THE NEGRO AS PORTRAYED BY THE ST. LOUIS ’POST-DISPATCH’ FROM 1920 TO 1950
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COPYRIGHTED BY FLORENCE REBEKAH BEATTY-BROWN
1952
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
THE NEGRO AS PORTRAYED BY THE ST. LOUIS POST-DISPATCH FROM 1920-1950
BY
FLORENCE REBEKAH BEATTY-BROWN B.A., Fisk University, 1933 A.M., University of Illinois, 1936 M.S., University of Illinois, 1939
THESIS SUBM ITTED IN P A R T IA L F U L FIL L M E N T OF T H E REQ U IREM EN TS FO R T H E D EG REE OF DOCTOR O F PH IL O SO PH Y IN SOCIOLOGY IN T H E G RADUATE CO LLEG E O F T H E U N IV ERSITY O F IL L IN O IS . 1931
URBANA. IL LIN O IS
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UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS THE GRADUATE COLLEGE
SEPTEMBER 1 $ , 1 9 5 1
I H E R E B Y RECOMM END T H A T T H E T H E SIS PREPARED U N D E R MY S U P E R V IS IO N B Y
FLORENCE REBEKAH BEA.TTT-BRO'WN_____________________________
THE NEGRO AS PORTRAYED BY THE S T . LOOTS
E N T I T L E D __
POST-DISPATCH
1920-1950
BE ACCEPTED IN PA R TIA L FU L FIL L M E N T OF T H E R EQ UIREM ENTS FOR T H E D EG REE
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DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN SOCIOLOGY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................
1
P u rp o ses o f th e P r o j e c t S e ttin g B r i e f H is to r y o f th e S t . L o u is P o s t- P i s p a t c h II.
PREVIOUS CONTENT STUDIES . . .
.......................
26
R e p r e s e n ta tiv e Newspaper S tu d ie s T ec h n iq u e s A p p lie d to O th er F i e ld s and S u b je c ts III.
METHODOLOGY.............................................................................. .
72
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Scheme I m p r e s s i o n i s t i c G e n e r a liz a tio n s H y p o th e sis Main S u b je c t M a tte r C a te g o rie s S u b -C a te g o rie s C l a s s i f i c a t i o n S c h e d u le o f D im ensions, C l a s s i f i c a t i o n R u les S am pling R u les f o r M easurem ent L im ita tio n s IV .
PATTERN OF NEWS AND NON-NEWS-..........................................
.118
S u b je c t M a tte r C a te g o rie s A p p e arin g i n t h e Sample P e rio d D im e n sio n a l A n a ly s is o f th e V a rio u s S u b je c t M a tte r C a te g o rie s P o s itio n Space O rig in H e a d lin e s T itle s S ty le D i r e c t io n B ias A c to r T a rg e t Me th o d s o f S o lu tio n S e a s o n a l F lu c tu a t io n s V.
CATEGORY 8 - CRIME .......................................................................... D im e n sio n a l A n a ly s is
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143
V I.
TEE EDITORIAL PAC-E ( OPONION-NON-NEWS)
168
D im e n s io n a l A n a l y s i s o f O r i g i n a l E d i t o r i a l s w i t h E x c e r p t s f o r t h e S a m p le P e r i o d L e tte r s to th e E d ito r R e p rin te d E d i t o r i a l s C a r to o n s T he M i r r o r o f P u b l i c O p in io n B ook R e v ie w s O th e r V II.
THE MAGAZINE SECTION, WANT ADS
218
C o lu m n is ts A d v e r t i s e m e n t s (A m usem ents a n d P r o d u c t s ) C a r to o n s a n d P i c t u r e s C o m ic s , J o k e s a n d F i l l e r s F e a tu re S t o r i e s , S p e c ia l F e a tu re s Q u a n t i t a t i v e Summary W ant Ads V III.
TEE SPORTS PAGE (SPORTS SECTION) ...................................
262
D i m e n s io n a l A n a l y s i s IX .
SUMMARY- AND CONCLUSIONS, SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY. . .. . ............................................................................
27 3
Q u a n t i t a t i v e a n d Q u a l i t a t i v e Sum m ary a n d C o n c lu s io n s S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r S tu d y BIBLIOGRAPHY .
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298
APPENDIX A
TREND IN NEGRO AREAS IN S T . LOUIS ...........................
APPENDIX B
M a s te r T a b l e V I I , P a r t s I , I I , I I I IV , V , V I , V i , V I± , V I I I , I X , X .a n d X I - D i m e n s io n a l A n a l y s i s o f N e g ro A r t i c l e s a n d I t e m s A c c o r d in g t o t h e S u b je c t M a tte r C a te g o r ie s A p p e a rin g in t h e S t . L o u is P o s t -D i s p a t c h f o r t h e S a m p le Y e a r s o f. 1 9 2 0 , 1 9 3 2 , 1 9 4 0 a n d 1 9 5 0 .......................... 31 5
APPENDIX C
M a s te r T a b le IX , P a r t s I , I I , I I I , IV , V , V I , V I l , V I I I , IX , X , X I a n d X I I - D i m e n s io n a l A n a l y s i s o f N e g ro A r t i c l e s a n d I t e m s i n C a t e g o r y 8 - C rim e A p p e a r in g i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t D i s p a t c h f o r t h e S a m p le Y e a r s o f 1 9 2 0 , 1932 1 9 4 0 a n d 1950 ............................................................ * 326
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31 4
APPENDIX D
C i v i l R ig h ts i n S t . L ouis — How Freedom G u a n a n tie s Vn'ork i n P r a c t i c e — P o s t D is p a tc h S u rv ey Shows S p eech and A ssem bly A re F r e e , b u t N egroes Are N ot A ccorded F u l l - R i g h t s ................................................................................335
APPENDIX E
P ro g r e s s or Decay? S t . L ouis Must C hoose, P a r t s 1 -1 1 .................................................................. 342
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LIST OP TABLES TABLE I.
II.
III.
PAGE
A r t i c l e s a n d I te m s A p p e a r in g i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h C o n c e r n in g N e g ro e s f o r t h e S am p le Y e a r s o f 1 9 2 0 , 1 9 3 2 , 19 4 0 a n d 19 5 0 ..........................................
120
News A r t i c l e s a n d I te m s A p p e a r in g i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h C o n c e r n in g N e g ro e s f o r t h e S am ple Y e a r s o f 1 9 2 0 , 1 9 3 2 , 1940 a n d 1 9 5 0 ..........................................
120
N on-new s A r t i c l e s a n d I te m s A p p e a r in g i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h C o n c e r n in g N e g ro e s f o r t h e S am o le Y e a r s o f 1 9 2 0 , 1 9 3 2 , 19 4 0 a n d 195 0 ................................... “ . . . . 121
I V . M ain S u b j e c t M a t te r C a t e g o r i e s o f A r t i c l e s C o n c e r n i n g N e g ro e s i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e S am p le Y e a r s o f 1 9 2 0 , 1 9 3 2 , 1 9 4 0 a n d 1 9 5 0 , .....................
122
V. P e r c e n t a g e s o f A r t i c l e s a n d Ite m s o f t h e V a r io u s S u b j e c t . M a t te r C a t e g o r i e s f o r t h e S am p le P e r i o d o f 1 9 2 0 , 1 9 3 2 , 1 9 4 0 , a n d 1950 .......................................................
123
V I . A r t i c l e s A p p e a r in g on P ag e 3 o f t h e M ain S e c t i o n w i t h N e g ro T erm s i n t h e H e a d l i n e s f o r t h e S am ple Y e a r s o f 1 9 2 0 , 1 9 3 2 , 19 4 0 a n d 1 9 5 0 ....................................
127
V I I . ( M a s te r ) P a r t I - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f N e g ro A r t i c l e s a n d I te m s A c c o r d in g t o S u b j e c t M a tte r C a t e g o r i e s a n d P o s i t i o n i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e S a m p le Y e a r s o f 3920, 1 9 3 2 , 1940 a n d 1950 ..........................
51 5
P a r t I I - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f N eg ro A r t i c l e s a n d Ite m s A c c o r d in g t o S u b j e c t M a t te r C a t e g o r i e s a n d S p a c e A p p e a r in g i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e S a m p le Y e a rs o f 1 9 2 0 ,. 1 9 3 2 , 1940 a n d 1 9 5 0 .........................
31 6
P a r t I I I - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f N e g ro A r t i c l e s a n d I te m s A c c o r d in g t o S u b j e c t M a t te r C a t e g o r i e s a n d O r i g i n A p p e a r in g i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e S am p le Y e a r s o f 1 9 2 0 , 1 9 3 2 , 1 9 4 0 a n d 1 9 5 0 . . . .
317
P a r t IV - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f N eg ro A r t i c l e s a n d I te m s A c c o r d in g t o S u b j e c t M a t t e r C a t e g o r i e s a n d Ap p e a r a n c e o f N e g ro T erm s i n t h e H e a d l i n e s i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e S am p le Y e a r s o f 1 9 2 0 , 1 9 3 2 , 1940 a n d 19 5 0 ...........................................................................
318
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P a r t V- D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Negro A r t i c l e s and I te m s A c c o rd in g t o T i t l e s Used and S u b j e c t M a tte r C a t e g o r i e s A p p e a rin g i n t b e S t . L o u is P o s t D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Samole Y e ars o f 1920, 1952, 1940 and 1 9 5 0 ........................................................................................
319
P a r t V I- D i s t r i b u t i o n of Negro A r t i c l e s and Ite m s A c c o rd in g t o S u b j e c t M a tte r C a t e g o r i e s and S t y l e A p p e a rin g i n t h e S t . L ouis P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y e ars o f 1920, 1932, 1940 and 1950........................
320
P a r t V I I - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Negro A r t i c l e s and I te m s A c c o rd in g t o S u b j e c t M a tte r C a t e g o r i e s and D i r e c t i o n A p p e a rin g i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y e a rs o f 1 9 2 0 , 1932, 1940 and 1950. . . . 321 P a r t V I I I - D i s t r i b u t i o n of Negro A r t i c l e s and Ite m s A c c o rd in g t o S u b j e c t M a tte r C a t e g o r i e s and B ia s A p p e a rin g i n t h e S t . L o uis P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y e ars o f 3920, 1932, 1940 and 19 5 0 ........................
322
P a r t IX - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Negro A r t i c l e s and Ite m s A c c o rd in g t o S u b j e c t M a tte r C a t e g o r i e s and A c to r A p p e a rin g i n t h e S t . L ouis P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y ears o f 1920,. 1932, 1940 and 1950. . . . . .
323
P a r t X- D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Negro A r t i c l e s and Ite m s A c c o r d in g t o S u b j e c t M a tte r C a t e g o r i e s and T a r g e t A p p e a rin g i n t h e S t . L ou is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y e ars o f 1920, 1932, 1940 and 1 9 5 0 . ...................
324
P a r t X I- D i s t r i b u t i o n of Negro A r t i c l e s and Ite m s A c c o rd in g t o S u b j e c t M a tte r C a t e g o r i e s and Sug g e s t e d S o l u t i o n s t o t h e Problem o f I n t e r - G r o u p Re l a t i o n s A p p e a rin g i n th e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y e a rs o f 1 9 2 0 , 1932, 1940 and 1950. . . . 325 V I I I . M onthly P r e s e n t a t i o n o f A r t i c l e s C o n c e rn in g N egroes In t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y e ars o f 1920, 1932, 1940 and 19 5 0 ........................................................
139
IX. ( M a s te r) P a r t I - The P o s i t i o n o f A r t i c l e s and Ite m s I n C a te g o ry 8 -C rim e A p p e a rin g i n th e S t . L o u is P o s t I D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y e a rs o f 1920, 1932, 1940 and 1 9 5 0 ........................................................................................................... g26 P a r t I I - The Amount o f Space D evoted t o A r t i c l e s and Ite m s in C a te g o ry 8 -Crime A p p e a rin g i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r th e Sample Y e a rs o f 1920, 1932, 1940 and 1 9 5 0 ............................................................................. 326 P a r t I I I - The O r ig in o f A r t i c l e s and Ite m s i n C a t e g o ry 8 - Crime A p p e a rin g i n t h e S t . L o uis P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r th e Sample Y e a rs o f I 920, 1932, 1940 and I 9 h 0 . .
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P a r t IV - A p p e ara n ce o f Negro Terms i n t h e H e a d l i n e s o f C a te g o ry 8 - Crime a s i t O c cu rre d i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y e a rs o f 1920. 1932 1940 and 1950 ................................................................
327
P a r t V- T i t l e s Used i n A r t i c l e s and I te m s i n C a te g o ry 8 " Criiae A p p e a rin g i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y e a rs o f 1 9 2 0 , 1932, 1940~and 1950 . . . . .
328
P a r t V I- The S t y l e o f A r t i c l e s and Ite m s In C a te g o r y 8 — Crime A p p e a rin g i n t h e St* L o u is P o s t — D isp a tch f o r t h e Sample Y e a rs o f 1 9 2 0 , 1932, 1940~I5d 1950 . . . . .
328
P a r t V I I - The D i r e c t i o n o f A r t i c l e s and Item s in C a te g o ry 8 - Crime A p p e a rin g i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y e a rs o f 1920, 1932, 1940 a nd 1 9 5 0 .......................................................................... : .......................
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P a r t 8 - B ia s o f A r t i c l e s and I te m s In C a te g o ry 8 Crime i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Samnlft Y e a rs o f 1920, 1932, 1940 and" 1950 . ' ...........................
330
P a r t IX - The A c t o r ( s ) i n A r t i c l e s and I te m s i n C a t e g o ry 8 - Crime A p p e a rin g i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y e a rs of 1920, 1932,. 1940 m ~ 1 9 5 0 . . .
331
P a r t X- The T a r g e t o f A r t i c l e s and Ite m s I n C a te g o ry 8 Crxme A p p e a r in g i n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y e a rs o f 1920, 1932, 1940 and~195oT . .. . . .
332
P a r t X I- The methods o f S o l u t i o n S u g g e s te d f o r C a te g o ry 8 - Crime ^ A p p ea rin g i n th e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h f o r t h e Sample Y e ars o f 1920, 1932, 1940~i5d 1950. . '. . .
35s
P a r t X I I - S e a s o n a l F l u c t u a t i o n s f o r A r t i c l e s and Ite m s r n C a te g o ry 8 - Crime A p p e a rin g i n t h e S t . L o uis P o s t Dispa-cch f o r t h e Sample Y e a rs o f 1920, 1932, 1940----and 1950 ............................................................ * . .................................................................................... 334 X.
X I.
Types o f Negro Crime A r t i c l e s A p p e a rin g i n th e S t . j p p s t - D i s p a tc h A c c o rd in g t o Sample Y e ars o f 1920, 1932, 1940.. and 1950 .................................... *
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S itu a tio n s Wanted by N egroes i n t h e F i r s t Week o f J a n u a r y and F e b r u a r y I f 1920 w i t h P e r c e n t and Hank a s A ppeared I n t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - P i s p a t c h . .......................
249
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- X I I . H elp W anted (N e g ro es) i n th e F i r s t Y/eek o f J a n u a ry and F e b ru a ry o f 1920 w ith P e rc e n t and Rank a s Ap p e a re d in th e S t . L o u is P o s t- D is p a tc h ........................
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X I I I . A C om parative T a b le o f S i t u a t i o n s W anted by N egroes i n th e F i r s t Week o f F e b ru a ry 1920 and 1950 w ith P e r c e n t and Rank a s A ppeared in th e S t . L o u is P o s t D i s p a t c h ..................................................................... ....
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XIV. A C om parative T a b le o f H elp W anted (N eg ro es) i n th e F i r s t W eel o f F e b ru a ry 1920 and 1950 w ith P e r c e n t and Rank a s A ppeared in th e S t . L ouis P o s t - D is p a t c h .
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XV. Types o f S p o r ts and R e c r e a tio n i n w hich N egroes w ere P r o tr a y e d f o r th e Sample P e rio d o f 1920, 1932, 1940 and 1950 w ith P e r c e n ts a s A ppeared in th e S t . L o u is P o s t- B is p a tc h ..................................................................... . . .
268
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A.CE>TOYiLEDGME5TT
I w ish t o acknow ledge my g r a t i t u d e and in d e b te d n e s s t o P r o f e s s o r J . »¥• A lb ig , Chairm an o f th e D ep artm en t o f S o c io lo g y and A n th ro p o lo g y , and to P r o f e s s o r s D. R. T a f t , J . E . H u l e t t , and • F l p r i a n Z n a n ie c k i o f th e U n i v e r s i ty o f I l l i n o i s f o r th e many v a lu a b le m e th o d o lo g ic a l s u g g e s tio n s and c r i t i c i s m s r e c e i v e d d u r in g th e c o u rs e o f t h i s p r o j e c t . The w r i t e r a l s o w ish es to acknow ledge th e a s s i s t a n c e g iv e n h e r by P r o f e s s o r S t u a r t A. Queen, C hairm an o f th e D e p artm en t o f S o c io lo g y and A n th ro p o lo g y o f W ashington U n i v e r s i t y , and by M iss Edna C. G ordon, C h ie f C i r c u l a t i o n L i b r a r i a n o f W ashington U n iv e r s i t y f o r th e u se o f th e m ic r o f ilm e d i t i o n s o f th e S t . L o u is P o s t D is p a tc h , and to Mr. F . P . W o rtle y , S e r v ic e B u re au M anager o f th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l B u sin e ss M achines C o r p o ra tio n f o r p e r s o n a l u se o f t h e i r c a rd c o u n t m ach in e. Mr. Roy K ing, C h ie f L i b r a r i a n a t th e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h , Mr. I r v i n g D i l l i a r d , E d i t o r o f th e E d i t o r i a l P a g e , Mr. C h a rle s C ra w fo rd , r e c e p t i o n i s t , and o t h e r members o f th e o f f i c i a l s t a f f o f th e S t . L o u is P o s t- D is p a tc h have b e en m ost h e l p f u l a t a l l s ta g e s o f t h i s s tu d y . F i n a l l y , M rs. H elen A l b i g ’s s u g g e s tio n s and e n co u rag em en t have b een i n v a lu a b le in th e f i n a l s t a g e s o f th e t h e s i s . p r o f i t e d g r e a t l y from h e r a d v ic e .
The w r ite r
The w r i t e r i s , how ever, r e s p o n
s i b l e f o r any i n a c c u r a c i e s .
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION C o n te n t a n a l y s i s i s n o t a new in s tr u m e n t f o r th e m easurem en t o f c o m m u n icatio n , b u t o n ly w i t h in th e l a s t few d e c a d e s h a s i t s f u l l s o c ia l s ig n ific a n c e been r e a liz e d .
I n t h e s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t,
c h a n n e ls o f mass co m m u n icatio n s a r e a m a jo r e le m e n t.
They r e f l e c t
"w h at i s h a p p e n in g ,” ”w hat w i l l h a p p e n ,” and e x p r e s s a t t i t u d e s , v a l u e s , and s e n tim e n ts o f a g ro u p .
P ro b lem s o f r a c i a l d i s c r i m i
n a t i o n on t h e v e r b a l o r im age l e v e l s a r e r e a l .
What p e o p le r e a d ,
h e a r , and se e by way o f t h e n e w s p a p e rs , th e r a d i o , m a g a z in e s , and th e m o tio n p i c t u r e s have some e f f e c t s on t h e i r a t t i t u d e s and b e 1 h a v io r. What s t i l l i s n o t a d e q u a te ly known i s w h ic h m edia e x e r t m o st e f f e c t on c e r t a i n g ro u p s . O ver th e y e a r s a s c ie n c e d e a l in g w ith s u c h ite m s a s " p u b l ic o p i n i o n , ” " p ro p a g a n d a ," and " p u b lic r e l a t i o n s " h a s grown a ro u n d t h e p ro b le m o f co m m u n ica tio n .
A s y s te m a tic s tu d y o f i t i s o f
g r e a t im p o rta n c e t o i n t e r - g r o u p r e l a t i o n s .
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c o m m u n ic a tio n s, a te c h n iq u e c a l l e d c o n te n t a n a l y s i s has b e e n d e v e lo p e d and i t h a s b e e n u se d t o some e x t e n t a s a t o o l t o prom ote 2 i n t e r - g r o u p u n d e r s ta n d in g . S i x m ajo r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s em erged fro m a r e v ie w o f th e t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e on th e d e f i n i t i o n s o f c o n te n t a n a ly s is .
N. C. L e i t e s and De S o la P o o l s t a t e d t h a t c o n te n t a n a l y 3 s i s a p p l i e d o n ly t o s o c i a l s c ie n c e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . D ouglas
W aples and B e rn a rd B e r e ls o n s a i d t h a t i t a p p li e d o n ly , o r p r i m a r il y ,
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission.
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t o th e d e te r m i n a ti o n o f t h e e f f e c t o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s.
L e ite s ,
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P o o l, an d Abraham K aplan i n d i c a t e d t h a t c o n te n t a n a l y s i s r e f e r r e d o n ly t o t h e s y n t a c t i c and s e m a n tic d im e n sio n s o f la n g u a g e .
The
f i v e a u t h o r i t i e s c o n c u rre d t h a t c o n te n t a n a l y s i s m ust he o b j e c t i v e , 5 s y s t e m a t i c , and q u a n t i t a t i v e . Im m e d ia te ly , i t i s o b v io u s t h a t th e f i r s t two c h a r a c t e r i s -
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t i c s d e f in e d th e f i e l d to o n a rro w ly b e c a u se c o n te n t a n a l y s i s h a s b een a p p l i e d s u c c e s s f u l l y i n f i e l d s o t h e r th a n th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s and f o r o t h e r p u rp o s e s th a n th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e e f f e c t s o f com m u n ic a to r upon r e a d e r s and l i s t e n e r s .
B ut th e o t h e r t h r e e c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r a p ro p e r d e f i n i t i o n .
By o b j e c t i v i t y
we mean t h a t t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f a n a l y s i s sh o u ld be d e f in e d so p r e c i s e l y t h a t d i f f e r e n t a n a l y s t s can a p p ly them t o th e same m a t e r i a l and o b t a i n t h e same r e s u l t s .
T h ere i s c o n se n su s o f o p in io n h e re 6 f o r i t i s t h i s t h a t g iv e s c o n te n t a n a l y s i s s c i e n t i f i c s a n c t i o n .
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By s y s te m a t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n we mean t h a t s u c h a s tu d y i s in te n d e d
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t o in c lu d e o n ly th o s e a n a ly s e s d e s ig n e d t o s e c u r e d a ta r e l e v a n t t o a s c i e n t i f i c p ro b le m o r h y p o t h e s is .
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s c i e n t i f i c p ro p o s itio n s .
s § |
By q u a n t i f i c a t i o n we mean t h a t c o n te n t
a n a l y s i s i s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e rn e d w ith th e e x t e n t t o w hich a n a l y t i c c a t e g o r i e s a p p e a r i n th e c o n t e n t , t h a t i s , w ith r e l a t i v e em phases
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I n m ost c a s e s o f c o n te n t a n a l y s i s , i t i s a p p r o p r i -
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and o m is s io n s .
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"alw a y s" o r " i n c r e a s e s ” o r " o f t e n ” a r e j u s t a s a p p r o p r i a te i n c e r t a i n ty p e s o f s t u d i e s a s a d e s ig n a te d p e r c e n t , e x c e p t t h a t su c h *
8
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w ords a r e l e s s e x a c t and a c c u r a t e . I t w ould seem, t h e n , t h a t a w orking d e f i n i t i o n o f c o n te n t a n a l y s i s c o u ld he t h a t i t i s a r e s e a r c h te c h n iq u e f o r th e o b j e c t i v e s y s te m a t i c , and q u a n t i t a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e m a n if e s t c o n te n t 9 o f co m m u nication. T h is w o rk in g d e f i n i t i o n im p lie s c e r t a i n g e n e r a l a s s u m p tio n s t h a t n e ed to be made more e x p l i c i t .
These a ssu m p tio n s a r e , f i r s t ,
t h a t c o n te n t a n a l y s i s assum es t h a t i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t th e r e l a t i o n s h ip betw een i n t e n t and c o n te n t o r b etw een c o n te n t and e f f e c t can v a l i d l y b e made, o r th e a c t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s e s t a b l i s h e d .
O bvious
l y , t h e r e i s no m e r it in d e s c r i b i n g com m unication c o n te n t s im p ly f o r th e sa k e o f d e s c r i p t i o n i t s e l f .
The a n a l y s t i s i n t e r e s t e d in
r e v e a l i n g th e p u r p o s e s , m o tiv e s , and o th e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e com m unicators a s th e y a r e " r e f l e c t e d ” i n t h e c o n te n t; o r t o id e n t i f y t h e e f f e c t s o f th e c o n te n t upon th e a t t e n t i o n , a t t i t u d e s o r a c t s o f r e a d e r s and l i s t e n e r s .
S e c o n d ly , c o n te n t a n a l y s i s assum es
t h a t s tu d y o f m a n if e s t c o n te n t i s m e a n in g fu l.
T h is means t h a t th e
a n a l y s t assum es t h a t th e "m eanings" w hich he a s c r i b e s t o t h e con t e n t , by a s s i g n i n g i t t o c e r t a i n c a t e g o r i e s , c o rre sp o n d t o th e "m ean in g s" in te n d e d by th e com m unicator o r u n d e rs to o d by t h e a u d i ence.
U n le ss t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n u n if o r m ity o f com p reh en sio n and
u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e m a n if e s t c o n te n t t h e r e c o u ld be no v a l i d u n i t 10 o f s tu d y . l a s t l y , I t assum es t h a t th e q u a n t i t a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f com m unication I s m e a n in g fu l.
T h is means t h a t fre q u e n c y o f o c
c u rr e n c e o f v a r io u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e c o n te n t i s i t s e l f an
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
4 im p o r ta n t f a c t o r i n th e com m unication p r o c e s s .
T h is f u r t h e r im -
11 p l i e s , h o w ev er, t h e s e l e c t i n g o f im p o r ta n t c a t e g o r i e s f o r a n a l y s i s . "To s e e o u r s e lv e s a s o t h e r s se e u s 1* may n o t "be a l t o g e t h e r th e "boon t h a t R o b e rt B urns th o u g h t i t .
The l e s s d i r e c t c o n t a c t we
h av e w ith an y p a r t i c u l a r n a t i o n a l i t y o r r a c e o r c l a s s , th e s h a r p e r and more f i x e d becom es t h e c o m p o site w h ich we make f o r o u r s e lv e s o u t o f th e p i c t u r e s p r e s e n te d t o u s by th e m edia o f m ass communi c a tio n .
Even th o s e who c o n s c io u s ly s e e k a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e have
t h e i r th o u g h ts and em o tio n s a f f e c t e d m ore th a n th e y r e a l i z e b y t h e s t e r o t y p e d im ages and id e a s w h ich th e m a j o r i t y have and w h ich t h e y 12 c o n t i n u a l l y r e i n f o r c e by p a s s in g them a b o u t t o one a n o th e r . I f t h e m ain t a s k o f th e e d u c a ti o n a l p r o c e s s i s t h e t r a n s m is s io n o f t h e c u l t u r e o f s o c i e t y , th e n th e g r e a t e d u c a ti o n a l a g e n c i e s o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s a r e n o t i t s s c h o o ls and c o ll e g e s , b u t i t s m ovie h o u s e s , n ew sp ap ers and m a g a z in e s , i t s r a d i o b r o a d c a s t in g and t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s and i t s p u b lic l i b r a r i e s .
B e s id e them t h e
f o r m a l I n s t i t u t i o n s o f l e a r n i n g p a le i n t o c o m p a ra tiv e i n s i g n i f i cance.
W hile t h e r e a r e b u t 3 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e rs o n s e n r o l l e d i n a l l
s c h o o ls and c o ll e g e s i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 c h i l d r e n and a d u l t s a t t e n d th e m ovies e a c h w eek; 3 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 homes s h a r e w ith o t h e r p la c e s th e 5 7 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 r a d i o r e c e i v i n g s e t s ; 4 4 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 c o p ie s o f n e w sp a p ers a r e re a d d a i l y and m ore th a n 4 2 5 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 books a r e c i r c u l a t e d e a c h y e a r t o 9 6 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 r e a d e r s by th e p u b l ic l i b r a r i e s . I n a w o rd, w hat th e c i t i z e n s o f t h i s n a t i o n t h i n k a b o u t any b ro a d q u e s tio n i s d e te r m in e d , l a r g e l y , by w hat t h e c i t i z e n s r e a d a b o u t i t i n t h e i r n e w sp a p e rs , m a g a z in e s , and l i b r a r i e s , h e a r a b o u t i t o v e r th e r a d i o , o r s e e and h e a r a b o u t i t on t e l e v i s i o n o r a t th e m o v ie . 15
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
I n g e n e r a l w hat a r e th e c r i t i c i s m s a n d in d ic tm e n ts a g a i n s t t h e n a t i o n a l p r e s s i n r e g a r d t o t h e N egro?
E v e ry a n a l y s i s m ade,
o f t h e t r e a tm e n t o f t h e N egro i n th e v a r i o u s n ew sp a p ers o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s comes t o t h e same g e n e r a l c o n c lu s io n , n a m e ly ,t h a t t h e r e i s a h eav y c o n c e n t r a t i o n upon c rim e news and o n ly s l i g h t a t t e n t i o n t o a c h ie v e m e n ts and t h e r e i s a te n d e n c y t o h a n d le N egro news w ith a l i g h t o r hum orous to u c h . I n New O rle a n s b etw een 1850 an d 1 8 6 0 , L. D. R e d d ic k fo u n d fro m t h e c o n te n t a n a l y s i s o f th e T rue D e l t a , th e P ic a y u n e , th e C r e s c e n t , and th e Bee t h a t th e p r e s s was d e f i n i t e l y a n ti - N e g r o , i n news co lu m n s, e d i t o r i a l s , a d v e r t is e m e n t s , s e l e c t i o n o f n ew s, t r e a t m ent and s t y l e .
O fte n r i d i c u l e was m e r c i l e s s .
F u rth e rm o r e , he
c o n c lu d e d t h a t N egroes w ere renam ed o r d ubbed.
S i m i l i e s , m e ta
p h o r s , a l l u s i o n s , c o m p a riso n and c o n t r a s t s w ere u se d i n c o n n e c tio n w ith t h e Negro t o h is d i s c r e d i t .
The N egro was c o n s id e r e d th e
" b u t t " o f jo k e s and t h e s u b j e c t o f p s e u d o - s c ie n c e .
By t h e m anip u
l a t i o n o f sym bols and s t e r e o t y p e s th e i n d i v i d u a l o r w hole g ro u p 14 c o u ld b e r a i s e d o r lo w e re d i n t o o b j e c t s o f h a te o r c o n te m p t. G eorge E a to n S im pson, i n The N egro i n The P h i l a d e l p h i a P r e s s . i n w hich he s t u d i e d th e P h i l a d e l p h i a R e c o rd , th e P u b lic L e d g e r , The E v en in g B u l l e t i n . The P h i l a d e l p h i a I n q u i r e r . The E v e n in g P u b lic L ed g er an d t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a D a ily News. f o r th e sam p le y e a r s o f 1908, 1913, 1 9 1 8 , 1 9 2 3 / 1 9 2 8 , and 1932, c o n c lu d e d among o t h e r f i n d i n g s , The w h ite n e w sp a p ers o f P h i l a d e l p h i a do n o t p u b l i s h much Negro new s, a ssu m in g t h a t o u r sa m p le s d u r in g th e p e r io d 1908 and 1932 a r e a d e q u a te . . . .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
T h is h e a r s o u t t h e w r i t e r * s o b s e r v a tio n o f t h e p a s t e i g h t y e a r s , n am ely , t h a t t h e m ost common a t t i t u d e in P h i l a d e l p h ia i s one o f i n d i f f e r e n c e t o N egroes u n le s s a Negro com m its an e s p e c i a l l y "h ad 1* c rim e o r i n t e r f e r e s i n some way w ith th e w h ite man’ s p eace o f m ind. . . . I t w ould seem t h a t w h ite r e a d e r s o f t h e s e d a i l i e s have a r a t h e r good ch an ce t o g e t a l o p - s i d e d p i c t u r e o f Negro l i f e . C e r t a i n l y th e s o c i a l ch an g es among P h i l a d e l p h ia N egroes s in c e 1908 have n o t b e e n g iv e n much a t t e n t i o n i n th e w h ite p r e s s . 15 C.
M. C la y to n was c o n c e rn e d w ith a s i m i l a r p ro b le m .
t e s t e d th e e d i t o r i a l p o l ic y o f th e A t l a n t i c C o n s t i t u t i o n i n r e l a t i o n to
t h e Negro q u e s tio n f o r th e y e a r s o f 1 9 1 4 -1 9 1 8 , a c r i s i s
p e r io d on b o th th e n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l s v e l w ith i t s
fu ll
r e p e r c u s s i o n s i n r a c e r e l a t i o n s t h a t emerge d u rin g p e r io d s o f te n s i o n and r e a d ju s tm e n t.
From t h e d a ta a sse m b le d , i t would a p p e a r
t h a t th e e d i t o r i a l p o l i c y assum ed a f a v o r a b le a t t i t u d e to w a rd th e Negro on s u c h i s s u e s a s h e a l t h m a in te n a n c e , ly n c h in g , j u s t i c e i n th e c o u r t s , and m anual t r a i n i n g f o r th e m asses o f th e Negro popu l a t i o n and b o l s t e r e d an u n fa v o ra b le a t t i t u d e to w a rd s e g r e g a t i o n , r a c i a l su p rem acy , e q u a l o p p o r tu n ity f o r m aking money and g e o g ra p h i16 c a l l i m i t a t i o n a s t o r e s id e n c e f o r N e g ro es. The C hicago Commission on Race R e la tio n s i n 1916-1917 a n a ly z e d th e C hicago T r ib u n e . C hicago D a ily P r e s s and th e C hicago H e ra ld E xam iner f o r th e p e rio d o f 1916 and 1917 and in a le n g th y d i s c u s s i o n o f th e r e l a t i o n o f t h e i r f in d in g s to i n t e r - g r o u p r e l a t i o n s had t h i s t o sa y s G e n e ra lly t h e s e a r t i c l e s i n d i c a t e d h a s t i l y a c q u ir e d and p a r t i a l in f o r m a tio n , g iv in g h ig h l i g h t s and p i c t u r i n g h y s t e r i a . F r e q u e n tly th e y showed g r o s s e x a g g e r a tio n . The l e s s s e n s a t i o n a l a r t i c l e s , p e r m i t t i n g a g lim p se o f th e s t a b l e r s i d e o f Negro l i f e , w ere l e s s th a n s e v e n t y - f i v e . The s u b j e c t s r e c e i v i n g
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
He
7 m ost f r e q u e n t and e x te n d e d t r e a tm e n t i n t h e s e t h r e e p a p e rs w e re : c rim e , h o u s in g , p o l i t i c s , r i o t s , an d s o l d i e r s . I n a n a ly z in g t h e a r t i c l e s th e m s e lv e s , u n d e r th e s e s p e c i f i c h e a d in g s , i t a p p e a rs t h a t t h e a p p e a l t o th e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e p u b l ic i s fo u n d ed on d e f i n i t e a s s u m p tio n s i n t h e p u b l ic m ind. I t h a s come t o he re c o g n iz e d by b o th w h ite s and N e g ro e s, b u t more e s p e c i a l l y by t h e l a t t e r , t h a t c rim e i s m ost o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f Negro news i n w h ite n e w sp a p e rs . 17 A g e n e r a l s tu d y o f N egro news i n th e S o u th e rn P r e s s , n o n q u a n t i t a t i v e and i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c i n i t s a p p r o a c h ,f o r th e p e r io d b e f o r e and a f t e r W orld War I was done by Selma W a r lic k .
She r e
p o rte d : . . . I n 1911 when W i l l i s J a c k s o n , a N egro a c c u s e d o f a t t a c k i n g a w h ite g i r l n e a r G r e e n v i l l e , S o u th C a r o li n a , was ly n c h e d by mob le d by Jo sh u a W. A s h le ig h , a member o f th e S o u th C a r o lin a L e g i s l a t u r e , t h e r e p o r t e r s e n t by th e I n t e l l i g e n c e r . a G r e e n v i l l e , p a g e r in c lu d e d i n h i s a c c o u n t t h i s i l l u m i n a t i n g re m a rk : The I n t e l l i g e n c e r man w ent o u t t o s e e t h e fu n w ith o u t th e l e a s t o b j e c ti o n to b e in g a p a r t y to h e lp ly n c h th e b r u t e . ” 18 I n a d d i t i o n , sh e s a i d : As a m a tte r o f f a c t h a r d ly a p a p e r i n th e S o u th , t w e n ty - f iv e o r t h i r t y y e a r s ago d a re d l i f t i t s v o ic e i n p r o t e s t a g a i n s t th e p r a c t i c e , th o u g h t h e r e w ere a few e x c e p tio n s a s th e A t l a n t a C o n s t i t u t i o n , a f t e r th e r i o t s o f 1906. The Colum bia S t a t e ( S . C . ) now c la im s t o have been t h e f i r s t S o u th e rn p a p e r t o d e nounce ly n c h in g , s a y in g t h a t d i r e c t l y a f t e r i t s fo u n d in g f o r t y y e a r s ago a n e d i t o r i a l was p u b lis h e d i n i t s colum ns c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n o f i t s r e a d e r s t o th e u n n e c e s s a r y b r u t a l i t y o f su c h p ro c e d u re i n d e a l in g w ith r e a l 6 r a l l e g e d c r i m i n a l s . The m a j o r i t y o f th e S o u th e rn new spapers when n o t d e l i b e r a t e l y p la y in g on th e em o tio n s o f t h e i r r e a d e r s by s e n s a t i o n a l tr e a tm e n t o f w hat p u r p o r te d t o be t h e f a c t s in th e c a s e , u s u a l l y fo u n d a way t o ex cu se th e p r a c t i c e th o u g h n o t , p e r h a p s , d i r e c t l y a p p ro v in g t h e a c t i o n s o f th e ly n c h e r s i n any p a rtic u la r case. 19 I n t h e f i n a l s e n te n c e s o f t h i s C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y s tu d y t h e r e i s an o p p o r tu n ity t o s e e f u l l y t h e w e ig h t o f one s c h o o l o f
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th o u g h t i n r e g a r d t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n p u b l i c o p in io n o r t h e p r e s s and in te r g r o u p u n d e r s ta n d in g : T h ese c h a n g e s , t h e i n d i s t i n c t o u t l i n e s o f t h e new o r d e r , a r e d e f i n i t e l y m ir r o r e d i n t h e S o u th ’s p r e s s , n o t p e r f e c t l y , n o t alw ay s c l e a r l y . T h e re a r e r e f r a c t i o n s and d e f r a c t i o n s a s i n a man-made m i r r o r . B ut t h e im age i s t h e r e , c l e a r l y p e r c e p t i b l e t o th o s e who w ould t r a c e i t s l e v e l s . When t h e a n n a ls o f A fro -A m e ric an h i s t o r y a r e w r i t t e n , fre e d o m o f t h e r a c e w i l l d a te n o t fro m 1863 when L in c o ln made h i s fam ous p r o c la m a tio n , b u t fro m 1918 and t h e decade t h a t fo llo w e d when t h e S o u th e rn r e n a i s s a n c e was b e g u n . 20
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f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s b etw een w h ite and c o lo r e d p e o p le d i f f i c u l t by c r e a t i n g i n th e p u b l ic mind e rro n e o u s im p re s s io n s and f a l s e id e a s a s t o th e p r o p o r t io n s o f c r i m in a l a c t i v i t i e s among c o lo r e d p e o p le ; w h e th e r t h e p u b l ic w ere I n f lu e n c e d by t h e p r e s s on th e s u b j e c t o f r a c e r e l a t i o n s ; and how t h i s i n f l u e n c e r a f f e c t e d t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o 24 w ards m in o r i t y g ro u p s , Hegro o r o t h e r , m en tio n ed I n c rim e s t o r i e s . The f i n d i n g s add n o th in g new t o o u r r e h e a r s a l . H oal P . G is t was im p re ss e d w ith th e e x h a u s tiv e r e p o r t o f th e C h icag o Com m ittee on Race R e la ti o n s w hich In p a r t blam ed th e s a n g u in e c o n f l i c t i n C hicago i n 1919 t o th e a n t i p a t h e t i c s e n t i m ents an d a t t i t u d e s e x p re s s e d i n l o c a l n e w sp a p e rs .
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10 p i c t u r e o f th e Negro?
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h av e lo n g ra n k e d th e r i c h , ra m b u n c tio u s and o p in io n a te d P o s t D is p a tc h among th e to p f o u r o r f i v e d a i l i e s o f th e n a t i o n , and t h e r e a r e p l e n t y o f w ork in g newspaperm en from c o a s t t o c o a s t who 26
r e g a r d i t a s j u s t a b o u t th e b e s t a ll - a r o u n d new spaper t h e r e i s . " 27 G i s t s ’ o m is sio n o f su c h a p a p e r i s s i g n i f i c a n t and s u g g e s t i v e . G is t d e riv e d from h is e v id e n c e f i g u r e s t h a t c o rre s p o n d e d 28 w ith t h e many c o n c lu s io n s a lr e a d y s t a t e d . I t i s , h o w ev er, im p o r t a n t in m a in ta in in g b a la n c e i n th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l in t h i s t h e s i s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t Sim pson h a s c r i t i c i z e d G is t on two c o u n ts .
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Oregonian» th e Eugene R e g is te r G uard, and th e G ran ts P a ss D a ily C o u rie r f o r th e y e a r s o f 1951, 1936, 1941 and 1945 by C l i f f o r d F r e d e r i c k Jo h n so n b ro u g h t t o fo c u s th e p i c t u r e i n th e F a r W est. He s a i d : I t seems c l e a r t h a t th e m asses o f A m erican N egroes a r e everyw here d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith t h e s o r t o f m a t t e r w hich w h ite new sp ap ers a r e p r i n t i n g a b o u t them . To s a y t h i s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n s p r in g s fro m th e f a i l u r e o f t h e n ew spaper t o make chan g es i n f a v o r o f c o lo r e d p e o p le w ould, a c c o rd in g t o t h e f i n d in g s o f t h i s s t u d y , b e e r r o n e o u s . I t w ould n o t be f a r fro m th e t r u t h , how ever, t o s a y t h a t th e p e r i o d i c a l s exam ined, have n o t k e p t in s t e p w ith th e m o ra l, s p i r i t u a l , r e l i g i o u s , p o l i t i c a l and econom ic advancem ent o f th e N egro. -The n ew sp ap ers have v e ry c l e a r l y k e p t a s t r i d e th e a c t i v i t i e s o f b l a c k p e rs o n s i n am usem ents, c rim e , and s p o r t s . Now, i t i s u rg e d t h a t a l l e d i t o r s w o rth y o f th e t i t l e , s h o u ld make th e c o n s c io u s e f f o r t t o b a la n c e a n t i - s o c i a l m a t t e r w ith news o f Negro a c h ie v e m e n t. T h is , t o g e t h e r w ith recom m endation t h a t r a c i a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s h o u ld b e e lim in a te d fro m a l l c o p y , s ta n d s a s th e i n v e s t i g a t o r ’s f i n a l r e f l e c t i o n upon th e t h e s i s . 30
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XI I n a s tu d y o f 28 T exas n e w s p a p e rs , I r a B . B r y a n t, c l a s s i f i e d new s a b o u t N e g ro e s a s s o c i a l , a n t i - s o c i a l a n d n e u t r a l . s o c i a l n ew s d e a l t a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h c r i m e .
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A s t u d y m ade b y C o lu m b ia U n i v e r s i t y ’ s
B u r e a u o f A p p l i e d S o c i a l R e s e a r c h o f e i g h t m o st w i d e l y r e a d m a g a z in e s ( S a t u r d a y E v e n in g P o s t . C o l l i e r ’ s . A m e r ic a n . C o s m o p o lita n J Women♦s Home C o m p a n io n . L a d i e s ’ Home J o u r n a l . T ru e S t o r y , a n d T r u e C o n f e s s i o n ) i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d u r i n g t h e y e a r s o f 1937 t h r o u g h 1 9 4 3 e x a m in e d t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s :
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I t i s a l a n d I n w h ic h w h i t e , P r o t e s t a n t , E n g l i s h s p e a k i n g A n g lo -S a x o n s a r e t h e m a s t e r s b y v i r t u e o f t h e i r o b v io u s s u p e r i o r i t y i n a l l t h i n g s ; t h e h a n d so m e n e s s o f t h e i r men a n d t h e d e l i c a c y o f t h e i r women, t h e g o a l s t h e y s t r i v e f o r , t h e d e c e n c y w i t h w h ic h t h e y do b u s in e s s and r e a r t h e i r f a m ilie s , t h e i r c le a n lin e s s , th e i r d ig n ity , t h e i r p a tr io tis m , t h e i r id e a lis m , t h e i r c o u r a g e . T h e s e a r e t h e men who b u i l d t h e b r i d g e s , who s a v e t h e h e r o i n e , who f o i l t h e g a n g ^ a u j who p a t r o n i z e t h e a m u s in g f o r e i g n e r , who t o l e r a t e t h e c o m i c a l N e g ro an d th e w ily Jew . 32 M o r e o v e r , t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e A d v a n c e m e n t o f C o lo r e d P e o p le s u b je c te d th e R e a d e r’s D ig e s t to s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s
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in
12 1943.
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H e re t h e e d i t o r s a b a n d o n e d t h e p a t r o n
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s t a t e d b y C h a r l e s S . J o h n s o n w hen h e s a i d : . . . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l v i s i t o r fro m M ars r e a d i n g o u r p a p e r s , a t t e n d i n g o u r t h e a t r e s a n d m o v ie s , o r l i s t e n i n g t o o u r r a d i o s w b u ld n e v e r g u e s s t h a t o n e - t e n t h o f t h e A m e ric a n p e o p le a n d n e a r l y o n e - f o u r t h o f t h e p e o p le o f t h e S o u th a r e N e g r o e s , e n g a g e d l i k e w h i t e s i n t h e o r d i n a r y d a i l y o c c u p a t i o n s i n c h u r c h a n d hom e, i n s c h o o l a n d s p o r t s , i n w o rk a n d w e l f a r e , i n c i v i c a n d p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s , and lo y a l and b ra v e s e r v ic e to th e n a tio n i n a l l I t s b a t t l e f r o n t s i n t im e s o f w a r . 34 T hus e v id e n c e i s m u ltitu d in o u s t h a t n e w sp a p e rs a l l o v e r th e c o u n try , no m a tte r w hat h i s t o r i c a l p e rio d i s
H o w ev e r, t h e S o u t h e r n R e g i o n a l Q ttitrtx .
a g a i n s t t h e N e g ro i n t h e - n e w s .
s tu d ie d , d is c rim in a te
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C o u n c il i n a r e c e n t c a m p a ig n f e e l s t h a t some im p ro v e m e n t h a s b e e n 55 m ade i n t h e c o v e r a g e o f r a c i a l new s i n S o u t h e r n n e w s p a p e rs * The o n l y e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s m u l t i t u d e o f n e g a t i v e i m p r e s s i o n s com es fr o m New H a v e n , w h e re R o b e r t W* W a rn e r f o u n d t h a t t h e n e w s p a p e r s w e re u n i f o r m l y f r i e n d l y t o N e g ro e s a n d d i d nob p r e s e n t a n y u n d u e
56
p r o p o r t i o n o f c r im e - new s t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r t y p e s o f n e w s. P u rp o se s o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . A c t u a l l y t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n h a s tw o p u r p o s e s ; o n e , t h e e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e f a c t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e N e g ro a s d e a l t w i t h i n t h e P o s t - D i s p a t c h a n d t h e s e c o n d , t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a m e th o d o lo g y o f re se a rc h .
S u b d i v i s i o n s o f t h e s e a im s a r e ;
1 . To a n a l y z e , i n a n i n d u c t i v e a n d s c i e n t i f i c m a n n e r t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e P o s t i n i t s p o r t r a y a l o f t h e N e g ro , f o r a s a m p le p e r i o d , a n d t o d e v i s e c a t e g o r i e s fro m t h e m a t e r i a l , t h u s b y t h e u s e o f p e r c e n t a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n s a n d o t h e r t o o l s o f m e a s u r e m e n t,t o show t r e n d s o f t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s . 37 2 . To sh o w , b y t h e t r e n d s i n n e w s p a p e r c o n t e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h e N e g ro , t h a t t h e P o s t r e f l e c t e d s o c i a l c h a n g e s f ro m 191 7 t o 1 9 5 0 . 5 . To a u d i t t h e c o n t e n t on t h e N egro a g a i n s t t h e o b j e c t i v e s s t a t e d i n t h e m a s th e a d , a n d 4 . To d e v e lo p a t y p e o f p r o j e c t t h a t c o u ld l e a d t o f u r t h e r , p e r h a p s , b ro a d e r, p r o je c ts . F o r e x a m p le , a c o m p a r is o n o f t h e P o s t w i t h v a r i o u s p a p e r s i n d i f f e r e n t l o c a l i t i e s f o r d i f f e r e n t a n d m o re r e c e n t tim e i n t e r v a l s . I t was d i s c o v e r e d fro m a r e v i e w o f t h e c o n t e n t s t u d i e s on N e g ro e s a n d t h e p r e s s a n d /
o r p u b l i c o p i n i o n t h a t no d e t a i l e d
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c ity .
I n t h e P o s t m a s th e a d b y J o s e p h P u l i t z e r on
A p ril 1 0 , 1 9 0 7s' I know t h a t my r e t i r e m e n t w i l l m ake no d i f f e r e n c e i n i t s c a r d i n a l p r i n c i p l e s ; t h a t I t w i l l a lw a y s f i g h t f o r p ro g re s s and re fo rm , n e v e r t o l e r a t e i n j u s t i c e o r
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
14 c o r r u p t i o n , a lw a y s f i g h t d em a g o g u es o f a l l p a r t i e s , n e v e r b e l o n g t o a n y p a r t y , a lw a y s o p p o s e p r i v i l e g e d c l a s s e s a n d p u b l i c p l u n d e r e r s , n e v e r l a c k s y m p a th y w i t h t h e p o o r , a lw a y s r e m a in d e v o te d t o t h e p u b l i c w e l f a r e ; n e v e r b e s a t i s f i e d w i t h m e r e ly p r i n t i n g n e w s ; a lw a y s b e d r a s t i c a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t ; n e v e r b e a f r a i d t o a t t a c k w ro n g , w h e t h e r b y p r e d a t o r y p l u t o c r a c y o r p re d a to ry p o v e rty . 38 I t i s my h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e P o s t - D i s p a t c h i s m o re e q u a l i t a r i a n (lib e ra l)
in i t s
t r e a t m e n t o f t h e N e g ro t h a n o t h e r p a p e r s p r e v i
o u s l y s t u d i e d a n d h a s show n i n c r e a s i n g t r e n d i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n th ro u g h th e y e a r s . T he S e t t i n g S t . L o u is , e ig h th in s i z e a s a c i t y and n i n t h a s a m e tro p o l i t a n a r e a , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 1 9 5 0 c e n s u s , i s d e s c r i b e d b y N e g ro e s a s w e ll a s w h ite s a s ” a s o u th e rn c i t y w ith a n o r th e r n e x p o s u r e .” I t is a b o rd e r a re a .
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t h e N e g ro g ro u p w h ic h s t a r t e d
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1 8 5 0 h a d , a f t e r t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s o f t h e C i v i l W ar, R e c o n s t r u c t i o n , and i t s
a f te r m a th , s t e a d i l y in c r e a s e d u n t i l i n 1940 i t
c o n s titu te d to 1 3 . 2 $ , w h i l e t h e w h i t e g ro u p w h ic h s t a r t e d w i t h 9 4 .8 $ h a d d e c r e a s e d
8 6 . 6 $.
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15
TABLE I 39
POPULATION BY RACE FOR ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI FROM 1850-1940. Y ear
Number 1940 1930 1920 1910 1900 1890 1880 1870 1860 1850
8 1 6 ,0 4 8 8 2 1 ,9 6 0 7 7 2 ,8 9 7 6 8 7 ,0 2 9 5 7 5 ,2 3 8 4 5 1 ,7 7 0 3 5 0 ,5 1 3 3 1 0 ,8 6 4 1 6 0 ,7 7 3 7 7 ,8 6 0
Negro
W hite
T o ta l
P e rce n t
7 0 6 ,1 9 4 7 2 6 ,8 7 9 7 0 2 ,6 1 5 642,488 5 3 7 ,3 8 5 4 2 4 ,7 0 4 3 2 8 ,1 9 1 2 8 8 ,7 3 7 1 5 7.476 7 3 ,8 0 6
8 6 .6 8 8 .4 9 0 .9 9 3 .5 9 3 .8 9 4 .0 93. 6 9 2 .9 9 7 .9 9 4 .8
Number 1 0 8 ,7 6 5 9 3 ,5 8 0 6 9 ,8 5 4 4 3 ,9 6 0 3 5 ,5 1 6 2 6 ,8 6 5 2 2 ,2 5 6 2 2 ,0 8 8 3 ,2 9 7 4 ,0 5 4
P e rce n t 1 3 .2 1 1 .4 9 .0 6 .4 6 .2 5 .9 6 .3 7 .1 2 .1 5 .2
S t . L o u is i s s t i l l g row ing i n p o p u l a t i o n , "but n o t gro w in g v e ry f a s t .
D u rin g W orld War I I from 1940 t o 1 9 4 6 ,t h e c i t y popu
l a t i o n I n c r e a s e d 4$, w h ile S t . L o u is c o u n ty in c r e a s e d 2 0 $ .
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t h i s p e r i o d th e w h ite p o p u la tio n grew 3 .3 $ i n t h e c i t y and th e Negro p o p u la tio n a l i t t l e
o v e r 10$.
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p o p u la tio n i n c r e a s e was 31$ w h ile th e Negro p o p u la tio n I n c r e a s e was 2 3 4 $ .
I n 1900, th e Negro comprl&ed 6 .2 $ o f t h e p o p u la tio n and 40 in 1 9 4 6 , 1 4 .3 $ . The g ro w th o f th e N egro p o p u la tio n s i n c e 1910 I s
l a r g e l y a t t r i b u t e d t o th e demand o f th e w ar p e r io d s f o r i n d u s t r i a l 41 w o rk e rs. A lso t h e s e s h a rp c o n t r a s t s I n t h e g ro w th o f N egro and w h ite p o p u la tio n c an b e e x p la in e d fro m th e f a c t t h a t th e o l d e r , m id d le c l a s s w h ite f a m i l i e s , a s th e y im prove t h e i r econom ic s i t u a t i o n , a r e m oving t o th e s u b u r b s .
The p o o r e r im m ig ra tin g la b o r i n g
c l a s s , a l a r g e p a r t o f w hich i s N egro, i s f i l l i n g up th e o ld h o u sin g w h ich t h e w h ite p e o p le a r e v a c a t i n g . 42
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
16 M o reover, th e p o p u la tio n o f S t . L o u is i s m o s tly a n a t i v e h o rn g ro u p .
I n 1940, 73$ o f th e w h ite p o p u la tio n and l e s s th a n
1$ o f t h e c o lo r e d p o p u la tio n was f o r e i g n b o r n .
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e le m e n t: i s composed c h i e f l y o f R u s s la n -J e w s , I r i s h , and I t a l i a n s # T h ere i s a h ig h p r o p o r tio n o f Germans th ro u g h o u t th e a r e a .
T h ere
a r e some n o r t h e r n a n d .w e s te r n E u ro p e a n s, p a r t i c u l a r l y . P o le s and 43 H u n g a ria n s . E v ery s c h o o l boy knows o f th e M is s o u ri Compromise o f 1820, and t h e Dred S c o tt d e c i s i o n o f 1857 j a l l have some n o tio n o f how eco n o m ic, s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and g e o g ra p h ic f a c t o r s c u lm in a te d in t h e C i v i l W ar.
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u n d e r th e d i r e c t i o n o f C a rl S c h u rz , k e p t S t . L o u is and M is s o u ri on t h e U nion s i d e .
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c i v i l war w ith in a c i v i l w a r.
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tr o o p s and U nion f o r c e s d r i l l e d i n t h e c i t y f o r a tim e , and i t was n o t u n t i l May, 1861, when t h e s t a t e tr o o p s w ere s u rro u n d e d a t t h e i r encampment and f o r c e d t o s u r r e n d e r by a much l a r g e r body o f A m eri c a n an d German s o l d i e r s , t h a t S t . L ouis was s a f e l y a n c h o re d t o th e 44 U nion and tu r n e d i n t o a b a s e f o r F e d e r a l o p e r a t i o n s . S in c e th e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e b e l i e f s and s e n tim e n ts among many w h ite s c o n c e rn in g N egroes have b een b a se d more on t r a d i t i o n th a n on a know ledge o f o r e x p e rie n c e i n N e g ro -w h ite r e l a t i o n s . Though
n o t a t y p i c a l s o u th e r n c i t y , m ost o f th e p a t t e r n s w hich
r e g u l a t e t h e two r a c e s I n t h e S o u th a r e fo u n d i n S t . L o u is .
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c o r d i n g l y , one f i n d s , w ith a few e x c e p tio n s , s e p a r a t e p la y g ro u n d s , com m unity c e n t e r s , and p u b l i c s c h o o ls .
The o n ly l e g i s l a t i v e
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
17 p r o v i s i o n s w h ic h s a n c t i o n t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e r a c e s i n M i s s o u r i a r e t h o s e w h ic h a p p l y t o p u b l i c s c h o o l s a n d i n t e r m a r r i a g e . Y e t , o n e o b s e r v e s i n t h e sam e c i t y m any r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n t h e tw o g r o u p s s i m i l a r t o t h e m o st l i b e r a l i n n o r t h e r n c o m m u n itie s . I t i s t h e l a c k o f o p p o r t u n i t y f o r f a i r e m p lo y m e n t, t h e d e a r t h a n d in a d e q u a c y o f h o u s i n g - f a c i l i t i e s , a n d t h e c o l o r b a n w h ic h e x c l u d e s N e g ro e s f r o m e q u i t a b l e a c c o m m o d a tio n s i n t h e a t r e s a n d l e g i t i m a t e s ta g e p ro d u c tio n s , t h a t have c re a te d th e p r i n c i p a l te n s io n a re a s 45 in th e c i t y . Many o f t h e o l d e r N eg ro r e s i d e n t s f e e l t h a t t h e
la rg e
m i g r a t i o n o f w h i t e s fro m A r k a n s a s , M i s s i s s i p p i , T e x a s a n d L o u i s i a n a h e lp e d t o p e r p e tu a te th e s o u th e r n p a t t e r n , a s w e ll a s th e la r g e n u m b e rs o f N e g ro e s fro m u r b a n a n d r u r a l a r e a s o f t h e D eep S o u t h . In c o n tra s t
t o t h e s e D eep S o u th c i t i e s , N e g ro e s i n S t . L o u is s i t
i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y i n s t r e e t c a r s ; no s i g n s " f o r w h i t e ” o r " f o r c o l o r e d " a r e o b s e r v e d i n w a i t i n g room s o r r e s t room s i n p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s ; N e g ro p o l i c e o f f i c e r s h a v e e q u a l a u t h o r i t y w i t h w h i t e s i n t h e p o w er o f a r r e s t ; N e g ro e s h a v e f r e e u s e o f t h e f r a n c h i s e a n d a r e a c tiv e In th e a f f a i r s
o f b o th p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s .
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some o f t h e m ore w h o leso m e e x p e r i e n c e s i n l i v i n g w h ic h h a v e g i v e n r i s e t o s u c c e s s i v e i n c r e a s e s o f—t h e N e g ro p o p u l a t i o n f o r m o re t h a n th re e d ecad es. It
i s a to w n g r a n t i n g c i v i l l i b e r t i e s , w h e re C o m m u n ists
s p o k e o u t on 1 2 t h S t r e e t w i t h p o l i c e p r o t e c t i o n b e f o r e t h e M cC arran B i l l w as p a s s e d .
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18 a d ia trib e
on a n y m i n o r i t y g r o u p , a l t h o u g h t h e p r e s s a n d t h e r a d i o
s y s te m d i d n o t s u b s c r i b e t o t h e i r p h i l o s o p h y . Many f e e l t h a t ,
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d u e t o t h e S t . L o u is P o s t D i s p a t c h .
a tm o s p h e r e o f t o l e r a n c e
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th o u g h b a r o n i a l i n m a n a g e m e n t, i s p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e l i b e r a l n e w sp a p er in th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
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t i m e s a c c u s e d o f l e a n i n g o v e r b a c k w a r d s t o a v o i d d i r e c t c o m m itm e n ts i n l o c a l a f f a i r s , i t h a s l a r g e l y s e t t h e t o n e o f S t . L o u is f o r tw o 46 g e n e ra tio n s . B rie f H is to ry of th e P o st The d y i n g S t . L o u is D i s p a t c h , a n e v e n i n g n e w s p a p e r w i t h p r a c t i c a l l y n o a s s e t s , w as o f f e r e d a t a u c t i o n on D ecem b er 9* 1 8 7 8 . J o s e p h P u l i t z e r b i d !|2 5 0 0 a n d w as h a n d e d t h e p a p e r .
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( f r o m M onday t h r o u g h F r i d a y ) , 2 2 3 ,4 3 3 48 f o r S a t u r d a y e v e n i n g a n d 4 3 4 ,3 1 1 f o r t h e S u n d a y e d i t i o n . On J u n e 1 5 . 19 5 1 t h e P o s t b o u g h t t h e S t a r - T i m e s ,
le a v in g in th e f i e l d 49 o n l y one c o m p e t i t o r , t h e S t . L o u is G lo b e - D e m o c r a t. T h e s e a r e f a c t s e l o q u e n t o f m a t e r i a l w e l f a r e a n d c o m m e r c ia l s u c c e s s w h ic h a r e a n A m e ric a n c o m m o n p la c e .
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ty p e j u s t i f i a b l e .
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19 a n e w s p a p e r t h a t w o u ld b e a p o s i t i v e f o r c e i n t h e c o m m u n ity . firs t
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T he p o l i c y o f t h o r o u g h n e s s w h ic h i s i m p l i c i t i n t h e P o s t - D i s p a t c h p l a t f o r m w as w e l l e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e p a p e r Ts r e p o r t i n g o f t h e E a s t S t . L o u is r a c e r i o t s o f 1 9 1 7 . A s p e c i a l C o n g r e s s i o n a l c o m m itte e w h ic h i n v e s t ig a te d th e r i o t s and th e c o n d itio n s le a d in g up to th e m d re w i t s i n f o r m a t i o n i n l a r g e p a r t , a s i t s r e p o r t s h o w e d , f r o m t h e t e s t i m o n y g i v e n i t b y a m em ber o f t h e P o s t-D is p a tc h s t a f f . C o n c e r n in g t h i s r e p o r t e r t h e c o m m itte e s a i d : " H is i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , o p p o s e d on e v e r y h a n d , w e re t h o r o u g h a n d t r u s t w o r t h y . He saw e v e r y t h i n g , r e p o r t e d w h a t h e saw w i t h o u t f e a r o f c o n s e q u e n c e s ; d e f i e d t h e i n d i g n a n t o f f i c i a l s whom h e c o n v i c t e d o f
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c r i m in a l n e g le c t o f d u ty ; r a n a d a i l y r i s k o f a s s a s s i n a t i o n , and re n d e re d an i n v a lu a b le p u b lic s e r v i c e by h i s e x p o s u r e s ." The c o m m itte e 's r e p o r t sw ept an .e n ti r e c i t y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o u t o f o f f i c e and e v e n tu a l l y le d E a s t S t . L o u is t o a d o p t t h e com m ission fo rm o f g o v ern m en t. 53 U nder th e fo u n d e r a n d ,s i n c e 1913, u n d e r t h e t r u s t e e s h i p o f h i s son, th e P o s t has o b l ig a t e d i t s e l f t o u s e I t s freed o m w is e ly in th e b e l i e f t h a t a f r e e new spaper i s i n v e s te d w ith th e n a tu r e o f a 54 p u b lic t r u s t . I t w ould seem , th e n , t h a t th e s tu d y o f th e k in d p ro p o se d sh o u ld g iv e a p i c t u r e o f a segm ent o f th e g e n e r a l l i f e i n S t . L o u is fro m 1917-1950 a s r e f l e c t e d In th e P o s t , sh o u ld p r e s e n t a segm ent o f Negro l i f e f o r th e same p e rio d and sh o u ld s e rv e a s an in d e x o f w hat i s commonly c a l l e d in te r g r o u p r e l a t i o n s .
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b e r e d , how ever, t h a t t h i s i s n o t a s tu d y o f th e Negro i n S t . L ouis b u t o f th e Negro i n t h e P o s t . em p h asized .
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p r e s s i o n w hich was com m unicated t o th e m ind l i f e o f r e a d e r s th ro u g h t h i s medium. J u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r su c h a t h e s i s i s grounded In t h i s s t a t e m ent fro m J o s e p h G o ld se n : L i t t l e a t t e n t i o n has b e en g iv e n t o a u d i t i n g o f m in o r ity g ro u p s . Though we have o u r s t a t i s t i c s on ly n c h in g s , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n employment and h o u s in g , and on crim e r a t e s , i t i s s t a r t l i n g t o r e a l i z e t h a t w ith a l l th e money s p e n t f o r r e s e a r c h we la c k a s t a t i s t i c a l a u d i t o f w hat th e n a ti o n I s exposed t o d a i l y by th e r a d i o , th e news r e e l , t h e p r e s s , f i c t i o n m a g a z in e s , and s c h o o l b o o k s. We need d a ta o f a l l m i n o r i t i e s i n e ac h c h a n n e l. 55
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21
F o o tn o te s - C h a p te r I 1 . W illia m B rooke G ra v e s , (e d ) R ead in g s In P u b lic O p in io n . D. A p p le to n and Company, New Y o rk ( 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 7 6 6 -7 9 7 . 2 . J o s e p h G o ld sen , "Mass M e d ia ,” Summary R e p o r ts . F o u rth A nnual I n s t i t u t e o f Race R e l a t i o n s , F is k U n i v e r s i t y , N a s h v i l l e , (1 9 4 7 ), p. 86. 3 .. N. C. L e i t e s , and De S o la P o o l, I . , on C o n te n t A n a l y s i s . Document No. 2 6 , L ib r a r y o f C o n g re s s , E x p e rim e n ta l D iv is io n f o r t h e S tu d y o f War Time C om m unications, S e p te m b e r, 1 9 4 2 , p p . 1 - 2 . Q uoted i n B e r e ls o n , B e rn a rd and L a z a r s f e l d , P a u l F . , The A n a ly s is o f C om m unication C o n te n t. Colum bia U n i v e r s i t y , T T 948), p . 2 . 4 . D ouglas W aples, and B e rn a rd B e r e ls o n and A s s o c ia t e , What R ead in g 1 Does t o P e o p le . U n i v e r s i ty o f C hicago P r e s s , C h ic a g o , ( 1 9 4 0 ), j pp. 1 4 6 ff. 5 . Abraham E a p la n , “C o n te n t A n a ly s is and th e T heory P h ilo s o p h y o f S c ie n c e . V o l. X, O c to b e r, 1943, p . o p . c i t . W aples, 0 £ . c i t .
o f S i g n s ," 230; L e ite s ,
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6 . B e r e ls o n , and L a z a r s f e l d , o p . c i t . . p . 4 . 7. I b id . . p . 5. 8. Ib id . 9 . C o n te n t a n a l y s i s i s f r e q u e n t l y d e f in e d a s "an y te c h n iq u e f o r th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f s i g n - v e h i c l e s ; w h ich r e l i e s s o l e l y upon th e ju d g m e n ts .. .w h ic h , t h e o r e t i c a l l y , may ra n g e from p e r c e p t u a l d i s c r i m in a t io n s t o s h e e r g u e s s e s . . . o f an a n a l y s t o r g ro u p o f a n a l y s t s a s t o w hich s i g n - v e h i c l e s f a l l i n t o w hich c a t e g o r i e s ; on t h e b a s i s o f e x p l i c i t l y f o r m u la te d r u l e s ; p ro v id e d t h a t t h e a n a l y s t ’ s jud gm ents a r e re g a rd e d a s th e r e p o r t s o f a s c i e n t i f i c o b s e r v e r . The r e s u l t s o f a c o n te n t a n a l y s i s s t a t e th e f re q u e n c y o f o c c u rre n c e o f s i g h s — o r g ro u p s o f s i g n s . . . f o r e a c h c a te g o r y in a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n sch em e." I r v i n g L. J a n i s , "M eaning and J S tu d y o f Sym bolic B e h a v io r ," P s y c h i a t r y . V ol V I, Novem ber, 1943, p . 429. ; i 0 . B e r e ls o n , and L a z a r s f e l d ,
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1 3 . L. D. R e d d ic k , " E d u c a tio n a l P rogram s f o r t h e Im provem ent o f Race R e l a t i o n s : M otion P i c t u r e s , R a d io , t h e P r e s s and L i b r a r i e s , " J o u r n a l o f Negro E d u c a tio n . V o l. 1 3 , Summer, 1944, p p . 3 6 7 -3 8 9 . C f. w ith Lyman B ry so n , The C om m unication o f I d e a s : A S e r i e s o f A d d r e s s e s , H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s , New Y o rk , (1 9 4 8 ), p . 9 8 . 1 4 . L. D. R e d d ic k , The Negro i n t h e New O rle a n s P r e s s . 1 8 5 0 -1 8 6 0 : A S tu d y i n A t t i t u d e s and P ro p a g a n d a . U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ica g o , P h.D . T h e s is ^ ( J u n e , 1 9 3 9 ), p . 259. 1 5 . George E a to n S im pson, The Negro i n th e P h i l a d e l p h i a P r e s s t U n i v e r s i t y o f P e n n s y lv a n ia P r e s s , P h i l a d e l p h ia (193671 p p . 1 1 8 -1 1 9 . 16. C h a rle s Morgan C la y to n , E d i t o r i a l P o lic y o f th e A t l a n t a C o n s t i t u t i o n i n R e la ti o n t o t h e Negro Q u e s tio n . 1914 -1 9 1 8 . A t l a n t a U n i v e r s i t y M a s te r’ s T h e s is , 1936, p p . 1 7 f f . 1 7 . The C hicago C om m ission.on Race R e l a t i o n s , The Negro i n C h ic a g o . The U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago P r e s s , C hicago (1 9 2 3 ), pp. 5 2 4 ff. 1 8 . Selma W a rlic k , N egro News i n t h e S o u th e rn P r e s s . Colum bia U n i v e r s i t y M a s te r’ s E ssa y T l 9 3 l ) , p . 11. 19. I b id . 2 0 . I b i d . , p . 72. 2 1 . H e r b e r t J . S e lig m a n , The N egro F aces A m erica. P r e s s o f C la re n c e S . N a th a n , I n c o r p o r a te d , New Y ork (1 9 2 0 ), p p . 1 8 4 f f . 2 2 . J . P r a t h e r H o u se r, T re a tm e n t by Columbus D a ily N ew spapers o f News R e g a rd in g t h e N e g ro . Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y M a s te r ’s E asayJjj X 1925), p . 147 || 23. I b id . 2 4 . W illia m E v a n s, News and P u b lic O pinion R e g a rd in g th e N egro. U n i v e r s i t y o f B u f f a lo M a s te r 's E ssa y (1 9 3 0 ), pp7 1 1 2 -1 1 3 ff. 2 5 . The p a p e r s I n c lu d e d i n G i s t ’ s s tu d y w ere a s f o l lo w s : Oklahoma C ity News, C i n c i n n a t i E n q u ir e r . Topeka C a p i t o l . I n d i a n a p o l i s News. B a ltim o re S u n . K ansas C ity S t a r . K ansas C ity J o u r n a l P o s t . New Y ork T im es. San A n to n io E x p r e s s . Ph i l a d e l p h i a L e d g e r. Y Jashington S t a r . New O rle a n s T im es- P ic a y u n e . New Y ork A m erican . D enver P o s t , A t l a n t a C o n s t i t u t i o n , C hicago T r ib u n e , and S e a t t l f t T im es. N ii-P. G i s t , "The Negro i n t h e D a ily P r e s s , " S o c i a l F o r c e s . V o l. 1 0 , M arch, 1932, p p . 4 0 5 -4 1 1 . 2 6 . Roger B u t t e r f i e l d , "The S t . L o u is P o s t - B i s p a t c h - P u l i t z e r ’ s P r i z e , " C o l l i e r ’s . December 1 6 , 1950, p . 2 7 . ■4 111
w a w M ' n m i u w a a e M i i i w in
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23
2 7 . A lle n Jo h n s o n , The H i s t o r i a n and H i s t o r i c a l E v id e n c e . C h a rle s S c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s, Hew Y ork (1 9 3 2 ), p . 3 7 . 2 8 . G i s t , op. c i t . 2 9 . S im pson, op. c i t . , p . 140. 30* C l i f f o r d F r e d e r i c k Jo h n so n , An A n a ly s is o f Negro News and NonNews M a tte rs A p p e arin g i n Four Oregon D a ily N ew spapers D u rin g 1931, 1956, 1946 and 1948, U n i v e r s i ty o f Oregon M a s te r ’s T h e s is ( 1 9 4 9 ), p . 178. 3 1 . I r a B . B r y a n t, ’’News Ite m s a b o u t N egroes i n W hite U rban and R u ra l N e w sp a p e rs," J o u r n a l o f Negro E d u c a tio n , A p r i l , 1935, p p . 1 6 9 -1 7 8 . 32.
B e rn a rd B e re ls o n and P a t r i c i a S a l t e r , " M a jo r ity and M in o rity A m erican s! An A n a ly s is o f M agazine F i c t i o n , " R e p r in t from th e P u b lic Op in io n Q u a r te r l y , Summer 1 9 4 6 , p p . 1 6 8 - 1 9 0 ; ‘'M agazine Comment. E v e n ts and T ren d s i n Race R e l a t i o n s . A M onthly S u m m a r y . May, 1 9 4 7 , p . 3 2 7 .
3 3 . M agazine Comment, i b i d . 3 4 . C h a rle s S . Jo h n so n and A s s o c ia t e s , I n t h e Main S tre a m ; A S u rv e y o f B e s t P r a c t i c e s i n Race R e la tio n s i n th e S o u th . The U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth C a ro lin a P r e s s , C h ap el H i l l (1 9 4 7 ), p . 198. 3 5 . Race i n t h e News, S o u th e rn R e g io n a l C o u n c il, I n c o r p o r a te d , A t l a n t a . O c to b e r, 1949, p p . 2 - 3 ; "Race I n th e News - A P r o g r e s s R e p o r t," New S o u th . V o l. 5 . M arch, 1950, p p . 1 ,2 , 8 ; O liv e r. W*-.'; H a r r in g to n , T e r r o r in T e n n e s s e e : The T r u th A bout th e C olum bia O u tr a g e s . The N a tio n a l Com m ittee f o r J u s t i c e i n C olum bia, T e n n e sse e ; “See a l s o T a r le to n C o l l i e r , "The S o u th e rn P r e s s and Race R e l a t i o n s ," p p . 9 9 -1 0 1 ; S . I . Hayakawa, " G e n e ra l S e m a n tic s and Race R e l a t i o n s ," p p . 1 0 1 -1 0 4 ; E l i z a b e t h H erzo g , " P u b lic O p in io n S u rv e y s ," p p . 104 -1 0 5 ; and I r a De A. R e id , "The P r e s s and t h e N e g ro ," p p . 10 5 -1 0 6 , Race R e la tio n s in Human R e l a t i o n s . Summary R e p o r t. Second A nnual I n s t i t u t e o f Race R e l a t i o n s . F is k U n i v e r s i t y , N a s h v i l le , J u l y 2 - 2 1 , 1945. 3 6 . R o b e rt A u s tin W arner, New Haven N e g ro es. A S o c i a l H i s t o r y . Y a le U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , New tLaven (1 9 4 0 ), p . 275. 3 7 . O th e r t o o l s o f m easurem ent a r e d is c u s s e d i n f u l l in C h a p te r 3, in fra ♦ 38. S t . L o u is P o s t- D is p a tc h (Commemorating th e 1 0 0 th A n n iv e rs a ry o f t h e F ounder) A p r i l 7 , 1947, p . 1 .
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24 3 9 . U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a rtm e n t o f C om m erce, B u r e a u o f C e n s u s , 1 6 t h , 1940 Second S e r i e s , C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e P o p u la tio n o f M i s s o u r i , G o v ern m en t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , W a s h in g to n , D . C . , ( 1 9 4 2 ) , p . 4 5 6 ; G r a p h ic F a c t s A b o u t t h e P e o p l e i n S t . L o u is a n d S t . L o u is C o u n ty , R e s e a r c h B u r e a u , S o c i a l P l a n n i n g C o u n c i l o f S t . L o u is a n d S t . L o u is C o u n ty , S t . L o u i s , May 1 5 , 1 9 4 7 , p . 2 9 ; A R e v ie w o f t h e P ro g ra m o f t h e S t . L o u is U rb a n L e a g u e a n d o f t h e S o c i a l a n d E co n o m ic C o n d i t i o n s o f t h e N e g ro P o p u l a t i o n o f S t . L o u i s , M i s s o u r i , c o n d u c te d f o r t h e S o c i a l P l a n n i n g C o u n c il o f S t . L o u is a n d S t . L o u is C o u n ty b y t h e N a t i o n a l U rb a n L e a g u e , D e p a r tm e n t o f R e s e a r c h a n d C om m unity P r o j e c t s , New Y o r k , S e p te m b e r-O c to b e r, 1948, p . 2 9 7 . 4 0 . G r a p h ic F a c t s , i b i d . , p . 2 9 . 4 1 . A R e v ie w o f t h e P ro g ra m , i b i d . , p . 5 . 42. Ib id . 4 3 . G r a p h ic F a c t s , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 0 , 1 1 , 2 1 , 2 3 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7 . For ad d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e N e g ro i n S t . L o u i s , s e e ’’T r e n d s o f N e g ro A r e a s i n S t . L o u i s , ” i n t h e A p p e n d ix , A. 4 4 . F lo y d C . S h o e m a k e r, M i s s o u r i a n d M i s s o u r i a n s : L and o f Con t r a s t s a n d P e o p le o f A c h ie v e m e n t, The L ew is P u b l i s h i n g C om pany, C h ic a g o ~ T l9 4 3 ) , V o l. 1 , p p . 1 7 7 , 6 8 7 , 5 7 4 , 8 2 0 , 8 4 0 , 86 9 a n d 9 1 3 ; J . Thomas S c h a r f , H i s t o r y o f S t . L o u is C i t y a n d C o u n ty . From t h e E a r l i e s t P e r i o d s t o t h e P r e s e n t Day I n c l u d i n g B i o g r a p h i c a l S k e t c h e s o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Men. L o u is H. E v e r t s a n d C om pany, P h i l a d e l p h i a ( 1 8 8 3 ) , V o l . 1 , p p . 3 9 0 , 4 8 2 £ f . 45.
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R e v ie w , o p . c i t . , p . 1 4 2 .
4 6 . J o h n G u n th e r , I n s i d e U .S . A . . H a r p e r a n d B r o t h e r s , New Y o rk (1 9 4 7 ), p p . 3 5 1 ff. 4 7 . S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h (C om m em orating t h e 1 0 0 t h A n n i v e r s a r y ) 0 £. j c i t ., p . 6. 4 8 . A u d i t R e p o r t f o r tw e lv e m o n th s e n d in g S e p te m b e r 3 0 , 1 9 5 0 , p . 1 ; 1 9 4 0 f S v e r y d a y c i r c u l a t i o n e x c l u d i n g S u n d a y , 2 4 0 ,5 3 3 , S u n d a y , 2 9 4 ,8 3 5 ; 1932 E v e r y d a y e x c l u d i n g S u n d a y , 2 1 7 ,1 7 7 , S u n d a y , 2 6 7 ,5 2 2 ; a n d 1 9 2 1 , e v e iy day e x c l u d i n g S u n d a y , 1 6 8 ,4 6 0 a n d S u n d a y , 3 7 3 ,1 5 7 , A y e r s , N.. W. a n d S o n s , N e w sp a p e rs a n d P e r i o d i c a l s ; D i r e c t o r y . N. W. A y e r a n d S o n , I n c o r p o r a t e d , P h ila d e lp h ia , 1951, 1941, 1933, and 1921, p p . 545, 527, 526, and 541. 4 9 . S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h . J u n e 1 5 , 1 9 5 1 , p . 1 .
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25 5 0 . C h a r l e s G. R o s s , T he S t o r y o f t h e S t . L o u is P o s t D i s p a t c h ( F o r t h e F i f t i e t h A n n i v e r s a r y E d i t i o n , D ecem b er 9 , 1 9 2 8 ) , J u n e , 1 9 4 0 3 p . 2 ; F o r a d d i t i o n a l in f o r m a tio n on P u l i t z e r s e e th e f o llo w in g ; Ja m es V/. B a r r e t t , J o s e p h P u l i t z e r a n d H is W o r ld . V a n g u a rd P r e s s , Hew Y o rk ( 1 9 4 1 ) ; J o h n E , D re w e ry ( e d ) , nT he E a s t S h a l l Be F i r s t , ” P o s t B i o g r a p h i e s o f Fam ous J o u r n a l i s t s . U n i v e r s i t y o f G e o r g ia P r e s s , A th e n s ( 1 9 4 2 ) , p p . 5 9 1 - 4 1 1 ; Don C . S e i t z , J o s e p h P u l i t z e r , L i b e r a t o r o f J o u r n a l i s m , S im o n a n d S c h u s t e r . New Y o rk (1 9 2 4 j". “ 51. R oss, op. c i t . , p . 3. 5 2 . I b id . . p p . 8 -4 3 . S e e a l s o S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h ( S i x t i e t h A n n i v e r s i t y E d i t i o n D ece m b er 1 1 , 1 9 3 8 ; "W hat A re We F i g h t i n g F o r ? ” A S ym posium C o n d u c te d b y t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h , R e p r i n t e d f r o m F e b r u a r y 2 1 t o May 2 , 1 9 4 3 , i s s u e s o f t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h : C h a r l e s G. R o s s , Men a n d J o b s A f t e r The W ar, R e p r i n t e d f r o m M arch 5 t o J u n e 4 , 1 9 4 4 , I s s u e s o f t h e S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h : P u l i t z e r , J o s e p h , A R e p o r t t o t h e A m e ric a n P e o p l e . S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h . May 2 0 , 1 9 4 5 ; A S p e c i a l S e c t i o n o f t h e P o s t - D i s p a t c h d e v o te d t o The C e n t r a l i a M ine D i s a s t e r . A p r i l 3 0 , 1 9 4 7 ; ^ P r o g r e s s o r D e c a y ? S t . L o u is M ust C h o o s e ,” S t . L o u is P o s t - D i s p a t c h . M arch 4 , 1 9 5 1 , p . 1 . 5 3 . R o ss,
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54. Ib id . , p . 47. 5 5 . G o ld s e n , o p . c i t . , p . 8 8 .
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CHAPTER I I
PREVIOUS CORIENT STUDIES
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A " b rie f re v ie w o f m ajo r c o n te n t a n a l y s i s s t u d i e s o f t h e
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p a s t , w ith e s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o th e n e w sp a p e r, p r o v id e s a u s e f u l o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e f i e l d , and g iv e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h ip b etw een th e m odern n ew spaper and th e s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s o f i t s 1 rea d ers.
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o f h y p o th e s e s a r e c u r r e n t i n s c i e n t i f i c and p o p u la r w r i t i n g a b o u t th e im p a c t o f s p e c i f i c k in d s o f c o n te n t upon p e o p le . From 1893 t o 1950 e v e ry k in d o f v e r b a l com m unication c o n te n t h as b e e n a n a ly z e d , and some n o n -v e rb a la c o m m u n icatio n s.
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27 s t u d i e s an d o f g e n e r a l re v ie w s o f i t s
s ta tu s .
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W il l ia m A l h i g s u c c i n c t l y a v e r s t h a t n e i t h e r t h e a c a d e m ic r e s e a r c h e r s n o r th e p o l l e r have added v e ry s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o th e k n o w le d g e a s t o how t o r e c o r d , o r i n a n y c a s e m e a s u r e t h e a t t i t u d e s o f i n d iv i d u a ls r e l a t i n g t o a g iv e n t o p i c .
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I n t h e a r e a o f m ass c o m m u n ic a tio n s , a v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e b o d y o f r e s e a r c h h a s a c c u m u la te d on c o n t e n t , t e c h n i q u e s o f i n f l u e n c e a n d r e s p o n s e , a n d fro m v a r i o u s a p p r o a c h e s , we h a v e b e e n s l e u t h i n g t h r o u g h t h e m ind l i f e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l when h e i s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h c h o i c e s , f a c e d 2 w i t h t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l a n d f o r c e d t o m ake u p h i s m i n d . . . . A g a in , A l b i g w a rn s t h a t t h e enorm ous a c c r e t i o n o f i n t e r e s t i n p u b lic o p in io n d u r in g th e p a s t d ecad e an d e s p e c i a l l y th e b u lk o f w a r tim e a c t i v i t y a n d r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n o v e r e s t i m a t e d a s t o s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e r e s u l t s a s f a r a s k n o w le d g e o f t h e p u b l i c o p i n i o n 3 p ro c e s s i s c o n c e rn e d . N e v e r th e le s s , n u m e r ic a lly , th e o u tp u t o f c o n te n t s t u d i e s h a s d o u b le d i n e v e r y f i v e y e a r y e a rs.
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28 “b u t n o t w e l l d e f i n e d a n d p r o b a b l y h i g h l y s u b j e c t i v e , c a t e g o r i e s . T he r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y show ed a n i n c r e a s e i n g o s s i p a n d s c a n d a l 5 and a d e c re a se in l i t e r a r y , s c i e n t i f i c and r e lig io u s m a tte r . W a l t e r L ip p m an n a n d C h a r l e s M erz e x a m in e d t h e new s r e p o r t s i n t h e New Y o rk T im es on a s p e c t s o f t h e R u s s i a n R e v o l u t i o n o f s p e c i a l im p o r t a n c e t o A m e r ic a n s , f ro m M arch 1917 t o M arch 1 9 2 0 , b e f o r e " c o n te n t a n a ly s is " as su ch had b een d e fin e d o r u s e d .
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29 t h a t i s , how m uch a t t e n t i o n w as d e v o te d t o a n i d e a , p r o o r c o n ; a n a n a l y s i s o f r e p o r t i n g d e v ic e s and a n a n a l y s i s o f e d i t o r i a l r e la tio n s h ip ,
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31 H is c a t e g o r i e s w e re d e f i n e d b u t c e r t a i n d e f e c t s w e re a p p a r e n t . d a y 's i s s u e c o u ld h a r d l y b e c o n s i d e r e d a s c i e n t i f i c s a m p le .
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11 t h e y w e re n o t c o n c l u s i v e e n o u g h . B y ro n C . M a tth e w s, i n 1 9 IQ m ade a s t u d y o f " o n e o f t h e b e s t Hew Y o r k D a i l i e s . " m ade u p t h e s a m p le .
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t h e w o r l d 's p r e s s a n d n o t b e i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e f r e n z y o f w e a l t h 13 a c c u m u la tio n and p o l i t i c s . 1910 a n d 1911 saw t h e f i r s t p u b l i c a t i o n o f a r t i c l e s i n f l u e n c e o f n e w s p a p e r s on c r i m e .
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32 s u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n c rim e a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e n e w s p a p e r th a t b u t t o n th e b a s is o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l s u g g e s tio n , a d i r e c t c a u s a l con n e c t i o n c o u l d b e e s t a b l i s h e d b e tw e e n t h e n e w s p a p e r a n d c rim e an d 14 o th e r a n t i - s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s . A lt h o u g h i t w as n o t p o s s i b l e t o 15 m e a s u r e d a t a , F e n t o n f e l t i t w as n o n e t h e l e s s r e a l . The F e n to n s a m p le c o n s i s t e d o f a s m a l l n u m b er o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e A m e ric a n p a p e r s , S u n d a y i s s u e s
e x c l u d e d , t a k e n b y t h e C h ic a g o
P u b l i c L i b r a r y f r o m N ovem ber 1 a n d 30, o f 19 0 9 a n d J a n u a r y 3 , 1 9 1 0 . T h e s e d a t e s w e re c h o s e n s im p ly b e c a u s e t h e l i b r a r y g a v e h im t h e s e p a p e rs.
T h e r e w as a t o t a l o f 103 i s s u e s . F e n to n c o n c lu d e d t h a t a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n c rim e a n d t h e
n e w s p a p e r d o e s e x i s t a n d i n n o w ay do e d i t o r i a l s c o lu m n s o r a n t i - s o c i a l n e w s .
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p a p e r s h a v e a tr e m e n d o u s i n f l u e n c e i n t h e c o u n t r y a n d s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e a n e d u c a t i v e a n d d e p e n d a b le m edium a n d t h a t t h e s t r o n g f o r c e s o f b u s i n e s s w o r k in g a g a i n s t s u c h c h a n g e s s h o u l d b e c u r 16 ta ile d . Many s t u d i e s on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f n e w s p a p e r s a n d c r im e 17 h a v e b e e n m ade s i n c e t h i s d a t e . One o f t h e f a i r l y r e c e n t a n a l y s e s w as b y L ogan W ils o n on t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e d i t o r i a l s on c r im e i n w h ic h h e , t o o , sa w a r e l a t i o n s h i p b u t , a t t h e p r e s e n t , n o n 13 m e a s u ra b le . An a t t e m p t a t p e r f e c t i o n i n m e th o d o lo g y w as s t a r t e d b y P r o f e s s o r A . A . T en n y i n 1 9 1 2 .
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c o u n tin g .
I n o n e o f t h e s e t- h e s d s ,R . G. S m ith a n d G le n n J o h n s o n
u s e d 22 i s s u e s o f a s i n g l e n e w s p a p e r i n one c a s e a n d 6 i s s u e s e a c h o f th r e e p a p e rs in th e seco n d c a s e .
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t h a t t h e i t e m c o u n t w as a s a c c u r a t e a s s p a c e m e a s u r e m e n t.
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w as a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e s a m p le w as t o o s m a l l . A n o th e r p r o b le m t a c k l e d w a s , w h a t c o n s t i t u t e d a n a d e q u a te s a m p le ?
I t w as c o n c lu d e d t h a t i n c a s e o f a n e w s p a p e r m a i n t a i n i n g
a so m ew hat c o n t r o l l e d m akeup a w eek o r s i x c o n s e c u t i v e i s s u e s , i f c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d s o a s t o a v o i d t h e b i a s i n g e f f e c t s o f " b i g new s s t o r i e s , " w as s u f f i c i e n t t o g i v e s t a b l e r e s u l t s .
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I n a n o t h e r o f t h e T en n y s t u d i e s t h e p u r p o s e w as t o i n d e x w h a t p e o p le r e c e i v e d i n t h e n e w s p a p e r .
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m e a s u r e d t h e n u m b er o f l i n e a r c o l umn i n c h e s o f s p a c e , i n 17 New
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l u s t r a t i o n s and a d v e rtis e m e n ts .
F iv e o f t h e p a p e r s w e re E n g l i s h ,
t h r e e G erm an, f i v e I t a l i a n , a n d f o u r Y i d d i s h .
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d i f f e r e n c e w i t h i n t h e E n g l i s h p a p e r s t h e m s e lv e s t h a n i n f o r e i g n p a p e rs.
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A c o n t i n u o u s a n a l y s i s o f a l a r g e nu m b er o f p a p e r s
w o u ld h a v e b e e n m ore s c i e n t i f i c .
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34 I n 19 2 6 , J . A* N e p rac h , a n o th e r one o f Tenny*a s tu d e n ts # h e ld t h a t ” i t i s q u e s tio n a b le w h e th e r th e m ethod o f c o u n tin g ite m s i s n o t more d e f e n s i b l e on p u r e ly l o g i c a l g ro u n d s , w h e th e r two ite m s w ith t h e i r accom panying h e a d lin e s do n o t o f f e r a g r e a t e r s t i m u l u s 21 t o th e r e a d e r th a n a s i n g l e ite m o f e q u iv a le n t l e n g t h . " He ■ th o u g h t su c h an a ssu m p tio n t e n a b le b e c a u s e o f th e two s i z e s o f p a p e r s , t h e s ta n d a r d d a i l i e s and th e t a b l o i d s .
H ep rach f e l t t h a t
a g iv e n am ount o f sp a c e was more n o t i c e a b l e on a s m a ll p a p e r th a n 22 on a l a r g e o n e . He u se d a s a sa m p le , i s s u e s o f 12 Hew Y ork C ity d a i l i e s f o r t h e f i r s t f i v e days in F e b r u a r y , 1926, S a tu r d a y o m itte d .
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th o u g h t a p e r io d o f a week s u f f i c i e n t f o r a sam ple, b a s e d on t h e f i n d i n g s o f G lenn Jo h n so n . A h ig h i n v e r s e c o r r e l a t i o n b etw een t h e r a n k in g s o f th e p a p e r s i n th e econom ic and am usem ents c a t e g o r i e s was fo u n d .
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c e n ta g e s i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s c a te g o r y w ere v e ry s m a ll . The c l a s s i f i c a t o r y r e s u l t s f o r f i v e p a p e rs i n H e p ra c h ’s s i x m ain 23 c a t e g o r i e s was co m p arab le t o J o h n s o n ’s s tu d y . T . R. G a r th ,i n 1916, w ith a g ro u p o f s tu d e n ts ,w o r k e d on p ro b lem s s i m i l a r t o th o s e w orked on by
H eprach and Jo h n s o n .
i s s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t th e y w ere n o t c o g n iz a n t o f e ac h o t h e r .
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w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n m ethod and t h e i r c o n c lu s io n s w ere c o m p a ra b le . G a r th ’s im m ediate p ro b lem was t o s e e i f th e c o n te n ts o f t h e new s p a p e r r e f l e c t e d t h e i n t e r e s t o f th e p e o p le .
H is t h e o r y w a s:
T h is o b j e c t i v e datum i s th e outcom e o f s o c i a l a t t e n t i o n ; s o c i e t y a t t e n d s t o th e s e t h i n g s . The s o c i a l o rg a n is m h a s i t s c o u n te r p a r t i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l o rg a n ism . I t h a s I t s v e g e t a t i v e p r o c e s s , i t s h ig h and low r e f l e x e s and i t s c o n s c io u s n e s s , and fro m t h i s l a s t come i t s a u to m o tiv e
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission
35
a c t s and h a b i t s . The d o o r t o c o n s c io u s n e s s i s a t t e n t i o n an d we a t t e n d t o t h a t g e n e r a l l y f o r w h ic h we f e e l a n i n t e r e s t . I n t e r e s t d i e s , u n l e s s i t i s v e ry s t r o n g , q u i t e soon a f t e r th e a c t o f a t t e n t i o n . B ut a t t e n t i o n h a s s t a r t e d t h e b u i l d i n g up o f a h a b i t u a l o r a u to m o tiv e p r o c e s s m eanw hile and when a r e a c t i o n h a s become a h a b i t i t d ro p s o u t o f c o n s c io u s n e s s an d c e a s e s t o occupy a t t e n t i o n . I f we g r a n t a l l t h i s t h a t h a s gone b e f o r e , th e n th e n ew sp a p er t e l l s u s w here s o c i e t y i s d i r e c t i n g h e r a t t e n t i o n an d w hat w i l l be h e r h a b i t s i n t h e f u t u r e p r o v id e d t h e r e a c t i o n i s c o n tin u e d . 24
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I t w ould f o llo w th e n , th a t , i f more s p a c e i s shown one t h i n g th a n a n o th e r , s o c i e t y i s more i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e f o r m e r . He u s e d 138 n e w sp a p e rs a t random fro m J u l y 2 2 , 1913 t o M arch, 1915, fro m Richm ond, Hew Y o rk , B a ltim o r e , B ro o k ly n , P h i l a d e l p h i a , W a sh in g to n , L ynch b u rg and P e t e r s b u r g .
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n o te d p e r s o n s , d e a th s and b i r t h s , I n d u s t r y , m a r r ia g e , p u b l i c s a f e t y ! and a c c i d e n t s , b e n e v o le n c e , f i n a n c e , a g r i c u l t u r e , w e a th e r , i n -
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v e n t i o n , d i v o r c e , f a s h i o n , th e t h e a t r e , l i t e r a t u r e , h o u s e h o ld a r t s , ] im p ro v e m e n ts, j o k e s , s c ie n c e and d i s c o v e r y , e x p o s i t i o n , p e r s o n s n o t n o t e d , am usem ents and r e c r e a t i o n , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and a d v e r tis e m e n t w ere h i s c a t e g o r i e s .
He m easu red colum n in c h e s .
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u n d e r e a c h t o p i c i n colum n in c h e s was d iv id e d b y t h e t o t a l num ber o f colum n In c h e s fo u n d i n th e p a p e r an d p e r c e n ta g e s w ere o b t a i n e d . S tu d e n ts d id th e w ork.
H is f i n d i n g s w e r e ,a s he s t a t e d u n r e l i a b l e 25
b u t h ig h ly s u g g e s tiv e . C a r l T a y lo r r e p o r t e d i n 1 9 2 1 -1 9 2 2 ,I n P ro c e e d in g s o f t h e F o u r th and F i f t h N a t io n a l C o u n try L if e C o n fe re n c e ,tw o s t u d i e s . T h ese s t u d i e s w ere i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u s e th e y i l l u s t r a t e d p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f m eth o d .
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country news i n 245 M is s o u ri c o u n ty y w eek ly n e w s p a p e rs .
An a tte m p t
was made t o c o r r e l a t e th e r e s u l t s w ith th e s i z e o f th e tow n i n which, th e p a p e r was p u b lis h e d an d w ith th e num ber o f r u r a l o u t o f tow n s u b s c r i b e r s .
The se co n d s tu d y a n a ly z e d th e c o n te n t o f e i g h t 26 a g r i c u l t u r a l j o u r n a l s t o d e te rm in e t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e . The U n i v e r s i t y -of W is c o n s in ’s u n d e rg r a d u a te s t u d e n ts i n J o u r n a lis m em barked on a s e r i e s o f c o n te n t s t u d i e s f o r b a c h e lo r t h e s e s i n 1926.
N e lso n Ja n s k y an d K enneth E . C o o k ,in s e p a r a t e r e - I
s e a r c h ,a n a l y z e d th e W is c o n s in S t a t e J o u r n a l .
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d i s c o v e r " t h e s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r o f th e new s" by t h e u s e o f f o u r c a t e g o r i e s ; c o n s t r u c t i v e , n e u t r a l ( o r p u r e l y in f o r m a ti v e ) ,h a r m le s s e n t e r t a i n m e n t , and h a rm fu l o r a n t i - s o c i a l .
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s t r u c t i v e news t o b e a r t i c l e s on g o v e rn m e n t, p o l i t i c s , b u s i n e s s ,
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a g r i c u l t u r e , l a b o r , r e l i g i o n , c h u rc h e s , e d u c a tio n , h e a l t h , s o c i a l w e l f a r e , s c i e n c e , d i s c o v e r i e s and i n v e n t i o n , and f i n e a r t s .
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f u l m a t e r i a l w ould b e a r t i c l e s r e f e r r i n g t o crim e and d e a th .
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T h e ir sam ple c o n s i s t e d o f f o u r i s s u e s o f th e W isc o n sin ■
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S t a t e J o u r n a l f o r t h e f i r s t F r i d a y , th e se co n d T h u rs d a y , t h e t h i r d 3 W ednesday, and t h e f o u r t h T uesd ay o f J a n u a r y , 1926. No s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s came fro m t h e s e s t u d i e s .
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two s t u d e n t s who worked on t h e same sam ple w ith th e same p ro b le m ,
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w h ich w ould seem to s u g g e s t t h e r e m ust have b e e n c o n s i d e r a b le s u b - j j e c t i v i t y i n t h e c a t e g o r i e s o r t h a t th e i n v e s t i g a t o r s w ere i n e x 27 p e r ie n c e d o r c a r e l e s s .
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t h e L o u i s v i l l e C o u r ie r J o u r n a l .
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o f ’’w e ig h te d s p a c e ” i n an a tte m p t t o d e te rm in e news p l a y .
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schem e was f o rm u la te d by th e W is c o n s in f a c u l t y o f J o u r n a lis m . Woodward th o u g h t t h a t t h i s sy s te m m ig h t r e p r e s e n t a r e a l r e f i n e m ent i n m eth o d o lo g y .
Sim pson q u e s tio n e d th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s
c o n t r i b u t i o n i f i t s m e r i t depended upon th e s t u d i e s j u s t m e n tio n e d . Sim pson was o f t h e o p in io n t h a t a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n c o n c e rn in g th e v a lu e o f t h i s scheme w ould have t o be b a s e d on g r e a t e r f a m i l i a r i t y 28 o f th e r e s u l t s . T hese s t u d i e s w ere p e r t i n e n t b e c a u se o f th e gro w in g im p o r ta n c e o f th e n e w sp a p er.
The c u lm in a tio n o f th e Tenny s t u d i e s
was th e M alcolm W ille y s tu d y on th e c o u n try new sp ap er In 1926. W i l l e y 's s tu d y i s w ith o u t a d o u b t th e magnum opus o f th e f i e l d . 8
I t was h i s a ssu m p tio n t h a t th e m ain f u n c t i o n o f th e c o u n tr y n ew s-
j
p a p e r was t o p r i n t ite m s c o n c e rn in g th e s m a ll com m unity.
j
He u se d a s a sam ple 840 i s s u e s o f t h i r t y - f i v e C o n n e c tic u t
|
w e e k lie s f o r th e y e a r o f 1922, t a k i n g th e f i r s t f o u r i s s u e s o f I 29 I e a c h a l t e r n a t e m onth b e g in n in g w ith F e b ru a r y . From h i s f i n d i n g s jj he worked o u t th e p e rc e n ta g e o f l o c a l news a p p e a rin g In t h e w eeklie s .
I t was W il l e y ’ s o p in io n t h a t a t l e a s t o n e - h a l f o r m ore o f
th e r e a d in g m a t e r i a l i n c o u n tr y p a p e rs s h o u ld b e l o c a l new s.
H is
1
| ! S I j
f i n d i n g s , h o w ev er, i n d i c a t e d t h a t su c h was n o t th e c a s e and t h e r e - j f o r e , in h i s o p in io n , th e C o n n e c tic u t w e e k lie s w ere n o t p e rfo r m in g
j
t h e i r p rim a ry f u n c t i o n .
j § § I | 1
' H is c a t e g o r i e s , w hich a r e w id e ly known and w hich h av e b een u t i l i z e d b y num erous a n a l y s t s , a r e a s f o l lo w s :
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission.
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Main h e a d in g s : 1 -6 C iv ic o r P o l i t i c a l Hews 7 -1 0 Econom ic News 1 1 -2 0 C u l t u r a l News 2 1 -2 7 S e n s a t i o n a l News 2 8 -3 0 S p o r t News 3 1 -36 P e r s o n a l News 3 7 -4 0 O p in io n 41 Human I n t e r e s t M a t e r i a l 4 2 -4 5 M agazine M a t e r i a l 46 -4 9 M is c e lla n e o u s M a tte r S u b h e a d in g s : 1 . D om estic P o l i t i c a l News 2 . F o re ig n P o l i t i c a l News 3 . D ip lo m a tic C o rre sp o n d e n c e and I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e la ti o n s 4 . A d m i n is tr a t iv e , J u d i c i a l , and L e g i s l a t i v e News 5* ffHome Town H e lp s ” and Community D evelopm ent 6 . O th e r P o l i t i c a l News 7 . L ab o r News 8 . I n d u s t r i a l , C om m ercial, F i n a n c i a l News 9 . P r i c e and S u p p ly o f N e c e s s i t i e s 1 0. O th e r Econom ic News 1 1 . S c ie n c e , I n v e n t i o n and D is c o v e ry 1 2 . A rt N otes and C r i t i c i s m 1 3 . Amusement N o tes and A nnouncem ents 14. L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m 1 5 . Books and P u b l i s h e r s ’ N otes 16. E d u c a tio n a l News 17. R e lig io u s News 1 8 . S o c i a l S e r v ic e and P h i l a n t h r o p i c News 1 9 . H e a lth , S a n i t a t i o n and S a f e t y 2 0 . O th e r C u l t u r a l News 2 1 . Crime and C rim in a l P ro c e d u re 2 2 . A c c id e n ts 2 3 . P u b lic W e lfa re A d m in is tr a tio n 2 4. C iv il S u its 2 5 . S u ic id e 2 6 . D iv o rc e 2 7 . O th e r Crime and C a ta s tr o p h e s 2 8 . S p o r ts 2 9 . O u tin g s and C e le b r a tio n s 3 0 . O th e r S p o r ts 3 1 . B io g ra p h y 3 2 . I n t e r e s t in P e rs o n s 3 3 . I n t e r e s t i n T h in g s 3 4 . S o c i e t y and F r a t e r n a l News 3 5 . H o lid a y s and Commemorative E x e r c is e s 3 6 . O th e r P e r s o n a l News 37. O rig in a l E d ito r ia ls 3 8 . R e p r in te d E d i t o r i a l s 3 9 . C om m unications t o th e E d i t o r 4 0 . C a rto o n s
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41« 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49.
Human I n t e r e s t S t o r i e s S t o r i e s and M agazine M a t e r i a l The M en's P ag e The Woman’ s Page P h o to g ra p h s F ille r R o u tin e N o tic e s The W eath er 30 T J n c la s s if ia h le M a t e r i a l .
W i l l e y ’ s r e s u l t s showed t h a t t h e f i v e s o c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t c a t e g o r i e s , t h a t i s , p o l i t i c a l , eco n o m ic, c u l t u r a l , s p o r t s , and
j !
o p in io n , made up o n ly a s m a ll p e r c e n ta g e o f th e t o t a l r e a d i n g m at^f te r.
No s e a s o n a l f l u c t u a t i o n s w ere n o t i c e a b l e in human i n t e r e s t
s t o r i e s , e d i t o r i a l s an d th e m is c e lla n e o u s c a t e g o r i e s .
Some f l u c t u
a t i o n s d id o c c u r i n p o l i t i c a l , c u l t u r a l and s p o r t s news when t h e s e e v e n ts came i n t o s e a s o n .
Rank o r d e r from th e h i g h e s t t o th e lo w e s t
c a te g o r y c o n te n t was p l o t t e d w ith r e s p e c t t o ’’th e p e r s i s t e n c y and c o n s i s t e n c y ” w ith w h ich th e s e v e r a l ty p e s o f c a t e g o r i e s o f r e a d in g m a tte r o c cu r.
The o r d e r was a s f o l lo w s ; s p o r t s , p o l i t i c a l , m i s c e l - j
l a n e o u s , c u l t u r a l , human i n t e r e s t , eco n o m ic, s e n s a t i o n a l , m a g a z in e ,
j
o p i n io n , and p e r s o n a l .
F o u r o f th e f i v e " s o c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t " 31 c a t e g o r i e s w ere h ig h on t h e l i s t o f v a r i a b i l i t y .
| j
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f W i l l e y 's r e s u l t s w e re ; he made a d e -
§
l i b e r a t e a tte m p t t o m ea su re s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n ; t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e -
|
tw een "sh o p s e t " and " b o i l e r p l a t e " i n c l a s s i f y i n g news a r t i c l e s ;
j
t o o b j e c t i f y th e p r o c e s s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n by u s i n g th e n e w s p a p e r- j m a n 's c o n c e p t o f th e "W hat" o f th e news s t o r y , fo u n d alw ay s i n t h e
j
f i r s t s e n te n c e o r " l e a d " a s a b a s i s f o r m aking d e c i s i o n s ; t o e x -
| f
am ine i n t o p o s s i b l e r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n v a r i a b l e
3
am ounts o f news fo u n d I n two c a t e g o r i e s ; a n d , t o c o n s t r u c t a n i n d e x j o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t h a t i s , t o m easu re th e te n d e n c y o f t h i r t y - f i v e
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40
n e w sp a p e rs a s a w hole t o d e v o te a c e r t a i n p r o p o r t io n o f t h e i r 32 a v a i l a b l e sp a c e t o news o f a g iv e n t y p e , W ille y ’ s w e ak n esses w ere t h a t h i s sam ple was n o t l a r g e enough and t h a t h i s news c a t e 33 g o rg e s la c k e d o b j e c t i v i t y . W ith o u t a d o u b t,W ille y ’ s c o n t r i b u t i o n was a c o n s i d e r a b le ad v an ce o v e r t h e m ethod i n p r e v io u s y e a r s . S t u a r t R ic e and W* W. W eaver, i n 1929, t e s t e d W i l l e y 's schem e by a tt e m p t in g to answ er two q u e s t io n s .
One, may th e v a r i a
b i l i t y among t h e c l a s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f th e same news ite m s o f d i f f e r e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s be m easu red ? b ility .
T h is was a p ro b lem i n r e l i a
S e c o n d ly , w i l l th e v a r i a t i o n , i f a s c e r t a i n e d , be s u f f i -
j
c i e n t l y low a s t o i n d i c a t e th e e x i s t e n c e o f c o m p a r a b ility i n t h e i r | r e s u l t s , i f a p p li e d t o d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l ?
The l a t t e r w ould n e c e s - j
s i t a t . e i th e d ev elo p m en t o f w hat was c a l l e d t h e " c o e f f i c i e n t o f a g g r e g a t e v a r i a t i o n , " a m easu re w h ich was b u i l t upon th e f a m i l i a r a v e r a g e d e v i a t i o n , b u t w h ic h , i n co m b in in g t h e a v e ra g e d e v ia ti o n s o f th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s i n th e d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s i n t o a s i n g l e
S
c o e f f i c i e n t , to o k a c c o u n t o f t h e i r in te r d e p e n d e n c e . T h is was 34 e m p iric a l. They fo und t h a t v a r i a t i o n s i n th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
I
th e same new ite m s o c c u r r e d . an sw e r t o th e se co n d p ro b le m .
They w ere n o t s a t i s f i e d w ith th e They f e l t , how ever, t h a t t h e " c o e f -
jj I g §\
f i c i e n t o f a g g re g a te v a r i a t i o n " was a v a lu a b le in s tr u m e n t f o r th o se ! 35 who d e s i r e d s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n i n t h e f u t u r e . g From t h e s t a n d p o in t o f s c i e n t i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n in method-*o lo g y i n a c o n c e n tr a te d e f f o r t t o r e f i n e t h e f i e l d , th e s tu d y o f
j g
s i g n i f i c a n t im p o rt i s t h a t o f J . L. Woodward o f Colum bia U n i v e r s i ts f q
A f t e r a re v ie w o f m ajo r d i f f i c u l t i e s i n th e a r e a up t o 1 9 3 0 ,j Woodward, th ro u g h a s e r i e s o f r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s , a tte m p te d t o
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission .
j
41 an sw er some o f t h e • u n s e ttle d p ro b lem s o f th e s e e a r l i e r s c h o l a r s . He a p p lie d t h e p ro b lem s t o f o r e i g n news r e p o r t i n g i n A m erican new s p a p ers.
I n o r d e r t o t e s t th e a d eq u a cy o f a sam ple, he to o k a n i n e
m onths p e r io d fro m J a n u a ry t o O c to b e r i n 1927 and m easu red s p a c e . He p r e c i s e l y d e f in e d f o r e i g n new s, t o t a l news and a news ite m . H e a d lin e s w ere e x c lu d e d fro m e n u m e ra tio n . He fo u n d t h a t f i v e o r s i x p e r c e n t o f t h e news was d e v o te d 36 t o f o r e i g n news i n p e a c e tim e . He c o n c lu d e d t h a t sp a c e u n i t was 37 more im p o r ta n t th a n ite m c o u n tin g . One o f th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s by Woodward w as: th e i m p l i c a ti o n s f o r f u t u r e re s e a rc h !: 38 He l i s t e d f i f t e e n p o s s i b l e s t u d i e s n eed ed t o c l a r i f y th e f i e l d . Woodward s u g g e s te d * in 1934, t h a t a B u reau o f N ew spaper A n a l y s i s . sh o u ld be e s t a b l i s h e d ,r u n n i n g in d e x num bers o f n ew sp ap er c o n te n t in s ta n d a r d iz e d c a t e g o r i e s f o r a s t a n d a r d l i s t o f p a p e r s . T hese would be p u b lis h e d p e r i o d i c a l l y and w ould be a n a lo g o u s t o th e commodity p r o d u c tio n , p r i c e , unem ploym ent and o t h e r i n d i c e s ; p ro v id e d by v a r io u s g o v e rn m e n ta l a g e n c ie s , b u s in e s s s e r v i c e s , and re se a rc h in s titu tio n s .
T hus, Woodward f e l t t h a t t h i s w ould make 39 f o r a n i n t e l l i g e n t c h o ic e o f n ew sp ap er s e l e c t i o n . C a r r o l l D. C la rk , i n 1931 t r a c e d th e h i s t o r y o f news p r e s e n t a t i o n from p e r s o n - to - p e r s o n g o s s ip d i s c u s s i o n t o m odern new s
p a p e r s In w e s te rn n a ti o n s and f i n a l l y t b th e p r e s s Of t h i s c o u n tr y . F o r ex am ple, he s k e tc h e d t h e tr e n d s i n n e w sp a p er p u b l i c i t y I n d i c a t in g th e i n f lu e n c e o f s y n d i c a t i o n , s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n , c o n s o l i d a t i o n , 40 c h a in o w n e rsh ip , and th e r i s e o f t a b l o i d s . H is a s s u m p tio n was t h a t news c o u ld be c l a s s i f i e d fro m th e s t a n d p o in t o f th e r e a d e r 's r e a d i n e s s f o r r e s p o n s e .
S in c e , i n h i s
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= f 42 o p in io n , p e o p le have no p r e c o n c e iv e d r e s p o n s e s f o r th e human i n t e r e s t m a t e r i a l ,b e c a u s e i t i s s i t u a t i o n a l , a c t i v i t y re b o u n d s i n t h e fo rm o f e m o tio n .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , r a t i o n a l u n d e r s ta n d in g i s 41 t h e b a s i s o f i n f o r m a ti o n a l new s, and r e s p o n s e s a r e im m e d ia te . C la r k u se d a s a sam ple 1 2 ,0 0 0 news ite m s fro m d i f f e r e n t n e w sp a p ers C la r k made an in n o v a tio n i n t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n schem e in t h a t h e em ployed a s o c i o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f view and d iv id e d news i n t o two m a jo r t y p e s , human i n t e r e s t and i n f o r m a t i o n a l .
The fo rm e r
r e f e r s t o e m o tio n a l ite m s w ith b ro a d a p p e a l w h ich a r e p la c e d i n th e m o st p ro m in e n t p o s i t i o n , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r i s m e th o d ic a l and t e c h n i c a l i n p r e s e n t a t i o n and d e p a r tm e n ta liz e d .
TJnder t h e s e m ain d i 42 v i s i o n s many d e t a i l e d s u b d i v i s i o n s w ere p o s s i b l e . C la r k c o n c lu d e d t h a t news i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o s o c i a l change.
He s t a t e d t h a t new s: ...p r o v id e s u n iv e rs e o f c o n trib u te s m o ra l o r d e r
w hat i s p e rh a p s t h e o n ly i n c l u s i v e d i s c o u r s e i n p r e s e n t s o c i e t y , and m a te r ia lly to th e u n if ic a tio n o f th e and th e p o p u l a r i z a t i o n o f k n o w led g e.
I n th e same y e a r a s C l a r k ’ s s t u d y fro m th e U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o , I r e n e B. T a u b e r, i n Changes i n t h e C o n te n t and P r e s e n t a t i o n o f R eading M a t e r i a l i n M in n eso ta W eekly N ew spapers r e p o r t e d on h e r s tu d y . She u se d a s h e r sam ple 656 i s s u e s o f t h i r t y M in n eso ta c o u n tr y n e w sp a p e rs .
Among h e r f i n d i n g s w ere th e f o l lo w in g ; t h e r e
h av e b een f a r r e a c h in g c h an g e s In r e a d in g c o n t e n t , b o th c o n s c io u s an d u n c o n s c io u s on t h e p a r t o f j o u r n a l is m s c h o o ls , i n d i v i d u a l e d i t o r s and e d i t o r i a l a s s o c i a t i o n s ; t h a t a n I n d i v i d u a l e d i t o r i n f l u e n c e s th e p a t t e r n o f h i s own p a p e r , b u t t h a t i n f l u e n c e I s
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43 1 44 r e l a te d to th e c u rr e n t p r a c t ic e ;
t h a t t h e r e was a s te a d y d e c l i n e
■■**
i ■
o f m ag azin e m a t e r i a l i n f a v o r o f news fro m 1900 t o 1929; t h a t th e p r o p o r t i o n o f a l l news w hich was s h o p - s e t i n c r e a s e d fro m a p p r o x i m a te ly 50$ t o a lm o s t 9 0 $ ,due t o t h e c o m p e titio n o f d a i l y new spapeife i n c r e a s e d c o n c e n tr a ti o n on l o c a l e v e n t s .
The o n ly hope f o r
s u r v i v a l o f t h e c o u n try w eekly was i n th e n o n -c o m p e tin g f i e l d o f c om ing sr:snd 'g o in g s o f l o c a l p e o p le .
M o reover, sh e c o n c lu d e d t h a t
c o n te n t i s i n f lu e n c e d d i r e c t l y by ch an g es i n c u l t u r e i n w h ich i t e x i s t s , a lth o u g h t h e sy ste m o f a n a l y s i s g iv e s a v e r y in a d e q u a te 45 p i c t u r e o f t h e s e c h a n g e s. T au b e r w orked o u t a fo rm u la f o r th e e x t e n t o f th e u s e o f th e h e a d lin e w h ich was d e te rm in e d b y f i n d i n g th e r a t i o b etw een th e num ber o f colum n in c h e s o f h e a d lin e and t h e number o f column in c h e s o f m a t e r i a l e x c lu s iv e o f h e a d lin e m u l t i p l i e d by 100.
The
y i e l d fro m h e r s tu d y by th e u se o f t h i s fo rm u la showed a n i n c r e a s e fro m 2 . 7 t o 1 1 .5 f o r th e w hole p a p e r and fro m 2 .4 t o 2 0 .2 f o r t h e f r o n t page.
She a l s o w orked o u t a n " in d e x o f e m p h a sis” i n co n
n e c t i o n w ith se v e n o f W i l l e y 's c a t e g o r i e s .
She d e te rm in e d t h i s
b y d i v i d i n g th e p r o p o r t io n o f any one c a te g o r y o f news a p p e a rin g on th e f r o n t page by t h e p r o p o r t io n o f a l l news in t h e p a p e r a p p e a r i n g on th e f r o n t p a g e .
A r a t i o o f more th a n one i n d i c a t e d
t h a t a c e r t a i n ty p e o f news had b e e n s e l e c t e d f o r f r o n t page p l a y . I n 1929, p e r s o n a l and e d i t o r i a l c a t e g o r i e s had an In d e x o f e m p h asis o f l e s s th a n one, w h ile s p o r t s , s e n s a t i o n a l , c i v i c , econom ic and c u l t u r a l news showed a mean in d e x o f em phasis o f more th a n o n e . T h is was one o f th e f i r s t s t u d i e s t o a p p ly a r e l i a b i l i t y t e a t . , "An e m p i r ic a l t e s t o f t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
44
was made by re -m e a s u rin g a su b -sa m p le o f t e n o f th e t h i r t y p a p e rs f o r 1920 and i n no c a s e w ere t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s u f 46 f i c i e n t t o v i t i a t e th e tr e n d s d i s c o v e r e d .” S usan K in g sb u ry , Borne 11 N. B a r t , and A s s o c ia te a ,- in 1933, s e t o u t , i n a s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s , t o m easure th e e t h i c s o f A m erican new s p a p e rs by sp e c tru m a n a l y s i s .
More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e y w an ted t o s e e
i f th e . in d ic tm e n t made a g a i n s t new sp ap ers was j u s t , t h a t i s , i f th e y 47 w ere b a s e , f a l s e and v e n a l p u b l i c a t i o n s . T h is sp e c tru m o f news i n t e r e s t to o k i n t o c o n s i d e r a ti o n th e e f f e c t d i r e c t l y t o p e r s o n a l w e lf a r e (consum er i n t e r e s t ) , th e e f f e c t s on community o r n a t i o n o f w h ich th e p e rs o n i s a p a r t ( s o c i a l i z e d i n t e r e s t ) , a n d , t h e a p p e a l o f th e s t o r y t o th e i n d i v i d u a l th ro u g h v i c a r i o u s e x p e r ie n c e s ( s e n s a tio n a l in te r e s t) . The sam ple c o n s is te d o f t e n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e week days b etw een J u l y 10 and 2 1 , 1929 o f tw e lv e New Y ork C ity p a p e r s .
L a te r ,th ir ty -
two a d d i t i o n a l p a p e rs i n o t h e r g e o g r a p h ic a l a r e a s w ere a d d e d . H e a d lin e s w ere u se d i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e sp e c tru m in d e x e s because; F i r s t , page h e a d lin e s a r e re a d more e a s i l y and more c o n s i s t e n t l y th a n any o th e r p a r t o f th e p a p e r j hen ce th e y have th e m ost p o w e rfu l in f lu e n c e on p u b l ic o p in io n . S eco n d , h e a d lin e s b i d f o r th e a t t e n t i o n o f r e a d e r s . . . c o n s t i t u t e an avowed ep ito m e o f th e p a p e r Ts news p o l i c i e s . T h ir d , e x p e rie n c e i n t h i s s tu d y has shown t h a t th e su b j e c t m a tte r i n th e t e x t o f th e a r t i c l e c o rre s p o n d s t o c l o s e l y w ith th e s u b j e c t s i n d i c a t e d i n th e h e a d lin e s t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e would r e s u l t fro m co n s i d e r i n g th e e n t i r e body o f p r i n t e d m a t t e r i n s t e a d o f m e re ly t h e h e a d s . F o u r th , economy o f tim e r e s u l t i n g from th e h e a d lin e m ethod e x te n d s th e sco p e and i n c r e a s e s th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t o an e x te n t f a r ^ o u tw e ig h in g any p o s s i b l e s a c r i f i c e o f m in u te p r e e i s i o n . 48
R e p ro du ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission.
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45
The a s s a y was made by means o f a s p e c tru m i n w h ich tw e n ty t h r e e l i n e s o f i n t e r e s t u n d e r ly in g news s t o r i e s w ere a rr a n g e d i n d e s c e n d in g o r d e r , b e g in n in g w ith th o s e f e a t u r e d m ost by p a p e r s co n c e rn e d w ith p ro b lem s o f com m unity, n a t i o n a l and w o rld c i t i z e n s h i p , and r u n n in g down to th o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p a p e r s w hich c o n c e n 49 t r a t e d on c ru d e e m o tio n a l t h r i l l s . E o rty ^ -fo u r p a p e rs w ere a s s a y e d by t h i s m eth o d .
The Hew
Y o rk D a ily M irr o r r e p r e s e n te d th e m ost e x tre m e s e n s a t i o n a l i s m w i t h
16.5%
o f t h e news r e f e r r i n g t o s e x .
t a b l o i d d e v o te d
20.9%
The m o st w id e ly c i r c u l a t e d
o f t h e news to t h i s t o p i c .
The C h r i s t i a n
S c ie n c e M o n ito r was th e h i g h e s t f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n . The p a p e r w hich gave a d e q u a te p r e s e n t a t i o n to a l l th e i n t e r e s t s a t th e c i t i z e n s h i p end o f th e sp e c tru m was c o n s id e r e d th e optim um p a p e r.
C i t i z e n s h i p news r e c e iv e d
10.6%
o f t h e news i n th e T im es.
T h ree p a p e rs c o n c e n tr a te d to w ard t h e to p end o f t h e s p e c tru m , t h e H e r a ld - T r ib u n e . Times and th e P o s t . I t i s p r o t e s t e d som etim es t h a t th e n ew sp a p ers th e m s e lv e s have c r e a t e d th e a p p e t i t e f o r s e n s a t i o n a l new s; t a b l o i d s o f v e r y r e c e n t c r e a t i o n have le a p e d su d d e n ly i n t o t h e l e a d i n c i r c u l a t i o n . “ The b u lk o f th e n ew sp ap er r e a d in g p u b l ic r e a c t s e m o tio n a lly r a t h e r th a n i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , and h a s n o t p r o g r e s s e d much i n s o c i a l i z a t i o n beyond th e p o i n t o f s y m p a th e tic t h r i l l s t o sob s t o r i e s and 50 sm a sh u p s.” The N a tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n o f N ew spaper E d i t o r s s t a t e d t h a t " th e p rim a ry f u n c t i o n o f n ew sp a p ers i s t o com m unicate t o t h e human r a c e w hat i t s members do:,: f e e l , and t h i n k . "
To t h i s f u n c t i o n 5 t h e A s s o c ia t io n b e li e v e d t h a t s e n s a t i o n a l news made a c o n t r i b u t i o n
I f t h r i l l s c an be g iv e n w ith o u t s e r i o u s damage t o th e p e o p le
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in v o lv e d i n t h e s t o r i e s , w ith o u t s t i m u l a t i n g c rim e , w ith o u t o th e r i n j u r y t o p u b l i c w e l f a r e , th e y f e l t i t a le g iti.m a .te f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r e s s t o f u r n i s h t h i s v i c a r i o u s e m o tio n a l e x p e r ie n c e . K in g sb u ry and a s s o c i a t e s c o n c lu d e d t h a t s e n s a t i o n a l j o u r n a l ism p e rfo rm e d a n amusem ent f u n c t i o n p e c u l i a r l y open t o a b u s e s and t h a t s o c i a l i z a t i o n jo u r n a lis m p e rfo rm e d a s e r v i c e i n d is p e n s a b l e t o th e o p e r a t i o n o f o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n .
The s p e c tru m a n a l y s i s o f h e a d
l i n e c o n te n t p ro m ise d a m ethod f o r d e t a i l e d c o m p a riso n o f t h e i n t e r e s t s a p p e a le d t o by d i f f e r e n t p a p e r s i n th e same com m unity o r in t h e same r e g i o n , and f o r com paring th e g e o g ra p h ic d i f f e r e n c e s 52 in p ap ers o f d i f f e r e n t re g io n s . F i n a l l y , th e y b e li e v e d t h a t t h e c h an c e e le m e n t (w h ich may th u s f a l s i f y th e r e s u l t s o f i n t e n s i v e a n a l y s e s o f i n d i v i d u a l e p is o d e s i n p a p e r s g i v in g them l i t t l e
to ta l
s p a c e ) c o u ld be e li m in a te d i f a s u f f i c i e n t num ber o f e p is o d e s w ere 53 s t u d i e d and th e in d e x e s o f e a c h p a p e r a n a ly z e d . E o r n e l l H a r t* in 1934*i n d i c a t e d , fro m th e a t t e n t i o n in m a g a z in e s in d e x e d i n t h e R e a d e r ’ s Guide fro m 1 9 0 5 -1 9 3 1 , t h e f o l lo w in g m ost o u t s t a n d i n g t r e n d s ; 1 . R e lig io u s s a n c t i o n s h ave b e e n l a r g e l y d i s p l a c e d by s c i e n t i f i c s a n c t i o n s i n d i s c u s s i o n s p u b lis h e d in l e a d in g m a g a z i n e s . • A n t a g o n is ti c c r i t i c i s m s o f th e c h u rc h , o f m i n i s t e r s and o f t r a d i t i o n a l c re e d s re a c h e d a maximum i n 1925-1928 and s t i l l e x c e e d th e volum e o f f a v o r a b le comment. 2 . S e x u a l i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , e a s y d iv o r c e and s e x fre e d o m i n g e n e r a l have r e c e n t l y b e e n a p p r o v e d . . . . 3 . O p p o s itio n t o p r o h i b i t i o n had in c r e a s e d by 1931 t o f i v e tim e s th e am ount e x p re s s e d i n 1914.
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
]
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4 . D is c u s s io n o f econom ic an d p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s h as shown th e f o llo w in g t e n d e n c i e s , among o t h e r s ; I n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t i n s o c i a l u p l i f t and r e f o r m . . . . D is c u s s io n o f th e s o c i a l i s m , communism an d o th e r r a d i c a l p r o p o s a l s , h u t t h e o p p o s i t io n e x p re s s e d was ■■ o v erw h elm in g . S c i e n t i f i c m anagem ent, i n d u s t r i a l g o o d w ill, low p r i c e s and h ig h w ag es, s e r v i c e t o th e c o n s u m e r.. .becam e f a v o r i t e s lo g a n s from 1915 t o 1928. A new and u n p re c e n d e n te d wave o f d i s c u s s i o n on u n em ploym ent and b u s in e s s c o n d it i o n s has d e v e lo p e d d u r in g th e d e p r e s s io n . 5 . I n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , th e W orld War f i r s t i n t e n s i f i e d th e a g i t a t i o n f o r m i l i t a r y p r e p a r e d n e s s , th e n l e d t o a wave o f e n th u s ia s m f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o u r t s and I n t e r n a t i o n a l governm ent and f i n a l l y p r o duced a new and g ro w in g demand f o r r e d u c t io n o f arm am ents. 54 The n e x t t h r e e s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e an a tte m p t t o m easu re c e r t a i n e x p l i c i t p a r t s o f a n e w sp a p e r, e d i t o r i a l a t t i t u d e s , l e t t e r s t o th e e d i t o r , and w ant a d s . C h ilto n R* B u sh * in 1935*d e s i r e d t o know i f th e T h u rs to n te c h n iq u e was o f much v a lu e in th e m easurem ent o f th e m ost common e d i t o r i a l e x p r e s s io n s as r e f l e c t i n g a t t i t u d e ?
Or d id i t u s e f u l l y
m easu re e d i t o r i a l a t t i t u d e o n ly when i t r e f e r r e d t o a m a jo r h i s to r ic a l c ris is ? E d i t o r i a l a t t i t u d e to w a rd th e S o v ie t reg im e b etw een 1930 and 1934 from th e T im es. C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r, th e San F r a n c is c o C h r o n ic a l. San F r a n c is c o Hews and San F r a n c is c o E x am in er was exam ined.
E d i t o r a l s w ere c o p ie d and re d u c e d t o a p a ra g ra p h
and th e n g iv e n t o f o u r t e e n ju d g e s to r a n k .
The a v e ra g e n ew sp a p er
was c o n s i s t e n t l y h o s t i l e t o th e re g im e , th o u g h l e s s so d u r in g 1933, 55 t h e y e a r o f r e c o g n i t i o n , th a n a t any o t h e r tim e . S u b je c tiv ity i n su c h a m ethod i s h ig h ly q u e s t i o n a b l e .
Bush f e l t t h a t th e weak
n e s s o f th e m ethod was p r i m a r i l y th e w eakness o f t h e e d i t o r i a l
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission .
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its e lf.
The A m erican new spaper e d i t o r i a l i s a comment on a h ap p en
in g .
U n le s s so m e th in g f a i r l y im p o rta n t h ap p en s t h e r e i s no ffnews 56 p e g ” on w h ich t o hang an e d i t o r i a l comment. The se c o n d w eakness was a s t a t i s t i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h a t i s , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f d a ta w ith o u t r e f e r e n c e to t h e i r s e t t i n g in a v a lu e sy s te m .
A ssig n m e n t
o f a m a th e m a tic a l v a lu e t o a v e r b a l e x p r e s s io n o f a t t i t u d e c a n n o t 57 m easu re t h e s u b j e c t i v e a t t i t u d e o f th e e d i t o r . J . S . P o s te r and C. J . P r i e d r i c k t r i e d t o m easure t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p ro p ag an d a by a n a ly z in g t h e l e t t e r s t o e d i t o r s . T h e ir w ork was s u g g e s tiv e and n o t r e f i n e d .
They made a s c a l e con
s i s t i n g o f th o s e s u b j e c t s r e c e i v i n g th e m o st l e t t e r s and th o s e su b j e c t s t h a t r e c e iv e d no a t t e n t i o n .
They a l s o t a b u l a t e d th e o c c a s io n
o r e v e n t t h a t c au se d th e l e t t e r t o be w r i t t e n t o g e t h e r w ith th e l e t t e r s t h a t w ere u n p u b lis h e d by th e e d i t o r .
0 ne e d i t o r s a i d t h a t
he a v o id e d i s s u e s l i k e l y t o s t i r up r a c e h a t r e d , su c h a s th e 58 S c o tts b o r o c a s e . S e v e rs o n coded ads w hich a p p e a re d on th e f i r s t Sunday i n e a c h m onth from 1 8 7 2 -1 9 3 7 ,i n c l u s i v e , i n The C hicago T rib u n e f o r r a c i a l and r e l i g i o u s r e s t r i c t i o n s .
I n summary, he s t a t e d t h a t :
th e b e g in n in g o f s i g n i f i c a n t o p p o s itio n t o Jew s in C hicago can be d a te d , a s can o p p o s itio n t o Jew s in summer r e s o r t s ; t h a t th e a n t i - C a t h o l i c and a n t i - J e w i s h cam paigns o f th e 1 9 2 0 ’s had c o m p a ra tiv e ly l i t t l e e f f e c t i n a c c e n t u a t i n g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n em ploym ent; t h a t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n employment c a n n o t be e x p la in e d s o l e l y i n econom ic te r m s ; t h a t i t c a n n o t be e x p la in e d s o le ly as a r e s u l t of t r a d i t i o n a l s te re o ty p e s as t h i s e x p la n a tio n w ould n o t a c c o u n t f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e in p r o p o r t io n o f d i s c r i m i n a t i n g ads o v e r th e tim e p e r i o d , and t h a t th e p a r t i c u l a r e x ig e n c y o f th e o c c a s io n was t h e com ing i n t o th e c l e r i c a l m a rk e t, p a r t i c u l a r l y o f g i r l s i n t o ty p in g and s te n o g ra p h y , o f s e c o n d - g e n e r a tio n E a s t E u ro p ean im m ig ra n ts . 59
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
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Gordon W. A l l p o r t , an d J a n e t M. F a d e n ,in 1 9 4 0 ,th r o u g h th e a n a l y s i s o f t h e t r e a tm e n t 't h a t e i g h t B o sto n n e w s p a p e r s ,in 1939,
f
a c c o rd e d t h e r e v i s i o n o f th e N e u t r a l i t y A c t, o f f e r e d f i v e g e n e r a l i - j z a t i o n s a s t e n t a t i v e law s i n th e new f i e l d o f th e p s y c h o lo g y o f
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n e w sp a p e rs .
I
They w e re , t h a t i s s u e s a r e s k e l e t o n i z e d ; an y g iv e n
n e w s p a p e r’s f i e l d o f i n f l u e n c e i s w e l l p a t t e r n e d ; r e a d e r s a r e more e m o tio n a l th a n e d i t o r s ; p u b l i c i n t e r e s t , a s r e f l e c t e d i n n e w sp a p ers, i s v a r i a b l e i n tim e , and p u b l i c i n t e r e s t r a p i d l y f a t i g u e s and 60 p r e s s e s f o r an e a r l y c l o s u r e . A r e l i a b i l i t y t e s t and r e s u l t s showed th e f o l lo w in g ; A m ixed sam ple o f t h i r t y i s s u e s o f th e p a p e r s w ere a n a ly z e d by two c o d e rs.
On i n c l u s i o n , d is c r e p a n c y was m a in ly i n m in o r a r t i c l e s ;
on am ount o f s p a c e , f o r news ite m s , a g re e m e n t i n .
90.7%;
fo r e d ito ria ls ,
92.3%;
f o r c o lu m n s,
67.1%;
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in c h e s was !
fo r d ire c tio n ,
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a g re e m e n t was 86# :f o r news s t o r i e s , 90#- f o r e d i t o r i a l s and 70#
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f o r co lu m n s; f o r news c o l o r i n g o f news ite m s , t h a t i s , i n c l u s i o n
I
.o f p e r s o n a l v ie w s , was 9 5 .9 # ,b u t t h e r e w ere v e ry few c a s e s .
I
I n summary, i t a p p e a rs t h a t i n n ew sp ap er a n a l y s i s o f th e ty p e h e re r e p o r t e d , t h e p ro b lem o f i n c l u s i o n e x c l u s i o n i s th e m ost s e r i o u s . . . The w r i t i n g o f c o lu m n is ts seem t o be th e h a r d e s t f o r th e a n a l y s t s t o a g re e o n . 61 S in c e 1940, c o n s i d e r a b le im p e tu s h a s b e e n f e l t i n t h e f i e l d
j f f j j
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1 g o f c o n te n t a n a l y s i s b y H a ro ld D. L a s s w e ll, N athan L e i t e s and t h e i r jj a s s o c i a t e s , n a m e ly , Raymond F o d n e r, J o s e p h M. G o ld se n , A lan G rey ,
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I r v i n g 1 . J a n i s , Abraham K a p la n , D avid K a p la n , A le x a n d e r M in tz , I .
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D eSola P o o l and S e r g iu s Y akobson.
M o reover, t h e r e c o n tin u e s t o b e 3
a g ro w in g i n t e r e s t i n p ro p ag a n d a and p u b l i c o p in io n and t h e em er-
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g e n ce o f r a d i o a s a g r e a t m ass medium o f c o m m u n ic a tio n .62
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50
The in n o v a tio n made "by L a s s w e ll and a s s o c i a t e s was t h e v ie w in g o f com m unication p ro b lem s w i t h in th e fram ew ork o f a t h e o r y of p o litic s .
The s tr e a m o f p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o p o l i c y .
T h is i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n t o t a l i t a r i a n c o u n t r i e s , w here t h e p r e s s and o t h e r a g e n c ie s o f m ass com m unication a r e u n d e r s t r i c t 63 d is c ip lin e . They in tr o d u c e d new p ro b le m s , new p r o c e d u r e s , and new c a t e g o r i e s ,s u c h a s d i r e c t i o n , s ta n d a r d s o r g ro u n d and p s y c h o 64 a n a l y ti c a l ly o rie n te d c a te g o r ie s . I t was d u rin g W orld War I I t h a t c o n te n t a n a l y s i s was em p lo y e d by th e v a r io u s d e p a rtm e n ts o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s governm ent c h a rg e d w ith r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n th e f i e l d o f m ass co m m u n icatio n . The E x p e r im e n ta l D iv is io n f o r th e S tu d y o f W ar-Time C om m u n icatio n s, u n d e r L a s s w e ll ’ s d i r e c t i o n ,c o n d u c te d t h e "W orld A t t e n t i o n S u rv ey " th r o u g h a n a l y s i s o f m ajo r n ew sp a p ers show ing by c h a r t s th e amount o f a t t e n t i o n g iv e n t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s b e f o r e th e w ar and w h e th e r 65 i t was f a v o r a b le o r u n f a v o r a b le . The a ssu m p tio n in t h i s s tu d y was t h a t p e o p le re s p o n d t o an e n v iro n m e n t t h a t i s b ro u g h t to t h e i r n o t i c e .
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t o d e s c r i b e th e f l u c t u a t i n g f o r c e s o f c o l l e c t i v e a t t e n t i o n i f one i s t o t r a c e th e c o n n e c tio n s b e tw ee n e n v iro n m e n t and r e s p o n s e .
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o v e r , th e r e l a t e d p rom inence o f s e l e c t e d sym bols, l i k e t h e names o f l e a d e r s , n a t i o n s , p o l i c i e s , and I n s t i t u t i o n s , was p l o t t e d .
D is
t i n c t i o n s o f in d u lg e n c e , p o s i t i v e and n e g a t iv e ; d e p r i v a t i o n , p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e ,w e r e a n a ly z e d .
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s t a n d a r d s su c h a s , e x p e d ie n c y , s a f e t y , e f f i c i e n c y , p o w e r, g o o d s, r e s p e c t , m o r a l i t y , t r u t h - f a l s e h o o d , m e r c y - a t r o c i t y , h e ro is m -
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission
= 1 51 c o w a rd ic e , l o y a l t y - d i s l o y a l t y , p r o p r i e t y , d i v i n i t y , l e g a l i t y , 66
b e a u ty , c o n s i s t e n c y , p r o b a b i l i t y , e u p h o ria - d y s p h o r ia and om nibus. A s i m i l a r p r o j e c t , u n d e r th e s p o n s o rs h ip o f th e Hew S c h o o l o f S o c i a l R e s e a rc h i n Hew Y ork C ity , was d i r e c t e d by E r n s t K ris and 67 Hans S p o ie r on German R adio P ro p a g a n d a . The M edia B i v i s i o n o f th e O f f ic e o f War I n f o r m a tio n c o n d u c te d a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s to a s c e r t a i n th e t r e a tm e n t g iv e n v a r io u s w a r - r e l a t e d p roblem s i n th e n e w sp a p e rs , m a g a z in e s , r a d io p ro g ram s, n e w s r e e ls , and even th e comic s t r i p s .
P e rh a p s th e m ost im p o r ta n t a p p l i c a t i o n s o f c o n te n t
a n a l y s i s i n W ashington was made i n th e A n a ly s is D iv is io n o f th e F o re ig n B ro a d c a s t I n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e , F e d e r a l C om m unications C om m ission, w hich p r e p a r e d w eek ly and s p e c i a l r e p o r t s on th e b r o a d 68 c a s t s to and w i t h in t h i s h e m isp h e re fro m f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s . F i n a l l y , th e O r g a n iz a tio n and P ropaganda A n a ly s is S e c tio n o f th e S p e c ia l War P o l i c i e s U n i t , D ep artm en t o f J u s t i c e , em ployed c o n te n t a n a l y s i s te c h n iq u e in i t s i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e p ro p ag an d a o u tp u t o f v a r io u s s u s p e c t o r g a n iz a tio n s o r i n d i v i d u a l s .
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t o e s t a b l i s h a p a r a l l e l i s m b etw een su c h p ro p ag an d a and th e p ro p a ganda o f enemy c o u n t r i e s , t h e J u s t i c e D ep artm en t to o k i n t o c o u r t e x h i b i t s b a se d on c o n te n t a n a l y s i s and had them a c c e p te d a s l e g a l 69 e v id e n c e r e q u i r i n g th e te s tim o n y o f e x p e r t c o n te n t a n a l y s t s . L a s s w e ll and a s s o c i a t e s ,t h r o u g h p r e s e n t a t i o n s in s c i e n t i f i c j o u r n a l s and b o o k s,h a v e a tte m p te d t o b r i n g r e f in e m e n t to t h e t e c h n iq u e o f c o n te n t a n a l y s i s i n o r d e r t o have a s t a b l e b a s e o f com70 p a r i s o n , e s p e c i a l l y jh .r p o litie a lly s i g n i f i c a n t c o n te n t. Much a t 71 t e n t i o n h as b e e n p a id to th e m eaning o f sy m b o lic b e h a v io r and th e 72 th e o ry o f s ig n s . K aplan e la b o r a t e d t h r e e b a s i c d i s t i n c t i o n s
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52 b etw een c o n te n t a n a l y s i s and s e m i o t i c s :
(1 ) c o n te n t a n a l y s i s i s
c o n c e rn e d w ith s e m a n tic a l and som etim es s y n t a c t i c a l f e a t u r e s o f s i g n s , w h ereas s e m io tic s in c lu d e s p r a g m a ti c a l f e a t u r e s a s w e l l ; (2 ) c o n te n t a n a l y s i s ( t h a t i s , th e L a s s w e llia n b ra n d ) i s i n t e r e s t e d c h i e f l y i n p o l i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e , w h ereas s e m io t i c d e a ls w ith o t h e r form s o f d i s c o u r s e su c h a s l e g a l , s c i e n t i f i c , p h i l o s o p h i c a l , a e s t h e t i c ; and (5 ) c o n te n t a n a l y s i s aim s a t s t a t i s t i c a l f o r m u la t i o n s and e m p i r i c a l p ro b lem s, w h ereas s e m io tic i s c o n c e rn e d w ith lo g ic a l a n a ly s is .
W ith in t h i s fram ew o rk , a c c o rd in g t o E a p la n ,
s e m io tic can make s e v e r a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o c o n te n t a n a l y s i s , f o r exam ple, c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f c o n c e p ts , s u g g e s tio n o f new c a t e g o r i e s th r o u g h a s y s te m a tic a p p ro a c h , p r o v i s i o n o f a s ta n d a r d iz e d t e r m i n o lo g y f o r d i s c u s s i o n o f v a r io u s a s p e c t s o f s i g n phenom ena, and th e e x p l i c i t i z a t i o n o f th e l o g i c a l e le m e n ts and b a s i c p r o p e r t i e s of s ig n s .
On th e o t h e r h an d , t h e m a jo r c o n t r i b u t i o n w h ich c o n te n t
a n a l y s i s can make to s e m io tic i s t h e p r o v i s i o n o f e m p i r ic a l p r o p o s i t i o n a b o u t sym bol d a ta .
I n a c c e p t in g much o f K a p la n ’ s a r g u
m e n t, C h a rle s M o rris i n s i s t e d t h a t s e m io tic and c o n te n t a n a l y s i s a r e n o t two d i s c i p l i n e s b u t r a t h e r t h a t " c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s i s sim p lv 73 a p a r t o f s e m i o t i c ." The g i s t o f t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s o f te c h n iq u e , t h a t i s ,
th e
p e r e n n i a l p ro b lem s o f v a l i d a t i o n , r e l i a b i l i t y , t h e r e c o r d i n g and c o n te x t u n i t s , th e f e a s i b i l i t y o f th e u s e o f th e sam ple and th e c o e f f i c i e n t o f im b a la n c e a r e summarized i n Language o f P o l i t i c s .
74
I r v i n g L. J a n i s c o n s id e r e d th e p ro b lem o f v a l i d a t i o n a s a m ost s e r i o u s one b e c a u s e t h e p r o c e s s in v o lv e s ju d g m en ts o f m ean in g s w h ich a r e a t t r i b u t e d t o th e s i g n v e h i c l e s i n a com m unication b y a
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
g iv e n a u d ie n c e o r b y a g iv e n c o m m u n icato r.
T hese ju d g m e n ts may h e
i n e r r o r b e c a u se o f s y s te m a tic o r s p u r io u s e r r o r s .
J
The p u rp o se o f
v a l i d a t i o n i s t o e l i m i n a t e th e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f e r r o r o r a t l e a s t to see t h a t th e y o ccu r in f r e q u e n tly .
J a n i s p ro p o se d a n i n
d i r e c t v a l i d a t i o n p r o c e d u r e , s in c e t h e r e i s no a v a i l a b l e m ethod f o r t e s t i n g d i r e c t l y th e s i g n i f i c a t i o n r e s p o n s e s t o s ig n v e h i c l e s .
The
p rin c ip le s ta te d : The l a r g e r th e num ber o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s e s t a b l i s h e d b y u s e o f a c o n te n t a n a l y s i s t e c h n iq u e , t h e h ig h e r th e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t th e p ro c e d u re e s t im a te s s i g n i f i c a t i o n r e s p o n s e s c o r r e c t l y , and hence t h e h ig h e r t h e d e g re e o f v a l i d i t y . 75 R e l i a b i l i t y t a k e s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n two p ro b le m s, o n e , th e c o n s i s t e n c y among a n a l y s t s , t h a t i s , d i f f e r e n t c o d e rs s h o u ld p r o duce t h e same r e s u l t s when th e y a p p ly th e same s e t o f c a t e g o r i e s t o th e same c o n te n t, and s e c o n d , t h e r e s h o u ld be c o n s is te n c y i n tim e , m eaning t h a t a s i n g l e c o d e r o r a g roup o f c o d e rs s h o u ld p r o d u ce t h e same r e s u l t s when th e y a p p ly t h e same s e t o f c a t e g o r i e s t o t h e same c o n te n t a t d i f f e r e n t tim e s .
The d e c i s i o n a s t o w h e th er
c o n te n t a n a l y s i s can be te rm e d s c i e n t i f i c depends t o a d e g re e upon
1 j
th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f a h ig h r e l i a b i l i t y on t h e s e two p o i n t s .
!
K aplan an d G o ld sen u n d e rto o k t o m easure t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f s t a n d a r d s and d i r e c t i o n , b o th s e p a r a t e l y an d when a p p l i e d t o g e t h e r , u n d e r v a r io u s c o n d it i o n s o f t r a i n i n g .
They fo u n d
t h a t t h e mean o f th e i n d i v i d u a l a n a l y s t ’s r e l i a b i l i t i e s was a b o u t 9 0 $ , h a v in g i n c r e a s e d from a b o u t 8 0 $ .
The a s su m p tio n was c o n firm e d
t h a t r e l i a b i l i t y c a n b e in c r e a s e d b y i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g and by t h e 76 use o f d e ta ile d r u le s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Too, r e l i a b i l i t y o f a
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54 s e t o f c a t e g o r i e s -was h ig h e r when t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was made i n 77 te rm s o f d e t a i l e d c a t e g o r i e s . A lan G rey, K aplan and la ssw e lX c o n d u c te d a s e r i e s o f r e s e a r c h e s i n a n a tte m p t t o f i n d th e b e a t r e c o r d in g and c o n te x t u n its .
The s t u d i e s w ere a p p li e d t o e d i t o r i a l c o n t e n t .
The p o s
s i b l e u n i t s f o r c o d in g a r e t h e s e n te n c e , th e p a ra g r a p h , t h r e e s e n te n c e s and t h e a r t i c l e .
They c o n c lu d e d th e f o llo w in g :
1 . S e n te n c e , p a r a g r a p h , t h r e e s e n te n c e and a r t i c l e c o d in g o f th e same e d i t o r i a l s c o n t e n t g iv e c o n s i s t e n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e c o u n t o f sym bol f r e q u e n c i e s . 2 . The f o u r m ethods a g re e i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n o f b i a s ( f a v o r a b l e , u n f a v o r a b le ) th o u g h th e y d i f f e r i n show ing t h e d e g re e o f b i a s . 3 . The d e g re e o f b i a s i s em phasized by p a ra g ra p h and a r t i c l e c o d in g . 4 . The d e g re e o f b i a s i s m in im iz ed by o n e -s e n te n c e and t h r e e - s e n t e n c e c o d in g . 5 . I n p a r t , th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s may be a t t r i b u t e d t o th e s t y l e o f t h e m a t e r i a l ( th e way i n nihich q u a l i f i c a t i o n s on t h e o v e r - a l l b i a s o f th e a r t i c l e a r e a rra n g e d w i t h i n th e a r t i c l e ) . 6 . The num ber o f n e u t r a l e n t r i e s d im in is h e s a s t h e s i z e o f t h e c o n te x t u n i t i n c r e a s e s . 7 . The t h r e e - s e n t e n c e m ethod i s th e s lo w e s t p ro c e d u re , w h ile a r t i c l e c o d in g i s th e m ost r a p i d . 78 A le x a n d e r M intz w orked on t h e p roblem o f s a m p lin g .
The
f i n d i n g s fro m th e s e s t u d i e s w i l l be e la b o r a t e d on i n c h a p t e r 3 . I r v i n g J a n i s and Raymond F ad n er p ro p o se d t o d e v e lo p a g e n e r a l fo rm u la w hich c o u ld be a p p li e d t o c l a s s i f i e d c o n te n t d a ta i n o r d e r t o p r e s e n t a n o v e r a l l e s t im a t e o f t h e d e g re e o f im b a la n c e , t h a t I s , t h e e x te n t t o w hich f a v o r a b l e , n e u t r a l , o r u n f a v o r a b le tr e a tm e n t i s a c c o rd e d t o th e t o p i c o r sym bol u n d e r a n a l y s i s .
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout perm ission
55
C e r ta in c r i t e r i o n m u st "be r e s p e c t e d i n o r d e r t o g e t a s a t i s f a c t o r y 80 c o e f f i c i e n t o f im b a la n c e . They d e v e lo p e d a c o e f f i c i e n t w hich c a n be a p p li e d t o any ty p e o f com m unication, p ro v id e d t h a t i t c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d w ith f a v o r a b l e , u n f a v o r a b l e , n e u t r a l and n o n - r e l e v a n t c o n te n t. The a v e ra g e p r e s e n t a t i o n (A) o f r e l e v a n t c o n te n t ( r ) and t h e a v e ra g e p r e s e n t a t i o n (T) o f t o t a l c o n te n t ( t ) w ere c o n s id e r e d a s two m ain f a c t o r s in v o lv e d i n t h e m easurem ent o f im b a la n c e . I t was shown t h a t th e com b in e d i n f lu e n c e o f th e s e two f a c t o r s c o u ld be re d u c e d t o two co m p o n en ts, t h e C o e f f i c i e n t o f f a v o r a b le im b a la n c e and th e C o e f f i c i e n t o f u n f a v o r a b le im b a la n c e . ffiL eaeC oefficients a r e m e a n in g fu l i n t h a t t h e y r e p r e s e n t : ( a ) th e a v e ra g e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f r e l e v a n t c o n te n t — u ) . and (b ) th e d e g re e t o w h ich t h e o p p o r tu n ity t o r ( f or u) p r e s e n t th e p re d o m in a n t d i r e c t i o n was u se d — r ' The fo rm u la e p ro v id e d a p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n o f u n b a la n c e : f 2 — fu Cf s * ~ w here f u rt and 81 w here f u ° u - f u ~~ u rt The f i e l d was n o t w h o lly m o n o p o lized b y L a s s w e ll an d a s s o c ia te s .
B u rto n H o ta lin g , k e e n ly aw are o f t h e tim e -w o rn p ro b lem s
o f s a m p lin g , r e l i a b i l i t y o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and m ea su re m e n t, con s i d e r e d i t im p o s s ib le and i m p r a c tic a b le t o d e v e lo p an a i r - t i g h t schem e.
Y e t, he was o f t h e o p in io n t h a t , u n l e s s u n i f o r m i t y c o u ld
b e e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e r e w ould be no means by w h ich m easurem ent s t u d i e s 82 c o u ld b e s c i e n t i f i c a l l y com pared and c o n t r a s t e d . M ilto n S te w a rd , I n 1943, was c o n c e rn e d w i t h a d i f f e r e n t a n g le o f c o n t e n t .
He th o u g h t t h a t to o much em phasis was b e in g
p la c e d on fre q u e n c y r a t h e r th a n s e m a n tic o r p h y s i c a l d e v ic e s .
He
c o n te n d e d t h a t fre q u e n c y was o n ly one i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e a n x io u s n e s s
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
56 o f t h e co m m unicator t h a t c e r t a i n news be s t r e s s e d .
He t e s t e d t e n
N egro w e ek ly n e w sp a p ers by a n a t t i t u d e s c a l e o f PM, DM, PL, DL, N, an d 0 , m ean in g r e s p e c t i v e l y , f a c t u a l r e p o r t o f more o r m a in ta in e d Negro p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e w ar o r t h e t o t a l c o u n tr y , a r e p o r t o f demands f o r more N egro p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a f a c t u a l r e p o r t o f l e s s e n e d o r b lo c k e d N egro p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a r e p o r t o f demands f o r d im in is h e d N egro p a r t i c i p a t i o n , a r e p o r t o f Negro t o t a l com m unity r e l a t i o n s w ith no d i r e c t i o n and a n ite m i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n 83 N eg ro es and th e l a r g e r com m unity. He fo u n d t h a t s t o r i e s r e p o r t i n g d i s c o n t e n t an d d e p r i v a t i o n a r e s t r e s s e d more i n te rm s o f p ro m in e n ce th a n t h e i r f re q u e n c y w ould s u g g e s t .
S t o r i e s d e a l i n g w ith a c h ie v e d a c c e p ta n c e s fo rm t h e
same p r o p o r t i o n o f le a d in g s t o r i e s t h a t s h o u ld be a s o t h e r s , and n e u t r a l o r i r r e l e v a n t ite m s a r e p la y e d down. He c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e s tu d y made c l e a r t h e i n v a l i d i t y o f r e l i a n c e on f re q u e n c y d a ta f o r a n a l y s i s o f p h y s i c a l d a t a .
The
m ost u s e f u l an d v a l i d a n a l y s i s , i t w ould a p p e a r , i s one t h a t m akes u s e o f a s l a r g e a num ber o f c a s e s a s can b e h a n d le d , and th e n 84 q u a l i f i e s f o r s t r e s s by c h a n n e l d e v ic e s . L a s t y e a r (1 950) W en d ell C o a ts and S te v e W. Mulkey u n d e r to o k an i n t e r e s t i n g p ie c e o f r e s e a r c h .
T h e ir p ro b lem was t o
s e l e c t an d v a l i d a t e a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam ple o f U n ite d S t a t e s d a i l y n e w s p a p e rs . d v e ly
The one h u n d red n ew sp a p er sam p le
was s e l e c t e d p u rp o s
on th e b a s i s o f a s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f a l a r g e num ber o f ob
j e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d a i l y n e w s p a p e rs .
S e l e c t i o n was made
i n tw o e q u a l in c r e m e n ts , e a c h o f w h ich c o n s i s t e d o f a n in d e p e n d e n t f i f t y n ew sp ap er s u b -s a m p le .
S t r a t i f i c a t i o n to o k i n t o c o n s i d e r a ti o n
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission.
57 g e o g r a p h ic a l l o c a t i o n , s i z e o f c i r c u l a t i o n , tim e o f p u b l i c a t i o n , o w n e rs h ip , Sunday e d i t i o n , news s e r v i c e , p o l i t i c a l a f f i l i a t i o n , t a b l o i d s , and n e a r n e s s t o Army i n s t a l l a t i o n s . F o r a v a l i d a t i o n o f t h e sam ple., t h e two e q u a l s u b -s a m p le s w ere m atch ed a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r f o r a f i f t e e n - d a y p e r i o d ; a t o t a l o f 1500 i s s u e s w ere s t u d i e d f o r m i l i t a r y c o n te n t.
H igh c o r r e l a t i o n
b etw een t h e s u b -s a m p le s was c o n s id e re d e v id e n c e s u p p o r tin g t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e sa m p le . T a k in g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e s t u d y , th e y c o n c lu d e d :
t h a t e f f e c t i v e n ew sp ap er sa m p lin g i s p o s s i b l e ;
t h a t t h e i r sam ple was r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e d a i l y p r e s s i n number o f o p in io n ite m s on m i l i t a r y a f f a i r s and t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n by s u b j e c t ; and t h a t t h e a lm o st a b s o lu te c o r r e l a t i o n i s v e ry co n v in c in g e v id e n c e t h a t t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e p a t t e r n i n e d i t o r i a l 85 p o l i c y among n ew sp ap ers and t h a t i t i s m e a s u ra b le . The s c h o o ls o f o p in io n , a s t o w h e th e r th e p ro b lem s r e l a t i v e t o t h e q u a n t i f i c a t i o n o f c o n te n t a n a l y s i s c a n be s o lv e d , c o n tin u e . L a s t l y , F ra n k L u th e r M ott s t a t e d t h a t new spaper c o n te n t i s r e l a t i v e l y s ta b le b ecause b a s ic d e s ir e s a re e s s e n t ia ll y s t a t i c ; when c i r c u l a t i o n h o ld s up i t seem s l i k e te m p tin g f a t e t o change t h e o f f e r i n g a n d ,b e y o n d t h i s , i t i s u n d e n ia b le t h a t n ew sp a p ers in g e n e r a l a r e f a i r l y c o n s e r v a tiv e i n p o l i c y .
The b u lk o f n ew sp a p ers
86
a r e slo w t o c h a n g e . 87 s t r i k i n g ch ang es.
The accom panying t a b l e i n d i c a t e s few
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
58
TABLE AVERAGE NUMBER OP COLUMNS GIVEN CERTAIN CATEGORIES OF CONTENT IN EACH ISSUE IN TEN LEADING METROPOLITAN NEWSPAPERS AT THE BEGINNING OF FOUR DECADE YEARS, WITH PROPORTIONS IN DECIMAIS ON THE BASE OF TOTAL NONADVERTISING SPACE
1910 C o ls . P ro p . F o re ig n News and F e a tu r e s W ash in g to n News Columns D e a lin g w ith P u b lic A ffa irs O rig in a l E d ito ria ls Bus in e s s , F in a n c i a l , M arin e, e tc . . . . S p o r ts S o c ie ty Women's In te re s ts T h e a tr e , M ovies, B ooks, A r t , e t c . R ad io Announce m en ts and News Comic S t r i p s and S in g le s I l l u s t r a t i o n (e x c lu d in g com ics)
2 .4 4 .7
.0 3 1 .0 6 1
1920 C o ls. P ro p .
1930 1940 C o ls . P r o p .C o ls . P ro p
6 .2 5 .0
.0 8 8 .0 7 1
6 .8 5 .7
.0 4 8 1 4 .0 .0 7 9 .0 4 0 1 0 .6 .0 6 0
.4
.0 0 6
1 .0
.0 0 7
2 .5 .0 1 4
.0 2 1
3 .1 .0 1 8
3 .0
.0 3 9
2 .8
.0 4 0
3 .0
1 6 .0 7 .1 1 .4
.2 1 1 .0 9 4 .019
1 1 .4 1 0 .4 1 .8
.1 6 0 .1 4 6 .0 2 6
5 3 .2 1 8 .2 4 .5
1 .1
.015
1 .4
.0 2 0
2 .3
.0 1 6
6 .7 .0 3 8
2 .2
.0 2 9
2 .2
.0 3 1
4 .4
.0 3 3
7 .4 .0 4 2
2 .5
.0 1 8
2 .5 .0 1 4
.3 7 5 5 6 .6 .3 2 0 .1 2 8 2 0 .9 .1 1 8 .0 3 2 6 .4 .0 3 6
.8
.0 1 0
2 .0
.0 2 8
5 .1
.0 3 6 1 0 .8 .0 6 1
4 .0
.0 5 4
4 .0
.0 5 7
8 .5
.0 6 0 1 9 .8 .1 1 2
Such a re v ie w o f c o n te n t a n a l y s i s n o t o n ly e s t a b l i s h e d c e r t a i n p r i n c i p l e s f o r th e f i e l d b u t a tte m p te d in a d d i t i o n t o r e l a t e i t t o o th e r d i s c i p l i n e s and t o expand i t s u s e s i n t o new a re a s. Exam ples o f t h i s e x p a n sio n in t h e a r e a s o f n e w sp a p e r, m agazine and t e x t book c o n te n t a r e w o rth y o f some a t t e n t i o n , a s
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f th e copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission.
59
weXX a s a t a b l e o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t u d i e s i n o t h e r v e r b a l and n o n v e r b a l form s o f co m m u n icatio n . E l i z a b e t h TVi n s h i p an d Gordon W. A l l p o r t s t u d i e d t h e r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n n ew sp a p er s a l e s an d o p t i m i s t i c - p e s s i m i s t i c h e a d lin e s .
They fo u n d t h a t o p t i m i s t i c h e a d l in e s p re d o m in a te d ; t h a t
n e w sp a p er men th o u g h t t h a t s u c h h e ad s made good s a l e s , b u t t h e s tu d y d i d n o t b e a r t h i s o u t .
M o reo v er, o p t i m i s t i c h e a d l i n e s do
n o t do much good i n s t i m u l a t i n g c i t i z e n s t o w a n tin g t o do w o rth y w ar d e e d s .
T h u s, t h e t a s t e o f t h e n ew sp ap er com m unity t o r o s y 88 h e a d l in e s may be a more s e r i o u s m a t t e r th a n f i g u r e d . F lo y d
A l l p o r t and M elton L ep k in , i n a n o th e r s t u d y , c o n c lu d e d t h a t w here t h e r e i s no c o n f l i c t w ith t h e t r u t h and w henever i t i s p o s s i b l e a h e a d l in e u se d on any p a r t i c u l a r s t o r y s h o u ld be g u id e d by c o n 89 s i d e r a t i o n o f i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n i n c r e a s i n g m o ra le . T h is i s c e r t a i n l y a p o in te d s t a te m e n t . On t h e p e r s o n a l o r c a s e s tu d y l e v e l o f t h e p r e s s , two s t u d i e s seem p e r t i n e n t .
J o s e p h KLapper and C h a rle s G lock a n a ly z e d
news s t o r i e s a b o u t Edward W. Condon i n " T r i a l by N ew sp ap er," w h ic h was im p o rta n t, b e c a u s e i t p o se d t h e q u e s t io n o f t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f m odern o rg a n s o f m ass com m unication to w a rd l i b e r t i e s and r e p u ta tio n s o f in d iv id u a ls .
S ta te m e n ts w ere c l a s s i f i e d and coded by 90 tw e n ty - t h r e e d im e n sio n s and t h e n c a r d p u n c h e d . The se co n d s tu d y was b y W ein g ast on t h e o p in io n m a k e r,
W a lte r Lippm ann.
He coded Lippm ann on a t t i t u d e s to w a rd P r e s i d e n t
F r a n k l in D. R o o s e v e lt, th e Nbw D e a l (a s a w h o le ), t h e f i r s t A g r i c u l t u r a l A d ju stm en t A c t, t h e N a tio n a l I n d u s t r i a l R e co v e ry A c t, th e T e n n e sse e V a lle y A u t h o r i ty , th e N a tio n a l L abor R e l a t i o n s A c t,
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
6°
0 , , 91 S o c i a l S e c u r i t y and Wage and Hour l e g i s l a t i o n .
V alue ju d g m e n ts
w ere coded f o r f a v o r a b l e n e s s , u n f a v o r a b le n e s s and n e u t r a l i t y .
He
c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h i s ty p e o f c o n te n t c a te g o r y a p p ro a c h was r i p e w ith s u g g e s tio n s f o r b e t t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s o c i a l phenomena b e c a u s e i t in tr o d u c e d a n eed ed e le m e n t o f d e f i n i t e n e s s and o b j e c t i v i t y t o 02 s u b j e c t i v e judgm ents* On t h e g ro u p l e v e l* w it h r e f e r e n c e t o m in o r i t y g ro u p s and e s p e c i a l l y th e N eg ro , t h e f o llo w in g s t u d i e s a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ; N e w sp ap e rs:
93
News Colunrna
T re a tm e n t o f t h e Negro i n s e l e c t e d p a p e rs (C h icag o Race R e l a t i o n s C om m ission, 1923; H o u ser, 1925; E v a n s , 1930; W a r lic k , 1931; G i s t , 1 9 3 2 ; B r y a n t, 1935; W a llin , 1935; S im pson, 1936; C la y to n , 1 9 3 6 ; R e d d ic k , 1939; Jo h n s o n , 1 9 4 9 .) 9 Books T re a tm e n t o f t h e Negro an d o t h e r m in o r i t y g ro u p s i n s c h o o l t e x t b o o k s ,( E l e a z e r , 1937; NAACD, 1939; C a rp e n te r 1941; A m erican C o u n c il on E d u c a tio n and t h e A m erican C o u n c il I n s t i t u t e o f P a c i f i c R e l a t i o n s , 1946; P u b lic A f f a i r s P a m p h le t, 1 9 5 0 ). M agazines T re a tm e n t o f m i n o r i t i e s i n m ag azin e f i c t i o n (B e re ls o n an d S a l t e r , 1946; M onthly Summary o f E v e n ts and T re n d s in R ace R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 4 7 ). Jo k e s T re a tm e n t o f m i n o r i t i e s i n humor (B a rro n , 1 9 5 0 ). B e g in n in g w ith P r o f e s s o r J* E . H u l e t t ’s s tu d y on "P ro p a g an d a an d t h e P ro p o se d C h ild L abor Am endment," i n 1938, c o n te n t a n a l y s i s h a s b e e n u s e d t o l o c a t e t h e " s o c i a l te m p e ra tu re " o f la b o r and i n 94 d u s t r i a l p ro b le m s . S te w a rt B r i t t and Roye L. Lowry s t u d i e d " C o n fo rm ity o f L abor N ew spapers w ith R e sp e c t t o t h e A .F .L . and C .I .O . C o n f l i c t " i n 1941.®®
F o rtu n e m agazine p u b lis h e d a s tu d y i n
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited w ithout p erm ission.
61
1944.
P h i l l i p Ash t e s t e d t h e p e r i o d i c a l p r e s s on a t t i t u d e s e x 96 p r e s s e d to w a rd t h e T a f t - H a r t l e y A c t. N athan Maccoby, P . S abghur and B ry a n t C u sh in g , who m easured th e p o t e n t i a l r e a d e r e x p o su re s o f v a r io u s ty p e s o f i n d u s t r i a l news c o v e ra g e , c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h i s m ethod o f news a n a l y s i s had w ide a p p l i c a b i l i t y f o r p u rp o s e s o f c o m p a ra tiv e a n a l y s i s .
I t c o u ld ,th e y th o u g h t, be u se d t o com pare
t h e p o t e n t i a l r e a d e r e x p o su re s o f d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f news a b o u t one company, o f news and comment a b o u t com panies w ith in d i f f e r e n t i n d u s t r i a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , o r t o make q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e c o m p ariso n s o f th e p r e s s c o v e ra g e o f e n t i r e i n d u s t r i e s and p r o 97 f e s s i o n s on e i t h e r t h e n a t i o n a l o r r e g i o n a l b a s i s . T h is was d e f i n i t e l y r e l a t e d t o e f f e c t s o f news tr e a tm e n ts on p u b lic i n f o r m a tio n and a t t i t u d e s . I n a d d i t i o n , c o n te n t a n a l y s i s h a s r e c e n t l y b een g iv e n com m e r c ia l a p p l i c a t i o n .
The Twohey ’’A n a ly s is o f E d i t o r i a l O p in io n ,”
a v a i l a b l e on a p r i v a t e s u b s c r i p t i o n b a s i s , p r e s e n t s r e g u l a r and s p e c i a l r e p o r t s on th e tr e a tm e n t g iv e n v a r io u s t o p i c s and e v e n ts i n a sam ple o f th e n a t i o n ’s p r e s s . S tu d ie s on th e a t t i t u d e o f th e p r e s s to w a rd p r e s i d e n t i a l cam paigns h av e been p r o f u s e .
0 . W. R ie g a l on th e P r e s i d e n t i a l
Campaign o f W ilk ie and R o o s e v e lt, E . 0 . S t e n e ’s on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een news and e d i t o r i a l s on c a n d i d a t e s , and M a rtin M i l l s p a u g h ’s a n a l y s i s o f th e B a ltim o re new sp ap ers and t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l 98 E l e c t i o n s , a r e b u t a few . The a r e a r e c e i v i n g t h e m ost a t t e n t i o n a t p r e s e n t i s p o l i t i c s | A sid e fro m t h e b e g in n in g s tu d y by Lippmann i n 1 9 20, H. S . P o s t e r on "How A m erica Became B e l l i g e r e n t ” d is c o v e r e d o u r p o l i t i c a l
R ep ro d u ced with p erm ission o f the copyright ow ner. Further reproduction prohibited without p erm ission.
62 99 te m p e r a tu r e i n W orld War I ;
Q uincy W rig h t, C a r l N e ls o n , a n d J . T.
R u s s e l l have s t u d i e d A m erican a t t i t u d e s to w a rd J a p a n and C hina an d N a tio n a l a t t i t u d e s on t h e F a r E a s te r n c o n tr o v e r s y .
100
The f o llo w in g s t u d i e s i l l u s t r a t e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f c o n te n t a n a l y s i s te c h n iq u e t o f i e l d s and t o p i c s n o t r e l a t e d t o t h i s t h e s i s h u t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e k in d s o f s t u d i e s p ro d u c e d : N ew spaper:
A d v e rtis e m e n ts
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n E lem en ts o f A d v e r ti s in g S lo g a n s (Shum an, 1937) A n a ly s is o f D is p la y A d v e r ti s in g (Doubman, 1926) N ew spaper:
C a rto o n s
The G ra p h ic A r t 3 a n d P u b lic O p in io n (A lb ig , 1939) P ropaganda T e c h n iq u e s o f C i v i l War C a r to o n i s t s ( L iv e lv . 1942) *9 N ew spaper: E d i t o r i a l s T re a tm e n t o f E d u c a tio n ( F o s t e r , 1938) (S ta b e ly , 1941) N ew spaper:
News B re ak s
N ew sbreaks and News R e p e t i t i o n (B uchanan, 1942) N ew sp aper:
News Columns
T exas O pin io n (G a b e l, 1946) R e p o rts o f th e H e ire n s M urder C ase ( G o t t l i e b , 1947) A t t i t u d e s o f t h e S o u th e rn P r e s s ( w h ite ) to w a rd N egro S u f f r a g e (L ogan, 1940) Toward Sex Freedom (N ew land, 1932) The C hurch P r e s s (W o ls e le y , 1946) N ew sp aper:
M ethodology
On A ccu racy (C h a rn le y , 1936) Comment on F e d e r i g h i 's Use o f t h e C h i-S q u a re i n S m a ll Sam ples ( C la r k , 1951) M easu rin g T e n s io n ( B o l l a r d , 1947) R e l i a b i l i t y o f Two in d e x e s ( H a r t, 1932) Y a r d s t i c k f o r M easurem ent (W a lk er, 1930)
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63 S o c i o l o g i c a l W ritin g s S pace A p p o rtio n e d T o p ic s i n t h e A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y (B e c k e r, 1932) M easu rin g D eg rees o f V e r i f i c a t i o n i n S o c i o l o g i c a l W ritin g s ( H a r t, 1947) An A n a ly s is o f M a n u s c rip ts R e c e iv e d f o r P u b l i c a t i o n (G o o d ric h , 1945) The A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y th r o u g h F i f t v Year>a (S h a n a s , 1945). Books an d T ex tb o o k s on D i f f e r e n t S u b je c ts On C iv ic A t t i t u d e s i n A m erican T ex tb o o k s ( P i e r c e , 1930) On A m erican H i s t o r v (B a g le y , 1 9 1 6 ), ( B ly th e , 1 9 3 2 ), (W alw orth, 1938) ' On MeGuffey R e a d e rs (S a u n d e rs , 1941) On S e n te n c e W eight i n E n g lis h P ro s e (G erw ig , 1894) (Sherm an, 1888) On C h i l d r e n ’s L i t e r a t u r e ( M a rtin , 1936) R e la ti o n o f F i c t i o n and S o c ie ty ( I n g l i s , 1938) On S t y l e i n S e l e c te d Books o f F i c t i o n (J a c k s o n , 1941) On V a lu e s i n Mass P e r i o d i c a l F i c t i o n (Jo h n s -H e in e and G e r th , 1949) On S e m a n tic F re q u en c y i n E n g l i s h , F re n c h , German and S p a n is h (E a to n , 1940) On Most F r e q u e n tly U sed Words by C h ild re n (T h o rn d ik e , 1932) On W ave-L ike F l u c t u a t i o n s i n P h y s ic s ( R a in o f f , 1929) On C o m p arativ e Anatomy (C o le and E a l e s , 1916) On B o t a n i c a l Works ( S te v e n s , 1932) On B io c h e m is tr y (H e n k le , 1938) On B i o l o g i c a l S c ie n c e s ( S c o t t , 1935) On S c ie n c e C o n te n t (N ovak, Not d a te d ) On P la n e Geom etry ( P r e s s y , 1932) On L if e H is to r y M a t e r i a l (C avan and H a u s e r, 1930) On I n t e r n a t i o n a l D i f f e r e n c e s ( T a f t , 1924) M agazines B io g ra p h ie s i n P o p u la r M agazines (L o w e n th a l, 1948) T re a tm e n t o f War Themes (M cK enzie, 1941) P o l i t i c s , P o l i t i c a l News and V o tin g How t h e V o te r Makes Up H is Mind ( L a z a r s f e l d , 1944) The Sym bols o f E l e c t o r a l P rogram s ( P o o l, 1939) P o l i t i c a l A t t i t u d e s Toward G re a t B r i t a i n and Germany D u rin g 1939 ( S c h r i b e r , 1941) What th e V o te rs Were T o ld (W aples, 1941) V o tin g V ia t h e S e n a te M ailb ag (W yant, 1941)
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I H s
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P ro p ag an d a I t s P sy ch o lo g y and T ec h n iq u e (Doob, 1 9 3 5 ), ( L a s s w e ll, 1927) R e v o lu tio n a ry ( L a s s w e ll, 1939) A t r o c i t y (R eed, 1941) P e rs o n a lity On C o ngruent I d e a P a t t e r n s (Andrews and M uhlhan, 1943) On I n v e s t i g a t i n g th e S in g le P e r s o n a l i t y (B a ld w in , 1940j 1942) Case R ecords ( B e r e ls o n , 1947) On "B la c k Boy1?'1 (W h ite , 1947) S o c i a l Change R e la tio n t o Newspaper S t y l e (W ille y , 1928) C u l t u r a l Changes i n P o p u la r L i t e r a t u r e (P unke, 1937) R ad io R ad io Program s (A lb ig , 1938) (B a k e r, 1 9 4 8 ), ( B a r t l e t t , 19 4 1 )| (L u n d b erg , 1928) I Daytim e S e r i a l (A rhheim , 1 9 4 2 ) j F o re ig n Language B ro a d c a s ts (A rnheim , 1941) I German S hortw ave B ro a d c a s ts t o A m erica (B ru n e r, 1941) 1 P ropaganda and S h o r t Wave ( C h ild s , 1 9 4 2 ), ( J a c o b , 1942) I Mr. Cameron and th e F o rd Hour (G re en , 1939) a German R ad io P ropaganda ( K r i s , and S p e i e r , 1944) j S tu d ie s in R adio and F ilm P ropaganda ( L a z a r s f e l d , 1943) I R adio E n te r ta in m e n t S in c e 1935 (M cC lin to n , 1 941) j P r o g re s s i n R ad io Fan M ail (S a y re , 1939) ] j Labor i n th e R ad io News (Sussm an, 1932) I I
M otion P i c t u r e s C o n te n t o f (D a le , 1 9 3 5 ), (J o n e s , 1942) Hollyw ood War F ilm ( J o n e s , 1945) Themes and P l o t s ( W o lf e n s te in . and L e i t e s , 1947) Rumor, C o n v e rs a tio n , A d d re sse s and S p eech es
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65 N o n -V erb al R e a c tiv ity - S p e e d and A d a p tiv e n e s s i n M u s ic a l Sym bols (De G r a s ia , 1943) G e s tu re ( E fr o n , 1941) Magic G eography ( S p e i e r , 1941) E ven a f t e r a l l t h i s p r o l i f e r a t i o n i n t h e f i e l d A lb ig ,a n d L a s s w e ll s t a t e t h a t m ost o f t h e s e s t u d i e s a r e n o n -c o m p a ra b le ,w ith g e n e r a l and t e c h n i c a l q u e s tio n s u n re s o lv e d *
N e v e r t h e l e s s , su b
s t a n t i a l p r o g r e s s h as b e e n made to w a rd th e i d e a l o f d e s c r i b i n g c o n te n t w ith c a t e g o r i e s whose g e n e r a l i t y i s c o m p arab le w ith th o s e 101 lo n g u se d i n s t u d i e s o f e f f e c t .
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F o o tn o te s - C h a p te r I I 1* T hose s t u d i e s w i l l h e re v ie w e d t h a t a p p e a re d m ost s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h i s th e s is * T h e r e f o r e , n ew sp ap er a n d m ag azin e s t u d i e s have r e c e i v e d t h e m ost e m p h a s is . E xam ples o f t h e d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f v e r b a l and n o n - v e r b a l co m m u n icatio n s w i l l be c i t e d . T h e re h a s b e e n no a tte m p t t o make t h e s e re v ie w s e x h a u s tiv e b u t th e y a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e and p in p o i n t t h e g ro w th i n t h i s a r e a o f k n o w le d g e. S tu d ie s in c lu d e d w ere c h o s e n , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a b o v e , b e c a u se th e y w ere c o n s t a n t l y m e n tio n e d by a u t h o r i t i e s i n th e f i e l d , an d i n v a r io u s i n d i c h s . . W hile t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n r e s p e c t f o r c h ro n o lo g y , tim e se q u e n c e was b ro k e n when a b e t t e r a rra n g e m e n t o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r seem ed m ore a p p r o p r i a t e . G e n e r a lly , th e s t u d i e s a r e re v ie w e d a c c o r d in g t o p u rp o s e , sam ple p e r i o d , c o n c lu s io n s o r c o n t r i b u t i o n s , and o r c r i t i c i s m s . When s t u d i e s do n o t r e c e i v e su c h a t t e n t i o n i t i s b e c a u s e a l l In f o r m a tio n was n o t g iv e n o r i t i s q u o te d e l s e w here i n t h e t h e s i s f o r e m p h a sis. See e s p e c i a l l y , L a s s w e ll, H a ro ld D, C asey , R a lp h D. and S m ith , B ru c e , P ropaganda an d P ro m o tio n a l A c t i v i t i e s : An A n n o ta te d B ib lio g r a p h y . U n i v e r s i t y o f M in n eso ta P r e s s , M in n e a p o lis (1 9 3 5 ); Idem , P ro p a g a n d a . C om m unication, and P u b lic O p in io n : A C om prehensive R e fe re n c e G u id e . P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , P r i n c e t o n (1 9 4 6 ). 2 . W illia m A lb ig , " P ro c e s s e s o f O p in io n F o rm a tio n : A Sym posium , * P u b lic O p in io n Q u a r te r l y . V o l. 1 4 , W in te r , 1 9 5 0 -5 1 , p . 667. 3. Ib id . 4 . T hese f i g u r e s r e f e r o n ly t o p u b lis h e d q u a n t i t a t i v e s t u d i e s p l u s m e th o d b lo g ic a l t r e a t i s e s and g e n e r a l w o rk s. B e rn a rd B e r e ls o n , and P a u l F . L a z a r s f e l d , The A n a ly s is o f Communi c a t i o n C o n te n t. Columbia U n i v e r s i t y , New Y ork (1 9 4 8 ), p . 1 0 . 5 . Jo h n G. S p e e d , "Do N ew spapers Now Give The N ew s?," Forum. V o l. XV, A u g u s t, 1893, p p . 7 0 3 -7 1 1 . 6 . W a lte r Lippm ann, and C h a r le s M erz, "A T e s t o f th e N ew s," A S u p p lem en t t o t h e New R e p u b lic . V o l. 2 3 , A u g u st 4 , 1 9 2 0 , p p . 1 -4 2 . 7 . M a rtin K r ie s b e r g , " S o v ie t News i n th e New Y o rk T im e s ," P u b lic O p in io n Q u a r t e r l y . V o l. 1 0 , W in te r , 1946, p p . 5 4 0 -5 6 4 . 8 . Q uoted i n J u l i a n Woodward, " F o r e ig n News i n A m erican M orning N e w sp a p e rs," C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y S t u d i e s i n H i s t o r y . Econom-ics an d P u b l i c Law. No. 332, C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , New Y o rk T l9 3 0 ) , p . 2 3 . 9 . R oger W. R i i s , "A re N ew spapers D oing T h e ir D u ty ? ," I n d e p e n d e n t. V o l. 1 1 2 , M arch, 1 9 2 4 , p p . 1 1 7 -1 1 8 . a
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10* B . F . W ilc o x , "T h e A m e ric a n N e w sp a p e rs A S tu d y i n S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y ," A n n a ls o f t h e A m e ric a n A cadem y o f P o l i t i c a l a n d S o c i a l S c ie n c e . V o l. 1 6 , J u l y , 1 9 0 0 , p p . 5 6 -9 2 . 1 1 . M a lc o lm M a c d o n a ld W i l l e y , T he C o u n try N e w s p a p e r: A S tu d y o f S o c i a l i z a t i o n a n d N e w sp a p e r C o n t e n t . T he U n i v e r s i t y o f N o r t h C a ro lin a P r e s s , C hapel H i l l (1 9 2 6 ), p . 2 6 . 1 2 . B y ro n C . M a tth e w s , " S tu d y o f a New Y o rk B a i l y , " I n d e p e n d e n t . V o l. 6 8 , J a n u a r y , 1 9 1 0 , p . 8 4 . 13. I b id .,
p . 86.
1 4 . F r a n c e s F e n t o n , "T h e I n f l u e n c e o f N e w sp a p e r P r e s e n t a t i o n s on t h e G ro w th o f C rim e a n d o t h e r A n t i - S o c i a l A c t i v i t i e s , " A m e ric a n J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y . V o l. 1 6 , N o v e m b er, 1 9 1 0 , p . 3 6 0 . 15.
I b i d ., p . 371.
1 6 . I d e m . . V o l. 1 7 , J a n u a r y , 1 9 1 1 , p . 5 6 3 . 1 7 . S t u d i e s b y c r i m i n o l o g i s t s a r e com m ented on i n C h a p te r 5 , i n f r a . . 1 8 . L o g an W il s o n , " N e w s p a p e r O p in io n a n d C rim e i n B o s t o n ," J o u r n a l o f C r i m i n a l Law a n d C r i m i n o l o g y . V o l . 2 9 , J u l y - A u g u s t , 1 9 3 8 , p p . 2 0 2 -2 1 5 . 1 9 . W oodw ard, o p . c i t . ,
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2 0 . A l v i n A . T e n n y , "T h e S c i e n t i f i c A n a l y s i s o f t h e P r e s s , " I n d e p e n d e n t . V o l. 7 3 , O c t o b e r , 1 9 1 2 , p . 8 9 7 . 2 1 . Q u o te d i n G e o rg e B a to n S im p s o n , T he N e g ro i n t h e P h i l a d e l p h i a P r e s s , U n i v e r s i ty o f P e n n s y lv a n ia P r e s s , P h ila d e lp h ia (1 9 3 6 ) ' p . 129.
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23. I b i d ., p . 130. 2 4 . Thom as H . G a r t h , " S t a t i s t i c a l S tu d y o f t h e C o n te n t o f p a p e r s , " S c h o o l a n d S o c i e t y . V o l. 3 , J a n u a r y 2 2 ,1 9 1 6 ,
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2 6 . W oodw ard, o p . c i t . . p . 2 7 .
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2 7 . S im p s o n , o p . c i t . . p p . 1 3 5 - 1 3 8 .
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28. Ib id .
j
2 9 . W ille y , o p . c i t . , p p . 4 8 -5 0 .
j
3 0. I b i d . . p p . 3 5 -3 7 .
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31. I b id . , pp. 1 0 8 ff. 3 2 . Woodward, o p . c i t . , p . 31. 33. I b id . 3 4 . S t u a r t A. R ic e , and W. W. W eever, "The V e r i f i c a t i o n o f S o c i a l M easurem ents I n v o lv in g S u b je c tiv e C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , ” S o c i a l F o r c e s . V o l. 8 , S e p tem b er, 1929, p p . 1 6 -2 8 . 35. I b i d . , p . 28. 3 6. Woodward, o p . c i t . . p . 67. 3 7 . A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e adeq u acy o f a sam ple a s c o n c e iv e d by Woodward i s found in C h a p te r 3 , i n f r a . 3 8 . I b i d . , p p . 1 1 0 -1 1 4 . 3 9 . Idem , " Q u a n ti t a t i v e Newspaper A n a ly s is a s a T ech n iq u e o f O p in io n R e s e a rc h ," S o c i a l F o r c e s . V o l. 12, May, 1934, pp. 5 2 6 -5 3 7 . 4 0 . Q uoted i n Sim pson, op. c i t . . p . 134. 41. I b id . 42. I b id . 43. I b id . 44. I b i d ., p . 135. 4 5 . I r e n e B. T a u b e r, "C hanges in C o n te n t and P r e s e n t a t i o n o f R ead ing M a te r ia l i n M innesota W eekly N ew spapers, 1 8 6 0 -1 9 2 9 ," J o u r n a lis m Q u a r te r l y . V o l. 9 , S e p tem b er, 1932, p . 2 8 8 . 46. I b id . 4 7 . S usan Myra K in g sb u ry , H o r n e ll E a r t and A s s o c ia t e s , "N ew spapers and th e Newss An O b je c tiv e M easurem ent o f E t h i c a l and Un e t h i c a l B e h a v io r by R e p r e s e n ta tiv e N ew sp ap ers," J o u r n a lis m Q u a r te r l y , V o l. 1 0 , J u n e , 1933, p p . 9 5 -9 6 . 48. I b i d ., p . 99. 4 9 . Idem . "N ew spaper and th e News," V o l, 1 0 , S e p tem b er, 1933, p . 181. 5 0 . K in g sb u ry , l o c . c i t . . p . 107. 51. I b id . 5 2 . Idem . K in g sb u ry , p . 201.
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69 5 3 . I d e m .. "N ew spaper B ia s on C o n g re s s io n a l C o n t r o v e r s i e s ,” V o l. 1 0 , D ecem ber, 1933, p . 342. 5 4 . E o r n e l l H a r t, "C hanging S o c i a l A t t i t u d e s and I n t e r e s t s , " i n R ecen t S o c i a l T ren d s i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s : R e p o rt o f th e P r e s i d e n t s 1 R e s e a rc h C om m ittee on S o c i a l T r e n d s . McGraw H i l l (1934) (One Volume E d i t i o n ) , p p . 4 4 1 -4 4 2 . 5 5 . C h ilto n R. B ush, an d Ja n e Cook, "The M easurem ent o f E d i t o r i a l A t t i t u d e s , " J o u r n a lis m Q u a r t e r l y . V o l. 1 2 , D ecem ber, 1935, p . 370.. 56. Ib id . 5 7 . I b i d . , p . 372. 5 8 . J . S . F o s t e r and C. J . F r i e d r i c k , " L e t t e r s t o th e E d i t o r a s a Means o f M easuring th e E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f P ro p a g a n d a ," A m erican P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e R eview . V o l. 3 1 , 1937, p p . 7 1 -7 9 . 5 9 . A. L. S e v e rs o n , " R a c ia l and R e lig io u s R e s t r i c t i o n s i n Want A d s," A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y . V o l. 4 4 , J a n u a r y , 1939, p . 45. 60 . Gordon W illia m A l l p o r t , and; J a n e t M. F a d en , "The P sy c h o lo g y o f N evrspapers; F iv e T e n ta tiv e L aw s," P u b l i c O p in io n Q u a r te r l y , V o l. 4 , D ecem ber, 1940, p p . 68 7 -7 0 3 . 6 1 . I b i d . . p . 692. 62 . W ilb u r SchranJn(E d), Mass C om m unication, U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , U rbana (1 9497 7 P« 4 6 « 65 . H a ro ld D. L a s s w e ll, The A n a ly s is o f P o l i t i c a l B e h a v io r : An E m p ir ic a l A p proach. R o u tle d g e and Kagan P a u l L im ite d , London ( 1 9 4 9 ), p . 297. 6 4 . H a ro ld D. L a s s w e ll, N athan L e i t e s and A s s o c ia t e s , Language o f P o l i t i c s ; S tu d ie s i n Q u a n t i t a t i v e S e m a n tic s , G eorge W. S te w a r t, I n c o r p o r a te d , New Y ork (1 9 4 9 ), p p . 2 0 f f . 6 5 . L a s s w e ll, "W orld A t t e n t i o n S u r v e y ,” P u b lic O p in io n Q u a r t e r l y . V o l. V, F a l l , 1941, p p . 4 5 6 -4 6 2 . T hese volum es and docum ents o f t h e E x p e rim e n ta l D iv is io n f o r t h e S tu d y o f War Time Com m unications a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e fro m t h e L ib r a r y o f C o n g ress b u t t h e h ig h p o i n t s have b e en sum m arized i n v a r io u s s c i e n t i f i c m ag azin es and i n L a s s w e ll, L anguage. o p . c i t . 66. I b i d ., p . 461. 6 7 . E r n s t K ris and Hans S p e i e r , German R a d io P ro p a g a n d a . O xford U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , New Y ork (1 9 4 4 ).
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1
70 6 8 . B e rn a rd B e r e ls o n and S e b a s t a i n D e G ra z ia , “D e te c tin g C o l l a b o r a t i o n i n P ro p a g a n d a ," P u b l i c O p in io n Q u a r t e r l y . V o l. 1 1 , Summer, 1947, p p . 2 4 4 -2 5 3 . 6 9 . F o r exam ple U n ite d S t a t e s v s . P e l l e y , e t a l . (C .C .A . 7th)132 F ed . (2 d ) 1 70; C e r t, d e n ., 318 U .S . 7 64; Q uoted i n B e r e ls o n and L a z e r s f e l d , o p . c i t . . p . 14. 7 0 . L a s s w e ll, "The P o l i t i c a l l y S i g n i f i c a n t C o n te n t o f t h e P r e s s : C oding P r o c e d u r e s ," J o u r n a lis m Q u a r t e r l y . V o l. 1 9 , M arch, 1942. p p . 1 2 -2 3 ; Idem , D e s c r ib in g t h e C o n te n ts o f C o m m u n icatio n s," i n S m ith , L a s s w e ll a n d C a se y , P ro p a g a n d a , o p . c i t . . p p . 7 4 -9 4 . 71.
I r v i n g L . J a n i s , "T he-M eaning and th e S tu d y o f S ym bolic B e h a v io r ," P s y c h i a t r y . V o l. 6 , N ovem ber, 1943, p p . 4 2 5 -4 3 9 .
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with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
71 87* I b i d . . p . 3 3 9 . 8 8 . E l i z a b e t h C. W in sh ip a n d Gordon W* A l l p o r t , "Do Rosy Head l i n e s S e l l N e w sp a p e rs? ," P u b lic O pinion Q u a r te r l y . V o l. 7 Summer, 1943, p p . 205-2107----------------------- -----------* 8 9 . F lo y d A l l p o r t and M elton L e p k in , "OnB u ild in g War M orale w ith N e w s -H e a d lin e s," P u b lic O p in io n Q u a r te r l y . V o l. 7 . Summe*. 1943, p p . 2 1 1 -2 2 1 . * 9 0 . J b s e p h rT . K L apper-and C h a rle s Y . G lo ck , " T r i a l b y N ew sp ap er," R e p r in te d fro m S c i e n t i f i c A m erican. F e b ru a ry , 1949. 91 . D avid E . W e in g a s t, "W a lte r L ippm ann: A C o n te n t A n a l y s i s ," P u b lic O p in io n Q u a r te r l y . V o l. 1 4 , Summer, 1950, p . 298. 9 2 . I b i d . . p . 302. 9 3 . R e f e r r e d t o th ro u g h o u t th e t h e s i s , i n f r a and s u p r a . 9 4 . J . E . H u l e t t , "P ro p ag an d a and th e P ro p o sed C h ild L abor g g b l lo O pin io n Q u a r te r l y . V o l. 2 , J a n u a r y , 1938, p p . 105—115. 9 5 . S te w a rt H. B r i t t and Roye L. Lowry, "C o n fo rm ity o f L abor News p a p e rs w ith R e sp e c t t o th e A .F .L . and C .I .O . C o n f l ic t " jg g a a l S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y . V o l. 14,- November, 1941, p p . 9 6 . P h i l i p A sh, "The P e r i o d i c a l P re s s and t h e T a f t - H a r t l e y A ct " P u b lic O p in io n Q u a r te r l y . V o l. X I I , Summer, 1948, p p . 2 6 6 -2 7 1 . 9 7 . N athan Maccoby, F . Sabghur and B ry a n t C u sh in g , "A Method f o r th e A n a ly s is o f News C overage o f I n d u s t r y ," P u b lic O p in io n Q u a r te r l y . V o l. 1 4 , W in te r, 1 9 5 0 -5 1 , p . 758. --------9 8 . 0 . W. R i e g e l, " I n t e r n a t i o n a l C om m unication, P r e s s , R adio IrS ! P r f s i ^ eilt i a l Campaigns o f W ilk ie and R o o s e v e lt ,S P u b lic O p in io n Q u a r te r l y . V o l. 4 , D ecem ber, 1940, p p . 6 7 8 -6 7 9 . 9 9 . H. S c h u y le r F o s t e r , "How A m erica Became B e l l i g e r e n t : A Q u a n t i t a t i v e S tu d y o f War New3," A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io ln c v V o l. 4 0 , J a n u a r y , 1935, p p . 4 6 4 -4 7 5 ; I d e a , " C h a r t i n g A m e r ic a 's ' X 9 3 ? /p p ? P° r e iS n A f f a i r 3 ' 1S» J a n u a ry 1 0 0 . Q uincy W rig h t and C a rl J . N e lso n , "A m erican A t t i t u d e s Towards Ja p a n and C h in a, P u b lic O p in io n ,Q u a r te r ly . V o l. 3 , J a n u a ry pi* 4! ” 62 ; W rlSh t a n «> E £ ^ Z
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p o o ls. G e ld b o u s e s f o r s p o r ts p a rtic ip a n ts , c o m f o r t s ta tio n s , s to r m s e w e r s l a p a rk s , a a d r e h a b ilit a ti o n o f, m a n y d e te r io r a te d p a r k s tr u c t u r e s a n d c o m m u n ity c e n te r s . . T h e d t y Is s p e n d in g t b e l a s t o f tb e p r o c e e d s o f p r e v io u s p a r k b o o d is s u e s , a b o u t 380.000 a t a r e c e n t c h e c k . H o w e v e r, w h ile t h e "Pegedele, offers chance for industrial growth and will yield substantial tax revenue. Lincoln School and high-fensiOQ power line at left are w est of Ferguson avenue. Off to far right is site for Lever Brothers so a p plant.
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