The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; New Series [2, 1 ed.]

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THE

JOURNAL

y

OF THE

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OF

GEEAT BEITAIN AND lEELAND.

VOLUME THE SECOND.

LONDON: TRtiBNER AND H.

CO.,

60

,

PATERNOSTER ROW.

LOESCHER, TURIN AND FLORENCE. F. A. BROCKHAUS, LEIPZIG. MDCCCLXVI.

STEPHEN

Al’STIN,

PBINTER, HERTFORD*

CONTENTS OF YOL. [NEW

II.

SERIES.]

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. Art.

I.

— Contributions

FACE

to a

Mythology.

Knowledge of Vedic Tbeogony and

By J. Muir,

No. II.

Esq., LL.D.,

D.C.L Art. II.

1

—Miscellaneous Vedas.

Art. III.

Hymns from By the same

26

—Five Hundred Questions on the Social Condition of the Natives of Bengal.

Art. IV.

the Big and Atharva

— Short Account to the

By

the Bev. J.

Long

...

Malay Manuscripts belonging

of the

By

Boyal Asiatic Society.

Dr.

H. N.

VAN DER TuUK Art. V.

—Translation By

Art. VI.

—The

of the

85

Amitabha Sutra from Chinese,

the Bev. S. Beai, Chaplain, B.N.

Initial Coinage of Bengal.

136

By Edward Thomas,

Esq Art. VII.

145

—Specimen

of an Assyrian Dictionary.

By Edwin

Norris, Esq

Art. VIII.

— On

Art.

225

the Delations of the Priests to the other

Classes

Art.

44

of Indian

Society in the Vedic Age.

By J. Muir, Esq., LL.D., D.C.L 257 IX. On the Interpretation of the Veda. By the same... 303 X. An Attempt to Translate from the Chinese a Work

— —

known

as the Confessional Services of the Great

Compassionate Kwan Yin, possessing 1 000 Hands

and 1000 Eyes. Art. XI.

—

B.N The Hymns of

By the Bev.

S.

Bead, Chaplain,

403 of the

King Asamati.

Gaupayanas and the Legend

By

Professor

Max Muller,

M.A., Hon. M.B.A.S Art. XII.

426

— Specimen Chapters of an Assyrian Grammar. the Bev. E. Hincks, D.D., Hon.

M.B.A.S

By 480

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—

—

JOUENAL OF

THE EOTAL ASIATIC Art.

Contributions to a Knowledge of the Vedic Theogong

I.

No.

and Mythology.

The

The Asvins seem

to

Nirukta,

xii. 1

:

the heaven

;

They

“

By

II.

J.

Muir, Esq.

Asvins.

have been a puzzle even to the oldest

Indian Commentators.

is

SOCIETY.

Next

Yaska thus

refers

to

them

in the

in order are the deities whose sphere

of these the Asvins are the

first to arrive.

are called Asvins, because they pervade

{vyasnuvdte)

everything, the one with moisture, the other with light.

Aurnahhava says they are called Asvins, from the horses YVho, then, are these Asvins? {asvaih, on which they ride). and Earth,’ say some Day and Night,’ say others Heaven Two kings, peirformers The Sun and Moon,’ say others ‘

‘

;

;

‘

‘

;

of holy acts,’ say the legendary writers.

Their time

sub-

is

sequent to midnight, whilst the manifestation of light delayed

[and ends with the rising of the sun,

;

The dark portion

= Indra),

is

ibid. xii. 5].

[of this time] denotes the intermediate (god,

the light portion Aditya (the Sun).”

Professor

^

Both, on the strength of this passage considers that Yaska identifies the two Asvins with Indra and the Sun (Illustrations of Nirukta, p. 159).^ See the different interpretation given by Professor Goldstiicker, below. R. V. i. 181, 4, is quoted by Yaska in illustration of his view “Bom here there, these two have striven forward (?) with spotless bodies according to their respective characters. One of you, a conqueror and a sage [is the son of] the strong one (?) ; the other is born onward, the son of the sky.” Comp. Roth’s transl. in illustration of Nirukta, p. 159. ^

2

:

—

and

VOL.

II.

— [new

series].

1

CONTRIBUTIONS TO A KNOWLEDGE OF

2

In the Journal of the German Oriental Society, iv. 425, “ The two As-\dns, though, lilce the ancient interpreters of the Veda, we are by the same author thus speaks of these gods

no means agreed

:

as to the conception of their character, hold,

nevertheless, a perfectly distinct position in the entire

body

They are the earliest bringers morning the sky, who in their chariot hasten of light in onward before the dawn, and prepare the way for her,” ^ of the Yedic deities of light.

In a passage of the R. V.,

Yama,

2 (quoted in

x. 17,

my

paper on

the Asvins are represented as the twin sons of

p. 288),

They

Vivasvat and Saranyu.

are also called the sons of the

sky {divo napdta) in R. V., i. 182, 1; i. 184, 1 f x. 61, 4; and in i. 46, 2 sindhumatara, the offspring of the Ocean^ (whether aerial or to have sprung

In

180, 2, the sister of the Asvins

i.

whom

1,

they are said

mentioned, by

is

the Commentator naturally understands Ushas.

71. 1,

vii.

(?)

terrestrial). In viii. 75, from the word of Daksha.

whilst in

i.

called the Sister of Night,

Ushas appears to be 123, 5, she

said to be the sister of

is

In

Bhaga and

Yaruna.

The Asvins

many

are in

Y. connected with

parts of the R.

Surya, the youthful daughter of the sun (called also in one place,

i.

119, 2, Urjani

chosen them

3; comp, x, 39, 11) chariot

6

2,

10

;

;

(i.

V.

viii.

34, 5

73, 5

;

22, 1

;

;

i.

vi.

;

and

comp.

viii.

The commentator (on Surya

f.

i.

(i.

is

represented as having

119, 5

iv. 43,

;

6

vii.

;

69,

having eagerly ascended their

as

116, 17 63, 5

explains these allusions his daughter

who

(?) ),

husbands

for her

;

;

i.

117, 13

vii.

68, 3

;

118, 5

i.

;

vii.

69,

4

;

;

iv. viii.

43, 8,

29, 8).^

116, 17) following the Brahmanas,

by saying that

to be the wife of

had destined But all the gods

Savitri

Soma.

were anxious to obtain her hand, and resolved that the victor ‘ For some speculations of Professors Miiller and Weber, on the Asvins, see the lectures of the former, 2nd series, p. 489, f, and the Indische Studien of the latter, vol. v., p. 234. 2 In i. 181. 4, only one of them is said to he the son of the sky. ® On this the commentator remarks that although it is the Sun and Moon that are sprung from the sea, yet the same epithet applies equally to the Asvins who in the opinion of some are identical with the former.

*

See also A. V.

vi.

82, 2.

;

THE VEDIC THEOGONY AND MYTHOLOGY.

3

in a race whicli they agreed to run, should get her.

She was

Allusion

Asvins in

the Asvins, and ascended their chariot.

won by

accordingly

also

is

x. 85, 9,

her husbands

“

:

made

Surya in connection with the

to

where, however, they no longer appear as

Soma was

the wooer, the Asvins were the

two friends of the bridegroom,^ when Savitri gave to her husband Surya consenting in her mind .... 14. When ye

make

came, Asvins, to the marriage procession of Surya, to enquiries, all the gods approved,

and Pushan^

as a son chose

you for his parents.” The daughter of the Sun is connected with the Soma plant in ix. 1,6: “ The Daughter of the Sun purifies thy distilled Soma,” etc. and in ix. 113, 3, she is said to have brought it after it had been expanded by the rain. If we look on Soma as the plant of that name, the connecbut if Soma be tion between it and Surya is not very clear taken for the moon, as he appears to be in x. 85, 3 (“ When they crush the plant, he who drinks fancies that he has drunk Soma but no one tastes of him wliom the priests know to be Soma,”)^ it is not unnatural, from the relation of the two luminaries, that he should have been regarded as ;

;

;

son-in-law of the sun.

The Asvins

are described as

sky or from the lower viii.

3,

8,

;

26, 17 ;

7)

or

;

as

(i.

22, 2

iv.

;

70, 3

vii. viii.

vii.

62, 5).

their locality

In one place

The time

;

;

(i.

viii. 9,

2

(v.

73, 1

10, 1, 5

viii.

30

5,

;

unknown ;

v.

;

viii.

Sometimes the worshipper enquires

after

184, 1

(viii. 8,

viii.

arriving from different

72, 5

from the

afar,

44, 5

whether above or below, far or near

quarters, 74, 10

4,

air

coming from

;

;

v. 74, 2, 3

;

;

vi.

23,) they are said to

of their appearance

is

63, 1

;

viii.

have three

62, 4).

stations.

properly Ihe early dawn,

when

they yoke their horses to their car and descend to earth to receive the adorations ’

Comp. A.V.

xi. 8, 1,

and

offerings of their votaries

(i.

22, 1

“ when Manyu brought his bride from the house of San-

who were the bridegroom’s friends?” etc. Weber asks (Ind. S. v. 183, 187,) whether Pushan here nate Soma the bridegroom. In vi. 68, 4, the gods are said

kalpa, ^

is

to

not meant to desighave given Pushan

to Surya. 3 See the part of Ind. Stud. V. 179.

my

former paper referring to Soma,

p.

140

;

and Weber’s

;

CONTRIBUTIONS TO A KNOWLEDGE OF

4

i.

184, 1;

iv.

72, 4

vii.

vii.

X. 40,

;

1,3;

45,

2;

73, 1

67, 2;^

vii.

viii. 5, 1,

;

vii.

2

In

x. 61, 4).^

X. 41, 1, 2

69, 5;

viii. 9, i.

vii.

17

71, 1-3

34, 10, Savitri

said to put their car in motion before the dawn.

;

12

x. 39,

is

In other

Thus, in i. 157, 1, passages their time is not so well defined. “ Agni has awoke the sun rises from the earth said

it is

:

;

;

dawned with her

the great and bright Ushas has

Asvins have yoked their car to go

The same

simultaneous with the rising of the sun.

come

In

v.

76,

the

where both the break of

made

the appearance of the Asvins appear to be

case in vii. 71, 4.

;

the divine Savitri has

;

enlivened every part of the world

dawn and

light

is

the

the Asvins are invited to

3,

at difierent times of the day,

and in viii. 22, 14, it is and during the day,

said that they are invoked in the evening as well as at

dawn.

It

need not, however, surprise us that

they should be invited to attend the different ceremonies of the worshippers, and therefore conceived to appear at hours distinct

It

from the natural periods of their manifestation.

may seem

unaccountable that two deities of a character

so little defined,

and

so difficult to identify, as the Asvins,

should have been the object of so enthusiastic a worship as

hymns

them

in the

have been paid to them in ancient times.

The

appears from the numerous

R. V.

to

reason

may have been

dedicated to

that they were hailed as the precursors

and dangers of the night. In one passage (viii. 35, 16 ff.) they are represented as being, like Agni, the chasers away of evil spirits.

of returning day, after the darkness

The Asvins (vi.

young

are said to he

62, 5), beautiful (vi. 62, 5

26, 6), lords of lustre

(viii.

22, 14

(vii.

vi. 63, 1),

;

;

67, 10), ancient

honey-hued

(viii.

x. 93, 6), bright (vii. 68, 1),

' vii. 67, 2, “ Ac^ni, being kindled, has shone upon us even the remotest ends of the darkness have been seen the liglit preceding the dawn has been perceived, springing up for the glory of the daughter of heaven (Ushas). 3. Now, Asvins, ;

;

invokes you with his hymns,” etc. “'Wlien the rosy-hued dawn, though far away, gleams as if she 2 were near at hand, she spreads the light in all directions. 2. Ye, Asvins, like men, follow after Ushas in your car which is yoked by thought, and shines afar.” 3 viii. 9, 17, “ AVake, o great and divine Ushas, the Asvins,” etc. * X. 39, 1 2, “ The daughter of the sky (the dawn) is born when your car is yoked as are also day and night.” * I. 61, 4, when the dark [night] stands among the tawny cows (rays of dawn), I invoke you, Asvins, sons of the sky.” tlie priest ^

viii. 5, 1,

;

;

;

THE VEDIC THEOGONY AND MYTHOLOGY. of a golden brilliancy and sun- like radiance 63, 5), fleet as tbougbt

(vi.

78, 4), possessed of

many

(viii.

forms

lands (x. 184, 2, and A. Y.

strong

3

migbty

(x. 24, 4),

(vi.

(viii. 8, 2),

agile

22, 16), swift as falcons (v.

117, 9), wearing lotus gar-

(i.

22, 4, S. P. Br. iv. 1, 5, 16)

{rudra, v. 75,

62, 5), terrible,

{mdyind or maydvina,

X. 93, 7), skilful

;

iii.

5

vi.

63, 5

x. 24, 4),

;

and profound in wisdom (viii. 8. 2). They are overthrowers of (viii. 22, 16) and traverse a golden (v. 75, 3,) or terrible

pride (viii.

;

The 4, 5

;

they

11

5,

viii.

;

8, 1

viii.

;

golden in aU

car,

22, 1, 14

35 flying as on bird’s wings 3

V. 77,

ride,

by the Bibhus

;

viii.

28, 29,

5,

(x. 39, 12),

x.

;

various parts

its

and

;

viii. (i.

180, 1

22,

;

iv.

44,

on which

9),

183, 1), was formed

singular in

is

11), path.^

39,

(i.

formation,

its

being three-wheeled, and triple in some other parts of trivandhura)

construction (trivrt,

118, iv.

2;

1,

i.

157, 3

;

vii.

^

(i.

34, 2, 9

i.

;

47, 2

71, 4; viii. 74, 8; x. 41, 1

;

its ;

i.

comp,

36, 1).

This car moves lightly

thought

117, 2

(i.

;

i.

(viii.

118, 1

;

9,

and

8)

v. 77,

3

;

vi.

is

swifter

63, 7

;

than

x. 39, 12),

or than the twinkling of an eye

(viii. 62, 2). It is decked and banners {sahasra-nirnij, sahasra-ketu (i. 119, 1 viii. 8, 11, 14, 15) and has golden reins (viii. 22, 5). It is sometimes said to be drawn by a single ass, as the word rdsabha^ is, in two places at least,

with a thousand ornaments ;

'

Two

commonly applied to them are dasra, and nusafya. The explained by Sayana to signify destroyers of enemies, or of

epithets very

former term

is

diseases (note on i. 3, 3), or beautiful (on viii. 75, 1). Professor Roth s.v. understands it to signify wonder-workers. The second word n&saUja is regarded by Sayana, following one of the etymologies given by Yaska (vi. 13) as equivalent to satya, truthful. If this is the sense, satya itself might as well have been used. In the later literature Dasra and Nasatya were regarded as the separate names of the two Asvins. See Muller’s Lectures, 2nd Series, p. 491. 2 The word vandhura is variously explained by Sayana as nidabandhanadli&rahhtttam (on i. 34, 9), unnatdnatarupa-bandhana-k&shtham (oni. 47, 2),veshtyiitam sAratheh sthanam (on i. 118, 1), surathyasraya-sthanam (on i. 157, 3), sarathyadhishth&na-sthanam (on vii. 71, 4), and trivandhura as triphalakasanghatitena (on viii. 74, 8). The epithet would thus mean either (1) having three perpen-

or (2) having a triple standing place or seat for the 34, 2, the chariot is said to have three props fixed in it to lay hold of {trayah skambhusak skabhitusa arabhe) which the commentator says were meant to secure the rider against the fear of falling when the chariot was moving rapidly. This explanation would coincide with one of the senses assigned to

dicular pieces of wood,

charioteer.

In

i.

In i. 181, commentator is

vandhura.

3, their

to the

=

3

chariot is called srpra-vandhurah, which according vislirna pxirobhagah, “ having a wide fore-part.”

See the legend in the Aitareya Brahmana,

p.

270-273 of Dr. Hang’s translation.

;

CONTRIBUTIONS TO A KNOWLEDGE OF

6

explained by the commentator 7)

(i. 34, 9 viii. 74, i. 116, 2 but more frequently by fleet-winged, golden-winged,

;

falcon-like, swan-like horses, i.

180, 1

i.

;

181, 2;

22, 33, 35

viii. 5, 7,

(i.

46, 3;

10, 2

viii.

117, 2;

i.

118, 4, 5;

7

22, 3

i.

traverse the I’egions {th'o rajdmsi,

vii.

157, 4),^ and

i.

;

;

They carry a

x. 143, 5).

;

honied whip {kasd madhumati,

The Asvins

i.

45, 4; v. 75, 5; vi. 63, 7; vii. 69,

iv. ;

;

;

68, 3).

are fancifully represented as doing, or as being

requested to do, a variety of acts thrice over, viz., to

move

by night and thrice by day, to bestow food thrice at even and at dawn, to bestow wealth thrice, come to the worship of the gods thrice, to bestow celestial medicaments thrice, and earthly thrice, etc. (i. 34, 1 fi“; viii. 35, 7-9). They are elsewhere compared to different twin objects, to two vultures on a tree, to two priests reciting hymns, to two goats, to two beautiful women, to husband and wife, to two ducks {ckakravdkd), to two ships, to two dogs, two eyes, two hands, two feet, two lips, two breasts, two noses, two ears, two swans, two falcons, two deer, two buffaloes, two wings of thrice

one bird, 106, 2

etc., etc.

(ii.

39, 1

ff.

;

1-3

v. 78,

;

viii.

35, 7-9

x.

;

flf.).

They

and

are physicians®

restore the blind, the lame, the

emaciated, and the sick, to sight, power of locomotion, health,

and strength viii.

vii.

22, 10

53, 1,

;

34, 6

(i.

viii.

where

;

116, 16

i.

i.

;

157, 6

;

75, 1; x, 39, 3, 5; x. 40, 8). it is

viii. 9, 6,

15

See also A.V.

said that the Asvins are the physicians

of the gods, and warded off death.

They ate

fire,

place the productive

water, and trees

(i.

germ

in all creatures,

They

157, 5).

procreation and with love (x. 184, 2 102, 1 Ind. Stud. V. 219, 234. 30, 2

;

V. 25,

3

;

vi.

The following

;

xiv. 1,

36

are a few of the

;

;

x.

and gener-

are connected with 85,

xiv. 2, 5).

26

;

A. V.

ii.

See Weber’s

modes in which the divine

' See my paper on the “ Progress of Vedic Religion, etc.,” p. 363. Indra has a golden whip, viii. 33, 11. 2 In Taitt. Br. iii. 1, 2, 11, the Asvins are called the physicians of the gods, the bearers of oblations, the messengers of the universe, the guardians of immortality; and in that afid the preceding paragraph (10) they are connected with their own asterism {nakshatra), the Asvayuj.

; •

THE VEDIC THEOGONY AND MYTHOLOGY. power of the Asvins

is

7

hymns

declared in different

to

have

been manifested for the deliverance of their votaries.

AVhen the sage Chyavana had grown old, and had been him of his decrepit body, prolonged his life, and restored him to youth, making him acceptable to i. 117, 13 his wife, and the husband of maidens (i. 116, ^0 forsaken, they divested

;

i.

118, 6

:

5

V. 74,

This legend

is

v. 75,

;

5

;

vii.

68, 6

;

71, 5

vii.

;

x. 39, 4).

;

related at length in the S. P. Br. in a pas-

sage which will be cited further on.

In the same way they renewed the youth of Kali^ after he had grown old (x. 39, 8), and had married a wife (i. 112, 15). They brought on a car to the youthful Vimada® a bride (i.

to

112, 19 i. 116, 1) named Kamadyu (x. 65, 12), who seems have been the chaste wife of Purumitra (i. 117, 20; x. 39, 7). ;

They

restored Vishnapu,

Kke a

lost animal, to

the sight of

Visvaka, son of Krishna, their worshipper, who, according to the commentator, was his father

(i.

116, 23

i.

;

117, 7; x. 65, 12).

The names both of Visvaka and Vishnapu occur in K. V viii. 75, a hymn addressed to the Asvins and the commentator connects the reference there made to them with the ;

hymn

legend before us (on which, however, the

no

itself

throws

light).

Another act recorded of the Asvins

their intervention in

is

favour of Bhujyu, the son of Tugra, which

is

obscurely de-

“ Tugra 116, 3-5 abandoned Bhujyu in the water-cloud, as any dead man leaves scribed in the following verses in R. V.

i.

:

Ye, Asvins, bore him in animated {atmanva-

his property.

tlbhih) water-tight ships,

which traversed the

him

nights and three days did ye convey

with a hundred

feet,

and

six horses,

air.

4.

which crossed over

dry land beyond the liquid ocean.

Three

in three flying cars,

Ye

5.

to the

put forth your

vigour in the ocean, which ofiers no stay, or standing-place, or support,

when ye bore Bhujyu

to his

home, standing on a

ship propelled by a hundred oars.”

“Ye

P. V, i, 117, 14, 15 conveyed Bhujyu out of the liquid ocean with your

^

The family

2

A

of the Kalis

rishi of this

name

a family of Yimadas

is

is mentioned viii. 55, 15, mentioned E.V. viii. 9, 15

in x. 23, 6.

;

x. 20, 10

;

x. 23, 7

;

and

CONTRIBUTIONS TO A KNOWLEDGE OF 15. The son of Tugra invoiced you, Borne forward, he moved without distress over the

headlong flying horses. Asvins.

Ye brought him

sea.

Again

as thought.”

out with your well-yoked chariot swift

in

182, 5

i.

it is

If.

said

“Ye

:

(Asvins)

made this animated {atmanvantavi) winged boat for the son of Tugra among the waters ... 6. Four ships, in eager haste (?) impelled by the Asvins, convey to the shoi’e Tugra, who had been plunged in the waters, and sunk in bottomless darkness.

What was

7.

that log, placed in the midst of the

waves, which the suppliant son of Tugra embraced, as the

wings of a

bird, for

support?”

In

vii.

Bhujyu

68, 7,

middle of the

20

;

i.

118, 6

The

sea.

119, 4

i.

;

story ;

alluded to in

is also

vi. 62,

6

69, 7

vii.

;

4; X. 40, 7 x. 65, 12 x. 143, 5. Again, when Yispala’s leg had been cut

X. 39,

said

oflP

;

1,

116, 15

They by

;

i.

112, 6,

22

;

117, 11

118, 8

i.

;

in battle, like

when lauded

Agastya, to have given her an iron one instead

10

;

i.

viii. 5,

;

;

the wing of a bird, the Asvins are said,

(E..

Y.

i.

b)"^

112,

x, 39, 8).i

;

who had been made blind hundred and one sheep to a she Bijrasva is men117, 17, 18).

restored sight to Rijrasva,

his father for giA'ing a

wolf to eat tioned in

They

(i.

116, 16;

i.

100, 17, as praising Indra.

i.

was blind and

restored Paravrj (or an outcast), Avho

lame, to sight and the poAver of walking is

is

have been abandoned by his malevolent companions in the

to

connected with Indra in

ii.

13, 12,

and

Paravrj

112, 8).

(i.

ii.

15, 7.

The Rishi Rehha has been hidden by the malignant, bound, overwhelmed in the waters (a well, according to the commentator), for ten nights and nine days, and abandoned till he was nearly, if not entirely, dead. The Asvins drew him up is i.

as soma-juice is raised with a ladle, or as a pot full of gold

dug out of the earth 118, 6

;

(i.

112, 5;

Vandana seems to

to

;

i.

117, 4, 12

;

have been delivered from a somewhat

i.

i.

112, 5

;

i.

118, 6

;

x. 39, 8.

119, 6, 7, however, he would appear to have

been restored from decrepitude. *

116, 24

119, 6; x. 39, 9).

i.

similar calamity according to

According

i.

From

Compare the word vispaldvasu

in

i.

R. V.

116, 11, and i.

182, 1.

i.

117,

;

THE VEDIC THEOGONY AND SITTHOLOGY. it

5,

would seem as

9

some person or thing had been

if

re-

stored to him.

Asvins bestowed wisdom on their worshipper

So, too, the

Kakshivat, of the family of Pajra

and performed the notable

;

miracle of causing a hundred jars of wine and honied liquor

from the hoof of their horse

to flow forth

116, 7;

(i.

When

117,

i.

as

from a sieve

6).

who

invoked by the popular sage Atri Saptavadhri,

had been plunged by the malice and arts of evil spirits into a gloomy and burning ahyss,^ they speedily came to his assistance, mitigated the heat with cold, and supplied him with nutriment, so that his situation became tolerable, if not agreeable, till they eventually extricated him from his perilous position

112, 7

(i.

4—6

v. 78,

;

vii.

i.

;

71, 5

116, 8 viii.

;

the deliverance of Atri

3,

They

is

;

117, 3

i.

7-9

62, 3,

i.

;

118, 7

;

i.

;

119, 6

In

x. 39, 9).

x. 80,

ascribed to Agni.

listened to the invocation of the wise Vadhrimati,

gave her a son called Hiranyahasta

116, 13

(i.

;

i.

and

117, 24

;

7 X. 39, 7). They gave a husband to Gihosha when she was growing old

\i. 62,

;

in her father’s house

(i. 117, 7 x. 40) and, x. 39, 3, 6 according to the commentator, cured her of the leprosy with

which she had been

;

afflicted

They caused the cow left

8

;

oflF i.

(comp.

122, 5).

116, 22

(i.

;

117, 20

i.

to

Pedu

and conquered ;

i.

118, 9

i.

118,

a strong, swift, white horse, of incom-

parable Indra-like prowess, which overcame

9

;

had

x. 39, 13).

;

They gave

i.

of the suppliant Sayu, which

bearing, to yield milk

119, 6

;

;

;

i.

for

him unhoimded

119, 10

;

vii.

71, 5

spoils ;

all his

(i.

enemies,

116, 6

;

Finally, to say nothing of the succours rendered to

ous other persons

(i.

i.

117,

x. 39, 10).

numer-

112, 116, 117, 118, 119,) the Asvins did

not conflne their benevolence to

human

beings, but are also

celebrated as having rescued from the jaws of a wolf a quail

by which they were invoked 8

;

*

(i.

116, 14

;

i.

117, 16

;

i.

118,

X. 39, 13)'. See Eoth’s explanation of the words rbisa ani gharma, and his Hlnstrations of

Nirukta,

vi.

36.

CONTEIBUTIOXS TO A KNOWLEDGE OP

10

The deliverances of Eebha, Vandana, Paravrj, Bhujyu, Chyavana, and others are explained by Professor Benfey, (following Dr. Kuhn and Professor Muller) in the notes to his translations of the

hymns

in

which they are mentioned, as

phenomena with which the Asvins are supposed by these scholars to be connected. But this allegorical method of interpretation seems unlikely to be correct, as it is difficult to suppose that the phenomena in question should have been alluded to under such a variety of names and circumstances. It appears therefore to be more probable that the Bishis merely refer to certain legends which were

referring to certain physical

popularly current of interventions of the AsAuns in behalf of the persons whose names are mentioned.

The word Paravrj

112, 8), which is taken by the commentator for a proper name, and is explained by Professors Muller ^ and Benfey (in

i.

as the returning, or the setting, sun,

Roth

fessor

In with

viii.

in his Lexicon,

s.v.,

as

an

is

interpreted

by Pro-

outcast.

26, 8, the Asvins are invoked along with Indra,

whom

they are also connected in x. 73,

4,

and on whose

car they sometimes ride, while at other times they accom-

pany Vayu, or the Adityas, or the Ribhus, or partici^iate in In i. 182, 2, they are the strides of Vishnu (viii. 9. 12). said to possess strongly the qualities of Indra and of the Maruts. In x. 131, 4, 5, they are described as assisting Indra in his conflict with the Asura Namuchi (see my paper “ Contributions,” etc., p. 94, note), and as vigorous slayers They are greeted with of Yrttra or of enemies (viii. 8, 22). affection (?) by the other gods when they arrive, x. 24, 5. In A. Y. xii. 1, 10, they are represented as having meted out the earth.

The Asvins are supplicated with

uplifted hands

for a variety of blessings, for long life, sin

(i.

157, 4)

;

(vi.

63, 3,)

and forgiveness of

for offspring, wealth, victory, destmction of

enemies, protection of friends, preservation of the worshippers themselves, of their houses and cattle 15,

17

;

viii. 9,

*

11, 13

;

viii.

26, 7).

Lectures on language, second

(vii.

67, 6

They series, p.

;

vui. 8, 13,

are exhorted to

512.

—

;

THE VEDIC THEOGOjS^T AHD MYTHOLOGY.

11

man wbo offers no oblations, and mse man who praises them (i. 182, 3).

pass by and to destroy tbe create light for the ISTo

calamity or alarm from any quarter can touch the

man whose

chariot they place in the

Pdshi addresses them X. 39, 6, a

and

less

to

female suppliant,

another place as tardy as

who

(vii.

The In

67. 1).

to treat her as parents

In

vii.

do

In

and rescue her from her misfortunes. (Yiii.

two old

worshipper.

(x. 39, 11).^

represents herself as friend-

on them

destitute, calls

their children,

van

as a son his parents

62, 11) they are reproached with being

men

to

respond to the summons of their

72, 2, the Eishi represents himself as

having hereditary claims on their consideration, and a com-

mon bond

of union.®

The Asvins are described as being, like the other fond of the soma juice (iii. 58, 7, 9 iv. 45, I, 3 vui. ;

;

gods, 8,

5

35, 7-9).

viii.

The following version of the legend relating to the cure of Chyavana by the Asvins (to which allusion is made in the passages of the R. V. quoted above)

is

fomid in the Satapatha

Brahmana, iv. 1, 5, I ff. “ Chyavana of the race of Bhi'gu, or Chyavana of the race of Angiras, having magically assumed a shrivelled form, was abandoned. Saryata, the descendant of Manu, wandered :

He

over this [world] with his tribe.

sat

down

in the neigh-

bourhood [of Chyavana].

His youths, while playing, fancied shrivelled magical body to be worthless, and pounded it

this

with

He

clods,

Chyavana was incensed

created discord

among them,

at the sons of Saryata.

so that father fought

with

Saryata bethought him, and brother with brother. what have I done ? in consequence of which this calamity has befallen us.’ He ordered the cowherds and shepherds to be called, and said, which of you has seen anything here to-day ?’ They replied, this shrivelled magical body which lies there is a man. Fancying it was something worthless, son, ‘

‘

‘

^

Compare the request preferred

worshipper from the rear to the front

to

Indra to bring forward the chariot of his

(viii.

69, 4.

f.)

explains this of a common ancestry by saying, in accordance with later tradition, that Vivasvat and Varuna were both sons of Kasyapa and Aditi, and that Yivasvat was the father of the Asvins, while Varuna was father of Vasistha the Eishi of the hymn. See Sanskrit Texts, i. 75, f. 2

The commentator

;

CONTRIBUTIONS TO A KNOWLEDGE OF

12

the youths pounded

it

with

Saryata

clods.’

knew then

that

He yoked his chariot, and taking his was Chyavana. daughter Sukanya, drove off, and arrived at the place where it

He

the Rishi was.

said,

Reverence to thee, Rishi

‘

jured thee because I did not know.

my

Let

her I appease thee.

tribe

This

;

I in-

Sukanya, with

is

His tribe

be reconciled.’

was in consequence reconciled and Saryata of the race of klanu strove that he might never again do injury to any one. Now the Asvins used to wander over this world, performing cures. They approached Sukanya and wished to seduce her but she would not consent. They said to her Sukanya, what shrivelled magical body is this by which thou liest? follow us.’ She replied, I will not abandon, while he lives, the man to whom my father gave me.’ The Rishi became aware of this. He said, Sukanya, what was this that they She told it to him. When informed, he said, said to thee ?’ ;

‘

‘

‘

‘

If they address thee thus again, say to them,

‘

ye are neither

complete nor perfect, and yet ye speak contemptuously of

my

husband ;’ and if they ask in what respect are we incomplete and imperfect ?’ then reply, make my husband young again, and I wiU tell you.’ Accordingly they came again to her, and said the same thing. She answered, Ye are neither ‘

‘

‘

complete nor perfect, and yet ye talk contemptuously of

my

They enquired, In what respect are we incomand imperfect ?’ She rejoined, make my husband young again, and I will tell you.’ They replied, ‘take him to this pond, and he shall come forth with any age which he husband.’

‘

plete

‘

She took him to the pond, and he came forth The Asvins then asked, ‘Sukanya, in what respect are we incomplete and imperfect?’

shall desire.’

with the age that he desired.

To

this the

fice in

Rishi replied,

‘

The other gods

celebrate a sacri-

Kurukshetra, and exclude you two from

it.

That

the respect in which ye are incomplete and imperfect.’

Asvins then departed and came to the gods who were brating a recited.

‘We

sacrifice,

when

cele-

the Bahishpavamana^ text had been

They said, Invite us ‘

will not invite you, for *

is

The

to join you.’

The gods

replied,

ye have wandered about very

See Haul’s Ait. Br.

ii.

p. 120,

note 13.

THE VEDIC THEOGONY AND MYTHOLOGY.

13

The Asvins reThey asked, ‘How [do we worship] with a headless [sacrifice] ?’ The Asvins answered, ‘Invite us to join you, and we will tell you.’ The gods consented, and invited them. They ofiered

among men,^ performing

familiarly

joined,

Ye

‘

Asvina draught {graha) two adhvaryu priests^ of the

this

of the sacrifice.

It

is

sacrifice.’

who became the and restored the head

to the Asvins, sacrifice,

related in the

Brahmana

of the Diva-

what manner they restored the head of the

in

kirttyas,

cures.’

worship with a headless

sacrifice,” etc., etc.

A

story,

varying in some particulars,

is

narrated in the

Mahabharata, Vanaparva, 10316 fi*. We are there told that the body of Chyavana, when performing austerity in a certain

became encrusted with an ant-hill that king Saryati came then to the spot with his wives and his daughter Sukanya that the Bishi seeing her, became enamoured of

place,

;

;

her and endeavoured to gain her affections, but without

from her any reply.

eliciting

Seeing, however, the sage’s

eyes gleaming out from the ant-hill, and not knowing what

they were, the princess pierced them with a sharp instrument,

whereupon Chyavana became incensed, and afflicted the Idng’s army with a stoppage of urine and of the other necessary function. When the king foimd out the cause of the infliction, and supplicated the Bishi for its removal, the latter insisted

on receiving the king’s daughter to wife, as the

condition of his forgiveness.

with the Bishi as his spouse.

sole

Sukanya accordingly lived One day, however, she was seen

by the Asvins, who endeavoured, but without effect, to persuade her to desert her decrepit husband, and choose one of them in his place. They then told her they were the physicians of the gods, and would restore her husband to youth and beauty, when she could make her choice between him and one of them.

Chyavana and

his wife consented to this

;

and

' In the Mahahliarata, Santip. v. 7589 f. it is said that^the As^-ins are the Sudras of the gods, the Angirases being the Brahmans, the Adityas the Kshatriyas, and the Maruts the Vaisyas. With the objection made against the Asvins of too great familiarity with mortals, compare the numerous instances of help rendered to their worshippers, which have been quoted above from the E. V., and which may have given rise to this idea.

*

Comp.

S. P, Br.

•viii.

2, 1, 3.

—

;

CONTEIBTJTIONS TO A KlfOWLEDGE OF

14

at the suggestion of the

Asvins he entered with them into

when

the three came forth of like and each asked her to be his bride. She however recognized and chose her own husband. Chyavana

the neighbouring joond

;

celestial beauty,

in gratitude for

compel Indra

Soma

to

restoration

his

to

youth, then offered to

admit the Asvins to a participation in the

ceremonial, and fulfilled his promise in the course of

a sacrifice which he performed for king Saryatl.

On

that

occasion Indra objected to such an honour being extended to

the Asvins, on the ground that they wandered about

men

as

changing

physicians,

Chyavana refused

to

to

listen

their

forms at will

among ;

but

the objection and carried

arm of Indra when he was about and creating a terrific demon who was on the point of devouring the king of the gods, and was only prevented by the timely submission of the latter.^ out his intention, staying the

to launch a thunderbolt,

I have been favoured by Professor Goldstucker with the

following note on the Asvins

:

The myth of the Asvins is, in my opinion, one of that class of myths in which two distinct elements, the cosmical and

human

become blended into one. It seems necessary, therefore, to separate these twm elements in order to arrive at an understanding of the myth. The historical or human element in it, I believe, is represented by those legends which refer to the wonderful cures effected by the Asvins, and to their performances of a kindred sort the

or historical, have gradually

the cosmical element

The

is

that relating to their luminous naCure.

which connects both seems to be the mysteriousness of the nature and effects of the phenomena of light, and of That there might the healing art at a remote antiquity. have been some horsemen or warriors of great renown who link

awe by their wonderful and more especially by their medical skill, appears to have been also the opinion of some old commentators meninspired their contemporaries with deeds,

tioned

by Yaska,

for

some “legendary writer,” he

says, took

See the similar account of Chyavana’s power in the passage from the Anusasana parva quoted in Sanskrit Texts, i. 167 f. *

THE VEDIC THEOGONT AND MYTHOLOGY. them

for “

two kings, performers of holy

acts

15

and. this

view

seems likewise borne out by the legend in which it is narrated that the gods refused the Asvins admittance to a sacrifice on the ground that they had been on too familiar terms with

men.

It would appear then that these Asvins, like the Ebhus, were originally renowned mortals, who in the course of time were translated into the companionship of the gods ;

and

it

may

be a matter of importance to investigate whether,

besides this linguistic or

a priori view, there are further grounds of a grammatical character, for assuming that the

hymns containing

the legends relating

Asvins are posterior or otherwise

to

these

human

to those descriptive of the

cosmical gods of the same name.

The luminous character

of the latter can scarcely be matter

—

some commentators recorded by which they were identified with

of doubt, for the view of

—

Yaska, according to “ heaven and earth,” appears not to be countenanced by any of the passages

known

to us.

Their very name, it would “ the perlit.

seem, settles this point, since asva, the horse, vader,”

is

always the s5"mbol of the luminous

of the sun. position

The

difidculty,

amongst these

however,

deities

and

to

other myths connected with them.

is

deities, especially

to determine their

harmonise with

may

I

it

the

here, however,

though Yaska records opinions which day and night,” and “ sun and moon,” the passage reKed upon by Professor Eoth to prove that Yaska himself identified them with Indra and Aditya (the sun), does not bear out any such conclusion. For the passage in question, as I understand it, means “ their time first

observe that

identify the Asvins with “

:

after the (latter) half of the

is

night when the (space’s) be-

coming light is resisted (by darkness) for the middlemost Aswin (between darkness and light) shares in darkness, whilst (the other), who is of a solar nature (aditya), shares in light.” There is this verse relating to them “In nights,”^ etc. Nor does Diirga, the commentator on Yaska, attribute to the latter ;

:

Nir. xii. 1. tayoh kalah urdhvam ardharatrat prakasibhavasyanuyishtambham anu (the last word is omitted in Durga MS. I. U. L., No. 206) tamobhago ° hi madhyamo jyotirbhaga aditjah tayor esha bhavati Vasatishu sma, etc. '

;

—

;

CONTEIBUTIONS TO A KNOWLEDGE OF

16

the view which Professor Roth ascribes to him. I interpret them, are

the night

when,

when the

:

“ their time ‘

(space’s)

is after

His words,

as

the (latter) half of

becoming light is

resisted,’

(means)

after the (latter) half of the night darkness intersected

makes an effort against light, that is the time of the Then the nature of the middlemost (between Asvins them) is a share in that darkness which penetrates into light and the solar one (aditya) assumes that nature which is a share These two are the in the light penetrating into darkness. middlemost and the uppermost this is the teacher’s {i.e. by

light

:

Yaska’s) as

own

opinion, for in order to substantiate

an instance the verse Vasatishu To judge, therefore, from these words, ‘

it

he gives

etc. it is

the opinion of

Yaska that the Asvins represent the transition from darkness to light when the intermingling of both produces that inseparable duality expressed by the twin nature of these deities.

And

this interpretation, I hold, is the best that can be given

of the chai’acter of the cosmical Asvins. epithets

by which

the\^ are

They

in which they are placed. beautiful, bright, swift, etc.

It agrees with the

invoked and with the relationship

and

;

are young, yet also ancient, their negative character

the result of the alliance of light with darkness

—

is,

I believe,

expressed by dasra, the destroyer, and also by the two negatives in the

positive

compound ndmtya [na

character

is

again

though their by the ellipsis of

-b a-satya),

redeemed

“enemies, or diseases,” to dasra, and by the sense of ndsatya, not-untrue,

i.e.

truthful.

They

are the parents of Pushan, the

' Durga I. 0. L., No. 206; Tayoh kala urdlivam ardliaratrat prakasibliavasyanu vishtambham jyotislia vyatibhidyamanam urdhvam ardliaratrat tamo [tatab prabhrti sandhistotram yada jyotir anu visbtabhnati so ’sviiiob kiilab purodayad asvinam, udite sauryani] tatra yat tamo ’nuvishtam (The MS. of Prof. Miiller, Lect. 2nd scries, p. 490, reads, ’nupravisbtam) jyotisbi tadbbago madhyamasya rupam (the MS. of Prof. M., ibid; tadbbago madhyamah, tan raadhyamasya rupam) yaj jyotis tamasy anuvisbtam (the same, ibid, anupravishtam) tadbbagam tadrupam adityah. Tav etau madbyamottamav iti svamatam acnaryasya, yatah samartbanayodabarati tayor esba bbavati Y’asatisbu ;

;

;

;

Professor lloth, in bis illustrations of Nir. .\ii. 1, very correctly observes smeti. that the verse quoted by Yaska^ (vasatishu sma, etc.) docs not bear out the view but the proper inference to be drawn from that the Asvins are Indra and Aditya this circumstance would seem to be, not that Yaska quoted a verse irrelevant to his view, but that Prof. Eoth attributed to him a view which he had not entertained, and that it may be preferable to render aditya as proposed above; “the solar (A?vin) ” or the Asvin of a solar nature. ;

THE VEDIC THEOGONY AND MYTHOLOGY. 8un

;

sxm

for they precede the rise of the

17

they are the sons

;

of the sky, and again the sons of Vivasvat and Saranyu.

Vivasvat, I believe, here implies the firmament “ expanding” to the sight

Saranyu

are forced

me

through the approaching light

Muller one of the

to Professor

is

by him

;

and though which

deities

to support his dawn-theory, it

that the etjunology of the word, and

the myths relating to

the dark and cool

it,

air,

by the approach of the

seems to

the character of

rather point to the

moving

The Asvins

rising sun.

husbands or the friends of Surya,

whom

Sayana

he understands

is

IJshas,

or

are also the

I take for the re-

presentative of the weakest manifestation of the sun believe that

air,

heated and therefore set in motion

;

and I

when by the sister of the Asvins the dawn. The mysterious phenomenon right

of the intermingling of darkness

night

— and of light—which

with

all

is

— which

not yet

is

no longer complete

dawn

—seems

to agree

these conceptions, and with the further details of a

cosmical nature, which are so fully given in the preceding paper.

Notice of some of the Goddesses in the Vedic Hymns.

Of

the goddesses mentioned in the

Rig Veda some have

been noticed already in this or preceding papers,

viz.,

Aditi,

and representative of the universe Nishtigri, the mother, and Indrani, Diti, her counterpart the wife of Indra ^ Prisni, the mother of the Maruts and Surya, the daughter of the Sun, and spouse of the Asvins, or of Soma. Various other goddesses are also celebrated in the hymns of the Rig Veda, such as Agnayi, Varunani, Rodasi, Raka, Sinivali, Sraddha (Faith), and the Apsarases, whose names, however, occur but rarely and Ushas, and Sarasvati, the mother of the Adityas,

;

;

;

;

;

* Indrani says in E. V. x. “ This mischievous creature treats me with 86, 9 disdain as if I had no husband or sons, and yet I am the wife of Indra, and the mother of a hero,” etc. ; and in v. 11, it is said “ I have heard of Indrani as the most fortunate of all these females, for never at any future time shall her husband die from decay.” Indrani is mentioned in the Taitt. Br. ii. 4, 2, 7, from which it appears that different goddesses had been competitors for the hand of Indra, and that Indrani has been chosen because she surpassed them all in voluptuous attractions. In the same work, ii, 8, 8, 4, Vach is said to he the wife of Indra. :

;

VOL.

n

.

— [new

semes].

2

CONTBIBUTIONS TO A KNOWLEDGE OF

18 w’itli

her cognates,

who

receive considerably

greater pro-

minence. Sarasvati. Sarasvati

a goddess of some, though not of very great,

is

importance in the Rig Yeda.

As

As

observed by Yaska (Ni-

23) she is celebrated both as a river and as a deity. ‘ an instance of the former character, he refers to R. Y. vi.

rukta

61, 2,

ii.

which I

She was no doubt

shall quote further on.

primarily a river deity, as her name, “the watery,”® clearly

and in

this capacity she is celebrated in a

few sepahymns, as well as in Haug, vol. ii. p. 112) to the Brahmanas (Ait. Br. ii. 19 sacrifices being performed on the banks of this river and of and the Sarasvati in particular the adjoining Drishadvati seems to have been associated with the reputation for sanctity, which, according to the well-known passage in the Institutes of Manu (ii. 17 f.) was ascribed to the whole region, called Brahmavartta, Ijdng between these two small streams, and situated immediately to the westward of the Jumna. The Sarasvati thus appears to have been to the early Indians what the Ganges (which is only twice named in the Rig Yeda) became to their descendants.'* Already denotes,

Allusion

rate passages.

made

is

in the

;

in

R.Y.

i.

3,

10 (where, however, she

is

perhaps regarded

as the goddess of sacrifice) she is described as

and in R.Y.

“the puri-

10 (=Yaj. San. 4, 2; A. Y. vi. 51, 2), (after Sarasvati has been mentioned, vv. 7-9), the waters are thus celebrated “ May the Waters, the mothers, fier;”

x.

17,

:

cleanse us,

may

they (the waters)

who

purify with butter,

' See also Sayana on R. V. i. 3, 12 Dvividha hi Sarasvati vigrahavad-devati nadi-rupu cha. The BrahmaSarasvati sara ity udaJca-nAma sartes tad-vati (Nir. ix. 26). vaivartta-purana, ii. 5, as referred to in Prof. Aufrecht’s Cat. p. 23, col. 2, has a legend that the Sarasvati was changed into a river by an imprecation of the Ganga. In the A. V. vi. 100, 1, three Sarasvatis are spoken of, but no explanation is given of their difference. “ I place thee, Agni, on the abode of Ija (comp. iii. 29, 4), 3 R. V. iii. 23, 4 on the most excellent spot of the earth, on the most auspicious of days. Shine, so as to enrich us, in a place of human resort, on the hanks of the Drishadvati, :

;

the Apaya, the Sarasvati.” ^ It is clear from the passages quoted in Sanskrit Texts, ii. 415 ff. that the Sarasvati continued in later times also to be regarded as a sacred river, hut this character was shared by other Indian streams, if not by them all.

THE VEDIC THEOGONT AND MYTHOLOGY.

19

I for these goddesses bear away sin come up out of them pure and cleansed.” When once the river had acquired a divine character, it was quite natural that she shoidd be regarded as the patroness of the ceremonies which were celebrated on the margin of her holy waters, and that her

purify us witli butter

;

;

and blessing should be invoked as essential to their proper performance and success. The connection into which she was thus brought with sacred rites seems to have led to the further step of imagining her to have an influence on the composition of the hymns which formed so important a part direction

of the proceedings,

and of identifying her with Vach, the least, I have no other explanation to

At

goddess of speech.

offer of this identification.

Sarasvati

is

frequently invited to the sacrifices along with

several other goddesses, Ila, Bharati, Mahi, Hotra, Yarutri,

Dhishana 12;

(i.

13, 9

ix. 5, 8; x.

i.

;

142, 9

;

i.

188, 8

;

8

hi. 4,

v. 5,

;

8

;

v. 42,

110, 8), who, however, were never, like her, river

worship, or sacred science.

some department of religious She is also frequently invoked

along with other deities

30, 8

nymphs, but

vih. 38, 10

;

personifications of

ix. 81,

4

;

(ii.

x. 65, 1,

13

hi. 54,

;

13

;

In many of the passages^ where Sarasvati original character

is,

Thus in

;

as I

;

vh. 35, 11

;

x. 141, 5). is

celebrated, her

have intimated, distinctly preserved.

she is mentioned along, with and in x. 64, 9 ; x. 75, 5, she is specified along with the other well-known streams which are there named. In vh. 96, 2, and vih. 21, 18, reference is made to the kings and people living along her banks. In vi. 61, 10, and vii. 36, 6, she is spoken of as having seven sisters, as one of seven rivers, and as the mother of streams. In vii. 95, 1 and 2, she is said to pour on her fertihzing vi.

52, 6

rivers, or fertilizing

x. 30, 12,

waters

;

Sayana understands i. 3, 12, of tlie river, and explains it thus “ The Sarasby her act (of flowing) displays a copious flood.” Eoth iu his Illustrations of the Nirukta (xi. 26) p. 1-52, translates, “A mighty stream is Sarasvati; with her He, however, regards the comlight she lightens, illuminates all pious minds.” mencing words as figurative, and not as referring to the river. Benfey renders '

:

vati

;

“ Sarasvati by her light causes the great sea to be known she shines through all He understands the “ great sea” as the universe, or as life, which he thoughts.” says is often designated in common Sanskrit also by the word sagara. Benfeys explanation seems to me to he unsuitable, The conceptions of Sarasvati as a river and as the directress of ceremonies may he blended in the passage. ;

CONTRIBUTIONS TO A KNOWLEDGE OF

20

and

waters,

to surpass all other

rivers,

pure from

to flow

the mountains to the sea, to be the swiftest of floods {apasdm

apastama

(vi. 61,

13)

;

and

in vi. 61, 2

and

8, to tear

away

the bases of the mountains on her banks with her impetuous

and resounding current.

In

ii.

41, 16, she

called the best

is

of mothers, of rivers, and of goddesses {ambitame, naditame, devitame).

In

vii.

96, 4-6, a river god called Sarasvat

consort to Sarasvati,

and

is

who

rolls

assigned as a

is

along his fertilizing waters,

invoked by the worshippers as the bestower of wives

and protection. upon to descend from the sky, from the great mountain,^ to the sacrifice and in vi. 49, 7, where she is called the daughter of the lightning {paviravi kanyd)^ and the wife of a hero [vira-patni)^ she is supplicated to combine with the spouses of the gods to afford In the first of these two secure protection to the worshipper. and

offspring, as well as of plenty

In

V. 43, 11,

Sarasvati

is

called

;

passages the poet

may

perhaps be considered as assigning a

celestial origin to the river as the offspring of

thunder and rain.

In vi. 61, 11 f. she is said to fill the terrestrial regions and the air, and to occupy three abodes {tnsadashtka), and to

have seven parts or elements {sapta-dhatuh).

When regarded

as a river

nymph,

cribed as an iron barrier or fortress,

bestowing wealth, fatness, and

Sarasvati

is

and a support

further des-

(vii.

95, 1), as

fertility (vii. 95, 2),

and

is

besought to listen to the prayer of her worshippers at their {ibid. 4), to receive their praises, to shelter and them like a tree {ibid. 5), and to grant reputation to In vi. 61, 14, the rishi prays the unrenowned (ii. 41, 16). that he may not be removed to regions which are strange

sacrifices

protect

to her.

In

vi. 61, 1,

she

is

represented as having given to Vadh-

ryasva a son Divodasa, a canceller of his debts.

Viewed

as

the

patroness of

holy

rites,

(though

it

is

^ Sayana says that MudhyamiM Vdch, or the goddess Yach, who resides in the region intermediate between heaven and earth, is here intended. 2 See Roth s. v. and compare x. 65, 13. Prof. Muller, in Kuhn anJ Schleicher’s Beitrage, etc., iii. 448, assigns to pdviravi the sense of “thundering.” s Sayana says her husband is Prajapati. Would it not rather be Sarasvat?

THE VEDIC THEOGONT AND MYTHOLOGY. not always easy to separate the one her characters),

Sarasvati

21

from the other of

described as coming to the

is

place of sacrifice in the same chariot with the oblations and

the forefathers

worshippers

10,

3,

(i.

and as and prospering the devotions of the 11; ii. 3, 8 vi. 61, 4). She afibrds

17, 8), as imctuous with butter,

(x.

stimulating, directing,

;

secure protection, conquers enemies

(ii.

and

30, 8; vi. 49, 7),

destroys the revilers of the gods (vi. 61, 3).

She

is

dreadful,

moves along a golden path,^ and is a destroyer of Yrittra (vi. 61, 7). She yields prosperity and riches of all description from her prolific breasts^ (i. 89, 3 i. viii. 164, 49 ;

21, 17

X. 17, 8, 9

;

powers of 17).

In

184, 2, she

is

;

the receptacle of

all

the

and bestows offspring

(ii.

41,

ix. 67, 32),

(vista dyunshi),

life

X.

;

is

associated with the deities

who

procreation. In ii. 1, 11, Agni is identified with and several other goddesses. In E. V. X. 131, 5 (= Vaj. S. x. 34) where the Asvins are said to have defended Indra, Sarasvati also is declared assist

her,

have waited upon him. And in Vaj. S. xix. 12, it is said, “ The gods celebrated a healing sacrifice, the Asvins physi-

to

cians,

and Sarasvati

too a physician through speech,

municated vigour to Indra.” also connected

com-

The Asvins and Sarasvati are

with each other in Vaj.

S, xix. 12, 15, 18, 34,

80-83, 88-90, 93-95 ; xx. 56-69, 73-76, 90. In xix. 94, it is said that “ Sarasvati, wife of the Asvins, holds a well- formed

embryo in her womb. Varuna, king in the waters, produced Indra for glory, by the aqueous fluid as if by a sdma verse.” It does not appear that in the E.Y. Sarasvati is identified with Yach. For the passages of that collection in which the latter goddess

151-156

;

and

to

Yedic Eeligion,

is

my

celebrated, I refer to Sanskrit texts,

iii.

former paper on “ The progress of the

etc.,” pp.

354

f.

(note)

and

p. 377.

Hiranyavarttinih. Sayana explains varttini as chariot, and the compound as meaning “ having a golden chariot.” The same word occurs again, applied to a river, in viii. 26, 18, where Sayana makes it mean “having a golden path,” i.e. golden banks. The words rudra-varttani, “whose path is dreadful,” and ghrtavarttani, “ whose path is unctuous,” are also applied to different deities in the Eig Veda. Krshna-varttani, “ he whose path is marked by blackness,” is an epithet of Agni in viii. 23, 19, and the sense of that term is fixed by the use of the synonym Icrshnadhvan. The substantive varttani occurs in vii. 18, 16. 2 Compare Ait. Br. iv. 1, at the end, where her two breasts are said to be truth '

and falsehood.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO A KNOWLEDGE OF

22 In the

later

mythology, as

is

well known, Sarasvati was

Vach, and became under different names the spouse of Brahma, and the goddess of wisdom and eloquence,

identified with

and

is

invoked as a Muse.

In the Mahabharata she

called

is

the mother of the Vedas (Santiparva v. 12920), and the

same

Tach

said of

is

in the Taittiriya Br.

(and in the preceding par.

4,)

she

is

ii.

where

8, 8, 5,'

be the wife

also said to

aU worlds, and to have been sought after by the rishis who composed the Vedic hymns {rishayo mantra-kritah), as well as by the gods, of Indra, to contain within herself

through austerity.

In the Santiparva*v. 6811, Brahmarshis were performing

it

is

related that

of the universe, “ a voice derived from

them

the ears of

all

when

the

austerities prior to the creation

Brahma

entered into

the celestial Sarasvati was then pro-

;

duced from the heavens.”®

Excepting Aditi and Ushas the other goddesses mentioned in the

Rig

V eda are, as

I have already intimated, of very

Agntiyi, Varunani, Asvini, and Rodasi, the vdves

importance.

of Agni, Varuna, the Asvins, and

33 f.

ix. i.

;

22, 12

No

xi. ;

little

50

ii.

;

xii.

32, 8

;

Rudra

respectively (Nirukta

46) are only alluded to in a few passages, v. 46,

8

;

vi.

50, 5

;

vi.

66, 6

;

vii.

34, 22.

and they do not the rank of their

distinct functions are assigned to them,

occupy positions at husbands, with

all

whom

corresponding to

in fact they are never associated.

The

insignificance of these goddesses forms a striking contrast to

the prominent position assumed by the spouses of Siva and

Vishnu, especially the former, in the later mythology.

Aranyani. Aranyani

(Nir. ix. 29, 30),

is

the goddess of forest solitude.

* In the S. P. Br. vii. From mind, 5, 2, 52, it is said, “Mind is the ocean. the ocean, the gods, with Yach for a shovel, dug out the triple science {i.e. the three Vedas). In the Wherefore this verse (sloka) has been uttered,” etc. Bhishma-p. of the il. Bh. v. 3019, Achyuta (Krishna) is said to have created Sarasvati and the Vedas from his mind. In the Vana-p. v. 13432, the Gayatri is called the mother of the Vedas. Compare the verse quoted by Sankara on the Brahma sutras (see Sanskrit “ In the beginning a celestial voice, formed of the Texts, iii. 68), from a Smrti Vedas, eternal, without beginning or end, was uttered by Svayambhu, from which aU activities have proceeded.” :

THE VEDIC THEOGONT AND MYTHOLOGY. She

is

23

celebrated In R. Y. x. 146, which I have translated in

a preceding paper.

RaKA, SiXivALl, AND Ouxot.

Gungu (whom Sayana on

Raka, Slnivali, and identifies

the R. Y. (the in

ii.

(on

32, 6

ii.

32, 8,

ii.

with Kuhn) are three other goddesses mentioned in in

first

x. 184,

fi";

32, 4) says that

32, 4, 5, 8

ii.

2

v. 42,

;

and the third in

;

Raka

is

ii.

12

;

the second

Sayana She is, how-

32, 8).

the full moon.^

ever, closely connected with parturition, as she is asked to

“ sew the work (apparently the formation of the embryo) with an unfailing needle), and to bestow a son with abundant wealth” (ii. 34, 4). Sinivali and Kuhu are (as we are told by Yaska, xi. 31), wives of the gods according to the mythologists {nairuktdh), and the two new moons [amdmsye) according to the

ritualists {ydjnikah), Sinivali

and Kuhn the

Sinivali

later.

being the earKer

however, also connected

is,

with parturition, being called the broad-loined (or bushyhaired), the

prolific,

the handsome-armed,

fingered, supplicated for

bestow pregnancy

progeny

184, 2;

(x.

(ii.

the handsome-

32, 6, 7),

A. Y.

v.

and asked

25, 3;

vi.

to

11, 3).

Yaska quotes from the Taitt. Br. iii. 3, 11, a verse regarding Kuhn, whose name does not occur in the Rig Yeda. Sraddha. Personifications of abstract ideas are not

Rig Yeda, one hymn

of which (x. 151)

or religious faith.

By

the

(sacrificial) fire is

offered up.”

of the gods

an

She

is

her,

it

is

is

said, v. 1

kindled, and

unknown

in the

addressed to Sraddha,

(=Mr.

by her the

ix. 31),

oblation

is

asked to prosper the liberal worshippers

(v.v. 2, 3),

and

to

impart faith

;

and

object of adoration in the morning, at noon,

is

said to be

and

at sunset

(». 5).2

On these goddesses see "VYeber’s Ind. Stud. v. 228 ff. and 237. ® In the Yai. Sanhita, xix. 30, it is said that faith {sraddha) is obtained by gifts {dakshino) and truth {satija) by faith. In xix. 77 of the same work it is declared that “ Prajapati beholding, made a distinction between the forms of truth and falsehood {satydnrte), connecting disbelief {asraddhu) with the latter, and faith or belief {sraddha) with the former.’' This declaration, that truth is the only proper object of faith, has a far deeper signification than this ancient writer could possibly have assigned to it, viz., that it is the ultimate truth, and not the so-called orthodoxy of any proposition, which can alone entitle it to reception. 1

CONTRIBUTIONS TO A KNOWLEDGE OF

24 Sraddha the above

is

also celebrated in the Taitt. Br.

hymn

of the B. V.

is

repeated

ii.

;

among the gods, to be Kama. (See my paper on

8, 8,

6

and she

f.,

where

is

there

further said to dwell

the universe, and

the mother of

the “ Progress of

In the same

the Vedic Religion,” p. 377, note).

we

12, 3, 1,

divine character, that the divine Sraddha

Kama

world, that she has calf,

Taitt. Br. hi.

are told that through Sraddha a god obtains his is

the support of the

(or the fulfilment of desire) for her

and yields immortality

milk

as her

;

that she

is

the

first-

born of the religious ceremonial, and the sustainer of the wliole world

:

and

she,

world, is besought to

In the

Surya

P. Br.

S.

is

(xii. 7, 3,

where she well as Suryasya duhita and v.

the supreme mistress of the

11) she

an appellation which

^ ;

Santiparva, as

who

bestow immortality on her worshippers.

9449,'^

is

is

called the daughter of

repeated in the

M. Bh.

styled Sraddha Vaivasvati,

Savitri.

Lakshmi and Lakshmi

is

is

Sri.

not found in the R. Y. in the sense whieh

the word bears in the later mythology, of a goddess personifying good fortune, though the word itself occurs in x. 71,

in another

2,®

we have

In the A. V., however,

signification.

the following

hymn which

Lakshmis, some good and some bad

:

speaks of a plurality of “ Fly away vii. 115, 1 :

Lakshmi (pd/>i lakshmi), perish away from thence with an iron hook we fasten thee our enemy. 2. Savitri, do thou who art golden-handed, be-

hence, o unlucky (or miserable)

hence, fly to '

^

:

See wliat is said of the daughter of Surya above, in connection with the Asvins. In this passage a great deal is said in praise of Sraddha. She smites the man

who

smites her. The gods, it appears, had decided that the otferings of a niggardly student of the Veda (p-otriya) and a liberal usurer were of equal value. But Prajdpati determined that they were wrong (see the same sentiment in nearly the same words in Manu, iv. 224 ff.), and that the liberal man’s oblation, being purified by his faith {praddha), was to be accepted, whilst the other man’s, being vitiated by his unbelief, was to be rejected. Unbelief, it is added, is the greatest of sins, but faith takes away sin. A similar sentiment is expressed in the Vana-parva, 13461 ff. “The doubter enjoys neither this world nor the next, nor any gratification. Those ancient sages who possess true knowledge have said that faith [pratyaya) is a sign of final liberation. . Abandoning fruitless {lit. dry) argumentations {mshka-tarkam), adhere to the sruti and the smrti" (the Vedas and other books dependent on them). * In the words bhadrd eshdm lakshmi nihitd adhi vdehi, “an auspicious fortune is attached to their words.” :

.

.

THE VEDIC THEOGONT AND MYTHOLOGY.

25

stowing on us wealth, send away from us to some other quarter the flying and inauspicious as a creeper^

upon

a tree.

together with the body of

we

chase

retain

Lakshmi who mounts up on me, A hundred Lakshmis are bom Of these a mortal at his birth.

3.

away hence the most unlucky.

for

Do

us those which are fortunate.

vide

them like the cows

May

those

thou, Jatavedas, 4.

Thus I

standing upon barren

Lakshmis which are auspicious {punydh)

rest

Those which are unlucky {pdpih) I destroy.”

here.

expression

In the Yaj. the two wives

(of

the S. P. Br.

xi.

di-

ground.

(The

Lakshmi occurs also in A. Y. xii. 5, 6). and Lakshmi are said to be Aditya, according to the commentator). In

S. xxxi. 22, Sri

4,

3,

1,

Sri is described as issuing forth

from Prajapati when he was performing intense austerity. Beholding her then standing resplendent and trembling, ^ the gods were covetous of her and proposed to Prajapati that they should he allowed to kdl her, and appropriate her

He

gifts.

was a female, and that males did not generally kill females. They should therefore take from her her gifts without depriving her of life. In consequence, Agni, took from her food ; Soma, kingly authority Yamna, replied that she

;

imperial authority force

;

;

Mitra, martial energy {kshattra)

Brihaspati, priestly glory {brakma-varchasa )

dominion

;

Pushan, splendour

Tvashtri, forms.

;

;

;

Indra, Savitri,

Sarasvati, nourishment,

and

Sri then complained to Prajapati that they

had taken all these things from her. He told her to demand them back from them by sacrifice. This she accordingly did, and succeeded. ' Vandana. This word does not occur in "Wilson’s Dictionary, but I find there vanda in the sense of a creeping plant. * Lelayanti. As fixing the sense of this word Prof. Aufrecht refers me to S. P. Br. p. 136; Brhad aranyaka p. 737; Mundaka Up. pp. 274, 276; and

SyetasTatara Up. p. 332.

MISCELLANEOUS HYMNS FROM

26

Art. II

.

— Miscellaneous By

Yedas}

The

J.

hymns from the Rig and Atharva Muir, Esq., D.C.L., LL.D.

hjonns of the Rig Veda

are, as is well

known, almost

entirely of a religious character, designed, or at least, adapted, for recitation at the

at

worship of the various popular

deities,

or

some of the ceremonials connected with various important

events in the domestic or public

Among

these,

life

of the ancient Indians.

however, are interspersed a few of a different

description, which, from the wide celebrity they had acquired, were carefuUy preserved by the descendants of their authors,

or

by other

interested persons,

and have been incorporated in

the great collection of sacred songs. tions,

like the colloquy of

Some

of these produc-

Yama and Yaml

(translated in a

former paper), the very obscure conversation between the hero

Pururavas and the Apsaras Ervasi (R. Y. Vrishakapi

hymn

x. 95),^

and the

(R. V. x. 86), derived their importance from

the interlocutors being personages regarded as divine, or

ranked among the ancestors of the

human race. Others, like hymns of the 10th Book

the 72nd, the 90th, and the 129th (also

quoted in previous

articles)

were venerated from the

nature of the topics which they handled, or the depth or gravity of the speculations which they contain.

Others,

hymns referred to by Professor Roth in “on the historical matter contained in the

again, such as the his dissertation

Rig Veda,”^ would

possess

an interest

for the descendants of

' I have again to acknowledge the valuable aid which I have received from Professor Aufrecht in rendering some of the more difficult parts of the hymns translated in this paper. 2 Professor Max Miiller’8 Essay on Comparative Mythology, in the Oxford Essays for 1856, contains a translation of this myth as narrated in the Satapatha Brahmana. The Brahmana, however, only quotes and illustrates the easiest verses of the hymn (R. V. x. 95), making no reference to its most obscure and difficult portions. Some of the verses not cited in the Brahmana are explained by Professor Muller. See also Roth’s Illustrations of Nirukta, pp. 153 ff. and 230. * Sur Litteratur and Geschichte des Weda, pp. 87.

THE EIG AHD ATHAEVA VEDAS.

27

the contending priestly races to whose rivalries they

made

and might even be valued for the purposes of imprecation to which they could be applied.^ And those comallusion,

positions

which celebrate the liberality of different princes would naturally be handed down

to their domestic priests

with care by the successors of those favoured individuals.

In the folio vdng paper I shall adduce some other hymns, both from the Rig and the Atharva Vedas, which are only in part of a religious character, and possess a greater general interest

than the bulk of those with which they are associated, from the references which they tions, feelings, passions,

make

to

human

character, disposi-

and circumstances

;

from the light

which they throw on the progress of sacerdotal pretensions, or from some other feature of their contents. In some of these hymns it will be seen that a considerable amount of shrewdness and worldly wisdom is expressed in a sententious form.

The

first

Hymn hymn

to Aranyani, R. V. x. 146.

which I

adduce, addressed to the

shall

by the poetical which pervades it, and the natural manner in which the emotions arising from the situation there described are depicted, though some of the allusions which it contains are It is repeated in the ditficult to explain or comprehend. Taittiriya Brahmana, and explained by the Commentator on goddess of forest solitude,

is

distinguished

feeling

that work.

(See also Roth’s Illustrations of the Hirukta,

p. 132).

“Aranyani, Aranyani, thou who seemest to

1.

there,

why

dost thou not ask [the

way

not terror seize thee (at thy solitude)

lose thyself

?

2.

chika (a bird) answers to the roar of bulls

When when

the chich-

it is

uttered,

flying about as if with cymbals, then [by their voices]

yani eat,

is

lauded [as

if

by hymns].

and the house appears

seems to discharge the

to

3.

Does

to] the village ?

And

Aran-

the cows seem to

be seen, and at evening Aranyani

carts.^

4.

One man

calls to his

cow,

See Sanskrit Texts, i. 127 ff. Professor Aufrecht thinks this clause {sakatir iva sarjati) should he rendered, ‘ In the evening the forest moves like a cart,” with reference to the agitation of the branches by the evening air. 1

-

MISCELLANEOUS HYMNS FROM

28 another

fella

a tree

;

a

man

lingering in the forest (in Aran-

yani) fancies that she [or some one] has screamed.

yani

not [herself] murderous,

is

assails

no one

if

but after eating of sweet

;

at his pleasure.

man

a

fruit,

5.

Aran-

else (a tiger, etc.)

rests there

I laud Aranyani, the mother of wild

6.

who

beasts, the unctuous- scented, the fragrant,

dance of food, though she has no hinds to

yields abun-

her.”

till

The next hymn which I shall quote refers to the great by which the aims and pursuits of different men

variety

are characterized. observation, not

It

is

distinguished by a vein of naive

unmingled with

satire

and

;

curious as

is

revealing to us the occupations pursued by the poet’s father

and mother, though

it

makes no reference

to the class to

which

they belonged.

“We

1.

and

designs.

different

Eig Yeda,

is.

112.

men have

all

our various imaginations

The carpenter

seeks something that

the doctor a patient, the priest some one

0

tions.

up

Indu (Soma), flow

sticks,

man

(=

vi.

3.

and

doctor,

forth for Indra.^

Nirukta,

my

mother

is

6)

am

I

a poet,

a grinder of corn.

tive objects] as after cattle.^

0

we run

the female sex the male

;

With

dried-

0

;

my

Indu,

father

With

our

etc., is

a

dif-

after [our respec-

etc.

;

etc.

Eig Yeda, The next hymn, which may one

broken,

4. The draught merry companions a O and frogs a pond.

Indu,

horse desires an easy-going carriage

Indu,”

2.

with plenty of gold.

ferent views, seeking to get gain,

laugh

is

will offer liba-

with birds’ feathers, with metals, the artizan con-

tinually seeks after a etc.

who

who

x.

31.

possibly be the production of

lays before us the sad results of his

own

bitter ex-

perience, describes with great vividness, graphic power,

and

truth of observation the seductions and miseries of gambling, 1 This last clause, which is repeated at the end of each of the verses, and transforms the hymn into an address to Soma, is perhaps a later addition to an older song ; as it seems to have no connection with the other parts of the verses to

which

attached. three preceding verses are translated the Nirukta, p. 74. *

it is

The

by Roth

in his Illustrations of

THE EIG AND ATHARVA VEDAS. which,

we

see,

were as acutely

felt

29

in those early ages as

they are in these later times. “ The tumbling, air-born [pro1. (= Nirukta ix. 8). ducts] of the great Vibhidaka tree

the dice) delight

me

on the dice-board. The exciting draught of the soma-plant growing on dice enchant me like a mount Mujavat. 2. She (the gamester’s own wife) never wronged or despised me. She was kind to me, and to my as they continue to

But

friends.

my devoted rejects

roll

I for the sake of the partial dice, have

spouse.

3.

spumed

My mother-in-law detests me my wife ;

In his need [the gamester] finds no comforter. is the enjoyment of the gambler any

me.

I cannot discover what

more than I can perceive what is the happiness of a worn- out 4. Others pay court to the wife of the man whose wealth is coveted by the impetuous dice. His father, mother, brothers, say of him, “We know nothing of him take him

hack horse.

;

away bound.”

5.

are thrown,

—

I resolve not to be tormented by

am abandoned by my

them, because I

draw from me,

When

friends

yet as soon as the brown dice,

make

who withwhen they

a rattling sound, I hasten to their ren-

woman

to her paramour.^ 6. The gamester comes to the assembly, glowing in body, and inquiring,

dezvous, like a

“ shall

I

win ?”

The

dice

inflame

over his winnings to his opponent.

his

7.

desire,

making

Hooking, piercing,

deceitful, vexatious, delighting to torment, the dice dispense

transient gifts,

and again ruin the winner

with honey, but destroy the gambler.

;

they are covered

8.

Their troop of

men’s destinies] like the god Savitri whose ordinances never fail. They bow not

fifty-three disports itself [disposing

even of the fiercest. The king himself makes obeisance to them. 9. They roll downward they bound upward. Having no hands, they overcome him who These celestial coals, when thrown on the diceboard, has. scorch the heart, though cold themselves. 10. The destitute wife of the gamester is distressed, and so too is the mother of a son who goes she knows not whither. In debt and seeking after money, the gambler approaches with trepidation the before the wrath

;

*

These words are quoted in Nirukta

xii. 7.

;

:

MISCELLANEOUS HYMNS FROM

30

houses of other people at night.

own

to see his

homes of

11. It vexes the gamester

and then to observe the wives and happy In the morning he yokes the brown by the time when the fire goes out he has

wife,

others.

horses (the dice)

;

sunk into a degraded wretch. 12. He who is the general of your hand, the first king of your troop, to him I stretch forth [my] ten [fingers] toward the east [in reverence] ^ I

—

:

my offering]. That I declare with perNever play with dice; practice husbandry;

spare no expense [in 13.

fect truth.

thy property, esteeming

rejoice in

gamester, are thy cows

addresses me.

Savitri

able

[this

;

auspicious to us

;

is]

14.

it

thy wife

Be

’ ;

—so

There, o

the ador-

friendly [o dice]

;

be

do not bewitch us powerfully with your

Let your hostile wrath abate.

enchantment.

‘

sufficient.

Let others be

brown ones (the dice).” passion for gambling the prevailed very extensively That at the time when the h 5 ^mns of the Big- and Atharva-vedas were composed is clear, from various other allusions to the Thus in B. V. vii. 86, dice practice which we find there. subject to the fetters of the

are mentioned along with wine, anger, thoughtlessness, as causes of sin.

The following

etc.,

verses from the A. V. prove

the same point

A. V. the

50-1.

vii.

“

tree irresistibly, so

As

the lightning every day strikes

may

gamester with the dice.

I to-day irresistibly smite the

May

2.

the wealth of the rich and

of the poor unresisting be collected from every side into

hand \di.

who

my

as winnings.”

is

109.

1.

ruler

“This reverence be paid

among

With

the dice.

to the

brown

[die],

butter I worship Kali

may he

thus be auspicious to us.

to the

Apsarases, but dust, sand, and water to the dice.

Seeking oblations according delight in both offerings.

2.

Bring, o Agni, butter

to their several shares, the

3.

The Apsarases hold a

between the oblation and the sun.

May

they anoint

hands with butter, and overwhelm the gamester who opponent.

*

4.

gods

festival

is

my ni}^

Dispense bad luck to our adversary, but moisten

Compare A. V.

v. 28, 11,

and Vajasaneyi

Sanliita, xvi. 64.

THE EIG AND ATHAEVA VEDAS.

who

Hghtning does a

Strike, as

us with, butter.

31 tree, the

man

plays against us.”

vi.

118,

“Whatever

1.

we have committed with our

sins

hands, seeking to obtain the host of dice,

—remit

to us to-day

that debt, ye Apsarases IJgrampasya and Ugrajit.” 1. “ I invoke hither the skilfully-playing A. Y. iv. 38.

Apsaras who cuts up and conquers, and gets gains in the

game

of dice.

Apsaras,

game when

who

of dice.

she wins

superiority,

I invoke

2.

and

collects 3.

May

hither the skilfully-playing

scatters,

she

and

receives gains in the

who dances about with

by gaming, grant gain

through her

skill.

May

to us,

the dice

and obtain

she come to us with

Let them not conquer our money. and exulting Apsarases those joyful the 4. I invoke hither [goddesses] who delight in dice, and bring with them grief

abundance of riches.

—

and anger.” from these verses that the Apsarases are

It will be seen

In A.V. ii. 2, 4, they intimately connected with gambling. “ soul bewitching.” are said to be “ fond of dice,” and

The next two hymns which I proceed to quote are in The first of them celebrates liberahty

praise of generosity.

to the destitute in general

virtue

when

;

the second eulogizes the same

exhibited in giving presents to priests.

Eig Veda, 1.

tion.

x. 117.

“ The gods have not ordained hunger to be our destruc-

Even

those

forms of death

man never 2. He who,

who

(lit.

decays

;

are fuU-fed are overtaken

deaths).

The prosperity

by various

of the liberal

while the illiberal finds no comforter.

himself well provided with sustenance, hardens

his heart against the poor

man who

approaches him, starving,

—

and who has long courted him, desirous of food, such a man meets with none to cheer him. 3. He is the bountiful man who gives to the lean beggar who comes to him craving food. Success attends that man in the sacrifice, and he secures for himself a friend in the future. 4. He is no friend who bestows nothing on his friend who waits upon him, seeking

HYMNS FEOM

MISCELLA^"EOUS

32

—

Let every one depart from such a man his house is no home, and look out for some one else who is liberal, even though he be a stranger. 5. Let the powerful for sustenance.

;

—

man the

be generous to the suppliant

wheels of a chariot

In

6.

now

they come,

:

vain the fool obtains food

his destruction (comp. v. 1).

I

:

He

He wbo

nor his companion.

let

;

him look along

For, oh, riches revolve like the

path [of futurity].

to one,

tell

now

the truth

to another.^ ;

it

becomes

nourishes neither his friend

keeps his food to himself, has

The ploughshare furrowing the ground, brings men plenty. A man moving onward with

his

sin

to

himself.

7.

his feet, accomplishes his journey.

more acceptable than one who beneficent excels one

who

is

A priest who speaks is A kinsman who is 8. A one-footed being

is silent.

stingy.

The two-footed comes The four-footed follows in the rear after the three-footed.^ 9. The of the two-footed, and moves on observing his steps. two hands, though alike, do not perform an equal amount of work. Two cows with the same mother do not yield the same quantity of milk. Two men, though twins, have not And two others, though kinsmen, are the same strength. advances faster than a two-footed.

not equally liberal.”

Eig Veda, ].

“The

x.

107.

great [lustre] of these opulent ones has been

The whole living [world] has been liberated from darkness. The great light given by the Fathers^ has The broad path of Largess has been beheld. 2. arrived. The givers of gifts abide aloft in the sky the bestowers of horses live with the Sun the givers of gold attain immormanifested.

;

;

1 It is curious to find in so ancient a composition this now trite comparison of The same idea occurs in the changes of fortune to the revolutions of a wheel. the Mahabharata, iii. 1.5489; “After happiness, suffering’, and after suffering, happiness, visit a man in succession, as the spokes of a wheel [revolve round] According to Herodotus i. 207, Croesus said to Cyrus: “If thou the nave.’’ knowest that even thou art human, and rulest over mortals, learn first this lesson, that in the affairs of men there is a wheel which, by its revolution, renders it impossible for the same persons always to enjoy prosperity.’’ 2 Professor Aufrecht suggests that the one-footed may mean a cripple, and the

three-footed, an old

man

with his

staff.

Compare R. V. x. 68, 11. “ The Fathers have adorned the sky with and plac^ darkness in the night, and light in the day.’’ 3

stars

....

THE EIG AND ATHARVA VEDAS. tality

;

the bestowers of raiment prolong their lives.

which

gift

33 3.

A

a satisfaction of the gods, an offering to the

is

not from the illiberal; they bestow nothing; and many men of extensive liberality are bountiful merely 5. The giver of gifts, invited, through fear of reproach advances first he walks in the front as leader.^ I regard as the king of men him who first presented a gift. 5. They call him a rishi, a priest, a reverend chanter of hymns and deities, [proceeds]

;

reciter of verses,

dent (Agni),

— he knows

gious service] with a

and

silver (?)

men

Bountiful

this

food,

(?)

first,

uninvited.

(?),

our

is

they

;

Their liberality confers on

pain.

and a draught of wine

in the front

which

largess- giving his breastplate.

whole world as well as heaven.

conquer for themselves wife,

[his reli-

neither die nor faU into calamity

wrong nor

suffer neither

them

Largess bestows

gold.

crown

first to

Largess bestows a cow, a horse,

7.

gift.

The wise man makes

life.

8.

the three forms of the resplen-

—the man who was the

9.

The bountiful

a pleasant abode, a well-dressed ;

they conquer those

who walk

A fleet horse

trained for

10.

is

the generous

man

portion

house of his resembles a lotus-pond, beautiful,

;

this

;

he obtains a brilliant damsel for his

embellished like a palace of the gods.

borne along by rapid horses.

is

ward on easy wheels.

He

in battle.

The

11.

The

man

liberal

car of largess rolls for-

man

Preserve, ye gods, the bountiful

overcomes his enemies in the fight.”

The next hjonn, from the Atharva Yeda,

with

sets forth

and vigour the advantages accruing princes from the employment of a domestic priest. great

liveliness

Atharva Yeda, 1. “

May

this

and undecaying, of those of 2.

19.

prayer of mine be successful

vigour and strength be complete,

{purohita).

iii.

whom

may I

am

to

;

may

the

the power be perfect the victorious priest

I fortify their kingdom, and

augment

their

Compare R. V.

iv. 50, 8 f, where the prosperity and honor which attend a and cherishes a domestic priest are described. See Professor Wilson’s translation, and note on v. 9, in p. 214 and Roth’s Art. on Brahma and the Brahmans, Journ. Germ. Or. Society, i. 77 See also the hymn from the A. V. iii. 19, next quoted in the text. *

prince

who

retains

;

fif.

VOL.

II.

— [new

series].

3

;

MISCELLANEOUS HYMNS FEOM

34

energy, valour, and force.

with this oblation.

3.

I break the arms of their enemies

May

who

those

all

fight against our

wise and prosperous [prince] sink downward, and be pros-

With my

trated.

friends.

his

4.

prayer I destroy his enemies, and raise up

May

whom

those of

sharper than an axe, sharper than thunderbolt.

5.

I

fire,

am

the priest he

sharper than Indra’s

I strengthen their weapons

;

I prosper their

kingdom rich in heroes. May their power he undecaying and victorious. May all the gods foster their designs. 6.

May

their valorous deeds,

o

Maghavat, burst forth

the noise of the conquering heroes arise

;

may

;

may

their distinct

up may the gods, the Maruts march forward with their host. may your arms be strong. Ye 7. Go, conquer, ye warriors with the sharp arrows, smite those whose bows are powerless ye whose weapons and arms are terrible (smite) the feeble. 8. When discharged, fly forth, o arrow, sped by prayer. Vanquish the foes, assail, slay all the choicest of them let shouts, their clear yells, go

with Indra as their

;

chief,

:

;

not one escape.”

The two following hymns from the Atharva Veda

declare

the guilt, the peril, and disastrous consequences of oppressing

Brahmans, and robbing them of their property. The threats and imprecations of haughty sacerdotal insolence could scarcely be expressed more energetically.

Atharva Veda,

“ King, the gods have not given thee [this cow] to

1.

Do

18.

v.

eat.

0

Rajanya (man of royal descent), seek to devour the Brahman’s cow, which is not to be eaten. 2. The wicked Bajanya, unlucky in play, and self- destroyed, will eat the Brahmin’s cow, saying, Let me live to-day, [if I can] not not,

‘

[live]

to-morrow.’

3.

tains deadly poison, is ill-flavoured,

her]

This cow, clothed with a skin, con-

like a snake.

and must not be

forfeits liis strength,

Beware, Rajanya, she

eaten.

destroys his

4.

own

He [who

eats

splendour, con-

which has been kindled. The man who looks upon the Brahman as mere food to be sumes everything

like a fire

eaten up, drinks serpent’s poison.

5.

Indra kindles a

fire

THE EIG AND ATHARVA VEDAS. in the heart of that contemner of the gods

35

who

slays the

Brahman, esteeming him to be inoffensive, and fooHshly Heaven and earth abhor the man covets his property.

who fire

[so] acts.

A

6.

Brahman

[must not be touched] by a

not to be wronged, as

is

man who

cherishes his

own

Brahman’s) kinsman, and Indra body. Soma 7. The wicked (?) man who shields him from imprecations. thinks the priests’ food is sweet while he is eating it, swallows [the cow] bristling with a hundred sharp points, but cannot is his (the

digest her. is

The

8.

priest’s

a barb, and his windpipe

With

these god-directed,

tongue is

and heart-subduing bows, the

pierces the scorners of the gods.

arrows,

armed with

they discharge a

a bow-string, his voice

is

arrow-points smeared with

missiles,

fire.

priest

Brahmans bearing sharp

never miss their mark when

Shooting with fervour [austerity

shaft.

?]

and with anger, they pierce [the enemy] from afar. 10. The descendants of Vitahavya who ruled over a thousand men, and were ten hundred in number, were overcome after they had eaten a Brahman’s cow. 11. The cow herself, when she was slaughtered, destroyed them, those men who cooked

—

the last she-goat of Kesaraprabandha. persons

whom

the earth shook

12.

Those hundred

after they

off,

had wronged

the priestly race, were overwhelmed in an inconceivable

manner.

13.

He

among

lives

mortals a scorner of the gods

infected with poison he becomes reduced to a skeleton

who wrongs

a

Brahman

the kinsman of the deities,

tain to the heaven of the Forefathers.

leader

;

Soma our kinsman.

[directed against us]

;

14.

Agni

is

called our

Indra neutralizes imprecations

this the wise understand.

the dreadful shaft of the

;

he

fails to at-

15.

poisoned arrow, o king, like a serpent, o lord of cows, is

;

Brahman, with which he

Like a

—such pierces

his despisers.”

Atharva Yeda,

V.

19.

“The

Srinjayas, descendants of Vitahavya, waxed exthey almost touched the sky hut after they had injured Bhrigu, they were overwhelmed. 2. 'When men 1.

ceedingly

;

pierced Brihatsaman, a

;

Brahman descended from Angiras,

a

;

MISCELLANEOUS HYMNS FEOM

36

ram with two rows of teeth swallowed their children. 3. Those who spit, or throw filth (?) upon a Brahman, sit eating hair in the midst of a stream of blood.

So long as this

4.

Brahman’s cow writhes (?) when being cooked, she destroys the glory of the kingdom; no vigorous hero is born there. 5. It

cruel to slaughter her

is

AVhen her milk

away.

among

the Forefathers.

her

;

ill-

flavoured flesh

drunk, that

is

Whenever

6.

is

thrown

esteemed a sin

is

a king, fancying him-

mighty, seeks to devour a Brahman, that kingdom

self

broken up, in which a Brahman four-eyed,

footed,

four-eared,

suffers.

four-jawed,

Becoming

is

eight-

two-faced,

two-

tongued, she (the cow) shatters the kingdom of the oppressor of

Brahmans.

8.

(Ruin) overflows that kingdom, as

water swamps a leaky boat

:

calamity smites that country in

which a priest is wronged. 9. Even trees, o Narada, repel, and refuse their shade to, the man who claims a right to the property of a Brahman. This [property], as king Yaruna hath one

.said,

has been turned into a poison by the gods.

who has

eaten a Brahman’s cow continues to watch

to rule) over a country.

whom

the earth

priestly race, (see V.

11.

shook

off,

No (i.e.

Those nine nineties [of persons] when they had wronged the

were overwhelmed in an inconceivable manner

12 of the preceding hymn).

The gods have defeet are bound priests. 13. The tears 12.

clared that the cloth wherewith a dead man’s shall be

thy

pall,

thou oppressor of

—

which flow from a vanquished man as he laments, such is the portion of water which the gods have assigned to thee, 14. The gods have allotted to thou oppressor of priests. thee that portion of water wherewith men wash the dead, 15. The rain of Mitra and and moisten their beards. Yaruna does not descend on the oppressor of priests. For

him the

battle has never a successful issue

bring

his

reader

is

which

is

tained in

friend

into

subjection.”

The

;

nor does he

attention of the

directed to the intensity of contempt and abhorrence

sought to be conveyed by the coarse imagery con-

w.

In another

3,

and 12-14, of the last preceding hymn. of the Atharva Yeda, v. 17, the two

hymn

fol-

lowing verses occur regarding the prerogative of Brahmans

THE EIG AND ATHARVA VEDAS.

37

8. “And if a woman have had ten former husbands, not Brahmans, and a Brahmana take her hand {i.e. marry her), he is the only husband. 9. It is a Brahman only who is a husband, and not a Bajanya, or a Vaisya. The Sun marches on declaring that to the five tribes of men.” The four hymns of the A. V. which follow contain incantations designed to save persons suffering under dangerous diseases, and on the point of death, from death, or rather perhaps to recall their spirits after their separation from the body.

They supply various illustrations of the ideas entertained by the Indians of the period when they were composed regarding the vital principle, the relations of the different senses to the several elements,

tenure of

life

the deities by

whom

men’s

was regulated, the power of incantations to doom, and other kindred particulars.

arrest the approach of

Atharva Veda, “

1.

From thy

vicinity,

from thy vicinity [I follow,

v. 30.

from thy vicinity, from a distance,

call]

to thee

remain here

:

do not follow, the early Fathers.

hack thy breath.

2.

do not

;

firmly hold

I

Whatever incantations any kinsman or

stranger has uttered against thee,

—with my voice I declare

thy release and deliverance from them

all.

3.

Whatever

hurt thou hast done, or curse thou hast spoken, in thy

folly,

man, with my voice, etc. 4. If thou liest there in consequence of any sin committed by thy mother, or against

thy

woman

father,^

which thy I

make

or

with

my

voice, etc.

father, mother, sister

thee long-lived.

thy entire soul

;

6.

Receive the medicine

5.

and brother

Come

(?)

offer to thee.

hither, o

man, with

do not follow the two messengers of

come to the abodes of the living. knowing the outlet of the path, the

7.

Yama f

Return when

called,

ascent, the advance, the

Compare a curious passage from the Taittiriya Brahmana iii. 7, 12, 3 f. deliver me from any sin which my mother may have committed when I was in her womb, or which my father may have committed. May my *

“

May Agni

parents have received no injury from me, when I, a son, in sucking, squeezed my mother and father in my delight.” Compare also R. V. vii. 86, 5, referred to in my paper, “ Contributions to a knowledge of Vedic Theogony,” etc., p. 82, line 19. *

See ray former paper on Yama, pp. 292 and 297.

MISCELLANEOUS HYMNS 'fROM

38

road of every living man. I

make

thee long-lived.

8.

Fear not thou slialt not die charmed out of thy members ;

;

I have

the consumption by which they are wasted.

9.

The con-

sumption which racks and wastes thy limbs, and sickens thy heart, has flown away to a distance like a hawk, overcome by my word. 10. The two sages. Alert and Watchful, the sleepless, and the vigilant, these the guardians of thy life, are awake both day and night. 11. May this adorable Agni Rise up from deep death, ^ yea rise here to thee as a sun. even from black darkness.^ 12. Reverence to Yama, reverence to Death, reverence to the Fathers, and to those who guide us. I place in front of this [sick] man, for his security, Agni who knows how to carry him across. 13. Let his breath, let his soul, let his sight come, and then his strength; let his body acquire sensation, and stand Arm upon its feet. 14. Provide him, Agni, with breath, and with sight; restore him, furnished with a body, and with strength.^ Thou hast the

knowledge of immortality

;

dweller in a house of clay. cease

;

let

let

him not

15.

depart, or

not thy exhaled breath vanish.

lord, raise thee

up from death by

become a

Let not thy inhaled breath his rays.

Let the sun, the 16. This

tongue

speaks within, bound, convulsive. By thee, I have charmed away the consumption, and the hundred torments of the 17. This world is the dearest, unconquered by the fever. gods. To whatever death thou wast destined when thou wast born we call after thee, do not die before thou art worn out

—

by old age.”

Atharva Veda, 1.

vii.

53.

“Brihaspati, thou hast delivered us from dwelling in

the realm of

Yama, from the

curse.

— ye Gods, — ye

Asvins,

Agni, are the two physicians of the

who,

have by your powers. 2. Continue associated, ye two breaths, inspired and expired forsake not his body may they, united, remain with thee here. Live prosperously a hundred autumns. Agni is thy splendid protector 0

repelled death from us

;

:

'

2 ®

Compare the aiirvf 6\(0pos of Homer. Compare the passage quoted in my paper on Yama, Compare the article just referred to, p. 8.

p. 304.

;

THE EIG AND ATHAEVA VEDAS. and

lord.

has been dissipated afar,

l\Iay tliy life wliicli

3.

may thy breaths, come back

39

Agni has snatched

to thee again.

and I introduce it again into thyself. 4. Let not his inspiration abandon him, nor his expiration quit him and depart. I commit him to the it

from the lap of Mrriti (Destruction)

may

seven Rishis;

:

they carry him on in health to old age.

5 Enter into him, ye two breaths, like two .

way

May

into a cow-pen.

lested depositary of old age.

away consumption from tain our life

on every

steers forcing their

May

thee.

an unmo-

flourish here,

We invigorate thy

6.

life.

I drive

Agni

this excellent

sus-

Ascending from the darkness

side.

the uppermost heaven,

man

this

we have

among

reached,

to

the gods, the

god Surya, the highest luminary.”

Atharva Veda,

viii. 1.

1. “Reverence to Death the Ender and exhaled breaths rejoice here. May !

May

thy inhaled

this

man remain

here united with his spirit in the domain of the sun, in the world of deathlessness.

Bhaga and Soma with

2.

filaments, the divine Maruts, Indra,

him up thy

to health.

life,

Hirriti

Here

is

thy

We

here thy soul.

by a divine utterance.

his

and Agni, have raised

spirit,

here thy breath, here

rescue thee from the bonds of 4.

Rise up hence, o man.

Casting off the fetters of death, do not sink downward.

Do

not depart from this world, from the sight of Agni and the Sun.

5.

May

Wind, Matarisvan, blow

the

for thee

waters shower immortality (or ambrosia) on thee

Sun

shine healingly upon thy body

do not

die.

6.

Thou must

I give thee life

and

festival.^

7.

when

may may

the the

pity thee

;

man, and not descend

ascend, o

Mount

vital power.

imperishable car; then,

;

may Death

;

;

aged,

this pleasant

and

thou shalt declare a

Let not thy soul go away thither,

let it

not dis-

appear ; do not wander away from the living do not follow the Fathers. May all the gods preserve thee. 8. Do not ;

who conduct men afar. Ascend from the darkness; come into the light. We lay hold of thy hands. 9. Let not the two dogs sent by Yama,^ the

long after the departed,

*

Compare E. V.

s. 85, 17.

«

See A. Y.

v. 30, 6, above.

MISCELLANEOUS HYMNS FROM

40

Come

black and the brindled [seize thee]. hesitate

hither; do not

do not remain here with averted mind.

;

not follow this path

terrible

it is

;

I speak of that

;

Do

10.

by which

thou hast not hitherto gone. This, o man, is darkness do Beyond, thou hast fear it. on this side, thou ;

not enter

;

May the fires which are in the waters may the fire which men kindle preserve may Jatavedas Vaisvanara (the fire which is common 11.

hast security.

preserve thee

thee; to

all

;

men) preserve thee

;

let

not the celestial

gether with the lightning, consume thee. flesh-devouring

preserve thee gods.

13.

;

be hostile to thee

fire^

May

wicked one.

may

fire

go far from that

;

the sky, the earth, the sun, and moon, the air protect thee from the bolt of the

May Wakeful and

Watchful,

May

may

the sleepless

and the waking preserve

thee.

vigilant protect thee.

May they protect and guard May Vayu, Indra, Dhatri,

To them

to-

Let not the

12.

14.

be reverence.

the guardian and the

15.

you.

and

Savitri the deliverer, restore thee to converse with the living.

Let not breath and strength abandon thee spirit.

May

find thee.

Prajapati have rescued thee.

17.

The

The

remain here, o gods rescue

;

let

;

may

sky,

18.

him from death with 19.

a

back thy

Indra and the earth,

Soma

their

Let this

man

him not depart hence

less efficacy {sahasra-viryyena).

from death

call

not darkness

plants with

king, have delivered thee from death.

We

we let

the Adityas and Vasus, with

Agni, raise thee up to health.

world.

;

Let not any violent devourer,

16.

to the other

charm of bound-

I have delivered thee

the vigorous breathe upon thee.^

Let not

the she-devils with dishevelled hair, or those that howl dreadfully, yell at thee.

thee

;

fect in

20. I

have snatched thee; I have caught

thou hast returned renewed.

I have got, o

thy members, thy entire eye, and thy entire

man life.

per21.

upon thee. Light has come to thee. Darkness has departed from thee. We remove from thee death, Nirriti and consumption.” [Life] has breathed

’ There are three kinds of fire, the kravyud, or funeral (here referred to), which devours dead bodies, the culinary (u>«drf), and the sacrificial. See theVaj. S.

i.

17, ®

and the commentary there.

See the 4th verse of the next hymn.

THE RIG AND ATHARVA VEDAS.

Atharva Veda,

cannot be cut life

viii. 2.

Seize this boon of immortality

1.

be thine.

off,

{tamas ) living

do not

;

;

die.

2.

may

;

I restore to

do not depart to the mist

;

Come

41

which thee breath and long

life,

darkness

or to

(rajas^

hither to the light of the

I rescue thee that thou mayest survive a hundred

Loosing the bands of death and imprecation, 3. I have recovered thy

autumns.

lengthen out thy existence.

I

breath from the wind, thine eye from the sun.^ thee thy sold.

articulating with thy tongue.

on

(i.e.

4.

when

fire

We

die.

restore him.

Death, do not kdl the man.

ing

»

,

Befriend him

he

is

thine only, let

Bhava and

him

is

for

live

him a remedy.

I invoke for his safety a vivify-

do not seize him

;

man

Let this

5.

make

I

living, delivering, strong,

7.

Agni when he

I have paid reverence, o

kindled).

Death, to thine eye, and to thy breath.

and not

Speak,

I blow upon thee with the

breath of bipeds, and of quadrupeds, as on

born

I place in

Receive sensation in thy limbs.

and powerful plant. let

;

him go

;

though

abide here with all his strength

Sarva, be gracious

grant deliverance

;

;

;

o

remove

and confer life. 8. Befriend him. Death, pity him let him arise. Unharmed, with all his limbs, hearing perfectly, let him obtain enjoyment during a life of a hundred years.

evil,

9.

;

May

the shaft of the gods pass thee

across from the mist (see v. 1)

Removing

death.

draw round thee a 10.

live.

away the flesh-devouring Agni,

circle (see

Death, which no one

may

R. Y.

x. 18, 4) that

escape by menaces,

I

thou mayest

and health.

we make prayer

thy breaths, death at

11. I give thee

age,^ long life

full

;

I bring thee

;

Preserving him from that misty egress of thine, o

a protection for him.

thy

far

by

I have rescued thee from

I drive

away

all

the

messengers of Tama, who roam about, sent by the son of Vivasvat.

12.

We

remove afar

evil,

flesh-devouring Pisachas, and hurl

*

See

my

paper on Yama, p. 294, note

7.

all

^

Nirriti,

Grahi, and

wicked Rakshases, as

Compare A. V.

xi-ic.

24, 4, 5, 8.

MISCELLANEOUS HYMNS FEOM

42 it

were into darkness.

Agni

living,

13. I seek

thy

from the immortal,

life

I procure that thou mayest suffer

Jatavedas.

no injury, that thou mayest

iMay this he heaven and earth in unison be auspicious and innocuous to thee. May the sun shine and the wind blow pleasantly to thy heart. May the celes-

the fortunate result.

14.

streaming waters drop

tial

May

also be immortal.

May

down upon

thee favourably.

I have raised thee

the plants be auspicious to thee.

from the lower to the upper earth. of Aditi, the

15.

There

Sun and the Moon,^ preserve

may

both the sons

thee.

16.

MTiat-

ever garment for clothing, or whatever girdle thou makest for thyself,

we

cause

it

be soft to thy touch.

to be agreeable to 17.

When,

thy body

;

may

it

as a barber, thou shavest

our hair and beard with a sharp and cleansing razor, while cleansing our face, do not rob us of our rice

and barley be auspicious

18.

life.

Let the

to thee, innocuous, undisturbing.

These destroy consumption, and deliver from suffering.

Whatever thou

eatest or drinkest, the grain derived

husbandly, or liquid, whatever

is

or

not to be eaten

is

that food I render for thee free from poison.

19.

from

—

all

We com-

20.

mit thee to both the Day and the Night preserve him for me from the goblins who seek to devour him. 21. We allot to :

thee a hundred, ten thousand, years, two, three, four, ages (yugas).^

May

Indra and Agni,

may

thee favourably, without anger.

22.

autumn, winter, spnng, summer.

May

to thee, in

bipeds

;

all

We

ruler I rescue thee

do not die there

;•

;

;

do not

fear.

commit thee

23.

Death

From

rules over

that Death the

Thou who

24.

thou shalt not die

to

the rains be pleasant

which the plants grow up.

death rules over quadrupeds.

injured shalt not die

the gods regard

;

do not

art un-

They

fear.

they do not go to the nethermost darkness,

(25) every thing lives there, cow, horse,

place where this prayer

is

man,

used, the bulwark of

beast, in the life.

May

preserve thee from curse from thy equals and friends.

it

Be

Moon is not in the Vedas generally reckoned among the Adityas. “Contributions to a knowledge of Vedic Mythology,” etc., pp. 75-77. 2 It would be difficult to say how great a duration is here denoted hy this word hut it must be one of great length, if the long periods of years which are mentioned just before, may be taken as any indication. '

See

Tlie

my ;

THE RIG AND ATHARVA VEDAS. iindyiug, immortal, long-lived

thy body.

27.

May

the

;

let

gods

43

not thy breaths abandon deliver

thee from those

hundred deaths, from those dangers which are surpassahle, and from that Agni Vaisvanara (fire of the funeral pile?). 28.

Thou

art the

body of Agni, the deliverer, the slayer of and thou, the medicament named

Rakshases, and of rivals

;

Puttidru (Butea frondosa), art the chaser away of diseases.”

— FIVE

44

Akt. III.

Five

the Natii'cs of

HUNDKED QUESTIONS ON THE

Hundred

Questions an the Social Condition of

Bengal}

By tlie Rev.

J.

Long, of Calcutta.

(Read before the Royal Asiatic Society, 19th June, 1865).

Desider.a.ta and Inquiries connected tvith the Presidency

of ]\Iadras and

Bombay were

Royal Asiatic Society

in

issued

by the Secretary of the

1827, on points relating to the

language, literature, ancient history of families, antiquities, coins, people, architect nre,

landed tenures, arts and mannfac-

tures, of India.

The British Admiralty has published a Manual of

Scientific

Enquiry, so have the Statistical and other Societies.

Haxthausen, in his work on the Caucasus, remarks

“ :

My

and observations during more than twenty years, have convinced me that an acquaintance with the manners travels

of a people, their moral and material interests, domestic relations,

corporate associations, and specially the commercial

relations of the lower classes,

is

indispensable to a real know-

ledge of the history and constitution of peoples and states.”

The present time seems favonrable enquiries on this subject

;

in India to prosecute

with the rapid spread of education

up among natives. himdred qnestions and desiderata suggestive of a wide range of subjects, on “the proper study shew that a wide field is opened out of mankind is man” for enquiry into the social life of the natives of India and their folk-lore, a species of knowledge not to be found exclusively in books, hut mainly in the memories and traditions These questions were framed by the Rev. J. of the people.

literary tastes are springing

The following

—

five

—

Long, in Calcutta, *

Tbe majority

India.

for

an Association of educated native

of these questions are applicable to natives in other parts of

— SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL.

gentlemen of which he was the President to

map

;

45

they were designed

out the field of action on subjects relating to native

social life in India.

How

is

the time to “ note the passing manners as they

Hindu

fly.”

sition state,

society in various parts of India is in a tran-

and

it is

natives

is

up in writing the an educated class of

desirable to treasure

records of the past and the passing

;

rapidly rising, qualified not only to investigate but

also to write in

English the results of their investigations

literary societies,

among them.

and periodical

Natives

alone

literature,

are

;

increasing

can penetrate into

native

but the Europeans must remain on the surface two classes can work in harmony. The natives are able and while the European can willing to supply the data and facts,

society.

;

—

and arrange them on the plan laid down by Statistical and Sociological Societies, and publish them hereafter for the information of persons both in Europe and the East. There is a wide field opened out, as the five hundred questions and desiderata in this paper shew, and the co-operation of the following classes of Europeans in India is earnestly classify

solicited 1.

:

Collectors, Magistrates,

and Commissioners in

Districts,

who, associating much among the people, might through

amount of valuable inand would find the inquiry

their native employes secure a large

formation on various points, profitable to themselves in

promoting good feeling between

them and the natives, deepening their interest in the country and occasionally relieving the tedium of a solitary hour. 2. European Settlers would find these questions of use in gaining a better acquaintance with the social condition of the

whom they are thrown so much in contact it would shew them that natives can talk and think of other subjects besides rupees, while on the other hand the natives would see that the Sahibs are not mere indigo, tea and cofiee producing machines, but take an interest in the welfare and natives with

condition of their dependents,

;

—thus

the asperities arising

from antagonism of race would be softened. 3. Principals and Teachers in Schools and

Colleges,

would

.

find

HUNDRED QUESTIONS ON THE

FIVE

4G

many

of these questions suitable as subjects for essays to

be given to native students, testing and calling out not only their powers of composition, but also their faculties of obser-

vation and knowledge of

common

things,

—checking

the

tendency of education to make mere book-worms, separated from and having few sympathies with the masses.

and in mixing with the

JlissioDaries in their itinerancies

4.

natives have excellent opportunities of filling up these gaps life, and by conversation on social down any rancour that may arise

in our ignorance of social

questions of smoothing

from theological discussion. 5. Students of the Vernacular, and Travellers, would find an ample supply of materials for conversation with natives

and

teachers,

which would in an agreeable manner

facilitate

the study of the vernacular. I.

Aborigines.

The Dkangars and other hill tribes who do such important though dirty work in the drainage of Calcutta, are deserving notice as to their habitations, religion, customs, language. Sir J.

Malcom’s Essay on the Bhils

papers on the Aboriginal tribes, Dr.

of enquiry.

Pritchard,

etc.,

—Hodgson’s

valuable

suggest various subjects

Hodgson,

etc.,

etc.,

devoted

and Sir G. Grey, when Governor of Hew Zealand, learned the language of the Aborigines, and has since published a most interesting work on “ the Poetry of

much

the

labour to

New

it

;

He

Zealanders.”

and has recorded

all

their

lived

among them

for a time,

legends, traditions, etc.

The

Maoris living in the ultima Thule of civilization speak a language in which there are many words derived from

The

Sanskrit.

Santals,

met with one hundred miles from

Calcutta, use a language having strong affinities with that

of the Tartars of Central Asia,

who

are Russian subjects.

The Hindu poetical legends describe those aborigines as monkeys Megasthenes writes of them as one-eyed, without noses, wrapped up in their ears {hastikarnas) ;

1.

The mode

of living, habits, morals, and food of the Bhangars,

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL. and other aborigines in foreign place 2.

places, contrasted

47

with their native

?

Ditto of the hill

men who go

and the West Indies. 3. The social position and their return,

how

as coolies to the ATauritius, Ceylon,

relation of the coolies to

Zemindars on and inde-

far do they acquire habits of thought

pendence, a knowledge of improved means of cultivation, a taste

amusements, and a greater pride of personal

for a higher order of

appearance 4.

Do

?

the wives and families of the Aboriginal emigrants accom-

pany them in their emigrations? What connexion do they keep up with their native villages ? 5. The ceremonies observed by the Aborigines, etc., at births, What mode have they of settling their dismarriages, funerals ? putes ? How far do they believe in witchcraft, omens ? 6.

Any

traces of the Aborigines ever

having lived in the plains

of India?

II.

Agricultural Classes.

How

desirable it

lord, like the

tural shows field

would be in India

—joining

—administering

with his tenants in the sports of the justice

tural education, that scientific

him

to

interest

him

—s^nupathising with —deriving, from an

on the bench

the peasants in their difficulties

which would

to see the native land-

English country gentleman, attending agricul-

agricul-

knowledge of rural husbandry and thus enable

in the country,

be independent of the

false

information of the agent

(gomasfa). 1.

How

owing

far is the charge true that the ryot is lazy

to his not

natm-al disposition

—

if so,

is

having a proper incentive to industry, or

it

to his

?

—

In what cases have ryots risen to be peasant proprietors ? what effect would a class of peasant proprietors have on cultivation as compared with large capitalists ? Would the results be similar to those in France, where peasant proprietorship fosters economy, a respect for property, forethought and industry ? 2.

3.

How

4.

To what extent

far are zemindars, absentees? is

— the causes, remedies

a taste for gardening spreading

—

?

among

how could it be more extensively morning amusement for natives in offices ? instances of any natives who have devoted much time and money to gardening.

zemindars, and educated natives

promoted

as a

^

FIVE HUNDRED QUESTIONS ON THE

48

How far could puhlic gardens^ be established in native towns? In what respect would the introduction of the study of agrictdlural chemistry and of the elements of Botany in a popular form 5.

6.

gulph which now and the rural population ?

in Anglo-Vernacular schools tend to lessen that

between the educated

exists 7.

The

classes

practicability of evening classes for teaching the ryots to

read. 8.

How

becoming more aware of “ the great

far are the ryots

world beyond their market town ?" 9.

Poverty

cheating

among

the ryots,

"Would an encumhered

10.

how

pre-disposing to disease

?

to

?

so well in Ireland,

estate

commission,

be suited for India

11. Is there a strong desire

which has worked

?

among

ryots for the possession of

and economy ? Are there many remains of old Jaghires in Bengal? 13. Is the minute sul-division of land according to Hindu law carried out much ? what are its effects ? 14. The proportion of landholders to the rest of the population ? 15. To what extent do the ryots purchase things not produced in

land, so as to lead to habits of prudence 12.

their 16.

own district ? Any cases of

poor ryots

a good social position 17.

18. effects

19. its

on their morals and on wages

To what extent

20.

Are the ryots

21.

Has

zemindar 23.

risen to be zemindars or to

Many sub-tenures amounting to ten ? Do many of the rural population emigrate

causes and remedies

22.

who have

?

to

towns? the

?

are the zemindars “rotting in idleness?”

?

as attached to their native villages as formerly

the naih (agent) as

much

?

influence as formerly over the

?

Are zemindars as litigious as formerly ? Are the peasantry, though unlettered, not ignorant ?

Give

examples, illustrations. 24.

Signs of agricultural improvement within the last twenty

years as contrasted with manufacturing improvement

?

* In the North "West Provinces of India in 1852, 10,000 Rupees were spent by Government in the establishment of public gardens. The author of Seir Muiakherim remarked last century “ a garden, an orchard being time out of mind as free to all the world all over India as is a well or a tank, nothing amazes and disgusts the Hindustanees more when they come to Calcutta than to find so many seats and gardens all shut up.” ^ I have met with cases of evening schools attended solely by ryots. In England one per cent, of the rural population attend such schools. In France 12 per cent. In Russia they are rapidly on the increase.

—

^

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL.

How

25.

ryots

far is there a

growth of a feeling of independence among

causes and probable results ?

its

?

Are Middlemen on the increase

26.

49

?

the evils inflicted by them

in rack-renting, etc., etc.

The

27.

condition of the ryots before the

Permament Settlement,

and their relation at that period to the landlords ? 28. The different alwahs (fees) levied by zemindars ? 29. Torture, how far practised now and formerly ? the different modes ? III.

Astrology and Witchcraft.

Human

nature in India, as in Europe, wishes to pry into

the future, whether the fingers, the chattering of crows, or the stars are to be guides

in India the feeling against

;

witches even lately was as strong as in England two centuries ago, thus in

Mhow

between 1800 and 1823, 2,500 witches

were put to death. 1.

Charmers for snake

really successful

?

their numbers,

hites,

pay, and

the influence of music over snakes

2.

Are reputed

3.

Various kinds of mantras, such as the panch mantra,

any put craft 5.

far

of Bhuts or Devils many, their influence?

Witches, their localities, emoluments, number,

4.

how

?

to death last century in Bengal, the various

how

etc., etc.?

detected,

kinds of witch-

?

Divination by the hand

practice general

;

its

various kinds,

—hooks — on,

is

the

?

what birds ? how taken ? what is the reliance them now ? 7. Mesmerism {Jhdrdn Mantra), to what extent known to the old Hindus how practised now and by whom ? 8. Sleight-of-hand tricks, the number and emoluments of its pro6.

Auguries, by

placed on

—

fessors

—instances of common tricks practised in Bengal

?

Belief in Fairies, Apparitions, illustrations of its extent and

9.

influence 10.

?

influence

marriages, 11.

much on

the decline

?

Gypsies or Naths, their numbers, morals, means of support?

among bii’ths,

the

people,

funerals

Are casting the

language,

evil eye

II.

— [new

SEalEs].

ceremonies at

and other incantations common?

' See the Asiatic Annual Eegister, 1801 for witchcraft among Hindus.

VOL.

religion,

?

;

the Asiatic Journal 1823^ on

4

trials

:

FIVE

50 12.

HUNDRED QUESTIONS ON THE

Treasure-finders,

their numbers, profits

— thief

detectors,

Dreams, various kinds of?

13.

astrologers,

fortune-tellers,

?

who

them

interpret

analysis of vernacular books that treat of

them

? their profits?

?

Omens, Charms, and signs of futurity, various kinds in use

14.

?

IV.

Beggars and Vagrants. The beggar class are not unworthy of consideration in in England they are the subjects of various books who does not remember Burns’s poem on the Jolly Beggars, or some of the exquisite traits about them in Goldsmith’s and Crabbe’s Poems ? India

1

.

—

The

2.

?

Sanyasis

are worse,

themselves Padris

6.

?

Do

?

Fakirs or

— which 5.

thieving or other crimes

to

beggars feign llindness, dumbness, lameness, or practise other

impositions

tion?

—

beats ? more beggars in town or amusements ?

of beggars’

their profits, their

Are beggars much addicted

many 4.

?

The extent

country 3.

proportion of beggars from choice or from necessity, or on

grounds

religious

—

Hindu

their habits, beat, profits, impositions,

or

Musulman

fakirs

?

why

do they call

?

—

Mendicant musicians their number, Vagrant tradesmen, ditto.

profits, skill, social posi-

Is not the present indiscriminate charity to beggars the

mother

of idleness and crime ? 7.

Where do beggars

8.

Are Hindus

9.

Why

patron

or

find shelter in the rains, in illness

Musulmans kinder

to beggars

?

?

do most of the mendicant orders choose

Ram

for their

^

10. Do many beggars flock to towns? the causes? how want of peasant proprietorship a cause of beggary ?

far is the

V. Calcutta. Calcutta, the “ city of palaces rate Sociological niche for

known

and

itself,

pigsties,” requires a sepa-

—yet

of this coUuvies of nations

!

bow

little

is

Purnea furnishes

really to

it

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL.

— Orissa,

syces,

gong, boatmen;

—Bebar, Durwans, — Central — Chitta—Kabul, horses and

India,

bearers,

opium merchants,

51

fruit-sellers,

—while those semi- Asiatics, the Greeks, supply

leading merchants.

In prosecuting enquiries on the various

classes of popula-

the trades and handicrafts in Calcutta and the large

tion,

cities of India,

lished in the

there

a model paper on that subject, pub-

is

Royal Asiatic Society’s Transactions, in relation

to Bareilly, 1826, vol.

pp. 467-484, treating of the pro-

i.

gress in civilization, dress, amusements, food, houses, peculiar

usages, habits

and wants of the people of Bareilly.

Many

of

the questions there propounded are appKcable ceteris paribus to Benares,

Bombay, Madras,

etc.

The proportion of the adult population born in the city.^ The grouping of the population into classes inhabiting ditferent

1.

2.

localities

according to occupation, social grade, and hirth place

Afghans, their numbers, occupation, moral condition

3.

assert their

Jewish descent ?

4. Armenians,'^ ditto, their decrease

Armenia

or Russia

Chinese,^

5.

?

—do they

how

;

;

any connection kept up with

their colloquial language

far

?

do they retain their country’s mode of living

?

employments ? 6. East Indians. Rot a welding of the European and Asiatic as the English were of the Rorman and Saxon etfect of intermarriage among themselves are they dying out ? 7. Feringhees, who so called origin of the word ? 8. Greeks ditto, how far do they adopt English habits and customs their habits as contrasted with those of English merchants; any connection kept up with Russia or Greece ? 9. Jains, their numbers and social position ? 10. their numbers, wealth, and social position? what impression do they make on Hindus ? their language, how far Intheir morals, localities, numbers, language used,

—

;

—

—

dianised 1 1

Merchant princes,

.

is

the

name

still

applicable in Calcutta and

Bombay ? Mixed

12.

*

^ 3

® ®

Classes,

many

such, as Piralis, etc., etc.

Half the adult population of London 636 Armenians in Calcutta in 1837.

is

horn in the Provinces.

There were 362 in 1837. There were in Calcutta 307 Jews in 1837. The Alexandrian Jews were heUenised.

^

4,746 in 1837.

— FIVE

52

13. Moguls, their

HUNDRED QUESTIONS ON THE numbers, morals, social position,

of Persian or Tartar origin

—many

directly

?

Musulmans; are they very stationary? are they rising in ? their social morality as contrasted with that of the Hindus ? are coffee shops common among them ? ditto gambling ? the number of Arabic and Persian schools among them ? their feelings towards Hindus? many Hajis or Saids among them ? Do they read the Kulma on Friday, in the mosques? 15. Parsers, their number, social status are their prejudices decaying ? their Panchayats ? observance of Hew Tear’s day, and of the birth day of Zoroaster, ceremonies in honor of the dead. Commercial enterprise, charities, language, literature, caste disputes when did they first come ? the condition of their females, their liturgies, how far do they adopt Hindu customs ditto 14.

importance

social

—

—

;

—

English

;

?

16. Portuguese, their number,’ are they increasing? their influ-

ence

;

the language used

improving 17.

?

learning

among

Seiks

;

19.

contrasted

as

pupils and teachers

their numbers,

their occupations

—are

with former days

?

state of

?

many

able to read the Granthf

?

how

Young Bengal;

countrymen, and

?

Are there more than 100? the highest

Sanskrit Colleges.

emoluments in them 18.

are any of pure origin ? are their priests

;

the effect of their example on Hindus

how

does he really mere varnish ? are

far

far is it

differ

from his

his peculiarities

on the increase or decrease ? are there many out of Calcutta ? when young Bengalism arose ?

The

period

20. Account of the following classes, their numbers, profits, and social position,

—bird

sellers, glass-blowers,

firework-makers, dyers,

shell-workers, smiths, cattle doctors, yogis, weavers, divers, butchers,

washermen, conmasons ? with notices of the

fowlers, bookbinders, druggists, bakers, gardeners,

fectioners, barbers, sweepers, shoemakers, carpenters,

21.

The

origin of the

names of the

streets

individuals, or of the circumstances or particular trades, that gave

them those names ? 22. The various cries made

in the streets

23. Describe the numbers, profits,

following classes performers,

— street

artists,

sellers,

showmen,

and

sellers?

social condition of the

street buyers, street finders, street street artizans or

street laborers. 1

by hawkers or

3,181 in 1837.

working pedlars,

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL.

53

VI.

Ceremonies, Rites. 1. Shraddhas, the ceremonies and expenses connected with them now, as contrasted with former times, and in the various castes ?

The

2.

the origin of their gram devatas (village gods) mode of conducting it. Are there more than 100 ?

chief

worship, the

;

Do Hindus

3.

ceremonies

or

their

rites

and

and numbers of those who lurn the dead ? ' Is the practice of shaJcing hands and of other English customs

The

4. 5.

increasing

On

6.

profits

much

?

investiture of the Poita, is it usual to

charm against

as a

Musulmans expend more on

?

days

keep a piece of iron

hhuts (ghosts) ? is the party confined for eleven

?

Are compulsory pujas much practised, such as throwing an image at night at a rich man’s door that he may be compelled to perform a puja ? 8. Describe the worship of Sitola, Nag Ilanasa, TJlauta Devi ; the their origin, extent, Shasti, Dheki, Govardan, and Ganesh Pujas, 7.

—

by what classes conducted, the temples, festivals connected with them ? 9. Agni Puja and Surjea Puja, to what extent with what pomp and expense, celebrated in former times ? by what classes ? 10. The various prayers and gesticulations connected with the ahnik, how far observed, and by what classes now ? 11. Parrots, how trained to repeat Radha Krishna? expenses,

—

12.

How

far are the following practices

now

generally observed

and by what classes? Eirst morning prayer to the Guru? the Gangdstak ; 24 Madras; prandyam? Gumukhi, Gaytrijap, Artipancha pradip, Panchagni, Das sanskar f marks of caste or sects in the forehead? women worshipping the dheki to cure the scurvy and

—

—

itch

?

how far observed now, compared with how kept, and by whom ?

13. Fasting,

the Fkadasi

14. Funerals,

their expense; ceremonies;

in different castes

;

do

women accompany

of disposing of a corpse.

former days 15. *

—How

former days;

period of mourning, four modes now, compared with

the corpse ?

far observed

?

Are lamps often sent

Rama Murda

which he gamed

floating

down

a stream as an

Parish died at Calcutta about 1835, worth by burning the dead at NimtoUah.

omen?

five or sis lacs,

—

;

FIVE

54 16.

HUNDRED QUESTIONS ON THE

Arc thorns often put under the

pregnant

feet of a

woman who

dies

?

17. Is there

much

now of Das Snan, Das Dan? and among what classes practised,

observance

18. Describe the ceremonies,

the worship of books, birds, stones, fish

how

19. Jogi’s suspen-sion of breath, postures, etc., etc.,

up now, and by what training

21. Is the

?

is

the castor

oil tree

Navami generally numbers that

kept

words and figures

planted as a kind of maypole

practised ?

resort to

?

*

22. Chagdd, near Calcutta, the reason for for outcasts, the

far

?

20. In the Holi festival, are there less obscene

than formerly

in

?

it ?

being a city of refuge

its

other similar places in

Bengal. 23.

Was

the burying lepers alive

burning alive

much

practised formerly? ditto

?

24. Human sacrifices were formerly offered up at Kshir near Burdwan, at Yogadyea, at Kerilatta near Moorshedahad, to Kali at Brahmanitola near Nadaya, to Manasa, at Chitpore, Kalighat, instances handed down by tradition ?

How

25.

was the charah celebrated formerly

instances in its

?

practice of the tongue being pierced with a bayonet? of a snake’s tail

put through the tongue

?

26. Birth ceremonies

seeing a son

;

naming a

out at three months’ old

such as Jal karan or giving honey at

first

bringing

him

child twelve days after birth ;

27.

him

feeding

the head at three years old

— how

at six

;

months old shaving and by what castes ? ;

far practised

In marriages, are the laganpatrika, tying the garments of much used? how do marriage ceremonies differ

parties together,

according to caste, rank, etc.

VII. Classes. 1

.

In the upper

classes,

do

many

families die out

2.

Causes tending to create a middle

3.

Any

in closer

than

now

class in

probability of (approximating the

mutual sympathy

— was the

?

?

Hindus and East Indians

aversion less in former days

—how many of European life ?

is,

placing the

origin, their peculiar

their influence over natives

and energy as contrasted with those of natives That

the causes

?

The Portuguese customs and mode of 4.

1

?

Bengal

first fruits

?

their morals

?

of grain in harvest time at the door.

— SOCIAL CONDITION OP THE NATIVES OF BENGAL. 5.

aristocracy as a shield against the

The use of a native landed

despotism of a ruler or of a multitude 6.

Are there many Made Brahmans

climate 7.

?

Hindu origin of life among

are they of

The duration

55

? ?

is their

colour the effect of

?

the upper and lower classes ot

Hindus, and the professional classes particularly, as showing the effect of temperance, mental occupation and bodily exercise ? 8.

Are

old

men very garrulous ?

age have some lived 9.

Caste,

how

are there

many

old

men ?

to

what

?

on the decline, and the causes of the decline ? mixed castes on the increase ? illustrations

far

are the varna sankara or

of the lower castes rising in the social scale, the causes? are the rules for expulsion from caste strictly observed ? 10. Families that existed before the

Muhammadan

invasion.

VIII.

Commerce.

The commercial conspicuous place strings,

;

classes in India

and have been

priestly influence

;

have always occupied a

even in Menu’s time they held the purse less

than other classes subject

hence the great

sects of Jains in

to

Rajpu-

tana and Central India, the Oswals of Behar, and Vaishnabs of Bengal have the greatest number of converts

Marwari merchants are

among

the

and the Ghosains are Vaishnabs. Religious reform found its votaries most in France among the Huguenot merchants in the middle ages among the Belgian and Italian traders and in Russia among the mercantile classes ; the municipalities in the middle ages, mainly composed of the trading classes, were buflfers against feudal and priestly oppression. traders; the

Jains,

;

;

1.

Why

do Buniyas (shop keepers) in Behar rank with Vaisyas? and social position in Bengal are many of them

— —many foreigners among them—their Mahajans (money lenders) how do exactions extend-— now than formerly — numbers — do many are they a high position in native society The native merchant princes— and influence their education

sureties

profits ?

far

2.

their

their

less

rise to

?

their rise

3.

do their sons follow their father’s pursuits 4.

To what extent has

social

?

the decay in ancient Indian articles of

FIVE HUxXDEED QUESTIONS ON THE

56

paoduction and trade been compensated by

and trade

tion

Indigo, ‘ the accounts of

5.

sugar,

cotton

The

6.

new

sources of produc-

? it

Hindu books

in

—

also of tobacco,

?

influences of foreign trade on

the dress, food,

habits,

opinions, of natives ?

How far

7.

are native merchants likely to form a quasi aristocracy,

or an upper middle class

?

how how far

Native merchants,

8.

avarice, vulgarity

their conduct in

?

far liable to the charge of ostentation,

do they

a higher grade, and

rise into

it ?

9. The effect of commercial legislature on commercial morality, shown in the Small Cause and Insolvent Courts ?

number, emoluments,

as

10.

Shroffs (bankers), their

1 1

Causes of the decreasing social intercoui’se between Europeans

.

and natives

social position?

—remedies?

IX.

Conversation and Social Intercourse. .

Conversation, or the “ feast of reason and the flow of soul,”

is

as popular with the Bengali as with the European. 1.

The

subjects of conversation 20 years ago as contrasted with

the present.

The

2.

subjects of conversation

common

to the educated

and un-

educated classes.

The

3.

English 4. life

Do any

;

how

different

from the

classes converse on subjects not relating to their daily

and occupations ? Are Riddles much used?

—a

collection of

them a desideratum.

—

how far employed, their numbers and emoluments jesting much used? illustrations of it ? how do they differ in 7. Vaishnahs' or Sahtas’ conversation 6.

is

favourite times for conversation

?

Jesters

—

subject and moral tone ? Is there

8. is it

much

angry at times

9.

The

effect

discussion in

Hindoo

society

— on what topics ?

?

on conversation of the absence of female society ?

10. Topics in the zenana,

among

educated, uneducated?

among

countiy or town people ? 11.

Among what

classes are Ghost stories

most common? men-

tion twelve specimens of different kinds. *

In the Pancha Tantra, a work twelve centuries old at who tumbled into an indigo vat.

account of a jackal

least,

we have au

;

SOCIAL COXCITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL.

57

X. Criminal, or Dangerous, Classes. 1.

How

can a system of education be extended adapted to tbe

circumstances of those

and criminal 2.

How

who form

raw materials

the

of the dangerous

?

far is poverty the parent of crime in

Bengal ?

Do. op-

Do. the Guru Mahashay system?

pression? 3.

classes

how

Jails,

far objects of terror

name “our

districts is the

and shame

to natives? in

what

father-in-law’s house” given to the jail?

Are Reformatories

are re-committals frequent?

for juvenile crimi-

nals desirable ? the effect of teaching prisoners agriculture ? 4.

upon

Is the thannali looked

teach young ones crime

as a school

where old offenders

?

any approximate estimate of their

5. Receivers of stolen goods

number and profits ? 6. Has the punishment of

much

death

effect in lessening capital

offences ? 7.

The proportion

that

can read and write intelligibly in the

different jails ?^

common among

the poor?^

Do. incest?

8.

Is infanticide

9.

Is perjury or forgery on the increase ? the causes?

10. River

Thagi common?

11.

The

12.

Crime in

Ditto professional

influence of age and sex on crime? different districts,

and in various

among Hindus and Muhammadans, how heinousness

it differs

castes, particularly

in number, variety,

?

13. Is there

more crime in town or in the country ? number, offences?

14. Juvenile delinquents; their 15.

Has

the autobiography of a thief ever been written

16. Is Professor Wilson’s

remark

?

“in the great towns of that of London or Paris ?”

correct,

India the profligacy bears no comparison to

XI.

Debating

Societies.

Debating Societies or Literary Clubs have sprung up in and the Mofussil within the last twelve

shoals both in Calcutta

1 In Liverpool it was ascertained lately that out of 19,336 persons apprehended in nine months, only 3 per cent, could read or write weU enough for any available purpose.

*

It

is

so in the

manufacturing

districts of

England, and among the Rajputs,

— FITE HUNDEED aUESTIONS OX THE

58 years

;

they are nuclei for educated young men, and are con:

we need a

Young Men’s Associations

of England,

genial to the oriental habit which loves kind, however, like the

in which not only lectures

dah

might be delivered or essays

hut night classes might be formed for improvement in ture

and

read,

litera-

science.

1. The number and duration of Debating Societies in cities during the last twenty years, the subjects discussed and social status

of the 2.

members

?

Ditto in tbe countr)- ?

3. In what respects are they improving as to the choice of subjects and the mode of conducting the meetings ? 4. What social influence do they exercise in the family or on

others 5. 6. 7.

?

A

history of the

Dharma Sabha,

its leaders, quarrels,

influence

?

Of the Brahma Sabha, ditto, ditto ? Account of any other meetings or reunions among Hindus with

their social influence

?

XII. Diseases, 1.

The

social

Among what

and moral

castes

is it

causes

of

2.

Are Albinos numerous, the causes

3.

What

among natives?

insanity

more prevalent, and whj^

?

?

nervous diseases are regarded as being from a bhut

(demon), requiring mantras

—

?

—

Nakra Inoculation for small pox Leprosy, their respective modes of treatment in ancient and modern times ? how they difi“er ? 4.

now

are lepers 5.

Hindu

6.

Are

treated kindly ?

Physicians, their various remedies for eye diseases ?

diseases

from dissipation among Young Bengal on the

increase ? 7.

What

diseases indicate the social condition of the people, such

as those of the eye, brain ? 8.

9.

by what castes most attended, particularly Brahmans, Musulmans and from what localities ?

Hospitals,

Khaistas,

The

—

relative mortality

and

vitality of

each sex, and of the lead-

ing castes in Bengal. 10. Is the duration of life in inverse ratio to fecundity? 11.

The

influence of employments on health in Bengal,

how shewn?

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL.

59

make hites? any of real efficacy? what estimation held by educated natives ?

12. Various remedies for 13. Native medicines, in

i^arturition on the increase?

14.

Is mortality

15.

"Was Cholera an epidemic among natives a century ago?

va.

XIII. Doctors.

The

kabiraj (indigenous doctor)

is

a great favourite in native

and has been the cause of an enormous number of

society

The Bengali

deaths.

Medical College

class of the

gradually developes, lessening this evil ten ably on this class and on 1.

or

Kalirajis, whether are

more 2.

skilful

—

treatment

?

3.

Dr.

is,

as it

Wise has

writ-

Hindu medicine.

Hindu

Musulman

or

ones more numerous

— their castes—their pay now and in former days

Inoculators, are there

tions used

;

more Hindus

their invocations of Sitola

or

—

?

—the incanta— —mode of

Musulmans

their fees

caste

Vaidyas (native doctors), their chief localities in Bengal, the

proportion that can read Sanskrit, their pay and social position

— an

account of the Atai Vaidyas, Dehatu Vaidyas, Ghasi Vaidyas, Haturya Vaidyas ?

numbers

4.

Midwives, Cuppers, Leech

5.

English educated native doctors, are their social position and

pay increasing 6.

sellers,

their skill, pay,

?

?

Ditto Bengali educated

?

XIV. Domestic.

Home has well been styled the “seed vessel of where the next generation must germinate.” 1.

Is hospitality as

rigid a regard to caste 2.

The home

natives 3.

much

now

practised

as formerly?

society,

and with as

?

influences

of wives

and daughters on educated

?

Is the family tie very strong

examples.

among Hindus?

illustrate

by

— FIVE HUNDRED QUESTIONS ON THE

60

XV. Dramas, Jatras.

The Sanskrit Drama,

so well translated

by Dr. Wilson, pre-

sents a rich harvest of information on the social condition of

the Indian aristocracy, females and Pandits, eighteen centuries

In the Sdrada

ago.

tilaka of the twelfth century,

of the various classes

sketches

of females,

Buddhists, snake catchers, Pandits

society 2,500 years ago.

;

—

Assam Nor have

of the kings of Kalinga and

the

of

we have

the

Jogis,

Mnganlekhd

as the

Bamayan

treats

does of

the last ten years been

barren in the department of dramatic vernacular literature

many Bengali dramas on the “ Widow re-marriage,” etc. show.

as the

subjects of “ Kulinism,”

1.

Account of the hhaurs or professional

2.

A

list

jesters.

of the various jatras, their authors, subjects, influence.

3.

Ditto Rasas.

4.

An

analysis of the vernacular dramas written during the last

twenty years.

XVI. Dress.^ 1

.

2.

Is the

Was

Hindu word 3.

Musidman

dress superior in any points to the

the needle totally to express

unknown

to

the

Hindu

?

is

Hindu

there

?

any

sewing with the needle ? ^ object to garments made by a Moslem

Do any Hindus now

needle ?

Were there any tailors in ancient times among the Hindus ? Do Hindu females wash their linen often is soap coming into among them ?

4.

—

5.

use

A suitable dress for females, decent, yet national, is a desideratum. Some females have adopted the English dress, but they look exactly like Portuguese Ayahs, or the black dolls that hang in London over pawn-brokers’ shops. Why should this be ? The sari, it is true, is not sufficient, but in Bahar we find the petticoat {lohanga) and boddice {kurtd) have been introduced from the west of India, and more than one-fom-th of the Bahar women have adopted it. Some of the Rajput women in Bahar use long-drawers like the Musulman ladies. The males are better off as to dress, but in their disuse of the turban, substituting for it a cap, they benefit only the eye doctors and spectacle makers, furnishing them with more patients,— as the eyes having no shade like what the turban gives, become weak; such has been the case in Egypt, since the Turkish Fez has been introduced. 2 8ui properly means passing the shuttle in the act of weaving. 1

Hindu

—

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL. 6.

she

Hindus will not drink water out of a girl’s hands unless arms and breast ? Would the wearing of beards he useful for Hindus ? Should Hindus take off their shoes in an European house, or

"WTiat

is first

7.

8.

61

tattooed on the

on entering a place of worship

their turbans

?

XVII. Drinking Habits. In Menu’s days liquors were allowed, and ancient Hindu many a cui’ious revelation on this point. Are drinking habits more prevalent among the Hindus or among 1 Musulmans ? how was it 30 years ago compared with the present history gives .

time

?

Are Hindus quarrelsome in their cups? smoking Ganja, Charus, or Opium more destructive; which more common ? Do Hindu females smohe much ? When was

2. 3. is

—

Is

smoking introduced 4. 5.

? Ditto snuffing ?

How far is the increase of drinking owing to domestic discomfort? How far do crimes attended with violence, arise from intoxicahow

tion?

far is insanity the result of

intemperance

?

7.

The effect of intemperance in producing pauperism ? The connection between ahkari shops, public-houses, and crime

8.

Is drinking brandy a frequent practice with

6.

?

Young Bengal?

XVIII. Education, in its Social Bearing.

The ences

consideration of the School system in

is

its social influ-

a very important subject, as well as the enquiry,

far the competitive

as race horses,

—

system

trains

for particular prizes,

knowledge;

—leads

in a school,

is

injurious so far as

it

how

treats boys

them not

for general use but to run cramming, and mere bookthe neglect of the mass of the boys

—promotes

to

tempting the Masters, by attending

to a

few

“ fugle boys,” to gain more praise for their school.

There fable, to

is

a tendency

among Hindus

like the

man

in the

cry out nothing like leather, and to regard education

as the panacea for all evils.

persons as being like those

Lord Brougham describes such who would trust to the effects of

FIVE

62

HUNDRED QUESTIONS ON THE

and regimen when the plague is raging, and Dr. Arnold is wanted to improve the physical condition of the people and yet their physical condition must he diet

remarked, “ Education :

You

improved, before they can be suseeptibJe of education.”

may

educate the upper classes highly, but the masses are the

basis of the social

pyramid; without this being secure, the

apex has no stability brute force and the black cap are but temporary expedients. ;

How

1.

at best

improved habits of cleanliness, order, punctuality, improved standard of dress and living, and a de-

far are

truthfulness, an

velopment of character promoted hy Anglo- Vernacular Schools?

by Guru Mahashay or

2. Ditto

The

3.

on the family 4.

girls

Any

village Schools ?

action of Anglo- Vernacular and

Guru Mahashay Schools

the moral and intellectual tone

circle in raising

from the training adopted in some Mission female schools ? The remedy ?

5.

How

social evils arising

far are the follovring remarks,

made

?

for native

in England, applica-

ble to India ?

“There is a practical standard in the minds of the people, beyond which the education of the masses cannot be carried. If Government raise the standard, people diminish the time of children’s attendance.’’ 6.

The

social

importance of teaching in

all schools,

the doctrines

of political economy on labour, capital, wages, interchange, money,

—

as also the elements of agricultural chemistry. 7.

Mental ignorance, how

8.

How

far productive of

far do social discomforts fret

render them unfit for higher thoughts 9.

moral depravity

and enfeeble the masses, and

?

Is intemperance greater in proportion

among the educated

or

uneducated classes ? 10.

How

far is the following statement,

made by an educated

native, correct?

“Natives educated in the Government

Colleges,

do not often

fulfil

the hope inspired by their academic career; they do not follow up

they unlearn what they have learnt, sink in the mass with all the enervating environments of Indian life the hookah and the zenana do their sure work.” 11. Does not the social condition of the masses render a grantin-aid system as inapplicable, as would be a voluntary system at the time of plague and pestilence ?

their studies

;

—

' Dr. Mount, Inspector of Jails in Bengal, shows in his Returns for 1860, that out of 73,000 criminals in the Bengal and Behar jails that year, 93 per cent, were utterly ignorant of reading and writing.

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL. 12.

How

13.

The

mould the social moulded by them ?

far does school education

of the country and social

how

far is it

63

,

institutions

importance of schools of Industrial art?

14. Ditto ditto of Agricultural schools? 15.

The

of teaching 16.

Sanskrit Colleges)

tolas (or

—the

social causes leading to

Any improvement in the subjects taught, What great teachers are there now ?

their decline. ?

The probable

or the

knowledge of

reflex influence of requiring a

reading and writing from all classes, as a qualification for 17.

The probable

a preponderance to

mode

office ?

influence of the university examination in giving

cramming and memory work,

to the neglect of

cultivating the faculty of observation ? 18. Is

19.

desirable that

it

with boys

up

age girls should be taught

to 6 years of

*

?

How

far are the

Guru Mahashays,

as a class,

guilty of the

charges of teaching their pupils theft and lying, and of inflicting severe

What

punishments?

has been the occupation

of

the fathers of

those teachers generally? 20.

A

list

of Yernacular authors and able teachers produced

by

the Sanskrit Colleges?

XIX. Females. 1.

How

arrogant lords.

weak

remarks on Hindu females correct “ Ministers to the capricious sensuality of their

far are the following

in different localities

:

—The

feeling of natural affection is comparatively

—held under the jealousy of

finer sensibilities?”

spectable

Hindu

restraint,

they become callous to

all

Cases of crim. con. very seldom occur in re-

families.

The

life

of a

Hindu widow is wretched

in

the highest degree.

To what extent can

natch (dancing) girls read

?

and emolument now as compared with former days

?

2.

3.

Do Hindu

their influences

females often hear religious or other hoohs read to

them?'* 4. 5.

6.

What is the knowledge females acquire independent of looks ^ Mention female authors of past and present times. Is the practice of females blackening their teeth and eyes, of

Moslem 7.

origin ?

Are the

angia, hurti, pxyjamahs

much

in use?

' In Kabul the custom is for boys and girls from 5 to 12 years of age to attend the same school. - In Kabul many of the females are better acquainted with religious books than the males.

FIVE

64

HUNDRED QUESTIONS ON THE

8. At what age are females considered old women? Do females become really old at thirty ? what is their influence and conduct then? 9. Are Musulman females less luxurious and extravagant than

Hindu ones ?

What are the recreations of females? is kite flying such? Are Hindu and Musulman females fond of embroidering and

10. 1 1

.

of flowers ? 12.

Are

13.

How

14.

What

15.

How

quarrels

numerous among females ? are they very jealous?

far do females

win and

the average time

is

retain their husband's affections?

men remain widowers?

system of austerity carried out with

far practically is a

regard to widows ? what means of support have they generally ?

woman washes

If a

16.

paint from her forehead,

off

is it

con-

sidered a sign of her wishing her husband’s death ?

What

17.

has been the success of the working of the act for the

remarriage of

How

Hindu widows

as to

numbers and

respectability ?

do women rule their husbands at Hindu gentlemen “ henpecked ?” 18.

far

Many

home?

XX. Festivals.

commemorative purposes have life, whether we the national games and assemblages of ancient Greeks,

Festivals

for

religious or

always exercised great influence on social look to

to those of the

in

middle ages in Europe, or to those of recent times

England and France.

Who can forget Washington Irving’s

England in the olden But among the Hindus they have been pre-eminently

vivid picture of Christmas and merry

time ?

influential as

being interwoven so closely into the religion of

the country.

All the mighty minds of India in former days

saw

w'hat a great efiect they produced

Yaishnahs and Saktas

alike,

on

all classes

:

hence

though diflering in other points

widely, have agreed in patronising them*. 1.

once 2.

on

The

classes of society that

The

influence of festivals on the family relation, particularly

do not attend festivals now, but did

—why have they discontinued

?

women and children ? Any change and improvements

3.

festivals

?

in the

mode

of conducting

— SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATR'^ES OP BENGAL.

How

4.

far are festivals

ment than formerly "What

5.

65

become more occasions of trade or amuse-

?

festivals

have become more popular than others

— the

causes ? 6.

How

7.

Is there

far is the observance of festivals

much

sale of native

on the decline ?

books or of European

articles at

festivals ?

Are

good times for holding religious discussions, such by missionaries ? 9. The moral and social influence of festivals in bringing the male and female sexes more together ? 10. The various customs, ceremonies, connected with the first day of new year f 11. How far festivals, such as the Holi, contribute to idleness and 8.

festivals

as are practised

dissipation ? 12.

Any

13.

Mention

observance like April fool or the Maypole in the Holi’i

and new ones, such as the Jaga-

Obsolete festivals,

datri 14.

origin 15.

Barwari puja, how far observed now, and by whom its Ditto the Nag panchami in Bengal. An accurate description of the Hindu fasts and the festivals ;

?

in the district? of their origin, the significance of their peculiar

how

ceremonies,

observed by different castes

Musulman. Sunday, how spent by

?

16. Ditto of the 17.

day of pleasure 18.

sun

On Makar

is the

different classes of natives?

Sankranti,

til

seeds are eaten after dinner,

—why

only deity worshipped

19. Is the

are chewed, and puja paid to an

a recitation of

Eamayun.

into the sea.

On

"What

it

a

and the

?

Holi a kind of All Tool’s day

20. Describe the following practices

21.

Is

?

?

— On

Almanac

Gadi padva, nim leaves on the Ram Nabami ;

Narujal Purnima, cocoa nuts are thrown the Dewdli worship is paid to books.

festivals are observed

by

particular castes or

by women

only?

XXI. Fishermen and Boatmen. 1

.

2.

What

boats are not in build of indigenous origin ?

—

almost exclusively furnish boatmen, why from Chittagong or Furridpore ? The morals of boatmen when separated from their families ? In what respects are boatmen equal in skill to sailors ?

The

castes that

chiefly 3. 4.

VOL.

II.

[new

series].

5

HUNDRED QUESTIONS ON THE

FIVE

66 The

5.

peculiarities of the boatmen’s language

the Musulman-Bengali

rowing

Why

7.

The number

or decrease

9.

few Hindus are boatmen ?

Sailors,

crimps

the same as

when

how

?

of loatmen in Calcutta, are they on the increase

the causes

?

victimised on landing, in punch-houses, and

by

?

The various

merly

is it

?

6.

8.

;

a collection of the songs they sing

;

classes of fishermen,

their profits

now and

for-

?

XXII. Food.

The nature

of food has

much

do with bodily and mental

to

vigour, although different nations in this point have their respective tastes

a Frenchman will eat a rat or a frog or

;

horseflesh with a gout, that will

The Englishman

vomit.

make an Englishman almost manner dislikes the oceans

in like

of ghi and quantities of high seasoning that enter into a Bengali’s cuisine,

while on the other hand the Bengali shudders

at a calf being

The

an object of mastication.

expense of preparaand how far their high seasoning is conducive to health ? 2. How far does the diet of Hindus preserve from certain diseases, but promote others ? 3. The effect of a vegetable diet on certain mental qualities, such 1

.

different kinds of curries, their use,

tion,

as courage 4.

?

Tea drinking,

how

Why

was a fish country Brahmans ? 5.

6. Is

adulteration,

far is it

diet

becoming popular ?

allowed to Bengal, but prohibited to up-

of food

common

?

illustrations of it

with

its

evils. 7.

thal,

Illustrate the following statement:

a Cole, and a Garrow, will thrive,

Bengali, the Assamese, and the

“the is

fare

on which a Son-

utterly unsuited to the

Mugh.”

XXIII. Houses.

The dwellings occupied

much

of the poor

and of the working

classes

have

of the attention of philanthropists in England,

,

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL.

and ought

to

do so in India, where

floors, walls,

closely connected with questions of health 1.

How

3. 4.

Hindu

Is the hoitahhma of

How How

windows, are

and decency.

conduce bad ventilation

far are the present native houses so built as to

indecency, vice, quarrels, drunkenness, 2.

67

filth,

origin

?

to

^

Asan

far is the use of chairs preferable to the

or seat ?

can the following defects in tiled houses be remedied

:

exposure to wind and rain, cold in winter, hot in summer ? 5.

Mud huts,

6.

Is not the building of sulurlan houses for

towns desirable 7.

means

to secure

them against snake holes ? workmen

in large

?

Is the northern side of a house invariably the ThaTcur Ichana ?

XXIV. Keranis or Native Clerks.

The Kerani system and government

as to

is

so

much

demand

is clear, that as certain as

the child of English trade

English education has been limited

almost exclusively in Bengal to the caste of Khaistas, so have the chief occupations of

those of keranis or copyists to turn

—an

efiectual

Brahmans and

its

way

alumni been

many

in

an educated youth into a mere machine, and

him simply an

imitator or cop^jer

gali is the

often as a

— —

as

he

is

cases

to render

a copyist.

It is

Katamandu to Mhow, the BenEnglishman’s right hand in what ? is it not too

true in Northern India, from

reflect

One thing

special attention.

machine

—

for copying, as a sort of looking glass to

his views without

having any views of his own.

A

work “ The eye seemed to communicate directly with the hand there was no intervention of the brain. The intelligence of

writer on Indian history remarks on the kerani in his

:

;

I allude here to an evil felt in England and Russia as highly demoralising, a single sleeping-room for parties of different sexes. The Santals, semicivilized though they be, are in this respect ahead of Bengalis hoys and girls arrived at the age of puberty, have to sleep separately away from their parents in a particular part of the village. *

viz.,

;

2 Hamilton Buchanan’s Bengal and Baher, vol. ii. p. 697, states, “ Its name is moslem and that a place of receiving company was introduced, when the example

command of these haughty conquerors rendered it necessary to secrete the women not common in the South of India, where the manners of the Hindus are less altered the sofa made of wood, the carpets, and quilts seem to have been introduced by the Muhammadans.”— See Kirdt Arjunya. or

this practice is

;

HUNDRED QUESTIONS ON THE

FIVE

68

the well tutored boy was seldom carried into the practicalities I trust this taint on the Bengali may soon Happily the introduction of iron coppng machines reduce in many cases the demand for machines of flesh. The total number of Iceranis employed in the different offices

of actual life.” cease.

will 1.

in Calcutta 2.

the average amount of their salaries

;

The occupation

business of their leisure hours 3.

Do

4.

How

of Iceranis' leisure hours;

offices afford

?

how

far does the

material for conversation in their

?

Iceranis

keep up reading habits

far does their

—

why ?

if not,

knowledge of English acquired

at School

decline in office ? 5.

How

literature

far

do

Iceranis

read the

new

class of

hooks in Vernacular

?

Brahman

6.

Are

7.

Banians (native) their past and present influence over Europe-

Iceranis chiefly of

the Ichaista caste or of the

?

ans, their proflts ?

XXV. Language. 1.

VThat

which

is

is

the source of that part of the Vernacular language

not of Sanskrit or Persian origin ?

guages of South India,

an

affinity

Has

it,

like the lan-

with the Tartarian

dialects

spoken in Central Asia." 2.

The

dialectical varieties in the vernacular.,

how

far

are they

divergencies of pronunciation and spelling, similar to those in the

English and Italian dialects on the increase or decrease ? 3.

How

far is

—their

extent and causes

Are they

?

Urdu declining in certain parts of India, as a

loquial and written language

?

the causes

col-

?

4. V'hat influence is likely to be produced on the Bengali language by increased intercourse with Central India and the North

West 5.

?

What

language

Bengali, Hindi, or

is

Urdu ?

likely to supplant the

Santal,

Ditto as regards the Asamese

is

it

the

?

6. WTiat effect on the structure of the vernaculars is likely to be produced by English educated natives ? 7. What idioms in the vernacular language are most striking in

contrast with those of the English and 8.

The language used

at Gour,

had

Urdu languages? it

a closer affinity to Hiudi

than to Bengali. '

Caldwell’s Draviclian

grammar

affords

many

valuable hints on this subject.

1

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL.

What

9.

old Vernacular IfSS. exist

69

among private families ? by persons -who cannot ‘

10. Is the Musulman-Bengali, used chiefly

read or write the Bengali, increasing as a dialect? 1

.

12. trict

The past and present influence of Persian in Bengal ? The loundaries of the Bengali language in the Midnapur disbordering on Orissa and in Birbhum on the Hindi-speaking

districts

?

The vernacular language, how far

13.

in its progress does it illus-

trate the vaiying features of national character, habits, pursuits,

and mental development ? * Are the educated Bengalis so difierent from Italians, Poles, or Hungarians, as to have little patriotic feeling in favour of their

social

14.

native language

Words

15.

?

in the vernacular having affinities with any Tartar or

aboriginal language

?

16. Illustrations of the language of

mans and Hindus

A

17.

Persian

List

of those vernacular words not derived from Sanskrit or

—their probable origin

Hames

18.

Flowers as used by Musul-

?

?

of places, persons, or things in the vernacular throw-

ing any light on the origin and

affinities of

the native race ?

Cant language used by particular classes

1 9.

®

?

XXVI.

Law and The laws

Social State.

of a people have a very important bearing on

hence jurisprudence has well been “the law of humanity in society,” and the subject from this point of view has been taken up by the Social Science

their social development

;

defined,

Association. 1.

How

far is the

new Penal

Code, as contrasted

gulations, likely to affect the social

mould

their character;

and how far

with the Re-

condition of the people and is

the social condition of the

people likely to modify the working of this Code

?

1 Besearch in other quarters ought to encourage it here thus we find that the Pushtu, until lately considered a colloquial dialect, had, as Captain Eaverty shows, :

MS.

1417 a.d.

as early as

Language has well been called a map of the manners and science of the people who speak it. Thus the term for a widow, Vldhava, showed that all widows 2

were not burnt so pati, a lord, the term for husband, indicated that he ruled. 3 Colonel Sleeman in his Raraasceana gives the language of Thugs. We have in Bencal the lansruaare of boatmen. ;

HUNDRED QUESTIONS ON THE

FIVE

70

How

2.

far has the

Punchayat or native jury system tended to how far is it popular ? would the

raise the character of the people ?

English Jury system be more

The Income Tax,

3.

its

efficient in this respect ?

probable bearings on the physical, social)

and moral condition of the people ? 4. Menu’s laws, how far did they influence the masses ? 5. The probable effects of making English the language of the Courts in its increasing the gulph between the English Judge and the masses? and in leaving the judge and the people at the mercy of the interpreter ?

The effect on society of the Hindu law of intestate property. Which is more favorable to the creation of a middle class and

6. 7.

the elevation of the masses, a zemindary, a village, or a ryotwary

system ? 8

How

9.

would a law of primogeniture be

likely to

work

in India ?

Ditto a law like the French law of equal sul-division ?

10.

In what respects

now from what Kalidasa’s 11.

it

was

is

the social condition of the people different

in the Vedic age

—in the Musulman

How

far has

—

in

Menu’s

—in

Ham’s

—in

ditto ?

law in India been the

offspring,

how

far the

parent of public opinion ? 12.

The working

of the Small Cause Courts in checking or in-

creasing a love for litigation and in promoting a regard to truth in

dealings 13.

?

How far have native Educational endowments made the Pandits by making them independent of their Scholars ? The value of village Municipal Institutions in preparing a

indolent 14.

people for self-government ent parts of India 15.

?

the remains of the old system in differ-

?

The importance

to India of English lawyers in India

having

a training not only in law books, but also in a knowledge of the social condition of the people

?

XXVII. Marriages. 1.

Illustrations of the effects of early marriage physically,

men-

tally, socially? 2.

The causes and consequences of the

expense

of

marriage

ceremonies ? 3.

How

far

position, etc.

?

do marriage ceremonies vary according to caste, social

'

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL. 4.

What practices in the marriage

ceremonies as to length, expense,

5.

ought to be discountenanced, what to he continued Does earhj marriage in India tend to check vice ?

6.

Is there a marriage in practice

rites,

to the

Muhammadan

How

7.

far

educated natives 8.

Are

gistries 9.

nilclca

?

among the Hindus corresponding

?

among

do marriages take place at a later period

— the

effects

?

(Go betweens) many, their

GhataJcs

71

fees,

—any ghatak

re-

extant from BuUal Sen’s time, or three centuries ago?

The

among the

expense of marriage

are they on the increase or the decrease

various castes or classes;

?

XXYIII. Miscellaneous. 1

.

The

different

the sun, the stars 2.

as

modes of

Is the Funchayat

much

calculating time, such as

by

sand, water,

?

much

now

practised

?

was

it

ever in Bengal

a part of the village system as in Central India

?

3.

The

4.

Is the cycle theory for nations, of weakness, vigour, maturity,

and advantage of Mofussil Savings and Loan Banks for the middle classes in the Mofussil, to promote provident habits and to rescue the Bayats from the Mahajans ? practicability

decay, inapplicable to India 5.

The

on the

?

emigration to the Mauritius and

social condition of the

themselves on their return

parties

emigrants made to their families 6.

To what type

W.

Indies in

its effects

emigrants and their families

—

are

many

;

on the

remittances from

?

of the European character are the Bengalis likely

—

to the English or German, French or Italian ? Are not mere English institutions as little adapted for India as they would be for France ? 8. Oriental Epistles, their various ornaments, superscriptions and

to

approximate

7.

envelopes 9.

?

Have

cases been

known

punishments being enforced

in

modern times of the following

— cutting

off

a Hindu’s tika (top knot),

putting lime on one side of his face and ink on the other side, and

him about on an

leading

ass ?

1 In Birmingham in 1856, 84,000 accounts were opened for one penny and upwards £4,500 being paid in. Through Dr. Chalmers’ influence penny banks were established, fifty years ago in Scotland. Dr. Duncan established in Scotland Savings Banks for deposits of a shilling and upwards, and thirty-two-mUlions sterling have been deposited by 1,340,000 contributors. ;

FIVE HUNDRED QUESTIONS ON THE

72

10. Karnes, any change desirable in Hindu names; the various modes of giving them ? are all expressive ? are they ever changed ?

how many

different

names are there of

Salutations, different

11.

modes

of,

men and

women ?

of

any change in the form of

in operation ? 12.

Are

countiy

large towns in

Bengal

morals than the

less favourable to

?

them with-

13. Bazars, their profits to the proprietors, changes in

in the last 14. Ai'e

20 years

?

many new Hindu

temples being built,

where and at what

cost? 15.

Spitting,

16.

The

17.

What

why

much by Hindus

practised so

?

history of the rise of the old families in Calcutta?* are the subjects of national pride with Bengalis?

among

18. Yarious forms of oaths

which are

different castes;

considered specially binding ?

Are dwarfs numerous ? were formerly compelled to sit bare-headed before a blazing lamp, how long since that was practised ? 21. Why do Hindus count and divide by 4 ? does it relate to time, 1 9.

20. Banhrupts

such as 4 weeks, 12 hours 22.

To what extent

?

the rise of prices leading,

is

among

ryots and

the working classes, to independence of feeling and action, to a desire for education

and

to increased domestic comfort ?

23. Is dusturi, or servants’ perquisites, in vogue in the

among

portion jSIogul

natives as

among Europeans ? was

it

same pro-

practised in the

time and at different rates according to occupation

?

24. Does a fixed price for articles exist in any branch of

Hindu

trade ? 25. Is there

nasty” system

much much

competition practised

26. Does population increase 27. Longevity,

how

does

it

among Hindus ?

Is the “ cheap and

?

more in town or in the country

vary in different

districts

?

—in various

employments ? 28.

Has a

graded race 29.

variety of

soils

low and marshy

people, as

any influence on the character of the

coasts are said to furnish a sordid, de-

?

How far

is

there real tenderness to animals in India

?

Any

places of refuge for lost or starving ones, or old ones ? 30. Is suicide

causes

?

common

on the increase

in India

?

among what

classes

?

the kinds ?

?

1 tUhen I was in England 18 years ago, the late Professor Wilson directed attention to this subject as one of great interest ; only a native can write on

my it.

— SOCIAL CONDITION OF 31. Different kinds of ordeal fire,

THE NATIVES OF BENGAL. now among

water, poison, chewing rice, boiling

Twelve instances of

32.

73

the Hindus, the balance,

red hot iron

oil,

?

^

English misunderstanding of native

practices, ditto of natives mistaking English.

When

33.

were the natives

first called 7iiggers ?

statement that natives have neither a word for

34. Eefute the

gratitude in their language, nor a sense of

it

towards Europeans.

35.

The

advisability of introducing fountahis

36.

Any

Maliratta females settled in Bengal

37.

The causes

of the rise

in.

and Turkish baths

?

?

prices in the district ?

XXIX. Musulmans.

The Musulmans live among the Hindus, but are not of them they even now are in Europe objects of much interest to various nations, and in the middle ages they left in Europe undying memorials of their knowledge and progress in the arts and social life. The Musulmans in Bengal read Bengali, but speak a mixed dialect. ;

1.

In what

descent

localities are there

Musulmans

of

Patan or Mogul

?

2. In what districts have Hindus become proselytes to Muhammadanism how far by conviction ? how far by compulsion ? or

—

from other causes 3.

?

To what extent do the Musulmans

hospitality, kindness to the poor,

differ in their social life,

amusements, manners and

custotns,

from the Hindus? do they practise polygamy or sensuality to a greater extent than the Hindus ? 4. The number, education, emoluments and influence of Kajis and Mullas in various localities 5.

?

To what extent have the Musulmans and Hindus mutually

adopted each other’s religious and social practices 6.

How

far

?

^

have the residence and influence of Musulmans

diminished Hindu

superstitions,

as

weU

as

indecent and cruel

practices ? 7. Is

not the following Hindu practice of Musulman origin

1 The trial by ordeal has been handed down in India from ancient times it was prevalent in Europe in the middle ages.— iSee Asiatic Researches, Vol. I. * In Purnea, Hindus contribute to the expense of the Mohurrum while caste has throughout Bengal obtained a complete ascendancy over the Moslems. ;

;

— FIVE HUNDKED QUESTIONS ON THE

74

writing with the reed instead of the style or iron pen

?

other in-

stances ?

How

8.

have the

far

Hindu

strictness of

on which Musulmans received converts,

caste

and the easy terms Moslem

contributed to

prosehjtism ?

Muhammadanism on

Is

9.

many

the increase?

converts from the ryot class

10.

how

has

it

gained so

?

Are the following sects of Falcirs in lower Bengal, Benawas, Jalalis, Madari? Murids many ? their conduct ? Many Hajis or pilgrims; do many go to Mecca from Bengal?

Takyahdars, 1 1

.

12.

—

by what route ? do women often proceed ? the they return 13. 14.

their influence 15.

16.

on them when

What line of trade, profession or art, are Musulmans taking to? What are the descendants of the Moslem gentry doing; are

they beginning to apply to trade

many

effect

?

?

do they seek Government employ ?

?

The number and endowments made ?

of Pirsthans

How

and among what

;

Purgahs?

far is Sufeyism spreading,

secret meetings

among them ? much

asceticism

?

Christianity

How

far are the Ferazis

on the increase 18.

1 9.

.

?

are their influence and

as strictly

as

—

is

widow remarriage ? what Musulman any connection kept up by them with

?

The

difference

between Hindu and Musulman funerals, birth-

number of ceremonies, expense, popularity? in former days persecute the Hindus by

How did Musulmans

Hindu evidence proselytes 22.

now

the Ferazis practise

conferring ofilce and landed property on converts only

in

nnmbers

;

Do

days, marriages, as to the

21

?

far has

?

ceremonies do they reject

20.

how

an offshoot of the Wahabees? are

Are the Ramzan and other feasts observed if not, in what particulars ?

Arabia

any

?

they spreading beyond Purridepore

formerly

classes ?

—their text books

has the Vedantic system influenced Sufeyism in India?

17.

are

offerings

in

Courts

—by

bringing

Hindu

— —by rejecting

children

up

as

?

Are Saids numerous

in Bengal?

what estimation

are they held

?

In Musulman burial grounds, describe the various monuments which they are kept ? 24. In the marriage ceremonies are sitting in state carrying and applying tumeric measuring for wedding garments, kept up ? 23.

erected, the state in

—

—

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL. Kodali

25.

mama

Mohurrum; Kaiami

75

rasal ;

Mui

Mohorak.

by Dervishes much practised

26. Is the singing 27.

Any

?

practical checks to frequent divorce ?

28. Circumcision, the ceremonies different classes

and expense attending

it

in

believers

in

?

musket fired at the hirth of a male child ? Hindus or Musulmans, which are stronger

29. Is a 30.

witches,

ghosts

?

31. The numbers, profits, and social position of the Arab seamen and Moguls who come to Calcutta and other ports for trade ? 32. Anecdotes or MSS. illustrating the past and present social condition of the Musulmans in Calcutta, Dacca, Hugly, Murshidahad,

Pandua ? 33. Ai’e drinking habits on the increase

the causes

?

?

Are women more secluded among Musulmans or Hindus ? 35. Is the attachment of the Musulmans to their religion declining in proportion to the political decay of the Moslems ? 36. Is the hatred between Shiahs and Sunis lessening ? ditto 34.

between other Musulman

sects

?

Musulman ceremonies

37. Describe the

at birth,

circumcision,

puberty, betrothal, marriages, funerals, exorcism, as practised

now

and how different formerly ? 38. Is there as strict a regard to omens in travelling now as

by

different classes,

formerly 39.

?

The

remaining of former Moslem rule in Bengali.

effects still

XXX. The Native

Press.

This power, though young at present, a giant’s strength to

acknowledge

;

is

gradually rising to

and even Young Bengal

it to

be a power,

if

is

coming round

not for himself, at least

and daughters, who, not requiring to be copyists, do not need to work up a certain amount of China Bazar for his wife

English

;

the publication of half a million copies of Bengali

works in Calcutta annually effects.

for sale

cannot be without

its

It is very desirable to procure manuscript literature,

such as ballads, proverbs, songs, family traditions.

Of what

great value, in an historical point of view to the Rajputs, are

the ballads of

Chand

?

FIVE HCmDRED QUESTIONS ON THE

76 The

1.

circulation and profits of the following

works

Almanacs,

:

Panchalis or popular songs, tales.

Past and present patrons of native literature ? The use of f ernacular Lilraries in making known

2. 3.

and creating a taste

tions

A

4.

list

new

publica-

for reading ?

of the various libraries for natives established in the

Mofussil, their origin, success or failure, and the causes ? the classes

using them, the kind of books most popular ?

A

5.

sketch of the history of native editors, past and present,

of the former editors of the Bhaskar, Chandrika,

Puma

and Prahhakar newspapers in Calcutta ? 6. The native press, how far an index of the

Chandraday, moral, and

social,

intellectual condition of the people ? 7.

The recent

8.

Ballads, are there

copyright law, in its action on native authorship ?

many

of customs, history, morals ?

The

9.

booli

trade,

?

any very old ? how

profits,

its

far illustrative

*

mode

of

selling,

canvassing,

advertising ? 10. Pictures of the

numbers, by 1 1

gods and goddesses, where

sold,

in

what

executed ? *

Female book hawkers, the number, what

.

they

whom

class of

books do

sell ?

The working of the Act against obscene publications ? The practicability of procuring a volume of Anecdotes of native social life as drawn from their literature ? 14. It has been afiirmed that last century the Bengalis had no moral books, how far was that true ? 12. 13.

XXXI. Pandits. Pandits once occupied more important positions in social life

than they do now.

Many

anecdotes are

still afloat

of the

wonderful acquisition in Sanskrit lore made by the Tarkalankars and others of former days, of the lengthened period not to be despised as an index of a popular mind, as Sir to the Scotch, and Bp. Percy with respect to the English ballads. A queen of Denmark, ten centuries ago, had the Danish ballads pubhshed they have lately been translated into English they are chiefly written by women, and treat of history, and legends. The Guzerat Vernacular Society in its report for 1849 states that one of its great objects was the collecting aud copying ancient MS. ballads and tales. 2 It is calculated there may he two hundred shops for the sale of these now ; Bvahmanas and Khaistas come into the field as book agents. *

W.

Ballad literature

Scott has

is

shown with regard ;

;

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL.

77

of their grammatical studies, their profound acquaintance with

the shastras, and their wonderful feats of memory.

Their

and emoluments are on the decay the endowments they formerly had, which enabled them to maintain pupils

influence

;

according to the scholar,

Hindu

have been in

rule, that the

many

master

is to

English educa-

cases alienated.

more though the

support the

and paying know-

tion also has called for a

practical

ledge than Sanskrit,

latter is of the

utmost value

and antiquarian purposes. Raja Krishna Chundra Roy of Nuddea was the Mecenas of Pandits last century, and bestowed on them an immense amount of land. Adams, in his reports on education, has given us much information on the position of Pandits in 1835, so has Buchanan Hamilton on those of Behar at the beginning of this century. Though pandit learning is on the wane,

for philological

still it is

to be

this country

vernaculars

means

how

wished that Sanskrit studies were placed in

on a proper basis

—

—

as a

key

to the chief Indian

—

and as a Kght on the origin of nations brought to light by Sanskrit, that the

as a capital training in Philology

of throwing a flood of

striking the fact,

:

Highlanders of Scotland, the priests of Russia, and the Brah-

mans 1.

of Benares, use radically the

Pandits

—

same language

illustrations of their abstruse studies,

ledge as well as extensive reading on subjects 2.

!

The emoluments,

fees,

now

and endowments of

little

deep knowstudied?

tols (colleges),

and

their influence over the pupils in various localities ? 3.

The various causes that have

led to the decline of the emolu-

ments, influence, and studies of Pandits 4. 5.

?

Were Mithila hrahmans numerous and influential in Bengal? Do Pandits, Puroliits, or Gurus gain more emoluments, or have

greater influence ?

XXXII. Proverbs. Proverbs present a rich

field in illustrating

the social con-

dition of the people, as is pointed out in Trench’s admirable

work on the Proverbs. 1.

The

origin of Vernacular Proverbs,

how many from

the Sanskrit

?

how many

are modern,

—

;

FIVE

78

HUNDEED QUESTIONS ON THE

2.

The

3.

Their contrast and similarity with Hindi, Urdu, Mahratta,

Telugu

extent to

which they

are used,

which are

local

?

?

4.

Their resemblance to European Proverbs

5.

Proverbs illustrating the moral and social condition of the

?

people. 6.

Proverbs throwing any light on the history of the country

?

XXXIII. Readers.

In oriental countries where the masses cannot read,

common

very

book to them, and explain tions can be seen in the this class of 1

.

The

2.

How

Kathaks

its

more

Kathalcs

is

passages

Among

;

illustra-

the Bengali

called a Kathak.

mode

their number,

localities

diflBcult

Arabian Nights.

Readers or Reciters

ments and chief

it is

for the people to assemble to hear one read a

of being trained, emolu-

are they on the increase or decrease

;

far could the system be adopted of

to read interesting

?

employing men like

works ?

on popular subjects illustrated with diagrams, pictures, the desirableness and practicability of having them? 3.

Vernacular

lectures

XXXIV. Recreations

Music.

Music, since the days of Orpheus, as well as before, has exercised a mighty spell on the popular mind we know the famous saying “ Give me the making the ballads of a nation, :

you the making its laws.” Sir W. Jones has Hindu music and has vindicated its claims, though Europeons and Asiatics will never agree on this point. There is a Bengali work on this, but I have met very few and I

will give

written well on

pandits that could explain 1.

The popular

influence 2. 3.

songs

it.

in use,

their

description,

number and

?

An accoimt of the most popular hallad writers ? Any English music likely to be popular in this country ?

—

;

;

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL.

79

4. Any men corresponding witli tlie Bhats of Kajputana or the ' wandering minstrels of Europe in the middle ages ? 5. The numbers, profits of musicians who play for hire, their

different classes? 6.

Are

7.

How

athletic exercises as

much

practised

now

as formerly

?

more than Englishmen?^ What English games or athletic exercises might he naturalised

8.

in India

far do Bengalis sleep

?

The advantage

9.

of having a half holiday on Saturday

?

10. Field sports, as fowling, fishing, riding, pigeon fancying, kite

how

flying,

far practised

—numbers

gambling houses discussion

of gamblers

— gains

?

The mode

12.

much

?

Gamhling, various kinds of

11.

of spending the evenings

on

among educated natives?

politics or religion ?

13. Are feats of skill, such as balancing a row of water-pots on the head, dancing on poles, balancing, tumbling, rope-dancing,

sleight of hand,

common ?

14. Hative musical instruments, the various ones,

used

?

the ones most popular

15. Analysis of Vernacular hooks

16.

Cock fighting, bulbul fighting,

The Hindu notation

by what

classes

?

on muAc,}

ram

fighting,

how far practised?

music? any music on European any counterpoint, describe the various ragas any harp ? notation 18. Listening to tales, and riddles of an evening, how far practised ? 17.

19. Various

of

modes of swimming

practised, can

any women swim?

XXXV. Sects.

Without trenching on theological controversy, there wide sects

field in

of

is

a

considering the social influence of the various

Hindus and Musulmans.

Professor Wilson has

almost exhausted the theological part of the question in his elaborate work on the “ Sects of the Hindus,” but there is

much

to fin

up in the

social part.

In Behar zillah those Bhats rank next to the military tribes, amount to S80 most of which have endowments in land. “ They are very impudent fellows, and when any one offends them, they make an image of cloth, and call it by their enemy’s prototype.” 2 I mention this as the Bengalis sit up late. 1

families,

— FIVE HUNDEED aUESTIONS ON THE

80

How

1.

selytes

VaisJmahs ahead of other sects in elevating

far are tlie

the people or

women,

or in proselyting ? have they

among Muhammadans ?

made any

pro-

their ceremonies for the initiation of

converts ?

The extent

2.

of the

Guru's power and emoluments

now? do

they travel far ? the greatest number of disciples any have visits, instruction,

?

their

morals? the various kinds of Hpadesh they whisper

into the ear ? 3.

The

4.

Is this remark of Wilson correct:

duties, influence

and punishment of the Balpati?

“In Bengal

worship has no hold on the people’s

affections, it is

with their amusements, nor must

be imagined that

it

stimulus to impure passions.” Lecture

The

5.

the

Lingum

not interwoven it ofiers

any

22.

I.

Saidas, their mystical diagrams, rites, and gesticulations

?

Jangams? are any Sudras? 7. Was Sati practised more among Saktas or Yaishnabs? 8. Wlio worship Ola Bibi (the goddess of cholera), when did it begin, and in what districts is it observed ? ditto of Shitola, of the Karta Bhoj as, of Dakin Ray, of Gazi ? 9. What sects originating in the Upper Provinces have followers in Bengal, and what Bengali sects have adherents in the Upper Lingamites, are their priests

6.

Provinces

?

10. Is the Tantric 1 1

.

The

observe caste 12.

its social

Hindu monks

influence? ?

how

far do they

is it

spiritual or

?

Among what

material pantheism 13.

system spreading?

three leading divisions of

Pantheism spreading

sects is

?

The resemblances and

differences

between Pantheism and

Sufyism ? 14.

The number

of sects

among

the Musulmans? their respective

social influences ?

XXXVI. Servants. 1

.

Do

natives keep the same numler of servants as Europeans in a

corresponding rank of differ in the service of

mans? 2. The

life ?

how

do their pay, treatment, work^

Europeans, East Indians, Hindus, and Musul-

state of slaves in former days

—their price and treatment

?

*

Slavery was once very prevalent in Bengal, and especially in Behar ; the in the latter place, forbidden by their religion to purchase a freeman, in order to give a sop to their conscience, caU it taking a lease of a man for ninety *

Musulmans

years.

SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL.

The causes that sercanU in Calcutta and other parts in India what they used to be is it that those who

3. ai-e

81

—

said to he inferior to

govern iU are served

How

4.

ill ?

far is the practice of exchanging certificates of character

carried ?

Chuhdars (macemen) their numbers and pay in former days

5.

when 6.

Anecdotes, illustrative of the number, treatment, and cost of

slaves in 7.

how

?

did their numbers become less ?

Bengal in former times.

How

far are the rules of caste

among

they an invention for their

far are

own

servants really such ? ease and profit ?

(In

Madras, the land of real caste, one servant does the work of many). 8.

Ayahs, their

9.

The moral and

castes,

emoluments, morals?

social effect of so

from their wives and families ?

is it

many

servants being separated

like the Scotch

boothy system ?

XXXYII. Travelling.

may have conduced

Thougli pilgrimages

Hindus still

to a love of adventure

there

is

and

to season

to

encourage the

them

to hardship,

amonsr Bengalis a strong clinging to their native

place and their bhdilok, and yet Bengalis are found like .Jews

everywhere in India, but with better effect now than what Hamilton records “ of the Calcutta Babus sent to Dinagepore,

which

is

invaded by strangers from Calcutta, most of them

rapacious as kites, and eager to accumulate fortunes in order to be able to retire to their native country.”

one of the

effects of

kind of Bengalis to

TTe

trust that

the raih’oad will be to lead a different

^'isit

Behar,

viz.,

the educated native

who

wishes to see the remains of the former greatness of his

Hindu Agra and

country, as seen in the Buddhist ruins of Behar, the

monuments

of Benares, the

Moslem grandeur

of

Delhi, the beauteous scenery in the valley of the Soane

and

the Jain •buildings of Rajputana, with the wide Champaign of

Eewa — we hope

this

Indian grand tour

may

be considered

necessary to crown a book education.^ '

From Katamandu

offices; in

to Indore, the Bengali Babu is the copying machine in Benares alone there are about 7000 Bengalis settled.

VOL. U.

[XEW semes].

6

FIVE HUjSTDEED QUESTIONS ON THE

82 1

.

Do

men

the Bengalis travel more than the Behar

love

? is their

to it on the increase ? 2.

Do pilgrimages

in Bengal contribute

than in the Agra Presidency 3.

Is

much

correspondence kept

Agra Presidency and

How

4.

to a travelling spirit

up between Bengalis located

their friends in Bengal

far is cheap postage leading the

to learn to write 5.

more

?

in the

?

lower classes to a desire

and read.

Different kinds of lodging houses for travellers, their various

— accommodation— are

prices

they over crowded

— do scenes of vice

or robbery often occur ? 6.

Railways, their effects on third class travellers, in lessening

— enlarging the powers of observation — promoting —how far are women availing themselves of them

caste prejudices social comfort

?

7.

News, the various modes of procuring and publishing?

8.

Planting

trees

by the road

how

sides,

far practised in ancient

and modern times ? 9.

The causes leading

other parts

to natives emigrating to the Mauritius

and

?

XXXVIII. Vehicles, 1.

The various changes

2.

How

of the ehka, 3.

which

—

—

The

?

their numbers,

their native country

mode

of

life,

—many from

loca-

Behar

?

ditto.^

Syces in Calcutta ditto ditto

swift of foot ?

lower Bengal the use

both cheap and expeditious

character, profit

Ghari wallas ditto

5.

is

Palki hearers, in Calcutta

lities,

4.

in shape \ho palanheen has undergone.*

far is it feasible to introduce into

—were

not syces formerly more

^

origin of the shape of the present kiranchis

from old English coaches

Is it taken

?

XXXIX. "Working Classes. In England, mucli

interest has

been taken in the working

classes, as the great pillars of the social

In ’

2

system.

India in the present state of things, the

Last century they were arched. In Berlin, the cab drivers, while waiting

for a fare,

working

classes

are to be often seen

reading.

The author of Seri Matakherim writes that they make nothing of following and preceding Englishmen on a full gallop, and that common servants have been seen who would run down a hare. •’

— SOCIAL CONDITION OF THE NATIVES OF BENGAL. afford a fine field for education

their

improved

and

social

improvement, as

social condition, the rise of wages,

wants lead them to

feel

83

and

their

a stronger desire for education and

its

them a knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic, is rendered by their daily occupations a matter of necessity, while a little colloquial English would in some accompaniments

;

to

cases be of use to them.

What

they especially need

is

not a

smattering of book English, but a sound vernacular education,

embracing the elements of mathematics and manufacturing: skill,

on the plan of the commercial schools in England, from

How many

which, a smattering of Latin has been excluded.

men have risen from this class, such and Hugh Miller, an encouragement to others

eminent

;

French army, every

as Stephenson like as in the

soldier is said to carry the baton of field

marshall in his knapsack, or in Russia where several millionaires

were originally

Musulman

tailor

serfs.

In Jehanabad a century ago a

founded a sect composed of Musulmans

and Hindus, who respect the Koran and Shastras

;

this tailor

composed 18 sacred books in Hindi, and his followers now amount to 20,000. Kabir, sprung from a weaver family, was the founder of one of the greatest sects in north India, while

among

the village gods worshipped in Behar are those

were boatmen, domes, oilmen.

who

Chandra Gupta’s maternal

grandfather was a barber.

The London Working Men’s

College, established in 1854,

has 270 students in Mathematics, Drawing, French, Natural

History

there are other Colleges in Manchester, Halifax,

;

having among their alumni, carpenters, shoe-makers, weavers, tailors, porters. When will Bengal have hers the working men now can scarcely read. When is India to have the

—

literature of labour

man

—

—

like that of

Clare the peasant poet

Cooper the shoemaker poet

Burns the bard and plough-

—Hogg

the shepherd poet

— Miller the stonemason geologist.

Hood’s literature of labour and the achievements of mind

among the cottage, or “ mind among many reflections on this. I

.

many

numbers, profits, social have many risen in the world ?

TTeavers, their

read

;

the spindles ” suggest

position, localities

;

do

FIVE HUNDRED QUESTIONS, ETC.

84

Musulmans?

2.

Tailors, are all

3.

Shoemakers, do any become rich

?

is

the prej udice against them

declining ?

why

4. Totters,

inferior to those of former

days?

Dyers, different kinds and nature of dyes?

5.

they chiefly immigrants ?

6.

Masons and Stone

7.

Smiths, the profits and social position of various classes as

cutters, are

coppersmith, tinsmith, blacksmith, goldsmith.

?

Dookhinders, any Hindus,

9.

10.

society 1 1

any poisonous matter used in their colouring

Confectioners,

8.

confectionery

.

12.

Shopkeepers,

do they come from

why

if not,

why so many

readers

class in

?

Idol makers, their localities, profits,

Firework makers,

?

among them ? what numbers ?

ditto.

13. Pansaries, or Grocers, ditto. 14. Instances of Revolutions in trade in this country

copyers, coach proprietors 15. to

Instances

?

^

among the working

wealth or social distinction, or

Is the Sh'dpa Shastra in use

17.

Any

18.

The middleman

Among who

among

risen

educated their sons well?

among any

priests?^

system, its evils?

the most thriving trades

profit as

men who have

the working classes?

much hy

this dirty

do by their other division of

men

classes of

who have

16.

strikes

from change

among weavers, manuscript

of employment, like that in Europe

it.

is

that of keepers of tatties,

work

as English undertakers

I have heard of

near Dharamtola bazar, Calcutta,

and three hundred rupis monthly.

some of those

who earn between two

In the Congress General

of Hj^giene in France, 1852, one resolution passed was, “That the instruction of the

comprise

all

which

young

in the labouring classes ought to

relates to the cleanliness of their person

and of their dwellings, to the benefits resulting from good There is ventilation and the evils arising from humidity.” on the Continent the Association International de Bienfaisance, whose main objects are to bring into relationship all interested in the condition of the Avorking classes, reformatory institutions 1

and popular education. It is so

among

certain stonemasons in

Behar

zillah.

^

CORRECTIOXS TO ART. Page

88, note, line 1, instead of

94,

6 and

1.

98, note

read

Senu

read Ibenu. read

112, note 1, instead of

1>

IV.

bhimwang read bhisnweng,

7, instead of

4, instead of

:

.

In the same note read

Tamil instead of Sindi, and Panehatantra instead of Sitopadesa.

„

120, line 8, instead of shamsu-lbarrin read shaimu-lbarri. 16, instead of Qamrit-lbahrin read Qamru-lbahri.

133, note 2, instead of

Page

87, line 25,

add: It

may

04^

read

not, perhaps, he devoid of interest to quote a

remarkable passage from the Panja Tandaran (lithographed edition, p. 30), in

which

also

mention

is

made of

commencing the war.

before

jackal, crow,

human

the

performed by Yudhishthira

sacrifice

It occurs in the first hook, in the story of the

and tiger persuading the Ron, their master,

to

devour a camel

j^lj^ ^

^

^

^ ‘i

“ The Crow said to the King Lion

:

Lord

!

in the time of King Pdrmaraja,

when

they intended to go to attack a certain state, that King’s astrologer, called Kasna, said

:

town

‘

If your Majesty kills this your Majesty’s child,

(or state) is sure to

case, the

King

killed his

the lives of the many.”

own

child.

making a

sacrifice

of

it,

that

Then, on account of the urgency of the Such an act is sinless, as we preserve by it

be conquered.’

j

‘

».‘

’I

f

-;

r#^ '^ fO *

r..',*i

V4;iw

m::.

k

4

•f^

.'

A

*

Si0f

,

'\f>i

’*

'

'‘-^**« 1

il0^

*iU

tiUki'

•»««:

4P

'

.-

t.

»’*.

li

'

!i

4i*^\

) ft»«4iji

jV'HflJ

mu /w^•^v

>*
J*a»i|*

rf*"

“ vCn

-

X^

jfc'w

ai*'ifil|viai(t

Oi’-

U^0MI|* V>'Uw«»f''n.HUli

See

title

my “Rort

Londen.”

Verslag Jer Mai. Handscliriften van bet East India House te

BELONGING TO THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. No. 25

name

(folio of

103

This Panji tale goes by the

304 pages).

from a name the heroine

of

assumes when leading the

life

of a penitent.

The commence-

treats of the prince of Kuda Jaya Asmara, surnamed Kdrtapati, who was betrothed to the princess of Daha, Raden Galuh Chandarakirana puspanwy

ment

Kuripan, called

A

rat.

god falling in love with

the, said princess

asked her

of Batara Guru, but meeting with a refusal, as she was to

be the wife of Kdrtapati, dropped her with her two waiting-

women

into a forest, where she led the life of a penitent, and changed her name and that of her companions. She is afterwards married to the prince, here passim called Raden Inu,

who

succeeds his father with the

Kuripan, the old king retiring

No. 26

(folio

•

of

Pdrabu Anom ing

woods

to

do penance.

This Panji tale goes by the

of 239 pages).

name

title

to the

The commencement

is

almost the

same as that of No. 23, relating the birth of Inu Kdrtapati, and that of the Raden Galuh Puspaning rat, surnamed ChanGoing in quest of his love, who is carried off ddrakirana.

by Batara Kala

into a forest, the hero takes the

Taman Panji Jayeng Kdsuma.

name

Mesa‘s

Afterwards in the course of

Kdsuma (p. 73 of many adventures he becomes king of all Jawa.^ Werndly in his Maleische Boekzaal mentions a Hikayat Mesa Taman Wila Kdsuma, and van Hoe vell in his annotations on the Sair Bida-

the narrative he

is

called Sira Panji Wila

MS.), but often merely Sira Panji.

sari has

After a great

given quotations from a Hikayat Panji Wila Kdsuma,

pp. 301, 326, 334, 339, 362, 363, and 374.

Nos. 27 and 28.

No. 29

See under No. 23.

645 pages ends abruptly). This Panji tale has the lettering Hikayat Naga Bersru (on the fly-leaf within). (folio,

;

I dare not decide whether this

tion

is

right, as I did not succeed

Leyden, in his Dissertaon the Indo-Chinese Nations (As. Bes. x.) speaks of a

in finding the reason for this

From

title.

the Javanese endang (a female penitent or nun). Jav. Maesa [ilahim, buffalo) is frequent in proper names of Javanese personages, and is sometimes rendered by the equivalent Javanese kebo. '

2

3

Amut'er jagad jawa (Jav.).

SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE MALAY MANUSCRIPTS

104

lliknyat Naga Bisaru} or story of a princess of Daha, who was changed into a serpent, and banished to a lake. It is a pity he gave no explanation of the name. At all events this

manuscript belongs to the Panji

king of Kuripan asking

the hand of the princess of

hero

is

tales.

It opens

with the

Raden Inu Kdrtapati, Daha, Chanddrakirana. The

for his son, the

here passim called Sira Panji and Sdri Panji.

No. 30 (small folio of 74 pages the wrong lettering on the back of the cover, Salasilah nabi Muhammad, is owing to the ;

words, which

first

make Nuru-ddin

prophet’s) contains the

a descendant of the It is a genealogical

account of the kings of Cheribon (properly, Chi-rehon), com-

mencing with

named

the

a confused tale about

Suhunan Gunung

Jati,

Sheykh Nuru-ddin,

It is probably translated

Islam in Java.

sur-

one of the apostles of the

from a peculiar

language being anything but

dialect of the Javanese, its

Malay, and mixed up with Javanese and occasionally with Sundanese words

too.

Besides the said

Suhunan

(“

Reverend”),

other celebrated apostles, as the Suhunan’s Kali Jaga,

Danta, and

Bonang

are

personated

Ampel

here as people en-

dowed with miraculous gifts, and the conquest of Majapahit, Bantm (Bantam), and Pajajdran (called here too by its The Panemancient name Pakuivan) is briefly narrated. bahan Sura Sohan, called also Mowldnd llasanu-ddin, introduces, according to this chronicle, the Islam in Pajajaran,

Lampong

country, Inddrapura, Bangka-ulu (Bencoolen), His elder brother, the Panembahan Pakung Wati rules the country from Kraivang to Cheribon, he himself that This manuscript makes use from Bantam to Kraivang.

the

and Balo.

occasionally of the linguals J

and

materials might be gleaned for a

From it some valuable work on Javanese history, \s

the last pages containing an account of the kings of Cheribon

down

to Sultan

No. 31

'

(folio

Anom. of 411 pages) contains the

This bisaru and bersru of the lettering, I should like to explain by

in the sense of to cry invoking the gods. *

e.g.

and

{bhatdra).

•

BELONGING TO THE EOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

The hero

105

the son of 8hdh

Partsad ^ Indara L&qsana, king of Thdraf^ situated in the neighbourhood of Mount This king, although powerful, was forced to pay Qdf. tribute to the monkey-king Baliya Indara,^ whose residence is

was Kurdari

The king’s

eldest son, called in the

commencement Qubad Lela Indara,’^ and afterward Shah Qicbad Johan Arifin, could not put up with his father’s ^

and resolved

disgrace,

to deliver his parent

He

giance to the monkey-king.

by

genii,

who prove

to

A^

alle-

ways assisted and wages war against

This manuscript ends abruptly, the

words being

A

^

from the

in several

be his relatives,

the powerful enemy. last

is

yj f

i^Ia I^'AA^

J

^

1

lLJaU

clA*

Ai^

Another copy, in which some of the proper names are different, goes

by the name of j^\ jiJ:t

(No.

6,

large

414 pages). The father of the hero is called here Shah Parmat Indara Laqsana, and the residence of the

folio of

monkey -king Kardar is I.

the

(85 pages,

name

An

)-

entirely different version

and ending abruptly) of

of

ISTo.

58

;

•

goes by The hero

it

in this recension the son of Bahdrma ^ Chandara, king of Baranta Indara. A specimen of the readings of No. 31 and No. 6 deserves being inserted

is

;

^

^

aI.^

® According to the Malay history of Rama the same as BdU, and brother of Sugriwa. Malay compositions borrow from each other proper names; so, for instance, we find Indara Kila (mountain, where Arjuna lived as penitent), jfmtaraga (name of a cave, where Arjuna did penance, Sanscr. and Kawi wHardga, passionless), and other proper names from the Kawi poem Wiwdha (in Malay

fAs.- from

a Titan conquered by Arjuna) occurring in other

compositions." Such proper names ought to be received into the Dictionaries. * Werndly in his Maleische Boekzaal mentions a tale about a person of this very name, and Bahru-ddin (list of Malay works to be had at Surabaya) has a )!J *

AIaIA

j iifo-

See under No. 12.

.

^ SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE MALAY MANUSCRIPTS

106

No. 6: i^Uj

‘

d-\i

AJ

t^

JTJ

a

i^Ia

“*'^y

1.^'b

c/'

J^V

li;:!^'^'*

d^J

''j^J

^**JL« oJCj c/--^''^

1

iA

A^ A

Jpb

^••'

Ai^" ji.4As

a1

LIL^L)

A-ij

ti^.^

JV

i3

AijA

r^^_U

C^-cL*.'

6">'^

1^$"

0-''^-)

1/

f*^

l,Ao^

etc.

No. 31

aJC

i^U

;

i^^A

^

I—

lAA-^^_JJ jSLiJCi

jli

I

aa^ *""^r^*'

d-jr^

Jpl)

^a3^ aLiP^ ^La

|*A^S

^\a

caaU

AijA

^\?

'^b

'^b

Aj^A

^A;i-^^

^A^LLib

\t)^1^J

'

JV‘

c/' r^t)

^tiX-s.>-

«—

»-^i**^

Li.r^'

A^

(i}i^

a\ etc.

A.aiill

IjAJI L*Jj

lAA-jl

^j\^

Ai$'

[*^

p

:

:

:

BELONGING TO THE EOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. No. 32 I.

and laws,

contains

(? folio)

^

An

(11 pages). e.g.

107

account of various ceremonials, customs,

of the chief ministers a king should have, the

flags they wear, etc.

A

II. (5 pages).

tacked by

short story about Inddrapura being at-

;'ci(fa^-fishes,^

and the stratagem by which they

were defeated.

The

III. (5 pages).

first

arrival of the Portuguese,

A

their stratagem to get possession of Malaka.®

of

it

by

Sir Stamford Raffles

Researches,

IV.

to

is

and

translation

be found in the Asiatic

115.

xii. p.

Coloured figures representing the flags used by the

sovereign and his chief ministers (belonging to I).

A

commencing words of which a chapter than like a real commencement.

V. (63 pages). look more like

They

are

^

tale the

:

^

Jiy ijjy

Gtc.

The

last

words are

It relates the adventures of Deiva Bknu, son of the king spoken of in the commencement from which it is probable ;

that the

title

No. 33 '

should be

(folio)

Dulaurier in his

jjJ

4jI$Rw.

contains list

speaks of two folio volumes, both containing

but I have only found one, on the back of which the number was obliterated. That number is consequently aU hut certain. 2

The same

is

told of Singapura (see

according to the Sair Raja Tuktung 2

The same

narrative

is

(

Malayan Annals,

p. 83)

and of Barus

oV

found in one of the

last chapters of

No.

1.

SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE MALAY MANUSCRIPTS

108

A

(11 pages).

I.

collection of laws,

the finding of goods, and

what

commencing with

be done with them.

is to

II. (44 pages).

Laws, some of which are maritime.

III. (8 pages).

Fragments of a law book, beginning with

the fencing of cultivated

fields.

^

lY. (6 pages). About the ‘-r’V* ominous qualities of the days of the months, having mystical names, mostly those of animals.

The same

is

found in

ii.

of

No. 74. V. (3 pages),

S-'V

The same

ominous times. IV.

is

xvi.

On

the seven

and xxx\hi. of No.

34,

and

of No. 74.

On

YI. (6 pages).

the five

ominous times. Compare the Bataksch Y^oordenboek,

The same

p. 419.

and xxxv.) and No. 74 (v.) No. 34 (folio the number obliterated, and on the back of the cover, unclang undang) contains I. (1 page). A fragment from a law book. in No.

34

(x.

;

:

II.

^

page),

(1

On

the

serpent turning itself round in the sky, the position of which

be known, especially when going to war.

is to

Charms and antidotes. Malay laws, commencing with the fencing of cultivated fields. The maritime part has been published by Dulaurier in the sixth volume of Pardessus’s Collection de III. (3 pages).

lY. (15 pages).

Lois Maritimes.

Y.

(7 pages).

Treaty between the Admiral Speelman and

Ilasanu ddin, king of Gowa, and other

Mangkasar

chiefs

(compare No. 10). YI. (1 page). Chronicle of Mangkasar, commencing with ^

t"

lt*

etc.

YII.

(continued in

(1 page).

viii.)

Contract of Aligu-ddln of

Gowa

with the

Malay merchants. YIII.

and

(3 pages).

Continuation of

vi.

(continued in xii.

XVIII.)

IX.

(9

pages).

A

chapter on the law of inheritance

BELONGING TO THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. X.

See vi. of Xo. 33.

(2 pages).

XI.

109

Customs and laws commencing with the Tumanggung, and other functionaries

(6 pages).

duties of the Bandhara,

of the Malays.

XII.

Continuation of

(2 pages).

vi.

A

fragment about the discontinuance of XIII. (1 page). praying according to the words of the prophet.

XIV.

Formulas used as charms.

54th page).

(1 page,

XV. (1 page). On ominous days (jjju.sr). XVI. (3 pages). The same as v. of No. 33. ^ XVII. (1 page), XVIII. (4 pages). Continuation of vi. (continued in xix.) XIX. (3 pages). A fragment of a work on superstitions and

continuation of vi. (continued in xxvi.) on charms, com-

mencing with the means of seducing a woman,

XX.

etc.

Receipts against diseases, commencing

(11 pages).

with a precept about the regular course of a woman’s sperm

XXI.

Table of ominous events, which have to be

(p. 78).

expected on each day of the month.

XXII.

Receipts,

(p. 79).

commencing with a

prescription

against stomach-ache.

XXIII.

(p.

81).

The

letters of the alphabet

with their

mystical meaning under each of them.

XXIV. at

Regulations for the chief of the Malays settled

Mangkasar, his power,

XXV. XXVI.

etc.

woman’s obduracy. Fragment of a chronicle (vi.) and con-

Prescription to conquer a (p. 82).

tinued in xxviii.

XXVII. XXVIII.

XXIX. angels,

Continuation of xxiv. Continuation of

Combination of

vi.

letters

attributed

to prophets,

and holy men.

XXX.

A

(p. 98).

precept of the wise

Loqmdn about

the

future of a just-born child.

XXXI.

(p. 99).

*

On

the ominous signification of earth-

See Herklots’ Customs,

etc. p.

395.

:

no

SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE MALAY MANUSCRIPTS

quakes, lightning and eclipses, according to the time of their

A fragment of

appearance.

de Hollander’s Reader,

XXXII.

103).

(p.

a similar

work

be found in

is to

A About the choice of the ground p. T 1

,

make a field of, etc. Means to know how 106).

to

erect a house upon, to

XXXIII. (p. woman live together.

XXXIV. may

110).

(p.

know whether

Means

to

See

of No. 33.

man and

a

stolen goods

be recovered.

XXXV.

(4 pages).

XXX VI.

vi.

Astrological tables of the planets according to

the days of the week.

XXXYII.

See v. of No. 33.

On

p. 120,

an

illustrative

table.

XXXVIII. position (see

(p.

A figure illustrative

121).

of the serpent’s

ii.).

No. 35.

See under No. 18.

No. 36.

See under No.

7.

No. 37. See under No. 9. No. 38 (small folio of 87 pages). No. 59 (small 4to. of 138 pages), and No. 71 (small 4to. of 196 pages) contains the In the last-named number the introduction wanting.

is

by

J. J.

sess a

Some

fables

from

this

book have been published I posp. 18 sqq.

de Hollander in his Malay Reader,

manuscript of

it

(4to. of

205 pages).

A

the various readings of these four manuscripts out of place.

The reader may compare with

specimen of

may it

not be

the fable

published on p. 18 of the above-cited work.

No. 38

^

CAjj lLC*

AAi

*

On

the west coast of

{si-taruhuh) after the

til

name

Sumatra of the bull

it

goes by tbe

who became

name

of

the lion’s friend.

h IC--

A

^

u

HI

BELONGING TO THE EOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

^AJA

^-J

ij

^l«A

J}\ji JU>-

No. 59 0***^y^

t-

t

A^ ^^aaaJ

^

y.S ^

,

^

U—

cAJ'A CA'li

^jIa

Ai^ ;__iAUL«

j!) ^.JjAlil

cdj^=^

JIa

Lblj^jl CA^.'l

jJbA

manuscript

cS-^

^a1

..

^Aj^^bA

i_>b -^

^A.’

i-iiij'U.^

Jlbjuo

kaving subjected the kings oiGujdrat,

Mogol, Abyssinia, MachuUpatam, Bengal, etc., he sends a

fleet to

conquer Java, going himself thither with his sons through the

Mesa Indara Dewa Kdsuma opposes the conqueror.

air.

Amongst

the places the Indian king besieged

the king of which had a son called

Pajajdran,

is

Amas Tanduran, and two

Raden galuh Kumuda Rdsmi, and Raden Rina (?). The opening of this tale is anything but

daughters, called

galuh Detvi clear.

It is besides

for instance,

(18 pages).

copy in No. 62.

(to tread

Fragmentsof the

II. (64 pages).

III.

crowded with Javanese expressions, as

mdngambah jumantdra'^

the

air).

No. 42).

(see '

^J>y

This short tale about

Another

Muhammad’s

miracle

of making the moon pass by halves through his sleeves, has been published by Robinson at the end of his “ Principles to elucidate the

There are a great many

Malay Orthography^’^

manuscripts of this legend."*

lY. (5 pages)

ji

woman, about which the heroine '

* 3 ‘

On

the duties of a married

of this tale consults the

Corruption of the Sansk. Suprabha.

The Sansk. dyurmntara. P. 222 sqq. of the Dutch translation by E. Netscher. One in the possession of Mr. H. C. Millies at Utrecht, and another

(small 8vo. of 28 pages).

in

mine

H5

BELONGING TO THE BOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

A copy

prophet.^

in the possession of

is

where the proper name No. 48 (small

4to. of

is

Mr. H. C.

Millies,

spelt

210 pages) contains the The taurid batman and mishkal = half the above J The mishkal corresponding to the (5) dirham used for gold and

—

silver, in Persia =74.5 ,, =72 The abbasi corresponding to 1 mishkal, Marsden says ,, =71 The modern debased mishkal of ,, Baber, in speaking of the mishkal, may either mean his own Bokharan mishkal, or, as seems more probable, the current mishkal as existing at that time in India

THE INITIAL COINAGE OF BENGAL.

153

is more probable, elaborated out of the elements of ancient Indian Metrology may be quoted in their

of Ghazni, or, as

—

—

“ Indian or Syrian mishkal ” of the Mahommadan writers which was the Greek mishkal + 2 kirats. The modern debased mishkal of Bokhara we may leave out of our comparisons. It is surely a degraded weight in a country that has undergone an eclipse. The old “Greek Dinar” is of course the Byzant, or solidus aureus the The denarius of Byzantium. It was nominally coined 72 to the Roman lb. Byzantian Roman lb. in the British Museum weighs 4995 grains, so the solidus was nominally coined at 69.4 grains. It really issued from the mint at a maxipnum weight of 68 (a very few of the most finely preserved coins reaching this amount). Now taking Makrizi’s statement that the mishkal was 24 kirats, and that of the Ayin-i-Akberi that the Greek mishkal was 2 kirats less than this we find the weight of the mishkal = 68+|j= 74.1 8 grains troy. Again, Makrizi mentions that Abd-el-malek ben Merwan coined dinars and dirhams in the ratios of 21j kirats: 15 kirats. Now this Caliph’s gold coins in the British IMuseum (in a very fine state of preservation), weigh 66.5 grains, and his silver, also well preserved, 44.5. Taking the former as coined at 67. we have the ratio Dinar: Dirham = 21 J 15 = 67 46.2, which latter gives a probable weight for the dirham as originally coined. (In Makrizi’s time the ratio was dinar dirharo = 10 7=21.75 15.22; or supposing the gold coin unchanged at 67, the silver dirham would become 46.88). Then, 24 we as the ratio of the dinar (or gold mishkal) to the mishkal weight = 21| have for the mishkal weiglit a value of 73.93 grains. These two values, thus severally adduced from different data viz., 74.18 and 73.93 sufficiently nearly accord to justify, I think, our striking the balance between them, and declaring the ancient mishkal ( “ the Syrian or Indian mishkal ” ) to have been very nearly 7 4 grains. Hence the kirat would be 3.133 grains, troy. The modern carat varies from 3.15, the modern Indian carat, to 3.28, the old French carat (made thus probably to be an aliquot part of the old French ounce), 'rhe English carat = 3.168; the Hamburgh = 3.176, and the Portuguese = 3. 171. The above value of the mishkal accords extremely well with my theory about the diamond. That the “Greek Dinar” of Makrizi was the Sassanian gold is not at all likely, although the silver dirham was, no doubt, originally derived from the Sassanian drachma. Of the few gold pieces of Sassanian coinage, the one in the Museum, of Ardashir I., weighs now 65.5, and could not have been coined at less than 66.5 grains which would give a mishkal of 72.04. But under the Sassanidse, the gold coinage was quite exceptional, and was not large enough to have formed the basis of the monetary system of the Caliphs, which was professedly founded on Greek coins, current. As to the Bokhfiran mishkal of Baber’s time, how are we to arrive at it ? You and if you can’t, who can ? are able to make little firm ground out of the weights of Sassanian, or Ghasnavid coins nor will the coins of the Ayubite, Mamluke, and Mamluke Bahrite, Caliphs (of which I have weighed scores), give any much more reliable units on which to base the history of the progress of change in the mishkal. The limits of its variation in modern times seem to have lain between 74.5 and 72 troy grains I believe 74 as near as possible its true original weight, the weight of the Syrian and of the Indian mishkal. This would give the rati on the goldsmith's standard of 8 to the masha, and 40 to the mishkal, as 1.85 grains, and the limits of this rati would be 1.862 and 1.80. The value of the jeweller’s rati (6 to the masha) would be for the 74 grain mishkal 2.47 g’"ains, and its limits would be 2.483 and 2.40. That Bfiber'i and Humayun’s now worn and dilapidated coins of 71 and 71.5 grains were mishkals is not improbable but they certainly were not coined at

in short, the

—

;

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

;

;

less

than 74 grains.

Without entering

into the Indian numismatical question, I

may remind you

of

THE INITIAL COINAGE OF BENGAL

154

surviving integrity of weight and design, as having furnished the prototypes of a long line of sequent Dehli mintages, and

thus contributing the manifest introductory model of

all

Bengal coinages^

The

produce of the southern mints.

artistic merits of the

Tuglak’s coin of 174 grains (one in i,he British Museum = 172.25), probably coined at 175 or 176; a fair weight of issue for a coin nominally of some 177 or 178 grains. These coins, I believe, you consider to represent the tola. A tola of 177.6 would accord on the ratios of Baber’s table with a misbk.il of 74 grains. I am strongly tempted to enter furlher into this question of i.he ponderary systems of India, but I am 'warned by your own able papers of the difficulties in the patir of one who deals only in translations and in the weight of coins. 24lh Nov., 1865.

There are three

'

varieties of Altarosh’s silver coinage,

al'

showing more or

less the imperfection of the training of the Indian artists in the reproduction of

the official alphabet of their conquerors. The designs of these pieces were clearly taken from the old Ghazni model of Muhammad bin Sera’s Dirhams and Diniirs. and the indeterminate for.n of the device itself would seem to indicate that they mark the initial effort of the new Muhammadan silver currency which so soon fixed itself into one unvarying type, and retained its crude and unimproved lettering for upwards of a century, "till Muhammad bin Tughlak inaugurated his reign by the issue of those choice specimens of the Moneyer’s art, which stand without compeers in the Dehli series. No. 1, Silver. Size, vii. weight, 162-5. Supposed to have been struck on the receipt of the recognition of the Khalif of Baghdad in 626 a.h. ;

Obverse

:

Square area, with double

lines,

within a cirele.

Legend, Reverse

;

Square area, with double

lines, within a circle.

Legend,

No. 2, Silver. Size, viii. weight, 16o’5. Obverse Square area, with double lines. ;

Date, 630 a.h.

:

Legend,

Reverse

:

L; jJl

)

Circular area.

Legend,

Margin,

Mr. Bayley notices the occasional change of the name of the piece a>

1

1

1

5 6

898 900

1

2-1 1

>5

7

1

8

1

1

903 904 907

1

3-1 3-1 1

»

!

1

12

905 909 910 912

2-1

[Ts

913

2-1

914

4-1

9

10 11 i

1 1

1

1

1 1

^

14

1

1

„

1

Ts

4-1

918

1 i

1 1 1

16

3-1

919

1

1

”

75

”

1

1

1

Vol. XV. 1852, p. 121,

et seq.

143-438 142-163 142-936 138-913 140-088 141-500 140 800 127-600 143-100 142-500 143-250 141-150 139-900 144-500 141-500 140-200 142-500 135-500 132-250 140-750 140-000 138-500 141 000 140-500 138-250 133-250 139-750 125-000 135-250 137-250 137-500

1-900 2-025 1-925 1

615

2-200 1-5625 2-6000 3-0125 4-650 5-624 15-5 16-0 16-0 17’5 15-0 15-0 12-0 15-0 15-0 15.0 15-0 15-5 16-5 16-0 10-0 10-0 9-0 8-0 32-0 8-0 8.0

— THE INITIAL COINAGE OF BENGAL. The

Institutes of

Mami have preserved

169

a record, reproduced

some and among other things explain, that the values of gold and copper, were calculated by a in the subjoined table, of the various weights in use,

centuries before Christ,^

different metric scheme, to that applied to silver.

number

A larger

Masha in the former, and the numbers commenced with a five (5 x 16),

of Ratis went to the

progression of

while the silver estimates were founded on the simple arith-

metic of fours (2x16), which constituted so special a characteristic of India’s

tables starting

home

civilization.

from independent

Still,

the two sets of

were

bases,

very

early

and adapted to each other in the advancing totals, so that the 320 ratis constituting the satamdna of the quaternary multiplication, is created in the third line by the use assimilated

of a ten,

and the quasi exotic scheme corrects

its

independent

elements by multiplying by four, and produces a similar total in the contents of the

Pala or Nishka.

The second

lines of

the tables are severally filled in with the aggregate numbers,

32 and 80, and as the duplication of the former, or 64, has

—

^ Manu, viii. 131. “ Those names of copper, silver, and gold (weights) which are commonly used among men for the purpose of worldly business, I will now comprehensively explain. 132. The very small mote which may be discerned in a sunbeam passing through a lattice is the first of quantities, and men call it a trasarenu. 133.— Eight of those irasarenus are supposed equal in weight to one minute poppy-seed {likshd), three of those seeds are equal to one black mustard-seed (rdjasarshapa), and three of these last to a

—

—

white mustard-seed {gaura-sarshapa). Six white mustard-seeds are equal 134. to a middle-sized barley-corn (gava), three such barley-corns to one krshnala [raktika], five krshnalas of gold are one mdsha, and sixteen such mdshas one 135. suvania. Four suvarnas make a pala, ten palas a dharana, but two krshnalas weighed together are considered as one silver mashaka. ISb. Sixteen of those luashakas are a silver dharana or purdna, but a copper kdrsha is known to be a pana or kdrshdpana. Ten dltaranas of silver are known 137. by the name of a satamdna, and the weight of four suvarnas has also the appellation of a nishka" These statements may be tabulated thus as the

—

—

ANCIENT INDIAN SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS. SILVER.

2 ratis

32

=

masha

1

1

16 I

320 5 ratis

80

„

320

„

3200

„

80 ratis

dharana. or purana.

= 160 = 10 GOLD. = masha. = 16 „ = suvarna. = 64 „ = 4 „ = 640 „ = 40 „ COPPER. = karshapana.

1

satamfina.

1

1

1

f

or nishka.

1 pala,

)

10

„

1

dharana.

THE INITIAL COINAGE OF BENGAL.

170

been seen to do duty in the one use of the 160 naturally suggests

case, the probability of the itself in

connexion with the

theoretical organization of the copper coinage.

In proceeding

to test the relations of the

minor and subor-

dinate currencies, the cardinal point to be determined

exchangeable value of copper as against

silver.

is,

It has

the

been

affirmed b)' Colebrooke,^ that the ratio stood in Manu’s time

64 to 1

at

accepting the correctness of this estimate, which

:

has, I believe,

remained unchallenged, and supposing the rate

have remained practically but

to

Muhammadan new

affected

little

up

to the

conquest, the 175 grains of silver oi Altamsh’s

coinage, would be equivalent in metallic value to 11,200

The ancient copper kdrshdpana is recognised and defined as 80 ratis in weight, so that under the above conditions, and calculating the rati at 1'75 grains, each karshapana was equal to 140 grains, and eighty of these, under the same calculations, give a return of 11,200 grains. Without at present advancing any more definite proposition, or grains of copper.

quoting dubious coiucidencies,

it

may be

as well to test these

preliminary results

b)^

Mints have

an heritage behind him.

left as

the

ISTumismatic data Firuz Shah’s

Among

the

incidents quoted regarding that monarch’s monetary innovations,

he

is

stated to have introduced, for the first time, half

On

the occasion of a very elaborate

my monograph

on the Path an Sultans of Dehli,

and quarter revision of

Chitals.

while residing under the very shadow of so

many

of their

and described, among others, two specimens of the money of this king, which seemed to be closely identifiable Avith his Utopian productions of new and memorial

edifices,

I acquired

infinitesimal subdivisions of the leading copper coinage, in his expressed desire of securing for the poorest of the poor,

the fractional change they might be entitled to in the most limited purchases.^

These coins responded singularly in their

mutual proportions, and contributed in the form of once *

As. Res.

V.

95.

Shams-i-Sir&j, in his work entitled the Tarikh-i-Firdz Shahi, gives the following incidents regarding Firuz Shah’s coinages *

—

THE INITIAL COINAGE OE BENGAL.

171

in copper amounting from which a very low estimate was deduced of 34’8 and 17'4, as a normal official

current money,

weights

definitiye

and 17'8

severally to 34'5

grains,

If the 34'8 grain of the

standard.

by

these be multiplied

160,

it

of

first

will give a

return of 5568'0 grains, and accepting this

half- Chital^

it

i Chital of FlrQz.

as Firuz’s novel

trial piece, conditionally,

will be seen to furnish a general total of 11,136

grains for the copper equivalent of the 175 grains of silver contained in the old Tankah, and confirms the range of the Chital at 69’6 grains, or only ’4 short of the full contents tradition

would assign

unchanged half kdrshdpana of primi-

as the

it,

To pass

tive ages.^

to the opposite

copper exchange rate,

it

is

extreme for a

test of the

when Shir Shah

found that

re-

organised the northern coinage of Hindustan, by the lights of

^

•

h

^

i

a

i

a

a

11

^

^3

li

^l«Wia^*

^

"J

a

J

J a jli SJ ;ht> 1

\J^

C.V

C/-

aCmC

JJ

t

lUr^aCL^^-i-J .,,a.>-

I ^

J

. y

\

1

.

A.h.4

1133.4

A y

Aa.4

y

Ai.'

a^

..>

^

hji y

vd

A

,

1?

Ixsaj

-J

rn.1t

a

a

a

. ,

J

,1L

dA3l^.J

^

yA \y

1

^

A-

^

Aad^.U

dfi

AJ^A A>-

Aa C" ,.,1.4

h.

.J

cJiL:1

a.^

-

C-"

a

a

^i.S^

^Lwiia.

*

cliOlA yp A.4 a y

UL The

a

aJ

V

••

/I

h

A? h#

1

/

Vih

AjAJ C

L)ial

AU.'

,.mALua.4 lA -

.*

S\

> a

1

Jvj

V y

y

c.~[j A?.

^-O 1

••

••

Margin,

JType No.

1.

Variety A.

Weight, 166

Size, vii.

Silver.

grs.

Obverse, Lettered surface.

Reverse, Small circle, area.

No. 15. Firiizabad, A.n. 758.

Type No.

2.

Broad

coin.

Size, ix.

Weight

of the best and selected

specimens, 166.0 grs. only. Obverse, Plain lettered surface. .

Reverse, Circular area, with

narrow margin.

Legends, both obverse and reverse as in No.

Marginal legend.

1

type.

TV*

Vest.

sc.

— THE INITIAL COINAGE OF BENGAL. The Kooch Eahar trove must have been

207

rich in this type of coin,

and of the particular year a.h. 758, as out of 109 specimens in Col. Guthrie’s collection, there is no single example of any other date. i7o. 16.

Sonargaon, a.h. 753, 754, 755, 756, 757, 758.

Type No.

Size, vii.

3.

reduction

Present weight, 166 grs. after the obvious

by boring

out.

Plate II.,

fig. 10.

Olverse, Square area.

Reverse, Circular area, with broad margin.

Obv.

Eev.

LJa

Margin, '

IX.— SIKANDAR BIN This king

—

A^AAa!

1

AAJb

ILIA'S.

the second only in the still-incomplete assertion

of local independence of allegiance to the throne of Dehli exhibits in the material wealth of his national coinage the

and identity which may be achieved, almost on the by the denizens of a commercial centre so favoured

striking progress incident to comparative freedom

of

home

instant,

interests,

by nature as the Delta of the Ganges. Tried by such a test, few statistical returns could present more effectively the contrast disclosed in the Kooch Bahar treasure between the accumulated produce of the Bengal Mints, representing a century and a quarter’s limited activity, attended with

all the advantages of a diffused circulation, but under a subordinate government, as compared with the over-

whelming array

of coins bearing the impress of a

unfettered monarch, whose the dies.

money

To numismatists the

single

new from enhanced proportion wiU was, in

effect,

THE INITIAL COINAGE OF BENGAL.

208

be more significantly shown by a reference to the additional

number

of Mint-cities, the

produced, and above*

singular variety of

by the sustained

all,

roborating repetitions of annual dates. aspect

latter

new

series

It

types

and cor-

under the

is

have now to comment on the

alone that I

history of a reign already sufficiently told in other pages.

Sikandar Shah placidly succeeded his father towards the

end of 759

and the coins of the period

a.h.,

sufficiently

support the date of such a transfer of power, in the final

758 recorded on the

issues of the father,

accession of the son

is less

obtained

—under

though proof of the

marked, as the seeming anomaly

the conjoint efibrts of father and son to

achieve release from thraldom to a distant suzerain

—of a con-

much independent power, and, coincithe right to coin money in his own name, whether own camps or in his father’s royal cities. Though

cession to the son of

dently,

in his

some of the

earlier designed coins

hered

to,

any

of

in

is

ad-

long after the removal

continuous mintages,

impediments or restrictions to the adopthough in the more

possible

of comparatively exalted titles

tion

due

give evidence of

humility in titular phraseology, the same simplicity

;

independent governmental mintages of 758 a.h. (No. 21) the

i^UaLJl

is

affected

father, and, after his

more

definite

own

even during the life-time of the

accession, higher assumptions,

and a

approach towards personal hierarchical honors,

are discovered in the metropolitan issues of 766-780 (No. 22),

while special service against the infidels seems to be implied

“The

in the novel intitulation of AiinAjiUl

of the enemies of God,” on the Firiizabad

conqueror

money of 769

a.h.

(No. 23).

But the most coins are those

interesting details furnished

which

illustrate

tion of the chief seats of government.

Moslems, who,

in

the

difficulty

of

— conventionally deemed — over the imperfect highways of

hosts gress

by Sikandar’s

the geographical distribu-

Unlike the Northern

moving the Eastern an Imperial proHindustan, confined

essential to

themselves ordinarily to one fixed metropolis, the kings of Bengal enjoyed facilities of river communication almost un-

;

—

;;

;

THE INITIAL COINAGE OF BENGAL. precedented

:

209

their various capitals, situated within easy dis-

tance of one another, were at

all

times accessible by water,

a differently constructed State barge secured at any season free

approach to the seaboard

cities of

the Great Ganges or

the towns on the narrow channels of the western streams.

These frequent regal visitations are incidentally recorded on the coinage of the day, by the insertion of the prefix of

name of the selected residence, which term marked the presence of royalty within the limits

to the

colloquially

of the favoured fiscal di^dsion.

number

Sikandar’s mint cities were five in

—

iMo. 2, Firiiz-

and 4, Shahr Nan, in Western Bengal 3, with 5, Sondrgaon and 6, Mudzamdbdd, in the Eastern dbdd

Satgaon

division of the province. 2.

The first-named mint,

Hazrat,^

is

in addition to the preferential

styled variously Baldat and^j^:s'*“^ ik\b “forti-

which probably refers to the separate though closely proximate citadel of Akddlah, so celebrated in fied city,” a specification

the military annals of the time (coin No. 26). 3.

a

Satgaon

is

distinguished

term which, in India, came

by the

prefix of

^y

be

to

227

*--


See “ Contributions to a Knowledge of Vedic Tbeogony,”

for 1864, p. 116, note.

etc. in this

Journal,

— ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE

318

I have seen but very

little

’STIDA.

wbicb can be of niucb service in

throwing light on the original sense of the hymns. I observe, indeed, that Professor MiiUer thus

himself (Anc. Sansk.

Lit., p.

he thinks may be made of the Brahmanas, referred to

expresses

153) in regard to the use which etc., for

the purpose

:

“For explanations of old Yedic words, for etymologies and synonymous expressions, the Brahmanas contain very rich materials. .... "NYliole verses and hymns are shortly explained there; and the Aranyakas and Upanishads, if included, would furnish richer sources The beginning for Yedic etymologies than even the Nirukta itself. of the Aitai-eya Aranyaka is in fact a commentary on the beginning of the Eig-veda and if all the passages of the Brahmanas were collected where one word is explained by another with which it is joined merely by the particle rai,' they would even now give a rich ;

hai'vest for a

new

Nii'ukta.”

This passage, however, must be taken in connection with those which have been quoted above from the

am

I

same

writer.

unable to refer to the Aitareya Araiiyaka to which he

alludes.

But judging from the views which he has expressed

elsewhere, I conclude that he does not expect, as the result of

the researches which he recommends (even

utmost extent) into

all

ture exterior to the

hymns

if

pushed

to the

the existing remains of Indian literathemselves, any verj^ extensive or

material assistance towards the restoration of the original sense of the latter.

But whatever might be the

course of investigation thus

suggested,

it

is

issue of the

at least

pre-

supposed in Prof. MiiUer’s recommendation that this process

Brahmanas and Aranyakas

of carefully searching the

for inter-

pretations of obsolete Yedic words and phrases has not yet

been pursued to a

sufficient extent

etjnnologists or commentators.

But

by any of the Indian if any

if this be true

—

amount of important materials suitable purpose has been neglected by Yaska or Sayana it considerable

—

that

we cannot

to their is

clear

look to either of those writers as our final or

sufficient authority.

‘

cat

[As, for instauce, in tke cases visa vai pastyuh (S. P. Br. v. S. P. Br. rii. 4, 1, 19. J.MJ.

Kah,

—

4, 4,

-5)

Prajupatir

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE YEDA.

319

I now come to the Xighantus, and the Xirukta of Yaska. The Xighantus^ form a vocabulary of terms, many of which The first three sections are almost entirely are obsolete. made up of lists of so-called synonymes, varying in number from two to one himdred and twenty-two, of nouns or verbs of weU-known si gnifi cation, such as prthid, “earth,” hiraivja,

“

antarihsha, “ atmosphere,” jra/,

“to go.”

gam,

The remaining two

“to burn,”

sections

consist

of

which are left imexplained. There does not seem to be any reason to doubt that in the first three sections of this work the general sense of many obsolete words has been preserved by tradition though as the terms declared to be synon^unous are often very numerous, it is clear from the nature of the case, as Prof. Roth observes (see above), that the specific sense, and particular shade of meaning, represented by each, must be often left in the dark. And an examination of the lists Thus under the synonymes of puts this beyond a doubt. rack, “ speech,” we find such words as sloM, nivicl, rk, gdthd, anus/itiip, words denoting different kinds of verses or compositions, which can never have been employed as simple

mere

lists

of words

of different

significations,

;

The value

equivalents of speech in the abstract. lists

of these

therefore for the purpose of defining the precise significa-

tion of words sections

is

veiy limited.

Amd

even

if

the

first

three

were of more A alue than they are in this respect, they

are far from embracing the whole of the difficult words in

the Yeda.

The fourth

section contains

two hundred and all, though

seventy-eight words which are not explained at there

are,

no

doubt,

a

good many among them which

do not require any explanation, as their sense

The Xirukta Xighantus.

of

Yaska

It begins

is

a

sort

of

is

notorious.

commentary on the

with these words:

“A

record has

been composed, which we have to explain. It is called the Xighantus.” The introduction to the work (i. 1-ii. 4) contains the outlines of a grammatical system, and an ex’

Prof.

Roth considers

this Tocabulaiy to

be older than Yaska. (Introduction “probably these

to Nirukta, p. xii. f.). Muller, too, (Anc. Ind. Lit. 154), says, lists existed in his family long before Ms time.’’

;

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

320

planation of the advantages, objects, principles and methods

This

of exegesis.

suggested by the first

followed

is

—

5 hi. 22) by remarks synonymes composing the

(ii.

of explained

lists

three sections of the Nighantus.

chapters

(iv.

—

vi.)

In the succeeding

of the Nirukta, the unexplained terms in

the fourth section of the NighanUis are interpreted in the last six books the

contained in the

The

list

;

whilst

names of deities, of the Mghantus, is elucidated.^

of words, chiefly

flfth section

and fourteenth chapters, styled Niruktawork of a later writer.

thirteenth

parisishta, appear to be the

The Nirukta makes frequent

reference to the Brahmanas,

those about Devapi (xi. (ii. and also alludes to various Yisvamitra and 24), 10) schools of Vedic interpretation which existed anterior to the

adduces various legends, such as

time of

author, such as the Nairuktas or etymologists,

its

the Aitihasikas or legendary writers, and the Yajnikas or ritualists.^

In the course of his work, Yaska supplies somfe

specimens of the mode of explaining the hymns adopted by these different classes of expositors, from which

appear that each school interpreted from point of view, and according to

its

own

it

would

own

special

literary,

moral,

its

and prepossessions. Thus we are told (Nirukta, xi. 29 and 31) that the Yairuktas understood Anumati, Raka, Sinividi, and Kuhii to be goddesses, while the Yajnikas took them for the new and full or

professional

On

moons. prevailed.

one point the

The gods

The Nirukta

(xii.

greatest

diversity

called Asvins were a

of opinion

great enigma.

1) gives the following answers to the ques-

“

Heaven and Earth,’ say some the Sun and Moon,’ say Day and Night,’ say others

tion ‘

tendencies

who they were

‘

:

‘

;

others

‘ ;

two kings, performers of the holy acts,’ say the ^ In his explanation of R.V. i. 164, 32, Yaska

Aitihasikas.”

See all this more fully stated in Roth’s Illustrations of the Nirukta, p. 3. See Roth’s Illustrations of the Nirukta, pp. 220 tf. 3 Sayana also mentions some of these different schools of interpreters in ditferThus on R.V. i. 64, 8, he says Prshatyah, the ent parts of his commentary. Maruts’ instruments of conveyance, are does marked with white spots according to the Aitihasikas, and a line of variously coloured clouds according to the NaiAgain, he tells us that \mters of the former class understood R.V. i. ruktas.” 174, 2, of the cities belonging to Vrttra’s Asuras, whilst those of the latter class '

2

:

;

—

;

ox THE IXTEEPEETATIOX OF THE YEDA. (ii.

refers

8)

the Parivrajakas

to

(ascetic

321

mendicants)

as

attributing one sense to the close of that Terse, while the

Xairuktas assigned a different one.^

It

is

thus clear that from

the earliest period there were diversities of opinion in regard

As we come down to later times, to the sense of the hymns. when speculation had been further developed, we find some new varieties of interpretation. Thus in the Xirukta-parisishta,

i.

the “ four defined grades or stages of speech” re-

9,

ferred to in

“by

R.Y.

i.

164, 45, are said to be diversely explained,

the Rishis as meaning the four mystic words

orn,

bhuh,

by the grammarians as denoting nouns, verbs, prepositions, and particles by the ritualists as referring to the hymns, the liturgical precepts, the Brahmanas, and the ordinary language by the etymologists as designating the Rik, the Tajush, the Saman texts, and the current language whilst by others they are thought to signify the ‘languages of serpents, birds, reptiles, and the vernacular and the spiritualists {dtmapravadah) understand them of the modes of speech in beasts, musical instruments (?), wild animals, and bhuvah, svar

;

;

;

;

soul.”

Yaska gives

names of no less than seventeen inhim,^ and whose explanations of the Yeda are often conflicting. Thus we are informed (Xir. iii. 8) that some nnderstood the “ five peoples” [panchajanaJi) terpreters

also the

who had preceded

mentioned in R. Y.

x. 53, 4, to

Asuras, and Ralcshases

;

whilst

four castes and the Xishadas.®

be the Grandharvas,

Pitris, gods,

Aupamanyana took them for the

From Xir. iv.

3, it

appears that

while Yaska himseK understood the word sitdma which occurs understood

it of tlie clouds. In like manner, on viii. 66, 10, he gives us two separate interpretations of that verse, the first that of the Xairuktas, who expounded natural phenomena, it of of showers brought by the sun (represented by Vishnn), and the second that of the Aitihasikas, who explained it mythologically in conformity with a story drawn from the Brahmana of the Charakas, ' The ascetics, influenced, perhaps, by their own feelings of estrangement from family life, gave to the words in question the meaning “ The father of many children suffers distress.” The Etymologists understood the same clause of the fructifying effects of rain.

2

Roth, Illustrations, pp. 221 f. In Xir. iii. 1-5, several different derivations of the word vidhava, “widow,” are given. It is said to be either ^vidhutrkd, “'without a supporter;” or, according to Charmasiras (one of Yaska’s predecessors), to come firom vidhavana or vidhdvana or to be deriv^ from vi -I- dhava, “without a man.” 3

TOL. n.

[XEW SEEIES

]

21

;

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

322

in the Vajasaneyi Sanhita, xxi. 43, of the shoulder of the sacrificial victim,

Sakapuni took

tiki for the liver,

and Galava

it

for the female organ, Tai-

Again, Nir.

for the fat.

vi. 13,

Aurnabhava understood the word Ndsatyau (an epithet of the Asvins) to mean “ true, not false” {satyau, na asafyaii; Agrayana took it to mean “leaders of truth” satyasya prarieturau) whilst Yaska himself suggests that it may tells

us that

From

signify “nose-born” ndsikd-prabhavauf it

Nir.

23,

vii.

appears that whilst the early ritualists held the deity lauded

in

R.Y.

i.

held that

we

59, 6, to be the Sun,

Sakapuni on the contrary

was Agni Yaisvanara.

it

Further, in Nir.

viii. 2,

are informed that Kraushtuki held Dravinodas to

mean

Indra, but Sakapuiri considered the term to denote Agni.

Katthakya was of opinion that the word idhma signified merely the wood employed in saci’ifice, while Sakapuni thought it stood for Aghi (Nir.

viii. 4, 5).

Narasansa to designate “

name

of

Agni

{ibid.

6)

So, again,

Katthakya understood

but Sakapuni took it for a Katthakya explained the “ divine

sacrifice,”

;

doors” (R.Y. X. 110, 5), of the house-doors at sacrifice, but Sakapuni took them to stand for Agni fbid. 10) the foi’mer ;

iiiterpreter held

Yanaspati to be the

puni asserted that

it

sacrificial post,

was a name of Agni

but Saka-

In

{ibid. 17).

like

manner, Yaska’s predecessors were not agreed as to what was

meant by Vishnu’s three

steps

mentioned in R.Y.

i.

22, 17,

S.ikapuni maintaining that they were planted on the earth, t

he atmosphere, and the sky respectively

that

it

was the

and the Finally, in

R.Y.

hill

over which the sun

hill

where he

sets,

X. 90, 16,

and Aurnabhava the meridian^

that were the localities referred

the etymologists declared

whilst according

;

rises,

to.

that the word Sddhyas

denoted the gods residing in the sky,

to

a

legend {dkhydna)

it

former age of the gods {purvam deva-yugam

represented ;

a

comp. R.Y.

X. 72, 2, 3).

There was one of Yaska’s predecessors who had actually the audacity to assert that the science of Yedic exposition

was useless, as the Yedic hymns and formulae were obscure, unmeaning, or mutually contradictory. As instances of obscurity, he cites the texts in which the words amyak (R.Y.

ox THE IXTEEPRETATIOX OF THE YEDA. 169, 3), yadrsmin (R. Y. v. 44, 8), jdraydyi

i.

and hdnu];d (R.Y.

12, 4), this

viii.

66, 4), occur.

charge of obscurity, Yaska repHes that

(R.V.

In regard

to

not the fault

;

It

in.

regard to the sense of different passages of the hymns. is

vi.

man does not see it it is the man’s would appear from the objections of this rationalist, his day many learned men had great difficulties in

of the post that the blind fault.^

that

it is

323

It

true indeed that Durgacharya, the commentator on the

Mrukta, seems to consider Kautsa a mere man of straw, into whose mouth these objections are dramatically put for the hut I do not see why Kautsa sake of their being refuted should he regarded as a fictitious personage any more than any of the other predecessors of Yaska who are named in the Nirukta. And even if he were admitted to be so, it may be assumed as certain that Yaska, an orthodox believer, would never have alluded to sceptical doubts of this description they had been previously started

some of his and had been commonly current in his time. We shall see further on how he succeeds in the attempt he makes to explain some of the texts which Kautsa charges with unless

predecessors,

obscurity.

The question how

far

Yaska can be regarded

as the de-

positary of a real and satisfactory Yedic tradition has been

thus already, in part, answered, sense,

and in an unfavourable

by the account I have given of the differences

of

among his predecessors. I now proceed to enquire further how far his own language and method of interpretation show him to have been walking in the clear opinion existing

light of day, or groping in the dark, at the sense of the

It

is

and merely guessing

hymns.

extremely unlikely that, with aU the appliances which

command in the works of his predewhich he quotes, and probably others besides, Yaska should not have been able to determine the sense of many appears he had at his

it

cessors,

words which

later scholars like

dis-

See Nirukta, i. 15 f. Roth’s Illustrations, pp. Ilf.; and “ Sanskrit Texts,” 181 ff. * “ Sanskrit Texts,” ii, 184. '

;

ii.

Sayana had no means of

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

324

According to Prof.

covering.

Max

the fourth century before our era.

Miiller/

Yaska

lived in

Prof. Goldstiicker holds

that he was anterior to Panini, whose date he considers to

he involved in impenetrable obscurity, and

must have been anterior

to that of

yet, he thinks, Buddha, whose death

again he speaks of as the remotest date of Hindu antiquity

which can be

with

called a real date,^ agreeing apparently

B.c.

it in 543 B.c.,^ whilst Muller refers it to Yaska was thus some two thousand years older than

Sayana.

We may therefore often assume, that when he affirms

Lassen in placing

477

word unknown to later Sanskrit has such and such a meaning, even though he attaches to it an etymology, and when the sense suits the passage, he had grounds Thus, when he says (iv. 15) that tugvan for his assertion. means a “ ford,” or (v. 22) smghnin, a “ gambler,” or (vi. 26) that bekanuta signifies a “ usurer,” there is no reason to dispute his affirmation. But whenever he seems to draw the meaning from the etymology, and his interpretation does not yield a good sense, we must doubt whether his opinion And again, when he rested on any trustworthy tradition. gives two or more alternative or optional explanations of the same word, all apparently founded on mere etymology, we are justified in supposing that he had no earlier authority for his positively that a

guide, and that his renderings are simply conjectural. instances, I believe, can be given

described occurs

specimens. as to the

;

and I

There are

meaning he

Many

where the phenomenon

shall proceed to bring forward also cases in

last

some

which Yaska is positive which the sense of the

assigns, but in

passage, or a collation of other texts, justifies us in departing

from his rendering.

In all these passages I shall at the same time give the interpretation proposed by Sayana, if it be within

my

reach.

And

as it will sometimes be found that

Sdyana departs from Yaska, we shall, in such instances, either have to conclude that the older interpreter is wrong in which event ancient tradition must in that particular instance

—

1 “ Last Results of Sanskrit Researches” in “Bunsen’s Christianity and kind,” vol. hi. p. 137. * Panini, pp. 225, 227. 3 Ibid, pp. 231, 233.

Man-

— ON THE INTEEPEETATION OF THE VEDA.

—

or that Sayana does not there follow tradiIn such cases either the value of the supposed or its faithful reproduction by the later commentator,

be of no value tion at

325

all.

tradition,

will be disproved.

The following are specimens of these different cases, together with some instances of words which do not occur in the Nirukta, but in which Sayana gives a variety of inconsistent explanations

:

Atharyu is an epithet of Agni. Yaska (v. 10) renders by atanavantam, “ going” or “moving.” S%ana, in E.V. vii. 1, 1, explains it by dgamyam atanavantam vd, i.e., either “to be gone to, approached,” or “going,” “moving.”^ It thus appears that he does not implicitly follow Yaska, and 1.

it

was not sure of the 5.

“moving

it

Prof. Goldstiicker,

sense.

constantly.”

Prof. Roth,

s.v,,

s.v.,

thinks

renders

means

it

“ having sharp points like a lance.” 2.

an adjective not found in the Nirukta, but R.Y. On i. 53, 8, Sayana exas anuchara-rahitah, “ without followers ;” on ii. 21,

Andniida

is

in different passages of the plains

it

ii. 23, 11, as “ one after whom no other gives,” i.e., “ unequalled in giving.” On this Prof. Groldstiicker remarks : “ Both meanings of the word, as given according to the

and

4,

Comm., seem doubtful;” but he proposes no other. Roth, V., translates it by “unyielding.” (1) Anushvadham, (2) anu svadhdm, (3) svadhdm ana, (4) svadhayd, (5) svadhdbhik, (6) svadlidvat. The first of these words occurs in various texts of the R.Y., one of which, 47, 1,

is

quoted in Nir,

iv. 8,

anv annam, “after food.”

where the word

Prof. Groldstiicker,

is

iii.

explained by

s.v.,

explains

it

thus: 1, “in consequence of (partaking of) food, through food, viz.,

soma,

butter)

;

etc.

;

2,

food for food, to every food (as clarified

The

3, after every oblation.”

occurs in two places in the Nirukta, vii.

46,

1, is

quoted),

Rudra; and in an epithet,

it is

'

it,

xii.

when

it is

sixth word, svadhdvat,

viz.,

in x. 6 (where

R.Y.

an epithet, in the dative, of

17 (where R.Y.

vi. 58, 1, is

in the vocative, of Pushan.

quoted),

when

In both places the

Prof. Wilson has misunderstood the latter of the two words “ not spreading or dispersing.” See his note in loco.

when he translates

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

326

word

is

texts

Anushvadham

rendered by annavat, “having food.”

foundin R.Y.

81, 4;

i.

Sayana explains soma

ii.

{prdti havih)

;

In the first of these

mean “during

the drinking of food

to

it

in the shape of

is

3,11; iii.47,1.^ in the second

by “

at every oblation”

and in the third by “ followed by,” or “ follow-

ing,” the oblations [savamya-puroddsddi-riipenannendmigatam

svadhdm anugamya varttamdnam). The words anu found srndhdm are separately in R.V. i. 33, 11 viii. 77, 5 ;

;

and in the reverse order svadhdm anu in i. 6, 4, and viii. 20, 7.® In the first of these texts Sayana renders the words by “ the waters flowed with reference rice,” etc. {annarn (viii.

77,

6, 4),

(i.

Indra’s food in the shape of

to

vrihy-ddi-rupam anulakshya)

by “after our food

5),

by “

;

in the second

or water-,” in the third

which was

with reference to the food or water

about to be produced;”^ and in the fourth (viii. 20, 7), by, “ with reference to food having the character of an oblation.”

Sradhayd

where

own

explained as

occurs in

In the

vii.

first

its

64, 4, applied to the Maruts,

In

strength.”

by Sayana sraJdyena

=

78,4

balena, ;

ix. 71,

8

;

“by what strength?” x. 27,

own

19

word

;

is

halena,

kayd svadhayd

iv. 13, 5, too,

of these passages the

“ by food.”'*

“hy

i.

correctly rendered

is

it

“ by their is

found in R.V.

is

x. 88, 1

;

It also x. 129, 2.

rendered by annena,

Surely there can be little doubt that here it means power,” “ spontaneously.” To say, “she (Ushas)

ascended her car yoked by foodj^ which her well- yoked horses '

It also occurs in ix. 72,

5

;

bnt I have no access to Sayana's

Comm, on

that

passage.

See also R.V. i. 165, 5 vii. 56, 13. ® Sayana here gives the following derivation of svadha, viz. svam loTtam dadhati pHshndti Hi svadhd. This word has three senses assigned to it in the Nighantus, viz. “ water” (i. 12), “ food” (ii. 7), and “ heaven and earth” in the dual (iii. 30). * The same general sense is assigned in i. See vii. 47, 3. 154, 4; v. 34, 1 also Sayana on i. 164. 38. * I am not aware that in any passage the chariots or horses of the gods are said to be yoked by food, as denoted by any word which certainly hears that sense. The horses of Indra are, indeed, represented as being yoked by prayer {brahmayuj) in R.V. i. 177, 2; iii. 35, 4; viii. 1, 24; viii. 2, 27 and as vdii. 2, 17 biiiig yoked by a hymn {vacho-yuj) in -sdii. 45, 39 but in these cases, generally, at least, the god is supposed to yoke his car in consequence of this invitation to come and partake of the oblation, or libation, and not after partaking of it. It is true that the word brahman (neuter) has sometimes the sense of “food” or “ oblation” ascribed to it, and that in two of the above texts, viii. 1, 24, and viii. 2, 27, one of the optional senses assigned by Sayana to brahma-yuj is, “ yoked by our oblation,” two other senses, “ yoked by the lord, India,” and “ yoked by our 2

;

:

:

;

;

;

ON THE INTERPKETATION OF THE VEDA. bring hither,” makes but an indifferent sense, whilst yield an appropriate poetical

meaning

327 it

would

to say that she ascended

her car yoked “ by

Compare R.V. its own inherent power.” where the phrase achah-mja svadhayd is rendered by Sayana a “ wheel-less car,” the word svaclhd having here, he says, the sense of chariot {atra svaclhd-sabdo ratlia-vdcM) and where we have the for proof he refers to R.V. x. 27, iv.

26, 4,

;

words achakrayd svadhayd varttamdnam, borne from

troop

power,” which

afar,

moving by a

etc.,

“ I beheld the

wheel-less

inherent

no doubt the proper rendering in iv. 26, 4, also. It is clear that svadhd could not have the sense of chariot in vii. 78, 4, above cited, as it would be absurd to speak of the car {ratha) of Ushas being yoked by a car {svadhd).

Having no not aware

is

access to Sayana’s

how he

translates

it

comment on ;

x. 27, 19, I

am

but he probably adheres to

the rendering given on iv. 26, 4, as it would make nonsense to As regards R.V. x. 129, say, “ moving by wheel-less food.”^ 2, 5, I i.

gather from Mr. Colebrooke’s translation (Misc. Essays,

Sayana abandons the sense of food as approhymn, since svadhd is there rendered by “ her

34), than even

priate in that

who

is

sustained within him.”

It seems, however, better to

by “ through

its inherent power,” and in by “a self-supporting principle.” The sense, “ by their own power” seems appropriate in x. 88, 1, though here too it is rendered by “food,” Nir. vii. 25. Svadhdhhih {loc. pi.) is explained in i. 95, 4, and i. 164, 30, by “sacrificial food;” in V. 60, 4. by “waters ;” in vii. 101, 9, by “ forces ;” and in viii. 10, 4, by “praises which are the cause of strength.” I come lastly to svadhdvat, which I find in R.Y. v. 3, 2; vi. 58, vii. 20, 1 vii. 37, 2 vii. 86, 5, and elsevii. 46, 1 1 where. In vi. 58, 1, and vii. 46, 1, as we have already seen, the word is rendered by Yaska, “having food;” and in

render

it

in verse 2

V. 5,

;

;

hymn,” being proposed

;

;

in the former ease, and one alternative sense, “ yoked by om- h}Tnn, being proposed in the latter. In i. 177, 2; iii. 35, 4; and viii. 17, 2, however, “ yoked by our hymn” {mantra) is the only rendering given. Vacho-yuJ in viii. 45, 39, is explained, “ yoked by our hymn.” * This and some other instances show that Sayana did occasionally resort to parallel passages for the elucidation of the text under his consideration, but he did not carry the practice far enough. * Compare achakrebhih in R.V. v. 42, 10, and nkhakraya in viii. 7, 29. ’

;

ON THE INTEEPEETATION OF THE VEDA.

328

these passages (as well as in

vii.

31,

7

;

vii.

88, 5), he

is

followed hy Saj^ana, who, again, in i. 95, 4 v. 3, 2, tranIn vi. 21, 3 vii. slates it by “ having sacrificial food.” ;

;

and vii. 86, 4, however, Sayana departs from Yaska, and from his own practice elsewhere, in rendering svadhavat by halamt or tejasiin, “ strong,” or “ vigorous.” 20, 1

;

vii.

37, 2

;

Prof Roth has treated of anusheadham, etc., in his Illustrations of the Nirukta, pp. 40 f. and in his Lexicon he trans“ lates the word in question by willingly,” “ spontaneously,” “ gladly.” In his new translation of the R.V., in the “Orient und Occident,” Prof. Benfey renders svadhdm anu, anu svadhdm, and anushvadham, in i. 6, 4; i. 33, 11; and i. 81, 4, in a This interpretation, in fact, will probably similar manner. ;

he found to suit nearly

which the phrase

Aprdyu quoted, as

is

not the whole, of the texts in

all, if

found.

explained in Nir.

is

meaning

iv. 19,

where R.V.

in that passage (where

it is

the gods) apramddymitah, “not careless.”

comment on

the same text, declares

it

i.

89, 1,

is

an epithet of

Sayana, in his

to be equivalent to

apragachhantah svakvyam rakshitavyam aparifyajyantah, “ not departing, not forsaking

him whom they have

to protect.”

(Mahidhara, the commentator on the Yaj. S. (where this text is

repeated, xxv. 14), explains the

sluggish.”)

word by andlasdh, “not

The. word occurs again in R.Y.

an epithet of

sacrifices,

viii.

where Sayana interprets

24, 18, as

it

to

mean

which are conducted by men who are “ not careless” {apramddyat), or by “careful men who perform the rite remaining together, and do not go elsewhere after they have begun it.” In the first passage, at least, he departs from Sayana. Prof. Goldstiicker, s.t\, renders the word “ attentive,” “ assiduous,” adding, “ according to Yaska but Sayana gives to this word in one verse the meaning, not going forth, not leaving’ while in another he admits also the former meaning, which seems more congenial to the either sacrifices

.

.

.

‘

.

.

.

.

;

context.”

Ambhrina is given in Nigh. iii. 3, as one of the synonyms of niahat, “ great.” It occurs in R.Y. i. 133, 5, as an epithet of pisdchi, “ a goblin,” and is interpreted by Sayana as mean-

;

:

ON THE INTERPaETATION OF THE VEDA, ing

either

329

“shrieking very terribly” or “very huge.”

It is

Sayana did not know by any certain tradition what the sense of the word was. Amyak. This word is found in one of the passages which Kautsa (see above) charges with obscurity, E.Y. i. 169, 3 amyak sd te Indra rshtir asme and I therefore think it as clear, therefore, that

—

;

well to give some account of

it,

although

it

does not afford

any very strong evidence in favour of any of the propositions I have undertaken to establish. Yaska,

ISTir. vi.

15, explains the

meaning apparently either “ arrived near,” or “ arrived towards.” The fact of his giving an alternative etymology shows that he did not know for certain what the real derivation was, though his mind may have been made up as to the sense. Prof. Poth (Illustrations *of Nir. p. 81) considers amyak to be the third per. aor. of term by amdkteti vd ahhyakteti

vd,

myaksh, which, from a comparison of other passages, he believes to

thus

The words would

have the sense of “ gleaming.”

mean

:

“

Thy

bolt gleamed

upon

us, o

Indra.”

Sayana,

without offering any etymology, translates the clause thus “ Thy thunderbolt corner {prdp)ioti) near the clouds for us, for

As both Yaska

rain to us.”

Sayana in

(in the passage

his introduction to the

had referred

P.Y.

above cited) and

(p.

5 of Muller’s

and ridiculed the objection taken against the intelligibility of this verse, they were bound in honour to make it yield some sense or other though from the obscurity of which it was cited as an instance perhaps a proverbial instance even so far back as the time of the former, it seems difficult to suppose that they had any certain tradition to go upon as to its meaning. Prof. Goldstiicker translates the word amyak (see s.v.) “towards, near;” and adds: “This is edition)

to

;

—

—

apparently the meaning of the word in the following Pig-veda ” verse, where it seems to be used with the ellipsis of ‘ come.’ “ Yaska, lie then, after quoting the verse before us, goes on :

who, in a discussion in his introduction, denies that this word can be called obscure, renders it in this verse amdkteti vdbhynk-

come

come towards

and Sayana explains by prdpmti, without, however, giving its etymology. This formation of the word corresponds with that of other comteti vd,

it

‘

here,’ or

‘

;’

— ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

330

pounds ending in ach” Prof. Goldstiicker holds that it would be “ against all grammatical analogy” to take amyak for an

Roth proposes. There is no Yaska or Sayana concurred with holding the word for a particle in ach. aorist, as

proof, however, that

either

Prof. Goldstiicker in

One

Alatrna occurs in two passages of the Rig-veda. as

of

quoted in Nir. vi. 2, where it is explained 30, 10, “ greatly-splitting, or split.” If this aJarn atardanah,

these,

=

is

iii.

explanatory phrase be understood in the passive sense, coincide wdth

being

word

full of water, is is

In

exceedingly broken.”

an epithet of the Maruts, and

is

it

i.

will

from

that which,

interpretation,

Sayaiia’s

166, 7, the

explained by Sayana

as susceptible of three different senses, viz., as standing either

=

dtardana-rahitah, “ free from split2nd, as alam atardanah satrundm, “ great cleavers of their enemies ;” or, 3rd, as a/am ddtdrah phalandm, “ great 1st,

andtrnumh

for

ting

or,

Who

bestowers of rewards.”

will say that

Sayana

is

here

either a confident, or a satisfactory, guide ?

AA;rdhoyu quotes R.Y.

is

vi.

explained by Yaska (in Nir.

hrdhu, being

= hrasva,

passages

22, 3; vi.

(vi.

vi. 3, where he “not short-lived ;” “ short.” Sayana renders it in two 67, 11) by avichhinna, “not cut oflP,”

22, 3) as

= alardhv-ayah,

which would coincide with Yaska’s interpretation but on vii. 53, 3, he takes it for ahrasvam analpam, “not short,” “ not little,” which seems to differ somewhat from the former sense, inasmuch as it refers not to duration but to quantity. ;

Atiridh does not occur in the Nirukta.

terpreted siccation”

by Sayana (i.

3,

9

;

It

is

variously in-

either as “free from decay,” or

“de-

from desiccation,

13, 9), or as “free

i.

always remaining in the same state (the Maruts,” or as “ innocuous ” (iv. 32, 24 iv. 45, 4; v. 46, 4).

i.

89, 3),

;

Ahimanyu

does not occur in the Nirukta.

the Maruts in R.Y.

i.

64, 8,

interpretations, making

where Sayana

It

is

applied to

offers a choice

of

&\\}s\.QX~dhanana-fila-manyu-yukidh, “ filled with wrath disposed to smite,” ox =ahina-jndndh, “ of

eminent wisdom.”

it

He

was, therefore, only guessing at the

sense.

Ahimdya

is

not found in the Nirukta.

It is understood

by

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

331

Sayana on i. 190, 4, as an epithet of Yrttra and his class, and translated as either =“ those whose enchantments come and destroy,” or “those whose enchantments come in the atmosphere.” On vi. 20, 7, he understands it as “those who have destructive enchantments;” and on vi. 52, 15, as= “ those who have destructive wisdom.” I am not aware how he renders it in x. 63, 4. Another epithet of the gods, ehimdya, which Roth thinks may be a corruption of ahimdya, occurs in R.V. i. 3, 9, where Sayana assigns two possible senses and, 2nd, that 1st, “ having all-pervading wisdom of a designation of the deities, derived from their having said to Agni when he had entered into the waters, ehi md ydsili, “come, do not go.”

=

—

Asusukshani, which occurs R.V.

an epithet of Agni,

as

either “ one

who

sucha kshanoti

ii.

1, 1,

S. xi. 27,

vi. 1 as

meaning

quickly slays, or gives, by his flame” {dsu

iti I'd

sanoti

iti

“ desiring

va), or

Sayana translates the word “ flaming on

who

and Vaj.

explained in Nir.

is

to

consume.”

all sides,”

or “ one

quickly gives pain to his enemies by consuming,”

Mahidhara, on Vaj.

= “ quickly drying

S. xi. 27, translates

the wet

etc.

asusukshani as either

ground,” or as

= “ quickly

de-

stroying the darkness with his flame, or giving, distributing,

by

Roth

his flame.”

comwhere Sayana renders

(Illustrations of Nirukta, p. 72)

pares susukvani in R.V.

viii.

23, 5,

“ glowing.”

Asa

and is diversely In his comments on ii. 1, 14 iv. “ with the vi. 32, 1, he renders it by dsyena, 5, 10; vi. 3, 4 “ ;” mouth on v. 17, 2, by dsyena vdchd, with the mouth, by speech ;” on v. 17, 5 v. 23, 1, by dsyena stotrena, “ with the mouth, with a hymn ;” on i. 76, 4 vi. 16, 9, by dsyena dsyasthdniyayd (or dsya-bhutayd) jrdJayd, “with the mouth, with the flame in the mouth;” on vii. 16, 9, as an epithet of jihvayd, “the tongue,” by dsya-sthdniyayd, “situated in the mouth ;” on i. 129, 5, by “near, in the place of sacriflce ;” and on i. 168, 2, by “near.” Similarly, he varies in the sense of dsayd, making it stand in one place (i. 20, 1) for “with the mouth,” and in another (i. 127, 8) for “near.” occurs frequently in the Rig-veda,

explained by Sayana.

;

;.

;

;

;

ON THE INTEEPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

332

In the Nighantus, ii. synonyms of “ near.” Ishnim

is

places, viz.,

on

word

asdt is found as one of the

variously interpreted

by Say ana in different 11, as “going, moving;”

on

i.

16, the

87, 6,

and

52, 16; v. 87, 5, as

V.

vii.

56,

“going,” or “possessing food.”

Yaska gives the three derivations of ishaninah, eshaninah, and arshaninah (Nir. Ivat.

43, 3

In

;

—This 5

V. 49,

iv. 16).

word occurs in R.Y. ;

vi.

73, 2

vii.

;

23, 1

iv. 4, ;

vii.

6

15, 5

iv.

;

56, 18

;

viii.

iv.

;

46, 21.

these passages, without exception, Sayana renders

all

it

by “ going,” “ moving,” or by some modification of that sense, as “ coming,” “ approaching,” “ coming with prosperity,” “ occupied,” “ moving creatures.” And yet there seems no reason to doubt that the word signifies “ so much,” “ so great,” as it is explained by Roth, s.v., as being an old Vedic form for just as kivat is for kiyat, as is (in the latter case) recognised both by Y^ka (Nir. vi. 3) and by Sayana on R.V. iii. 30, 17, the only passage where it either simply

From

occurs.

idrk

this it appears that just as in ordinary Sanskrit

and kidrk are formed in the same way

yddrk,

as etddrk, tddrk,

in ancient times the series of etdvat, tdvat, ydvat,

so, too,

was completed by ivat and kivat, though at a subsequent period the two latter forms became obsolete, whilst iyat and kiyat, which are also found in the R.Y., were regarded as alone Their sense of “so much,” “so great,”

correct.

etc.

etc.,

appears, as far as I can judge, to suit all the passages of the

R.V. where the word

ivat occurs.

TJruydya (generally an epithet of Vishnu)

Yaska

(Yir.

ii.

7) in his

mahdgati, “ making large strides.” in his explanation,

is

comment on R.V.

making

it

interpreted

by

154, 6, as

=

i.

Sayana, however, wavers

either

“hymned by many”

(on

“ wde-goiug,” or “much-praised” (on i. 154, 3; ii. 1, 3); iii. 6, 4); “hymned by many,” or “of great renown” (on iv. 3, 7) “ great goers” (of the A.svins, iv. 14, 1) “ cele;

;

many” (on “moving in many

brated by

vii.

or

places,” or

who, by his power, makes

“hymned by

100, 1)

all his

the great” (on

i.

;

“ to be hymned by many,”

“of great renown,”

enemies howl” (on 154, 1)

;

or

viii.

“one

29, 7)

“to be hymned by

ox THE IXTEEPEETATIOX OF THE VEDA.

m^ny

great persons”

65, 6

vi.

vii.

;

35, 15

See also

154, 6).

(i.

i.

155, 4

333 28, 4

vi.

;

;

where Prof. Roth considers Looking to R.V. i. 22, 16 ff.,

x. 109, 7,

;

the word to be a substantive.

about the striding of Yishnu, there can be Little doubt that the adjective iirugdya means “ wide- striding.” in. R.V. viii. 48, 10, as an epithet of Soma, by Yaska (vi. 4) in his explanation of part of mrdudara, and as meaning “ soft-bellied,” or that verse as Sayana (on the same verse) renders “soft in (men’s) bellies.” On ii. 33, 5, it, “not hurting the belly” {iidardhddhakena). where the word is applied to Rudra, he adopts the first of

Rdiidara occurs

and

is

interpreted

=

Yaska’s two meanings

whilst on

;

iii.

54,

where

10,

it

is

applied to the Adityas, he repeats both of his predecessor’s interpretations, modifying the second so as to signify, “ those in whose bellies RjiHliin,

Soma

is soft.”

according to Yaska

^

where he explains R.Y. an epithet of Indra. “ That

(v. 12,

means Soma, but is which remains of soma when

also

rejected; therefore rjishin

soma.

X. 89, 5),

is

ferring to Indra as rjisht vajriR 72, says that rjhha is the squeezed

soma-plant.

being purified

it is

There

is

is

rjhha, or

also a text re-

Mahidhara, on Yaj.

and

S. xix.

juiceless refuse of the

Sayana generally interprets the word rjhhin

as

an epithet of Indra by, “ he who has the soma after

it

been pressed and has

32, 1

iii.

36, 10

where

;

iv. 16, 1,

rjishin is

5

lost its juice or taste” (on ;

vi.

20, 2).

On

i.

64, 12,

iii.

and

i.

has

an epithet of the Maruts, he explains that

the third libation

when

those deities

;

87, 1,

are worshipped

at

this

and hence they are said to have it. On 4 (where the word is applied to Indra) he says that after the soma has been offered at the first and second libations, and has become juiceless, that which is offered at rjisha is offered,

V. 40,

the third libation

is

called rjhha

= soma.

On

iii.

46, 3,

he

makes rjhhin simply equivalent to somavan, “ having soma.” In two places, however, where the word is applied to the Maruts, Sayana gives alternative interpretations, viz., on ii. ’ The Sanskrit scholar may also examine Yaska’s desperate attempt (vi. 33) to explain the two words rdltpu and rdtivrdh, which occur in R.V. viii. 66, 11. Sayana merely repeats Yaska ; but his text of the passage differs somewhat from

Roth’s.

;

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

334

34, 1, lie says it

either “

tasteless

i.

or,

means soma;” and on

having water,” or “ having

87, 1, “either

having such soma,

being providers (?) of moisture” {prarjayitdro rasdnam). In

i. 32, 6, where the word rjisha (not -Hhin) is applied to Indra, Sayana makes \t=satrundm apdrjakam, “repeller of enemies.” It thus appears that he wavers in his interpretation. The

soma ”

sense of “ drinker of tasteless or spiritless

Indra

probable one.

is

not a very

generally represented as

is

greatly

by the beverage he quaffs, and it seems a poor compliment to him to call him the drinker of a vapid exhilarated

Besides, in one of the texts of which rjishin

draught.

is

the

word, soma-pdvan, a term which indubitabl}^ means soma-

first

drinker, likelj'

found at the end of the same

is

line,

and

it is

un-

that two epithets so closely resembling each other as

“soma-drinker” and “spiritless-soma-driuker” should occur so near.

of S.V.

In his glossary to the Sama-veda, and in his translation i. 248 and ii. 789, Prof. Benfey renders the word by

“victorious;” and it appears from his note on the last of these two texts that the commentator there gives a choice of inter-

ing it

;”

Roth

Prof.

pretations.

and Benfey,

S.V.

translates

by “ forward-rushR.V. i. 87, 1, renders

it

in his translation of

by “ gradaus schreitenden” (Orient und Occident,

similarly

iL 249).

Ecaydvan, which

is

interpreted by Sayana

him

to the

Maruts,

i.

not found in the Nirukta, is diversely “ moving with horses” (applied by

as

=

90, 5)

;

as=“going

which they should go”

fice to

as=“ moving sphere,

(ii.

to the

hymn or sacri-

34, 11, spoken of the same)

with horses, or with the waters of the atmo-

—coming

with showers for the pleasure of others

eraydvari, spoken of the cow) or as= “ bringing to his worshippers the objects which they desire

also”

(vi.

48,

12,

;

to obtain” (on vii. 100, 2, spoken of Yishnu).

Kdniikd

is

(see above).

one of the terms objected to by Kautsa as obscure It occurs only once, in

R.V.

viii.

66, 4

;

and

Y^aska does his utmost to explain it in Nir. v. 11. The whole “ Indra drank at one draught thirty lakes

verse runs thus (or cups) of

the verse.

:

soma Yaska takes

,” the it

word kdnukd being the

last

of

either for a neuter plural, agreeing

.

ON THE INTEEPEETATION OF THE VEDA.

335

with saramsi (cups) and. meaning “ desired” (kdntakani), or “ entirely full” {krdntakdni), or “properly formed” {krtakdni), or for an epithet of Indra, signifying “ fond or beloved of soma” {somasya kdntah), or “ overcome by love of soma” {kane ghdta

iti

“The

vd kane liatah kdntihatah)

ritualists”

(Yaska proceeds), “ say that the thirty bowls which are destined for one deity at the mid-day libations, and are drunk off at once, are denoted in this verse by the word {ydjnikdh),

sardmsi, whilst the etymologists {iiairuktdh), consider that

they stand for the thirty nights and days constituting respectively the

first

and second halves of the month.

Iii

the

second half the rays drink up the collected waters of the

moon.” According to the latter interpretation, Indra is (as Sayana remarks) the deity personifying time ikdldbJiimdni). In his explanation Sayana merely abridges Yaska’s. Kdrudhayah is in three places (vi. 21, 8 vi. 21, 2 vi. 44, 12) explained by Sayana as “upholder of poets or worIn another shippers” [kdriindm dhdrakah, or dhdrayitd.) passage (iii. 32, 10) he gives a different sense, “ maker of This latter sense would he works ” {karmandm vidhdtd). appropriate enough here if it exists in the component ele:

;

ments of the word. Kiyedhtih i.

61, 12), in

much?”

is

explained by Yaska

two ways,

as

(vi.

20, where he quotes R. Y.

= either to kiyaddhdh “ holding how

kramamdna-dhdh, “holding those who advance.” Sayana, on i. 61, 6, renders it by halavdn, “strong,” and declares the two interpretations of the Nirukta to mean (1) “ one

and

or to

who has strength “ one who stops

(2)

verse 12 of the same

of

which no one knows the extent,”

the advancing might of others.

hymn, he

repeats the

It appears from Roth’s Illustrations, in

commentator on the Nirukta, whilst others referred

by

it

?

that Durga, the

And Roth

his double interpretation, “ holding

power)

loco,

refers the epithet

to Indra.

On

same explanations. to Yrttra,

remarks, that

how much

(water or

” and “ holding the advancing (waters or hostile

powers),” Yaska has

left

the application to one or other of

these personages open.

Kiichara

is

explained by Yaska

i.

20 (where R.Y.

i.

154, 2,

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

336 is

quoted), as

meaning

evil deed,” or if

as signifying

(if

applied to a wild beast) “ doing an

taken for a designation of the god (Vishnu),

“whither does he not go?”

same passage, gives

it

Sayana, on the the sense either of “ doer of evil deeds,

such as killing,” or “ going to inaccessible places,”

or,

if

understood of the gods, as meaning either “ doing evil deeds, such as the slaughter of enemies,” or “ one who ranges in all places throughout the three worlds.”

We

mishu, lokatraye, sanchdri.)

hhu-

(Kiishit, sarvdsti

have thus between Yaska

and Sayana three derivations, according as we conceive the word to be compounded of ku, “ bad,” kii, “ earth,” or kva, “where,” prefixed to cliam, “ going,” or “acting.” Such a play upon words in a double sense, though common enough in the

modern

rhetorical poetry of the Hindus,

is

scarcely to

be looked for in the ancient hymns of the Veda.

Kiindru R. V.

iii.

explained by Yaska (Nir. vi. 1, where he quotes 30, 8) as meaning a “ cloud ” {parikvananam is

Sayana (on the same passage) gives two interpretations of the words sahaddnum kshiyantam sam pinak kundrum, viz., either (1) “crush the destroying {kshiyantam) megham).

kundru

=

a certain yelling Asura,

Danu, “Crush the

associated with

Vrttra’s mother, or with the Danavas,” or (2)

thundering {kundru) Vrttra, having the

gift

of bestowing

water {sahaddnum), dwelling {kshiyantam) in the sky.”

Thus

there are no less than three words in this single line

(viz.,

sahddanum, ksMyantam, and kundrum), of which Sayana

offers

alternative explanations.

Kshayadrira does not occur in the Nirukta.

It

is

variously

whom all heroes explained by Sayana or, “ he in w'hom heroes perish, are destroyed ” (on i. 106, 4) or w'hose sons, the Maruts, rule” (on i. 114, 1, 2); or “he as “ very strong, he in ;

who has 125, 3)

or

heroes, sons ;

and servants, dwelling with him ” (on

or “ possessed of heroes, sons

moving”

and

{nivasadbhir itvarair rd, on E..V.

i.

others, dwelling viii.

19, 10).

It

which forms the first member of this compound, Sayana wavers between the three senses of “perishing,” “ruling,” and “dwelling.” Girikshit, an epithet of Vishnu (in i. 154, 3), is translated wall be seen, that as regards the root kshi,

;

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

337

as “ residing in speech ” {giri locative of gir), or “ in a region high as a mountain.” In this passage, however,

by Sayana it

one single sense.

has, probably,

Jdtubharman meaning either

is

not in the Hirukta.

Siiyana explains

having the lightning

for

it

as

a weapon,” or

“ supporter of creatures.”

Jdraydyi

it

by

It occurs only once in the R.V., vi,

(See above.)

obscure.

which

12, 4,

another of the words objected to by Kautsa as

is

quoted by Yaska in

is

ajdyi, to

which

his

ing “is, or was, born.”

vi. 15, where he explains commentator Durga gives the mean-

(See Roth’s Illustrations, etc

Sayana, on the contrary, renders

it

by

stiiyate

“

,

p. 82.)

praised.”

is

is not found in the Yirukta, though jira is given Mghantus, ii. 15, as one of the synonymes of kshipra, “quick.” In one passage (i. 165, 15) it is rendered by Sayana jaya-sila-ddnam, “ having victorious gifts ” but in all the following texts he takes it for, “ whose gifts are quick”

Jiraddnu

in the

;

34, 4

(ii.

viii.

;

5

v. 53,

v. 54,

;

9

;

v. 62,

3

;

v, 83, 1

;

vii.

64, 2

51, 3).

Joshavdka is found in R.Y. vi. 59, 4, and is explained by Yaska (v. 21, 22, where he quotes this passage) as “ that of which the name is unknown, that which is to be pondered (?)”

avjndta-ndmadheyamjoshayitavyam whole verse thus

man who out. Ye do the

Joshavdka.”

:

bhavati).

He

renders the

“ Ye, o Indra

and Agni, eat the offering of you when the soma libations are poured

praises

not eat (that) of the prater (?) who speaks “ Ye, o Indra and Agni, do not

Sayana renders

eat the (offering) of the

:

man

who, when the soma-libations

are poured out, praises you badly, who, in the midst of them,

speaks unpleasing words It is to

Wilson

also, in his

—

when he ought

be observed, however

ones.”

to speak pleasing

—and

I perceive that

note on the passage, has adverted to the

that in the quotation made from Yaska (v. 22) in fact Muller’s edition of the R.V., the reading of the passage is different

from what

Roth’s text the

it

first

is

in Professor Roth’s edition, as in

clause has no negative particle

{na),

found there in MiiUer’s.

The The

whilst the negative particle

meaning of that VOL.

II.

is

clause of the Hirukta

— [new series].

is

thus reversed. 22

ox THE INTERPRETATIOX OF THE YEDA.

338

by Rotb’s reading appears

sense given

to

me

to be the

most

conformable to the apparent meaning of Yaska, as two kinds of worshippers evidently appear to be contemplated in his

whom the two gods approve and whose and another whose oblation they do not eat.

explanation, one of oblation they eat,

Sayana, in conformity with the reading of Yaska given by

makes both

!Muller,

clauses of the verse relate to one kind of

whose offering the two gods disapprove. There would thus appear to be a difference between Yaska to one

worshipper,

i.c.,

and Sayana

as to the sense of the verse of the

What

are expounding. for

me

Roth

to decide.

is

its

R.Y. which they

real sense, it is not necessary

considers that the future participle

by Yaska, means “ requiring conWilson renders the clause of which it forms a

joshayitavyam, employed sideration.” part,

that being of

unknown name

(Compare Roth’s Lexicon,

s.v.,

and

his

is

to

be propitiated.”

remarks in his

Illustr.

of Yir. p. 68.)

Daksha-pitarah in the Yirukta.

the

first (vi.

have Daksha

is

an epithet of the gods which

is

50, 2)

Sayana takes the word

for their forefather,”

and

texts (R.Y. X. 15, 3,

and

word pitr may stand

for “ forefather,”

x. 72, 5)), the

for

not found

R.Y.

On

“those

who

It occurs in three passages of the

refers to

two other

one to prove that the

and the second to show that the gods are elsewhere declared to have Daksha for their ancestor. On the second passage (vii. 66, 2) Sayana translates the word by “preservers, or lords,

i.e.

givers, of strength;”

and on the third (viii. 52, 10) by “preservers, lords, of food.” The word also occurs in the Taittiriya Sanhita, i. 2, 3, 1, where the commentator explains it much as Sayana on vi. 50, and in Yaj. S. xiv. 3, where it is explained by “pre2, does ;

server of vigour.”

Danah is a word occurring in R.Y. i. 174, 2, in regard to which Yaska (vi. 31) and Sayana contradict each other the former taking it for an adjective meaning “liberaUy-minded” {dana-manamh), whilst the latter makes it a verb in the second person singular imperfect, meaning either “ thou didst sub;

due,” or “ thou didst cause to cry.” '

Basra, a frequent dual epithet of the Asvins, and sometimes

;;

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA. of other gods (Indra and Yishnii,

vi.

69, 7),

is

339

explained by

where he quotes R.Y. i. 117, 21), as—darsaniSayana sometimes understands it yau, “ to be seen, sightly.” i. 117, 5, 20, 21 i. 118, 3 in that sense (as on i. 47, 6

Yaska

(vi.

26,

;

i.

120, 4;

vi.

69, 7

of enemies” (on

viii.

;

92, 16

i.

;

;

22, 17); sometimes as “destroyers ;

139, 3

i.

;

i.

158, 1

i.

;

180, 5

183, 4 iii. 58, 3 iv. 43, 4 v. 75, 2) once, at least, as either “ destroyers of enemies,” or “ from their being

i.

182, 2

i.

;

;

;

;

;

the physicians of the gods, destroyers of diseases” (on i. 3, 3) sometimes as either “to be seen,” or as “ destroyers of eneviii. 26, 6; viii. 75, 1); someviii. 5, 2; viii. 8, 1 times as gods “ having the name of Dasra,” or as “ to be seen”

mies” (on (on

i.

;

See

116, 10). It appears

note.

my

article

on the Asvins, above,

from Roth’s Illustrations of Yirukta,

p. 5, p. 92,

Mrukta, explains Dasra by “ destroyers of enemies,” or “ causers of works, agricul-

that Durga, the commentator on the

ture,” etc.

explained by Yaska

JDivishti is

R.Y.

viii. 4,

ings after the sky.”

mean

(\d.

22,

where he quotes

19), as, in the loc. -pl.^dirah eshaneshu,

“long-

Sayana, on the same passage, makes

it

which are the causes of obtaining heaven.” Similarly, on iv. 9, 2, he makes it ydgeshu, “ sacrifices.” On iv. 46, 1, he takes it for “ sacrifices which “sacrificial rites

=

confer heaven,” or “ our longings after heaven being causes.”

^

And, again, on

iv.

47,

1,

he interprets

it

the

divo dyu-

lokasya eshaneshu satsu, “there being longings after the sky;” i. 139, 4, he translates, “ longings after heaven, or long-

on

which enlightens, being causes by “ sacrificial days ;” on viii. 65,

ings, or goings, of sacrifice

on

i.

86, 4, he renders

by “the i.

9,

arrivals of our days, or longings for heaven, being

causes;” on

and on

it

;”

vii.

141,

by “ people who desire heaven, priests;” “ longings after days being the cause.”

74, 1,

6,

Dcibarhas means, according to Yaska

(vi. 17, where he “lord {parivrdhah) in both regions, the middle and the upper” {i.e. atmosphere and sky). Sayana,

quotes R.Y.

vi. 19, 1),

' Say.ana’s note on this verse (iv. 46, 1) affords another instance of his referring to a parallel text (R.V. vii. 92, 1) to prove that the first draught of soma vras offered to Yayu.

ox THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

340

ou the same passage, and

also on iv. 5, 3 vh. 24, 2 vlii. L 71, 6, he has, “ grown {vrmhUo rarddliitah) in the middle and upper regions.” On i. 114, 10, he makes it, “ lord in the two regions, the earth and the ;

;

On

15, 2, follows Yaska.

sky, or in the two paths, the southern and the northern, or

On

and of works.”

lord of knowledge

i.

176,

he renders

5,

stotra-havi - riipa-dvividha -parii'rd.ha - harmacatah - yajamd-

it,

nmija, “ of the worshipper

worship,

i.e.

hymns and

Nichumpuna quotes R.Y.

is

viii,

who

eminent in both kinds of

is

oblations.”

explained by Yaska (v. 17, 18, where he 82, 22), as a designation of soma, “ that

which pleases by being swallowed” {nichdnta-prno nichamaThe ocean, too, he says, is called nichumpuna; as is also the arahhrtka (or cleansing of vessels and worshippers after a sacrifice), as that “in which they sound lowly, tiena prhidti).

or place lowly” {nichair asmin kvananfi nichair dadhati Hi vd).

The word

Sayana explains in conformity with Yaska. occurs in the Vajasaneyi Sanhita,

48,

iii.

and

former of which passages Mahidhara explains

it

also

27, on the

viii.

as

meaning

“slow-going” {nifardtn chopati mandam gachhati nichumpunah), or “ that in which they sound lowly, perform

either

the rite with a low voice.”

On

27, he mentions only the

viii.

of these two explanations.

first

The

sense of the

word

is

thus

left doubtful.

Naichdsdhha and pramaganda are two words occurring in R.V. iii. 53, 14, a text Avhich is quoted and explained in Yir. 'vi. 32. Yaska there gives various senses to pramaganda. He first

says

person

\s,

family.”

maganda

is

“ a usurer.”

of such a

The descendant

pramaganda, “a person sprung from a very usurious Or, secondly, the word

desires that there should be

\fi

= 2yraniadal;ah,

no future

state.”

“ one

who

Or, thirdly,

it

He derives it is =pandal;ah, a “ catamite,” or “ eunuch.” “ of a low stock.” naichdsdhha from nichdsdhha, apparently Siiyana understands

He

it

of the property of degraded people.

adoj)ts the first of the three senses oi pramaganda

proposed

by Yaska. It appears from an objection made to the eternity of the Yeda which Sayana quotes in his Introduction, p. 7, and answers in

p. 10 (as cited in Sanskrit Texts,

iii.

62), that

.

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE YEDA.

Pramaganda was considered by tbe

341

objectors to be the

name

of a king, and Naiclidsakha that of a town.

Ne.ma sense (i.

is

it is

54, 8

;

given in Xir.

to

= arddha,

taken by Sayana on R. Y. 24, 4, 5

iv.

“ some,” “ others.”

name

proper

20 as

iii.

;

vi. 16, 18),

But

in

viii.

Compare R.V.

ii.

In other places

v. 61, 8.

he translates 89, 3,

lie

of a descendant of Bhrigu.

be wrong.

“ half,” in which

it

by “these,”

holds

In

it

this

to be the

he appears

12, 5.

Nishshidh, nishshidhvan, pum-nishshidh, puru-nishshidhcan.

The numbers

These words are not found in the Xighantus or Nirukta. first

of them, which occurs in the B.V. in different

and

cases, is variously

places

as

;

by Sayana

interpreted

in different

= “ constantly discharging rain-clouds ” (on R. Y.

169, 2); or

“commands, ordinances”

{aniisdsandni,

iii.

i.

51,

or “destructive light” (himstJcdm diptim,

5);^

“ hinderers, enemies ”

(iv.

iii. 55, 8); “ or hindrances to enemies,” 24, 1),

or “cords to restrain enemies”

44, 11).

(vi.

Nishshidhvarili

form of nishshidhvan) occurs in iii. 55, 22, where nitardm tvat-hartrha-siddhimatyah, i£., Sayana makes it “ having eminently perfections created by thee ” (Indra) (the feminine

=

Puru-nishshidh

and

is

is

found in

there translated

i.

10, 5

by Sayana

^

as

as

an epithet of Indra,

= “ hinderer

of

many

and pm'u-nishshidhvan, in iv. 38, 2, as a designation of Dadhikra, where it is understood by him in the same sense.

enemies

It

is,

;

therefore, quite impossible to suppose that

the com-

mentator could have had any certain tradition of the sense of these words.

Prof. Y'ilson,

shidho martyeshu in

iii.

51, 5,

who by

translates purcir asya nish-

“many

hibitions (against evil enjoined) to

are his [Indra’s] pro-

men,” has a note on

this

which he remarks that “ a similar phrase in a former passage [i. 10, 5] purunishshidhe has been rendered ‘repeller of many foes there is no material incompatibility, the latter being a compound epithet, and the substantive in both cases being derived from shidh, to succeed, to go, with the preposi-

verse, in

’

:

I "We have, in his comment on this verse, a further instance of Sayana quoting another passage for iUustration, as he here cites i. 10, 5 as referring to Indra’s function of command. See further on. - This verse is repeated in Sama-veda i. 363, where Benfey renders it “ vielge“ bietend,” many ruling.”

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

342

howwhich Sayana

Prof. Wilson,

tion nir, out, ex, to exclude, to prohibit.”

ever, while taking notice of this one passage to

himself had draAvn his attention, has not adverted to the other texts

which I have adduced

tenor with those in hi. 51,

purvtsh

te

:

and when words identical in

5, are repeated in

vi.

44, 11, viz.,

Indra ninhuhidho janeshii, he translates them

ently, thns

“many

:

amongst men.”

are the hindrances (opposed)

differ-

to thee

This does not, however, correctly reproduce

Sayana’s meaning.

Paritahnyd

P.Y.

is

translated “ night” in Nir. xi. 25, where

X. 108, 1 is explained.

This sense

second

series, p.

464, and note.)

xiii.,

496 and 498.)

pp.

adopted by Prof.

Language,

Prof. Aufrecht, on the other

hand, renders the word by “necessity.” Society, vol.

is

(Lectures on

Midler in translating the verse.

(Journal of Ger. Or.

who

Prof. Poth,

in his

the Nir. had taken the same view, assigns in his Lexicon, s.v., another signification, that of “ wandering,” as Illustr. of

For most other texts of the P.V. he adopts the sense of “night,” “darkness.” In two

the proper one for this passage.

” passages he gives it the sense of “ causing anxiety, “ dangerous. Sayana renders the word by “ night ” in i. 116, 15 iv. 43, 3

’ ’

;

24, 9

vi.

;

by “ dark,” apparently, in

or “ battle,” or “ sacrifice,” in

vii.

69, 4

;

;

13 by “ night,” by “ surrounding,”

v. 30,

;

iparitakane nimittahhiite sati) or “night” in iv. 41, 6; by “ battle ” in V. 31, 11 by “ to be gone round, or surrounded,” ;

and by “ suran epithet of rutri, “night,” which goes before, It thus appears that in some places he is uncer-

an epithet of

as

rounding,” as in V. 30, 14.

dhaiie, wealth, in

i.

31, 6

;

tain about the sense.

Paryab/iushat in R.V. as

—

i.e.,

He

ii.

12, 1, is explained

by Yaska

(x.

paryahhavat paryayrhndt paryarakuhad atyakrdmad

iti

10) vd,

“ overcame, or comprehended, or protected, or surpassed.”

it would appear, have been very sure Sayana renders simply rakuhakatvena paryaThe same word is found grahit, “ surrounded as a protector.” in the imperative {pari bhusha) in P.Y. i. 15, 4, where Sayana

of

could not, therefore,

its

meaning.

renders

it,

“ adorn,” and Benfey, “ encircle ;” and in

where Sayana, followed by Benfey, translates the

i.

31, 2,

clause, devd-

;

ON THE INTERPEETATION OF THE VEDA.

nam

vratam, “ thou adornest the ceremonial

pari bkushasi

The same

[karma) of the gods.” ticle vi, occurs in

343

i.

preceded by the par-

root,

112, 4, vi hhushati, where Saj^ana offers

two explanations, “is diffused,” or “eminently adorns,” and in vi. 15, 9, vi hhushan, where he renders, “adorning.” The

word dbhusha, in R.Y. vii. 92, 1 (=Yaj. S. vii. 7) is understood by both commentators, Sayana and Mahidhara, in the sense of “ come.”

Pdnta is

explained in Nir.

is

25 (where E..Y.

vii.

x. 88, 1

a&_pdniya, “to be drunk.” It occurs also in 122, 1, where Sayana renders it by “ preserving, or to

quoted)

R.Y.

i.

be drunk,

sacrifice, or

he gives

also,

On

instrument of sacrifice.”

i.

55, 1,

the sense of either “ protecting, or to be

it

drunk.”

Parukshu

not found in the Nirukta

is

the Nighantus, interprets

“ having 34, 10 as

;

food ” (on

19, 5)

;

i.

also as

ks/iu is

68, 5

;

given in

of an?ia, “ food.”

most part as

the

for

hut

;

iii.

25, 2

Sayana

= bahvanna, 21

hi. 54,

;

= “ greatly renowned ”

(ii.

iv.

;

40, 4)

having one or other of the two preceding senses (iv. 29, 5 ” and, again, as “ having much food, or many cattle

;

vi. 68, 6) (vi. it

a

variously,

it

much

vi.

7, as

ii.

synomyme

;

22, 3).

The commentator on

the Yaj.

S.,

xxvii. 20, renders

“that which dwells in many” [bahushu kshiyati nirasati). Prthupdjas does not occur in the Nirukta

given in the Nighantus, “ strength.”

bala,

name from

ii.

In Nir.

9, as vi.

;

hut

is

one of the synouymes for

12,

it

is

said

to derive its

Prthupdjas is variously rendered by Sayana as “ having great strength ” (iii. 27, 5 iv. 46, 5) as “ having great \hgour (or lustre,” tejas, iii. 5, 1 iii. 27, 5) preserving.

;

;

;

as “ having great strength or 2)

;

(iii.

as

“having great vigour

much

food ”

(iii.

3, 1

;

;

viii.

5,

(or lustre) or great velocity”

2, 11).

Prtkushhika occurs as an epithet of SinivMi in E.Y. h. This passage is quoted in Nir. xi. 32, and the word is 32, 6. there explained as either “ broad-loined,” or “ having broadly plaited (or a broad stuke.

mass

of) hair ” (prthukesa-stuke), or prtliu-

Sayana renders by

prthu-jarjliane

“ having broad loins,” or “ broadly built ”

prthu-samhafe vd, (?)

The passage

ON THE INTERPEETATION OF THE VEDA.

344

repeated in Yaj. S. xxxiv. 10, where Mahidhara makes the word = /?e prthuhcsa-hhare mahdstute vd prthul'dme vd “having a large mass of hair, or greatly praised, or having large On the sense of the word sfuJid, compare Weber, desires.” Ind. Stud., V. 233 and 237. Pt'adirah is met with in the Nighantus, iii. 27, as one of the synonjnnes of purdna, “ old.” The same sense is assigned to it in the Nirukta, ^’iii. 19, as weU as in iv. 8, where it is rendered by piirves/m api ahassn “ even in former days.” Siiyana, in his note on the passage here illustrated by Yaska is

(R.V. iii. 47, 1), adheres to the interpretation of the latter, lie also retains the sense “ old ” in i. 53, 2 ii. 3, 1 iii. 36, ;

;

iv. 7, 8 v. 8, 7 vi. 5, 3 vi. 23, 5 hut in 4 iii. 38, 5 and iv. 34, 3 he assigns to the word the meaning of “extremely shining” (prakarshena dyotaindim).

2

;

iv. 6,

;

;

Bakura is found in R.Y. Yaska (vi. 25, 26), where

;

i.

;

;

117, 21, a passage quoted

(after

saying that bakura

hhdskaro hhayankaro bhdsamdno dravati

iti

is

by

=

“ illuminator, vd,

which runs shining”) he assigns to the word the sense of “ light or water” {jyotkhd udakena rd. Sayana gives it the meaning of the “ shining lightning.” Prof. Roth thinks it denotes a wind instrument. Whether he is ri"ht or not, it is clear that Yaska had no certain knowledo:e terrible, or that

of

its

sense.

Birita, as

we

are told in Yir. v. 27, means, according to

Taitiki, the “ atmosphere,” the first syllable

“ to go,” and the second being from

ir,

being from vi, “ to go,” and the whole

YAska R.Y. vii.

denoting that wherein the birds or the clouds move.

then quotes the only passage in which

occurs,

it

(=Yaj. S. xxxiii. 44), giving it first the sense of atmoand next suggesting the sense of “ assemblage of men.” Sayana repeats the two interpretations of Yaska. Mahidhara adopts the second, but quotes Yaska. Madachyut does not occur in the Nirukta. It is generally ” understood by Sayana as “ humbler of the pride of enemies viii. 85, 5), or, (on R.Y. i. 51, 2 i. 81. 3 viii. 1, 21 “humhlers of enemies,” viii. 22, 16. But on i. 85, 7, he takes it for “ that which sheds forth joy, the sacrifice.” 39, 2

sphere,

;

;

;

ON THE INTERPEETATION OF THE VEDA.

345

Mrdhravdch is explained by Yaska (vi. 31, where be quotes mrdu-vuchah “ softly-speaking.” This R.y. i. 174, 2) as translation is quoted by Sayana at the end of bis note on tbe passage without remark. His own rendering is different, as

=

be

either,

according to tbe interpretation of tbe Aitibasikas

(legendary writers), makes tbe word “uttering angry words,” ruktas,

takes

= marshaiia-vaclLanuh,

according to that of tbe Nai-

= marshana-dhvani-yulitdh,

as

it

or,

“ having

a

On v. 29, 10 v. 32, 8 and vii. 6, 3, be understands tbe term to stand for “ with organs of speech threatening sound.”

;

;

destroyed,” or “with speech destroyed;” and on

be assigns a sense similar to that given on hddhai'dcham,

“injm’iously

vii. 18, 13,

174, 2,

i.

viz.,

Tbe meanings be

speaking.”

assigns are thus mutually inconsistent, as well as at variance

with that proposed by Yaska.

Amrdlira occurs frequently in tbe R.Y., as in 43, 2, 13

;

vi. 19,

which places

it is

7

vi.

;

22, 10

;

vi.

75, 9

;

v. 37, 1

he translates “not despised by any one.”

besides “uninjurable,” be proposes

wetting,”

v.

rendered by Sayana ahimsita, or himsd-rahita,

“uninjured,” oy himaitum asahja, “ uninjurable.” 8,

;

67, 5, in all

vii.

which Prof.

On

an alternative

Groldstiicker

Oniii. 58,

On

i.

37, 11,

sense,

“not

not very

regards as

MiiUer an active sense, ahinsaka, “not injuring.” On Yaj. S. xxix. 46, Mabidbara renders tbe word “ bard-limbed, or giving stern commands.” probable (see

s.t’.).

viii.

69, 2 (where, however,

puts tbe texts in brackets), he renders

it

in

Mehand (an undeclined word) is found in Nir. iv. 4 (where R.Y. v. 39, 1 is quoted), and is explained as e\i]xeY=mamhamyam^ dhanam, “to be given, wealth,” or me iha na “(that which) I have not bere.”^ Sayana, following Yaska’s first interpretation, understands V. 39, 1.

tions,

On

viii.

be makes

it

mehand 4,

= mamhaniya,

on

v. 38,

21, repeating both Yaska’s

either

mamhaniydm prasasydm,

“

3 and

explanalaudable.

The verb inamh is found in Nigh, iii.^20, as signif)dng “ to give.” See on this word Roth’s Illust. of Nir. p. 39, where other passages in which it occurs are given. Roth mentions that Durga, the commentator on the Nirukta, says that, in the R.V., mchana is one word, whilst in the Samaveda it is considered to be made up of three. On the sense of the term see also Benfey’s Gloss, ^

-

to S.V., p. 151.

ON THE INTERPEETATION OF THE VEDA.

346

gam (fem.) “ cow,” and asva “ horse,” or, tne xha na (masc.) and the latter words he explains thus “ In this king {iha) there was not {na) to me excellent,” agreeing witli both

;

:

On

{me) that gift of excellent wealth.” 50),

33,

he takes the word as

“ shedding water.” sechanena ynktah,

same

verse, explains,

(=V.S.

52, 12

viii.

= tidaka-sechana-yuktah,

or

Mahidhara, on the

“shedders of wealth,”

dhanddi-

etc.,

In iii. 49, 3, the word mehanuvdn is met with, which Sayana explains thus mihyatc sichyate diyaie arthihhyali iti mehanam dhanam tadvdn, “ mehana is wealth, sekfdrah.

:

that which is

shed forth, given, to suppliants

is

Itenukakdta as

;

he who has

it

mehanarat.” not mentioned in the Xirukta.

is

an epithet of arcan, “horse,” in R.Y.

Sayana takes

for “ stirring

The word

for battle.

Yaj. S.

it

XX viii.

13,

dhara as follows

It is found

28, 4, where up dust,” spoken of a horse come

is

also

where

it is

vi.

found connected with arvan in differently understood

b)'’

Mahi-

kdtah kiipah, kulsitah kdtah kakdtah, renuhhih krtvd kakdtah renukakdfah, “ kdta is a well; kakdta is a bad well with dust is a remikakdta.” Such a which calves and youths fall, is to be removed. etc., which obstruct sacrifices and offspring are to be

a bad well well,

:

;

into

"NYells,

removed from the road. Such is this scholiast’s explanation. It wiU be seen that the two Commentators are far from a^reein", and the word is so constructed that there is no reason to suppose

it

has both senses.

Vavakshitha and virakshase are given in Yigh. iii. 3, among “ great ;” and in Nir. iii. the synonymes of mahat, 13, are said “ to to be derived from the root rack, “to speak,” or from rah, carry.”

Sayana seems (except in one

case, vii.

100, 6), to

regard the different forms of this word as coming from rah,

“to bring,” and interprets as follows to

bring” (E..Y.

i.

64, 3)

;

:

wishes! to carry, art a supporter of” exceedingl}" wishes! to carry”

(i.

“thou wishes!

to carry all”

lU'dha,

“he

(iv.

carried”

(viii.

16,

(i.

102, 8

nhitha,

“they two carried”

“they wish “thou exceedingly ditto, “thou 81, 5)

ravakshiih,

afi varakshitha,

(ii.

;

;

iii.

9, 3)

;

vavak-

22, 3); varakshe

—

5); vavakshatuh— avahatdm, 25-27); anu varakshitha

12,

—

,

ox THE IXTEEPRETATIOX OF THE TEDA. anuvodhum vakshe, in

and

ichha,

“desire to carry”

100, 6,

vii.

by Sayana in

is

loco,

(Sdii.

77,

347 Prava-

5).

rendered both, by Yaska (v. 8) as=prabruske, “ tbou sayest.”

it appears to me that in most which I have quoted the sense of “ carrying ” is inappropriate. In i. 64, 3, Sayana has to supply the words,

Setting aside the last passage,

of the rest

“what

is

desired

by

make the we take the

their worshippers,” in order to

word “bring” yield a

tolerable sense; whilst, if

verb to signify “waxed, grew,” the meaning will be “the

Rudras waxed like mountains.” So, too, in i. 81, 5, and i. 102, 8, it makes a better sense to say of Indra, “ thou hast waxed greater than the whole universe,” than to say, “ thou exceedingly wishes! to bear the universe.” And in iii. 9, 3, where Sayana explains the words afi frshtam ravakshitha, “ thou (Agni) exceedingly wishes! to bring, in order to desire of thy worshipper,

Roth

ward.”

{s. V.

fulfil

the

by bestowing an appropriate

re-

trshta) proposes to render “

hast overcome that which bites, in

ii.

22, 3; iv. 16, 5;

viii.

i.e.

thou (Agni)

the smoke.”

Similarly,

“waxing”

77, 5, the sense of

seems by far the most appropriate (though not, apparently, in ii.

34, 4).

Even

in

viii.

meaning “carried” seems

12, 25-27,

where

at first sight the

to suit the context,

— “when, Indra,

the gods placed thee in the front in the battle, then thy beautiful

steeds

carried {thee)”

—the

other

“ grew

sense,

great,” would be admissible, especially as there

is

no noun in

the line to be governed by varakshatuJi, and as in the next verse following the three where this verb occurs, another verb

with that very signification {varrdhdte, “grew”) applied to the horses.

Other forms of

is

actually

and R.Y. i. 2, 2 iv. 8, 2 viii. 6, 45 where they are treated by Sayana as futures, or precatives. Can vakshati rakshafah, occur

in

be a third per. pres.,

;

“he brings?”

this verb, vakshati ;

;

Avakshat and vakshat

(R.Y. X. 20, 10, and x. 176, 2) seem to have the sense of “ bringing.” Vahshatha occurs as a substantive in vii. 33, 8,

where Sayana assigns the sense of prakdsa, “brightness.” it may mean “ fuU splendour.” Roth (Illustr. of

Perhaps

Air. p. 30) thinks the root vaksh has the sense of “ so, too,

Benfey

(gloss to S. Y.),

who, however, gives

it

waxing

;”

the sense

:

ox THE INTERPRETATION OF THE YEDA.

348

of “ carrying” in E..V. i.

81, 5;

also s.v. adopts the sense of “

Sarman has In Xir.

In

iv. 7, 11.

his translation of i. 64, 3

102, 8, he translates “growing.”

i.

in the

growing,” “ being strong,”

Nighan^s,

iii.

4,

;

Westergaard etc.

the sense of “house.”

32; xii. 45, it has the meaning of “I’efuge” In i. 174, 2, Sayana rendei’s sanna sukham

ix. 19,

(saranam).

yatha bhavati, “ easily,” whilst in another verse,

vi. 20, 10, “ by thunder-

where the context is the same, he translates it bolt” (santia sannand I'ajrena). Sdrada, “autumnal,” (which is not found in the Nirukta), is a word applied in several passages of the R.Y. to the cities of the Dasyus. On i. 131, 4, Sayana explains it as = “ fortified for a year;” on i. 174, 2, as “new,” or “fortified for a A'ear;” on vi. 20, 10, as “belonging to an Asura called Sarad.” Surud/i, in the plural, means, according to the Nirukta, vi.

which “jirevent distress” {siicham samrunThe word is mentioned in two other passages of the X. 41 and xii. 18 (where R.Y. iv. 23, 8, and vi. 49, 8,

16, “waters,”

(lhanti).

Yir. viz

,

are cited) is

,

in the former of

given, whilst in the later

“riches.” Sayana, on i. which prevents suffering

which no further explanation of (xii.

18)

72, 7, takes the in

rupasya sokasya rodhayitrir ishah)

vi. 3,

word

for

the shape of hunger”

ventives of thirst, waters;” on

it

rendered by dhandni,

it is

on

iii.

“food [kshud-

38, 5, for “ pre-

“waters;” on cows ;” ' on \u. 49, 8

iv. 23, 8, for

3, for “preventives of suffering,

same (in opposition to Yaska, who here on vii. 23, 2, for “ things which prevent suffering, herbs;” and on vii. 62, 3, for “preventers of suffering,” but taken as nom. masc. and as an epithet of Yaruna and other gods oi', optionally, in the accus., for “ plants.” In i. 169, 8, the word is interpreted of “ distress(=Yir.

xii.

renders

it

18) the

“ riches”)

;

;

preventing desiccating lines of clouds,” sokasya rodhayitrih soshakdh .... megha-panktili.

R.Y.

vi.

49, 8,

the Yaj. S. xxxiv. 42, where surudhah

means of removing

is

is

repeated in

explained as

“a

suffering.”

^ These cows belong to the Rakshasas, whom Sayana considers to be denoted by the word akiu, “ night,” in which such spirits move about.

,

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

349

SalalMa is explained in Nir. vi. 3 (where the only text in which it occurs, R.V. iii. 30, 17, is cited), as=“ covetous {samlubdha), wicked, according to the Nairuktas, or etymologists

or

may

it

Durga understands of the Rakshases.

Sanfya 36, 2

explains

it

to

mean “confounded,”

Sayana takes

it

or “fugitive,”

for sarana-sila,

found as an epithet of Agni in R.V.

is

19, 26.

viii.

;

;

he for sararuka, from sr (to go), reduplicated.”

In the

first

“moving.” i.

18, 2

;

i.

passages Sayana

of these

meaning “ bestower of rewards,” and

in the second as “ liberal,” dermng it in both cases from the root san, “ to give.” In the third passage he makes it =sam“ to be served, or possessed.” bhajanii/a, it

as

Sarvatati 15,

is

interpreted in Nir. xi. 24 (where R.Y.

quoted) by sarvusu karma-tatishu, “in

is

i.

94,

performances

all

Sayana on the same passage repeats these words of Yaska, and adds, “ or to him who is present at all sacrifices.” On iv. 26, 3, he translates it simply by “ sacrifice.” On vi. 12, 2, also, he renders it by “ sacrifice” (“performed by all,” sarvais tdyamdne yajne), or, extensions) of works.”

{lit.

(taking tuti for a sutfix), the “totality” of worshippers {sarvah On i. 106, 2, he renders it by “ that which is extended

stota).

by

which sense he also as.signs to it in vii. 54, 11, he gives it the signification of “every desired good.” In this last text, where Savitr is asked to give the worshippers sarvatati {ad asmabhyam dsitva sarvatdtim) all heroes, battle,”

18, 19.

it

On

iii.

could not well signify either battle, or

sacrifice, or

anything

but blessing in some form or other. On vi. 56, 6, the scholiast assigns the sense of “ sacrifice,” or “ the extension of all en-

The word

joyments,” sarveshdm bliocjdndm vistdrdya. occurs in ix. 96, 4; x. 36, 14; and x. 100,

Ifi".,

explanations of those passages are not within

also

but Silyana’s

my

reach.

See

Prof Benfey’s Excursus on the word sarvatdti in his “ Orient und Occident,” ii. 519 ff., referred to in my article on “ Vedic Theogony,” etc., p. 70, note. Siimajjdni (not in the Nirukta),

R.Y.

i.

156, 2.

Sayana thinks

it

either “self-born” {siimat being vi.

22,

andydwi being taken

is

an epithet of Yishnu in

may mean one

=

of

two things,

according to Nir.

for “birth”), or

“having a wife

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

350

=

{jani) wlio gladdens”

being \iQve sutaram madayati). epithet will in the latter case be equivalent to the “ lord

The

of the world-gladdening Sri.”

Here we have an importation I am not aware of any which a wife is assigned to

of later ideas into Tedic mythology.

other passage of the R.Y. in

In the Yaj.

Yishnu.

S. xxix. 60, Aditi is called his wife;

as Sinivali appears to be in

A.Y.

vii.

46, 3.

is found in R.Y. i. 10, 2. where Sayana by “ touched, began ;” in i. 22, 19 (=Yaj. vi. 14 Sama-veda, ii. 1021), where he renders it by “ (every worshipper) touched, performed,” the root spas having the two senses Mahidhara of injuring and touching {bddJiana-sparsanayoh). on Yaj. S. vi. 4, explains the same w’ord by “bound, fashioned,” or “ bound in himself,” or “ fixed,” spas having the sense of binding (bandhane). In i. 128, 4, Sayana translates by

Spns, as a verb,

translates

it

;

afyart/iam sprsafi srikaroti, “touches exceedingly, accepts,” (the sense of “ oblations, etc.,” being given to jdtdni)

by

176, 3,

out a preposition in x. 102,

and

1,

by

I

X. 160, 4.

in the first

8,

and with anu prefixed

not aware what sense

vi. 67,

;

and A.Y.

second

(i.

found in R.Y.

is

25, 13

i.

;

aratni).

s.v.

33. 8

;

iv. 4,

;

vii.

;

vii.

;

viii.

(vi.

by “rays,

67, 5)

(iv. 4,

spas

is

V. 59, 1, sjiat,

said to

nom.

hQ

= 2)ras]itd hold,

is

an epithet of Indra, he makes

s

vii.

61, 3, there

to a preceding passage,

17,

1

;

vi.

26, 4

,

vii.

is i.

(vii.

61, 3)^

have the sense of

sing., is said

to

In

hj parahddhakdn

by chardh, “ spies,” (though

it

'

3)

or spies; in the fifth

;” in vii. 87, 3,

here, too, the root

In

in the

“destrojdng others, rays, or spies;” in the

vd,

by rdpam, “ form “ touch.”)

;

;

hddhakdn VrUrdnmhardn, “ the injurious

33, 8),

rasmm chdrdn

3

61, 3 87, 3 50, 15 ix. 73, 4, Sayana renders 4. In the first passage 16,

5

iv.

i.

followers of Yrttra;” in the third

fourth

i.

assigns

hiranya-sparsino rasmln, “gold-touching, rays;”

it,

in

in x. 14,

S%ana

drshligochara, “visible” (see Goldstiicker’s Diet.

V. 59, 1 ;

am

;

also occurs with-

two passages, but in the third he translatesff«?^.s;pr/.s7ietrindin). taken as

=

mean

said to

primarily, “ he

who

sees

men”

[nrins chashte),

an epithet of Savitri) explained by the words, “ illuand in minator of men” [nuuiushydndm prkadsa-kdnnam)

it is (as

;

i.

91, 2,

by “ he who shows

to the conductors of sacrifices the

desired fruit (of their rites).”

Surachakshas

is

found in Yir.

xi.

16 (where R.Y.

i.

110, 4,

Yaska gives it the explained) as an epithet of the Ribhus. sense of “ sun-speaking (?) or sun-wise,” sura-khydnd vd siira-

is

Sayana does not adhere to more than one of Yaska’s renderings, and proposes surya-samdna-prakdsdh surya-sadrsajndnd vd, “ having splendour like the sun,” or “ having knowledge like the sun.” The word also occurs in R.Y. i. 16, 1, prajnd

vd.

where Sayana takes “having splendour

suvya-samdna-prakdsa-yuktd

for

it

like the sun, priests.”

The

rtvijah,

correctness of

and I do not see Benfey makes it (Or. imd If so, the Occ.), an epithet of harayah, Indra’s tawny horses. “ Let the tawny horses bring thee, the verse would run thus this last interpretation

why

the

seems very doubtful

word should not

;

be, as

:

vigorous, to the steeds.”

The

Sayana

in v. 66,

soma- draught, Indra, thee, the sun-eyed

sense of 6,

renders vydpta-darsanau

Yaruna, in

Aui.

“ many-eyed

;”

“eye”

or “sight”

is

assigned by

to chakshas in iya-chakshasd,

34, 10,

•,

which he

in sahasra- chakshas, an epithet of

which he interprets by bahu-chakshus, compound ghom-chak-

and, optionally, in the

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE YEDA.

362

shase (tu. 104, 2), wliich

lie

explains ghora-darsanaya parusha-

“sun-eyed” byBenfey though in his note he doubts whether this means, “with eyes gleaming like the sun,” or “with eyes which see all, like the sun.” To the compound nruchalshas, Sayana gives the sense of “ seer of many,” in i. 25, 5, and vii. Surachalishasi?, rendered

hhdshine va.

in

4, also;

116,

i.

51, 9

;

of “great seers,” in

many,” in vii.

35, 8;

i.

25, 16

vii.

;

Auii. 90, 2 of “to be seen by but of “possessing great brilliancy,” in ;

63, 4.

Chdkshma, in R.Y.

ii. 24, 9, is said by Sayana to slghlf}^ sarvasya drashtd sarva-saho rd, either “ all-seeing,” or “ all-

enduring.”

Jenya

is

explained by Sayana on E..V.

i.

74, 4, as

meaning

either “manifested,” or “conquerors (of Rakshasas).”

Fastyd, though generally rendered by Saj^ana “ people,”

“men,” house,” “dwellers i.

in a house”

164, 30), has in one place

of “river” assigned to

In R.V.

i.

mean

Sclyana to

(?)

(i.

25, 10;

i.

40, 7;

11) the alternative sense

it.

the words ri panir hitavdn are said b}" either, “ the vessel which receives the stipu-

180,

lated libation

(iv. 1,

7,

has had the liquid put into it” {panih pand-

dhdro drona-kalaso rihitavdn sthdpita-rmavdn dsU), or “let the trafficker, avaricious, unsacrificing,

who, though possessed of

wealth, does not sacrifice, be separated” {panir vanik hihdhako ’yashtdhitai'dnniyata-dhano dhanddhyo ’py ayashtd ri yujyatdm).

The

difference

between these two explanations

prodigious, and shows

how

Compare Wilson’s note

loss of ]\Iaruts.

as

=

evidently loss.

in loco.

Z^tayah, generally rendered “aids,”

by Sayana

is

greatly the Scholiast was at a

is

in

i.

84, 20, explained

gantdrah “ goers,” or as standing (with the

the initial dh) for dhutayah, “shakers,” meaning the

He

also assigns to

rddhdmsi in the same verse the

unusual sense of “spirits” {bhutdni).

He

seems to have re-

garded these strange interpretations as necessitated by the following verb dahhan, which has jui’e,” “ destroy.” s.^^,

But

it

commonly the sense of “inhere, as Both proposes,

may have

the signification of “ fail.”

Dhrta-vmta

is

an epithet often applied to the gods, chiefly

,

ON TEE INTEEPRETATIOX OF THE VEDA. to Mitra, Varuna,

and

tlie

It means,

Adityas.

“one whose

by whom the order

oi’dinance stands fast,” “ one

363

of nature

is

and Muller, “Anc.Sansk.Lit.” p. 534. Sayana on R. Y. i. 15, 6, renders it by svihia-l annanau “ those by or, as Wilson transwhom works are accepted “ propitious to pious acts.” lates, In i. 25, 8, also, Sayana explains the word stih'ta-liarma-viseshah, “he by whom a particular work is accepted;”^ whereas Miiller (p. 536) makes

upheld,” according to Roth,

it,

s.v.,

“ the upholder of order.”

word

vrata (with

the same hymn the compounded) is vaguely “work;” and Wilson translates

In

v. 1 of

which dhrta-vmta

rendered by Saj^ana as

is

=

the phrase rrafam pmmintmasi (which Sayana explains as liarma pmmdclena himdtarantah), by “ we disfigm’e thy worship

by imperfections. ”

IRiiller

“ break thy laws.”

renders it, probably more accurately,

which of the senses Sayana where there can be no doubt that the sense is what Muller makes it, Sayana uses the same terms of explanation. This is the case in ii. 38, 7, and V. 69, 4, where it is declared that no one can, or that the other gods cannot, hinder the ordinances of Savitri, or of Mitra and Yaruna, in which passages it is far more likely that “ decrees” or “designs,” than “ ceremonies,” are contemplated. In ii. 28, 8, where it is said that tlie ordinances of Yaruna rest unshaken on him as on a mountain, Sayana explains xratdni by adopted

;

It is not clear

for in other passages,

I'armdni vidJmranani, “works,” “ upholdings.” And in ii. 38, 2, 9, he interprets the word of the “ creative or impidsive act,” prasarakhijam karma, of Savitri.

gives

it

So, too, in

“controuling act,” “controul;” in djndyai,

i.

101, 3, he

the signification of niyama-rupe karmani, nhjamanam

“command;” and

in

vii.

iii.

30, 4, of karmane,

31, 11, of rakshanddini kar-

mani, “ preservation and other works.”

But

there are other

passages in which he undoubtedly explains vrata by “rite,” in

accordance with the modern use of the word

where he takes

it

for etdni

sddini karmdni, “these rites

mdsa,”

etc.

;

and in

i.

91, 3,

On

IV. 53, 4,

he makes

\t

as in

i.

69, 4,

which we see, the darsa, purnawhere he takes it alternatively for

saridny aynislitomddini karmdni, *

;

paridrpjamandni darsa-purnamd-

“

all

= dhrtakarma, “he

the ceremonies, the

hy whom vork

is

upheld.”

ox THE IXTERPRETATIOX OF THE VEDA.

3G4

aynishtoma,”

etc.,

or

karumni

of the good of the world

lokaJiitakdrini, “ acts

promotive

whilst in v. 63, 7, where Mitra

and Varuna are said to uphold ordinances by their support, “through the wisdom of the divine Spirit,” (dhannanu vratu rakahethe asuraaya mdyaya), he explains these words by jagad-dhdrakena vralipy-udi-lakshanena kannanu vratu yajnudi-karmayii rakshethe pdlayathaJi, “ye support sacrifice and other rites by your world-sustaining action in the form of rain,” terprets the

texts

:

i.

In most,

word rrafa in a similar manner

92, 12

;

i.

124, 2

ii.

;

28, 2

vii.

;

etc.

He

in-

in the following

47, 3

;

vii.

76, 5.

at least, of these passages, however, there is little

doubt the word vrata means “ordinances,” or “laws.”

If

there could be any question as to its having this meaning elsewhere, the point would be settled by R.Y. x. 33, 9, na devdnum ati vratam satutmd chana jicati, “ even the man of a hundred years does not live beyond the ordinance of (the term ordained by) the gods.” ^ Avrata probabl}' means quite

much

as

“ lawless,” as “ destitute of rites.”

In

Lexicon,

x. 2, 4,

where

it is

said that

(See

Roth’s

Agni

rectifies

whatever transgressions of the ordinances {vratdni) of the gods

may

be committed by the worshippers, the u’ord probably

alludes to sacred rites.

Ranva

R.Y.

24, 11, means, Sayana tells us, ramayitd “ stotavyo vd, either a giver of pleasure,” or “ one who is to in

ii.

be praised.”

word about which Sayana Is unas “ friend,” a sense which he supports by the authority of Kapardin (whoever he may be), and then adds, “some say rdti means “son,” and in proof of this he quotes R.Y. hi. 2. 4. But when we turn to that passage we find, strangely enough, that he renders the word by abhila-shitdrtliapraddtdram, “ giver of desired objects.” Rati in R.Y.

certain.

He

i.

first

60, 1, is a

explains

it

Rudravarttani, hiranyavarttani are epithets frequently ap-

by Sayana. He meaning “ leading in

plied to the gods, but diversely interpreted

explains the former in R.Y.

i.

3, 3, as

Compare R.V. viii. 28, 4, where a similar idea is expressed without the employment of the word vrata : Yathd vasanti devds tathd id asat tad eslidrn, nakir d minat, etc., “ As the gods wish, so it comes to pass no one hinders that [will] of ’

;

theirs,” etc.

ox THE INTERPEETATIOX OF THE VEDA. the front of the battle like heroes,

On

weep.”

22, 1,

viii.

and

14,

battle pursue a path characterized

path

“they whose path conduct

On

viii.

In

vi.

in

viii.

is

8,

and

he makes

who

in

is

11,

he translates

golden, or whose

to the

two

latter senses.

“having a golden chariot,” and Compare hrshna-

it

having a golden path.”

ghriavarttani.

word which Sayana

a

is

(nakshatraih) in X. 68, 11.

how he

viii. 5,

golden, or whose car

he confines himself

1,

26, 18, “

Strhhih

their enemies

“those

beneficent and pleasant” {hita-ramamijdcharanau.

61, 7,

varttani

is

it

by weeping, or those whose

Hirmvjavartfcmi in

praised.”

is

who make

he renders

365

It

is

renders

i.

68, 5

also it

;

iv. 7,

found in

3

;

by “ stars ” 12. Compare

translates vi.

49, 3,

ix. 68, 4,

but I

am

not aware

Yaska explains the word in the

there.

same way, referring to one of these passages, iv. 7, 3, in In i. 87, 1, however, where it occurs in the

illustration.

following connection, anjibhir vydnajre kechid usrd iva strhhih,

Sayana explains

by svasarirasydchlidduhaili, “covering their which I suppose to he a purely conjectural one, based only on etymology. He separates it from its more immediate context and makes it an epithet of anjlhliih, “ The Maruts are seen distinct rendering the clause thus in the sky through the ornaments covering their bodies, like any rays of the sun shining in the sky.” The poit

bodies,” a sense,

:

sition of strhhih after nsrdh

however, rather adverse to

is,

and rendering and makes Roth’s translamore probable, viz., “ like many oxen vfith stars, i.e. white spots.” See s. v. ns7'ci. Benfey translates differently, but retains the sense “stars,” and thinks spots on the forehead may be meant. See Orient und Occident, ii. 250. Sahasramushka is translated by Saj^ana on R.V. vi. 46, 3, this construction

;

tion

(=Sama-veda i. 286) as membra genitalia habens

;

equivalent to sahasrascpha, “ mille ” and a story illustrative of Indra’s

from the Kaushitakins to support In viii. 19, 32 the word is ajjplied to Agni, and there Sayana renders it bahutejaskam “having many flames,’’ mushka being considered as tejas, from its stealing away, or removing darkness.

lasciviousness is adduced this sense.

=

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VEDA.

366

Simdhi/H in E,.Y. i. 124, 4 is understood by Yaska (iv. 16) Sayana repeats of the “ sun,” or of a “ white water-fowl.” the same optional interpretation. Svaraj, as an epithet of Indra,

Sayana in E,.Y. 1, 61, 9 In iii. 46, 1, he makes

;

hi. 46, 1 it

;

is differently vii.

82, 2

= dhanadhipati,

{sva here standing for “property”),

;

explained by

and

viii.

12, 14.

“lord of wealth,”

and in the other places^

svoiaiva tejam rdjamunali, “ shining by his

own

lustre,” or

svaijam era anya-nirapekahayaii'a rujamdnah, “shining of himself,

without reference to any one else,”

where

an epithet of Yaruna,

it is

it is

said

etc. In ii. 28, 1, by Sayana to mean

“ shming of himself,” or “ lord.” is differently explained by Sayana in R.Y. i. Ill, ii. In the former place it is said to mean and in 31, 4. 3, “ overcoming” {asmdn abJdhhavantam), whhst in the latter it is rendered, “to be served or reverenced” {sachaniyah sevyah). In ^dh. 22, 15, also, it is similarly interpreted sachaniya-silau. The word is also found in R.Y. ix. 71, 4, and ix. 110, 1, but I have no access to the commentary on these two passages.

Sakshani

The latter is, however, repeated in the Sama-veda, i. 428, where Prof. Benfey renders the word “taming (enemies).” The sense of “overcoming” or “ controuling ” seems generally suitable in these passages. The word is, I presume, to be derived from the root sail, not from sack. R.Y. i. 140, 9. The word tuviyrehhih, an epithet of Agni’s attendants {satvahhih)

prabhutam

is

explained by Sayana to

yamanaili, “ much-going.” tuvigraye, is

said

mean

either

sabdayadbhih, “ much- sounding,” or prabliuta-

R.Y.

by him

ii.

to

The

apj)arently kindred

word

21, 2 (an epithet, in the dative, of Indra)

mean eitiier punia-grivdya,

“ with full neck,”

by man 3^” Vrtanchaya, an epithet of Indra in R.Y. ii. 21, 3, is declared by Sa^’ana to mean either abhishtasydchetd sanchetd ddtd, “ the bestower of what is desired,” or {irt sainih, tarn

or bahubhih stotavydya, “to be praised

chayate hinasti

iti

rrtanchayah, a “

destroj'^er

Radhrachoda, in the following verse,

is

of enemies.”

asserted to signify

samrddlidndm prerakah yadtd himsakdndni satrundrn chodakah, either

“a promoter

of the affluent, or a driver of enemies.”

ON THE INTEEPEETATION OF THE VEDA. Varutri appears to be explained by Sayana in

i.

367 22, 10, as

an epithet [varanbja, “to be desired”), of Dhishana, the god-

In

dess of speech.

word

vii.

and

38, 5,

40, 6, however, the

vii.

treated as a proper name, denoting the goddess of

is

In Yaj.

speech, Vdg-devi or Sara-svatt.

S. xi.

61,

we have

the word in the plural, Varutri/i, where ^lahidhara sa 5’s they are “ goddesses personifying day and night”

liordtrdbhimdnxnijah

.

.

“ ahordtrdni

.

mi

(

Varutrai/o dei-yo

varutrayah

aho\

rdtrair hi

R.V.

i.

idam mrcam vrtatn”

P. Br.

6, 5, 4, 6).

In

22, 11, the epithet achhinnapaira is applied to the

wives of the gods, and

signifies,

who have a winged

Mahidhara on Yaj.

S. xi.

differently, as “ those

hindered,

according to Sayana, “ with

For, he adds, “the wings of the wives of the

wings uncut.” gods,

iti (S.

form, are not cut by any one.”

term somewhat

61, explains the

whose

flight is not cut or

coui’se or

aclihinnam patram

constantly going,”

patanam

ydsdm tdh satataydyinyah. Vihdyas means, in the Nighantus

mahat, “ great.” interprets

B.Y.

modem

Sanskrit, “sky,” “bird.”

In

given as one of the synonjunes of

3, 3, it is

In Yir.

iv.

15 (where Yaska quotes and

ix. 75, 5) it is said, as

“intoxicating draughts,”

to

signify

an epithet of maddh, vanchanavantah, “de-

The word occurs again as an epithet of Yisvakarman in B.Y. x. 72, 2 (=Yaj. S. 17, 26); and in Hir. X. 26, where that verse is explained, it is rendered by Mahidhara interprets it as meaning vydptd, “ pervader.” ceiving, deluding.”

either, “

forsakes,

pervading like the ether,” or “ one who especially a destroyer,”

nahlio-vad

jahdti tyajati vihdydJi sanharttd. epithet of Indra in B.Y.

that

its

iii.

36, 2,

constituent elements

objects to suppliants,” ends

vydpako yadvd

Vihdyas

is also

where Sayana,

mean “ the

after stating

giver of the desired

by assigning

to it the simple

sense of “ great” [vijahdty utsrjaty arthdn arthibhya

mahdn.

In

iv. 11, 4,

viseshena

found as an

iti

cihdyd

without entering into any explanation,

it the same meaning. In his above cited comB.Y. ment on X. 72, 2 (Yir. x. 26), Yaska proposes no less than five different renderings for the participle ishtdni, viz.,

he ascribes to

kdntdni, krdntdni, gatdni, mafdni,

and natdni.

ox THE IXTEEPEETATIOX OF THE VEDA.

368

Vis/iitasltiukd,

an epithet of Rodasi

(“ the wife

Maruts, or lightning,” Marntpaf)u vidyud rd) in R.V.

of the i.

167,

by Sayana to mean either “having a distinguished mass of hair,” or “having a dishevelled mass of hair” {nsishtahcsa-sanghd riprakzrna-kcsa-sangJid rd). Compare the different 5, is said

senses assigned to the vrord prf/iKs/ituka, above.

Meshd occurs in the R.V. as a designation of Indra. On i. 51, 1 ( = S.Y. i. 376) Sayana renders it “striving with enemies, or ram, because Indra had come in that form to the rishi Medhatithi when sacrificing, and drunk his soma,” etc.

On

52, 1

i.

first

= S.Y.

(

377) the Scholiast only mentions the but on viii. 86, 12, he returns to

i.

of these two senses

the second and gives

it

;

as the exclusive

meaning.

He

here,

however, says that Indra, in the form of a ram, carried

In

Medhatithi to heaven. viii.

2,

40,

which

says,

mesho hhuto

Medlnjdtithim

fact,

there

is

a A’erse of the E..Y.

dhirantam

itthd ’hhi

adrirah

yann ayah

Kdnram

“Thus, thun]

\

having become a ram, and appi’oaching the devout Mcdhyatithi of the race of Kanva, thou didst carry him derer,

Sayana gives to the verb ayah here the causal sense of ayamayah. Compare the words away, of

i.

out

(or,

thou didst dej>art).”

51, 13,

of,

mend abharo

or gave rise

]d)'imabhih, in

to,

Vrshanasra.‘g7TT^^

?TT?Tt

B.M. af^q^^TT ^B. D. Text in

^TTrlV

m#r

-arm^^fT 4

.*n®.*s

®

S\

HTMNS OF THE GAUPAYAHAS.

433

"A.D. -^:T5irRT% A.

fT

?:T5?r^r%

C.W. ?:T5?rqYlt LB.

^B. 1

of Asamati, which I suppose to be

The A. MSS. agree and C.

corrected,

H

in the

instead

A.D.

Ca. blunders in leaving out the anusvdra.

;

corrupt in

MSS. have

right, while the A.

^

,

437

which has

AV.,

the

while the B. AISS. suj>port throughout at

;

slight

is

>

ihYh except B.

in

4,

which

variation

of

events the vriddhi

all

vowel of the third syllable, which also appears in the faulty reading of Ca.

B.

and 2 are more

1

vol.

p. xiii. note

i.

B.M. stands

*

M or

On AsamMi,

60, 5.

The

an individual

®

it

a

^

The A.

M. and A.D.

>

aod

»TT

is

»

the cor-

B.M.

equally peculiar to

Other

MSS.

Tlie B.

MSS.

nearly preserved in A.

B. 4

slide into

this is the reading of Ca.

class

and Ca. have throughout the right reading I

think

is

meant

B.

for

without the

The patronymic has again puzzled

and

The anusvdra

to

their

by the anusvdra on the second Tlie spelling of to dwell,

may

|riTjs

the characteristic

is

and 2 are held together by

1

accidental.

it is

which they inclined before

to their former blunder in

Ca.

MSS.

B. 4 brings in the long

8 which seems to come from B. unless

and B.D. approach

The A. and

the scribes.

or

in

have

®

p. 25.

i.

B.M. and B.D. have the same lacuna.

now agree

®

(first editionj,

new mistake ^54

as one word, and left 3,

See R. V. x,

•

unsupported even by the nearest

second sj'Uable is

class, C.

lowed by '^T^T, which B.

in the

copyist,

right reading

seems to give to

rvTl VJ

|

alone in furnishing the right reading jfj

belonging to this

add

^

Alterthumskunde

Colebrooke, Misc. Essays,

;

B.D. The short vowel

^

,

B.M., and B.D.

so are B. 3,

the latter

see Lassen, Indische

31

rection probably of

3IS.

and

closely united,

the former giving

common

mark

lacuna

;

B.

in 1

and 2

while B, 3, B.M.,

;

.

of the A. class.

B.

3,

B

1

B.M. and B.D.

syllable.

or

The verb

seems to point to

be construed with a locative, in the sense of “ to dwell

with.” is

the different

probably intended for

MSS. might seem

to suggest

IaH

•

or

The

readings of 'Tl

>

but

I

HYMNS OP THE GAHPAYANAS.

4.‘38

because this word

prefer

There we

12.

find

used in the Tilndya-brahinana,

is

similar part to that assigned to the two priests in our legends.

the text and Sayana’s

Commentary (MS. Wilson,

^

wm ^\^?)wrwt ?rwr#twT^t TTrt

^Tfwrr

I

(i

l

I

^ ^mrRTd;

i

in the sense of

Here then

ii

“ of the race

wonld be a feminine, corresponding

to

his

to suppose

Brahmana 1.

1, 4,

and

14,

in the

that feh^l'd

nom-

in the

and

demons

Tliey occur again as male

sorcerers.

Sayana

in the Brihaddevata.

commentary on the Satapatha Brahmana explains

f^TTgif Tandya for the

^rr^T^Tf