The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906-1911 0231103514, 9780231103510

Table of contents :
20190908200017.pdf (p.1)
20190908200247.pdf (p.2-149)
20190908200503.pdf (p.150-298)
20190908200728.pdf (p.299-468)
20190908200745.pdf (p.469-470)

Citation preview

emocracy, Social Democracy, and the Orig

The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906~1911

The History and Society of the Modem Middle East

LEILA FAWAZ, GENERAL EDITOR

THE IRANIAN CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION, 1906-1911 Grassroots Democracy, Social Democracy, 6 the Origins of Feminism Janet Afary

NEW

YORK

COLUMBIA

UNIVERSITY

PRESS

Columbia University Press New York Chichester, West Sussex Copyright© 1996 Columbia University Press AJI rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication

Data

Afary, Janet. The Iranian constitutional revolution, 1906-1911 : grassroots democracy, social democracy, and the origins of feminism I Janet Afary. p. cm. Based on the author's thesis ( doctoral)- University of Michigan, 1991. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-231-10350-6 -ISBN 0-231-10351-4 (pbk.) 1. Iran-Constitutional history. 2. Democracy-Iran. 3- Islam and state-Iran. 4. Feminism-Iran. 5. Iran-Economic conditions. 6. Iran-Politics and government. 7. Iran-History-1905-1911.

I. Title. JQ1782.A35 1996 320.955-dc20

95-50433 CIP

Casebound editions of Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper. Printed in the United States of America c 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 p 10 9 8 7 6 5 4

To 111y parents N,'aji.n and Anvar and to my daughter Lena

Does history afford many instances of a nation making such conspicuous advances in public spirit and morality in so short a period as were made by the Persians during the period under discussion? I venture to think that parallels will not easily be found. -Edward G. Browne, The Persian Revolution of 1905-1909

Contents

Acknowledgments xiii Chronology of the Major Events xvii Introduction 1 PART I 1.

ON THE EVE

15

From Dependency to Resistance 17 The Capitalist World Economy and Dependent Development in Iran 17 The Origins of the Modernist-ReligiousAlliance 22 The Rise of the Merchant Class: The Tobacco Protest of 1891-1892 29 The Belgian Customs Reforms and Urban Protests

2.

33

Revolution in the Air 37 The Early Reform Organizations 39 The Spectrum of Religious Ideologies: From Azali Babis to Freethinkers to Orthodox Clerics 43 August 1906: Outbreak of Revolution 50

PART II

THE FIRST CONSTITUTIONAL

PERIOD

fo

3. The First National Assembly, the Urban Councils, and the Iranian Organization of Social Democrats: 1906-1907 63 The Composition of the First Majlis: From Elite Constitutionalists to Members of Trade Guilds 64 The Growth of the Urban Councils 73 The Birth of the Tabriz Anjuman 78 The Organization of Social Democrats and Its Branches in Iran 81

x

Contents

4. Clericalism or Constitutionalism? The Clash Over the Supplementary Constitutional Laws 89 Direct Democracy in Tabriz: The Expulsion of the Leader of the Friday Prayer 89 Muhammad 'Ali Shah's Ascension to the Throne 92 The Radicalization of the Tabriz Anjuman: The Expulsion of the City's Leading Cleric 95 The ComparisonCommittees or the Refutation Committee? The Tabriz General Strike 98 Shaikh Fazlullah Nuri's Takeover of the Shah 'Abd al-Azim Shrine and the Assassinationof Premier Amin al-Sultan 109

5. Journalism, Satire, and Revolution: Exposing the Conservative Clerics, Denouncing the Western Powers 116 Mulla Nasr al-Din and the Radical Iranian Newspapers 119

Sur-i Israfil, the Idea of Freedom, and the Battle with the Conservative Clerics 121 The Debates on Socialism 126 The Anglo-RussianConvention: A New Imperialist Threat A Dress Rehearsal for June 1908 133 The Growing Radicalism of the Press 135 New Divisions Among Constitutionalist Clerics 137 The June 1908 Coup 140 PART III

NEW PASSIONS AND NEW FORCES

131

143

6. Peasants, Artisans, and Fishermen: From Land Reform and Parliamentary Opposition to Town and Village Councils 145 Some Theoretical Writings on Peasants' Resistance and Their Implications for Iran 147 Letters and Petitions 151 Revolts in the Caspian Region 154 The Majlis and the Abolition ofTuyul Land Allotment 162 Majlis Opposition to the Formation of Town and Village Anjumans The Civil War in Azerbaijan and the Battle ofTavalash 172

167

7. The Women's Councils and the Origins of the-Women's Movement in Iran 177 Carving Out a New Space: Women's Anjumans and Schools 17~ Claiming a New Voice:Writings on Women's Rights in the Second Constitutional Period 195 Support Across Gender Lines: A Call for Women's Suffrage 201' Responding to the Imperialist Threat: The December 1911 Protests 203

Contents

xi

PART IV THE LESSER AUTOCRACY

8. The Civ.il War in Azerbaijan

209

211

Sattar Khan, the "Pugachov of Azerbaijan," and the Mobilization of Tabriz 212 The Civil War as a Class Struggle: The Threat to Form a Republic 219 Russian Intervention Ends the Siege 224

9. International and Multiethnic Solidarity: The Revolutionary Forces Reconquer Tehran 228 The Persia Committee of London and the Sa'adat Anjuman of Istanbul 228 European Social Democrats React to the Crisis Over Iran 232 Transcaucasian Revol~tionaries in Azerbaijan and Gilan 237 The Tabriz Social Democrats: Where to Now? 241 The Reconquest of Tehran: New Divisions Within the Revolutionary Movement 248 PART V THE SECOND CONSTITUTIONAL 10.

PERIOD

255

The Second National Assembly and the Formation of Political Parties: The Democrat Party and Its Organ, ltan-i Naw 257 The Directory: The Fate of Leading Anticonstitutionalists 258 The Elections 261 Formation of Political Parties: The Democrat Party 264 The Armenian Social Democrats and the Democrat Party 267 The Program of the Democrat Party 269 The Moderates and Other Parties in the Majlis 271 lran-i Naw, Organ of the Democrat Party 273

11. Assassination, Exile,

and Imperialist Pressures: The Confrontation

at Atabak Park 284 Obstructionist Policies of the Western Powersand the Continued Russian Occupation 284 The Dissent in the Newspapers 289 The 'Ulama Censure Taqizadah: The Moderate Party Woos Leaders of the Mujahidin Resistance 290 The Assassinationof Bihbahani and the Exile of Taqizadah: The Essays ofTigran Ter Hacobian on Terrorism 293 The Tragedy of Atabak Park 298 The British Ultimatum and the Russo-German Meeting at Potsdam: The Anti-Imperialist Conference at Istanbul 303 The Growing Power of the M.oderateParty 309

xii Contents

12. Imperialist Intervention: The "Strangling of Persia" 314 Shuster's Reforms and the Democrats 315 The Moroccan Crisis and the Former Shah's Last Hurrah 321 Electoral, Educational, and Legal Reforms vs. New Powers for the Regency 324 Conflict Over Sh'u'a al-Saltanah's Residence 326 Shuster's Letter to the Times of London 328 The Russian Ultimatum and the Majlis Resistance 329 The Closing of the Majlis 335 Massacre in Azerbaijan, Terror in Gilan 337

Notes 343 Glossary 399 Bibliography 403 Index 417

Illustrations follow p. 144

Acknowledgments

I am indebted to numerous people and institutions who made this project possible. The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, provided a challenging and supportive intellectual community that allowed me to formulate some of the original ideas for this book. In its earlier dissertation form the project benefited from the helpful advice and support of members of my dissertation committee at the Department of History and the Department of Near East Studies of the University of Michigan. Co-chairs Allin Luther and Ronald Suny gave me the confidence to pursue this project in the first place and provided stimulating and provocative discussions that broadened my perspectives. Juan Cole made critical comments that enriched my thinking. Gernot Windfuhr and the late Richard Mitchell helped ground me in the field of Middle East History. The bulk of the research was carried out in 1985-1991 when I was a Visiting Research Fellow at the University of Chicago. I am grateful to the two directors of the Center for Middle Eastern Studies, John Woods and Rashid Khalidi, and to the director of the Middle East Department of Regenstein Library, Bruce Craig, who facilitated my research. Special thanks go to John Perry, Paul Sprachrnan, Muhammad Tavakoli-Targhi, and the library staff at the University of Chicago. Throughout the years many 1ibrarians and friends have helped me locate rare documents. A Rackham Predoctoral Fellowship from the University of Michigan in 1987-1988 a1lowed me to conduct research at the New York Public Library, the Library of Congress, and the Hoover Institute. Milorad Drachkovitch at the Hoover Institute, David Beasley at the New York Public Library, and Larry Mykytiuk at Purdue University were immensely helpful. Nasser and Parvaneh Shirzad from Iranbooks, Sohrab Rostamian from Nashr-i Ketab, Bijan Khalili and Mahmud Nafisi from Ketab Corporation, and Hasan and Nahid Javadi from

xiv

Acknowledgments

Java