The Flexibility Paradox: Why Flexible Working Leads to (Self-)Exploitation 9781447354796

Table of contents :
Front Cover
The Flexibility Paradox: Why Flexible Working Leads to (Self- )Exploitation
Copyright information
Dedication
Table of contents
List of figures, tables and box
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction: The flexibility paradox and contexts
Introduction
The contexts
Contexts of the increase in flexible working
Increase in female employment and demand for better work-life balance
Developments in digital technologies
Commuting, and office and travel costs
COVID-19
Contexts of self-exploitation
Always-on culture
Insecurity
Work-centred society
Passion
The book
Flexibility paradox
Background
Outline of the book
How to read this book
Quick word on methodologies
The take-home message
Notes
2 The demand for and trends in flexible working
Introduction
What is flexible working?
Definitions
Flexibility as an arrangement or an approach?
The demand for and provisions of flexible working
The demand for flexible working
Government response to the demand for flexible working to date
European Commission directive on work-life balance
UK
The Netherlands
Italy
Finland
Australia
Korea
Empirical data on the use and provision of flexible working
Provision of flexitime across Europe11
Access to flexible working
Has there been a growth in flexible working?
Conclusion
Notes
3 The dual nature of flexibility: family-friendly or performance-oriented logic?
Introduction
The dual nature of flexible working
Flexible working as a family-friendly arrangement
Flexible working as a high-performance management system
Theories on the determinants of flexible working provision and access
Principle of need/family-friendly demands
Principle of equity/expected performance outcome
Higher status
Bargaining power
Structural factors
Empirical data analysis results
Provision of flexitime – company-level analysis
Access to flexitime/working time autonomy – individual-level analysis
Outside Europe
Conclusion
Notes
4 The outcomes of flexible working
Introduction
Summaries of existing studies
Performance outcomes
Workers’ well-being
Work-life balance
Enhancing employment of mothers and carers
Work-life balance satisfaction
Empirical analysis results
Data and variables
Conclusion
Notes
5 The flexibility paradox: why more freedom at work leads to more work
Introduction
Theories behind the flexibility paradox
Gift exchange, enabled and imposed intensification
Self-exploitation
Organisational culture and self-exploitation
Entreprenurialisation of self and careers
Subjectification of self
Manifestations of the paradox: passion at work as the basis for self-exploitation
Passion
Busyness as a badge of honour
Passion paradox
Millennial burnout
Conclusion
Notes
6 The empirical evidence of the flexibility paradox
Introduction
Evidence of flexible working and longer working hours
Association between flexible working and long hours of work
Flexible working leading to long hours of work
Flexible working, mental spill-over and additional work effort
Differences across groups of individuals
Gender and parental status
Occupational variations
Arrangement variations?
Conclusion
Note
7 Gendered flexibility paradox
Introduction
Background context of the gendered nature of the flexibility paradox
Subjectification of self and the family
Intensive parenting
Intensive mothering and gender norms
Gendered flexibility paradox
Flexible working and the expansion of unpaid work
Empirical evidence of the gendered flexibility paradox
Exploitation model and traditionalisation of gender roles through flexible working
Class variations or arrangement variations?
Gendered nature of flexible working and access to flexible working
Conclusion
Notes
8 Flexibility stigma and the rewards of flexible working
Introduction
Flexibility stigma and its prevalence
Defining flexibility stigma
Prevalence of flexibility stigma
Flexibility stigma and gender
Femininity stigma
Rethinking the gendered stigma
Evidence of the gendered flexibility stigma
Conclusion
9 The importance of contexts
Introduction
Which contexts matter?
Work centrality
Gender norms
Family and social policy
Workers’ bargaining powers
Economic and labour market conditions
Prevalence of flexible working
Empirical evidence of the impact of national contexts
Provision of flexible working2
Use and access to flexible working
Flexibility stigma
Outcomes of flexible working4
Conclusion
Notes
10 COVID-19 and flexible working
Introduction
COVID-19 context
COVID-19 global context
COVID-19 context in the UK
Flexible working during the pandemic
The prevalence of working from home during the pandemic
Changing the perception towards flexible working
Managers’ perception
Employees’ perception
Outcomes of flexible working during the pandemic
Long-hours work
Blurring of boundaries
Reduction of hours
The division of household labour and childcare
Conclusion
Notes
11 Conclusion: Where do we go from here?
Introduction
Future scenarios of flexible working
Are we going to see a rise in flexible working?
Will flexible working be accessible for everyone in the future?
Will flexible working help tackle gender equality in the future?
What are the implications of flexible working on workers’ well-being?
What do we need to do? Policy recommendations for governments
Better rights and protection for flexible workers
Reshaping normative views around work-life balance and gender
Changing the long working hours culture
Recommendations for companies and managers13
Redefining productivity and KPIs
Ensuring a clearer boundary between work and non-work spheres
Removing the stigma around flexible working for care purposes
Recommendations for individuals and families
Maintaining clear boundaries
Gender division and housework, childcare
Doing less
Conclusion
Notes
Data used
European Company Survey 2013
European Working Conditions Survey 2015
Variables: European Working Conditions Survey
1643964843593_187
Flexitime, working time autonomy and schedule control
Teleworking/home working
Work-to-family, family-to-work conflict variables
Spill-over, work during free time variable
Work-family conflict index for Chapter 9
Control variables; access to and use of flexible working models
Control variables; work-family conflict models
Appendix Figures and Tables
Appendix to Chapter 3
Appendix to Chapter 4
Appendix to Chapter 6
Appendix to Chapter 9
Appendix to Chapter 10
COVID-19 data sets
UK
US
Canada
Australia
The Netherlands
Germany
Cross-European
Appendix
Data used
European Company Survey 2013
European Working Conditions Survey 2015
Variables: European Working Conditions Survey
Flexitime, working time autonomy and schedule control
Teleworking/home working
Work-to-family, family-to-work conflict variables
Spill-over, work during free time variable
Work-family conflict index for Chapter 9
Control variables; access to and use of flexible working models
Control variables; work-family conflict models
Appendix Figures and Tables
Appendix to Chapter 3
Appendix to Chapter 4
Appendix to Chapter 6
Appendix to Chapter 9
Appendix to Chapter 10
COVID-19 data sets
UK
US
Canada
Australia
The Netherlands
Germany
Cross-European
References
Index
Back Cover

Citation preview

The Flexibility Paradox Why Flexible Working Leads to (Self-)Exploitation Heejung Chung

THE FLEXIBILITY PARADOX Why Flexible Working Leads to (Self-​)Exploitation Heejung Chung

First published in Great Britain in 2022 by Policy Press, an imprint of Bristol University Press University of Bristol 1–​9 Old Park Hill Bristol BS2 8BB UK t: +​44 (0)117 954 5940 e: bup-​[email protected] Details of international sales and distribution partners are available at policy.bristoluniversitypress.co.uk © Bristol University Press 2022 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-​1-​4473-​5477-​2 hardcover ISBN 978-​1-​4473-​5481-​9 ePub ISBN 978-​1-​4473-​5479-​6 ePdf The right of Heejung Chung to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved: no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission of Bristol University Press. Every reasonable effort has been made to obtain permission to reproduce copyrighted material. If, however, anyone knows of an oversight, please contact the publisher. The statements and opinions contained within this publication are solely those of the author and not of the University of Bristol or Bristol University Press. The University of Bristol and Bristol University Press disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any material published in this publication. Bristol University Press and Policy Press work to counter discrimination on grounds of gender, race, disability, age and sexuality. Cover design: Nicky Borowiec Image credit: AdobeStock Bristol University Press and Policy Press use environmentally responsible print partners. Printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY

This book was written as a part of my lifelong goal to make our society one where everyone can work shorter, flexible, autonomous and thus more productive and socially meaningful hours.

Contents List of figures, tables and box  Acknowledgements

vi ix

1

Introduction: The flexibility paradox and contexts

1

2

The demand for and trends in flexible working

20

3

The dual nature of flexibility: family-​friendly or performance-​oriented logic?

37

4

The outcomes of flexible working

54

5

The flexibility paradox: why more freedom at work leads to more work

69

6

The empirical evidence of the flexibility paradox

85

7

Gendered flexibility paradox

105

8

Flexibility stigma and the rewards of flexible working

120

9

The importance of contexts

131

10

COVID-​19 and flexible working

150

11

Conclusion: Where do we go from here?

168

Appendix References Index

193 221 250

v

List of figures, tables and box Figures 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2.1 2.2 2.3

2.4 2.5 2.6 3.1

3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Trends in trade union density across selected OECD countries from 1960 to most recent data Prevalence of income and employment insecurity across Europe in 2016/​17 Work orientation attitudes of individuals across four European countries My book embodied in one picture Proportion of companies providing flexitime across the European Union in 2009 and 2013 Proportion of employees with flexible schedules across 30 European countries in 2015 Proportion of dependent employed who teleworked/​worked from home at least several times a month in the past 12 months across 30 European countries in 2015 Trends in flexitime and working time autonomy across 29 European countries (EU28+​Norway) Trends in flexible schedules and working from home in the US from 2002 to 2018 Trends in the reason why workers worked from home in the US from 2002 to 2018 Proportion of employers who answered that the introduction of flexible working and leave policies had the following positive effect within companies Explaining company-level provision of flexitime across Europe (28 countries) in 2013 Explaining individual-level access to flexible schedules (flexitime +​working time autonomy) across Europe (28 countries) in 2015 Explaining which workers teleworked regularly across Europe (28 countries) in 2015 Comparing women’s likelihood of reducing their working hours on flexitime Comparing women’s likelihood of reducing their working hours on teleworking Association between flexible working and work-to-​family conflict Association between flexible working and family-​to-​work conflict Association between flexible working and satisfaction with working hours fit

vi

6 7 8 10 30 31 32

33 34 35 39

45 47 49 59 60 63 64 65

List of figures, tables and box

5.1 6.1

6.2 6.3 6.4

6.5 6.6 6.7 8.1 8.2

9.1

9.2

9.3 9.4

10.1 10.2 A6.1

The proportion of those surveyed responding that it is ‘very important’ to have an interesting job across occupations Predicted overtime (in hours) of workers with fixed schedules, employer flexibility, flexitime and working ​time autonomy for men and women Increase in unpaid overtime hours due to increased schedule control for men and women Association between flexible working and work-to-home spill-​over by gender Increase in unpaid overtime due to increase in schedule control for parents (living with at least one child under 12) versus non-​parents by gender Association between flexible working and work-to-home spill-​over for parents by gender Increase in unpaid overtime due to increase in schedule control for professionals versus non-​professionals by gender Increase in unpaid overtime due to changes in flexible working for men and women Proportion of individuals with flexibility stigma by gender and parental status (children