The Högom Find and Other Migration Period Textiles and Costumes in Scandinavia: Högom, Part II 9171746161, 9789171746160

Table of contents :
Preface 5
1. Introduction 1
2. The Högom Grave 5
3. Textiles from the Högom Grave 9.
4. Graves in the Nordic Area With Abundant Textile Finds 37
5. Materials and Fabrics 66
6. Colour and Dyeing 72
7. Needlework 76
8. Tablet Weaving 81
9. Ornamentation of the Bands 94
10. Fur 106
11. Positioning of Clasps in Nordic Costume 108
12. People in the Art of the Migration Period 112
13. Comparative Costume Materials 115
14. Summary and Conclusions 124
15. Catalogue 131
Glossary 150
Bibliography 152
Abbreviations 158

Citation preview

6

II HlVdWODQH 1.f.J3Wf.JO~II\f.J3

Gf.JV

ÅDOl03VHJ~V

A dissertation for the degrec of DOClor of Philosophy University of Umeå 1991 Department of Archaeo1ogy 5-901 87 Umt:å, 5weden

Margarela Nocken

The Högom find and other Migration Period textiles and costumes in Scandinavia

Abstract The present work deals with the rich lextile lind from the l\'ligration Period warrior's grave at Hägorn, :\1edelpad, and discusses the questions ,,·hkh the lind raises in a comparative conlext. The excavalion ofmound 2 at Högom betw~n 1949 and 1951 resuhed in the hitherto largesl single gra~·e find oftexliles in Sweden. Extensi~'e paru of the costume have been preselVed. Of the lunie, thc: greater part of the baek sur....ivcs, togethe:r with part of the front, thc: uPI>er pan ofone: sleeve and pan ofboth culI~. Small fragments oflrouscrs, doak and a lUnk Jaid ahove the man's head are also extant. No less important lhan the (IUantit)' of fiods was the fact of the grave being unlOuched. A detailed description is gi\'en of the diITnent fragments and caslllme: cornponents in terms of textile technique, materials, CUl and position. The lextiles al Högom as weJl as in other finds are usually found in contact with dasps, due 10 the dfect oflhe copper salts. The dasps in men's graves are found at the "'Tists and ankles. In Högorn they are also found jusl below the belt on bolh sides. The clasps are faslened to lablet-woven bands patlerned with individual turns or in a lapeslI~'-like technique using horsehair as weflS. The last memioned type has SO far not been found ouuide Scandinavia and is presumably a Scandina\.jan produet inspired by orienlal or Roman tapeslry weaves and silk. There is animal ornamentation on the bands oflhe same kind as on the metal objecls. The colours are comparali\'dy weil prcser....ed. Weld has been used as a rellow drestulf, mudder and Polish cochineal as red and woad as a blue. The male eoslume consists of a long-slceved lunk reaching 10-20 cm below the bell wilh talllet-woven horders along the lower edge and as cuITs. The cuffs are hc:ld together wilh clasps, as are Ihe side slits oflhe lunk. The lrousers were dosc:-r.ning at the ankles, had tablet-\\'Oven horders and were hcld logeiher by dasps. A rCClangular e10ak \>ith lab!et-woHn barders alse belonged to the caslUme. The ceslUme is a Scandinavian product and, in the case of Ihe trousers, was originally adopled from ,.\siatic riding cosrumc. The costumes from alleast Ihe richesl of the warrior's graves were probably full of symbols, considering wlh lhe: colours and Ihe ornamentalion of Ihe bands. Key ""ords: e1asps, omamemalion, tablel-wo~·en bands, wool, fl3-'l:, horschair, dyestuffs, stilches, tfOUsers, lunies, e1oal:s.

J!argartla NIKtat, Dtparlmtlll

Umeå 1991

!if ArchatQlogy,

ISBN 91-7174-616-1

Unil!miry of Umtd, 5-90187 Umtd, Su:tdtfl.

ISSN 0281·5877

VIII+158 pp.

ARCHAEOLOGY and ENVIRONMENT 9

THE HÖGOM FIND AND OTHER MIGRATION PERIOD TEXTILES AND COSTUMES IN SCANDINAVIA

HÖGOM PART II

MARGARETA NOCKERT

UNIVERSITY OF UMEÅ DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY RIKSANTIKVARIEÄMBETET

To }ohanna and Mille

This study was financed by the Coundl for Research in the Iiumanilics and Social Sciences, the Svea Order and the Central Board of .\'alional Antiquities. Published with grants from: The Royal Patriotic Society The Royal Swedish Academy of Leuers. HistOry and Anliquilies The Cenlra! Board of :'l'ational Antiquities The- Ikril Wallenberg Foundation The Marcus and Amalia Wallenberg ~'Iemorial rund PhOtographs are by Gabrid Hildebrand, ATA, except where othe......':isc indicatcd. Translation: Roger Tanner La}' out and co\"er design: Inger Kålxrg. The :>'Iuseum of Nalional Antiquities, Stockholm.

ISBX 91-7174-616-1 ISSN0281-5877 C Margareta Nocker! Risbergs Tryckeri, Uddevalla

PREFACE

The foundations ofrhis work \'\IeTe laid in the beginning of the 1970s at Slockholm University and in the

Textile Department oflhc Swedish Central Board of :\'ationai Antiquities. Dr phil. Dagmar Selling, who

was jointly in charge, with Dr phil. Sverker Janson, of the invesligalion of grave 2 at H6gom, dcli\·crcd the lexti!e material from il but, un[Orlunately, we weTe oeveT able to spaTe the lime needed for slUdying the results of the excavalion. Arter several years in fallow, work rcvived when, in thc mid-1980s, the Department of Archaeology at Umeå University initiatcd a research projccl. which il is now dirccling, concerning the H6gom sitc. The

present dissertalion is the seeond of four imended studies of the Högom buriai ground. The other parts are being writlen by the leader of the project, Dr phil. Per H. Ramqvist, and by Professor Dr Michael ~I tiller-\\"ille. \\"ork was financiallysupponed by the Council for Research in the Humanities and Social Sciences. A grant for the completion of the manuscript was received from the Svea Order. My employers, the Central Board of National Anfiquities, and, not least, the Director-General of the Board, ~1argareta Biömstad, have furthered my cfforts by arranging financial support and enabling me to take time off from my regular duties. The manuscript was scrutinised by Dr phil. ~'Iarta Hoffman, Oslo, and by Inger Estham, Head of the Textile Department at the Central Board of National Antiquities. The translation is by Roger Tanner, M.A., Stockholm.

Grants towards printing this study were received from: The Royal Patriotic Society The Royal Swedish Academy ofLettcrs, HislOl)' and Antiquities The Central Board of National Antiquities The Berit Wallenberg foundation The ~1arcus and Amalia Wallenberg ~1emorial fund Sincere thanks are ofTered to the above persons and institutions and also to colleagues from near and far who, in various ways, have helped to achieve the completion of this study. finally, a very special word of thanks must go 10 Professor Evert Baudou of the Department of Archaeology, Umeå University, for his encouragement, hdp and support. I am full of admiration for the patience he has shown with this, a subjcct which is somcwhat removed from his regular domain. Sadly, my mentor in thc field oflextile history, Dr phil. Agnes Geijer, is no longer with us. Her tremendous knowlcdge of and commitment to textile research were a great stimulus to me as her disciple, and indeed 10 everyonc who had the privilege of working with her. Il would be impossible to overstate her contribution to te.xtile historiography or to Swedish and international research. Lidingö, September 1991 Margareta Nocken

LIST OF CONTENTS

V

PREFACE. l. INTRQDUCTION ..

.

.

1.1. Synopsis 1.2. Thestateofrc:scarch

1 1

o ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

.

2. THE HÖGO~ f GRAVE

s

.

3. TEXTILES FROMTHE HÖGOM GRAVE 3.1. Reviewofthcfinds 3.\.\. Thctunic 3.1.2. Thetrousers 3.1.3. Textiles and c1asps at or above the head 3.1.4. Olher lextiles 3.1.5. Fur 3.2. Interpretation 3.2.1. The tunic 3.2.2. The trousers 3.2.3. Textiles and dasps above the head 3.2.4. Thecloak 3.2.5. Other items 3.2.6. Fur

. .

6. COLOURANDDYEING

.

9 9 9

. . .

23 25 27

.

.

. .

. . .

. . . .. . .

4-. GRAVES INTHENORDIC AREA WITH ABUNDANT TEXTILE FINDS 4.\. Sweden . 4.1.1. Borg, Norrala, Hälsingland 4.1.2. Skynberg, Timrn, :\1edelpad 4.1.3. Salby, Toresund, Sörmland 4.1.4. Danmarksby, Danmark, Uppland . 4.2. NOf',\lay 4.2.1. Desen, Os, Hordaland .. . 4.2.2. Vdem, Grong, Nord-Trendelag . 4.2.3. EvebelEide, Gloppen, Sagn & Fjordane 4.2.4. Ugulen, Luster ,Sagn & Fjordane 4.2.5. Snartemo, Haegeboslad, Vest-Agcler . . 4.2.6. 0,'re Berge, Lyngdal, Vest-Agdcr 4.3. Denmark . . 4.3.1. Sejiflod, Å1borg amt 4.3.2. Vognsild,Alborgamt 5. i\-IATERIALS AND FABRICS 5.1. Fla.x and linen 5.2. \\'001 and woollen rabric 5.3. Horschair .

.

31 31 31 34 3S 3S

35 36

.

. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .

.

2

37 37 37 41

43 44 4{i

46 47 50 58 59 63

65 65 65 66 66

67 70

72

7. NEEDLEWQRK 7.1. joiningofbandsandfabrics 7.2. Hems in side and sleeve slits 7.3. Fabricjoins 7.4. Sinewthreadembroidery 7.5. Summa!")'

76 76 78 79 80 80

8. TABLET\\'EAVING 8.1. Introduction 8.2. Tablet \\·ea...ing in the Nordic area during the Roman Iron Age and the Migration Period 8.2.1. Tabletweavingandfabricinonepiecc 8.2.2. Waqrtwined bands with brocadcd patterns 8.2.3. Warp-twined bands with patterns in different kinds of weft wrapping and a tapcstry-like tcchniquc 8.2.4. Bands pauerned with individual turns 8.3. Occurrence ofbands patterned with individual tums and tapestry-like technique. 8.4. Tablec-woven bands in Swedish finds from the Migration Period

81 81

9. ORNAMENTATIONOFTHEBANDS 9.1. Bands patterned with individual tums.. 9.2. Bands with patterns in weft wrappingand tapestry-like cechnique 9.3. Summary

82 82 83 83 89 91 92

94 94 96 103

lO. FUR

106

Il. POSITIONI:'.'GOfCLASPSIN NORDICCQSTU:\1E

108

12. PEQPLE I:\'THEARTQFTHE MIGRATION PERIOD

112

13. COMPAR.-\TIVECQSTU:\·lE MATERIALS 13.1. Introduction 13.2. Surv:h-inggarmcnts 13.2.1. Oriental tunics and trousers 13.2.2.. Torlhern European tunicsand trousers 13.2.3. NonhernEuropeancloaks

115 115 116 116 120 122

14. SUM:\1ARY ANDCONCLUSIONS 14.1. Tcxcilecraft 14.2. Coscumc. . 14.2.1. Tunics 14.2.2. Trousers 14.2.3. Cloaks . 14.2.4. The Högom Costume

124 124 125 125 127 128 129

. . . . .. .

15. CATALOGUE 15.1. Swedcn .. . 15.1.1. Roman Iron Age tcxtiles 15.1.2. :\1igration Period textiles 15.2. Norway 15.2.1. Migration Period textiles in connection with clasps GLOSSARY

.

131

131 131 134 140 140 150

BI BLiOGRAPHY

. 152

ABBREVIATIONS

. 158

l. INTRODUCTION

1.1. SY:,,/OPSIS The purpose Oflhis aCCQunt is to publish the textiles from the rich flods of the Högarn Grave, to present materials for comparison and 10 discuss thc questions \\'hich thc Högorn textiles raise in a comparalive contexl.

Investigation ofmound 2 al Högarn bctween 1949 and 1951 resulted in the hithcrto greatest single grave flod of textiles in Swedcn. The Norrland (Xorlhern Swedish) chicnain buricd in this impressive mound was equipped nOl only with fine weapons and horse furniturc etc. but was wearing a lavish costumc fillcd with alargeT number of clasps than had eVl.':r been round berore in one and thc same grave. Archacological textile fiods seldarn comprise more than a couplc of square centimetres, but this time extensive parts of the costume had been prcscn·cd. Of the tunic there remains thc greater part of thc back, part of the front, the upper part of one sleeve and the lower part of both sleeves. Small fragmcnts of trousers, doak and a tunk laid above the man's head are also cxtan\. No Icss importam than the quantity of linds was the fact of the grave bcing unlouched. In the following pages, arter a short review of the gravc itscJf (Chap. 2), a detailed dcscription will lirst begiven of the different fragments and costume comIXmcnts, in terms oftextilc teehnique, materials, cut and position (Chap. 3). This is followcd by a presentation of the Xordie material for eomparison (Chap. 4). Högom is the grave ofa well-equippcd warrior. Aeeordingly, the rest of the inquiry will eoneentratc on men's gra....es, and above all on those in which dasps \~'ere induded in personal equipmem. Some women's gra\'es have ~n induded in the inquiry, as weil as a fe\\' burials of indetenninate sex. This

approach was adopted mainly in order for the inquiry, as regards Swedish linds, 10 eover the whole of Ihe existing texlile malerial from the :\ligration Period, whieh is limited to 26 grave finds, two settlement finds and a st ray flnd. To expand the limited material as mueh as possible, and to test for genderrelalcd characters. this aecount has been made ro include all the Non\'egian material from gra....es in whkh dasps have been found, Unfoftunately the Danish textile material has only been available to a limited ex tent. With a few exceptions, the dcscriptions are based on my own examination and analysis of the textiles. Under the hcading ~1aterials and Fabrics (Chap_ S), a conspectus is givcn of the aeeounts of thc various lexIiIe materials in Ihe Swedish linds from the Roman Iron Age and Migration Period. The question ofwhethcr flax existed in the Nordie area during the Iron Age has been diseussed by various writers, and it has been qucricd whcther any na" was grown in $weden at all allhat time. This question is raised in connection with surviving lextile fragments and flnds of na" secds from settlements and bogs. Another prehistorie lextile material, nOl prcviously established in a woven context, is horsehair used as a pallefll WcCl in a group of bands. "'001 is the dominant material and the quality and bindings of the wooJlen fabrics are discussed. as weil as the qucstion of native or foreign production. The oolours ofprehistorie textile material are usually limited, not to say non-existelll. This does not always mean that the materials were never dyed in the first place. Above all it is due to the dye being degraded or othen\'ise transformed during centuries in the soiL Colours rarely sun>ive in Swedish Viking

2 linds, whaccvcr the material. The Migration Period linds present a rare abundance of dyes by archaeologicai standards. The various garments or paris of garments still retaining oolours afe described in Chap. 6, Colour and Dyeing. A num~r of dye specimens have been analysed, and in some cases results have been oblained which tcslify 10 a high levd of proficiency in the an of dycing. The circumSlances attending the \·tigration Period finds cannot ha\'c bttn consistently morc fa,"ourable to the preservation orcolour [han, forexample, circurnst3nces in the Viking era. The oval broaches oflhc '"iking era are an unusually favourable environment

for textile preservation and ought 10 ha,-c yielded examplcs ofcolours. slill noticeable, if the tcchnique had bttn as good as in the \'Iigration P~riod. Did th~ colours of th~ COSlum~ ha\'~ sam~ special m~aning, or do t.h~y merely reflcct a desire 10 dress up? One is slruck by the high standard of craftsmanship evident in various aspecls oft~xtile and costum~ work. The same goo for needlework (Chap. 7). Different parts of the Högom COSlUme present a great variety ofslitches, paralleIs tO which have ~en discovered in se"eral other finds. The stilches are small and even and needlework of such fin~ quality has n~ver beforc be~n discov~red from pr~hislOric times. Thc tablcl-woven bands ar~ an imporlant pari of the textile craft of th~ Migration period (Chap. 8). The firm bands are abov~ all essentiai in order for Ihe dasps to serve Iheir purpose as part of the costu me. During this period the technique is so advanced that Olle can hardly find anything 10 equal it. The ornamentation of the bands too is advanced (Chap. 9). The Norwegian textile scholar Hans Dedekam caJJed the band from Eveb0 in Sogn & Fjordane the first surviving cxamples of Nordie textile dcpiction, the later developmcnt of which is found in the wallhangings from Oseberg, Överhogdal (Härjedalen) and Skog (Hälsingland). An unusuaJJy large quanlity orrur hair is extant in the Högom Grave (Chap. lO). Some ofit cornes from bcarskins which, here as in many other Iron Age graves, formed part of the grave furniture. The hairs also come from a number ofother animals. Attempts have been made tO analyse the different kinds. Prcsumably the man had a number of fur garmenlS. The dasps playan important part in the finds (Chap. I l). For one thing, Ihe textiles are usuaJly found in contaCI with them, due 10 the preservalive effccts of the copper salts, and Ihen again the dasps con"cy somelhing of the form of the COSIume. In one scction, depictions ofpeople in :\'ordic art are described and evaluated as a source for the history of costum~ (Chap. 12).

Source material both from the Nordic countries and from further afidd is presented in the section Camparalive Costume Malerials (Chap. 13). The 100al flnd material is limiled. There are clearconneclions between costumes for different categories. A horseman, for exampie, has the same costume requirements regardless of time and place. It may Iherefore be deemedjustifiable, when dealing with a horseman's grave, also to consider flnds from other equestrian peoples. Different parts of the costume are described and rclated tO the Nordic finds. Lastiy, in Chap. 14, Ihe resuhs of the "arious ill\·-estigations are summarised and a concise description is given of the Högom Costume itself. \'arious possible variants ofmen's costume are presented. When and where doo Ihe fashion yielding such a wealth of textile material anse? Is it reserved for a privi1eged few or can one demonstrate atleast a ccnain spread in social terms? In the case of medieval costume, the cut is employed by several social dasses, while il is above all the material which confers social identity. Can anything similar be established for the ~'ligration Period? A catalogue s~ction lists all Swedish texlil~ flnds from the Roman Iron Age and Migration Period. The NOf'\vegian textile material relevant for compansan with the Swedish is alsa presented in a catalogue. The book ends with a brief glossary of Ihe textile terms employed. For more cxtensive explanations the reader is referred to Nordisk textilteknisk terminologi by Geijer, Hoffmann & Strömberg (1979).

1.2. THE STATE OF RESEARCH Il was in 1938 that Agnes Geijer presellted her Birka I I I. Die Texlilfunde aus den Gräbern, the first Ph.D. thesis ever dcvoted 10 archaeological textile materials. Xow ofclassic status, it rcmains one ofthe most important works 10 havc appeared in thc field of textile archaeology. hs mai n purpose was 10 analyse the textile finds in the con text of textile hislOry, but its concluding chapter deals with costume at Birka. Inga Hägg pursucd further studies of the material from women's graves and in 1974 presented a doctoral thesis entitled Kvinnodräkten i Birka (Die Frauentracht in Birka). In subsequent works (1982 and 1984), Hägg has shown that the s< 10-13 Ihrcads/cm, Z/Z. Along onc sidt: of the lump can be seen the lowcr edgc of [ht: tunic trimrned with horsehair-pauerned tablet weave and 2/2 twill with two tablcts threaded alternatcly in pairs on the selvage. I n addition, scveral thick tassels can be scen Iying in various directions, IOgcther with a tablet-woven band. A now reddish·brown, lightly fulled 2/2 t\\'ilI lies directly against these fringes. There are scveral fragments of twill in the lump, both 20>< 10-13 thrcads /cm, Z/Z. Loose fragments of tassels of the same type are visible in photographs of the lefl side of the costume viewed from the hack, Fig. 3. The tassels are quite high up on Ihe left sideoflhe tunic, where the "sleeve scarn" begins. Loose fragmenls of the band probably bclonging togclher with the tassels have been found at two points. One ofthese fragments can be seen in Fig. 37. It lay JUSl below Ihe lefr cufTand at right anglcs lOit, with the cdge border paralle1 to the body. This fragmt:nt is 7.5 cm long. Its widlh is incomplt:lc, 1.9 cm, of which thc edge border with 18 or 19 tablels threaded alternately in pairsoceupies 1.4em, thread eount 14 lablets/cm. The band is patterned with individual tums in 3/1 twilL

28 The other fragment round hy the head is now in parts, fig. 38. It is S cm wide. The middle pan, 25 cm wide, is panemcd with individual turns. '0 pallern figures are extant in the small fragments. One edge is woven with 18 or 19 tableis, the other with 20 tablets. There are uaces of stitching in one edge. The hand is \\'O\"CO with aOOUI 8S lablets. The tassels are made in away nOl previouslv described. The lhreads from eight lablets togethe'r fonn one lassel. The two tablets in the middle face each other and are quarter-turned, whilc the Ihrce lablcts on each sidc are passivc, Fig. 39. Onc \'·cft {WO

Fig. 36. To thl kjl oflhe bdl, m~ral (okeJ laJ'm of Itxlile wtrtjountJ rul;ng 0/1 fLwd. AIIM lower edge can be snn !Ju fin, 2/2 twill/rom IM lunk, with a lablel-u!(Jwl! bordn and, on till

olh(1 side, /I /wTUMir pal/mled w.bUI-wo'Xn band lfWn 011. TIJ tM left «In bt JU1l srrmd thule uuuls Iogt/her u:ilil oftagmm.

uny I4.bltl-u-,oVtn bam/. Fig. 37. II siray fragmmt riftlu band u"kid! blltmgtd u:ilh tIu kJmu in tk PTtriOflS PU:UlTt ('(In IN um fHlow IM aln; lift of «titT'. Phol4: ."TA.

Fig. 38. Fropunl riftlu UJme btmd tlS in Fig. 37, bill jolUtd NOftluMOd.

29 7)(6 cm piece of heavily compacted textile layers, Fig. 40. The compressed textiles are slightly arched as if the)' had been moulded by an object of some kind. Thcre are minute bronze fragments, probably from a mounting, in the centre of the fragment. Viewed from the hollowed side, the sequencc of strata is as follows: (1) Coarse 2/2 Iwill, 5)( 5 threads/cm, SIS. The fabric is in three layers and partly interpenetrates the layers which follow. The largest continuous fragment is 8)(4 cm. (2) A 1.1 cm wide tablct-wovcn band with a horsehair pancm in reclangular 0.8 cm long fields 0.7 cm apan, Fig. 41. This band is foldcd double or triple. lts conlinuous length is about 7 cm. There is also a loose fragment. Possibly there may be traces of stitches along at \east one eclge. The panern squares begin with soumak and then cominuc with a diagonal paltern in weft-wrapping over tWO tablets. (3) Tablet-woven band pauemcd ....'ith indi,.jdual turns. One edge border is 1.4 cm wide and woven with 20 labletS Ihreaded alrernate1y in pairs,

Fig.39. Dtt4.il ifo IflOSt tomlfrom lhe dod:.

Fig. 40. Calwi lops of IIxli/u, wuli«olitm unsptdjUd. Al IM /QP can fu um o aJO.fSt 2/2 /"d:iJJ, ptobohly o hlaMtl. To IM leJt o 1UJfTOW wbltt-wolitfl bond uitb Sfl/lmok patllTn;lIl. On IM Ur'«f dge o fine 2/2 /".JJill, the some as ill Iht tunic. /11 oddilioll, ot lht bark, a lab!tl-wolJ(1l balldfrom the eloak.

goes round all the threads from the thrcc edge tablets, through the shed formed bv the middle tablets and round all the threads from 'the three tablets on the other edge. The middle tablets arc quartertu~ed and the weave cominucs in the same way untl\ the tassel has achieved the length required after which it is finished oIT with a knot. All in all: tassels survive over a width of about 3 cm in a line near the left part of the bell. The tassels on the above mentioned lump show that thev were the conc\usion of two lablel-woven bands m~ting at righl anglcs and WO\'en ulgether into a corner, after which the tass~ls conclude the bands. The warp of one band ~~ntlllues to be the .....arp of the corncr square, while he other warp turns into a weft. Probably the four t ~:ads from one tablet were put in the same shed W"tch gives a L ' L. muc" coarser texture than the band Otlle~1se had .' h . I L . \\11 a slllg e wefl. Extremely linle of tlle corner IS extant b . • L ' UIIt seems to have been \...oven W1l" quarter-tur .h Afi ns. WII out any extra pauerning. ler the square h d b . . a een woven the warps of the two ongmal ba d ' 'h n S were used for tassels, in thc manner d eSCn ed above Regrenablv. , th crc'.IS no exact location given for a

'! ;.;.

.:.

30 Fig. 42. Along the cdgc there are traces of stitchcs wilh 2-ply S-twisted yarn. Of the patterned scelian there remain 1.7 cm in whieh traces era blue pattcrn on a red ground call be distinguished. The band may possibly have been about 4.5 cm wide. It probably belongs to the cloak.

I

II 11111 II

'''1''1

Fig. 41. 1.1 cm wide tabltl-woven band with horst-hai, pOl/tm in rtctangu!ar fidds from thc cokd lu)u! in Fig. 40.

(4) 212 twill, 15x 14 threads/cm, Z/Z. This fabfic may possibly belong logcther with the tablel-woven band from the doak. (S) Fine 2/2 lwill, 22 x 20 tbrcads/cm, Z/Z, probably from the !Unic or pcrhaps from the trousers.

111I1II11111I11II1II1I1II11I1I111111111I1I!l1I1I11II111 Fig. 42. Fragment ojthe cloak band/rom the cakd laj'tfS of Fig. 40.

39 Fig. 43. lArge pilers of elo/h in stV4rol {aJ"crs. &porltdl;' found be/I)w the waisl. Aleasuremenls: 50)(27 cm.

31

flaveTS in thc fragment is no! quite The sequcncc O , . d fabrics have [ain hC3vIly crcasc , elear bcC3use t h c [h .. • [c3ch other. Knowledge o t c ongltop o l PJ.rIh. on . . ' 'ould be orgreat ,alue, nOl east on nat poSllLOmng \~ . arra\\' lablet-,\'ovcn band, WhlCh has [ h account o t e n ·,·...o\'crcd 3m-where clse in the flod. not been d "" . d27'd A la~e cake offabric. 50 cm lon~ an cm Wl e, · h -poncdh la\ ri~ht next toand bela\\' the bdt, h w le r... " [ h h . Fie:. 43. consisb of fabrics on tOP o cae Ol .er In I

hre "CfC bcarskms.

-00 Thr ({ran" oughl probably to be datcd to c. ;) or (O the first half of the 6th ceotur) (Selinge J969,

l.':esl~

[X(ursu~

2:24).

IIlttrprtlali9n

The e:i1ded. chip-can.-ed bUllons wefC round in the middlc of the ~ra\'e and can have belonged to the cuffs. Cnlikc !hose in the first twO graves, the chipcan-ed buttons WCfC not allaehed 10 the dasp plates but \H:re riH"ted. singly. to bands and Cabric. The dasp hunons with (heir flat. plain bronze bunons max-o considering their distance from the chipcan;ed bUllons. ha\'e belonged to the lrousers. The lablet-....O\Tn band and the branze ring with the conca\'c undcrsidc may possibly have belonged to a baldrick. The fairly coarse twill on the bronze ring and (hc knifc-shcath mouming may have belonged tO a doak or blanket.

Fig.57. Ba"d ond do/hiram Fig. 56 sunJrom /ht ramt sidt. Photo: .4TA.

4.1.3. Sal by, Toresund, Sörmland The Iiht chambcr 10mb in Sönnland was discovered durine; an inve5tigation in 1971 directed by P. O. Ringq\-isl and Inger Liljequist {repon in ATA, Dnr .l6.)61il . The investigation was published bv P. O. Ringq\'ist in 1975. The dimensions of the gra~e were not all that impressive, vi, diam. 7 m and height 0.4 m. The burial chambcr was 1.6x 3.0 m. No sketetal remains were eXlam. T\\o flat. gilded and chip-carved buttons were found. each ofthem attached to lablet-woven band and twill . One of t h c b uttons IS . decorated with six,

Fig.58. O.a o hmluphnicol bll//4n ltlyJoldtd dOliblt. aJrogrTU!n/ oJoJai,!; C(NlTSt /will. TortSund, Sörmland. Ph%: A 7:..1..

the other with eight, convergcm pairs ofspirals. The bullans were riveted 10 the band and fabric, Figs. 56, 57. There are no hooks-and-eyes. The band is extant in its full width, 1.8 cm, woven with 28 tablelS threaded ahernately in pairs, 14 of them in the pattcrn section and six and cight respcctiveiy in each edge. The band has a red, yellow and blue horsehair pattern. The pattern square starts with herring-bane soumak, with two wefts in a row ofthe same eolour. The real palterning then begins in broken 2/2 Iwill and w'eft-wrapping. The band is sewn on 10 a broken lozenge twill known as diamond twill. This is thc linest fabric in the Nordic Migration Period material: 50x4{l threads/cm, Z/S. The band is folded under the fabric, unlike most of Ihe other {jnds, \"here it is folded round the fabric and is visible on thc revcrse side. No diagonal cut is observable in the fabric. The seams are done in red, 2-ply, S-twisted yarn, but the stitchcs cannot be identified. Originally the band was probably red. Another fragment, very line twill, possibly diamond twill, is on a fragment of iron, 4{l x 25

44

threads/cm, ZlS. This is the seoond finesl of thc .Yligration Period fabrics. On a button the shape of askullcap, dccorated with three idenlical human masks in Ihree fie1ds, there was a double·folded pieee of a fairl)' ooars\': 2/2 twill, 12x 10 threarls/cm, ZIZ, Fig. 58. There was a

leather sirap on the unrlerside of the button. Other linds are a gilded and foldcd foil, decorated with oonrenlnc circles and triangles, a coopered vcssel with vcrtical and horizOnlal hronu: bands, iined on the inside with a thin sheet of bronze, an arrowhearl and fragments of a sword blade. The gra\'c is dau=rl to the stcand halC of the 5th cenm!"}'.

Interpretation :\Ione of the linds which belongcd to the costume were round in their original position. The flat bUllans probably belongcd 10 cuffs which, Iik~ th~ finds from Danmark (see below, 4.1.4.), w~r~ buttoned with Jace loops. The coarsc twill folded double over Ihe skullcap-shapcd button can have beJonged to a doal: or to a fahric in which the dead man was shroud~d.

Fig. 59. &und tJlt hllDnI lJurt lurt 4-5 fi~ u"GOllm «nis /Chicn smvd as buIlD" lDDps. Ftallm /. DlUI1fUlr/;' LpPiDJ..

4.1.4. Danmarksby, Danmark, Uppland During the 1970s ahuriai ground in the village of Danmark was investigated hy a team from the Depanment of Archaeology, Uppsala University. The finds are now being analysed by Astrid Wexell, who headed the exeavation (WexellI975:117fI). A manuseripl repon has been prepared. Texliles were found in eighl graves. Seven of the graves were wooden cists of the ehamher tomb type. Sexing of the oecupants is prc!iminary, pending osteologieal examination. In fealUre I, four high, gilded and ehip-carved bu lIOns were found seattered in the eist filling. Two of the bUllans were attadled to tablet-woven bands with horsehair pallerning. 80lh hands were fragmentary, with only a few soumak partern wefls remaining. The present widlh is 2 cm, and the original widlh was probably only a little more. The bUllans had each been riveled on to a band and had nOl formed part ofa dasp. The manner ofbulloning is apparem from Ihe arrangcmems round two ofthe buttons, Fig. 59. Round each button there werc 4-5 fine wooll~n 1001'S. Probably the 1001'S went round lh~ buttons whieh belonged log~th~r, aCling as bUHon 1001'S. Ovcron~ oflhe huiIOns was a 2/2 twill, l4x 14 threads/em, Z/Z. A helt mounling with a hronu ring was riveted on

Fig. 60. fl bell mDunt u·ilh a brDI/ o c10th were h h. . the l en ....' lp stltched togethcr ..IL... rewrse side Th -...vanees h. . e very narraw seam ale open edges .

Fig. 94. Tht originDf Stoms of IM Högom lormml aTt Sfu:n u:ilh 1111l row ojtaiWT'S slikn and 1111l row rif lJfaMtl stilehjrom tilher side I1j IM join.

, ,: -

Jt. -I).J~ ---11 ...ll_'

t

,~ ~ ..U...- '-{ 1-'-:1 to" W

II- lt Mr -11

Fig.95. Tht Högl1m stam.1'·/taTtJt Ihljabricjoin, lajfl1,'s stiten, ond ofin Ihis lJfawt stikhu IhlOUgh tach loop in IM pm;w/l.S fint. Dlau:ing: M. TDmbfom_

'o,

.

=.

Snan:"'

Fig. 96. The ja/nie jQin 01 Evtb. is matk fint with small ronning sliuh and Ihtn with blanktl slikhjrom IWO diTectil1n.!. Dmwing: I Raknu Ptdttstn.

80 At 0vrc Berge, thc ~ams wcrc probably se.....n ,..;th backstilch and with an open edge on the stam allowances, as in thc big fragments of the "nousers" in Snarterna \'.

7.4. SINEW THREAD EMBROlDERY Another sewing techniquc is instanccd by the surviving sinew thrcads in the Evebl'l/Eide find. These werc twistcd round a material which has now disappeared. Thc threads werc laid in a pattern on a ground and thcn sewn down using a Icchnique called couching.

7.5. SUMMARY As has now been shown, thc needlcwork is ofconsisIcntly high qua lit)'. In scveral cases the purely utilitarian scams are of sueh workmanship as to be virtually "ornamental". This is particularly striking in the scams which cmploy horh tailor's stitch and blanke! stilch. One may ask whether it was nOl Ihe intention for the side from which Ihe seams were se,,'n also to be visible sometimcs. In thc Högom tunk, all the original seams e.xcept at the cuffs are so fine that the}' could equally weU have bttn on the obverse side. The Slem stilch - running stitch lines on thc slit seams are purely ornamental seams. The Högom tunic presents five different kinds ofstitchrunning stitch, backstitch, stem stitch, blanht stitch and tailor's stitch - in addition 10 the whip stitch of the additions. 80th at Veicm and at Eveb0/Eide, red and ycllow yam occurs in the seams. The same was

probably truc al Högorn. C\'cn IhoUll;h Ih are not disccrnible Ihroughout. The "Ork:' were aOOm O.S cm wide and mUSt ha,-e brn. spicuous decorative feature of the a~summg clr r~verse side was "isibk AB . t hal t h· 'sIn hems were defi.nllcly visible, with thår seams probably a dlffcrent colour from tha fahric, as at Vciem. t An Anglo-Saxan grave from :'.'1itcheU's HiU lingham, has a wrist-clasp se.....n on to tablet and 2/2 twill (Crowfoot 1952:1891). The tri extension of the clasp is posilioned abo'e the \~'hich,judging by photographs and a dra"inc. unued ahove the clasp. There do nOl appear an)' seams along Ihe edges of the slil. but the edge of the rear is edged with blankel stilchiQr wilh 2-ply yarn. Comparing the needlework of the :"ordic; tion Period COstumcs with Ihat sun;';ng Roman territor)', one finds, gcnerally spuking, the laner is a good deal inferior in quaIity. cally all the seams in these garments are sewD whip stitch, quite long and Ullcven stitches asa and without any consideration of whether or they would be visible from the ohverse side. 1biI probably duc to thc way in which the garmmb made. In the Mediterrancan region. costumes woven to shape, which mcam fe.... scams, moreover the seams were positioned so as DOC all Ihal visible. In the Xordic area. as in regions, garmenls were generall)' CUl out. a dUfc which requircs a different standard ~ Jcwork. In garments CUl toshape, the seamsCOlld left visible, in which case it was important et be able 10 coneeal them or clse to make them ful. One example of the latler is a shirt from in whieh cords ofred \\'001 accompany all the on the obverse side; cf. below, Chap. 13.2.1

8. TABLET WEAVING

8.1. I:\TRODlJCTION Tablel ....eave plays a prominent part in the textile ~Iigration Period, as in COSlUme design. Thc fvllowing short descriprion of the technique is offertO thaI a diagonal pallern is formed when Ihe soumak fragments (Crowfoot 1983:1-28rI). b are p.acked c10se together. Fig. 101. In cascs From Birka Ihere is a tapcSlry-like fragment with .-hm' the wcfl onl} passes round onc tablet, this is eomours in weft wrapping (Geijer 1938:53)_ aled. b.. the longer Ooal. Il is impossible tO lell In ~orway, a number of \'iking texlile remains wbnher Ihis procedure only oceurs in the herring- have been found with pattern conlours in soumak. bone-like pal\(~rns or ,,'helher the wefls are made in They indude, for example, the famous fragments the ume way in the soumak weaves deseribed from Oseberg, a fragment from Rolvsoy and twO abow. These, howcver, are so extremc1y smooth others from Rogaland, B0 in Torvastad andJåtten in lh.11 I,hey werc most probably woven from edge \O Hetland (Hougen 1940:89). ~ In regular soumak. A lonl!;er or shorter section The soumak recurs in the Swedish wall hangings IOdt-wrapping is fOllowed by the figurative from Överhogdal and Skog. The Överhogdal hangItttn. The ~round of the patlern seetions is in ings are eurrently being examined and the results !!2rJ..tjl-jD.ud tuill. Fig. 102. In other words, suggest that they may be older lhan was previously ""dt passes o\"er lablelS l and 2. under lablets 3 supposed, i.e. belonging tO the \'iking era (Franz~n -I,o\er:' and 6 and so on. The next wcft goes the & l\ockerl, :\·IS). The Skog wallhanging is in all lie .... a\". i.e. underneath lablets I and 2 o,'er 3 ecnainty from the 131h century. aod -I. ' UDdt under 5 and 6. Th e t h-Ird passC5 o\"er tablet I In oriental textiles, soumak occurs both with and ',IabIets 2 and 3, o\"er tablets 4 and 5 and so on: withoUI aground weave, The latter variant is the The oUrth' h ~ IS t C Contrary of the third and thus eommonel' of the IwO, The technique occurs in bkb~nder_tablet I. over tab!ets 2 and 3, under AnatQIian fahrics from the 6th eentury B.C. but is and:> etc " B\' ernatmg be tween these four , believed to have originated in the Caueasus region, an d k' ' lIbooth pac mg them doscl\", one obtains a where it is more common Ihan in Turkey. -]] ma , ke a suilablc surface \.hi"h ~ ... \'1 The term "soumak" is believed to come from a T1k und for the patlems. town in the SOUlhern Caucasus where fabrics of this COntours of h ""P!>"g Th I e patlern are dOll(: in wert- kind were made (Balpinar 1983:69). fr . e \I(:ft pa.ses 5C\'era ] times round all In Europe, howC\'er, Ihe lechnique already omoneorl....·ot bl .,.. a1slit,-, be a ets, ng. 103. In this wav existed in the Stone Age. The f1nds from .l:a'_ ..... n form d . h ' ~nth c ] c m t e weave between the Irgcnhausen in Swilzerland, indude several linen , o Oured ficlds . . ] ,Just as m lapestry Wtavt or fragments with patterns in different variants of . Thesii" .are essco . t\r main .....ert fills u nspl~UOUS ~ere, because the soumak (Vogt 1937:80). Ion~ COnt p the tnterSllces even ifthere Our along d . h is apM one an the same group of The combination ofdifferent kinds ofweft-wrapping .. ~renll,· o nIy'In, h e eomours and the and broken 2/2 wert·faced twill when the wefts com.

" 'CHon. o d1[(

f

\,r;l.

-,f,

wr:a

,l,

-

86 pletcly cover thc \Varp gives an impression of tapes-

try weavc. Tapestry technique in the broad sense is ah'iays charactcriscd by thc \Vcft bcing discontinuDUS, Le. being inserted with differently colourcd yams, and by the \Ven covering the \Varp. The bindiog is usually tabby, bU! Twill and irregular binding alsa accur (Geijer 1972:59). Somctimcs, as mcntjaned earlier, open slits occur when the boundary

between

{WO

Only. a small number of bands have SUIVJ suffiCient kngth to convey an idea of ho\\" they eonSlructed. A number oftvp" , , ho"., . . 'er, are guishable, Fig. 104.

coloured areas goes in the direction of

the warp. This happens in tapestry wcavc as well, but alsa in oriental kelim. In Norway, kelim occurs in bands of the woman's costume at Hallingdal

(Noss

pattern sections of the bands do no, h . ave a weave, only a pasSIve weft. The patterns a entircly with the pattern wefts. re b

1966:12911).

These

are

known

as

"smettaband" or "nålcband". Thc bands as a rule are guile narro\\'. They have a sparse 'Narp and a covering weft of various eolours. The bands are woven on a deviee whieh looks like a rectangular box, with a holder for two rollers and does not have a shedding meehanism. The weft is inserted in the warp with a flat shuttle or needle. It is hard tO find an adequale name for the tcehnigue used in the Nordic horsehair patterned bands. If anything it is a tapes try-like teehnique. Since many bands survive only at the beginning of the panern section, one might consider the term "soumak band". The material of the pattern, horsehair, could aho provide the name. As remarked eadier, the term "broeaded" cannot be used, beeause this denotes a ground weavc with an extra pattcrn wefr. The

• I

Fig. 104. Thru lJ'Pes of hGrsehair-pallaned bands. (1) With edge borders on Iwo sides and reclangular paltan sections. (2) Band with edge border on one side and (:onlinous paJlem. (3) Band wilhoul edge borders with rnlangular pa/lem snliolll.

TYPE I. Bands with edge borders of tablels th alternately in pairs on both sides and tangular pattern sections separaled b\' seetions woven with quarter-turns f~m to edge.

TYPE2. Bands with an edge barder oflablcts th alternatcly in pairs on one side and a con ous pattern section extending all the wa the other edge.

TYPE3, Bands without edge barders wilh rect pattern sections separated by narrow from edge to edge, woven \vith quarterThe band which comes from the lower edgt Högom tunie is ofTYPE I, Fig 3. It is 4 cm Wide woven with about 60 tabIets, IS ofthem (or 14 and l S rcspectivC!y) threaded alternatel} in on eaeh side near the wider paltern squares and 19 respectiveIy by the smaIIer squares consccutivc pattern squarcs are extant and offour more exist as loose fragments. The~~ types of sq uare on the band. Ncarcst the bult squares are I 2 em Iong, narro\\ ..mg down. after' whilc the others are 4 cm long. Thc WIde sq , and end Wl1 'h a b out 3-O sou mak ....-eftS WI begm wraps all in the same direction, the narro wond about I cm herring_bone_patterned wefts.. One band onIy 1.1 cm wide, from H 'fleminthe woven with ,16 tabIets SIX o Il , ' seetlOn and five on each SI'd e, F"Ig. 41.4pa d sguares are ex tant. These are O.B cm long. an and end with soumak \Vefts. A band from Danmark (uppIand)·f~o~60 wide was originally about I.S cm, .g , fi Id 16m long. now rectanguIar pat tern le , . c .ed b' The pattern is in both sides surround . wefts. 'd ..d ' 33cm"'1 e OneoftheEveboban d SIS· d dal with SO tablets, ofwhieh 12 are thrra e

87

. .J

Fig 70.71. Four consecmive

. n rach =~e. . . pours o '.0 of Ihem completc, SUI'Vlve on uares. 1\\ f palll"rll Sq d there are minor pieas o Ihree

fr3~menl an fi ffi loosc fragments. All squarcs tm ~qU:HCS ro . I h pil I "dlh The squares vary In eog! of the same \I I · . . '" 6 d 3 cm. Thc\' begm and end with btf'Iet man's" COStu

h' me, w Ich bcgan to be used dur-

ing .he Early Iron Age in Scandinavia remained in use, with various permutations of garments, until thc mid-14th century and cven longer than that where the lower classes werc cancerncd. The cornmones{ Iype of IUnie has been known, at least since thc medieval period, as a kiurtcl or kyrtill in Old Swedish, This was a sIceved garment pulled over the head and somctimes gathered at the waist with a belt. Long sleevcs for a man's lunic hecame, from the Earl)" Iron Agc, a rule which, despite changing fashions, was not depaned from until our o,,'n day. The tunic rould he long or short, wide or narrow, but it always had long sluvcs; only ,,"omen rould leave {heir arms bare (Nerlund 1941:30). There is no panicular form ofjeweJlcry accompany· ing the tunic through its various variations orfaces of development. During certain periods its design did not require allY jewellcry al all. At other limes, the neck opening, for examplc, was so small that a slil was nceded in order to pull the tunicoverone's head. This calJed for a brooch to keep the slit together. During the late Roman Iron Age and the Migration Period, the long, narraw slee\"es caJled for special fastening deviees, hooks-and-eyes and clasps being used for this purpose. Usually a helt ,,'as wom out· side the tunic, but thc two were not functionally ronnectcd. There is no evidenee oftrousers and tunic having been introduced simultaneously, but narrow sl~ves and legged garments did occur at one and the same time. In Öland and Gotland during the Roman Iron Agc, as memioned in Chap. 11, cJasps appearcd which are thought tO be direcdy connected with

116

trousers and with a long-slccycd garmcnt. Clasps during the ~'Iigration PeriCKi had the same funclion. Old Norse literature has IWO names for long trOusers: leislabrQkr, which had feet, and okulb1()kr, which cnclecl at the anklc (Falk 1919:118). The lrousers couJd be hcld up with a broklindi, a !>ch of textile malcrial, or with a broko belt of lcather with metal moumings and a buckle (Falk 1919:120(). Orna~ mental bdts were always visible and werc ....' om outside the tunic. Thus, failing (hc occurrence 0[1\\,0 buckles, trousers were probably kept up with a belt made of texlile material. \Vherc does the use of trousers come from? In the East, long trousers were being \\lom long berore thc Christian era. Riding demands different equipmcnt from that whieh was CUITent in Euroj>(': and th(: N(:ar East. Th(: Nomadic hors(:men inv(:nted trous(:rs as a riding garment. just as the)" invemed boots, and in this way the equcstrian j>(':oples ofEasl(:m Asia came to revolutionise eastume. Horse furniture and riding garments have migrated as different euitura! elements from the interior of Asia to Eastern Europe and from there (Q other parts of the European Contin(:nl (Widengren 1960:71). In Herodotos' day, th(: 5th cemury B.C., trousers werc ",om by the ).,'ledes, Persians and Scythians. The Scythian trousers .....cre of two main types: leather trousers and wide trousers of dOlh. The}' were tueked down inta soft, low boots. The Scythians passed on the wearing of trousers to the Germans and Kelts. The Greeks, in spite of their contacts with the Scythians, never adopted this garment. In the east Roman provinces, long trousers ""'ere being ",om in the 3rd centul)· A.D. The east Roman cavall)· had the same riding habit as the Parthian army had - that is, long trousers and a eaftan (Cumont 1926: 1811). Piclures from Dura Europas on the Euphrates, which was a Roman garrison town until 256 A.D., show forcxample long, richly folded trousers. The Roman anny, with its auxiliary troops, was a modey collection of pooples and ilS dress was as "international" as the Empire iuelr. Roman reliefs often show trouser·dad Germans from different regions, as weil as other "barbarians". Cicero used "trouser-dad peoples" (bracalae nationes) as a common designation for the barbarian tribes (Nmlund 1941:36).

compared with Scandinavian COStum d . :\'Iigralion Period. The material fiOl e u~ng the companSOQ bas therefore been expanded so as also 'O· 1 d . . mc u e linda v.:hlch., In o~e w~y or another, are similar lo SeandlOavlan Migration Period COSlum-..., even thottgh they come from geographicall\' . . .remo,_ . . p1acn aDd vel)' dIfferent penods. As has alr(:adv bttn dear; e.g. on the subject of tapcstf1'_~'o\"(:n~ the Near East and the :\1(:((iterranean r""';on ha . be . ~ • Important anng on our earl}' textile histon... lDe same gQ(:s for the history of eastume. Th~ . fidl· _. lmportant In ocatlOns in this region include Pal, myra in Syria, an important trading centre on lbe Silk Road destroyed by the Romans in 273 A.D.• tbt abcv(: mentioned Roman garrison to...'11 of Dun. Europos on th(: Euphratcs, and Halabiyah. alsooa the Euphratcs. The great necropolt:s in :'\ortbem Egypt, e.g. Antinoe, are also highl)' significant.

13.2.1. Oriental tunies and trousers The oldest finds having points of similarity 'A;tb tbt Scandina\'ian castumes come from PazYf\-k in Alla&, Siberia and haH been radio-carbon dated to tbt 5th-4th centurics B.C. Th(: deep-frozen gn\t:S the Ahai nomads contained mummified bodies men and women, richly caparisoned horsn. thing, carpets etc. (Rudenko 1970). Various arridcs ofclothing, several ofthem in amazingly good oonm tian, have been excavated. There were no trousrrsa Pazyn.k but trousers \\Iere disco\'ered during a Iatcr excav~ti~n at Tuekta (Rudenko 1960:118[\. In mound 2 at Pazvryk. a tunic was found. made oftabby fabric, prob;bly helOp (Rudenko.1970: fi It is made up oftwo front and (\,'0 back PI(Ct:S. 133 sewn togcther in the middle, al the sidts and , h 'd (:aDlS the shoulders. Gussets are let inta t e SI e s Red the bottom. The sleeves are not guss cted. wcoIlen cords follow the seams in the middle at

13.2. SURVIVING GARMENTS There are only a few surviving garments which, chronologically and geographically speaking, can be