A study of the Roman agricultural deities as portrayed by Horace, Ovid, Propertius, Tibullus, and Vergil

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A STUDY OF THIS ROMAN AGRICULTURAL DE ITIES AS PORTRAYED 3Y HORACE, OVID, PROPERTIUS, TIBULLUS, AND VERGIL

ii. T h e s i s P resented to th e D epartm ent of G l a s s i o a l Languages The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a

In P a r t ia l F u lfillm e n t o f th e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e D egree M aster of A rts

by J o a n n e J* W h i t t i n g t o n A ugust,

1950

UMI Number: EP60249

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L_

'$ '/

u j 0

Th is thesis, w ri tt en by

................. J’p a n n © .. J .. . W h i t t i n g t g n ................ under the gu ida nc e of h...9.¥. F acu lty C o m m i t t e e , and a p p r o v e d by all its me mbers, has been pres ented to an d a c ce p te d by the Council on G ra du ate S t u d y an d R ese arc h in part ia l fulfill­ ment of the requirements f o r the degree of

M aster of A rts

D ate......

Faculty Committee

__

. ... O r .

...

....

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I.

BAGS

INTRODUCTION

.

.

......................................................

4

A b r i e f h i s t o r y of pre-A ugustan a g r ic u l ­ tu r a l relig io n * II.

INDIVIDUAL INVESTIGATION OF THE AGRICULTUR­ AL DEITIES ..................................................................... C eres

B

.............................................................

8

C o n s u s .............................................................

SB

F a u n u s a n d P a n .............................................................

84

F lo ra

........................................3 3

L i b e r a n d B a c c h u s ............................................................. s38 Mars Ops

49 •

53

P ales

...............................................................55

Pom ona

...............................................................63

P r i a p u s .............................................................

65

H o b i g o .............................................................

69

S a t u r n u s ..................................................................... S ilvanus

.

.

.

T e l l u s and T e rra

.

. .

.

.

.

.

.

. .

72 75 78

A g r i c u l t u r a l A s p e c t s o f M i n e r v a , Ven us a n d J u p i t e r ...................................................................... 8 3

ii

CHAPTER III.

PAGE

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS..............................................

BIBLIOGRAPHY

....................... .....

•

,

.

..............................

85 89

PREFACE The m a t e r i a l f o r

th is

th esis

is

taken from th e l i t ­

e r a r y w orks o f th e m ajor A u g u stan p o e t s : P ro p ertiu s,

T ib u llu s,

and V e r g i l .

b r i e f resum e o f t h e h i s t o i y d e ities

H orace,

O vid,

C hapter

I p resen ts a

of t h e I t a l i a n

a g ric u ltu ral

f r o m t h e i r e a r l i e s t known b e g i n n i n g s a s a n c i e n t

Roman d e i t i e s

to th e form and f u n c t i o n t h a t th e y had ac­

q u i r e d by the

A ugustan p e r i o d .

The m a i n p o r t i o n o f t h e of a s t u d y of the

fo rm and p e r s o n a l i t y

th e A ugustan p o e ts p o r t r a y the

th esis,

them .

C hapter

XI, c o n s i s t s

of th e s e

d e itie s as

To g i v e a c l e a r e r

v a r i o u s c h a n g e s which h a d t a k e n p l a c e b y th e

i d e a of

A ugustan

Age, the

d e i t i e s have been p r e s e n t e d

they

are

d i s c u s s e d as Di I n d i g e t e s ,

ties;

t h e H e l l e n i c god o r g o d d e s s w i t h whom t h e e a r l y Roman

god w as merged i s d e s c r i b e d ;

in th e f o l lo w in g m anner: or e a r l y Roman d i v i n i ­

a d i s c u s s i o n of the

Graeco-Roman c o n c e p t i n th e A u g u s ta n p e r i o d i s in stan ce

of o c c u r r e n c e of

m erged

g iv en .

the p a r t i c u l a r d e i t y ' s

Every

name i n i t s

a g r i c u l t u r a l a s p e c t h a s been i n c l u d e d e i t h e r i n t h e m ain t e x t or in the f o o tn o te s . Q u o ta tio n s fro m th e L a t in a u th o r s have been ta k e n w h o l l y f r o m t h e L oeb C l a s s i c a l . L i b r a r y . and c o m m e n ta r ie s on the v a r i o u s

In d ic e s verborum

a u t h o r s ' w o rk s were employed*

2

for

assistan ce

in co m piling t i e r e f e r e n c e s .

and Days and th e were used* d e itie s.

T h e o g o n y of E e s i o d a n d t h e

i n t h e m ain,

The Works E o m e r i e Hymns

f o r r e f e r e n c e m a t e r i a l on t h e G r e e k

O th e r s o u r c e m t e r i a l s w hich were u se d a r e l i s t e d

in the b ib lio g ra p h y . The f o l l o w i n g a b b r e v i a t i o n s a r e u s e d t h e works o f the

au th o rs:

A. - - A e n e i d E . *■' " E c l o g u e s G. - • G e o r g i e s C ul.

- C ulex

M o r . « Mor e t u m Cop.

- Copa

D. -

- D irae

C i r . - C ir i s C a t. - C atalep to n M. !•

-

Me t amorp h o s e s

“ - F asti

Am." - Am ores H. - - H e r o i d e s A. A. - A r s A m t o r i a P.

- - E p istu lae

ex Ponto

Tr

•

M .F .

- De M e d ic amine F a c i e i L i b e r

R. -

—

T ristia

Rem edia

Amoris

in r e f e r r i n g to

5

Carm , - Carmina 2Snod« - E p o d i S a t. - - S a tirae E p . ----- E p i s t u l a e A .P .- - Ars P o e t i c a a .S .-

- Carmen S a e c u l a r a

P h • - - Theogony

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The v e r y e a r l i e s t p e r i o d o f Roman r e l i g i o n was p r o b a b l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a w o r l d o f s p i r i t s who a s s u m e d t h e sh a p e s of a n i m a l s ,

stones,

and t r e e s .

w hich p re c e d e d th e t r a d i t i o n a l d a te

To t h i s p e r i o d ,

o f t h e f o u n d i n g o f Rome,

may h a v e b e l o n g e d t h e s t r a n g e s a c r i f i c i a l r i t e s t i v a l s >as t h e

L u p ercalia,

A fter th is f a m i l y ’s r e l i g i o u s

the F o r d ic id ia ,

an im istic

p e r i o d comes t h e

concepts are r e f l e c t e d

f e s t i v a l s w hich r e p r e s e n t a g r i c u l t u r e tie s:

the R o b ig a lia ,

V in alia,

S a tu rn alia ,

is b eliev ed ,

o f s u c h f e s - »>' 1 and th e P a r i l i a . age i n w hich t h e

in the s e r i e s

and i t s r e l a t e d

of

a c tiv i­

A m barv alia,

C o n su a lia , O piconsiva, p and T e r m i n a l i a • From t h i s p e r i o d ,

the F auni, S ilv a n i,

and Nymphs o r i g i n a l l y c a m e .

F o w l e r a l s o a s s e r t s t h a t t h e two d e i t i e s , w ere o r i g i n a l l y g e n e r a l names f o r s p i r i t s ; R o b i g u s was t h e

sp irit

were m e re ly n u m in a, p r o t e c t i n g

it

L iber

and C e r e s ,

a lo o se ly defined c la s s of

o f t h e m i l d e w ; C o n s u s a n d Ops the g a t h e r e d h a r v e s t , w h e re a s

S a t u r n u s p r o b a b l y p r o t e c t e d t h e sown s e e d .

1

F o w l e r , The Roman F e s t i v a l s , p . 3 3 4

2

Ib id .,

p.

33 5

3

I b id .,

p.

337

3

Numen, t h e

sing-

5

u l a r o f n u m in a , l i t e r a l l y means

fa n o d . 1

Some s p i r i t s

had

a num en o r t h e c a p a c i t y t o g r a n t p e r m i s s i o n f o r a n i n d i v i d ­ u a l or g r o u p t o p e r f o r m s u c c e s s f u l l y some p a r t i c u l a r f i n e r tion. ■ T h e s e s p i r i t s m ore.

f r e q u e n t l y p o s s e s s e d a numen a n d n o t h i n g

T h i s s e e m e d t o b e t h e c a s e w i t h G o n s u s a n d O p s , who

were m e r e ly c a p a b le

of g i v i n g t o

th eir p e titio n e rs

t h e pow­

e r of s u c c e s s f u l l y s t o r i n g g r a i n . D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of t h e B .C .

t h e r e was a c o n t i n u a l

in crease

G reek r e l i g i o n upon th e n a t i v e i n I t a l y had h e lp e d L atium f r e e th e s ix th cen tu ry ,

s ix th to the t h ir d c e n tu ry in the

Italia n itse lf

and th e i n f lu e n c e

Rome h a d b e c o m e e v i d e n t b y t h i s

in flu en ce

relig io n .

of

The G r e e k s

from E t r u s c a n r u l e

of G recian c u l t u r e

tim e.

L ater,

in

on

in the t h i r d

c e n t u r y B . C . , Rome c o n q u e r e d Magna G r a e c i a ; h e n c e G r e e k i n ­ f l u e n c e became s t i l l

stro n g er.

w ith Greece in c r e a s e d , stitu tio n s,

co in ag e,

lite ra tu re,

a rts

and c u l t s

As t i m e p r o g r e s s e d a n d t r a d e

the H e lle n ic

scien ce

and c r a f t s ,

s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l i n ­

and p h i lo s o p h ie s ,

alp h ab et,

s c u l p t u r a l im ages o f t h e g o d s ,

and m y th o lo g ie s were i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e I t a l i c

p e n in su la.

I n 4 9 7 B . C . we h e a r

t h a t t h e a n c i e n t Roman S a t -

u r n u s was p o r t r a y e d b y a f e t t e r e d G raeco r i t u

statu e

w ith th e head u n co v ered .

and w o r s h i p p e d

Then i n 4 93 B . C . ,

the

6

G reek Dem eter a r r i v e d Geres*

cu lt*

^

i n Rome a n d was a s s i m i l a t e d

F u rth er

e la b o ra tio n of the r i t e s

fo rm er sim ple a g r i c u l t u r a l d e i t i e s i s known t h a t Consus, is,

is

in to of th e

ev id en t in th a t

it

t e m p l e s and s h r i n e s were d u ly d e d i c a t e d to a n d P a l e s b e t w e e n 272 a n d £ 6 4 B . C . ,

T ellu s,

in the y e ars fo llo w in g the p a c i f i c a t i o n

ment o f I t a l y a f t e r t h e

th at

and s e t t l e -

in v a sio n of P y rrh u s.

From a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e t h i r d

c e n tu ry to th e f i r s t

c e n t u r y B . C . t h e r e was a p e r i o d o f d e c a y i n t h e o l d Roman relig io n . tic

In t h i s

p eriod th e re

E astern r e lig io n s

Roman r e l i g i o n .

is

ev id en ce

were e v en p e n e t r a t i n g t h e G r a e c o -

By 18 6 B . C .

the o r g ia s tic

D io n y su s and B acchus were s u p p l a n t i n g th e L ib er.

th a t the o r g ia s ­

cerem onies of sim ple r i t e s

of

Ops wa s b e i n g i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e Magna M a t e r a n d

t h e B ona D e a . Among t h e e d u c a t e d a n d w e a l t h y c l a s s e s the old b e l i e f s throw n a s id e

of people

and d e i t i e s were b e i n g q u e s t i o n e d and

f o r th e com fort and r e l i e f

of a p h ilo so p h y

w h i c h was n o t a t a l l Roman.

fallen

D uring t h i s

l a t t e r p e r i o d a g r e a t many t e m p l e s h a d

in to decay.

Roman g o d s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d ? / i t h C r e e k

gods f r e e l y and were w ith o u t any g e n u in e m ean in g .

1

Fow ler,

2

Ib id .

o p .c i t ., p.. 3.39

p.

339

Faunus

7

took t h e . a t t r i b u t e s th e m idst of t h i s

of Pan,

Ops o f t h e Magna M a t e r *

Into

c o n f u s i o n among t h e Romans came A u g u s t u s ,

who s o u g h t t o g i v e h i s p e o p l e o n c e a g a i n a v i t a l r e l i g i o n * he r e b u i l t t e m p le s , in still

re v iv e d the sa c re d o r d e r s ,

i n t h e Romans t h e

er re lig io n .

sp irit

To a c c o m p l i s h t h e s e

and p r i n c i p l e s ends,

number o f e x c e l l e n t p o e t s t o s t r e s s er re lig io u s T his i s , p o ets,

of the o ld ­

he e n c o u r a g e d a

i n t h e i r v e r s e t h e form'

of co u rse,

o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s why t h e p a r t i c u l a r

O vid, P r o p e r t i u s ,

T ib u llu s,

and V e r g i l p r o ­

v i d e u s w i t h s o much i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s e

at th is

to

i d e a l s w h i c h h a d b e co m e o b s c u r e d a n d c o n f u s e d *

L orace,

d e ities.

and t r i e d

L e t u s now e x a m i n e t h e s e d e i t i e s tim e p o r t r a y e d them .

ag ric u ltu ral

as th e p o ets

CHAPTER I I

* ] ^ illa

C e r e n s s u n t om nia m u n u s ; canenda m ihi e s t .

In V erg il,

T ib u llu s,

H orace,

and Ovid a l l u s i o n s

w e r e made t o C e r e s i n h e r o r i g i n a l f u n c t i o n a s g o d d e s s o f fe rtility

and g r a i n ,

2

b u t T ib u llu s alone c o n s id e re d h er

i n h i s p o e t r y as m e re ly an I t a l i a n r u s t i c

goddess,

whose

te m p le d o o r s were o rn a m e n te d w i t h w r e a th s o f c o r n e a r s . j f l a v a C e r e s , t i b i s i t n o s t r o de r u r e c o r o n a _~1 I s p i c e a , quae t e m p i i p e n d e a t a n te f o r e s . . However, V e r g i l ,

O vid, and H orace s e e m in g ly i n t e r ­

wove t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a g ric u ltu ral s p irit, G reek D em eter. ter

o f t h e Roman C e r e s ,

th e sim ple

w i t h t h e m ore c o m p l e x n a t u r e o f t h e

D em eter,

o f Rhea and C ro n u s.

a c c o r d i n g t o H e s i o d , was a d a u g h ­ ^

To t h e G r e e k s ,

a l s o D e m e t e r wa s

an e a r t h g o d d e s s and p r i m a r i l y a g o d d e ss o f g r a i n .

I n due

1

O v i d , M. V. 5 4 3 - 3 4 4

2

O v i d , Am. I . I . 9 , I I I . I I * 5 3 , I I I . V I I . 3 1 ; F . I I I . 7 8 6 , I . 6 8 3 , V I . 3 9 1 , I I . 5 2 0 ; M. V I I I . 2 7 2 - 2 7 7 , V I I I . 7 6 9 - 7 8 2 , V I I I . 7 4 1 - 7 4 2 ; R* 1 7 3 ; T r . I I . 3 0 0 ; T i b . , I I . V. 5 7 - 8 4 , I I I . V I I . 1 6 2 - 1 6 3 ; H o r . , C a m . I V . V* 1 8 ; C . S . 3 0 ; S a t . I I . I I . 1 2 4 ; V e r g . , E . V. 7 9 ; G. I I . 2 2 9 , I I . 5 1 7 , I . 6 , I . 2 9 7 ; A. I . 1 7 2 - 1 7 9 , V I I I . 1 8 0 , I I . 7 1 4 , I I . 7 4 3 ; A p p . V e r g . , ”D . ” 1 5 , " C u l . " 1 3 5 , " C o p . ” 2 0 . , " C i r . " 2 3 0

3

T ib .,

I.

4

H es.,

Th. 453-454

I.

15-16,

II.

I.

4

9

accordance w ith her p o p u la r i ty , G reece,

As D e m e t e r E r i s b e ,

m e te r C hloe

(green)

s h e h a d many c u l t s

in

s h e k e p t o f f t h e m i l d e w , De­

took care of the f r e s h

g reen o f the

new s p r o u t s o f g r a i n , D e m e t e r O l y m p i a g u a r d e d t h e g r a i n from d ro u g h t,

D em eter H i m a l i s and D em eter M egalom azos

were w o rs h ip p e d by m i l l e r s

and b a k e r s ,

resp ec tiv e ly .

The

T h e s m o r p h o r i a was a f a m o u s f e s t i v a l o f D e m e t e r i n w h i c h t h e c e r e m o n i e s w e r e i n t e n d e d t o b r i n g g o o d c r o p s a n d many c h ild re n to th e farm ers. p le s of fam ily l i f e

Thi.s D e m e t e r t a u g h t t h e p r i n c i ­

and o f a g r i c u l t u r a l l o r e .

women who w e r e c i t i z e n s

a n d who h a d u n d e r g o n e a n i n e d a y s ’

f a s t and p e r i o d o f c o n tin e n c e c o u ld s h a r e T his g o d d ess, Persephone. Persephone,

as th e c o n s o rt o f Zeus, The f a b l e

Only m a r r i e d

i n t h e festival.***

produced a d a u g h te r,

of H ades’ se iz u re

and a b d u c tio n o f

D e m e te r ’s a n g u is h e d s e a r c h f o r h e r d a u g h t e r ,

and th e r e s u l t a n t d e c i s i o n t o have P e rse p h o n e s t a y onet h i r d o f th e y e ar i n th e u nd erw o rld and t w o - t h i r d s y ear in the

company o f h e r m o th e r i s r e l a t e d

of th e

in f u l l

in

t h e H o m e r i c Hymn t o D e m e t e r . The a t t r i b u t i n g

to C e res o f t h i s D em eter and P ro ­

serp in a ta le ,

or th e s to r y of th e o r i g in of th e E le u s in ia n

1

A Handbook o f G reek R e l i g i o n , p .

F airbanks,

156

m ysteries, in to the

is

lo re

one o f t h e most o b v io u s G re e k i n f i l t r a t i o n s o f t h e Roman g o d d e s s . ^

Ovid d e s c r i b e s P ro

s e r p i n a ’ s a b d u c t i o n by P l u t o and C e re s * s e a r c h f o r h e r d au g h ter in b o th th e F a s t i

and th e M e ta m o rp h o se s;

t h e Met a m o r p h o s e s , O v i d d e s c r i b e s P l u t o ’ s s e i z u r e s e rp in a w ith th e fo llo w in g t a l e . C e r e s was g a t h e r i n g v i o l e t s

In of Pro­

W hile t h e d a u g h te r o f

and l i l i e s

and f i l l i n g

her

f l o w e r b a s k e t w i t h them , P l u t o ,

th e god o f t h e u n d e rw o rld

sa w h e r ,

and c a r r i e d h e r a w a y * ^

r

L ater, v

fell

in love w ith h e r,

^ quo dum P r o s e r p i n a l u c o \ l u d i t e t a u t v i o l a s a u t C andida l i l i a c a r p i t , ' dumque p u e l l a r i s t u d i o c a l a t h o s q u e s i n u m q u e i n p le t e t aeq u ales c e r t a t su p e rare leg en do , paene sim ul v is a e s t d ile c ta q u e ra p ta q u e D i t i usque adeo e s t p r o p e r a t u s am or. 2 Ovid t e l l s

of C e re s ’ se a rc h fo r her d au g h ter:

^

I n t e r e a p a v id a e nequiquam f i l i a m a t r i „ o m n i b u s e s t t e r r i s , omni q u a e s i t a p r o f undo . _ _ J

F-i-naLLy, h e r e l a t e s how a f t e r C e r e s h a d d i s c o v e r e d h e r d a u g h t e r ’s abode, J u p i t e r

d iv id e d the y e a r

in to

two

e q u a l p a r t s and p e r m i tt e d P r o s e r p in a t o rem ain h a l f th e m onths w i t h h e r m o th e r, P lu to :

C eres,

and h a l f w i t h h e r h u sb a n d

I

1

O v i d , M. V. 3 7 5 - 5 7 1 ; F .

2

O v i d , M.

3

I b i d . , 438-439

r. 391-396

IV. 4 2 3 -6 20

11

f n u n c d e a , r e g n o r u m numen commune d u o r u m , ._ ^-eum m a t r e e s t t o t i d e m , t o t id e m cum c o i u g e m e n s e s . / T his s t o r y , of th e t io n

of course,

p i n c e s t h e blame f o r

the change

s e a s o n s upon C e res b e c a u s e she n e g l e c t s h e r p o s l a s g o d d ess of t h e g r a i n w hile

s i x m onths s t a y i n th e -u n d erw o rld , tu rn to the

e a rth in th e S prin g ,

m ourning h e r d a u g h t e r ’s Upon P r o s e r p i n a ’ s r e ­

C eres a g a in

jo y fu lly cares

fo r her crops. pC eres

i s r e p r e s e n t e d a s t h e law g i v e r i n t h e A en eid

when A e n ea s a n d D ido a r e a b o u t t o leg iferae "T his w ith

be m a r r i e d :

m a c t a n t l e - c t a s d e more b i d e n t i s C ereri . . . ^

l e g a l p r o p e r t y o f C e re s was o r i g i n a l l y a s s o c i a t e d G reek Dem eter..

S ervius

comm ents:

A l i i d i c u n t f a v e r e n u p t i i s C i r e r e m , quod p r i m a n u p s e r i t love e t co n d en d is u rb ib u s p r a e s i t , u t C alvus d o c e t E t l e g e s s a n c t a s d o c u it e t c a r a \ i u g a v i t c o r p o r a c o n n u b i i s , e t magnas c o n d i d i t u r b e s / \ Co n i n g t o n a d d s t h a t ’f r u g i f e r a e ’ h a s b e e n u s e d i n

- —

c e r t a i n m an u scrip ts fo r

’ l e g i f e r a e , ’ w h ic h he t h o u g h t was

a c o r r e c t i o n f o r so m eo ne who knew n o t h i n g o f C e r e s t h e \g iv er.

\

1

Ovid,

0£

2

Y erg .,

3

S erv ius,

.

c i t .,

A. I V .

566-567

57-58

a d Verg., A. I V .

57-58

law

The p o p p y a s t h e

flo w er of G eres

was a n o t h e r G r e e k i n f i l t r a t i o n ,

for th is

(C e re ale papaver)

1

flow er of f o r g e t­

f u l n e s s w a s t r u l y t h e f l o w e r o f D e m e t e r , who h a d among h e r o t h e r c u l t names t h a t o f t h e G re e k g o d d e s s o f t h e u n d e r ­ w orld: As m o t h e r o f P e r s e p h o n e a n d g o d d e s s o f t h e e a r t h , t o w h i c h n o t o n l y - t h e s e e d , b u t t h e d e a d a r e com­ m i t t e d , she i s c o n n ec te d w ith th e low er w orld un­ d e r t h e name o f C h t h o n i a . % No Roman w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e b e s t o w e d u p o n t h e ru stic

C e r e s s o d r a m a t i c a c o n v e y a n c e a s n /-e:a - r ' 'd r a w n

t h r o u g h t h e s k i e s b y two d r a g o n s ,

alth o u g h i t w e ll b e f i t s

th e G reek D e m e te r: I q uo s i r a u l a c v e n i t , f r e n a t o s c u r r i b u s a n g u e s \ iu n g it e t aequoreas sic c a p e re rra t aquas. ® The s e r p e n t s s y m b o l i z e d a r e n e w a l o f l i f e shed t h e i r

because th ey

sk in .

E leu sis

i s m e n t i o n e d a s t h e tow n o f G e r e s :

cy o n is letum v i d i t C e r e a lis E l e u s i n .” ^

E leu sis

E le u s i n i a n m y s te rie s can b e lo n g o nly to D em eter.

212

1

Y e r g . , G. I .

2

H a r p e r , D i e t . s . v . D em eter

t?G e r and the

13

C e r e s a g a i n a s s u m e s D e m e t e r ' s p e r s o n a l i t y when Y erg il r e f e r s

t o A e n e a s * m e e t i n g w i t h P o l y b o e t e s TtC e r -

e r i q u e s a c r u m 1* ^ i n t h e u n d e r w o r l d .

P o l y b o e t e s was t h e

p r i e s t o f D em eter. Ovid t e l l s

u s t h a t C e r e s was th e f i r s t d e i t y t o V' e n j o y t h e b l o o d s a c r i f i c e o f a sow: j f p r l m a C e r e s - a v i d .a e p ' g a v is a e s t sanguine p o r o a e .” The p i g wa s u s e d a s a s a c r i f i c i a l v i c t i m o f D em eter i n E l e u s i s .

3

O v id 's s t o r y

about the s a c r i f i c i a l p ig is ex trem ely i n te r e s t i n g , he i s n o t c o n s i s t e n t

i n g i v i n g t h e r e a s o n why t h e sow i n ­

s t e a d o f o t h e r a n i m a l s was c h o s e n f o r a v i c t i m . p la c e he r e l a t e s sp ro u ts

but

I n one

how t h e sow h a d u p r o o t e d a l l o f t h e new

o f g r a i n a n d t h u s h a d a n g e r e d C e r e s , who c l a i m e d

its

l i f e in revenge: 1 ' u l t r a suas m e rita caede n o c e n tis opes; nam s a t a v e r e n o v o t e n e r i s l a c t e n t i a s u l c i s e r u t a s a e t i g e r a e co m p erit ore s u i s . s u s d e d e r a t p o e n a s ..................... i ------------- — I n t h e C e r e s a n d P r o s e i ’p i n a . s t o r y , h o w e v e r , h e s t a t e s

th at

th e p ig had c o n fu se d P r o s e r p i n a 's f o o t s t e p s

a n e x t e n t t h a t C e r e s c o u l d n o t make t h e m o u t . p i g was t h e u n l u c k y v i c t i m :

1

Y e r g . , A. V I . 4 8 4

2

O vid, P .

3

Frazer,

4

O vid, F .

I.

349; c f . P. I I . 29-30

The F a s t i o f O v i d ,V o l . I . 349-352

II,

p . 151

to such

Thus t h e

f o r s i t a n i l i a d i e s e r r o r i s summa f u i s s e t s i non t u r b a s s e n t s ig n a r e p e r t a s u e s . E i t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n makes a good s t o r y ,

and a t l e a s t

it

c a n "be c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e p i g w a s o n e o f C e r e s 1 s a c r i ­ f i c i a l v ictim s. The f o x ,

a s w e l l a s t h e p i g , was t h e

v ic tim of G eres.

Ovid s a y s t h a t

a b urning to rc h to i t s 19.

tail

sa crificial

i t was c u s t o m a r y t o t i e

a t th e Ludi C e re a le s , A p ril

The e x p l a n a t i o n g i v e n f o r t h e b u r n i n g t o r c h

is th at

once a fo x w hich had lo n g b e en p i l l a g i n g th e c o u n tr y s id e had f i n a l l y been c a u g h t.

Its

tro y

b u t th e fo x escap ed w hile s t i l l

it

b y means o f f i r e ,

c a p t o r s had d e c id e d to d e s ­

aflam e and b u rn ed th e c o u n t r y s i d e . ,

T h erefo re th e fox

was p u n i s h e d f o r t h i s m i s d e m e a n o r b y b e i n g t h e v i c t i m once a y e a r : i s c a p i t e x tr e m i volpem c o n v a l l e s a l i c t i ; a b s t u l e r a t m ultas i l i a c o h o r t i s a v e s. cap tiv am s t i p u l a faenoque i n v o l v i t e t ignes adm ovet: u r e n t e s e f f u g i t i l i a manus: qua f u g i t , i n c e n d i t v e s t i t os m e s s ib u s a g r o s ; dam nosis v i r e s x g n ib u s a u r a d a b a t . \ f a c t u m a b i i t , m o n u m e n ta m a n e n t ; nam d i c e r e c e r t a nunc quoque l e x volpem G a r s e o la n a v e t a t ; \ \ u to u e l u a t poerias g e n s h aec C e r i a l i b u s a r d e t , \ q u o q u e modo s e g e t e s p e r d i d i t , i p s a p e r i t . 2 O v i d s e e m s t o b e t h e o n l y p o e t who m a k e s r e f e r e n c e

1

O v i d , V.

3

Ib id .,

IV. 465-4 6 6

681-713

to

15

t h i s k in d of s a c r i f i c e .

The s a c r i f i c e

o f th e fo x does

n o t seem t o a p p e a r e l s e w h e r e i n I t a l i a n lo re,

or G reek f o l k ­

^ Y e r g i l d e s c r i b e s C eres as f o l l o w s :

a l t o n e q u i q u a m s p e c t a t Olympo a tru e

Ita lia n

fff l a v a C e r e s

B a ily observes th a t

d e i t y w o u l d n o t t a k e M o u nt O ly m pu s f o r

h e r home a n d e v e n G r e e k D e m e t e r w o u l d s c o r n t h i s ly abode,

f o r h e r d o m i c i l e was b e n e a t h t h e e a r t h .

a n c i e n t s had th o u g h t o f t h e i r d e i t i e s

heaven­ ^

The

as l i v i n g upon

Mount O ly m p u s f o r s o l o n g t h a t t h e y e v e n t r a n s f e r r e d t h e home o f C e r e s a n d D e m e t e r t o t h i s Ovid r e f e r s

site.

t o C e r e s a s t h e d a u g h t e r o f Ops a n d

S atu rn • / \

u p e l u n o n e m m e m o r a n t C e r e r e m c ju e c r e a t e s sem ine S a t u r n i , t e r t i a Y e s ta f u i t ; ^

ojl

F razer,

how ever, n o t e s t h a t

o l o g y d i s g u i s e d a s Rom an.

the s to r y

i s p u re G reek m yth­

O v i d was t h i n k i n g o f a p a s s -

age o f fiesio d ^ w h e re in t h e l a t t e r p o e t s t a t e s

th a t C ronus’

w i f e , R h e a , was t h e m o th e r o f H e s t i a ,

and E e r a .

Ovid i d e n t i f i e s t h e t h r e e

D em eter,

d a u g h t e r s w i t h Roman J u n o ,

a n d Y e s t a ; R h e a a n d C r o n u s be co m e Ops a n d S a t u r n .

1

ffow ler, op.

2

Y e r g . , G. I .

3

B ailey , R e lig io n in Y e rg il, p.

4

Ovid,

op, c i t .,

5

H es.,

Th. 4 5 3 -4 5 4

c i t p.

78

96

YI. 2 8 5 - 2 8 6

107

C eres,

H ere-

16

i n O v id f o l l o w e d t h e l i t e r a r y age.

f a s h i o n of th e A ugustan

1 G e r e s was t h e

i n s t r u c t o r o f man i n a g r i c u l t u r e .

A c c o r d i n g t o O v i d , w h i l e s h e was w a n d e r i n g o v e r t h e e a r th in se a rc h of her d au g h ter,

P ro serp in a,

C e r e s came

t o a c e r t a i n home i n S i c i l y w h e r e i n s h e b e c a m e t h e n u r s e o f a m ale c h i l d named T r i p t o l e m u s . come a t t a c h e d t o t h e

in fan t,

ta lity upon i t by p l a c i n g i t c o a ls of f i r e . ing a tr o c i t y , was c o m p l e t e .

h aving b e ­

a t t e m p t e d t o b e s to w imm or­ fo r se v era l n ig h ts

The c h i l d Ts m o t h e r ,

in liv e

w itn essin g th is

in te rv e n e d b efo re the

seem­

im m o rtalizin g p ro cess

A l t h o u g h C e r e s was g r e a t l y a n g e r e d a t t h e

m o th e r's la c k o f t r u s t t o l e m u s - che f i r s t terin g

C eres,

in h e r,

n ev erth eless

s h e made T r i p ­

p low m an a n d g a v e h i m t h e t a s k o f s c a t -

t h e g r a i n a b o u t t h e w o r l d f o r t h e u s e o f m an.^/O v id

says; T rip to le m o p a rtim q u e r u d i d a t a sem ina i u s s i t s p a r g e r e humo, p a r t i m p o s t t e m p o r a l o n g a r e c u l t a e .

L

T h is,

too,

was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h G r e e k D e m e t e r .

m e te r ’s a u sp ic e s,

T rip to lem u s,

the E le u sin ia n ,

in g t h e know ledge o f a g r i c u l t u r e 1

F razer,

2

O v i d , M. V. 6 4 6 - 6 6 0 ; o f . I . 147

2

U nder De­ was d i f f u s ­

and th e a t t e n d a n t b l e s s i n g s

The F a s t i o f O v i d , V o l .

IV, p .

Am. I I I .

21 5

V I. 15; V e rg .,

G.

1?

s ta b le h o m e-life,

m arriage,

and c i v i l o r d e r .

Thus

G r e e k D e m e t e r wa s w o r s h i p p e d a s g o d d e s s o f a g r i c u l t u r e and m a r r i a g e ,

a s w e l l as f o u n d e r o f law and o r d e r ,

The g o d d e s s , tio n as m is tr e s s b it

a c c o r d i n g to O vid,

resp o n sib le

shared her p o s i­

of the h a rv e s t w ith T e llu s ,

of lan d f o r th e g r a in to r e s t

in ,

^

who g a v e a

w h e r e a s C e r e s was

f o r th e v i t a l elem en t i n th e g r a i n :

p l a c e n t u r frugum m a tre s , T e llu s q u e C eresq u e , f a r r e suo g r a v i d a e v i s c e r i b u s q u e s u i s , o f f i e i u m commune C e r e s e t T e r r a t u e n t u r : haec p r a e b e t causam f r u g i b u s , i l i a locum , ^ E p i t h e t s w ere u sed f r e q u e n t l y C eres. g en tle

in refe ren c e

to

”Alma C e r e s ” a n d ”m i t i s C e r e s ” ^ p o r t r a y h e r and l o v i n g s p i r i t .

The e p i t h e t ” f l a v a ” i s a l s o

used f r e q u e n t l y i n r e g a r d to C eres and h e r h a i r , p e t t e f l a v a comas fru g u m m i t i s s i m a m a t e r s e n s i t e q u u m ,” ^ ^ I

as w e ll as to P

th e g r a i n o v er w hich she k e p t w a tc h .

The name C e r e s wa s u s e d many t i m e s b y m eton y m y

f o r su c h words as c o r n ,

1

H arper, D i e t . s .v .

2* O v i d , F .

I.

g ra in or b rea d .

V erg il

says,

D em eter

671-674

3

V e r g . , G. I . 674 f f . i

7 ; O v i d , F . IV . 5 4 7 ; M. V. 5 7 2 ,

4

O v i d , M. V I . I . 96; T i b . ,

1 1 8 ; Am. I I I . I . I . 15

X. 3 ; V e r g . ,

cf.

G. I .

I.

73;

18

” a t r u b i e u n d a G e r e s n ie d i o s u c c i d i t u r a e s t u . ” ^ Y e r g i l and Ovid w r o t e l e n g t h y d e s c r i p t i o n s G eres’ fe stiv a ls* three

sep arate

A l t h o u g h Ovid d e f i n i t e l y d e s c r i b e s

f e s t i v a l s f o r C e r e s — one i n t h e

one i n t h e f a l l ,

th e tim e o f y e a r ,

th a t the d e t a i l s

F e r i a e Sem entivae i n J a n u a ry ,

B ailey p o in ts

o f w orship* s the r u s t i c

out,

f e s t i v a l of the

w h i c h was i n h o n o r o f

He b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e w h o l e r i t e

d is c u s s e d b e cau se Y e r g il w anted to d e s c r ib e f e s t i v a l in the

in

of th e f e s t i v a l in Y e r g i l ’s

d e s c r ip tio n corresponded to a r u s t i c

G e res and T e l l u s .

w ith r e f e r ­

to the s p rin g f e s t i v a l

A p r i l d i s c u s s e d b y Ovid i n t h e F a s t i . hovfever,

sp rin g

and one i n J a n u a r y — C e r e s ’ f e s t i v a l

d e s c rib e d in Y e r g i l ’s G eorgies c o rre sp o n d s, ence to

of

spring r a th e r

was

a ru stic

th a n any p a r t i c u l a r

act

At t h e f e s t i v a l d e s c r i b e d b y Y e r g i l ,

p o p u la c e p r e s e n t e d t o C e re s honeycombs soaked

in m ilk and w ine.

T h e n a b l o o d v i c t i m was l e d t h r i c e

a r o u n d t l i e new c r o p s w h i l e t h e c r o w d c l a m o r e d f o r G e r e s ’ favor.

3 In O v id ’s s p r in g f e s t i v a l ,

i s made o f t h e u s e o f s p e l t ,

1

Y erg .,

2

B ailey ,

3

Y erg .,

G. I . op. G. I .

34 2 c i t .^ p . 54 343-347

or C e re a lia ,

crack lin g

sa lt,

m ention

and a p i g

19

as a s a c r i f i c i a l v ic tim : f a r r a d e ae m ic a e q u e l i c e t s a l i e n t i s honorera d e tis et in v e te re s tu re a grana fo c o s, e t , s i tu r a a b eru n t, u n ctas aco en d ite tae d as: } p a r v a b o n a e G e r e r i , s i n t niodo c a s t a , p l a c e n t . I a bove s u c c i n c t i c u l t r o s rem o v ete m i n i s t r i : [ b o s a r e t ; ig n av am s a c r i f i e a t e suem. The J a n u a r y f e s t i v a l d e s c r i b e d b y O v i d was d e d i c a t e d t o C eres and T e l l u s

to g eth er,

and t h e y were p r o p i t i a t e d w ith

s p e l t a n d t h e sow: '" p la c e n tu r frugum m a tre s , T e llu s q u e C e re sn u e , f a r r e suo g ra v id a e v i s c e r ib u s q u e s u i s . ^ The d e t a i l s to

in d icate

th at

o f t h e A u g u st f e s t i v a l o f G e re s seem

t h e p e o p le were e a g e r - t o p r o p i t i a t e

C e re s so t h a t

sh e would a i d t h e r i p e n i n g p r o c e s s o f

th e ir crops,

Ovid, d e s c r i b i n g t h i s

fe stiv a l,

te lls

of

th e m atrons w earin g w h ite ro b e s and re m a in in g c o n tin e n t fo r nine n i g h t s : p lfe s ta p ia e C e r e r is c e le b r a b a n t annua m atres i l i a , quibus n iv e a v e la ta e c o rp o ra v e s te .p r i m i t i a s frugum d a n t s p i e e a s e r t a suaram ■perque novem n o c t e s v e n e r e m t a c t u s q u e v i r i l e s , i n v e t i t i s n um eran t. ^ ^ S e x u a l p u r i t y i n women a n d f e r t i l i t y

in the e a r th

and g ro w in g c r o p s w ere b e l i e v e d t o be c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d . H arriso n e x p la in s

t h a t an i n c a r n a t i o n of g r a i n and a g r i -

1

O v i d , F . I V . 4 0 9 - 4 1 3 ; c f . O v i d , Am. I I I . X. 1 - 4 8 ; T r . I I I . X I I . 1 1 ; F . IV. 9 1 1 , I . 1 2 7 , IV . 3 8 9 f f ; M. I . 1 2 3

2

O vid, F .

3

O v i d , M. X. 4 3 1 - 4 3 5 ; c f .

I*

671-672 H o r.,

S at.

II.

V III.

13-14

20

cu ltu re

t o o k t h e f o r m o f a woman b e c a u s e p r i m i t i v e man

w a s t a k e n up w i t h h u n t i n g a n d f i g h t i n g * w a s n a t u r a l t h a t women s h o u l d h e t h e a list. Payne,

a g ric u ltu r­

i s a m agical re a so n f o r t h i s . 1 q u o te d by H a r r i s o n , s a y s t h a t p r i m i t i v e rnan i n

its

There i s

in te r f e r e w ith the occup­

a ls o good e v id e n c e t h a t th e o b s e r v a t i o n

of co n tin en ce r e f e r r e d o rig in .

was m a g i c a l l y d e p e n d ­

s u c c e s s u p o n woman a n d c o n n e c t e d w i t h p r e g ­

n a n c y a n d h e n c e man w o u l d n o t a tio n .

first

C icero r e p o r t s

t o i n O v i d ’ s p a s s a g e was o f G re e k t h a t C e r e s ’ r i t e s were p e rfo rm e d

b y G r e e k women s e l e c t e d f r o m t h e G r e e k c i t i e s an d Y e l i a when t h e c e r e m o n i e s were f i r s t G reece.

it

-Furtherm ore t h e r e

A m erica th o u g h t t h a t a g r i c u l t u r e ent for

T herefore

O

F razer also s t a t e s

t h e f e s t i v a l was c e l e b r a t e d

of N aples

in tr o d u c e d from rz

t h a t Ovid M i m p l i e s t h a t

i n h o n o r o f P r o s e r p i n a ’s

r e t u r n from t h e u n d e rw o rld w hich i s

d e fin ite ly a lleg ed

t o h a v e b e e n t h e m o t i v e o f t h e G r e e k f e s t i v a l bori*owed b y t h e Romans * 4 H o r a c e w o u l d b r i n g down h i s w r a t h u p o n a n y p e r s o n who w o u l d d i v u l g e

the s e c r e ts

1

H arriso n ,

M ythology, pp.

2

C i c e r o , Be L e g i b u s . I I .

3

O v i d , Am. I I I .

4

F razer,

of C eres’ r i t e s

79-80 IX . 21

X. 4 5

The F a s t i , o f O v i d , p .

308

or the

21

. .E le u sin ia n m y ste rie s: v e ta b o , qui C e r e r i s sacrum v o l g a r i t a r c a n a © , sub i s d e m s i t t r a b i b u s f r a g i l e m q u e meourn s o lv a t phaselon j Aero com m ents: \

V

S a c r a C e r e r i s m y s t i c a e r a n t nee ea vulgar© l i c e b a t p ro hoc, quod o c c u lte P C o n s i l i i s u s a e s t , d o n e e f i l i a m suam r e p p e r i r e t * In c o n clu d in g th is

it

s t u d y of C e r e s

may b e n o t e d t h a t t h e c o l o r

w h i t ’e i s

and h e r r i t e s , allu d ed to as

her co lo r: A lba d e c e n t C ererem : Sumit *

v e s te s C erealib u s alb as

One c a n e a s i l y

im agine t h a t t h e w h ite

w h iten in g e a rs

of g r a i n in th e f a l l .

1, H orace, 2

A ero,

3

O vid, F .

G_arm. I I I .

II.

26-29; e f .

sym bolized t h e

O v i d , A.

II.

C o m m e n t a r i i i n Q,. H o r a t i u r a F l a c c u m , I I I . IV. 5 5 3 -5 5 4

601-602 II.

26-29

CONSUS fe.sta p a r a t Conso, Consus t i b i c e t e r a d i c e t i l l o f a c t a d i e , dam s u a s a c r a - c a n e s , T his i s

th e only a c tu a l re fe re n c e to

t h is m y sterious

d e i t y i n th e w hole o f t h e w orks o f t h e f i v e p o e t s . is u n fo rtu n ate

th a t the l a s t

were n e v e r w r i t t e n ,

for

s i x books of O v id 's F a s t i

th ey , u ndoubtedly,

g i v e n u s more i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t O o n s u s , v als,

It

w ould have

C onsus1 f e s t i ­

w h i c h o c c u r r e d on D e c e m b e r 15 a n d A u g u s t 2 1 , w e r e

i n th e m onths u n to u c h e d by t h e e x i s t i n g F a s t i ,

However*

we do know t h a t C o n s u s h a d a n u n d e r g r o u n d a l t a r

in the

C i r c u s Maximus w h i c h was o n l y u n c o v e r e d on t h e s e v a l days,

s

T herefore i t

may h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r

is b eliev ed th a t

tw o f e s t i ­

the a lta r-ro o m

s to r in g g ra in underground.

A lso,

on t h e Decem ber f e s t i v a l h o r s e s and a s s e s w e re g i v e n a h o lid a y . th at

Such a custom f u r t h e r

stren g th en s

the

t h e two d a y s s e r v e d a s h a r v e s t f e s t i v a l s , In V e r g i l 's A eneid t h e r e

is

a reference

f e a s t o f C o n su s w h e re o n Rom ulus i n s t i t u t e d th e purpose of a t t r a c t i n g

III.

idea ® to the

games f o r

t h e S a b i n e women t o Rome, b u t

1

O vid, F .

199-200

2

H a r p e r , D i e t . s . v . C o n s u a l i a ( c f . L iv y I . IX, 6; V a r r o , De_ L i n g u a L a t i n a V I . P . 2 0 ; T e r t u l l i a n u s , De S ' p e c t a c u l i s . VTJ

5

F ow ler,

op_, c i t . ,

pp.

206-209

t h e name o f t h e g o d i s n o t m e n t i o n e d : n e c p f o o u l h i n c Romarn e t r a p t a s s i n e m o r e , S a b i n a s c o n s e s s u c a v e a e , m agnis C i r c e n s i b u s a c t i s . ♦ G o n s u s was u n d o u b t e d l y a n a n c i e n t tru e, fies

d eity ,

o r i g i n a l n a t u r e had. b e e n f o r g o t t e n .

but h is

L ivy i d e n t i ­

h i m w i t h t h e s e a - g o d K e p t u n e who is* t h e Roman e q u i ­

v alen t

o f Greek P o s e i d o n .

a s s o c ia te d w ith horses, Consus*

day.

S i n c e P o s e i d o n was e s p e c i a l l y

h o r s e - r a c e s w e r e p e r f o r m e d on

L ivy r e f e r s t o t h i s

s o l e m n i s • ** 2

as

"Neptuno e q u e s t r i

The t h e o r y a d v a n c e d f o r e x p l a n a t i o n o f

th ese h o rse -ra c e s of the c ro p s .

is th at

t h e y were t o p ro m o te t h e g r o w t h

T his t h e o r y , t o o ,

p o i n t s t o Consus a s

an a g r i c u l t u r a l d e i t y .

1

C f . S e r v i u s a d V e r g . , A. V I I I .

2

L ivy,

3-

Frazer,

I.

636

9 The F a s t i o f O v i d , V o l .

Ill,

p . 53

FAUNUS AND PAN I t a l i a n Faunus was a good s p i r i t p lain s,

and. f i e l d s ,

o ld L a tin king,

1

of th e f o r e s t ,

In f a b l e , Faunus

son o f P ic u s ,

ap p ea rs as an

and f a t h e r

of L a t i n u s . ^

B e c a u s e o f h i s many s e r v i c e s t o a g r i c u l t u r e a tu te lary

d iv in ity of the fie ld s*

G reek Pan,

the

shepherds* god,

r o c k s and m o u n tain c r e s t s w h ile These w ere th e f a v o r i t e w ith h is g o a t's f e e t, a s p o tte d lynx p e lt his

he b e c a m e

gam boled over th e

p ro tectin g h is

h a u n ts of t h i s

horns,

sheep* ®

s o n o f lie r u e s

and unkempt h a ir *

W earing

on h i s b a c k , P a n ' d e l i g h t e d t h e nymphs,

c o m p a n io n s, w i t h t h e m usic

o f 'h is p ip e s*

Thus does

t h e H o m e r i c Hymn t o P a n r e p r e s e n t t h i s G r e e k d e i t y . I n t h e c o u r s e o f t i m e t h e s e two d e i t i e s ,

F a u n u s and

P a n , became so t h o r o u g h l y ire rg e d i n c o n c e p t t h a t Roman p o e t s

^

the

o f t e n em ployed t h e i r names i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y

o r made f e w d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e m .

O vid a p p a r e n t l y

a c c e p t s P a n a n d F a u n u s a s o n e d i v i n i t y , a s we s h a l l show

1

O v i d , M. V I . 3 2 5 - 3 3 1 ; V e r g . , A. Carm. I . IV. 1 1 -1 2

2

O v i d , M. X IV . 4 4 9 - 4 5 0 , X I I I . 7 5 0 - 7 5 2 ; 2 1 2 -2 1 3 , VII* 3 6 7 -3 7 0 , V I I . 48

3

Prop.

4

H o m e r i c Hymn XIX

I I I . X III.

45

X II.776-778;

E o r.,

V e r g .,A .*V II.

25

later.

V erg il,

how ever, a l t h o u g h seem ing t o a c c e p t Pan

and Faunus in c e r t a i n a s p e c t s as a s i n g l e d e i t y , draw d i s t i n c t i o n s b e tw ee n them . Faunus i s

does

V e r g i l ’s c o n c e p t of

t h a t o f s y l v a n F a u n u s , " s i l v i e o l a e F aun o Dryope

quern. ny m pha e r e a r e t "

1 and f a t h e r o f L a t i n u s , ”hunc Fauno p e t nym pha g e n i t u m L a u r e a t e M a r i e a . ” In th is g u ise , F a u n u s i s more i n a c c o r d w i t h a t r u e

Ita lia n

p e rso n ality

th a n w ith any c l e a r l y p e r c e i v a b le Greek c h a r a c t e r . wiiere i n V e r g i l i s t h e r e a n y e v i d e n c e who e x i s t e d a s a h a l f - b e a s t , and a h o rned-head. and Faunus as

hav in g th e f e e t

o r Pan

of a g o a t

O vid, how ever, r e f e r s t o b o t h Pan

two h o r n e d :

”e t Fauni sacra b ic o r n e s ” ^

a n d f,p i n u p r a e c i n c t i c o r n u a P a n e s . 11 ^ th e s e gods a re a ls o ’’s e m i c a p e r F a u n a ”

of a Faunus

Ho-

6'

I n O v id ’s works

sp o k en of as th e h a l f - g o a t god, a n d ’’s e m i c a p e r P a n . ”

7

Ovid a l s o

m a k e s r e f e r e n c e t o t h e g o a t *hoof c f F a u n u s w he n he s p e a k s o f h i s h a r d h o o f b e i n g p l a c e d on t h e f l e e c e s

1

V e r g * , A. X. 5 5 1

2

I b i d . , V I I . 47

3

V e r g . , E . V. 5 9 , X. 2 6 ,

4

O vid,F .

I I . 267

5

O v i d , M. XIV . 638

6

O v i d , JT.

7

O v i d , M. XIV. 515

I V . 99

II.

494,

III.

of th e sheep.

5 9 2 , A. V I I I ,

344

26

F a u n u s a d e s t , ovimque p rem e n s p e d e v e l l e r a d u ro ed id it . . . ^ a n d P r o p e r t i u s d e s c r i b e s t h e P a n s a s " c a p r i p e d e s P a n e s . **^ T here i s

fu rth e r in d ic a tio n of d isc rim in atio n be­

t w e e n P a n a n d F a u n u s i n V e r g i l i n t h a t he a s s i g n s . t h e i n v e n t i o n o f t h e m u s i c a l r e e d s o r f,P a n * s pi pes** t o P a n o nly. Pan primum c a la m o s c e r a c o n i u n g e r e p l u r i s in stitu it. 3 Ovid t e l l s

how S y r i n x ,

to change h er in to h is p ip es.

^

h is m istre ss,

a p a t c h o f r e e d s f r o m w h i c h P a n made

H orace, how ever,

is perform ing h is

i n a p a s s a g e where F au n u s

duty of g u a rd in g th e sheep,

t h e Roman g o d w i t h t h e i r nec v i r i d i s

h a d a s k e d t h e nym p h s

does c re d it

in v en tio n .

m etuont c o lu b r a s

nec m a r t i a l i s h a e d i l i a e iupos utcum que d u l c i , T y n d a r i, f i s t u l a v a lle s e t u stic a e cu b an tis le v ia personuere saxa. ^ T h e s e tw o d i v i n i t i e s in the p l u r a l a re

IV.

(P anes and F a u n i) r e f e r r e d

f o u n d i n t h e ?/orks o f P r o p e r t i u s ,

1

O vid, F .

2

P ro p ., I I I .

3

V e r g ., 1 . I I . 37, IV. 5 8 -5 9 , V I I I . 3 0 , I I I . X. V I I . 34

4

O v i d , M. I . 68 9.-712

5

H o r.,

to

Hor aeQ j

663-664

X V I I . 34

Carm . I . X V II. 8 -1 2

24; P ro p ., I I I . • I I I .

O vid, and V e r g i l ,

^ but not in T ib u llu s,

may i n d i c a t e

i n th e A ugustan p e r i o d th e s e d e i t i e s

were s t i l l

th at

c o n s i d e r e d somewhat l o o s e l y a s p a r t o f a

vague s p i r i t

group f r o l i c k i n g about over th e c o u n tr y s id e .

P a n was a c c o m p a n i e d b y l i t t l e F auni,

Pans,

They were im a g in e d a s m e rry ,

who c a u s e d n i g h t m a r e s . th e Fauns, S to ries

a f a c t w hich

a n d F a u n u s b y many cap ricio u s

In V erg il th ere

as a s p i r i t group,

elv es

a re sig n s of

b ein g in d iv id u a liz e d .

o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e F a u n s w i t h t h e nymphs

a r e common: haec nemora i n d i g e n a e F a u n i nymphaeque t e n e b a n t and T arq u itu s e x su lta n s c o n tra fu lg e n tib u s arm is, s i l v i c o l a e .Fauno D r y o p e quern ny mpha c r e a r e t . . 4 The d e s c r i p t i o n o f P a n o r F a u n u s i n O v i d i s

th at

o f a god crow ned w i t h a ? /re a th o f lo w ly p i n e n e e d l e s : trP a n v i d e t h a n c p i n u q u e c a p u t p r a e c i n c t u s a c u t a . tf ®

L ik e­

w ise,

god,

T i b u l l u s p r o b a b l y th o u g h t o f Pan as t h e r u s t i c

f o r he d e s c r i b e s P a n d r e n c h e d i n m i l k :

1

nl a c t e

madens i l l i c

O v i d , M. I . 1 9 2 - 1 9 3 , V I . 3 9 2 - 3 9 4 ; I b i s 8 1 - 8 2 ; E . I V . 4 9 , 1 7 1 ; E o r . B p . I . X IX . 4 ; A . P . 2 4 4 ; V e r g . , G. I . 1 0 - 1 1 V e r g . , B. V I . 2 7 ; A p p . V e r g . , " C u l . * 9 4 , 1 1 5 ; P r o p . , I I I . X V I I . 34

2

H arper, D i e t . s .v . Faunus

3

V e r g . , A.;, V I I I .

4

I b i d . , X. 5 5 0 - 5 5 1

5

O v i d , M. I .

698

3 1 4 ; c f , E o r . , Carm. I I I .

X V III.

1.

28

s u b e r a t Pan i l i e i s

u m b rae.”

a te d w ith the very e a r l i e s t Lor a c e ,

too,

aw ards r u s t i c

to t h is

god.

Ita lia n

nor r u s t i c

M ilk i s

n atu rally asso ci­

a g ric u ltu ral o fferin g s

He, h o w e v e r , a d d s

form o f w o r s h ip .

o f a k i d and w ine

in c e n s e , w hich i s n e i t h e r

in n a tu re :

s i te n e r plen o c a d it haedus anno, l a r g a nec d e s u n t v e r e r i s s o d a l l v in a c r a t e r a e , y e tu s a ra 'm u lto fum&t o d o r a . s Not o n l y i s F a u n u s t h e p r o t e c t o r of s h e e p herds,

b u t he i s also, t h e p r o t e c t o r

and s h e p ­

of p o e t s , a c c o r d i n g

t o H o r a c e ' s c h a r m in g a n d d r a m a t i c d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e god who,

in the f i e l d s

one d a y , w a r d e d o f f a t r e e

t r u n k w hich

was a b o u t t o d e s c e n d u p o n t h e p o e t ’ s h e a d . me t r u n c u s i n l a p s u s c e r e b r o s u s t u l e r a t , n i s i Faunus ictu m

d e x tra le v a s s e t, M ercurialium c u s to s viro ru m . ® Faunus* g i f t re la te s,

of p r o p h e c y w a s w e l l known,

so V e r g i l

e v e n i n t h e m y t h i c a l d a y s of K ing L a t i n u s ,

’’v e t e r i s F a u n i v o l v i t

sub pec t o r e

so rtem .” ^

for

T his con-

1

T ib ., I I .

V. 27

2

H o r . , Carm. I I I .

3

E o r . , Carm . I I . X V II. 2 7 -3 0 ; c f . A ero, C om m entari{in E o r a t i u m Flae.cum. ’’M e r c u r i a l i u m . Doctorum , q u i i n t u t e l a M e r c u r i i s u n t M e r c u r iu s enim deus f a c u n d i a e d i c t u s e st.n

4

V e r g ., A. V II .

X V III. 5-8

254; o f . O vid,

F. I I I . 312ff

£9

e e p t i o n o f F a u n u s i n t h e A e n e id i s commented upon by S e l l a r who s a y s t h a t F a u n u s was i n t r o d u c e d i n t o m y th o lo g y a s an u n d e f i n e d , the d e s tin ie s

in v isib le

a g e n c y who g u i d e d

o f men b y m e a n s o f o r a c l e s a n d o m e n s . ^

S tr a n g e and u n iq u e i s V e r g i l ’s r e f e r e n c e phase of F au n u s’ c h a r a c te r .

The p o e t t e l l s

men w o r s h i p p e d t h e w i l d o l i v e a n d t h a t ,

and garm en ts upon t h i s

tree

to a

us th a t se a ­

a fter

r e t u r n e d u n h a r m e d f r o m a j o u r n e y on t h e s e a , g ifts

Ita lia n

th e y had t h e y hung

sa c re d to Faunus;

F o r te s a c e r Fauno f o l i i s o l e a s t e r a m a ris h ie s t e t e r a t , n a u t i s o lim v e n e r a b i l e lignum , s e r v a t i ex u n d is u b i f i g e r e dona s o le b a n t L a u r e n ti divo e t v o ta s su sp en d e re v e s t i s . . . ^ F a u n u s wa s e s s e n t i a l l y

a lan d d e i t y and such d e d ic a tio n s

as t h i s were u s u a l l y c o n f in e d to d e i t i e s The i n f l u e n c e F a u n u s c a n be r e a d i l y o r a c a p u t . ft ^ took i t s

of G reece upon th e seen;

1

S e lla r,

£

V erg .,

3

B ailey ,

4

O v i d , I,- I I . 392 '

sea.

co n cep tio n of

!t| ) i n i g e r u m F a u n i M a e n a l i s

M a e n a l i a was a d i s t r i c t

name f r o m M a e n a l u s ,

of the

of A r c a d ia , w hich

a m ountain s a c r e d to Pan.

The Homan P o e t s o f t h e A u g u s t a n A g e , p . oja. c i t .

368

X I I . 766

op. c i t .,

p . 144

227-228; o f .

II.

1 9 3 ff; V erg .,

G. I I I . —

30 The L u p e r c a l i a c e l e b r a t e s b o t h P a n a n d F a u n u s : P a n a deurn p e c o r i s v e t e r e s A r c a d e s . 3*

c o lu isse fe ru n tu r

t h a t t h e L u p e r c a l i a was 3 f e s t i v a l w h i c h

Pie t h e n s t a t e s

E vander in tr o d u c e d from A rc a d ia to

the P a l a t i n e :

t r a n s t u l i t E v a n d e r s i l v e s t r i a num ina secum h i e , u b i n u n c u r b s e s t , turn l o c u s u r b i s e r a t . i n d e deum c o l i m u s , d e v e c t a q u e s a c r a P e l a s g i s f l a m e n a d h u c p r i s c o m o re B i a l i s o b i t . * The L u p e r c a l i a ,

a f e s t i v a l o f L y c e a n P a n , was c e l e b r a t e d

The ” n u d i ‘ L u p e r c i , if s o r t h e p r i e s t s

F ebruary 15.

Pan, w earing o n ly a g i r d le Rome, s t r i k i n g

about th e ir lo in s ,

t h e women t h e y , m e t w i t h s t r i p s

ra n about of h id e.

T h i s c e r e m o n y s u p p o s e d l y made t h e women f r u i t f u l . refers

to th is

of

Ovid

in th e fo llo w in g l in e s :

S em icaper, c o l e r i s c i n c t u t i s , Faune, L u p e re is , cum l u s t r a n t C e l e b r i s v e l l e r a s e c t a v i a s . 4 A n o th er i n t e r e s t i n g G reek s u p e r s t i t i o n i n r e g a r d to Faunus is

m e n t i o n e d b y O v id w h e n he d e c l a r e s

th at

the

s h e p h e r d s d i d n o t w i s h t o s e e F a u n u s when h e l a y i n t h e field s

a t noon:

1

O vid,

o p . c i t . II* 2 7 1 - 2 7 2 ; c f *

2

Ib id .,

3

Y e r g . , A. VI I I . 663

4

O v i d , F. Y. 1 0 1 - 1 0 2

279-282

2?3ff

31

nec D ry ad as nec nos videam us l a b r a D ia n a s , n e c F a u n u m , m e d i o cum p r e r n i t a r v a d i e . . The G r e e k s h e p h e r d s f e a r e d t o p i p e a t n o o n l e s t s h o u l d wake P a n who w a s t h o u g h t t o b e t h e r e w eary w ith th e c h a s e .

.

they

slum bering,

2

V e r g i l i n t e r m i n g l e s th e i d e a o f a G reek custom i n F a u n u s * w o r s h i p w h en h e sh o w s L a t i n u s grove f o r

v i s i t i n g Faunus*

o r a c u la r advice in re g a r d to h is

d au g h ter

L av in ia* s m arriag e : At r e x s o l l i c i t u s m o n s t r i s o r a c u l a F a u n i , f a t i c i d i g e n i t o r i s , a d i t lu c o s q u e sub a l t a c o n s u l i t A lbunea. . . * F u r th e r on, L a tin u s

s e e k in g an answ er fro m F au n u s,

f a t i d i c u s, or so o th say er,

the

o f f e r e d o ne h u n d r e d s h e e p i n

sacrifice: h i e e t turn p a t e r i p s e p e t e n s r e s p o n s a L a t i n u s centum l a n i g e r a s m a c ta b a t r i t e b i d e n t i s , atqueharum e f f u l t u s t e r g o s t r a t i s q u a i a c e b a t v e llerib u s. ^ It

is tru e

th a t the s a c r i f i c e

Italia n r ite ,

b u t t h e l a r g e number s a c r i f i c e d

dred) and t h e p r a c t i c e

1

O vid, p £ .

of sheep to Faunus is

(one h u n - -

o f i n c u b a t i o n were b o t h G reek

c i t . IV* 7 6 2 - 7 6 3

2

.F r a z e r , F a s t i o f O vid, Y ol.

3

Y e r g . , A. V I I .

4

Y e rg .,

81-83;

op. c i t . V I I .

Ill,

p.

358

c f O vid, F . V I. 291-348

84-87

an

32 custom s.

^

It

is

d ifferen ces

e v id e n t from th e fo re g o in g t h a t

t h e r e were

i n t h e p o e t s ’ c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e s e two d e i t i e s .

Ovid and T i b u l l u s

seem t o hav e t h o r o u g h l y m ix ed t h e Greek

a n d Roman i d e a s o f t h i s n otedj

g iv e s evidence

ters.

D espite the f a c t

god,

and H o race,

as p rev io u sly

o f some o v e r l a p p i n g o f t h e i r c h a r a c ­ th at

in c e r ta in re s p e c ts V erg il

seems t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e tw e e n F a u n u s and P a n , he em ploys t h e name P a n w h e r e F a u n u s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d . ly is

th is

flo ck s,

t r u e w h e n lie r e f e r s

b u t th e n , Pan,

1

B ailey ,

2

V erg .,

crp. c i t . , G. I .

p.

a lso ,

to

B sp ecial­

the g u a rd ia n o f th e

wa s a g u a r d i a n o f t h e f l o c k s .

147

1 7 ; A* V I I I .

^

663

FLORA M ater,

ad.es,

florum lu d is

e e le b ra n d a locos i s .

S i n c e Ovid i s t h e o n l y p o s t t o t e l l dess of the co u n try sid e ,

gardens,

of t h i s

and f l o w e r s ,

^

god­

he m ust

be r e l i e d upon s o l e l y f o r in f o r m a tio n c o n c e rn in g h e r . F o w l e r s a y s t h a t u n d o u b t e d l y s h e was a n o l d I t a l i a n d e i t y and t h a t fore

t h e r e was a F l o r a c u l t

i n Rome l o n g b e ­

t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e t e m p l e an d games i n 238 B .C . ^

A lthough i t s

c h a r a c te r changed under th e

in flu en ce

G r e e c e , we may be a b l e t o f i n d some p a r t i c u l a r s its

of

as to

o rig in a l n a tu re . F lo ra,

in h er d e li g h t f u l au tobiography to ld

in

^ iie l ! § s t _ i , b e s t o w e d u p o n h e r s e l f t h e h o n o r o f b e i n g t h e first

o n e t o s c a t t e r new s e e d s among t h e p e o p l e - : p r i m a p e r immensas s p a r s i no v a s e m in a g e n t e s : u n iu s t e i l u s an te c o lo r is e r a t . 3

H e re in she i s

t h e c o u n t e r p a r t o f G e r e s who was r e s p o n s i b l e

f o r d is p e r s in g th e se ed s of g r a in about the F l o r a w a s n e g l e c t e d b y t h e Roman s e n a t e s e r te d the c o u n try s id e ,

and t h e

1

O vid, F . V. 1 8 3 f f ; c f .

2

F ow ler,

3 ’ O vid,

op* c i t . ,

op.

c it.,

p.

lilie s

I T . 947

93

¥* 2 2 1 - 2 2 2

earth .

one y e a r ,

When she d e ­

and v i o l e t s bloom -

ing th e re w ilte d also

p a ra lle ls

and d i e d w i t h o u t h e r c a r e *

th at

The story

of C e re s f d e s e r tio n of the

g r a i n w h i l e s h e wa s s e a r c h i n g f o r

e a r t h ’s

her daughter P ro se rp in a

Me q u o q u e R o m a n i p r a e t e r i e r e p a t r e s . q u id fa c e re m p e r quod f i e r e m m a n i f e s t s d o lo r is ? e x i g e r e m nos t r a e q u a l i a damna n o t a e ? e x c id it o ffic iu m t r i s t i m ih i. n u lla tu eb ar r u r a , nec i n p r e t i o f e r t i l i s h o r t u s e r a t ; l i l i a d ecid eran t, v io la s arere v id ere s, f i l a q u e punic e i l a n g u i d a f a c t a c r o c i * ^ F lo ra,

how ever, t e l l s

us t h a t

a m e n d s a n d vowed a y e a r l y f e s t i v a l

t h e s e n a d e made

to her

if

the

year

were f r u i t f u l : c on v en ers p a t r e s e t, s i bene f l o r e a t an n u s, num inibus n o s t r i s annua f e s t a v o v e n t . 2 S i n c e F l o r a w a s t h e g o d d e s s of b l o o m s , fru it

th en th e

f o r t h e bloom n e c e s s a r i l y d e p e n d e d upon h e r

also ;

f o r w ith o u t a h e a l t h y blossom ,

h e a l t h y f r u i t w o u ld n o t

be forth co m in g *

shared r e s p o n s i b i li t y

w ith C eres f o r for

Thu s s h e a l s o th e su c c e ss of

t h e g r a p e and w ine,

the c r o p s ,

w ith Bacchus

and w i t h M in e r v a f o r t h e o l i v e s :

s i bene f l o r e u r i n t s e g e t e s , e r i t a re a d iv e s : s i bene f l o r u e r i t v in ea, Bacchus e r i t ; s i b e n e f l o r u e r i n t o le a e , n i t i d i s s i m u s a n n u s , pom aq ue p r o v e n turn, t e m p e r i s h u i u s h a b e n t . ^

1

O vid,

op. c it *

2

I b i d . V. 3 S 7 - 3 2 8

3

I b i d . V. 2 6 3 - 2 6 6

Y. 3 I S - 5 1 8

55

A lthough F lo r a c o u ld not have been c o n s id e re d as i m p o r t a n t a d e i t y a s C e r e s t o t h e Romans o f t h e E m p i r e (for referen ce

to h e r i s n o t f r e q u e n t ) ,

w o r s h i p p r e v a i l e d among t h e p l e b e i a n s ; h e r honor w hich to o k p la c e o r i g i n a l l y

e v id en tly her for

th e games i n

on A p r i l 3 8 ,

and

w e r e l a t e r e x t e n d e d f r o m t h e n u n t i l May 3 , w e r e o f a coarse n a tu re .

D ancing and s i n g i n g by d ru n k en g u e s t s ,

lic en tio u sn e ss,-

and r i b a l d

jests

abounded a t t h i s

f o r F l o r a was n o t an a u s t e r e g o d d e s s .

tim e*

M erry p a r t i c i ­

p a n ts i n t h e f e s t i v a l w e r e g a r l a n d e d w i t h f l o w e r s ,

and

r e f r e s h m e n t t a b l e s were b u r i e d u n d e r r o s e s : s e d m i h i s u c c u r i t n um en n o n e s s e s e v e r u m a p ta q u e d e l i c i i s m unera f e r r e deam. tem pora s u t i l i b u s c in g u n tu r p o ta c o ro n is , e t l a t e t i n i e c t a s p l e n d i d a mensa r o s a .

^ .

B e c a u s e F l o r a wa s t h e g o d d e s s o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e w h e r e th e t im i d g o a ts and s k i t t e r i n g h a r e s l i v e ,

th e s e shy

a n i m a l s w e re u s e d f o r t h e h u n t i n g games d u r i n g h e r fe stiv a l.

F lo ra h e rs e lf says:

non s i b i , r e s p o n d i t , s i l v a s c e s s i s s e , sed h o r to s a rv a q u e p u g n a c i non adeunda f e r a e # ^

1

O vid,

o j)• c j L t . ,

2

I b i d . V. 3 7 3 - 3 7 4

V* 3 3 3 - 5 3 6

36

T h is custom o f u s in g th e h a r e s and g o a ts f o r h u n tin g anim als

i n t h e C i r c u s b e c a m e e s p e c i a l l y common d u r i n g

th e E m pire.

I

I f we a r e t o a g r e e w i t h F l o r a ' s

reason fo r l e t t in g add t o

it

p ro lific F lo r a 's

own

l o o s e t h e h a r e s a n d g o a t s , we may

the r e f l e c t i o n

t h a t h a re s and g o a t s ,

b ein g

and g r a m in iv o ro u s a n im a ls , w ere i n a c c o rd w ith own n a t u r e

of a goddess of f e r t i l i t y

and bloom . ^

By g i v i n g v a r i o u s h u e s t o h e r f l o w e r s , E l o r a made t h e w o r l d a more c o l o r f u l p l a c e ;

hence her d re s s d u rin g

t h e f e s t i v a l was o n e o f many c o l o r s : c u r tam en, u t d a n t u r v e s t e s C e r i a l i b u s a l b a e , s i c h a e c e s t c u l t u v e r s i c o l o r e dec.ens * a n q u i a m a t u r i s a l b e s c i t m e'ssis a r i s t i s , e t c o l o r e t s p e c i e s f l o r i b u s om nis i n e s t ? ^ O v id s p i n s a c h a r m i n g t a l e

o f how E l o r a ,

f i n e - f i g u r e d n ym ph, iron t h e a t t e n t i o n A l t h o u g h E l o r a wa s a t f i r s t h is m istress

u n w illin g ,

and t h e n m i s t r e s s

as a

o f Z ephyrus. t h e g o d made h e r

o f h i s g a r d e n s where sh e

l i v e d h a p p i l y among t h e b r e e z e s a n d v a r i - c o l o r e d f l o w e r s : v im 'ta m e n em endat dando*m ihi nom ina n u p t a e , i n q u e meo n o n e s t u l l a q u e r e l l a t o r o . v ere f r u o r sem per: sem per n i t i d i s s i m u s a n n u s, a r b o r h a b e t f r o n d e s , p a b u l a sem per humus, e s t m ihi fecu n d u s d o t a l i b u s h o r tu s i n a g r i s : aura fo v e t, liq u id a e fo n te r i g a t u r aquae, h u n c meus i m p l e v i t g e n e r o s o f l o r e m a r i t u s atq u e a it- 'a r b i t r i u m t u , d es, f l o r i s h a b e .' 3

1

F ow ler,

The Roman F e s t i v a l s , p .

2

O v i d , p £ . c i t . 3 V. 3 5 5 - 3 5 8

3

I b i d . V. 2 0 5 - 2 1 2

93

37 O v id 's a cc o u n t of F l o r a p o i n t s

to an in d ig e n o u s ,

s i m p l e ' d i v i n i t y o f t h e c o u n t r y s i d e who h e r s e l f g r a d u a l l y acq u ired the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and l i c e n t i o u s

o f t h e m o re s o p h i s t i c a t e d

age o f t h e E m p ire.

LIB32R AND BACCHUS In the I t a l i a n r e l i g i o n ,

L i b e r wa s a c o r n - s p i r i t

who was c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e g r o w t h o f t h e c r o p s .

He w a s

kn ow n a s t h e g o d o f p l a n t i n g a n d f r u c t i f i c a t i o n ,

w ho se

name L i b e r

(lib o ,

lib are)

m e a n t t o .’’p o u r o u t . ”

L ong

b e f o r e t h e E m p ire, L i b e r was i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e god B a c c h u s , w h o s e G r e e k name w a s D i o n y s u s * The G r e e k g o d D i o n y s u s was o r i g i n a l l y a g o d f o r ­ e ig n even to G reece,

h a v i n g s u p p o s e d l y come t h e r e

T hrace,

w h e r e h i s w o r s h i p wa s o f a n o r g i a s t i c

In t h i s

c u lt h is

character*

fem ale w o rs h ip p e rs t r o d th e m o u n tain s

.at n i g h t w i t h l i g h t e d t o r c h e s ;

drum s,

cym bals,

and f l u t e s

p r o v id e d f r e n z i e d m u sic ; s e r p e n t s were c a r e s s e d , a n im a l s were t o r n i n p i e c e s and t h e i r raw f l e s h D i o n y s u s was t o

from

t h e s e p e o p le a god of l i f e

a n im a ls and p l a n t s .

eaten .

in liv in g

The m a j o r i t y o f s t o r i e s

sus a re a s s o c ia te d w ith the

and w ild

ab o u t D iony­

coming o f t h e go d t o G r e e c e .

The s t o r y o f I c a r u s w e l c o m i n g D i o n y s u s i n G r e e c e a n d th e n b ein g k i l l e d ,

and o f P e n th e u s o p p o s in g D io n y su s'’

a r r i v a l a n d b e i n g k i l l e d b y t h e women - w o r s h i p p e r s a r e ev id en ce

1

of t h i s .

F airbanks,

**•

A Handbook o f Greek R e l i g i o n ,

p p . S41-243

39

D ionysus* b i r t h ill-fa te d D ionysus.

pregnancy is 1

fro m Zeus* t h i g h a f t e r 3 e m e le * s a t t e s t e d b y t h e H o m e r i c Hymn t o

The T h e o g o n y o f H e s i o d a l s o r e f e r s

fam o u s myth o f D i o n y s u s

to the

as t h e m a r r ia g e p a r t n e r o f

A riadne• From, t h e

t i m e t h a t B a c c h u s was a d m i t t e d t o Rome,

th e d i s t i n c t i o n b e tw e e n B acch u s and L ib e r became so slig h t

t h a t b y t h e tim e t h e Em pire t h e y w ere a s i n g l e

d e ity in fu n c tio n .

®

A lthough u s u a l l y c o n s id e re d as a u n i t y , Bacchus p o s s e s s e s itie s*

tw o d e f i n i t e

L ib er-

and d i s t i n c t p e r s o n a l ­

V e r g il d e s c r i b e s th e th o ro u g h ly savage Greek

B acch an alic

sp irit

o f L ib er-B acch u s in th e

fo llo w in g

passage:

1

H o m e r i c Hymns t o D i o n y s u s l .

1-21; E u rip id e s ,

Bacchae

2

K es.,

3

O v i d , T r . V. I I I . 1 - 5 8 , I . V I I . 2 , I . X. 3 8 ; F . I I I . 4 8 1 , 7 4 6 f f • , 4 6 5 , V I . 4 8 3 ; M. I l l 4 2 1 f f . , I V . 16-XL7, V I I , 295; T i b . , I . IX. 34 , I . IV . 7 , I I . I . 5 5 - 5 6 , I I I . V I I . 9 ; P r o p . , I . I I I . 1 3 - 1 4 , IV. I . 62, IV. V I I . 7 6 ; V e r g . , G. I I 4 5 4 - 4 5 7 ; A p p . V e r g . , " C at.** IX . 5 9 - 6 1 ; H o r . , Carm* V I I . 3 , I . X V I II . 7 , I I I . XXI. 2 1 , I . XX X II. 9 , I V . XV. 2 6 ; O v i d , Am. I I I . V I I I . 52

Th. 947-948

40 s p r e t a e ciconum q u o m unsre m a tre s i n t e r s a c r a deum n o c t u r n i a u e o r g i a B a c c h i d i s c e r p t u m l a t o s iuvenum s p a r s e r e p e r a g r o s . M atrons g ro u p e d i n t o b a n d s were t h e w i l d w o r s h ip p e r s o f Bacchus in t h i s

form :

a t t o n i t a e ‘B a c c h o n e r a o r a a v i a m a t r e s in su lta n t th ia s is . s Ovid m e n t i o n s t h e u s e o f t h e c y m b a ls as w e l l a s the f l u t e a ls

f o r p ro d u c in g t h e f r e n z i e d m usic o f th e B acchan

and p u ts th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e

of P entheus, horns,

o r g i e s i n t h e m outh

who m a r v e l s how r i n g i n g c y m b a l s ,

the s h r i l l

c r y o f women, w i n e ,

sounding

and w a n to n crow ds

c a n c o n q u e r men u n n e r v e d b y r e a l w a r . P entheus a i t ; "aeran e tantum a e r e r e p u l s a v a l e n t e t adunco t i b i a co rn u e t m agieae f r a u d e s , u t , quos non b e l l i c u s e n s i s , n o n t u b a t e r r u e r i t , n o n s t r i c t i s a g rn i n a t e l i s , f e m i n e a e v o c e s e t m ot a i n s a n i a v i n o „ o b s c e n iq u e g r e g e s e t i n a n i a tym pana v i n e a n t . ♦ C e rta in ly the ^ straig h t-h aired

s to r y of L ib er conquering the

I n d i a n s ” w a s common b y t h e

E m pire and . e v i d e n t l y ' a n o l d one i n A s i a .

tim e of t h e It

is b eliev ed

1

V e r g . , G. I V . 5 2 0 - 5 2 2 , A. X I . 7 3 7 , V I . 5 1 7 - 5 1 8 , I I I 1 2 5 , I V . 3 0 2 , O v i d , M. I I I . 5 1 8 , X I . 1 7 , I I I . 691

2

V e r g . , A . , V I I . 5 8 0 - 5 8 1 , V I I . 3 8 5 f f ; E o r . , Carm. I XV I. 7 , I I . XIX . 1 - 3 2 ; O v i d , M. X I . 6 9 ; T r . I V . I . 4 2 ; H. I V . 4 7 ; Am. I . X IV . 2 1 ; R . 5 9 3

3

O v i d , M. I I I .

532-537

41

th at

th e L ib er s to r y ,

o rig in atin g

cam paigns o f A le x a n d e r,

a fter

the

Indian

i m i t a t e d many o f t h e d e t a i l s

o f t h a t k i n g 's m i l i t a r y prowess*

Ovid r e f e r s

to th is

e x p e d itio n in the F a s t i . i n t e r e a L ib er depexos c r in ib u s Indos v i e i t e t Boo d i v e s ab o r b e r e d i t . . . F r a z e r "makes a n i n t e r e s t i n g c o n j e c t u r e

2

in referen ce

to

t h e w i l d B a c c h i c w a n d e r i n g s i n I n d i a a n d t h e E a s t when he o b s e r v e s t h a t

th e r o v i n g s and r a v i n g s o f D io n y su s i n

A s i a may p o s s i b l y h a v e b e e n s u g g e s t e d b y t h e g e o g r a p h i c ­ a l d is tr ib u tio n of the g rap ev in e. c u l t i v a t e d and p r o c e s s e d , god had p a s s e d .

®

th ere,

W h e r e v e r t h e p l a n t wa s supposedly,

The l y n x e s o r t i g e r s

conveying th e L ib er-B acch u s c a r r ia g e a l s o be a p a r t

the v in e -

r e p re s e n te d as

t h r o u g h t h e a i r m ust

o f th e f i e r c e Bacchus p ic tu r e *

V erg il

p ro claim s: nec qui p am pineis v i c t o r iu g a f l e e t i t h a b e n is L i b e r , a g e n s c e l s o N y s a e de v e r t i c e t i g r i s . * I t w ould be d i f f i c u l t

to im agine a sim p le a g r i c u l t u r a l

d e i t y as m aster o f a f i e r c e

team o f t i g e r s

except for

t h e know ledge t h a t he had b e en chan g ed by G reek i n f l u e n c e s .

1

F razer,

The F a s t i o f O v i d , V o l .

Ill,

p.

107

2

O v i d , F . I I I . 4 6 5 - 4 6 6 ; c f . P . I V . V I I I . 6 1 ; M. I V . 2 1 , 6 0 5 , XV. 4 1 3 ; Am. I . I I I . 4 7 ; A . A . I . 1 8 9 - 1 9 0 ; App* V e r g . , rfM a e c e n a s n 5 7 - 6 6

3

F razer,

4

V erg .,

lo o . c i t ♦ A. V I . 8 0 4 - 8 0 5 ,

o f . H o r.,

Carm. I I I .

III.

13-15

42

The o t h e r s i d e

of th e L ib er-B aech u s p e r s o n a l i t y ,

as p o r tr a y e d by th e p o e ts , a s p e c t and h i s

tru e

e x h i b i t s h i s m o re I t a l i a n

a g r i c u l t u r a l form .

Thus g e n t l e

T ib u llu s bade th e d e i t y : C andida L ib e r a d e s : sem per, s i c h e d e ra A gain he p ro d u c e s a s t i l l

s ic s i t t i b i ray stica v i t i s tem pora v i n e t a f e r a s . . .

c le a re r p ictu re

of h is horned

d e ity : Bacche, v e n i, d u lc isq u e t u i s e co rn ib u s uva pendeat . . . 2 T h is c o n c e p ti o n o f L ib e r -B a c c h u s as god o f w ine and

vine is

a l w ork,

e sp e c ia lly p rev alen t

the G e o rg ie s.

book i l l u s t r a t e

th is

in V e r g il's

The o p e n i n g v e r s e s

ag ric u ltu r­

of th e

second

ch arm in g ly .

H aotenus arvorum c u l t i s e t s i d e r a c a e l i nunc t e , B a c c h e , canam, nec non s i l v e s t r i a tecum v i r g u l t a e t prolem ta r d e c r e s c e n t i s o l i v a e . h u e , p a t e r o L e n a e e ( t u i s h i e om nia p l e n a m u n e r i b u s , t i b i p a m pineo g r a v i d u s autunm o f l o r e t a g e r, spum at p l e n i s vindem ia l a b r i s ) h u e , p a t e r o L e n a e e , v e n i n u d a ta q u e m usto t i n g u e n o v o mocum d e r e p t i s c r u r a c o t h u r n i s . 3

1

( T i b •), I I I . V I . l - 2 f £;• T i b . , I I I . V I I . 1 6 3 ; E o r . , ,Bp_. I I . - I . 5 ; O v i d , F * I . 3 9 3 ; Am. I V . I I . 53

2

T i b . , I I . I . 3 - 4 ; V e r g . , G. I I . 1 1 3 , 1 4 3 , 1 9 1 - 1 9 3 , 2 4 0 , 3 8 8 - 3 9 6 , 4 8 6 - 4 8 8 , I I I . 5 2 6 ; 33. V. 7 9 - 8 0 , V I I . 6 1 , ' 5 7 - 5 8 ; G. I . I f f . ; A p p . V e r g . , * * C i r ." 2 2 9 - 2 3 0 , » C o p . ” 2 0 1 1 5 ; E o r . , C a r m . I I . V I . 1 9 ; V I I I . I V . 3 4 ; O v i d , H. XV. 2 4 - 2 5 ; Am. I . X IV . 3 2 ; A . A . I . 2 3 2 ; I I I . 3 4 8

3

V e r g . , G. I I . 60 ; A .A . I I I .

1 - 8 ; c f . O v id , P . IV. II. 101; T i b . , I I . I I I . 63-64

9 ; Am. I . V I I .

45

O ther s e c t i o n s o f th e G e o r g ie s , how ever, present

th e t o t a l l y G reek p e r s o n a l i t y r e f e r r e d

viously*

V e r g i l a n d Ovid d e m o n s t r a t e

also to p re ­

a s u r v i v a l o f the

o ld I t a l i a n form o f a g r i c u l t u r a l w o rsh ip a tt a c h e d to L ib e r-B a c c h u s by t h e i r r e f e r e n c e s p resen te d to

to th e g i f t s

of cakes

th e' god upon h i s f e s t i v a l d a y s:

e r g o r i t e 's u u m B a c c h o d i c e m u s h o n o r e m carm inibus p a t r i i s laneesque e t l i b a ferem us, and l i b a deo f i u n t , s u c i s q u i a d u l c i b u s idem g a u d e t , e t a Baccho m e lia r e p e r t a f e r u n t , Perhaps th e o f f e r in g of cakes, a n c ie n t custom s,

is

a v e stig e

id e a o f L ib e r m entioned a t

w hich i s of the

2

one o f t h e v e r y

o rig in a l c o rn -sp irit

the b e g in n in g of t h i s

d iscu sr-

s i on. The p r e c e d i n g q u o t a t i o n r e f e r s

to

one o f t h e d i s ­

c o v e r i e s f o r w hich th e p o e ts c la im honor f o r B acchus — the fin d in g o f honey. presen ted g i f t s

A ccording to t r a d i t i o n ,

o f cinnam on,

in cen se,

and r o a s t oxen to

th e o c c i d e n t a l w orld a f t e r h i s v i c t o r i e s lan d s.

1

V erg .,

G. I I .

2

O vid, F .

III.

393-394 735-736

he a l s o

in o rie n ta l

44

cinnam a t u p rim u s c a p t i v a q u e t u r a d e d i s t i deque tr iu m p h a to v i s c e r a t o s t a d o v e . ^ T i b u l l u s a n d P r o p e r t i u s e m p l o y t h e name o f L i b e r o r B a c c h u s f r e q u e n t l y a s a sy n o n y m b o t h ' f o r w i n e a n d for its

in eb riatin g

effect.

P r o p e r t i u s u s e d t h e synonym

m ost a p t l y when he d e s c r i b e s h i s d ru n k e n s t a t e

after

d rin k ­

i n g f,B a c c h u s . n t a l i s v i s a m ih i m ollem s p i r a r e q u ie te m C y n th ia non c e r t i s n ix a cap u t m anibus, e b r i a cum m u l t o t r a h e r e m v e s t i g i a B a c c h o e t q u a te r e n t s e r a n o c te facem p u e r i . s T ib u llu s p a in ts a p ic tu re a l l to p artak e

o f . t h e d e i t y a s o n e who w i s h e s

i n h i s r e v e l r y a n d joy*

c o n v e n it ex aequo nec to rv u s L ib e r i n i l l i s qui se quique u n a .v in a io c o s a e o l u n t : nam v e n i t i r a t u s n i m i u m n i m i u m q u e s e v e r i s : q u i t i m e t i r a t i num ina magna, b i b a t . 5 H orace,

however,

s p e a k s o f B a c c h u s u n d e r t h e name o f L i b e r ,

a s o n e who l o v e s m o d e r a t i o n i n d r i n k i n g . T^rords,

"m odici L i b e r i . ” 4

Thus he u s e s t h e

In an o th er in s ta n c e ,

s p e a k s o f h i m a s ,rL e n a e e n o r

'lo rd

Horace

of the w i n e - p r e s s .f §

1

O v i d , 3T. I I I .

731-732

8

P r o p . , I . I I I . 9 -1 2 , I I I . II. 9, I I . I I I . 3 8 , I I I . XVII, I f f . ; H o r . , C a r m . I I I . XVI. 3 4 , I V . X I I . 14,I I . V I I . 27; S a t . I I I . 7 ; V e r g . , E . V. 6 9 , G. I . 3 4 4 , IV. 279, I I . 143; A. V. 7 7 ; O v i d , M. I V . 7 6 5 , V I , 4 8 8 , V I I . 2 4 6 , X I I . 6 3 9 , V I I . 4 5 0 ; A.A. I I I . 7 6 2 ; R . 8 0 3 .

3 (T ib .),-III. V I. 1 9 -2 2 ; c f . H o r . , S a t * XiX. 4 ; O v id , Carm. I .

T i b I . I I . 3,I . Am. I I I . I . 23

V II* 3 9 -4 1 ;

4

H o r.,

X V III. 7

5

I b i d ; I I I . XXV. 1 9 , V e r g . , G. I I . 5 2 9 , I I I . O v i d , M. I V . 1 4 , X I . 1 3 2 ; T i b . , I I I . VI. 3 8

510,

II.

7,

45 T ib u llu s a lso r e la te s longed t o B acchus:

”so lis

ho?/ e v e r l a s t i n g y o u t h b e ­

a e t e r n a e s t Baccho Fhoeboque

i u v e n t a s . ” *** P e r h a p s h e p o s s e s s e d t h i s

a ttrib u te

because

o f h i s p o s i t i o n a s god o f w ine and b e c a u s e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h o s e p a r t a k i n g o f h i s l i q u i d would be " d e l i v e r e d fro m c a r e ” and be young i n s p i r i t f u l and c a r e - d i s p e l l i n g n a tu r e his

cu lt

title

of Lyaeus

f o r a tim e.

H is y o u th ­

is w e ll ex em p lified in

( d e l i v e r e r from c a r e ) .

2

A lthough L ib e r-B ac ch u s d id p o s s e s s e v e r l a s t i n g youth,

T ib u llu s c le a rly

p h etic

d e ity .

sta te s

t h a t h e was n o t a p r o ­

se d p r o l e s Seinelae B acch u s d o c ta e q u e s o r o r e s a ic e r e non n o ru n t q u id f e r a t hora s e q u e n s . 5 He d i d ,

how ever,

have a c e r t a i n m y s tic a l a b i l i t y

t o b esto w upon o th e r p e o p le ject

in to

One i s

an o th er.

t h e po?/e r t o c h a n g e one o b ­

O v id d e s c r i b e s t w o s u c h i n s t a n c e s .

t h e famous g i f t

of th e

to u ch of gold g iv en to

M i d a s when t h e k i n g r e t u r n e d t h e g o d ’ s i r r e s p o n s i b l e f o s te r - f a th e r S ilenus

to h is c a re .

i l l e m a le u s u r u s donis.. a i t e f f i c e , ' q u i c q u i d c o r p o r e e o n t i g e r o , fu lv u m v e r t a t u r i n aurum . ^

1

T ib ., I .

I V . 37

2

O v i d , Am. I I I . XV. 1 7 ; E o r . , S a t .

3

(T ibJ,

III.

IV. 4 4 -4 5

4

O v i d , M. X I . 1 0 2 - 1 0 3

I.

IV. 8 9 ; E p o d . IX . 38

46

L a t e r O vid d e s c r i b e s B a c c h u s * g i f t

to A n iu sf d a u g h ters.

The g i r l s w e r e a b l e t o t u r n a n y t h i n g t h e y t o u c h e d i n t o c o rn , w ine,

or o il.

d e d it a lte r a f e m i n e a e s t i r p i v o t o rra i o r a m u n e r a : nam t a c t u n a t a r u m in s e g e te m l a t i c e m q u e rneri tr a n s f o r m a b a n tu r , div esq u e Bacchus* m y s tic a l b i r t h

L ib era fid eq u a c u n c t a m earum canaeque M inervae e ra t usus in i l l i s .

from J u p i t e r i s

th ig h

is

m entioned: i n p e r f e c t u s a d h u c i n f a n s g e n e t r i c i s ab a l v o e r i p i t u r p a tr io q u e t e n e r (se c re d e r e dignus e s t ) i n s u i t u r fe m o ri m aternaque tem p o ra c o n p l e t . 2 Ovid c o n t i n u e s t o t e l l

o f I n o a n d t h e n y m p hs o f H ysa a s

B acchus1 nursem aids: f u r t im iliu m p rim is Ino m a te r te ra c u n is e d u c a t , i n d e d a t u m nymphae N y s e i d e s a n t r i s o ccu lu ere su is la c tis q u e alim en t a d e d e re . ® The p o e t s d i s p l a y B a c c h u s 1 a m o r o u s n a t u r e w i t h th e B acchus-A riadne le g e n d : f a s e s t b e a ta e c o n iu g is additum s t e l l i s honorem . * . . ^

1

O v i d , M. X I I I .

650-654

2

O v i d , M. I I I . 3 1 0 - 3 1 2 ; Am. I I I . I V . 40

IV.

7 T f.;

Tr* V. I I I .

1 5 ff.;

3

O v i d , M. I I I . 3 1 3 - 3 1 5 ; c f . F . V. 1 6 7 , V I . 4 8 5 , M. V I I I . 1 7 6 ; I b i s 49 7

4

E o r . , C a r m . I I . XIX. 1 3 - 1 4 ; c f . O v i d , F . V. 3 4 5 - 3 4 6 , VI 1 2 5 , I I I , 5 0 8 ; M. V I . 1 2 5 , V I I I . 1 7 7 ; H. V I . 1 1 5 , X V I I I , 1 5 1 - 1 5 3 ; A .A . I . 5 2 5 f f . , I l l 1 5 7 ; T i b . , I I I . V I . 57 1

562;

Ovid h a s a l s o r e f e r r e d

in th e .F asti to

w i t h whom B a c c h u s h a d f a l l e n

an I n d i a n P r i n c e s s

in love upon h i s

In d ian

jo u r­

n e y w h i l e h e wa s m a r r i e d t o A r i a d n e : ' in te r cap tiv as fa c ie p ra e sta n te p u e lla s g r a r a n im is Baccho f i l i a r e g i s e r a t * 1 In th is tio n

co n n ectio n F ra z e r says th a t

in an cien t w rite rs

Bacchus*

th is

is

of th is p a rtic u la r

t h e o n l y m en ­ in stan ce

of

fick len e ss. ^

W i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e m y t h o f B a c c h u s a n d A m p e lo n re -la te r

in the F a s t i :

A m p e lo n i n t o n s u m . s a t y r o n y m p h a q u e c r e a t u m f e r t u r i n I s m a r i i s B acchus amasse i u g i s . Frazer says, is

**Ihe m y t h i s

th read b are,

s i m p l y t h e G r e e k word, f o r

f o r t h e name A m p e lu s

a re the n a r r a t i v e s

c a p tu re by th e T y rrh en ian s a i l o r s

tran sfo rm atio n

in to

fish ;

O vid, F .

III.

2

F razer,

3

O vid,

4

F razer,

5

O v i d , M. I I I . . 60 5

6

Ib id .

o jd .

c i t ..

710

V ol. I l l ,

409-410

op. c i t .,

III.

to x ic

467-468

op. c i t .,

III,

about

and t h e i r

th e d e s tr u c tio n of Pentheus

by h i s m other b e c a u se o f Bacchus*

1

* ^

* v i n e . ftt ^

O ther G reek i n f i l t r a t i o n s Bacchus*

.

p.

95

p.

108

in flu e n ce ;

and

48 L ycurgus* sad fate * effects

^

A ll of th ese

in term in g le

o f wine and of t h e w ild B a c e h a n a li c

the

sid e

of

the L iber-B aech us p e r s o n a l i t y . Ovid p o i n t s

out t h a t Bacchus r e c e i v e d th e g o a t

as a s a c r i f i c i a l v i c t i m becau se i t

had i n ju r e d the v in e s :

quem s p e c t a n s a l i q u i s d e n t e s i n v i t e p r e m e n t e m t a l i a non t a c i t o d i c t a d o lo r e d e d i t : r o d e , c a p e r v i t e m . t a m e n h i n c , cum s t a b i s ad. a r a m i n t u a quod s p a r g i c o rn u a p o s s i t , e r i t . v erb a f i d e s s e q u i tu r ; noxae t i b i d e d itu s h o s t i s s p a r g i t u r a d fu so c o rn u a , B acche, m ero. * A lthough a l l

of the p o e ts

t h e m i x t u r e o f G re e k and I t a l i a n L ib er-B acch u s, grape in the

the

seem t o h a v e a c c e p t e d q u a litie s

i d e a o f god o f w i n e ,

Ita lia n

i n one g od ,

v ine,

and t h e

a g r i c u l t u r a l p h a s e seems to p r e ­

dom inate i n t h e i r w r i t i n g s .

R e f e r e n c e s a r e made m o re

f r e q u e n t ly to Bacchus as a c a r e f r e e ,

m ild ly in e b ria te d

god o f w in e t h a n t o t h e w i l d f r e n z i e d g o d ,

in to x ic a te d

to th e p o i n t o f m adness by o v e r - d r a u g h ts o f th e beverage*

1

O v i d , M. I Y . 2 2 ; c f . X I .

67;

IY. 3 9 1 f f ; V I I .

29 5

2

O vid, F . I . 3 5 5 - 3 6 0 ; c f . I I . IX. 3 1 - 3 2 ; Y e r g . , I I . 3 7 9 - 3 8 1 ; K o r . , Carm. I I I . V I I I . 7

G.

MARS M a r s was h o n o r e d f r o m v e r y e a r l y t i m e s b y t h e Ita lia n s,

” e t t a m e n a n t e omnes M a r t e m c o l u e r e p r i o r e s . "

O rig in ally ,

^

he i s b e l i e v e d t o have b een a god o f f e r t i l i t y

and p r o t e c t o r

of f ie ld s

(hallow ing of f i e l d s )

and h e r d s .

At t h e A m b a r v a l i a

h e wa s i n v o k e d b y t h e A r v a l B r o t h e r s

s o t h a t he m i g h t b l e s s t h e f a m i l y ,

field ,

and c a t t l e ;

keep

off

s i c k n e s s and b a d w e a t h e r ; and i n g e n e r a l p ro m o te t h e o w elfare of h is p eo p le. L a t e r Mars a c q u i r e d t h e c h a r a c t e r ­ istic s

o f a god o f w a r,

in a l n atu re.

w h i c h came t o

'The i n f l u e n c e

overshadow h i s

o rig ­

o f G r e e k A r e s who s t o o d f o r

a l l b lo o d y and c r u e l w a r f a r e can be s e e n in t h i s

latter

M ars. M arsf m y th ic al b i r t h F lo ra

is

t o l d by O vid.

from Juno w ith th e a i d o f

Juno, g r ie v in g t h a t J u p i t e r had

n o t n e e d e d h e r h e l p w h e n M i n e r v a was b o r n ,

happened to

t e l l h e r s t o r y t o F l o r a who h a d a m y s t i c a l f l o w e r w h i c h w o u l d make t h e p e r s o n who t o u c h e d i t

1

O vid, F . I I I .

79

2

H a r p e r , D i e t . s . v . Mars

c o n c e i v e ; [ T h u s was

I M ars p r o d u c e d : I —.— ^

f q u o d p e t i s , O l e n i i s * i n q u a m ’m i n i m i s s u s ab a r v i s flo s d a b it: e s t h o r t i s unions i d le m eis. q u i ’d a b a t , ' h o c * d i x i t f s t e r i l e m q u o q u e t a n g e iuvencam , m ater e r i t . ! t e t i g i , n e c m o r a , m a t e r e r a t . * •**

M ars,

h im self,

was t h e f a t h e r

B om ulus and Remus, b y I l i a

o f t h e fam ous t w i n s ,

or Rhea S i l v i a ,

th e v e s ta l

v irg in \__teque p a r i t ,

p la c e t I l i a M arti g e m i n o i u n c t e Q f i i r i n e Remo* 2

M a r s wa s a l s o

t h e l o v e r o f Y e n u s .by whom t h e d a u g h t e r 'x 4 H a r m o n i a was p r o d u c e d . ° S t e r o p e t o o w a s l o v e d b y M a r s , b u t h e was n o t a s s u c c e s s f u l w h e n h e f e l l

M inerva,

in love w ith

f o r h e made t h e m i s t a k e o f r e v e a l i n g h i s

o f e m o t i o n s t o A n n a ■P e r e n n a .

When h e t h o u g h t t h a t

was g o i n g t o h e l p h i m woo M i n e r v a ,

sta te she

he fo u n d t h a t sh e had

duped him and had e x c h a n g e d h e r s e l f f o r M in e r v a :

1

O v i d , F . Y. 2 5 1 - 2 5 4

2

O v i d , qjD. c i t * ■, I Y . 5 5 - 5 6 ; c f . I I I . 3 9 ; Y. 4 6 5 , I I I . " 2 1 ; T i b . * I I . V. 5 1 - 5 2 ; Y e r g . , A. I . 2 7 4 - 2 7 6 ; Y I . 8 7 2 , V I I I . 6 3 0 -6 3 1 ; Y I . 7 7 7 ; P r o w ., I I I . IY. 1 1 ; IY . I . '55; H o r . » C a r m . I I I . I I I . 3 0 - 3 3 , I Y . V I I I * 2 2 - 2 3 ; O v i d , M. XV. 6 6 3

3

P ro p ., I I .

4

O vid, F .

3 2 - 3 3 ; O v i d , M. I Y . 1 7 I f f ; IY . 173

I Y . 130

cred it Anna \ oseu la \ nunc

arnans t h a l a m o s q u e p a r a t • d e d u c i t u r i l l u c te g e n s v o l tu s , u t nova n u p ta , su o s. s u m p t u r u s s u b i t o M a rs a s p i c i t Annam; p u d o r e l u s u m , n u n c s u b i t i r a deum .

j F l a e ^ f i r s t of M a r c h w a s d e d i c a t e d t o M a r s a s w e l l a s t h e w h o le m o n t h w h i c h w a s named a f t e r h i m .

On t h i s

day th e m a tro n s h o n o re d him and Juno L u c in a , h i s

m other,

i n memory o f t h e d a y l o n g b e f o r e w h e n t h e S a b i n e women who h a d b e c o m e m o t h e r s b y t h e i r l a t i a n u n ited

c a p t o r s were r e ­

in peace w ith t h e i r Sabine f a t h e r s

I O v id s a y s ,

" p r i m u s d e pa t r i o

The S a l i i ,

nom ine m e n s is

th e dancing p r i e s t s

and b r o t h e r s . e rit."

2

o f M ars, r a n and

leaped through the s t r e e t s

cf Rome d u r i n g s e v e r a l d a y s of

M arch.

left

They b o r e

in th e ir

o r A H Q ilia o f M a rs. 3

hands the s a c r e d s h i e l d s

One s h i e l d ,

b e e n d r o p p e d f r o m h e a v e n t o Numa, made l i k e one. ly

it

a c c o r d i n g t o Ovid, had who h a d h a d o t h e r s

so t h a t n o o n e c o u l d s t e a l t h e o r i g i n a l

F ra ze r suggests

th a t th ese S a lii

in te n d ed to e x p e l th e d e v i l s p i r i t s

and b l ig h t

from th e c r o p s .

1

O vid, F .

III.

2

I h i d . I I I . 73; I . V I I I . I ; O vid, F .

3

O vid, F .

4

Frazer,

III.

may h a v e o r i g i n a l ­ of

in fe rtility

^

689-692 39; I I I . 87; T ib ., III. Iff.

259-398

Q v i d ^ F a s t i , p . 400

III.

I.

1;

III.

•

On O c t o b e r 1 5 , h o r s e r a c e s w e r e h e l d Campus M a r t i u s ,

a field

d e d ic a te d t o M ars,

in the and t h e h e a d

o f t h e w i n n i n g h o r s e was s a c r i f i c e d t o M a r s , done,

so i t

is b eliev ed ,

to

s e e d t h a t h ad b e e n sown.

insure the f a i r

T h is was g ro ?/th of-

T his b lo o d from th e head of

t h e h o r s e was s a v e d u n t i l A p r i l 2 1 , an d t h e n u s e d i n the p u r i f i c a t i o n r i t e

on t h a t day,

t h e b i r t h d a y o f Rome

!s a n g u i s e q u i s u f f i m e n e r i t v i t u l i q u e f a y i l l a , ■\ t e r t i a r e s d u r a e c u l m e n i n a n e f a b a e . O ther h o rs e r a c e s

o r E q u i r r i a were h e l d i n honor o f

M a r s o n E e b r u a r y 27 a n d M a r c h 1 4 ,

p /Ovid r

also t e l l s

us

t h a t M ars was honored, on J u n e l . \ F l u x e a d e m M a r t i f e s t a e s t , quern p r o s p i c i t e x t r a \ a p p o s i t u m T e c t a e p o r t a C a p e n a Via®. ^ T h e r e a r e many m ore r e f e r e n c e s t o M a r s a s a w a r god t h a n a s a d e i t y c o n n e c t e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e .

He h a d

assum ed t h e A res p e r s o n a l i t y a lm o st e x c l u s i v e l y by th e A ug ustan e r a .

^

1

O v i d , JT. I Y .

733-734; c f .

2

I b i d . I I . 859,

3

I b i d . Y I. 191-192

4

O b i t e r d i c t u m : I n t h e A e n e i d - a l o n e , Mars a s a god o f w ar i s m e n t i o n e d 51 t i m e s .

III.

H. V I .

10

519

OPS So m ea g er a r e t h e r e f e r e n c e s of th e p o e ts th a t a very old I t a l i a n by th e tim e

o n e may c o n c l u d e t h a t goddess,

th is

d eity ,

had l o s t h e r ' tr u e

being

sig n ifican ce

o f t h e E m pire and t h a t sh e was m e n t i o n e d i n f r e ­

quently b e c a u s e o ffices.

t o Ops i n t h e w o r k s

t h e p o e t s d i d n o t r e a l l y kno?/ h e r a n d h e r

In l a t e r

years

i t was c o n j e c t u r e d

have b e e n one o f t h e f i r s t

t h a t she m ight

of th e d e i f i e d a b s tr a c tio n s *

D e i f i e d a b s t r a c t i o n s were m e n t a l c o n c e p t s o f s p i r i t u a l q u a litie s

- - s u c h a s S p e s , C o n c o r d ia , S a l u s — w h ic h were

p erso n ified

in sta tu e s

and w o rs h ip p e d .

■

Ovid s p o k e o f h e r a s t h e w i f e an d s i s t e r 7/ho p r o d u c e d f r o m t h e i r u n i o n t h r e e d a u g h t e r s : C eres,

of S aturn, Juno,

and V e s ta : e x Ope J u n o n e m m e m o r a n t C e r e r e m q u e c r e a t a s sem ine S a t u r n i , t e r t i a V e s ta f u i t . . . 2

and d i nempe s u a s h a b u e r e s o r o r e s . s i c S a t u r n u s Ouem i u r i c t a m s i b i s a n g u i n e d u x i t

1

L a i n g , S u r v i v a l s o f Homan R e l i g i o n , p . 80

2

O vid, F . V I. 2 8 5 -2 8 6

3

O v i d , M. I X . 4 9 7 - 4 9 8

.

. 3

54 B o t h O v id a n d T i b u l l u s Magna M a t e r o r C r e t a n R h e a .

i d e n t i f y Ops w i t h t h e In th e G reek le g e n d s , Rhea

was a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e f r u i t f u l n e s s

of n a tu re .

She

was t h e d a u g h t e r o f U r a n u s a n d G a e a a n d w i f e o f O r o n u s and became t h e m o th e r o f Z e u s , H a d e s , P o s e i d o n , H estia,

and R em o ter.

H era,

R h e a was. r e c o g n i z e d a s t h e o r i g ­

i n a t o r o f t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f t h e v i n e -and a g r i c u l t u r e and t h e sym bol o f t h e p r o c r e a t i v e power o f n a t u r e . so c ia l progress is

d e p e n d e n t u p o n .the a r t s

S ince

of c u ltiv a tio n

s h e was r e g a r d e d a s t h e f o u n d e r o f u r b a n c o m m u n i t i b s y . a n d h e n c e was r e p r e s e n t e d a s w e a r i n g a c r o w n c o m p o s e d o f a diadem of to w e rs upon h e r h e a d .

Ovid r e f e r s

to

the

t u r r e t w h i c h Ops b o r e u p o n h e r h e a d : i p s e quoque A u s o n ia s C a e s a r m a tr e s q u e p u ru s q u e c a r m in a t u r r i g e r a e a i c e r e i u s s i t Ope. 2 Her w o r s h ip p e r s a cc o m p a n ie d h e r w i t h l i g h t e d t o r c h e s , w ild dances,

and m u s i c ;

and h e r p r i e s t s , , i n t h e i r

fren?~' •

z i e d w o rs h ip , f r e q u e n t l y w o u n d e d e a c h o t h e r o r t h e m s e l v e s . T ib u llu s a ttr ib u te s cap acity ,

t o t h e w o r s h i p p e r s o f Ops,

fren zied acts

of m u tila tio n of t h e ir b o d ies:

1

H as.,

Th. 4 5 3 -4 5 8

2

O vid, T r .

3

H a rp e r, D i e t , s . v . Rhea

II.

in th is

23-24

®

55 I& aeae o u r r u s i l l e s e q u a t u r O p is, e t te rc e n te n a s e rro rib u s e x p le at urbes e t s e c e t a d P h r y g i o s v i l i a memora m o d o s . B oth of th e s e

f e a t u r e s were f o r e i g n

a d e i t y a b o u t whom l i t t l e L ittle O piconsiva

is

id e a s p r o j e c t e d upon

was a c t u a l l y k n o w n .

kn o w n a b o u t h e r tw o f e s t i v a l s

(A u g u st 25) and t h e O p a l ia

the

(December 1 9 ) .

On t h e f o r m e r d a y a s a c r i f i c e w a s p r e s e n t e d t o h e r An t h e R e g i a b y t h e V e s t a l V i r g i n s a n d on t h e a sacrifice

latter

day*

w a s ’made i n t h e f o r u m . ^

I n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, nowhere i n t h e A u g u stan poets, i s

th ere

any a c t u a l a l l u s i o n to h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l

ch aracter.

However,

the h a rv e st

is

G ren ier s t a t e s :

e n tr u s te d to

ttThe w e a l t h o f

t h e g o d d e s s Ops c o n j o i n t l y

w i t h t h e b a r n - g o d C o n s u s , who h i d e s a n d p r e s e r v e s i t . * * ®

1

T ib .,

I.

2

Fow ler,

3

G ren ier,

IV. o£.

68-70 c i t .,

p . 273

The Roman S p i r i t , p . 89

PALES P a l e s was a n o l d I t a l i a n Di I n d i g e t e s .

d iv in ity ,

A s h e p h e rd ’s d e it y of th e

s h e seems t o ha v e b e e n l i t t l e t o th e e a r l i e s t Romans.

one o f t h e

s i m p l e s t form ,

m ore t h a n a name o r numen

One o f t h e s u r e s t

sig n s of her

a n t i q u i t y was t h e

f a c t t h a t she f l u c t u a t e d b e tw ee n th e p m ale and fe m a le s e x . However, sh e i s t r e a t e d p r i m a r i ­ l y a s a f e m i n in e d e i t y b y O vid, T i b u l l u s ,

and Y e r g i l ,

as

we c a n d e t e r m i n e f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s p e c t i v e e x c e r p t s : non p o se o r f r u s t r a ,

s i f a v e t alm a P a l e s

.

.

•z

and h i n c e g o p a s t o r e m q u e meum l u s t a r a r e q u o t a n n i s e t p l a c i d a m s o l e o s p a r g e r © l a c t e Palem . . . ^ and nunc, Pi’o p e r t i u s ,

veneranda P a le s , on t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

magno n u n c o r e s o n a n d u m . ^ g i v e s no e v i d e n c e

of her

sex in h is w ritin g s .

1

O vid, F . V I. 2 5 7 -2 5 8

2

F o w ler,

3

O vid,

op. c i t ..

4

T ib .,

I.

5

V e r g . , G. I I I . 2 9 4 ; c f . " C u l." 20-23, 7 6-78

crp. c i t . ,

I.

p.

IY.

67 723

35-36 Y e r g . , E . Y. 5 4 - 5 5 : A p p . A / e r g . ,

57 A ccording to O v id ’s F a s t i , t h i s the P a l i l i a , urban#

c e l e b r a t e d on A p r i l 2 1 ,

P ro p ertiu s

inform s us t h a t

goddess’ f e s tiv a l,

i s b o th r u r a l and

the P a l i l i a

is

the

b i r t h d a y o f Home, u rb i fe s tu s e ra t (d ix ere P a r i l i a P a tre s) _ h ie p rim u s c o e p i t m oenibus e s s e d i e s . • 1 T h is day i s

p s t i l l c e le b ra te d as th e b irth d ay of R o m e .&

The r u r a l f e s t i v a l , ^ v e n i n t h e A u g u s t a n A g e , seem s t o have k e p t

its

ru stic

i n a t e d by G reek in f lu e n c e s !

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s uncontam ­ It

is

d e s c r ib e d as an a n c ie n t

p u r i f i c a t o r y f e s t i v a l of sheep and sh e p h e rd s ,

Ovid d e ­

scribes th e sh e p h erd as p u r i f y in g th e sheep in th e f o llo w ­ in g m anner.

F irst

the shepherd s p r in k le s

w a te r and th e n sweeps i t

th e ground w ith

clean :

p a s t o r , owes s a t u r a s a d p r i m a e r e p u s u l a l u s t r a u n d a p r i u s s p a r g a t , v i r g a q u e v e r r a t humum • ♦ ^ The d o o r s o f t h e s h e e p f o l d a r e t h e n d e c o r a t e d w i t h g r e e n boughs and a w reath* F rondibus e t f i x i s d e c o re n tu r o v i li a ram is, e t t e g a t o r n a ta s lo n g a co ro n a f o r e s . . ^ Our p r e s e n t - d a y ,

alm ost u n i v e r s a l custom o f u sin g g re e n s

1

P r o p . , IV.

I V *. 7 5 - 7 4 ;

2

Encyclo p e d ia B r ita n n ic a , E d itio n V I I I .

3

O vid, F .

4

I b i d * IV.

IV* 7 3 5 - 7 3 6 737-738

cf.

O v i d , M. XIV . 7 7 4 - 7 7 5 s.v .

P a lilia

58 f o r d e c o r a t i o n on s p e c i a l d a y s seem s t o b e d e s c e n d e d from t h e s e p r i m i t i v e

c e r e m o n i e s w h i c h s o u g h t i n some

m y s te r io u s manner t o

in flu e n ce

pow ers o f v e g e t a t i o n * The t h i r d

th e w orking o f th e

"t

s e c tio n of the p u r i f i c a t o r y r i t e

is

p e rfo rm e d by t o u c h i n g t h e sh e e p w i t h sm oking s u l p h u r . O a e r u l e i f i a n t p u r o de s u l p h u r e f u m i, ta c ta q u e fum anti su lp h u re b a l e t o v is . A fire sav in e,

is

2

t h e n k i n d l e d fro m m ale o l i v e wood, p i n e ,

and l a u r e l : u r e m a re s o l e a s /taedam que h e r b a s q u e S a b i n a s e t c r e p e t i n rnediis l a u r u s a d j u s t s foe i s . The o l d e r s i m p l e

m illet,

cakes,

v ian d s,

5

a g r i c u l t u r a l f e a s t - d a y food — and m ilk —

is p re se n te d to

P ales: l i b a q u e de m i l i o m i l i i f i s c e l l a s e q u a t u r : r u s t i c s p r a e c i p u e e s t hoc dea l a e t a c i b o . adde d apes m ulctram que s u a s , d a p ib u s q u e r e s e c t i s s i l v i c o l a m te p i d o l a c t e p r e c a r e Palem . ^ P a l e s seems t o be c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h th e forest

in her care

o£ .

of th e sheep,

1

F ow ler,

c i t .,p.

2

O v i d , o p ..c i t . t I V . 7 3 9 - 7 4 0

3

I b i d . IV.

4

I b i d . IV* 7 4 3 - 7 4 6

741-742

80

f o r h e re she i s

c alled

59 n s i l v i c o l a ft, a n d t h e C u l e x a l s o s p e a k s o f h e r a s a w oodland d e it y * i l l i sunt g rata e ro ra n te s la o te c a p e lla e e t nem us e t f e c u n d a P a l e s . . . ■ * * The p e t i t i o n fille d

to P a les,

w hich f o llo w s th e f e a s t ,

w ith sim ple I t a l i a n b e l i e f s

enough,

very s im ila r

prayers.

The f i r s t

and i s ,

is

in te re stin g ly

in com p ositio n to l a t e r r e l i g i o u s p a r t of the p ray er is

ev id en tly a

p e t i t i o n by th e s h e p h e rd f o r f o r g i v e n e s s f o r m isd ee d s com m itted a g a i n s t P a l e s d u r in g th e p a s t y e a r . fo r fo rg iv en ess tree

or grove;

if

he o r h i s

or i f h i s

sh rin e u n w ittin g ly ;

lie a s k s

sh e ep have harm ed a s a c r e d

sheep have s p o i l e d a r u s t i c

o r i f th e sheep have t r o u b l e d th e

w ater d e i t i e s : s i v e s a c r o p a v i d e d iv e sub a rb o re s a c r a , p abulaque e b u s t i s i n s c i a c a r p s i t o v is : sivnem us i n t r a v i v e titu m , n o s t r i s v e f u g a ta e . s u n t o v u l i s nymphae sem i c a p e r q u e d e u s : s i mea f a l x rarno l u c u m s o s l i a v i t 'o p a co unde d a ta e s t a eg rae f i s c i n a f r o n d i s o v i : da veniam c u lp a e * n e c , dum d e g r a n d i n e t , o b s i t a g r e s t i fano su p p o su isse pecus, nec n o c e a t t u r b a s s e l a c u s . i g n o s c i t , nymphae, m ota quod o b s o u r a s u n g u l a f e c i t a q u a s . & The s e c o n d s e c t i o n

seeks f o r jjr o te c tio n by th e goddess

1

App. V e r a . , " C u l." 76-77

£

O vid,

0£

.

c i t . IV.

749-758

60

from d i s e a s e

and d a n g e r i n th e f u t u r e ;

p e l l e p r o c u l m orbos; v a l e a n t hom inesaue g r e g e s q u e , e t v a le a n t v i g i l e s , p ro v ia a t u r b a , canes* n e v e m i n u s m u l t o s r e d i g a m quam mane f u e r u n t , a b s i t in iq u a fam es . • * The- f i n a l s e c t i o n c o n t a i n s a p l e a f o r of P a le s

over th e w e lfare

Le a s k s f o r plen ty lific

of sh e p h erd and sheep a lik e *

abundant g ra ss

of m i l k ,

th e f a v o r in g hand

p ro fita b le

and l e a v e s f o r cheeses,

the

s o f t w ool,

sheep, and p r o ­

sheep: herbae fro n d esq u e s u p e r s i n t , quaeque l a v e n t a r t u s quaeque b i b a n t u r aq u ae, u b e r a p l e n a p rem a m , r e f e r a t m l h i c a s e u s a e r a , d e n tq u e viam l i c u i d o v im in a r a r a s e r o , s i t q u e s a l a x a r i e s , co n eep taq u e sem ina co n iu n x r e d d a t , e t i n s t a b u l o m u l t a s i t a g n a meo. lanaque p r o v e n ia t n u l l a s l a e s u r a p u e l l a s , 0 m o l l i s e t a d t e n e r a s q u a m l i b e t a p t a manus. °

T h is c o m p l e t e p r a y e r m ust be sp o k e n f o u r t i n e s w h ile shepherd fa c e s

t h e e a s t , a n d a f t e r w a r d s he w a s h e s h i s

hands

F ollow ing th is

i n de w.

part

of th e r i t u a l ,

the

th e

s h e p h e r d d r i n k s a c o m b in a tio n of must and m ilk and, when i n t o x i c a t e d e n o u g h ,

le a p s 'o v e r

the bu rn in g b o n - f ire :

h is dea placanda e s t: h a e c t u c o n v e r s u s ad a r t u s d i e q u a t e r e t v i v o p e r l u e r o r e manus* turn l i c e t a d p o s i t a , v e l u t i c r a t e r e , e a m e l l a l a c niveum p o t e s purpuream que sapam ;

1.

O vid,

IX.

763-767

2

O vid,

o£.

c i t * IY* 7 6 7 - 7 7 4

61 moxque p e r a r d e n t e s s t i p u l a e c r e p i t a n t i s t r a i c i a s o e l e r i s t r e n u a membra p e d e . O vid,

P ro p ertiu s,

and T i b u l l u s d e s c r i b e

tie

acervos

shepherds

l e a p i n g o v e r t h e f l a m e s f o r p u r i f i c a t i o n , b u t o n l y O vid r e f e r s 'to

the

cattle

b e i n g d r i v e n t h r o u g h t h e same f l a m e s : ,

num t a m e n e s t v e r o p r o p i u s , cu m c o n d i t a Horna e s t , ' t r a n s f e r r i i u s s o s i n n o v a t e c t a JLares m u t a n t e s q u e domum t e c t i s a g r e s t i b u s i g n e m .e t c e s s a tu ra e su p p o su isse c a sa e , p e r f l aromas s a l u i s s e p e c u s , s a l u i s s e c o l o n o s q u o d f i t n a t a l i n u n c q u o q u e , Roma, t u o . ^ P e rh ap s th e r e f e r e n c e by the the

fact th at

p oint not

o ne p o e t o n l y i s d u e t o

t h e two o t h e r p o e t s d i d not

sig n ific an t,

or p erh ap s t h i s

con sid er

th is

p a r t o f the r i t e

was

u nifo rm ly p r a c tic e d . In i t s

P a lilia ,

m ain p o i n t s

w hich i s

sim ila rly

to

also

the r u s t i c

th e u rb an f e s t i v a l of the

referred feast.

enum erates th re e th in g s used fo r — the

ashes

t o by O vid, w as c e l e b r a t e d In the urban r i t e ,

O vid

e x p i a t i o n and p u r i f i c a t i o n

of the u n b o rn c a l v e s o f th e F o rd ie i d i a ,

b lo o d of th e O ctober K crse,

th e

and b e a n - s tr a w s :

sanguis equi suffim en .e rit v itu liq u e f a v i l l a , t e r t i a r e s d u r a e culm en in a n e f a b a e • . ^ A ll of these r i t e s

a n d d e s c r i p t i o n s 'of P a l e s p o i n t

1

O v id , o p . c i t . , IV. 8 0 2 - 8 0 6 ; P r o p . , IV . I . 17-20

2

O vid,

o£. c i t . ,

3

T ib .,

II.

IV.

V. 2 7 - 2 8

733-734

cf.

T ib .,

II.

V. 8 7 - 1 0 3 ;

62

to her as a v ery o ld r u s t i o

. d e i t y who s e e m e d t o h e

w i t h o u t human s h a p e o r i d e n t i t y , T ib u llu s ’ re fe re n c e

Tor th is rea so n ,

t o P a l e s ’ wooden image i s

su rp ris­

ing : l a c t e madens i l l i c s u b e r a t P an i l i c i s umbrae et fa c ta a g re s ti lig n e a fa lc e P ales * . . ■ * • P o w l e r c o m m e n t s t h a t T i b u l l u s was t r a n s f e r r i n g

a ru stic

c u sto m o f A u g u s ta n t im e s t o t h e e a r l i e s t Homans, ever,

it

Italia n

is not n e ce ssa rily

true

o r i g i n of anthropom orphic

th at

th is

is

How­

th e rude

id eas of the gods, 2

The v e r y f a c t t h a t P a l e s h a d b e e n g i v e n f o r m d u r ­ i n g t h e tim e o f t h e E m pire seems t o i n d i c a t e

th a t P ales

w a s m o re t h a n a m e r e num en t o t h e ' l a t e r Roman mind*

1

T ib .,

II.

2

F ow ler,

V. 2 7 - 2 8

op. c i t .,

p . 81

POMONA. Pomona* fu l trees;

a L a t i a n wood-nymph,

h e n c e h e r name,

tfp o m u m , m e a n i n g f r u i t . of her, tells

oared f o r the f r u i t '

Pom o n a, v m s d e r i v e d f r o m

Ovid,

in his

sole d e s c r i p t i o n

p l a c e s a c u r v e d p ru n ing«-hook i n h e r hand and

of her lo v in g

care fo r th e

trees:

nec i a c u lo g r a v i s e s t , se d adunca d e x te r a f a l c e , q u a rnodo l u x u r i e m p r e m i t e t s p a t i a n t i a p a s s i m b r a c e h i a e o m p e s c i t , f i s s o modo c o r t i c e l i g n u m i n s e r i t e t s u c o s a l i e n o p r a e s t a t alum no . . . 1 P o m o na , b e i n g a s l o v e l y a s m o s t w o o d - n y m p h s a r e r e p u t e d t o b e , was l o v e d f r o m a f a r b y t h e S a t y r s , S ilv an u s,

Pans,

and Pr.iapus :

q u id non e t S a t y r i , s a l t a t i b u s a p ta i u v e n t u s , f e c e r e e t p in u p r a e c i n c t i c o rn u a Panes S i l e n u s q u e , s u i s sem per i u v e n i l i o r a n n i s quique deus f u r e s v e l f a l c e v e l in g u in e t e r r e t ut p o tere n tu r ex , , N ev erth eless,

V e r t u m n u s , t h e g o d who c o u l d

c h a n g e h i s f o r m i n t o many d i f f e r e n t

shapes,

fin a lly

won t h e nymph: vimcue p a r a t : s e t v i non e s t opus, inque f i g u r a c a p t a d e i nymph a e s t e t m u t u a v u l n e r a s e n s i t . 3

1

O v i d , M. X I V * 6 2 8 - 6 5 1

2

I b i d . X IV .

3

Ib id .

637-641

XIV. 7 7 0 - 7 7 1

64

P o m o n a ' s a n t i q u i t y a t Rome i s th at

a sp ecial p rie s t

s e r v i c e s and t h a t

( f l a m e n Pomona1 i s ) p e r f o r m e d h e r

she had a s p e c i a l s a n c t u a r y

b etw een A rdea and O s t i a .

1

H arper, D i e t .

proved by th e f a c t

s.v .

•*-

Pomona

(Pom onal)

PBIAPUS P riap u s,

"quique deus fu re s v e l f a l c e

g u i n e t e r r e t , ff ^ g u a r d e d t h e c o u n t r y s i d e *

vel in -

H is ru d d y

wooden image s e r v e d a s a s c a r e c r o w t o f r i g h t e n b i r d s and r o b b e r s from th e f r u i t - l a d e n g a rd e n : pom osisque r u b e r c u s t o s p o n a tu r i n h o r t i s t e r r e a t u t saeva f a l c e P ria p u s aves* 2 H orace i n h i s S a t i r e s adds f u r t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n when he r e f e r s head w hich a c t s

to P ria p u s*

to a re e d s e t upon th e g o d 's

as a s p e c ia l t e r r o r to b i r d s :

a s t im portunes v o lu c r e s in v e r t i c e harundo t e r r e t f ix a v etatq u e novis co n sid ers in h o r t i s .

^

B a i l e y i n f o r m s u s t h a t P r i a p u s was o r i g i n a l l y a G reek god.

To t h e G r e e k s he was t h e s o n o f D i o n y s u s

and A p h r o d ite . a t Lam psapus,

The o r i g i n a l home o f h i s w o r s h i p w a s on t h e H e l l e s p o n t .

H ere he was r e g a r d e d

a s t h e god o f f r u i t f u l n e s s

i n g e n e r a l a nd was w o r s h i p p e d

as the p ro te c to r

o f sh eep and g o a t s ,

of the v in e,

of flo c k s

and of a l l g arden p roduce.

1

O v i d , M. X IV . 6 4 0 - 6 4 1 ; c f . O v i d , P . I . I . X. 2 6 ; V e r g . , G. I V . 1 1 0 - 1 1 1 ; T i b . ,

2

T ib .,

3

Iio r.,S a t.,

I.

I.

The I t a l i a n s ,

391-392, T r. I . IV* I f f .

17-18 I.

V III.

6-7;

cf.

I.

V III.

of b e e s,

Iff.

66 how ever,

had t h o r o u g h l y a c c e p t e d him a s t h e i r

of gardens#

^

To s u b s t a n t i a t e

th is

e r e n c e made b y O v i d t o t h e r i t e s

fact,

we h a v e t h e r e f ­

of P riapus

w here t h e a s s was t h e v i c t i m s a c r i f i c e d

own g u a r d i a n

a t Lam psacus,

t o him :

Lam psacus hoc a n im a l s o l i t a e s t m a c ta re P r ia p o fata: Tta s i n i f l a m m i s i n d i e i s e x t a d a m u s . ” 2 Y erg il a ttr ib u te s Ita lia n

o fferin g ,

the

sim p lest

form of r u s t i c

a bowl o f m ilk and c a k e s ,

to th is

form er

Greek god: Sinum l a c t i s e t haec t e l i b a , ex sp eetare s a t e s t « . * &

IXriape,

I n t h e B r i a p e a , t h e god h i m s e l f r e l a t e s o th e r sim ple r u s t i c

g ifts

quot an n is

how h e h a s g a i n e d

of spring ro se s,

summer f r u i t s ,

and f a l l sh e a v e s o f g r a i n i n th e t h r e e r e s p e c t i v e s e a s o n s , and th e n c h a rm in g ly t e l l s

h is

fears

o f becom ing d r i f tw o o d

in the d re a ry w in te r: Y ere r o s a , sp icis# nam f r i g u s h ie deus

autum no porais, a e s t a t e f r e q u e n t e r una m ihi e s t h o r r i d a p e s t i s h iem p s. m e tu o , e t v e r e o r ne l i g n e u s ignem ig n a r is p ra e b e a t ag rico lis.#

N eith er Y e rg il, c o n c e a l the co arse n e ss ance.

O vid r e l a t e s

o£# c i t . ,

T ib u llu s,

of P r i a p u s ’ c h a r a c te r

the

p.

E o r a c e , n o r O vid c a n

sto ries

1

B ailey ,

2

O v i d , P . YI# 3 4 5 - 3 4 6

3

Y erg ., E. Y II.

4

A pp# Y e r g #» T P riapea," I# 1 - 4 ;

of his

or a p p e a r­

d i s g r a c e f u l love

39

33-34 cf.

Ill#

17,

20

fo r L o tis or V esta,

w h i c h e v e r o n e .we c h o o s e t o b e t h e

wooed,

and th e m is fo rtu n e

of i t s

in te rfere n ce

here,

of the ass of S ile n u s because

th ere in .

We s h a l l f o r o u r p u r p o s e

choose V e sta a s th e u n lu c k y m aid: a s p i c i t e t V estam : d u b i u m , nymphainne p u t a r i t a n s c i e r i t V e s t a m , s c i s s e se.d i p s e n e g a t . spem c a p i t o b sc e n a m f u r t i m q u e a c c e d e r e t e m p t a t e t f e r t su sp en so s co rd e m icante g ra d u s . f o r t e s e n e x , quo v e c t u s e r a t , S i l e n u s a s e l l u m l i q u e r a t ad r i p a s le n e s o n a n t i s a q u a e , i b a t , u t i n c i p e r e t , lo n g i deus H e l le s p o n t i, i n t e m p e s t i v o cum r u d i t i l l e s o n o . t e r r i t a v o c e g r a v i s u r g i t d e a ; c o n v o l a t ortinis t u r b a , p e r i n f e s t a s e f f u g i t i l l e m anus. 1 Horace r e l a t e s

an am using t a l e

w hile th e d e ity i s perform ing h is gardens o u tsid e are p r a c tic in g

about P riap u s

duty of g u a rd ia n of

t h e Mound o f S e r v i u s .

Three w itc h e s

t h e i r gruesom e i n c a n t a t i o n

in the b u r ia l

p la c e h e re e s p e c i a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r p a u p e rs and c r i m i n ­ a ls. im age,

P riapus

in h is

frig h t

h a p p e n s t o c r a c k h i s ?/ooden

and t h e n o i s e f r i g h t e n s e v en t h e s e w e i r d c r e a t u r e s

away: nam d i s p l o s a s o n a t q u a n t u m v e s i c a p e p e d i d i f f i s a n a te f i c u s ; a t i l l a e c u r r e r e in urbem . C a n id ia e d e rites, a ltu m Saganae G aliendrum e x c id e re atq u e h e rb a s atq u e i n c a n t a t a l a c e r t i s v i n c u l a cum magno r i s u q u e i o c o q u e v i d e r e s . 2

Even h e re P r i a p u s

is

e f f e c t i v e l y perform ing h is f u n c tio n

of guarding h is p ro p e rty . In conclusion, coarse,

we c a n s a y t h a t P r i a p u s was a

r u b i c u n d , wooden p r o t e c t o r o f t h e g a r d e n s whose

o f f i c e s were p r o b a b l y r e t a i n e d b e c a u s e of h i s i m p o r t a n t p ra c tic a l

fu n c tio n of scarecro w .

ROBIG-O R obigo o r R o b ig u s,

f o r t h e r e w a s some d i f f e r e n c e

o f o p i n i o n a s t o h e r s e x , w a s g o d d e s s o r g o d o f m il d e w * I f t h e e x a m p l e o f O v i d , who i s t h e o n l y A u g u s t a n p o e t to r e f e r

t o t h i s ?/o rd a s a d e i t y i s

re g a rd to the R obigus,

sex of th e d i v i n i t y ,

m ust be u s e d ,

a s a fem ale*

Ovid s a y s :

ib at*

.

m e n t i o n e d tfr o b i g o Tt a s a c o n c r e t e rust

or m ildew .

th at eith er

Q

th e fem in in e gender,

f o r Ovid c o n s i d e r e d h e r a lw a y s

F o r exam ple,

t i quae lucum R o b i g i n i s

to be fo llo w ed in

^

Ttf l a m e n i n a n ­ Y e r g i l and H orace

su b stan ce,

m eaning

T h e r e seem s t o b e no I n d i c a t i o n

in ten d ed to p e rs o n ify th is

A c c o rd in g t o O vid, R obigo i s who m u s t - b e p r o p i t i a t e d

word a s a d e i t y .

a m alevolent d e ity

so t h a t t h e m ildew w i l l n o t

form upon th e te n d e r s t a l k s

of g ra in :

p a r e e , p r e c o r , s c a b r a s q u e manus a m e s s i b u s a u g e r neve noce c u l t i s : posse nocere s a t e s t . 3 In her f e s tiv a l,

the R o b ig a lia , c e le b r a te d

I Y . 907,* c f .

o n A p r i l 25

1

O vid, F .

IY* 9 1 1

2

O f . Y e r g . , G. I . 1 5 1 , I . 4 9 5 , I I . 2 2 0 ; E o r . , G arm . I I I . X X I I I . 7 ; O v i d , M. I I . 7 7 6 , Y I 1 I . 8 0 2 ; A . A . I . 5 1 5 , T r . X I I . 21

70

a do g a n d s h e e p a r e s a c r i f i c e d

t o h e r by a w h ite - r o b e d

b a n d o f wor s h i p p e r s : O b s t i t i t i n m e d i a C a n d id a t u r b a v i a , f l a m e n i n a n t i quae lucum B o b i g i n i s i b a t e x t a c a n i s flammis , e x t a d a t u r u s o v i s , P e rh a p s the w h ite

i s u se d h e re by th e h o p e fu l w o rs h ip p e r s ,

as in th e case of G e r e s ’ f o l lo w e r s , ea ears

of g r a i n r e a d y f o r

to re p re s e n t

th e h a rv e s t.

t h e r e a l m eaning of t h e s a c r i f i c e bo th to the s a c r i f i c i n g p r i e s t

the w h i t e n s

Fow ler rem ark s t h a t

of t h e dog w as unknown

and t o

th e p o e t.

He f u r t h e r

a d d s t h a t a n a n i m a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e c o r n may b e s e e n in th is

rite ,

2

A prayer is

made t o B o b i g o b y t h e f l a m e n

4-

of Q u irin u s w h erein she i s a s k e d not sta lk s

and upon f a r m e r ’s a g r i c u l t u r a l

rath er,

if

to fa ste n

upon th e

im plem ents, b u t

she m ust, upon th e weapons o f w a r:

nec t e n e r a s s e g e t e s , s e d durum a m p l e c t e r e f e r r u m , quodque p o t e s t a l i o s p e r d e r e , p e rd e p r i o r u t i l i u s g la d io s e t t e l a n o cen tia e a rp e s. $ T/ine a n d i n c e n s e

a r e u s e d w i t h t h e two s a c r i f i c i a l

v ictim s

to appease th e d e ity .

on t h i s

sim ple r i t e

The o r i e n t a l

in flu en ce up­

can be s e e n i n t h e u s e o f i n e e n s e :

t u r a fo e i s vinum que d e d it f i b r a s q u e b i d e n t i s t u r p ia q u e obseenae (vid im us) e x ta c a n is

1

O vid, F .

IV. 9 0 6 - 9 0 8

2

F ow ler,

5

O vid, op.

c i t . IT .

4

Ib id .

935-936

op.* c i t . ,

IT .

p.

91

923-925

71

The B o b i g a l i a h a d a l s o e v i d e n t l y f a l l e n d i s u s e by th e tim e of th e E m pire, at

for

in to general

th is

rite

p racticed

t h e g r o v e s o f B o b i g o a p p e a r s t o b e m e n t i o n e d b y no i o t h e r a n c i e n t ?rc*iter. -

1

F razer,

O v i d !s F a s t i , p . 423

SA TU R M B

S a t u r n u s was a m y t h i c a l k i n g o f I t a l y , re g e .” ^

He was t h e f a t h e r o f I t a l i a n

h is reig n

is

"S aturno

a g ric u ltu re,

and

c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s t h e G o l d e n Age o f I t a l y ;

for c iv iliz e d

life

P

i n g e n e r a l accom panied th e i n t r o d u c t ­

io n of a g ric u ltu re *

A f te r S a tu rn u s had ap p eared in I t a

a n d i n t r o d u c e d s o c i a l ,o r d e r , t h e

l a n d was c a l l e d S a t u r n i a

a f t e r him* The Romans i d e n t i f i e d S a t u r n u s w i t h G r e e k C r o n u s , s o n o f U r a n u s a n d Ge, who o v e r t h r e w U r a n u s w i t h t h e a s s i s t ­ ance of th e T ita n s

a n d made h i m s e l f r u l e r

He m a r r i e d R h e a , - h i s s i s t e r , a ll

o f whom h e s w a l l o w e d ,

of the w orld.

and she b o re s i x c h i l d r e n ,

save Zeus.

manhood a n d o v e r t h r e w h i s f a t h e r *

®

Zeus grew t o

C r o n u s wa s o r i g i n a l ­

l y a g o d o f h a r v e s t w h o s e name w a s c o n f u s e d w i t h t h a t o f C h r o n u s o r T im e . ^

1

O vid., F .

2

V e r g . , G. I . 3 3 6 , I I . 4 0 6 , 5 3 8 , I I I . 9 3 , I I . 1 7 3 ; E . I V . 6 ; A. I . 5 6 7 , I V . 3 7 2 , V I I I . 3 5 8 , V I . 7 9 4 , V II, 49, 180, 203; V I I I . 319, 329, 357, X II. 830; O v i d , F . I . 1 9 3 , I . 2 3 7 , V I . 3 1 , V. 1 9 , V I . 2 9 f f , V. 6 2 5 ; M. I . 163"; T i b . , I I I . I I I . 3 3 ; P r o p . , I I . X X X II. 52

3

C f . O v i d , M. I X . 2 4 2 , I . 1 1 3 , V I I I . 7 0 3 , V. 4 2 0 ; F . I I I . V I I . 9 6 , IV* 1 9 7 , 2 0 5 , V. 3 4 , V I . 3 8 3 ; T i b . , I I . V. 9 ; V e r g . , A. X I I . 1 5 6 , V. 7 9 9 , O v i d , Am. I I I . V I I I . 3 5 ; H. I V . 13 2

4

I.

235; c f .

H arper, D i e t .

T ib ., I .

s . v . Cronus

III.

35

75 The r e f e r e n c e s a g r ic u ltu r a l n atu re the

in th e fiv e

are

p o ets

in freq u en t.

to S a t u r n ’s

O vid c a l l s

him

s i c k l e - h e a r i n g god i n t h e F a s t i . causa r.atis su p e re s t: T u sc u m r a t e v e n i t i n amnem a n te p e r r a t o f a l c i f e r orbe d e u s. , h ac e g o S a t u r n u m memini t e l l u r e r e c e p t u m . . .

The o n l y t r a c e

of th is

a g ric u ltu ra l ch aracter

in V e rg il

o c c u r s i n th e G e o r g ie s where t h e r e a p i n g hook i s . d e p s c r i b e d a s fTc u r v o B a t u m i d e n t e . ^ To S a t u r n u s a l s o w e r e a t t r i b u t e d C hiron,

who

was p r o d u c e d b y P h i l y r a ,

H orace,

h o n o rin g A ugustus, c a l l s

3

the c h ild r e n and P ic u s .

4.

h i m ,fo r t e S a t u r n o Tf

and sp eak s o f S a tu r n u s h im s e lf as a n c i e n t :

"domus

S a t u r n i v e t e r i s . 11 The S a t u r n a l i a w a s h e l d l a t e end o f h a r v e s t tim e . d rin k in g ,

I t was a f e s t i v a l o f f e a s t i n g ,

and l i c e n s e .

No b u s i n e s s was t r a n s a c t e d ;

c o u r t s and s c h o o l s were c l o s e d .

1

O vid, F .

2

V erg .,

IV. 8 6 7 -8 7 0

5

O v i d , M.

4

Tfoid. XIV . 3 2 0

5

H o r.,

6

T acitu s,

G. I I . II.

Car'm. I .

406 6 7 6 , V I . 1 26

X II.

i n December a t t h e

50

A nnals, X III.

15

law

S l a v e s were p e r m i t t e d

74

sp ecial p riv ile g e s.

They w ere r e l i e v e d fro m a l l w ork,

had freedom o f sp e ec h , m asters.

and were w a i te d upon hy t h e i r

P r e s e n t s w e r e e x c h a n g e d among f r i e n d s ,

and

f r e q u e n t l y a mock k i n g was e l e c t e d i n v a r i o u s p l a c e s to serve is

during t h i s p e rio d .

*

Horace i n h i s S a t i r e s

c h a r g e d w i t h h a v i n g e s c a p e d Rome d u r i n g t h e S a t u r n -

a lia!

2

1

T acitu s,

2

H or.,

A nnals, X III.

S a t. II.

III.

15

5; c f .

T ib .,I.

III.

18

SILVANUS

Y e r g i l seems t o of I ta lia n d e itie s,

cone n e a r e s t

to th e

anim ism in h i s t r e a t m e n t

o f th e

^

Tiie o p e n i n g p a s s a g e o f t h e

ev id en ce o f t h i s

tru e sp iritag ric u ltu ral

G eorgies b e a rs

s im p le anim ism :

e t v o s, a g r e s t u m p r a e s e n t i a num ina, F a u n i, ( f e r t e s i m u l F a u n i q u e pedem D r y a d e s q u e p u e l l a e S ) num era v e s t r a c a n o . tuque o, c u i prim a frem entem f u d i t e q uu m magno t e l l u s p e r c u s s a t r i d e n t i N e p t u n e ; e t c u l t o r ne m o ru m c u i p i g u i a C e a e t e r c e n tu m n i v e i t o n d e n t dumenta i u v e n c i ; i p s e , nemus l i n q u e n s p a t r i u m . s a l t u s q u e L y c a e i , P a n , ovium o u s t o s , t u a s i t i b i M a en a la c u r a e , a d s i s , o T e g e a e e , r a v e n s , o le a e q u e Ilin e r va i n v e n t r i x , unc i q u e p u e r moms t r a t o r a r a t r i , e t eneram ab r a d i e e f e r e n s , S i l v a n o , c u p re ss u m ; d iq u e d e ae q u e omnes, s tu d iu m q u ib u s a r v a t u e r i , q u iq u e s a t i s l a r g u m c a e l o d e m i t t i t i s imbrem: 2 here

appear S ilv an u s,

an im istic

groups.

However,

m ention o f S ilv a n u s considered th is sp irit.

the F a u n i, it

is

and o t h e r s c le ar

from f u r t h e r

i n Y e r g i l Ts w o r k s t h a t

d eity

i n vague

the p o et

a s s o m e t h i n g m ore t h a n a mere

In th e fo llo w in g p a ssa g e S ilv a n u s a p p e a rs as

a god o f t h e f o r e s t a s

1

B ailey ,

2

V erg ,,

op. c i t ., G.

I.

10-22

p.

we w o u l d e x p e c t f r o m h i s

34

name

76

( s ilv a - S ilv a n u s ). f o r tu n a tu s e t i l l e , deos q u i n o v it a g r e s t i s , P a n a q u e S i l v a n u m q u e senern n y m p h a s q u e s o r o r e s . I n t h e A e n e id Y e r g i l a d d s more t o t h e r e p r e s e n t a ­ t i o n o f S i l v a n u s by nam ing him god o f f l o c k s and f i e l d s : S i l v a n o fam a e s t v e t e r e s s a e r a s s e P e l a s g o s , a rv o ru m p e e o r i s q u e d e o , lucum que diem que q u i p r im i f i n i s a liq u a n d o h a b u e re L a t in o s * .2 P ro p ertiu s

a ttrib u te s

to S ilv an u s the p e r s o n a lity

of g u ard ian of the flo c k ,

and in te r w e a v e s th e

h i s w oodland a s s o c i a t i o n s

in th e r e p r e s e n ta tio n of

S i l v a n u s f h o m e. flo ck s, th e

Thus he d e s c r i b e s S i l v a n u s ,

idea of

god o f

a s p i p i n g f o r t h e s h e e p t o come a n d d r i n k f r o m

s p r i n g m u r m u r i n g n e a r h i s h o m e , w h i c h was e n c l o s e d

in a g le n -lik e

grove:

lu cu s e r a t f e l i x hederoso co n d itu s an tro m ultaque n a t i v i s o b s t r e p i t a rb o r a q u is , S i l v a n ! r a m o s . t u o m u s , q u e d u l c i s ab a e s t u *’■f i s t u l a p o t u r a s i r e i u b e b a t o v e s . ® H orace,

lik ew ise,

c alls

of th e boundaries of f i e l d s , and say s

2

god t h e p r o t e c t o r

f,S i l v a n e ,

tu to r fin iu m .” ^

t h a t m i l k was g i v e n t o h i m " S i l v a n u m l a c t e

p ia b a n t.” ^

1

th is

Y e rg .,0 .

He a l s o d e l i g h t s

II.

493-494; c f .

'V erg.,A . V I I I . IV .

600-602

3

P ro p .,

4

H o r., Spod. I I .

5

E o r.,

££.

IV. 3 -6

II.

I.

22 143

i n t r e e s grow ing w i l d ;

H o r.,

Carm. I I I .

1232.

231

77

hence he i s r e p r e s e n t e d as c a r r y i n g th e t r u n k o f a cypress. ferens,

Y e r g i l s a y s o f h i m He t t e n e r a m a b r a d i o © S ilv an e,

eupressum .

a fo o lis h S ilv an u s,

.

. 11 ^

Y erg il p o rtra y s

c a p e rin g about w ith h i s blossom s

and f l o w e r s d a n g l i n g on h i s . h e a d : v e n it e t a g r e s t i c a p i t i s S ilv a n u s honore, f l o r e n t i s f e r u la s et g randia l i l i a quassans. A lthough S ilv a n u s h ere

s u g g e s t s som ewhat t h e

early

Ita lia n

p ect,

a s s u g g e s t e d b y C a t o i n Ite Re R u s t i c a ,

ers

c o n c e p t i o n o f Mars i n h i s

i d e n t i f i e d him w i t h Pan and F a u n u s . ^

te riz a tio n

and S ilv a n u s a re

la n d and a g r i c u l t u r a l d u t i e s the

later w rit­

H is c h a r a c ­

a s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e A u g u s t a n p o e t s sh o w s

how s i m i l a r P a n , F a u n u s ,

us,

a g ric u ltu ral as-

id en tificatio n

i n t h e i r wood­

and-even in ap p earan ce.

seems m ost p r o b a b l e .

1

V e r g . , G. I . 20

2

V e r g . , E . X. 2 4 - 2 6 ;

3

C a t o , De Re R u s t i c a , 8 5

4

H arper, D i e t . s .v .

cf.

O v i d , M. X I V .

S ilv an u s

638-641

To

TELLUS AND TERRA T e l l u s arid T e r r a . b o t h p e r s o n i f y t h e a l l - m o t h e r i n g earth .

Of t h e t w o d i v i n i t i e s ,

m i n e n t among t h e a n c i e n t

T e l l u s wa s t h e m o re p r o ­

d e ities.

works she r e t a i n s h e r p r i m i t i v e most u n t a i n t e d by f o r e i g n

I ta lia n p e rso n ality a l ­

in flu en ces.

hand,

i s p e r s o n i f i e d and d e i f i e d

dess,

Ge",

in th a t

she i s

In a l l of th e p o e t s ’

T erra,

on t h e

other

as th e G reek e a r t h god­

t h e m o t h e r o f t h e g i a n t s who

a t t a c k e d Mount O l y m p u s . Ge o r G a e a was t o c a tio n of the e a r th . b e in g a f t e r Qhaos, P ontus T itan s,

(sea).

th e G reeks,

She i s

a lso ,a p e rs o n ifi­

d e s c r i b e d a s com ing i n t o

and as p ro d u c in g U ranus

(heaven) and

By U r a n u s s h e b e c a m e t h e m o t h e r o f t h e

who w e r e i n t e n s e l y d i s l i k e d b y t h e i r f a t h e r .

To s a v e h e r c h i l d r e n ,

Ge h i d t h e m i n t h e b o s o m o f t h e

e a r t h a n d t h e n made a n i r o n s i c k l e w i t h w h i c h C r o n u s d estroyed h is fa th e r, p erso n ified ,

U ranus.

B e e a u s e Ge w a s t h e

s h e was r e g a r d e d b y t h e G r e e k s a s a g o d d e s s

o f th e low er w o rld .

^

T e l l u s p e r f o r m s two i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s

1

H arper,

earth

D i e t , s . v . Ge; c f .

i n t h e w orks

K e s . , Th. 116-117

79

o f Ovid and V e r g i l . c u ltu ral

d eity

the e a rth ,

Forem ost

i n which, s h e

is her o ffic e

is

as an a g r i ­

the fo ste r-m o th e r

who b e a r s t h e c r o p s .

of a ll ,

Ovid d e s c r i b e s h e r a s

fo llo w s: q u aeq u e magos, T e l l u s ,

p o llen tib u s r n s tr u is

h erb is,

and V e r g i l s a y s : S i c d e i n d e e f f a t u s f r o n d e n t i te m p o r a ramo i m p l i e a t e t genium que l o c i prim am que d eoru m T e l lu r e m nymphasque . . . . . . . . p recatu r

g « •

We h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n t h e p a r t n e r s h i p o f G e r e s a n d T ellu s

i n p r o v i d i n g m an’s s u s te n a n c e

where T e l l u s f u r n i s h e s

in O vid’s F a s t i ,

t h e s o i l f o r c r o p s and C e r e s t h e

v i t a l elem en t: p l a c e n t u r frugum m a tr e s , T e llu s q u e C e re sq u e , f a r r e suo g ra v id a e v is c e r ib u s q u e s u i s . o f f i c i u m commune C e r e s e t T e r r a t u e n t u r : haec p r a e b e t causam f r u g i b u s , i l i a locum . 3 O vid’s F a s t i a ls o

d escrib es

the F o r d ic id ia ,

th e

f e s t i v a l c e l e b r a te d fo r the purpose o f p ro c u rin g th e fe rtility

o f th e c o rn grow ing i n th e e a r t h .

On t h i s

day,

f e t a l c a l v e s w e r e t o r n f r o m t h e womb o f t h e m o t h e r a n d burned as a s a c r i f i c e to

1

O v i d , M. V I I .

2

V erg .,

3

O vid, F .

A. V I I . I.

196; c f .

earth .

A fterw ards th e se ashes

IX. 2 7 2 -3 0 3 ;

O v i d , F . V. 1 7 - 1 8

135-137

671-674; c f .

H o r . , Ej>.

II.

I.

143

80 were k e p t by t h e V e s t a l s f o r u s e a t

th e P a l i l i a :

nunc g r a y id u m p e c u s e s t , g r a v i d a e quoque sem ine terrae: T e llu r i plenae v ictim s p len a d a tu r. pars c a a it arce lo v is , te denas c u ria vaccas a c c i p i t e t l a r g o s p a r s a c r u o r e m adet; ast ubi v isc erib u s v itu lo s rapuere m in istri s e c t a q u e f u m o s is e x t a d e d e r e foe i s , i g n e c r e m a t v i t u l o s q u a e n a t u maxim a v i r g o e s t , lu ce P a l is populos purget u t i l l e c i n i s . 1 T ellu s also o f f i c ia te s V erg il s ta te s

th a t she,

at th e m arriage

i n company w i t h J u n o ,

cerem onies, p resid es

o v e r t h e m a r r i a g e o f Dido and A e n e a s : s p e l u n c a m D i d o d u x e t T r o i a n u s e a n d e rn d e v en iu n t prim a e t T e llu s e t pronuba luno d a n t signum ; f u l s e r e ig n e s e t c o n s c iu s a e t h e r e o n u b i i s , summoque u l u l a r u n t v e r t i c e N y m p h a e. ^ C o n i n g t o n comments t h a t in d icates

T ellus

referred

to as "prim a"

t h a t s h e was t h e o l d e s t o f t h e g o d s .

Only i n O v i d ’s Amores a n d H o r a c e ’s Odes d o e s T ellu s

assum e t h e p e r s o n a l i t y of G r e e k Ge.

Here she i s

t h e r e v e n g e f u l Ge’: cum m a l e s e T e l l u s u l t a e s t , i n g e s t a o u e Olympo a r d u a devexum P e l i o n Ossa t u l i t . . . 3 and N o l i s l o n g a f e r a e b e 1 1 a Numantiae • • • • • • •

1

O vid, F .

IV.

633-640; c f .

2

V e r g . , A. I V . 1 6 5 - 1 6 8

3

O v i d , Am. I I .

I.

11-14

a l s o IV.

665-666

81

t e l l u r i s iu v e n e s, unde p e ric u lu m f u l g e n s e o n t r e m u i t domus . . . T erra, shows c l e a r l y she i s

on t h e o t h e r h a n d , the p r o p e r tie s

th e m other o f Coeus,

in alm ost e v e ry c a s e ,

o f G e. Iap etu s,

I n 'th e G e o r g i e s » Typhoeus,

and th e

G ian ts: turn p a r t u T e r r a n e f a n d o Ooeumque i a p e t u n i q u e c r e a t s a e v u m q u e T y p h o e a e t c o n i u r a t o s caelum r e s c i n d e r e f r a t r e s . ^ In th e A eneid she is th e m other o f T i t y o s : n e c n o n e t T i t y o n , ^ T e r r a e o m n i p a r e n t i s a lu m n u m , cernere e ra t . . .° A g a i n s h e a s s u m e s GePs c h a r a c t e r w he n A e n e a s s a c r i f i c e s a b l a c k la m b t o t h e m o t h e r o f E u m e n i d e s her great

sister

(n ig h t)

and to

(T erra):

i p s e a t r i v e l l e r i s agnam A e n e a s m a t r i E u m e n id u m m a g n a e q u e s o r o r i .

.

I n t h e A e n e i d we c a n s e e t h e u s e o f t h e name T e r r a i n a grow ing u n i v e r s a l s e n s e . ju st

an a g r i c u l t u r a l d e i t y .

F irst,

No l o n g e r i s

she

Aeneas c a l l s h e r

th u s: e s t o nu n c S o l t e s t i s e t h a e c m ilii T e r r a p r e c a n t i , quam p r o p t e r t a n t o s p o t u i p e r f e r r e l a b o r e s ,

1

iio r.,

Carm. I I .

2

V erg .,

3

Y e r g . , A. V I . 5 9 5 - 5 9 6 ; c f . C a r m . I I I . I V . 73

4

Y erg .,

G.

I.

X II.

1-8

277-380; c f .

o p . c i t . Y I.

O v i d , M. I .

249-250

a ls o V I.

154-160

580-581; H o r.,

82

e t p a t e r o m nipotens e t t u S a t u r n i a c o n iu n x , i a m m e l i o r , l a m , d i v a , p r e c o r ♦ , . 3Second,

L a tin u s invokes h er in t h i s broadened sen se: S ie p r i o r A eneas; s e p u itu r s ic deinde L a tin u s , s u s p i c i e n s caelum , t e n d i t p u e ad s i d e r a d ex tram : h aec eadem A enea, t e r r a m , mare s i d e r a i u r o , L a to n a e p u e g e n u s d u p l e x Ianum que b i f r o n t e m v i m q u e deum i n f e r n a m e t d u r i s a c r a r i a D i t i s ; a u d ia t haec g e n it o r , qui fo e d e ra fulm ine s a n e i t . T erra is

com bined r a t h e r u n u s u a l l y w i t h Faunus i n

T urnus1 p lea : “F a u n e , p r e c o r m i s e r e r e , ! * i n p u i t , ftt u q u e o p t i m a f e r r uni T e r r a , t e n e , c o l u i v e s t r o s s i semper h o n o re s q u o s c o n tr a Aeneadae b e l l o f e c e r e p r o f a n o s . " 3 I t w o u l d b e n a t u r a l t o e x p e c t a c o n n u b i a l u n i o n o f tw o d e ities m anner, ference

of d if f e r e n t how ever, to t h is

s e x e s who a r e

sin ce

p a ir

th is

seems t o be t h e s o l e r e ­

to g e th e r, B ailey c o n je c tu re s

perhaps T erra is h ere r e a l l y

1

V e r g * ., o]D. c i t . , X I I .

2

I b i d . X I I . 195-200

5

I b i d . X I I . 777-779

4

B ailey ,

op. c i t .,

invoked in such a

p.

the I t a l i a n T e llu s .

176-179

185

th at ^

AGRICULTURAL ASPECTS Of MINERVA, VENUS AND JUPITER T ii e s e t h r e e al d e ities,

hut

d e ities

are n o t-a c tu a lly a g ric u ltu r e

i n th e p o e ts * w orks t h e r e a re r e f e r e n c e s

to c e r ta in a g ric u ltu r a l asp ects of th e ir n a tu re , M inerva a c q u i r e s th e n a tu r e

of an a g r i c u l t u r a l

d e i t y w he n s h e c l a i m s t h e g u a r d i a n s h i p o f t h e

o liv e :

d i f f i d l e s primum t e r r a ® c o l l e s q u e m a l i g n i , • t e n u i s u b i a r g i l l a e t dum osis c a l c u l u s a r v i s , P a lla d ia gaudent s ilv a v iv a c is o liv a e . 1 V erg il, o liv e ,

in the G e o rg ie s, c a l l s h er

in v en tress

of the

" o le a e q u e M inerva i n v e n t r i x . ” ^ Venus and J u p i t e r a l s o .have s i m i l a r a g r i c u l t u r a l

asp ects.

The V i n a l i a ,

th e w ine f e s t i v a l , b e l o n g s

b o t h Venus and J u p i t e r , Venus i s

offered

a c c o r d in g to O vid.

in cen se,

m y rtle,

m in t,

to

On t h i s

day

and r o s e s by

t h e common w e n c h e s : p o s c i t e t u r e d a t o formam p o p u l i q u e f a v o r e m , p o s c i te b l a n d i t i a s dignaque v erb a io c o , cunique s u a d o m i n a e d a t e g r a t a s i s y m b r i a i m y r t o te c ta q u e com posita iu n cea v i n e l a r o s a . ® A eneas,

p rev ious to h is b a t t l e

1

V erg .,

G. I I .

Z

Ib id . , I.

5

O vid, E.

179-181

18-19 IV. 8 67-870

with- T u r n u s ,

vowed t h e

84

new w i n e t o J u p i t e r co o perated, o rig in

i f lie s h o u l d w in *

S ince J u p ite r

t h e ne.w w i n e wa s g i v e n . t o h i m ; h e n c e t h e

of the V in a lia : d i c t a d ie s hino e s t T i n a l i a : J u p ite r illa m v in d ic a t et f e s t i s gaudet in esse s u is . ^

1

O vid, F .

IT* 8 9 9 - 9 0 0

CHAPTER I I I A f t e r exam ining th e r e f e r e n c e s a g r i c u l t u r a l d e i t i e s by th e p o e ts

to th e v a rio u s

o f t h e A u g u s ta n Age,

s e v e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s may b e d r a w n : F irst,

it

is

to be n o t i c e d t h a t

c e r t a i n gods and

g o d e sse s have alm o st c o m p le te ly r e t a i n e d t h e i r a g ric u ltu ral

sp irit

and r i t e s

d a y s o f t h e Empire* the r u s t i c

p r o p itia te d to C onsus1 tru e p o ets a t

c a t e g o r y may b e p l a c e d

C o n s u s , Pomona, and F l o r a .

the u n a ffe c te d n a tu re

sp irit

who was

o r d e r t o k eep th e m ildew fro m t h e c ro p s*

tim e,

e v en th o u g h m odern s c h o l a r s a r e r e a s o n ­

t h a t h e was t h e s p i r i t

Po m ona w a s s t i l l Pomona,

so p h isticated

s i g n i f i c a n c e was n o t c l e a r l y d e f i n e d b y t h e

th is

ab ly sure

Under t h i s

P a l e s , R obigo,

R o b i g o was s t i l l

even in the

sim ple

of the sto re d -u p h arv est*

in charge of th e flo w e rs .

A lthough R obigo,

and Consus se e m in g ly had r e t a i n e d t h e i r r u s t i c

so n a lities,

th e y had l o s t

a p p e a l f o r th e peo p le ed them a t a l l ,

of th is

amount o f t h e i r p o p u l a r

era:

f o r o n l y Ovid m e n t i o n ­

a n d e v e n h e was i n d o u b t a s t o t h e t r u e

m eaning o f t h e i r r i t e s . an i n s i g n i f i c a n t

a great

per­

P ales,

d eity at th is

knew o f h e r a n d h e r r i t e s

o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , was n o t tim e,

e ith er

for a ll

of th e p o e ts

in th e tru e r u s t i c

form ,

86 as g u a rd ian of the rite s,

sheep,

or in the co m p licated urban

in w hich h e r f e s t i v a l ,

the P a l i l i a ,

e d w i t h t h e f o u n d i n g o f Home* f lo w e r s and g a r d e n s , a g ric u ltu ral

p ro tec tre ss

of the

a l t h o u g h i n t h e m ain p o s s e s s i n g an

sim p lic ity ,

s o c ie ty of f i r s t

P lo ra,

was i d e n t i f i ­

had b e e n t a i n t e d by t h e com plex

c e n t u r y Rome,

e n n e ss and l i c e n t i o u s n e s s

a s was s e e n i n t h e

drunk­

a tt a c h e d to h e r o th e rw is e pure

rite s * S e c o n d , we may n o t e t h a t a t l e a s t t w o o f t h e d e i t i e s * , T ellu s

and Ops,

T/ere a t

th is

a l t h o u g h seem ing t o be o f a n c i e n t c h a r a c t e r ,

t i m e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f a d d i n g new a s p e c t s

t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t y fro m G reek and O r i e n t a l s o u r c e s . ; o r i g i n a l l y a d e i t y o f p l e n t y and f e r t i l i t y ,

to

Ops,

a s we p o i n t e d

o u t p r e v i o u s l y , was g r a d u a l l y .b e i n g su b m e rg e d i n t h e p e r ­ so n a lities Ita lia n

o f t h e Magna M a t e r a n d D e m e t e r .

earth-m other of a l l n a tu re ,

on t h e

w as v e r y g r a d u a l l y m e r g i n g i n t o T e r r a , how ever, latte r

T ellu s,

the

o th er hand,

o r t h e G r e e k Ge.

t h a t d i s t i n c t i o n s w e r e s t i l l made b e t w e e n t h e

tw o was s t i l l

e v i d e n t a t t h e tim e o f t h e Em pire*

The t h i r d g r o u p c o n s i s t s

o f t h o s e d i v i n i t i e s who

h a d a l r e a d y b e co m e s o m e r g e d w i t h t h e i r G r e e k p r o t o t y p e s th at

even th e p o e ts had,

i n most c a s e s ,

a c c e p t e d them

87

in th is

form .

H e r e may b e i n c l u d e d C e r e s ,

goddess of g r a in ,

the I t a l i a n

i d e n t i f i e d w i t h D em eter i n h e r com plex

c h a r a c t e r as th e goddess of th e E le u s i n i a n r i t e s , g iv er,

d a u g h t e r o f Ops a n d S a t u r n u s .

cases,

had in te r c h a n g e d p la c e s w ith G reek P an.

'F au n a s,

the

ing h i s

sim ple I t a l i a n

flo ck s,

creatu re

acq u ired the n a tu re

Eaunus,

i n most Thus

o f t h e ?/oods g u a r d ­ o f horned Pan p la y in g

h i s p i p e s on t h e m o u n ta in t o p s a n d l u r i n g h is A rcadian f e s t i v a l ,

the L u p ercalia*

m erged w i t h w a r - l i k e A res* an d S a t u r n u s ,

th e p eo p le to

M ars h ad b e e n form er sim ple

h a r v e s t god had a c q u i r e d a s i m i l a r i t y t o C ro n u s. too,

wa s i n f l u e n c i n g L i b e r ,

B acch an alic r e v e l r i e s

god o f t h e v i n e ,

and o r g i a s t i c

of gardens,

and had by t h i s

w ith h is w ild

scarecrow p ro ­

who wa s o r i g i n a l l y a G r e e k d i v i n i t y

t i m e b e e n w h o l l y a c c e p t e d a s a Roman d e i t y .

The t h r e e d e i t i e s Ju p iter,

Bacchus,

rite s.

I n a c l a s s b y h i m s e l f was P r i a p u s , tec to r

law ­

M inerva,

discussed l a s t

in th is

paper —

and Venus — c a n e a s i l y be r e c o g n i z e d

a s v e r y i m p o r t a n t a n d p o t e n t d e i t i e s , o f l a t e r Roman h i s t o r y . T h e i r p e r s o n a l i t i e s h a d b e e n a u g m e n t e d b y many d i f f e r e n t n atu res

as t h e i r

reaso n ab le

im portance in c re a s e d ,

and i t

is

only

t o e x p e c t t h a t t h e y w ould hav e somewhere i n

88 t h e i r grow th a c q u ir e d a g ric u ltu re n atio n ,

is,

some a g r i c u l t u r a l a s p e c t ,

in th e f i n a l co u n t,

since

e s s e n t i a l to every

g re a t or sm all. These a g r i c u l t u r a l d e i t i e s r e p r e s e n t e d a , l a r g e

s e c t i o n o f t h e Homan h i e r a r c h y o f g o d s , t h e m ost p a r t , We h a v e t r i e d

t o sh ow w h e t h e r t h e i r and i f

so,

o r i g i n a l n a t u r e s had

how f a r

th e m o d ific a tio n

a n d w h a t a c t u a l l y was t h e i r n a t u r e

tr a y e d hy th e p o e ts of h isto ry ,

for

among t h e m o s t a n c i e n t o f t h e D i I n d i g e t e s .

heen m o d ified or n o t, had advanced,

and w ere,

in th is

as p o r­

extrem ely im p o rtan t p e rio d

t h e A u g u s ta n Age.

TEXTS, COMMENTARIES, AMD INDICES A o r o a n d P o r p h y r i o , C o m m e n t a r i i i n Q,. H o r a t i u m F l a c c u m . E d it e d F • E a u t h a i . B e r o l i n i , 1864. A ppendix Y e r g l l i a n a . E d it e d by R. E l l i s . don P r e s s , 190 7 .

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B u t l e r , I I . E . , S e x t i P r o p e r t i O p e r a Omnia w i t h a C o m m e n t a r y . London: C o n s ta b le Co•$1905. „0 a t u l l u s , T i b u l l u s a a n d P e r v i g i l i u m V e n e r i s . T i b u l l u s l a t e d by J . P . P o s t g a t e . London: H e i n e r t ia n n , 1 9 2 8 .

tran s­

C o n in g to n , J . , P . Y e r g i l i M a ro n is O pera w i t h a Com m entary. 3 Y o ls . London: W h itta k e r C o.^1 8 7 2 . E u r i p i d e s , B a c c h a n a ls , Madness o f H e r c u l e s , C h ild r e n o f H e r c u le s , P h o e n ic ia n M aidens, S u p p l i a n t s . T ran slated b y A . S . Way. C am bridge: H arvard U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1942. / I f r a z e r , J . G . , The F a s t i o f O v i d . C o . , 1929

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