The Pottery Figurines of Pre-Columbian Peru: Volume I: The figurines of the North Coast 9781407304212, 9781407334561

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF PLATES
LIST OF MAPS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH
CHAPTER 2: THE GEOGRAPHIC AND CHRONOLOGICAL FRAME
CHAPTER 3: THE LOWER FORMATIVE (OR INITIAL PERIOD) ON THE NORTH COAST
CHAPTER 4: THE MIDDLE FORMATIVE (OR EARLY HORIZON) ON THE NORTH COAST
CHAPTER 5: THE EPIFORMATIVE (I.E. LATE FORMATIVE AND EARLY EIP) ON THE NORTH COAST
CHAPTER 6: THE EARLY INTERMEDIATE PERIOD ON THE NORTH COAST: THE MOCHE CULTURE
CHAPTER 7: THE MIDDLE HORIZON AND THE TRANSITION TO THE LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD ON THE NORTH COAST
CHAPTER 8: THE LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD ON THE NORTH COAST PART I: THE SICAN OR LAMBAYEQUE CULTURE
CHAPTER 9: THE LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD AND THE LATE HORIZON ON THE NORTH COAST PART II: THE CHIMU CULTURE
CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSIONS
APPENDIX 1: NOTES ON MUSEUM AND PRIVATE COLLECTIONS
APPENDIX 2: NOTES ON SOME NORTH COAST SITES
APPENDIX 3: GRAVELOTS
APPENDIX 4: THE TESTIMONY OF THE CHRONICLERS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
EXPLANATIONS TO THE TABLES
TABLES
PLATES
CHARTS
MAPS

Citation preview

BAR S1941 2009

The Pottery Figurines of Pre-Columbian Peru

MORGAN

Volume I

The figurines of the North Coast

THE POTTERY FIGURINES OF PRE-COLUMBIAN PERU. VOLUME I

Alexandra Morgan

BAR International Series 1941 2009 B A R Morgan 1941 cover.indd 1

16/04/2009 14:39:22

The Pottery Figurines of Pre-Columbian Peru Volume I

The figurines of the North Coast

Alexandra Morgan

BAR International Series 1941 2009

ISBN 9781407304212 paperback ISBN 9781407334561 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407304212 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... 2 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................................... 7 LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................................................................... 9 LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ 9 LIST OF PLATES ...................................................................................................................... 10 LIST OF MAPS.......................................................................................................................... 12 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………………………...13

CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH…………………………………………... 15 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 15 1.1 Previous Research ........................................................................................................ 17 1.2 Methodology ................................................................................................................. 17 1.2.1 Data Acquisition ................................................................................................................... 17 1.2.2 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................ 18 1.2.3 Data Interpretation ................................................................................................................ 22

CHAPTER 2: THE GEOGRAPHIC AND CHRONOLOGICAL FRAME ....................................... 23 2.1 The Geographic Frame ................................................................................................ 23 2.2 The Chronological Frame............................................................................................ 24 CHAPTER 3: THE LOWER FORMATIVE (OR INITIAL) PERIOD ON THE NORTH COAST ....... 27 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 27 NC Formative Group 1: The Figurines of the Lower Formative or Initial Period…...27 CHAPTER 4: THE MIDDLE FORMATIVE (OR EARLY HORIZON) ON THE NORTH COAST ... 33 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..33 NC Formative Group 2: Figurines of the Middle Formative: The Tembladera Figurines……………………………………………………………………………..33 NC Formative Sub-Group 2.1: Classic Tembladera Figurines…………………..33 NC Formative Sub-Group 2.2: Sub- or Post-Classic Tembladera Figurines…...39 THE FIGURINES OF THE FORMATIVE: SYNOPSIS……………………………………………………..40

CHAPTER 5: THE EPIFORMATIVE (I.E. THE LATE FORMATIVE AND EARLY EIP) ON THE NORTH COAST ... 43 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..43 NC Epiformative Group 1: The Puerto Moorín/Salinar Figurines ...……………. .. ...43 NC Epiformative Sub-Group 1.1: "Utilitarian" Puerto Moorín (Salinar) Figurines…………………………………………………………………………….44 NC Epiformative Sub-Group 1.2: "Elite" Salinar Figurines……………………45 NC Epiformative Group 2: The Gallinazo/Virú Figurines…………………………….47 NC Epiformative Sub-Group 2.1: "Utilitarian" Gallinazo/Virú Figurines……48 NC Epiformative Sub-Group 2.2: More Elaborate Gallinazo/Virú Figurines…49 NC Epiformative Sub-Group 2.3: "Elite" Gallinazo/Virú Figurines…………...50 NC Epiformative Group 3: The Vicús Figurines……………………………………… 54 NC Epiformative Sub-Group 3.1: Vicús Figurines with Coffee- . Bean Eyes……56 Sub-Group 3.1.1: Figurines with coffee-bean eyes, no arms…………….56 Sub-Group 3.1.2: Figurines with coffee-bean eyes, appliquéd arms……56 2

NC Epiformative Sub-Group 3.2: Figurines with Almond-Shaped Eyes and Bilobed Head………………………………………………………………………61 Sub-group 3.2.1: Figurines with almond-shaped eyes, bilobed head and separate legs………………………………………………………………...61 Sub-group 3.2.2: Figurines with almond-shaped eyes, bilobed head and joined or absent legs………………………………………………………..61 Two Non-Vicús Figurines from the Extreme North of the North Coast………………64 THE EPIFORMATIVE FIGURINES: SYNOPSIS………………………………………………………… 64

CHAPTER 6: THE EARLY INTERMEDIATE PERIOD ON THE NORTH COAST: THE MOCHE FIGURINES…………………………………………………………………….67 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….67 The Moche Culture and its Chronology…………………………………………….67 Moche Iconography…………………………………………………………………69 The Moche Figurines and their Classification……………………………………..70 Moche Figurine Chronology………………………………………………………..71 Moche Group 1: Standard Moche Figurines………………………………………......71 Moche Sub-Group 1.1: Standard Figurines with high rounded head………...…72 Moche Sub-Group 1.1.1: Standard Figurines with a rounded head and tri-punctate eyes………………………………………………72 Moche Sub-Group 1.1.2: Standard Figurines with a rounded head and normal eyes……………………………………………………74 Moche Sub-Group 1.2: Standard Figurines with a rounded head and hair or a headdress framing the face…………………………………………...75 Body Fragments of Standard Moche Figurines probably belonging to sub-groups 1.1. and 1.2…………………………………………………….76 Moche Sub-Group 1.3: Standard Figurines with a molded round cap (leaving the ears uncovered) ……………………………………………....77 Moche Sub-Group 1.4: Standard Figurines with a veil (or long hair) and/or side locks…………………………………………………………....78 Moche Sub-Group 1.5: Standard Figurines with a rounded, rectangular or trapezoidal headdress…………………………………………………...78 Moche Sub-Group 1..5.1: Figurines with a rounded or rectangular headdress…………………………………………………………………....78 Moche Sub-group 1.5.2: Figurines with a trapezoidal headdress……….79 Moche Group 2: Women with Tresses………………………………………………....92 Moche Sub-Group 2.1: Women with tresses and a rounded head………………92 Moche Sub-Group 2.2: Women with tresses and a two-peaked headdress……..94 Moche Group 3: Woman with a Child………………………………………………..100 Moche Group 4: Figurines with Supernatural and/or Ritual Connotations……….105 Moche Sub-Group 4.1: The Priestess of the Presentation Theme and related figurines…………………………………………………………...105 Moche Sub-Group 4.2: Shamans and related figurines…………………………109 Moche Sub-Group 4.3: Figurines with a bilobed head………………………….112 Moche Group 5: Miscellaneous Figurines………………………………………..,,,...115 Moche Sub-Group 5.1: Warriors, High Status Personages…………………….115 Moche Sub-Group 5.2: Miscellaneous miniature figurines……………………..118 Moche Sub-group 5.3: Pendants………………………………………………….118 Associated to Moche Group 5: Anthropomorphic rattles……………………….120 Moche Group 6: Figurines Placed on Litters or Platforms………………………...121 Moche Sub-Group 6.1: Figurines on litters……………………………………...121 Moche Sub-Group 6.2: Figurines on platforms………………………………….122

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Moche Group 7: Miscellaneous Moche-related Figurines and Molds……………...123 1) Two Moche-Vicús hybrids?..........................................................................123 2) Unusual Moche figurines and molds from excavations………………………124 3) Unusual Moche figurines and molds without provenance…………………...125 Moche Figurines which have not been incorporated in this study………………….127 THE MOCHE FIGURINES: SYNOPSIS……………………………………………………………....131

CHAPTER 7: THE MIDDLE HORIZON AND THE TRANSITION TO THE LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD ON THE NORTH COAST…………………………………………. …139 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….139 THE FIGURINES OF THE MIDDLE HORIZON ..................................................................140 NC Middle Horizon Group 1: Wari Norteño B Figurines…………………………..140 NC Middle Horizon Group 2: Moche-Related Figurines……………………………143 NC Middle Horizon Group 3: "Taitacantín"-Style Figurines………………………147 NC Middle Horizon Group 4: Hybrid Figurines Related to MH Groups 2 and 3…149 NC Middle Horizon Group 5: Figurines with a Large Bilobed Headdress………...151 THE FIGURINES OF THE TRANSITIONAL MIDDLE HORIZON-LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD……………………………………………………………………………...152 NC Transitional MH-LIP Group 1…………………………………………………...153 NC MH-LIP Sub-Group 1.1………………………………………………………153 NC MH-LIP Sub-Group 1.2………………………………………………………156 NC Transitional MH-LIP Group 2…………………………………………………...157 NC Transitional MH-LIP Group 3: Pendants……………………………………….158 NC MH-LIP Sub-Group 3.1: Pendants with a small head…………………….158 NC MH-LIP Sub-Group 3.2: Pendants with a large head ……………………..159 NC Transitional MH-LIP Group 4…………………………………………………...160 THE NC MIDDLE HORIZON AND TRANSITIONAL MH-LIP FIGURINES: SYNOPSIS………………...163 CHAPTER 8: THE LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD ON THE NORTH COAST - PART I : THE SICAN CULTURE………….169 Introduction: Sican versus Chimu……………………………………………………169 The Sican or Lambayeque Culture…………………………………………………...171 THE FIGURINES OF THE SICAN CULTURE………………………………………………172 Sican Group 1: The "Sican Lord" and Related Figurines…………………………..173 Sican Group 2: "Plumed and Armoured Personage"……………………………….176 Sican Group 3: Figurines with a Rounded Head…………………………………….177 Sican Group 4: Miscellaneous Figurines …………………………………………….179 Sican Sub-group 4.1: Pendants…………………………………………………..,179 Sican Sub-group 4.2: Ceremonial Ceramic Heads………………………………180 A Sican "Special"………………………………………………………………….181 THE SICAN FIGURINES :SYNOPSIS………………………………………………………….……..182

CHAPTER 9: THE LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD AND THE LATE HORIZON ON THE NORTH COAST - PART II : THE CHIMU CULTURE….....185 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………….185 THE FIGURINES OF THE CHIMU CULTURE……………………………………………..185 The Classification of the Chimu Figurines……………………………………….185 The Dating of the Chimu Figurines………………………………………………187 Chimu Group 1: Figurines with a Semi-Circular to Rounded Headdress (Type 1).189 Chimu Sub-Group 1.1: Figurines with a semi-circular to rounded, divided headdress (h'dress Type 1B) and joined, vestigial or absent legs……...189 Chimu Sub-Group 1.1.1: As above (Sub-Group 1.1), Sican-related….189 Chimu Sub-Group 1.1.2: As above (Sub-Group 1.1), with a "Typical 4

Chimu Face" or similar………………………………………….192 Chimu Sub-Group 1.2: Figurines with a rounded undivided headdress (headdress Type 1A) and joined, vestigial or absent legs……………….195 Chimu Sub-Group 1.3: Miscellaneous figurines with a rounded head or headdress and separate legs……………………………………………...198 Chimu Group 2: Figurines Wearing a Headdress with Two Lateral Projections (Headdress Type 2)…… …………………………………………………199 Chimu Sub-Group 2.1: Figurines with a Type 2A headdress and separate legs…………………………………………………………………………200 Chimu Sub-Group 2.2: Figurines with a Type 2B headdress and joined, vestigial or absent legs……………………………………………………202 Chimu Group 3: Figurines with a Two-Peaked to Rectangular Headdress (Headdress Type 3)… ……………………………………………………204 Chimu Sub-Group 3.1: Figurines with a Type 3 headdress and separate or conjoined Legs ……………………………………………………………204 Chimu Sub-Group 3.2: Figurines with a Type 3 headdress and joined, vestigial or absent Legs…………………………………………………..205 Chimu Group 4: Figurines with Incised Hair (no Headdress)……………………...207 Chimu Sub-Group 4.1: Figurines with incised hair, large head and shorter body……………………………………………………………….207 Chimu Sub-Group 4.2: Figurines with incised hair, smaller head and elongated body…………………………………………………………….208 Chimu Group 5: Figurines with a Narrow or Elongated Head (Pointed or ` Rounded)…………………………………………………………………..210 Chimu Group 6: Miscellaneous Figurines with a Bilobed Head or Headdress……214 Chimu Sub-Group 6.1: Figurines with a bilobed head and separate legs (probably from the Main Chimu Area)…………………………………214 Chimu Sub-Group 6.2: Figurines with a bilobed headdress and separate legs from the Northern Chimu Area…………………………………….215 Chimu Sub-Group 6.3: Late Northern Chimu figurines with a bilobed headdress and absent legs………………………………………………..216 Chimu Group 7: Miscellaneous Chimu Figurines…………………………………...216 Chimu Sub-Group 7.1: Figurines excavated from Chimu and Chimu-Inca contexts…………………………………………………………………….216 Chimu Sub-Group 7.2: Various figurines………………………………………..218 Chimu Group 8: Chimu or Sican Anthropomorphic Monkeys……………………..221 THE CHIMU FIGURINES : SYNOPSIS………………………………………………………………223 CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSIONS………………………………………………………………227 A. The Function of the Figurines……………………………………………………...227 B. Cultural Processes on the North Coast and Other Coastal Areas, as Reflected in the Figurines………………………………………………………………………234 APPENDIX 1: NOTES ON MUSEUM COLLECTIONS………………………………………….237 APPENDIX 2: EXPLANATIONS TO SOME NORTH COAST SITES…………………………….243 APPENDIX 3: GRAVELOTS…………………………………………………………………..247 Tables listing the Gravelots………………………………………………………..………..249-259 Plates illustrating the Gravelots……………………………………………………………..261-265

APPENDIX 4: THE TESTIMONY OF THE CHRONICLERS ....................................................... 267 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 273

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TABLES………………………………………………………………………………….…..285 Explanations to the Tables The Tables

PLATES………………………………………………………………………………………353 The Plates CHRONOLOGICAL CHARTS ................................................................................................. 422 MAPS ...................................................................................................................................... 425

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 1

1. Museums and Collections ACEPB AIC AMNH BCM BCRL BM BMNY CMCT CMN CUNY DNM EMB EMBasel EMS FMC GEM HMB IMJ INC IRAL LACM LMS MAAC MAI MAL MAM MArtL MBL MCAP MEG MHP MLL MM MMCh MN MNAA MNCP MP MPCS MPR MRAHB MRI MSCh MSHua MSPucl MSPuru

Asociación Enrico Poli Bianchi, Lima (10). The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago (15). American Museum of Natural History, New York (188). Birmingham City Museum (16). Museo del Banco Central de Reserva del Perú, Lima (9). The British Museum (Museum of Mankind), London (54). The Brooklyn Museum of Art, New York (13). Cassinelli Massei Collection, Trujillo (10) Castle Museum, Nottingham (12). Columbia University, New York (21) Danish National Museum, Copenhagen (8). Ethnologisches Museum-Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin (333) Ethnologisches Museum, Basle (9). Etnografiska Museet, Stockholm (10). Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago (69). Göteborgs Etnografiska Museum Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley (133). The Israel Museum, Jerusalem Instituto National de Cultura, Trujillo (6) Instituto Riva Agüero, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima, now Museo de Arqueología Josefina Ramos de Cox (7). Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History (13) Linden-Museum, Stuttgart (15). University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, Cambridge, England (9). Museum of the American Indian, New York (102). Museo Amano, Lima (99). Museo de America, Madrid (29). Museo de Arte, Lima (6). Museo Arqueológico Regional Brüning, Lambayeque (45). Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino, Santiago Musée d'Ethnographie, Geneva (10). Musée de l'Homme, now Musée du Quai Branly ,Paris (68) Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera, Lima (17). The Manchester Museum (9). Museo Municipal de Chincha Museo de la Nación. Lima (7) Museo Nacional de Antropología, Arqueología e Historia del Perú, Lima (167). Museo Nacional de la Cultura Peruana, Lima (31). Museo de Pachacamac (13) Museo Peruano de Ciencias de la Salud, Lima (19). Museo Pigorini, Rome (3) Musées Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire, Brussels (39) Museo Regional de Ica "Maria Reiche Gross Newman" (23). Museo de Sitio, Chan Chan, Huaca "El Dragón" (22) Museo de Sitio Huallamarca-Pan de Azúcar, Lima (11) Museo de Sitio Huaca Pucclana, Lima (1) Museo de Sitio Arturo Jimenez Borja, Puruchuco (23).

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This list covers all the museums and collections containing figurines recorded for this Corpus, though not necessarily part of the North Coast sample. Figures in brackets show the number of figurines and molds. 7

MSS M/UCLA M/UNSM MUT MVH MVM MVV NGSW PAP PC1G PC1Lon PC1L PC2L PC3L PC4L PC5L PC6L PC7L PC1M PC2M PC1NY PC2NY PMH P-RMO RJC RMV SAC SIW SPB SRB SWMLA TMW UPMP

Museo de Sitio, Templo de Sechín, now Museo Regional de Casma "Max Uhle" (11). Museum of Culture History, UCLA, now UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, Los Angeles (13). Museo de Arqueología y Antropología de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima (6). Museo de la Universidad José Eulogio Garido, (now Museo Arqueológico de la Universidad de La Libertad ?), Trujillo (2) Museum für Völkerkunde, Hamburg (53) Staatliches Museum für Völkerkunde, Munich (99). Museum für Völkerkunde, Vienna (38). National Geographic Society, Washington D.C. Proyecto Arqueológico Puemape (8) Private Collection 1, Geneva (1). Private Collection 1, London (3). Private Collection 1, Lima (10). Private Collection 2, Lima (31). Private Collection 3, Lima = now ACEPB above . Private Collection 4, Lima (5). Private Collection 5, Lima (5). Private Collection 6, Lima (48). Private Collection 7, Lima (1). Private Collection 1, Munich (23). Private Collection 2, Munich (11). Private Collection 1, New York (42). Private Collection 2, New York (12). Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass (120 + 27 small Sican ceramic heads). Pitt-Rivers Museum, Oxford (2). Rautenstrauch-Jost Museum, Cologne (8). Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leyden Collection Santiago Agurto Calvo, Lima (approx. 140). Smithsonian Institution, Dept. of Anthropology, Washington D.C (14). Sotheby Parke Bernet Inc., New-York (Sales Catalogues) Collection Segundo Rojas Bartra, Trujillo, Exhibition held at Banco Norperu-Continorte, Trujillo, February 1982, (24). Southwest Museum, Los Angeles (11). The Textile Museum, Washington D.C. (1). University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia (89).

2. Other Abbreviations (see also Abbreviations used in the Tables, p. 277) C (followed by a number) = "Communicated" Figurine Ca (followed by a number) = Additional "Communicated" Figurine CC = Central Coast CH = Central Highlands EH = Early Horizon EIP = Early Intermediate Period F = (Sex column in the Tables) Female Gr. = Group HM = Hand-made LIP = Late Intermediate Period LH = Late Horizon M = (Manufacture column in the Tables) Mold-made M = (Sex column in the Tables) Male MH = Middle Horizon 8

NC = North Coast NH = North Highlands n/a = not applicable n/i = not indicated n/k = not known n/n = no number P (followed by a number) = Published Figurine pf = post-fired (paint, in the Tables) SC = South Coast SCH = South Central Highlands SH = South Highlands Sg. = Sub-group LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Figure 10: Figure 11: Figure 12: Figure 13: Figure 14: Figure 15: Figure 16:

PC2M Epiformative Gr.2 (Gallinazo) Shapes of Moche figurine bases Moche Gr.`1 Face-markings on Moche figurines Moche Gr.1 Miniature vessels from Uhle's grave F4, Moche Moche Gr.1 Objects held by shamans and related figurines Moche sg. 4.2 MAM 1.184 Moche sg. 4.3 Wasserman-San Blas 1938: Fig. 149 Moche sg. 4.3 EMB VA 13004 Moche sg. 5.1 EMB VA 18050 Moche sg. 5.1 MNAA 48338 Moche sg. 5.1 Backs of MH Gr.2 (Moche-related figs) NC MH Gr. 2 Ceramics from the Pata de Burro Burial Ground NC MH-LIP Gr. 1 Sican Backs Sican Introduction Sican Figure Vessels Sican Gr. 3 Chimu Headdress Types Chimu Introduction Chimu Backs Chimu Introduction LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Table 2:

NC Formative Group 1: Figurines of the Lower Formative (or Initial Period) NC Formative Group 2: Figurines of the Middle Formative (or Early Horizon): The Tembladera Figurines Table 3: NC Epiformative Group 1: The Puerto Moorín/Salinar Figurines Table 4: NC Epiformative Group 2: The Gallinazo/Virú Figurines Table 5: NC Epiformative Group 3: The Vicús Figurines Table 6: Moche Sub-group 1.1.1: Standard Figurines with High Rounded Head and "TriPunctate" Eyes Table 7: Moche Sub-group 1.1.2: Standard Figurines with High Rounded Head and Normal Eyes Table 8: Moche Sub-group 1.2: Standard Figurines with a Rounded Head and Hair (or a Headdress) Framing the Face Table 9: Standard Moche Figurines: Body Fragments Probably Belonging to Sub-Groups 1.1 and 1.2 Table 10: Moche Sub-group 1.3: Standard Figurines with a Molded Rounded Cap (Leaving the Ears uncovered) Table 11: Moche Sub-group 1.4: Standard Figurines with a Veil or Long Hair and/or Sidelocks

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Table 12: Moche Sub-group 1.5: Standard Figurines with a Rounded, Rectangular or Trapezoidal Headdress Table 13: Moche Group 2: Women with Tresses Table 14: Moche Group 3: Women with Child Table 15: Moche Group 4: Figurines with Supernatural and/or Ritual Connotations Table 16: Moche Group 5: Miscellaneous Figurines Table 17: Moche Group 6: Figurines Placed on Litters or Platforms Table 18: Moche Group 7: Moche-Related Figurines and Molds Table 19: NC Middle Horizon Group 1: Wari Norteño B-Style Figurines Table 20: NC Middle Horizon Group 2: Moche-Related Figurines Table 21: NC Middle Horizon Group 3: "Taitacantín"-Style Figurines Table 22: NC Middle Horizon Group 4: Hybrid Figurines Related to Groups 2 and 3 Table 23: NC Middle Horizon Group 5: Figurines with a Large Bilobed Headdress Table 24: NC Transitional Middle Horizon-Early LIP Group 1 Table 25: NC Transitional Middle Horizon-Early LIP Group 2 Table 26: NC Transitional Middle Horizon-Early LIP Group 3: Pendants Table 27: NC Transitional Middle Horizon-Early LIP Group 4 Table 28: Sican Group 1: The Sican Lord and Related Personages Table 29: Sican Group 2: Plumed and Armoured Personage Table 30: Sican Group 3: Figurines with a Rounded Head Table 31: Sican Group 4: Miscellaneous Figurines Table 32: Chimu Sub-Group 1.1.1: Figurines with a Semi-circular to Rounded, Divided Headdress (Type 1B) and Joined, Vestigial or Absent Legs -Sican Related Table 33: Chimu Sub-Group 1.1.2: Figurines with a Semi-circular Divided Headdress (Type 1B), Joined, Vestigial or Absent Legs and a "Typical Chimu Face" or Similar. Table 34: Chimu Sub-Group 1.2: Figurines with a Semi-circular to Rounded, Undivided Headdress (Type 1A) and Joined, Vestigial or Absent Legs Table 35: Chimu Sub-Group 1.3: Miscellaneous Figurines with a Rounded Head or Headdress and Separate Legs. Table 36: Chimu Group 2: Figurines Wearing a Headdress with Two Lateral Projections (Type 2 Headdress) Table 37: Chimu Group 3: Figurines with a Two-Peaked to Rectangular Headdress (Type 3 Headdress) Table 38: Chimu Group 4: Figurines with Incised Hair (No Headdress) Table 39: Chimu Group 5: Figurines with a Narrow or Elongated (Pointed or Rounded) Head Table 40: Chimu Group 6: Various Figurines with a Bilobed Head or Headdress Table 41: Chimu Group 7: Miscellaneous Figurines Table 42: Chimu Group 8: Chimu or Sican Anthropomorphic Monkeys Table 43: Chimu Figurines: Recurring and/or Special Features Table 44: Statistical Overview (Number, Height, Manufacture, Sex). LIST OF PLATES Plate 1: Plate 2: Plate 3: Plate 4: Plate 5: Plate 6: Plate 7:

NC Formative Group 1: Figurines of the Early Formative (or Initial) Period NC Formative Group 2: Figurines of the Middle Formative (or Early Horizon): The Tembladera Figurines (1) NC Formative Group 2: Figurines of the Middle Formative (or Early Horizon): The Tembladera Figurines (2) NC Epiformative Group 1: The Puerto Moorín/Salinar Figurines NC Epiformative Group 2: The Gallinazo/Virú Figurines: Sub-group 2.1: Crude "Utilitarian" Figurines Sub-group 2.2: More Elaborate Figurines (1) NC Epiformative Group 2: The Gallinazo/Virú Figurines Sub-group 2.2: More Elaborate Figurines (2) NC Epiformative Group 2: The Gallinazo/Virú Figurines

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Sub-group 2.3: "Elite" Specimens NC Epiformative Group 3: The Vicús Figurines Sub-group 3.1.1: Figurines with coffee-bean eyes, no arms Plate 9: NC Epiformative Group 3: The Vicús Figurines Sub-group 3.1.2: Figurines with coffee-bean eyes, appliquéd arms Plate 10: NC Epiformative Group 3: The Vicús Figurines Sub-group 3.1.2: Figurines with coffee-bean eyes, appliquéd arms "Specials" Sub-group 3.2.1: Figurines with almond-shaped eyes, bilobed head and separate legs Sub-group 3.2.2: Figurines with almond-shaped eyes, bilobed head and vestigial legs Plate 8:

Plate 11: Plate 12: Plate 13: Plate 14: Plate 15: Plate 16: Plate 17: Plate 18: Plate 19: Plate 20: Plate 21: Plate 22:

Plate 23: Plate 24: Plate 25: Plate 26: Plate 27: Plate 28: Plate 29: Plate 30: Plate 31: Plate 32: Plate 33: Plate 34: Plate 35: Plate 36: Plate 37: Plate 38: Plate 39: Plate 40: Plate 41:

NC Epiformative Group 3: The Vicús Figurines Sub-group 3.2: Figurines with almond-shaped eyes: Associated specimen Non-Vicús Figurines from the Vicús area Moche Sub-group 1.1.1.: Standard Figurines with High Rounded Head and "Tri-Punctate" Eyes (1) Moche Sub-group 1.1.1.: Standard Figurines with High Rounded Head and "Tri- Punctate" Eyes (2) Moche Sub-group 1.1.2.: Standard Figurines with High Rounded Head and Normal Eyes (1) Moche Sub-group 1.1.2.: Standard Figurines with High Rounded Head and Normal Eyes (2) Moche Sub-group 1.1.2.: Standard Figurines with High Rounded Head and Normal Eyes (3) Moche Sub-group 1.1.2.: Standard Figurines with High Rounded Head and Normal Eyes (4) Moche Sub-group 1.2.: Standard Figurines with Rounded Head and Hair or a Headdress Framing the Face (1) Moche Sub-group 1.2.: Standard Figurines with Rounded Head and Hair or a Headdress Framing the Face (2) Standard Moche Figurines: Body Fragments probably belonging to Sub-Groups 1.1.-1.2 Moche Sub-group 1.3.: Standard Figurines with a Molded Rounded Cap (Leaving the Ears Uncovered (1) Moche Sub-group 1.3.: Standard Figurines with a Molded Rounded Cap (Leaving the Ears Uncovered (2) Moche Sub-group 1.4: Standard Figurines with a Rounded Head and a Veil or Long Hair and/or Side Locks Moche Sub-group 1.5.1: Standard Figurines with a Rounded or Rectangular Headdress (1) Moche Sub-group 1.5.1: Standard Figurines with a Rounded or Rectangular Headdress (2) Moche Sub-group 1.5.2: Standard Figurines with a Trapezoidal Headdress Moche Sub-group 2.1: Women with Tresses and a Rounded Head (1) Moche Sub-group 2.1: Women with Tresses and a Rounded Head (2) Moche Sub-group 2.2: Women with Tresses and a Two-Peaked Headdress Moche Group 3: Women with Child (1) Moche Group 3: Women with Child (2) Moche Group 4: Figurines with Supernatural and/or Ritual Connotations Moche Sub-group 4.1: The Priestess of the Presentation Scene and Related Figurines Moche Sub-group 4.2: Shamans and Related Figurines Moche Sub-group 4.3: Figurines with a Bilobed Head (1) Moche Sub-group 4.3: Figurines with a Bilobed Head (2) Moche Group 5: Miscellaneous Figurines Moche Sub-group 5.1: Warriors, High Status Personages Moche Sub-group 5.2: Miscellaneous Miniature Figurines Moche Sub-group 5.3: Pendants Associated to Group 5: Anthropomorphic Rattles Moche Group 6: Figurines on Litters or Platforms Moche Sub-group 6.1: Figurines on Litters Moche Sub-group 6.2: Figurines on Platforms Moche Group 7: Moche-related Figurines and Molds NC Middle Horizon Group 1: Wari Norteño B-Style Figurines NC Middle Horizon Group 2: Moche-related Figurines NC Middle Horizon Group 3:"Taitacantín"-style Figurines (1) NC Middle Horizon Group 3:"Taitacantín"-style Figurines (2) 11

Plate 42: Plate 43: Plate 44: Plate 45: Plate 46: Plate 47: Plate 48: Plate 49: Plate 50: Plate 51: Plate 52: Plate 53:

Plate 54: Plate 55: Plate 56: Plate 57: Plate 58: Plate 59: Plate 60: Plate 61: Plate 62: Plate 63: Plate 64: Plate 65: Plate 66: Plate 67:

NC Middle Horizon Groups 4 and 5 NC Transitional MH-LIP Sub-Group 1.1 NC Transitional MH-LIP Sub-Group 1.2 and Group 2 NC Transitional MH-LIP Group 3 (Pendants) and Group 4 (1) NC Transitional MH-LIP Group 4 (2) Sican Group 1: The "Sican Lord" and related figurines Sican Group 2: Plumed and Armoured Personage Sican Group 3: Figurines with a Rounded Head Sican Group 4: Miscellaneous Sican Figurines (Pendants, Ceramic Heads, "Special") Chimu Sub-Group 1.1.1: Figurines with a Type 1b Headdress and Joined, Vestigial or Absent Legs - Sican Related (1) Chimu Sub-Group 1.1.1: Figurines with a Type 1b Headdress and Joined, Vestigial or Absent Legs - Sican Related (2) Chimu Sub-Group 1.1.2: Figurines with a Type 1b Headdress and Joined, Vestigial or Absent Legs and a "Typical Chimu Face" (1) Chimu Sub-Group 1.1.2: Figurines with a Type 1b Headdress and Joined, Vestigial or Absent Legs and a "Typical Chimu Face" (2) Chimu Sub-Group 1.2: Figurines with a Type 1a Headdress and Joined, Vestigial or Absent Legs (1) Chimu Sub-Group 1.2: Figurines with a Type 1a Headdress and Joined, Vestigial or Absent Legs (2) Chimu Sub-Group 1.3: Miscellaneous Figurines with a Rounded Head or Headdress and Separate Legs Chimu Sub-Group 2.1: Figurines with a Type 2a Headdress and Separate Legs Chimu Sub-Group 2.2: Figurines with a Type 2b Headdress and Joined, Vestigial or Absent Legs (1) Chimu Sub-Group 2.2: Figurines with a Type 2b Headdress and Joined, Vestigial or Absent Legs (2) Chimu Sub-Group 3.1: Figurines with a Type 3 Headdress and Separate or Conjoined Legs Chimu Sub-Group 3.2: Figurines with a Type 3 Headdress and Joined, Vestigial or Absent Legs (1) Chimu Sub-Group 3.2: Figurines with a Type 3 Headdress and Joined, Vestigial or Absent Legs (2) Chimu Group 4: Figurines with Incised Hair (No Headdress) Chimu Group 5: Figurines with a Narrow or Elongated Head (Pointed or Rounded) (1) Chimu Group 5: Figurines with a Narrow or Elongated Head (Pointed or Rounded) (2) Chimu Group 6: Various Figurines with a Bilobed Head or Headdress Chimu Group 7: Miscellaneous Figurines (1) Chimu Group 7: Miscellaneous Figurines (2) Chimu Group 8: Anthropomorphic Monkeys LIST OF MAPS

Map 1:

Map of Peru and General Layout

Map 2:

Piura area

Map 3:

La Leche to Jequetepeque Valleys

Map 4:

Chicama, Moche and Virú Valleys

Map 5:

Santa, Nepeña and Casma Valleys

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study is dedicated to the memory of my late husband, Hugh Travers Morgan, who not only encouraged me to pursue my archaeological interests throughout our itinerant life, but also took and processed most of the photographs for my work. My heartfelt thanks go to: • Professor Warwick Bray who accepted me as a mature student, supervised my research at every stage and often boosted my sense of purpose when it was flagging; • Stewart Laidlow, on whose photographic expertise, dispensed with unfailing kindness and good humour, I had to rely so often; • Don Green, who helped me in the drawing of the maps for this study. • The Central Research Fund of the University of London for a grant which enabled me to extend my research to the collections in the United States. • The numerous museums and collections which facilitated my access to their material, as well as the photographing of the figurines by my late husband. They are listed above under the abbreviations of their names, with—in brackets—the number of figurines recorded in each instance. The museum curators and employees who assisted us in our research are listed below, followed by the name (in brackets) of the museum where they were working at the time when this research was carried out. • It is difficult to name all the archaeologists and collectors who helped me assemble this corpus—often by providing their own original material—and guided me in the different aspects of my research. I have listed them in alphabetical order1, and hope that I will be forgiven for any involuntary omission: Santiago Agurto Calvo, Patricia Allan (Glasgow Art Gallery and Museum), Alicia Alonso Sagaceta, Walter Alva (MBL), Rosa Amano (MAL), the late Martha Anders, Armando Andrade, the late Ferdinand Anton, Rosalia Avalos de Matos (MNCP), George Bankes (MM), José Pablo Baraybar, Monica Barnes (Cornell University), Garth Bawden (PMH), Francisco Bazán, Elisabeth Benson, Joanne Berens (AIC), David Beresford-Jones, Duccio Bonavia, Elisabeth Bonnier (IFEA), Elisabeth Boone (Dumbarton Oakes), Steve Bourget, Christine Brewster-Wray, Carlos Brignardello, Joseph S. Brown (SIW), Staffan Brunius (EMS), Alberto Bueno Mendoza (MP), Richard Burger, Fernando Cabieses (MPCS), Alejandro Camino, Cristóbal Campana (INC, Trujillo), Mercedes Cardenas (IRAL), Elisabeth Carmichael (BM), Patrick Carmichael, Karen Mohr Chávez, Linda Cheetham (P-RMO), Kathryn Cleland, Barbara Conklin (AMNH), Anita Cook, Miguel Cornejo, Mario Curatola (MPR), Michael Czwarno, Laurence Dawson (HMB), Lisa Deleonardis, Mercedes Delgado MNAA), Tom Dillehay, Christopher Donnan, Penelope Dransart, Berete Due (DNM), the late Dieter Eisleb (EMB), Diana Fane (BMNY), Christian Feest (MVV), Jane Feltham, Manuela Fischer (EMB), Isabel Flores, Regulo Franco, Peter Fuchs (MSS), Rosa Fung Pineda (UMSM), Benjamin Guerrero (MNAA), Daniel Guerrero Zevallos (Proyecto Armatambo), Richard Haas (EMB), Wolfgang Haberland (HMV), Mary Harris (MAAC), Christine Hastorf, Pamela Hearne (UPMP), Ulla Holmquist, Anna Maria Hoyle (MSCh), Señor Huapaya (MNAA), Francisco Irriarte Brenner, the late Arturo Jimenez Borja, Federico Kauffmann-Doig, Andrzej Krzanowski, Peter Kvietok (AMNH), Rose Lilien Solecki, (CUNY), Luis Lumbreras, Patricia Lyon, Alan MacCormick (CMN), Carol Mackey, Maureen Maitland, Cristóbal Makowski (PUC), Joyce Marcus, Colin McEwan (BM), Gordon McEwan, Frank Meddens, Dorothy Menzel, Jean François Millaire, Juan Mogrovejo, Daniel Morales (Seminario de Historia Rural Andina, UMSM), Craig Morris, Sandra Negro, Antonio Nuñez Jimenez, Guiseppe Orefici, Jonathan Palacios, Ponciano Paredes, Jane Peirson Jones (BCM), the late Alejandro Pezzia (MRI), Victor Pimentel (MNAA), José Pinilla (MN), Enrico Poli, Señor Cassinelli, Nancy Porter (Chimu Archive), Shelia and Thomas Pozorski, Heiko Prümers, Jeffrey Quilter, Sonia Quiroz (MN), the late Josefina Ramos de Cox (IRAL), Rogger Ravines, Dan Rifkin, Carlos Rodriguez (BCRL), Anton Roeckl, Anna Roosevelt (MAI), 1

In order to avoid mistakes I have left out any academic titles 13

Hermilio Rosas (MNAA), Maria Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, Ann Rowe (TMW), the late John Rowe, Catherine Rozenberg (IFEA), Lorenzo Samaniego, Daniel Sandweiss, Helmut Schindler (MVM), Inge Schjellerup (DNM), Daniel Schoepf (MEG), Axel Schulze-Thulin (LMS), Anne Marie Foote Seeler (EMBasel), Ruth Shady (MNAA), Izumi Shimada, Helaine Silverman, Mireille Simoni-Abbat (MHP), Louis Slavitz, Michael Tellenbach, Teresa Topic, Clide Valladolid (MSHua), G.Van Svieten (MRAHB), Rafael Varrón, John Verano, Anna Verde (MAM), Dwight Wallace, the late Henry Wassén, Ronald Weber (FMC), Steven Wegner, Michael West.

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CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH “If there is a conflict between consistency on the one hand and common sense or convenience on the other, the latter should prevail “ Warwick Bray 1.1 INTRODUCTION Pre-Columbian pottery figurines from Peru occur in astonishingly large numbers in museum and private collections. However in the published literature they generally occupy a place of "also ran". The reason for this may be that—because of their scarcity in controlled excavations—their potential importance has been undervalued. The main purpose of this work therefore has been to fill this gap in the archaeological record by presenting a Corpus of Peruvian pottery figurines. Under figurines I understand human representations which are not vessels or part of vessels. I recorded a total of 2407 figurines, as well as 43 figurine molds and 91 figurine whistles1 in museums and private collections in Europe, Peru and the United States. Approximately a further 300 specimens— with photographs and related data—were put at my disposal by archaeologists or collectors; one third of these come from the collection of Santiago Agurto Calvo.2 About 420 figurines come from publications.3 The total number of figurines (and molds) studied in this sample is 3,148. They can be divided as follows: North Coast 813 figurines (plus three Moche anthropomorphic rattles and 27 small Sican ceramic heads) Central Coast: 1571 figurines South Coast: 522 figurines ) Highlands (Sierra) 181 figurines ) The final count may vary slightly Amazon Lowlands (Selva) 18 figurines ) The study itself was planned as a doctoral thesis and the gathering of the material was done in the 1980s and early 1990s. Because of the constraints imposed by the PhD format it was decided to study in depth only the figurines from the Central Coast of Peru which—with 1571 specimens— represented about 50% of the total. The dissertation was submitted in 1995 at the Institute of Archaeology, University College, London, with the title The Pre-Columbian Pottery Figurines of the Central Coast of Peru. However it seemed a waste not to put to good use the material from the other areas of Peru, which had been recorded and photographed, and so the idea of a general Corpus of Peruvian Pottery Figurines took shape. It will consist of three volumes, which will hopefully appear in rapid succession: Volume I: The Pottery Figurines of the North Coast of Peru Volume II: The Pottery Figurines of the Central Coast of Peru 1

With a few exceptions the whistles are not included in the study. This category of specimens are listed as "C" or "SAC" followed by a number. 3 These specimens are listed as "P" followed by a number. 2

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Volume III: The Pottery Figurines of the South Coast, the Sierra and the Selva of Peru Because of the very large amount of material already in hand, I decided not to take any new material on board, though I have tried to keep abreast with the developments in archaeological research during the time since my doctoral dissertation was finished. Apart from the main aim of this work—to record the figurines and to classify them into iconographically and stylistically meaningful groups, thus providing a user-friendly Corpus of the material—the research has also focused on: 1) The origin, evolution, location and interaction in time or space of various figurine types or groups. 2) The function or functions of figurines within different cultural contexts. 3) Any additional or new information that a systematic study of the figurines throws on the overall cultural process of pre-Columbian Peru. The success in achieving these goals has been variable, not only under the different categories listed above, but also in the different geographic areas: 1) In spite of the scarcity of documented associations, it has been possible, using stylistic criteria, to trace the evolution of figurine types, to date them, in short to achieve a generally satisfactory classification on the Central Coast and on the South Coast. But this has proven much more difficult on the North Coast, where there is a marked overlapping in styles both during the Epiformative and during the Late Intermediate Period. 2) Apart from isolated cases where a specific context has provided clues as to the function of a figurine, this second area of study has remained in the realm of speculation, in spite of recourse to ethno-historic and ethnographic data. Interestingly, none of the many reports by the chroniclers about the use and subsequent destruction of idols1 refers specifically to pottery figurines. 3) As far as cultural processes are concerned again the figurines of the Central and South Coasts have proved useful in shedding new light on inter-valley and intercultural contacts at various periods. On the North Coast however the overall picture is much less clear, except possibly that the northern area of the North Coast shows its own specific stylistic traits both during the Early and the Late Intermediate and that the Middle Horizon represents a greater break in the overall tradition than thought hitherto. For each geographic area the figurine groups are presented in chronological order. Each figurine is listed on a Table, containing all the relevant data (collection, site provenance, sex, measurements, surface colour, manufacturing technique, special features and reference to publications) and illustrated on a Plate. The analytical part lists the group characteristics and discusses special features, links with other groups, context, geographic distribution and chronology of each group or sub-group. Additional data are presented in four Appendices: Appendix 1: Gives details about specific museum collections (acquisition of figurines, reliability of given provenances, etc.). Appendix 2: Describes some of the sites, with the location of successive excavations, dating of features etc. Appendix 3: Lists and briefly describes all the recorded gravelots containing figurines. Appendix 4: Quotes references to idols found in the chroniclers.

1

Relevant quotations are grouped in Appendix 4. Interestingly most of these reports concern the Central Coast and Central Highlands.

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1.2 PREVIOUS RESEARCH Only one study of Peruvian pottery figurines has been undertaken so far. Written by Rose Lilien in 1956 as a PhD dissertation with the title A Study of Central Andean Ceramic Figurines it covers specimens from all areas of Peru and the whole of the pre-Columbian era. The aims and methods of the study are similar to mine, the difference being that Lilien’s study is based on a smaller sample (circa 400 figurines as opposed to approximately 3150) and that our knowledge of Peruvian archaeology has been greatly increased and refined since the work was written. Apart from this monograph, mentions of figurines in the published literature are at best marginal, with some remarks usually added to pottery seriations under “modelled” and few illustrations (e.g.: Bennett 1939; Kroeber 1925a, 1926a; Strong 1925; Strong and Corbett 1943).1 1.3 METHODOLOGY 1.3.1 Data acquisition This research is based on Peruvian figurines recorded in museums and private collections. Working in a museum can be exhilarating or frustrating, depending on museum staff and the conditions in which the work is carried out. In the course of this research I visited over 50 museums and around 20 private collections. Whilst I mostly met with tremendous kindness and help—many museums practically gave me a free run of their stores—the working conditions were often more problematic. In many instances forward planning (involving flights and accommodation) went spectacularly wrong, as a number of museums had no clear idea of their holding, often much more extensive than thought. As far as the working area was concerned, this varied from spacious and light study rooms to dark, cramped cellars. I have dwelt on the conditions of my data collecting because it has affected the resulting work. With varying and often poor light conditions, no standard colour determination, based on the Munsell chart, was possible, and a closer look at the ware (paste, presence of a slip, etc.) was made difficult. Because of the speed at which some recording had to be done, some data are occasionally missing. But on the whole—and bearing in mind that this study is predominantly iconographic and stylistic —the recording process has been satisfactory. Each specimen was measured for height, width and thickness, and—conditions permitting—weighed on a small portable scale.2 Black-and-white photographs of a front view (often also of a side- and/or back view) were taken and a detailed sketch was made; iconographic data (shape and size of facial and body features, clothing etc), as well as data regarding manufacturing techniques (hand- versus mold-made, hollow or solid, number and position of air-holes, incised, modelled, molded, painted decor) and ware (characteristics of paste and surface finish, etc) were entered into a prepared recording sheet. The recorded data, listed in the Tables, are summarised as follows in the Text: 1) Measurements: list the maximum, minimum and median values for height, width, thickness and weight. Figures in brackets for each dimension show the number of figurines measured: only complete dimensions were taken into account; atypical or associated figurines are not included. The median rather than the average value for each dimension was chosen as less prone to distortion by extreme values. 2) Description: this is set out according to a standard model. In larger groups features such as the sex may be assessed in percentages, in smaller groups they are given in numbers. Atypical or associated figurines are described separately at the end of the main description. 2) Manufacture: describes the manufacturing techniques as listed above used for each group. 1

One exception is an article by Menzel (1967) about a group of South Coast figurines excavated by Max Uhle and an unpublished dissertation about specimens from a Moche figurine workshop by S. Limoges (1999). 2 Some museums provided measuring aparatus and scales for larger specimens.

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1.3.2 Data analysis The nature of this study does not require a fundamental discussion, regarding the wider significance of the material output of a society, the position and degree of objectivity of the archaeologist dealing with any form of such an output, and the ultimate relevance of his findings. My aims, as stated above, are more limited and only come into play—so to speak— once the relevance of archaeological analysis has been accepted. This is above all a typological study, even though much attention has been paid to any information regarding historical and cultural processes yielded by the figurines. The neglect into which the analysis of ceramics has fallen over the last decades, especially amongst archaeologists from the United States, has greatly hampered my work. Often I have had to rely on the analysis, dating to the 1920s and 30s, of the material excavated by Max Uhle, in order to date the figurines. So my own work is deliberately aimed at contributing to this much neglected aspect of archaeology. The first aim of this study is to classify (e.g. to arrange or distribute) the recorded figurines into meaningful units, on the basis of formal criteria or attributes. One of the objectives of this classificatory exercise is to articulate and organise the available material in a user-friendly way, allowing an easy identification, affiliation and dating of individual figurines. In other words the undertaking seeks to emulate what is done in natural history, for instance in zoological or botanical classification. Since I was not dealing with excavated ceramic assemblages, I was not bound by the usual spatial and stratigraphic constraints. My initial approach to the material could therefore be empirical: I decided to first sort the figurines according to their visible relationship to known styles and then to look for other obvious taxonomic criteria. At this point a clearly stated conceptual question became necessary: Considering the stated aim of the study, what did I see as a meaningful unit? Did I want to define figurine types, embodying rigidly defined iconographic attributes, rendered in a specific stylistic expression or did I want to form wider-based groups, which could be related more flexibly to known cultural processes? The semantic differences between the words type and group helped to clarify the problem. According to the Shorter Oxford Dictionary (1936: 2276) a type is—amongst other definitions— “the general form, structure or character distinguishing a particular kind, group, or class of ...objects”; used in natural history it is “a certain general plan of structure characterizing a group of animals, plants hence transf. a group or division of animals etc. having a common form or structure”. By contrast some of the meanings of the word group are (1936:837): “An assemblage of ...objects standing near together and forming a collective unity;...a cluster (of things)” or “A number...of things in a certain relation, or having a certain degree of similarity” and finally “Chiefly used as an indefinite term for any classificatory division whatever its relative rank (e.g. in zoology)”. Comparing the two sets of definitions it becomes clear that group is a more flexible unit than type, better adapted for the classification of a large, heterogeneous set of artefacts such as the figurines. This becomes even clearer when one turns to the determination of the classificatory attributes. If the criteria are too standardized or strict—as would be required for a typology—there is the danger of creating too many classes of figurines numbering only a few specimens. But if one selects attributes which express “...a certain relation...” or “...a certain degree of internal similarity...” and which therefore can vary from group to group, the result is a classification which is both meaningful and adaptable. Many archaeologists, working with figurines, have come to similar conclusions, either explicitly or in the way they adapt their criteria to fit their own material. Thus Goldstein (1979:57), working on Maya figurines from Campeche, writes:

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“Comparative visual analysis of the figurines revealed that no single attribute or group of attributes could be used in all cases as criteria for distinguishing groups. Rather—criteria for grouping would have to change with the material.”

Krutt, classifies figurines from Western Mexico by first defining types then joining them into classes (equivalent to my groups): “ The usefulness of the class becomes apparent when dealing with marginal specimens, that is with figurines which have not sufficient characteristic attributes to be formally included into a type, but which are sufficiently closely related to a number of types in a same class, to belong without doubt to that class.” (1975:25, my translation)

Corson (1976:7) dealing with Jaina figurines states: “To this extent, then, objectivity has been sacrificed in favour of a format stressing the continuity of easily identifiable (though subjectively defined) figurine subjects. The format should prove particularly useful for typing new specimens as well as for comparing the figurine complexes of other sites.”

The attributes which form the basis for the classification of the figurines into groups belong to three categories: 1. Stylistic attributes: relating to the manner in which an artefact is executed, style being an assemblage of traits characteristic of a given culture. The concept here is narrowed down to that element which Willey (1951:111) calls configuration, e.g. “...a matter of line, composition and emphasis”. 2. Iconographic attributes: relating to who or what is represented. In the case of Peruvian figurines—unlike certain Central American types—the attributes are rather basic: • Sex : the great majority of figurines are women, many have no indication of sex, men are more rarely represented; • Posture: nearly always standing, with folded arms; activities are never depicted; • Accoutrement: clothing, especially headdress, and jewellery (necklace, ear-plugs). 3. Technical attributes: e.g. relating to the manufacture of the artefact. In the case of the figurines important diagnostic/classificatory elements are: • Hand-made versus mold-made; • Air-holes: number, location; • Type of ware: paste, surface finish, decor. The term ware is used in the “loose” way explained and to some degree justified by Shepard (1965: 318-319): in the absence of specific criteria like distinctive designs or vessel shapes, it often describes a number of related pottery types, as, for instance, in the case of the late Middle Horizon three-colour wares. It is not always easy to distinguish between these various sets of attributes. Many stylistic traits merge with the technical at one end of the spectrum and with the iconographic at the other. For instance: are the differently shaped spouts of the five Moche phases strictly speaking a technical or a stylistic trait? Equally: is a Sican eye, made by two thinly incised lines a technical (thin incision), stylistic (typical Sican eye) or iconographic (possibly linked with the representation of the Lord of Sican) trait? It is particularly difficult to distinguish between stylistic and iconographic attributes, simply because the two spheres overlap conceptually. Goldstein, when trying to select the apposite attributes for her classification of Maya figurines from Campeche (1979: 43) quotes the following argument “A basic problem is...that of distinguishing between those features that were culturally essential to the original...comprehension of a pictorial scene (iconographic) and those which the artist may freely vary (stylistic)...For an adequate

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comprehension of either it is also necessary to understand clearly the range of permissible variation within each”. This statement is open to debate. On the one hand iconographic traits only become essential, culturally or otherwise, when the figurine depicted represents a specific personage or type. We assume this to be generally the case in a pre-Columbian setting, but it need not be so and to assume it a priori can lead to errors in interpretation. On the other hand, to speak of stylistic “freedom” in a pre-Columbian context is somewhat unrealistic. A Moche or Maya potter with little or no knowledge of other styles and probably bound by ideological concepts unknown to us, cannot be seen as really free in the stylistic expression of his creative work. As a result Goldstein’s choice between stylistic and iconographic attributes appears subjective. Under “traits that the artist was free to vary, i.e. criteria for a stylistic classification”, she lists proportion, head form, headdress, neckline, contour, negative space, modelling, active versus static pose, symmetry of composition, whilst under “traits determined by the subject to be portrayed, i.e. criteria for an iconographic classification” are listed costume, accoutrements, body type, gesture, head form (again!), pose”. It seems quite obvious that this distinction and choice of criteria is valid for and adapted to the specific sample of figurines with which Goldberg is dealing. As far as I can see, there is nothing wrong in this, if it allows a sensible classification. My approach to attribute analysis has been equally pragmatic and adaptive throughout. It was decided at an early stage not to use computer techniques for the attribute analysis, because—with a few exceptions—the discrete, culturally affiliated groups, were too small. Even for the larger groups the quantifying of specific attributes seemed problematic: small modelled features, such as a nose or a mouth, are much more difficult to quantify than design motifs or vessel shapes. So the analysis is mainly based on a visual assessment of the different categories of attributes. The first and most obvious area of assessment is the stylistic one: the figurines were subdivided according to their appurtenance to known ceramic styles. This was much easier than anticipated, although the range of attributes varied from case to case. Thus a Moche figurine looks like human representations on Moche vessels, with beautifully modelled facial traits and similar clothing. The same can be said of Nasca figurines, though here the distinctive Nasca polychrome ware also helps in the identification. In the case of Chancay pottery, the specific black-on-white ware is a first distinctive trait, before similarities with face-necks can be found. But in the case of figurines with little or no equivalent human representations in the culture to which they belong and lacking distinctive ceramic characteristics, like Late Intermediate figurines from the South Coast (Chincha and Ica), the basis for assigning them to a given culture was their presence in a documented excavated assemblage. The next area of visual assessment is that of iconographic features. Here I found the systematic approach to the iconographic analysis of motifs—as preconised by Panofsky (1962:3-17) and by Cordy-Collins (1980: 421)—useful when applied to figurines, the successive steps being: 1) An objective description of individual figurines; 2) An analysis, by assembling as large a sample of similar figurines in order to identify the patterns which the figurines follow, also examining relevant attributes in relationships between figurine groups and in other iconographic expressions (vessels, textiles, metalwork etc); 3) The interpretation of the figurine group. The final field of visual assessment is the technical one, according to the attributes set out above.

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As in any ceramic study—be it a simple seriation or multivariate analysis—all three sets of attributes (stylistic, iconographic, technical) have to be described and used in conjunction for the assembling and defining of figurine groups: these are made up of individual specimens sharing a number of attributes. Often a large number of attributes are shared by many specimens, making group formation extremely easy and resulting in homogenous groups. But in many cases groups have to be formed on the basis of “linkage”: some figurines will share attributes 1 to 12, the next sample shares attributes 8 to 17, a further sample attributes 13 to 20 or 1 to 5 and 15 to 19 etc. A particular attribute may appear highly significant, because it provides important clues regarding the function of the object or its spatial and/or temporal relationships. Nevertheless such an attribute can never be the only or even the main criterion for the formation of a group. In that sense there is no ranking of the attributes in the process of group formation, only in the subsequent interpretation. At the same time—and because of the flexibility afforded by the concept of the group outlined earlier—different attributes can be called upon for the formation of different groups. To use an analogy from zoology: different attributes will be used the classify mammals and insects. The kinds of adaptations that my classificatory criteria had to undergo are best illustrated by comparing three sets of figurines: those of the Nasca and Chancay cultures and what I have called the Central Coast Supe figurines.1 In all three cases, we are dealing with technically and stylistically homogenous groups and, in the case of the Nasca and Chancay figurines, with artefacts clearly belonging to well defined cultures. But whereas the Chancay figurines depict at least four iconographically distinct personages, both the Nasca and Supe figurines basically only show one iconographic representation, though in the case of Nasca varying in sex, size and posture. So whilst the Chancay figurines are classified into groups (in this case one could even speak of types) using specific attributes such as the shape of the head or elements of dress, the bulk of Nasca figurines are subdivided into groups, using size, sex, and posture, the relevance of this classification being confirmed by a chronological co-variant. Finally the Supe figurines cannot be usefully subdivided at all, because the observable variables do not combine in a sufficiently specific way. In that particular group, although some attributes are constant, I have also had to recur to a certain amount of “linkage”. The choice of different attributes for group formation also has an effect on internal subdivisions and the integration of marginal specimens: • A very large group may be subdivided on the basis of one salient attribute, when this is found to have a wider co-variance (e.g. Chimu Group 2, with its type 2 headdress is divided into figurines with type 2a headdress and divided legs (2.1) and figurines with type 2b headdress and joined legs (2.2). • A number of figurines do not fit easily into any group: these are listed as atypical or as associated. In the case of the former, the specimen belong quite clearly to the group, sharing a few of the more salient features; in the latter the similarities are not pronounced, but the figurine may share a few traits, or have some links with the group (provenance, chronological position) or simply fit better into that group than into any other. This way of incorporating marginal specimens avoids excessive group splintering. • This last argument has also lead to the formation of some fairly disparate groups, but the criteria on which such groups are based are always explained. One recurring difficulty has been the naming of the groups. Wherever possible, I have used the name of the culture to which the figurine belongs (e.g. Moche, Chimu); occasionally I have had to simply use chronological markers (e.g. Transitional MH-LIP Group 1), sometimes referring to a site or known culture to help fix the group in the mind (e.g. NC MH Group 1: 1

Unfortunately no really good example can be found among North Coast figurines. The Nasca group was studied in depth for a publication; the Chancay and Supe groups are part of my dissertation.

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Wari Norteño B-style figurines, NC MH Group 3: "Taitacantin"-style figurines, Sican Group 1: The Sican Lord). 1.3.3 Data Interpretation The figurines having been classified into groups according to the method and criteria outlined above, the following aspects are discussed within each group: 1) Special features: these may be a cultural trait shared by a number of groups or confined to one group only. Examples of such features are: different types of cranial deformation, position of the hands, a square panel shown in the back, etc. Special features are discussed in the group where they first occur or where they are most common. 2) Links with other groups: emphasis is given to those links which show intercultural contacts or which have a chronological significance. 3) Context: Whenever known, the context in which a figurine has been found (grave, midden, domestic premises) is discussed in order to elucidate the function. Detailed description of documented burials are listed in Appendix 3 (Gravelots). 4) Geographic distribution: The great majority of figurines in this study have no certain site indication, but many are given provenances of sorts in the museum catalogues. A certain amount of detective work had to be done on museum collections in order to rate the value of such provenances. This is done in Appendix 1. The ratings, shown in the Tables, are as follows: *** Certain as to site, from a documented context; ** Certain as to site, but lacking a documented context; * Fairly reliable as to site: this rating can include—amongst others—provenances given by individuals with local knowledge or archaeologists (e.g. S.K Lothrop on his buying expeditions for the Peabody Museum, Harvard). Unverifiable: this rating can include indications such as "Moche" in a museum catalogue, though it may not be clear whether the valley or the culture is meant. [ ] Suggested : this applies for instance to specimens from a collection known to have been made in a specific location. °° Unlikely: this rating is based on criteria such as collections with consistently unlikely provenances, etc. 5) Chronological position: This is mainly based on stylistic criteria using and combining: a) associated artefacts where available; b) stylistic similarities with known ceramic styles; c) stylistic continuities and discontinuities within the material itself. Absolute dates are practically non-existent, the dating is based on a slightly modified version of Rowe’s (1960a) chronological framework (see Chapter 2).

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CHAPTER 2 THE GEOGRAPHIC AND CHRONOLOGICAL FRAME 2.1: THE GEOGRAPHIC FRAME Although this volume covers the North Coast of Peru, the overall geographical frame is briefly discussed here. This wider area covers that of present day Peru. The problem of defining cultural areas in the Andean region has taxed most archaeologists working there and—because of shifts in historical, ecological and social perception and emphasis—will remain open to debate and redefinition for some time yet. Silverman (2004: 1-11) reviews developments since Bennett (1946, 1948) first defined his “Central Andean Area” or “Peruvian Co-tradition", in particular the intensive archaeological activity which has opened up the extreme North around and beyond Piura and the extreme South around Moquegua, as well as regions east of the major highland basins into the montaña. She also discusses the validity of different approaches to state (and cultural) development over and above a strictly spatial concept. Unfortunately with a study such as this, mainly based on the survey of museum collections, the danger of being restricted by the geographic parameters used by the museums themselves is obvious. Most collections are organised along present day political frontiers. No student asking to examine all available pottery figurines from Colombia to Chile would be welcome in the storage rooms of a major museum. However, after examining in some depth the geographically closest published figurine material, that of coastal Ecuador, one perceives a fairly clear frontier between the stylistic traditions of that area and northern coastal Peru. Such a stylistic frontier also becomes apparent in an examination—admittedly random—of museum collections of Ecuadorian, Bolivian and Chilean figurines. It probably is not the case in the highland regions of the North.1 On the other hand, since pottery figurines from the Highlands overall significantly rarer than from the coastal regions, it does not really affect this study. As a result of this museum-generated bias, I believe that all the figurines listed in this Corpus originate within the borders of present-day Peru and therefore this is the area covered by this research.. It has long been customary to subdivide the Central Andean Area geographically into North, Central and South Coast, Highlands (or Sierra) and Amazon Basin (or Selva). One reason for this subdivision, apart form the geographic reality, has essentially been that of presentation, the amount of archaeological field-work carried out in different areas being an avowed factor in this subdivision. As a result, the coastal hinterland, between the lower valleys and the highlands, and the montaña on the eastern slopes of the Andes often tend to fall outside the defined (and studied!) areas. Nevertheless the subdivisions remain in use to this day because they reflect, albeit imperfectly, ecological and cultural realities. A number of authors dealing with the Peruvian area have spelt out precisely which coastal valleys and highland basins they include in which zone. As can be expected, it is the peripheral areas, especially on the coast, which are most open to debate (cf. Bennett and Bird 1

I have included in this study two figurines from the MNAA, Lima, which are often published in Peruvian works: they obviously belong to a different cultural tradition (see 755, 756 under Vicús).

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1946:70; Lanning 1967:30ff; Willey 1971). Basically I have followed Lumbreras’ subdivisions (1974: 4-6), but have introduced small modifications dictated by the evidence of my own material.: North Coast: Tumbes to south of the Casma valley, without a special sub-division for the far north; Central Coast: Culebras and Huarmey valleys to Omas/Asia valley. The Culebras/Huarmey area appears to be an archaeological no-man’s land, mainly due to lack of investigation. Only two figurines are specifically said to come from there: they are somewhat atypical but closer to Central- than to North Coast material. Also included in the Central Coast is the so-called Norte Chico, comprising the Fortaleza, Pativilca, Supe and Huaura valleys, though some quite strong northern influences can occasionally be perceived there. South Coast: Cañete valley to the Chilean border. With a few exceptions, probably imports, the figurines from the Cañete valley are clearly related to South Coast cultures. The bulk of the figurines come from the area between Cañete and the Nasca drainage, hardly any figurines have emerged from the far south, again probably because of lack of investigation. Highlands: My sub-division follows Lumbreras’ with the added subdivision of the “South Central Highlands” for the Ayacucho basin. Sites in the lower lying montaña zone, such as Kotosh, are also studied under this heading. Amazon Basin or Selva. 2.2: THE CHRONOLOGICAL FRAME The chronology in common use by Peruvianists during the past decades and based either on the period scheme proposed by Rowe (1960a, 1962) or on the idea of stages of cultural development favoured by Lumbreras (1974) is becoming increasingly unsatisfactory in the light of more available material, more radiocarbon dates and more sophisticated theoretical approaches to culture change. Silverman (2004: 11-15) outlines the main problems and solutions, ultimately favouring exclusive cross-dating by means of radiocarbon dates (consistently either uncorrected or calibrated!). Unfortunately this is one solution not available for this study, as hardly any of the figurines come from a dated context, so I have resorted to a modified combination of several chronological frameworks (see below), hoping that most readers will be aware of the pitfalls. This is also the reason why I have chosen to present my material in spatial sections (North Coast, Central Coast, etc) allowing for a more coherent chronological sequence within each area. Based on the ceramic sequence in the Ica valley, Rowe distinguishes six periods— following the Preceramic stage (Initial, Early Horizon, Early Intermediate, Middle Horizon, Late Intermediate, Late Horizon)—which are further subdivided into epochs, again reflecting changes in the ceramics of the Ica valley. This scheme offers maximum flexibility because the further subdivision into a relatively large number of epochs allows to articulate local cultural sequences. But difficulties arise when trying to correlate the periods in different geographic areas or when applying the somewhat arbitrary subdivision of the periods into equal epochs. Lumbreras broadly follows Rowe, but introduces some modifications, the most useful of which concern the Chavin Horizon. Instead of an Initial Period followed by the Early Horizon, he proposes a Formative Period “divided into three stages: Lower, Middle and Upper ...The Lower stage includes both pre-Chavín complexes which are earlier than Chavín, and non-Chavín complexes, which may be pre-Chavín, but are not necessarily so; the Middle stage corresponds to the diffusion of the Chavín complex and is consequently not represented where Chavínoid traits did not penetrate; the Upper stage incorporates complexes derived

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from both Chavín and non-Chavín antecedents” (Lumbreras 1974: 49). These subdivisions not only accommodate my own material better, but seem currently more commonly used in Peruvian literature, in spite of attracting some—partly justified—criticism (Burger 1988). More recently Kaulicke (1994a: 503-576) has sub-divided the Formative into five Periods (Early, Middle, Late, Final and Epiformative). Of these the Epiformative has turned out to be a very useful element in my chronology, as it covers a period (and pottery styles) which for a while was called the "White-on-Red Horizon" (Lumbreras 1974:81) and which—like a Horizon style—is represented by related figurines in many areas of Peru. I hope I will be forgiven for this "pick-and-chose" approach. but—my only purpose being to place the various figurine groups into plausible time slots—:I have adopted the following chronology: • The Preceramic Period • The Formative Period, subdivided into: The Lower or Early Formative, also known as Initial Period (IP) The Middle Formative, incorporating the Early Horizon (EH) The Epiformative, straddling Lumbreras's Upper Formative and the beginning of the Early Intermediate Period • The Early Intermediate Period (EIP) • The Middle Horizon (MH) • The Late Intermediate Period (LIP) • The Late Horizon or Inca Period (LH) The matching of epochs with the absolute dates of the Ica master sequence (see above) is rarely adhered to. In many cases I follow available local chronologies when the subdivision of periods into epochs is replaced by the currently used "phases" of a given culture (e.g. Moche, Chancay, Nasca). Where one or more chronological sequences are available for a given culture, the parameters are discussed and the phases correlated at the beginning of the relevant chapter. I have made no consistent attempt to correlate these periods with an absolute chronology. Where available, C14 dates are quoted as found in the relevant publication; when corrected dates are quoted, this is specified.

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CHAPTER 3 THE LOWER FORMATIVE (OR INITIAL PERIOD) ON THE NORTH COAST INTRODUCTION

Although the Lower Formative (Initial Period) sees a proliferation of important monumental sites, such as Purulen, Zaña Valley, Limoncarro, Jequetepeque Valley, the Caballo Muerto Complex in the Moche valley, Cerro Blanco, Nepeña Valley and especially the very numerous interrelated sites in or near the Casma Valley (Cerro Sechín, Sechín Alto, Moxeque-Pampa de las Llamas, Las Haldas) pottery figurines only appear during the later part of the Lower Formative. This may be due to a different and slow uptake of ceramic technology. The appearance of ceramics on the North Coast is attested from around 2000 BC,1 but the adoption of the technique may have varied from valley to valley. For instance, it has been suggested that the earliest pottery in the Casma valley cannot be dated earlier than 1300 BC (Samaniego, Vergara, Bischof 1985:184). It is round about that time span, that we suddenly see a number of quite sophisticated and clearly related figurines appear in the Chicama and Casma valleys. NORTH COAST FORMATIVE GROUP 1: FIGURINES OF THE LOWER FORMATIVE

Table 1 Plate 1 2 Sample: 20 figurines, mostly fragments (examined 14). Measurements: not applicable, mostly fragments; inferred average height: 10-12 cm. The figurines and figurine fragments in this group share a number of identical iconographic and technical features (treatment of hair, eyes, ears), but we can distinguish three different types: 1) seated figurines with elongated head, 2) standing figurines with rounded head and folded arms 3) standing figurines with rounded head and extended arms. However, there are not enough specimens of each type to allow a subdivision into distinct sub-groups, so the figurines, listed by site, are described together. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Two sitting type 1 figurines (1388, C1) have an elongated head or hairstyle (extremely so and bent backwards on 1388), with deep incisions for the hair, lengthwise on 1388, diagonal with central parting on C1. The heads of type 2 and 3 figurines have a rounded to slightly pointed crown, flattened in profile; all have deep parallel incisions (hair?) from the forehead to the crown, mostly also in the back. Figurines with elongated heads have oval faces with prominent cheeks and jutting chins; those with rounded heads have broad flat faces, with a nearly straight chin (e.g. 887). Types 1 and 2 have eyes consisting of slits, into which are inserted pellets with central punctations for the pupils, whereas type 3 figurines, with extended arms, are lacking the typical eyes: they are described as simple slits (Grieder 1975: 105). Otherwise the three types have the same features: a small, nicely modelled nose with punctated nostrils, an incised mouth (made of two punctations on 887) and ears with an incised rectangular outline and central punctation.

1

A C14 date from Paita in the Tumbes valley is 2010 BC (Izumi and Terada 1966). A number of similar figurine fragments from Moxeque (Pozorski and Pozorski 1986: 396) and four from Las Haldas (Grieder 1975: 105) have not been published and are therefore not listed here. 2

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1388, C1/type 1 are sitting, with drawn up knees and appliquéd arms, the large hands with four incised fingers resting on the knees; the conjoined legs are divided by a deep incision, which carries on underneath,1 the feet are flattened, with incised toes. A fragment (1395) is also sitting, with drawn-up knees closer to the body; the feet, with small incised toes, do not project, the arms are missing. 1388 is a hunchback, with a clearly appliquéd lump of clay in mid-back. As for types 2 and 3, we can assume that they were standing: leg fragments were found with the rounded heads at Cerro Sechín and Grieder's specimens from Las Haldas are also standing. The legs are conjoined, with a deep incision running from the front to the back below the feet (where present), an unusual feature, also seen in type 1 (no data for type 3); some have modelled feet with incised toes, others may not have had feet (e.g. 895b). Two body fragments, assigned to type 2, have arms folded over the abdomen, one placed lower than the other (e.g. P3, only right arm showing on 1396); six figurines (P4, P5 and four others mentioned by Grieder (1975: 105) have arms extended laterally upwards, they are assigned to type 3. The arms on the figurines from Moxeke (Pozorski and Pozorski 1986: 396) are said to be "modelled separately": they were probably appliquéd onto the body, as in type 2, since extended arms would have been mentioned. None of the figurines show breasts or genitals, P5 may have an umbilicus. The only adornments are: a headband with incised broken-line-anddot motif (P1), a neckband or collar (?) with the same incised motif (890) and a bag or fringe hanging in the back of a leg fragment (892). Manufacture All the specimens are hand-made and solid; the decor is incised with a wide blunt point and/or appliquéd. The ware is mostly quite coarse, with large fragments of temper (sand?), the surface unpolished; firing is irregular, the colour varies from dark-brown to pale terracotta or grey. DISCUSSION

Special features/Links with other groups The slightly flattened profile of the heads in types 2 and 3 is a near universal feature of Peruvian figurines. There are a few exceptions in most cultures, but it is only in some of the MH groups that undeformed heads are the norm.2 Whether we are dealing with the fronto-occipital cranial deformation common on the coast, with an artistic beauty cannon, or whether it is technically easier to model a slightly flattened head (and body!) is debatable. A burial from Las Haldas shows this deformation (Matsuzawa 1978: 663). It is not quite clear whether on 1388, C1 (type 1) we have simply a hairstyle or an elongated and/or pointed head. Similar hairstyles do occur on Lower to Middle Formative figurines on the CC,3 and on the atypical S35 (NC-Middle Formative Gr.2). Figurines with actual elongated heads also appear early on the CC and in the Highlands4 but become especially numerous in the CC-LIP;5 on the NC they occur in the Chimu culture (see Chimu Gr. 5). On vessels they are documented from the Middle Formative on the NC (Alva 1986: no. 251). Elongated heads may depict the cranial deformación por llautu, practiced in the Sierra (Weiss 1962: 24), though they may just show a particular headdress or hairstyle. Eyes consisting of slits, with inserted pellets and central punctations for the pupils are known from the Epiformative on the CC,6 whilst the ears, with their rectangular incision and central dot are unique. But the decorative technique as a whole, with its deep, broad parallel incisions is reminiscent of the Lower and Middle Formative on the Central Coast. 1

On 1388 and 1395; not known on C1. For instance on the South Coast Atarco-style figurines. 3 E.g. 2277, 2276/CC-Lower and Middle Formative Ancón sg. 1.1. 4 E.g. 2306, 2307/CC-Lower and Middle Formative Ancón sg.1.3; a figurine from Shillacoto. 5 See Chancay Group 2. 6 E.g. Figurines from Huachipa and Puruchuco, Rimac valley. 2

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Raised or extended arms (P4, P5/type 3) are extremely rare—until they become common in the Chancay culture of the CC. Only one other Formative figurine with laterally raised arms was found at Chanapata (Rowe 1944: fig. 14.16). On the NC, the feature only occurs on 928/ Vicús-associated, 1703, 2175/MH-LIP Gr.4 (fakes?), SAC 199, atypical/Sican Gr. 1. Arms folded at the waist or abdomen, but which are not aligned (P3) are also uncommon. A few occur in NC-Epiformative Gr. 2.2 (Gallinazo), Gr. 3.2 (Vicús). Sitting figurines are not common on the NC;1 they are more common on the CC and SC. Rarer still is the depiction of realistically drawn-up knees with hands resting on them as in type 1. 1879/NC-Epiformative Gr.1 (Salinar) and SC-Nasca sg. 1.2 show figurines sitting as if on a stool. In other cultures, the legs are mostly folded at the sides of the body or stretched out in front. One of the sitting figurines (1388) represents a hunchback. An early hunchback is found amongst the CC-Formative figurines2 and also at Kotosh, Northern Highlands; they are not uncommon in the Chancay culture. Like here they are often shown sitting. The deformity—a projecting back and/or chest—resulted from tuberculosis of the spine; the bacillus itself has been isolated in a mummy (Cabieses 1974: vol. II, p.77). The recurrent representation must have had a specific significance. In pre-Columbian America hunchbacks are generally considered as possessing special powers, malevolent or beneficial (Linné 1943; Barbour 1977: 24). They were excluded from purification rites (Hocquenghem 1979: 221, 227). Acosta (1954/1590: 168f) relates their role in ritual flagellations. Context 1388, 1395, 1396 were excavated by Junius Bird in 1946/47 at Huaca Prieta, a mainly Preceramic midden in the lower Chicama Valley; a few test pits to the north of the site yielded some ceramics. The complete figurine and two figurine fragments were found in Test Pit 4. This test pit is only briefly described in the excavation report, which deals mainly with the Preceramic finds from the site (Bird et al. 1985), but the late J. Hyslop allowed me to examine photostats of Bird’s field notes, and Lilien (1956: 20-22) gives additional data provided by Bird himself. Test Pit 4, excavated to a depth of over 3 m., revealed several sub-terranean house-tombs. Unfortunately, there are some discrepancies between the various data as to where the three specimens were found. The figurine fragment 1395 was found in house-tomb no. 1, a structure with rounded corners and a roof supported by wooden beams. It contained eight skeletons (burials 872-879), partly covered by textiles or matting. Two of them (878, 879) were of young infants, extended, with the head of one resting on the knee of the other. Red paint was smeared on the head of one, maroon paint over the skeleton of the other. 1395 was placed by the side of infant 878, while by the other (879) there was a stone cylinder stamp, still covered with red paint. Other grave goods in the house-tomb included bone weaving tools, a pottery stamp of a bird and a jet mirror,3 as well as 150 shark’s teeth (all associated with burial 873), a lump of red paint was associated with burial 874. The complete figurine (1388) was found, according to Bird himself (Lilien 1956: 20), under some refuse in the same house-tomb 1, but both the published account (Bird et al. 1985: 48) and the AMNH catalogue list it as found in house-tomb no. 2. Finally the small torso fragment 1396 is said to come from "layer z7"(?), but is listed in the AMNH catalogue as coming from house-tomb no.1.4

1

See P12, P13/NC-Middle Formative (Tembladera), 1879, 1880, 1878, 763/Epiform. sg.1.2 (Salinar), C17, 972/sg. 2.2 (Gallinazo), P33/3.1 (Vicús), C20/Moche sg. 1.1.2, 2353, P59/Moche sg. 1.3, 1971, 1981/Moche Gr. 3, various/Moche Grs. 5, 6. There are no sitting NC MH or Sican and only two or three Chimu figurines (Chimu Gr. 5). 2 2299/Ancón sg.1. 3 The cylinder and bird stamps and the mirror are illustrated in Bird et al. 1985: Fig. 30. 4 Note also that the catalogue numbers of 1395 (41.2.4712) and 1396 (41.2.4777), said to be from house-tomb 1 are very far apart, whilst that of 1388 (41.2.4717) said to be from house-tomb 2 is close to that of 1395.

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C1 was part of a child burial, intrusive in a Preceramic strata at the Site of El Silencio in the Upper Santa valley. The grave also contained a jet mirror, two incised ceramic vessels and a stone mortar and pestle (J. Carcelen, personal communication). P1, a head fragment, is a surface find from the site of San Juan I in the Nepeña valley (PV 31-47a), near the town of Moro. The site consists of a low a pyramid and enclosed court; the head was found in the latter (Proulx 1985: 63-66, 253). The following figurines come from sites in and near the Casma Valley, which are now seen as related and belonging to the Sechín Alto Complex and its satellites (Pozorski and Pozorski 20021). The heads and head fragments 887-891 and the leg fragments 892-895a,b,c were excavated at the ceremonial site of Cerro Sechín, in the Casma valley near the confluence of the Casma and Sechín rivers. Four construction stages, each sub-divided into a number of phases, have been recognised at the site: 1) a monumental adobe structure, 2) a stone-faced structure, 3) a reutilisation of the modified structure and 4) a reoccupation of the site in much later epochs (Maldonado 1992: 76-77). The figurine fragments were deposited during the third stage. In the first phase of the reutilisation, the southern ends of the lateral passages along the main stone structure were filled in, whilst the northern sectors of both passages were occupied for some time by squatters; the figurine fragments were more numerous in the eastern passage (Maldonado 1992: 105-106; Samaniego 1980: 320-322 and personal communication). Similar figurine fragments were also recovered in elite architecture at the nearby administrative and ceremonial site of Pampa de las Llamas-Moxeke, (Pozorski and Pozorski 1986: 396). Finally a nearly complete figurine (P5), a head (P2) and two torsos (P3, P4) were found at the site of Las Haldas, circa 20 km south of the Casma valley, a large area of Preceramic and Initial Period middens and an extensive ceremonial complex of mounds and plazas, dating mainly to the late Lower Formative or IP (Fung 1969, Engel 1970, Matsuzawa 1978, Pozorski and Pozorski 1992). Figurine fragments were excavated by the University of Tokyo Expedition in 1958 (Ishida et al. 1960) and by T. Grieder (1975). P2 and P3 were found in adjacent levels of Pit 2, dug within refuse deposited on an architectural terrace, containing thick plain brown ware, as well as some shells and bones. P4 was in a trench along a wall of the same terrace, together with shells, bones, cotton threads and a number of pottery shards of different wares (Ishida et al. 1960: 446). Grieder excavated one figurine, P5, in level 2 of his Cut 3, dug outside the main aligned ceremonial structures and containing a large amount of ceramic shards, within an unreliable stratification. A further four similar figurines fragments were excavated in Cut 1 (Grieder: 1975). To sum up: the context of NC Lower Formative figurines is both funerary and domestic At Huaca Prieta and El Silencio they come from burials, at Moxeke from an elite domestic context, at Cerro Sechín and Las Haldas they are found in what appears to be domestic refuse, but could also come from looted burials. Geographic distribution As we see from the section above, a sprinkling of quite similar figurines is found from the Chicama valley in the north to the Casma valley in the south, though so far no such figurines are known from the Virú valley, nor from northern section of the North Coast. Chronology The dating of this group, based on a large number of studies dealing with the various sites in question, results in an acceptable concurrence. At Huaca Prieta no carbon dates were recovered from Test Pit 4. Originally Bird considered the various ceramics from this test pit as belonging to the Guañape and Cupisnique styles. The Guañape style was first identified in the Virú valley, where it includes different ceramic types, from the earliest primitive pottery to a sophisticated Chavín-related Cupisnique 1

The authors also list extensive publications about these sites.

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(Strong and Evans 1952:206-210) and spans most of the Lower Formative or IP and the early part of the Middle Formative or EH (Burger 1992: 230). For the Chicama valley Larco (1948: 15ff.) makes a clear distinction between Guañape and Cupisnique. In the case of the figurines, the pale terracotta ware with its unburnished surface in no way resembles Cupisnique ceramics. Nor do we find similar facial traits on Cupisnique vessels. Multiple burials are also unusual for the Cupisnique culture, where individual burials are more common. On the other hand, some of the associated finds (the jet mirror, roller stamp, bird stamp) do occur in Cupisnique contexts and a number of vessels from Test Pit 4 are indeed Cupisnique in style (M. Maitland, pers. com.). Bird himself attributed the figurines to the earlier Guañape style (Lilien 1956: 20). In the published report the ceramics are considered to belong to the Initial Period and Cupisnique, e.g. Lower and Middle Formative (Bird et al 1985: 49, 53). By cross-dating the Huaca Prieta figurines with the other figurines of this type, a Lower Formative date is likely, but considering the associated finds, perhaps towards the end of that period. The same chronological position is probable for C1, from a child burial in the upper Santa valley, which was also associated with a jet mirror. Unfortunately I have no data about the two incised ceramic vessels from the same gravelot. P1 from the Nepeña valley, comes from a site which could well date back to the EH and "even the Initial Period" (Proulx 1985: 253). Cerro Sechín, Casma: Here reliable radiocarbon dates show that the figurines must have been deposited after the building with the stone sculptures (calibrated 1519 BC), but before the second stage of its reutilisation (calibrated 1265 BC) (Samaniego et al. 1985: 84; Burger 1992: 77-82), placing the figurines firmly into the Lower Formative. Moxeke - Pampa de las Llamas, Casma: The site which yielded similar figurines (see above) is radiocarbon dated to between 1600-1200 AD, with an approximate average of 1400 BB (Pozorski and Pozorski 1992: 37), spanning the middle part of the Lower Formative or IP. Las Haldas, Casma: All the figurine fragments come from test pits in what appears to be domestic refuse deposited on, in or near some of the early architectural platforms. Considering that the platforms date to the late IP, ca 1200-1000 BC, whereas the refuse on top of them dates to the EH, ca. 1000 to 850 BC (Pozorski and Pozorski 1992: 37) the chronology depends on the relationship between the refuse and the platforms. The nature of the deposits, the sandy, windy terrain, as well as constant looting add to the stratigraphic problems. The Japanese expedition's Pit I, in which P2 and P3 were found, was dug in "...a gentle slope...along the wall of the terrace...(where)...a heap of rubbish, sand and stones had been deposited; Pit II, containing P4, "was sunk in the middle of a ...terrace, where there was a hollow (Ishida et al. 1960: 444-445). So neither pit had a clear stratigraphic relation to the terraces. Grieder's Cut 3, where P5 was found, was sunk between two structures (Grieder 1975: 104); Cut 1, where a further four similar figurine fragments were found in level 3, cuts across both Initial and Preceramic structures (1975: Pl. XL, Fig.5). As far as the ceramic associations go: the head fragment P2 comes from level IV where the typical late bevelled rim does not yet occur, and the body fragment with folded arms, P3, from the next level down, level V, (Ishida et al. 1960: 446), so these could be earlier than Grieder's figurine fragments with slightly different eyes and extended arms (P5 and four others), found in his “late Chavín level, associated with narrow-necked bottles and a high percentage of bevelled rims1"(1975: 104-105), more typical for a later (Middle Formative?) phase, which can also be said of the shards found with P3.2 1

If we compare Ishida and Grieder’s strata to those of R. Fung (1969), it would appear that Ishida’s lowest strata predate or are contemporary with Fung’s phase 1 (absence of beveled rims), Grieder’s late Chavín corresponds to Fung’s phase 2 and 3 (narrow-necked bottles and beveled rims); this is followed by a later phase (Fung’s phase 4). 2 "..shards with reddish brown slip and several bands (7 millimeters in breadth) crossing each other at right angles, and very thin brown polished shards." (Ishida et al. 1960: 446, p.196 no. 40)

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It is possible that at Las Haldas, we find late IP figurines (our type 2) similar to the majority of figurines from other sites, but also a slightly later (early Middle Formative?) type —our type 3—with different eyes and extended arms? Unfortunately it is difficult to compare the pottery type with excavated pottery. The closest match is Fung's lineas anchas pre-pulidas belonging to her phase 2 at Haldas and which she compares with some Guañape material (1969: 135 and Lám. XIV): the incisions are very similar, but the surface finish here is burnished. In a wider context, this type of broad incisions, especially in the treatment of the hair, show similarities with figurines from Ancón (sg. 1) and Kotosh-Kotosh. An early figurine with extended arms is found at Chanapata. Summing up, the evidence shows that the majority of these figurines date to the middle and late Lower Formative, possibly extending into the beginning of the Middle Formative (mid and late IP to early EH). Synopsis: See Chapter 4.

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CHAPTER 4 THE MIDDLE FORMATIVE (OR EARLY HORIZON) ON THE NORTH COAST INTRODUCTION In the absence of figurines which can be clearly linked to the Cupisnique1 or Late Guañape2 style, this period on the North Coast is only represented by the Tembladera figurines. Most of the specimens in this group were looted in the years between 1963-1968 from sites and cemeteries around the town of Tembladera in the Jequetepeque valley and others in the nearby Zaña and Chancay3 valleys. Walter Alva, still a schoolboy at the time, made a concerted attempt to keep a record of looted ceramics by befriending huaqueros and collectors in the region. He also visited many of the looted cemeteries and thus managed to get as much information as possible about the provenance and context of the ceramics. These data were eventually published (Alva 1986). In the 1980s the Peruvian government decided to regulate the waters of the Jequetepeque river by building the Gallito Ciego dam across the Jequetepeque valley, 45 km inland from the coast. Since this would involve the flooding of archaeological sites, a number of projects, from surface collections to large-scale excavations, were set up to record the endangered area (Keatinge 1980, Ravines 1982, Tellenbach 1986). The densest early occupation in the valley is situated around Tembladera, between 370 m and 450 m above see level, where no fewer than 52 early sites were identified, including 30 sites with monumental architecture, such as Montegrande, and twenty-two cemeteries, all of them looted. This area has given the name Tembladera to the distinctive pottery style. Some of the Tembladera figurines are amongst the most spectacular specimens ever found in Peru, both in their decor and their variety. There is a definite connection with music making, because the figures are either shown playing an instrument and/or because many of them are actually ocarinas.4 I decided to include these musical instruments in the study, because they so closely resemble the actual figurines which are not musical instruments. The 29 Tembladera specimens can be divided into two sub-groups, one of classical style figurines and one of sub-or post-classical figurines. NORTH COAST FORMATIVE GROUP 2: FIGURINES OF THE MIDDLE FORMATIVE NC FORMATIVE SUB-GROUP 2.1: CLASSIC TEMBLADERA FIGURINES

Table 2 Plates 2, 3 Sample: 19 figurines (examined 5) + 5 atypical Measurements: Minimum Maximum Median Height (15) 4.5 cm 20.6 cm 15.9 cm Width (9) 2.8 cm 11.7 cm 8.0 cm Thickness (5) 2.2 cm 7.7 cm 5.9 cm Weight: Only the weight of 847 (460 gr.) was recorded. 1

See NC-Early Formative Gr.1, Chronology A single figurine attributed to Late Guañape (626) is listed with the Puerto Moorín/Salinar group (NC-Epiformative Subgroup 1.1). 3 The NC Chancay valley must not be confused with the valley of the same name on the CC. 4 See Table 2. 2

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GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Although this group is fairly homogenous, we can detect three somewhat varying groupings: 1886 to P12 are elaborate specimens, especially in their face-markings and clothing, P13 to P16 are simpler, P17 to 852 show somewhat different features (overall shape, eyes, etc). There are two basic shapes of heads: wide, flattened at the top and fairly wide in profile (1886 to P12) or narrower, longer, more rounded at the top and flatter in profile, possibly showing some cranial deformation (P13 to 848). The face matches the head shape (shorter or more elongated), mostly with a wide, straight or slightly oval, non-jutting chin. There is no modelling, but mostly elaborate, often asymmetrical, face markings (exceptions: P7: parallel tear-lines, P19/left: diagonal incisions, 852: nose-to-chin lines). The eyes mostly consist of deep rectangular slits1 with holes for the pupils; P13 to P16 have similar eyes but with minimal eye-lids; P 17, 847 have incised oval eyeballs and pupils, 852, P19/right and the infants on P12, P13 have circular incised eyes; the nose is large, straight or slightly hooked, without alae, but with perforated nostrils; the mouth is an incision similar but narrower than the eyes, with or without holes at the corners; ears are difficult to identify:2 852 has small semi-circular ears with two punctations; P6, P10 and P12 show a small incision and/or a hole, others are covered by hanks of hair or a headdress (e.g. C2, P13, P17); hair can be plain (e.g. P9, P12) or incised (e.g. P13, P14, 2343). There is no neck. In line with the head shape there are also two basic body shapes: 1886 to P12 have wide shoulders and a rotund body (also in profile) tapering towards minimally divided or completely joined legs; P14 to 848 have narrower, flatter bodies, either straight, resting on separate legs (P14 to P16; the sitting P13 has conjoined legs) or slightly tapering towards a base without feet. Arms are generally folded at waist level in various positions: in a straight line (e.g. P9, P14), one above the other holding a musical instrument (e.g. 1886, C2), raised on the chest (P16) or covering the eyes (848); P7 has the right arm raised holding an object, the double figurine P11 (and probably also P10, P19) have their arms around each others' shoulders in the back, 847, 852 have stylized incised arms and/or hands. The sitting P12 supports a child suckling at her right breast and holds her left nipple in her left hand, P13 holds a child on her knees. Hands are often large, with long parallel incisions indicating four or five fingers (three only on 847, 848, 852); thumbs are shown on 1886, P6, P8, P12. Separate legs (lacking feet) are shown on four specimens, but on some legless specimens (e.g.1886, P6, P9, P11, P12, P13) incised toes indicate the feet. The umbilicus is either not shown or functions as an airhole (nine specimens, e.g. P10). Breasts or genitals are never shown: the incision prolonging the leg separation on P14, 2343, P16 does not indicate the vulva,3 but the gender can often be deduced from the clothing on the double figurines (P10, P11, P19): the males wear a wide belt with a loin cloth, whilst the women wear a gown adorned with circles and a diagonal or straight band; both sexes wear similar large pectorals, but the women have distinctive hanks of hair descending to the shoulders.4 Based on these features we have eight males (1886, P6, P7, P8, C2, P10/left, P11/left, P19/left) and five females (P9, P10/right, P11/right, P19/right, P12). In addition P13, holding a child. and P17, 847, 848 with gowns featuring a diagonal or straight band and hair (or a head covering?) hanging down in the front and back are also females; the long, incised hair on P14 and 2343— similar to the female P13—probably also points to women. The turban on 852 may indicate a man. Clothing and accessories: The clothing can be very elaborate: 1886 wears a jaguar skin headdress with its head, four paws and tail and circular pelage markings, as well as an animal skin without head but with paws and wide tail draped over the back. In addition the figure wears a large belt and loin-cloth, with panels at the front, back and sides descending to the 1

These slits (also the mouth) sometimes terminate in small holes at each corner (e.g. 847) The majority of figurines in this group are only known from illustrations. 3 Alva refers to personajes (1986: 98, nos. 461, 462). 4 Some of these features are absent on the small double figure P19. 2

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feet, a wide pectoral of large rectangular beads, hanging disk ear ornaments and bracelets. Other male headgear include a bird (condor?) with head, wings and tail (P6), an unidentified feline? (P10/left), a "turban like headdress in the form of feline nostrils"1 (P7), a doublecrested headdress (P8, C2) with semi-circular crests from front to back and an elaborate stylized feline in the back, drawn or embroidered on a textile bordered by a fringe (P8,2 something similar also on C2). Belts and loin cloths (with circular markings on C2), some with shorter side panels, are worn by the other males. Females wear long head scarves (or hair) and mostly long gowns decorated with circles and/or diagonal or vertical bands Pectorals, varying in width, some covering the shoulders and the upper back (e.g. P11, P12), are worn by the majority of male and female figurines; C2 wears a necklace of six quadrangular beads with concentric circles, P16 a collar with indented edge; P12 wears a bracelet similar to 1886. 1886, P6, P8 and C2 play a double flute, whilst P7 holds a conch trumpet, with a textile banner or ribbon attached to it (Lapiner 1976: Pl. 60 and 438, note 60). Manufacture All the figurines are hand-made and hollow, except 852 which is solid;3 the number and location of the airholes varies: it could not always be ascertained on the specimens only known from publications (e.g. P7, P8); several figurines which are ocarinas have large holes on the top of the head and on the abdomen, though others, which are not ocarinas, can also have a large hole on the top of the head (e.g. P12); other holes are the pupils and the nostrils, sometimes the mouth; C2 has airholes behind the elbows, 847, 848 have a hole through the base. It is not clear whether some small holes (e.g. through the chests of 1886, P6) are actual airholes. The paste is oxidised, unslipped but often polished or burnished; the colour varies from orange to brown and there often traces of post-fired resinous white paint. The decor is appliquéd and/or incised into damp or semi-dried paste (Alva 1986: 98). Atypical: S33, S34, S35, P18: These four related ocarinas come from the same general area and also share features with this group: head- and/or face-shape, incised facial features: (S35 has the typical eyes, the others have the rarer circular eyes, the nose is practically absent), only S34 has face-markings; incised hair (S34, S35), appliquéd arms with large hands, no breasts or genitals, S34 wears a large pectoral. The main difference is the short rotund body, with wide shoulders and stub legs. Special features: the hair combed upwards at the back and the incision outlining the face on S35; one-crested headdress on S33, headdress surmounted by a human (or animal?) face (P18), hand(s) held up to the mouth (S35, P18). All the specimens are hand-made and hollow with airholes through the eyes, nose, mouth as above; but unlike the ocarinas in the main group they have one large hole in the back and smaller holes at the shoulders and upper legs, S34 also one below the abdomen, instead of large holes on top the head and through the abdomen. They are made in oxidised, unpolished terracotta ware. C3 is a double-aspect figurine related to this group, but showing many differences (facial features and face-markings, arms, body markings, accoutrements). Aspect 1 has a slightly rounded head with a very flat cap or hairstyle framing the broad short face, which is slightly tilted backwards in profile, with a jutting chin. The incised rectangular eyes are large, with square perforated pupils and hook-shaped tear-lines below; the nose is hooked, with punctated nostrils, the large incised mouth shows fangs, there are no ears. Aspect 2 has a thicker covering of the head, with hanks over the ears?; the profile is straight. The closed eyes are shown as semi-circular incisions, the nose is straight with punctated nostrils and alae, the 1

Lapiner 1976: 438, note 60. "..a large Chavín frontal mask...a typical example of the agnathic central fanged frontal mask..." (Kan 1972: 81).

2 3

Said to be a bone figurine (D. Bonavia (1994: fig. 27, caption), but definitely described as ceramic (Alva 1986: 99, no. 469).

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incised mouth has fangs resting on the chest: there is no chin. The figurine has a single body, rotund (also in profile) tapering down to short separate legs, with small incised toes (Aspect 1 only). The very long appliquéd arms have hands with incised fingers and are folded upwards to the shoulders, facing alternate aspects. There are no nipples, umbilicus or genitals. An interconnected incised decor covers both aspects of the body (the lower part of Aspect 2 shows incised circles). In addition, an animal head is attached to the chin of Aspect 1, whilst an animal skin (or animal?), complete with paws, hangs across the chest of Aspect 2, held in place by both hands, with the fangs of Aspect 2 "resting" on its back . C3 is hand-made and hollow, with airholes on the top of the head, the eyes and nostrils. The pale brown surface is either slipped or highly burnished; the incised decor is finer and shallower than on the other figurines. DISCUSSION

Special features/ Links with other groups Some of the figures (like the flute players), show no flattening of the back of the head, whereas others (e.g. P13, P14, 847, 852) do, indicating cranial deformation.1 Since all the specimens are roughly contemporary and come from the same general area, this may reflect a sexual difference. In the Late Formative site of Puerto Moorín in the Virú valley, female skeletons showed fronto-occipital deformation, whereas men did not (Strong and Evans 1952: 49-56). Of the three different eye-shapes, the most frequent form (deep rectangular incision with punctated pupil) does not occur on any of the contemporary figure vessels.2 A second shape, rarer in this group (incised, oval, without lids but with incised pupils: P17, 847, 848) is quite common on vessels (Alva 1986: nos. 138, 170, 191, 195, 214, 243, 244, 255, 347). The most intriguing is the circular eye: in this group it occurs in different contexts: on the male in the double figurine ocarina P19/right, on the two infants on their mothers lap (P12, P13), on the figurine with turban (852) and on three of the four atypical ocarinas (S33, S34, P18). In its simple form—as on the figurines—we find it on whistling jars (Alva 1986: 390, 398, 399, 393, 3923) or on a personage playing a musical instrument (Lapiner 1976: Pl.7)—so there is an obvious link to music-making—and in animal representations, often of monkeys (Alva 1986: 75, 205, 207, 266, 273, 280). The incised facial decor (depicting either face-paint or tattooing) is unusually elaborate. It can be symmetrical (P6, P8, P14) but is mostly asymmetrical, the "zoning" emphasising a kind of mirror-imaging (e.g. P16). Deciphering is difficult: Lapiner (437, note to Pl. 51) suggests that some males (1886, P11/left, P7) have "stylized feline fangs", perhaps representing feline characteristics, such as power. Markings surrounding the eyes, as on P8, may have an avian connotation. On Middle Formative vessels with human representations we find simpler face-markings (Lapiner 1976: Pls.7, 8, 13, 19; Alva 1986: 138), complex markings are limited to mythical representations (Alva 1986: nos. 60, 90). Face-paint is not uncommon in later cultures (Moche, Nasca, Chancay), but never as elaborate as in this group. Tearlines, which become more common on figurines from the MH onwards, appear here for the first time: as straight double lines (C2) or as short hooks (C3, atypical). In the latter form we see them on a figure vessel (Alva 1986: 401). Tears are symbolically linked with rain, but they can also be the result of hallucinogens. Nose-to-chin lines (852) are rare at this early stage but become very common in later NC cultures, especially in Chimu. The peculiar hairstyle of the atypical S35, with its central parting and swept upwards at the back is reminiscent of Lower and Middle Formative figurines (e.g. 1388, C1/NC-Lower Formative Gr.1; 2277, 2276/CC-Lower and Middle Formative Ancón sg. 1.1).

1

See NC-Formative Gr.1, Special features. It must not be mistaken for eyes with relief eye-lids (Alva 1986: nos. 101, 104, 131, 268) or with pellets inserted into slits (no. 130). 3 Alva 1986: no. 392 shows a male, no. 106 (not a whistling jar) a female in an erotic context. 2

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Hands with three fingers (847, 848, 852) first seen here, are a recurring feature across many Peruvian cultures and in all media (pottery, textiles, metal- or stone work).1 Although an avian symbolism has been suggested, the elongated shape of the hands here may have a different significance. Three specimens lift their hand(s) to their face: 848 covers her eyes with her hands, in sorrow or fear? This depiction is unique amongst Peruvian figurines. S35 lifts one hand, P18 both hands to the mouth. Similar gestures, the meaning of which is difficult to interpret, do occasionally occur on figurines (see NC: 1880/NC-Formative.sg.2.2, SAC 320/Epif. sg. 3.1.2 (Vicús), 23, 327, 1610, etc/Chimu Gr.5. They are very common on Gallinazo-style face-necks (Donnan 2006: Fig.10 a, b. d). A Gallinazo face-neck with a hand held to the mouth shows the characteristic coca chewing protuberance in the cheek (Shimada and Maguiña 1994: fig. 1.17). One specimen (P16) has arms folded upwards: this posture is unusual (see also NCFormative sg. 2.2; Epiformative: sg.2.2 (Gallinazo), sgs. 3.1.2, 3.2.1 (Vicús); Chimu Gr.5, CC-LH sgs. 1.1, 1.2, 3, etc.). Double male and female figures (P10, P11, P19) are unique to this group, though pairs of separate male and female figurines do occur in Moche (sg.1.1.1) and more frequently on the Central Coast during the late MH and the LIP (see Huaura) and on the South Coast (Nasca). Male/female dualism is a fundamental concept in pre-Columbian Peru.2 Interestingly, we are dealing here with musical instruments (ocarinas), which adds an unknown dimension to the symbolism. Sitting figurines (P12 and P13) are relatively rare throughout the NC sample.3 Here we see two females holding an infant, a representation which occurs occasionally in other cultures.4 What is unusual here is the spread-eagled child suckling, with the mother also holding the other breast (P12) and the head of the child in the shape of a penis (P13), so that seen in profile the figure appears to be holding its penis. The female dress in this sub-group is characterised by a decor of circles, usually representing feline markings5 (see Alva 1986: nos. 171, 181, 182, 185). Here only the male C2 also shows circles on his loin-cloth: two vessels from the same area, show a male and a female figure respectively, both wearing a belt and loin-cloth decorated with circles (Bonavia 1994: 55); males with similar loin cloths also occur amongst Gallinazo figurines (682, 683, 2188/ NC- Epiformative Gr.2). Another unusual feature of the female dress is a diagonal band across the gown (P9, P10/right, P17); other females have the more common straight band (P12, 848); 847 has a partly diagonal, partly straight band. The elaborate clothes, especially in the first grouping, are unique, though headdresses incorporating an animal head and paws are not uncommon. Arriaga (1968/1621: 207) mentions a fox-skin headdress worn by magicians. Animal headdresses with head and projecting paws are common on vessels, especially in Moche (Donnan 1978: Figs.108, 152,180) though wings (P6) or feline nostrils (P7) are not shown. The small spherical animal head on P18, arguable not a headdress, has no known parallels ? P8 and C2 wear an unusual crested headdress: two figure vessels (Alva 1986: nos. 347, 349) wear similar headgear, whilst some of the mythical representations show crests surrounding the face, possibly depicting stylized eyebrows or hair? (Alva 1986: nos. 64, 90, 108, 343) Double-faced or Janus figures (C3/atypical) are known during the Middle Horizon on the Central Coast,6 showing the same personage on both faces, whereas in C3 we obviously have 1

Examples are too numerous to be given here. See Discussion under CC-Huaura. 3 See NC-Early Formative Gr.1, Discussion. 4 For a list a similar figurines and an interpretation of its meaning see Moche Gr. 3. 5 Curiously some vessels with such markings show monkeys (Alva 1986: 273, 280; Lapiner 1976: Pl.50) or even fish (Alva 1986: no. 172). 6 See CC: 337/Nieveria; 1986/Supe, SAC 289/Supe-Huaura hybrids; 140/Huaura 2.1, 2201/ Late MHearly LIP Unaffiliated Gr.1. 2

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two complementary figures or aspects, one with open, the other with closed eyes, but connected through the continuous body markings. The closed eyes in conjunction with the fanged mouth of Aspect 2 have a parallel in Tembladera vessels (Lapiner 1976: Pl.20; Alva 1986: no. 67a,b). Note also that Aspect 2 has no lower jaw—possibly because it is covered by the animal skin—though this feature is shared by the representation on the back of P8: Kan (1972: 81) calls this "a typical example of the agnathic1 central fanged frontal mask" of his EF Phase of the Chavin style. The feline symbolism is strong in this figure. Closed eyes appear to be unique amongst Peruvian figurines; they may be linked with hallucinogens. The fanged mouth occurs on Moche Priestess figurines, but probably as a mask (see Moche sg. 4.1). So this figurine could represent a "supernatural" or a priest in different stages of his ceremonial functions. Context As already mentioned all the figurines in this group come from illicit and undocumented excavations. Any available information was gathered by W. Alva, mainly through his contacts with local collectors and huaqueros. It appears that most of the recorded archaeological material—Alva speaks of about one thousand artefacts (1986: 38) and publishes 470 ceramics—comes from burials, found in small but densely distributed cemeteries, rather than from settlements or ceremonial sites. In spite of the lack of reliable data, it seems that there were status differences between burials, some of which contained important offerings, though rarely two or more ceramic objects per tomb. We only know (pers. com. of owner) that 847 and 848 were found in the same grave, together with a third (broken) specimen; 852 was found with an important vessel (Alva 1986: no. 108) and "near" 855 (Alva 1986: no. 470).2 The atypical ocarinas S33, S34, S35, though somewhat different in style, were also found together in one tomb. One aspect of the function of these specimens is that 19 out of a total of 26 are linked with music: 1886, P6, P8 play a double quena or flute with five to seven (or more) finger holes on each flute,3 C2 plays a single flute, P7 a conch trumpet. Fourteen are ocarinas, defined as vessel-shaped flutes with finger holes (orifices digitales), in this case with a blowing hole, single finger hole and no air duct (Cabello and Martinez 1988: 46). In his study of musical instruments, A. Jimenez Borja (1950-1951) points out that musical instruments were seen as having a life or spirit of their own. Their role in ceremonial life is well documented by the chroniclers, as when used during an eclipse of the sun or the moon, in conjuring hail or thunder, but also in all the important public and even domestic ceremonies. Finally a connotation of renewal and fertility may be reflected in the representation of couples and in the ocarinas representing a mother and child (P12, P13), especially the child with the head in the shape of a penis. Geographic Distribution If we accept the documentation garnered by W. Alva and others, 12 specimens are from the Jequetepeque valley, though the actual site attribution to Tembladera itself is not ascertainable;4 the attribution to Limoncarro (P12), being so specific, is more likely to be correct. A further six specimens come from the Zaña valley and two from Chongoyape, Chancay valley. So the site distribution is very concentrated: it is remarkable that no similar figurines were found further south, in the general area of the Cupisnique culture, in spite of the strong similarities between "Tembladera" and Cupisnique ceramics.

1

The Oxford Dictionary gives "agnathous" = without jaws. See North Highlands Gr. 1. 3 The number of holes on Pre-Columbian flutes is said to vary between three and six (Jimenez Borja 1950-1951: 66). 4 This is the case for Lapiner's (1976) attributions, which are not followed by Alva (1986) and are therefore not awarded a *. 2

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Chronology There can be not doubt that the distinctive Tembladera pottery style belongs to the northern tradition associated with the Chavín religious cult. Alva who deplores the lack of indepth studies of inter-relationships between the various Middle Formative styles sees links it with the Cupisnique style of the Moche-Chicama valleys1 and with both the Chavín-Ofrendas and Chavin-Rocas styles (1986: 38), whilst for Keatinge (1980: 473-475) there is no direct Chavín influence, the closest links for the Tembladera style being with Kuntur Wasi (also known as La Copa), contemporary with the Middle Formative Janabarriu phase at Chavin, and with the Torrecitas-Chavín style found in the Cajamarca area. Burger (1992: 98) points out the similarities between the Tembladera style and the Late Huacaloma style in the Cajamarca basin. The exact chronological position of the Tembladera figurines is difficult to assess: Alva speculates that the Tembladera ceramics may span several centuries (1986: 16). Since all the figurines come roughly from the same area, the differences which we perceive between the more elaborate (1886 - P12) and the simpler specimens (P13 - P16) probably indicate just such a chronological difference, since figurines of the Late Formative styles in the area (Salinar, Virú) become much plainer. As for the third grouping (P17 - 852) there is no ready explanation for what appears to be a sub-style. In any case we are in the realm of pure speculation: for the time being this group can only broadly be dated to the Middle Formative. NC FORMATIVE SUB-GROUP 2.2: SUB- OR POST-CLASSIC TEMBLADERA FIGURINES

Table 2 Plate 4 Sample: 5 figurines (examined 4) Measurements: The three sitting figurines measure between 12.8 cm and 17.2 cm in height, the largest one (the only undamaged one) measures 9.3 cm in width and 11.3 cm in thickness. The two standing specimens measure 22.7 cm and 13.1 cm in height, 9.0 cm and 7 cm in width and 7.8 cm and 5.9 cm in thickness respectively. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The figurines share a rounded head (except for 1878, with headdress) also quite rounded in profile. The face is broad and lacks modelling, only C13 shows a stepped facial decor; the eyes consist of thick appliquéd horizontal eyelids, placed very close together, with punctated pupils; the large nose is straight, with punctated nostrils, the mouth is a straight incision, ears, only shown on 1878 and C13, are naturalistic. There is no chin to speak off, the neck is indicated by a groove. The body of the sitting specimens is straight-sided, with thick appliquéd arms folded upwards (1880: left hand on mouth) and hands with incised fingers, the legs are folded at the knees (1879), stretched out (1880, broken), cross-legged (1878); 1879, 1880 have small punctated nipples. The standing figurines have a more rotund body (C13 may be a hunchback), very thin appliquéd arms and cylindrical legs (separate on 2341, conjoined on C13) with small feet. The genitals are only shown on C13 (male), but can be inferred—by analogy with classical Tembladera figurines—from the long hair: 1679, 1880, 2341 are female, 1878 is male. The backs are plain, except for the incised hair on 2341. The figurines are naked, 1878 wears a tall hat with incised diagonal lines and circles, a wide incised collar and small circular ear-plugs with a central dot, 1880 wears a necklace of small beads, C13 has a relief edge across the forehead (a cap or a hairstyle?) and an appliquéd band at shoulder level, back and front. 1878 plays a pan-pipe of four tubes.

1

But in contrast to the wealth of figurines from the Jequetepeque valley, no figurines at all have yet come to light from a Cupisnique context in the Moche-Chicama valley: as we have seen, the figurine from Huaca Prieta (1388/NC-Gr.1) is not Cupisnique in style.

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Manufacture The figurines are hand-made and hollow, mostly with airholes placed at the eyes, nostrils, mouth and or at the head, umbilicus, base. The ware is oxidised, coarse with an unburnished surface—except on 2341, which may be slipped—in dark terracotta (2341:orange); 1879, 1880, 1878 show traces of post-fired red paint. DISCUSSION

Special Features/Links with other groups Although these figurines lack the sophistication of those in sg. 2.1, there is an undeniable family air, especially when looking at the three figurines from Tembladera (1878, 1879, 188): the shape of the head with hair framing the face, the nose and mouth, the playing of a musical instrument. But a coarser workmanship is evidenced by the appliquéd features such as the eyelids which have replaced the finely cut rectangular eyes: they now resemble coffee-bean eyes, such as we can see on Gallinazo and especially Vicús figurines. 1880 lifts its hand to the mouth, a fairly unusual and unexplained feature, 1879, C13 Have arms folded upwards on the chest, much less common on Peruvian figurines than arms folded horizontally, but occur sporadically across the board .1 Punctated nipples (1879, 1880) occur sporadically on the NC (see Vicús sgs. 3.1.2, 3.2.2, Chimu Recurrent Features) and are quite common during the LH on the CC .2 The type of cylindrical hat worn by 1878 is unique, although cylindrical hats also occur in NC-MH Gr.1 or on a Sican "Special" (1409/Sican Gr. 4). Context We only know that the females 1879, 1880, and the male 1887 were found together, probably in a grave. Geographic Distribution Three specimens are said to come from Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley; C13, recorded by the PAP probably comes from the general area of Puemape/Pacasmayo. Chronology The question is whether these specimens are simply less well made examples of Tembladera figurines, or whether they represent a later phase of the style. 2341 with its polished and slipped orangeware surface already reminds one of "elite" Salinar figurines:3 it has been included here because of the eyes and shape of the head. THE FIGURINES OF THE FORMATIVE: SYNOPSIS

There are 20 Lower Formative figurines, mostly fragments, and 29 Middle Formative figurines. In sg. 2.1 more than half are ocarinas. Characteristics Little can be said about the posture and accoutrements of the Lower Formative figurines: only two are complete, both sitting, with legs folded and arms placed on the knees. Six fragments show the joined legs of standing specimens; two fragments show arms folded at the abdomen, two unusual extended arms. The sex is not indicated. There are no signs of clothing or ornaments. The figurines must have been small: an estimate for the height of the largest standing fragment would be about 12.0cm, the one sitting specimen measures 6.8 cm. By contrast the Middle Formative Tembladera figurines—all complete—are spectacular: 24 specimens are standing, mostly with arms folded at the waist or holding a musical instrument; four specimens lift their hands to their eyes or mouth. The five sitting figurines 1

Both features : see above sg. 2.1 See CC-LH, sgs. 1.1, 1.2. 3 See Epiformative sg.1.2 2

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show a variety of postures: legs outstretched, folded at the knees or cross-legged. The sex is not indicated, but one can deduce it from the different hairstyles and accoutrements of three double figures (man and woman) and of the two sitting females holding an infant on their lap. On this basis there are six or seven men and nine women. The gender-specific clothing consists of a loin cloth with hanging panel in front for the men and of a long gown, decorated with circles or lines for the women. In addition the men wear a headdress, the women show hair, often incised, and/or sidelocks; both sexes can have large pectorals. In sg.2.1 both sexes also have elaborate face markings. A height between 15.0 and 20.0 cm is common. Manufacture Both groups are hand-made, but whilst the Lower Formative figurines are solid, the Middle Formative specimens are hollow, with a number air-holes varying in size; in sg. 2.1 the largest hole is usually on top of the head, necessary for the use of the figurine as an ocarina. Both groups are made in oxidized ware with surface colours varying from pale terracotta or orange to tan. The décor is incised, with thick bold lines in Group 1, with finer lines, often with post-fired white paint. Context Only three Lower Formative figurines were found in a funeral context, some of the others come from disturbed locations near or within ceremonial structures. It is likely that all the Tembladera figurines were found in graves. An important aspect of their possible function or symbolism is that over half of the specimens are ocarinas and a further four figurines are shown playing a flute. Geographic Distribution The Lower Formative figurines were found in sites in the Chicama, Nepeña and Casma Valleys. The Tembladera figurines come from sites in the Chancay, Zaña and predominantly the Jequetepeque valley. Chronology Group 1 figurines probably date to the end of the Lower Formative and possibly to the beginning of the Middle Formative. In Group 2, sg. 2.1 figurines date broadly to the Middle Formative, whilst it is possible that the less well-made sg.2.2 figurines date to the Late Formative.

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42

CHAPTER 5 THE EPIFORMATIVE (I.E. LATE FORMATIVE AND EARLY EIP) ON THE NORTH COAST INTRODUCTION

The widely shared religious and cultural concepts culminating in the Chavín Horizon of the Middle Formative start to disintegrate around 200 BC. Large ceremonial structures cease to be built or are gradually abandoned and an increasing secularization manifests itself in all the crafts, especially ceramics. Not only do the old beliefs appear to run out of breath, but in certain areas increasing conflict is documented by the appearance of fortified villages. One would expect such a period of instability to result in a gradual withdrawal into smaller, valley-based cultural units. Instead, Chavín-related pottery is followed or replaced by a number of local styles in many areas of Pre-Columbian Peru, which appear to have so much in common, that originally archaeologists spoke of a “White-on-Red Horizon”. The styles in question are Puerto Moorin/Salinar, Gallinazo/Virú, Vicús on the North Coast, Baños de Boza, Miramar, Huachipa-Villa El Salvador-Tablada de Lurín on the Central Coast, JahuayChongos on the South Coast, as well as Kotosh-Higueras and Huaraz in the North and Central Highlands. Lumbreras (1974:81) describes the White-on-Red phenomenon as follows: “...The Upper Formative is the period of emphasis on individuality and gradual loss of uniformity; it is the initial phase of regional cultural diversification. This diversification was not fully realised until later, however, and the Upper Formative complexes posses widespread similarities even though strong cultural integration did not exist. A good example is the so-called “White-on-Red” stylistic horizon, a technique of pottery decoration that links widely separated regions. Since a similar degree of unity is not evident in other aspects of culture, some kind of selection must have operated on the elements transmitted by commercial activities, which appear to have intensified after the Middle Formative.”

Along with the white-on-red pottery, we also see, on the North Coast—in the Vicús and Gallinazo cultures, though not in Salinar—the appearance of resist or negative painting. Originally this period of change was placed at the end of the Formative, but it is now accepted that it straddles the divide between the Formative and the EIP.1 This is why the name of "Epiformative" coined by Kaulicke (1994a) is so apposite.2On the North Coast, the relative chronological position of Puerto Moorin/Salinar on one hand, and Gallinazo/Virú and Vicús on the other is subject to debate. Whereas Gallinazo/Virú was considered to be intermediary between Salinar and Moche, it is now thought that Salinar may be a direct antecedent of Moche, with a roughly contemporary Gallinazo style in some areas, which however survives during most of the Moche period. Gallinazo/Virú is in turn closely related to the Vicús style, which may have survived into the MH (Kaulicke 1992, Shimada and Maguiña 1994; NC EPIFORMATIVE GROUP 1: THE SALINAR/PUERTO MOORIN FIGURINES

Introduction The distinct Salinar ceramic style was first identified by R. Larco in 228 tombs at Jaguary in the upper Chicama valley. Later E. Mujica (1975) and C. Brennan (1980) excavated the Salinar site of Cerro Arena, situated above the ruins of Moche. Larco describes the Salinar 1

Bawden (2004:121) considers all four NC styles—Salinar, Gallinazo, Vicús and Moche—to belong to the EIP. 2 See above Chapter 3.2, The Chronological Frame.

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ceramics as of good quality, especially the paste and the firing, often red in colour, with a matte or burnished surface and with incised or sometimes painted white decor. Chronologically Larco placed these finds between the Middle Formative Cupisnique style and Moche (Larco 1948: 20-22; 1966: 76ff). In the Virú valley pottery closely related to the Moche/Chicama valleys Salinar style was first excavated in several burials at the site of Puerto Moorín, about 2 km inland from the fishing village of the same name: so the name of Puerto Moorín was given to the Salinar style pottery of the Virú valley (Strong and Evans 1952: 210-211). Lumbreras originally spoke of the Salinar and Puerto Moorin culture (1974: 81), but the later name seems to have gone out of usage now. However amongst the 14 figurines which can be attributed to the style or styles, we see a clear distinction between fairly crude "utilitarian" specimens, all retrieved from Puerto Moorín sites in the Virú valley, and much better made and elaborate "elite" figurines. The latter are very diverse and many have no provenance, but their characteristics—not all shared—point to this "slot" in time and space. So they are tentatively and "by default" presented as Salinar figurines, also because of attributions by various authors.1 But it is possible that some belong to the Gallinazo or other contemporary styles. NC EPIFORMATIVE SUB-GROUP 1.1: "UTILITARIAN" PUERTO MOORIN (SALINAR) FIGURINES

Table 3 Plate 4 Sample: 10 figurine fragments (examined 1) Measurements: The fragments measure between 9.0 and 4.0 cm. Only one specimen, belonging to the Late Guañape style is nearly complete: it is 17.6 cm. high, 5.1 cm broad and 3.9 cm thick. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The one nearly complete figurine, said by M.West to belong to the Late Guañape style, is narrower and its head is clearly separated from the body. Other characteristics are similar, so all the specimens are going to be described together. They are rather disparate, mainly linked by their provenance, their stylised appearance, as well as the coarseness both of the modelling and the surface finish. Features in the following description are based on two or three examples at most. The large head is rounded, also in profile (626), otherwise flattened; the face is wide (C4, C5) without modelling or decor (an incised line runs from the nose to the mouth on 626). The eyes can be simple slits (626, C4, C122) or have relief lids (C5, C6); C10, C11 appear to have thick projecting eyebrows, but no eyes; the nose is relatively important, with punctated nostrils (626, C4, C5) as well as alae (C9, C10, C11); the mouth is a thin slit (626, C4, C5, C12); ears are semi-circular (C4) or elongated (C5, C6, C12?), with or without a punctation or incision, 626 has no ears. The bodies are flat; four have thin appliquéd arms extended towards the waist, legs are missing, only C8 has separate stump legs; there are no breasts or umbilicus. C4 has appliquéd male genitals, 626 has no genitals, the genital area is missing on the other two body fragments. The back is always plain. No clothing or accessories. Manufacture All the figurines are hand-made and solid with incised or appliquéd decor. The ware is oxidised, coarse with large inclusions, the surface is unslipped, fairly rough, terracotta in colour. DISCUSSION

Special features/Links with other groups Many—though not always all—of the highly stylized facial and body features, such as the outsize head, slit eyes and mouth, nose starting high on the forehead, lack of neck, shapeless body and stub legs, are shared by figurines not only of the roughly contemporary North Coast 1 2

See below, Chronology. C12 may have had inserted pellets as pupils?

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Gallinazo/Virú or Vicús styles, but also by contemporary figurines on the CC, the North and Central Highlands and the SC.1 This similarity of highly stylized but coarse figurines, following—in all areas—on the extremely sophisticated specimens of the preceding phase, is typical for the so-called "white-on-red horizon" phenomenon. Context According to Michael West (personal communication) the Puerto Moorín figurine fragments are always found in dwellings or domestic refuse. West notes that in the Puerto Moorín culture, pottery production took place in localized workshops, apparently serving small areas. This is reflected in the relative variety of the figurines, especially the rendering of facial features: eyes can be slit, as above, appliqué or circular (incised with a reed). Geographic Distribution Michael West found around 80 figurine fragments (sg. 1.1) at nine sites distributed throughout the Virú valley. Over 80% of these come from Huaca Lechusa (four fragments shown here), a site at the edge of the valley,2 where a residential and industrial Puerto Moorín complex had been built over a Guañape ceremonial centre. Two fragments come from the site of Puerto Moorín itself (V-66). The earliest figurine in this sequence (626) comes from a Late Guañape midden at Cerro Compositan3 in the lower Virú valley. Chronology 626 is said to come from a late Guañape context. The Guañape period was identified by Strong and Evans in the Virú valley (1952: 23ff). They consider it as contemporary with the Cupisnique style in the Moche/Chicama valley - in other words, it belongs to the Middle Formative. It was included here because it is much closer stylistically to the Puerto Moorín figurines than to the NC-Middle Formative Gr. 2 (Tembladera) or even the earlier Lower Formative Gr.1. All the other "utilitarian" specimens were excavated or collected in Puerto Moorín sites and levels in the Virú valley, which would date them to the Late Formative. In the absence of comparative material It is difficult to decide to what degree the Puerto Moorín style of the Virú valley is really identical with the Salinar style of Moche/Chicama (and valleys to the North?): the figurines are certainly very different. NC EPIFORMATIVE SUB-GROUP 1.2: "ELITE" SALINAR FIGURINES

Table 3 Plate 4 Sample: 6 figurines and one complete ceramic head (examined 6) Measurements4: Minimum Maximum Median Height (5): 15.3 cm 37.0cm 21.0 cm Width (4): 7.8 cm 12.0 cm 10.9 cm Thickness (3): 5.2 cm 9.4 cm 5.8 cm Weight: Not recorded GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Small disparate sub-group. The head is generally rounded also in profile (exceptions: 1406, 1269). The face is naturalistic in shape and proportions (except on P20, 1406, stylized, broad without chin). The eyes are shown as oval, without lids and with a small dot indicating the pupils (P20 has eyes with circular relief eyelids and a central depression for the pupil, 1334 has long relief eye-brows, elongated molded eyelid, placed close together); the nose varies in length but always has punctated nostrils; the mouth is a straight incision, or has molded lips (P20, 1334), 763 shows incised teeth; ears can be small, semi-circular, with an

1

CC- Late Epiformative Figurines from the Rimac Valley and the Tablada de Lurín, Kotosh Higueras figurines, Central Highlands Cochachongas figurines, SC-Misc. Late Formative figurines. 2 West’s site number 4-34. Huaca Lechusa is not listed amongst Willey’s (1953) Virú sites. 3 West’s site number is 127. Willey's Cerro Compositan sites are V83-85 (Late Guañape) and V86-87 (Early to Late Puerto Moorín) (1953: 431-432). 4 Do not include the sitting specimen (783) and the large head (1334).

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incision (P20, 1406, 1907, 1269), or very large and plain, curved (763, 1334). The neck is mostly indicated; it is very long and bent forward on 1269. The body is also diverse: shoulders are shown, except on 1406; the lateral outline and the profile are basically straight. The arms are generally thin: appliquéd, folded upwards on the chest (P20, 1406), raised towards the head (763), folded at the sides towards the body (1269, left arm broken), holding an object (1907, P21), hands have incised fingers. 763 is sitting with legs stretched out; the rest are standing, with completely separate (P20, 1406, P21) or conjoined legs (1907), on 1269 the legs are only joined at the feet; small feet with incised toes. No breast or umbilicus, 1269 shows what looks like incised ribs (probably a disease, see Discussion). P20 has no genitals, 763 has male genitals, 1406, 1269 have a small protuberance with a punctation, which could be a penis or a female vulva? Both 1907, wearing a loin cloth, and P21 with genitals are hidden by the tunic are probably male (see Discussion). The back is mostly plain, except for incised hair (1406) or a loincloth (1907). Clothing, accessories: All specimens except 1907 with a loin cloth and P21 with a belted tunic are naked. 1907 wears a coiled turban, 763 an elaborate helmet-like headdress with lateral flaps framing the face, P21 a flat cap secured by a rope; 1269 has just a projecting topknot: the lengthwise, parallel incisions suggest a hairstyle, rather than a turban. 1907 wears small circular ear-plugs with central dot. It is not clear whether 1907 is blowing on a pututo or shell trumpet, or whether he is drinking from a vessel; P21 carries a deer across his shoulder, a mace in his right hand and a shield? in his left. Manufacture All "elite" Salinar figurines are hand-made and hollow, with airholes placed in a variety of combined locations. The ware is oxidised, the surface from rough (P20) or smoothed (1907), to burnished (763) and slipped (1406, 1269).The surface colour is various shades of terracotta; 1406 has white bands across the legs and traces of white on the face, 763 and P21 also show traces of white paint; 1269 show traces of cinnabar rubbed into it, also into the break of the left arm. . DISCUSSION

Special features/Links with other groups Most of the figurines (except 1406) only show a slight flattening of the head in profile, and not the cranial deformation, which becomes the norm on later figurines across Peru.1 Eyes: Incised oval eyeballs with a tiny central punctations (1406, 1269), also occur on Salinar vessels (Larco 1966: fig. 25), are rare on Gallinazo figurines (cf. 972/sg. 2.2) and do not occur in Vicús. Plain incised eyeballs (1907, 763) which also appear on Salinar vessels (Larco 1966: fig. 27) do occur in Vicús (sgs.3.2.1 and 3.2.2), but not in Gallinazo; whilst circular eyes with appliqu'ed lids (e.g. P20), are common on Gallinazo figurines (1390, 2183, P22/sg.2.1, 951, 1067/sg.2.2, 683, 2188/sg. 2.3) but not on Vicús figurines.2 The molded parallel eyelids on 1334 are reminiscent of the (late?) Tembladera figurines (e.g. 2341/Formative sg. 2.2). 763 lifts its arms to its head: this is unusual on figurines,3 though quite common on Vicús vessels. Arms folded upwards on the chest (P20, 1406) are much less common on Peruvian figurines, than arms folded horizontally, but occur sporadically in various cultures.4 The determination of the sex (where not indicated) is suggested by similar features found in other cultures: females have incised hair (1406), males wear a loin cloth (1907); these gender specific features already occur in the Tembladera figurines (NC-Formative Gr. 2); the hunter (P21) is very probably also male. 1406 has curious genitals, which could be interpreted as a very small penis without testicles, or an enlarged clitoris: as the figurine also has incised

1

See NC- Early Formative Gr. 1, Special Features. They are common on Vicús vessels representing animals. 3 See NC Epiformative (Gallinazo), Special Features. 4 NC Epiformative sgs. 2.2 (Gallinazo); 3.1.2, 3.2.2 (Vicús): various; Chimu: various; CC-LH sgs. 1.1, 1.2, 3. 2

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hair, I suggest that it is female. The representation of the clitoris is rare, but not unique.1 1269 has similar genitals, but there are no additional clues as to its sex. Clothes: Headgear fastened by a rope, resembling that worn by 1907, 763, P21 also occur on Gallinazo figurines (689, P26/sg.2.3). 1269 with its incised ribs, short and crooked arms and legs and bent neck may represent an invalid, perhaps suffering from rachitism, or possibly a “living skeleton” such as is known from later Moche representations (Hocquenghem 1989: figs. 133, 143). The hair is gathered forward in a knot, like on one of the Tembladera figurines (852/Formative sg.2.1). Although the incised eyes with central punctation are obviously open, the “death” theme is reinforced by red cinnabar post-fired paint rubbed into the ribs. This specimen is a rattle (sonaja), perhaps used in curing or related shamanistic practices. The large hollow head (1334), said to come from Tembladera, conveys an impression of importance, due to its size and modelling. It has been suggested that the eyes are closed, depicting a dead person,2 but they are a variant of coffee-bean eyes and also occur on 1879, 2341, C13 (NC Formative sg. 2.2) all obviously alive. The base is somewhat irregular but smooth, so the head was probably not part of a figure—which would have been extremely large—but was perhaps meant to be attached to a mummy bundle or to a pole, as is common in the later Sican culture (see Sican sg. 4.2) Context: None. Geographic Distribution We know that P20 was found in the vicinity of Trujillo,3 the head (1334) is said to come from Tembladera. The Salinar culture is centred on the Moche/Chicama valleys, with the related Puerto Moorín style in Virú, but Lumbreras also identifies a Vicús Salinar sub-style (1979: 119, 121); this extension towards the northern sector of the NC may explain the provenance of 1334. Chronology Amongst these "elite" figurines, only 1406 and 1269, with their specific eyes, fine paste, highly polished red surface (with traces of white on 1406), really correspond to what one imagines Salinar pottery to look like. But P20, P21 are also thought to be Salinar or related to Salinar,4 though P20 in particular is very different. As a group this is an unsatisfactory assemblage, but it does fit into the general area (NC) and the broad time-slot (end of the Formative - beginning of the EIP). However it is possible that one or the other figurine belongs to a late phase of the Tembladera group or to the Gallinazo/Virú group. In the archaeological literature the Salinar culture is always placed after the Middle to Late Formative, more specifically after the Cupisnique style in the same area. The exact chronological position in relation to contemporary and/or later styles of the same area, such as Gallinazo/Virú, Vicús and Moche, is still not precisely established. NORTH COAST EPIFORMATIVE GROUP 2: THE GALLINAZO/VIRÚ FIGURINES

Introduction The Gallinazo culture was named by W. Bennett after a large and complex site in the lower Virú Valley, which he partly excavated (1939, 1950). R. Larco, who found a similar ceramic style in the Moche/Chicama basin, called the culture Virú, a name which is still sometime used instead of-—or together with—Gallinazo. It has been suggested that the Gallinazo-Virú ceramic style is the material expression of an ethnic group or groups, originally conquered and then either dominated by—or more likely 1

See CC-Huaura Grs. 1, 2, Chancay sgrs 1.4.3, 1.5.2A,B, 1.61., 2.5, etc..; SC- Nasca sgs.. 1.1, 1.2. Inca Peru, vol.2: 37 3 Personal communication from a member of the INC, Trujillo. 4 See Lapiner 1976: Pls. 64, 232, 234; Inca...Peru, vol. 2: fig. 021. 2

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living in a peaceful symbiosis with—the Moche (Shimada and Maguiña 1994: 56-58; Makowski 1995: 119-122). One can however wonder about the size or nature of an "ethnic group" which not only occupies most of the southern sector of the NC, but is also perceived in the La Leche area and as far as the Alto Piura, where it shares a limited territory with two other groups, the Vicús and the Moche. Bawden's view, that there are no basic differences between the Moche and Gallinazo population, who share architecture, settlement patterns, utilitarian ceramics and other customs and technologies is more convincing: "Moche iconography was restricted to status symbols like fine ceramics, textiles, metalwork and used in ceremonial contexts, elite burials and big platform complexes” [my translation] (1994: 396-397). In other words, when looking at Gallinazo and Moche—at least in the Moche-Chicama valleys and probably elsewhere—we are probably not dealing with two populations and two cultures, but with a single population and the material culture of two distinct social groups. Recently Donnan has also suggested that as far as the typical domestic ware is concerned "it should not be identified as either Gallinazo or Moche unless it is directly associated with either Gallinazo or Moche fine ware" (2006: 190). Unfortunately, as there are practically no associations for the figurines which visually belong to this "domestic style", we needs must refer to them as Gallinazo/Virú figurines, as distinct from the typical Moche figurines (see Chapter 7). The 30 Gallinazo/Virú figurines fall into three distinct sub-groups, possibly from differing areas of the North Coast: Sub-group 2.1: "Utilitarian" Gallinazo figurines, mainly from the Virú Valley; Sub-group 2.2: More elaborate Gallinazo figurines, (from the Virú, Moche/Chicama valleys and further north?) Sub-group 2.3: "Elite" Gallinazo figurines The three sub-groups are described separately but discussed jointly. NC EPIFORMATIVE SUB-GROUP 2.1: "UTILITARIAN" GALLINAZO/VIRÚ FIGURINES

Table 4 Plate 5 Sample: 9 figurines or figurine fragments (examined 5) Measurements: Minimum Maximum Median Height (3): 7.4 cm 11.6 cm 9.4 cm Width (2): 5.3 cm 7.2 cm -Thickness (3): 3.3 cm 4.1 cm 4.1 cm Weight : Not recorded GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Small crudely made figurines. The head, very large in overall proportions, merges with the body; the slightly rounded or flat crown mostly projects at the corners; moderately flattened profile. The face lacks modelling or decor; eyes can be straight or circular, incised (e.g. P25) or appliquéd (e.g. 1390); the nose is large, straight or hooked, with or without nostrils, and can be placed very high (2143, 2142); the mouth is mostly a small incision (row of punctations on 1390). No ears. No chin; only 2142 has a depression marking the neck. The body, only preserved on four specimens, is featureless, slightly rounded in profile and tapering towards short tab legs (no feet); 2183 has punctated fingers; no breasts or genitals, umbilicus on P22 only. Plain back. P 24 and 2183 show some punctated decor on their head, 2143 has a punctated necklace. Manufacture All the specimens are hand-made, two (or three?) are solid, the rest are hollow, with airholes mostly at the neck or waist, also at the eyes, mouth or anus. The ware is coarse, oxidized, the surface is unpolished, terracotta in colour.

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NC EPIFORMATIVE SUB-GROUP 2.2: MORE ELABORATE GALLINAZO/VIRÚ FIGURINES

Table 4 Plates 5, 6 Sample: 13 figurines (examined 7) + 3 "associated" specimens Measurements1: Minimum Maximum Median Height (9): 13.5 cm 21.2 cm 17.2 cm Width (8): 5.7 cm 11.0 cm 9.2 cm Thickness (9): 4.0 cm 9.2 cm 5.7 cm Weight : Not recorded GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Although clearly related in their overall shape to sub-group 2.1, these figurines are much larger, with many added features and better finished. The head is still disproportionately large, merging with the body, the crown is straight (e.g. 972), slightly convex (e.g. C16) or concave (e.g. C18), projecting at the corners on half the specimens; in profile the head is moderately to very flat (cf. C18, 972); 951, 981 have a semi-circular crown with a very sharp edge. The face lacks modelling but can have incised (C17, 972) or painted decor (1288). Eyes can be incised: circular (951, 1067), straight (C19) or lenticular with incised lids and punctated pupils (972); some specimens have incised and painted eyes, either naturalistic2 (C14, C15, C18, C16) or stylized, diagonal (1288); 981 and 1010 have appliqued eyelids with central punctations, C17 has small punctated eyes. The nose is large, straight and pointed, mostly with nostrils but no alae. The mouth is a straight incision, sometimes functioning as an airhole (e.g. 1288). Ears are semi-circular, often with an incised or painted decor. The neck is only shown on 981, C17 and 972. The stylized, elongated body has no shoulders and can be straight-sided or tapering. Four specimens have no arms, four have thin appliquéd arms: 951 holding an infant, C14 folded with one arm lower than the other, C17, 972 folded over the waist and hands with incised fingers; the rest have incised and painted arms—but with appliqued hands and incised fingers!—folded upwards (C18, C16), extended downwards (C15), or one folded one extended (1288). The legs are short conical stumps (with incised toes on C15, C16, 1288), except on C17 and 972, which are sitting, with very short extended legs. Breasts are only shown on 951; genitals are absent on 951, 981, 1010 and 1067; of the other specimens only C14, 1288 and C17 have complete male genitals; C19, C16, 972 have only a penis, whilst C15 and C18 have a penis-like projection surmounted by a semi-circular relief band (see Discussion). The back is mostly convex and plain, except when painted (1010, 1067). Several specimens wear a headdress, plain (981, C17, 972) or indicated by incised and/or painted diagonal, vertical or horizontal stripes; on 1067 it ends in a short panel hanging in the back. Clothing or body-paint is shown on 1010, 1067 and C19. 1288 has a painted neckband, C17 and 972 incised ones. Manufacture All the figurines are hand-made and hollow, with a variety of airholes, the most frequent being at the neck, others through the mouth and eyes, more rarely through the penis, the anus and/or the base.3 The surface is smooth but not polished, the majority are terracotta in colour, varying from bright to dark, two specimens are darker (black and dark brown respectively). The decor is incised and/or painted: six figurines have decor in white, one (1010) in fugitive grey. Associated (see Discussion) 1286a: Relatively large figurine, with outsize head; rounded head-crown, rectangular incised eyes, unusually big distance between the very high nose and the incised mouth, semi-circular ears with perforation, no chin, marked neck. Body tapering towards very short cylindrical 1

Two sitting specimens not included, one of them measuring 26.5 cm! This is not absolutely clear from the drawings, but is inferred by comparison with 1288. 3 It is not always possible from the drawings (C14 to C19) to determine whether the perforations are superficial or whether they penetrate the hollow core and therefore function as airholes. 2

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legs; appliqued arms folded upwards, large hands with five incised fingers; no umbilicus or nipples, male genitalia. Flattened featureless back. Hand-made, hollow, airholes behind shoulders, brown colour. No known provenance. 639: Standing figurine, rounded head-crown, appliquéd eyes with two punctations for pupils (instead of one), nose starting high on the forehead, nostrils, mouth with incised teeth, semicircular ears with round punctated ear-plugs; no chin, but long neck with two vertical grooves. Body tapering towards very short cylindrical legs; thin appliquéd arms, showing the collarbones, angular shoulders and elbows, folded over abdomen, hands with three incised fingers. Small incised squares with central punctation mark the nipples, complete male genitalia, featureless, slightly convex back. Hand-made, hollow with airholes at shoulders and anus, terracotta colour. The figurine may have been acquired by J.C. Tello during a University expedition to Ancash in 1919. 624: Small standing figurine. Semi-circular head-crown, appliquéd eye-lids with central punctation, nose with nostrils, no mouth, semi-circular ears with incisions. No chin or neck, straight-sided body, stump legs, incised arms folded upwards, incised fingers, punctated umbilicus, incised female genital triangle and vulva. The figurine is hand-made, solid, unpolished, pale terracotta in colour. No known provenance. NC EPIFORMATIVE SUB-GROUP 2.3: "ELITE" GALLINAZO/VIRÚ FIGURINES

Table 4 Plate 7 Sample: 5 figurines (examined 4) Measurements: Minimum Height (4): 23.9 cm Width (4): 11.0 cm Thickness (4): 17.3 cm Weight :

Maximum 32.2 cm 12.4 cm 20.3 cm Not recorded

Median 25.7 cm 11.8 cm 8.9 cm

GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The five specimens are not properly speaking a "group", though they share features (bodyshape, accoutrement, decor) absent in the other Gallinazo sub-groups. The head has a rounded crown (with various headdresses, see below) and a slightly flattened profile. The face is rounded with a straight chin; facial decor varies: triangles with inscribed dots on the cheeks and chin, painted in fugitive pigment (682), asymmetrical sets of incised triangles and lines, with filler punctations, straight on the right cheek, diagonal on the left (689), or no face-paint. Eyes are lozenge-shaped, with punctated pupils incised and painted black (682), circular with central punctation (683, 2188) or appliquéd and "tri-punctate",1 that is with a deep punctated hole for the pupil and two, more elongated punctations on each side (689, P26); the straight nose varies in length and has punctated nostrils but no alae; the mouth is a simple incision; ears are mostly flat tabs, with two punctations (682, 689), or one punctation and ear-plugs. The neck is indicated (except on P26). The stocky body is straight sided to rotund, arms are appliqued, extended forwards holding bowls (682, 693, 1288, 689), playing a musical instrument P26); the modelled hands vary from naturalistic (682, P26) to stylised with very long fingers (683, 2188, 689). Legs are straight, cylindrical (682, 689, P26), or with some modelling of the knees and ankle-bones (683, 2166); slightly protruding feet with incised toes. No umbilicus; 683, 2188 and 689 have small punctated nipples, as well as small male genitals; on 682 and P26? the genitals are covered by a loin-cloth, but both are probably male. Backs are slightly to very rounded and featureless, except for traces of paint. Clothing and accessories: 682 wears a headdress with a stepped (feather?) tiara fixed to a skull-cap with bands descending behind the ear and coiled around the neck, 683 and 2188 wear cylindrical headdresses, sandwiched between wider circular "brims" at the bottom and top; 689 and P26 wear a knotted turban with a projecting tassel. 682, 683 and 2188 wear a loin-cloth with resist painted circles, P26 appears to wear a loin-cloth with a lateral appendage 1

The term was coined by Lilien (1956: 89).

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visible along the left leg; it also has horizontal stripes painted across the arms and legs. 683 and 2188 wear disk ear-plugs, P26 ear-plugs consisting of two large superposed disks. 682, 683, 2188 and 689 hold large rimless bowls, varying from shallow to deep; all are empty except one (682) which contains two guinea pigs. P26 appears to blow into a conchlike musical instrument. Manufacture The figurines are hand-made and probably hollow, though 682 has no airholes; 683 and 2188 have an airhole in the bowl, 689 has an additional one at the anus. The ware is oxidised, relatively fine, the surface finish is polished and probably slipped: 682, 683, 2188 are in various shades of terracotta, with black and cream resist decor, 689 is plain terracotta, no data for P26. DISCUSSION (SUB-GROUPS 2.1, 2.2, 2.3)

Special features/Links with other groups Sub-groups 2.1, 2.2 Whereas in Salinar the crude shape and features typical for Epiformative figurines from all areas of Peru only apply to sg. 1.1,1 in Gallinazo we see a difference in quality between sg.2.1 and the more sophisticated specimens in sg. 2.2, with many variations in the basic features. A case in point are the eyes: next to the typical shapes which occur in both sub-groups (circular, mostly incised and often with a smaller inscribed circle e.g. 2143, P22/sg.2.1, 951, 1067/sg.2.2 or with appliquéd lids—though smaller than in Salinar—and central punctation, e.g. 981, 1010/sg.2.2), we also see a variety of eyes made by large sketchy incisions, emphasized by white paint (1288, C16/sg.2.2) and various other forms. This unusual variety of Gallinazo eyes is also illustrated on various pottery fragments (cf. Strong and Evans 1952: Fig.64A-E; Shimada and Maguiña 1994: Fig. 1.8 a-d). Other new features added to the crude basic shape are: a) Arms in a variety of postures (extended downwards, folded at the waist, upwards on the chest or not aligned); such a variety is unusual amongst Peruvian figurines. b) Genitals: Although most of the figurines appear to be male, the genitalia are ambiguous because they are either unusually small or incomplete, often lacking testicles. C15 and C18 have a penis-like projection surmounted by a semi-circular relief band, which could depict a hermaphrodite: a comparable representation—said to be unique in Peruvian iconography—is shown on a "Virú", i.e. Gallinazo vessel (Larco 1965: 102 lower right, 145). However a semicircular relief band can also be seen above a typical female “slit” or perforation (see f.i. 76/NC Epiformative (Vicús) sg. 3.1.2 and P35-atypical/ibid sg. 3.2.2) c) Clothing, e.g. a headdress (1010, C19, C14, C15 etc), body-paint (1067, C19) and neckbands (1288, C17, 972). 951 holds a child. Curious features are: the manner of holding, at arms length, which may suggest a sacrifice (see Moche Gr. 3) and the bilobation of the infant's head. The figurines associated to sg.2.2 have a number of unusual features: 1286a and 639 both have a differentiated head and body with a marked neck; note also the square incised eyes and great distance between nose and mouth (1286a), the appliquéd oval eyes with two punctations, incised teeth, incised square nipples, angular arms starting at the collar-bone (639). 624 has Gallinazo features (overall shape, eyes, ears) but is solid and completely flat. These figurines are listed here because they are more closely related to Gallinazo, than to any other style. Differences between sg. 2.2 and similar Vicús figurines (sg. 3.1) are listed under Vicús, Special features. Sub-group 2.3: This small sub-group shows many innovative or unusual features: 1

See Epiformative sg. 1.1 (Salinar) Special features.

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We see the appearance of the tri-punctate eye (689, P26), not uncommon on Gallinazo vessels (see variants in Strong and Evans 1952: fig. 64c, d) and which also occurs in Vicús (P29, P30/sg.3.1.1), Moche sgs..1.1.1 and 1.2. The face-paint on 682 and the incised face-decor on 689, though simpler forms of incised decor also appear in sg. 2.1 (C17, 972). 682, 683, 2188, 689 hold large bowls; all except 682 have stylized hands with unusually long fingers and offset thumbs. Similar hands appear on a Vicús vessel of a warrior or priest, with a necklace of trophy-heads, but holding a much smaller bowl (Makowski et al., 1995: fig.45) 683, 2188 show modelled wrist- and ankle-bones, a feature otherwise only known from the LIP on the Central Coast. The stepped headdress of 682 is similar to one worn by a warrior on a vessel described Guerrero en el estilo Vicús Virú (sic!) (Lumbreras 1979: 98-100). A similar headdress also occurs on a Moche-related figurine from Cerro Briseño, Huamatanga, Dpt of Lambayeque (P106/Moche gr.7). Several warriors, described as "Vicús-early Moche A" (Makowski, Amaro and Elésperu 1995: Figs. 66, 149) show the same shape but with an additional central plume, as do a copper warrior figure and a copper sceptre found in Sipán tomb 3 (Alva and Donnan 1993: figs. 192, 193) and some Moche warrior figurines (P102, P103/Moche sg.5.1). The headdress worn by 683 and 2188, consisting of two large horizontal circles joined by a cylinder, has no known equivalent. 689 and P26 wear turbans, ending in a knot projecting at the side, headgear which is relatively common on vessels (cf. Lumbreras 1974: Fig. 107), less so on figurines. 682, 683 and 2188 wear loin cloths, also shown at the back, and decorated with resist paint, but on 683 and 2188 male genitalia are also represented. The conch "played" by P26 also appears on a Salinar figurine (1907/sg.1.2). A rare Gallinazo whistle (see Fig.1) shows several of the above features: eyes, long, straight nose, tab ears with two punctations, triangular loincloth, here with a characteristic bulge and decorated with resist circles. Note the parallel lines on the arms and legs; the personage plays a pan-pipe. Context A few of the "utilitarian" figurines (sg. 2.1) come from a documented context: P25 was excavated by Bennett at Tres Huacas, Virú valley, more specifically from Site PV25-152, a house cluster associated with platforms and a pyramid roughly one kilometre south of the Gallinazo site,1. Another Fig. 1 (PC2M n/n) (1390) comes from the top of the main huaca at Gallinazo itself (PV25-59), in what appears to have been a house;2 Bennett reports that large water jars were found in the corners of the rooms. Both the hollow head fragment (2143) and a solid specimen (2142) come from domestic refuse at the Gallinazo site.3 P22 is a surface find from a single-function burial site in the Santa valley, other fragments are also surface finds.4 Amongst the better made figurines, 951/sg. 2.2 was found by M. West in a metalworker’s grave in a late Gallinazo lower Virú valley site.5 The burial contained a corn-popper and 1

Bennett 1950: 102; Willey 1953: 140-143. Note that Willey 1953 lists the sites as “V-xxx”, but here the standard way of listing sites is used, e.g. for the Virú valley “PV25-xxx”. 2 Bennett 1939: 69; Willey 1953: 132-137. 3 Strong and Evans 1952: 83 4 See Wilson 1988: p. 189 and Fig. 86. Two similar figurine fragments (not listed) were surface finds from a burial mound near Gallinazo and from El Castillo, Virú (Bennett 1939: 27, 69). 5 The figurine, recorded by me at the Museo de Sitio, Chan Chan bears the no. PV23-636-3 (PV23 being the Chicama valley) and is said to be a surface find. But another number on the figurine reads "636-01-05-00". According to M. West (personal communication) site no. 636 is in the lower Virú

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polished pebbles used in metal working (See Gravelot). 1263 comes from an unspecified site at Hacienda Carmelo, Virú, probably PV25-293.1 Judging from this scant data, the often fragmentary "utilitarian" figurines (sg. 2.1) appear to have been mainly used in a domestic context, albeit partly in what Willey (1953: 131) calls "pyramid-dwelling-construction complexes...[used] both as places for living and as ceremonial precincts. Some of the rooms...may have been palaces, governmental buildings or religious quarters". Note that Strong and Evans (1952: 89), speaking of the site of Gallinazo, emphasize that "...with the exception of one central pyramid..., the whole mass of this impressive mound consisted of layer upon layer of habitation levels". The good preservation of the more elaborate specimens (sg. 2.2) and especially of the "elite" figurines (sg. 2.3) points to grave goods. Geographic distribution In sg. 2.1, P23, probably a surface find, comes from a "temple-mound" at Jatanca, in the northern section of the Pampa the Paijan, seven specimens (six of them well documented) come from the Virú Valley, one from the Santa Valley. In sg. 2.2, 951 and 1263 come from the Virú valley, 972 (unverifiable) from Huaca Roma in the Chicama Valley and probably also 981 and 1010, recorded in Trujillo.2 The resemblance to Vicús figurines3 suggests that some figurines may come from further north: the Lambayeque valley may have constituted a "frontier" between early Gallinazo/Virú and Vicús (Shimada and Maguiña 1994), though there is plenty of evidence of a later Gallinazo/Virú presence in the Vicús area (Makowski 1995). Six specimens recorded by the Proyecto Arqueológico Puemape (PAP) could come from the area between the Chicama and the Lambayeque valleys, more specifically between Pacsmayo and Zaña (see Appendix 1). 1288 is said to have been bought in Piura. The three associated figurines have been included here, as they show some similarities and appear contemporary. 1286a was bought from a huaquero who worked in Virú, but also sold in the Chicama valley (Private collector's information). 639 has a MNAA numbering (1/309 "U") which is said to indicate pieces collected by J.C. Tello on his 1919 University Expedition to Ancash.4 Both have airholes behind the shoulders, which is unusual on the North Coast. Finally we have no provenance for any of the "elite" figurines (sg 2.3), but curiously two specimens are attributed to the Recuay or Santa cultures: 683 from the MNAA is described as hombrecito de la cultura Santa5 and 2188 from the LMS as Recuay. But apart from the resist painting there is no similarity with Recuay, especially in the paste or the colours. However it is possible that these specimens represent a different regional style. Chronology The few excavated "utilitarian" specimens (sg. 2.1) come from sites which all yielded the whole Gallinazo ceramic sequence: Bennett's solid P25 is said to come from an Early Gallinazo context, whilst his hollow 1390, being "Negative Gallinazo", is probably later: this ceramic type, although present throughout the Gallinazo sequence appears to be more valley: photographs of associated objects from the same grave clearly bear the caption: "Virú Valley Project 1975 : 636-01-06-00 Burial 1". Site 636 is not listed in Willey 1953. 1 1263 was excavated by Ubbelohde-Doering. Of the sites listed under Hacienda Carmelo (V-291 V-293) only Mound 3 (V-293), an Earth-Refuse Mound, contained Gallinazo (Late) remains (Willey 1953: 446). 2 A Gallinazo site near Pampa Cacique, Moche Valley, yielded numerous figurine fragments, but the illustrated specimens were too unspecific to be included here (Sciscento 1982:88, 133-134). 3 For differences between Gallinazo/Virú and Vicús figurines, see NC-Epiformative Gr. 3 (Vicús), Special features 4 Another specimen numbered 1/311 "U" is the unusual Supe figurine 671 (see CC-Supe). 5 In: Cuando en el Perú no se hablaba Castellano - Recorriendo el Museo Nacional de Antropología y Arqueología. Publiccación UNESCO-PNUD - Supervisión Arqueológica L.G.Lumbreras (nd): p.3. Note that Lumbreras (1974: 173) uses the name Santa (after Tello) for the NC-MH Huari Norteño B culture, whilst Larco (1966: 109 ff. ) uses it for the Recuay culture!

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common towards Late Gallinazo (Strong and Evans 1952: Table 4 + pp. 301-307). Two figurines excavated by Strong and Evans, one hollow (2143), one solid (2142) are also assigned to Late Gallinazo (ibid. 83). Finally a similar hollow figurine (P22), a surface find from the Santa valley, is dated to Late Suchimancillo, the local equivalent of Late Gallinazo Wilson 1988: 177). Only one sg. 2.2 figurine (951) is datable: it comes from a grave, associated with a corn popper, which occurs both in Gallinazo Negative and in its contemporary Carmelo Negative (Strong and Evans 1952: Figs. 57.4 and 61.1), both likely to be Late Gallinazo;1 the hollow 1263, with its coffee-bean eyes, is also assigned to Late Gallinazo. Unfortunately the small amount of figurines does not allow to attempt a seriation, especially since most datable figurines appear to come from Late Gallinazo contexts. The differences between sgs. 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 are more likely to show functional or regional variants, than a different point in time. The absolute chronological position of the Gallinazo ceramic style is still being refined. What seems clear is that, appearing both in the southern North Coast valleys and in the extreme North Vicús area, roughly speaking towards the end of the Salinar culture, it flourishes at least until Moche III and survives as an independent cultural manifestation—to varying degrees according to the region—until the end of the Moche culture and into the MH. Absolute dates associated with Gallinazo pottery range from ca 80 AD (uncalibrated) in the Virú valley to 640±40 AD (calibrated) at Batán Grande, La Leche Valley (Shimada and Maguiña 1994). As for the actual Gallinazo figurines, they may well span a period just preceding the appearance of ceremonial Moche ceramics and gradually phase out as figurines start playing a part in Moche ritual, sometime during Moche III. NORTH COAST EPIFORMATIVE GROUP 3: THE VICÚS FIGURINES

Introduction As in the case of the Tembladera style, the Vicús pottery style first came to light—between 1950 and 1960—as the result of systematic looting of cemeteries in the area of the Alto Piura, between Chulucanas and Moropón, Dep. of Piura, in particular at the foot of Cerro Vicús, the eponymous site. Surprisingly—together with pottery of the newly-discovered style—the huaqueros also brought to light exceptionally fine, apparently early, Moche vessels, as well as pottery related to the Cupisnique, Salinar and Gallinazo/Virú styles. Splendid metalwork in both the Vicús and the Moche styles also appeared at Vicús and the nearby site of Loma Negra. Finds were acquired by private collectors in Peru and abroad long before reaching a Peruvian museum. A first archaeological exploration of the area was undertaken in 1963 by R. Matos Mendieta (1965-1966), followed in 1963 by excavations of 41 graves at Yécala, at the foot of Cerro Vicús, by C. Guzmán Ladrón de Guevarra and J. Casafranca (19642) and in 1966 of six graves, also at Yécala, by H. Disselhoff (1971). A large collection of ceramics from the area, housed at the Banco Popular, was published by L. Lumbreras (1979). But it was not until the work of the Proyecto Alto Piura from 1986 to 1990, with excavations in two main sectors (Chulucanas and Vicús) and a systematic study of Vicús, Moche and associated pottery from the area, that a clearer picture of the Vicús pottery style and its stylistic and chronological relationships with the associated Moche and Gallinazo-Virú styles finally emerged (Guffroy, Kaulicke and Makowski 1989; Kaulicke 1991, 1992, 2006; Murró 1995). Some of these new perspectives and a significant bibliography appear in the volume Vicús published by the Banco de Credito del Perú (Makowski et al., Eds. 1995).

1

M. West (personal communication) suggested that the corn-popper—with a typical Gallinazo-style face on the handle—could date to Moche III. 2 This report is very short; the excavation notes were lost.

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The Vicús ceramic style, characterized by a fairly coarse red ware, often decorated with white, black or resist paint, sometimes combined, shows an immense variety of humorous stylized subjects: chiefs and warriors, models of houses, erotic vessels, animals, etc. In pre-Columbian times important routes, linking Ecuador to the Lambayeque valley and valleys further south passed within easy reach of the Alto Piura. From the findings of the various lines of research within the Proyecto Alto Piura the following picture of the Vicús culture emerges: it appears more or less fully formed around 200-100 BC as a result both of Northern Andean influences, such as those of the Ecuadorian Chorrera and Guangala cultures, and of those new cultural elements which brought about the demise of EH cultures such as Cupisnique. There follows a little-known period, corresponding to the equally badly documented Early Gallinazo/Virú style, but from about the 2nd century AD, we witness a marked influence from cultures further south, such as Moche I and Middle Gallinazo/Virú, leading gradually to changes in Vicús iconography and the adoption of Moche and Virú techniques, with those components remaining well-represented in the Vicús area throughout the later phases of the EIP. The end of the EIP, possibly linked with a Meganiño in the 6th century and the MH phenomenon have yielded little ceramic evidence for the area, until the well-documented appearance of the Sican style (Makowski, Amaro, Eléspuru 1995: 214-221). The various approaches of the Proyecto Alto Piura (excavations, analysis of the ceramic production techniques and of the iconography) have resulted in several parallel chronologies, which I have synchronised with the corresponding five phases of Moche1 and with Gallinazo/Virú2 as well as with absolute dates, using Tables 186A and B in Vicús (1995: 292293) and a table in Makowski, Amaro and Eléspuru (1995: 214).

200BC - 100AD 100AD - 200AD 200AD - 400AD 400AD - 550AD 550AD - 700AD

Amaro 1995

Kaulicke 1991

Kaulicke and Makowski 1990

North Coast Cultures

Vicús Temprano Vicús Medio A Vicús Medio B Vicús Tardío A Vicús Tardío B

Vicús Tamarindo A Vicús Tamarindo B Vicús Tamarindo C1 Vicús Tamar'do 1/C2 Vicús Tamarindo C2

Vicús Vicús Vicús-Mochica Tempr. A Vicús-Mochica Tempr. B Vicús-Mochica Tardío A Vicús-Mochica Tardío B

Late Salinar? Early Gallinazo Early Moche (M I) - Middle Gallinazo Middle Moche (M II, III) - Middle Gall.

Late Moche (M IV) - Late Gallinazo Late Moche (IV, V)

One of the tasks undertaken by the Proyecto Alto Piura was to "define the technological tradition,3 linking it with an inventory of shapes, stylistic traits and iconographic features and—making use of these data—to plot gradual changes, thus establishing a valid chronology" (Amaro 1995: 25, my translation). This analysis was applied to over 2500 ceramic specimens from a number of collections, some of them with documented funerary contexts, and further tested against pottery from work-shops excavated at Pampa Juárez, Vicús and surface finds from Loma Negra. The study brought to light 8 types of Vicús wares4 and became the basis of Amaro's 1995 chronology above (ibid p.30). An important aspect of this study was the iconographic analysis of human representations: this also forms the basis of the classification of the Vicús figurines undertaken here. It clearly showed a first distinction between figures with coffee-bean eyes and others with almondshaped eyes and a second distinction between figures with normally shaped heads and those with bilobed heads. As a result four personages were identified (Makowski, Amaro, Elespuru 1995:222 ff.): Personage 1: With coffee-bean eyes and normal head, always male Personage 2: With coffee-bean eyes and bilobed head, male or female Personage 3: With almond-shaped eyes and normal head, always male Personage 4: With almond-shaped eyes and bilobed head, male or female 1

The validity of Larco's five phase Moche chronology, especially for the northern sector of the NC is subject to an ongoing debate (see f. i. Canziani et al., 1994: 497-499; Makowski 1995: 85; Castillo and Donnan 1994, 1995). 2 There is a lack of archaeological material documenting the Early Gallinazo/Virú phase. 3 Including all the materials, tools, modelling techniques and stages involved in ceramic production. 4 Two of them being Vicús imitations of Moche ceramics.

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The fact that almond-shaped eyes are typical of Moche and make their appearance in Vicús during Middle Vicús lead the investigators to the conclusion that Personages 1 and 2 represent the indigenous population, whilst personages 3 and 4 show "outsiders" or "immigrants". This hypothesis is confirmed by the fact that on Vicús pottery personages 1 and 2 undergo hybridisation with a great variety of animals, all part of the local fauna, whilst 3 and 4 are only hybridised with felines and owls, more closely linked to Moche iconography.. An analysis of the 47 graves excavated at Vicús has shown that the four personages, mostly part of vessels, never occur together in the same grave—with the exception of one grave (Vi 1, T.15) containing the male personage 1 and female personage 2, both "indigenous" types. This is seen as evidence that each of the personages represents a specific social category. "In Vicús society two groups, the "natives" and the "outsiders" or "immigrants" confronted each other but were also united by their ritual obligations. Each of these groups was subdivided into two complementary parts (parcialidades), one dominant and male, the other dominated and with female characteristics" ( Makowski et al., 1995: 222-236, my translation). Unfortunately only three figurines are illustrated in the Vicús volume, but by comparison with vessels, it would appear that only two of the four personages, no.2 (coffee-bean eyes) and no. 4 (almond-shaped eyes) are represented amongst the figurines. According to the criteria both should be bilobed, though no definition of bilobulado is given. A characteristic bilobation—a form of cranial deformation—consists of a central depression or groove, ideally separating two large rounded lobes, not a slightly convex or flat head with projections on either side.1 In fact only those with almond-shaped eyes (personage 4) show clearly bilobed heads. Personages 2 and 4 can be both male and female. In the case of the figurines, those with coffee-bean eyes (personage 2) have a variety of head-shapes, many of which would probably be regarded as bilobed by the investigators, but which in fact often have a straight crown projecting at both sides of the head. Based on the criteria above, the 42 Vicús figurines are sub-divided into: Sub-group 3.1: Vicús Personage 2: Figurines with coffee-bean eyes Sub-group 3.1.1: Vicús figurines with coffee-bean eyes, no arms Sub-group 3.1.2: Vicús figurines with coffee-bean eyes, appliquéd arms Sub-group 3.2: Vicús Personage 4: Figurines with almond-shaped eyes Sub-group 3.2.1: Figurines with almond-shaped eyes, separate legs Sub-group 3.2.2: Figurines with almond-shaped eyes, joined or absent legs NC EPIFORMATIVE SUB-GROUP 3.1: VICÚS PERSONAGE 2 : FIGURINES WITH COFFEEBEAN EYES SUB-GROUP 3.1.1: FIGURINES WITH COFFEE BEAN EYES, NO ARMS SUB-GROUP 3.1.2: FIGURINES WITH COFFEE BEAN EYES, APPLIQUÉD ARMS Sub-groups 3.1.1. and 3.1.2 are described and discussed together. Table 5 Plates 8, 9, 10 Sample: Sub-group 3.1.1: 14 (examined 10) Sub-group 3.1.2: 10 + 2 atypical + 4 "Specials" (examined 10)

1

Amongst the examples of personage 2 illustrated in Vicús, only figs. 315, 316, 321, 323 show real bilobation; fig. 25 is a borderline case, whilst figs. 27 (same as 189), 313, 317, 322 are not bilobed;

note also that all but one personage in fig. 53, as well as those on figs. 311, 318 wear a headdress, often a turban, which hides the shape of the head.

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Measurements (sg. 3.1.1): Minimum Maximum Height (14): 9.2 cm 14.8 cm Width (9): 5.2 cm 9.0 cm Thickness (12): 3.6 cm 5.6cm Weight (5): 100gr. 230 gr. Measurements (sg. 3.1.2, excluding “Specials”): Minimum Maximum Height (9): 9.5 cm 23.3 cm Width (9): 6.0 cm 12.3 cm Thickness (9): 3.0 cm 7.9 cm Weight (6): 200 gr. 500 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS (SUB-GROUPS 3.1.1,

Median 13.2 cm 7.8 cm 4.5 cm 180 gr. Median 18.3 cm 10.0 cm 5.5 cm 380 gr.

3.1.2)

These two sub-groups of standing figurines are somewhat different in size (see Measurements) and show a few different characteristics: Sub-group 3.1.1 is characterised by a head, which could be described as bilobed, with a more or less concave crown ending in either peaks (e.g. 1035, 1287) or rounded lobes (P29, SAC 316); 1883 has a straight crown with a series of incisions across it. The width of the face is the same size as that of the narrow straight-sided cylindrical body and there is no neck. Sub-group 3.1.2 has a head with a convex or straight crown (exception 939, with a slightly concave crown), a face that mostly becomes narrower at the point where it joins the body. In both sub-groups the profile of the head is slightly rounded. The face is wide, foreshortened, face-paint is rare (e.g. 1883, 616/3.1.1, 766, 76/3.1.2 (766 has a dark square with dots on right cheek); the coffee-bean eyes consist of raised or appliquéd lids with a horizontal incision, or two punches into the corners of the eyes (more common in sg.3.1.1); the nose is large and prominent, rounded or hooked, often starting high on the forehead (e.g. 687/3.1.2), no alae but mostly punctated nostrils; 939/3.1.2 has a perforation through the nose; the mouth is mostly a straight incision (curving upwards on 757, P27/3.1.2), sometimes with raised or appliquéd lips and/or with punched corners (e.g. 640, 1035/3.1.1, 687/3.1.2); 76/3.2.1 has a square mouth with modelled and painted teeth, 1289, 616,101/3.1.1 have no mouth; the ears are mostly large semi-circular or slightly angular flaps placed in line with the crown or slightly below, with one perforation (three painted lines on 766/3.1.2, no perforation on 1926, 101/3.1.1); appliquéd chin on 1883, 616/3.1.1, otherwise no chin. The body is narrow, cylindrical, with a straight lateral outline; only 757, 76, 939/3.1.2 have some indication of a neck or shoulders. Sub-group 3.1.1 has no arms, sg. 3.1.2 shows appliquéd arms folded at the abdomen or upwards on the chest (with one hand lifted to the chin (1838), to the mouth (SAC 230)), hands have three or four incised or punctated fingers. In both sgs. legs are short tabs, varying in shape—shorter, mostly without feet in sg. 3.1.1, slightly longer (exceptionally long on 1838), often with small stylized feet and incised toes in sg. 3.1.2. Five specimens have an umbilicus (protruding on 757/3.1.2). Nipples are not shown in sg.3.1.1; in sg. 3.1.2 757 has modelled breasts, SAC 229, 939 have punctated nipples. A total of 13 or 14 specimens (eight or nine in sg. 1.3.1, five in sg. 3.1.2) are females, with genitalia shown by an incision (e.g. SAC 229/3.1.2, on SAC 204/3.1.1 within a genital triangle), by a small appliquéd and incised vulva (e.g. 757, 687/3.1.2);; 76/3.1.2 has an incised vulva and semi-circular relief band above; 1926/3.1.1, with a hole in the lower abdomen, may also be a female. Eight specimens are males (three in sg. 3.1.1, five in sg. 3.1.2), with a penis and testicles1 (e.g. 616/3.1.1) or only with a small penis (e.g. 1289, P28?, P30/3.1.1); on 1287/3.1.1 the genitals—male or female—are broken off. The rounded back is featureless, except for horizontal stripes on P28/3.1.1, vertical stripes on the head of 76/3.1.2.

1

Note the exceptionally long, perforated penis of 1838. This and the unusual lower back and legs, the polished surface and the lack of airholes suggests that the figurine may have been "over"- restored.

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Six figurines (sg. 3.1.1) show horizontal bands in front (1289, 616, 1287), P28 all round, 1035 diagonal stripes across the chest (arms?), 1883 vertical bands and semi-circles. 766/3.1.2 has a painted waistband and vertical stripes on the legs; 1883, 1035/3.1.1, 939/3.1.2 wear plain circular ear-plugs (decorated on 1883) going through the ears. Atypical 1162 only differs from the majority of figurines in sg. 3.1.2 because the coffee-bean eyes are replaced by small holes, the incised mouth is replaced by a very large hole, the semi-circular ears are not perforated. The figurine is female, with a small appliquéd vulva with vertical depression. Hand-made, hollow, the eyes and mouth functioning as airholes, dark terracotta ware with black specks, rough surface. 690 has the typical coffee-bean eyes, but its life-like rounded head (also in profile), its circular face, and large appliquéd ear-plugs, piercing the ears differ. The overall more sculptural shape with thicker arms, large breasts and a rounded back are also unusual. Female, with an appliquéd vulva with vertical incision. Hand-made, hollow, airhole at anus, terracotta colour. “Specials” 1065, P31, P32 are very large (height between 42.5 and 35.6 cm) and carefully made, (P33) is the only sitting figurine in the sample. With their greater variety of head shapes (convex on 1065, nearly flat on P31, slightly concave on P32, P33), and their appliquéd arms they belong to sg. 3.1.2. The facial features are similar, the ears smaller, rectangular (except 1065); the chin and neck are more marked. The straight-sided body with appliquéd arms folded at the waist is also similar, as are the short legs, but the feet are larger, better made on 1065, P32, P33 with incised toes (7 toes on P32!). Small nipples (punctated on P31) and/or umbilicus (1065, P31), all except P31 are male. P33, the only sitting Vicús specimen, said to be male, has a different body-shape, with arms protruding at the sides and outstretched legs. All except 1065.1 show traces of resist decor: P31 has a broken line design on the upper chest, horizontal stripes around the abdomen and legs, dots on the lower abdomen, P32 has paint on the crown of the head, above the eyes and nose, on the cheeks, dots (relief?) below the neck, and horizontal lines below the waist and around the legs, P33 is also said to have traces of resist decor. 1065 shows white lines on the ears and across the arms. Manufacture (sgs. 3.1.1, 3.1.2) All the figurines are hand-made and hollow, with a great variety of airhole positions, the most common being at the anus, often with another hole between the legs or through the vulva, others through the mouth and nostrils, the umbilicus or at the waist. The oxidised ware is dark terracotta with grey-black specs or blotches, the surface—under some burnishing and/or self-slip—appears uneven; the surface colour varies between shades of terracotta from pink-buff to dark red or brown; any decor is creamy-yellow, more rarely negative resist grey. DISCUSSION (SUB-GROUPS 3.1.1, 3.1.2)

Special Features/ Links with other groups The technique used to shape the eyes or the mouth, by directing punches into the corners from the centre, even to the point of perforating the clay (e.g. 1035, 641/3.1.1, 939/3.1.2) is more common in Vicús pottery, than f.i. in Gallinazo (Lumbreras 1979: 12, 28, 102, 116). Occasionally the punches are directed inwards from the corners (e.g. mouth of 640/3.1.1). Two specimens (P29, P30/3.1.1) have "tri-punctate eyes"2: curiously on P29 only the right eye is like that. The large nose, starting high on the forehead (various in sg. 3.1) is a characteristic feature of other Epiformative groups.3

1

The somewhat peculiar look of 1065 and the fact that it has no airholes suggest that it may be overrestored or possibly a fake. 2 See NC-Epiformative (Gallinazo-Virú) sg. 2.3, Special features. 3 See NC-Epiformative sg. 1.1 (Salinar), Special features.

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939/sg. 3.1.2 (and 688/sg. 3.2.1) have a hole through the nose : it may have been used to suspend a nose-ornament. Such ornaments and earrings, specifically made for figurines, were excavated at Pampa Juarez, Yécala (Makowski 1995: 109). The feature also occurs on various Chimu figurines from the northern sector of the NC (see Chimu Recurrent Features). The very large open mouth of 1162/3.1.2 is unique; smiling mouths (757, P27/3.1.2) do occur, but rarely (cf. 1057/NC-MH Gr.5, 22 (atypical)/Chimu sg. 1.1.1, 2373/Chimu sg. 6.3). Mouths with teeth (76/3.1.2, P37 (atypical)/3.2.1) are also rare (cf. C34/Chimu sg. 6.4): they are sometimes seen as a skull-like attribute depicting a dead personage, which is not the case here. Figurines completely lacking arms are typical for Vicús sg.3.1.1; they occur sporadically on the CC1 and on the SC during late Nasca. SAC 230 (3.1.2) lifts a hand to the mouth, an unusual gesture,2 but which also occurs on Vicús vessels (e.g. Vicús 1994: fig. 254). Perforated nipples (SAC 229, 939/3.1.2) and Composite Genitals (76/3.1.2) occur sporadically (see NC-Epiformative (Salinar) sg.1.1 and NC- Epiformative (Gallinazo) sg. 2.2, Special features; also Vicús sg.3.2.2 below). Sitting figurines, with outstretched legs (like P33) occur sporadically.3 Because of the many similarities between Vicús and Gallinazo—in fact there is a known interaction between the two cultures (Makowski et al. 1995: 214)—it is not always easy to differentiate between the figurines of the two cultures. But in the course of this study, whilst comparing the Vicús figurines in sg. 3.1 with those in Gallinazo/Virú sg. 2.2 which are most closely related, we find the following differences: Gallinazo/Virú sg. 2.2

Vicús sg. 3.1

Higher forehead Variety of eyes Nose starting lower down; Smaller ears Variety of arm positions; few armless specimens Sex (where shown) always male Airholes: majority at neck

Hardly any forehead Only coffee-bean eyes (exception 1162) Nose starting very high; Large ears Fewer arm positions; more armless specimens Eight or nine females, six males Airholes: hardly any at neck

Context Two specimens (640/3.1.1, 687/3.1.2) were excavated by C. Guzmán Ladrón de Guevara at Sector Vicús 1, which is in the cemetery of Yécala4 on the left bank of the Rio Piura, at the foot of Cerro Vicús. 687/3.1.2, a "Personage 2" female, comes from Tomb No. 11. Associated vessels (see Gravelot) include a botella de asa semi-circular, i.e. a bottle with semi-circular handle depicting an owl, and a double-spout jar, with a bird-like body and phallic spouts (Makowski et al., 1995: fig. 423). The association of personage 2 with an owl, apparently common in the tombs, is as yet unexplained (Makowski et al. 1995: 234). 640/3.1.1, another "Personage 2" female, but with slightly bilobed head, also bears the inscription "Vicús 1", therefore comes from the same excavation in the same cemetery. I have no information regarding tomb number and associated finds. P28/3.1.1, also a "Personage 2" with slightly bilobed head and undetermined sex (there is a small spherical protuberance in the genital area) comes from Loma Valverde, part of the area of Tamarindo, to the east of the Vicús cemeteries. This area of about 14 hectares, contains ceremonial and domestic architecture. The Sector Vi-11A-C consists of a system of platforms surrounding a depression as well as the Loma Valverde mound itself. The figurine comes from an adobe platform, featuring a complex of holes connected by small channels and filled with ashes and refuse, amongst which the figurine was found. Some large ceramic recipients 1

817/Epiformormative, 2226, 2222, 2227/Lima Gr.2, various/Late MH sg.6.1, various/Huaura Gr.4. See also NC-Formative Group 2 (Tembladera), Special features. 3 See NC-Formative Group 1, Special Features. 4 The gravelots at Yécala have been the object of a dissertation by O. Elespuru (1993), which I have not been able to consult. 2

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made to fit into the holes has led to the interpretation of this complex as a cocina de chicha. Other specialized areas, as well the deliberate breaking of ceramic vessels suggest that these areas were used for ritual functions (Kaulicke 1994b: 336-345). So these "Personage 2" figurines were used both as grave goods and/or in a ceremonial context. Geographic distribution There are three certain and two fairly reliable provenances from the site of Vicús or the vicinity, Sullana being distant ca 55 km as the crow flies. Two unverifiable provenances (1883/3.1.1, a typical Vicús specimen and 1838/3.1.2, a less typical specimen) are from Ayabaca, ca 100 km to the northeast of Vicús. 1035/3.1.1 from the Seminario collection is likely to come from Vicús; 939/3.1.2, from the Museo Brüning is likely to come from the wider northern area.1 641/3.1.1, a typical Vicús specimen, bears a MNAA number (42585) which—according to R. Fung2—belongs to finds from an expedition undertaken by D. Bonavia in the Mantaro in 1967. But the publication regarding this expedition (Bonavia 1967-1968) does not contain this figurine. Another figurine, 755/MNAA 42589 (see below under "Non-Vicús figurines"), allegedly from the same expedition, does not appear in Bonavia's publication either. Chronology3 Only two of the three excavated specimens come from a dated context: P28/3.1.1 from Vicús Tamarindo Sector Vi-11A (Loma Valverde) is dated to phase Vicús Tamarindo "C" (Kaulicke 1994b: fig. 10.10A and pp. 344-345), unfortunately without specifying which phase of "C".4 With reference to the stratigraphic correlations of various excavations at Tamarindo (Makowski et al., 1995: 292) the specimen could come from both stratum F, dating to C1 or from stratum E, dating to C1/C2, corresponding to Vicús Medio B or Vicús Tardío A. 687/3.1.2 from Grave 11 at Vicús 1 (Yécala) is dated to Vicús Medio B (Makowski et al., 1995: p.293), see Gravelot. Unfortunately none of the figurines in sg. 3.1 feature clear decorative designs, which could be used for dating purposes, by reference to the list established by Amaro for Vicús vessels (1995: 32-33). Nor are there clear enough stylistic or technological similarities with the dated examples in the Vicús publication (Makowski et al., 1995: figs. 298-304), though the plain, somewhat irregular terracotta surface finish of the figurines has parallels in Vicús Medio B (ibid.: figs. 222, 223), Tardío A and B (ibid. figs. 227, 235). It was also not possible to identify any temporal differences between Vicús figurines of sgs. 3.1.1 and 3.1.2. It is likely that this figurine type dates mainly to Vicús Medio and possibly survives in Vicús Tardío A, which makes it contemporary mainly with Moche phases II and III, surviving into phase IV.5 But looking at the style and considering the longevity of the Gallinazo figurines it is possible that some specimens are both earlier and later (but see Chronology of sg. 3.2.2 below).

1

Regarding a Vicús - Gallinazo "frontier", see NC-Epiformative. Gr.2, (Gallinazo), Geographic Distribution 2 R. Fung kindly checked a number of MNAA catalogue entries for specimens for which I had no data. 3 Refer to Vicús Introduction (above), Chronological Table. 4 See also Kaulicke 1988, 1989-90, 1991. 5 See a discussion of Moche chronology in Moche Introduction.

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NC EPIFORMATIVE SUB-GROUP 3.2: VICÚS PERSONAGE 4 : FIGURINES WITH ALMONDSHAPED EYES AND BILOBED HEAD

SUB-GROUP 3.2.1: FIGURINES WITH ALMOND-SHAPED EYES, A BILOBED HEAD AND SEPARATE LEGS

Table 5 Plate 10 Sample: 4 figurines + 2 atypical (examined 3) Measurements: The height goes from 21.1 cm to 23.5 cm, the width from 5.5 cm to 10.7 cm, the thickness from 4.8 cm to 6.0 cm, no weights have been recorded. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Group of four large standing females. The head shows a clear bilobation, e.g. two rounded lobes separated by a central depression (on 688 the lobes are slightly angular, on 1268 they are less marked); the profile (where known) is flat. The face is wide, with almond-shaped eyes outlined by a shallow groove; the large nose is hooked (688) or pointed (126), with perforated nostrils, 688 has an additional hole through the nose; the mouth is a simple incision (two lateral punches on 688); the ears are semicircular (688, 1268) or more angular (P34, 1100), with one perforation (two on P34); the chin is rounded, the neck lifelike. The body has wide shoulders and straight sides, tapering towards the legs; the modelled arms are folded above the waist (upwards on 1100, 1268); the hands are also modelled, but only 1100 has fingers (incised); the legs are completely separate, conical, with short rounded feet and incised toes (no toes on 1268). No umbilicus, small nipples on P34 only, large incised genital triangle with vulva functioning as airhole. Where known, featureless, straight back. Only 1100 has some body paint (two wide horizontal stripes across the chest and waist). Manufacture Although the two specimens which I examined (688, 1268) show no signs of lateral joins and some details (eyes, genital triangle) are incised, I am not sure that sg. 3.2.1 figurines are hand-made: the unusual low-relief modelling of the arms in particular may indicate that a mold was used. They are hollow, with one airhole at the vulva. The paste, surface finish and colour is typical Vicús (as in sg. 3.1.1). Atypical P36: Crudely modelled figurine listed with sub-group 3.2.1 because of its overall shape. The head is minimally bilobed, small slit eyes (rather than almond-shaped), large nose starting above the crown of the head, incised mouth, ears? Marked neck and shoulders, modelled folded arms, separate short legs. The figurine is hand-made of unbaked clay, solid. P37: Well-made standing figurine with bilobed head, wide face with elaborate face-paint of parallel lines, incised, slightly bulging almond-shaped eyes with painted pupils, pointed nose, mouth widening at the corners, incised teeth, ears with two perforations. Well formed neck, wide sloping shoulders, stocky body tapering to the legs. Modelled arms folded upwards on the chest, hands with incised fingers; separated cylindrical legs with small feet. No umbilicus or breasts, large incised genital triangle and vulva. Parallel lines painted at the neck and along the arms, wide lines at the bottom of the legs. Paste said to be Alfar Moche No. 5 (Makowski et al. 1995: 256), no other data. SUB-GROUP 3.2.2: FIGURINES WITH ALMOND-SHAPED EYES, A BILOBED HEAD AND VESTIGIAL LEGS

Table 5 Plate 10 Sample: 4 figurines + 1 atypical (examined 3) Measurements: The height goes from 8.7 cm to 21.4 cm, the width from 5.5 cm to 10.5 cm, the thickness from 2.5 cm to 5.4 cm, the recorded weight from 150 gr. to 590 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The four figurines have a head with a concave crown ending in two peaks, reminiscent of sg. 3.1.1, though the peaks are more pointed and vertical; the profile is flattened. The wide

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face lacks modelling; the incised almond-shaped eyes are large, without lids (1690. SAC 337), with lids (1034, 1072); the nose is straight (when not chipped), with small perforated nostrils, no alae; the mouth is marked by a small straight incision (through); the ears are small protuberances with perforations (through). All have a small perforation at the chin; the chin itself is modelled on 1072, only marked by a groove on the others. The body of SAC 337, 1690, 1034 lacks a neck or shoulders, with a straight lateral outline, barely indicated arms folded at the waist, incisions indicating the fingers; no legs, feet suggested by incised toes. 1072 is slightly different, with a neck, narrow shoulders and a lateral outline rounded at the arms, narrowing towards the conjoined legs; molded hands and slightly protruding feet. All are females with an incised and/or raised genital triangle and a small perforation at the vulva (large on 1690), 1072 and 1034 have perforated nipples; the back is plain and flat, with some perforations, except 1072 which shows some modelling of the buttocks and thighs. No clothing; 1072 wears a necklace of two rows of rectangular beads. Manufacture Only 1072 is clearly mold-made, the rest appear hand-made with incised features. All are hollow and have a number of small perforations, which functioned as airholes, many of them in unusual positions (f.i.. two to five perforations in the back). The oxidised ware is similar to Vicús sgs.3.1 but of a somewhat finer texture. Atypical P35: Figurine with extremely wide bilobed head, incised hair, foreshortened face with resist paint on the cheeks and chin, incised, almond-shaped eyes with perforations at each corner, slanting upwards; pointed nose with nostrils and alae, mouth cut through, small naturalistic ears with tiny circular ear-plugs, rounded flat chin, no neck. Narrow body lacking shoulders, straight sides. Appliquéd arms with large hands and incised fingers, folded above a relief band at the waist; no legs, short projecting feet with incised toes. No umbilicus, small perforated nipples, female or hermaphrodite?1 genitals with perforated vulva, semi-circular relief band above and small appendage below. No data regarding manufacture, but no fewer than 10 perforations. DISCUSSION (SUB-GROUPS 3.2.1 AND 3.2.2)

Special Features/Links with other groups Sub-group 3.2.1 Sub-group 3.2.1 is quite unlike the other Vicús sub-groups, including the sg. 3.1.2 "Specials" which are (except for the sitting P33) only outsize representations of the typical basic shape. Arguably they represent the "elite" variant of Vicús figurines. 688/sg. 3.2.1 has a hole through the nose, a feature which also occurs on 939/sg. 3.1.2 and a number of later figurines probably coming from the same area.2 Arms folded upwards on the chest (687, 1068, 76, 766/ sg.3.2.1) occur sporadically.3 Sub-group 3.2.2 The reasons for including sg. 3.2.2 into the Vicús sample are as follows: several aspects recall Vicús sg. 3.2.1: incised features, drawn with a shallow incision, such as the eyes and the mouth, the hardly visible folded arms and the ware - though it is finer here. But the large lobes are now reduced to "peaks" and the body shape is closer to Vicús sg. 3.1. Also: they obviously come from the NC, but will not fit into any of the earlier or later cultures. 1072/sg.3.2.2 has a lateral outline, molded hands, conjoined legs and especially a profile with suggested thighs, knees and buttocks which we see on some Moche figurines, probably from the northern sector (Moche sgs. 1.5.1, 4.3); the latter feature survives into Chimu (Chimu 2.2, 3.2a, etc).

1

See NC-Epiformative Gr.2 (Gallinazo-Virú), Special Features. See Vicús sg. 3.1.1, Special Features. 3 See NC-Formative Gr. 1, Special Features. 2

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1034 and the atypical P35 have perforated nipples;1 the composite female genitalia of P35 occur sporadically (see sg..3.1.2 above). Figurines in sg. 3.2.2 are notable for their numerous airholes (up to 20 perforations on 1072), a unique feature amongst Peruvian figurines. It may signify that they were used in curing or magical practices. Context: P36/3.2.1, atypical is obviously related to "Personage 4" representations in sg. 3.2.1 (similar body-shape and genital triangle), though the head is only slightly bilobed and the eyes are mere slits. It also comes from Loma Valverde, part of the area of Tamarindo: Sector Vi-10A is said to contain platforms and houses, but level C is not specifically mentioned. According to the caption this specimen was part of an offering (Kaulicke 1994b: FIG. 10.10B). Geographic distribution: In sg. 3.2.1 we have one certain, one unverifiable and one suggested (1100 from the Seminario collection) provenance from Vicús and Piura; I presume that the two specimens published in Makowski et al. (1995: P34, P37/atypical) also come from the Vicús area. In sg. 3.2.2 we have one unverifiable and one suggested provenance for the same area. Chronology2 In sg. 3.2.1 the ware is mostly typically Vicús (terracotta, blotchy with black specs), but the surface finish and above all the style are innovative, even though iconographically we are dealing with Vicús "Personage 4". It would be interesting to know whether the hollow specimens are mold-made?3 P36/3.2.1 from Vicús Tamarindo Sector Vi-10A (Loma Valverde) is dated to Vicús Tamarindo C2 (Kaulicke 1994: fig. 10.10B), corresponding to Vicús Tardío B, contemporary with Late Moche (M V). The atypical P37/3.2.1 belongs to a type of pottery (Alfar Moche No.5) found in the Alto Piura, and apparently manufactured throughout the Vicús-Moche sequence; it is dated to Vicús-Mochica Tardío, though without specifying whether phase A or B (Makowski 1995: 124; Makowski et al. 1995: 256 (caption), 266-7). The overall shape is different from other sg.3.2.1 figurines, but reminiscent of NC-Transitional MH-LIP Gr. 1. There is a possibility that this figurine dates to late Moche or the early MH. Sub-group 3.2.2 is more difficult to date. The shape, the eyes, and the technique in which these eyes are rendered is similar to sg. 3.2.1, though the overall aspect is totally different. But if we now compare them with the figurines in sgs. 3.1.1 and 3.1.2, we also see a faint "kinship": head crown ending in two peaks (cf. 1035, P28/3.1.1), straight body lacking a neck. There is also a certain similarity in the wares, both with sg. 3.1 and sg. 3.2.1. The combination of these clues at least allow us to assign the figurines to the Vicús tradition. A better clue to dating them is 1072, with its modelled lower body closely related to Moche sgs. 1.5.1 and 4.3. This suggests that sub-group 3.2.2 dates to Vicús Medio, contemporary with Middle Moche or later. The atypical P35 is linked to sg. 3.2.2 by its almond-shaped eyes and the numerous perforations or airholes and to sg. 3.2.1 by the marked bilobation. The resist facial paint is an early feature while nicely modelled hands with four fingers and thumb are a Moche characteristic. It is possibly earlier than sg. 3.2.2 as a whole, but belonging to the same tradition. Associated to sub-group 3.2.2 928: This unique figurine, from the Museo Brüning in Lambayeque, is distantly related to sg. 3.2.1 by the shape of the eyes and the genital triangle (though here both are in relief, not incised) and to sg. 3.2.2 by the unusually high number of perforations. But the head (rounded 1

See NC-Epiformative (Salinar), sg. 1.2, Special Features. Refer to Vicús Introduction, Chronological Table. 3 There is no mention of the use of molds in the Vicús volume (Makowski et al., 1995). 2

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in profile) lacks any bilobation and the arms, extended upwards, have modelled elbows, concave hands and separate fingers (now broken). Other unusual features are: an incised and punctated labret (?) placed on the tip of the chin and traces of resist paint indicating hair at the back. The surface is polished, orange-buff in colour, there are air-holes through the top of the head, nostrils, umbilicus, vulva, anus and the middle of the back. Being part of the Museo Brüning collections1 and with its unusual labret considered an Ecuadorian influence (see Moche sg. 4.3, Discussion) it is likely that the figurine comes from the northern NC. But the laterally raised arms are unique on NC figurines,2 though they occur on a Vicús vessel (Makowski et al., 1995: fig. 437, upper middle). However raised arms with angular elbows and concave hands with separate fingers are typical for the CC-EIP Classic Chancay Cuchimilco sg.1.4.2. A middle to late EIP date is possible. TWO NON-VICÚS FIGURINES FROM THE EXTREME NORTH OF PERU

756: known as “The Scribe” is often mentioned together with Vicús (Matos Mendieta 19651966:Lám.7; Del Busto 1970: 35, etc.). This beautiful figurine of a smiling personage, sitting cross-legged with hands resting on his knees, is said to come from Frías, Piura Province. There are no features linking it to the typical Vicús style: the near rectangular head (with naturalistic profile) is covered by an asymmetric appliquéd headdress which has parallels in Tembladera, Pacopampa and even Kotosh. The eyes, under modelled eye-brows, are deep narrow incisions with perforated pupils, similar to NC-Formative Gr.2 (Tembladera) figurines, the small straight nose has nostrils and alae, the smiling open mouth has modelled lips, the flap ear with one perforation is placed very low (left ear missing), the pointed chin is jutting. The body is very life-like with modelled chest, arms, hands and fingers resting on crossed legs. Genitals are not shown. There is a large rectangular hole in the back. Handmade, hollow with airholes through the eyes and mouth, traces of slip?, pale terracotta. The figurine probably belongs to an earlier local ceramic style, possibly related to Cupisnique. 755 shows a mother nursing a child, resting on her crossed legs. The head is elongated, flattened by cranial deformation in profile, with a turban wound around it. Unusually long face, thick appliquéd eye-brows, eyes with thicker lids than the Vicús coffee-bean eyes; long nose lacking nostrils or alae, small open mouth with modelled lips, large ears lacking perforations, jutting chin, long neck. Wide shoulders, modelled arms and hands with incised fingers holding the child; folded stylized legs, exceptionally large breasts, genitals hidden, back with modelled buttocks. The child has similar features (cranial deformation, hands). Hand-made, solid, traces of slip at the back?, terracotta colour. The specimen is said to come from the Mantaro area which is unlikely.3 The similarity with Ecuadorian figurines—not only from the nearby Guyas area, but even from Esmeraldas to the North—is pronounced. THE EPIFORMATIVE FIGURINES: SYNOPSIS

There are 91 Epiformative figurines: 17 Puerto Moorín/Salinar, 30 Gallinazo/Virú and 44 Vicús specimens (including two non-Vicús specimens probably from the Vicús cultural area) Within both the Salinar and Gallinazo ceramic styles there are two different types of figurines: crudely-made, highly stylized specimens, and carefully made naturalistic ones. This distinction is less pronounced amongst the Vicús figurines, where differences are mainly iconographic. Characteristics The crude Puerto Moorín (Salinar) figurines are all fragments, showing large heads and squat bodies with appliquéd arms and short separate legs; the only visible genitals (on one 1

Though the catalogue number is not from the early collection. Except P4, P5/NC-Early Formative. 3 As 641, see above Vicús sg. 3.1.1, Geographic distribution. 2

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specimen) are male; there are no clothes or ornaments. The size cannot be assessed: some of the head fragments are large. By contrast the "elite" Salinar figurines show a variety of postures (standing on separate or conjoined legs, sitting with extended legs, arms folded upwards on the chest, but also placed along the sides or holding objects); facial features also vary. The sex is ambiguous: but both males and females are depicted. No clothes are worn, but we see a variety of headgear and accessories. The specimens are large, with a median height of 21 cm, the largest measuring 37.0 cm. Amongst the cruder, stylized Gallinazo/Virú figurines there is a difference between a few very basic specimens, showing just a large head, a squat shapeless body, ending in tab feet without arms, genitals or ornaments, and more elaborate but equally stylized figurines, which can have appliquéd arms or genitals (mostly male) and painted or incised decor to the body and headdress. Finally there are a five large elaborate figurines, also males, with headgear, loin cloths and accessories. The sizes, varying from ca. 12 cm for the first category, between 14.0 and 26.0 cm for the more elaborate and up to 32.0 cm for the elite figurines, reflects the differences in style. The bulk of the Vicús figurines can be compared to the slightly more elaborate Gallinazo figurines, with a fairly basic shape (except for a few large "Specials"), showing features like coffee-bean eyes, appliquéd arms and genitals (19 females, 10 males) or a painted décor. A second (small) sub-division shows figurines with almond-shaped eyes and a variety of bodyshapes, obviously a somewhat different, but still closely related tradition within the group. None of these categories show any clothing or ornaments. Sizes again reflect the elaboration of the specimens, with median sizes rising from 13.0 cm to 18.0 cm. The largest Vicús "Special" measure 42.5 cm. Manufacture All the Epiformative figurines are hand-made - except one or more specimens in sg. 3.2.2 (Vicús); all are hollow, except the Puerto Moorín figurines (sg. 1.1). The number and position of the airholes varies greatly, but with obvious differences between the groups: f.i. whilst the Gallinazo figurines have a majority of airholes at the neck, their Vicús equivalents tend to have them at the vulva, anus, between the legs etc. The oxidised terracotta-coloured wares are so varied that it would be difficult to summarise them here. Only a few of the "elite" specimens are burnished and slipped. White painted décor occurs in all three groups, resist décor appears in Gallinazo and Vicús. Context We have very little contextual evidence, but as far as the utilitarian figurines are concerned, those of Puerto Moorín seem to have functioned mainly in a domestic context, whereas those of Gallinazo and Vicús appear both in burials and in a domestic or possibly ritual context.1 As for the Salinar and Gallinazo "elite" specimens, their good state of preservation probably means that they were found in burials. Geographic Distribution As can be expected all the Puerto Moorín figurines come from the Virú valley where this sub-style was defined; none of the "elite" Salinar figurines have a reliable provenance. As far as Gallinazo/Virú figurines are concerned, eight certain provenances are for the Virú valley, one for the Santa Valley, only one (and one unverifiable) for the Chicama valley, and one unverifiable provenance for the extreme North. This is surprising, considering that there is a well-documented Gallinazo presence both in the Moche/Chicama Valley and in the Northern sector of the NC. Finally the few reliable Vicús provenances (six out of 46!) are all for the Vicús heartland.

1

This applies to both the Vicús sub-groups.

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Chronology If we consider the actual figurines of the three Epiformative groups—and not the ceramic styles themselves—it would appear that the PuertoMoorín/Salinar figurines are marginally earlier than those of the other two groups, probably dating to the end of the Formative and the very beginning of the EIP. Gallinazo/Virú and Vicús figurines overlap chronologically. Most of the Gallinazo figurines found in a datable context are assigned to Late Gallinazo in cultural sequences in which the Gallinazo style precedes the Moche style (Bennett 1939, 1950; Strong and Evans 1952; Wilson 1988). But we know—and at least one figurine confirms this—that the Gallinazo style was partly contemporary with Moche. The figurines in this sample probably date to the early phases of the EIP. As for the Vicús figurines, the earliest ones in this sample are contemporary with Moche I or II, the latest ones probably contemporary with late Moche. For a more precise chronology, we shall have to wait for a better chronological assessment of the ceramic styles involved. But there can be no doubt that all three groups, especially in their "utilitarian" figurines, are part of the Epiformative phenomenon of a total break with the earlier Formative figurine tradition—a break also seen in other areas of Peru—and only marginally (with the rare "elite" specimens) participate in the new mass-produced figurine fashion, introduced by the Moche culture and continued by Chimu.

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CHAPTER 6 THE EARLY INTERMEDIATE PERIOD ON THE NORTH COAST: THE MOCHE CULTURE INTRODUCTION

The Moche Culture and its Chronology The Moche culture1 is one of the best known and admired of all the pre-Columbian cultures of Peru. This is due to the splendour and sheer quantity of its artefacts, especially the ceramics, to the accessibility of the spectacular site of Huacas de Moche on the outskirts of Trujillo, with its twin pyramids of the Sun and of the Moon, and to the extensive publications and the beautiful museum created by Rafael Larco Hoyle in the 1940s. A renewed interest in the Moche culture was fired by the discovery in 1987 of spectacular royal Moche burials at Sipán, in the Lambayeque valley. In the early stages of Moche studies, the culture was thought to originate in the Moche and Chicama valleys. It had evolved from earlier local cultures such as Cupisnique, Salinar and Gallinazo.2 The powerful Moche state, theocratic in its orientation, was thought to have expanded by way of conquest to valleys to the south (Virú, Santa, Nepeña), whilst in areas to the north (Jequetepeque and Lambayeque) its presence was regarded only as evidence of trade contacts. The end of the Moche culture was seen as the result of concomitant pressures. The expansion of the Wari empire as well as ecological factors had lead to a gradual displacement to the upper valley reaches in Moche and Chicama, with the abandonment of the site of Moche itself and the eclipse of the Moche presence in the southern valleys. Shortly before the final collapse of the Moche culture its capital had been moved to Pampa Grande in the Lambayeque valley. This model of the Moche culture was underpinned by a stylistic chronology elaborated by R. Larco (1948) using hundreds of funerary contexts from the Moche and Chicama valleys. Observing the changes in the subject matter, decor and shape of the most typical of Moche vessels, the stirrup-spout bottle, and in particular of the spouts themselves, Larco sub-divided Moche ceramics into five chronological phases.3 Questions and problems arising from Larco's model and chronology came to a head with the discovery of a clear Moche and Gallinazo presence in association with Vicús burials in the Alto Piura area (Makowski et al. 1995). At Pacatnamú, in the lower Jequetepeque valley, Gallinazo (allegedly pre-Moche) and Moche III pottery was not only found together as offerings, it may even have been manufactured in the same workshops (Shimada and Maguiña 1994: 38). Finally, with the gradual emergence of a strong Moche presence in the Jequetepeque, Zaña, Lambayeque and La Leche valleys, variants of a completely new model are being proposed by a growing number of archaeologists (Castillo and Donnan 1995; Kaulicke 1994b; Shimada and Maguiña 1994; Shimada 1994b; Bawden 1994, 2004; Castillo 2001 and others). Broadly speaking the Moche culture is now seen as the expression of a macro-ethnic group and/or of a political system4 with two separate foci : the southern one, expanding from its 1

This synopsis is based on a number of different authors. For extensive recent bibliographies on the Moche culture see Uceda and Mujica, (Eds.) 1994, 2002; Pillsbury (Ed.) 2001. 2 It is now generally accepted that the Gallinazo ceramic style, even if it did start earlier than Moche, survived throughout most of the Moche culture (see above, chapter 6). 3 For an analysis and illustrations of this chronology see Donnan 1976: 43ff. 4 Bawden 2004.

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centre in the Moche/Chicama drainage to valleys to the south, at times as far as Casma or even Huarmey, and the northern one, manifesting itself in the valleys of Jequetepeque, Zaña, Lambayeque/La Leche and even Piura. The boundary between the Northern and Southern sector of the North Coast is the large stretch of desert known as the Pampa de Paijan, which lies between the Chicama Valley and Pacasmayo (Castillo and Donnan 1994: 130). After several centuries of development, signs of decline, due to a combination of ecological and political factors, can be perceived first in the south, with a retreat of Moche from the southern valleys and the eventual abandonment of the site of Moche itself. In the northern sector the Moche polity survives somewhat longer at Pampa Grande—though this site may not have been the "transferred" southern capital, as suggested, amongst others, by Shimada (1994a)—until its gradual replacement by later cultures. Together with this new perception of the Moche development, a number of scholars raised doubts about Larco's five-phase chronology. Criticisms regarded his methodology which was never clearly set out, as well as his data base, with too much emphasis on burial contexts and ceremonial architecture and too little on occupational stratigraphy. Some phases are also very poorly represented: of 326 documented Moche gravelots from all Moche areas, only 10 (3.1 %) belong to phases Moche I and II (Donnan 1995). Nevertheless the overall validity of Larco's chronology, confirmed by stylistic studies, in particular those of Ch. Donnan, as well as by a number of excavations, has been more or less1 accepted for the southern Moche area. However, it does not correlate with the area to the north of Paijan, where a number of vessel types or even phases are not shared with the southern Moche area. For instance, at San José de Moro, Jequetepeque valley, Castillo and Donnan (1994:131-133) see a continuum between Moche III and Moche V, without any sign of the "ubiquitous" Moche IV phase. This can lead to different interpretations of historic events: whilst Shimada (1994b: 381-385) sees a sudden apparition or a “forced intrusion" of Moche IV ceramics—undistinguishable from the southern style—into the middle valleys of Zaña, Lambayeque and La Leche as a sign of a southern take-over of this area, Castillo and Donnan (1995: 160-161) interpret the perceived absence of Moche IV ceramics in the northern sector as a sign that the southern Moche polity never dominated the north. For the scholar who wants to apply a valid Moche chronology to his research these different theories can result in some confusion. Whilst the five-phase chronology remains valid for the South, a three phase chronology (Early, Middle, Late Moche) has been proposed for the northern area, but the latter is often still correlated with the former (for instance Alva 1994: 322). We notice here a phenomenon that also occurs with the equally debated and criticised Nasca chronology: in spite of its various limitations, Larco's five phase seriation remains a useful tool and is also generally used in this study. Southern Region (Moche/Chicama Valleys)

Northern Region (Jequetepeque Valley)

Moche Phase I/II

Early Moche ----------------------------------------Middle Moche

Moche Phase III Moche Phase IV

Late Moche Moche Phase V Various MH styles 2 Transitional (including MH-LIP groups, Sican and Early Chimu) 2

Transitional Lambayeque

The Northern Region chronology (and its correlation to the five Southern region Moche phases, and its "Transitional" and "Lambayeque" phases) is based on Castillo's findings for

1

A discordant voice is for instance Kaulicke 1992, but he is refuted by Castillo and Donnan (1995: 153). 2 Based on the evidence of the figurines

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the Jequetepeque valley (2001: 308).1 Castillo points out that during his Northern Transitional Period, various names, such as Huari Norteño, Early Chimu or Early Sican were given to cultures in various other areas (2001: 326). In the above chronology the later phases of the Southern chronology have been based on the evidence of the figurine material (see also below Introductions to the NC Middle Horizon, Sican and Chimu cultures respectively). Moche Iconography A first, superficial look at Moche iconography—as depicted in its material culture, be it ceramics, metal- and textile work or murals—sees a naturalistic art form, depicting the world of everyday life. As a result, the interpretation of this art went through slow and gradual stages of recognition, with early scholars taking what they saw at face-value. For example, as late as 1965 Larco speculates whether erotic vessels deposited in graves were meant to prolong the sexual life of the dead or to celebrate their sexual exploits while alive, and is surprised that a vase depicting fellatio was found in a child’s burial. It is only in erotic scenes involving supernaturals, that Larco perceives a symbolic dimension (1965: 44, 105). Since the 1970s a number of scholars2 — simultaneously but independently—have focused their attention on the complex “symbolic system” codified within Moche iconography. Ch. Donnan (1976: 5) compares this system to a language in which what is said can be modified by adjectives and adverbs and by the place it occupies in a given narrative sequence. These studies have resulted in a painstaking decoding of a number of basic themes, mainly shown in the fineline drawings on late Moche ceramics: the Presentation Theme, Burial, Revolt of the Objects, Moon-boat, Throwing of Flowers, etc. It gradually became clear that not only are these themes interrelated, but that many of the personages recur in different guises or roles.3 Often the scenes are enacted on two levels: one in the real world, the other in a mythical world, the main protagonists thus having both a real and a mythical persona (Hocquenghem 1989). The very repetitiveness of the scenes suggests that one is dealing here with widely disseminated myths and/or with rites re-enacting those myths. Outside these relatively few and interrelated themes, whole areas of everyday activities are never shown at all. Thus, far from representing everyday life as many casual observers think, Moche art deals exclusively with the supernatural and is essentially non secular (Donnan 1976:174ff). Since the ceramics mainly functioned as grave-goods, death and the belief system associated with it is an important key to the symbolism of Moche culture (Benson 1975; Hocquenghem 1977d). Much has been written by the chroniclers about the importance of the dead ancestors in pre-Columbian Peru in their dual role as a link with the origins of a given group and a source of fecundity and renewal. This idea of fecundity, primordial in an agricultural society, is closely linked both to sexuality, which thus acquires a sacred dimension, and to the notion of sacrifice in its many aspects. The calendrical dimension of many of the rituals, an important aspect of the later Inca state religion and still primordial in Andean fiestas to this day, must also be taken into account. Hand in hand with the decoding of Moche iconography, scholars have studied the ethnohistorical and ethnographic record, identifying customs which may have survived through the centuries. In this context can be seen the importance that shamanism seems to have played— and still plays—in the Andean world. Many aspects of Moche iconography are now interpreted as shamanic rites (Sharon and Donnan 1974; Hocquenghem 1977b; 1989 etc.), although some of these interpretations have been challenged (Makowski 1994). That the whole idea of the shaman—with his access to the world of the spirits and his capacity to cure—is closely linked to the concepts of death, fecundity, renewal and sacrifice goes without saying. 1

But note that slightly earlier Donnan and McClelland (1997: 12) correlate Early Moche with Moche I, Middle Moche with Moche II and III, Late Moche with Moche IV and V. 2 E.Benson, Y. Berezkin, A. Cordy-Collins, Ch. Donnan, A.M. Hocquenghem, G. Kutscher, D. McClelland to name but a few. 3 See Bourget 2006: 47-48, Summary.

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Finally Moche iconography must also be seen as the expression of an elite, directed at justifying and consolidating a social order. The Moche Figurines and their Classification What do the Moche figurines reveal, when examined in the light of the “symbolic language” of Moche iconography and its various interpretations? The first striking aspect is that the 342 Moche figurines and figurine molds in this sample do not reflect the rich variety of other Moche representations. Whilst some specimens have attributes linking them to certain main Moche "themes", by far the largest number of figurines simply show a standard personage in a standard posture and with only slight differences in head-shape or garb. Isolating a set of attributes is easier on the relatively simple figurines than in the elaborate fineline drawings, which are our main source for their contexts and significance. Hocquenghem and Lyon (1980:29-30) have pointed out the danger in defining attributes too strictly, as for instance Makowski (1994) has done: presence or absence of belt, of cloak, of load carried on the back, etc. The Moche figurines have been subdivided into seven groups according to iconographic criteria, though these cannot be applied strictly, since some attributes, such as long tresses, are shared by several groups. So the actual group formation is based on a combination of criteria, in which one of the criteria is seen as more significant than another. For instance a woman with long tresses carrying a child will be classified into Group 3 ("Mother-and child"), the main object of this classification always being to allow the easiest identification of a particular type. Group 1, by far the most numerous group, shows Standard Moche Figurines: these stereotyped figurines lack some of the “clues” or contexts provided by the other groups, and are therefore less easily “decoded”. The main attribute here is the shape of the head or headdress. Group 2 depicts Woman with Tresses: this attribute, often occurring on ceramic vessels shows the personage to have a mythical context. Women with tresses also occur in the following two groups (3, 41), but other characteristics are more significant. Group 3 figurines depict the "Women with Child” theme, often transcending its "everyday mother-and-child" aspect. Group 4 comprises Figurines with Supernatural and/or Ritual Connotations such as Priestesses or Shamans. Group 5 is a small group listing Miscellaneous Figurines such as warriors, pendants, anthropomorphic rattles, whose small numbers does not warrant separate groups. Group 6 depicts Figurines Placed on Litters or Platforms. Group 7 comprises some Moche-related Figurines and Molds, which show some Moche features but do not belong to any of the above groups. In Moche figurines not included in this study I discuss some published Moche figurines, which, for a variety of reasons, could not form part of this study. Apart from the iconography, two other aspects of the figurines have also been considered in the group formation: their method of manufacture and their provenance. a. Method of Manufacture: The Moche figurines appear to be the first figurines to be made with the help of molds. Four methods are used: Method 1: Hollow figurines made of one frontal mold and a slab of clay added to the back, leaving a hollow interior; Method 2: Hollow figurines made of two molds (front and back); Method 3: Hollow figurines made of two molds (front and back), with additional molded or hand-made features, like arms: this technique is reserved for a few large "Specials"; Method 4: Solid figurines, made of one frontal mold only, the back being simply smoothed. 1

There is also one figurine in Group 6.

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For Methods 1, 2 and 3 the position of the airhole or -holes must also be taken into consideration, as an additional regional or temporal marker. b. Provenance, to see whether any iconographic attributes or variation in manufacturing techniques have a regional significance. Unfortunately reliable site attributions being rare, I have had to use additional clues, such as the specific museum or collection from which a figurine comes, pointing to a certain "catchment area". So, to the usual ranking of provenances ("certain", "fairly reliable", "unverifiable"), I have added "suggested", listed in [], based on circumstantial criteria.1 Moche Figurine Chronology What is striking when one surveys the Moche figurine sample, is the obvious lack of early specimens. Kaulicke, in his re-evaluation of the early Moche style, reaches the conclusion that early expressions of Moche are difficult to identify in the ceramics, because what takes place is only a technologically superior reworking of earlier elements (Kaulicke 1992:898). In the case of the figurines, however, the problem is different. Considering the coexistence of Gallinazo and Moche ceramic styles, perhaps throughout the Moche phases, it is possible that figurines were not part of the early “elite” Moche assemblage and that actual Moche-style figurines only appear either when they become part of the elite assemblage or if and when the Moche style becomes more widely disseminated socially.2 Both possibilities would explain the difference in appearance between a specimen like 951/Gallinazo sg.2, found in a late Gallinazo grave containing a Moche III dipper or canchero and the earliest Moche figurines, which also date to Moche III. The problem is somewhat compounded by the fact that the few documented provenances for Gallinazo/Virú style figurines are all for the Virú valley, but their presence in collections further north strongly suggests that they were also found there. There is also a problem in dating figurines from the Northern Sector of the North Coast, mentioned earlier. As we have seen, Donnan and other scholars believe that the classic Moche IV phase of the Moche/Chicama valleys does not exist there and see a continuum between phases III and V, whilst other scholars do identify a phase IV in the area (Castillo and Donnan 1994: 129ff; 1995; Hecker and Hecker 1984, 1995; Shimada passim). So—depending on the source of the material—it is not always possible to keep strictly to the three-phase chronology ("Early, Middle, Late Moche") adopted for the Northern Sector. As we shall see, the great majority of Moche figurines appear to belong to Moche IV, but subtle stylistic differences suggest that some figurines are earlier or later than the bulk of the material, probably dating to Moche III or V. MOCHE GROUP 1: STANDARD MOCHE FIGURINES

There are 189 Standard Moche Figurines. The vast majority of specimens in this group are medium to small standing figurines with arms folded at the waist, lacking any salient attributes. A small minority of specimens are considerably larger and vary in posture, some sitting and/or with extended arms (see sub-groups 1.1.2, 1.3). All four manufacturing methods (see Introduction) are represented. The visually most distinctive feature, the shape of the head and/or headdress, combined with the manufacturing method, determines a sub-division into five main sub-groups : Sub-group 1.1: Standard figurines with a high rounded head, plain or with painted hair or a headdress. Sub-group 1.1.1: As defined above - with "tri-punctate" eyes (Methods 1 and 4). Sub-group 1.1.2: As defined above - with normal eyes (Methods 1, 3 and 4). 1 2

See "Notes to the Tables"; for an example see Moche Gr.1, Geographic Distribution. See Introduction to the Gallinazo/Virú figurines

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Sub-group 1.2: Standard figurines with a rounded head and hair (or a headdress)framing the face (Method 1) Sub-group 1.3: Standard figurines with a molded rounded cap, leaving the ears uncovered (Methods 1, 3 and 4) Sub-group 1.4: Standard figurines with a rounded head and veil or long hair and/or side locks (Method 1) Sub-group 1.5: Standard figurines with a rounded, rectangular, or trapezoidal headdress. Sub-group 1.5.1: Standard figurines with a rounded or rectangular headdress (Method 2). Sub-group 1.5.2: Standard figurines with a trapezoidal headdress (Method 2). Within these sub-divisions, figurines are listed according to their provenance from valleys north to south, rather than by their resemblance, in order to highlight possible regional variations. MOCHE SUB-GROUP 1.1: STANDARD FIGURINES WITH A HIGH ROUNDED HEAD MOCHE SUB-GROUP

1.1.1: STANDARD FIGURINES WITH ROUNDED HEAD AND "TRI-PUNCTATE" 1

EYES

Table 6 Plates 12, 13 Sample: 29 figurines (all examined): Method 1 = 11 figurines, Method 4 = 17 figurines, atypical: 1 figurine. Measurements (Method 1 specimens): Minimum Maximum Median Height (11): 13.5 cm 18.5 cm 16.8 cm Width (11): 6.8 cm 9.5 cm 8.4 cm Thickness (11): 4.2 cm 5.6 cm 5.0 cm Weight (9): 170 gr. 400 gr. 260 gr. Measurements (Method 4 specimens): Minimum Maximum Median Height (6): 6.8 cm 9.7 cm 8.6 cm Width (8): 3.0 cm 5.6 cm 3.9 cm Thickness (9): 1.6 cm 2.5 cm 1.9 cm Weight (4): 30 gr. 90 gr. 60 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

This sub-group contains only Method 1 and Method 4 figurines. The iconographic traits being similar, they are described together. The figurines have a high rounded head, mostly with a specific shape: widening at the sides with an indentation at the temples (e.g. 1616, 1949). The crown is often painted, to indicate hair (e.g. 1576) or a headdress (e.g. 1561), with a straight line across the forehead (1975 has a small triangle of incised hair at the top of the head). In profile—on Method 1 specimens—the back of the head is flattened, the join of the front and back mold can be rounded (e.g. 1561) or sharp (e.g. 1576). The head accounts for about one third of the total height. The face is naturalistic in outline and proportions, with some modelling of the eyebrows, eye-sockets and cheeks, more rarely nose-to-mouth lines (e.g. 1561, 753, 1757) but often traces of fugitive face-paint2 (e.g. 1550, 1576). The eyebrows are modelled (e.g. 1561) or "undercut" (e.g. 1950), often also painted. The raised, elliptic eyes are of the "tri-punctate" type with a central punctation for the pupil and either punctated or "gouged-out" corners (e.g. 1550, 966 or 753, 964). The straight nose has modelled alae and punctated nostrils. The mouth area is slightly raised, the opening either a simple incision (e.g.1561) or made by two "gouges" (e.g. 753, 964), always curving downwards at the corners. The ears are large: they 1 2

Six further specimens with "tri-punctate" eyes occur in sg. 1.2 See Discussion

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are mostly lifelike, with two or three inner ridges (e.g. 1550, 964), some with punctations in the lobes (e.g. 1550, 7531); 758, 759 have flat, near rectangular ears with a perforation. The chin is rounded, straight in profile, the neck short. The body has rounded shoulders and upper arms, then tapers towards the feet. On Method 1 specimens the slightly convex profile varies from quite wide (e.g. 1550). to very narrow (e.g. 1616). The arms are always folded at the waist, at right angles or slightly bent upwards; generally only the lower arms are modelled. The hands can be stylized, flat, with straight, cutoff fingers (e.g. 1576) or rounded, life-like, with molded fingers and thumbs (e.g. 758). The legs are completely separate on five Method 1 specimens,2 conjoined and shorter on the others (e.g. 1323). Feet slightly protrude at the front only, in profile they are flat (e.g. 1550) or slightly tapering upwards at the back (e.g. 1323), toes are incised: generally these figurines cannot stand upright. The genitalia are always shown: 17 figurines are female,3 with a slightly raised and/or outlined Mons veneris and incised vulva. The four males have a small penis and no testes. One male-female set (759/758) may have been deliberately made as a "couple".4 The umbilicus, breasts or nipples are not shown on either sex. The slightly convex Method 1 back sometimes shows a minimal dip at the neck and/or lower back (e.g. 1561) as well as the painted clothing (see below). It is completely flat on Method 4 figurines. Painted features like the headgear, necklace or shirt are common on Method 1 backs, rare on Method 4 specimens (e.g. 1567, 1568). The shape of the base5 —only relevant on Method 1 figurines—is "bean"shaped, but varies from elongated (from side to side) and shallow (from front to back) to broad (similar from side to side and front to back). (See Discussion: Base Types 1 and 2) About half of the specimens (possibly more?) wear clothing which is always painted in fugitive paint6 and consists of a plain shirt, painted in black fugitive paint, and stopping short of the genitals. Three males have more elaborate shirts: 1561, 1567 with diagonal stripes suggesting a poncho, 758 with an elaborate stepped collar; 753, 1160 (Method 1) and several Method 4 figurines are naked.7 Most figurines—including naked ones—wear a collar or a necklace, painted (11) or molded (3). The painted variety can be a single or double dotted line, often also indicated in the back by hanging ties (e.g. 1550); molded necklaces are wide, with incised lines imitating trapezoidal beads (e.g. 1160). Over 50% also have painted bracelets (e.g.1576). Earrings or earplugs are not shown, though eight figurines have punctated (e.g. 753) or perforated ear-lobes (e.g. 758), possibly meant for metal ear-rings. Manufacture The 11 Method 1 figurines are hollow, eight with airholes at or below the anus (one of them also through the eyes, one through the eyes and penis), three through the base. The 17 Method 4 figurines are solid. All of them are in oxidized ware, unslipped, in shades of terracotta (varying from bright orange to dark brown8 or grey), 11 with additional bi-colour decor of white (to cream) and black (to brown), five with only white decor. Atypical The atypical 941 is similar to the other specimens, though it has the rarer separate legs and a deep incision underlining the genital triangle; the main difference is that it is hand-made. 1

Best visible on the ear fragment (2153/Body Fragments 1.1-1.2)". A leg fragment (1969/Body Fragments 1.1-1.2) is also separate. 3 Eight specimens are head or head and upper body fragments, not showing the genitals. 4 Two other figurines (1561/1550) also look like a "couple", but their acquisition numbers - though from the same collection - are far apart (FMC 4563 and FMC 4601); the female is slightly larger than the male. 5 This feature was not always recorded. 6 This is often difficult to see and may have disappeared; it also applies to features like painted necklaces or bracelets (see below). 7 The latter are often in very bad condition, the painted clothing may have disappeared. 8 About the head fragment 1975 (4/2672) Uhle writes (MS cat., vol. I: 64): "The figure has been modeled but the substance is like stone, very heavy, similar to black lead. I am told that Indians in 2

Ancash grind black stone to flour, mix it with clay and model it and cook it to pottery."

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MOCHE SUB-GROUP 1.1.2: STANDARD FIGURINES WITH ROUNDED HEAD AND NORMAL EYES

Table 7 Plates 14 - 17 Sample: 38 figurines (examined 27): Method 1 and probable = 19, Method 3 "Specials" = 4, Method 4 and probable = 11,1 Molds = 4 Measurements (Method 1 and probable specimens): Minimum Maximum Median Height (17): 13.2 cm 29.7 cm 17.8 cm Width (14): 6.5 cm 13.4 cm 9.2 cm Thickness (13): 3.5 cm 9.0 cm 5.1 cm Weight (6): 280 gr. over 1000 gr. 380 gr. Measurements (Method 3 "Specials" with hand-made features): All three standing specimens measure just over 34 cm in height, between 15 and 17 cm in width, between 10 and 14 cm in thickness; all weigh over 1000 gr. The sitting specimen is 28.6 cm high, other measurements are not recorded. Measurements (Method 4 specimens): Only three specimens are complete, measuring between 4.7 and 10.1 cm in height, 2.2 and 4.1 cm in width and 1.0 to 2.5 cm in thickness; only one weight (70 gr.) has been recorded. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

This sub-group is similar to sg. 1.1.1, except for the following: • the eyes are large, lenticular to elliptic, with molded lids and raised eyeballs, sometimes painted white, whilst the pupils are painted black or left unpainted. • Lips are sometimes molded, rather than just raised and incised (e.g. 126). • Completely separate legs only feature on the large 1094 and the "Specials" (see below). • There are four, possibly five males and 22 females with similar genitals as in sg. 1.1.1. • The clothing, still visible on about half the specimens, is also painted (except on 1393), but there are no stripy ponchos or ornate collars: the big collar on 1456 may be a later modern addition; P38 and 1393 wear longer tunics (molded on 1393), covering their genitals (they probably represent females); 1551 wears a cap2 with incised squares and a raised rim. Necklaces are often just a broad (faint) white line (e.g. 122, C19), only six specimens have a molded plain necklace (e.g. 1551, 1094), only 126 (and the molds, see below) have an incised necklace; 1393 has a necklace of small lozenge-shaped pendants. Painted bracelets are very rare. The circular ear-shape of 754 may indicate ear-plugs, seven specimens wear large drop-shaped earrings3 (e.g. 206), five specimen have punctated or perforated ears. This sub-group also includes four Method 3 figurines (982, 1043, 1267, C20), three of them with additional hand-made features.4 These "Specials" are considerably larger than the rest (except for the Method 1 1094 in this sg., which is also large). 1043 has folded arms, the others have outstretched arms, with palms turned downwards, an unusual posture for figurines. C20 is sitting with legs outstretched in front, the others are standing, leaning slightly forward. Most features are as above, with more careful modelling of the face, chest and buttocks. 982 and 1043 are female, 1267 and C20 male, with the characteristic small penis and lack of testes. Traces of black paint indicate a short tunic (982, 1043, hardly visible on 1267), 1

It is not known whether P44 and P45 are solid. The shape is different from the caps in sg. 1.3. 3 Three types of ear ornaments occur in Group 1: Disk ear-plugs, fastened directly to the lobe, disk earrings, hanging from and below the lobe, drop or crescent-shaped ear-rings, also hanging from and below the lobe. 4 Three similar specimens also occur sg. 1.3. A further large specimen (Lilien 1959: 95-96, Pl. VIIIm) with extended arms and palms turned downwards closely resembles 982. With a near rectangular head it should be classified in sg. 1.4, but has none of the other characteristics of that sub-group. It comes from Sausal, Chicama, is 36.8 cm high, hollow, terracotta in colour with white decor. 2

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C20 features a broad band of elaborate body-paint at waist level; 982 and 1043 wear a molded necklace of trapezoidal beads, painted white (tied in the back on 1043), 1067 and C20 an elaborate painted stepped collar. The large, realistic ears are pierced, 1267 wears ornate copper ear-plugs, secured by small studs at the back. Three of the molds (M3, M4, M5) show naked females with large molded necklaces. P46 wears a long tunic and drop ear-rings. Note that the outside of M4 and M5 have facial features scratched in. Jackson (2002: 111) sees this as a "system of visual notation" meant to help potters to differentiate one mold from another. Manufacture: Of the 19 Method 1 figurines, 11 have recorded air-holes, of which six under the base, one at the shoulders, one at the waist, one at the vulva and - oddly - one listed as "top of the right leg", another "below left elbow"; 1551, though hollow, has no airholes. Of the three examined "Specials", two have airholes at the anus, one at the vulva and anus. All the specimens are in oxidized ware, in various shades of terracotta (as in sg.1.1.1), seven figurines are monochrome, many probably because the surface has been eroded, eight are bi-chrome, with additional white or black, 11 are tri-colour, with white and black. The "Specials" are highly burnished, possibly slipped. MOCHE SUB-GROUP 1.2: STANDARD FIGURINES WITH A ROUNDED HEAD AND HAIR OR A HEADDRESS FRAMING THE FACE

Table 8 Plates 18, 19 Sample: 42 Figurines (examined 36): Method 1 = 28, Method 4 = 14. Measurements (Method 1 specimens): Minimum Maximum Median Height (24): 10.7 cm 23.0 cm 14.3 cm Width (24): 5.0 cm 11.4 cm 7.5 cm Thickness (21): 3.4 cm 6.5 cm 4.5 cm Weight (21): 115 gr. 500 gr. 190 gr. Measurements (Method 4 specimens): Minimum Maximum Median Height (12): 6.4 cm 11.0 cm 8.4 cm Width (12): 3.1 cm 6.0 cm 5.0 cm Thickness (11): 1.4 cm 2.7 cm 1.9 cm Weight (8): 25 gr. 120 gr. 50 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

•

• •

• •

Differences with sub-groups 1.1.1 and 1.1.2: The head is generally lower and the characteristic head-shape (described under sg.1.1.1) is not represented. Hair or a headdress, outlined by an incision, frames the face, covering the ears (though ear-plugs are sometimes shown, see below); at the sides the "hair" can vary in shape, from very wide (e.g. 215) to narrow (e.g. 1689). Facial features can be much stronger (viz. 745, 1692), often with nose-to-mouth lines and/or face-paint; 1391, 1392 and 1556 have “tri-punctate” eyes. Legs are always joined; note the heavy, broad feet of 1562, which also shows some minimal modelling of the back mold. Many figurines now have a broader base, more heart- than bean-shaped (215, 1562, 1553) - see Discussion, Base no. 4, also 3 and 5. There are no males; on four specimens the genitals are hidden by a tunic (27, 1485 painted, P47, 1486 molded) but they are very likely female. About 60% of the figurines are naked, the rest have painted clothing (molded on P47, 1486). Necklaces are generally molded: of these ca 50% are painted plain white (e.g. 27) or with vertical white lines (e.g. 1574), ca 25% are incised and painted, suggesting beads

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(e.g. 745); 994 has a necklace of lozenge-shaped pendants. Only five specimens have painted necklaces (e.g. 1569, 516). • Although the ears themselves are always hidden, five specimens have large flat disk earplugs (e.g. 27), 1562 pendant disk ear-rings. Manufacture: Of the 28 hollow Method 1 figurines, 22 have recorded airholes of which 17 are under the base, four at or below the anus and one at the shoulders. All, including the Method 4 specimens are in oxidised ware (except 1953 in reduced-fired ware, black) in various shades of terracotta, from orange to grey or brown: 15 are monochrome, 10 are bichrome, mostly with white or cream, more rarely with black or brown, 13 are tri-colour, with white and black or brown (1559, 1553 from Suchiman, Santa, have a decor in white, black and dark brown or dark red). The surface treatment varies, but highly burnished or slipped specimens are rare. BODY FRAGMENTS OF STANDARD MOCHE FIGURINES PROBABLY BELONGING TO SUB-GROUPS 1.1 AND 1.2

Table 9 Plate 20 Sample: 24 Figurine fragments (examined 21) : Method 1 = 7, Method 4 = 17. Since the classification of the Standard Moche figurines is based on the head shape, body fragments cannot be assigned with certainty to specific sub-groups. However it is likely that these fragments belong to sub-groups 1.1 and 1.2 because: a) Figurines in sub-group 1.5 are all manufactured in Method 2 b) Method 4 figurines—the majority of the fragments (70 %)—are rare in sg. 1.3 (9 %) and inexistent in sg. 1.4. c) The following features are also much less common in sub-groups 1.3 and 1.4: • Most figurine fragments are naked; 1963, a male, wears a painted poncho as in sg. 1.1.1; only 1951 with a molded tunic could belong to sgs. 1.3 or 1.4. • Where present (13), the collar is either painted (6), which hardly occurs in the other subgroups, or molded (plain 1, incised 6) which is more common, but there are no necklaces with hanging beads, common in sg. 1.3. Five specimens show traces of painted bracelets, particularly common in sg.1.1.1. • The leg fragment (1969) belongs to sg.1.1.1, the only sub-group showing separate legs (except for the large "Specials"); the naturalistic ear (2153b) with a punctation rather than a perforation, is also typical of sg.1.1.1. At 3.3 cm it is only slightly larger than that of 1550/1.1.1 (2.6 cm). Two figurines are unusual: 1762, although made in Method 1, has an unusual hand-made incision marking the legs and buttocks and two painted panels at the back. 1946b, found together with the classic 1.1.1 fragment (1946a), is a small sitting figurine with thin arms resting on drawn up legs, with large incisions for toes; it wears a necklace, incised not molded, decorated with a row of dots. The posture and treatment of the feet are like those on early NC figurines (cf. 1388, C1/NC-Formative-Gr.1). Manufacture Of the seven hollow figurine fragments, four have recorded airholes, at the vulva, between the legs in front, at the base, at the anus. All the fragments are in oxidised ware in various shades from orange to dark brown, seven are bi-chrome, two are tricolour.

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1

MOCHE SUB-GROUP 1.3: STANDARD FIGURINES WITH A MOLDED ROUNDED CAP (LEAVING THE EARS UNCOVERED)

Table 10 Plates 21, 22 Sample: 24 figurines (examined 20) : Method 1 and probable = 17 + 1 atypical, Method 3 "Specials" = 3, Method 4 = 2, Molds = 1. Measurements: (Method 1 figurines and probable) Minimum Maximum Median Height (17): 7.5 cm 23.3 cm 14.3 cm Width (14): 5.5 cm 12.1 cm 7.1 cm Thickness (13): 3.4 cm 6.1 cm 4.9 cm Weight (11) 60 gr. 560 gr. 200 gr. Measurements: (Method 3 "Specials" with hand-made features): The standing figurine, measures 28.0 cm by 12 cm, the two sitting specimens measure 28.6 and 23.0 cm respectively. The weight is not recorded. Measurements (Method 4 figurines): The two Method 4 specimens, measure 7.3 cm and ca. 9 cm in height, by 3.6 and 4.5 cm in width, by 1.6 and ca. 2.0 cm in thickness. The weight is not recorded. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

A comparison with sub-groups 1.1 and 1.2 shows that in sg. 1.3: • The head is covered by a characteristic rounded cap, its curved raised edge descending fairly low on the forehead and fitting tightly at the temples. The height of the head and the narrowing at the temples is more reminiscent of sg.1.1, but there are a number of exceptions to this characteristic, with a lower head, straighter edge on the forehead and less emphasis of the temples (e.g. 32, 1101); P58 has a central "parting". • Alongside the lenticular/elliptic eye (now rarely painted white), and eye-brows (not overpainted) we see the apparition of lozenge-shaped eyes, often slightly slanting (e.g. 742, 748). • The bodies of the Method 1 and 4 figurines are standard, except 1573 and 201 which show some modelling of the back. The "Specials", 1101 and P59 have extended arms, 1101 with palms turned inwards, P59 with palms turned downwards, whilst the sitting 2353 has folded arms. Only the "Special" 1101 and the atypical 1970 are male. • The base is generally bean-shaped (Base no. 1), but occasionally more heart-shaped (Base no. 4, e.g. 1573). • Only four specimens are naked, another six have painted clothing, (1101, a "Special" shows traces of a painted tunic with vertical stripes, similar to sg. 1.1.1) but molded tunics are the norm, often covering the genitals of obvious females. • Molded necklaces, either plain (seven) or incised, suggesting beads (five) are still in the majority, but eight figurines now wear necklaces with pendant lozenge-shaped or rounded beads (e.g. 748, 107); the "Special" P59 wears a broad painted necklace with small circular beads. Earplugs are absent, 19 specimens wear drop earrings (e.g. 32), three pendant disk earrings (e.g. 210); two of the "Specials" have perforated earlobes. • 976 holds a trilobed object, probably a rattle; the "Special" 2353 holds a small unidentified pointed object in its right hand. Atypical: 1970, is a male, sitting cross-legged or kneeling, with one arm resting on the chest, the other folded backwards: since the back is plain, neither the legs (if kneeling) nor the folded arm are shown. The headdress, drop ear-rings, necklace with hanging triangular beads

1

Three further specimens with a rounded headdress have been included in sg. 1.5, as all their other features, including the Method 2 manufacturing technique belong to that sub-group.

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are similar to those worn by other specimens in this sub-group, some clearly female (e.g. 742), others with genitals covered by the tunic. The figure is hollow with an airhole at the base. The Mold P60 shows the typical headdress, facial features, tunic and drop ear-rings, only the necklace, with its unusual bulky beads, is different. Manufacture: Of the 18 hollow Method 1 figurines, 13 have recorded airholes, of which seven are under the base, two below the anus, one at the shoulders, one at the neck, another at the neck and base. Of the three "Specials" only one has a recorded airhole, a large square opening with a lid. All the figurines are in oxidised ware, in various shades from buff to grey: 11 are monochrome, eight are bi-chrome, mostly with white or cream, three are tri-colour, with white and black or brown. The surface treatment varies, highly burnished specimens are rare. MOCHE SUB-GROUP 1.4: STANDARD FIGURINES WITH A VEIL (OR LONG HAIR) AND/OR SIDE LOCKS

Table 11 Plate 22 Sample: 7 Figurines (examined 3), all Method 1 and probable Measurements: The whole figurines measure between 12.00 and ca 14.00 cm. in height, 6.00 to 7.9 cm in width, 2.3 to 4.5 cm in thickness. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Basically, these figurines could belong to sg. 1.3, but the elbow-length veil (or hair) worn by four specimens and the straight side locks worn in conjunction with the veil by 751, 1730, C21, P62 are an unusual and probably significant innovation, as is an incised fringe visible on 7301 and P62. Features like lozenge-shaped eyes with thicker upper lids and/or sometimes slanting (e.g.1730, P61), the knee-length molded tunic, the drop ear-rings (1730, P62) and necklace with pendant lozenge-shaped beads (P62) are also features mainly shared with sg. 1.3. 751, 2163 appear to have plain molded necklaces, the others incised beads. Manufacture: Only two airholes are recorded, both at the base. Although the ware has been recorded as oxidized, two figurines have a grey surface colour, probably due to defective firing, 751 with white decor, P62 with red face-paint, 2163 is buff (eroded) with traces of thick black face-paint, the rest plain terracotta. MOCHE SUB-GROUP 1.5: STANDARD FIGURINES WITH A ROUNDED, RECTANGULAR OR TRAPEZOIDAL HEADDRESS 2

MOCHE SUB-GROUP 1.5.1: FIGURINES WITH A ROUNDED OR RECTANGULAR HEADDRESS

Table 12 Plates 23, 24 3 Sample: 18 figurines + 1 fragment (examined 15): all Method 2 or probable Measurements: Minimum Maximum Median Height (17): 8.2 cm 23.3 cm 16.1 cm Width (16): 4.7 cm 15.2 cm 9.7 cm Thickness (14): 3.2 cm 10.2 cm 6.7 cm Weight (12): 80 gr. 850 gr. 340 gr.

1

Two head-fragments from Galindo (K 4649 N-1=18 and K 4649 N-1=15), kindly communicated by G. Bawden also have this feature. 2 The three specimens with a rounded headdress have been included here and are treated together with those with a rectangular headdress, as all their other features, including the Method 2 manufacturing technique are similar to sub-group 1.5.1. 3

A nearly similar figure, wrongly described as a figurine (Castillo and Donnan 1995: Fig. 110) is in fact a small vessel from Burial 46 at Cemetery H45CM1, Pacatnamú (Donnan and McClelland 1997: 127).

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GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Comparing this with sub-groups 1.1 to 1.4 we note the following differences: • The head is covered by a rounded or roughly rectangular cap. Facial features are standard, but the lozenge-shaped eye present in sgs. 1.3, 1.4 is absent and face-paint is rare. • The body shape differs from preceding sub-groups, because of the modelled back with prominent buttocks, slightly bent knees and molded calves (e.g. 903, 33) and the wide profile, with large, heavy feet, often protruding both at the front and the back (e.g. 1215, 903); 597, 975, 1096 have hands placed at right angle to the body, as if holding an object; all the specimens are probably female (the genitals are hidden by a tunic on three figurines). The base is no longer bean-shaped but nearly rectangular (front to back) with deep indentations marking the separation of the feet (See Discussion, Base no. 5). • The headdress framing the face, leaving the ears uncovered (like in sg. 1.3) always has a rectangular panel1 of varying length in the back (e.g. 903, 33, exception 1215); most specimens are naked: a molded or incised line below the waist, which could be taken for the edge of a tunic (1215, 1096, more faint on others) is not continued in the back, so probably indicates a genital triangle; 1214, 597 (both with rounded headdress) and 321 wear a knee-length tunic. • All the figurines wear a molded necklace or collar, plain or painted (10) or incised to suggest several rows beads (seven); it is much wider and often covers the shoulders also in the back (e.g. 33, 2346), a feature not occurring in the other sub-groups. Equally unique are the wide molded bracelets, mostly consisting of two to three rows of incised beads, worn by all the figurines. Twelve figurines wear flat circular ear-plugs varying in size (e.g. 903, 33); six have perforated ears. Manufacture All the figurines belong to Method 2 manufacture and are hollow; of the 15 recorded airhole positions, 11 have one airhole at the anus or below (when it is covered by a tunic); one figurine has a hole at the anus and the vulva, another at the vulva only, two have no airholes. All are of oxidised ware in various shades of terracotta, five are monochrome, 10 bi-chrome with white or cream, one with red decor, two tricolour with white and red. MOCHE SUB-GROUP 1.5.2: FIGURINES WITH A TRAPEZOIDAL HEADDRESS

Table 12 Plate 24 Sample: 7 figurines (examined 6): Method 2 = 6; atypical = 1 Measurements: Minimum Maximum Median Height (6): 17.5 cm 24.0 cm 18.5 cm Width (6): 10.2 cm 14.5 cm 11.4 cm Thickness (5): 7.1 cm 9.4 cm 7.7 cm Weight (5): 300 gr. 610 gr. 430 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Differences with sg. 1.5.1: • The headdress is higher, in the shape of an inverted trapeze, with a straight or minimally convex or concave crown; the features are stronger and more life-like; 1570, 1577, 2368 show traces of face-paint. • Unlike in sg.1.5.1 the back lacks the elaborate modelling, only showing the edge of the headdress and/or of the tunic (decorated with three large relief "drops" on 1570); the feet are even heavier and larger. All the specimens are probably female. The base is mostly as in sg.1.5.1 (exception 1095, "bean"-shaped, but very broad) • The headdress is mostly painted white, also in the back, where it comes down to just below the neck. On 1095 it is divided into two vertical sections of which only one is 1

P64 is said to have horizontal stripes painted on the back of the headdress (Hecker +Hecker 1995: 88).

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painted, with a row of relief "drops" attached to the edge at the back. On 1570 the headdress is decorated with large black dots at the front. All specimens (except 1095) wear a tunic reaching just above the genitals and a molded necklace (shown only in front) which is never incised, only painted white (white vertical lines to indicate beads on 1095). Earrings are pendant drops (1095, 1570, 1577, 2368) or pendant disks (213, 1324); none wear the typical incised bracelet (1095 has single incisions, painted white). Manufacture All the figurines are made of two molds (Method 2) and hollow, but most have one airhole at the base, only 1577 has it at the anus. The ware is oxidised, in various shades of terracotta, all the specimens are tricolour, with white or cream and fugitive black decor (exception 213, bi-chrome). DISCUSSION (GROUP 1)

Unlike the other groups, with their specific attributes, the Standard Moche Figurines are difficult to interpret. One striking aspect is the strength and even ugliness of the facial features on some specimens. This has lead— when the genitals are hidden by clothing—to misinterpret these figurines as male, but in fact the same features occur on specimen which have clear female genitals (cf. 1560/1.1.2, 1341, 745/1.2, etc). Since other female representations, such as Women with Tresses (Group 2), Women with Child (Group 3) Female shamans (Group 4) are generally more feminine and more comely, we must be dealing here with a particular type of women, rather than with a different cannon of beauty. What springs to mind is a parallel with the depiction of witches in Western folklore. Hocquenghem (1977b) has published a unique portrait vessel with strong, manly features, but with tresses folded towards the back, which she identifies as the portrait a female. Based on ethnographic data from the Araucanians of Chile, she suggest that the woman may be a lesbian or a transvestite in the role of a shaman. Metraux (1967: 181-182) also mentions that amongst the Araucan Indians of Chile, some shamans were lesbians. However transvestism or ritual change of sex, again recorded amongst the Araucanians (Eliade 1972: 258), is perhaps less likely here because of the frequent depiction of female genitals. When we attempt to decipher the personage of the standard figurine and we look for representations with a similar hair-style or headdress on vessels, we find that published vessels usually show personages wearing more elaborate headgear. This may be due to the authors selection of more interesting and meaningful representations, but is more likely to show that the figurines represented a different subject matter for the original potters. A review of comparative material shows that: • The figure with a high plain head (with or without painted hair or headdress) and widening at the temples (sub-group 1.1) never occurs on vessels at all. "Tri-punctate" eyes (sg. 1.1.1) appear to be rare (see Art of Ancient Peru 1968: no.23). • The figure with hair (or headdress) framing the face (sub-group 1.2) is quite common and mostly depicts women: sleeping (Tello 1938: 21, right), preparing chicha (Donnan 1978: Fig. 105), weaving (ibid, fig. 103), holding, carrying or breastfeeding a child (Schmidt 1929: 138 right; Benson 1972: Fig.6-21; Donnan 1978: Fig.37), a woman helping a sick person (Kutscher 1955:41), or holding a prisoner (Tello 1938: 30, middle), in a ritual? procession (Lavalle 1985:106, upper right). A similar hair-do on men mostly leaves the ears uncovered (Lavalle 1985: 121 upper right, 187). • The figure with the rounded cap (or hair) covering the temples, but not the ears (sub-group 1.3) is rare in this specific shape: one vessel features it together with the necklace with hanging beads and tear-drop ear-rings, all typical for sg. 1.3 (Lavalle 1985: 117). Another example is shown in Lapiner (1976: fig.3371). More commonly figures, mostly of men, are shown with a round cap, with or without two lateral elements protruding under the cap, as in Schmidt (1929:138 left), Tello (1938: 6 left, right), Kutscher (1955: 34), Donnan (1978: 1

This specimen looks like a large "Special", but it is specifically said to be an effigy vessel (Kelemen 1946: fig. 154c).

80

Figs. 46, 98, 110, 158) etc. Some of these personages also wear the hanging disk ear-rings but not the drop-shaped ear-rings, more common in sg. 1.3. • Figures with a veil or long hair and/or side locks (sg. 1.4) are common, for instance a pregnant woman with both features (Lavalle 1985: 107), and many females with a veil or long hair (cf. Tello 1938:30, Donnan: 1978: figs. 225, 144, 145) the latter with an incised fringe, like on some of sg. 1.4 figurines. Long hair also features on fine-line drawings (Donnan 1978: fig. 103). Side-locks appear in different shapes and lengths, but usually with more elaborate headgear (Donnan 1978: figs. 12, 13, 51, 98, 130, 167; Lavalle 1985: 104) • Strangely the figures wearing a rectangular or trapezoid headdress (sub-group 1.5) are seemingly not depicted on vessels. Occasionally we see a more elaborate headdress, with a rectangular or trapezoidal cap held in place by a wide strap (Donnan 1978: fig. 127, 187, 190). Special Features The base on which the figurines stand varies in size and shape.1 Sub-groups 1.1 to 1.3 mostly have bases no.1 or 2, exceptionally nos. 3 or 4; sub-groups 1.4 and 1.5 have mostly base no. 5, exceptionally no. 4.

No. 1

No. 2

No. 3

No. 4

No. 5

Fig. 2: Shapes of Moche Figurine Bases Face-markings: Although some kind of incised facial ornamentation is quite common on earlier NC figurines (cf. NC-Formative Gr.2), face-paint is rarer, with a few examples in Gallinazo or Vicús. With Moche it becomes extremely common, though being mostly applied in fugitive black paint (more rarely in white or red) it has often all but disappeared. Roughly speaking the following number of figurines show traces of face-paint: sg. 1.1.1: 15 (52%), sg.1.1.2: 15 (44%), sg. 1.2: 20 (48%), sg. 1.3: 7 (30%), sg. 1.4: 2? (28%), sg. 1.5.1: 10 (53%), sg. 1.5.2: 4 (57%) or a total of about 45%. The most common form covers the cheeks, forming a right angle below the eyes, but more elaborate markings also appear:

Sg. 1.1.1:

1

2 1561 (M)

3

4

1550 (F)

8

Sg. 1.1.2: 7 P38 (n/i: F)

1549 (F) 1615 (F)

9 1551 (F)

1576 (F)2 1568 (F)1

5

6 1373 (F) 1764 (F)

10 1456 (M)

1567 (M)

+ as 3, 4 (as above) P42 (n/k)

Fig. 3: Face-markings on Moche Figurines (1) 1

The shape of the base was not always recorded. May have been retouched, as other specimens acquired by Dorsey in Suchiman, Santa V. (see sg. 1.1.2, 1.2). 2

81

Sg. 1.2:

11

12 27(F)

Sg. 1.3:

17

13 215(F)

14 1565(F) 1564(F) 1574(F)

18 1573(n/i:F)

15 1559(F)

1562(F)

Sg. 1.5.2: 19 746(F)

2368(F)

Fig. 3: Face-markings on Moche Figurines (2) Common forms are wedges or rectangles from the nose and/or eyes towards the sides of the face; others include a step design on the cheeks, large dots, scrolls above the lips, painted eye-brows, etc. Schuler-Schömig (1979: 152, Tafel A) argues that face-markings like the wedges or dots are linked with warriors engaged in ritual fights; but on the figurines, the same markings occur on females, and various face-markings are shown on vessels representing females (cf. Kutscher 1955: 30, Benson 1972: Fig. 6-20). Another interesting feature is the position of hands with palms turned downwards (see "Specials" 1267, C20/1.1.1, P20/ 1.1.2), probably denoting a ritual gesture. A Moche representation of a curandero shows one hand in this position (Donnan 1978: Fig. 200a). 597, 975, 1096/1.5.1 have hands, placed at right angles to their body as if holding an object: the inside of the hands is flat. There are two comparable representations on vessels, the objects held being conch trumpets (Donnan 1978: figs. 98, 158). Could an object in a perishable material have been originally wedged between the hands? 2353/1.3 "Special", must originally have had a removable panel at the back. The same feature also occurs on another smaller figurine (983/sg. 4.3) and is reported for the sacrificial figures from Huaca de la Luna:1 there Paton (1998:21) speculates that offerings may have been placed inside the figure, even live guinea pigs, thus giving the figure a "living" status. Only three figurines in Group 1 hold an object: 976/1.3 holds a trilobed rattle. A similar rattle was found by Uhle in Grave F25 (see Gravelot of 1976/4.2). 2353/1.3 "Specials" holds an unidentified cone-shaped object: a similar object is held by a child (20/Gr.3) and by a Moche-related figurine (1091/ Gr.7). The triangular or leaf-shaped "beads" hanging from the necklaces common in sg. 1.3, 1.4 have been interpreted as various seeds such as nectandra, espingo, maichil and others: they were and are used as rattles in curing practices (Schuler-Schömig 1979: 149). Bourget (pers. com.), on the other hand, sees in them a representation of pupa cases, leaving the decaying flesh of sacrificial victims and carrying the soul into the after-life. The atypical 1970/1.3 probably represents a prisoner, a subject very often depicted: the figurine closely resembles a prisoner wearing a short tunic, under which appears his penis (without testicles) above the crossed legs; in this case both arms are tied in the back (Donnan 1978: fig. 60). Another wooden prisoner figure (ibid. fig. 46) is naked but wears small earplugs and a necklace of large beads. 1970 was found in a grave (Uhle's grave G 23) with a figure of a sitting woman with child (1971/Gr.3).

1

See Section "Moche Figurines not included in this study", below.

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Context (see Appendix 2: Sites) Sub-group 1.1.1: 1949, 1950 were retrieved by Uhle from Moche Site A, i.e. the southern platform of the Huaca del Sol at Moche. Uhle thought this to be a cemetery, but Menzel (1977: 38) considers it to be a site where offerings were deposited from about Moche IV till MH 3. 1975 was found by Uhle at Site F, at the foot of Huaca de la Luna, but was not part of the intact tombs at the site. 949 was excavated in Trench 13 of the Sección Reusch (SR) at Huanchaco, Moche Valley. This trench contained no graves, but some fragments of Moche pictorial vessels and Chimu shards. There is no context for 950, also from Huanchaco. 1757, 1394, 1765, 1766 were excavated by Bennett at Huaca de la Cruz, Virú. 1757 is a surface find, 1394 comes from Pit 3 which also contained two graves with MH and blackware pottery (Bennett 1937: 29). Both 1765 and 1766 come from Pit 16, which contained "Early Chimu" (i.e. Moche) fragments, but no burials. 2146 is a surface find from Cut 1, Huaca de la Cruz, excavated by the Virú Valley Project. Sub-group 1.1.2: 1966 was collected by Uhle from Moche Site G, on the slopes of Cerro Blanco, possibly from looted graves. 1764 found by Bennett in Huaca de la Cruz, Pit 17 - surface (1939: 31-32, 36). "Early Chimu" (i.e. Moche) pottery was found, probably in a context of domestic structures rather than in the seven burials in this pit, which are listed with their contents. Bennett does not mention this fragment in his list of figurines. P38 from Burial 9, located by Strong and Evans at Huaca de la Cruz, Virú, using a probe (1952:139). The burial of a young child was found 45 cm below the surface in "the corner of an old room"; the extended body was wrapped in fiber matting with cotton wadding in a cane bundle, with the figurine placed on the bundle and a bottle near the knees (1952: 146-147). See Gravelot. 982, from Burial M-IV 14 (H8000 D-2) excavated at Moche by Th. Pozorski: the burial contained a female accompanied by sixteen vessels and other objects; a child 25 cm. below the woman was probably buried at the same time. See Gravelot. 1393 excavated by Bennett in Huaca de la Cruz, Pit 14 - no indication of level or cultural association (1939: 31, 36, fig. 5d). 2147 surface find from Cut 1, Huaca de la Cruz (Strong and Evans 1952: fig.32I) 2145 from Cut 1, Huaca de la Cruz - 0.25-0.50 cm (Strong and Evans 1952: 183, fig.32G).1 P42, P43 excavated in the habitation site, part of Pampa de Los Incas, Santa Valley, 1.3 km N/E of Hacienda Santa Clara. The context is domestic refuse throughout (Donnan 1973: 36, 97). P44 a surface find? from Hacienda Guadalupito, Santa Valley. The site comprises a mound or mounds, a cemetery and irrigation canals (Ishida et al. 1960: 177, fig. 4, 440). P45 a surface find from GUAD-164, a discrete cemetery in the lower Santa Valley (Wilson 1988: 219 + fig. 102). Sub-group 1.2 1953 from Moche Site A (see above 1949/1.1.1) 1968 retrieved by Uhle from Moche Site G, on the northern side of the Huaca de la Luna, above the looted cemetery (Site E), along with about 40 fragments (MS cat. vol. I, 21). P47 either a surface find or excavated2 at a ceramic workshop in Cerro Mayal, a settlement situated 1.5 km N/E of the Moche ceremonial site of Mocollope, lower Chicama Valley. P48 excavated by Donnan at PV28-92, situated 4 km N of the Hacienda Tambo Real, Santa Valley. The site is mainly habitational, but was also used as a cemetery at an undetermined date. The figurine fragment comes from domestic refuse in an area where large Moche storage jars seem to have been manufactured (Donnan 1973: 21-22).. 1 2

Contrary to the description, this figurine does not have elongated ear-ornaments. The provenance numbering of the illustrated objects is not explained.

83

P49 from domestic refuse at Pampa de los Incas, Santa Valley (as above P42, P43/1.1.2). 1761 excavated by Bennett in Huaca de la Cruz, Virú Valley, Pit 18 - no cultural association (1939: 32, 36). 1391, 1392, P50 excavated by Bennett in Huaca de la Cruz, Pit 11, Grave A11. Bennett sees it as a single grave, but it may have been a double burial:1 the first, at 2 m. depth is that of an infant in a jar associated with a large number of vessels, including these figurines, a whistle, an ocarina etc.; outside the jar, at 2.7 m depth was another extended infant, with further numerous grave goods (Bennett 1939: 30-31, figs 7a-h, 8a-i). See Gravelot. P51 excavated by Donnan at Castillo, Santa Valley. (PV28-161), a large, complex site covering the top of a hill. Pit 4 was sunk in a midden on the northern slopes of the hill (Donnan 1973: 39-41). Figurine Fragments belonging to Sub-groups 1.1 and 1.2 P52 was excavated from one of the 12 compacted floors at Huaca del Pueblo de Batán Grande, La Leche Valley. The context was domestic (Shimada 1981: Fig.25). 1963 excavated by Uhle from a domestic or funerary context at Moche Sites D or E. 1965 specifically said to be from a grave at Moche Site E (Uhle MS vol. I, 21). 1760 excavated by Bennett in Huaca de la Cruz, Virú Valley, Pit 17 (see 1764/1.1.1 above). 1762 excavated by Bennett in Huaca de la Cruz, Virú Valley, Pit 8, level -0.50 m. (1939: 36). 2150 surface find from Cut 1 - Huaca de la Cruz, Virú Valley Project. 1946a, 1946b, 1951, 1952 from Moche Site A (as 1949, 1950/1.1.1 above). 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1964: From Moche Sites D or E (as 1963, this group, above). 1768 from grave 11D, excavated by Bennett at Huaca de la Cruz, Virú Valley. Circular grave (0.80 m. diameter, 1.30 - 2.00 m. deep), containing 1 vessel. The figurine is not mentioned (1939: 31), but both artifacts are drawn in Bennett's MS excavation notes. See Gravelot. 1759 excavated by Bennett in Huaca de la Cruz, Pit 15, level -1.50 m. from refuse (1939: 36). 2148, 2149 surface finds from Cut 1 - Huaca de la Cruz, Virú Valley Project. 1767 retrieved by Bennett from the surface of Huaca Larga, Virú, a sand dune S/E of Huaca de la Cruz, generally considered to be both a Gallinazo and a MH dwelling site (Bennett 1939: 51, Willey 1953: 280). P53 excavated by Donnan at Castillo, Santa Valley (see above P51/1.2). P54 retrieved by Wilson at.GUAD-10, a discrete cemetery in the Upper Sector of the Lower Santa Valley (Wilson 1988: 219 + Fig. 98). Sub-group 1.3 The atypical 1970 was excavated in Grave G 23 at Moche site G, which Uhle considered as "the oldest occupation of the site". It is associated with 1971/Gr. 3, but no other artifacts are listed (Uhle MS Vol. I, 23). Curiously this grave is mentioned neither by Kroeber (1925a) nor by Donnan (1995: 117). See Gravelot. P58 is said to come from the same grave as P100/4.3 and P103/5.1 (Ubbelohde-Doering 1952:187), but in a later description of this grave excavated at Huaca Campana, Upper Chicama V. this specimen is not mentioned (Ubbelohde-Doering 1966: 88 + Pl. 128-136). P60 a mold from Cerro Mayal, Chicama Valley (see above P47/1.2). Sub-group 1.4 2163 collected by Uhle at Moche Site G. See above 1966/1.1.2. 1730, C21 were excavated at Galindo, a late Moche site in the upper Moche valley. Most figurines and figurine-fragments at the site were found in the sala of individual houses (Bawden, personal communication). Two further small face fragments, with features similar to 1730 or C21, such as upwards slanting eyes and an incised "fringe", were also retrieved. Sub-group 1.5.1 1215 excavated in 1937/1938 by H. Ubbelohde-Doering at Pacatnamu, Jequetepeque Valley

1

Donnan (1995: 117) lists the two burials as separate (11 A1 and 11 A2).

84

(Ubbelohde-Doering 19831). Although the finds are listed as from Huaca 31, the exact location was a cemetery situated between Huaca 31 and Huaca 12. In spite of extensive looting, the excavation yielded three graves with large chambers and 23 simpler graves. In many cases the top area of the burials had been disturbed, but leaving the lower strata untouched. This specimen come from Grave LII, found at 2 - 2.25 m. depth and containing the incomplete skeleton of a youth in a reed coffin, as well as a number of objects. See Gravelot. 1214 "allegedly" (Ubbelohde-Doering 1983: 80) or "presumably" (Hecker and Hecker 1984: 180) from burial dß in Grave EI, a large boot-shaped chamber-grave in the same cemetery at Pacatnamu—near Huaca 31—as above (1215). The chamber contained nine cane coffins with adult burials, some placed above others (Ubbelohde-Doering 1983: Abb. 13-16). Burial dß was placed below the largest coffin (a), but the corpse is not described (three of the skeletons had deformed cranea, two were lacking feet). A large number of offerings were placed in the access shaft and in the chamber itself, including three further adult and one infant skeleton, as well as human bones and many animal skeletons, including a seal, llamas, rodents, fish. A large quantity of grave goods (ceramics, textiles, copper- stone- and shell artifacts, etc.) were found outside the coffins: they had probably been displaced during successive burial depositions (ibid: 53ff). See Gravelot. P64 was retrieved by H. Ubbelohde-Doering from the rubble of looted graves at Huaca 31, Pacatnamú (Hecker and Hecker 1995: 72, 88).2 P66 was excavated by Ch. Donnan and his team at Pacatnamu in 1983-1987. The specimen comes from Burial 40 of "a cemetery (H45 CM1) located in a ravine near the center of the site" (Donnan and McClelland 1997: 17). Burial 40 contained an infant and a variety of grave goods (ibid.: 114-115). See Gravelot. Sub-group 1.5.2 : No recorded contexts Moche Group 1 - Context Overview: 59 figurines and fragments provide some contextual data, which can be divided into four categories: a) Graves: 11 figurines (18%) were found in eight graves (seven singles, three in one grave); b) Discrete cemeteries: 3 figurines (5%); c) Mixed sites, including burial, domestic and ceremonial sites: 19 figurines (32%) of which seven from Moche Site A; d) Domestic sites, mostly refuse: 25 figurines (42%). The majority of these come from Bennett's and Strong and Evans's excavations at Huaca de la Cruz, Virú. About these Bennett writes : "Early Chimu [i.e. Moche] figurines and shards are identified with the refuse through which later graves intrude" (1939:36); Strong and Evans confirm that "the majority of figurine fragments came from undisturbed house refuse of the Huancaco [i.e. Moche] period, whereas only one figurine occurred in the ... graves..."(1952: 183). Two figurines from Galindo were specifically found in the living quarters (sala) of a house. e) Two figurine fragments (3%) and one mold come from the workshop at Cerro Mayal. On the basis of this analysis, without even using the evidence of the material retrieved in the urban sector of Moche (see "Figurines not included in this study", below), we can say that a majority of Standard Moche Figurines (at a rough estimate at least 60%) were used in a domestic context. Unfortunately we cannot go further than that and guess what their specific function was. It is, for instance, strange to find a sitting prisoner (1970/1.3) in the same grave (Uhle's G23) as a sitting woman with child (1971/Gr.3). Nor can one read anything into the fact that fragments generally show either heads or bodies, as the neck is clearly the most fragile area of the figurines, an obvious fracture point .

1

The detailed description of the grave inventories—based on Ubbelohde-Doering's excavation diaries —is published by G. and W. Hecker in the same volume (pp. 39-131). Additional data about Huaca 31 can be found in W. Hecker and G. Hecker 1984 and G. and W. Hecker 1995. 2 Three other Moche face fragments from Pacatnamú (Hecker and Hecker 1991: Tafel 25 C and D; 1995: Tafel 15F) were not included in this study, being too incomplete.

85

Geographic distribution North of Jequetepeque Sub-group 1.1.1 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested 1 Sub-group 1.1.2 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Sub-group 1.2 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Fragments (1.1, 1.2) Certain 1 No Fairly reliable, Unverifiable, Suggested Sub-group 1.3 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested 1 Sub-group 1.4 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Sub-group 1.5.1 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested 2 Sub-group 1.5.2 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Total = 146 5

Jequetepeque to Pacasmayo

Chicama and Moche Valleys

Virú Valley

5

5

Santa Valley

9 1 4 3

5

4 3 3

3 1 3 2

4 1

3 10 7

12

9

2

2 4

1?

1 1?

2 4 2 3

1?

1 3

3 1 1

4

1 + 1?

1 1

6 (+4?)

1 59

2 24

48

Percentage of Certain, Fairly reliable, Unverifiable, Suggested Provenances by Areas. North of Jequetepeque Jequetepeque/ Pacasmayo Moche, Chicama Virú Santa Total

Certain

Fairly Reliable

1 4 28 23 9 65

1 6 1 23 32

Unverifiable

Suggested

11

4 1 (+4?) 14

16 26

19 + 4?

Total 5 (3.42%) 10 (6.84%) 59 (40.41%) 24 (16.43%) 48 (32.87%) 146

For a total of 189 figurines, including 24 body fragments (and also counting heads included in the main sub-groups) the number of listed provenances is 146. These include—in addition to the three reliability categories generally used—a "suggested" site category, listed in [ ]. So for instance specimens coming from either the Larco Museum, Lima or from the Victor Larco collection at the MNAA, Lima, are listed as [Moche, Chicama], since the great majority of pieces in the Larco collection—especially the more ordinary ones—come from Rafael Larco's work in that area.1 That this is only a very general approximation becomes obvious from the fact that no suggested provenances can be given for the Virú and Santa Valley. There are altogether 64 certain and 31 fairly reliable provenances. Of these 34 are for the Moche/Chicama valleys, 24 for Virú, 32 for Santa, only five for the Northern area and none for valleys like Nepeña. These numbers reflect the amount of archaeological work and field trips taken in these valleys at the time when the recording of this sample took place (19801990)..

1

For other collections used for "suggested" provenances see Appendix 1.

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But in spite of the relatively large number of provenances, it is difficult to isolate regional variants. A better attempt, based on all the Moche groups is made in the Moche Conclusions. Only the figurines in sg. 1.5.—the only ones in Group 1 made with two molds (Method 2)—show two clear sub-styles. Those in sg. 1.5.1 are centred on Pacatnamu (with four certain provenances from that site) and areas to the north and south and constitute a sub-style characterised by molded buttocks, bent knees, heavy legs, a headdress with a square panel in the back and large bracelets. There are no similar figurines with a reliable provenance from another area, but the same characteristics reappear in other Moche groups. Those in sg. 1.5.2, made in the same technique, but iconographically different, have only two unverifiable provenances for the Santa valley, but when we compare them to figurines from Santa in other sub-groups (cf. 1562/1.2, 1573, 207/1.3 and below 50, 216, 744/4.2), another sub-style emerges. It is characterised by more pleasing faces, some modelling of the back—broader, more rounded, with a dip for the neck—and large feet, all unusual features in Method 1 figurines. We also see that most specimens in sub-groups 1.1 to 1.5 which are deemed to come from either the Northern area of the NC or from the Jequetepeque to Pacasmayo area have some peculiarities: 941/1.1.1(atypical), from the Museo Brüning, Lambayeque, is hand-made and looks rather different; 968/1.1.2, 967/1.2 and 976/1.3 from CMCT, a private collection with many specimens allegedly Jequetepeque/Pacasmayo, have airholes at the shoulders, the only ones in their respective sub-groups; In 1.5.1, where the certain provenances are from Pacatnamu, other specimens with similar "northern" characteristics come from the Museo Brüning (903, 933), from the Spottiswode collection, Jequetepeque/Pacasmayo area (33), from CMCT, as above (975). There are undeniably various "family looks" (compare, for instance 745, 1692, 214, 1833/1.2 with 746, SAC 380/1.3), which probably point more to the same workshop or narrow region than to a similarity in style, but in the absence of provenances, one can go no further. Chronology Only a small number of figurines in this group are reliably dated through burial contexts: we shall use these dates in conjunction with our own observations. Sub-group 1.1.1 1949, 1950, fragments from Uhle's Moche Site A are dated—indirectly—by Menzel: "...the earliest style of remains in the lose soil is Phase IV of the Moche tradition" (1977: 38). 1949 wears a painted necklace. 949, 950 come from excavations at Huanchaco, Moche Valley. Although this site has apparently yielded Moche III and IV ceramics (Donnan and Mackey 1978: 189), all the graves from the excavations by F. Irriarte are dated to Moche IV (Donnan 1995: 16), so this is also a likely date for these figurines. Amongst the stylistic features, the "tri-punctate" eyes, characteristic for sg. 1.1.1 are a feature seen in Gallinazo ceramics (P26/NC-Epiformative Gr. 2, Strong and Evans 1952:fig. 64c). And although the Gallinazo style is probably partly contemporary with Moche (see above, NC-Epiformative Gr.2) this is an early feature, which does not occur in Moche IV or V. Three miniature vessels from Uhle's Grave F14 at Moche not only have "tri-punctate eyes" but also stripy ponchos as worn by several males in sg. 1.1.1 and broad hands with straight fingers, which occur in sg. 1.1. and 1.2, but not later (see Fig.4)

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Fig.4: Miniature Vessels from Uhle's Grave F14, Moche This grave is dated to Moche II (Donnan 1995: 117). Another Moche vessel showing a personage with "tri-punctate" eyes, has a spout with a thick lip, therefore also dates to Moche I or II (Art of Ancient Peru : fig. 231). Furthermore four figurines with "tri-punctate" eyes in sg. 1.2 (1391, 1392, P50 from Bennett's grave 11A, and P51, from the Santa valley are definitely dated to Moche III (see below sg. 1.2). Other features in sg. 1.1.1 which are phased out in later sub-groups are: the relative large number of males, specimens with separate legs, painted—rather than molded—clothes such as ponchos and painted—rather than molded—necklaces, often of the "dotted-line" type; note also the lack of ear-plugs or -rings. Finally, none of the figurines in 1.1.1 have features which appear to be late in date: kneelength molded tunics, hanging ear-rings (disk- or drop-shaped), necklace with pendants, sidelocks, fringe. So this sub-group could already start in Moche II and dates mainly to Moche III. The fragments from Uhle's Site A and the specimens from Huanchaco point to a survival into Moche IV, unless they are earlier "admixtures". Sub-group 1.1.2 P38 from the Virú Valley Project Burial 9 at Huaca de la Cruz was associated with a vessel classified as of "Red-White-Black" ware (Strong and Evans 1952: Pl. XIVL). The figurine itself is also classified as B-W-R, though in fact it is typical classic Moche, with a black and white fugitive decor on a terracotta base. The vessel on the other hand is unusual, definitely with MH influences. Strong and Evans date it to Late Huancaco (i.e. Moche), "...which foreshadows...the beginning of a transition into the various red-white-black decorated types so characteristic in the ...Tomaval (i.e. MH) period" (1952: 178, 183). I suggest, however, that the figurine may be considerably earlier than the vessel: it certainly has nothing in common with Tomaval style figurines (see NC-MH Gr. 3/Taitacantin). It could be a heirloom. 982, from Burial H8000 D-2 at Moche is dated to Moche IV by Donnan and Mackey (1978: 168-174). 2145, 2147 found on the surface and upper levels at Huaca de la Cruz are dated to the "Upper Huancaco (Moche) Culture Horizon", presumably Moche IV. P42, P43 from Pampa de los Incas, Santa, are dated to Moche IV (Donnan 1973: 36). P45 from the Santa Valley, is classified by Wilson as belonging to the Guadalupito Period, contemporary with Huancaco (Moche) in Virú (1889: 9, 223), and therefore likely to belong to Moche IV. P46, a mold from Cerro Mayal is dated to Moche IV (Russell et al., 1994: 184). This sub-group has lost the early "tri-punctate" eyes and there are no specimens with separate legs, except for the large "Specials", but there is still a small proportion of males; there are more figurines with "late" features: seven figurines wear pendant ear-rings, but only one of them (1393) wears a necklace with pendants and a molded tunic. These specimens are probably later than sg.1.1.1, therefore (early?) Moche IV. Sub-group 1.2 1953, a blackware head fragment from Uhle's Moche Site A, looks basically Moche and would therefore be dated to Moche IV (see above 1949, 1950/1.1.1), but could be later?

1

The vessel is dated Moche IV in the publication

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1968 from Uhle's Moche Site G, considered by him "the oldest occupation of the site" cannot be dated.1 P47 from the workshop at Cerro Mayal is dated Moche IV (see P46/1.1.2 above). P48 from Hacienda Tambo Real, Santa is dated to Moche III, possibly IV (Donnan 1973: 2122). P49 from Pampa de los Incas, Santa is dated Moche IV ((Donnan 1973: 36). 1391, 1392, P50 with "tri-punctate" eyes come from Bennett's Grave 11A2 at H. de la Cruz, Virú: this grave is dated to Moche III on the basis of the large body of associated ceramics (Donnan 1995: 117). P51, also with "tri-punctate" eyes, from Castillo, Santa, is dated to Moche III (Donnan 1973:41). As six specimens have "tri-punctate" eyes, only two (1569, 1486) have a longer tunic and only 994 has a necklace with pendants, this sub-group is perhaps nearer in time to sg. 1.1.1 and marginally earlier than sg.1.1.2, i.e. Late Moche III to Moche IV. Fragments belonging to sub-groups 1.1 and 1.2 P52, a classic Moche body fragment, was excavated at Huaca del Pueblo de Batán Grande. From Shimada's text it appears that the figurine was found in Stratum XII, which also yielded some Moche V shards and a burial with an "Early Lambayeque" vessel (1981:424, 427). The numerous fragments from Uhle's Moche sites (Site A: 4; Site D-E: 6; Site E: 1; Site G:1) cannot be dated precisely. Note that 1963, a male with striped poncho from Site D-E could date to Moche III, whilst 1951 from Site A with molded clothes could belong to late Moche IV. 1946b from Site A may not be Moche at all. Amongst Bennett's six fragments from Virú, 1762 from Huaca de la Cruz Pit 8 is unusual, with—at the back—legs divided by a groove and a painted upper body. Bennett (1939: 36) classifies it as "black-white-red", but it in no way resembles the later Black-white-red figurines from Virú (see NC-MH Gr. 3/Taitacantin). 1768 from Bennett's Grave 11D at Huaca de la Cruz, Virú is not dated by Donnan (1995). It is associated with a typical early MH black-white-red vessel (Bennett n.d.: 92; 1939: 31). Although from the same pit as grave 11A, 11D is stratigraphically nearer the surface. Even later graves in the pit, (11E, 11F) contained blackware and Bennett points out the temporal association between "black-white-red" pottery, as found in 11D and 11E, with blackware. But this body fragment, with its white dotted-line painted necklace, typical for sg. 1.1.1, is probably earlier than the vessel, perhaps dating to Moche III. Like P38/1.1.2 it may be a heirloom. The remaining fragments excavated by Bennett cannot be dated: 1767 from Huaca Larga, Virú, a Gallinazo and MH site (see above, Context) is a typical Moche fragment. The four fragments of the Virú Valley Project are all considered as late Huancaco, i.e. Moche IV (Strong and Evans 1952: 183). P53 from the Castillo, Santa dates to Moche III (see above P51/1.2). P54 from a cemetery in Santa dates to Moche IV (see above P45/1.1.2). The characteristics which led to assign these fragments to sg. 1.1 and 1.2 (see above "Group Characteristics") also determines their dating, with some specimens as early as Moche III, the rest Moche IV. Sub-group 1.3 The atypical 1970 comes from Uhle's Grave 23 at Moche Site G, a site which Uhle considered as early. Both 1970 and the associated 1971/Group 3 have late features (1970: pendant drop earrings, necklace with hanging triangular beads; 1971: incised hair-fringe). Grave G 23 is not listed by Donnan amongst the Moche Site G graves, numbered G1 - G3 (1995: 117, burials nos. 277-279). Millaire (2002: 96, 209) dates these three graves (his nos. 445 - 447) to

1 2

Donnan (1995: 117) lists three graves from Uhle's Site G (Graves 1-3) but does not date them. Donnan (1995: 117) divides this grave into two burials 11A1 and 11A2.

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"Transitional", i.e. marginally later than Moche V.1 But we don't know whether Grave G23 is one of them. P58 (Ubbelohde-Doering 1952: 187, upper left) is said to come from same grave as P100/sg. 4.3 and P103/sg. 5.1 but is not listed in a later description of that grave (see UbbelohdeDoering 1966: 88). It cannit be dated. P60, a mold from Cerro Mayal is dated to Moche IV (see above P46/1.1.2). Apart from the large "Specials" (see below) there are no males, no figurines with separate legs; other early features, such as painted clothes and necklaces, ear-plugs, have greatly diminished, giving way to molded clothing, necklaces with hanging beads and nearly exclusively hanging ear-rings. We also see the appearance of the "lozenge-shaped eyes". No figurines are dated to Moche III and by comparison with sgs. 1.1 and 1.2 this sub-group must date entirely to Moche IV. One exception could be the "Special" 1101, a male, with separate legs and a painted stripy garment, all early features. This specimen comes from the Alto Piura area, a fact which may have a bearing on the dating. Sub-group 1.4 1730 and C21 from Galindo, Moche Valley, date to Moche V, the accepted date for the site. In this sub-group we note two knew features: the side locks (751, 1730, C21, P62) and the incised fringe (1730, P622). A similar incised fringe occurs on a Moche V jar (Donnan 1978: fig. 144). The clothes are molded knee-length tunics. It is likely that these specimens are late Moche IV or Moche V. Sub-group 1.5.1 Since sg. 1.5.1, which appears to come from the Northern Sector, and more particularly from the Jequetepeque valley, is in every way very different from the preceding sub-groups, the chronological markers used hitherto cannot be applied. But three figurines and one figurine fragment excavated by H. Ubbelohde-Doering and by C. Donnan help to date this material. W. and G. Hecker who analysed the material from Ubbelohde-Doering's 1937/38 excavation (Ubbelohde-Doering 1983, Hecker and Hecker 1984) base their analysis of the pottery on Ubbelohde-Doering's and Disselhoff's original division into: Group A = traditional local pottery, which the Heckers call Jequetepeque ware and subdivide into several phases, spanning the whole of the EIP and the beginning of the MH;3 Group B = typical Moche pottery (as known from valleys to the south) and said to date nearly exclusively to Moche phases IV and V (1984: 171), a statement later contradicted, as the majority of Group B vessels are listed under "Moche III to IV" (ibid.: 180); Group C = local ware with strong Moche influence, which the Heckers correlate with the Moche phases by adding a "J" for Jequetepeque and which dates to Moche J-III to Moche J-V. However we must bear in mind that Donnan and McClelland consider that "Most of the burials excavated by Ubbelohde-Doering were either not diagnostic as to phase, or were clearly mixtures of ceramics from several distinct phases" (1997: 37, note 14). 1215 from Pacatnamú, Huaca 31, Grave LII (Ubbelohde-Doering 1983: 97) is dated to Jequetepeque II by Hecker and Hecker (1984: 198), and more precisely to the transitional period MIII to MIV (ibid.:180). The associated vessel is not illustrated. The same grave was dated to MV by Donnan (1995: 113). 1214 from Pacatnamú, Huaca 31, Grave EI, burial dβ (Ubbelohde-Doering 1983: 90). E1, a multiple grave, with nine burials and three sacrificial inhumations, is dated by the Heckers to the early to middle part of their Jequetepeque II style, roughly contemporary with Moche III, a date also adopted by Donnan (1995: 113; Donnan and McClelland 1997: 36-37). But note that 1

Millaire's "Late Moche" includes both Moche V and Transitional (2002: 3). Two small face fragments from Galindo (K 4649 N-1=15 and 18) kindly provided by G. Bawden, also have incised fringes. 3 Grave EI as a whole contained a large proportion of Jequetepeque IIB vessels, which although first seen in MIII are most common in MV (Hecker and Hecker 1984: 197). 2

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Grave EI as a whole contained a large proportion of Jequetepeque IIB vessels, which although first seen in MIII are most common in MV (Hecker and Hecker 1984: 197). The vessels found in burial EI-dβ are assigned and dated to the following phases: EI 48 = J III; EI 49, EI 50 = Jequetepeque IIB, contemporary with Moche III to Moche V; EI 51 = Transitional Jequetepeque I/II, predates Moche III; EI 52 = Moche III to IV; EI 53 = J III; EI 54 = Jequetepeque IIab, related to Moche III; EI 55 (between burials dα and dβ) = J III; E1 57 (the figurine "said [sic!] to come from dβ") = Moche III to IV. So although the majority of the associated vessels date to around Moche III, one is probably earlier than Moche III and another could be as late as Moche V. P64 from Pacatnamú, Huaca 31, a head fragment with the typical rectangular headdress with a panel going down at the back and large circular ear-plugs is listed by Hecker and Hecker under Moche-style ceramics, probably later than phase III (1995: 86, 88). P66, excavated by Donnan and McClelland in burial 40 of cemetery H45 CM1 at Pacatnamú, the whole of this cemetery being assigned to Moche III on the basis of similarities with Ubbelohde-Doering's Huaca 31 burials (Donnan and McClelland 1997: 37). A disconcerting fact about such an early date (Moche III) for this sub-group, is that some features, like the modelling of the buttocks and knees or the square panel at the back of the headdress, survive into the MH (see NC-MH-Gr.2), the Transitional MH-LIP period (see MHLIP Gr. 1) or even Chimu (see Chimu sgs.1.1.2, 1.3, 2.2). It is also odd when we consider that comparatively few Moche figurines from the Southern area date to Moche III (see sg. 1.1.1, 1.2). For the time being the figurines must be dated to Middle Moche (see Moche, Introduction). But as the chronology of the Northern area keeps being refined, we may find that this subgroup is actually later. Sub-group 1.5.2 There are no dates for sg. 1.5.2 figurines, but they belong to the same tradition of sgs. 1.11.4, sharing features with 1562/1.2 and 207, 1170/1.3, so chronological markers do apply: 1095 is naked, the others have molded tunics, but rather shorter than usual; they wear hanging disk- or drop ear-rings, but no necklace with hanging beads. Nor do they have "lozengeshaped" eyes, side-locks or fringes. So they belong squarely to Moche IV. Moche Group1 - Chronology Overview: The Standard Moche figurine appears fully fledged—with typical Moche features—sometime during Moche III. If any figurines were used earlier, they must have been of a different ceramic style, probably Gallinazo.1 The bulk of Moche figurines belongs to Moche IV, but they definitely first appear during phase III and survive into Moche V. CONCLUSION

Because Group 1 figurines are so "ordinary", they are generally overlooked in the archaeological literature, where specific female characteristics are often deduced from more "showy" specimens. Both Ulmquist (1992) and Limoges (1999) list long tresses and long tunics or cloaks, the lack of a headdress and/or of jewellery as features which characterise the depiction of females in Moche iconography. As we can see this does not take into account the characteristics of Group 1 figurines. Contrary to vessels, more often depicting males with elaborate headgear, the figurines in this group either have no equivalent representations on vessels (sg. 1.1, 1.3, 1.5) or they show relatively “common” women. To judge from the context in which they were retrieved, a large number of figurines functioned in a domestic framework; since (with the exception of sg. 1.5) they often cannot stand upright unaided, either because their feet are rounded underneath or because the base is too small in proportion to the rest of the body, perhaps they were used in curing practices, or they may have been propped up as domestic deities. Many figurines were also used in funerary contexts. Any changes over time in their features or accoutrements are more likely to reflect changes in fashions and/or in pottery "styles", than in their function. 1

Donnan found a Gallinazo figurine in a late Moche grave (personal communication).

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At the moment, there does not seem to be enough iconographic data to link them with any of the main Moche themes and their identity or function within the wider Moche visual culture remains to be elucidated. MOCHE GROUP 2: WOMEN WITH TRESSES

Group 2 depicts a personage mainly characterised by long tresses. The pattern of incisions covering the whole length of the hair-pieces can be crossed or diagonal, possibly showing a difference between tresses and locks, though such long and thin locks are uncommon; occasionally the hair-pieces are not incised and also shorter, representing hanks of hair. Although the genitals are only shown on a few specimens, we assume that this personage is a woman, by analogy with figures with tresses carrying children or represented on sexually explicit ceramics (see below). Women with tresses or locks also occur in Moche Groups 3 (Woman with child) and Group 4 (Priestesses), but there other characteristics appear more important than the hairstyle. In this group of 39 figurines there is a clear iconographic division, also reflected in the manufacturing technique, between: Sub-group 2.1: Females with tresses and a rounded headdress (Methods 1 and 4) Associated: Women with tresses and oversized vagina (Method 3) Sub-group 2.2: Females with tresses and a two-peaked headdress (Methods 2 and 4). As in Group 1, the specimens are listed—within each sub-group—according to their provenance, in an attempt to highlight regional variants. They are discussed together. 1

MOCHE SUB-GROUP 2.1: WOMEN WITH TRESSES AND A ROUNDED HEAD

Table 13 Plates 25, 26 Sample: 28 figurines2 (examined 16): Method 1 and Probable = 21 figurines, Method 4 = 2 figurines, Molds = 2; Associated = 3 specimens (Method 3) Measurements (Method 1 and Probable): Minimum Maximum Median Height (17): 8.7 cm 19.6 cm 15.6 cm Width (13): 5.2 cm 12.2 cm 8.2 cm Thickness (12): 3.3 cm 7.2 cm 4.6 cm Weight (11): 55 gr. 460 gr. 300 gr. Only one of the two Method 4 specimen is complete (1687): its height is 7.4 cm. Two of the Associated Method 3 specimens have heights of 21.0 and 28.3 cm respectively. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The shape of the head is basically the same as in sg. 1.2, with the headdress (or hair) framing the face; only 945 shows the ears uncovered; seven specimens have an incised fringe (e.g. 1896, P71); 990, 219 and P72 have an indentation (a parting?) in the middle of the forehead. The majority of figurines have locks or tresses with diagonal incisions, only five3 have criss-cross incisions (e.g. 747), both types ending in loose hair looking like tassels; they are mostly as long as the tunic and can hang vertically (e.g. 99), slightly turned inwards (e.g. 945) or outwards (e.g. 212); 990 and 219 have much shorter hanks without incisions; P69, P72 have short lateral hanks of hair. In profile the head is rounded, the edge between front and back mostly sharp.

1

1976 and P76 are body fragments, very likely belonging to sub-group 2.1. Three further women with tresses and rounded head are not included because of lack of data ( Ulmquist 1992: Lám. 3a,b, 4; Limoges 1999; Pl. IXb). The latter is the only "woman with tresses" figurine to wear a folded shawl over her (left) shoulder. 3 Not clear on some specimens. 2

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Modelling of the face, with the occasional nose-to-chin lines is similar to Group 1; facepaint is mostly absent. Facial features are also similar, except for a marked preponderance of lozenge-shaped eyes (e.g. 99, 1895), often slightly slanting upwards (e.g. P70, P72); only P74 has painted eyeballs. The features are often more attractive and youthful (e.g. 1438 or 212) than in Group 1. The body-shape is the same as in most of Group 1, with a rounded lateral outline; the arms with molded or incised five-finger hands (with prominent thumb) are folded at the waist, across the tresses but only 1554, 219, 212, P72 and P74 actually hold them; the legs are conjoined, with short protruding feet. The back is featureless, except for traces of a painted necklace on 1554, (219?). The base is mainly bean-shaped (Base No.11), slightly broader on 1554, 219. Only 1554, 219 and P74 appear naked—they may have originally had a painted shirt— stopping short of the female genitals. The other specimens wear molded tunics descending to or below the knee, with the lower arms or hands emerging from openings; in addition 1707, 1438, 1687 wear a cloak over their shoulders, tied across the chest on 1707. Nearly all the specimens wear a necklace: nine specimens wear the flat, molded, mostly incised type, with one to three rows of trapeze-shaped beads (e.g. 99, 1896); note the central punctations on the beads of 747; on five specimens the incised necklace is in relief, rounded (e.g. 1438, P72); six figurines wear necklaces with hanging lozenge-shaped beads (e.g. 1895, 212), spherical on 945. P72, P76, P77 wear small circular, concave ear-plugs, 212 a bigger, flat ear-plug with inscribed circle, 1438 large ear-plugs, with an incised central disk, surrounded by small beads. Finally 212 wears a wide hair-band with incised squares and circles, P72 a narrow one. 990 carries an unidentified object, possibly a bird, in her arms. Manufacture Of the 14 certain Method 1 figurines, eight have air-holes at the base, two at the neck, one at the vulva, one has no air-holes. On two others, as well as on the seven probable Method 1 specimens, the air-holes are unrecorded. The two Method 4 figurines are solid. All (except the reduced-fired 1687) are in oxidized ware, unslipped, in shades of terracotta (varying from light buff to grey or brown), six specimens are bi-chrome. Associated P83, P84, 1571, P85 are women squatting with legs wide apart and a large open vulva and prominent clitoris: since the large opening probably served as a recipient for a liquid, they are not strictly speaking figurines, but they clearly represent the same personage. The women have rounded heads, with hair framing the face (as in sg. 1.2); 1571 has short tresses, P83 and P84 plain hanks of hair (down to the waist on P83, shorter on P84). Facial features are very similar to sg. 1.2 (cf. 1571 with 745/1.2), much less comely than the usual woman with tresses; P84 has elaborate face-paint. The body is characterised by unusually large breasts and a molded waistline; the legs are folded and pulled sideways by the hands at the knees on P84, 1571; on P83 the legs are lifted upwards, probably supported at the thighs; P83, P84 have a large umbilicus, P84 painted pubic hair. The back of 1571—the only one recorded—shows the fold of the thighs and the buttocks. All show traces of a painted shirt in black fugitive paint, short sleeves are clearly visible on P84. All wear a broad necklace, painted on P83, molded on P84, 1571. The latter also has circular ear-plugs, P84 has painted bracelets. All the specimens are probably made of two molds, with features like the arms and legs perhaps added on. They are in oxidised ware, terracotta in colour: P83 is said to have a cream slip, P84 and 1571 have a well burnished surface, with black and white decor.

1

See Gr. 1, Discussion

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MOCHE SUB-GROUP 2.2: WOMEN WITH TRESSES AND A TWO-PEAKED HEADDRESS

Table 13 Plate 27 Sample: 11 figurines (examined 3): Method 2 and Probable = 7 figurines, Method 4 = 1 figurine, Mold = 1, Atypical= 2. Measurements (Method 2 and Probable) : Minimum Maximum Median Height (5): 6.6 cm 16.5 cm 14.3 cm Width (4): 4.0 cm 9.8 cm 8.7 cm Thickness (3): 3.1 cm 6.5 cm 6.3 cm Weight (3): 240 gr. 310 gr. 265 gr. The only Method 4 specimen (P80) is 9.5 cm high by 6.8 cm wide. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

This sub-group is related to sg. 1.5.1, except for the tresses and the two-peaked headdress, which is actually a clear derivative of the rectangular headdresses of that sub-group; there is also the possibility that it denotes a cranial deformation. The facial features are somewhat more delicate, with rounded eye-brows, smaller eyes and mouth; the ears are indicated by ear-plugs. The posture is similar as above, but with the hands always holding the tresses. Whereas in sg. 1.5.1 nearly all the specimens were naked, in this sub-group all wear a long tunic descending to the feet; but as in sg. 1.5.1 the figurines wear a broad collar, often painted in alternating colours, and broad molded bracelets; a few specimens also show painted lines along the sleeves and the lower edge of the tunic. All the specimens wear small circular concave ear-plugs. Like in sg. 1.5.1 the back is molded separately, but here only shows the long tunic (instead of molded buttocks) and the collar, with an open space in the middle; on Ca2 two painted ties are shown (in sg. 1.5.1 the collar is often hidden by a hanging headdress panel, lacking here). The base is rectangular with indentations for the feet separation (Base no.5).1 The mold P81 corresponds to the above description. Manufacture: Of the six Method 2 figurines with recorded airhole positions, one is at the base, four below the anus (or more correctly the tunic), two of them also through the earplugs, one through the ear-plugs and vulva. Exceptionally for this type of figurine, P80 is said to be solid. All are in oxidised ware in various shades of terracotta with white or cream decor, Ca1 with an additional paler pink front, Ca2 very irregularly fired, with grey patches. Atypical C22: Method 2 figurine with tresses hanging in the back and a very shallow central dip in the rectangular headdress. Facial features are more reminiscent of sg. 1.5.1, including the fully visible ears. The profile is unusually broad, the arms are folded high on the chest, the large feet protrude front and back, forming the typical rectangular base. The long tunic is edged by a bulky relief band. The necklace of two (or three?) rows of circular beads appears tied at the back, with an appendage (or ties) hanging down the middle; broad bracelets are worn. The ears show small depressions but no ear-rings or -plugs; a small labret is worn below the mouth. The figurine is hollow, with an airhole below the tunic (at the back); the surface is unpolished, bright terracotta, with white details (eye-balls, necklace, sleeves, tunic edge). P82, found in the same offering as P78 (above), wears a headdress, consisting of a rounded skull-cap, edged by a relief band, with a similar band across the top of the head from side to side and a panel hanging to mid-back. The facial features are crude, reminiscent of sg. 1.5.1, the ears are hidden by flat circular ear-plugs; a spherical protuberance on the chin may represent a labret. The bi-colour necklace, the long tresses and tunic belong to this sub-group. Being made of two molds, it is probably hollow, but there is no air-hole; it is badly fired, with a decor of "dark and light paint"

1

See Gr. 1, Special Features.

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DISCUSSION (SUB-GROUPS 2.1 AND 2.2)

That the women with long tresses or locks represent a special category of females can be inferred both from the fact that the great majority of Moche figurines depicting women have no tresses (see Group 1) and that those with tresses are mostly represented in a context of ritual activities. The importance of hair in the pre-Columbian world is often mentioned by the chroniclers and has mystical and/or ritual connotations. In Inca custom a girl, after her first menstruation, would have her hair washed and braided (Donnan 1976: 110, 132 and figs. 115, 116; 1978: 148). Note that tresses can be of varying length, sometimes simple mechones, but are often specially emphasised, for instance shown hanging over the edge of the vessel (Hocquenghem 1977a; fig.5; Larco 1965: 39 upper right, 39 lower left). Note also that in several instances this type is shown with painted eye-brows and elaborate face-paint (Larco 1965: 25; Benson 1972: Fig.6-20), both important features. Women with tresses are seen in the following contexts: 1. Women with tresses and oversized vagina We have "associated" three figurine-like specimens to sg. 2.1 (P83, P84, 1571). A fourth such specimen1 (Kauffmann-Doig 1978b: Pl.101) has no visible tresses (they may be shown at the back). Kauffmann-Doig specifies that this is a type of paccha sexual used for drinking a magical potion, probably linked with fecundity. Similar figures also occur on the inside of large bowls, with the vulva allowing to pour liquid into the bottom of the bowl (Larco 1965: 132; Benson 1972: fig.6-16; Hocquenghem 1977a: figs.6, 7; Lavalle 1985:169; Donnan 1973b: 291, upper right). All these representations also feature the tresses: in some cases, the tresses are flipped upwards (Donnan 1973b: 291 upper right; Hocquenghem 1977a: fig.6). 2. Women with tresses in sexually explicit representations We know that in Moche iconography non vaginal sex is depicted much more frequently than sex leading to procreation: in a sample of 200 erotic vessels, Steve Bourget found only 4% showing "natural" sex. Interestingly, amongst the vessels depicting "unnatural" sex at the Museo Larco in Lima, 85% show women with tresses, whilst scenes of normal sexual intercourse often depict women with short hair (Larco 1965: 46) Women with tresses are depicted as having either anal sex2 (Larco 1965: 38 lower left; 38 lower right, 39 upper left and right, 39 lower left and right, 45 bottom, 47, 120 top and bottom, 134 upper and lower left; 134 left; Benson 1972: Fig.6-10; Donnan 1978: Fig. 258 and many others) or practicing fellatio (Larco 1965 31, 32 upper left, 32 bottom, 33; Lavalle 1985: 173, etc.). Scenes of masturbation, often with skeletons or mythical animals are also common (Benson 1972: Fig.6-20). It is possible that not all such representations show women: according to some chroniclers young men would enter the service of temples from childhood and dress as women in order to participate in ritual sodomy (Jimenez Borja 1985: 47). However, there are many cases where the actual female genitals are visible. Using ethnographic data Hocquenghem (1989:139-141) links these "unnatural" sexual practices to mourning: the world of the dead is perceived as the reverse of that of the living, so intercourse must also be reversed. An “inversion of order” was celebrated during the wet season equinox in March. During certain agricultural rites, gender reversal in dress is also practiced. Steve Bourget (1995) also sees this inversion as part of the ritual of mourning, though for him it is not linked to the agricultural calendar, but more specifically to the inversion of order which marks the relationship between the Mochicas and their ancestors. Ultimately however this relationship also guarantees agricultural fertility, the foundation of the community. 1

A nearly identical woman (same head- and face-shape, same posture) is shown with the head of the child protruding from the vulva (Tello 1938:51). 2 Larco (1965:110) notes that 95% of erotic vessels represent anal sex, though this number may be due to the nature of the sample (Kauffmann Doig 1978b: 46).

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Other erotic representations show a woman with tresses, lying on her back, with the stirrup (of the jar) projecting from her vulva (Larco 1965: 44), or kissing or being caressed by a male skeleton while holding his penis (Larco 1965: 84 top; Benson 1972: Fig.6-20). Another version of the latter theme shows the woman with an anthropomorphic fox (Larco 1965: 121). Benson (1975:109) also points out that the female in some sexual representation is oversized in relation to the male (Larco 1965:38 lower left) which adds a mythical dimension to such scenes Finally we also see this woman having "normal" sex with a fanged supernatural wearing a serpent belt (Larco 1965: 113); the same personage is also represented on one of only two known erotic fineline drawings, both involving women with tresses and showing vaginal intercourse (Donnan and McClelland 1999: figs. 4.95, 4.96).1 Ritual copulation leading to procreation—often depicted as taking place between a “mythical ancestor” and a woman— can be linked to the cleaning of irrigation canals in various areas of the Peruvian sierra. During this feast, a man, impersonating water as the male element, descends along the canal to meet and impregnate a woman, impersonating earth as the female element. This act, seen as the “establishment of order”, was celebrated during the dry-season equinox in September (Hocquenghem 1979: 227-228). As we can see, connotations and interpretations are numerous and it is obvious that the woman with tresses in an erotic context has a ritual dimension. 3. Women with tresses as “attendants” Makowski (1994) made an exhaustive search in Moche iconography, for the smaller personages, playing a secondary role in the fine-line drawings and whom he sees as oficiantes. Although many of them are identified as women by their headdress or hairstyle, Makowski only finds one example of a woman with tresses, hanging in the back: she appears to be collecting grains in a cloak (1994: Fig.54 or Hocquenghem 1989: Fig.162). In another instance2 two such females observe a scene of intercourse between a supernatural and a female, while possibly participating in ritual cannibalism, since the scene also contains dismembered bodies (Donnan 1976: Fig. 1, middle and p.82). The scarcity of the woman with tresses in the role of acolyte confirms the impression—already gained in connection with erotic representations—that this figure, even in its simplest expression (Group 2), did not occupy a secondary position, a view strengthened by her role in Groups 3 and 4. 4. The Goddess with tresses ? So far only the Russian scholar Y. Berezkin has identified this type as a major goddess in the Moche pantheon (1980:14). In one instance she is depicted in the extreme left upper corner of the “Burial scene” (Donnan 1976: Fig. 2b): an exceptionally large figure of a woman with tresses and a fanged mouth, being devoured by vultures. Berezkin interprets the scene as the punishment of the Goddess, after she organised the “revolt of the animated objects”. But Donnan (1976: 82) recounts a more down-to-earth explanation given by Calancha, whereby if a curandero failed in his cure, he was killed and left by the grave of his patient, to be devoured by vultures. The scene involving the “Goddess” is part of such a burial representation and other such scenes show females lacking tresses (Donnan and McClelland 1979: Figs.7, 10, 11) and even a male curandero being devoured by vultures (ibid.: Fig.15). As far as the fangs are concerned, they may indicate a mask: several figurines with a fanged mouth in sg. 4.1 (749, 977), wearing an unusual headdress and veil probably show a female shaman in full ritual apparel. Hocquenghem (1989: 203) makes an interesting connection between guaco, the quechua term for fangs, and the word huaco, used—amongst other meanings—to designate an ugly individual with badly planted teeth. Ugly individuals were and are still likely to become witches or curanderos. Berezkin also identifies the Goddess in a seated figure with one hank of loose—not braided—hair, pulled across the chest. Two versions are shown by Donnan (1976: Figs. 66, 1 2

The other drawing shows an ordinary man. Not quoted by Makowski.

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67): both have fangs, a fringe over the forehead and small circular ear-plugs, but one has lice, the other small human figures depicted on the body. Donnan (1976:82-83) identifies this figure as the witch Mollep, described by Calancha as dirty and covered with lice: if his lice multiplied, so would the people. Donnan sees this witch as male, though the hairstyle and clothing are clearly female. Unfortunately there is no rear view of these vessels, so we don’t know whether a second hank of hair is shown at the back, allowing us to identify the “woman with tresses”. A third identification of the Goddess by Berezkin refers to figures with tresses involved in ritual activities (see Group 4). Archaeological evidence relating to women with tresses There is also archaeological evidence that women with tresses played a ritual role. Strong and Evans excavated two burials at Huaca de la Cruz, Virú, containing women with this hairstyle and associations giving a clue to their role. The elaborate burial 5 (Strong and Evans 1952:141-145, Pl. XVI, Pl. XVA) contained a young woman, 20-25 years old, whose hair “had been combed into two large ropes, one on each side of the face, bound with cotton string and hanging below the shoulders”. The face was covered by a copper mask and the body was adorned with copper plates—around the wrists and soles—and with two necklaces, one of 12 strands of 1,157 stone beads, the other of 22 lobed shells, mixed with 42 cylindrical shell beads and 19 turquoises. A llama, baskets containing spindles and spindle whorls and 12 vessels were placed around the body. Amongst these were: • a goblet with a rattle-pedestal base, filled with small pellets (ibid Pl. XVI,I); such stemmed goblets are nearly always seen carried by the shaman-priestess (sg. 4.1); • a splendid effigy jar of an important chief, wearing a turban with falcon heads and long ear-spools (ibid. Pl. XIV A-C); • a stirrup-jar of a sitting woman, carrying a load on her back and holding ritual objects— possibly a drum and beater: such personages are often associated with shamanic or other rituals (Hocquenghem 1977b: fig.29; Makowski 1994: fig.9.3). • two floreros with rattle-pedestals (Pl. XVI F): floreros are very common amongst Moche grave-goods, but rarely shown on huacos. Such a florero is used in a libation scene (Hocquenghem 1989: Figs. 131, 132a; Makowski 1994:Fig.11); The elaborate necklaces and the vessels with their ritual connotations clearly identify the buried woman as an important individual, probably a shaman or priestess. Burial 6 (Strong and Evans 1952:145-146, Pl. XIVG, M,N) also contained a woman, but middle-aged, with “two tied rope like strands hanging to the shoulders”. Her grave goods were more modest, with 13 gourds containing spindles, wool and cotton thread, beans, corn etc. and three vessels: interestingly they also include a vessel painted with herons and a florero, but without rattle base. The third vessel is a stirrup-spout whistling-jar of a parrot, with painted wings and one claw holding a maize cob. The relative location of these two burials is not given, so we don’t know whether there was a connection between them, as in the priestesses' graves at San José de Moro (see sg. 4.1). Special features/Links with other groups Sub-group 2.1: The following features of sg. 2.1 do not appear on the Standard Figurines (Group 1): • Small circular, concave ear-plugs (P72, P76, P77) or large, elaborate ear-plugs (1438, 212): Group 1 ear-plugs (as opposed to ear-rings) are medium-sized, flat, circular, sometimes painted, but with no other decor. • Hair bands (212, P72) • Central parting (219) • Bulky necklace (1438)

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The necklace of two rows of incised squares with central dot (747) is unique amongst Moche representations ; It is difficult to interpret the figurine carrying a large bird (990); other figurines (992/ Moche 4.2, 852/Chimu 5) and vessels showing this theme also occur (Schmidt 1929: 137). The associated "women giving birth" have relatively large breasts, never shown on Moche figurines and rarely on Moche vessels, usually in an erotic context (Larco 1965: 46 bottom, 47, 80 bottom right), exceptionally when nursing a child (Donnan 1978: fig. 37). Sub-group 2.2 The two-peaked headdress only occurs on this Moche sub-group but becomes very popular in Chimu (Chimu Headdress Type 3). It is curious that sub-group 2.2, entirely consisting of hollow Method 2 specimens (like sg.1.5), should also include a solid Method 1 figurine (P80), excavated at Cerro Caballo Blanco, Lambayeque—unless there is a mistake in the publication (Shimada 1994: Fig. 11.6) The atypical C22 and possibly P82 wear a labret, a feature of the female shaman (sg. 4.2), also seen on vessels depicting the same personage, but rarely on other vessels,1 and on no other Moche figurines. Both these figurines do not share the other sg. 4.2 features. The labret is identified as a foreign characteristic by Cordy-Collins (2001).2 Context (See Appendix 2: Sites) Sub-group 2.1: 945, 943 were excavated together with 947/Gr.3 at Sección Manuci, Huanchaco, Moche valley, a cemetery, in what may have been a child's grave3 (see Gravelots); 946 also comes from the excavation at Sección Manuci, Huanchaco, but no other details are given; 1967 come from Uhle's Site G at Moche, possibly from looted graves; P68 comes from the ceramic workshop at Cerro Mayal, Chicama; P75 comes from an area of domestic occupation related to Huaca Vichanzao4 at Florencia de Mora, Moche Valley. P76, P77 are two mold fragments from Galindo, Moche Valley: their context is not recorded. Sub-group 2.2: Ca1 and Ca2 were excavated in a grave at Huaca El Pueblo, Zaña Valley in the relatively elaborate burial of an extended female. The figurines were placed near the waist on the right side and the knee on the left side. The grave contained 34 other pottery vessels, including two stirrup-spout bottles with painted crabs (S. Bourget, personal communication; see Gravelot). P78, P82 were found together near and under the north-western corner of Huaca 31 at Pacatnamu. They were part of a "bundle" (Konvolut in German) also containing lumps of clay, pottery shards, textile fragments, llama bones, animal excrements, shells and may have been an offering (Hecker and Hecker 1995: fig.7, pp. 23, 88, 89). P80 is a surface find from the north-eastern foot of Cerro Caballo Blanco, above the village of Sipán (Shimada 1994: 375). C22 was found next to the skull of a three-year old infant at Huaca Dos Cabezas, Jequetepeque Valley (Cordy-Collins 2001: fig. 4). On the basis of these limited contextual data, a small majority of these figurines were grave goods. 1

See Moche sg. 4.2. For a discussion of this identification, see Moche sub-group 4.2. 3 This probably corresponds to Millaire's grave G279 which "contained the remains of a child buried in a simple pit with a single vessel and three figurine-shaped whistles (depicting women with threads [sic])" (2002:78). 4 Also called Huaca del Arenal, no. 4514 of the Moche Chan-Chan project (Pérez Calderón 1994: 228). 2

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Geographic distribution North of Jequetepeque/ Jequetepeque Pacasmayo Sub-group 2.1 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Sub-group 2.2 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested

Moche/ Chicama V. 8 2 3 3

3

3

1

1

Virú V.

Santa V.

1 5

As we can see there is clearly a different geographic distribution for the two sub-groups: sg. 2.1 is only present in the Southern sector, sg. 2.2 only in the Northern sector. Chronology Sub-group 2.1 945, 943 (part of a Gravelot with 947/gr.3) and 946 excavated at Huanchaco probably date to Moche IV, as all the graves listed from that site (Donnan 1995: 116), as does P68 from Cerro Mayal (Russell et al. 1994: 203). P75 comes from Huaca Vichanzao, a site dated by its adobe characteristics and ceramics to Moche III and IV: the lozenge eyes and molded necklace of the fragment points to Moche IV; both mold fragments (P76, P77) come from Galindo and therefore date to Moche V. 1967, a body fragment from Uhle's Site G cannot be dated, but like figurines from Grave G23 (see above "Chronology" 1.3) it shows a molded tunic, a later feature. As a whole, sub-group 2.1 displays many late Moche features such as lozenge eyes, molded tunics, necklaces with pendants, an incised fringe (cf. Gr. 1, Chronology). Novel features such as the hair band, different ear-rings (small, concave or large and ornate) can also be considered late, since they appear in conjunction with other late features. But the absence of adornments like the drop-earrings could also mean that different personages wore different apparel. In addition, local variants could also be at play: for instance only three figures are naked (an early characteristic?), two of them (1554, 219) from the Santa Valley. Sub-group 2.2 Ca1 and Ca2, from a grave at Huaca El Pueblo, Zaña Valley, are dated to Middle Moche, corresponding to phases III to IV of the Moche sequence in the South. P78 and the atypical P82 found together in a cache beneath Huaca 31 at Pacatnamu are dated to Moche III or IV (Hecker and Hecker 1995: 89). P80, a surface find from Cerro Caballo Blanco, Sipán is dated to Moche IV (Shimada 1994: Fig. 11.6, caption). The atypical C22 from a burial at Dos Cabezas, Jequetepeque, is dated to Moche V (Cordy-Collins 2001: Fig. 5, caption). The discrepancies in the dating of figurines which are basically similar in style is probably due to the same problems identified in the chronology of sub-group 1.5.1, from the same area, e.g. a somewhat "conservative" dating tendency of Hecker and Hecker (1984, 1991, 1995) and the perceived absence of a Moche phase IV in the Northern sector (Castillo and Donnan 1994, 1995; Donnan 1995), though later Castillo (2001: 312) includes both Moche III and IV in his Middle Moche Middle. Some iconographic traits must be late: the two-peaked headdress is common during the Chimu era (Chimu Gr. 3) and the molded edge at the bottom of the tunics of C22 and P82 is a typical feature of Northern Sector Chimu figurines, though there it is placed mostly at or slightly below the waist. So on the whole these figurines are more likely to date to Moche IV and Moche V.

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MOCHE GROUP 3: WOMAN WITH A CHILD

Group 3 figurines show a personage carrying a child. One would normally assume this to be a woman, but in a study of various ceramic vessels featuring the same theme, Hocquenghem (1980) suggests that the personage carrying the child may be a man. In the case of the figurines however, a number of specimens have the long tresses typical for a certain types of women (see Groups 2 and 4) and with two exceptions (the atypical 1911, 963 below) those without tresses also very probably depict women (see Discussion, below). In this group there is no iconographic sub-division based on the shape of the head. As for the use of two "figured" molds (Method 2) for a few specimen, this is clearly dictated by the wish to show infants being carried on the back, rather than a regional variant as in sub-groups 1.5 and 2.2. Table 14 Plates 28, 29 Sample: 22 figurines1 (examined 17): Method 1 and Probable = 12 figurines, Method 4 = 2 figurines, Method 2 = 4 figurines; Atypical = 4 figurines (Method 2) Measurements (Method 1 and Probable): Minimum Maximum Median Height (11): 9.0 cm 18.6 cm 12.5 cm Width (8): 5.3 cm 10.6 cm 7.0 cm Thickness (8): 2.9 cm 5.2 cm 3.8 cm Weight (11): 90 gr. 355 gr. 150 gr. Only one Method 4 figurine (1729) is complete, its height is 7.1 cm. The four Method 2 figurines have a height between 11.2 and 15.6 cm, a width between 7.4 and 9.7 cm, a thickness between 4.8 and 7.1 cm; the weight is between 120 and 360 gr. Two of the atypical figurines are sitting and measure 7.1 and 8.8 in height; the standing ones have a height of 8.3 and 14.8 respectively GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The figurines are quite varied, especially in their accoutrements and in the way the child is carried. All (except two atypical specimens) are standing, though most cannot stand unaided. Characteristics such as the shape of the head, facial features and the shape of the body are similar to those of sgs. 1.2, 1.3 and 2.1. All the figurines have a rounded head, with the hair or a scarf forming a straight line on the forehead, unadorned or with a central incision (a parting? e.g. 1978), an incised fringe (e.g. 993, P87), a more elaborate decorated hair-band (e.g. 1097); 1364 appears to wear a cap with lateral knobs?, one of them broken . The face can be framed by hair (e.g. 1977, 537), sometimes with additional side locks (1641, 993, 1097) or ending in tresses (1843, 1261?, 975, 20, the atypical 1971). Other figurines wear a shawl covering head and shoulders (e.g. 947, P87). The face generally shows the classic Moche modelling, but face-paint is absent. A majority of specimens have lozenge-shaped eyes (e.g. 993); ears are only indicated on 993, 1097 by small circular concave ear-plugs. The body is covered by a long tunic, leaving the lower arms and five-finger hands (with prominent thumb) uncovered and showing the conjoined lower legs and protruding feet, but covering the genitalia. In addition 1977, 1978, 1641, 1097, 1261 show a shawl draped over one shoulder and held by the free arm; the figurines carrying the child on their back have a shawl tied on their chests. Two-thirds wear a necklace, mostly made of two or more rows of

1

Two further mother-and-child figurines studied by Ulmquist (1992) are not included in the sample because of insufficient data: Lámina 14 (MNAA C-54542) is a Method 1 specimen very similar to 1977, 1978, with fringe, central parting and side locks, the child on the right arm, a shawl held by the left and a necklace of spherical beads. Lámina 15 (MNAA C-66287) is a Method 4 specimen nearly identical with 20, except for tresses that hang vertically and a large airhole between the legs in front. A third badly damaged mother-and-child figurine was excavated by Topic in her Testpit 5 at Moche (1977: 409 and Fig. 2-43/16).

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incised trapezoidal beads (e.g. 1977, 1097, 1261); 20 (and 1641?) have lozenge-shaped beads, 1236, 536 have plain painted necklaces. The infants are carried on the left (six specimens) or right arm (three) of the woman, with their head resting on the woman's shoulder and the legs appearing below the arm that holds them; occasionally they are held in both arms across the chest (947, 993, P85); on 1729 the naked child is spread-eagled vertically across the woman’s front, with its head bent back. Details of the children's' features are often difficult to see: mostly eyes and mouth are sketchily incised: P85, 20 have closed eyes, 1326, 537 open eyes, P85 has a wide, molded mouth, as if crying; ears can be quite large (e.g. 1261). Usually one of the arms is visible, raised (947, 993, 1097, 1261, P85, P86, 20, 1326), folded (1641), hanging down the side (1977, 1978, 1843); mostly both legs (folded) are shown. Except for four swaddled infants (C23, P86, P87,1 957) the children appear naked, though they may wear a cap (993?, 1097?, 1261, 20, 537); 1641, 1843, 993, 1326? wear drop-shaped ear-rings, 20 wears hanging disk ear-rings; 1843 wears a two-row necklace. One child (20) holds an unidentified, pine-conelike object (a rattle) in his left hand. Where infants are carried on the back, they are placed in a shawl, with the head peeping over the woman’s shoulder (537, 1326, 20) and legs dangling below the shawl. On 1326 the left arm of the mother is bent backwards to support the child at the back. On 1364, the child is swaddled on a carry-cot, which in turn is fastened to the back of the mother by a shawl. Manufacture Of the nine certain Method 1 figurines, six have air-holes at the base, one at the vulva, one has no air-holes, one is unrecorded. All four method 4 figurines have air-holes at the base. All are in oxidized ware, unslipped, in shades of terracotta (varying from light buff to grey or brown), three specimens are bi-chrome. Atypical 1971, part of Gravelot 23 from Uhle's excavations at Moche Site G, shows a sitting female with a child cradled on her lap: its head rests on her right arm and its own arm is raised. The woman has a hairstyle with central parting and long tresses; she wears a cloak and a necklace of large spherical beads. Made with two molds, hollow, with a large airhole in the back; pale terracotta.2 1981, part of Gravelot 25 from Uhle's excavations at Moche Site F, shows a double figurine, depicting a sitting woman—clearly identified by the head-scarf—with her right arm, visible at the back, around an older child. Made with two molds, hollow, with a large airhole in the back and black, white and red paint on a terracotta-coloured paste. 1911 may represent a man, because of the conical headdress and a bulge in the genital area which is not covered by the short tunic, carries an infant with a rounded head, sitting on his left shoulder. The badly finished figurine appears to be made of two molds, is hollow with an airhole at the anus. The surface is bright terracotta, with some white paint. 963 shows a sitting? skeleton with a child sitting on the right shoulder. The specimen is crudely made with two molds (the joins are clearly visible), hollow, with an airhole through the base. The paste is smooth, without temper, the surface is darkish terracotta.3 DISCUSSION

The "Mother-and-Child" Symbolism It would be easy to see these figurines as depicting the most basic everyday scene: a mother carrying a child. In fact this meaning must not be excluded, especially where the child is carried on the mother’s back, as is still done to-day, though even this may have sinister 1

By analogy with the 957 and P86, we can assume that P87 carries a child whose the head has been broken off. 2 A sitting woman (suckling her child?), illustrated by Ubbelohde-Doering (1952: 112 top) has not been used here because of insufficient data. 3 According to A.M.Hoyle, a curator at the MSCh in 1982, this could be a fake, using an original mold.

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connotations. But in many instances the child appears to be “presented” (e.g. 947, P85). This, linked to the fact that some of the mothers are “women with tresses” (see Gr. 2), as well as further contextual evidence possibly suggests a different interpretation. The sample of ceramics with this theme assembled by Hocquenghem (19801) shows the personage, carrying the child, with features—not occurring on the figurines—such as: an additional skull cap below the shawl covering the head (figs. 4, 6, 7, 10?, 11) and/or an ornament on top of the head (figs. 6, 8a, 8b)—both male accoutrements—, an object held in one hand (figs. 5, 6?), a raised hand with an open palm (fig. 2). Finally some of the personages have pursed lips as in the the mocha,2 a prayer attitude, (figs.3, 5, 6,), others show scars on their face (figs. 8a, 8b). Some of these postures can be seen in Guamán Poma’s drawings of sacrificial ceremonies. On one vessel the personage holding the child is associated with a fine-line drawing of men carrying large packs. Linking this with other fineline drawings, Hocquenghem suggests that they all represent offerings, whether arms or coca or various objects. From parallels with Inca rituals during Inti Raymi and in the Capacocha, the author concludes that this theme represents the sacrifice of children. Other examples of males or "non-mothers" carrying a child and probably linked to concepts of sacrifice and/or death are: • a very old personage, with scarred face and ornate ceremonial clothing—probably a curandero—holding a child (Menzel 1977: Fig.149); • a masturbating skeleton holding an infant over his shoulder (Kauffmann Doig 1978b: 153). In addition, there are a number of ceramics showing scenes linking the "woman (mother?) and child" theme with death and/or sacrifice: • a “dance macabre” with skeletal women carrying their children on their backs, the latter also skeletons: this may refer to women and/or children dying during birth (Hocquenghem 1977d: 171 and Pl. 13); • a woman holding a dead (?) rather than sleeping child (Kutscher 1955:25; Ulmquist 1992: Pl.10): in both cases the child's eyes are closed; • a mutilated or possibly dead figure holding a mutilated or skeletal child (Kutscher 1955:36); • a fanged woman holding a child (Larco 1965: 80 upper left); • two nearly identical pacha-like vessels (Donnan 1978:Fig.153; Inca…Peru 1990: Figs. 103, 104) show a male deity with fanged mouth and serpent belt standing opposite a woman who carries a child, obviously alive, on her back. The deity appears to be struggling with the woman, gripping her by her tresses and kicking her in the abdomen. In this struggle the deity could be trying to reclaim the child, his sacrificial victim. Benson (1965:109) suggests that many “mother and child” vessels may represent an oversized woman—implying a mythical dimension—carrying off a sacrificial victim, rather than a child. The "mother-and-child" theme can also have a ritual connotation not linked with the themes of sacrifice and death. We see, for instance, a sitting woman with an infant standing by her side: the child wears a striped tunic and large drop ear-rings and holds a stemmed goblet, always connected to ritual activities (Ubbelohde-Doering 1952: 232). Schuler-Schömig (1979: 155ff.) interprets the tuft of hair appearing on the forehead of some of the children, as linking "mother-and-child" representations to ritual coca consumption. However, if we compare the "mother-and-child" figurines in this group with the vessels (especially those selected in Hocquenghem 1980), we see that most of the ambiguous features are absent: 1

A shorter version appears in Hocquenghem 1989: 108-115 and figs. 63-67. Métraux (1967:180) tells us that Araucan women shamans would suck, lick and blow on the sick body: this would also result in pursed lips 2

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The figurines are undoubtedly female,1 either because they wear the typical shawl, covering the head and shoulders (e.g. 947, P86, P87, 1729) or tresses (e.g. 1843, C23, P85, 957) or a shawl folded across a shoulder, as sometimes seen on women with tresses2 (here 1261, without tresses 1977, 1978, 1641, 1097) or because of hairstyles known to be female (e.g. 993, with fringe and side locks); • The way in which the child is carried is more naturalistic on the figurines. It is true that some figurines do carry the child as if presenting an offering (947, 993?, P85) and others carry it in a somewhat clumsy way (1843, C23, P86, 957), though this is not uncommon, especially with very young swaddled babies. But the remaining figurines, with infants propped up on one arm, and in particular those carried in the back, (or on the lap of the atypical sitting 1971) are totally naturalistic. By contrast, only two of the vessels (Hocquenghem 1980: figs. 4, 7) show infants held in this naturalistic position. The atypical figurines also look naturalistic: The sitting woman with tresses (1971) may be breast-feeding. 1981 shows a woman with an older child, quite a common representation on ceramics. Interestingly these often show a tired woman carrying a load (Tello 1938: 28, 54 right; Anton 1972 :Pl. 148), one exception being the woman with the standing child holding a stemmed goblet (Ubbelohde-Doering 1952 :232). Hocquenghem (1977b: 125) interprets these representations as shamans. 1911, arguably a man with a conical helmet—a feature otherwise unknown on Moche figurines,3—holding a toddler sitting on his left shoulder is a unique specimen, with no parallels amongst Moche vessels, even though the facial features are undeniably Moche. The sitting skeleton with a child on its right shoulder (963) ties in with the numerous representations of skeletons in the company of other personages, more rarely of children (Kauffmann Doig 1978b: 153). Hocquenghem (1980: 281) argues that any mother-and-child representation must be somehow related to sacrificial child offerings. She illustrates this argument with a totally naturalistic vessel of a mother (rather than what she sees as men on other vessels), carrying a child on her back (1980: fig.16), which is practically identical with a figurine like 537. Knowing how multilayered Moche iconography is, it is likely that the ever present themes of death, ancestor worship and renewal are also an integral part of the mother-and-child representation. Special features The relatively large ear-rings, drop- or disk-shaped, worn by several of the infants (e.g. 1843, 20 etc.) are worth a mention since large ear-rings are not only worn by important personages as can be expected, but are also found on rattles (see below Moche Gr.5). They must have had at the very least a magical protective function, when worn by young children. Context (See Appendix 2: Sites) 947 was excavated together with 945, 943 /Gr.2.1 at Sección Manuci, Huanchaco, Moche valley, a cemetery, in what may have been a child's grave (see Gravelots Group 2); 1977, 1978, a pair of identical "mother-and-child" figurines, as well as the atypical 1981, showing a woman sitting next to an older child, were excavated by Uhle in Grave F 25 at Moche. This was part of the intact burial ground excavated by Uhle at the foot of the Huaca de la Luna, containing around 33 graves, some dug into in the sandy soil, others consisting of adobe burial chambers (Uhle n.d. vol. II, pp. 14-15; 1913: 106ff; Kroeber 1944: 121 ff). F 25 •

1

With the exception of the atypical 1911. For a good example see Limoges 1999: Pl. ixb. 3 Except for 948/5.1, a warrior with a pointed helmet. 2

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appears to have been a simple pit burial (Millaire 2002: Table 5.7),1 the osteological material has not been recovered. F 25 also contained a figure possibly representing a shaman (1976/Gr. 4.2), a pair of identical sitting coca-users (1979, 1980/Gr. 5.2), a whistle with a warrior-related figure (Kroeber 1944: Pl.48F), 11 vessels and a palmette-shaped rattle. Of this, Uhle writes (MS notes, vol. II, p.15): " Ornament of clay, palmette-shaped, exactly like ornaments of ancient Greece but found by myself in a grave bedded inmidst [sic] the lowest basements of the 1,000 years old temple. (See Gravelot). This burial may have been that of a female shaman, since it contains at least two representations of shamans (1981, 1976/Gr.4.2) and objects traditionally associated with shamanism, such as the rattle and the whistle (Hocquenghem 1977b). But note the interesting association in this grave of mother-and-child, shamans, coca-users and the warrior-related whistle. 1729 was excavated by G. Bawden at Galindo, from the floor of a dwelling. 1971 (atypical) was excavated by Uhle at Moche Site G in Grave G 23 together with 1970 (atypical)/sg. 1.3, a sitting male, possibly a prisoner . Grave G 23 is not mentioned by Kroeber (1925a), or Donnan (1995: 117); Millaire mentions three graves from Site G, but does not know their original numbers (2002: 96, 209). (See Gravelot). Note again the unusual association of a mother-and-child and a sitting male prisoner. Geographic Distribution We have six certain, three unverifiable and one "suggested" provenance for the Moche/Chicama valleys. The three unverifiable provenances from Chimbote are unreliable (see Appendix 1, Wassermann-San Blas collection). The "mother-and-child" theme does not appear to extend to the Northern Sector. Chronology There is little stylistic or technological difference between the figurines in this group: the presence of Method 2 specimens (e.g. made of two figured molds) results from trying to show the child in the back, rather than from regional differences, as in sub-groups 1.5.1 and 2.2. So we can assume that all the figurines are similar in date. 947 (with 945, 943/Gr.2.1) from a grave excavated by F. Irriarte at Huanchaco is probably dated to Moche IV, as most graves from the site (Donnan 1995: 116). 1977, 1978, 1981 (atypical) (with 1976/Gr. 4.2, 1979, 1980/ Gr.5.2) found in Uhle's Moche Grave F25 is dated to Moche IV (Donnan 1995:117). 1729 found at Galindo dates to Moche V. 1971 (atypical) (with 1970, atypical,/Gr. 1.3) come from Uhle's Grave 23 at Moche Site G, a site which Uhle considered as early. Both 1971 and 1070 the have late features (1971: incised hair-fringe, 1970: pendant drop earrings, necklace with hanging triangular beads). Grave G23 is not listed by Donnan (1995: 117). The three Site G graves are dated by Millaire to his "Transitional" Period2 (2002: 209). The late date (Moche IV to V) of this group is confirmed by late features such as molded tunics, an incised fringe, side-locks (cf. Chronology of Gr. 1). Novel features (the hair band, small concave ear-rings)3 which first appeared in sub-group 2.1 in conjunction with those listed above can also be considered late (cf. Chronology of sub-group 2.1). 1

Millaire's grave G406 must correspond to Uhle's grave F25—the only one with the same inventory as listed by Kroeber (1944: 125) in the Site F graves—and not "34" or "6a" as he suggests in a footnote to his Table 5.8. Kroeber's Grave 6a contains finds nos. 2765 to 2772, which are not the numbers of the finds in F25 (3247, 3248, 3251, 3252 etc). Kroeber identifies F25 as Uhle's "Grave delta", without listing the find numbers, but his next grave F26 (Uhle's "grave lambda") contains finds 3286 to 3289, therefore following on the numbers in F25 (1944: 122-123) . Kroeber also illustrates two figures from F25, numbered 3246 and 3251 (1944: Pl.48F, G). 2 See sg. 1.3, Chronology. 3 It is interesting to note that large drop or disk ear-rings are only worn by some of the infants.

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MOCHE GROUP 4: FIGURINES WITH SUPERNATURAL AND/OR RITUAL CONNOTATIONS

In contrast to Moche Groups 1-3, which appear to depict personages with naturalistic features, Group 4 figurines show characters which—either by their physical attributes (fanged mouth, phallic head shape), their accoutrements (elaborate headgear) or the objects they carry (goblet and plate, rattle) seem to have a supernatural or ritual connotation. The 48 figurines fall into three sub-groups: Sub-group 4.1 depicts a character involved in the Presentation Theme (Donnan 1976: 117ff.) or related personages; Sub-group 4.2 shows personages whose headgear and accessories point to a ritual role, possibly that of a shaman; Sub-group 4.3 depicts an altogether different personage, characterised by an unusual bilobed head shape; this, as well as the frequent presence of a labret and/or use of a drum, suggests that we may also be dealing with a shaman. Because the sub-groups are very different they will be discussed separately. In each subgroup the figurines are listed according to their resemblance: the system of listing them according to their known or assumed provenance, adopted for other Moche groups, has not been followed, as it did not reveal significant differences in style. MOCHE SUB-GROUP 4.1: THE PRIESTESS OF THE PRESENTATION THEME AND RELATED FIGURINES

Table 15 Plate 30 Sample: 13 figurines (examined 9): Method 1 and Probable = 12 figurines, Method 2 = 1 figurine. Measurements: (Method 1 and Probable): Minimum Maximum Median Height (11): 10.1 cm 17.5cm 15.3 cm Width (6): 5.0 cm 9.8 cm 8.7 cm Thickness (6): 3.5 cm 6.6 cm 4.8 cm Weight (6): 100 gr. 380 gr. 250 gr. The only Method 2 figurine measures: 12.0 cm x 6.6 x 4.7; the weight was not recorded. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

In this relatively small sub-group, facial features (mostly with lozenge-shaped eyes), and body characteristics (overall shape, hands, feet) correspond to the standard Moche figurines of the preceding groups. But there are important additional features. The archetype of this group is P89, the personage holding a disc and stemmed goblet and identified as an important participant in the Presentation Scene (Donnan 1976: fig. 112). Other similar personages (210 and 1973) are identified by Hocquenghem and Lyon as female supernaturals (1980: Pl. III, figs. 3 and 4 and App.1,no.6), and numbered in their analysis as figs. 2, 3, 4. A further six figurines (P90, 1691, 750, P91, 974, 988) share most of the characteristics of these prototypes: a fanged mouth, long spiral locks or tresses, a long tunic (with or without incised horizontal lines), a headdress with a horizontal band and two or more plume-like elements, circular earplugs with a concentric design (with or without small beads around the edge1), a necklace of large spherical beads, wristbands.2 They carry the typical

1

There are numerous published examples of the circular ear-plugs surrounded by small beads (Benson 1972: Fig.5-11; Donnan 1978: Fig. 48 ; Donnan and Alva 1993: Figs. 85-88; etc.): the extremely elaborate workmanship and precious materials used—gold, turquoise, lapis lazuli, shell etc.—confirm the high status of the wearers of such ear-plugs. 2 What appears to be wristbands could be the sleeves protruding from the folds of the tunic.

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stemmed goblet and circular cover or plate, seen as "a half gourd.1..used to cover the goblet" (Hocquenghem and Lyon 1980:30). Variations of the prototype include: • Different representations of the fangs: mostly inscribed within a distorted mouth, but projecting above and below closed lips on P90 and 1973; 1691 has no visible fangs or teeth, but has lips shown as a "continuous band", a feature identified by Rowe in Chavín iconography (1967: 80). • 210, P89, 1691 have two, 750 three projecting elements on their headdress (incised to look like plumes on 210, P89, plain on 1691, with an incision outlining the edges on 750). On P90 and 1973 the two plume-like elements are inscribed within the rounded headdress; 974 shows three sets of two stylized inscribed elements in a rectangular headdress, P91 and 988 have a plain rounded head cover. • The hanging "spiral locks" can curve outwards (210, P89, P91) or hang straight down; note the disc-shaped clasps on 1691; 988 appears to have tresses.2 • Only 210 and P89 have tunics with horizontal incisions, the others are plain; 974, 988, 749 appear to have an additional cloak hanging down the sides of their arms. • The beads on the necklace of 1973 have an incised design. The ear-plugs of 1691, 750, P91, 988 lack the surrounding small beads; P91 and 988 have no wristbands. • The stemmed goblet is held in the right hand, the cover in the left, except on 974 where they are reversed; 1973 and P91 do not appear to hold a cover, P91 holds the goblet in the left hand. The cover itself is incised with concentric rings on 210 and P89 only, otherwise plain. Apart from these nine prototype figures, there are two more variants: • 749 and 977 have fanged mouths and spiral locks (unusually short on 977), but they don't carry the typical goblet and cover. Both have a rectangular headdress, 749 with a molded (unclear) decor, plain on 977; 749 has the elaborate beaded ear-plugs but an incised necklace of trapezoidal beads; 977 has concentric ear-plugs and a necklace of smaller circular beads. 749 wears a tunic and wide cloak with incised ties on the chest and wristbands or sleeves. 977 is the only specimen in this sub-group to show female genitals, with a molded genital triangle and airhole through the vulva. • P92 and 28 lack the supernatural characteristic, the fanged mouth. But P92 has all the other characteristics of the prototype figurines: spiral locks, long tunic, ornate ear-plugs, necklace of large beads, wristbands, and carries the goblet in the right, the cover in the left hand. The only other element lacking—apart from the fanged mouth—are the plume-like appendages on the headdress, which shows a decorated horizontal band. By contrast 28, lacks most of the prototype characteristics (fanged mouth, elaborate headgear, locks or tresses, ear-plugs and the necklace of large beads). Instead it has a fringe across the forehead and a necklace of three rows of incised trapezoidal beads. However, the long tunic has painted horizontal lines, no doubt imitating the incised ones on 210 and P89, but with an area of dots around the waist and circles around the hem: similar features can occur on fine-line drawings of this figure (Hocquenghem and Lyon 1980:29-30); wristbands and the goblet and cover are also shown, carried in the left and right hand respectively. Manufacture As far as can be seen most of the figurines belong to Method 1;3 they are hollow and generally have one airhole through the base (988 has a large hole in the back). 977 appears to be a Method 2 figurine, with some molding in the back and airholes through the vulva, anus 1

The flatness of these objects and the concentric incisions on 210 and P89 raise some doubts about the identification as gourds. 2 According to my sketch which may be inaccurate. 3 We have no data for the three published specimens (P89 - P92).

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and the sides of the head. The surface is unslipped in various tones of terracotta, only 1973 and 28 show traces of white paint. DISCUSSION

Interpretation of the Moche 4.1 personage All the figurines in this sub-group are closely related to the main prototypes and display some—though not all—the features listed by Hocquenghem and Lyon (1980: 29) as associated with female supernaturals depicted in Moche iconography, especially in the fineline drawings. The main characteristics which lead the authors to identify the personage as supernatural are the prominent fangs, as female the long spiral bound locks (1980: 27). Additional features are also listed, some of which do not occur on any of the figurines. Features present on the figurines Features absent on the figurines A. Long, one piece garment C. Mantle (not always present) D. Head cloth F. Horizontal headband G. Two (or more) plume-like elements rising from the headband (not always present) H. Disk necklace (I see it as large spherical beads) I. Disk ear-spools, J. Wristbands (not always present) K. Long, spiral locks N. Bare feet

B. Belt E. Tassels on lower end of head cloth L. Serpent-head terminators to locks M. Face-paint

If we consider exclusively those features present on the figurines, the best—indeed the only—real match is Figure C in the “Presentation scene”, part of the larger Ceremony of the Sacrifice (Donnan 1976: Fig.104a). Representations of this supernatural in other scenes, such as the Revolt of the Animated Objects, (Donnan 1978: fig.270, extreme left), the Moon Boat (1983: Abb. 314-1A) or the Burial (Donnan and McClelland 1979: figs. 6, 7, 11) lack the goblet and cover or show the belt, serpent appendages or numerous plume-like elements leading one to conclude that these are all personages not portrayed as figurines. Recent archaeological discoveries suggest that this figure may not always represent a supernatural. Two figurines in our sample, which carry the goblet and cover (P92 and 28), are clearly humans. A sensational confirmation of the human identity and the ritual significance of such a female came to light when in 1991 and 1992 two tombs of Moche “priestesses”, showing many of the features present on Moche sub-group 4.1 figurines, were discovered in two tombs at San José de Moro, in the lower Jequetepeque valley (Donnan and Castillo 1994). Both tombs were large adobe structures, containing a main burial and additional, probably sacrificial human burials, as well as camelids, and large amounts of grave goods. In both tombs the main burial—both women, one somewhat younger than the other—had been placed in cane coffins adorned on the outside with metal ornaments (two plume-like appendages, a mask with headband and ear-plugs, arms and legs on the sides of the coffins and sandals at the lower end (Ibid.: fig. 13.7). The tomb of the older priestess contained the large characteristic headdress; both tombs contained a stemmed goblet, as seen on the figurines above. Unlike in two female burials from the Virú valley,1 there is no mention of "rope like strands of hair" (Strong and Evans 1952: 142, 145) here. The high status of the older woman was confirmed by the richness of the grave goods which included imported objects, such as Nievería ceramics from the Central Coast, spondylus shells from Ecuador and lapis lazuli beads from Chile. The tomb of the younger woman contained more ceramics, but of lesser quality. The headdress, masks and goblets found in the tombs are clearly the specific attributes of “Figure C” in the “Presentation theme” (see above) and identifies the two woman as priestesses taking part in the ceremony depicted. The proximity of the two graves suggests that the particular priestly function may have passed from one priestess to another in time.

1

See above, Moche Gr. 2, Discussion.

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As suggested by Hocquenghem (1989), Moche iconography may have functioned on two levels, representing both the mythical and the real world. An ongoing debate has centred around the question whether some of the participants in the complex fineline drawings of the mythical level could not represent real people, participating in some ritual and wearing ceremonial clothing. As Hocquenghem puts it "The mochicas took their inspiration from reality to represent the supernatural forces that they imagined dominated their world. And—in a vicious circle—human beings acting in ceremonies related to supernaturals, mime this mythical world. Both worlds reflect each other like mirrors, ...reality and myth merge" (1977b: 124 - my translation). The study of the different variants in the same figurine type, combined with the archaeological evidence, show that Figure “C” of the Presentation theme could be impersonated by a living human, even though enacting a mythical creature: the two concepts are not mutually exclusive (Donnan and Alva 1993: 226). According to Bourget (2006: 47): "The identification between real individuals and subjects depicted in the iconography induce a closer relationship between the two domains than envisaged just a few years ago...When encountering intact, high-ranking Moche burials, the task will be to deduce with what subject within the iconographic schema they are associated". What role did this personage fulfil? Makowski (1994: 53) rightly points out that too much weight is given to the shamanic connotations of ritual actions in the various interpretations of Moche iconography. He thinks it likely that the institution of priesthood did exist in the Moche polity and suggests that investigating the concept of a state cult would reveal various levels of complexity and differences in the patterns of social organisation. The geographically widely spread representations of the Sacrifice Ceremony also point to a state religion (Donnan and Alva 1993: 226). The difference between the role of the priest and that of the shaman resides precisely in the “official” and “non-official” aspects of their respective roles. Whereas the priest “...is the ritual expert...who has a special and sometimes secret knowledge of the technique of worship...” and the priesthood “...has been the official institution that has mediated and maintained a state of equilibrium between the sacred and the profane aspects of human society...”, the shaman is ”a specialist (man or woman) accepted by the society as being able to communicate directly with the transcendent world and thereby also possessed of the ability to heal and to divine; this person is held to be of great use to society in dealing with the spirit world” (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edition, p.1009 and p.1013). Considering the ceremonial connotations of Figure “C” in a scene where prisoners are sacrificed and their blood "exchanged" in stemmed goblets by various high-ranking personages, mythical or real, the term “priestess” seems more appropriate for this figurine type than that of shaman. Context 1973 was excavated by Uhle at Moche Site G and was part of a child's grave, G1, not listed in Donnan 1995. The associated material consists of five miniature vessels, measuring from ca. 5 cm. to 10 cm. Two of them are bottles, showing women carrying a load on their back (one a vessel, the other unrecorded), two are face jars, one of a skeleton, the other of "dog mask head" with large pendant disk earrings, one is a plain bottle. Also associated is a small figurine of an important person with elaborate headdress (1972/sg. 5.2) and a whistle of a warrior shown in profile (broken); finally Uhle also records " small rattle with animal head of clay"1 (see Gravelot). P91 comes from a cache found at 1.8 m depth in Test Pit 5 excavated by T. Topic at Moche The cache contained 29 ceramics, "all flawed in some way", so Topic assumed that they were rejects from a ceramic workshop in the vicinity, an assumption later confirmed (see Uceda and Armas 1997). Amongst the rejects were four figurines, of which only P91 is clearly illustrated (Topic 1977: 155-156, 406-410 and fig. 2-43/7).

1

The rattle is recorded as missing in the HMB catalogue.

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Geographic distribution There are two certain, one fairly reliable, two unverifiable and three "suggested" provenances from the Moche and Chicama valleys, as well as two "suggested" provenances for the area up to Jequetepeque, one of which is for a Method 2 figurine, usually found in that sector. The Chimbote provenance is unreliable (see Appendix 1). Chronology There are no chronologically diagnostic stirrup-jars amongst the vessels associated with 1973 from Uhle's Grave G1, but elongated jars with a long flaring neck and ring base are found predominantly in Moche IV (see Donnan and Mackey 1978: Burials MIV-1: no. 17, 2: no. 33, 45, 6: no.4, etc). Donnan (1995: 117) does not date this grave. Millaire "(2002: 96, 209) dates three Uhle Site G graves (his nos. 445 - 447) to "Transitional".1 Topic (1977: 318ff.) was unable to make a very clear distinction between Moche III and IV ceramics, but looking at the inventory of the cache where P91 was found, we are mainly dealing with MIV ceramics. The ceramic workshop of which Topic's cache was probably part is dated to Moche IV (Limoges 1999). Stylistically the figurines in this sub-group have some late features (molded clothing, lozenge-shaped eyes), but lack others (necklaces with hanging beads, hanging ear-rings). They also lack any of the really early features, so a date of Moche IV seems appropriate. 977 has some Northern Chimu features, such as the small raised genital triangle and the molded edge of the tunic at the back, so could even date to Moche V. MOCHE SUB-GROUP 4.2: SHAMANS AND RELATED FIGURINES

Table 15 Plate 31 Sample: 12 figurines (examined 9). Method 1 and Probable = 8 figurines, Method 2 = 4 figurines. Measurements: (Methods 1 and 2) Minimum Maximum Median Height (11): 9.0 cm 14.4 cm 13.0 cm Width (9): 5.3 cm 7.9 cm 7.2 cm Thickness (7): 3.5 cm 5.6 cm 4.8 cm Weight (7): 75 gr. 375 gr. 160 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The "ritual connotation" which singles out this sub-group is based on the accoutrements, especially the headdress, and on objects carried by the figurines, conspicuously absent amongst the "standard" Moche figurines of the preceding groups. In sub-group 4.2 a first grouping of five figurines, possibly shamans, hold what appears to be a baton or spatula—in four cases ending in a rattle-like appendage—and a small bowl; a second grouping of seven figurines carry a variety of objects. Like in sg. 4.1 the facial features, overall shape, hands and feet of these figurines correspond to the standard type of Gr. 1. Only 1563 and 7442 have some face-paint. Differences with other groups appear mainly in the accoutrements, in particular the elaborate headdress. As the genitals are always covered (except on 1976), it can be difficult to determine the sex (see Discussion). Four of the "shamans" wear a headdress with a broad headband ending in two laterally projecting elements. On 856 the headband is decorated with incised circles and the projections show horizontal incisions, its back is not recorded; on 60, 216 and 2351, both headband and projections are plain, painted white, with a textile panel framing the face and hanging down in the back (except on 2351, with a plain relief band at neck level). 60 has an additional narrower 1 2

See sub-group 1.3, Chronology. The face-paint on 1563 is like that of 746/sg.1.3 (see Group 1, Discussion); that of 744 is unclear.

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longer panel in the middle of the back, hanging down lower. The headdress of 1563, the fifth "shaman", features a relief band and two inscribed plume-like appendages, all painted white; the back is plain, except for the painted white necklace. The specimens wear a knee- or calf-length molded tunic (painted on 216), with an additional cloak fastened across the chest (856) or a narrow belt tied in the front (2351). 856 wears the elaborate ear-plugs seen in sg. 4.1, a simpler necklace of two rows of incised trapezoidal beads, 60, 1563, 2351 wear large disk ear-plugs and necklaces of large beads (spherical: 60, 1563, elliptic seeds?: 2351); 216 has ears covered by a headdress panel and wears a painted necklace . All carry objects in both hands (see Discussion). The second grouping is more varied, both in clothing and objects carried. 744, wearing a headdress with molded headband, projecting plume-like appendages and a panel descending to the neck at the back, as well as a cloak tied at the chest, the classic necklace of large beads and plain disk ear-plugs, is reminiscent both of the first grouping and of personages sg. 4.1. But it does not hold any objects: instead painted “dots” appear to fall from the hands, possibly representing blood? A head fragment (C24) wears a decorated head-band with inscribed "plumes"; 1976, 944, 992 wear a headband with an animal head at the centre (and stylized paws on each side?); P93 has a narrow headband with an incised herring-bone decor and panels hanging down the sides as well as short side-locks, P94 has only an incised fringe. All wear a molded tunic (stopping short of the (male?) genitals on 19761); 744, 992 have a shawl draped over the left shoulder. All wear a necklace of beads (shaped like beans on 1976). Earrings vary: large disk ear-plugs (744), drop-shaped ear-rings (1976, 992), large hanging disks (P93), none (P94). Most of the objects held are unidentifiable, including an object resembling a double rattle with a long serpent-like appendage (P93); 992 holds a bird. Manufacture Seven figurines are made by Method 1, generally with an airhole at the base; three are Method 2, two with an airhole at the anus, one at the base; three figurines are unrecorded. All are basically unslipped, in various shades of terracotta, mostly with details enhanced in white, more rarely in black fugitive paint. DISCUSSION

Special Features/ Links with other groups/ Interpretation of the Moche 4.2 personages The type of headdress with lateral projections worn by several "shamans" (856, 60, 216, 2351) also occurs on Moche vessels (Donnan 1978: 114, 116, 166). It becomes common amongst Chimu figurines (see Chimu Gr.2 with Type 2 Headdress). The headdress with plume-like appendages, either projecting above (744) or inscribed within the cap (1563, C24) is more common (Benson 1972: fig. 3-25; Donnan 1978: Fig.181): in both these cases—but not in our sample!—it is associated with coca-chewing. This headdress is also related to that of 1973/4.1, a "priestess" figure. Finally the headband with animal head (1976, 944, 992) is common in Moche iconography, but rare amongst the Moche figurines. One problem raised by these types of headdress is that they are not sex specific. In sg. 4.1 the plumed headdress wearers are identified as female because of their tresses. The cocachewing figure with two-plumed headdress (Donnan 1978: Fig.181) also has short hair hanks and is seen as female (Tello 1938: 26). Amongst the figurines with animal-head headband one figurine (1976) has a protuberance below its short tunic: this could be male genitals or a mons Veneris. Only 994, 992, P93 and P94 can be classified as female, by analogy with specimens in sub-groups 1.3 and 1.4. In fact there is no reason why some of these figures could not be male or even sexually ambiguous. Makowski (1994:81) has isolated some “attendants”, characterised by a cloak 1

Lilien (1956: 88) who considers the figurine male, detects nipples and an umbilicus, but these are just small scratches in the paint : I have specifically recorded the breasts and umbilicus as absent when examining this specimen.

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worn over their shoulders (as 744, 856), which he calls androgynous. Interestingly Métraux (1967: 181-182) relates that amongst the Araucans passive homosexual males and lesbians were often called to become shamans. Amongst the objects held: 856 with a spatula and small cup resembles a figure holding exactly the same objects and sitting amongst cacti, possibly a stylized rendering of the hallucinogen San Pedro cactus (Sawyer 1966: fig.69). Note that these implements do not look like the spatula and lime gourd used by coca chewers (Donnan 1978: Fig.61, 18).

856

60

1563

2351

P93

Fig. 5: Objects Held by Shamans and Related Figurines 60, 216 and 1563 hold the same objects: in the right hand a thin oblong stick or cord attached to what looks like a rattle, in the left what looks like a goblet. Hocquenghem (1977b: Plate XXXVIII.23) illustrates a sitting figure holding exactly the same object—attached to a thin stick or cord?—in the right hand, though unfortunately the object in the left hand is not clearly visible. The author calls them "hochet" (rattle) and "sonnaille" (cattle-bell)1 and sees the personage holding them as a female shaman, either in the role of curing or possibly in the role of preparing a dead body (1989: 132 and fig. 124, upper left). A small bowl, as held by the figurines, is also seen by Hocquenghem (1977b: Pl. XXXVIII.16) as a shaman's accessory. Amongst the remaining figurines, only P93 also carries a double rattle-like object attached to a long rope? 1976, 944 and P94 hold a small object, perhaps a bowl in one hand. As for the bird carried by 992, we have already seen in Moche sg. 2.1 that this may have a symbolic meaning: the figurine has been included here because of her headdress. It is probable that these figurines represent shamans, though—to judge by the difference in their clothing and the objects held—of varying importance within a possible hierarchy. Context C24 was excavated by Bawden in a sala at Galindo, Moche Valley. 1976 comes from Grave 25 at Uhle's Moche Site F, possibly the grave of a shaman (see 1977, 1978, 1981/Gr.3: see Context Gr.3 and Gravelots). 944 comes from Grave 8 at Huanchaco, Moche Valley, a simple grave containing a youth and four offerings (see Gravelots). Amongst them an ocarina (described, not depicted) shows a masturbating personage with "round eyes, mutilated mouth and nose, prominent spine, one hand on chest" probably showing a masturbating skeleton, a fairly common image (Kann and Bussel 1996: no. 87). Geographic distribution There are three certain provenances from the Moche valley and one fairly reliable from the Santa Valley, the remaining unverifiable or suggested provenances are also from Moche/Chicama (5) and Santa (2). Note a certain resemblance of specimens like 60, 216, 744 with 207/sg.1.3 and with most of the figurines in sg. 1.5.2, where a kind of Santa Valley substyle has already been mentioned, but which cannot be proven for lack of reliable provenances.

1

According to Hocquenghem the rattle ("hochet") was probably a gourd (1977b: 125 + Pl.XXXVIII, figs. 7-9); while the cattle-bell ("sonnaille") consisted of one or several small bells (ibid. figs. 10-15). But a rattle being by definition "an instrument used to make a rattling noise" we can also refer to ceramic objects, like the one illustrated in Hocquenghem's fig. 11, as a rattle. Note that the Spanish word sonaja, obviously of the same origin as sonnaille, is translated as "rattle".

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Chronology Both Uhle's Moche Grave F25 and Huanchaco Grave 8 are dated to Moche IV by Donnan (1995: 116, 117), whilst Galindo is dated to Moche V. Stylistically, late features also predominate (see above sg. 4.1), so these dates are consistent, one exception being 216, with its painted tunic and painted necklace which could be somewhat earlier than the rest of the sample. MOCHE SUB-GROUP 4.3: FIGURINES WITH A BILOBED HEAD

Table 15 Plates 32, 33 Sample: 23 figurines (examined 15). Method 1 and probable = 10 figurines; Method 2 = 13 figurines. Measurements: (Method 1 and probable) Minimum Maximum Median Height (9): 13.0 cm 19.0 cm 15.0 cm Width (5): 9.1 cm 11.0 cm 9.4 cm Thickness (5): 4.0 cm 6.9 cm 4.8 cm Weight (5): 200 gr. 450 gr. 230 gr. Measurements: (Method 2) Height (12): 12.1 cm 30.8cm 14.9 cm Width (10): 7.8 cm 18.0 cm 10.2 cm Thickness (10): 5.0 cm 11.5 cm 6.5 cm Weight (8): 250 gr. 870 gr. 320 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The main features in this sub-group are the bilobed head, the labret and/or the drum. The crown of the head mostly shows a slight depression between two widening lobes and—on the Method 2 figurines—a clearly delimited bulge across the back of the head. Short hair—plain or incised—with an indication of a central parting, frames the face, ending in two points on the cheeks. P95, P98, 1416, 1415, 7521 and P100 lack the central depression, but they have the typical pointed side-locks or one or both of the other features (labret, drum). In both Methods 1 and 2 the face shows classic Moche features, some particularly comely (e.g. 1845, C26). But note the elongated outside corner of the eyes on 905, 937, perhaps a precursor of the Lambayeque "comma"-eye; several specimens (e. g. 1844 - P98, 697) have a thin incision along the jaw (like fig.6, below), 983 has face-paint in a stepped pattern. The body shape of Method 1 figurines is standard, that of Method 2 figurines, with its modelling of the buttocks and broad legs and feet in profile (e.g. 1779, 209, 905) is closely related to sg. 1.5.1. A new feature on some specimens (697-1284) are the conjoined legs gradually less clearly modelled till they merge into one base (e.g. 1284). Note the well-made hands with naturalistic thumbs (980-209). On ten figurines a molded shirt just covers the waist, showing a modelled mons Veneris and incised vulva below (note the modelled perforated breasts and pubic hair on 937). The rest wear a long tunic, but because of the overall similarity we can assume that all are female. Method 1 specimens have a plain back,2 whilst Method 2 specimens (except 983 and P100/unknown) have a rectangular panel descending at the back, mostly to below the waist, either plain or showing incised hair. A completely innovative ornament is the labret, worn by half the specimens. All the figurines (except 1415) wear a necklace mostly consisting of one to four incised strands of small square beads, 1416 wears a plain molded and painted necklace, 983 has a broad molded collar, painted in large alternate squares. Whilst all the method 2 figures (except 10131 and 1

752 has a minimally rounded head with incised hair forming a fringe and long strands descending to the elbows, a labret and a drum. 2 This is also assumed for P95-P98, because of their strong resemblance with 1844.

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983) wear wide wristbands similar to the necklaces, amongst Method 1 figurines only 1100 and 1416 wear them. Only Method 2 figurines wear ear-rings, either drop pendants 1845-P99, C26, or small circular studs 980, 209-1284). Some figurines (1844-P98, 1013) show additional hair-strands, hiding part of the ear, as in fig. 6. Three Method 1 figurines (and the atypical C25) and three Method 2 specimens hold a small cylindrical or hour-shaped drum under their left arm (attached by a shoulder strap on 752, C26, 1013, P100) and a small stick in the right hand (position reversed on P100). Manufacture All the figurines are mold-made and hollow. Method 1 figurines have airholes through the base, Method 2 mainly at the vulva and anus (four, of which one also at base), at the vulva Fig. 6 (MAM 1.184) (one) at the base (one). The surface finish and colour are as in sgs 4.1 and 4.2, mostly monochrome (terracotta to brown or grey), occasionally with a cream decor. 980 appears partly slipped or over-painted (restored?). Atypical: C25, excavated at Galindo, shows an Anthropovulvic figurine, with a rounded head, the hair bands suggesting the labia and the nose the clitoris (see Discussion). The eyes are hidden, the nose, mouth and ears shown. Labret. Long tunic descending to the feet. No data regarding the manufacture. DISCUSSION

Interpretation of the Moche 4.3 personage Cordy-Collins who studies some of these figures, describes the heart-shaped head2 as "unusual" and sees it as the type of cranial deformation by cradle boarding (2001: 247, 254). Weiss illustrates a similar deformation and quotes the example of a child from Huaca Cao Viejo, Chicama (1962: Lám. IV B). But the peculiar, clearly demarcated bulge at the back of the head on Method 2 figurines (e.g. 1845 to 1013)—in addition to the bilobed crown—cannot be explained by any form of cranial deformation.3 Combined with the unique hairstyle of two short hanks of hair ending in points suggests an anthropophallic head, the swelling at the back being reminiscent of a penile glans. Another reason for such a suggestion is the not uncommon representation of vessels with an anthropovulvic head (Larco 1965: 55; Cabello y Martinez 1988: no.287; Cordy-Collins 2001: fig.7)) and described as such.4 These happen to show exactly the same additional attributes as the figurines of sg. 4.3, i.e. the labret and the drum. However phallic head shapes in Moche iconography are depicted in a different way (Benson 1972: fig.6-14; Kauffmann Doig 1978b: 74; Larco 1965: 54, 69; Lavalle 1985:168 top; Tello 1938: 276, 277). But it is worth noting that some of the Lambayeque figures with labret shown by Cordy-Collins (2001: figs. 9, 11, 12) have a head shape similar to the Moche phallic heads just listed. Consigning the suggestion of an anthrophallic head to the realm of the possible, what other clues do we have for this personage? The labret is unique to this type of figure and rarely features on Moche vessels (Bonavia 1994: fig. 113). The drum has links with sacrificial death, as when skeletons play a drum (Donnan 1976: fig. 172) or when a death-dance is performed to the sound of a drum (Benson 1972: 6-5). The death theme is closely linked within the 1

The wristband may have been omitted on my sketch. One of the figures in Cordy-Collins's study (2001: Fig.5) with a much less pronounced bilobation and lacking the distinctive swelling at the back is part of Moche sg. 2.2 (see C22/(atypical)). 3 The typical fronto-occipital deformations do induce a rounding at the back, but it is never clearly demarcated in the same way (see Weiss 1962: figs. 1, 2, 7). 4 Larco (1965: no. 55) first suggested the similarity of this head to a female vulva, an explanation that was adopted both by Kauffmann-Doig (1978b: 75) and Kann and van Bussell (1996: no.10). 2

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concepts of renewal and fertility. The drum is also linked with shamanic practices world-wide. Métraux (1967:190) relates that the drum is the indispensable accessory of the Araucan woman shaman. A unique vessel shows this type of figure holding a conch (Purín 1979: Pl. XXI), another accessory of the shaman (Hocquenghem 1977b: Pl. XXXVII, fig.18). Finally anthropophallic personages (but in their typical Moche form) are shown in a shamanic stance with hands joined (Larco 1965: 54, 69). A relationship between this personage and the “Woman with tresses” (Group 2) is shown on one of the figures with wide open vulva inside a bowl ( Fig. 7). In this case the woman has the typical tresses, combined with the distinctive head-shape, the hairstyle with pointed side-locks and the labret specific of this type. However this personage does not appear—to our knowledge—on any fineline drawings of ritual scenes. It is possible that this figure is a female shaman. This interpretation in no way invalidates Cordy-Collins idea that we may be dealing with a "foreign woman", a personage originating in the north, as suggested by the appearance of the labret, a northern ornament, and the hour-glass drum, also uncommon in the Moche heartland. I am less sure about the suggestion that we see here a northern type of cranial Fig. 7 (Wasserman-San deformation, since the cradle board deformation is widely spread Blas 1938: Fig.149) in coastal Peru (Weiss 1962). Certain other statements, such as that most Moche women are shown with their hair in braids (2001: 250) or that "prior to the eighth century, women very rarely featured in Moche art" (2001: 255) are invalidated by this corpus of figurines. Special Features/Links with other groups An interesting feature is the incised line along the jaw: a painted outlining of the chin occurs on some MH figurines, f.i. NC-MH Gr. 1 and 3.1 The depiction of a labret—an ornament made of stone or metal, inserted surgically below the lower lip—occasionally occurs on Moche vessels (Bonavia 1994: fig. 113) but is specific to this sub-group of figurines, with one exception (the atypical C22/2.2). There is also one unusual Chimu figure with a labret (2377/Chimu Gr.7). The prominent buttocks and large heavy feet, characteristic for sg.1.5.1 have been identified as a characteristic of the late Moche of the Northern area. Also, we see here for the first time a merging of the conjoined legs into a featureless lower body: this will become typical for Chimu figurines of the Northern area (see f.i. Chimu 1.2a, b, 1.4b, 2.2 etc.). The removable panel at the back of 983 is a feature which occurs on another large Moche figure (see 2353/sg. 1.3 "Specials"). Context P100, a slightly atypical specimen with a full head of incised hair, is the only figurine with a context. It was excavated by Ubbelohde-Doering in a rich grave at Huaca Campana, Chicama V (See Gravelot). Geographic Distribution Amongst the Method 1 figurines only the atypical C25 has a certain provenance from Galindo, Moche Valley. The rest, from the Moche-Chicama or Santa valleys are unreliable, especially P95-P98 (see Appendix 1). Note that 1844, identical with P95-P98, is said to come from the Chicama Valley. Amongst Method 2 figurines, one certain, one fairly reliable, one unverifiable and one suggested provenance are for the Chicama valley, whilst only one unverifiable and three suggested provenances are for the northern sector (Jequetepeque to Lambayeque and beyond). This is surprising as many of the features, iconographic or technical, point to the North. 1

This feature also occurs during the MH on the CC.

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Chronology C25, a Method 1 figurine from Galindo, dates to Moche V. P100, a Method 2 figurine from Huaca Campana is associated with a Moche IV stirrup jar (Ubbelohde-Doering 1966: Pl. 132, top) and a Moche IV bowl (ibid. Pl. 134). Both P96 (Method 1) and C26 (Method 2), indeed all the "labretted ladies" are considered by Cordy-Collins (2001: figs. 1, 8) as dating to Moche V. Stylistically the lozenge eyes, mechones and molded clothing in Method 1 figurines points to late Moche (e.g. IV and V), whilst some of the Method 2 (209 - 1284) already have early Chimu features. So this sub-group probably dates from late Moche IV to Moche V and later. MOCHE GROUP 5: MISCELLANEOUS FIGURINES

Considering the wide subject matter of Moche art it is surprising to discover that so few figurines fall outside the main groups described hitherto, groups which stand out by their homogeneity. Group 5 contains 13 such "outsiders", as well as nine pendants and three rattles with human heads. MOCHE SUB-GROUP 5.1: WARRIORS, HIGH-STATUS PERSONAGES

Table 16 Plate 34 Sample: 9 figurines (examined 5): Method 1 = 1?, Method 2 = 2, Method 4 = 2, 2 molds, 2 unknown. Measurements: The figurines measure between 9.2 and 15.1 cm in height, 4.3 and 10.4 in width. CHARACTERISTICS

This not being a group as such, the figurines are described separately: 948 wears a plain pointed helmet with ear-guards secured by a strap or neckband under the chin; facial features are crude. It is standing, holding a mace-like object on the left arm and a small circular shield in the right. A short tunic with scalloped edge leaves the genital area uncovered, but genitals are not shown. The back is flat, featureless. The figurine is made of one mold—with some hand-incised details—and solid, terracotta with traces of cream. P101 has a rounded helmet with a molded, crescent-shaped central ornament and small circular ear-guards or ear-plugs (left one damaged). The standing figurine wears a similar tunic to 948, but covering the genitals and a wide necklace of beads; it holds a mace projecting over the right shoulder with both hands. The back, manufacture and colour are unknown. P102, a kiln-waste in two fragments, wears an elaborate helmet with molded two-stepped sides and crescent-shaped central ornament as well as ear-guards: the break at the neck does not show how the helmet is fixed, but a large breastplate covers most of the chest, a short tunic stops below the waist. The arms are raised laterally. The figurine is made of one mold with a featureless back and solid; the colour is not known. P103 wears a similar headdress and ear-guards as P102. The facial features are very strong, classic. A necklace or collar consists of five hanging triangles. The body is in the shape of a drum, with the arms resting on top. The back of the helmet—to judge from the profile illustration—is elaborate. The figurine is obviously made of two molds, but other data are unknown. 1731 wears a rounded helmet with a molded central ornament (damaged), two large earguards and a chin strap (or necklace ?) of a single row of large spherical beads. The figurine appears to wear a cloak and blows on a bugle ending in an animal-head. The lower part is broken off. The hollow figurine is made of one mold: the airhole was probably located in the missing base. The worn terracotta surface shows traces of cream paint.

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M2 is the front mold of a standing warrior, wearing a composite headdress consisting of a skullcap and semi-circular "crest" with concentric incisions, secured by a band tied under the chin. The features are classic Moche. The figurine is standing, the lifted arms are bent at the elbows, the fingers of the hands are also bent. The figurine wears a large breastplate covering the shoulders and upper arms and a waist-length tunic over a knee-length one. Also worn are wide cuffs and large circular ear-plugs. The mold is made of fine pale terracotta paste. 1979 and 1980 are a pair of near-identical specimens of sitting figurines wearing a headdress similar to M2, but with three panels (one wide central one and two narrow ones) hanging down the back and large circular ear-guards. The facial features, with lozenge-shaped eyes, are typical Moche. The figurines are apparently cross-legged and hold a coca pouch or lime gourd and spatula in their hands. They wear a large breastplate like P102 and M2 (also visible at the back) and presumably a tunic. The genitals are not shown. The specimens are made of two molds, hollow, with a large hole in the middle of the back, respectively terracotta and grey in colour. P104 is the front mold of a sitting personage. The rounded helmet is decorated on each side with coiled elements; a broad strap secures it under the chin, lateral appendages, possibly part of earrings, hang down on the wide two-part breast-plate. The facial features are classic Moche, with lozenge-shaped eyes. The right arm rests on the knee, the left is raised to the breast-plate. The legs are not shown. No data regarding manufacture. DISCUSSION

This group shows warriors and/or high-status persons. Warriors are depicted in all forms of Moche art (ceramics, metal- or bone work, textiles). They are also commonly shown in the fine-line paintings on ceramics. They can be identified by their clothes, with armour such as breast-plates, arm- and leg protectors, tunics covered in metal platelets. The main characteristic is the helmet, either large and often decorated with a crescent- or tumi-shaped central ornament, or small and pointed; both types are generally secured to the head by a wide chinstrap and often also have ear guards. Warriors often, but not always, carry a mace or war-club and a small shield (Lavalle 1985: 78, 82, 109;1 Alva 1994: Lám. 39; Donnan and McClelland 1999: passim; Donnan 1978: fig. 1362) Their diversity is such that early scholars saw in the warriors not only the proof that Moche was a highly militarised state, but also thought they could identify tribes, foreign to the Moche polity, in the depictions. However in-depth iconographic studies now interpret the warlike scenes as ritual fights—some of which still take place in Peru to-day—linked to agricultural rites (Hocquenghem 1978), shamanic practices (Donnan 1978: 142) or ritual coca consumption (Schuler-Schömig 1979), these three aspects being of course closely interrelated. Warriors are particularly common as part of whistles, bugles or trumpets. The whistles have a tube and one or two resonators attached to the back of a figurine.3 Moche whistles are very numerous.4 Interestingly—although many of the whistles undeniably depict warriors with helmets, armour and weapons—some of them, as well as the trumpets and bugles, show figures wearing elaborate accoutrements, which resemble those of the warriors, but are subtly different, with the weapons replaced by a musical instrument (Kroeber 1944: Pl.48F; Menzel 1977: figs. 142, 143). They remind one of members of a military band who wear soldier uniforms, but also have another function! Considering the large amount of warrior-like musical instruments the scarcity of warrior figurines which are not whistles is surprising.

1

The personage whom Lavalle (1985:109) calls a warrior, might be a prisoner, with a rope around his neck and a rattle? in his hand. 2 Warrior-like personage but lacking weapons. 3 This can be a hollow Method 1 or a solid Method 4 figurine. 4 In the course of this study I recorded circa 70 Moche whistle or whistle fragments out of a total of about 100 whistles of all cultures. All the Moche whistles depict warriors. Uhle excavated a ritual deposit of no fewer than 84 fragments of late Moche whistles, bugles and trumpets at the Huaca del Sol (Uhle n.d.: MS Catalogue vol. I, pp.57-58).

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In this group only 948 has all the characteristic attributes of a warrior (helmet with chinstrap and earflaps, breastplate, mace and shield), P101 also has most of them, but no chinstrap and no shield. The headdress with two lateral stepped elements and a central crescent worn by P102, P103 is often shown: it may depict a warrior or a chieftain (Alva 1994: Lám. 39, 166). We also see it worn by a personage performing a decapitation (Schmidt 1929: 159, left). The headdress worn by M2, 1979, 1980 is less common than one could assume.1 It can be worn by a warrior (Donnan and McClelland 1999: figs. 3.4, 3.52), but is often—like here— worn by figures who have only one or no warriors' attributes (Schmidt 1929: 146, upper right; Donnan 1978: 126; Donnan and McClelland 1999: figs. 4.41c, 3.31), but appear to be of high status, as is P104, with a somewhat different headdress, but similar clothes. Special Features Both P102 and M2 have lifted arms with clenched fists, a feature that never occurs on Moche figurines, but is sometimes shown on Moche whistles (see figs.8-10, below) so perhaps both specimens were meant to be whistles. The clenched fist is symbolically linked to a number of representations of "concepts of ritual warfare and human sacrifice" (Bourget 2006: 116)—though not specifically of warriors.

Fig. 8: EMB VA 13004

Fig. 9 : EMB VA 18050

Fig. 10: MNAA 48338

1731, with a warrior helmet but no other warrior attributes, plays a trumpet, a theme common on whistles, so it may also have been made as part of a whistle. Since it is not a vessel, P103 is classified as a figurine. The headdress is a typical large warrior helmet; the collar of pendant triangles also occurs on a warrior (Lavalle 1985: 109). This is the only drum-shaped figurine in the sample. A similar vessel shows the head of an impressive fanged deity, with a headdress of curved rays and earrings with serpent heads, identified by Menzel as “Aloof Lord” (1977: 61-62 and fig. 137). Another specimen, with a broken head was found in the Santa valley (Donnan 1973: Pl.7i). Context 948 was excavated at Huanchaco, Sección Manuci, in Pozo XXXII, at 1 m. depth; the pit also contained a net, a stone spindle whorl and an utilitarian vessel. P102, P104 were excavated in the ceramic workshop of Mayal, Moche valley. 1731 was found on a bench in a living area in Galindo (G. Bawden, personal communication). P103 comes from a rich grave at Huaca Campana, Chicama V. and was associated with P100/sg.4.3, as female shaman with an hour-glass-shaped drum (see Gravelot). The shamanic connotation of the drum-shaped body is clear, but the link between a warrior and shamanic practices is difficult to interpret. 1979, 1980 come from Uhle's grave F 25, with its large gravelot (see Gravelot 1978, 1981/Gr. 3), where we see the curious association between these two coca-using high status personages, two "woman-and-child" figures (1978, 1981), a whistle etc. Geographic Distribution: Seven of the nine figurines have a certain provenance from the Moche/Chicama valleys, one unverified provenance is from Chimbote, Santa Valley.

1

It becomes very common in Chimu.

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Chronology: We know that the Huanchaco and Cerro Mayal excavations have produced mostly Moche IV material; P103, from Cerro Campana, was also found associated with Moche IV ceramics; Uhle Grave F25 (1979, 1980) is also dated to M IV (Donnan 1995: 116) Only 1731, from Galindo, should date to Moche V. MOCHE SUB-GROUP 5.2: MISCELLANEOUS MINIATURE FIGURINES

Table 16 Plate 34 Sample: 4 Figurines (examined 4), all Method 2. Measurements: The figurines, all sitting, measure between 5.3 cm and 7.3 cm in height and 2.9 cm and 4.0 cm in width; the thickness varies between 2.9 and 4.0 cm. CHARACTERISTICS

Another disparate sub-group, individually described: 1972 shows an important personage, wearing a headdress with a large asymmetrical bunch of feathers?, fastened under the chin and with a decorated (embroidered or woven) cloth covering the back of the head to the neck. The facial features are unusual, the large eyes are painted white, the mouth is round, (as if something was placed in it?). The figure is sitting, probably with crossed legs (seen to project at the front), the left arm is folded upwards on the chest, the right arm rests on an object (a bowl, a drum?) placed on the lap; genitals are not indicated. The figurine wears a long cloak tied at the neck. It is made of two molds, hollow, with a hole in the middle of the back; the colour is dark brown, with white. 186 shows a sitting personage, probably a woman, with upturned face. A sort of skullcap is held in place by a scarf tied under the chin. The facial features are strong, with narrowed eyes, probably depicting a blind person, large nose and thick lips. The personage is kneeling with the arms resting on the knees; genitals are not shown. The body is covered by a gown. A narrow load carried in the back is wrapped in a shawl fastened in front. The figurine is made of two molds, hollow, with a large hole at the back; the colour is dark terracotta. 1005, 1006 are near identical sitting figures, with faces either representing skulls or possibly mutilations or a disease. Both wear a headdress similar to that of 186 and probably a cloak; they are kneeling, with hands crossed over the chest; genitals etc. are not shown. The figurines are mold-made, but the facial features and hands are incised; they are hollow, with a large airhole in the middle of the back, the terracotta colour is lighter on 1006. Some of these figurines show familiar characters also depicted on vessels: • a blind beggar, with upturned face and narrowed eyes, hands resting on folded legs, a small load fastened to the back is also seen, for instance, in Tello (1938: 57 right); • sitting figures with skulls or mutilated faces are common (see f.i. Tello 1938: 225, 226 left, 230 etc.). The headgear of these figures is not uncommon (Donnan 1978: fig. 232). • A feather ornament placed at the back or—more rarely—at the front of the headdress is common on warriors (e.g Donnan and McClelland 1999: figs. 1.20, 3.22, 3.52 first left, 4.7, bottom row), but so far I have not found it on other figures. Context 1972 comes from Grave G1 at Moche excavated by Uhle (see 1973/4.1, Context and Gravelot). Geographic distribution: All probably come from the Moche/Chicama area. Chronology: Uhle's Grave G1 at Moche (1972) could date to Moche IV or later (see 1973/4.1, Chronology). The remaining three figurines appear to be classic Moche, i.e IV. MOCHE SUB-GROUP 5.3: PENDANTS

Very small figurines (under 5 cm in height) with a perforation allowing them to be worn on a necklace are classified as pendants. The limited number of specimens recorded here is misleading as to the real frequency of this type of figurines. But because of their small size

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pendants are mostly kept separately from larger specimens in the museum collections,1 and therefore overlooked by researchers, myself included. Table 16 Plate 35 Sample: 9 figurines (all examined). Method 4 Measurements: Minimum Maximum Median Height (9): 2.2 cm 4.8 cm 3.0 cm Width (9): 1.0 cm 2.1 cm 1.6 cm Thickness (9): 0.8 cm 1.2 cm 0.9 cm Weight: not recorded GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The Moche pendants fall basically into two types: The first type (998, 1653, 997, 1294) shows a large head directly attached to the feet. The crown is rounded and appears to be covered by a headdress framing the face (as in sg. 1.2). 998 and 1653 have "tri-punctate eyes", 998 also a mouth made by two punctations. Otherwise the features are typical Moche. All four have slightly protruding feet, 998 and 1653 with incised toes. In the second type (1650-1502) the figurines are miniatures of classic Group 1 figurines: 1650 with its "tri-punctate eyes", punctated mouth and plain head similar to sg.1.1, 1651 with its headdress framing the face and classic Moche features similar to sg. 1.2, both with female genitals. Others have more elaborate clothes, especially the headdress: 1658, possibly with male genitals, wears a turban tied under the chin, a short tunic and a cloak knotted over the chest; 1659, with skull-like features, wears a similar headdress and holds a hollow bowl facing outwards; 1502, with a headdress framing the face and large circular ear-plugs, wears a short tunic with fringed edge. Most specimens are made in Method 4, i.e. one mold only and solid, though 998, 1650, 1659 could be hand-made or hand-finished. The unpolished and unslipped surface varies from pale terracotta to brown. All have a perforation through the middle of the head, except 1502 which has a perforation through the neck from side to side. DISCUSSION

Ceramic vessels showing a large head resting directly on the feet—as on the first type of pendants—already appear in Chavín pottery and are also found in Moche ceramics (Kroeber 1926b: Pl. 55c; Donnan 2001: Fig. 2). On a vessel where a tiger holds such a figure, it has been interpreted as a trophy-head (Dockstader 1967: Fig. 114), but this is debatable: “freestanding” trophy-heads are rare in Moche art and usually shown with a rope through the mouth (Donnan 1978:Fig. 273). More often they are shown held by a deity, especially in Moche metalwork (Alva 1994: Lám. 13). The depiction of feet under the large head also makes the trophy-head interpretation less likely. The second type of pendants mostly show standard Moche figurines in miniature. Context: None. Geographic Distribution: Five fairly reliable and two probable provenances for the Moche Chicama area and one unverifiable for Chimbote. Chronology: Some of the first type of pendants could date to Moche III: both 998 and 1653 have "tripunctate" eyes identified as an early feature (see sub-group 1.1). The vessels showing similar figures are early Moche: Kroeber's (1926: Pl.55c) comes from Uhle's Grave F 26, dated by Donnan (1995: 117) to Moche III, Dockstader's vessel (1967: Fig. 114) could date to Moche II; Donnan (2001: fig.2) is dated to Moche I. However, such pendants are also found at Cerro Mayal (Russell and Jackson 2001: 167), which dates to Moche IV.

1

1650, 1651, 1658 are listed in the PMH catalogue under "50 misc. beads from Sausal, Chicama".

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As for the second type of pendants they look like Moche miniatures of standard type figurine, so they are likely to date to Moche IV. ASSOCIATED TO MOCHE GROUP 5: ANTHROPOMORPHIC RATTLES

Ceramic rattles with human heads are rare: only three such rattles were recorded in the various collections and I have not seen any actual published examples, though they are depicted on vessels. Although not strictly speaking figurines, these rattles cover part of this study's remit in being "human representations that are not vessels or part of vessels". Table 16 Plate 35 Sample: 3 rattles, made by Method 2. Measurements: The rattles range between 14.2 cm and 12.6 cm in height and 6.9 cm, 5.5 cm in width, over 6.0 cm and 3.5 cm in thickness and weighing between 120 gr. and 100 gr. CHARACTERISTICS

Rattle 1 shows a personage with a lock of hair over the forehead and an unusually rounded head at the back; facial features are typical life-like Moche. The only ornament are small cylindrical ear-plugs, also visible at the back of the ears. The rattle has a conical projection on top of the head and a conical handle. The rattling noise is produced by small clay balls inside the hollow head, made in two molds; there are seven small airholes: two on the sides of the head, two below the cheeks, one under the chin, one at the back of the head and one in the handle. The conical head-projection and handle were probably hand-made separately. The surface is smoothed, terracotta in colour, with traces of white on the ear-plugs and on the handle. Rattle 2 is double-headed, with both figures showing the same lock as above, as well as a conical projection above each head, with a relief band running below, around the whole head. The backs of the heads are again more rounded than usual. The features are classic Moche; three large disk ear-rings are worn, the middle one as if attached to a common (but nonexisting) ear. A relief band separates the head from the conical handle. The specimen, made like Rattle 1, has only three perforations, at the ears; the surface colour is pale grey. Rattle 3 lacks the lock and ear ornaments and the features are coarse, with incised double nose-to-chin lines. The specimen has two projections on the head, with a relief band below; the profile is flat. The head, including the projections is probably made of two molds, though the facial features may have been added by hand; the conical handle is hand-made; the hollow specimen has only one airhole in the middle of the head (in front); it is reduced-fired, black. DISCUSSION

Rattles were used in a ceremonial context: not only is a large copper rattle shown on a version of the “Presentation” scene, but themes from that scene are also represented on a copper rattle (Donnan 1978: Figs. 139b and 254). They were and still are an important implement in the curandero’s arsenal (Hocquenghem 1977b; Donnan 1978:124). Representations of rattles with human heads in Moche iconography have been specifically linked to the "return of the ancestors" during the wet season, to watch over the growth of the new plants (Hocquenghem 1987: 99 and figs. 45-47). A rare depiction (ibid. fig. 47) shows an anthropomorphic iguana—a personage with important mythical connotations (Makowski 1994: 79-80)—carrying a rattle with a human head wearing large hanging disk ear-rings, very similar to those of R2 and to some worn by the children in the mother-and-child figurines (e.g. 20/Gr. 3). The lock of hair or mechón seen on Rattles 1 and 2 is identified by Schuler-Schömig (1979:144-158) as typical for one of the ritual warriors or prisoners in Moche iconography. On fineline drawings, prisoners are often held by this lock (Hocquenghem 1989: Fig.149). This type of personage usually wears hanging disk ear-rings (as on Rattle 2), but he is occasionally shown with two ear ornaments: the disk ear-rings and cylindrical ear-plugs: only the latter are shown on Rattle 1. Schuler-Schömig convincingly demonstrates that the wideranging iconography showing the “man with forelock” is again part of the ideas of “Combat -

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sacrificial death - fertility”, also linked to ritual coca consumption. So the symbolism of the rattle transcends its function in magic or curing practices. The rounded profile of the head on Rattles 1 and 2, not normally seen on Moche figurines, may be in direct correlation with the function of these object, i.e. to produce a specific sound. The projections on the heads of Rattle 1, Rattle 2 and especially Rattle 3, which has two projections on one head, may also have such a function as they also occur on rattles which don't show a human head. Context: None Geographic Distribution : Rattles 1 and 2 were acquired by S.K. Lothrop in Sausal, Chicama Valley. Chronology Rattles 1 and 2 with their classic Moche features can be dated to Moche IV, though Rattle 2, with its hanging disk ear-rings could be somewhat later than Rattle 1. The crudely made blackware Rattle 3 could be altogether later. MOCHE GROUP 6: FIGURINES PLACED ON LITTERS OR PLATFORMS

Since they are not vessels, these 11 representations can be considered as figurines. They fall into two sub-groups: sub-group 6.1 shows personages sitting on litters, sub-group 6.2 on a platform (throne or bed). They are described separately and discussed jointly. MOCHE SUB-GROUP 6.1: FIGURINES ON LITTERS

Table 17 Plate 36 Sample: 7 figurines (examined 4): all Method 2 or probable. Measurements (4): The height ranges between 7.3 and 10.0 cm, the width between 4.7 and 6.7 cm, the thickness between 6.3 and 8.8 cm, the weight between 100 gr. and 160 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The figurines in this sub-group are sitting on a litter meant to be carried by means of two square poles, projecting at the front and back.. Five figurines (220 to C28) show either a warrior (220 carries a club and small shield, C28 only a shield) or other high status figures, already identified as such in sub-group 5.1 by their elaborate clothing. 220, 1008, C27 wear a large headdress: the skull cap is decorated with a crescent and large circular ornaments and surmounted by a semi-circular border, with a feather ornament projecting at the top (not on C27); C28, which is double-faced, wears a head-dress with skull-cap and raised edge; all are tied under the chin by a band with elaborate tassels. In addition the five figurines wear a broad collar and tunics. They are sitting—probably cross-legged, with the head leaning back on 1008, 1009, C27)—on a straight-backed seat or throne, with sides cut out to form three steps (crudely made 1009, C27) and placed on the litter. The back mostly shows minimal molding of the head and back (except on 220 with its elaborate headdress and on the double-faced C28). Two figurines are different: 221 shows a woman with long tresses, sitting or perhaps kneeling (her legs are covered by a gown) directly on the slightly convex litter, with longer, conical poles. She is wearing a shawl covering the head, large circular ear-plugs, a necklace of two rows of circular pearls and wide plain bracelets. P105 shows a male prisoner sitting cross-legged directly on a similar litter, also with slightly longer, round poles; there appears to be a bulky object on the litter, behind the prisoner. The figure wears a cap, with side locks and long hair? at the back. He holds an object, perhaps a conch, between his two hands, a rope is fastened round his neck. Manufacture All the figurines are made with two molds (Method 2), the joins clearly visible at the sides and sometimes underneath; they are hollow, with one airhole (220, 1008, 221 on the right side); C28 has an airhole on the left side: his right side and the airhole on C27 are not

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recorded; 1009 has one airhole at the back. Not all the specimens are carefully made. They are all in oxidised ware, the colour varies from terracotta to buff or grey, 220 has additional white decor. MOCHE SUB-GROUP 6.2: FIGURINES ON PLATFORMS

Table 17 Plate 36 Sample: 4 figurines (examined 3): All Method 2 or probable. Measurements (3):1 The height ranges between 7.0 and 10.2 cm, the width between 5.1 and 8.0 cm, the thickness between 4.7 and 7.0 cm, the weight between 100 gr. and 120 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The four figurines are shown on a raised platform or seat not designed to be carried: three are sitting, one is lying. Both the figurines and the platforms are very diverse. C29 shows a fairly simply dressed figure, sitting crossed-legged on a stepped throne-like seat. The figure wears a rounded headdress tied under the chin, large circular ear-plugs, a broad collar, a belted tunic covering the knees (with short sleeves just visible under the collar?) and plain broad bracelets. 1003 sits (cross-legged?) on a platform with a straight back and stepped sides—similar to those seen on the litters—and a nearly square base (5.1 x 4.5 cm). The importance of the personage is indicated by a large semi-circular headdress and a huge circular pendant, all unique to my knowledge. The sex cannot be determined. 1007, a (cross-legged?) corpulent personage, probably a male, sits on a near circular platform (ca 7 cm in diameter), with hands resting on his lap. He wears an important headdress with a high skull cap and large mushroom-shaped lateral projections, as well as a nose ornament. 1004 shows a personage lying on its side on a high rectangular platform or bed (7.2 x 5.7 x 2.6 cm), his head resting on his right arm on a headrest. The other arm is placed on the legs folded at the knees; the genitals are not clearly shown. The figure wears a low rounded headdress, with a raised edge and two cylindrical lateral projections, and incisions at the back; a large nose ornament, a necklace with central pendant and a belt or loin cloth also shown in the back is also worn. Manufacture All the figurines are made with two molds (Method 2), the joins clearly visible at the sides; they are hollow, with one airhole in the back (1003, 1004) or at the base (1007), not known on C29. The colour is terracotta or grey. DISCUSSION (GROUP 6)

Special Features Litters with figures carried on them (sg. 6.1) are rarely shown modelled on Moche vessels2—unlike in cultures such as Chimu, Lambayeque or Chancay. But they are depicted in fineline paintings, more often as a sagging textile slung between two poles (Donnan and McClelland 1999: 3.28, 4.48), than as a flat, rigid surface as in sg. 6.1. Sometimes a threestepped seat is carried on a textile litter—in spite of the lack of a solid flat surface—(Donnan and McClelland 1999: Figs. 3.28, 4.48).3 Curiously such stepped seats can also be seen carried on the back of a mythical figure, attached by a rope (ibid: Fig. 4.41b). The platforms or seats on which the personages in sg. 6.2 are placed are more frequently modelled on vessels. These can be stepped seats as on C29, 1003 and as seen on the litters above (Donnan 1978: figs.141, 183; Lavalle 1985: 119; Benson et al. 1997: fig. 70). They are also depicted in fineline drawings (see above, litters). Circular platforms as on 1007 are also 1

Note that 1007 is lying on its side. At least as far as published examples are concerned. 3 A bizarre textile litter with throne is also sometimes shown in the "Presentation Theme" (Donnan and McClelland 1999: Fig. 239b/V). 2

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seen modelled (Lavalle 1985: 105, upper left), as are beds, as on 1007 (Schmidt 1929: 146, lower right; Donnan 1978: figs. 258, 259), but these are rarely shown on fineline drawings. Most of the figures in sg. 6.1 are clearly warriors or high status personages, to judge by their accoutrements (cf. sg. 5.1), with the exception of a woman with tresses (221) and a kneeling prisoner (P105). C28 is a double-faced (or "Janus") figure: these occasionally occur amongst Peruvian figurines (see C3/NC-Middle Formative). They are often identical in both aspects and made with the same mold.1 220, 1008, 221 (and possibly C28?) only have one airhole, on the side of the figurine, which is very unusual. In sg. 6.2, both 1007 and 1004 wear a headdress with lateral projections (mushroomshaped on 1007, conical on 1004) which could be small bunches of feathers, as worn by prominent Moche figures (Benson et al. 1997: fig. 94),2 as well as nose ornaments, also worn by warriors. C29 lacks the classic attributes of the warrior, though the tie under the chin and the large breastplate are usually found on warrior-like figures: it is the position on a throne that points to a high status personage. Finally, I have not found any other Moche figure with a similar headdress or large circular pendant as worn by 1003. Again the throne points to the importance of the personage.

Context : None. Geographic Distribution: There are two unverifiable and five suggested provenances for the Moche Valley. Chronology: There are no specific chronological pointers: all the figurines appear to belong to Classic Moche, e.g. Moche IV, but may survive into Moche V. MOCHE GROUP 7: MISCELLANEOUS MOCHE-RELATED FIGURINES AND MOLDS

The eleven specimens in this group have enough Moche features to be included in the Moche sample (or are said to be Moche), but are by no means typical: they were probably in contact with other cultural influences. Table 18

Plate 37

1) TWO MOCHE-VICÚS HYBRIDS? 1091: Medium size standing figurine. The head has a rectangular crown, slightly widening at the sides and flattened in profile. Wide face with puffed-out cheeks and modelled mouth and chin area; the eyes are elliptic protuberances cut by a horizontal incision; the nose is wide, with alae but no nostrils; note the nasolabial groove; the mouth is a straight incision; semicircular ears; no neck. The short body has straight arms, with the palms of the hands turned upwards and five crudely incised fingers. The short legs are conjoined, the large feet have incised toes; genitals are not shown. The back shows modelling of the arms and buttocks and a hanging panel with a border incised with circles and notches. The figure wears incised earplugs with a circle of small dots around a central dot. A cone-shaped object is held in each hand. The figurine is made of two molds (Method 2); it has no airholes but it is probably hollow, to judge by the size-weight ratio. The surface is burnished, terracotta in colour. SAC396: is very similar to 1091, including the measurements, the slight asymmetry of the crown (slightly pointed on the left hand side), the modelling of the face, the features, the body-,arms and legs shape, lack of genitals, ear-plugs. Unfortunately we have no data about 1

For instance 337/CC-MH-Gr.1(Nieveria), 1986/CC-Late MH-Gr.4(Supe), 140/CC-Late MH/Early LIP-Huaura 2.1 etc. 2 In many cases these projections really don't look like feathers (cf. Lavalle 1985: 115, 185), but what else could they be?

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the back. The only differences are the incised and punctated bands worn around the ankles and the two sticks—instead of the cone-shaped objects—carried in the hands (with the same upturned palms) and resting on the shoulders. The surface is "red", we have no other data. DISCUSSION

Basically the overall shape of the figurines is Moche, especially the back of 1091, with its hanging panel and molding of the buttocks; both are closely related to sg. 1.5.1. Only the position of the arms and hands is unusual. The face also has a Moche feel to it (proportions, modelling, nose). Only the eyes, and to a lesser degree the semi-circular ears and incised mouth, are reminiscent of Vicús figurines (cf. NC-Epiformative-Gr. 3.1). Another link with the Northern area are the ear-plugs with their punctated outer circle and central dimple and the incised decor on the headdress border of 1091 and anklets of SAC 396: these are similar to 619, a Sican Lord (cf. NC-Sican Group 1). Special Features Arms extended downwards and hands with upturned palms are unknown on Moche figurines. One Gallinazo/Virú figurine (C15/NC-Epiformative-Gr.2.2) has arms extended downwards. Two other Moche figurines (2352/1.3 and the infant in 20/Gr.2) are holding a similar coneshaped object. There are no other Moche (or other) figurines holding two sticks like SAC396. Context, Provenance: None. Chronology: The figurines—combining Vicús, Moche and Sicán features—probably originate in the Northern area and could date from Moche IV to the early MH.

2) UNUSUAL MOCHE FIGURINES AND MOLDS FROM EXCAVATIONS: Cerro Briseño, Huamatanga, Department of Lambayeque (Ishida et al. 1960: 140, fig. 10, pp.429-430). P106: With its important headdress, its (originally) extended arms and its separate legs, this figurine reminds one of the Moche "Specials" (sgs 1.1.2, 1.3) but it is much smaller. The headdress has a horizontal band supporting two lateral stepped elements. The proportions of the face, the eyes and the nose are typical Moche, though the small mouth is not. The arms, originally extended forward? are now broken, the separate legs show modelling of the knees and calves, the feet have incised toes; genitals are not shown. The figurine wears a short tunic with a serrated edge, large ear-plugs with a concentric design and a plain molded necklace. The back shows incised hair descending below the neck, some modelling of the arms, the tunic. According to the description "in the back are embossed some circular designs the meaning of which is unknown" (Ishida et al. 1960: 430), but judging from the illustration, there is one large airhole in the middle of the back, as well as traces of an incised triangle in the buttock area. The figurine appears made of two molds with some additional hand-made elements (Method 3), the colour is said to be "brown, with the upper part painted purple". DISCUSSION

The figurine was retrieved in one of 20 pits excavated in the corners of houses of what appears to have been a dwelling site (Ishida et al., 1960: 429-430). The headdress has the stepped elements common on Moche warriors (sgs. 5.1, 6.1), but lacks the semi-circular tumi-like central element. A somewhat similar headdress is worn by 682, an "elite" Gallinazo figurine (NC-Epiform-Gr.2.3). The incised hair at the back and its shape (a semi-circular hank) occasionally occurs in late Moche feature (see 2127/sg. 1.5.1, 697, 937/sg. 4.3) but also in Chimu (see sg. 3.2). The incised triangle in the buttock area (only traces subsist), which also occurs on 625 (below) is a feature seen in Chimu (MP3/Chimu 1.2, 1855/Chimu 1.3), in Chancay and on SC Type A specimens. The figurine cannot be dated satisfactorily. The ceramic assemblage at Cerro Briseño is said to be a mixture of Moche, with Virú (probably Gallinazo) and Huaylas, as well as some

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Chimu blackware (ibid., p. 430). The headdress is reminiscent of Moche or even Gallinazo, the hair at the back (shape, incision) could be late Moche or Chimu. Huaca 31, Pacatnamú, Jequetepeque Valley (Hecker and Hecker 1995). P129 (ibid, Tafel 16A, no. 69): Profile of the body a figurine, showing a folded arm and molded hand holding an unidentified object, and a leg with the foot protruding at front and back; a nipple is also showing. The molded decor shows a belt (or decorated lower edge of a tunic?) in front; at the back, parallel lines (perhaps representing hair?1) descend to below the waist also marked by a belt. Traces of a molded necklace. Made of two molds, hollow, in oxidized ware with cream and red decor. P130 (ibid, Tafel 20B, no. 250): Small standing figurine with large head. The headdress consists of a small rounded cap with a raised edge. The short body is rounded at the arms, folded above the abdomen, with large hands and punctated fingernails; conjoined short legs, feet broken. No breasts but raised genital triangle probably with incised vulva.2 Large necklace of two rows of trapezoidal beads. Mold-made, solid figurine, oxidised ware, "light slip". DISCUSSION

Both figurines were retrieved by H. Ubbelohde-Doering in the large amounts of rubble left by looters at or in the vicinity of Huaca 31, Pacatnamú (Hecker and Hecker 1995: 72). P129 has been included here because Hecker and Hecker suggest that it could be Moche (ibid. p.88), but the shape of the fragment and the molded knobs and parallel lines are totally unlike Moche figurines. These decorative elements look much more like some of the decor of the later local Pacanga style3 (cf. ibid. Tafel 17 A-D, Tafel 18 passim, Tafel 19A,B), dating to the MH and possibly to the beginning of the LIP (ibid. p.97). P130 is classified by Hecker and Hecker as probably dating to the LIP (ibid. p. 117), but the facial features, the large folded hands and the necklace are typically Moche (cf. Moche sg. 1.2). The only unusual features are the headdress and the fact that the figurine is solid, whilst most Moche figurines from Pacatnamú are made of two molds and hollow (see Moche sg. 1.5.1). Huaca de la Cruz, Virú Valley (Strong and Evans 1952: 183 and Fig. 32A, B). M41 is the frontal mold of the lower part of a medium-sized male figurine. Unusual features include the arms, which appear to have been folded upwards—with elbows above the waist— ,the representation of breasts? and a molded belt of "twisted ropes". The legs appear to have been separated and there are prominent male genitals. The mold is brown, unpolished. DISCUSSION

M41 was excavated by the Virú Project at Huaca de la Cruz, Virú, in a Huancaco (i.e. local Moche) context, but none of the unusual features are present on other Moche figurines Admittedly the figurine was found very near the surface (0 - 0.25 cm), so could be intrusive, but the various features do not occur in other local, earlier or later figurine styles either.

3) UNUSUAL MOCHE FIGURINES AND MOLDS WITHOUT PROVENANCE: 940 and 762 are both basically Moche figurines with a standard body showing rounded sides with molded arms folded at the waist, hands with four fingers and a thumb, and short conjoined legs; below a waist-length shirt 940 has a molded genital triangle, damaged in the 1

Hecker and Hecker 1995:88 suggest that the figurine is carrying a litter. The photograph shows a small excrescence in the genital area - but it looks as if it were added later? It is not mentionned in the description. 3 The Pacanga style was originally identified in the area of the Jequetepeque valley by G. Hecker and W. Hecker (1987). 2

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area of the genitals; 762 wears a knee length tunic hiding the genitals (cf. specimens in Moche sgs. 1.3, 1.4). The unusual feature is the head, which unlike on standard Moche figurines, is very wide in profile. In addition, although both have recognisable Moche features, on 762 the eyes and mouth are hollow, on 940 the modelling is unusually crude; both have life-like ears, but very large and (in profile) thick ears. In the back both show an incised triangle at the neck, 940 has modelled buttocks, 762 a white painted "V" on the tunic. Both specimens are made of two molds (Method 2), hollow, with airholes (940: at the anus, 762 through eyes and mouth), both are terracotta in colour, 762 with traces of white paint around the neck, the cuffs and the back. 904 has a rounded head framed by a narrow shawl, a large face with crude Moche features (no ears), but a basic body, showing only an intimation of the arms and a full length tunic reaching the feet (broken?); a female vulva is indicated by a small frontal incision. Plain back. Incised necklace. The hollow figurine is made of one mold (Method 1) with an airhole below the vulva; the terracotta-coloured surface is rough. 625 is a small figure with a Moche-like rounded head, a simple headdress framing the face and hiding the ears and Moche features. Although the body has a standard lateral outline, the right arm, with a crude hand, appears to have been appliquéd, whilst the right hand (originally holding an object?) is missing. The conjoined legs are cylindrical, without feet. There is an incised genital triangle, with an oblong incision below it, marking the vulva. No clothes or necklace. The back is plain, with an incised triangle in the buttock area. The hollow figurine is made of one mold (Method 1), with additional hand-made details and an airhole below the vulva; the terracotta-coloured surface is rough. M18 and M19 are molds for the front and back of a medium-sized Moche figurine. The cast taken from the molds shows a squatting? personage. The large but relatively narrow head has a semi-circular crown, covered by a cap; the face shows the standard modelling around the cheeks and mouth, all the features are also standard Moche, but perhaps because of the relative narrowness of the head, the overall impression is somewhat unusual. The short body has relatively wide shoulders and chest; the modelled arms, are truncated at the elbows: the lower arms, now missing, must have been molded separately. Feet with incised toes appear under a two-layer tunic, which hides the genitals and the (unusually short) legs. The back shows a hanging rounded panel, the arms with clearly visible elbows, the tunic with its the lower layer open in the middle; also shown is a bag hanging over the left shoulder from two ropes, one of which appears to pass under the chin at the front? Over the left shoulder is a segment of another rope? also visible at the front, but not connected to the bag. On the outside the two molds have incisions at the top and sides, to indicate where they fit together. The colour has not been recorded. DISCUSSION

Special Features - Links with other groups. 940, 762: The rounded shape of the back of the head is unique amongst Moche figurines, which without exception have a flattened profile. On Moche vessels, the head is more naturalistic in shape, but never as rounded as here. Figurines with a life-like rounded profile occur sporadically during the MH.,1 but rarely on the NC (exceptions: 1229/NC-MH Gr.4, 287, 900/Sican Gr. 3). The large hollow eyes of 762 are also unique amongst Moche figurines and indeed amongst all Peruvian figurines, though small perforated pupils are not uncommon (cf. NC-Formative Gr.2./Tembladera, NC-Epiformative Gr. 3/Vicus). The hollow mouth is more common, in the sense that the mouth is sometimes cut through, but only one Vicús figurine (1162) has a really large open hollow mouth. On vessels, hollow eyes are shown on skeletons (cf. Donnan 1978: fig. 171), an open mouth on monkeys (cf. Ancien Pérou no. 102); I have only found one instance of a human representation with both features (cf. Benson 1972: fig. 1-7). 1

In the South Central Highlands (MH1, Type B); On the CC (Early MH-Gr.1/Nieveria, Early MHGroup 4/Wari-Pachamac, Late MH Gr. 1); on the SC (MH 1, type B, MH 2 (Atarco).

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904: In spite of its Moche head-shape and face, the body of this figurine is closer to Chimu figurines of the Northern sector (f.i. 1638/Chimu sg. 2.2). 625: This figurine is Moche-related, but obviously not standard. M18/M19: The particular posture, the clothing and the bag carried over the shoulder is unique amongst figurines. Apparently the bag carried on the back is an attribute of ritual attendants of Moche phase III (S. Bourget, personal communication). Basically, although the figurine has Moche facial features, the overall impression is unfamiliar. Context: None Geographic distribution: It is presumed that 940 and 940 come from the Northern sector. Chronology: 940, 762: The Moche vessel with similar eyes and mouth as 762 is a double whistling jar, considered to be "a late Mochica survival of the Gallinazo form" (Benson 1972: fig. 1-7). Since the naturalistic head shape (also of 940) could be a MH influence, these figurines could date to very late Moche. 904, 625: with their airhole at the vulva, the lack of legs (904), the incised triangle on the buttocks (625), their obviously "different look", could be LIP (Chimu) in date. M18/M19: No data, but the impression is Late, rather than Early or Classic Moche. Conclusion Several of the figurines in this sample show the cultural diversity and pressures under which the Moche style laboured in the Northern Sector of the North Coast, whether it is the contact with the Vicús (1091, SAC 396) or Chimu (904, 625) styles, or Gallinazo (P106) or MH influences (940, 762). None of these unusual specimens come from the Moche heartland, except M41, a "one-off", with no identifiable outside influence. MOCHE FIGURINES WHICH HAVE NOT BEEN INCORPORATED IN THIS STUDY

A number of Moche figurines are mentioned in excavation reports or studies. The reasons for not including them in the main sample are either the lack of sufficient data and/or illustrations or because they have already been the object of a detailed study (Paton 1998; Limoges 1999). However, it seemed useful to compare that material to the main sample in this study. 1) Figurines excavated by Theresa Lange Topic and other members of the Chan ChanMoche Valley Project in 1972-1973 at the site of Moche (Topic 1977). The excavations consisted of six Strata Cuts and five Test Pits in the area between the Huacas del Sol and de la Luna and to the north and south of them (1977: fig. 1-2). A total of 80 complete or fragmentary figurines and three molds were excavated (1977: 276-279), but only two specimens found in a cache in Test Pit 5 are illustrated.1 Test Pit 5 is discussed in Moche sg. 4.1/Context. The majority of the figurines come from Strata Cut 4, at the foot of the Huaca de la Luna and from Strata Cut 5, about 100m to the South-East. • Strata Cut 4 (1977: 74-137), excavated to a depth of over 7.2 m yielded a very complex stratigraphy, with architectural remains both public and domestic, as well as refuse. Moche IV ceramics, amongst them 31 figurines, occurred down to levels 3334; two further figurines were found in levels 60 and 68 which yielded Moche II and Moche I ceramics. Topic mentions the association of Gallinazo and early Moche ceramics at these levels: unfortunately we don't know to which style the two figurines belonged, but my guess is that they were Gallinazo.

1

One, representing a mother and child is mentioned in Group 3, the other (P91) is included in sg. 4.1.

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•

Strata Cut 5 (1977: 137-148) consisted mainly of midden deposits: most figurines were found in a Moche IV context.

2) Figurines excavated from the site of Moche (see below) and studied by Sophie Limoges in her MSc at the University of Montréal (Limoges 1999) 2.1 Sample Limoges's Corpus comprises 193 specimens (1999:37): • 170 figurines come from the 1995/1996 excavations of the Zona Urbana Moche (ZUM) directed by C. Chapdelaine1 of the University of Montréal in collaboration with the Universidad Nacional of Trujillo; • 23 figurines come from the 1993/1994 excavations of a ceramic workshop near the Huaca de la Luna by S. Uceda and J. Armas of the Universidad Nacional de Trujillo (Uceda and Armas 1997). Out of a total of ca 600 figurines and molds, 23 specimens (i.e. 4%) were released for Limoges' study. 112 figurines are solid, made of one frontal mold only (Method 4 of this study) - of these 28 are complete; 81 figurines are hollow, made of one figured frontal mold and a plain back (Method 1 of this study) - only one specimen is complete (1999: 44-Tableau 1). As far as I can judge from the illustrations of the mostly damaged specimens, these figurines belong to the following of the Groups in this study (classification based on the shape of the head); (*) indicates that the specimen comes from the ceramic workshop : Moche Group 1: Sub-group 1.1.2: Plates Ib, g, i; IIb; IVa*; Va?, Vb*? (the heads are damaged); VIb; Sub-group 1.2: Plates Ij?; IIa, c; IVd*; Sub-group 1.3: Plates Ia; IIf; IIIc?; IVb?, c*, e*, g*?, f; VIc; Sub-group 1.4: Plates Ic; IIIa*, e*. Moche Group 5 : Sub-group 5.1: (Warriors): Pl. V*e, f*, g?; Pl VId Sub-group 5.3: (Amulets): Pl. IId; IIIb*, d*, f*; Vi *(skeleton). Unfortunately Limoges's study contains no figurines of Groups 2, 3, 4, although many of them were present in the excavated material2 nor any figurines in Method 2 (hollow, two figured molds) or Method 3 (large hollow specimens made of two molds and partly handmade), except for a large foot fragment (Pl. VIIi). 2.2 Context of the specimens found in the urban area During a preliminary mapping exercise of the ZUMaimed at a better understanding of the architectural lay-out—during which the top of the surviving walls were cleared—many figurine fragments were retrieved. In those circumstances the figurines were regarded as surface finds without a reliable context (1999: 96-97). Of the excavated figurine fragments, both solid or hollow, the recorded contexts are as follows (1999:128-128): • 10 specimens come from small storage rooms, possibly without a roof, but often with a bench or niches; • 15 specimens come from communal areas, also equipped with benches and used for eating, sleeping or other domestic activities; 1

See Chapdelaine 1998, 2001. During a visit to Trujillo in 1997, I was allowed to examine the material from the ceramic workshop. My notes, describing the rarer specimens, list 7 women with tresses, one of them carrying a drum, 7 women with child, 5 figures with a jaguar headdress, 4 sitting figures. I also noted that all the various necklaces present in my own sample (three rows of incised rectangular beads, hanging beads in the shape of beans, lozenges, drops or spherical) were represented. But there were no exceptionally large or otherwise remarkable specimens amongst those I examined. 2

128

•

34 specimens were found near hearts outlined by adobes, probably kitchen areas. In addition these large spaces were often restricted in access, far from the main entrance to the dwelling. The figurines are found associated with fragments of domestic pottery and food remains; • 9 specimens come from non-specific areas, possibly used for domestic refuse; • 10 specimens were found in the public square (architectural complexes 11, 12, 13): Limoges considers this to be a relatively closed space and assigns a ritual function to the figurines found here (1999: 123); • 34 specimens were found in architectural complex 8, possibly the dwelling of priests, which appears to have had some ceremonial as well as domestic function; • 5 figurine fragments were found in the looted burial, part of architectural complex 16: the burial appears to have contained one important individual, to judge by the structure of the tomb, built of adobes and roofed, and by the quantity of broken pottery. 2.3 Chronology According to Limoges, the figurines both from the workshop and from the urban sector date to Moche IV (1999: 127 and various dates pp. 96-130) 2.4 Comments The finds from the ZUM and the pottery workshop roughly confirm the findings based on our study material: The context of the figurines tends to be predominantly domestic, as in our study, with a much smaller burial component. As far as the chronology is concerned, the material studied by Limoges also corresponds to our conclusions: • None of the really early features (Moche III to early Moche IV), such as: "tripunctate" eyes, explicit males (see discussion of sex below), separate legs, painted clothes and/or necklaces are present. • The specimens corresponding to sub-group 1.1.2, 1.3 and 1.4 as well as 5.1 and 5.3 (see above) are dated to Moche IV, like in our study. Only those corresponding to our sub-group 1.2 and which we have dated from late Moche III to Moche IV, are later than in our speculations. The only aspect where I disagree with Limoges is the question of the sex of the figurines. Her criteria—based on various publications, not always accurately interpreted and applied to a very small sample—are as follows (1999: 49ff): 1) Explicitly depicted genitalia are the only certain sexual marker; 2) Headgear: Women wear tresses or a shawl, men wear more or less elaborate headdresses; 3) Clothing: Women wear a long tunic, open on the sides for the arms, and/or a cloak, men wear a short belted tunic or a shirt or a loin cloth; 4) Ornaments: Women generally do not wear jewellery; 5) Accessories have to be treated with scepticism, for instance a figure carrying a child is not necessarily a woman. Ad 1) Moche figurines with explicit genitals constitute approximately 46% of this corpus of 342 specimens. Of these 5 % are males, 45 % are females. However it is often possible to determine the sex of figurines lacking explicit genitalia, by comparison with those with genitalia as we shall see below. If we take into account such additional indications, we find that 82 % are females, 11 % males and only 7 % cannot be determined. Ad 2) Although women do wear tresses or shawls, many show other hairdos or elaborate headdresses: cf. sg. 1.2; 746, 207 and others in sg. 1.3, sg.1.5.1; 1095, 213, 1577 in sg. 1.5.2.

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Ad 3) Although women are seen wearing long tunics (f.i. 742/1.3, or those in sg. 1.4, gr. 3, sgs. 4.1, 4.3) many women also wear short shirts, mostly painted (sub-groups 1.1, 1.2), but also molded (sg. 4.3). A few men are shown with painted ponchos (1561, 758, 1567/1.1.1, 1456/1.1.2), and only exceptionally with a simple painted shirt or a painted collar (C19, P41, 1267, C20?/1.1.2). Ad 4) Women overwhelmingly wear ear-plugs and necklaces (see sgs. 1.2, 1.3, 1.5.1, 1.5.2, 2, 3, 4.1, 4.3), so when we see an explicit woman with a full complement of drop ear-rings and elaborate necklace worn with a shorter tunic leaving the genitals exposed, like 742, P56 or SAC 380 /1.3, there is every reason to assume that similar representations, but with tunics covering the genitals, also represent women (cf. 976, 748, P55/1.3). The men only exceptionally wear simple jewels (P41, 1267/1.1.2), except for the warriors (sg. 5.1, 6) who wear elaborate ornaments. Occasionally there can be some ambiguity (e.g. the atypical male 1970/sg. 1.3 wears the same ornaments as the female 742/sg. 1.3). Ad 5) Although I agree with Limoges that one must not automatically assume that, for instance, figures carrying children are necessarily women, the type of clothing and ornaments worn by the figurines in Group 3 are generally similar enough to those worn by women in other groups to validate that assumption. 3) Sacrificial figurines excavated at Huaca de la Luna by Steve Bourget and Maria Montoya under the auspices of the Universidad Nacional de la Libertad, Trujillo, and studied by Christine Paton (1998). The sample of very fragmented figurines—or statuettes, as Paton prefers to call them— consists of over fifty individuals, all of them sitting males with a rope around their neck, presumably captives. The statuettes are hand-made, hollow, of unbaked clay, and range from 35.0 to 60.0 cm. in height (Paton 1998: 17, 19). The dismembered statuettes were found associated with equally dismembered sacrificial victims in two locations above Huaca de la Luna (Plaza 3a and Platform 2) and in a somewhat less clear context of guinea pig bones, human remains, and fired ceramics at a third location (Plaza 3b) (Paton: 1998: Chapter Two). There are hardly any points of comparison between the statuettes and the figurines in our sample which contains only one (small) prisoner, sitting on a litter (P105/sg. 6.1) and three large sitting figurines (C20/sg. 1.1.2, 2353, P59/sg. 1.3), measuring between 23.0 and 28.6 cm. in height. One of these (2353/sg.1.3) and a smaller specimen (980/sg. 4.3) have a large opening with removable lid in the back, which is also found on some of the statuettes and may have been used for offerings or even to deposit a live guinea pig, thus giving the statuette a "living" status (Paton 1998: 21). One other feature which occurs both on the statuettes and the Standard Moche figurines of Group 1 is the frequent use of face-paint, but because in both cases this was applied in fugitive paint and is now badly preserved, it is difficult to compare design elements or style (cf. Group 1, Discussion, Face paint with Paton 1998: Appendix). One type of face paint present on the statuettes but absent on the figurines is the "chin bands depicting the pupa of the muscoid fly in both naturalistic ...and stylised renderings". These flies leave the body in process of putrefaction in order to pupate, so they can be seen as carriers of souls to the afterlife (Paton ibid: 27). S. Bourget (pers. com.) has suggested that the necklace with small lozenge-shaped pendants, which we first see on 1393/sg.1.1.2 and which becomes more common in sg. 1.3, could be another form of representing these flies. 4) Figurines excavated at Cerro Mayal, Chicama Valley. Since completing the main analysis of the Moche figurine sample, which included a few specimens from Cerro Mayal published by Russell, Leonard and Briceño in 1994 (see P46/1.1.1, P47/1.2, P60/1.3, P68/2.1, P102, P104/5.1), a further article, containing a brief analysis of the figurine material excavated at the site has come to my attention (Russell and Jackson 2001: 166-168). 1,233 diagnostic figurine shards were excavated (11% of total). 96% of these represent females, recognizable by their clothing and details such as tresses; circa 4%

130

represent males. Both hollow figurines, usually larger than 10 cm., and smaller solid ones were present; a number of very small ones (3 cm or less), often only showing a head and feet, were pierced to serve as pendants. The authors think that the figurines "were probably used in life prior to final placement in graves". These data correspond exactly to the findings based on this study sample. THE MOCHE FIGURINES: SYNOPSIS

There are 342 Moche figurines or molds and three anthropomorphic rattles in this sample. Characteristics of the Moche Figurines Most of the figurines are standing, with arms folded at or above the waist; only about 27 (8%) are sitting, five (1.5%) have arms extended forward, two (0.6%) arms extended upwards. The height of the standing figurines varies from 2.2 cm (998/5.3, a pendant), to 34.8 cm (1267/1.1.2, a "Special"). The median height of Method 1 and 2 figurines is about 15.0 cm., the median height of Method 4 figurines is 8.5 cm. Of the seven "Specials" (sgs. 1.1.2, 1.3) four are standing, three are sitting, so no median height has been calculated. 255 (82%) figurines are females (or presumed female by comparing them with figurines with visible genitals), 34 (11%) are males or presumed male, 53 (15%) are either indeterminate or not known, f.i. damaged (see Table 1). Table 1: Sex of the Moche Figurines Moche Group Sub-Group 1.1.1 Sub-Group 1.1.2 Sub-Group 1.2 Sub-Groups 1.1, 1.2 (Body Fragments) Sub-Group 1.3 Sub-Group 1.4 Sub-Group 1.5 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7

TOTAL %1

Total number

Male

Female

29 38 42 24

4 4 + 1? 1

17 22 32 18

24 7 25 39 22 48 22 11 11

2

10

342 100%

not indicated (probably M)

10 1

not indicated

1

1+2?

8 8 2

12 + 4? 5%

139 + 2? 45 %

18 6%

not known 8 8 6 5

3 4

20 9 1? 1? 1?

not indicated (probably F)

11 5 4 30 20 30 1 + 3? 1 2

1 2 1 1 6 8 2 3

111 + 3? 37 %

21 7%

1

32

It would be tedious to recap all the data regarding the clothing and ornaments, but it is worth mentioning a few observations. The majority of Standard figurines in sub-groups 1.1 and 1.2 and about half of the figurines in sg. 1.3 wear either no clothes or painted shirts or ponchos, often leaving the genitals uncovered, whereas the great majority in the remaining groups have molded clothing (shirts or longer tunics). The majority of figurines wear necklaces or collars: they are painted in sg. 1.1 and partly in sg. 1.2, then mostly molded, either with incised or hanging beads of differing shapes (round, lozenge-shaped). Sub-groups 1.1 and 1.2 rarely wear ear-ornaments, and then only ear-plugs, whereas the remaining groups (except the women with tresses in Groups 2 and 3) tend to wear more elaborate ear-rings (drop- or tear-shaped, larger ear-plugs, etc.) The headgear also varies greatly from total absence (sg.1.1) to more or less elaborate (sg. 1.5, 4.1, 4.2, 5, 6) . Manufacture of the Moche Figurines Three aspects of the manufacturing process are important as they can provide useful geographic or chronological information: A. The wares. In this aspect the present study is highly unsatisfactory, but the amount of material recorded, as well as the varying light conditions and the speed at which it was 1

The percentages are calculated after deducting the number of "unknowns" (last column) from the total total number of figurines. They are rounded up or down.

131

recorded only allowed for a very cursory analysis or description of the wares. The surface colour or colours, the presence or absent of a slip or of burnishing as well as the colour and texture of the wares themselves were only superficially analysed. Nor are the descriptions of the wares of published figurines satisfactory. The following types of wares1 are represented in the Moche figurines (see Table 2): 1. Oxidised wares: a) terracotta ware, either unslipped or with a self-slip. Depending on the firing the colour can vary from buff or grey to orange, various colours of terracotta itself, to dark red or brown; b) the same ware with a decor of one other colour, which can be white, cream, dark red, brown, the most common by far being white or cream. Black also occurs but it is generally applied after firing and therefore "fugitive". c) the same ware with a decor of two other colours, usually a combination of white and black, but in the varying shades described above, f.i. cream and brown or dark red. d) the same ware with a decor of three other colours, usually a combination of white, black and red, in their varying shades. This type of ware must not be confused with the specific "Red-white-black" ware, which appears during the MH and has a different palette. 2. Reduced-fired ware, resulting in a black or dark grey ware and surface colour: only two Moche figurines are in this ware. Table 2: Wares of the Moche Figurines Group

Moche 1.1.1 Moche 1.1.2 Moche 1.2 Fragments (1.1, 1.2) Moche 1.3 Moche 1.4 Moche 1.5 Moche 2 Moche 3 Moche 4 Moche 5 Moche 6 Moche 7

TOTAL %2

Total number

Plain

Oxidized Wares + 1 colour +2 colours

29 38 42 24 24

11 11 15 13 11

7 12 10 7 8

7 25 39 22 48 22 11 11 342

2 6 15 15 29 16 6 6 156 50 %

3 11 14 5 12 4 1 3 97 31 %

11 8 12 1 3

+3 colour s 3 2 1

Reduce d Ware (black) 1

Not Known

4 2 2 2

2 8 3 1 3

1 51 16.5 %

1

6 2%

2 0.5 %

6 1 4 2 4 1 30

50 % of the figurines are monochrome, with 31 % (possibly more, because the black pigment tends to disappear) decorated with one other colour and 16.5 % and 2 % with two or three other colours respectively. Only 0.5% are in black ware. B. The manufacturing techniques. As we have seen, there are four different manufacturing methods (see Introduction). The breakdown per group, including "probables" and actual molds, is shown in Table 3:

1

For an overview of Moche pottery techniques see Donnan (1963; 1976). The percentages are calculated after deducting the number of "unknowns" (last column) from the total total number of figurines. They are rounded up or down. 2

132

Table 3: Manufacturing Methods of the Moche Figurines Group

Total

1.1.1 1.1.2 1.2 1.1+1.2 Bdy Frags. 1.3 1.4 1.5 2 3 4 5 (excl. Rattles) 6 7

29 38 42 24 24 7 25 39 22 48 22 11 11

TOTAL

342

Method 1 (hollow, one frontal mold) 11 23 28 7 19 7

Method 2 (hollow, two molds)

Method 3 (as 2, with handmade additions)

Others1

17 11 14 17 2

1

3 2

2

4

3

2

25 10 8 17 8 11 5

1

156 (45.6%)

84 (24.6%)

11 (3.2%)

21 12 26

Method 4 (solid, one mold)

3

10

5 4

76 (22.2%)

15 (4.4%)

3

By far the most common method, with over 45% is Method 1 (hollow, with one frontal mold), whilst Methods 2 (hollow, two molds) and 4 (solid, one mold) show nearly 25% and 22% respectively. The following table (Table 4) shows the manufacturing methods by area. The table lists all the figurines which have: a) a provenance, even "suggested", since known provenances would be insufficient to attempt any kind of statistics2 b) have a known or "probable" method of manufacture. Specimens where the method is too uncertain—listed under "others" in Table 2— have been left out. Table 4: Manufacturing Methods of the Moche Figurines by Areas Northern Sector (Lambayeque Groups Figs + Molds Southern Sector (Chicama - Santa) with provenances Method 1 Method 2 Method 3 Method 4 1.1.1 24 7 17 1.1.2 24 12 2 9 1.2. 35 21 12 1.1 + 1.2 24 6 17 (Body frags) 1.3 15 11 1 1 1.4 4 4 1.5.1 10 2 1.5.2 3 3 2.1 17 12 3 2 2.2 8 3 10 5 4 1 4.1 11 9 4.2 7 3 4 4.3 12 4 4 5.1, 5.2 9 3 6 6.1, 6.2 7 7 7 4

Total

224

Total (Southern Sector)

192

Methods (%) per Sector 97(50%) 30(16%) 6 (3 %) 59 (31%)

Pacasmayo)

Method 1

Method 2 Method 3 Method 4

1 2 1 1

1 8 1?3

7 1

1 4

1

2

1

Total (Northern Sector) 7 (23%)

32

22(67%) 2(3.3 %) 1?(6.6%)

In spite of the speculative approach of this summary, it does emphasize the fact that Method 1 and especially Method 4 figurines are overwhelmingly found in the Southern sector, whilst Method 2 figurines are more common in the Northern sector. This latter fact is even more obvious when we consider that many of the figurines of Groups 3 to 7 from the Southern sector have to be manufactured in Method 2 (e.g. 2 molds), because of the iconography of these particular specimens, which must depict the back as well as the front (mothers with child carried in the back, sitting figures, warriors with elaborate clothing, litters, etc.). 1

Includes hand-made, uncertain or unknown as to Method specimens. We have not included the provenances from Wassermann-San Blas 1938 (See Appendix 1); 3 From its look, I doubt that P80 is a Method 4 figurine (see Group 2.2, Text) 2

133

It is also interesting to note that in the "earlier" Moche Groups (1.1 to 1.3) there are no Method 2 figurines at all and there are also no Method 4 figurines in the Northern sector. Of a total of 62 Method 1 figurines, 57 come from the Southern sector. These "statistics" are, of course, skewed by the lottery of the known provenances, but they perhaps suggest that the "Standard" Moche figurine in its earlier stages was not common in the Northern sector. C. Airholes: The preceding speculations can also be put to the test by analysing the position of the airholes overall (see Table 5) and their distribution by areas (Tables 5.1 and 5.2): Table 5: Position of the Airholes of the Moche Figurines Group

Total

1.1.1 (Method 1 + Prob.)

11

Anus Vulva Neck or (At or Below) Shoulders 3 (27%) 6 (54%)

1.1.2 (Method 1 + Prob., and Method 3 )

23

6 (40%)

2 (13%)

1 (6%)

1.2 (Method 1 + Prob.) 1.1 + 1.2 Body fragmts. 1.3 (Method 1 + Prob., and Method 3 ) 1.4 (Method 1 + Prob.) 1.5.1 (Method 2 + Prob.) 1.5.2 (Method 2) 2.1 (Method 1 + Prob.) 2.2 (Method 2 + Prob.)

28 7 21

17 (77%) 1 7 (50%)

4 (18%) 1 2 (14%)

2 1 (7%)

7 18 7 21 9

2 (100%)

3 (Method 1 + Prob.) (Method 2 + Prob.) 4.1 (Method 1 + Prob.) (Method 2)

12 8 12 1

6 (75%) 5 (62.5%) 61 (86%)

4.2 ( Methods 1 + 2.) 4.3 (Method 1 + Prob.) (Method 2)

12 10 13

7 (78%) 4 (80%) 2 (22%)

5.1 (Method 2) 5.2 (Method 2) 6 (Method 2 + Prob.)

2 4 11

7 (Method 2)

Total %2

Base

4 (80%) 8 (66%) 1 (25%)

Other

No

1 at eyes + anus 1 at eyes and penis (19%) 1 at top of r. leg; 1 (6%) 1 below left elbow ; 1 at waist; 1 at anus + vulva (29%)

1 (6%)

1 (5%)

1 (8%)

1 at vulva + anus 2 (16%)

(7%) 2 (14%)

5 3 2 9 1

1 (8%) 1 2 at ear-plugs and below anus 1 at earplugs + vulva (25%) 1 (12.5%) 4

3 (50%) 1 (12.5%) 1 (12.5%)

8

6 3 7

2 (14%) 1large opening 1 at shoulders + base (7%) with lid (7%)

1 (7%)

Not known

2, large (25 %) 1, large (14%)

5 1 at sides of head + anus + vulva (100%)

2 (22%) 1 (20%) 1 (11%)

1 large (11%) 2 (100%) 4 (100%) 3 (37.5)

1 (12.5%)

5

242

11 (71%) 1 (20%)

Back

1 (25%)

80 (46%)

34 (20%)

2 (50%)

10 6 (6%) (3.5%)

14 (8%)

3 at vulva + anus; 1 at base + anus + vulva; 1 at knee (55%)

3 on right side; 1 on left side 1 at eyes + mouth

3 5 4

3 (50%) (25%)

22 (12.5%)

1

7 (4%)

69

The table shows that nearly half of all Moche figurines have one airhole in the base, with another 20 % at or below the anus. If we distribute them by areas, a more differentiated picture emerges: Table 5.1:3 Position of the Airholes in the Southern Sector (Chicama to Santa Valleys) Total

Base

1.1.1 (Method 1) 1.1.2 (Method 1 + 3)

7 9

2 4

1.2 (Method 1) 1.1+1.2 Body fragments 1.3 (Methods 1 + 3) 1.4 (Method 1) 1.5.1 (Method 2) 1.5.2 (Method 2) 2.1 (Method 1) 2.2 3 (Methods 1 + 2) 4.1 (Method 1) 4.2 (Methods 1 + 2) 4.3 (Methods 1 + 2)

15 3 10 2 2 3 9 9 7 9 6

13 1 4 2

Group

1

2

Anus Vulva Neck or (At or Below) Shoulders 5 1 2 1 2

1 1

1

1

2

Back

Other 1 at top of r. leg; 1 below left elbow ; 1 at anus + vulva

1

No 1

1 vulva + anus

2 3 5 5 6 7 5

1

1 2 1

1

2 1 at left side

Three of the airholes are rectangular in shape

The percentages are calculated after deducting the number of unknown airhole positions (last column) from the total number of figurines (column 2). 3

Only those figurines are listed who have: a) a provenance (even "suggested"); b) known airhole positions.

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Table 5.1 (cont.): Position of the Airholes in the Southern Sector (Chicama to Santa Valleys) Total

Group 5.1 (Method 2) 5.2 (Method 2) 6.1, 6.2 (Method 2) 7

Base

Anus (At or Below)

Vulva

Neck or Shoulders

Back

2 4 7 -

Total %

104

2 4 4

57 (55%)

15 (14%)

4 (4%)

3 (3%)

14 (13%)

Other

No

3 on the right side

8 (8%)

3 (3%)

Table 5.2: Position of the Airholes in the Northern Sector (Pacasmayo to Lambayeque area) Group

Total

1.1.1 1.1.2 (Method 1) 1.2 (Method 1) 1.1+1.2 Body fragments 1.3 (Method 1) 1.4 1.5.1 (Method 2) 1.5.2 2.1 2.2 (Method 2)

1 2 1 1 6 7

3 4.1 (Method 2)

1

4.2 4.3 (Method 2)

2

5.1, 5.2 6.1, 6.2 7 (Methods1 and 2)

3

Total %

24

Base

Anus (At or Below)

Vulva

Back

Other

No

1 1 1 1

1

1

Neck or Shoulders

5

1 vulva + anus

2

2 at ear-plus + below anus 1at earplugs + vulva

1

1 at sides of head, vulva, anus 1 at vulva + anus; 1 at base + vulva + anus

1 (4%)

1

1 (below)

9 (37.5%)

1 (4%)

1

4 (16.5%)

7 (29%)

2 (8%)

Tables 5.1 and 5.2 clearly show that whilst in the Southern sector 55% of the airholes are located in the base, 14% at the anus and another 13% in the back, with only 3% at the neck or shoulder, in the Northern sector only 4 % are located in the base, 37.5% at the anus, 16% at the neck or shoulders and none in the back. These statistics do not highlight the greater frequency of airholes at the vulva in the Northern sector, partly because several specimens have airholes at vulva and anus, so are listed under "other", partly because of lack of provenances. For instance 1799, 209, 905, 937 and 1284/sg. 4.3 all have air-holes at the vulva and all— except 1779—also at the anus, but only three of them have a northern sector provenance. Yet these airhole positions, together with features like the molded buttocks and the square panel in the back (headdress or hair) are typical of the northern sector, where they survive into Chimu. To recap, based on these rather tentative statistics, there appears to be a quite significant difference in the manufacturing techniques between the two sectors of the North Coast. Whilst the Southern Sector has 50% of Method 1, 31% of Method 4 and only 16% of Method 2 figurines, the Northern Sector shows 23% of Method 1, 6.6 % of Method 4 and 67% of Method 2. These statistics are consolidated by the positions of the airholes (see above). Table 6: Context of the Moche Figurines Group 1 2 3 4 5 6, 7

Figs with context 60 14 5 6 8 -

Total

93

Burials

Discrete Cemeteries

12 (18%) 6 4 4 4

3 (5%) 1

30 (32.2%)

4 (4.3%)

Mixed Sites (Burial, Domestic) 18 (32%) 3

Domestic + Refuse

Workshop 2 (3%) 1

1

25 (42%) 3 1 1 1

22 (23.6 %)

31 (33.3 %)

6 (6.4 %)

1 2

With a known context for 27 % of the Moche figurines the statistics are very uncertain. There appears to be a marginal predominance of domestic contexts. A similar picture emerges from excavations at the Moche site (see above, "Figurines not included in this study") where:

135

•

84 figurines or fragments were excavated by T. Topic (1977: 278-280): their context is difficult to follow, but judging from the locations of the various excavation units, many must have been domestic, though some come from a workshop; • nine figurines, 173 figurine fragments and 13 molds were excavated in urban contexts by Chapdelaine (1998: 108), many of which also come from living quarters; • Ca 600 figurines and molds were excavated from a ceramic workshop near the Huaca de la Luna (Uceda and Armas 1997). We don't know the ultimate purpose of the figurines manufactured in the workshop, but can assume that many of them would find their way into a domestic context, others into burials: neither of these contexts are really predominant. We know even less about the use or symbolic connotations of the figurines within those contexts. Apart from the few large "Specials" (sgs. 1.1.2, 1.3) which can stand or sit unaided, so could have been part of a domestic altar? all the remaining specimens must have been either held, perhaps in curing practices, propped up or laid down. Table 7: Geographic Distribution of the Moche Figurines Group Group 1 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Group 2 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Group 3 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Group 4 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Group 5 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Group 6 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Group 7 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested

Total = 259

North of Jequetepeque/ Jequetepeque Pacasmayo 1

5

4

1 5

1

3

1

Moche/ Chicama V.

Virú V.

Santa V.

28 6 9 15

23 1

9 24 15

8 2 3 3

1

1 5

5 6 1

1 2

7 2 6 10

3

7

8 7 3 4

2 5 1

2

1

2

13 (5%)

20 (8%)

140 (54%)

25 (10%)

61 (23%)

This table clearly illustrates the "luck of the draw" as far as provenances are concerned, since the large number from the Santa valley is mainly due to the figurines excavated (or partly bought?) by G.A. Dorsey at Suchiman and from the unverifiable (and probably partly incorrect) provenances from Chimbote of the figurines published by Wasserman-San Blas (1938). It also reflects the fact that until recently much more archaeological work was carried out in the Southern rather than in the Northern Sector of the North Coast. Other statistics such as the manufacturing methods and airholes (see above, Tables 4, 5. 5.1, 5.2), and iconographic data show more convincingly that the Northern area did produce its own sub-style (see Geographic distribution of sgs. 1.5.1, 2.2).

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Whether the scarcity of Moche figurines from the Northern sector—as seen in this sample—or their absence from valleys like Nepeña (or even Casma and Huarmey, where there are ample indications of a Moche presence) only reflects the vagaries of archaeological exploration or whether it has a bearing on the function of figurines in these areas must be left to future research. Chronology of the Moche Figurines The Moche figurine with its carefully modelled face and fairly standardized body and posture appears sometime in early Moche III, dates mainly to Moche IV, and survives into Moche V, to judge by the figurines found at Galindo. Early features—mainly occurring in sub-group 1.1—and to a lesser degree in sub-group 1.2—are "tri-punctate" eyes, separate legs, painted clothes leaving the genital area uncovered, and painted necklaces, the absence of ear-plugs and especially of ear-rings. Later features are lozenge-shaped, often slanting eyes, long molded tunics, molded necklaces and a variety of ear-plugs and especially ear-rings. Lateral mechones (sg.1.4) appear perhaps even later. The distinctive Northern Moche sub-style (sgs. 1.5.1, 2.2), mainly documented for the Jequetepeque area, also dates to Late Moche, probably to late Moche IV and Moche V. Table 8: Chronology of the Moche figurines Moche Groups

Southern Area Chronology Northern Area Chronology

Moche I/II ?

Moche III Moche IV (240-450 AD) (400-700 AD) Early Moche Middle Moche

Sub-group 1.1.1 Sub-group 1.1.2 Sub-group 1.2 Sub-groups 1.1 + 1.2 (fragments) Sub-group 1.3 Sub-group 1.4 Sub-group 1.5.1 Sub-group 1.5.2 Sub-group 2.1 Sub-group 2.2 Group 3 Sub-group 4.1 Sub-group 4.2 Sub-group 4.3 Sub-group 5.1 Sub-group 5.2 Sub-group 5.3 Group 6 Group 7

Moche V (700-800 AD) Late Moche

?

? →

? →

137

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CHAPTER 7 THE MIDDLE HORIZON AND THE TRANSITION TO THE LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD ON THE NORTH COAST INTRODUCTION

The phenomenon of the Middle Horizon in the prehistory of Peru, the conflicting theories regarding its nature and the mechanism of its spread, are sufficiently well known not to be reexamined here.1 The nature of the upheavals which resulted in the collapse of the Moche polity is still the subject of debate: they were probably the result of a combination of climatic and economic and political factors (see Moche, Introduction). What is clear—and particularly so in the figurine sample—is that they also lead to a break in the cultural tradition. Based on our figurine sample we see that in the Moche/Chicama area and valleys to the south this break, which lasted perhaps two centuries, was marked by a diversity of Wari2influenced and/or Moche-derived ceramics (see NC-MH Groups 1-5). This is followed by a Transitional MH-LIP period, combining Moche, local MH, and early Chimu features, with a gradual return to obvious local roots. However an undeniable stylistic element in this Transitional period is also derived from the Sican (or Lambayeque) culture, a phenomenon difficult to explain in archaeological or historic terms at this point in the ongoing research.3 This interplay makes the classification of the Transitional Figurines particularly arduous (see NC MH-LIP Groups 1-4). As for the Northern section of the North Coast the lack of provenances in the figurine material does not allow us to stipulate a chronology, as in the Moche/Chicama area.. But we now have very clear data from the Jequetepeque valley (Castillo 2001: 326-328). Here the Late Moche phase is succeeded by a Transitional Period, lasting around 150 years and marked, in the ceramic assemblage, by a survival of Late Moche vessels, local copies of foreign styles, as well as some imported Central and South Coast vessels. This phase is followed by a clear Lambayeque (or Sican) occupation. Southern Region (on the evidence of the figurines) Moche V Middle Horizon Styles (incl. Wari Norteño, Moche-derived, Taitacantín and others) Transitional (incl. late MH-, Early Sican- and Chimu-related styles)

Northern Region : Jequetepeque Valley (Castillo 2001) Late Moche Transitional Lambayeque

The chronological framework used here for the Middle Horizon is based on Menzel's (1964, 1968) stylistic and chronological studies, which subdivide the Middle Horizon into phases 1 to 4, the first two phases being further subdivided into sub-phases A and B. But the use of Menzel’s framework presents some difficulties:

11

For various studies related to the MH, see Czwarno et al., 1988; Kaulicke and Isbell 2000; Silverman and Isbell 2002, Isbell and Silverman 2006. 2 In accordance with the now common practice Wari refers to the culture, whilst the site is spelt Huari. 3 See Chapter 9, the LIP on the North Coast, Introduction.

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• A large proportion of Menzel's material comes from the Ayacucho basin and the South Coast. Even in these areas Menzel works on a limited number of actual gravelots or precisely dateable assemblages. For material from other areas, Menzel relies on stylistic comparisons with the Highland and South Coast styles. The further away we move from the epicentre at Huari of what Menzel considers to be an imperial expansion, the more difficult it is to synchronise the available material with Menzel's phases. • A further problem arises from the fact that—as Anders (1986) points out—Menzel and other scholars tend to use ceremonial and elite pottery for their analysis, leaving out ordinary secular pottery, which probably better reflects contemporary regional diversity. Many figurines belong to secular styles and their variety may well result from regional diversity, rather than from differences in time. • The absolute dating of Menzel's four MH phases, has also become increasingly controversial (see for instance Shimada 1990). Nevertheless—and we shall see it again on the Central and South Coast—Menzel's phases are the only ones which, for the time being, give a certain articulation to the chronology of the MH. THE FIGURINES OF THE MIDDLE HORIZON

The appearance of a Wari influence on the North Coast—either as a wholly innovative trend or as an interplay with the existing substrata—is amply illustrated in the sample of 57 MH figurines. Five groups, totalling 57 specimens, represent the MH in the valleys of Chicama, Moche, Virú, and Santa: NC-MH Group 1: Wari Norteño B-style figurines NC-MH Group 2: Figurines related to Moche NC-MH Group 3: "Taitacantin"-style figurines NC-MH Group 4: Hybrids related to Groups 2 and 3 NC-MH Group 5: Figurines with a large bilobed headdress Two of these (NC-MH Gr.1 and 5) show a clear break with Moche, one (Gr. 2) is clearly Moche-derived and two (Gr. 3 and 4) show both tendencies. NC MIDDLE HORIZON GROUP 1: WARI NORTEÑO B-STYLE FIGURINES

Table 19 Plate 38 Sample: 6 figurines (examined 5) Measurements: Minimum Height (6): 13.1 cm Width (6): 7.3 cm Thickness (5): 4.5 cm Weight (4): 170 gr.

Maximum 20.4 cm 8.7 cm 5.9 cm 350 gr.

Median 17.1 cm 7.9 cm 5.4 cm n/a

GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Small group of medium sized standing figurines, homogenous except for 2197 (see below). The head, covered by an elaborate headdress, appears undeformed in profile. The face lacks modelling and face-paint (exception 2197, with a painted line along the chin. The oval eyes have molded and painted lids and painted eyeballs; the nose is straight, without nostrils or alae; the mouth varies, with molded and painted lips (1052, P107) or a painted line only; the ears are semi-circular (flap-like on 618), with a painted decor (perforated on 2169); rounded chin, short neck. The body has naturalistic proportions, with or without shoulders, fairly straight sides down to the flaring legs. The arms, folded at the waist, outlined in paint on 1053, 2197, have hands with four molded fingers. The cylindrical, completely separate legs have no feet but end in flat circular surfaces (the figures cannot stand unaided). All except 2197 are male, either with a penis and testicles (1052, 1053) or with a loincloth covering a

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bulge, suggesting male genitals. All except 618 have molded nipples, placed high and to the sides of the chest, outlined in paint on 1053, 2169. No umbilicus. The back, slightly convex from side to side shows molded and/or painted clothing. The most striking feature is the unusual headdress, a high cylindrical hat with two to four serrated lateral projections and painted decor (stripes, “waves”, lozenges with central dot); the circular top is also painted. 1052 and 1053 are naked in front (except for traces of horizontal lines on the leg of 1052), but show some decor in the back: molded pendant triangles and painted horizontal stripes (1052), stripes only (1053); 618, 2169, P107 wear a painted belt with a triangular loincloth, also painted in the back; in addition 618 and 2169 have elaborate designs in the back. All the specimens wear a necklace, molded (1052, P107) and/or painted, plain or with painted square beads; painted bracelets are shown on 1052, 1053, 2169); various painted earplugs are shown. 2197 is squatter, with shorter legs; the folded arms are outlined in paint; no genitals, breasts or umbilicus. The shorter cylindrical hat lacks lateral projections; a belt but no loincloth is worn; the ears are perforated by airholes. Manufacture The figurines are mold-made, hollow, with airholes at the neck (or shoulders on 618, ears on 2197) and anus. The ware is red, often unslipped, with white or red decor outlined in black. DISCUSSION

Special features/ Links with other groups The cylindrical headdress is unique on figurines, except for 1878 (Salinar, sg.2) and 1409, a Sican/"Special" (Sican Gr. 4): both, like 2197, lack the lateral projections. A much taller, quite different headdress is also worn by a Recuay figurine from Pashash.1 MH facenecks from the North Coast have tall conical or slightly flaring spouts which imitate somewhat similar headdresses (Lumbreras 1974: Figs. 183a, b, Donnan and Mackey 1978: 223/1). The triangular loin-cloth covering male genitals2 is also unique, with only two antecedents: 682, 683 (Gallinazo/Virú Sg. 3) wearing wider loin-cloths, though without a suggestion of male genitals. Separate legs, common in pre-Moche NC groups (Salinar, Gallinazo, Vicús) are relatively rare in Moche and then always naturalistically modeled, with feet (Moche sgrs.1.1.1, 1.1.2). Cylindrical legs without feet are an innovation, which becomes popular on the NC during the MH (Groups 3, 4, 5) and MH-LIP (Grs. 1, 4). Finally a number of features link this group with MH or early LIP groups in other areas of Peru: painted horizontal lines on the back and various decorative designs (see below Chronology). Context: no data. Geographic distribution: The four provenances are from the North Coast. Three are unverifiable, the fourth, from Chan Chan, is part of the material assembled by Bandelier during his stay in Trujillo in 1893, though it is possible that it was bought rather than excavated at Chan Chan. Chronology This small group represents a clear break with the preceding Moche figurine tradition in: The overall body-shape, with straighter sides and flaring cylindrical legs; lack of realistic modelling of the facial features, the hands or the feet; representation of nipples and male genitalia; differences in clothing and accessories. The "black-and-white on red" ware and the position of the airholes at the neck or shoulders show the most significant break from the earlier local (Moche) figurine tradition: 1

See Grieder 1978: 154, figs. 154, 155. The rendering of male genitals is rare on the North Coast during the Moche or Chimu periods, though they are common in earlier NC cultures like Salinar, Gallinazo and Vicús. Just over 5 % of Moche figurines and only 1,5% of Chimu figurines are explicitly male. 2

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Moche figurines are nearly all made in an oxidized terracotta-coloured ware, occasionally decorated with white and/or black fugitive paint; the presence of a red decor is extremely rare; Only 3% of Moche figurines from the Southern sector have airholes at the neck, shoulders (or upper arms), a position which becomes the norm in NC-MH Groups 2-4. The airhole at the anus is a survival from Moche, where it is not uncommon (19 %) and continues in Chimu. The group shows similarities with MH figurines from other areas: Painted horizontal lines (mostly white, outlined in black) on the back of the headdress or the chest (1052, 1053, 2197) occur on the NC in MH Gr. 5 (989, 991) and survive in late MHLIP Gr. 3 (999, 1661). But they are also common in other areas (SCH, CC, SC) from MH1 to the LIP.1 The diagonal criss-cross lines with central dot (P107) have a parallel in SAC 291, 437/CC- Huaura Sg. 2.1. The painted line along the chin of 2197 is a typical MH feature (see NC-MH Grs. 3, 5, CCLate MH Gr.4 "Supe"), surviving into the early LIP (CC-Chancay Gr. 1.1, 1.2) A number of the decorative designs also occur on vessels: The semi-circular or wavy line with central dot (as on the back of 618) is characteristic of NC-MH ware (f.i. Donnan and Mackey 1978: 251, no.3). Larco (1948: 42) points out that whereas in his Wari Norteño A the lines and dots are outlined in black, in the later Wari Norteño B, they lose this outline. Variations of the step-and-wave design (headdress of 2169, front) appear at least as early as Moche IV and survive during the MH into Chimu (f.i. Donnan and Mackey 1978: 261 no.2, 275 no.3, 287 no.1, etc.). The rectangle or square and dot or dots, as on the loincloth and necklace of 618 is not uncommon in Moche, where it normally represents a metal or bone plate sewn on to a garment (Donnan 1978: figs. 141, 205) and also often appears on MH ceramics (Larco 1966: fig.88). The scallops and triangles with central dot, as on the back of 2169 are too common to be significant. All this suggests that NC-MH Gr. 1 represents an innovative, intrusive figurine type, closely related to an equally innovative North Coast ceramic style, which appears after the demise of Moche. This style, not widely disseminated on the NC, is rarely discussed in the literature. Mackey (1982: 324-326) does describe two polychrome styles which appear on the NC during the MH: "Huari Polychrome", directly influenced from Huari or via Pachacamac on the CC, and "Red, white, black" showing some survivals of Huari Polychrome, but much more "crude and sloppy". Both these pottery traditions are represented by a very small percentage of ceramic remains. As a result, the " red, white, black" tradition is treated as an integral component of “Early Chimu" in a number of graves published by Donnan and Mackey’s (1978). The authors believed that there was little evidence of a Wari influence on the NC following the demise of the Moche culture and that the “nature of the Middle Horizon occupation...is marked by a gradual cultural transition from Phase V of the Moche style to the Chimu phases” (1978: 213). However Donnan (personal communication) now agrees that the “foreign stylistic components” which characterise some of the “Early Chimu” material correspond to what Larco calls Wari Norteño (Larco 1948: 40ff; 1966; 167f). Larco distinguished between Wari Norteño A and B, the latter being a decadent manifestation of the former style more directly derived from Wari, and emerging after the collapse of Wari. From his description (1948: 41), especially the less lustrous ware, muddier colours, lack of black outline of the motifs, etc. the figurines are more closely related to Wari Norteño B.2

1

630/SCH-MH1 Type B; various/CC-late MH/early “Punch”; various/SC-LIP type B, Gr.3. Lumbreras (1974: 173) refers to Wari Norteño B rather confusingly as the Santa culture (after Tello), whereas Larco (1966: 109 ff. ) uses the name "Santa" for the Recuay culture! 2

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This would date the group after MH2. A slightly later date is indicated by the fact that NCMH Gr.1 must be earlier than the more cursive black-and-white on red pottery characteristic for NC-MH Gr. 3 which corresponds to Scheele and Patterson’s “Taitacantin” phase of early Chimu (1966:16-18) and is dated to MH4-LIP1. On the other hand Wari Norteño B pottery only appears—at the site of Moche—in the northern cluster of graves in Trench B (Donnan and Mackey 1978: 76) and does not seem to survive into Chimu proper. So taking into account the position of this group in relation to late Moche, Wari Norteño A and early Chimu pottery this group probably dates to MH 3. NC MIDDLE HORIZON GROUP 2: MOCHE-RELATED FIGURINES

Table 20 Plate 39 Sample: 19 figurines (examined 13) + 3 positive molds (associated) Measurements:1 Minimum Maximum Median Height (18): 7.1 cm 17.6 cm 12.8 cm Width (18): 4.1 cm 10.8 cm 8.0 cm Thickness (11): 3.6 cm 6.7 cm 4.9 cm Weight (10): 140 gr. 430 gr. 230 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Fairly homogenous group of smallish squat figurines, standing on a flat base with a great variety of shapes (oval to nearly square, bean- or figure of eight-shaped, etc). The head is very big (40-50% of total size), with a rounded crown, covered by a shawl (three specimens have incised hair); the flat profile often has a sharp edge (e.g. 1210). Broad face with some modelling of the cheeks and mouth area, rounded chin; the molded features are naturalistic: elliptic or almond-shaped eyes (with elongated outer corners on 1178), with molded lids and eye-balls; nose, often with nostrils and alae and mouth with curving lips; the ears are generally hidden by the headdress, but are shown on five specimens, as protuberances or realistically molded. Some face paint (1210: line on cheeks and mouth; 1694: stepped design around chin; P113: darker cheeks). No neck. The squat body can have curved sides showing the arms and/or feet or straight sides. The arms, folded at the waist, often have naturalistic hands with four fingers and thumbs; legs are indicated by bulbous feet, sometimes with incised toes, or absent altogether. Genitalia are not shown, except on 2354 and 2355, but the figurines are very likely all female, because of the shawl covering the head and specimens carrying children; many specimens have nipples, one has an umbilicus. The back can be slightly convex or flat, often showing the headdress and/or some clothing.

A1

A2 B1 B2 C Fig.11: Backs of NC MH Group 2 (Moche-related) Figurines Clothing consists of a shawl covering the head and forehead, sometimes with a panel hanging down the back; on twelve specimens (1947 to 146) the shawl on either side of the face ends in two points hanging down over the shoulders (e.g. 954, P 112). Most specimens wear a tunic; with a painted lower border (1694) or a vertical band with criss-cross pattern (1178, P113, 146). A necklace, plain or consisting of one or more strands of round or square beads is worn by all specimens except P111 and 1694. Many specimens wear armbands (one 1

Do not include the associated positive molds.

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or two incisions). 2354 wears ear-plugs. 2355, 1948, P111, 193 carry children; 2354, 954, P111 carry objects (see below). Manufacture All the figurines are made of two molds and most are hollow;1 air-holes are placed at the shoulders (6 specimens), neck (5), neck and base (3). Most figurines are of oxidized ware in various shades from pale buff to dark terracotta, with a self slip; one specimen has white decor, two are black and white on red, four are made of blackware. Associated MP7, MP6, MP5: Of these three positive molds, MP7 is closest to this group, with a rounded head, a shawl framing the face and Moche-like features. MP6 and MP5 have rectangular heads, (MP5 with two projections at the corners) and coarser features. MP 7 and MP6 have Moche-like hands and a necklace; all three wear a long tunic. The back is plain except for the edge of the tunic. MP7 and MP6 appear mold-made, MP5 partly hand-made, but all three have a groove separating the front section from the back. All are hollow, without a base and are relatively thick and heavy; all are in oxidized ware. DISCUSSION

Special features 2355 and 2352 have incised hair on top of the head as well as the back, a very rare feature in Moche (see 697/Moche 4.3), which becomes more common in Chimu (see Chimu Gr.4). 2355 features highly stylized female genitalia: similar representations occur in CCHuaura Groups 1 and 2. Four specimens carry a child:2 On 1948 the child is lying horizontally across both arms, possibly suckling; on 2355 it is held by the neck under the right arm; P111 also holds it in the right arm, but sitting awkwardly against the chest; on 193 it is sitting upright on the left arm. So only the latter child is really carried in a normal everyday way. The possibility of such images representing child sacrifice has been discussed for similar Moche figurines (see Moche Gr.3). 2354, 954 and P111 hold an object in the left hand.3 2354 may be holding a small rattle; Lilien (1956: 150) describes P111 as “a woman in the process of putting a baby in a cradle...In the left hand the woman is holding a cradle, and in the right a baby.” In fact the object—also held by 954—looks more like a ladder. Hocquenghem points out the role played by ladders in the passage of the dead from one world to another (1989: 176, figs. 171, 172). This symbol linked on P111 with a child, could point to child sacrifice. Links with other groups The most obvious links are with Moche figurines. Similarities include the overall shape and individual features present on many specimens, especially the naturalistic nose and hands, the shawl, tunic and necklace. But the bodies are squatter, the features often coarser. Over half have nipples, always absent in Moche, but which we saw appear in NC-MH Gr.1 and which also occur in NC-MHGr.3 and later NC groups. Another innovative feature is the shawl ending in two points or appendages at the front (12 specimens):4 this feature also occurs on NC-MH Gr.3 figurines. Finally there is a greater variety of backs than in Moche, especially the various forms of Back C (1858, 1210, 1178). But the most marked differences are in the manufacture: all the figurines are made of two figured molds, which is relatively rare in Moche and usually indicates a provenance from the northern area; the airholes are now placed at the neck or shoulders, with additional airholes through the base on three specimens only, 1

It is possible that the very small P108, P109 and P110, shown with perforations at the neck going from side to side (Donnan and Mackay 1978: 272), are solid. 2 Another mother-and-child figurine fragment, dating to the MH Tomaval period was found by Collier in the Virú Valley (Lilien 1956: 149). 3 954 also holds something in the right hand, now broken off: this feature is not shown on the drawing in Donnan and Mackay (1978: 287). 4 But note that 1948 (without appendages) and 1947 (with) were found together.

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whereas Moche figurines commonly have airholes through the base or at the anus, with only about 4% at the neck or shoulders and none. The overall look is also shared with the “Supe” (or Chimu Capac) figurines of the CC (see CC-MHGr.4), but these lack some of the finer Moche-type modelling and no Supe figurine with a reliable Central Coast provenance has the two frontal lateral appendages to the shawl, seen on half of the North Coast figurines (e.g. 193-146). There is a far greater variety of shapes and accoutrements on the Supe figurines and the airholes are mainly placed on the upper arms, not at the neck or shoulders, as here. One figurine from the Virú valley (1694) has a stepped design painted around the chin, a feature also occurring on Supe figurines (e.g.867) Interestingly the "Supe" group, first identified at Chimu Capac, has no Central Coast antecedents whatsoever, so it must have been influenced by earlier Moche figurines. And yet the Central Coast group is much more numerous than its North Coast equivalent. It must be said however that—in the absence of reliable provenances—it is not always possible to distinguish between the NC and CC MH figurines of this type: some specimens included in the "Supe" group may come from further north (f.i. Huarmey)? This group is also very similar to NC-MH Gr.3, but those have separate legs, a feature derived from the Wari Norteño figurines of NC-MH Gr.1. Finally we see the appearance of the "comma-eye" with upwards-slanting lateral projections (1178), which is found on and off in the southern sector of the NC from the MH onwards (see NC MH-LIP Gr. 1, Discussion). Context I have not yet been able to ascertain the context of 2354 and 2355, but they are said to come from “late” (e.g. post-Moche) graves at Huaca Cao Viejo (“El Brujo”). 1947 and 1948 were recovered by Uhle on the southern platform (Site A1) at Huaca del Sol, Moche. This wide terrace which only existed on the south side of the pyramid obviously had a particular ceremonial significance. The figurines were found “standing between adobes in a wall in front” (Uhle MS catalogue I, pp.55-56) together with two whole vessels (see Gravelots). The very disturbed conditions at Site A led Uhle to interpret it as a looted cemetery, but in view of the large amounts of possibly ritually broken and scattered vessels and musical instruments Menzel (1977: 38) suggests that this area was used for sacred offerings. However, in spite of his catalogue entry, Uhle specifically refers to 1948 as part of the grave goods of the “walled-in graves”, found at Site A (1913: 113). P108, P109, P110 and 954 where excavated in two graves in Trench B, situated between the Huacas del Sol and de la Luna at Moche (Donnan and Mackay 1978: plans 5, 7). These socalled “Early Chimu”2 burials were usually flexed and placed in pits cut into a platform of adobe bricks, which by this time had fused into a mass of consolidated adobe due to inundations (ibid.: 241). (See Gravelots). P112 was recovered from a "discrete, single-function burial ground" (ETAN 14) located along the desert margin (Wilson 1988: 255 + Fig. 115). 954, 193 and 1695 have holes in the back, probably deliberately made after the figurines were fired. Similar deliberate holes also occur on some Moche figurines and in NC-MH Gr.3 and may have been linked with curing or magical practices. Geographic distribution Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable

Chicama V. 2 1

Moche V. 6

Virú V.

Santa V. 1

Central Coast

2 1

1 Supe; 1 Huacho; 1 “Supe/Huacho”

1

The lettering used here follows Uhle’s excavation catalogue now at the Hearst Museum, Berkeley and Kroeber’s (1925) study of the material, not Uhle’s own publication (1913). 2 See below, chronology.

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A similar figurine found by D. Collier in the Virú Valley is described by Lilien (1956: 149).The occurrence of this type of figurine on the North Coast is therefore amply proven, event though it is much more common on the Central Coast. The unverifiable Central Coast attributions for three figurines may have been given because of the resemblance to Supe figurines:1 1210 (“Supe, Huacho”) is included here because of the headdress with lateral appendages and similarities with classic Moche (facial features, in particular the nose, hands; 1178 (Supe) has similar appendages and North Coast “comma” eyes, 146 (Huacho) is very similar to 1178. But it is just possible that at least 1178, 146 (and P113) come from the Central Coast, since they share a decorated vertical central band quite common amongst CC Supe figurines. Chronology We have already mentioned similarities with Moche figurines, as well as with the MH-CCMH Supe group and NC-MH Gr.3. The following associated ceramic vessels allow us to date this group (see Gravelots): • 1948 and 1947 were found in a cache at Moche Site A together2 with a terracotta jar showing a bulbous body, flaring neck and two lugs (HMB 4-2545) and a blackware or blackened? vessel with a globular body, short convex rim, two lugs and an press-molded “waves” design (HMB 4-2544). The redware jar is identified by Menzel as Chakipampa B, dating to MH 1B (1977: 39). The press-molded decor on the black jar is similar to the one found in burial EC 31 at Moche (see below). * P108, P109, P110 from Burial EC 24 at Moche (Donnan and Mackey 1978: 273), were found with two globular cooking vessels, one of them (EC 24:1) somewhat similar to the one from Uhle’s “cache” above. * 954 from Burial EC 31 at Moche, was associated with a redware jar with flattened body, long, slightly flaring neck, short lugs and a press-molded “steps and spiral” design (Donnan and Mackey 1978: 287). A somewhat similar jar—though with a different pressmolded design—is dated to MH2B or 3 (Menzel 1977: fig.94). To judge from Donnan and Mackey’s (1978) material from Moche, this type of press-molding (though not the vessel shape) is present in several “Early Chimu” graves, (EC 10, 14, 16, 21, 22, 25), in some of which it is associated with MH Wari Norteño3 black-white-red pottery (EC 10, 14), but absent in earlier Moche IV or later “Middle Chimu” graves. These associations give us dates ranging from MH2B to MH3. On the other hand the Central Coast Supe group dates mainly to MH3 and 4. Menzel herself points out that of the 253 vessels excavated by Uhle at Chimu Capac, only one dates to MH1B, about 30 to MH2B, but the majority to MH3 and 4 (1977: 30-32). Two other facts also point to these later dates: P112, from the Santa Valley, is assigned by Wilson to his Early Tanguche Period, which he dates to the early MH and sees as closely related to the early Tomaval (MH) period in Virú (1988:70). He also mentions (1988: 259) that his Tanguche material correspond exactly to Proulx’s MH material from the Nepeña valley. However both Collier (1955: 113, 135) and Proulx (1968: 41) place their Black-White-Red ceramics towards the end of the MH, whilst Wilson’s Late Tanguche material does not include any Black-Red-White pottery. This would mean that the tricolor pottery assigned by Wilson’s to Early Tanguche actually dates to the late MH. Finally a figurine closely related to this group (1389/NC-MH Gr.3) from Taitacantin, Virú valley, was associated with late MH ceramics (see NC-MH Gr.3, Chronology). So this group as a whole is certainly later than MH1B, probably mostly dating to MH3 and 4, though it may have started in MH2. 1

See Appendix 1, Collections: MVM, Gáffron collection, MRAHB, Grenade collection. Uhle MS catalogue I: 55-56. 3 For a discussion of Huari Norteño see NC-MH Gr.1, Chronology. 2

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1

NC MIDDLE HORIZON GROUP 3: "TAITACANTIN"-STYLE FIGURINES

In their seriation of Chimu pottery, Scheele and Patterson (1966: 16f) refer to this variant of the "Red, white, black" style (Uhle's "Epigonal") as the "Taitacantín" style, a name coined by Uhle. And although this Chimu seriation is not in use, the name seemed useful, as the only figurine with a provenance comes from the site of Taitacantín, Virú. Table 21 Plates 40, 41 Sample: 19 figurines (examined 13) Measurements: Minimum Maximum Median Height (17): 6.8 cm 18.0 cm 16.4 cm Width (15): 3.2 cm 12.0 cm 9.4 cm Thickness (10): 2.2 cm 5.2 cm 4.8 cm Weight (7): 40 gr. 420 gr. 330 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

A relatively homogenous group of medium-sized figurines, standing on completely separate legs. The head is large, with a semi-circular crown, showing a sharp edge and a flat profile. The wide face can have some naturalistic modelling of the cheeks and mouth area (e.g. P114, 1351), but also no modelling at all (e.g. 2171); face-paint (a thin line or dots along the chin, between mouth and chin, on the cheeks, along the nose) occurs on about one third of the figurines (e.g. 2357, 1944). The eyes are generally oval with molded lids outlined in black, and white eyeballs with black pupils; but five specimens have "comma" eyes (147, 2198, 167, 2347, 1351); the nose is small but fairly naturalistic, sometimes with nostrils and alae; the mouth varies: molded, naturalistic (e.g.P114) or stylized, upturned, often very close to the nose (e.g. 2356, 147, 1389, P115, P116, 1351), or simply painted, sketchy (e.g. 2357, 1944, 2171); the ears are usually hidden by the headdress (indicated by ear-plugs on 2357). The chin is rounded, straight in profile, often outlined by a painted line, the neck is not shown. The body is generally broad and squat, flattened in profile; shoulders, if shown, are narrow (e.g. P114, 2347); the lateral outline widens at the arms and outwards at the legs. The molded arms, folded at the waist, can be decorated (e.g. 2357, 1944) or outlined in paint (e.g. P115, P116); hands are sketchy, with molded and/or incised fingers. The legs are short, cylindrical, slightly flaring; feet are sometimes indicated by a minimal widening of the base and/or small incisions for the toes e.g. 2357, 1351). Breasts, relatively large, modelled and sometimes painted, are shown on all except 2357. Two specimens are female: 167 with a genital triangle and incised vulva, 1351 with large stylized labia, but genitals are usually not indicated: although the figurines wear a headdress similar to those in Group 2, the lack of explicit genitalia must have some significance.2 The back varies (see below). All the figurines wear a semi-circular headdress (a shawl or bonnet?) covering the forehead and framing the face, though the width at the sides varies greatly, from fitting snugly (e.g. 1686, 167) to practically forming a circular “halo” (e.g. 2356, SAC 419, 1060). On 11 specimens the lateral sections end in a point (e.g. 2356, 147, 1389, C30, 2347, 1351). The headdress is mostly decorated by a broad band painted across the forehead in a variety of designs, the lateral appendages can also be decorated (exceptions: the monochrome 2356, 2347, 1351). At the back, the headdress can be plain, painted darker or with a decor (2358: parallel lines; 2198 more elaborate), rounded (e.g. 2347, 1351) or ending in a point (e.g. 1944, 1686). No clothes are worn, but all have a band (molded and/or painted) around the waist, also at the back; some figurines have an additional painted decor in the back (1389, 1449, etc). All the specimens wear a necklace (molded and/or painted) of several strands; painted lines at the wrists may indicate bracelets. 2357 wears circular ear-plugs. Manufacture All the figurines are mold-made, hollow, with air-holes generally placed at the neck (more 1 2

In their seriation of Chimu pottery, Scheele and Patterson (1966: 16f) refer to this variety The presence of nipples is not indicative of sex as they also occur on the males in Group1.

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rarely at the shoulders or upper arms) and at the anus or between the legs (11 specimens); at the neck or upper arms only (2 or 3?), at the vulva and anus (1). Most specimens are in oxidized ware, with a black and white decor on an unslipped orange base,1 one figurine shows black, white and red décor on a terracotta base; one figurine is orange; two figurines are in reduced-fired ware, black. DISCUSSION

Special features/Links with other groups Obviously this group is closely related to NC-MH Gr.2 (Moche related) and therefore to the CC Supe group, sharing the overall look, especially the proportions and posture, as well as the shape of the headdress with its pointed lateral appendages, the necklace, etc. But the Moche-like features have all but disappeared, (unmistakable only on P114). The "comma" eye is now more common than in Gr. 2, some face-paint is introduced and the back is more standardised than in Gr.2 and CC-Supe, often showing a short headdress with rounded or slightly pointed edge e.g (C30, 2347, 1351 and 1944, 1686), a feature rare in Gr.2 (Back A1), but which becomes quite common in Chimu (Chimu sgs. 1.1.2, 3.1, 3.2). The separate cylindrical legs are derived from NC-MH Gr.1, as are the nipples, and the combination of airholes at the neck and anus. The painted decor2 (headdress, belt, arms, necklace); the parallel lines at the back and the outline of the chin with a black line, both particularly significant MH features are also influenced by NC-MH Gr.1 (see NC-MH Gr.1, Chronology). But note that the three-colour pottery represents a slightly different variant see below, Chronology). Some regional variations may explain differences between figurines from El Brujo, Chicama valley (2358, 2357), Virú (167, 1389) or Santa (P114, P115), but the sample is too small and certain provenances too few to document them. Special features include: The serrated crown of the headdress on 2357 is a rare feature. It also occurs on 1505/ Chimu Gr. 1.2, a classic Chimu figurine. The distance between the legs of 2347 is exceptional: it only occurs on one other figurine from the Central Coast, also dating to the MH (1219/CC-Late MH Gr.2). The sex in this group is understated: only two specimens show female genitalia, even though here the genital area is not covered by a tunic as in NC-MH Gr. 2; also no figurine in this group carries a child (as opposed to three in Gr.2). All except one specimen in NC-MH Gr. 1 are clearly male. As in NC-MH Groups 1 and 2 all the specimens here have nipples. Context So far only 1389 has a documented provenance. It was excavated by R. Olson at Taitacantin,3 Virú. The grave (A7) at a depth of 1.25 m. contained the skeleton of a child, with a broken bowl over its head, and the figurine (Bennett 1939: 52; fig. 5g) (See Gravelots). The other eight graves which appear to form a contemporary unit contained flexed adult burials and ceramics assigned by Bennett to his later Middle period (see Chronology) P115, P116 where surface finds from a discrete cemetery site (Wilson 1988: 255 + Fig. 118). I have not yet been able to ascertain the context of 2356, 2357 and 2358, but they are said to come from “late” (e.g. post-Moche) graves at Huaca Cao Viejo (“El Brujo”). The fact that the broken leg of 1351 has been carefully repaired by joining the two pieces with string through two pairs of drilled holes shows the importance attached to such objects. 1

See NC-MH Gr. 1, Chronology, Footnote 1. Only three NC-MH Gr. 2 specimens are painted (1694 from Virú, P112 from Santa and 146 allegedly from Huacho). 3 Taitacantin (V-235) and Huaca Larga (V-238), situated east and slightly south of Huaca de la Cruz are sometimes confused. Olson and Bennett excavated at Taitacantin, Kroeber at Huaca Large, but calling it also Taitacantin (Willey 1953: 443). 2

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Several specimens have holes punched through the back, like in NC-MH Gr. 2, perhaps linked to curing or exorcism practices? Geographic distribution Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable

Chicama V. 2

Moche V.

Virú V. 1 2

3

Santa V. 2 1

Note that unlike NC-MH Gr. 2 none of the figurines are said to come from further south than the Santa Valley. Chronology Apart from the already noted similarities with NC-MH Groups 1 and 2, the chronological position is based on the cemetery at Taitacantin, Virú, where 1389 was excavated. Bennett describes it as belonging to “a late Middle Period” (1939: 51), the term “Middle Period” covering the period between Moche and Chimu. Bennett divides this Middle Period into three sub-periods and assigns the material from Taitacantin to the last period C (1939: 140-142). Bennett also states that at Taitacantin the black-white-red pottery is mixed with blackware, to the point that “every black-white-red shape is also represented in blackware...” (1939: 40) and “painted and blackware vessels are associated in the same graves” (1939: 141). Another chronological pointer is given by Wilson for the two figurines P115, P116 from the Santa Valley, which he assigns to his Early Tanguche phase, which he dates to the early MH. (1988:70). However, as we have seen regarding an Early Tanguche figurine P112 in NCMH Gr. 2, his dating of 3-colour ware appears too early.1 Collier, who reviews Bennett’s chronology in the light of his own excavations in the Virú valley, also places the material from Taitacantín at the end of his Tomaval period which corresponds to the Middle Horizon in Virú (1955: 122, 135-137). Scheele and Patterson (1966: 17) describe "Taitancantín" ware as “oxidized...with matte reddish-orange surface colours...The designs...are composed of linear or circular geometric elements...carelessly executed in matte white, dark red, and black pigments”. This description corresponds to the decor of the figurines in this group, except for the lack of dark red, typical of Black-White-Red, whilst the figurines here are Black-and White/Redware.2 They date the Taitacantin phase to the end of the MH and the first epoch of the LIP. So this group dates to the latter part of the MH (MH3-MH4).

NC MIDDLE HORIZON GROUP 4: HYBRID FIGURINES RELATED TO MH GROUPS 2 AND 3

Table 22 Plate 42 Sample: 4 figurines (examined 4) Measurements: The specimens measure from 15.0 cm to ca 22.0 cm in height, 8.6 cm to11.3 cm in width, 5.6 cm to 8.3 cm in thickness. The four specimens share some characteristics with either or both NC-MH Groups 2 and 3. They are described individually: 743: Medium-sized standing figurine. The head has a rounded crown, with a sharp edge in profile and a flattened back. The face is broad, with modelled features, large, conch-like ears and a nearly straight chin; no neck. The body has rounded shoulders and straight sides, tapering markedly towards the feet; the arms are folded above the waist, the hands are fairly naturalistic, with five molded fingers. The legs are conjoined, the feet consist of slightly raised “platforms”, with incised toes. No breasts, genitals or umbilicus. No clothing, except a 1 2

See NC-MH Gr. 2, Chronology. Regarding the Black-White-Red ceramic style see NC-MH Gr.1, Chronology.

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shawl, with two rectangular appendages framing the face—but not covering the ears—and hanging down in front and half-way down the back; necklace of two rows of square beads. The figurine is mold-made, hollow with air-holes at the upper arms. pale brown (with black specs), polished. As the figurine is part of the Larco collection and has a Moche-like look, we can assume that it comes from the North Coast. Differences with NC-MH Gr. 2 include: The shape of the shawl, with squared-off rather than pointed or rounded lateral appendages, and large protruding ears; the tapering body, the visible legs with angular “platform” feet. Even the well-modelled features and hands are not quite Moche in feel. The airholes at the upper arms are more common in NC-MH Gr. 3. 987: Similar to 743, with a sharp edge along the crown and a flattened profile, finely modelled features and hands; three-row necklace with wider beads in the middle (as 2066 below). Differences include: the headscarf covers the ears and its appendages are broader and shorter; relatively large breasts; long tunic, short, completely separate legs. Burnished terracotta ware. Differences with NC-MH Gr. 2 include: the square-ended lateral appendages and separate legs. These last two features, as well as air-holes at the upper arms, also link the figurine with NC-MH Gr.3. The long tunic is absent in both groups. 1229: Many features recall 743 and/or 987: similar frontal shape of head, finely modelled features and hands; headscarf leaving the large ears uncovered, but with longer, thinner appendages; breasts, completely separate legs, tunic shorter than on 987, necklace; airholes at upper arms. But the whole feel of this figurine is totally different: in profile the head is realistically modeled in the round, as is the broad, heavy body, resting on large feet with molded toes and toenails. These features occur rarely and not together: the naturalistic head shape is an early MH feature in many areas,1 whilst the large feet with toenails is only known from the MH and LIP of the CC.2 It is mainly the very characteristic Moche-derived headscarf, with the square piece hanging down the back, and the Moche-inspired facial features that leads to the inclusion in this group 2066: Was excavated by Strong and Evans at Castillo de Tomaval, Virú valley (see below). Although there are some shared features, especially with 987 above (shape of the head and of the head-scarf, but with shorter lateral appendages and no piece in the back, separate legs, long tunic, necklace with slightly wider beads in the middle), the feel here is more clearly Chimu: facial features with the typical large lower jaw, narrower body with a straight lateral outline, sketchy hands. The mold-made figurine is hollow with air-holes at the elbows. in polished blackware. Context 2066 comes from a child’s grave at Burial Site 3, a looted cemetery below the Castillo de Tomaval, Virú (Strong and Evans 1952: 109 + fig.17). The material from four excavated graves at the site, deposited at the Dept. of Anthropology collection, Columbia University, has not been published by Strong and Evans. Geographic Distribution: One certain provenance only (2066), from the Virú valley. Chronology Unfortunately the material from Burial Site 3 at Tomaval, where 2066 was excavated, was not available for inspection during my visit to Columbia University,3 but Lilien (1956: 156) specifies that “only a few vessels were present in the four graves excavated, the preponderance of monochrome black vessels seems to place the cemetery in the Late Fusional period. However, small bowls with annular bases are also characteristic, so perhaps the

1

Moche Group 7: 940, 762 Discussion. CC-Huaura sub-grs. 2.2.2, 2.3 and CC-late MH- early LIP Huaura or Chancay specials. 3 The key to the relevant cupboard had been mislaid. 2

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cemetery is slightly earlier”. Strong and Evans (1952: 109) date the material from the site to their Tomaval (MH) and La Plata (LIP) phase. In view of the limited Moche-derived features and the polished black ware, as well as the above associations, 2066 could be seen as early Chimu, dating to the early LIP.1 It was included here because it is related to NC-MH Grs. 2 and 3. The remaining three figurines may be somewhat earlier, e.g. late MH. NC - MIDDLE HORIZON GROUP 5: FIGURINES WITH A LARGE BILOBED HEADDRESS

Table 23 Plate 42 Sample: 6 figurines (examined 6) Measurements: Minimum Height (6): 13.2 cm Width (5): 9.4 cm Thickness (6): 3.4 cm Weight (4): 190 gr.

Maximum 16.1 cm 12.2 cm 4.2 cm 425 gr.

Median 15.8 cm 11.5 cm 3.9 cm 250 gr.

GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Medium-size figurines wearing a large headdress, characterised by two rounded lobes, which can be contiguous or separated by a flat (cf. 1057) or raised sagittal band (cf. 991); a raised horizontal band is placed across the forehead; flat profile. The face is short, wide and lacks modelling or face-paint (except 989 with a vertical line from the nose to the chin). The eye-brows are hidden by the edge of the headdress, the eyes are almond-shaped, with molded lids and pupils (outlined in black on 1012), 991 has "comma" eyes, the mouth is small, with molded lips (painted, “smiling”, on 1057); the nose is small, featureless; the ears are outsize semi-circular flaps, all except 1057 with central perforations; the rounded chin is outlined in black on 1012, 989, 1057. The body, dwarfed by the head, lacks shoulders and has a straight lateral outline; the molded arms, inscribed within the body outline are extended towards (1012, 1265) or folded at the waist, hands have molded fingers; the legs are completely separate, cylindrical, without feet; nipples are shown on three specimens (1057, 991, 1058) but genitals are not indicated. The back shows relief (1012, 1265) or painted (989, 1057) details of the headdress, 989, 1057, 991 have a painted horizontal line at the neck, 989, 991 also below the waist. All the figurines wear a large headdress (see above), with molded, sometimes also painted decor (1012, 989: diagonal lines, 1057: spirals, dots etc.); all wear a necklace: either a single row of beads (1012, 1625, 991) or a simple neckband, painted (989) or molded (1057). Manufacture The figurines are mold-made and hollow, with airholes either at the waist or at the upper arms, on three specimens also at the anus. All are made of oxidized ware, mostly with a selfslip; two specimens are tri-colour (black and white on terracotta), one is black, white, red on terracotta, two are terracotta and white. DISCUSSION

Special features/Links with other groups Although cranial deformation resulting in enlarged lateral lobes is common in preColumbian-Peru (Weiss 1962), the form appearing here is so exaggerated, that it probably indicates a supernatural characteristic. Figures with a marked head bipartition are frequently represented in Chimu iconography (e.g. Schjellerup 1986: Pls. 69, 70; Martinez 1987: Nos. 670-673, 679-682, etc.; A. P. Rowe 1984: Pl. 6), but none of them really have such large rounded lobes. Bilobed or two-peaked headdresses are not uncommon on the NC (see Moche 1

A miniature figurine from Burial Site 3, grave 3, described in Strong and Evans's Field notes (Lilien 1956: 157) confirms this dating, by comparison with other similar figurines (see NC MH-LIP Gr. 3.2).

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sg. 4.3, NC MH-LIP sg. 1.2, Chimu sgs. 2.1, 6.1, 6.2), but except for the atypical 22 and 1856/Chimu Gr. 1.1.1 the lobes and/or peaks are smaller and need not have a mythical connotation. Several features link this sub-group with late MH figurines from the NC, as well as other areas: • the overall shape of these figurines, with their separate cylindrical legs, has antecedents in NC-MH Groups 1 and 3. • horizontal lines in the back (989, 991) and the chin outlined with a painted line (1012, 1057) are a common and widely distributed MH features, which can survive later (see NCMH Gr.1, Chronology). • The "comma eye" of 991 is not uncommon in the MH and early LIP of the NC; although a characteristic of the Sican style it is not exclusive to it (see NC MH-LIP Gr.1). • Airholes at the waist are very rare on the North Coast: there are only one late MH-LIP figurine (Gr.4) and five Chimu specimens with this feature (see Chimu Grs. 1.1, 1.3, 5). Context/Function None of the figurines comes from a known context. 1265 is probably a surface find, as Ubbelohde-Doering does not appear to have excavated at Huaca Roma, Chicama. Geographic distribution Only 1265 has a certain provenance from the Chicama valley, but it is likely that the three specimens from the Segundo Rojas Bartra collection are also from the area. Chronological position The following elements point to a late Middle Horizon date (see above "links with other groups" and NC-MH Gr.1, Chronology): * use of oxidized ware, including tri-colour and absence of blackware; * MH features such as the cylindrical separate legs, the painted line around the chin, parallel painted lines on the back. The "comma" eyes (1058) are a link to NC MH-LIP Gr.1 and to Sican, which both date to the late MH or the early LIP.

THE FIGURINES OF THE TRANSITIONAL MIDDLE HORIZON-LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

The five groups of Middle Horizon figurines on the North Coast are followed by four chronologically transitional MH-LIP groups both from the southern and northern sectors of the North Coast,1 with a total of 39 figurines: NC MH-LIP Group 1 NC MH-LIP Group 2 NC MH-LIP Group 3: Pendants NC MH-LIP Group 4 Of these, Group 1, based on a figurine excavated at Pata de Burro, Chicama Valley, is a curious mixture of styles and possibly epochs. Groups 2 and 3 show two further figurine types—unlike any other—but found associated with the Pata de Burro specimen in Group 1. Finally Group 4 is stylistically as well as chronologically transitional between the MH and the LIP.

1

The Sican culture which starts in the late MH, but whose main phases belong to the LIP is studied in the next chapter.

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NC TRANSITIONAL MIDDLE HORIZON-LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD GROUP 1

This group illustrates the difficulties in creating a consistent typology: the twelve specimens share a “family air” (large head, comma or almond-shaped eyes, squat body, short separate legs lacking feet, etc.) which leads one to include them in the same group. Inversely they do not really fit into any other group. They may represent a specific personage and could range over a considerable geographic area and period in time. NC TRANSITIONAL MH-LIP SUB-GROUP 1.1

Table 24 Plate 43 Sample: 7 figurines (examined 6) Measurements: Minimum Height (7): 12.5 cm Width (7): 8.7 cm Thickness (6): 3.8 cm Weight (6): 230 gr.

Maximum 16.0 cm 11.0 cm 5.6 cm 320 gr.

Median 14.8 cm 9.5 cm 4.7 cm 300 gr.

GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Diverse group of medium-sized standing figurines. The large head (40-50% of the total size) is covered by a headdress, varying in shape, but mostly with a rounded crown (flat on 168); in profile the head can be very flat (e.g. 168) or more rounded (e.g. 1259). The wide face shows minimal modelling (except 1259), with face-paint (zoning of cheeks on 168, 1014) or incised nose-to-chin lines; the chin varies: from rounded (e.g. 168, P117), to pointed (1277) or nearly straight (e.g. 614); jutting in profile on 1259. Eyes show a variety of “comma” shapes, molded and painted (168, 1014, P117), or incised (e.g.1277, 614); the nose can be fairly large, but mostly lacks nostrils or alae (except 1259); small, straight mouth, incised (e.g. 175) or with modelled lips (e.g. 168,1259); large ears, mostly circular, with or without earplugs, 168 has rectangular ears with two painted lines, 614 bilobed ears; pierced on 168, 1014; the neck is only indicated by a necklace (exception 1259, modelled all round). The broad and squat body lacks shoulders (except on 1259) and has straight or slightly rounded sides; the profile is flat, but broadening at the legs (exception 1259). The molded arms are folded at the waist (painted red, outlined in black: 168, 1014); hands are stylized, P117, 614 have no fingers, 168 has three painted fingers, the rest four or five incised fingers. The legs are completely separate, short; they either lack feet (e.g. 168, 1277) or have feet slightly protruding in front (e.g. 175, 1259); no toes. All specimens (except 614) have nipples: painted (168, 1014, P117), incised (175) or modelled (1277, 1259); 1277, 175 and 1259 are definitely female, with or without a raised genital triangle, but with an incised vulva; 168, 1014 have a slightly raised genital triangle, 614 a very marked one, but no vulva (the air-hole between the legs does not necessarily indicate female genitals. P117 is described as male (Bennett 1939: 87), but no male genitals are visible on the drawing;1 painted umbilicus on 168 and P117. The back varies, showing some modelling of the head, headdress or body (see Discussion). Most specimens wear a variant of the type 2 headdress2 with a rounded skull-cap and a wide decorated border, ending in two projections (tassels, disks, etc); 168 has a four-cornered hat; 614 a flat cap with narrow relief border. No clothing is worn but three figurines have painted features: 168, (and the faded 1014?) a belt, outline of the arms, horizontal lines across the legs, P117 a painted ornament across the chest. All except 614 wear a necklace (shown at the front only), either painted or incised; on 1259 the incised necklace is fastened by two tassels hanging in the back. Manufacture All the figurines are mold-made and hollow. Air-holes are placed at the anus (2), at the anus and vulva (1), between the legs (1), at the vulva and between the legs (1); 614 is 1 2

Bennett MS Field notes vol. II at AMNH See Chimu Introduction.

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definitely made of two molds, with joins visible at the sides, but has no air-holes. The figurines are made in a variety of wares: black and red on orange, black on orange, monochrome (buff, black), 1259 is black with white post-fired pigment. DISCUSSION

Special features/Links with other groups There are several links to earlier MH groups: 168 has a four-peaked headdress, characteristic for the early MH, well-known from surviving textile examples. 168 and 1014 have a square panel hanging from the back of the headdress. This feature, which first occurs on some Moche figurines (see Moche sg. 4.3), also occurs on some NC MH Grs.2 and 4 specimens and on their contemporary CC MH Gr.4 (Supe) figurines. Finally they survive in Chimu (see Chimu sg. 2.2). The separate cylindrical legs are a typical NC MH innovation (see Gr. 1, 3, 5) On 175 the necklace spreads across the shoulders in a continuous line: this is a MH feature (see 1060, 1/NC MH-LIP Gr.4; 1345, 2194/CC-Huaura sg. 2.1) which survives into Chimu (e.g. 1804/Chimu 1.1.2, atypical). The following features have parallels in the Sican culture: “Comma” eyes are a specific characteristic of the “Sicán Lord”1 (Shimada 1990: 321). But eyes with a lengthened outer corner also occur in the Pacanga style of the Jequetepeque valley (Hecker and Hecker 1987). Here we see that—although all the eyes are elongated—they don’t conform to a specific shape and none of them are identical with either typical Sican or Pacanga eyes. This suggests that the eye-shape had an iconographic rather than stylistic significance and that it may have been more widely distributed on the North Coast than has been thought hitherto.2 614 has unusual bilobed ears, reminiscent of those of the “Sicán Lord” of the early phase (Shimada 1990: fig.18). These also occur on a few Chimu figurines, though always from the Northern Sector (see 920/Chimu 1.2b, 923/Chimu 2.2, 108/Chimu 3.2b). Incised, painted or molded “nose-to-chin lines” (P117, 175, 614) become a very common feature in both the Sican and the Chimu cultures. On 1277 the incised and punctated bands, especially the parallel nose-to-chin bands are similar to those of the “Sicán Lord”. Backs with molded horizontal sections (1277, 175) are related to Sican figurines, where various forms of such backs are common (899, 970, 898, 2039/Sican Gr.1, Sican Gr. 2 passim). They also occur on some Chimu figurines (see Chimu Backs Types 4A and B). A few features are more widely recurrent or are links with Chimu: 168 has only three fingers on each hand. This is a widely distributed feature, on figurines as well as textiles (see NC-Formative Group 2, Discussion) 1014. 1277 and especially 1259 wear a headdress with two lateral projections, rare in Moche (see 856/Moche 4.2), but which is characteristic for Chimu Gr. 2 (Type 2 Headdress). On 1259 the decorative incisions are filled with white post-fired paint: this is rare on North Coast blackware (see 1804/Chimu 1.1.2 atypical), but post-fired paint filling, more often polychrome, occurs on the CC, during the Lower and Middle Formative (sg 1.1), the late MH (Group 6), in Chancay (sgs. 1.6.2, 2.4.2, 3.2.2) and LH blackware figurines (CC-LH gr.2). Context The only documented specimen, P117, was excavated by the Larco brothers at a small burial mound at Pata de Burro, Hda Salamanca, Chicama valley; Bennett recorded the excavation (1939: 87-98 and MS Field notes 1936, vol. II): six burials were found in one pit (2.30m by 3.10m), a further ten burials in pits around the first one. P117 comes from grave 1C 1 2

See Sicán Introduction and Sican Group 1. See NC - LIP (Sican and Chimu cultures), Introduction.

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in the main pit, a child burial; associated with it was a large olla and some copper fragments (see Gravelots). Graves 2 D and 2 J also contained figurines (see MH-LIP Grs.2 and 3 and Sican Group 4). Geographic distribution Only P117 has a documented provenance from the Chicama valley. Both 168 and 175 are gifts from H. Brüning: as most of his collection was acquired in the Lambayeque area, it is suggested that these specimens come from there. Chronology The only documented figurine P117 comes from Pata de Burro, Chicama: it is only known from Bennett’s description and a few sketches of the figurines and associated pottery (see Fig.12). Bennett (1939: 89, 139) repeatedly stresses that they represent a unit.

Grave 2E

Grave 2F

Grave 2 G

Grave 2G

Grave 2I

Fig12: Ceramics from the Pata de Burro Burial Ground Summing up, Bennett (1939:139) stresses that 83% is orange ware, a great majority decorated with press-molded designs, with 4 % blackware, and dates the assemblage to subperiod B of his “Middle Period”, e.g. the later part of the Middle Horizon, later than the material found at Taitacantin (see NC MH Gr.3). Collier (1955: 115, 121-124), comparing the Pata de Burro assemblage with Virú valley material, questions the existence of such a subperiod and places Pata de Burro in the earlier part of the Middle Horizon (MH 2, 3?). But when we consider that the Pata de Burro assemblage also contained a Sican-style pendant, a late MH phase is more likely. A MH2 or MH3 date would be acceptable for 168 with its four-peaked headdress and perhaps for 1014: both also have painted lines across the legs, a MH feature on the CC and the Moche-derived square panel at the back and are made in an early tricolour or bi-colour ware. 1277, with a facial decor similar to that of the Sican Lord (see Sican Gr.1) must date at the earliest to Middle Sican and therefore to the end of the MH or the early LIP; the same probably applies to the strongly Sican inspired 175 and 614. P117 and the Pata de Burro assemblage in general,1 could be fitted into the same time slot. So this group mainly spans the end of the MH and the early part of the LIP: specimens like 1277, 175, 614 are closely related to the Sican culture.

1

P118/NC-MH-LIP Gr. 2, P119/ NC-MH-LIP Gr.3, P133/Sican 4.

155

NC TRANSITIONAL MH-LIP SUB-GROUP 1.2

Table 24 Plate 44 Sample: 5 figurines (examined all) Measurements: The height varies between 12.1 cm and 15.0 cm, the width between 9.5 cm and 10.5 cm, the thickness between 4.0 cm and 7.0 cm; the median weight is 310 gr. CHARACTERISTICS

The figurines are quite different and are described separately: 92 and 615 have a military style headdress, showing two large rounded lobes, a sagittal band, a horizontal band over the forehead ending in two round ornamental knobs. The face is short, broad, with elongated almond-shaped eyes. No neck; short body with rounded outline, widening towards the legs; arms folded above waist, molded hands; double incision at waist; thick, short, completely separate splayed legs, widening at the bottom, no feet; small nipples, female genitals shown by a perforated vulva. The back only shows the molded sagittal band and headband. No clothes, single strand necklace, spherical ear-plugs, armbands. The figurines are mold-made, with press-molded decor, hollow, with five airholes (see Table 24), oxidised ware. 2405 wears a headdress with larger, laterally projecting lobes, raised sagittal band, hanging tassels and two small perforations (not airholes), but no border or knobs. Similar face as above. No neck or shoulders. Body with straight lateral outline. Folded arms, incised fingers; short, tapering, separate legs, no feet; no nipples or genitals. The back shows a square panel hanging from the headdress and a molded line below the waist. No clothes or necklace, flat circular ear-plugs. The figurine is mold-made, hollow, with airholes behind the upper arms, oxidised ware, with traces of cream and black. 953 wears a headdress with a raised sagittal band and raised border but no bilobation, wide face with comma-eyes and cheeks painted red. Straight sided-body with folded arms, completely separate, splayed legs, now broken; nipples and a raised and incised female genital triangle and vulva. The back (undefined) shows the headdress, the back of a circular ear-plug with central perforation and a shallow groove at waist level. No accessories. Mold-made, hollow, with airholes at the upper arms and anus; oxidised ware with traces of cream, black (?) and post-fired red (?). 1841 wears a headdress with very large projecting lobes and a raised sagittal band (or third lobe?) but no other decor. The short wide face has comma-eyes; ears (?) with a perforation are shown at shoulder level. Straight-sided body with hardly visible folded arms and conjoined legs widening at the bottom (especially in profile), but no feet; nipples, no genitals. Back with square panel. No accessories. The figurine is mold-made, hollow, with one airhole below the anus, oxidised orange ware, with traces of red? DISCUSSION

Special features/Links with other groups The figurines in this sub-group are linked by a headdress sharing the same basic characteristics (i.e. lateral lobes separated by a sagittal band), even though it varies substantially from specimen to specimen. It has an antecedent in NC-MH Gr. 5 figurines. They are also linked to sg.1.1 by their overall shape (large head and squat body) and by features such as the comma eyes, separate legs, square panel hanging from the headdress at the back (1405, 1841), which also link them to other NC MH, Sican or Chimu groups (see above, sg.1.1, Special features). Context: None Geographic distribution 92, donated H. Reichlen, is said to come from the Lomas de Lachay, near Chancay, Central Coast, and—oddly enough—the very similar 615 is in the Amano collection, where much of the material also comes from the Central Coast and specifically from the Chancay area. But it is unlikely that these provenances are correct, as there are no similar figurines on

156

the CC, whereas there are at least related specimens on the NC (the almond-shaped, elongated eye and the airhole in the anus are NC features, and both NC MH Group 5 and Chimu sg. 2.1 wear a headdress with lobes and/or a sagittal band. 953 is said to come from Pacasmayo, 1841 from Jayanca, Lambayeque. Chronology Both the almond-shaped- and the comma-eye (Pacanga- or Sican-related) would date the figurines to the late MH or early part of the LIP. The headdress with large lobes and sagittal band also occurs in a MH group (NC-MH Group 5).1 The hanging panel on the headdress of 1841 and 2405 is a Moche-derived feature, found in NC-MH Groups 2, 4 and in NC MH-LIP sg.1.1. The cream and black decor on 953 and 2405 also point to an early date i.e. late MH to early LIP. NC TRANSITIONAL MIDDLE HORIZON-LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD GROUP 2

Table 25 Plate 44 Sample: 4 figurines (examined 2) Measurements: The height ranges between 13.5 and 14.5 cm., the width between 6.0 and 7.0 cm, the thickness between 4.6 and 6.5 cm., the weight around 200 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Standing figurines with joined legs and a high rectangular headdress. Although similar in size and feel, they form two distinct sub-groups: Sub-group 2.12 : The wide rectangular headdress frames a face with molded elliptic eyes, small nose, incised mouth and pointed chin. The ears are covered by fringes which are part of the headdress (or by hair?). The outline of the body shows rounded shoulders and arms folded above the waist, then tapering towards small feet with incised toes. Neither breasts nor genitals are shown. The back is flat. Only P118 appears to wear a short tunic, but both wear a wide ornate collar covering the shoulders (see Plate 44: P118, 955) and have incisions at the wrist (bracelets?). Sub-group 2.2 : The narrower headdress has a slightly curved crown with vertical incisions (hair?) above a band decorated with circles, placed low on the forehead, and a panel with convex sides ending below the shoulders. The face is square, with eyes and nose as above, but a square molded mouth. No neck. The body lacks shoulders and has a straight outline, widening towards the small “platform” feet with incised toes. The arms are folded, with the left hand holding an unidentified object up to the face, the right hand resting on the left elbow. No breasts or genitalia. The profile is broad, with a rounded back. No clothes, but is an incision at the waist and four vertical grooves at the back may indicate some garment. Manufacture All four figurines are mold-made; two, possibly three, of them are hollow with one air-hole at the anus; two, probably three are in blackware, one is orangey-buff in colour. DISCUSSION

Special features/Links with other groups This is the only Chimu-related group with a “rectangular” headdress—though some of the Type 3 headdresses (Chimu Gr. 3) are nearly rectangular—but the shape is very common in the LIP of the Central Coast. The wide fringes covering the ears (sg. 2.1) are also unique and different from narrow appendages hanging from the headdress or earrings ending in tassels which are not uncommon (see Chimu Recurrent Features).. 1 2

But note that the sagittal band also occurs later (see Chimu sg. 2.1). The description is based on 955, rather than on Bennett’s sketch.

157

The wide collar worn by sg. 2.1—different from the beaded pectorals seen on SAC410 and 1612/MH-LIP Gr.4—has no parallel in Chimu figurines or vessels (exception 269/Chimu 1.1.2 atypical); but they do occur in Moche, albeit in a somewhat different shape (cf. Moche 1.5.1). The object carried by the figurines in sg.2.2 could be a tumi with a handle and rounded blade, but the handle is slightly curved and the way in which the object is carried is odd. Context P118 was found in a child’s grave (Pate de Burro, Grave 2J), associated with two small figurines, which Bennett (MS Field notes II) considers to be whistles1 (see Gravelot). Geographic distribution P118 comes from the same burial site at Pata de Burro, Hacienda Salamanca, Chicama Valley as P117/MH-LIP Gr. 1, P119/MH-LIP Gr. 3 and P133/Sican Gr.4. 955 was confiscated at Puerto Chicama. 1036 comes from the Seminario collection which originates predominantly in the Piura area. Chronological position The speculative dating of the material from Pata de Burro to the end of the Middle Horizon and the beginning of the LIP has already been discussed (see NC-MH-LIP Gr. 1). These figurines definitely give a Chimu impression. NC TRANSITIONAL MIDDLE HORIZON-LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD GROUP 3: PENDANTS

This group of 12 small pendants falls into two distinct sub-groups; they will be described separately but discussed together. NC TRANSITIONAL MH-LIP SUB-GROUP 3.1: PENDANTS WITH SMALL HEADS

Table 25 Plate 45 Sample: 4 figurines (examined 3) Measurements: The figurines range in height between 2.7 cm and 4.3 cm, in width between 2.2 and 1.7 cm. The thickness, including the prominent nose, does not exceed 1 cm! GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Very small specimens with normal-size heads and semi-circular crowns. 1000 and 996 have eyes formed by a spiral incision with central dot, a straight mouth, prominent nose (chipped on 1000) and no ears; the chin is semi-circular, incised, P119 is similar, except for the eyes. 999 has small incised circular eyes, a large nose with nostrils, no mouth, ears, or chin. The body is straight-sided, lacking arms (except for P119, with small incisions) and ending in short separate legs. 1000 has an incised genital triangle and vulva, 996 only a genital triangle, P119 and 999 no genitals. Plain flat back, no clothing; 999 is decorated with painted stripes at the front and the back (vertical on the headdress, horizontal on the body). Manufacture The figurines are hand-made, solid. Two specimens are in red ware, one in blackware, 999 is three-colour with white stripes outlined in black fugitive paint on a terracotta base. Three specimens are perforated through the head, 999 from side to side.

1

Only the larger of the two figures resembles a whistle.

158

NC TRANSITIONAL MH-LIP SUB-GROUP 3.2: PENDANTS WITH LARGE HEADS

Table 25 Plate 44 Sample: 6 figurines + 2 atypical (examined 6) Measurements: Maximum Minimum Height (5): 5.4 cm 4.1 cm Width (6): 3.4 cm 2.1 cm Thickness (6): 1.5 cm 0.9 cm

Median 5.1 cm 3.1 cm 1.0 cm

GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Very small figurines with a large head and semi-circular headdress; the face shows sketchy features (1501 has more naturalistic features) and a rounded chin; no ears, except for triangular projections on 1660, no neck. The body starts at ear-level, with wide shoulders and tapers down to the completely separated stump legs (broken off on 1375). Arms are only shown on SAC 317 (folded) and SAC 268 (extended?); no umbilicus, breasts or genitalia. 1501 and SAC 317 wear a necklace. Manufacture The figurines are hand-made, but possibly with a mold-made face, solid. Five specimens are in oxidized ware, (1661 with black fugitive stripes); 1660 is in black ware, all have perforation through the head. Atypical 1002 is very similar to the figurines of sg. 3.2, but the headdress has two peaks instead of being semi-circular, there are projecting semi-circular ears and molded arms folded at the waist. A necklace is also worn. The solid figure is bright terracotta with black specs. 1001 is quite different: the semi-circular head projects over a narrow body; the facial features (circular eyes and straight mouth, but no nose or ears) are incised, not molded. The body shows no features except for incised arms. The solid figurine is made of very fine pale terracotta, with no apparent temper. DISCUSSION

Special features/ Links with other groups Small pendants, probably worn as part of a necklace, are common in Moche (see Moche sg. 5.3), but less so in other cultures,1 though their scarcity may be due to the way they are stored in museum collections, e.g. not with larger ceramic objects, so that they tend to be overlooked. Horizontal lines painted across the body, especially in the back, as on 999/sg.3.1 and 1661/sg.3.2, are a common characteristic during the late MH (see NC-MH Gr.1, Chronology). Context P119 was found in a child’s grave (Pata de Burro Grave 2D), associated with a small black cooking vessel and nine other pendants made of clay, including P133/Sican sg. 4.1, shell and stone (see Gravelots). Geographic distribution P119 comes from Grave 2D at Pata de Burro, Hacienda Salamanca, Chicama;2 two fairly reliable provenances (1660, 1661) are from Sausal, Chicama valley. The five specimens from the Segundo Rojas Bartra collection were probably also collected in the Trujillo area.

1

Lilien (1956:156-157) describes a small orange ware figurine pendant with a large headdress from a child's grave at Castillo de Tomaval, Virú valley, dating to the Tomaval (MH) or La Plata (Chimu) phase 2 Bennett 1939: 88 and see above MH-LIP Gr.1, Context.

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Chronological position P119/sg.3.1 from Pata de Burro probably dates the end of the MH or early LIP (see MHLIP Gr.1, Chronology). The tri-colour 999 with its decor of stripes could be somewhat earlier (MH 3?). For sub-group 3.2 we have only a few pointers: the large, semi-circular headdress has a Chimu rather than Moche feel (cf. MH-LIP Gr.4); the preponderance of red- rather than blackware points to early Chimu, rather than late MH.. NC TRANSITIONAL MIDDLE HORIZON -EARLY INTERMEDIATE PERIOD GROUP 4

This group is a precursor of an extremely common figurine type, wearing a large semicircular or rounded headdress (Type 1)—later often divided into skull-cap and crown or crest (Type 1b)—which spans the whole of the Chimu culture (see Chimu Gr.1). But the figurines here are somewhat different, some of them probably predating the Chimu style, and are therefore studied separately. Table 27 Plates 45, 46 Sample: 10 figurines, including 4 probable fakes + 1 atypical (examined 10). Measurements: Minimum Maximum Median Height (9): 5.3 cm over 25 cm 17.2 cm Width (8): 3.7 cm 14.3 cm 11.2 cm Thickness (6): 1.6 cm 5.6 cm 5.2 cm Weight (4): 30 gr. 560 gr. 340 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Diverse figurines, wearing a large semi-circular headdress, reaching to the shoulders. In profile the head is flat, mostly with a sharp edge. The fairly wide face generally lacks modelling (except on 1): it is painted dark red on 1060; 42 has incised, punctated tear marks; the eyebrows are hidden under the headdress, the almond-shaped eyes have molded lids and pupils (exception 1060: circular eyes), the short nose lacks nostrils or alae, the mouth is straight with molded lips, ears are not shown. No neck or shoulders. The body’s lateral outline is either straight or rounded at the arms, with straight or slightly flaring legs. The arms are folded at the waist, the hands have incised or molded fingers; the cylindrical legs are completely separate (exception 1, conjoined) and lack feet (exception 1612) though SAC 410, 42 and 1 have incised toes. No umbilicus. Nipples are shown (except on 1612 and 1 which are covered). Genitals are not indicated (exception 1 with an airhole in the area of the vulva). The back1 can be plain or show a painted headdress and relief waistband (1060), the headdress ending in a point (2356) or a relief necklace and the edge of the tunic (1). All the figurines are naked, except 1 which wears a tunic and SAC 410 with a belt? Adornments consist of the large semi-circular headdress (Type 1), mostly not divided into a scull-cap and outer halo (Type 1a). It has a rounded or straight edge covering the eyebrows and is mostly plain, except on 1060 with vertical and horizontal painted stripes and SAC 419 with a molded chevron design; on 1611 it has a raised inner section framing the face (not a skull-cap!); it ends in two points on the shoulders (2356); has two perforations at the sides (134, SAC 410, 42). All except 134, 42, 1611 wear a necklace: plain, narrow (1), wider, with a raised lower edge (1060, SAC 419) or three rows of beads (2356); SAC 410 and 1612 wear wide pectorals of many rows of beads, covering the chest. All show one or two incisions across the wrists (armbands). Manufacture All the figurines (except 42) are mold-made and all are probably hollow. Airholes are placed at the neck (and between the legs on 1060), at the arms, at the vulva. All are made in 1

Not recorded on SAC 419, SAC 410, 1612, 1611.

160

reduced-fired, grey to black ware, except 1060 and SAC 419 which are in oxidised ware with a white, black and red or black decor. The surface tends to be unslipped. Atypical 133: With its features press-molded onto a larger body, this specimen resembles 1703 and 2175 (below), but differs in many details: the skull-cap (headdress type 1b) has a decorated outer edge; the molded eyes are shown by two inverted semi-circles, the nose is flat, the mouth incised, the incised nose-to-chin lines are vertical (not diagonal), ears are indicated by ear-plugs. The outer body shows unusual pointed protuberances at ear-level, rounded shoulders, stocky wide-apart legs with incised toes, no genitals. The press-molded inner body has folded arms, holding an object? and finishes at waist level. There appears to be a decorated shirt, a necklace and elaborate ear-rings. Featureless back. The main body appears hand-made, solid, without airholes, with press-molded decor; grey slip on buff paste. The following four figurines are probably fakes (see Discussion): 1702: The type 1b headdress has an additional narrow horizontal band below the skull-cap and lateral perforations. Rounded face with molded eyes and nose, incised mouth. No neck or shoulders: the arms start high up and are folded at the waist, the legs thicken towards the feet, molded toes. No breasts, genitals or umbilicus. Back with a horizontal incision at the neck and a relief band below the waist.1 No clothing. Necklace of rectangular beads, attached to semi-spherical ear-plugs; alternatively this could be a helmet with protective ear plates and articulated strap (see Discussion). Mold-made, with visible lateral joins below the headdress and between the legs, but no airholes, so could be solid; grey-black. This figurine was acquired together with: 1703: Type 1b headdress with large crown and small skull-cap with an impressed decor of circles along its upper edge and incised lower edge, two lateral perforations. Face with molded features, eye-sockets, and nose-to-chin lines. Although the outer body outline is similar to 1702, here the actual body is much smaller and press-molded—within a square frame—onto the larger outer body. It shows laterally extended arms with hands with folded fingers and extended thumbs; mace-like? objects hang from the elbows (they are not held). The figure is dressed in a garment with a criss-cross design above the waist and four verticals rows of circles below. Plain neckband and circular earplugs. The back shows an incision below the headdress.2 The front is mold-made, the back possibly not, there are tiny airholes at arm-level; blotchy black slip on a buff paste. 2175: Identical to 1703 in every detail, except that it only has one tiny airhole at waist level. It has a dark brown slip, the colour of the paste is not known. It was acquired together with: 2174: Very similar to 1702 (size, shape, facial and body features), but some differences: the crown has an additional perforation through the top, the skull-cap is hardly shown (though there is the same horizontal band below), the large ear-plugs are rectangular, with a complex design. The back shows a horizontal incision above and below the neck and the outline of the arms.3 Mold-made, with two airholes at waist level, one at anus; dark brown. DISCUSSION

Special features/ Links with other groups It is difficult to imagine what this type of large headdress descending to the shoulders was made of or what its significance was: it is not depicted on huacos or textiles, or known from the archaeological record. The perforations on both sides of the headdress are rare among Chimu figurines, only occurring here and on 926/Chimu sg.1.1.1: they were probably used to attach an ornament. 1

Chimu Back Type 5 (see Chimu, Introduction). Inspired by Chimu Back Type 4A (see Chimu, Introduction). 3 Inspired by Chimu Back Type 4B (see Chimu, Introduction). 2

161

The headdress ending in points on the shoulders (2356) is characteristic for NC-MH Groups 2 and 3; the point in the back occurs in NC-MH Gr. 3 and on later Chimu figurines (Chimu backs types 2, 2A) There is only one other instance of circular eyes (1060) in Chimu figurines (see 822/Chimu sg. 4.1), but they occur on the Central Coast during the late MH.1 The cylindrical legs without feet are in the tradition of the North Coast MH (see NC-MH Groups 1, 3, 5), only surviving in Chimu sg. 1.3. The fact that the genitals are not represented is also a survival of that tradition (see NCMH 3, 5) Large pectorals of many rows of beads (SAC 410, 1612) exist in the archaeological record (cf. Mujica Gallo 1967: Pls CIX, CXIV; Sawyer 1968: fig. 752), but I have not found other examples on NC figurines or vessels. Large pectorals are common on Chancay vessels. 1703, 1704, 2174, 2175 could be fakes, even though ancient molds may have been used for the bodies (or parts of them?). The reasons for suggesting this are the following: • a press-molded representation not filling the whole contour of the figurine (1704, 2175) is unique amongst Chimu or other figurines—with the exception of 133 in this group, which could also be a fake; • the representation of extended arms (1704, 2175) is also unique amongst Transitional or Chimu figurines,2 although one Sican figurine also shows this feature (SAC 199, atypical/ Sican Gr.1); • both figures with extended arms have unidentified objects hanging from their arms, but not held in their hands,3 again a unique feature; • perforations through the headdress are very rare in Chimu figurines and only occur in this group;4 • the headdress of 1702—and to a lesser extent of 2174—with its articulated strap attached to ear-plugs (or ear protectors?) looks like a helmet; common in Moche iconography, there are no other Chimu examples; • all the specimens are relatively heavy and only 2174 has normal-size airholes (17025 has none, 1703 and 2175 both have unusually small ones); also note that these airholes are placed at the waist, which is rare in Transitional MH-LIP or Chimu groups (1612/here, 2378, 1840/Chimu sg. 1.3, 23, 1610/Chimu Gr. 5) • 1703 has a black or grey slip on buff ware,6 so they are not reduced-fired, but aim to look like Chimu blackware figurines; • 1703 and 2175 are identical, 1702 and 2174 differ in minor details (see above). Interestingly each set of two different figurines (1702/1703 and 2174/2175) was acquired together: one in 1930 by S.K.Lothrop from Antonio Orlandini, the other as early as 1844 by Konsul H.C.Witt in Lima. The coincidence of two doubtful specimens appearing together as sets twice is surprising. One might object that the year 1844 is early for fakes, but I have seen

1

Incised circular eyes: CC/ Late MH sg. 6.1/cats, 6.2/ birds; molded: Huaura, several subgroups. However figures with extended arms, sometimes holding objects, are commonly represented on Chimu vessels, metalwork, woodcarvings or textiles (Kroeber 1926: Pls. VIII.3, IX.6; Lapiner 1976: figs. 608, 624; A.P. Rowe 1984: p. 16, Pl.8, etc.). 3 The catalogue entry for 2175 (DNM O.D.I. c.96) reads: ”Both arms extend horizontally, while part of the figure’s garment (?) [sic] hangs loosely down along the elbows.” 4 Exception 926/Chimu sg. 1.1.1. 5 According to Lilien (1956: 206) the holes punched through the headdress are airholes, but this is incorrect. 6 I have not been able to check the paste of 2174 and 2175. 2

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around 45 fake metal figurines at the Museum für Völkerkunde, Vienna, acquired in the 1870s and 80s.1 Context : Only 2356 is known to come a grave at Huaca Cao Viejo (El Brujo), Chicama, but no data have been made available regarding the context. Geographic distribution There are five provenances - one certain (2356), two fairly reliable (1612, 1611), two unverifiable (134, 133), all from the Chicama valley. Chronological position A number of features still link this sub-group to the NC-MH tradition: • Separate, cylindrical legs, as seen in other NC-MH and Transitional MH/LIP figurines (cf. NC-MH Grs. 1, 3, 4, 5; NC-MH-LIP Gr.1); • Headdress ending in points over the shoulders (2356), a typical feature of NC-MH Gr. 2, also occurring in NC-MH Gr.3; • The necklace shown in a continuous line over the shoulders, as on 1 (cf. for instance NCMH-LIP Gr. 1: 168, 1014, 175). • Oxidised pottery with white and/or black decor as on 1060, SAC 419 (cf. MH Groups 1, 3, 5); • The position of the airholes at the neck (1060, 2356, 134) as in NC-MH groups and one instance of airholes at the waist as in NC-MH Gr.5, both rare on the NC. But the prevalence of blackware places several specimens at the beginning of the Chimu style. So we are dealing with a truly transitional late MH to early LIP group. THE NC MH AND TRANSITIONAL MH-LIP FIGURINES: SYNOPSIS

There are 98 figurines in the sample analysed here: of these 57 (MH Groups 1-5) definitely date to the MH, whereas some of the 39 (Transitional MH-LIP Groups 1-4) probably belong to the Sican or early Chimu cultures; four or five of these may be fakes. Characteristics of the NC Middle Horizon and Transitional MH-LIP Figurines All the figurines are standing, with arms folded at or above the waist (except some pendants in MH-LIP Gr. 3 which have no arms). Nearly 70% (66 specimens) have completely separate legs. The height of the figurines varies from over 25 cm (1612/MH-LIP Gr. 4) to 2.7 cm (999/ MH-LIP Gr. 3, a pendant), but the average height is around 16.5 cm. Table 1a: Sex of the figurines (NC MH Groups 1-5) Group NC MH Group 1 NC MH Group 2 NC MH Group 3 NC MH Group 4 NC MH Group 5

TOTAL %

Total number

Male

6 22 19 4 6

5

57

5 8.8 %

Female

Sex n/i (F)

not indicated 1

2 2

1

4 7%

20 3

17 1 6

23 40.4 %

25 43.8 %

“BR” in the journal Inca (vol.I no.2 (1923), p.5) writes: “Falsificación de objetos arqueológicos: Desde el año 70 [of the 19th century] un señor Daveluis, que fué tallador mayor y químico ensayador de la Casa de la Moneda, lanzó al mercado una considerable cantidad de idolitos de cobre y otro figurines que forman parte de muchas colecciones de antiguedades peruanas, principalmente de aquellas destinadas a los turistas...”

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Table 1b: Sex of the figurines (NC Transitional MH-LIP Groups 1-4) Group

Total number

NC MH-early Chimu Gr.1 NC MH-early Chimu Gr.2 NC MH-early Chimu Gr.3 NC MH-early Chimu Gr.4

TOTAL %

Sex Male

Female

n/i (F)

not indicated

12 4 12 11

6 + 1? 2 1?

5 4 10 10

39

8+2? 20.5 % +5%?)

29 74.5 %

Comparing the MH with the Transitional Groups, we note that there are considerably more sexually explicit figurines in the MH groups (nearly 60%), compared to around 25% in the Transitional groups. If we now compare the MH groups with the preceding Moche figurines, we see a marked difference with 43.8 % of sexually indeterminate figurines in the MH to only 7 % in Moche, confirming new influences at play. This dislocation continues in the transitional period. But eventually we notice that the Chimu figurines (see Chimu Synopsis), mark a clear return to the earlier local tradition, with only 21% sexually indeterminate specimens to the 74% of the Transitional Groups. Manufacture of the NC MH and the transitional NC MH-LIP Figurines A. Ceramic wares: Table 2a: Wares : NC MH Groups 1-5 Group

Total number

Oxidized Ware Plain

NC MH Group 1 NC MH Group 2 NC MH Group 3 NC MH Group 4 NC MH Group 5

TOTAL

+ 1 colour + 2 colours + 3 colours

6 19 (+ 3)1 19 4 6

9 1 3 2

2 1

6 3 13

1

2

1

54 (+3)1

15 (29 %)

4 (8 %)

24 (46 %)

2 (4 %)

1

Reduced Ware (Black)

Not Known

4 2 1

1 1

7 (13 %)

(2)

Reduced Ware (Black)

Not Known

Table 2b: Wares: NC Transitional MH-LIP s Groups 1-4 Group

Total number

Oxidized Ware Plain

+ 1 colour + 2 colours + 3 colours

NC MH/early Chimu Group 1 NC MH/early Chimu Group 2 NC MH/early Chimu Group 3 NC MH/early Chimu Group 4

12 4 12 11

3 1 8 4

3

TOTAL %1

39

16 42 %

3 8%

3

1

2

5 13 %

1 3%

2 2 2 7

13 34 %

1

(1)

Table 2c: Wares: All NC Middle Horizon and Transitional MH-LIP Figurine Groups Group

Total number

Oxidized Ware Plain

NC MH Groups 1 - 5 NC MH-LIP Groups 1-4

TOTAL %1

+ 1 colour + 2 colours + 3 colours

Reduced Ware (Black)

Not Known

54

15

4

24

2

7

2

39 93

16 31 34.5 %

3 7 7.5 %

5 29 32.3 %

1 3 3.3 %

13 20 22.2 %

1 (3)

When we compare the wares of the two NC sets of groups (MH and Transitional MH-LIP) we see that whilst the percentage of plain oxidized wares are within 13 % of each other, the largest percentage of wares in MH Groups 1-5 is the three colour ware (at 46%), with the blackware at 13 % whilst in MH-LIP Groups 1-4 the largest is the plain red ware (42 %), closely followed by the blackware (at 34 %), the 3-colour having diminished to a mere 13 %. This trend is especially marked in MH-LIP Gr.4, probably mainly dating to Early Chimu with 63.5 % of blackware to 36.5 % of oxidised wares. If we now compare both sets of groups (MH and MH-LIP) with Moche wares (see Moche Synopsis), Table 2, we see an overall marked change, with a reduction of the plain oxidised ware from 50 % to 34.5 %. The difference is even more marked if we add the wares decorated 1

The positive molds (in brackets) are not included in the statistics.

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with one other colour, mostly white, a type very common in Moche: the overall Moche figure is 81 % to 42 % in the MH and Transitional groups. Finally comparing wares with two or three added colours, we see an increase from 18.5 % (Moche) to 35.6 % in the MH and Transitional groups and an increase of blackware from 0.5 % (Moche) to 22.2 % in the MH and Transitional groups. Comparing the data of the Transitional Groups with Chimu, we see in Chimu a decrease in all types of oxidised wares from 66% to 27.5% with the concomitant increase of blackware 34% to 67.5 %. B. Manufacturing technique: Another marked difference with the Moche figurines consists in the manufacture. Apart from the pendants in MH-LIP Gr. 3, all the remaining figurines (86%) are made in Method 2—that is with two separate molds front and back—as opposed to Moche, where only 24.6 % are made in this way. Interestingly, amongst the Moche figurines 65% of Method 2 figurines came from the Northern Sector of the NC, with only 16% from the Southern area (see Moche Synopsis, Table 4). They also tend to date to the later Moche period. Unfortunately we have no MH or Transitional figurines with a certain provenance from the Northern Sector, but the generalised use of the two-mold manufacturing method may have resulted from changes occurring in Late Moche. C. Airholes Table 3a: Position of the Airholes (NC MH Groups 1-5) Group

Total

NC MH Group 1

6

NC MH Group 2 NC MH Group 3

16 (+6) 1 19

NC MH Group 4 NC MH Group 5

4 6

Total

51 (+6)

%2

Neck or Shoulders

11 3

Upper arms

Anus Vulva (At or Below)

Waist

Other 4 neck + anus 1 shoulders + anus 1 ears + anus 3 at neck + base 4 neck (or shoulders) + anus 4 neck + between legs 1 neck + between legs + under feet 2 upper arms + anus 1 upper arms + between legs 1 vulva + anus

1

No

N/A Not (S) known

6

2 1

(6)

3

1?

4 2 14

5

2

29 %

11 %

4 %

2 upper arms + anus 2 waist + anus 26 54 %

1? 2%

Table 3b: Position of the Airholes (Transitional NC MH-LIP Groups 1-4) Group

Total

NC MH-LIP Gr.1

12

NC MH-LIP Gr.2 NC MH-LIP Gr.3 NC MH-LIP Gr.4

3 (+1) (12) 8 (+3) 1 23 (16)

Total %2

Neck or Shoulders

Upper arms 1

Anus Vulva (At or Below) 3

Waist

Other

No

1 vulva +anus; 1 between legs; 1 vulva + between legs; 1 upper arms, vulva, anus, between legs; 1 headdress, neck, vulva; 1 upper arms, anus

1

1

1

1 1

1 2

1 5

1 1

1 1

1 waist + anus 7

2

5.25 %

10.5 %

26.3 %

5.25 %

5.25 %

37 %

10.5 %

N/A Not (S) known 1

1 12 3 (16)

1 2 4

The comparison between the two sets of MH groups and also with the Moche and Chimu groups is made nearly impossible by the combination of airhole positions listed under "Others". This in itself shows that the MH represents a break with the earlier Moche tradition and that a great deal of experimentation is going on. A few changes are worth noting: 1

The figures in brackets (solid specimens, positive mold) are not included in the total The percentages are calculated after deducting the number of unknown airhole positions (last column) from the total number of figurines.

2

165

•

The position of airholes at the base, the most common in Moche (46%), all but disappears: only three figurines in the Moche-derived NC MH Group 2 have it, in combination with airholes at the neck. • Airholes at the anus—the second most common Moche position (20 %)—occur in the NC MH Groups only in combination with other airholes (in 17 cases, e.g. 35 %), most often at the neck (see Table 3a: "Others"). In the Transitional MH-LIP groups they reappear on their own (26.3 %), possibly signalling a return to a local tradition.1 • The positions at the neck or shoulders, only 3.5 % in Moche, and at the upper arms, not known in Moche, grow to 29 % and 5.25 % respectively in the MH groups, without counting 17 and 3 specimens respectively, which have them in combination with other airholes. These new airhole positions also occur on the Central Coast during the MH. Note also that in the MH-LIP groups the neck/or shoulder position decreases again (5.25 %), the upper arms position only occurs in one case. Again, this could signify a return to an earlier tradition with the advent of Chimu. • New airhole positions at the waist and between the legs (as opposed to either the anus or the vulva) are a short-lived MH innovation. It is also interesting to note that whereas Moche figurines in the Southern Sector have 55% of airholes at the base, and 3% at the neck, in the Northern Sector the figures are 4 % at the base, and 16.5 % at the neck or shoulders, the latter figure being much closer to the MH groups (29% at neck/shoulders, and only 3 specimens at the base in combination with the neck) . The same applies to the airhole position at the anus—37.5 % and 14% respectively in the Northern and Southern Sectors for Moche (slightly more if one includes those at the anus in combination with other airholes)—which represent 39% in the MH groups (here always in association with other airholes). This may mean that the Northern Sector played a more decisive influence during the emergence of the Middle Horizon figurines on the North Coast. Context of the NC MH and Transitional MH-LIP figurines Only 19 figurines have a known context: 14 come from burials (three of them from the same burial). Two further specimens from Moche Site A may be from burials or from a ritual cache, two are surface finds from a cemetery, one from a mixed domestic and burial site. Geographic Distribution Table 4: Provenance of the NC MH and Transitional MH-LIP figurines Northern Area NC MH Groups Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested NC MH-LIP Groups Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested

2 3

Moche Chicama V.

Virú V.

Santa V.

12 3 4 4

2 5

3

3 2 6 5

3

Central Coast

3

1 1

Of the 62 provenances (12 of them "suggested") e.g. 64.5 % of the total number of figurines, only 20 (21%) are certain, 15 of them for the Moche Chicama Valleys, two for Virú and three for the Santa Valley. There are no certain or fairly reliable provenances for the Northern Area. The one fairly reliable provenance for the Central Coast (92/MH-LIP sg.1.2) is puzzling, the three unverifiable provenances for the Central Coast (all in MH Gr.2) may have been attributed in museum collections because of the resemblance of these figurines with CC Coast MH Gr. 4 "Supe" type figurines. Chronology Quite apart from the difficulties presented by phases 3 and 4 of the MH sequence (see MH, Introduction), the dating of the figurines—even within the various groups—is speculative and can be fairly spread out. 1

In the Chimu groups airholes at the anus represent 53 % of total.

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NC MH Groups 1, 3 and 5, as well as many specimens in NC MH Group 2 probably date to MH3. Some figurines in NC MH Group 2 could date to MH 2 whilst others probably date to MH4, whilst the related specimens in MH Group 4 date to MH 3 and 4. Overall the five NC MH groups date to MH3 and MH4. In the Transitional MH-LIP Groups the earliest specimens (168, 1014/MH-LIP Gr.1) could date to MH2, but with the sudden decrease of three-colour ware and the important increase of blackware the majority of figurines probably date to the late MH and the early LIP. Table 5: Chronology of the NC MH and Transitional MH-LIP figurines Groups NC NC NC NC NC

MH MH MH MH MH

Early MH MH 1 MH 2

Late MH MH 3 MH 4

Early LIP

Early MH MH 1 MH 2

Late MH MH 3 MH 4

Early LIP

Gr.1 Gr.2 Gr.3 Gr.4 Gr.5

Groups NC MH-LIP sg. 1.1 NC MH-LIP sg. 1.2 NC MH-LIP Gr. 2 NC MH-LIP Gr. 3 NC MH-LIP Gr. 4

?

167

168

CHAPTER 8 THE LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD ON THE NORTH COAST PART I: THE SICAN1 OR LAMBAYEQUE CULTURE INTRODUCTION: SICAN VERSUS CHIMU

The Sican and Chimu cultures both emerge from the political, economic and cultural hiatus caused by the appearance of Wari influences on the North Coast and the concomitant demise of the Moche polities in the Moche/Chicama valleys and in valleys from the Jequetepeque to the far north, with the desert Pampa de Paijan forming a marked frontier between the two areas.2 Until the latter half of last century there was a tendency to refer to the ceramics of the Northern sector as Chimu-Lambayeque,3 barely acknowledging the distinctive characteristics of both cultures. However, since the important work of I. Shimada at Batán Grande in the 1970s and 80s and major research at sites in the Lambayeque, Jequetepeque, Chicama and Moche valleys, as well as valleys to the South, it is accepted that we are dealing with two different cultures, which—though basically springing from common roots— develop along distinct lines in their separate areas. Unfortunately, as far as the 235 (+ 27 miniature Sican heads) NC Late Intermediate and Late Horizon Figurines are concerned there appears to be a great deal of overlap between the Sican and Chimu cultures. The first problem here are the similarities in the ceramic styles: In the Northern Sector of the North Coast, according to Shimada (1990: 313-333), the Early Sican ceramic style, characterised by blackware and paleteada or press-molded ceramics, appears directly above the Late Moche style in the Batán Grande area and is strongly influenced by Wari-derived iconography as well as the preceding Moche style. From this early phase it develops along its own lines through the Middle and Late Sican phases (see below, Sican). In the Southern Sector, the Early Chimu style also appears to succeed Moche V, again with black- and/or press-molded ware, but with the disappearance of the typical Moche stirrup-spout bottle and the fine-line decor (Donnan and Mackey 1978: 215). Instead we see the appearance of "red white black" ceramics with indications of a Wari-related iconography, which is classified as Early Chimu by Donnan and Mackey;4 but which actually corresponds to Larco's Huari Norteño, in particular Huari Norteño B (1948: 40ff).5 Clearly in both areas we have at least some comparable ceramics. Moreover there are surprising iconographic similarities, even between different ceramic traditions. Note for instance the resemblance between a personage on a tri-colour Huari Norteño B face-neck from the Banderas site, south-west of the Huacas de Moche (Donnan and Mackey 1978: Plate 11, middle), and the Middle Sican "Lord" (Shimada 1990: Fig. 14): similar high spout 1

Both the name "Sican" and the name "Lambayeque" are used for the culture which flourished in the Northern sector of North Coast during the LIP (see also below "The Sican Culture, Introduction"). 2 In this study, the region south of Paijan is referred to as the "Southern sector or area" , the region north as "the Northern sector or area" (see above Moche). 3 Kauffmann-Doig (1978: 489) suggests that this was mainly because both cultures are known predominantly for their blackware. 4 1978: Plate 11, Plate 12, upper left, lower right 5 See Chapter 8, NC MH Group 1, Chronology.

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(headdress?) decorated with a row of blobs, two-tier pointed ears with circular lobes, pointed nose, lines from mouth to chin, wide collar. Shared features like these often occur amongst the figurines and make their assignment to either Sican or Chimu problematic. Let us take one specific feature: the comma eye. In its characteristic Sicán form, the comma-eye has a circular pupil and an upwards-slanting, triangular projection at the outer corner. It has also been described as “the incised eye of the Chimu God, with its elongated projection at the outer corner” (Menzel 1977: 62). Human representations with elongated eyes are routinely assigned to the Sican/Lambayeque culture. However Hecker and Hecker (1987) have identified a ceramic style in the lower Jequetepeque valley, the Pacanga style, dating from late Moche to the end of the MH, which also features elongated eyes. According to them “the outer corner of the eye was often lengthened or slit, which made them similar to the winged eyes of Lambayeque-style”1 (1987: 52). We have already seen in NC MH-LIP Gr. 1 that the comma eye can take very different forms and that it occurs outside the Sican heartland in areas to the south, like the Jequetepeque and Chicama valleys, at an early stage. Slightly later we see other features, like Sican-related backs, on fairly typical Chimu figurines (see f. i. Chimu sg. 1.1.1). So we ask ourselves whether features considered as typically Sican, did not have at some earlier point a wider distribution in both areas of the North Coast? This question is rendered more complicated by the chronology of the two cultures and the alleged spread of the Sican influence from its heartland in the Sican Precinct (part of Batán Grande) to areas south as well as the conquest of the Northern Sector by the Chimu. Sican (Shimada 1995) Lambayeque area Moche Valley Moche V 550-700 AD Moche V 550-700 AD Early Sican 700-900 AD Wari Influence 700-800 AD Middle Sican 900-1100 AD Sican Influence 800-1200 AD Late Sican 1100-1375 AD Sican Chimu 1375-1476 AD Chimu 1200-1470 AD Sican Inca 1476-1533 AD Chimu Inca 1470-1533

Chimu (Conlee et al 2004: 214) MH4

LIP LH

Early Chimu Middle Chimu Late Chimu Chimu-Inca

900/1000-1200 1200-1300 1300-1470 1470-1535

In his chronological chart Shimada (1995) only lists one main Chimu phase in the Moche valley, from AD 1200 to 1470, but more significantly he notes an early and prolonged Sican influence there between AD 800 and 1200. Considering the development of the Sican culture in the Northern Sector (see below) we ask ourselves what the mechanism and the nature of this influence can have been? In view of the similarities between the early Northern and Southern Sector ceramics pointed out above, is it not rather the case that both areas developed from similar roots, possibly in the Southern area, and only gradually acquired their distinct characteristics? The idea that the Early and Middle Sican culture developed in and around the eponymous site and moved—more or less simultaneously—to Tucume (in the immediate vicinity of Batán Grande) and to Pacatnamú in the Jequetepeque valley sometime during Late Sicán, has now been proved wrong, because Middle Sican ceramics were found not only at Pacatnamú,2 but also at other Jequetepeque sites such as Farfan and Cabur or San José de Moro (Castillo 2001). As far as the Kingdom of Chimor is concerned, it expanded during Middle Chimu from its heartland to the Jequetepeque and Casma valleys, though without conquering the centres of these polities and it is only during Late Chimu that it conquered the Lambayeque area and the extreme northern valleys of Piura, Chira and Tumbez. The exact dates of these expansion movements are still debated Around 1470 the whole kingdom of Chimor was conquered by 1

2

My translation.

At both Huacas 16 and 31 in Pacatnamú, there seems to be a direct transition from Late Moche (which is contemporary with the MH) to the Lambayeque-Chimu periods, with as much as 14% of the ceramics being Lambayeque [e.g. Sican] (Hecker and Hecker 1991:141).

170

the Inca. In spite of this historical scenario there is still scope for much misunderstanding and a tendency to classify as "Chimu" cultural phenomena in the Northern area which predate by a long time the conquest of that area by the actual Chimu state. Legends like those relating to Naymplap and Taycanamo and/or other ethno-historical data add to the chronological confusion. Using the evidence of ceramics, metallurgy, adobe seriation and C14 dates from the Northern sector Shimada (1990: 365-371) reviews the various discrepancies and contradictions regarding the interplay of the two cultures.1 It is into this complex picture of related ceramic styles and overlapping chronology and interplay that the figurines have to be fitted. The process of assigning the figurines to one or the other ceramic style has been laborious. As Sican is theoretically the earlier of the two cultures—and because of the absence of provenances—the starting point of the classification has been to identify specific Sican features and their derivatives and to assign figurines combining most of these features to the Sican culture. Figurines without these features (or with only some Sican- related elements) have been classified as Chimu. 2

THE SICAN OR LAMABAYEQUE CULTURE The Sican or Lambayeque culture has its heartland in what Kosok (1965: 145) called the "Lambayeque-Leche-Motupe Complex" (the Lambayeque river itself consisting of the Chancay/Taymi/Lambayeque/Reque river3) and their interconnected irrigation systems. The influence of the Sican culture also extended south, into the Zaña, Jequetepeque and Moche/Chicama valleys as well as north to Piura and beyond. As we have seen in the general introduction to this chapter, the Sican culture emerges during the MH—a time of profound changes which also brings about the demise of the Moche polity in the area—and amalgamates Moche, Wari and other cultural elements. From these it gradually develops its own specific ceramic, metalwork and architectural style. The chronology of the Sicán culture is mainly based on I. Shimada's work at the site of Batán Grande, Leche valley (1990, 1995). Shimada distinguishes three main Sican phases, followed by two hybrid phases (see Introduction to this chapter). In his 1990 overview of the Sican culture, Shimada points out discrepancies between his absolute dates and the dating of Menzel's four MH phases. Shimada assigns his earliest Sican blackware to MH2. It is derived both from fine Moche blackware found at Pampa Grande and from widely distributed Wari ceramic styles. The "avian-humanoid" features seen on Early Sican vessels are derived from such Wari models. These eventually develop into the iconography of the Middle Sican Lord, which, according to Menzel's absolute dates would belong to MH3, whilst Shimada assigns it to MH4 (1990: 313, 330). Note however that in his 1995 time chart, Middle Sican is dated to the beginning of the LIP. Unfortunately, although Shimada's phases are based on a number C14 dates, an extensive ceramic sequence for the culture has not yet been published, so that we often lack sufficient iconographic and stylistic elements for the dating of the Sican figurines.

1

For various regional assessments see Moseley and Cordy-Collins, Eds. 1990. A more recent short overview appears in Conlee et al. 2004: 211-217). 2 The name Sican, given by Izumi Shimada to the large ceremonial complex at La Poma district, near Batan Grande, La Leche valley, Lambayeque Province, excavated by a Princeton University team from 1978 onwards, is gradually replacing the earlier name "Lambayeque" for this culture, though it is still not accepted "unanimously". Makowski et al. (1994: 221) speaks of "the Sicán style, representative of the Lambayeque culture" [my translation]. For an extensive bibliography see Moseley and CordyCollins 1990; Shimada 1995; for a more recent summing up see Conlee et al., 2004. 3

Many maps only show the Lambayeque and/or the Reque river.

171

THE FIGURINES OF THE SICAN CULTURE

The starting point for assigning 29 figurines to the Sican style are all or some of the features listed by Shimada (1990: 321-327) as typical for the "Sican Lord", the dominant iconographic representation of the Middle Sican period. They are : • a wide, flat, mask-like, semicircular face; • "comma-" or almond-shaped eyes; • paired tear-lines with dots below the eyes; • pointed ears, often with concentric lines on the upper portion and pierced round lobes from which tiered triangular earrings hang; • a pointed or hooked beak-like nose, a closed or partially open mouth; • a wide collar in low relief and a large, elaborate fan-shaped headdress. According to Shimada some features which are common on metalwork representations are rare on ceramics. But in fact they do commonly occur on the Sican figurines: • "wings"; • details of the headdress and dress shown in the back. The following decorative elements—shown in the back alone or more often in combination—have been extremely significant and have helped to assign less typical figurines to the Sican style or to detect a relationship with Sican on Transitional NC MH-LIP or Chimu figurines: - a round medallion in the middle of the headdress (Type 1), as shown on the famous Illimo gold tumi (Kauffmann-Doig 1989: 174); - an appendage hanging from the headdress (Type 2); - a transversal bulge at the base of the head, above the neck (Type 3); - horizontal layers of clothing below the neck (Type 4).

1

2 3 4 Fig..13: Sican Backs The most common Middle Sican wares are "highly burnished black and brown wares" the incised decor", executed in thin, shallow, polished indentations termed Sican grooves. In the later part of Middle Sican there is also a ware with a cream wash and dark red and fugitive black designs (Shimada 1990: 321, 326). It is more difficult to assign figurines to the Early and Late Sican phases. Facial characteristics, such as crescent-shaped eyes, a "beak" nose and ears with enlarged lobes, listed by Shimada, are only illustrated by two Early Sican face-necks, with no parallels amongst the figurines, and a sketch of a more human looking one. The wares mentioned are blackware and press-molded (paleteada) ware (1990: 315, 319, figs. 9, 10, 18). Late Sican is characterized by the disappearance of the Sican Lord. The ware is often red or reddish yellow "with fugitive black line decoration consisting of series of spirals, diamonds, circles, or triangles with central dots and step motifs located within partitioned decorative zones on the body [of vessels]..."(Shimada 1990: 331-333, figs. 20, 21). The Sican figurine sample presented here (only contains groups which can be definitely assigned to the Sican culture of the Northern Sector. Figurines which only show a Sican influence are included into some of the Transitional MH-LIP or Chimu groups. The following groups belong to the Sican culture:

172

Group 1: The Sican Lord and related figurines, such as "attendants"; Group 2: Plumed and Armoured Sican Personage Group 3: Sican figurines with a rounded head Group 4: Miscellaneous Sican Figurines, including pendants, ceramic heads and "Specials" 1

SICAN GROUP 1: THE "SICAN LORD" AND RELATED FIGURINES

Shimada has defined the iconic image of the "Sican Lord" as having "all or most" of the following characteristics : a wide, flat, mask-like, semi-circular face, "comma"- or "almondshaped" eyes with upwards pointing outer corners, vertical paired lines with dots below the eyes, pointed ears with concentric lines on the upper portion and rounded lobes with tiered triangular earrings, a pointed or beak-like nose, a closed mouth, sometimes intersected by perpendicular parallel lines, a wide "collar" and large, fan-shaped headdress (1990: 321). Shimada also mentions that "avian features such as wings are found on the Sican Lord's back".. in metalwork, "but rarely and less explicitly in ceramics" (1990: 324). Finally "many ...incised features on ceramics are executed in thin, shallow, polished indentations termed Sican grooves..."(1990: 321). On the basis of these characteristics, the sample contains nine figurines, which are representations of the Sican Lord, or—in the case of two less elaborate specimens (255, 952)—his attendants. But there is an important difference between some of these figurines: five figurines have clearly folded arms, whilst four have short lateral projections, which can be interpreted as extended arms or as the "wings" mentioned by Shimada. However as most other features are shared, there is no case to divide this group into sub-groups. Note also that some of the atypical figurines have both folded arms and "wings". Table 28 Plate 47 Sample: 9 figurines + 3 atypical + 1 associated (examined 9) Measurements: Minimum Maximum Median Height (9): 13.3 cm 17.0 cm 15.4 cm Width (8): 7.0 cm 10.4 cm 9.8 cm Thickness (8): 3.9 cm 5.5 cm 4.6 cm Weight (6): 190 gr. 300 gr. 210 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Standing figurines with a large semi-circular headdress. The head is usually quite flat in profile. The semi-circular face has the typical flat, mask-like appearance; most figurines have "comma" eyes, 120 has almond-shaped eyes; incised tear-lines occur on five specimens (with dots on 970, 2039, C35), painted on 1092; the nose is mostly damaged (only 970 has punctated nostrils); the mouth is a thin incised line (molded lips on 952); 970 has incised, 1092 painted lines across the mouth; ears vary: 1092 to 120 have ears divided into two sections, a more or less pointed upper section (899, 970, 120 with incised lines) and round lobes with holes or circular depressions, whilst 2039 and C35 only have circular pierced ears and 255 and 952 only have small protuberances. No neck. The body varies: 1092 has folded arms and separate, splayed cylindrical legs without feet; 899, 970, 898, 120 have a narrower body, with arms folded at the waist and sketchy hands, straight legs conjoined along the middle, ending in protruding square feet; 2039, C35, 255, 952 have short lateral projections representing arms or wings, 2039 and C35 have conjoined legs with square platform feet, 255 has separate splayed legs, flaring at the bottom and lacking feet, 252 has similar but conjoined legs. Breast are covered by a shirt, the genital area is shown as a triangle on 899, 970, 898, 1

Also called ""Rotund figure" (Kroeber 1926:28; 1944:74-5; Bennett 1939), "Tin Woodsman" (Scheele and Patterson 1966:20) or "Bird man" and identified with Naymlap, the mythical or legendary ruler of the Lambayeque region or the personification of the moon by various authors (Shimada 1990: 321).

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2039 and C35 but there is no incision to indicate a vulva; on 120 the genital area is covered by a small square loin cloth, 1092, 255, 952 show no genitalia. Backs fall into two types: Type 2 (899, 970, 898, 2039 and C35) shows a small appendage—with or without incised fringe— hanging from the skull-cap, over a wide horizontal section, going from ear to ear above the neck; replaced by a hanging panel on C35), and a triangular incision in the buttocks area below the shirt (interestingly 898 also shows some modelling of the buttocks). Type 1 (1092, 120, 255, 952) features a central medallion with hanging panel in lieu of the skull-cap; 120 has a rectangular panel hanging between the legs. There is similar diversity in the clothing and ornaments: the headdress falls basically into two main styles: 1092, 899, 970, 898, 255, 952 wear a rounded skull-cap to which a semicircular crown is attached; both vary in size (e.g. note the larger skull-cap and smaller crown on 899 and vice-versa on 255). The skull-cap can be decorated (1092: diagonal painted stripes, 899: incised design, 970: incised fringe) or plain; the crown ditto (899, 970, 255 have sets of two incised parallel lines, painted on 1092). A different style of headdress worn by 120, 2039, C35 has—instead of the skull cap—a large flat angular "diadem", slightly differing in shape and decor, with a small visor below on 2039, C35, to which is attached a semicircular crown, either plain (120) or incised to suggest feathers. The backs of the headdresses also vary (see above: back), but the two styles of backs do not necessarily correlate with the two styles of fronts! All the specimens (except possibly 1092) wear a short tunic to the waist, close to the body and plain (899, 970, 898, 120); or flaring at the waist, with square sleeves (or wings?), either plain (255, 952), or with an incised edge (2039, C35). Note also short loin-cloths on 120 and C35 and the parallel painted lines on the legs of 1092. All the specimens also wear a collar or necklace, either plain or with incised decor (899: semi-circles, 970: sets of lines, 2039, C35: small vertical incisions); 1092 has a double necklace, one with painted dots. The figurines with folded arms have incised armbands (painted on 1092). 2039 and C35 wear two-tiered pendant earrings with incised decor. Manufacture All the figurines are mould-made, but often with details added in the typical "thin, shallow indentations" which Shimada calls Sican grooves (1990:321). They are hollow with airholes between the legs and/or at the anus, (255 at armpits). Six specimens are in blackware, mostly are burnished but not slipped; three in oxidised ware, 1092 with a cream slip and red decor. Atypical SAC 199: Although clearly representing the Sican Lord, this figurine is atypical because of the nature of the extended arms, in fact only outsize hands. Large headdress, mask-like semicircular face, typical "comma" eyes with tear-lines, large nose, incised mouth? circular ears. Short square body; the extended hands have five molded fingers, the lower body shows an incised triangle, the legs are partly separate but joined at the feet, which are large, with incised toes. No data regarding the back. The figure wears an elaborate headdress with high skull-cap, supporting two lots of cascading feathers, a short tunic with incised border, circular ear-plugs with dotted edge, necklace with vertical incisions. Mold-made in blackware, position of airholes unknown. SAC 421: shows both folded arms and small wing-like lateral projections from the upper arms. Simple semi-circular headdress with skull-cap and crown. Semi-circular face, eyes not clearly visible, diagonal painted tear-lines; small nose, incised mouth, circular ears with central depression. Stocky body with short conjoined legs and large feet with incised toes. The back is said to have "parallel horizontal lines" perhaps similar to Sican Group 2? Short tunic and loin cloth, plain necklace, incised armbands. Mold-made, probably in oxidised ware, cream or terracotta surface, position of airholes unknown. 619: Elaborate figurine also with folded arms and larger wing-like projections, standing on a short rectangular pedestal. The semi-circular headdress is in one piece (e.g. not consisting of skull-cap and crown), decorated with stamped circles; extremely flat profile. The face shows some unusual modelling of the cheeks and nose-to-chin lines; the eyes are circular with a

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large central depression and a thin relief line projecting sideways, probably a simplified "comma" eye; large beaked nose, small molded mouth, circular ears with small parallel incisions above, recalling the classic pointed ear. Rounded shoulders and arms with wing-like projections, decorated with parallel incisions, naturalistic molded hands; short conjoined legs, large feet with incised toes. Plain back, but molded buttocks and protruding feet. The figure wears a tunic with relief incised edge and "leggings" consisting of three incised bands, circular ear-plugs with dotted edge, central dot and narrow incised upper extension, an incised necklace and armbands. The pedestal is also decorated. Mold-made and apparently hollow but lacking airholes, oxidised ware, pale orange surface. Associated SAC 198: The link is only with the atypical 619 (pedestal, rounded arms and molded hands, shape of feet and ears).1 The rounded headdress is lower and decorated with three lots vertical parallel relief lines above a relief edge. The triangular face has elliptic eyes with thick molded lids and eyeballs, large nose, molded lips, circular ears. Short body, rounded at the folded arms with molded hands, very short legs, large feet with incised toes. No data regarding the back. The figure wears a tunic with relief edge, circular. concave ear-plugs, a necklace with impressed circles-and-dot, similar armbands. Circular, decorated pedestal. Mold-made, in terracotta ware, position of airholes unknown. DISCUSSION

Special features / Links with other groups Although none of the figurines have all the characteristics of the Sican Lord defined by Shimada (see above), they combine enough of these to identify the personage. Whether the Sican Lord depicts the legendary figure of Naymlap, founder of a powerful new dynasty in the Lambayeque Valley is the object of much argument and beyond the scope of this study.2 Most of the features (mask-like face, "comma" eye, tear-lines, thin incised mouth, two-part pointed ears or plain round ones, as well as types of headdress, tunic, jewellery and the specific thin-line incisions) have innumerable parallels on published vessels (see Lavalle 1989, passim). But some features deserve special mention: 1092 has cylindrical legs lacking feet and placed quite widely apart, a feature which we see in NC-MH Groups 1, 3, 5. The horizontal painted lines on them are also a MH feature (see, for instance 169/MH-LIP Gr. 1. A number of specimens have an incised triangle in the genital area. On most Peruvian figurines this would mean a genital triangle or Mons veneris, identifying the figurine as female. This is generally the case in groups where some specimens only have the genital triangle, while other identical ones also have an incised or punctated vulva, confirming the female sex. But since here the figurines represent a known male personage, we must presume that the triangle represents a loin cloth—even though 899 and 898 feature a hole in the vulva area. For other figurines with a triangular loin-cloth see NC-MH Group 1 (but here a bulge clearly shows the male sex) and NC Epiformative sg. 2.2.. Five figurines have also a triangular incision in the buttocks area, a feature that also occurs on Chimu figurines (see Chimu Recurrent Features). Some modelling of the buttocks occurs on 898 and the atypical 619: this is a Moche-derived feature, more typical for the Jequetepeque area (see Moche sg.1.5.1). Only the atypical SAC 199 has clearly extended arms. On 2039, C35, 255, 952 we see something like truncated sleeves, rather than wings. Some vessels show the Sican lord with similar square sleeves with incised decor, out of which protrude arms lifted upwards (Zevallos Quiñones 1989: 32, 59). Here the atypical SAC 421 and especially 619 definitely have winglike projections, widely interpreted as an avian feature. 619 is a less elaborate version of 1

Note also that the figurine is recorded as "Lambayeque" in the Registro de bienes culturales arqueológicos. 2 See Moseley and Cordy Collins, Eds, (199) passim, but especially the articles by Ch. Donnan (1990) and I. Shimada (1990).

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some of the grander golden tumis (Kauffmann-Doig 1989: 173, 175) featuring only the lower part of the elaborate headdress, but with vertical nose-to-chin lines, not shown on other figurines; note also the hands with molded fingers and off-set thumb (a Moche feature!), the large feet with incised toes, the ear-plugs with narrow upward extension and similar clothing. Even the pedestal is nearly identical both in shape and decor with the platform above the tumi blade. Only the back is different, plain, but with modelled buttocks. It is just possible that this specimen is a fake, also considering that it has no airholes. 255 and 952 are much less elaborate than the others, not only in their accoutrements, but even in their features (no tear-lines, sketchy ears). It is possible that they depict the Lord's attendants, often represented schematically on vessels with the Lord (Lavalle 1989: 37), though they can also be very elaborate (Lavalle 1989: 38 right). Context: None Geographic distribution: There are two unverifiable provenances (from Trujillo and Lambayeque) and two suggested ones for the northern area (Museo Brüning collection, see Appendix 1). Chronology In the absence of a detailed Sican pottery seriation, our dating must use elements provided by Shimada and his Sican phases based on the iconography of the "Sican Lord" vessels (1990; 1995: 27). Basically many iconographic details of the figurines (mask-like face, tear-lines, elaborate ear-rings, probably the elaboration of the headdress1) fit the "Sican Lord" of Middle Sican, dating roughly to the early phases of the LIP (1 to 3?). One problem however is the ears. Shimada shows them as becoming increasingly more pointed from Early to Late Sican. But 1092 with its cylindrical, wide-apart legs, decorated with horizontal stripes and its painted decor—similar to NC MH Groups 1,3,5 figurines— must date to MH 3 or 4, even though the ears are extremely pointed. Note that the more elaborate—later—figurines (2039, C35) lack the "two-section" ears altogether. Furthermore a Sican-style pendant (P133/Sican sg. 4.1) with a large headdress and central diadem, similar to that of 120, 2039, C35 was excavated in a late MH context at Pata de Burro, Chicama Valley. Some of the atypical figurines, in particular 619 which has a definite Moche look (rounded body outline, molded hands with fingers and thumb, molded buttocks) are also difficult to date. To recap, we cannot say with certainty to which Sican phase theses figurines belong. With the exception of 1092 and the atypical 619 which are slightly earlier, the majority probably belongs to the end of Early Sican and mainly to Middle Sican. SICAN GROUP 2: PLUMED AND ARMOURED PERSONAGE

Although this small group presents some of Shimada's characteristics of the Sican Lord (see Group 1)—notably the wide "collar", the fan-shaped headdress and the "wings"—the overall aspect is quite different: the figures have lost their mask-like face with tear-lines, the "comma eye", small incised mouth, the ears. The clothing and ornamentation, including the headdress and collar—even though based on the "Sican Lord"—and especially the back are quite different. The typical technique of the thin Sican grooves is also missing. Table 29 Plate 48 Sample: 3 figurines (examined 3) Measurements: The figurines measure between 14.4 cm and 15.1 cm in height, 9.9 cm and 10.1 cm in width, 3.9 cm and 4.3 cm in thickness and weigh between 200 gr. and 250 gr.

1

This is not visible on the illustrated vessels which end in a simple spout, but they do show an overall increase in the elaboration through the phases.

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GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Standing figurines with a very large headdress. Flat profile. Small oval face with strongly modelled features and incised nose-to-chin lines; almond-shaped eyes, large nose with alae, fleshy lips, no ears, no neck. The body is fairly broad, with thin arms folded at the waist and conjoined legs with slightly protruding "platform" feet, small wings with featherlike incisions protruding from the shoulders; breasts and genitals are not shown. The back shows the two tiers of the headdress held by a central medallion and six or seven parallel relief bands across the body. The headdress, secured by a chin-strap, shows a "diadem", consisting of a rectangular band with two inverted hook-like attachments on each side, surmounted by an inverted trapeze, both decorated with incisions, and a very large two-tier feather crown. The figurines also wear a hip-length tunic, plain in front, "layered" at the back; 2382 and 1141 also wear a short loin-cloth; all wear an elaborate collar or necklace of several differently decorated rows. Manufacture The three figurines are mold-made and hollow, with a variety of airholes locations: between the legs (in front) or/and at the anus, through the headdress, at the shoulders. The figurines, made of a fine, hard, reduced greyish to black ware, are burnished but not slipped,. DISCUSSION

Special features/Links with other groups It is difficult to identify the personage represented here. I have not found an identical headdress on Sican ceramic vessels, although the feathers on 2039 and C35 and the medallion in the back of 1092, 120, 255, 952 (all in Sican Group 1) are similar. Some metal objects, especially ear-plugs, (Kauffmann-Doig 1989: 242; Shimada 1995: fig. 23) and one textile figure show approximations (Reid 1989: 139), with a similar diadem and—on two of the examples—two tiers of feathers, though none have the peculiar inverted lateral hooks. Note also that only the textile rendering actually features wings. Certainly we are dealing here with an important personage: on the ear-plugs cited above he is being carried on a litter, whilst on the textile, where he is shown with wings, he holds up an unidentified object, perhaps a bag, in each hand. The gesture itself reminds one of the way trophy heads are held in a sacrificial ritual. If this is not the Sican Lord it must be a Lord of Sican, possibly with a mythical connotation because of the wings. Interestingly a few Chimu figurines, some of them clearly representing females also wear a headdress with the central medallion at the back and a layered tunic (P120, 1158/Chimu sg. 1.1.1) Context: None Geographic distribution: The only pointer—other than stylistic—towards the Lambayeque region is that 192 was donated by Brüning. However a figurine with a similar though less elaborate back was excavated in Pacatnamú (see P120/Chimu 1.1.1) Chronology Because of the iconographic relationship with the Sican Lord, who is mainly a Middle Sican phenomenon, and in the absence of any other indication, we must assume that this group also dates to that period. SICAN GROUP 3: FIGURINES WITH A ROUNDED HEAD

Whilst the personages in Sican Groups 1 and 2 are shown to be high-ranking because of their accoutrements, the three figurines in Group 3 are very likely "commoners". Table 30 Plate 48 Sample: 3 figurines (examined 3)

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Measurements: The figurines measure between 9.9 cm and 14.2 cm in height, circa1 6.0 cm and 7.5 cm in width, 4.4 cm and 6.3 cm in thickness and weigh between ca 150 gr.and 250 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Standing figurines—901 and 287 leaning slightly backwards—with a rounded head, wide and rounded in profile on 287 and 900. Oval face, faintly mask-like (901 and 287), though the latter and 900 have deep nose-to-chin lines; coarsely rendered features: incised "comma eyes" (molded on 901), large nose, narrow incised mouth (small perforation on 900), pointed ears with rounded lobes (901), large semi-circular flaps with central perforation (others). Body varying in outline-from nearly straight, lacking shoulders (287) to rounded shoulders and arms (900); arms folded at the waist, square hands, mostly with incised fingers; conjoined legs (some modelling of the knees on 901), bulky feet, no toes; genitals not shown (901), incised triangle but no vulva (287), hidden by tunic (900). The backs vary: 901 shows a tie below the cap, a square panel hanging to below the shoulders, the edge of the tunic and some modelling of the buttocks; 287 shows an incised edge to his cap, a tumpline containing a vessel and the tunic and belt, 900 just the tunic and belt. All wear a round cap, 901 with a visor, 287 and 900 with a plain relief band over the forehead, (and the crossed ends of the tumpline on 287); all wear a tunic, 901 to just below the waist, 287 slightly longer, 900reaching the feet; 287 and 900 have a relief belt. 901 wears a plain relief necklace, 287 a double one with incisions; 901 wears large circular ear-plugs, 287 and 900 armbands. Manufacture The figurines are mold-made, 287 and 900 hand-finished, and hollow, with airholes at the anus and mouth, 287 has no airholes. 901 is in oxidised ware, with a buff, speckled slip and red decor, the others are in burnished blackware. DISCUSSION

Links with other groups Some features are shared with the Sican Lord (Group 1): 901 has the pointed ears and the buff and red, slightly speckled ware (as 1092); 901and 287 also have a mask-like face (see profile); the incised genital triangle and "platform" feet of 287 are similar to nos. 899-C35, details, such as the eyes of 287 are rendered in the Sican groove technique. 287, with its tumpline and jar similar to those carried by Chimu Group 5 figurines, is probably related to the traveller from the Sierra, most clearly shown in Chancay Group 2 (see Chimu 5 and Chancay 2: Discussion). The theme is not uncommon on Sican vessels (Fig 14)

MBL 1567

MBL 1571

MBL 1573

Fig. 14: Sican Figure Vessels The very broad head in profile, especially of 900, is typical for monkeys (Chimu Group 8, Chancay Group 7). On figurines this feature occurs mainly during the MH.2 Context: None Geographic distribution: 901 and 900 come from the Museo Brüning, Lambayeque.

1 2

Some of the measurements are not absolutely accurate as the specimens are slightly damaged. See Moche Gr. 7, 940, 762 - Discussion.

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Chronology Although the ears of 901, the mask-like profiles of 901 and 287, the Sican groove technique all point to Middle Sican or even earlier (the pointed ears and the cream and red ware also occur on 1092/Sican 1, a figurine with late MH features), the similarity with the vessels depicted above and with some figurines in Chimu Gr. 5 points to a later date (Late Sican). SICAN GROUP 4: MISCELLANEOUS FIGURINES

This group covers pendants, ceremonial or totemic heads and a Sican-related "Special". SICAN SUB-GROUP 4.1: PENDANTS

These four pendants have been classified as Sican because of features such as the specific headdress and wings (P133) or the mask-like face, ears, decor in Sican grooves and quality of the blackware on the others. Table 31 Plate 49 Sample: 4 figurines (examined 3) Measurements: The figurines measure around 5.5 cm in height, 3.4 cm and 3.9 cm in width, 1.2 cm and 2.2 cm in thickness and weigh around 20 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

1

Very small figurines with two holes through the semi-circular crown of their headdress probably used as pendants. The semi-circular face reminds of the mask-like face of the Sican Lord (Gr. 1), the eyes consist of two curved incisions, as if closed, the nose is tiny and round, the mouth a simple incision, the ears differ: typical Sican ears with a pointed upper section and circular lobes (8), missing (9, P133), shown as circular ear-plugs with central depression (10). No neck, more or less narrow body with straight sides. The arms are not represented, P133 appears to have "wings"; the legs are separate (8, 9), missing (10), shown as large feet only (P133). No genitals. Featureless back. The headdress consists of a plain semi-circular crown fixed to a skull cap, possibly held in place by a chin strap. P133 has a diadem instead of a skull-cap, reminiscent of Sican Gr. 2 specimens. 8, 9 have a double incised belt, damaged on 10. A plain necklace is worn by 8, 9, decorated with semi-circles on 8. DISCUSSION

8 and 9 are similar to the attendants of the Lord of Sican as they appear on vessels in their simplest form (cf. the eyes and lack of arms on Zevallos Quiñones 1989: 35, lower left). Context: P133 was found in a child burial at Pata de Burro, Chicama V., together with two other pottery pendants (one human, one a bird) and several other stone amulets (see Gravelot to P117/NC MH-LIP Gr. 3). Geographic distribution: The only ceratin provenance is for P133 from the Chicama Valley, three specimens from the Spottiswoode collection could come from Pacasmayo. Chronology: Bennett, who excavated the small cemetery at Pata de Burro, dated the assemblage to the latter part of the MH. This means that P133, which—with its more elaborate "diadem"— iconographically belongs to Middle Sican (see Sican Gr. 1) could date to Early Sican.2 The remaining three specimens probably date to Middle Sican, when the "attendants" to the Sican Lord are particularly popular.

1

As P133 is only known from a thumb-nail sketch, the description is mainly based on the other three specimens. 2 Shimada (1995: Table I) sees the Sican influence in the Moche/Chicama area staring as early as 800 AD, e.g. during MH 3-4.

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SICAN SUB-GROUP 4.2: CEREMONIAL CERAMIC HEADS

Although these objects are not figurines, they are human representations which are not vessels, so they are worth mentioning. The sample contains three large specimens and a group of 27 much smaller ones from museum collections and a further three published specimens. According to Zevallos Q. (1989: 20, 36) these were mounted on poles or sticks and used in a ceremonial context. According to W. Alva (pers. com.) they are not uncommon and cold have been used on wooden or textile idols or even on fardos. The care with which the larger heads are made shows that they must have been objects of some importance. Table 31 Plate 49 Sample: 5 large and 27 near identical small heads Measurements: The large heads measure between 15.6 cm and 20.50 cm in height, 19.6 cm and 22.5 cm in width; the thickness (known for two specimens) is 11.6 and 13.8 respectively, their weight 570 gr. and 840 gr. The small heads measure between 4.5 and 5.5 cm in height and between 5.0 and 7.0 cm in width. CHARACTERISTICS

1241 was acquired from M. Friis, who owned an hacienda in the Chepén area. The head has a rounded crown painted black, the rounded back of the head is also painted black. The face is mask-like, painted white, except for an unpainted area—with a thin black line in the middle— running from the forehead over the nose and mouth to the chin; a slight rounded depression around the mouth, from the nose to the chin, replaces the more common nose-to-chin lines; a black line is also painted under the chin. The painted comma eyes are outlined in black with circular black pupils; the modelled nose is beak-like with small punctated nostrils; the mouth is formed by a slight depression, with painted black lips and white teeth with black interstices; the ears have a rather narrow (not pointed) upper section and rounded lobes, they are unpainted, except for circular white ear-plugs. There is no neck. The specimen appears handmade (there is no visible mold joint), it is hollow with a large oval hole at the base and 14 holes around the crown, two through the nose and two at each side of the base, perhaps to fix the head onto a pole. The ware is fine and the black and white paint vivid, maybe it was retouched. But it is probably genuine, with details like the line painted along the bridge of the nose and under the chin, which are relatively little-known MH features. 942 said to come from Batán Grande (Lavalle 1989: 24)1 has a similar head shape as 1241 (above). The face is not mask-like, but shows some modelling of the cheeks, the chin and around the nose and mouth. The comma eyes, under the projecting forehead, are made by deep grooves, leaving the eyeballs raised, with holes for the pupils. The large modelled nose has punctated nostrils, alae and the groove to the mouth. The mouth is formed by a curved incision with slightly raised, thin lips. The ears have a wider and more pointed upper section than 1241 and large circular lobes indicating ear-plugs. The oval chin is jutting, the short neck has seven holes. The specimen is probably hand-modelled, it is hollow (the large opening through the base has a diameter of 4.9 cm). The pale terracotta ware shows black speckles and is burnished. P134, P135, P136: These three heads only differ in small details. The most clearly visible are the ears: unpainted upper section, white ear-plugs (P134), entire ear painted white, with fugitive black border (P135), entirely painted (as P135), but slightly more pointed and with a small perforation through the lobes (P136). All three wear a large semi-circular headdress, consisting of a skull-cap, large crown and a large projecting central ornament; the painted decor varies slightly: P135 for instance has two transversal lines across the crown, left unpainted but outlined in black. The profile and back are not known. The headdress appears to be sitting on the lower part of the face: there is a clear groove running across the top of the ears and eyes. The face is mask-like, with incised 1

This provenance is surprising as none of the specimens at the Museo Brüning, Lambayeque, collected by Brüning himself (with early accession numbers) have a provenance.

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curved nose-to-chin lines and painted vertical tear-lines. The modelled comma eyes vary slightly: P134 has very large white lower lids (like pockets under the eyes), on P135 the eyes are entirely painted white but outlined in black, on P136 the pupils are outlined in black. The nose is beautifully modelled with alae and probably also nostrils. In contrast the mouth is stylised, incised, slightly rounded, but with square corners; incised and painted teeth are visible on P134. All have a short neck. These specimens are mold-made, possibly in two separate parts, as the headdress appears to be placed on the face. They are very probably hollow. The terracotta ware is partly painted in white and black fugitive paint. 2160 comprises 27 small hand-made heads. The head is rounded, often with the forehead projecting over the eyes. The face is round to oval without modelling only incised nose-tochin lines. The eyes can be comma-shaped or round, mostly appliquéd, with a small punctation marking the pupils, or simply incised; the nose is crudely molded and featureless, the mouth a simple incision or missing, the ears are large rounded flaps, sometimes with incised round ear-plugs. Short neck. The hand-made specimens are solid, but pierced by a vertical hole. The oxidised ware is dirty terracotta in colour with traces of a red slip. DISCUSSION

Context: None Geographic distribution: Two suggested provenances point to the Northern sector of the North Coast. Chronology: Although all the heads clearly belong to the Sican culture and the large heads could be seen as representations of the Sican Lord of the Middle Sican phase, there are no specifically datable features Possibly the smaller ears of 1241 could be earlier than those of the four other large heads? A SICAN "SPECIAL" Table 31 Plate 49 1409 is a relatively large figurine of unknown provenance. The head, not flattened in profile, is covered by a cylindrical "top hat". The face is covered by a copper mask, only showing the beak-like nose, the outline of the comma-eyes and the typical Sican ears with pointed upper section and semi-circular lobes; short neck. The rotund body lacks shoulders, the short arms with five-finger hands are folded at the chest, the short tubular legs are completely separate, ending in tiny feet with incised toes. There are no breasts or genitals. The back is also rotund, without features, other than the clothing. The headdress is decorated with painted step designs, the edge of the top is outlined in red. A tunic is suggested by a painted vertical line on the chest and one around the waist, above two incised lines indicating a belt. A plain necklace ends in two tassels hanging in the back. Incised armbands. The figurine is probably mold-made; it is hollow, with one airhole at the anus. The surface is dark buff (speckled) with red decor. This figurine clearly belongs to the Sican style, because of its typical eyes and ears. The "rotund" shape of the body has a few parallels amongst NC Epiformative figurines (see Salinar or Gallinazo "Elite" figurines/NC-Epiformative sgs.1.2 and 2.2). Only one other NC figurine has a similar headdress and also shares—up to a point—the vertical and horizontal painted lines suggesting a tunic and belt and the broad plain necklace (2197/NC MH Gr.1 Huari Norteño B). The tassels in the back also occur on a Sican-related specimen (1259/NC MH-LIP Gr. 1). Both these figurines date to the late MH. Considering the similarities with these early NC specimens 1409 must date to Early Sican.

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THE SICAN FIGURINES: SYNOPSIS

The Sican sample includes 29 figurines, of which five are large ceramic heads; a further 27 small nearly identical heads are also included in this study. Characteristics of the Sican figurines All the figurines are standing,1 mostly with arms folded at the waist. On four specimens the arms are not shown (2039, C35,255, 952/Gr.1, see Discussion), on SAC 199 atypical /Gr.1 the arms are extended sideways. The height of the figurines goes from 5.6 cm (9, a pendant/sg. 4.1) to 26.7 cm (1409/Gr.4 "Special"); the median height is around 13.0 cm. The large ceramic heads measure between 15.6 cm and 20.5 cm, the small ones between 4.5 and 5.5 cm. The sex is never indicated, though one assumes that the Sican Lord and the "Plumed and . Armoured Personage" are male.The accoutrements, especially in Groups 1 and 2 are more varied and elaborate than in the Moche and Chimu cultures. Manufacture of the Sican figurines A. The wares Table 1: Wares Group

Total number

Sican Group 1 Sican Group 2 Sican Group 3 Sican Sub-Group 4.1 Sican Sub-Group 4.2

13 3 3 4 5 (+27)2

Oxidized Ware Plain

Sican "Special" TOTAL %3

1 29 (+ 27)

+ 1 colour + 2 colours

4

1

5 18 %

Not Known

8 3 2 3

1 1

Reduced Ware (Black)

1

4

1 3 11 %

4 14 %)

16 57 %

1

B. The manufacturing technique The figurines in groups 1-3 and the one "Special" in Gr. 4 are made of two molds and hollow. The three pendants in sg. 4.1 are made of one frontal mold and solid. The five large ceramic heads (sg. 4.2) are probably partly mold- and partly hand-made and hollow, while the group of 27 small heads are hand-made and solid. C. Airholes Table 2: Position of Airholes Group

Total

Anus Between legs At Anus + (At, above or or feet between legs or below) (front or back) feet 3 3 2 1

1 2

13 3

3 4 .1 4 4 "Special " Total %5

3 4 1

1

24

5 29 %

Others

No

1 at armpits 1 headdress, between legs, anus; 1 shoulders 1 mouth

1

N/A Not (S) known 3

1 4

1 4 23.5 %

2 12 %

4 23.5 %

2 12 %

4

3

In spite of the small sample, it is clear that the airhole positions are fairly similar to those of the NC Transitional MH-LIP groups, with a slightly larger proportion of airholes at the anus and/or "between the legs". They have less in common with the NC MH groups, where more specimens have airholes at the neck or shoulders. 1

Excluding the ceramic heads, sg. 4.2. Not included in % calculation. 3 The percentages are calculated after deducting the number of "unknowns" (last column) from the total number of figurines. 4 The Ceramic heads/sg.4.2 are not included. 5 The percentages are calculated after deducting the number of "unknowns" and "not applicable" (last two columns) from the total number of figurines. 2

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Context of the Sican figurines Only the pendant P133/sg.4.1 has a known context: it comes from a grave. Geographic Distribution: There is only one certain provenance (P133/sg.4.1, from the Chicama Valley!), two unverifiable ones (from Trujillo and Lambayeque), and nine suggested ones from the Northern area, including three from Pacasmayo.. Chronology of the Sican figurines In the absence of a Sican pottery seriation, the main criteria for dating the figurines have been those available for Middle Sican (Shimada 1990). The specimens which fall outside these criteria are discussed in each group. Table 3: Chronology of the Sican figurines MH3 Sican Group 1 Sican Group 2 Sican Group 3 Sican sg. 4.1 Sican sg. 4.2 Sican Gr.4 "Special"

MH4 Early Sican

?

183

LIP 1-3? Middle Sican

Later LIP Late Sican

184

CHAPTER 9 THE LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD AND THE LATE HORIZON ON THE NORTH COAST PART II: THE CHIMU CULTURE 1

INTRODUCTION

The Chimu culture succeeds the Moche culture in the Moche and Chicama valleys, after a brief interlude marked by Wari influences in the Middle Horizon. During its Middle phase it gradually expands from this heartland northwards to the Jequetepeque and southwards to the Casma valleys (with later incursions as far as the Central Coast). During its Late phase the Kingdom of Chimor conquers the region of Lambayeque and the northern valleys of Piura, Chira and Tumbez. It is in turn conquered by the Inca Empire around AD 1470.2 The Chimu culture is dated from about AD 900 (sometimes as early as AD 700 or 8003) to the Spanish conquest: Chimu Chronology4 Early Chimu 900/1000-1200 Middle Chimu 1200-1300 Late Chimu 1300-1470 Chimu-Inca 1470-1535 THE FIGURINES OF THE CHIMU CULTURE

Amongst all the Peruvian figurines the 206 Chimu figurines have been the most difficult to classify. The main problems have been: the lack of a proper Chimu ceramic seriation, the lack of datable comparative material, the general absence of certain, reliable or even "suggested" provenances. Finally the unusual complexity of the figurines themselves and their relationship with the Sican culture present further problems for their classification. The Classification of the Chimu Figurines The classification of the 206 Chimu figurines presents problems which are unique to this culture.5 In other large figurine samples such as those of the Moche, Nasca, Chancay or the Ica and Chincha cultures many specimens share a “set” of specific attributes (stylistic, iconographic and/or technical) allowing the formation of more or less discrete groups. The Chimu figurines on the other hand have more widely distributed traits, which are not specific to one group, but recur in different combinations in many groups. For instance: a specific headdress will occur in combination with various facial features, body- or back shapes, also present in groups with other headdresses. To complicate matters very few Chimu figurines (8 %) have a certain provenance, so that stylistic variations—which often cut across the iconographic groups—can rarely be ascribed to specific regions. We have hardly any provenances from valleys south of the MocheChicama heartland and there are no figurines "different" enough—in the way the LIP vessels from say the Virú or lower Santa valleys are different from those of the Chimu heartland 1

See also Chapter 9, Introduction: Sican versus Chimu. See Moseley, M.E. and A. Cordy-Collins, Eds.1990. See also Introduction to Chapter 9. 3 See Menzel 1977: Chronological Table; Donnan and Mackey 1978: Chart 1. 4 After Kolata 1990: Fig.2; Conlee et al 2004: 214. 5 In her study of Peruvian figurines, R. Lilien (1956: 201-226), analysing a total sample of 23 Chimu figurines, differentiates no fewer than seven figurine types! 2

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(Collier 1955: Figs. 51B-C, 52; Wilson 1988:Figs. 274-278)—to assign any of the figurines to those valleys. Only a few rare features shared with Central Coast figurines could point to a provenance from valleys to the South of the Chimu heartland. For the Northern Sector the problem is different: here we have marginally more "fairly reliable" or "suggested" provenances, but it is not always easy to distinguish Chimu specimens from their Sican counterparts (see Sican Introduction). In spite of this “overlap” of attributes and because the ultimate purpose of this Corpus is to classify Peruvian figurines—in other words to give them a specific, easily recognisable identity—in order to place them, as far as possible, in their geographic and/or chronological context, the Chimu groups, as those of other cultures, are still formed on the basis of the most easily distinguishable features, mainly the shape of the head or headdress and of the body. Of these the head (rounded, elongated, bilobed etc.) or headdress is a the most obvious characteristic feature. Three specific headdress types have been defined (see Fig. 15): Headdress Type 1: Large semi-circular or rounded headdress - either undivided (Type 1a) or divided into a skull-cap topped by a crown (Type 1b). Headdress Type 2: A rounded, bilobed or flat skull-cap, edged by a wide band ending in two lateral projections. On Type 2a the skull-cap is divided by an additional transversal band crossing at right angle, also known as a sagittal band. On Type 2b the skull cap is simply rounded or flattened, sometimes even concave. Headdress Type 3: Headdress with a concave, flat or slightly convex crown, with two raised peaks or jutting corners at both sides. Sometimes the peaks all but disappear—so that the headdress looks rectangular or slightly rounded at the sides—but the headdress type can be identified as the back remains similar.

Type 1a

Type 1b

Type 2a

Type 2b

Type 3 Fig. 15: Chimu Headdress Types One other attribute which is particularly varied on Chimu figurines is the back, with a great diversity of shapes and ornamentation which are not group-specific, but appear in different combinations. These back types are not defined by their outline (shape of the head, presence or absence of shoulders), but more by their design features; one exception is Type 3, with a squat, straight-sided body, mostly lacking a neck or any indication of legs. In order to simplify both the description and the comparison, I have defined five types of Chimu backs and their more common derivatives, trying to avoid a proliferation of types (see Fig. 16). In some cases it can be difficult to decide to which exact type a back belongs, so it is listed as a variant of its nearest type. The backs which are not related to any type are listed as "undefined". Back Type 1: Showing some modelling (f.i. a groove at the neck) and/or an airhole; Type 1A: Similar to Type 1, but with some or all of the following additional details: modelling of the arms and/or legs, lower edge of the tunic, necklace, ear-plugs. Back Type 2: Characterized by a headdress ending at or below the neck—either rounded or in a point; can also show minimal modelling, the ear-plugs and/or an airhole;

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Type 2A: In addition to the headdress other details are shown: incised hair below the headdress, modelling of the arms, buttocks, legs, etc (see type 1A); Type 2B: In addition to features listed in 2 and 2A, there is a vertical groove along the spine. Type 2C: Features parallel incised hair on the head, whilst the body may or may not feature the vertical groove of Back 2B; Back Type 3: Straight-sided figurines, showing the back of the headdress and vertically incised hair; occasionally also a wide but flat belt, generally also an airhole; Type 3A: (typical for Late Northern Chimu): The hair is diagonally incised with central parting; raised undecorated relief band at or below the waist; airhole; sometimes also other features, such as a vertical grove. Back Type 4 (Sican related): The classic Sican backs show four distinctive features: a semicircular headdress with a central medallion (e.g. 1092, 952/Sican sg.1), a fringe or pendant (e.g. 899, C35/Sican Gr.1) a transversal bulge at the base of the head, above the neck (e.g. 898, 2039), and horizontal layers of clothing (e.g. Sican sg.2). In Sican these features mostly appear in combination, whilst in Chimu they often appear separately. A Chimu headdress with any such feature points to a connection with Sican. Type 4A: Features the central ornament and/or the layered clothing; in some cases only the semi-circular crest-shaped headdress reminds of Sican; Type 4B: The characteristic feature is the transversal bulge at the base of the head, which can be associated with other features; Back Type 5: A rare type defined by horizontal incisions (or relief bands) at the neck and the waist.

Type 1

Type 1A

Type 2

Type 2A

Type 3

Type 4A

Type 2B

Type 2C

Type 3A

Type 4B

Type 5

Fig. 16: Chimu Backs The Dating of the Chimu Figurines When trying to date figurines of the Chimu culture we face several problems:

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An in-depth typology and chronology of Chimu ceramics has not yet seen the light of day,1 a fact confirmed in conversation by Carol Mackey, one of the foremost Chimu scholars. The few early attempts at a Chimu ceramic chronology were based on relatively small samples, often lacking a proper stratigraphic context (Kroeber 1925, 1926, 1930; Bennett 1939; Larco 1948). Surface surveys like Ford and Willey (1949) or Collier (1955) in the Virú valley or Wilson's (1988) in the Santa valley do not yield sufficient comparative material. Scheele and Patterson's attempt (1966), based on some excavated material and a larger sample from museum collections, is now considered flawed. Although many of the participants in the large-scale Chan Chan-Moche Valley project (1969-1974) wrote up the ceramics of their particular excavations, no overview of this ceramic material has been published.2 Potentially the most useful study is Donnan and Mackey's 1978 analysis of 62 gravelots from the Moche/Chicama valleys, divided into Early, Middle, Late and Chimu/Inca phases. Unfortunately it includes no Chimu figurines3 and the majority of the Chimu graves contain domestic rather than prestige ware. This lack of a Chimu pottery chronology is also reflected in museum- or exhibition catalogues which present their material within an un- or ill-defined chronological framework (e.g. Schjellerup 1985; Martinez 1986; Kop Jansen 1986; Lavalle 1986 and many others). Such publications often differ in their phase attributions. For instance: if we compare the Chimu collection from the National Museum of Denmark (80 specimens, see Schjellerup 1985) with that of the Museo the America, Madrid (835 specimens, see Martinez 1986)—both with a comprehensive sample of Chimu prestige pottery—we note that the proportion of specimens from the various phases are very different indeed: Schjellerup 1985: 80 specimens 700-1100 AD 1100-1470 AD 1470-1532 AD

Early Chimu = 24% Middle Chimu= 2.5 % Late Chimu (Kingdom of Chimor) = 24% Chimu/Inca = 45 %

Martinez 1986: 835 specimens 1000 - 1200 AD

Chimu Antiguo = 8%

1200 - 1350 AD 1350 - 1470 AD 1470-1532 AD

Chimú Medio = 51% Chimú Tardío = 25% Chimu/Inca = 15 %

But when one compares these collections, there can be little doubt that any quantitative differences between specimens in different phases are a result of the individual phase attributions and the dating of the phases themselves. Note that there are also very few published figurines, in spite of large quantities of Chimu figurines in museum collections. Furthermore the personages represented as figurines occur relatively rarely on vessels, at least as far as important iconographic attributes such as the headdress or hairstyle, ornamentation etc., are concerned. If a seriation existed, diagnostic elements such as vessel shape or ware associated with such personages would help in the dating. There are some exceptions, which will be mentioned in due course. Two further difficulties are inherent in the iconography of the figurines themselves: one is the longevity of some of the iconographic attributes used in the formation of the Chimu groups. As a result many groups span several chronological phases. The other difficulty is the great variety of attributes and their combination within groups. Often these combinations are not specific enough to form sub-groups. In such cases I use the looser term of "groupings" With all these problems and caveats in mind, the Chimu figurines have been assigned to three phases: • An Early Chimu phase, with some features surviving from the MH or even from Moche, and others, of no traceable origin. Such early Chimu figurines are often 1

Margaret Hoyt's projected Ph.D. dissertation Chimu ceramics: A seriation of ancient pottery from the north coast of Peru was apparently never completed. 2 Moseley and Day's (eds.) 1982 Chan Chan focuses on wider environmental and socio-economic aspects 3 The four figurines found in Early Chimu graves 24 and 27 (Donnan and Mackey 1978: 273, 287) are not Chimu in style: see NC MH Group 2.

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part of groups which also contain specimens definitely dating to the MH and presented before the Chimu groups proper in the four NC MH-LIP groups (see above). • A Main Chimu phase: one would be tempted to call it the classic Chimu phase, if it were not for the inferior quality of some figurines, which somehow belies the term "classic". This phase spans parts of both the Middle and Late Chimu of other authors. Within this main phase one perceives notable variations which could be regional as well as or rather than chronological. • A Late Chimu phase, which includes a Chimu/Inca phase. This is because, in our present state of knowledge, very few figurines show specifically Chimu/Inca features, even though—considering that the Inca domination of the North Coast lasted over 60 years—many late Chimu figurines must belong to that time span. However, because of all the difficulties mentioned earlier, the various groups of Chimu figurines do not fit neatly into this Chimu chronology and often span two or more phases. CHIMU GROUP 1: FIGURINES WITH A SEMI-CIRCULAR TO ROUNDED (TYPE 1) HEADDRESS

This extremely numerous group is related to the transitional MH-LIP Gr. 4 and spans the whole of the Chimu culture. It is divided into four sub-groups. The most obvious difference between sub-groups is the headdress which is either divided into two sections (a small skullcap to which is attached a plain semi-circular “crown”, e.g. Type 1b)) or one that consists of the crown only (Type 1a). Another difference is the body-shape, with separate or joined, vestigial or absent legs. The resulting sub-groups are: Sub-group 1.1: Figurines with semi-circular to rounded divided headdress (Type 1b) and joined, vestigial or absent legs : Sub-group 1.1.1 : As above, (many Sican related) Sub-group 1.1.2: As above, but with "typical Chimu face" and similar specimens Sub-group 1.2: Figurines with semi-circular to rounded undivided headdress (Type 1a) and joined, vestigial or absent legs Sub-group 1.3: Miscellaneous figurines with a rounded head or headdress and separate legs CHIMU SUB-GROUP 1.1: FIGURINES WITH SEMI-CIRCULAR DIVIDED HEADDRESS (TYPE 1B) AND JOINED, VESTIGIAL OR ABSENT LEGS

The "divided" Type 1b headdress, consisting of a round crown fixed to a skull-cap, already occurs in Moche, but is generally worn by males such as deities (Benson 1972: fig.2-4) or warriors. In the Chimu culture it is worn by this figurine group and also appears on ceramic vessels, more commonly on press-molded figures (e.g. Martinez 1987: nos.728, 729, 731, 732, 738, 813) than on figures in the round (e.g. Kroeber 1926: Pl.VI/6). On Chimu metalwork, woodwork or textiles, the commonly represented headgear does show a skull-cap, but with a great variety of crowns, hardly ever a plain semi-circular one (see Lavalle 1988, A.P. Rowe 1984 passim). SUB-GROUP 1.1.1: FIGURINES WITH SEMI-CIRCULAR DIVIDED HEADDRESS (TYPE 1B) AND JOINED, VESTIGIAL OR ABSENT LEGS (SICAN RELATED)

The basis of classification for this sub-group—apart from the obvious characteristics spelt out in the title—come from two figurines, P120, excavated at Pacatnamú with marked Sican attributes, and 2329 excavated at Huaca El Brujo, in a grave with Sican-related ceramics. These figurines present specific characteristics such as the back (P120) or the narrow,

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elongated lower body, resting on small elliptic base (2329),1 sometimes in conjunction with a Sican-inspired back, which allows a number of other figurines with related features to be included here. Finally a few slightly different specimens are nevertheless included here as they fit better here than in sg. 1.1.2. Table 32 Plates 50, 51 Sample: 22 figurines (examined 19) + 4 atypical + 1 positive mold. Measurements: Minimum Maximum Median Height (22) 11.0 cm 16.8 cm 14.0 cm Width (19) 7.0 cm 11.0 cm 4.3 cm Thickness (16) 3.6 cm 5.1 cm 4.3 cm Weight (13) 160 gr. 320 gr. 210 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Group of relatively small standing figurines characterised by its large headdress (flat in profile). The face mostly lacks modelling, though incised nose-to-chin lines are quite common; molded features: elliptic eyes (though no comma- or upward slanting eyes!), nose without nostrils or alae, mouth varying from fleshy lips (e.g. 1165) to a simple incision, ears mostly covered by ear-plugs, rounded to pointed chin; no neck. The body varies from fairly squat (e.g. P120) to narrow, almost cylindrical in its lower part, resting on a near circular base (e.g. 1165). The lateral outline also varies from rounded or straight at the arms, then going straight down or tapering to the small base; arms folded at or above the waist, sometimes turned slightly upwards (1789, 1818, 2406) or not aligned (1852); no legs or feet (exceptions 1158 or 926, 36 with incised toes); no nipples (except 2406); seven specimens are clearly females, with genitals shown by a genital triangle with or without incised or punctated vulva (e.g. 1158, 1852), six doubtful females, with an airhole at, below or above the vulva—the latter could be an umbilicus?—(compare 2329, 36 with 1074, 264 or 1165, 1818); eight specimens have no genitals, 2342 has male genitals. The back is mainly type 4A (8), and 4B (7) with a few less clearly defined type 1(7) and one type 5. The headdress varies: the figurines related to P120 have a slightly lower crown and a skull-cap with molded (e.g. C31, 2342) or painted (e.g. 1158) decor; those related to 2329 have a larger semi-circular crown and a skull-cap which can have a raised lower edge (e.g. 1128); a faint line below the waist, especially in the back may indicate a tunic (on P120 with a relief edge). Most specimens wear a necklace of one row of beads: often it appears attached to the ear-plugs (e.g. 2346, 2359). The circular ear-plugs can have a large central depression (2359), a spiral design (e.g. 1165) or are semi-spherical, plain (e.g. P121, 356); 1158, C31, 1074, 2342 have tassels hanging form the ear-plugs. Manufacture All the figurines are mold-made and hollow with airholes at or below the anus (10), the vulva, or possibly the umbilicus (7), at vu1va and anus (2), umbilicus (1), no airhole (1). There are 10 specimens in oxidised wares (1642 may not have been fired) generally monochrome and 12 reduced fired specimens. Atypical: 22, 1856: Arguably these figurines could be included in Chimu Gr.6 (bilobed headdress), but in fact—like 2170, above—they are nearly identical with typical sg. 1.1.1 specimens like 2329, 1165, 1128, except for that the large headdress, with its crown divided into two large lobes by a wide depression. Other differences include the semi-circular (smiling) mouth of 22, slight separation of the legs of 1856, and the small circular applied ear-plugs (1856). Type 4 backs. Mold-made, hollow, airhole at anus, greyish-black. 2170: Very similar to the typical specimens (including relief edge of skull-cap, flat profile with sharp edge, triangular face with molded features, ear-plugs with spiral decor, type 4 1

But there are not enough differences between figurines related to either of those two specimens to justify a further sub-division into "groupings" as has been done in sg. 1.2.

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back). Differences include the separate cylindrical legs, incised vulva, necklace of two rows of beads. Mold-made, hollow, airholes at umbilicus and anus, greyish-black. 1882: Small narrow figure with large headdress. The face has comma-shaped eyes and a prognathic nose-mouth area typical for monkeys, but it lacks the rounded head (in profile), also characteristic for anthropomorphic monkeys;1 protruding ears. Long narrow body, folded arms with an unidentified object in the left hand; any other features covered by a tunic descending to the feet, which protrude (front and back). The outer edge of the headdress features small diagonal incisions (front), at the back the skull cap ends in a small tassel or hair-knot (type 4 variant). Mold-made, hollow, one airhole below the anus, patchy brownblack, highly polished. Positive mold MP3: Large headdress with bulging crown, but no clearly outlined skull-cap; marked nose-to-chin lines, protruding flap ears at shoulder level. Short straight body, folded arms, conjoined legs, no feet, but six incisions marking the toes, nipples, relief band at waist, genital triangle with vulva. Back: type 4 variant, with the buttocks shown as in incised triangle. No clothes, necklace of small angular beads, no ear-plugs or armbands. Mold-made but retouched, with a deep groove incised along the sides and also under the base, partly hollow; airhole through the base, blackware. DISCUSSION

Special Features/Links with other groups Two thirds of the figurines in this sub-group have Type 4 backs, varying from the simple Type 4 such as 1165 through more complex (e.g. 1482) to the extremely elaborate forms like P120, 1158: these are all linked to the Sican style. Type 4 backs first make their appearance in MH-LIP Gr.1 (see Discussion). Some of their features, like a central circular medallion or hanging appendage and horizontal lines are very similar to details which appear separately or together on the Sican Lord (see 1092, 899, 120 in Sican Gr.1). The more elaborate backs of P120 and especially of 1158 are similar to the figurines of Sican Gr. 2, though the latter have additional Sican features (comma-eye, small wing-like appendages, tunics and necklaces) which are not present on the Chimu figurines. The question is: where did these particular iconographic traits originate and how did they spread? Is it possible that they appeared in both the southern and northern sector of the NC at the end of the MH? This would help explain their presence on what are clearly Chimu figurines. The following are special features (see Chimu Special Features - Table 43): arms folded upwards on chest, buttocks shown as an incised triangle (MP3); tassels hanging from ear-plugs (1158, C31, 1074, 2342). Context: P120 was excavated by Ubbelohde-Doering at Pacatnamú in 1962/63. It comes from Burial 47F, one of the 16 so-called "fishermen's graves", found to the west of the ramp of Huaca 31 (Hecker and Hecker 1995: 299, 367). It contained a child's fardo with three vessels and other small finds (see Gravelot). Ubbelohde-Doering writes: "...In the hands were small pieces of copper wrapped crosswise with thread and attached to the hands by means of fine strings."(ibid: 426). P121 comes from "a small cemetery situated on a cliff above the sea" at Pacatnamú, though the exact location is not known. The ceramic finds from the site—excavated by huaqueros and subsequently collected by Ubbelohde Doering—consist of globular vessels mostly with a press-molded band in the upper half (Hecker and Hecker 1995: 477-479). 2359 comes from a controlled excavation at Huaca Cao Viejo (“El Brujo”) in the Chicama valley. It is said to come from intrusive “Sican” tombs, but the associated material has not yet been made available to me.

1

See Chimu Gr. 8, CC-Chancay Gr. 7.

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Geographic Distribution Northern Sector Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested

Pacasmayo/ Jequetepeque

Moche/Chicama

2

1 4 4

1 2

1

Chronology The basis for the dating of this group is the Sican influence documented both at Pacatnamú and at "El Brujo". Unfortunately both these sources don't yield exact data. The figurines from Pacatnamú both come from graves which are not dated precisely. Hecker and Hecker acknowledge the presence of a local variant of Lambayeque (or Sican) at Pacatnamú, lasting from about 1000 to 1350AD (1995: 54, 58). To judge from the vessels which they assign to a "post classic Lambayeque period", those found in grave 47F (with P120) or associated with P121 are similar in style (1995: 103-113). But they also resemble Early Chimu vessels from the site of Moche (see Donnan and Mackey 1978: Burials EC19/2, EC21/1, 5, EC22/1). 2359 from "El Brujo" said to have been found in a grave with Sican pottery (personal communication) is likely to date to this same post classic Lambayeque phase, said to precede the expansion of Chimu towards the North. Its Type 1 back is not Sican-related, but otherwise it is very similar to other figurines in this sub-group, with their large headdress and narrow cylindrical lower body which do have a Type 4 back—similar to Sican—(f.i. 1165, 1128, 1482, 1642); but they are clearly Chimu and not Sican figurines. If we correlate the dates of Middle to Late Sican with Chimu, it is likely that sub-group 1.1.1 dates mostly to beginning of the Main Chimu phase. SUB-GROUP 1.1.2: FIGURINES WITH A SEMI-CIRCULAR DIVIDED HEADDRESS (TYPE 1B), JOINED, VESTIGIAL OR ABSENT LEGS AND THE "TYPICAL CHIMU FACE" OR SIMILAR

Table 33 Plates 52, 53 Sample: 13 figurines (examined all) + 4 atypical + 1 positive mold. Measurements: Minimum Maximum Median Height (13) 14.0 cm 20.2 cm 17.4 cm Width (13) 8.1 cm 11.0 cm 9.7 cm Thickness (12) 4.0 cm 6.2 cm 5.6 cm Weight (13) 200 gr. 490 gr. 320 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Half of the figurines (e.g. nos. 621 to 1483) in this group have what can be called the "typical Chimu face", characterized by molded, lozenge-shaped eyes with prominent eyeballs and (often) a depression at the outer corners (e.g. 621, 114, 15and a prognathic mouth with thin, straight molded lips, placed high near the nose, far above the prominent chin. 194, 1649, 913, 2374 lack this typical face but share most other features: the straight nose lacks nostrils but can have alae, ears are covered by ear-plugs, some modelling of the cheeks and/or nose-to-chin lines. No neck. Two variants of body and dress: variant 1 (nos. 621 to 128) is fairly squat, with a sinuous outline, rounded shoulders, molded arms folded at waist; short divided legs showing some modelling, large feet with or without incised toes; no nipples; umbilicus. Variant 2 (Nos.15-2374) is broader, with a straighter outline and hardly indicated legs, arms as above, nipples, umbilicus. Both variants show a female genital triangle with incised vulva; 128, 15 have male genitals. Both variants have mostly type 2 backs (9), three have type 1A backs (3). The Type 1b headdress has a smaller crown and a larger skull-cap than in sg. 1.1.1; note the bulging crown and incised skull-cap (913) and the central "medallion" instead of the skullcap (2374). All wear necklaces of one or two rows of small beads. Figurines with a variant 1

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body wear a short tunic and circular ear-plugs with a central depression, whereas those with a variant 2 body appear naked and have earplugs mostly with a punctated outer circle. A few have incised armbands. Manufacture All the figurines are mold-made and hollow, mostly with a single airhole at the anus (one at vulva, one at vulva and anus, one at umbilicus, one without). All are reduced-fired and the majority have a self-slip in shades of black, often highly polished. Atypical: 269: Figurine with large headdress, crudely modelled features, unusual pointed ears. Slim body with unusually wide shoulders and protruding folded arms, protruding feet, no genitals. Back type 1. Unusually wide collar with a plain central section and two rows of beads on either side; armbands. Mold-made, hollow, greyish-black, unpolished; one airhole above the anus. 2376: Headdress with a lower crown and narrow skull-cap. Triangular face with some modeling (eye-sockets, cheeks, nose-to-chin lines). No neck or shoulders; wide body with arms folded above the waist, tapering towards short modelled legs, feet with incised toes. Grooves outline the waist and groin; nipples, incised genital triangle and vulva, umbilicus. A variant of type 2A back, with incised hair ending below the neck in a short tuft; a groove marks the waist and the top of the legs. No clothes; fringed bands hanging from the headdress; a necklace is tied under the chin with similar bands; circular ear-plugs with central depression. Mold-made, hollow, one airhole at anus, blackware. 1804: Headdress and profile similar to 2376; wide face, molded features, strong modeling of the cheeks, prognathic mouth, nose-to-chin lines. No neck or shoulders, squat body with straight outline, widening towards large feet with seven incisions marking toes; arms folded at waist, molded fingers; punctated nipples, raised umbilicus, female genitals shown by two concentric circles; two incised lines at waist. Type 2B back, with vertical groove, exceptionally showing the necklace. No clothes, necklace going from shoulder to shoulder, circular ear-plugs with central depression. Mold-made, appears hollow but lacks airholes, black with traces of white post-fired incrustations. 173: Figurine with type 2b headdress and crudely modelled features. Short, broad body, tapering towards an oval base, folded arms, no legs, nipples, genital triangle with oblong perforation at vulva. The upper body (front and back) is covered with relief nodules (wool tufts? metal platelets?), showing clothing; armbands. The back, with its squat shape and incised hair, descending in "steps" to mid-back, and knobs or pustules as at the front is a variant of type 3. Mold-made, hollow, black, unpolished; one airhole at vulva. Positive mold: MP2: Headdress with a narrow skull cap and low crown projecting at the sides; the face is wide, with modelled eye-sockets and eyes, prominent cheeks and nose-tochin lines; the barrel-shaped body, with folded arms, protrudes over the conjoined legs, divided from them by deep grooves; nipples, umbilicus, double incised line at waist, genital triangle and vulva; type 2B/3A back, showing some diagonally incised hair with central parting, a vertical groove and a demarcation between the body and the legs. Ornate necklace with bird pendants and tassels, small circular ear-plugs with pendants, armbands with chevron incisions. Mold-made, retouched, with a groove along the sides, hollow with airhole at anus, blackware. DISCUSSION

In spite of their similar headdress and many shared features there can be no doubt that subgroups 1.1.1 and 1.1.2 represent somewhat different traditions. The table below sets out the main differences between them:

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Sub-group 1.1.1

Sub-group 1.1.2

Type 1b headdress with large semi-circular crown Variety of faces Lower body is mostly narrow, rarely with an indication of legs; no nipples; the umbilicus or genitalia are more rarely shown

Type 1b headdress with lower crown Preponderance of the “typical Chimu face” Both variant 1 and 2 bodies are wider; variant 1 shows conjoined legs, variant 2 only suggests legs; umbilicus, genitals nearly always shown; nipples on variant 2 only. Backs are mainly types 1A and 2A (70% type 2A); type 2A often shows modelling of the buttocks Air-holes are predominantly at the anus

Backs are mainly type 4, with a few type 1. Air-holes can be placed at or below the vulva and/or anus

These differences seem to reflect both geographical and chronological differences (see below). Special features The “typical Chimu face”1 which is very common on ceramic vessels of the main Chimu phases makes its appearance rather suddenly, though there are some early examples: on a Moche vessel from Piura (Disselhoff 1970: 117) and a late MH or Early Chimu figurine from Castillo de Tomaval, Virú (see 2066/NC-MH Gr.4). It also occurs on a few Chimu figurines in other groups (see Table 43: Chimu Recurrent Features). Chimu vessels show personages with this typical face engaged in a variety of activities: • Important personages, sitting (Martinez 1986: nos. 691, 693, 695, 697, 699, 700) or as a portrait vessel (Martinez 1986: no. 640); • Figures participating in drinking feasts (Lapiner (1976: 609, 611); • Musicians playing wind- or percussion instruments (Museums of the Andes Fig.98/99; Martinez 1986: 773, 774; Peru…Jahrtausende pp. 190 right, 192; Lavalle 1988: 88-89, the two latter ones in orange ware; • Other figures, carrying: a spondylus shell (Larco 1948: 51, 2nd from left), a deer on the shoulders (Larco 1948: 83, Martinez 1986: 757, 758); an unidentified object (Kroeber 1925: Pl. 60g); • A mythical being with marine attributes (Schmidt 1929:221, upper right). These personages, wearing an assortment of different headgear (peaked caps, pointed hoods, a square hat, crescent headdress) though never the headdress worn here, appear to show men, whereas most of the figurines are female. We have insufficient information about the provenance of figurines or vessels with this face, but it is likely that the face is a stylistic convention, like the classic Moche face, rather than an ethnic trait. Links with other groups (see Table 43: Chimu Recurrent Features) A specific profile of the lower body (15, 1483): broad, with high buttocks and some modelling of the thighs and knees, Moche in origin. This is probably a Northern Sector feature.2 Curiously one of the figurines with this feature (15) is a male! The type 2 and 2B backs with the headdress ending in a point (e.g.132, 2374) has some antecedents in NC MH Gr. 3, but becomes very common in Chimu (sgs. 1.2, 3.1, 3.2); type 2A back showing parallel incised hair in a triangle below the neck (15, 1483, 194) is fairly rare. The diagonally incised hair with central parting (MP2) in the shape of a triangle above or just below the neck (type 3 back) becomes a common Late Northern Chimu feature. Note however that all the other features of MP2 show that this specimen does not belong to that particular tradition. A small tuft of hair below the neck (2376, atypical) is also rare.

1 2

See description above See Moche sg. 1.5.1, Chronology and "Moche Synopsis".

194

Punctated nipples (1804, atypical) and double incisions at the waist (2376,1804 both atypical) are features first seen on Vicús figurines (see NC-Epiformative (Vicús) sg. 3.2.2) common on the Central Coast in the LH, less so amongst Chimu figurines. MP2 has a barrel-shaped body protruding over the legs, not to be mistaken for the representation of a tunic (f.i. P122/sg. 2.2). The tunic decorated with knobs (173, atypical) also occurs on 1638/sg.2.2. 269 (atypical) features a wide collar similar to 955/MH-LIP Gr. 2. The necklace extending from shoulder to shoulder (1804, atypical) is an early (MH) feature. Tassels hanging from the headdress (2376, atypical) are not uncommon on Chimu vessels (Martinez 1987: nos. 651-654, 659, 660, 724; Lavalle 1988: 85) and sporadically occur on Chimu figurines. There is also a LH example from the CC. MP2 has tassels hanging from ear-plugs and wears a necklace with four separate pendants. 1804 (atypical) features post-fired white incrustations as does 1259/MH-LIP Gr. 1 and some Central Coast specimens (see MH-LIP Gr. 1, Discussion). Context: None Geographic Distribution Northern Sector Jequetepeque/Pacasmayo Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested

1 1

Moche/Chicama V.

Santa V.

1 3

1

1 1

There are too few provenances overall to explain the differences between sgs. 1.1.1 and 1.1.2. Chronology The late MH or Early Chimu figurine from Castillo de Tomaval, Virú (see 2066/NC-MH Gr.4) already has the "typical" Chimu face and several vessels with that face are considered as Middle Chimu by Martinez (e.g. 1986: nos. 640, 691, 693 etc.). But considering an effigyvessel with a similar face found at Uhle’s Moche Site B which dates to late Chimu and Inca (Kroeber 1925: Pl. 60g) and the majority of vessels on which similar figures occur, the bulk of these figurines probably date to the later part of the Main Chimu phase, even surviving into late Chimu. However the Moche-inspired profile and back of some specimens (e.g. 15, 1483, 194) could mean that some figurines are earlier. Amongst the atypical figurines—which all lack the "typical" face—269, with its collar similar to figurines in NC MH-LIP Gr. 2, could be earlier, whilst 2376 and 1804, with features similar to CC-LH specimens could be late, even though the necklace going from shoulder to shoulder is an early feature (see NC MH-LIP Gr. 1). CHIMU SUB-GROUP 1.2: FIGURINES WITH A ROUNDED UNDIVIDED HEADDRESS

(TYPE 1A) AND JOINED, VESTIGIAL OR ABSENT LEGS Table 34 Plates 53, 54 Sample: 18 figurines + 1 atypical (examined 17). Measurements: Minimum Maximum Height (17): 10.1 cm 17.4 cm Width (17): 4.6 cm 10.0 cm Thickness (16): 3.1 cm 6.6 cm Weight (14): 90 gr. 335 gr.

195

Median 14.2 cm 8.2 cm 5.0 cm 240 gr.

GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

This sub-group falls into two fairly distinct groupings: the first (1.2a) is fairly disparate, the second (1.2b) consists of figurines which—as we shall see—are typical of late Chimu of the northern area. Grouping 1.2a: Fairly disparate grouping. The headdress varies in size and shape (1958 has a curious shape, 1505 with small incisions across the crown, 1137 with two lateral perforations), but generally has a flattened profile with a sharp edge. The face is broad, often with some modelling of the cheeks and mouth area (rather than incised nose-to-chin lines); the eyebrows mostly coincide with the edge of the headdress (exception 1505: long arching eyebrows with small incisions); the oval or almond-shaped eyes with molded lids and pupils can slant downwards (e.g. 88); the relatively large nose often has nostrils and alae; the mouth is incised or molded; ears can be modelled (e.g. 1505, 1639) or covered by ear-plugs (not shown on 428, 2375, 1137); the chin varies and can be slightly jutting (e.g. 1636). No neck or shoulders (except 127). The body greatly varies in shape and lateral outline. The arms are folded above the waist, hands have incised fingers. Partially divided legs occur on 1931, C32, 1958, others have vestigial feet (e.g. 88, 644) or a plain base (e.g. 268, 1505), 1639 could be sitting or kneeling. Nipples, mostly shown, are sometimes placed very high (e.g. 644, 927), punctated on 1931; genitals are mostly female, with a genital triangle and an incised or perforated vulva; the large triangle on 644 is a loin cloth; 1958 probably shows a pregnant female. The umbilicus is shown on three specimens (perforated: C32, 644, or incised: 1505). The backs are type 1, 1A (5) and 2, mainly 2B (7). All the figurines wear a headdress, ending in a point in the back on seven specimens; 1505 has a serrated crown and tasselled bands hanging down in front. Clothes are not worn (exception: 644 wears a loin cloth, showing incised circles at the back). All wear a necklace, mostly of one row of beads, shown in the front (also shown in the back: 1931, tied in the back, 127); circular earplugs are worn by seven specimens; incisions across the wrists (armbands) occur on four specimens. Atypical: 1630: Small pendant with large bulky headdress and strong molded features. No neck or shoulders, rotund body, with a prominent belly, perhaps indicating pregnancy; folded arms, incised fingers, joined legs; no breasts or umbilicus, genital triangle with incised vulva. The back has a lug for suspension at neck level, perforated from side to side; parallel incisions below the lug may indicate hair; incisions mark the waist and divide the legs. The blackware figurine appears mold-made, hollow, with one air hole at the anus. Grouping 1.2b: Shows greater stylistic and technical cohesion (929/930 and 920/917 are nearly identical pairs) even though details differ. The crown of the headdress fits the head more closely than grouping 1.2a: relatively low on 908-930, higher on 917, 920, 922; the profile is less flat, with a rounder edge. No modelling of the face, nose-to-chin lines (modelled, diagonal on 908, incised, semi-circular on 920/917, not shown on 929/930), in addition 917 has two incised horizontal lines on each cheek. Eyebrows, eyes, nose, mouth as in 1.2a, ears rounded (908), with central perforation (929/930, 922), naturalistic (917), bilobed (920); the chin varies, no neck. Cylindrical body with straight lateral outline; arms folded above waist, incised fingers, no legs, oval base; raised umbilicus on 920/917 only; nipples, placed high on the sides of the cheat; small raised genital triangle with incised vulva (908, 917, 920) no genital triangle but perforated vulva on 929, 930, 922). The type 3A back shows diagonally incised hair (crisscross on 929/930) with a central parting and framed by a plain border and a relief band below the waist; 908 has a vertical groove below the waist band. Clothing consists of the rounded headdress, low and plain (908), low with a criss-cross decor in front (929, 930), high, edged by two narrow relief fillets and tasselled bands hanging to the shoulders (920, 917); 922 has three small triangular projections on the crown and

196

tasselled bands; no clothing except for the relief band below the waist; no ear-plugs; all wear a necklace of one row of square beads (in front only), and one or two incised armbands. Manufacture (Groupings 1,2a, 1.2b) All the specimens are mold-made and all are hollow (except? 1931/1.2a). All are made in reduced-fired, grey, dark brown or black ware, except 644, 428/1.2a which are in oxidized ware; the surface is mostly burnished or self-slipped; in grouping 1.2b the modelling looks crisper, as if retouched before firing. Grouping 1.2a tends to have one airhole only (except 2375), placed at or above the anus (7), at the vulva (1) or the umbilicus (2),whereas grouping 1.2b has two airholes: at the vulva and anus (3), vulva and base (2) (exception 922: one only at vulva). DISCUSSION

Special features/ Links with other groups Grouping 1.2a The following are recurrent features (see Table 43: Chimu Recurrent Features): Punctated nipples (1931), pregnant females (1958, 1630/atypical?), tasselled bands hanging from the headdress (1505). 1505 has a headdress with a serrated crown - a rare feature only occurring on 2357/NCMH Gr.3 from El Brujo, Chicama Valley. But its strongly modelled facial features, in particular the arching eye-brows, large nose, molded mouth, recall figurines in sg. 3.1 (1132 to 1504so it may belong to a local Chimu sub-style ? Grouping 1.2b The following are recurrent features (see Table 43: Chimu Recurrent Features) and appear to be specific to the northern Chimu area, since they often occur on figurines belonging to the early collections of the Museo Brüning, Lambayeque (see Appendix 1): bilobed ears (920), diagonally incised hair with central parting at the back (all) - but only in this sub-group "inscribed" within a plain border!, a relief band below the waist, front and back (all), tasselled bands hanging from the headdress (917, 920, 922). Note also the characteristic cylindrical body standing on a quite large elliptical base, mostly lacking legs though sometimes showing barely suggested feet. Context Only 1958 is known to come from Uhle's Site B at Moche (see Appendix 2), a small late Chimu cemetery,1 but it is not listed as part a specific gravelot. Geographic distribution In grouping 1.2a there is one certain and two unverifiable provenances for the Moche/Chicama valley, one unverifiable from Chiclayo, Lambayeque valley, another from San Pedro, probably San Pedro de Lloc in the lower Jequetepeque valley. The Pachacamac attribution is almost certainly incorrect. The six figurines in grouping 1.2b are probably from the Lambayeque area (see Appendix 1). Chronology 1958, from Moche Site B, is associated with late Chimu and Inca ceramics (Kroeber 1925: 294f) and is therefore late Chimu. The only stylistic feature allowing to date grouping 1.2a is the slight predominance of type 2 backs, which we also encounter in sg. 1.1.2, a group dated to the latter part of the main Chimu phase. It is also possible that crudely made specimens like 428, 2375 or 1137 belong to the end of the Chimu sequence. Grouping 1.2b probably from the Northern Chimu area, but no longer showing any Sican influence, probably represent the late Chimu phase in that area.

1

Three further specimens (1954, 1955, 1956) from the same cemetery (Site B) are hand-made and not fired, totally atypical for the Chimu culture (see Chimu sg. 7.1)

197

CHIMU SUB-GROUP 1.3: MISCELLANOUS FIGURINES WITH A ROUNDED HEADDRESS (OR HEAD) AND SEPARATE LEGS

Table 35 Plate 55 Sample: 6 figurines + 1 atypical (examined 7) Measurements: Minimum Maximum Height (6) 13.4 cm 19.0 cm Width (6) 6.9 cm 10.1 cm Thickness (3) 4.3 cm 5.2 cm Weight (4) 160 gr. 380 gr.

Median 15.4 cm 9.2 cm 4.5 cm 280 gr.

GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Highly disparate sub-group, tenuously linked by a rounded head and separate legs. Half of the sample do not appear to wear a headdress, all have a flattened head at the back. The face mostly shows some modelling of the cheeks, often with modelled or incised nose-to-chin lines (semi-circular on 1688), the eye-brows coincide with the edge of the headdress. The modelled facial features differ in shape and size: eyes, small, almond shaped (e.g. 1855) to large, nearly circular (e.g. 1039), nose, straight, short, lacking nostrils or alae (e.g. 1688) to prominent, starting from the eye-brows, with flaring nostrils (1039), with a perforation from side to side (2370), mouth, small, straight (e.g. 2378) or large, upturned (1140), with modelled teeth (1039) etc.; the ears are semicircular tabs with a central hole (except on 1140, 1039); the chin is jutting or straight. Short neck, some modelling of the shoulders (except 1140, 1039). The body outline is slightly rounded at the arms, folded above the waist or upwards on the chest (1688, 1039); cylindrical legs differing in length; only 1855, 1688 have small feet, 1855, 2378 have incised toes. Umbilicus shown by hole (1855) or shallow depression (1140, 1039), small nipples (except 1688). All are female with an incised genital triangle (double incision at waist on 1039, 2370) and vulva (no vulva on 1688). The back is difficult to categorise, but there is a predominance of 2 variants (see Table 35, Plate 55 and Discussion). Only 1855 wears a Type 1a headdress with an incised decor and hanging tassels in front and short tuft of hair behind; on 1688 the front is plain, with a hanging panel in the back; 2370 wears a modelled cap (?). The high, wide forehead of 2378, 1140 and 1039 may point to a headdress, 2378 and 1140 have incised hair at the back.1 All except 1039 wear a necklace of one or two or rows of beads or a plain band (2370); only 1855 wears circular ear-plugs, decorated with dots, and similar armbands. Manufacture All the figurines are mold-made and hollow and nearly all are made of reduced-fired ware; 1140 and 2370, of an uneven dark buff colour, are probably in oxidised ware. The placing of the airholes is very varied: vulva and anus (2), at the upper arms and anus (1), vulva and waist (1), behind the upper arms (1), umbilicus (1). Atypical 1840 is only atypical because of its large, rectangular head and very wide face framed by hair or a headdress. Many other features—such as the deep nose-to-chin lines, semi-circular perforated tab ears, arms folded upwards, incision at the waist, umbilicus, breasts, genitals marked by an incised vulva, one row of large spherical beads—are shared with one or the other figurine in the sub-group. The back, has diagonally incised hair and central parting, distantly related to type 3A, but the whole shape of the figurine is different. It is mold-made, hollow, reduced-fired, with airholes at the waist. DISCUSSION

Figurines with completely separate legs—common on the NC during the MH and the transitional MH-LIP period—are less numerous in the Chimu sample. This sub-group is related to sgs. 4.1 and 6.2, with which some of the specimens also share other features: incised 1

Arguably these specimens could belong to Chimu sg. 4.1.

198

hair (though here only in the back), arms folded upwards on the chest, necklace of large beads, airholes at the upper arms or the waist, etc. It is possible that some of the figurines in those three sub-groups belong to a regional sub-style. But with a total of 16 figurines in those three sub-groups—only two of which have "fairly reliable" provenances—and with some features not shared by all the specimens within each sub-group, it is impossible to define this specific sub-style. Special features/ Links with other groups The following are recurrent features (see Table 43: Chimu Recurrent Features): semicircular nose-to-chin-lines, a double incision at the waist (1039, 2370); arms folded upwards on the chest, (rather than horizontally at the waist (1688, 2378, 1039); buttocks shown as an incised triangle (1855, 2378); a short tuft of hair below the neck at the back (1855); appendages hanging from the headdress (1855), large spherical beads (1140, 1840/atypical). The perforation through the nose from side to side (2370) first seen on Vicús specimens (939/Vicus sg. 3.1.2, 688/Vicus sg. 3.2.1) occurs on a few Chimu specimens (see Table 43: Chimu Recurrent Features), several of which have a provenance from the northern Chimu area. 1688: the square headdress panel in the back is originally a Moche feature, also occurring during the MH on the North and Central coasts, but rare on Chimu figurines (see Table 43: Chimu Recurrent Features). 2370 wears a unique skull-cap. Context: none Geographic distribution: Only 1688 has a fairly reliable provenance from the Virú valley. It is likely that 1039, originally in the Seminario collection, comes from the Piura area and 1840 from Jayanca, Lambayeque (see Appendix 1). Chronology The figurines in this sub-group are difficult to date. Early features could include separate legs—though here there are not all cylindrical and lacking feet as in some NC MH and MHLIP groups—, the position of the airholes at the upper arms or waist (1688, 2378, 1140 and also Chimu sgs. 4.1 and 6.2)—not uncommon in NC MH Grs. 4, 5, a necklace of large beads (1140), the Moche-derived shape of the headdress at the back (1688), but none of these are "proven" time markers. The fact that both 1688 and 2378 are in blackware and two have incised hair at the back— a typical Chimu feature—dates them at the earliest to the early part of the main Chimu phase. 1855 and 1039 probably also date to that phase. It is impossible for the time being to date the redware 2370, with its "northern" perforated nose, unusual headgear and back. CHIMU GROUP 2: FIGURINES WEARING A HEADDRESS WITH TWO LATERAL PROJECTIONS (TYPE 2 HEADDRESS)

This group is relatively large and homogenous amongst Chimu figurines. It can be divided into two sub-groups: Sub-group 2.1: Figurines with a headdress featuring two lateral projections and a sagittal band (Type 2a) and separate legs Sub-group 2.2: Figurines with a headdress featuring two lateral projections but no sagittal band (Type 2b) and joined, vestigial legs or absent legs

199

CHIMU SUB-GROUP 2.1: FIGURINES WITH A TYPE 2A HEADDRESS AND SEPARATE LEGS

Table 36 Plate 56 Sample: 10 figurines (examined 8) Measurements: Minimum Height (9): 8.0 cm Width (9): 5.8 cm Thickness (8): 3.5 cm Weight (3): 240 gr.

Maximum 23.5 cm 16.4 cm 7.2 cm 300 gr.

Median 15.1 cm 9.4 cm 5.4 cm 245 gr.

GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Standing figurines with a relatively large head, wearing a Type 2a headdress with two lateral projections and a sagittal band1 (see below, Discussion). As a result most specimens show a strong to moderate bilobation. In profile the head is slightly tilted backwards; the edge can be very sharp (e.g. 1139) or more rounded (e.g. 2195). The face is wide, short and triangular, with minimal modelling; three specimens show elaborate face-paint (2369: circles with central dots below the eyes, squares with criss-cross filling on the lower cheeks; 1139: fine parallel lines on the forehead, under the eyes, on the lower cheeks; 1231: similar to 1139, with a line along the nose down to the chin). Large almond-shaped eyes with moulded lids and eye-balls; large pointed to hooked nose, lacking nostrils or alae, but perforated from side to side; thin straight mouth, incised (e.g.1139) or with moulded lips (e.g. 2195); ears are perforated tabs, rounded or pointed. The body is mostly much narrower than the head (exception SAC 424 with a rotund body), with a varied lateral outline, tapering towards the legs; short neck and clearly modelled shoulders on some specimens (e.g. 1139), absent on others (e.g. 1099); thin molded arms, folded above the waist, square hands with five painted or incised fingers; legs are tubular, short to very short, slightly widening at the bottom, with notches marking the toes. All the figurines appear to be female, with an incised and/or raised genital triangle (lacking on 435) and mostly an incision or perforation to mark the vulva; only 265 and 1099 have nipples; no umbilicus. The back is type 4B, characterized by a horizontal bulge between the headdress and the neck, but not very pronounced in this sub-group. All the specimens wear the characteristic type 2 headdress (see below, Discussion), its horizontal section decorated with painted or press-moulded designs (no decor on 2392); nearly all specimens (except SAC 409, 1099) have a similarly decorated transversal or sagittal band across the skull-cap, resulting in a marked or moderate bilobation. Painting or pressmolding is also used to show clothing in the form of two vertical bands from the shoulders to the waist at the front and back, with a belt on 435, SAC 409 (painted on 2369, 1139, 1231, press-molded on 435 and SAC 409); 2195, 265, 1099 have only a press-moulded belt in front. The painted designs are complex and varied; the press-molded designs consist of "broken line and dot", "squares and dots", 2195 has a Greek key design. Single row necklaces (painted or press-moulded) are worn by all except 239, 265, SAC 424; incised armbands are also common. Manufacture All the figurines are mold-made, hollow, generally with air-holes at the anus and vulva. Six specimens are in oxidised terracotta ware, three of them very fine, with red or fugitive black or brown decor. The others are in reduced-fired blackware, only 2195 is burnished. DISCUSSION

Special features/Links with other groups The type 2 headdress with two lateral projections (with or without a sagittal band) appears to derive from earlier Moche (Donnan 1978: Figs. 114, 116, 166) or Recuay (Eisleb 1987: figs. 142, 143) models. It may have evolved from an animal skin with its paws tied together at each side of the head, later replaced by two pieces of textile, with an embroidered 1

It is not clear whether SAC 409 and 1099 have a sagittal band.

200

or woven decor, tied or sewn together at either side of the forehead, the loose ends forming projections, possibly fringes or tassels.1 But on most depictions these projections appear stiff, so the horizontal border may have been put on a special backing. It is attached to a skull-cap, which can be semi-spherical to flat, or which can have an additional transversal band or strap—also known as a sagittal band—crossing the top of the head at a right angle. Apart from this group, a similar headdress—but without the sagittal band—is also worn by a few Moche figures (856, 60, 216/Moche sg. 4.2) and by a few specimens in NC MH-LIP Gr.1 (1014, 1277, 1259). I have not come across a representation of headdress type 2 on Chimu ceramic vessels. Nor is similar headgear documented amongst Chimu textiles. A. Rowe illustrates several textile strips with two woven ornamental bands and ending in fringes (1984: Pl. 2, figs. 3, 6, 10, 13 etc), but because of their length she interprets them as turbans. P. Reichlen (1982: Pl. 8A, B, C) thinks that this type of headgear shows an apparatus to achieve cranial deformation by fronto-occipital pressure. This is unlikely, since deformation was practiced in infancy, whereas the figurines represent adults (see f.i. 199/sg.2.2: showing a pregnant woman or 1190, 935, etc., all with long hair). So until further evidence we cannot be sure how or of what material this headdress was made. The following features recur on other Chimu figurines (see Table 43: Chimu Recurrent Features): the bilobation of the head and a perforation through the nose. Context: None. Geographic distribution One unverifiable provenance is for the Chicama valley, one suggested provenance for the Northern sector of the NC; two—with question marks, obviously incorrect—for Ancón (See Appendix 1). SAC 424 was registered as belonging to the Tallán culture, centred around the Piura and Chira valleys (Richardson et al., 1990). The perforation through the nose and—to a lesser degree—the Type 4 back also point to a provenance from the northern, possibly the far northern, Chimu area. Chronology The ware and especially the fugitive decor of 2369, 1139 and 1231 correspond to Shimada's description of late Sican ware: "decoration consisting of series of spirals, diamonds, circles, or triangles with central dots and step motifs located within partitioned decorative zones on the body (of vessels)"...(1990: 331-333, fig. 20). These figurines also combine a Sican-related back (type 4B) and a perforated nose, both Northern sector features, with a typical Chimu headdress (type 2a). The question is whether this headdress was shared by north and south before the actual Chimu expansion to the North? Late Sican is seen as contemporary to Middle Chimu, the earlier part of our "Main" Chimu phase, which seems a likely date for these specimens. The figurines with press-moulded decor are more difficult to date. The decor does not quite correspond to Shimada's palateada ware, which he considers typical for Early Sican (1990: 315, 319, figs. 9, 10, 17). The technique is actually used in all Chimu phases,2 though none of the published vessels, except possibly one (Martinez 1986: no.142) show the rather small and delicate designs of diagonal parallel or broken lines with dot fillers seen on the figurines. But because we again see a combination of northern and Sican-related features and Chimu features, the press-molded figurines could date roughly to the same period as the orange ware specimens.

1

On figurines and other ceramic representations these are often decorated with parallel horizontal lines, painted or incised, looking like fringes. 2 See f.i. Donnan and Mackey 1978: graves Early Chimu no. 25, Middle Chimu no. 14, Late Chimu no. 2; Schjellerup 1985: Pl.69: Early Chimu, Pl. 25: Late Chimu, Pl. 75: Chimu/Inca; Martinez 1986: no.278: Chimu antiguo, no.142: Chimu medio, no.374: Chimu tardío, no. 376: Chimu /Inca.

201

CHIMU SUB-GROUP 2.2: FIGURINES WITH A TYPE 2B HEADDRESS AND JOINED, VESTIGIAL OR ABSENT LEGS

Table 36 Plates 57, 58 Sample: 22 figurines (examined 15) Measurements: Minimum Height (21): 9.4 cm Width (21): 5.5 cm Thickness (19): 3.9 cm Weight (13): 115 gr.

Maximum 15.8 cm 8.6 cm 6.3 cm 300 gr.

Median 12.2 cm 7.0 cm 4.6 cm 210 gr.

GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The head, with its characteristic Type 2b headdress, shows different shapes of crown (semi-circular: e.g.199, flat: e.g. SAC 414, concave: e.g. 923); the profile is mostly straight, not particularly flat, sometimes tilted backwards (see 1733, 199, P122). The face varies from short, with little modelling and a rounded or triangular chin (e.g. SAC 193, 645, 921) sometimes jutting (199, P122), to more elongated, with modelling of the cheeks (e.g.1190, 914); incised nose-to-chin lines occur on half the sample. The features show relatively large eyes, a short nose, often damaged, (perforated from side to side on 1638), an incised or moulded mouth and mostly rounded ears (ear-plugs), no ears on 914; 2379 has the "typical" Chimu face.1 The body varies both in shape—from elongated (e.g. 199) to squat (SAC 420)—and in lateral outline from rounded arms above narrower legs (e.g. 906) to completely straight (e.g. 921); neck and shoulders are rarely shown; arms folded at or above the waist, hands mostly with molded fingers; a few specimens have conjoined legs with bulky, protruding feet (e.g. 906), others only show small feet and/or incised toes (e.g. 935), or stand on a plain base (e.g. 1733); 921 shows thin legs with in-turned feet molded onto the lower body. Breasts are only shown on five figurines, but all are female with an incised and/or raised genital triangle and/or incised vulva (exception 2372 without genitalia); 199 is pregnant; five figurines have an umbilicus; the profile is mostly straight and flat (exception 906, 199 with protruding buttocks and bent knees). 906, 199, P122 have Moche-derived backs; the majority have Chimu type 32 (12) and 3A backs (three); 1638 with a bulge at neck level and parallel incised hair below is a cross between types 3 and 4B, 907 is type 5. The headdress, which does not have the sagittal band seen in sg. 2.1 (exception 906) varies greatly in shape and size, from large, with a decorated frontal band, sizeable lateral projections and a well rounded skull-cap (e.g. 906, 199, 1190), to small plain models, with lateral projections reduced to knobs (e.g. 1733, 1638); only has a decorated sagittal band. About half the specimens appear naked; P122 wears a short tunic, 1638 a longer, more elaborate one, covered in relief nodules (wool tufts? metal platelets?), trimmed with a fringe; four specimens show a decorated belt or border of a tunic (e.g. 2372), three have a plain narrow relief belt, front and back (e.g. 924). The majority wear ear-plugs: plain or double circles (e.g. 906), with short fringes (199), petal-shaped (202); 1190, 924 have pierced ears. A necklace—of one or two rows, plain or with beads or an incised design—is worn by ten specimens; it often appears to be attached to the ear-plugs (e.g. 906, 645). Manufacture All the specimens are mold-made (the decor of 202 was incised at the drying stage) and hollow, though at least four have no air-holes, the rest having normally only one air-hole, mostly at the anus or at the vulva (3). Eleven are in oxidised ware, varying from buff to dark terracotta, the rest are in reduced grey to blackware.

1

See Chimu sg. 1.1.2 Including the four SAC specimens, described as having cabellos en lineas verticales sobre las espaldas. 2

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DISCUSSION

Special Features/Links with other groups (see Table 43: Chimu Recurrent Features) This sub-group shows a mixture of possibly three different stylistic trends: The first of these is represented by only three specimens : 906, 199, P122 have the Moche-derived square panel hanging down the back, 906 and 199 also the profile with bent knees and protruding buttocks. But P122 shares the "typical Chimu face" with 2379 and 1638 in the other traditions. The second stylistic trend contains: a) the 13 figurines (2372 to 214) with type 3 backs, i.e. vertically incised hair, cut straight at the bottom (exception 914, ending in a point). But note that four of them (e.g. 2372, P124, SAC 418, SAC 414) are slightly better made and wear a wide flat decorated belt absent on the remaining nine; b) the three figurines 924, 921, 2379 with type 3A backs, i.e. diagonally incised hair with central parting, cut straight (924) or in a point at the bottom (921, 2375). These specimens have a plain relief belt. It is possible that the four better made specimens in a) represent yet a third stylistic trend from a different area than the remaining nine specimens in a) and the three in b), several of which have a real or "suggested" provenance from the northern area. 1638, from Piura, with a combination 4/3 back, has a nose pierced from side to side; its tunic is covered in relief nodules, like the atypical 173/1.1.2. Context: P123 comes from the same small cemetery at Pacatnamú, looted by huaqueros as P121/sg.1.1.1 (see above). Geographic distribution: There are no provenances for the figurines in our first stylistic trend (906, 199, P122). Many provenances for the second trend, including seven figurines from the Museo Brüning, Lambayeque, point to the northern area: two certain provenances: P1231 from Pacatnamu, 1733 collected by the 1916 Harvard Expedition from ruins near Huancabamba, Piura province; but there are no provenances for what could be a third stylistic trend (see above). A further unverifiable provenance is for 1638, purchased from G. T. Halley, who collected in the Piura area in 1886. Chronology 906 and 199, with their Moche-derived profile, long, square back-panel and red ware, so similar—except for their headdress—to late Moche figurines such as 980, 1845, etc./Moche sg. 4.3, could belong to early Chimu. But P122 with its "typical Chimu face" and in spite of the Moche-derived back, must date to the later part of the main Chimu phase.2 P123, from a "post classic Lambayeque period" at Pacatnamu,3 probably dates to the beginning of the main Chimu phase. It is possible that some of the other figurines (presumably also from the northern Chimu area because of their incised hair at the back), but still with vestigial legs, like 2372 to SAC 414, also belong to that phase, whilst very stylised figurines with no legs (1190 to 907) are Late Chimu. Conclusion As we have seen, both sub-groups 2.1 and 2.2 have a number of pointers linking them to the northern Chimu area. Both show a high percentage of oxidised ware (60% and 55% respectively). In sg. 2.1 both the black-on-orange specimens and the impressed-ware specimens probably date to the main Chimu phase. In sg. 2.2 there is probably a wider chronological spread with some specimens dating to Early Chimu or the beginning of Main Chimu (906, 199, P122), but most figurines probably dating to Late Chimu.

1

P123 was not listed in the second stylistic tra because we have no data regarding its back. See Chimu sg. 1.1.2, Chronology 3 See Chimu sg. 1.1.1, Chronology. 2

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Whilst both sg. 2.1. and 2.2 have a similar headdress, none of those in sg. 2.1 have a panel or hair in the back, like all (except 907) in sg. 2.2, and no sg. 2.2 figurines have a sagittal band. Other differences include the separate or joined legs and the presence or absence of a perforation through the nose. It is likely that the obvious iconographic and stylistic differences between the two sub-groups are not only chronological: it is likely that sg. 2.1 figurines represent a specific regional style. CHIMU GROUP 3: FIGURINES WITH A TWO-PEAKED TO RECTANGULAR HEADDRESS (TYPE 3 HEADDRESS)

This fairly large group is one of the more homogenous amongst Chimu figurines. The headdress is characterised by two raised peaks or jutting corners at both sides. These can be quite prominent and pointed, with a dip or a horizontal ridge between them, but they also can be so low and insignificant that the headdress appears rectangular. However the variations in shape are so slight that we can consider them to represent the same type of headdress (type 3). The group shows two sub-groups: Sub-group 3.1: Figurines with Type 3 headdress and separate or conjoined legs Sub-group 3.2: Figurines with Type 3 and conjoined, vestigial or absent legs CHIMU SUB-GROUP 3.1: FIGURINES WITH A TYPE 3 HEADDRESS AND SEPARATE OR CONJOINED LEGS

Table 37 Plate 59 Sample: 4 figurines (examined 4) + 3 atypical. Measurements: Minimum Maximum Height (4): 11.9 cm 14.1 cm Width (4): 7.1 cm 8.3 cm Thickness (4): 4.2 cm 4.6 cm Weight (4): 150 gr. 230 gr.

Median 12.8 cm 7.4 cm 4.3 cm 170 gr.

GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Standing figurines wearing a relatively low headdress with two raised peaks at both corners and a thickened continuous lower edge coinciding with the eyebrows; flat profile. Wide face, with modelled cheeks, nose-to-chin lines and modelled chin; strong features: prominent eye-brows, oval eyes, nose with nostrils and alae, modelled lips, large, lifelike ears; no neck. The stocky body lacks shoulders and has a straight lateral outline; arms folded above the waist, hands with four incised fingers; separate legs (exception: 37, conjoined), thick, cylindrical, with some modelling of the knees, bulky feet protruding all around, incised toes; small nipples, placed high and at the sides of the chest; no umbilicus; a double relief band at the waist (in front only), female genital triangle with incised vulva. Type 2B back, showing the headdress ending in a triangle just below the neck, (sometimes above a narrow relief necklace), the ears and ear-plugs, the upper arms, a groove along the spine, incisions dividing the body from the legs, bulky feet. No clothing, ear-plugs with small punctations, plain necklace (with small incisions on 37), incised wristbands. Manufacture Mold-made, hollow with one airhole in the middle of the back (2) or at the anus (2); reduced-fired ware, greyish-black to black, self-slipped or burnished. Atypical: 1897: Similar features, but with a barrel-shaped body, rounded at the sides, lacking the molded waistline, projecting over very short, conjoined legs; nipples, umbilicus, female genitals. Similar type 2B back, but not showing the ear-plugs and the incision at the top of

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the legs. Probably wearing a tunic; no ear-plugs, tasselled bands hang from the headdress, no necklace. Mold-made, hollow, one airhole at anus, blackware. 257: Many characteristics similar to main specimens (pronounced facial features, especially the prominent eye-brows, double relief band at the waist, incised genital triangle, type 2B back with a vertical groove), but squat, legless body (as in sg. 3.2). Mold-made, hollow, one airhole in the middle of the back, burnished blackware . 1914: lacks the typical features (strong modelling of the face, stocky body with large feet, double relief band at waist, etc). Differences include the flat headdress (also in profile!), eyebrows with an unusual incision above, comma-eyes, nose perforated from side to side, flaplike perforated ears; slightly rounded body outline, widening at the short separate legs and small feet, punctated nipples. The back is a variant of type 2, with the rounded headdress panel and some modelling of the buttocks. No clothing or accessories. Mold-made, hollow, with four airholes, burnished blackware. DISCUSSION

Special features/Links with other groups (see Table 43: Chimu Recurrent Features) The type 3 headdress has its origins in Moche, but there the peaks are less pronounced, so the headdress appears simply rectangular or trapezoidal (see Moche sg. 1.5). It is rarely shown on Chimu vessels in this form: mostly we see mythical personages with extreme bilobation, rather than wearing a headdress (Kroeber 1925: Pl. 61b; Martinez 1986: Figs. 670676, 679-682; Schjellerup 1985: Pls. 69, 70, etc.). The same applies to representations on textiles (Lavalle 1988: 183). The bilobed personage has been interpreted as a marine deity (Weiss and Rojas Ponce 1967-1968). A rare representation of a "normal" human with a type 3 headdress as worn in sg. 3.2 is shown in Lavalle (1988: 93). The following are recurrent features: comma-eye, nose perforated from side to side, punctated nipples (1914, atypical), double relief band at the waist (all except 1897, atypical), tasselled bands hanging from the headdress (1897, atypical), ear-plugs protruding at back (1132 to 37). Unlike on most other Chimu figurines (except those in sg. 3.2), the ear-plugs are shown on the ear lobe, leaving the rest of the ear visible. Context: None Geographic distribution Two unverifiable provenances from Chiclayo (Dept. of Lambayeque) and Trujillo and an unlikely one from Ancón. Chronology: No specific data, but the overall impression is Main Chimu. CHIMU SUB-GROUP 3.2: FIGURINES WITH A TYPE 3 HEADDRESS AND JOINED, VESTIGIAL OR ABSENT LEGS

Table 37 Plates 60, 61 Sample: 27 figurines (examined 27) Measurements: Minimum Height (27): 10.9 cm Width (27): 4.7 cm Thickness (26): 3.5 cm Weight (24): 135 gr.

Maximum 16.8 cm 8.8 cm 6.0 cm 320 gr.

Median 14.2 cm 7.1 cm 4.6 cm 230 gr.

GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

A composite group of standing figurines, basically showing two different stylistic tendencies, with a few specimens like 1648/3.2a or 916, 919, 1361, 1558/3.2b being borderline cases.

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Grouping 3.2a This grouping of 16 figurines is, on the whole better made, with a smaller head and a more elongated body than 3.2b. The headdress varies, from two projecting peaks separated by a pronounced dip (e.g. 272) to a flat but still angular cap, generally with a clearly defined edge across the forehead; the profile mostly shows a fairly sharp edge and a flat back (exception: 1637); the face tends to be naturalistic, often with some modelling of the eye-brows or sockets, the cheeks and/or nose-to-chin lines; lenticular or almond-shaped eyes with molded lids and pupils, normal size nose, often with nostrils and alae, straight mouth mostly with molded lips, largish life-like ears (exceptions: 21: tabs, 1398: no ears), oval to pointed chin. The body tends to be narrow and elongated (exception 1648, with a squat body), without shoulders and a lateral outline only slightly rounded at the arms; these are folded above the waist (upwards on 925), hands mostly have incised fingers; conjoined legs with a shallow division; feet often protrude slightly at front and back, resulting in a “figure-of-eight” base, rarely with incised or molded toes (e.g.. 2380, 38). The umbilicus is shown on five specimens; nipples occur on all but three specimens, variously placed (very high: 938, comparatively low: 1637); on 272, 1637, 911, 910 the nipples are unusually pendulous; all the specimens represent females with an incised or raised genital triangle and an incised vulva (not indicated on 21). The back belongs basically to type 2, e.g. showing an oval or triangular hanging headdress panel, varying in length, some modelling of the buttocks and the division of the legs (except 1648); the relief band below the waist (271, 2380) is shared with type 3A . The figurines are naked, but 271, 2380, 911 have a plain relief belt (911 in front only). The headdress varies in shape (see above); on 271, 2380, 272 it has a relief lower edge, on 21 a painted one, (with a painted sagittal band); 1637, 911 have tasselled bands (or strands of hair ?) hanging down over the shoulders. Nearly all wear a narrow necklace, plain or a single row of incised square beads (911: “broken lines and dots”); most wear circular ear-plugs, plain or with concentric rings, leaving the rest of the ear uncovered, armbands occur only on 911. Grouping 3.2b The second grouping of 11 figurines is of lesser quality, often with a larger head and a squatter body (919, 1361 and 1558 with an elongated body, but less well made). Apart from 916 with marked peaks, the headdress tends to be rectangular (even slightly convex: 909, 927), often with no edge in front (e.g. 916, 528); the profile can be sharp (e.g. 528), rounded (e.g. 1558, 927) or unusually flattened (915); the face shows minimal modelling, though noseto-chin lines are common; facial features are crude (e.g. the eyes of 915), the nose has lost its nostrils and alae (exception: 934), ears tend to be flaps (exception: 108 bilobed?). The body is mostly broad and squat, with a straight outline; arms are folded above the waist; legs are indicated on five specimens, feet never; six specimens have a plain rounded or oval base; the umbilicus is shown on 916, 528, nipples are always shown, all (except 108, 934) are females with an incised (sometimes raised) genital triangle and vulva. Three specimens have variants of type 2 backs, the remaining have types 3 and 3A backs; 1158 can be classified as type 5. Seven specimens have a relief belt (108 in front only); the upper body (919, 1361) slightly projecting above the legs probably represents a tunic. Six or seven specimens wear a necklace (as 3.2a above), 927 has tasselled bands hanging from the headdress, four figurines have circular ear-plugs, 528, 108 have only perforated ears, five have incised armbands. Manufacture All the figurines are mold-made and hollow (1558 has no air-holes and may be solid), predominantly with one air-hole at the anus (17), also at the vulva (3) or vulva and anus (3) and others. They are mostly reduced fired, burnished or self-slipped, varying from grey to black. Four figurines are in oxidised ware, 21 is unslipped terracotta with a cream decor. There are no technical differences between the two groupings.

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DISCUSSION

Special features/Links with other groups (see Table 43: Chimu recurrent features) Grouping 3.2a The following are recurrent features: the “typical Chimu face” especially the prognathic mouth (272, 174, 1637, 1327), though only 1637 has also the typical large lozenge-shaped eyes; arms folded upwards (925); tasselled appendages hanging from the headdress (1637, 911); a relief band below the waist only occurs on two figurines (271, 2380) in this grouping. Most specimens (174 to 1327) show some modelling of the buttocks,1 but not of the thighs or knees, as we have seen hitherto. The "pendulous nipples" (272, 1637, 911, 910) are unique to this sub-group. Grouping 3.2b The recurrent features include bilobed ears (108); diagonally incised hair with central parting (528, 108, 909, 915, 934); relief band below the waist (916, 909, 915, 927, 934). Context: None. Geographic distribution: Only the rather crude 1558 has a fairly reliable provenance from the Leche valley. Another ten specimens from the Museo Brüning, with early accession numbers, are probably from the Lambayeque area; 21 has a suggested provenance for the Pacasmayo area (see Appendix 1). One Central Coast provenance is unlikely. Chronology To judge purely by the absence of any early features, sub-group 3.2 probably dates to Late Chimu. A personage very much like 272/3.2a (same shape of head, same "typical Chimu" face) is shown on a Chimu-Inca vessel (Lavalle 1988: 93). The stylistic differences between specimens from the Museo Brüning, Lambayeque in grouping 3.2a (925, 911, 910, 938) and grouping 3.2b (916, 919, 909, 915, 927, 934)— which we assume to come from the northern Chimu area (see Appendix 1)—could point to a chronological difference, with those in grouping 3.2a slightly earlier than the typical Late northern Chimu specimens in grouping 3.2b. CHIMU GROUP 4: FIGURINES WITH INCISED HAIR (NO HEADDRESS)

This is a small group sharing many features with other Chimu groups, though the hairstyle, with incised hair covering the forehead, as well as the back, is specific to this group. Figures with incised hair on vessels mostly show personages with a marked bilobation and linked to marine themes (Martinez 1986: nos.672, 673; Lavalle 1988: pp.80, 81), though figures with hair but without the bilobation—and still linked to marine imagery—also exist (Martinez 1986: no.678). The group is divided into two sub-groups, which will be described separately, but discussed together: Sub-group 4.1: Figurines with incised hair, large head and shorter body Sub-group 4.2: Figurines with incised hair, smaller head and more elongated body CHIMU SUB-GROUP

4.1: FIGURINES WITH INCISED HAIR, LARGE HEAD AND SHORTER BODY

Table 38 Plate 62 Sample: 6 figurines (examined all) Measurements: Minimum Height (6): 15.7 cm Width (6): 8.8 cm Thickness (5): 4.5 cm Weight (5): 250 gr. 1

Maximum 18.7 cm 10.9 cm 6.5 cm 390 gr.

Median 16.6 cm 9.5 cm 5.5 cm 320 gr.

There is only one profile photograph (1637): unfortunately the feature is not very marked.

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GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The relatively large head has a rounded crown (rectangular on 822) and forms a sharp edge in profile; the incised hair is cut in a fringe on the forehead, with vertical lateral strands framing the face (on 266, 1073 they reach the shoulders). The broad face can show some modelling of the eye-sockets, cheeks and mouth area, with nose-to-chin lines (in the shape of a semi-circle on 263, 266, 918, 1073), some face-paint on 1073; lenticular eyes with molded lids and eyeballs (exception: 822 with circular eyes), well-modelled nose with alae and nostrils, incised or modelled mouth; low, protruding semi-circular ear-flaps (rectangular on 822) with or without perforations (some not through); oval to pointed but not jutting chin; short neck. The body is short and stocky, the lateral outline varies from straight-sided, with narrow shoulders (e.g. 263, 822) to round-shouldered, tapering towards the legs (e.g. 2156); the arms are folded upwards on the chest (exception: 918 at the waist), modelled hands with incised fingers; divided, more or less cylindrical legs (some modelling on 822), varying in length, with slight widening for the feet, mostly with incised toes (feet projecting at the back on 1073); semi-circular or circular umbilicus (no umbilicus on 1073), nipples placed high and to the sides of the chest (no nipples on 266, 2156); all specimens are female, with an incised genital triangle and vulva (double incision at the waist on 822). The type 2C back shows vertically incised hair, covering the whole head down to or slightly below the neck (ending in a small tuft on 266), and an incision below the waist (above the legs on 822); 1073 has a painted upper back; 263, 918 have an incised triangle in the lower back. All the figurines are unadorned, except for a necklace (266, 822: large spherical beads, the others: one or two rows of small beads) which is mostly also shown at the back, with dangling ties on 263, 822. CHIMU SUB-GROUP 4.2: FIGURINES WITH INCISED HAIR, SMALLER HEAD AND ELONGATED BODY

Table 38 Plate 62 Sample: 4 figurines + 2 atypical (examined all) Measurements: The figurines measure 14.0 and 17.5 cm in height, 6.3 and 7.2 cm in width, 4.7 and 6.1 cm in thickness and 230 gr. and 280 gr. in weight. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Figurines with normal sized head, exceptionally rounded in profile; the incised hair forms a fringe on the forehead, frames the face with strands of hair (cut in "steps" on 289) and is cut square below the shoulders at the back. The face shows some modelling of the cheeks with nose-to-chin lines and naturalistic features, including the ears on 1432, 1839 (1291: small flaps, 289: ears hidden); short neck. Elongated, barrel-shaped body projecting above the lower abdomen, straight lateral outline; narrow shoulders, arms folded above the waist, modelled hands with incised fingers; the separate legs (conjoined on 1839) vary in length, feet protrude back and front or all round, with or without incised toes. All have an umbilicus and small nipples, all are female, with an incised genital triangle and vulva below a large abdomen (1839 probably represents a pregnant woman). In profile the body is also barrelshaped.1 The back is another version (than in sg. 4.1) of type 2C. The figurines are naked except for a necklace—1432, 1899 with several pendants, 1291 and 289 with a narrow row of square beads—and ear-plugs: 1432, 1839 with conical ear-spools, 1291, 289 small circular studs. Manufacture Both sub-groups are mold-made and hollow, but whilst the air-holes of sg. 4.1 are at or behind the upper arms, those in sg. 4.2 are always at the anus (289 at vulva and anus). All are reduced fired, black or greyish black, except 1073 (terracotta with white and black paint), generally burnished, but not slipped.

1

The profile of 1291 is similar to that of 1432.

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Atypical: The only reason for including the following two figurines in this group is the defining feature of the hairstyle. 912: Much larger head and squatter body than either sub-group, with very short separate cylindrical legs lacking feet. Other differences include: no neck or shoulders, relief band at waist (front); the back with diagonally incised hair and central parting ending in a point at (type 3A). Necklace of small beads, disk ear-plugs. The figurine is mold-made, hollow, with airholes at vulva and anus, black ware. 171: Has a much smaller, rounded head (also in profile), with incised hair starting at the hairline and forming a narrow hank ending in a point above the waist at the back; crudely modelled features, with eyes slanting downwards and large, perforated ear-flaps. The body is altogether different, very narrow, with conjoined legs widening at the base; folded arms; no nipples, relief band at the waist and incised genital triangle, both also shown at the back. Necklace of medium-sized beads. Mold-made, hollow, with air-holes at the vulva and anus, grey-black, unslipped. DISCUSSION

Special features/Links with other groups (see Table 43: Chimu Recurrent Features) It is immediately obvious that sgs. 4.1 and 4.2 belong to two different figurine traditions, arguably even more than two, since the two atypical specimens represent yet other styles, with 912 definitely belonging to the late northern Chimu tradition (cf. sg. 1.2b, 2.2, 3.2b), whilst 171 is unique. Apart from the specific characteristics, the main differences between sgs. 4.1 and 4.2 are: the overall shape of the head and body, the position of the arms, the back with the longer hair and the groove along the spine of 4.2, the necklaces, the position of the airholes, etc. Special features are also different. Sub-group 4.1: Nose-to-chin lines in the shape of a semi-circle (263, 266, 918, 1073), arms folded upwards (all except 918), double incision at the waist (822), buttocks incised like a genital triangle (263, 918), small tuft of hair in the middle of the neck at the back (266); necklace of large beads (266, 822), necklace forming a continuous line covering the shoulders (822), necklace ties visible at the back (263, 288). The rectangular head (822) only occurs on 1840 (atypical)/sg. 1.3; the circular eyes of 822 are unique amongst Chimu figurines. Overall this sub-group is related to both sgs. 1.3 and 6.2 with whom it shares a number of features (see sg. 1.3, Discussion). Sub-group 4.2 Head rounded in profile (1439, 1839, 289, to a lesser degree 1291), barrel-shaped body (1432, 1291), pregnant female (1839), necklace with several large pendants (1432, 1839), ear-plugs protruding at the back (1432, 1839). The incised hair at the back, cut in a square below the neck (all) is a type 2C back, showing a different style than 912 (atypical) with incised hair with central parting, cut as a triangle (type 3A back) and belonging to the late northern Chimu tradition. But although 171 (atypical) has the relief band below the waist also common in that tradition, its slender shape, hairstyle starting from the crown, also ending in a point, but without a central parting and reaching the middle of the back are unique. Context: None Geographic distribution: There is only one fairly reliable provenance from Chimbote and two suggested ones for the northern area. Chronology The most salient characteristic, the incised hair, occurs in both the Main and Late Chimu phases (see Martinez 1986: nos. 638, 645 = Chimu Inca, 672, 673, 678 = Chimu Medio) Sub-group 4.1 which shares a number of features with sgs. 1.3, 6.2 (see 1.3, Chronology),

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could date to the earlier part of Main Chimu, but there are not sufficient elements to date sg. 4.2, except 912 (atypical) which is Late Northern Chimu. CHIMU GROUP 5: FIGURINES WITH A NARROW OR ELONGATED HEAD (POINTED OR ROUNDED)

This group is one of the most disparate of all Chimu figurines, with a head shape that varies considerably, but linked by some features which occur on some but not all specimens (a tumpline and load, pregnancy, etc.). The majority of the figurines probably come from the northern Chimu area. Table 39 Plates 63, 64 Sample: 23 figurines + 1 atypical + 1 fake or colonial? (examined 24) Measurements:1 Minimum Maximum Median Height (18): 6.4 cm 17.5 cm 14.0 cm Width (20): 2.6 cm 8.2 cm 5.9 cm Thickness (20): 2.1 cm 7.5 cm 5.3 cm Weight (17): 20 gr. 360 gr. 170 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

The top of the mostly narrow head varies in shape from pointed (e.g. 23, 971) to relatively rounded (e.g. 1161, 208); the profile is often more rounded (e.g. 936, 208) than in most Chimu groups (except sg. 4.2), with the head held straight or tilted backwards (cf. 1837 with 2325). The face is fairly naturalistic and often shows large, slanting eyes and some modelling of the eye-sockets and the cheeks (e.g. 1575) or marked nose-to-chin lines (327), whilst other features vary considerably: the nose is often damaged, but can be large with nostrils and alae (e.g. 1575, 931), the mouth can be incised (e.g. 23) or molded (e.g. 936), the ears are mostly semi-circular flaps (not shown on 2115, 1842), the oval chin is often slightly jutting (e.g. 1837). The body is generally narrow, with a short neck and often lacks shoulders. The lateral outline varies from straight (e.g. 1837) to sinuous (e.g. 208). Arms vary: 16 specimens have arms folded at the waist (SAC 426, 1825 folded upwards), the rest have different positions: one arm raised to the head (327, 854) or to the chin (23), both arms raised to the head (1610, 2381? 971?2), 1842 has no arms. Legs also vary: five specimens have separate legs: without feet (23, SAC 425, 1371), with feet (1837, 1575), 14 specimens have conjoined legs with some indication of feet (projecting and/or with incised toes), 1842 stands on a base widening at the bottom, 931 and 854 are sitting, with legs folded at the sides,3 1825 has short stumps. 10 or 12 figurines are female with a genital triangle and incised vulva (23 and C33 lack a vulva), 2325, 936, 327, possibly 931 show pregnant females; 12 figurines lack genitals; seven specimens have breasts (exceptionally large on 327), five have an umbilicus. The back is unclassifiable: it is distantly related to type 3A because of an often present incised or molded belt, but the overall shape and other details are totally different; modelling of the buttocks is shown on the pregnant females (2325, 327), incised triangular buttocks on 23 and 2381; eleven figurines carry a load on their back (see below). Clothes and accessories: 1837, SAC 426, 1806, 853, 854 wear a pointed headdress with a plain or incised circular relief rim; most of the remaining specimens also appear to wear some kind of pointed or rounded cap tightly fitting the head, with or without a tumpline showing (see below); 1825, 49 have no headdress. 1806, 208,1842, 2115 wear a short tunic, others only a belt (molded: 1842, 24, 2115, etc. simple, 23, 1837, 2381, 971 double; painted: 1371; with incised decor: 931, 1610, 1575) or they have simply one or two incisions below the waist 1

Considering the many different shapes and sizes, the measurements are only meant to give a general idea. 2 It is not quite clear whether arms are actually shown on 2381 and 971. 3 Left leg broken on 854.

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(e.g. SAC 426, 1161, 49 etc). A necklace or band is worn by thirteen specimens: wide, plain (e.g. 1575, 853) or with beads or incisions (e.g. 1837, 936, unusually wide on 1806, 327); row of beads with three large pendants (49), or two smaller pendants (C33), broad neckband ending in a point at front and back (854); 1610 has two large leaf-shaped ornaments (tupus?) on the chest; no armbands or ear-plugs. The loads carried on the back are carried by the means of a tumpline passing over the head, hiding or not the ears; it can be plain (e.g. 24, 2381), painted (1371), incised (1610), double (971) or tied above the forehead (1575, 2115); it widens below the shoulders in the back, where the load is placed. The load can be a child (208, 1610), a bottle (327, 931, 2381, 971, and probably 1842 and 2115), an unidentified bundle (1371, 24), simply a tied knot (1575). 853 carries a large bird in his arms. Manufacture 20 figurines are mold-made, three are hand-made and one is partially mold-made with added arms. All except 1825 are hollow with airholes at or below the anus (7), at the vulva and anus (3), in the vulva area/between the legs (4) and others (see Table 35). Thirteen specimens are reduced-fired (23 with a graphite shine), the rest are oxidized ware, 2325, 208 with white, 1371 with white and black decor; 854 shows traces of a powdery post-fired turquoise pigment. Atypical: 1037 has a broad rounded head, rather than the typical narrow, elongated one, but is included here because—like about 50% of the figurines in this group—it carries a child on the back by means of a tumpline. The facial features, cylindrical legless lower body standing on an elliptic base, with the relief band below the waist are typical for late northern area Chimu figurines. The figurine is mold-made, hollow with an airhole at the base; the ware is oxidised. Fake? Colonial? 1592: Large, narrow figure, bent forward craning its neck, attached to an elaborate base (see Plate 64). Head- and face-shape as on 853, 854, flat conch-like ears. Long neck, very narrow long body, narrow shoulders, left arm—with very wide upper arm—folded upwards on chest, left arm touching cheek, naturalistic left hand; slight kink at the waist, no legs or genitals. The back is featureless, but very rounded in profile. Headdress with a very narrow relief border, tunic descending to the base, with buttons and eyes along the entire length. Hand-made (with mold-made face?), hollow, with large airhole at the back of the head; ware not visible, very smooth dark red and yellowy-white slip-paint. DISCUSSION

Special Features/Links with other groups Apart from Moche warriors wearing pointed helmets (Donnan 1978:46), figures with an elongated head appear to be a Chimu or Sican innovation on the NC, as is the representation of a load, carried by means of a tumpline. Although I have not come across personages with elongated heads on Chimu textiles1 or metalwork, they are not uncommon on Chimu or Sican vessels. Figures with elongated heads or wearing headdresses resembling those of the figurines, often with a relief border, can be attendants or play musical instruments (Martinez 1986: nos. 761, 769, 770), or just sit in a meditative pose (Lavalle 1988: 95 top, 135; Martinez 1986: nos. 700, 704). But the most numerous representations show them carrying a load on their back: either a child (Martinez 1986: no. 786, 787, 788; Lavalle 1989: 101), a jar (Martinez 1986: nos. 751, 752, 753) or an animal, probably a llama (Martinez 1986: nos. 756, 757, 758). Note that in these examples, one of the children and all the vessels are carried by means of a tumpline.2 1 2

But there are some pointed Chimu feather caps (Lavalle 1988: 248, 249). Only one Sican figurine (287/Sican Gr.3), carries a vessel by means of a tumpline: it has a fairly narrow but not an elongated head.

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A slightly different type of headdress worn by figures on vessels is very long and narrow, with a bent tip, often divided into several sections or coils. Such figures are seen acting as "attendants" of a high personage or in funeral rites (Lavalle 1988: 90, left) or participating in a feast (Lapiner 1976: fig. 609). They are also shown playing a musical instrument, sometimes lying on their side (Schjellerup 1985: Pl. no.64; Martinez 1986: nos. 773, 7741). In this group 853, 854 and 1592 have a similar headdress. Of the three children carried, the one on 208 seems to be facing the mother's back, whereas those on 1610 and on the atypical 1037 are facing outwards. A similar depiction occurs on a northern Chimu (Sican) vessel (Lavalle 1989:17). As far as can be ascertained, the jars carried by Chimu 5 figurines (1842?, 327, 2115?, 2381, 971) have a globular body and a large flaring neck, similar to the one depicted on a vessel (Martinez 1986: nos. 753). 853 carries a bird in its arms; other rare examples occur (990/Moche sg. 2.1, 992/Moche sg. 4.2). Birds are quite often shown on the back of Sican figure-jars (see fig.14, in Sican Gr.3), but I have not found another Chimu example. Elongated heads occur both on the Central and South Coasts during the LIP (see CC Chancay Group 2 and Late SC Type A Gr.3). Interestingly the Chancay Gr. 2 figurines with elongated head often also carry a child or a bag on their back by means of a tumpline. Chancay face-neck vessels, with the elongated head forming the spout, often carry camelids or birds on their shoulders. It may well be that—as on the Central Coast—the personage with elongated head is a traveller from the Sierra, characterized by the cranial deformación por llautu, and carrying a child or an offering (see Chancay Group 2, Discussion). Unusual features: 1610—and probably 2381 and 971—have both arms lifted to their heads, supporting their loads. Similar representations occur on Chimu or Sican vessels, mostly with a figure carrying a load or a child (Martinez 1986: 691, 786; Lavalle 1989: 101).2 But amongst figurines this posture is rare: it does not occur on any of the load-carrying Chancay Gr. 2 figurines. A Salinar figurine (763) and three Central Coast figurines3 do lift both arms to their heads, but they do not carry a load. 327 and the atypical 854 lift only one arm to the head, a gesture which I have not found on Chimu vessels, but which occurs on a Gallinazo-style vessel from a Moche cemetery (Donnan 2006: Figure 10e) and only occurs on a handful of other figurines from the Central and South Coast.4 Finally 23 and the fake (?) 1592 lift one hand to the chin, (or mouth?) or cheek: this is not uncommon on Chimu or Sican vessels (Martinez 1986: nos. 694, 699, 710, 718, 779; Lavalle 1989: 17, 90, left) but only occurs on a handful of figurines.5 1610 features two leaf-shaped ornaments on its chest, very likely tupos, which together with a wide belt are also a common feature of Chancay Group 2 figurines (e.g. 1283, 1937/Chancay 2.3.1). 931 and 854 are sitting, their thin legs folded along the sides of the body: this is also a LIP innovation on the NC, as Moche figures mostly sit with their legs half extended in front of them (see C20/Moche sg. 1.1.2, 2353, P59/Moche sg.1.4) or cross-legged (see 1971/Moche Gr. 3 and various /Moche Gr. 5).6 Only one other Chimu figurine (1639/sg.1.2) appears to be

1

These two examples also have the "typical Chimu face". An unusual (late MH?) vessel from Pachacamac also shows this feature (Schmidt 1929: 263 right). 3 See 1584, 513, 2216/CC-Late MH-early LIP figurines from the Rimac and Lurín valleys. 4 See 877 /CC-Late MH-early LIP Unaffiliated Gr.1; 446, 1152 /Late S/C Type A figurines Gr. 4. 5 See S35/NC-Middle Formative; [P9/temporary numbering] in Late SC Type A Gr.3. 6 Earlier figurines also have different postures (see NC Formative Gr. 1, 2 etc.) 2

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sitting cross-legged or kneeling. Chimu vessels with this feature interestingly often show figures with elongated heads (Martinez 1986: nos. 715, 753, 757, 758, 771, 788 etc). On the CC, long, thin, folded legs are typical for Chancay seated figurines (see Chancay Groups 2.3.1, 3.1, 3.2.1) A peculiar feature is also the knot of the tumpline, with the two ends hanging on the forehead (1575, 2115). Similar knots only occur on the tied scarves of Sican figure-vessels (see Fig. 14 under Sican Gr.3). Amongst Recurring Chimu Features (see Table 43) note: pregnant women (2325, 936, 327, 931?); buttocks shown as an incised triangle (23, 2381); relief band at the waist (several), incised lines at the waist (1161, 49, etc), necklace with large pendants (49, C33). 1592, with its "baroque" base, features such as the ears modelled into the sides of the head, the wide rounded right arm, the tunic with buttons?, but especially the odd colours and surface finish, is very unusual. It comes from the Emilio Montez collection, purchased by the Field Museum in 1893. 19th century fakes are not uncommon in Peru (see NC MH-LIP Gr. 4, Discussion). Alternatively it could be colonial? Context: None Geographic distribution Northern Sector Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested

Moche/ Chicama

Santa Valley

Central Coast/ Other

3

3 + 1 Cuzco

1 3 8

Although four figurines come from the southern Chimu area, the majority (ten) come from the northern Chimu area. Curiously three very different specimens (from different collections) are said to come from Chimbote: this provenance is highly unlikely for 1575, which is typical for the Northern area. The Huacho and Ancon provenances can be disregarded on stylistic grounds, the Cuzco provenance because of its source (see Appendix 1). In addition to iconographic links with Sican figures already mentioned above (carrying loads, knotted scarves with hanging ties), note the resemblance of 1575 (said to come from Chimbote) with its pronounced features and heavy body to Sican figurines (Group 3) and figure-vessels. 23 also shows the Sican grooves (see the eyes), and graphite slip-paint. Note also that nearly 50% are not blackware. So, on the whole, I believe the Chimu Gr. 5 figurines to come mainly from the northern Chimu area. Chronology It is difficult to date such a disparate group. Many features reveal some links with Sican— though characteristic Sican features such as the comma eye or stylized pointed ears have disappeared—or generally point to the northern Chimu area. Circumstantial evidence, such as the large proportion of oxidised ware and the provenances, corroborates this stylistic analysis. In the published literature vessels showing similar figures are mostly dated "Chimu Medio" (Martinez 1986: figs. 691, 700, 704, 756-758, 786 etc) or "Chimu-Inca" (Martinez 1986: 752, 753; Schjellerup 1985: Pl. no. 35). A red-on-cream vessel (Lavalle 1989: 101) is also clearly Late Chimu. The depiction of the same personage in the Chancay culture (Chancay Group 2) would also date this group to the Main Chimu phase. But note that the earliest Chancay- related specimens of this type date to the late MH, whilst some survive into the LH. As—on one hand—there are no really early features present here and—on the other hand—some of the figurines may date to Late Chimu Group 5 probably spans the Main and Late Chimu phases.

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CHIMU GROUP 6: MISCELLANEOUS FIGURINES WITH A BILOBED HEAD OR HEADDRESS

This group consists of a number of figurines characterised by a bilobed head, but obviously stemming from different stylistic traditions. The bilobation itself varies from pointed peaks and a variety of other shapes to large rounded lobes. Arguably some of the figurines could have been classified under some of the other Chimu groups, but ultimately they did not share the main taxonomic characteristics. In spite of their small number, specimens have been subdivided into discreet sub-groups, listed in their likely chronological order: Sub-group 6.1: Figurines with a bilobed head (Probably from the main Chimu area) Sub-group 6.2: Figurines with a bilobed head or headdress from Northern Chimu area Sub-group 6.3: Late figurines with a bilobed head or headdress from the Northern Chimu area CHIMU SUB-GROUP 6.1: FIGURINES WITH A BILOBED HEAD AND SEPARATE LEGS PROBABLY FROM THE MAIN CHIMU AREA

Table 40 Plate 65 Sample: 3 figurines (examined 1) Measurements: Available for two specimens only. Heights: 17.1 cm, 18.7 cm, widths: 8.4 cm, 8.8 cm, thickness 5.0 cm, 5.2 cm, weight 300 gr. CHARACTERISTICS

The head clearly shows two high and slightly rounded lobes (as opposed to peaks) separated by a dip. Strands of incised hair, not visible on the crown, frame the cheeks; wide face, oval eyes with molded lids, nose not recorded, straight mouth with molded lips, semicircular ears with perforation. The incised nose-to-cheek lines are semi-circular, pointed chin, short neck. Body with narrow shoulders, slight lateral rounding at the arms (except on 1609), which are folded either upwards on the chest or at the waist (1609), incised fingers; short separate legs, incised toes. Incised genital triangle and vulva.1 Small nipples on 1609 only. The back of 1930 (the only one recorded) is plain, except for a short section of incised hair covering the neck (type 2C). All three wear a necklace, of round beads (1930, SAC 408), broader, with incisions (?) on 1609. Manufacture: Mold-made, hollow. The only recorded airholes are on the upper arms of 1930. 1930 is in oxidised ware, the other two are blackware. DISCUSSION

These three specimens are basically different from Chimu figurines with a type 3 headdress: a) they don't actually appear to wear a headdress and b) the "peaks" are larger and closer together. They show the characteristics of a deity often represented on vessels, notably the bilobation (Kroeber 1925: Pl. 61b; Martinez 1986: nos. 670-677, 679-682; Lavalle 1988: 78, 80, 81; Schjellerup 1985; Pls. 69, 70, etc.) and the lateral strands of incised hair (e.g. Schmidt 1929: 214; Martinez 1986: nos. 670, 672, 674, 679, etc.); one such representation also has the curious semi-circular nose-to-chin lines (Martinez 1986: no. 670), another the arms folded upwards (Schjellerup 1985: Pl.70). This bilobed personage is often—though not exclusively—associated with marine iconography (Schmidt 1929: 214; Martinez 1986: nos. 672, 673; Lavalle 1988: 78 left) and has been interpreted as a marine deity (Weiss and Rojas Ponce 1967-1968). Amongst the figurines, this sub-group is related to Chimu sg. 1.3 and 4.1, with features such as a short section of incised hair covering the neck at the back (1930), semi-circular

1

The absence of the incised genital triangle on1609 may be an omission on my sketch.

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nose-to-chin line (1930, SAC 408), arms folded upwards (1930), airholes at the upper arms Arguably all three sub-groups (1.3, 4.1, 6.2) belong to a specific sub-style, but there are insufficient data regarding provenance or chronology to establish this. Context: None Geographic Distribution: One fairly reliable provenance for Chan Chan. Chronology: Most of the Chimu vessels featuring a bilobed deity have been dated by Martinez (1988) or Schjellerup (1985) to "Middle Chimu". The figurines also share some possibly early features with sgs. 1.3 and 4.1 (see sgs. 1.3, 4.1, Chronology). So it is likely that sg. 6.1 also belongs to the early part of the Main Chimu phase. CHIMU SUB-GROUP 6.2: FIGURINES WITH A BILOBED HEADDRESS AND SEPARATE LEGS FROM THE NORTHERN CHIMU AREA

Table 40 Plate 65 Sample: 3 figurines (examined 2) Measurements: The two recorded heights are 11.7 cm and 13.7 cm, the widths 4.8 cm and 7.5 cm, the thickness 3.6 cm and 5.5 cm respectively. The figurines are described and discussed separately: P125 wears a headdress showing a slight central depression and rounded corners. The broad face has molded naturalistic features. Short neck, narrow shoulders and body, slightly rounded at the arms, which are folded above the waist, with molded five-finger hands; conjoined legs with modelled thighs/knees and an indication of feet (no toes). Said to be female (Hecker and Hecker 1995: 117). Appears to be wearing a shirt with a molded edge also visible at the back (ibid.) and a necklace of two plain bands. Mold-made, hollow, with an airhole at the anus, blackware, grey with a metallic shine. Context, Provenance, Chronology (P125): The figurine was found at Huaca 31 in Pacatnamu, probably amongst looted grave-goods excavated or collected by H. UbbelohdeDoering in 1962. It is tentatively dated to the LIP (Hecker and Hecker 1995: 72, 117). C34 wears a headdress with two broad but low lobes, the head is flattened in profile. Face with naturalistic proportions, molded elongated almond-shaped eyes, small aquiline nose perforated from side to side, mouth with upturned corners and molded teeth, rectangular perforated ears; rounded chin, short neck. Body with narrow shoulders, arms folded at waist, incised fingers; partly separated legs with modelled knees, small feet with incised toes. No breasts, incised genital triangle and perforated vulva. The back shows the headdress and the edge of tunic. Elaborate headdress with a double edge over forehead, ears and back, with a wide tassel hanging down to mid-back; waist-length tunic with scalloped edge; neckband with central pendant. Mold-made, hollow, with airholes at vulva and anus, oxidised ware, dark terracotta. 1471: The rounded skull-cap has a raised edge and is surmounted by two conical projections, with flattened tops decorated with an incised cross. The head is flattened in profile. The face, eyes and perforated nose are similar to C34 above, the mouth has molded lips, the perforated ears are pointed. The body-shape is also similar to C34, except that the legs are completely separated; no breasts, incised genital triangle. The type 4 back has the typical Sican-derived horizontal "bulge" at neck level. The incision at waist level probably indicates a shirt; neckband. Mold-made, hollow, airhole at vulva, oxidised terracotta-coloured ware. Context, Provenance, Dating (C34, 1471): The context and provenance of C34 are unknown, 1471 is said to come from the Chira Valley. There is a marked resemblance in the facial features and the body-shape not only between C34 and 1471, but also with 2369, 1139 and 1239/Chimu sg. 2.1, although the latter are in a different ware (Red or fugitive black on

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orange). They probably date to the same period, e.g. to the early part of our "Main" Chimu phase (see Chimu sg. 2.1, Chronology). CHIMU SUB-GROUP 6.3: LATE NORTHERN CHIMU FIGURINES WITH A BILOBED HEADDRESS AND JOINED LEGS

Table 40 Plate 65 Sample: 2 figurines (examined 2) Measurements: The height is 11.7 cm and 13.7 cm respectively, the other measurements are not recorded. CHARACTERISTICS

The head shows two large excrescences, clearly delimited at their base, in front and at the back; 2372 possibly wears a headdress, but its edge only appears on the forehead, not at the back. The face and features are very similar to other late Chimu northern sector figurines (cf. sgs 1.2b, 2.2, 3.2b). The same can be said of the cylindrical body, with a relief band at the waist, plain lower body (2371) or vestigial legs and incised genital triangle and vulva (2372). The back is plain, except for the lobes. Manufacture: Mold-made, hollow, with one airhole below the anus. Unslipped oxidised ware. DISCUSSION:

The lobes are unlike any produced by cranial deformation because of the "demarcation" at their base. It is impossible to say whether the intention is to represent the same bilobed personage as, for instance, in sg. 6.2. Context: None Geographic distribution: No data, but the catalogue in both cases states "Ecuador?", which suggests a northern sector provenance. Chronology: On the basis of their similarity with many other northern sector Chimu figurines, these must date to Late Chimu. CHIMU GROUP 7: MISCELLANEOUS CHIMU FIGURINES

The 19 figurines in this group could not be included into any of the other Chimu groups. They are divided into two sub-groups. CHIMU SUB-GROUP 7.1: FIGURINES EXCAVATED FROM CHIMU AND CHIMU-INCA CONTEXTS

The figurines in this sub-group are listed according to their provenance. Table 41 Plate 66 Sample: 10 figurines (examined 4) Measurements: not applicable a) Figurines excavated in Pacatnamu by H. Ubbelohde-Doering Pacatnamú, Huaca 16 (Hecker and Hecker 1991) As far as can be ascertained the great majority of ceramic fragments were retrieved from the fill while excavating construction phases C and D of Huaca 16. As they lack any datable stratigraphic context they are assigned—in the publication—to chronological phases according to stylistic features (Hecker and Hecker 1991: 92, 140ff). P126 (Nr. 197):1 Lower face and body fragment, showing one arm folded at the waist. Unusual features are: the large mouth and jutting chin, wide collar and belt (or tunic edge) 1

In brackets the find-number as listed in Hecker and Hecker 1991.

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showing rows of different molded decorative elements (lozenges, broken-lines-and-dot, etc). Mold-made, hollow, reduced-fired ware. The dating given is "Late Lambayeque or ChimuInca" (ibid. 159), but there are no known similar figurines in either of these styles. P127 (Nr. 200): Face and body fragment. The eye is unusually large, marked nose-to-chin line, semi-spherical ear-plug?, short folded arms, large bulge at waist level, absent legs. Moldmade, hollow, oxidized ware with traces of cream paint. Dating: "Unascertainable phase of the Chimu Period" (ibid. 168, my translation). Late Chimu of the northern sector. P128 (Nr. 201): Nearly complete figurine, possibly with an elongated head. Typical Chimu facial features. Elongated body with straight sides, arms only indicated by large hands folded above the waist. Vestigial legs, incised genital triangle, molded bulge at waist level and bulky necklace of one row of incised beads. Mold-made, hollow, airhole (?) instead of right ear, reduced-fired ware. Dating: "Chimu - indeterminate phase" (ibid. p.169, my translation). Late Chimu of the northern sector. Pacatnamú, Huaca 31 (Hecker and Hecker 1995) The finds in the excavations of this site come partly from a number of graves previously excavated by grave-robbers and partly from untouched strata found below these (ibid. p.72). P131 (No. 638): Crude hand-made figurine with rounded head. Eyes made of inlaid shell, crudely modelled nose, large, straight, incised mouth, with small transversal incisions (teeth?). Short, featureless body. Unfired, pale grey, rough surface. The figurine was found between two ruined walls dating to the last construction phase of Huaca 31—phase C, dating to late Moche, i.e. 700-750 AD (ibid., p. 58)—but the figurine itself "cannot be dated" (ibid., p. 472). Considering a few similarly crude, hand-made specimens excavated by Uhle at Moche Site B (see below), it is possible that this is a very late Chimu (or later?) figurine. b. Figurine excavated by R.W. Keatinge at Medaños de la Joyada, Moche Valley The site, located ca 15 km N/W of Chan Chan, consists of a cluster of sunken gardens and was probably not occupied till after the arrival of the Inca or even the Spaniards (Keatinge 1973: 310-312). P132: Nearly complete standing figurine with a rounded headdress. Wide face, molded almond-shaped eyes and nose with nostrils, incised mouth, semi-circular ears with central perforation. No neck or shoulders, straight sided-body, tapering towards the feet; arms folded above waist, incised fingers; no legs, slightly protruding feet; umbilicus filled with a pebble, trace of modelled breasts, no genitals; fairly broad profile, featureless back. Necklace of incised beads. Small horizontal incisions around the outer edge of the body. The figurine is mold-made, with airholes at the umbilicus and the middle of the back, reduced-fired, black. The figurine was found in a midden. Stylistically it is Chimu-related. c. Figurines excavated by M. Uhle at Huacas de Moche Site B Uhle's Site B, a cemetery, contained overwhelmingly Chimu blackware and some Inca pottery (see Appendix 2). 1954: Crude figurine with rounded head, sketchily modelled eye-brows, eyes and nose, incised mouth, no ears. An incision marks the neck. The straight-sided body with rounded base shows no other features than crudely modelled arms folded on the chest. Hand-made, solid, with a rough grey-buff surface, probably unfired. The figurine is similar to P131 (above) from Pacatnamú, dating to late Chimu or later? 1955: Body of figurine, showing well modelled folded arms and hands with incised fingers and the lower edge of a tunic slightly protruding above a cylindrical base (also at the back). The hand-made figurine is solid, with a rough grey-buff surface, probably unfired, of indeterminate date. 1956: Figurine fragment showing part of the wide face, with an appliquéd eye, modelled nose, incised mouth and deep incision for the neck. The body has folded arms and conjoined legs with feet jutting out at the front and back. A punctation marks the umbilicus. No other

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features. Hand-made, solid, with a rough grey-buff surface, probably unfired. Date as P131 and 1954 above. 1957: More sophisticated specimen, wearing a skull-cap tied to the head and around the neck by an appliquéd strap. The somewhat damaged facial features could be mold-made and are Moche in appearance.1 The narrow body shows arms extended forward and well-modelled hands with four fingers and thumb holding a cylindrical object, possibly broken at both ends; very short separate legs (one broken); punctation in lower abdomen (vulva?). Slightly bulging featureless back. Plain necklace. Hand-made, but possibly with a mold-made face and hands, appears partly hollow, with an airhole through the top of the head, coarse buff surface. Late Moche? early Chimu? d. Figurine excavated by C. Mackey and A. Klymyshyn at Manchan, Casma Valley The figurine was excavated at Manchan, a regional administrative centre for the southern part of the Chimu empire, situated in the Casma valley (Mackey and Klymyshyn 1981: 99-114). The figurine itself was embedded in an adobe brick found in the fill of a tomb (ibid. p. 103). P133: Head and body fragment. Very wide short head with an appliqué filet along the upper edge, large modelled eyes and nose, mouth hidden by a "loosely woven cotton fabric", pronounced nose to chin lines, no ears. Straight-sided body with appliqué arm folded at the waist (right arm missing); no other features because of diagonal break. Press-molded, plain necklace. Hand-made, solid, unbaked. Dating: Chimu. e. Figurine Fragments excavated in Chan Chan but not included in this study T. Pozorski excavated Huaca Las Avispas, the extensively looted burial platform of Cuidadela Laberinto, where he found fragments of ten, mostly mold-made, figurines (1971: 108-109, 115), amongst them three blackware specimens wearing a "3 corner hat". Unfortunately only one fragment of feet is illustrated (1971: fig. 59); the other fragments were not photographed by him (personal communication). A.M.U Klymyshyn who studied some of the Elite Compounds (also referred to as Intermediate Architecture, due to their position between the Cuidadelas and the small irregularly agglutinated rooms or SIARs2) found figurine fragments in Unit 13—the only one excavated—probably the residence of an extended family (1976: 137). Of the eight fragments (bases, body, a hollow head, etc) only two non-diagnostic fragments are illustrated (1976: 792 and Fig. 149). It is not possible to draw any conclusions from this extremely scant material. CONCLUSION

Of the ten excavated figurines described above four are mold-made, the rest hand-made, but all except P126 are crudely made. It is possible that they were produced late in the Chimu or Chimu-Inca sequence, possibly even in early colonial times, when the traditional moldmade production of figurines had ceased. CHIMU SUB-GROUP 7.2: VARIOUS FIGURINES

The figurines in this sub-group are described and discussed individually Table 41 Plate 66, 67 Sample: 9 figurines (examined all) Measurements: see Table 41 2: Standing figurine with a large head. The headdress has two large rounded lobes on either side and two smaller pointed peaks in the middle of the crown. The large molded almondshaped eyes slant upwards, the aquiline nose is pierced from side to side, the mouth is square with molded lips, the ears are small semi-circular pierced flaps. Short neck, no shoulders, straight-sided body; long arms folded down towards the genitals, hands with incised fingers; completely separate short cylindrical legs, no feet, but incisions showing toes. No breasts, 1 2

Not visible on the photograph. Apparently no ceramic figurines were retrieved from the SIARs (Topic 1977).

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raised genital triangle with punctated vulva. Plain narrow necklace, incised armbands. Sicanderived type 4B back with horizontal bulge above the neck. Mold-made, hollow with airholes at vulva and anus, blackware. Northern area features: Provenance from Talara, Chira Valley, slanting, almond-shaped eyes, hole through nose, type 4 back (cf. Chimu sg. 2.1). The body-shape is reminiscent of NC MHLIP Gr. 1 and Chimu sg.1.3 specimens. Unusual feature: hands folded near the genitals, a feature seen on CC-Huaura Group 1, which dates to the late MH and early LIP. Dating: Early Chimu (Sican-related). 1038: Standing figurine with a headdress showing five peaks along the crown and an incised decor of broken lines above the forehead. The face is wide with molded oval eyes, a nose with nostrils and alae, very small incised mouth, pointed, pierced flap ears. Short neck, slightly rounded lateral body outline, arms folded above waist, short cylindrical legs, no feet; small nipples, incised genital triangle with pierced vulva; double incision at waist and at neck (necklace?). Sican-derived type 4B back. Mold-made, hollow with one airhole at vulva, blackware. Northern area features: The figurine may have been part of the D. Seminario collection originating in the Northern sector;1 the type 4 back. Dating: Early? to Main Chimu. 1459: Small standing figurine. The spherical head features four circular knobs (with incisions) on the forehead, the sides and the back of the head. The round face has large pimples or fistulas on the cheeks and deep nose-to-chin lines. The eyes are small, elliptic, with thick molded lids, the nose has nostrils and is perforated from side to side, the small near circular mouth has molded lips, the ears are semi-circular perforated flaps. The neck is clearly shown. The body is barrel-shaped, with short arms folded on the chest and hands with four fingers; the cylindrical legs are completely separate, with incised toes indicating the feet. Small nipples, incised genital triangle and vulva, below a relief belt. The back shows a vertical groove, a relief belt (both type 3A features) and a triangular incision at buttock level. Plain molded necklace. The figurine appears mold-made and hollow, but has no air-holes; dark brown slip, highly polished surface. Northern Chimu features: Provenance from the Chira Valley, perforation through the nose; the surface treatment and colour is reminiscent of high quality Inca pottery. Date: ChimuInca? 39: Rounded head with a tuft of incised hair on the forehead. Incised eyes and mouth, modelled nose perforated from side to side, semi-circular perforated flap ears with small punctations. Incision marking the neck, no shoulders, straight-sided body, long thin appliquéd arms, hands with incised fingers folded downwards at the abdomen. Cylindrical separate legs (restored), incisions for toes. Raised genital area with incised vulva. Plain back with two grooves on the back of the head (hair?). Incised armbands. Hand-made, solid, oxidised ware, pale terracotta surface (the restored areas painted darker red). Northern Chimu features: perforation through the nose; some similarity with 1459 above. Date: Chimu-Inca? 1667: Large standing figurine. Rounded unadorned head, crudely modelled or incised features, nose perforated from side to side, semi-circular perforated flap ears, pointed chin, short neck. No shoulders, straight-sided body, no arms, hands with incised fingers at waist level; slightly splayed, partly separate legs, toes. Nipples with central punctation, incised genital triangle with punctation and perforation for vulva. Plain flat back with minimal modelling of the neck and waist. Hand-made, solid?, oxidised ware, rough surface, terracotta. Northern Chimu features: perforation through the nose; some similarity with 39 above. Date: Chimu-Inca or colonial? 288: Standing figurine with rounded head, showing a deep cut along the crown. Wide, short face with modelled features: deep "undercut" eyebrows, small eyes, large nose with nostrils 1

My notes are not definite about this.

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and alae, thick lips, large curving ears. Marked neck, rotund body with short arms folded above the abdomen, hands with three incised fingers; short separate cylindrical legs, feet protruding front and back. Umbilicus, indicated by two concentric circles, punctated nipples, incised genital triangle and vulva. The bulging back shows a band of incised hair on the head and a triangle of incised hair below the neck, as well a relief belt and incisions marking the top of the legs. The belt is also shown at the front, as is a necklace with small square incised beads and a further plain band below; circular ear-plugs. Mold-made, hollow with an airhole at the anus, reduced-fired, black, rough surface. Northern Chimu features: molded belt often present on similar specimens, incised hair forming a triangle at the back (cf. Chimu sg. 1.2b, 914, 921, 2379/Chimu 2.2). But similar figurines mostly lack legs. Dating: Late Northern Chimu. 2377: Figurine showing a pregnant female wearing a peculiar headdress with tiny lateral projections and a band going across the top of the head from side to side ending in flaps over the ears. The head is rounded in profile and tilted backwards with a jutting chin; the face shows strong modelling, with diagonal tear-lines with dots, as well as nose-to-chin lines; slanting almond-shaped eyes, pointed nose. Narrow body, with a long neck and small shoulders; the arms are folded towards the very large (pregnant) abdomen; conjoined legs with bulky feet; high-placed breasts, large umbilicus, incised genital triangle with perforation at vulva; the profile shows bent knees and protruding buttocks; the back shows the arms and buttocks. No clothing, apart from the headdress, a plain neckband and a labret. Mold-made, hollow with one air-hole at vulva, oxidised, orange-brown ware. Several features point to the northern Chimu area: • The headdress of this figurine is reminiscent of some type 2 headdresses (e.g. 921, 2379, 1733/Chimu 2.2 - two of these from the Northern sector), where the tassels are reduced to mere knobs; but these headdresses lack the cross-band ending in two flaps. • The head tilted backwards with the jutting chin, the body-shape and the pregnant abdomen also occur in Chimu Group 5 (e.g. 2325, 936, 327, 931 - four of these from the northern Chimu area). • The diagonal tear lines with punctations have parallels amongst Sican figurines (970, 2039/Sican Gr. 1). • It has also been suggested that the labret, only found on Moche sg. 4.3 figurines, is probably a northern feature (Cordy-Collins 2001), though several of the Moche figurines wearing it actually come from the Moche/Chicama area. Also taking into consideration the oxidised ware, I would tend to assign this specimen to the northern Chimu area. Considering the Moche-derived bent knees and protruding buttocks, more commonly found in the Jequetepeque area and the lack of late northern Chimu features, it could be contemporary with Early Chimu. 2173: Very unusual figurine listed here because it is in blackware and included in the Chimu collection of the Danish National Museum. Rounded crown and face framed by hair1 or by a shawl?; crudely modelled features: large eyes, nose (broken), thick lips, no ears. No neck, wide rounded shoulders, arms of unequal length folded downwards, hands with three incised fingers; short, separate, splayed legs resting on an oval base. No nipples, large incised genital triangle and incised vulva. In the back, the headgear ends in a point below the neck and there is a bulge across the shoulders. It is not clear whether the figurine is mold-made, but it appears hollow, with an airhole at the anus, crudely made in blackware. It is dated to "Early Chimu" by Schjellerup (1985: I, 84). 760: Large figurine with rounded head, also in profile, wearing a cap covering the forehead and ears. The naturalistic face has modelled oval eyes, a large nose with nostrils and alae, upward curving lips and incised rounded nose-to-chin lines. Short neck, very wide square shoulders, barrel-shaped body projecting above short separate legs with large feet which protrude at front and back, with seven molded toes. The thin appliquéd arms folded on the 1

Schjellerup 1985: vol.I, p.84.

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chest have small hands with four incised fingers. No other features except a v-shaped neckline. The back is featureless replica of the front. The figurine looks partly hand- partly mold-made, is solid in burnished blackware. This figurine is unique: the atypical 1897/sg.3.1 has a similar barrel-shaped body, but the head is flat, especially in profile and the legs are conjoined. It is included here on the basis of a combination of the ware1 and faint similarities with Chimu features, for instance the eyes, the curved nose-to-chin lines. It could be an Inca figurine from the North Coast (note a similar shape on Martinez 1986: no. 724). Conclusion Seven of the nine figurines appear to come from the Northern Chimu area. CHIMU GROUP 8: CHIMU OR SICAN ANTHROPOMORPHIC MONKEYS

The monkey plays an important part in Chimu iconography and is depicted on many vessels (Martinez 1986: 597-823), but there are only five figurines of monkeys in this sample.2 They are included in this study because they are anthropomorphised. Table 42 Plate 67 Sample: 5 figurines (examined 5) Measurements: Minimum Maximum Median Height (5): 12.4 cm 6.2 cm 8.0 cm Width (5): 5.8 cm 2.7 cm 3.2 cm Thickness (5): 4.4 cm 2.1 cm 3.5 cm Weight (5): 150 gr. 70 gr. 30 gr. GROUP CHARACTERISTICS

Three specimens have somewhat pointed heads (only 172 is elongated), two have flat heads, but all show a markedly rounded profile. The face shows a slightly projecting forehead and the prognathism associated with primates. The molded eyes can be elliptic, round (131), or comma-shaped (1876), the nose is mostly chipped, the mouth prognathic, above a jutting chin, the ears semi-circular, pierced on 172, 1876; no ears on 1685a and b. The neck is shown (also in the back), the shoulders only on 131, 172. 131 has a wider body with arms folded upwards on the chest, hands with molded fingers and slightly splayed cylindrical legs lacking feet; the others have narrow bodies, with arms folded above the waist (172, 1876) or raised to the head? (1685 a, b) and conjoined legs, widening in profile. Breasts are shown on 131 only; genitals are not shown on 131 and 1685 a and b, they are covered by a tunic on 1876; 172 appears to have an incised genital triangle with an airhole marking the vulva. The back (undefined) shows a belt, painted on 131, molded on 1876, 1685a, b. All but 172 appear to wear some kind of cap descending on the forehead (unless this is the bulging forehead characteristic for a monkey?); 131 has a molded necklace of three plain strands with a central ornament and incised bracelets; 1876 wears a knee-length tunic with molded belt, 1685 a and b have a molded belt, 172 has no accoutrements. Manufacture All the figurines are mold-made and hollow, with airholes at the shoulders and anus (131), at or below the vulva and anus (172, 1876), at anus (1685 a, b). 131, 1685 a, b are in oxidised ware, 131 has traces of white and red paint on pale terracotta, 1685 a, b are a blotchy grey to brown. Both 172 and 1876 are in good quality polished blackware with a graphite shine and an incised decor executed in the thin Sican grooves. DISCUSSION

The scarcity of anthropomorphic monkey figurines—both in Moche3 and Chimu—is surprising, considering their frequent depiction on vessels and other media. The only other 1

There is even less resemblance with specimens in blackware from the Central or South Coasts. 172 and 1876 probably belong to the Sican culture. 3 There are no Moche monkey figurines in this sample. 2

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anthropomorphic monkey figurines occur in the Chancay culture. The Chimu monkey figurines share the rounded undeformed head (at the back), prominent forehead, prognathic nose and mouth with the twelve Chancay specimens, whilst the body is mostly different (see Chancay Group 7). According to Menzel (1977:33) “monkeys symbolized fertility, primarily in the context of sexual activity”. It is therefore surprising that the sex of the monkey figurines is either not indicated or that the only one shown appears to be a female. It may be that within the funerary context monkeys took on another symbolic meaning, representing a double duality "between life and death and between a monkey and a human" (Bourget 2006: 56). We know that bodies of monkeys were sometimes placed in burials (Sestieri 1971: 103-104). Context: None Geographic distribution: Three specimens probably come from the northern Chimu area, one from Chan Chan. Chronology: The terracotta coloured 131 with traces of white and red stripes painted on the lower body and separate cylindrical legs lacking feet is reminiscent of NC-Middle Horizon specimens in Groups 3 and 5 and NC MH-LIP Group 1, so it could date to the late Middle Horizon or Early Chimu. 172, 1876 with their shiny blackware and Sican grooves, and 1876 with comma-eyes probably date to Middle or Late Sican. The poorly-made 1685a and 1685b with their molded belts and oxidised ware are likely to date to late Chimu.

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THE CHIMU FIGURINES: SYNOPSIS

The Chimu sample contains 206 figurines, including five anthropomorphic monkeys. Characteristics of the Chimu Figurines All the figurines, with two (or three?) exceptions (931, 854, 1825?/Gr. 5) are standing, with arms nearly always folded at the waist; 14 (7%) specimens have arms folded upwards on the chest (see sgs. 1.1.1,1.3, 3.2, 4.1, 5), another four or five have one or both arms lifted to the head. The height1 of the figurines goes from 6.4 cm (49/Gr.5) to 23.5 cm (2369/sg. 2.1). The median height is 14.2 cm, with over half the groups or sub-groups having a median height between 14.0 cm and 15.4 cm.

Table 1: Sex of the Chimu Figurines (including atypical specimens and molds) Group

Total

F

F?

M

n/i

1.1.1 1.1.2 1.2a 1.2b 1.3 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2a 3.2b 4.1 4.2 5 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.1 7.2 8

27 18 13 6 7 10 22 7 16 11 6 6 242 3 3 2 10 9 5

9 14 9 6 7 10 19 7 15 9 6 6 10 3 2 1 1 8

6

1 2

2

11 2 2

2

1

Total %3

205

142 70 %

n/k

1 2

2

12

1 1 6 1

1

15 7.5 %

3 1.5%

43 21 %

2

2

There are 70 % of females, probably more, as we can assume—with only 1.5 % explicitly male—that many of the 21 % of specimens where the sex is not indicated are also females. The vast majority of figurines are naked, their only ornaments being a headdress, a necklace and ear-plugs. A number of specimens wear what looks like an incision at the waist or a belt, which may in some cases represent the lower edge of a tunic (see f.i. sg. 1.1.1); but often details like nipples are clearly visible, so a tunic may not be present (see f.i. sg. 1.2b). Altogether the apparent standardisation of posture, size and accoutrements is belied by considerable differences in iconographic details, especially the back, where we see no fewer than 11 types and sub-types. Manufacture of the Chimu Figurines A. Wares As mentioned in the Moche Synopsis, the analysis of the wares in this study is very basic. Like the manufacturing technique of the Chimu figurines, the wares are also fairly standardised, either reduce-fired black ware in a great variety of shades from pale grey to black, or oxidised ware, varying from pale buff to terracotta or darker orange. In the case of pale grey and buff or certain shades of brown it was not always possible to decide whether the ware was oxidised or reduced-fired: such wares are listed as "uncertain" in Table 2. The surface treatment usually consists of some smoothing, more rarely burnishing; self-slip is also quite rare. Decor in another colour is very rare.

1

The measurements do not include atypical figurines or molds Does not include 1592 (Fake or Colonial) 3 The percentages are calculated by deducting the "not known" specimens (last column) from the total. 2

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Table 2: The Wares of the Chimu Figurines Group

Total

Oxidised

Blackware

Uncertain

1.1.1 1.1.2 1.2a 1.2b 1.3 2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2a 3.2b 4.1 4.2 5 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.21 8

27 18 13 6 7 10 22 7 16 11 6 6 241 3 3 2 9 5

8

16 18 11 6 6 4 9 7 14 8 5 6 13

3

Total + % 2

195

1

6 11 2 3 1 9 2 2 2 3 3

n/k

1 1 2

2 1

1

53 (27.5 %)

4 2

2

130 (67.5 %)

10 (5 %)

2

B. Manufacturing Technique Contrary to the Moche sample, all the Chimu figurines are made by using two molds joined along the sides, with a hollow interior. Hand-retouching occurs, but is not significant. C. Airholes

Table 3: Position of the Airholes of the Chimu Figurines Group

Total

1.1.1 1.1.2 1.2a 1.2b 1.3

27 18 13 6 7

2.1 2.2 3.1 3.2a

10 22 7 16

3.2b 4.1 4.2 5

11 6 6 243

6.1 6.2 6.3 7.24 8

3 3 2 9 5

Total %

195 2

Others No N/A Not Anus Vulva Anus and Umbili- Upper Middle of (At, above Vulva cus arms/ Back (S) known ± anus or below) 14 6 2 1 1 anus + umbilicus; 1 base 1 1 11 2 1 1 2 1 8 1 1 2 1 1 5 1 1 2 1 waist; 1 waist + vulva; 1 between legs + anus 8 1 1 7 3 1 1 vulva + base 4 6 3 3 1 top of head + umbilicus + vulva +anus 11 2 1 1 top of head + anus; 1 umbilicus + middle of back + anus 5 2 3 1 5 1 3 3 7 2 3 1 1 waist; 1 waist + anus; 1 between legs 1 2 2 (front); 1 mouth; 1 base; 1 anus + neck 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 3 2 1 shoulders + anus; 2 anus + between legs 75 21 31 7 8 5 18 14 2 14 (53 %) (11.5%) (17%) (3.5%) (4%) (2.5%) (10%) (7.5%) (1%)

We have already seen (see NC MH and MH-LIP figurines, Synopsis) that with the advent of the Chimu culture certain MH innovations all but disappear: the most common Chimu airhole position at the anus (53 %) marks—to a certain degree—a return to an earlier local (Moche) tradition. Unfortunately these statistics do not provide useful clues for either the chronology or the question of Northern Chimu area techniques versus their Main Chimu area counterparts. There is obviously a Northern area (late) Chimu style of figurines, characterised by all or most of the following features: squat body with a straight lateral outline, oval base (no legs or feet), molded band at or below the waist, hair incised at the back of the head, often in a 1

Does not include Sg. 7.1 which contains a number of unfired specimens. The percentages are calculated by deducting the "not known" specimens (last column) from the total. 3 Does not include 1592 (Fake or colonial) 4 Does not include sg. 7.1 which contains mainly solid specimens or fragments. 2

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triangular pattern and often with central parting (see groupings 1.2b, 3.2b). Many specimens in sg. 2.2 also belong to the same style, whilst sub-group 2.1 represents a different Northern tradition. Unfortunately the few provenances, mostly unverifiable or suggested do not allow any comparisons and conclusions based on statistics. Context of the Chimu Figurines Only 16 specimens have a documented context. Of these 11 (see sgs. 1.1.1, 1.2, 2.2, 6.3, 7.1) come from graves. Three figurines come from building fill, one figurine was found in a midden and one embedded in an adobe, part of a burial chamber (all in sg. 7.1). We also know that 10 figurine fragments were found in a burial platform (Huaca Las Avispas) and a few fragments in what was probably a residential area at Chan Chan (sg. 7.1). Obviously the figurines frequently functioned in a funerary context, but in view of the small sample (less than 8% of the total) it is not possible to reach a valid conclusion. Table 4: Geographic Distribution of the Chimu Figurines Groups Group 1 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Group 2 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Group 3 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Group 4 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Group 5 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Group 6 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Group 7 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Group 8 Certain Fairly reliable Unverifiable Suggested Total = 206

North of Jequetepeque/P Jequetepeque acasmayo 2 4 10

2 2

1

1

2 5 12

1 7

1 1 10

Moche/ Chicama V.

Virú V.

Casma V.

Santa V.

1

1

1 1

1 1

1 2 2

1 4

2

1 1 1

4

5

2 1

1

2 1 47 (22.8%)

1 18 (8.7%)

31 (15%)

1

1 (0.5%) 1 (0.5%)

3 (1.5%)

As we can see 96 (nearly 50%) of the figurines have no provenance. The breakdown of provenances is also highly unsatisfactory, since only 17 (8%) provenances are certain and 10

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(5 %) fairly reliable; the remaining 83 provenances are either unverifiable (35 = 17%) or only suggested (49 =24 %). It is noticeable how relatively few provenances are for the main Chimu area (i.e. the Moche/Chicama valleys) and hardly any for the valleys to the south, known to have been a Chimu zone of influence. There are very few figurines known from Chan Chan1 and none from the 25 Middle Chimu to Chimu-Inca graves from the Moche Valley published by Donnan and Mackey2 (1978). There are also no published figurines from any of the local styles contemporary with Chimu and Chimu-Inca in studies of the Virú, Santa, Nepeña or Casma3 Valleys (Collier 1955, Wilson 1988, Proulx 1968). Even though the above statistics may be skewed towards the Northern Chimu area because of the many "suggested" provenances, one still wonders whether the use of figurines on the NC during the LIP and LH may not have been more characteristic for the Northern Chimu area? Table 5: Chronology of the Chimu Figurines As pointed out in the introduction and within the individual groups, the dating of this material has been extremely difficult and unsatisfactory. The dates below are at best tentative: Groups

Early Chimu

Main Chimu

Late Chimu

1.1.1 1.1.2 1.2 1.3 2.1 2.2 3.1

?

3.2 4.1 4.2

???

5 6.1 6.2

various

6.3 7.1, 7.2, 8

various

The absence here of early Chimu figurines is probably due to the fact that any such specimens have been included in the Transitional MH-LIP groups.

1

See sg. 7.1 The four figurines from Early Chimu graves have been classified as NC-MH in this study. 3 Except for P133 from Manchan, Casma (see sg. 7.1) 2

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CHAPTER 10 CONCLUSIONS The preceding chapters will have shown to what degree I have achieved the first aim of this study, which is to classify the figurines from the North Coast of Peru, at the same time highlighting the “origin, evolution, location and interaction of figurine groups”. The two other aims of the study have already been addressed indirectly in the discussion of each figurine group. This chapter sums up the evidence regarding: A. The function of the figurines. B. The cultural processes taking place on the North Coast, also with reference to other areas of pre-Columbian Peru. A letter published in “The Times” a few years ago put both these issues—and our possible approach to them—into a sobering focus: “ Sir, Colonies of garden gnomes can be seen in Australia, South Africa and North America; probably throughout the English-speaking world. Are they truly British expatriates or are they, there and here, pervasive refugees from some other land? And what is it in their history or culture that keeps their women hidden?” (David Roberts, “The Times”, 1 February, 1991).

How would a scholar, armed with as little documentary evidence of European cultural history as we ultimately have of that of pre-Columbian Peru, answer the questions raised in this letter?

A. THE FUNCTION OF THE FIGURINES The Andean world was permeated by the concept of the sacred. Murúa—amongst many other chroniclers—tells us that "...no había cosa fuera de los términos comunes, a quien no atribuyesen los indios alguna deidad y reverencia, ofreciendole sacrificios a su modo..." (1987:423). I was hoping—in the course of this study—to encounter figurines (and contexts in which they were retrieved) which would suggest their meaning or functions. In fact only some Moche figurines allowed some interpretations as to the myth or reality that they represent. Here I shall try to look at the possible function of the figurines, proceeding in three main steps 1. Analysing the information provided by the figurines themselves: 1.1: Information inherent in the artefact: 1.1.1: Physical attributes: Size, stability, manufacturing methods (handversus mold-made, careful or crude execution), signs of handling, etc., 1.1.2: Iconographic attributes: Posture, physical peculiarities, sexual attributes, dress, activity. 1.2: Information provided by the context: 1.2.1: Retrieval location (grave, midden, cache, domestic or ceremonial architecture) 1.2.2: Associations, especially in a burial context (single or multiple burial, sex, age, associated artefacts). 2. Gathering of functional data in the ethno-historic and ethnographic literature.

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3. Testing the data gathered in steps 1 and 2 against the most commonly suggested functional models (toys, use in curing or related practices or as ritual objects). 1. Functional information provided by the figurines 1.1: Information inherent in the artefact: 1.1.1: Physical attributes: The largest figurine in the sample measures 39.5 cm (P31/Epiformative sg. 3.1.2, Vicús "Special"1 ), The smallest figurine 2.2 cm (998, a pendant, Moche sg. 5.3), the average median size of the figurines is 15.0 cm,2 with about 50% of the figurines measuring between 14.0 and 16.9 cm. There is no significant difference in size between the various epochs or cultures indeed the average median size of Moche (14.2 cm) and Chimu (14.3) is identical. As far as the stability of the figurines is concerned, this only varies slightly. The great majority of figurines is not particularly stable, the base (or feet) usually not big enough to sustain the weight of the figurine comfortably. Amongst Moche figurines both the specimens made in Method 2 (a figured frontal mold and a plain back mold) and Method 4 (frontal mold only) cannot stand unaided at all. Note that these two manufacturing methods are only used in the Moche culture. The manufacturing technique changed radically with the introduction of the mold appearing suddenly with the Moche culture. Whether the possibility to mass-produce figurines had an influence on their function or whether the imperatives of a new function lead to massproduction is a "chicken-and-egg" question which can only be answered, once we know more about the use or uses made of these objects. There are considerable differences in the quality of the manufacture. The Middle Formative generally produced carefully made figurines, in keeping with Early Horizon wares. This is followed by a period of cruder workmanship during the Epiformative (with some exceptions). This is succeeded by the better finished mold-made Moche figurines, which represent a high point in figurine manufacture. Although subsequently there are still some beautifully made MH, Sican and Chimu figurines, we also see during the late Chimu period a decline in workmanship and a greater stylisation, evident in a Northern area sub-style.. No specific signs of handling have been detected on the figurines, except possible on some Moche and MH figurines which have large holes in the back, obviously inflicted after firing (150, 1549, 1615/ Moche sg. 1.1.1; 1617, 1560/ sg. 1.1.2; 1553, 1569, 1562/sg. 1.2; 1896/Gr.2; 954, 193, 1695/MH Gr.2). Oddly enough, all the Moche figurines except one were acquired by Dorsey in Suchiman, Santa Valley; and one wonders whether these holes were not inflicted by the grave robbers, perhaps to ward off some spell? The three MH specimens come from different sites. Note also that two Moche figurines (2353/sg. 1.3, 983/s.g. 4.3) have a large square opening in the back, which could have been used for offerings. 1.1.2: Iconographic attributes Compared with figurines from Central America, Columbia or Ecuador the figurines of preColumbian Peru are very poor relations indeed. They lack the variety of expression, posture, accoutrements, activities, etc. Nevertheless, compared with figurines from the Central and especially the South Coast, the North Coast figurines show a certain amount of diversity, either in the personage shown—there are no fewer than seven different portrayals amongst Moche figurines—or in their accoutrements. North Coast figurines are generally standing, 18 figurines (2%) are sitting, with arms folded on the waist or abdomen, more rarely upwards on their chest; seven figurines (0.8 %) have arms extended sideways or forward, seven figurines hold objects away from their body; 10 figurines (1.2%) lift their hands to their face or head. 1

Another Vicús "Special" (1065/Epiform. Sg. 3.1.2) measures 42.5 cm, but I cannot absolutely vouch for its authenticity. 2 This figure does not include the very large "Specials" ( about 12 in number) or the very small pendants.

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The sex of the figurines—often not indicated at all—seems to evolve from a majority of males during the Formative and Epiformative (exception the fairly late Vicús sg. 3.2, all females!) to 82% of females (of which 37% are presumed female by comparing their clothing, especially their headgear, with figurines with visible genitals) and only 11% of males during the EIP. During the MH groups, females regress to about 47%, males to 9%, whilst those without clear gender increase to 44%, a proportion which rises to 75% in the Transitional MH-LIP groups, the rest being females and no males. In Sican the sex is never indicated, though one assumes the "Sican Lord" and the "Plumed and Armoured Personage" to be male? Finally the Chimu figurines show a return to the Moche tradition (and symbolism or function of the figurines?) with over 70% of females; but the males decrease to 1.5%, whilst 21% have no gender attribution (as opposed to 7% in Moche). It is noteworthy that none of the figurines in this sample are engaged in "erotic" activities or display any such features. Particular physical traits are rarely depicted, except for cranial deformation. We can observe that even some of the earliest figurines (e.g. 887/Formative Gr. 1) show a flattening of the back of the head which is unnatural.1 Whether this actually depicts a fronto-occipital deformation or whether it is just an accepted cannon of beauty is difficult to decide. Some figurines appear to have the deformación por llautu resulting in an elongated head (Chimu Gr. 5), others show some “bilobation” (Vicús sgs. 3.1.1, 3.2.1 and 3.2.2; Chimu Gr. 6).2 Pregnant women are occasionally shown only amongst Chimu figurines (1958/Chimu sg. 1.2a, 199/sg.2.2, 2325, 936, 237Gr.5, 2377/sg. 7.2). Associated to Moche sg. 2.1 I are shown three women giving birth, but these are technically vessels. As far as infirmities are concerned, we only possibly see one or two hunchbacks (1388/ Form. Gr. 1; C13/Formative sg. 2.2) and one case of rachitism? (1269/Epiformative sg. 1.2). Considering how frequently infirmities or physical deformities are depicted on vessels, especially in the Moche culture, the absence of such depictions on figurines is worth noting. Ornamentation and accoutrements vary. The head is nearly always the object of some treatment, either showing a hairstyle (see the incised hair on Formative Gr.1 figurines) or a headdress, which is practically universal. Even Epiformative "utilitarian" figurines like sg. 2.2. show some treatment of the head. Clothing is less commonly shown: apart from some elaborate clothes on the Tembladera figurines (Formative Gr. 2) and the odd loincloth in Gallinazo (7682, 683/Epiform. sg.2.3), the earliest clothing appears as painted shirts in Moche (sg. 1.1.1), later evolving into molded waist- or knee length tunics (e.g. sg. 1.3, Gr. 2, etc), though naked representations also continue. With the Middle Horizon nakedness, though with loincloths or body paint, becomes again more widespread (except for the Moche-derived MH Gr. 2) and continues into Chimu, with occasional short molded tunics leaving the genital area uncovered. One other ornament which is practically universal, especially from Moche onwards, is a collar or necklace. This can be a simple painted band or collar, but more often one or more rows of incised or molded beads. Earplugs are also quite common, and many figurines have pierced earlobes, probably meant for metal or feather earrings On the other hand accessories—e.g. objects carried by the figurines—are extremely rare, except for some Moche groups which are characterised by what they carry. In Moche Group 2 children are being carried, in Gr. 4 ritual objects, such as goblets, coca-chewing paraphernalia, drums. In Chimu Gr. 5 figurines carry loads on their backs by means of a tumpline. Any symbolic significance of these accoutrements has to be carefully decoded. At one end of the spectrum, they may simply depict ordinary people in their everyday appearance. But it is more likely that at the other end of the spectrum they are invested with profound symbolic meaning, with representations of status or ethnic affiliation in between. Some decoding has only been possible in the Moche figurine groups, where it was possible to make use of the considerable amount of iconographic studies based on vessels, textiles and actual 1

The flattening is less widespread in Formative Gr. 2 and on the "elite" specimens in Epiformative sg. 1.2 and 2.3; the "utilitarian" figurines all show it, as do all later NC figurines (with rare exceptions). 2 See Discussion under these groups.

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archaeological finds. Unfortunately, although we know of the importance of headgear and earplugs and of the symbolic language encoded in textiles in pre-Columbian Peru, it has not been possible to interpret these aspects of the figurines or to link them—except for the Moche groups—to either status or ethnic origin. But it is worth noting that both headgear and earplugs are usually considered as representing high status in males, whereas here they are nearly always worn by females. 1.2: Information provided by the context: Only around 20% of North Coast figurines (171 specimens) have a documented provenance, very unevenly shared amongst the groups. Thus Early Formative figurines (Formative Gr. 1) have contextual provenances for 19 out of 20 figurines and Moche has 93 (e.g. 27%), whilst Middle Formative figurines (Formative Gr.2) have none—though there is circumstantial evidence that they come from graves—and Chimu has only 16 specimens with a provenance, e.g. less than 8%. 1.2.1: Retrieval locations a. Graves: Only 47 figurines (5.5 %) were excavated from a total of 28 documented graves (see Gravelots). However, we must assume that a very large proportion of the remaining figurines were also retrieved from graves, although we cannot estimate the exact proportion.. How else can one explain the excellent condition of so many specimens? By contrast, figurines found in a domestic, workshop or midden context are often fragmentary (see below). Confirming this assumption is the ample evidence of the extensive looting of graves. For instance, we know that a large number of the Middle Formative figurines were looted in relatively recent years from cemeteries in and around Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley. b. Domestic, workshop or midden contexts In spite of this justified assumption that the bulk of the material was originally deposited in graves, archaeological evidence on the North Coast, resulting mainly from surface collections, more rarely from excavations shows a large amount of figurines in contexts other than graves. During the Lower Formative, the context of the figurines—apart from the burials at Huaca Prieta—is far from clear and may have been domestic as well as funerary. The Middle Formative figurines studied here are all likely to come from burials. There are too few data for the three Epiformative groups of figurines to come to any conclusions: we know that all the Puerto Moorín fragments and some of the "utilitarian" Gallinazo specimens were found in domestic dwellings or middens, but unfortunately we have no similar evidence for Vicús specimens. Amongst Moche provenances, over 60% are from domestic sites (some of them mixed burial and domestic), middens and workshops. This does not include the 170 fragments excavated by C. Chapdelaine in the urban area of Moche. A very large number of figurines, mostly fragments, were also excavated from the workshops at Cerro Mayal by Russell et al., or at the site of Moche itself by Topic or Uceda and Armas (see Moche chapter). But the provenance from a workshop, does not shed light on the function of the figurines, as they may have been produced both for domestic and funeral use. . From the Middle Horizon onwards, the very scarce indications of contexts are predominantly funerary.

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c. Ceremonial or ritual contexts: Very few North Coast figurines have been found in—at best—a "suggested" ritual context. These include: •

• •

•

•

•

P38/Epiformative (Vicús) sg. 3.1.1 was found at Loma Valverde, part of the site of Tamarindo, near the Vicús cemeteries. It was part of the refuse in what Kaulicke (1994b: 336-345) interprets as a cocina de chicha, which may have been used in ritual functions P36/Epiformative (Vicús) sg. 3.2.1 also from Loma Valverde, is said to be part of an offering, but no further details are given (Kaulicke 1994b: FIG. 10.10B). P78 and P82 (atypical)/Moche sg.2.2 were found together near and under the northwestern corner of Huaca 31 at Pacatnamú. They were part of a "bundle" (Konvolut in German) also containing lumps of clay, pottery shards, textile fragments, llama bones, animal excrements, shells and may have been an offering (Hecker and Hecker 1995: fig.7, pp. 23, 88f). 1947 and 1948/MH Group 2 were excavated by Uhle on the southern platform (Site A1) at Huaca del Sol, Moche, "standing between adobes in a wall in front” (Uhle MS catalogue I, pp.55-56) together with two whole vessels (see Gravelots). Whilst Uhle considered this area to be a looted cemetery and specifically refers to 1948 as part of the grave goods of the “walled-in graves”, found at Site A (1913: 113), Menzel (1977: 38) thought it was used for ritual purposes because of the large amounts of broken vessels and musical instruments. Amongst the Moche figurines not included in this study, 10 specimens excavated by Chapdelaine in the public square at the site of Moche (ZUM) may have had a ritual function (1999: 123) . We also know that the numerous ceramic representations of prisoners excavated at Huaca de la Luna by S. Bourget were deposited in a ritual context (see above "Moche figurines not included in this study").

Finally, it is possible that some of the very large figures found amongst the Epiformative and Moche groups and in particular two Moche figurines with a opening in the back ( (Moche (2353/sg.1.3, 983/s.g. 4.3) could have been used as objects of worship or in ritual functions. But we know that the very large Chancay cuchimilcos, measuring around 60 cm., were all found in graves. To sum up: the scant contextual data does not shed any light on the function of the figurines. Even if many were deposited in graves, it does not mean that they were not used for ritual or other purposes before their deposition. 1.2.2: Burial associations: Of the 28 documented graves, 16 contained infants, two youths, two adults (one of them a woman), one a woman and child, seven have no data. 11 graves contained one figurine, four graves two figurines, two graves three figurines, one grave six figurines. Regarding the other grave goods: all except two graves with unrecorded contents contained pottery, ranging from one to 34 vessels. The double burial of two infants, contained a miniature jar, two figurine whistles and a clay trumpet associated with one infant and one figurine whistle associated with the other, as well as numerous vessels (see Grave 11A/Moche sg. 1.2); another infant burial contained five miniature vessels, one figurine whistle, one animal head rattle (Grave G1/ Moche sg.1.4). Interestingly there is only one (ceramic) spindle whorl, whereas they are present in most documented graves on the Central Coast. 1

The lettering used here follows Uhle’s excavation catalogue now at the HMB and Kroeber’s (1925) study of the material, not Uhle’s own publication (1913).

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Only 14 of the 28 documented gravelots contained grave goods other than pottery. The most frequent are copper fragments (8), including a small copper mask (1214/Moche sg. 1.5); seven graves contained gourds or calabashes, six contained stone artefacts, including two jet mirrors, a stone roller, a mortar and pestle or stone pendants and amulets, pebbles used in metalwork; one grave contained a bracelet and a string of beads, presumably made of stone. Five graves contained fragments of textiles and/or yarn, two contained shell beads, two bone weaving tools or incised bone tubes, one a lump of red paint. 2. Ethno-historic and ethnographic data A thorough search of published chroniclers produced two surprising results: a) there is practically no mention of ceramic figurines as opposed to stone, metal and vegetal figurines; b) there is hardly any mention of figurines being buried with the dead. Relevant quotations and implications of these findings are discussed in Appendix 4. As far as ethnographic sources are concerned, it seemed reasonable to confine the search to the area of Peru, as a wider foray into anthropological sources could at best only yield hypothetical models. Unfortunately fairly extensive reading about present-day practices either amongst the hispanized population or amongst Amazon Indians produced no information at all about the use of human figurines—animal amulets and fetishes are still in use—be it in everyday life or in a ritual, including funerary, context. The only exception is the rare use of human figurines (often saints!) by curanderos (see below). 3. Interpretation Since human effigies have been manufactured and used all over the world from the earliest times and since they have been interpreted in an infinite number of ways, what can we infer— from the few elements listed above—specifically about the function of the Peruvian figurines? Contrary to other areas of Peru,1 neither the appearance nor the frequency of figurines within each culture, nor the very limited contextual evidence give us any indication of the function of North Coast figurines. However, we can safely assume that a large proportion of them was ultimately deposited in graves. Let us examine some of the most frequent functional interpretations of figurines found in graves: • Early archaeologists like Reiss and Stübel2 considered figurines to be children’s toys, It is possible that some figurines were dolls and that they could have been deposited in the graves as such. As we have seen the majority of (the few!) documented burials in this sample were of infants, sometimes also associated with miniature vessels. However: - One would expect dolls to have been hand-modelled rather than mold-made, a much more elaborate procedure. - It is unlikely that in a pre-industrial society, children’s toys would be so stereotyped, within each culture. - Very large specimens are unlikely to have been toys. • In curing practices: Although the chroniclers do not record the use of ceramic figurines in curing practices, it is possible that some of them fulfilled the same functions as stone, metal or wooden figurines or conopas (see Appendix 4). To-day male and female figurines (often representing saints) are still used by curanderos (Sharon 1978). Uhle records two “medicine bags” in Central Coast burials containing 1 2

These aspects are discussed in volumes 2 (Central Coast) and 3 (south Coast). These two archaeologists excavated cemeteries at Ancón, on the Central Coast (Reiss and Stübel

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figurines.1 Curing practices vary greatly. Reichel-Dolmatoff (1961: 232 and note 4) speaks of Colombian figurines discarded after use, and therefore crudely made or massproduced. In such cases one can expect to find large assemblages of figurine fragments, recovered from middens and/or signs of specific "modifications" or mutilations of the figurines. In our sample, we have no such evidence from middens; and "mutilations" (in the form of a large hole made after firing) only occur on a few Moche figurines, all from the same site.2 However other practices, which could not be detected in the archaeological evidence, also existed: Arriaga (1968/1621:214) relates that during birth the personal conopa of the mother was placed on her breasts. There may have been many different instances of use. Many figurines make a rattling sound: this may be the unintentional result of the punching-in of the airholes and the hardening of the small clay fragments inside the figurines; but rattles are still used to-day in curing practices. It is less likely that very large figures, difficult to manipulate, were used in curing practices. • In magical or other ritual practices: Again I have found no records of ceramic figurines being used in such instances, but many other conopas were. Arriaga (1968/1621:204-5, 222) tells us that such conopas were kept in families and passed on through inheritance. The cult of the conopas was secret, which may mean that they were not displayed like icons or statues of saints would be in the Christian world. Hence no necessity to make them stable. Murúa (1987/n.d.: 441) relates malevolent magical practices, were ceramic and other figurines were made of people in order to harm them. They could also have been used in rituals of pago, a payment made to the spirits to obtain a variety of favours (Flores Ochoa 1976). • The interpretations of figurines in a funerary context are infinite, from the servant or attendant in the after-life, to the protector—both of the deceased from malevolent spirits and of the living from harm by the deceased—or expiator of sins. It has been suggested that figurines replaced actual human sacrifices in graves (Schuler-Schömig 1984). The author lists features shared by the dead and some figurines alike, such as: a cotton-plug containing a metal plate, placed in the mouth, red post-fired pigment on the face and the use of litters. This interpretation is strengthened by several large Chancay cuchimilcos in pristine condition, obviously manufactured specifically for deposition in graves. We also know that in Inca rituals, human sacrifices, mainly of children, were sometimes replaced by figurines made of gold or silver. • In a strictly religious context: There are many instances in pre-Columbian Peru, where effigies were adored as huacas (see Appendix 4), though we are told again and again that these were often plain stones. Whereas there is an instance on the Central Coast, where seven figurines were found in a kind of shrine,3 there is nothing similar on the North Coast. Nor can any North Coast figurines be linked with any specific cult. It would certainly be gratuitous to interpret the figurines, as is so often done, as “fertility symbols”. To conclude: The function of the North Coast figurines remains in the realm of pure speculation. Throughout the pre-Columbian period, they may have been used in various contexts, though they are overwhelmingly found in graves. But their precise function, or rather functions as grave goods can only be guessed at.

1

HMB 4-5870, Uhle MS Catalogue vol. VII, p. 27; UPMP 28442, UPMP catalogue. See above, §. 1.1 3 See HYSLOP, John and Elias MUJICA B., (1992): Investigaciones de A.F. Bandelier en Armatambo (Surco) en 1892. Gaceta Arqueológica Andina VI (22): 63-86. Lima. 2

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B. CULTURAL PROCESSES ON THE NORTH COAST AND OTHER COASTAL

AREAS, AS REFLECTED IN THE FIGURINES

“...Surprisingly few advances have been made in understanding the social dynamics that led to the flowering and decay of regional cultures.” Schaedel and Shimada (1982: 365): “Although a careful analysis of style can often identify trait diffusion, and through it cultural contact, it will not by itself explain the nature of the contact”. Bawden (1983:212)

The premise to this section is that the diffusion or interaction of stylistic and iconographic traits of ceramic objects such as figurines could help to trace cultural processes in the area where they occur. This has been applied to the various NC groups, with fairly limited results. Here we recap some of these features—discussed in more detail in the separate chapters— and compare them with the cultural processes on the Central and South Coasts.1 To my knowledge no Preceramic figurines have been found to date on either the North or the South Coast, but considering the increasingly numerous finds on the Central Coast, this is likely to be a gap in the archaeological record. The NC Early Formative, represented by a small figurine sample, shows some stylistic similarities with the slightly later Ancón figurines on the Central Coast in the use of the broad parallel incisions and the elongated heads of Type 1. Interestingly, the specific eyes, with small pellets inserted in slits, do not appear on the Central Coast till the Epiformative. The even smaller NC Middle Formative sample (probably originating exclusively in the Tembladera area) show no resemblance whatsoever with other styles. But some of these fairly large and well-made specimens could mark the beginning of a trend, partly continued during the Epiformative on the North Coast, but also seen on the Central Coast (viz. the specimen from Curayacu) and the South Coast Paracas/Ocucaje specimens. The three NC Epiformative figurine groups (Puerto Moorín/Salinar, Gallinazo and Vicús show—in their "utilitarian" mode—stylistic shift towards extreme simplification and stylization, so widely distributed, that earlier archaeologists named it the "White-on-Red Horizon".2 But they also produce some "Elite" figurines, which are related to the Middle Formative trend. An important change—as well as an important divergence from figurine production in other areas of Peru—occurs on the NC during the EIP. This is the appearance of the very numerous mold-made Moche figurines during late phase II, but mainly phase III of that style. The figurines show great homogeneity in the Moche heartland and valleys to the South, but possibly a slightly different style in the northern areas of the NC. During the same time on the CC, Lima-style figurine production is practically non-existent and still rooted in the Epiformative (or curiously influenced by the SC), whilst on the South Coast we see the flourishing of a totally different tradition: the hand-made, polychrome Nasca figurines. At the beginning of the Middle Horizon changes occurring in the South-Central Highlands result in a discontinuity in figurine traditions throughout Peru. The exact mechanism of the changes is still under debate, but we see new influences working on the local Huarpa substratum in the Ayacucho Basin and producing several novel figurine groups, related to local early Middle Horizon pottery styles such as Chakipampa, Ocros and eventually Viñaque. It is this latter style which interacts most strongly with the South Coast, where the late Nasca figurines—a debased version of classic Nasca—are replaced by the Atarco style. Atarco figurines combine some classic Nasca features, such as the rendering of the hands, with

1

The Highlands and Amazon Basin have been deliberately left out of these comparisons, due to the relatively small amount of figurines in these areas. 2 See Chapter 5, Introduction.

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revolutionary changes, like heads lacking cranial deformation (Lavalle 1984: 133). Atarco figurines are relatively rare and probably short-lived. In the Moche heartland, we see only some minimal stylistic changes over time in the prolific Moche figurine tradition, until the sudden appearance of the Huari Norteño B figurine type (NC-MH Gr. 1), with its tall hat and separate cylindrical legs, totally unrelated to Moche. This “foreign” figurine group eventually combines with a clearly Moche-derived figurine type (NC-MH Gr. 2) to produce new groups like, for instance, the "Taitacantin" figurines (NCMH Gr. 3). Another NC MH group (NC-MH Gr. 5) is also derived from the new "foreign" figurines. But it is on the Central Coast that the MH appears to have the strongest impact. It makes itself felt in several ways: Wari-Pachacamac figurines make a relatively brief appearance at Pachacamac, combining SC Atarco influences with earlier local substrata. At the same time two other groups—probably imports from the Central and South Central Highlands—appear on the Central Coast. One of them soon vanishes (CC-Early MH Group 2), the other (CCEarly MH Group 3) exercises a more lasting influence on the general appearance of later figurines in the area. The third outside influence comes from the North via the late Mocherelated Supe figurines. Although this group is very numerous, its life span and ultimate influence is also limited. However, under the impact of these outside stimuli, the production of figurines, neglected throughout the later EIP, receives a new impetus. The local and foreign trends soon merge into the distinctive tradition expressed in the Huaura, Chancay and Ichma figurine groups. During the Middle Horizon we also perceive on the NC some novel iconographic features (like the "comma eye"), eventually incorporated into the Sican or Lambayeque ceramic style, which flourishes in the Northern sector of the NC during the late MH and part of the LIP. When these features occur in the Southern sector, archaeologists like I. Shimada, see them as a Sican influence, whereas they may actually have appeared in both areas simultaneously, in the wake of the demise of Moche and MH disruptions. That these disruptions were not very far-reaching is shown by the emergence of the Chimu ceramic style, which—apart from the overwhelming use of black ware—clearly shows a return to the Moche roots, even though the Chimu figurines, slightly less stereotyped and depicting different personages, are less similar to Moche than the ceramic style as a whole. The demise of the distinct Sican style figurines in the northern sector is followed by a regional Chimu figurine sub-style, perceivably different from that of the heartland. On the Central Coast, the Late Intermediate sees the development of the various Huaura and Chancay figurine groups. The influence of Chancay is very strong as far south as the Chillón valley, less so in the Rimac and Lurín valleys, where the Ichma pottery style is predominant. However figurines of this style are still ill-defined as a separate entity. On the South Coast, two distinct types of highly stereotyped, mostly small figurines occur during the Late Intermediate and the Late Horizon. They appear suddenly—after a long hiatus starting at the end of the Middle Horizon—during phase 6 of the Late Intermediate, show no influences from previous local or foreign styles and undergo little change during the following centuries. This scenario is in stark contrast with what happens in the rest of Peru during the LIP. Interestingly the Inca conquest of the Coast has relatively little impact on the figurines. On the North Coast it is hardly noticeable, whereas it is quite clear on the ceramics as a whole. On the Central Coast we see a typical LH hybrid figurine style incorporating both Chancay and Ichma-derived features also occurring on face-necks. On the South Coast the two figurine types survive unchanged during the Late Horizon.

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APPENDIX 1 NOTES ON MUSEUM AND PRIVATE COLLECTIONS The following notes give some information about the largest or most important collections—either in museums or privately owned—listed below in alphabetical order. They are mainly meant as a guide to the provenance ratings1 given in the Tables, but can also be of wider interest. Any known data are given in brackets under the museum accession number in the Tables. Some are self-explanatory (e.g. "Bird excavation"); others refer to collections or collectors about which we have some information: some of them are listed under the particular museum. When the name of the collector, dealer or buyer is not listed here, it means that nothing relevant is known about that particular collection or collector. ACEPB: ASOCIACIÓN CULTURAL ENRICO POLI BIANCHI, LIMA Important private collection. Of the ten figurines and three ocarinas recorded on a visit in 1982, five figurines and three ocarinas come from the North Coast. Although the provenances—ascertained when the pieces were purchased—are fairly specific, they must be rated as unverifiable, unless corroborated. AIC: ART INSTITUTE OF CHICAGO Gáffron Collection acquired in 1955, part of the collection assembled during the late 19th century by Dr. Eduard Gáffron who lived in Lima (see also AMNH, MVM below). Of the 14 figurines recorded at the AIC, one is from the NC, two are from the CC, 11 from the SC. No provenances are given. AMNH: AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK. Bandelier Collection: This large collection was partly excavated and partly acquired locally by Adolphe Bandelier during his stay in Peru in 1892/1893. 38 figurines recorded, of which only four from the NC2 . Details are given in Bandelier's MS notes, now at the AMNH. Rating: Fairly reliable (*). Gáffron Collection:3 acquired by the Museum in 1907, assembled by Dr. Eduard Gáffron whilst living in Lima. Of the 43 figurines recorded at the AMNH, four are from the NC, 38 are from the CC (with a variety of specific provenances), one from the SC. Of the NC sample only one figurine has a provenance, wrongly given as Pachacamac (ºº). BCRL: BANCO CENTRAL DE RESERVA, LIMA Domingo Seminario Collection: In 1982 when we recorded six figurines at the Bank, all were said to come from the Seminario collection. Domingo Seminario was the owner of the Hacienda Pabur, situated in the area between Chulucanas and Moropón, Piura Dept. and the majority of ceramic pieces in his collection come from that (wider) area, which also includes the Vicús sites. There are no site attributions, but "suggested" provenances are from the Piura or Vicús areas [ ]. BM: BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON Bolivar Collection (1907- 3 - 19. 1 to 677) : "Purchased from Messrs. de Bolivar, Manchester, 1907, and collected by the late Dr. Bolivar from various burial grounds in the Depts. of Lambayeque, La Libertad and Ancash, Peru, especially in the valley of Pacasmayo". Two NC figurines. Rating: (for Pacasmayo) Fairly reliable * Mrs. T. Hewitt Myring collection - donated by H. van den Berg (1909-12-8. 1-250). The collection of Moche pottery (described in the Illustrated London News of 4.12.1909, 1

See Chapter 2, Section 2.2.3. A number of NC figurines from the Bandelier collection listed by Lilien, i.e. B 4803, B 4805 (1956: Table 14) B 4506, B 4781, B 4782 (ibid.,: Table 15) could not be located at the AMNH. 3 See also AIC (above) and MVM (below). 2

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originally numbering 750 items, with pieces also going to the MAI and the Volkenkunde Museum in Leyden) is said to come "all from a cemetery in the Chicama valley, near Truxillo". Of the three figurines, two are Moche, but the third is Chancay, Rating: Unverifiable. J.H. Spottiswoode collection: (1921-10-27.1-272), was mostly assembled by the donor around Pacasmayo, south of the Jequetepeque valley. The 10 figurines recorded are Moche, Sican and Chimu. "Suggested" provenance [Pacasmayo]. CMCT: CASSINELLI MASSEI COLLECTION, TRUJILLO. This private collection, housed on the outskirts of Trujillo, is represented by ten specimens in the sample, all from the North Coast (one Gallinazo, seven Moche, one Sican, one Chimu). Although the general "catchment area" for this collection must be the Moche, Chicama and probably other North Coast valleys, the owner told us that a number of the figurines we examined came from the Jequetepeque/Pacasmayo area. Rating: Except for one fairly reliable provenance (*), the others are given as "suggested" but with an additional question mark [Jequetepeque/Pacasmayo?]. EMB: ETHNOGRAPHISCHES MUSEUM, BERLIN Baessler Acquisitions: Arthur Baessler visited Peru between 1896-1898 and formed a collection of more than 11,500 specimens. The core of the collection was probably bought from W. Gretzer (see below, Van den Zypen) and added to through excavations and further acquisitions (Baessler 1902-1903: vol. I, Preface). 60 figurines recorded, of which 12 figurines and three molds from the NC. Whilst sites on the Central Coast are often fairly specific—Gretzer's collection was made there—on the NC there are not specific and three Moche and one Chimu figurines are wrongly attributed to the "Vicinity of Lima". Rating: unverifiable. Bastian Acquisitions: Alfred Bastian was director of the Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin, during the last quarter of the 19th century. During his directorship a number of important Peruvian collections were acquired (Reiss and Stübel, Macedo, Plock Centeno, Bolivar, Baessler,). Of the eight figurines donated by him to the Museum, two are from the NC, the rest from the CC, but as he never visited Peru, they were obviously not acquired there. Rating: unverifiable. Bolivar collection: Acquired in 1904. It probably comes from the same Dr. Bolivar as the one at the British Museum (see above). Two figurines and one mold, all without provenance. Macedo Collection: Acquired by the Berlin museum in 1884 from the Peruvian doctor José Mariano Macedo. Out of 38 figurines and 4 molds, only four are from the NC, all Chimu, with a mistaken "Ancon?" (sic) provenance. Rating: Unlikely (ºº). Van den Zypen (Gretzer) Collection: Wilhelm Gretzer, a merchant who lived in Lima between 1872-1904, made a very large collection, partly through acquisitions, partly by organising excavations at Pachacamac, Ica-Pisco, possibly Ancón (Haas 1986:29). A part of the collection was acquired for the Berlin Museum by A. Bastian (see above), the bulk was acquired in 1907 with funds donated by Van den Zypen and is now listed under that name. Parts of the collection were also acquired by the museums in Hanover and Hildesheim. 77 figurines recorded, of which only three from the NC (Trujillo). Rating: Unverifiable or unlikely (°°).. FMC: FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, CHICAGO George Amos Dorsey participated in an archaeological expedition to Peru and Bolivia under Frederic Ward Putnam: the main aim was to acquire material for the World Columbian Exhibition in Chicago 1893. In the course of this trip, Dorsey excavated at Ancón, Chancay, Huarocondo (Cuzco), Tiahuanaco and Suchiman, Santa Valley (Ravines 1988: 20). 223 ceramic specimens, allegedly from complete gravelots, come from

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various sites at the Hacienda Suchiman, Santa valley. Unfortunately Dorsey's excavation notes are missing (Donnan 1973: 8). 22 figurines from Suchiman and two from Chimbote are recorded here. Because of the lack of additional documentation: Rating: Fairly reliable (*). Jacobs Collection: acquired in 1925 during the first Marshall Field Expedition to Peru by A.L. Kroeber who writes (1926: 24): "A collection seen at Mansiche.. This place lies on the way from Chan Chan to Trujillo, so that the owner of the collection, having first access to the huaqueros on their way to town, presumably derived all his specimens from Chan Chan". Five NC figurines. Rating: Fairly reliable (*). Emilio Montez collection: purchased by the Field Museum in 1893. All the 915 specimens (one figurine) in the collection have a Cuzco provenance. Rating: unlikely (°°). Manuel B. Zabaletta collection purchased by the Field Museum in 1904. It contains a large pottery sample from Argentina, Ancón and Chimbote. There are six figurines, all said to come from Chimbote, though one is in the Chancay style. Rating: unverifiable MAI: MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN, NEW YORK. Out of 99 figurines from this museum, 26 have unlikely attributions (e.g. SC figurines from Trujillo, CC figurines from Lambayeque), 19 with catalogue numbers starting with 19/, 20/, 21/. S. Birnbaum of the Museum confirmed that these were mostly purchased in the 1930s and 1940s and that the attributions may well be incorrect. Other incorrect or vague attributions correspond to serial numbers starting with 5/, 6/, 7/. Rating: unverifiable or— often—unlikely (°°). Gayoso Collection: I have no information about this collection, but the four very different Chimu figurines 1840/Chimu sg. 1.3, 1837, 1842/Chimu Gr. 5, 1841/Chimu sg. 6.1, are all said to come from Jayanca, Lambayeque. Because of this specificity, it is likely, though unverifiable, that the figurines come from that area. MBL: MUSEO ARQUEOLOGICO BRÜNING, LAMBAYEQUE Heinrich Brüning (1840-1928)1 acquired his large collection during the years he spent in Peru between 1875 and 1925. He worked on a number of haciendas in the Lambayeque and Moche/Chicama areas as an engineer and also dealt in agricultural machinery, but dedicated much time to ethno-historical and archaeological studies. In 1920 the Peruvian government acquired a large part of his ceramic collection (his collection of silver went to the Hamburg Museum) and installed B. as director of a small museum in Lambayeque. As B. spent by far the longest time in the Lambayeque area, it is likely that a large part of his collection was acquired locally. The same can be assumed for a few figurines which were confiscated. 44 figurines were recorded at the museum: of these eight are Moche, five Sican, 29 Chimu, two Vicús.2 Many of the Chimu figurines are stylistically very similar and lead to the conclusion that they represent a late local style from the Lambayeque area. Rating: "suggested" provenances for figurines with low acquisition numbers3 or confiscated: [Northern area] MHP: MUSÉE DE L'HOMME, PARIS The American holdings of the museum were transferred to the new Musée du Quai Branly in 2006. Unfortunately, at present the old catalogue numbers given here do not seem to be in use.4 Collection Ber - Depot de la Société d'Anthropologie: Théodore Ber donated a collection of objects collected in Ancón during the 1870s. Only one (of 12) specimen is Chimu, with a mistaken provenance from Pachacamac (°°). 1

Haberland et al., 1982. In addition, two figurines [168, 175/NC:MH-LIP Gr. 1 were a gift from H. Brüning B. to the Hamburg Museum (see below MVH). 3 All specimens with acquisition numbers below 5000 were collected by H. Brüning (W. Alva, personal 4 The collection is being re-catalogued ( A.M. Hocquenghem pers. com.). 2

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Gift of the Société de Géographie: No available data about the origin of this collection. Eight figurines, seven from the CC, one from the NC. Rating: unverifiable. MLL: MUSEO ARQUEOLÓGICO RAFAEL LARCO HERRERA, LIMA The large collection now on display in this museum was amassed by several generations of the Larco family, owners of the Hacienda Chiclín, Chicama valley. Whilst many pieces where excavated by Rafael Larco Hoyle, son of Rafael Larco Herrera, and his brother Constante, many were also acquired from huaqueros in the area. I was allowed to record 17 figurines at the museum, three of them with a provenance, the rest without. Unfortunately, the excavations notes were not made available to me. Rating: Fairly reliable (*) or "suggested [Moche, Chicama]", though some specimens might also come from adjacent valleys. MNAA: MUSEO NACIONAL DE ARQUEOLOGÍA Y ANTROPOLOGÍA, LIMA Access to archive information was difficult and the provenance ledgers incomplete. Some additional information was subsequently provided by Doctora Rosa Fung Pineda. The ratings are discussed individually, where applicable. Collección Victor Larco Herrera was donated to the Museum in 1924 by the brother of R. Larco Herrera (see above MLL). Specimens with the prefix 1/…. and 2/…., each followed by four digits are said to come from the "Littoral Norte", though one figurine is from the CC, another from the SC; there are five Moche, one NC MH and one Chimu figurine in the sample. Rating: unverifiable. MOCHE ARCHIVE UCLA:

Photographic archive of Moche ceramics compiled in public and private collections by C. Donnan. MRAHB: MUSÉES ROYAUX D’ART ET D’HISTOIRE, BRUSSELS. Collection du Consul Grenade, acquired 1946: Of the 19 figurines acquired by Consul Grenade in 1943 from a dealer or huaquero called Melendez, seven are from the NC, six of them (one Moche, four MH and MH-LIP, two Chimu) said to come from Chan Chan, one from Huacho; a Chancay figurine is also said to come from Chan Chan. Rating: unverifiable. MSCh: MUSEO DE SITIO, CHAN CHAN At the time of our visit, this was located at the Huaca El Dragon site, outside the center of Chan Chan. Of the 24 figurines recorded, nine came from the excavations at Huanchaco (see Appendix 2), the remaining had mostly been confiscated, which points to local sources. Rating: Certain (***) or "Suggested" [Moche, Chicama]. MVH: MUSEUM FÜR VÖLKERKUNDE, HAMBURG Gift Brüning: Two figurines donated by Heinrich Brüning (168, 175/ NC: Transitional MH-LIP Gr. 1) and related to - but not typical of - the Sican style, have no provenance, so the "suggested" provenance is [Northern area of the NC] (see above MBL). MVM: MUSEUM FÜR VÔLKERKUNDE, MUNICH Gáffron Collection,1 acquired in 19..?, was assembled by Dr. Eduard Gáffron whilst living in Lima. Of the 80 figurines recorded at the museum, 66 are from the CC, nine from the SC, five from the NC; (three MH, two Chimu); one of the MH specimens has a provenance, for "Supe/Huacho", another for "Supe", written in pencil on the object. As

1

See also AIC and AMNH above.

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the same marking occurs on a number of unmistakably CC figurines, it is probably a culture attribution given by a curator.1 The two Chimu figurines have no provenance, PAP : PROYECTO ARQUEOLÓGICO PUEMAPE. In 1990, following clandestine excavations at the site of Puemape, on the coast of the Quebrada Cupisnique, south of San Pedro de Lloc, a group from the Museo de la Nación in Lima, under the direction Carlos Elera, undertook excavations at the site. Simultaneously a number of local archaeological collections were recorded. Drawings of figurines in these collections were kindly put at my disposal. Collections surveyed by PAP2 : Giorgio Battistini, industrialist from Chiclayo: collection from the Zaña and Chancay valleys, Dpt. of Lambayeque. Javier Ponce: No data. César Rodriguez Razzeto, amateur archaeologist from Guadalupe, Pacasmayo Province: important collection, including stone artefacts. Oscar Rodriguez Razzeto, well-known farmer and entrepreneur from Pacasmayo Province: large collection of both prestige and utilitarian vessels. There are no site attributions for the eight figurines, but it is likely that they come from an area between Zaña and Pacasmayo. PMH: PEABODY MUSEUM OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY S. K. Lothrop acquisitions were made during purchasing trips for the museum in Peru, in the course of which Lothrop visited many private collections and dealers, on the North, Central and South Coast. The Lothrop numbers have the prefixes 41.52.30, 42.12.30, 42.28.30 and probably 46.77.30.3 Of the 95 recorded specimens, 23 figurines, a group of Sican heads, three rattles and two molds are from the North Coast: 15 figurines, two rattles and one mold are said to come from Sausal, Chicama and must have been part of a collection acquired at that hacienda; another five figurines and one mold are said to come from the Virú Valley, two figurines from the "Valley of Trujillo", one figurine from the Hacienda Casa Grande, Chicama Valley. The attributions are often specific and probably correct as to the general area. Rating: fairly reliable (*). SAC: COLLECTION OF SANTIAGO AGURTO CALVO, LIMA. The owner kindly allowed me to examine his collection of figurines. I was able to record some specimens, to which I gave a number as usual. However, because of the large holding I resorted to photocopy the registration cards made by the INC for the greater part of the collection. These feature a photograph, measurements, a brief description (colour, special features) and the culture. As the photographs are small I have often made drawings of them for the Plates in this publication. They are listed as SAC, followed by the collector's own numbering. A total of 24 figurines from the collection in this sample are from the NC. There are no provenances. SRB: COLLECTION OF SEGUNDO ROJAS BARTRA, TRUJILLO. This small private collection was exhibited at the Banco Norperu, Trujillo, in 1982. The 25 figurines are predominantly Moche, with a few Chimu and NC MH specimens. It is likely that they all come from the Moche/Chicama area, so the "suggested" provenance is [Moche, Chicama].

1

Such pencil markings do not occur on any of the figurines in the AIC or AMNH Gáffron collections. Particulars taken from Alva 1986: 39. 3 The relevant documents were missing from the archives, but the 46.77.30 material includes the graves at Chaviña, excavated by Lothrop's wife. 2

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UPMP: UNIVERISTY OF PENNSYLVANIA MUSEUM, PHILADELPHIA Max Uhle Collections: These contain numerous specimens from Uhle's excavations on the Central Coast. The two Moche and three Chimu figurines at the Museum are said to come from Chimbote or Trujillo but all of them "bought in Lima". Rating: unverifiable. WASSERMANN-SAN BLAS COLLECTION,

was assembled Buenos Aires in the 1920s and 1930s. The 17 Moche figurines in this sample, published in Wassermann-San Blas (1938), are all said to come from Chimbote, Santa Valley, possibly because they were acquired there. Rating: Unverifiable.

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APPENDIX 2: NOTES ON SOME NORTH COAST SITES

Some of the sites listed below have yielded several figurines. Excavations were carried out in various sectors of these sites, which can be difficult to locate. This appendix is designed to explain the topography, archaeological exploration and chronology of some of these sites. JEQUETEPEQUE VALLEY Pacatnamú The large prehispanic settlement situated between the mouth of the Jequetepeque river to the South and the Pampa de Faclo to the North, with the Pacific ocean bordering its west side, spans roughly the period from the Early Intermediate to the Late Horizon. It is characterized by perimeter walls, around of 50 pyramids, as well as domestic quarters and cemeteries. Several ancient roads can be traced through the ruins. Excavations at the site were carried out by H. Ubbelohde-Doering in 1937-1939, 1952-1953 and 1962-1963 and subsequently, from 1982 onwards by the Fowler Museum of Cultural History, UCLA under CH. B. Donnan, in association with the Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima (Ubbelohde-Doering 1983; G. and W. Hecker 1982, 1991, 1995; W. and G. Hecker 1984; Donnan and Cock, Eds. 1986, 1997). A number of figurines were found at the following locations in the site: Huaca 14 situated north-west of the main east-west road; the whole complex measures around 60 m. by 65 m. and was found in a fairly ruined state, also damaged by grave robbers. Excavations by H. Ubbelohde-Doering took place in 1953: at least three construction phases were identified, mainly dating to the Late Intermediate and the Late Horizon. One figurine (Hecker and Hecker 1995: 454-473). Huaca 16 situated less than 100 m. west of Huaca 14, bordered by important east-west and a north-south roads. The site was excavated by H. Ubbelohde-Doering in 1962-1963. The whole complex consisted of a huaca with ramp and enclosures on all four sides. Six utilization phases of the area were identified, starting with domestic and funeral utilization, followed by the building of a religious complex, later willfully destroyed; but during the last phase (F), the site retains its sacred aura and is re-used for burials. Based on the ceramic evidence, the complex dates from the second half of the Early Intermediate till the end of the Late Intermediate, the Late Horizon being only represented by 2% of the material. Most of the finds actually come from the fill of phases C and D and rubble left by grave robbers. Five figurines. (Hecker and Hecker 1991). Huaca 31 situated just south of the east-west road, within 100 to 200 m. of huacas 14 and 16, covers—with its ramp and attendant enclosures and outbuildings—an area of 28,000 to 29,000 m². Excavations were undertaken in 1938 and 1962-63. Although it is not easy to follow the descriptions of the three first construction phases (A-C), they appear to have proceeded without significant interruption. These phases date from about 600 AD to 750 AD, e.g. to Late Moche and the beginning of the MH. After a destruction by fire and a period of (political?) stagnation, the area was occupied by the local Pacanga population, and—around 1000 AD, a period also marked by a Niño event—by a group from the Zaña/Lambayeque area. Between 1000 AD-1400 AD the Huaca 31 is used exclusively as a cemetery. Phase D begins at the time of the Chimu northern expansion (1350 AD and shows a marked departure from the traditional construction techniques. Seven figurines were retrieved from the general rubble left by graverobbers, one figurine comes from a grave near the ramp (Hecker and Hecker 1995: 13ff). "Small cemetery by the sea" : It would appear that in 1938 Ubbelohde-Doering collected material left by tomb robbers at this unlocated site. One figurine. (Hecker and Hecker 1995:477-478) Cemetery H45 CM1, located in a ravine at the centre of Pacatnamú. One figurine (Donnan and McClelland 1997: 17ff).

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MOCHE VALLEY Huanchaco Small fishing village a few kilometers North of Trujillo, Moche valley. Three sites, only slightly apart, were excavated at the mouth of the Rio Seco de Huanchaco Seco (Caleta de Huanchaco) in 1965 by the Patronato de Arqueología, under the direction of Dr. Fr. Irriarte (Abel Vega et al., n.d.: Diario de las Trabajos de Excavaciones de los Yacimientos Arqueológicos de la Desembocadura Rio Seco)1: 1) Sitio Rentsch or Reusch? (SR); 2) Lotización or Seccíón Manuci (SM) about 500m. SW of the village of Huanchaco; 3) Futura Escuela 288 According to Ana Maria Hoyle of the Museo de Sitio de Chan Chan at Huaca del Dragón, all three sites are cemeteries. At SR the cemetery contained exclusively children and llamas.2 Further data about the site are given by Millaire (2002: 76ff) but they could not be correlated with the data given here. There are nine figurines from Huanchaco. Ruinas de Moche Site The two pyramids of Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Lunaand the wider area between and around them have been the object of numerous excavation campaigns, like those undertaken in the frame of the Chan Chan-Moche Valley Project or by the Zona Urbana Moche Project (ZUM), some of which have yielded figurines. These are mentioned in the relevant chapter: their topography and chronology are sufficiently clear not to be repeated here. The only excavation locations which can lead to confusion are: The Sites of Max Uhle’s Excavations at Moche At the time of his excavations at Moche Uhle designated the different sectors with capital letters from A to H and finds were recorded in his University of California MS catalogue now at the Phoebe A. Hearst Museum, Berkeley - under headings using these same letters, e.g. “Moche - Site A: Platform, Huaca del Sol” or “Moche - Site F: Cemetery at the foot of Huaca de la Luna”, etc. These original designations are also the ones used by Kroeber (1925) and here. However in his main publication of the site (1913) Uhle not only uses different capital letters from those above for the main areas and lower case letters for various sub-sectors, but also uses different capital letters in different maps (cf. 1913: figs. 1, 2, 3). Subsequently Uhle himself produced a map with cross-referencing between his original excavation lettering and the one used on his 1913 article (Kroeber 1925: note 6 and Pl. 50). Finally note that in his MS catalogue, Uhle sometimes uses lower case letters instead of the capital letters. For instance “... Mostly found in the open plain (d), but partly also on the slopes of the hill...The people of the later period had his [sic] abode on the slopes (e) and vice versa.” (Uhle n.d. vol. I, p.21). These areas are in fact Sites D and E. The Sites (see Kroeber 1925: Pl.50 and pp.199-209) Site A: The southern platform of the Huaca del Sol (described by Uhle 1913: 111ff; Menzel 1977: 38) yielded innumerable fragments of pottery, textiles and cane to a depth of 80 cm. Uhle interpreted this layer as a looted cemetery, but according to Menzel Site A was mainly a ceremonial site, with caches of offerings in the retaining walls and ritually broken vessels, many of them musical instruments. Only in the late MH was the area used for burial. The pottery at Site A dates from Moche IV to MH 3. There are eight figurines from the site. (Kroeber 1925: Plates 63-66; Menzel 1977: 37-40).

1

I did not have access to F. Iriarte's own excavation notes (see Millaire 2002: 76) Another(?) burial ground near Huanchaco also contained graves of llamas and children (Donnan and Foote 1978). 2

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Site B: A cemetery situated on the plain about 150 m. south of Site A. It contained overwhelmingly Chimu blackware, a little Chimu redware and some Inca pottery (Kroeber 1925: Pls. 60-61). In his MS notes (n.d. vol. I, p.7 verso) Uhle writes: "The graves belong all to the Incasic period of the coast. The pottery corresponds especially to the black kind met with in the graves of cemetery IV in the northern enlarged part of the town of Pachacamac. As there, bottles of Cuzco type are mixed with other pottery but there were found only two specimens of these". There are six figurines from this site. Site C: A small cemetery situated at the northeastern end of the Huaca del Sol yielded several levels of burials, from MH tricolor to classic Chimu (Kroeber 1925: Pl. 62). Site D: A looted cemetery in the middle of the plain between the two huacas yielded only Chimu blackware fragments (Kroeber 1925: 197). About objects from this area, Uhle writes: "...Mostly found in the open plain (d) but partly also on the slopes of the hill, as there existed no exact limit between the territory occupied by the living people of different periods. The people of the later period had his (sic) abode on the slopes (e) and vice-versa"(n.d. vol. I, 21). Site E: A looted burial ground, about 1 km. in length, situated along the foot of Cerro Blanco to the north and south of the Huaca de la Luna. It is marked on Uhle’s map as “Ancient graves (exhausted)” but as we can see from the quotation above (under Site D), Uhle considered that this was also partly a domestic settlement. Uhle collected about 100 specimens of exclusively Moche pottery at the site (Kroeber 1925: Plates 55f,l, 59l).1 There are seven figurines labeled "d and e", one figurine from a grave in "e" only. Site F: An area of about 33 intact tombs at the western foot of the Huaca de la Luna containing high-class Moche pottery, dating to phases II, III and IV (Kroeber 1925: Plates 5459; Menzel 1977: 59). There are eight figurines from this site, six of them from one grave (F25). Sites G and H: Situated on the northern side of the Huaca de la Luna, above the looted cemetery (Site E), Uhle refers to “g, h: a few graves found intact” (see map in Kroeber 1925: Pl.50). In his MS catalogue (n.d Vol. I, p.2), he notes: “a few graves on slopes of Cerro Blanco, oldest occupation of site" and also “Site G, on slopes of Cerro Blanco, ca. 40 fragments”. There are eight figurines from Site G. Kroeber (1925, 1944) does not mention these two sites. VIRÚ VALLEY Huaca de la Cruz Huaca de la Cruz (V- 162), situated circa 2 km SW of Virú near the Pan-American Highway, is the highest mound in the central Virú valley. For site descriptions see Bennett 1939: 28-29 and fig. 2, Strong and Evans 1952: 129 and Fig. 27, Willey 1953: 123-124, 203. It is considered as a "Dwelling-Construction" site of the Gallinazo and Huancaco (the local Moche style) periods, later re-used as cemeteries during the MH and Chimu periods, though some Huancaco period burials were also found.2 Extensively looted, it was excavated in 1936 by W.C. Bennett and subsequently in 1946 by W.D. Strong and C. Evans of Columbia University, as part of the extensive Virú Valley Project (Strong and Evans 1952). In both cases the excavations were limited to test-pits or strata cuts, allowing to determine the stratigraphy, but with relatively little contextual material. A number of figurines come from the site

1

Of figurine fragments 265 a- g (1959-1965/ sg. 1.1.1) from Sites D and E , Uhle writes "..of another type than those of 263 a..." (MS I, 21), but I did not see (or record) the latter specimens at the HMB. 2 Bennett's and Strong and Evans's conclusions regarding the nature and chronology of the site are very similar.

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APPENDIX 3 GRAVELOTS

Section 1: Tables listing the Gravelots Section 2: Plates illustrating the Gravelots

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249

Original No.

J. Carcelen, personal communication

IINC, Trujillo

C1

El Silencio, upper Santa valley

Huaca Prieta, Chicama valley - Test Pit 4 - Housetomb 1 - Burial 878, part of multiple burial. 872-879

Site, Grave

Infant

Infant

Burial

Original No.

Source

951/ sg. 2.2

MSCh 2214

Virú Valley Project 1975 (Michael West, personal communication)

Excavations C. Guzmán

See "Discussion: Context"

MNAA 42369 687/ sg. 3.1.2

Epiformative Group 3: Vicús Figurines

1

Site, Grave

Vicús 1 (Yécala), Grave 11

Virú Valley, Site 636, Grave 1

Epiformative Group 2: Gallinazo Virú Figurines

No.

No data

Metalworker's Grave

Burial

TABLE G2: GRAVELOTS OF NORTH COAST EPIFORMATIVE FIGURINES

Bird et al., 1985: 48; Bird MS Fieldnotes

AMNH 41.2/4712

Source

1395

Early Formative Group 1

No.

TABLE G1: GRAVELOTS OF NORTH COAST FORMATIVE FIGURINES

1 figurine

1 figurine

Figs

1 figurine

1 figurine or more?1

Figs

1 bottle with semi-circular handle, depicting an owl; 1 double-spout jar with bird-like body and phallic spouts; (others?)

Corn popper

Ceramics

Two incised vessels

Artifacts associated with the other burials from the same house-tomb (no. 1): Burial 873 - 41.2/4699: pottery stamp of a bird (see Bird et al., 1985: Fig. 30)

Ceramics

Polished pebbles used in metalwork

Other items

Artifacts associated with other burials from the same house-tomb (no. 1): Burial 873: 41.2/4706: 150 shark's teeth; 41.2/4700-4704: bone weaving tools;41.2/4698: jet mirror. Burial 874 - 41.2.4709: lump of red paint. Burial 879 - 41.2/4713: soft stone roller stamp (see Bird et al., 1985: Fig. 30) Jet mirror; Stone mortar and pestle

Other items

Makowski et al., 1995: fig. 423

G1

Plate

---

See Bird et al., 198: Fig. 30-

Plate

250

251

2

1

Original No.

INC, Trujillo n/n (Pozorski excav.)

AMNH 41.0/9945 AMNH 41.0/9946 Bennett 1939: fig.8g

Bennett 1939: 30-31, 36, 38-39, 45, figs. 3e, 5b, e, 7a-h, 8a-i; Bennett n.d. : Vol. I , 91.

Donnan and Mackey 1978: 168174, fig. 2.16

Strong and Evans 1952: 146147, Fig.32M + Plate XIVK

Source

Huaca de la Cruz, Virú Pit 11 - Grave 11 A (details under Moche Gr. 1.2, Context).

Zone F, south of Huaca del Sol, Moche Burial M-IV 14 (H8000 D-2)

Huaca de la Cruz, Virú, Burial 9 (details under Moche Gr. 1.1.2, Context).

Site, Grave

AMNH 41.1.16

HMB 4/225 HMB 4/224

Ubbelohde Doering. 1952: 187, upper left Uhle n.d. Vol. I, 23: "...both figures from the same grave"

Bennett 1939: 31; Bennett n.d.: Vol. I, 92

Moche Site G - Grave 23

Huaca Campana, Chicama

Huaca de la Cruz, Virú Pit 11 - Grave 11 D (details under Moche Fragments, Context).

See Moche sub-group 1.3, Discussion.

Donnan (1995: 117) lists the two burials as separate (11 A1 and 11 A2).

1970, 1971/ Gr. 3

P58?2

Moche Sub-group 1.3

1768

Moche Body fragments probably belonging to sub-groups 1.1 and 1.2

1391 1392 P50

Moche Sub-group 1.2

982

P38

Moche Sub-group 1.1.2

No.

1 figurine

1 "black-white-red bowl"

Bennett uses the word "bowl" for a jar or vessel. He states (1939: 38) : "Ten of the fourteen vessels were found with the burial inside the large bowl [sic!] or urn; four were with the burial outside the urn". The vessel types represented are: Six face-necks (figs. 7b, d, f, g, 8a, d); Five stirrup-spout jars (figs. 7a, c, e, h, 8b); one spout-and-bridge jar (fig. 8e); one large jar (fig. 8i). Unfortunately one cannot assign most of the vessels to the respective burials.

Artefacts associated with the jar burial : - Just above the jar : 1 small figure vase ; 2 figurine whistles; 1 clay trumpet (fig. 8c); a few shards. - Inside the jar: 8 small and one large bowl; 3 figurines; one figurine whistle; an ocarina (not illustrated). Associated with the second burial: Four large bowls .

1 "Red-white-black" bottle (Ibid.: Pl. XIVL) Fragments of another vessel, probably intrusive 18 ceramic vessels 1 ceramic spindle whorl (See Source)

Ceramics

No data

2 figurines

No vessels recorded by Uhle

Associated with P100/sg. 4.3 and P103/sg. 5.1?- Gravelot under P100/sg. 4.3

Flexed burial: age or sex not mentioned

3 figurines

1 figurine

Female, age 30-40 + 1 child, buried 25 cm. Below the female. 2 separate burials of infants, one in a jar, one near the jar.1

1 figurine

Figs

Infant, aged 3-5 years.

Burial

TABLE G3 (1): GRAVELOTS OF THE NORTH COAST EARLY INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: THE MOCHE FIGURINES

No other artifacts recorded by Uhle

1 piece of copper

Artefacts associated with the jar burial: A piece of orange cloth, a wooden tool with a copper point, corn cobs, six calabash bowls. Associated with the second burial: copper, calabashes, two incised and inlaid bone tubes.

Unidentified copper object; copper object in mouth; small gilded copper fragments. Reed fragments; bones of one llama. (See Source)

Other items

G1

See Source

G1

G1 + Source

See Source

See Source

Plate

252

253

Donnan and McClelland 1997: 114-115

H45 CM1 B6

P66

MSCh 186 (Esp. 180) MSCh 185 (Esp. 179) MSCh 187 (Esp. 181)

Ca1 Ca2

Huaca El Pueblo, Zaña V., Tell-1, Unit-1 Dos Cabezas, Jequetepeque V. Burial [..]

C. Donnan, person. comm.; Cordy-Collins 2001: Figs.4,5

Huanchaco, Sección Manuci - Cateo XVC: "A 55 cm de la superficie, hacía el centro del corte, cantaro fracturado."

Burial 40 Cemetery H45CM! Pacatnamú

Burial dß, Grave E I from (cemetery near) Huaca 31, Pacatnamu

Grave LII from (cemetery near) Huaca 31, Pacatnamu

Site, Grave

S. Bourget, person. communication

Not clear from illustration or description.

PH 3834 PH 3833

Moche Sub-group 2.2

943 945 947/ Gr.3

(Abel Vega et al.,(n.d.): Diario de las Trabajos de Excavaciones de los Yacimientos Arqueológicos de la Desembocadura Rio Seco).

Ubbelohde-Doering 1983: 90 and Abb. 27. 2.

MVM n/n (original no. 2667)

1214

Moche Sub-group 2.1

Ubbelohde-Doering 1983: 97 and Abb. 42. 1, 2.

MVM n/n (original no. 3176)

Source

1215

C22 (atypic.)

1

Original No.

Moche Sub-group 1.5

No.

Infant (3 years)

Extended female burial

"Ligeramente hacia el Este del cantaro, restos oseos de niño."

Infant in decomposed burial bundle

Incomplete burial of youth + one further deformed skull ?1 The individual buried in dß is not described. Skull of an infant found near the coffin.

Burial

2 figurines placed on right and left side of the body 1 figurine

"Entre cadaver y base da la vasija, 3 idolillos

1 figurine

1 stirrup-spout jar, stirrup broken (Abb. 25.2); 3 face-necks (Abb. 25.1,3 - 5 - 6); 1 face neck with feline (Abb. 26.2); 1 jar with handles (Abb. 39.3); jar with painted owl (Abb. 26.1) .

1 figurine

[No data]

34 ceramic vessels, neatly arranged at the head and sides of the body.

3 broken vessels (not illustrated)

1 ceramic vessel

burials dα or dß.

1 stirrup-spout bottle (Abb. 26.3,4) from

1 bottle (no illustrated)

Ceramics

1 figurine

Figurines

Other items

[No data]

No data

Grave goods belonging to burials dα or dß: Skull of infant, deformed, lower jaw missing; a trapeze-shaped copper piece; piece of pink chalk. Engraved gourd bottle and bowl (Abb. 28. 3,5, 5a,b). Six gourds; four carved red stone pendants; one copper object in mouth, one in left hand, one in right hand; one shell bead; one textile; yarn

Textiles: 3 different textiles tied around the head, 2 (one of them in kelim weave) placed on chest and hip, 1 with flower embroidery in genital region. Miniature copper mask (Abb. 28.1), probably decorated with small copper disks in genital area, also copper disks at neck. Gilt copper nose ornament (Abb. 37.6). Necklace of 13 perforated shell beads (Abb. 37.10); stone spindle whorl (Abb.37.8) Various small gourd bottles and plates, some engraved.

2 llama shoulder blades; a few textile fragments; 2 calabash bowls, a calabash container (Abb. 42.1, nos. 4-6)

TABLE G3(2): GRAVELOTS OF THE NORTH COAST EARLY INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: THE MOCHE FIGURINES (CONT.)

See CordyCollins 2001

G1

G1

See Source

See Source

See Source

Plate

254

255

Original No.

1

HMB 4-224

HMB 4-3247 HMB 4-3248 HMB 4-3252

HMB 4-175

MSCh 148 (esp. 147)

Ubbelohde-Doering 1966: 88, Pl.135, right;

Ubbelohde-Doering 1966: 88, Pl.135, left;

(Abel Vega et al.,(n.d.): Diario de las Trabajos de Excavaciones de los Yacimientos Arqueológicos de la Desembocadura Rio Seco).

Uhle n.d. vol. I, 21

Uhle n.d. vol. II, pp. 14-15; see also Kroeber 1944:122ff; Millaire 2002: 90 ff.

Source

None of them illustrated in Kroeber 1926b.

1972

1979 1980 P103

Moche Sub-group 5.1

P100 P103/sg 5.1

Moche Sub-group 4.3

1976 944

Moche Sub-group 4.2

1973 1972/sg. 5.2

Moche Sub-group 4.1

947 1977 1978 1981 (atypical) 1976/sg. 4.2 1979/sg. 5.1 1980/sg.5.1 1971 (atypical)

Moche Group 3

No.

Huaca Campana, Chicama Valley: beamed burial chamber

Huanchaco, Sección Manuci - "Cateos ubicadis en la planicie del pie del monticulo de basura y material de decatación del rio. Cateo III C: Tumba 8".

Moche Site G, Grave G 1

Moche, Grave F 25 graveyard at foot of Huaca de la Luna

Site, Grave

Figurines

Ceramics

2 figurines

2 figurines (possibly 3, if P58/sg.1.3 was also found in same grave)

Head fragment with jaguar-head headdress (Pl. 129); Face-neck (Pl. 130); Jar showing warrior figure (Pl.131); Stirrup jar with relief crab and painted decor; (Pl. 132, top); Offering of four miniature jars (Pl. 132, bottom); Head-fragment of large frog figure (Pl. 133); Flat-rimmed bowl decorated with water-birds and -plants (Pl. 134); A double- or Janus head of a warrior, with nose ornament (Pl. 136).

See Gravelot of 1973/sg/4.1

See Gravelot of P100/sg. 4.3

See Gravelot of 1977, 1978, 1981/Gr. 3

Extended skeleton, south-north orientation

Cantaro (Esp. 148), H: 15 cm , "color ladrillo con figuras geometricas en crema " Cantaro (Esp. 149) H: 16 cm, color ladrillo con dibujos crema

5 miniature vessels (4-177, 178, 179,180, 182); 1 figurine whistle (4-174) 1 rattle with animal head (4-176), now lost.

See Gravelot of 1977, 1978, 1981/Gr. 3 1 figurine; 1 ocarina (Esp. 150), H: Cadaver de joven 8cm, W: 6 cm "Cantaro antropomorfo, estendido, personaje sentado, con mano derecha orientación OE?, en el pecho, ombligo prominente; con en arena limpia, la mano est masturbandose, columna pero es tumba vertebral prominente como una trenza, pobre, sin cámara nariz y labio superior como si tuvieran ni techo uta, ojos marcados por dos circulos con manchas azul negrusco huellas dilates de pintura crema". (Not seen at MSCh)

Child's burial

see Gravelot of 943, 945/ sg. 2.1 Simple pit burial; 6 figurines 1 whistle (warrior) 4-3246 (Kroeber 1944: Pl. osteological 48F); material unknown 10 Vessels, including 1 stirrup jar (4-3235)1; A broken vessel "was found above the grave as a sign of it". 1 palmette-shaped rattle (4-3253) see Gravelot of 1970 (atypical) /Group 1.3

Burial

TABLE G3 (3): GRAVELOTS OF THE NORTH COAST EARLY INTERMEDIATE PERIOD: THE MOCHE FIGURINES (CONT.)

Restos de mate muy carbonizado.

Other items

G2

G3 and Source

G3 and Source

G2 G3

G2

G1

G2

Plate

256

257

Original No.

Source

MSCh 3108

Proyecto Arqueol. "El Brujo" 204/95 Proyecto Arqueol. "El Brujo" 45/96 HMB 4/2546 HMB 4/2547

Donnan and Mackay 1978: 286-287; fig. A. (MS excavations notes M. Moseley, personal communication)

Donnan and Mackay 1978: 272-273, figs. A, B, C

Uhle MS cat. I, 55-56; see also: Kroeber 1925a: 209-210, Pl. 64g; Menzel 1977: 39

1389

AMNH 41.0.5682

Bennett 1939: 52

Middle Horizon Group 3 ("Taitacantin")

954

P108 P109 P110

1948 1947

2355

2354

Site, Grave

Grave A7, Taitacantin, Virú Valley

Trench B on plain between Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, Moche (Donnan and Mackay 1978: plans 5,7) Burial EC 24 (H8000 B-43) As above (P108, P109, P110). Burial EC 31 (H8000 B-22)

HuacaC ao Viejo, Chicama Valley HuacaC ao Viejo, Chicama Valley Moche - Site A = Terrace on South wall of Huaca del Sol.

Middle Horizon Group 2 (Moche derived figurines)

No.

Child with broken ceramic bowl placed over his head

Infant aged 2-4, flexed position.n

Could be a “cache” or offering, rather than a burial (see NC-MH Gr.2, Context) Infant under 4, flexed position

Burial

Figs

1 figurine

1 figurine facing body

3 figurines placed below mandible

2 figurines

TABLE G4: GRAVELOTS OF NORTH COAST MIDDLE HORIZON FIGURINES

1 Orange straight-sided bowl with a design of relief hooks around its base (drawing taken from Bennett’s MS notes at AMNH)

Canteen-shaped bottle

Two cooking ollas, blackened; Ceramic spindle whorl, 2 beads. also placed below mandible

HMB 4/2545: Dark red, slipped or burnished vessel; HMB 4/2544: Black cooking vessel

G3

See Source

See Source

G3

---

Awaiting Data

Plate ---

Small piece of gold sheeting, ca 1 cm2 (not illustrated) found in fill

Other items

Awaiting Data

Ceramics

258

259

Original No.

Bennett 1939: 88; MS Field Notes vol. II

Bennett 1939: 89; MS Field Notes vol. II

Bennett 1939: 87; MS Field Notes vol. II

Source

Pata de Burro, Hda Salamanca, Chicama Valley, Grave 2D in one of the pits surrounding the central pit (see above, Gr. 1))

Pata de Burro, Hacienda Salamanca, Chicama Valley, Grave 2J in one of the pits surrounding the central pit (see above)

Pata de Burro, Hacienda Salamanca, Chicama Valley, Grave 1C (pit containing 6 burials)

Site, Grave

Original No.

Source

Site, Grave

Original No.

2359

P120

Proyecto Arqueol. "El Brujo" 330/95

Source

Ubbelohde- Doering excavations 1962/1963.(Hecker & Hecker 1995: 299, 426-430, Tafel 52B,C)

Chimu Sub-Group 1.1.1

No.

Huaca Cao Viejo, Chicama

Pacatnamú Huaca 31 Burial 47F

Site, Grave

TABLE G7: GRAVELOTS TO CHIMU FIGURINES

P133

Sican Sub-Group 4.1

No.

TABLE G6: GRAVELOTS TO SICAN FIGURINES

P119 P133/ Sican sg. 4.1

MH-LIP Group 3

P 118

MH-LIP Group 2

P117

MH-LIP Group 1

No.

Figs

2 pendants

1 figurine

1 figurine

Figs

Burial of a child inside a fardo

Burial 1 figurine

Figs

Ceramics

Other items

Other items

Two pierced shell pendants; Three pierced oval stone amulets and one plain stone

Copper fragments

Other items

1 bowl with annular base (Ringfußschüssel); 6 textiles, incl. a child's shirt and fragments of fishing nets; several complete or damaged 1 cooking olla with press-molded decor; 1 spools; 1 small bead bracelet (on the child's large olla with appliqué decor. arm), 2 small strings of beads (around the child's neck; pieces of copper, wrapped in string and attached to the child's hands; Snail-shell, shell, remnants of leaves, sticks, animal excrement, wool contained in larger olla. Awaiting Data

Ceramics

Ceramics

1 small burnt black olla with flare rim; orange ball amulet with projection at one end; small orange pierced ball amulet; orange clay bird amulet

1 small blackware Y-shaped whistle with simple features; 1 small clay figure whistle

1 large olla with bulge rim , with white band on an orange base

Gravelot with P119/MH-LIP Gr.3

Burial

Disintegrated child burial

Child burial

Disintegrated child burial

Burial

TABLE G5: GRAVELOTS OF NORTH COAST TRANSITIONAL MIDDLE HORIZON-LATE INTERMEDIATE PERIOD FIGURINES

---

See Source

Plate

Plate

G3

G3

G3

Plate

260

951 Corn-popper Part view Epiformative Gr. 2 (Gallinazo-Virú) Gravelot from the Virú Valley

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1391/Moche sg.1.2 1392/sg.1.2 P50/sg.1.2 Virú Grave 11A - Bennett Excavations

1970/Moche sg. 1.3

1768/Fragments Moche Sg.1.1 - 1.2 Virú Grave 11D - Bennett Excavations

1971/Moche Gr.3

Moche Grave G 23 - Uhle excavations

945/Moche sg. 2.1

943/Moche sg.2.1

947/Moche Gr.3

Huanchaco, Sección Manuci - Cateo XVC - F. Irriarte excavations

Ca1 , C2 /Moche sg.2.2 Huaca El Pueblo, Zaña V., Tell-1, Unit-1

Plate G1 - Gravelots of the Epiformative (Gallinazo-Virú) and Moche (1)

261

262

1977/Moche Gr. 3

1978/Moche Gr. 3

1981/Moche Gr. 3

1979/Moche sg.5.1 1980/Mochesg.5.1

1976 /Mochesg. 4.2

HMB 4-3235

HMB 4-3246 (Kroeber 1944:Pl. 48F)

HMB 4-3253

Moche Grave F25 - Uhle excavations

1973/Mochesg. 4.1

HMB 4/177

HMB 4/179 HMB 4/182

HMB 4/174

HMB 4/178

1972/Moche sg. 5.2

Moche Grave G1 - Uhle excavations

Plate G2 - Gravelots: Moche (2)

263

HMB 4/180

264

944/Moche sg. 4.2

H: 16 cm

H: 15 cm

Huanchaco, Sección Manucci, Grave 8 Excavations F. Irriarte

1948/MH-Gr.2

1947/MH Gr.2

P100/Moche sg. 4.3 P103/Moche sg. 5.1

Grave from Cerro Campana Chicama V. Ubbelohde-Doering excavation

HMB 4-2544

HMB 4-2545

NC-MH Group 2: Cache from Moche, Site A (Uhle excavations)

1389

NC-MH Group 3: Grave A 7, Taitacantin, Virú Valley (R. Olson excavation)

P117/MH LIP Gr.1 Pata de Burro Grave 1C

P118/ MH-LIP Gr2 Pata de Burro Grave 2J

P119/MH- LIP Gr.3 P133/Sican sg.4.1 Pata de Burro Grave 2D

Gravelots from Pata de Burro, Chicama valley

Plate G3 - Gravelots: Moche (3), Middle Horizon Groups 2, 3, MH-LIP Groups 1,2,3

265

266

APPENDIX 4 THE TESTIMONY OF THE CHRONICLERS The most obvious source for a functional interpretation of pottery figurines must be the testimony of the early chroniclers. Unfortunately, although the descriptions of religious and mortuary practices are as numerous as the chroniclers themselves, references to figurines and more specifically to pottery figurines are practically nonexistent. There are some explanations for this: • The great majority of chroniclers such as Acosta, Albornoz, Betanzos, Cobo, Cieza de León, Garcilazo, Molina, Murúa, collected their data from Highland Indians, living in the Cuzco and Titicaca areas, who had grown up under Inca rule. In these areas and in that particular cultural context pottery figurines were extremely rare. Such figurines or idols as existed were made of stone or of metal (see below). • Many of these chroniclers tend to borrow from each other (see Wedin 1966), so that descriptions of beliefs and practices are fairly repetitive. • The relative scarcity of information regarding the costal valleys may be due to the very rapid demographic decline following the Conquest. Already in 1551, Cieza mentions that the valley of the Rimac, the largest valley south of Tumbes, houses few Indians "...porque, como se pobló la ciudad (Lima) en su tierra y les ocuparon sus campos y riegos, unos se fueron a unos valles y otros a otros..." (1946/1553:369). Amongst the few reports regarding customs on the Central Coast is the Extirpacíón de la idolatría del Perú by José de Arriaga, published in Lima in 1621. This Jesuit was rector of the Colegio San Martín in Lima from 1588 to 1602 and rector in Arequipa from 1612 to 1615. He took part in visitas to extirpate idolatry, mainly in the area of Huacho, where he spent eighteen months, and for shorter periods in Guamalies, Conchucos and Huanuco (Esteve Barba 1968: liv ff). However even among Arriaga’s detailed descriptions of the objects of idolatry (see below) there is no specific mention of pottery figurines, either as grave goods or as domestic deities, although stone conopas were still very common. It is odd that—if pottery figurines were used as domestic deities— they were not passed down within families as conopas were (see below). Of course Arriaga operated more than half a century after the conquest, by which time the manufacture of such idols, strictly prohibited by the Church, had obviously declined or even stopped .1 Another curious fact is that figurines are never mentioned as grave goods, even though they must have been mainly used in that context. And yet figurines should have been more striking for an outside observer than vessels, whose " use in the after-life is more obvious than that of an “idol”. One can only assume that figurines fell into disuse more rapidly than vessels precisely because they lacked the “practical” function of containing food or drink for the dead. Listed below are a number of extracts2 from various chroniclers referring to idols, sacrificial offerings and/or grave goods, as well as various related superstitions: IDOLS ACOSTA, José de (1954/1590): Describing the preservation of the bodies of dead Incas: “No se contentaban con esta idolatría de los cuerpos de los difuntos, sino que también hacían sus estatuas; y cada rey en vida hacía un ídolo o estatua suya de piedra, la cual llamaban Guaoiqui, que chiere decir

1

There are very few post-conquest human pottery representations: in all the museum collections I only came across a few Chimu style early colonial face-necks and one silvador of no specific style. 2 These extracts have not been translated, in order to avoid misunderstandings of the original text. The orthograph is also as published.

267

hermano, porque aquella statua en vida y en muerte se la había de hacer la misma veneración que al propio Inca." (p.147) "...Hubo en las Indias gran curiosidad de hacer ídolos y pinturas de diversas formas y diversas materias, y a estas adoraban por dioses. LLamaban las en el Perú guacas y ordinariamente eran de gestos feos y disformes, a los menos los que yo he visto todas eran así” (p.149). In connection with the feast of Inti Raymi a great number of wooden idols were made and dressed in rich clothing (p.185). ALBORNOZ, Cristóbal de (1989/ circa 1583-1584): Relates that the Inca, after conquering a territory, paid great respect to the local huacas, offering them his own image in gold or silver. More interestingly, having divided the empire in four areas, he gave each of them "...figuras y señal de bestidura y tocado con senales por donde eran conoscidos y guacas generales. Y juntamente les dio unas guaquillas de piedras de diferenciados colores que les llamó auqui, que los traían con sus personas en las chuspas, como los cristianos tienen figuras de santos..." (p.163-164). ARRIAGA, Pablo José (1968/1621): Francisco de Avila, over a period of time, collected "más de seiscientos ídolos, muchos de ellos con sus vestiduras y ornamentos de mantillas de cumbi muy curiosas en proporción a los mismos ídolos, que los más eran de piedras de diversas figuras y no muy grandes" (p.196). In a chapter describing the objects of idolatry, Arriaga distinguishes of "huacas fijas e inmóviles" such as the Sun, Moon, Sea, Earth, mountains, etc., and "huacas moviles" belonging to individual ayllus, which he describes : "De ordinario son de piedra, y las más veces sin figura ninguna; otras tienen diversas figuras de hombres o mujeres, y algunas de estas huacas dicen que son hijos o mujeres de otras huacas; otras tienen figura de animales". These huacas are the object of a cult, with a priest, sacrifices etc. (pp.201-202). With the advent of Christianity a form of syncretism concealed the survival of the ancient huacas: Arriaga reports that in Huarochiri, Avila found that a female idol, called Chupixamor and Mamyoc, was venerated in the form of the Virgin of the Ascension, whilst a male idol, Huayhuay, was venerated in an image of Christ. There are also frequent instances when pagan cult objects were placed near altars or carried in processions (p.223). Amongst the movable huacas Arriaga also counts the malquis, e.g. the bones or bodies of ancestors, but there is no mention of figurines in the description of the grave goods (see below). Another type of movable huacas are the conopas, which Arriaga sees as the Lares and Penates of the Indians: "...éstas son de diversas materias y figuras, aúnque de ordinario son algunas piedras particulares y pequeñas que tengan algo de notable, o en el color, o en la figura". Amongst the conopas also figure " piedras bezares...piedras pequeñas de cristal, al modo de puntas" as well as "conopas muy particulares, unas para el maíz...otras para las papas...otras para el aumento del ganado...que algunas veces son figuras de carneros" (pp.203204). Conopas are also used in magic or curing practices. For instance during birth the personal conopa of the mother is placed on her breasts (p.214). The cult of the conopas is secret and particular to each household (p.204) which can own several: one cacique owned eleven, his wife five, each one with its particular name (p.222). Conopas are inherited by the eldest son from his father (p.204) "...como la joya más rica de sus pocas alajas" (p.222). During his time in the Huaura valley Arriaga witnessed the destruction—amongst other objects—of 3418 conopas, 45 mamazaras and similar objects (p.200). Describing the rituals involved in the cult of the huacas, Arriaga writes: "Tienen...para estas fiestas de sus huacas... muchas aquillas y vasos para beber, de plata, madera y barro y de diversas figuras" (p.222). The latter probably refers to figurative vessels such as face-necks etc.

268

From these descriptions it appears unlikely that Arriaga actually saw pottery figurines either as grave goods or in use as domestic deities or amulets (conopas). AVILA, Francisco de (quoted by Esteve Barba 1968: liv): Speaking about the Indians of Huarochirí: "...cada familia tenía su ídolo, cunchur o chanca, y no eran estas sino piedras comunes, no mayores que una manzana, envueltas en inmundos trapos, con hojas de coca y acompañadas de atajidos de cuero con color amarillo o carmesi, polvos de conchas marinas, conchas enteras y acaso algún trocito de plata, todo ello considerado como ofrendas al ídolo." BETANZOS, Juan de (1968/1551): The Inca Yupanqui orders to build a temple of the Sun: "... en la cual casa pusiesen y fuese puesto un bulto [bust, statue] en el lugar donde el Sol reverenciasen y hiciesesn sacrificios”. After the temple is inaugurated, he commands that "...desde aquella hora hasta que el bulto del Sol fuese hecho de oro todos estuviesen en ayuno”. This statue was "...un niño de oro macizo y vaciadizo, que fuese...de altor y proporción de un níño de un año y desnudo." After it is finished the principal priest "...vistióle una camiseta muy ricamente tejida de oro y lana e de diversas labores, y pusole en la cabeza cierta atadura a uso y costumbre de ellos, y luego le puso una borla [tassel] según la del estado de los Señores, y encima della le puso una patena de oro, y en los pies le calzó unos zapatos..." The Inca then adores the idol "...hizole sus mochas..." and carries "...el bulto del idolo en sus manos..." to its seat, made of wood and covered in multicoloured plumage. He then lights a golden brazero and sacrifices food and chicha. And from then on they adored that idol (pp.31-33). CALANCHA, Antonio de la (Calancha and Torres 1972/1639-1653): Describes the Idolo Copacabana "...de piedra azul vistosa...no tenía mas figura que un rostro humano, destroncado de pies y manos, el rostro feo y el cuerpo como pesce. A este adoraban por diós de la laguna, por criador de sus peces y diós de sus sensualidades". (p.139) A double-faced stone idol, like Janus, had been found by Diego García near Juli in 1619. It represented a male and a female, "... con dos culebras que le subían de los pies, y en la corona un sapo muy grande en forma de tocado. Adorabanle por diós de las comidas." (p.141). Arriaga (1968/1621:227-228) also mentions this idol, associated with two altars and large graves made of dressed stone, as well as sacrifices including gold leaflets. COBO, Bernabé (1964/1653): Speaks of “...imágenes y estatuas, que todas eran ídolos muy venerados por si mismo...unas eran pintadas y otras eran entalladas de diferentes materias, formas y grandeza; unas eran de plata, otras de oro, palo, piedra, barro, y de otras cosas; unas tenían forma humana y otras de diversos animales... “ (Libro XIII, capitulo 11: 167). GUTIERREZ DE SANTA CLARA, Pedro (1963/1548): "Los ídolos que había en estos templos eran de oro y de plata, de madera, de maza de maíz y de barro, y había tantos dioces como de oficios; no quiero decir de hombres, porque cada uno adoraba lo que se le antojaba... Los principales ídolos eran Pachacama, el Sol y la Luna, que estaban hechos de oro vaciadizo, excepto la Tierra que estaba hecho de barro. Dentro destos templos había muchas figuras pintadas, con báculos [staff] en las manos y mitras en las cabezas, como obispos." (vol.166:231): HERNANDEZ PRINCIPE, Rodrigo, a parish priest in Ocros near Cajatambo, reports in two letters to the Archbishop of Lima, quoted by Arriaga (1968/1621: 229-234), about extensive visitas during which he discovered a number of huacas, mainly malquis and idols. The latter

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were all made of stone, except one small bronze idol. Many are described to have "figura de indio", often horrible to look at. They are mostly seated on a stone or on fragments of metal and surrounded by large numbers of conopas, acting as their servants, and by sacrificial offerings (llamas and cuys, musical instruments, vessels). The conopas are not described, but according to other sources they were probably also made of stone. JESUITA ANONIMO (1968/1580-1595): Lists various idols kept in Cuzco temples (p.158): • The statue of a man with hair, face and clothing similar to representations of San Bartolomé, was kept in the temple of Viracocha, later the Cathedral; • The idol of the Sun at Santo Domingo; • The temple of the planet (earth?) called Pirua, contained a fertility idol, holding fresh branches and sheaves of wheat; • Another temple contained the idols of the subject nations (not described). MEDINA, Felipe de (1986/1650): Describes a famous shrine at Choque Ispana, near Huacho, a local pilgrimage much visited by the serranos, with separate entrances for them and their wives. "Hallé...un carnerito de la tierra que llaman mamanllama por el augmento de ellos y que tengan los serranos que traer más de este género, para que sirvan en sus sacrificios y de aquí se verifica y de auer hallado los ídolos pequeños vestidos a lo serrano que este adoratorio era general y común assi para los de la sierra como para los de los llanos" (quoted by A. Krzanowski 1991d: 2401). MOLINA, Cristóbal de (El Cuzqueño) (1989/1573): During ceremonies linked with Inti Raymi sacrifices were offered to various idols placed in Coricancha: "...[los carneros] los quales trayan alrededor de los ydolos y huacas llamadas Punchao ynca que era el Sol y el Pachayachachi que era otro ydolo figura de hombre, que quiere decir el mismo bocablo, Hacedor, y otro ydolo llamado Chuquiylla Yllapa que era la huaca del Relámpago y Trueno y Rayo la qual huaca hera forma de persona, aunque no le vian el rostro. Además tenían un llayto de oro y oregeras de oro y medalla de oro, que llaman canipo, y la ropa doblada allí junto dél, las quales huacas estavan puestas en un escaño y los carneros vivos davan buelta alrededor dellos..." (p.67) At a feast in the same month (May), the mamaconas organised a huayllina [ritual dance]: “...Sacavan a esta fiesta las dos figuras de mujer llamadas palpasillo e ynca oillo con ropas muy ricas cuviertas con chapería de oro...” (p.70). “...la huaca llamada Guanacauri [the principal huaca of Cuzco], que es una peña [here meaning rock] grande de hombre...”(p.77) During the feast of Capacocha, children were brought especially for sacrficial purposes: "...ahogavan a los niños y los enterravan juntamente con las figuras de plata, de ovejas y de personas de oro y plata; y las ovejas y carneros y ropa lo quemavan, y tanbién unos cestillos de coca." (p.122). MURÚA, Martin de (1987/n.d): Under the various sacrifices that the Incas made to their huacas were: "...cantidad de ropa de hombre y mujer, finisima y muy pequeña, hecha conforme la medida de los ídolos, con muchos colores de plumerías, y otras cosas que usaban para este efecto" (p.420). 1

A. Krzanowski (1991d) : Sobre la céramica Chancay del tipo Lauri Impreso. In: A.Krzanowski (Ed.) : Estudios sobre la Cultura Chancay, pp.215-242. Universidad Jaguelona, Krakow.

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An ambiguous passage speaks of "figuras pequeñas de harina de maiz", possibly also made of gold or silver (p.422), but earlier only "carneros y corderillos" are mentioned as made of massive gold or silver (p.420). SACRIFICIAL OFFERINGS - OBJECTS INVOLVED IN MAGICAL OR CURING PRACTICES -GRAVE GOODS

Most chroniclers mention various items, as sacrificial offerings either to huacas or to the dead: animals (mainly llamas or cuys), chicha, coca, maize, bira [small balls or figurines made of llama fat] feathers, conchas (or powdered mullu), woollen or other clothing, eyelashes, sometimes human sacrifices (see amongst others Acosta 1954/1590:160ff; Arriaga 1968/1621:209ff; Jesuita Anónimo 1968/1580:155; Murúa 1987:419ff). ARRIAGA, José de (1968/1621): Describing burials: "...suelen tener con ellos los instrumentos de que ellos usaban en vida: las mujeres husos y mazorcas de algodón hilado, y los hombres las tallas o lampas con que labraban el campo, o las armas con que peleaban...tienen su vajilla para darles de comer y beber, que son mates, y vasos, unos de barro, otros de madera y algunas veces de plata y conchas del mar." (p.203) CIEZA DE LEÓN, Pedro (1984/1553): Mentions that the Indians of the valleys (e.g. the Yungas) buried their dead with "...todo su haber y mujeres y servicio, y mucha cantidad de comida, y no pocos cantaros de chicha...y sus armas y ornamentos..." (Ch. LXII.) COBO, Bernabé (1964/1653): "No tuvieron los indios muchos usos de cosas de barro...Tanpoco hacían las diferencias de loza que nosotros usamos, sino solamente ollas y cantaros diferentes entre si en ser mayores o menores y en algunas figuras y labores que en ellos esculpían... Las demás vasijas...hacían ellos de plata, oro, palo y de calabazos secos; ni en sus antiguas sepulturas, donde con sus difuntos enterraban de todas sus comidas y bebidas, se hallan otros vasos más de los referidos." (Libro III, cap. VI, p.114). MURÚA, Martín de (1987/n.d): Speaking of sortileges: "Para este oficio usaban de diferentes artificios, en especial con pedrezuelas de diferentes colores o con piedras negras o con maíz o con chaquira." (p.436). “...Quando querían mal a otro...llevaban su ropa y vestidos, y vestían con ellos alguna estatua que hacían en nombre de tal persona, y la colgaban y maldecían, escupiéndola, y así mismo hacían estatuas pequeñas de barro o de cera o de masa [dough], y las ponían en el fuego, para que allí se derritiese la cera o el barro se endureciese, creyendo que con esto quedarían vengados..." (p.441). This passage can only refer to rough, hand-made figurines, not to massproduced mold-made ones. VARIOUS SUPERSTITIONS

All the chroniclers mention the great variety and strangeness of the superstitions which they encountered in Peru. ALBORNOZ, Cristóbal de (1989/circa 1583-1584): Underlines the importance of the pacarisca, the huaca of origin of the natives. In the case of the mitimaes, the Inca encouraged them to rebuild their pacarisca in the place where they had

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been transferred. After the conquest, mitimaes often venerated "...alguna pieça de bestidura que su guaca pacarisca tenía en sus tierras, la cual pieça se les entregava al sacerdote...dela dicha guaca, encargándoles no se les olvidase el nombre de su descendencia..." (p.171). ARRIAGA, Pablo José de (1968/1621): "...Estos abusos y supersticiones son tan diferentes y diversos cuanto lo son las provincias y pueblos, porque en una misma cosa y en una misma materia tienen unos unas supersticiones y otros otras..." (p.214). "...No hay muchacho, por pequeño que sea, que no sepa el nombre de la huaca de su ayllo..." (p.219). JESUITA ANONIMO (1968/1580-1595): "No creo que ha habido gentilidad tan dada a superstición como la piruana...porque miraban en todos sus actos y en sus meneos, y en casi todos ellos hallaban misterio que reparar de bueno o malo...” (p.177) MURÚA, Martin de: (1987/n.d.): "...No había cosa fuera de los términos comunes, a quien no atribuyesen los indios alguna deidad y reverencia, ofreciendole sacrificios a su modo..." (p.423). "...Había [huacas] por todo el Reino, sin número, en las provincias, en los pueblos particulares, en los ayllus y tribus, en las casas y caminos, montes, cerros, cuevas, piedras, encrucijadas, árboles, de manera que, cualesquera cosas que excedía los limites y términos ordinarios, y que era admirable, espantosa, que causaba miedo, espanto o admiración, luego la adoraban y reverenciaban y ofrecían sacrificios, y la tenían por negocio divino y sobrenatural, hasta las lagunas o ríos donde habían sucedido casos notables. Las estrellas, el lucero, las cabrillas, las fuentes, manantiales, el arco del cielo, o si alguno juntaba un montón de piedras, y lo ponía en algún camino, y ellos llamaban apachitas, luego todos los que pasaban, lo respetaban y adoraban. Todo esto procedía de su condición tan supersticiosa y miserable..." (p.445). POLO DE ONDEGARDO (1990/1570): After relating practices to make a child grow, adds: "...Pongo esto para que se entienda que así son sus imaginaciones en cada cosa, y cuán fáciles y desventurados son.." (p.101).

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284

EXPLANATIONS TO THE TABLES 1. All the figurines recorded in museums or private collections have been given a running number in terms of this thesis, in order to avoid the use—in the text—of lengthy museum accession numbers. Accession numbers are given under “Source”. 2. The figurines which were not recorded by me fall into four categories: • Published figurines: indicated by “P” followed by a number; • Figurine data which were communicated to me by archaeologists: indicated by a “C” followed by a number; • Figurines from the collection of Santiago Agurto Calvo known to me from the catalogue made by the Instituto Nacional de Cultura: indicated by “SAC” followed by their catalogue number. Figurines from the collection which I was able to examine are listed by a running number (as above, 1). The sequence within each group or sub-group is based—as far as possible—on shared traits, the provenance and the likely chronological position. 3. Provenances are given accuracy ratings (see Chapter 2, Section 2.2.3 and Appendix 1). 4. The data are recorded as follows: • When a measurement or feature is not known, it is shown by a blank space. If a feature is not present on a figurine the coding “n/i” (not indicated) is used (e.g. where the sex is not shown). If the feature is not applicable, the code “n/a” (not applicable) is given (e.g. no airholes in a solid figurine). However, if a feature should be present, but is not, then the code “no” (absent) is used (e.g. a hollow figurine lacking airholes, which should be present). • An entry in brackets means a partial dimension (metric). 5. The colours listed usually apply to the surface and the designs, not to the paste. The slip or base colour is listed first, any design colours are added after a “+” (e.g. “White + black, red”). Abbreviations used in the Tables (for abbreviated museum and collection names see pp. 910) C (followed by a number) = "Communicated" Figurine Ca (followed by a number) = Additional "Communicated" Figurine F = (Sex column) Female Gr. = Group HM = Hand-made M = (Manufacture column) Mold-made M = (Sex column) Male n/a = not applicable n/i = not indicated n/k = not known n/n = no number P (followed by a number) = Published Figurine pf = post-fired Sg. = Sub-group

285

286

287

3

2

1

Source

Site

INC, Trujillo

AMNH 41.2/4712 (Bird excavation)

C1

1395

Huaca Prieta, Chicama Valley - Test Pit 4, House-tomb 1 ***

Huaca Prieta, Chicama Valley - Test Pit 4, House-tomb 1 or 2? ** El Silencio, Upper Santa Valley ** (3.7)

(4.3)

Cerro Sechín 250 (sic!)

Cerro Sechín 250 (sic!)

894

895 a-c

(3.8)

(6.1) (4.7) (3.2) (3.4)

(2.9)

(3.2)

(4.4)

(3.7)

(4.1)

(3.6)

(3.3)

(4.2)

(3.0)

(3.0)

(5.6)

Ishida et al 1960: Fig.62 Las Haldas near Casma Pit III, , Level II *** Grieder 1975: Fig.113 Las Haldas near Casma Cut 3, level 2*** (6.5)

(6.2)

(3.5)

(2.2)

HM

Terracotta

(2.9) (2.3) (1.9) (2.2)

(3.9) (2.9) (2.4) (3.8)

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

Pale terracotta

Greyish-brown

Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

(3.1)

(2.8)

(3.5)

(2.5)

(2.5)

(1.9)

(2.5)

(1.1)

HM

HM

HM

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

n/a

n/a

n/a

Manufacture Air-holes

HM-M S-H

A further four figurine fragments with extended arms were found "in Cut 1, in the same late level" (Grieder 1975: 105).

The Cerro Sechin fragments were recorded at the Templo de Sechín site; their present location is unknown to me.

Similar figurines from Pampa de las Llamas - Moxeke are described, but not illustrated by Pozorski and Pozorski (1986: 396).

P5

P4

Brown

Colour

(2.6)

(3.5)

(3.0)

(3.2)

(3.3)

(3.0)

(3.2)

(4.7)

(3.5)

(2.2)

Type 3: Standing figurines with rounded head and extended arms

P3

Huaca Prieta - Test Pit 4, House-tomb 1? ** Nepeña Valley, PV 31-47a *** Cerro Sechín, Casma Valley ** Cerro Sechín, Casma Valley ** Cerro Sechín, Casma Valley ** Cerro Sechín, Casma Valley ** Cerro Sechín, Casma Valley ** Cerro Sechín, Casma Valley ** Cerro Sechín, Casma Valley ** Cerro Sechín, Casma Valley ** Cerro Sechín, Casma Valley **

Ishida et al 1960: Fig.60 Las Haldas near Casma, Pit II, Level IV*** Ishida et al 1960: Fig.61 Las Haldas, near Casma Pit II, Level V***

Cerro Sechín 250 (sic!)

893

P2

Cerro Sechín 653

Cerro Sechín 19 (?)

889

892

Cerro Sechín 57

888

Cerro Sechín 250 (sic!)

Cerro Sechín s/n

891

890

Cerro Sechín 250

2

AMNH 41.2/4777 (Bird excavation.) Proulx 1985: Pl.11 B,C

887

P1

1396

Wgt (gr.)

Dark brown + traces of red

(4.2.)

9.3

D (cm)

n/i

(3.5)

W (cm)

Measurements

Pale buff

6.8

H (cm)

n/i

n/i

Sex

Type 2:Figurines with rounded head and folded arms,1 probably all standing

AMNH 41.2/4717 (Bird excavation)

1388

Type 1: Ffigurines with elongated head, sitting

No

Torso fragment, extended arms Near complete figurine

Torso fragment with folded arms

Head

3 leg fragments

Feet

Head fragment. Head fragment. Face + neck fragment Fragment of lower Legs Feet

Head

Head

Torso fragment with folded arm Head

Whole figurine Sitting Gravelot Whole figurine Sitting Gravelot Legs fragment (sitting)

Special Features

TABLE 1: NORTH COAST FORMATIVE GROUP 1: FIGURINES OF THE LOWER FORMATIVE (OR INITIAL PERIOD)

See Source

See Source

See Source

See Source

See Source

Bird, Hyslop, Skinner 1985: Fig.30

Lilien 1956: 20-22, Pl. I a-c; Bird, Hyslop, Skinner 1985: Fig.30

Lilien 1956: 20-22, Pl. I a-c; Bird, Hyslop, Skinner 1985: Fig.30

Published

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Plate

288

1

Source

Site

Sitting

P17

P16

2343

P15

P14

P13

P12

P19

P11

P10

P9

Lapiner 1976: Pl. 56, 57 (Private collection) Alva 1986: no.461a, b (G. Battistini collection.) Lapiner 1976: Pl. 59 (MAI , Heye Foundation 23/64/67) MN MN-3571 (Confiscated) Alva 1986: nos. 462a, b (G. Battistini collection) Lapiner 1976: Pl. 61 (Private collection)

PAP 346, 347 (Coll. O. Rodriguez R. .no. 51) Donnan 1992: Fig.44 (UCLA FMCH X90493 - Gift Lucas) Parsons 1980: no. 399 (St. Louis Art Museum 186:1979 - Gift) Lapiner 1976: Pl. 51, 52 (Private collection) Lapiner 1976:Pl. 53 (Private collection) Lavalle 1990: 64-65

C2

P8

P7

P6

BMNY 68.97 (Purchase) Dallas Museum Catalogue 1988: no.18 (Dallas Museum of Fine Arts 1971.19 - Purchase) Lapiner 1976: Pl. 60 (Private collection) Lapiner 1976:Pl. 62,63 (Private collection)

1886

Sex

Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley

Zaña Valley*

Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley

Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley* Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley Limoncarro, Jequetepeque Valley Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley Zaña Valley*

Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley

Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley

Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley

n/i (F)

n/i

n/i

n/i

n/i

n/i (F)

n/i (M+F) n/i (F+M) n/i (F) 1

14.0

12.2

13.4

14.0

4.5

16.5

19.0

18.7

n/i (F) n/i (M+F)

18.0

14.2

20.4

15.9

20.4

H (cm)

n/i (M)

n/i (M)

n/i (M)

n/i (M)

Jequetepeque Valley* n/i (M)

Sub-Group 2.1: Classic Tembladera Figurines

No

5.5

9.5

9.4

8.0

ca 6.0

ca 11.4

8.9

11.7

W (cm)

7.7

7.0

ca 7.5

D (cm)

Measurements Wgt (gr.)

Tan + dark brown

Cream

Orange

Brown + pf white Tan-grey + pf white

Tan + pf white

Brown + pf white Tan + pf red, white Red + pf white

Reddish-brown + pf white, red

Pale tan + pf white

Tan + pf white, yellow Tan + pf white, red-orange

Red-brown + pf white

Colour

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

Top of head, abdomen, eyes, nostrils Top of head, abdomen, eyes, nostrils Mouth, others?

Top of head, abdomen, eyes, nostrils Top of head, eyes, chest, others? Top of head, abdomen, eyes, nostrils Top of head, abdomen, eyes, nostrils

Top of heads? abdomen, eyes, nostrils

Top of heads? abdomen, eyes, nostrils, ear

Eyes, nostrils, others?

2 behind elbows

Abdomen, eyes, nostrils, others ?

Eyes, nostrils, others ?

Top of head, eyes, nostrils+ others Top of head, eyes, nostrils + other small holes

Manufacture Air-holes

HM-M S-H

Ocarina

Ocarina

Ocarina

Man and woman (Ocarina) Man and woman (Ocarina) Sitting woman with child (ocarina?) Sitting woman with child (ocarina?) Ocarina

Man and woman (Ocarina?)

Holds flute

Holds conch trumpet? Holds double flute

Holds double flute

Holds double flute

Special Features

See Source

See Source

See Source; Dockstader 1967: no.91; Katz (1983): 319: no.5

See Source

See Source

See Source; Pre-Columbian Art in New York...no. 218 centre See Source

See Source; Alva 1986: no. 463

See Source

See Source

See Source; Pre-Columbian Art in New York 1969: no. 217

See Source

Lapiner 1976:Pl. 54, 55; Alva 1986: fig. 466a-c. See Source

Published

3

3

3

3

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

Plate

TABLE 2(1): NORTH COAST FORMATIVE GROUP 2: FIGURINES OF THE MIDDLE FORMATIVE (OR EARLY HORIZON): THE TEMBLADERA FIGURINES

289

Site

Sex

ACEPB 71

ACEPB 498

848

8521

ACEPB 497

ACEPB 496

Lapiner 1976: Pl. 58 (Private collection) MCAP 0185 (no data)

S 34

S 35

P18

Hda Pomalca, or Cayaltí, Zaña Valley 3* Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley

Hda Pomalca, or Cayaltí, Zaña Valley 3 *

Hda Pomalca, or Cayaltí, Zaña Valley 3 *

n/i

15.5

6.0

M?

5.7

4

4.2

5.8

8.1

20.6

n/i

n/i

n/i

Chongoyape, n/i (F) Chancay Valley * Chongoyape, Chancay n/i (F) Valley * Cayaltí, Zaña Valley ** n/i

C13

2341

1878

1880

1879

MAI 24/1886 (Purchase from A. Lapiner) MAI 24/1887 (Purchase from A. Lapiner) MAI 24/1885 (Purchase from A. Lapiner) MN 5976 (Confiscated) PAP 345 (Collection Javier Ponce no. 254)

Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley5 Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley

n/i (F) n/i (F) n/i (M) n/i (F) M (7.9) 9.3

12.8 6 17.2 6

13.1

22.7 7.0

9.0

(7.7)

16.0

6

8.5

3.3

3.3

2.8

7.7

7.3

W (cm)

5.9

7.8

11.3

(5.4)

7.5

5.5

3.0

3.1

2.2

5.9

5.5

D (cm)

Measurements

Sub-Group 2.2: Sub- or Post-Classic Tembladera Figurines

C3

ACEPB 495

S 33

Atypical

ACEPB 72

847

19.0

H (cm) 460

Wgt (gr.)

Dark terracotta + pf red Dark terracotta + pf red Dark terracotta + pf red Orange

Tan + pf red, white Pale brown

Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

Reddish-brown + cream Reddish-brown + pf white Pale brown

Colour

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

S

H

H Found together

Special Features

Double-aspect

Ocarina

together

Found

1 Head ?

Eyes, nostrils, mouth, Right arm missing nipples Found Eyes, nostrils, mouth, together, all sitting nipples Ocarinas? Top of head, eyes, ears, nostrils, umbilicus, base 1878 plays pan-pipe Nostrils, mouth, umbilicus

Top of head, eyes, nostrils

Eyes, nostrils, mouth, 2 shoulders, back, 2 legs, lower abdomen Nostrils, mouth?, shoulders, back, legs

Ocarinas

Found with Chavín vessel ,2 and "near" 855 (= Alva 1986: no. 470; see N-Highlands Gr.[n]).

Eyes, nostrils, shoulders, back, legs

n/a

Nostrils, mouth, base

Nostrils, mouth, base

Manufacture Air-holes

HM-M S-H

Lapiner 1967: No.75 right Lapiner 1976 : Pl. 64 right; Lapiner 1967: No.75 left Lapiner 1976: Pl. 64 left Lapiner 1967: No.75 middle Lapiner 1976: Pl. 64 middle

See Source; Pre-Columbian Art in New York...no. 218 right.

Lavalle + Lang 1981: 71-2

Pre-Columbian Art in New York...no. 218 left; Lavalle + Lang 1981: 70-1; Alva 1986: no. 468 a,b Lavalle + Lang 1981: 70-2

Lavalle + Lang 1981: 66, left; Alva 1986: no. 464 Lavalle + Lang 1981: 66, right; Alva 1986: no. 465 Lavalle + Lang 1981: 120; Alva 1986: no. 469

Published

4

4

4

4

4

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

Plate

2

Said to be a bone figurine (D. Bonavia (1994: fig. 27, caption), but definitely described as ceramic (Alva 1986: 99, no. 469). Collector's personal communication; see Lavalle and Lang 1981: Dustcover; Alva 1986: no. 108. 3 According to the collector (personal communication) the ocarinas were found at the Hda Pomalca, Zaña Valley, but Lavalle and Lang 1981: 70-71 give the provenance as Cayaltí, Zaña Valley. The Hacienda Pomalca no longer exists: it was located north of the Hacienda Cayaltí. 4 Lapiner speaks of a "man" (1976: Pl. 58) but no genitals are discernable on the illustration. 5 The MAI catalogue states "Tembladera, Cajamarca". 6 Sitting

1

Source

Sub-Group 2.1 (cont.): Classic Tembladera Figurines

No

TABLE 2(2): NORTH COAST FORMATIVE GROUP 2: FIGURINES OF THE MIDDLE FORMATIVE (OR EARLY HORIZON): THE TEMBLADERA FIGURINES

290

1

Source

Site

Sex H (cm)

W (cm)

Retrieved by M. West

Retrieved by M. West

Retrieved by M. West

Retrieved by M. West

Retrieved by M. West

C5

C6

C7

C8

C9-12

nr Cerro Compositan, Virú Valley ** Huaca Lechusa, Virú ** Huaca Lechusa, Virú ** Huaca Lechusa, Virú ** Puerto Moorín, Virú ** Puerto Moorín, Virú ** Huaca Lechusa, Virú **

SAC 474

Lapiner 1976: Pl.232

MVV 147.973 (bought from A.Lapiner)

1907 1269

763

P21

1334

Sitting

1406

Inca-Peru (2): fig. 021 (INC, Trujillo) AMNH 41.2.7747 (Gift F. Landmann 1981) PC2NY (no data) PC2M (no data)

P20

Tembladera, Jequetepeque Valley

Vicinity of Trujillo

Sub-Group 1.2: "Elite" Salinar Figurines

C4

MNAA 57240-B (M. West 127-00-06) Retrieved by M. West

626

M

M

12.7

37.0 12.8

12.0

10.9

16.2 1 2

7.8 (6.0)

7.9

(4.6)

(5.1)

(5.3)

(6.7)

5.1

21.0 15.3

21.3

M or F? (F) M M or F?

17.0

(5.7)

(6.1)

(4.4)

(4.2)

(9.1)

(17.6)

n/i

M

n/i

n/i

12.0

9.4 5.2

5.8

3.9

D (cm)

Measurements

Sub-Group 1.1: “Utilitarian” Puerto Moorin (Salinar) Figurines

No Wgt (gr.)

Dark Terracotta. Brown-black + pf red Terracotta + white Red-brown + traces of white Terracotta

Terracotta + white

Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

Colour

HM

HM

HM

HM HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

H

H

H H

H

S

S

S

S

S

S

S

Base

Head , base Head (large), genitals ?

Mouth, genitals, anus

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

Manufacture Air-holes

HM-M S-H

TABLE 3: NORTH COAST EPIFORMATIVE GROUP 1: THE PUERTO MOORIN/SALINAR FIGURINES

Hunter carrying deer Head (whole)

Sitting,

Rattle

Face fragments

Lower body

Torso

Face fragment

Face fragment

Near complete figurine Head + torso

Special Features

Lapiner 1976: Pl.234; Inca-Peru (2): fig. 046

See Source

See Source

Published

4

4

4

4 4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

Plate

291

1

Source

Site

Sex H (cm)

Jatanca**, Pampa de Paijan. Gallinazo, Virú V. *** (V1-59/CA2-G5b, - 1m) Gallinazo, Virú V. ** (V1-59, surface) Gallinazo, Virú V *** (V1-59/Cut 1:0.751.00m) Gallinazo, Virú V *** (V1-59/Cut 1:1.001.25m) Tres Huacas , Virú V.** (V1-152) Virú Valley * ("opposite Guañape Island") Site LSuch-97, Santa Valley, cemetery ** M

n/i

n/i

n/i

9.4

11.6

(10.4)

M

?

M

n/i M

n/i

n/i

n/i

15.4

17.2

(16.7)

18.9 13.5

(7.5)

15.3

18.7

21.2

8.6

9.2

(8.5)

10.4 5.7

8.4

(9.2)

11.0

5.8

(8.2)

7.2

5.7

6.2

(5.7)

5.6 4.0

5.7

5.5

9.2

4.1

3.9

4.1

190

Dark red + white Terracotta + white Terracotta + white Terracotta + white Dark terracotta + white

Bright terracotta + grey (fugitive) Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

Terracotta

Dark brown

Terracotta

Colour

HM

HM

HM

HM HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

H

H

H

H H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

S

S

H

H

H

S?

1 mouth,2 neck, 1genitals 1 mouth, 2 neck, 1 anus

2 neck 2 neck, 1 between .legs, 1 penis 1 mouth, others?

2 neck

2 neck

1 between legs

2 neck

1mouth, 2 below neck, , 1 anus

2 below neck

2 neck

n/a

2 neck

2 eyes

Manufacture Air-holes

HM-M S-H

Head fragment

Mother and child; Gravelot

Head fragment

Head + body fragment

Head fragment Head + neck fragment.

Head fragment

Special Features

For “V” read PV25, the number for the Virú valley (see Discussion). 2 Wrongly listed as coming from the Chicama valley (see Discussion)

1288

C15

C14

1067 C19

1263

1010

INC, Trujillo (Confiscated) SRB, Trujillo (no data) MVM C99 (Ubbelohde - Hacienda Carmelo, Doering excavation) Virú ** PC5L (no data) PAP 333-4 (Collection Javier Ponce no. 91) PAP 343-4 (Collection Javier Ponce no. 111) PAP 329-30 (Collection Javier Ponce no. 89) PC1M Bought in Piura

981

Virú Valley *** 2

MSCh 2214 (M. West excavation)

951

Wgt (gr.)

(5.7)

(2.8)

3.3

D (cm)

Terracotta (3.9)

5.3

W (cm)

Measurements

(4.9)

7.4

Sub-Group 2.2: More elaborate Gallinazo/Virú figurines

1290

P22

Wilson 1988: no. 207 (= Fig.220 J) PC1M (no data)

Bennett 1950: 102 + Fig. 23 i (Excavation) MAAC 61.113 (Gift B. Simmonds)

P25

2183

AMNH 1578 (Strong & Evans excavation)

Ubbelohde -Doering 1960: Fig.16 AMNH 41.0/9814 (Bennett excavations) Bennett 1950: 102 + Fig. 23 h AMNH 157 (Strong & Evans excavation)

2142

2143

P24

1390

P23

Sub-Group 2.1: “Utilitarian” Gallinazo/Virú figurines

No

TABLE 4(1): NORTH COAST EPIFORMATIVE GROUP 2: THE GALLINAZO/VIRÚ FIGURINES

See Source

See Source; Lilien 1956: 52.

Strong and Evans 1952: 83, fig. 32 0; Lilien 1956 : 53

Strong and Evans 1952: 83, fig. 32 N; Lilien 1956 : 53, Pl. IV c

See Source; Ubbelohde-Doering 1966: 85, 112. Bennett 1939: 69, Fig.5f; Lilien 1956: 51, Pl. IV a, b See Source; Lilien 1956: 52.

Published

6

6

6

5 5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

Plate

292

1

Source

Site

Sex H (cm)

W (cm)

PAP 324-5 (Collection Javier Ponce no. 85) PAP 322-3 (Collection Javier Ponce no. 84) PAP 320-1 (Collection Javier Ponce no. 83) CMCT n/n

PC1M MNAA 1/309 (J.C. Tello collection) MNAA 55412 (Confiscated)

Ancash?

Huaca Roma, Chicama Valley

F

M M

M

M

?

M

MNAA 16602 (Purchase, Karell Collection) Lavalle 1990:82

MNAA C.C.P/205 R.A. (Confiscated, Raoul Apesteguia Collection) MNAA 42685 (confiscated) LMS L3272L/61 (Mattel Collection)

Sitting

P26

689

2188

683

682

23.9

M n/i (M?)

26.0

25.7

32.2

14.0

11.8

12.0

12.4

10.7

7.0

11.6 9.9

12.5

26.5 1

23.8 19.3

10.8

9.2

11.3

20.4

16.0

22.3 1

M

M

n/i (M)

Sub-Group 2.3: “Elite” Gallinazo/Virú figurines

624

1286a 639

Associated to Sub-Group 2.2

972

C16

C18

C17

18.9

20.3

19.8

17.3

2.5

5.8 5.9

10.0

7.0

5.0

8.7

D (cm)

Measurements

Sub-Group 2.2: More elaborate Gallinazo/Virú figurines (cont.)

No

520

Wgt (gr.)

Blotchy terracotta + black fugitive + cream (resist) Pale orange + black (negative) Pale orange + black (negative), cream, red Red

Pale terracotta

Brown Terracotta

Brown

Dark terracotta ?

Dark terracotta ?

Black

Colour

H

H

HM HM

H

H?

S

H H

H

H

H

H

HM

HM

HM

HM HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

1 anus, (1 bowl)

Through bowl

Through bowl

No

2 behind. shoulders 2 behind the .shoulders, 1 anus n/a

1 mouth, 2 neck, 1 penis, 1 anus 2 eyes, 2 nose? 1 base

2 eyes? 1 base? 1 mouth, 2 neck

Manufacture Air-holes

HM-M S-H

TABLE 4(2): NORTH COAST EPIFORMATIVE GROUP 2: THE GALLINAZO/VIRÚ FIGURINES Published

See Source

Lavalle and Lang 1978: 105

?

Drinking or playing musical instrument

Holding a bowl

Holding a bowl containing guinea-pigs

Sitting

Sitting

Special Features

7

7

7

7

7

6

6 6

6

6

6

6

Plate

293

Source

Site

Sex H (cm)

W (cm)

D (cm)

Measurements Wgt (gr.)

LACM L.2100A.13.63.459 (no data) MNAA 42585 (data: see text) PC1M (no data)

1926

Vicús *

Mantaro?

Vicús-Tamarindo Sector Vi-11A***

[Vicús area]

Vicús 1 (Yécala) **

Ayabaca, Piura Dpt.

10.9

12.5

F F

9.2 14.5

11.6

13.1

13.2

13.2

14.4

12.6

14.8

13.9

11.2

14.3

? F

F

F?

M

F

M

?

F

F

M

F

(9.6)

9.0

(5.7) 8.0

7.8

6.9

8.4

6.0

7.8

(5.9)

5.2

7.0

PC5L (no data)

MHP 65.49.3 (Acquired at auction) MBL 5336 (no data)

1068

76

939

SAC 331

Klein 1967: Fig.4 MNAA 42369 (Excavation Guzmán)

MNAA CC 13 (no data) MAI 24/2046 (Purchase Leon J. Buki)

766

SAC 230 SAC 229 P27 687

1838

757

Vicús

Vicús 1 (Yécala), Grave 11 ***

Ayabaca, Piura Dpt.

F

F

M

M

15.2

18.3

19.8

20.9

23.3

10.5

F F F

9.5

19.9

14.9

M

M

F

9.0

10.2

12.3

10.7

12.3

7.0

6.0

10.0

8.9

Sub-group 3.1.2: Figurines with coffee-bean eyes, appliquéd arms

1287 SAC 316 SAC 204 101

MHP 66.70.2 (Gift H. Reichlen)

Klein 1967: Fig.3 R

P30

641

Klein 1967: Fig.3 L

MNAA 42638 (Excavation Guzmán) BCRL 0151 (Seminario collection) Kaulicke 1994b: Fig.10.10A MAL 881 (no data)

MAI 24/3492 (Frederic Drew Coll.) PC1M (no data)

P29

616

P28

1035

640

1289

1883

Sub-group 3.1.1: Figurines with coffee-bean eyes, no arms

4.8

5.5

6.4

5.9

6.6

3.5

3.0

7.9

4.7

5.2

4.5

3.7 4.5

4.5

4.0

5.6

3.6

5.0

4.4

3.6

4.6

320

430

380

530

300

200

120

180

230

210

100

Colour

Pale terracotta, black speckles

Terracotta + white, black Terracotta + white, black speckles Terracotta + white

Dark orange + black speckles

Terracotta

Terracotta, buff speckles Dark terracotta + traces of white

Terracotta, speckled

Terracotta

Pale terracotta + resist grey Terracotta, black speckles Terracotta + traces of resist grey Pale terracotta + rey resist? Pale terracotta + fugitive white Terracotta + cream slip Terracotta + cream slip Terracotta + black speckles White on pinkybuff Terracotta + cream Terracotta + white

Orange + white

Sub-Group 3.1: Vicús: Figurines with coffee-bean eyes (Personage 2)

No

TABLE 5(1): NORTH COAST EPIFORMATIVE GROUP 3: THE VICÚS FIGURINES

HM

H

H

H

HM HM

H

H

H

H

H

H H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

HM

Nose, vulva, anus

2 waist, vulva, anus

2 sides, anus

2 waist, umbilicus, vulva, anus Umbilicus, anus

No

2 vulva

Anus

Nose, Anus Nose, others?

Mouth, vulva ?, between legs Nose, vulva, anus

Between legs

Between legs, anus 1 anus?

Umbilicus, anus

Between legs

2 neck, vulva, anus

Manufacture Airholes

HM-M S-H

Perforation through nose

Gravelot

Overrestored?

Couple

Ears broken

Special Features

See Source Makowski et al., 1995: Fig. 423

See Source

See Source

See Source

Published

9

9

9

9

9 9

9

9

9

9

8

8

8 8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

Plate

294

1

Source

Site

Sex H (cm)

W (cm)

D (cm)

Measurements

PC1Lon (Excavated by huaquero) MNAA 47704 (Confisc.)

Lapiner 1976: Pl.458 (no data) Lapiner 1968: no. 49

P32

Near Sullana *, Piura Dpt.

M

M

M F

F

F

11.4

1

35.6

42.5 39.5

17.6

18.0

21.0

10.5

10.9

13.0

6.1

5.8

Wgt (gr.)

Brown + white Red-brown + black resist + white Dark brown + black resist "Traces of resist decoration"

Terracotta

Dark terracotta, black speckles

Colour

HM

HM HM

HM

HM

H

H H

H

H

MNAA 52325 (confiscated) BCRL nr. ? (Seminario Collection) Makowski et al., 1995: fig, 166 (MNAA) PC2M

Kaulicke 1994: Fig.10.10B Makowski et al., 1995: fig. 165 (ACEP)

Vicús- Tamarindo, sector Vi 10-A, Capa C ***

Piura

[Vicús area]

F

F

F

F

F

F

14.4

23.5

23.0

21.1

(6.6)

10.7

10.0

9.5

3.8

6.0

4.8

Cream + orange, brown

?? (Unbaked)

Terracotta, black speckles Terracotta + cream. Terracotta (blotchy) Pale terracotta (black specs)

HM

HM

HM?

HM?

HM?

Milla Batres 1975: Fig. 141

Sitting

P35

Atypical

1072 PC7L (no data)

F

17.8

21.4

F F

11.7

"Northern Peru + Southern Ecuador" [Vicús area]

F

PMH 34-134-30/620 (Benjamin Rowell coll.) 1034 BCRL P/1049 (D. Seminario coll.)

1690

8.7

F

SAC 337

8.6

10.5

5.9

5.5

5.4

5.1

3.7

2.5

(365)

590

150

? + Resist paint

Terracotta

Pale terracotta + white

Terracotta

Terracotta?

HM?

M

HM?

HM?

HM?

Sub-Group 3.2.2: Vicús Figurines with almond-shaped eyes, bilobed head and joined or absent legs

P37

P36

Atypical

1268

P34

1100

688

Sub-Group 3.2.1: Vicús Figurines with almond-shaped eyes, bilobed head and separate legs

H

H

H

H

S

H

H

H

Offering

4 at eyes, 2 nose, 1 mouth, 2 ears?, 2 nipples, 1 vulva, others?

Published

See Source

See Source

See Source

See Source; Matos-Mendieta 1965-1966: Lám. 7, right.

Lumbreras 1978: 132 top

See Source

See Source

See Source

Extended arms

Perforation through nose

Sitting

Restaured?

Special Features

2 nose, 2 ears, 1 chin, 6 through fingers, 1 umbilicus , 3 vulva, others? 2 nose, 1 left ear, 1 mouth, 1 chin, 1 vulva, 1 base, 2 back 2 nose, 1 mouth, 1 chin, 2 ears, 2 nipples, 1 chest, 1 umbilicus, 1 vulva, 1 base, 5 back 1 top of head, 2 nose, 2 ears, 1 mouth, 1 chin, 3 chest, 1 umbilicus 1 vulva, 1 base, 7 back

n/a

1 vulva

1 vulva, (others?)

1 vulva

No

1 anus

Eyes, mouth, anus

Manufacture Airholes

HM-M S-H

Sub-Group 3.2: Vicús: Figurines with almond-shaped eyes and a bilobed head (Personage 4)

P33

Coll. M. Rostworowski Lapiner 1976: Pl.453 (Schwartz collection)

1065 P31

"Specials"

690

1162

Sub-group 3.1.2: Figurines with coffee-bean eyes, appliquéd arms (cont.) Atypical

No

TABLE 5(2): NORTH COAST EPIFORMATIVE GROUP 3: THE VICÚS FIGURINES

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10 10

9

9

Plate

295

Source

MBL 5333 (no data)

Site

F

Sex

19.3

H (cm) (15.2)

W (cm)

MNAA 41440 (no data)

MNAA 42589 (data: see text)

756

755

Frías District, Ayabaca Province, Piura Dpt. Mantaro ? F

M? 15.0

13.2 10.3

9.5 8.6

9.2

5.3

D (cm)

Measurements

Non-Vicús figurines from the extreme north of the North Coast

928

Associated to Sub-group 3.2.2

No

490

400

Wgt (gr.)

Terracotta

Pale Terracotta

Orange-buff

Colour

TABLE 5(3): NORTH COAST EPIFORMATIVE GROUP 3: THE VICÚS FIGURINES

HM

HM

HM

S

H

H

n/a

Eyes, mouth

Top of head, nose, umbilicus., vulva, anus, middle of back

Manufacture Airholes

HM-M S-H

Published

Matos-Mendieta 1965-1966: Lám.7; and others

Matos-Mendieta 1965-1966: Lám. 7, right.

Sitting cross-legged; Large rectangular hole at back Sitting, with child

Extended arms

Special Features

11

11

11

Plate

296

Source

Site

Sex H (cm)

FMC 4601 (Dorsey)

FMC 4647 (Dorsey)

FMC 4582 (Dorsey) FMC 4602 (Dorsey) FMC 100144 (Zabaleta collection) SAC 387 SAC 391 CMN 33-204 (Purchase) MVV 9249 (Krüger coll.)

1561

1550

1549

1616 1615 1576

Suchiman, Santa V. * Suchiman, Santa V.* Suchiman, Santa V.* Chimbote, Santa V. *

Suchiman, Santa V. * Suchiman, Santa V.*

[Moche, Chicama]

F

M F F

F F F

F

F

M

M

16.3

17.6 17.5 17.4

18.0 17.6 13.5

15.9

16.8

15.7

18.5

1765

1766

1394

958 964 966 1757

1697

949

1950 1975 950

1949

AMNH 41.1.17 (Bennett excavations) AMNH 41.1.18 (Bennett excavations)

HMB 4-2573 a (Uhle excavations) HMB 4-2573 b (ditto) HMB 4-2672 (ditto) MSCh n/n (Huanchaco excavation Esp.269) MSCh 5 (Huanchaco excavation Esp.5) PMH 46.77.30/5952 (Lothrop) MSCh n/n (confiscated) MSCh n/n (no data) MSCh n/n ( confiscated) AMNH 41.1.12 (Bennett excavations) AMNH 41.1.122 (Bennett excavations)

Huaca La Cruz, Virú Pit 16 (0.50 m) ** Huaca La Cruz, Virú Pit 16 (0.50 m) **

Moche- Site A ** Moche- Site F ** Huanchaco, Moche V Sección Manuci ** Huanchaco, Sección Rentsch - Cat 13** Hda Casa Grande, Chicama Valley [Moche, Chicama] [Moche, Chicama] [Moche, Chicama] H. La Cruz, Virú Surface ** Huaca La Cruz, Virú Pit 3 (- 0.50 m) **

Moche- Site A **

F

F

F

F

F

(5.3)

(4.8)

(10.3)

8.6 (4.5) (3.6) (6.2)

6.8

9.3

(5.2) (4.7) 8.1

(8.3)

Method 4 Figurines: solid, made of one frontal mold only

1323

758 759 1160

MLL 4158 (no data made available) FMC 4563 (Dorsey)

753

Method 1 Figurines: hollow, made of one frontal mold

No

(4.6)

(4.8)

5.6

3.9 (4.4) (3.5) (6.8)

3.0

(4.1)

(5.2) (4.8) 3.6

(5.5)

8.4

8.1 8.4 8.4

9.5 8.9 6.8

8.1

8.5

8.3

9.0

W (cm)

(2.6)

(2.3)

2.5

1.9 (2.1) (1.9) (3.5)

1.8

1.9

(2.1) (2.7) 1.6

(2.8)

4.3

5.0 5.6 5.5

4.3 5.2 4.6

4.2

5.3

4.5

5.1

D (cm)

Measurements

(140)

50

30

270

270 260 400

250 (290) 170

(200)

250

200

300

Wgt (gr.)

Terracotta

Terracotta

Grey-brown + white

Dark terracotta Pale Terracotta Dark Terracotta Dark terracotta + white

Pale Terracotta

Grey

Dirty terracotta Dark brown Terracotta

Terracotta + white

Orange + white, black

Terracotta + white Terracotta + white, black Terracotta + white

Terracotta + white, black Terracotta + white, black Terracotta. + white, black

Terracotta + white, black

Terracotta + white, black

Terracotta + white (traces) Terracotta + white, black

Colour

1M

1M

1M

1M 1M 1M 1M

1M

1M

1M 1M 1M

1M

1M

1M 1M 1M

1M 1M 1M

1M

1M

1M

1M

S

S

S

S S S S

S

S

S S S

S

H

H H H

H H H

H

H

H

H

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a n/a n/a n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a n/a n/a

n/a

Below Anus

Eyes, Anus, Penis? Eyes, Anus Base

Base Anus Below Anus

Anus

Anus

Anus

Base

Manufacture Air-holes

HM-M S-H

Head

Head

Head + Upper Body

Head Head Head

Head + Upper Body Head Head

Couple? Separate legs

Large hole at back

Separate legs; large hole at back Separate legs; large hole at back

Separate legs

Special Features

TABLE 6 (1): MOCHE SUB-GROUP 1.1.1: STANDARD FIGURINES WITH HIGH ROUNDED HEAD AND “TRI-PUNCTATE” EYES

Lilien 1956: 85ff., Table 4, Pl. VIIIh Bennett 1936, Field notes p. 96; 1939: 29, Fig.5a; Lilien 1956: 85ff., Table 4, Pl. VIIIg Bennett 1939: 31, 36; Lilien 1956: 85ff, Table 4, Pl. VIIIi Bennett 1939: 31, 36; Lilien 1956: 85ff., Table 4, Pl. VIIIj

Lilien 1956: 85ff, Table 3, Pl. VIIk. Lilien 1956: 85ff, Table 3, Pl. VIIn

Lilien 1956: 85ff, Table 2, Pl. VIIe, f Lilien 1956: 85ff, Table 2,.

Published

13

13

13

12 13 13 13

12

12

12 12 12

12

12

12 12 12

12 12 12

12

12

12

12

Plate

297

1

Source

Site

Sex H (cm)

W (cm)

FMC 4589 (Dorsey)

FMC 4572/2 (Dorsey)

1567

1557

MBL 1556 (no data)

[Northern area]

Suchiman, Santa V.*

Suchiman, Santa V.*

Huaca La Cruz, Virú Cut 1 - Surface ** Suchiman, Santa V.*

F

F

M

F

F

10.2

(6.8)

9.7

8.2

(7.6)

5.2

3.8

4.9

4.1

3.5

3.0

1.6

2.3

2.3

2.2

(40)

90

60

Wgt (gr.)

Pale terracotta + white

Terracotta + white, black Terracotta + white, black Terracotta + white, black

Terracotta

Colour

HM

1M

1M

1M

1M

HM-M

S

S

S

S

S

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

n/a

Manufacture S-H Air-holes

Lower legs broken

Lower legs broken

Special Features

Lilien 1956: 85ff, Table 2.

Strong + Evans 1952: 81, fig. 32H; Lilien 1956: 85ff., Table 4.

Published

Several specimens, surface finds from Cut 1, H. de la Cruz, Virú, recorded by the Virú Valley Project, bear the same number (see 2147/1.1.2, 2148, 2149, 2150/1.1-1.2 Fragments).

941

Atypical (Hand-made)

1568

AMNH 391 1 (Strong and Evans) FMC 4592 (Dorsey)

2146

D (cm)

Measurements

Method 4 Figurines: solid, made of one front mold only (cont.)

No

TABLE 6 (2): MOCHE SUB-GROUP 1.1.1: STANDARD FIGURINES WITH HIGH ROUNDED HEAD AND “TRI-PUNCTATE” EYES

13

13

13

13

13

Plate

298

2

1

Source

Site

Sex

HMB 4-267c (Uhle excavations) MRAHB AAM 5455 (Gift Minnaert) MRAHB AAM.46.7.209 (Purchase Grenade) MLL R-4418 (No data made available) Strong and Evans 1952: Fig.32 M, Pl. XIV K. AMNH 41.1.20 (Bennett excavations) FMC 4599 ( Dorsey)

1966

FMC 4607 (Dorsey)

SIW 88271 (Gift Evans) RJC 37855 (Lent by Hesse family) MVM Gi 47 (no data) Cornell Univ. Anthropol. Dept. Collect. 986.1.34 EMB VA 19416 (Baessler) MNAA 1/3984 (Larco collection)

1551

1456

North Coast

Vicinity of Lima º º

Santa Valley

Suchiman, Santa V.*

Suchiman, Santa V.*

Huaca de La Cruz, Virú: Pit 17 -surf. ** Suchiman, Santa V.*

Huaca de La Cruz, Virú: Burial 9 ***

[Moche, Chicama]

Chan Chan, Moche Valley

Chicama Valley

[Jequetepeque/ Pacasmayo?] Moche - Site G **

Chimbote, Santa V. Wassermann-San Blas 358 Katz 1983: no.49 Galerie .Ketterer 1991 Auction 163 Cat: no. 280

Genitals hidden by tunic Some modelling of the back

P40 P41

P39

Probable Method 1 Figurines

1094

206

C19

1260

1166

FMC 4586 (Dorsey)

1560

1617

1764

P38

754

126

122

CMCT n/n (no data)

968

F M

F

F

F

M

F

F

M

F

F

F

14.0

n/i 1 (F)

19.3 24.5

16.0

29.7

16.6

19.7

17.5

20.4

20.3

15.8

13.2

17.8

(7.1)

19.8

15.7

15.9

(5.7)

17.8

H (cm)

F

F

F

F

Method 1 Figurines: hollow, made of one front mold

No

12.0

13.4

9.6

8.4

9.6

10.3

8.3

7.0

9.2

(4.2)

6.5

10.5

9.2

8.4

(3.3)

8.0

W (cm)

9.0

5.0

5.0

5.1

7.8

4.0

3.5

5.3

3.5

4.5

5.4

5.6

5.5

D (cm)

Measurements

over 1000

280

340

380

510

(265)

(180)

(340)

300

Wgt (gr.)

Terracotta + cream Brown + white, black

Red-brown + white

Terracotta + white, brown Pale Terracotta + white (traces)

Orange + white

Terracotta + red, white Terracotta + traces of black Dark buff + reddishbrown, white Terracotta. + white, black Terracotta + white, black Orange

Dark brown + cream

"Red + white, black"

Terracotta + black

Grey-brown + white, black Dark Terracotta + white Terracotta + white, black

Terracotta + white

Colour

H H

1M 2

H

1M 2

1M

H

1M

H

H

1M 2 1M

H?

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

Vulva

Base

2 at waist

Base

Base

1 (unintentional?) below left elbow No

Base

1 top of right leg

Base

Base

2 at shoulders

Manufacture S-H Air-holes

1M

1M

1M

1M

1M

1M

1M

1M

1M

1M

HM-M

TABLE 7 (1): MOCHE SUB-GROUP 1.1.2: STANDARD FIGURINES WITH HIGH ROUNDED HEAD AND NORMAL EYES

.

Separate legs

Large hole in the back Large hole in the back

Head

Gravelot

Head

Special Features

See Source; Lilien 1956: 85ff, Tab.2 See Source See Source

Lilien 1956: 85ff., Table 2, Pl. VIIg

Lilien 1956: 85ff, Table 3, Pl. VIIm Lilien 1956: 85ff, Table 3, Pl. VIIl

Bennett 1939: 31-32.

See Source; Lilien 1956: 90ff, Table 2, Pl. VIIb.

Published

15 15

15

15

15

15

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

Plate

299

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