lex C an nel, U niversity o f H aifa , f ounder a nd H ead
o f
t he I nstitute
f or h is p ersonal
i nvolvement w ith
t he t he
p ublication o f t his b ook . A lthou gh c oncerned w ith t he v ery r ecent p ast , h aving r egard t o G ottlieb S humacher 's p ersonal
i nvolvement i n t he s ubject m atter o f t his
s pecial g esture w as m ade .
b ook ,
t his
L IST O F I LLUSTRATIONS
1 . 2 .
3 .
P rovincia A rabia a nd t he V ia T raiana N ova.
A . S egal.
A mman , c ity c entre.
T he I srael D ept.
V iew f rom A cropolis.
P hotographs f rom t he e arly 3 0s.
o f A ntiquities.
P hiladelphia ( Amman), c ity p lan .
J . B urckhardt, T ravels i n S yria a nd t he H oly L and , L ondon , 1 889, p .2 5 .
4 .
P hiladelphia ( Amman), c ity p lan .
C .R . C onder , T he S urvey o f E astern P alestine L ondon ,
5 .
P hiladelphia ( Amman), c ity p lan .
1 889,
p .
2 5.
H .C. B utler, P UAES, D iv . I I, P .I. A n imonitis, P l. I .
6 .
m A man , c ity c entre, a erial p hotograph ,
T he I srael D ept. o f A ntiquities.
7 .
A mman , c ity c entre ( scale 1 :1000)
T he I srael D ept. o f A ntiquities.
8 .
P hiladelphia , t he s anctuary o n t he A cropolis
B utler , i ll . 2 6.
9 .
P hiladelphia , t he s anctuary o n t he A cropolis,
A . S egal.
n ote t he c olonnades e xposed b y t he I talian e xcavators. 1 0.
P hiladelphia , t he T emple o n t he A cropolis
B utler , i ll. 2 4.
1.
P hiladelphia , t he T emple o n t he A cropolis a s e xposed b y t he I talian e xcavators
T he I srael D ept.
1 2.
P hiladelphia , f ragment o f a rchitrave f ound a mong t he d ebris o n t he A cropolis
B utler , i ll. 2 7
1 3.
P hiladelphia , t he P ropylaea a t t he b ase o f
B utler , i ll. 2 8
1 4.
P hiladelphia , s ection o f t he M ain S treet
B utler , i ll . 3 0
1 5.
A mman , t he t heatre b efore t he r econstruction
T he I srael o f
o f A ntiquities
A ntiquities 1 6.
A mman , t he t heatre a nd t he s ection o f t he F orum a s r econstructed i n e arly 6 0's.
A uthor 's c ollection
1 7.
A mman , as ection o f t he p ortico t hat s urrounded t he F orum . P hotograph f rom t he
A uthor 's c ollection
e arly 7 0's. 1 8.
P hiladelphia , t he t hreatre a nd t he o deon
C onder ,
1 9.
P hiladelphia , t he t heatre
B utler , p 1 . I V
p .
3 6.
2 0.
P hiladelphia , t he t heatre
F . F akharani , " Das T heater v on A mman i m J ordananien" , A A 1 975(3), f ig .2.
2 1.
G adara , t he A cropolis , n ote t he t wo t heatres
p .
3 80,
G . S chumacher , N orthern A jiun-within t he D ecapolis, L ondon 1 890 p . 4 6, f ig. I .
2. 2
G adara ,
s chematic p lan o f t he A cropolis
U . W agner-Lux , ' Bericht u berdie 0 berflaechenf orschung i n G adara i n J ordanien i m J ahre 1 975", Z DPV 9 4 ( 1978), p lan I , 1 35-144.
2 3.
G adara , t he A cropolis, a erial v iew
T he I srael D ept. o f A ntiquities
2 4.
P hiladelphia , t he o deon
B utler, 1 11 . 3 4.
2 5.
P hiladelphia , t he n ymphaeon
C onder , p . 4 0.
2 6.
P hiladelphia , t he m ymphaeon
B utler , i ll . 3 8
2 7.
P hiladelphia , t he n ymphaeon , p roposed r econstruction
B utler , p 1. V
2 8.
A mman , t he b ack w all o f t he n ymphaeon P hotograph f rom e arly 3 0's
T he I srael D ept. o f A ntiquities
P hiladelphia , s ection o f t he v ault t hat o nce
B utler , i ll . 3 9
2 9.
p p .
t he A mman R iver i n t he v icinity o f t he F orum 3 0.
A mman , t he " West T omb" ; a . ap hotograph f rom t he e nd o f X IX c ent. b . f ragmen t o f d ome c .
C onder ,
p .
4 4
t he p lan
3 1.
P etra , t he n ymphaeon
3 2.
M iletos, t he n ymphaeon
W . B achmann , P etra, B erlin , 1 921, f ig. 2 8 G . K leiner , D ie R uinen v on M ilet, B erlin , 1 968, f ig . 8 5
3. 3
G erasa ( Jerash), a erial p hotograph
H . H oermann , J DAI 4 4 ( 1929), P l. I .
3 4.
S ide, t he n ymphaeon
A . M ansel, D ie R uinen v on S ide, B erlin ,
1 963, f ig. 3 7
3 5.
G erasa ( Jerash), a erial p hotograph
A . N ansel, D ie R uinen v on M ilet, B erlin 1 968, f ig . 3 7.
G erasa ( Jerash), t he e astern p art o f t he c ity, a erial p hotograph f rom e arly 3 0's
T he I srael D ept. o f
3 7.
G erasa ( Jerash), t he n orthern p art o f t he c ity, a erial p hotograph f rom e arly 3 0's
T he I srael D ept. o f A ntiquities
3 8.
G erasa ( Jerash), t he n orth-western p art o f t he c ity. A erial p hotograph f rom e arly 3 0's
A ntiquities
3 9.
G erasa, c ity p lan
B urckhardt,
4 0.
G erasa , c ity p lan
M . R ey, V oyage D ans L e H aouran , P aris 1 858 ( Atlas), P l.XVI
4 1.
G erasa, c ity p lan
G . S chumacher , " Dscherasch" , Z DPV 2 5
3 6.
A ntiquities
T he I srael D ept. o f
p .
2 64
( 1902), P l. V I 4 2 .
G erasa ,
c ity p lan
C .H . K raeling , G erasa N ew H aven ,1938, P 1.1
4 3 .
G erasa , c ity p lan
A . S egal
4 4.
G erasa , t he T emple o f Z eus a nd t he o val p laza
T he I srael D ept. o f A ntiquities
4 5.
G erasa , t he o val p laza, v iew f rom t he n orth
T he I srael D ept. o f A ntiquities
4 6.
G erasa, t he c ircular p laza a nd t he s outh t et r apylon
T he I srael D ept. o f A ntiquities
G erasa, t he T emple o f Z eus, v iew f rom t he
T he I srael D ept. o f
s outh-east
A ntiquities
4 8.
G erasa, t he T emple o f Z eus
K raeling , G erasa , P lan X XVI
4 9.
G erasa, t he s outh t heatre, p hotograph f rom
T he I srael D ept. o f
e arly 3 0's
A ntiquities
5 0.
G erasa ,
S chumacher , f ig .
5 1.
G erasa, t he s outh t heatre, p hotograph f rom
4 7.
5 2.
t he s outh t heatre
1 4
e arly 7 0's
a uthor's c ollection
G erasa ,
T he I srael D ept. o f
t he n ymphaeon , v iew f rom t he e ast
A ntiquities 5 3.
G erasa, s ection o f t he m ain n orth-south
T he I srael D ept. o f
s treet a nd t he n ymphaeon , v iew f rom n orth-east
A ntiquities
5 4.
G erasa , t he n ymphaeon
K raeling, G erasa P lan X XVIII
5 5.
5 6.
G erasa , t he n ymphaeon , f ragmentof t he u pper p art o f t he c entral n iche
T he I srael D ept. of A ntiquities
G erasa , t he n orth-west p art o f t he c ity ,
T he I srael D ept. of
v iew f rom t he n orth , b oth n orth a nd s outh t heatres a re c learly v isible
A ntiquities
G erasa , s ection o f t he p ortico t hat
T he I srael D ept. of
s urrounded t he p laza i n f ront o f t henorth t heatre
A ntiquities
5 8.
G erasa , t he n orth t heatre a nd I ts p laza
S chumacher , f ig.
5 9.
G erasa , t he n orth t etrapylon
5 7.
1 8
T he I srael D ept. of A ntiquities
6 0.
G erasa, t he d ome i n t he W est B ath
T he I srael D ept. of A ntiquities
6 1.
G erasa, t he W est B ath
K raeling, G erasa , P lan X XVII
6 2.
G erasa , t he T riumphal A rch v iew f rom s outh
T he I srael D ept. of A ntiquities
6 3.
G erasa , t he T riumphal A rch
K raeling, G erasa , P lan I I
6 4.
6 5.
G erasa , t he T riumphalArch , p roposed
K raeling, G erasa
r econstruction
P lan I V
G erasa, t he h ippodrome
K raeling, G erasa, P lan V I
6 6.
G erasa, t he s outh g ate
K raeling, G erasa, P lan X XIII
6 7.
6 8.
6 9.
G erasa, t he c ircularplaza a nd t he
T he I srael D ept. of
s outh t etrapylon
A ntiquities
G erasa, t he c ircularplaza a nd t he
K raeling, G erasa,
s outh t etrapylon
P lan X II
G erasa , s outh t etrapylon ( sections)
K raeling, G erasa, P lan X III
7 0.
G erasa , south t etrapylon , a rchitectural d etails
K raeling, G erasa, P lan X VI
7 1.
G erasa, t he c ircular p laza a nd t he s outh t etrapylon , p roposedreconstruction
K raeling, G erasa, P lan X V
7 2.
G erasa , t he n orth g ate
K raeling , G erasa , P lan X VII
G erasa, t he n orthgate, p roposed
K raeling , G erasa ,
r econstruction
P lan X IX
7 4.
G erasa, S anctuary o f A rtemis, t he c ourtyard
S chumacher , P lan I X
7 5.
G erasa , S anctuary o f A rtemis
A . S egal
7 6.
G erasa, S anctuary o f A rtemis, t he P ropylaea e ast o f the m ain n orth-south s treet
erasa , K raeling, G
G erasa, S anctuary o f A rtemis, t he P ropylaea
T JAB I ( 1926), P l. I II
7 3.
7 7.
w est o f the m ain n orth-south s treet
P lan X XXV
7 8.
G erasa , S anctuary o f A rtemis, t he f acade o f t he P ropylaea w est o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet, p roposed r econstruction
T JAB I ( 1926), P l. I V
7 9.
G erasa , S anctuary o f A rtemis, t he
T he I srael D ept. of A ntiquities
P ropylaea w est o f t he n orth-southstreet v iew f rom t he e ast 8 0 .
G erasa , T emple o f A rtemis
K raeling , G erasa, P l. X XI
8 1.
G erasa, T emple o f A rtemis, v iew f rom w est
T he I srael D ept. of A ntiquities
8 3.
K os, A sklepieion
R . H erzog, K os I ( Asklepieion ) , Berlin , 1 932, P l. 3 7
8 4.
L indos, S anctuary o f A thena
C hr . B linkenberg , L indos I , B erlin , 1 931, P l. I
8 5.
T ivoli, S anctuary o f H ercules
A ufstieg u nd N iedergang D er R oe i nische W elt, I , ( Vierter B and-Tafeln), P l. 3 7
8 6.
P raeneste, Sanctuary o f F ortuna
A ufstieg u nd
P rimigenia
N iedergang D er R oemischen W elt I ( Vierter B and-Tafeln ) , P l . 1 28
8 7.
J erusalem , s outh-westsection o f t he
A uthor's c ollection
T emple M ount, a m odel 8 . 8
P almyra , S anctuary o f B ei, p roposed r econstruction
T h . W iegand , P almyra , Berlin , 1 932, P l. 8 6
8 9.
P almyra , S anctuary o f N ebo, s ection o f
T h . W iegand , P alymra ,
t he m ain c olonnade s treet a nd t he
P l. I I
t riumphal a rch 9 0 .
B aalbek ( Heliopolis) ,
S anctuary o f
J upiter , p roposed r econstruction
A . B othius , J .B . W ardP erkins, E truscan a nd R oman A rchitecture, P enguin B ooks, 1 970, f ig .
9 1.Damascus,
S anctuary o f J upiter
C .
1 56
W atzinger ,
D amaskus, B erlin , 1 921, f ig. I 9 2.
9 3.
G erasa , t he " Cathedral P recinct",
K raeling, G erasa,
t he p ropylaea
P lan X XIX
G erasa , t he o uter g ate o f t he p ropylaea
K raeling, G erasa, f ig . 3
9 4.
G erasa , t he o val p laza, i onic c apital f rom t he c olonnade t hat s urrounded t he
a uthor's c ollection
p laza 9 5.
G erasa , n orthern s ection o f t he o val p laza a nd t he b eginning o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet.
9 6 .
G erasa , t he o pen r itual a rea n orth
K raeling , G erasa , P lan X XIV
S chumacher , f ig. 4 1
o f t he c ity ( Birketein) 9 7.
9 8 .
9 . 9
G erasa , t he o pen r itual a rea n orth o f
K raeling , G erasa,
t he c ity ( Birketein)
f ig . 2
G erasa , t he o pen r itual a rea n orth o f t he c ity ( Birketein), t he t heatre
K raeling , G erasa P lan X XV
G erasa , t he o pen r itual a rea n orth
S chumacher , f ig. 3 6
o f t he c ity ( Birketein), G ermanus T omb , p hotograph f rom t he e nd o f X IX c ent. 1 00. G erasa , t he o pen r itual a rea n orth o f t he c ity ( Birketein), G ermanus T omb p hotograph f rom e arly 3 0's 1 01. T he a rea o f B ostra , am ap ( scale : 1 :50000) 1 02. S outhern H auran , n etwork o f r oads i n t he v icinity o f B ostra
T he I srael D ept. o f A ntiquities
T he I srael D ept. o f A ntiquities H .C. B utler , P UAES, D iv . I , G eography a nd I tinerary,
1 03. B ostra, c ity p lan
p .
1 7
J . P orter , F ive Y ears i n D amascus, L ondon , 1 855, p .
1 04. B ostra, c ity p lan
R ey , P l.X
1 42
1 05. B ostra , c ity p lan
A . v on G erkan , G riechische S tadtenlagen , 1 924, f ig . 2 0
1 06. B ostra , c ity p lan
B erlin
H .C. B utler , P UAES, D iv. I I, P art 4 , ( Bostra), P l . I
1 07. B ostra, c ity p lan
A . S egal
1 08 . B ostra , a erial p hotograph
T he I srael D ept. of A ntiquities
1 09. B ostra , a erial p hotograph , n ote t he n etwork
A . S egal
o f t he m ain s treets, c ity-wall a nd t he c onjectural l ocation o f t he L egion 's C amp 10 . B ostra , s chematic c ity p lan , n ote t he 1 c onjectural l ocation o f t he L egion 's C amp
ostra , s chematic c ity p lan , n ote t he 11. B c onjectural l ocation o f t he L egion 's C amp
F .E. P eters, " City P lanning i n G recoR oman S yria", D aN I ( 1983), f ig. 5 R . B rulet, " Estamples d e l a M e L egion C yrenaique a B osra" B erytus X XXII ( 1984) f ig. I
12. B ostra , s chematic c ity p lan , n ote 1
N . S artre, B ostra d es o rigines a I slam , P aris, 1 985, f ig . I
13. B ostra , N abatean C apital
B utler , i ll. 2 12
14. B ostra , f our p illars d ecorated w ith 1
B utler , i ll. 2 13
-
e ngagedcolumns a nd N abateans c apitals 15 . B ostra , t he W est G ate 1
B utler , i ll . 2 02
16. B ostra , t he W est G ate
R .E. B runnow , A . v on D omaszewski, P .A . I II, f ig . 8 73
17. B ostra , t he W estGate, p hotograph
a uthor 's c ollection
f rom e arly 7 0's 1 18 . B ostra , t he W estGate , s ection
a uthor 's c ollection
o f t he f acade ostra , s ection o f t he c olonnade s treet 19. B
B utler , i ll . 2 06
1 20. B ostra, f acade o f t he s hops a long t he c olonnade s treet, proposed r econstruction
B utler , i ll. 2 07
1 21. B ostra , t he E ast T riumphal A rch ,
A uthor 's c ollection
s ection o f t he f acade, p hotograph f rom e arly 7 0's 1 22 . B ostra , t he E ast T riumphal A rch
B runnow-Domaszewski , f ig . 9 02
1 23. B ostra , t he E ast T riumphal A rch
B utler, i ll . 2 16
1 24 .
B utler , i ll . 1 27
R ostra ,
t he E ast T riumphal A rch
p roposed r econstruction 1 25. B ostra , t he C entral T riumphal A rch
B runnow-Domaszewski , f ig . 8 98
1 26. B ostra , t he C entral T riumphal A rch , p hotographed i n 1 900
B runnow-Domaszewski, f ig . 8 97
1 27. B ostra , t he C entral T riumphal A rch ,
B utler, i ll . 2 18
p roposed r econstruction 1 28. B ostra , a rchitectural f ragmen ts o f t he
B utler ,
i ll . 2 19
m onumental b uilding 1 29. B ostra , t he N ymphaeon a nd t he " Kalybe"
B utler , i ll . 2 26
1 30. B ostra, t he " Kalybe", s ection o f t he
A uthor's c ollection
a rchitrave a nd o ne o f t he c orinthian c apitals 1 31. B ostra , the " Kalybe", a c orinthian
A uthor 's c ollection
c apital 1 32. B ostra , t he P alace
B utler, i ll . 2 29
1 33. B ostra , t he P alace
B utler , P l. X I
1 34. B ostra , t he P alace
B utler , P l. X II
1 35. D ura-Europos, P alace o f t he D ux
M . R ostovtzeff, E xcavations a t D ura-Europos I II, f ig . 7
1 36. K asr I bn W ardan , t he P alace
H .C. B utler , P UAES, D iv . I I, s ec . B . ( Kasr I bn W ardan), i ll . 3 2
1 37. B ostra, t he S outh B ath
B utler, i ll . 2 30
1 38 .
B oethius , Ward-Perkins
A ntioch ,
B ath " C"
f ig .
1 64
1 39. B ostra, N orth-West B ath
B utler ,
i ll . 2 33
1 40. B ostra , N orth B ath
B utler,
i ll . 2 32
1 41. B ostra , t he B asilica
B utler , i ll . 2 38
1 42. B ostra , t he B asilica
B utler, i ll . 2 36
1 43. B ostra , s ection o f t he F orum
B utler , i ll. 2 40
1 44. B ostra, t he T heatre
B runnow-Domaszewski, P l. I
1 45. B ostra , t heT heatre a nd t he M edieval F ortress
H . F insen , T heatre R omain a B osra , S yria , E inar M unskgaard, 1 972, P l. I .
1 46. B ostra, t he T heatre, skene b uilding a nd c avea
F insen , P l . I I
1 47. B ostra , t he T heatre , s ections
F insen , P l . V
1 48. B ostra , t he T heatre, v iew o f t he c avea
A uthor 's c ollection
1 49. R ome, t he T heatre o f M arcellus
E . N ash , P ictorial D ictionary o f A ncient R ome, f ig .
L ondon ,
1 962,
1 211
1 50. B ostra, "mob s" T omb
B utler , i ll . 2 45
1 51 . P ompeii ,
A . v on G erkan , f ig . 1 5
c ity p lan
1 52 . O stia , H orrea (granaries) o f H ortensius
B oethius , Ward-Perkins ,
1 53. S huhba , am ap ( scale 1 :50000)
T he I srael D ept. of A ntiquities
1 54. P hilippopolis, c ity p lan
H .C. B utler , P UAES I I A rchitecture a nd o ther A rts, f ig . 1 30
1 55. P hilippopolis, c ity p lan
A . S egal
1 56. P hilippopolis, a erial p hotograph
T he I srael D ept. of A ntiquities
1 57. P hilippopolis, t he H exastyle T emple
B utler , i ll. 1 31
1 58 . B aalbek(Heliopolis) , T emple o f
B oethius , W ard-Perkins
V enus 1 59 . S ide, T emple " P"
f ig. 1 08.
f ig . 1 57 M ansel, S ide, f ig . 6 9
1 60. P hilippopolis, t he " Philippaeon"
B utler , f ig . 1 32
1 61. P hilippopolis, t he P alace
B utler , f ig . 1 33
1 62. P hilippopolis, t he B ath
B utler ,
1 63. P hilippopolis, t he T heatre
B runnow-Domaszewski,
f ig . 1 34
P A I II, P l . l ilA 1 64 . P hilippopolis , t he T heatre
P . C oupel, E . F rezouls L e T heatre d e P hilippopolls, P aris, 1 956, P l. X V
1 65 . P hilippopolis , cross-vaults i n t he t heatre 1 66. P hilippopolis, the t heatre, v iew
P . C oupel, E. F rezouls P l. I X A uthor's c ollection
o f t he c avea 1 67. P hilippopolis, o ne o f the p odia t hat f ormed t he T etrapylon 1 68. P almyra , t he T etrapylon
B runnow-Domaszewski, f ig . 1 051 T h . W iegand , P almyra f ig . 2 4
1 69. P hilippopolis, t he S outh G ate
B utler, i ll . 1 38
1 70 . P hilippopolis, t he S outhGate a s p reserved i n c .1900
B runnow-Domaszewski,
1 71. P hilippopolis, t he s maller s outhern g ate
B utler ,
1 72. T urin ( Italy), c ity-plan
F . C astagnoli, O rthogonal, T own-
i ll . 1 39
P lanning i n A ntiquity M IT 1 971, f ig . 4 8 1 73 . V erona ( Italy ) , c ity-plan
F . C astagnoli ,
f ig . 4 9
1 75. L ucca ( Italy), c ity-plan
J .B . W ard-Perkins, f ig . 62
1 76. C omo ( Italy), c ity-plan
J .B . W ard-Perkins, f ig. 57
P REFACE T his r esearch w as f irst p ublished i n t he m iddle o f t he 1 970 's a s a d octoral t hesis . I t r eached t he e yes o f o nly a s mall g roup o f r eaders a s i t w as o riginally w ritten i n H ebrew . I n 1 975 w hen i t w as s ubmitted , o nly ah andful o f r esearchers e xisted w ho d ealt w ith t he s ubject a nd w ho c ould t herefore c onstructively c riticize t he m aterial. H owever ,
d uring t he p ast f ew y ears ,
t here h as b een a s urge o f i nterest
i n t he s ubject o f u rbanisation a nd a rchitecture o f P rovincia A rabia a nd i t i s t his r enewed t rend t hat h as b rought m e t o t ranslate t he b ook i nto E nglish a nd t hereby e xpose i t t o a l arger g roup o f h istorians a nd a rchaeologists t oday s tudying t he H ellenistic-Roman E ast. A m ajor o bstacle f or m e , a s a n I sraeli r esearcher , h as b een t he f act t hat I h ave n ot b een p ermitted t o e xcavate o r e ven v isit t he s ites d iscussed i n t he b ook . B ut i t w as p recisely t his d ifficulty t hat f orced m e t o t ake a w ider v iew o f t he a reas a nd t o s earch f or l ess c onservative s olutions t o p robl em s e xisting i n t he f ield . I b elieve t hat t his s o-called ' table a rchaeology ', a lthough w ritten t hirteen y ears a go , m ay s till p lay a m eaningful r ole a nd c ontribute t o t he u nderstanding o f t his n ature a nd c haracter o f t he c ities o f A rabia . I n
t ranslating a nd
p reparing
t he m anuscript
f or
p ublication ,
c ompletely u p-dated t he m aterial a nd h ave a dded n ew i llustrations , h ave l eft t he t ext a lmost w ithout c hange . I a m g rateful
t o D r .
A nthony H ands ,
E ditor-in-Chief
o f B .A .R . ,
I
b ut I
w hose
e ncouragement a nd s upport l ead m e t o p repare t his m aterial f or p ublication . M y t hanks a re a lso d ue t o M arion R ichardson f or h er s killful t ranslation o f t he b ook f rom H ebrew t o E nglish .
D r . A . S egal H aifa , 1 988
I NTRODUCTION T he f ollowing a re t he a ims w hich I h ope t o a chieve i n t his r esearch : a )
A s tudy
N ova :
o f t he p lans o f t he f our c ities s ituated a long t he V ia T raiana
P hiladelphia , G erasa , B ostra a nd P hilippopolis.
b )
Ad escription o f t he u rban c haracter o f e ach o f t hese c ities.
C )
A s tudy o f t hose s pecial u rban p henomena w hich b rought a bout t he
d evelopment o f t he c ities i n A rabia . T hese h ave b een r esearched w ithin t he f ramework o f c ity-planning i n t he C lassical W orld o n t he o ne h and , a nd i n t he E astern P rovinces o f t he R oman E mpire o n t he o ther . T he c hoice o f t hese f our c ities w as n ot i ncidental .
T hese w ere c ities
o riginally e stablished d uring t he H ellenistic a nd R oman p eriods a nd w hich c ontinued t o b e i nhabited a lso d uring t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c ents . C .E . A lthough t heir c ultural a nd h istorical b ackgrounds d iffer , t heir u rban c haracters a nd c ity p lans w ere a ll f ormed d uring t he f irst c enturies o f t he c ommon e ra . A ll t hese c ities s traddled t he i mportant a nd s trategic V ia T raiana N ova s ituated i n t he E ast o f t he R oman E mpire . T his r oute w as p aved b etween 11-114 C .E . b y t he f irst G overnor o f P rovincia A rabia C laudius S everus a nd w as i n f act a r enewal o f a m ajor B iblical r oute . T he r oad b egins i n -
-
D amascus, m akes i ts w ay t o B ostra a nd c ontinues o n t o P hiladelphia , e ventually m aking i ts w ay t hrough Madaba t o E ilat . A lthough i t w as c onstructed m ainly f or m ilitary p urposes, t he V ia T raiana N ova a lso s erved a s a n i mportant t rade r oute c arrying m erchandise f rom S outhern A rabia , A frica a nd e ven I ndia t o S yria a nd f urther n orth . T he c ities d iscussed h ere f lourished a nd g rew w ealthy a s a d irect r esult o f t heir p ositions o n t his s trategic a nd i mportant c ommercial r oute . T his s tudy h as a ttempted t o d escribe t he s ubjects o f c ity-planning a nd u rban a rchitecture a s e xpressions o f a c ultural c onvergence b etween t he C lassical W orld a nd t he E ast
-
am eeting w hich g ave b irth t o t he H ellenistic
c ulture . I t i s m y b elief t hat p recisely i n t his m ultifaceted s ubjects o f c ity-planning a nd a rchitecture t he v arious f aces o f t his c ulture u nification a re m ost c learly e xpressed . I t
b ecomes
c lear t hat
t he c ities
o f A rabia m ay b e p laced w ithin t he
g eneral f ramework o f t he H ellenistic c ulture , a lthough c hronologically t heir u rban c haracter w as f inally f ormed d uring R oman r ule i n t he a rea . If elt t hat p ossibly h erein l ies t he -key t o u nderstanding t he e xceptional n ature o f t hese c ities . M odern r esearch o f to wn-planning i n t he A ncient W orld h as p aid l ittle a ttention t o t he c ities o f P rovincia A rabia . T herefore , o n w riting , I f ound m yself f acing a n a lmost n ew s ubject . Ih ave a ttempted t o l ook u pon t he c ities o f A rabia a s a u nique u rban p henomenon i n t heir o wn r ight a nd y et s imultaneously a s a n i ntegral p art o f t own-planning i n t he C lassical W orld . T he s tudy c omprises f ive c hapters :
t he f irst f our d eal w ith t he c ities
a nd a n a ttempt h as b een m ade t o c learly d escribe t he u rban c haracter o f e ach o ne . T he t ext i ncludes a l imited d escription o f t he l ayout o f t he c ity a nd i ts m ost i mportant m onuments d iscovered t o d ate .
1
Am ore d etailed a nalysis
o f t he c ity p lan i s g iven a t t he e nd o f e ach c hapter .
T he n otes ,
o n
t he
o ther h and , d eal w ith a ll t he m aterial c oncerning t he s pecial u rban p roblems o f e ach c ity . T he f ifth c hapter , c alled " Urban A rchitecture i n A rabia" , s ums u p t he v arious f eatures c haracterising t own-planning a nd a rchitecture i n A rabia a nd c ompares t hem t o c ities i n o ther p arts o f t he C lassical W orld .
2
CHAPTER I PHI�qfHIA
3
I ntroduction P hiladelphia , t he B iblical c ity o f R abbath-Ammon t oday A mman , t he c apital o f t he K ingdom o f J ordan , i s o ne o f t he m ost a ncient c ities o n t he e ast s ide o f t he J ordan R iver ( 1) . I n t he b eginning o f t he t hird c entury B .C . , a fter t he P tolemaic D ynasty t ook c ontrol o ver t he a reas o f S outhern S yria a nd P alestine , R abbath A mmon b ecame a H ellenistic c ity a nd w as n amed P hiladelphia a fter t he r uler P tolemy t he 2 nd P hiladelphos ( 283-246 B .C .) -
( 2 ) . A lthough t he c ity w as a ctively i nvolved i n t he e vents t hat o ccurred i n t his a rea , n amely t he S yrian W ars , t he a ppearance o f t he N abataeans , t he H as i nonean R ebellion a nd t he a ppearance o f t he D ecapolis c ities , f ew r uins r emain t oday w hich b ear w itness t o w hat m ust h ave o nce e xisted i n P hiladelphia . T hose r emains o f t he c ity ,
w hich w ere s till s een b y e xplorers i n t he
1 9th c entury a nd w hich h ave l argely d isappeared o ver t he p ast f ew d ecades , s tem m ainly f rom t he R oman p eriod . C onveniently
s ituated
o n
t he
V ia T raiana N ova ,
P hiladelphia w as
a
c ontinuously i nhabited c ity ( fig . 1 ) ( 3) . A lthough i ts s tatus a s a c ity d eclined f rom t he m iddle o f t he 3 rd c ent . C .E . P hiladelphia w as s till o f i mportance d uring t he U mmayad D ynasty a nd t he M iddle A ges . U ntil t he m iddle o f t he 1 9th c ent , ap oor a nd u nimportant B eduin s ettlement e xisted i n t he a rea a nd i t w as o nly w ith t he e mergence o f t he C ircassians i n 1 880 t hat t he c ity o nce a gain b egan t o d evelop ( 4) . F ro m t he b eginning o f t he 1 9th c entury t he r uins o f P hiladelphia w ere s een b y m any r eserchers a nd e xplorers s ome o f w hom r ecorded t hem a s w ell a s s ketched p lans
o f
t he c ity .
( figs .
2 -7) .
O ver t he p ast
a rchaeologists h ave o rganized s mall e xcavations
f ew d ecades
a ccompanied a lso b y
r econstruction p rojects m ainly i n t he a rea o f t he A cropolis a nd t he F orum ( 5) b ut a f ull-scale e xcavation h as n ever b een c arried o ut.
AG eneral V iew o f t he C ity ( figs. 2 -7). T he
r uins
o f
t he a ncient
c ity o f A mman m ay b e d ivided i nto t wo m ain
a reas ; t he r emains f ound o n t op o f t he A cropolis a nd t he r emains f ound i n t he L ower C ity s cattered a long t he l ength o f t he t wo n arrow v alleys t o t he s outh a nd s outh-west o f t he A cropolis . E xtensive b uilding t ook p lace d uring t he M iddle A ges o n t he A cropolis a nd a s a r esult t hose R oman -
s tructures t hat r emained w ere n ot a t a ll w ell p reserved . T hose i n t he L ower C ity s eemed t o h ave r emained i n f airly g ood c ondition , u p u ntil t he e arly p art o f t he 2 0th c entury . T he r uins o n t op o f t he A cropolis i nclude : v arious f ortifications f rom d ifferent p eriods , t he r emains o f c lassical t emples a s w ell a s l ater s tructures . I n t he L ower C ity o ne c an f ind : t he t heatre, o deon , n y i nphaeon , p ropylaea , t wo c olonnaded s treets, p arts o f p orticos a nd s ection o f c lassical s tructures i nterphased w ith b uildings o f a l ater d ate a s w ell a s p arts o f a v ault t hat m ust h ave o nce c overed t he r iver . U nfortunately , a l arge p roportion o f t hese s tructures n o l onger e xist . T he s treet p lan o f P hiladelphia c onsisted o f t wo m ain s treets o ne -
r unning s outh a nd s outh-west o f t he A cropolis b ut n orth o f t he r iver ( today S f1-Amman ) ; a nd t he o ther r unning w est o f t he A cropolis , a lso i ntersected
5
b y a s maller r iver ( figs .4 ,5) .
I t w as i n t he v alleys c reated b y t hese t wo
r ivers t hat t he t own o f P hiladelphia w as e stablished .
A ll t he m ain p ublic
b uildings w ere c entered i n t he w ider a nd l onger o f t he 2 v alleys a nd i t w as f rom h ere t hat t he p eople a scended t he A cropolis , t he s acred s ite o f t he c ity , e ntering i t t hrough t he p ropylaea . T here w as n o r oom f or f urther e xpansion t o t he s outh a nd s outh-west a s h ere t he v alleys w ere b ordered b y v ery h illy r egions .
T HE A CROPOLIS ( figs. 5 -7) ( 6) T he A cropolis
o f
P hiladelphia w as
s ituated
o n
a f lat-topped ,
h igh
m ountain , s haped r ather l ike a n o pen G reek l etter " gamma ' t. T he m ountain , d ivided i nto t hree s eparate l evels i s h ighest i n t he n orth-west , -
s omewhat l ower i n t he m iddle ( fig . 6 ) . Most o f t he a rtificially c reated .
l evel a nd e ven l ower i n t he e astern s ection
f lattened
a nd
l ow-lying
a reas
T he A cropolis i s e ncompassed b y a s trong w all .
w ere
i n
f act
A t i ts h ighest p oint ,
o n t he n orth-western t errace , s tood a s acred p recinct c omposed o f a f orecourt a nd a t emple c ourtyard . T his w as s urrounded b y d ecorative w alls a s w ell a s p orticos ( figs . 8 -9) . M uch r emains o f t he n orth-western w alls a nd i t w as o bviously a b uilding o f h igh q uality ( 7 ) . R emains o f o ther s ections o f t he w alls d ating
t o s ubsequent p eriods i nterspersed w ith l ater p arts o f
t he w all w hich w ere c onstructed a bove t hem , r anging f rom t he R oman q uadratum ' r ight t hrough t he M iddle A ges , c an a lso b een s een ( 8) . O n t he s outhern e dge o f t he n orth-western t errace ,
' opus
a nd n ot f ar f rom t he
A cropolis w all, a re t he c lear r emains o f t he T emple . T he a symetrical p osition i n w hich t he T emple w as s ituated w as i ntentional a nd a llowed i t t o b e c learly v isible f rom t he L ower C ity . T he b uilding f aces e ast ( fig . 5 ) ( 9) . T he T emple p lan : P rostyle-Tetrastyle . M uch o f t he T emple p odium r emains , t ogether w ith t he b ases o f t hree f ront c olumns a nd t he p ronaos ( figs . 1 0 , 1) . T he m any a rchitectural e lements d iscovered a mong t he r uins o f t he T emple a rea f ascilitated i n t he p artial r econstruction o f t his b uilding . A n i nscription f ound o n t he a rchitrave p oints t o t he f act t hat t his T emple w as b uilt i n t he d ays o f M arcus A urelius ( 10) . A lthough t he T emple w as e xcavated i n t he 1 930 's b y a n I talian e xpedition , t o d ate n o p lan o r r econstruction o f t he a rea h as b een p ublished ( 11) . T he s acred p recinct o n t he n orth-western s ection o f t he U pper L evel o f t he A cropolis i s c omposed o f t wo p arts:
t he f orecourt a nd t he t emple
c ourtyard ( fig . 8 ) . S urrounded b y p orticos, t hese c ourtyards w ere n ot s ymetrically c onstructed b ecause t hey f ollowed t he l ines o f t he w alls s urrounding t his p art o f t he A cropolis ( figs . 5 , 6 ) ( 12) . T he t emple c ourtyard i s c losed i n o n i ts n orthern ,
s outhern a nd w estern s ides b y t hese
w alls . I t w ould a ppear t hat p arallel t o t hem , a t l east o n t he n orth a nd s outh s ides , s tood p orticos ( figs . 8 ,9) . A d ecorative w all d ivided t he T emple c ourtyard f rom t he f orecourt . T his w all i s a dorned b y p ilasters t opped b y C orinthian c apitals w hich i n t urn w ere s eparated b y s emi-circular n iches . I dentical d ecorative w alls a lso s tood t o t he n orth a nd s outh o f t he f orecourt ( fig . 8 ) . B ehind t hem w ere e xedras a nd s maller r ooms w hich w ere s een i n p art b y B utler a nd w hich w ere l ater e xcavated b y t he I talians ( 13). T he f ew a rchitectural d etails f ound i n t he
6
i mmediate
v icinity o f
t he
T emple t ell u s l ittle a bout i ts o riginal d esign b ut t hey d o c onfirm t he r ich d ecorative s tyle w hich o bviously a dorned i t ( fig . 1 2).
T HE P ROPYLAEA
( figs. 5 , 1 3)
T his l arge s tructure s ituated a t t he b ase o f t he A cropolis a nd n orth o f t he m ain c olonnaded s treet , w as a t f irst c lassified b y C onder a s p art o f t he F orum o r a s a nother T emple . L ater , h owever , B utler c orrected t his d ecision a nd c learly i dentified t he b uilding a s t he P ropylaea ( 14) . T he
f acade o f
t he s tructure w as 2 5 m etres w ide a nd w as d ivided i nto
t hree s quare-shaped e ntrances, t he c entral o ne h igher t han t he 2 s ide e ntrances . T wo s maller w alls a djoining t he m ain w all f ormed t he a ntas . F acing t he f acade w as a n o pen , c olonnaded a rea f lanked o n e ither s ide b y s taircases . O ther c olumns s tood b etween t he a ntas w hile y et a nother f our s tood a gainst t he m ain w all i n b etween t he t hree e ntrances ( fig . 1 3) . T he b uilding e xcelled i n i ts r ich d ecorative s tyle . A ll t he c olumns h ad C orinthian c apitals , t he s quare e ntrances w ere c apped b y c ornices a bove w hich w ere s emi-circular n iches a nd a longside t hem s tood f lat p ilasters . T he c entral w all t oo w as d ecorated b y C orinthian c apped p ilasters ( fig . 1 3) ( 15) . I t a ppears t hat t he i nhabitants o f P hiladelphia e ntered t he s acred p recinct o f t he A cropolis b y p assing f rom t he m ain s treet o n t he s outh s ide , p assed t hrough t he p ropylaea a nd t hereafter a scended t he s taircases o f w hich n othing r emains t oday .
T HE C OLONNADED S TREETS ( Figs. 4 ,5,14) C olumns l ined t he e ntire l ength o f t he t wo m ain s treets o f P hiladelphia . C onder a nd B utler s till m anaged t o s ee p arts o f t hese s treets
( figs .
4 ,5) ( 16) .
T oday ,
h owever ,
t he m ain h ighways o f t he m odern
c ity o f A mman r un p arallel t o a nd a bove t he a ncient s treets o f P hiladelphia ( figs .6-7) ( 17) . T hese w ere p aved i n s quare s labs o f s tone a nd m easured 8 . 40 m etres i n w idth w hile t he i ndividual c olumns w ith t heir C orinthian c apitals , s tood 3 m etres a part .
T HE T HEATRE ( figs. 2 ,5, 1 5-20) ( 18) N ot f ar f rom t he e astern e nd o f t he c ity , v alley r eaches i ts w idest p oint ,
i n a n a rea w here t he s outhern
s tood t he T heatre ( figs . 4 -6) .
T he c entral
p art o f t he c avea r elied o n t he n atural g radient o f t he v alley a nd w as m ainly c ut o ut o f t he r ock . T he e nd s ections w ere c onstructed a nd s upported b y a s ystem o f v aults w hile t he a ctual s eats t hemselves w ere n ot c arved f rom t he n atural r ock, a s c an b e s een i n P etra, b ut i nstead w ere b uilt o f s tone ( 19) . B y t he e nd o f t he 1 9th c entury t he s kene a nd t he s kenefrons w ere a lready f ound i n a s tate o f n ear c omplete d estruction . B oth t he c avea s un i n ia a nd c avea m edia c omprised 1 6 r ows o f s eats d ivided b y 6 s calaria i nto 7 c unei , w hile t he c avea i ma i ncluded 1 3 r ows o f s eats ( figs . 1 9 ,20) .
I n t he c entre o f
t he c avea s umma s tood a n e xedra ( cavea s hrine)
a nd a t t he b ack w as a s emi-circular n iche f lanked o n e ither s ide b y s quare n iches ( figs . 1 9 ,20) ( 20) .
7
T HE F ORUM ( figs. 4 ,5,
1 517).
A t ad istance o f 7m etres f rom w hat r emains o f t he s kene-building s tands a r ow o f 8C orinthian c olumns w ith a n a rchitrave ( fig . 1 7) ( 21) . W est o f t he l ast c olumn i n t his r ow s tands a d ouble c olumn w hich f ormed t he c orner c olumn f or a nother p ortico a djoining t his o ne . T his a dditional r ow o f c olumns d oes n ot c onnect u p w ith t he f irst p ortico a t ar ight a ngle , b ut m eets i t a t a n a ngle o f 1 08 . T here s eems t o b e n o a pparent e xplanation f or t his s trange a ngle . T hese c olumns m easured 6 0 c m i n d iameter w hile t hose o f t he p ortico p arallel t o t he s kenefrons m easured 7 0 c m ( fig . 1 8) . B utler c laims t hat t he c ourtyard e ncompassed b y p orticos w as t he F orum o f R oman P hiladelphia . I n h is r econstruction o f t he c ity p lan h e d escribes t he F orum a s b eing s urrounded o n t he e ast , s outh a nd w est b y p orticos ( fig . 5 ) . C onfirmation o f t his a ppeared i n t he f orm o f a n i nscription a nd t he r emains o f t hese p orticos u ncovered d uring c onservation w ork d one i n t he a rea o ver t he l ast f ew y ears ( 22) . I n t he n orth t he F orum w as b ordered b y t he m ain c olonnaded s treet w hich r an n orth o f t he r iver .
T HE O DEON ( figs. 5 ,18 ,24) ( 24) T he O deon f acing w est H owever , s urface .
i s
s ituated
c lose
t o t he t heatre ( fig .
5 ) .
i n c ontrast t o t he t heatre , t he o deon w as c onstructed o n a f lat O n i ts w estern s ide t here i s aw all w ith 5 e ntrances , a nd t he
e astern s ide ( the p roskenion ) i s c onnected t o t his w all b y a v ault r unning a long i ts e ntire f acade ( fig . 2 4) . T wo t owers f orming t he p araskenia s tood o n e ither s ide o f t he e astern f ront . T he c avea o f t he O deon f orm t wo h orizontal s ections t he u pper o ne ( cavea s umma ) w ith 7 r ows o f s eats a nd -
t he l ower ( cavea i ma) w ith 1 r ows .
A s ar esult o f t he d estruction i n t his
a rea i t i s d ifficult t o p inpoint a ny f urther d etails c oncerning t his s tructure . T oday , n othing r emains o f t he O deon .
T HE N YMPHAEON
( figs. 2 5-28)
S ituated o n t he w est s ide o f P hiladelphia t he n ymphaeon l ooks n orth . T o t he s outh i s t he A mman r iver a nd a nother , s maller o ne r uns b elow t he N ymphaeon b efore f lowing i nto t he A mman R iver . O n t he n orth a nd n orth-west l ie t he t wo m ain c olonnaded s treets o f t he c ity . N umerous p ublic b uildings s eem t o h ave s tood i n t he v icinity o f t he N ymphaeon ,
a lthough f ew r emains
w ere t o b e s een e ven a t t he b eginning o f t he 2 0th c entury ( figs . 4 ,5) . D espite t he f act t hat B utler f ound t he N ymphaeon p artially i n r uins , h e w as s till a ble t o r econstruct i t f rom t hose a rchitectural e lements d iscovered o n t he s ite ( figs . 2 6 ,27) . T his i ncluded a s traight , c entral w all a bove t he r iver , m easuring a bout 2 0 m etres i n h eight , w ith a l arge s emi-circular n iche m easuring 8 .40 m etres w ide a nd w as j oined d iagonally b y a nother w all a lso w ith a s mall
s emi-circular n iche ( fig .
2 6) .
T he b ack w all
i s c onstructed
w ith m argined s tones w ith s light p rotruberances ( fig . 2 8) , w hile t he f ront o f t he n ymphaeon h as f lat, w ell h ewn s tones . T he s mall r iver f lowed t hrough a w ide , v aulted p assage b uilt i nto t he b ottom p art o f t he s tructure ( fig . 2 6) . I t i s p ossible t o r econstruct t he p lan o f t he N ymphaeon f rom t hese r emains :
a c entral,
s traight w all w ith a l arge n iche w as j oined o n
b oth s ides b y t wo d iagonal w alls w hich t hereafter s traightened o ut , t hereby c reating t he e ffect o f a n e xedra . T here w ere o ther n iches i n t he w alls ( fig .
2 6) t opped b y s em i-circular d omes a nd d ivided o ne f rom
t he o ther b y
s quare p ilasters . O pposite t he m ain w all s tood a c olonnaded p ortico w here 6c olumns f aced t he m ain w all, t wo f ace t he d iagonal w alls a nd t hree t he
8
o ther w alls .
T he c olumns w ere t opped b y a n a rchitrave w ith S yrian ( broken )
e ntablatures a bove e ach n iche ( fig . 2 7) . T he w alls o f t he f acade w ere t wo f loors h igh , a nd d ecorated b y s tatues w hich s tood i n t he s mall n iches . F acing t he m ain f ront n iche s tood a s taircase c onstructed o n a s eries o f v aults ( figs . 2 6 ,27) . T he N ymphaeon o f P hiladelphia c ounts a mong t he m ore l uxurious n ymphaea u ncovered s o f ar i n a ncient S yria , A rabia a nd a mong t he c ities o f A sia M inor ( 26).
T HE A PSIDAL B UILDING ( figs. 4 ,5) Although
t his s tructure s erved a s a c hurch ,
u ndoubtedly e arlier a nd r eminiscent o f t he N ymphaeon . T he s outhern w all, t he l ength c lose t o t he A mman R iver . I t h as a n iche c haracter t o t hat o f t he N ymphaeon . T hese l arge p ublic b uilding ( 27).
i ts f oundations a re
s tyle o f b uilding u sed i n t he o f w hich i s n ot k nown , s tands w hich i s i dentical i n s ize a nd a re d efinitely t he r emains o f a
T HE V AULT O VER T HE A MMAN R IVER ( figs. 5 ,29) ( 28) T his i s o ne o f t he m ost i mpressive s tructures t o b e f ound i n t he a ncient w orld i n t his a rea . N ot b eing a ble t o e xpand t he c ity f urther s outh o f t he A cropolis , i t w as d ecided t o i ncorporate t he r iver i n t he c ity , ( probably f rom t he N ymphaeon i n t he w est u ntil t he F orum i n t he e ast) , b y c overing i t w ith a w ide v ault ( 10 .30 m etres) s tanding o n h igh s upporting w alls ( 1 .5 m etres h igh) f irmly e mbedded o n b oth s ides o f t he r iver ( fig . 2 9) . A lthough f ew s ections o f t he o riginal v ault r emain t oday , t hese a re s ufficient t o g ive e vidence o f t he s trength a nd i mmensity o f t his s tructure a nd h ow w ell i t w ithstood t he s trong f lowing w aters b elow . T he r iver b ed w as a lso p aved i n s tone s labs i n y et a nother a ttempt t o w eaken t he f low o f t he w aters i n h igh s easons . T his f ine f eat o f e ngineering a chieved t hree t hings: i t e nlarged t he a rea a vailable f or b uilding , i t f acilitated m ovement b etween t he t wo s ides o f t he r iver , a nd i t a lso p revented t he r iver f rom o verflowing d uring f loods ( 29) .
T HE T OMBS ( fig. 3 0) T ens o f t ombs ,
s ome b uilt a nd s ome c ut
Out
of
t he n atural r ock ,
c an b e
s een o n t he h ills r unning s outh a nd s outh-west o f t he c ity . T here a re a lso af ew t o t he n orth o f t he A cropolis w hich w ere p artly d ocumented b y C onder -
( 30).
T HE C ITY P LAN O F P HILADELPHIA T he
c ity
p lan o f
P hiladelphia w as
f irst
a nd f oremostly d ictated b y
n ature a nd o nly a fterwards f ashioned b y t he h ands o f m an .
T he t wo n arrow
v alleys r unning s outh a nd s outh-west o f t he A cropolis c reated a f lat a rea s uitable f or t he c onstruction o f a c ity-centre . T he t wo m ain s treets o f t he t own r an a djacent t o t hese v alleys , a nd i t s eems a s t hough t here w ere n o a dditional s treets . W hile o ne c an n ot b e s ure w hether t he c ity p lan o f P hiladelphia i s H ellenistic o r R oman i n o rigin , i t i s c lear t hat i t e xpresses a n a ttempt t o f ully e xploit t he n arrow n atural a rea l eft f or u rban
9
e xpansion .
I t i s a lso c lear h owever t hat a ll t he r emains k nown t o u s
( except f or a f ew s ections o f t he A cropolis w alls) o riginated i n t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c ent. C .E . R oman P hiladelphia w as p robably n ever p rotected b y a c ity w all .
T he
d ifficult t opography a nd t errain m ade t he c onstruction o f a n e fficient m eans o f d efence a lmost i mpossible . T he A cropolis , h owever , w as l arge a nd e asily d efendable , a nd t herefore w as p robably u sed a s as helter f or m ost c itizens i n t imes o f n eed . T his a rea w as m ainly u sed b y t he R omans f or r itual p urposes ( 31) a s c an b ee s een f rom t he n ature o f t he a rchitectural s tructures o n i t, n amely t he t wo t emples, t he h uge a reas s urrounded b y c olonnaded p orticos , t he g ate a nd t he p ropylaea a t t he f oot o f t he A cropolis -
( fig . 5 ) . T he c ity a nd t he A cropolis w ere c onnected b y a s eries o f s teps o n t he s outhern s ide ( fig . 5 ) . S outh o f t he m ain s treet , w here t he v ally i s a t i ts w idest ( 200 m etres w ide) , l ay t he c ity c entre . T he r iver c utting a cross t he v alley s outh o f t he m ain s treet w as c overed b y av ault , a nd t his e nlarged t he a rea p ossible f or c ity e xpansion . O f t he p ublic b uildings t hat e xisted a t t he t ime w e a re a quainted o nly w ith t he t heatre a nd t he o deon . B etween t hem l ay t he f orum w here o nly t he 3 p orticos r emain t oday ( figs . 5 ,15 ,16) . W hile t he o deon w as f ree-standing a nd s ituated o n t he e astern s ide , t he t heatre i n t he s outh , u sed t he n atural s lope o f t he h ill f or i ts s upport . O ne h undred a nd e ighty m etres f urther e ast t he m ain s treet e nded i n am onumental g ate , n othing o f w hich r emains t oday , a lthough C onder a nd B utler m ention i ts e xistence w ithout g iving a ny d escription o f i t . I t i s a lso p ossible t hat , h ere o n t he e astern b order , s tood t he c ity w all ( figs . 4 ,5) . F rom t he r emains o f c olumns a nd s tructures f ound w est o f t he t heatre a nd s outh o f t he m ain s treet , i t would a ppear t hat t here w as m uch p ublic b uilding i n t his c entral a rea . S outhw est o f t he p ropylaea a re t he r emains o f a p ortico a nd s till f urther w est s tood t he n ymphaeon u nder w hich r an a s mall r iver e ventually f lowing i nto t he A mman R iver . T he w ide s tretch o f l and c reated w here t he s outh a nd s outh-western v alleys m et, a llowed f or m ore c entralization o f p ublic b uildings . A nd i ndeed , r esearchers c laim t hat t he K han , t he M osque , t he C hurch a nd t he m arkets a ll s tand o n t he r uins o f m uch e arlier s tructures ( figs . 4 ,5) . T his w as a lso t he c rossroads o f t he c ity 's 2 m ain s treets . N orth-east o f t his m eeting p oint s tood t he B ath ( figs . 4 ,5) w hich w as f ound i n s uch r uins t hat n o a ttempt w as e ver m ade b y a rchaeologists t o even d escribe i t . C olonnades r an a long t he e ntire l ength o f t he 2 m ain s treets . T he a rea e ncompassed b y P hiladelphia w as n ot l arge . v alleys o nly m easured 1 73 ,000 s q . m etres .
T ogether t he t wo
A dd t o t his t he e xpanse o f t he
A cropolis w hich w as a lso l arge e nough t o h ave b een u sed f or a c ertain a mount o f p ublic a nd e ven p rivate b uilding , a nd o ne r eaches a c ity a rea o f 2 76 ,000 s q .
m etres
( 32) .
A s m ost
o f
t his w as
t aken u p
b y p ublic a nd
r itual
s tructures t he q uestion m ust b e a sked w here d id t he i nhabitants l ive? W here d id t hey c onstruct t heir p rivate h omes? T he a nswer s eems t o b e t hat -
a lthough t he s lopes o f t he v alleys o n t he s outh a nd s outh-west w ere p robably t oo s teep f or t he p lanning o f a ny r oad s ystem , i t w as d efin itely p ossible t hat h omes w ere b uilt o n o r c ut o ut o f t he r ock f aces a s w as d one i n N abataean P etra o r B yzantine Avdat ( 33) . T o d ate n one o f t he c aves s cattered a mong t he h omes o f A mman t oday h ave b een p roperly i nvestigated a nd n othing r emains o f t he r uins t hat c ould o nce h ave b een s een o n t he s lopes o f t he h ills.
1 0
T his m ight h e ap ossible s olution t o t he q uestions p osed a bove ,
b ut i t
s till d oes n ot g ive u s a ny i dea a s t o t he s ize o f t he p opulation l iving p ermanently i n t he c ity o f P hiladelphia . T here w ould a lso s eem t o b e a c ontradiction b etween t he s ize a nd s plendour o f t he p ublic s tructures ( theatre , o deon , n ymphaeon e tc) a nd t he s ize o f t he c ity i tself w ith w hat a ppears t o b e as mall n umber o f i nhabitants ( 34) . T he c entre o f t he m odern c ity o f A mman t oday l ies e xactly o ver t he c entre o f R oman P hiladelphia ( compare f igs . 5 ,6 ,7) a nd t he n orthern , s outhern a nd s outh-western s lopes a re c overed b y d ense p rivate s tructures, w ith n o c lear r oad n etwork . S im ilarly i nhabited a re t he h ills b ordering t he v alley o f S il-Amman o n t he s outh s ide ( figs . 6 ,7 ,16) a nd t he e astern t errace o f t he A cropolis . T he b uilding h ousing t he J ordanian D epartment o f A ntiquities w as c onstructed i n t he 1 960 's o n t he m iddle t errace ( fig . 6 ) . T he m ain t raffic l ine o f m odern A mman r uns e xactly w here t he m ain c olonnaded s treet o f P hiladelphia o nce l ay . r unning
s outh
o f
t he A cropolis ,
t his
s treet
N amed " Shera 'a e i H ashemi" a nd h ouses
t he
i mportant
p ublic
b uildings o f m odern d ay A mman : t he m unicipality ( west o f t he t heatre) , t he " Philadelphia" H otel ( north o f t he t heatre) , a nd a c entral c ity s quare w hich s tands o n t he a rea o f t he a ncient R oman F orum . T he r emains o f t he c olonnaded p orticos h ave b een i ncorporated i nto t his s quare ( figs . 6 ,16) . T o t he w est o f t he m unicipality, i n t he a rea c lose t o t he n ymphaeon , i s A mman 's c entral b us s tation ( fig . 7 ) . P hiladelphia 's s econd m ain s treet i s t oday c overed b y t he o ther m ain r oad o f A mman c alled " Shera 'a e i M elech F eisal" a long w hich a re t he v arious f oreign e mbassies , m ajor b anks a s w ell a s g overnment m inisteries ( fig . 7 ) . T he c ity 's m arkets l ie s outh-west o f t he m eeting p oint o f t he 2 m ain s treets a nd i n t he n orth-western c orner s tands t he c ity 's l argest m osque " El H usseini" o n t he r emains o f a n e arlier s tructure . I t i s v ery p ossible t hat t he t rade a rea o f a ncient P hiladelphia w as a lso c entered i n t his n arrow s ection o f t he v alley ( figs . 5 -7). -
T he
s pecific
t opography
o f
t he a rea c reated
t he d ivision o f
a ncient
P hiladelphia a s w ell a s t hat o f m odern A mman i nto d istinct f unctional a reas : t he a dministrative , p ublic a nd c ultural c entre o n t he e ast s ide o f t he c ity ; t he r itual s tructures o n t he A cropolis; a nd t he t rading c entre o n t he w estern s ide . T he c ity p lan , e ven t oday, c onforms t o t he l ines o f t he v alleys i n w hich i t l ies . L ittle r emains o f t he a ncient c ity i tself e xcept f or t he t heatre a nd s mall s ections o f t he p orticos a round t he f orum . A ll t he o ther a ncient b uildings h ave d isappeared a nd t he c olonnaded s treets a re b uried d eep u nderneath t he m odern a sphalt . T he A mman R iver n ow r uns t hrough l arge c oncrete w ater p ipes ( fig . 7 ) , a nd a g lance a t t he c ity p lans o f A mman s hows e xactly h ow m uch t he n ew c ity c lings t o t he a ncient l ines o f P hiladelphia o f t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c ent . B .C . ( fig . 7 ) a c ity p lan d ictated b y t he p hysical c onditions a round i t a nd n ot b y t raditional u rban p lanning -
o f t he p eriod .
1
N OTES 1 .
R abat A mman i s m entioned i n v arious B iblical s ources a s w ell a s i n
H ellenistic a nd R oman s ources w here i t i s c alled P hiladelphia o r A mman . s ee : P . T homsen , L oca S ancta , H alle, 1 907, p . . 13 2 A .
W ith r eference t o t he c ity's h istory, s ee :
M . A vi-Yonah , T he H oly L and f rom t he P ersian P eriod t o t he Arab C onquest, B aker B ooks, M ichigan , 1 966, p . 1 77. E . H onigman , R E, s .v . P hiladelphia , c oils. 2 094-2096. A .H .M . J ones , T he C ities o f t he E astern R oman P rovinces , 2 41-242, 2 60-261.
O xford ,
1 937 ,
p . p
V . T scherikower , D ie H ellenistischen S tadtegrundungen v on A lexander d em . 7. 7 G rossen b is a uf d ie R omerzeit, L eipzig , 1 927, p H . B ietenhart , ' Die D ekapolis v on P ompeius b is T raian" , Z .D .P .V . 7 9 ( 1963) , p . 2 4-51. p G .W . B owersock , " A R eport 2 42, p lates X IV-XV . J .P . R ey-Coquais, 2 B.
o n A rabia P rovincia" ,
J .R .S . L XI
( 1971) ,
" Philadelphie d e C oelesyrie", A DAJ 2 5 ( 1981),
p p .
2 19-
2 5-31.
p . p
W ith r eference t o t he n umismatic f indings s ee :
C .F . H ill, C atalogue o f t he G reek C oins o f A rabia , M esopotamia a nd P ersia , L ondon , 1 922. ( Philadelphia), p . X XXIX , p p . 3 7-41, p late V I 1 -3. A . S pijkerman , T he C oins o f t he D ecapolis a nd P rovincia A rabia , F ranciscan P rinting P ress, J erusalem , 1 978 ( Philadelphia , p p . 2 42-257). 2 C .
W ith r eference t o t he e pigraphical f indings s ee :
E . L ittman , Expedition
P ublications o f t he P rinceton U niversity Archaeological t o S yria . 1 904-1905, 1 909, D iv .III, G reek a nd Latin
p . 8 -15. I nscriptions S ect. A , S outhern S yria : P art I , A mmonitis ( Amman), p W .H .P . H atch , " Ten U npublished G reek I nscriptions f rom Amman" , A .A .S.O .R . V II ( 1926) pp. 1 00102. A . A lt , " Inschriftlisched z u d en A ren v on S cythopolis u nd P hiladelphia" , 1 28-134. Z .D .P .V . 5 5 ( 1932), pp.
F .M . A bel , " Inscription G recque d 'An iman" , R .B. X LV ( 1936), p p. 2 33-235. p . 5 42-543. P . L emaire, " Inscription M onumentale a 'Amman", R .B . X LV ( 1936), p B . O ded, " The A mman T heatre I nscription" , R . S t .O 4 4 ( 1969), p p . 1 87189. F . Z ayadine , " A G reek I nscription f rom t he F orum o f A mman P hiladelphia , A .D . 1 89" , A .D.A .J . ( XIV), 1 969, pp. 3 4-35. -
D . S chlumberger , " t Jne N ouvelle I nscription d ' Amman-Philadelphia" , 3 85-389 , f igs . 1 -3 . ( 1971) , pp.
S YRIA 4 8
2 D. W ith r eference t o t he h istory o f A mman d uring t he l ast c enturies: 6 1-70. G .L . H arding , T he A ntiquities o f J ordan , L ondon , 1 959, pp. 3 . W ith r eference t o t he V ia T raiana N ova , s ee : H .C . B utler , " Trajan 's r oad f rom B osra t o t he R ed S ea .
T he s ection b etween
B osra a nd A mman", P .U.A .E.S., D iv . I II, S ect. A , P art 2 ( Appendix). R .E . B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski, D ie T rajansstrasse v on A mman n ach B osra . P rovincia A rabia I I, S trassburg, 1 905, pp. 2 21-227. D . M agie, " Milestones F ound o n T rajan 's R oad B etween B osra a nd Amman" , P .U .A .E.S., D iv . I II, S ect. A , P art 2 ( Appendix). A . A lt , " Zur R omischen S trasse v on P hiladelphia N ach E sbus" , p p . 10112.
1 2
P .J . 3 2
( 1936) ,
4 . 5 .
S ee n ote 2 D, s ee a lso c hapter 5 , n ote 3 6. U .J .
S eetzen ,
R eisen D urch
S yrien,
P alastina,
P hoenicien,
d ie
T ransjordan-Lander , A rabia P etraea u nd U nter-Aegypten I , p . 3 96 f f. J .L . B uckhardt, T ravels i n P alestine , L ondon , 1 821, p p. 6 7-79 . L . d e L aborde , V oyage d e L a S yrie , P aris, 1 837, p . 9 9 f f. A .E . N orthey , ' Expedition t o t he E ast o f J ordan" , P .E .F . 4 -6 ( 1871-73) , 5 7-72. C . R obinson , E ast o f J ordan , L ondon , 1 881, pp. 2 64-267, 3 98-403. C .R . C onder , T he S urvey o f E astern P alestine I , L ondon , 1 889, pp. 1 9-64. R . E . B runnow , Av . D omaszewski , P rovincia A rabia I I , S trassburg , 1 905 ,
p p .
p p .
21 6-220. H .C . B utler , P .U.A .E.S ., D iv . I I, A ncient A rchitecture i n S yria . S ect. A , S outhern S yria . P art I , A mmonitis ( Amman), p p . 3 4-62. N o
e xtensive
a rchaeological
e xcavations w ere
e ver h eld
i n
P hiladelphia .
H owever , f rom t he 1 920 's s mall e xcavations t ook p lace a nd b etween 1 927-1934 a n I talian e xpedition h eaded b y B artoccini c ompleted m uch w ork o n t he A cropolis, s ee : R . B artoccini , " Ricerche e s coperte d ella m issione i taliana i n A mman". B olletino D ell'associazione I nternazionale P er G li S tudi M editerranei 1 ( 1930), pp. 1 517, P l . I V . R . B artoccini, " Scavi a d A mman d ella M issione A rcheologia I taliana 1 6A ssociazione I nternazionale S tudi M editerranei" , B olletino 2 ( 1932) , pp. 2 3 ,
P ls .
1 -1V .
R . B artoccini, " Scavi a d A mman d ella M issione A rcheologica I taliana , A ssociazione I nternazionale S tudi M editerranei" , B olletino 3 -4 ( 1933-1934) , p . 1 0-15, P ls. p
II-XII. I
T he I talian e xcavations f ocused o n t wo a reas:
a ) T he s outhern t emple
s ituated o n t he u pper t errace c lose t o t he s outhern w all . b ) T he f ront c ourtyard s ituated i n t he n orth-west e nd o f t he s ame t errace w hich , f or s ome u nclear
r eason ,
t he
e xcavators
t ermed
" the A gora" .
T he
I talians
n ever
r efer t o B utler a nd C onder i n t heir p ublications , n either d o t hey p resent a ny p ossible p lan o f t he c ity . S ince t hese e xcavations , b oth t he B ritish a nd t he J ordanians h ave c onducted a f ew ' salvage ' e xcavations o n t he A cropolis a nd i n t he c ity i tself.
S ee :
L . H arding , " A N abatean T omb a t A mman" , Q .D .A .P . X II, ( 1945-1946), 6 2 . L . H arding , ' Excavations o n t he C itadel, A mman" , A .D .A .J . X IV, 1 951, 1 6. S . K h .
T ell ,
"No tes
o n t he A rchaeology
o f A mman" ,
A .D .A .J . X IV,
p p .
5 8-
p p .
7 -
( 1969) ,
p p .
2 8-33. F . Z ayadine , " Excavations o n t he U pper C itadel o f A mman" , A .D .A .J . X XII, 2 0-56 . ( 1977-1978), pp. C .M . B ennett , A .E . N orthedge , " Excavations a t t he C itadel, Amman , 1 976 , S econd P reliminary R eport" , A .D .A .J . X XII , ( 1977-1978) , p p . 1 72-179 . A . N orthedge , " Survey o f t he T errace A rea a t A mman C itadel" , L evant X II , ( 1980), p p . 1 35-154, P is. X X-XXIV . A . N orthedge, " The F ortifications A .D.A .J. X XVII, ( 1982), p p . 4 37-459. 6 .
o f Q ala '
a t A mman ( Amman C itadel)" ,
C .R. C onder , p p . 2 9-34.
R .C . B utler , p p . 3 6-38 . A . F i adidi, " The R oman T own P lan o f A mman" , i n P . Moorey, A rchaeology i n t he L evant, W arminster , 1 978, pp. 2 10-222.
1 3
P . P arr ( eds) ,
7 .
B utler c laims
t hat t he q uality o f b uilding o f c ertain s ections o f t he
A cropolis w all i n P hiladelphia i s i dentical t o t hat o f t he s upporting w alls a t A 'arak e i A mir , a nd t hat t hese s ections c ould b elong t o t he H ellenistic P eriod ( 2nd c ent. B .C.), s ee : H .C . B utler , p p . 3 7-38 , i II.23. T he I talians a lso p oint o ut t hese e arlier s ections t o t he w all, s ee : R . B artoccini, o p. c it. B .A .S.M . 1 , ( 1930), p . 1 5 . I dentical p arts w ere a lso d iscovered b eneath t he f oundations o f t he s outhern t emple, s ee : R . B artoccini, B .A .S.M . 2 ( 1932), p . 1 6, P l. I , F ig . 2 . 8 .
H .C . B utler ,
9 .
C .R . C onder , p p . 3 1-33 .
p .
3 8 .
H .C . B utler , p p . 3 8-41, i lls. 2 4, 2 5. I t a ppears t hat t he s outhern t emple w as c onstructed c lose t o a n o pen a rea w hich s erved c ontinuously a s a r itual p lace e ven d uring t he B ronze A ge . B oth t he G reeks a nd t he R omans p reserved t he s anctity o f t his s pecific a rea . T he n umismatic f inds a lso c onfirm t he r eligious t raditions s urrounding t he T yrian G od , M elkart , i dentified w ith H eracies ( see n ote 2 B) . A ccording t o a n i nscription f ound i n t he a rea t he l ast
r itual
s tructure t o b e o ccupied
w as b uild b y M arcus A urelius ( see n ote 1 0) . T he H ellenistic f oundations a re c learly v isible b eneath t he R oman t emple ( see n ote 7 ) . T he I talian e xpedition d id n ot a ttempt a n i ndependent r econstruction p lan o f t he c ity , t hey w ere s atisfied w ith t he p ublication o f p hotographs a lone, s ee : R . B artoccini, B .A .S.M . 2 ( 1932), p p . 1 6, 2 1, P is . 1 1-1V . ( See f ig . 1 1 e xcavations). 1 0 .
s howing t he t emple a fter t he c ompletion o f
t he I talian
E . L ittman , P .U .A .E.S.,
D iv . I II G reek a nd L atin I nscriptions, S ect. A . S outhern S yria , P art I , M imonitis, I nscr . 4 , p p .
1 011.
1 . B utler e mphasises t hat t he s outhern t emple i s s imilar t o t he T emple o f Z eus a t G erasa a nd f rom e pigraphical s ources i t n ow i s c lear t hat b oth t emples w ere c onstructed d uring t he r eign o f M arcus A urelius. S ee : C .H . K raeiing ( ed .), G erasa , p . 5 4, P l . X XVI, ( inscr . 1, p . 3 80). R . B artoccini, B .A .S.M . 2 ( 1932), p p . 1 6, 2 1, P is. 1 -1V. S ee a lso C hapter T wo , d iscussion a bout t he T emple o f Z eus, 1 2 .
p .
2 3.
D espite t he b ad s tate o f p reservation o f t he r uins o n t he A cropolis , i t
s eems t hat t hese 2 c ourtyards c omprised a s acred p recinct s imilar t o t he k ind f ound i n G erasa , P almyra a nd D amascus . a ) W ith r eference t o t he p recinct i n G erasa , s ee : C .S. F isher , G erasa , ( The T emple o f A rtemis), p p . 1 25138 , p lan I . S ee a lso d iscussion c oncerning t he S anctuary o f A rtemis i n C hapter n otes 5 5-57, f ig. 7 5, p p . 2 6-29. b ) W ith r eference t o t he J upiter p recinct i n D amascus, s ee: C . W atzinger , K . W atzinger , D amascus , d ie A ntike S tadt , B erlin , 4 2, F ig . 1 .
1 921,
T wo ,
p p . 3 -
J . S auvaget , " Le p lan a ntique d e D amas" , S YRIA X XVI ( 1949), p p . 3 14-358 , F ig. 1 ( see i ll. 8 0). c )
W ith r eference t o t he B ei S anctuary a t P almyra, s ee :
T h . W iegand , P almyra , E rgebnisse d er E xpeditionen v on 1 902 u nd 1 917 , B erlin , 1 932, p p . 1 27150 , F ig. 6 8 .
1 4
D . S chlumberger , 1 49162.
" Le D evelopement u rban d e P almyra" ,
M .
L e T emple P almyrenien ,
G awiikowski ,
W arszawa ,
B ERYTUS
1 973 ,
p p .
( 2) 1 935 , 2 0-25 ,
p p .
5 3-80 .
( see I I. 7 8). 1 3 .
T he
I talian e xpedition u ncovered
a r ow o f
c olumns
l eading f rom t he
e ntrance t o t he f ront c ourtyard a nd t hereafter t o t he e ntrance o f t he t emple c ourtyard . T his d ivided t he f ormer i nto 2 s ections . A s m entioned , n o p lan w as o ffered b y t he I talians a nd t herefore a n a ttempt h as b een m ade h ere t o i ncorporate t he i nformation g leaned f rom p hotographs i nto t he p lans p roduced b y B utler . ( Compare f igs. 8 a nd 9 ), s ee : R . B artoccini, B .A .S.M . 3 -4 ( 19331934), P l. 7 . 1 4 .
C .R .
C onder ,
p p .
3 7-38 ,
s ee i ll o n p age 3 7 a nd p hotograph o n p age 3 2 .
B utler b ased h is r econstruction o f t he s tructure o n t his p hotograph . H .C . B utler , 1 5 .
p . p
4 3-46, I II. 2 8 .
B utler e mphasizes t he s imilarity b etween t he p lans a nd d ecoration o f
t he p ropylaea o f P hiladelphia a nd t hat o f t he T emple o f A rtemis i n G erasa . S ee : C . H orsf l eid , " Jerash A nnual R eport o n W orks o f C onservation 1 925-1926" , T .J.A .B. 1 926, P ls. I ll-TV . -
C . S .
F isher ,
G erasa , T he T emple o f A rtemis .
( Propylaea W est
o f t he C ardo ) ,
p p . 1 29-131. E pigraphical f inds d ate t he p ropylaea o f G erasa t o t he y ear 1 50 A .D . ,
s ee :
C .B . W elles, G erasa , I nscriptions ( inscr . n o . 6 0), p p. 4 02-403. T here i s ad efinite p ossibility t hat t he p ropylaea a t P hiladelphia w ere a lso c onstructed d uring t he m iddle o f t he 2 nd c ent. A .D . 1 6 .
C .R . C onder ,
p .
3 8 .
H .C . B utler , p p. 4 6-47, i ll. 3 0. 1 7 .
S ee c oncluding d iscussion c oncerning t he c ity p lan o f P hiladelphia , p p .
9 11. 1 8 .
C .R. C onder ,
p p .
3 5-36.
R .E . B runnow , A .V . D omaszewski, P .A . I I, f ig . 8 41. H .C . B utler , p p . 4 7-50 , i lls. 3 1-33, P l. I V. B ased o n a rchaeological f inds a nd t heir s imilarity t o o ther s uch s tructures i n S yria , J udaea a nd A rabia , t he F rench s cholar , F rezoules, d ates t he t heatre a nd t he o deon o f P hiladelphia t o t he s econd h alf o f t he 2 nd c ent . C .E .,
s ee :
E . F rezoules , ' Recherches s ur ( 1959), p 2 . 25. ( See a lso n ote 2 2.) 1 9 .
P h .
C .
H ammond ,
B .A .S.O.R . 1 74 ( 1964), 2 0 .
l es T heatres d e L 'Orient S yrien" ,
" The E xcavations p p .
a t
t he
M ain T heatre
S YRIA X XVI
a t
P etra ,
5 9-66.
E xcavated a nd r econstructed d uring t he 1 960 's ,
i ntegral p art o f t he m ain c ity s quare .
t he t heatre i s t oday a n
S ee :
2 8-33. S . K b . T ell , " Note o n A rchaeology o f A mman", A .D.A .J. X IV ( 1969), pp. F . F akharani , ' Das T heater v on A mman i m J ordanien" , A .A . 1 975 ( 3 ) , p p . 3 774 03 [ See a lso f igs. 1 9,20]. I t w ould a ppear t hat t he s tructure d iscovered i n t he c entre o f t he u pper s ection o f t he c avea h ad r itual p urposes a nd i s k nown a s C avea S hrine . O ther s uch c onstructions h ave b een u ncovered a t t he t heatre o f P ompeius i n
1 5
R ome ,
t he T imgad t heatre a nd t he N ikopolis t heatre i n A sia M inor .
J . H anson , 1 6 ,27, ‚ 36. 2 1.
R oman T heatre
C .R . C onder ,
-
T emples,
P rinceton ,
1 959,
S ee :
5 9-77,
P P .
F igs .
3 5-36.
p p .
R .E. B runnow , A .V . D omaszewski, F ig . 8 41. . 5 0, P l. I V . H .C . B utler , p A lthough C onder a nd B utler o nly s aw 8 c olumns , m ore w ere u ncovered d uring l ater e xcavations.
( See f ig .
2 2 .
" A
F .
Z ayadine ,
1 5).
G reek
I nscription
P hiladelphia A .D. 1 89" , A .D.A .J. X IV ( 1969),
f rom
t he
F orum
o f
A mman
-
3 4-35, P l . X XII.
p p .
D . S chlumberger , " l ine N ouvelle I nscription D 'Amman S YRIA X LVIII ( 1971), pp. 3 85-389, F igs. 1 -3 .
P hiladeiphie" ,
-
T his i s a m onumental , G reek i nscription d ated t o 1 89 G .E ., w hich m entions t he c onstruction o f t he " tristoon" i n t he t own . T his r efers t o t he 3 s ided p orticos
s urrounding
t he
f orum .
( A
f orum w as
u sually
e ncompassed
b y
4
p orticos , b ut i n t his c ase i t s eems t hat t he c olonnaded m ain s treet i n t he n orth s erved a s t he f ourth p ortico ) . T he i nscription i s i mportant e vidence i n t he c hronology o f t he u rban d evelopment o f P hiladelphia . 2 3 .
I t w as c ommon p ractice i n R oman a rchitecture t o p lace t he t heatre a nd
t he o deon i n c lose p roximity t o o ne a nother . O ne e xample f or t his c an b e s een i n P ompei . A .N . M odona , G il E difici T eatrali G reci e R omani , F irenze , 1 961, p p . 8 8-96 , F ig . 4 8. A nother e xample i s i n O range, ( Arausio), F rance : M . B ieber , T he H istory o f t he G reek a nd R oman T heatre , 2 01, F igs. 6 78-679 , n otes 2 0-21.
P rinceton ,
1 961,
p .
I n t he R oman E ast t he t wo t heatres o f G adara t hat h ave n ot y et b een e xcavated a lso f it i nto t his c ategory o ne p oints n orth , t he o ther w est a nd b oth s tand o n t he A cropolis. ( See f igs. 2 1,22,23). S ee : -
G . S chumacher , N orthern A jlun w ithin t he D ecapolis , L ondon , 1 890 , p . 4 6 , f ig. 1 . V . Weg ner-Lux , E .W . K rueger , " Bericht u ber d ie O berfiachenforschung i n G adara ( Umm-Qes) i n J ordanien i m J ahre 1 974" , Z .D .P .V . 9 4 , ( 1978) , p p . 1 351 44, p lan I , P ls. 1-17. -
2 4. C .R . C onder , pp. 3 6-37. 5 0-54 , i lls. 3 4-35. H .C . B utler , pp. A .N . M odona , o p . c it. ( Parte I II, L 'Odei), p p . 2 05-214. M . B ieber , o p . c it. ( Odea), p p . 2 20-222. 2 5.
C .R . C onder ,
p p .
3 9-41.
( See f ig . o n
p .
4 0).
A lthough C onder p ublished a p lan o f t he n ymphaeon , b oth h e a s w eil a s B runnow a nd D omaszewski b elieved i t t o b e aR oman B aths ( see f ig . 2 5). R .E. B runnow , A .V . D omaszewski, F ig. 8 38 . H .C . B utler , 2 6 .
p . p
5 4-59, f igs. 3 6-38 , P l. V .
T he N ymphaeon
o f
P hiladelphia w as
p robably m ore
s plendid e ven t han
t hose f ound i n P etra , B ostra a nd G erasa . I ts d esign i s r eminiscent o f t he p lans o f n ymphaea I n A sia M inor i ncluding t hat o f A spendus, S ide a nd M iletus. S ee : W ith r ef . t o P etra , ( see f ig. 3 1): W . B achmann , C . W atzinger , T h . W iegand , 2 8.
P etra ,
W ith r ef . t o t he n ymphaeon a t B ostra ( see f ig.
1 6
B erlin , 1 29):
1 921,
p . 3 4-35 , p
F ig .
H .C . B utler , P .U .A .E .S ., A ncient A rchitecture i n S yria , P art 4 , B osra , p p . 2 51-252, f ig . 2 26. W ith r ef. t o G erasa ( see f igs. 5 2-55): C .H . K raeling , C erasa , N ew H aven , 1 938, p p. 2 1-22, P l . V Ia , p lan X XVIII. W ith r ef . t o M iletus ( see f ig. 3 2): C . K leiner , D ie R uinen v on M jlet, B erlin , W ith r ef. t o A spendus ( see f ig . 3 3):
1 968 , p p.
H . H ormann , " Die N ymphaum z u A spendos" , F igs. 1 -8, P l. I . W ith r ef .
118 , F igs. 8 5-86. 14-
J .D .A .I . 4 4 ( 1929),
p p .
2 63-274,
t o S ide ( see f ig . 3 4):
A .M . M ansel . D ie R uinen v on S ide , B erlin ,
1 963,
p p .
5 3-76, F igs. 3 5-37.
W ith r ef . t o t he p osition o f t he n ymphaea w ithin t he l andscape o f P rovincia A rabia , s ee c hapter 5 , p . 1 06. 2 7.
C .R . C onder ,
H .C . B utler , 2 8 . 2 9 .
p .
H .C. B utler , I n P etra ,
p .
5 5.
5 9 . p p .
5 9-60 , f ig . 3 9 .
a s imilar
b ut
s maller
e ngineering
f eat w as
T here t oo a r iver c ut t he c ity l engthwise i nto t wo , w ith l ittle r oom i n w hich t o e xpand.
a ccomplished .
a nd t he c ity w as
l eft
S ee :
6 5-66, F ig . ‚ P l . I . W . B achmann , o p . c it., pp. Y et a nother e xample o f t his k ind o f R oman e ngineering m ay b e s een i n t he " Lower C ity" o f P ergamon w here t here i s a s anctuary ( called K izil A vlu) c onstructed o ver t he r iver a nd a t ad efinite a ngle t o i t . T wo h uge v aults w ere b uilt a longside e ach o ther o ver t he r iver , m easuring 1 80 m etres l ong a nd 1 0 m etres h igh . T his s tructure c an b e d ated t o t he 2 nd c entury A .D . G .E . B ean, A egean T urkey , L ondon , 1 967, pp. 8 1-82, F ig . 1, P l . 1 2. E ven t he h istorical s ources o f t he p eriod b ear w itness t o m ore o f t hese a stonishing e xamples o f e ngineering . P liny t he Y ounger i nforms t he E mperor T raian t hat t he c itizens o f A mastris n eed f inancial a id t o c onstruct a v ault o ver t he r iver f lowing n ear t he f orum . S ee : P liny L etters I I, W . H eineman , L ondon , 1 947, X CVIII. 3 0 .
C .R . C onder ,
p p .
4 1-52.
T he ' Western T omb" i s p erhaps t he m ost i nteresting o ne d escribed b y C onder . T his i s a R oman m ausoleum c onsisting o f a r ectangular r oom s tanding o n a p odium ( see f ig .30) w ith a v aulted p assageway . T he f acade w as t opped b y a n a rchitrave a nd t he c orners o f t he w alls w ere d ecorated w ith p ilasters . T he a ctual r oom i tself h ad a d omed c eiling p art o f w hich w as r ecorded b y C onder . L uckily , C onder a lso p hotographed t he m ausoleum , b ecause 2 5 y ears l ater , w hen B utler a rrived o n t he s ite, i t h ad a lready b een d ismantled. 3 1 . T he w ork d one b y t he I talian e xpedition s hows t hat t he A cropolis h ad b een u sed a s as acred p recinct s ince 2 nd c ent. B .C . 3 2.
T he a rea o f t he A cropolis T he s outh v alley r egion T he s outh-west v alley r egion
T otal a rea o f t he c ity
-
-
-
-
1 03,000 s q. m . 1 43,000 s q. m . 3 0 ,000 s q. m .
2 76,000 s q. m .
I t a ppears t hat c ertain s ections o f t he A cropolis w ere u sed i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies C .E . f or p ublic a nd p rivate b uilding . T he p lan o f t he R oman h ouse , n ot f ar f rom t he S outhern T emple a nd o nly p artly e xcavated , s hows
1 7
t hat ,
u nlike t he o ther b uildings a round i t ,
s tructure. S ee : G .L . H arding , ' Excavations 1 6, F ig .1.
o n
t he C itadel,
3a. W ith r ef . t o P etra , s ee : 3 C . a nd A . H orsfield , " Sela-Petra Q .D.A .P. V II, 3b . 3
W ith r ef.
A . N egev , 1 22130 . 3 4 .
( 1938),
p p .
t he
t his w as n ot a r eligious
A mman" ,
R ock
o f
A .D .A .J . I ( 1951) ,
E dom
a nd
p . p
7 -
N abatene" ,
1 -42, P is. I -LXXIV .
t o B yzantine A vdat, s ee :
" Avdat ,
A C aravan H alt i n t he N egev" ,
A RCHAEOLOGY 1 4 ( 1961) ,
T he c ity p lan o f P hiladelphia , p ublished b y B utler
p . p
( fig .5), s hows
s cattered r uins b ordering t he c ity o n t he s outh a nd s outh-west s ides . T hese h ave n ever b een e xcavated . T he r eason f or t he e xtreme c ontrast b etween t he r ich p ublic s tructures a nd w hat s eems t o h ave b een a r emarkably s mall n umber o f p ermanent r esidents , p ossibly l ies i n t he b asic c haracter o f R oman P hiladelphia . D uring t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c ents . C .E . t he c ity w as a r eligious , c ultural a nd t rade c entre f or a m uch w ider p opulation t hat t hat w hich i t h oused p ermanently .
1 8
CHAPI'ER II GERASA
19
I ntroduction G erasa , n estling i n t he v alley o f t he C hrysorchoas R iver , i s t oday t he m odern t own o f J erash . S preading o ver t he e astern s ide o f t he a ncient c ity i t h as p reserved t he o ld S emitic n ame ( figs . 3 5-36) ( 1 ) . T he c ity , l ying 3 4 km n orth o f P hiladelphia ( Amman), o n t he V ia T raiana N ova , w as e stablished a s a ' p olis ' d uring t he H ellenistic p eriod , a nd i s p robably s ituated a bove a m ore a ncient S emitic s ettlement . I t w as p erhaps f irst s ettled b y t he M acedonians , b ut t he e xact d ate f or i ts f oundation h as n ot y et b een e stablished ( 3) . T ogether w ith m any o ther t owns i n S yria a nd P alestine , G erasa w as c alled A ntioch d uring t he S aleucid r ule ( 4 ) . D uring t he r ise t o p ower o f t he H asmoneans a nd t he N abataeans , G erasa c ontinued t o e xist a s a G reek c ity , e ven t hough f or a s hort p eriod i t f ell u nder H asmonean r ule . T he N abataean i nfluence i n t he t own w as a lso e xtensive a nd i s s een e ven a fter t heir p olitical d ecline ( 5) . W ith t he r ise o f R ome i n t he E ast ,
G erasa w as p roclaimed a ' free c ity '
a nd w as i ncluded w ithin t he f ramework o f t he D ecapolis . I n t he y ear 1 06 , w ith t he e stablishment o f t he P rovincia A rabia , G erasa f ound i tself a p art o f t hese c hanging t imes a nd a fter t he e xtensive d evelopment o f t he a rea , ( including n ew s treets a nd f ortifications) t he c ity f lourished . M ost o f i ts m agnificent b uildings w ere c onstructed d uring t his p eriod w hich r eaching a c limax i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 2 nd c ent . C .E . ( 6) , a nd e ven c ontinuing i nto t he f irst q uarter o f t he 3 rd c ent .
H owever ,
f rom t he m iddle o f t his
p eriod o nwards, G erasa e ntered a d ecline w hich c ame a s ar esult o f e conomic p roblems a nd a s ecurity c risis w ithin t he R oman E mpire . M uch l ess c onstruction t ook p lace d uring t he l atter p art o f t he 3 rd c ent , a nd i t w as o nly i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 4 th c ent , a nd i nto t he 5 th c ent . t hat t he c ity o nce a gain b ecame a n i mportant c entre t his t ime f or C hristianity ( 7) . -
H owever ,
t he P ersian a nd A rab i nvasions o f t he 7 th c ent .
b rought a bout t he
a bandonment o f t he c ity d uring t he 8 th c ent , a nd G erasa i s m entioned i n s ources f rom t he M iddle A ges a s ac ity t hat h as b een u ninhabited f or a l ong t : Ime ( 8) . I n 1 878 , t he C ircassian r efugees s ettled o n t he e astern s ide o f t he c ity . T oday, J erash n umbers a bout 8 0 ,000 i nhabitants a nd i s a n i mportant a gricultural a nd t rade c entre f or t he n orthern r egions o f t he K ingdom o f J ordan . T ravellers a nd i nquisitive v isitors s tarted v isiting t he r uined c ity f rom t he e arly d ays o f t he 1 9th c ent . ,
b ut i t w as
n ot u ntil
1 920
t hat a n
o rganised s tudy w as i nitiated a nd t he m onumental s tructures o f t he c ity w ere c leared o f r ubble a nd b egan t o a ppear o n t he s urface . I n 1 928 t he B ritish S chool o f A rchaeology i n c onjunction w ith Y ale U niversity b egan e xcavating a nd c ontinued t o d o s o u ntil 1 934 . ( In 1 930 t he A merican S chool f or E astern S tudies t ook o ver f rom t he B ritish S chool o f A rchaeology) . T he f ollowing a rchaeologists h eaded t he e xpeditions w hich w orked i n t he a rea a t d ifferent t imes : C rowfoot , F isher , C lick a nd H arding a nd t he r esults o f t hese e xcavations w ere p ublished i n 1 938 ( 9) . W ork w as c ontinued a gain b etween 1 937-1940 , m ainly i n t he o val p laza i n t he s outh o f t he c ity . S ince t he 1 960 's m uch r estoration a nd e xcavation h as b een d one b y t he J ordanian D epartment o f A ntiquities t ogether w ith f oreign t eams, p articularly f rom I taly . Y et , d espite a ll t he w ork d one o ver t he y ears , m ost o f t he c ity h as n ot b een u ncovered , e specially o n t he e astern s ide
2 1
w here t he m odern t own o f J erash l ies ( 10).
AG eneral V iew o f t he
C i t y
( figs. 3 5-38).
A ncient G erasa l ay 5 70 m etres a bove s ea l evel, w ithin t he v alley c reated b y t he C hrysorchoas R iver w hich i n t urn c uts t hrough t he c ity r unning n orth t o s outh . T ogether w ith a r ich s pring c alled " Ein K erawan" s ituated i n t he n orth-east , t he c ity w as a lways p rovided w ith a n a bundant w ater s upply . T here w as a lso m uch f ertile a nd a griculturally v iable s oil w ithin t he c lose e nvirons o f t he t own . T he c ity w as e ncompassed b y a s trong w all .
A bout 4 60 m etres s outh o f
t hese w alls s tood t he T riumphal A rch w hile t he H ippodrome s tood m ore t o t he n orth . T he c ity w all h as b een p reserved a long i ts e ntire l ength a nd t his i s e specially e vident f rom a erial p hotographs ( fig . 3 5) ( 11) . T he w all e ncompassed a n a rea o f 8 47 ,000 s q . m etres a nd w as w ell b uilt w ith r ecesses a nd p rojections a t v arious i ntervals , w ell c ut s tones w ith w ide m argins a nd s light p rotruberances i n t he m iddle . T he w all i s 3m etres w ide a nd e very 1 7-22 m etres a s quare t ower p rotrudes a bout 6 m etres f rom t he l ine o f t he w all ( fig . 4 2) ( 12) . E ast o f t he s outh a nd n orth g ates t here a re b reaks i n t he w all t hrough w hich t he r iver w aters f reely f low .
O nly f our c ity g ates
a re k nown t o u s t oday : t wo m ain g ates o ne i n t he n orth a nd o ne i n t he s outh a nd t wo s econdary g ates o n t he w estern s ide . T here w ere p robably a lso -
g ates a long t he e astern s ide o f t he c ity , d iscovered ( figs . 3 5 ,43) ( 13) .
b ut n one o f t hese h as y et
b een
T he c ity i s d ivided b y t he r iver i nto t wo s ections , o ne l arger t han t he o ther . I n a n a ttempt t o p revent f looding d uring p eriods o f h eavy r ains , s trong s upporting w alls w ere c onstructed o n b oth r iver b anks ( fig . 4 2) ( 14) . T he e astern b ank i s s omewhat l ower a nd r ises g ently w estwards w hile t he w est b ank h as s teep s ides w ith t erraces t hat c limb u p t owards t he w est . A lmost a ll t he p ublic b uildings , e xcept f or a p ublic b ath , w ere s ituated o n t he w est b ank o f t he r iver . T he t wo b anks w ere c onnected b y an umber o f b ridges
-
t he s outhern o ne h as b een p reserved i n i ts e ntirety ( figs .
4 2-43)
( 15) . T he f irst l ong a nd n arrow t errace o n t he w estern b ank e nds i n t he s outh o n ah igh h ill w here t he S anctuary o f Z eus a nd t he S outhern T heatre o f G erasa w ere s ituated ( figs . 4 2-43) ( 16) . T he m ain s treet o f t he c ity c rosses t his t errace i n a s traight l ine r unning f rom n orth t o s outh a nd m eets t wo o ther m ain s treets r unning e ast t o w est a t r ight a ngles o ne o n -
t he s outhern e nd o f t he t errace a nd o ne a t i ts n orthern e nd ( figs . 3 5,42,43) . T hese s treets w ere p aved w ith s tone s labs a nd l ined b y c olonnades . T he c rossroads o f t he m ain s treets w ere m arked b y T etrapyla ( figs . 4 2 ,43) . T he e ast-west m ain s treet o n t he s outhern e nd o f t he c ity c rosses t he r iver o ver a b ridge m easuring 7 3 m etres l ong , w hich c omprised 3 b arrel v aults s till t o b e s een t oday ( 17) . T here w ere a n umber o f p ublic o pen a reas i n t he c ity t he s outh ,
f airly c lose t o t he g ate
( figs .
4 2 ,43)
-
( 18) ;
a n o val p laza i n a nother c ircular
p laza a t t he c rossroads o f t he n orth-south a nd e ast-west m ain s treets
( fig .
3 5) ( 19) ; a nd a t hird s quare-shaped o ne o n t he n orth s ide o f t he c ity ( figs . 4 2,48) ( 20) . O nly a s mall t hree
s treets
a nd
n umber o f t hree
b uildings
s quares
h ave
h ave
b een u ncovered
b een
c leaned .
i n G erasa
T he
a nd
f ollowing
d escription w ill f irst d eal w ith t hose s tructures r esearched b ut n ot e xcavated a nd t hereafter a m ore d etailed s tudy w ill b e o ffered o n t he
2 2
e xcavated s tructures .
F inally, w e w ill d iscuss t he c ity p lan o f G erasa .
T he S anctuary o f Z eus ( figs. 4 4-48). S ituated i n t he s outh o f G erasa , o n ah igh h ill a nd c lose t o t he S outhern T heatre , t his a rea s erved a s a r eligious c entre f or t he c ity f rom i ts e arliest d ays . H uge s upporting w alls w ith b arrel v aults , s tood b elow a b uilt u p a rea c onsisting o f t wo t erraces c onnected t o e ach o ther b y af light o f s tairs . O n t he u pper t errace w as a n o pen c ourtyard , o riginally s urrounded b y p orticos, i n t he c entre o f w hich s tood t he T emple ( figs . 4 5-47) ( 21) . T he T emple o f Z eus i s w ell p reserved , w as c onstructed o n t he f oundations o f a n e arlier b uilding o f w hich n othing r emains a nd w as b uilt b etween 1 61-166 C .E . ( figs . 4 6 ,47) ( 22) . I t i s a p eripteral s tructure a nd s tood o n a p odium w hich m easured 2 8 x 4 1 m etres w ith e ight c olumns i n t he f ront a nd t welve a long t he l ength o f t he t emple . A n i nscription d iscovered o n t he a rchitrave d ates t he s tructure ( 23) . T he b uilding s tood a bout 1 5 m etres h igh b ut t ogether w ith t he p odium r ose t o a bout 2 0 m etres . T he w alls
o f t he c ella a nd i ts
f acade h ad s emi-circular n iches
( figs .
4 6 ,48) .
T he a ntas w ere 4 .5 m etres i n d iameter a nd t his a llowed f or t he c onstruction o f a s taircase i nside t he l eft a nta , t he r ight ( being t he s ame i n d iameter) p reserved t he s ymetry o f t he s tructure . T he s tairs w ound s pirally a round a l arge s quare p illar ( fig . 4 8) a nd o pened o ut i nto a p assageway l eading t o t he i nterior o f t he c elia . As imilar s tairwell c an b e s een a t t he T emple o f A rtemis ( fig . 8 0) ( 24) . I n b oth t hese t emples t here i s o bvious c oncern o n b ehalf o f t he a rchitects t o f acilitate t he u se o f t he s tairs . T his s pecific a rchitectural e lement p robably o riginates i n N abataean s tructures ( 25).
T he S outh T heatre ( figs. 4 9-51) ( 26). T his
t heatre
i s
s ituated o n t he n orth-west
s ide o f t he h ill a nd h as
b een w eil p reserved . T he c avea i s c omposed o f t wo h orizontal s ections : t he l ower ( cavea i ma) 1 4 r ows , d ivided i nto 4 c unei a nd t he u pper ( cavea s umma) 1 5 r ows d ivided i nto 8 c unel . S ections o f t he s kene , t he p roskenion a nd t he s kenefrons r emained a nd t hese h ave b een w ell p reserved t oday ( figs . 5 1) . T he p roskenion w as d ecorated b y b oth s emi-circular a nd s quare n iches , w hile i t i s l ikely t hat s mall s tatues s tood i n t he f our r ound n iches o n g round l evel ( 27) . T he s kenefrons h ad t hree e ntrances ( Regia a nd H ospitalia ) a nd s tood a t l east t wo f loors h igh .
T he N ymphaeon ( figs . 5 2-55) ( 28). S outh o f t he T emple o f A rtemis a nd n ear t he m ain n orth-south s treet s tood t he n ymphaeon ( fig . 4 3) . T he f acade m easured 2 4 m etres l ong a nd i n i ts c entre w as a s emi-circular n iche m easuring 1 m etres i n d iameter . O n e ither s ide s maller b ut s imilar n iches c ould b e s een . T he s tructure m ust h ave s tood a bout 3 s toreys h igh a nd w as r ichly d ecorated . B etween t he f ront o f t he b uilding a nd t he s treet s tood a s tone p ool w hich r eceived w ater f rom p ipes
h idden
i n t he b uilding .
T he n ymphaeon w as
e ntered b y a scending 4
s teps t hrough a p ortico c omprising 4 l arger a nd t hen 4 s maller c olumns ( 54) .
2 3
T he N orth T heatre ( fig . 5 6-58) ( 29). S ituated a longside t he m ain s treet g oing e ast-west i n t he n orthern p art o f t he c ity ( fig . 4 3, 5 6) , t his t heatre f aced a l arge, s quare c ourtyard b ordered b y p orticos ( fig . 5 7) . I t i s am uch s maller t heatre t han t he o ne i n t he s outh , b ut h as n either b een e xcavated n or c leaned u p a nd t here a re s till h uge p iles o f e arth a bove m ost s ections o f t he s tructure .
T he W est B ath ( figs. 6 0-61) ( 31). T he b uilding w as e ntered f rom t he n orth-south s treet t hrough t wo s mall e ntrance h alls ( fig . 6 1 E .E .), w hich t hen l ead i nto a l arger h ail ( F) . H ere t he c eiling w as s upported b y 3 l arge a rches t hat s tretched t he e ntire w idth o f t he r oom w hich p robably s erved a s a f rigidarium . T o t he e ast o f t he l atter w ere t hree s mall r ooms ( A , A , A ) u sed a s a podyteria . W est o f t he f rigidarium o ne m oved i nto a l arge s quare h ail ( 15 m etres x 1 5) w ith a l arge s quare a nd v aulted n iche i n i ts w estern w all ( C) . T he e ntire r oom w as o riginally c overed b y as tone d ome w hich c ollapsed o ver t he y ears ; i t s erved a s a c aldarium a nd h ad a n e xit f rom h ere t o t he o utside , t o t he p eristyle w ith i ts p orticos ( P) . O n t he e ast o f t he p eristyle s tood a nother t wo w ings o f t he b athrooms e ach c omprising o ne s quare d ome r oofed r oom ( fig . 6 0) . I t i s n ot y et c lear w hat u se w as m ade o f t hese r ooms . E ast o f t he r iver , o n t he e dge o f t he m odern c ity , a re t he r emains o f w hat w as t he E ast B ath . T his a ppears t o h ave b een a m uch l arger a nd m ore c omplex s tructure t han t he o ne d escribed a bove ( fig . 4 2) ( 32) . F rom i nscriptions u ncovered i n t he c ity ,
i t s eems t hat t here w ere m any
m ore p ublic b uildings i n G erasa w hich h ave n ot y et b een u ncovered . T he f ollowing d escription o f s ome o f t he m onuments e xcavated p rovides u s w ith a c hance t o s tudy t he n ature o f t he a rchitecture i n G erasa m ore c losely .
T he T riumphal A rch ( figs. 6 2-64) ( 34). T he i nscription c arved o n t he T riumphal A rch d escribes i ts c onstruction i n t he y ears 1 29130 C .E . i n h onour o f t he E mperor H adrian ( 35) . T he a rch s tands o n t he m ain a pproach t o t he c ity a bout 4 60 m etres a way f rom t he s outh g ate ( fig . 4 3) . T he s quare b ase o f t he s tructure m easures 3 7 .45 l ong a nd 9 . 25 w ide . T he o riginal l ength o f t he b ase w as i n f act 2 5 .25 m etres b ut l ater 2 a dditional p avilions m easuring 1 2 .2 m etres , w ere a dded t o t he a rch ( figs . 6 2 , 6 3) . I t c omprises 3 v aulted p assageways t he c entral a nd l argest o ne m easuring 5 . 71 m etres i n w idth a nd i s 1 0 .80 m etres h igh . T he o ther 2 s ide e ntrances m easure 2 .66 m etres w ide a nd 5 .20 m etres h igh ( fig . -
6 3) .
T he s outhern a nd n orthern f acades o f t he a rch a re m ainly i dentical i n
t heir a rchitectural d etail a nd o rnamentation . F our e ngaged c olumns w ith f loral d esigns s tand o n h igh p edestals a longside b oth f acades . A bove t he s maller p assageways a re s emi-circular n iches d ecorated w ith s mall c olumns s upporting a n a rchitrave a nd g able . T he r econstruction o f t he T riumphal A rch w as f acilitated b y t he d iscovery o f a ll i ts a rchitectural e lements w ithin i ts i mmediate s urroundings ( fig .
6 4) .
A ll
t he c olumns ,
b oth s mall
a nd l arge , w ere d ecorated b y C orinthian c apitals ; t he b ases a re A ttic i n s tyle ; t he a rchitrave , f rieze a nd c ornice a ll h ave a r ich f loral d esign . A bove t hem a re t he g able a nd " attic" , t he l atter d ivided i nto t wo h orizontal s ections b y ad ecorated c ornice . T he t hree
v aults
o f
t he p assageways a re c onstructed a ccording
2 4
t o t he
b arrel
l ike
* ,le a ' r eady s een i n o ther v aults i n t he c ity .
T he t wo
s maller p assageways w ere o riginally c losed b y w ooden g ates w hile t he m ain e ntrance c ould b e c losed b y am ore c omplicated a pparatus a nd i t s eems a s i f t he d oor w as l owered f rom a bove ( 36) . I t i s p ossible t hat t hese g ates w ere a dded t o t he T riumphal A rch a t s ome p eriod w hen i t w as d ecided t o e nlarge t he c ity a rea o f G erasa a nd c hange t he a rch i nto a p roper c ity g ate . R esearchers b elieve t oo t hat t he a ddition o f t he 2 s maller p avilions ( 37) a lso p oint t o t his f act a lthough t heir c onstruction i s o f a n i nferior n ature ( 38).
T he H ippodrome ( fig. 6 5) ( 39). T he h ippodrome i s s ituated c lose t o t he r oad l eading f rom t he T riumphal A rch t o t he s outhern g ate o f G erasa . T he i nternal l ength o f t he s tructure w as 2 50 m etres a nd i t w as 5 0 m etres w ide . E xternally, i ncluding t he o utside w alls, i t m easured 2 61 m etres a nd 7 6 m etres w ide . T his i s a r elatively s mall h ippodrome ( 40) c ompared t o s imilar s tructures o f t he p eriod . T he s eats w ere c onstructed u pon a s ystem o f v aults ( fig . 6 5) ( 41) . T here s eem t o h ave b een 1 6 r ows o f s eats . T he m ain e ntrance w as o n t he n orth s ide i n t he c entre o f t he s e nd-circular s ection ( fig . 6 5) , a nd t he p assageway w as p robably c overed b y ab arrel-like v ault f or i ts e ntire l ength ( 42). I t i s n ot p ossible t o d ate t his b uilding w ith a ny c ertainty .
M iller
f eels i t s tems f rom t he e nd o f t he 2 nd c ent . C .E . o r t he e arly 3 rd c ent . ( 43), w hile H orsfield b elieves i t t o b e a s e arly a s t he i st c ent. C .E. ( 44).
T he S outh G ate ( fig. 6 6) ( 45). T he s outh g ate w as n ot w ell p reserved a nd c ould n ot b e c ompletely r econstructed . H owever , i t w as v ery s imilar i n d esign t o t he T riumphal A rch a nd h ad a m ain e ntrance m easuring 4 .20 m etres w ide w ith 2 s ide e ntrances e ach m easuring 2 . 32 m etres w ide . H ere t oo s ide p avilions w ere c onstructed, a lthough t hese w ere n ot l ater a dditions, b ut w ere b uilt t ogether w ith t he g ateway ( 46) .
S imilarly t he s outhern a nd n orthern
f acades w ere d ecorated a s i n t he A rch : f our e ngaged c olumns w ith C orinthian c apitals s tood o n h igh b ases . A ll t he c orners o f t he t hree e ntrances a re d ecorated b y f lat p ilasters w ith C orinthian c apitals . A lthough t here a re s imilarities b oth i n t he p lans a nd i n t he a rchitectural d ecoration o f t he T riumphal A rch a nd t he S outh G ate , t hey d iffer i n t he d aintiness o f o rnamentation u sed . T he A rch s eems t o h ave b een b ased i n d esign o n t he G ate w hich w as p robably c onstructed i n t he f irst q uarter o f t he 2 nd c ent . C .E . ( 47) . A s o n t he n orthern s ide o f t he c ity t his g ateway s tands o n t he f oundations o f a n e arlier g ate w hich h ad o nly o ne e ntrance . ( 48) .
1) ( 49). T he S outh T etrapylon ( figs. 6 7 -7 T he T etrapylon s tands
a t
t he
j unction o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet
a nd t he s outhern e ast-west s treet ( figs . 4 2 ,43) , a nd i t w as e ncompassed al arge c ircular p laza m easuring 4 3.60 m etres i n d iameter ( figs. 6 7,68).
b y
T he s tructure i s m ade u p o f 4 p odia e ach s tanding 6 m etres a part .
2 5
T hey
a re p ositioned
s o t hat t he w ay b etween t hem i s
i dentical
t o t he
p osition o f t he r oads ( fig . 6 8) . T he p odia a re s quare s tructures, 4 . 10 m etres l ong a nd 3 .30 m etres h igh . A ll t he c orners a re d ecorated b y p ilasters, c reating a s lightly h ollow e ffect i n t he c entre . I n t his s ection i s as emi-circular n iche d ecorated b y s mall p ilasters o n b oth s ides a nd w ith a c ornice o n t op ( fig . 7 0) . A t t he f our c orners o f e ach b ase s tood f our s maller p odia s upporting 4 c olumns w hich i n t urn s upported t he u pper s tructure
( fig .
7 1)
( 50) .
T he T etrapylon s tands
i n t he c entre o f t his c ircular p laza ,
p aved i n
s tone s labs w hich a re n ot u niform i n s hape o r d esign a s t hey w ere p robably c hanged o ver t he c enturies . T he p laza i s b ordered b y s pecial ' edging s tones ' .
B eneath t he c entre o f t his a rea i s t he j unction o f t wo m ain w ater
c hannels d raining w ater f rom t he n orth-south a nd s outhern e ast-west s treets ( fig . 6 9) . T he f acade o f t he b uildings s urrounding t he c ircular p laza w ere c omposed o f l arge p iers t hat c reated r ecesses a nd p rotruberances . T he f ormer s erved a s t he e ntrances t o s hops w hich w ere m ade u p o f a f ew r ooms e ach a nd w hich s tood a t l east 2 f loors h igh . T he a rchaeological f inds i n t hese r ooms p oint m ainly t o t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c ents . C .E . I n e ach s ection o f t he c ircular f acade b etween t he t wo m ain s treets w ere f our p iers a nd t hree r ecesses
( fig .
6 8) ,
e ach
o ne
s upporting
t wo
c olumns .
T ogether
w ith
t he
c olonnades o f t he t wo m ain s treets t his l ent a n a rchitectural u niformity t o t he c ircular p laza ( fig . 7 1) . T his j unction p robably s erved i nitially a s a n o rdinary c rossroad , ( as c an b e s een o n t he n orth s ide o f t he c ity , ( figs . 4 2,43,51) a nd o nly l ater w as t urned i nto a c ircular p laza i n which t he t etrapylon s tood i n ac entral p osition . T he c hange p robably t ook p lace i n t he 3 rd c ent C .E . m aking t his t own p laza a v ery i nteresting f eature i n t he u rban a rchitecture o f P rovincia A rabia ( 52) .
T he N orth G ate ( figs. 7 2,73) ( 53). A s i n t he c ase o f
t he S outh G ate ,
t his g ate a lso s tands u pon t he
f oundations o f a n e arlier c ity g ate . T he i nscription u ncovered s tipulates t hat t he g ate w as b uilt i n t he y ear 15 C .E . u nder t he a uspices o f C laudius S everus w ho w as t he l egatus o f t he E mperor T raian , a nd w ho r e-built t he r oad f rom P ella t o G erasa ( 54) . T he g ate h as o ne v aulted p assageway 5 .40 -
m etres w ide a nd 9 . 15 m etres h igh h eight o f t wo f loors ( fig . 7 3) .
-
a nd t wo t owers o n e ach s ide r ising t o a B oth t he n orthern a nd s outhern f acades a re
s imilarly o rnamented w ith s emi-circular n iches o n e ach f loor f lanked b y p ilasters w ith C orinthian c apitals a nd d ecorative a rches a bove t hem . O n b oth s ides o f t he n iches a re e ngaged c olumns w hich r ise t o ah eight o f t wo f loors , a nd a re t opped b y a n a rchitrave , f rieze a nd p ediment . A bove t he C orinthian c apitals i s a s imple a ttic ( fig . 7 3) . A n a ttempt w as m ade t o a ngle t he n orthern g ate i n s uch a w ay t hat t he m ain n orth-south s treet w ould c onnect u p s atisfactorily w ith t he r oad f rom P ella a nd a s a r esult t he t wo s ide t owers w ere n ot e venly c onstructed ( fig . 7 2) ( 55) .
T he S anctuary o f A rtemis ( figs. 7 4-82) ( 56). T he A rtemis S anctuary i s o ne o f t he m ost i mpressive s anctuaries i n t he e ntire c lassical w orld d espite t he f act t hat i t i s n ot t he l argest i n s ize ( 57) . T his w as t he u rban c entre o f t he c ity a nd t he g reatest b uilding e nterprise i n G erasa ( figs . 4 3 ,75) ( 58) . F rom e pigraphical s ources i t i s c lear t hat i t t ook 3 0 y ears t o c omplete i ts c onstruction , b etween 1 50180 C .E .
( 59) .
O nly
f ew s ections h ave b een e xcavated a nd
2 6
p artial
p lans w ere
d rawn u p b y S chumacher o f t he t emple a nd i ts c ourtyard ( fig . 7 4) .
T he
i nvestigators o f G erasa w ere s atisfied t o u ncover p ortions o f t he P ropylaea a nd t he T emple o f A rtemis . R ecently a n I talian e xpedition h as p ublished t heir f indings o f w ork c ompleted i n t he a rea o ver t he l ast t en y ears ( 60) . T he s anctuary i s c omposed o f t he f ollowing s ections : a )
T he P ropylaea c omplex e ast
o f
t he n orth-south m ain s treet w hich a lso
i ncludes t he ' Processional W ay" ( Via S acra). b )
T he P ropylaea c omplex o n t he w est o f t he n orth-south m ain s treet.
c )
T he f orecourt .
d )
T he t emple c ourtyard .
e )
T he T emple o f A rtemis.
A :
T he P ropylaea C omplex E ast o f t he N orth-South M ain S treet ( figs. 7 5-76) T he
( figs .
4 2 ,
P rocessional 4 3) ,
W ay
s tarted
a bout
5 00 m etres
a way
f rom
t he
T emple
i n w hat w as c learly t he r esidential a rea o f t he c ity ,
a nd
c rossed t he r iver o ver a b ridge o f w hich o nly t he f oundations r emain t oday ( figs . 4 2 , 4 3) . T he " Processional W ay" a nd t he b ridge w ere b uilt o n t he a xis o f t he t emple a nd t he e ntire c ompound ( figs . 4 3, 7 5) . I t w as 1 1 m etres w ide a nd a scended t o t he w est w here i t e nded i n a n a psis w hich w as p art o f t he B yzantine C hurch ( fig .
7 6) .
O riginally a g ate w ith t hree
p assageways a nd f our p iers s tood h ere , f aced b y t he c olumns . T he m ain v aulted p assageway w as 3 .2 m etres w ide a nd t he s ide p assageways e ach m easured 1 . 8 m etres i n w idth . T wo i nscriptions a scribed t o t he o riginal s tructure w ere u ncovered a mong t he r uins o f t he " Propylaea C hurch" ( 61) . A c olonnaded s treet r an f rom t he t riple g ate w estward , ( fig . 7 6) . A t t he e nd o f t he " Processional W ay" w as a n e xedra ( figs . 7 5, 7 6) w hose s hape w as f ormed o n t he n orth a nd s outh b y a ngled w alls w ith c entral s emi-circular n iches . A 1 9 m etres w ide g ate i n t he e xedra , w ith 4 o r 6 c olumns i nside i t , o pened w estwards i n t he d irection o f t he n orth-south s treet ( fig . 7 6) .
B :
T he P ropylaea C omplex W est o f t he N orth-South M ain S treet t heg . 7 5) T he l evel o f t he l and r ises s teeply w est o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet
b ut a fter a w hile e ases o ff s lightly i nto a s light g radient ( fig . 4 2) . P arallel t o t he m ain r oad a nd o pposite t his g radient s tood a h igh s upporting w all ( 14 m etres h igh ) r unning 1 20 m etres i n l ength a long t he e ntire w idth o f t he
s anctuary
( figs .
s tood t wo t owers .
4 2 ,
7 5)
( 62) .
O n i ts n orthern a nd s outhern c orners
T he w all i s b roken i n t he m iddle b y t he f light o f s tairs
l eading f rom t he s treet t o t he f orecourt .
S hops w ere l ocated b oth o n t he
n orth a nd s outh s ides o f t hese s tairs i n t he s trip o f l and l ying b etween t he w all a nd t he s treet . E ach s ection h eld s even s hops e xedra w hich o pened o ut t o t he s treet ( figs . 7 5 , 7 9) . f loors h igh a nd w ere s eparated f rom t he s treet b y t he A ll t hese e lements c reated a n i mpressive u niform e ffect
a nd h ad a c entral T he s hops w ere t wo w estern c olonnade . b roken o nly b y t he
f light o f s tairs o f t he P ropylaea . T he f irst s triking e ffect o f t his s tructure i s t he p ortico o f v ery l arge c olumns t hat f ace t he s tairs t aking t he p lace o f t he s maller c olumns o f t he w estern c olonnade a long t he m ain n orth-south s treet ( figs . 7 7 ,79) .
2 7
T his p ortic
s2 0 i mtres w ide .
T he c olumns o n t he f ar s ides s tood 4
m etres b efore t he a ntas o f t he w alls o n e ither s ide o f t he s taircase .
T he
2i nternal c olumns s tood o pposite 2 o ther c olumns w hich i n t urn w ere p laced o pposite t he p iers o f t he g ate t hemselves ( fig . 7 7). T he f acade o f t he P ropylaea w as 2 m etres i n d iameter a nd h ad 3 s quare e ntrances a longside o f w hich s tood l arge c olumns ( figs . c entral
p assageway m easured 5 m etres
7 8 ,
7 9) ( 63) .
i n w idth a nd 9 m etres h igh ,
T he
t he t wo
s ide p assageways s tood 3 .8 m etres w ide . A bove t he l atter w ere s quare n iches d ecorated b y p ilasters a nd c olonettes s upporting t he a rchitrave , f rieze a nd p ediment .
T he f acade w as c rowned b y a p ediment
-
p art o f w hich s urvived
t he y ears t hus a ll o wi ng f or i ts r econstruction ( figs . 7 8 , 7 9) ( 64) . M uch o f t he i nscription , o nce e ngraved o n t his p ediment , w as f ound , a llowing r esearchers t o d ate t his s tructure ( 65) . T he b uilding e xcelled i n i ts r ich d ecoration .
C :
T he F orecourt
A w ide s taircase ( 19 .35 m etres w ide) , o n t he w estern s ide o f t he g ate i s b ordered i n t he n orth a nd s outh b y s mooth w alls, a nd a scends t o t he c ourtyard i n f ront o f t he T emple ( fig . 7 5) ( 66) . I n t he e ast t he c ourtyard i s d efined b y t he s tairs o f t he P rophylea , i n t he w est b y t he w ide s taircase l eading t o t he T emple a nd i n t he n orth a nd s outh i t i s c losed i n b y w alls ( fig . 7 5) . M ost o f t his a rea i s s till c overed b y m ounds o f e arth a nd i t i s n ot p ossible t o k now w hat i t r eally l ooked l ike .
D :
T he T emple C ourtyard ( fig . 7 5)
T he f lights o f s tairs l eading f rom t he f orecourt t o t he T emple c ourtyard c omprised 3 s ections, e ach o f 9 s teps ( figs . 7 5, 7 4) ( 67) . A p ortico s tood b etween t he s tairs a nd t he T emple c ourtyard m easuring o ver 1 00 m etres w ide a nd 1 m etres d eep . I n t he n orth a nd s outh t his p ortico w as d efined b y t wo p avilion-like s tructures r esembling e xedras ( fig . 7 5) . A d ecorative w all w ith t hree e ntrances s tood b etween t he p ortico a nd t he c ourtyard . T he T emple C ourtyard m easurements w ere a s f ollows:
l ength
-
1 61
m etres , w idth 1 21 m etres . T he p ortico s urrounded t he c ourtyard o n a ll f our s ides w ith 3 6 c olumns i n t he n orth a nd s outh a nd 2 6 o n t he e ast a nd -
w est s ides . 0 .89 m etres
T here w as a s pace o f 3 .8 m etres b etween e ach c olumn , t hey w ere t hick a nd 7 . 56 m etres h igh a nd w ere p laced o n b ases w hich i n
t urn s tood o n s tylobates . T he p ortico s tood 1 4 .2 m etres a way f rom t he c ourtyard w alls a nd t he s pace c reated w as t aken u p b y r ooms a nd e xedras , ( except o n t he e astern s ide) ( fig . 7 5) w hich o pened u p o nto t he c ourtyard . T he r ooms w ere a rranged i n a n i dentical m anner t o t he s hops a nd e xedras o n t he w estern s ide o f t he m ain s treet i e . o n e ither s ide o f t he f light o f s tairs ( figs. 7 5, 7 9) ( 68).
E :
T he T emple o f A rtemis ( figs. 8 0-82) ( 69)
w ide ,
T he T emple s tands i n a s quare m easuring 1 24 m etres l ong a nd 8 8 m etres s urrounded b y p orticos . T he a rea i n f ront o f i t i s d ouble t hat a t
t he b ack .
A ll t he c olumns o f t he f acade , e xcept f or o ne , h ave s urvived t he
c enturies
( figs .
8 1-82) ,
a s h ave t he p odium a nd
2 8
l arge p arts
o f
t he
c ella .
T he T emple
0 1
A rtemis s tands
o n t he p odium w hich m easures 4 0 m etres
l ong ,
2 2 .6 m etres w ide a nd 4 .32 m etres h igh . T his p odium i n t urn i s s upported b y a s eries o f b arrel-like v aults b eneath i t ( fig . 8 0) ( 70) . T he f light o f s tairs b efore t he t emple c omprises t wo s ections , e ach o f s even s teps . T he s tone u sed i n t he c onstruction o f t he w alls w as n ot b rought f rom a ny q uarry n ear G erasa . T he t emple i tself i s P eripteral H exastyle w ith e leven c olumns a long t he l ength o f t he b uilding a nd 6 i n t he f ront . Y et a nother s ix c olumns w ere a dded i n o rder t o c reate a f eeling o f m ore d epth i n t he t emple f ront b etween t he f acade a nd t he a ntas . T he C orinthian t opped c olumns ( figs .
8 1-82) s tanding i n t he f acade m easure 1 3 .21 i n h eight a nd 1 .5 i n
d iameter a nd a re b ased o n 1 cM p odia ( fig . 8 0) . T he c ella s tands 2 4 .15 m etres
l ong ,
1 3 .37
m etres w ide ,
t he n orth a nd
s outh w alls a re 1 . 75 m etres t hick , t he w all o f t he a dyton 2 . 77 m etres i n d iameter a nd t he e ntrance w all i s 3 . 3 m etres i n d iameter . T he n orthern a nd s outhern w alls a re d ecorated a long t heir e ntire l ength b y f lat e ngaged p ilasters a s a re p arts o f t he w estern w all o n e ither s ide o f t he a dyto r i . T wo s quare n iches c an b e f ound o n e ither s ide o f t he e ntrance a nd o n t he s outhern s ide o f t he e ntrance i s a s tairwell i n w hich c ircular s tairs w ind t hemselves a round a s quare p ier ( fig . 8 0) ( 71) . I n t he c entre o f t he w estern w all o f t he c ella i s a n a rched , s quare n iche a nd i t i s p resumed t hat a s tatue o f A rtemis s tood h ere . A ll t he t emple w alls a re o f ah igh s tructural
s tandard .
A lthough o nly s mall s ections o f t he s anctuary a rea h ave b een u ncovered i t w ould s eem t hat t he S anctuary o f A rtemis m ay b e i ncluded i n t he l ist o f m agnificent r itual s tructures o f t he s ame p eriod t hat d ecorated s uch c ities a s J erusalem , P almyra , D amascus a nd B aalbek ( Heliopolis) ( 72) a nd t hat d rew t housands o f w orshippers t o t hem . T his g ave t hese c ities a s trong e conomic b asis a nd i n t urn a ppropriate p olitical s tatus . F rom t his w e s ee t hat G erasa w as s omewhat m ore t han a m ere p rovincial t own o n t he d istant b orders o f
t he R oman E mpire ( 73) .
T he " Cathedral P recinct" ( figs. 4 2, 4 3, 9 2, 9 3)(74) T hese s tructures , o f A rtemis ,
f ar m ore m odest i n s ize a nd d esign t o t he S anctuary
l ie s outh o f t he n ymphaeon a nd c lose t o t he n orth-south s treet .
B eneath t hem l ie t he r emains o f a n e arlier r itual s tructure . T he f light o f s tairs l eading i nside t o t he a rea o f s hops o riginated w ith t he e arlier s tructure a nd r emained a lmost u nchanged ( fig . 9 2) . I t w as v ery s imilar i n d esign t o t hat o f t he S anctuary o f A rtemis ( fig . 9 2) . I n ap assageway b etween t he s hops w as t he s quare g ate w here a p air o f c olumns s tood b etween t wo p ilasters ( fig . 9 2, 9 3) . C lose b y b ut o n t he w est s ide o f t he g ate w ere f our c olumns s urrounded b y as quare s haped o pen a rea . F urther w est o f t his s mall s quare w as a f light o f s tairs c onsisting o f 4s ections l eading t o y et a nother s quare a rea ( 75) . T hese s tairs s imilar i n d esign t o t hose i n t he S anctuary o f A rtemis w ere f lanked o n e ither s ide b y f lat w alls . T he r emains o f t he e arlier s tructure b eneath t he C athedral m ay b e d ated t o t he i st c ent C .E . s hape ,
( 76) ,
b ut l ittle m ore c an b e s aid c oncerning t heir
s tyle o r s ize .
2 9
T he O val P laza ( figs . B urckhardt w as
4 2-45 ,
t he f irst
9 4-95) ( 77) . t o c all
t his a rea t he ' F orum '
( 78) ,
a lthough
s ubsequent e xcavators h ave b een i n t wo m inds a s t o w hether t his i s i n f act i ts c orrect n ame . T he a rea h as n ot b een p roperly e xcavated , o nly c leared o f t he h uge p iles o f e arth a bove i t ( 79) . T he p laza 9 0 m etres a long i ts l ength a nd i s 8 0 m etres b road a nd l ies i n an atural f all o f t he l and b etween t he S anctuary o f Z eus i n t he s outh a nd t he " Camp H ill" i n t he n orth ( 44) . M uch o f t he p ortico s urrounding t he s quare h as s urvived , w ith i ts I onic c olumns s upporting a n a rchitrave . T here w ere t wo r easons f or t he p articular s hape o f t he p laza : f irstly , t he n atural d rop o f t he l and a nd s econdly t he d esire o f t he a rchitects t o c onnect t he s outhern e nd o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet w ith t he e ntrance t o t he S anctuary o f Z eus a s w ell a s t o j oin t he m ain n orth-south s treet t o as hort s treet w hich i n t urn l ead t o t he S outh G ate o f t he c ity ( figs ,
4 2-44) .
T he c olumns s urrounding t he
s quare a lso f allc xed t his s hort s treet f or i ts e ntire l ength . S tone s labs c overed t he s quare s ided b y 0 .22 m etre w ide p avements . T he f oundations h olding t he s tylobate o f t he c ollonade e xcell i n t heir p articularly s trong w ork a nd r each a d epth o f 8 m etres . T hey p robably a lso s erved a s s upporting w alls f or h uge p iles o f e arth t hat w ere p laced a t s pecific i ntervals i n o rder t o c reate a f lat s urface f or t he p laza ( 80) . A
g ate s tands a t t he p oint w here t he n orth-south s treet a nd t he o val
p laza m eet ( fig , 9 4) . A s mall e xcavation i n t his a rea b rought t o l ight t wo p airs o f p iers a nd i t w ould s een t hat t he g ate h ad t hree e ntrances aw ide o ne a bove t he r oad a nd t wo n arrower o nes a bove t he p avements ( 8 1) . T he -
g ate
i tself ,
a s
c an b e s een f rom r emains
i n t he i mmediate
v icinity ,
w as
C orinthian i n d esign u nlike t he I onic d esign o f t he p ortico ( fig, 9 5) . B ecause o f t his , t he a rchaeologists b elieve i t t o b e o f a l ater d ate t han t he p laza ( 82) , b ut a s n o l arge e xcavations h ave b een c ompleted i n t his a rea i t i s i mpossible t o c learly d ate t he o val p laza ( 83) . I ts s hape i s u nusual b ut w as o bviously c hosen f or t he r easons m entioned a bove ( 84) . T he r emains o f o ther b uildings f ound a round t he p laza , i ts p roximity t o t he S outh G ate a s w ell a s t o t he S anctuary o f Z eus a ll p oint t o t he f act t hat i t p robably s erved a s ac ommercial c entre i n t he c ity .
T he O pen R itual A area N orth o f t he C ity O ne t housand o pen r itual
( figs ,
9 6-100
t wo h undred m etres n orth o f t he c ity o f G erasa s tood a n
c omplex w hich i ncluded a l arge p ool,
t heatre a nd t ombs .
( 85) .
t he r uins
o f t emples ,
a
T he e pigraphical m aterial u ncovered h ere b ears w itness
t o t he n otorious M aiun ias f estivals t hat w ere h eld i n f estivals a re a lso m entioned i n t he a ncient s ources(86) .
t his
a rea .
T hese
I t w ould a ppear t hat t his s ite w as c hosen f or i ts n atural b eauty
-
s urrounded a s i t i s b y w ooded f orests a nd b lessed w ith a n ever e nding s upply o f w ater t he y ear r ound . T he ' ! Processional W ay" l eading f rom G erasa ' s N orth G ate e nded a t t he g ate t hat p robably d ivided t he p ool f rom t he t heatre ( figs , 9 6 ,97) . T he r oad t hen m oved o n t o t he f oot o f t he t heatre a nd e nded n ear t he ' Tomb o f G en manus" ( figs 9 9 , 1 00) . T he r ectangular p ool s erved a s aw ater r eservoir , m easured 4 3 .5 x 8 8 .5 m etres a nd w as d ivided i nto t wo s ections b y am assive w all t hat c ut a cross i t a bout 1 8 m etres f rom t he s outhern e dge . A n a queduct l ed f rom t he p ool s outhwards ( fig . 9 7) . T o t he w est o f t he p ool s tood a t heatre , t his o ne m uch s maller t han t he
3 0
N orth T heatre o f G erasa .
T he c avea r ested o n t he n atural s lope o f t he
h illside a nd n umbered 1 4 r ows , e xisted ,
b uilt
a lthough i t i s p ossible t hat a n u pper c avea
o n s ubstructures
o f
v aults .
N othing o f
t his u pper c avea
r emains t oday ( fig . 9 8) ( 87) . A n i nscription f ound i n t he a rea r elates t his s tructure t o t he e nd o f t he 2 nd c ent . o r e arly 3 rd c ent . C .E . ( 88) . L ittle r emains t oday o f t he " Tomb o f C ermanus" b ut w e m ay l earn a l ittle a bout i ts a rchitectural n ature f rom a p hotograph p ublished b y S chumacher ( figs . 9 9,
1 00) .
T his o pen r itual c omplex o f G erasa i s o ne o f t he f ew o f i ts k ind d iscovered
i n A rabia ,
S yria
a nd P alestine ,
a nd
i t
i s
t herefore
n ot
s urprising t hat i nvestigators h ave c ompared i t t o s imilar p recincts s uch a s D aphne i n A ntioch o n t he R iver O rontes ( 89) . T he v ery f act t hat t he M aiumas f estivals w ere h eld h ere a nd e ven m entioned i n t he a ncient s ources g oes t o s how h ow i mportant a r ole w as p layed b y t his c ity d uring t his p eriod . T he C ity P lan o f G erasa T he
v ery
l imited
e xcavations h eld a t G erasa a nd
t heir o nly p artial
p ublication m ake i t d ifficult t o c learly p inpoint t he d ifferent s tages i n t he u rban d evelopment o f t he c ity . D espite t he l arge a mount o f e pigraphic m aterial, w hich a llows f or t he d ating o f a lmost e very l arge s tructure i n t he c ity , t he e xcavators m ade n o a ttempt t o c ome t o g rips w ith t he c ity 's p lan . E ven t he e xcavations h eld a fter t he p ublication o f t he r eport d id n ot a dd a ny i nformation t o c larify t his p icture . I n o ur a ttempt t o d raw u p a c ity p lan f or G erasa w e h ave t horoughly r eviewed a ll e xisting r eports a nd m aterial a vailable a s w ell a s s tudied a erial p hotographs o f t he a rea . ( figs , 3 5-38) ( 90) . T he r esearchers o f G erasa b elieve t hat t he c ity p lan w as f ormed i n t he 2 nd h alf o f t he i st c ent . C .E . ( 91) a nd i s a n e xample o f a t ypical ' Roman a daptation o f t he H ippodamian c ity p lan" s imilar i n d esign t o P almyra , B ostra a nd P hilippopoils ( 92) . A lthough t he d ating o f t he c ity a ppears t o b e c orrect , b ased o n f inds i n t he f ield , i t s eems s urprising t hat G erasa s hould b e c ompared i n i ts c ity p lan t o t hose m entioned a bove ( 93) . T he e pigraphical e vidence a llows u s t o c learly f ollow t he u rban d evelopment o f t he c ity (94) . T he b asic c ity p lan w as d etermined i n t he l atter p art o f t he i st
c ent .
C .E .
( figs .
4 2,43)
a nd
s erved
a s
a f ramework
f or
f urther
d evelopment a nd g rowth . D uring t his p eriod l ittle m ajor c hanges w ere i ntroduced a nd t he e xtent o f t he w alls a nd t he n etwork o f s treets r emained t he
s ame . T he
b asic
c ity p lan h ad
t o t ake
i nto c onsideration a f ew s tructures
t hat a lready e xisted i n t he a rea s uch a s t he S anctuary o f Z eus
( 95) .
F rom
e pigraphical e vidence i t i s c lear t hat t he e arliest b uildings d eveloped i n t he t own ( thanks t o d onations f rom v arious c itizens) w ere t he S outh T heatre a nd n ew s tructural a dditions t o t he S anctuary o f Z eus ( 96) , a s w ell a s c ertain s tructures t hat h ave n ot y et b eem p roperly e xcavated s uch a s t he t emple i n t he v icinity o f t he C athedral ( 97) . I n t he y ear 7 4 C . E . at emple h onouring t he g oddess H era w as b uilt , b ut h as n ot y et b een f ound ( 98) . T he l arge p roportion o f i nscriptions d escribing t he d onations o f t he c itizens o f G erasa t o t he c onstruction o f t hese r itual s tructures p oints t o t he w ealth t hat m ust h ave e xisted i n t he c ity a lready d uring t he 1 st c ent . C .E .(99) . A n i mportant s tep f orward f or t he c ity w as t he c onstruction o f t he N orth G ate i n t he y ear
15 C .E. . 1 . (100)
I n t he w inter m onths o f
1 29-130 G .E .
T riumphal A rch w as e rected i n h onour o f t he E mperor H adrian 's
3 1
v isit ,
t he
a long
t he
r oad
1. :
c onstruction o f b orders
_ r ig
t o
t his
f urther s outh
P hiladelphia
a rch w as -
p art
( 101) .
o f
I t
i s
p ossible
a g rander p lan
t o
a p lan t hat w as n ever c arried o ut
w hile p rior t o t he b uilding o f t he a rch a n ew g ate , r eplaced t he S outh G ate ( 103) .
w ith
e xtend ( 102) .
t hat
t he
t he
c ity
A s hort
t hree e ntrances ,
D uring t he r eign o f A ntoninus P ius a nd M arcus A urelius b uilding a ctivities i n G erasa r eached a c limax . P art o f t he p ropylaea i n t he S anctuary o f A rtemis w as c onstructed i n 1 50 C . E . ( 104) a s w as t he p ropylaea e ast o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet ( 105) . T he c onstruction o f t he e ntire s anctuary t ook a f airly l ong t ime a nd r esulted i n o ther a rchitectural c hanges b eing m ade i n i ts i mmediate v icinity s uch a s t he d evelopment o f a n etwork o f r oads ( fig . 4 3) , t he w idening o f a p art o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet a nd t he c hanging o f t he I onic c apitals o n a ll t he c olumns t o C orinthian c apitals(106) .
I n t he y ear 1 63 C . E . an ew T emple t ook t he p lace
o f t he o ld o ne i n t he S anctuary o f Z eus ( 107) a nd b etween 1 62166 C .E . t he N orth T heatre w as e rected ( 108) , I n 1 91 C .E . b oth t he N ymphaeon ( 109) a nd , a ccording t o K raeling , t he W est B aths w ere b uilt ( 110) . S ome o f t he b uildings e rected d uring t he 2 nd c ent , C .E . w ere s till s een b y 1 9th c ent . e xplorers b ut t oday a re n o l onger v isible a nd t hese i nclude t he T emple o f N emesis , n ot f ar f rom t he N orth G ate ( 111) a nd t he T emple o f Z eus E picarpius n ear t he o pen r itual c omplex ( 112) . T he " Tomb o f G ermanus" a lso b elongs t o t he s ame p eriod , ( 113) a s d oes t he o pen r itual c omplex a nd t he w ater r eservoir ( 114) . L ittle c onstruction t ook p lace i n t he c ity d uring t he 3 rd c ent . C .E , a nd w e k now o f o nly t wo d efinite b uildings t he H ippodrome a nd t he E ast B ath ( 115) . I t i s p ossible t hat t he T heatre w hich s tands o n t he -
o pen r itual t his p eriod
c omplex ( 116) a s w ell a s t he N orth T etrapylon a lso b elong t o ( 117) .
O ne o f t he f inal u rban c hanges a ccomplished i n G erasa i n t he 3 rd c ent , C .E. w as t he i ntroduction o f t he c ircular p laza w ith i ts s hops e xactly w here t he n orth-south a nd e ast-west r oads m et ( 118) . T he S outh T etrapylon w as e rected p robably i n t he m iddle o f t he 3 rd c ent, C .E . p rior t o e stablishment o f t he a bove s quare ( 109) .
t he
T o c omplete o ur p icture o f t he u rban d evelopment o f G erasa , t his r eview o f t he m onumental s tructures a ccording t o e pigraphical d ating m ust b e f ollowed b y a m ore e xact d escription o f t he a ctual c ity p lan :
T he r iver
f lowing f rom n orth t o s outh d ivided t he t own i n h alf n ot o nly t opographically , b ut a lso f unctionally t he e astern s ide p roviding h ousing -
f or t he i nbabitants a nd t he w est s ide a cting a s a n a dministrative , r eligious , c ultural a nd . c ommercial c entre f or t he c ity ( fig . 4 3) . T his f unctional d ivision r esulted i nevitably i n am arked d ifference i n t he t own p lanning o n b oth s ides . O ne g lance a t t he m aps o f t he c ity s how t hat o n e ither s ide e ven t he s treet o rientation w as t otally d ifferent ( fig . 4 3) . I t i s u nusual t o f ind s uch a s harp d istinction b etween t he t wo s ides i n C lassical t own p lanning . A lthough s uch f unctional d ifferences d o e xist i n o ther c ities , t here i s a lways s ome k ind o f i nter-m ingling b etween t he d ifferent p arts ( 120) . I n G erasa i t i s q uite c lear t hat t he d eep r avine c reated b y t he r iver f acilitated i n c reating t his v ery o bvious f unctional s plit o f t he c ity .
A .
W estern G erasa W estern G erasa i s s ituated o n t wo t erraces r unning u p f rom t he w estern
b ank o f t he r iver a nd i t i s h ere t hat t he h igh c oncentratiom o f p ublic a nd
3 2
r itual
s truc
a res
c an
b e
f ound .
T he m ain
s treet
r uns
i n a n orth-south
d irection ( "cardo" ) a nd c uts t hrough t he c ity a lmost a long i ts e ntire l ength ( figs . 3 5 , 4 2 , 4 3) . T wo o ther s treets r unning e ast-west ( "decumani" ) f orm j unctions w ith t he m ain s treet b oth o n t he s outh a nd o n t he n orth s ides o f t he c ity . T he s outhern j unction i s a bout 1 70 m etres a way f rom t he o val c ity p laza a nd t he n orthern o ne i s 2 50 m etres f rom t he N orth G ate ( figs . 4 2 , 4 3) . T wo T etrapyla m ark b oth c rossroads . E xcavators h ave u ncovered o nly s ections o f t hese s treets ( fig . 4 2) ( 121) , b ut f rom t he s tudy o f a erial p hotographs w e h ave b een a ble t o c omplete a m ore e xact p icture o f t he r oad n etwork o n t his s ide o f t he c ity ( figs . 4 2 , 4 3) : W est o f t he S anctuary o f A rtemis t he l ine o f ar oad r unning n orth-south m ay b e d etected ,
c onnecting t he e ast-west s treets i n t he s outh a nd
n orth .
s eems
I t
a lso
t hat
t his
s treet
c ontinued
b oth
f urther
i n t he
n orth
a nd
s outh p assed t he t wo m ain e ast-west r oads . E ast o f t his s treet a re t wo o ther r oads r unning p arallel t o i t , c onnecting t he e ntrances i n t he n orthern a nd s outhern w alls o f t he A rtemis T emple c ourtyard w ith t he e ast-west s treets o n b oth s ides ( fig . 4 3) . Y et a nother t wo s treets c an b e s een r unning p arallel t o a nd a longside t hese w alls f orming a c onnection b etween t he t wo m ain n orth-south s treets o n e ither s ide o f t he c ity ( fig ,
4 3) .
T he
t wo m ain e ast-west s treets c ontinued f urther e ast o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet , c rossed t he r iver i n as traight p arallel l ine a nd j oined u p w ith t he s treet n etwork o f t he " Eastern C ity" ( fig . 4 3) . r iver o ver b ridges o f w hich o nly ( fig . 4 2) ( 122) .
T hese s treets c rossed
t he
t he s outhern o ne r emains c omplete t oday
B etween t he l atter t wo r oads r an y et a nother s treet w hich h as a lready b een n amed ' The P rocessional W ay" . T his s treet b egan o n t he e astern s ide o f t he c ity a nd m ade i ts w ay o ver a b ridge t o t he o ther s ite . O nly t he f oundation b ases o f t he b ridge r emain ( 123) . A ll t hree s treets c onnecting t he t he s ides o f t he c ity r un p arallel t o e ach o ther . T he s outhern o ne w as c onnected t o t he c ircular c ity p laza s urrounded b y i ts s hops , t he m iddle r oad p rovided t he m ain p ath t o t he S anctuary o f A rtemis a nd t he n orthern o ne c onnected t he r esidential a reas w ith t he c ultural a nd p ublic c entre o f G erasa , a n a rea w here i t m ay b e p resumed t he F orum w as s ituated ( see p . 3 4) . T he s treet n etwork d escribed a bove s eems t o b e s omewhat p oor a nd u ndeveloped w hen o ne c ompares i t t o t he a ctual s ize o f t he c ity a rea . F urther e xcavations m ight p ossibly u ncover a m ore i ntricate s treet s ystem . W e d o n ot k now w hat t he l arge a reas l ying b etween t he c ity w all o n t he w est a nd t he S anctuary o f A rtemis w ere u sed f or . S im ilarly t he e ntire u se o f t he a rea t o t he w est o f t he c ity p laza i s s till a m ystery ( figs . 4 2 ,43) . T his P laza, b ecause o f i ts v ery u nusual s hape , h as c ontinued t o i ntrigue i nvestigators o ver t he y ears ( 104) . T he n orth-south m ain s treet l eft t he o val p laza a nd j oined t he S outh C ity G ate b y as hort r oad m easuring o nly 4 0 m etres i n l ength w hich a lso r an p arallel t o t he w all o f t he l ower t errace o f t he S anctuary o f Z eus ( figs . 4 2, 4 4) . T he d esign o f t his p laza c ould b e c alled a " planning c ompromise" . T he a rchitects , w anting t o j oin t he S outh G ate t o t he b eginning o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet , f ound t hat b etween t hese t wo p oints l ay t he S anctuary o f Z eus . T he c reation o f t his o val p laza s eems t o h ave p resented a t wofold s olution i n t hat t hey b oth a chieved t he d esired c onnection b etween t he S outh G ate w hile s imultaneously c reating av ery p leasant a nd u nusually s haped a rea i n f ront o f t he e ntrance t o t his i mportant r itual a rea ( 125) . T here s eems t o b e n o r eal b asis f or a ccepting R ostovtzeff's t heory t hat t he p laza w as p lanned a s a r esting p lace f or p assing c amel c aravans e ven t hough t he r emains o f s hops i n t he a rea d o p oint t o a c ertain t rading c haracter o f t he p laza ( fig .94) ( 126) . T he e xcavators
3 3
o f
G erasa h ave
c alled
t his
o val
p laza
t he F orum ,
a lthough
t hey
a re n ot
s atisfied t hat t his w as i ndeed i ts f unction w ithin t he c ity ( 127) . T he c entre o f G erasa i s t aken u p b y t he S anctuary o f A rtemis w hich c overs 3 4 ,000 s q . m etres a nd q uite c learly c ommands t he u rban f ocus o f t he c ity . A t raveller a rriving o n t he e ast s ide o f t he S anctuary , g oes o nto t he " Processional W ay" w hile s till o n t he e astern s ide o f t he c ity ,
c rosses
t he r iver b y w ay o f t he b ridge a nd e nters t he p ropylaea c omplex t o t he e ast o f t he n orth-south r oad . T hereafter h e c rosses t he r oad a nd i mmediately e nters , t hrough a p ortico w ith h uge c olumns , t he w estern p ropylaea c omplex ( figs . 7 4-82) . F rom h ere h e a scends a s eries o f s tairs w hich f inally l ead h im t o t he t emple c ourtyard ( figs .
8 0-81) .
T he a rchitects o f t his c ampound
s pared n o e fforts i n m aking t his a s pectacular a nd r ich s tructure w hich w as n o l ess i mpressive t han o ther f amous r itual c ompounds o f t he p eriod ( 128) , A long t he m ain n orth-south s treet, o n i ts w est s ide, f lanking b oth s ides o f t he f light o f s tairs o f t he p ropylaea w ere r ows o f s hops ( fig , 7 5) a nd n ot f ar a way t o t he s outh l ay t he N ymphaeon . T his s tructure e xcells f or i ts a rchitectural d ecoration ( figs . 5 2-55) ( 129) . T he " Cathedral P recinct" c onstructed p rior t o t he S anctuary o f A rtemis , b ut s imilar i n d esign , l ay s outh o f t he N ymphaeon ( 92-93) ( 130) . N orth o f t he S anctuary o f A rtemis A rtemis s tood t he N orth T heatre a nd s till f urther n orth w as a s quare s urrounded b y p orticos ( figs ,
5 6-58) .
T he f lat a rea o pposite t he t heatre
h as n ot y et b een e xcavated b ut f rom a erial p hotos t his s ection a ppears t o b e d efined b y s traight l ines w hich c reate a l arge s quare m easuring a bout 1 00 x 1 00 m etres ( fig , 5 6) . I t s eems t o u s t hat t his a rea i s m ost s uited t o b e t he F orum o f G erasa a s i t i s n ear t o t he t heatre , t he m ain r itual c ompound o f t he c ity , t he W est B ath a nd i s s ituated o n o ne o f t he m ajor c rossroads . T he l ay o f t he l and , t ogether w ith i ts p roximity t o t hese i mportant p ublic b uildings p oints t o t he p ossibility o f i t b eing t he F orum , a lthough u ntil e xcavations a re c arried o ut h ere w e w ill n ever b e a ble t o p rove a s upposition o f t his k ind ( 131) .
B .
E astern G erasa G erasa ,
e ast
o f
t he
r iver h as
b ecause o f t he C ircassian i nhabitants s tructure ,
n ever b een e xcavated
o r i nvestigated
l iving t here t o t his d ay .
O nly o ne
t he E ast B ath , h as b een s tudied , b ut s o m uch o f i t h as b een
d ismantled t hat
l ittle c an n ow b e s een o f t he r uins
( 132) .
T he r oads o f
t he p resent d ay c ity m ove a long s imilar l ines t o t hose o f t he a ncient c ity a t a ny r ate t heir g eneral o rientation h as n ot c hanged a t a ll ( compare f igs , -
3 5 , 3 6 , 4 3) . E ven w ith t he h elp o f a erial p hotographs i t i s d iffcult t o a ttempt a d escription o f t he c ity p lan w hich w as c learly v ery d ifferent t o t hat o f t he w estern c ity . T he n orth-south m ain s treet w as p arallel t o t hat o n t he w est s ide a nd a bout 1 50 m etres a way f rom t he r iver . A ll t hree s treets j oining t he t wo s ides o f t he c ity e ntered t his m ain s treet : t he n orthern e ast-west r oad , t he s outhern e ast-west r oad a nd t he " Processional W ay" ( fig , 4 3) . O n t he e ast s ide l ay a n etwork o f 3 p arallel s treets p ointing i n a n orth-south d irection w ith 6 r oads c rossing t hem r unning i n a n e ast-west d irection . A ll i n a ll, a n etwork o f 1 5 i nsulae w as f ormed h ere which c annot b e d escribed i n a ny d etail f rom t he a erial p hotographs a t o ur d isposal . I n f act o nly a g eneral p lan o f t his p art o f t he c ity m ay b e t entatively s uggested h ere ( 133) ,
3 4
T he q uestion h owever m ay
b e a sked w hether d espite t he d ifferences i n
t own p lanning , t his c ity e njoyed a u nited p lan o riginating i n t he s ame p eriod p oints
o r w hether t he d ifference i n s treet t o t he e xistence o f a n e arlier c ity .
o rientation o n t he e ast s ide I f t he l atter s uggestion i s
c orrect, t hen t he e astern h alf o f t he c ity m ay v ery p ossibly b e a H ellenistic G erasa . A lthough t here i s n o e vidence f rom e xcavations t o a llow f or a ny f irm b ase t o t his s upposition , i t i s p erfectly r easonable t o b elieve t hat t he R oman G erasa s imply i ncorporated t he e astern H ellenistic G erasa w ithin i ts w alls , d id n ot c hange i ts g eneral l ayout a t a ll a nd j oined t he t wo s ides b y t he t hree r oads a lready d escribed a bove . T he p recise o rientation t his, ( figs.
o f
t he S anctuary
o f
Z eus s omewhat
s trengthens
t his
b elief
a s
t he m ost a ncient s anctuary i n G erasa , o verlooks t he e astern c ity 3 5 ,
4 3 ,
4 4) ( 134) , m uch t he s ame a s t he S anctuary o f B el a t P almyra
o verlooks t he a ncient, " clay c ity" b uilt o n t he s outh s ide,
i nstead o f
f acing t he r egular s treet n etwork o f t he R oman c ity ( 135) . F inally w e s hould t ry t o a nswer t he q uestion c oncerning t he n ature o f G erasa a nd t he f unctions t hat t he c ity f ulfilled i n t he P rovince o f A rabia . W as i t i ndeed a " caravan c ity" a s s uggested b y R ostovtzeff? B oth t he e pigraphical m aterial u ncovered a s w ell a s t he u rban p lanning c an a nswer s ome o f t hese q uestions . W hat w e s ee i s a l arge , w ell p lanned c ity , w here t he p ublic s ector i s f ar g reater i n s ize t han t he r esidential a rea ( 137) . T he e normous c onstruction p rojects f inancially s upported b y t he c itizens b ear w itness t o t he g reat w ealth t hey h ad w hich c ould n ot h ave s temmed m erely f rom a griculture , b ut m ust h ave e merged f rom i nternational t rade . ( 138) . T he l arge p ublic s tructures n amely t he t hree T heatres , t he H ippodrome a nd t he t hree r itual c omplexes m ust s urely h ave s erved m any o ther p eople b esides t he -
i mmediate c itizens o f t he c ity . F rom t he e xcavations i t h as b ecome c lear t hat t here w as a ro w o f s hops l eading a long t he l ength o f t he m ain n orth— s outh a xis f rom t he o val p laza , a round t he c ircular p laza a nd t o t he S anctuary o f A rtemis . T his a mount o f s hops d efinitely s erved a f ar g reater p opulation t han t hat l iving p ermanently o n t he e astern s ide o f G erasa . A ll t his p oints t o t he f act t hat G erasa w as a c entral c ity i n t he P rovince o f A rabia , p roviding r eligious , c ultural, t rade a nd a dministrative s ervices f or a s ubstantial p opulation l iving i n t he e nvirons o f t he C ity ( 139) . C ertainly i ts p osition o n t he V ia T raiana N ova f rom w here r oads l ed t o t he M editerranean p orts t urned t his c ity i nto a m ajor c entre f or i nternational t rade
( 140) .
3 5
N OTES 1 . I . B enziger R .E . ,
s .v ,
G erasa ,
c oils .
H . B ietenhard , " Ole D ekapolis ( 1963) , p .24-51. p P . T homsen ,
L oca S ancta , H alle ,
G .W . B owersock , " A R eport 2 19-242 , P is . X IV-XV .
o n
1 242-1245 .
v on P ompeius b is T raian" , 1 907 ,
A rabia
Z .D .P .V. 7 9
p .51-52 . p P rovincia" ,
J . R . S . L XI
( 1971) ,
p . p
M . A vi-Yonah , T he H oly L and f rom t he P ersian P eriod t o t he A rab C onquest . B aker B ook H ouse , M ichigan , 1 966 , P p . 1 75177 . 2 . S . M ittmann , "The R oma i n R oad p . 6 5-87 . p
f rom G erasa t o A draa" ,
A .D .A .J . X I
( 1966) ,
P . T homsen , " Ole R omischen M ilesteine d er P rovinzen S yria , A rabia u nd P alaestina" , Z .D .P .V. X L ( 1917) , p p , 5 9-60 ( Bosra G erasa) . ( See a lso n ote 1 00) , -
3 . W . T scherikower ,
D ie
H ellenistichen S tadtegrundungen v on A lexander D em
G rossen b is a uf R omerzeit ,
L eipzig ,
1 927 ,
p . 76 .
A .H .M . J ones , T he C ities o f t he E astern R oman P rovinces , O xford , p p . 2 38-239 , 2 52 , 2 60-261 .
1 937 ,
4 . T here i s a d etailed r eview o f t he h istory o f G erasa i n t he i ntroductory c hapter t o K raeling 's d ocumentation o f t he e xcavations , s ee : C .H . K raeling ( ed) ., H istory o f G erasa) , 5 .
S imilar
t o
G erasa p p .27-69 .
o ther
c ities
-
C ity o f D ecapolis ,
i n
t his
r egion ,
N ew H aven , 1 938 ,
G erasa w as
( The
a lso i nfluenced
a rchitecturally a nd c ulturally b y t he N abataean p resence , s ee : C .H . K raeling , 3 6-39.
G erasa, T he H istory o f G erasa
p p .
( Nabataean I nfluence) ,
T emple " C" , s ituated s outh-west o f t he v icinity o f t he C athedral, i s p robably N abataean a nd h as a roused m uch d iscussion c oncerning t he d ate o f i ts c onstruction a nd t he r itual r ole i t f ulfilled , s ee : p C . S . F isher , C .H . K raeling , G erasa , T emple C , p . 1 39-148 , p lan X XII , P ls . X XVIIIc-d , X XIX , X XXa-b . J .W . C rowfoot , " Recent W ork R ound t he F ountain C ourt a t J erash" , p 1 931, p . 1 43-154 , p ls . 1 -1V . C .C . M cCown , 1 64.
'oddesses
o f
G erasa" ,
A .A .S .O .R . X III
( 1931-1932) ,
p p .
P .E .F . 1 29-
i dem , " A N ew D eity i n a J erash I nscription " , J .A .O .S . L IV ( 1 934) . R .F . P Vincent , " La D ieu S aint P aqeidas a G erasa" , R .B . L XIX ( 1940) , 9 8129 .
p p .
A s tudy o f t he a rchitecture a nd s tructural d irection o f T emple " C" s how t hat i t w as c onstructed p rior t o t he e stablishmemt o f t he s treet n etwork . W ith r eference t o t he N abataean e pigraphical f inds , s ee : C .B . W elles , G erasa , T he I nscriptions K ing), p p . 3 71-373.
( Inscription H onouring A N abatean
W ith r eference t o t he N abatean n umismatic f inds, s ee : A .R . B ellinger , G erasa , C oins ( Nabatean C oins), p . 4 98 . 6 . M ost o f t he b uildings i n G erasa h ave b een r eliably d ated . All t he e pigraphic m aterial, i ncluding i nscriptions f ound i n t he a rea p rior t o
3 6
e xcavations ,
h ave b een r ecorded b y W elles i n h is r eport o n t he e xcavations ,
s ee : p C .B . W elles, G erasa , T he I nscriptions, p . 3 55-494. W ith r eference t o n ew i nscriptions u ncovered o ver t he l ast f ew y ears ,
s ee :
P .L . G atier , " Inscriptions r eligieuse d e G erasa" , A DAJ 2 6 ( 1982) , p p . 2 69 2 75. p P .L . G atier , " Nouvelles i nscriptions d e G erasa" , S yria L XII ( 1985) , p .297 3 12. T he n umismatic m aterial w as a lso a ll r ecorded i n ac oncentrated f orm i n t he f inal r eport , s ee : A .R . B ellinger , G erasa , C oins , S ee a lso : G .F . H ill ,
p p .
4 97-503 .
C atalogue o f t he G reek C oins o f A rabia , M esopotamia a nd P ersia , ( Gerasa , p . X XXII, p p,31-32, P l . V 4-6) . T he C oins o f t he D ecapolis a nd P rovincia A rabia ,
L ondon , 1 922, A . S pijkerman , P rinting P ress ,
J erusalem ,
1 978 ( Gerasa
-
p p .
F ranciscan
1 56-167) .
7 . G erasa 's c entral r ole i n t he C hristian w orld o f t hat p eriod c an b e s een f rom
t he
n umber
o f
i ts
i mportant
c itizens w ho
a re
m entioned
i n
t he
l iterature o f t hat p eriod , s ee : C . H . K raeling , G erasa , H istory o f G erasa , p p . 6 2-67 . T he m ain a rchaeological f inds o f t he p eriod i nclude 1 c hurches s pread a ll o ver t he c ity , J .W . C rowfoot , C .S . F isher , 8 .
s ee : G erasa , t he
C hristian C hurches ,
p p .
1 71-262 .
G erasa , B uildings o f t he C hristian P eriod .
C .H . K raeling ,
G erasa , T he H istory o f G erasa ,
p p .
p p .265-294 . 6 8-69 .
p 9 . W .F . S tinespring , G erasa , T he H istory o f E xcavations a t J erash , p . 1 -10 . T his i s a n e xact c ollection o f a ll t he r eferences t o t he w ork c ompleted i n t he c ity u ntil t he y ear 1 937 . 1 0 .
G .L .
H arding ,
' Recent W ork o n t he J erash F orum" ,
1 2-20 , P ls . 1 -11 . F .S . Ma 'ayah , " Recent A rchaeological
D iscoveries
P .E .Q . 8 1
( 1949) ,
p p .
i n J ordan ( Jerash)" ,
A .D .A .J . I V-V ( 1960) , p p . 1 15-116 . H . K alayan , " Restoration i n J erash", A .D.A .J. X XII ( 1977-78), p p . 1 63-171. H . K alayan , " Restoration a nd c learance i n a nd a round t he T emple o f A rtemis c ompound i n J erash " , A DAJ X XV ( 1981) , pp. 3 31-334 . E . W ill, " Remarques p reliminaires a d e n ouvelles f uilles a D jerash" , S yria L X ( 1983) , p p . 1 33145 . C . G ullini , R . P ierobon , R P arapetti , M . I talian A rchaeological E xpedition a t
P iazza , " Ge rasa I , R eport o f t he J erash , C ampaigns 1 977-1981" ,
M esopotamia X VIII-XIX ( 19831984) , p p . 1 -134 , f igs . 1 -65 . R . P arapetti , " Jerash-Gerasa : U rban e nvironment o f T wo A ntagonistic T owns" , i n A . H adidi ( ed .) , S tudies i n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan I I , A mman ,
1 985 ,
p p .
2 43-247 .
1 1. Most o f t he a erial p hotographs u sed i n t his b ook w ere t aken b y t he B ritish A ir F orce d uring t he 1 930 's a nd 4 0 's a nd m ade a vailable t o t he a uthor b y t he I srael D epartment o f A ntiquities . 1 2 .
C .H .
1 3 .
G .
K raeling ,
S chumacher ,
G erasa ,
P l .
I a .
" Dscherasch" ,
Z .D .P .V . X XV
( 1902) ,
p p .
11-206 ,
t afel
6 .
T he l atter i s a n a ll e ncompassing r eview o f t he a rea c onducted p rior t o t he
3 7
e xcavations .
A s
f ar a s t he e xistence o f f urther g ates i s
c oncerned ,
e ven
t he a erial p hotographs d o n ot a llow u s t o p inpoint t heir s ituations w ith a ny c ertainty . 1 4 .
G erasa ,
P l . X XIVa .
-
S ee a lso R ay 's d raw ings . 1 858, P ls. X IX-XX , X XI.
E .G . R ay , V oyage D ans L e H auran ( Atlas), P aris ,
1 5 . B utler d isplays a n e xcellent p hotograph o f t he s outhern b ridge w hich h as b een w ell p reserved , s ee : H .C . B utler , F .A . P . 9 , i ll. 1 1
N orris ,
E .R .
S torver ,
P .U .A .E .S . , G eography a nd
I tinerary ,
T here w as m ost l ikely a nother t wo b ridges : a ) T he P rocessional B ridge l eading f rom t he r esidential q uarters e ast s ide o f t he c ity w hose r emains c an b e s een l ooking e ast , s ee : G erasa , P l. X XIVa .
o n
t he
b ) A b ridge w hich c arried t he n orthern e ast-west s treet o ver t he r iver ( see f ig . 4 3) . N either t he e xcavators o f G erasa n or S chumacher m ention t he e xistence o f t his b ridge w hich s eems t o h ave b een t otally d estroyed . 1 6 .
T wo
f urther
t erraces
l ie w est
o f
t he
f irst
o ne
a nd ,
w hile
t he
t ransition b etween t he f irst a nd s econd t errace i s c learly e mphasised t hat b etween t he s econd a nd t hird i s b arely n oticeable . 1 7.
S ee n ote 1 5, s ee a lso :
G erasa , P l. l ila . 1 8.
C .S. F isher , G erasa ,
p p .
1 53158, P l. X XIIa .
S ee a lso d iscussion c oncerning t he o val p laza , 1 9 .
C .H . K raeling ,
X IXa .
3 0.
p .
G erasa ( The S outh T etrapylon ) ,
S ee d iscussion o n t he S outh T etrapylon ,
2 0 .
G . S chumacher , D scherasch ,
2 1 .
C .H .
K raeling ,
1 45-150 , F igs.
p . p
G erasa P l .
p . p
p p .
1 03116 ,
P is . X VIIIa ,
2 5-26 . 1 8-19, 2 2.
X XXIIa .
T he o rientation o f t he Z eus S anctuary t owards t he s treet n etwork, i ts p osition a nd t he f act t hat t he o val p laza f its a long t he f acade o f t he l owe r t errace , a ll p oint t o t he f act t hat t his c ompound e xisted a t t he t ime t he c ity p lan w as d etermined . E pigraphical e vidence a lso s hows t hat t he s anctuary w as c onstructed i n t he i st c ent . C . E . ( see : C .B . W elles , i nscr . 5 6 ) . T he T emple o f Z eus s tood o n t he u pper t errace w hich w as j oined b y a f light
o f
s teps
t o
t he
l ower
t errace .
I t
i s
s imilar
t o m any
o ther
H ellenistic s anctuaries , s uch a s t he S anctuary o f A skiepios o n t he i sland o f K os ( fig . 8 3) , t he S anctuary o f A thena i n L indos ( fig . 8 4) , t he S anctuary o f H ercules i n T ivoli P raeneste ( fig. 8 6).
( fig .
8 5)
a nd
t he
S anctuary
o f
F ortuna
P rimigenia
i n
2 2. W ith r eference t o t he T emple o f Z eus, y et t o b e e xcavated , s ee : C . S chumacher , ' ! Dascherasch" , p p . 1 37-141, F igs . 1 1-12 . C .S. F isher , G erasa , D escription o f t he S ite, p p . 1 7-19, P l. I Vb . M uch p reservation a nd r estoration h as b een c arried o ut i n t he v icinity o f t he S anctuary o f Z eus o ver t he l ast f ew y ears , s ee : J . S eigne , " Le s anctuaire d e Z eus a J erash : e lements d e c hronologie" , S yria 6 2 ( 1985) , p p . 2 87-295 . 2 3.
C .B . W elles, G erasa , i nscr .
1,
p .
3 8
3 80.
2 4 .
S ee d iscussion o n t he T emple o f A rtemis, n ote 7 0 ,
2 8-29.
P P .
2 5 . T he F rench s cholar R obert A my w as t he f irst t o d iscuss t he a rchitectural p roblems c oncerning t he s taircase t owers a nd t heir f unction i n t he t emples , s ee : 8 2136. R . A my, " Temple a E scaliers" , S YRIA X XVII ( 1950), pp. H e m entions 3 9 t emples i n S yria , L ebanon a nd t he E astern s ide o f t he J ordan R iver w here
t he
a ntas
o f
t he f acades h ave b een c hanged
t o s quare c orner
t owers . I n m ost c ases t he f light o f s tairs w as s ituated i n o nly o ne o f t hese t owers a nd t he o ther w as c onstructed m erely t o c reate a f eeling o f s ymmetry . A my b elieves t hese s taircase t owers t o h ave s ome c onnection t o a r eligious c eremony a s a lthough t hey a re w idespread t hroughout t he P rovincia A rabia a nd b ordering a reas , t hey h ave o nly b een d iscovered w ithin r itual s tructures . H owever , s uch s tairwells m ay a lso b een s een i n t heatre a nd b aths o f P hilippopolis a s w ell a s ( although n ot i n t his r egion ) i n t he t heatre a t A spendos . S ee : M . B ieber , T he H istory o f G reek a nd R oman T heater , P rinceton , 2 09 , F igs . 7 00-705 , n ote 3 6 .
1 961, p p . 2 08-
I n h is a rticle o n s taircase t owers i n N abataean a rchitecture , P rof . A . N egev p oints o ut t hat t hese m ay b e f ound b oth i n r itual a nd i n p rivate b uildings a nd t hat t hey s tem f rom a m uch e arlier d ate t han t hose m entioned b y A my . F rom t his h e c oncludes t hat t he o rigin o f t he s taircase t owers m ay w ell h ave b een i n N abataean a rchitecture w here t here w as a n i ntermingling o f C lassical a nd l ocal s tyles . T he N abataeans w ere m aster b uilders a nd t heir i nfluence I n a rchitecture s pread f ar a nd w ide o ver a l ong p eriod . S ee : A . N egev , "T he S taircase-Tower i n N abataean A rchitecture" , p . 3 64-383 . p
R .B . L XXX ( 1973) ,
2 6 . G . S chumacher, " Dscherasch", pp. 1 41145, F ig.s 1 3:17. C .S. F isher , G erasa , pp. 1 9-20, P l. V ab . I nscriptions n os . 5 1 a nd 5 2 p ointed t o t he c onstruction o f t he S outh T heatre o f G erasa d uring t he r eign o f D omitlan . T wo m ore i nscriptions u ncovered I n March 1 974 w ithin t he g rounds o f t he t heatre a lso m ention D omitian a nd d ate t he t heatre t o t he y ears 9 0-92 C .E . S ee : A .A .S.O.R ., N ewsletter , 4O ctober 1 974 . 2 7 .
I n t he G reek a nd H ellenistic
t raditions
t heatres w ere
o ften e rected
a longside r itual c ompounds . F or e xample s ee : T he D ionysos T heatre c lose t o t he A rcopolis i n A thens , t he t heatre i n D elphi a nd i n P ergamon . S ee : a . W ith r eference t o t he D ionysos T heatre i n A thens , s ee : J . T ravlos , P ictorial D ictionary o f A ncient A thens , 5 37-552 , F igs . 6 76-690 . b . W ith r eference t o t he t heatre i n D elphi , s ee : P . C oste-Messeliere , C h . P icard , D elphi , P aris , 2 5 , 1 98199 .
1 943 ,
c .
W ith r eference t o t he t heatre a t P ergamon , s ee :
R .
B ohn ,
P ergamon I V, D ie T heaterTerrasse
L ondon ,
p p .
3 17-332 ,
( Tafeln),
p p -
1 971,
B erlin ,
F igs .
1 902,
t afeln I , I V , X LV . 2 8 .
I n 1 925-26 t he N ymphaeon w as p artially c leared b y H orsfield b ut a m ajor
e xcavation h as n ever b een h eld o n t his s ite , s ee : C . H orsfield , " Jerash : A nnual R eport o n W orks o f C onservation , 1 9251926" , T .J .A .B ., 1 926, p .2, P l. I , ha . C . S . F isher , G erasa , p p . 2 1-22 , p lan X XVIII , P l . V I . T he G erasa N ymphaeon b elongs t o al arge g roup o f s imilar s tructures f ound i n a lmost a ll t he c ities o f S yria a nd A rabia . W ith r eference t o t he n ymphaeon a t
B ostra
s ee
c hapter
3 ,
p .55;
w ith
3 9
r eference
t o
t he
n ymphaeon
a t
P hiladelphia
s ee c hapter 1 ,
P P .
8 -9 ;
n ote 2 6 i s a s hort c omparison o f
t he
n ymphaea i n S yria , A rabia a nd A sia M inor . 2 9.
C . S chumacher , " l Jscherasch" ,
1 45150.
p . p
C .S. F isher , G erasa , p p . 2 2-23, P l . l lc . A n i nscription f ound c lose t o t he s ite o f t he N orth T heatre d ates t he b uilding t o t he p eriod o f M arcus A urelius ( inscription n o . 6 5 , p . 4 15) . T he s ite o n w hich t he t wo t heatres w ere e rected c onform t o t he u rban p lanning o f t heir p eriods .
T he e arlier o f t he t wo ,
t he S outh T heatre ,
e rected i n t he
d ays o f t he E mperor D omitian ( see n ote 2 6) w as s ituated c lose t o t he r itual c ompound
t hus
c onnecting
T he N orth T heatre ,
i t
t o
t he
H ellenistic
t raditions
( see n ote
2 7) .
e rected i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 2 nd c entury C . E . s tands
c lose t o w hat m ust h ave b een t he c ity 's F orum ( see p . 3 4) . R oman t radition c onnected t he t heatre m ore w ith e ntertainment c entres a nd t herefore m any c ity p lans o f t his p eriod s how t he t heatre e ither a longside t he F orum o r s ituated f urther a way f rom t he c ity c entre n ear t he h ippodrome o r a mphitheatre . I n t owns l ike T imgad , A ugusta-Raurika ( Switzerland) , O stia o r P almyra t he t heatres s tand n ext t o t he F orum , s ee : J .B . W ard-Perkins, C ities o f Ancient G reece a nd I taly; Planning i n C lassical A ntiquity , N ew Y ork , 1 974 . F . C astagnoli , O rthogonal T own P lanning i n A ntiquity , M .I .T . , 1 971 . T his i s a lso t he c ase i n s ome o f t he c ities i n t he P rovincia A rabia s uch a s P hiladelphia a nd P hilippopolis ( see f igs . 5 , 1 55) . I n B ostra t he T heatre a nd t he H ippodrome a re c lose t o o ne a nother a nd s ituated o utside o f t he c ity w alls ( fig . 1 07) . A n i nteresting e xample d emonstrating t he R oman c oncept o f t he t heatre a s a n e ntertainment s tructure m ay b e s een i n A izanoi w here t he H ippodrome a nd t he T heatre h ave u nited c omplex . S ee : N . B ieber , o p . c it . , p 2 . 20 , F igs . 7 43-744 , n ote 6 2 . T h . F yfe, H ellenistic A rchitecture , C ambridge, 1 936,
b een
c onstructed
a s
a
1 60, F ig . 4 8.
p .
T he A mphitheatre a nd t he T heatre w ere s ometimes i ncorporated i nto o ne b uilding a nd u sed f or d ifferent e ntertainment p urposes . S ee : A . N . M odona , G il E difici T eatrali G reci e R omani , F irenze , 1 961, pp. 2 172 33. I t i s a lso k nown t hat i n s ome t heatres t he o rchestra c ould b e c hanged i nto a w ater p ool: S ee : C . T raversari , C li S pectacoli i n A qua n el T eatro T ardo 3 0. 3 1.
C .S. F isher , G erasa , T he
W est
B ath h as
p .
-
A ntico , R oma ,
1 960 .
1 6.
o nly
b een p artly c leared
e xcavations h ave e ver b een h eld t here .
a nd
n o
f ull-scale
S ee :
C . S chumacher , " Dscherasch" , p . 1 50 , T afel I V . . 2 3, p lan X XVII, P l . V Ib . C .S. F isher , G erasa , p 2 4, P l. V ila .
3 2.
C .S. F isher , G erasa ,
3 . 3
I nscription d iscovered a mong t he m ounds o f r uins o f t he c ity a lso r efer
p .
t o s tructures t hat h ave n ot y et b een d iscovered .
S ee :
a )
I nscription N o .
1 5,
p .
3 82 m entions t he T emple o f S erapis.
b )
I nscription N o .
1 7,
p .
3 83 m entions t he T emple o f P accidas.
c ) I nscription N o . 7 4 , p . 4 08-409 m entions a p ortico t he w hereabouts w hich i s u nknown . d ) I nscription N o . 2 75, p . 4 69 m entions y et a nother p ortico . e ) I nscription N o . 3 , p . 3 74 m entions a C ymnasiarchus a nd w e t herefore p resume t hat a g ymnasium a lso e xisted s omewhere i n G erasa .
4 0
o f
m ay
3 4.
G . S chumacher , " Dscherasch", p p .
A .H .
D etweiler ,
1 56159, F igs. 2 9-32.
G erasa , T he T riumphal A rch ,
p p .
7 3-83,
p lans
1 1-1V,
P is . V III-XI . S ee a lso c hapter 3 , n ote 2 8 . 3 5 .
C .B . W elles, G erasa , I nscriptions, i ncr . 5 8, p p . 4 01-402.
3 6.
A .H . D etweiler , G erasa , T he T riumphal A rch , p . 8 1.
3 7 .
T he a dditional s tructures a s w ell a s t he i ntroduction o f a n a pparatus
t o
c lose t he e ntrance , w ould s eem t o b e p roof t hat a p lan e xisted f or
t he e xpansion o f G erasa , s ee : C .H . K raeling , G erasa , H istory o f G erasa ,
p .
5 0.
A .H . D etweiler , T he T riumphal A rch , p . 8 1. 3 8 .
A .H . D et eiler , o p . c it., p . 8 1.
3 9 .
S chumacher b elieved t he H ippodrome t o b e m ade u p o f t wo s ections
-
a
c ircus r ing o n t he n orthern s ide a nd a N aumachia o n t he s outh , s ee : G . S chumacher , " tscherasch" , p p . 1 59161, F igs. 3 3-35, t afel V I. A g lance a t t he a erial p hotograph o f G erasa ( fig . 3 5) , c learly s hows w hy S chumacher r eached t his d ivision . T he n orthern s ection o f t he H ippodrome i s i ndeed a n o val s haped a rena s eparated f rom t he s outhern p art o f t he H ippodrome ( compare f igs . 4 1, 4 2) . H owever , t he t heory o f Miller a ppears a m ore l ikely e xplanation f or t his p henomenon . H e e xplains t hat t he n orthern s ection w as c hanged b y t he P ersians i n t he b eginning o f t he 7 th c entury t o a ccomodate t heir p olo g ames, s ee : E .B . M iller , G erasa , T he H ippodrome , p p . 8 5-100 , p lans V I -X I ,
P is .
x II-xVII. 4 0 .
O nly a f ew H ippodromes h ave b een d iscovered
i n c ities
i n P alestine ,
S yria a nd A rabia . T he t wo c losest t o t hat i n G erasa a re i n C aesarea a nd B ostra . T hat i n C aesarea m easures 4 80 m etres l ong . S ee : A . F rova , S cavi d i C aesarea M aritima , M ilano , 1 965 , p p . 3 3-34 , F igs . 1 , 9 . A . R eifenberg , " Caesarea , A S tudy i n t he D ecline o f t he T own" , I .E .J . 1 ( 1950), p . 2 5 . T he h ippodrome a t B ostra m easures a bout 4 40 m etres i n l ength , s ee : H .C . B utler , P .U .A .E .S., B ostra p p. 2 75-276, p lan 1 . N either o f t hese 2 H ippodromes h ave e ver b een e xcavated a nd t hey a re k nown t o u s o nly f rom s urveys d one i n t he a reas . I t i s p ossible t hat t he s tructure c alled t he s tadium i n P hilippopolis i s i n f act a s mall H ippodrome m easuring o nly 2 00 m etres
i n
l ength .
S ee c hapter 4 ,
3 5 .
T he
4 92 m etres l ong .
S ee :
R . S tillwell ( ed .) , A ntioch o n t he O rontes I , T he E xcavations o f 1 932 ,
1 934 ,
H ippodrome i n A ntioch i s t he l argest k nown i n S yria
-
n ote
P rinceton , 1 934 , pp. 3 4-41 , F igs . 3 -4 . H ippodrome i n G erasa w as s maller i n c omparison t o m ost m entioned h ere .
F or
a n e ncompassing r eview o f t he H ippodrome i n I srael, S yria a nd A rabia , s ee : J . H . H umphrey, " Prologomena t o t he S tudy o f t he H ippodrome a t C aesarea M aritima" B .A .S .O .R . ( 1974) , p p . 2 -45 . Am ore r ecent d iscovery i s t he H ippodrome i n N ablus-Naepolis ( Shechem ) , b ut d etails o f i t h ave n ot y et b een p ublished . 4 1.
E .B . M iller , G erasa , T he H ippdrome, P l. X IVb .
4 2.
i dem ., o p . c it ., p . 8 9 ( Section E ), P l. I X .
4 1
4 3.
i dem ., o p . c it.,
4 4 .
C . H orsfield ,
4 5 .
A .H .
p p .
G erasa , A ppended N ote o n t he H ippodrome ,
K raeling b ases h is c entury C .E .
8 9-100 .
p p .
d ating o f
t he H ippodrome
t o
t he
o n t he e pigraphical e vidence ( inscription n o .
D etweiler ,
G erasa , T he S outh G ate ,
1 49-152 ,
p p .
1 00102 .
b eginning o f 5 9 ,
p .
t he
3 rd
4 02) .
p lan X XIII ,
P is .
X XXb-XXXI b . 4 6 .
i dem ., o p . c it.,
4 7
i dem ., o p . c it., p p. 1 51-152.
4 8 .
i dem ., o p . c it., p .
4 9 . X VI .
C .H . K raeling , G erasa , T he S outh T etrapylon , P ls . X VIII-XXI .
5 0 .
T he p yramid-shaped s tructures d ecorating t he u pper s ection o f t he
1 51.
p .
1 52.
T etrapylon w ere r econstructed b y M r . i magination , ( see f ig . 7 1) .
M errill
1 03-115 ,
p p .
a nd a re
p lans
t he r esults
X II-
o f
h is
5 1.
C .H . K raeling, G erasa ,
5 2 .
T here w ere p robably 2 s tages i n t he d evelopment o f t he s outhern
p .
1 09.
c rossroads f rom a n o rdinary j unction a nd t o a n o val c ity p laza . S ee a lso d iscussion c oncerning t he t own p lan o f G erasa , pp. 3 2-34 . W ith r eference t o t he T etrapylon i tself s ee d iscussion i n c hapter 4 o n t he T etrapylon i n P hilippopolis , p . 8 2 , n ote 2 9 . A s imilar o val p laza w as r ecently u ncovered i n A ntioch . I t i s a lso s ituated a t t he j unction o f t he m ain n orth-south a nd e ast-west s treets . S ee : Y . L assus , A ntioch o n t he O rontes-V , P rinceton , 5 ,
1 972 ,
1 315 , p 1 .
p . p
V . n ote
( les P ortiques D 'Antioche ) .
5 3 .
A .H .
P ls .
XII-XXIII . X
D etweiler ,
G erasa , T he N orth G ate , p p .
5 4.
C .B . W elles, G erasa, I nscriptions, i nscrs. 5 6, 5 7,
5 . 5
A s imilar s olution ,
c onnection o f 2 s treet ,
, 17-123
w here a g ate w as c onstructed
c an a lso b e f ound i n P almyra .
p .
p lans X VII-XX ,
4 01. t o
i ncorporate
t he
T he m eeting p oint o f
t he t wo s ections o f t he g reat c olonnade w as m arked b y a T riumphal s imilarly c onstructed t o t he N orthern G ate a t G erasa . S ee : T h . W iegand , P almyra , B erlin , 1 932, ( Tafeln), t afel I I ( see f ig . 8 9).
A rch ,
5 6 . G . S chumacher , ' Dscherasch" , p p . 1 30137 , F igs . 5 10 , t afel 9 . 1 25-138, p lan X XI, P is . C .S . F isher , G erasa , T he T emple o f A rtemis, pp. X XIV-XXXVI Il b . 5 7 .
T he S anctuary o f A rtemis
j oins a r ow o f s imilar r eligious s anctuaries
c onstructed i n t his r egion f rom t he l ate i st c entury C .E . t o t he 2 nd c entury S uch a s t he T emple M ount i n J erusalem , t he B ei c ompound i n P alymyra , t he J upiter c ompound i n D amascus a nd t he c ompound o n t he A cropolis o f P hiladelphia . T hese a re a ll c haracterised b y : ap ropylaea c omplex l eading t o a c entral, l arge c ourtyard w hich i s s urrounded b y p orticos a nd i n t he c entre o f w hich s tands t he t emple i tself . S ee d iscussion o n c ompound i n P hiiedelphia
-
c hapter 1 , n ote 1 2 , a lso n ote 2 1 a bove .
4 2
5 8 . T he a rea m etres , s ee :
e ncompassed
b y
t he A rtemis
C . S . F isher , G erasa , T he T emple o f A rtemis , T o c ompare n ote : T he J erusalem T emple M ount
-
c ompound m easures
a t
3 4 ,000
s q .
1 25 .
p .
1 44,000 s q. m etres ( fig. 8 7).
T he B ei S anctuary 3 5,000 s q. m etres ( fig . 8 8). T he J upiter S anctuary 1 24,000 s q. m etres ( fig . 9 1). T he P hiladelphia S anctuary 5 6,000 s q. m etres ( fig . 8 ). -
-
-
5 9 . C .H . K raeling , G erasa , pp. 5 2-53. I t i s k no wn f rom h istorical s ources t hat M ount i n J erusalem t ook e ven l onger .
t he
c onstruction o f
t he T emple
S ee :
A . S halit , H erod t he K ing , t he M an a nd h is W ork , 1 960 , p p . 1 94-206 ( Hebrew ) .
B ialik
I nst . ,
J erusalem ,
T he c ompox ind a t P almyra w as b uilt b etween t he y ears 4 4 B .C . a nd 1 75 C .E . , s ee : J . C antineau , ' textes P almyreniens p rovenants d e l a F uile d u T emple d e B ei" , . 1 21 . S YRIA 1 931 ( XIV) , p i dem . , 1 ).
I nventaire d es i nscriptions d e P almyre ,
i dem . ,
" Tadmorea" ,
S YRIA 1 933 ( XIV) ,
p p .
f asc .
I X ,
D amas ,
1 936
( nr .
1 70174 .
T he c onstruction o f t he J upiter c ompound a t B aalbek c ontinued f rom t he d ays o f A ugustus u ntil t he m iddle o f t he 3 rd c entury A .D . , s ee : G .L . H arding , B aalbeck, B eirut,
1 963,
p .
1 7.
T h . W iegand , B . S chulz, H . W innefeld , B aalbek , B erlin , 6 0 . R . P arapetti , " The S anctuary o f A rtemis S urvey" , A DAJ X XIV ( 1980) , pp. 1 45149 . H . K alayan ,
1 921.
a t J erash
a n
-
a rchitectural
" A S ymmetry a nd H armonic P roportions o f t he T emples o f A rtemis
a nd Z eus a t J erash ; a nd t he o rigin o f N umerals a s u sed i n t he E nlargment o f t he S outh T heatre a t J erash" , i n A . Hadidi ( ed.), S tudies i n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan I , A mman , 1 982 , p p . 2 55-260 . 6 1 . C .B . W elles, G erasa , T he I nscription , 4 26).
i nscrs .
1 46
4 26) ;
( p .
1 47
( p .
6 2 . T his s ection o f t he w all i s e asily s een , s ee : G erasa, P l. X XIVb . P ls . X XIVb , X XVa .
6 3 .
G erasa ,
T he
p ropylaea
c omplex
i n
G erasa
i s
r emarkably
P hiladelphia a s f ar a s t he s ize a nd d ecorations d iscussion o n p ropylaea i n P hiladelphia , 6 4.
C . H orsfield ,
c hapt .
1 , n ote 1 5 ,
" Jerash , A nnual R eport" , T .J.A .B.
6 5 . C .B . W elles , G erasa, T he I nscription , i nscription d ates t o 1 50 C .E .
s imilar
t o
t hat
a re c oncerned . p .
i n S ee
7 .
1( 1926), P l . I V .
i nscr . 6 0 ,
p p .
4 02-403,
t his
6 6 .
G erasa , P l. X XIVb .
6 7.
G erasa , P l . X XVIa .
6 8 .
A s imilar a rrangement o f h alls a nd e xedras a round t he t emple c ourtyard
m ay b e s een i n
o ther t emples m entioned a bove .
4 3
S ee n otes 2 1,
5 7 ,
5 8 .
6 9 .
C .
S chumacher ,
' Dscherasch" ,
p p .
1 30137 ,
F igs .
7 10 .
C .S . F isher, G erasa , T he T emple o f A rtemis, p p . 1 33-138, p lan X XI, P is . X XVII 7 0 .
-
X XV I iIIb .
T he c onstruction o f a t emple p odium o n a s eries o f b arrel v aults i s
t ypically R oman i n s tyle . t emples
s tanding c lose
m anner ,
S ee :
I n R ome , i n t he ' ! Forum H olitorium" , t here a re 3
t o o ne a nother w hich s tand o n p odia b uilt i n t his
E . N ash , P ictorial D ictionary o f A ncient R ome I , L ondon , 1 968 ,
p p .
4 18 -
4 23 , F igs . 5 12-515 . I t i s i mportant t o p oint o ut t he c ombination o f a p urely R oman e lement o f c onstruction s uch a s t he s eries o f v aults w ith a l ocal a nd p robably N abataean f orm o f c onstruction s uch a s t he s taircase t ower i n t he l eft a nta o f t he c elia ( see n ote 2 5) . T his s hows t he d efinitely e clectic n ature o f a rchitecture i n P rovincia A rabia , 7 1.
S ee n ote 2 5.
7 2.
S ee n otes 2 1, 5 7, 5 8 .
s ee c hapter 5 , p p . 1 03113 .
7 3 . S ee c oncluding d iscussion c oncerning t he c ity p lan o f G erasa .
( Also s ee
c hapter 5 ) , p p . 3 1-35 . 7 4 .
J .W .
C rowfoot ,
"Re cent W ork R ound t he F ountain C ourt a t J erash" ,
6 4 ( 1931) , p p . 1 43-154 , P is . 1 -VI . i dem . , G erasa , T he B uilding R ound t he F ountain C ourt , 4 , p lans X XIX
-
XXI , P is . X XXVI X
p . p
2 01-208 ,
P .E .Q .
F igs .
3 -
X L .
-
7 5.
G erasa , p lan X XX .
7 6 .
T he e xcavators a re o f t he o pinion t hat t hese r emains a re c learly f rom
t he i st c entury C .E .
S ee :
J .W . C rowfoot, G erasa , p . 2 08 , F ig . 4 . i dem ., P .E.Q. 6 4 ( 1931), p . 1 45, P l . 12. T here i s n o w ay o f v erifying t his a rgument , b ut i f t rue , i t t hrows m uch l ight o n t he d evelopment o f t he u rban p lans o f t he c ity . 7 . 7
C .
C .S .
F isher ,
S chumacher ,
" Dscherasch" ,
p . p
G erasa , T he " Forum" ,
1 28129 ,
p . p
F ig .
1 53-158 ,
4 .
p lan X XIV,
P is .
XXII X
-
XXI I I. X 7 8 .
J .L .
2 56 ,
2 57 ( see a lso i ll . 3 1) .
7 9 .
G .L . H arding " Recent W ork o n t he J erash F orum" , P .E .Q . 8 1 ( 1949) , p p .
1 216 ,
B urckhardt ,
P ls .
I -II ,
T ravels i n S yria a nd t he H oly L and ,
C .S. F isher , G erasa , T he " Forum" , p .
8 1.
i dem ., o p. c it., p p.
1 55-156.
8 2.
i dem ., o p. c it., p p .
1 56157.
T he o val
1 822 ,
p . p
XIII . X
8 0 .
8 3 .
L ondon ,
c ity p laza w as b uilt
1 54 .
s ome t ime a fter t he S anctuary o f Z eus .
T he g ate m arking t he j unction o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet w ith t his p laza i s p robably l ater t han t he I onic c olonnade o f t he p laza . T he a rchitectural d ecoration o f t he g ate i s C orinthian a nd i t w as p robably c onstructed a t t he
4 4
t ime t hat t he c apitals o f t he c olonnade r unning a long t he s treet w ere a ll c hanged f rom I onic t o C orinthian
p robably t o s uit t he
-
c hanges m ade w hen
t he S anctuary o f A rtemis w as b uilt d uring t he 2 nd c entury G .E . 8 4 .
A s imilar , a lthough m uch s maller , c ity o val p laza m ay b e s een c lose t o
" Damascus G ate"
i n P almyra .
I ts
a rchitectural d ecorations o n i t , T b . W iegand , P almyra , B erlin , 8 5 .
G .
C .C .
McCowan ,
S chumacher ,
l ies m ainly
i n t he r ich
1 932, t afel 1 0.
' Dscherasch" ,
p . p
1 65-171,
F igs .
3 9-42 .
G erasa , T he F estival T heatre a t t he B irketein ,
p lan X XV , P ls . X XXIIIb 8 6 .
i mportance
s ee :
-
p . p
1 59167 ,
XXVa . X
C .B . W elles, G erasa , I nscriptions, i nscr . 2 79, p p . 4 70-471.
P . T homsen , L oca S ancta , H alle , 1 907, p p. 5 1-52. 8 7.
C .C . M cCown , G erasa , p .
8 . 8
C .B . W elles, G erasa ,
1 64. I nscription ,
i nscrs .
1 97,
p . 4 46;
1 98 ,
p .
46; 4
1 53, p . 4 28 . 8 9 . C .C . M cCown , G erasa , p . 1 59. R . S tillwell ( ed .) , A ntioch o n t he O rontes I I , T he E xcavations 1 933-1936 , P rinceton , D . W ilber ,
1 938 . T he P lateau o f D aphne ,
p . 4 9-56 . p
i dem ., T he T heatre o f D aphne , p p . 5 7-94. 9 0 . 9 1.
S ee n ote 1. The
e xcavators
o f
G erasa w ere
p robably
i nscription f ound i n t he n orth-western g ate
o f
c orrect
t he
c ity
t o
r ely
( see
C .B .
o n a n W elles
i nscription 5 0) w hich c onfirms t hat t he c ity 's u rban p lan w as f ormed i n t he s econd h alf o f t he i st c entury C .E . a t t he v ery l atest . 9 2.
C .H . K raeling , G erasa , p . 4 1.
9 3 .
T he f ollowing a rgument r eferring t o t he u rban c haracter o f t he c ity i s
s omewhat s urprising : " t ' Jith i ts a xial ' cardo ' c rossed a t r ight a ngles b y ' decu i nani ' ,
i t r epresents
t he t ypical R oman a daptation o f t he H ippodamian c ity p lan f ound e lsewhere i n t he E ast , a bove a ll a t P almyra a nd i n t he l ater c ities o f B ostra a nd P hilippoplis". C .H . K raeling ,
G erasa , T he H istory o f G erasa ,
p .
4 1 .
A ll t he c ities m entioned b y K raeling p resent d ifferent c ity p lans . P hilippopolis w as e stablished i n t he m iddle o f t he 3 rd c entury C .E . a nd i ts p lan i s d efinitely n ot " an a daptation o f t he H ippodro n iian c ity p lan" . T he R oman c ity o f B ostra w as b uilt a longside a m ore a ncient S emitic c ity a nd i ts p lan w as d efinitely m oulded b y e xisting u rban s tructures w hich w ere t aken i nto c onsideration w ith t he d evelopment o f t he c ity . P almyra , o n t he o ther h and , g rew s lowly , s tage b y s tage , o ver a l ong p eriod . T hus K raeling 's c omparison b etween G erasa 's c ity p lan a nd t hose o f t he t owns m entioned a bove , i s n ot r elevant . E ach o f t hese c ities h as i ts o wn i ndividual c ity p lan a nd a p hrase s uch a s " Ro man a daptation o f H ippodamian c ity p lan" i s m eaningless i n t he u rban r eality o f A rabia . S ee c hapter 5 . 9 4.
S ee n ote 6 .
4 5
9 5.
C .H . K raeling , G erasa , T he H istory o f G erasa , p . 4 1.
C .B . W elles, G erasa , T he I nscriptions, i nscrs. 2 -4, 1 7, 2 7. T hese i nscriptions r efer t o s tructures n ot y et f ound . 9 6. T he S anctuary o f Z eus, i nscriptions 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 . T he S outhern T heatre , i nscription 5 2, s ee a lso n ote 2 6. 9 7.
I nscription 4 9, f rom t he y ear 6 7/68 C .E .
I nscription 2 8 , f rom t he y ear 7 9/80 C .E. S ee a lso d iscussion o n t he C athedral p recinct p p . 4 2-43, n otes 7 4-76. 9 8.
I nscription 1 7 .
9 9 .
C .H . K raeling , G erasa , T he H istory o f G erasa ,
4 4-45.
p p .
1 00 . C .B . W elles, G erasa i nscrs. 5 6, 5 7. T he c ompletion o f t he r oads r unning f rom P ella t o G erasa a nd f rom G erasa t o P hiladelphia ( during t he r eign o f H adrian ) a dded m uch i mportance t o t he c ity n ow s ituated o n a m ajor i ntersection o f t he t rade r outes i n P rovincia A rabia . G erasa w as n ow a t t he j unction b etween t he V ia T raiana N ova a nd t he c ities a long t he c oastal p lain i n P alestine A cre ( Ptolemais) a nd C aesarea ( see f ig . 1 ) . -
N . Avi-Yonah , T he H oly L and f rom t he P ersian P eriod t o t he A rab C onquest , B aker B ook H ouse , M ichigan , 1 966 ( The R oman R oad S ystem , pp. 1 81187 , m ap 2 4). 1 01. C .B . W ells, G erasa , i nscr . 5 8 . 1 02. C .H . K raeling, G erasa , p . 5 0. S ee a lso d iscussion o n S outh G ate ,
p p .
3 5-36 .
( Please n ote 1 03 m issing) 1 04 .
C .B . W elles, G erasa , i nscrs. 6 0 , 6 3.
1 05 .
T hree i nscriptions f rom t he p ropylaea c omplex o n t he e ast s ide o f t he
n orth-south s treet h ave b een d iscovered , S ee : C .B. W elles, G erasa , i nscrs. 6 4,
1 46, 1 67.
1 06 . T hese c hanges w ere a ccompanied b y i nscriptions , a ll o riginating i n t he 2 nd c entury G .E . S ee i nscription: 7 8 , 8 0-85 , 1 02-104 . 1 07. I nscription 1. 1 08 . I nscription 6 5. 1 09 . I nscription 6 9. .H . K raeling, G erasa , 10. C
p .
5 4.
nscription 4 0 . 11. I nscription 2 19. 13. I . T he o ldest i nscription u ncovered s o f ar i n t he o pen r itual a rea t o t he 14 n orth o f 1 53.
t he c ity i s f rom t he d ays o f G eta ( 209-211
4 6
C .E .) ,
s ee i nscription
15 .
W ith r eference t o t he E ast B ath s ee i nscription 1 6 .
I t a ppears t hat t he h ippodrome w as e rected i n t he 3 rd c entury C .E . ,
a lthough
t here i s a d ifference o f o pinion o n t his m atter b etween H orsfield a nd M iller . K raeling 's e pigraphical e vidence w ould s eem h owever t o d etermine t he l ater d ate a s t he m ore l ikely o f t he t wo . 16.
C .B . W elles, G erasa , i nscriptions :
17.
i dem ., o p. c it ., i nscr . 1 50 .
18 .
C .H . K raeling ,
W elles , G erasa ,
1 53,
( See i nscription 5 9) .
1 97,
1 98 .
p p .
G erasa , T he S outh T etrapylon ,
i nscrs .
1 05 ,
19.
S ee p revious n ote , p p .
1 20 .
O rderly
t own p lans
14115, s ee a lso
l ike
d efinite f unctional a reas ,
1 03115 ,
P l .
C .B .
t hat
1 04, n ote 5 .
p .
o f P riene o r M iletus a re d ivided
i nto
b ut t hese a re r emarkably c lose t o e ach o ther a nd
t he m ovement f rom o ne a rea t o a nother c an h ardly b e n oticed S ee : 4 8-56 , F igs . C . K leiner , D ie R uinen v on M ilet , B erlin , 1 968 , pp. 3 1, M . S chede , p lan 1 .
X II ,
1 06 .
D ie R uinen v on P riene ,
B erlin ,
1 965 ,
1 1-21,
p p .
1 4 ,
2 7-29 ,
F igs .
1 012 ,
1 21 . A n a erial p hotograph ( see f ig . 3 5) s hows t hat t he w estern p art o f t he e ast-west s treet i n t he s outh o f t he c ity w as c leared a s w ell a s a n a rea r unning f rom t he T etrapylon t o t he b ridge ( see f ig . 3 5) . T he n orthern e astw est s treet w as n ot c leared o f r ubble a nd t he l ine o f t he s treet h as b een m arked b y t he e xcavators a ccording t o s ome o f t he c olumns w hich m ade u p t he c olonnade r unning t he l ength o f t he s treet . 1 22.
S ee n ote 1 5 .
1 23 .
G erasa , P l . X XIVa .
1 24. G erasa, H istory o f E xcavations, p p . G erasa , D escription o f t he S ite , p . 1 7. G erasa , T he F orum , p p . 1 53158 . 1 25 .
1 10.
T he s ame a rchitectural s olution h as b een u sed t o s olve t he p roblem o f
t he a ngle o f t he N orth G ate a s w as u sed i n t he f ormation o f t he o val p laza . ( See
f igs .
n ote
5 3 .
4 2 ,
7 2) .
S ee a lso d iscussion c oncerning t he N orth G ate ,
1 26. N . R ostovtzeff , C aravan C ities, O xford , 1 27. G erasa , p p .
1 932,
2 6 ,
2 7.
p .
1 53-158 .
1 28 .
S ee d iscussion o n t he S anctuary o f A rtemis
1 29.
S ee d iscussion o n t he N ymphaeon , p . 2 3, n ote 2 8.
1 30 .
S ee d iscussion o n t he " Cathedral P recinct" ,
1 31.
p .
I n R ostovtzeff's
s ituated , s ee : N . R ostovtzeff, o p. c it.,
o pinion p .
t his
8 2.
4 7
i s
w here
p p .
p .
2 6-29 , n otes 5 7-58 .
2 9 , n otes 7 4-76 .
t he
F orum w as
p robably
1 32 . G erasa , 2 1. V Ila . 1 33 .
A c autious e stimate s hows
t hat t he r esidential a rea o f G erasa s pread
O ut o ver 1 38 ,000 s q . m etres w hich i s o nly 1 7% o f t he t otal c ity a rea . 1 34.
S ee p . 2 3, n otes 2 1-23.
1 35 .
W ith r eference
s ee : D . S chlumberger , 1 49-162. A .v .
G erkan ,
t o
t he h istory
o f
t he u rban d evelopment o f P almyra ,
' Le D evelopment U rban o f P almyre" ,
' Die S tadtmauer v on P almyra" ,
B ERYTUS 1 935
B ERYTUS 1 935 ( 2) ,
p p .
( 2) ,
p . p
2 5-33 .
M . G awlikowski , P almyre ( Fouilles p olonaises) V I: L e T emple P almyrenien , W arszawa ,
1 973 .
M . R ostovtzeff, o p. c it ., 1 37.
S ee n ote 1 33.
1 38 .
S ee c hapter 5 ,
p p .
p . p
5 5-90.
1 03113.
1 39 . T he Maiumas F estivals w ere o f o bvious i mportance a s t hey a re e xtensively m entioned b oth i n P agan a nd i n C hristian s ources, S ee : C .C .
M cCown ,
G erasa , T he F estival T heatre a t t he B irketein ,
1 40. S ee n otes 2 ,
1 00.
4 8
p . p
1 59167 .
I ntroduction D uring t he f irst c enturies o f t he c ommon e ra B ostra w as t he l argest c ity i n t he a rea s outh o f D amascus a nd e ast o f t he J ordan R iver . b een a bandonned a nd i ts p opulation t oday n umbers 1 5 ,000 ( fig .
I t h as n ever 1 08) ( 1 ) .
T he
c ity l ies a t a n a ltitude o f 8 00 m etres a bove s ea l evel a nd i s s ituated a t t he e astern e nd o f t he g reat H auran ( Auranitis) p lain l ying a t t he f oothills o f
t he
s outh-western
r egion o f
t he H auran
( Auranitis)
m ountains .
I t
i s
a bout 1 60 k ms a way f rom J erusalem a nd 1 25 k ms a way f rom D amascus ( figs . 1 , 1 01) . T he t own i s s urrounded o n t he w est , n orth a nd s outh b y e xtremely f ertile l ands a nd o n t he e ast b y v olcanic h ills ( fig . 1 02) . B ostra h as a lways
b een
s trategically
p laced
o n a n
i mportant
c rossroad i n t his
a rea
( figs . 1 01 .102) . I n t hese e arly d ays f ive m ajor h ighways l ed f rom t he c ity t o o ther i mportant a reas : T wo m oved i n a n ortherly d irection o ne i n a -
s traight l ine t owards D amascus t hrough L edja , a nd t he o ther w estwards c ircumventing L edja b ut a lso i n t he d irection o f D amascus . T he l atter t hereafter t urned t owards t he c oast . A t hird r oute w ent w est f rom B ostra t o D er 'a ( ancient A draea) , C adara , S cythopolis a nd e venturally t o t he c oast . T he m ost i mportant r oute g oing s outh w as t he V ia T raiana N ova w hich m oved t hrough P hiladelphia t o t he R ed S ea , a nd w as b y f ar t he m ost v ital o f a ll t he r oads w ithin t he r egion r uled b y R ome i n t he E ast ( 2) . T he f ifth h ighway r an i n as traight l ine f rom B ostra t o S accaea ( Saichad) b ut w here i t c ontinued t hereafter i s s till u nclear ( fig . 1 02) . T hus t he c ity p resented a n i mportant a nd c entral p oint o f c ontrol f or t he R omans a s f ar a s t heir r ule i n t he P rovincia A rabia w as c oncerned . A dded t o t his , t he t own w as a bundantly s upplied w ith w ater e ither f rom n atural s prings i n t he i mmediate v icinity o r f rom e stuaries o f t he m ountain r ivers ( fig . 1 02) a nd c onsequently , a griculture a lways f lourished a nd t he i nhabitants n ever l acked i n s upplies . B ostra h ad b een a n i mportant c entre e ven p rior t o R oman r ule a nd a fter t he d isintegration o f t he S eleucid E mpire , v arious o ther n ations f ought f or i ts c ontrol ( 3) . A lthough i t r eached i ts z enith d uring R oman r ule , w hen i t b ecame t he c apital f or t he P rovincia A rabia , i ts i mportance n ever w aned i n l ater p eriods . I t b ecame a b ustling C hristian c entre a nd l ater a f lourishing a nd p owerful M oslem c ity ( 4). V isiting r esearchers
v isited B ostra f rom t he 1 9th c entury o nwards ( 5) .
D escriptions i n t his c hapter a re b ased m ainly o n t he s urveys c onducted b y B utler , B runnow a nd D omaszewski . B ostra h as n ever b een p roperly a nd s ystematically r esearched a nd o nly t he T heatre a nd a f ew o ther m onuments h ave b een s cientifically e xcavated a nd r estored o ver t he l ast f ew y ears ( 6) . M ost o f t he r uins s een t oday o n t he s urface o riginate f rom t he B yzantine a nd M oslem p eriods
a nd
o nly
t he m inority a re R oman .
M any o f
t he m onuments
d escribed b y v isitors o f t he 1 9th c entury h ave b een c overed b y m ore r ecent A rab s tructures a nd a re n o l onger v isible .
W e t herefore h ave t o r ely o n
t he w ritten a ccounts a nd g raphic i llustrations o f t hese s urveyors . O n t he o ther h and a s tudy o f a erial p hotographs a ffords u s a n i nteresting v iew o f t he c ity p lan a nd i ts u rban c haracter ( fig. 1 08). W hat
f ollows
i s
a d escription o f
t he g eneral
o utline o f
t he c ity ,
a
d escription o f i ts m ajor m onuments k nown t oday a s w ell a s am ore d etailed l ook a t t he c ity p lan .
5 1
AG eneral V iew o f t he C ity B utler w as t he f irst t o t ake e xact m easurements a nd t o m ap o ut a p lan o f t he c ity ( fig .
1 06) .
I t i s t his p lan w hich ,
a lthough s omewhat c orrected a nd
c hanged b y o ur t heories , h as n evertheless p rovided a b asis f or t he w ork t hat f ollows h ere ( fig . 1 07) . P rior t o a nd n aturally a fter B utler , o ther p lans w ere p roduced b y i nvestigators , b ut t hese a re f ar f rom e xact a nd o ften e ven m isleading ( figs.
1 03-105) ( 7).
B ostra 's c ity o utline i s i rregular .
T he c ity p lanners m ade a n o bvious
a ttempt t o c reate a r egular s treet n etwork . H owever , o n c oming i nto c ontact w ith a n u rban r eality e xisting p rior t o t heir a rrival o n t he s cene , t hey w ere f orced t o p lan t he s treet g rid d ifferently . T herefore , a lthough t he s treets r un i n s traight l ines , t hey a re n ot p arallel t o o ne a nother ( fig . 1 09) . I t a ppears t hat t he e ntire t own w as e ncompassed b y aw all w hich c an b e c learly s een r unning a long t he w estern a nd n orthern s ides . T he t wo m ain g ates t o t he c ity o n t hese s ides h ave b een w ell p reserved a s h ave t hree o ther m ore m inor e ntrances a long t he n orth-western s ection o f t he w all . O ne m ay p resume t hat t here w ere a dditional g ates a nd e ntrances t o t he t own , b ut t hese h ave y et t o b e u ncovered . B utler m anaged t o f ollow t he l ines o f af ew m ajor c olonnaded s treets i n t he t own ( fig .
1 06) .
T he m ain e ast-west s treet b egan a t
t he w est g ate a nd
e nded a t t he T riumphal A rch w hich s tood a t t he f oot o f t he A cropolis o n t he e ast s ide o f t he c ity . T he A cropolis , B ostra 's r itual c entre , w as s ituated o n a r aised s ection i n t he e ast ( figs . 1 06-108) . T he m ain n orth-south s treet r an f rom t he n orth g ate t o t he c rossroads o f t he e ast-west s treet . A s treet n etwork , a lthough n ot r egular i n d esign , w as c reated b y an umber o f o ther s treets r unning m ore o r l ess p arallel t o t hese m ain s treets . A l arge c ity r eservoir i s s ituated o n t he s outh-east s ide o f t he c ity a nd t oday s till s tores a c onsiderable a mount o f w ater t hroughout m ost o f t he y ear . A nother r eservoir w as f ound s till f urther e ast , a bout 3 00 m etres o utside o f t he c ity l im its ( fig . 1 08) . T he H ippodrome i s s ituated o n t he s outh-west s ide a nd a lthough o nly f ew r emains h ave s urvived t he y ears , i ts o utline m ay c learly b e s een i n t he l andscape ( fig . 1 08) . Y et a nother d epression o n t he n orth-west s ide o f t he c ity , c learly a rtificially c reated , h as b een c alled t he " Nau r nachia" b y r esearchers . T wo s prings e merge f rom t he b ottom o f t his b asin ( fig . 1 06) . A rchitectural r emains s urveyed i n B ostra i nclude :
S ections o f t he
w alls , c ity g ates , t he s outh r eservoir , p arts o f t he c olonnaded s treets , t he m ain T riumphal A rch , t he e ast T riumphal A rch , r emains o f T emples , N yn iphaeon , t he K alybe , aP alace , aB ath , B asilica , s ections o f t he F orum , t he T heatre a nd o ne M ausoleum .
A s hort d escription o f t hese s tructures w ill f ollow .
T he N abataean H eritage i n B ostra . R oman B ostra i s c onstructed p artly a longside a nd p artly a bove t he N abataean t own o f t he s ame n ame . L ittle r emains o f t he e arlier t own b ut , w ithout d oubt , i ts u rban r eality i nfluenced t he d esign a nd p lan o f t he R oman c ity .
I t i s d ifficult t o f orm a p icture o f t he n ature o f t he N abataean t own
w hich i tself s tood o n a n e ven m ore a ncient S emitic s ettlement o f B ostra , b ut t here d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b neen a ny a ttempt a t c reating a r egular t own p lan ( 9) .
T hose s tructures t hat r emain i n t he f ield t hat m ay d efenitely b e
5 2
r elated t o t 1
N abataean p eriod a re a ll c onnected t o s acred b uildings .
I t
w ould b e s afe t o p resume , h owever , t hat a f ull s cale e xcavation w ould r eveal o ther N abataean m onuments . T wenty-two N abataean i nscriptions w ere u ncovered a mong t he r uins o f t he c ity ( 10) . E ast o f t he E astern T riumphal A rch s tands a n e ngaged c olumn w ith a p articularly l arge a nd i mpressive N abataean c apital . T he b uilding t hat t his c olumn b elonged t o m ust h ave b een o f e normous p roportions a s t he o rginal h alf c olumn i tself m easured a bout 1 0 m etres i n h eight ( fig . 1 13) . ( 11) . A bout 1 00 m etres e ast o f t his c olumn s tood t he r emains o f y et 4 m ore s imilar c olun is ( fig . 14) . I t i s v irtually i mpossible , h owever , t o r econstruct t he s tructure t hat t hey b elonged t o a s t hey a re a ll s till m ainly c overed u p b y e arth . T hey m ay p ossibly h ave b een p art o f am onument g ate , i n s ome w ay c onnected t o t he h uge c olumn n ot f ar a way ( maybe a p ropylaea c omplex ) , w hich p receded t he s acred p recinct o f t he c ity ( figs . 1 06, 1 07) ( 12) .
T he C ity W alls ( figs.
1 06,
T oday t he c ity w all
1 08) ( 13).
c an o nly b e c learly s een i n c ertain a reas b ecause
m any o f i ts s tones w ere r e-used d uring t he M iddle A ges w hen a f ortress w as c onstructed a round t he t heatre . T hose s ections t hat r emain b ear w itness t o t he h igh s tandard o f b uilding u sed i n t he c onstruction o f t he w alls w hich w ere 4 m etres i n d iameter w ith w ell d ressed h ewn s tones o n b oth s ides . T he i nterior w as f illed w ith r ubble . I n s ome a reas t he R oman w all s tands o n t he b ase o f a C yclopic ( Polygonal) w all f rom a n e arlier d ate ( 14) . T he w all r uns i n a n i rregular m anner p robably a s a r esult o f b oth t he t opography o f t he a rea a s w ell a s t he p hysical p resence o f s tructes w hich a lready e xisted p rior t o i ts c onstruction . I n t he s outh a nd e ast i t i s d ifficult t o f ollow t he l ine o f t he w all a nd n o r eal s olutions a re o ffered b y r esearchers w ho s eem t o b e s atisfied w ith t heir p resentation o f t he w alls i n a s chematic t own p lans ( figs . 1 03105) . A n a ttempt h as b een m ader h ere ( fig . 1 07) ( 15) , b ased o n a erial p hotographs, t o f ollow a p ossible r oute t aken b y t hese w alls.
T he C ity G ates ( figs.
118) ( 16). 15-
T oday w e c an s ee o nly t wo m ajor a nd t hree m inor g ates a long t he w estern a nd n orth-western c ity w alls . T he W est G ate i s t he b etter p reserved o f t he t wo l arger g ates a nd i ts p lan i s c learly d iscernible .
I t i s m ade u p o f t wo
s quare t owers i nside w hich s tand t wo l arge p iers s upporting a v ault a bove t her e ntrance w ay . B oth t he p iers a nd t he t owers a re d ecorated b y f lat p ilasters . T he v aulted e ntrance i s v ery h igh 1 0 .5 m etres . T he f acades -
o n t he e ast a nd o n t he w est w ere " lowered" b y m eans o f a n a rch w hich i n t urn s upported a s tone w all b locking Out t he g ap t hat r emained b etween a rch a nd v ault . B utler b elieves t hat t he r eason f or t he c onstructing s uch a h igh v ault w as t o e ase t he w eight a nd h elp t o s upport t he s tructure r ising a bove t he f lat r oofs o f t he t wo t owers ( fig . 15) ( 17) .
T he w alls o n e ither s ide
o f t he p assageway w ere a dorned w ith a p air o f p ilasters i n b etween w hich w as a f lat , v aulted n iche a nd a bove w hich w as a s mall p ediment . I n g eneral, t he s implicity o f t he d ecoration o f t his g ate i s q uite r emarkable t he p ilasters h ave n o b ases a nd n o c apitals a nd t here a re f ew r eliefs ( figs . 17, 18) . Y et t he g ate e xcells i n i ts p leasant a nd s olid d esign . -
T he m easurements o f t he f ew r emains o f t he N orth G ate b ear w itness t o t he f act t hat i t w as p robably v ery s imilar i n d esign t o t he g ate d escribed a bove ( 18).
5 3
T he R eservoirs ( figs. T he t he
1 06,
1 08) ( 19).
t own h ad t wo m ain r eservoirs
c ity ,
r esevoir
a nd
t he
c losest
e astern o ne a bout t o
t he
c ity h as
-
t he s outhern o ne s ituated c lose t o
3 00 m etres
b een w ell
f illed w ith w ater m ost o f t he y ear r ound . c oncerning t he d ating o f t his r eservoir .
a way
f rom t he c ity .
p reserved
a nd
T he
e ven t oday i s
T here a re v arious o pinions W hile P orter a nd B utler ( 21)
b elieve i t t o b e f rom t he R oman p eriod , B urkhardt c laims i t t o b elong t o t he A rab r ule i n t he a rea ( 20) . B utler f eels t hat i n d esign i t i s s tructurally s imilar t o t he c ity w alls . I n h is s urvey h e a lso d iscovered s ections o f t he R oman a queduct c ity .
l eading f rom t he r eservoir t o t he b ath i n t he s outh o f t he
T his w ould s eem t o b e a s trong p oint i n t he f avour o f t hose d ating
t he r eservoir t o t he R oman p eriod ( figs .
T he C olonnaded S treets ( figs. 1 06,
1 09,
A ll B ostra 's m ain s treets w ere
1 06 ,
1 08) .
19-120) ( 22).
l ined w ith c olonnades
( fig .
1 06) .
T he
s treets t hemselves w ere a bout 8 m etres w ide a nd h ad 5 .5 m etre w ide p avements o n e ither s ide . T hese w ere c overed b y a r oof w hich l ay b etween t he b eams o f t he c olonnades a nd t he r ow o f
b uildings a longside
t he
s treet .
I t i s
p ossible t o r econstruct t his e asily i n c ertain a reas w here t he f acades o f t hese b uildings h ave r emained i ntact i n t heir o riginal p ositions ( figs . 191 20) . A ll t he c olonnades w ere p robably t opped b y I onic c apitals ( 23) .
T he E ast T riumphal A rch
( figs. 1 21-124) ( 24).
S tanding a t t he e astern e nd o f t he e ast-west s treet a t t he e ntrance t o t he A cropolis , t his A rch h as b een w ell p reserved a nd t herefore a llows u s t o r each a f airly a ccurate r econstruction o f i ts a rchitectural e lements ( figs . 1 06 , 1 07) . Ah igh a nd l arge v aulted p assageway a s w ell a s t wo s maller a nd l ower v aulted e ntrances, s tood b etween t wo t owers ( fig . 1 23-124) .
T he
e astern a nd t he w estern f acades w ere i dentical i n d esign a nd d ecoration . T he l ower s egment w as d ecorated w ith f lat p ilasters a nd e ngaged c olumns o n a ll 4 c orners o f t he t wo t owers . I n t he m iddle o f e ach f acade w as a s emic ircular n iche , d ecorated o n b oth s ides b y s mall p ilasters s upporting a f alse a rch . O n e ither s ide o f t hese p ilasters w ere t wo m ore e ngaged c olumns . A ll t he p ilasters a s w ell a s e ngaged c olumns h ad N abataean c apitals . T he s econd p art o f t he A rch w as l ess e laborately d ecorated a nd i ncluded p ilasters w ithout b ases o r c apitals i n b etween w hich w ere s emic ircular a nd s quare n iches . T he i nterior o f t he v aulted p assageway w as a lso d ecorated i n as imilar f ashion t o t hat o f t he f acades w ith p ilasters , c ircular n iche i n t he c entre . T he u pper s tructure h as n ot b een p reserved ,
e ngaged c olumns a nd a s emi-
b ut w e m ay a ccept B utler 's
r econstruction c ompleted a fter f inding a rchitectural r emains o f t his s tructure a longside t he E ast T riumphal A rch ( figs . 1 21, 1 24) . T he A rch w as c onstructed d uring t he f irst q uarter o f t he 2 nd c entury C .E.
5 4
T he C entral T riumphal A rch ( figs.
1 25 127) ( 26).
T his i s y et a nother w ell p reserved A rch s tanding n ear t he m ain e ast-west s treet , w ith i ts n orthern f acade p arallel t o i t . O n g oing t hrough t he m ain e ntrance o f t his a rch o ne p assed f rom t he m ain s treet t o t he s treet l eading t o t he T heatre ( figs . 1 06 , 1 07) . T here w ere t hree v aulted p assageways a c entral o ne f lanked b y t wo s maller o nes . B utler , B runnow a nd D omaszewski -
o nly s aw t he o riginal b ottom s ection o f t his T riumphal A rch . T he c entral v ault a nd t he u pper s tructure w ere r e-built a fter t he o riginal h ad b een d estroyed . T his w as p robably d one a t a m uch l ater s tage a nd i s e ither B yzantine o r A rab ( fig . 1 26) . T he c orners o f t he f our a rch p illars w ere d ecorated b y w ide , f lat p ilasters t opped b y C orinthian c apitals a nd o n t he n orthern f acade o f t he p illars w ere d ecorative c orbels o n w hich s tood l ittle s tatues ( fig . 1 26) . T he s outhern f acade d id n ot h ave t hese p ilasters , a nd w as d ecorated i nstead b y t wo e ngaged c olumns o n e ither s ide o f t he m ain p assageway ( fig . 1 27) . W hile B runnow a nd D o t naszewski m ake n o a ttempt t o r econstruct t his m onumental a rch , B utler s uggests w hat i t m ight h ave l ooked l ike , a nd b elieves i t t o h ave b een a p art o f t he s outhern c olonnade o f t he m ain
e ast-west
s treet
( fig .
1 27)
( 27) .
T he C entral T riumphal A rch m ay b e d ated t o t he m iddle o f t he 2 nd c entury C .E . a nd j oins a r ow o f s imilar s tructures b uilt i n S yria a nd A rabia d uring t hese y ears ( 28).
R emains o f t he S acred B uildings ( fig .
1 28) ( 29).
N o T emples h ave s o f ar b een u ncovered i n B ostra a lthough s ome r emains o f s tructures h ave b een f ound t hat w ere u ndoubtedly u sed f or r itual p urposes . M ost o f t hese a re s ituated o n t he A cropolis w hich w as c learly t he s acred a rea f or t he c ity . I t i s h ere t hat w e f ind t he t wo C orinthian C olumns s ituated t o t he e ast a nd a bout 1 00 m etres a way f rom t he E ast T riumphal A rch . O ne o f t hese c olumns d ecorated b y a C orinthian c apital s till s tands i n i ts o riginal p osition a nd i s i mpressive b ecause o f i ts h eight ( figs .
1 06 ,
1 28) .
I t i s n ot p ossible t o r econstruct a p lan o f t his b uilding a s t here i s t oo m uch l ater c onstruction o n t he s ame a rea . S ections o f N abataean b uilt w alls a nd s tatues b ear w itness t o t he f act t hat t his w as a n i mportant a nd w ell b uilt
s tructure
( fig .
1 28)
( 30) .
T he r emains o f a c hurch a longside t his s tructure s how t hat t he a rea w as c onsidered s acred e ven d uring t he B yzantine p eriod ( fig .
T he N ymphaeon ( figs.
1 06,
1 06).
1 29) ( 31).
T he N ymphaeon i s s ituated a t t he j unction o f t he t wo m ain s treets o f t he c ity . T he f acade w ith i ts f our c olumns , s tands d iagonally t o t his j unction , c reating a t riangular o pen a rea ( figs . 1 06, 1 29) . T hese c olumns w ere i ncorporated i n t he c olonnades o f b oth s treets ( fig . 1 29) . T hey s tand o n h igh p odia a nd t here i s aw ider s pace b etween t he t wo i nternal c olumns t han b een t he o utside o nes . B utler 's r econstruction r elied m ainly o n s ketches d one b y R ey a nd L aborde ( fig .
1 04) .
B utler h imself o nly s aw t he f our m ain
c olumns , a ll t he o ther w alls h ad a lready b een d estroyed ( 32) .
5 5
T he K alybe S tructure ( figs.
1 06,
O pposite t he N ymphaeon ,
a t
1 29131)
( 33).
t he f ar e nd o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet ,
s tood a b uilding n amed b y B utler a s t he ' Kalybe ' .
A ll t hat r emained o f t his
b uilding w ere t he t wo e nd c olumns o f t he f acade w ith a g ap o f 2 4 .60 m etres b etween t hem , a nd a s ection o f t he s outh w all ( fig . 1 30) . A nother s tructure s imilar t o t his o ne m ay b e s een i n P hilippopolis ( 34) . T he f acade c olumns , a s i n t he c ase o f t hose i n t he N ymphaeon , w ere a lso i ncorporated i nto t he s treet c ollonades
( fig .
1 29) .
T hese t wo c olumns
a re
r emarkable f or
t heir
s hape a s t hey a re p articularly n arrow a nd t all , t heir r elation o f h eight t o d iameter b eing 1 3 :1 . N o c olumns m atching t hese h ave s o f ar b een f ound i n C lassical A rchitecture . T he p lan o f t he K alybe m ay b e d escribed a s a n o pen e xedra i n t he c entre o f w hich w as a s emi-circle n iche . T his w as f lanked b y d iagonal w alls , a lso d ecorated b y n iches , b ehind w hich s tood t wo r ooms . I t i s p ossible t o r econstruct t he p ositions o f a nother 4 -6 c olumns s tanding b etween t he t wo u nusually t all e nd c olumns o f t he f acade ( fig . 1 29).
T he P alace ( figs.
1 06,
1 32-134) ( 35).
S outh-east o f t he E ast T riumphal A rch o n t he A cropolis l ies t he P alace . I ts l ong a xis r unning n orth-south t his b uilding w as 5 5 m etres i n l ength a nd 3 m etres w ide . I t w as b uilt f rom t he l ocal b asalt s tones , w ell h ewn a nd 3 d ressed , a nd t here i s n o e vidence o f a ny c ement h aving b een u sed i n t he c onstruction . R ooms w ere f ound a long t he s outh a nd n orth s ides o f t he i nternal c ourtyard , w hile t he e astern s ide w as c losed i n b y a s mooth a nd s trong w all i n w hich w as a v ery n arrow o pening . T he m ain e ntrance t o t he p alace s eems t o h ave b een o n t he w estern s ide ( fig . 1 32) . O pposite t he e astern e xternal w all o f t he b uilding s tood a t wo s torey h igh p ortico w hich c ould b e r econstructed ( fig . 1 32) ( 36) . T he m ain h ail
o f
f rom
r emains
s cattered
i n
t he
i mmediate
t he p alace s ituated o n t he s econd f loor w as
v icinity
e ntered
f rom t he n orthern s ide . T he r oom , s im ilar i n s hape t o t he " triconchos" , l ent a m onumental a tmosphere t o t he e ntire s tructure ( figs . 1 33, 1 34) . A lthough B utler d ates t he p alace t o t he f irst q uarter o f t he 2 nd c entury C .E ., w e b elieve i t t o b e o f a m uch l ater d ate p robably t he 3 rd o r 4 th c enturies C .E. ( 37). -
T he S outh B ath ( figs. 1 06,
1 37) ( 38).
T he d ense b uilding f rom l ater p eriods i n t he a rea o f t he b ath p revents u s f rom s eeing t he f ull e xtent o f t his s tructure w hich s tands o pposite t he N ymphaeon n ear t he m ain e ast-west s treet a nd w hich w as a pproached b y w ay o f as pecial s ide s treet ( fig . 1 06). T he b uilding h as a T -shaped p lan .
O ne e ntered t he b ath f rom t he n orth ,
t hrough a p ortico o f e ight c olumns a nd t hereafter e ntering t he m ain h ail, u sed a s a n A podyterium t hrough a d ouble v aulted p assageway ( fig . 1 37 , N ) . T his r oom i s o ctagonal i n s hape a nd i ts w alls w ere d ecorated b y s emic ircular a nd s quare n iches . A w ide v aulted p assageway l ed t o t he s econd h ail w hich w as a lso d ecorated w ith d eep s quare s haped n iches a nd w as p robably u sed a s t he T epidarium ( fig .
5 6
1 37 ,
0 ) .
A fter t his t he b ather
e ntered
t he
F rigidarium ,
S ymmetrically
s haped
r ooms
a n
e ven
l arger
s pread o ut
t o
s quare
h all
t he w est a nd
( fig • 1 37,
e ast
o f
t his
S ) .
h all
urn w ere w hich w ere u sed a s t he C aldaria ( fig . 1 37, T , R ) a nd t hese i n t f lanked b y t wo a dditional r ooms ( fig . 1 37 , U , P ) . T he
b ath w as c learly a s turdy ,
w ell
b uilt
s tructure b ut
i t
o ffered
nd o f t he I t p robably d ates f rom t he e
l ittle i n a rchitectural d ecoration .
s econd c entury o r e arly 3 rd c entury C .E .
( 39).
T hree o ther b aths h ave b een d iscovered i n B ostra b ut b ecause o f t he f ew r emains u ncovered i t i s n ot p ossible t o f ormulate a p lan o f t hese b uildings ( figs.
1 06,
1 39,
1 40),
( 40).
T he B asilica ( figs. 1 06,
1 41,
1 42) ( 41).
S ituated i n t he n orth-east o f t he c ity t he B asilica f aces e ast w ith i ts a psis ( fig . 1 06 , 1 07) . E ven t hough t he b uilding w as u sed d uring t he B yzantine p eriod a s a c hurch i t w ould a ppear t o h ave b een b uilt i n t he 3 rd c entury C .E . t o s erve a s ap ublic a nd n ot a s ar eligious s tructure ( 42) . T he b uilding w as e ntered v ia a h igh v aulted p assageway i n t he w estern f acade , t he o utside c orners w ere d ecorated w ith e ngaged c olumns t opped b y I on ic c apitals a nd t he w alls m easured 1 . 30 m etres t hick . T he a psis w as e ntered t hrough a n a rch w hich s upported a w all w ith f our w indows . W hile t he b ottom h alf o f t he a psis w as b uilt o f s tone , t he t op s ection , i n t he s hape o f a h alf d ome , w as m ade o f c ement a nd o nly c overed i n s tone ( 43) . L ight f iltered i nto t he m ain h all t hrough e ight w indows i n t he n orth a nd s outh w alls . A s pecial c olonnaded s treet c onnected t he B asilica w ith t he s treet n etwork o f t he t own ( figs . 1 06 , 1 07, 1 42) .
T he F orum ( figs.
1 06,
1 43) ( 44).
B utler h ad c alled t he a rea s preading o ut t o t he w est o f t he m ain n orths outh s treet i n t he c entre o f t he c ity t he " Marketplace" ( fig . 1 43) . O nly a s mall s ection o f t his a rea h as b een s tudied a nd i ncludes a d ecorative w all w hich s eparates t he s treet c olonnade f rom t he o pen a rea t o t he w est . -
T his w all i s s mooth o n t he e astern s ide b ut d ecorated b y v arious s haped n iches o n i ts w estern s ide . S till f urther w est o f t his w all i s a p ortico s imilar t o t he c olonnade r unning a long t he m ain s treet . T wenty m etres a way s tands a l arge s tructure , p artially s urveyed b y B utler , w hich s eems t o b e a b ig h all w ith a l arge n umber o f p iers s upporting c ross-vaults . T his b uilding p robably h ad m ore t han o ne f loor ( 45) a nd w as p ossibly o nly o ne s mall s ection o f w hat m ight h ave b een a h uge u rban c omplex i n t he c entre o f B os tr a .
T he T heatre
( figs. 1 06,
1 08 ,
1 44148) ( 46).
T his i s t he o nly b uilding i n B ostra w hich h as b een e xcavated a nd e ven r econstructed o ver t he p ast f ew y ears ( 47) . A ll a dditional s tructures f rom t he M iddle A ges w ere r emoved a nd o nly t he M edieval w alls s urrounding t he s tructure w ere l eft i n p osition ( fig . 1 45) . T he m oat w hich w as b uilt t o p rotect t he f ortress w hich i n t urn w as c onstructed a round t he T heatre , d estroyed m ost o f t he s tructures s urrounding t he T heatre ( 48). T he T heatre s eems t o h ave b een b uilt o n t he
5 7
o utskirts
o f
t he c ity a s
t here w as n o o ther a rea s uitable f or i t w ithin t he c ity w alls ( figs .
1 06 ,
1 08) ( 49) .
T he
s kenefrons
T he T heatre w as c onstructed o n af lat s tretch o f l and . h ad
a n a ttractive d esign a nd w as p articularly w ell d ecorated .
I ts f acade o riginally p robably s tood f our f loors h igh .
T he f irst t hree h ave
b een w ell p reserved w hile o nly p arts o f t he f ourth h ave s urvived t he c enturies . C olumns d ecorated t he f acade t hereby c reating a n e ven m ore i mpressive a tmosphere ( fig . 1 46 , 1 47) . T he s kene b uilding w as c losed i n b y t wo w alls ( decorated w ith s emi-circular n iches) o n e ither s ides o f t he s kenefrons a nd w here t he c orners o f t hese w alls j oined t he s kenefrons s tood p ilasters w ith C orinthian c apitals ( fig . 1 47) . A d ecorative w all ( proskenion ) s eparated t he o rchestra f rom t he e levated p ulpitum , c omprised s emi-circular a nd s quare n iches . T he o riginal f loor p aving o f t he o rchestra h as b een p reserved i n i ts e ntirety ( fig . 1 46) . T he c avea c onsists o f t hree h orizontal s eating b locks s eparated o ne f rom t he o ther b y d iazoma :
t he b ottom b lock ( cavea i ma) w ith 1 3 r ows , t he m iddle
b lock ( cavea m edia) w ith 1 9 r ows a nd t he u pper b lock ( cavea s umma) w ith 6 r ows o f s eats . E ntrances ( vomitoria) , a llowed m ovement i n a nd o ut o f t he T heatre . A p ortico , o nly a s ection o f w hich r emains t oday , r an a bove a nd a long t he t op r ow o f s eats a nd c ompleted t he d esign b y j oining u p w ith t he p ilasters o n e ither s ide o f t he p araskenia ( versurae) ( fig . 1 48) . T he c avea w as c onstructed u pon a s eries o f t hree s toreyed s ubstructure v aults . T he s emi-circular b ack w all o f t he t heatre , a lthough s till p artly c overed b y s ections o f t he M edieval f ortress , i s r eminiscent o f t he M arcellus T heatre i n R ome ( fig . 1 49) ( 5) . T he e xact d ate f or t he c onstruction o f t he T heatre i s n ot k nown .
A
N abataean i nscription d iscovered o n t he s ite s eems t o s trengthen t he t heory t hat i t w as p robably b uilt s oon a fter B ostra b ecame t he c apital o f P rovincia A rabia ( 51).
T he H ippodrome ( figs.
1 06,
1 08).
A m odern h ighway c uts a cross t he n orthern s ection o f t he a ncient H ippodrome o f B ostra w hich w as s ituated o utside t he c ity w alls , s outh-west o f t he T heatre ( fig . 1 08) . D espite t he f act t hat t he g rounds w ithin t he h ippodrome a re n ow d ivided u p i nto a gricultural t racts o f l and , t he s hape o f t he
s tructure
i s
s till
e asily
r ecognizable .
A f ew r emains
w hich w ere f ound b y B utler s till i n t heir o riginal p ositions , t he r econstruction o f t he s tructure ( fig .
1 06) .
o f t he
s eats
f acilitated i n
T he o utside m easurements o f
t he h ippodrome a re : 4 40 m etres l ong , 1 34 m etres w ide a nd t he i nternal m easurements a re : 4 00 m etres l ong a nd 9 7 m etres w ide . I t w as p robably b uilt t o s erve t he s oldiers o f t he T hird L egion w ho w ere s tationed i n B ostra i n t heir t housands ( 53).
T he ' Naumachia"
( figs.
1 06,
1 08) ( 54).
T his w as t he n ame g iven b y R ey t o t he s quare d epression o n t he n orthw estern s ide o f t he c ity f rom w hich t wo n atural s prings e merge ( fig . 1 04) . B utler a ccepts a nd a grees w ith t his t heory a nd a dds t hat i n ad etailed s urvey c onducted o n t he e ast s ide a f ew r ows o f s eats w ere d iscovered , a rranged i n a s emi-circular f ashion a s i n a t heatre . T he d epression i s 2 00 m etres i n l ength ,
9 0 m etres w ide a nd 6 m etres d eep .
E ven t oday
p ossible t o n otice t hat t he w estern s ide f orms a s traight e astern i s s emi-circular ( figs. 1 06, 1 08).
5 8
i t i s
l ine w hile t he
I t
s eems
t hat t his w as a n atural d epression i n t he t errain a nd t hat i t
w as m erely a dapted t o s erve a s aW ater-Theatre . T here w as n ever a s hortage o f w ater f or t his p urpose . I t w ould a lso s eem r easonable t o p resume t hat t hese s prings p rovided y et a nother s ource o f w ater f or t he c ity i tself . T he ' Naumachia" w as t herefore p robably a p opular p lace o f e ntertainment f or t he
s oldiers
o f
t he T hird L egion ,
f or w hom B ostra
s erved
a s
a p ermanent
b ase.
T he N ecropolis
( fig.
1 50)
( 55).
Most t he t ombs w hich l ay a long b oth s ides o f t he m ain r oute o n t he w estern s ide o f B ostra h ave b een c ompletely d estroyed o ver t he y ears . O nly o ne h as r emained i ntact a nd h as o ften b een d escribed i n t he l iterature . I t i s t his t omb t hat a llows u s b ut a s mall i nsight i nto t he w ealth a nd m agnificence o f t he m ausolea c onstructed i n R oman B ostra ( 56) . T his t omb i s as tructure i n t he f orm o f at holos b uilt o n a l ow ,
s quare p odium .
T he t op
o f t he t holos w as d ecorated b y a c ornice a nd a bove i t w as a c onical s haped r oof ( fig . 1 50) . T he c ornice i tself w as d ecorated w ith l ions h eads w hich w ere d iscovered a t t he f oot o f w ith a s tone d ome a t i ts p eak .
t he t omb .
I nside ,
i t w as
c ircular s haped
T he C ity P lan o f B ostra T he n ew r egular R oman c ity p lan w as f orced t o t ake i nto c onsideration t he a lready e xisting N abataean t own o f B ostra , a nd r eached a n " urban c ompromise" a s f ar a s c ity p lanning w as c oncerned .
T he c rowded u bran
n ucleus o f t he c ity , b ordered o n t he s outh b y t he l arge s outhern r eservoir , o n t he e ast a nd n orth b y t he c ity w all a nd o n t he w est b y t he n ew R oman c ity i s what i s m ost p rominent a t f irst g lance ( figs . 1 06, 1 07, 1 08) . N ot w anting t o o r p erhaps n ot b eing a ble t o c ontend w ith t his o ld t own , t he R oman p lanners c onstructed t he n ew c ity w ith i ts r egular s treet n etwork t o t he w est o f t he o ld t own ( fig . 1 07) . Y et e ven h ere b ecause o f t he e xisting u rban r eality , m ost o f t he s treets d id n ot c ross a t r ight a ngles a nd w ere n ot c ompletely p arallel t o o ne a nother . D espite t his a bove m entioned c ompromise , t he p resence o f R oman t own p lanning i s v ery d efinitely n oticeable a nd g reatly i nfluenced t he c ity 's c haracter . H istorical e vidence a nd i nscriptions f ound i n t he a rea p rovide u s w ith t he i nformation t hat t he p lanning o f B ostra w as b egun a s hort w hile a fter t he t own w as p roclaimed t he c apital o f P rovincia A rabia i n t he y ear 1 06 C .E . T herefore i ts c onstruction m ust h ave t aken p lace d uring t he f irst q uarter o f t he 2 nd c entury C . E . ( 57) a nd t he q uestion n ow p osed i s : W hat w as p lanned a s t he u rban i mage o f t his c ity ? W hen o ne c ompares t he p lans d rawn u p b y B utler w ith t he m ore m odern a erial p hotographs i t b ecomes c lear t hat a lthough B utler w as v ery a ccurate i n h is r econstruction o f B ostra , w e a re n ow i n p ossession o f m ore d etails t hat m ay b e a dded t o c omplete h is p icture . F ew o f t he g rand m onuments d escribed a nd r ecorded b y e arlier v isitors h ave s urvived t he 2 0th c entury a nd w e t herefore h ave t o r ely o n p revious i nformation w hen f itting t hese i nto t he c ity p lan ( 58) . T he m ain a xis o f t he R oman c ity w as t he e ast-west m ain s treet t hat r an f rom t he e ntrance o f t he t raditonal s acred p recinct ( the A cropolis) i n t he e ast t o t he w all o n t he w estern s ide a bout 9 00 m etres a way ( fig . 1 06109) -
( 59) .
T his
s treet
c ommences w ith
t he g reat T riumphal
5 9
A rch h eralding
t he
e ntrance t o
h oly p recinct .
I t w as a lso a p owerful a rchitectural e lement
d ividing t he O ld C ity f rom t he n ew o ne ( 60) a nd w as c onstructed n ear t o w hat m ust h ave b een t he P ropylaea c omplex o f t he o ld t own . F rom t he r emains o f a rchitectural e lements o f b oth t hese f eatures i t i s c lear t hat t here w as c onsiderable N abataean i nfluence a s
f ar a s
a rchitectural
s tyles a re
c oncerned ( figs . 1 06, 1 21) ( 61) . T he s treet r uns i n a s traight l ine w estwards a nd e nds i n as turdy c ity g ate ( figs . 1 06, 1 09) . T he wall o n t his s ide r ests o n a r idge w hich p rovided a n atural b order f or t he c ity a t t his p oint ( fig . 1 06) . ( 63) . A n umber o f
s treets
r unning n orth a nd
s outh
l eft
t his m ain e ast-west
s treet . A bout 4 00 m etres t o t he e ast o f t he W est G ate a s treet r an n orthwards t o t he f resh w ater s pring ( fig . 1 06) w hile a lmost p arallel t o t his a nd 2 00 m etres a way w as t he m ain n orth-south s treet o f t he c ity . T he j unction o f t he t wo m ain s treets w as m arked b y a t riangular s haped c ity s quare a round w hich s tood a ll t he i mportant f unctional b uildings o f t he c ity s uch a s t he N ymphaeon , t he K alybe a nd a l ittle f urther t o t he s outh t he S outh B ath ( figs . 1 06 , 1 07) ( 64) . T he m ain n orth-south s treet a lso r an i n a s traight l ine f rom t his s quare a nd e nded i n a g ate s imilar t o t he W est G ate ( 65) . O ther
s treet
m oved
i n a s outherly
d irection
f rom
t he
m ain e ast-west
s treet . B utler o nly n oticed t wo o f t hese : T he f irst , i s a bout 3 50 m etres f rom t he c ity 's W est G ate c uts s traight t hrough t o o ne o f t he f ew s ections o f t he s outhern c ity w all t hat s till s tands t oday ( fig . 1 06) . T he s econd j oined t he m ain e ast-west s treet t o t he T heatre a nd w as s ituated a bout 1 60 m etres a way f rom t he f irst . A T riumphal A rch w ith t hree p assageways m arked i ts p lace o f j unction w ith t he m ain s treet ( figs. 1 06, 1 08). I t
i s
i n t his a rea ,
s outh o f t he m ain s treet a nd w est o f t he "T heatre
S treet" , t hat w e h ave f ound y et a nother n etwork o f t he c ity 's s treets . T his i ncludes a m ain s treet , r unning p arallel t o t he m ain e ast-west s treet w ith t hree o ther s treets m eeting i t a t r ight a ngles a nd c onnecting i t t o t he m ain e ast-west s treet . S imilarly , a t l east o ne o ther s treet c an b e s een r unning p arallel
t o t he m ain e ast-west s treet a nd c onnecting t he " Theatre
S treet" t o t he o ne o n t he w est ( fig . 1 07) . T his s ection o f B ostra w hich w e h ave d ecided t o n ame t he " South-West Q uarter" i s b ordered b y t he c ity w alls o n t he s outh a nd w est ,
o n t he n orth b y t he m ain e ast-west s treet a nd o n t he
e ast b y t he ' Theatre S treet" a nd i s c onsidered a w ell a nd r egularly p lanned p art o f t he c ity . N orth o f t his a rea i s a nother q uarter w hich w e h ave t ermed t he " No rthW est Q uarter" , w here a ll a ttempts o f p lanning w ere i nfluenced b y t he p hysical p resence o f t he ' Naumachia" ( figs . 1 06 , 1 07) ( 66) . T he c ity w all , c onstructed u pon a n atural m ountain r idge , d efines t he b orders o f t his a rea o n t he w est a nd n orth s ides r unning i n a n i rregular l ine e specially i n t he n orth w here i t h as a n a rch-like s hape . g ates a re s ituated ( figs . 1 06, 1 07) . e astern s ide b y t he m ain n orth-south e ast-west s treet . W hile B utler d id
n ot
d iscern a ny
I t i s h ere t hat t he t wo m ain c ity T his q uarter i s d elineated o n i ts s treet
a nd
s treets
o n
t he s outh b y t he m ain
i n t his s ection o f t he c ity
( fig . 1 06), f rom a erial p hotographs w e h ave b een a ble t o r econstruct a t l east a p art o f t he s treet n etwork t hat e xisted h ere . T he n atural f all o f t he e arth f rom w hich t he t wo n atural s prings e merged a nd t he d epression c reated t herein e xisted p rior t o t he c onstruction o f t he ' ! Nau i nachia" . s treet n etwork p lanned a t t he s ame t ime t ook t his s tructure
6 0
T he i nto
c onsideration .
A r oad e ncircled t he 'aumachia" a nd w as j oined b y n umerous
o ther s treets t wo r unning n orthwards t owards t he t wo s mall g ates i n t he n orthern c ity w all , a nd t wo o thers m oving s outh , c onnecting t he c ircle r oad -
r o f t he " Nau r iachja" t o t he m ain e ast-west s treet . T wo m ore s treets r an e ast , p arallel t o e ach o ther , c onnecting t he " Nau i nachia" t o t he c entre o f t he c ity ( fig . 1 07) . T he " Central Q uarter" o f B ostra c an h e d efined b y t he c ity w all o n t he n orth , a nd t he m ain s treets o n t he e ast , w est a nd s outh s ides ( fig . 1 07) . T his f ormed t he h eart o f t he c ity a nd w as t he c entre f or a ll e conomic a nd p ublic a ctivities . T he F orum w as s ituated i n t he s outhern s ection o f t his q uarter ( figs .
1 06-108) ( 67) a nd a lthough B utler o nly m anaged t o s tudy s mall
p arts o f t his c omplex , i t i s c lear t hat i t w as s urrounded b y a d ecorative w all a s w ell a s ap ortico . I t e ncompassed v arious b uildings w hich a s y et h ave h ardly b een s tudied ( fig . 1 06) . W e c an t herefore o nly a ttempt t o d efine t he s ize a nd e xtent o f t his F orum w hich s eems t o h ave b een b ordered o n t he e ast a nd s outh b y t he t wo m ain s treets o f t he c ity , o n t he n orth s ide b y ar oad r unning p arallel t o t he m ain e ast-west s treet a nd o n t he w est ( not n oticed b y B utler) b y ar oad p arallel t o t he m ain n orth-south s treet . W hat w e h ave t herefore d escribed h ere i s ar ectangular a rea m easuring 1 20 m etres f rom n orth t o s outh a nd 1 00 m etres e ast t o w est . T he r emaining r egions o f t he " Central Q uarter" f lanking t he F orum o n t he n orth a nd w est s ides w ere p robably a lso b uilt u p w ith p ublic s tructures o f v arious k inds
( fig .
1 06 ,
1 07) .
Y et a nother s treet m ay
b e
n oticed
e ast
o f
t he m ain n orth-south s treet w hich p robably f ormed t he w estern b order o f t he O ld t own o f B ostra . I t d oes n ot r un p arallel t o t he m ain s treet , b egins a t t he E ast T riumphal A rch a nd m oves i n as traight l ine s outh t o t he B asilica , t hereafter t urning i n an orth-easterly d irection . W e s eem t o l oose t race o f i t a long t he n orth-eastern c ity w all ( fig . 1 07) . L ying t o t he s outh-west o f t his s treet i s t he u nplanned a nd i rregular O ld t own . A l arge s tructure w hich B utler t ermed t he " Palace" c an b e s een o n t he s outh s ide a nd a lthough i t p robably s tand u pon t he r emains o f a n e arlier b uilding , i t i s d ated t o t he 3 rd-4th c enturies C .E . ( figs . 1 06 , 1 07) ( 68) . T he A cropolis l ay t o t he n orth o f t his a nd i t w as h ere t hat a ll t he r itual
s tructures o f t he c ity w ere c entered .
V ery
l ittle r emains o f t he
P ropylaea w hich l ead t o t he A cropolis a lthough t he E ast T riumphal A rch s eems t o h ave a nnounced t he e ntry i nto t his s acred p recinct. T he e ntire c ity w as e ncompassed b y aw all . B utler t raced p arts o f i t i n t he w est , t he n orth-west a nd t he n orth-east a s w ell a s o n t he s outhern s ide
( fig .
1 06) .
A .
v on G erkan h as s uggested i ncluding t he s outhern
r eservoir a nd t he t heatre w ithin t he c ity w alls ( fig . 1 05) ( 69) . I t s eem s m ore l ikely, h owever , t hat t hese s tructures, a s w ell a s t hat o f t he H ippodrome, w ere i n f act o utside t he f ortified l imits o f t he c ity ( fig . 1 07) . A s tudy o f t he a erial p hotographs d oes n ot b ring t o l ight a ny r uins w hich c ould b e c onsidered p art o f a c ity w all i n t he r egion l ying f urther s outh o f t he r eservoir a nd t he T heatre . E ven t oday , t he m odern h ouses o f B ostra d o n ot p ass t he l ine c onsidered b y B utler t o h ave b een t he s outhern b order o f t he c ity ( compare f igs . 1 06, 1 07, 1 08, 1 09) . W e m ust p resume t herefore t hat t he t own p lanners o f B ostra w ere n ot d isturbed b y t he f act t hat t he T heatre s tood o utside o f t he c ity w all a lthough t his i n i tself i s a r are p henomenon i n R oman t own p lanning a nd w as u sually o nly f ound i n c onnection w ith H ipodromes a nd A mphitheatres . I t i s u nusual t o f ind a T heatre s o f ar r emoved f rom t he c netre o f t he t own's a ctivities ( 70).
6 1
Ag lance a t t he t own p lan o f B ostra s hows u s aw ell p lanned c ity p laced a longside a n a ncient a nd c ompletely u nplanned t own .
T here i s n o e vidence
o f n atural u rban g rowth a round a n a lready e xisting n ucleus . I nstead , i t i s q uite c lear t hat t his n ew c ity w as " produced" a lmost a rtificially a s a r esult o f ap olitical d ecision t aken b y R omans w ho w anted t o c reate a u nited c haracter f or t his c apital c ity o f P rovincia A rabia . I n ag eneral t own p lanning s ense B ostra r esembles t he c ity o f P ompeii w hich a lso d eveloped f rom a n o lder n ucleus .
A n a ttempt w as m ade t o c onnect
t he r egular s treet n etwork o f t he m ore m odern c ity o f P omeii w ith t hat o f t he o lder c ity i n o rder t o p roduce a m ore u nited ' look ' t o t he c ity . T he m ajor d ifference b etween B ostra a nd P ompeii i n t his r espect i s t hat i n P ompeii e ven t he s treet n etwork o f t he O ld C ity w as a r egular o ne , w hile t hat o f N abataean B ostra w as t otally u nplanned ( fig . 1 51) ( 7 1) . I t i s i n t his w ay t hat B ostra i s u nique a nd c annot b e c ompared , a s s o m any s cholars h ave t ried t o d o , w ith a ny o f t he o ther R oman c ities o f i ts p eriod ( 72) . B ostra i s a n u rban c reation w hich a nswered a ll t he n eeds o f ac apital c ity f or P rovincia A rabia i t w as s ituated a t i mportant c rossroads , w as b lessed b oth w ith a p lentiful s upply o f w ater a s w ell a s w ith f ertile a nd a griculturally v iable l ands a nd i t w as a n i mportant a nd s uccessful c entre -
e ven b efore t he R oman r ule i n A rabia ( 73) . T he c onstruction o f t he c apital i s a n e xample o f a R oman c ity w hich t ook i nto c onsideration t he p revious i nhabitants o f t he t own w ho c ontinued t o l ive a s a n i ntegral p art o f t his no w m ore r egular a nd o rganized c ity . T he t wo s ections , o ld a nd n ew , w ere i ncorporated i nto o ne a nother ,
f orming a c omplete u rban r eality ( 74) .
A l ook a t t he a erial p hotographs o f 2 0th c entury B ostra s hows h ow t he c ity g enerally c lings t o t he l ines o f t he a ncient c ity e xcept f or a f ew -
o dd s tructures w hich h ave b een b uilt o n t he w est s ide . T he t wo w ater r eservoirs d escribed i n t his c hapter a re s till i n u se t oday , a lthough t he N aumachia h as f illed u p w ith e arth o ver t he y ears a nd t his i s n ow u sed f or a gricultural
p urposes
( fig .
1 08) .
B oth t he e ast-west
a nd
t he
n orth-south
m ain s treets a re s till u sed a s h ighways , w hile t he t own i s e ntered f rom t he s outh o n t he ' Theatre S treet" a nd f rom t he p arallel s treet a l ittle f urther t o t he w est ( figs . 1 06 , 1 07 , 1 09) . A lthough t he b orders o f t he h ippodrome a re c learly v isible , i n t he n orth i t h as b een c ut b y a n a sphalt r oad r unning s outh o f B ostra a nd t he a rea w ithin i t i s a ll a griculturally w orked l and ( fig .
1 08) .
W hile a nalysing t he t own p lan o f B ostra t he q uestion w as r aised : w as t he c amp s ituated w hich h oused t he s oldiers o f
t he T hird L egion
W here ?
I t
w as f irst p resumed , a s m ay b e s een i n o ther c ities o f t he p eriod s uch a s P almyra o r D ura E uropa , t hat t he c amp m ust h ave b een e stablished w ithin t he c ity w alls t hereby e xploiting o ne o f t he o pen a reas n ot o riginally s et a side s pecifically f or t his p urpose ( 75) . H owever , i n B ostra t he s ituation s eems t o h ave b een d ifferent . W e b elieve t hat t he c onstruction o f t he c amp w as p robably p lanned a t t he s ame t ime a s a ll t he o ther b uildings , s ervices a nd f acilities o f t he c ity . B ecause t he T heatre a nd t he H ippodrome , w hich w ere a ll
p lanned
t o
p rovide
e ntertainment
f or
t he
t housands
o f
s oldiers
a nd
g overnment w orkers w ho w ould b e l iving i n t he c apital, w ere c onstructed o utside o f t he c ity w alls , i t w as d ecided t hat t he L egion c amp t oo m ight i n f act b e s ituated i n a s imilar p osition . As tudy o f t he a erial p hotographs d oes i ndeed p rovide t he v iew o f a l arge , f lat s quare m easuring a bout 4 00 m etres b y 4 00 m etres o n t he n orth s ide o f t he c ity c lose t o t he c ity w alls . A lthough t his a rea h as n ever b een s urveyed i t s eems t o u s t hat i t c ould q uite p ossibly h ave s erved t he p urpose o f t he T hird L egion ( figs . 1 08 , 1 0912)
( 76) .
6 2
B ostra w as a lso a g reat c entre f or t rade i n t he a rea , s ituated a s i t w as o n i mportant c rossroads . T his b ecomes c lear f rom t he l arge n umber o f b uildings w hich c reated b locks o f b oth s hops a nd s torerooms r unning a long t he m ain s treets o f t he c ity . I t a ppears t hat t hese l arge a reas w ere p art o f t he o riginal p lan a nd t hey b ring t o m ind t he s hopping a rea i n O stia ( fig . 1 52) ( 77) . T he s heer q uantity o f t hese s hops a nd s torerooms i s s ufficient t o p rovide u s w ith a c lear p icture o f h ow s uccessful t rade a nd b usiness m ust h ave b een i n B ostra . T his i s a lso c onfirmed b y h istorical a nd e pigraphical s ources. B utler c laims t hat t he r emains o f B ostra a re t he m ost e xtensive o f a ll t hose d iscovered s outh o f D amascus a nd e ast o f J ordan . T he c ity s eems t o h ave e ncompassed a n a rea o f 7 20 ,000 s q . m etres o f w hich t he o ld t own w as 2 05,000 s q . m etres
-
a bout 2 8% o f t he e ntire c ity ( 78) .
W e h ave d iscussed a t l ength t he i mportance o f B ostra a s ac apital c ity , w e h ave s een i ts w ide a nd p aved s treets w ithin a r egular s treet n etwork r unning a longside c olonnades b ut o ne o ther i nteresting f eature h as y et t o -
b e m entioned . T hat c oncerns t he l ack o f a rchitectural d ecoration o n w hat a re o therwise m agnificent b uildings . T his i s p articularly n oticeable w hen o ne c ompares t he d ecoration o f a rchitectural e lements i n B ostra t o t hat o f s maller c ities s uch a s P hiladelphia a nd G erasa , w hich w ere u ndoubtedly a lso o f l ess a dministrative a nd s trategic i mportance ( 79) . P erhpas h erein l ies o ne o f t he a nswers t o t his r ather s trange p henomenon .
A lthough b oth G erasa
a nd B ostra w ere p re-planned c ities, t he o ne w as t otally ' Government s ponsored ' a nd c onstructed o ver a s hort p eriod o f t ime , w hile t he o ther t ook l onger t o b uild a nd w as o n t he w hole f inanacially s upported b y p rivate c itizens w ho t ook g reat p ride i n t heir c ity a nd i n t he q uality o f l ife w ithin i t ( 80) . T hus, w hile G erasa e njoys f ar r icher a rchitectural a doitu nent t he b uildings d ecoration ( 81) .
o f
B ostra
a re
l arger a nd g rander b ut p lainer i n
A l ook a t t he r oots o f t hese c ities w ill a lso b ring t o l ight b asic d issimilarities w hich m ight h ave i nfluenced t hese a rchitectural d ifferences . P hiladelphia a nd G erasa w ere b uilt u pon e arlier H ellenistic c ities a nd t herefore l ie u pon a s olid b ed o f d emocracy a nd t he i dea o f t he ' polis ' , w hile B ostra w as a s R oman a ddition f orced u pon a l ong s tanding S emitic s ettlement . T he c itizens o f G erasa a nd P hiladelphia s eem t o h ave e xpressed an eed t o c ling t o c ertain f orms o f i ndependence w hile s imultaneously b eing r uled b y g overnors a nd a dministrators o f t he P rovincia . I t w as t hrough a rchitectural o rnamentation t hat t hey c ould f ulfill a n eed t o c reate s omething o f t heir o wn t hereby a dding i mportance a nd s tatus t o t heir -
c ities
( 82) .
6 3
N OTES I a . W ith r eference t o t he h istory t he 4 th c entury C .E . S ee : B enziger , R .E.., s .v .
o f B ostra f rom t he 3 rd c entury B .C .
t o
1 89191.
l b . W ith r eference t o B ostra 's s tatus a s t he c apital c ity o f P rovincia A rabia , s ee : G .A .
S mith ,
H istorical G eography o f t he H oly L and , L ondon ,
A .H .M . J ones , T he C ities o f t he E astern R oman P rovinces, 2 93 . G .W . B owersock , " A R eport 2 42 , P is . X IV -XV .
o n A rabia P rovincia" ,
J .R .S . L XI
1 869 ,
O xford , ( 1971) ,
P .
6 11 .
1 937, p p .
p .
2 19-
S . a l M egdad , " Le R ole d e l a V ille d e B osra d ans L 'histoire d e l a J ordanie ! a ux Epoques Nabateenne e t Romaine !, in A . Hadidi ( ed.), m S tudies i n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan I , A man , 2 73. i c .
H istorical s ources i n w hich B ostra i s m entioned ,
P . T homsen , L oca S ancta , H alle, 1 907, i d.
p p .
1 982 ,
p p .
2 67-
s ee :
4 4-45.
W ith r eference t o t he n umismatic m aterial f rom B ostra , s ee :
C .R . M orey, P .U.A .E.S., D ivision I I, S ection A , P art 4 : 1 . D usare a nd t he C oins T ypes o f B osra . 2 . C atalogues o f t he C oinage o f B osra . G .F . H ill, C atalogue o f t he G reek C oins o f A rabia , M esopotamia a nd P ersia , 1 6-26, P ls . I II 6 -1V 1 3 . A . L ondon , 1 922, ( Bostra) , P . X XIV, pp. S pijkerman , T he C oins o f t he D ecapolis a nd P rovincia A rabia , F ranciscan p p . P rinting P ress, J erusalem , 1 978, ( Bostra , T he C oinage o f B ostra , A ns &P hilips , L ondon , 1 983 .
l e .
6 6:89),
W ith r eference t o t he e pigraphical m aterial f rom B ostra ,
A .
K indler ,
s ee :
E . L ittmann , D . M agie , D .R . S tuart, P .U .A .E .S ., D iv . I II, L atine I nscriptions i n S yria , S ect . A . , S outhern S yria , P art 4 , 2 25-270.
C reek a nd B osra , p p .
2 . W ith r eference t o t he r oad s ystem a nd t rade r outes i n t he v icinity o f B ostra , s ee : M . A vi-Yonah ,
T he H oly L and f rom t he P ersian P eriod t o t he A rab C onquest ,
B aker B ooks , M ichigan , M .P C harlesworth, H ildesheim , 1 961 .
1 966 ,
p p .
T rade
A .H .M . J ones, o p. c it .,
p p .
-
1 71173 ,
1 83 , M ap 2 4 .
R outes a nd C ommerce o f t he R oman Empire ,
2 29-245.
H .C . B utler, P .U .A .E.S., D iv . I II, S ect. A , P art 2 : Trajan 's Road f rom B osra t o t he R ed S ea, T he S ection B etween B osra a nd A mman . D . M agie , P .U .A .E .S ., D iv . I II, S ect . A , P art 2 : M ilestones f ound o n T rajan 's R oad B etween B osra a nd A mman . P . T homsen , ' nie R o n iischen M eilensteine d er P rovinzen S yria , P alaestina" , Z .D .P .V.Z X L , ( 1917), p p . 1 -103) .
A rabia
a nd
( Damascus B ostra : pp. 3 2-33) ( Bostra G erasa : p p . 5 9-60). -
-
A . A lt , " Der S udlische E ndabschnitt d er R omischen S trasse v on B ostra n ach A ila" , Z .D .P .V . 5 9 ( 1936) , p p . 9 2-111, P its . I -Ill . M . D unand , L a V oie R omaine d u L edia , P aris, 1 930 . 3 .
N abataean r ule i n t he s outhern r egions o f S yria s trongly i nfluenced t he
a rchitecture
a nd
r itual
l ife
o f
t he
6 4
c ity
( see
n ote
i d) .
M any N abataean
n ames a ppear o n t he i nscriptions d iscovered a t B ostra , m ore g eneral s tudy o f t he N abataeans ,
( see n ote l e) .
F or a
s ee :
heir H istory , C ulture a nd A rchaeology , P h . C . H ammond , T he N abataeans - T 1 5-40 . L und , 1 973 , pp. J . S tarcky , " Petra e i l a N abatiene" , S .D .B . , P aris , 1 966 , c ols . 8 861017 . A . N egev , " Die N abataer" , A NTIKE W ELT , S onder N ummer , 1 975 . G .W . B owersock , " A R eport o n A rabia P rovincia" , J .R .S . L XI ( 1971) , p p . 2 19 28. J .M .
D entzer ,
B erytus X XXII
" Sondages p res d e i 'Arc N abateen a B osra" ,
( 1984) , pp. 1 63174 . p . 1 03113 . S ee C hapter 5 , p 4 . B ostra a lso b ecame a n i mportant C hristian c ente a nd C hristian h istorian s , s ee : P . T homsen , L oca S ancta , E pigraphical
( note
p . p
i s m entioned b y
4 4-45.
l e) a nd e specially a rchaeological d iscoveries w hich
i ncluded t he C athedral a nd c hurches , s how t he i mportance o f B ostra a s a C hristian c entre , s ee : H .C . B utler , P .U .A .E .S ., D iv . I I, S ect . A , P art 4 , B osra , ( Ecclesiastical A rchitecture , pp. 2 78-288) . R .E . B runnow , Av . D omaszewski , D ie P rovincia A rabia I II , ( Bosra , p p . 3 0-34 , 3 8-39). T here w as n o d estruction a s a r esult o f t he A rab c onquest a nd t his d id n ot b ring a bout a d ecline o f t he c ity . O n t he c ontrary , t he m any m osques a s w ell a s t he l arge f ortress t hat w as b uilt a round t he T heatre p oint t o t he i mportance o f B ostra a s aM oslem c ity . S ee : 2 5 :29 , 3 0 , 3 9-40 , 4 4-46 . R .E . B runnow , Av . D omaszewski , B osra , pp. es o rigines a l 'Islam , M . S artre , B ostra -d d u P roche-Orient ( T .CXVII) , P aris, 1 985 . 5 . U .J .
S eetzen ,
I nstitut F rancais
d 'Archeologie
R eisen d urch S yrien , P alastina , P honicien , d ie T ransjordan-
L ander , A rabia P etraea u nd U nter-Aegypten I I ,
B erlin ,
p . 6 6ff .
1 854-55 ,
2 . 26ff . J .L . B urkhardt , T ravels i n S yria a nd t he H oly L and , L ondon , 1 822 , p L . d e L aborde , V oyage d e l a S yrie , P aris , 1 837 , p . 6 7ff , P ls . L VII-LVIII . J .L . P orter, F ive Y ears i n D amascus I I, L ondon , 1 8551870, p . 1 42ff. E .G . R ey, V oyage d ans l e H auran a t a ux b ords d e l a M er Morte , e xecute p endant l es a nnes 1 857-1858 , P aris , ( ) ‚ p . 1 77ff , P ls . I V , X -XcXVIII . M . D e V ogue , S yrie C entrale , A rchitecture C ivile e t R eligieuse I -II , P aris , 1 865-1877 , p p . 4 0 , 6 3 , P is . V , X XII , X XIII . R .E .
B runnow ,
Av .
D omaszewski ,
D ie P rovincia A rabia I II ,
S trassburg ,
1 909 ,
p p . 1 -84 . H .C . B utler , P ,.U .A .E .S D iv . I I, A ncient A rchitecture i n S yria , S ect . A , S outhern S yria , P art 4 , B osra , L eyden , 1 914 , p p . 2 15-295 . 6 .
W ith r eference t o t he r econstruction a nd p reservation o f t he T heatre i n
B ostra , s ee : I .L.N . 8J une, 1 963. H . F insen ,
L e L eve d u T heatre R omain a B osra , S yria ,
W ith r eference y ears , s ee : S . Mougdad ,
t o o ther m onuments
e xcavated
E inar M unskgaard ,
i n B ostra
o ver
t he
C h . M akowski, " Nymphee d e B osra e t s es A bords .
a rcheologiques e n 1 979 . 3 5-46.
R eport
p reliminaire" ,
A .A .S . X XXIII
1 972 . f ew
R echereches ( 1983),
S . B erthier , " Sondage d ans l e s ecteur d es T her i nes s ud a B usra B erytus X XXIII , ( 1985) , p p . 1 03-142 .
6 5
p ast
p . p
-1 985" ,
7 .
A lthough t he p lans d rawn u p b y R ey ( fig . 1 04) a nd P orter ( fig . 1 03)
w ere f ar f rom e xact , t hey a re o f i mportance a nd h elp i n t he i dentification o f m onuments i n t he c ity t hat h ave s ince b een d estroyed . 7 a .
V on G erkan 's p lan o f B ostra ( fig .
1 05) c ompletes ,
s ections t hat w ere m issing f rom B utler 's p lan . t o m ake o ut w hat t he b asis w as f or
t o a c ertain e xtent ,
H owever ,
t he G erman s cholar 's
t he s treet n etwork a nd t he l ines o f t he c ity w all .
i t i s i mpossible r econstruction o f
I t i s d oubtful t hat h e
w as i n t he p ossession o f a erial p hotographs . I t i s p ossible t hat h e m erely w anted t o c omplete t he l ines o f t he s treets t hat B utler h ad a lready m arked ( comp . f igs . 1 05 , 1 06) . 9-63 . B ostra , pp. 5 S ee a lso : A . v on G erkan , 1 54155.
S ee a lso f inal d iscussion o n t he t own p lanning o f
G riechische S tadteanlagen ,
B erlin ,
1 924 ,
F ig .
2 0 ,
p p .
1 35 ,
8 . B utler n ames t he s outh-eastern s ection o f t he c ity t he " Acropolis" a nd i t i s i ndeed h ere t hat t he e arliest r emains o f r itual s tructures h ave b een u ncovered . T he a rchitectural o rientation o f t hese b uildings d oes n ot f it i n w ith t he r egular s treet n etwork o f t he R oman c ity r unning t o t he w est o f t he " Acropolis" . S ee f inal d iscussion o n t he t own p lanning o f B ostra ,
5 9-63.
p p .
9 . F .E . P eters i s o f t he o pinion t hat i t i s p ossible t hat
t he c ity p lan o f
B ostra w as n ot e ntirely o f R oman o rigin a nd t hat s ome o f t he s treet m ay h ave b een l aid o ut d uring t he N abataean r ule . H e f eels t hat t he m ain c olonnaded est) l eading t o t he A cropolis o n w hich t he m ain r itual s treet ( east -w N abataean s tructures s tood , m ight i n f act h ave b een t he " Via S acra" . P eters h owever , c annot b ase t his t heory o n a ny e vidence i n t he f ield . O n s tudying t he t won p lan o f B ostra a s w e k now i t t oday , i t i s u ndoubtedly c lear t hat t he n ew c ity l ying t o t he w est o f t he " Acropolis" , w as p lanned a s o ne c omplete u nit . S ee : F .E . P eters , " City P lanning i n G reco-Roman S yria 2 69-277 . D aM I ( 1983) , pp. 1 0 .
E .
L ittmann ,
P .U .A .E .S . D iv . I V,
S ect .
A ,
-
S ome C onsiderations" ,
N abatean I nscriptions ,
( Bosra ,
p . 6 9-91). p 1.
H .C . B utler , B osra ,
( Nabataeans R emains), p p . 2 36-239, i ll . 2 12.
1 2.
S ee f inal d iscussion o n t he t own p lanning o f B ostra , p p. 5 9 63.
1 3.
H .C . B utler ,
( Walls),
1 4.
H .C . B utler ,
p .
1 5 .
S ee f inal d iscussion o n t he t own p lanning o f B ostra , p p .
1 6.
H .C . B utler ( Gates), p p . 2 26-229, i lls. 2 00-203.
p p .
25, f ootnotes 1 -3. 2
R .E . B runnow , A .V . D o i naszewski, E . M akowiecka , " Les ( 1966) , pp. 2 0-45 . 1 7 .
2 25-226.
p p .
6 -11, F igs. 8 74-885.
p ortes R omaines
T he G erman r esearchers h ave
5 9 63.
d e
r ecorded
S yrie" ,
t he G ate a s
o nly a f ew m inor a dditions ( fig . 1 16) . B utler , r econstructed t he e ntire o riginal G ate ( fig . 15) .
6 6
S tudia P almyrenskie I
t hey
f ound
i t w ith
o n t he o ther h and,
h as
1 8 .
H .C . B utler , p p. 2 29-230, i ll. 2 03.
1 9 .
ll . 2 04. H .C . B utler , p p . 2 29-230 5 i
2 0 .
J .L . P orter , o p. c it ., p .
J .L .
B urkhardt, o p. c it. p . 2 32.
2 1.
H .C . B utler , p . 2 29.
2 2.
H .C . B utler ,
1 87.
( Colonnaded S treets), p p . 2 30-235, i lls. 2 05-210 .
R .E. B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski ( Haupstrasse), p p. 1 1-12. 2 3. H .C . B utler , i ll . 2 10 . C olonnades w ith I onic c apitals
m ay
b e
f ound
i n o ther s ites
i n P rovincia
A rabia s uch a s G erasa ( fig . 9 5) o r P hilippopolis ( chapter 4 , S ee a lso : C .H . K raeling , X XXII a , b . H .C . B utler ,
( ed .) ,
G erasa
C ity o f t he D ecapolis ,
A rchitecture a nd o ther A rts ,
S ee a lso c hapter 5 , p p . 4 .
-
N ew Y ork ,
p p .
1 53158 .
1 903 ,
8 5-86) .
p p .
P ls .
ha ,
3 93 .
p .
1 05-106.
H .C . B utler , ( East T riumphal A rch) , p p . 2 40-243, i lls . 2 14, 2 16, 2 17,
P l . X . R .E. B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski,
( Kleiness B ogentor), p . 2 3, F ig. 9 03 .
2 5.
H .C . B utler , p . 2 43, n otes 1 -4.
2 6. R .E .
H .C . B utler , ( Central T riumphal A rch) p p. 2 43-247, i ll . 2 18 . B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski ( Crosses B ogentor) , p p . 1 4 :19 , F igs .
2 7 .
H .C . B utler , p . 2 46, i ll. 2 18.
2 8 .
F rom t he r eign o f A ugustus
A rch ,
d uring
t he i st c entury C .E .
a s af ree s tanding m onumental a rchitectural e lement ,
8 88-889 .
t he T riumphal
b egins t o s pread
t hroughout I taly a nd t he P rovinces . T his r eached i ts c limax d uring t he r ule o f t he A ntonine a nd S everan D ynasties . T he o riginal T riumphal A rch w as e rected t o c ommemorate a s pecific e vent s uch a s , i n t he c ase o f G erasa , t he v isit o f t he E mperor H adrian t o t he c ity i n 1 29/130 C .E . ( see c hapter 2 , p p . 2 4-25, n otes 3 4-38) . T riumphal A rches c an b e w idely s een i n t he A rabian c ities w here ( except i n t he c aste m entioned a bove o f G erasa)
t hey
a re a p urely d ecorative a rchitectural e lement s imilar t o t he T etrapylon o r t he N ymphaeon ( see c hapter 5 , p . 1 06) . I n B ostra t he E ast T riumphal A rch m arked t he p oint w here o ne c ould e nter t he s acred p recinct o f t he c ity , w hile t he C entral T riumphal A rch m arked t he p assage f rom t he m ain s treet t o t he s treet w hich l ed t o t he T heatre ( figs . 1 06, 1 07) . W ith r eference t o t he o rigin a nd d evelopment o f t he T riumphal A rch , s ee : L . C rema , E .C . L 'Architettura R omana ( Archi O norari e p orte u rbiche) , p p . 2 08-224 , 3 03-307 , 4 41-452 , 5 50-558 . M .P . N ilsson , ' The O rigin o f t he T riumphal A rch" , C OROLLA A RCHAEOLOGICA , L und , 1 932 , p p . 1 32-139 . i dem . , " The T riumphal A rch a nd t he T own P lanning" ,
O PAR 1 , ( 1934) ,
1 23. 2 9.
H .C . B utler ( Temples), p p . 2 47-251, i lls. 2 19-223.
3 0.
H .C . B utler , p p . 2 49 250, i lls. 2 21-223.
6 7
p p .
1 20-
3 1.
H .C . B ut .
R .E . B runnow , 9 01. 3 2 .
( Nymphaeum), A .v .
p p .
D omaszewski,
2 51-252, i lls. 2 24-226 . ( Korinthische S aulen),
p p .
2 0-22,
f ig .
T he N ymphaeon o f B ostra i s f ar m ore m odest t han t hose f ound e ither i n
G erasa o r i n P hiladlphia a nd i s i n f act v ery s imilar t o t hat f ound i n P etra . 3 2a . W ith r eference t o t he N ymphaeon o f P hiladelphia s ee c hapter 1 , p p . 8 9 , n otes 2 5-26 , ( figs . 2 5-28) . 3 2b . W ith r eference t o t he N ymphaeon o f G erasa , 2 8, ( figs . 5 2-55) . 3 2c.
s ee c hapter 2 ,
p .
2 3 ,
n ote
W ith r eference t o t he N ymphaeon o f P etra , s ee :
W . B achman , P etra , B erlin , c hapter 5 , p . 1 06 .
1 921,
p p .
3 4-35, F ig . 2 8,
( fig . 3 1) , s ee a lso
3 2 51-255, i lls. 2 25-226. 3 . H .C . B ulter , ( Kalybe), pp. R .E. B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski, ( Grosser T emple), pp. 2 2-23, F ig . 9 01. 1-43 3 4 . B utler h as f ollowed D e V ogue w ho , i n h is b ook S yrie C entrale , pp. 4 ( note 5 ) , d escribes a s tructure h e u ncovered i n U mm i z Z etum u pon w hich h e f ound a n i nscription n aming t he s tructure a s a ' Kalybe ' . T his i s a n o pen r itual s tructure . A s imilar b uilding f ulfilling r eligious o r c eremonial p urposes h as b een d iscovered i n t he P alace i n P hilippopolis ( fig . 1 61) . T he l atter h as b een r eliably d ated t o t he m iddle o f t he 3 rd c entury C .E . a nd i t i s t herefore s afe s ame p eriod . S ee c hapter 4 , 3 5.
t hat t he K alybe i n B ostra b elongs
t o t he
7 9-80 , n ote 1 5.
p p .
H .C . B utler ,
t o p resume
( The P alace),
R .E. B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski,
p . p
2 25-260, f igs. 2 27-229.
( Palast),
p .
2 4.
T he G erman s cholars o nly m ention t he P alace i n af ew s entences w hile B utler g ives a n e xact a nd d etailed d escription o f i t t ogether w ith a p ossible r econstruction p lan . 3 6 .
H .C . B utler ,
3 7 .
I n B utler 's
( p . 2 60) ,
p .
2 57.
o pinion t he P alace i s a " Late e xample o f N abataean w ork"
a nd h e d ates i t t o t he b eginning o f t he 2 nd c entury C . E .
I t s eems
t o u s , h owever , t hat t here i s n othing i n t he a rt o r a rchitectural s tyle o f t his P alace w hich m ay r elate i t t o t he N abataean p eriod . T he b uilding 's p lan i s c loser i n d esign t o a nother s tructure f ound i n B ostra t he E piscopal P alace , w hich B utler h imself d ates t o t he 4 th c entury C .E . , ( pp . -
2 86-288 , i lls . 2 51-253) . T he P alace i s s ituated i n t he O ld C ity o f B ostra a nd i s p ositioned s uch , t hat i t t otally i gnores t he R oman s treet n etwork . T his d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean t hat i t p receded t he R oman c ity i t m ight -
e qually h ave p ost d ated t he R omans a nd m ight b elong t o a p eriod i n w hich o ther b uildings s uch a s t he c hurches w ere c onstructed . T hese t oo i gnored t he r egular s treet n etwork . T hen a gain , i t c ould p ossibly h ave b een b uilt u pon t he f oundations o f a n e arlier s tructure , b ut a t am uch l ater d ate s uch a s t he 3 rd c entury o r 4 th c entury C .E . A nother s tructure s imilar t o t he P alace w as f ound a t D ura E uropos a nd w as c alled t he ' G overnors P alace ' b y e xcavators . I t h as b een d ated t o t he 3 rd c entury C . E . S ee : M . R ostovtzeff , E xcavations a t D oura-Europos, P art I II,
6 8
T he P alace o f
t he D ux a nd t Ie D olicheneum ,
p p .
6 9-96 ,
F ig .
7 .
( See f ig . 1 35) . n B ostra i n B utler t raced y et a nother b uilding s imilar t o t he P alace i nd i ts m ain S outhern S yria . T his p alace i s s ituated i n K asr I hn W ardan a h ail i s a lso s haped l ike a " triconchos" . S ee : 6-45 , i lls . C .H . B utler , P .U .A .E .S . D iv . I I, S ect . B , K asr I hn W ardan , p p . 2 2 4-37 , P ls . I V-V . ( See f ig . 1 36). 3 8 .
H .C . B utler ,
( South B ath),
R .E. B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski, 3 9 .
A b ath ( Bath " C" ) ,
o ne i s B ostra ,
2 60-264, i lls. 2 30-231, P l. X III .
p p .
( Ost -T hermen), p . 2 9.
u ncovered a t A ntioch ,
( see f ig .
1 38) .
i s r emarkably s imilar t o t he
S ee :
A . B oethius, J . W ard-Perkins, E truscan a nd R oman A rchitecture , P enguin B ooks , 1 970 , pp. 4 43-444 , F ig . 1 64 . C .S . F isher , A ntioch o n t he O rontes I , P rinceton , 1 934, p p . 1 9-31, ( Bath C ) . 4 0 .
H .C . B utler ,
( Central B ath), p . 2 64 .
( North B ath), p p . 2 64-265, i ll. 2 32. ( North-West B ath), p . 2 65, i ll . 2 33. 4 1. R .E .
H .C . B utler , ( Basilica), p p. 2 65-269, i lls. 2 34-238. B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski , ( Kirche d er B ahira ) , p p .
3 6-38 ,
F igs .
9 14-
9 19. 4 2 .
A lthough t he G erman s cholars b elieve t he B asilica t o h ave s erved a s a
C hurch , w e t end t o f ollow B utler w ho f eels t hat i t w as f irst c onstructed a s ap ublic b uilding a nd o nly l ater b ecame a C hurch . S ee a lso : A . B oethius, J . W ard-Perkins, o p .cit., p p . 4 44-445, F ig . 1 65. 4 3.
H .C . B utler , i ll . 2 35.
4. H .C . B utler , ( Market), p p . 2 70-273, i ll. 2 40. 4 R .E. B runnow, A.v . D omaszewski, ( Bazaar), p p . 2 4-25. T he ' B azaar ' d escribed b y t he G erman r esearchers a s w ell
a s
b y P orter
i s
n one o ther t han a c entral s ection o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet ( fig . 1 03) w here , i n t he M iddle a ges , t he m arket o f A rab B ostra w as c entered . B utler , ho we ver , b elieves t he R oman m arket t o h ave b een i n a n a rea o n t he w est n ear t he j unction o f t he t wo m ain s treets ( fig . 1 43) . H e w as u nable t o p inpoint i ts b orders a s t he p iles o f e arth a bove i t w ere t oo g reat . I n o ur d iscussion w e h ave p refered t he t erm ' Forum ' f or t his a rea a s t he R oman F orum p rovided m any o ther p ublic s ervices b esides t hat o f c ommercial v alue . 4 5 .
C ross
v aults o n t he
c eiling a re m ore
o riginated i n t he e arlier y ears .
t ypical
o f
l ater p eriods ,
b ut
S ome o f t he h alls i n t he m arket o f T rajan
i n R ome w ere c onstructed w ith s uch c ross v aults , s ee : L . C rema , C .E . , ( Mercato d i T raiano ) , p p . 3 58 , F igs . 4 15 ,
4 18 ,
4 19 .
E . N ash , P ictorial D ictionary o f Ancient R ome , L ondon , 1 962, ( Mercatus T raiani) , pp. 4 9-57 , i ll . 7 39 . Y et a nother e xample o f t hese c ross v aults c an b e s een a t H adrian 's V illa i n T ivoli , s ee : S . A urigem r na , V illa A driana , R oma ,
1 961, F igs. 7 3-74.
4 6 . H .C . B utler , ( Theatre) , pp. 2 73-276 , i lls . 2 41-243 , P ls . 1 4-15 . R .E . B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski, ( Theater) , p p . 4 7-84, F igs . 9 28-982,
6 9
P is . N .E . 7 9.
L -LI . F rezouls ,
' Les
T heatres
R omaines
d e S yrie" ,
A .A .S . I I ,
( 1952) ,
p p .
6 9-
4 7 . E xcavations a nd r econstructions o f t he T heatre b egan i n 1 946 a nd e nded i n 1 970 , s ee n ote 6 . 4 8 . S ee f inal 1 26). 4 9 .
d iscussion o n t own p lanning o f B ostra ,
p p .
5 9-63
( see f ig .
T he T heatre a nd t he H ippodrome s tand a longside o ne a nother a nd t his i s
aw idespread p henomenon i n t he a rchitectural w orld o f t he R oman E mpire . t he
e yes
o f
t he R omans
t he
t heatre w as
I n
a p lace o f e ntertainment a nd t hey
t herefore s aw n o h arm i n p lacing t hese t wo s tructures , w hich c ulturally s eem t o b e s o d ifferent , s ide b y s ide . 1 06-107.
S ee c hapter 2 , n ote 2 9 ;
c hapter 5 p p .
5 0 . A s imilarly p lanned t heatre t o t hat o f B ostra m ay b e f ound i n O range w here t he s kenefrons i n p articular i s d esigned a nd o rnamented i n a r emarkably l ike m anner . Most o f t he s emi-circular o uter f acade o f t he T heatre i n B ostra c annot b e s een t oday a s i t i s s till c overed o ver b y t he M oslem f ortress a s mall s ection m ay b e v iewed f rom t he s outhern t ower , s ee : H .C . B utler , i ll . 2 67. -
T he r ounded f acade i s l ike t hat o f t he T heatre o f M arcellus i n R ome , s ee : L . C rema , E .C . ( I T eatri) , p p . 1 87-203 , 2 90-292 , 4 16-429 . 4 18-421, F igs . E . N ash , o p . c it . , ( Theatrum M arcelli) , pp. f ig . 1 49) .
1 2101211,
( see
5 1 . A N abataean i nscription u ncovered a mong t he r uins o f t he T heatre w hich w as p robably a p ermanent f eature o f t he b uilding , m entions t hat a p articular s eat w as r eserved f or ( the n ame h as n ot s urvived t he c enturies a nd i s i llegible) , s ee : E . L ittmann , P .U .A .E .S, D iv . I V, 5 2.
H .C . B utler ,
S ect . A ., N ab . I nscri . N . . o . 7 3, p . 6 0 .
( Hippodrome), p p . 2 75-276.
5 3 . H ippodromes a re r arely f ound i n t his a rea . G erasa , E .B .
T he n earest o ne w as f ound i n
s ee :
M uller ,
G erasa , T he H ippodrome ,
p . p
8 5-100 .
C . H orsfield , G erasa , A ppended N ote o n t he H ippodrome , p p . 1 00-103, X II-XVIII , p lans V I-XI .See a lso c hapter 2 , p . 2 5 , n otes 3 9-40 . 5 4.
H .C . B utler ,
( Naumachia),
p p .
5 5.
H .C . B utler ,
( Tombs),
2 77-278 , i ll . 2 45.
R .E . B runnow , 8 71. 5 6 .
M any
Av .
b urial
w hich g ive
p p .
D omaszewski ,
2 76-277.
( Westilicher F riedhof) ,
i nscriptions h ave b een d iscovered
e vidence
e xisted i n B ostra .
t o t he
P is .
l arge a mount
p . p
3 -4 ,
F igs .
8 66-
i n a nd a round t he c ity
o f m ausolea
t hat m ust h ave o nce
S ee a lso n ote J e .
5 7 . A n a ll e ncompassing d iscussion c oncerning t he d ate w hen B ostra w as p roclaimed t he c apital o f P rovinica A rabia . S ee : C .W . B owersock , 2 34.
" A R eport
o n A rabia P rovincia" ,
7 0
J .R .S . L XI
( 1971) ,
p . p
282
5 8.
S ee n ote 5 .
5 9.
H .C . B utler , p p . 2 19, 2 47-251.
6 0 . S ee d iscussion o n t he E ast T riumphal A rch , p p . 5 4 , n otes 2 4 , 2 8 . 6 1 . R efer t o s ection o n " Nabataean H eritage i n B ostra" ,
p p .
5 2-53 ,
n ote 3 .
6 2.
S ee s ection o n " City G ates", p p . 5 3-54.
6 3 .
T his s quare w as d esigned t o w iden t he a rea w here t he t wo m ain s treets
m et . T he t wo p ublic s tructures w hich d ecorated t he s quare t he k alybe a nd t he n ymphaeon w ere i nterphased w ith t he s treet c olonnades a nd t heir -
-
f acades c reated a p leasant t own s quare . 6 5.
S ee n ote 6 2 .
6 6.
H .C . B utler ,
( Naumachia), p p . 2 76-277.
6 7. H .C . B utler , ( Market), p p . 2 70-273. S ee a lso s ection o n t he ' Forum" , p .57, n ote 4 4. 6 8.
S ee s ection o n t he " Palace", p . 5 6, n ote 3 7.
6 9.
Av on G erkan , o p .cit ., p p .
7 0 .
I n t he c ity o f P erge i n A sia M inor b oth t he T heatre a nd t he H ippodrome
1 35-155, F ig . 2 0.
a re s ituated o utside t he c ity w alls , s ee : A . G iuliano , U rbanistica d elle C itta G recha , M ilano , 6 7. K . L anckoronski ,
S tadt P a r nphyliens u nd P isidiens I ,
1 966 ,
p p .
( Perge) ,
1 70172 , F ig .
p p .
3 3-63 ,
F ig .
2 6. S ee a lso n ote 4 9 . 7 1.
W ith r eference t o t he c ity p lan o f P ompeii, s ee :
A . v on G erkan , D er S tadtplan v on P ompeii , B erlin , 1 940 . F . C astagnoli , O rthogonal T own P lanning i n A ntiquity , M .I .T . ,
1 971,
p p .
2 4-
3 5, F igs . 9 -12 . M y t hanks a re d ue t o P rof . A . N egev w ho d rew m y a ttention t o t he s imilarity b etween t hese t wo c ities . A nother e xample o f t he d evelopment o f ac ity i n a m anner s imilar t o t hat o f B ostra m ay b e s een i n t he N orth-African c ity o f L eptis M agna . H ere t oo t he n ew c ity w as e stablished a longside a n a ncient P hoenician c ity . S ee : E .V . C affarelli , G . C aputo , R .B . B andinelli, L eptis Magna , A . Mondadori E ditore , 1 964 . J . W ard-Perkins , C ities o f A ncient G reece a nd I taly , P lanning i n C lassical A ntiquity , N ew Y ork , 1 974 , F ig . 7 6 . G erasa a nd B ostra h ave c ertain u rban f eatures i n c ommon . A s a lready s uggested i t i s p ossible t hat e astern G erasa w as a n e arlier H ellenistic c ity . W estern G erasa , t he n ew c ity , w as c onnected t o t he e astern c ity b y t hree m ain r outes a nd w as e ncompassed b y i ts w alls . I n a s imilar w ay t he n ew c ity o f B ostra a ttempted t o u nite t he o ld w ith t he n ew t hrough a r egular s treet n etwork .
S ee c hapter 2 , p p. 3 1-35 .
7 1
7 2.
F . C astagnoli , o p .cit., p p . 9 6-121.
T he I talian s cholar d ivides t he R oman c ities i nto f our m ain t ypes:
a ) T he H ippodamian C i ty ( i .e . H ippodandan t radition) .
a c ity p lan w hich h as b een i nfluenced b y t he
b ) A c ity w here t he p lan i s b ased o n t wo m ain a xis m eeting a t ar ight a ngle i n t he c ity c entre . c ) A c ity , i nfluenced b y t he m eeting o f t wo a xes ( as i n t he a rmy c amp ) , w here t hese d o n ot m eet i n t he c entre .
b ut
d ) A c ity b ased o n t he a rmy c amp p lan . T his k ind o f a s chematic d ivision c annot s uit a c ity l ike B ostra w here a c ity p lan w as d esigned t o t ake i nto c onsideration a n a lready e xisting u nplanned c ity . m entioned l ist .
T hus w e h ave d ifficulty i n f itting B ostra i nto t he a bove S ee c hapter 5 , p p . 11-113 .
7 3 . S ee i ntroduction t o c hapter o n B ostra , p p . 5 1-52 , n ote l a ,
l b .
7 4 . E pigraphical d iscoveries t hrow l ight o n t he e thnic m ake u p o f R oman B ostra . S emitic a nd N abataean n ames w ere p opular e ven i n t he R oman c ity . S ee n ote l e , 3 . 7 5 . G . W ebster , T he R oman I mperial A rmy , L ondon , G .W . B owersock , o p. c it., p p . 2 30 , 2 32, n ote 8 5.
1 969 ,
p p .
1 09114 .
W ith r eference t o t he C amp o f D iocletian i n P almyra , s ee : T h . W iegand , P almyra , ( Die D iocletianslager), B erlin , 1 932, p p . 8 5-105, t afel 1 0 . S ee a lso t he p ublications o f t he P olish e xpedition w hich e xcavated i n t his a rea f rom 1 959 . S ee : K . M ichalows ki , P almyre , F ouilles P olonaises , I -V , W arszawa , 1 9601966 . M . G awlikowski , P almyre V III; L es P rincipia d e D iocletien ( Temples d es E nseignes) , V arsovie , 1 984 . W ith r eference t o t he R oman c amp a t D ura E uropos, s ee : C . H opkins , H .T . R owell , T he E xcavations a t D ura E uropos V , P ress , 1 934 , p p . 2 01-237 . 7 6 .
T he p ossible p osition o f t he T hird ( Cyrenaica ) L egion 's
Y ale U niversity
c amp i n B ostra
h as f ascinated m any s cholars , s ome o f w hom h ave m ade s imilar s uggestions t o t hat p resented i n t his b ook ( fig . 1 09) . S ee : F .E . P eters , " City P lanning i n G reco-Roman S yria" , 2 77, f ig . 5( see f ig . 1 10) .
DaM I ( 1983) ,
p . p
2 69-
R . B rulet , " Estampilles d e L a hIe L egion C yrenaique a B ostra" , B erytus XXII , ( 1984) , p p . 1 75-179 , f ig . 1 . X ( see f ig . 1 11) . M . S artre , B ostra ( See f ig . 12).
-
d es o rigines a ' I slam ,
P aris ,
1 985 ,
F ig .
1 .
7 7 . W ith r eference t o t he e xcavations i n O stia , s ee : R . M eiggs , R omman O stia , O xford , 1 960 , ( Town P lanning a nd T own Deve lo pment p p . 11148 , f igs . 2 2 2 , 2 3 . A . C . p p . 7 8 .
B oethius , R ickman , 1 5- 7 6 .
J . W ard-Perkins , R oman Gr anaries
a n
o p .cit . , dS t ore
p p . 2 79-281, F igs . 1 06 , 1 08 . B uildings , C ambridge , 1 971,
),
( Ostia) ,
H .C . B utler , p . 2 15.
I t i s t rue t hat B ostra w as t he m ost i mportant a nd m ost h ighly p opulated c ity i n t he r egion , b ut i n s ize i t c overed l ess a rea t han o ther c ities s uch a s G erasa ( 847 ,000 s q . m etres) o r P hilippopolis ( 863 ,000 s q . m etres) . -
7 2
7 9 .
A s
d iscussed i n t he t ext ,
B ostra w as b lessed w ith w ell d eveloped a nd
c onstructed m onumental b uildings , t hem .
E xcept f or c apitals ,
b ut w ith v ery f ew o rnamental a dditions t o
p ilasters a nd d ecorative n iches t here i s h ardly
as tatue o r r elief t o b e f ound i n t he c ity .
A s imilar p icture m ay b e s een
i n P hilippopolis w hich w as a lso c onstructed a s a r esult o f a G overnment 7 7i nitiative a nd c ompleted w ithin a v ery s hort t ime ( see c hapter 4 , pp. 8 3). W ith r eference t o t he a dministrative s tatus o f c ities i n P rovincia A rabia a nd t heir b oundaries , s ee n ot l a , b , c , d , a nd i n c hapter 5 n ote 4 1 . 8 0 . T ens o f t he i nscriptions d iscovered i n G erasa d escribe t he d onations o f p rivate , w ealthy c itizens t o t he d evelopment o f t he c ity . S ee : C .H . K raeling W elles ,
8 1 .
S ee d iscussion o n t he a rchitectural 5 ,
G erasa , T he I nscriptions ,
p p .
C . B .
c hapter
p p .
( ed .) G erasa , T he H istory o f G erasa ,
2 7-69 .
3 55-494 . c haracter o f t he c ities o f A rabia
p . 6 3 .
8 2 . W ith r eference t o t he G reek c ity i n t he E ast f rom t he H ellenistic P eriod u ntil t he R oman P eriod ,
s ee :
A .H .M . J ones, T he G reek C ity f rom A lexander t o J ustinian , O xford , 1 940 . i de i n .
T he C ities o f t he E astern R oman P rovincia ,
O xford ,
1 937 .
( Syria) ,
p p .
2 27-295. V . T scherikower , D ie H ellenistischen S tadtegrundungen v on A lexander D em G rossen b is a uf d ie R omerzeit , L eipzig , 1 927 . M . Avi-Yonah , H ellenism a nd t he E ast: C ontacts a nd i nter-relations f rom A lexander t o t he R oman C onquest , A nn A rbor , 1 978 .
7 3
C HAPTER I V P HILIPPOPOLIS ( SHUHBA)
7 5
I ntroduction T he e stablishment o f t he c ity o f P hilippopolis w as a n u nusual p henomenon b ecause ,
u nlike a ll o ther c ities i n P rovincia A rabia ,
f rom t he v ery o utset b y t he R omans .
t his c ity w as f ounded
I t d id n ot d evelop o ut o f a nother u rban
r eality , w here c lassical t own p lanning w as f orced t o a dapt i tself t o a nd w ork a round e xisting s tructures . T he h omogeneous c ity p lan o f P hilippopolis , t he c lear s treet n etwork p arallel t o t he t wo m ain s treet ( north-south a nd e ast-west) p oints t o t he f act t hat h ere l ies a R oman c ity , e stablished
o n v irgin s oil,
a m ainly f lat t ract o f
l and ( figs .
1 53 ,
1 54 -
1 56 ) . W e h ave c hosen t o d iscuss t he r emains o f P hilippopolis f or t he f ollowing r easons: a )
T he c ity i s s ituated o n t he i mportant r oute t he V ia T raiana N ova ( fig . 1 ), w hich s traddles t he b order b etween s ettled a reas a nd t he -
d esert. b )
I t
r epresents
t he
o nly
e xample
o f
R oman
t own-plann ing
f rom
t he 3 rd
c entury C .E. C )
T he
d ated
r uins
p resent
a c lear
p icture
o f
t he
n ature
o f
c ity
a rchitecture i n A rabia d uring t he 3 rd c ent. C .E.
H istorical s ources a s w ell a s e pigraphical S huhba t o t he y ears
2 47-249
C .E .
-
a nd
i ts
e vidence d ate t he r uins o f
e stablishment
i s
c ompleted
b y
P hilip t he A rab a fter w hom t he c ity w as n amed ( 1) . T he s tate o f m ost o f t he r emains s how t hat t he c onstruction o f t he c ity w as p robably n ever c ompleted a nd t hat a s hort w hile a fter i ts e stablishment t he c ity w as a bandonned b y t he R omans . I n t he 4 th c entury C .E . a s mall C hristian s ettlement e xisted h ere b ut l eft l ittle i mpression o n t he c ity .
I n f act , i t i s o nly d uring t he
l ast 1 00 y ears t hat n ew l ife h as b een b rought t o t he r uins o f P hilippopolis b y t he D ruze v illagers ( 2 ) . A lthough t ravellers f rom E urope b egan v isiting t he c ity i n t he e arly 1 9th c entury , i t w as o nly w hen B utler a rrived t hat a m ore d etailed s urvey w as c arried o ut . B runnow a nd D o t naszewski f ollowed s hortly t hereafter ( 3 ) .
B utler w as t he o nly o ne t o m ap o ut t he a rea a nd
t he d iscussion t hat f ollows i s m ainly b ased o n h is p lans ,
d escriptions a nd
p hotographs . T he m aterial p ublished b y B runnow a nd D omaszewski h as a lso b een t aken i nto a ccount a lthough t his , i n t he m ain , i s b ased o n B utlers ' w ork . T he c ity h as n ever b een e xcavated a nd o nly t he T heatre h as b een p artially r enovated . More r ecently, h owever , w ork w as b egun o n t he p reservation o f af ew o f t he r emaining m onuments ( 4) . U nfortunately , m ost o f t he r emains d escribed d uring t he 1 9th c entury a re n o l onger v isible a nd h ave d isappeared a s a r esult o f t he v illagers l ater b uilding p rojects . T herefore o ur d escriptions o f t he f ew m onuments r ely a lmost e ntirely o n t he m aterial p ublished b y t he e arly v isitors . O n t he o ther h and , m ore m odern a erial p hotographs w ill p ermit u s a v iew o f t he g eneral
l ayout o f t he c ity ,
i ts f unctional
s treet g rid. AG eneral V iew o f t he C ity ( figs.
1 54-156).
7 7
d ivision a nd i ts w ell p lanned
P hilippopolis l ies m ainly o n af lat s tretch o f l and a nd o nly i ts s outhw estern p art r ises w ith t he v olcanic h ills e ncompassing t he c ity o n t he s outh a nd s outh-west . T he g eneral l ayout o f t he c ity i s o f a s omewhat i rregular s quare . I t i s s urrounded b y a s trong s tone w all i n w hich a re 6 G ates . O f t hese , f our a re m ain g ates a nd s erved a s e ntrances t o a nd e xits f rom t he c ity f or t he t wo m ain s treet, a nd t he o ther t wo a re m ore m inor g ates w hich w ere s ituated a t t he n orthern a nd s outhern e nds o f a nother s treet t hat c ut t hrough t he c ity r unning f rom n orth t o s outh . T he t wo m ain s treets m eet a t a r ight a ngle , n ot q uite i n t he c entre o f t he c ity , a nd t he c ity w alls a re n ot p arallel
t o t he m ain a xis .
T he r eason f or t hese
d eviations l ies i n t he l ay o f t he l and c reated b y t he v olcanic n ature o f t he n eighbouring h ills . R emains o f t he s tructures o nce e xisting i n P hilippopolis a nd d escribed b y v isiting r esearchers i nclude : S ections o f t he c ity w all , G ates , p arts o f t he s treets , t he B ath , T etrapylon , t he T heatre , t he ' Philippaeon" , t he P alace , a T emple a nd t he a queduct . A s a lready m entioned m ost o f t hese r uins a re n o l onger v isible o n t he s urface . W e w ill f irst d escribe t he v arious m onuments a nd t hereafter p rogress t o a d iscussion o n t he c ity p lan a nd t he g eneral c haracter a nd p lace o f P hilippopolis w ithin t he d evelopment o f R oman c ity p lanning .
T he H exastyle T emple ( figs. T he T emple w as
1 54-155,
1 57) ( 5).
s ituated a bout 5 0 m etres
f rom t he
j unction o f t he t wo
m ain s treets , c lose t o t he m ain e ast-west s treet . I ts f acade f aces s outh . S ix c olumns o riginally s tood i n t he f acade b ut o nly f our r emained i n p osition . O f t hese, t hree w ere c omplete i ncluding t heir C orinthian c apitals w hile o ne h ad b roken i n h alf . t he b uilding w ere h eaps o f r ubble a nd
A ll t hat r emained o f t he w alls o f i t w as o nly t he n orth-east c orner
s till s tanding , t hat a llowed a c ertain p icture o f t he n ature o f t he c ella . B utler r econstructed t his b uilding a nd b elieved i t t o b e a n u nusually s haped T emple ( 6) . T he c olumn b ases b elonging t o t he p ortico i n t he f ront s tood o n p odia . A ll t he c apitals w ere C orinthian a nd d isplayed a h igh a rtistic s tandard . T oday t he e ntire s tructure h as b een d estroyed a nd o nly t he f acade c olumns r emain , n ow p laying a r ole i n am ore m odern s tructure.
T he " Phiiippaeon" ( figs.
1 54,
1 55,
1 60) ( 7).
T his b uilding s tands s outh-west o f t he j unction o f t he t wo m ain s treets , a bout 5 0 m etres s outh o f t he e ast-west s treet . T he i nscriptions d iscovered o n t he s tructure a nd u ncovered i n c lose p roximity t o i t l ed B utler t o g ive i t t his s pecific n ame ( 8) . I t h as a v ery s imple p lan : t heir o riginal
h eight ,
w as
A s quare c elia , w here t he w alls
d ivided
i nternally
b y
r etained
s ymetrically p ositioned
v aulted n iches s eparated o ne f rom t he o ther b y s quare p ilasters ( fig . 1 60 , ai) . T he s outh w all w as w ider i n d iameter a nd i ncluded a s taircase ( 9 ) . T he o utside w alls w ere c onstructed o f s mooth , e xtremely w ell d ressed s tones . T he f our c orners o f t he " Philippaeon" w ere d ecorated b y f lat p ilasters p rotruding a l ittle f rom t he l ine o f t he w all . a nd a f lat c ornice .
T hey s upport I onic c apitals
N othing o f t he u pper s ection r emained b ut i t i s
7 8
p ossible t hat i t t ook t he s hape o f ap yramid ( 10) . A l arge o pening w as s ituated i n t he n orthern f acade o f m easuring 3 m etres i n w idth a nd 5 .5 m etres i n h eight .
t he s tructure , A bove i t w as a
c ornice a nd a f rieze d ecorated w ith s imple g eometric p atterns . O n e ither s ide o f t he o pening , a bout 3 m etres a bove g round l evel w ere t wo c orbels o riginally m eant t o h old s tatues ( 11) . T he i nternal w alls o f t he b uilding w ere c overed b y t hin m arble s labs ( 12). I t s eems a s i f t his w as m eant t o b e u sed a s a f amily M ausoleum f or t he E mperor P hilip t he A rab a nd m ight a lso h ave s erved a s ap lace o f r itual f or h im .
I t s tands
i n t he h eart o f t he c ity n ot f ar f rm t he P alace ,
T heatre a nd t he T emple . b eauty a nbd p recision
t he
T he s hape o f t his s tructure , i ts m easurements , t he o f i ts c onstruction , t ogether w ith t he r ich
e pigraphical f inds i n t he a rea ,
l eave u s w ith n o d oubt c oncerning t he
f unctions a nd n ature o f t he ' Philippaeon" .
T he P alace ( figs. 1 54, 1 55, 1 61) ( 13). A g roup o f b uildings f orming a n u rban c omplex w as f ound a long b oth s ides o f t he e ast-west s treet a nd a bout 2 00 m etres a way f rom t he j unction o f t he m ain s treets. B utler n amed t his c omplex t he P alace . T his c luster o f b uildings w as d ivided i nto t wo s ections b y t he m ain e ast-west s treet . A w ide v ault b ridged t he s treet t hereby j oining t he t wo s ides t ogether ( fig .
1 61, A ) ( 14) .
T he v ault m ay s till b e s een i n p osition
t oday , b ut a ll t he o ther r emains o f t he P alace h ave b een c overed b y m ore m odern s tructures . B oth o n t he s outh a nd t he n orth s ide o f t he P alace w ere e xits t o t he s treet b eneath t he v ault ( fig . 1 61, p assageways D , D ) . T he s outhern p art o f t he c omplex i s e mphasized b y a l arge s tructure , l ike a n o pen e xedra , b efore w hich w as a s quare c ourtyard c losed i n o n t he n orth a nd s outh s ides b y s ide w alls d ecorated w ith s quare n iches ( fig .
1 61,
B ) .
T he
f acade o f t he b uilding f aces e ast , m easure 3 0 m etres i n w idth a nd c omprises o ne l arge s emi-circular n iche a longside o f w hich a re t wo s maller n iches . A h alf d ome o nce c overed t he b ig n iche . T wo d iagonal w alls , w ith p assages t o c orner r ooms , f lank t he b ig n iche o n e ither s ide ( fig . 1 61, E , F ) . T hese w alls w ere a lso d ecorated b y s emi-circular n iches, c lose t o t he p oint w here t hey j oined t he s ide w alls . T he m ain e ast-west s treet c ould b e r eached f rom B uilding B v ia t he c orner r oom ( E) a nd t he v aulted p assageway ( D ) w hile t o r each t he n orthern s ide o f t he P alace ( C) o ne u sed t he n orthern s ection o f t he p assageway ( D) . B etween t he n orthern s ide w all o f B uilding B a nd t he s treet w ere t wo m ore l arge v aulted h alls .
B utler p oints o ut t he p robable e xistence o f s till
m ore r ooms s ituated f urther w est o f t he p assageway ( D) ( fig . F rom t he l ittle t hat r emains,
1 61).
i t i s d ifficult t o f orm a d etailed
p icture o f t he a rchitectural d ecorations o f t his p alace . H owever , f rom w hat B utler , B runnow a nd D omaszewski r ecorded i t m ight b e p ossible t o r econstruct B uilding B a s h aving p orticos w hich , t ogether w ith t he s ide w alls o f B uilding B , s upported a n o verhead c overing . I t i s i mpossible t o k now e xactly w hat f unctions w ere f ulfilled b y B uilding B , b ut i t w as c learly am onumental s tructure m eant f or c eremonies o r u sed a s a n o pen r itual p recinct ( 15). L ess r emained o f t he n orthern p art o f t he P alace ( fig .
7 9
1 61,
C ) , h owever
i t i s p ossible t o m ake o ut a r ow o f v aulted r ooms e ast o f p assageway ( D ) , a s w ell a s a l onger r oom .
T hese a re t he s ame a s t he r ooms f ound o n t he s outh
s ide o f t he s treet . F rom p assageway ( D) o ne m oved n orth t o a l arge c ourtyard , p robably a n A trium , w hich t he r esearchers n ever s ucceeded i n m easuring o r d escribing ( C). A s p reviously s tated , o n t his a rea , t his c omplex .
b ecause o f t he a mount o f l ater s tructures e rected
i t i s i mpossible t o g ive a n a ccount o f t he o riginal s ize o f I t i s c lear , h owever , t hat h ere , i n t he h eart o f t he c ity ,
s tood a v ariety o f w ell
b uilt
s tructures w hich c ould v ery p ossibly h ave
f unctioned a s aP alace ( 16).
T he B ath ( figs.
1 54,
1 55, 1 62) ( 17).
T he r emains o f t he P hilippopolis B ath c ount a mong t he l argest g roups o f r uins d iscovered i n t he H auran . T he b uildings w as s ituated i n t he s outhe ast p art o f t he c ity , a t a d istance o f 8 0 m etres f rom t he e ast-west s treet a nd 2 5 m etres f rom t he n orth-south s treet .
I t w as w ell c onstructed a nd a s
a r esult w as b etter p reserved t han m any o thers . I ts p lan w as s ymetrical a nd a n o verall v iew s hows i ts d ivision i nto : a ) t he s outhern s ection ( which i s s horter ) , a nd b ) t he n orthern s ection ( which i s w ider) . T he f ormer w as d ivided i nto 3 l arge h alls, a ll e qual i n s ize ( 11 x 1 8 m etres), a nd s eparated f rom o ne a nother b y t hick w alls ( 3 m etres) . O ne m oved f rom r oom t o r oom t hrough a v aulted p assageway m easuring 4 .65 m etres i n w idth ( fig . 1 62 A , B , C ) . ( b , c ) l eading
A t t he f ar e nd o f e ach o f t he t hree w alls w ere s taircases t o t he r oof ( 18) . T he c onstruction o f t he t hird r oom ( C )
w as n ever c ompleted . I t s eems
t hat t he r ooms ( A ,
t he F rigidariu l n .
C ,) w ere u sed a s V estiaria a nd r oom ( B) w as
T he n orthern p art o f t he B ath i ncluded i n i ts c entre t wo
c ircular r ooms ( D , D ) b oth 9 m etres i n d iameter w hich w ere p robably u sed a s C aldaria . T o t he n orth w as a r ectangular r oom w hose s hort w alls w ere f ormed b y s emi-circular n iches ( E).
T his w as t he T epidarium .
T he B ath w as e ntered t hrough a w ide , v aulted e ntranceway ( 4 .65 m etes w ide) s ituated a t t he w estern e nd o f t he s outhern p art o f t he b uilding ( a ) . T he o nly c onnection b etween t he t wo b locks o f t he B ath ( south a nd n orth) w as t hrough n arrow p assageways ( d) f rom t he l arge r ooms ( A , B , C ) t o t he c ircular r ooms ( D, D ) . S imilar c onnections e xisted ( c, c ) b etween t he l atter a nd t he r ectangular r oom ( E) . H owever , i t i s n ot c lear w hat t he c onnection w as b etween t he c ircular r ooms ( D , D ) a nd t he g roup o f r ooms ( F , C , H ) . i t i s p ossible t hat t hese r ooms , s ituated a t t he n orth-west e nd o f t he B ath c omplex ,
w ere c ut o ff f rom t he o thers,
a nd h aving t heir o wn
s eparate e ntrance ( g) , w ere u sed a s aB ath f or w omen o nly . I t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat t he p iles o f r ubble w ithin t he B ath h ave n ot a llowed a m ore e xact s tudy o f t he f unctional d ivision o f t his s tructure . H owever , T he
t he B ath e xcells i n i ts s trong a nd p leasing f orms o f c onstruction .
o uter w alls
a re m ade o f w ell
d ressed h ewn s tones w hile t he i nterior
w alls a re a m ixture o f c ement a nd s mall r ough s tones . I nside t oo , s ome p arts w ere c overed b y t hin m arble s labs ( 19) . O n a verage t he w alls a re 1 . 2 m etres
t hick .
S outh-east r eservoir ( K) ,
o f
t he
B ath
a nd w ithin
c lose
p roximity
t o i ts w as
a
w hich u ndoubtedly w as c onnected b oth t o t he b uilding a nd t o
t he a queduct ( see b elow ) .
8 0
T he P hilippopolis B ath c an b e c learly c ategorised a s aR oman b uilding s imilar ( 20) .
i n c haracter t o t he b ig B aths
i n R ome a nd a ll
a round
t he E mpire
T he f ew y ears t hat P hilip t he A rab r eigned w ere n ot e nough , h owever ,
t o a llow f or t he c ompletion o f t his s tructure .
T he A queduct
( figs. 1 54,
1 56) ( 21).
T he a queduct r eaches t he c ity f rom t he s outh-east s ide ,
c rosses t he c ity
w all i n as traight l ine a nd a pproaches t he B ath . H ere i t l ies i n r uins a nd s cholars h ave f ailed t o u nderstand e xactly h ow i t w as c ompleted i n t he v icinity o f t he B ath .
T oday ,
6 p iers s till
s tand n ear t he B ath .
T hese
w ere c onnected t o e ach o ther b y a rches w hich i n t urn s upported a n u pper s tructure . O nly o ne a rch r emains t oday c onnecting t he f irst a nd s econd p iers . T he f irst 4 p iers a re a lmost i dentical t o t heir m easurements . T hey a re s quare ( 2 .36 x 2 .48 m etres) a nd s tand 6 .20 m etres a part . T he f ifth p ier i s n early d ouble i n s ize b ecause o f t he t urn t aken b y t he a queduct a s t his p oint a t a4 5 a ngle s outh-east .
T he s ixth p ier i s o nce a gain s imilar
t o t he o ther 4 i n s ize. T he a queduct i s s trongly b uilt o f b asalt s tones w ith p rotruberances a nd s mooth m argins . C ement w as u sed b etween s tones a nd c omprised a m ixture o f c ement a nd s mall r ough s tones .
t he i nner w alls T he a queduct r an
f or a f ew k ilometres i n t he d irection o f t he m ountains o n t he s outh-eastern s ide o f P hilippopolis ( 22) .
I t h as n ever b een p roperly s tudied b ut a
c omparison b etween s ections s urveyed o utside t he c ity w alls a nd t hose f ound w ithin t he c ity ( 23) s how t hat t he f ormer w ere n ot a s w ell b uilt a s t hose w ithin t he c ity w alls.
T he T heatre ( figs.
1 54,
1 56,
T o t he s outh o f t he
1 63166) ( 24).
P hilippaeon" ,
a nd n ot f ar f rom i t,
s tands t he
T heatre o f P hilippopolis . I n g eneral, i t h as b een e xtremely w ell p reserved , a nd t he b ottom s ections a re p articularly i mpressive . I n t he s kenefrons , w hich r ises t o w hat w as a lmost i ts o riginal h eight o f 2f loors , a re 3 v aulted p assageways . T he m iddle o ne i s w ider a nd h igher t han t he o thers .
O n
b oth
n iches w hile t he
s ides
o f
t his
c entral
p assageway a re t wo s emi-circular
l ower p assageways a re f lanked b y
t wo s quare n iches .
F lanking t he s kenefrons a re t he t wo s taircase t owers , a ctually a cting a s V ersurae ( Paraskenia ) , l eading t o t he u pper f loor a nd t he r oof ( fig . 1 63) ( 25) . T he s kenefrons a lso s erved a s t he n orth w all o f t he s kene b uilding w hile t he s outh w all o f t he s kene b uilding w as a lso t he o utside w all o f t he T heatre i tself
( figs .
1 63 ,
1 64) .
T he p ulpitum ( proskenion ) w as a n arrow s trip , s lightly r aised a bove t he s emi-circular o rchestra . T he a uditorium ( cavea) c omprised t wo h orizontal s ections o f s eats . T he u pper h as c ollapsed b ut t he l ower s till r emains a lmost i n i ts e ntirety a nd i n e xcellent c ondition . T he e ntire a uditorium i s c onstructed u pon a s eries o f v aulted c orridors t wo f loors h igh . O nly -
t he e astern c orner o f t he u pper l evel, n ear t he f acade o f t he s kene , s till s tands , t he b ottom l evel i s t otally p reserved . T he s emicircular , v aulted c orridors o n b oth l evels , i nterphase w ith t he r adial, v aulted c orridors . T he i nterlacing o f t hese v aults
i s a n u nusual e xample o f a n e fficient a nd
a ttractive s olution t o a n a rchitectural p roblem w here t wo b arrel-vaults a re j oined t ogether c reating a q uite u nique t ype o f c ross-vault ( fig .
8 1
1 65) .
A s emicircular p assage w ith a h igh w all ( Praecinctio ) d ivided t he u pper c avea f rom t he l ower c avea .
I n i ts c entre ,
o pposite t he O rchestra ,
w as a
v aulted p assageway w hich l ed d irectly t o t he o utside o f t he T heatre w hile p assing b elow t he u pper c avea . O ne e ntered t he t heatre t hrough a ny o f t he 8 v aulted e ntrances ( vomitoria ) i n t he s emicircular o uter w all ( fig . 1 64) a nd t hese e ntranceways i mmediately a bove .
w ere o n t he s ame l evel a s t he P raecinctio d escribed F rom t his i t b ecomes c lear t hat t hose w ho s at o n t he
l ower c avea d escended t o t heir s eats , u pper c avea h ad t o c limb f urther u p .
w hile t hose w hose s eats w ere o n t he
T he T heatre w as w ell b uilt a nd a lthough t here s eems t o b e n o e vidence o f i t h aving b een c overed b y m arble ( as i n t he c ase o f t he B ath a nd 'hilippaeon" ) i t d oes s eem t o h ave b een p lastered a nd c olourfully p ainted ( 26) . I n s ummary , t he T heatre a lthough m odest i n s ize , i s i mpressive f or i ts b eautiful p roportions , i ts h igh s tandard o f b uilding a nd t he c lever w ay i n w hich t he a rchitectural e lements o f t he a rch a nd t he v ault h ave b een u sed ( 27).
T he T etrapylon
( figs.
1 54,
1 55,
1 67) ( 28).
T he j unction o f t he t wo m ain s treet o f P hilippopolis w as m arked b y a T etrapylon . T hree o f t he f our p edestals t hat c arried t he u pper s tructure w ere s till s een b y B utler , B runnow a nd D omaszewski , b ut t oday a re n o l onger v isible . T hese m easured : 5 . 60 x 7 .55 m etres a nd s tood 2 .60 m etres h igh . N othing r emained o f t he u pper s tructure a nd t herefore i t i s i mpossible t o r econstruct t he T etrapylon , a lthough i t s eems r easonable t o p resume t hat i t w as s imilar t o t he o ther s tructures o f t his k ind t hat w ere a c ommon s ight i n t he c ities o f S yria a nd A rabia d uring t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies ( figs . 1 68) ( 29).
T he C ity G ates
( figs.
1 54, 1 55,
7 1,
1 69171) ( 30).
F our l arge G ates , e ach w ith t hree v aulted e ntranceways , m arked t he e xits o f t he t wo m ain s treet o f P hilippopolis i n t he c ity w all . T wo s maller G ates e ach w ith o nly o ne v aulted e ntranceway m arked t he s outhern a nd n orthern e xits o f t he o ther n orth-south s treet ( fig .
1 54) .
T he f our G ates s eem t o h ave h ad i dentical p lans .
T he S outh G ate w as
p articularly w ell p reserved ( fig . 1 69-170) i ts c entral e ntranceway m easuring 4 .60 m etres w ide, a nd t he t wo s ide o nes e ach 2 .80 m etres w ide . -
T he c eilings o f t he b arrel-vaults w ere a rtificially ' lowered ' i n a ll t hree e ntrances b y s imple s tone b eams , p laced u pon t he c orner p ilasters w hich d ecorated a ll t he p assageways ( 31) . A bove e ach b eam w as a f lat a rch i ntended t o e ase t he p ressure o f t he s tone w all w hich b locked i n t he h ollow s pace l eft b etween t he b eams a nd t he t op o f t he o riginal
v aults ( fig . 1 70) .
T his a ddition b elongs t o t he o riginal s tructure a nd s eems t o h ave n o f unctional e xplanation . T he a rchitects p robably w anted t o g ive t he G ate a m ore p owerful a nd s olid a ppearance . O n t he o ther h and , t he p ilasters i n t he E ast G ate h ad C orinthian c apitals ( 32) . O n t he o utside o f t he t wo c entral p ilasters , f acing a way f rom t he c ity , w ere h alf c olumns , r esting o n h igh p iers . T hese c ould s till b e s een a t t he E ast G ate b ut h ad b een c ompletely d estroyed a t t he S outh G ate ( 33). T he G ates o f P hilippopolis w ere a lso b uilt o f t he l ocal b asalt s tones ,
8 2
w ell
d ressed a nd h ewn a nd t heir i nterior
w ere m ade o f am ixture o f c ement
a nd l ittle r ough s tones a s c ould b e s een i n o ther s tructures o f t he c ity . T he s parse a rchitectural d ecoration i ncludes h alf c olumns a nd s imple a rchitectural m ouldings . T he c apitals a re e ither C orinthian o r N abataean i n d esign , t here i s n o r elief o rnamentation a nd n o d ecorative n iches a dorned w ith s tatues o r f reestanding c olumns. T he t wo s maller G ates w ere a lso w ell c onstructed b ut t hey t oo w ere n ot o rnamented ( fig . 1 71) ( 34).
T he S tadium ( figs.
1 55,
1 56).
T he a rea m ost s uited t o t he c onstruction o f a s tadium w as i n t he s outhw est o f t he c ity , a longside t he s outh c ity w all, w est o f t he m ain n orths outh s treet a nd e ast o f t he v olcanic h ills . B utler , B runnow a nd D omaszewski n ever n oticed t his s tructure , b ut t here a re s igns o n t he a erial p hotographs o f as tadium m easuring a bout 1 80 m etres l ong a nd 6 0 m etres w ide . I t a ppears t hat t he l ong n atural d epression i n t he a rea w as f lattened a nd s uited t o t he n eeds o f as tadium ( 35).
R emains o f o ther B uildings ( fig . B utler r emarks
t hat a mong
r equire f urther s tudy ,
1 54) ( 36).
t he
r uins
o f P hilippopolis
a re
t hose w hich
b ut b ecause o f t he w idespread b uilding o f t he
l ocal
v illagers a nd b ecause o f t he m ounds o f r ubble c overing t hese m onuments , h e w as n ot a ble t o i nvestigate t hem . I t i s i mportant h owever t o n ame t hese s tructures m arked b y B utler i n o rder t o g ain a m ore c omplete v iew o f t he m ain f ocal p oints o f b uildings i n t he c ity . A l arge b lock o f s tructures s tretches o ver p art o f t he c ity c lose t o t he e ast-west m ain s treet a nd a bout 2 0 m etres n orth o f i t
( fig .
1 54 ,
A ) .
T his
a rea l ying b etween t he o ther n orth-south s treet a nd t he n orth-west c ity w all w as n amed t he " Necropolis" b y B utler ( 37) . I ndeed , a f ew b adly p reserved m onuments d iscovered h ere s eem t o s trengthen t he v iew t hat t he a rea f unctioned a s s uch . S tructure ( D) i s r ectangular i n s hape m easuring 1 2 x 2 0 m etres a nd l ooks a s i f i t w as o riginally a p yramid s haped,
s tepped
b uilding ( fig . 1 54 , D ) . N earby i s a c ircular s tructure , t hree m etres i n d iameter , w hich B utler d escribed a s b eing o f a p articularly f ine a nd h igh s tandard o f b uilding ( 38).
T he C ity P lan o f P hilippopolis T oday , a s i n t he p ast , P hilippopolis ( Shuhba) i s s ituated o n t he h ighway l eading f rom B ostra t hrough S uwayda t o D amascus . A t t his p oint t he e astern s lopes o f t he r ocky m ountain o f t he L edja m eet t he n orth-west s lopes o f t he G 'ebal D ruz r ange o f h ills ( fig . 1 53). T he c ity i tself l ies o n ar ocky , f airly f lat-topped h ill a t a n a ltitude o f 1 ,100 m etres a bove s ea l evel . T he m odern a sphalt h ighway c uts a cross t he c ity e xactly a long t he l ines o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet o f a ncient P hilippopolis . T he n ew t own i s c oncentrated a lmost e ntirely w ithin t he b orders o f t he O ld C ity , a nd o nly a f ew h ouses h ave b een c onstructed o utside, a long t he a sphalt r oad ( fig . 1 56).
8 3
O n t he n orth ,
e ast a nd
s outh
s ides
o f t he c ity t he g rounds h ave b een
f lattened a nd d ivided i nto a gricultural t racts ,
a nd i t i s o nly o n t he w est
t hat t he a rea i s r ocky . C lose t o t he w est c ity w all t here a re t wo v olcanic h ills . H ere t he t opography m ade c onstruction d ifficult a nd i ndeed t he l ine o f
t he w estern w all a t t his p oint i s n ot s traight ( compare f igs .
1 54 ,
1 55 ,
1 56).
i s
T he e ast c ity w all r uns i n as traight l ine ( about 8 00 m etres l ong) , b ut n ot p arallel t o t he l ine o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet w hich i s
c ompletely s traight f or i ts e ntire
l ength .
T he n orth c ity w all f rom t he
N orth G ate u ntil t he n orth-east c orner o f t he w all m easures 2 75 m etres . T he s ection p arallel t o i t o n t he s outh s ide r uns f or 3 50 m etres . T he a rea l ying t o t he w est o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet i s a lmost d ouble t he s ize o f t hat o n t he e astern s ide , b ut t opographically i t i s a m ore d ifficult t errain . T he s outhwest s ection o f t he c ity i s a lmost e ntirely r ocky a nd c ould n ot b e e xploited f or u rban p urposes ( fig . 1 56) . Y et t his a rea w as i ncluded i n t he c ity , a nd e ncompassed b y i ts w alls . I t w ould a ppear t hat i t w as p referable t o p rotect t he a rea w hich i n i tself w as a h igh v antage p oint , n ot f ar f rom t he c ity c entre . I n a ddition , b y n ot i ncluding t his r ocky a rea i n t he w alled c ity t he p lanners w ould h ave c reated a n i rregular s haped c ity s omething t hey u ndoubtedly d id n ot w ant t o d o . T he w est c ity w all r uns a long t he f oot o f t he t wo v olcanic h ills a nd i s n ot s traight ( fig .
1 56) .
I ts n orthern s ection
-
f rom t he n orth-west c orner
t o t he W est G ate m oves i n a s outh-westerly d irection a nd m easures 3 75 m etres l ong . T he o ther s ection r unning f rom t he W est G ate t urns e astwards a nd c ontinues f or 2 25 m etres . F rom h ere t o t he s outh-west c orner o f t he -
c ity w all ( a d istance o f 4 00 m etres) ,
t he w all t urns 3 0 i n aw esterly
d irection . B utler d oes n ot r ecord a ll t hese d irectional c hanges i n t he w all a nd p robably d id n ot n otice t hem ( fig . 1 54) . T he r eason f or t he i rregularity o f t he l ine o f t he w estern w all i s ag roup o f h ills l ying o n t he s outh-west s ide o f t he c ity o n t he o ne h and , a nd t he e astern s lopes o f t he v olcanic h ills s ituated t o t he c ity o n t he o ther h and . F or e xample , i n t he s ection o f t he w all r unning f rom t he s mall S outh G ate t o t he s outh-west c orner t he w all p rotrudes t hereby b ypassing a l arge p iece o f r ock . T his p rotruberance i s a lso n ot r ecorded i n B utler 's c ity p lan ( compare f igs . 1 54 , 1 55) . T he i nclusion o f t he r ock i n t he c ity w all w as i mportant f or d efence p urposes a s i t t hen a llowed c ontrol o ver t he a rea a round t he s mall S outh G ate ( fig . 1 55) . F rom t he m ain S outh G ate t o t he s outh-west c orner o f t he c ity , t he w all r an f rom 5 50 m etres . o f t he w alls m easured 3 ,500 m etres .
W e c an n ow s ee t hat t he c ircumference T hus t he a rea t hey e ncompassed , w hich
f ormed t he c ity o f P hilippopolis , w as a bout 8 63 ,500 s q . m etres . C ontrary t o B utler 's o pinion ,
t he t wo m ain s treet c ross a t ar ight a ngle
t o e ach o ther a nd d ivide t he c ity i nto f our b locks n ot e qual i n s ize ( compare f igs . 1 54 , 1 55) . B utler a lso n oticed t he o ther s treet c utting t hrough t he c ity f rom n orth t o s outh . I t i s n ot p arallel t o t he m ain n orth-south s treet a nd r uns w est o f i t . T his s treet m oves i n a s traight l ine f rom t he n orth t o t he g roup o f r ocks i n t he s outh-west o f t he c ity . H ere i t c ircles t hem o n t heir e ast s ide a nd f inally e nds a t aG ate w ith a s ingle v aulted e ntranceway ( compare f igs . 1 54 , 1 55) . A s imilar G ate s tood a t t he n orthern e nd o f t his s treet ( fig . 1 71) . O n ac loser s tudy o f t he a erial p hotograph o f t he c ity o ur a ttention w as c aught b y a f ew m ore s treet i n t he c ity w hich h elp t o c omplete t he p icture o f as treet n etwork a lready r ecorded b y B utler : A nother n orth-south s treet c rossing t he c ity w est o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet . H ere i t m ay b e
8 4
n oticed t hat t he n orthern s ection o f t his s treet ( until i t r eaches t he m ain e ast-west s treet) i s n ot p arallel t o t he m ain n orth-south s treet , w hile t he s outhern s ection d oes r un p arallel t o i t . T he s treet e nded a t t he F orum . A t b oth i ts e nds , c lose t o t he c ity w all t he l ine o f t he s treet i s n ot q uite c lear ( fig . 1 55) . T he r eason f or t he s light t urn o f t his s treet t o t he w est p robably l ies i n t he l ay o f t he l and , b ut w e h ave n o w ay o f c onfirming t his
s upposition . Y et a nother t wo s treets r un e ast o f a nd p arallel t o t he m ain n orth-south
s treet b ut o nly s mall p arts o f t hese a re c lear a s m ost o f t he s ections n ear t he n orth a nd s outh w alls h ave d isappeared u nder a griculturally w orked l ands a nd n ew s tructures. T here a re c lear s igns o f m ore s treets r unning p arallel t o t he m ain e astw est s treet , w hile t o t he n orth o f t he m ain s treet t he m iddle s ections o f t wo s treets a re n oticeable . A ll o f t hese f orm t he s treet n etwork i n t he n orthern r egion o f P hilippopolis . S outh o f a nd p arallel t o t he m ain e astw est s treet i s a s treet w hich r uns a cross t he b readth o f t he c ity i n aw ay s imilar t o t hat o f t he f ormer . I t c an b e c learly f ollowed r unning s outh o f t he T heatre a nd t he B ath a nd o nly t he s ections n ear t he c ity w alls a re n ot c lear . T here
a re
s igns
o f
s till
t hree m ore s hort
s treet m oving
i n a n e ast-
w esterly d irection a nd c onnecting t he m ain n orth-south s treet t o t he o ne r unning p arallel t o i t o n t he w est . O nly t he n orthern o f t hese t hree s treet i s c lear e nough t o b e t raced , t he o thers a re n ot a s o bvious ( fig . 1 55 ) A lthough t he a bove d escription o f P hilippopolis ' s treet n etwork i s n ot , a nd n ever w ill b e a ccurate u ntil f ull s cale e xcavations a re c onducted i n t he a rea , c ertain c onclusions m ay s till b e r eached . P hilippopolis w as a c ity b uilt o n t he p rinciple o f t wo m ain s treets i ntersecting a t a r ight a ngle , n ear t he c entre o f
t he c ity ,
a nd s urrounded b y a n etwork o f m inor s treet
w hich t ogether f orm t he p lanned s treet g rid o f t he c ity . M any c ities o f t his k ind w ere e stablished b y t he R omans a s s ettlements t hroughout t he E mpire f rom t he b eginning o f t he 2 nd c entury B .C . o nwards . P hilippopolis , s et u p i n t he m iddle o f t he 3 rd c entury C .E . , i s a n e xample o f o ne o f t he l atest c ities o f t his k ind . T he s hape a nd s ize o f t he c ity ( a s quare m easuring a bout 7 50 x 8 00 m etres ; t he i nsulae 1 00 x 1 30 m etres i . e . t he m easurements o f t wo a ctus) i s t ypical o f m any o f t he R oman c ities c onstructed p articularly d uring a nd a fter t he P rincipat P eriod . I t i s n ot d ifficult , t herefore , t o s ee w here t he c ity p lan o f P hilip t he A rab a nd h is a rchitects o riginated . O ne h as o nly t o l ook a t t he s ituation o f s tructures s uch a s t he F orum , t he T heatre a nd t he l ayout o f t he s treet n etwork i n o ther c ities s uch a s T urin , V erona , A osta , L ucca a nd C omo , t o r ealise t hat t here w ere m any e xamples o f t his k ind o f c ity-planning i n t he R oman w orld ( 39) . I t
i s
i n t his w ay
t hat
t he
c ity o f P hilippopolis d iffered i n e ssence
f rom a ll t he o ther c ities c onstructed i n P rovincia A rabia . T he t wo m ain s treets , a s r ecorded b y B utler , w ere l ined b y c olonnades ( fig . 1 54) b ut i t i s i mpossible t o c heck w hether t hey l ined t he o ther s treets t oo ( 40) . T he j unction o f t he t wo m ain s treets w as m arked b y a T etrapylon ( fig . 1 67) w hich n o l onger r emains . I n i ts p lace t oday i s a s mall t own s quare . T he s treet p aving s tones , s till s een b y B utler , h ave d isappeared
b eneath m ounds
o f
r efuse
8 5
o r
a sphalted
r oads
( 41) .
T he
v illagers '
h ouses
h ave b een c onstructed u pon t he
r uins
o f
b uildings m ost o f w hich h ave b een c ompletely c overed . t hat t he b drders o f R oman P hilippopolis .
I t
t he O ld C ity 's m ust b e n oted
2 0th c entury S huhba a re a lmost i dentical
t o t hose o f
T he r uins o f t he g roup o f b uildings t hat m ade u p t he P alace a re t oday a lso i n t he h eart o f t he t own . W e b elieve t hat t he F orum w as s ituated i n t he m iddle o f t he c ity , b ordered i n t he n orth b y t he m ain e ast-west s treet , i n t he s outh b y t he ' Philippaeon" a nd t he T heatre , b y t he P alace i n t he w est a nd b y a l arge p ublic s tructure ( maybe t he B asilica) i n t he e ast ( fig . 1 54) . T he F orum i n t he n orth , w as s urrounded b y a p ortico w hich w as p art o f t he c olonnade o f
t he m ain e ast-west s treet .
t o a nother p ortico w ere f ound F orum i n o n t his
s ide .
S imilar c olumns p erhaps b elonging
i n t he e ast
O pposite t he
a nd
b uilding
t hese
p robably c losed
( B) w hich w as p art
o f
t he t he
P alace c omplex o n t he w est w as p ossibly y et a nother p ortico ( 42) . I n S huhba t oday t he a rea w hich h oused t he F orum i s t he m ain c ity p laza ( fig . 1 56) . T he S heikh o f t he v illage h as b uilt h is h ouse o n t op o f s ome o f t he P alace r uins a nd t his o nce a gain s hows t he c ontinuation o f d ivision o f t he R oman c ity . A l arge s ection o f t he c ity,
t he f unctional
s outh o f t he B ath a nd e ast o f t he m ain
n orth-south s treet i s m ainly e mpty a nd u ninhabited . O nly a f ew h ouses s tand a longside t he a sphalt r oad w hich r uns i n b etween a gricultural l ands . T he a queduct , w hich e ven t oday i s e asily r ecognizable , r uns t hrough t hese l ands a nd B utler b elieved t hat t his a rea w as s et a side s pecifically a s a p ublic g ardens a nd w as n ever b uilt u p . ( fig . 1 54) . I t i s d ifficult t o k now w hether t his t heory i s c orrect o r n ot . I t i s e ntirely p ossible t hat a p lanned c ity l ike P hilippopolis e njoyed t he l uxury o f s uch o pen a reas a nd g ardens . O n t he o ther h and , i t i s a lso p ossible t hat p lans f or b uildings d id e xist b ut b ecause o f t he d istance f rom t he c ity c entre , t his w as o ne o f t he a reas ( like o thers i n t he c ity) t hat w as e ventually n ever c ompleted . ( see f ig . 1 55 t he d otted a reas m ark t he s ections o f t he c ity s uitable f or -
b uilding b ut n ever e xploited) . I t s eems a s i f t he m ost b uilt u p a reas w ere i n t he f our i nsulae a round t he F orum a nd i n t he t wo i nsulae e ast o f t he T etrapylon ( fig . 1 55) . O f
t he 8 63 ,500 s q .
o f t he e ntire a rea ,
m etres i n t he c ity o nly 1 87 ,500 s q . m etres ,
w as e xploited f or u rban b uilding .
A
g la nce
i .e . a t
a
2 5% m ap
s hows t hat t his i s a t ypical R oman p lan t o b e s een i n t he E mpire p articularly d uring t he i st a nd 2 nd c enturies C .E . T he f oundations o f P hilippopolis h owever , i s d ifferent , a s o nly a f ew c ities l ike t his w ere b uilt d uring t he 3 rd c entury C .E . ( 43) . I n t he d ays o f P hilip t he A rab t he f ounding o f a c ity w as , i n i tself , a n e xceptional e vent a nd t his t herefore a ttracted t he a ttention o f t he R oman h istorians ( 44) . I t w ould s eem t hat P hilip t he A rab h ad p ersonal a nd d ynastic r easons f or e recting t he c ity o f P hilippopolis ( 45). I n t he h istory o f u rban d evelopment i n t he R oman E mpire ,
P hilippopolis
f ulfills a s pecial r ole . I t w as a c ity e stablished i n A rabia b y a r uler w ho o riginated i n t he E ast . B ut i t t ook o n a t otally W estern , R oman c haracter i n i ts d esign a nd p lan . O n t he o ther h and , i t w as r are f or t he R omans , w ho g enerally h ad v ery p ragmatic r easons f or e stablishing t heir c ities , t he
t o b uild a n ew c ity a nd n ame i t a fter a s pecific p erson .
e xceptions
t o
t his
O ne o f
r ule w as H adrian w ho f ounded a c ity i n E gypt
a nd
c alled i n A ntinoopolis a fter h is c lose f riend . T herefore , t his a ct o f P hilip t he A rab , o f n aming t he c ity a fter h imself , i s o ne m ore s uited t o t he H ellenistic-Eastern t radition t han t o t he W estern R oman o ne.
8 6
W hat s tatus d id P hilippopolis e njoy? W as i t m eant t o h ave b een t he E mperor 's c apital? O r p erhaps h is p rivate c ity? M aybe h e i ntended i t t o s erve a s a m emorial t o h imself? ( 46) . T he " Philippaeon" w hich s eems t o h ave b een a f amily M ausoleum m ight p artially a nswer s ome q uestions . H ere t he a shes o f P hilip a nd h is f amily w ere i nterred a s t hey w ere i n t he M ausoleums o f A ugustus a nd H adrian a nd t heir h eirs .
I f w e
c onsider t hat
t he c ity s erved a s as ymbolic c apital f or t he E mperor d uring t his r eign a nd a s h is
p lace
c haracter .
o f b urial
t hereafter ,
w e c an u nderstand
i ts m onumental
T he p lanners a nd b uilders e ndowed t his p rovincial c ity w ith t he
b est o f R oman I mperial a rchitecture . B ut i s w as a c ity b uilt a t t he c ommand o f t he E mperor , p lanned i n a n e mpty a rea , w ith l ittle c oncern f or t he f uture o f i ts i nhabitants . T he g eneral i mpression o ne g ets i s o f a c ertain a rtificiality o f b uildings w hich d o n ot q uite s uit t heir s urroundings . T here a re e mpty t racts o f l and a nd s ections t hat w ere n ever c ompleted . T he a rchitectural d ecoration i s p oor w hen c ompared t o t he s tandard o f c onstruction a nd t he s olutions f ound t o a rchitectural p roblems . A ll t hese p henomena m ight b e a s ign o f t he d ecline o f C lassical T own-Plann ing a nd A rchitecture . W hile t he t echnical a nd o perational s tandards w ere s till v ery h igh , l ess a ttention w as p aid t o f ine a rt w ork a nd o rnamentation w hich i n f act a re v irtually n on-existant ( 47) . P hilippopolis i s f ar m ore s im ilar i n p lan t o t he R oman c ities o f E urope t han t o t hose e stablished i n A rabia ( 48) . I t w as a c ity t hat e xisted o nly o ver a s hort p eriod a nd w as n ot p receded o r f ollowed b y o ther m ajor c ities. P hilip R ome .
t he A rab w as
n ever w idely m entioned
a mong
t he h istorians
o f
H e r ose t o p ower w ith t he s upport o f t he L egions a fter t he m urder o f
h is p redecessor , G ordian t he T hird ( in t he y ear 2 44 C .E .) a nd d isappeared f rom t he a rena o f h istory a fter a s hort a nd u neventful r eign , m urdered i n I taly b y t he v ery s ame L egions w ho h ad s upported h im 5 y ears p reviously . T he r uins o f P hilippoplis t ogether w ith t he f ew w ords w ritten a bout h im b y h istorians o f t he t ime a re t he o nly e vidence o f t he r ule a nd d eeds o f t he E mperor P hilip t he A rab .
8 7
N OTES I a . W ith r eference t o t he r eign o f t he P hilip t he A rab , s ee : E . G ibbon , T he H istory o f t he D ecline a nd F all o f t he R oman E mpire , L ondon , l b .
1 926 ,
p p .
2 08-209 ,
2 56 .
O nly a f ew h istorical
t he A rab r eigned,
s ources m ention t he p eriod d uring w hich P hilip
s ee :
S extus A urelius V ictor , D e C aeseribus, 2 8, B .G . T eubneri, 1 911. " Igitur M arcus J ulius P hilippus a rabs T raconites, s umpto i n c onsortium P hilippo f ilio , r ebus a d O rientem c ompositis c onditoque a pud A rabiam . ." P hilippopoli O pida R omam v enere. i c.
T he
c ity P hilippopolis
P . T homsen , L oca S ancta , P hilippopolis , c ol . 2 263 .
i s
a lso m entioned
H alle,
1 907,
i n
13 . 1
p .
l ater s ources , E .
H onigman ,
s ee : R .E .
s .v .
I d . N umismatic m aterial u ncovered p rovides f urther i nformation c oncerning t he d ates a nd s tatus o f t his c ity . I t a llows u s t o c orrectly d ate i ts f oundation a s w ell a s i ts e nd , a s n o m ore c oins w ere p roduced a fter t he d eath o f P hilip i n t he y ear 2 49 C .E . S ee : G .F . H ill, C atalogue o f t he G reek C oins o f A rabia , M esopotamia a nd P ersia , L ondon, 1 922, p . X LI, p p . 4 2-43, P l. V I 1 4-17. A . S pijkerman , T he C oins o f t he D ecapolis a nd P rovincia A rabia . F ranciscan p . 2 58-261) . P rinting P ress , J erusalem , 1 978 . ( Philippopolis , p 2 . A n i nscription d iscovered a mong t he r uins o f t he c ity b ears w itness t o a s mall C hristian s ettlement t here . I t d ates t o t he y ear 5 52 C .E . a nd m entions t he e xistence o f ac hurch i n t he c ity .
S ee :
W . K elly P rentice, P .U .A .E .S . , G reek a nd L atin I nscriptions, p p . 3 14-315, ( inscr . 4 03) . 3 .
U .J .
S eetzen , R eisen d urch S yrien , P alastina , P honician d ie T ransjordan A rabia P etraea u nd U nter-Aegypten I , B erlin , 1 854-1855 , p . 8 9 . B urckhardt , T ravels i n S yria a nd t he H oly L and , L ondon , 1 822 , pp. 7 0-
-L ander , J .L . 7 4.
L . D e L aborde , V oyage d e l a S yrie, P aris,
1 830 , p . 5 8.
G . R obinson , T ravels i n P alestine a nd S yria I I , L ondon ,
1 837,
p .
1 48 f f .
J .L . P orter , F ive Y ears i n D amascus I I , L ondon , 1 855 , p p . 7 2-80 . E .G . R ey , V oyage d ans l e H auran e t a ux b ords d e l a m er Morte .
E xecute
) ‚ p p . 9 1-94 , P l . I V ( Atlas) . p endant l es a nnes 1 857-1858 , P aris ( H .C . B utler , P .U .A .E .S ., P art I I: A rchitecture a nd O ther A rts, N ew Y ork , 1 903 , p p . 3 76-396 . R .E . p . p
B runnow , 1 45-179 .
A .V .
D omaszewski ,
D ie P rovincia A rabia I II ,
S trassburg ,
P . C oupel, E . F rezouls , L e T heatre d e P hilippopolis e n A rabie , G .
A mer ,
M .
G awlikowski,
D amaszener M itteilungen I I , 5 .
" Le
s anctuaire
( 1985) . ,
p . p
1 -15 .
H .C . B utler , p p . 3 78-380.
R .E. B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski, p p .
1 62-163.
8 8
i mperial
d e
P aris ,
1 909 , 1 956 .
P hilippopolis" ,
6 .
H .C . B utler ,
p .
3 79.
D uring t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies C .E . r itual s tructures w ere b uilt w hich d id n ot c onform w ith t he c lassical a rchitectural p rinciple o f a r ound o r r ectangular c elia . T hese a re c ommonly k nown a s b elonging t o t he " Baroque" s tyle . I t i s t herefore p ossible t hat t he T emple o f P hilippopolis w as n ot a n e xception a s B utler b elieved i t t o b e . S ee f or e xample t he T emple o f V enus a t B aalbek ( Heliopolis) ( fig . 1 58) w hich i s a lso f rom t he 3 rd c entury C .E . A . B oethius, J . W ard-Perkins, E truscan a nd R oman A rchitecture, P enguin 4 21-422 , f ig . 1 57 . B ooks , 1 970 , pp. D . K rencker , B aalbeck I I , B erklin , 1 923 , ( Der R undtempel) , pp. 9 0-119 . S ee f urther e xample T emple ' ! P" i n S ide , A sia M inor ( fig . 1 59) . A . B oethius, J . W ard-Perkins , o p . c it ., p . 4 08 , f ig . 1 55 ( c) . A .M . Mansel, D ie R uinen v on S ide , B erlin , 1 963, pp. 8 6-90, f ig . 6 9 . -
c hapter 5 , 7 .
S ee
p .
H .C . B utler ,
p p .
3 80-382.
R .E . B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski,
p . p
1 67.
T he G erman s cholars p refer n ot t o c all t his s tructure t he ' Philippaeon" b ut i nstead c all i t t he " Square T emple" ( Viereckiger T empel) . 8 . 9 .
S ee a ppendix t o c hapter 4 , T his
s ystem
o f
b uilding
p. p
9 7-100.
s taircase
r ooms
i s
t ypical
o f
r eligious
a rchitecture i n A rabia a nd o riginates w ith t he N abataeans . I t i s b ased o n t he d oubling u p o f o ne o f t he c elia w alls a nd t he c onstruction o f an arrow s taircase a scending a t as teep a ngle t o t he s econd f loor o r t he r oof . T his e liminates v ery l ittle s pace f rom t he a rea o f t he c elia i tself . T he c losest e xample t o t his s taircase m ay b e s een i n t he T emple o f Z eus a t K anawat a nd i n t he T emple o f Q asr-Bint-Far 'un a t P etra , s ee : a ) W ith r eference t o t he T emple o f Z eus a t K anawat , s ee : H .C . B utler , P .U .A .E .S . I I A rchitecture a nd O ther A rts, pp. 3 51-354, f ig . 1 24. R . A my , " lemple a E scaliers" , S YRIA X XVII , ( 1950) , p p . 9 4-95 , b ) W ith r eference t o t he T emple o f Q asr-Bint-Far 'un , s ee : G .R .H . W right , " Structure o f t he Q asr-Bint-Far 'un . 1 1-14, f ig .s 2 -5 . P .E .Q . 1 93 ( 1961) , pp. R . A my, o p .cit., pp. 1 08109, f ig . 2 3.
f igs .
A P reliminary
1-12 . R eport" ,
S ee a lso c hapter 2 , n ote 2 5. 1 0 . S imilar m ausoleums w ere v ery c ommon d uring t he H ellenistic a s w ell a s d uring t he R oman P eriod , t hroughout t he C lassical W orld a nd m ay b e s een i n I taly , A sia M inor , N orth A frica a nd S yria . A )
S yria a nd A rabia
I t w as h ere t hat t he u se o f m ausoleums w ith p yramidal s haped r oofs w as m ost c ommon . T hey d ated f rom t he i st c entury B .C .E . r ight t hrough t o t he 5 th c entury C .E . T ens o f s uch b urial p laces w ith t heir s loping o r s tepped r oofs h ave b een u ncovered i n S yria a nd A rabia : I )
T he H amrath T omb i n S yria ( ist c entury B .C .) ,
s ee :
3 24-326. H .C . B utler , A rchitecture a nd O ther A rts, pp. 2 9-31, P l. I . N . d e V ogue , S yrie C entrale , pp. I) A R oman T omb a t D ana ( 3rd c entury C .E.) s ee : H .C . B utler , o p .cit., p p . 7 3-74. M . d e V ogue, o p.cit., P l. 9 3.
8 9
I II)
T he C assianos T omb ,
H .C . B utler , o p.cit., p . I V)
T he M ausoleum a t I l-Barah ( 5th c entury C .E.), s ee :
H .C . B ulter , o p.cit., p p . B )
( 398 C .E.), i n D ivonya , s ee : 1 09 .
1 59.
P alestine
T he T omb o f Z acharia i n t he K idron V alley i s a lso a f ine e xample o f t hese s tructures a nd h as a s mooth , p yramid s haped r oof , s ee : N . A vigad , A ncient M onuments i n t he K idron V alley , J erusalem ,
1 954 ,
p p .
7 9-
8 9 ( Hebrew) . C )
A sia M inor
I )
T he " Lions M ausoleum" i n K nidos n ear H alikarnassos h ad a s tepped
p yramidal r oof , s ee : A .W . L awrence , G reek A rchitecture , I I)
T he " Roman T omb" a t M illesa ,
P enguin B ooks ,
1 967 ,
s outh-east o f M iletus ,
p .
1 96 ,
f ig .
1 08 .
a lso h as a s tepped
p yramidal r oof s ee : H .E .
B ean ,
T urkey b eyond t he M enander ,
D ) I taly A mong t he T ombs
s pread o ut a long
L ondon ,
1 971,
p .
4 3 ,
t he V ia A ppia a re a lso
P l . 5 .
a f ew s haped a s
p yramids , s ee : L . G rema , E .C. ( Monumenti f unerari), p p . 4 84-506, f ig . 6 36. E ) I .
N orth A frica T he H aidra M ausoleum i n T unisia , s ee :
L . C rema, E .C., I I.
p .
5 03, f ig . 6 45.
T he M ausoleum a t M actan s i n T unisia , s ee :
L . C rema , E .C.,
p .
5 03, f ig . 6 52.
1)
S ee a ppendix t o c hapter 4 , i nscriptions 3 96, 3 97.
1 2)
H .C . B utler ,
p .
1 3)
H .C . B utler ,
p p .
3 81. 3 82-384.
E . B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski, p p . 1 4)
T he v ault ,
1 64167.
p hotographed b y B runnow a nd D omaszewski s till r emains i n
i ts o rignal p osition a nd t he m ain s treet o f t he t own p asses b eneath i t . 1 5)
B utler n ames B uilding B i n t he P alace a " Kalybe" ,
c laiming t hat M .de
V ogue w as t he f irst t o g ive i t t his n ame s ee : M . d e V ogue , S yrie C entrale, p p . 4 1-43, P l. 6 . T he F rench s cholar u ncovered a n umber o f i nscriptions w here t he n ame " Kalybe" a ppeared , a lways t ogether w ith t he w ord ' sacred ' . F rom t his h e s urmised t hat t his s tructure h ad a r eligious f unction . B ulter s ees B uilding B i n t he P alace a s b eing a n o pen r itual p lace , s ee c hapter 3 , p . 5 6 , n ote 3 4. 1 6 .
O nly a s mall
s ection o f t he P alace a t P hilippopolis h as b een s tudied
a nd t herefore i t i s d ifficult t o j udge i ts s ize o r t he a rea i t e ncompassed . H owever , f rom B utler 's p lan i t i s p ossible t o s ee t hat t his w as a v ery
9 0
s pecial s tructure w ith a p articularly u nusual s hape .
T he v ault u nder w hich
t he m ain s treet r an i s o f p articular i nterest a s w e h ave b een u nable t o f ind ap arallel t o i t i n R oman a rchitecture . As tructure t hat m ay b e v aguely r eminiscent o f t his b uilding c an b e s een i n S hakka , an eighbouring t own o f P hilippolis , s ee : H .C . B utler , A rchitecture a nd O ther A rts, p p. 3 70-375, f ig . B utler d ates t he S hakka P alace t o t he 3 rd c entury C .E. 1 7.
H .C . B utler , p p . 3 84-389.
R .E.
B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski, p p .
1 29.
1 55-160.
1 8 . A c omprehensive d iscussion c oncerning t he c haracter a nd s ituations o f t he s taircase r ooms , s ee c hapter 2 , n ote 2 5 . 1 9. 2 0 .
H .C . B utler , A lthough
p .
w e
3 89. h ave
n ot
f ound
a n
e xact
p arallel
t o
t he
B ath
i n
P hilippopolis, t here w ere m any B ath c omplexes i n t he R oman E mpire , d ating t o t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies C .E . , w hose p lans w ere o f as imilar n ature . a ) T he T itus B ath i n R ome f rom t he i st c entury C .E . , s ee : L . C re n ia , E .C.,
( Krencker , K aiserthermen), p . 2 87, f ig. 3 26.
b ) Hadrian 's B ath a t L eptis-Magna i s s imilar b ut P hilippopolis , s ee : L . C rema , E .C.,
l arger t han t hat o f
4 09, f ig. 5 02.
p .
c ) T he B ath a t T rier i n G ermany a nd t hat i n L ambaesis i n N orth A frica b oth d ate t o t he 3 rd c entury C .E . a nd h ave s imilar p lans t o t hat o f P hilippopolis , s ee : L . C reme , E .C ., p p . 5 86-594, f igs. 2 1.
H .C . B utler , p p . 3 89-390.
R .E. B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski, p p . 2 . 2
7 81, 7 84.
1 51,
1 55.
Even t he a erial p hotographs a nd t he m ap o f m odern d ay S huhba ( 1 :50 :000)
d o n ot s how t he b eginning o f t he a queduct . 2 3.
H .C . B utler , p p . 3 90.
2 4.
H .C . B utler , p p . 3 90-392.
R .E. B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski, p p.
1 69-177.
P . C oupel , E . F rezouls , L e T heatre d e P hilippopolis e n A rabie , P aris , E . F rezouls, " Les ( Philippopolis , p p .
T heatres 6 9-79) .
T he F rench s cholars p oint
Out
R omaines
d e
S yrie" ,
A .A .S.
I I
1 956 .
( 1952),
t hat t he T heatre a t P hilippopolis i s t he
l atest k nown a mong a ll t he t heatres d iscovered s o f ar i n S yria , A rabia a nd P alestine . 2 5 .
S ee n ote 1 8.
2 6 .
H .C . B ulter , p . 3 92.
2 7 . W ith r eference t o t he p osition o f t he T heatre w ithin t he u rban c omplex o f A rabian c ities , 5 , p p . 1 06-107 .
s ee d iscussion c hapter 2 , n otes 2 7 ,
9 1
2 9 .
S ee a lso c hapter
2 8 .
H .C . B utler, p . 3 93.
R .E. B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski, p p. 1 60161. 2 9 .
T he T etrapylon w as a w idespread u rban f eature i n t he R oman c ities o f
t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies C .E . P hilipppopolis
a re
P almyra . a ) W ith r eference
t he t o
T he t wo m ost s imilar i n d esign t o t hat
S outh T etrapylon
i n G erasa
t he T etrapylon i n G erasa ,
n otes 4 9-52 . b ) W ith r eference t o t he T etrapylon i n P almyra ,
a nd
s ee c hapter 2 ,
p p .
( 1966) ,
S ee a lso c hapter 5 , p .
p p .
S tudia
4 6-58 .
1 06 ( fig .
1 68).
3 0. H .C . B utler p p. 3 93-395. R .E. B runnow , A .v . D omaszeski , p p. 3 1.
2 5-26 ,
s ee :
T h . W iegand, P almyra B erlin , 1 932, p p . 2 0-21, f igs. 2 4-25. A . 0 strasz, " Etudes s ur l a r estauration d u G rand T etrapyle" , P al t nyrenskie I ,
i n
t he T etrapylon i n
1 47-150.
T he c eiling o f t he W est G ate o f B ostra w as " lowered" i n as imilar
m anner , 3 2 . G ate ,
s ee
c hapter 3 ,
p . 5 3(figs .
15-117) .
A lthough B utler d oes n ot m ention t he N abataean c apitals i n t he S outh t hese a re q uite c lear b oth f rom t he p hotographs o f B runnow a nd
D omaszeski a s w ell a s f rom t he p lan o f t he G ate ( see f ig . 1 70) . I f w e r ule o ut t hese b eing u sed f or t he s econd t ime t hen t heir a ppearance i n t he 3 rd c entury C .E . i s v ery u nusual . I f , h owever , t hey a re i n s econd u se i t w ould t hen a ppear t hat a s ettlement w ith N abataean t raditions e xisted o n t his s pot p rior t o t he f oundation o f P hilippopolis , a s m ay b e s een i n o ther t owns i n t he a rea . C learly t his s ingle d iscovery d oes n o a llow u s t o b uild a t heory o r s tate a d efinite f act . H owever , t he a ppearance o f N abataean n ames i n t he i nscriptions u ncovered i n t he c ity ( see a ppendix t o c hapter 4 , i nscription 3 95, 4 01a), a nd t he d iscovery o f a n i nscription f rom t he e nd o f t he 2 nd c entury C .E . ( see a ppendix t o c hapter 4 , i nscription 3 92) , t ogether w ith t he a bove m entioned c apitals, a ll p oint t o t he p ossibility o f a n e arlier N abataean s ettlement o r s anctuary w hich m ight h ave p receded P hilippopolis . 3 3.
H .C . B utler , p . 3 94, s ee p hotograph o n p . 3 94.
3 4.
H .C . B utler ,
3 5 .
P hilippopolis e njoyed a v ery s pecial s tatus a s ac ity a nd t herefore i t
p .
3 95 .
i s n ot s urprising t o f ind t hat i t a lso h ad a s tadium , u ncovered o nly i n af ew c ities o f S yria a nd A rabia .
which h ave b een
S ee c hapter 2 , n ote 4 0. S ee c hapter 3 , n ote 5 3. 3 6.
H .C . B utler,
3 7.
R .E. B runnow , A .v . D omaszewski, p .
H .C . B utler ,
p p .
p .
3 95. 1 78.
3 95-396. 3 96.
3 8 .
H .C . B utler ,
3 9 .
A mong t he t ens o f R oman c ities b uilt
p .
i n t he R oman E mpire b etween t he
3 rd c entury B .C . a nd 3 rd c entury C .E . , t here a re m any s imilar i n s ize , p lan a nd w ith t he s ame f unctional d ivision a s t hat f ound i n P hilippopolis , s ee : A osta ( Augusta P raetoria), I taly ( see. f ig .
9 2
1 74)
C omo ( Comu i n), I taly ( see f ig .
1 76)
V erona , I taly ( see f ig . 1 73) L uca ( Lucca), I taly, ( see f ig .
1 75).
T urin , I taly ( see f ig . 1 72). W ith r eference t o t he h istory a nd t own p lanning o f t hese c ities , J .B .
W ard-Perkins,
C ities o f A ncient G reece
a nd
I taly:
s ee :
Planning
i n
C lassical A ntiquity , N ew Y ork , 1 974 . F . C astognoli , O rthogonal T own-planning i n A ntiquity , M .I .T . , 1 971 . I n t his s tudy t he I talian s cholar d ivides t he R oman c ities i nto 4 m ain t ypes: a ) C ities w here t he p lans w ere i nfluenced b y t he H ippodamian t radition . b )
C ities w here t he p lans a re b ased o n t wo m ain a xis m eeting a t r ight
a ngles i n t he c ity-centre . c ) C ities i nfluenced b y t he c amp p lan ,
b ut w hose m ain a xis d o n ot m eet i n
t he c ity-centre . d ) C amp-cities w ith p lans s imilar t o t he R oman c amps . E ven i f t his d ivision i s t oo m echanical a nd c lear-cut, ( see c hapter 3 , d iscussion o n B ostra c ity p lan , n ote 7 2) i t w ould a ppear t hat P hilippopolis , t ogether w ith t hose c ities m entioned a bove ,
c learly
b elongs
t o t he
t hird
t ype d escribed . T he c ity p lan o f P hilippopolis i s b ased o n t wo s traight m ain a xis m eeting a t r ight a ngles, n ot i n t he c entre o f t he c ity , b ut i nstead f urther n orth . T he
c ity b oundaries
-
w ith t he f our s lightly o ff-centered m ain g ates
s ituated i n t he f our w alls s uit t he c amp p lan . I n g eneral t he c ity p lan i s t he r esult o f t he R oman t own p lanning t radition o f a f ew h undred y ears , b ut w ith t he a ddition o f s ome u nusual s olutions t o a rchitectural p roblems -
w hich s how t he f lexibility o f t he p lanners o f t hat p eriod t o m old t he s chematic c amp p lan t o s uit t he t opographic c onditions t hat t hey f aced . 4 0.
H .C . B utler , p . 3 77.
4 1 .
I t
i s d ifficult t o a ccept B utler 's s tatement t hat t he m ain s treets o f
P hilippopolis w ere p robably b etween 9 -10 m etres w ide . w idth o f
t he p assageways
o f
I f w e m easure
t he
t he t wo m ain g ates w e f ind t hat t he m ain
e ntrance m easured 4 . 20 m etres i n w idth a nd t he s ide o nes b oth m easured 2 .62 m etes . T herefore i t w ould a ppear t hat t he m ain s treet p robably m easured a bout
1
m etres
i n w idth a nd m aybe e ven
1 9 m etres
i f w e
i nclude t he
t wo
p avements. C ompare t his t o t he w idth o f m ain s treets i n o ther c ities i n A rabia : S treet W idth P hiladelphia
8 .40 m '
G erasa
1 0.5 m '
B ostra P hilippopolis
4 2.
P avement w idth
T otal
? ' 1.0 m
8 .0 m '
1.0 m ' 1
' 1.0 m
8 .0
i n'
2 1.5 m ' 1 9 .0 i n ' 1 9.0 m '
H .C . B utler , p p . 3 82-383.
4 3 . T here w ere a f ew c ases i n t he 4 th c entury C .E . w here R oman c ities i n t he E ast w ere g iven s pecial s tatus o r r ights . T hese w ere p robably n ot d ecrees t o a ctually e stablish a c ity . T he E mperor D iocletian c alls s ettlement S hakka , s ituated i n t he H auran , b y t he n ame M aximianopolis :
9 3
t he
S ee : A .H .M . J ones , 2 86-287. 4 4.
T he C ities o f t he E astern R oman P rovinces ,
O xford ,
1 937 ,
p p .
S ee n ote 1 .
4 5 . P rof . M . A vi-Yonah 's r emark t hat P hilip t he A rab w as a ctually b orn i n S huhba w hich i s t he n ame o f t he A rab t own t oday a nd w hich h e a lso b elieves w as t he n ame o f t he p re-Roman c ity , c ould e asily e xplain w hy h e c hose t o e stablish t he c ity w ith i ts f amily m ausoleum i n t his p articular s pot . H owever , t here i s n o d efinite b ase f or t his a nd a lthough R oman h istorians s tate t hat P hilip t he A rab w as b orn i n A rabia , w here , ( see n ote i c) , s ee :
t hey d o n ot s epecify e xactly
M . Avi-Yonah , T he H oly L and f rom t he P ersian P eriod t o t he A rab C onquest , B aker B ook H ouse , M ichigan , 1 966 , p . 1 77 . 4 6 .
P erhaps P hilip t he A rab i ntended e stablishing a c ity s imilar t o t he o ne
f ounded b y
t he E mperor D iocletian d uring
t he 4 th
c entury
C .E .
i n S palato
( today S plit i n Y ugoslavia) a long t he D almatian c oast . T his c ity w as b ased o n t he c amp p lan , a nd h oused t he E mperor 's p alace , o ther s ervice b uildings a nd i n p articular t he E mperor 's Mausoleum v ery " Philippaeon" , s ee : G . N iemann , D er P alast D iokletians i n S palato , W ien , 1 910 . Y . M arasovic, D er D iokietianspalast, Z agreb , 1 968. -
G . M cNally , 3 0-39. 4 7 .
H .C .
' Digging
B utler ,
s imilar
i n D iocletian 's P alace" , E XPEDITION 1 5,
A rchitecture a nd O ther A rts ,
p p .
( 3 ) ,
t o
t he
1 973 ,
p p .
3 69-370 .
P . C oupel, E . F rezouls , L e T heatre d e P hilippopolis e n A rabie ,
p . p
1 22-126 .
A nother w ord m ay b e a dded a s t o t he r eason f or t he p oor a rchitectural d ecorations f ound i n t he c ity . P hilippopolis w as e stablished a s t he r esult o f a n E mperor 's d ecree , b uilt d uring a s hort p eriod a nd i ts p opulation w as a rtificially b rought t o t he c ity f rom e lsewhere . T hey c learly d isplayed n o a ttachment o r e motional i nvolvement w ith t heir n ew c ity a nd t herefore s aw n o r eason t o b eautify i t o r a dd t o w hat a lready e xisted t here . P hilippopolis m ay b e l ikened t o ap leasant a nd w ell p lanned u rban s keleton i nto w hich l ife n ever t ruly e ntered . 4 8 .
S ee n ote 3 9 .
9 4
A PPENDIX T O C HAPTER I V
9 5
I ntroduction A ll t he i nscriptions d iscovered a t P hilippopolis h ave b een p ublished b y W . K elly P rentice ( see c hapter 4 , n ote 2 ) . W hat f ollows i s ac ollection o f t hese i n G reek t ogether w ith a n a ccompanying e xplanation . T heir i mportance l ies
i n t he e xact i nformation t hey h ave s upplied s cholars o ver t he y ears
c oncerning t heir u nderstanding o f t he s pecial s tatus a nd c haracter o f P hilippopolis . T hey a lso p rovide a n e xact d ate f or t he f oundation o f t he c ity , a re f urther p roof t hat i nformation p assed o n b y h istorical s ources c oncerning t he n ame o f t he f ounder a re c orrect, a nd t hey e mbellish d escriptions o f i ts s hort e xistence . T he e pigraphical m aterial t hat f ollows a ccompanies m ost o f t he i mportant s tructures i n t he c ity . T hey a re n umbered a ccording t o t he n umbers g iven b y W . K elly P rentice . I nscription 3 92 c T 1 p T
Q JV
o-w r -qp[ac
K al t
M . A i ' ipqX[ov
[ Ko [ d8ov ] , vo
u (k7c r&z ' K vp(uw AroKpa -
' AvTwv dvov Ka Z A .
a 'To I ,
O5pov , i r peo-ß ( evToi)
Ef3 aO T &V ,
€ / 3 ( aar
4 eor ro3 1krOV040v E y (
v oc ) t s' 1 ) X a/ 3[as )
/ 3c LVOV
. frpar7y 7 ou
u)
' ii
A pqX(ou
MapT Lou
d vT Lorp ( ari yov) ,
Lou , (&c LTOPTaPXOU ) X &
1 ( () p(
is),
�vt AXa ov
A ZXa / ioc Ao / 3dvou
a -
0 T p a(7-7 y03).
T his i nscription , i f i ndeed i t o riginated i n P hilippopolis , p rovides t he o nly e pigraphical e vidence t o t he e xistence o f a n e arlier s ettlement i n t he a rea , p rior t o t he r ise o f P hilip t he A rab i n 2 44 C .E . I t w as f ound i n s econdary u se i n a n ew b uilding ,
a nd d ates t o 1 77/8 G .E .
a t t he t ime
t hat
E mperor C o i nmodus w as g ranted t he t itle A ugustus . A t p resent t here i s n o f urther w ay o f p roving t hat a t own e xisted o n t his p articular s pot d uring t his p eriod . T he u niformity o f t he c ity p lan a nd t he s tyle o f b uilding o f P hilippopolis, s eem t o c learly n egate t he p ossibility o f i t h aving b een c onstructed u pon t he r uins o f a n e arlier s ettlement . I f t he i nscription t ruly b elongs t o t his a rea t hen i t m ight m erely h ave b een p art o f a r itual s tructure s tanding i n t he v icinity .
I nscription 3 92a
A
TO K pc &] op a ,
K€ 'o-apa ,
q (X r [ y r ]0 v , Er € / 3,
E
TV
[M . ' I ]c nX Lov ,
€ / 3 (aarv ) ,
' EaKKauira.
D iscovered o n a c orbel w hich w as i ntended t o h old a s tatue o n a m onumental b uilding m arked b y B ulter b y t he l etter ' B ' o n h is c ity p lan ( fig . 1 54) . T he i nscription d escribes t he s tatue a s h aving b een o ne o f P hilip o f A rab h imself .
9 7
I nscription 3 93
I u 1 io P r isco , v ( iro) f oru m)
n (ostroru m)
(e) m( i ne f ltissi m o)
P h i l ipporu m
f ratri
e t 1 ) a tru[o] d (om i-
Aug(ustoru r n ) ,
e t
p rtef (ec to)
p raet(or i) , r ect (o)r ig (ue) Or ient is , Trebon ius S oss ianus , p (r imus) i p ( i lus) , d or no Co l(on ia) He 1( iupo l i)
( ? ) ‚
d evotus n um in i
m aicsta-
t i g(Ue) c oru in . T his i nscription w as f ound e ngraved o n ac olumn t hat h ad b een r e—used i n an ew b uilding . I t m entions t he b rother o f t he E mperor P hilip t he A rab a nd i s t he o nly L atin i nscription f ound t o d ate i n t he c ity .
I nscription 3 95
T 7 rp
oo )T1 ) p(ac T&n) Kv p(U w
K a' L i \jL wL /Lc
KE
M . ' l ovX( c uu V Xt ' iri i-a jv
' AX€ c Lv6pov , ß ovX ( uT ) ,
7 r p of
p(ct
€ ß( a o-i -
€ Xoo / i uiv ' T ovX[op
u),
Mappvov , &ovc
7 rp iT0v r c
€ ur (ov MdXXOV
i rXea ,c .
T his i s a n i nscription h onouring t he E mperor P hilip t he A rab w hich w as f ound b uilt i nto a m odern h ouse . I t i s i nteresting t o p ay s pecial a ttention t o t he n ame ' Maichus ' w hich i s p robably a N abataean n ame ( see b elow i nscription 4 01a) . t he f irst y ear o f
T his i nscription i s i mportant b ecause i t m entions
t he c ity 's e xistence .
T his i s c lear p roof t hat i t w as
f ounded b y P hilip t he A rab w ho w as h onoured w ith t he t itle o f A ugustus o nly i n t he y ear 2 47 C .E . H e w as m urdered i n 2 49 C .E . a nd t herefore c onstruction o f t he c ity p rogressed o nly d uring t he y ears 2 47-249 C .E . M . A vi—Yonah , h owever , b elieves t hat t he c ity w as a ctually f ounded i n 2 42 C .E . a lthough i t i s n ot k nown o n w hat h e b ases t his t heory . A ll t he n umismatic a nd e pigraphical m aterial c onfirm t he l ater d ates m entioned a bove a s t he c orrect c hronological f ramework f or t he c ity o f P hilippopolis . S ee : M . Avi—Yonah , T he H oly L and f rom t he P ersian P eriod t o t he A rab C onquest , B aker B ook H ouse , M ichigan , 1 966 , p . 1 7 .
I nscription 3 96 I .
E
( )( (;
2 .
PAPE IN W
MapE( zp
- HOCYT EA
] oc 1 ' lra[r Lkcs]
D iscovered o n a c orbel o n t he e ast s ide o f t he e ntrance t o t he " ! Philippaeon" , i t d escribes t he s tatue t hat m ust h ave s tood h ere a s b eing t he E mperor 's f ather M arinus ( see b elow i nscription 4 00a) . -
I nscription 3 97 I .
E
2 .
E IN W
3 . D iscovered
A
Map]
[
o n a nother c orbel,
€!iq J i 57r ] a [r. K 6c
t his
t ime
o n t he w est s ide o f t he
e ntrance t o t he " Philippaeon" , i t d escribes e ither a s tatue o f P hilip 's
9 8
f ather o r a nother m ember o f h is f amily .
I nscription 3 98 I .
I C4I A I UUOYCCEBB
2 .
-AYPH A ANT UN INoC
3 .
T 1EAAr IC
U ncovered n ear t he e ntrance t o t he ' Philippaeon" ,
t his i s af ragment o f
al arger i nscription i n h onour o f t he E mperor P hilip t he A rab .
I nscription 3 98a . I .
T oc 6 € a]
2 .
M . ' I ovX[ov] s 'T ? LX(n-7 r ovs ,
r a ,; T i ,;
3 .
[ 7 )5 ,
0 K OV11 6
€ ß ( acrroi c),
A ip i 5X (toc )
4 .
' Az . 'ranAz 'oc ,
H€Xdy Lç .
F ound c lose t o t he ' Philippaeon" i t i s a lso d edicated t o P hilip t he A rab .
I nscription 3 99 B I .
i ' I oX .op HpZo o i ,
TW
A
o ]X
raTov
]Tpv4
2 .
3 .
A i )p X . ' Av mwZ ](v )oc ,
]XO ?
€ 7 ra[p
TOI J
u .av[ f ]v , o vß w
6ovKr j a [p]
T his i nscription w as f ound i n t hree p arts , o f t he ' Philippaeon" .
C poi 7 rpaLTo )p(ov , a ro i,
( . o c , H EX t. c yc
s pread o ut a mong t he r uins
I t i s d edicated t o m embers o f
t he E mperor 's
f amily
a nd i n p articular m entions h is b rother — J ulius P riscus .
I nscription 4 00 T ]o c M . ' I ovX(o] T]
€ oir rac
vc 4 X & r7 rov3 , v Ku piav
ß a]o-r (v ,
x o v ]
T O
H p€ o-K ]ov , z idp ioc , T( J W
p€'o w
o ciraTov
T L ßE 'pLos , T-3 S
7 i 6X€a 4 j ,
Ka '
€O V17 pc W
l rpcuro )p(ov ,
KX .
& ] Kcuo &Tqc & . ']
W
o [Kov / . t v c ,
€ ßa c rTo 1 5c ,
L& )P , T
€p oi
r 'c
€ -
' 7 Tap -
' I oX i .op o [v K -q-
X awrpo [ rd n r '
a i»&
7T poaX(0)
D edicated t o t he E mperor P hilip t he A rab ,
t o h is w ife a nd b rother .
T his i nscription w as a lso d iscovered a mong t he r uins o f t he ' Philippaeon" . I t i s d edicated b y C laudius A urelius T iberius w ho i s t he G overnor o f t he c ity ( dikaiodotes, " lord j ustice") . I t i s u nusual t o f ind t his t itle m entioned a nd i t m eans " a k eeper o f t he l aws" o r " enforcer o f t he l aws" ( of t he c ity?) . S ee : E .A . S ophocles, C reek L exicon o n t he R oman a nd B yzantine P eriods . V o . I , B oston , 1 887 , p . 3 81 . ( dikaiodotes — d ispenser o f t he l aws , j udge) .
9 9
I nscription 4 00a M . ' I oX tjov i vapZ[vo ], O €W
1 I ar p a [ Toi
Aip X (ws )
AVTO
8 0vK7 1vöp io
O nce a gain P hilip 's f ather
ۧacrro i 3] ,
[ vz ioc] ,
[ c ] .
M arcus J ulius M arinus i s m entioned i n a n
-
i nscription f ound n ear t he ' Philippaeon ' t.
I nscription 4 01a Tv 86pa
‚
' I ovX] t oy 1p€10 [ Kov ,
ii r Xc , && ' I ovX(ov
M dXX0V ,
T ]
$ovX (EvroI) ,
F ound n ear t he P alace,
o
OXo JTi [ roy]
0 yv8 L 'Kov K a '
6Ta P X
0 V M€oo [ i ro ]r a tac ,
r p€Xiro i ,
( '
v ?w c Z [ ] pop,
ic ) X (a 'P LP )
t his i nscription w as d edicated b y M aichus
( perhaps t he s ame o ne w ith t he N abataean n ame , s ee i nscription 3 95 a bove) , a nd m entions P hilip 's b rother J ulius P riskus , w ho w as a ppointed G overnor -
o f M esopotamia .
I nscription 4 01b T w 6 €Zua , ' IoyXIoy f Ipc a-i t ov , r ] o i ß( u€) 4(LK l aptou) 7 r r arop .
T v ao pov ,
o[ xw ] TdTOIJ v
Mf J7o7 roTc L6 1 L Iaç ,
c ) x (dP iv ) .
S imilar t o t he p revious i nscription ( 401a ) , t he e mperor 's b rother ,
fcnos T L Kdf cO oc ,
i s m entioned .
1 00
o nce a gain J ulius P riskus ,
c L7 TO
C HAPTER V U RBAN A RCHITECTURE I N A RABIA
1 01
I ntroduction E ach o f t he f our c ities u nder d iscussion i n t his s tudy C erasa ,
-
P hiladelphia ,
B ostra a nd P hilippopolis p resents i ts o wn s pecific a nd i ndividual
u rban g rowth a nd d evelopment . T he r eport d eals w ith t he s pecific p lanning o f e ach c ity a nd w ith t he f orces w hich f ormed t heir d ifferent u rban n atures . P articular s tress h as b een l aid o n t he o riginal p lanning s olutions p ut t o u se w ithin t hem , c ompared t o t he t raditional f orms t hen d ominant . B y o utlining a ll u rban a rchitectural f actors t hese c ities h ad i n c ommon , w e h ope t o s how h ow d espite d evelopmental, c ultural a nd h istorical d ifferences , t he c ities s till e mbody a rchitectural f orms s imilar t o o ne a nother . I t p roved a v irtual i mpossibility t o f ollow c arefully o r r econstruct t he f ull d evelopment o f e ach c ity a nd t herefore t he p lans g iven o r t he t erms d escribed, h ave b een t aken f rom t he p eak o f e ach c ity 's f ormation . I t a ppears t hat i t w as t he c ombination o f t he " imported" u rban f ramework a nd t he t raditional l ocal a rchitecture t hat m oulded t he f inal c haracter o f t he c ities o f A rabia . N ew s tructures w ere i ntroduced i nto t he R oman u rban f ramework o f s traight s treets a nd f unctional d ivisions o f q uarters , w hich d id n ot o riginate l ocally b ut w ere c ertainly r edesigned , b uilt a nd d ecorated b y l ocal b uilders a nd a rtisans i n t heir o wn s tyle . T his l ocal a rchitecture i s t he f irst f ruit b orn a fter a l ong p eriod o f b lossoming d uring w hich a s tyle , w hich d rew i nspiration b oth f rom t he t raditional E astern s tructures a nd f rom t he C lassical W orld w as f ormed . T his p rocess s tarted p rior t o t he c onquest o f A lexander a nd c ontinued o ver a l ong p eriod r eaching i ts c limax d uring t he s econd a nd t hird c enturies C .E . E xamples o f t his e clectic s tyle a re c learly v isible i n t he u rban a rchitecture o f t he c ities m entioned a bove . A lmost ' Baroque" i n s tyle , e xcelled i n i ts f reedom o f m ovement a nd s oft a nti—Classical l ines .
i t
I t i s n ecessary t o d istinguish b etween t wo s eparate g roups o f c ities a s f ar a s t he a pplication o f t his s tyle i s c oncerned . I n c ities s uch a s B ostra a nd P hilippopolis c onstructed b y g overnmental p owers , t he s tyle i s m odest a nd u nimposing ; w hile i n P hiladelphia a nd G erasa , w hich b elong t o t he R ellenisitc " polis" t radition , t he s tyle w as e xposed i n i ts f ull g lory . T he R omans w ho b egan t heir r ule i n t his a rea d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he i st c entury B .C . , w ere c onfronted b y a v ery d efinite c ultural r eality p rominent i n t he c ities d iscussed a bove , a gainst w hich t hey c ould n ot , o r d id n ot w ant t o s truggle .
E ven c onstruction w ork c ompleted b y t he R omans
o r d uring t heir r ule m erely f ormed a k ind o f " imported f acade" w hich w as i nhabited b y t he l ocal p opulation w ho t hereafter d etermined t he n ature a nd c haracter o f t he c ity . T his s tudy d eals i n g reat d etail w ith t he u rban d evelopment a nd h istory o f t he f our c ities a lready m entioned a s w ell a s w ith t heir i ndividual a rchitectural n atures.
T he f ollowing i s as hort s ummary o f t his r eport .
1 03
P HILADELPHIA ( see f igs .
5 -6) w as f ounded d uring t he H ellenistic p eriod ( 3rd
c entury B .C .) h owever a ll t he r emains f ound t oday , b eside c ertain s ections o f t he A cropo i s w alls , d ate t o t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies C .E .(1) T he u rban p lan a nd c haracter o f P hiladelphia w as
d etermined b y
t he
t opographical
c onditions s urrounding i t . M ost c onspicious w ere t he t wo c olonnaded s treets r unning t he l ength o f t he t wo v alleys o n t he s outh a nd s outh-west o f t he A cropolis ( see f ig . 5 ) , a nd a long w hich a ll t he p ublic b uildings w ere c oncentrated . T he t emples w ere c onstructed u pon t he A cropolis w hich r epresented
t he
s anctuary
P rocessional W ay w hich
o f
l ead
t he
c ity
a nd
t his
f rom t he c enter o f
P ropylaea t o t he A cropolis ( see f igs . 5 , 8 ,
w as
r eached
t he c ity
v ia
t he
t hrough
t he
1 0) .
O ther i mportant p ublic b uildings w ere c oncentrated a t t he w idest p oint o f t he S outhern V alley a nd i ncluded t he F orum , t he T heatre , t he O deu r n , t he N ymphaeun i a nd s till o thers t hat h ave n ot b een c learly i dentified . T he c ommercial s ection o f t he c ity w as e stablished o n t he W estern s ide o f t he S outhern V alley . q uarters e xploited
T his p recise d ivision o f t he c ity i nto f unctional e very s quare m etre o f t he l imited p lain a vailable . A
v ault w as e ven c onstructed o ver t he r iver f lowing t hrough t he c entre o f t he S outhern V alley , t o e nlarge t he c entral a rea o f t he c ity a s w ell a s t o p revent f loods .
G ERASA ( see f igs . 3 5-43) . A lthough G erasa w as a lso e stablished d uring t he H ellenistic p eriod , h ere a gain m ost o f t he s tructures d ate t o t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies C .E . , w hile t he u rban p lan w as d etermined i n t he l atter h alf o f t he i st c entury C .E.
( 2)
T he c ity i s c omprised o f t wo s ections , d ivided b y a p articularly d eep v alley i n w hich a r iver r uns . T he ' Eastern C ity" ( where t he n etwork o f s treets m ay p ossibly d ate t o t he s mall H ellenistic t own ) w as t he r esidential q uarter o f t he " Western C ity" . T he l atter d esigned d uring t he f irst c entury C .E . w as c onnected t o t he ' Eastern C ity" b y t hree m ain a xes p assing o ver t he r iver o n s olid b ridges .
O ne w all e ncircled b oth s ections o f t he
c ity t hereby c reating a u nified u rban b ody ( see f ig . 4 3). A lmost a ll t he f unctionary b uildings w ere c oncentrated i n t he " Western C ity" w hich w as a lmost t wice t he s ize o f t he ' Eastern C ity" .
H ere w ere t he
p ublic , r eligious a nd c ommercial q uarters c omprising t hree s anctuaries , t wo t heatres , t hree p ublic s quares a nd a F orum . C lose b y t he c ity t o t he s outh w as a h ippodrome w hile t o t he n orth s tood a n o pen a ir s anctuary w hich i ncluded a nother t heatre .
B OSTRA ( see f igs . 1 01-109) w as c onstructed a longside a n i rregular S emitic c ity e arly i n t he 2 nd c entury C .E . , a fter i t h ad b een d ecided t hat t his w as w here t he c apital o f t he P rovince o f A rabia s hould b e b uilt . ( 3) A lthough
b asically
a R oman p lanned
c ity ,
t he
u nusual
u rban
r eality
a lready e xisting i n t he a rea f orced t he a rchitects a nd p lanners t o s earch f or o riginal a nd u nconventional s olutions w hen c onstructing t his c ity ( see f ig .
1 07). I t i s t he f unctional d ivision o f t he c ity t hat t eaches u s o f t he s pecial
r ole f ulfilled b y t he c ity a s c apital o f t he P rovince , a nd i t b ecomes c lear t hat i t s erved a s t he c entral b ase a nd c amp f or t he C yrenean T hird L egion s oldiers . T he o ld a nd u nplanned S emitic c ity w as u sed a s l iving q uarters
1 04
w hile t he a ncient s anctuary w ithin i t c ontinued t o s erve a s t he m ain s anctuary f or t he c ity . T he n ew R oman c ity w ith i ts r egular g rid o f s treets
s pread
o ut
t o
t he
w est
o f
t he
o ld
c ity
a nd
s erved
a s
t he
a dministrative a nd c ommercial c entre . B ecause o f t he u nusual c are t aken w ith a ll s upplies r eaching B ostra , t he s hops a nd w arehouses w ere a ll c onstructed i n t he c entre o f t he c ity . T he h ippodrome , t heatre a nd n aumachia w ere c onstructed m ainly t o s atisfy t he n eeds o f t he l arge p opulation o f l egionnaires a nd t heir f ollowers . T he s tructures o f B ostra , w hile e xhibiting a h igh s tandard o f a rchitecture , o rnamental
t ouches .
P HILIPPOPOLIS t he
Arab
a re p lain a nd l acking i n
( SHUHBA )
b etween
( see f igs .
t he
y ears
1 53156)
2 47-249
e stablished b y E mperor P hilip
C .E .,
a nd
n ever
c ompleted .(4)
P hilippopolis w as o ne o f t he l ast c ities b uilt b y R ome i n t he E ast a nd i t i s t he o nly o ne c onstructed o n v irgin s oil .(5) I t h as a n e xtremely r egular p lan c omposed o f a r ectangular a rea d ivided i nto f our p arts b y t wo m ain c olonnaded s treets w hich i ntersect a t ar ight a ngle a t t he o ff-centre o f t he c ity . A n i ncompleted s ub-network o f s treets c uts t he c ity i nto " insulae" w hich t o a l arge e xtent n ever h oused s tructures o f a ny k ind ( see f ig . 1 55) . T he F orum s prawled o ut i n t he c entre o f t he c ity a nd a round i t s tood t he o ther m ain b uildings : t he P alace , t he T heatre , a nother l arge p ublic b uilding ( probably t he b asilica ) a nd t he ' ! Philippaeon" . T he l atter e mphasizes t he u se o f t his c ity a s a " personal c apital" c ity a s w ell a s a m emorial m onument . ( 6 ) T he c ompleted s tructures s uch a s t he h exastyle t emple , t he p alace,
t he t heatre a nd t he " Philippaeon" p oint t o a h igh s tandard o f
c onstruction a lthough t hey t oo l ack s uitable a dornment . W ith t he d eath o f i ts f ounder t he c ity w as d eserted w ithout e ver h aving b een c ompleted .
I t w as p lanned w ithout a ny t hought o r c onsideration o f i ts
f uture l ife a nd d evelopment. W hat w as t he n ature o f u rban a rchitecture a mong t he c ities o f A rabia? T he f ollowing i s ad escription o f b oth t he i ndividual a nd t he g eneral a spects o f t own p lanning i n t his a rea . T he p henomenon o f S TANDARDIZATION i s c learly v isible i n t he u rban a rchitecture
o f
A rabia .
B y
t his
w e
m ean
t he
u se
o f
a ccepted
a nd
c onventional s tandards a s f ar a s t he t ype o f s tructures , a nd t he c hoice o f d ecoration i s c oncerned . T here i s a s tandard s election o f b uildings t hat m akes i t a ppearance i n e ach a nd e very c ity . I n f act t hese s tructures a re s o s imilar t hat o ne t ends t o w onder w hether t hey w ere d esigned b y t he s ame g roup o f a rchitects o r w hether t hey w ere s imply c opied f rom e ach o ther .
T HE C OLONNADED S TREETS w ere l ined w ith c olumns .
-
I n a ll
t he c ities d iscussed
t he m ain s treets
T his a rchitectural e lement p robably o riginated i n
A sia M inor d uring t he e nd o f t he i st c entury B .C . I t b ecame p opular a mong t he S yrian a nd A rabian t own-planners a nd s pread v ery r apidly d uring t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies C .E . , c ommon a rchitectural e lement o n t he u rban s cene .(7)
s oon b ecoming t he m ost T he s treets t hemselves
w ere p aved w ith f lag s tones a nd l ined w ith p avements .
T he w idth o f t hese
w as s imilar i n a ll t he c ities . T he c olumns w ere e ither t opped b y I onic o r C orinthian c apitals , d epending o n t he f ashion a t t he t ime . I n C erasa f or e xample , t he c olonnades f irst h ad I onic c apitals w hich w ere l ater c hanged t o
1 05
C orinthian ,
w hile i n B ostra a nd P hilippopolis t hey w ere o nly d ecorated w ith
t he I onic s tyled c apitals .(8) A t t he p oint w here t he m ain s treets i ntersected t he T ETRAPYLON w as u sually b uilt a nd w as a p opular a nd d ecorative e lement i n t hese t owns . A rchitects s aw i t a s a nother m eans e mphasizing 1 67, 1 68) .
a nd
e nhancing
t he m ain p oints
o f
t he c ity ( see
T HE T RIUMPHAL A RCH f ulfilled a s imilar p urpose .
f igs .
6 8 ,
7 1,
W hile t he o riginal R oman
v ersion s erved a s a n a rchitectural s ymbol o f as pecific h istorici e vent , t he T riumphal A rch i n A rabia t urned i nto y et a nother d ecorative e lement a nd i n a s imilar f ashion t o t he T etrapylon i t a lso s tressed a p articular e lement i n t he
t own 's
l ayout .
T he T riumphal A rch o f t he E astern c ity o f B ostra f or
e xample m arked t he b order b etween t he n ew c ity a nd t he s anctuary ( see f ig . 1 06).
T HE
C ITY
G ATES
a lso
c hanged
a nd
d eveloped
o ver
t he y ears
f rom a p urely
d efensive s tructure f lanked b y s olid t owers a nd w ith o ne v aulted e ntrance , t o w ide , i n agnificant s tructures w ith t hree s eparate e ntrances . T he n ew g ateway w as f ar m ore r eminiscent o f t he T riumphal A rch t han o f t he o ld c ity g ates . I t w as p robably t he f eeling o f s ecurity f elt i n A rabia d uring t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies C .E . t hat p ermitted t he c reation o f t his n ew d esign ( see f igs. 6 6 , 1 69).
T HE N YMPHAEA ( Fountain b uildings) a re o ne o f t he m ost o utstanding f eatures i n t he u rban s cene o f A rabian c ities . T hey a re a ll s imilar i n p lan a nd d iffer o nly i n s ize a nd m agnificence , d epending o n t he e conomic p ossibilities o f e ach p articular c ity . T he b uildings t hemselves r ose t o t wo o r t hree s toreys h igh a nd w ere d ecorated w ith p ilasters a nd o ther s mall n iches i n w hich s tatues w ere p laced . O pposite t hem w as u sually a p ool o f w ater a nd a p ortico . T hey w ere a lways l ocated a long t he m ain s treets a nd t heir t heatrical f acades a cted a s a s tage b ackdrop t o t he c ity c entre ( see f igs . 2 7, 5 3 , 1 29) . L arge B ATHS w ere e stablished i n t he A rabian c ities d uring t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies C .E . w hich w ere s imilar t o o thers f ound t hroughout t he R om an E mpire . I t a lso s eems a s t hough t hey w ere n ot c haracterized b y a ny s pecial a rchitectural p henomenon . I n e ach o f ( see f igs . 1 6 , b uilt
t he
c ities
1 9 , 5 7 , 9 8 ,
f rom t he
l ate
i st
d iscussed a bove 1 47 ,
1 66) .
t here w as a t
l east o ne T HEATRE
T hey w ere a ll R oman i n p lan a nd w ere
c entury C .E .
u ntil
t he 3 rd c entury C . E .
D espite
t heir R oman o rigin t hey p resent u s w ith e xamples o f l ocal a rchitectural s olutions t o p roblems a rising i n t he f ield . ( 9 ) T hese t heatres w ere e rected e ither b y t he S tate a s i n P hilippopolis a nd B ostra , m unicipal b odies a s i n P hiladelphia a nd G erasa .
o r b y
l ocal
a nd
T hey w ere u sually c onstructed w ithin t he d ense u rban c omplex b ut s ometimes , a s i n G erasa , ( see f ig. 9 7) T he d ifferent
t hey s tood o utside t he c ity a djoining t he s anctuary
l ocations
o f
t he T heatres w ithin t hese c ities ,
t each u s
s omething a bout t he v arious t raditions w hich i nfluence t he f ormation o f A rabian c ities . T he s outhern T heatre o f G erasa f or i nstance ( end o f i st c entury C .E .) i s s ituated o n t he s lope o f a h ill a nd i n f act f orms a n
1 06
i ntegral p art o f t he s anctuary f or Z eus ( see f ig . 4 3) . f ollows t he G reek-Hellenistic
T his l ocation
t radition w here t he T heatre w as
s een a s
a n
i nseparable p art o f r eligion . T he N orthern T heatre o f G erasa h owever , b uilt i n t he s econd h alf o f t he 2 nd c entury C .E . , s tands n ear t he F orum , i n a s imilar f ashion t o t he T heatre o f P hiladelphia a nd P hilippopolis . I n t rue R oman t radition t he T heatre w as v iewed a s a n e ntertainment c entre t o b e b uilt i n t he c entre o f t he t own ( see f igs . 5 , 4 3 , 1 55) . ( 10) T he T heatre m ay b e s ituated i n t he a rea s pecifically s et a side f or e ntertainment p urposes o utside t he c ity . S uch i s t he c ase i n B ostra w here t he t heatre a nd h ippodrome s tand a longside e ach o ther , o utside t he c ity w alls ( see f ig . 1 07).
T HE H IPPODROME a nd T HE S TADIUM w ere n ot c onstructed a s f requently a s t heatres .
T hey t oo a ppeared i n A rabia a s ar esult o f R oman i nfluence d uring
t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies C .E . I n G erasa a nd B ostra t he H ippodrome w as c onstructed o utside t he c ity w alls w hile i n P hilippopolis t he S tadium s tands w ithin t he c ity ( see f igs . 4 3 , 1 07 , 1 55) . T he a ctual a ppearance o f t hese b uildings i n A rabian c ities m ay e ven b e s een a s ad esire t o b e f ashionable o r a n eed t o i mitate . I n t he c ase o f B ostra h owever , t he h ippodrome w as p robably c onstructed b y t he s tate a nd u ndoubtedly s erved t he i nhabitants w ho m ainly c omprised l egionnaires .
S imilarly t he s tadium o f P hilippopolis w as
s upposedly b uilt f or t he f uture c itizens o f t he E mperor's p rivate c ity.
T HE T EMPLES
o f A rabian c ities m ay b e d ivided i nto t wo m ain g roups:
a .
t he t raditional R oman t emples.
b .
t he s tylized " Baroque" t emples.
T he l atter h ave a n i rregular s haped c elia a nd a re u nlike t he t raditional r ectangular s tyle . ( 11) T he f ollowing a ll s imilar i n p lan , b elong t o t he f irst g roup : t he t wo l arge t emples a t G erasa ; t he t emple o f Z eus a nd t hat o f A rtemis, a nd t he S outhern T emple o n t he A cropolis o f P hiladelphia
( see f igs .
1 0,
4 8,
8 0) .
T he s econd g roup
i ncludes
t he
h exastyle t emple a t P hilippopolis a nd t wo o pen p laces o f w orship w hich w ere c alled ' (alybe" , b oth i n B ostra a nd P hilippopolis ( see f igs . 1 29 , 1 57 , 1 61) . T he l atter a re e vidence o f t he l ocal s acral a rchitecture w hich a ppears i n t he c ities t hat h ad n o H ellenistic t radition . B oth b uildings w ere c onstructed d uring t he 3 rd c entury C .E . a nd a re o utstanding f or t he n m onumentalism a nd r ich o rnamentation . T he t emples o f A rabian c ities c learly s how t he c ombination o f t hose e lements t ypical o f t he R oman p eripteral s tyled t emple , b uilt o n a p odium w ith a r ectangular c elia , a nd t he o ther e lements w hich u ndoubtedly h ad l ocal o rigins s uch a s t he s taircases b uilt i n a nta ( see f igs . 4 8 , 8 0) . ( 12) T he l ocation o f t he t emples p resents y et a nother m ovement a way f rom t he R oman s ource . I n A rabian c ities t hey a re h ardly e ver f ound a mong t he c rowded s tructures o f t he c ity c entre, b ut e ither w ithin a s pecific s anctuary , o r o n t he A cropolis . S uch i s t he c ase a t G erasa , P hiladelphia a nd B ostra . O nly i n t he l ater c ity o f P hilippopolis w as t he t emple e rected d ue t o R oman t radition , a mong t he o ther s tructures i n t he c ity c entre ( see f ig . 1 55) . I n P hiladelphia t he s anctuary ( which t ook o n i ts f inal f orm a t t he e nd o f t he 2 nd c entury C .E .) s preads o ut o ver a l arge s ection o f t he A cropolis , t hereby s anctifying t he s ite t hat f irst b ecame s acred d uring t he
1 07
B ronze A ge ( see f igs . 8- 9 ) . ( 13) G erasa h as t hree s anctuaries: t he H ellenistic s tyled o ne o f Z eus , s ituated c lose t o t he S outh T heatre ( see f ig . 4 4) ( 14) . t he s anctuary o f A rtemis b uilt o ne h undred y ears l ater a nd b elonging t o t he m onumental t ype o f s tructure c onstructed d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he 2 nd c entury C .E . ( see f ig . 7 5) .(15) T he " Cathedral S anctuary" w hich h as n ot b een e xcavated b ut a ppears t o b e m ore s imilar i n p lan t o t hat o f A rtemis ( see f ig . 9 2) . ( 16) I n t he h eart o f t he o ld c ity o f B ostra , a t t he h ighest s pot o f t he c ity , t he r emains o f s acred b uildings h ave b een u nearthed . T his w as p robably t he A cropolis a nd t he s anctuary o f t he c ity ( see f ig. 1 06) ( 17) T he d iscussion o f t hese s anctuaries
s tructures p lanned o n a n e xtensive
-
s cale w ith v aried o rnamentation a nd w hich s tood i n j uxtaposition t o t he s ize o f t he r est o f t he c ity b rings u s t o t he p henomenon o f M ONUMENTALIZATION i n t he A rabian c ities. T he S anctuary o f A rtemis a t G erasa s prawled o ver 3 4 ,000 m 2 a nd w as t hus o ne o f t he m ost m agnificent s anctuaries k nown i n t he A ncient C lassical E ast . ( 18) . T he P rocessional W ay, t he t wo P ropylaea, t wo p ublic s quares s urrounded b y s toas a nd e xedras a nd a h uge t emple w ere a ll i ncluded w ithin t he s ame a rea . Ah igh s tandard o f c onstruction a nd r ich a dornment w as c ommon t o a ll t hese s tructures . A bove a ll, h owever , t he l ocation o f t he s anctuary w ithin t he c ity i s o f p articular i nterest , f or i t w as v isible f rom e very s ection o f t he c ity a nd a ccess t o i t w as o btainable f rom a ll d irections . I t w as i n f act t he u rban f ocal p oint o f t he e ntire c ity ( see f igs . 3 5, 4 3, 7 5) . S trangely e nough t he p henomenon o f F ASHION a lso p layed a n i mportant r ole i n u rban A rabia a s i t h ad d one i n s ome o f t he o ther p rovinces .
T he c ities ,
w hile c ompeting w ith o ne a nother a lso c opied s tyles i n a n a ttempt , a s i t w ere , t o k eep u p w ith t he l atest t rends i n a rchitecture . E pigraphical f inds p rove t hat m any o f t he s tructures i n A rabian c ities w ere e rected d uring t he s ame y ears a nd a re t herefore s imilar i n d esign ( see f igs . 1 3 , 1 8 , 7 9) . ( 19) T he e xistence o f c ompetition , i mitation a nd f ashion i s m ore o bvious
i n P hiladelphia
a nd G erasa
t han
i n B ostra
a nd
P hilippopolis .(20)
I n t he f ormer c ities t he i nitiative t o c onstruct t he b uildings o riginated w ith t he c itizens t hemselves w ho r aised t he m oney f rom w ithin t he c ommun ity a nd t hemselves d ecided o n t he s ize , s hape a nd d ecoration o f t he s tructures . T his w as o bviously n ot t rue o f c ities w here t he b uildings w ere e rected b y t he r uling a uthorities ( the t wo g roups d iffered g reatly p articularly a s f ar a s t he o rnamentation w as c oncerned) . T he N abateans
( 21)
t oo h ad a p owerful
a ffect o n t he u rban a rchitecture o f
A rabia . S outhern S yria a nd t he E ast B ank o f t he J ordan R iver w ere u nder N abatean r ule f or a c onsiderable p eriod o f t ime . L ong a fter t he r ise o f t he A rabian P rovince , t he N abateans c ultural i nfluence w as s till f elt i n t he a rea .(22) T he N abateans n ever h ad a n u rban t radition n or d id t hey b uild p lanned c ities . T hey d id h owever , e xcell i n t he c onstruction o f t emples , s anctuaries a nd b urial m onuments , a nd u ndoubtedly c ontributed m uch t o t he e clectic s tyle w hich s oon c ame t o t ypify A rabian a rchitecture b etween t he i st a nd 3 rd c enturies C .E .(23) T heir s emi-nomadic l ife s tyle b rought t hem i nto c ontact w ith d ifferent c ultures w hich i n t urn i nfluenced t hem .
T hey
w ere b lessed w ith a r are c apability o f l earning d ifferent c onstruction m ethods a nd o f l ater r e-applying a nd r e-adapting t hem n ot o nly t o d ifferent t opographical l ocations , b ut a lso t o t he v arious r aw b uilding m aterials a vailable w herever t hey h appened t o b e . T o a l arge e xtent t heir
1 08
c ontribution t o t he u rban s cene l ies i n t heir m ethods o f c onstruction , d ecoration a nd a lso i n t he a rt o f s tone-masonry . T he i nnovation o f
t he s taircase ( stairs b uilt a round a s quare p illar )
m ay b e a ttributed t o t he N abateans a nd t he w idespread u se o f i t b oth g eographically a nd c hronologically i s a mple p roof o f i ts i mportance o f t hem a s a n a rchitectural e lement .(24) T hese s tairs a re m ainly f ound i n t emples s uch a s t he t wo a t G erasa b ut m ay a lso b e s een i n s ecular b uildings a s i n t he T heatre a nd B aths o f P hilippopolis ( see f igs . 1 62 , 1 63) .(25) T he N abatean c apital
a ppears o n b uildings
t hat w ere e ither b uilt
d irectly b y t hem o r t hat h ad c ome u nder t heir c ultural i nfluence . N abatean
c apitals
o n t he E astern A rch o f B ostra
( 2nd c entury
T he
C .E .) a nd o n
t he S outhern g ate o f P hilippopolis ( 3rd c entury C .E .) c onfirm t he f act t hat t heir a rchitectural i nfluence c ontinued l ong a fter t he t ermination o f t heir r ule ( see f igs. 1 24 , 1 70). R oman r ule b egan i n S outhern S yria a t
t he e nd o f t he i st c entury B .C .
a nd o n t he E astern B ank o f t he J ordan R iver w ith t he t ermination o f N abatean r ule e arly i n t he 2 nd c entury C .E . T he R omans a rrived o n a s cene a lready e nriched w ith t he l ocal a nd a ncient E astern u rban t raditions ac ombination -
o f b oth S emitic a nd G reek c ultures. W hat t hen w as R ome 's c ontribution t o t he d ifferent s tyling a nd p lanning o f t he A rabian c ities? F irstly , i t m ust b e s tressed t hat t he R omans p romised t he n ecessary p eace a nd p rosperity e ssential f or t he s uccessful g rowth o f t he c ities . T he e conomic s uccess o f i nternational t rade w as e nsured w ith t he c ompletion o f t he g reat n etwork o f r oads , i n p articular t he V ia T raiana N ova ( see f ig . 1 ) . T rading t hen b ecame t he m ain s ource o f w ealth f or t he A rabian c ities . T he R omans a lso b elieved t hat i t w as i n t heir p olitical i nterest t o s upport t he G reek o r H ellenized c ities i n t he a rea s eeing t hem a s t he m ain b uffer a gainst t he e xisting S emitic e lements. T hey w ere m ore t han s atisfied t o m erely e ncourage , d evelop a nd e nlarge e xisting c ities a nd r arely e stablished a ny n ew t owns o n t heir o wn . T he E mperors o f t he A ntonine D ynasty , f amous f or t heir s upport o f t he G reek c ulture , c ontributed m uch t o t he d evelopment o f t he A rabian c ities a nd i t w as
d uring
t his p eriod
t hat t he c ities
t ook o n t heir m onumental
f orms .
D uring t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies C .E . t he e clectic s tyle r eached i ts p eak i n S yria a nd A rabia . T his s tyle w hich d rew i nspiration b oth f rom t he E ast a nd f rom t he C lassical W orld c reated t he H ellenisitic s tyle a nd f lourished u nder t he e asy c onditions c reated b y t he R oman r ule ( 26). T here a re f ew e xamples o f t ypical R oman u rban a rchitecture i n A rabia a s a ll t he s eparate c omponents a re e ither H ellenisitc w hile o nly t he b asic p lanning f ramework i s R oman . O bviously c ertain s tructures o riginated i n t he W est t he t heatre , t he h ippodrome , t he T riumphal A rch , t he B ath a nd t he a queduct . B ut o n c loser e xamination i t b ecame q uite c lear t hat t hese b uildings w ere r e-adopted t o s uit l ocal b uilding m ethods a nd t he u rban s cene o f A rabian c ities . E ven i f t heir b asic p lan w as R oman i n o rigin , t he t owns -
w ere c onstructed a nd d ecorated b y m en u sing l ocal b uilding m aterials . T hey w ere u ndoubtedly t he f ruit o f l ocal u rban a rchitecture . T he E ast T riumphal A rch i n B ostra f or e xample , d ecorated w ith N abatean c apitals ( see f ig . 1 24) , i s n one o ther t han a m onumental a rchitectural s tructure m arking t he b order
1 09
b etween
t he
n ew R oman
c ity
a nd
t he A ncient A cropolis w ith
i ts s anctuary .
U nlike t he T riumphal A rch a t G erasa t his o ne i s n ot a s ymbol o f as pecific h istorical e vent . W e h ave a lready m entioned t hat t he v arious l ocations o f t he t heatres i n t he u rban c omplex o f A rabian c ities
p oints
t o t he
e xistence o f
d ifferent
t raditions .(27) C ulturally t hese t heatres s erved a d ifferent p urpose t o t hat o f t he t raditional G reek o r R oman t heatres . T he A rabian t heatre w as e ssentially a n a musement c entre u sed f or m usical p lays , p antomimes a nd s ometimes e ven p ublic m eetings . ( 28) I t b ecomes i ncreasingly c lear t hat R ome c ontributed l ittle t o t he u rban a rchitecture i n t his a rea ,
a cting m ore a s a " catalyst" ,
c reating t he r ight
c onditions f or t he g rowth a nd p rosperity o f t he l ocal a rchitecture .
I t w as
R ome t hat f ormed t he b ridge o ver w hich C lassical, N abatean a nd E astern t raditions
c ontinued
t o
i nfluence
e ach
o ther ,
r esulting
f inally
i n
t he
f ormation o f a v ery d efinite l ocal s tyle o f a rchitecture . T he R omans d id i ntroduce a f ew n ew s tructures i nto t he a rea b ut t hese s oon l ost t heir o riginal u se a nd c haracter a nd w ere s ubsequently s tyled i n t he f ashion o f A rabian u rban a rchitecture . I t i s d efinitely w orth m entioning t hat t he i nterrelationship b etween t he R oman a nd l ocal S yrian-Hellenistic a rchitecture w as n ot a o ne-sided a ffair a s m ay s o f ar h ave b een u nderstood . O ne s hould k eep i n m ind t hat i t w as t he a rchitect A pollodorus o f D amascus w ho u nder E mperor T raian w as i n c harge o f o ne o f t he m ost i mpressive u rban c omplexes i n R ome
-
T he T raian M arket .
( 29)
A s r egards t own p lann ing i tself , R oman i nfluence a ppears t o b e g reater . P rior t o t he H ellenisitic p eriod , S outhern S yria a nd t he E ast B ank o f t he J ordan R iver h ad n o e xamples o f o rganized t own p lanning . T he f irst p lanned c ities h ere w ere e rected b y A lexander a nd h is s uccessors. T he r emains o f t he f our t owns u nder d iscussion b arely s how a ny e vidence o f t heir u rban n ature d uring t he H ellenistic p eriod .
( 30)
T he c ity p lans
w ere e stablished b etween t he i st a nd 2 nd c enturies G .E . a nd a re d efinitely t he f ruit o f r ather R oman t han H ellenistic p lanning t radition . T he c ontrast t hat n ow a ppears i s b etween t he H ellenisitic a nd l ocal u rban a rchitecture a nd t he t raditionally R oman t own p lanning . A gain t he q uestion m ay b e a sked w hether t hese c ities a re p urely R oman i n p lan o r w hether l ocal p lanning s olutions ,
t ypical o nly o f A rabaian c ities
w ere a lso i ntroduced? L ooking a t t he t own p lanning o f P hiladelphia ( fig . 5 ) i t b ecomes q uite c lear t hat t he c ity 's b asic f orm w as i nitially s haped b y m other n ature a nd o nly l ater b y t he h ands o f m an . T he t wo m ain s treets r un p arallel t o t wo v alleys a t t he f oot o f t he A cropolis . A ll t he s tructures i ncluding t he F orum , t heatre , o deum , n ymphaeum a nd t he s anctuary d ate t o t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies C .E . D espite t his i t i s s till d ifficult t o p oint t o a d efinite R oman t own p lan , a nd i t w ould p robably b e m ore c orrect t o s tate t hat P hiladelphia r epresents a n o riginal s olution t o a s pecific l ocal a nd t opographical p roblem e xisting i n t his a rea . A lthough t he t opography a lso g reatly a ffected t he p lan o f G erasa ,
t he
c ity s eems t o h ave d evioped a s ar esult o f t he u nification o f i ts t wo h alves -
T he " Eastern C ity" w hich s till h as w hat a ppears t o b e aH ellenisitic
s treet n etwork , a nd t he n ew " Western c ity" p lanned d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he i st c entury G .E . a nd l ater c onnected t o t he a ncient ( "Eastern c ity" ) b y
10
t hree m ain a xes .
T he d ifferent o rientation o f t he s treets i n b oth h alves
p oints t o t he f act t hat t he ' Eastern c ity" w as u sed a s t he m ain l iving q uarters , w hile t he " Western c ity" w as t he c entre o f a ll t he o ther c ity f unctions t he r itual, a dministrative a nd c ommercial . C erasa i n t his w ay i s a n e xample o f t he b lending o f H ellenistic a nd R oman c ity p lanning ( see -
f ig . 4 3). T he n ew c ity o f B ostra w as c onstructed c lose t o a ncient B ostra a nd h as a f airly r egular s treet n etwork .
B ut t he u rban r eality a lready e xisting i n
t he a rea w as w hat e stablished t he d irection o f s ome o f
t he s treets .
T he
R oman t own p lanning , h owever , i s s till c learly v isible e ven t hough h ere t oo l ocal
a rchitectural
s olutions
w ere
r eached
t o h elp
e stablish a n ew t own
a longside a n o ld u nplanned o ne . T he p lanners e mphasized t he c onnection b etween t he t wo c ities b y a llowing t he a ncient c ity t o b e u sed f or h abitation a nd r itual p urposes, w hile e stablishing a ll o ther p ublic , a dministrative a nd b usiness f unctions i n t he n ew o ne ( see f ig . 1 07) . P hilippopolis i s t he o nly c ity b uilt u pon v irgin s oil,
w here t he
d esigners d id n ot h ave t o t ake i nto c onsideration p revious s tructures o r p lans . T he c ity , w ith i ts a lmost p erfectly r egular p lan , i s r ectangular i n s hape w ith t wo m ain c ross
r oads
i ntersecting a t
r ight a ngles s lightly o ff
c entre . T he s treet n etwork r unning p arallel t o t he m ain c rossroads f orms " insulae" , t he m ajority o f w hich w ere n ever b uilt u pon a s a r esult o f t he s hort e xistance o f t he c ity ( see f ig . 1 55) . P hilippopolis i s t hus t he o nly p ure R oman c ity e stablished i n t his f ashion i n A rabia , e xception t o t he g eneral p icture w e h ave s een u ntil n ow .
a nd a s s uch i s a n
F rom t his w e m ay c onclude t hat n ative A rabian t own p lanning i s w orthy o f ap lace i n t he a rchitectural h istory o f t he C lassical W orld .
A lthough i ts
s ources o f i nspiration w ere q uite c losely R oman , t he A rabian t own p lanning , j ust a s A rabian a rchitectue , w as u nique i n i ts f reedom o f s tyle a nd m ovement a way
f rom t he h arsh
n orms
w hich
c haracterised H ellenisic
a nd
R oman
t own
p lanning . W hile i t m ay b e p ossible t o d iscuss c hronological f rameworks , s ources o f i nspiration , t raditions o f b uilding a nd h istorical i nfluences, i t i s i mpossible t o d efine t he e xact t ype o f t own p lan r epresented b y e ach o f t hese A rabian c ities .(31) W hat t hen i s s o s pecial a bout t hese c ities ? W hat c haracterizes t heir u rban s cene ? T he ' % Iippodamian C ity" o r t he p lanned R oman c ity f or i nstance ,
w ith i ts
" Camp p lan" e xcelled i n i ts o rganized a nd r egular d ivision , b ut w as a m onotonous a nd u nexciting c ity w ith s traight s treets a nd n o s pecial h ighlights o r p oints o f s pecific i nterests . T he A rabian c ities o n t he o ther h and w ere e stablished a longside a nd o ften a djoining o ther e xisting c ities w hose d efinite u rban n ature h ad t o b e t aken i nto c onsideration . A s a r esult t he p lanners s ucceeded i n c reating a n u nusual a nd e xtremely i nteresting u rban s cene . L ooking a t B ostra a gain w e s ee h ow t he T riumphal A rches , t he c olonnaded s treets , t he l ocation o f t he m ajor m onuments a nd t he t riangular p laza a ll b reak t he m onotony o f t he s treets w hich m ainly i ntersect a t r ight a ngles . T he p henomenon o f M onumental i zat i on d iscussed a bove w hich i ncluded t he T riumphal A rches , s anctuaries , t he T etrapylon a nd t he C olonnaded s treets w as u sed m ore f or u rban d ecor t han b ecause i t w as s o v ery f unctional . T he s hapes o f t he t wo p ublic s quares i n G erasa
11
-
o ne o val a nd o ne
c ircular
-
a re
i n
t hemselves
e vidence
o f
t he
g reat
s olutions t o s pecific l ocal p roblems ( see f igs . 4 5 ,
s earch
6 4) .
( 32)
f or o riginal T he p lanning
o f P hiladelphia w ithin t he t wo n arrow v alleys a t t he f oot o f t he A cropolis , t he d istribution o f i ts b uildings a long b oth s ides o f t he t wo m ain s treets , t he c onstruction o f av ault o ver t he r iver a nd t he i ngenious e xploitation o f t he e ntire a rea , o nce a gain e xemplify t he g reatness o f t he a bility o f t he p lanners a nd a rchitects o f A rabian c ities ( see f ig . 5 ) . ( 33) I n c onclusion w e m ust p ose a f ew q uestions c oncerning t he n ature a nd f unctions o f t he A rabian c ities d uring t he f irst c enturies o f t he C ommon E ra .
W ere t hese r eally C aravan c ities , c ommercial s tops a nd l egionnaires '
c amps ? W hat c aused t hem t o p rosper s o g reatly d uring t hese y ears ? T he c larification o f c ertain a spects a lready d iscussed a bove w ill a llow u s , i f o nly i n p art ,
t o u nderstand t he n ature a nd f unctional l ife o f t hese c ities .
T he v ery t itle o f t his s tudy p oints
t o o ne o f
t he
c ommon f actors
o f
t hese c ities . A ll t hese c ities w ere s ituated o n t he e dge o f t he d esert a long t he V ia T raiana N ova ( see f ig . 1 ) , w hich w as t he m ost i mportant r oute l inking t he R oman E mpire t o t he E ast . D espite t his l ocation e ach o f t hese c ities w as b lessed w ith t remendous s ources o f w ater , a nd a ll e xcept P hiladelphia a lso h ad l arge a gricultural l ands . ( 34) T hus , d espite t heir p roximity t o t he d esert , t hese c ities w ere n ot d ependant o n t he i mportation o f f oodstuffs f rom o ther c ountries a nd t herefore n ever h ad t o r ely o n a n o utside f orce . I t i s h owever q uite c lear t hat t heir e conomic s ituation w as n ot b ased u pon a griculture a lone . T he l atter m erely p rovided t heir p hysical e xistence b ut w as n ot t he c ause o f t he t remendous p rosperity e n joyed b y t he c ities d uring t he f irst c enturies o f t he C ommon E ra . T heir g reat w ealth w as a chieved b y p articipating i n t he I nternational T rade w hich p assed o ver t he V ia T raiana N ova . A s a r esult o f t he f eeling o f s ecurity t hat e xisted d uring t he 2 nd c entury C .E . m erchandise c ould p ass q uickly a nd s afely a long t he m ain r outes r esulting i n a n i nternational t rade b oom . ( 35) O ne g lance a t
t he f our c ities d iscussed a bove w ill s how t hat w ith t he
e xception o f P hiladelphia ,
a ll
o f t hem t oday a re p oor ,
s mall s ettlements
w hose s ole e xistence i s b ased o n a griculture . ( 36) T hey a re n o l onger u sed a s i nternational t rading s tations, a nd n o m erchants p ass t hrough t hem e xhibiting t heir l atest w ares . F rom t he m oment t hat t he p eace a nd q uiet w as d isturbed o n t he g reat h ighways t hese g reat c ities w ere f orced t o f all b ack o n a griculture i n o rder t o m ake a l iving . v illage o r s mall t own a live , p rosperous c ity t hriving . W e a re w itnesses , d uring t he i st f ollowed.
-
T he l atter c an k eep a
b ut m uch m ore i s n eeded t o k eep a g reat a nd
t herefore ,
t o t he r ise a nd p rosperity o f t hese c ities
3 rd c enturies C .E . a nd a lso t o t heir f all i n t he y ears t hat
A q uestion t hat h as t o b e a sked i n t his s tudy i s w hether i n f act t hese w ere C aravan C ities a s i s b elieved b y M . R ostovtzeff . ( 37)
I n n one o f t he
f unctional d ivisions o f t he f our c ities c ould w e f ind a ny e vidence t o s ubstantiate t his p articular t heory . I n B ostra l arge g ranaries w ere d iscovered , b ut t hese m ore t han l ikely h ad t o d o w ith t he s tatus o f t he c ity a s t he m ain b ase f or t he I lird L egion ( see f igs . 1 06 ,
1 07) .
T he c oastal c ities o f t he E ast h ad f ar m ore g ranaries t han t he d esert c ities o f A rabia a s t hey w ere i mport-export p orts d ealing m ainly i n
12
a gricultural
c argoes
d esert c itie
w ere a griculturally s elf-sufficient a nd d id n ot e xport a ny o f
t heir p roduc t-
i ncluding w heat ,
o il,
w ines a nd r aw m aterials .
T he
The g oods t hat p assed t hrough t hem w ere o f av ery d ifferent
n ature a nd i ncluded v arious s orts o f p erfumes ,
s pices a nd e xpensive c lothes
w hich c ame f rom S outhern A rabia , A frica a nd e ven I ndia . ( 38) S uch m erchandise d id n ot c all f or l arge g ranaries a nd s tore r ooms a re t herefore l acking i n t he f unctional d ivision o f t he c ities . T he e ntire e xistence o f a C aravan C ity d epended u pon t he p assing t rade a nd a lthough i t i s q uite o bvious t hat t he p rosperity a nd s ize o f t he A rabian c ities d windled c onsiderably a fter m erchandise c eased t o p ass t hrough t hem , h owever t hey d id s till c ontinue t o e xist a nd l ive o ff t heir l ands . T he c ity o f P almyra w hich w as a t rue C aravan C ity s imply c eased t o e xist a fter t he C aravans a nd m erchants s topped p assing t hrough i t . ( 39) E ach o ne
o f
t he
c ities
w e
h ave
d iscussed
e mbodied
a d ifferent
u rban
f unction : B ostra w as f irst a nd f oremostly t he A rabian P rovincial c apital a nd t he b ase f or t he I lird C yrenian L egion . P hilippopolis e xisted f or t oo s hort a p eriod t o e nable u s t o p in i t d own t o a s pecific u rban f unction . F rom e pigraphical e vidence h owever i t s eems t hat i t w as b uilt a s a" private c ity" f or P hilip t he A rab . ( 40) P hiladelphia a nd C erasa r epresent a d ifferent t ype o f c ity . T hey a re o f t he o ld " Polis" c ities w hich a long w ith t heir o wn c ultural t raditions c ontinued t o s ee t hemselves a s i ndependent c ities . T his i ndependence i s e xpressed i n t he m agnificent b uilding p rojects w hich w ere f inanced b y t he c itizens t hemselves f rom t he p rofits o f t heir i nternational t rading . T he c ities o f A rabia w ith t heir e normous s ancturies m ust h ave s erved a g reater p opulation t han t hat l iving p ermanently i n t hem . T hey w ere u ndoubtedly f ocal p oints f or t he p opulation l iving i n t heir v icinity a nd w ere u sed a s a dministrative , c entres.
c utlural,
r eligious a nd n aturally c ommercial
( 41)
I n c onclusion w e m ay s ay t hat t he c ities o f A rabia s hould b e s een b oth f rom t he a rchitectural a nd t own p lanning a spects, a nd f rom t heir u rban f unctions w ithin t he A rabian P rovince , w ithin t he w ide f ramework o f S yrian , H ellenistic a nd R oman E ast a t t he e arly c enturies o f t he C ommon E ra .
13
N otes
1 .
S ee c hapter 1 , p p . 3 18.
2 .
S ee c hapter 2 , p p .
1 9-48 .
3 .
S ee c hapter 3 ,
p p .
4 9-73.
4 .
S ee c hapter 4 ,
p . p
7 5-94.
5 .
S ee c hapter 4 ,
p .
6 .
S ee c hapter 4 ,
p p .
7 7, n ote 1 . 7 8-79,
s ee a lso A ppendix t o c hapter 4 ,
p p .
9 7-100 .
7 . J .B . W ard-Perkins, C ities o f A ncient G reece a nd I taly : P lanning i n . 3 2 . C lassical A ntiquity , N ew Y ork , 1 974 , p 8 .
S ee c hapter 4 , n ote 4 1.
9 .
D iscussion c oncerning t he p osition o f t he T heatre i n t he c ities o f P alestine , S yria a nd A rabia , s ee : E . F rezouls, " Recherches s ur l es T heatres d e l 'Orient S yrien" , S YRIA X XXVIII ( 1961) , p p . 5 4-56 . A . S egal . ' Die T heaterbauten i m A lten P alaestina i n R o tm isch-Byzantinischer Z eit" , A ntike W elt 1 8 ( 1 ) , 1 987, pp. 2 -21 . 1 0 . W ith r eference t o t he s ituation o f t he T heatres i n t he c ity, c hapter 2 , n otes 2 7 , 2 9 .
s ee
1 . T emple " C" i n G erasa i s p roof o f t he e xistence o f a t hird t ype o f 1 T emple t he N abataean T emples w hich , a lthough m ore h ave n ot y et b een u ncovered, p robably d id e xist i n o ther c ities t hroughout A rabia . W ith r eference t o T emple " C" . s ee c hapter 2 , n ote 5 . -
1 2 .
-
A c omprehensive d iscussion o n t he S taircase T owers i n a rchitecture i n
P rovincia A rabia ,
s ee c hapter 2 ,
p .
2 3 ,
1 3.
S ee c hapter 1 , n otes 9 ,
1 4.
S ee c hapter 2 ,
p .
1 5 .
S ee c hapter 2 ,
p p .
1 6.
S ee c hapter 2 ,
p .
2 9, n otes 7 4, 7 6.
1 7 .
S ee c hapter 3 ,
p .
5 5, n ote 2 9 .
1 8 .
W ith r eference
t o
n ote 2 5 .
1 2.
2 3, n ote 2 1. 2 6-29, n otes 5 7-59.
t he h istory ,
t he m easurements a nd
t he c haracter o f
s anctuaries i n S yria a nd A rabia , s ee c hapter 2 , n otes 5 7-59 . 1 9.
S ee c hapter 1 ,
p .
7 , n ote 1 5. C hapter 2 ,
14
p .
2 8, n ote 6 3.
2 0 .
P erfect
P liny
e vidence
t he Y ounger ,
o f
t his
m ay
b e
s een
i n
t he
c orrespondence
G overnor o f P rovincia B ithynia i n A sia M inor ,
b etween a nd
t he
E mperor T rajan . T he G overnor r eports t hat t he c itizens o f t he c ities s plurge t heir m oney , o n t heir o wn a ccord , t o c ompete w ith e ach o ther i n t he c onstruction o f n ew a nd t otally u nnecessary b uildings . P liny L etters I I , W . H einemann , L ondon , S ee c hapter 3 ,
2 2.
S ee c hapter 2 , n ote 5 .
2 3 .
A N egev ,
p p.
C hapter 3 , n ote 3 .
S taircase-Tower
( 1973) , p p . 3 64-383 . i dem . , ' Die N abataer" , G .W . F . E .
S ee :
X XXIX .
6 2-63, n ote 7 9.
2 1.
'T he
1 947 ,
A NTIKE W ELT ,
i n N abataean S onder N ummer ,
A rchitecture" ,
R .B . L XXX ,
1 975 .
B owersock , R oman A rabia , H arvard U niversity P ress , 1 983 . P eters , " City P lanning i n G reco-Roman S yria" , D aM I ( 1983) ,
2 77. A . B arghouti , R oman
p p .
2 69-
" Urbanization o f P alestine a nd J ordan i n H ellenistic a nd
T imes",
i n
A .
Hadidi
( ed.),
S tudies
i n
t he H istory
a nd
A rchaeology o f J ordan I , A mman , 1 982 , p p . 2 09-229 . E . W ill, " L 'Urbanisation d e l a J ordanie a ux e poques h ellenistique e t r omaine : c onditions g eographiques e t e thniques" , i n A . H adidi ( ed .) , S tudies i n t he H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan I I ,
A mman ,
1 985 ,
p . p
2 37-
2 41. 2 4 .
S ee n ote 1 2.
2 5 .
S ee c hapter 4 , d iscussion o n t he T heatre ,
d iscussion o n t he B ath , 2 6 .
p . 8 0-81, p
p . 8 1-82 , p
n otes 2 4 ,
2 7 ;
a nd
n ote 1 8 .
W ith r eference t o t he c haracter o f H ellenistic A rchitecture ,
s ee :
T h . F yfe , H ellenistic A rchitecture , C ambridge , 1 936 . p . S ee s ections d ealing w ith H ellenisitic A rchitecture i n S yria a nd A rabia , p 3 4-45 ;
8 4-91;
1 72179 .
S .B. M urray, H ellenistic A rchitecture i n S yria , P rinceton , 2 7.
S ee n otes 9 , 1 0.
2 8 .
E . F rezouls, o p.cit., p . 8 5.
2 9 .
D io 's R oman H istory , W . H einemann ,
A nother
confirmation
of
L ondon ,
1 955 ,
L XIX ,
1 917.
4 .
t he s tatus a nd p restige o f t he S yrian a rchitecture
i n t he e yes o f t he R omans , m ay b e s een f rom t he l etter o f E mperor T rajan i n a nswer t o o ne s ent b y P liny t he Y ounger , G overnor o f B ithynia . T he E mperor w rites t hat h e s ees n o n eed t o s end a n a rchitect f rom R ome , a s r equested b y P liny, b ecause i n m ost c ases a rchitects w ere s ent f rom t he E ast t o g ive a dvice i n R ome , a nd n ot t he c ontrary . S ee : P liny L etters I I, W . H einemann , L ondon , 1 947, X XXIX , X L . 3 0 .
I n t he c ase o f G erasa , w e p ut f orward t he t heory t hat t he l ines o f t he
" Eastern C ity" p reserve t hose o f t he e arlier H ellenistic c ity , 2 , p p . 3 4-35 . 3 1.
S ee c hapter 3 , n ote 7 2;
3 2.
S ee c hapter 2 , p . 3 0
c hapter 4 , n ote 3 9.
a nd p . 2 6, n otes 5 2, 8 3, 8 4.
15
s ee c hapter
3 3 .
P erhaps
t he a rchitecture m ost s imilar t o t hat f ound
i n t he c ities o f
A rabia i s t h't o f t he c ities o f A sia M inor , e specially i n P isidia a nd i n P amphilia . T hese c ities t oo h ad r ich H ellenistic b ackgrounds , b ut t heir m ain a rchitectural c haracter w as f ormed d uring t he f irst 3 c enturies o f t he c ommon e ra b y t he R omans . H ere t oo i s a n e xample o f am ingling o f t he C lassical, H ellenistic a nd E astern t raditions . C ities s uch a s A spendos , S ide a nd P erge h ave a lso d isplayed u nusual a nd o ften s imilar s olutions t o p roblems d eveloping o ut o f t he c onflict b etween t he a ncient c ities a nd t he n ew , m ore u niform p lanning w hich i ncluded m onumental p ublic s tructures l ike T heatres , N ymphaea , T emples a nd e specially p lazas a nd c olonnaded s treets . a ) W ith r eference t o A spendos, s ee : K . L anckoronski , S tadte P amphyliens u nd P isidiens I , W ien , H .
H ormann ,
" Das N ymphaeum z u A pendos" ,
b ) W ith r eference t o S ide ,
J .D .A .I . 4 4
( 1929) ,
1 890 , p p .
p p .
8 5124 .
2 63-274 .
s ee ;
K . L anckoronski, o p.cit., pp. 1 25-152. A . M ansel , D ie R uinen v on S ide , B erlin , 1 963. c ) W ith r eference t o P erge , s ee : K . L anckoronski , o p.cit., pp. 3 3-63. A . M ansel, E xcavations a nd R esearches a t P erge , A nkara, 1 949. S ee a lso : A . B oethius, J . W ard-Perkins, E truscan a nd R oman A rchitecture, P enguin B ooks , 1 970 , ( Asia M inor , pp. 3 86-411) . C . B eam , T urkey 's S outhern S hore A n A rchaeological G uide , -
3 4 .
L ondon ,
1 968 .
A l ook a t t he a erial p hotographs a nd d etailed m aps o f t he a reas
s urrounding t he c ities o f B ostra ( fig . 1 01) , S huhba ( Philippopolis) ( fig . 1 53) a nd C erasa ( fig . 3 5) , w ill s how t hat t hey a ll h ad a mple water a nd f ertile a gricultural l ands i n t heir i mmediate v icinity . T here i s ah eavy a nnual r ainfall i n t hese a reas i n t he r egion o f B ostra a nd P hilippopolis a bout 8 00mm f alls a y ear , w hile t he a reas o f P hiladelphia a nd G erasa h ave -
a bout 6 00mm . S ee : A tlas o f I srael ( 3rd E dition), p ublished b y t he S urvey o f I srael a nd M acmillan C ompany , N ew Y ork , 1 985 . ( Sheet 1 2 R ainfall a nd H umidity) . -
3 5 .
A c omprehensive b ibliography r eferring t o t he a ncient r oads o n t he E ast
B ank o f t he J ordan , s ee c hapter 1 , n ote 3 ; c hapter 2 , n ote 2 ; c hapter 3 , n ote 2 . 3 6 .
A mman r ose a s t he c apital c ity o f t he K ingdom o f J ordan h ousing a bout 1
m illion i nhabitants ,
b ecause o f t he p olitical d ecision t aken b y t he B ritish
g oveliu t tent a fter W orld W ar I t o s eparate b etween e ast a nd w est P alestine . A mman w as d ecreed t he c apital o f t he " Em irate o f T rans-Jordan" , t oday t he H ashemite K ingdom o f J ordan . 3 7 .
M . R ostovtzeff ,
C aravan C ities ,
O xford ,
1 932 ,
( Jerash ,
p p . 5 5-90) .
3 8 . W ith r eference t o t he c aravan a nd t rade r outes i n t he e astern r egions o f t he R oman E mpire , s ee : M . C harlesworth , T rade-Routes a nd C ommerce o f t he R oman E mpire , C ambridge , 1 924 , ( Syria , pp. 3 5-56) . M . R ostovtzeff , T he S ocial a nd E conomic H istory o f t he R oman E mpire , O xford , 1 926. A .H .M . J ones, T he C ities o f t he E astern R oman P rovinces, O xford , ( Syria , p p . 2 77-295) . T . F rank ( ed .), A n E conomic S urvey o f A ncient R ome , H eicheiheim , R oman S yria , p p . 1 23-254) .
16
B altimore ,
1 937,
1 938 ,
( F .
3 9 . C ity ,
W ith
r eference
t o
t he
s tatus
a nd
c haracter o f P almyra a s
a C aravan
s ee :
M . R ostovtzeff , C aravan C ities , O xford , 1 932 , ( Palmyra a nd D ura , P p . 9 11 52). J .G . F evrier , E ssai s ur L 'Histoire P olitique e t E conomique d e P almyre , P aris , 1 931 . D . S chlumberger , " Le D eveloppement U rban d e P almyre" , B ERYT I JS 2 1 935 , p p . 1 49-162. E . W ill, " Marchands e t C hefs d e C aravanes a p almyre" , S YRIA X XXIV, ( 1957) , p p .
2 62-277 .
4 0.
S ee c hapter 4 ,
4 1 .
T he t erritories
18-119, n ote 4 7.
p p .
o f
t he c ities
o f P rovincia A rabia w ere
p articularly
l arge a nd i ncluded m any v illages a nd s mall t owns , s ee : M . Avi-Yonah , T he Holy Land f rom t he P ersian P eriod t o t he Arab C onquest , B aker B ook H ouse , M ichigan , 1 966 , ( Philadelphia , p . 1 77 ; G erasa , p . 1 75-177) . p
17
L IST O F A BBREVIATIONS A A A DAJ
A rchaeologischer A nziger A nnual o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f J ordan .
A ASOR
A nnual o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch
A JA A A S yr.
A merican J ournal o f A rchaeology A nnales a rcheologiques d e S yria
A W B ASOR
A ntike W elt B ulletin o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch
D aM E C
D amaszener M itteilungen E nciclopedia C lassica ,
F A J AOS J DI
( Arte R omana) . F asti A rchaeologici J ournal o f t he A merican O riental R esearch J ahrbuch d es D eutschen A rchaeologischen I nstituts
I EJ J } IS
I srael E xploration J ournal J ournal o f H ellenic S tudies
J RS I LN
J ournal o f R oman S tudies I llustrated L ondon N ews
o lume S ezione I II , V
X II , A rcheologia
J SAH J ournal o f t he S ociety o f A rchitectural H istorians M esopotamia R ivista d i A rcheologia , E pigrafia e S toria O rientale A ntica , O pArch .
U niversita d i T orino O puscula A rchaeologica , S krif t er u tgivna a v S venska I nstitutet i
P EQ
R om P alestine E xploration Q uarterly
R B R E T JAB
R evue B iblique erumswiSsenschaft P aulys R ealencyclopaedie d er C iassischen A lt G overnment o f T rans-Jordan A ntiquities B ulletin
T PR Z DPV
T own P lanning R eview Z eitschrift d es D eutschen P alaestina Vereif lS
19
S ELECT B IBILOGRAPHY A .D. A lbert, T he A ncient C ity a nd i ts S ite, C hicago , S . A pplebaum L evick
( ed .),
1 940.
" Hellenistic C ities i n J udea a nd i ts V icinity" ,
i n B .
T he A ncient H istorian a nd h is M aterials , F arnborough ,
1 975 ,
p . 5 9-73 . p M . A vi-Yonah , H ellenism a nd t he E ast : c ontracts a nd i nter-relations f rom A lexander t o t he R oman C onquest, A nn-Arbor , 1 978. E .N . B acon , D esign o f C ities, N ew-York, 1 967. A . R oman
B arghouti , T imes" ,
" Urbanization o f P alestine a nd J ordan i n H ellenistic a nd
i n A .
J ordan I , A mman ,
H adidi
1 982,
p . p
( ed .) ,
S tudies i n t he H istory a nd A rchaeolgy o f
2 09-229 .
T h . B auzou, " Les v oies d e c ommunication d ans l e H auran a l 'epoque r omaine" , i n J .M . D entzer ( ed.), H auran I , P aris, 1 985, p p . 1 37166. N .
B ieber ,
T he H istory o f t he G reek a nd R oman T heater ,
P rinceton ,
1 961 .
H . B ietenhardt , ' Die S yrische D ekapolis v on P ompeius b is T raian" , i n H . T emporini , W . H aase ( eds .), A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er R omischen W elt 1(8) , 1
B erlin ,
M .E .
1 977 ,
B lake ,
p . p
20-261 . 2
A ncient R oman C onstruction i n I taly f rom t he P rehistoric
P eriod t o A ugustus, W ashington , 1 947. i dem .,
R oman C onstruction i n I taly f rom T iberius t hrough t he F lavians ,
W ashington , 1 959. A . B oethius, R oman a nd G reek T own A rchitecture, G oteberg ,
1 848 .
i dem ., T he G olden H ouse o f N ero , A nn-Arbor , 1 960 . G . W . B owersock , R oman A rabia , H arvard U niversity P ress, J .M . B owsher , S urvey" ,
P EQ 19
1 983.
" Architecture a nd R eligion i n t he D ecapolis , ( 1987) ,
p p .
aN umismatic
6 2-69 .
J . B radford, A ncient L andscapes, L ondon 1 957. F . B raemer , " Prospections A rcheologiques d ans l e H awran" , S yria L XI ( 1984), p p . 2 19-250 . F . C astagnoli , O rthogonal T own P lanning i n A ntiquity, M .I.T ., 1 971. S . C ecil, A P rospect o f C ities, L ondon , 1 952. R .
C hevallier ,
" Cite e t
R omischen W elt, I I, B erlin , M .
C oppa ,
t erritoire" ,
i n : A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er
1 974, p p . 6 49-788.
S toria d ell 'urbanistica d alle o rigini a ll 'ellenismo ,
1 968.
1 21
T orino ,
L .
C rema ,
" L 'architettura
r omana
n ell 'eta
d ella
A ufstieg u n N iedergang d er R omischen W elt I , B erlin 1 973, C . D auphin ,
i n
6 33-660.
P P.
" Jewish a nd C hristian C ommunities i n t he R oman a nd B yzantine
G aulanitis" , P EQ 14 ( 1982-83), p p . J . D entzer ,
r epublica" ,
1 29-142.
" Developpe i nent e t c ulture d e l a S yrie d u s ud d ans l a p eriod
p reprovinciale ( 1er s . a vant J .C . 1er s . a pres J .C .)" , ( ed .), H auran I ( Deuxieme P artie), P aris,
1 986 ,
p p.
i n J .M . D entzer
3 87-420.
J . D entzer-Feydy , 'ecor a rchitectural e t D eveloppement d u H auran d u 1 er s iecle a vant J .C .
a u V ile s iecle a pres J .C ." ,
( Deuxieme p artie), P aris, 1 986,
p p .
i n J .M . D entzer ( ed .) H auran I
2 61-310.
L . D odi, D ell'antica u rbanistica r omana n el M edio O riente. M ilano , G . D owney , " Aristotle a s a n E xpert o n U rban P roblems" . ( 1972).
1 962 .
T ALANTA I II
J . E adie , " The E volution o f t he R oman F rontier i n Arabia" , i n P h . F reeman , D . K ennedy ( eds .) , T he D efence t he R oman a nd B yzantine E ast , B .A .R . 2 97, O xford , 1 986, E . 1 951.
E gli,
p p .
2 43-252.
C limate a nd T own D istricts ; C onsequences a nd D emands ,
T h. F yfe , H ellenistic A rchitecture, C ambridge ,
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G iedion ,
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1 -26.
D .F . G raf , ' The N abateans a nd t he D ecapolis" , i n P h . F reeman , D . K ennedy ( eds .) , T he D efence o f R oman a nd B yzantine E ast, B .A .R . 2 97, O xford , 1 986, p . 7 85-796. p S b .
G regory,
D . K ennedy
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S ir A urel S tein 's L imes R eport,
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2 72 ( I, I I), 1 985. P . G rimal, L es v illes r omaines P aris, 1 954. J .A . H anson , R oman T heater T emples, P rinceton , 0 .
H andlin ( ed .),
S . H art ,
" Wabateans
1 959.
T he H istorian a nd t he C ity , C ambridge , M ass . , a nd R omans
i n S outhern J ordan" ,
i n P h .
K ennedy ( eds .) , T he D efence o f R oman a nd B yzantine E ast . O xford , 1 986 , p p . 3 37-342 . F . H averfield , A ncient T own P lanning , O xford,
1 913.
F . R . H iorns, T own B uilding i n H istory, L ondon , 1 956.
1 22
1 963 .
F reeman , B .A .R .
D .
2 97,
D .
H omes-Frederico ,
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A rchaeology o f J ordan I -
( Akkadica S upplementum ), P eeters L euven , 1 986.
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C ity R egion
i n R oman P alestine" ,
P EQ 12
( 1981) ,
p p .
1 9-32. B .
I saac ,
E pigraphik 4 4
" The D ecapolis ( 1981) ,
p p .
i n S yria" ,
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6 7-74 .
A .H .M . J ones, T he C ities o f E astern R oman P rovinces, O xford, 1 937. P . M cKendrick , " Roman T own P lann ing", A RCHAEOLOGY 9 ( 1956), p p . 1 26-133. D .L .
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N orth-East J ordan ,
A rchaeological E xplorations o n t he R oman F rontier i n B .A .R . 1 34 ( 1982).
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e n P roche O rient ,
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H udson , H .
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T hames
a nd
1 974. I nnes M acAdam ,
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1 23
E . N ash , R oman T owns, N ew Y ork, A .
N egev ,
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W . H aase ( eds .) , A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er R omischen W elt 1 977 . p p . 5 20-686 .
I I
T emporini , ( 8 ) ,
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1 20128 .
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American
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3 40
1 986 .
( 1 .11) ,
P arnicki-Pudelko , A gora-Geneza I r ozwoj R ynku g reckiego , W arszawa ,
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i dem . , " City P lanning i n G reco-Roman S yria : D amaszener M itteilungen I ( 1983), p p . 2 69-277.
S ome
( 1977) , n ew
p p .
2 63-277 .
C onsiderations" ,
J .P . R ey-Coquais, " Syria r omaine, d e P ompee a D iocletien" , J .R .S . 6 8 ( 1978), p p . 4 4-73. D .N . R iley , " Archaeological A ir P hotography a nd t he E astern L imes" , i n P h . F reeman , D . K ennedy ( eds .) , T he D efence o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine E ast , B .A .R . 2 97, O xford, 1 986, p p . 6 61-676. H . R osenau,
T he I deal C ity, L ondon , 1 959.
M . R ostovtzeff , M .
S artre ,
L atomus ( Vol . i dem . , p . 7 7-91. p i dem .,
C aravan C ities, O xford, 1 932.
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1 78), B ruxelles , " Tribus
e t
C lans
" Le p euplement e t
d ans
l e H awran A ntique" ,
-
S yria L IX
( 1982) ,
l e d eveloppement d u H auran a ntique
l umiêre d es i nscriptions g recques H auran I , P aris , 1 985 , p p . 1 89-204 . i dem ., B ostra G euthner , P aris, 1 985.
C ollection
1 982.
e t
l atines" ,
d es o rigines a I slam ,
1 24
i n J .M .
D entzer
ala ( ed .) ,
L ibraire O rientaliste , P aul
H .H . S cullard, A .
T he E truscan C ities a nd R ome , L ondon ,
S egal,
' ! Roman C ities
i n t he P rovince o f A rabia" ,
S ociety o f A rchitectural H istorians X L ( 2), i dem . , Z eit",
1 967.
1 981, p p .
J ournal o f t he
1 08121.
" Uie T heaterbauten i m A lten P alaestina i n R omisch-Byzantinicher
A ntike W elt 1 8 ( I),
1 987, p p . 2 -21.
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S mith ,
T he P reindustrial c ity,
G lencoe, I llinois,
P ella o f t he D ecapolis ,
T he
C ollege
1 960 .
o f W ooster P ress ,
1 973. D . S ourdel, L es c ultes d u H auran a l 'epoque r omaine, P aris, A .
S pijkerman ,
1 952 .
T he C oins o f t he D ecapolis a nd P rovincia A rabia ,
F ranciscan P rinting P ress, J erusalem , 1 978. D . S tanislawski,
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G eographical R eview X XXVI J .
S tarcky ,
( 1946) ,
p p .
1 05-120 .
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i n J .M . D entzer ( ed .),
H auran I , P aris ,
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B .
d e V ries ,
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1 972-1977" ,
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( 1981) ,
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" Urbanization i n t he B asalt R egion o f N orth J ordan i n t he L ate t he c ase o f U n im e l-Ji t nal" i n A . H adidi ( ed .) , S tudies i n t he
H istory a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan I I, A mman , J .B . W ard-Perkins , 2 6 ( 1955),
p p .
1 985,
p p .
' ! Early R oman T owns i n I taly" ,
2 49-256. T own P lanning R eview
1 26154.
i dem ., " The E arly D evelopment o f R oman T own P lanning" , C ongressus M advigiani, C openhagen , 1 958 . i dem . ,
" From R epublic t o E mpire :
A rchitecture o f t he R oman W est",
i n A cta
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J .R .S. 6 0 ( 1970),
p p .
1 19.
i dem ., C ities o f A ncient G reece a nd I taly : P lanning i n C lassical A ntiquity , N ew Y ork , 1 974.
1 25
E . W ill ,
" l 'Urbanisation d e
l a J ordanie a ux e poques h ellenistique e t
r omaine : c onditions g eographiques e t e thniques" , i n A . H adidi ( ed .) , S tudies i n t he H isotry a nd A rchaeology o f J ordan I I , A mman 1 985 , p p . 2 37 2 41. R .E. W ycherley, i dem . ,
H ow t he G reeks B uilt C ities, L ondon , 1 949.
" Hellenic
C ities" ,
T own P lanning R eview 2 2
( 1951) ,
p p .
1 04-
1 21. i dem ., 1 78-205.
" Hellenistic C ities" ,
1 26
T own P lanning R eview 2 2 ,
( 1951) ,
p . p
( D AM A S C U S P h l i p o p oi s i p 8 0S T RA a e i s a
""'
T R A I N A
P I V A
P h i l a d e lp h i a
•P e t r a
A H
F ig .
1 .
q ! �
P rovincia A rabia a nd t he V ia T raiana N ova .
F ig . 2 .
A mma n , c ity c entre . e arly 3 0's.
F ig. 3 .
V iew f rom A cropolis .
P hiladelphia ( Amman), c ity p lan .
P hotograph f rom t he
E A O o\
I \
\ I
N MAN •
14
NoRTHEv ILD INa . s ON
7 -
m
F ig . 8 .
P hiladelphia , t he s anctuary o n t he A cropolis.
AKR OPOLIS -
a d e l p h i a
£
1
S
I
I
•
W
V
I L _.
.
r
-r
r : r na
•
•
a
-
V IN
F ig. 9 .
P hiladelphia ,
t he s anctuary o n t he A cropolis , n ote t he c olonnades
e xposed b y t he I talian e xcavators.
F ig .
1 0.
P hiladelphia, t he T emple o n t he A cropolis.
Fig . 11.
Philadelphia, the Temple on the Acropolis as e xposed by the Italian excavators.
Philadelphia
�, . Fig. 12.
Philadelphia, fragment of architrav e found among the debris on the Acropolis.
\MMAN •
P R OFY LA EA
STATE • A
AC TVAL
BP L AN S CALE • 0 0025 1 M .
o .-27 3»
M ,
1 0
0
1 0 , 1 0
F ig. 1 3.
P hiladelphia , t he P ropylaea a t t he b ase o f t he A cropolis.
F ig .
1 4.
P hiladelphia, s ection o f t he M ain S treet.
F ig.
F ig .
1 6.
1 5.
A mman , t he t heatre b efore t he r econstruction .
A mman , t he t heatre a nd t he s ection o f i n e arly 6 0's.
t he F orum a s
r econstructed
P h i lad e l ph ia
F ig.
1 7.
A mman ,
a s ection
o f
t he
p ortico
t hat
s urrounded
t he
F orum .
P hotograph f rom t he e arly 7 0's.
F ig.
1 8.
P hiladelphia ,
t he t heatre a nd t he o deon .
P h i lade l p h i a
UI o . IL I. IM.
-
MNAN THEAT E 5FCT IO N AE
• M r,t . FI LA
' I .
L F }I
DIEATBE
7
-1 F l9
3 9 .
B o wn '
—
I i 5 . . .3 c-_ ------ 4o
-
E
W ALLS I N S ITVM
T OLS WA S1ONS•
1CON1EC TV E D•
d7
D
ThEATBE L F .CT ICN C -D —
F ig.
1 9.
P hiladelphia,
t he t heatre.
'' .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
F ig. 2 0.
0
0
0 0
0 0 0
P hiladelphia , t he t heatre .
P lan o f
UM M RE IS
F ig . 2 1.
C adara ,
t he A cropolis, n ote t he t wo t heatres.
I I I I
-
-
1
0•
5
I
/
L N
G ADARA
F ig. 2 2.
G adara ,
s chematic p lan o f t he A cropolis
7f t Ij
t he to t heatre .
G a d a r , t h e A c r o p l i s , a e r i a l v i e w .
\ M MAN
• ODEvM
1 1 1 1
2 4 -
S
I V fPE ! IL EVEL t V LO I
L I
L EVEL
4
-------
V PPER
L LVEL L OWZR L EVEL 3
0
P LAN -RESTORED -
. s 2 --
7 0
44 -
BETA
I L
O FSEATS
STErS -
& ALF .00025 1 M '
•NY MP H AE V M . S
CT 1ON -A
•AC T VAL STATE
I I N S TV 1 3
DATUN
C ON J CTV TFD
F ig. 2 6.
P hiladelphia ,
t he n ymphaeon .
P h i t a d e I pha
F ig .
2 7.
P hiladelphia, p roposed r econstruction o f t he n ymphaeon .
F ig .
2 8 . Amman ,
t he
b ack
w all
o f
t he
n ymphaeon .
P hotograph f rom e arly
3 0's.
F ig . 2 9.
P hiladelphia , s ection o f t he v ault R iver i n t he v icinity o f t he F orum .
t hat
o nce
c overed
t he A mman
F ig. 3 0.
A mman ,
t he " West T omb" ;
a .
A p hotograph f rom t he e nd o f X IX c ent.
b . c .
F ragment o f d ome. T he p lan .
Z L
tT/% .
5
i lc it im
f/(n t" e ' e e iy c mzt .
F ig. 3 1.
P etra ,
F ig . 3 2.
t he n ymphaeon .
M iletos,
t he n ymphaeon .
A s pen d o s
I !
r A I AV
1
R IS3 D S
1 V T IK) .L CH N TT I N DER
NY ! PN EV I\S
G V NDPJSZ D S E RS TEN GESCHOSSES
6
7
6
9
F ig. 3 3.
20 1%
10
E I
r . p .2 1 929
A spendos, t he n ymphaeon .
S i d e
F ig . 3 4.
S ide,
t he n ymphaeof l .
F ig . 3 5.
C erasa ( Jerash), a erial p hotograph.
F ig . 3 6.
C erasa ( Jerash ) , f rom e arly 3 0's.
t he e astern p art o f
t he c ity ,
a erial
p hotograph
F ig. 3 7.
G erasa ( Jerash ) , t he n orthern p art o f t he c ity , f rom e arly 3 0's.
a erial p hotograph
F ig. 3 8.
G erasa ( Jerash), t he n orthvest p hotograph f rom e arly 3 0ts.
p art
o f
t he
c ity .
A erial
b
a
a
() tnu )
(
RUI NS 6 i i)JE RAS f l .
F ig. 3 9.
G erasa , c ity p lan .
F ig. 4 0.
C erasa, c ity p lan .
D$CHE RASCH ( GE RAS A)
Von Dr . G .Sdnnnacher 1n e t he ur
M n. 11.chaufn.hn t. • m7-9 M 1 898 u .d
• 6 22
Th
/
—
F ig. 4 1.
G erasa , c ity p lan .
1 900 .
M ARGINAL f ort CRNTZR YRTUAPYLON
F ig . 4 2.
G erasa , c ity p lan .
SCA MS . D I $ T A Z I C & I I NP t f l f l OR
SO UT H
F ig . 4 3.
G erasa , c ity p lan .
F ig . 4 4.
G erasa , t he T emple o f Z eus a nd t he o val p laza.
F ig. 4 5 .
G erasa, t he o val p laza , v iew f rom t he n orth .
Fig. 46.
Gerasa, the Temple of Zeus, view from the south-east.
the Temple of Zeus.
TE MPLE OF ZE US
G e r a s a
PLAN
.• •I
iE
0
f l
•I
.
[ 0
-
_
1 0 6
N
H. • •
E U
•u i u .
F ig . 4 9.
G erasa ,
t he s outh t heatre, p hotograph f rom e arly
a T
Unj
. M -
G e r a s a
I
4 1 t qa 7q
i 1 B . J .i0.
4 23
1 11W 4N i \ 8 7 .76
10
F ig .
I J ) .
20
G erasa ,
3 0 's .
30
to
t he s outh t heatre .
I so
4 ITL
F ig . 5 1.
G erasa ,
F ig. 5 2.
t he s outh t heatre, p hotograph f rom e arly 7 0's.
G erasa ,
t he n ymphaeon , v iew f rom t he e ast.
F ig. 5 3.
G erasa ,
s ection o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet a nd
t he n ymphaeon ,
v iew f rom t he n orth-east.
G e ra sa
N Y MP H AEU M ( C . 1 90 A .D . )
PLAN
i - 1 IJ LJ L
-
STREET
5 TKEET
F ig. 5 4.
G erasa ,
t he n ymphaeof l .
F ig. 5 5.
G erasa , n iche.
t he n ymphaeon ,
f ragment o f t he u pper p art o f t he c entral
L
F ig. 5 7.
G erasa ,
s ection o f t he p ortico t hat s urrounded t he p laza i n f ront
o f t he n orth t heatre.
G e r a sa
1 0
1
F ig . 5 8 .
bO o
G erasa,
t he n orth t heatre a nd i ts p laza.
F ig. 5 9.
F ig. 6 0.
G erasa ,
G erasa ,
t he n orth t etrapylon .
t he d ome i n t he W est B ath.
G e r a s a 00
00 00
• *4 00 0G •
0 0 *0 0 0 0 0
r n
d r M I RMM
Z C Z C ) I C I O Z O X Z
*
W EST
BATHS
F ig. 6 1.
G erasa ,
t he W est B ath.
4 4
t h e
T r i u m p h a l A r c h .
G e r a s a
H IPP ODR h F1L GROUND
F ig . 6 5.
PLAN
G erasa ,
t he h ippodrome.
G e r a s a
5O IJTH
PL A\
A T
PRESENT
E LEVAT I ON
LU LL
OF
F E
[C E L
O1 ?L5
SOUTH
F ig. 6 6.
COND IT ION
(i f
C C : E3
GATE
G erasa ,
t he s outh g ate .
F ig. 6 7.
F ig. 6 8 .
G erasa,
G erasa ,
t he c ircular p laza a nd t he s outh t etrapylon .
t he c ircular p laza a nd t he s outh t etrapylon .
F ig . 6 9 .
F ig. 7 0.
G erasa ,
C erasa ,
t he s outh t etrapylon ( sections).
t he s outh t etrapylon ( architectural d etails).
Q . /
/
4 L SOUTH T ETRAPY WN
/
F ig. 7 1.
G erasa ,
t
t he
c irucular
r econstruction .
G e r a s a
REST ORED
p laza
a nd
t he
s outh
t etrapylon ,
p roposed
NORTH
G e r a sa
GATE
( 1 14-I bA D) F IRST
E [ .]
CENT . A. D .
.O . I4-I15 A LATE
ADD ITI ONS
(ROUND
F ig. 7 2.
P IA
G erasa ,
t he n orth g ate.
G e rasa
I
F
l t
Ne
M s !
M OM IM M
w
L
NORTH
GATE
( I1 4-II5A .D .)
SOUTH
Fi
G erasa,
E LEVAT ION
n orth g ate,
R ESTORED
p roposed r econstruction .
4
. . . • •••
• .. . .
S
I
• • s
• . a •
S
4 5
. .
Nord
f lÖ l.e npuol« £O& ne
. S S
S
über d . f le er
I
0
1 0.
• • •
•
S
• • • • ••
. . . .
S
. . .. .
•
S
S
• • •
•
S
PLA N
S
S
DE S
•
S
S
• •
SO N NE NTE M PELS IN
DSCHE RAS CH ( CERASA) a uf e i to m men den 9
G P
4 .u .5
J u li 1 89 7
von Dr .G .Schu macher MaUNtab
1800
F ig.
7 5.
G erasa, S anctuary o f A rtemis.
P ROPYLAEA
0
-
0
0
CHURCH
-
-. -
-.
. ..
G e r a sa
--
I s
4 !
4 !
[ 4 ! 4 4 !
4 4
4 !
4 4 •
4 :
.
0 4
EJ rJ C f tp
F ig. 7 6.
G erasa ,
S anctuary o f A rtemis,
I ATCP S ' AILJ
t he P ropylaea e ast o f t he main
n orth-south s treet.
AL
P N 'C l 2[ATC1A T F f fA IW N ORTH � _ J E AH J . J EP 1 N J JOPD7\ . N . -
.
• F ig.
7 7.
G erasa , S anctuary o f A rtemi s, t he P ropylaea n orth-south s treet.
vC5t
o f t he m ai l '
NS I DE
Q REAT cATEO FN OQ .TH T EMP IF JE 1A JH T 1ZkN JJ 0 1 2 L YAN .
OUT
D.
F ig . 7 8.
G erasa , S anctuary o f A rtemis , t he f acade o f t he P ropylaea w est o f t he m ain n orth-south s treet, p roposed r econstruction .
F ig.
G erasa,
7 9.
S anctuary o f A rtemis,
t he P ropylaea
n orth-south s treet, v iew f rom t he e ast.
. j est o f t he m ain
T EMPLE
OF
ARTEM IS
G e r a s a /
J
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t L H 1 f l 1 T L I JT El n rT r 1
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1
F ig. 8 0.
F ig. 8 1.
I1 1
G erasa , T emple o f A rtemis.
G erasa, T emple o f A rtemis, v iew f rom w est.
F ig. 8 2.
G erasa , T emple o f A rtemis , c apitals o f t he c olumns i n f ront o f t he t emple .
1 ( (4
F ig. 8 3.
K os, A sklepieion .
i or i i 1i
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
[ i ndo s
S IG NATURES, A T rr ie DATHANA
L I N DI A
L x v
B P R c ,pvl f t C D I
CL iSE M
(SC ALIER GRAN D
I
F ig . 8 4.
F ig. 8 5.
2'
L indos,
So
i .
l b
O I f r ALE
Ik,oc u,e Do CO A10 000 0 T
F C
H P er il
f l
A eon
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A RCOf l IQUC
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SPIL I OTISS A
K
KOD RI A
L
RELI CT O ' U N N AVI R E
GO O.
S anctuary o f A thena .— '
T ivoli, S anctuary o f H ercules.
1 7
ge p
F ig . 8 6.
F ig. 8 7.
J erusalem ,
P raeneste , S anctuary o f F ortuna P rimigenia .
s outh-west s ection o f t he T emple M ount, a m odel .
o ff
1" I
F ig. 8 8.
2
1
P almyra , S anctuary o f B ei, p roposed r econstruction .
. .. . . . . . . . . . P R M WT r o a
I I-* S-I S-I * I I I L
1'
P a lm y r a
F ig . 8 9 . P almyra ,
S anctuary
o f N ebo ,
a nd t he t riumphal a rch .
s ection o f
t he m ain c olonnade s treet
S a n c t u a r y
0 0
4 J
4 . 4
0
D AMASCUS
fEf n Ir, • m i lli t f f lTf f l rn Tr Y -� ,!- ,
.-.
ON
ii sms I P0 11 1110 11 1 1 1 :1
I
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II
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i r
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a-
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I II UII U h I I11 UI I 1 u uI •ui uiui ii iUIU U IlU U I I
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F ig . 9 1.
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l iii . . .. .I I .IuIuI11I11111I1Ihh 1 m
D amascus, S anctuary o f J upiter.
PROPYLAEA
AND
STA IRCASE
TO
CATHEDRAL
G e r a sa
— 11 1 1 1 1 -
-
-
: -
- -
-
i
-
2Vj!Vt
WA L
NY 9PHAEU M
F ig. 9 2.
G erasa ,
t he " Cathedral P recinct" ,
t he P ropylaea .
F ig. 9 3.
G erasa , t he "Cathedral P recinct", outer g ate o f the P ropylaea .
G e ra s a
FORUM NORTH
END
KE -Y
— L
—
5 WETC-
l ) F ig. 9 4.
G erasa ,
n orthern s ection o f
t he m ain n orth-south s treet.
t he o val
p laza a nd
t he b eginning o f
F ig. 9 5.
G erasa ,
t he
o val
p laza ,
i onic
c apital
f rom
t he
c olonnade
s urrounded t he p laza.
I / / / /# /
/ / 4/ '/ /' / --
-
-
F e /sgra M c iuSO
-
e urn
: ' z-z k
ã t
rktëf l7Ba . . eñ.
F ig. 9 6.
G erasa,
t he o pen r itual a rea n orth o f t he c ity ( Birketein).
t hat
F ig . 9 7.
F ig.
9 8.
G erasa ,
C erasa , t heatre.
t he
t he o pen r itual a rea n orth o f t he c ity ( Birketein).
o pen
r itual
a rea
n orth
o f
t he
c ity
( Birkete i) ,
t he
F ig. 9 9.
G erasa, t he o pen r itual a rea n orth o f t he c ity ( Birketein) , " Cermanus T omb", p hotograph f rom t he e nd o f X IX c ent.
1 00. G erasa , t he o pen r itual a rea n orth o f t he " Germanus T omb" , p hotograph f rom e arly 3 0's.
c ity
( Birketein) ,
F ig .
1 01. T he a rea o f B ostra , am ap ( scale 1 :50,000).
H I
SCHA M
S OUTHERN HAURAN F I ( )N S I JIV I EH
B Y
H I l O h IR IS . C H
F ig .
1 02. S outhern H auran , n etwork o f r oads i n t he v icinity o f B ostra.
‚ I i tC SO rv o,r. iJ,o S Rui n. 1 ' rIt
I '
LL IJ U
OS
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t I eure
9
A1 1
Pri v ate
‚ C
I t tovv L
): . . . . . ..‚ .. . to
h o use. g o
S I nei .I ' r I . 3 T ev ip le . .
19
l i S l e 4
f l ieh .
5 . T rin l A rh . i i ipha C . !e Il ou v . 7 . M, .k . 8 . Roh . h
t o . I ! .
t . ..
4
t I e
S i eh
u i
an t
1 4 . A lta a u th I S . ( t ou u , u I uu .
i ,itejrtv.
I C .
Ar h .
1 U .
M
2 1 .
l L iz , ue.
t o . 1 .
P LANO F T IlE RUINS O F B OZ ILUL
(ett o 00!
F ig.
D RAWN
By
1 03.
B ostra,
J . L .
Por TER .
c ity p lan.
I
St etS .
F ig .
1 04. B ostra,
c ity p lan .
F ig. 1 05. B ostra , c ity p lan .
T HE A T A
BOS RA
ES KI
SC HA M
BOBRA OR ROSTRA I N ROMAN AND MED IAEVAL T IM E FROM S URVEY BY F .A , NORR IS .C E NOVE MBER
-
90 4
S CA I E —,oM — . oM B on ..n . . d C hn ... A ,b , c
F ig .
1 06. B ostra, c ity p lan .
F ig. 1 07. B ostra , c ity p lan .
F ig .
1 08. B ostra , a erial p hotograph.
F ig.
1 09 . B ostra ,
a erial
p hotograph ,
n ote t he n etwork o f
t he m ain s treets ,
c ity—wall a nd t he c onjectural l ocation o f t he L egion 's C amp.
F ig .
1 10. B ostra ,
s chematic c ity p lan ,
n ote t he c onjectural
l ocation o f t he
L egion 's C amp .
F ig.
i ll. B ostra ,
s chematic c ity p lan ,
L egion 's C amp .
n ote t he c onjectural
l ocation o f t he
F ig.
12. B ostra ,
s chematic c ity p lan ,
L egion 's C amp.
n ote t he c onjectural
l ocation o f t he
F ig.
F ig .
13. B ostra , N abatean C apital.
1 14. B ostra , f our p illars d ecorated c apitals.
w ith e ngaged c olumns a nd N abatean
J
W EST FACE
B OS PA WIST CATL
- N.
. 5LCT I O N A-ß
F ig.
15. B ostra ,
P LAN
t he W est G ate.
F ig .
F ig.
17. B ostra ,
16. B ostra , t he W est G ate.
t he W est G ate, p hotograph f rom e arly 7 0's.
F ig .
18. B ostra, t he W est G ate, s ection o f t he f acade .
U
I
a C_ O VE R E D W AL K f-. _ T& --H-& --0 9 -
550
-
'
.0 .-3
-
-
-
-
-
- 3
-
-
.
- -.
-
.
--
RO AD W AY
7 90
oo - COVEP
=
W
4o AL K
-
-
-
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I
-
B OSPA •
1 20.
o stra ,
f acade o f
--
-
1 --- - -
5 T P L L T
T RLLT COLONNAD r econstruction .
-
-
s ection o f t he c olonnade s treet.
P A V L D
F ig .
-
-
COLO N NADF
F ig. 19. B ostra ,
O SRA
-
-
t he s hops
a long
L A ND
SHOP-} 'PONT A S
t he c olonnade s treet ,
p roposed
F ig.
1 21. B ostra ,
t he E ast T riumphal A rch , s ection o f t he f acade ,
f rom e arly 7 0's.
p hotograph
F ig .
1 22. B ostra ,
t he E ast T riumphal A rch .
F
= =
=
E O$PA P LA N LO WER STO REY
r .2
FA5T ARC H C A LL
F LAN VPPER STOHEY
1 C N-ir ' I
3 07
F ig .
1 23. B ostra ,
t he E ast T riumphal A rch .
I
7 6
62
11 1 40
F ig.
1 24. B ostra ,
t he E ast T riumphal A rch , p roposed r econstruction .
F ig .
I
1 25. B ostra ,
t he C entral T riumphal A rch.
-
ii
I
I
I
I
‚
I N
F ig.
1 26. B ostra ,
M I S ,
t he C entral T riumphal A rch , p hotographed i n c .1900.
$L C TI O N P S TO RE D
F ig .
1 27. B ostra,
HALFopSOV TH FACE PE S T O RE D
t he C entral T riumphal A rch , p roposed r econstruction.
EO A SPA
4 -to
RV I N3 O TTL NPLU
V
435 _. _ J ,70 ..
D
C
950
j
9
i 14
A 0 S CALE: 2YC M -1r -1 A
3
.0
P ROT ILLo B
C HL$AT A NI
R OSPA
1
j T r r
6 4
-
.
F
-
C0LV M N
A 1?
e l
NY I1PHALV M
1 0
F ig.
1 29. B ostra,
t he N ymphaeon a nd t he u Kalybe i v.
E h
F ig.
1 30 . B ostra ,
t he
" kalybe ' t, s ection
o f
t he
a rchitrave
a nd
c orinthian c apitals.
F ig.
1 31. B ostra ,
, a c orinthian c apital. t he " Kalybe t'
o ne
o f
t he
'- - - - - a - - - -
F ig .
1 32. B ostra,
t he P alace.
-
P IEJ-CAP
CAP I TAL
J ±J J l i
F ig.
1 33. B ostra ,
ti ±i
t he P alace .
RL3 TO PLD $LC T ION 1-F I F ig .
1 34. B ostra,
t he P alace .
F ig.
1 35. D ura-Europos, P alace o f t he D ux.
77 -U
U
/
2
7 3
0
17
4
2 7
25
, 1 1
0
61 .
+
5 50
2 /
Ui
I a L •
Ii
I .
1 1 1 4 1mi p . . w
r
w
-
27 0
F ig .
1 36. K asr I bn W ardan ,
F ig.
1 37. B ostra ,
.
•.
v K a s r I h n W a r d en
t he P alace .
t he S outh B ath .
Antioch
BOS RA· Fig. 138. Antioch, Bath "C".
;
. .:•, : . , /.,
,•. '·
. �,
-,o.,-•
.5CALE:OSCM-1M
NORTHWESTBATH_S·
t N
Fig. 139. Bostra, North-West Bath.
B05RA· ---- ---- - - ----- ------ - -
'
'
6.68
''
'
7s /
6 ,0
'
'
I
/
, >'
/
I ', /
..... /
''
S80
'
'
NOPTH BATHS·
Fig. 140. Bostra, North Bath.
FAç A ] I JB .D -F .
F ig.
1 41. B ostra ,
t he B asilica.
B o s t r a
ta
-
-
300
r o
2330
0 .
F ig.
1 42. B ostra,
t he B asilica.
240
3 3
13 Y
I m 1 3
.
1 95
431 --
: 160
20 .
6 .
a
9 2
.
BO $P A F ig.
1 43. B ostra ,
IAPKE T s ection o f t he F orum .
•i nm ir n i i i n iml i i i i u lw l l l l l l l l
F ig .
F ig.
1 45. B ostra ,
1 44. B ostra ,
t he T heatre.
t he T heatre a r id t he M edieval F ortress.
F ig .
1 46. B ostra ,
F ig.
t he T heatre, s kene b uilding a nd c avea .
1 47. B ostra ,
t he T heatre
( sections).
Fig. 148. Bostra, the Theatre, view of the cavea.
Fig. 149. Rome, Theatre of Marcellus.
1S 7
GRO V ND P LAN
CE IL I NG F ig .
F ig.
1 50 . B ostra,
BO$PA TO WLR -TOI " IB " Tholos" T omb .
1 51. P ompeii, c ity p lan .
F ig . 1 52. O stia , H orrea ( granaries) o f 1 l ortensius.
F ig . 1 53. S I-i u hba , am ap ( scale 1 :50,000).
F a l len c o lonna des S tand ing c olonnades
-
W el ls
in
‚ l tn
F e ll en waf l C an j..tu . i ..d w&lla
F ig .
1 54. P hilippopolis, c ity p lan .
I'
,,,,
���-·'
���-
,.
,,
A.S.
Fig. 155. Philippopolis, city plan.
Philippopolis
F ig . 1 56. P hilippopolis, a erial p hotograph.
P h i li p pe po h s
F ig.
F ig .
1 57. P hilippopolis,
t he 1 l exastyle T emple.
1 58. B aalbek ( Heliopolis), T emple o f V enus.
F ig.
F ig.
1 59. S ide , T emple " C".
1 60. P hilippopolis, t he t ' Philippaeon".
P h i l ipp o p o l i s
A
i r
C
-- a h
- h d a
m
I
B
A
F ig.
1 61. P hilippopolis, t he P alace.
E
AC V e sinr i j . B F iq tdir i&n i D U C c1duria . E T tp tdar &u: t K . ' R e servo ir
P h i l ipp op o l i s F ig.
1 62. P hilippopolis, t he B ath .
F ig. 1 63. P hilippopolis,
t he T heatre.
F ig.
1 64. P hilippopolis, t he T heatre, p roposed r econstruction .
P s
$
2
3
4
5
M .
1 65. P hilippopolis, c ross-vaults i n t he t heatre .
F ig.
1 66. P hilippopolis, t he t heatre , v iew o f t he c avea .
8 . 16
I " /
i 1 •: IL -
-
F ig .
-
1 67. P hilippopolis, o ne o f t he p odia t hat f ormed t he T etrapylon .
F ig.
1 68 . P almyra ,
t he T etrapylon .
F ig . 1 69. P hilippopolis, t he S outh G ate.
F ig.
1 70. P hilippopolis, t he S outh G ate a s p reserved i n c .1900.
F ig .
1 71. P hilippopolis,
t he s maller S outh G ate.
1OkNO
C 't
1 f 1A Df
LUAN
F ig. 1 72. T urin ( Italy), c ity-plan .
F ig .
1 73. V erona ( Italy),city-plan .
F ig.
1 74. A osta ( Ita1y),city plan .
F ig .
1 75. L ucca ( Italy) ‚ city-plan .
F ig.
1 76. C omo ( Comum ) ( Italy),city-plan .