The Social Setting of Christian Conversion in South India: The Impact of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionaries on the Trichy-Tanjore Diocese with Special Reference to the Harijan Communities of the Mass Movement Area, 1820-1947 [1 ed.] 9783515026390, 3515026398

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BEITRAGE

ZUR

SUDASIEN-FORSCHUNG

SUDASIEN-INSTITUT UNIVERSITAT

HEIDELBERG

| | SchoolofTheology at Claremont.& |

VANTIN

‘

llNa

: 33

THE SOCIAL SETTING OF CHRISTIAN CONVERSION IN SOUTH INDIA BY

SUNDARARAJ

PRANZ

STEINER

MANICKAM

VERLAG

:

WIESBADEN

THE

SOCIAL

SETTING OF CHRISTIAN IN SOUTH INDIA

CONVERSION

BEITRAGE ZUR SUDASIENFORSCHUNG SUDASIEN - INSTITUT UNIVERSITAT HEIDELBERG

BAND

33

SY FRANZ

STEINER VERLAG 1977

- WIESBADEN

3V

he

220 THE ‘SOCIAL SETTING 008 OF CHRISTIAN CONVERSION , Pro. ‘nome!

mm ri \

} ie

‘eng

IN SOUTH INDIA

‘

ey

THE

IMPACT OF THE WESLEYAN METHODIST MISSIONARIES ON THE TRICHY—TANJORE DIOCESE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE HARIJAN COMMUNITIES OF THE MASS MOVEMENT AREA 1820—1947

BY SUNDARARAJ

MANICKAM VW

SY FRANZ

STEINER VERLAG L977,

- WIESBADEN

Theology Library

SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY AT CLAREMON' 7

CIP—Kurztitelaufnahme der Deutschen Bibliothek Manickam,

Sundararaj

The social setting of Christian conversion in South India:

the impact

of the Wesleyan Methodist missionaries on the Trichy-Tanjore Dio-

cese with special reference to the Harijan communities of the mass movement area 1820-1947. — 1. Aufl. — Wiesbaden:

(Beitrage zur Siidasienforschung; ISBN 3-515-02639-8

Bd.

Steiner, 1977.

33)

The South Asia Institute and the author wish to acknowledge the grants received from Oekumenisches Studienwerk e.V., Bochum, Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Missionswissenschaft and Evangelische Kirche von Westfalen for the publication of this book.

Alle Rechte vorbehalten

Ohne ausdriickliche Genehmigung des Verlages ist es auch nicht gestattet, einzelne Teile des Werkes auf photomechanischem Wege (Photokopie, Mikrokopie usw.) zu vervielfaltigen. - Gedruckt mit Unterstiitzung der Gesellschaft von Freunden und Férderern der Universitat Miinchen (Miinchner Universitatsgesellschaft) e. V. * © 1977 by Franz Steiner Verlag GmbH, Wiesbaden ° Druck: Offsetdruckerei Wolf, Heppenheim Printed in Germany

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

page TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

ABBREVIATIONS

VII

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

PNG

VIII

PREFACE

Ravicw CHAPTER

1:

.THE

HISTORICAL

day

and People

and

3.

Social

Stratification--the

Religion

4.

The

5.

Administrative

Advent

2:

of

Structure

the

ADVANCE

AND

Mission

Stations

Establishing Expansion

3.

1912--A

Review

4,

Factors

Retarding

1.

of

FIRST

1.

3:

15 Caste

Missions--Regional

2.

CHAPTER

and

THE

PIONEER

Consolidation

1820-1885

43 47 47 65

70°

Masse

MASS

2.

Nature

Features

of

3.

Motives

the

Movement

4:

Church

DIFFICULTIES

Growth

En

of

39

Setting Methodist

69

TRICHINOPOLY

and

21

System

1885-1912

Conversion

CHAPTER

sane SieOry.

BACKGROUND

2.

CHAPTER

ls

the

STRATEGY

Movement Converts

99 108

--EVANGELISM

Distinctiveness

Traditional

3.

A Gradual

Modification

TAS,

4.

Preaching

of

116

5:

Views

the

MISSIONARY

1.

Primary

2.

Secondary

3.

Higher

Methodism

lit

1.

2.

CHAPTER

of

80 80

1913-1947

Mass

MISSIONARY

MOVEMENT

of

Evangelicals

Gospel STRATEGY--EDUCATION

Education Education

Education

the

113

121 122 140 149

CHAPTER

6:

SPECIALIZED

1.

The

Karur

2.

Medical

Industrial

169

Missions

7:

RAISING

1.

A Christian

2.

Organizational

3.

‘Church

CHAPTER

8:

of

Development

3.

Process

4.

Native

Base

OF

In oO ND W & =

-

The

CHAPTER

of

AGENTS

AND

DEVELOPMENT 200

of

Agents

200

Leadership

208

Indigenization and

24

European

OF

KNOWLEDGE

AND

DIFFUSION

the

of

Sphere

Zen

An

Transformation

Active

3.

Change

of

4.

Social

Reform

English

on

of

Education

Female

Influence

COMMUNITY

1.

AND

Through

Education

Leavening

10:

OF

221

TEACHINGS

Education

Effect

217

Missionaries

Pioneers

2.

SUMMARY

ay,

Unity

NATIVE

DISSEMINATION

Western The

Reid

CHURCH

‘WTAE for

Native

CHRISTIAN

°

LIVING

198

Christians

9:

Ideal

A

Impact

LEADERSHIP

2.

-

OF

os

Community

TRAINING

Training

CHAPTER

UP

EE

Properties

OF

1.

162

School

Part CHAPTER

162

AGENCIES

for

of

the

223

Adi-Dravidas

AND

Welfare

a Community

228

230

Christian

DEVELOPMENT

Concern Public

of

the

Education

SOCIAL

of

All

REFORM

233

241 241 244

Opinion

249 Zion

CONCLUSIONS

254

1.

Summary

254

2.

Conclusions

256

SELECT

BIBLIOGRAPHY

262

INDEX

276

VI

ABBREVIATIONS AK

Along

Ann. Rep.

Annual

CLS

Christian

Literature

CSI

Church

South

FF

The

FHSCS

Findlay

HF

The

the

Kaveri

Report

of

Foreign

Field

High

School

Harvest

Historical

ICHR

Indian

Church

IESHR

Indian

Economic

JMGA

Sketches

of

and

History

International

: Journal

Centenary

Souvenir

Field

HSRW

IRM

Society

India

and

Social

Review

the

Review

of Work

Review

of

Madras

History

Review

Missions

Geographical

Association

KO

The

MMS

Methodist

MN

Missionary

MSS

Manuscripts

RCCHET

Report Higher

of the Commission on Education in India

RGS

Report

of

the

General

RIEC

Report

of

the

Indian

Kingdom

Overseas

Missionary

Society

Notices

Commission,

Synod Education

1882

RSIPS

Report

of

the

South

RTMMC

Report

of

the

Trichinopoly

Commission,

1935

SIC

South

Churchman

UTE WMMS WWMF

ee

India

The

United

The

Wesleyan

Work

and

India

Theological Methodist

Workers

VII

Christian

in

the

Provincial

Mass

Synod

Movement

College Missionary Mission

Society

Field

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My

heartfelt

their not

have

been

This

was

College

due

and

to

help

the

following

without

which

who

this

have

afforded

dissertation

me

would

sponsored

through

a generous

Studienwerk,

Bochum,

West

Germany.

While

like

to

the

Rt.

Rev.

of

the

Bishop

munificent

Doraiswamy,

are

time

possible.

work

Oekumenisches its

thanks

invaluable

help,

Bishop

Governing

I

in

should

also

Tiruchirapalli

Board,

for

all

and

that

scholarship

thank

Chairman

he

did

for

me

from

the

acknowledging

in

Solomon

Heber

securing

this

scholarship. To

Professor

I owe

my

enthusiasm

which note

the

approach

M.

Dr.

this

me

Anstey,

others and

Rev.

in

and

Professor

sense

and

my

of

their

two

who

Werner

for

advice

I would

these great

Hans

gratitude

expert

research. of

With

me

of

and

thanks

and

the

the

UTC,

Dr.

John

me

to

C. use

are

also

due

Museum,

Bangalore,

my

very

W.

their

and

like

to

Gensichen

their

unflagging

suggestions

make

bore

with

my

understanding

they

both

Lillie,

a special

uncertain constantly

in

J.0.

Mountford,

the

Jaffna

suggestions the

work

and

of

C.J.

Campus,

the

Daniel,

Ceylon

shared

much

M.M.S.

in

and of

the

District.

Bowmer the

and

Mrs.

M.M.S.

their to

from

valuable

experience

acknowledge

British

Finally,

Revs.

Jeyasingham

Trichinolopy

permitting

I gratefully

Prof.

gave

knowledge

The

my

deep

patience

project.

Ruth

Negapatam

in

helped

Paulraj,

several their

and

encouragement,

immense

to

Rothermund

thanks

me.

Miss

Rev.

and

greatly of

guided

Dietmar

sincere

the

Ina

assistance and

to

and and

authorities

London,

Ellis

Archives

of

Mrs.

were

of

Library

great

in

co-operation. the

India

Audiappa,

and

Similarly

Office the

help

London,

Library

Librarian

of

India.

special

Woking,

Surrey,

United

ly going

through

the

thanks

Kingdom,

manuscript

to

who of

my

friend

spent

my

corrections.

VIII

much

thesis

and

Mr. of

Peter his

made

Morgan

time many

in

from

patient-

valuable

~-— ~

Govt. District Boundaries.

Sssaee + Taluq Boundaries ——"-

Main Roads Railway Some of the Villages with Catechists or Schools Stations of Missionaries and Indian Ministers Underlined

THE TRICHINOPOLY Source:

Along

the Kaveri

1929.

Drawn

Talugs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Tie 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Area

Negapatam Nannilam Tiruturaipundi Mannargudi Pattukottai Tanjore Trichinopoly Lalgudi Perambalur Musiri Kulatalad Karur Dharapuram Palladam Udumalpet Pollachi

_(sq-

: th

miles)

240 291 496 301 698 21 328 373 678 675 913 610 854 585 555. 709 8,727

Talugs Talugs Talugs Taluq Talugqs Talugs

1 - 3 4 - 6 7 -11 12 13-14 15-16

: : : 2)

Circuit Circuit Circuit CircuLt Circuit Circuit

Figures worked out (Madras and Coorg),

DISTRICT by:H. SCHWEINF URTH- MARBY.

Population 261,236 248,487 248,942 248,830 401,818 381,984 469,145 238,931 266,569 363,680 405,847 324,801 323,307 351,734 190,442 384,677 5,140,430

Negapatam Mannargudi Trichinopoly Karuz, Dharapuram Udamalpet

according to Census Part II-A, pp. 2-3.

of Indta

Spe

V.Odie

Leb

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er

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Gas Widow eryee i,

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“

PREFACE

Purpose The

purpose

of

this

dissertation

the

development

of

CSI

Diocese”

Tiruchirapalli

to

assess

its

Movement India

of

contribution particular.

(1947),

in

the

in

thirty

The

had

a number

The

amount these

two

extent

ler.

In

fact,

five

times to

which

had

of

the

of

ter

romance also

and

The

prime

objective

past

and

to

It

also is

fathers' the

the

life

2)

of

to

this

make

that

of the

was,

how

the

under

what

sort

of

changes

that

came

upon

of

undertaking

some

a stimulus

believed

members

responsibility

1)

as

provide

sincerely

amongst ians,

so

the

to by

the

Church

as

Gospel

came

Church

strongly Church,

Methodist

study

area

this

in

in

instrumental to

an

itself.

reconstruct upon

the

first

the

be,

Christ-

Gospel,

and

this

what

what work

awareness

fore-

generation

were

the readers

programmes.

hfstorical

non-Christian

received

should

naturally

constructive

conversion

smal-

element

their

the

they

after

present-day

to

the

a to

the

thus for

small>.

a membership I was

work

create

to how

difficulties

them

to

very

which

impressions

Church

trying

10,000.

membership

propagate

to

is

productive

was

had

to

its

enough

vigorous

about

Charac-

were

who

women

and

men

was

which

a Church

historic

the

about

write

nearly

revolutionary

me

attended

of

Diocese,

numerically

fact of

South village

experienced

Church

history,

attracted

which

the

Church

The

history.

900

community

a

in

community

churches

growth

and

also

had

difficulties

the

and

to up

raising

Church

Methodist

were

of

Methodists of

the

Union

there

the

up

a student of

a fact

as

stay

to

come

Mass

town

the

success

phenomenal

the

study

drawn

as

Further,

interest“.

my

to

Anglicans,

the

of

that

than

and

Church

representation

out,

pointed

already

as

greater

general

Methodist

Anglican

the

the

place

alone

boosted

by

second

a Christian

the

trace

the

the

these

to

covered

in

a Christian

to

only

now

member-church

and

attached

make

to

as

with

consequently

which

of

place

area and

in

time

another

member-churches,

Movement'

kindled

work

first

the

section

pastorates

pastorates

urban

rural

the

in

Diocese

ex-Methodist

of

in

Thanjavur;

the

S.P.G.,

an

such

the At

Anglican

of

is

Church

and

to

in

Baybee":

"Mass

Methodist

area

congregations

Of

the

the seeks

A Diocese is the area under a bishop's jurisdiction. By 'pastorate' should be understood the separate charge of a duly authorized Presbyter whether it consists of a single congregation or a group of congregations. By 'communicant member' should be understood a person who has been duly baptized and confirmed or received as a full member and is in the habit of receiving Holy Communion, according to the traditions of the Church. Seeretartal

Aprtl 3)

Ibid

4)

Edgar

1960 B.

Visit

Thorp,

(KO) 7) VOL.

to

by Donald

XV,

"The

1947,

the

B.

Church

Chtlde,

Trichinopoly

p.-

186.

of South

MMS

Indta

December

Publication,

District",

The

pp.

1959

to

40-41.

Kingdom

Overseas

in

aim

the

be

naturally

would

ecclesiastical,

or

secular

any

writing

of

purpose

the it

be

work

as

whether

all,

at

history

of

knowledge

a perfect

upon

founded

conditions

the

Thus

past".

would

conduct

our

because

but

existing

of

of comprehen-

a perfect

upon

based

be

we

precedents

furnish

would

past

the

because

not

"...

history

conduct, sion

Robinson

Harvey

James

storian study

na

the

As

History,

New

The

work,

his

in

says

labours.

missionary

the

of

fruit

hard-earnerd

the

conserve

times

at

which

dencies

to

also

and

Church,

the

ten~

fissiparous

the

against

of

unity

the

threaten

guard

to

Church

the

help

to

way

a modest

this

of

well.

Previous

To has le

my

so

knowledge

far

been

and

Methodist which

Celebrations trying not

to

only

faceted and

in

1913.

in

India

or

two

work

but

one

sensational

around

a century which

of

a mass

movement.

ed

the

to

shoulder

book,

ten

when

stage

5)

The

the

the

the

with

Story

of

But story

told

after

was the

book

to

book is

the

work, The

face

new

from

was

still

in

into

a new

and

completed.

Negapatam

1913

Mass

and

The

"The Past and Present", in Great ed. Tierney, Kagan and Williams,

character

the

present-

Church

light the for

As

had

Ploughing

Movement

complete', a deeply

Mass

passage

communities

some in

and

the

however,

process.

hence

the

challenges.

admits

Moreover,

and

in

after

well.

throws

himself 'far

as

many-

remarkable

Harijan

District

which

with

work,

only

the

(1817-1913).

dimensions

the

scope,

that

to

of

Church

the

the

so,

years

most

its

District

especially

problems

and

by him

District

finishes

in

in

much

the

Centenary

devoted

of

success

Noble

so

some

of

of

their

Methodist

been

Wes-

the

G.G.Findlay

extensive

every

considerabof

History of

a hundred

assume

Rev.

was

Revs.

China,

influx

soon

Movement

the

work

Trtechtnopoly

entering

by

part

Karur.

overwhelming

the the

Community

J.H.Robinson, Citvtltzatton, YIOUrm jon Os

the

is a small

as

to and

responsibilities

Movement

only

work

History

have

Mission's

Overwhelming

W.J.Noble the

the

witnessed

made

new

of

and

dissertation

some

The

very

in

nearly

reference

Dharapuram

missionaries

Movement.

fact

any

of

is

ex-Methodist

their

almost

his

the

work

Centenary

is

pages

earlier,

find

masse,

Mass

Ceylon

a few in

developments

Rev.

it

mentioned

area

Rock:

in

the

done

of

en

the

such, been

V)

integral

a period

of

by the

is

an

for

hardly

Movement

also

accomplished

as

can

as has

containing

Trtchtinopoly,

Further,

And that

as

a doctoral

only

(Vol.

this

field

for

The

already

Soctety

fact,

the

meant

written

projected

all

work

in

subject.

been

In

was

cover

a chapter

this

Misstonary

W.W.Holdsworth.

W.M.M.S.

research on

has

that

importance

Leyan

no

done

research

(1928)

on

the

preface it

to

was

a matter

writof

significant purpose

of

his

Issues tn Western Vol. II, New York

writing

this

work

in

the

come

to be known

in

India.

is

the

ckam

book

Another

from

the

himself

of

Church

the

written

passing more

soil'

small-scale

unpublished

The

the in

converts,

have

shed

no

method

on' that

part and of

is

the

the

made

three

phases

rapid

Church

chiefly

social

of

to

of

the

phenomenon

the

extent

which terms. the

converts

ration

to

generation

visibly

in

course,

sometimes

put

the

the

second

stress

missionaries’

strength

and

the

is and or

on

a)

that

of

the

the

the

the In on

have

some

time

that

the

present

and

also

also

of

at

be

for

social

the

I

all

of c)

easy or

the

the its

missionaexclusive

believe

this

that

respect to the

is

assess spiritual

goes

on

from

gene-

perhaps

be

seen

more

than

case.

evangelism,

schemes

and

any

for

in

rather the

work

called

education,

what

which

could

the

be

includes

made

an

general

expansion

transformation process

in

movement',

not

is

second

with

may

the

one

the

Diocese

or

not

generation

could

first

what

failure

are

inward

task

changes

examination.

dealing

which

its manifestations

subordinate

high

while

describing

or

that

third

works,

interpretative.

The

missionaries,

a continuous the

partly

'mass

I

success

changes

has

of

though

However,

evangelism

of

While

opposite

more

on

congregation

once

their

and

community

at

impact

of

also.

mainly

uplift.

Moreover,

of

to

and said

involves

growth

the

Christian

spiritual

the

concrete

be

them

activities:

through

is

exhaustive

missionaries,

by

Christian

he

work

given,

It

categories.

concentrated

their

there.

particular.

the

must

the

measure

the

of

of

it

a question in

of

the

mentioned

been

the

Study

broad

in

Further,

socio-economic

not

and

as

establishment

with

above

Movement

thesis,

the

years.

to the

descriptive

made

area

these

the work

of

of

impact

130

a completely

two

work

I have

transformation

did,

study

the

growth

consolidation

partly

the

all

here

being

into

Movement

Methodists,

the

ries

of

on

Mass

is

falls

survey

a study

on

the

b)

adopted

last

His of

consultation

however,

aspect

of

Diocese.

history'

treatment

has,

been

pretence

dissertation

historical

Rev.S.Rajamani-

during

Method

This

Mass

the

mainly

the

had

Districts

the

Diocese

In

Methodist

of

history'

Holdsworth.

the

growing

which

on

a brief

sufficient

rapidly

District

paper

Thanjavur

and

the

B.D.Thesis

‘is

the

to

of all

and

references is

publicity

Trichinopoly

acknowledges,

of

makes

and

'stoniest

page

believe,

light

study

a wider

Tiruchirapalli

Findlay

lives

give

the

'brief

I sincerely the

to

Negapatam

interesting

in

this

Revs.

in

as

thirty-eight

author

the

was

erstwhile

for

But

from

reform

the I

first. have

that

alone

derived

their

impetus. 4

Sources

Most

of

the

materials

relevant

to

this

study

have

been

culled

Of

tried

from

going

individual

of

of

and

Reports

in

India

of

the

Indta.

ments

tn

about

the

Dr.J. former

Annual

Move-

Mass

Move-

Mass

Christtan

information more

gives

latter

the

both

made

be

to

has

conversions

group

of

question

the

and

authentic

Movement,

Mass

District

into

General

Trichtnopoly

the

more

furnishes

Local

and

published

pamphlets

Pickett's

Waskom

and the

Work

mention

of

Report

Synod

1935

Trichinopoly

and

special

context

this

Synod

Women's

Visits,

magazines

While

insights

valuable

India

South

Provincial

India

Commisston,

ment

Conferences,

Secretarial In

England.

and

South

Missionary

missionary

of

a number

Reports;

Methodist

Synod, the

of

Reports

Committee;

and

Provincial

out-

and

official

printed

manuscript

the

of

District

Committee, Synods;

Home

the

letters

Minutes

descriptive

in-coming

field;

the

in

missionaries

original

of

and

journals

reports,

letters,

manuscript

as

such

accounts

N.W.1.

London

Road,

lebone records

Mary-

25,

at

number

a good

are

them

Amongst

archives

Methodist

the

in

preserved

sources

primary

the

im-

other

and

plications. Regarding be

said.

the

Some

credibility think

their

accounts,

importance

to

It

policy

was

the

Mission In

is

House

the

the

in

standing

give

the

that

as to

exaggerated

far

send

of

the

1827,

every

home

prospects..."°.

And

the

this

we

"Only

always

of

write

print

to

it

clear

is

the

need

that

be

Reports served

some

of

and of

on

Public the

the

6)

"Instructions pp. xiii-xiv

7)

Ibid.

to

as the

to

any

htgh

you

would

not

outset

the

compiling

to

that as

is

the

the

warning

to

have

the

see

missionaries

humanly

the

but

return

in

Thus

aware

of

which

I have

their

accounts

wrote

possible,

as

to

under

were

accounts

it and

facts:

occurea"’.

missionaries of

of

It keep

added

yourselves,

dislike

to

to

success,

of

the

field.

"VIII.

abstracts

colouring

facts.

sent

Connexion

labours,

may

the

were

extra

send

following: our

allow

reported

the

which

pertinent

not

the

in

may

lend

should

work

copious

you

in

though

there

could

this. interest,

records

and

Office

of

I have

documents:

Instruction,

to

still

more

to

distorted

the in

his

give

facts

I think

numbers

such of

a word

order

his

House

read

from

general

India

back

account

to

objectively

exceptions

Government

in

right

Therefore,

On matters tinent

where

objectivity

accurately

always

joy,

accounts

place

for

consulted. as

such

the

we

in

even

of

Missionary

shrewd--and

recommend

religious

sources

missionary

Mission

frequently

particular

and

each

account

as

and

was:

that

of

back

a full

influence

missionary missionaries,

a periodical

requtred

and

the the

W.M.M.S.

instructions

peremptorily

a Journal,

of

London

missionaries

may

of

might

Parliamentary

Library,

the

consulted Census

Missionaries",

Papers

Blackfriars

newspapers

Ann.Rep.,

the

Reports,

from

and

Road,

following

the

London

Madras--The

Vol.

III,

per-

District

Manuals,

like, and

pre also

Madras

(1825-1827),

Mail

and

The

Hindu

I have few

of

also

the

the

now

I was

Registers

the

British

people

and

Museum

Newspapers

poly

also

material

the

people

ideas

and

in

Library,

Colin-

the

has

area

and

coming

also

certain

to

and

Road,

as

helped

a

me

are

responsibility. the

in

Bapttsmal

Dharapuram.

Bangalore, in

which

are,

My

also

in

has

Trichinohowever,

personal

lot

know-

formulating

this

in

some

who

Library

well.

conclusions

also

area,

house

reports

and

the

of

Diocesan

London

a

in

I consulted

Miller's The

with

time

offices

Chairman's

books in

long

points labouring

Movement

India,

(UTC),

archives

a

Mass

holding

in

reference

M.M.S.

the

kept

certain

actually

quite

the

its-:archives.

some

contains in

available

for

work

College

in

were

from

Church,

field

Rolls

Theological

useful

discussing who

District

the

out

Church

of

laymen

converts

in

carrying

United

of

privilege

Trichinopoly

and

some

ledge

the

generation

important

certain

had

and

first

While

The

in

missionaries

Negapatam of

available

London.

dale,

study.

Limitations

The

following

regard the

to

the

opinion

dealing the

period the

an

of

the

strict,

been

to

11885..

organization to

the

of what

second

paid

Dravidas these

This It

and

two

is

ficial

to

the

because

is

the

hoped

two

seem

that

have

that

in

to

after

of

the

as

the

with

of

one

is

the

time

Madharis

and

Koravas,

more

fed

the

Movement-—

which

The

to come

spite

reader

has

been

exhibit upon of

might meted

more

the

such

were

Mass

sometimes out

to

obvious

the

or

failure for

limit,

and in

with

working

whom

Adi-

that

of

Adi-Dravidas.

signs

of

the

bene-

converts.

limitations

this

work

the

has

the

might

a

terms

among

attention

feel

has

region

need

only

Though

only. Di-

Church

the

communities

they

limited

attempt

in

understandable

depressed

is

success

always

the

approaches

period

an

the

not

Methodist

work

specified

is

and

ex-Anglican

understand the

is

field

period

Nevertheless,

form from

which

this

a separate the

With

suffers

the

study

there

1885

work

contact.

treatment

they

prior

groups

Madharis.

to

might

down

developments

period,

concerns

Pariahs,

special

changes

simple:

happened

limitation

Pallans,

mainly

is

a given

missionaries came into

Kallans,

major

1.

reader

the

mainly

with

Union.

the

developments

events.

merger

Church

study:

the

problems

intensive remains

this

(1820-1947),

on

formation

its

that

time

light

an

the

to

upon

Narrowing

more

such

the

reason

much

The

of

of

work.

interest

marks

over

pre-1885

the

For

recapitulate The

length

focus

refers

time

of

.2.

to

placed

investigation,

impression

a research

basic

latter

the

prior

indeed

the

date

to

of

have

my

former

reference

least

matter.

made

an

under

of

and

at

limitations time

helps

the

the

(S.P.G.)

the of

unreasonable

doubt

1885-1947

While

at

feature

no

crux

to

or

with

usual

are

period

be

been

of

some

use

clearer poly

District.

biased

or

the

Christian work.

of

reader the

by

It

is

quite

in

his

is

friends,

noticed

giving,

W.M.M.S.'s

partial

a shortcoming

this

to

picture

possible

treatment by

at

work

the

suggestions

for of

the

anyone

a subject

reader, would

least in

be

for

the

time

Negapatam to of

be

being,

and

a

Trichino-

unconsciously

this

kind.

especially

amongst

gratefully

received

If

our to

such

nonimprove

CHAPTER

1:

THE

HISTORICAL

1.

of

The

Tiruchirapalli

and

the

CSI,

existence

came

inaugurated

on

27th

unit

of the CSI

nary

as

its

Anglican The

into

with

first

Edgar

Bishop,

Churches

corner

of

aréas

chinopoly

and

four

the

Diocese

of

southern

covered

boundary Bay

of

the

river

Kaveri

the

river

Amaravati

south-western

of

the

central the

long,

Mass

The

the

of

of

strip

the

Diocese,

Thorp,

its

of

is

miles

south

western the

the

Diocese

includes

Our

concern

in

The

Negapatam

land

running

the

name

great

of

three-headed

and from

plains

a

is

around

while

Diocese.

Hills

that

part

out

their

District the

watered

on

by

is

the

in

the

centre

was

a

Coromandel

Kaveri

[Trtstrapallt

monster

the

the

Trichinopoly

part

former

work

Dharapuram--

The

and

of

their

Negapatam

Tiruchirapalli Rakshasa,

Anamalai

the

State

respectively.

the

of

particularly

plateau

districts; Kerala

part

carved

it

Tri-

northern

parts,

study had

ex-

south-

and

eastern

the

this and

Salem limits

western

the

The

eastern and

and

Tanjore,

the

and

through

of

district>. and

in

Madras,

district;

middle

District

of

was

autonomous

Diocese.

situated

Arcot

Methodists

an

Dioceses India

scholar-missio-

the

districts

Madurai

19

ex-Methodist

by

Diocese

Coimbatore

the

the

covered

South

as

a Methodist

out

now

the

through

up

Tamil

This

the

Coimbatore

of

1947°.

Government

Wesleyan

the

inland,

correct

city

the

Movement.

narrow

on

Trichinopoly

plains

through

1)

and

of

South

in the

flows

Ghats.

in which

Negapatam of

part

in

hundred

the

are

flows

the

Union

created

touches

Bengal

Western

Diocese

by

borders

and

of

Church

area

two

talugs

The

Diocese!,

Thanjavur

India,

comprises

border

the

and

one

when

Bentley was

within

Tiruchirapalli

eastern

Land

Thanjavur

September,”

BACKGROUND

(Robert

to

Coast

Karur,

meaning

the

Caldwell,

Dravitdtan Grammar, London: Harrison, 1856 p. 445). There are also other variants such as 'Tiruchi' and 'Trichy'. But in most of the early missionary and government records the term 'Trichinopoly' has been widely used and hence the same expression will be followed hereinafter. 2)

Ever since the beginning of the present century, the need for securing united action and closer co-operation among the different Evangelical Churches in South India had become increasingly felt. Discussions for establishing a united Church in South India went on for twenty-eight years (1919-1947) between the Church of India, Burma and Ceylon (Anglican), the South India United Church (originally Congregational the

and

and Presbyterian),

Methodist

Church

in

South

India.

After

pro-

longed discussions for many years, the negotiating Churches finally 1947 the inagreed upon the scheme of union and on 27th September, auguration of the United Church called the Church of South India took place at St. George's Catehdral, Madras. For a detailed study on this subject refer to Bengt Sundkler's Church of

South

worth 3)

Within civil

Indta:

The

Movement

Towards

Unton

1900-1947

Lutter-

(London:

Press). a State

in

India,

administration.

A

Distrtct District

is is

basic

unit

of

all

sub-divided

into

a

number

normally further

the

and

then

following

240 of

miles well

the

occupies

over

five

boundaries

cally

identical

area

of

million

of

the

the

about

those

of

and

the

Amaravati in

Hills

to

Dharapuram,

the

Western

from

Ghats

of

belt

in

the

west.

This

long

9,000

sq.

miles

with

a population

(according

Negapatam

with

river

Ocean

Indian

the

an

of

Anamalai

the

to

glimpse

can

one

where

course

finally

and

Udumalpet

the

to

the

1951

Census,

Trichinopoly

Diocese

see

District

map).

are

of

Tiruchirapalli

in

the

Thus

practi-

and

Than-

javur. When

the

missionaries

poly

District

from

the

which

Indian

also

people.

their

Caste

held

began

efforts

System,

a powerful

Therefore,

before

as

such,

many

years

must

be

explained

have

been

and

and

its

economic

and

drawn

will

undoubtedly

nary

work

The

and

area

strategic is

and

a greater

with

for

thought

ing

philosopher.

had

carried

centuries beris of

of

to

The

a brisk

the

is

was

Arikamedu

In the

era

the and

cao cen: affords

of

near

of

for

The

Roman

whom

the

Church

socioconverts at

work,

the

missio-

its

contribution

to

the

society.

its

fascinating

but

Greece or

provides

also of

and

The

to

where

rich

Tanjore

Egypt

where

there

was

textiles to

South

the

in

the

a large of

region) first (Khacolony

a Roman

were other

India,

region food

a deep-think-

the

discovery

and

whole

Kavéri-pum-pattinam

recent

with

history

India.

and

rulers

attestation

trade

the

of

history

Puh@r

the

of

found

for

ways

between

often

peninsular

Italy,

missio-

judgement

importance

Pondicherry,

archaeological

ancient

fairer

emporium

traders’.

were

the

laboured

a thousand

contact

people

(ancient

and

Chola

a

of

of

with

in

animism,

of

Methodist

from

the

village

they

of

known

Cholas

Christian

For

missionaries

a student

the

which

Trichino-

resistance

lives

review

context

trade

about

in

and

and

a preliminary

historical

early

merchants at

of

said

and

a stout

Hinduism

established

formation

the

by

thoughts

outset.

appreciation

in

only

Ptolemy)

foreign

evidences”.

3)

on

is

the

be

the

scrutiny

relics

not

of

"factory' for

the

importance

covered

will

whom

aid

under

at

conditions

amidst

the

environment

Furthermore,

religious

were

the

ever

environment.

over

Negapatam

confronted

Brahminical

anything

enterprise

work

soon

sway

nary

there

their

were

processed literary

the Kongu

cont.

of revenue circles called taluqs. A Diocese or a District left in the charge of a Bishop or a Chairman, is not, however, the same as a Government revenue District.

4)

K.A.Nilakanta Sastri, The Colas, Madras University Historical Series NOE oi, University of Madras, 1955, pp.81-85; The Culture and History of the Tamils, (Calcutta: K.L.Mukhopadhyay, 1964), pp.81-82.

5)

For a more detailed and authentic study on the Arikamedu excavation, refer to the Archaeological Survey of India Bulletin, Anetent Indta

No. 2, July, 1946.

-

Country® India

held

began

trated

into

numbers

as

coins

of

A.D.)

down

ent

the

early

premacy

interior.

Roman

Emperors

the

eye times

till

another.

chinopoly,

the

the

Nayaks

Telugu

of

seat

of

power

part

or

in

Nayaks

the

and

(Hyder

establishing

of

the

century,

15th

which

were

Dutch

in

on

the

Coromandel, come

the

to

trying

Negapatam,

Pondicherry,

and

here

their

own

and

and

had

been

the

scene

in

troubled in

Danes

British

although

only

of

the the

waters.

Tranquebar,

all

and

Carnatic

English coastal

were towns

like

A.D.), the

this

region

their

western

the

in

Karna-

the

Vijayanagar

another

one

beginning

the

powers

European

at

tried

the

and

invaders

Portuguese

destined

su-

sub-ordinate

French

on

of

Tri-

and

A.D.),

Since

of

The the

Madras--

in

the

political

against

might

their

1931/.

from

conflicts,

Muslim

the

Kongu?.

fish

of

of

14

differ-

beginning of

the. Chéras,

rulers

the

the

plains

Some

made

Similarly

over

historic

rulers.

had

Mysore

of

trying

area

the

,--all

in

century

chief

hegemony

this

the

(the

Cholas,

Rajahs

been

all

had

Tipu)

in

Nawabs

large silver

B.C.-

that

Tanjore

century

chieftains,

Velir

the

the

Madurai,

Arcot

one

B.C.-14th

century

(14thto 17th

such

January,

the

around

South pene-

and (44

show

at

from

part

administration’.

the

Gangas),

and

(5th

1736-1801) of

centre

Kongunad,

the

of

the

Hyderabad,

and

(Rattas

takas

Cholas

16th

would

a change-over

it

unearthed

a cock-pit

been

had

eastern

the

Vijayanagar

of

as

rule

British

under of

in

late

history

in

gold

Caesar

been

with

that

nowhere

preserved

have

as

contact

Kongu

Augustus

323-327)

region

process Thus

from

the

found

Well

political

came

(1674-1855),

Nizam

the

of

it

are

district

its

Imperial

Kings

ranging

whole

the

a continual to

‘Maratha

of

coins

(A.D.

western

through

district.

Coimbatore

view

Though

it was

Roman

Coimbatore

century,

in

being

position.

coast,

Constantine

of

19th

west

the

to

A bird's very

important

the

in

the

parts

the

an

on

the

and

Karaikal

their

fortune

coast

of

ultimately

Karaikal,

the to

be-

Tranquebar,

6)

The Coimbatore district isto this day known as the Kongu Country or Kongunad, a name whose origin is lost in antiquity. From time immemorial the Kongu had been divided into 24 na@dus (divisions) the bulk of which are found in the modern district of Coimbatore (F.A. Nicholson, Manual of the Coimbatore District, Madras: Govt.Press 1887), pp. 87-88; M. Arokiaswami, The Kongu Country, Madras University Historical Series No. 22 (University of Madras, 1956), pp. 5-10 and 220-223; C.M.Ramachandra Chettiar, "The Geographical Limits of Kongu Nadu at various Epochs", Journal of Madras Geographical Assoctatton (JMGA), Vol. V, Nos. 2-3, pp. 59-7o.

7)

M.J.Walhouse, “Archaeological Notes", The Indtan Anttquary, Vol. V, Bombay, August 1876, p. 239; cf. M.Arokiaswami, op.ctt., pp.72-75.

8)

F.R.Hemingway, Madras District Gazetteers: Tanjore, (Madras: Govt. Press, 1906), pp. 13-52; cf. Lewis Moore, Manual of the Trtchinopoly District, (Madras: Govt. Press, 1878), pp. 109-178; and K.A.N.Sastri,

The 9)

Culture

Ibtd, cf. Survey of Nos. 2-3,

and History

of the Tamils,

pp.

8-82.

"A C.S.Srinivasachari, pp.61-218; op.cit., M.Arokiaswami, the Recent History of the Coimbatore Region", JMGA, Vol. V, (1930), pp. 70-72

the

European

of

preaching is

into

divided

tore

the of

Plateau

Anamalai

Hills,

Gospel.

For

broad

three

presenting

the

--

tea

the

and

Kongunad, each

sections

treatment

of

and

a sharp

Kaveri

delta,

the

plantations

coffee

contrast

Coimbaof

the

other.

the

to

area

whole

the

con-

in the

to

indifference

or

response

convenience

of

work

least

at

people

the

the

on

a bearing

had

of

lives

the missionaries and also on the ditioning the intensity of their

occupational

and

rainfall,

doubt

no

have

variations

These

climate,

fertility,

soil

in

difference patterns.

geograthe

from

least

at

part

local

in

variations

in

result

which

conditions

marked

are

there

south

to

economic

and

4o

about

and

west

to

east

from

miles

240

about

of

area

north

from

miles phy

intrusion.

the

Within

of

survivals

intersting

as

remain

still

Pulicat

and

Madras

Negapatam,

The_Kaveri_delta The whole

Kaveri of

covering west,

delta

--

the

Tanjore

some

4,000

from

the

and

Negapatam

to

a beautiful

Arantangi,

Pattukottai,

covered Mango,

less for of

paddy

fields

paddy

rice on

with

The

the

in

it

area

called

any

the

other

to

only

fruit

The

is

the

the

in

of the

Reres. “

pp.

crop

of

The

and of

it

is

the

doubt-

eye

can

excellent

occupies

nearly is

80%

and

2.5 is

delta

of

million

therefore

paddy

country !?, The rainfall

is

near

even,

a mono-economy

delta More

as

and

Coconut,

hills

far

has

tabeland

flat

most

grown owes

artificial

here its

irri-

Indta and Pakistan: A General and (London: Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1967)

Blossoms in the Dust: The Human Elements in Indian Reprint Paperduck 2 (London: Gerald Duckworth & Co.Ltd.

29-30.

Andre Beteille, Caste, Class fication in a Tanjore Village of

as

region

upland--

po. Tose

Kusum Nair, Development,

1867),

of

of

to

deltaic

Vallam

groves

the

districts,

east

drier

alluvium

delta

India'.

Tamil

5

11) Sade

with

population

South

combination

the

absence

dominant

a rural

whole

generally

its

The

from

south-west

stretch

and

deita’’.

1,564,100

'granary

district

crops

fertile

supports

a favourable

trees.

the

and

almost

Trichinopoly

a survey

is

interspersed

Paddy

of

the

comprises

the

notice

district

O.H.K. Spate and A.T.A.Learmonth, sa See Geography, 3rd ed., rev.

p.

13)

and

we

Mannargudi

luxuriant

in

of

making

Except

of

stoneless,

lands

India

portions

Tanjore

yet

cultivation.

a cultivated

plenitude

12)

is

the

other

and

irrigated

fittingly

1o)

land

culture,

than

south

of

a drawback,

South

While

panorama.

whole

and

of

Trichinopoly,

the

Plantain

reach.

certain

sq.miles |.

presenting Tanjore,

garden

California

Press,

11965)),

pe

and Power: Changing Patterns of Stratt(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University Ive

1o

,

gation.

There

inches,

though

the

the

and 11th In

many

famous

A.D.

the

the

the

practice

Chola

aspetbe

King

There

raised

the

are

banks

comparatively the

Lower

the in

labours

The the

of

Kumbakonum

the

Grand

Karikala

(black

Other added

Arthur

foot

or

the

Cotton,

of

Peninsula,

least by

since

the

artificial

means

back

to

the

foot)

of

first

burnt

show

that

such

as

British

the

Upper

rule,

Engineer

in

of

which

and

the

is

also

called

sanctity,

"glory

Kaveri

forms

splits

up

entire

actually

delta; In

and the

words

Ponni

picturesque

of

had

proved and

through

pre-eminent

gifts

an

into the

of

(the

Kaveri Spate,

of

and

inexaustible

numerous

O.H.K.

lady

scenery

gold),

theme

branches,

loses

is

utility of

and

itself

in

a well-known

known

for

early

Tamil

covers

the

the

for

irrigation

Tanjore

Australian

Profes-

Geography:

"The Cauvery is physically, perhaps, the most remarkable river of the Peninsula; its delta presents some extremely distinctive physical and human features; its power is a main factor in the remarkable recent growth of the Tamilnad towns. It is thus in- 2 timately associated with the life of all its border regions..." 3

The

Coimbatore

Things and

south

low,

14)

Plateau

change

suddenly

of

town

the

extensive

along

the

Spate,

of

when

to

op.ctt.,

turn

plateau,

1200-1500

p.

we

Trichinopoly

Coimbatore

Kaveri

15) Ibtd.,

ft.

our

rising near

eyes

itself.

a

From

gradually

Palghat

Pass

little here from in

to

the

begins

west the

400-600

the

ft.

Western

764.

p. 755.

16)

K.A.N.Sastri,

The

Colas,

p.

583.

17)

wbeds

18)

Lady Hope, General Sir Arthur Cotton: His Life and Work, Reprint 1964), pp. 48, (India), (Calcutta, The Institution of Engineers 56, 88, 121, 295 and 413. An Anicut is a river dam or stone weirs which divert part of the

19)

Sastri,

20)

Spate,

flow

the

century

Anicut

mainly of

Tanjore

days

had

the

Cholas'>.

Karikala

works

45 than

watered

the

at

is

more

dates to

"an

get

chiefly

constructed

indigenous

works

during

rainfall

south

irrigated

through

that

the

was

evidences

and

all

been

is

delta

in

Trichinopoly

inscriptional

were

has

Anteut

of

Kaveri

the

rivers

delta

poetry” |”. Kaveri

of

and

irrigation

General

traditional

sor

average

works" | 8,

its

district.

the

monsoons,

of

Successfu1!’:

of

hydraulic

the

and

Negapatam

district

of

Anicut

Kaveri,

from

when

adjoining

monsoons

like

biggest

offshoots.

century

fact

and

yearly

places

Apart

Kaveri,

its

two

some

'*.

average

by

are

into

artificial

The

Colas,

op.ctt.,

p.

channels.

p.

18.

755.

ia

towards

talugs,

Palladam tory

Madras

the

gious tants

of

hands

the

forty

years

retreats

surrounding of

to

of

the

plateau.

State

and

the

the

After

the

The

and

parts

of

for

long

time

terri-

of

whole

famine

the

part

made

to

as

the

former

the

which

was

can

be

seen

for

bordering

a main

lands

irrigated

by

The

1883

shrub

road.

the

the

In

like

of

brought

landscape

some

is

From

excepting

the

and

of

under

the

and

immense

Agriculture not

at

TTR

Government

the

influence

acres

of

land

cultivation’ ’.

exceedingly ground Palmyra

rich

the

advances

"an

the

under

hardy

by

British,

70,000

rising

the

places

Bhavani

sieges,

a Science

land

upwards

inhabi-

(1761-1799)

and

part

reli-

largely

the

everywhere’. as

was

rent? i. During

Tipu and

of

squeezed

a consequence,

but on

were

low

and

Sultans seen

appearance.

depends

mainly

(October-December)

inches,

21) Tetd.,

be art,

a

incursions

uncultivated

miles,

rivers

paid

As

and

"always

jungles

bands

dry in

and

many

palms

places and

vegetation

on

the

however,

form

a

Amaravati,

feature.

plateau

North-East

most.

and

district

untidy

were

Hyder

Mysore

could

the

jungle

those

redeeming

of

they

attempts

1863

the an

country

of

empirical

much

growing

throughout

tree

land"

Between

presenting

the

suffered

"an

The

chieftains)

covered

such

plateau REN

incessant

occupation

bring

on

of

country

of

armed

farmers

rule

type

and

nominally

of

a

worst

beasts

military

The

Muslim

scene

British

irrigation.

Almost

the

was

The

Wild

the

misery.

the

known

of

bare,

of

on

country

bushes.

infested

uncultivated

be

the

acacta

although

became

the

27-30

among

prickly-pear?2.

untold

and

extent

of

also

means"

district

no

plains

Princely

reckoned

of poltgars’* (petty

suffered

irregular

were

central

period

chiefly

mendicants

the

came

were

pre-British

jungles

the

the

erstwhile

the

district

formed

in

are

poorer

Dharapuram

the

in

west

further

still

becomes

agriculture

Trichinopoly

and

Presidency.

In was

which

Pudukottai,

of

Coimbatore

with

talug

Karur

Karur,

from

Kaveri

main

the

Ghats? ", Up

although

the

on

the

South-West

monsoons

Pollachi

and

talug

the gets

(June-September) general slightly

rainfall more

and is

than

the

p. 757.

22)

W.R.Robertson, Reports on the Agricultural condtttions, Capabtltttes, and Prospects of the Netlgherry and Cotmbatore Districts, (Madras: Govt.Press, 1881), pp. 97-98.

23)

F.A.Nicholson,

24)

Francis Buchanan, Malabar, (London:

25)

Dharma Kumar, Land and Caste in South India: Agrtcultural Labour tn Madras Presidency in the Nineteenth Centur Uni i niversity g ¥ (Cambridge:

26)

Editorial,

27)

W.R.Robertson,

Press,

1965),

The

op.ctt.,

p.

pp.

89-90.

Journey from Madras through Mysore, Canara Bulner & Co., 1807), Vol. EL7= pe Soot

108.

Madras op.ctt.,

Mail, pe

6th

March,

doo.

12

1888

,5p.

o4

and

average’®, are

arid

The and

rain?

central

During

tormented

by

the

and

by

failure

famine,

alike.

were

and

the

There

not

people

are

qualities the

most

a

valley,

the

Irrigational The

rivers

to

the

and of

and

needs.

from

large

down

loo

Kamalat of

wells

depended

in

which

are

in

pumpsets

have

the

pumpsets

(Hydro-electric

the

farmers

exceedingly and

rocky

Coimbatore

op.ctt.,

life

district

is

is

and more

of

deep

the of

a

into

many

places

that

had be-

were

plains

of

in

the

given the

lands

sporadic

rock,

some

drawing

of

the

traditional

local

greatly was

delta

left nature

the

the

use

the

are

of

into

district.

of

of

Kongu eres

increasingly

facilated completed

by in

and

the the

mid

the peasants.in the

hardworking

because

the

soil

difficult?’.

predominantly

a millet-growing

Spate,

30)

K.C.Ramakrishnan, "The Agricultural Geography of District, JMGAS Vol. V; Noss 2=39°(1930), p. 96.

district

758.

31)

Interview

32)

Ibtd., pp. Kongunad",

Rev.

J.O.Mountford,

33)

"The Gounders David Arnold, in South India, 1920-1937",

34)

Kusum

dated,

the

Coimbatore

London

24.9.1973.

99-100; cf. A.Swaminatha Ayyar, "Cattle Breeds JMGA, Vol. V, Nos. 2-3 (1930), pp. 108-11.

op.ctt.,

and

which

they

stock

Tbwd.

Nair,

roots

situations

spirit

bulls

28)

the

palpoverty

solid on

29)

with

on

sturdy

which

beast

grinding

Kangayam been

project)

hardy

a portion

recently

in the Kaveri

assiduous

and

p.

has

and

the

of

problem

only

much

come

rains

famine

man

region

very

employed

"As of

live

fertile

people

churches.

meet

hewn

electric

are dry

deep

of

the

the

trying

where

rainfalls

Until

and

Unlike

is

wells

ft.

and

Scheme

Kongunad

scanty

Alambadi

installation

19308°°.

monsoons,

specific

the

this

constant

Noyyal

the

engines

in

a

to

cheerfulness

Therefore,

going

of

been

The

such

Methodists,

not

of

cattle.

long-established

drawn

such

the

and

have

water

or

The

of

Amaravati

irrigational

Oil

here

region

facilities

from

Pykara

Movement'

danger

desiccation

of 31. tt was the

of

characterized

scarcity.

leaves

of

terribly

life

the

during

and

is

chiefly

sometimes

even

mind

for

shafts

method breed

of

field

people

inch

over

area

the

the

starving

But

proud

of

the

water

goats.

mercies

the

the

Palladam

water

and

even

and one

is

years,

drought

feed

make

chronic

when

Udumalpet with

this

area

three

compelled

highly

Bhavani,

district's

of

a tenacity

'Mass

a

of

periods

for

months

which This

and

out

to

six

July-September

times

promising

experience

Kaveri

two

were

be

Dharapuram,

only

wind-masses

hunger

to

of

monsoons.

meant

exhibit

around

have

unbearable.

available

literally

the

to

of

consuming

leaves

come

dry

times

this region for . ; 30 imminent" ~. At

suffer myra

at

and

months

violent

unpleasant

fail in ‘ is ever

plains

wind-swept

pp.

and the Congress: South Asta, No.4,

29-30.

a3

Political (October,

of

Recruitment 1974), p. 4.

the

which

in

27

ruppur,

the

in

ful

21,00

been

a rapid

towns The

like

Anamalai

At

the

Pollachi from cut

80

western

to

of

to

end

of

These

100

from

Anamalais, ing

and

sq

one

8837

the

hills

miles

ft.

Colonel

the

explorers

of

"The

views

from

mountain

this

the

Anamalai

the

Western

with

dark

valleys.

The

highest

point

Doughlas

early

the

of

covered

deep

is

are

part

are

by

high,

Diocese

the

principal

Hamilton

Hills

in

Peak

South

the

and

scenery

which

in

the

must

the

ranging

ever-green

Anaimudi

of

in

Ghats

forests of

the

tia.

Madras

Accord-

Army,

one

Anamalais: are

the

grandest

and

most

the precipices are stupendous magnitude, and of scenery..... present a view far beyond my

describe,

the

the

Coimbatore.

form

and

another

Lieutenant

Some of variety

has

growth, of

some

in

with

there

Hills

taluq.

off

Erode

success-

mills

26

were

industrial

growth

population

and

economic

Pollachi,

the

to

mainly

workers’ °. Owing

over

Cam-

the

of

growth

Ti-

and

phenomenally

there

1938

In

présidency”’.

Madras

whole

cultivation

the

long-staple

The

Tamil

of

whole state

the

in

been

has

1930s,

the

in

In

Bambay>°.

of

south

centre

especially

industry,

textile

Dharapuram,

of

north

miles

the

largest

the

is

in

place

second

the

occupies

cotton-marketing

bodia

are

cotton

district

the

cotton

of

and

Groundnut

Nadu?

cash

main

the

crops.

acreage

cumbu

largest

the

has

district

Coimbatore

the

fact

In

by

is

Vulgare)

famous.

most

the

is

cumbu

while

important,

most

the

far

millets

leading

the

Among

position.

a negligible

(Sorghum

jowar

area,

the

of

only

occupies

paddy

of

cultivation

be

seen

Annamullays

to

is

be

appreciated;

surpassingly

extensive....

the charming power to in

grand,

a word,

and

incomparab-

ly beautiful"40. For fied throw out

a very

as

open

some

and

resume

famous

time,

forests

certain

areas

cinchona to

long

reserve

on

areas

'Carver'

in

part 1863

purchase.

years

but

lands.

greater only

for

thirty

rubber,

these

the and

the

lease

Forest

Applicants

Anamalais

the

Government

in

the

many

1896

the

cultivation

Department

were

still

and

was of

Government of

tea,

retained

one

among

classiMadras

them

let

coffee,

the was

right the

Maresh”.

35)

Spate, David

op.ctt.,

37)

C.M.Ramachandran

Chettiar,

"Growth

VOR

1939)"

elise

Arnold,

PP.

759-61.

op.ett.,

eS LViren NOs

a2

op.ctt.,

p.

Spate,

39)

M.

40)

Douglas Hamilton, Report tains, (Madras: Fort St.

Arokiaswami,

3

supe

38)

(London:

the

Again for

36)

41) Sir Percival

of did

of

Modern

Coimbatore",

JMGA,

pp.761-62. op.cit.,

Griffiths,

Weinfeld

and

pp.

15-16.

on the George

High Ranges of Gazette Press,

The History Nicolson,

of the Indian

1967)

14

the Annamullay 1866), p. 7.

pp.

160-61.

Tea Industry,

Moun-

With 1897.

much

For

difficulty

a

long

and

the

was

constructed

to

outside

occupy

a

After network

under

the up

E.J.Martin, Soon,

covering

In

their

after

chapel for

as

its

from

the

The

is,

said

in in

Indian

of to

other

the the

result

at

which

is

denominations the

now

and

1931

a

of

the

forests

acres

the

forty

coolies

hills.

one

called

were of

had

century

estate

there

the

over

12

the

the

Most

had

of

Coimbatore,

a

Methodists

coolies

flourishing

traditions

to

13

and

on

the Salem,

were the

the

Anamalais.

church,

congregated

thousand

Tiruchirapalli

this have

People

region enjoyed

of

advent parts

are

Chriweek

Christians

Thanjavur

live

Diocese

claims

Religion

mostly

a high

into

professes

diversified

44)

David

45)

Percival

Arnold,

op.ctt.,

46)

Tiruchtrapalli-Thanjavur

Griffiths,

read

p.

Tamilians

standard

Aryans

the India,

of

and

"a

1964,

1893

districts*>. among

Today

tea

Malabar,

century

whom

of

thousands

on

Canara,

Republic,

Ibid.

by

employment

Dr.S.Radhakrishnan,

pid.

48)

and

working

of

in

wild

2,543

turn

another

missionaries Valparai,

came

permission the

some

the

As

of

43)

47)

up

words

42)

for

of

Madras

road

weuberanes

the

before

even as

people

are

much

1900

present

2.

who

cleared

made

South

Anamalais

who

Association the

a

in

cart

Marsh,

with

opened

the

first

and

fs At

other

worship.

Anamalais

Planters

erops

were

the

Estate

Ananalais-;

By

seeking

of

different

week

11,084

and

beginning

from

the

plains

the

people.

ecrewaee

recruited

Protestant

stians in

the

in

'Carver'

of

Paralai

between

eyes

planters

additions

the

that

Anamalai

tribal

up

in 1903

constructed

Planter,

Tinnevelly

From

the

was

25,000

the

were

Madurai, only

new

from

of

opened

communication

watchful

plantation

a Ceylon

estates

no

only

position

local

with

Marsh

was

was

courageous

Monica.

labourers

the

roads

the

opened

migrated

It

formation

employing

been

there

branch

Government, by

time world.

commanding

the of

'Carver'

of

of

India’’.

former

man's

Dravidian

living

The

allegiance

the

history

of

to

and

majority,

vast

which

Hinduism,

President

quest

origin,

civilization

for

of

the

reality"

148

~.

5.

op.ctt.,

p.

399.

Diocese:

Summary

of Reports

and

Stattsttcs

'Foreword'.

The Cultural in Tamilnadu: "'Primordial Sentiments' Charles Ryerson, Roots of the Plea for Greater Autonomy", Religion and Soctety, Vol. (March, 19175)", Pe 26. XX) Now 1) S. -A.L.

Radhakrishnan, Basham

"Hinduism",

(Oxford:

Clarendon

in:

A Cultural

Press,

eS

1975),

History p.

67.

of Indta,

ed.

to no

historical

It

has,

rather

as

an

encyclopaedia

of

conglomerate,

comprehensive

contradictory

beliefs

ideas

powerful Two Karma. for

The

the

world

ly and

mundane life

again

and

to

For

not

self, going

the

of on

the

essential

also

body

immortal

closely is it

into

believe

is

in

perishable,

self

in

man,

it

concept and

stands

the

must

there-

nature

or

illusion.

According-

up

world

started

and

unless

which

of

air

with

the

that

of

arises

systems.

is

wheel as

theory

returning

such

there

can

be

liberation

subject

to

time

it

had and

been

to

ever

of

state.

senseless

cyclic

According

a way

eternity

it

enters

it

attains

Reality

or

Paramatman

earnestly

Nicol

cutta:

aspires

as

Macnicol,

Y.M.C.A.

R.C.Zaehner, second ed.,

The

the

into

and

uncreated

no

is space,

creating

repetitiveness"

many

forms

it-

form.

has

This

been

Living

Publishing

liberation,

Reltgtons

House,

of

1934),

or

the

p.

or

or

Mukti

of

25.

People,

trans-

the

every (various-

emancipation')

Indtan

from

(Cal-

Hinduism, Oxford Paperbacks University Series No. (London: Oxford University Press, 1966), p. 61.

op.ctit.,

pp.

60-61.

16

or

jivan)

with

Therefore,

Moksha

though

entity

process

identity

Soul) °?,

that

purursha the

and

of

view

permanent

atman,

through

attainment

release,

the

(the

harmony

(Universal the

hold

soul

called

Sill) abd. Zaehner,

They

human

a perfect

for

‘escape,

rebirth.

variously

and

ly translated

52)

flux

and

and

transient

a bubble

original

pointless,

Samsara

this

of

a revolving

From

its

often

certain

The

Maya

linked

(end),

world, all.

until

migration

50)

is

by

waters.

deteriorating

the

back

of

are

to

state

like

the

one

'revolution'

unreal”?

of

which

for

or

According

marks

in

of

perpetually”.

human

49)

once

the

Antham

Hindus

Hindus

supreme

no

sense

a vast

amalgam

Hinduism

a perpetual

itself

from

"endless,

the

Hindu

of

time

and

dissolving

The

is

Samsara

point

in

life.

an

regulations" *?.

of

'course'

character,

of

created

process

in

surface

theory,

of

bears

theory

the

some

the

the

the

is in

thus

ephemeral

(beginning)

found.

live and

world on

cyclic

Adi

we

concept

time

the

was

is

breaks

means

prolongation

transient

concepts

a religion,

together

held

social

of

a system

by

metaphysical Samsara

endless

be

The of

word

in which

fore the

and

important

as

sense,

widest

the

practices,

and

than

religions

in

described

be

may

It

beginning.

its

dates

discerned.

be

can

life

whose

centre

that

beginning

no

has

It

tenets.

its

authoritatively

its

at

personality

indeed,

College

Christian

Madras

famous

the up

summing

creed

no

has

of

Macnicol

Nicol

Dr.

Prof.

Hinduism"

According

definition.

intelligible

quite

or

simple

any

defies

Hinduism

practices,

and

beliefs

of

multiplicity

its

nature,

very

its

of

Because

12,

the

relentless

highest and

from

The law is

Karma

effect

or

related

to

of

a

and

the

deeds and

His

sins

cycle is

of

escape

(acts)

According is

in

suffering

deeds.

and

the

Hindu

rebirth.

In

from

cycle

the

fact

"the

of

history"

rebirth>?.

cause

a man's

the

retributive

of

consequence.

of

noble

time

connotes

and

therefore

evil

of

goal

fetters

cause

the

and

the

word

of

march

spiritual

its

and

committed

in

theory

to

law

this

turn

the

happiness

suffering

punitive.

and its

in

the

the

Whatever

does

an

ds

and

the

of

his

strictly

thus

suffers

on

whatsoever

effect;

result

life

life

or

action

of

the

present

previous

man

cause

are

is based

any

it

is

arises

from

himsel£>*. The

Hinduism

broadly

which

is

primitive

or

is

philosophical

highly

animistic

the

innermost

and

he

is

an

is

therefore of

The

popular

faith

in

Their of

religion

centres

of

(cow,

kite

a bird

--

rétigtad” vism

and

sacred

worshippers are

worship

to

two

occasional

repute.

Trees

etc.)

and

Vishnu)

also

Vishnu

are of

termed

Eugene 1963),

--

the

Vishnu

called

as

are

all

Donald Press,

Smith, Indta pp. 25-26.

54)

Zaehner, op.ctt., pp. 60-62; cf. Internattonal Review of Misstons S.Radhakrishnan,

56)

Agehnanda

Bharati,

--

one,

religion

him

of

people

such

rather

on

the of

high

than

of

to

or

a

a

honoured

is and

Siva

--

Vaishnavites,

cycle

or

basil),

white-breasted

place

a stronghold

ritualistic

origin.

recognized

(Tulasi

(Garuda,

an

could with

crystalliz-

Vedic annual

some

plants

birds

their

deities

a monthly

(Pipal),

hand

practices

gods

pilgrimage

find

other

of

the

in of

their Vaishna-

destroyer

pomp

while

and

glory.

the

worshippers

op.ctt.,

as

a Secular

State,

Princeton:

University

J. Paul S.R.Gibson, "Karma", (IRM), Vol. X, 1921, pp. 305-20.

p.

67;

cf.

“Hinduism

and

Modernization",

Sastri,

The

Colas, in:

Change tn Contemporary Asta, ed. Robert F. Spencer, University of Minnesota Press,/1971), p. 67.

57)

a@tman are

Saivites.

53)

55)

of

sustainer,

in

and

religion

Reality

life!

a host

region

worshipped

whose

For

a series

prominent

observance

snake

to

Hindus

and

be

individual

his

Hinduism of

can

Hinduism

beliefs? °:

of

average

study

Hindu

terms.

'way

and

--

an

a

beliefs

Trichinopoly-Tanjore

Saivism.

The

Siva

and

monkey,

re-creator

the

or

a set

and

our

popular

ultimate

the

and

Realty

of

Siva

traditional

and

of

of

and

impersonal

wind’?

includes

fasts

Gs The

of

of

that

believes

in

ultimate

area

intellectual

being

god

a set

and

also

and

animals

of

temples

Vishnu

the

Hinduism,

The

own

practices to

in

nature,

his

Hinduism

rituals,

feasts

of

attitude

reduced

around

in

the

of

an

Hinduism.

think

specific

safely

ing

to

experience

series be

kernel

prefers

prevalent

philosophical

into

classified

Village Christians P.Y.Luke and John B.Carman, Study of rural church in Andhra Pradesh, South 1968), p. 29. Lutterworth Press, AG/

p.

643.

Reltgton

and

(Minneapolis:

and Hindu Culture: Indta (London:

(avatars)

of

Vishnu.

incarnate

in

order

rehabilitate

the

as

and

Buddha)

impending and

popular

through the

famous

Vaishnava

conspicuous

outer

and

courts

temple

in

of

and

Temple

another

the

stealing in

is

also

popular

yont

"the

in

called form

(female

totality 60

existence" power

his

Standing (pagodas

According

of

of

delta Royal

the

over The

gopurams

which

a

landmark

fosterparents'

most

with

gateways

former-

of

this

increase

centuries”.

Lord')

at

The

Mannargudi

stands

in

stand

in

the

miles

around.

a

centre The

Krishna's

boyhood

prank

dairy,

a very

popular

is

of

large

Slater,

temple

for

by

growth

gradual

Cowherd

worship.

and

middle

lofty

the

on

an

Ranganatha

surrounded the

great it

the

Gilbert

Vishnu

commemorates

great

with

to

stress

largest

in

is

Madras,

reflection

('the

the

salvation

more

demanding

The

of

Srirangam

Kaveri

make

which

from

at

deity,

theme

of festi-

Mannargudi.

Siva and

a

the

the

stonewalls

one

gopurams

is

for

and

the faith.

is

University of

to

a rich

emphasizes lays

of

avatars

the

the

and

justice

forming

and

from

world

(divine

Vishnu,

of

Bhaktt

India.

centuries.

centre

or

the

save

well-known,

a child-like

temple

stages

to

dharma

Vaishnavism

South

the

order

in

the

Mahabharata

the

of

heroes

the

of

Rama,

as

to

and

taken

Parasurama,

as

dwarf,

a

times,

twenty-one

becomes

time

to

time

and

man-lion

most

Rajagopalaswami

butter

already

individual

in in

over

festival

has

that

incarnations

the

elaborate

court,

massive

Vennatthalt

the

temples

major

Vishnu

Trichinopoly

Economics,

of

evil-doers

devotion

it

population

double-walled

in

to

built

the

re-establish

the

near

successive

in wealth great

of

more

destroy

one

folklore”

architecture),

ly Professor

to

far

and

Srirangam

and

times

nine

personal

selfsurrender

good

class

several

by

relation

in

val

the

and

Temple

massive

as

also

are

legends

faith

personal

utter

Of

Krishna

from

a

boar,

a

Krishna,

as

and

incarnations

believed

Kshatriya

many

as

danger

the

is

fish,

a

the

righteousness). Rama

of

It

Ramayana,

the

of

hero

is

world.

exterminated

who

of

protect

(as

form

material

to

'descents'

the who

the

is

Vishnu

or

is god

Vaishnavism

of

teaching

main

The

his

The

through

never-ending

called

Tandava,

create

it

58)

Zaehner,

59)

Gilbert

Slater,

London:

George

Zaehner,

61)

Ibid.

according

say

the

variety

through

60)

are,

(Siva's)

dances

yet

op.ctit.,

p.

and 2 lingam

the

worshipped

symbol).

Lingam

the

totality

of

all

and

yont

in

he,

out

phallic

is

represent

last

universe

he to

until

at

and

Hindus,

The

another

Allen

to

evolves.

the

p.

stylized

nature that

dancer

universe

of

represent

divine a

fierce

existence

dancer and in

created the

eternal

Siva

dances

frenzied

order

to

phase

re-

dance®!,

91.

Southern

op.ctt.,

divine

(a much

Hindus

which

the

lingam

organ)

of -

Wataraja,

of

Indta:

& Unwin,

Its

1936),

85.

18

Polttteal

p.

154.

and

Feonomte

Problems,

Saivism seems

to

believes

attach

inflicting and

all

of

Siva's

the

goddess

of

popular

sons

scholars

of

war. great

Siva

India.

The

and

than

seen

in

feet

high

standing

the

with

plan

on

PhenmCotass

a

by

in

life

his

of

It

and

in

by

austerity

frightful and

(Murugan

Bhakti.

mortification

pestilence

the

pagoda

Madras well

and

consort,

by his

two

big-bellied

Tamil),

out

the

god

god

against

life of

and

Indian

historian,

apparently

and

signal

contribution

speech

and

affected

in

lives

of

almost

seated

under

temple

at

the

to

in

the

shadow

of

Trichinopoly, Ganesa)

stream

panoramic the

Palani,

of

visitors

view

of

western

the part

The

who of

the

miles

62)

"Tanjore",

63)

(Sastri

ine!

Colas,

Madras

64)

Sastri,

The

Culture

65)

Charles

Ryerson,

area,

and

p.

ex-

and

and

the

or as

(also

a raised

of

feet

the

hill-top

miles

19

the

the

popular have

Pillatyar)

being

comfortably

platform.

Utehtptllatyar

the

above

the

every

city day

The

(or

the

level. have

a

around. great

Dharapuram,

30.

"a

to

alvars

called

image

273

1st,

the

made

and

their and

gained

alike?

his

the

in

have

religion By

a@lvars

country

expressed

nayanars

on

Vaishnava

1887,

Subramanya

there

p.

is

3.

/

History

Tamil

Tiruvarur

Tamil

bhaktt

of

rulers

except of

of

Ganesa

for

April

iO.

op.ctt.,

to

city

south

Matl,

(pie

rock up

at

and

the

theism"

corner,

known

climb

sprawling

twenty-two

of

tree

a bare

work,

of

growing

Temples

aspects"°*.

the

and

a green

on

in

these

and

nook

Siva

practice

different

commonly

stands

and

worship

every

the

shrines

singers

compositions masses

Sastri,

undertaking

(leaders)

"emotional

ecstatic

its

sculpture.

monumental

and

200

cover-

famous.

Hinduism

theory

the

dedicated

seen

hill-top

thought

the

their

the

soul-stirring

Temples be

to

The

nayanars

god),

these

power

well-known

equally

of

vast

empire"®?,

Saiva

By

songs,

the

ambitious:

is

stories

of

his

cen-

propriety

vimana

Nilakanta

in

in

11th

and

The

figures

observes

most

other

is

the

vigour.

philosophical

are

the

with

Cola

car)

of

at

the

thirteen

Tanjore,

qualities

popular

with

ornaments

(idol

the

class"°?,

sky

temples

in

stateliness

that

the

Rajarajesvara

Cholas

Temple

coming

into

imperial

of

the

remarkable

architectural

Thillai)

Thér

called

most

"greater

buildings

the

the

the

has

is

and

Rajarajesvara was

(or

which

oldest

under

of

@ivers

In

arose

and resources

With

at

the

keeping

Tiruvartr

The

of

one

in

Chidambaram

can

and

does

or

leading

Subramanya

is

quite

a new

it

elephant~headed

Tanjore

South

this

architecture

form

Ganesa). the and

as

increased

at

of

the

well-known

tent

is

Temple

other

elaborate

Commenting the

and

blood-thirstiness

style

tury

ed

much

selfnegation

selftorture

merchants

Brahadisvara)

South

as

to

;

The (or

and

Karma

popularity

extremely of

or

importance

kinds

ascetism.

Kali,

in acts

equal

Tamtls,

p.

108.

no

Temple

other

Palani,

of

Pangunt

(March-April)

to

Palani,

all

up

made The

Federation) ly

the

at

decorated

(Dravida

which

spent

Palani®®.

in

of

not

command

people

here

are

not

generally

may

Brahminical In

mentioned,

places

like

Kaveri

delta,

sacred

tanks

which Once

celebrated

congregate

of

in the

Mother

all

the

no

Kumbakonum.

(river

way

from

bhaktas

sins

of

the

of

Vijayanagar

and

say

which

(devotees)

is

who

in

during

a

to

with

long

the

many

referred called South

to of

Mahamakam

India

the

Mahamakam

the

holy

underground

waters journey

the accumulated at Kumbakonur® 92, During the

meet

wash

in

and

diffusion

over

as

well-known

towns

festival

that

they Hence

Hindus,

some

the

all

the

Kongunad®’.

temples

for

and

for

the

to

from

make up

Siva

temple.

largest

filled

main-

had

though

sarcastically

a great

bubble

Vishnu

great

years

town

or

deities

centres

Hindus the

Ganges)

Benares

days

in

either,

powerful

and

pilgrims

of

of

the

authorities

of

The

tank

of

twelve

origin,

Kongunad,

pilgrimage

one

than

twelve

thousands

largest

Ganga

less

mosquitoes,

every

less

Tamil

Progessive

support

the Kumbabhishekam

in

various

occasional

British

of

in

when

and

these

Kumbakonum,

the

places

of

a Siva

to

worship

position

in

common

make

possesses

"breeding

festival

also

Kumbakonum.

nation? is

less

worship

for

the

worshippers

to worship

is

the

of rupees region,

Dravidian

a policy or

shoulders.

their

the

Dravidian

a pre-eminent

object

to

lakhs

Tanjore the

or

following of

on

tail)

Kazhagam

deities

primarily

religion

addition

already

as

not

peacock

Tamilnadu,

the

does

with

carriages

light

arch-shaped

marching

seen

be

can

long-

to

month

Tamil

the

In

people

such

of

(Portable

forty

in

Vishnu

Palani).

Munnetra

house

a sum

Unlike

of

multitudes

government

temples

recently

and

D.M.K.

(Lord

kavadis

carrying

of wood

former

perhaps

shave

their

matted-hair

their

to

Andavar

Palani

far-renowned

the

to

pilgrimage

planned

crowds

Vast

does.

temple

this

as

ings

gather-

large

make

wide

and

far

from

the

on

influence

an

great

so

exerts

which

centre

important

even

the

Telugu

emperors

live

and

die

the

away

used

to

attend

this

festi-

val/’°. The

millions

some

curious

high

gods

the both

bare

who

forms

like and

series

whose

summit

and

or

their

associates

Siva

superstitions

maligant,

illiterate

great

at

basest

and

in

Hinduism

Vishnu

the

gracious

of

the

dreaded

and

of

and Political Legitimacy typed manuscript), p. 5

67)

The

1888,

68)

Gilbert

69)

Ibid.

7o)

Sastri,

The

March

Culture

and

6th, p.

p.

4

village

(see

its some

deities

in

editorial).

177.

History

of

20

the

Tamils,

p.

120.

exhibit

worship

propitiated

Richard A.Frasca, "Religion Tamilnadu", (an unpublished

op.ctt.,

of

worship

at

66)

Mail,

a number

and

villages the

The

Slater,

worship

and

are

of

find

ly.

Madras

masses

which

we

of

bottom spirits, constantcalled

ancient

grama

devatas

demic

or

villagers grama or

and

cattle

when

most

often

devatas

are

Mariyattal

calamity

disease

turn

the

is

cause

who

inflicts

dictive

and

inexorable

and

bloody

sacrifices

were

for

flesh

which

used

her

insatiable

to

Kulumayamman

be

festival,

it

has

been

killed

on

one

occasion

vessel

and

was

offered

officiates

the

sacrifice

the

The which

throats

facts

of in

Dravidan

elements

Anglican

Bishop

most

diverse

struse.

of

systems

of

3.

The

Caste

System

Hindus

which

may

It

been

has

the of the

caste

logist, 71)

over

native

that

PO

eee

J.Charters

said

cholera.

to

drink

The

the

days

of

sheep, order

in

for

human

kids ’>, In of

February-

lambs in

priest

blood

were

a

big

who

that

bleeds

to

suggest

that

a curious

which

are

in

Whitehead, ranging

to

of

Hinduism

primitive

is

an

elaborate

to

be

feature

of

the

water-tight degrees

"a

strange

the

of

compartments

The

Village

Gods

Association

and

enormous of

of South

Press,

and an

social

p.

the worla’®,

segmenting of

so-

The

influence

its

grip

over

eminent

India,

1921),

ab-

circles

so

is

M.N.Srinivas,

the

system

respectability.

unit

the

among in

of

the

of and

animism" />.

social

life

everywhere

medley subtle

parallel

that

is

and

former

System

private

"it

Aryan

the

institution

without Hindu

of

most

Caste

said

be

both

words

forms

the

type

of

the

from

--

the

mixture

Socioche action" ’ .

second

and

rev.

16.

RELA Molony,

Ltda.

19260,

Whitehead,

74)

Henry

TD)

Warren

76)

J.H.Hutton,

MiG

University

Quoted

month

unrelaxing

(Calcutta:

73)

the

of

Henry

India

and

so

Whitehead,

edition

77)

is

in

goddess

is

varying

public

mind

writes

Henry

with

craving black

collected

Stratification

numerous

intercourse

and the

was

"vin-

of Trichinopo-

of

blood

the

as

former

gods

these

to

their

seem

philosophy

in

In

the

Mariamman is

sacrifices

thousand

also

she

portrayed

two

religion,

almost

into

this

and

as

that

Madras,

a permanent

society

cial

observed

religion,

Social

is

law,

blood

the

happenings.

deities

or Kulumayamman

many

region

of

these

offered

as

together

forms

that

victims /*,

this of

believe

by

is

is

They

bloodthirstiness by

epi-

that

propitiate"’?,

Kolmayt

an

gods

She

that

and

the

taken

prevails

were

when

village

unusual

which

recorded to

to

forbidden

quenched

March,

from

not fowls

known

the

or

the

village

difficult

goddess

is

all

village,

to

small-pox.

and

ly

the

removes

The

curry

the

is

the

pigs

to

their

of

of

favour.

buffaloes,

goats,

and

it

protection’!.

commonest

goddess

when

out,

for

sole

the

overtakes

breaks

in

ip.

A

Book

of

South

op.ctt.,

pp.

(London:

Methuen

&

Co.

99-100.

Sls Caste Press,

Robert

Indta

36. , in

India,

1969),

L.

p.

fourth

edition,

reprint

(London:

Oxford

46.

Hardgrave,

Jr. 21

The

Wadars

of Tamtinad:

The

...

and

hierarchical

the

It

in

worth.

A high

"bad' The

highly

caste.

ed

by

the

Laws

of

without rules

any

caste,

and

is

another

the

of

system

of

village,

is

and

of

essence

or

the

a

low

of

caste

of

has

that

such

no

rules

which

and

guaranteed

of

of

is

"the

matter

a

must,

allied

a Brahmin

in

his

would

endogamy

and

is

dominant System" ®

another

an

with

the

a position

ritual

4

-

hallmark

aspect Each

that

caste

follow may

naturally

rigidity

economic of

rank

be.

life

ritual

against

de-

the

it

in

of

the

is

regarded

the

Caste,

Class

and

Occupatton

Caste

spectrum

(Bombay:

and

Popular

System.

as is

"the an

Los Book

Angeles: Depot,

210

GY)

Wael

80)

E.Kathleen Gough, "Caste in a Tanjore tn South India, Ceylon and North-West rare a ee No.2, reprint, Dip en Stile

81)

Donald

82)

G.S.

83)

Robert

84)

"Ghurye,

Eugene

Ghurye, L.

Coun-

peculiar

“Cont. Politteal Culture of a Community in Change (Berkeley University of California Press, 1969), p. 1. Feel Nice

caste

(or

change" ®?,

Caste

ioc aaeceae

such

aptitude

This

like

obligations

therefore,

their

restrictions

Untouchable

caste of

like

codes

Panchayat

what

feature

is _mark-

scriptures

violation

professions.

closely

which

ethical

one's

Caste

the-children

fathers,

held

economic

the

clear

the

and

of

éereiseeton® 's Any of

Hindu

One!'

fulfilment

salient

profession

pollution.

Blessed

the

monopolization

has

rigorous of

it

caste,

principle

so

upon

their

effect

a rigid

of

the

makes

in the

The

insist

of

condemnation

in

gradation

purity

'Song

or

This

vagaries

of

a particular

deviation

result

the

or

of occupation

assigned

bring

occupation

Further,

choice

is

degree

Gita Manu

would

aryeae

78)

caste

a certain

Bhagavad

77)

called—a—good"*

often

restricted

Each

the

It

is

enenn

of

the

cste

"ritual

connotations

has

and

in

posses-

individual

the

Thus

2

poen

birth,

of

virtue

is

one

which

into by

castes

in

inheres

rank

caste

the

of

importance

system

traditional

the

upon

heavily

an

of

esteem

social

hanges

society

Hinau

céste-ridden

the

largely

determined

is

the

it,

choice.

the

by

into

born

is

class

European

the

Unlike

of

want

the

of

personal

or

will

free

one's

of

a person

of

status

or

wealth

of

sion

social

the

which

the

pollution,

and

purity

individual

Each

birth.

ote

him

to

alldtted

is

caste are principle

castes. is

irrespective

caste,

a particular

of

caste

of

determinant

chief

The

gradation

of

occupational

or

ceremonial

of

theory

the

endogamy,

birth,

of

circumstances

occupations,

traditional

the

criteria

the

or

marks

characteristic

chief

The

Smith,

Indta

op.ett.,

Hardgrave,

p.

as

a Secular

15.

op.ctt.,

Village", in Aspects of Caste Paktstan, Cambridge Papers (Cambridge: University Press,

p.

op.cit.,Dp. 17. 22

6.

State,

p.

294.

endogamous

group

alliances outside

only

and

might

theory the of

ceremonial

to

sub-caste

and

of

pollution,

caste

people

the

entry

of

the

Hindu

Sastri

of

and

have

matrimonial

not

with

anybody

to

also

more

rigid

the

temple

Such

people

complex

the

in

following

land holder, bank, school

the

and

pollution,

or

even

the

by

rulers

discussing

noteworthy

which

in

Tamilnadu central

the

great

out-

cause

include

temple

the

the

has

non-

complex

been

con-

importance

Cholas

to

a person

and to

also

Hindu

is

themselves

bound

which

the

of

low

between are

castes

played

of

the

distance

than

the

According

approach

Therefore,

some

days

from

untouchability"®°.

restrictions

of

their

While

purity

a stated

role

and

indeed.

strength

man.

rigid

céntral

their

with

keep

are

draw of

caste

disabilities

The

great

makes

contact

castes®®,

temples.

inter-dining

practice

a high

forced

religious

life

tinuous

and

defiles

higher

and

idea

were

of

occupational

theory

"As as

permitted

or

restrictions

or

the

civil

the

are

caste

matter

of

caste

in

the

These

soul

lower

and

in

imagine.

of

"very

members

their

its.onrbé-es

Restrictions one

its

within

Prof.

of

Nilakanta

comment:

employer, and consumer of goods and services, and museum, as hospital and theatre, in short,

as a nucleus which gathered round itself all that was best in the arts of civilized existence and regulated them with humaneness born of the spirit of Dharma, the medieval Indian temple has few parallels in the annals of mankind" 87, With the to

what

Hindu

question

Dharma"

even

throws

Nadras

have

proved

to

Being,

to

the

ce

of

the

"humaneness

the

the

light

entry

at

Madurai,

assert

in

existence

on

into

the

the

temple

caste

pine

where

system,

the

deity

is

which

also

permitted Nadars

of

temple,

of

temple

the

particularly

Though

to

been

As

the

however,

ack~

too

they

come

housed.

into

where

which,

personal

have

of

Shanars

instances entry

allowed

sacredly

to

of

various

The

Harijans.

said

spirit

its

of

reason

not

a series

not

is

have

are

omnipotent,

are

the

grandeur

work,

struggle

to

the

would

of

all

Hindu

right

"supreme, they

god

the

and one

regulated

recent

giving

their

°?>

apa

of

a

of

his

But born

complex

sanctuary

Hardgrave

of

disagree.

temple

gain

to

greatness

of

abortive ®°, Similarly

source

Hindu

the

S85) Pebb diay SG)

tried

be

the

to

Temple

the

can

Hindu

in L.

about

nobody

sufficient

(eodaysuappers),

nowledge

the

Robert

Minakshi

says

validity

which

For

worship.

Tamtlnad, the

Satri complex

the

with

functions. to

Prof.

temple

spiritual near

all

at

a consequen-

based

on

Dharma

rai.

Bb vd.epepien no

87)

Sastriputne.

88)

Hardgrace,

-Golas,

89)

Caste and Trtbes Edgar Thurston, Goviweeress,. 1909), ip. 104.

op.ctt.,

Pp» pp.

654. 109-1106.

of Southern

1s,

Indta,Vol.

VI

(Madras:

(some

are

immutable

forced

temple.

The

streets of

to

Vaikam

four

(priests chants

to

and

and traders)

grown

to

some

be

The

great

separate

sacred

they

should

mitted

to

castes" '

for

is

neither

follow

be

the

it

taught

the

religious

clear

Hindus

--

the

Hindu

to

the

relief

are

some

the

apex

is

and

the that

members,

at

system there

except

castes

in

the

has

are

in

the

ritual

(dwtja)

and

are

are

denied

the

Sudras

low

caste.

In

(Hindu of

(Mer-

pyramidal

Sudras

four-fold

while Vedas

this

together and intermarry.

three

practices

Brahmins

Vaisyas

In

estimated

eat

divided

order:

warriors),

whose

first

as

God

from

access

peasants).

"twice-born"

branded

into

the

and

at

normally

the

free

traditional

subcastes

the

of

far

a hierarchical and

this

Poonool,

are

in

today

not

that

as

called

they

and

gain

writings

placed

and

do

to

(rulers

time

children

standing

brings

(workers are

of

castes

regarded

thread

privilege,

Sudras

circles,

distinction are

Kshatriyas

the

by

people.

arranged

complicated

westernized

hierarchy the

more

those

Sanskritic

course

--

all

(Kerala)

by

Brahmins

the

of

Untouchables

groups

and

the

In

3,000

most

early

teachers),

bottom.

Harijans

Travancore

caste

stratification, the

the

suffered

the

major

the

Creator

of

in

desabilities

According into

law),

the

agitation

in

the

divine

worship

the

strict

scriptures)

the

fit

to

Hindu nor

so-called

wear

this Law

be

per-

"twiceborn

©;

Qutside

this

people

whom

the

terior

castes.

within

the

four-fold

order,

Hindus

derison.

in

Though

pale

of

the

Hindu

high

there castes

society,

is

call

still

a

nominally

in

large

Untouchables,

reality

reckon

they

communtiy

Outcastes these

treat

of

or

ex-

people

these

|

Harijans

(children of god, to use Mahatma Gandhi's name for them) "liké the

Cinderella 1971

seventh every i.e.

of

Census,

the

person

seventh more

nation

India

in

has

85

centuries

total

today's

Indian

than

for

a

is

world

population

a Harijan

million

together"? '. According

population

people

or

of

547

being

a member

or

15%

of

of

the

to

the

millions,

about

an

citizen.

Indian

the

total

Scheduled

every

And

castes

population

of

India’’. Thus

caste

placing

an

family the

of

of

a

mankind.

increase

India

is

curse

impassable

has

of

With

rigid

been

anda

barrier the

burden,

between

for

multiplication

prohibitions

irreparably

and

broken.

it

divides

different of

man

from

communities

man,

in

the

castes

and

sects,

restrictions,

the

social

The

segregation

of

more

with unity

than

90)

Beatrice Pitney Lamb, Indta A World in Transtitton, revised and expanded edition (New York: Praeger, 1966), p- 136; cf. Hardgrave, op.ctt., p. 7; cf. Ghurye, op.cit., p. 13.

91)

C.E.

92)

S.

Abraham,

"The

XXV (1936), p. 461. Chandrasekhar,

ty", in: (Tuscon,

Study

of Church

"Foreword--

The Untouchables in Arizona: University

History

Personal

ry

in India",

Perspectives

, on

IR

IRM, Vol.

Untouchabili-

Contemporary Indta, ed.J.Michael Mahar of Arizona Press, S172)oe pe Kaela: 24

eighty-five outrage

millions

against

arrogance

in

vility

the

in

check and

the

the

perpetuates

tution

the

of

illegal society. tion

In

the

relationship certainly

chief than the

in

of

in

every

in

some

wealthier

religious

the

Brahmins

have

Aryan

blood:

still

fall

to

the

slowly

the

inferiority and

an and

and

ser-

social

individual

changing

practice

citizens.

towns

genious

of

And in

and

the

which

areas,

yet

every

slowly

to

one

can

changing,

easily

section

some

although

Consti-

Untouchability

industrialization

classes

rural

of

into

of

the

of

and

Indian

urbaniza-

extent

here,

the

more

cut

too,

across

the

hold

of

caste

numerous

in

the

is

so

many of

inhabitants??, of

two

and

than

in

any

in

is

Row, in

bulk

other

South

Brahmin

of

villages. Indian

influence

While

editor

of

the

Tanjore

Brahmins

preserving

the

purity

each

a single

of which

Tanjore

are

is

caste

in

in

writing

the

as

the

less

that

themselves

in

the

of

no

hundred

the

careful’

Brahmins

own

Tanjore

one

number

Tanjore.

observes

is

four

the

Brahmin,

subdivisions,

the

here

thousand

predominant

consider

Tanjore

Brahmins

Venkaswami a

‘exceedingly

Most

and

tk Consequently

Tanjore,

they

The

numerous

eoueh

more

Tamilnadu,

out

himself

Though

of

religion.

matters

and

been

other.

proportionately part

hundred

Kathleen

Manual,

Tanjore

and

superiority

restraint

prevailing

and

is

are

and

social about

is

all

new

other

fifteen

says

District

of

paralyses

makes of

castes

nine

district", and

India

vast

Brahminical

one are

the

any

land

"They

produce

in

Brahmins

than

seats

moral

of

strongest.

Brahmins:district

the

cities

between

the

while

still

to

But

Hinduism

stagnation.

caste

large

tended

lines.

feeling

in

equality of

on

spirit

the

Republic

assures

a blot the

and

progress,

system

spirit

have

caste

classes,

Indian

is

encourages

classes

many-sided

the

the

It

economic

caste

and

notice

Untouchables

upper

lower

stifles

Today

as

humanity.

of

of

their

they

opposition

indigenous

Tamil

Brahmins’:

As and

less

Brahmin

in

the

He

powerful.

has

and

Tanjore not

yet

its

adjacent

district

Coimbatore

general

the

on

successfully 97

delta

to

contrast

a sharp the

poly,

succeeded

population

as

he

in

district

imposing

has

done

in

of

Trichino-

is

less

common

his

cult

so

Kongunad

of

the

Kaveri

.

93)

Hemmingway,

94)

E.Kathleen

95)

T. Venkaswami Row, A Manual of the District 1883), p. 150. Lawrence Asylum Press,

96)

Kathleen

97)

David

op.ctt., Gough,

Gough,

Arnold,

p.

67. p.

op.cit.,

op.ctt., op.ctit.,

p. Pp.

16;

16.

2. 25

cf.

Andre

Beteille,

of Tanjore

op.ctt.,

(Madras:

p.

15.

Unlike

in

the

avenues

Tanjore

of

district,

employment

oney=1enderer

community

as

as

shown

Brahmins

to

in

government

the

Census

Coimbatore

servants,

Reports

the

strength

Tanjore

1901

128,436

38,908

to

148,083

54,918

36,820

1921

134,695

58,024

39,389

1931

133)

54,009

37. pi DD

Vellalans:

-

cultivating

moderate

are

'Goundan'

also

A.D.

1010

number they

of

in

to

the

the

of

in

Reports

nadus

found

is

of

the

caste,

in

an

(Uttangarai

a

Vellalans

is

and

explains

relatively

why

639,557

BRP) SPX)

234,789

694,906

of

them

The first are

Vellalans

proper

classes.

and

they

numerically

ryots

to

migrated

place

98)

F.A.

99)

Figures

1o0)David

of due

the

be

tea

very

important of to

are

their

the

by

op.ctt.,

and

p.

castes

op.cit.,

for

paying

p. p.

in

least

lot

fairly

and

two

the

of

reasons: and

number

create

in

in

the

secondly They

maintenance

money

district

large

Malaya'°*.

communities.

frugality

a

a

villages,

the

for

Trichinopoly

that

Ceylon

at in

of

the

fact in

lands rest

industry

op.ctt.,

separate

101)M.Arokiaswami,

the

responsible

Government

Nicholson,

the

plantations

most

thus

Arnold,

to

are

the According

Coimbatore

Vellalans

own

by

the

by

number may

superior

and

They,

support

the

largest

where

number:

Trichinopoly

1921

the

small.

1921

in

the

district

330,662

and

The

modern

in

survey,

PIKE

fall

for

Vella-

taluq)

PEE

1911

the

chief-

record

Tanjore

sharp

are

or headmen)'©°°,

1911

The

great

they

inscriptional

under

which

the

This

of

Year

between

this

Except

bulk

Coimbatore

fact

district

of

Kongunad. the

districts the

one

(leaders

time

in

that

irrigators.

Prillats,

first

three

this

the

area

a peace-loving

Nelvey

the

are

this means

or Kavundars the

dominant

influence

Census

for

all

of

themselves

temple Of

Vellalans

constitute

caste

Goundans

the

of

Coimbatore

literally

twenty-four call

and

257 oiz

generally

found

'°'.

the

Brahminical

the

called

District

is

who

is

major

'Vellala'

in

number

lans of

next

community

term Salem

_

term

ly concentrated a

Trichinopoly

The

The

new

teachers

Year

Vellalans.

little

99

below:

50

hold

themselves

for

find

to

forced

lawyers,

According

is

the been

have

they

therefore

and

land,

and

of

they

are the

the other

develop

wealth,

form

land

the

of

56.

are

not

available

after

esas

2. 271.

102)N.E.Majoribanks and A.K.G.Ahmad Tambi Marakkayar, Report on Indian Labour emigrating to Ceylon and Malaya, (Madras: Govt. Press, 1917), p. 22/ para 69 and p. 42/ para 54.

26

tax:

For

goad

is

in

this

reason

there

ruler's

the

the

same

The

Konga

ganization

proportion

as

community

is

which

each

and

under

group

group

has

pline

called

justice ship

its

to

pre-British

Nayaka The

kings

days

of

ly

in

appealed

kottai are

on

also

tural the

word

en

ee

Noyy.al near

of

each the

among

the

area)

began

in

solidarity,

cruelties

the

economic

ing of

people).

present In

the

a good Pariahs

a

large

-

is

deal

number

F.A.Nicholson,

104)

Thurston,

105)

106)

1966),

are

they

do

only

and

occassional-

of

at this

coherance

Palayafamily

and

cul-

in

was

up

When

taken

the

Kongunad

'Mass

of

endogamy. like

the

social

At

the

same

Pattakkarans labouring

Madharis

other

subjected and

panchayat.

agricultural or

very

Move-

by

infrequently

caste

every

(Karur-Dharapuram

facilitated

not

not

judge

authority

of

several

cattle.

the

final

leaders

great

the

and

although

much

the

of

together,

area.

Chakkiliyans

but

of

the

early

All

castes

count

have

Madras

pp.

Census

for

the

returned

Vol.

p.

III,

District

Reports

Madigas

the under

op.ctit.,

op.ctt.,

B.S.Baliga,

Press,

by

were

communi-

(leather

and

much

work-

communities as

far

as

concerned '°,

them

103)

caste

leaderin

resdies

village

were

out

welded

principle

the

the

aggregated

of

very

converts

there

confusion.

been

have

the

comes

and

that

Madharis

implemented

importance

enumeration of

and

is

disci-

who

be

branches

the one

caste

communal

land

to

he

social

is

has in

in

was

powerful

In between

study

and

the

Next

Pallans

considerable

our

the

boycott

Panchamas: Pariahs,

and

Kongunad

group

by

said

taluq;

orunder

meting

its

Pattakkarans

their

longer

spread

unity

of

by

movement

caste

missionaries

Erode

no

Any

its

cultural

the

of

whole

the

for

chieftains

is

is

communal

has

though

the

Thus in

Adi-Dravidas

to

The

in

group

have.

1913,

to

ty

river

Kangayam.

of

caste

Every

and

Pattakkarans,

He

disputes,

own

Pertathanakkaran,

sustained

respect.

principal

caste

to

the

ment'

caste

or

military

was

famine

of

village

arrangements

the

petty

power

with

Pattakkaran

used

by

of

The

the

it

the

treated

found

seriously

time

is

as

its

authority).

community

viz.

Vellalar's

mark

Each

Wattukkuttam

Vellala

Their

of

separate

headmen

employed

matters

unity,

matter

'°4, The

Madurai.

Pattakkaran

arbitrator

with

or

has

Kavundan

(man

panchayat

and

recently.

a Nattu

"the

the

population.

one

until

saying bear

not

the

endogamous

under

hereditary

do

of

a Pattakkaran

caste

proverb

They

rest

an

nadu

members

in

local

active

Oorkattumanam

its

vested

the

own

a !°3,

the

remained

a Kottukkaran, each

is

sceptre"

there

is

(Chakkiliyans),

same

'Panchamas'.

head

themselves

evidently Pallans

as

native

And

and also

Christians

56.

pp-

417-18;

Gazetteers:

cf.

Nicholson,

Cotmbatore,

op.ctt.,p.57

(Madras:

Govt.

589-90.

The term Panchama means fifth caste and is synonym to the outcaste Depressed They are also called by several other names: classes. (original Dravidians) Classes, Scheduled Castes, Adi-Dravidas and Harijans. Pi

-

Pariahs:

The

may

during

hard

up

in

how, 200,

4,017

49,369

206,171

4,243

46,397

235,366

given

the

smallest

whereas

in

has

thinned

the

the

landscape the

whenever

is

the

smallest the

famine

to

community. in

community,

are

Therefore,

unlike

A good slavery and

that

attached

the to

prevented seldom lordism'

107) 108)

district

deal

with

is

as

the

their

hand

of

important

of

of

J.

ex-

small,

high

strength are

(1

toll

of

as

Pariahs

and

Tanjore,

almost

entirely is

reduced

to

existed

slaves

to in

show

asecriptt

their

caste

and

laws

of

Collector

(1828),

of

XXIV,

Even

Tanjore

that

Kaveri

in

(land

their

(slaves lords),

religion,

‘absentee

In

24

agrestic delta,

land-

Tanjore,

the

op.ctt., pp. 22 and Part I, pp. 93-94.

Coimbatore,

pp.

of

today

Tanjore! '°.

Pariahs).

glebae

mtrastdars

labour '°,

the

the

wealthy

feature

83

in

Pariah),

Chakkiliyans.

caste

actual

one

agriculture

high

the

the

agricultural

the

available

character

to

in

on

of

concentrated

Chakkiliyan:

the

Sillivan,

Papers

the them

district,

Majoribanks and Ahmad Tambi Marakkayar, cf. Census of India, 1931, XIV: Madras, Report

is of

as

a distinguishing

Parltamentary

a

3 Chakkiliyans

district

information

The to

are

naturally

out,

to

Coimbatore

the

conditions

is

Trichinopoly

were

pride

ratio

devolves

reliable

soil).

living

breaks

number

Coimbatore

uncompromising

Panchamas the

by

put

of

its

the

the

labouring

Coimbatore

and

community

population

largest

Tanjore in

district. the

dry

this

pestilence

Pariah

(at

the

Chakkiliyans

or

the

district

of

emigration

In

population !°7.

Pariah very

district

steadily

been

has

number

their

Trichinopoly

even

number

ore) 8 .

the

While

are

is

strength

carried

contrast

the

The

district.

large

the

in

found

are

Coimbatore

feeds

therefore

and

famine

of

peculiarities.

Pariahs

of

the

in

which

delta

Kaveri

rich

interesting

number

while

days

Coimbatore

certain

largest

Tanjore,

the

Hence

reveals the

the

population

Madhari

above-

districts,

adverse,

A sharp

74,647

1921

district

further,

73,363

ae

1931

where

ceedingly

the

7d

352,545

countries

other

district

and

337,445

be

reason kept

1921 1931

three

Tanjore

the

Tanjore

table the

Among

Coimbatore

Trichinopoly

Year

-

Madharis:

Mass

of:

strength

numerical

a

had

Movement,

which

communities

major

two

the

Chakkiliyans,

and

the

fed

chiefly

Pariahs

the

Reports

Census

the

to

According

difficulties.

immense

poses

community

large

this

of

figures

exact

the

ascertaining

therefore

and

June,

42;

1819,

836-37

109)

Report of C.M.Lusington, Collector of Trichinopoly, 1st July, 1819, Parltamentary Papers (1828), XXIV, pp. 837-41; cf. "Slavery in the Reps reals Parltamentary Papers (1841), XXVIII, Appendix Ix, F p-

110)

Andre

Beteille,

op.ctt.,

p.

15 28

man

who

on

no

men

owns

even

account

one

would

serfs

agriculture

and

ment

though

received

was

painful

for

their

to

for

32

fates

being

years

in

calls

himself

for

situation

is

has

to

intervene

'this

is

a mirasidar

and

the

gentle-

land

of

and

groups.

1952",

and

"The

Act,

of

Tanjore

proved

situation

and

constantly things

came

all the So

area

to

case far

were

I have

safely

Vellalans

and

west

education, dominance

in

of

privileges

111)

Kusum

112)

Abbe

Kongunad

ANS)

by Henry pe. 49). LO? ae

K.

two

lived

sad

here,

about

I

tide

the

helpless and

Harijan all

amicable

the

still

serfs

physical men,

of

have

have

women

to

and

the

not

to

wealthy

mirasidars

im-

be

live

terror.

in

Fair

difficulties

seems

Venmani

settle-

Protec-

(Payment

measures

landlord

for

government

Panniyal

over

legislative

marked

the

an

and

Tenants

to

is

and

Tenants

the

Keezh

the

reader

the

are

p.

Hindu

Beauchamp),

two

numerical

wealth

often

an

Brahmins

the

and

finds and

controlling

op.ctt.,

J.A.Dubois,

of

were

exploitation as

to

just

such

of

enjoying

castes

such

district

bring

and

that

economic

and

Nair,

give

the

these

injustice

the

Pariah

any

who

In

1968

children

Tanjore

district

implicated

acquittea!!>, to

shown

enormous

a

order

forty-two

and

respectively,

or

Tanjore

insecurity

who

between

relations

power

village

Hindus

tried

a whole,

the

when

The

Cuitivating

even

of

hardest

without

missionary

strained

enacted

the

choose

colonies

Tanjore

Madras

But

the

caste

in

dangerous

a head

23

now.

"The

been

to

soil

themselves

the

pleasure

a French

the

hire

treat-

toiled

former" ''3,

and

atmosphere in

our

then

and

times

an

alive

the

as

gross

at

in

burnt

and

have

district?}4,

the

unbroken

1956

I

of

to

caste

the

and

cultivate

exacted

at

low

sweated

to

wages

the

proceeds,

obliged

them

Dubois,

"had

better

allowed

beat

of

their

labourers

minimum

the

tensions

two

tion

for

Abbe

now

between

not

one

services on

therefore

might

the

ment

were

prefer

no

the fat

these

turn

in

on

waxed

whom

says:

slave

landlord-tenant

were

in

India, a

much

were

raisea!!?,

being

Act"

They

master

unhesitatingly

The

for

and

who their

the

Rent)

those

benefit,

castes,

of

should

114) 115)

land

plough,

mirasidars

to witness.

Further

objection

and

the

depended

the

from

own

other

tasks.

in

of wet

hold

farmers'''1, Though

in

acre

he

of

overall in

dominant

picture Kaveri

castes

superiority,

even

political

expression also

the

in

in

certain

local

votes

Customs

and

at

of

the

delta in

the

and east

ritual

status,

power.

The

the

persecution,

important the

time

powers of

elect-

27. Manners,

3rd

ed.

(Oxford:

Ceremontes,

Clarendon

(translated

Press,

1906),

Kusum Naiz, op.ctt.;, p. 28... / K.R.Sundar Rajan, "Harijans: The Great Betrayal", The Illustrated Weekly of India, (September 30, 1973), p. 10; cf. T.V. Sathyamurthy, "The Dravida Munnetra Kazhgam in the Politics of Tamilnadu: 1949-...

29

Soutel Gee

intervillage

oriented

society,

tunities

and

S.C.Dube,

an

to

eminent

overall let

us

focus

conditions

of

the

puram-Karur the

area

Methodist

conditions

reader

their

Social

which

the

the

changes

conversion -

Dtstrtct

describes

the

be

have

say:

oppor-

to

make

of

caste,

as

"Ranking

contributes

significantly

socio-economic communities

of

these

certainly

of

come

people

Mass

religious

the

Mass

of

their

living

for

any

Movement

these

Dhara-

Movement

and

difficult

the

upon

and of

Trichinopoly

idea

will

caste-

casual

or

communities

to as

a result

Christianity.

F.A. and

Pariahs

the

significance

that

to

Conditions:

Cotmbatore

it

the

an

the

Madhari

fed

Without

past,

on

and

chiefly

a

in

employment

interlinked

status,

village

the

how

Wage

attention

Adi-Dravida

understand

appreciate of

ie

clear

education,

Sociology,

ritual

the

in

our

Church.

in

to

of

it

closely

so

are

ascribed

position

its Now

makes

wealth,

Professor

its

on

this

status, power

political

largely

based

ritual

All

representing

and

disputes

intercaste

local

settling

ions, in

Nicholson, the

of

former

Kongunad

the

editor

Deputy as

of

the

Collector

Manual

of

the

of

same

the district

follows:

"These are less numerous than usual. Very little is known about this interesting race, who are by no means deserving of the character sometimes given them. They are called out-non-caste; however

with by

no

means

form

a

complete

deficient

in

society

(Valluvar)

intelligence,

and

and

advancement has them altogether

the

cause,

of

result,

not

Nicholson

white

or

shell

bangle

Pachatvalat

out

the

Karur

Pariahs and

the

Pariah divided

(the

women

widows

Pariahs

(the

women

and

Sozhta

the

old

Samban

Pariahs

cover

throughout Cholanad) far

the cover

as

Dharapuram the

old

social

is

Sambavar)

(or

as

and

Sangu

Samban

least

the

points

Dharapuram

Konga

and

they

quasi-priests social charge

As

of

rules,

adaptibility; their and it is unfair to

around the

recruited,

class

of

of

of

which

of

community

The which

a

not

green

Sozhians

stretches

west (or east

as

customary

re-marry); bangles) ;

Pachaivalai

stretches

the

which

wear

may

wear

Sangu,

especially

sub-castes

division

division

while

Kongunad

a number

into

which

area,

are

considerable

never been undertaken, with yuse is often

community

Pariahs.

Choladesam

show

themselves,

They

esteem..."

of which

Kongunad,

among

gurus.

of the of

and Karur Pariahs Karur

at

Trichinopoly!!?.

Ve

1115)

cont.

1971" (a paper read at the Centre University of London, 31-1-1974), 116)

S.C.Dube, "Caste Indtan Soetology

UU)

Blowelo sida

118)

F.A.Nicholson,

119)

Dominance and (New Series),

of South Asian pp. 10-11

Studies,

SOAS,

Factionalism", Contributions No. 2, (December, 1968), pp.

to 58-59.

(ee

op.cit., (a OSe Rev. W.Lillie, Some Customs and Ceremontes of the Karur and Dharapuram Areas, Trichinopoly (St.Theresa Printers, 1956), see under "A Table of A.D. & M.D. Subcastes".

30

From

very

into

five

they

being

dhobis,

early

the

and

the

history

of

the

Kongu

The

is

or

caste

Madharis

are

believed

Telugu

South

Chuckler

of

kinds:

Ganareoo.

in

Telugu-speaking Rettt

and

Anuppa.

and

Konga

Bian

and

or

the

to

be

the

title

Kongu

'Kongu'

is

something

this

five-fold do

is

unique structure

not

belong.

addition

later

a

castes):

barbers,

Madharis

east

speaking

of

to

The

to

decide

ordinary

of

imposing In

the

India

non-Brahmin

and

the

Left

by

in

is

and

and

the

as

along

with

migrated

already

from

pointed

the

Thotttyar,

Kollan,

Koyyan

Madhari

sub-castes

are

Morasar

split

further

found

on

extending

are

caste

up

to

have

to

and

will

be

Kannada-

west

caste

of

Panchayats

exercise

sentences

make

living

The

mainly

own

and

passing

page

seem

The

Morasar

Athat

Tanjore.

their

disputes

marriages,

the

into

concentrated

gradual-

Marutha

following

Koyyan

is

districts.

into

divided

the

and

up

number

out

their

Madharis

and

dissolving

Andhra

latter

Tanjore

Kollan

Morasar

from

the

and

are

probably

Konga

general

the

is

list

In

Kannada-speaking.

and

further

turn

quarrels

there

castes

Hand -

has are

castes.

of these

bartnln

marked

which

Pariahs

the

to either

caste

numerous

the of

rights

ex-communi-

eo

South

great

district

sub-castes

and

Madharis,

Trichinopoly

Kannada-speaking

fines,

Bie

Coimbatore

into

Adi-Dravidas.

came

the

the

and

group

of

Telugu-speaking

Karur /2*,

cations

former

majority

in

Karur

divided

the

Telugu-speaking

the

classification

Marutha

also of

Vijayanagar,

Morasar

The

are case

of

the

Morasar, The

mainly

the

the

days

Madhari

The

simpler.

the

The

live

in

while

in

smaller

and

two

that

ly

been

It

divisions, The

factious

is

said

for

are

between and

curious

cihlobely

122)

Baliga,

123)

Rev. Lillie, op.ctt.; cf.Report of the Commisston, 1935 (RTMMC), Appendix II, Lillie, op-ctt.

the

Brahmins

spoken these

counter

M.

tradition

groups--

the

120)

ee

p.

two

that

they

claims

op.ctt.

age-old into

relationship

rivalry,

Arokiaswami,

an

divided

WMD)

124)

day

classified

(five

Kongu

|'*°- To

seem

Chakkiliyans as

Nayaks

getting

the

groups

elsewhere,

it

the

castes"

been

jati'

"this

and

Chakkiliyans

the

or

Madharis

endogamous

the

Indian

to this

name

have

'panja

society.

Kongu

It

society

Kongunad

Chettis,

Even

caste

the

of

called Kongu

Pariahs.

South

Chakkiliyans

people

Vellalas,

before of

the

groupings

Kongu

used

in

the

Kongu

the

constantly

The

times

occupational

do

of as two

Hand

not

belong

Maha@janam

groups

claims,

by which

Right

has

leading

('of

been to

fre-

214.

Pathe) op.citt.,

p.

214.

125)

Baliga,

op.ctt.,

pp»

211-12. ’

126)

Hutton,

op.ctt.,

pp.

67-68.

31

Trtchtnopoly p. 43.

Mass

Movement

32

2330

eTbueg

TeAtetea

23304

TeAtetTea

o3TuUM

user

SHWIUWd

eTbueg

ATI30yNL ze

ueques

TOY ueT

eTYyzos

“a°y %

anzeypue

Xioy ue

T3904"

eddnuy

Teuty

eyuynae

STYWHAWW

butTyeods_nbnteyz

soqseoqns’a’wW

weindezeu ePoityq

epeuuey

Teug

ebuoy

zeseroW

Hbutyeeds-

quent

clashes

happenings leges, For

on

claimed

instance

the

right to use

certain

emblem

gold

on

processions Hand

castes

privileges

and

these

privileges

by

In

the and

division

principal putes with

the

the

are

in

their men

the

title among

their

women

to

the

be

the

and

receive

almost

and

the

the are

for

the

former

which

traditional of

the

jealousy Civil

separate

in

127)

Ibid.

128)

Ib¢d.

129)

J.H.Nelson,

1868),

p.

-

with

The

entitled

to of

counter-claims

pale

the

of

superiority

inferior

to

a pollution

to

his

communal

the

area

thus

As

not

The

adds and

Madhari

of to

ill-

always

by hatred

thinks

both

rivalry

and

marked

them,

Madhari

prejudices

Pariah

they

above

caste.

could

out

the

another.

the

professional

Christianity is

one

while

turned

though

over and

Hands '3°,

both

castes

the glory

faction

has

and

regard As

they

Right

the

him

to

|29,

Though

caste

from

rather dis-

themselves

Hand

division

peace.

or

affect

castes,

Right

>... This

the

range

aversion"

of

officious

periodical

"they Hand

the

public

the

allies

remove.

communiand

mutual

Pariahs

some

Madura

and

forms

the

of

distance

Country:

Madharis

were,

discrimination from

A Manual,

the

and

main

(Madras:

like

other

were

forced

caste

Asylum

village

Press,

75.

130)

Abbe

131)

Baliga;

132)

S.Estborn,

Our

of village

Christians

and

to

between

various

quarters

The

in castes.

‘

disabilities:

to

Hand

not

to

the

a palanquin

the

always whom

of

to

suspicion.

saddled

with

Left

castes, in

Right

intensifies

relationship

outcastes, live

is

conversion

Karur-Dharapuram

and

priviHands.

booth,

flag

invaluable

friends

labourers,

rivalry

Hand

treatment

is

agricultural even

or

caste

with

Professional

are

castes

the

Bend

of

contact -

Hands

they

belong

outside kind

fighting

the

unmitigated

of

disturber

same

to

them

Pallans,

most

Left

Madhari

been

Left

Hand

Mougattar

the

feeling, ties

the

that

ae

The

and

feels

a ie

Madharis

and make

Right

Chakkiliyans

direful

keep

Hand

supporters

to

a

of

Right

nanas '28,

the

Valangat

the

or to use

Left

unpleasant

a marriage

opposedto the

Hands,in which

chief

to

carry

denied

the are

Pariahs

contempt

belong

Pariahs

Pariah

two

the

most

still

of

these

encroachment

in

to

a horse

that they

Right the

arms,

strongly

Left

Chakkiliyans

loftiest

Pariahs The

of

supporters

between

against

are

pillars

both

tide

supposed exclusively

twelve

to

argue

of

activity

violence!27.

or

belonging

hence the

and

real

on

it,

etc.

these

zeal

as

ornaments

of a monkey

Right

that

riot of

are

wedding

they

with

account

which

wear

The

sometimes

occur

J.A.Dubois, op.ett..,

Theology

No.

op.ctt., ps

Village 3

pp.

24-25.

‘215. Christtans:

in Tamtinad,

(Madras:

CLS,

33

A Survey

Studies 1959),

p.

of the

in the 5.

ltfe

Indian

and

fatth

Church

If

anyone

the

down

next eee

viidace and

own

their

pollute The

they or

'swami'

the

and

their

bodies

Even not

be

They

and

When

On

he

met a

were

they

him,

their

lest

These

employ

they

if

as to

to

if

road

him

spoke

they

bar-

Madharis.

forced

the

the

temples,

Non-Brahmin and

were

greet

mouths

their

wells.

they

men

2 The

males

other

were

had

should

words

afraid

of

earthenware

scorching

sunshine

or

a heavy

to

umbrella

to

cover

it

They

clothes, to

man,

and

in

downpour

they

cloth '3?

houses.

people

nor

cover

(upper

new

their

these

heads

to

thavants

wearing

vessels

if

shirts

forbidden

or

were

even wear

knee-level were

their

whenever

serfs.

allowed

than

a caste

during

an

new

(blouses)

not

use

or

likewise,

ravukats

than

resented

outcaste

not

lower

women,

called

their

costly

cloth)

The

terribly

use

bitterly

on

wearing

(loin

jackets

were

village

noticed

should

some

of

a Harijan

accompanied some

into

by

these or

passing

a musical in

since

Economic

in

villages a bicycle

couple

places

force

Bishop

the

riding

a married

in

the

nena dhott

by

public

of

out

public

could

were

they

sandals '>°,

In

or

in

were

well-washed.

allowed

wear

caste

afford

not

over

driven

be

enter

panies

Adi-Dravida

bantyans,

aside

(Sir).

a tiled pulled

Adi-Dravidas

washermen' >".

step

to

hands

their

caste

could

cloth).

and

barbers

to

sometimes

that

word

could

They

the

tight

civilization

against

from

serve

the

the

of

water

had

dominant

marks

so

would

allowed

in be

to

house,

wretch

not

not

they

with

speak

to

were

poor

draw

could

man,

using

god,

and

places

special

caste

any

the were

live

it would

nor

life

a tiled

build

people

washermen

restrictions

to

and

moment

These

public

visit bers

dared

a decent

lead

to

expected

not

were

and

house.

spite ist

June,

conditions:

Tinnevelly

through

party. of

-

dominant

sitting

the

These

the

on

castes the

main

top

did of

streets

practices

not

like

to

see

a bullock-cart of

have

Untouchability

Offence

noted

like

the

not Act

yet

!29,

village ceased

which

came

1955.

Some

(1877-1891)

scholars

have

suggested

Robert

that

the

Caldwell,

original

133)

S. Rajamanickam, "Factors in the growth of the Christian Movement in the Ex-Methodist Area of the Trichirapalli Diocese and their relation to the present day problems", (an unpublished B.D.Thesis, 1951), p. 23. UTC, Bangalore,

134)

Kathleen

135)

Rajamanickam,

Gough,

op.cit., op.ctit.,

p. p.

24.

23.

1316)

Dbeds

137)

M.N.Srinivas, Soctal Change tn bay: Allied Publishers, 1966),

Modern p. 16.

Indta,

Indian

edition

(Bom-

138)

Ibid.

139)

Joan P. Mencher, "Continuity and Change in an Ex-Untouchable renee of South India", In Michael Maher, Oped tay (Pp. 14 4), an A 34

profession and

of

the

especially

multiplied, The

they

position

status

in

ditions

Pariahs

at

were

of

the

the

The

obliged as

scale

and

as

their

perform

an

outcaste

to

all

extract

Marriages,

has

will

in

the

kinds

a greater

traditional

the

at

number

to

but

following

conditions

nomic

drum-beating

but

Pariah

social

also.

was

funerals;

of

his

of

of

time

jobs /7°.

not

his

succinctly

mode

other

affected

extent

festivals course

only

his

economic

describe

con-

his

eco-

income:

"The Pariah earns his livelihood by playing his drum on the occasion festival and other important celebrations. funeral, of wedding, The fixed wage for his work is found in 'Alariparai' (oral proclamation of rights), which he proudly proclaims in front of the For a wedding a big potful of rice, dhal, sugar, and rasam; corpse.

12 and

In to

addition him. The

families

From

was

Even

for

this

a good

lands. at

to

noon,

engage they

as

wages

selling

and

to

of

earned their

Refering aitions

a man

in

order

to

the

to

people,

for to as

were was

were

not

by

report

observes

in

to in

little by

the

and

enough to

A.D.

1800,

serfs

Goundans.

on

the

only

a brief

kind.

Even

what

by way

the

outcastes

the

goods.

even

a day's

also

a Pariah

labourer

Francis

to

Government

the

of

men's

interval

little

they

buying

were

not

meagre the

family

to work. and

Buchanan:

visit on

Since

of

The

meal

forced

also

were

caste

with

people

living.

and

Adi-Dravidas

in which

Wellesley

his

in

irregu-

daily

festivals

the

the

caste

were

paid

the

from

and

and

examining for

children

Lord

dues

a meagre

income and

regular, sun-set

provisions

and

wages

his

to

very

touching

what his

agricultural

exploited

by

well earn

landowner.

buffalo must be given the members of the

occasions

not

sun-rise paid

to

the

get

themselves

Dharapuram

and

wait

from

very

a Pariah

was

wives

commissioned

country the

at

to

necessary

bargain

they

hence

understand for

profession

worked

but

allowed wages

had

harvest

They

received and

he

traditional

obliged

we

provided

(Vaikarisi),

each

from

of grain

to these the carcases of cow or remunerations are divided among

passage

means

rice

(4 annas). and a panam 1-4-o and for a day service

measures

fourteen

annually

of

measures

few

a

meal

in the village"!

this

lar for

one

with

a pie (Kottukkasu), a towel, days for a night service Rs.

As.

their

along

funeral

for

jaggeri, On other

his

living

(later

different general

parts

con-

Hamilton),

of

the

conditions

of

Journey:

"A woman's daily wages were four puddis§ of grain, worth about nine-tenths of a penny. A man gets 6 puddis of grain. A servant with these wages can once or twice a month procure animal food. Milk

is

His

expensive.

too

with a little salt drink is the water

diet

common

consists

of

and perhaps some and capsicum, in which the grain was boiled.

boiled

grain,

pickles. His He has very

Caldwell, A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South 1856), p. 498. (London: Harrison, Family of Languages,

140)

Robert Indian

141)

Rajamanickam,

§

4 puddis

=

op.cit.,

1 Bulla

or

Pp»

24.

Vullam,

/ cubical

35

inches

246

5/1o.

little is

a

clothing,

hovel,

and

and

disorders.:.."142 This much

state

even

of

at

in

Kongunad

of

the

the

paid

irregular

ment

family's

a type

journey

income,

Madras

Avanashi-and

Erode

"The

in

weavers

the

upole

in

those

wove

at

trade

days

the

had

from

very was

to

place

walk

to

place

their

clothes.

first

reached

distributed

In

in

Kongunad.

acted

as

agents

Apart

village and

cattle,

taking

cloth

burnt

from

being

Madharis '4®, They

flesh

also

make

markets,

also

spread

of

Christianity

cleared

the

a part

in

by way

of

as

womenfolk

kind

of

carcases

and

leaving

the

ritual

of

for

Christianity tracts

mobility,

the

of

going

market

to

field

but

a Pariah

Gospel

physical

some

of

when

their

and

Jadar

cloth;

this

suitable

century,

sellers,

writes:

restrictions,

by

diggers

he

the

to

his

the

trade

took

seeking

weav-

in

best

which

caste

supple-

in

Coicular,

the

who

Adi-

to

During

Pariahs which

labourer

because

the

2a

possible

2oth

themselves

played

of

about

of

of

avai,

to

field So,

engaged

it was

cloth

and for

were

persons,

Those

the

some

who

grave

corpses

the

area, the

watchmen,

the

Kongunad, of

Pariah

change

remuneration

folk

only

because

sellers, for

said

not

days'*?.

of

2050

homes.

days

Dharapuram

as

removed

early

the

a number

to

in

their

1891

thirty

distant

the

clothes

throughout

such

unconsciously

Thus

did

women

are

distances,

the

the

to

last

and

weaving,

amount

|

in

long

in

afterwards

livelihood,

at

house

cutaneous

means

seen

engaged

These

looms

sale

had

district

selling

of

his

and

for

their

for

cosreets

rough

means

dirty,

vermin

In

1/4d

while

talugqs

iong

1o

Buchanan

this

extremely with

additional

goods

(Pariahs).

is

as

is

run

century.

2s

insecure

coarse

from

Parrtar

the

to weaving

of

and

of

about

and

little

commonly

continued

close

was

took

ing

that

is

things

Dravidas the

he

the

acted

vilalges

Pariahs

also

labourers.

They

the

the

village

hide

to

activities

of

the

the

village !?’.

The

Madharis

live

agricultural

serfs

of

the

hides

and

trappings In

for

a sense

pation

than

manufacture

leather

the

did

142)

Buchanan,Journey,

143)

Henry (MN),

144) 145)

and of

they

work of

of the

have

Vol.

from in

the

Pariahs.

leather

leather

large

work

weaving

Nor

separate

also

bullocks,

the

competition.

quite

they

--

articles

waterbuckets

the

Madharis

to

II,

travel

pp.

such

used

was

Adi-Dravidas,

long

Besides

curing

for

and as

for

a more it

was

distances

being

tanning

sandals,

irrigation. stable

occu-

unaffected

for

the

by

sale

315-16.

Little, "Our Mission in the Konga Nad”, Misstonary Notices Vol. XXVI (August 1891), p. 175. W.J.Noble, Ploughing the Rock: The Story of the Trichtno poly Distrtet Mass Movement (London: Cargate Press, 1928), p. 35. Buchanan, op.ctt., p. 288.

146)

Baliga,

147)

Thurston,

ops.ett., op.ctt.,

p.

211. Vol.

WAT

Holey

CIS

36

of

their

leather

Like tural

the

operations,

Goundans

than

dependent also on

on

a

fixed

the

At

less

main

to

of

in

this

worhsip

is is

coconut from

the

a

The

social and

to

had under

known by

daubed

insste

is

disaster give

ten

there

was

earning would

a day

were

the

be

during and

thirty

they

of

were

security

Christian

more

somewhat

landlords.

that

sense

the

for

on

more

or

a great

when

to

better

But was

fold

them

the

the

join

famine, °°,

to

148)

Rajamanickam,

A.C.Clayton, "Pariah: A Plea and and Workers tn the Mtsston Fteld pp. 328-29.

150)

Thurston,

Vol.

of

promote

the

149)

op.ctt.,

p.«

Both

that

Mass

the

from of

and

and

fecundity and

the

left

their

on

a

sort

of

Amman

smeared a few and of

a

either

of

cheri

village

gates

were

goddess

saffron

Madharis

the

hope

this

shape,

were

perpetual-

in them

they

their

The

the

people

were

in places

(neem)

conical

protect

ray

and

Kotl.

streaks to

also

no

near

tree

of

these they

developed

so,

way

shrine

stone

a few

op.ctt.,

much

Amman

and

has

them

own

a margosa

believed and

giving

a small

a black

children

Karma

So

of

system,

country

of

their

as

with

beliefs

caste

the

come.

in

or

universally

of

to

they

platform

the

fatalism,

deities

disease,

remunera-

would

fields

meal

no

to

if

their

corn

Madharis

shows

years

doctrine

world

and

four

corn

to

every

was

annual

children

or

one

of

religious of

life

The

the

represented

and

-

own

oil

the

into

ten

result

or

Kereiiionh

goats

As

Usually

temple

if

false

come

their

choice. clay

to

add

they

os

situation

nearly

renewed

There

from

of

grown-up

protection

This

ears

get

and

Movement.

temples.

world

raised

of

the

resignation

to

Attal

them

took

as

the

be

the

more

farmers

and the workers

cattle

would

the

the

be

with

Pariahs

by

could

also

the

annum

seem

real

conditions:

from

they

per

Goundans.

for

and

farmer's

which

under

would

the

because

produce

agricul-

speaking,

desired.

could

unthrashed

fields

it would

It

of

woman

the

grain

the

It

of the total

after

the

block

Hindu of

Madharis,

Madhari

of

animistic.

sense

the

for

sight

stream

the

so

harvest

times,

Religious

own

the

began.

ly barred

which

parties

a basketful

examination

mostly

more,

the

The

looking

than

consumed.

in

contact

employed

of

64 measures

in

closer

either

discretion.

slaves

stumbling

or

were

of

economically

Movement

year

locally

employed

relatively

independent They

farmer's

first

closer

one

a much

services

measures

secured

less

were

also

were,

the

in

fifty

and

had

They

the

harvest

to

they

mobility.

for

products were

at

harvest.

employed

fact

of

if

allowed to have

by working

of

urge

basis

per

a bumper

in

their

Madharis

for

varied

measures

of

the

Adi~Dravidas.

dissolved

wage

tion

Many

farmers

the

contract or

and

the the

lacked

year

be

goods.

Adi-Dravidas

or with

dots

livestock cattle

and

Adi-Dravidas

25.

VI,

pp.

a Challenge", III (WWMF), Vol. XII, 104-5.

37

Paper, Work (August, 1903),

the

of

ses

Madhiartis

In

|>4:

In

order

spirits

in

good

whixiwinds unseen tions

with

fruits,

Erode

and

apply

or

spell-monger

by

movements

of

a man's

path

person

while

the

trip

hold

of

that

the

cry

of

social

the

high

owl

is

the

In

their

and

the

the

influence

of

LbUda. eePbs

away

drive read

a

as

crow

business,

cries,

heralding

of

By

share

in

thres-

the

on

relatives,

some

and

caste,

which

civilization

and

enlightenment. the

life As

form had

education, wall has and

"the been

wealth

between

completely from

a result

Madharis

Madharis

wretched

outcastes

society of

the

their

impregnable

Hindu

and

and

in

15> , the

mainstream

Adi-Dravidas

a

of

cancels

once

of

will

front

sitting

them

religion,

an

caste-ridden

at

Adi-Dravidas

lize"

erecting

he

arrival

found

religion

social

in

(a bird) he

ill-omen.

the

Methodists

name

while

the

an

in which

comes

child's

(sakuna)

a widow

important

evil a village

the

omens

if

the

the

the

Similarly

from

suppression,

Julius Sydney

the

to also

off

consult

a valiyan

legitimate

low,

ward they

a bride,

India's

outcastes

to

these

songs ,and

of

If

considered

the

sing

or

Wesleyan

of

roof,

a cat

conditions

intercourse !?®,

alienated

had

the

cultur-

of

their

lost

all

OA =7;.

Richter, A History of Misstons tn Indta (translated by H.Moore), (Edinburgh and London: Oliphant Anderson &

Ferrier,

1908),

1.533)

PASC

154)

Thurston,

155)

W.E. Garman, De ESCO

156)

an

the

sick,

search

If

taken

woof

denied

and

least. is

is

in

animals. sets

some

it

the

and

on

child

child

They

Chennimalai

Palani,

at

a

Sometimes

believed

is

propitiafoods.

and

out

he

aptert

out

Kongunad.

warp

age-old

of

when

when

at

day

were

living

bluntly

152)

is

a house,

These

cheris

he

and

birds

her

give

who

in

the

to

spirits.

antes

few

a

chanting

When

leaves

mustard

drinks

temples

Mulanur.

margosa

stick

malignant

the

15a)

near

white

immediately

ed

Koil

the

to

pilgrimage

make

and of

a host

make

Madharis

delicious

call

people

and

goddesses and

Pariahs

the

coconuts,

and

crosses

very

gods,

the

sickness

were

these

of

medicine-man

while

keep

collyrium

machinations

in

to

humour

Bahavan

people

superstitious

in

flowers,

they

Occasionally near

dwell

whirlpools

trees,

rocks,

to

character.

these

whom

ghosts

of

a number

said

are

which

(goblins)

still

are

there

addition

péy

dead

their

of

notorious

even

of

heroes

local

spirits

the

worship

also

they and

relatives,

departed

goddes-

and

gods

the

> b,

devatas

these

Besides and

attendant),

male

are

Gangamma

and

Draupathi,

Virabadran,

Muneeswara,

(a

the

are

Mariamman

and

Angalamman

Maduraiveeran

while

Adi-Dravidas

the

of

deities

Kanniamman,

Kattamman,

panaswami,

Karu-

Generally,

(kuladetvam).

gods

family

and

deities

particular

have

Clay tony,

Interview

pp.

243-44.

Op) Ct tas

“opicert., "The

with

the

pe

Vols Census Rev.

S20.

VI, of

sp.

995.

India,

W.Lillie,

38

1931", dated

IRM, London,

Vol. 27th

XXIII

(1934),

September,1973.

their pull was

powers

of

initiative

themselves stronger

lied

the

by

out

and

An gion

Italian

the

six

tive

Advent

eiters’”” miles

centre

of

celebrated

on

unbounded

enthusiasm

Catholic of

the

the

on

a very

Mtsston,

to

Vellore

were

the Erode

weavers of

the

of

a

Beschi, to

the

the

Lutherans

of

death The

arrival

press

the

of

Pltitschau,

two on

by to

supp-

of

the

with at

Church

Negapatam

famous

ten

days

Portureli-

tolerance

by

Velanganni, become

Velanganni

for

the

Christian

viewed

the

an

festival

every

year

attend

among

the

German 9th

has

it

acwhich

and with

declined

F.R.Hemingway, T.Venkaswami

op.ctt.,

pp.

159)

F.A.Nicholson,

160)

"The Relation between H.Crafe, Tanjore Catholics in the first

op.ctt.,

op.ctt.,

Review

p.

his

of

Madurai They

Salem

and

Karur

a number

the

of

commencement

of

best

was

in

of

and

scene

got

from

Dharapuram.

Since

the

famous

Coimbatore.

in

the

labours

known

was

bitterly books

Father

opposed

printed

Tranquebar |°°.

in

India

Bartholomew the

in

1706

up

the

Italian

in

After

rapidly.

enterprise

157)

Row,

he

an

districts

the

arrival

Catholics

extended

near

Beschi

set

missionaries, July,

was

Portuguese

the

through

Nobili,

century

of whom

though

Lutherans

Roman

the

re

been

language.

the

built

i7th

priests,

Tranquebar,

Mission

was

the

and

Tamils de

to

converted

Tamil

the

the

mission

chapel

1552,

1706,

Robert

Gospel

in

were

firstof the

in

Satyamangalam

a

early

the

in

this

the

1608

missionary

History

the

did

India,

by

158)

Church

visited

non-Christians,

in

Trichinopoly

of

the

who that

was

Xavier,

work

Work

as

Madura

Protestant

was

train

to

which

setting

1612

lasts

1606

taking

century

printing

his

in

numberof Jesuit of

power

power

when

in

and

arrive

Hindus

a master

vitality

or

the

with

said

and

missionaries

occupied

caste

17th

large

only

April,

Tanjore

in

early

were

and

that

and

regional

1570

hold

built

extensive

from

As

no

up;

Frederick

about

Francis

to

parentage. and

Coimbatore. and

of

founded

pioneers

had force

°°,

death

Protestant

aristocratic

--

Caesar

Christians

missionaries

carried Madura

named

30th

people,

first

Missions

However,

the

of

they

along

came

Catholicism. The very

thousands

Between

of

was

so

outside

Government. , the

19th

161)

Read E. Arno Lehmann, It First Protestant Mtsston Madras: CLS, 1956.

162)

N.C.Sargant, The Disperston of the Tamil Church, largedwed.7,/i(Deihi seleseP jiCakey, n1962) hep et

163)

L.S.S.O'Malley, action of their

164)

Sigfried Estborn, "The Tranquebar Mission", in: The Lutheran Enterprise in Indta, ed. C.J.Swavely (Madras, 1952), p. 13.

165)

Kenneth

1968),

pp.

51-52.

Ingham,

Began at tn India

Negapatam Mayavaram Kumbakonum Tanjore Trichinopoly ' Coimbatore

A History of the by M.J.Lutz),

xrev.,

and

en-

Modern India and the West: A Study of the InterCiviltzattons (London: Oxford University Press,

Reformers

Press, 1956), pp. 134-136.

Tranquebar

Tranquebar: (translated

in India

1793-1833,

: RDM SPG : = SPCK §SPG : LMS : LMS : RDM (SPCK) SPG : 3 -SPCK :

SPG

te

eeuhisS

40

(Cambridge:

nts

1706-1816 1833 1785-1802 1833 182518051732-1825 18251732-1825 18251831-

Universit

a

century

there

sionary

Committees

mutual

had

relations

employment

and

equity

and

This

former

ie

This

proved in

value

missions

at

least

to

make

as

Thoburn, put the

forbade

inter-

to

unnecessary Missio-

the

of

and

study

the

re-

strained

and

dis-

desire:

this

expressed

Matheson

Dr.

or

session to

devoted

of

of

practical

it

avoided

it

eighteenth

the (1888),

as

much

rivalry

and

America

territories

Thus

districts,

'Comity'

of

place

first

other's

H.M.

of

mis-

their

principle

rules'

and

on

converts

the

Church

unhealthy

over

Missions,

of

Comity

of

cussion

the

on

known

the

In

and

London

in

based

arrangement

a‘fairs.

internal

presiding

be

of

Episcopal

each

into

duplication

held

Conference

to

various

of their

transfer

intermissional

directions.

two

While

lationship. nary

of

Methodist

inroads

wasteful

overlap,

came

a necessary

other's

each

in

fere

be

and

the

Missions

to the boundaries agreement

'Code

between

Evangelical

workers

courtesy the

the

as

of

gentlemen's

of

to

of

field

unwritten

Bishop

understanding

workers

in the

Christian

Missions.

a common

and

interchange

congregations.

the

been

"It is important for us all that there should be an earnest desire and even determination to respect each other's boundaries, to repress every feeling of rivalry, and to-cultivate instead that holy emulation in the faith and good works which will have the Master's smile and penatietion* 16). The

the

second

variant

confused

the

cospeiee

2 It

any

practical

forms

were the

was

also

claim

within

always

Though

a

term

Conference

to

that

but

felt

in

some

degree

these

agreements

comity

agreement

were

was

on

hindered

the

no

which

length

of

'open

time.

which

spread

Mission

of

could

it was

Further,

often

the make

unable large

to

cities

:

agreement

gained

had

currency

1888.

Missions

From needed

for

its

and

rarely

Tonga

discourage

polity,

area

London,

made

actively

that

comity

verbal

to

Church

policy

be

organized

was

and

particular

to

among

Comity

also

agreed

of

in

comity

the

worship and

any

'Comity'

Missionary be

of

reasonable

practice

the

an

over

considered

the

1820s,

use

Christian

non-Christians,

exclusive

evangelize

of

in

more

been

only then not

on

effectual

1830

vogue

the

it was

only

recorded.

July,

in

after to

since

Centenary beginning

be

practiced

maintenance.

The

first

between

the

Often

recorded

Wesleyan

Vol.

166)

"Missionary Comity", The Harvest Field, (HF), Bishop Thoburn, "Missionary 1890), p. 282; cf. Rev. A.Clifford, X, (February, Comity", HF, Vol. XI (July, 1890), pp. 1-9.

167)

"Missionary Comity--Mutual Relations", Report of H.M. Matheson, the Centenary Conference on the Protestant Misstons of the World,

168)

in Conetse Dicttonary of the Christtan "Comity", R. Pierce Beaver, ed. Stephen Neil and others, (London: Lutterworth World Mtsston,

169)

Ibtd.

Vol.

Press,.

II, (London:

1970,

James

Nisbet

& Co.,

p--123.

41

1888),

p.

430.

Methodists Fiji

and

were

the

eperante:

While

agreement

by

converts

the

not

not

their Mission

The

out,

setting

the

the

of

the

esuse!!*:

they

They the

eighty

of

of

the

of the

Police

were

Madras

Presidency! ’4,

of

Hindu

people

Ibid. York

Large and

the

estrange

171)

-Richter,

172)

Ibid.

173) Ibid.,p.

were

in

time

fear serious

neutralior

them

mosques

Church.

to

erect

Tax

(1806)

defraying

people

as

patrons

study

Protestant ps

from

rule,

of

compelled

the the

for

the

priests

'much

and

even

brought

government of

active

and

the

by

The

or

the repair

other

mini-

levied

a

a handsome

to

East

a

the

car.

upkeep

expenditure!’°.

agents

As

employed.

throughout

the

They

which

idol

task

Christian

Hindu

respect.

were

the

funds.

all

their

bands

even

certain

draw

and

Pilgrim

at

were

granted

State

British

.op.ett.,

this

the

For a detailed , 1962).

classes

by

the

the

sums

Muslim

after

themselves

Beginntingstn

to

supported

called

170)

them

military

onerous

employed

treasury,

conducted

showing

and

effect

of

end

long a

arouse

humour,

good

present

to

tax to

a

had

religious

in

be

poorer

temples

stability

of

fired

to

Magistrates

the

the

a view

were

Muslims

forced

and

also

quite

They

of

one

missionary

to

the

also

from

and

the

Brititshraj

occured

from

come

willing

it

for

with

Christianity

Collectors

special to

before

the

might

a policy either

it

the

India.

missionaries

with

and

were

with

of

were

India

Hindus

cannons

orders

the

in

Government

Thousands

strants

the

of

rightly

background

church '73,

festivals,

respect

of

with

was

in

happen-

Richter

its

with

agents

what

connected

along

sympathy

Following

themselves

years

keep

the

Muslim

mark

concern

no

as

founders

their

well.

Julius

intimately

Christianity

natives.

As

is

Company's

of

a result, as

it

the

comity

boundaries

has

extended

the

and

LMS

mission

India

But

Tonga

the

fields,

in

had

the

observe

As

-

as

another's

others

Company:

has

propaganda

Christian

order-to

of

spread

the

not

spent

servants and

among

did

first In

the

went.

the

Samoa

to

one

work

Empire; and

accordingly

recrossed

they

India

Company,

attitude to

trying

and

other"! 71,

India

religious

resentment ty

East

and while

upon

affected

missionary

the

thus

wherever

Empire,

to

The

unfavourable the

the

that

East

were

crossed

Anglo-Indian

country

India,

that

of

Society sphere,

encroachments

sometimes

"modern

beginnings of

Missions

influence

attitude

points

Missionary

a Methodist

infrequently

spreading one

as

making

ed

in

London

recognized

Thus

in-

not

endanger India

Company

Hinduism! | 7®,

on

'Comity'

read

World

Misston:

A History

Beaver's

Feumenitcal

of Comity,

(New

128.

97.

174)

"Papers Relative to the Religious Ceremonies of the Madras Presione g Parltamentary Papers, Vol. XLIII, (1837), Paper No. 357,

142}

Eric

Pp.

Ibtd.

™Je

J.

Sharpe,

Not

to

Destroy

but 42

to

Fulfil:

The

Contrtbutton....

In

this

situation

began

their

to

called

of

be

work the

5.

‘The

Anyone

who

the

Church

explaining,

set-up for

work

least,

the

work

phases

without which

of

and

churches charge

the

should

the

on

of

Circuit, ed

of

all the

all

the

of

a properly

of

membership

and

vCireuLt Circuit!

was

Circuit

looked

after and

by

of

one

or

and

by

assisted

by

all

EER

the to

help

or

more

to

be

The

Synod

for

of

carry-

the

Meeting,

compos-

Circuit

stewards

The

business

review

returns

the

to

Circuit;

the

in

the Which

under-

synoa!’?,

Circuit.

financial

the

of

to

left

should

District

was

institutions

all

manage

one

administration

in

work,

administration.

a Quarterly

Meeting

the

means,

measure

order

of

evangelists,

Churches

and

the

split

further meetings for

Church.

the

up

Evangelist were

held

spiritual

Members

of

three

into

(SE). for

transactions

receive of

the

every of

mutual

were

members

the

organized

each

regular

Circuit

fellowship,

prayer

Church

'Sections',

four

or

In

edification

and

into

onary Thought in India before of J.N.Farquhar to Protestant Misst , P- 27. 1965) nd, up-Lu Gleer ala: 1914, (Upps the Churh dist Law and Disctpline for 1925, WMMS Publication, (London: , Burma anne and n Ceylo ee tn Indta, ART ches sae? ism alilie .

Ka

work

preachers, the

in

District

the

the

Ministers,

what

the

Also,

perspective.

of

to In

of

a certain

unit the

inter-

material

consisting

more

basic

base, Administra-

their

of

outset,

proper

responsible

of

to

a Sectional

monthly

consultations

of

its

the

home

whole.

phases

without

at

Circuit,

of

two

the

fields.

supply

of

administrative

find

mission

and

Ctreutt,

the

was

often

service

necessity

9.

weekly

workers

and

accounts

all the

The

care

Quarterly

work

the

in

the

accredited

constituted

at one

These

Circuit! 72:

representatives

elected

and

was

as

distant

determined

Superintendent

Ministers,

work

and

of

affairs

explained

a

were

in

far

came

Church

the

well

described

was

constitute

work

be

be

pastoral

Minister

of

which

misSionary

halves

guidance,

District,

Circuit,

Superintending

the

as

two

efficiency.

a Superintendent,

taken

organizational

field

helm

in

the

Methodist

the

needs

must

the

with

the

cannot

understand

churches

by

they

of

confronted

the

patronized,

District.

describing

mission

at

not

country

of

essentially

lack

one,

Methodist

under of

the are

it will

to

every

in

the

himself

brief,

missionary

and

reader In

in

those

really

repetition,

find

application

the

which are

the

soon

but

of

Trichinopoly

undertakes

at

of

part

Structure

two

service

and

permitted

this

administrative.

of

pretation

ing

Negapatam

will

policies

Methodists,

evangelizing

these

tive

the

the

of

nt.

178)

Ibid.,

pp.

12-13.

179)

Ibtd.,

PP.

i5—1 re

43

.

°

these

and

Circuit

administration and

Circuits

on

the in

in

the

which

tive, of

the

to

Synod

which

matters

all

Synod.

related

strict

General

work

met to

responsible

to

fare

pistrict/®'.

the

ly

teh

of

Chairman

the

of

the

to

exercise

any

of

a Methodist

meetings

powers,

Synod,

the

of

powers

times

have

seemd

In

1903

a reconstitution

called

the

Local

the

Chairman

The

Local

was

also

the

Missionaries the

in

from

letter which

of

the

of of

Local

Britain

and

such

or

received

and

reviewing

the

chief

Committee

its

immediate

features

plans

of

order

funds

was

general

wel-

functions,

an

fair-

between

the

emergency,

Thus and

the

position some-

must

from

its

the

to

the

year's

work,

needs | ®4,

The

of

the

Ministers

(who

and

the

Lay

of

Local

session

Com-

an

official

Committee,

meeting,

explaining

Local

District.

supporters

by

annual its

to

body

with

District

Missionary

minutes

a new

associate

the

active

nominated at

the

and

of

all

other

to which

entrusted

Chairman

Native)

counsels

besides

in

Committee),

(European

reply,

according

the

the

Committee

in

in

powerful

the

and

interval

synoa '®2,

the

as

defined,

strictly

the

authority,

affected

Local

instructions sent

the his

in

which

Chairman

The

acted

and

work

In

instituted

composed

of

Great

also

in

Representa-

Institutions

not

really

Church

>. The

it

was was

administration was

Chairman

Methodist

mittee:

the

in

was

and

Di-

the

in

undemocratic.

Committee

Committee

had

vested

Chairman

rather

though

Chairman

He

effective

responsibilities.

his

the

be

temporal

Pastoral,

with;

carried

a year

once

or

finance! °°,

the

for

to

work

discussed

and

Circuits

order

Conference,

the

reviewed

dealt

sessions.

Committee In

District

the

all

General

to

were

these

the

sessions:

two

involving

matters

over

extensive

had

commensurating

in

by All

spiritual

were

District

ministry

all

was

whether

a year

the

of

District

the

in

presided

Superintendent

the

matters,

once

considered

District

in

Committee.

District.

his

in

determined

was

Missionary

the

K1l

relating

which

the

of

Circuits

various

District

a District

form

should

recommendation the

on

representative

the

was

he

tee, What

Commit-

Missionary

Committee

that

of

the

of

nomination

the

on

Britain,

in

Conference

dist

general Metho-

the

by

appointed

was

the

for

and

a District;

a Chairman

district

the

of

constituted

Circuits

such

of

Several

The

Methodism.

of

feature

distinctive

a

is

System

respect.

this

in

effective

exercises

spiritual

other

for

and

very

were

Meetings'

'Class

Study

Bible

intensive

for

'Classes'

a to

Committee

the

was

180) Ibid., p. 19. 181) Ibid. 182) Ibid. 183)

Rev.

Henry

184)

Findlay

Gulliford,

Mission

Wesleyan

Handbook

Press,

and Holdsworth,

Misstonary

Soctety,

Vol.

1910),

The

of Wesleyan

pp.

History

I,(Epworth

44

97-98.

Methodism,

of the

Wesleyan

Press,

1921),

(Mysore:

Methodist

pp.

to

letter

165-66.

authorized

to

ministration the

in

them

authority

as

agent

When

paramount;

Committee

of

the

and

the

the

Local

in

Missionary

exercise

a

howevér,

was,

between

in

the

ad-

of its

by

its

session meetings

its

most

provisional

in

maintained

work

was

Committee

intervals

the

Committee

of

supervision

of emergency,

in case

could,

Local

the

grants

its

District.

was

Chairman The

act of

the

.

powers

arrangement

working

only. Above

the

Districts,

District

whose

Districts

in

duties

the

as

them.

The

The

Missionary

India

in

organic

ed,

and

the method

cial

Synod and

which

Provincial

then

by

the

tive

agency

ing

body

District

any

over

the

or

a disciplinary

Church with

the

cases

finally.

itself

the

right

to

and

Conference

ministerial

status,

disciplinary

other sters,

both

185)

Ib¢d.

186)

Henry

had

which

he

matters

Gulliford, the

187)

Report

188)

W.H.Findlay,

1894), p. 417.

"The

from

power

General

Wesleyan

Law

Native

45

the

and

native

1905,

mean

actions

were

an

a govern-

Jurtsto

authority

for

reserved

proce-

judicial

involved;

was

of

a minister And

of

ministers,

p.

41. VI,

HF,

of

purpose

Appendix

Ministry",

and

administra-

partly

position

Disetpline,

the

not

Conference.

and

represen-

was

of Supertor

of

re-

neenoa”

of

the

had

deprive

work

and

Synod,

and

doctrine

of

to

Committee,

Conference

to

and

does

partly

Court

developplant-

Provin-

yearly

its

served

question

from

to

Britain

Methodist

First

any

derived

of

in

made

it

this

exceptions,

definition

relating

all

London

also

the Methodist

the

But

was

Provinetal

where

or

alone

missionaries

of

the

in It

and

Vol.

a

branches

been

India

number

Missionary

Synod

specified

But law

of

the

This

churches! °%,

interfere

interpretation

that

by

for

were

under

area,

of

had

purpose

a given area.

Committee

court--

settle

that

of

and had

greatly

South

District

Provincial

revision

certain

attempts

standard

in

that

each

the

a Province !86

Districts

exactly

the

of

Negapatam

These differed

was

from

form

Madras,

which

So,

authority,

Missionary

dietton--which,

dure,

the

Conference.

Indian

the

in

ultimate

Methodist

to

in

each

a common

authority

confirmation to

of

constituted

possessed to

work

was

that

entrusted

They

means

Synod

ecclesiastical

subject

the

such

up

supreme

Conference

not

soil

followed.

One

set

each

such

the

was

the

to

from

discharge

should

work

more

the

Districts.

another. of

culture

brought

did’ much

one

nature

of

included

Mysore

or

to

Districts

relationship

growth.

tatives

it

Synod and

two

and

the

what

of

review

and

with

the

to

Committee

their

to

yearly

consisted

appeals

determined

connection

harmonious

view The

but

met

which

all

Provincial

according

secure

Province

to hear

Hyderabad,

origin,

ment,

Province,

Conference

South

the

representatives

the

Trichinopoly, common

was

his all

in

all

mini-

the

Provin-

p-

XIV,

136.

(May,

to or

"Yearly

by

the

of

Wesley

by

a deed

the

on

the

and

the

John

Rev.

rolled

of

Methodist

the

Church.

were

Secretary

reviewed,

and

of

the

Methodist

of

the

Conference,

General

its

work

the

Society--

the

two and

General

Mission

HOuse

were

or

eight

years

five and

for

was

at

Conference.

to

the

Districts

necessary

neeLenloe.

24,

Bishopsgate,

at

far

the

25,

we

have

explained

all

the

work

of

the

missionaries.

and

diverse

was

the

nature an

of

the

exhaustive

interesting

the

missionaries

and

what

to

189)

Henry

190))

2OUaieee

per

191)

2bads

spp.

19:2))

Ebed.

extent

Gulliford,

their

the

in aims

Methodist

—>S8—54,

46

came.

Secretaries bearers

Visits

from

the

field

once

in

of

of

to

the

policy

the

Mission

Society

House

we

have

We

can

now

Negapatam been

which how

Despite

that

and

poke

In of

is

N.W.1.

they

have

Officers

presented

office

the

shows

the

Law

the

now

called

also

Missions.

office

were

of

authority

mission

factors

account.

Missions

General

background

hoped

the

readjustment

time but

all

of

The

introduction

which

is

the

for

London,

This

into it

yet

of

see

field

background,

activities

E.C.2,

Road,

Marylebone

long

a

four

reports

fields

For

London,

a body

Secretarial in

Secretaries'

mission

by

work

Foreign

(a layman).

the

and

its

was

the

was

which

(laymen),

by the

and

assisted

was

Church on

the

on

Only

control

Secretary

Committee

situated

So

paid

and

Treasurers

Medical

one

annually

appointed

General

administer

of

enCourt

A President

whole

control

and

Supreme

the

carrying

Committee,

Missionary

Committee

General

final Ceylon.

and

India

in the

did

Committee,

(ministers) were

Church

the

had

for

constituted

signed

a year.

the

hierarchy.

the

of

apex

we

base,

home

the

is

once of

work

appointed

Committees

Conference

The

met

the

work

duly

still

and

Conference

yearly,

the

Ceylon'?°.

and

Methodists",

declaration

was

1784,

The

elected

various

Church !?!,

the

February,

28th

of

affecting

the

at

called

People

Conference

and

at

machinery

Britain

in

Conference

Methodist

the

notice This

it;

Burma

India,

in

Church

administrative

the

to

turn

we

matters

public

any

on

Methodist

the

of

policy

When

Missionary

action

take

and

the

and

Synods

discuss

and

District to

referred

Committee

review

to

recommen-

make

the

as

subjects

such

discuss

to

it;

to

relating

Provincial

several

the

within

work

their

India,

in

areas

1946)

to

and

areas

Provincial

and

1916

1905,

(e.g.

held

also

were

Ceylon

and

dations

General

Synods,

Provincial Burma

and

District

the

Provincial

the

all

for

Synods

to

addition

®?., In

court

ultimate

the

was

Synod

cial

the

succeeded go

and

on

to

intricate in look

Trichinopoly

achieved.

Discipline,

affected

complicated

p.

50.

giving at

the

District,

CHAPTER

1. The

to

to

take

the

sea.

though

he

did

From

less

mooted a

the

by

the

in

group

Wesley,

in

the

1814

in

five

cher,

made be

sent

to

instruct

start

work

in

South

to

an

appeal

Jaffna.

Lynch,

was

first

the

who

temporary

permission

Court

to

his

the

1813

con-

a band

of

associate

England,

voyage

appointed

of

works

and

was

and

to

sent

was

Jaffna,

for

sent

a

to

years

in

Madras.

At

this

time

and

that

missionary

a

Flet-

and

also

Madras

from

in

field,

the

On

one

Company

doubt-

first

Wesley

arriving

difficulty, until

India

were

was

request

many

visitor,

East

it

Galle.

John

their

considerable

as

the

Ceylon

asking

was

missionary

after

at of

with

Lynch

in

occupying

friends,

comply

laboured

of

on

was

in

missionaries

the

James

remain

Directors

died

in

year

a close

missionaries

To

Methodist only

same

Methodism

question

read and

India,

Lynch,

of

the

the

them.

afterwards

1817,

the

of

who

Lynch

Wesleyan

Madrasin

by

to

Liverpool the

Coke,

Lynch

a meetingof the

might

of

long! .

and

Christians

of

Coke

James

eyes

Madras

1820-1885 in

end

Dr.Thomas

there

the

the

Ceylon.

DIFFICULTIES

Stations

founder

Rev.

remain

towards

of

the

north

Hence not

Rev.

PIONEER

assembled

led

beginning

turned

which

Ceylon»: At

field

at

AND

Mission

in

John

buried

ADVANCE

work

missionaries of

FIRST

Conference

begin

co-worker

:

Establishing

Methodist

sented six

2

at

secured

duly

authorized

should

arrive

from

England°. Lynch of

a

the

local

105 of

confined

town,

for

Wesleyan

members ground

in

was

ministry

could

not

Missionary the

solely speak

in

Soon

was

was

the

English-speaking

After

formed

Broadway

two

and

contributions

Popham's

which

chapel,

to

Tamil.

Society

Sociéty’.

purchased

small

attractive

his he

on

in

were

population

of

labour

1821

there

raised

and

which

opened

formally

years

for

was

built

public

were a piece an

worship

on 25th April, 18227. Thus the history of the W.M.M.S. in India begins with

the

arrival

Negapatam land,

and

and

of

the

(1820):

witnessed

the

Around

Bangalore.

and

Rev. The

James

year

beginning

these

Holdsworth,

Lynch

1820

at

Madras

brought in

work

of

centres

grew

two

op.ctt.,

Vol.

V

in

1817.

re-inforcements two

other

other

(London:

from

Eng-

centres--Negapatam

Methodist

Epworth

Districts

Press,

1)

Findlay

2)

"The Wesleyan Methodist Mission in the Madras Rev. William Burgess, South India and The Report of the Misstonary Conference, District", Ceylon 1879, Vol. II (Madras: 1880), p. 36.

1924),

)pp.

176=77/7.

Sy

Mawes a sg.

4)

Elijah Hoole, from 1820-28,

Whe

Personal (London:

Narrative of a Misston to Longman, Rees and others,

47

the South Indta 1829), pp. 92-96.

in

South

of

the

28th

Committee

January,

1817,

to

their

At

welcome. them

surrounding

offer

of

twelve a month

Church

Close

brought

Council

grant spot

but

given this

the

to

Owing

to

Ceylon,

was a

have

these

Rev.

but

old first

discovered

the

like

that, "In

Thomas

removed

from was

'Society'

Mr.

Dutch

and

Holdsworth,

descent

to in

seem

op.ctt.,

who

start

work

p.

then

in

for

formed

5)

Findlay

6)

MSS. ‘Madras', Box.I (1817-1822): Letter of to the Rev. Joseph Taylor, dated Negapatam,

7)

MSS. Rev.

8)

Annual

the

and

was

Here

time

Titus

first

(Ann.Rep.),

Vol.

II,

48

the

sanction in

Close”. in

started working and

people

staple

of

in

conseof his

177.

the Rev.Thomas H.Squance 15th January, 1821.

‘Madras', Box I (1820-1822): Letter of the Rev.Titus Joseph Taylor, dated Negapatam, 30th April, 1822. Report,

the

This

on

Negapatam

1820°.

Govern-

predecessor,

first

Rev.

was

a

the

a month.

the

the

work

have

only

by his

weight for

until

September, to

not

pagodas

wrote

circumstances

to

missionaries

the

official

us",

H.Squance, Jaffna

and

the

25

of to

Rev.

Governor-in-

the

pay

the

the

Cotton,

matter

rendered

Government

notices

formed

Portuguese

to

those

relief the

that

well

Cotton

for

it was

kindly

so

‘London

in

When

John

the

87-8-o)

(Rs.

the

services

Collector,

allowance

fact

the

of

a Chaplain.

referred

that

pagodas

a missionary

of

the

Close

also

favourable

Rev.

of

a financial

than

Society.

The

quently

the the

conducting

authorize

Close,

merely

Presidency

Negapatam.

over

for

duties

the

duties

the

Looking

Boss,

immediately

the

if

in

T.H.Squance,

Mr.

notice

he

for

Titus

greater

to

the

to

this

not

was

one

S.P.C.K.)

Mission,

in

come

of

twenty-five

the

fear

genuine

In

of

T.H.Squance,

Rev.

the

successor

allowance

pleased

of

the

an

performing

the

performing

previously

and

was

services

for

return

Negapatam,

to

over

might

in

pleaded

and

ment,

in

inducement.

strong

granted

centre

influence

now

grant

Close,

forces

stationed

the

of

other

that

of

a strong

some

was

there

Further

its

be

(perhaps

Dutch

radiate

to

been

had

soon

to

field

another

missionary

Society'

friend

the

become

to

able

be

in

Ceylon

between

highway

the

point

strong

another

was

on

expected

to

Titus

Rev.

years

Being

a government

was

the

Methodist

occupy

of

a Chaplain

records,

Negapatam

missionaries

the

to

failed

The

of there.

well.

as

country of

hearts

they

was

and

teachings

Methodist the

work

first

the

Negapatam”.

in

was

India

in

preacher

that

note

to

preached

and

days

five

for

there

interesting

a Methodist

by

Negapatam

Madras,

and

quite

commencing

of

favour

stayed

is

importance

strategic

The

he

it

Thus

preached

ever

sermon

instance

day.

every

on

a hearty

him

gave

there

residing

Europeans

the

attention

the

Negapatam

in

landed

Lynch

When

London.

in

attracted

Negapatam

beginning

the

From

India.

Home

1821,

p.

lix

Close

to

congregations

to

patam

whom

he

preached

for

two

years

appointed

the

Rev.

Titus

Close

Negapatam

Close

was

While

in

culty

made

patam

his

the

his

while to

she

When

from

Close

successful work.

In

the

the

end

lappan his

chapel The

Rev. The

the

Abraham

the

old

and

were

taught

charge.

of

was

Hoole's

9)

10)

of

Personal is

enough

of the

full

Home

and

Elijah Anne

Negafrom

accident

health

continued

England, his

for

his

crushing

a

arrival the

Tamil

the

man

ina

for

Madras

early

by

around

and

served of

as

the

second

of

interesting

21st

edition

to as

anecdotes

VOL.

op.ctt.,p. EL

(1821)

228. peepeex

49

Christian

service

to

the

and

the

of

of

tami1'',

children.

small

Eura-

and

concerning

for

the

Elijah

Indta, such

in

choultries

roads

places |. Mysore

religion

Christian

public

public

South

'Madras,

small

missionaries

the

the

By

1824. in

knowledge

the

till

preaching

native

returns of

of

the

Aru-

a

November,

mainly

preaching

a Misston

in

in

there

Ceylon.

of

on

was

which

distribution

Hindus

progress who

from

find

Negapatam

opulent

stationed

doing

with

elements

superintendence

travellers) Narrative

we

was

came

first

education

days

some

the

funds

the the

of

India!°.

Mowat

called

whom

on

to

Bourne

consisted

the

unfriendly

inclusive,

there

some

took

preaching

and

of

worship

in which

James

Assistants

raise

the

encouragement

out

1828

Alfred

latter to

came

to

was

Rev.

of of

disapprobations

Rev.

elementary

close

the

1823

missionaries

open-air

Hoole,

Reps)

in

cart

to

more

Madras. diffi-

himself

were

a word

the

from

Ibid.

12)

this

Committee

mSS. 'Madras', Box I (1820-1822): Letter of Joseph Taylor, dated Negapatam, 29th March, Personal Narrative, p. 97.

11)

own

back

and

not

Close,

able

those

in

the

he

his

from

the

erected

published

Indta',

Hoole

done

(lodging-houses accommodation

to

since

two

was

Schools,

under

lot

literature

had

providing

Native A

were

His

was

in

arrival

recover

way

Nega-

place

after

a bullock

tour. his

ever

by

opened

of

records

sian

later

and

work

and

of

Ambrose,

Dr.Elijah

Gospel

in

in

his

working

his

could

Added

labouring,

there

after

Mowat

built

early

away.

been

after

he

on

In

difficulty

life

Madras

frowns

joined

Mowat

efforts,

was

for

portion

Only

he was

1831.

and

own

only

his

remained

work.

of

Soon

a preaching

was

departure

He

1827

then

happy;

lamed

informed

he

Indeed

been

Negapatam.

all

remained

England.

till

before

these

Squance

to

and

passed

had

which

them. had

at

to

All

had

vexing.

on

also

Word.

to weigh him down?.

under

Following

In

child

Rev.

Committee

who

was

him

the

returned

not

returned

difficulties.

Though

in

wife

he

country

conditions

he

sicknes&

accompanying

financial

came

of

his

surviving

foreign

then

thoroughly

died

shock,

decline.

only

life

son

great

and

and

which

was

Southern

open-air

Rev. Titus Close 1822; cf. Elijah

to Hoole,

Then

there

in

1823

patam, from

there

had

Tamil

and

Abraham

work

help

them.

India

In

had

1824

Methodist

Catholic ed

as

The

not

Tamil,

was

work,

were

Church

at

Church;

it

in

chance

affairs

the

was

St. more

many

of

and

own

the

at

growth

no

removed

not

Except other

be

Madras.

said

in

a Dutch

knowledge the

one

Arulappan

agents

Therefore,

that

that

Nega-

English! °.

Christian

native

sufficient

to

the

pensions

said

descendants 1660,

Portu-

on

Mowat

of

seems

the

living

until

first.

aquired

could

were

1830

to

language.

property

had

about

preached

Portuguese

to

to

preach

even

Methodist

after

Church

properly.

fifteen most

Tamil

of

there

belonging

indeed

or

whom

to

missionaries

great

until

settlement

Negapatam

Christian of

had

itself

only

Madras,

and

and

became

also

established

there

a Native

of

who

poor

their

missionaries

Hoole,

which Squance

and

in

encouraging

the

hard

old

a Portuguese

was

unhappiness

state

been

work,

Dutch

thereafter

in

of

very

and

Elijah

years

much

not

was

hopeful.

Madras,

150-200

Ambrose

confidently

most

were of

were

which

Portuguese

the

of whom

1660-1781

four

the far

Government

The

in

was by

most the

there

so

English

not

were

There

people.

15-20

of

Negapatam,

an

(presumably

Church

other

in

already

As

involved

grant Dutch

old

the

a grow-

also

and

Tamil.

and

the

and and

Gospel!?.

the

by

premises

Portuguese

a government in

of

©.

been

guese, from

in

work

to have

of

morning

many

taught

mission

the

on

held

a congregation

people

this

duties

Sunday

to

Peter's), English

and

to

receiving

the

every

service

doctrines

languages--English,

three

in

mentioned,

have

an

were

services

Regular places

the

for

respect

enlarged

had

seemed

public

general ing

reached knowledge

Gospel

the

system,

school

a well-conducted

and

in

tours,

extensive

such

of

account

On

portions

scripture

of

circulation

copious

evangelism'3.

for

journeys

arduous

and

distant

and

preaching

as

was

the

on

Native

were

not

even

Wesleyan

the

the

Christians

formerly

spot

Rev.

one

to

Mission

over

Mowat

in

members

this

be

the

of

the

report-

there!’ disappointing

himself

expresses

dst

"The weak state of Mission is certainly greatly to be regretted. We are literally men whose strength and energies are stretched over a given portion of work-- scarcely adequate to the proper care of the spot we occupy, considering every part of it requires so much attention and labour, we are in a great degree deprived

13)

Elijah

14)

Ann. Repe,

Hoole,

op.ctt.,

15)

The 150th Anniversary of the Landing of the tn South Indta (Souvenir), (Negapatam: Padma Dien Sie

iG)

Sebzd'. ap

17)

Findlay

VOLS

VIL,

pp.

(11840);

41-44. "p.

25.

Methodist Mtsstonary Power Printers, 1967),

euaes and

Holdsworth,

op.cit.,

Vol.

50

V.,

p.

184.

of if

the ability to extend and widen the sickness tie up our hands, God only

sphere of our labour: knows that what will be

the result"18, Melnattam fred

(1830-31):

Bourne By

Circuit.

appointed

now

the

of

two

of

the

take

charge

of

them.

a

astonishing

made

but

they

Ten

Commandments2°.

Local

rumours

afflicted kula

its

longer

we

and

So, do

not

thieving

tribe)

had

faith

lost

great

hopes

among

the

them

of

that

Tamil

at

were

was

and

opened

18)

19)

baptized

MSS.

'Madras',

Rev.

Richard

"Extract Nottces

for

Box

on

the

Thus

of Bourne, VI,

No.

184,

the

to

27th

Letter

of

loth

dated

July

pp.

436-37.

are

(a

because

they

entertained a

foothold

a year

1831

1831",

in

a chapel

when

formed

James

August,

21,

at

non-Catholics

was

Rev.

not

could

Kallans

obtain

October,

nucleus

their

could

traditions

After

Alfred

and

Mowat

the

to

1824.

Mtsstonary

dated Negapatam January 1831), pp. 529-30.

20)

"Extract of a letter from Mr. Bourne, 1830", MV, Vol. VI, No.,190 (October,

21)

"The Gospel among the Indra Kula Kallans", Rev. K.G.S.Dorairaj, (unpublished B.D.Thesis, UTC, Bangalore, 1948), p. 14.

22)

"Extract of a letter MV,Vol. VII, No. 199

from Mr. Bourne, dated November (July, 1832), pp. 102-104.

51

the

were

of

missionary

Gospel

several

and

Prayer

missionaries

about

had

illiterate,

devata

the

the

Heaven.

school

these

these

baptism.

the

Negapatam,

to

at

days

from

anger

the

that

the

building

Melnattam

the

but

far of

was

for

(1824-1825): dated

go

The

among

of

to

that

clear,

Mission

worship

them

search

instruction

I

Watson, Vol.

their

in

Lord's

due

How

religion.

persons“?

of aletter (MN),

went

the

people

be

should

is

especially

under

twenty

told

thing

quite

sacrifices

they

former

last

who

built

one

Melnattam

people,

it

ecstasy that

to

a deputation~'.

but

their

Melnattam Bourne

and

the

thought

offered

in

sent

know,

in

that

they

A man

they

abroad

power,

that

anger.

in

Hindus.

few

the

were

learning

progress

still

evil

protect

Negapatam. true,

are

some

devata,

appease no

by

adults

the

in

children

the

and of

Many

texts.

Bible

learn

to

services,

Sunday

regular

had

They begun

a

angel

an

two

about

established

spent

were

he

if

as

him

received

people

The

Melnattam.

the

had

a suitable

up

himself

Bourne

1830

to

him

with

and

tracts,

put

themselves

people

a deputa-

sent

partly

and

Catholics

partly

distributed

and

their

village

The

twenty

about

back

Al-

Negapatam

asking

Arulappan

encouraging.

were

the

they

Bourne,

to

Christian

England,

in

renounce

to 1830

in

and

to

work

a village

village

most

November,

In

days'?.

few

the

which

for

a school, in

sent

preached

Aruiappan

Christian

he

back

the

decided

had

the

in

was

went

of

of Melnattam,

men

people

the

and

families,

loo

So,

Mowat

charge

Catholicism

Roman

report

his

and

James

take

Negapatam,

chief

tion

villagers,

to

of

viz.

religion

former

After

inhabitants,

south-west

miles

five

-

was

12th,

28,

1831",

to

key

augur

well

other

large

considered

"the

example

the

village

around?>.

Encouraging

reports

were

to

nothing

was

Methodist

caste

ed when

the

of

was ed

to

turn

question small

out

matter

had

some who with

and

account

report

become

had had

was

them; The

of

were

at

note

prejudice,

measures

that and

that of

to

worship In

rapidly

people

not

the

the

straight-forward

24)

Findlay

and

Holdsworth,op.ctt.,

25)

MSS.

by

who

Hindu

conduct

the

V,

p.

love" *°,

is

a

Christians

many

and

villages

unfit

ones

to

men

away

live in

were

the

abort-

until

interesting

missionary

converts”®, the

on

young

new

it

gave

of

firmness-and

dwindled

this,

to

opposed

other

as

the

contract

no

this

in

Melnattam

from

away

the

was

missionaries

influence

them

all

the

the

Men

contracted

left.

the

all

it.

sent

meekness

all

oblig-

includ-

with

firm

resolute

by

was

this

directly

with

taken

who

elements

Society

stood

most

powerful

attempts

by

23)

a

because

public

Catholic

the

by

Cryer,

against

He

workers,

is

"Caste

met

been

of

accept

Mission'

Churth.

the

to

Thomas

flint

troublesome

missionaries

Melnattam

were

Christian

the

had

had

a

paucity

report

and

people

to

the

off

like

the

abroad

from

face

the

spread evils

that

attendance

significant

offended

This

women

of

the

disturbing

that:

be

stringent

real

broken

handful

declared

force

of

for

losses,

once

marriages

were

a mere

and

at

suffer

sve"! .

trouble

the

Pariahs.

to

some

in

shown

start-

trouble

Rev.

served

his

the

in

Considering

the

of

ever

the

be

expected

the

with

joined

would

The

were

But

to

brought

they

attitude

church.

worship.

set

caste

same

Church

Melnattam have

when

at the

of

them

brought Church

the

and

former

public

who

it must

the

that

master,

such

entered

who

observance

their

Society

that

of

married

villages

the

unanimously

a result

false

which

Melnattam,

school

Despite

and

on

As

at

Gantecrs

Christianity but,

of

the

loss.

thing

and

of

recognize

to

of

the

in

men

saintliest

Pakkiam,

ing

expectations

in

members

inferiority

attempts

progress

and

expected

shown

a resident

then

such

was

as

of

the

the

hopes

caste

of

they

Pariah

a position

about

high

Catholics

measure

Church,

towards

‘one

The

caste.

a certain

them

home

the

dashed

soon

were

missionaries

an

of work

sent

unfortunately

But

Melnattam.

was

and

places"

populous

and

Melnattam

future.

the

for

to

many

seemed

Melnattam

in

work

Many

missionary

most

were

and

left

Ibid.

the

'Madras', General

Box V

Vol.

(1834-1836):

Secretaries,

dated

Letter

Melnattam

199.

of Rev. 7th

Thomas

July,

Cryer

to

1835.

26)

Ibid.

27)

Dbeds

28)

Ibtd; cf. letter from John Guest, dated Melnattam 12th September, ae and letter from Samuel Hardey, dated Negapatam, 6th October,

52

the

Society

touch

and

the

congregation

with

the

Anglicans

at

influenced

and

misled

thant.

Mannargudi same

time

had

when

developed

and

had

which its

of

in

1834.

In

the

following

chapel

was

little

the

In

the

Keela

This Cryer

and

Church

wife

Mary

indelibly

Other

and

Devasagayam

Mannargudi.

addressing

large

temple

ly of

Brahmins

the

populous

was

carried

29)

MSS. the MN,

32)

large

the

crowds

used

to

ee In

‘Madras',

listen

around spite

Box

V

"Extract

of

a

1876",

a

"Extract

of

February

25th,

Elijah

NSA)

Hoole,

yams

letter

MW,

people

the

such

a

good

of

air.

of

the

Rev.E.E.Jenkins,

MN,

the

1876),

Rev.Thomas

Vol.,VIII,

Book

No.

of Missions,

1diSis

53

pp.

the entire-

scriptures.

dated

In

preaching

progress

Samuel

of

Hardey 1837;

to cf.

Manaargoodi,

184-186.

Cryer, 243

the

opportuni-

almost

the

Rev.

up

services

Near

village

beginnings,

of

Abraham

Trichinopoly,

the

of

their

people

build

frequent

open

system

Letter

to

composed

exposition

(August,

from

Year

the

and

the

weekday

to

also

Society.

Pinkney,

and

in

kindness

Thomas

zeal

worked

visits in

the

of

John

Sunday had

the

dated Negapatam, 12th January, (August, 1837), pp. 514-516.

from

1835",

The

workers

Thomas

Mannargudi

memories

and

a substantial to

apostolic

the

a catechist

(1837-1838):

Vol.XXI

letter

In

congregations

to

Mannargudi

steadily

through

Tanjore,

Batchelor,

Mannargudi, of

of in

purchased

grew

a present

quarterly of

to

was

it

1835

of

with

regular

native

Rajagopalaswami,

country ae

and

their

General Secretaries, Vol. VIII, No. 260

April

31)

of

and the

and

In as

in

Peter

Pillai

ground

House?'.

laboured

Besides

and

compactness,

its

efforts of the Rev.

given

printed

like

Melnattam

missionaries

lands,

traditions

missionary

of

Collector

was

Cryer

workers

relations

temple

the

of

pious

in

started

Mission

were

in

of

the

his

Mannargudi,

ties

as

it

the

Street).

principal and

mighty

well town

the

inhabitants

Its

the

a Wesleyan

was

Royal

names

Mannargudi. Ambrose

the

in

large

might

time

business

produce

the

a piece

through

(East

served

of

year

a school

purchased

building

saintly

30)

year

Rajaveethi was

visit

erected

same

R.W.Kindersley,

building

the

long

few

had

sacred was

a

the

its

fairly

Mannargudi

for

about

Mannargudi became

was

greatly

reputation°°.

popular

its

record

town

regular were

at

1840

telegraph.

upon

most

by

Melnattam

the

and

in

them

Mannargudi

that

the

town

Mannargudi

in

first

Cryer.

the

and

were of

thousand.

and

lived

they many

But

respects;

home

The was

twenty

tracks

revenue

in

and

wealth

of

in

a centre

in many

them

in

occupation

about

of

Brahminism

past.

the

Many

started

evangelized.

its

their

from

rich

were

of

India

railway

by

travelled

coast.

of

As

(S.P.G.),

was

was

important

time

interior

the

with

so

the

untouched

lay

rarely

at

into

At

Work

Melnattam

a population

represent

a

(1834-35):-

as

outstation.

by

entirely.

Tanjore

dated

(March,

(London:

Manaargoody, 1836),

Longman

p.

and

233.

others,

of

patience

years

and

were of

pursue

and

commencement

of

work,

Melnattam by

represented

the

Church

were

boys

With

the

away

name,

removal and

Mannargudi

from

the

pean

resident

self

wholly when

the

the

early

the

Anglican

were

1822

the

ferred times 1826

there

were

made

gudi.

having

visit

33)

were

to

"Extract March

1855),

began

application who

in

a

dire

there

only

fourteen

visit

and

of

of

letter

155-157.

no

from

Rev.

from

MV,

Vol.

had

work

and

the

and

some-

tells

occasional

Anglican on

his

Hodson, No.

36)

Findlay and Holdsworth, OD CCDs VOl Vise Dewahoze MSS.'Madras', Box II (1826-1828): Letter of Rev.James G.Morley, dated Negapatam, 16th June, 1826.

37)

54

78 De

Mannar-

Bishop

of

pastoral

died

dated 21,

Rev. Vol.

OPRIGLIC. a VOILE

in

visits from

Findlay

Holdsworth,

that

meeting

34)

and

to

trans-

much

35)

Robert Stephenson, "The late II, No. 3 (September, 1881),

way

of

then

series),

often

very

unfortunately

Thomas

There the

they

his

on

second

(3rd

on

of

was

Rev.

start-

later

the

II

efforts

were

and

who

the

bet-

first

privilege

with

he

learn

entreated

Mowat

Heber,

where

mission We

need,

Lynch

the

town.

Cantonment.

own

Negapatam

him-

the

their

yet

give

was

James

And

to

relationship

from

Rev.

Euro-

Anglican

Work

continuity

Far

only

population?>.

the

regiments

The

Mowat

dinner

an in

better.

the

able

native

fluctuated

all.

Trichinopoly,

1855",

By

members?’ .

Reginald

city

a

was

at

first the

not

college,

Station.

often

spiritual

As

congregations

Methodists

was

the

Mission

a cordial

Rev.

Jaffna>®.

no

members

Trichinopoly,

for

was

the

received

them.

place

from

a turn

missionaries.

the

the

school

a worthy

already

existed

to

to

the

of

operations

by

and

four

thirty-seven

Society,

was

attend

Rt.Rev.

pp.

there

in

only only

ideal

among

their

Methodist

held

in premises

were

missionary

opened

such

21st,

the

exertions

and

fellowship

the

English

Trichinopoly

Trichinopoly

the

an

was

were

one

Calcutta,

an

come

place

to

On

seemed

which

Society

there

always

soldiers,

Meeting

from

English

and

to

a chapel

District

took

miles,

an

mission

School

O.Simpson

events

of

the

of

William of

that

and

both

station The

of which

out

germ

twenty

cones

course

records

forty

missionaries built

Rev.

many

by means

about

to

(1847):-

from in

strength

Methodists

ween ed

the

"the

evangelistic

Trichinopoly field

There

Though

had

within

mission

derelict.

English

distractions

to

the be

to

amount

greatest

1855,

In

the

preparatory

of

the

further.

the

the

the

entirely

it

earth’.

was

of

still

In

nevertheless

changed

of

a mound

attendance.

in

Simpson

appeared

Mannargudi.

a worthy

bearing things

in

was

it

great,

To

to

years

work,

hard

of

After

missionaries

the

of

perseverance

the

after

Mannargudi

were

station part

the

on

required

and

this

on

labours

missionary nature

slow.

rather

was

Mannargudi

in

work

the

of

Bangalore,

(September,

220%

Rev.W.O.Simpson pp. 74-77.

in

India",

Mowat

HF,

to

Rev.

apoplexy

in

buildings

April,

of

the

Twenty-five but

only

then

it

1849 was

1847

did

had

been

an.

the

near

em

In

the

chiefly

a very

that,

appear

of

of by

reminded

however,

the

Sudra

one

the

numbers

Mannargudi by

40

of

Rs.

was

the

hold

In

She

the

was

famous

main

Hole' a

new

August,

Gothic

style,

expended

first

resident

services

in

a room

Calcutta. room

con-

had

a room

small

large

Tamil

Pinkney

girls

and

in

community

Mrs.

of

Until

In

Christian

narrow

and

Trichinopoly

was

the

seventy

so

'Black

decreased,

as

compound

taught

It

of

1,500

regular

native

in

Stations.

Circuit. ft.

appointed

to

a small

ft.

the

behind

started

ft.

began

school.

of

of Mission

amount

caste.

fourteen

tank

was

Jo

an

gathered

small

list

the

Pinkney He

a

work

the

of

and

Rev.

girls'

ft.

since

a chapel,

barracks

in

Coun

on

out-station

soon

remarkable

twenty-eight often

passed

it

the

and

bathing

District

Trichinopoly.

chapel

sisting

it

the

1852, in

while

had

construction

missionary in

years

in

begun

on

1826, present

that

After

was

erect-

PEIN In

1857,

succeeded at

the

by

Negapatam

larger many

agency.

All with

and

he

was

was

a man

ful.

In

he

ever

his

did

ready

innovation

intervals.

shop

or

under

made

lengthy

the tours

gained

address

a Tamil

settled

38) Ibid.,

preaching he

had

shade

of

an

around

sufficient audience

the with

about

of the Misstonary Minutes District 1819-1874 (marked

4o)

"Extract of March 21st,

41)

Robert he ie

at

His

which

(January,

in

that

methods

with

of

holidays areas to

be

of

intro-

hours

front

forceful

often

He resource-

Simpson

language

effect.

man, Hindus

and

new

school

in

were a native

cause.

fixed

sometimes during

the

fresh

initiated

villages

doctrines

for

months

the

labours

preaching,

Tamil

to

raising

their

ever

places

or

the

greater

133,

he

fixed

populous

to

was

audience

of

his and

was

nine

a kind-hearted

wholly

itinerant

Pinkney

spent

removed

sympathy

mind

idol-car,

command

was

and

up

his

in

his

was

Trichinopoly

himself and

John

having

visitation,

Trichinopoly,

Thus

conviction

a he

Soon able

to

speeches

seemed

new

and

1827), pp. 193-194.

Meetings of the Methodtst Mtsston: Madras MMS, UTC, Bangalore), Vol. IX, p. 9.

a letter from the Rev.Thomas Hodson, dated Bangalore, 1855), p. 159. 1855", MN, Vol. II, No. 21 (September,

Stephenson, Tc of

of

traditional

of

in

love

cf£.MN, Vol. V, No.

"Extract

Here

Rev.

station,

Simpson

give

the after

himaede.

39)

42)

Indian

teaching,

like

the

Mutiny,

Simpson,

first

thinking

city

Besides

Simpson

0.

passion

to

original

regular

with

was

a consuming

of

Indian

Trichinopoly.

a crowded

the

the

William

preaching,

this

preaching. duced

of

varied;

filled

of

Rev.

which

sphere

and

year

the

a

"The

letter

late

from

1859", poly, March 25th, 11859!) 7 (pp. Ws2=154:.

Rev.

W.O.Simpson

the

Rev.

William

MN,

Vol.

VI

55

(3rd

in

India;

O.Simpson,

series),

op. ctt.,

dated

No.

68

Trichino-

(August,

revolutionary not

to

the

infrequently

lasted

for

three

interesting

that

work

was

begun

in

Tiruvarur,

the

The

most

to the

of

the

influential

prevent soon

and

the

began

tract

great

close

of

only

on

45;

naries years

directing

in

the

popular

and

are

for

and

occupy

vast

occupied

by

Redemption', put

many

course

areas too

those qa*3¢

on

was

on Of

determined,

a

'Society'

and

his

lot

of

town,

like the

the

nature

the

friendopen-

especially

the

2;

the

trial

and of

and

missio-

for

many

of

Mannargudi

population.

Preaching

efficient

means

work

many

were

for those

Trichi-

the

methods

Negapatam

the

4 and

stations

their

Hindu

on

members zeal

in

distressing.

persons trial

in

only

of

Mission very

the

from

defects

is

sense the

man

44)

Ann.Rep.,

45)

Minutes of the pp. 326-327.

46)

Rev.William

here

No.

Vol.

of

XV

62

of

with

to

work,

the

they

in

use.

and

diverse

and

by

another

Missionary

p.

time

of

to

too

and

1859),

so

pp.

days give

were

made

the

much,

stations

doctrines

their

they

days

many

those

at

those do

little

congregations.

natives,

by Wesley's

their

had

to been

all-embracing of

"Universal

thought the

it

Gospel

was its

37-40.

34.

Meetings...

op.ctt.,

in

Too

there

25,

exceptions,

little

the

trying

forces.

Influenced

(February

to

of

missionaries and

had

n Men

mistake

Parish'

a few

English-speaking

Caen

smallest

(1862),

Burgess,

were,

Missionaries

a staff. my

Methodist

MN,

VI,

kind

forgivable

small

the

years

ministers

work.

with

World

one

or

this

any

43)

Vol.

for

native

in

of

'the

A

was

Negapatam-

places

term

of

sixty-one

reports

made

ineffective

in

the

not,

common

the

Chaplains

embarked

certainly

to

the

the

In

midst the

Circuits

and

vital

been

were

When

much

visible.

army for

had

in

occupied.

manifested

prejudices.

strength

trial

But were

their

Brahmi-

there.

establishing

done

5 and

on

labours.

missionaries

than

disposal

said.

of

in

follows:

members

an

Tiruvarur’*.

members

those

town

of

was

stationed

Tiruvarur

from

was

of

numerical

as

the

their

gives

Negapatam,

was

in

Trichinopoly

there

sense

easily

Having

best

be

that

impression

reasons

dictum

and

can

show

The

The

15

missionary

obvious

more

Mannargudi--

nothing

no

the and

distributed

members

back

remove

Temple

twenty-four

membership,

trial

persons

distribution

1859

There

nopoly--

to

Siva

Mannargudi,

were

of

missionaries

was

argument

stronghold

and

Church

residenceof a missionary

Negapatam, full

the

himself

another

Hindus

such

Oa

Mannargudi any

Simpson

One

Simpson

Tiruvarur,

from

preaching At

1859

and

deddeedings

between

opposition.

disputation.

1858,

its

missionary

But

front

In

provoked

ptblic

March,

about

situated

ly disposition in

to

no

possible,

air

public,

date

opposition.

there.

in

(1859):-

Hinduism,

Till

if

days

narrative

Tiruvartr

nical

native

challenged

pp.

56

(marked

37-38.

MMS,

UDC) = Vows

x,

widest great

chance.

But

expenses

in

of

the

Mission

of

the

missionary

property

the

The

ministry. India,

and the

able

to

grasp

upon

them

any

to

a

foreign had

in

and

missionaries,

out

of

its

Committee,

scathing Then

the

constant

and

in

for

good.

holding a

he

or

she

should

the

gave

reduction

of

the

Church

the

of and no new

the

19th

death

attempt

was

less

doubtedly

being

foreign. left

a

of

proof

of

Men

to of

lasting

caused

on

48)

Ibid. Ibtid.,

pp.

184-186.

50)

Dbtda,

pp.

136=—140.

forth.

prior

made When

permission

the

object

of

left

the

that be

caste,

great

person as until

led

to

accession

the

and

first by

so

enterprise way

an-

Society no

baptized

depletion

giving

an

Church

admitted

be

continued

causing up

to

half

illness

there

was

entered

a

encouraging

to

conscious

missionaries,

too,

a

character

more

indigenous

vigour

57

the

throughout

slowly

the

took in

nor

any

staff,

Church

and

flesh,

renounced

missionary the

the

should

of

caste

of

the

vision mark

small

were

part

agent;

Thus

the

in

finally

barring

by

1860

give

expected

hardly

so

became

a

came

Mission's

into work

77) Findlay and Holdsworth, op.ctt,, Vol. V, p. 184. 49)

in

a self-

it had

missionaries

having

the

future’°.

the

On

made

and

the

candidate

After

have of

and

observance

no

and

to

status

missionaries

caste

of

uncertainties,

westwards.

were

imposed

conditions

without

thorn

the

and

difficulties

Initial

phase.

another

offended

that

seemed

and

a paid

immediate

growth.

climatic

therefore

as

difficulties

substantial

London

furniture

employed

membership

century,

and

expansion

and

in

in

purchases

When

matter

satisfactory

the

different used.

censor’?.

was

became

Church,

very

were

to

expecting

action,

Committee

the

Committee

declaration

be

of

their

came

be

London and

made the

Society.

many

formed

from

background

restrictions

attain

Church

public

the

in

buildings,

caste

emphatic

caste of

and

in

school,

of

need,

the

itinerant

to

the

and

they

had

adverse

speedily

annoyed

of

in

position The

member

cost dire

question

the

Committee

would

criticism

friction

tagonistic

the

by

or

such

things

the

or

all

followed

strategy

nor

spot

were

course

But

health

down

horseback,

from

same

the

closed

done’®,

be

they

the

of Hinduism

self-supporting the

and

entailed

disuse’ ’.

England on

it

multiplication

When

be

conversions

labours.

language

India

in

a different

the

on

to

for

the

their

attend

beginning

work

pursue

the

into

travelling

immediate

altogether

provision

of

to

to

fell

Church

experience

strength

work

sustaining

such

tempted

the

by

the

the

cases

missionaries

their

From

of

hence

Neither

that

most

had

struggle

rounds,

fatal;

in

buildings.

stations

Methodist

proved

expense

school

the

much

their

men

results

India

which

in

were

they

with

dispersion greater

and

down,

the

on

and When

similar in

of

While

of

and

chapels

broke

acquired

"Societies'

policy

travelling

Houses,

pioneers

preachers.

this

the in

field

the

and

District,

un-

the

Government

the

Sub-Collector.

the of

his

strongest

Tamil

poets

Karur

of

Karur

first

few

also

Wesleyan

occasionally

Wesleyan

engage

the

to

the

a school

at

work

the

Deputy

their the

nad". For sters

to

_ people.

"Caroor",

52)

Ibdd.

53)

)lbtd.

about

HF,

1859,

relin-

he

the

and

town

of

Karur.

At

then

this

stationed

Chairman

outlying

what

caste

had

a

gave

less

new

at

had

from

and

of

II,

city

visits

9

were

was

a week's

No.

seemed and

land

from to

58

the

Rev.

who

was

'society'

up

the

and

in

Synod

to

indebted

for

what

people

bright their

it

Karur

retarded

and

to

others

the

much

and

the

very

1863),

by

a

and

first

a donation

choosing

on

duration

by

thus

frequently

(July,

and

of

made

the

taken

sent

for

made

were

District

seriously hold

missionary

attention

invited

time

missionaries

to

preaching

camps

so

their

establish

is

that

reason

Karur

city

repeated

Karur

at

had

the

to

was

were

of

A.Robert,

Madras

of

Gospel.

was

seriously

Jones

powerful

of

areas

was

the

followed

Karur,

the

a piece

matter

it

in

of

1861. made

Karur

Tours

Clarence

stations,

which

prospects

time

in

been

of

the

was

for

Vol.

to

expense

He

afterwards’ *. Another

but

the

visits.

Mission

Stationary

51)

at

occasional

The

area

for

only had

preach

Simpson

station.

tours

to

neighbourhood

diverted

Rev.John

the

Society

the

the

short

limited

other

September

long

one

last

effort

0.

The

future

from

it

beauty

Stations

William

also

delta

own

Rev.

the

Karur.

evangelizing

Sometimes

was The

the

that

very

its

Mission

However,

He

have

the

systematic

station

Coimbatore

Collector

Kaveri The

the

immediately.

new

belief

made

within

of

visiting

following

tinued

in

time

any

J.Gloria.

E.Jenkins,

start

occupy

such

Elias

Collector

that

the

held.

of

and

visited

stations.

in

list

by

occupy

services

Rev.

Ebenezer

or

missionaries

himself

Deputy

and

the

the

other

of

Karur,

“ovaru--seer--Karuvoor"--the

as

direct

had

preaching

at

on no

by

at

it

of

town

of

chose

had

one

was

The

Mysore

beautynn

date

to

it

Wars.

of

Sulatan

a part

Headquarters

the

position

strategic

the

and

Mysore

who

interests

like

Tipu

appears

that

unprepared

some

view,

spoken

have

to

to

outposts,

imperishable

Previous either

of

the

during

quished

A

point

military

Owing

was

and

Coimbatore,

of

District

of of

Chola

it was

occupation,

its

of

time

the

At

together.

met

Pandya)

and

confluence

(Chera,

kingdoms

Dravidan

stable

most

and

greatest

the

of

three

with

confluence

Amaravati-Kaveri

the

near

bank

left

the

on

its

above

miles

seven that

significant

is

It

Kaveri.

the

about

Amaravati,

river

the

of

town

The

(1861-1862):-

Karur

1862.

in

situated

is

Karur

of

arrived

who

Little

Henry

Rev.

the

was

man

such

One

was

the of

and

work

Kongu-

encouraging.

native

mini-

village

to

certain

villages

done

the

to

were

arranged

pp.

207-209.

to con-

village.

same

at

certain

centres

like

and

diaries

the

Robert

Shiyali, the

Stephenson,

accounts

of

by

result

in

by

touring

the

much

work

there

work

was

agency

good,

unless

again at

to

this

whom

both

as

found

in

depended

the

future

at

the

and

the

of

Native

in

all

One

of

their In his

the

1874

name

house

ed with

to

in

be

Littles. nearly the

change

by

Kaurr,

the

whole

Mission'

of

of

old

of

the

the

came

of

the

every all,

were

Henry will

Only

in

this

Church

only

127,

Melnattam--13;

E.Jenkins,

one

that:

was

a station of

the and

undeniably

Church

had

not

only

three

Little

was

women not

and

two

things

soon

in

Meetings....

the to

"Extract from the Rev. Ebenezer E.Jenkins' Mission to India and China", MN, Vol. XXI

56)

Ibid.

57)

"The

Henry

98-100. 59

So,

Karur

prove

(marked

Little",

men

only

as

he

to

He

was

was

able

Circuit.

UTC),

tauntfirst

members

extremely

MMS,

and on

his

discouraged.

of

was

sun

there

gained

were

conducted

easily

the

carried yet

missionaries Little

to

standing been

which

dilapidated

exposed was

had

Henry

with

arrival,

and

work

the

inaugurated

his

furniture,

passer-by,

When

Meeting--Rev.

of

The

unimpressive

a smali

55)

pp.

was

condition

time

Minutes p. 489,

Breakfast

work

Committee

determination.

Misstonary

their number

Ebenezer

54)

1894),

a native

strong

he

to

workers.

and

aspect which

spot

follow-up

native

This

Karur,

the

though

years, town,

Hindus.

there

to

At

worn-out

of

the

raising

Circuits

a pitiable

distress.

and

fourteen

life

indomitable

'Kongunad

one

Worst

Society” ’. But of

Little

on

agents”.

associated.

was

some

such

native

observation

failure

service the

on

Henry

Karur

for

hold

aman

Rev.

the

the

Karur

any

of

to

for

training

always

containing and

welcome in

in

reasons

in

the

will

situation rain

main

to

discovered

such

of

General

being

likely

we are weak in Churches. Christian Societies; but no strength and self-sustaining

of a Church..."55

slackness

interesting

not

are

total

Rev.

the

"We are strong in educating forces: On nearly all our stations we have Society has attained the numerical

resources

the

of

Mannargudi--33;

the

to

write

the

Karur--5>.

made

Church

of

development

Negapatam--46;

Native

of

means

1874,

Secretaries,

are

doing

journals

O.Simpson,

efforts

placed

not

paucity

of

full

these

villages

once

close

and

are

see

The

William

visits

for

stable

Trichinopoly--26;

General

at

the

no

follows:

Tiruvarur--4;

are

reason

had

European

distributed

character

be

not

promising

agents The

Tanjore.

Rev.

Evers

do

Casual

time

Therefore,

members

when

and

the

P.J.

we

system.

missionary,

once

upon

the

adequate

like

and

However,

systematically.

missionaries

country.

Hobday

tours.

any

Kumbakonum

missionaries

James

their

followed-up

of

of

Mayavaram,

The fruit-

Vol.

xX,

Report of his recent (October, 1876), p. 238.

MV,

Vol.

XXIII

(July,

ful

some

thirty

community

years

movement

later;

was

to

this

break

was

out

the

in

area

in which

a

large

scale

1913.

The great famine of 1877-- a blessing in disguise:- Those who are acquainted know

with

how

Gospel.

The

drought

the

even

famine

and

famine

Kaveri

basin

bore

people

suffered

from

more

was

in

The

the

missionary kept the

to

school

previous

villages.

incapable

and

of

On

several

to

travel

for

were

food’?!

But

blessing

the

in

famine-stricken, children

ries

thought

standing

In

fertile

die

on

nearly

ways

others, were

carrying

on

plains

of

Millions

of

in

the

thousands

their

the

way.

the

There

total

routine

Many

though fees.

the

2400007".

with

considerably.

nominal

would of

a terrible

F.A.Nicholson

was

grants

to

the

any

of

pupils

to

receipts less

the

were

continuing

The

consequently

subject

it was

transport

It

of

Government but

many

became

for than

in

reached

there

feature

running

Children's

shelter

and

also

of

to

where

willing

die camps.

the

leading to

help

search

to

be

through for

the

exhaustion. So,

the

Or-

missiona-

destitutes

and

members

social

in

of

a great

opportunity

camps of

in

whole

in

suffering

relief

such

Some

proved

the

of

been

districts

a golden

for

lack

having

wandered

famine

only

Home

comfort.

were

the

in seemed

a conveyance

cart

certain

establishing

of

influence

In

work

often

terrible

secure

missionaries

was

a pitiful

to

having

compassion

the

and

grain. by

their

available

people

the

addressed

except

every

caused

gave

evangelistic

impossible

the

Christian

the

missionaries

places,

difficulties

The

phan

in

whom

deserted,

their

love.

share

the

disguise.

demonstrate of

arose

distant

found

tee.

even

occasions

requisitioned

these

the

heed

to

villages

could

while

people

giving

food.

acts

parents, pay

1877

migrated

to

to

many

suffered

government

also The

which

to

to

people

alone in

In

the

only

India

years”.

Difficulties the

schools

their

fees

district

in

furtherance

desiccation.

according

interfered

the

Even and

Starving

and

Missions

instance.

India.

districts

of life

unable

such

famine

misery.

1877

aid

were

one

of

affected

The

Christian facilitated

South

marks

Coimbatore of

the

was

visited

untold

work.

away

attend,

1877

the

loss

famine

of

conditions

of

seriously

a terrible

deaths

history

adverse

the

of

orphans

management

of

Homes°!,

Karur

Henry

Little

He

was

able

to

wayside

and

with

them

11,

1877.

58)

"The

USS8)

Between

Manual

pened

59)

Ann.Rep.,

60)

Ibid.

61)

Findlay

of

Vol.

and

was

gather he

chosen

the

leader

150

children,

started

the

Karur

September

11,

Coimbatore", XX

as

about

(1878),

Holdsworth,

1877

and

Editorial, pp.

of

who

the

were

Children's December

The

31,

Madras

dying

Home 1879,

Matl,

60-61.

op.cit.,

Vol.

60

V,

pp.

relief

229-230.

on

on

committhe

September altogether

8th

March,

244

children

were

by permission; mothers,

and

received

15 56

felt

discipline

more

suffered

were

died

(in

and from

in

1877:

by

8;

Of

these

fathers;

1878:

restraint

irksome,

homesickness

and

32;

and

others

they

42

ran

30 were in

1879:

disliked

all

away;

left

9 left

collected work,

the

by

16) ©?

Home

Some

and

yet

surrepti-

“

Children

sheltered

belonging

and

fed.

castes, of

our

to

all

While

in

Home

Children's

most

Home.

away

tiously°>.

"Three

this

taken

might

on

almost

children,

and

and

communities

the

admixture

Henry

Rev.

Karur,

we

castes

writing

say

collected,

caste

in

the

said:

Little

classes

amongst

were

of

those

of

the

that

community,

remain

with

supplied

us

the

same classes predominate, but not in the same proportion. The They are largest number are from the Gounders or Vellalas. cultivators of the soil who as a rule farm land from Governtill

and

ment,

it

on

own

their

Of

account.

these

admitted

we

82, and have 23 remaining. The next class is the Odders. They are of Telugu extraction and amongst themselves speak a patois and of Telugu mixed with Tamil. They are the well-diggers stone-quarriers of these parts; physically considered they are a Stalwart race... Of these we admitted 51 and retain 23. The third gether we

class is received

belong

the

to

the 27,

Seniar

Keikaler (weavers)... Of weavers altoand 11 remain with us,. a few of whom

caste.

The

rest

came

from

the

following

castes... viz. Koravan, Chuckli, Pariah, Vadavan, Andi, Pandaram, Pallar, Uppiliyar, Vaduvan, Tottyan, Kusavan (potter), Vannan (Dhobie), Chetty, Tattan (goldsmith), Nasivan (barber), Tatchan (carpenter), Kamalan (blacksmith), Shanar (toddy climber), most

of these classes have still representative among us so that it may be said we have a ‘happy famtily', and truly we have, for all caste distinctions are sunk (all are not Pariahs by any means) and all are one in Christ" As ness

soon

as

produced

classes

to

industry

by

assisted

by

this

time

a piece

called to work

on Then

were

the

of

land

married,

62)

Henry Little, "Karur 1880) 7 spe 123%.

63)

Ibtd.

set

Hobday

were close

several

settled

upon

his

: Tamil

the

the

the

Famine

and

seven to

of

a period Rev.

acres

farm

and

in

miles

in

Orphanages",

of

land

65

was

~.

acquired

of

famine

Home,

lads,

empur-

Little,

co-workers

The

of for

astonishing

south-east

Children's

and

of

Mrs.

extent,

there.

grown-up

system

Workshops

a piece

the

started

some

weak-

into

lace-making

on

of

sixty

the

formed

orphans.

weaving,

followed

from

and

organize

the

constructed

part

land,

to

of

recovered

to work

able

needs

Uppidumangalam,

now

65)

was

thereafter on

operations

cultivation. were

were

rope-making,

George

and

64) Ibid.,

Little

girls

And

Rev.

agricultural set

and

Home.

sufficiently

they

vocational

enterprise

the

a place

first

now

the

boys

the and

at

were

blacksmithery, for

activity

and

By

meet

carpentry,

At

children starvation

learn.

to

broidery chased

the by

Karur

boys

doing

some

Uppidumangalam.

of

were

gardening

whom Each

4

were was

HF,

Vol.

I,

No.

(October

WWMF,

Vol.

XI

(October,

4

p. 124.

Rev. Joseph West, "Our 1902), pp. 426-428.

Famine

Legacy",

61

posted

also

God's

of

(Village

Dévasagayapuram

of

name

the

bearing

formed

thus

was

evangelist

an

and

them was

for

Settlement

A Christian

there.

built

were

Houses

implements.

and

seed

oxen,

of

gifts

by

assisted

helpho4

to

The

formation

the

missionaries.

ing

Christian

Christian

worship,

that

place.

the

could The

the

practise

and

freedom

and

caste

period

open-air

main

regions

bringing

in

it

of

out-reach,

were

were

around

Roman

was

to

to

the

taluq

Staff

who

had

Dharapuram,

in

a building

substantial

the

but

by purchase

from

in

motives

grew

very at

Ibid.

68)

Findlay

69)

Ann.Rep.,

Vol.

ole

Ne Rev.

Vol.

29-31.

taken

around the

of

into

life

pure

a definite

attention

on

and to

paid to

surrounding

occasionally

tours

ground,

1880 and

new

a good

Madras.

Needamangalam, Dharapuram

was

stations

breaking

About

Tiruvarur

Peria

all

were

deal As

a

of result

Aravakurichi,

were

occupied,

1881

Peria

was

and

there.

Dharapuram

new

time

four

hundred

area

and

the

7°.

over

nominal

(1885),

two

p.

a

He

p.

salt

had

rate

of

area.

faced

for

an

hundred was

the

and

even

no hundred

seventeen

then

the

Magisterial

and

the

uphill

task.

warehouse,

Rs.

were

seven

During

secured

(only

there about

there

from 55/-)

occupation He

roomy the some

lived and

Government, twelve

94.

op.ctt.,

(1879),

Henry

the

Hobday

of

Dharapuram

headquarters

intended

Holdsworth,

of

miles

this

Catholics

a population

45

George

At

large

Census)

Rev.

with

Roman

with

a town

the

the

inconvenient.

XXI

sent

in

and

the

George

XXIII

Dharapuram,

occupied

Besides

a very

Ann.Rep.,

and

greater

a view

oversight.

authority

Rev.

67)

pp.

nurture

influence factor

throughout

originally

66)

To)

a

which

non-

Christian

immediately

visited

Karur,

In

1871

of

of

was

with

Church

it.

miles

(according

town

1885

villages

Minister,

agents

square

and

permanently

Catholic

connected

eighty

Revenue

and

Karur,

Christian

thousand

and

(1881-1882):-

Anglo-Indian

chief

as

joy

increas-

fs

Hobday,

and

of

place

care

Tiruturaipoondi,

of

an

The

regular

done

posted

large

1870

regularly

Tennilie

Dharapuram

families

symbols

wholesome

nucleus

special

remote,

south-west

other

all

undertaken

a precious

and

under

was

Uppidumangalam,

a

its

"a work

between

more

work

agents

Thus

take

great but

regular

and

of

a small

from

with

a wide

to

preaching.

centres

into

this

exert

began

ministry

pioneer

was

but

Church

resulted

itinerant

their

its

a source

that

Community" °°,

During

made

with

not

was

believed

habits

neighbourhood®’.

Christian

Settlement

earnestly

They

community

philanthropy

to

a Christian

('heathen')

and of

of

Vol.

V,

p.

230.

64.

Little",

MV,

62

Vol.

XXIII

(February,

1883)

’

acres and

of

land

a ‘school Formation

between

stance

of

when The cart.

one

well-developed

therefore

there

the

District,

of

the

missionary have and

in

the

Maras work

Rev.

the

in

the

to

each

of

and ed

thirty not

by

bed.

72)

The MN,

made

its

and

of

were were

conveyance

circuits /*. 335

on

trial

to

be

(Madras that

of

was

the

the

Negapatam already

in

Chairman there

small The

and

members

of

accredited

full

of the

in

Karur’>.

in

terms

of

inadequate

Thus

Ibid. Negapatam Mannargudi

: :

Trichinopoly Karur

: :

Vol.

XXIII

of

was

into

necessary

a

separate

of

Dtstrict

the

undivided

Superintendent

chief

centres

Mannargudi, attached

at

that

while

total,

separation

membership

ministerial

>

of

time the

re-

one

hundred

was

dictat-

but

by

staff.

the

Rev.

Henry

Little,

Nagore, Tiruvarur, Nannilam and Kodaivasal and Tiruturaipoondi Needamangalam, Melnattam Woriur and Cantonment Uppidumangalam, Tennilie Peria Dharapuram, and

Ann.Rep.,

would

grounds

Church

Madras District-- A descriptive Report by Vol. XXIV (September, 1884), pp. 221-223.

73)

staff

the.

members

the

Church

whole

On

the

covered

paucity

Negapatam,

of

the

would

was

out-stations

full

membership.

lay

sections

General

District--

cluster

bullock-

Arcot

wings

four

age

South

which

charge

averag-

an

the

Trichinopoly

and

were

west,

startling

constituted

and

a di-

communications.

and

The

two

District

Negapatam) two

sections /*.

relation

in

was

space

problems.

two

found and

these

to

too and

Salem

the

growth

difficulty

of

serious

was

were

for

and

enormous

Trichinopoly

74)

75)

transport

first

a

built

Negapatam

east

that

of

the

the

with

which

rapid

any

and

from

the

Dharapuram,

of

section

its

was

Madras

of

mode

separation

who

to

and

Districts

separation,

Karur

these

geographical

TAY

of

of

called

Negapatam

432,

97

maining

the

Little,

was

miles

population and

posed

southern

Henry

time

of

wing

up

in width,

possibility

either

entity

Trichinopoly

numbered

forces

the

borders

the

system

Moreover,

efficiency

1885

District,

At

no

density

manned

ecclesiastical and

was

the

its

miles

Government

contiguous.

by

sourthern

these two wings

populous

of

The

inexpensive

between

and

become

and

a chapel

advanced,

sections

seventy

no

and

so

and

was

large

and

extended

hundred

Soon

1885:As work

sourthern

forty-five

two

economy

the

already

available

scarcely

District,

and

purposes.

neighbourhood’ '.

to

Further,

ever

Mission

its

forty

there only

in

consideration.

had

about

from

new

serious

Trichinopoly ing

a

northern

for

for

started

of

the

called

well-suited was

(1886),

Aravakurichi

p.

248.

63

B

ey

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oll

2.

Perhaps the

the

most

educational

Mission

the

in Rev. to

the

the

tually

of

School

was

commenced

the

and

extended

and

then

lay

with

muthu

and

centres In

Mission, least,

out

they

of

learning demanded--

be

broken

to

amongst all

power

of

Little

to’ do

53

of

the

in

ac-

and

made

of

In

places

1889

like

city were

occupied.

Between

we

Kangayam

notice

Henry

Swaminathan

a strategist

life

Aravakurichi,

Uthiyur.

a bullockcart

of

within

the

numerous

employer

labouring and

many

and

this

area

and

and

and

Suvisesha-

choosing

the

covered

ponderous

caste

of

heart

that,

higher

were

by

the

of

an

the

Kongunad

difficulties.

prejudices,

labour

classes more

principal

many

was for

76)

Findlay

77)

Henry

Little,

Oct.,

Nov.,

78)

Findlay

79)

Ann. Rep.,

and

and

with

not

the

spread

remuneration

barriers

and

over

full

on

and

that

would had

to

way

op.ctt.,

in

op.ctt.,

(1889),

p.

In

the

Vol.

Therefore, work

1889

membership

was

there

of

133

V,

Latterly

paying

p.

Nad",

greater

were with

V,

pp.

in

the

attention

225.

MN,

Vol.

1889).

146.

65

support.

start,

Classes:-

Konga

Numbers,

its

threaten-

commissioned

ae

towards

Vol.

the

continually

had

ime

aggregate

Depressed

the

Mission

Holdsworth,

XXIV

the

in the

the

membership

out

December

an

made

to

caste

which

failed

handed

Holdsworth,

Vol.

service

and

of

Church

having

pointed

"Our

influence the

after

stations,

trial

things

the

very

places,

Kangayam on

and

Further,

1890s--Concentration

1890s

was

innovations,

the

work.

these

persons

The

by

Hinduism

Henry

two

entanglements

workers

to

through’’. the

only

"eye

of

these

invade

dropped

Vellakoil.

touring

and was

re-organized

intermediate

and

overcome

felt

to

most

the

native

Karur

Misston

Uppidumangalam,

Kangayam

the

dislike

fear

be

in

to

and

preparations

had

inertia,

the

The

Karur

the

1900.

in

the

around

Kongunad

to

Gospel

the

°.

carrying

Natural

of

with

take

was

Woodward from

were

especially

gratifying

country

Rev.

Mannargudi

so

the

in

Wesleyan

to

and

it

seen

was

The

away

at

be

been

now

though

to

started

institutions

have

concern

Gradually

Dyrium,

Kongunad

School

these

was

newly

Kongunad

from

team

The

Kongunad.

Uthamapalayam

Miliappa

epangelise’

must

Dharapuram

a small

in

Karur

the

Dharapuram.

district

High

in

broke

borders

between

Karur

Little

its

to

Half-way

Mission

the

Little,

under

Circuit

Slowly

and

as

by Henry

the

1885-1912

developmert.

great

of

known

in

Success at

his

that

villagers

it

a separate

and

progress.

Little

simple

west

work

Negapatam

Industrial

Henry

Consolidation

industrial

at

admirable

and

promising

and

College

making

ed

Expansion

225-226.

XXV

(see

to

almost

in

and

the

west

all

of

them

duced

redemption Gospels

and

a very

of

these

was

vigour.

a fair

Porathakudi were

signs 1894

Aubrey one

first

Thomas and

large

Negapatam the

and

whose

hundred

work

in

ministers,

In

A hopeful

population were the

twenty

of

Koil

the

in

near

Konthei

Christian those

to

activities

their

Karur

the

Dharapuram

the

re-

that

the go

on

now

Circuit;

Negapatam

Porathakudi Solomon

so

were

ever

a village

found

to

composed

to

be

be

very

was

of

Roman

that

one

In

in

of

Catholics.

promising. was the

their

there

Rev. 1898

indeed

the

history

Synod

there

called

the

District

stationed

also

of

which

recorded

The

important

in

superintendence

baptized,

District.

David,

Circuit

the

seemed

Pallars

Trichinopoly was

largely

under

place

accession

the

centre

was

begun

Trichinopoly

Rev.

in

and

Mannargudi

Allithorai:-

and

group

and

Andan

and

Nerur,

from

accelerated

Kolinjivadi

and

acceptance

their should

hence

and

most,

near

in

they

had

ingathering®!.

operations A.

only

that

Okkur,

At

of growth.

Porathakudi In

services

Apparasampettai

in

lay

strongly

others,

of

lands

believed

missionaries

the

and

level

low people

felt

their

Neglect,

own.

nearly

and

oppression

and

in

degraded

more

the

tilled

robbery

was

There

Pallars.

numberous

were

They

agriculture,

in

Nanjiyampalayam

Circuit;

there

east.

to

renewed

with

the

their

cases

They

needed

who

in

employed

were

a few

between latter

the

and

them

in

and

choose

to

much

not

two,

it

as

composed

wholly

being

former

the

the

Panchamas,

and

Pariahs

viz.

communities

principal

two

the

of

to

usual

then

was

numbers.

the

almost

were

castes,

lower

the

call

large

District,

Trichinopoly

and

Negapatam

the

In

relatively

in

baptized

being

were

communities

Panchama

the

to

resistance

least

of

line

the

belonging

members

circuits,

the

all

It was

communities.

outcaste

and

low

the

of

the

considered ablest

with

Indian

independent

charge®?. Encouraging miles were

west

through

the

most

simple

was

Both

diligent had

of

been

his

stock

going

Trichinopoly.

converted.

Allithorai and

of

work

of

A

here

and

work

of

signally

converts drugs,

on

were Daniel

in

few in

Allithorai

families

a man

named

blessed. won

from

Porathakudi,

He

through

a village

the

Ambalakaran

people

Daniel. was

also,

were

these

enthusiastically

work in

schools

in

night

only.

ministered

caste

converted

Daniel's

a believer

eight

to

schools

With the

his

sick

80)

pevangelteete pp. Salis

81)

Ann. Rep.,

82)

Rev. J.S.Shrewsbury, "From Siva to Christ", Work and Workers in the a oaae oe (WWMF), Vol. VIII (September, 1899), De o/On "ere |The Law and the Gospel in Trichinopoly Taluq", WWMF, Vol. VII (Ma

Vol.

Work

XXIV

in) Tiruvanun,

He

Voll.

fin,

NO.

1

(duly,

esdji

(1890).

1898), pp. 185-190.

sg

66

.

as

and

suffering.

of

the

of

himself

The

villages

which

as

he

wielded

remarkable. of

“one

many

for

influence

was

Many

Daniel's

converts! °>.

scarcely

years

especially

a villager

failed

ever

in

among

the

after

years

Allithorai in

appear

to

young

men

spoke

was

a place

the

baptism

column’. Ne

The

Kongunad

the

Kongunad

work

among

Within readers were at

the

the

working

kept

It was

influence

of

in

the

of

the

in

the

as

they

of

language the

eager

vepere

would even

3

to

break

Pendulum

came a great promise,

ninety

swings

this

sudden

of

He

and

and

asking

other

the

Kongunad.

While

was

be

work

a dismal for

trial

cause

depletion

83)

Bev: Alfred Smith, pp. 430-433.

"A

(1903),

Golden

thus

Bough",

of

the work

their

by

children

in

which in

the

MN,Vol.

XI

this

not

happen,

Christians. there

once

so

close

of

full 1900 to

membership,dwindled

chiefly

they

Movement'

advancing, the

and

school

did

become

At

the

at

'Mass

work,

the

mentions

drunkenness

this

to

of

boarding

ignorance

(November,

of

the

23.

the

1902),

84)

Ann.Rep.,Vol.

85)

Report

86)

WWMF, Vol. XIII, (June, "Kongunad’‘Mission", Rev. Richard H.Wray, 1904), pp. 249-250; cf. Report of the South Indta Provinetal Synod (1902), pp. 59-60. Vol. XXVIII ,(1902), pp. 86-87; Ann.Rep., (RSIPS)

of the

General

Synod,

p.

was

>.

the

boys

a

evange-

tillers

observations

The

failure. full

the

scriptures

But

continued

Porathkudi.

of

that

community

from

also

elder

hopeful

of

to

portions

interesting

very

Pallars

for

of

of

the

converts

children

scripture

and

them

number

the formation

the

The

XXIX

and

prayer.

progress.

under

and

come

and

was

on

to

women

came

young

themselves

back:-

were

desire

the

missionary

lenclerds

reproof

this

to

the

marks,

during

rich

that

of

non-caste

the

also

the

the

the

in

on

quiet

All

school

Moreover,

prayer

proved who

caste

repetition

Woodward

from

of

of

largest

who

Pallars,

learn

by men,

disappointment

persons, of

of

people

among

now

lands

turbans

were

village

made

evangelists

with the

people

chiefly

we

and

was

Woodward

centres.

that

The

encouraging

lanes.

in

read,

few

an

another

little

the

lyrics the

Rev.

a

on

Rev.

sixteen

village

came.

were

progress

the

were

orphanage

Woodward

their

the

out

one

his

neglect

along

by

The

in

showed

others

though

The

of

and

passed

with Karur

of

affords an example

there

selected

Station

Christian

fields,

Karur

originally

worked

removing

leading

of

who

a: growing of

singing

were

the

report

Mission

school,

touch

unobtrusive

report

Mission

in

reader

and

The

around this

from

Central

soil,

Kongunad

bad

the

well.

carefully:

workers

the

From

habit

in

closely

early

list

of

Steady

as

Pallars

circle

Karur.

these

Mission:-

Mission

88. 1905,

67

(RGS),

Appendix

VI,

p.

97.

priest

that

of

over

a piece

tion

of

time

the

the

superstitious

village

was

held.

dispute

lost

exclusive ly affected in

the

East

to

it.

The

however,

to

the

Methodist

through

the

courts

the

the

has

of

the

placed

But

when

on

he

removed

it,

From

that

onwards

the

five

years

only

five

families

either

left

the

families

fathers

and

the

in 1929°, The

experience

Porathakudi

was

prevented

them

neglected

and

cases type

where

woman just

from

knowledge,

of

their

good

purity;

From

then

and on

87)

Ann.Rep.,

88)

MSS. to

suits. what

The

they

parts

in

of

of

the

District

in of

with In

to

of

a few

a virulent vexatious the

land,

came

order

this

appeals

paddy

reports

year

after

community

were

most

serious’°.

qualities

such

as

and

how

far

other

these

XXVIII

to

give

cognate

factors

W.J.Noble,

attempt

a poor

to

the

maintain

Box

the

De

the

Rev. (1905), Joseph West, the RGS Appendix"Progress VI, pp. of94-95.

in

The How

temporal

immaturity in

problems to

develop honesty

help

required

Letter

Dharapuram

90)

(1900),

sad

and

urgent much

conduct of

the

in

them

and

in what solution,

more

vigilent

G5

Ann. Rep.,

XXVIII

year.

missionaries

(1928-1935):

dated

of

inconsistency

truthfulness,

them

made

(1901),

and

questions

89)

Vol

of

and

the

missionaries

could

came

and

Catholics

landlords.

irrigated

Christians

Vol.

Rev.

of

their of

persecution

powerful

of

disposed

centres

confronted

fail those

converts”?

'Trichinopoly', the

did

and

to

other

to

even

faith

the

lightly

the

were

patch

law

and

so

life

many

all

rich

the

by

Catholic

began

finally

with

was,

play

the

later

missionaries

place,

them

to

was

the

In

and

back

episode

for

to

and

attached

Pallars

Porathakudi

a changed

conscience,

form--these

the

taken of

a small

experience

Christian

personal

went

yielding

Some

several

different

village

or

Catholics.

their

of

their

from

already

by

people

of

in

a

fight

such

rights

village

had

in

the

adverse-

prestige,

a miracle

returned

remained;

Porathakudi

lesson

again

converts.

lodged

to

of

Also

ever

possession

had

rescue

from

in

gained

discontented

the

cases,

retain

thus

work

place

House

a sufficient

baptism

befell

court to

Mission

they

of

the

of

to

as land

of

importance of

performance

Methodist

the

Revenue

loss

a of

dissatisfaction the

and five

meant

amount

Church®’, after

time

It

Pallars.

of

piece

sec-

mean-

the

In

finally

the

over

community large

a

and

Church.

and

Board

the

of

Catholics

inordinate

an

cause

interdict

priest.

Roman

of

minds

original

decision

The

the

of

prestige

an

local

over

the

in

chapel

came

case.

the

rights

a division

was

Methodist

the

Catholic

Roman

the

which

in

awe

went

Catholics

land

There

of

front

in

land

of

the

Society

the

and

themselves

Pallars

March

of Rev. 5,

W.A.Sandford

1929.

ae

68

Sexennium,

Negapatam hE

Dist ao "

when in

admitting

people

after

the

more

1898)

and

a policy

in

Therefore, (1899-1904) adult

the was

baptisms

1902-from

23; 611

in

than

-

Christian

was

This

8; to

the

turn

of

of

a movement

haste

Christian

the

the

the and

1904--

659

in

India

the

the

all

among

the

gave

evidence

every

was

soon

toiled

an

to

and

of

of

normal for

rate

the

Sexennium of

1901--

18;

members

only

an

the rate

38; full

increase

the

the

1900--

to 1,963,

it was

to

become new

Christians hindered

of

but the

in

8%.

grew

The

increase of

growth

missionaries

the

"only

1912

the

of

mission

It

was

of

missionary had

strongholds

ibuds

92)

Ibid.

93)

Ibid.

94)

Ibid.

95)

Ann.Rep.,

and

preached

of

and

Brahmin

and

--

of

less

of

the

a matter

which

all

of

Vol.

XXXI

p.

69

tenden~

become

workers"

grown of

that

employed

of

the

at work

villages,

centres

in

be

an

student embraced.

almost

all

India.

The

caste,

village

tribes

it

to

low

caste

temple-shadowed

landowners,

labouring

criminal

80.

There people

same to

of

had

of people--high

agricultural

(1910),

ready

work

seen

were

wealthy

1

conduct.

by the

attention

be

scattered

scattered

Rev.

some

request’.

mission

that

animistic

The and

neighbouring

paucity

District

the

might

kinds

and

the

the

signs

Review

deserves

varieties

under

downtrodden

were

their

Trichinopoly it

Kongunad.

general

that

the

made

visible

Koravas

influenzed

and

A

of

these.

Dharapuram

fulfilling

priests,

farmers,

Pariahs

and

were

were

the

their

among

being

processes to

among

in

finances

in

cities

Hinduism

ignorant

ON)

the

Crowded

approached.

Pallars,

for

microcosm

agents

been

outcaste.

the

and

history,

a sort

were

1912

and

field

change

around

from

Negapatam

mission

Koravas

movement

strained

missionaries

the

There

earnest

movement

Circuit

villages

3.

important

and

a real

efforts

Webster.

great

a community

Karur

A number

concentrated

Pariahs

that

cy.

lawyers,

up

81;

set

149

adopted’,

during

onwards

to

(e.g.

tacitly

number

1,874

Ebenezer

of

indication

villages .in the

been

1899

The

ise.

was

seemed

years

community

From

from

century

Rev.

of was

and

slowly

en

reaction

previous

1899--

1904

in

had

Gospel

mark.

decline:

at

Dodd

the

This

the

of

not

Stanley

By

of

making

increased

was

Society.

concern. ?*.

chairmanship

them

their

baptisms

to

on

community

of grave

of

up

community

5%

At

not

1899

of

growth

1903--

sees

into

numerous

folk-all

middle

communities like

that

had

class like of

the

To

time. methods

and

history

might

material

tive

to

mention

only

six,

this

land.

from

satisfactory.

District members

But

but

areas

in had

were

the

fourth

and

Koravas,

by

them,

the

that

former

Gospel

but

were

back

to

The

chief

The

work

were the

the

most

results

the

among

the

had

were

only.

96)

See

AnnwRepae

98)

Rev. XRD

99)

Rev.

under

the

‘Missionary

XxXrT

their

did

as

than

a

not

of

the

hand

and

found

the

expected,

the

none

Until

1890

the

high

caste

at

the

most the

classes

successful

carried of

were:

the

on

that

efforts

of

people.

missions

amongst

missions

the

enjoyed

caste success

scale’.

Strategy'

NOW yy Dreur2 42 The

Foretgn

J.

HF,

Vol.

"Small

they

when

among

W.E.Garman, "Then and Now", A I26= 27) pps 2 Sil 2a

Hudson,

taken

indifference.

had

situation

lie

work

larger

hundreds

was

growth

directed

those

but

had

Pariahs

step of

they

were

when

and

in

fewer,

were

many

forefathers’®.

Christianity.

to

ashes

numbers

faith

retarding

chiefly

other on

good

new

the

week

decisive

into

greater

were of

no

extraordinary

accept

good

fairly

their

Factors

limited

castes

VOle

in

of

and

total

outside

who

Church,

after

full

1877

people Of

Panchamas.

down

died

desire

this

of

were The

others

of

Catholic

this

from

success;

consisted

far in

a good

drawn

famine

week

739

total,

great

assemble

by

this

to

was

membership.

mostly

Roman

the

passed

faith

been

as is

On

higher

97)

to

group

best

started

of whom

for

greater

the

outcaste

missionaries

ready

comparison

population

for

the

missionaries

Their if

causes of

with

to

thereto

the

met

during

the

baptized

4.

a)

of

of

attached

turned

Mission,

from

used

benefits

material

the

A third

years

fires

the

disabilities they

was

too

had

gathered

trial

2,172? of

only

allegiance

the

and

latter

The that

missions

on

its work

was

work

Findlay,

Hare

of

their

members

Church

were

of

since

by

gone

1048

309

employ

abandoned.

one

the

hear

only

results

numerical

had

numbered

been

their

transferred

to

were

the

other

who

the

given

had

Methodism

that

years

95

community

where

children

show

regards

remaining

the

converts

orphans

as

there

and

Christian were

0.Simpson,

William

E.Jenkins,

Ebenezer

Hardey,

Samuel

William

and

Little

Henry

ee methods’.

missionary

Cryer,

Thomas

of

names

missionary

great

The

mission

of

district,

this of

aspects

all

of

study

the

outside

looking

without

find, for

of

number

large

student

the

and

employed,

been

had

agencies

life

their

in a

classes

of

variety

once

least

at

Gospel

the great

this

win

and

reach

to

listened

had

Koravas--all

Results",

To

X

Field

(FF),

Vol.

(July,

1889),

p.

14.

b)

Lack

of

concentrated

work

and

two

missionaries

were

placed

One

or

of

which

was

whole

the

central

station

great

years

ago

they

the

of

which

means

few

and

that

done,

and

warfare',

sive

addition

mission vigorous

the

General

field,

had

official the

W.H.Findlay,

whimsical

no

to

down

its

also

was

there leisure

by

so

for

which

Committee,

clear-cut

operation

through

the

to

a

time the

in

to

had

have

been 'defen-

of

operations

In

with

the

in

a clear

London,

out

points

of of

perdersuc

followed.In

be

Committee

run

line

their

their

it

District

hands that

might to

almost

to

the

the

things

which

extending

District,

the

of

Chairman

of

full

the

in

But

Further,

directed

policy

written

letter,

of

a policy

a guideline

unless

things

chance

secure

to

inverted.

been

station

shorthandedness

little

as

centre" !°°,

were

any regular

central

forgotten.

no

had

action

of

of

institu-

other

anxious

too

each villages.

duties

the of

to undertake

much

course

extend

were

had had

to

populous

a number

unable

lay

of

personnel:

stations,

with

occupied

been

recognized

is

reduced

were

They

done.

will

that

they

that

was

important

an

missionary central

number

attached had

proper

occupy

policy

missionaries

be

the

station

a wise

They

of

large

larger

were

ventured

should

church

such

even

the

so

has

which work.

and

"no

that

a still

So, théy were

village

centres

Several

by

at

missionaries

to

as schools.

such

organized

and

the

of

time

The

tions

surrounded

depletion

and

the

Rev.

somewhat

humour:

"Do not think I am merely grumbling about my own Circuit. What is true of Negapatam is true, I have good reason to believe, of seven-eights of our stations in India...'Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it feebly' appears to be our motto. We have been content as a Society with a desultory scattering of the seed, that may go on, as at Negapatam, for seventy years without producing any obvious and considerable effect on the town and neighbourhood, it is time we made plans like practical men, set before ourselves definite aims and calculated the means required to accomplish them and then applied those means. Do not think I am merely lamenting over straightness of the Society's funds, and trying to rouse you to increased generosity. What the Society needs more than increased funds, it seems to me, is improved understanding... A right conception and a right ideal in this matter would do more for our work than any immediate

increase

As

of funds..."102

Findlay

had

understanding" part c)

of

The

the

the

Home

they

ap.

"a

pointed

right

out,

what

was

and

right

ideal"

English

work:

Even

conception

needed

were of

"improved on

work

the

Committee. attention

excessive

century

rightly

and

still

1oo0)i)

Tbéd=,

101)

Rev.W.H.Findlay,

paid

seemed

to

to

for

missionaries

be

at

the

the

close

English

of

sold-

116%

"The

Negapatam

B92) pee Zour NO2) PPD tds sD 2 lO.

7

Circuit",

MV,

Vol.

XXVII

(September,

could

be

work,

and

no

of

manner

that

the

and

want

of

congenteationkes.

strength

in

military

the

country

destitue ger

system

of

of

every

Province had

wrote

le

to

time

has

their was

been.

the

productive 1832

remained

missionaries dispersion.

d)

Organized

from

the

aries.

severe quently camel

to

to

patam

and

culled

103)

in

than at

the

draw its

mainly

Rev.

once the of

Findlay

Henry

106)

Ibid.

107)

Findlay

that

met

and of

town

and

large

order

to

Rival

Hindu

meetings

the

Little,

Little,

had

break

and

the

congregations. were

writings

flooded of

Holdsworth,

and

and

ig

and

and

violence

were

held

from

In

in

close

V,

p.

HF,

tg

were

1884

Vol.

and

X

163

189.

Pie

Nega-

handbills

atheist,

OP se@tb., p.

and

a

the

proximity

year

tracts

Fre-

in

during

I,

the to

by

efforts

the

their

Negapatam,

determined

the

in

encountered.

worship

policy

mission-

subjected

hooligans. was

in

the

opposition the

occasionally

Queries",

Vol.

of

held

with

Vol.

work

the

Queries",

op.ctt.,

organized

headed

Bradlaugh,

op.ctt.,

"Suggestions

inexpedient

processions

were most

Twice

"Suggestions

Holdsworth,

up

be

and

abuse

and

will

old

the

that

expressed

century

and

opposition

to

expense,

the

to

of

preamb-

of

converts

miscreants

Out

up

in

and

finthe

the

enormous

felt

widely

work

with

their

in

the

from

and

In

persisted

end

threat

persistent

neighbourhood

and

Bitter

they they

if

the

success.

followed

at

they

their

evangelistic

hands

and

the

of

a portion

entirely

(1832)

policy.

system

and

from

serious

missionaries,

away

Henry

104)

the

to

to which

by want

maintained

till

suffering

their

1889), pp. 29-30.

105)

that

their

it

before

of

errors stations,

populated,

years

a revision

been

same

another

elephant

of

has

opposition:

was

premises.

those

made

still

Hindus

an

Fifty

disappointment,

institutions,

the

Mission

of

systematic

or

declared

error,

densely

disheartened for

transfer

instruction,

|S

of

misapplied

to

native

capital

selection

hitherto

Christian

points"

two

The

failed

the

attacks

most

"purely

urging

much

Hindu

More

had

very

often

educational natives.

They

of

was

injudicious

disgrace" '°/ - What

Hindus

Very

an

indelible

were

of

the

cause

of

of

greatly

they in

from

native,

home

letter,

diverted

was

been

"founded

time

and

species

despair

Catholic

TE

consequence.

there

Still

NOES

cantonments

evidently

missionaries they

in

consisted

which

much

that

doubt

suffered

of

of

old

this

semi-pagan

and

half-castes,

Christian

nominally

civilians,

or

soldiers

one--British

every

to

Wesleyan

Redemption',

‘Universal

of

doctrine

their

by

influenced

responsible

felt

community

Christian

the

and

population Methodists,

native

the

to

the

it,

from

formed

, 103 . Eurasians

efforts

their

limited

strictly

Societies

other

many

While

; : English-speaking

certain

to

and

cantonments

the

in

iers

29.

trans-

(Jul

re

lated

into

The

He

and

of

Madras,

hostility

Olcott,

and

and

taken

Besant.

to

1891,

Theosophy

herself heart the

an

and

citadel

In

of

1907

ciety,

Madras. paper

In

Brahmin ed

the

was

1914

was

of

Rule

Besant was

Brahmin et cy °

politicians

of

108)

the

the

Home

she

rival

Ann.Rep.,Vol.

a

suburb

the

Theo-

The

Theoso-

art.

The

object

Hinduism hatred

and

of

They

this

Christiani-

wanted

to

the

quickly severely and

was

XXIII

Besant

was

easily

which

the

(1885),

1900 her

In she

of

Party

years

the

and

still

in

the

and

the

of

a

Brahmini-

political

Madras

detrimental

cf.Ibid.,

foundAs

opposed

founded

among

she

politics.

advocate

Soto

a news-

1916,

conflict

more

90-92;,

ran

vehemently

Society,

moved

particularly

active

in

founded

'!°,

she

also

later, ardent

and

she

Benares,

Theosophical

Now

read

into an

1898 made

headquarters

widely

social

pp.

in

cause called

successor.

Tract

the

worked

missionaries

was

Hindu

Blavatsky

and

from

criticized

of

champion

She

as

aroused

Christian

death to

of

won

glamour.

was

and

London,

teachings

Hinduism

entered

India,

in

work

Annie

initial

Congress

thus

parentage

covilization.

Two

her

Brahminical

his

which

but

disciple,

the

the

its

of

as

England,

by

founder-president

and

for

for

Irish

Hinduism,

colleges.

movement

missionaries

Adyar,

own,

influential

after

Aryan

Besant

Indta'

League

and

rank,

and

venomous

of

College,and

joined

in

of

editor.

their

influenced

losing

Brahminical

Rule

Hinduism,

the

Hindu

Olcott,

dispute

Another

already

restore

‘New

'°8,

greatly

lady

founded

exalt

determined

representative

she

the

students

champion cal

years

and

to

to

England,

two

designating

Home

in

1893,

Colonel

called

was

India

Orthodox

died,

latter

In

Central

made

they

of

left

born

Strongly

to

soul

and

missionaries.

and

came which

Benares

(1847-1933),

journalist.

inspirid

1882

was

was

a newspaper

philosophy

Blavatsky

powerful

side.

Besant

and

a periodical

time

a Russian

later

increasingly

Madame

the

in

years

Christian

most

Besant

while

her

of

that

These

work

shreds" !°?,

by her

a brilliant

over

to

afterwards

Annie

India

Two

meetings.

missionary

at

officer

Oriental

an

rival

the

Hindus

activities

by

particularly

over

Blavatsky,

to

and

accompanied

Shortly

to

the

to

Blavatsky,

Army

published

devoted

Christianity

the

Madame

came

of

injury

among of

American

teachings

more

promoters

headquarters.

Society

was

"tear

of

an

Blavatsky

their

effort

chief

permanent

teachings

a journal

all

was

of

the

their

sophicol

was

no

Madame

phtst,

ty

the

by

Colonel

of

by

however,

spirit

fomented and

Tamil

did,

tracts

in

Vol.

by non-

Presiden-

to

the

April

XXVI

work

1887

112

(1894).

109)

Julius

Richter,

110)

Dbvd.5

p.

111)

Eugene F.Irschick, Politics and Soctal Conflict in South Indta: 1916-1929, (Berkeley The Non-Brahman Movement and Tamil Separatism, 26-54. 1969),pp. University of California Press, and Los Angeles: Julius Richter,op.ctt., pp. 389-390.

112)

op.ctt.,

p.

380.

384.

us

°

the

Hindu

The

of

of

polemic

the

defending

ninaucem

and

followers

of

nature,

sent

and

published,

second

editions

interest

"The

of

evil

of

struck

were

referred

the

preachers

at

once

missionaries

with gilth''®, A striking District

for

stations

from

and

the

from

ment.

In

was

were

was

fined

and

two

several

of

preached

often

in

3)

toad’

114)

eae

OD.

for

the the

ee

to

preach

either

the

made the

treated, Report

record

the

auspices

residents

who

were

to

by

rough

Karur

rupees

Christian

in

fined

speaking

treatment

Circuit,

or

each

15

rupees

abusive

boys

by

from

the

market

place.

The

fighting

for

itself",

Julius

Richter,

op.ctt.,

pp.

Aryan

Brahmin,

in

case

HF,

389-390.

Vol.

IX

a laughing-

or

all

the

this

new

move-

Karur,

the

Mission

violent

sympathisers. leader

of

days'

rigorous

catechist farm,

Brahmin

(March,

In

a gang,

imprisonment;

10

the

the

The

covered

Trichinopoly

rigorous

cost

Hindu

and

default

against

virulent

Revivalists,

with

Devasagayapuram

court

74

Aryan

days'

language

11S)bed. 116)

the

or

to

violence.

and

of

as

themselves

the

nearly

some

tracts

particular.

stones

Negapatam

a young

default 10

with

the

and

and

in

actual

sympathy

deeds

These

devoted

Negapatam

near

Army",

street,

at

mission-

Bible",

the

missionaries

to

of

in

in Nagore violent

the

mob

opposition

the

notably

the

God?",

should

to

Christ

attacked

of

of

in

cases tracts

Revivalists,

they

and

the

tracts

"The

le.

Aryan

missionaries

under

the

were

the

incited

badly

the

sent

and

and or

the

Christianity

began

of

was

fifteen

imprisonment,

of

general

down,

submitted

others

ete

Instead

accompanied in

Bible",

to

own?",

Salvation

Hinduism.

places

Uppidumangalam

the

not

appeared

local

some

language Agents

men

the

"Why

according

of

two

these

Christ

their

to, was

feature 1889

examining

imi-

of

eleven

in

of

Jesus

of

them

were

"Is

preaching

in

and

some

the

missionaries

shouted

10,000 of

position

sheer

tracts

opposition 1889,

Christianity",

without

to

in In

of

Christians

Whenever

of

sinners?",

refuting

according

mainstay

work

titles

inconsistencies

misrepresentations

of

The

"Women's

and

to

in

distributed

Macturdaltse

editions

also

and

religions

character

they

in

Society,

and

preachers

off.

we

Christianity",

the

stock,

"Are

other

that

gross

them

2:

this

printed

open-air

were

disguises

"Jehovah's

abuse

Hindu

most

show to

out

idol-worship

despise

History

Missions,

arranged

some:

"Supporting aries

patrons

Christian

missionaries

may

were

and

energetic

tation

were

who

conservative

took

Brahmins,

mainly

Society,

protecting

Tract

standpoint

of

promoters

the

work,

their

counteract

To

themselves.

missionaries

the

of

activities

the

to

due

mainly

was

movement

this

of

birth

The

and

who

had

and

1889),

his

pp. 304-

associates stances.

and

preachers

from

persuading Society

had

In

some

held

and

European,

and

V.D.David,

The

conversion

were

Christians

Church

the so

for

house

his

the

by

missionaries.

it and

property

high

for

his

and

he

longer

could

be

have

days.

He the

if

cut,

an

aged he

evangelist

an

had

missionaries

would

damage

by

Brahmins

and

of

was be

and

on

been

or

so

badly

confined

rescued

been

the

the

missionary's

Pastor, were

out-break

A dozen

to

one at

recent

stones,

one

had

not

have

an

the

Mannargudi,

and

that

Indian by

School

by

bombarded.

were

Samuel,

and

more

much

the of

missionaries

and

workers,

marked

sticks

with

attacked

Wesley

of converts:

caste

change had

roused

Mannarconvention)

conducted

irritated

streets

buildings

at or

Mission

the

attack

the

caused

to

by the to

spot,

men

'2°:

Persecution

from

that

had

the

in

bruised

fact,

In

event

of abuse,

were

violent

was

sadly

been

European

A.

Rev.

was

had

Tract

effort

festival

the

who

the

house

frequent

mission It

in

Ceylon,

convention

and

four

several

from

School

rioters,

Tikely

seems

District.

This

High

The

hit.

were

treated

the

maltreated

the

and

number

the

reigned

Christians,

Indian

wife

riot

hour

large

of

to

Hindu

the

missionaries

of

a

house

excitement

(Prayer

of

by

Hindus,

a Brahmin.

of an

For

of

the

and

a Jebortschavam

the

in

hands

the

to

more

a still

workers

Christian

1892

religious

later

the

catechist,

a

upon

circum-

reluctantly

to the mission Schools |”. In

opposition

repeated

years

parts

close

from

assault

Revivalist

amongst

violence

town.

Tamil

went

prolonged

attended all

They

centre.

their

Schools

Girls' at

Society.

and

in made

much

and

1897

from

a

Mannargudi. of

was

7) The

men

law,

suffered

a storm

Five

the

of

to

to

to sénd their children

A serious

September,

was

pistrice!

been

repeated

year! !9.

appeal

Circuits

stone-throwing the

on

made

gudi.

not

penalty

first

Tract

always

missionaries. of

a heavy

the

this

Hindu

the women

occasional

--

fact in

the

offered

events

e)

in

Trichinopoly

Mannargudi

was

rupees

was

Negapatam

the

60

missionaries

the

by

some This

to

families, of

faith.

forego to

admitted

no

one

all

He

two

opposition

bitter.

was

with

instances

in

may

As

and

an

to

even

caste

He

could

no

his

to

nearest

here.

117)

"The Month's Mission News", HF, Vol. X (August, 1889), cf. Ibid., Vol. X (December, 1889), pp. 223 - 224. Ann.

Ann.Rep.,

Rep.,

120)

Rev. Vol.

Vol.

XXIV

Vol.

XXV

(1890), (1893),

pp. p.

relations

substantiate

point

118)

dearly

every

this

119)

especially

pay

from

life.

example

quoted

be

converts, had

excluded

domestic

house,

him.

the

convert

immediately

father's

his

to

The

intercourse

communication

or

The was

p.

58;

59-60. 58.

"The Convention and Riot at Mannargudi", Henry Hudson, (1897), pp. 43-44. 1897); cf. RSIPS (January, XXIX

we)

MN,

ly in self

and

danger

Boarding

Mission

following

the

sacred

a new

him

apparently

a good and

opportunity Thompson and

the

spiritual

him,

moving

crowd

Lakshmanangudi

hood

in

died

and

manyam leyan

strict his

that

have

an

High

School

read

he

the

medical

did

the

not

bodies

stincts, his

Hindu

as

English

Bible

become

college

but

things

the

dissecting

to

a Brahmin

and

returned

tual

thirst

and

in

God,

the

got

into

touch

where

he

After

that

he

was

man

the

also

the

received

Theophilus

loaded

with

his

all

with

At

under

room

Christian

reproaches

is

and

for

an

J.M.

stood

with

Seeing and

parents

the

of

up

of

that

was

he

heard

influence

with

as

Finally

missionaries

was

So,

August

at

his

subjected

he

to

joined with

the

in-

abandoned a great for

21,

name

native

spiri-

seeking

Sanyast

(a

1892,

Royapettah,

bearing to

he

contact

of

he

Madras, Theophilus.

village.

brutal

Wes-

missionaries.

desire

a Hindu

on

the

Jesus

Brahminical

aware

passionate

returned

the

father

Subra-

to

of

The

his

became

baptism,

sent

of

family

child-

his

that

matriculation

smoothly.

wandering

his

fourteen

resolved he

his

Brahmin

from

so

go

he

Subramanyam.

orthodox

a defilement.

India.

Subramanyam

Rev.

he

There

clashed

There,

Wesleyan

age

and the

not

an

uncle

After

did

home,

over

boy,

brought

the

education

a corpse home.

There

Theophilus of

was

paternal

intensity

left

mendicant)

and

life.

came

the

Rev.

born

at Mannargudi.

and

in

young

the

was

a Christian.

studies

religious

of

and

the

and

cured,

waited

a Christian.

become of

as

He

joined

he

festival.

had

him

vain.

deaa" '2?,

is

Aiyar

brother

should

Christ,

the

took

in

they

Then

dung.

and

of

products

five

the

and was

where

he

Mannargudi

orthodox

elder

at

how

"he

is

Mission

But

dead

near

all

steadfastness

and

saying

Lakshmi-Krishna-Subramanya in

poonool, But

preaching

story

curds,

the

the

including

ceremonies,

urine,

in and

compelled

and

shrine,

Hindu

the

But

away.

Trichinopoly

to

went

in

to

sent

miles

eighty

brothers

really

was

him-

found

he

by his was

he

Dawahaaaiatals

Mannargudi

the

fervour

left

Another

then

life

notable

a

again.

for

told

boldly

relatives

left

was

who

him

thread,

Brahmin

his

purifying

butter,

clarified

milk,

--

cow

the

gave

time

friends

his

called

mixture

the

of

drinking

of

a variety

to

submit

to

him

blue

missionary,

the

Rameswaram,

to

off

lad

the

took

of

a band

year,

and

Trichinopoly,

at

School

black

one

At of

help

the

with

so,

away.

shut

and

starved

was

and

beaten

was

he

Often

persecuted.

fami-

orthodox

Soon

John.

name,

a new

an

from

Narayanaswami

with

baptized

was

Negapatam

called

youth

a Brahmin

1885

In

But

treatment.

121)

To strict Hindus there is no remedy for purifying the body from defilement more efficacious than the drinking of Panchagavya. Cow's urine is likewise a potent cleanser of external defilement (J.H.Hutton, op.ctit., ps 88).

122)

MSS. 'Negapatam and Trichinopoly', J.M.Thompson to Rev. E.E.Jenkins, 1885 and January 2oth, 1887. 76

Box (1885-1891): dated Negapatam,

Letter of Rev. October 19th,

He

was

with

thrashed

red-hot

life.

him

His

at

of

his

feet

old

--

faith; she

did

swooned. family

kill

throw

him

him

he

the

fled

did

house

and

for

pincers,

down

for

she

and

yield.

So,

not

with

but

She

them

brother

he

difficulty

him

bade

As

training

and

as

in

service

as

1921,

the

the

and

probation of the

the

to

was, she

the

had of

the

they

night

that

to

his

Theo-

rest

they

would

his

life,

lose

Immediately

escape.

in

House

Mission

the

Church

in

Theophilus

Methodist

outcastes as

an

South

of

Army

Subramanyam

Church. the

Much

Madras

Chaplain

was

of

District.

in

Meso-

India

Provincial

Synod

Ecumenical

Conference

held

service

the

people,

decades

of

Subramanyam

Theophilus

the

Africa,

of

India

the

service,

among

South

Chairman of

of

ministry

was

in

Theophilus

nation

fruitful

the

worker

a representative

land to

and

a period

into

ministerial a Christian

potamia

return at

t

receivedin 1897 his

he

that

the

reached

Royapettah. After

as

say

to

ground

(all

her

fierce

again

him

thought

heard

and

him

were

the

that

locked

the

steadfastly

with

forward

his make

was in

he

pillar

dead,

wanting

held

that

the

of (to

He

irons

on

whispered

and

not

hot

branded

rest

potion

when

pleaded

came

was

verandah

herself

was

sister

a

but

the

to

he the

throat.

the

and

Tied

temple)

his

of

flung

mother

his

and

mercy,

whip

again.

his

well.

cords

Then

marks

forced

agony

the

the

back.

the

to a pillar

the

rose

he

the

bare

broken-hearted

her

to

with

begged

juncture

if

down

was day

that

gone

loosened

she

know

his

carried

Open

Christ,

in

that

having

would

he

He

was

never

not

At

by

sun.

mother

and

philus

tied

renounce

His

upon

that

forced

Indian

to

applied.

was

and

the

refused

a whip

so

Christianity)

night,

rays

to

mouth

renounce

up

with

irons

did

India.

great

After

Subramanyam

about

passed

to

four

into

his

and in

Eng-

eternal

rest

19334. These

are

just

converts.

Such

these

suffice

for £)

two

a change Peculiar

serious liar

123)

there

the

there

of

is

a

to

social real is

mission fair

examples abound

show

faith

in

how the

of

no

of

the

in

missionary

dear life

construction

difficulty

construction

where in

and

two

episodes

the on

amount

of

large

the the

way

individual

may

In

some

the be

in

upon

India,

had

to

Hinduism: work

Western

native

but

be

paid

different relatively and

Another was

the

pecu-

countries, classes, easy,

initiative.

Ministry", KO, Vol. XIX (1922-1923), p.

story of this life is fully told by book titled "Subramanyam: The Story

Vil

of

missionary

freedom

"From Hermit's Cave to Methodist 3-5; cf. "Subramanyam", FF, Vol. The his

sometimes

power of

between

scale

inflicted

history

convert.

society.

cohesion a

a price of

and the

Indian

strong

field

in

persecution

success

because But

in

II (1934), 138.

the Rev. C.H.Monahan of a Pilgrimage".

in

pp.

Where

But

ty.

considered

is

it

gudi

in November,

with

unbounded

vine!... of

Mannargudi Similar

a mighty

to

is

an

atmosphere

but

the

in

the

district

homes

zation. Rev.

H.P.

difficult give

who

was

and

124)

actually

and

in

Rev.

the

its

peculiar the

os

to

the

and

neighbourhood

he

difficulties

in

a

for the

so

the

several

the

imposing has

way in

been

the of

area

evangeli-

Trichinopoly,

always

been of

a

section

enshrined

with

been

more the

Methodist

same

of

caste

had

had

Hinduism is

manifestly

is

work

progress

Smith,

discussed

faced

in

whole,

on.

western

number of

the

area

acquainted

country the

the

power

Trichinopoly

labouring

carried

appear the

S.P.G.'s

breathes

practices.

This

in

arising

itself

he

like

yesterday.

permeated

Hinduism

the

the

expressed

where

by

or

Hindu

yet

Hinduism

and

Alfred

event

Mannargudi

something

born

mighty.

closely

that

this

fortification

is

being

shrines.

of

is

neither

surrounding

Rev.

stationed

is

difficulties

History

Mannar-

from

to-day

and

not

judge

are

in Trichinopoly Siow

and

people who

observes

While

W.H.Findlay

peculiar

a

ready

mission

missionary

years

opinion

strategic

in

in

a

Trichinoletter

importance

Trichinopoly:

Rev. William Arthur, A Mission to the and Oakey, Paternoster Row, 1847), p.

XEX

126)

been

the

a Hindu

still

does

It

formulated

has

wayside

those

Thompson

and

were

more

religion.

successfully

other

one

of

Only

writing

hearing,

always

was

any

the

and

fruit

colossal

the

doctrines

Hinduism,

if

lives

the

centre.

had

the

and

and

While

in

least

strong.

understand

poly

nor

at

temples

amazingly

125)

Brahminical

in

moment

Hindu

Christianity

Tanjore

wealthy

to

of

described

first

in

won

was

yeuees?2.

Hindu

The

of

flourish,

to

leaven

made

a theory

with

Province

the

the

centuries.

gradually

of

the

not

impregnated

"our

twenty-five is

is

as

millions

by which

a chain

in

happens,

event

destruction",

from

convert

missionaries

breach

in

society

of

eager

is

of

can

the

enthusiasm

visible

the

the

to

the

and

process

stronghold

in

first

Hinduism

a growth

Therefore,

a link

their

Hinduism"

oak.

It

rends

when

1860,

joy

first

the

convert

Therefore,

boundeese

are

the

of

escape

the

for

conversion

an

such

When

Christiani-

to

society,

snatched

been

has

jewel

"a

that

difficulty.

utmost

of

a thing

is

a person

of

loose,

are

a man

convert Hindu

the

like

society

in .a closely-knit

to

easy

relatively

speaking,

humanly

is,

it

spot.

a weak

find

society

of

relations

the

and

limited,

is

population

family

joint

its

to

difficult

is

it

that

with

community

The

reversed.

together

cemented

so

is

system

are

conditions

the

India

(1875)

Mysore, (London: Patridge 313; cf. Ann.Rep., Vol.

"Extract of a letter from the Rev. Ebenezer E.Jenkins, dated Madras, December 5th, 1860", MV, Vol. XVI (3rd series), No. 75 (February 25, 1861))), p. 40.

H.P.

Thompson,

Propagatton

of

Into the

All

Lands:

Gospel

in

The

History

Foretgn 78

Parts

of the

Soctety

1701-1950,

for

(London:

the ....

"It has almost become a common place in our missionary literature that the Negapatam and Trichinopoly District is 'the most stony ground in India'. That it is so surely a very strong reason for improving and increasing our institutions and providing more effective machinery to till the soil. In our District we have a type of Hinduism to deal with which is not found in most other places. The influence of Western Civilization has not wrought such great changes in the thoughts and habits of the people as it has in more Northern Districts. Brahmanism still holds, 127 practically, undisputed sway over the minds of the people... . The that

difficulty

it

once

Tinnevelly Hindus of

In

read

of

from

the

villages.

swung

the

and

the

the

of

in

Church

conversion

greater

these

for

of

Tanjore

was

Missionary just

a

for

the

significance a whole

many

A few but

much

village

impotence

cont. Sep iCekey

127)

'Trichinopoly', MSS. to Rev. W.H.Findlay,

128)

Findlay

1951) ga pbe

and

the

the

lapses, were

once

the

in

static. on

here

than

of

few

so

great

Society high

in

caste

Christianization

Shanars

many

other

Negapatam Because

part now

of of

offset

an

result

Brahmin

126)

and

about

always

listed

work

years

gains

More

against

economic

above

opposition

reports

pendulum.

Church,

very

of

of

the

Mission's

organized

whole native

of the

remained

and

even

conversion

consequence

cution

evangelizing

(toddy

Tinnevelly'79._

progress

were

was

the

in

a missionary

that

Tanjore

of

District we

say

than

tappers) the

to

in

India

experienced

caused

attempt was

of

the

of

the

outcaste.

oie

and

(629%

op.ctt.,

as

Vol.

V,

severe

losses

was

made

middle

Letter Box (1904-1913): dated Trichinopoly, May

Holdsworth,

the

individuals by

p-

of 3,

155.

reasons,

Trichinopoly

powerful

disastrous.

invincibility,

allied

and

perse-

castemen, and

now

of

there,

and

so

to

The

build

a

missionaries

class

stolidity

Rev. Alfred 1907.

Smith

CHAPTER

3:

1.

THE

TRICHINOPOLY

Conversion

En

MASS

Masse

MOVEMENT

1913

-

1947)

"The record of the work of God in the Trichinopoly District is one of the most sensational stories in the whole history of the modern missionary

Thus of

enterprise"'.

reads

1935.

For

the

Report

many

as 'barren-soil'. in

the

that make

its break,

the

W.M.M.S.

who

came

munity version the

of

as

of

The

First

little.

He

tract both

relatives Some

of

seeking

of

own

caste

in

discuss

the

Palayam

were

was

tractor) ready

had

his

native

know

roadside.

Erode

the

to

various

some

extent

man

tea

in

join

Alagan on

1) RTMMC,

p. 8.

Personal

first

through

a neighbour

the

their

letter

and

Kuppan

fellow

from

and

men

the

he

and

Rev.

in

such and

of

converts

whole

by

com-

the

con-

Pariahs

in

north-

by

Wynad had on

came

all

the

down

three

persuade

C.J.Daniel,

they

Christian was

the

Nilgris.

his

of

them

them

to

dated

the

of

would become

to

P.K.

relatives. (con-

had

name,

his

as their

used of

He

village,

in

of

a matstrte

given

walls

and

toured

traders

who

to

Society.

trade

Kuppan

and

Christian

men

them

and

a

Kuppan

some

same

these

with

been

write

a Gospel

called

fellow

these in

Adi-Dravida

and

Missionary

Alagan

village

the

had

the

goods

many

and

They

London

cotton

written

Whenever

years.

of

miles

Christ

engaged

same

hills

a few

of

markets

of

in

Konga

read

influenced

Commandments

village’.

influence

the

of

hint would

Year

off

could

sellers.

met

plantations

then

headman

had

their

from the

any that

stream

sparked

District

started

ninety-two

he

to

also

weekly

old

and

cloth

They

gave year

Centenary

and

was

community

the

Alagan

for

families

religion--Christianity.

baptized Ten

of

belonged

markets

the

(P.K.Palayam),

Jesus

were

Aravakurichi.

the

the

who

previous

1913,

the

been

taluq.

Alagan

about

reports

Commission

to

had

of an increasing

little

name was

small-scale

another

been

The

refer

work

the

the

in

Dharapuram

Christians

new

in

and

would

to

suitable as

the

the

near

south

There

in

were

these

a

Movement

to

ninety-third

conversion

Perunkarunaipalayam

on

far

2)

headman

in

in

then

old

P.K.Palayam

them

of

last

Mass used

since

the

beginning

scale

came

found of

the

in

that

at

individuals,

Fruits:-

in

years

nothing

from

come

large

of Kangayam

community

but

This

the

village

did

marked

first

Reports

to happen

different

It

Trichinopoly

Annual

was ninety-two

going

however,

groups.

the

the

(1820-1912)

was

record

The

east

It

District

anything

of

years

open

al-

Nicodemus , shed

in

Nicodemus

exert

their

Christians.

Tiruchirapalli,

17-9-1975. Rev.C.J.Daniel is a native of P.K.Palayam and one of the grand sons of Alagan. He is one of the early converts and the senior most pastor from the Mass Movement area.

80

It

is

said

that

villagers Erode. for

then

and

But

Alagan

they

directed

P.K.Palayam

Methodists>. way

It

W.M.M.S.

in

was

thus

for

and

J.J.Ellis, ing

that

took

up

the

matter

last,

well

senders

of

after

the

might

Paul

of

been

at

by

also

a

from

Erode

the

of

history

in

the

in

returning

the

his

Dharapuram

occupied was

P.K.Palayam altered

dark,

their

petition

at

Dharapuram

be

sent

was

to

at

to

that

instruct

visited.

the

the

Rev.

time,

them.

Describing

Rangaramanujam,

Ellis

petition

already

with

missionaries

missionary

of Mitsstons

sent

village

Rev.

panchayat

L.M.S.

District.

missionary

with

the

had

Comtty

therefore

the

along

which the

caste the

Methodist

eventually

teacher and

the

or to

sent

Adi-Dravidas

friends

a Christian

Mannargudi,

"At

area that

which

resident

P.K.Palayam,

from

a meeting was

to

Trichinopoly

his

the

the

had

them

an

act

an

the

in

Alagan

to

was

responsible Dharapuram,

to

once

a deputation

requestRev.

his

Brahmin

Ellis

visit

convert

writes:

tired

had

and

hungry,

we

for

night,

retired

the

arrived.

The

but

soon

got up, gave us a great welcome, and we heard their story... They were overjoyed at our visit, and the long meeting under the stars was unforgettable. The circumstances of our coming forged a very real link, and as we gladly ate the jaggery and young coconut they offered for our hunger, barriers were being

cast down"4.

Following paration, given

in

this

a day their

had

persuaded

and

receive

‘the

ante

and

ever

So,

by

their

they

arrived, to

go

on

this

to

all

of

that the

to

in

through

the

the

Rev.

news

sight the

who

at

of

way

in

the

'heathen'

ceremony.

given That

was

the

had

headman

forefathers landlords

prospects

they

their

were them

the

of

as

fathers

for

matter

when

appointed headman,

one

new

was

were

of They

that day

their

terrors,

the

villages.

only

as

many

the people

in the and

of

the

good

with

Further,

names, old

old

their

surrounding

when

the

pre-

who

Hindu

boycott

their

due

of

the

God

of

After families

the

marriages,

Therefore, had

that

threatened

by a threatened

relatives

Ellis

faith this,

alarmed

sent.

several

spread

the

Hindus

was

the

(Kristhu Margam).

contract

many

the

exchange

own

of

Hearing

enraged

witharew>.

the

the

greatly

'way of Christ'

permission

fused

baptism:

in their resolve

marriage

soon

became

dared

strange

teacher

baptism

people to forsake

discovering

they

for

But

Christian

masters.

shaken for

his

a Christian

fixed

names.

neighbourhood

Pariahs if

visit

was

was

for

asked re-

baptism

willing

Alagan.

Writing

says:

3) Ibi¢d. 4)

Paul Rangaramanujam--Servant J.J.Ellis, Cargate Press, 1949), pp. 38-39.

5)

W.J.Noble,

FF,

Vol.

Ploughing

XXIII

the

Rock,

(1926-1927),

p.

p.

232.

81

36;

of Jesus cf.

Chrtst,

W.E.Garman,

(London:

"Then

and

Now",

has been influencing the village in this "For years he (Alalgan) direction and at last they sought but drew back at the last minute--the old man determined to stand even alone"®.

on

was

baptized

as

Vedanayagam.

one

of

the

palayam,

as On be

successive

the

the

Church

and

baptized’.

the

worship

ing

stood

worship stood one

of

old

the

alone,

ly in

the

man

Yesu

some

very

One

of

site

his

of

in

was

built

and

dedicated

Jesus)

the

old

the

who

the

first

ingathering

where

there

in

to

movement bringing

give

slowly

Uthiyur,

Kottapalayam,

earliest

villages

ed,

if

the

concern

anything

to

the

| encouraged

be

of

by

the an

elementary extremely

Sangu

and

one

of

other

the

the

of

economic

schools

and

Vol.

I,

map

see

Swami

were

p.

85). in

As

they met, be

of

family

Boarding

Rev.Ellis'

Personal

letter

W.E.Garman,

from

"Then

the

Rev.

and Now",

C.J.Daniel,

op.cit.,

82

p.

in

The

in

the

remarks

op.ctt.

233.

mention-

it

was

the markets, even

to

movement

School

Children

the

already

including

reasons.

and

its

Vellakoil, of

conversion

the

which

under

some

his

Mission

Kongunad,

gatherings

shed

westward

villages

clearthe

worth

Movement

8) Ibtd. 1o)

had

longstanding

southward,

of

of

a Swami

Mass

had

out

picture

I) bods 9)

stood

He was

no

would

the

exception

the

villages

factor.

the

Senapathipalayam,

growth

or

Abraham

which

the

Wherever

The

where

"Yesu

Pariah

social

discussion

important

Register, 380).

for

Navakkombu

(see

community. and

for

meant

was

been

spreading

the

problems.

travel

Baptismal name (No.

in

their

associated

had

converted

festivals,

temple

that

Veerasholapuram,

happened

funerals, the theme

of

Artholuvu

of the whole

at weddings,

testimony

started

a number

build-

, that outcaste,and

the

Mettupalayam,

influence.

his

new

with

it

to

to

brand

service

attended

group

This

village

baptized,

dedication

everyone

1914.

village

in

were

that

in

was

The

6)

chapel

a village

estward,

of

third

for

work.

also

the

Now,

people

joined

among

up

place

was

of

12-4-1913°. people

one

even

took

-)/ment

(Lord

on

more

and

village,

his

was

blood

having" !°, Thus

and

a little

devata.

thing

memory

Daniel

baptized

Mettu-

of

(Hero) in

more

getting

precious

ty

C.J.

Swamt

grama

all

person.

Rev.

Meanwhile

on

of

the

finally

missionary

the

by

trips

was

and

promised,

solemnly

had

he

Yesudian,

of

firm

stood

Abraham,

of

month

next

very

son

the

Veeran

later

months

Two

associates

baptized

was

the

In

Nachimuthu,

1913),

March,

Christ).

of

(Slave

Yesudian

(28th

date

same

the

as

named

was

he

and

baptism

his

of

time

Kuppan

later

days

Six

age.

the

At

faitheul®

the

of

years

fifty

was

of

“Father

a new

Abraham, Abraham

as

baptized

was

Alagan

1913,

22,

of February

day

historic

the

On

Christiani-

was

also

establish-

at

Dharapuram

mission

after

schools

Alagan's

“often

influenced

In

the

worship,

of

their

run in

the

of

time

The

women

and

the

and

thought

of

the

young

relatives

and

helped

them

forbidden the

and

formed.

were

were

schools was

change

writ-

While

Dharapuram

the

in

past

their

children

obvious

villages

bangles

was

cleanliness.

and

the

the

Jesus.

the boarding an

holidays

of

letter:

a

in

says

by

did

white

marked

The

of

habits

God

carcases

which

to

some

way

Lord

to

cleanliness

words

dress

women

which

of

destroyea!'.

for

one

in

Hall

A.C.

Rev.

the

of

speech,

Pariahs

Konga

the

about

Circuit,

habits

and

School

returned

and

customary

eating

foul

the

eating

worshipped

thing

The

or

away

Mission they

their

in

in

praise

jackets--a

uttering

thrown

and

men

of

songs

by

and

place

and

Young

removed

stopped

took

dressing,

together

wear

behaviour,

their

in

noticed

to

stopped

When

sat

disgraceful.

were

village

the

to

at Dharapuram.

in

newly. learnt.

Pariahs

as

were

idols

and

women

began

even

toddy

changes

accompanied

Konga

deliberately

life,

and

women

of

of

drinking

ing

close

speech,

lyrics

dance,

folk

a

in

Men

Christian

kummt,

sent

and

conspicuous

behaviour,

converts.

singing

They

parents

Christians.

become

"I am happy to see the change which is being wrought by the Gospel. On Tuesday when visiting a place 25 miles south from here I gathered the Pariah community together in an open space. Last year a number of them were baptized and others are likely soon to come. But I was at once struck by the remarkable neatness and clean-

and

missionaries

the

This

relatives.

helped

further

was

a

/,

viab-

their

by

importance

great

of

a matter

was

It

solidarity.

caste

or

Hindu

these

to

option

social

inward

both

became

Christianity

relatives.

Christian

their

of

outward,

and

transformation,

the

of

non-Christian

The

wives.

their

of

by

attracted

obvious

efforts

the

through

largely

possible

teachings

the

greatly

were

relatives

made

were

Hindus

the

a very

is

This

by baptism. '¢.

separated religion"

with

contrasted

there,

Christians

they were their new

changes

These

le

new

the

of

liness

from whom effect of

for

them to fall in line with their kith and kin!?.

It

soon

that

and

to

13)

first

be

Vol.

privileges

p.

28;

cf.

Rock,

pp.

42-43

'Trichinopoly',

Box

(1913-1917):

Rajamanickam,

Hartley,

op.ctt.,

dated

83

was

RSIPS and

Letter

villages

own

refused court

Several

postponement

Dharapuram,

27-28.

their

In

Work

denied.

were

frequent

the

Marshall

(1919),

The

Ploughing

Rev.

XXXV

them.

one.

easy.

all

at

not

they

than

baptism

was

landowners.

by wealthy

communal

against

upon

a perilous

and

a narrow badly

tread

to

were

their

receive

converts

they

path

brought

Ann.Rep., MSS.

to

the

traditional

were

W.J-Noble,

12)

the

persecuted

their

cases

11)

proved

were

they

did

sooner

No

realized

(1924),

p.

of

trial

55;

60-61.

of 18th

the

Rev.

February,

A.C.Hall 1915.

in

too

all

were

litigation

converts most

and

stood

cases

the

strongminded ship

and

tively and

and

as

in

their

headmen

laid

baptized

persecution“.

fast

of

organized

and

The not,

community

into

the

east,

Green and

Bangle

around still

Amaravati

‘soon

which

the

area,

well

in

the

revenrence.of

the

best

only

to

the

wish

a

it were

chapel, all too whose reverence

Mulanur

into

ford

among

a movement

unrest

such

and

effec-

and

non-Christian

possible

the

as

and

to

in

had

Sangu

recognized

Pariahs

are

concentrated.

Alangiyam

across

Mathiakudalur

in

Pariahs

the

the

a better

village,

became

And river

Karur

understand-

one

Christian

villages. a model

who

of

and

Mathiakudalur

to

Circuit.

Christians

many. The

that

It

was

piety

and

village

became

well-acquainted

was

remarks:

you

tradition

of

there and the

(Mathiakudalur),

in

then on foot over a little mud and thatch

around

it"16.

Dharapuram 34

miles

Among

them

there

probably

never

been

before.

undertook

Ann. Rep.

"Negapatam District", Report of by the Rev. Willtam Goudte, pp.

16)

W.E.Garman,

(1919),

and

behind

Perambalur,

14)

"Then

For

in

the

the

Karur

take

15).

XXXV

Karur or

two

1921.

Rev.W.E.Garman

Vol.

and

to

became

the

progressing

Pariahs

started there

west

Pachavalai

was spread-

for the congregation of devout worshippers, be no discredit to a church that had a

thus

the

the

was

the

surrounding

in

Pariahs It

map.

Bangle

the

Sangu

are

the road would permit, Ford cannot manage, to

small would

in the

Kaveri.

adjoining

following

was

work

and

the

W.E.Garman,

the

the

viz.

from

Rev.

While

poly,

were

more

persecution

Circuit.

comparison

generation

of Christian

the

on

Green

thousand years east

in

first

made

among

Bangle

churches.

The

far as even a

few

experience

village

people,

a Ford as road that

farther

Hindus

leader-

People

could

of

in

These

admirable

they

face

caste

Udumalpet

running

the

entered

proverbial.

those

"I

the

the

that

over.

movement

Dharapuram

of

Green

Kodumudi

Christian

of

with

to

refer

one

almost

provided

Koothampoondi

a belt

Mathiakudalur,

Christianity

grew

the

been

that

in

sub-caste

and

Koothampoondi,

on

the

were

these

discover

via

1921

who

Mulanur

leading

of In

another

Pariahs,

centres

Circuit

won

meant

started

to

Circuits

into

Madharis.

can

from

which

only

adjoining

moving

one

ing

movement

confined

the

the

coming

had

community

other

difficulties, advantage

groups

this

each

such

a great

headmen

the

and

of

was

delight

took

;

however,

ing

of

encourage

opposition

It

village

groups

relatives.

spite

village

foundation

community

support

the

influential

the

In

faith.

incurred

expenses men

caste

The

people.

the

and

cases

court

poor

these

for

much

attend

to

journeys

long

the

and

Now",

p.

an

expedition

was

Karur, of

a spirit

Rev. of

and

north

Trichinoof

W.A.Sand-

enquiry

and

28. the Secretarial 42-43.

Opsecrt. 4) Diet

84

esd

Vistt,

1920-1921

THE

MASS

MOVEMENT

AREA

77930 LONDON-

MISSIONARY-

SOCIETY-

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(UDUMALPET

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e

by S.MANICKAM.

N.B.

and In

The

part each

12-15

Mass

of

fo)

EARLIEST

e

VILLAGES WHERE CONCENTRATED

Area

Palladam

Pastorate

there

VILLAGES

PASTORATE

by H.SCHWEINFURTH

Movement

the

OF MASS MOVEMENT

TOCOME

INTO CHURCH

GREEN BANGLES

ARE

HEADQUARTERS

-MARBY.

covers

the

Karur,

Dharapuram,

JUdumalpet

taluqs. would

be

about

three

Sections,

each

with

villages.

Earliest 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Drawn

CENTRES

VILLAGE

UTHIYUR Drafted

- MISSION -AREA

villages

P.K. Palayam Mettupalayam Senapathipalayam Vellakoil Veerasozhapuram

Villages

where

the

1. 2.

Kangayampalayam Murungavalasu

3. 4. 5.

Alangiyam Eluhanvalasu Anumanthankottai

6.

Vannarpatti

to

come 6. 7. 8. 9. lo.

Green 7. 8.

into

the

Church:

Kottapalayam Artholuvu Devanampalayam Kattur Navakombu Bangles

are

(M.D.) (M.D.)

11. 12. 13. 14.

concentrated;

Dhalavaipattinam Koothampoondi Mulanur Aravakurichi some

key

villages:

Kilangundal Mulanur

13. 14,

Mathiakudalur Peria Thirumangalam

9. lo. 11.

Alampalayam Sanarpalayam Nattarmangalam

15. 16. 17.

Chinna Thirumangalam Athipalayam Nedungur

12.

Koothampundi

85

to

trace

its

Upon

origin

the

the

Pariahs

ing

place

on on

the

the

forests

were

some

of

the

workers

in

large

the of

The

planters

latter

assumed

maistries

The stay small

the

To the

their

balance

remaining eyes

this

of

staple

prices

received

ete

tea

this

an

17)

were

their

or

plantations

calling

a decent

wage,

In

mainly

fact

because

through

contractors

maistries

and

wild

1903) '8,

labourers

expenses.

At

went

foods.

at

seems The

for

and the

collected notes '”.

i

nine

the

former.

people

The

It

the

on

end

of

the to

was

as

as

their

not

settlement

maistries,

months.

food

fantastically

sum

served

en

and

months.

home

attractive

for

weekly

wages

three go

amount

SE

I of

promisary

normally received

weekly

to

tea

were

them

tak-

with

attention.

these

villages on

and

they

generally to

kind

covered

coffee

Act

amongst

in

gang

of

40 persons.

workers

commission

them”. oe Se

near-by

acres

and

recruiting

advances

to

of

two

of

the

labour

for

the

modern

20

of

the

plucker

wages,

round

stir

a different

facilities

(Madras

advance

of

movement.

strange of

can

which

Perambalur

in

medical

labourers

cash

prospects

offering

and

these

Act

their

made

similar

hills

amount

received for

went

plains,

provide

responsibility

averaged

the

to

Labour

They

contracts

on

woman

obliged

by making

a maistrie

planters

arrangements

recruited

matstrtes.

flourishing

the

first be

of

into

sent

to

the

European from

Planters'

called

families

converted

also

were

seemed

changes

Thousands

were

around.

community

with

place

at

church

the

were

Hills.

numbers

were

of

there

Anamalai

sanitary

Madras

days

Synchronizing

adventurous

water,

planters

the

plains,

being

the

The

to

Anamalais:-

by

housing,

back

future

a bid

Though

villages

of

make

workers

So,

distress.

their

a growing

is

there

Today

prignt!/.

that

of

Muslims

this

soon

would

groups

area. of

advantage

full

take

not

did

encouraging,

very

look

not

did

things very

Dharapuram-Karur

a number

to

also

and

Perambalur

cherts

the

The

in

Pariahs

the

woo

to

beginning

the

on

interested

Panchamas.

the

of

favour

the

for

politically

moment,

opportune

quarters)

of

they

if

that

felt

missionaries

The

than

larger

much

were

which

those

(Harijan

size found

the

by

impressed

greatly

were

they

During

credit the

year

native

uncommon period

low,

but

for

then

too,

in

addition

on

their

a great

te Se ei

inducement

eae

ee

es

they

places

with

commission

a good Rs.

so to

gangs'

and

their

anda

ise. -.

were their earn-

incentive

to

Se

MSS. 'Trichinopoly', Box (1917-1922): Letter of the Rev. W.E.Garman to the Rev. Thompson, dated Trichinopoly, August 16, 1922; cf. Along the Kaveri (AK), 1929, pp. 6-7.

18)

Sir

ie)

Wdeely 5 AIS,

LOSE

20)

Dbtide,

405%

21)

Rev.

FF,

Percival pe

Griffiths,

W.A.Sandford,

Vol.

XXVI

"The

op.ctt.,

pp.

Transformation

(1929-1930),

pp.

36-38. 86

400-401.

of

the

Elephant

Hills",

So, and

the

Pariahs

boycott

Hills

of

famines

and

Anamalais. and

these

people

to single

It

of

true

that

any

respect and in

for

one the

course,

migration

an

a

on

conversion

was

economic

of

emancipation

places

their

meant

estates

were

half

and

women

shiver

in

their

people

at

the

a well-known

wet

were

the

things

blankets. have

India

in

an

The

a

primi-

medicine

of

led to the

almost

rainless

difficulties

been

planter

was

somewhat

adoption

.

worse:

dwelt

often

the

hills

the

knowledge

imperfect

century

reach

Malaria

time

to out

moved

To

fever.

that

and

anywhere

Moreover,

and at

were

about doubt

little

rarely

paradise.

no

con-

be

brought

go

be-

also

redemption

to

had

tramp.

self-

had

cannot

is

there

who

pestilence

facilities

present

had

beginning South

hills

a three-day

elsewhere,

made who

a people

it

which

prepared

to

beasts,

of the

which

measures Men

tne

Medical

happened

as

in the first of

wild

with

infested and

But

days

those

were

they

of

never

they

was

Anamalais.

a sense

social

for

thirsty

the

how-

that

missionaries

factor

reason

the

be

and

that

birth,

of

in

constant.scourge. tive,

and

conditions-*.

their

better

hungry

were

that

to

yet

And

only

the

the

of

pushed

difficult,

them

which

cases

which

say

people

the

breaking-out

very

and

initiative

the

might

Whatever

dispersion.

that the Pariahs

is

insecurity

towards

factors

gave

hills.

employment

their

the

of

that

said

It

reason

of

economic eyes

the

other

number

helped them secure fidently

and

Christianity

with

of

their

monsoon,

particular

in

and

of

to

them

their lives;

the

threat

turned

native villages.

conversion

provided

constant

of

were,

their

out

responsible

is

fore

out

under

persecution

Failure

pestilences

ever, solely

living

virulent

vividly in

the

country

experienced

described

Anamalais

had

by

to

these

by J.L.H.Williams,

as

follows:

"Quite a number of coolies did bolt in the early 1920s - particularly new recruits who were brought up in June/July into the S.W.monsoon. Some of them actually died in the effort, as the trip over the top of the ghat in the monsoon was too much for their stamina. There

were,of course,

no

buses,

and

they

had

to

walk.

The

Anama-

lai Planters Association were so concerned about this that for a year or two they kept an ambulance bullock cart in charge of a compounder, on continual patrol on the ghat road throughout the monsoon months, and a dispensary at the top of the ghat. They also bought a piece of land half way between the foot of the ghat and Angalakurichi village on which they built a chatram rest house for travelling labourers"

to

In

spite

pay.

the

tion.

It

people

of

was

but

such

price,

a hard,

they

difficulties

knowing

were

that

uphill gaining

the they

task

people were

for

strength

were

on

a timid, in

the

the

22)"

struggle

Tov. Sir

24)

Ibid.,p.

Percival

Griffiths,

op.ctt.,

pp.

403. 87

to

ignorant

through.

23)

ready way

403-404.

and

prepared

social and and

redemp-

depressed were

winning

~

jians

the

the

Methodist

felt young

and

list,

Gnanayutham, for

the

way

and

sent

backgrounds

Salvationists

ren,

together

ing

and

situation

strange

Anglican,

and

forgetting

worshipping

the

under

same

roof.

Writing

Chairman

the

Breth-

thing

differences,

doctrinal

their

Rev.W.A.Sandford,

the

interesting

of

not

had

differing

Orthodox,

Syrian

an

It was

Presbyterian’.

baptism

who

from

came

paved

he

for

many

the

to

hills

the

on

traditions:

and

Christians

these

witness

messengers

as

Christians

hundreds

prepared

He

years.

plains

the

These

Gospel.

the

missionary

later

in

to

down

them

heard

yet

expansion

evange-

first

years,

many

for

Single-handed

hills.

the

to

these

of

their

sent

they

so

and

Christians

inexperienced

care

taking

of

missionaries

The

plains.

the

from

responsibility

a great

had

come

had

who

Church

they

that

of

converts

young

the

were

of whom

many

coolies,

of

community

was

one

largest

and

third

the

-

Christ-

were

them

of

Most

etc.

And

generations.

third

or

second

the

of

engineers

tea-makers,

over-seers,

clerks,

staff

subordinate

the

were

there

Then

faced

and

fellowship

spiritual

any

without

loneliness.

of

problems

the

left

often

families,

their with

with

planters

European

the

first

categories:

three

into

classified

be

could

who

gathering

mixed

a strange

were

hills

the

on

people

The

to

meet-— this

about

District

the

says: "As far as creeds are concerned, the Anamalai Congregation is one of the most strangely mixed that meets anywhere. Men who would not dream of meeting together on the plains here sink their differences and gather round the Table of the Lord in common

fellowship"26. A strong making on

about

lais

was

Bleby,

and

a great

independent experiment

twenty

estates.

largely

who

in

due

Christian

great

player)

of

missionaries.

passed

away

in

Church

rendered

by

turn.

25)

this

Coming The

But

of

built

the

5

26)

Ibid.

27)

W.A.Sandford

(1929),

pp.

position

selfless

29-31.

and

won

his

some

great

the

prime

1942

is

a constant

the

of

and

dismay,

movement

had

Edwin

a

suspicious Bleby

youth?’ of

Anama-__

His

was

been

reminder

held

Henry

(he

had

hills,

the

Christ.

prowess

his

the were

on

Rev.

for

whom

sorrow

in

on

Church

many

of

well

services

the of

so

1928

The

the

Bleby

services

missionary. By

1923

outcaste

the

community,

Transformation

J.J.Ellis,

of

athletic

planters,

pioneer

growing

Regular

ministry

(1925-1928)

the

another

and

strong

Madharis:-

"The

thus

Union.

everyone's

in

great

Madharis,

baer yetac ea

Dis

to

was

Church

message

won

December,

Memorial

The

the

time

open-hearted tennis

The

to

a short

Circuit

in

"Dead

88

caught

taken

the

infection

of

the

Elephant

Hills",

on

the

Field

Honour"

of

a new

op.ctt.,

ner

and

were

ment of

now

spread

increasingly mainly

families,

Madhari few

to

times

of

there

During

the

ofa

( Class there

and

in

one

single

new

cution

with

done

in

weapon

a

the

for

of boycott. was

of

their

was required

In

the

the

rescue

converts

them

or

in

families

draw

water

car

ness

slow

converts their

patch

refused

their

gardenlands.

were

taken

away.

Persecution

converts

lived

for

or calamity _ overtook place,

and

they

of

of

that

by

devata

grama

the

was

it was

conversion

all

Ann. Rep., W.J.Noble

Ploughing

30)

Ann.Rep.,

Vol.

31)

Ibid.

32)'0n

Thts

(1935)

(1923),

Rock'

pp.

often of

to

XXXVI pp.

Rock,

(1924),

42-43;

cf.

p.

14.

(1938),

p.

Ibid.

89

(1932),

pp.

and

60-61.

for to fire-

gather

their in

bringing

44.

from

allowed

means places

some If

any to

down

Christianity

42-43.

pp.

came

drums °°.

trampled

attributed

13-14. the

the

oil

fruit.

ee 28)

policy

another

in

ground

bitter

so

a new labour

bulls taken

“———

29)

put less

old

to

had

of the missionaries

not

short

accused

were

their

as

fieldsor to In

it

employment,

were

prickly-pear

on

village,

Christians

give

They

as

attack, or

perse-

prevent

of water

goats

farmers'

the

one

not

themselves

their to

had

of

monsoon

cultivated to

of

the

anger

of

there

and

against

gallons

had

weeks

force

and while

starvation. in

channels

from.the

existence the

some little

the

more2°, hundred

date’.

set

renewed

used

several

landowners

spelt

wood from the-hedges

that

the

with

their

The

this

Goundans

farmers

a

and

the

still

embers

up;

was

six

approached

of

than

the

of

dried

stream

countryside

that

a

alone.

and

unmanageable

failure

wells

their own well

flogged,

and

down. and spoiled. many

the

the

protecting his

The

Circuit

landlords

as

the

first

villages

fanned

first

community

the

more

move-

Devanam-

1923

rise

before

big

The

sections

in

these

became

of

to

the

network

(1923),

of

influencing

few,

of

the

it

Scores

village

were

injured

of

cultivation,

one

of

Madharis

Pariahs.

from deepening

Some

of

some

before

hands.

single-handed

to

and

during

the whole

Christian

the

In

different

or

the

Christian

Dharapuram

signs

one-third

amongst

situation

case

into

than

six

many

professing

flame,

the

Madharis

more

movement

into

deal

with

Christians,

villages, The

as

example

continued

covering

again

Kongunad.

suit.

the and

the

flood

many

in

the

time

1912,

in

the

communities

been

even

in

Once through

Devanampalayam

followed

By that

baptisms

as

was

Following

tidal-wave,

were

of mouth

Vellakoil

years.

its scope

mainstream.

organization

returned

1,500

the word

Christian

flood.

number

were

including in

1923

in

following

the ‘dimensions Depressed

and

Uthiyur.

and

be

the

months

By

became

Vendanallur

reported

three

that

north-east

palayam, was

joining

example

caste and economic

village

miles

by

sickthe the

§. At

times

of

for

the

it.

In

trial

the

couraged common Rev.

and

majority event

and

tense

there of

situations,

was

no

persecution

supported

by

the

dangers

they

upheld

J.J.Ellis

says

in

the

going the

They

Madhari

Pariah

each

weak-willed

back.

converts

Christians.

other.

withered

away

firm

and

endured

were

greatly

stood

Writing

In on

the

face

this

of

matter

but en-

such

the

a letter:

",..the coming of the Chaklis has so roused the caste people that there has been a new outburst of persecution. The folks have stood splendidly, and the Parayans have backed up the new Chakli

Christians

The

in a grand style"33.

opening

of

significance. the

great

for

an

and

Rs.

the

tower Of

from in

from

distant

town

of

and

money.

and

the

Mass

The new

Many

years

some

of

dead

own

the

from

came of

was

cost

of

in

the

a great

forward grain,

local

opening

noble

the

from

ceremony Many

and

through the

of

of

came the

service

and

offered

vegetables

real

history

the

people

pigeons,

examples

in

amounted

contribution

by Section

fowls,

granite

pillars,

a grant

procession

Section

event

by

ceremony

goats,

"were

greatest

by

of

point

building

joy.

great

local on

met

great

opening

of

roof

the

was

of

opening

a rallying

built

The

for

the

flat

one-quarter

occasion

gifts

the

of

villages

were

witnessed

the

coming

persecution

the

movement

the

headmen

becoming

his

villages

which

thing

relatives,

to

interested they

of

Christian,

interesting

of

other

from

1931

spite

One

several

villages

In

against

themselves

People these

total

went

as

a great

themselves.

all

sacks

It

a year

was

serve

three-quarters

an

and

following

request.

tism,

The

people

"was

with

remaining

was

to

was

year

of

sacrifices" the

Dhara-

Movement" >>,

villages.

been

dome.

1931

that

Movement.

style,

came

of

ceremony

1931:of

Dharapuram

Then

as

event

Mass

the

villages

such

Church,

amount

the

Dharapuram.

gifts

puram

and

1931,

consecration..

their

the

and

among

March,

in

Indian

this

Committee

raised

came

of

of

Indian

Church

In

area

60,000.

Home

of

Church

adaptation

an

to

Central

outstanding

Central

the whole

in

the

The

was

who

obtained

that

had

taking

asking in

already

the the

and

a number and

community,

for

the

event

to

of

at

had

their

one's

bap-

Christians,

Further,

the

of

grew. who

baptism

become

convert >°. Gospel

brides

of

spread

Madhari

came

encourage in

the

in

other

bridegrooms?’.

people related

While

re-

—e_—_———

33)

MSS. to

34)

'Trichinopoly' Rev.

Ibid., ea ord.

Thompson,

Box dated

(1922-1928): Dharapuram,

Letter May

Zip

from

Box (1928-1935); Extract from the Report de Synod, 1932, attached to the letter of

35)

Ann.Rep.,

SD)

sWerHelen,

37)

W.J.Noble,

Vol.

(GIS),

XXXVIII De

(1931),

pp.

46-47.

Ol.

Ploughing

the

Rock,

p. 90

41.

Rev.

J.J.Ellis

oeae

of the Trichinopoly the Rev.W.A.Sand-

porting ment,

on

the

cannot

hold

being was

the

part

Rev.

back

gathered of

which

at

the

people

the

Rev.

the

people 1933

the

1,370

were

adults

same

time

lais--80°.

In

reported

Dharapuram

1935

to

the

be

talugq

not

total

1,397

They

of

1933:

their

were

15,000

simply

Karur

3,000

fourteen

the

following

Town--101; and

Dhara-

the

was

26,000

per

year’°.

Christians

for

recorded

under

represented

of

move-

"We

baptisms

community

rate

the

relatives

Udumalpet--330;

the

were

in

of

Mission--221;

at

spread

prepare

and

Christian

there

the

number

Central--342;

increasing

alone

total

babies.

Karur

Dharapuram

in

W.J.Noble

themselves

In

Perambalur--58;

puram--1,592; was

the

to

nee

but

circuits:

by

wrote

as

2,767

years

played

Ellis

spread

Anamaand

it

In

over

the

some

285 villages *'. This great cult

rapid

joy,

growth

but

it

situation.

needs

of

the

slender

‘taken

They

great

staff.

at

they

even persecution

were

the

and

and

other

they

Synod

Christian

it

would

with

task.

Depressed

38)

only

or

this

part

not

was be

with

W.J.Noble,

meet

finances

closing

the

thing by

which

to or

door

these

and

the

to

the it

at work. by

the

eager

a case

sole

rested

traditional

discouragement.

Movement

The

country

be

courage

supp-

missionaries.

was

Mass

to

the and

opposition

their

repulse

for

had

face

landlords,

of

a diffi-

adequately

strained

prepared

accept

of

Further, 'now

or

was

no

there

responsibility

upon

the

Trichinopoly

Methodist District

all.

overwhelming

was

by no

admission

Sangu

were

undertaken

and

numbers

to

in

summoned up their

to

at

a source

movement

ready

the

be

the

their

of

how

to

Mission

had

of

Mission

the

their

short-lived

done

the

They

covered

not

success

know

with

in

painful

area

Church

Classes:

Rev.

not

proved

and

part

meant

a very

MSS.'Trichinopoly', to

39)

not

the

large

But

move.

gains

task

Overwhelming

dealing

did

'tide'

the

were

in

the

on

was

evangelizing If

a

the

were

the

this Then

Church.

the

on

opportunities

never for

now

consolidate

liants

was

indeed

missionaries

£looa' 4? - The Madharis

and

To

movement

the

actually

There

the

the

numberof people

and

enemies;

of

placed

Pariahs,

of

problems:-

means several

Samban

Box

(1928-1935):

dated

Dharapuram,

the

The

most

different

Pariahs,

Letter December

Problem

difficult sections

Green

from 10,

Bangle

Rev.

of

part

of

of

the

Pariahs,

J.J.Ellis

1933.

Ibid.

40) Ann. Rep. 41)"Summary

(1935), pp. of the

the Rev. Appendix

42)

Ibid.,

43)

Ibdd.

J.J.Ellis, II, p.42.

pp.

14-16.

situation

in the Trichinopoly

Chairman

of

the

11-12.

91

District,

Trichinopoly

Report

District",

by

RIMMC,

community

Christian were

as

rigid

task

of welding

traditions,

and

regarded

Church

was

they

in

the

one

and

the

The ous

mere

most

of

ed

and

receiving

and

maintained

religion; when

they if

infant

and

and

and they

lifted the

on

the

inexperienced

continually

found

in

be

new

fell.

Christian

converts of

in

of

widely

The

whose

morality,

indeed

the

this

the

might

leaders

direction

churches,

of

well

the

depended

of

home

life

and

had to

to

be

be

be

carefully,

of

their

to

kept

these

establishnew

encouraged and

maintained

had

tremendof

be

difficult,

to

marriages had

to

care

persecution,

challenging

discipline

had

had

teachings

face

involved

taking

worship

the

to

Christian

Church

were

people

in

strengthened too

the

who

Regular

village;

life

ideals

into

those

instructed

Christian

growing

success

part

every

to

the

communities

confounding

Christians.

patiently had

they

their

rules

communities.

standards

differed

work

Caste

one.

caste

of the Church’.

responsibilities

young

conditions,

crucial On

higher

brotherhood

cleanliness

District.

fact

homogeneous

the

harmonious

of

the future well-being

an

amongst

economic

habits

as

longer

no

were

into

social

discipline be

as

the

Koravas,

the

and

Morasar

Konga

Chaklis,

Thottiya

Pariahs,

Sozhia

be

upin

these

introduced

before

them

con-

stantly’>. This

great

ly recognized ments.

indispensable

by

all

Dr.J.Waskom

Movements the

and

tn

Indta

authority

of

those

his

thought-provoking

who

Pickett has

task

in

have his

brought

research

the

Church

had

any

experience

admirable

out on

of

this

this

study

point

has

been of

of

he

mass

move-

Christian

explicitly

subject

increasing-

makes

Mass

clear. the

On

following

statements:

"The chief responsibility of an ecclesiastical administration for any group of converts is encountered not before their baptism but after. The pre-baptism responsibility lasts for a short time only...But the post-baptism responsibility ordinarily continues through the convert's life and passes on to the lives of his children and his children's children"4®.

All of

this

meant

teachers,

more

sorely

needed

ly

Ministerial

the

inadequate Mass of

to

Movement

staffing

leaders

evangelists, if

Movement

staff

workers.

of

was the

to

with

the

growing

area

two

facts

stood

work

and

the

go

on

demands. out

effects

Immediate and

pastors

Trichinopoly

cope

the

of

reinforcements

women

unabated. District To

workers

But was

anyone

were

unfortunatepainfully

visiting

clearly:

the

extreme

famine

which

added

the

difficulty to

this

44)

Ibtd.,

45)

J.Waskom Pickett, Christian Mass Movements in India: A Study wtth Recommendattons, (New York: The Abingdon Press, 1933), pp. 240-241.

46) Ibtd.,

pp.

the

and

supervising

10-12.

pp. 245-246.

22

difficulty.

real the

The

problem utmost.

work

the

similar

it

and

for

for very

deal

in

Every

could of

It had

of

in

their

evangelists

proportion available

to

the

minister,

circuits.

This

not

because

there

no

cy

and

opportunity

missionaries

engaged

Mannargudi, Karur.

no

twenty

of

Karur’.

remuneration Rs.

for

10

for

for

the

the

erection

of

in

European

was

for

the

resident

not

whelming two

needed might

to

and

why

missions.

48)

RTMMC,

18-19. AR.

50):

20-21.

Tbtd.,

pp.

Visit to December

o(1929),

Pp.

3.

4

93

the was The

the

and

in

the

previous

men

and

work.

Under

been

not

such

sought

done

but

a con-

not

over-

this

was

over-

the

in

had

tiled

and

were by

in type

as

also

town

but

workers

of

shown

and

District

station-

usual

were

of

maximum

serve

difficulties

east

varied

them

to

have

could

as

to

three

scale

payable

walls

urgen-

or

been

the

economy

in

work--

College,

strength

given

missionaries

This

had

mud

the

two

stationed

Efforts

in

the

beset

the

in

from

older

Findlay

50

was

immediate

walls

both

the

of

villages.

teacher.

advancing

the

the

Rs.

with

workers

inadequate

Report of a Secretarial Rev. Bastl Clutterbuck,

pp.

the

existed

that

been

had the

47)

29 aDbtdegect.

to

by mud

measures

emergency

with

pace ask

to

tend

neighbouring

by

in

off

or

voluntary

of these

which

also

keep

screened

from

amounts

number

community.

the

was

A wise

the

increase

withdrawn

minister

The

'School-chapel',

hindrance

any

worship

was

exercised

of worker

evangelist

of

a state

success

years

a was

enlist

spite

by

created

which

also

evangelist.

for

to

the

of the

Society

workers.

grade

senior

house

Really

of

lowest

of

come.

work

was

grades

always point, many

taken;

of

apart

no

erected

to

1928,

economy

end

In

because

earlier

all

a

what

a result

cutting-down

Then

buildings

made

but

educational

But

Christian

teacher

years

one

sistently

and

In

for

impossible as

were

the

the

roof,

villagers’.

the

of

of

grade

of

west”.

to

this

made

breaking

although

minister

the

highest

building

the

European

Yet,

ed west from

in

to

available

and

a

experience’’.

a drastic

there,

the

was

Society

Society

Dharapuram.

measures

increase

the give

well-nigh

increased,

meant

were

to

was

Christian

was

hope

upon

sense,

of to

The

training,

evangelist,

eastern

was

it

several

rapid

the

which

stretched and

one

resources

Hyderabad.

people

in

impossible

centred

seemed

situation

the

money

in

aye

blessing

was

and

shepherding

shallow

and

this

baptized

proper

the

it

movement

Mission

a

taxed

man-power

for

the

with

teachers

not

in

though

reasons,

larger

thousands

means

remained of

another.

even

strength

Movement,

various

resources but

the

To

in For

provision

find

Mass

twenty-

materials conditions from

help then

the

it would

Ceylon and South India 1954 to March 1955, p.

by the 61.

one

of

traditions,

doctrines,

of the

and

recommend

these

appeals

South

India

cuits,

visits

there

District in

after

before

The These

Commission

an

an

adequate

of

the

whole

of

the

sympathy the

recommended The growth,

51)

in

the

with

carried

was

findings hereby

"We

exists

and

solemnly

the

in

from of

parts

which

their

declared:

The

and

1935

different

work

the

Cir-

report.

10,

the

Trichino-

the

various

to

then

to

emergency

support Committee were

put

the of

aimed

26, in

by 1935

of

work

the the

Provincial

increased

at

the to

in

to

needs

arranged

for

Trichino-

the

of

the

Standing was

form

the

and

of

a rural

the

in

Commission

was

for

of

and

as

considerably

and

many

a clear

recogni-

upon

a result of

the

immediate

District

area,

implementReport).

Committee

Trichinopoly

train-

preparation

Commission's

adopted

of

situation.

up

involved

III

and

the

save

raising

the

expenditure

Appendix

reviewed

the

into

also

additional

(see

was

implemented

adapted

Commission

total

appointment of

recommendations, be

chiefly

September

The

claims

and

Home

on

to

ministry

The

the

report

Synod

implementation.

of

of

of

were

were

recommendations

Provincial tion

days

unanimously

a series

Indian

community.

estimate

its

Then

three

re-assembled

a state

which

recommendations

of

ing

made

measures,

Christian of

they that

God,

for

They

visit

August

delegates

of

to

District">.

emergency

ing

circuits.

discussion,

much

declare, poly

investigate

to

different

and

on

Dharapuram

groups

by

made

were

area,

Movement

in

work

the

of

survey

Mass

the

directed

by

appointed

was

a Commission

it was

of

result

a

As

1935:-

Commission.

and

assembled

nine

of

Commission

in

would

India

matter

the

into

go

.

requests,

a careful

make

especially

54

additional

South

the

to

request

that

a Commission

Synod

Provincial

District,

poly

a similar

Movement

repeated

and

House

sent

assistance

Mass

Trichinopoly

The

the

financial

Mission

also for

asking

Synod

Provincial

the

Synod

District

The

to

appeal

a special

send help.

to

forced

was

seeking

London,

in

stage,

a critical

District,

the

of

Chairman

the then Rev.W.A.Sandford,

the

on

solutions.

own

its

arrange-

own

its

make

reached

things

When

to

had

Synod

District

Trichinopoly

find

and

ments

from

workers

employment Therefore,

of

difficulties.

major

posed

often

missions

other

recognition

of

conditions

and

scales

wage

discipline,

problem

The

well.

as

problems

practical

many

raised

have

the

the

the grants

measures

effect.

last

Decade

(1936-1947):-

but

it was

accompanied

The

last

decade

by unexpected

was

a period

difficulties.

In

of

amazing

spite

“Letter written by the Rev. W.A.Sandford, former Chairman of the Trichinopoly District, dated Woriur, Trichinopoly, May 24, 1934, RTMMC, AppendixI, p. 38.

52))

Lots,

Dede

53)

Ibtd.,

pp.

23-35

(see

the

recommendations) . 94

of

the

increased

from

the

financial

In

the

middle

depression

and

this

being

enconomic Second

World

supply

of

the

war

for

seven

funds,

sound. War

over

amongst

the

some

their

continued In

new

years.

from hopes

Asa

best rise

the

very

next

were

baptized--

but

verts

not

year

of

registered ‘ren.

Out

4,432

to

in

of

1939

while

never The

known

12,077

of

ness

of

ment

of

of

the

a

tivity; both

mained

on

at

house

were

one

end

at

the

never

Church

the

lost

focal-point

MSS.'Trichinopoly',

54)

to

55)

the

Rev.

all

and

it

its

had

2,361

to

show.

about

in

members

the

a thing District.

explain

2,500

full

of

of

It was

Trichinopoly also

chilad-

area

Movement,

the

of

work

mixed

now

'the

the 1913

to

became

of

always

peen?’.

in

the

of

Letter

Dharapuram,

small

training

were

society

position

with

a

catered

compound

the

December

and

ac-

many-sided

of

Bible

and

Compound

Movement)

School

a hive

wilder-

develop-

Dharapuram

Boarding

become

howling rapid

Mass

the

of

education,

sections

the

lonely

The

cental

dated

a record baptisms

baptism

witnessed

it.

in

(1935-1941):

Box

W.J.Noble,

of

menberenwe?’.

also

had

show

of

con-

and

from

missionary

health,

years New

the

will

number

little

other, for

up,

a

of

3,226

adults

Mass

commencement

the

and

the

tables

full

the

to

flood

wave.

claimed

baptisms in

history

the

Dharapuram'

(before

set

for

of

2,206 area

over

number

from

lost

the

a tidal

fourteen

able

lasted

villages

ex-Hindus>>.

total

When

which

Trichinopoly--the

community

institutions

of

years

the

while

trial

success at

beyond

statistical

1947,

establishments

sexes the

But

in

the

bungalow

the

Christian

the

a network

minister's

in

of

compound

early

since

was

The

minimum.

odds,

Enquiry,

under

the

families

many of

an

living.

famine

heavy

were

The

135

such

of

3,000

reached

and

1,643

Movement

a

dimensions

Church

only

be

and

24,083

with

had to

of

bare

far

in

of

of

Christian

hills

the

comprising

Mass

graphs

53,273

with

Along

or

the

1939.

circuits

ever

before

growth

total

4,567 the

churches

mark

adjoining

steady a

water

were

came

and

the

year

cost

fine

Commission

in and

outbreak

the

then

the

spite

number

the

the

was

was

in

but

adults

District

itself

by

to

to

in

the

rise

of

this

the

eastern

long-established highest

Of

4,567

the

But

the

dwindled

approached

1,583

for

this

migrated

come

baptisms

many

after

Babies”:

continued

number

emerged,

had

people age

England

leaders. and

of

England

followed

a steep

result,

Adi-Dravidas

to

was

caused

missionaries

was

of

which

position

thirties,

Rev.

of for.

and

re-

J.J.Ellis

23,1937.

Ibtd.-

Methodist

56)

General

57)

Ann.Rep.

58)

J.J.Ellis, a

Misston

Stattsttes

printed

District:

Trtchinopoly for

Summary

of Report

and

1939.

(1947). 'Trichinopoly' circular

letter,

Box

(1941-1945):

dated

somewhere

1943.

95

'Dharapuram in

the

Letter'--

Atlantic,

May

developing

was

Boys

Boarding

Hostel, the

a High

stand

campus

rejoice

over

Table

number

SS

of

No.of

ee a ek

at

corner

one of

success.

Thanjavur originally

apparent And

Diocese

the

of

District,

Trichinopoly

for

the

a

large School Thus

century was

Church

a large

converts

Methodist

a

compound.

after failure,

today has

men,

a Training

quarters,

Baptisms

Ee

and

yearly

the

total

able of

number or

Total

Christian Christian

their

1944

Chris-

children.

fy PE

aR

He

eth

ee

2,465

47,336

3,741

50,659

A

|i

Community Community

44,216 45,139 46,342

2,135

1946

48,399

ee

of to

South

of

8,602 117.047 11,989 13,276 13,945 14,222 15,47o 16,927 17,673 19,473 21,746 23,794 25,820 28,437 31,298 34,785 38.657 41,511

25752 1,651 2,056

1945

Source:

yearly

255105 2,134 1,159 1,667 Uitte) 834 1,458 1,456 1,239 2,593 27164 2,446 2,036 3,183 SIS 3,920 4,567 3,494

1941 1942 1943

N.B.:

Teachers'

experience

Baptisms

1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 IEIT/ 1938 1939 1940

mh

an

and

were

of

School

a Training

this

on

Today

Rev.J.J.Ellis.

the

boyt,

Bungalow the

unprecedented

who

by

of

recognition

and

honour

in

colony

a new

road

Pollachi

the

1:

Total Year

its

for

number

in

with

effort,

adherents

pe

Church

Tiruchirapalli

India tian

School,:a

a missionary

and

Methodist

sustained

rendered

School

on

Elltenagar

named

was

and

services

selfless

the

away

half-a-mile

site

a new

On

232273

Ann. Reps.

Though the Community Movement started in 1913, it accelerated only from 1923 when the Madharis came into the Church in large numbers. So, figures have been tabulated only from 1923.

INCREASE

IN

THE

CHRISTIAN

COMMUNITY

DURING

THE

YEARS

1910

-

1947

LV6T 6T Of

SE6T

dtuszequew

Sc6T OZ6T

eseerour ut

uetystzyo

ARTunummo0D

SP6T OveT

eseerzoury ut [[Nq

OT6T

ST6T

szoquew

col |

K DQ

000‘

3 re) h ct n

TIN

9

Q

000‘

=} ’.-

Lantern:-

Prodigal

sitting

freely

interesting

and

the

Society,

noise

festival

the

Magic

hundreds

naries

the

by

of

very

Christ

for

Book

the

and

hand

Use

and

amidst

sales

sands

vals

for

by

portions of

especially

or

home" 28,

his

at

literature markets

portions of the

Tract

unheeded

In

ed.

weekly

"if

distribution

in

Christian the

prayer

val, the

of at

Holdsworth,

op.ctt.,

Vol.

ill'9

V,

X,

op.ctt., (July,

1889),

attractive

by

preaching

them

Katha-kala-shébam.

Hindus

literature

often

tation.

is

The

Reporting the

on

people

table

most

formal to

an

the

eye

mass

before

them but

Religious

ture.

and

witness of

For

ed

were

It will

and

the

in

varying

asked seen

every

Negapatam ways

For

"It

highest of in

of on

good';

persons

a perusal method

Trichinopoly

the

success

of

in of

was

middle

adopted

District, the

44)

Ibid.

45)

FF,

46)

Ann.Rep.,

Vol.

IV

(October,

Vol.

Xxx

1907=1908)\;

(19168)

oe

oie

120

to

and

missionary

——————

ape

241i

the

response

hour

of

the

Gospel

Hindus

past

in

the

as

remain-

themselves

answered,

na-

and

lectures

invariably

of

spec-

a general

these

. of

specta-

to

'India,

stated

reci-

indigenous

presented

facts

musical

is

educated

quietly

the

the

the

Though

were

interruptions

after

audience

times

of

called

religious

interested

'Karma';

the

own

a heart-moving

subjects

redemption'. length,

was

hour

benefit

organized

and

deeply

which

possible

to

the

form

method

preaching

writes:

rendering

their

some

Several

from

and

in

questions

occasional be

practically in

hour

of

and

this

400-listening

were

glory

an

attentively.

spectfully there

'The

nearly

a musical

quietly-seated,

'Life's

'Sin';

were

seated

lectures

example:

present'; a rule

Discourses:towns

mode

of

music,

exotic

tors-- sometimes as many as F 45 in song and sermon..." ~.

cities

form of

is

interesting

it,

to watch

the

fond

put

sermon

this

in

are

even

rethough

meetings “©.

so

far

that

present

the

Gospel

they

all

contributed

endeavour.

CHAPTER In nary

the

early

was

In

the

ed

to

held

days

almost

scheme

5: of

MISSIONARY missionary

inevitably and

among

a distinguished

place',

Schools

scribes

saying:

frequently

way

of

the

Christ

William

Hare

Gospel

forerunner

in

missionary éien’*.

in

Rev.

were

do

their

midst was

to

the

hardly

hope

The

in

and

in

fact

Church

Synod

was

their

link' it

an

essential

ty

and “remains

Gommuceca’

part

that

was

that

education

has

the

Church's

their

like

Findlay

as

a base

Nottces,

1884,

teaching

looking for

or

upon aid

the

not,

they

write:

"As

'Indian of

been

work

from

of to

their

Mission.School lose

In

the

we

undertake

eeeee ay: force , whose

March

as

is

1)

MSS. Rev. Vol.

our

mode

of

the

Gospel

(October,

MN,

communiis

sight

of

its

prime

of

the

Misston-

it,

education results

young

of

is

not

are

in-

be its grade, India..."

1876), p. 235.

,

5) Ibtd.

6) RGS,

the

number

Christian

the

"The

beginning

Church

"Nega & Trichy.: A Study in Missionary Rev. W.H.Findlay, 1895), p. 314. 5th paper, WWMF, Vol. IV (August,

4) Ibdd.

7)

to

of

reads:

Letter of Rev. T.H. Squance to ‘Madras', Box I (1817-1821): 121; cf. MV, 15th January, Joseph Taylor, dated Negapatam, III, No. 68 (August, 1821), p. 114.

2) MN, Vol. XXI 3)

preaching

their

a service-agency,

Bae aes direct and remote. It is”cs converting | agency. Whatever it

to

a

they

Synod

very

the

of

EY

for

report the

to

a

Christian

Comes

service which

of

soup-kit-

General

Their

of

people

imparting

the

the

1946.

however,

evangelism.

the

presence

the

to

by

programme

the

the young' ce

exhibition

regard ‘of the Hindus in

is

preparing

reach

the

a part

assembled

sub-

education

like the Rev.

bound

doubtless

reflected

assign-

schools

preparatto

is

'main

that

an aspect of ‘Christian

While

missionaries

function

of

always

the medium of |the Spoken-

Gospel can_

which

affirms

as

it

convinced

serious

again

a missio-

E.Jenkins

that

believe

was

‘chief

was

the is

upon

Hindus value ‘greatly

natives

view

was

educationists

the

India

the

of

auxiliaries

question I

School

strongly

to win

same

Methodist

a mere

not

: and_ without rendering _such_ a service

message’. General

_and

Findlay

place

looked

Gospel;

Mission

and made ‘the

education

service;

ary

"I

the

School

Christianity'

second

missionary

To _missionary

the

Mission

the missionary

the

of

tnd":

Findlay

the

practical

could

by

arrival

the Gospel. Rev. Ebenezer

and the ‘only means by which

To ‘Findlay

good

view

the

the- ‘establishment of a school.

.

features

engage

exertion

Watson,

considerable

the

the

it

to

proved

Christian

marked

days

considered

Richard

opinion

the

schools of

in

and

very

the

a half unsatis-

cont.: It has been translated into English verse by Dr.G.U.Pope, a missionary who lived in India for many years. This remarkable work is read and admired by Hindus of every class and creed and even learned Brahmins like Parimelazhagar have written volumes of commentary on the Pariah's work. In Spring of 1935, a 'Tiruvalluvar Day'

was

instituted

in

Madras,

and

a

Society

for the study of ancient and promotion of The former D.M.K.Government has done much of the Kural and its author.

12)

Ibid.

13),

lipzds.

14)

MSS.

'‘Madras',

Rev.

Richard

Box

Watson,

I

(1822-1824): dated

Letter

Negapatam,

formed

of

11th

Rev.

James

June,

1823.

15)

Box V: Letter from Rev. Samuel Hardey MSS.'Madras', Secretaries, dated Negapatam, February 6, 1838.

16)

Ibid.

i238

in

his

honour

modern Tamil literature. for the popularization

to

Mowat

the

to

General

by

won

and

judiciously

placed

Church" 18,

Christian Between The

1850

number

children

of

also on

Presidency,

"Of

the

school

bers

have

In tial

from

which to

the in

Mudaliars,

to

nized

in

could

pay

the

requisite that

of

books.

proficiency

decrease

the

the

The

in

status

in and

the

the

4th

of

the

Wesleyan

several

the

during

the

the

in

Trichioccupies

to

military

the

and

descent. the

answering

of

Pariahs

Distinction schools

which

was

distinction subjects

at

grew,

thrown

existed

schools

educated the

by

numbers

most

other

caste

nominal,

study?! .

the

the

Brahmins,

and

of

were

very

that of

in

children

schools

represented

neighbourhood.

Reddiars,

mission

the

schools

nummy

At

in

open

not to

all

purchase

the

schools

the

outset a stir

the

V7)

Dbtd. Ibid.

19)

Selections from the Records of the Madras Government: eg Instructton tn the Madras Presidensy 1865-66, < De

20)

Ibtd.,

21)

“Extract of a decently b pp.

who the was non-

anda

missionaries.

rapidly

clas-

recog-

and

caused the

influenVellalans,

cognate

was

18)

para

School, School

school

European

The

While the

Mission

progress,

year.

of

school

nearest of

were

Wesleyan

"This

pupils

schools

Division

their

creditable

their

distinctions

their

the

remark:

con~ the

of

Government.

in

being

very

rolls.

fee,

only

numbers

of

made

the

the

Division...

a very

progress

of

of

education.

gooa"?°,

The

in

caste

the

a positive

receives

towns

on

said

in

increased

prescribed

of

Schools

in

over

the

Some

authorities

Station,

Marathas,

found

recognition as

it have

schools.

the

the

scholars the

ses

be

improvement.

notice" !?, About

made

generally

Chettis,

were

at

largely

was

general

in

Mission

also

position

families

and

educational

favourable

appears

examination

teaching

of

schools

made

spread

a marked

other

was and

the

of

advance

increased

Inspectorof Schools the

also

steady

quality

state

claims

Cantonment,

some

schools

was

Inspector

important

The

by

the

Negapatam

nopoly an

there

the

Negapatam:

1870

the

In

commended

reporting

at

and

elementary

area.

siderable openly

a

of

nucleus

the

and

God,

of

Church

the

to

a nursery

prove

"will

it

prudence,

and

vigour

with

up

followed

and

triumph and

heathen";

the

among

gained

"footing

a

Christianity"

if

that

in

school

Christian

"a

that

missionaries

a

is

village

a heathen

the

of

belief

the

still

was

it

School,

Mission

the

beset

that

mean-

difficul-

several

were

there

Though

attainments’.

mental

possible

est ties

lowest

the

from

were

masters

very

the

of

and

school-

the

generally

society,

of

stratum

for

at,

wondered

be

to

hardly

is

This

factory.

But

increased

Report on (Madras, 1866),

42.

letter from the Rev. Francis Truman, dated Trichino5, 1869", MN, Vol. XIX, No. 12 (December, 1869),

124

throughout

the

interfered

with

were

entirely

refusal

of

chiidren

It

be

will the

assist

prevailed The

and

it

dated

to

19th This

provide

‘stroke

of

until

grant-in-aid

system

Grant-in-aid conditions amount

of

and

be

aid

down

Government

cularly

in

the

for

regulation

Government

and

teacher

interfere

grants

or

system

was

system

grant-in-aid

at

periodical

The

the

chiefly

was

given

22)

AnneRep. 5) VOl.eXEV Julius

Richter,

Report

of

24)

25)

the

Indtan

Press,

Selecttons

from

Educattonal

Vole 1, ep. 28; 26) Ibid.

a

prepared

to to

which

Wood

(later

Lord

elaborate

system

of

such the

of the

conducted

and

to

,Spp.) p.

p.

desired

by

to

fees) At

aid

from

schools

and

to

the

the to

certain

secure

inspection

which that

may

time

given

the

the parti-

Government-°.

received

payment-by-result The

which

certain

Government of

but

effect‘.

with

a

instruction

schools

mainly

into

complied

religious

or

published

it

which

ee

enterprise

staff,

payment

received

described

Despatch

grants...'?>.

proportion

applied

Richter a Code

open

Managers

in

Educattonal

Reports,

was

providing

(e.g.

of

aid

from

system

payment-by-result according

to

this

percentage

of

passes

Inspectors

institutions

of

Schools.

which

afford-

28-311.

182.

Educatton

1883),

of

undertake

arrangement

by Wood's

elementary

(1860)

op.ctt.,

Government

then

schools

which

examinations was

either

indigenous

salary-grant-system. for

23)

and

Those

grants

meant

salary-grant-svstem

school

grants-in-aid

the

an

teaching

the

pupil the

in the

education are

them

Charles

and

with

Schools

through

Only

conditions

Presidency

which

Julius

themselves

any

Mission

the

lay

'to

the

as

school,

the

not

stand

a mission

may

the

Pariah

Eventually

the

was

Sir

introduced

any

to

of

private

premises

also

did

Madras

for

instruction.

had

Such

inaugurated

1865.

to

school

subjected

laid

In

given

secular

Government be

was about

work.

a firm

in

for

allowing

genius',

stimulus

materialized

up

was

the

in India.

1854,

nothing

for

Government

societies

Despatch'

put

the

use

such

July,

a

The

schools

benches

demand.

responsibility

the

collapse

education

for

caste??.

temporarily

and

this

took

popular

work,

caste

of

separate

of

prevails

'Educational

cause

desire

the

out

of

Mannargudi

missionaries

it may

doing

carrying

and

to the

the

or

question

assign

Government.

in

still

grant-in-aid. sought

to

The

that

the

immediate

the

its

itself

in

famous

Halifax)

and

with

with

them

The

prejudices

the

work

co-operate

Negapatam

yielded

agreed

rests

1860

in

schools.

never

returned over

do

up.

In

missionaries

and

triumphed

to

work

broken

in their

dissenters

country

the

the

matter

this

District.

Commisston,

1882,

(RIEC),

(Calcutta:

32.

Records

1859-1871,

of

(Delhi:

125

the

Government

Government

of

of India: India,

1960),

ed

an

advanced

persons who of

of

instruction

‘approved

possessed

the

Education,

expenditure ‘Teacher by

the

ment

'Teacher

were by

paid

the

also

of

ment

maintenance

and

largement,

or

books

repair

school

furniture~?.

of

Government

the

placed

their

inspection. Mission boys,

on

in

the

the

ment

grants*°.

ing

Rs.

impetus

was

institutions

200

-

were

girls' which the of

Lady

education hoped

used

at

of

amount

to

of

girls of

for

the

Hindu

Trichinopoly.

Girls'

time

was

start

School

a visit

to

A part

cutchery, this

in

honour

beset

with

peculiar

they

would

disappear

as

civilization

the

native

girls

seemed

be

'one

27)

Syed

age'22.

the

Nurullah British

and

Pertod,

to

J.P.Naik,

28)

Selecttons from Educattonal OpaCtit., VOls Ly Ds, 206.

29)

(ibvd.

30)

Rev. William Burgess, "The Madras District", op.ctt.,

31)

Ibtd.,

32)

Rev.P.J.Evers,

pp.

of

the

History

(Bombay:

of

in

small

Records

Wesleyan p. 48.

of

&

a number

of

In

1874

Nabob's

palace,

then

Lord

was

Hobart,

The

hopeful

Governor

it

was

schools

signs

in

of

Indta

19:43),

Government

Mission

to

called

female

Though

difficulties,

Methodist

other

a new

It

Co.Ltd.,

the

and

of

rent-free

of Education

Macmillan

board-

upwards

the

advanced. most

in

given

1874.

for

Govern-

Royapettah

was

school.

Trichinopoly

were

children

1841

in

of

36

in

In

was

and

Methodist

institutions

system,

the

the

earned

District.

in

to

also. purpose

invariably

control

1,441

61

instruction of

grant-in-aid

these

were

the

of

with

these

for

establishen-

to

Of

paid

Govern-

provision

almost

grant-in-aid

Tahsildar's order

61.

girls,

15,140

sum

The

purchase,

the

parts

as

in

was

this

under

various

the

India

education

opened

paid

this

female

of

belonging

for

Rs.

the

this

the

the

the

Government

maintaining

established

in

Mission

who

25

cost

for

in

under

District and

for

teachers

for of

assistance

themselves

schools

this

advantage

Hobart

Madras,

given

number

was

now

Wesleyan

Of

started

school is

Madras

pupils,

were

Taking

schools

of

of

erection,

and

Missions

Department

the

non-holders

maps;

the

institutions

by

reimbursed

gave

or

the

one-half

and

for

associations system

Government":

‘Grants'

avail

number

total

43,050.

sie: easadines The

the

2,541

The

was

the

of

the

buildings

Christian

undivided

rolls.

1878

An

libraries;

school

the

was

case

by

by

this

stipulated who

copy)

of

to

to

exceeding

paid

of

Wanting

1878

containing

not

was

managed

as

the

(teachers'

educational In

In

'Miscellaneous

purchase

were

According

Manager,

salary

schools

of

text

the

Government.

of

by way

which

Cerficate'

by

Certificate',

Managers

and

standing'2’.

for the

during ps.

305.

of Indta,

in

the

40-41. "Jottings

about

(October, 1882), pp. 117-118.

Trichinopoly",

HF,

nee

126

Vol.

Teicher

aN

ms

4

Ul

In

April

chief

colleges was

1881,

feature and

an

regarded of

masses

a higher

to

the

as

a step

did

not

1882

and

cation,

clearly

justly

claim

present of

that

part

of

State

now

be

to

enterprise,

should

iche

schools

system the

can

extent

a

part

an

almost

a

the

withdraw and

Local

the

to

the

old

'to

be

system

SS)

sigan

digas

34)

Syed

Nurulla

eile

35)

RHC.

(Cl8i82))y,.

36)

Ibtid.,

p.

588.

32)

Dbtds,

sp.

443%.

39) BUD eden

Domb

OO.

improved

2045

and pis

results

(ISS

J.P.Naik, 5:86;..

the

efficiency

OSs

op.ctt., 4

127

and

p.

205.

funds

to

the

encourage

should

trans-

the

Commis-

grant-in-aid

>. No of

local

self-governing

mistake

exeninattona™

Public

revenues">°,

order

regulated

of

pea

on

Though

judicious

schools

private

local

Boards”.

committed

still

to

according

of

than

education,

primary

be

primary of

system

in

educato

measure

claim

can the

efforts

"That

Provincial

and

it

larger

whole

a generous

grants

elementary

improvement,

strenuous

edu-

in

the

competition

Municipalities

achieve,

ment-by-results

from

private

Lord

desirable,

saying:

on of

control

what

the

Government,

the

by

en-

of

is

and

exclusive

importance

that

growth

education

the

claim

large

Government

of

by

of

that

the the

branch

still

this

the

appreciated of

award

as

in

to

primary

such fully

sion

directed

and

fer

bodies

which

the

Between

primary

declare

to

of

of

extension,

to

possesses

private ala

country,

of

India.

appointed

it

that

educa-

where

importance

State,

system

be

recommended

1882,

was

applicable

quarter in

Govern-

desired

reduction

last

for

every

the

of

emphasized

education,

also

care

made

work

funds,

the

while

"that

the

acknowledging

boldly

Commission

report

provision,

further

which

for

apart

out

the

the

who

missionaries not

large

scope of

Commission

of

large

of

name

Missions

the In

considerable

educational

It

those

restricted

its

the and

educational

in

weighty

of

declared

Instruction,

of

gave

fostering

should

be

education

a crisis

its

In

higher,

difficulty?

great

of

schools

alike.

schools

spelling

the

complaint

aided

exclusively

its

masses,

the

the

While

only

Education

the

heretofore">>.

set

the

circumstances

tion

of

But

in

ephasized

Ripon,

sources

This

Whilst

the

of

number

and

enterprise? '. The

worthy

Its

and

schools.

limited

to

force.

direction.

smaller

account

on

1902,

expansion

that

primary

right

anything

into

schools

the

was

there

to

the

came high

comparatively

caused

grants-in-aid

couraged

right

paid

in

to

the

almost

was

century

seem

government

and

work

19th

without

confined

was

Code

on

spent

be

scale

left

were

Education

grants-in-aid

in

education.

aided

of

increase

reduction

tional

Government

reduction

undoubtedly

it

should

this

a

people

education, ment

a new

was

of to

suggesting a large

doubt

teaching

to

the

pay-

some

extent

and

made

educational wholesome ing cern

of

barren

education

the

State, of

Local

that

ed

under

of

urgency

of

the

to

India,

was

every

Christian In tion

as

the to

ference clear

that

Little

on

to

of

the

more

then

on

at

a number

Boards.

then

on

In

of

So,

on his

1884

village

these

schools

for

with

a

sense

suggestion

secretarial

schools

As

far

the

establish-

a general

existed.

circles

up

be

the

con-

recomschools

take

speedily

abruptly

was

first the

primary to

un-

becom-

missionary

prepared

would

of

the

of

in

whole

a very

accepted

feared

were

the

danger

became

once

transfer

Local

openings

in

the

almost who

reduced produced

was

activities.

as

visit

survey

were

opened

possible

were

expected

evangelism’°.

things of

spoke

the in

efforts

Negapatam

in

low

the

should

and

favour

castes.

1889,

underprivileged.

the

the

preferred,

for

Bangalore

special

of

were

many

in

and

suitable

education

held

benefit

"In if

1890s

the

their

Circuit

centres

of

it

and

and

schools

acted

Jenkins,

up

it

agencies

elementary

E.

where

teachers

serve

from

regarding

management

speeded

But

Government

mission

of

Ebenezer and

in

masses the

missionaries

localities

to

or

direct

the

Rev.

made

in

work.

enterprise

Municipalities,

number

the

the

when

Commission

and

private

a large

of

and

the

Boards

unless

work,

teachers

a commercial

'Teaching was more ‘ : dq anew. examination drill °

the

mendations to

shirking to

atmosphere.

a mere When

the

system

be

In

paying

their

to

moved

District,

atten-

Triennial

made

establish

resolution

Trichinopoly

greater

fifth

missionaries

made

a

of

In

it

schools by

they

Con-

explicitly

the

for

Rev.

the Henry

said:

some parts of South India especially the lower castes are little at all affected by the Government educational measures while the

other

the

education

of

their

population

is

neglected.

rural

hand

the

owners

of

property

labourers. For

In

are

as

other

vigorous

a

rule,

parts

the

averse

whole

prosecution

of

Evange-

listic work amongst such classes the primary school often proves both a necessary and efficient auxiliary. The Conference is therefore of the opinion that special attention should be given to the establishment of efficient village schools, wherever it is possible to obtain Christian teachers..."41.

The

resolution

District by

the

and

Conference.

Panchamas ly

and

for

the

was

after

gained

the

Owing

in

39)

Richter,

40)

Ann.Rep.,

41)

Minutes of the 1889 (bound in

of

to

p.

XXIII

the

Rev.

William

discussion

such

it

favourable

A number

Kongunad

many

op.ctt., Vol.

by

a thorough

momentum.

Pallars

Pariahs

seconded

and

a village.

of

day

was

policies,

the

Government

of

the

unanimously

schools

Somarnads,

The

Goudie

work

were Kallans

Order

Madras adopted

among

opened of

the

chief-

Tanjore

dated

1st

308 (1885),

Da

92)

Wesleyan Methodtst Misstonartes' Conference one volume 1879, 1882, 1885 and 1889), Del

128

tn

Indta

February,

1893

cessions result

for grant

Manager

of

ments,

of

the

50%

still

greater

steady.

schools

Education)

was

progress

was

in

steadily

below

will

explain

Table

2:

primary

in

became

the

30%

Source:-

RGS,

.

The

most

tional three Fees

sources: were

penses.

Their

tension

of

has

It

their

Mass

this

reason,

the

ment

grants.

time

took

this

the

These

charge

double

p.

the

Society's

of

Total

= =

35%

333

machinery

was

the

their

4,063 5,459 34

grants

English

very

their

receipts

and

teaching

from

subscriptions.

schools

and

as

yet

to

only

for

the

sustenance

the ex-

their

meet

little

used

educa-

mainly

local

of

beginning

and

ex-

derive its

educational

policy

of

the

District,

the

to

was

greater

advantage

village

and

recognition as

employ of

part

that

their

the

in

village

to

village

schools

pananedatioasss.

Bishop

Stephen

It

Neill

who

possess-

Government

to

met

from

and

at

is once

only

a

For

support.

teachers was

such

of

schools

the

in

particularly

conform salary

such

With

work.

financial

catechists

training

and

taught

the

the

in

establish

Government

from

to

Negapatam

the

history

its

benefit

of

men

furnished

98.

gathered

the

from

education

for

evangelistic figures

1,399 1,863

sought

to

aim

a and

-Girls

2,662 3,596

Government

Government

the

necessary

Boys

furtherance

was

area,

the The

done

Scholars

VI,

were

1899by

better.

37%

from

the

system.

how

District

win

to

as

quirements,

of

school

it

view

fees,

funds

for the

Movement

quality ed

in

of

to

Sexennium,

teaching

to

con-

develop-

accompanied

Christian

3,942 5,305

contributed

shown

been

grant-in-aid grants

part

of

increased

incentive

the

sustain.

an

favourable

was

Schools

missionaries

school

Trichinopoly

and

Day

chiefly

schools

vernacular

to

38%

school

gathered

of

a number and

an

during

schools-scholars

Appendix

The

as

these

schools

still

79 113

delicate

finance.

of

auxiliaries

situation

35% 1905,

amount

for

children

child

day

designed

2,385 3,251

Increase

in

truer

were

Schools

61 80

every

education

the

schools-scholars

1899 1904

provided

Panchama

to

increase

they

Sunday

also

the

given

increase

which

of

school *~. Because

The

enterprise

Year

68,

education

a Panchama

1904, the

(No.

the

re-

Govern-

the

same

because

frankly

stated:

4

42)

Report on Publte Instruction tn the and for the Quinquenntum 1892-1897,

43) RTMMC

(1935), p. 21. 29

1896-1897 Madras Prestdency Vol. I, p- 12w/pacay laid.

met

been

has ment

Commission

cult

to

ed are

furnished

Table

Trichinopoly

and

Negapatam

whole function-

Society

the

of

decade

a

for

figures

District,

been

have the

how

illustrate

finance

educational

missionary

of

the

in

(the

it

without

on

carried machinery

To

one

gee

could

dimensions

present

the

of

work

how

imagine

Movediffi-

is

"It

fact:

the

admits

frankly

also

1935

of

Mass

Trichinopoly

The

here.

3:(amounts

Year Govt. AAI

in

rupees)

Grants SI

Fees Subscription a SS

ee

ee

Total

1900

14,080

16,041

206

30,520.

1901

16,502

16,524

299

33,325

1902

14,226

7

Fee)

830

36,975

1903

22,036

29,760

486

52,282

1904

1. Q9US

24,998

331

45,248

1905

13,995

22,701

525

BT y22n

1906

14,168

Alpe le

535

36,018

1907

23,964

23,232

tezon

48,427

1908

15,691

2357 Vo

240

39,646

1909

14,125

237,269

586

37,980

1910

18,072

20,928

342

39,342

Source:-

RSIPS,

VI-XVIII

‘Income From the

these entire

tually ing

No from as

doubts much

well,

in the

of

the

the

from

on field

grants

be

the

seen

the

a telling

effect

listic

purpose

for

which

schools

outset

the

As

the

but

missionary

as

Quoted

45)

AREMMCAGAO SS) i Dien

Donald

But on

Eugene

least

entitled

three

fourths

operations

Committee

was

liberally

passed,

and

its

Smith's

India

AleX}

had

the

its

of ac-

help-

missionaries

serious

missionary

drawbacks

cause

and

originally

started.

liberal

aiding

attitude

activities

e2illte

relieved

it

the

were

sympathetic

educational

44)

in

the

time

Home

Government

burden.

had

agencies,

at

educational

the

which

vate

Appendix

sources’.

quarter.

from

was

under

that

Mission

financial

Government

see

Indian

itself,

remaining

their

purely

it will

expenditure

with

(1901-1911)--

raised

statistics

raised

them

the

salary

whose

of

part

greater

the

geaneaties:

government

from

far

by

teacher-catechist,

village

of

work

the

by

up

built

largely

been

has

India

South

in

Church

"The

and

as

in

underwent

their

demands

a Secular

At the

a

evangethe pri-

change. upon

State,

De

the

S426

public from

exchequer

increased,

benevolence

hostility and

J.P.

its

Naik

by

marked

attitude

and

two

0 -

nary

zeal

work

either

Under

and the

depended

on

Brahmins.

grants

any

to

piece

made

system

or

It

they

result

The

difficulties

was

less

embarrassing

a

rapid

the by

been

the

of

the

vividly

India,

of

Education

that of to

in

the the

were

mission

to grants

chiefly to

non-

cut

severity grant

described

Govern-

missio-

government

who

was

mission

missions

inspectors

reduced

of

Nurullah

in

the

of

increasing

50%

Syed

lacking

for

sanction

of

passed tinge

attitude

or

inspectors,

power

a

multiplication

agnostic

position

has

Department

unsympathetic

scheme,

than

was

education.

difficult 47 without it.

the

Government

there

it

pleased

of

experienced

an

of

in

the

on

of Education the

were

they

goodwill

extent A

|-

ce

the

the

Christian

examination.

and

payment-by-result

much

of viz.

officials

therefore

within

History

features

the

of

later

missionary

policy

institutions of

and

their

the

important

Many

attitude

towards

in

1882,

educational

eenuois

the

sufferance,

observe

1858

between

ment

in

to

of

to

down the

a mere

schools

and

by Julius

the

Richter.

says:

He

"As the yearly grants--the hinge on which the new system turned-depended on the result of the annual visitations and examinations conducted by these gentlemen (non-Christian Brahmins), it came about that mission schools, for instance, were often in a state of very undesirable dependence on the goodwill or the good temper of How much caprice officials who were antagonistic to missions. in the conducting and party spirit it was pssible to exercise and the of examinations, the inspection of school buildings, criticism of the school staff! How much vexation and worry were

thereby The

the

was

of

ever

secular

that

the

But

became

the

or

teaching

there

This

was

time

lot

was

46)

Syed

of the of

47)

ta RGS

49)

Richter,

to

liked.

be

for

the

and

J.P.

pp.

op.ert.,

In

the

1880

subjects they

Naik,

had

to to

308.

131

the

affairs

and

the

their

the had

relation

the be

an

the

and

in

had

190-191.

at

schools.

government

laid

the

down

schools.

interfernece been

what-—

insisted

their

the

Mana-

teach

had

in

government

be

pp-

of

taught

freedom

merely

instruction

of

schools

1880's

choose

missionaries

hitherto

op.ctt.,

217-218. p.

The

in

of to

government

in

cep. 191, (1916),

free

missionaries

which

intensive,

beginning were

religious

schools.

with

instruction

The

change

particular by

more

efficient.

marked

aided

the

schools

time

action

Nurullah

48)

of

a

considered

liberty

they

interference

religious

Up

mission

and

steadily

give

should

a

managers

first

to

subjects

disposal

the

over

restricted.

private

then

their

control

institutions

gradually

their

motion!"49.

missionaries

gers

to

in

government

private of

set

enjoying,

with and

for

the

parents

or

was

Commission

compulsory

schools stead ment in

of over

called all

either

of

Madras

for

instruction

or

under aid

the the

tages

as

well.

prise

did

not

Between

from

direct

on

the

and

1920

also

Department

government, This

awakening

in

decided

also It

of

private at

this

"Missionary Education pp. 179-184.

51)

RIEC

52)

Donald

53)

W.H.Findlay, (Mai,

54)

Syed

55)

Fbtd.5

Eugene

Nurullah

and

lay

to

more

grew

mainly

in

much

stress

however,

the of

enter-

on

and

sphere

of

abstaining a number

with

as

that

of

regard

possible.

to The

'efficiency' in

spite

control'

enormously

during

due

great

to

grant-in-

disadvan-

private

fatre

recognition

was

brought of

run>‘,

maintain

as

school

the

of

the

placed this political

i

India",

HF,

Vol.

XIV

(November

1893)

448-449.

Smith, pp.

to

it

were

policy

latssez

control

time».

Indta

"Missionary

1892),

pp.

pp.

tried

place

old

of

curricula

serious of

places

government

aspect

long

code

M.E.R.

proper

all

and

the

took

of

enterprise

in

in

later,

this

various

In-

governcode

the

acceptance

great

and

remarkable,

growth

the

its

policy to

the every

other--

aside

‘inspection,

50)

(1882),

began

is

astonishing India

its

as

encouragement

changes

to

to

discipline,

that

schools

enterprise

and

barriers

liberal

brushed

for

the

up with

several

abandoned

'expansion'.

period.

of

to

shows

missionary

government

enterprise

three-fold by

policy

educational

It

Education than

The

The

schools. private

bound

1900

education.

school

government

was

recognition

staff,

about.

years

According

practically

equipment, This

benefit

for

Ten

the

the

comprehensive

themselves

candidates

regulations>>.

a

of

then

from

in

came

grip

tighter.

submit

simply

one

The

(M.E.R.).

to

affected

building,

worse.

even

Rules

presenting

of

government”. situation

implemented

had

or

rules

attitude

strict

from

aid

for

These

the the

became

Madras

Educattonal

school

pursued,

of

institutions

government

examinations. life--the

institutions

a set-back

the

by

that

clear

was

in

became

conscientious

recommended

from

improvement things

it

withdraw

to any

had

suffer

would

grant-in-aid no

government

educational

immediately,

instruction

better,

private the

the

Clause',

by but

becoming

1892,

'Conscience

received

passed

freedom

they

the

religious

which

Years

the if

implemented

not

pupils

instruction

giving

optional,

instruction

religious Though

sens

to

objection on

from

the

of

guardians

the

children

their

dissatisfaction

for

cause

another

religious

made

It

missionaries.

the

provided

1882

of

Commission

cation for

Edu-

Indian

The

squerweer gi?

religious

for

time

little

too

them

leave

should

prescribed

study

of

course

full

the

lest

concerned

all

were

they

as

a Secular

Education

and

State,

410-418.

J.P.Naik,

op.cit.,

2il=2 114.5 N32

p.

p.

Government", 205.

346.

HES

VOL a oer

Turning the

to

prime

cation need

the

these

people

was

In

their

the

the

that

educational

because

to

the

i.e.

was,

body,

take

home By

mind

care

of

proper

exercise

true

of

development of

awakening

tion

was

always

it

to

the

was

area

that

the

edu-

area.

and

The were

also

education>°.

to

The

devote

a large

of

Adi-Dravidas

the

in

portion and

other all

completion closely

Education human

of

the

the to

questioned aspect

of

the

of

and

the

the

scheme

Gandhian

by

alone

former

craft

to

meant that

that

"unless

with to

a

not

He

be-

through

a

the

lop-sided

central

the

growth

did

corresponding

a

be

of all-

simultaneous

and hand

craft

Education

personality.

education

of

environ-

importance Gandhi

prove

craft

child's

come

will

could

The

only

in

hand

in-

should

child

could

organs

some

other

subjects the

education

human

intellect goes

body

any

that

all

Total

the

pro-

scheme

outstanding

the

Man

i.e.

be

this

course.

prime

Total

personality

Gandhi

mind

held

of

related

best

trainingof bodily

the

which

gave

the

the

is

insisted

should

of

'literary'

through

scheme

suggested

words

pot.

Gandhi

unofficial

wanted

nucleus

possible

the

soul,

the

of

Gandhi

He

provided

tripartite

in

In

This

tongue

7-14.

therefore

as

melting

the

Scheme

mother

of

the

Party.

wphdbagel, + Gandhi

education

the

the

and

in

Education

at Wardha,

group

that

be

was

National

Wardha

serve

the

India

1937

training

to

soul.

and

the

Thus

affair">’.

to

Congress

in

was

after

and

of

this

that

in

Basic

schoel>'.

Scheme

Total

and

lieved

that

education

the

age

practical

because

Man.

of

should

however,

development

the

the

the

Wardha with

his

Total

round

in

self-supporting

instruction

of

proposing

education in

work

provided

of

period

missionaries

higher

self-supporting,

productive

instruction

the

be

or

According

children

become

of

India.

associated

the

sphere

the

originated

compulsory

feature

that in

education

policy

it

all

struction

to

felt

this

notice

Karur-Dharapuram

resources

also

Fund

Scheme

and

or

was

elementary

Wardha

education

the

the

we

Kongunad.:

for

craft

ment

London

free

vided

be

of

of

in

Century

1930s

metropolis

of

in

keenly

District,

during

in

their

activities

so-called

called

so

concentrate

Twentieth

became

so

to

Madharis

The

missionaries

particularly

Committee

its

the

Trichinopoly

masses

restrict

of

of

and

the

constrained

Home

Negapatam

concern

of

of

the

posi-

imseructien’’:

Report of the Commission on Christian Higher Educatton tm Indias An Enquiry into the place of the Christtan College in Modern Indta 1931), p. 302. (London: Oxford University Press, (RCCHEI) reprint, The Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandht, 57) M.S.Patel, cf. S.N. 1958), pp. 107-117; (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 56)

Htstory

Mukerji,

Acharya

(Baroda:

58) 59)

1961),

pp.

Pertod,

4th

ed.

242-244.

Ibid. Indira

Miri,

Pamphlet

60)

Depot,

Modern

tn India:

of Education

Book

Gandhi's

"Mahatma

series

No.

6,

ed.

Educational

Achuthan,

Ibtd. 133

New

Theory",

Gandhian

De liivpetitaCleu,

apie

02'
>. lack

and

with

At to

appointed

funds,

the

side,

anxiety.

Messers

Committee

cost,

of

every

amounted

Committee

Local

the

the

College

the

the

mated

grave of

state

of

for

on

institution

consisting

and the

closure

registered

William

Gs a

-46.

Box

(1917-1922):

Rev.

Goudie,

dated

Dharapuram,

13th

Secretartal

Vistt

by

Willtam

the

Rev.

MSS. 'Trichinopoly', Box (1928-1935): Minutes of College Council held at Trichinopoly on April 14 See along with Rev. Sandford's letter dated 15th

158

W.A.Sandford

April,

1921.

Goudte

1920-1921,

a Meeting of the and 15, 1930. April, 1930.

In

addition

to

all

these

factors,

towards

the

College

was

view

the

idea

of

maintaining

as

a second

a

of

first

Rev.

grade

Smailes

diately tirely in

be

ed

of

be

Hindu

to

that

and

and

at

past.

writing

to

on to

the

the

the

from

pupils.

He

Brahmins

cause.

the

either

He

immean

never

who

very

was

Hindu

also

teachers

aims

influence

attended

indifference

and

Christianity

became

Rev.

Goudie,

at

the

and of

the became

bitter

a thing

Richard

who

prov-

scripture

worst

almost

en-

was

scripture-teaching who

as

beginning with

many

Smailes

a kindly

almost

evangelistic

feeling,

R.

School

of

so

Under

William

the

should

education

employ

Rev.

taken

institution

High

missionary

to

the

never

Christian

students

a total

to

the

Right

missionaries'

Hindu

of

had

College

of

the

error

national

best

Conversions

of

Christian

treacherous’! >,

Those

opposition. While

the

growing

difficult.

displayed

a grave

with

He

status

that

sums

detrimental.

'disloyal

revival

classes

be

the

a majority

large

it was

sympathy

extremely

and

attitude

grade.College.

a residential

staff

the

disheartening.

insisting

to

spending

proved

little to

been

Christian

convinced had

had

reduced

favour

often

or

very

of

the

Smailes

said:

"There is a strong Hindu element on the staff, which if not openly hostile, is fully in sympathy with the present widespread anti-British and anti-Christian Nationalism, which has become more extremist and intolerant than ever. It has been the common experience of Christian teachers to find a dead weight of utter apathy and indifference in Scripture ee and I have been struck with the change from former years" Smailes cy

of

where

was

endowing

never

Christian a great

Rev.

W.A.Sandford,

In

favour

effect

his

with

influence

have

District.

in

Brahmanism on the

was

the

of

small.

College

Chairman

letter

to

the

the

"ambitious

a cheap

Such as

and

Home

and

education" an

attitude

pointed

General

extravagant

under

out

would

in

a

the

Rev.

naturally

letter

Superintendent

Committee

poli-

conditions

of

by

the

the

Sandford

wrote:

"Smailes has never taken kindly views to the idea of maintaining the First Grade status of the College. He now holds strongly that it ought to be reduced to a High School at once. His views have affected his attitude to the institution and he has never been able to throw himself heartily into schemes which would have stablished it. The Council feels that it is impossible to go on with a head that does not really believe in the institution. Our difficulty is to find the right man for such an important In an instiinstitution within the limits of our District... tution of this sort everything depends on leadership and personality"

158)

Letter of Rev. R. Box (1928-1935): 'Trichinopoly', MSS. 1930. 22nd January, dated Mannargudi, to Rev. Thompson,

159)

MSS. to

160)

Ibid.

161)

MSS. to

Box

(1917-1922):

dated

Mannargudi,

Box

(1928-1935):

'Trichinopoly', the

Rev.

Goudie,

'Trichinopoly', the

Rev.

W.J.Noble,

dated

Woriur,

159

Letter 12th

Letter April

of Rev.

August,

of 15,

Rev. 1930.

Smailes

Smailes 1920.

W.A.Sandford

he

education

missionaries.

the

influential India

and

that

the

castes

higher

time had

missionary

for

responsible

work

"If

the

Gospel,

why

spend

elsewhere?" Even

ders

so

particularly

going,

of

much when

of

the

a good

influential

Hindus

Party

Justice was

that

luxury

cent.

total

of

for

themselves.

was

a large

and

the

ings

dian

They

the

taking

Christian Education

suggestion

Britain

as

Council,

and

in

for

forces

the

of

college

the

availab-

readily

was

education

India the

was

Scholastic

164)

MSS.

'Trichinopoly',

pp.

was

the

an

the

to

visit

Changes",

Box

of

all

The «Dp.

training | ®4,

and

exciting and

held

Madras

in

happen-

missionary

Conference Agra.

of

In-

At

this

on

and

expresséd.

loudly on

Master

by

Missionary

Christian of

the

Balliol

Council

Protestant

16th

So, Higher

International

Societies

Christian

Matl,

Christian

in of

Great India

©,

Missionary

March,

1907.

146

(1917-1922):

Marshall

technical

constituted

the

needed

villages,

population

Commission

National

pay

commission

Dr.A.Lindsay,

was

3

to

and

community

felt the

the

the

the

strange

was

to

urgently in

lea-

main

only

afford

more

influential

strongly

with

op. ctu, Rev.

1930s

Their

formed

could

far

of

prominent

education

who

especially

education

Conferences and

was

majority

Conference,

asked

Sharpe,

what

who

the

views.

higher

and

educationists

President,

the

give

of

same

Brahmins,

Christian

1929

Burma

"Two

RCCHEI,

the

its

Erdesd

to

the

and

163)!

Smailes

of

one

the

agricultural

vast

a special

America,

Commission

the

among

162)

165)

keeping

education

industrial,

for

of

to the

that

February,

in

India

Oxford

felt

Missionary

need

on

Missionary

on

population,

beginning

and

the

in

of

In

Higher

College,

money

held

like

primary

place

India.

Conference

This

in

suitable

at

in

Education

also

increase

more

were

the

the

development

circles

the

Dr.T.M.Nair,

a

it was

to

Further,

to

mission's

Madras

classes

be

seriously

was

It

|®?,

impervious

secular

like

intellectual

would

classes

so

in

priestly 4 per

lower

were

field

promising

|?

the

contention

the

castes

the

reach

and

more

a much

was

in

South

in

circles

try

to

societies

there

and

amongst

higher

argued:

le

passed,

amongst

ground

gaining

been

missionary

in

quarters

missionary

for

had

controversy

of

subject

the

opinion

the

then

Since

been

had

education

higher

Christian

to

century

19th

the

the

on

hostile

openly

of

quarter

last

the

since

even

fact

In

Christianity.

were

views

His

criticism

and

were

who

Hindus

caste

higher

the

to

given

one

only

the

or

education.

dissatisfaction

wide-spread

the

of

index

an

only

higher

Christian

college

the

of

abolition

the on

views

such

advocated

of

cause

sole

the

was

who

that

said

be

cannot

still

it

Smailes,

Rev.

about

true

was

it

Though

Hartley,

1-2.

160

Letter dated

of Rev. Negapatam,

Richard March

6,

1918.

Colleges to

in

India

Christian

ordinating

the

work

of

the

Christian

in

the

light

a policy is

making

to

stence

of

Commission

wise

in

in

37

weighty

,\"whether the

the

was

September,

the

lack

still

of

the

service

suggested

for

of

the

to

consider, India

present

and

Commission,

In

that

with

teachers

report and and

1930.

Findlay,

the col-

the

exi-

students

Though

calling of

after

Colleges,

missionary

atmosphere

closure

co-

work

changing

the

December,

the

open

for

Theological

1931.

in

and

in

five

Christian

Findlay

asked

special

a Christian

percentage visited

also wise

and

service

a scheme

reviewing

dissatisfaction

of

of

changed

This

report

in

a

still

Colleges

a widespread to

is

future".|°7 -

appreciated it

past

field

prepare While

in

Christian

a small

well

to

the

findings

of

College',

the

also

Colleges,

Commission

Commission

'review

and

Colleges'®®,

wise

only

to

the

mainly

Lindsay

and

India',

all

indicated

owing

neer

of

was

be

its

Commission leges

Burma in

its

a survey

published

The

of

which

likely

and

Colleges

the

it

°*,

the

a

'Pio-

College.

It

said: "This college of the Wesleyan Missionary Society established in the heart of a strong Hindu area may be called a pioneer college in the same sense as one or two similar colleges elsewhere in India. During the past few years, however, it would seem that the demand for local college of degree standing has decreased, and the mission has been in some doubt as to the advisability of maintaining

The

the

to

a

and

we

of

that

altogether,

the and

Thus

the

recommendations

demands

fall

sible

for

in

mediate

of in

wound

cause

dominantly

abroad

Mannarguri for.

will

bear

ample

to

them

and

meant

success

Whatever

undoubtedly

due

to

Findlay'

6 ei vee 7 ) egiloln

the

high

area,

the school,

Smailes

several

this

they

might

1

Us

18 §} $B49:2 BP- 323! 161

alumni what

of

achieved

in

foundations

inter-

in

For

era.

service

yeoman

life

from

the

retired

is

which

Findlay

con-

respon-

an

this

of

Institution have

of

area

an

the

the

1935

in-

step

also

rendered

walks

thorough

and

in

the

with

first

end

the

had

to

a In

him.

marked

testimony

and

largely

As

Rev.

College

in

were

College.

Education

Dune. Sa

led

that

close

together

The

this

what

hard

to

their

income

distinguished

The

positions

high

occupy

who

wise

has

in

Commission

succeeded

Higher

Hindu.

be

institution.

district

mission

Madras,

fee

the

Findlay

Christian

staunch

of

in

and

up

(1884-1935) of

the

Lindsay

1931.

were

century

‘Splendid

closure

classes

a

stood

drop

C.T.Hartley

the

grade

the

boys.

University

abolished

of

would

the

Rev.

for

and

of

and

first

of

concentrate figs

the

half

tion

the

gradual were

and

1932

in

of

a

west

mission

Christian

strength

the

classes

for

as

the

resources

to

hostel

rate

in

the

its

B.A.

16

any

with

tinued

16

at

movement

consider

creasing

is

mass

concentration

college

try

college,

growing

pre-

instituthis

College its

at

inception

later

laid

coun-

life,

at

the

it

CHAPTER

1.

Industrial

its

question

caste

value

of he

the

system

So, the to

were

respect

cut

off

became

occupations

provide

as

missionaries

recognized--

When

possible

guilds

dependent

and

fully

the

means

well

so

a man of

as

upon

the

Mission

for

them

much

as

a

became ane

livelihood,

social

work

be-

education--

of

a question

converts.

every

trade

upon not

was

it

was

Christian

from

School

forced

them

For

this

embraced

converts

devise

India

for

AGENCIES

Industrial

system.

in

was

SPECIALIZED

Karur

in

livelihood

Christian caste

The

Missions

the

of

cause though

6:

which

that

for

distinctions. was

‘each

obliged

might

labour,

‘working with his hands the thing-whieh-te-geed!— Experience developed

suggested

into

an

ful handicrafts So,

industries

the

need

the

famine

partly

to

weaving same

in

ten

or

order was

community

a small twelve for

as

steadily

first,

in

no

the

In the

In

and

of

bulk

1886

receive

were

the of

years

boys

a

most

twelve

eight

to

was

In

In

little

and

In

this

one

an work

next

were

with

from

the

the

neither

worth

compared

with

year

were

learning

carpentry

At boys,

agricultural

of

carpentry

For

of

attention.

popular

the weav-

year

branch

the

was

the

introduced.

many.

later

This

orphanage.

and

them

while

from

purchased,

self-supporting. to

majority

to

the

received

1878,

baptized.

orphans

making

employment was

the any

older in

about

boys

six

of

the

rattan

lads

work

looms

giving

instruction

that

time

hours

Rev.

there

and

Joseph

were,

was

was

Instruction

1)

were

were

began

the

Public

four

weavers

In

world.

these

and

had

its

crafts’.

1883

improved

At

but

gradually;~es-

looms

lbs.

uses

and

scale.

rope

some the

be

scale

trade

1879

taught

to

in

large the

have

way

own

In

would

own

country

towards

because

a

two

afforded

25,000

a small

on

———

Karur

their

helped

their

agriculture

castes;

eyes

kindred

this

as

carpentry

doubt

weaving

also

common

progressing

weaving

chiefly

it

at

children be

make

on

land,

commenced.

years

and

first

the

learn

of

way

much

in

and

could

permitted,

but

to

a couple

agriculture

and

them,

Orphanage

school

they

started means

raging

help

year

ing

and

was

the

industrial

by which were

grew

that

however,

begun,

started.

On

recognized in

worked West,

51

pe

4a sie

in 1st

the

four

hours

"Industrial

the

makers

or

Institution

on

the

and

blacksmithery;

agriculturalists~

following

April,

year

weaving

1889,

the

as

industrial

blacksmithery,

pupils

(April, 1903), pp. 137-138. 2) Rev. Henry Little, "Mission

NSO2) 3) Iptd.

and the

carpentry,

were

rope

rolls,

an

rattan most

Director

work

of

of

school

and

whom

with

weaving.

studied

a day> EAUCAEL On

Industrial

162

HES)

Schools"

WVOle

chy

7 4F,

aNOssna

Vol.

XII

(June,

For Sight the

some of

years

the

growth

of

compelled

1st

circuit

the

direction

of

satisfaction

of

the

under

success

Of the

school

formal

of

terrible

years "he

a

in

which

was

all

the

for

years

of

chersens?

nor

4)

Joseph West, p- 428.

5)

Henry

Little,

the

"Our

that be

must

settled

into of

Henry

making

in

an

Famine

the a

the

two

who

of

the

Government

of

the

most

of

Mr.

an

disregard,

growthe

which

employlong

institution,

will

speak

elo-

heathen

can-

and

power

pity

(October,

op,ctt.,

a

the

this

the

and

Christian

school

dullest

XI

along

during

giving

which

Vol.

the

During up

the

Public

forming

colony,

of

character made

started

industrial

of

Schools",

be

for

home,

building

that

of

industrial

provided

Karur,

skill-

Whittome®. the

must for

failed

efficiency

time,

artisans.

WWMF,

carpentry,

Department

a sermon

a language

Industrial

1890-

long

their at

for

was

Legacy",

in

in

some

industrial

Little

for

examination

skill

be

Christian

careless

"Mission

way

artisan up

put

the

progress

round

a@ sermon--

come, most

the

from advan-

to

received

Orphanage

paved

community

to

by for

must

the

were

acknowledged

and

work

developed Rev.

energy

boys

the

qualified

results out

This

second,

and

had

out

passed,

turned

clear

effi-

England,

examination 81

least

arti-

and

fitted

were

the

school

at it

orphans

time

the the

made

1877,

the

quently

mistake,

of

iecpela 2 Thus

thriving

not

to

first,

of

guide,

fixed,

and

married in

naturally

to

due

and

lines:

famine

turn

a

But

length

ofticers®

for

if

over-

a trained

Karur

Government

Presidency.

recognition

training,

Church”

ment

largely

institution

families

are

at

the

at

capable

buildings

these

K.I.S.,

of

a properly

of

Inspection the

school

in

School

and

in

the

services

and weaving,

the

Madras

definitely

parallel

ing

the

was

technical

in

In weaving

in

Instruction

two

obtained

Examinations

the

the

Government

was

rattan work

Bivhae

weavers

of

industry,

each

of

under

F.W.Gostick.

thoroughly

Substantial

gare

83 candidates.presented

blacksmithery,

The

his

on

Rev.

Organization

and

on

ful

News

supervision

carrying

Technical

the

Industrial

the

being

secure

carried

the

needs

Whittome--a

the

prospered

1891.

to

was by

the

1889,

and

Great

school

assisted and

Joyful

the

from

the

work

J.T.

invited

December,

of

tage

of

Little

missionaries

they

workman

cient the

work

Henry

the

the

So,

gence

the

Rev.

p.

the

1902) 444.

6) abd. DU). shloeals 8)

Joseph

9)

"Review of Special Mission Agencies--Karur IndusRev. A.A.Thomas, trial School", The Wesleyan Methodist Church, Indta and Ceylon: (HSRW), Madras: Historical Sketches and Revtew of Work 1893-1897 1899, pp. 41-42.

10)

Rev. 4th

West,

"Our

W.H.Findlay, Paper,

WWMF,

Famine

"Nega Vol.

Legacy",

op.ctt.,

& Trichy.:

III

(December,

163

A Study 1894),

p.

in p.

428.

Mssionary 509

Methods"

indentures

Whittome's

some

place

a double

financial

help

and

secondly,

Rs.

7,300

Public

European

supervision

quotations private It from

the

testant

at

a higher

be

made

were

boarders

from

day 2/-

taught

in

Re.

above

Standards

year

1895

been

known

was as

of

of

trustworthy

Public

Works

Depart-

and

accepted

undertake, prices

standard

the

the

in

officers

the

by

Industrial

Boarding

the

former

meant

for

the

families

of

Karur

Christian be

freely

11)

Rev. James WWMF, Vol.

12),

Loads

13)

eons

Oz.

Lewis,

the

fed

of

prepared D)and

The In

fixed

The and

paying Rs.

Boys

and

the

fee-paying

were

its

neighbourhood.

and

for

South

taught.

2nd

The

in

policy. was

Circuit

the

1895

the

condition

WWMF,

Vol.

Industrial School, y K RAEUECG "| 14) "Wesleyan Mission tember, 1895), p. 134. 164

and

classes:

collected

and

D;

Rs.

and 2/-

a

p!*,

What

hitherto

had

divided

latter

ages

was

receive

of

While

was

meant

Christian

a circular to

The

into

School.

poorer

attached

School, 56-59.

In-

Standard

the

offering

between

fees

Boarding

of

four

two

paid

now

boarders,

In

of

of

Pro-

pupils

Elementary

A,B,C,

above

Branch

India,

Industrial 1895), pp.

Paper,

rate

been to

day

the

the

boarders

3/-

children

character

Lewis, "Karur IV (February,

op.ctt.,

the

the

both

were

Standards

had

given

for

for

boarders

1895

for

who

good

that

and

departure

in

learn

and

Home

School

we

school

D;

a new

Missions

boy

School was

(A,B,C,

D.

and

for

and

Protestant

Industrial preference

a month

Children's

free-boarders

Karur

records

boarders. 1/-

A,B,C,

marked

was

the

Standard

the

would

the

could

it

out

the

though

Examinations.

paying

was

a month

in

the

Examinations

and

pupils

the

school,

From

Technical

free

tive

turned

from

advantage

of work,

than

rate

that

open

boys.

Standard

Intermediate

clear

an

Christian

boarders

all

the

to

than

work

work

the

commendation

execution

more

beginning

dustrial

to

the

in

K.I.S. it

from

should

month

and

done

highest

1894

firms'>.

the

Rs.

the

Department '*. Owing

Works

offered

ment

received

year

work

for

received

was

following

amountof

end

the

At

buildings.

government

for

done

was

4,400

Rs.

to

work

1894

patronage

blacksmithery

and

carpentry

to and

results

good

government

was

advantage

in

first

subject

was

school

the

in

secured

It

insured

also

half

missionaries

the

as

inspection,

and

In

work.

for

ing

and

had

evi-

qualification. the

effect.

This

ceeininge: < A subsidiary

orders

the

secured

supervision

government efficient in

technical

grant.

as

salary

his

required

immediately

and

efficiency

of

dence

the

of

produce

could

they

provided

teachers

and

Foreman

Superintendent,

tech-

skilled

salaries

the

half

pay

to

offered

forward

to

desiring

Madras,

lines,

European

on

work

of

Government

the

now

By nical

14-20,

was

issued any

na-

who

that

the

Paper,

S.

India",

1st

IV

(March,

1895),

p.

» 3 OMMN VORA RXVIDL «MSD

boys

should

under

the

stay

new

Missionary

in

the

school

arrangement

Societies:

Wesleyan

Districts;

American

Church

Missionary

Society;

Districts;

admitted, of

many

more

expenditure

wood

the

school

was

at

and

this

by

the

As

as

Government

gratifying.

The

Madras

Presidency.

At

cellent years ed

in

School

in

on

the

this

1895

and

charge,

in

1895

in

connection

Rs.

in

the

was

Director

were

fared

the

well

were

and

the

nearly

number a score The

accommodation. with

boarding

the

subjects in

the

concerned,

easily

reckoned

inspection was:

tone

he

"The

left

Director

letter

Salem to

in

taught

examinations

;

school

the a

for

and

6 Cabinet making, blacksmithe-

23930.

music

boys

annual and

made,

suitable

the

K.I.S.

been

admitted

following

Mission;

addition

of

examinations

Discipline

earlier

the

nary

remark

work.

and

have

Arcot

Coimbatore, In

lack

Government '’.

highly

spector's

might

instrumental

time

from

Madras.

boys

the

Trichinopoly

American

L.M.S. from

The

from

for

accounts

conducted far

S.P.G.;

approximately

carving

years'>.

Mission,

Mission;

F.C.M.

refused

four

representatives

Methodist

Madura

admissions

all

from

institutions

ry,

and

were

applications

least

included

Madras

Travancore

at

of

wrote

spoke

of

in

school

results first

1897,

continues

to be

to

as

do

‘one

to of

the

Inex-

8, Two

himself

afterwards

K.I.S.

were in

the

desirea"

Instruction

shortly the

the the

March,

nothing Public

as

the the

visitmissiobest

institutions of its kind in India'!?. The following table gives solid proof

of

nical

Examinations.

its

remarkable

Table

6:

Subject

academic

Grade

performances

Examinees

I Class

in

the

II

Government

Class

Failed

Carpentry

Elementary

1o

lo

==

Carpentry

Intermediate

lo

8

=

--

Carpentry

Advanced

. in

improvement

into

the

of

2,032

cost

a critical

pass

through

precarious

1899

cost

Rs.

towards

the

excellent

in

the

of

1,000)

for

was

to

much

the

was

confirm

on

prosperity

there

a

it

K.I.S.

will

work

reads:

when

and

section

of

towards

another

482,

Commenting

Eventhough the

Rs.

value

sanctioned

gave

carpentry

Rs.

ful

was

Government

Rev.

Joseph

(1905), A.A.

West,

"Progress

Appendix

Thomas,

VI,

op.ctt.,

p.

the

of

98. p.

43.

167

Sexennium,

Negapatam

had school

(June 628

6, Misc.,

District",

a

been

had

there

while

risen,

steadily

had

fluctuation

in

the

condition

of

the

value

of

whowtes

The

reasons

for

might

be

found

long

time

it

had

money-making with

food,

Though form and

the

of

office

had

the

no

was

Another

machinery

time

the

for

letter

to

the

Mission,

pointed

out

that:

may

be

dignity

the

a hard

and

enough

each.

The

a succession on)

and

and

or

the the

repaired

and

renewed

on

Rev.

a sound

Hartley,

thankless

one

task

the

go

24

men

years

three

the

the

terrible

price?°.

necessity

General

Chairman

beyond

of

teaching go

Stott, each.

antiquated

a heavy

the

was who

were

years

was

at

but

in

(Whittome,

of

on

the

school

was

hands,

in

incurred

agency

the

to

with

cost.

different

footing,

Thomas,

labour

of

primitive,

a specialized

A.A.

of

Headquarters

result

was

as

of

two

supplied

expenses

four

money

not

a

managers

spent

planning of

be

who

the

remaining

of

not

Government

management

years

so

meet

had

a

it was

free

the

Missionary

the

For

collected,

almost

from

to

the

in

Marshall

necessity

help

K.I.S.

itself.

i.e.

were

training

it

K.I.S.

the

orphans

years

loss

Rev.

institution

44

were

the

of

In

to

Orphanage',

from

proper

needed of

not

of

for

an

and

came

and

the

some

drawback

five

finances

usefulness

"It

money

of

cause

which

Though

ries

it was

financial of

the

received

Arnett

not

of

education,

continuity.

Embury,

and

Several

serious

a term

debt.

nature

'Home

administration

There

a

the

Another

held

In

a

concern.

bulk

it

the

been

institution

that

Metam,

very

grant-in-aid,

England.

under

distressing

the

clothing,

the

of

the

in

and

dispute.

Secreta-

the

District,

the

on,

if

we

are ever to correct the mistaken idea that the only career open to an Indian Christian is to be a teacher in school, or a catechist in a village. We are doing a little to meet the great economic questions that face the missionaries and to give

up

the

attempt

cowardly"31.

So,

in

spite

of

and

the

financial

was

making

signs

the

number

of

students

and

an

official

visit

Noble the

paid

school

culties. in

the

had

The

of

confess

made

number

previous

growth

great of

eight

and

failure

hardships, there

was

efficiency to

the

progress

boys years

on

would,

the

in

the

spite

continued.

When

1937,

of

be

increase

teaching. in

think,

K.I.S.

a steady

K.I.S. in

I

he

its

in

the

Rev.

noticed

financial

rolls

had

gone

(1928-1937);

the

number

up

from of

W.J. that

diffi-

60

paid

It

both

to

107

workmen

29)

MSS. sa para

'Trichinopoly', Box to Rev. William 5

(1917-1922): Letter of the Rev. W.A. Goudie, dated Karur, 13th Aprils, 1924,

30)

MSS.

'Trichinopoly',

(1917-1922):

to

31)

the

MSS. Letter

Rev.

Box

William

Goudie,

'Trichinopoly', of

Mannargudi,

the

Rev.

Box

5,

to

Letter

Karur,

(1913-1917,

A.A.Thomas

February

dated

the

1917.

168

of

Chairman's Rev.

Mr.

Henry

Arnett

10-8-1921.

File

Marshall

1911-1913):

Hartley,

dated

had

almost

ceased

structors. where more was

The

boys

could

than

for

received

the

proves

needs from

of

the

and

was

senior

service

three

be

an

institutions

four its

left

were

purpose

training.

formed

evangelistic

the

villages

an

preaching

important the

around, and

agency

Diocese

But

there band

while

the

also

in-

a place

the

witnessing?-.

of

and

only

as

practical

in

in

or

fulfilling

boys

in

training

to

the

really

a thorough

the

excellent

themselves K.I.S.

exist,

receive

this,

doing

to

school

Church,

was

which

boys

Even

today

meeting

supplying

the

the

demands

outside.

2.

For

fully

powerful

a century

adjunct

to

Medical

Missions

the medical

missionary

mission

work

in

had

India.

been It

recognized

was

not

as

merely

a

a key

to open the door into non-Christian communities but ‘an integral™part of the Gospel enterprise'>>. Even from the humanitarian point of view, it’ was a Christian-like

thing

to "heal

alone it was worthy of an honoured The

sight

never the

medical

lands. man's

They of

thought ly to

it

as

had

their

and

souls.

worth

while of

who

Church

in

In

to

the

India

reaffirmed

the

the

other

a powerful

men's

was

moved

on

Master the

Internattonal

healing

and

by

imitated

a whole

Methodist

suffering

'passed

missions

the

the

healing by

human

bodies

editor

man

of

willingly

its

the

place

words

devote

hearts side';

evidencial

who

Revtew

sick'

drew of

no

Dr.

energies

bodies

as

to

saving

object

of

His

love

also

strongly

faith

in

it

for

of the and

this

value

and

the

His

and

non-Christian

who

many

who

reason

distinction

their

believed at

this

in

sharp for

cause

programme.

missionaries

for

J.H.Oldham,

of Misstons

His

and

in every missionary

between

was

the

years:

time

"He

as

souls.

earnest-

It

was

inieresoees = The in

the

General

ministry

Synod

of

of 1946,

saying:

“The Ministery of Health and Healing is a self-revealing activity /.of our Lord through His Body, the Church. It is not a ministry which can be chosen or left. It is not an agency to supplement or support the main missionary enterprise, nor is it only a means of attracting men to listen to the Christian to the Christtan mers age-~+t is a part of and éxpression of that

message itself"35.-— Thus ,

32)

33) 34) 35)

from

this

conviction

it

Report of Secretarial Vistt ber, 1936 to march, 1937 by Letth, pp. 89-90.

R.H.H.Goheen,

"Medical

Bes ets

Ibid. RGS (1946),

p.

became

the

missionaries'

duty

to

to Burman, Indta and Ceylon, Septemthe Rev. W.d.Noble and Mrs. Duncan

Missions

in India",

15. 169

IRM,

Vol.

XIX

(1930),

the

develop stian

medical

Church,

The le

District

might

position “hative

to

}

yr

be

in

having of

four of

care

was

mission

at

a

Rev.

Henry

gudi

in

of

The

of

But

some

time

Hudson

was

appointed

shed;

England

at

been

hospital

there

son.

the Rev.

for

was

Daniel

long

the

mission

holding

on

the

work

Mannargudi

assistant,

The

unprecedent

36)

MSS. the

13th

Henry

Findlay

Rev.

and

called

after

Dr.

compounders,

and

of

Rev.

to

Elias

the

Holdsworth,

H.Hudson,

"Medical

tember, 1898), pp. 359-364. Rev. R.Smailes, "Elias 1923), pp. 205-206.

Daniel

the a

Rev.

the

to

well-built

Henry start.

and

1893

af-

grounds

fresh

there

TrichiRev. was

a

return

to

dispensary

attached.

Dr.

Mannargudi, and the 38 Hospital'~~. He was succeedtraining only

departure,

anda

He and

medical

work

E.

Hud-

minister carried

had

Bible-woman,

(1885-1891):

V,

under

native

qualifications.

one 39

Anne

in

1902

Letter

from

Jenkins,

dated

Karur,

Pps e2oc= 250i.

India",

/

Mannargudi"

WWMF, FF,

‘

{AK

the

But

ill-health

Ebenezer

South

of

1889 made

In

the

Vol.

in

ready was

the

Tiruvarur

early

Box

on

dispensary

Daniel's

Rev.

op.ctt.,

Work

In

his

a nurse

for medical

in

Hudson's

Trichinopoly',

Little

England

being

medical

house

missionaries.

both

and

‘Hudson's

of

a

appointed

in-patients

received

need up

the

and

by

known

set

and

to

first

for

been

1886.

January,

37)

ward

recognized

success

'Negapatam Rev.

38) 39)

two

His

commodious

time

whose

was

hoepfulness,

difficulties.

compelled

the

there

Mannar-

the

at

an

and

staff,

up

was

Tiruvarur

abandoned.

the

distinction

the

Indian

not

taken

a

who

of

returned

many

was

a small

a

in

at

he

Daniel

had

was

under

commonly

Elias

was

1899,

with

had

Lunn

Mannargudi.

of

especial

joined

work

to

close

Rev.

work

before

provided,

name

by

hearts

pursued

but

the

Hudson's ed

the

stay,

in

were

Within

a suitable

work

their

of the popu-

town

to

missionary

started

filled

the

persons

mis-

important |

whom

villages.

decided

already

of

tentative

it was

thatched

who

of

an

in-Tiruvarur,

was

first-medical

Ric. P.,

but

it

Litt-

strengthen

then

20%

and

a medical

doubt even

the

House

was

that

outside

in

one

the

M.R.C.Ss,7L.

Just

Chri-

Henry

influence. The bulk

was

his

no

fifty thousand

there

The

outlook

nopoly

had

where

1886 the Rev.

was

the

Trichinopoly

in ‘London

labourers

So,

of

Christ.

the

thousand,

of

Mission

ministry

Jesus in

would

ten

castes.

like

M.D.B.S.

year

healtne:s

of

the

and in

which

persons

grentesken

reside.

Lunn,

first

bad

were

anticipations

the

Hudson,

For

S.

1888.

happiest

ter

to

by

District. “Tiruvarur

something

Tiruvarur,

doctor

Tiruvarur

agricultural

the

of

Committee

milés~from-the

a population

set

felt

a population whom

of

medical

for

in

part

mission

been

to the better

number of

example

long

Tanjore

Tahoe be longed radius

the

Missionary

opened

the

town

immense

essential

a medical

had

the

Brahmins, many

7)

an

for opening

suggested

sion

as

following

need

Negapatam

work

:

Vol.

Vol.

VII XIX

Sep-

poe

(1922-

surpassed year

almsot and

tal be

all

previous

amounted to

to

200.

work.

32,314.

The

At

single-handed

effect

on

Dr.

Mannargudi influence

on

dispensary Through

the

gradually

the

for

treatment.

A

min

caste,

as

and

most

tenaciously

work

for

quite

1934,

of

he

was

exerted

by

medicine

long

M.M.S.

greatly

of

a

Brahmins the

these

known,

it

women was

and

when:Dr.

visited

the

dispensary

to

doctor.

strong

see

In

the

his

too.

seemed

to

Daniel

in

Christian him.

of

One

of

Brahmin

of

women

of

Dr.

and

the

Brah-

I

clung

good

Medical in

Se-

1933-

Christian

Hooker

more

came

the

his

influence

writes:

simple one, and there is nothing I realized at once that I was in

personality,

the

who

continued the

for he

who

to

at Mannargudi

extent

Gospel.

thus

women

A.W.Hooker,

report

The

the

and

belonged

Daniel

detrimen-

opportunities

number

up

daily

he

topics,

the

the

most

with

golden

that

went

Dr.

preaching

was

well

surprised

of

religious

period,

veteren

time

over

of

a

one

contact

had

presudicess, 4 Dr.

"The dispensary is a very about the equipment, yet presence

on

had

by

a powerful

the

in

patients

work

gained

percentage then

at

into

for

Daniel

men

influence

caste

came

treated

of

crowds,

exerted

means

cases

entailed

°. The

it

who

good

influence

was

to

this

fact,

people

large

a

the

in

breakdown and

of

number

labour,

health,

respected

much

of

of

such

very of

many

gained

signs

cretary

a

number daily

of

blessed

native

influence with

amount

complete

afforded

conversing

surest

a

signally

the

the

treatment

Daniel's

with

was

total

tremendous

almost

threatened

The times

saw

of

elaborate the

Dr.

Daniel's work the more I realized the splendid influence which he exerts in the town, both by his medical work and by his fine Christian qualities. By some the work would be considered very small,

The was

to

be

largely as

pital

it

and

hundred

had

we

that

in

and

from

by Mrs.

is

charge

still

room the

of

the and

commonly

weigh

the

wife

and

was

in

the

fifteen to twenty ee: 3 . admissions

Missionary

at Work",

"Native Medical jvpmeiil Wha

41)

Rev. Stanley Dodd, "The House 1902), WWMF, Vol. XI (August,

42)

Report of and Indta

WWMF,

Trichinopoly

for

many

then

work

at

this

patients,

of Mercy: Medical pp- 334-336.

of

woman time

Mission

The

Hos-

building

a simple

Vol.

years

Chairman

a European

out-patients.

about

yearly

the

nature.

then

in

on

appointed

obstetric for

of

values?"

work

carried

Synod

called,

up

Medical

it was

hospital,

4o)

43)

should

dispensary

a small for

1923

District

the

1935

with

being

we

Sandford,

gynaecological

in-patients, big

1917

In

District.

are

Hospital-Trichinopoly:-

in

efficiently

doctor was

who

Mission

started

most the

but

about

XI.

Work

five

(August,

at

for

never

It was

1902),

Mannargudi",

tin China Visttatton of the Medical Work of the M.M.S. Pp. Shik, Medtieal Secretary, 1933-1934 by Dr.A.W.Hooker,

Goed.

7A

As

years

passed

balur, five

36

--6,471.

to

the

same

There

year

1962

five

nurses

day,

the

women's

lakhs).

has

In

be

Dharapuram

1931,

is an

of oS

which the

from

Mass

Mission

Prior

to

he

women

1931

in

about

Little,

came

Sometimes

to

attached

opened

them

is by

in

the

staff’?

Government

(costing

beds

with

well-equipped town.

In

no

the

Being

expensive

more

than

10

well-maintain-

spite at

of

such

Woriur

most

still

needy

government

Hospital

To-

busy

Hospital an

and

Hospital to

maternity.

doctors,

Indians.

100

the

for

Two a very

one

people

grant

in

but

Woriur

is

Tiruchirapalli'*®. Hospital

a large and

in

Dharapuram,

country

community.

size,

of

professional

Mission

in

25

small,

receives

The

could

work

with

hospital.

In spite

several

other

particularly not

aid

In

be

in

needs

equipment Later

1926

work many

began

the

preaching.

as

treated

Jeyankondum

met

the

built

in

It arose

of

out

a Government

private

under-

Harijan

Christians

adequately

before

the

built??,

first

start

fifty-

cases

and

patients.

a big

in

villagers,

area,

the

Mission

Mission

same

the

beds,

contribution

Movement

medical faced

Dharampuram.

hostel.

the

hospital

the

of

was

carried

went

of

Peram-

at

about of

was

Catholic

homes

sound.

The

through

workers

ward

exclusively

several

and quite

Movement

J.J.Ellis,

villages, as

is

needs

50

has

hospital

is

at

number

medical

private

than

city,

The

16

though

Roman

a substantial

'cheapest

Hospital

a

nursing

of the Mass

takings,

had

managed

are

the

Hospital:-

Hospital

Rev.

and

on

away,

Woriur--15,961

completed

more

there

attractive

ees

the

and

total

and

eight

Trichinopoly

position

the

Jeyankondum

a general

Woriur,

and

carried miles

useful.

for

in

also

eleven

the

doctors

at Woriur made

beds,

in

make

was

at

Woriur

midwives

neighbourhood.

to

1949,

very

containing

clinics

financial

said

200

institutions

its

its

and

In

At

staffed

addition

to

city

women

Hospital

ward,

scope

in

also

three

than

private

large

two

Headquarters,

maternity ed

and

work

Irungalur,

Irungalur--14,047,

hospital

hospital,

more

the

proved

was

Mission

District with

of

were:

this

the

mural at

nospiwed 2

and

Accommodation

extra

Trichinopoly.

were

Mission

In

north

from

places

these

at

miles

miles

on,

maintained

dispensaries

the

in as

the

Dharapuram

hundreds

and

Mrs.

of

simple

Sandford

first

a small 22

the

of

building

began

had

among Dr.

been

treated

on

the

in

with

work

doctor,

that

were

when

medicines

full-time

in-patients

area,

Christians

the

him the

Edith a girls' the

veran-

44)

"Medical Work--Statistics Diocese of Tiruchtrapallt 1949, p. 11. Statisttes,

45)

"Tiruchirapalli Diocese--Woriur", Report by the Rev.Frank Davey of hts rae es Indta, Kenya and the Rhodestans, January-March, 1962,

46) 47)

Pp. fF Ibitd. pero. ofi Secretari Report ae SB al

for and

tstt Vist

the year 1949", Church of South Indta Thanjavur: Summary of Reports and

by Rev. . 172

W.d.

Noble

and

Mrs.

Duncan

dah,

besides

block

of

villages

block

from

the

was

was

1933-1935. had

live

two

blocks

1,427

The work

work

ly meant religious

the

sent

in

by

in

a

vast

surrounding lepers

Dharapuram. hospital not

were

be

was and

of

teachers.

of

"It

people

was

were

the dispensaries,

a

the

the

in

were

still

to

the

and

both in

Vellakoil

ways

countless

taking

fringe

served

dispensary

different

been

of

the

itself in

and

had

feeling

hospital

held

chief-

educational

touching

a weekly

helped

of

Its

it was

patients

town

was

special.

that

testimony

The

in

also

there

the

had

is

man">?,

dispensary

in

merely

number

total

a way

with

of

One

than

communities

There

in

linked Many

ill-health.

A weekly

many

closely

rather

wholeness

treated.

was

were train-

Pyeae

numbered

hospitals

District.

effort,

the

villages.

mission

now

all there

thirty-two

were The

out-patients.

Dharapuram

the

non-Christian

Though

and

and

pastors

problem in

in many

throughout

belief and

of

community

village

Christian

could

a

Hospital that

co-ordinated

India's

which

from

were

5 non-European

there

holder;

1941

in

1946

In

non-European),

confinements

work

part of

room.

and

for

Church's

had

eleven

many

so

were

lived

nurses

of

from

new buildings

the

fur=

that

number

Early

use.

With:

noted

for

room

enough

prayer

1 diploma

50%.

was

average

425;

of

1935, it

increased

28,801

differed

abnormal

the

and

years

the

had

in-patients,

the example

for

and

one

by

striking

was

in

in

was

hospital,

figures

the

and

passed

one

1952,

and

partly

confinement

and

then

were

the

1938

nearly

finished

in

daily

In

came*®,

and

in-patient

years

and

where

European

madé was operations

as

in

out-lying

patients

stay

laboratory

rooms

The wards,

33%

figures,

which

were

5 probationers,

nurses,

beds,

became

not

to

whose

“‘therftirst the

Government

maternity

women

Hospital

was

But

the

of

the

Brahmin

increased

normal.

were Mission

the

first

from

of

willing

event.

the

this

from

the

in.193i)

it was

majority

were

an

of

1934

there

(one

doctors

be

analysis

quarters

private

as

two ed

the

1933

hospital

7%

but

the

daily.)

but

partly

maternity

the

blessing.

great

used

to

confinements

nurses'

new

the a

In the

in

patients

In

came

Opened

people

the

the

to

thirty,

grants

age

1933,

visiting

over

to

that

town

caste

children.

the

of

80%

patients

the

in

in

During

reference

ther

was

enough

shown

is

this

of

rare

people

who

hospital with

though

still the

out-patients

Committee

and

of

than built

Home

admitted, it

many

present

rather

This

trust

the

the

at at

by

others

Chinna the who

reached.

48)

“Glimpses into the Past", Church of South (Silver Jubilee Report, 1957) , p. 3.

49)

Report of Secretarial OUGCT Uses Dist oils

50)

"Glimpses

Bi)

Aiaaoiatejons 5 (MSO)

into

the

52)

Trichtnopoly Dien Sis

Vistt

by

W.dJ.Noble

Indta and

Mrs.

Hospttal Dunean

1931-1956 Letth,

/

Past",

op.ctt.,

pp.

3-4.

sels shee

District

(1945),

p.

Wie

9;

cf.

Women's

Work

Report

(1945),

of

free

to

consequences

A hospital

done.

not

fore

nic

poverty,

was

and

times

had

to

age

and

of

The

is

still be

bought

sanitation

surface

solid

Diocesan

various

if

would

the

not

Report which

created

medical

of

staff

qualified

Hospitals country,

this

there-

could

and

closed

for

the

the

work

in

1949

work be

this

hospital

drains

could

health

the

year

the

associated

to

barriers

problem

problems

but

problems

Malnutrition,

great

though

beset

other

area.

were

even

hospital

solve

many

a constant

also rock,

problems

"Even

were

Dharapuram

superstition

and

habits

Water

there

the

in

work

medical

fee-paying

on

self-supporting.

be

Besides

in

con-

must

but

greatest,

the

was

need

Hospital

Woriur

Mission

the

hospitals

voluntary

all

of whose

those

for

existed

which

outlay.

that

was

District

the

in

financial

a heavier

and

of

problem

The

the

the

So,

after.

a more

necessitates

which

and

standard

a higher

demand

to

come

equipment,

hospital

and

skill

turn

in

They

poor,

the

on

not

centrate patients.

en-

patients

greatest,

the

is

need

whose

not

the

as

given

did

self-supporting

become

to

wishes

question

years

self-supporting,

become

that

the

the

of

for

felt

be

to

continued

to

unable

was

hospital

this

of

round

prominence

Movement

Mass

part

the

on

an

The

twelve. the

of

days

early

the

reponsibility

of

a sense

courage

had

in

treatment

Poverty

was

turned

mostly

of

work

the

do

rupee

one

make

to

how

difficulty

The

insurmountable-problem.

real.

and

many

were

problems

its

poverty-stricken,

were

members

whose

a community

for

meant

chiefly

a hospital

As

of

the

through.

country

a deep

the

insisted

a vivid

picture in

many

Drainto

the

upon. of

these

Dharapuram:

times

Malnutrition,

some-

and

well.

proximity

hospital

multiplied

problem.

be broken arid

rightly

gives

the

hygie-

of

had

through were

with

ignorance

it

ignorance,

unhygienic customs and superstition are a constant drag... Hundreds are treated for hookworm but they go back to their village certain to be re-infected before long. Many come with T.B. but the sanatoria are overcrowded and there are long waiting lists. We have no suitable place in which to put these patients; if we take them in, they are a danger to others. In their

homes,

the

food

is

often

not

enough

and

their

chances

of

recovery are almost nil. Moreover, in spite of many warnings, they are certain to infect the rest of the family. More and more we realize that the medical part of the missionary programme can never be effective by itself but only as it is coordinated

with

economic

improvement,

pastoral

care,

and

the

right kind of education. In the Dharapuram area alone there are over 500 village groups. Their tragic need stands as a challenge that cannot be ignored by followers of Him who came "that they might have life, and might have it more abundantly'">>. On

the

culties

as

staffing the

side

locality

the is

hospital not

had

attractive.

to

contend All

with

credit

to

special those

diffi-

devoted

SS

53)

Church of South India Diocese of Titruchtrapallt and Tanjore: Summary of Reports vii and Statisttes ees aye 1949, 5 Tiruchira palli: : (United i i Printers URNS ba

174

Indians

who

chronic

shortage

and

are

ready

missionary Today

the

nursing

The

The

block

theatre

city The

hospital By

hospital

was

of

opened

November

and

two

advisory,

more

ful

area

the of

those

in

the

of

Christ

And

some

fully their 'The

of

publicity.

a

laboratory.

from

large modernized. chapel

Electri-

weekly

Health

given”.

about

visits

the

of

to

55)

Report

an

homes

table

the

will

Dharapuram

a

is

also learn

base

One

the

As

a

training

For

gateway

to

faith

in

their

Saviour

put

their

Him and

the

or

an to

at

replied:

of

the

town

may

offer on

their

a play

own

"Please

help

of

divine

and

more and

life

received has

On

March

the

On

local

The

19,

of Rev.

Frank

Church of South Indta, T965—1966, pp. 7-8.

Davey,

op.ctt.,

Hospital,

p.

Board

them

thanks,

hospital

is

175

Medical

Report

not with

High

73.

Dharapuram,

1966,

were

performance

grate-

of

connected

events

giving

us.

the

been

quoted.

this

time

into

evidence

two

only

power.

an of

treated

first

healing

mi-

power-

be

not

the

hospital

a benefit

thank

auxiliary

as

from as

expense.

don't

of

are

for

beneficient

come

for

and

difficulties

even

highlights

but

given,

gifts

who

the

be

The

and

hear

His of

observed.

put

many

work

instances

was the

was

group

good

Hindus

two

or

as

the

its

newness

There,

devotion of

centre

work,

those

to

the

days

a far-reaching

Diocese. the

of

the

extra-mural

become

often

Day'

Hospital

for

proof

through

spiritually.

by

one

Gift

bears

it

4

54)

this

Field.

following

condition

start-

in

provide

service

Visiting

The

and

1966.

was

time

to

the

built

August,

duty

treatment

the

With

was

department,

their

nurse-

but

area.

31st

new

of

minor

auxiliary

hostel the

a

half

also

of

greatly,

outside

on

Municipality

was

brought

in

drama

teachers

and

opportunity.

as

meetings

its

a

doctors

been

hospital

training

Service,

Dharapuram

witness

gratitude

Mission

in

could

acknowledged

teachers'

the

have

acknowledge

public

the

nurses'

regular

nursing

usefulness

the

the

comprised

future

and

Hospital

Hindu

who

and

but

who

have

improved

Collector

spent

information

hospital

The

around

wards and

the had.

staff

Health

planning

days

the

physically

for

on

staff

outside

is

the

1959-19166..

present

Church.

the

on

unremitting.

a small

a trainee

District

Public

hospital

Christian

here,

the

family

nurse-midwives

nistry

the

work

from

Today

the

by

authentic

Hospital courage

dependent England,

Their

on

is

there

supply?

suited

of

a selected

There

but

burden

buildings

one-patient

situation

too

and

the

well-equipped

town

staff

here,

and

heavy

the

demonstration,

Teaching give

the

members

department.

and

position.

in

1965

is

eminently

M.M.S.

officially

In

to

is

service

staff

multiple

good

from

still

the

ed

in

is

1965

their

well-constructed

original

obtained

midwives.

help

has

a prominent

is

offer

qualified

sisters

hospital

quadrangle.

occupies

to

of well

School

for

the ser-

Table

8

oo

:

Statistics

eee

1965-66

1964-65

1963-64

196 2-63

=62 1961-6

= 1960-61

1959-60 = i

Sureeeblentar

5991

6437

7094

7925

8004

8455

11835

15886

16530

15228

22752

25982

26156

29569

New

1825

1600

1090

1424

1353

1265

1318

Total

3305

2791

2062

2923

2939

3177

3223

1825

2076

2114

2174

2421

2427

2690

150

137

187

211

23

304

319

155

170

196

235

243

12

19

18

New Total Villages:

In-Patients:

Total Maternity

130

rr

Major

Operations

28

20

Minor

Operations

202

283

T77

196

276

300

232

Tests

==

==

3305

3976

6005

5670

8665

Deliveries

Normal

Laboratory

TV?

iB

Finance’ 35530

37132

44126

46909

53563

60318

9o111

Overseas Income (Grants & Gifts)

Local

Income

18352

20569

23895

29684

36954

36770

37706

Expenditure

64868

56395

66568

79551

90435

92496

133298

Source:

Church

of

South

India

Hospital,

Dharapuram

Medical

Report

1965-1966.

ving The

the

town

second

and

event

the

formed

the

authorities

ing

pay

for

to

would Club

try in

arose

to

the

Europe.

adequate

This their

medical

tal

to

meet

this

56)

Dbad. 5 pps

Bi

eiDad.

of

We

an

the

X-Ray

most

must

later

building

obtain

throught

area.

happened

facilities,

all

the

hospital

we

that

the

for

an

machine

for

them

offer

something and

their

need’,

6-7

176

of

can

to

Dharapuram

required

generous

seeing

do

when

of the

help

local

X-Ray as

help need

willingness

you

Lion's

ha

Clup

branch

Department, a gift from in to

a Lion's people

town

help

will-

and

from

local the

in-

was

the

for

more

hospi-

CHAPTER

To

estimate

ian

Mission

ber

of

the

in

In

the

RAISING

1.

A

value

India

Christians

faiths. being

the

7:

is

second

of

India.

missionaries

over

ver

impressed

would

naries

be

have

been

munity--the

of

dian

and

Two up

long

in

a Church

strict.

activities

mainly

Community.

Did

the

delay

credit week

in

my

to

they

in

ed and is of

to

replete

author

of

the

Christian

Through

been

strove

to

written

hard

to

to

build

their

their

much-desired

answer

is in

they were and

of

« at

to

the

Christian

and

to

show week

India

little

or

the

place

that

the

on

impression

the

Dr.

tn

on

lowest

classes

famine

castes

were

remnot fail-

therefore,

Asta

about

the

Missions, 'Failure

Sen

Gupta,

1793-1833,

while

Prasanna

to

Christian-

that

Christian

the

talking

7

Wl

Anpiee

Asta and K.M.Panikkar, George Allen and Unwin

Repeal

1947) «

new edition, Western Dominance, Ltd., 1959), pp. 290-297.

ER

in

their

K.M.Panikkar's

loudly

Bengal

in

among

Missions,

section

Kanti

very

only

from

have

importance

said

higher

India.

very

speak

no

it

hear

among

their

after

background in

only

often

Despite to

centres

social

Missions

took

Misstonartes

able

prejudiced

Christian

that

Christian

highly

We

all

affirmative.

and

successful

which

last

preaching

and

attach

object--a the

which congregated

158

converts

Likewise

2)

In-

particular.

Di-

particularly

Missions'~.

have

in

com-

running

directed

and

Christian

the

Trichinopoly

conversions

statements

missio-

and

Christianity,

with

the

a Christian

contribution

community

III)

obser-

and

labours.

appreciable

which

to the

resources

of 53,273

proved

casual

in

of

Negapatam

The

They

that

and

all

and

inconsiderate

Dominance,

Western

(II

a

missions.

a massive

Christian

with

at

work

literature,

medical

charged

if

of

num-

great

the

tribes,

any

make

the

and

made

the

other

in

critics

been

only

have

places of

Christian

place

the

up

Christ-

time

aboriginal

of by

affected

has

society,

and

nants

achieve succeed?

Community

building

the missionaries

staff

missionary

of

India

to

even

any

of

been

at

activities

the

of

back

a half,

schools

they

their

and’verdict.

Indian

like

years

drawn,

and

variegated

chapters

130

looking

Evangelism,

and

number

always

results

ity of

the

were

assessment

century the

creation

265 wworshipping as

opinion

the

by

disappointment,

a Christian

But which

and

those

yet,

while.

of

first

to

And

past

to

the

compared

little

all

they

in

work

has

detailed

spent

for

the

contributing

and a native

They

of

Christianity

ways,

nearly

when

or

Indian

general

and

for how

Community

difficult,

sitall

CHURCH

therefore

the

other

LIVING

and

auxiliaries

many

society

show

very is

engaged:

Church,

missionary

these

the

A

Christianity

place,

denationalized,

welfare

OF

Christian

of

there

UP

(London:

the

'failure

following

remarks:

about

the

makes

missionaries',

the

of

frustrations

and

as already noticed was very inconverts, The majority of to the vast population.

"The number of Indian significant compared

outSociety, of the Indian strata from the lowest them were after Their behaviour and even beggars. half-castes castes,

or

conversion scarcely reflected any change in their character failed to achieve their way of life. Thus the missionaries

object"3.

Prakashika, This

article

was

tures

given

Hall,

Bangalore.

Harvest

in

written 1882

Field,

by

The

by

a Hindu

Dr.

Cook,

whole

a Methodist

as

a

text

a refutation

lecturer

of

the

Monthly,

from

article

where

we

of

the

Boston,

is

two

at

the

lec-

the

reproduced

read

Karnattka

Bangalore.

in

published

the

in

appeared

which

article

Anglo-Vernacular

conservative

a

an

from

comes

sample

Another

Cubban

in

the

following

words:

"The truth probably is... that Hindu converts to Christianity are almost exclusively recruited from the ignorant and uneducated masses, from, in fact, the lowest of the castes of the great social system in India... Is it not a fact that a Christian convert of high caste in India is as rare as the sparrow is in an English winter"? These led

are

against

critics

some the

who

share

observations truth.

Eric

Destroy

such

J.

clearly Fulftl

ly proves,

by

citing

right

to

"But

adequate

Similarly Sen

Gupta,

tive

in

easily his

his

3)

Kanti

4)

"Caste

5)

Eric

his due

to

work

of

from

the

he

the

such

Gupta,

can

learning

out

that

facts

missionaries. Dr.

Kenneth

and

164-165.

HF,

II,

No.

Vol.

6) 5Tibet ak ek slicks

178

not

question

be

shown be

1o

to

of

Dr.

Kanti

has

been

figures

(ApEti,

the

proceed

slight"®.

he

who

to

concludes

must

Ingham's

pp.

12=13).

and

does

Anyone

op.ctt.,

pp.

and

and

pick

reading

Asta

incorrect'

object

value

ob-

convincing-

strongly

fairness

the

work,

Panikkar

their

whole

Panikkar's

of

statements

to

masterly

Panikkar's

Sharpe

these

the

Sharpe

level-

and

Though

tell

does

statements'

facts,

his

'plainly

Though

opinion,

in

not

often

India

numbers. do

Missions',

portions

book.

in

evaluating

all

after

op.ett.,

out

in

of

Christianity",

Sharpe,

Christian

respect

as

Sen

this

criticisms work

in

they

While

the

evidence

and

lacking

truth,

sweeping

of

said

Prasanna

J.

his

be

especially

not of

brings

the

should

the

missionary

(1965).

‘sweeping

unless

discredit

book,

in

knowledge all

time-honoured

and

‘inaccuracies',

hold

and

with

it

of

a number

the

statements

saying:

from

Failure

Dominance,

'generalization' by

are

grain

Sharpe 'The

Panikkar's

views

to

and

Church

But

on

"misleading'

stock

some

servations

Western

the

contain

Not

to

of

Christian

Prasanna so

which goes

seleccan

through

Reformers

WiSG2)

in

pie

Ss

Indta

1793-1833,

from

the

to

due

as

free

from

cent

per

flaws

Now

in

It

all

let

us

extent

or

the

as

the

they

hold of

these

good.

It

converts

population'

to

its

far

Trichinopoly

'vast

test

the

success

converts

is

is

by

means

of

the

no

how

number

trying

measure

the

success

or

simplest

the

development

nor

has

lives

in

raise of

and

blest

India,

of

hundred

one

yet

'to

make

a

of

the

most

ele-

ignorance

up

the

genuinely

the

total

true

and

Christian

small

the

area of

(about

and

be

if

it,

the

most part

many

divided

the

leads

to

wrong

men

Therefore,

Dr.

Madura

or

tabulating

John

Mission,

to

native test

conclusions.

of

indicatwho

they

toil-

explain

Moreover,

reduced

the

this

real

women

directions.

columns

or

of

means can

the

5 million).

only

and

nor

in

Further,

as

other

for

number

adopted.

the

into

to

to

communi-

compared

India,

upon

community;

devised

American

the

in

superficial of

when

thousand work

method looked

indeed,

the

in

55

through

commonest

work

very

missionary

chiefly

on

been

hearts'?.

that

missionaries

a Christian

cannot yet

true

are

also

only

useful

scheme

missionaries

And

not

Methodist

Missions

influence any

were

the

of

struggle

spiritual

they

not

were

was

and

provide

to

their

dismisses

by

method,

statistics years

won

a safe the

is

failure

persistent

for

suffers

legitimately

District of

ing

the

is

missionaries

undertook.

criticisms

progress

General ed

the

that

betrays

this

Gupta

what

simply

that

and

Sen

:

see

and

Dr.

Gupta

true

they

that

such

that

Sen

is

Srigieismae

above

condemnation

Negapatam to

failure'’. or

convinced

willingto concede

factsiie.

mental

But

be Not

missionaries,

Christian

successful

sweeping

what

soon

attitude.

'total

a

work

ty

will

a partisan

many

to

figures,

‘enriched

P.

Jones,

one

of

who

worked

for

many

the years

says:

"The mighty and unparalleled revolution which is going on in India at present as a result of missionary work, is not to be tabulated in our statistical reports. The deepest currents of those great moral and spiritual forces of the India of today are not found within the realm of figures. They defy tabulation; and yet they bring to the keen observer in that land

more

than

all

When

we

and

facts

of an ordinary mission poly

look

the

at

the

Methodist

Church

in

1o)

Lid

See

“(19N4);,

(Aasdidly

sp.

it

Trichinobecomes

194.

‘

658.

"'Nega

p.

the

years,

8)

W.E.Garman,

op.cit.,

hundred

"Causes of the Expansion or Retrogression Surendra Kumar Datta, of Religions in India: A survey of the Census of AOA ge DRM

Rev.

Gupta,

first

covers

Kanti

Vou

Sen

the the

significance,

within

7)

9)

Prasanna

of

during

more

found

usually

report"!°.

history

especially

District,

figures

have

they

because

encouragement,

the

and

Trichy'

District

Synod",

WWMF,

Vol.

ni91o3))ite pieul 42

John P. Jones, Indta's Problem Krishna H.Revell Company, 1903), pp- 299-300. 179

or

Christ,

(New

York:

Fleming

the

work

of

the

moments

of

frustrations

missionaries.

In

places

were

there

that

clear

the

of

Mission,

Though

the

nized

and

if

moral much

judged

value

of

of

religion

cannot

be

categorically

was

a

failure. also

laboured.

It

failed

or

that.the

all.

There

is

unfair in

the missionaries. The

Tanjore

that in

the

the

while

Kaveri

conservative

part

of

the

kinsmen

religious

by mammoth

were to

be

in

crowds,

system

of

caste,

secures

respectability, possession

stance, which

of

wealth

caste

and

sanctioned

or

the of

too,

general the

was

have

religious

became

a Christian,

moreover,

For

"caste

against

feeling

seemed

and

same

level

as

to

the

The

still

of

is

of

personal

the

case

been

the

two

family,

11)

Report

12)

G.A.

India,

al2 nl .

IESHR,

of

VI,

direct

the

his

Further,

No.

of

dear

it

was

Caste

(September,

180

their

the

not

but

to

the

Hindu

have

higher

and

character,

or

a

for

Brahmin,

education these

with

and

to

isha Hindu

a

the

p.

in

aiar that

Goudte,

Change 275.

Hindu its him

. when

Séparated

parental

Willtam

and Social 1969),

caste

reduced

friends, of

privileges

implicit

status

by Rev.

and

Christianity.

higher

equality,

by his

the

in-

When Such a person

all

clear

social

of

institutions

in

of the

exalted

1920-1921 3

this

as

of

superiority

of

of his portion

Missions,

the

in

Gospel

could

conflict

heart

be disowned

Vistt,

of

festivals

principal

loss

doctrine

probably

"Protestant Vol.

the

he would

deprived

of Secretartal

Oddie,

into

towns

Hinduism,

wealth

monopoly

an immediate harden

The

communities

example

In

to-undermine

others

a Christian,

his

to

to them. ground'

Hindus

periodical

degree

importance,

came

because

threatened

he became from

it meant religion

Christianity

teachings, the

his

fallen

till.

a superior position over the rest of his countrymen. and

at of

masses.

a certain

learning.

to

outcaste

and

mind

control

'stoniest

also

districts''.

missiona-

Hindu the

had

one they

converts,

Brahminical

responsive

independent

religion his

and

splendid

minds

them

entirely

low

of

the

making

the

were

it

place

which

that the

that

attempt

holds

a

yet

that

under

beyond

as

country

other

and

Then

field

ever

means

their

the

it

could

by no

on

for

the

recog-

or

missionaries,

to

and

And

in

viz.

attractive

recognized

the

the

object

stronger

strongest

Even

effect

the

not

were

work

statement

main

indeed.

cordially

population.

of

progress

slow

breakthrough

conditions

a sweeping

surrounding

type.

proving

results

the

was

been

visible

adverse

been

imposing

classes,

the

instance

establishments,

attended an

missionary

their

the

the

District

were

for long

were

of

most

the

evangelist

delta

people

that

was

which

has

missionary

the

native

the

Gospel

Take

region

the

to make

forces

had

of

achieving

Christian were

Schools no

part

account

Mannargudi returns,

was

assessing

into

reis

Mission

said

like

numerical

there

the

While

take

have

on

by

the

appreciated,

change

must

only

in

failure

apparent

and

in

in-

p.

39

heritance,

© move.

and

oreluged: from..the-circles.in-which

G.A. Oddie

is

therefore

very correct

he had

when

he

been

accustomed

says:

/\"Pear of expulsion from caste acted as a powerful determinant against the acceptance of baptism into the Christian Church. \. Once the lone individual,\rejecting the pressures of his caste, ) allowed the waters of baptism to touch his body, he was almost | invariably expelled as an outcaste, shunned by friends, and relatives, turned out of home and, in some parts of India, even » after 1850, still deprived of his ancestral property"13, If he

anyone

His

parents,

brothers,

prevent

and

and

They

what

in

conviction

another

case

the

the jis

convert

would

caste.

forward

like

a Single

be

marry

'Socially

opposition ing

with

which

high

efforts

is

work

the

of

cretarial

13)

caste

the

of

visit

paid

proved

organized

customs,

the

Christian Hindus,

in by

years'

to

be

of

the of

"success

them.

Nobody

would

father

being

there

creeds, and

to

Rev.

be

William

was

has

found Goudie

in in

in-

yet

deep-rooted

when

of deal-

attended comment

Report

1920.

even

strength

with

already

the

And

the

best

in a

not

of a few

the

cope

Christianity" '®. The may

to

age,

their

caste

that

then

dead

s Therefore,

of

Writing

on

their the

a seof

Ibtid., p. 276; Act XXI of 1850 protecting converts and others against the forfeiture of property on the grounds of loss of caste and change of religion did not apply to the Native States such as Mysore, Travancore and Cochin (G.A.Oddie, op.ctt., p.276).

14)

"Caste

15))

Bric

16)

S. Sathianadhan, "Missionary Work in India: From a Native Point of View", HF, Vol. IX (September, 1888), p. 86.

og.

and

Christianity",

Sharpe,

op.ctt.,

op.ctt., p.

pp.

316-317.

14.

181

g

and

failed,

disappointing.

had

him

lawyers, were

exception

religious

power

he

took

made

for

work,

the

cajoled,

mother

than

too Pignie With

converts

else

if

al-

has

of marriageable

grooms reason

missionaries

Mannargudi the

loo

as

think”

It

son,

officials,

everything

treated

find

man's

whole

to

could

the

case

a

daughters

other

family.

work

a triumph

Mission

to

after

Christian

the

and

the price was even

and

itself

him

If

with

for no

consider the highly prejudices

man

for

them

Mannargudi,

indigenous

we

social

normal.

excommunicated

dividual. conversions, when

quite

a family

impossible to

‘a Christian. place

was

If he was

it. was. “almost come

cases

they

the

him

for

entreated,

one

conversion

nature.

and

disgrace '“.

die broken-hearted. The interference of “police filing of ‘court

friends

that

were

In

severely.

a Christian,

the ‘Christian

of

Mannargudi

persecuted

become

impossible

as ‘a social

how some

and

Negapatam

and

method

every

upon

to

most.appaling

to make.it

try

would

the

of

relatives

together

elsewhere

out

finally

her ‘life, and

and

sisters,

looked

they

in

Brahmanism

from

flattered

courage

league

pointed

been

ready

the

face difficulties

to

Christian.

become. a to

had

have

caste would

of his of

still

then

would

Christian

Mannargudi

he

says:

"Tt is at once disappointing and instructive to know that after close on a hundred years of work there is not in all this stronghold of Brahmanism a single indigenous Christian family, or resident convert won in. the town. The Christian congregation is composed

Christian

imported

of

one

and

workers,

or

two

Christian

families beginning to be drawn to the place by openings for secular work. The situation is disappointing, but it offers no The fruit of our work has been great to proof of failure... eyes that could see and can judge over a long period. There as to many another city where conare coming to Mannargudi, verts

are

few,

thoughts

new

God,

of

new

life,

of

ideals

with

a hallowing of family ties, and a new sense of citizenship, and this as a result of Christian example and diffused teaching. But the sotry of mission work in the town constitutes a strong indictment of Hinduism. The work of the Missionaries borne

has

occasional

converts,

in

fruit

converts'

but

lives

have never been safe among their own people, and Mannargudi has invariably cast them out. The Hindu community can tolerate any irregularity or viciousness of life, but not the crime of so it finds itself without a resident conbeing a Christian, vert at the present time, though sons of the town are doing distinguished_service for Christ in a number of centres in South India"!7. So,

red

the

merely

in

by

small,

of

taunt in

hand,

teased of

who

J.

were

a single

easy

of aS

country. times ty

"vast

U7)

of

it

The

and

¢€aste

with

with their

missionary

when

it

to

simple

who

a Hindu

is

for

if

they

free

to

that

culture.

motives also

is",

several dared. act

the

missiona-

charged

writes

the

are

and the

is

On

converts

questioned;

worked

Christians

there

of

are

their

say

the

fact

in

hund-

than

won

men

of

first

rather

converts

then

conversion

the

fair

of and

lowest

seriously

|. "The

be

failure

the

for

tests

scarely

number

ingathering, is

in

means

are

the

recommend

credited

clear

of

those

in

a baby

and

faster

as

than

Sen

who

India

to

have

that

adding

population

hop cecaaetp:., and

to

work

Therefore,

population',

abot

If

conversion

life

is

rate

place.

WD

critics

labours

by other

with

the

years

Rev.

in

My-

There

is

not

according

to

his

or

know-

|?,

producing

18)

The

to

would

missionary

SGoudiier

judged

India.

a large

unfairest

greater

takes

and

their

period

Further, ledge

is

hundreds

convictions"

be

missionaries

a Methodist

"that

in

instrumental

the

Hudson,

sore,

the

missionaries'

must

returns. work

there

genuineness ries

the

Christianity

if

maliciously

employing

of

district

mission

they

nothing

other

fruit

this

numerical

estimate

is

chief

years

it

to

growth, the

rate

compare

Gupta

does,

got

the

op.

c¢tas

182

'vast

at which the

is

number

an

pe

experience

a convert

especially

S17.

is

not

population' in

India,

conversion of

improper

1405

Christianity",

some

producing

is to

converts

and

as

of

the

several

Christianiwith

the

‘ridiculous

way

of

gauging

Coming

to

the

the

most of them ‘only. Other the

in

same

the

or

third over

ciety

itself.

to

to

The

very

India?

Sudra

fact

As

community,

Pickett:

one

of

the

"Hinduism

do nothing

for

stians“have

is

the

has

for

depths

K.N. of who

have

been

lect “and sin

a Hindu,

spots

of

into

a kind

each

leading

thoughtless

injustice

by quoting

‘refuge

in

country

men'?>.

the

drove

the

Yes,

took

it

naries

who

Sathianadhan,

20)

S.

PUCKett,

22)

Ibid.

23)

The

24)

melpea.

25)

Kanti

care

it

31st

Prasanna

the

was

indeed

of

be

those

op.ctt., ps

March, Sen

of

called the

ages' si Minto,

the

fold

of

to

neglected

p.

power

that

outcastes The

the the

clear:

ignorance,

Christian the

ones?

Service

Gupta,

op.ctit., 183

Letters p.

145.

to

the

says

and

Gupta

scorn

criticise

the

ae

quagmire

outcastes

contempt

help

“One

of

of

negof that

"the himself sought

of

their

the

Church.

Christian rendered

85.

(see

in

er

1298!

1970

to

Hinduism

the

Sen

can

Chri-

Hindu,Prof.

taint"

the

Dr.

of

deeper

As

Kamma

to

The

crystal

the

from

and

the

Ramasubramanyam

for

scorn

right

point

Lord

went

large

goddesses

admit

million

into

a

said

shown

greatest

Christians,

the

into

then

sop. cit.

Hindu,

is

words

of

people

will

Hindu

perpetuated the

Society

these

fact,

Zi)

Another

have

Hindus

circle

other

Hindu

to be con-

anything.

treatment

of vicious

ritual

the

people

to

and

newspaper,

this

of

once

gods

do

and

its

the

the

to

the

made was

forced

mentions,

that

has

Hinduism

untouchability

castes,

eighty-five

debasement,

harbour

themselves

and

popu-

the

disand_intensely

belonging

Sudra

to

in

that

shows

So-

highest

Hindu

the

outcaste

vexed

and honest

letter

the

defect

and

also out

have

Hindu

to

allowed

Churches

pushed

people the

Andhra,

don't want

and

a

low

clearly

priests

and

In

and suffering" wae

"to

is

years

himself

darkest

the

thoughtful

degradation.

Acharya

the

of

The

schools

a thousand of

of

have

pointed

is last-placed

an inherent

in

Christianity

been

of

that

Indian

Buddhism

belong

majority

thoroughly

official

people,

started

out

and therefore

sick.

the weakest... Tare

vast

or Buddhism

highest

with

and

true

the

outcaste

Hinduism

which

is

of

already

low_ and

of

The

became

a Government

case

Islam

has

thousands

Islam

“satisfied with Hinduism verted.

of

caste,

that

society

of Indian

it

also. (Secondly Atake

then ‘point

Christianity,

section

thousands

in

the

as

It

the adherents

it not

Does

religion? over

to

converts,

not the

such

and Islam

caste

belongs

“hierarchy.

how

all

work'29,

the

experiences.

Buddhism Do

of

was

felt gdons

similar

and the. noblest lation

place this

world

chapter

moved

missionary

drawn..from-thelowest™stratas

first

great

of

background

have been

society. |(ep the had

progress

social

Editor).

Hindus If

that

missioto

a

vr

a

think

lightly

among

the

Coming here.

to

in

saying

of

charge

Chandra 1866

that them

everything

of

with

denationalization, a strong

he

tended

throwing

to

the

being

originating

movement

religious

or

from

society.

Sen,

in which

they

countrymen, charged

social

the

Keshab

lecture

any orders

of

lower

to

liberty

at

themselves

feel

not

nor

have

who

Those

India.

in

Missions

will

depth

any

in

history

con-

abomination

an

neither

is

people

Christian

of

failure

of

token

studied

society outcaste

or

caste

low

of

version

Indian

of

section

which

to

matter

no

Therefore,

belong.

people

these

indeed,

service

a

is

greatest

the

are

needs

whose

people

Bengali

severely isolate

old

‘outlandish'*°.

criticized

themselves

traditions

a body

something

of

must

nationalist,

of

Indian from

the

denationalized

said a

Christians,

the

land

be

delivered

rest

to

of

the

people

their

winds.

who

He

went

for

He further stated in his speech:

"They deliberately and voluntarily cut themselves off from Native society as soon as they are baptized, and, as an inevitable consequence, come to contract a sort of repugnance to everything Oriental, and an enthusiastic admiration for everything European. They seem to be ashamed of their country and their nationality. They forget that Christ, their master, was an Asiatic, and that it is not necessary in following him to make themselves alien to their country or race"2/, Another peruman

similar

was

education years

in

several

Madras

in

General

He,

in

of

paper

Dr.

saying

October

the

for

the

life

freedom.

He

was

heavily

fices

the

political

Kaj

Baago,

Vol.

TCHR,” 27)

Quoted

28)

The

29)

S.D.

"The

Kaj

had

kept

did

in

not

development

of

Independence

Baago,

Vol. "The

6. 67:

op.ctt.,

XLIII, Place

of

from

his

not the

p.

68.

153

the

Keshab

of

he

In

was

made

Sen,

from

national

of

'The

that

Chandra

the

strugg-

their

their

country”.

was

and

Arts,

themselves

of

he

entitled

India'.

the

some

in

London?®.

paper

having

Movement

War

1946

in

remarks

approve

No.

184

as

for

it

British

June,

New

collegiate

was

World

Society

isolated

aloof

with

them

the

views

critical

and

from

Royal

in

same

India and

1: (1967),

Review,

Malaiperuman,

the

highly

First

Fy No.

after

Astatic

in

charged

and

the

He

the

Hostel

interesfing

Community

country

behaviour,

at an

for

Malai-

his

represented

second

and

Dr.

had

Chicago.

the

Students

held

who

and

Y.M.C.A.

Madras

read

shared

servatism

26)

1946,

Christian

the

the

Indian

in

India

During

of

meeting

Christians

of

calculating'

for

the

Ph.D.

in

George,

of

17,

Indian

Warden

generation,

his

Y.M.C.A.

St.

Malaiperuman

that

ordinary

Fort

influential

on

Place

and

Dr.S.D.Malaiperuman.

fifth

obtained

the

Secretary

an

London,

at

from

the

congresses.

charge

forces

the

comes

of

and

with

international

Allied

and

charge

Christian

associated

Secretary

le

a

'cautious

political many

con-

sacri-

According

to

him,

Among

Indian

Christians,"

(January,

1947),

p.

Indian

Christian

32.

Community

in...

their

abstinence

that

politics

Eric

J.

ty

from

active

corrupt

Sharpe

also

could--and

politics

did

himself

was

Christians

clearly

often

disassociate

and

points

bring

out

with

altogether

due

should that

it

to

his

'false

away

assumption

from

them' °°,

"conversion: to Christiani-

a desire

from

a

keep

(in

heathen

the

past

convert) in

all

to

its

as-

pects"? It ween

is

true

the

that

native

converts also

for

a

long

Christians

shared

the

Indian people, Indian

time

and

views

culture,

there

their

of

was

Hindu

the

very

European

Hinduism

little

neighbours,

and

sympathy

and

that

missionaries

caste,

bet-

the

about

and that

they

the

suf-

Som

fered

from what

is sometimes

ound mentality' TE

All

portant point

should

thought

and

behaved

missionary, tudes

the

and

were

grading

the

in

prevails

like is

to

in

now

we

summoning symbolized

29)

also

or

New

the

whole

of

the

The

bad: Eric

Sharpe,

op.ctt.,

p.

30.

32)

Ibtd.

33)

S§.Sathianadhan,

op.ctt.,

p.

92;

in

34)

South

Quoted

India",

op.ctt.,

in Malaiperuman,

P-

the

p-

more

feel-

such

took

a dis-

in

has

when de-

This

Under

been

India

also

long

a vast has

light of

for

change some

Kaj

for

College,

Review,

histo-

Chri-

Sincere clarion

call

that

time

at

formerly

Professor

Research

in

Post-

and

Bangalore

op.ctt.,p.

S.V.Thomas, 26.

the

which

Baago,

of

denationali-

over-emphasized

often "sent

Department

cf.

185

in

charges

been

333.

op.ctt.,

has

nationalism

Astatic

31)

Church

Malaiperuman.

Theological

United

India",

the

tHAi an.

in

a time

appeared

Christianity

India,

of

around

rally

Director

matter have

citizens

of the

was

Christians

There

attiwas,I

culture.

And

Sen

attitude

converts

the

and

and

West

degree.

Indian

that

Christians

30)

J.

the mask.

Indian

clear

Chandra

best

of

im-

a foreign

a Christian™~.

lesser

status

the

There

nothing

a

with

from

despised

Christians

into

loyal

the

to

and

in

him

comp-

the

Christians

thoughtforms

become

the

Western

becomes

to

and

but

these

unfriendly

to

that the

why

identification

with

‘mission

denied,

Christians.

though

interest

was

and at

of

than

Now

Indian

that

...the

cont.

day

is

worship,

brought

wonder

Keshab

as

Studies

Graduate

it

History

Church

of

contempt,

Indian

faithful

all

Their

ways

with

a probe

were

the

did.

Constitution

showing

such

who

stians,

mind

ostracism

this

the

against

made

in

had

European

of

make

critics

borne

a Hindu

any

the

its

been

completely

the

Indian?

developments

zation

of

it

by

attitude

When

by

to

is

dropped

rical

of

everything

the

time

treated

even

recognized

since

they

social

eyes

circumstances

be

due to the-hostile_and

their

Christians ing

as

ly called ‘the

cannot

be

missionary

largely

Hindus

that

perpetuating

which

believe,

that

contemptuous

25.

“Missionary

Work

garb

formation

The

of

historical

great

Kali

indigenization

the

of

dence

nayagam

S.

some

the

of

their nal

Azariah,

best is

and

also

passive

of

country.

the

have

led

assemblies,

the

lands

Men

Pillai,

Dr.

John

politics

of

is

during

true

sacrifice,

For

they

35)

Kaj

36)

Ibtd;

as

cultural

Sir

Samuel Bhore

Baago,

cf.

as

when

A.T.

from

from

Day,

Pulney

Andy),

to

Veda-

Rev.

Rt.

different

were

times

preserve

they

patriotic Communal

op.ctt.,

pp.

Article.

op.cit.,

of

did

the

natio-

ambassadors

and

Christian

Diwan

some in

made

no

to

M.

Sudan

and

Bahadur

L.D.

Swami-

Ruthnaswamy Das

well-known

national

small

Diwan

Bahadur

Bahadur

the

and

foreign

non-involvement.

Madhu

of

the

legislative

Council,

Provinces, Diwan

Pradesh,

were

have

of

political of

relife

Christians

speakers Executive

United

always

political

General's

the

involved

have

the

eminent

and

in

Madhya

in

some

charge

in

Orissa

Indian

provincial

contribution

to

the

to

prison

country?’.

Christians,

what

Christians

Pannirselvam,

Kerala

mother

the

list

Ranganathan

Inauguration

Malaiperuman,

at and

interest

members

and

the

deeply

and

as

Singh

is

'Quary' 37)

Governor

if were

long

the

struggle

example,

Indian

of

freedom that

who

the

evi-

Behari

Rangaramanujam

S.

Church

no

life

their that

that

having

disprove

were

India of

the

assume

Maharaj

Mathai

who

development It

Sir

Joseph

Christians

wise

Sir

Paul

Christians

active

Mudaliar,

Madras,

and

and

easily

Raja

and

Christian

following

members

Arogiaswamy

in

The

a very

would

kannu

to

spectators,

Cabinet,

like

the

Datta,

Dr.

is

(1947)

strong

all

(or

Andi

Parani

S.

Paul,

Natto-

the

Indta

Lal

Church?

Calcutta

the

(1886),

are

mind.

native

the

(1868),

South

of

Western

its

of

to

identity?®.

wrong

mained

who

Indian

Indianize

character It

T.

Santiago

Revs.

outstanding to

Banerjee,

Kanagarayan

a natio-

influential

bodies

Indian

1850s

from build

Several

of Madras

these

and the

of

K.C.

Banerjee,

Charan

Venkataramiah,

Sri

of

significance

First

"The

to

appealed

Church

Copenhagen,

on

country

Assoctattion

the

and

(1922),

Counetl

Christtan

nal

right

that

Chureh

Nattonal

the

(1887),

Samaj

Christo

that

the

Christianity

strip

to

Chrtsttan

Bengal

the

of

essay

control.

a way

in

it

present

to

tried

and

attempts

sincere

made

Christians

Office,

of

parts

missionary

of

independent

church,

nal

Foreign

excéllent

Christians"

Indian

various

in

made

been

had

attempts

Among

Movement

Independence

his

in

fact

the

demonstrates

convincingly

Danish

Countries,

Developing

to

Assistance

Technical

of

Department

the

to

Projects

Indian

on

Consultant

currently

and is as

in

in

the

that

meant

by

any

other

Award

was

main,

sense the

did

they

term

go

not

'sacrifice'.

minority

introduced

not

did

community

in

election

make

any

Otherin and

India. when

65-78.

of Church p.

27.

186

Unton

in

South

Indta:

Second

certain

communities

plementation, electorates

the and

the

majority

was

a decisive

the

rest

sents ing

in

statement national

share

the

there

runs

also

Christians, critic the

of

third

the

has

shaken can

off be

among

from

academic

these

the

control without

native

"In

of

the

fact

by

Western

political

the

the

share also

Christian

change of

and

the

Indian

Panikkar,

Christian

a stark

beginning community

of had

wiieelomanies "ance

hesitation

in

fully they

radical K.M.

and

countrymen.

present

attitude

by

Indian

any

a

and

even

Christians

have

made

“indeed

any

real

able

at

each see

up

that

India

side

only

the

As

the

denationaliz-

disappeared

a

long

a matter

religous significance.

People

whose

been

outside

legislators a

became

philanthropists,

and

and

cult

a

ealeuke

oe

Before

a strong

as

the

of

really

immemorial

mentioned

community,

of

heirs mass

Vol.

I

of

of

a new

and

their

importan-

and material

concern

the

that

as

heart

social

great

the eviThousands

converts,

spiritual

the

of

a change

also

conditions

are

missiona-

missionaries.

the

is

“being had from time

which

religion--tremendous

India--but

like

former

already

exists

of

of

a change

other,

Christian

Christian

still

impact

the

the

I have

a native

and

of

whether

which

in India,

Christianity

to

conversion

creed,

build

country

back

Looking

and

a

in

is

itself

by now

contributions.

to

not

meant

conversions

us

influence

of the direct dence

life.

let

Church

the

of

nucleus

criticisms

interest,

were

ce

outlook

says:

attitude

their

that

follow-

ago.

ries

in

the

the

undergoing

the

He

the

with

repre-

the

Christians

prove

to

"this

which

Consequently by

to

and

Community

Christian

Indian

im-

themselves

issued

of

its

separate

unity,

Council

rest

aroused

been

century,

said

the

the

acknowledged

the

they

of

been

Missions.

it

shows

enough

to

Christian

countrymen.

are in

Christian

main

Apart of

change

the

for

claim

and

Christian

"Educated

since

peace

of

with

their

decade

tendency

time

a

of

clearly

things

the

subordinated

of

disappointment long

been

which

Therefore,

ing

had

of

up

Churches in India

identified

follows:

these

They

National and

indefatigably

gave

integration

which

as

fought

seats.

The

be

and

All

India

had

of

Missions

to

sorrow

in

Muslims willingly

Se

the

aspirations

deadlock"? . Church

in

1944,

willingness

the

in

nectont

Protestant

The

in

step

the

statement

their

the

reservation

community

of

all

like

Christians

the

well-

Hindu

heritage--

movements

in

India,

(Government

of

India

a it

—— eee

38)

Ibid; cf. The Publication),

2)))

faible A ja

4o)

K.M.Panikkar,

41)

Personal

Gazetteer 1965, pp.

of Indta, 494-495.

Palla Asta

interview

University ham is one

of of

and with

Dominance,

Prof.

Jeyasingham

Ceylon, dated the important

Heidelberg, lay leaders

187

eta

op. CULE

Western

of

the

Jaffna

20-12-1975. of the CSI.

Prof.

os Campus,

Jeyasing-

and

(some

trampled

a living world rial

upon.

Church

a great which

In

of

any

that

Christianity on

state nary

the

is

ordinance)

'the has

been

"Christ

it

does

Work

in

of

not

leave

India',

stian,

who

Public

Instruction

the

served

them

Prof.

for

in

the

years

as

Madras

part

in

the

demonstrated out

of

the

its

condition.

Gospel

to

Assistant

an

to

says

in

a

article

the

in

as to

Gospel can work

a respectable

Presidency,

the

that gives

converts In

Hindu

the mate-

count so unpromising

finds

an

despised

-to.be.worthless,

Bindkisene ee The

it

that

They

of

S.Sathianadhan,

many

in

If

real

were

thought

and that

would

over

races.

people

no

up.

men,

elevating power

a superior ‘position lowest

religion~and

had

built

makes

reckoning

this

religious

of

péople,

such

of

of

name

the

these

outcaste

out

ordinary

hopeless" EAH dt

even

fact

Christ

truth

on

divine

4>-—EVven

scheme!

religious

be

immutable

‘incapable In

kiss

any

of

improvement

of

or

feeling' Dharma

almost

were

outcastes

the

that

thought

was

low on

'Missio-

native

Chri-

Director

of

a challenging

tone:

"I of course admit that those classes of the Indian population least influenced by the subtle, stereotyping influence of Hindu culture and the Hindu religion have become most accessible to Christianity. But what is the result? It is those very classes, dispersed, trampled down, and looked upon as utterly incapable of improvement of any kind that now with the enlightening influence of Christianity cope successfully with the highest castes and classes of Indian society in every direction--morally, socially and intellectually. In my opinion even if there had not been a single convert from the higher classes of Hindu society the transformation which Christianity has wrought among the lower

classes,

evidence Thus duism

of

that

its

what

seemed

to

became

proper

and

Macnicol

underlines

Hinduism

but

"tattered

outlaws them"*?,

Therefore, Missions good

are

in

has

be

the

the

Christianity

can

never

hope

42)

PICKet;

Op. ctt..

43)|

Exlevd.

Sharpe,

44)

W.J.

45)

"Caste

46)

S.

47)

Nicol

Macnicol,

48)

Henry

Withehead,

Noble, and

to

to

gain"*®,

This

op sevt.,

has

ps.

the

clear

unthinkable

by

and

of the

to God'

as

is

in

Hinduism,

not

of

Gandhi Christian

a power and

is

these

Mr.

critics

Hin-

Nicol

"It

remake

"there

been

for

Prof.

asserting:

able

that

long

for

which

acknowledged

Hinduism

even

by

p.

Living

Indtan &

CO.

p.

op.cit.,

op.ctt.,

The

31s

Rock,

Christianity",

(London : Constable

and

'people

not

a

299).

Ploughing

Sathianadhan,

is

is

Christianity.

clearly

fact

fold,

country"

to

Hinduism the

there

its

actually

into

of

admit

ps

is

earth'

which

to

this

improper

very

that

voataries

obliged

in

feasible

point

the

over

most

quite

this

of

won

triumph

Christianity

now

calls

it

unique

49. p.

Reltgtons

Problems: Leds,

316.

87.

924),

188

of

the

Reli

Indtan Ed

Leos

People,

p.311.

pe ETE

L Sg

an

orthodox

Brahmins

able

exhaustive

of

and

Madras,

that le

the

their

than

they

and of

Srinivasa

by

being

to.

cause

oppressed

by

the

and

by

permit They

the

for

and

in

them

a more

was

classes

In

admitted

to

invaluab-

live,

when-

respectable for

a real

their

or

above !?, He

an

Government

community

intervened

there

the

plainly

Harijan teaching

it,

also

whenever

Ragavaiyangar.

prepared

frankly

done

NY

would

he

has

have

schools

accustomed their

Srinivasa

which

Ragavaiyangar

circumstances were

Bahadur

agencies

establishing

advocated their

Diwan

Memorandum

missionary

service

ever

like

protection

fancied

says

manner danger

further:

"Further amelioration of the condition of this class must be the outcome of educational agencies employed in connection with missionary enterprise; and indeed the best thing that can happen to them is conversion either to Christianity or Muhammadan_religion,

for In

there

is no hope

for

an

excellent

note

cipal

Collector

of

that

the

services

of

the

"The

indirect

influence

to

them within

prepared

on

the

District,

the

pale

Pariahs

of

Tremenheere,

Christian

Chingleput, bears

Missionaries.

of missionaries

of Hinduism">°. the

further

prin-

evidence

He writes:

has

often

been

remarked;

but perhaps enough justice has not been done to them as a civilizing power. In fact their action in this respect has been most beneficial, especially among the lower castes of South Canara and Tinnevelly, among some of the wild tribes and among the Pariahs. This is not ungraciously acknowledged by the organs of native opinions, The Hindu going so far as to say that there is little chance of the Pariah problem receiving attention from any other quarter (except from the Government itself). '‘Indeed', that journal

continues,

'of

the

lower

castes

of

the

and of the outcaste population, the Christian to be the only (ste) but_the most willing and tors and regenerators'". Thus

the

missionaries

time-honoured to

enjoy

Whatever

custom

equal may

of

rights

be

the

and

origin

in

regard

to

the

Christian

and

then

from

the

under

yoke

which

Therefore,

49)

of

they the

a rule

British

suffered,

in

their the

that

the

It

Government and

not

the

breaking and

schools

and

Christians

was from

the 52

of owe

the

freed

Hindus

missionaries

they

first

who

society

dirt,

intelligence,

slavery and

as

of

missionaries.

hereditary

fact

and

in

Harijan

position

education the

persevered

the

privileges

present

wholly

sionaries

to

as

treating

Hindu

missionaries seem competent protecthrough

the

enabled

him

Churches. Harijan it

almost

Christian

them

legal

as

mis-

a community

disabilities

-.

worked

and

made

converts

Srinivasa Ragavaiyangar, Memorandum on the Progress of the Madras Prestdency during the last forty years, (Madras: Govt. Press, 1892), raka. ashsln

5o))

bcd.

51)

Madras Revenue Proceedings, Vol. 30th September, 1892 , p. 629.

if

52)

Census of Indta: OPeCh tes Pe Ds

Madras,

1871,

4218,

Vol.

189

I,

Nos.

pp.

1010,

169-170;

1010A,

cf.

Revenue

O'Malley,

castes

is

not

work.

On

the

contrary

it

is

breakthrough.

In

the

words

of

Bishop

greatest

blows

that

in

this

the

of

"one

low

the

amongst

mainly

the

and

to

that

has

so

effectively

raisea">>.

third

for

The verts.

We

great

place

admit

lives

of

the

total

failure

that

of the

read

write

a

of

stians of

their

not

those

were

many

or

some

cases

of

and

of

caused

~.

trouble

ideas

Some

about

to

in

been

were

expelled

many

and

Annual

and

customs.

completely

from

There Report

were for

the

to

them

in

depth

had The

life

for

very

the

few

the

could

essenChri-

Because in

be

Christian that

constant-

idea

of

to

them.

lingered

Christian

of

a

saying

to

the

the

educated

strange

1919

conin

most

though

of

membership of

of

habits,

such

defiance

circuits>’. The

lack

past

caste

amount

Even

people

their

which

scriptures”.

These

up

of

and

customs

was

nature

the

is

caste

earlier,

great.

of

a

it

of

life

instructing

very

old

out

of

Madras

shortcomings

illiterate,

training

give

marriages

morality.

of

the

many

however

pointed were

of

system

the

is

are

and

success

Christianity

not

knowledge

matrimony

polygamous

Irregular

As area

traditions.

persuaded

baptism

women?°.

do

their

to

critics

flaws

always

their

of

still

spiritual

a Christian the

the

problem

a deep

continued

part

ly reminded ness

after

had

dealt

and

work.

The

possess

insufficient

experience,

by

movement

little.

be

of

Whitehead

Henry

spread

were

These

mass

Christianity

did

attack

there

missionary

from

tials

to

Christians.

converts and

barrier

can

evidence

failure

or

weakness

of

a proof an

holiIn

on

even

marrying

Hindu

discipline

scanty

and

crude

says:

"Now and again the inquiries which need to be made as to the moral life of these village Christians reveal the depths from which they have been raised and to which individual members are tempted to fall. Often their moral ideas are crude, and the deve lopment of a conscience is a slow process. But the more we see of the unchecked iniquities of village life the less we wonder at the occasional lapses of individual members of our new village churches. Still they are all on the up-grade, and improvement

is marked

Another

in some places"°8.

account

says:

"The converts who came from the criminal tribes continue to stick on to their habits and they have no sense of tent Reminding them of their sinfulness is a very hard work"59. The

years

Rev.

in

W.

the

Lillie,

Mass

ten

an

53)

Henry

54)

Rajamanickam,

excellent

book

Whitehead,

je

a

Methodist

Movement

entitled Indtan

op.ctt.,

S}))

Worl

56)

Ann.

Rep.,

Vol.

Si) 58)

AK, Ann.

161929))5

pe

59)

Rajamanickam,

area

missionary

around Some

Problems,

p.

Rep.,

p.

XXXV

Cree wa

(1919),

15

has

and

Ceremonies

of

p.

29.

Oe

Se 190

many

Customs

6.

Vol.

for

Dharapuram

34.

(1919),

worked

and

GNSe

XXXV

who

Karur

ZEb

74.

writthe

Karur

and

Dharapuram

non-Christian Christians and

living

ceremonies

human

life:

book

is

were

customs

and

villages.

revolve

was

facing

the

which

weaning

not

in

of

death.

This personal

pastors

baptized

the

customs

careful

when

agreement

such events

and of

of

baptized

main

years

this

list

the with

four

marriage

after

of

by

deals

the

to write

were

elaborate

Lillie

round

written

problem

an

observed

“of Maturity,

prompted big

ceremonies

gives

Rev.

chiefly

information,

author

he

and

evan-

Christians

with

the

from

teachings

Christianity. All

very

these

facts

shallow

name's like

sake

had

been

left

to

customs

and

Another and

already

spot

caste

observance

been

essentially

feature

of

The

links

old

ed

by

say

the

into

the

the

Church

Converts

became

still led

to

a

Church. were

were

leaders

of

caste

nence

by

eager

and

constant

in

friction

that

to

among

be

members of and

one

of

or

derogatory

tried of

a

to less

caste

strained

Secretartal Vistt to the Donal B. Chttde, p. 43.

61)

SPLCckeEt puop. CBt.,

62)

Duncan

caste

those

caste if

of

the

powerful upon

relations

of

own

in

made a

people

many

1959

the

to

who

instances,

within

the

policies

statements

community°. has

critics carry

society

whole,

discrimination

another

preservthe

Hindu

anti-caste

as

caste has

was

and

consciousness

between

,December

the

their

caste

of It

still

some

also,

missionaries to

Hin-

distinctive

movements

strong

into

solidarity.

are

why

a

a

resort

Movement

caste

afflicted

practise

group

CSI,

of is

was

to

Church.

therefore,

conversion

schisms

congregations to

have

ironically

60)

B.

essence

strengthening

the

pressure

in

That

Agents

there

persistence the

integration

posterity.

Circuit

village,

Community

and

much

very

relapsed

the of

degree

social

are

led

the

lines;

evangelists

community

against

the

but

sometimes

reckoned

that

greater

of

divisions

Hindu,

one

the

movements

considerable This

enforced

which

or

caste

remained

is

is

members

a For

congregations

small,

villages

Church

led

nominal.

were

they

whole

the

some

the

communal

structures

mass

the

Native among

elsewhere

on

movement and

the

out

movement

converts

that

on

pointed a

and

be

village

very

was

sometimes

to

untrained

of

care

Christians

tended

many

experience

ceremonies,

village

reality

Where

the

to

the

in

but

members,

black

of

religion

relatives.

entirely

certain

duism®?. °

many

Their

Christian

and

among

that

Christians

were

almost

tendency

spirit

us life.

non-Christian

education

Hindu

tell

Christian they

their

whose

of

the

which

ceremonies--all

attainment

of

The

gelists of

in

birth,

in

and

which

a mine

research.

Areas

customs

on The

also

or

if

the

basis

predomiled

to

congregations.

April,

1960

by

Pag22is

Forrester,

"Mass

Movements",

cripts ; ip.9

19d

an

unpublished

typed

manus-

or too

strong

caste

distinction

This

distinction

groups. previous

relationship

fact

the

that

that

than

of

Christ

old

the

earlier

than

vanced

with

regard

chists

and

ministers

and

semi-educated

tea

plantations

among of

found

fewer

there

was

1970,

and

evangelists Mission', ful

the

left

dialogue

Church

affairs.

the

with

But

for

masses that

of

inadequate

tism.

63)

The

S.

Estborn,

Our

aD

emiet.

65)

Odin

a

meos

66)

S.

Theodore

67)

Rev. Ibid.

The

R.

be

Paulraj,

solely

Village

Indta

"Peace

held

and and

A Mass

life

(SIC),

--

192

of

'Peace

a satisfactory welcomed

the

back

into

state

of

Christians,

nor

problem

can has

nourishment of

in

eleven

a success-

unpleasant

conscious

p.

A on

at

was

responsible

Movement

Churchman

Mission

an

spiritual

were

But and

viewers

perpetual

Christians,

"

strainea®®.

carried

reveal the

particular

Presbyters

and

the moved

difference

that

arriving

returned

in

teachings

be

2,849

after

facts

themselves

Baskaran, South

and

real

to

in who

grievances.

latent

over

Madhari

cate-

uneducated

Madharis

nurse

the

Executive

party

these

The

Christian

64)! SEDs

68)

cannot

matter.

tide

to

with

backwardness

missionaries

Area",

people

All

at

two

along

to

and

ad-

more

careers

found

began

were

The

was

jealousy

Christians

teachers,

The

score

Diocesan

aggrieved

this

illiterate

the

also

continued

a head,

Diocese by

19739023

naries

for

to

these

the

in

arrived

more

Nilgris.

and

this

on

were

came

appointed

rapproachment, the

opportunities

relationship

things

and

fellowship

became

brethren”>s

Adi-Dravidas

trouble

compromises

when

the

produced

Madhari

had

rivalry

the

they

to

due

higher

is

traditional

therefore

their

of

partly

into

Adi-Dravidas

and

and

their

Anamalais

the

later

Madharis

two

bitter

coming

their

To

the

Adi-Dravidas

immemorial

after

The

education, than

Whenever

situation

rivalry.

the

to

time

even

persisted.

rivalry

economic

ten

‘surfaced,

From and

a

between

and

set-up

the

of

for

continuation

the

to

due

social

standard

Madharis®*.

their

in

partly

relationship;

now, added years

is

the Hindu

cultural

the the

their

marked

in

still

success,

exist

to

reported

is

their

over

identity

a partial

only

been

have

to

seems

identity

"Caste'

Karur-Dhara-

the

of

Adi-Dravidas 'Christian'

a

up

build

to

attempt

the

area,

only

are

groups

them" °, the

and

Madharis

the

by

felt

keenly

are of

case

the

puram

of

and

obvious In

a

diocese,

a

place,

other

upon

pressure

and

in

majority

caste

powerful

predominance

its

a Church,

a

is

there

"Where

that:

out

points

Chritsttans,

Village

Our

of

author

S.Estborn,

Therefore,

this

the

the been

missiothat

after

bap-

limitation.

5.

in

the

August,

A Review",

'Mass

Movement!

1970.

SIC,

May-June,

1973.

A It

report

reads

from

as

the

Karur

Town

Circuit

vividly

brings

this

point

out.

follows:

"There are scores of villages where there are neither teachers nor schools, and where the villager setting out to his work has nothing Christian either in symbol or in form to help him, and receives no inspiration that will help him to discharge his duties in obedience to Christian teaching. Late in the evening he returns

home

but

there

Therefore,

There

is

are

a

from

the

lot

the

in

combating

Karur

area

by

the

worship.

due

'spiritual

to

same

ihe

Survey

were

for

the

be

(a)

There

had

poor

to

report village

(b)

munity,

area

insufficient the

further in

presented

especially

resist

temptation.

as

this

than

in

Government

the

with the

situation,

the by

More

Church

District

some

those

69)

Trtehinopoly

7o)

Report of a Seeretartal Vistt to Bastl Clutterbuck, December 1954

(1942),

iy)

sBlexezale

U2

De «

73)

Donald

op.ectt.,

the

employment

for

p.

Christians

in

sign

pp.

44.

or

of

the

against

of

inwere

giving

of

factors. to

the gap

the

a result

institutions

scholarships

B.» Childe,

new

as

reasons

not

tendency

temptation

Even

of

any

some

The

changes

village them,

and

more

who

professed

because

material

of

which

plans

for

Christian

persons

opportunities

the

villages

Government

educated

wor-

Hinduism:

into

fill

state,

in

the

com-

they

were

could

not

Govern-

benefits

themselves

such to

be

3-4. Ceylon and South - March 1955, p.

of

one-sixth

cope

many

(4 were

Christian

to

why

only

area

special

two

congregations

discrimination

bevere

than

which

the

by

workers

to

villages

when

was

less

indicated

backward

a great

Karur

lay

staffing

accentuated

the

the

paid in

out

employed

in

this

all

and

largely

is

local

explains a

that

inade-

the

pointed

further in

to

comment

instruction

backwardness

at

back

note

to

general

63

a survey difficulty

a

quotes

and

Agents

This

Christians,

ment

Circuit

were

In

place

development

and

the

been

go

the

building

The

was

taking

trained,

of

some

to

was

of

conductea’'!.

growth.

relapse

were

majority any

of

Christians

Christians

13,233

the

the

the

general

facts students

conducted

distressing

It

These

of

their

had

quality /?.

spiritual

of

inadequately

and

Movement

their

that

that

concerned

relapse

gathering;

feel

is

for

wor-

Theological

speaks

ceremonies,

"It

above.

of

clearly

village

other

team:

the

that

were

could

ship

of

team

villages

of many

malnutrition'"/°,

literate,

ministers)

253

We

report

Christian

man."

which

(Tinnevelly)

The

and

cited

a group

of

for

unchanged

passage

arrangements

present

Sunday

the

Seminary

tendency

meeting

same

report

1954.

of

for

the

in

the

marriage

leader

the

of

quacy

truth by

in

the

worship,

made

of

facilities

remains

Tirumaraiyur

in

Hindu

no

he

endorsed

further

Mass

are

ship.

Indta 64.

by

Rev.

be

also

problems

ning

was

the

lives

the

of

the

impression

met

with

comes

recent the

he

of

are

fifty

even

period, of

"It

it

the

been

even

in

course,

the

most

few

neralization any

change

been

in

but

Vaman

to

from

Tilak,

all

over

people

le

are

contributions

professions

they

some

servants

74)

Nicol

Macnicol,

75)

Kanti

Prasanna

of

of

of

from

the

the

Rev.

Paul

op.ctt., Gupta,

p.

S.

Christians

and

194

Pp.

Henry

who

doctors,

most

165—165-

quite

have

own

comsuch

Narayan Alfred

Trichinopoly

their

of

ge-

been who

many

Subramanya

291.

Opa Ctta,

Bengal,

reflected

have

Bannerjee,

so

critics

in

scarcely

are

converts

as

for

not,

a sweeping

their

a

from

Di-

Aiyar,

Rangaramanujam

through

capacity,

native

N.

The

among

and

observes:

that

had

converts

or

character

could

There

Singh

Bahadur

society

every

Churn

Negapatam

outstanding

Indian In

Kali

Sundar

Diwan the

only

castes.

forty

a time

There

in

short

convert

conversion

not

other

and

of

they

make

native

fairly

area

time

brief

life’? -

all

grade a

rightly

same

first

then

the

for

are

gautevean’

and

of

among

thought

as

Government,

Sen

way

be-

and

spotless

signifies

the

after

Sadhu

cite

the

held.

and

or

of

Subramanyam,

to

lives

India--Baboo

such

Krishnaswami

their

them

Movement

aborigines

be

Krishnapal,

Ramabai,

strict

and

Christianity

conditions,

Hindus

to

Theophilus

outcastes

that

examples

Just

Rev.

so

behaviour

Krishnapillai. itself,

in

as

reform

concerned,

Macnicol

multitudes

leaders

Pandita

of

with

a person

Christians

such

in

among

Nicol

reader

comparatively

the

character

as

also

that

at

like

bright

being

in

found

social

low

is

recognized

all

"their

their of

recognized

examples

which

to

Mass

Christians

Prof.

plan-

Christians

fully

of

loopholes

number

munity,

be

rest, Within

success;

once

the

of

Indian

Trichinopoly

the

brought

when

becomes

Christianity

produce

favourable

that

ages.

most.

to

characters

some

weaknesses

Therefore, to

to

and

than

the

impossible nature.

subjected

a

out

a good

recent

he

that

mis-

not

long-term

the

missionaries

for

the

leave

on

The

could

imperfections

the

thought

Hinduism,

from

at

the

no

that

however,

be

Protestant

converts

degradation

find

as

transformation

long

choose

part

far

more

is

of

complete

so

a

standing

saintly

has,

been

the

years

abandoning crudities

the

had

of

not

it

Let

they

Movement

extent and

not,

attempts

the

only. by

product

case

they

or

that

all

from

which

should

point

Mass

The an

difficulties

converts

failure

Christian

free of

These

certain

such

to

succeeded

possible.

a

further.

any

resources

their

stretch but

lives

either

converts.

the

of

the

beyond

but

best

their

did

sionaries

on

or

missionaries

the

of

work

the

should

things

verdict,

a

pronounces

anyone

before

account

into

taken

individual

the

off

cut

these

All

Church.

the

to

to

tended

Christians,

allegiance

his

from

Christian

than

rather

Harijans

Hindu

the

and

have

made

lives

and

lawyers,

exemplary

John valuab-

the teachers

cha-

racter They

have

have

rendered

worked

ficulties

with

cognized

invaluable

their

which

importance

way

they in

up have

Indian

spite

had

to

to of

the

all

struggle

society’.

Such

Church

the

and

the

hardships

to

a position

converts,

as

nation.

and

dif-

of

re-

Julius

a

describes:

Richter

services in

"are the very crown and rejoicing of Indian missions, the most brilliant representatives and pillars of the Christian Church, the leading spirits in the ever-increasing body of Indian Christians. They are the officers of the main army, which is composed of members belonging to the lower orders of society"/7. Even many

among

the

desirable

and

members

changes

civilization;

in

soberness

in

and

in

of

the

lower

which

can

be

their

and

eileen tinese

While

the

criminal

of

of

tribe

Dharapuram,

the

seen

honesty

séxual

and

morality

writing

orders

and

about

W.A.Sandford

Gospel

their

also the a

in

changed

records

in

in

their

village a

wrought

in

education

their

clean

life

six

W.H.Findlay:

has

advance

truthfulness;

Talavaipattinam,

Rev.

in

the

of

the

miles

letter

growth

speech Koravas,

south-west

to

the

Rev.

;

"The Koravas who were baptized last year or the year before are giving me the greatest satisfaction. They are growing in Christian knowledge and I have received many testimonies concerning their changed lives. The police inspector gave what I consider the most remarkable testimony of all. He said: 'Your people at Talavapatnam

were,

a

few

years

ago,

among

the

most

notorious

criminals in the District. I have long black list of convictions against them but I am glad to say that during the last two years I have only had one minor case reported to me. The people of the village round about are greatly pleased with the change that has come on these people'"/9. Can paid

there

to

radical social

shed?

be

a better

a criminal change

in

the

activities

In

this

more

passage.

head

makes

the

like

lives

such

context In

testimony

tribe

as

I

of

following

that

Koravas?

a people,

thieving,

cannot

a sermon

than

the

Is

of

a Police

it

not

officer

something

traditionally

known

house-breaking, feuds

resist

preached

at

the

temptation

Madras,

the

of

Rt.Rev.

and

ever

of for

a anti-

blood-

quoting Henry

one White-

observations:

"Among the converts from the lower strata of Hindu society the effect of Christianity is remarkable. I could point now to scores of Christians whose fathers were pariahs, living as serfs without hope in this world or the next, and who now are well-educated men, fit for positions of trust and responsibility, and bright examples of Christian faith and conduct. I

76)

S.

Di)

eRECHECT | OD. Clits

Sathianadhan,

op.ctt.,

78)

IRM,

79)

MSS. 'Trichinopoly' 31-5-08): Letter of

De

pp.

86-87.

SO. a

dated

Vol.

XXI),

Karur,

pp.

460f. Box (1904-1913, File Miscellaneous 9-3-04 Rev.W.A.Sandford to the Rev. W.H.Findlay,

7-8-1907.

195

to

in

class

moral

most

and

of

Christians,

the

where

educated

best

the

are

origin,

village

after

village

visited

have

pariah

the community. And I feel sure that when the whole two million pariahs are converted to Christianity they will be raised from the bottom right up to the top of the social scale and form a marvellous witness to the power of Christ such as no age has seen since the days of the Apostles. We see now but the beginning of a mighty movement that will revolutionize the whole fabric of It is no vain dream that, Hindu society and Indian thought. within this present century India will become a Christian land, inspired by Christian ideals and dominated by Christian principless. 3 6995 Those

in

who

can

naries

have

of

converts.

the

Before the

utterly

passing

persistence

on

to

in

the

caste

next

only

among

the

mass

found

even

among

the

advanced

certain dicate its

and

extent the

gross

habitation

almost

the

following bably

to

recognize

an

uproar

sarcasm

of

are of

caste

and

they

different

other

vance. late

80)

But as

in Vol.

free

The

81)

F.R.Hemingway,

82)

Ibid.

the

"As

are of

op.ctt.,

it to

their it.

in

they

blood Though

not

p.

is

cannot

Intelligencer, p.

60.

196

472,

see

in

feel-

becoming

it.

the

Vol.

to

interdining

caste

from

allow

such

Tanjore, The

thought

to

under

caused

difficult

be

free

not

a Kallan

bitter

after

not

opposed

did

it

people

pro-

other

refused

the

festivals,

completely

Melnattam

with

profess"®?,

it

totally

Tanjore

eat

even

F.R. the

of

forth

that

were

makes

Tanjore,

Swartz's

Sacraments,

were

1906,

in

a

against

Tanjore

Schwartz

is

era-

they

those

to

called

religion

Misstonary

June,

consent

to

to

but

of

than

venerable

Church

that

in

It

churches.

only

able

Christians

intermarriages

Cryer

Christians

Church

the

were

Gazetteer,

never

from

Christians

XXXI),

the

that

not

origin.

standing

Christians

District

of

is

prejudice,

will

the

together

Thomas

the

clear

Christians,

stubbornly

in

in

the

made

successful

They

caste

of

day

said:

to

gatherings,

the

series

not

castes

still

Quoted

who

been

more

Church

saturated

are

like

1947

present

the

scandal

so

about

successors

in

of

minds

Tanjore

Christian

Macaulay

social

missionaries

the

distinctions

schism

is

and

talking

the

the

a perfect

Christians bring

When

Lord

expressions

distinctions

caste

and

caste.

character

spirit

recent

long

missio-

the

the

be

manner

Adi-Dravidas

that

say

of of

had

impartial

the

caste

Christians

leaders

an

reform

should the

against

of

A Vellalan

Christian"®',

it or

congregations

hearts

"At

such

to

fight

While

remarks:

districts.

ing

the

editor

observe

movement

external

in

point,

in

about

to

unfair

Church

their

powerless.

Hemingway,

they

other

in

India said

efforts

consciousness

found

Missionaries

their

in

has

be

it would

failed

of

work

Bishop

the

what

Therefore,

sermon.

his

review.missionary

accept

certainly

will

of.

The

obserEven

as

Harijan

LVII

'Editoral

(new Notes'

Christians In

to

the

enter

old

stinctions

are

prejudices

do

nality

the

feeling in

exist

amongst

be

and

innocent

the

Christians selections,

have

their

contributions.

other a

general.

schools only in)

nucleus,

to

be

The

light

as

caste

and as

ratio-

it

still

everywhere,

di-

that

Openly but

appointments

Apart

is

the

caste

especially

and

transfers

centres

missionaries

demerits.

the

other

educational

the

and

from

factor

community

of

merits

various

welfare

Christian

in

numerical

institutions

in

the

life

institutions,

have

but

Now

rendered

also

to

let

us

look

strength, attached

of

the

the

to

it,

community

hospitals, yeoman

the

to build

industrial

service

non-Christian

not people

India.

Besides

its

ganizational area

each of

ion

of

discipline

in

the be

among

the

local

and with.

adherents,

representatives

missionary training

residing

with

83)

Rajamanickam,

84)

S.

85)

Robert i)ae (i7Aq

86)

Ibtd.

Estborn, L.

its

maintaining

at

the

the

played

central the

through

unity

another

by

the

station

was has

by an

no

hierar-

of

pastor means

ad-

directfor

the

Church

factor

behaviour

Church

equal

this

themselves

important

catechist,

or-

multi-

the

orderly

Christian

elder,

Church

and

of

Through

participation

thus

the

under

among

an

occupied

creation

Christians, The

provided the

through and

small.

share

of

the In

the

Seace

p.

Village

Hardgrave,

is

the

discipline

village

citizens,

op.cit., Our

members

also

Within

associations.

achieve

In

part

has

another

"the

all>”.

of

the

Church

with

to

of

unity

members.

Christian

sought

the

for

facilitated

arrangement

like

responsible

responsibility

on

its up

This

wellbeing

affairs

the

among

linked

based

missionaries,

reckoned its

is

structural

base

embrace,

unity

organization.

organization

the to

for

congretation

Church

village

Organizational

protective

base

ministrative

its

its

influential

Mission

and other

to the

and

with

an

2.

chy

the

caste

mean

education

Christians,

discussed the efforts

at

in

of

practised

admissions,

community

as

or

towns,

not

administration®4, we

proved

the

does

Because

village to

in

this

them.

comes

a Christian

Church

But

mentioned

up

has

worship®?,

prominent.

not

of

far

very

to

particularly

may

Church So

church

simple

elections,

the

not not

caste

among

their

congregations,

36.

Christians,

op.cit.,

p.

54;

197

p.

4.

cf.

J.H.Beaglehole,

op.ctt.,

buildings educational

to

Ellisnagar rial

at

and

several

1940s

included

the

in

these

"All

said:

mortar,

and

that

years

can

The the

furnished

amount

strict think

The the

nerosity the

to

build

an

the

asset

up

the

grants,

the

such

as

but

from Indian lands

also

of

West

great

to

the

an

idea

figures

the

the

130,000

it

of

the

a few

for

money the

addition

pounds

over

the

that

represents

self-deniying have

These

mission

years

given

large

buildings to

the

only.

Trichinopoly

clear

poverty

Church.

a net

fifteen

in

expended

make

and

their

and

for

about

been

also

rest

the

are

Mission

to

had

should

in the

page

the

comes

who

of

Diocese

of

that

table

Christians cause

next

alone

Christians,

the

the work

wealth

given

properties to

on

the

years

Government

Indian

other

on

enormous

above

of

of

and

fifteen

the

give

District,

this

in

To

Jones brick

in

here.

figures

expended

for of

years. from

furnished

(India)" ee

work

the

into

gone

has be

that

in

enterprise

incarnate

indispensable

even

and land

not

P.

John

Dr.

As

service,

the

in

were

buildings

rigster.

for

power

that

invaluable

is

which

missionary money

represent

at

Memo-

rupees

thousand

school

property

mentioned

above

forty

and

houses

prayer

other

about

for

built

Valparai

Church

large

a

Bleby

the

it,

on

it-

which

colony

a big

centre,

properties

fixed

of

a number

with

Several

.

sterling),

pounds

5,000

nursing

dispensary,

hospital,

well-equipped

(about

rupees

of

lakh

a

worth

is

self

owned

Dharapuram

at

Church

Central

large

the

as

such

items

other

registered

ie

ghee tani

(pounds

& 44,508

time

19255,

in

W.A.Sandford

District

Trichinopoly

the

that

at

worth

properties

in

Church

Methodist

the

According

account.

into

Rey.

the

by

prepared

Register

the. Property

administrative

agents,

taken

dispensa-

hospitals,

designs,

native

be

to

also

are

dormitories

and

and

missionaries

for

residences

ries,

blocks

to

architectural

and

sizes

all

of

Churches

structures

imposing

and

massive

from

schools.

vilage

simple-looking

Mission.

the

ranging

buildings

in

housed

were

institutions

of

acres

of

by

owned

and

erected

properties

other

and

land, Their

wealth

of

amount

considerable

A

properties.

hundreds

of

form

the

in

is

valuable

of

a number

Diocese

the

to

bequeathed

also

District

Trichinopoly

and

Negapatam

the

in

Church

Methodist

the

unity,

structural

organized

an

and

community

a Christian

to

addition

In

Properties

Church

3.

sums are

Di-

sterling, past

130

apart the

ge-

offerings liberally of not

money only

nation's

87)

MSS. 'Trichinopoly', Box (1922-1928): Letter of Rev. W.A.Sandford to Rev. Thompson, attached with 'Property Register, Negaase ores y. 1925', dated Dharapuram, 1o February, 1925, para :

88)

John

P.

Jones,

op.ctt.,

p.

301.

198

If

Table

9 (amounts

Year

Local

Contribu-

tions:Class Collections

in

pounds

Grants

Money, etc.

sterling)

& Pay-

ments from Committee

Govt.

Home ;

Total

Grants

LIBS

1,665

4,361

2,394

8,420

1934

1527

a

3,147

8,791

1935

1, 544

SMR

28 S37}

7,366

1936

1,460

3,269

2,065

6,794

Loar

1%

Sy)

1938

1,665

1939

160

1672

1940

‘

1941

q

2,445

8,063 9,301

2,845

sesh

Wy HS) 2

4,4/70

Zyhd

Si

1944

1,690

1945 1946 1947

47013

Sp 82)9)

Pe TYG)

Sassy

4,360

BVO OO

9, ilo

20.55

5,

2G Sii ike)

2,497

by etsy”?

De poe

1o,293

2,496

By role

2,134

TOs

E |

Aw iOnes) ,

a

O50

Ss

eis!

Deon

AS

rts iis)

Ann.Repts.

§ Last

wealth®?,

The

lands,

evangelists,

available

figures

missionary

were

spent

Christians

of

and

grants,

on

catechists

maintenance

SOVPPICKCE;)

90)

Pa ot

Ss), Sey

2,045

529

both

2,04

4,784

SpA)

and

The)

4,784

1943

eign

:

the Morghs

1942

Source:-

SS

their

the

and

almost

salaries

women

workers

institutions,

non-Christians

entirely of

in

found

Op.Ctt.,Dp. 139.

Tbrd.

122)

their and which

received Indian

for

the

for-

construction

hundreds

employment?°.

from

Ministers,

of

Indians,

1.

Evangelization was

the

axiom

of

of

enterprise,

the

depended

The

India

reason

guage

ry

from

a foreign

believed

to

informing

was

the

their

be

thought

work

would

to

that

once

expressed,

gion

cannot

position

of

the

be

to

propagate

realized,

the

work

for

many

first

helpers which

had

there

were

South

India.

Mission,

be

29

and

up

had

its

its

HF,

of

the

29,

remaining

15 14

Trichinopoly

and

No.

10

This

the

times

thus:

Native

7) Ibtd.,

p.

Lt

Ministry as

Hunter

Christian

until

for

other

success. four

had in

been

other

it

is

reliina

of

were

very

Churches

In

1897,

Methodist up

of

ministry all

s

the

few.

and for

in

the

Hence

Missions

in

Wesleyan

Similarly

by

in-

and

instance,

6 Ministers

these

been

and

small

Districts

staffed

of

long

earnest

very

WiSetone

Almost

of

had

Trichinopoly Dt.

was

brought

5 out

and

want

ministry

from

the

Agency

converts

in

sort

in

the

had

been

imported

wor-

borrowed

labourers

"Organization and Government of Native 1888, London, Misstonary Conference,

(October,

Holdsworth,

"The

was

the

come*.

William

"The

Negapatam

great

"The Native

op. ctien 5) (be

to

and

spontaneous,

Agents 1866),

op.cit.,

Vol.

p.

of the Tamil Wesleyan 219.

Rev. William Goudie, "Training and Supervision HF, Vol. IX (December, 1888), p. 194. O Malley;

Agency

power

Sir

lan-

missiona-

time

Findlay

W.H.Findlay,

the a

a Native

3)

5)

for

such

4)

6)

Christiani-

Native

a country

the the

of

District

drawbacks.

Little,

V,

for

Ministers

Out

Henry Vol.

in

severely

number

at

Rev. Robert Stephenson, Churches", Report of the Vol. iy; ps Sook

2) Rev.

in

sons'

strength.

with

expected

forcea!*.

policy

of in

most

The

experienced

serious

their

Mission

candidates

elsewhere’.

and

own

missionary

priesthooa">.

the

the

was

and

usefulness

crippled

Indian

and

'natural,

of

the

directing

without

naturalized

borrowed

already

Negapatam

1)

to

as

agents.

qualified

India'

artificial

note

and of

years

native

had

brought

key

regarded value

telligent

become is

'the

that

in

difficult

Therefore,

in

belief

of

gained

acquainted

were

her of

development

were

which

of

extension

agents

which

church

agency

the

future

native

workers

from

the

With

acquire’.

firm

never

the

kers

the

which

Though

at

to

nucleus

Agents

through

the

upon

native

land

the

that

the.country,

missionaries'

opposed

was

the

of

Native

policy.

mainly

that

customs

of

'mainly

conviction

was

and

India

missionary

ty

in

Training

LEADERSHIP

OF

DEVELOPMENT

AND

AGENTS

NATIVE

OF

TRAINING

8:

CHAPTER

V,

p.

Mission"

165.

of

Native

Agents",

Ole

Indian

Ministry",

125%

200

HSRW,

1893-1897,

pp.

123-124.

suffered

terribly

from

A higher

wage

their

imperative As in

was

for

a first

1885

in

the step

in

Boulter.

The

existence,

in

being

of

that

Bible in

with year

the

the

because

health.

With

was

the

should their that

be

the

whose

a European

Rev.

was

John There

India the

no

that

and

also

it

was

still

the

compelled

to

return

Mrs.

also

the

that the was

to

disappeared

same

year

a Bible

should for be

of

be

to

his

colleague

all

resolved set

both

missionary

it

School

training further

built

Indian

close

Shrewsbury's

in

minister

were

apart

married

appointed was

in

the

below by

accepted

a theological

10) Findlay Robert

Ibid.

for

the

of high

in

South

the

ministry

it

was

generally

have and

a

who

and

that

gtve

of zeal

and

good

piety

or

office,

for sptrttual Institutions,

character,

and

tolerably

genuine

principle

guiding

and

candidates

as

they

had of

evince

to

of

whose

op.ctit.,

The

p.

two

for

effort

voluntary

general

In

the

evtfor

accepted years.

and Holdsworth,

195.

Vol.

op.ctt.,

op.ctt.,

pp-

V, pp.

370-371.

201

were

completion,

60-61.

167-168.

and

attain-

Examination,

candidates After

a desire

Negapatam

educational

Secondary

Lower

the

Synod.

lasting

by

winning’?

‘soul

candidates,

District

Stephenson,

should English

Theological

work

course

pp.

of

general

their

standard

the

Goudie,

(1900),

ministry

knowledge

But

Districts

for

j

District,

for

William

fulfil.

be

the

for

not

9) RSIPS

to

converston,

work"

acceptance,

were

required

our

in

Methodist

candidates

be accepted

students

a fitness

11)

was

It

various to

candidates

of spiritual

12)

were

the

applied

sufficient

men

as

Trichinopoly

8)

Indian

first

in

tests

they

life.

those

Before

ments

the

uniformity

the

evangelistic

and

and

an

C.H.Monahan,

the

with

a blameless

dence

It

and

work.

1899

but

best

Rangaswami '°. was

education

"only

for

Tamil.

Hostels

regarding

admitted

Madras

the at

Synod

was

started

large,

of

institution

near

tongue

was

Starling

But

However,

Provincial

Guindy

of

most

chuukchés°;

very

In

opportunist.

was

Rev.

Some

it.

an

it

School

the

never

were

training

this

Rev.

conditions

agreed

at

of

principal.

state

Reports’.

India

mother

in

its

unsatisfactory

students

the

as

of own

Bible

was

Shrewsbury

the

their

purpose.

trained

missionary

for

unmarried

charge

were

Annual

in

a small

a useful

Mrs.

South

men

Trichinopoly

departure the

established

agents

exclusively and

and

the

of

in

at

or

Therefore,

supervision

Shrewsburiy

Rev.

a hireling

find

direction,

District

their

to

served

Rev.

of

pages

decided

it

of

consideration.

under™“the

School.

the

England from

that

Trichinopoly

evangelists

mentality

only

missionaries

while

in

the

were sent they

they

period

this

New

Testament,

of

Provincial

the

rights

in

the

congregations or

teachers

Synod

After

successful

completion

their

respective

places.

ce

in

the

another

that

form

it

native

category

Zenana

agents

teachers,

patam

and

Table

lo

Grade

of

Indian

(Women

local

and

were

belonged

workers

stewards

the

two

groups:

Indian

The

Trichinopoly

and

class

Source:-

of

the

during

Workers

parts

contact

as

vernacular. work

in

influenof

the one

with

Appendix

"The

Indian

VI,

(1905),

Appendix

VI,

church

Sexennium

1904

Sunday

officers

Agency

the

in

the

such

(1898-1904)

1

11

168

30

136. 202

140-141.

pp.

126-127.

as

was:

Increase

a

op.cit.,

and

Nega-

48

pp.

for-

School

6

Ministry", p.

the

To

teachers

=H/

14) Ibtd.', pp. 127-131. RGS

and

Native

the

unpaid.

latter,

138

(1905),

W.H.Findlay,

and

evangelists,

1898

Teachers

RGS

the

leaders,

position

District

to

Ministers

Christian

15)

different

paid

minsiters,

Workers);

preachers,

elders.

in

Evangelists

13)

to

a unifying

close

into

village

either

returned

was

brightest

the

the

in

was

they

from

students

trained

given

Institute

backgrounds

the

from

youths

were

course,

their

Guindy

brought

different

they

training

the

of

The

-

>.

The mer

sense and

Province

Here

and

status

Institute,

literate

the

and

and

ministers!

Theological

Guindy Guindy.

to

evangelists

as

European

schools

sent

were

as the

of

boarding

the

from

boys

full

opening

the

After

as

received

were same

the

exactly

having

After

probationers.

candidates

the

probation

Connexion,

full

into

of

term

the

of

expiry

the

ministers

another

for

least

the

on

imposed

were

at

lasted

probation

of

is,

‘Minister

as

received

they

least--were

very

the

period

auspices

that

examinations-—

annual

four

examinations

no

but

years

these

The

Probation'.

four

.

passed at

years

four

after on

they

when

Only

Synod

'Exa-

annual

the

under

conducted

Ministers'

Assistant

Indian

of

mination

and

Memoriter),

for

selections

some

and

an

by

knowledge

their

test

Old

(e.g.

books

Religions

Comparative

Theology,

Testament,

prescribed

certain

with

course

theological

cribed

During pres-

a

through

time

leisure

years.

four

of

a period

their

in

work

to

had

for

catechists

as

only

employed

were

The ly

increase

satisfactory,

placed

on

of

Guindy

the Some

a

who

and

on

college

Movement

1913

the

the

were

among

the

village

in

was

hard-

and

teachers

the

establishment

was

the

sent

called

was

years Some of

the

candidates

they

of

evangelists

the might

Synod,

could

also

without

a grandson

Indian

Union

before

them

District

take College,

the

B.D.Course,

four

to

Theological

then

their

for

were

United

Nallamuthu,

the

area

of

Minister

Section,

the

enter taking

Abraham

from

played

They

and

16)

Findlay

17)

R.B.Spear,

18) RTMMC

pp.

to

the

Mass

or

District they

as

and

important

Holdsworth,

"Dharapuram

in

role

op.ctt.,

Men's

men

Vol.

who

the

V,

Educational

42-43.

(1935), p. 16.

203

ten

of

expected

'pasto-

evangelists or

twelve super-

to

teachers

duties.

trained

instruction,

P-

each

was

and

pastoral been

at

pastoral

16.9:

Work",

'On

in

super-

strategic

at

senior

had

five

Around

evangelists

minister

the were

followed

The

in

the which

or

work

were

later

Dhara-

and

whose

charge

and

inexperienced

help

Evangelists

an

given

in

from

four

responsible.

teachers

were

years

placed

Agents)

a Section)

Ten

work

of

in

Government

campus

with

Elementary

the

stock

plan

of

from

Dharapuram

School

the

eancationaisle.

ability

to

were

were

of

a number

also

Elementary

minister

a

(SEs

which

same

number

Higher

in

passed

the

workers' (6 The have

younger

had

outmissiona-

workers

a

started

on

Higher

larger

their

Certificate).

Dharapuram

(called

The

started

the

well

soon

staff.

still

itself,

was who

to

and

a

train

Movement

was

as

growth

Leaving

was

at

steady

raising

order

candidates

were

and

of

its

ministerial.

attached

School

for

areas

station

assist

in

village

the

of

experience

(1939),

out

and

existing

Mass

school,

Superintending

Guindy.

the

School

congregations

and

that

It

ordained

problem

School

evangelistic

some

These

the

required

of

began

school

evangelists in

evangelist's and

of

boarding

bulk

centres

vise

field

C.J.

So,

(Elementary

Movement

intending

ral

the

sent

Training

the

with

1910.

first

the

pastors.

Training

The

Teachers!

Mass

of

with

school

a Teachers

the

to

College

at

grace'

Movement

a boarding

Examination

came

due

Superintendents.

Rev.

the

Christians

This

puram.

Mass

and

with

1915.

the and

The

was

Findlay

completing

in

strength

faced

evangelists

School

Sexennium

area.

stripped ries

in

Circuit

|®,

the

evangelists

mainly

Divinity)

After

'gifts

Palayam

during

of

was

recommendations

course

P.K.

In

the

This

started

made

the

training

from the of

probation

possessed

from

was

Ministry

Institution.

students

College. on

ordained

ministry

the

footing.

(Bachelor

Theological be

while

which

kept

Indian

Training

chosen

B.D.Course

were

the

a better

Bangalore,

a

of

This

Rock’

largely

depended

kers!?.

As

the

number

that

time,

the

Methodist

cial

Synod's

intending

an

annual

intended

merely

the

mass

movement

areas,

the

District

would

ly by

formal

The

teachers

salaries

work

was

only

oversight

of

responsible

conducted when

one

very

ing

for

from

these

teachers

were

le

only

spite

to meet

staff

that

the

at

no

way

in

the

end

Christians

n

of

“

19)

Ibtd.,

P.¥.Luke

21)

E.B.

22)

Whitehead,

23)

RIMMC

24)

“Ebtde,

and

need

painfully the

for

p.

of

as

each

work

in

inadequate.

average

roughly

number

of

II, B.

pp.

Indian

pp.

was

Minister

Op .Cft.,

42-43.

Problems,

p.

161.

16.

1a.

204

PP.

work

specific

Boarding The

to

traindo.

School,

weekly

or

Conventions

met?>,

still

District.

impossibThe

available

Christians

=< 5 2 pOOO

22=23.

a com-

their

expected

Figures

ee

rites

difficul-

really

Though

it was the

last

all

any

was

membership,

the

was

pastoral

He

full in

their School

generally

District

43-44.

Carman,

had

follows: 74

"Evangelist

op.ctt.,

Indian

demands

the

the

taken,

John

(1935),

Meetings

already

"

Spear,

in

were

instruction.

workers'

Appendix

ps

Class

received

got

received

the

for

School

steps

was

and

they

theological

for

them

these

"

20)

knowledge

annual-

System.

He

performed

they

of

of

ordained

renewed

villages.

leader.

work

by

Grant

consulted

teachers

course

Schools

and

Mission

community

be

village.

which

1934

Number

one

the

Synods2°.

three

several

of

worker

a

the

School,

the

evangelistic

other

always

Christian

was

these

ever-growing was

in

even

preached

village

of

Meetings,

the

sterial

or

religious

of

and

the

He

needs

Salary

community,

Sunday

teacher

none

had

Agents'

the

In

the

the

and

died

the

pastoral

Apart

of

Christians.

respect

important, the

monthly

uplift

worship

and

job

sometimes

was

special

to

Mission the

solemn-

the

pastors

had

men

to

This

in

Provincial the

and

charge.

that

unordained

under

a teacher's

flock

this

centre

was

in

Government

meet

Super-

the

in

minister to

at

Provin-

These

sacraments

pastors

lay

employed

young

his

these

these

or

Synod.

expected

were

two,

the

it was

replace of

some

District

expedient

and

of

and

In

and

pastors'

the

wor-

small

the

of

lay the the

District

part or

of

very to

agreed

Britain

administer

the

the

regular of

ties?!, munity

who

for

illiterate

in

from

one

to

by

direction

licences

vote

full

'licenced

a temporary

as

The

ministers.

as

recommended the

in

was

ministers

Indian

fellow

junior

their

Sections

their

in

Church

the

to

gave

Conference

licence

under

they

ordained

appointing

marriages

time

léad

of

Evangelists

received ize

the

on

of

progress

spiritual

the

and

oversight,

EB

for

each

minishow

Number

of

a The

Christians

; Mass

as

Dharapuram

of be

agents.

for

two

its

Accordingly

years

during

in

biblical

training

and

in

preaching

congregation.

were

run

for

of these

before

or

the

after

BSS

...

557

visited

the

measures in

one

in the

marriage,

1936.

and

some

they

The

course

were

with

given

practical

be

work

refresher

of

special

might

or

the

some

in

courses

workers.

training,

of

at

number

administrative

schools

edification

received

so that

a greater

combined

summer

and

in

School

candidates

study,

of

therefore

a Bilbe

train

the

pastoral

inspiration

also

to

started

period

District

that

order

was

which

A series

workers

te

Worker

theological

and

a village also

which

emergency

established

training

wives

Teacher

"Women

Commission

one

should

native

lasted

each

by

Movement

suggested of

for

.

The

either

help

in

the

work?>. Attempts there

were

was

much

expressed

that

in

its

vice in

the

its

lay

body

13

preachers, The men,

like

no

ridden

up

When

else are

there should

to

suppressed.

ture)

exponent The

be

Hindus

thé

by

see

25)

DDtds)

Ps

27)

Ann. Rep.,

serkind

of

a

recommendations

1947

there

women,

in

330

local

and

sending

of

things

as

and

apacarah

at

to

Tinnevelly,

246 emaine (1947). 205

nor view

any

in

the

be

an

ex-

priests any-

tolerate Even

today

that

each

caste on

infringement

Harikatha this

the

caste-

view.

Wariar

be

and

(wrong-doing)

a noted

subscriber

correspondent

the

hold

the

to

priest.

a Brahmin

forth of

a country

few--have

entitled allow

neither

in

In

chosen are

and

Wariar, a

preachers

happening

shocked.

(sahaja-karma)

condemned

and

particularly

such

strongly

who

is

lies

promising

and

selecting

even

4

26) elit deep

grow

world

creation

such

teachers

step,

can

They

Krupananda

the

of

and

voluntary

most

bible

Brahmins--the

duties

the

to

the

the

for

148

as

knowledge

functions

Tamilnadu

Hindu

Ministry origin,

surprised,

of

leaders own

Sri in

only key

the

should

such

are

tradition.

its

duly

with

the

religious

perform

caste

they

of

work

Commission

teachers-’.

revolutionary

high

perform

to

a dharma

view

a

caste

of

result

catechists,

a Native

low

society

right

unrivalled

an

one

of

of

use

continued

School

Movement

throughout

District a

voluntary

Mass

material

As

Agency

426

Church,

Hindu

clusive

is

workers RA

Sunday

develop

The

making

Trichinopoly

Native

doubt

India.

Christian

There

and

94

raising

to

of Methodism for

ministers,

and

is

such

made

respect...

strength

the

the

especially

Gospel

this

members.

of

native

in

providing

of

measures,

were

by

for

villages

splendid and

"the

genius

of

simultaneously

scope

(Hindu In

an

stated

scripinter-

that

the

entry

les.

He

of

non-Hindus

further

Federation)

government's

or

ministrants)

In

support

of

the

from

from

of

his

greatest

view

that

As

the

stianity:

holds

"The

Pariah

or--highest

honour the

unfold

for

men. as

them

of like

does

at

ment

too.

and

these the

the

men

of

It

time

was

sufficiently

equipped of

town

areas.

as

pastors,

only in

midst

high

cases ing

tages who

and

superior of

reluctant

Housing

facilities,

counsel

caste

or

as

a

and

more

reluctant

to

residence

they

work

among

28)

'Letter

to

29)

Findlay

and

30)

Quoted

Si)

Richter,

the

the

lower the

Editor',

The

Holdsworth,

OPV

Pickett, sopacutes

of

op.ctt.,

castes

29

p.

300.

206

needed

higher

March, Ni

the

caste

1970.

pills

were

as

those

often illiterate company.

salary

place men

trainadvan-

of

they

leaders

origin

at

such

the

amongst

Sometimes

caste

In

Some

educated

in not

masters

education

and and

work

theological

'; Furthermore,

and

Utan) VOL

were

besides

spiritual

non-Christian

Hindu,

to

agents

especially

well.

children,

high

spe n42 tte

as

it

education

higher

object.

remonstrance

joy,

disappointnative

But

places

experienced

workers

chose

and

the make

everbody" 2°, of

translators.

hearers

their

their

in and

institutions,

work.

leading

clearly

train

advanced

of

God

are

and

training

and

obscure

of

to

sound

and

their

cultured

friendly

often

editors

training to

and

congregations

disadvanteages

became

more

Christian

and

things

equal

a source

Chrijudge,

with

these

Sudras

is

vernacular

of

had

posted

life

little

feeling,

value

education

senior

in

the

plead

are

serve in

the

outcastes

missionaries

attainments

it

for

modern

in

the

men

theological

and

in

All

take

for

cultured

and

out,

lawyer,

dissatisfaction

comprehensive and

come

and

to

Hinduism,

self-control

all

can

good

for

the

tutors

and

ministers

superior

be

looked

of

for

to

one hailing

privileged

in

point

a Minister

that

be

cause

scientific

to

They

even

in

training, highly

people.

relish

give

educational

such

amenities

would

were

the

power"??,

that

native

colleges,

enhanced

received

became

of

of

but

schools

greatly

God

all

revelation,

truth

religion

intelligent Men

become

sovereign

necessary

in the

"a

training

same

to

deities.

persons

beliefs

rightly

self-reverence, to

and

(priests

the

Tirumular,

only

Brahmins,

teacher,

Divine

Christian

that

the

may

of

taught,

a great

God

Though

the

all-he

Self-knowledge, Tennyson

demonstrate sight

of

the

Holdsworth

become

mysteries

to

to

of

that

princip-

Progressive

Arehakas

(prayers)

practices

invitation

and

may

'qualified'

down

Agama

Dravidian

Ttrumandtram

laid

such

a great

Findlay

God, him,

out

from

who

against

the

do pujas

referring

Unlike

was

(or

appoint to

cited

caste,

Revs.

to

castes

he

temples

D.M.K.

saints,

task-°.

Christianity God.

Hindu

the

move

all

Tamil

a particular

perform

into

criticized

and

did

giving

not them

because

of

sometimes of

their

their

com-

panions ries

23 Therefore,

regarding

Native

the

Agency.

there

were

development

Some

of

them

divergent

of

views

a highly

expressed

among

educated

the

féar

the

and

missiona-

wéll-trained

that:

"Superior training will Leelee the expectation of improved status and salary. A more highly trained Christian agency will be of doubtful benefit to the work, if its increased cost involves the contraction of its operations"33. It

was

therefore

those

missionaries

extremely

cautious

did

stians

the

college

to

best

education>*.

So

that

the

poor

quality of

catechist, sion

labour

be

to No

men

scarcely

had

these

religions anity>°.

men

idea

indulged

thus

did

more

harm

such

men

were

chosen

letter

Miss

Alice

and

Finance

workers

are

a

role

in

Walton,

good

to

of

pity.

out

the

Miss

out

preaching

selection

M.

master

One

and

abuse cause

Jennings,

these

the

were were

in sspi ni

influences

to

of of

Poverty of

a

mis-

they

Christianity the

or

as

But

higher

indiscriminate

than

Secretary, chosen

of

in

the

of in-

enthusiasm

knowledge

all

higher

was

was

known

religion'°.

scriptural

good

this

who

school

company

great

and

Chri-

naturally

person

mission

'mouth

to

with of

were

Any

"motley

‘alien

and

played

"Many

in

Many also

Treasurer

no

a

them

work

critical native

consequence

possessed

of

men

Having

be

that

all

depth

were

often

relations to

they

any

to

in

highly

talented

providing

serious

evangelistic

abundance

They

or

were

even

unsatisfactory.

aspired

doubt

Christianity'?’.

Hindus,

one

for

who

sending

possible

that

included

displaying

experience.

like

most

and

of

of

were

honest

agents'?>.

who

so

employed

and

capable

tual

much

natives

capable

not

Christi-

and

family

people.

then

the

other

In

a

Diocesan

wrote: of

pity

because

they

are

poor,

and

without reference to their suitability to be Gospel teachers and workers, or because they are related etc. etc. There is need

for

kers from good--and There

32)

is

more

much

G.A. Oddie, eo 5. jer COnOe

33) RGS

supervision,

and

for

time to time. There is a tendency for Supers, truth

in

the

"Protestant Pile

revising

our

lists

of

wor-

a complacency that is not 39 to employ people out of POM eyaereteme

observations

Missions,

of

Caste

Miss

and

Jennings.

And

Change

Social

in

yet,

India",

(1916), p. 168.

34)

Personal Interview 5-4-1976. London,

35)

S. Diem

Sathianadhan, oS.

with

the

"Missionary

Bishop Work

Doraiswamy,

Solomon in

India",

(Paper

dated

II),

op.ctt.,

36) Ibid. 37) Ibid.

;

38) Ibdd. 39)

MSS.

'Trichinopoly',

1946-December Walton, dated

1948): Kodai,

Box

(1939--File

Letter from Miss May 10, 1948. 207

Miss

Minne

Jennings

Jennings, to

Miss

October

Alice

in on

the

best

Rev.

J.

source

success

assured

2.

1. Henry 3.

Joseph

By

ie

West

(1900-)

4,

E.

(12a

6.

A.A.

(1920-)

10.

Negapatam

District

owed

and

1885,

Chairman.

Trichinopoly

to

The

it

work

ed

new

times

and

the

early

formative

In

1883 1888 the

Little the

income

and slow

and

1890

of

regarding

the

work

discussion

in

arose

with

holding

that

the

40) 41)

when

work

themselves

large

sums

of

of

up

the

provided

obtained Madras

and

and

an

its

own

District.

leadership

developed

The

of

around

organization

to

best

India The

and

became

The

criticisms

high

caste

suit-

doctor those

from spent

the on

with

natives. the

and

He

of

higher

of

the

subject

was of

of

the

the

the

in

and opinion

Brahman

J. Hudson, "The Native Church" (I Paper), HF, Vol. V, No. ber, 1884), p. 168. oe "The Christian Ethic and India", in O'Malley,

208

Lunn,

involved

living, of

heated

Methodist

Henry

were

luxurious

about

policy

value

called

education

between

England

among

who

Revs.

After

their

the

challenged them

the

and

Hindus

missionary

charged

in

comparative

classes

aloof

year

about

lower

1887,

money

every

the

a young

and

fall

among

circles*’,

in

District,

leadership.

dissatisfaction in

Education.

the

new-born

efficient

began

missions

missionary

Tiruvarur

grew

built

(1947-)

the

initiative

wide-spread

among

educational

(1946-)

first

from

District

whom

Society

Higher

stationed higher

(1913-)

(1935-)

Thorp

District

period

the

missionaries at

the of

especially

work

(1906-)

Thomas

conditions.

was

of

Christian

evangelistic

new

there

(1892-)

Webster

separated

W.H.Findlay

progress

educational

each

from , 4o faLinre™ == %

1885-1947:

District

Findlay

E.B.

individual

in

personalities,

Henry

was

the

these to

from

11. A.S.Johnson

when

much

springs

8. J.J.Ellis

er)

in

each

=)

Rangara-

chairman

which results

Trichinopoly

and

Negapatam

disappoint-

keenest

Leadership

2. W.H.

malin The

of

(1885-)

HCOOLANG

P.S.

which

the

is

Church

Native

the

by

article

an

in

his

of

satisfaction

the

Little

7. W.A.Sandford 9.

and

I think,

appreciated?

be

"The

out: joy

Development

Chairmen,

of

List

found

discouragement

the

nor

is

question points

be

neither

can

There

ment...

to

highest

missionary's

the

much

rightly

he

As

Hudson. of

Native

is

entire

the

on

comment

to

there

Native

and

Ministry

regard

that

say

still

we

Can

Church?

with

contribution

missionary

the

of

said

be

can

what

situation,

this

In

economy.

of

score

the

encouraged

was

men

such

of

employment

the

drawbacks,

such

of

spite

6

and

(Decem-

op.ctt.,

other

high

caste

teachings, used

for

veloped led

was

who

were

turning

and

that

the

successful into

to

youths,

a mistake

naries

in

their

the

Conference The

among

the

known

as

the

Misstonary

self-examination

and

heart-searching

field,

in

Sub

inquiry.

who

in

investigation

was

hearing

bore

of

mainly

of

spirit: and

of

tedious

and

after

all

careful

the

of

the

to

Lunn

laid

leyan

study

Conference,

his

disgrace

missionaries,

non-Christians, sympathy or

help

of

contempt.

the

of

The

supply

one

time

The

National in

"The

all

the

now to

the

funds

from

on

never

had

for

other

neg~-

outsome

upon

produced

critical

such

leader-

admirable

missionary

the

Wesabout

Christians

had

and

Dr.

Lunn

and

Tri-

cause

in

Negapatam

the

being

the

excuse

provided

in

and

Not

Dr.

During

Pees

W.H.Findlay

in vindicating

by

who

effect

ver-

Conference,

excellent

The

Mission

the

The

side.

made

mission

in from

Committee,

withdrew

Those

an

nine-

inquiry

verdict

work.

The and

After its

ill-effects

and the

of

and

native.

found

witnesses.

exonerated

either

of

spent

aloofness

its

their

from

court

were

people.

General

statements

and

days

and

gave

of

the

more

of

also

it

or

by

withdrawn.

was

and

43) [btd.,

lay

the

Service

Bangalore

and

of

and

Mass

the

rising

prices

from

Report",

Report,

The

WMMS

called

Misstonary

op. 2". 209

two

the

also to

was

Government.

World

very

Controversy: London

(1890),

a

Wars.

and

at

Government.

the

In

face

famine,

by

dwindled

serve

to

had

District

affected

(N.S.A.C.) the

Publication,

88ff.

by

Britain

Committee of

the

often

created

were

policies

the

was

Great

missionaries Advisory

Movement,

work

The

missionaries

implementing

Evtdence

82

for

Methodist

a special

completely

wide-spread

work

problems.

plagues

drought,

42)

outbreak

peculiar

and

tough

missio-

lands.

After new

had

places

and

District

chinopoly foreign

de-

which

causes the

completed

displeasure

European

work

the

upholding

in

ship

of

Four

native

Conference

of

as

luxury

matter were

appeal

the

the

Little

Henry

Revs.

the

and

mission

Christians

native

the

days,

both

of

character

influence

some

This

the

the

cross-examining

Committee

whole

Subscriptions

in

were

by

explain

1889.

toward

Sub

endorsed

to

however,

with

and

without

resignation The

people.

Committee

27,

charges

field

was

and lect

the the

their

ministry.

side

of in

against

the

much

the

Committee

his

May

deportment

Sub

bear

on

the

made

finally by the able

to

Sub

Christian fruitfully

Controversy,

a Commission

evidence on

work,

missionaries

charges

dict

through

opened

teen

which

upon

the

the be

:

acted

lordliness hours

called

before

and outcaste

Britain’. inquiry

continuously.

were

failure'

Committee

The

on

could

work

‘comparative

low

back

amount

became

what

a serious

their

same

strict letter

Dtscusston, pp.

21,

and to

was

then

Industrial

School,

the

Committee

of

charge

in

missionary

lay

a

who

Wallis,

A.R.E.

Karur

the

said:

been "your business is to leave it to the Committee which has appointed by the Government to decide whether the work you are now doing or the service you would render if called for National Service are more important to the State and to the You will not be allowed to decide war-effort at this juncture. either in favour of the Mission or in favour of joining up. The matter will be decided for you"44.

was

There

Churches.

own

for

its

and

challenges,

Mass

Movement

ford

and

was

J.J.Ellis.

was

Chairmen

As

great

phases

of

the

talk

of

calling

some Paul

Rangaramanujam

Rev.

W.J.

Noble,

then

piloted General and

two

by

In

missionaries

greatly

General

in

in

especially the

Revs.

during the

W.A.

to

In

London,

the Sand-

of

the

1930s,

back

disappointed.

Secretary

unprecedented

Superintendents

ability

from

pressures of

days

hard

District,

had

District

the

the

of

use

respectively.

these was

and

skill

movement

Rev.

the

the

of

work

courageously

exhibited

they

District second

area,

the

such

During

benefit.

outside success

make

and

of

strengthening

and

Movement

Mass

the

in

flood'

the

new

afforded

the

and

extent

some

to

obstacles

nevertheless

Gospel

the

of

spread

a tide

at

tide

the

'take

District,

the

the

for

opportunities to

in

work

the

impeded

they

offi-

local

the

by

were

there

Government,

converts

these

all

While

chiefs.

village

and

cials

social

and

persecutions

the

of

boycott

the

by

demands

rigorous

such

to

addition

In

the

first when

England,

a

letter he

and

there the to

the

writes:

"These two have been in a special sense the leaders of the life and work of the District for the past ten years and more. The secret of the Chairman's influence among all sections of workers and people is due to his utter impartiality and fairness in administration. He has been able to keep the District in a degree of unity by the respect and love that all alike have for him because of spirituality and saintliness. Mr. Ellis' deep devotion and ardent zeal for evangelism and his untiring labours in which his many gifts are spent for Christ, have enabled him to be a constant inspiration to urge the District to go forward in the work of God. To lose both of them together creates a situation that looks to me terribly serious--doubly so in view of the youthful and inexperienced synod we shall (have) when they are gone. Strong leadership as we had in these two if withdrawn now will prove almost disastrous. To be a father and guide to the synod, to be the spiritual leader of us all and

to

be

a

strict,

impartial

administrator

will

be

more

than

what any one can be, who has not made a place for himself in the life of the District already. I wish to tell you my conviction that our need is first and foremost for a senior person of saintly and deep spiritual character. We also need some one who will be able to carry on the administration of our grow-

ing and increasing

44) 45)

machinery"45.

MSS.'Trichinopoly',

Box

to

Johnson,

the

Rev.

Hickman

(1941-1945): dated

Letter Karur,

of

Mr.

A.R.E.

Wallis

11-2-1942.

MSS. ‘Trichinopoly', Box (1928-1935) :Letter of the Rev. Paul garamanujam to Rev. W.J. Noble, dated Dharapuram, 23-2-1933.

210

Ran-

Such his

were

the

leaders

for

the

building

best

3.

Until

1894

government.

In

sionaries

from

and

body

and

ment

of

the

rights

made

to

represented’®.

spect

to

more

the

Christian

there

for

the also

Secretary

clearly

century

The

missionary to

of

new

cause.

the

that

for

an

for

Indian

Indian

of

form

for

is

a

Churches problem

of

in

great

and in

in

and

organi-

a national and

little

developments

nationalism,

like

K.T.

Paul,

the

autonomy

and

Indian

India.

The

General

force

serve

also

began

and

were

prepared

This

new

awareness

the

Conference

can

of

which

: 4 gaiaes?®

and

West

participation

par-

missionaries

the

to

and

of

and

and

Christianity.

Madras

rewas

showed

leadership

increased

the

with

Church

movement,

the

were

from

general,

of

Indian

endeavour

India

invest-

Christianity

Christians

more

on,

political

of

United

Church

formal

in

throes

the

the

posi-

Ministers

going

upon

to

recognize

and

the

influence Indian

the

missionary

:

looked

India

the

worship,

Parallel

from

'this

must

forces

room

was

India

Y.M.C.A., of

in

that

mis-

responsibility

to

South

affairs

was

self-

senior

the

Indian

alien

growing

demand

nationalist

need

of

Church

Hindus

-otally

the

in

Christ

the

a resolution

as

and

understood

Church

India

to

enabled

which

peogrerere!

educated

Indian

the

the

awaken

a

the

in

discipline,

the

gave

in

consider

of

figure in

to

of

the

relation

which

the

matters

distinct

missionary

of

ticipation

in

In

modern

went

London

real. more

them

progress

of

responsibility,

upsurge

a prominent

in

devolution

of

matter

consisting

assemblies

officers

missionaries

sympathy

to

the

the

visible

of

of

The

met

in

see

Ministers

gradual

of

District.

acceptance

was

turn

taken

can

recommendations

a

one

in

their

than

there

awakening.

and

to

was one

field

to

Each

church

indigenization

committee

Indian

made

Though

body

formal

At

be

finance

zation,

the

certain

power

Missionary

mission

of

of

date

special

Movement.

a native

measure

that

a

Mass

of

Process

after

1894

the

up

definite

But

direction.

tion

no

of

slowly to of be

to make

the seen

in

missionaries:

"The Conference desires, therefore, to record the conviction that whenever capable and spiritually minded Indian men and women are discovered, the time has come for Churches and Missions to make a real and unmistakable advance, by placing Indians on a footing of complete equality, in status and responsibility, with Europeans and thus opening for them the highest and the most respon-

46)

W.H. Findlay, "The 1894), p. 418.

47)

RGS

48)

Ann.Rep.,

(1905),

Wesleyan

Appendix

Vol.

XXXV

VI,

pp.

(1918),

Native ;

Ministry",

94-96. pp.

33-34.

Zeal

HF,

Vol.

XIV

(May,

sible

positions

where goods

in

the

the

nationalist

process

of

Falling to

were

aries

the

city

and

the

then

all

town

Chairman

of

that

and

man

from

upon

it

the was

ference

a missionary.

and

on

of

1937

the

the

Indian

Committee

receive

advice

of

J.J.

the

finally

accepted

49)

Conttnuatton

by

S.C.M.

Provincial

the

Rev.

elected

England,

British

by

the

the

(Student Synod

Methodist

Committee

be

Conference

in

with

to

Webof enter-

the

an

S.

at

then

as

now

District its Chair-

once

acted

Chairman

Rangaramanujam, Con-

The

choice

Committee

Britain>>.

their

al-

from

Quadrennial

Movement).

Asta

power

had

elected

Synod

Missionary

in

and

of

announced

the

Paul in

lot

elected

for

Ellis,

Rev.

a

District

London

District

Conference

Aecount of the Conferences Together 1913, p. 32. of Members, New York:

50)

in

the

invited

appreciative

changed

Christian

and

close

Trichinopoly

Ebenezer

had

the

to

participating

In-

mission-

representatives

suggestions

the

the

Church.

of

Minister

the

times,

and

Church.

time

highly

position

The

in

grad-

more

gave

Rev.

lay

Chairman

Presbyters.

unanimously

Indians and

suggestions

first The

Church

Indian

away

to

The

changing

Indian

from

Indian

the

District, then

to

the and

was

and

which

the

these

the

the

Missionary

the

on

Synod.

Methodist

1937

willingness

for

which

the

an

work

District,

for

of

endeavoured

opinions

were

concerned

After

feeling

also

Committees

District

1937

Monta-

India.

government'

representatives

possible

among

endorsed

The

until

the

Indian

with

in

in

association

popular

Church

Local

the

interest'

disposal

and

of

lay

the

The

fillip

administration°.

Churches

of

his

In

was

1907

Chairman

readiness

of

having

leadership

‘responsible

for

the

as

business

became

tide

of

District

it

the

intensified

another

gave

I

War

World

indigenization.

1918,

increasing

Methodist

The

been

local

of

Session

Chairman.

who

early

Negapatam

the

ways on

advantage As

in

of

further

India

of

July

Christian

for

responsibility

'intelligent into

the

members

Financial

ster,

with

of

the

of

need

the

in

foreign

all

outbreak

the

process in

administration,

line

now

hana>!.

' the

at

in

lay

dians

the

and

power

of

missionaries

more

ed

of

devolution

the

at

much

branch

goods),

published

activity,

(boycotting

developments

indigenization

stressed

every

ual

feelings

missionary

movement

home-made

of

of

been done"49.

political

Report,

gu-Chelmsford

in

department

Swadest

the

preference subsequent

and

Report

every

of

resurgence

The

the

in

this has not already

On

and

his

1912-1913:

A

findings

and

re-

Brtef

Lists

Bengt Sundkler, Chureh of South Indta: The Movement Towards Unton 1900-1947, (London: Lutterworth Press, rev.ed., 1965), pp. 85-87; cf. Percival Spear, op.ctt., pp. 336-337.

51)

Ann.

52)

eb tay

53)

J.J.

Rep., VOM. Ellis,

Vol. XXX Paul

XXXV

(1918),

(1908)5, Oe

pp.

33-34.

5a

Rangaramanujam,

212

pp.

66-67.

turn

to

first til

India,

and

his

untimely

death

1945, the

added

to. the

work

of

now

really

good

leadership, Church

in

Manujam

C.

Trichinopoly

thus

keeping

short

and

recognized

his

his

to

years

to

paid

be

and

There

in

he

the

villages” ’.

a passionate of

his be

life.

to

and

the

the

When

people.

persecuted

Law.

Writing

about

Rev.

in

won the

was

Paul

Ranof

power

in

the

Chief

Minister.

also in

under

the

the

Indian

Christian

In

1926

in Negapatam.

called

active

highest

their

respect

authorities

'lent'

for

During

to

the

was

the

Rangara-

despatches”.

was

SCM.

ser-

during

nationalist

the

he

to

Mesopotamia

military

in

the

during

the

ardent

of

was

this

World

On

six period

Student

relieved

of

this

task, 1913 to

unsparingly

converts

the

of

tower

a great

hesitated

to

men

drag

Rangaramanujam's

every

the

work at

and such

1945,

the

HariRanga-

timid

and

landed-mirasidars men

to

kind-hearted

the

is

first

in

worst,

the

was

task

his

among

its to

He

activity

of

death

his

pride

Gospel. foremost

time

was

strength

of

caste

powerful

till

he

people

Brahmin

the and

and the

years

outcaste

his

of

first

From

in

fifteen the

Christ,

the

primary

Grace

of

preacher

mottan

Great

those

service

servant

an

his

himself

Even

and

of

preaching

was

be

Rev.

to

first

ardent

them

and

to

humble

and

never

He

him.

of

afraid

1940

a

to

an

Even

1922.

soul'

persecution

proved

ramanujam

in

became

gave

remarkable

Dharapuram”°.

he

of

was

was

a representative

As

Village

he

Rangaramanujam

"Evangelismis the

Rangaramanujam jans.

army.

Secretary

until

by this",

as

mentioned

as

in

and

preacher

tested

visit

Peking

‘heart

transmuted

to

at

remained

himself

was

China

stationed

and

Paul

to

became

stationed

qualities

and Rev.

came

ministry

there,

then

the

Travelling

held

was

of

talents

the

of work

sterling

the Un-

politics.

troops

file

be

representative

developments

Christian

a Chaplain

India,

a visit

Federation

gave

As his

rank

in

his

period

Indian

War.

return

those

with

the

the

District

nationalistic

began

and

and

Rajagopalachari

to

Superintendent

Government

the

proved

the

a Congress

upon

District.

office

General

spokesman

Sir

the

World

the

called

Chairman

and

a very

First

became

was

Trichinopoly this

of

that

pace with

among

office

then

Rangaramanujam After

he

the

the elected

Meanwhile

Presidency

was

post

filled

in

It

he

of

1939

Madras

from

Rangaramanujam

Chairman

In

District>’.

vice

Paul

Indian

ability.

garamanujam the

Rev.

last

and

skill also

the

the

Court

feelings

were of towards

54) Ibid. 55) Ibid., pp. 41-43. 56) Ibid. pp. 48-5o. 57)

MSS, to

58)

'‘Trichinopoly',

Rev.

Ellis,

W.J.

Paul

Noble,

Box

(1928-1935):

dated

Dharapuram,

Rangaramanujam,

Pp.»

50. 213

Letter

of Rev.

February

Wishes

J.J. ISAs

Ellis

"Tyranny

and

persecution

indignation,

made

the

crowd,

and

he

persecutors

and

when,

of

these

could

on

quail.

as

not

so

helpless

occasion

He

was

unseldom

says:

biographer,

his

Ellis,

Rev.

the

trouble,

in

converts

the

talk

never

ones in

afraid

happened,

roused

such

the

his

fashion

of

as

a hostile

caste

people

of

a village gathered to pour scorn on a baptismal service and if possible prevent it, the timid outcaste Christians felt that they had in him a doughty champion. He knew, as we all did, that there were so many sufferings from which we could not shield them, and that in the distresses which persecution added to their dire poverty the material help which could be given was so very small; but he could and did stand with them in their

trouble,

While man of

of

to

and

held

in

the

an

1937

Gospel,

for

Along Hooft

Town

ardent

the

with

and

Hall

on

Paul

the

the

SCM

men

speaks

through

in

England

C.F.

also

India'.

in

Conference,

Temple,

In

Christian

Eng-

Church

Rangaramanujam

a sincere

life

visited

Churches

William

Chair-

the

Quadrennial

like

Paul

and

on

Methodist

Methodist

British

and

influence

Rangaramanujam

from

great

'God

Councillor

a great

others,

nationalist

Rangaramanujam

of

the

of faith"59.

elected

exerted

Conference

in

Visser't

became

and

a representative

Uniting

Birmingham.

of

he

neighbourhood®®.

as

then

Birmingham

tone

its

First

and

Andrews,

at

Dharapuram

twice.

1932

them to the victory

Municipality

town

India in

in

the

the

land

and help

spoke

the

mingled

minister

of

the

declared:

"No nation is safe for democracy until it has learned the discipline of life in the school of Christ, and the ultimate solution of political problems can only be achieved by recognizing

Christ As

with

Caesar

to

speaker

and

preacher

Methodist

circles

and

he

was

rival"61.

Rangaramanujam

affectionately

was

well-known

in

called

'Brother

Paul'

England°?.,

Rangaramanujam to

no

a powerful

the in

as King,

all

the

Sydwil

Johnson,

called

him

leader;

Christ Paul

a

"A

but,

from

was

at

advocate

writing

fellow-labourer

fire

brand!

his

whom

a keen While

Churches.

best,

Yes! a

very

had

received

Rangaramanujam

was

one

leader

Methodism but

at

has

the

59)

bah,

ape

GO)

Dea

peepen Dee

61) bide

ever

same

the

of

humble

his

the

he

had

Union

same and

District being

follower

He the

dynamic

had

all

of

for

the

It

Indian

the

he

belonged

the

Rev.

many

consumed!

commission" ©?,

most

and

Rangaramanujam,

Lord

is

and

KO,

XIII

Jesus

true

Church

qualities

weakness

drawbacks

years,

A great

that leaders

of

a great opel

ile.

powe2s

62)

"The

Rev.

Paul

63)

Rev.

A.S.

Johnson,

ttele,

in

produced.

time

Church

Consuming

he

which

of

about

Church

S.

Unton

Rangaramanujam", "Rev. 1947,

Paul

Vol.

Rangaramanujam",

(Madras:

214

CLS

U947),

USNS)

Secoud Ps.

Go.

aoe

Hayy

‘Quary' Ar-

great

man

too.

Occasionally

raise

its

head

and

the

pastors

who

could

native

complaints against

to

him

the

Rev.

who

was

too

Rev.

of

both

powerful

in

men.

and

revengeful

to

blessedly

to

be

continually of

the

It

is

of

a

true

only If

came

fact

join late

he

Rev.

each

from

already were of

the

in

money,

of

the

pline,

In

or

The

G.E.

Rev.

his

who

"He

Church

District

in

the

he

in many

the

one

India"®4,

and

field.

flaws And

respects.

memorial

had

is

a particular

that

a man

he

He

that

has

South

foibles in

in was

leader

a

"Paul and

cleavage,

ones

in

wrote:

position...

from

man

the

sent

also

We

can

service from

the

of God.

qualities

valuable.

the

the

such

pastor

support expected

matters

in the

it

as

of

at

(1941-1945): dated

of

were

maintain

Though

Letter

These church

other

the

elders disci-

backbiting, minor

offen-

concerned®

with

of Rev.

Birmingham,

elders

mainstay

discipline

dealing

had

contributions,

parties

of

in

who

the

the

quarrels, and

the

system

purpose

duties

Church.

family

indi-

elders

those

raising

the

to

reconciling

worked

Johnson,

in

of

were

They

falsehoods,

communal

for

The

of

leadership,

appointed

appointed

headmen.

been

spreading

Box

so

native

development

They

communal

were

whole

Hickman

first

the

had

succeeded

the

individual

areas.

helped

and

'Trichinopoly',

MSS.

In

racial

great

said:

rural

towards

adopted

on

and

Ellis

unscrupulous

struggled

the

traditional

the was

Rev. too

free

with

but

elders

they

places

a personal

and

powerful

and

disputes

Panchayat

J.J.Ellis

had

concerned

congregations

Generally

to

in

accusations,

false

offenders,

64)

such also

heavy

in-kind,

village

Rev.

and

a great

a powerful

hereditary

nor

pastor.

some

of

brought

the

not

Eastwood

was

complaint,

to

Christian

the

was

the made

great"©>,

were

the

settle

making

the

man

this

from

moved

Rangaramanujam

congregation

many

was

with

he

C.C.

leadership

been

not

Rev.

producing

local local

that

charge

conclusion...

the

he

conflict

failings

any

missionaries

genous

ces.

the Paul

the

make

Apart the

into

when

such with

strengthen

in

of

behaviour

One

matter

subtly

Some

Birmingham

free

to

would

deal

opinion’ the

notably

appeal

that

remains

with

had

which

and

this

town,

satisfactory

and

To

unfortunately

Rangaramanujam

man

he

any

that

London.

his

and

nationalists

that

great the

the

used

strongest

field, yet

reach

in

pride

reappear.

authoritative

David.

home

Giving

would

his

referred

clever

used

stand

House

his

Brahmin

caste

Sudd@ham

Johnson

living

hidden

of

not

Mission

one

Hickman then

knowledge is

the

by

his

stigma

the

called Church

training

of

J.J.Ellis

September,

29,

1944, MSS.

'Trichinopoly',

wood

to

66)

RGS,

(1916),

67)

Along

65)

Hickman

the

pp.

Kaveri,

Box

Johnson,

(1941-1945): dated

146-147. (1929),

pp.

Letter

Trichinopoly,

5-6.

215

of

Rev.

C.C.

28-6-1945.

East-

.

evidence

much

gave

and

illiterate

spread

to

work

boarding

to

boys

ing

found

be

could

the

in

cularly

in

estates

the

view,

the

native

his

the

in

a

the

active

from

District's

be

summarized

with

Rev.

the

service,

progress.

and

1943,

Ellis

the

Reviewing

in

work

the

makes

in

words

in

1907,

year

in

a

vivid

1943,

he

the

in

situation the

situation

the

of

comparison District

better

upon

come

has

change

over-

an

take

and

years

changed

The

leadership.

native could

a marked

that

us

to

clear

and

the

to

gone .

away'

‘educated

over

partionly

people pis

had

people

been

had

or

District

whole

the

at

work

of

search

By making

arrival

retired

young

District

Ellis.

Rev.

hills,

the

Church

Trichinopoly

of

the

of

becomes

it

all

of

Most

home.

at

look

we

When

neighbourhood

vil-

deepen

to

villages,

old

mostly

the

older

the

needed

Adi-Dravida

the

of

many

promisfor

possible

deprived

they

leadership

the

of In

life.

spiritual

own

much

of

congregations

lage their

in

rapidly

it

but

District,

the

were

most

the

of it

made

seminaries

and

schools

sending

The

disappointing.

greatly

elders

the

villages

the

in

of

few

a

though them

of

many

leadership,

of

and

essential,

very

was

leadership

village

of

the year

the

which

he

picture

of

writes:

"NOW--The little Christian Community of less than 2,000 then has now passed 46,000. Not a year passes without many baptisms and a substantial increase in Full Members, while the present Chaitrman of the District is a Brahmin convert who was not even an inquirer then. The mtsstonary staff of the District remains much as it was, though the proportion of women has increased, but the number of Indian workers (men and women) is many times multiplied.

The

training

of

workers,

which

was

then

limited

to

the industrial work in Karur and a half-share in the evangelists training at Guindy, now includes Bible Schools for men and women, and teacher training for both; while our young men are training for the ministry in the fine United Theological College at Bangalore. Further, the great majority of our workers no longer have to be imported from other and more successful areas-they come from the Church in the District. District affairs, instead of being settled by a small ‘Local Committee' of missionaries, are all dealt with by a large and representative Synod. More than half the circuits have Indian Superintendents, and for the last six years the District has been ruled by an Indian Chatrman"®9, Thus talent ed

to

the for

train

68)

S.

69)

J.J.

7o)

Rev.

Methodist every even

Estborn,

pp.

Church

member the

Our

trike

feeblest

Village

Ellis,

"Then

Robert

Stephenson,

123-124.

has It

and

found

began to

do

at

1907

"for

the

and

op.cit.,

216

p.

p.

for

talent,

point the

and

and labour-

Church.

2.

1943", 370.

every

lowest

something

Christians,

Now:

work

KO,

Vol.

XI

(1943),

a

4,

Indian derived

they

bours

of

the

owe

purely

else of

than

themselves

It

ment

and

such

good

the of

to

raise

is

true

loosened

base

of ter

of

tures

the

of

the

to

for

success"

~.

was

which

not was

of

the

for

the

L.P. Having

is

several

the

in

and

thought

in

India

the

subject

in

a masterly

all

also its

in

being

He

in

the

sums

up

Rev.

his

sort

a

in-

wide-spread

complaint

condition

this

to

intilife

missionary has

Larsen

view

of

Missionary

Christians

with

of

gulf

unarttfictal

treatment

Native

characcarica-

became

their

Serious

touch

display

the

this

essential "A

the

of

ridicule’.

This

of

by

instead

drawing

genuine,

a thorough

life

aspects,

fashion.

an

even

miserable

the

which of

and

entitled

and

for

created

aware

set

Chri-

Govern-

his

aaup

that

indeed

gives

Larsen, known

the

of

and

doubt

were

natives

the

native

blackening

white,

Some

zeal,

These,

contempt object

no

something

discredited

out

Christians

lacking is

to

a wretched

article

and

means

themselves

which

years

up

pamphlets

Native

was

sympathy.

with

were

of

dependence

unfortunately

Christian

fitting

la-

one

of

missionaries.

missionaries

among

excellent

Rev.

problem.

any

already

and

natives,

an

a

wrote

by

some

missionary

him

as

They

Missionaries

the In

hold

Christian

part

"modern

Problem",

began

poor

merely

and

cause But

labours

brother

the

was

despised

his

admit

between

philanthropic

poor,

oppressor.

their

help

missionaries

sympathy

mately

the

of

to

the

benefits

relationship

together

and

fought

the

the

readily

disinterested

the

them

noble

of

the

comradeship

disinterested

dissatisfaction

of

the

burning

some

which

wide.

creasingly feeling

their

of

often

of

to

of

will

a relationship

bound

a

aware

they

Christian

Such

that

with

they

fully and

that

Indian

feeling

genius.

a picture on

bond

grip

Native

a people

the

Missionaries

of

implies

condition

that

themselves

behaviour

that

the

be

proud

benefits.

however,

of

satirical

between

the

themselves

chose

their

and of

will

are

this

cordial

of

conduct

condition,

they

But

the

results

exerting

"They

missionaries

and

the

missionaries,

stians.

ever

the

receiver

formal

other

the

and

missionary and

European

of

everything

European

and

are

work

missionaries.

benefactor was

Christians

Christians from

that the

Native

in

treated

these

words:

"Prom all I have been able to ascertain from people in different parts of South India, as well as from what has come directly I am afraid the situation must be within my own experience, described as a general feeling of dissatisfaction in South India, among mission workers and also among educated Christian in regard to the attitude of European missionaries laymen,

towards

Indian

Thomas,

Christians"/4

"Missionary

Work

in

South

Thdtawmopactb. ss DasoS

71)

S.V.

72)

Ibid.

73) 74)

"Missionary Work in India", Paper II, op.ctt.,p.190. S. Sathianadhan, Serious Missionary Problem", HF, Vol. XIV, n,"A Rev. L.P.Larse 1903), p- 369. No. 10 (October, 2A\a)

to

regard stians,

the

attitude

Larsen

lists

self-seeking,

all

ciation’>.

By

officialism

missionary

to

see

at

seen ing

all

race',

his

of

the

unwillingsness

who

came

as

a

as

himself

friend

to

him.

the

on

of

modern

of

the

be

not

would

'rul-

the

Christian

of

aspect

this

appre-

the

of

He

official

counsellor

and

Commenting

and

sympathetic

means

he

conducted

than

lack

Christians

congregation.

Larsen

attitude

He

and

Chri-

masterfulness

officialism,

pride

of

Native

the

towards

missionaries

things:

out

those

rather

of

members

born

hours.

the

of

three

in

dissatisfaction

of

feeling

widespread

this

for

causes

some

As

missionary

says:

"And there can be no doubt however good reasons the missionary may have for acting as he does, the Indian Christian has come to look upon the missionary as one to whom he cannot with all the freedom and confidence with which you want to approach a

friend"/76, Masterfulness felt

by

between fellow Some

ing by

another

Indian

the

missionary

labourer

liked

terms

was

the

to

such

to

be

as

sentence

his

Indian

but

"that

as

'durai'

Sir',

from

will

the

hand

of

To

the

most

gractous

down

the

the

King's

to

Jewel,

it known to write

thorns?',

they

was

very

the

relationship

an

I have sen

our

talked

own

has

Diocese

observed

or

two

ly

support

to

some

Sir)

an

and Oy

of

a

of

one

employee"! ’.

encouraged iad

The

letter

follow-

received

fact.

the

of

that

to

keenly

village

the

very

of

Great

reverend

Grace:

gentleman

that Abraham and Yesudian and the as follows:... 'Why did you cut

asked.

'To

build

senior

pastors

the

school',

we

re-

farmers. 'By the durat's 79 are doing it,' we said..."°~.

and

present

Church

leaders

and they all invariably attest to what the Rev. Lar: : 80 : in his paper ~. My own personal experience with one

missionaries

the

or

translation

of

not

servant'

plied. 'You are not to build', said the (the missionary's) permission indeed we

in

was

employer

(Lord

this

presence

which

mentioned,

workers of

obedient

literal

testify

"By

at Dharapuram, be other people wish

'Your

thing

already

and

addressed

taken

As

another

'Dear

a missionary

conspicuous

Christians.

with

views

whom

I came

expressed

by

into

Larsen

contact

and

also

others.

makes

We

are

me

strong-

aware

of

75) Ibtd., pp. 370-374. 76) Ibid., p. 370. 77) Ebsidigt 78)

Ibid.

So)

ein

oo

mine). 80)

Personal

37A8

in W.J.

Noble's

interview

with

Ploughing the

Rev.

the

Rock,

C.J.Daniel,

p.

38 dated

(Italics

are

Dharapuram,

24-4-1975 and with the Rt. Rev. Solomon Doraiswamy dated London, 5-4-1976. They told me that they themselves had unpleasant experiences with some of the missionaries who suffered from officialism and masterfulness.

218

the

difficulties

the

foreign

these

difficulties

Apart

from

look

at

and

would

as

who that

the

there

was

cause

life

of

missionaries They

laboured

like

Titus

ties

and

came, to

among

the

the

society the

Collector same

ment

did

and their

or

Doctor

official--all

had

ceptions. ries

so,

the

ticularly As

I have

and

I have with also

missionary

of

dealt regard

tried

type

with to

as

relationship

in

the

Negapatam

and

sides bright

of

every

and

the

S.

82)"

ibtds,

Sathianadhan,

pes

as

coin, dark.

op.cit.,

pp.

188-189.

190.

219

Thomas

were

and

of govern-

are

the

J.J.Ellis noble

the

ex-

missiona-

an

Having in

gained

some par-

shall

two

work

While

account

India,

what

there

Missionary

modern

William

leadership.

work

District, so

of the

a high

course

and

some

cultur-

reception

unbiased

possible.

with

on

of

in

and

Cryer, and

of

fore-

home

corners

give

influence

missionary

4

81)

the

to

ministry fair

Trichinopoly

to

and

the

a year

terms

contributions

native

give

their

once

their

compared

their

congenial

W.A.Sandford

the

in

success

When

remotest

used of

there

more

which

intimate

they

though

to

the

necessi-

active

visit

stay

station,

W.H.Findlay,

aspects

work--the

the

the

different

two

in

most

and

more

unfavourable

the

are

even

which

of

there

find

of

and

zeal

easy-

field.

Brotherhood,

to

their

to

the

of

rarer,

missionary-native

knowledge

say?

far

particularly

doing of

So

rarer

men

an

Little,

Henry

for

the

Missionaries

lethargic.

facilities

made

natives

O.

becoming

became

burning

on

bet-

pioneer

mission

want

by

the

missionaries

Simpson,

passed

possess

missionary®*.’ The were

for

was

the

the

zealous

Cambridge

Engineer

these

in

and

move

It

blameless

work

days

comforts.

much

were

later

country

the

work and

years

increased

to

or

from

they

opportunities

own

a mis-

relationship

early

Oxford

provision the

possibility

homage

not

it

in

serious.

not

missionary

the

their

as

came

the

The

liberal

of

or

In

suffered

But

who

Army

with

to

yet

things

are

personal

facilities

Mowat And

natives.

missionaries

stations,

India,

devoted meagre

James

possessed®'.

country,

the

and

missionaries

runners

ed

with

should

missionaries.

missionary.

privations.

Salvation

modern

hill

really

still

one

profession,

such

of

attitudes.

indifference

something

was

and

one,

of

secular

Some

social

a social

find

a better

European

dissatisfaction

were hard

were

for

a

to

Gospel

Christian

of

attitude

in

But

between

community.

layer

as

an

Englishman

room

modern

Close

the

the

for

such

surprise.

and

the

from

ministry

still

a deep

purely

If

relationship

Christian

in

Christians

Christians

Another

an

the

Indian

roots

question

any

cordial

Native

wéll.

by

preached

Indian

going

held

excite

a more

the

their

this

is

yet

have at

was

of

and

side

sionary

ween

way

moral

scarcely

true

the

looking

its

contempt

and

in

missionaries

is

we

sides no

to

doubt

Christian

work,

but

means,

and

as

not

any

good

do

be

beneficial

of

the

such

it we

if we

for

missionaries

the

is

a work

cannot

keep

on

Indian

and

carried

expect

looking Church

eschews

that

220

on

by

perfection.

at

if

the

it

which

human

dark

emulates is

agents

Therefore,

side the

only. good

undesirable.

with it

human

will

It

will

example

CHAPTER

9:

DISSEMINATION

DIFFUSION

OF

1. The was

most

the

cation

new the

college Christian

Htstory

the

work

the

and

hence

amount a

of

led

testant

Gensichen,

fact

paper

schools come

a

had

without made

should

vice

cause

the

famous

as

the

pioneer

of

the

Court

of

of

to

the

freedom His

of

after

of

of

value

at

to

plan

education

Directors,

in

that

decide

for

himself

in

of

Pro-

natives.

as

early

the

children.

either

in to

be

and

glowing

their be-

1715>.

noteworthy

to

as

Charity

children

Frederick

came

Presidency,

speaks

first

April,

rendered

Christian

Madras

the

in

ptoneer

system

(like

of

of

materialized

of that

Hans-Werner

even

one

1787,

the

the

schools

conversion

also

say

a considerable

Prof.

missionaries,

the

dated

as the

for

every

education.

Tranquebar

did

system

Mission,

the

they

Ziegenbalg,

public

the

authors

educational

colleagues

Ziegenbalg

native

the

great

training

of

the

edu-

first

first

Naik,

modern

observes

that

the

auspices

"has

free

directly

and the

when

Pietist

start

Indian The

right

the

his

missionaries

quite

study"*.

Heidelberg,

mot

came

of

the

modern

respects.

J.P.

educational

a condition

or

who

for

and an

early

plans

have

Christian

most

the

aiming it

missionaries

the

India,

on

and

missionaries a careful

many

under

are

up

AND

by

of

school,

Nurullah

Indta

establishing

University

he

tn

field

in

medical

building

to

introduced the

established

Syed

deserve

Ziegenbalg

Schools), In

the

In

pioneers

first all

Christian to

missionary towards

learned

1707

the

were

of Edueatton

which

India

In

women

KNOWLEDGE TEACHINGS

pioneers

changes

were

missionaries!.

The work

of

education.

college,

for

all

ideal

system

missionaries

university

The

momentous of

OF

CHRISTIAN

The

ser-

Schwartz,

recognized the

terms

despatch of

his

ven.

1)

O'Malley,

2)

Syed Nurullah 49-50.

3)

Hans-Werner Gensichen, "'Dienst der Seelen' und'Dienst des Leibes' in der friihen pietistischen Mission", Sonderdruck aus Band 14 der Reihe "Arbeiten zur Geschichte des Pietismus", Der Ptettsmus tn Gestalten und Wirkungen, ed. Heinrich Bornkamm and others (Bielefeld: Luther-Verlag, 1975), pp. 164-165.

4)

The actual words of Prof. Gensichen are Ibid. balg wollte anfangs keinen Interessenkonflikt bereits

op.ctt.,

1707

and

an

p. J.P.

die

456. Naik,

Htstory

Errichtung

einer

of Educatton

'freien,

in

Indta,

"Ziegenas follows: sehen. Er dachte 6ffentlichen

da& ein jedweder seine ‘und zwar mit dieser Condition, behalte, ein Christ zu werden ‘oder nicht'", p. 165. 5) RED tds 6)

Nurullah

and

J.P.

Naik,

p.

op.ctt.,

al

51.

pp.

Schule’...

Freiheit

by

lage

schools

were

taught

keep

accounts

in

above the

extend villages

and to

ski11!°,

could

not

religion

to

For

think and

many

the of

powerful

landlords,

outcaste

serfs

lest

blind

the

thinking

arrival the

men,

of

condition absence

of

the

teachers

the

of

the

his

all at

Hindu his

mainly

their

serfs

in

native

the

themselves

and

was

be

was

from

the

the

at

At

a very

of

seldom

teaching

for

learning

an

outcaste

learning,

and the

low

for

the

tolerated

were

the

scared, should

time

Trichinopoly

Government,

they

potails

Tanjore

never

They

opened,

and

of

In

confined

some

"repositories

And

a place

Geeet et:

In

for

the

school.

Negapatam

rapidly

were

districts

was

and

to

From

castes

mercy

life abt

should

education

encouragement

learning

to

some

the

impure

Brahmins,

to

'dumb-driven

among

education.

rich

children

in

class.

their

child

sanction

were

and

Brahmins

the

their

of

education

nineteenth It

of

mixed

children

arithmetic,

education

siglule

the

in

the

vernacular.

that

general

kept

of

little

mercantile

castes

sending

Methodists of

the

other

not

who

instead

of

"indigenous

did

eyes

The

centuries

sending

the

pretty

directors ever

caste

are

that

the

learnt

the

Brahmins

all

a

in

rudimentary

and

ryots...

The

placed

also

this

and

do

letters

Munro

Brahmins

to

and

into

inquiry

an

given

education

the

character

write,

even

classes,

and

and

in

simple

inquiry

read..."?.

learning

that

read

principal

and

showed

write

Presidency

other

themselves any

to

entirely

of

primitive

to

and

mentioned

to

learnt

very

simply

Madras

"almost

of

was

ordered

Madras,

Governor

which

education

indigenous

the

Munro,

Thomas

Sir

1822

In

wechanieal™

and

‘unscientific

was

then

outdated

was

education

of

system

native

and and

missionaries

the

by

first

schools

the

in

done

teaching

the

The

Government.

British

the

and

in

started

those

from

differed

few

'both

were

they

but

India, greatly

in

schools

quality'’

in

poor

and

number

were

there

missionaries

the

of

arrival

the

before

Long

ebb

of

become the

District on

general

account

ignorance

poverty

of

the

people !?,

in

fact

decaying

at

the

beginning

of

the

that

Methodists

century" !?,

was

against

such

Ingham,

heavy

7)

Kenneth

8)

Henry

op.cit.,

9)

"Minute of Sir Thomas Parltamentary Papers, Dis OO.

Whitehead,

and

Indtan

lo)

Findlay

11)

SOeMalileywmopachtas

pp.

the

p.

123.

op.cit.,

Vol.

V,

p.

132.

Depeloge

12)

Ann.Rep.,

"Minute of Sir Thomas Munro, Vol. IX, Appendix I, p. 506.

XXVII

March

14)

Syed

OprCU Gay

and

their

54-55.

Problems,

13)

Nurullah

started

Munro, Governor of Madras, June 25, 1822", Vol. IX (1831-1832), Part I, Appendix I,

Holdsworth,

Vol.

odds

J.P.

(1899),

Naik,

p.

7o.

222

lo,

1826", (Osa

ce

Parliamentary

Papers,

schools ties.

and From

entirely

by

Movement

apart

the

stitutions,

just

like

the

of

parents regard

In

a

ries

as

the

Western

the

the

Mission

to

Rev.

in

of

Society,

a

the

Rev.

castes

and

undertaken

the

villages

no The

other

among

the

blacksmith's

years

the

boys

of

thought example

Stanley

Dodd

of

wrote

Mass

either stand-

village

in-

forge,

and

themselves

best one

the

School,

the

Hartley,

almost in

school,

Mission

or

the

communi-

was

place

‘leader is

Marshall

its

loom

later

as

of

School,

took

Mannargudi

all

started.

weaver's

follows:

some

Mission

School

letter

in

yet.been

and

to

education

day

village,

the

at

the

the

has

boys

the

this

from

School

open

elementary

to

Government,

of

The

institutions

Even

middle

to

in

or

their

beginning

them.

area,

private

ing

threw the

came

education'!>. of

the

such

General

about

this

a

school.

Secretaschool

i

"The influence of this school on the life of the town is very great indeed. Several of the lads who recently came under such powerful Christian influence had formed the C.T.N. (Carry The News) band, owe their first religious impulses to the Western School. Paul Rangaramanujam who is now in Bangalore Union Theological College, dates his Christian experience from his entrance into the School. Young men in profession in the town have spoken to me with gratitude of the teaching and the influence they enjoyed when in the school and which started them on right lines. The people of the neighbourhood gather round us every week when we go to preach in front of the school and listen with a seriousness not found in many other preaching places. This school is almost the only means we have of influencing the large community of artisans and small tradesmen, as only a small proportion of the boys are able to go on to the College: and the influence which the school exerts over this class is undoubted. There are plenty of proofs that the old boys still look to the staff of the school for guidance in matters of daily life"16. What gudi

the

can

Rev.

very

Stanley

well

go

Dodd

for

has

all

said

of

the

Western

other

Mission

Schools

Education

through

English

School in

the

in

Mannar-

District

also.

2.

It

has

Missions Western in

view.

ledge

for

15)

already were

through

the

Rev.

W.B.

shown

how

both

from

the

1830s

assumed

the

of

p.

"Village

'Trichinopoly', MSS. to the Rev. Marshall

17)

Donald

Eugene

Smith,

the

Government they

the

of

provision

prepare

The

Government

and

Vol.

HF,

provide

objectives know-

Western

inevitably

Schools",

Christian to

different

had

the

other

way

English

XIV

(Fe-

i

Letter of Box (1913-1917): Hartley, dated Mannargudi, Indta

and

attempt

a serious

would

Mission

284.

16)

to

that

English

Christianity!’.

Simpson, 1894),

of

medium

the

though

English,

through

missionaries

acceptance

bruary,

been

committed

education The

Western

as

a

Secular

223

State,

Rev. Stanley 10-3-1915. p.

336.

Dodd

the

through

education

individuals

When

Western

caste and

In

boys

literary

Having

by

the

to

do

ment

Pax so.

and

in

and

Vaisyas : Native

for

of

43 lo

and

equipped

entered

the

in

a missionary and

the

Sudras,

of

of

for

to

careers

his

rule”°, the

thrown

other

open

social

and in

that

respond

British

centuries,

for

at the

and

of

groups

govern-

liberal

With

pro-

a command

administration

6

'other' More

and

J.P.

2 In

Hindus,

‘ authentic

Naik,

20)

Eugene

21)

E.Sa.Visswanathan, Tamtl Studtes, No.

22)

F.W. Gostick, "Shall we educate (September, 1888), p. 127.

Munro, op.cit.,

Rev. and

in

and

1.6

op.ctt.,

the

gained

pp.

pp.

a MeDistrict,

Schools

6 Muslims,

proportion

Muslims,

10,

Gostick,

Secondary

; : information

March

F.W.

Trichinopoly

Hindus,

Colleges

"Minute

Irschick,

the

‘other'

Syed

Thomas

by

Negapatam

19)

F.

first

service.

colonial

18)

Sir

the

for

between

Brahmin

missionary

civil

educationist

Sudras,

Christians.

: ‘ 7 Christians a

of

the

opportunities

the

them

the

furnished

working

Vaisyas

Nurullah

in

far

advantage

impossible in

English,

status’.

statistics

Native

was

and

blessings

new

of

majority

of

learning

the

received

positions

easily

missionary

audience

mins

admirably

junior

to

they

it

the

was

and

influential

non-existent

taking

the

traditional

a way

they

of

from

few

only

affluence,

in

education

were

Brahmin,

Britannica

According

sisted

schools The

benefit of

were

Mannargudi,

exploiting

criterion

thodist

almost

in

or

English

were

time

institutions

new

the

monopoly

medium from

institutions

relative

to

the lads

with

is

India

education.

natives and

mission

and

no

The

fessions of

the

the

her

through

crowded

communities.

tradition

lost

started

Negapatam

the

caste

had

among

of

im-

the

by

Government

British

the

and

cause

the

soon

Government

like

Westernization

Brahmins

a

for

attended

high

was

were

teachers

places

who

other

to

education

families,

English

time.

advocated

who

institutions

mission

missionaries

Christian

the

to

indebted other

Government

motives,

their

of

out may

repaid

amply

be

will

people,

Irrespective

countrys

expense

"Whatever

1826,

in the

of

pointed

Munro

Thomas

Govern-

the

of

a duty

only

Sir

As

well.

as

diffus-

widely

and

a sound

by

not

be

to

felt

was

Directors

the

of

provement

India

education

the

in

incur

of

Court

the

to

improve

of

investment

a good

but

To

people

education

of

system

ed

ment

inpeovel’s the

of

intelligence

the

the

develop

to

and

character

the

of

condition

material

and

moral

the

that

alone

would

people

Indian

education

Indian

of

cause

vocated

ad-

it was

that

felt

they

because

Burke

Edmund

and

Wilberforce

Grant,

Charles

like

philanthropists

67

on

was

Brahmins

this

matter

con37

Brah-

22 and comes

56-57.

1826",

op.ctt.,

p.

507.

12-26.

"The Politics of Tamil Populism", 6 (December, 1974), pp. 78-89. the

224

Brahmans?",

HF,

Journal Vol.

IX,

of

7

from

Mr.

S.

cational

Sathianadhan,

work

sistant

to

in

the

was

actually

the

statistics

leading

one

Madras

Director

the

acting

was

who

was

Public

by Mey

Missionary

for

involved

many

Instruction,

Director

of

Public in

and

in He

for

the

the

higher was

one

Instruction.

Sathianadhan

atin egos

years.

edu-

an

as-

year

he

According

situation

Presidency

in as

on

to

the 31st

follows:

as

11: Missionary

Work

fommee) looce) aan a da aA 0 oO 8 Name

of

Institution

S See ee

ecient eae SI

in

0) © a v a

India a © 4 i} 3

(oA)

Oo:

au

() + o 95

Oo «8 Hu les

og

setae O

>

an

aa p ©

a@ oe 8

G

q “d re} 3

aI

(ee © Sq 9® 9 es

§ 4

a “4 ®

&

eal

2h SE 7 ete rene lage les wre ac

4d oO HZ Oa © Wy 00

Do

n

g

ne ee co) G Sis= osOFo am

Ci

actually

Presidency

of

furnished

Protestant 1888,

March, Table

the

oeDOOoe eet £ao

“no en) FE} a o oa os wed Po wg

4

O-d GH Pg”

ae ES tank yeea

Protestant

Madras

Christian

Tanjore

S.P.G.

Tuticorin

College

College

Caldwell

Trichinopoly

College,

Wesleyan Royapet

C.M.S.College Noble

Protestant

College Institu-

It will students Christian College, and

199

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seen

funds was

and not

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hens

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ae

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8

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5

a

eee

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30

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Zia aT OO

7

Work

in

above

India",

that

in

than

the

largest

For

AG

8

6

2%

10

HF,

institutions percentage

10,

the

50 ashe

Vol.

IX,

193.

the

in

50

SO

by missionaries

students

Hindus.

8 30

"Missionary

1888),

institution 'other'

89

1,158

Sathianadhan,

(December,

mission

ete

Sh

11

Mission

College

A.L.Mission

S.

2

eee)

87

Mission

Tinnevelly

Source:-

PA pee 5

109

eeth2

College,

2 yigda ake

Total tions

2

Mission

Tranquebar College

Guntur

tS

ate

37

College

Wesleyan

Masulipatam

es

Ljaraer

Veprey

Mission

Negapatam College

Ae

College

S.P.G.

Church of Scotland College, Madras S.P.G.

636 ile ts

and

in

Presidency numbered every

one 225

viz.

only

44

the

and

youth

372

by

Christian

most

Madras

against

Christian

maintained of

important

Christian Brahmins

whom

mission

we

missionaries

the of

institutions. ment 11

on

staff.

the

Christian

all

of

refute

the

charge,

Though the ed

mission in

a large

them

a spirit of

Christianity conversion As

M.R.

"lost

their

faith

which

made

it

the

the

each

of

his

employment

studies pushed

and the

the

S.

24)

MSS.

for

the

gradual the

Sathianadhan,

25)

Eric

26)

Quoted

J.

270)

ibeds

28)

Eric

J.

Sharpe, in

Syed

Sharpe,

in

this

the

of

but

by

Then

were

conviction

the

to

of

a

fixed

implementation objectives

the

accept

the

of

the

influential of

the

Chrifactors

missionaries

larger

and

personal

missionary

large

to

contributory

grew

of in

colleges

conviction

to

maintain

shortage

teachers

imposition

of

class

event->.

and

acceptance

several

old

embrace

missionaries,

unwilling the

in

producthe

to

a rare

schools

Thus

the

shake

the

sciences

were

missionary

of

became

English

each

to

prepared

hopes

Western

There

of

not

studying

and

teachers,

numbers,

syllabus

larger contact

for

of

the

'Conscience

of

the

mission

a

rigid

secular Clause'

high

schools

backgrouna?®, op.ctt.,

‘Trichinopoly', the

high

accompanied

Christian

into

to

of

non-Christian

purely

yin

pupils

strength

pupils.

of

system,

colleges

23)

The

the

were

institutions

true’,

realization

that

education

threatened

students

teaching

came

which

were

English

a substitute"~°,

inevitably

impossible

examination

and

be

only

Hindus,

missionaries,

the

children

though

superstitions

as

were

33

sufficiently

statistics at

caste

and

to

the

Hindu

the

difficult.

became

with

it,

in

never

high

educational

put

that

would

stian

highly

these

Contrary

their

faith

of

scepticism

superstitions

missionaries castes

of

and

classes.

colleges

Hinduism,

Paranjpe

Christian

number

either. in

These

levelled

poorest

and

missionaries,

were

Brahmins’.

there

College,

Findlay

the

whom

of

frequently

very

schools

foundations

4

so

only

educated

in

1918,

were

whom

nearly

they

In

teachers,

ele-

Hindu

strong

a

been

mission

the

in

teachers

as

always

had

there

Mannargudi

In

employed

also

were

Brahmins

of

number

good

a

Similarly

Brahmins.

were

group

of

work

majority

the

that

learn

also

We

did. caste

a single

to

Native

educational

higher

the

by

much

as

Hindus

the

as

belonging

boys

this

benefit

not

did

Christians

all

From

ea

only

was

rolls

the

on

the

that

clearly

understand

we

and

Vaisyas

5

number

total

the

in

and

Brahmins

30

Eurasian,

Mis1

number

this

Of

rolls.

the

table

above

Wesleyan

Negapatam

the

in

on

Christians

of

percentage

The

Sudras.

1888,

a

1

Christian,

native

a

were

March,

the

From

educated.

Hindus

students

37

were

there

College

sion was

31st

on

that

learn

also

9

out,

turned

institutions

Rev.

Box

p.

Marshal

op.ctt.), Nurullah op.ctt.,

193.

(1917-1922): Hartley,

p.

74.

and

J.P.

p.

78.

226

Letter dated

Naik,

of

the

Rev.

Mannargudi,

op.cit.,

p.

57.

Richard February

18,

Though as

they

ren

was

the

were

concerned,

affecting their

the

leavening

of

the

sion

Mission

a

few

goal

was

not

at

the

main

and

the

and

caste of

all

only

and

the

of

"The

best

to

of

Christian

of

the

things

the

of

very

effective

caste

child-

powerful

through

these them

looked

for

Dr.

in

them

and

ideals

William

Miller

W.H.Findlay

In

slow the was

of

than

missionaries

the

Negaconver-

rejected

rate eyes

the the

of of

the

conversion Dr.

Miller,

preparatory

in

nature

indivi-

and

the

conversion

of

upon

the

missionary

schools

the

diffusion

individuals

Protestant

thought

important

College

medium

all

Rev. more

community He

Miller

College

as

high

and

like

failure.

transforming

Willvam

Christian

and

Christian

a powerful

Conference

students

not

of

be

Christian

perhaps

and

indication

influence,

“Rev. -Dre

with

College

secondary°°.

as

the

to

educationists

College

the

were

conversion

proved

Hindus. In fact

of

training

were

tenary

an

as

of

society

proselytism

function

colleges

ings

the

Christian

institutions

far

at Niarge*?.

by missionary

Madras

of

duals

of

as

thoughts

society

Wesleyan

limited

be,

nevertheless

and

and

considered

patam

educational to

they

lives

families

The was

mission

expected

and

Missionaries

of

Christian

society.

held

In

in

teach-

the

Cen-

London

(1888),

said: would

could

take

be

if

the

in

any

foremost

important

centre

place.

it

If

the

could

thus be the leading factor in the guidance of thought and feeling, the leavening factor of the great Society might be antedated by generations"31, Similarly not

the

merely

a

vice-agency, a whole. Rev.

Rev. aiming

In

the

Findlay

at

the

report

also

of

To

gradual his

Christian

it

was

missionary also

transformation

secretarial

pursued mass of

visit

an of

to

education

effectual the

ser-

community

Mysore

in

1906

education

seeking

aim of the District policy has been to caste Hinduism the leavening influence and

a hearing,

Christian

literature,

as

might

far

appeal of the Gospel. Wide the gradual transformation

been preferred results"32,

By

considered him

to

in

concentric

or

high

school

as

circles

into

p. 84. (1931),

the

be,

dissemination of of the community

the

it

as

would

that

methods

was meant diffusion

spread

were,

society

of

from

via

its

give

while

for

more

focus

scholars

at

the

same

direct

truth, aiming at as a whole, has

rapid

ideals

Christian

the

the

spread of

of

and

a

numerical

and

values

Christian

Ibid., RCCHEI

31)

32)

Report of the Centenary Conference on the Protestant Mtsstons the World, London, 1888, Vol. II, p- 235. Wile WARY jog 2s op.ctt., Quoted in Findlay and Holdsworth,

33)

Eric

Sharpe,

pp.

college

a3 Tan se meeLe eulivaTniy

29) 30)

J.

as the

said:

"The steadily through this time

W.H.Findlay

conversion-agency.

22-23.

op.ctt.,

pp.

84-85. 227

of

in

a pool,

round was

right

saying

in

parably

followed

acquire

them,

being

missionaries

cannot

3.

The

The

effect

version

to

of

be

of

education

Christianity

education

which

hitherto

had

and

the

in

its

turn

them,

prestige

of

the

resulted

in

what

Dr.

'the

mass

movement

of

their

High

Schools,

Higher

In Homes boys

in and

girls

cultivated of

skill

there

and

College, last.

of

Once

them

Examinations

once

ing,

now

sit

the

help

have

achieved of

at

the

of

the

among

the

Karur

passed

Those

mission

were all

and

all

still

and

Harijans

the

Hinduism

and

and

their

things

learn

the

in

36)

E.

Tribes

Southern

228

10,

1826",

South

did and

in

South

places

learn-

wisdom. outcastes

honours,

the

Thus

by

pe

SOovs

Indian jp hee

Ode

Lndeas)

Vili

Vole

Brah-

and

of

Ops CLts,

not Uni-

India.

the

pedagogue">°.

Movements

Theological

this

words

and

Madras

knowledge

"University

rodof

tn

but

institutions

"Minute

and

of

perso-

ability

United

in

demands

of

College, the

of

the

constant

development

Findlay

custodians

March

the

into

Brahmins

of

the

Munro,

brought

teach

of

Castes

this

Boarding a number

Government

feet

the

and

possessed

J.J. Ellis, "Christward (1928=1:929) 7 sp.” Oi

Thurston,

in-

and

revivalist,

necessary

sole

Thomas

ever

schools

American

illiterates

the

other

who

in

the

missionaries

the

35)

Sir

economic

An

Dharapuram

34)

of

Con-

for

occupations

their

a whole.

were

College

be

and

into

Schools,

and

on

to

surplice,

as

greater.

eagerness

entry

education.Amidst

strongholds

various

still

improved

the

area

further

they

other

and

Elementary

American

taught

and

considered

With

wearing

who

was

remarkable

their

insistence

studies

Bangalore.

the

institutions,

Adi-Dravidas

well-known

Movement

higher

Madurai

a

group

a

character.

their

Mannargudi

mins,

of

people"? 4, This

the

mina'?>,

a steady

Christian

of

Jones,

Mass

College,

Some

versity

the

was

continued

Christian

like

from

the

entered

Trichinopoly,

atmosphere

study,

nality

Stanley

Mannargudi,

them

facilitated

children

to

exertion

by

educational

on

to

their

inse-

is

knowledge

life,

Munro

failure.

closed

number

of

Adi-Dravidas

in

creasing called

of

the

created

been

social

with

education

on

of

prosperity

missionary

taunted

effect

which

status

of the

comforts

the

of

diffusion

general

for

growing

the

effect

the

also

a taste

by

and

"the

that

by

all-

the

to Thomas

Therefore,

nation.

the

and

edu-

Further,

contribution

a massive

makes

people

the

of

prosperity

out,

pointed

already

as

cation

the

when

surface,

it.

into

ripple

a

like

the

over

all

a stone

of

throwing

the

by

felt

are

repercussions

whose

disturbed

is

water

confines

the

beyond

society

over

spread

wide

and

far

spread

also

It

premises.

college

the

institutions

these

of

influence of

pro-

xxi

pet

14

viding

education

creed,

the

have

to

all

done

much

towards

democratization

ful

in

destroying

the

single

privileged

caste

cation

it

chance to

do

of

could

all

aS

it

is

of

silence

the

all

they

this of

in

The

the

have

It

tender

you

so-called

and

in

those

the

a

who

An

one

"Not

in

only,

to

the

observer going

them

does

but

earth-

the

man

no

were

majesty

with

its

change.

But

always

September,

was

presented

words

having

which

in

it pleases

their

1927, with he

your

me

second

for

15th

the

on

and

in

it

of

commendations

and

here

a word

on"??,

highest On

heart

call-

to

in

perceives

was

came

and

also

out-

themselves

who

utter

but

an

Adi-Dravida

people,

not

more

equal

nothing

or

prided

The

on

more

having

all.

caste

dared

speak

College

boys,

compete

for

tempests

congratulations

untouchable

edu-

to

for

missionaries

quoting

a

of

Certainly

respect.

Findlay

worth

the

by

a revolution?

steadily

this

by

lightening

the

ages

Because

kind.

religion

is

for

a Brahmin

descent.

they

superficial

received

my

mean

and

open

towards

success-

and

was

and

very

Government,

one

and

were

enjoyed

jobs

The

colour

Government,

prejudices

they

Adi-Dravidas

their

and

caste,

British

Brahmins>’.

outstrip

of

unusual

Harijans

the is

the

contempt

not

an

fire

labours

welcome.

of

Christ's

to

the

whether

gentleman

revolution

a visit

"I

names

caste

education

for

of

the

doing

liberality

official

of

voice.

interested of

its

not

of

white-collar

respectability

educating and

in

with

so

participation?®.

a high

does

mighty

paid

for

of

small

In none

even

doors

Does

In

namely

threw

only,

still

group

Brahmins

a revolution

quakes

monopoly

possible

a respectable

derision.

destruction

not

sorts

along

education.

cared

social

irrespective

course

religion,

become the

by

of

political

and

upon

now

with

with

caste,

ed

became

terms

sundry,

of

the

the

equal

and

missionaries,

Gandhi

an

said

address in

College

to think

to dis-

reply:

several

that

it

was by your own effort that you are able to draw these boys to the College. I wish that your example will be copied by all educational institutions. So far as these oppressed classes are concerned, I know, from personal experience, that it is not enough to keep these institutions open for them, but it is necessary, if you will do justice to them, to go out of the way to draw these boys and bring them to our schools and colleges,

as

you

The

value

measured gone

have

done"40,

of

the

mission

schools

seen

in

the

portals

of

these

but

can

be

through

the

Findlay

College and

used

receive

well-wishers

old

boys

37)

Andre

38)

Lptds

39)

S.V.Thomas,

4o)

"Visit

Beteille,

of

to

which

Caste,

"Missionary Mahatma

Gandhi

Class

Work to

and

lives

colleges

of

those

cannot

men

institutions.

now

and

speak

and

in the

then

highly

Power,

South

229

The

be

accurately

women

who

authorities

interesting their

of

p.

have of

letters

sense

of

op.ctt.,

FHSCS

(1962).

p.

from

grati-

5.

India",

College",

and

336.

said:

Mannargudi

labour at

"Having thus far endeavoured to convey who I am, I will not long to come out with what I am about. The Findlay College is, Mannargudi of your cation

right one

the from

Advocate

Brahmin

a

Venkataramier,

Mr.

one

Hartley,

Marshall

Rev.

follow-

to

writing

While

above.

The

services.

missionary

of

said

I have

what

justify

will

extract

acknowledgement

sincere

and

for

tude ing

to

up

of

now

High

several

merely

not

senior

his

of the

I dare say, a substantial achievement on the eduinception from its lived through I have Society.

of Madras

Court I

classes.

need

spectator,

a

as

turned

sons

a

out

and with

not

3 other I

that

add

but

as

am

minor

but

has

who

one

(lawyer)

Vakeel

practising

-

sons

in

their

the

so

many

among

and we all feel who have thus been profited and are profiting, sure that this enduring boon has been vouchsafed to us all for all times to come"4!, Thus

the

cation all

value

of

the

In

the the

Rev.

V.S.

extent

of

natives

have

been

4,

the

sphere

sphere ideal

bound ago

advent

of

was

made

to

missionary

cordially

a son

a

only

were

contributions

recognized

Sastras

to

even

to

by

the

Hindus

edu-

of

higher

Mrs.

43)

Henry

44)

"Minute

Gray,

"The

Whitehead, of

Sir

caste

the of

'Trichinopoly',

42)

were

Box

Progress

of

Thomas

were

educated;

it was of

fit

a thing

women only

and for

Letter

Mannargudi,

Women",

June

230

in

ed.

it

of

2oth

185-186.

25,

1822",

a

was and

age.

In

and

education

the

unknown.

rule case

of

The

regarded

dancers"**,

Mr.Venkataramier January,

O'Malley,

pp.

of

in

was

of

public

the

public

con-

the

education.

British

and

century was

Hindus

in

the

were

While

wretch

years

against

A

birth

the

appear

of

Rt.

were

She

female

nine

Problems,

Munro,

of of

to

(1917-1922): dated

the poor

or

Hindus

"==

boon.

eight

Hindus

Hartley,

Indian

customs

progress

among

and

wort"

the

the

women

indeed.

allowed

education sex,

the

establishment

girls

the

jubilation,

the

not

the

which

As

"Christians

a welcoming

Marriage

prejudice

said:

childhood

missionaries

work.

pathetic

great

they

of

in

than

to

were

minority

Dornakal,

was

From

seclusion.

Christian

understand

woman

with

when

the

shackles

and

education

magnificient

rather

Before

modesty

Rev.Marshall

know

Indian

they

prevented

the

to

also in

the

obstacles

a deep-rooted

“unbecoming

MSS.

of

ateogether

other

break

disfavour.

serious

female

done

Bishop

welcomed

families,

and

have

liability

with

a microscopic

Hindu

the

was

married

was

Brahmins

free

of

life

formed

women

to

of

education

and

formerly

them

viewed

orthodox

there

female

economic

live

Muslims Girls

set

an

girl

of

first

position

sidered

the

the

and

the

In

pioneers

Azariah,

everywhere

41)

the

grades.

were

of

and

1920.

op.ctt.,

(on Gwin 4 S35)

Sols

p.456.

In

the

case

of

never

dawned

rance

among

the

made

the

of

hence

women

was

unbelievable.

many

years

widows

their

lives

the

efforts

have

been

by the

on

organized in

women

to

and

stian

hymns

women

were

not

taught

would

not

be

listening

the

the

Hindu

lighten

comfort

Under

the

guidance

three

Brahmin

soled such

and

out

a young

married

the

Rev.

Methodist

Gospel of

was

Mrs.

Gray,

47) Ann.Rep., 48)

Ibid.

49)

S.

to

preached

Srirangam

near

the

of

pp.

17ff.

231

of

wide-spread the

that

teaching

writing,

give

Vedakkan

a number were

Isaac

one

a Chri-

pistrict*?. Hindu

Temp-

a notorious

life.

girls

p.

con-

was

Ministers

Native

Trichinopoly

op.ctt.,

Shrewsless

not

becoming

leading

and

them’?

Miss

and

a result,

(dancing

en-

to

Christianity

visited

the

efforts

their

was

work

would

after

or

the

Trichinopoly

of

and

were

(1899), pp. 68-69

op.ctt.,

As

forbade

composed

113 -114.

Women",

Hindu homes,

were

D'Silva

and

one

Devadasts who

their

Mrs.

Negapatam

(1888), pp.

Progress

Vol. XXVII

Rajamanickam,

the

about

like

who,

widow

Trichinopoly

Vol. XXIV "The

in

they

Christ

Chri-

thoroughfare

ignorance

of

cities.

Isaac,

Vedakkan

Mission

the own

etiquette

city

regularly

Mannargudi

Brahmin

if

their

a rigia the

of

distress’*°.

their

of

sang

that

in

meaning

ladies

big

Workers

education--reading,

of

Workers

Negapatam,

Zenana inmates,

The

was

present

to

beginning

the

to

on

which

Auxiliary,

the

went

Gospel

the

all

in

later

their

real

the

Zenana

was

45) Ann.Rep., 46)

in

to

competent

of

houses

hundred widows

as

hope

She

case.

the

and

Women

helped

and

stian,

les)

India

the

than

The

of

and

object

chief

the

But

the

field

for

They

least,

at

elements,

carry

Bible

directed.

In

first

the

the

of

fifty

and lot.

thought

combating

hearts

was

counteracting

towards

and

were

sewing.

women

the

the

of

the

and

bury,

of

Workers

sisters

it was

simply

their

congregated

crowds

the

hundred

Ladies'

in

were

>.

women

Gospel

else,

They

spend

among

families.

either

their

to

improve

from

the

igno-

of

had

genanaw

moved

in

the

They

of

they

one

work

right

anywhere

women

of

prayer.

Where

of

scriptures

preachers

So,

men. about

Zenana

arithmetic

the

and

daughter and

death

widowhood??.

to

the

caste

the

truths

the

by-way.

of

exclusively

in

them

taught

to

village

misconception

to

led

made

made

read

age

last

the

his

premature

missionaries

high

the

of

The

profoundly

auspices

were

houses,

Brahmin

the

of the

Efforts

1859.

Gospel

entered

wives under

superstition

details

District

Trichinopoly

educating

of

the

increasing and

of

young

women

Indian

idea power

imposed

in

during

founded

of

under the

and

was

on

a very

workers

carried

their

the the

women

Negapatam

they

at

confined'

of

distress

The

missionary

the

Hindu,

and

cribbed,

""cabined,

it

average him

upon

husbands rest

an

446.

in

denied

of

work

progress

of

this

source

of

a nurse

joy.

in

standard

of

happy

spiritual this

vice

the

to

of

running

the

lady

by

the

untiring radical those

those

who

the

these

missionary long

ders

of

of

who

fighter

and

the

Council

was

an

Dr.

the

India

enormous now

the

Deputy

cause

Women's

that in

of

Reddi

of of

women's

Conference,

into

Dr.

the

has

the

the

under

their due

particu-

can

about

walks

of

education and

in

the

life. in

Hindu

a staunch

Madras

Only

people

come

emancipation. Reddi

ser-

work.

workers

Madras,

the

mainly

indeed.

several female

about of

Workers.

girls

of

for

great

was

the

said:

encouragea">*.

Zenana

the

the

the

made

invariably

upon

social

President of

notice and

she time

sketch

remarkable

change

employed

be

No

or

and

how

and

should

conditions

prominent

advocate

stressed

res-

school

Inspectress

of

department

is

a

education

example

were

in

new

quiet

to

come

area

in

a Hindu

District.

thrown

former

the

up

its

fails

has

take

with

be

this

had

to

unfailing

lived

report

an

schools

that

to

it

of

they

by

the

an

and

her

missionaries

Muthulakshmi

former ardent

if

the

is

may

in

the

and

In

appreciation

girls'

are

acknowledged

eminence.

of

Movement

the

school,

education

and

itself.

discussion,

which

area

girls

this

success

contribution

been

All

by

the

Mass

appreciate

The

comment for

was

a teacher

following

of

the

or

of

note

wives

home,

quality

speak

Woriur

in

School

learned

the

complete

and

the

at

missionaries

energy

from

has

outside

transformation

know

immediately

world

group

and

School

the

the

be

High

into

a mother

schools

elementary

country”. who

Regarding

schools

The

the Girls'

girls

secular

would

the

the

as

and in

of

of

number

education

female

of

cause

the

out

a special

work

larly

to

the

good

High

Girls'

year

atmosphere

supervision,

of

after

sufficiently

study,

boarding

lives

part

Methodist

school

family

rendered

close

this

the

either

values

Mission's

for

went

context

work

The

in

Year

will

meditation,

the

with

higher

the

District

the

work

a hospital.

Schools

In

religion

fairly

A

girls.

schools,

the

and

Karur

women

institution

"The

own

allied

closely

was

Muslim

boarding

schools,

respect

ponsibilities

of

for

and

excellent

doing

this

Women

and

Dharapuram

In

Bible Hindu

day

elementary in

the

schools

day

were

their

them’°.

The of

which

Christianity

in

release

found

them

of

Some

India lea-

freedom

Legislative In

an

address

said:

"I honestly believe that the missionaries have done more for women's education in this country than government itself. The

50)

Ibid.

51)

Report

52)

MSS. 'Trichinopoly--Women's es Dorothy Renshaw

O=16=

of

Women's

O.

Work

(1928),

p.

25.

Work Missionary Letters', Box (1939): to Miss Freethy, dated Trichinopoly,

232

woman population of this country has been placed under a deep debt of gratitude to the several missionary agencies for their valuable contribution to the educational uplift of Indian Women. I honestly think that they have done more for women's education in this country than the government itself. Of course at present India can boast of several other religious bodies such as the Brahmo Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission, Arya Samaj, & c., doing work in the field of women's education, but in the past the Christian missionaries were the only agencies in that field... Had it not been for these noble bands of Christian women teachers, who are the product of the missionary training schools,

even

this

much

advancement

in

the

education

of

the

Indian women would not have been possible; even at this day, in every province, we find the missionary women teachers working hard in a spirit of love and faith, in out-of-the-way villages,

In of

an

where

area

Hinduism,

tered

the

the

known the

caste

Hindu

and

the

power

for

Zenana homes

of

of

women

caste

the

of

women

and

helped

emancipation

and

independence

the

not

penetrate">>.

prejudices

fought

illiteracy of

dare

Methodist

courageously

the

air

the

Workers

and

Muslim

much

and

Church

against

daringly

the

en-

ignorance

distressed

for

strength

first

and

ones

to

inhale

time

in

their

lives.

5.

In were

The

spreading always

in

progressive to

be

which opened

a new

the

thought,

had

which

students,

old

down

light

traditional

views

of

in

Mrs.

of

the

H.

Hindus

Gray,

Quoted

54)

Henry

55)

Commonsense K.M.Panikkar, 1960), pp. 22-23. Ltd.,

56)

Kenneth

Ingham,

possibility

leadership

and

created

a pro-

education

through

the

Indian

op.cit.,

of

in

of

sharpened

weakened

"The

vigorously 56 . Some cosmography

Progress

Problems,

p.

about

Indta,

Pp.»

teaching

the

of

67. 233

of

Women",

modern

a decisive

played

critical

old

of

missionary

the

the

their

knowledge

on

introducing

in

India

character,

in

the

Indian

modernizing

and

inquiry

of

Western

53)

Whitehead,

the

felt

of

It

religion

instance

For

prejudices.

the

in

geography

results.

and

consequence

in

lines

Western

on

the

sciences

Western

of

teaching

The

by

factor

politcs,

Western

primarily

was

society

important

beneficient

modernization

the

in

Thus

India. which

an

knowledge

system

spirit

the

is

missionaries

Indian

education

of

many

effect

its

made

also

the of

freedom

educated

an

produced

and

the

education

ideologies permeation

new

India

Christian

system

new

The

championed

creating

in to

sciences

broke

the

equality

brought

English

of

education,

the

as

of

and

and

This new intelligentsia.

languages,

of

to

and

rater? 4s It

medium

education

account.

door

world

gressive

yous

such

into

influence

forefront

missionaries

"the

Western

Western the

ideas

taken the

leavening

beliefs

history

acumen and

and

challenged the . of their super-

op.ctt.,

p.

455.

137. (London:

Victor

Gollancz

stitions

cism. was

could

The so

not

impact

great

liefs

and

culed

even

stand

the

of Western

on

the

customs

native

of

the

by Brahmin

test

of

reason

missionary

and

mind

that

some

Hindus

were

seriously

students

and

the

education of

the

teachers

spirit

and

of

modern

time-honoured

questioned

in

criti-

thought

their

and

own

beridi-

schools

and

colleges. "Everytime a Brahman graduate explains to his class the theory of eclipses he teaches the Brahman student to laugh at the religion which made his grandfather believe that two snakes were devouring the sun and the moon, against the poison of which two snakes his mother is today covering the water-pots and cookingutensils

during

an

eclipse.

High School when our are sapping the very can be so called" 57, Lamenting the

pious

thers,

on

the

unsympathetic

traditions

a Hindu

published

in

Even

of

the

past

conservative

Madras,

in

the

friends teach foundation of

new

Hindu

Theological

the manual of Geography they their own theology, if it

attitude and

the

of

their

religion

paper-devoted

to

young-men

of

their

religion

and

towards

fore-fapolitics,

said:

"The natton regrets that the young men on whose education much money and trouble are spent return to their household with contempt for the practices, and beliefs of their relations and ancestors, and the young men regret that their homes and community are attached to what seems to them to be foolishness and

superstition"58,

Therefore, seriously schools

and

falling

prey

the

work

to

to the

with

the

of

the

did

right

taught

in

a systematic

the

hearts

of

the

ry,

has

great

historical

institutions ledge

the

one

way

in

their

stian

educative

the

to

the

in

Some

the

were high

men

from

counteracting

Gospel

and

always

of

to

the

mission

truths

the

measures

taken

and

pressed

lessons in

of

the

spear-head,

the

Bible

importance,

therefore

preserve

duty

starting

the

were

Therefore,

were

schools

of

edu-

their

classes,

religious

a storehouse

Efforts

secular of

institutions,

college

its

of

sight

their

the

from

as

were

Gospel

the

young

thus

kind

lose

all

significance.

handle.

institutions.

atmosphere

to

and

value

scriptures

preach

their

a superior In

Apart

ethical

well-fitted

agencies founding

influences,

however,

up

way

children.

and

preventing

of

not,

scriptures.

schools

native

started

institutions.

was

Bible

to

of

and

missionary

imparting

missionaries

nursery

a number

education

a view

and

Christian

at

teaching

the

onwards

higher

Western

aiming the

the

from

1880s in

colleges

of

While cation,

from

involved

to

other

in

Christian

colleges

litera-

missionary

all

made

more

the

knowthan

atmosphere

preserve in

upon the

a Chri-

Negapatam

SSFFSFSFeFeFeeseseSsSsSse

57)

S.V.Thomas,

58)

The

Hindu

"Missionary Reformer

and

Work

in

South

Poltttetan,

234

India",

Madras

op.ctt.,

(1882),

Vol.

pp. Dy

340-341. pews

and

Trichinopoly

with of

the

District

students,

superstitious

topics, The

or

ciples

was

that

strongly

to

of

be

repute.

Men

some

and

like

of

successful

in

skill,

Until

essay

contacts

dispelling

writing

on

as

Christian

of

as

1920s

many

religious

highly

factor

should

be

charge

laymen.

for

is

in

from

Thomas,

course

an

were

Smailes,

Ellis,

the

was

also

either important

men

universities

educationists,

as

of

undesirable

of

High in

prin-

ministers

missionaries

efforts

a mission

guiding

This

missionary

evangelistic

of

regarded

qualified

Webster,

of

their

of

the

head

important

one

was

of

the

equally

clergymen

some

outstanding

their

an

éfficiency®?. for

Findlay,

the

and

employment

change-over

or

recognized,

learning

the

Substitution

Any

economy

the

deemed

missionary

deprecated.

personal

included

missionary

also

institutions.

grounds

were

and

influence.

only

worship,

which

mS

was

Christian

public

conversations

books

a European

a College

educational

point

of

daily

education

as possible>”.

exerting

sive

text

presence

School

on

beliefs,

suitable

teachers

were:

Christian

of

mas-

of

world

and

Thorp

heing

equally

well.-

"They were, in fact, the ideal pioneers of education, some of them men of outstanding scholarship and almost all of a reasonable academic standard, impelled by a grave urgency, willing to experiment at all grades in the educational ladder, and consequently providing an excellent pattern upon which the governmental authorities might ultimately base their own wider schemes when resources should permit. By travelling and preaching, in schools, and with the aid of school-books and tracts, the

missionaries Children mained

who

undertook

studied

unaffected

to

instruct

under

such

by

their

exemplary

of

the

all

great

who

would

missionary character

hear

them"61,

teachers and

hardly

immense

re-

personal

influence.

exposition

The

nature

to

the

in

Negapatam,

an

ample

ed

in

an

college

article in

spontaneous

were

old

25th

On

"One

its

boy,

Sir

Indian

remarkable

59)

Box (1904-1913 'Trichinopoly', MSS. Letter of the Rev. Ebenezer Webster Mannargudi, 21-6-1907. 4

60)

Minutes (1889),

61)

Kenneth

62)

Quoted

Ingham, in

RSIPS,

Methodist

of

the

p-

61.

(1899),

p-

66. 235

of

interesting formerly

Misstonartes'

op.ctt.,

the

minds

: File to the

words

abolition

the

feature

it

newspaper

following

on

Times

T.Vijayaraghavachariar,

of Wesleyan p. 5.

a Hindu

the

1896

exercised on Mie . Another walls

influence

within

of

College

Mission

Wesleyan

the

by

exerted

testimony

As

institutions.

mission

the

in

studied

January,

South

The

in

Negapatam:

taught

who

influence

the

evidence.

spiritual

an

of

the

deep

from

girls

and

boys

young

the

on

impression

a permanent

made

scriptures

College young

appearof

the

was

of

the that

men

confirmation Diwan

be

will

comes

Udaipur.

Chairman 25-5-1904) : dated Rev. W.H.Findlay,

Conference

in Indta

min

gentleman

and

those

ideals

are

still

an

old

boy,

As

stitution.

the

In

the

was

the

whole

most

the

of

one

Bible

in

work

of

pieces

difficult

yet

of

teaching

the

classes

College

interesting

oh ek &os

knowledge

good

fairly

College

of

round

the

one

reading

of

chance

the

possessed

and

year

had

years,

nine

or

each

Bible

the

of

eight

for

institution book

read in

been

having

them,

of

Some

students.

Hindu

of

number

large

a

by

higher

the

In

was

Bible

the

classes

to

earliest

the

from

violent,

times

at

and

work.

Mission's

the

of

days

in

stood

College

opposition

whose

a town

of

midst

the

intense,

been

had

evangelism

Christ

for

a witness

as

the

Mannargudi,

In

3

Findlay

the

of

buildings

imposing

n=

succeeding

than

traditions.

fine

those

on

carry.

should

generations

ideals

this.

to

belong

better

nothing

wish

who

boys

the

by

pursued I can

Brah-

this high

for

stood

always

College

Negapatam

at

school

old

his

Wesleyan

"The

said:

to

visit

his

of

occasion

the

On

Ligeti. on

The

Bible

classes

the

minds

of

could

min

write

thought-provoking of

pal

from

set

the

young

men.

160

as

A Brahmin

intricate

the

Once

The

to

student

in

Bible

that

the

topics

the

Smailes,

an

were

on:

essay

as

truths

the

showing

in

write

replies

in

‘What

interesting

that

had

a

Princiin

I

re-

hold

laid

on

Class

Intermediate

senior

Brah-

orthodox

religious

Richard

Rev.

students

Bible’.

misconceptions

vealing the

manner.

College,

the

learned

have

on

essays

excellent

impact

an

great

staunch

a

even

that

children

so

made

College

Findlay

the

in

native

the

wrote: "T

have

learnt

from

the

there

is

Manages and controls the whole universe. primitive idea that God is cruel. I have God

is

my

Divine

I want and all people ween

me

On

another

Cross:Its

from

one

student

of in

a

Pariah,

occasion

'The

who

is

kind

God

above

us,

who

to

me,

knows

exactly

what

grant my wishes if they be good. I have learnt that are brothers, and that there is no difference bet-

and

Goa"65,

Father,

a

I have got rid of that come to realize that

the

effect

the the

for

are

students

upon

essays.

we

It

were

myself was

children

and

asked

on

written

of

to

the

same

write

an

others'.

by

a young

Here

supreme

essay

is

an

Brahmin,

on:

extract

the

best

class:

"That one man should die for the sake of others is commendable indeed. That one great man should die for the sake of others is more so. And that one great man should die a cruel death for

saving

others

has

all

that

greatness

it, which deserves the greatest should class the case of Christ

District,

attached

everyone. category.

to I Per-

Irtchtnopoly

64)

Rev. A.H.Davey, "Findlay College, Mannargudi: A Chapter of Social Traits and School Triumphs", WWMF, Vol. XI (July, 1902), p. 280.

65)

Ann.Rep.,

XXXVII

(1927),

p.

from last

63)

Vol.

(1943),

and grandeur

admiration under this

pp. 236

7.

42-43.

haps it

He

was

has not

set a

the

mere

best

example

in

self-sacrifice,

the

but

quality

a

of

noble

self-sacrifice;

self-sacrifice.

Perhaps by dying on the Cross He has preached His doctrines in the best way possible, in a way that cannot be adopted under any other circumstances. It was a silent, but most effective way He adopted; it was by this. kind of death all the best and latent qualities of the man have been forcibly brought to light. To preach one's new doctrines against heavy odds requires great a courage that no ordinary man can boast of; to persist courage, in preaching one's doctrines (especially when one knows that the reward

would

be

a

on

the

is

evident

apart

Cross from

its

these

all

had

from

the

with meekness and decision It seems that He possible. requisites,

axioms

outward

of

sense

requires a high

death),

cruel

to meet that expected death one of the best mentalities

set.

so

forth

significance,

an

the

that

above.

Thus

inner

duty,

and

requires Who died

conclusion

the

and

Cross

subtler

has, meaning;

it shows what a noble soul can do and what a noble soul has done; and it also shows to what extent the self-sacrifice of an ideal man might incite people to their own betterment. The Cross, as has. well been said, is old news and good news, and new news "66, Thus truths

The

man

the

not

the

and

the

and

the But

that

on

the

Bible

and in

Christianity. attack

the It

on

and

they

confirmed

reactionary

although

spirit

them

in

The

they an

has

able the

were

ideal

to

real

diffi-

and

follow

man®?,

On

some

altogether outright faith

extract

some

a

to

an

of

it

ready

an old

said,

appreciate

doctrines

and

their

spiritual

appreciation

been

presented

to

spiritual

own

had

following

mentality

their

what

it

new

critical

were

some

teaching

Christianity.

a

themselves

considered

a hostile

to

of

To

Christian

them

basis

it.

Christianity,

discover

in

students

from

whom

alive

the

reconcile

Jesus,

them

all

Far

of

many

resulted

not

could

made

made

Bible.

they of

servative

Bible

teachings.

produced

rous

the

God of

supposed

teachings

footpath

of

teachings.

be

Bible

culty

and

knowledge

Christian

must

It

teaching

about

need. of

the

different

rejection

and will

led

to

show

the

others effect.

of a vigo-

the

con-

poeple.

"People say that there once lived in an unknown village in an unknown part of the world a man who was crucified for speaking against the law. But some of his friends (flatterers) said that he died for the sake of the Kingdom of Heaven. I don't believe in it. There are certain very valuable trees which would grow only on a certain kind of good soil, which is hard to obtain, but base plants would not grow in it. My mind consists of such a kind of good soil that no base teaching can enter and pollute it. So it has had no effect on me for the past so many years. As for others I don't know. The soil of which their minds are made may be as that of mine or different. I don't know what effect preaching about the Cross can produce, unless it be to convince others also to crucify themselves, saying that they are dying for the sake of their fellow-men"”°”.

Thus

the

effects

produced

by

the

teaching

4

66)

Ann.

67)

sabe"

68)

Ibtd.

Rep.,

Vol.

XXXVII

(1928),

pp.

23

40-41.

of

the

Christian

Gospel

were

permanent

form

their

Classes, faith,

and

living

the

that

the

failure

as

satt

war

of

and

child

the

ideas put

from

is

a

attacks

reform

it

of

onslaught on

the

The

traditions sank

of

as

a community

for

country

The

to and

heritage.

light

of

image

of

to

philosophy

of

'Negapatam

cae

Woodward

to

and the

and

explore

and

and

Dr.

endeavoured

Trichinopoly', General

87.

to

Box

and

to

to

pious

in

which

sharply

self-defence

and

and

intensive

interpret

are

dated

of

them

Vive-

some

of

the

their

hi-

Hindu

reli-

Letter

Karur,

also

philo-

discover an

discover

founding

of

long

the

challenges.

(188541891):

Secretaries,

and

their

make

S.Radhakrishnan

grandeur ’?, The

positive

cause

Western

and

and

in

to

forms /°.

common

past

tried

under-

tried

thought

the

who

to

circumstances and

reac-

Hindus

and

prompted

religion

impact

religion a

other

The

oneness

before

religious

were

criticisms

those

greatness

MSS.

them

scholars

Sarasvathi

had

the

deadly

Hinduism

older

of

a of

a

and

important

self-preservation

forced

missionary

its

sense

on such

Hindu

educated

of

with

in

their

history,

examples

them

in

of

values

ancient

which

consolidate

Hindu

Dayananda

outstanding

for

never

are

reactionaries

a

attack

preserve

more

another them

their

provided

necessity

Hindus

in

defending

differences,

their

kananda,

69)

need

concepts

study

storic

they

had

produced

to

to

with

Woodward

kinds

social

anything

It

their

them.

own

Christianity

met

of

not

inaugurating Rev.

two

the

is

mettle De

her

and

and

doctrines

practices

Hinduism

conservative

their

the

the

of

the

trying

While

changing

of

induced

their

the

without

on

who

this

evil

impact,

and

those

beliefs

continuous

and

As

caused

beliefs

all

divided sophical

religious

put both

Christianity.

Hindus.

history’! -

being

reactionary,

Hinduism,

intact

which

in

of

their

solidarity

they

and

and

caste

"Christianity

its

But

re-

Bible

ancestral To

missionaries

a tremendous

propaganda

their

to

the

in

religious

effect.

ideologicies.

'Hinduism,

preserve The

it,

tried

Bible.

especially

the

as

missionary

the

effect

had and

of

vigorous

such

and

re-examine

take

Their

vigorous

tion--reformative

to

not.

of

to

the

world

little

preaching

marriage

District

conflict...

and

had

on

from

Christianity,

institutions

conflicting

Negapatam

of

Certainly Hindu

clinging

anything

some

learnt

they

what

different

salvation

teachings

and

learn

altogether

and

appreciated,

of

passionately to

teachings

only.

Hinduism

of

an

crucifixion

say

by

Some

light

the

in

refused

in

practices,

far-reaching.

others,

bluntly

were

sin,

and

religion

own

of

January

the 30,

7o)

Kanti Prasanna Sen Gupta, op.ett., pp. 190-191; cf. K.M. Panikkar, Common Sense about India, pp. 19-20. alle) waco ire Panikkar, The Foundations of New Indta, London CICS) ape oS cf. Kaj Baago, "The Discovery of India's Past and its effect on the Christian Church in India", in Htstory and Contemporary Indta, ed. w a C.B. Webster, (London: Asia Publishing House;,9 1974) papp.

O=

72)

Kaj

Sil .

Baago,

"The

Discovery

of

India's 238

Past...",

op.ctt.,pp.

30-31.

gious-reform of

movements

expression

Hindu

Tract

(1895),

Yoga

the

Shatva

in

The

Hindu

to

note

of

the

Tract

that

Society.

This

South

in

its

who the

of

was

origin

first

mode

a vent.

The

of Kumbakonum

the

Chattanya

purpose

of

streng-

active is

and

aggressive

quite

chiefly

to

in

interesting

the

activities

the

object

of

attack

annual

report

of

the

Hindu

reproduced

in

the

Harvest

report,

the

another

influences’.

very

became

and

common

Christian

is found

Sabha

(1896),

the

influences. It

owes

A portion

samajes spirit

Advatta

India

Madras

missionary

from

and

the

shared

counteracting

learn

as

reads

in

movement’

we

sabahs

reactionary

(1887),

missionaries

itself.

Society Field,

Madras

Society

this

the

(1891)--adl

the

Christian

as

Hindu

Sabha

and

against

the

in

Bengal

Hinduism

fighting

such

which

Soctety

Samaj

thening

in

by

the Tract

follows:

"The chief causes that contributed to the establishment of this Society are to be found in the various spiritual influences that are at work amongst us in these days of religious revival. After a long sleep of many centuries during which, owing to many political convulsions, we did not pay due attention to our religion, literature,

and

or

that

gave

to

the. grandeur

other

us

things

national and

that

distinguished

individuality,

perfection

of

our

we

us

have

ancient

as

now

a

nation,

awakened

religion...

But

we owe more to the aecttvtty of antagontstte foretgn influences tn our mtdst than to any other cause, for the formation of this Tract Society. We have painfully witnessed the injustice done to our religion by foreign and native Christian missionaries. Baseless charges

were

trumped

up

against

it;

and,

relying

on

the

poverty

of the masses and the ignorance that generally prevails amongst them regarding their own religion and their own traditions, those apostles of foreign creeds have, by means fair or foul, attempted

poor

and

even

brethren

succeeded,

astray.

preservation,

and

This

made

us

to

some

aroused see

the

extent,

in

us

need

like the present one; and, since the only thrive by destroying the better by our ancestors, we were obliged to

ries As

their

a part

of

institutions The

the

were

result

service of

the

Here

and

their

National

educational

again

it

the

activities

13)

BDtde

74)

"Hinduism SOD%.

75)

Henry

to

some

our

of

self-

organization

Church

Schools

products work. work. or

measure,

counteract

High

the

missionary

Christian

leading

Christian propaganda could religion bequeathed to us use against the missiona-

self-preservatory

founded

chiefly of

of

in

instinct

weapons"/4,

were

so-called

period

own

the

of

Some But

the

Christian

of

the

missionaries

a number

missionary

and

Colleges

the

Hindu

native

they

through

was

the

agencies

did

the

founded

revival

this

fear

missionaries brought

of

in

led

the

this

was

undertook

either

who

rival

during

which

Christian

about

of

activities.

also

social

imitation influence. way.

Thus

a transformation

of

} Fighting

Whitehead,

for

Indtan

HF,

Itself", Problems,

239

Vol.

pp.

IX

(March,

185-186.

1889),

pp.304-

Indian the

Hindu due

Society

same

through led

society /°.

to

sight

time

the

to The

Christian

education,

a revival discovery Missions

of of

both

religious

Hinduism the

Hindu

in

India,

a

pp.

79-80.

of.

V——_———

76)

J.H.

Beaglehole,

op.ett.,

and

240

and

heritage

fact

secular,

regeneration

which

is

thus

cannot

and of

at

the

partly be

lost

CHAPTER

1.

Although

An

it

missionaries

also

and

beings

sex"! ,

contained

is

meant

the

that

communication spirit

to

measures

found

tribal ries

have

were

made

of

few

the

Indian

ledge

of

culties

Hindu

medical

body

and

still the

so

medical

sex

Apart

and

creased

small

the

As

a rule, these

found

M.N.Srinivas,

QA

nepeg

VOL

3)

M.N.Srinivas,

4)

Kenneth

Sy

ieKeale

Ingham,

in

LV

in

a

were

of

advance

(1830),

op.ctt., op.ctt.,

DP.

pp. p.

that

effective

30%

112.

241

be

and

a

such

p.

diffi-

be

a

great

beliefs, a

the

dead

masses medicines

Further,

the

costly work has

other

the know-

the

way

of

only

by

complications

branch were so

large

equipment.

condition

48.

of

expen-

vastly

that

surgery,

hygienic

India,

to

treated

other

and

these

touch

in

pox begin-

scanty

ignorant

science

medical

to

thinge.

was

for

only

European

stood

to

49-50.

the

to

The

were

Modern

small

proved

for

forbidden

the

and Until

religious

surgery. dislike

furniture

in

often

there

for

and

missiona-

inadequate

aversion

scale

epidemics,

lepers

Added

willing

maintaining

Change

were

certain

suitable

of

providing

the

possessed

which

barrier

part

administra-

By

cholera

enemies,

by

was

required

Soctal

age

clearly

population,

the

women,

suffering.

days

been

a sufficient

in

all

society>.

as

services

a peculiar great

on

greatest,

Indian

deep-seated

Buildings

spent

the

such

scruples

a

people

orphans,

to

those

instruments,

for

was

native

orphanages.

widespread

women

incredible

run was

hinderances,

on

work

appliances

amount

need

vaccination

from

the

By

of

they

control

experience

another

enterprise.

the be

to

of

was

the

religion,

1830,

to

to

influenced

had

welfare

unemployment,

scientific

no

They

the

their

medical

displayed

of

humanitarianism.

position,

for in

Harijans,

religious

had

Medical

well.

missionary

had

they

work.

women.

sive,

men

worse.

of

of

Strongly

practice

problem

or

work

of

epidemics

century

the

many

and

caused

of for

benefit

concern

and

available

their

block.

to

all

nature,

W.M.M.S.,

expression

whose

India

they

present

to

contribution

like

doctors

were

were and

a real

diseases

stumbling

aid

people

and

is

hospitals

medical

frequent

ning

famine

the

of

REFORM

truths"?

the

fight and

a country

and found

people--the

In

object

in

economic

of

SOCIAL

welfare

concern

caste,

of Gospel

service

to

and

of

often

schools

education

1)

of

the

AND

element

“active

Reports

primary

missionaries

tive

as

"our

for

a strong

an

Annual

stated

The

concern

irrespective

In

DEVELOPMENT

Briar alyevengeldstic

by the the

COMMUNITY

active

was

humanitarianism human

10:

of

in-

sums

No

the

them

to

for

their

relief.

Missions

often

brought

provide

Medical contact

with

closed

the

against

missionaries Their

mingled

patients.

who

otherwise

they

waited

used

to

an

evidence

of

caste.

cine,

of

cine

given the

thods

of

dealing

physical

were

in

and

were

of

the

doctors

stantly

and

patiently

ensure

They ment a

also

of

leprosy.

weary

the

took

forefront

of

risking

of

1918,

The

to

their

the

planter

red

cases

fever. miles

The as

help own

the

in

among

the

missionaries

fast

as

6)

Ann.Rep.,

i)

ibid.

Vol.

Vol.

Vy

Wes

piss

9)

Trtehtnopoly

at

though the

who and

available

possible

to

XXVIII(1901),

XXXaee(i9O9)"

pee

on

p.

(1944),

there

patients

con-

were

do

to

fight

to

all

an

his

64.

6-7.

242

on

for, were

a

He

were

treat-

always

the

out

in

danger

epidemic

telegram

help.

and

dragged

always

influenza

staff

estate

lide

pp.

midwifery

was

received

requested

Ee Distrtet

the manifold

their

they

uncared

terrible

travelled

find

dispensa-

to

tried

missionaries

Dharapuram

workers

me-

mitigate the

what

work,

left

the

During

Anamalais

the

clinical

lepers,

victims,

to

they

Thus

broke

confidence.

several

tell

medi-

medi-

the

hygiene”.

of

epidemics

lives.

to

took

and

ineffective

addition

detail

diseases.

unfortunate

During

used

prejudice

and

their

best

In

minute

pre-natal

missionaries

friendly sick

combat

of

their

hospitals most

ignorance

care

existence.

the

to

doing people.

and

himself,

missionaries

the

and

who

eagerly,

about

and

ultimately

Dharapuram

are

the

slowly

as

women

them

dispensary

traditional won

came

pride

it

heard

feed

scrupulous

were

to

and

and

native

these in

widespread

the

against

in

and

health

still the

the

But

forn®.

people

sickness,

with

duties, to

the

to

the

overcome

who

others

liquid

of

suffering

to

attended

landlords

Brahmin

now

even

on

influence

patiently

Christians,

Gospel.

the

wealthy

attention’

permitted

helped

the

of

and

preaching,

from

was

had

aversion

a powerful

officials

to

prejudice

and

message

the

doctor's

freely

Trichinopoly

in

attached

ries

which

Brahmins

attachment

hospital

doctor

the

them

the

which

intimate

more

into

fear

exerted

skill

medicine

take

there

to

for

doors

for

Brahmin listen

never

work

although

and

turn

to

Some

down The

would their

many

suspicion,

patients

the

Mannargudi

In

refuse

many

opened

impelled

suffering

the

and

missionaries

the

removing

tenderness

occasions

on

By

prepared

the

and

people

them.

But

sick

the

for

had

missionaries

the

work.

medical

undertaking

from

naries

which

sympathy

of

measure

the

missio-

the

discouraged

easily

have

would

factors

these

All

hospitals.

had

from

a

six

hund-

down

with

bicycles

over

hundred

of

workers

1,200

over

1,000 and

sick

the The

innate

Indian

the

might

the

oversight

the

converts

were

and

guide

in

them.

that

ren

in

does

and

independent the

free, Thus

not

a state

sibility

which

which

that

compound',

with

the

As

of

right from

would

rendered

the

its

the

the

missionary--soon

fact

manly

to

result

of

had

was be

to

freedom

and

keep of

inexonly behaviour.

these

sincerely build

ro

we

create

look

the

gather the

felt up

a

community"!',

been

of

child-

initiative

to

to

at

moral

orphans

Home,

the

a

the

cir-

responand 'mission

necessary.

"The

ideal--

presided

over

by

community,

indispensable

of

made

that

was

and

absolutely

were

was

when

comfort

the

said

orderly

Christian

homeless

Christian

proved

it

and

missionary

them

missions

Further,

and

limitations,

sélf-contained

wanted

missionaries

shelter

Karur.

be

idea

taught

deprive

of

converts

attracted in

young

the

and

beginning

Mission.

the

any

res-

a means

unemployment

Home

were

taught

and

and

school

cannot

but

missionary

industrial

from

the

work

decisions

still

work

Karur

important

none

and

at

influence

without

a matter

all

work

of

from

the

disciplined

which

the

converts

was

self-respecting

share

small,

be

constrained

to

the

aim

tendency

destitutes

the

to

thinking.

independent

cumstances

of

had

the

there

servitude

ultimate

their

captives of

mean

of

independent

Church

like Most

feature

skilled

against

of

it

all.

as

with

them

under

in charge,

cases

good

missionaries

shrink

Children's

the

in

kept

many

They

But

that

at

did

the

School

them

fight

the

missionary -and though

independence

people

success

constantly

missionary

of

a widespread

Industrial

to

up

were

is

trained

The

brought

they

toil

where

providing

also

contribution

been

the

by

pirienced to

and

converts

of

them

these

the

labour

underestimated.

had

who

Though

and

hands,

Its

be

work

ceuntry

of while

lives,

savea!®,

mannual

ina

own

unselfish

their

dignity

craftsmen,

several

to

their

the

were

lives

Working

livelihood.

for

many

dirty

not

Risking forgot

aversion

children

should

dead.

never

society.

pectable of

140

labours

by whose

which

and

planters

in

the

Indian

situa-

tion" !2, Another was

their

important role

Christianity has

got

which at

one

the

like

still

Christian

in

process

Methodism,

much

to

end

from

down

storiography

to

at

the

industrial

played

a

the

end,

role

methods

the

term

medical

in

to

and

Starting

experimental

other

adapted West,

crucial

Westernization. the

and

modernization

though

represent

missionaries

resulted

the of

the it

in

10)

W.d.Noble, Joseph

{2)

Brie

J.

Ploughing

West,

the

“Industrial

Sharpe,

op.ctt.,

Rock,

p.

Western

'Westernization'

p.

30% 243

op.ctt.,

p.

technology

science

68.

Education",

that

modernization

1

11)

situation,

indisputable

India's modern

missions Evangelical

Indian

is

from of

India.

139.

and

embraces

himany

symbols

as

stand

orientation

in

new

This

corporate impression

vivid

of

rate

increased

the

of

effect

hand

go

must the

on

more

a far

and

community,

his

intensity.

in

emphasis

direcsal-

spiritual

community

any

of

steadily

the

than

thought

and

life

Indian

on

of

produced

which

life

Christian

of

aspect

that

greater

laid

work

mission

of

with

grew

advance

spiritual

its

with

hand

the

progress

economic

and

social

the

that

conviction

that

interwoven

is

individual

the

of

The

development.

tion--community vation

missionary

the

offered

India,

in

menon

a new

in

impetus

an

work

pheno-

a recurring

are

which

famines,

calamitous

of

outbreak

The

Community

a

of

Transformation

2.

places

various

in

modernization.

India's

of

dispensaries

several

the

and

Trichinopoly

puram,

Dhara-

in

hospitals

the

Karur,

at

School

Industrial

the

Thus

things ’?.

conversions ')

much

of

and

Madhari

communities. clutches

caught

in

the

filth,

in

insanitary

in

and

debt

little

knowledge

were

convinced

progress" |?

First Then

and

gained says

the

proper

same

and

found

all

were

expression

in

deterioration,

conversion,

very

had

they

clothing,

and

sanitation.

freedom.

The

missionaries

on

maintain

upon

diverted

Adi-Dravida

spiritual

live

cannot time

embarked

established

systematic

transformation

teaching

Before

the

the

moral

certain

same

pittance

spiritual

and

activities

which

help-

people.

missionaries

deeper

slavery.

Christian the

often and

of

communities

these

moral

self-respect

therefore

organized

the

at

of which

in

living,

of

"the

and

these

the

they

litated ship

that

and

elevate

to

a poverty

clean

uplift

the

converts

The of

dwellings,

idea

ancestors

his

ed

of

no

had

also

to

funds

agrestic

virtual

They as

and

attention

their

They

1913.

in

accelerated

lines

community

on

Movement

Mass

the

of

commencement

the

missionaries

the

of

activities

The after

the

religious

of

regular

Christian the

converts

community.

made

new

experience,

worship

teaching

Through

spiritual

about

which

in

which

the

villages.

greatly

Christian

discoveries

Dr.

Waskom

faciworand

Pickett

following:

"Beneficial social changes appear to have taken place most generally where Christian worship has been most firmly established... Where these converts have learned to worship God as revealed in Christ and have established habits of worship, they have acquired

13)

M.N.Srinivas,

14)

A.I.

15)

Rev.

pp.

Mayhew,

325-326. Joseph

op.ectt., "The West,

pp.

Christian

52-53. Ethic

"Industrial

and

India",

Education",

244

O'Malley,

op.cit.,

p.

op.cit., 139.

concepts

of

God

powerfully

in

the

One

of

course

of

their

and

these

rights

their

accept

what

Hinduism

there this

the was

no

brought

slowly

was

le,

Hinduism

ten

on

is

in

sccial

the

in

its

But

a

coming

of

the

resentment

the of

and

in

greatly

preaching

the

Christ

God

in whose

was

as

important

nothing

dist

sight

that

missionaries

told

the

could

in

with

sheep

out

without us

allow

not

will

hope" '®,

no

caus-

teachings

in

resulted

which

missionaries

The

subjects.

"With

potent

influence

most

an

such

indignation

their

and

converts

these

by

only

higher

born

to

holds

Hinduism.

the

be

the

them

there

of

all--

Gospel”. these

was

no

Brahmins

separate

the

on

measure,

there

as

these

of

literature

Christian

of

Gospel

were

great

increasing

and

books

us

it. peop-

is writ-

and

are

"We

claims

he

in

"It

say:

. Vexed

meetings:

all

and

depressed

die';

moved

was

missionaries

thinking

and

caste"

which

brought

acquiesced

must

peop-

indignities

had

possibly

may

that

sacred

its

Christian

the

of

The

mass

way

you

to

these

from

these

among

individual

dissatisfaction

them

with

brought came

in

you

(Hinduism)

read

to

sulléenly

their

in

told

process),

the

of

them-

willing

suffered

outcaste

Pariahs

and,

awareness

longer

the

come

the

new

that

birth

of

no

they

even

have

emancipate

outcastes)

a respectable

one

a

to

the

striving

born,

in

on

and

certain

religion or

that

that

conduct,

Hinduism

knowledge

it

future a

at

cried

revolution

no

upward

into

temples

the

a

ed

some

in

the

had

'Pariahs

scale,

bitterly

shepherd;

a

he

them.

gods

imposed

asserted

vague

Hinduism,

of

attitude and

that

seen

were

him

villages"16.

desire

They

about

their

immediately

heads:

chance

of

and

believe

a

would

your

to

they

to

was

there

Whenever

will

(though

himself

on

be

to their

in their

can

position.

said

escape;

status

and “in a fervent

themselves

Hindus

relation

standards,

changes

degraded

the

was

it

that

in

social

their

beneficial

positive

from

(which

themselves

their

of time,

selves le

of

affected

people

and them

Negapatam

that

distinction that from

were

all

children

caste

and

that

they

except

their

own

sins

there

the

District

they of

love

of

clearly

God.

The

Metho-

declared:

"But we hold to the truth that in God's sight and in God's house all men are equal and that the souls of all that gather round our communion table of the Lord are equally precious in His eyes. In this particular there is no respect of persons with God"2°, Thus

the

idea

Pickett,

Christtan

mb llas

iW)

equality

that

character

revolutionary

16)

of

Mass

implicit

it

Movements

“uindiassGearch

18)

Ibid.

19)

W.J.Noble,

Flood

20)

"Negapatam

District",

Tide

tn

in

Christianity

contradicted

tn

Indta,

District

Indta,

VOl.

777,

p.

was

Hindu

p.

such

p.

54.

a

of

'spiri+

pe

59.

128.

XEX9(1922-1923)%.

1882,

of

idea

26.

Reports,

245

the

tual

hierarchy

implicit

were

told

they

that

brothers bond

and

of

cleaves

shall

prising

the

lution, the

own

that

sought

into

the

the

spoke

be

the champions

family

and

of

sections

and

seeks

link

to

the

God,

glories

and

in

to

them,

so

attractive.

of

their

is

then

preached,

them

the

at

no

has

all

fear

sur

first of

that

missionaries and

it

colleagues

showed

counsellors

the

brotherhood

not

Indian

homes,

and

To

cause,

tt

with

Hinduism

divisions

a glorious

they

therefore

"where

the

into

when

and

together

Thus

their

wretched

God

bound

love.

men

delighted

same

Therefore,

their

words

people

of

brotherly

missionaries

kindly

to

the

in

The

children

Fatner-coa"

when

outcastes

Gospel

be

in

Christianity

Gastetoh,

all

affection

humanity

created, that

sisters

filial

in

were

pol-

they

found

seemed

companions

to

in

their

distress. Conversion The

new

new

life

and

baptism

identity in

of

many

the

were

above

convert

cases.

To

start

worship.

This

gave

them

freedom

spirits.

They

were

also

freed

Magic. and

Age-old

eating

no

means

in

ten

easy,

of

seventeen

years

discussed own

marriage

not

a long

life

of

efforts

the

services

speak

riages all

of of

only

came

to

the

would

the

in

which

to

that

had

been

by

making their

‘Family

of

effect

so

the

the

programme,

are

children

to

school',

Prayers

in

every

Ses Dp. 265.

22)

"The Non-Christian View of (December, 1890), p. 232.

23)

W.J.

"Protestant

Ploughing

Rock,

pp.

246

question On

their

give

his

daughter

eating

of

animals

change for

Madhari

in

its

dm

Methodist

1945

with

slogans,

'Christian

baby', not

Social

mar-

'Send

Christians--full

Failures",

the

agesi,

the

Some

'Do

that

are

Christians,

of

of

re-

years

in

and

With-

leaders

who

Christian

60-61.

by

road.

man

started

home',

Caste

toddy

every

revealing:

Adult

Christian

Missionary

main

Movement

was

every

'All

the

habits

and

or

Christian

a

such

white

was

community?" to

the

that

fundamental

quite

Missions,

the

our

Christian.

'Baptise

along

that

Home

and

alcohol

Ten

movement

India

evil

of

black

drinking’.

to

Christian

the

of

which

Adi-Dravida

This

village

in

abandon

habit

devil-

the

promise

subject

21)

Noble,

to

a

and

self-reforming

Movement,

to

and

idolatry

affliction

travel

elevate

have

up

beginning. name

drinking of

conclusions

a Christian,

forgotten.

to to

Mass

to

and

way

conference done

for Christians',

Christian

bers',

a

transforming be

the

be

rendered

cannot

object

which

of

The

a new a new

influence

addiction up.

of in

gave

fear

the

continued

of

foreswear

period

a people

the

Church

to

to

they

from

can

baptism

only and

they

held

"What they

as

signs

itself

with

from

given

start

villages

Christian

died,

yet

the

was:

had

the

of

such

were

and

initiative

ceived in

habits

carrion

all

showed

wail

mem-

at

Change",

HF,

Vol.

op.czt.,

XI

Christian

funerals',

a part

the

in

of

each

Christian

ly benefited which

other of

or

people.

Changes

its

by

changes

ritual’,

frequently,

which

had

been

cally

given

ment.

When

and

many

uneducated

plantations to

to

go

long-suppressed found

tations

a vent

serfs

they in

dom

in

else,

his

labours

from

the

the

their

education

ing

the

Gruaemene

to

the

own

land

cash

they

and

For

serfdom, advances

a great

own

Here to

the

and

life mi-

even Their redemp-

blessing. on

the

plan-

receive praedial

merits

paid

like

in

for

so

he

benefitted

to

save,

houses

or

invested

of

debts

as serf-

every

cash

able

were

clearing

the to

Some

social

used

was

built

the

be

from

his he

made

Adi-Dravidas

and

a

employ-

pestilences

they

of

systemati-

of

Settlement~°.

to

resources

which

children.

hereditary

by making

on

complex

changes occupations

Nilgris.

removed

Further

what

a

were

emigrants.

than

treated

his

money

the

was

away.

purchased

their

of

put

left

With

debts,

system much

they

and

in

break-

planters

of

the

estates

also

coolies

at

the

time

re-

the

of

02

Referring Movement

was

of

himself

was

and

Straits

proved

wage

who

and

from

caste

direction

avenues

emancipation

on

higher

A man

found

caste

and

the

helped

villages.

plains for

a much

the

semi-educated

which

effect

to

group,

degradation

famine

the

economic

in

eating

high

Traditional

different

Anamalais and

pigs,

liv-

of

abstinence

the

other

of

eyes

analogous

life

their

and

the

emigration

earned

change.

cleared

in

for

of

when

Ceylon

a beneficial

their

one

in

Malaya, desire

had

and

or

great-

style

sanskritization,

easte"*”.

for

of

of

read

area

the

and

habits

tribal way

in

death

least

be

Movement-“. in

keeping

somewhat of

sought

arose

grated to the

tion

and

group

the

seen

Home

changes

natural

or

persecution the

up

'At to

Movement

Christian

elements

caste,

Mass

acquire

be

as

converts

managed

Emigration

well

a

to

the

convert

giving died

clean',

literature

involved

the

responsible the

of

the

'twice-born'

held

up

of

them

village

of

often

ideology,

and

and

Christian

women

as

'low'

high,

miserable,

can

a

of

of

have

regards

"which

customs,

such

helped

M.N.Srinivas

process

The

status

that

drinks

home

influence

the

animals

These

your

a piece

Christianity

improved

intoxicating

Prof.

the

to

castes.

pork

and

family'.

from

Conversion ing

'Keep

Bible

these

to

Commission,

changes 1935,

the

of

Report

the

Trichinopoly

says:

"Most of the members of the Christian community in Movement area are living in conditions of extreme

24)

Trichtnopoly

(1945),

p.

p.

(1945),

District

Mass

cf.

6;

Women's

the Mass poverty,

Work

Report

24.

25)

M.N.Srinivas,

26)

RGS

(1916),

27)

Sir

Percival

Soectal

p.

Change

tn

Modern

India,

p.

the

Indian

6.

42.

Griffiths,

The

History 247

of

Tea

Industry,p.397

their initiative and dependence on others.

to a system which is calculated to crush keep them for ever in a state of servile

able

been

have

especially,

Pariahs,

the

of

many

which

work

The

slaves

like

soul,

and

body

almost

bound,

are

Some

well.

as

ditors

at the cre-

labouring under a heavy burden of debt; they are call of their caste masters, who are often their

are and

many beck

to obtain as coolies and overseers in the tea plantations has brought to them a new lease of liberty and prosperity. The evidence is to be seen in the better type of houses and the more respectable appearance of their villages. Some have been able to acquire land with their savings and all who have worked on the hills have gained a new spirit of independence and initiative which has enabled them to,preak away from the age-long fetters of village social custom". Thus

emigration

Labourers some

from

ideas

Evidences

on

of

villages*’. tions in the

this

change

who

could

Adi-Dravida

and

be

in

the

Annual

many

who

to

and

back

had

of

the

is

very

villages

abroad.

South

to

beneficial

Report

their

while

been

villages these

self-reliance.

to

acquired

in

those

back

the

brought

comfort

Referring

community,

self-respect

noticed

between

area.

of

generally

food,

remained

Movement

teacher

estates

difference

those

Mass

a great

cleanliness,

The

and

the

is

well-run

the

Indian

planta-

conspicuous changes

on

says:

"No one would think of disputing the fact that the community has made more progress, socially and mentally, during the last ten years than during the previous ten centuries. In some villages the

change

for

the

better

is

most

evident,

and

visitors

to

these

places often wander into the Pariah quarters in mistake for the caste village. In many places the old slave mentality has completely gone, and there is a great desire that the children shall have a chance. Time is proving that, given a chance, the boys and girls are bright and eager, and the numbers who have passed the eighth standard show that they have considerable capacity"30. A

good

number

evangelists joined

the they

wear

the

Brahmin

ties the vice

of

in

found

where

them

cooks,

so

attract

you and

Ayahs

As

mills

by able

in

many

saying: to

towns

in or

William

the

of

this

The

"When

walk

through

opportuniand

also

domestic

attendants),

Arthur

the

cases

lives.

Employment the

Others

many

their

be

employed

Rev.

in

them

will

(baby-sitters

the

in

Tike".

also

Wars,

for

time

pastors,

services.

World

military,

you

were

on.

the

first

to

teachers,

on ser-

horse-

observes

in

(1935), p. 30.

Census

of Indta,

PLess7

i932),

30)

Anim.

31)

Shine

p.

used

factories

of

and

the

uniform,

spit

in

as

gardeners

28) RIMMC

and

the

became

Government

During

for

Madras

Several

Europeans

fed

women

joined

force.

Emperor's

quarter also

keepers,

29)

King

and

entered

decently

officer

railways.

men

Some

police

increasingly

the

were

and

were

recruiting you

educated

catechists.

army

Adi-Dravidas Meant

of

and

Rep,

a

Voli

Slater,

1931,

pp.

Vol.

XIV:

Madras,

Part

I,

(Madras:

Govt.

9o=94.

XXXVIT

Southern

(1928),

Indta:

p..

39%

Its

248

Political

and

Economic

Problems,

his

book,

A Mtsston

to

the

Mysore:

“European influence has already done much for the out-castes. They have been universally employed as domestic servants, a privilege never conceded to the by their own country men; have been admitted to the army; have in many cases obtained lucrative situations. While in mission - schools not a few have received the forbidden blessing of education. In large English settlements they are now raised above oppression on the part of the castes, though, of course, still subject to exclusion... And as the character of the English becomes more known their servants will be raised in general esteem"32. All

these

upset

the of

gration

the

Secondly, these

to

of

tional

authority.

right.

It

was

of

job

The

in

antagonism way

to

in

and

them. they

"If

next

to

now

was

same

ward

and

As

case,

false

villages

first

in

no

and

the

his

and

tried

favour but

in work

to

realized

thereafter

and

your

force

the

that

to

two

but his

forward

For

in

by,

co-operated

two

income the

Rev.

Trichtinopoly Ibid.

William

years

the say-

caste

street

a Christian"?>. Christian

But

he

his

servant

him

as

servant

refused. was

no

The longer

a straightfor-

instead

in

of

sending

making

their

threats,

children

to

the

Goundans

make

a good

t

33) 34)

to

Christians

man?’ .

passed

32)

giving interest

years,

a steady house

court.

referred

came

became

village.

those

outcaste

in

former

out,

a keener

family

that

after

an

in

Goundans

his

build

longer

The

dying

outcastes.

the

them

social

impression,

castes.

slowly

resulted

But

and

master

furious,

person

honest

years

caste

witness

at

old

a

are

come

a profound

were

family

offered

can

and

freedom

gods. tradi-

of

manhood.

dominant

converts,

a man

up

village

the

a defiance

for

it.

giving

their

of

like

made

the

also

difficulty.

you you

It

Christian

of

village

mine:

another

the

that

the

rearrange

honour

the

season,

Opinion

people

village

only

kind

like,

bear

master

a certain the

these

in

transforming

In

of

In

was

to

their

converts

feeling.

persecuting

you

tc

attitude

of

every

man

ing:

these of

harvest

refusal

meant

they emi-

of

the busy

fight

Public

of

jealousy that

of

of

tolerant

were

had

chief

and

religion

Instead

they

change

a more

the

help

a

a

it was

But The

and

looked

asserting

Change

transformation

in

drums

converts.

community.

farmer

the

and

of

in

worship

idol

truth act

3.

resulting

of

the

the

plantations

beating

an

to

village

especially

problems

in

But

indeed

the

compelling

work,

serious

posed

blessing of

tea

the

a Sunday,

renunciation

their

traditional

their

a great

functioning

on

dislocation

meant

were

serfs

work

to

converts

All

changes

day-to-day

Arthur,

District

A Mission

(1943),

to

p.

249

the

4.

Mysore,

pp.

418-419.

in

many

school

In

of

some

ing

for

of

for

used

Karur

and

one

of

schools,

also

children

Adi-Dravida

boys

boys

studied

together.

with

Harijan

boys

and

the

of

the

good

in

appreciation

In

the

village

unhesitatingly acting part

Bible

in

Church

in

acting,

They

reverence, In

some

caste crowd,

In

them

three

writing

Rev.

the

R.B.

men

but

villages

they

what

Spear

writes

he

in

his

in

Thus

the

preaching

and

Madhari

towards

amicable

35)

Ann. Rep.,

36)

MSS.

Vol.

of

the

living

in

XXXVIII

'Trichinopoly',

Rangaramanujam 37)

“Summary Mtsston,

38)

Ann.Rep.,

39)

PRbvidnn

the

to

the

their

XXXVIII

own

along the

festi-

the

children

with

Madhari

service

their not

of

with

collection?’.

just

to

listen

for

the

a pastor

to

called

on

whole come

(Katha-Kala-Shebam)

°°.

Puliampatti,

terms with goes on the come to all come right and outcaste belief..."39

transformation the

barriers

of

and

the

did

Adi-

much

villages.

is

Osis

Hickman

Letter

Johnson,

of Report and General Statistics Trichtnopoly District, p. 8. Vol.

taking

front

invited

the

down

(1941-1945):

Rev.

lyrics,

and

in

a village

and

broke

(1932),

Box

Hindus

singing

sat

of

grant

report:

Gospel

communities

Gounda

a Christian

joy

1942 Hindu

1/3%

at

"The Madharis in this village are on very friendly the Goundans, who are very interested in all that little School-chapel. These Hindu caste folk will special meetings, and not stand at a distance, but into the building and occupy one half of it. Caste sttting tn the same butldtng! It is almost beyond

Dravida

caste

in

congregation

preaching

33

Once

came,

the

some a

scriptures

offering

in

observed in

the

part

themselves

lyrical

about

every

sit

the

scriptures

regularly

to

of

In

fifty

school™*:

girls

with

of

barriers

and

School

this

women

watched

other

people

a Christian

and

passages

each

and

festivals.

followed

with

of

service. While

vied

and

saying

places

and

give

street,

and

themselves

and

fringe

caste

of

from

a healthy

development

those

awarded

children

boys

and

hundred

Boarding

work

verses

Christian

hundred

a Madhari

singing

children.

the

two

at

two

the

lives

circumstances.

Government

the

Christian

repeating

services

than

schools

the

stories,

the

more

mission

joined

In

and

the

in

cloth-

Hindus.

providing

destroyed

other

caste

by

place

while

together.

for

charge

leadership

subtly

under

lived par

taking

was

no

free

supplied

character,

inmates, the

hundred

above

the

by what

was

there

been

Muslim

boys

val

the

divide

had

boarding

training

of

to

schools,

it

These

the

personality

in

for

enitdren

atmosphere

which

boarding

impressed

greatly

these

of

rural

children,

the

were

They

the

Hindu

studied

and

together

played

and

Madharis

Hindu

children,

together,

sat

all

children

Pariah

street.

Christian

the

in

caste

(1932),

ie"

prema

250

"OS.

of

the

dated for

Rev.

Karur,

1939",

Paul 16-6-1942.

Methodtst

4.

Missionary

agitation

outcaste

people

and

pen

stimulated

they

community. sionary

By

on

in

South

India

Question'. bilities by

the

the

both

attention caste

presented

the

missionaries

various of

the

after

even and

Indtan

the

insurmountable.

British

ject

in

two

of

Revenue) on

orders

Rev.

of

Orders, and the

were

one

papers

on

other

of

relating

a number

Paterson,

the

"The

of

to

As

Madras

1st the

concessions

Wrongs

of

the

for

of

Pariah",

41)

Madras

Revenue

p. 675.

Proceedings,

op.ctt.,

Zo

pp.

678-683.

ele-

even

on

of the

to

sub-

of

these

of

activipass

(G.O.No. the

68,

Pariahs.

improvement

WWMF,

Vol.

(1892), p. 72; cf. Madras Revenue Proceedings, Vol. 4218, 1010, 1010A, Revenue (30th September, 1892), p. 639.

42) Ibid.,

1843

(G.O.Nos.1010,

1893

the

number

almost

Secretary

1892

conditions

V of

and

persuaded

February,

their a

attention

answers

the

and

faced

land

a result was

commis-

a

continued

Act

the

and

with

September,

30th

the on

questions

Memorial

giving

people

attracted

1891/7,

July,

by

Abolttton these

house-sites,

furnished

Government

the

provided

George

7th

the

of

copies

and’

that

matter

the

this

still

Pariahs

Slavery

and

obtaining

Commons

dated

the

:861,

of

the

a Memorial

and

petition,

against

leading

the

population

Pariah

their of

slavery

in

obstacles

propaganda

Education),

40)

Code

in

argued

agrestic

the

calwhich

with

people

of

appoint

to

warmly

for

Goudie

In

pen

Governor

energy

Madras 1891.

the

soon

the

oppressed

Madras

of

of

in

May,

26th

condition

was

representatives

Pariah Disa-

paper

from

and and

spirit and

'The

His

articles

William

Rev.

illugoing

Conference

Goudie.

matter

Mis-

evils

'The

Missionary

The

this

been

entitled

circles,

held

also

Government

They

called

simple of

on

social

commonly

William

the

to the

a concrete

give

Madras

the

for

done

had

others.

these

was

implementation

House

Government

These

the

Penal

despatch,

and

1010A,

of

the

Parliament

the

State's ties

and

the

of

tongue

memorandums

newspaper

thanked

education’ |. Finally

mentary the

into

that

and

wrongs

paper

non-official

bodies

disabilities.

instances,

and

A Conference

urged

inquiry

of

Cobban

Government

the

to

the

rights

their

of

discussion

be

Rev.

the:

powerful

rights

missionary

Protestant

of

to

the

before

legal

redress

a vigorous

called

subject,

the

on

to

come

by

read

masters “°.

the power

presenting

animated

had

publicly

the

to

was sion

what begun

official

advocated

had

their

about

Council

in

Madras

ling

an

1891

first

Mackenzie

in

discussion and

of

the

Harijans.Here I can

year

a number

By

great.

Government

the

to

Pariah'

G.

Rev.

up

the

missionary by

followed

taken

he

of

was

a Methodist

soon

of

It

public

Reform

vindication

deputations

the

During

the

equally

moved

done

injustices

and

stration.

of

sending

Societies

for

was

the

Social

Nos.

of

I

the

Panchama

community

launching

a vigorous the

untouchability,

Srinivas

the

Presidency.

low

position social

women,

of

changes

in

child

such

as

and

poly-

marriage

Modern

Prof.

India

in

time

no

practices

Hindu

certain

of

lost

missionaries

the

elsewhere

criticism

discussing

While

gamy.

in

out

pointed

already

As

M.N.

observes:

"The British-Western attack resulted in a reinterpretation of Hinduism at both ideological and institutional levels, and the conversion of the lower castes (especially Harijans) to Islam and

Christianity was an important factor in proucing attitude among the Hindu elite towards caste and Thus

the

ies

brought

and

social

a number These

activities about

of

the

from

torates*.

In

fact

that some

back

the

into

a public

has

shaken

depth" ?°, duism to

to

the

fore,

he

of

some

a

the

had

fold that

"the

intelligent

Lala

other

Lajpat

faiths, (and)

urged

the

towards

and of

the

for

the

the

of

Hindu

blow

community

Christianity

by

to

of

to

of

Islam

losing

the

the

the

or

Christinity’> declared

untouchables to

its

from

looked

movement

condition

of

very Hin-

"as

a

strength"*’.

the

in

faith

admitting

community

forestall

had

elec-

Aryan

Untouchables

political

improving

that

leader,

Christianity,

his

declining

Navalar,

the

methods

Hindu

of

to to

of

losing Hinduism.

separate

nationalist

the

drift

of

Sabapathy

converts and

particularly

a direct

view

leaders

possibility

section

Rai

rapidly

the

religious

of

a development

pandit,

the

fear

on

initiate

Arya

the

missionar-—

Hindu

weakening

in

Tamil

the

thereby

population,

come

some

Rai,

and

Christian

of

instilled

especially

customs

the

some

conversion

total

well-known

time

Lajpat

they

of

of

in

untouchables

the

their

Aryan

nation

Harijans

the

speech

To

in

services

attitude

implications,

Lala

in

social of

effect

in

Madras

to modify

Similarly

the

Hindus

political urged

while

so-called

followed of

and

change

leaders,

proportion great

a

a changed 43 Untouchability" .

loss

There-

of

the

these

classes.

43).

M.N.Srinivas,

44)

The proportion Community Hindu Sikh

of various 1901 1 7087 75

Muslim

Quy Vere

Christian Tribal Source:- ne Ds :

op.ett.,

99 292 of Indta,

p.

50.

communities, 1911 6,939 96 Bye liere

1931,

124 328 quoted

per 10,000 no2 6,856 103 2,174

in

2,216

156 309 J.H.Beaglehole,

45)

"Notes

and

46)

Quoted Change

in in

47)

Quoted in Duncan B. Forrester, "Indian Christian Caste in the Twentieth Century", Ope. Cts peal

Extracts",

HF,

Vol.

VIII

(May pe l888)7

G.A. Oddie, "Protestant Missions, India", op.ctt., p. 284.

252

population: 1931 6,824 124

Caste

179 236 Op MeCuCer

phSi.8 and

Social

Attitudes

to

That

removal

the

of

illustrious

Harijans

is

science.

The

to

lead

of

social

ing

the

Hindu

lead

Arya

methods

of

more

of

Servants

the

of

deserve Thus

given

Samaj,

perienced

the

of

"of

the

the

desert °

of

also

of

Among

on

to

kula

in

a

Seva

in

(Home

Christian

the

missionaries,

people,

aroused

Depressed

the

Christian

they

owe.

to

their

Classes

missionaries own

by

the and have

countrymen

their

public

whom

Hindu

W.Jd. Henry

land Follow-

work,

several

service.

Punjab,

copied

and

ex-

societies, (Society

of

the

the

of

the

family

Noble,

Flood

Whitehead,

Tide Indtan

in

India,

Problems,

253

p. pp.

among

the

and

of

the

have

Hindus

wronged

26. 186= 1187.

oppressed

even

reform. movements

awakened they

work

conscience

— ee

49)

a

fact.

scale

other

con-

a mention.

that

48)

the

the

struggle

into

this

social

Sangh

Ashram

Hindu

social

large

various

Christu

the

the

to

life-long

distress

movement

for

temples

of

his

undertook

the

crusade

Hindu

missionaries

reform

Krishthu

and

their

missionaries

India,

of

testifies

organizations Hindu

vigorous

awakening

the

ise?

and

of

B.R.Ambedkar

Christian

success

a

opening

Dr.

Christian

a militant

Servants

on

the

evidence of

Christian the

for

security"

by

Christ),

downtrodden

leaders

out

economic

native

the

and

people

carried

and

substantial activities

and

The

god)

a

his

and

Society

Gandhi

Untouchability

to for

the

will the ages.

admit duties

SUMMARY

AND

CONCLUSIONS

Summary

In

strict.

Their

work

in which

work

in

India

were

many

for

it was

grew

School

was

phasis

Women's

1920s

the

in Negapatam

and

a

Mission

in

status

of

Schools the

town

High

1915,

in

Tamil

town

for

tivators

joined

chief

Nadu. a

centre,

in

rural

villages

in

the

Catholic

the

work

from

among

Trichinopoly institutions In

this

these

the

the

being

more

was

a strategic

reduced

from

the

The

first

again

A

Wes-

grade

to

the

oldest

from

High

existed

number

Roman

Schools

the

of

cul-

Catholicism,

Methodist

were

run

in

Hindu

and

Roman

present

century

came

the

to

several

a

few

Mission

but

encouraging.

centre

which

placed

great

Methodist

Girls'

High

254

a

work

of

the

still

Women's

Church

much

station. into

reduced.

of

from is

Bible

converts

not

workers

Christian

Caste

Catholic

two

leading

years

one

of

and

workshops

the

later

early

beginning

Roman

people

became

were

the

winning

At the

developed,

respect

but

in

and

em-

in Negapatam.

it was of

town

There

Mission

developed

one

schools

A number

of

communities.

dhobies

time

is

of

High

strong

Railway

Negapatam.

important

years

it

Melnattam,

hope

School

twenty

Church

India.

a High an

Today

number

in

the

When the

a

the

Indian

Church

Mannargudi

Girls'

long

the

in

after

School.

Churches

Pariah

became

School

but

a High

and

Church

Mannargudi

good

fairly

Methodist

1884.

was

in

work

South

conMowat's

in

1898,

there

beginning

Bible

the

in in

Mannargudi

and

1840

College

to

the

From

a College

then

and

mid

Schools

strong

From

School

transferred

there.

Until

attended

fairly

their

was

the

Girls'

housed

leyan

a High

retained

on

Railway

in

be

centres.

other

a

to

work

small

few

started

was

which

school,

a

were

there

and

centres

and

occupied

Evangelistic

centre.

important

be

to

District

the

in

town most

various

Department

College

were

the

Anglo-Vernacular

The

gregations.

time,

first

years from

on

carried

was

employed. the

was

Negapatam

the

missionary

of

processes

and

agencies

the

all

almost

im-

of

growth

of

pattern

general

the

was

This

conditions.

proverished

Brahmiof

place

wind-swept

arid,

an

to

wealth

and

caste

Hinduism,

nical

strong

in

entrenched

to Da=

separate

a

made

and

Madras area

an

from

stretched

work

from

detatched

was

it

1885

decade.

rivers

decade

from

expanding

Hills,

Anamalai

tothe

Amaravati

and

Kaveri

east

the

of

course

the

following

miles,

240

of

distance

a

for

west

to

many

from

spread

work

The

population.

of

missionafor

on

carried

was

work

thereafter

and

centres

well-chosen

in

years

in

back

Far

India.

Negapatam

in

arrived

ry

in

Districts

dist

Metho-

oldest

the

resident

first

the

1820

of

one

was

District

Trichinopoly

and

Negapatam

The

in

1847.

Here

emphasis School

and

on

in

the

women's

the

city work.

Mission

Hospital were

in Woriur

carried

nopoly,

the

number dist

on

of

Roman

and

started miles

Catholic

centres remain

the

Church

a very

important

during

the

orphanage

the

The in

concentrated

their

in

taluq.

Karur

Dharapuram Indian

these

of

aiming three

palayam

to

a number

of

baptisms

Koravas.

Then

and

and

for

the

Village as

The

this

in

great

The

to

divided

Training

be

a large

Central

girls.

Centre

of

work

The

are

to

grew into

help

in

so

Sangu

Pariahs

east

Udu-

that

Circuits.

two

the

and

and

enormously

Mission

to

and

tribe,

subcastes

new

two

American

the

and

in

Nanjiyam-

criminal

the

five

Church,

again

Palani),

other

Karur

Dharapuram

a great

the

and

among

spread

west.

for

here and

scattered

movement

which

in

Anglo-

High

the Now

Schools--

Hospital

Christians

and and

well. Hills,

from

greater

to

equipped in

the

the

in

and

coffee

population plains.

of

planting

about

Today,

the

area

11,000, Church

further

many in

the

of

west,

them

Anamalais

state.

character

purpose

a tea

Christian

paying

attached

pastors,

a very

an

strategic

congregations

Manoor

were

closure.

But

were

Christians

the

migrated

While

population.

had

are

their

at

There

though

children

caste

villages--Kolinjivadi

1913,

Pallars

Hobday,

in

one

also

in-

others

through,

George

Circuit

a prosperous

genous

the

the

among fell

or-

associated

and

placed

talugs

Anamalai

having

the

and

south--Keeranur,

in

Wray

Rev.

adjoining

and

a floating

ship,

to

there

boys

others

talug

Pollachi

Dharapuram

in

started

Dharapuram

always

were

from

the

the

the

class

in

resultant

teachers

becoming

were

one

also

were the

through is

lines

compelled

abandoned.

Pariah

thirty-four setbacks

Richard

ultimately

by

Alli-

a movement

the

and

Little

Woodward,

1882

middle

Samban

relatives

Dharapuram

is

the

Henry

areas

and

to

malpet

has

in

slowly

large

communities

in

win

were

Mission

the

old

occupied

area

there the

other

Evangelists

(whose

Madura

of

was

stations

the

in

A

Metho-

though

1921

especially

Pariahs

the

promise.

community

the

Trichi-

Allithorei.

joined

In

1876-1877

movement

for

Pallars,

minister.

points,

the

and

several

of

Operations

around

a taluk

of

full

Rev.

along

efforts

spite

of

Revs.

Karur,

requirements

until

run

the

for

of

and

abandoned,

Church.

centre,

famine

name

But

in

today

became

with

schools

is

started

community.

gradually the

Perambalur,

and

there

in

Ambalakkarans

were

of

Evangelistic

started

Porathakudi

and

with

Adi-Dravidas

Trichinopoly,

dustrial

the

Pallars

still

of

mention. were

being

these

the

Karur

centres

But

among

phanage

special schools

Koppu

north

beginning

caste

noteworthy

Church.

thorei

deserve

and

and

attention capable

development

evangelism

mind,

evangelists,

and

education teachers

to

of

the

raising

propagating

of,

Native

Ministry

in matters was

and

of

designed circuit

255

up

of

a Church

itself, and

lay

agents

the for

training the

was

leader-

administration.

for

indi-

importance

With of

growing

native work

in

the

organized.

The

drawn

also

were

into

ly became

shape

taking

slowly

also

pro-

were

Church.

the

of

officers

was

self-support

responsibility

and

power

time

Indian

the

to

devolved

gressively

in

gradual-

leadership

and

self-government

of

idea and

elders

village

and

men

lay

and

Church

the

of

work

young

promising

and

talented

The

District.

the

Conclusions

of

through

the

gers

of

received

their

and

Emancipation

of

by

the

theistic ness,

and

several

and

girls.

they

were great

we

not

fluential

of

castes,

villages,

But

experience

of was

and

torch

of

in

many.

the

dan-

the

The

shape

of

medical

missions.

superstition,

ignorance

another

form

educa-

the

fought

minds

chiefly

of

noteworthy

religion,

with

success

its

a personal

God

whose

essential

influenced

and

even

challenged

did

except

a few

not

mencement

of

show

the as

mono-

is

holi-

the

well,

lives

Whitehead,

terms

pushed

for

of

both

English

of

teachings

might

spread

downwards

from

the

Movement

places

Church

the in in

steadily

fold

opposite

conversions, in

the

the

like

and

top of the

Christianity

this

256

and

made

p.

part up,

188.

of not

the in

the

in-

cities

bottom

of Church.

filtration

Mannargudi,

little

headway.

after area,

country, the

and

Christian

downward

Karur-Dharapuram

built

Problems,

the

especially

for

higher from

the

Negapatam

District, the

out to

boys

education

education

into

done Schools

conversions,

the

through

people

Indian

schools

in

was

High

instrument

about |. In

was

Hindus three

effective

that

developments

only

it

the

an

exactly

Christian

among

College,

middle

missionaries

more

Mass

and

The

permeating

the

schools

results

Christian

come

work

the

considered

believed

individual

subsequent

parts

town

of

proved

District,

institutions--one

they

bringing

theory

the

great.

for

They

society,

Henry

of

think

very

zeal,

the

that

part

elementary

conversion.

1)

concept

works

industrial

a higher

educational

If

with

other

darkened

clutches

took

manfully

about

brought

Western

and

missionaries

the

practices

powerfully

eastern

through

the

As

which

Hindus.

the

mostly

The

and

the

and

Methodists.

Christianity

In

from

customs

ideas

of many

to

women

and

factors

District,

the

philanthropic homes

many

The

illuminated

boarding

meaningless

of

of

Christianity

of

English.

corner

and

orphanages

made

of

illiteracy

District

and

medium

every

to

learning

introduction

the

is

changes

these tion

the

of

One

influence.

their

under

came

destiny

who

people

the

the

in

changes

revolutionary

eventually

it

for

significance,

historical

great

of

event

several

to

led

an

is

strict

Di-

Trichinopoly

and

Negapatam

the

to

Methodists

the

of

coming

The

great

the

com-

clearly as

in

many

cities

and

large

towns,

down-trodden a

rural

church, in

formed When exerted

an

much

at

ideals

of

truth

and

so

doing

they

the

The

such

as

ral

teachings

of.

The

social

reform

movements

small

to

but

reacted,

and

regeneration

Hindu

community

sions.

Then

tion

is

education enabled extend

and

the

of

and

are

that

and

is

that the

to

the

the

to in

Indian

provided,

the

various

of

the

on

popular

orthodoxy

of

alone

the

Hinduism places

the

Christian

India's

Indian

Mis-

moderniza-

history.

world,

contri-

activities.

revival fact

Hindu

the

quarter

attacks

Missions

advancing

and

Hindu

nation-

towards

missionary

missionary

This

a

the

duties

last

the

about

in

Hinduism

the

modern

in

value.

I do

work

among

to

temporal

evident

His

sight

By

saying

not

mean

so

that

This

is

of

and

to

Through

youths

helping

the

were

them

it

course

it

and

is

not

to

a matter

each of

one the

257

a matter

of

can

be

the

the

to

that

growth,

value

it,

God that

be

fun-

The

it

each

was one

to

worth

of

making

it

and

but

who

helped

belief

and

and

readily area.

the

should

of

Madharis

Adi-Dravidas

individuals,

understanding just

and

permanent

knows

them

as

realization

merely

who done

gave

that

are

spiritual

has

them

for

Adi-Dravidas

which

anyone

Christianity

cares

the

changes

conviction

Christ

actual,

experience.

the

led

are

clearly

good

value

really that

Jesus

individual,

real

with

missionary

has

Madharis

real

realize

an

the

Benefits

in

of

note

led

reform

gratitude

Christian fact

take

practices

missionary

of

to

agitation

customs,

debt

scriptu-

and

another

society.

as

ideolo-

the

point

the

such

progressive in

of

on

of

of

brought

missionaries

abreast

it

important

revealed

the

and

implicit

Hindus,

life

teachings

to its

since

the

Christian

horizons.

regards

assessed

the and

Hindu

a great of

the

keep

Kongunad,

most

role

to

turn

the

noteworthy

which to

damental.

is

the

their

As of

under

another

in

of

up

result

beliefs

which

remain

attacks

is

terms

always

important

revival

in

will

are

unjust

with

to

it

have

the

man,

society

sprung

passive

of

conscience

The

direct

of

perspective,

spread

socio-religious

Indian

the

remain

and

public

have

superstitious

sharply the

of

poor

was

to

Christian

another

a

importance.

which

are

willing

Hinduism,

the

section

of

about

worship,

reckoned

who

missionary

anomalies

of

be

which

is

continuous

bringing

neglected

Not

and

the

nucleus

institutions

contribution

with

freedom,

arousing

century

society

Christianity,

of

another

helped

many

brotherhood

bution

19th

of

can

a real

and

of

no

amongst

made

from

have

and

certain

The

than

institutions have

among

the

form

aducational

God

awakening,

world. the

of

mission

service

and

. work

greater

mainly

a Western

equality

vigorous

against

wide

the

permeation

fatherhood

gies

by

and

baptized

Kongunad.

far

These

and

villages were

missionary

that

influence

remote numbers

affected

of

the

clear

conversions.

country.

the

villages

look

very

in

in

Large

not

the

we

becomes of

but

people.

is

but

of

a growth

in

other

that

of

first.

the

in

but

life,

In

made

definitely

has

change

idols its

manifested

in

and

Even

if it

ed,

there

and

practices

no

rise

them

to

tages

Christianity

that in

also

and

rative

began

to

on

lesson.

Thus have

hibited

in

All

who

were

for

many

years

enslaved

the

lethargy

that

comes

from

of

their

conversion

in

their

lives,

castes

other

dominant they of

were

the

bore

even

a close

Those

willing

the

of

Personal

The

to

that

relationship

who

caste

entered

letter

Flintshire,

a new

of

ibeas

a)

PHCKStOpmeites

ignorance,

accept

them

esteem

of

as

should

endogamy,

marry

which

is

transformation of

the the

amongst

origin,

the

of

eyes

the

caste. of

and

because

now,

The

Christians one

a people

customs,

tolerance

of

in-

was

treatment

Harijan

a kind

that

themselves a bene-

of

But

in

harsh

a growing

was

of

signs

degrading

and

especially

of

pattern

consequent

and

hostility

Christians to

the

and

They

whether

that

work

oppression.

of

remune-

more

learning

concepts

healthy

were

education

ecunace

freedom,

undertake

status

There

seek

new

advan-

in

and insistence

only

also

distinguish-

system.

the

Wales,

3)

old

Christians,

towards

by

to

occupational

centuries

disappeared.

castes

and

Christianity

gained

them.

missionaries

ing marks

2)

above

Hindus

caste

to

they

to

these

life-style

the

them

the

of

occupations,

all

of

concern-

self-respect

new

of

in

with

sense

outward

slowly

were

their

is

a new

first

mills

acquired

them

for

concepts"*,

old

have

caste

more

con-

oppressed.

traditional

basis

they

them

This

the

given

the

the

was and

Christians

it possible

made

by

self-help

has in

also

of

them;

to

it

which and

their

use

make

the

religion

gained

vary-

in

destroying

their

the

of

psychological

and

kept

worth.

abandon

to

political,

or

"many

change

ficial

that

realize econimic

individual

offered

has

hills

the

social,

which

and

initiative

the

work,

menial,

as have

of

case

former

which

far

as

in

their

converts

increasingly

to

of

beliefs

change the

their

of

considered

be

and

or

that

denied

be

the

aggressively

renunciation

of

In

awareness

new

this

area

sometimes

active

awareness

enabled

has

was

cannot

dignity

itself

their

system

entire

assertiveness.

there

that

minds

itself

expresses

awareness

This

and

Movement

Mass

the

from

verts

resentment

of

degrees

ing

themselves.

Classes

Depressed

awareness

a growing

is

still

and

was

and

doubt the

in

injustice

of

no

is

There

before.

had

never

they

that

self-reliance

resulted

has

which

Madharis

the

and

Adi-Dravidas

self-respect

of

a feeling

in

believe,

I

realization,

the

in

change

individual

in

a growth

new

This

communmileye

the

a psychological

than

generations

third

and

just

not

is

it

words,

second

the

in

evident

more

perhaps

is

that

Church

Bishop 7th

through

E.B.

December,

Thorp 1973

pila oe

255

the

to

phenomenon

Miss

of

M.R.Anstey,

mass

move-

dated

ment

had

almost

lihood,

or

provided

them

they

might

more

or

or

as

less

expansion

of

the

the

development

missionaries

best

and

most

the

Indian

Church.

Trichinopoly pel,

as

cial

Synod

His

of

of

the

the

efficient

barriers. of

Chairman

jan

he

Christians

served

them,

volvement area.

in

Though

origin.

the

American

spired

and

leader

in

honorary

the

of

the

the he

them,

mass

In

himself

that

his

He

people

a broader duties

in

the

num-

Church,

the

to

across

after

encouraged

and

tone

not

he

rose

was up

along

1896,

when

Harward

degree

ever

conferred

and

his

the

what

in the

University upon

a

two

and

conferred said

to

stout mettle. disciple

of

the

This

he

in

inthat

Rangaramanu-

converts

of

This

great

him

Hari-

meant to

constantly

the

Hari-

deep

leadership

upon

Gos-

Provin-

decades

Paul

freedom.

the

the

a humble

T.Washington

midst to

a Negro,

259

Rev.

the of

national

them.

Christian

from

his

service

strong

of

of the

as

even

nearly

Booker

their road

and

the

the

of

proved

inspired

a Harijan, with

example

becoming to

some

of

spokesmen

a preacher

India,

For

justifies

the

President

provincial

birth,

himself

produce

Rangaramanujam

area.

was

on

contribution

best

as

the

Movement

respect

Negroes. led

South

in

Paul

the to

the

Church

movement

identified

was

whole-heartedly

Mass

set

authoritative

became

capacities as

by

himself

able

really

District,

cut

a Brahmin

helped

jam willingly jan

various

Methodist

gave

an

with

attached

also

were

who

Rangaramanujam

down-trodden,

Though

Christ,

under-

isolated

an

Church

a more

assume

They

leaders

leadership

of

to

his

patriarchal

of

structure

institutions

small.

of

small

of

desirable

increase

not

In

quite

a very

disciplinary

leadership

Paul

member

and

native

District.

the

champion

was

is

increased

missionary

the

of

outstanding

the

mis-

case.

the

been

the

numerical

as

a result

rapid

extremely

administrative

should

they

that

the

the

each

settlement

administrative

distress

with

movement,

influential

and

various

the

of

and

previously

had

an

missionaries

unavoidable

it was

and

The

of

for

occasioned

work.

which

between

for

with

live-

reared

became

circumstances,

expanded

an

But

mass

contact

mission

with were

times

things

the

contact

or

in

impossible

missionary

ever-increasing the

converts

of

the

to

the

close

compound

organization

to

the

of

place

fell

In

nature

in

of

and

possible,

after

intimate

which,

loss

gave

With

than

thing

help

relationship

humanly

and

this

mission

base.

was

personal

a

which ber

it

of

of

missionaries

children

such

longer

means

The

generosity.

father-child

especially

sort

Mission,

no

assured

Their

congregation

Church,

the

elaborate

old

some

with

the

the

now

life

the

the

became

But

of

of

dispensed

convert

a very

in

expense

was

with

no

Christians.

subsistence.

the

congregation,

change

of

either

becoming

possible

Therefore,

standable.

on

Christian

Also,

and

maintain

as

the

the

times.

world

far

possessed it

a means

at

of

strength

lost

charity

difficult.

many

had

gain

sickness

Sionary

invariably

they

the

inNegro first

students:

"By the way of the shop, the field, the skilled hand, habits of thrift and economy, by the way of industrial school and college, we are coming up, we are crawling up, working up-— unjust discrimiyea, bursting up, often through oppression, nation,

and is

Booker

the

Rev.

of

proper

power

no

As

Paul

S.

shared nal

the

have

1938

ween

can

Booker

Thus

the

religious

has

purpose

in

given

own

into

conversion

of

leaders

another the

of

of

world

a

of

their

who

most

had

active

Church

and

act

of

Biblical

for on

grounds,

drawn

have

in

their

of

pride

them

Internatio-

College, this

converts

people.

the

brought

of

the

Tambaram,

comparison

dignity,

them

been

useful

a

bet-

was

of

from

an

escape

from

miseries

of

worthless

members

society.

of

secular

missionaries

teachers,

walks

which

and

greatly

considered

as

Chri-

meaning

not

the

socio-

and

and

hope

and

training

various

about

converts

position

gave

their

the

racial

both

in

Negroes,

Rangaramanujam.

economic

and

of

Christian

landlords

the

lot

security,

once

and

could based

address

lives

Christianity

outcastes

great

S.

American

he

I have

the

oppressive

People

the

in

sense

where

revolutionary

Paul

the

were

the

Madras

why

missionaries

a

and

the

that

religious

the

and

the

their

the

at

reform

them

Even

lives.

converted

and

of

education

dominance

their

held

understand

economic

all

of

up,

there

progress"

our

stay

cause

improving

coming

are

we

prosperity,

the

actions

on

of

all

and

Rangaramanujam's

Washington

life.

improved,

well

labours

and

stianity

the

T.

based

objective

Council

very

did

Washington's

Paul

them

permanently

championed

were

read

Missionary

in

can

Rangaramanujam

Although

common

who

through

intelligence,

that

earth

on

Rangaramanujam's

Those

but

habits,

T.Washington

Kongunad.

and

prejudice;

and

with

of

were The

preachers

life

is

demonstrates

to

truth:

"But God hath chosen the foolish things of the world to confound the wise; and God hath chosen the weak things of the world to confound the things which are mighty; and base things of the world,

and

things

which

and things which are that no flesh should

What their

would

work

have

happened.

have

become

to

take

have

among In

suitable

only

religion

had

on

that

5)

Quoted

for

the

of

F.E.

despised,

to

them

Nothing last to

it?

people

taught

question.

in

happened

them?

accessible

advantage

are

hath

God

chosen,

not, to bring to nought things glory in his presence"®.

them,

Another

James,

of

decade them,

higher

and

it

Bo,

the

two

not

be

had

described

Government

are:

not

so

education

have

had

have

felt

that

was

what

their

That

Christianity made

Mib.G.,.

clear

that is

'Outcaste

shed

that

initiative it

new

there

Progress

would might

they

the

started

far

rather

castes?

was to

Methodists

I have

would

they

point

O.B

or

but

Would of

if

what

yea,

that

in

was

old light is

South

India", Astan Review (formerly the ‘Asiatic Quarterly Review'), Vol. XXVI , Nos. 85-88 (January-October, 1930), Dp. 724,

6)

The

Holy

Btble:

I Corinthians,

Chapter

260

I:

27-29.

something

more

in

Christian

something

that

can

be best

they

would

became

stian

is

Madhari

in

In

and of

Trichinopoly only

Missionary area,

is

whelmed tude the

work a

the

towards massive

sight

tion

and

ries

from

not

of

for

their

social

history

and

welfare

of

an

would

underestimation

be

a

261

Schools

all

the

and

the

tend

not

in

the

adverse

their Mass a

Indian field were

Movement

loss.

Over-

atti-

or

belittle for But

religion,

Christian

a suppression

con-

failure.

society. of

the

Negapatam

missionaries

the

lasting

in

to obscure

the they

possible

unsympathetic

in be

the find

and

to

of

their

India.

this

Mission

to

Christian

because

of

by

might

only

what

the

able

in

boon

or

the

Chri-

and

with

not

particularly cancer,

by

seen

friendly

definitely

one

it

in

Adi-Dravida

accomplished

conditions

service

merely

land,

in

that

still

have

regeneration

stalwart

reform,

a foreign

made

the

when

"plus'

clearly of

Whether

Mannargudi. say

patriotism

Missions

the

me

might they

this

education

and

and

a

most

generally--

training. education

missed

women

their

District,

feelings

and

under

success

and

Christian

of

be

and

let

one

what

contributions

development lose

the

chrysalis

by

had

that

their in

can

men

arguments,

District

to

education

Government

have

Trichinopoly

missionaries,

than,in

of

would

it

the

have

shortcomings

the

tributes

of

who my

they

I think

case

Karur, up

themselves

not,

And

community summing

flaws and

or

the

Dharapuram,

work

availed

education.

"plus' in

have

available

education

describedas character

of

the to

educa-

missionaa

contribution

fact to

of the

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ooo------

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ie

a

oe ern

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HF,

----