The Chipped Stone Tool Production/Use Cycle: Its Potential in Activity Analysis of Disturbed Sites 9780860543916, 9781407345741

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
PREFACE
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER II - FALLS REGION ARCHAEOLOGY
CHAPTER III - THE THEORETICAL BASIS
CHAPTER IV - METHODS OF ANALYSIS
CHAPTER V - RESULTS OF ANALYSIS
CHAPTER VI -CONTRIBUTIONS TO FALLS REGION PREHISTORY
CHAPTER VII - METHODOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
REFERENCES CITED
APPENDIX A - ARTIFACT STYLES AND TEMPORAL ASSIGNMENT
APPENDIX B - CHERT SOURCES AND TYPES IN THE FALLS REGION
APPENDIX C - ASSIGNMENT OF FLAKES TO REDUCTIVE STAGES
APPENDIX D - CAUSES OF BREAKAGE AND MANUFACTURING ERRORS
APPENDIX E - A SYNOPSIS OF METHODS OF MICROWEAR ANALYSIS
APPENDIX F - THE MICROWEAR ANALYSIS SKILLS TEST
APPENDIX G - SYSTEMATICALLY DESIGNED TOOLS FROM FALLS REGION SITES

Citation preview

The Chipped Stone Tool Production/Use Cycle

Its Potential in Activity Analysis of Disturbed Sites

Boyce N. Driskell

BAR International Series 305.

1986

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. -SJ05, 1986: 'The Chipped Stone Tool Production/Use Cycle'

©

Boyce N. Driskell, 1986

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543916 paperback ISBN 9781407345741 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543916 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

TABLE OF CONTENTS

P reface • Chapter I -I ntroduction The I ntegrated Approach The Approach A s An I ndependent Means o f Activity Analysis L imitations o f t he Approach O rganization o f t he S tudy Chapter I I -F alls R egion A rchaeology The A lluvium The L acustrine Lowland The Upland Functional C haracteristics a t t he B ig B end and P ossum R idge S ites S ummary Chapter I II -T he Theoretical B asis Reconstruction o f S patial Context Reconstruction o f t he P roduction/Use Cycle S ummary and I mplications Chapter I V -M ethods o f Analysis The D efinition o f t he Variables and Their Measurement Evaluation o f F ormal C ategories S ampling Reconstruction o f t he P roduction/Use Cycle Chapter V -R esults o f Analysis An Evaluation o f F unctional Characteristics Tool U se T rends E xhibited i n t he Collections • • The Relationship o f Tool U se and P roduction i n t he Local E conomy The L ocal P roduction/Use Cycle Chapter V I -C ontributions t o F alls Region P rehistory An I nterpretative S ynopsis Contributions t o F alls R egion A rchaeology Chapter V II -M ethodological Contributions and I mplications Contributions o f t he Approach Methodological L imitations i n A rtifact Analysis B enefits and L imitations a t D isturbed S ites S ite Context a nd I nterpretations S ummary and C onclusions References C ited Appendix A -A rtifact S tyles and T emporal A ssignment Round B ase S eries Merom S eries McWhinney S eries S alt R iver S eries L ate A rchaic-Early Woodland S eries Appendix B -C hert S ources and Types i n t he F alls R egion Chert T ype Cortex T ype Thermal Alteration Patterns o f C hert E xploitation a t T aylorsville L ake Appendix C -A ssignment o f F lakes t o Reductive S tages

▪ 1 5 6 8 1 0 1 1 1 3 1 5 1 9 1 9 3 0 3 3 3 5 3 5 3 7 4 6 4 9 5 0 6 6 6 8 7 3 7 5 7 5 9 8 1 05 15 1 19 1 1 20 1 22 1 29 1 30 1 34 1 35 1 39 1 41 1 45 1 55 1 55 1 55 1 57 1 58 1 59 1 61 1 61 1 67 1 67 1 68 1 71

Attributes o f t he Reductive S tages Appendix D -C auses o f B reakage a nd M anufacturing e rrors B reakage K napping E rrors Appendix E -A S ynopsis o f Methods o f M icrowear Analysis P reparation o f Specimens and M icroscopy The Comparative Collection Appendix F -T he M icrowear Analysis S kills Test1 85 • • I ntroduction Results o f t he S kills T est Appendix G -S ystematically D esigned Tools f rom F alls R egion S ites D rills Hafted S crapers .. . . . . • P rojectiles

i i

1 71 1 75 1 75 1 77 1 81 1 81 1 82 1 85 1 89 2 17 2 19 2 19 21 2

L IST OF TABLES

T able

1 .

A rtifacts Recovered D uring B ig B end S ite

E ach

S eason a t

t he 2 6

T able

2 .

A rtifacts Recovered D uring Possum R idge S ite

E ach

S eason a t

t he 2 7

T able

3 .

F requency o f a rtifacts analyzed f or w ear t races f rom e ach o f t he c ells i n t he matrix f ormed b y r eductive s tage, condition s tatus, and g ross morphology a t t he B ig B end a nd Possum R idge s ites 7 2

T able

4 .

D istribution o f A rtifacts Analyzed f or U se-Wear by Morphology and E vidence o f U se a t t he B ig B end and P ossum R idge s ites 7 8

T able

5 .

D istribution o f U sed A rtifacts b y M orphology, Work A ction, and Contact Material a t t he B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge S ites 8 0

Table

6 .

D istribution by Morphology

T able

7 .

D istribution o f T ype B H afted H ide by Morphology and M aterial Type

T able

8 .

D istribution o f P rojectile Points a nd F ragments by Condition a nd Material Type f rom t he B ig B end and Possum R idge S ites 9 9

T able

9 .

B reak D istribution o f f rom P rojectile Points Possum R idge S ites

T able

1 0.

Chipped S tone Material Type D ata B end a nd Possum R idge S ites

T able

1. 1

D istribution o f Nonlocal Versus L ocal S ource Cherts b y Cortex T ype f rom t he B ig B end and Possum R idge S ites 1 09

Table

1 2.

D istribution o f A rtifacts by Reductive S tage and C ondition a t t he B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge S ites 10 1

T able

1 3.

P roportions o f A rtifacts b y Reductive S tage a t S everal L ate A rchaic S ites i n t he F alls Region 12 1

T able

1 4.

D istribution o f C hipped S tone Morphologies b y Major Chert Types a t t he B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge S ites 14 1

o f T ype A H afted H ide and M aterial Type

ii i

S crapers 9 6 S crapers 9 7

Type o n B roken t he B ig B end and 1 00 f rom

t he B ig 1 07

Table

1 5.

M iddle P eriod P rojectile Point S tyles f rom t he F alls Region P laced W ithin a T emporal S er ies 1 56

Table

1 6.

Attributes, A lternative S tates, a nd Weighting U sed t o Assign F lakes t o a Reductive S tage ( after O ' Malley e t a l. 1 980:303) 1 74

Table

1 7.

M icrowear

Table

1 8.

A Comparison o f t he R esults f or T hree M icrowear Analysts

Table

1 9.

A rtifacts i n t he S ample Analyzed f or U se-wear Characteristics f rom t he F alls R egion s ites.218

Comparative

i v

Collection o f

1 84 S kills T ests 1 86

L IST OF

I LLUSTRATIONS

F igure

1 .

L ocation a nd g eomorphology o f t he g ion ( after Collins 1 979:9)

F alls Re1 4

F igure

2 .

Topographic a nd e xcavation Rosenberger S ite, 1 5JF18 1 979:701)

F igure

3 .

T he B ig B end S ite ( 15SP340). Location o f e xcavation units ( A), l ocation o f t he s ite i n t he T aylorsville L ake r eservoir ( B), and t he s ite a fter p lowing ( C) 2 2

F igure

4 .

The P ossum R idge S ite ( 15SP412). Location o f e xcavation u nits ( A), l ocation o f t he s ite i n t he upland domain ( B), and a v iew o f t he s ite during f ieldwork ( C) 2 4

F igure

5 .

Collins' model o f t he s chematic r epresent ation o f t he r elationships among t he l ithic t echnological s ystem, t he v arious p roduct g roups, and t he physical e nvironment ( after Collins 1 975) 4 3

F igure

6 .

A v isual r epresentation o f t he r elations hips o f v arious i dentifiable polishes i n t he d imensions o f l uster and t exture 6 4

F igure

7 .

Matrix o f a rtifact c lasses s orted b y a nd r eductive s tage, c ondition s tatus, 6 9 g ross morphology

F igure

8 .

D istribution o f a rtifacts b y r eductive s tage, condition s tatus, a nd g ross morphology c lass ( A) a t t he B ig B end S ite a nd ( B) a t t he Possum R idge S ite 7 6

F igure

9 .

Marginally modified f lakes w ith u se-wear f rom t he B ig B end and Possum R idge s ites. . 81

F igure

1 0.

F lake t ools w ith u se-wear f rom t he a nd Possum R idge s ites

F igure

1. 1

Unifaces f rom t he

F igure

1 2.

B iface f ragments w ith u se-wear f rom t he B end and Possum R idge s ites

F igure

1 3.

B utchering i mplements f rom P ossum R idge s ites

F igure

1 4.

S ystematically d esigned t ools which a re n ot f urther c lassified f rom t he B ig B end S ite.90

f eatures a t t he (from D riskell 1 7

B ig

B end 8 2

and aborted b ifaces w ith u se-wear B ig B end and P ossum R idge s ites. . 84

t he

B ig

B ig 8 6

B end and 8 8

F igure

1 5.

D rills f rom t he B ig s ites

B end and

F igure

1 6.

Type A hafted h ide s crapers f rom t he B ig B end and Possum R idge s ites 9 3

F igure

1 7.

Type B hafted h ide s crapers B end and Possum R idge s ites

F igure

1 8.

Convenient u sage o f t ools v ersus d esign c onsistent u sage a t t he B ig B end and P ossum R idge s ites 1 02

F igure

1 9.

C hert d istributions i n and T aylorsville L ake p roject S orensen e t a l. 1 980:573-582)

F igure

2 0.

M icrowear s kills t hrough 1 2

t est

specimens

f rom

F igure

2 1.

M icrowear s kills t hrough 2 4

t est

specimens

f rom 1 3 2 01

F igure

2. 2

M icrowear s kills t hrough 3 5

F igure

2 3.

D rills R egion

F igure

2 4.

S crapers w ith u se-wear F alls Region s ites

F igure

2 5.

P rojectile points w ith u se-wear F alls Region s ites

t est

w ith u se-wear s ites

v i

Possum

f rom

t he

B ig 9 4

a round t he a rea (from 1 62

s pecimens

t races

R idge 9 1

f rom

t races

f rom

1 1 90

2 5 2 09

t he F alls 20 2 f rom

t he 22 2

t races

f rom 24 2

P REFACE

T he a rchaeologist d epends t o a g reat e xtent o n c ontextual r elationships o f a rtifacts, f eatures, a nd o ther a rchaeological u nits t o d evelop a nd s upport i nferences a bout p ast a ctivities a nd t he r eason f or o r m eaning o f t hese a ctivities w ithin t he s ite a nd w ithin t he r egion. I t i s t herefore w ith g reat d isappointment t hat w e e ncounter s ites i n which r elationships h ave b een s everely a ltered a nd o ften s eemingly d estroyed. H owever, t he s ituation i s n ot a lways h opeless a s h as b een d emonstrated b y a r ecent s pate o f a rticles a nd t reatises ( often r eferred t o a s " plowzone a rchaeology" i n t he U nited S tates) w hich d iscuss ways t o r econstruct s patial r elationships a nd/or s ystematically a llow f or c ertain t ypes o f d isturbance. B ut w hen t hese m ethods f ail t o e nlighten a s t o o riginal s patial r elationships, i s t here s till h ope f or a ctivity r econstruction? I t hink t he a nswer i s a q ualified y es. T he qualifications a re o f c ourse m any a nd v aried, a nd may b e q uite d ifferent f rom o ne s ite t o a nother o r f rom o ne d ata b ase t o a nother. A t a most g eneral l evel, i t i s u sually t rue t hat a l arge p ortion o f t he more g eneral i nferences w e make a bout p ast a ctivities a t a ny s ite s tem f rom t he c onstellation o f a rtifacts w hich w e f ind r epresented a t t he s ite, i rrespective o f s pecific s patial a ssociation o r r elationship o f a rtifacts o ne w ith a nother. While t hese a re o ften s o g eneral a s t o b e o f l ittle v alue, t he i nherent n ature o f c hipped s tone t ool t echnology c ombined w ith t he n atural d urability o f s tone t ools a nd d ebris a llows f or o ften q uite s pecific i nferences a bout p ast a ctivities when c hipped s tone t ools a re e xamined w ithin a s tructural c ontext. E vidence u seful i n t he r econstruction o f t he s tructural e lements o f t his t echnological s ystem, u nlike o ther t echnologies, i nclude m uch more t han t he f inished t ool. P otentially r ecognizable i n t he a rchaeological r ecord a re r aw m aterials, d ebris f rom t he m anufacturing p rocess, u nfinished o r a borted t ools, u sed t ools, a nd r efurbished o r r ecycled t ools. S o, u nlike most o ther t echnologies, t he manufacture, u se, a nd d iscard o f c hipped s tone t ools b asically a l ineal, r eductive p rocess - t ends t o l eave a j umble o f t angible r emains o f w hich w e r arely t ake f ull a dvantage. T his s tudy p resents a n a pproach t o a nalysis o f c hipped s tone a rtifacts which c onsiders m any o f t hese c haracteristics i n t he s cheme o f a nalysis, a nd u ses t he d ata g enerated t o d evelop s pecific i nferences a bout p ast a ctivities r elated t o t he t echnology. I n t he s pecific s ite e xamples u sed, s ome a ctivities r elate t o m anufacturing w hile o thers i nvolve t ool u se i n s pecific s ubsistence a ctivities. A s s uch, t he m essage o f t he monograph i s r elevant t o a n i nternational a udience o f a rchaeologists i n s pite o f t he s etting o f t he s tudy materials a nd e xamples w hich a re a ll t aken e xclusively f rom c entral K entucky.

1

T his s tudy i s a s lightly r evised work a ccepted a s a doctoral d issertation i n t he D epartment o f Anthropology a t t he University o f K entucky i n 1 984. I t i s, o f c ourse, q uite appropriate t hat o ne s hould a ttempt t o d evelop t heory o r methodology a s a p art o f a d issertation, b ut t he approach w as d eveloped more o ut o f n ecessity t han s ome p urer motives f or a nalysis o f s cientific c ontribution. For a n umber o f y ears, I a nd my c olleagues a t t he U niversity o f K entucky h ad b een g rappling w ith s hallow, p low d isturbed l ithic s catters f ound i n a n a rea o f c entral K entucky. T hese s ites h ad s uffered f rom t he r avages o f t opsoil e rosion o ccasioned b y i ndiscriminate t imbering o f r idges a nd h illsides, a nd poor f arming p ractices o n t he f ew r elatively f lat a reas i n t he r egion. T he p roblem was s o s evere i n t he s tudy a rea ( Taylorville R eservoir) t hat c omplete s urvey o f t he l and s urface p rior t o i mpoundment o f t he l ake r evealed t he p resence o f a lmost 2 00 p rehistoric a rchaeological s ites, a ll r estricted t o t he p lowzone, a nd e ach c ontaining l ittle b ut c hipped s tone a rtifacts. We c ollected a rtifacts f rom e ach o f t hese s ites; t he c ollections, .- at l east s uperficially, l ooked much a like f rom e ach s ite. W ere t hese s ites a ll a like? I ncluded w ithin t he g roup w ere s ites r epresentative o f t he c ontinuum o f h uman t enure i n t hi 's p art o f t he world. Were t hey a ll t he s cenes o f s imilar a ctivities? Unlikely, b ut i f s o, w hat? What f unctional r elationship d id t hese s ites b ear t o o ther s ites i n t he r egion? H ow d id t hey f it i nto a r egional s ettlement s ystem a t a ny p articular t ime i n p rehistory? A t t his point we h ad t ä d ecide w hether w e s hould a ttempt a ny a dditional i nvestigation a nd a nalysis o f t hese s ites, a nd i f s o, h ow s hould w e p roceed? We a nswered i n t he a ffirmative, i nitially b ecause w e f elt t hat a s tatistically o riented s tudy o f s patial r elationships o f a rtifacts f rom t hese s ites would b e i nformative. However, a pplication o f t his approach d id n ot m eet o ur e xpectations ( as d iscussed more f ully i n Chapter 2 )* . ' Oh t he o ther h and, m icroscopic u se-wear analysis, p erformed p rior t o t he s patial a nalysis a nd u sed a s o ne means o f d elineating a rtifact c lasses f or spatial analysis, h ad p rovided n ew i ntriguing d ata on a ctivities i n which t hese a rtifacts w ere u sed, b ut t he l oci o f s uch activities c ould n ot b e f ixed w ithin t he s ite, o r f or t hat matter, c onfirmed a s o ccurring o n t he s ite i n w hich t he a rtifact w as d iscovered. A fter a ll, t hese a rtifacts, s ome o f w hich w ere o bviously h afted i nto h andles, may h ave b een c urated a nd t ransported f rom o ther p laces. That m ight mean t hat t he s ite o f d iscovery w as t he p lace where t he t ool w as r efurbished r ather t han u sed. I n s ituations where t he a rtifacts c ome f rom undisturbed c ontexts, t he a rchaeologist o ften f inds a s olution t o t his p roblem f rom t he s patial r elationship o f t he a rtifacts, o ne t o another, b ut i n t his c ase t here w as n o hope o f t his t ype o f d ata. T hus, i t w as quite c lear t hat t he l oss o f s patial c ontext w ithin t he s ite p resented an e xtreme obstacle t o r econstruction o f a ctivities, b ut w as i t a n i nsurmountable

2

o ne? I b egan t o c losely c onsider t he s tructural r elationships o f p roducts a nd b y-products o f t he c hipped s tone r eductive s equence a nd t heir r elationship t o t ool u se a s a m eans o f e valuating t he l ikelihood t hat t he s pecific a ctivities r eflected i n t he m icroscopic u se-wear o n i ndividual t ools w ere p art o f a n a ctivity s et p racticed a t t he s ite. T his l ed i n t urn t o t he m uch f uller r ecognition t hat i f t he i ndividual a rtifacts a re a nalyzed f or t echnological, m orphological, a nd f unctional a ttributes, i t i s possible t o r econstruct t he s tructure o f t he o verall t echnology p racticed, t o d elineate t he a ctivity s ets i nvolved i n a nd r elated t o t his t echnology, a nd o f t hese, t o d ifferentiate s ome o f t he a ctivities p racticed a t a p articular s ite. T hus, t his i s a m ethodological t reatise d emonstrating t hat c urrent m ethods o f c hipped s tone f unctional a nalysis c an b e i ntegrated i nto a n o verall a pproach t o d elineate t he s ystemic r elationships o f c hipped s tone m anufacture a nd t ool u se ( called h ere t he " production/use c ycle") a nd r econstruct e conomic a ctivities i nvolving c hipped s tone t ools. B ecause t he a pproach g enerates i ts d ata s trictly f rom morphological c haracteristics o f t he c hipped s tone a rtifact a ssemblage i ts application t o d isturbed s ites ( such a s w indblown, e roded o r p lowed s ites) i s p articularly a ttractive. I n o ther s ituations, t he a pproach m ay s upplement a nd e nhance e xamination o f c hipped s tone a ssemblages f rom g ood o r r econstructible s patial c ontext. T he a pproach i s i ntegrative i n t hat m ethods t o e xamine c haracteristics o f c hipped s tone r esulting f rom s teps i n t ool p roduction, e rrors i n f abrication, a ttrition d ue t o t ool u se, a nd d amage a ccruing a fter d isposal a re u sed t o r ecord a s et o f a ttributes f or e ach a rtifact. T hese a ttributes a re t hen e xamined o n a rtifacts f rom a c ollection i n o rder t o d elineate s pecific p atterns o f t ool p roduction a nd u se. T hese p atterns a re a ssumed t o r epresent c ertain s tructural c haracteristics o f t he t echnological s ystem which p roduced t he a rchaeological c ollection. A s s uch, t he i nter-relationships o f a ttributes o f a rtifact p roduction a nd u se a re c ritical i n t he r econstruction o f t he p roduction/use c ycle a nd t he a ctivities ( both c hipped s tone m anufacturing a nd o ther e conomic p ursuits) a ssociated w ith t he c ycle. While t he s hortcomings o f t his monograph a re my o wn, t he d issertation o n w hich i t i s b ased, a nd t he r esearch i nvolved h ave b enefited f rom t he a ssistance o f m any o rganizations a nd i ndividuals. F irst, a nd f oremost, I w ould l ike t o a cknowledge t he c ontributions o f m y w ife, D ianne. H er c ontributions t o t he monograph r ange f rom t yping a nd w ord p rocessing t o c ritical e diting b ut h er c ontribution t o m y p rofessional c areer g oes m uch d eeper t han t his. S ince o ur m arriage i n 1 970, D ianne h as b een a p artner i n my f ieldwork a nd r esearch; m y b est f riend a nd c onfident a nd s ometimes m y s everest c ritic. C ertainly, t his monograph i s a s much a t ribute t o h er p ersonal s acrifice, e fforts, a nd p erseverance

3

a s i t i s t o m ine. g ratitude.

To D ianne g oes m y

s incere

and

d eepest

M ike Collins h as b een i nstrumental i n , my'graduate c areer. I t w as Collins who s timulated my i nitial i nterest i n l ithic s tudies and c ertainly, h is i deas a re s eminal t o t he r esearch a nd a pproach r eported h ere. U ntil h is d eparture f rom t he University o f K entucky, Collins s erved a s my a dvisor, g raduate c ommittee c hairman a nd d issertation chairman. F or t his e ffort o n my b ehalf, I am most g rateful. W illiam Y . Adams, who a ssumed t he r esponsibilities o f c ommittee c hairman a fter C ollins' d eparture, h as b een a s ource o f i nspiration f or me s ince I b egan t he g raduate p rogram a t t he University o f K entucky. Adams b readth o f anthropological e xpertise a nd h is e nthusiasm f or anthropology c annot f ail t o i nfluence h is s tudents a nd I am n o e xception i n t his r egard. T o B ill Adams, I am doubly g rateful: f irst, f or t he p rofessional a ssociation a nd g uidance t hroughout my g raduate c areer; a nd s econd, f or h is d iligent e fforts. as my d issertation c hairman. T o t he o ther f aculty m embers a t t he University o f K entucky - p articularly Tom D illehay, K enn H irth, L athel D uffield, a nd K arl R aitz I e xpress my s incere g ratitude f or t heir g uidance and s ervice o n my b ehalf. A lthough I c annot d irectly r eimburse t hese e ducators f or t heir c ontribution t o my g raduate t raining a nd p rofessionalization, I hope t hat e ach one ( including C ollins a nd A dams) w ill f eel r epaid i f I c ontribute i n k ind t o my p rofession a nd s tudents i n t he f uture. I would a lso l ike t o t hank t he Corps o f E ngineers, Louisville D istrict, f or f inancial s ponsorship o f t he d ata r ecovery p roject a t T aylorsville L ake. T he a rchaeological r esearch s ponsored b y t he C orps o f E ngineers h as made my ' research p ossible. A lso, I am g rateful f or a g rant i n s upport o f t his r esearch f rom t he U niversity o f K entucky G raduate S chool. •S everal o ther i ndividuals h ave made a s ignificant c ontribution t o t he monograph. Mary Jo S taggs d rafted many o f t he l ine i llustrations a nd p enned t he a rtifact d rawings. Bob V anouter o f t he University o f K entucky's Photographic S ervices, i s r esponsible , for t he a rtifact photographs. Connie D ick p rovided t he e xpertise m uch n eeded i n c omputer p rogramming and K im Owens a nd J an Gerstle p repared t he a rtifacts f or s tudy. T he D epartment .o f Anthropology's P rogram f or C ultural R esource A ssessment p rovided s pace f or t he a nalysis a nd o ther s upporting f acilities and p ersonnel. F inally, L arry K eeley t aught me t he • basic methods o f m icrowear a nalysis u sed i n t his s tudy. To a ll o f t hese p eople and t heir o rganizations, I e xpress my g ratitude. B .N.D. 1 986

4

CHAPTER

I -I NTRODUCTION

I n t he p ast t wo d ecades, f ieldwork s trategies i n American a rchaeology h ave c hanged f rom opportune i nvestigation o f well-endowed a nd/or w ell-preserved a rchaeological s ites t o a more c omprehensive i nvestigation o f t he t otal r ange o f s ite p henomena i n a r egion ( see W illey a nd S abloff 1 974; D unnell 1 979). This i s t he r esult o f a n i ncreasing c oncern f or r egional patterning o f p rehistoric s ettlement/subsistence a s w ell a s t he r equirements o f c ultural r esource management a ctivities w hich f orce t he a rchaeologist t o make c areful j udgments a bout t he h istorical a nd s cientific s ignificance o f a ll a rchaeological r esources i n a s tudy a rea ( Plog e t a l. 1 978). F rom t his p erspective, s hallow, d isturbed s ites ( often t ermed p lowzone s ites) a ssume n ew i mportance i n r egions where n atural d epositional f actors o r modern a gricultural p ractices h ave n ot b een g enerally c onducive t o p reservation o f a rchaeological d eposits. The p urpose o f t his monograph i s t o i ntroduce an approach t o t he a nalysis o f c ultural m aterials, i n t his c ase c hipped s tone a rtifacts, which a llows f or t he d etection o f a ctivities o therwise obscured t hrough l oss o r s evere d isruption o f s patial c ontext on d isturbed s ites. A rchaeologists h ave g enerally s ought t o e xamine d isturbed s ites t hrough methods d esigned t o r econstruct o riginal s patial c ontext a nd a rtifact c lustering a s a n i mportant s tep i n i nterpretation o f t he a ctivities r epresented by a d isturbed s ite a nd i ts c ontents ( see L ewarch a nd O 'Brien 1 981a). The a pproach p roposed h ere a ddresses t he p roblem i n a d ifferent w ay. I t f ocuses s trictly o n r econstruction o f s tructural c haracteristics o f t he c hipped s tone a rtifact a ssemblage a s a means t o i nterpretation o f t he a ctivities w hich p roduced c hipped s tone t ools, a nd i n w hich t hese t ools w ere i nvolved. A s s uch, t he approach s tipulated b elow m ay b e u sed a s a n a lternative means t o i nterpretation o f s ites w here r econstruction o f s patial a ssociations i s n ot p ossible, o r a s a means t o g enerate s upplementary d ata where o riginal s patial a ssociations c an b e r econstructed. The approach d escribed b elow i ntegrates m ethods f rom t wo i mportant approaches t o c hipped s tone f unctional a nalysis. They a re t he analysis o f t echnological o r p roduction c haracteristics and t he a nalysis o f u se-wear c haracteristics. When c ombined, t hese approaches f orm a c omprehensive f ramework f or t he a nalysis a nd i nterpretation o f morphological v ariability i n t he a rtifact a ssemblage. I mportant morphological c haracteristics a re e xamined a t b oth t he macroscopic and m icroscopic l evel a nd c onstitute a r ange o f v ariability r esulting f rom methods o f a rtifact p roduction, modes o f t ool u se, and p ost-depositional a lterations. T he i ntegrated approach d escribed b elow f ocuses o n m ethods t o i nfer t he c auses o f v arious morphological c haracteristics a nd applies t hese d ata t o d evelop a n u nderstanding o f t he o verall n ature a nd p urpose

5

o f t ool p roduction, s ubsequent s pecific w ork applications i nvolving c hipped s tone t ools, a nd t he r elationships b etween t he t wo. U ntil n ow, s tudies o f c hipped s tone a rtifact f unction h ave f ailed t o c losely e xamine b oth a rtifact f abrication and t ool u se a nd t herefore h ave f ailed t o e licit t he d ata n ecessary t o e xamine a nd u nderstand t he r elationships b etween p roduction a nd u se. F or i nstance, Collins ( 1974, 1 975) d eveloped a p roduction model b ased on s tages o f a rtifact manufacture, a nd d emonstrated m ethods t o a ssign t ools a nd b yproducts t o t hese s tages. Thus, Collins' s tages p rovide a u seful m eans t o d ivide c hipped s tone a rtifacts f rom a n a ssemblage i nto c oherent s ets o f a rtifacts, s ets whose m embers s hare i mportant c haracteristics o f p roduction. B ut t o u nderstand t he motivation f or p roduction, i t i s n ecessary t o e xamine t he n ormative p atterns o f t ool u se. This i s possible t hrough n ewly d eveloped methods o f m icroscopic a nalysis o f w ear o n t ool e dges b ut a s y et, t he u se-wear a nalysts ( see H ayden and K amminga 1 979) h ave n ot e xamined t he r elationship o f a rtifact p roduction t o t ool u se i n a s ynthetic w ay. However, w hen m ethods t o e xamine a rtifact p roduction a nd t ool u se a re i ntegrated i nto a s ingle approach, t he a nalyst c an d iscern t he o verall s tructural c haracteristics o f t he a rtifact c ollection u nder s crutiny. S ingly, p roduction a nd u se c haracteristics s een i n t he a rtifact c ollection w ill f orm t he b asis o f i nferences a bout c ertain a ctivities, w hile t ogether, t hese activities ( both r elated t o t ool f abrication a nd t ool u se) m ay well f orm a c oherent a nd u nderstandable s et w ith i mportant i mplications f or i nterpretation o f t he e conomy o f t he p eople p roducing t he a rchaeological materials e xamined. F urther, t he i nferential l ogic u pon which t hese i nterpretations a re b ased c an b e d eveloped w ithout t he a id o f d ata on i ntrasite s patial p atterning o f a rtifact d ata. Thus, t he i ntegrated approach o utlined b elow p rovides a means t o e xamine morphological c haracteristics o f a c hipped s tone a rtifact c ollection i n o rder t o i nfer t he s et o f a ctivities o f a rtifact p roduction and t ool u se w hich l ikely p roduced t he d istinctive c haracteristics o f t he c ollection. When t his i s done, w ell f ounded i nterpretations o f s ite f unction a re possible e ven t hough a rchaeological materials a re f rom d isturbed c ontext w ithin t he s ite.

The

I ntegrated Approach

A b asic a ssumption w hich u nderlies t he a pproach p roposed h ere i s t hat a c hipped s tone a ssemblage possesses an i nherent o rder o r s tructure r esulting f rom t he i nterplay o f f actors s uch a s m echanical c onstraints o f t he work m edium, c haracteristic f abrication t echniques s hared by a rtisans

6

p racticing t he t echnology, a nd t he s pecific motivations o f a rtisans t o p roduce t ools c onforming t o c ulturally d efined d esign c onstraints. I n a ddition t o t hese i ndustry-wide f actors, t he c onfiguration o f a s pecific a ssemblage w ill b e d etermined b y t he p articular e conomic motivation f or t ool m anufacture a nd u se o ccurring a t t he s ite u nder i nvestigation. I t i s f urther a ssumed t hat, b ecause o f t he n ature o f s tone t ool m anufacture a nd u se ( see C hapter I II), p roduction a nd u se c haracteristics s een w ithin t he a ssemblage r eflects t he s tructural c haracteristics a nd i nter-relationships i n t he e conomic o rganization o f t he l ithic t echnology. T his o rganization i s s ubsequently r eferred t o a s t he p roduction/use c ycle. T he p roduction/use c ycle t herefore r efers t o t he r ole o f c hipped s tone t echnology i n t he e conomic s trategies u sed b y a particular c ulture t o f ulfill n eeds f or t ools i n s ubsistence a nd o ther p rocessing a ctivities. I n d iscussions b elow, a d istinction i s m ade b etween a g eneral a nd l ocal p roduction/use c ycle. The g eneral p roduction/use c ycle r efers t o t he o verall e conomic o rganization o f a c ulture's c hipped s tone t echnology. T his i ncludes methods c haracteristically u sed t o a cquire a nd s hape p arent r ock i nto t ools w ith c ulturally a cceptable mechanical a nd s tylistic p roperties. Additionally, i t i ncludes m ethods o f t ool application i n t he r ange o f t asks i nvolving s tone t ools. Most i mportantly, t he p roduction/use c ycle i ncludes t he w ay i n which f abrication a nd t ool u se a re a rticulated t o f orm a c ohesive r esponse t o c ultural ( particularly e conomic) n eeds f or s tone t ools. The l ocal p roduction/use c ycle r efers s pecifically t o t hose e lements o f t he o verall t echnology w hich were p racticed a t a particular g eographic l ocus ( a s ite). I t i s a ssumed t hat t he s tructural c haracteristics o f t he l ocal p roduction/use c ycle a re r eflected i n t he morphological c haracteristics o f t he s ite's a ssemblage. U se o f t he t erm " cycle" t o d escribe t he p rocess i s appropriate i n t he c ase o f c hipped s tone t echnology b ecause i ndividual p arent s tone i s c haracteristically s ubjected t o a s eries o f r eductive modifications ( both i n f abrication a nd u se) w hich c ycle t he s tone o ut o f a nd b ack i nto t he n atural e nvironment i n a modified f orm. T he p rocess t ends t o b e more o r l ess c ontinuous s ince s tone t ools b ecome w orn, d ull o r b roken while t he n eed f or e ffective t ools c ontinues. T his means t hat t ools a re s ometimes r ecycled b y r esharpening o r r edesigning t he i mplement, w hile i n o ther c ases, t he h istory o f t he a rtifact m ay b e e ven more c omplex h aving moved s everal t imes t hrough t he v arious s tages o f f abrication, u se, d amage, a nd a bandonment. Additionally, m anufacturing b yproducts ( flakes, c ores, malformed o r b roken s pecimens) a s w ell a s e xhausted o r b roken t ools f orm a r eadily a vailable r esource f or n ew m aterial f or m anufacture o r f or c onveniently d esigned t ools f or c ertain t asks. A ll o f t his i mplies a c yclic a nd potentially c omplex s eries o f s teps.

7

I n t his m onograph, i t i s c ontended t hat a c hipped s tone a rtifact a ssemblage c an b e e xamined s uch t hat c haracteristics o f t he l ocal p roduction/use c ycle c an b e i nferred. T o a ccomplish t his, i t i s f irst n ecessary t o e xamine a rtifacts w ithin t he a ssemblage f or f our s ets o f m orphological c haracteristics. T hese i nclude 1 ) c haracteristics o f e ach a rtifact w hich a llow f or c onfident a ssignment t o a f inal r eductive s tage o f m anufacture, 2 ) c haracteristics o f e ach a rtifact w hich s uggest i ts c ondition s tatus ( that i s, i ntact, a borted d uring m anufacture, o r b roken w ithout s pecific e vidence f or t he r easons f or a bandonment), 3 ) c haracteristics a llowing a ssignment t o a g ross morphological c lass, ( such a s f lake, u niface, b iface, e tc.), a nd 4 ) c haracteristics s uggesting t he s pecific n ature a nd m ode o f a rtifact u se. I n e ach o f t hese f our s ets, a ssignment i s b ased o n l ow l evel i nferences s temming f rom r ecognition o f a c onstellation o f morphological a ttributes. When t hese l ow l evel i nferences a re c onsidered t ogether, t he a rchaeological a ssemblage c an b e d ivided i nto f unctional c lasses. S ome o f t hese c lasses a re b yproducts o f t he p roduction p rocess w hile o thers a re l ogical t ool c lasses f or w hich a s pecific u se o r u ses m ay b e i nferred. O nce t his c lassification h as b een a chieved, t he n ext s tep i n i nferential l ogic m ay b e t aken i n w hich t he i nter-relationships o f f unctional c lasses m ay b e d iscerned a nd t he l ocal p roduction/use c ycle c haracterized. T he a ctivities i mplied i n t he l ocal p roduction/use c ycle c an t hen b e u sed t o s upport i nterpretations o f s ite f unction. T his c onstitutes a m eans o f a ctivity a nalysis w hich d oes n ot d epend o n d elineation o f i ntrasite s patial p atterns o f a rtifact a ssociation.

T he Approach A s A n

I ndependent M eans o f A ctivity A nalysis

U nder c ircumstances i n w hich a rchaeological m aterials a re f ound i n u ndisturbed c ontext, t he a rchaeologist n ormally a pproaches a ctivity a nalysis t hrough m eans w hich c onsider b oth t he m aterials r ecovered ( individual t ools, f eatures, a nd o ther a rtifactual d ebris) a nd t heir s patial a ssociations. I n t he i nvestigation o f c haracteristics o f a n a rchaeological s ite, t his t ype o f a nalysis m ay w ell l ead t o d elineation o f d ifferent i ntrasite a reas a s w ell a s c onclusions a bout t he a ctivity o r a ctivities w hich p roduced t he m aterial a ssociation o r " activity a rea." I n p rehistoric s ites, c hipped s tone a rtifacts w ill l ikely p lay a v ery p rominent p art i n a ny a ctivity a nalysis f or t wo r easons. F irst, i t i s o ften t he c ase t hat c hipped s tone a rtifacts f orm a v ery c onspicuous c omponent o f t he a rchaeological m aterials e ncountered a t t he s ite. T his i s d ue b oth t o t heir n atural d urability u nder a dverse c onditions o f p reservation a nd t o t he l arge q uantities o f

8

wastage a nd u nfinished, d amaged, b roken a nd i ntact t ools n ormally p reserved. S econd, s tone a rtifacts h ave u sually f ulfilled most o f t he n eeds o f p rehistoric p eoples f or s harp, h ard a nd d urable t ools a nd t ool p arts. A s s uch, t his d urable c ategory o f a rtifacts h as u sually p layed a c entral r ole i n s ubsistence a nd o ther p rocessing a ctivities. Chipped s tone a rtifacts b ecome e ven more i mportant i n analysis when d isturbed s ites a re e xamined s ince t his d urable c ategory o f m aterial c ulture w ill o ften s ustain t he r avages o f s urface e xposure a nd s uccessive d islocation w hile o ther l ess d urable a rchaeological materials p erish. T hus, c hipped s tone a rtifacts o ften c onstitute a l arge, o r e ven e xclusive, c omponent o f t he a rtifact a ssemblage o n s hallow s ites i mpacted b y w ater o r w ind e rosion a nd man-made l and a lterations s uch a s p lowing, l and c learing, o r c onstruction. When t his o ccurs, t he a rchaeologist i s l eft w ith a p erplexing p roblem o f h ow t o e xtract d ata which may b e u sed t o i nfer a ctivities r epresented b y t he s ite a nd i ts a rtifact a ssemblage. One approach i s t o r econstruct, t o t he e xtent possible, o riginal s patial a ssociations o f t he a rtifacts f rom t he s ite. While n onportable a rtifacts s uch a s a rchitecture, p its, h earths, b urials, e tc., a re u sually d estroyed, d urable, portable a rtifacts a re o ften p reserved. T he amount o f d islocation o f t hese portable a rtifacts o bviously d epends o n t he f actors c ontributing t o d isturbance. I n s ome c ases, s ite a ssemblages may b e c ompletely d islocated b y n atural o r man-made d isturbance. I n o ther c ases, o nce i solable s trata h ave b een e roded away w ith t he o nce s egregated a rtifacts p resently r esting o n a s ingle s urface. I n c ases o f a gricultural d isturbance, d isplacement m ay n ot b e a s g reat a s once t hought and t he c umulative e ffects o f p lowing m ay r esult i n a s tatistical e quilibrium i n w hich a rtifacts a re g enerally n ot m oved g reat d istances ( Lewarch a nd O 'Brien 1 981a). While s tatistical m anipulations o f d isturbed s urface o r p lowzone d ata c an r apidly b ecome q uite c omplex, s everal s uccessful a pplications a re n oted. E ven t hough t emporally d iagnostic a rtifacts w ere s carce a nd a ll c ultural materials were r estricted t o t he p lowzone, N ance a nd H urst ( 1981), d erived c ertain a rtifact a ttribute a ssociations w hich s uggest s patial d iscreteness o f o ccupations a t t he O 'Neal S ite i n A labama. O ther s tudies h ave s tatistically i solated d istinct t emporal o r c ultural s ubareas o n s ites w ith s eemingly u niform a rtifact s catters ( Binford e t a l. 1 970; R edman a nd Watson 1 970; H esse 1 971; D avis 1 975; H ayden 1 976; L ongacre a nd G raves 1 976; J ermann 1 981). Unlike approaches t o d isturbed s ite a nalysis w hich i ncorporate s patial c ontext a s a c ritical v ariable i n i nterpretations o f a ctivities, t he approach p roposed h ere does n ot r ely o n s patial a ssociation o f a rtifacts i n activity a nalysis. R ather, t he i nferential l ogic o f t he

9

a pproach p roceeds f rom morphological c haracteristics o f t he a rtifacts a lone. L ike t he s impler i ndices o f s ite f unction s uch a s t hat o f F ish e t a l. ( 1978) o r F aulkner and M cCollough ( 1973), t he approach i s b ased o n t he a ssumption t hat t he s tructural c haracteristics a re d etectable t hrough a n e xamination o f morphological c haracteristics o f t he a ssemblage. Unlike t hese approaches, t he o ne p roposed here a ddresses a much more c omprehensive r ange o f morphological v ariation which a llows f or r econstruction o f t he s pecific n ature o f t he p roduction/use c ycle.

L imitations

o f

t he Approach

A s a n a lternative t o r econstruction o f s patial a ssociations i n a ctivity a nalysis, t he i mportance o f t he a pproach l ies i n i ts u tility i n r econstruction o f c ertain a spects o f a ctivities t aking p lace a t s ites where s patial c ontext i s m issing o r d ifficult t o a dequately r econstruct. T he approach does n ot a ttempt t o r econstruct i ntrasite p atterns o f a rtifact a ssociation o r e xamine i ntrasite s patial o rganization o f a ctivities. R ather, t he a pproach f ocuses o n a d elineation o f a ctivities a t t he s ite-wide l evel o f s patial r esolution. A s s uch t he approach p rovides a m eans t o d efine s ome a ctivities i nvolving chipped s tone a rtifacts a t t he s ite b ut f ails t o n ecessarily d istinguish t emporal/spatial d istinctions i n t he a ctivities d efined. T he approach i s d esigned t o a pply t o chipped s tone a rtifact a ssemblages, which c an b e d efined a s a s et o f a rtifacts, i n t his c ase c hipped s tone a rtifacts, w hich a re t he m aterial c ulture f rom a s pecific t emporally and s patially r estricted e pisode o f h uman a ctivity. O bviously, l ess t han s atisfactory r esults may b e o btained f rom u se o f t he approach i n d isturbed s ites where multiple c omponents r esulting i n t emporally m ixed a ssemblages a re p resent s ince t here may b e n o m eans t o s egregate t rue a ssemblages. A dditionally, t he approach r elies c onsiderably o n d elineation o f n ormative morphological patterns i n r econstruction o f t he p roduction/use c ycle; and, t herefore, w ill n ot b e appropriate f or u se o n v ery s mall c ollections. While t he approach i s n ot i nternally c onstrained b y t he a rchaeologist's ability t o r ecognize t emporal/spatial p atterning i n h is a rchaeological d ata, r esults m ay b e s eriously a ffected b y t his p roblem i n c ases where m ultiple c omponents a re r epresented i n t he a rtifact c ollection. Obviously, i t would n ot b e a dvisable t o u se t he a pproach a s t he s ole means o f a ctivity a nalysis i n s ituations where o ther p ertinent d ata a re a vailable. I n t hese c ases, t he a pproach s hould b ecome a means t o e nhance a ctivity a nalysis, r ather t han an a lternative o r s ubstitute f or more t raditional approaches.

1 0

O rganization o f

t he

S tudy

The c hapters t hat f ollow d iscuss t he i ntegrated approach d eveloped f or f unctional a nalysis o f t he c hipped s tone collections f rom t wo p lowzone s ites a nd t he r esults obtained f rom t his t ype o f a nalysis. C hapters I I a nd I II p reseht a b rief b ackground f or t his s tudy. C hapter I I d iscusses t he a rchaeological p roblems and ongoing r esearch i n t he F alls Region o f c entral K entucky w hich l ed t o t he d evelopment o f t he approach. Chapter I II p resents a f uller d iscussion o f p lowzone a rchaeology a nd t he t heoretical u nderpinnings o f c hipped s tone f unctional a nalysis. This c hapter c oncludes w ith p resentation o f a model o f t he p roduction/use c ycle p roposed b y C ollins ( 1974) a nd a dopted i n t he p resent s tudy. Chapter I V p resents t he m ethods o f a nalysis u sed i n t his s tudy. Chapter V p resents t he r esults o f a nalysis o f t he c hipped s tone c ollections f rom t he B ig B end S ite ( 15SP340) and t he Possum R idge S ite ( 15SP412) which a re b oth l arge, d iffuse l ithic s catters l ocated i n t he T aylorsville L ake a rea s ome 3 0 a ir m iles s outh-southeast o f L ouisville, K entucky. T he r esearch a t t hese t wo s ites ( originally r eported i n D riskell 1 983) w as s uccessful i n d emonstrating t hat e ach s ite f unctioned p rominently a s t he l ocale o f h unting a nd a nimal p rocessing a ctivities d uring t he L ate A rchaic a nd possibly E arly Woodland p eriods. L ater i n t he s tudy, t his approximate 3 ,000 y ear s pan, i ncluding t he l ast t hree m illennia B .C., i s r eferred t o a s t he m iddle p eriod o f F alls Region p rehistory. S pecific i nterpretations a s w ell a s t he c ontributions o f t he r esearch t o F alls R egion p rehistory i s p resented i n C hapter V I. C hapter V II p resents overall c onclusions a bout t he methodological c ontribution o f t he approach a nd i mplications f or f uture r esearch. S even appendices p resent i mportant s upplementary i nformation o r d iscussions o f p articular t echniques o f i dentification o f morphological a ttributes. Appendix A d escribes t he a rtifact s tyles a nd t heir t emporal a ssignment; while Appendix B p resents t he c hert r esources f or t he F alls Region. Appendix C d escribes t he m ethods f or a ssignment o f f lakes t o r eductive s tages and Appendix D t he c auses o f b reakage a nd m anufacturing e rrors. Appendix E p resents a s ynopsis o f t he m ethods o f m icrowear a nalysis a nd Appendix F d escribes t he a ctual m icrowear analysis s kills t est. Appendix G d escribes t he s election o f a s mall, s upplemental s ample o f t ools f rom v arious s ites i n t he r egion, t he m icroscopic p atterns o f w ear o bserved o n t hese, a nd t he i mplications o f t hese p atterns f or t he a nalysis a t t he B ig B end and P ossum R idge s ites.

1 1

CHAPTER

I I

-F ALLS

REGION ARCHAEOLOGY

D evelopment o f t he approach d iscussed i n t his s tudy was i n r esponse t o p articular p roblems e ncountered i n o ngoing a nalysis and i nterpretation o f p lowzone s ites i n a n a rea o f c entral K entucky l ocally k nown a s t he F alls R egion. A lthough t he m ethodology d eveloped i n t he p resent s tudy i s n ot l imited i n u tility t o t his o r s imilar r egions, t he approach was d eveloped s pecifically t o a ssist i n t he i nvestigation o f p rehistoric e conomic adaptations i n t he F alls R egion, a nd t wo p lowzone s ites f rom t he r egion a re l ater u sed t o d emonstrate t he u tility o f t he approach. The f ollowing d iscussion p rovides t he r eader w ith a b rief b ackground o n t he a rchaeological p roblems, b oth methodological a nd c ulture h istorical, w hich l ed t o d evelopment o f t he i ntegrated approach. The F alls a rchaeological r egion w hich t akes i ts n ame f rom t he water f alls a t p resent d ay L ouisville, K entucky, i s a r olling t o h illy portion o f c entral K entucky a nd s outhern I ndiana ( Figure 1 ). T he r egion, which i s i n a mature s tate o f weathering, i s c overed b y a w estern M esophytic f orest a nd i s a n a rea o f m ild c limate n ot n oted f or e xtreme c hanges i n t emperature and r ainfall. S easonal v ariability i s r easonably p redictable a nd r eliable, a nd v ariation i n t emperature and p recipitation f rom o ne physiographic d omain t o another i s s light a nd s eemingly would b e o f l ittle c onsequence t o c onsiderations o f r esource e xploitation. T he r egion i s well-endowed w ith r esources o f e conomic v alue t o s tone-age h unters/gathers i ncluding f loral, f aunal a nd m ineral r esources. Considerable v ariety c haracterizes f lora and f auna i n t he r egion. While s ome o f t he m ineral a nd b iotic r esources a vailable w ithin t he r egion a re r estricted t o s pecific z ones o r n iches, t here i s n o n atural b arrier t o h uman movement and e xploitation. P resumably, e ven t he Ohio R iver, w hich t oday p resents a b arrier t o movement o n f oot, was e asily f orded i n p rehistory a t c ertain t imes o f t he y ear. T his w as p articularly t rue a t o r n ear t he F alls p rior t o modern i mpoundment. T hus, t he F alls R egion p rovided a h ospitable e nvironment f or i ts p rehistoric i nhabitants a nd o ffered a v ariety o f e asily e xploitable n atural r esources. This a rea o f K entucky h as r eceived l ittle a ttention b y a rchaeologists u ntil quite r ecently. A rchaeological r esearch a s p art o f f ederally s ponsored c ultural r esource a ssessments f lourished d uring t he 1 970s, b ut a rchaeological i nvestigations p rior t o t his t ime w ere v ery l imited. I n 1 964, t he t ally o f s ites i n t he K entucky s tate s ite f iles l isted o nly 6 7 s ites; w hile b y 1 980, s ome 1 ,311 s ites h ad b een r ecorded f or t his a rea i n K entucky ( Clay n .d.). U nfortunately, d etailed i nvestigation h as n ot k ept p ace w ith t he r apidly i ncreasing n umbers o f r ecorded s ites; l ess t han

1 3

Mo io r 0

1 0 i

20

30

a reas

o f

d epos its;

km

a nd

l acus tr ine

W isc o ne inan ° Huy ‚ u rn

o f a nd

H o locene s outhern

o ge

l im it

g lac iat ion

S ands tone

a nd

P ennsy lvan ian

B ig B end S ite

o utwash 4 1 11

a ge,

o f

A pp rou rnc r te o f

v o l ley -f i l l

ma in ly

s ha le

o f

a ge

( 15SP340):-: -: - 2 S h dobyv i le l Sonds lone, l imestone

s ha le, o f

M iss iss ipp ian

L i mes tone

o f

a nd

l o ts a ge

m id -

M iss ise iPa lo"

R osenberger S ite

( 15JF18)

S illstone e a r ly

S ite

t o

a nd

L i mestone,

a nd

s ha le

1 979:9). 14

o f t he F alls R egion

d o lom ite, o f

D evon ian

L i mestone l a te

L ocation a nd g eomorphology

o f

( 15SP412)

b lock

F igure 1 .

s ha le

m id- M iss iss ipp ian

a nd

O rdov ic ian

a nd

S d lution o ge

s ha le

o f

o ge

( after C ollins

t wo dozen a l. 1 979:

s ites h aving 3 6-37).

b een

e xamined

c losely

( Driskell

e t

L arge n umbers o f a rchaeological s ites t hroughout t he r egion t estify t o i ts u se d uring most o f p rehistory; b ut i f s ite n umbers a re a ny i ndication, t he most i ntensive u tilization o f t he r egion o ccurred d uring t he L ate A rchaic t o E arly Woodland. This t emporal s pan ( from a bout 3 000 B .C. t o A . D. 1 ) i s s ubsequently r eferred t o a s t he m iddle period. Most o f t he s ites which h ave b een c arefully i nvestigated o ccur i n t he Ohio R iver a lluvium. T his i s a physiographic d omain, f ormed b y t he Ohio R iver a nd l ower S alt R iver v alleys, a nd which b isects t he u plands ( a d istinctive a rea o f r idges, s teep s lopes a nd n arrow v alleys) t o e ither s ide a long i ts path ( see F igure 1 ). Another physiographic d omain, t he l acustrine l owland, i n t he a rea o f p resent d ay e astern L ouisville f orms a l arge, l ow a nd poorly d rained a rea. T he r emainder o f t he c hapter d iscusses t he m iddle p eriod a rchaeological r esources i n e ach o f t hese p hysiographic d omains. P articular e mphasis i s p laced on t he p roblems o f s ite i nterpretation a nd r egional p atterns o f s ettlement and s ubsistence.

T he Alluvium

A rchaeological r esources i n t he a lluvium i nclude l arge s ites w ith densely l aden c ultural m iddens a s w ell a s s mall, d iffuse l ithic s catters. The l arge s ites o ften i nclude d iagnostic a rtifacts f rom e arlier a nd l ater p eriods, b ut t he m iddens appear t o h ave mostly d eveloped d uring t he m iddle p eriod o f p rehistory. None o f t he l ithic s catters h ave b een i nvestigated t o a ny e xtent b ut t hey a re g enerally h eld t o b e t emporary e xploitative c amp s ites a ssociated w ith t he l arge s ites ( Janzen 1 977; C ollins 1 979). I t i s n ot p resently c lear h ow o r t o w hat e xtent t hese l ithic s catters d iffer i n f unction f rom t hose o f t he l acustrine l owland o r t he uplands. D uring t he e arly 1 970s, D onald J anzen ( 1971, 1 972, 1 977) a nd Joseph G ranger ( 1976) s eparately c onducted e xcavations a t s everal o f t he l arge s ites a long t he Ohio R iver. T his w as f ollowed i n 1 976 b y a l arge, f ederally s ponsored a rchaeological p roject i n s outhwestern J efferson C ounty i n w hich f our A rchaic s ites w ere i ntensively i nvestigated ( Collins 1 979). F rom t his r esearch i t i s c lear t hat a ll o f t he l arge s ites o f t he a lluvium s hare s everal i mportant c haracteristics. All o ccur o n o r q uite n ear t he b anks o f t he Ohio R iver. Characteristics o f t he m idden ( including t he quantity a nd v ariety o f b oth f eatures a nd a rchaeological s pecimens) s uggest a b road r ange o f d omestic, s ubsistence a nd manufacturing a ctivities. However, a t l east o ne

1 5

i mportant c haracteristic, t hat o f m ussel e xploitation, appears t o v ary among t he s ites. T he O ld C larksville and R eid s ites ( Janzen 1 977) a re e xamples o f mussel s hell m iddens s imilar t o t he G reen R iver s hell mounds. R ather e xtensive s hell l ayers h ave b een f ound i n t he Ferry L anding a nd M iller s ites ( Janzen 1 977), w hile t he Hornung S ite ( Janzen 1 977) a nd t he Rosenberger S ite ( Driskell 1 979) c ontained only l imited amounts o f s hell, p rimarily r estricted t o f eatures ( refuse p its). L arge s ites o f t he a lluvium a ppear t o h ave b een s emi-permanently o r possibly e ven p ermanently occupied c amps o r v illages d uring t he m iddle p eriod ( Driskell 1 979, 1 983). T he b est k nown o f t hese, t he Rosenberger S ite ( 15JF18), i s d iscussed a t l ength b elow b ecause i t i s a l arge s ite w hose s tructure a nd materials s uggest a c omplex s et o f d omestic, s ubsistence a nd m anufacturing a ctivities, and i t p rovides an e xcellent contrast t o t he c haracteristics o f upland l ithic s catters.

T he R osenberger

S ite

A lthough t he Rosenberger S ite ( 15JF18) i s n ot t he s pecific f ocus o f f unctional a nalysis i n t his s tudy, i t i s i mportant f or c omparative purposes l ater i n t he s tudy. T his i s b ecause t he s ite p rovides v aluable i nsight i nto s everal a spects o f m iddle p eriod l ithic t echnology and e conomics which c an b e s een most c learly f rom t he s patial-contextual a nd p reservational qualities o f t his u ndisturbed s ite. T hus, t he R osenberger S ite s erves a s a r eference point f or t he i nterpretation o f s ome o f t he a ctivities s uggested b y t he i mpoverished d ata f rom t he t wo d isturbed s ites a nalyzed i n C hapter V . T he Rosenberger S ite, l ocated a long a 3 00 m a rea o f a f loodplain r idge o verlooking t he r iver ( see F igure 2 ), c ontained a 1 m d eposit o f d ark m idden h eavily l aden w ith s torage f eatures, n umerous h uman and d og b urials, g round and c hipped s tone a rtifacts, b one a rtifacts, b urnt and f ire-cracked r ock, a nd f ood r emains ( Driskell 1 979). C arefully i nitiated h and e xcavations i n s ome a reas o f t he s ite w ere a ugmented w ith b road s cale m echanically a ssisted s tripping o f m idden a cross t he s ite. V arious t ypes o f f eatures ( such a s h earths, s torage p its, postmolds, a nd f ood d ebris s catters) s uggested r outine d omestic a ctivities a nd, j udging f rom t he v ariety o f c hipped s tone d ebitage a nd t ools f ound a t t he Rosenberger S ite, i ts o ccupants a lso r outinely manufactured c hipped s tone t ools. Although r aw materials f or manufacture o f s tone t ools were r arely f ound, i nitial t hrough f inal s tages o f m anufacture were a mply r epresented s uggesting t hat t he c omplete s equence o f a ctivities r elated t o c hipped s tone t ool m anufacture t ook p lace a t t he s ite ( Driskell 1 979:800).

1 6

r o— +zw

0 0 ( O W

S t r ipped t o M idden b eneath

1 7

. 0

c o

c i

( 1 )

B lock B

R osenberger S ite,

zw

D riskell

w

o

0

C D

e xcavation

E xcava t ion

0

B ackhoe T renches

E xcava t ion B lock A

B ench Mark

+0

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C I D

The material i nventory o f t he s ite s uggests t hat t he e conomy w as f ocused o n a c ombination o f f ishing, n ut collecting a nd d eer h unting a lthough f loral and f aunal r emains i ndicate t hat o ther r esources ( including s mall g ame and v arious p lants) w ere a lso u tilized. B one f ishhooks a nd g rooved p eebles ( interpreted a s n et s inkers) s uggest t hat l ine a s well a s n et f ishing was i mportant ( Boisvert e t a l. 1 979:365-366,408-417) a nd f ish r emains, dominated b y f reshwater d rumfish ( Duffield 1 979), c onstituted a c onspicuous c omponent o f t he f aunal c ollection. T he f loral r emains a re d ominated b y c harred f ragments o f h ickory n ut s hells a lthough w alnut a nd a corn a re a lso r epresented ( Driskell 1 979:799). P resumably, t hese f ood s tuffs ( particularly h ickory-nuts) w ere c ollected p rimarily i n t he uplands a t l east s everal k ilometers t o t he e ast o f t he s ite where t hese r esources would h ave b een more abundant ( Driskell 1 979:800). D eer c onstituted a n i mportant m eat s ource a t t he Rosenberger S ite ( Driskell 1 979:799-800; D uffield 1 979) a lthough s ome smaller mammals w ere apparently i mportant s ources o f meat a s w ell. While t he q uantities o f d eer b one r ecovered f rom t he Rosenberger S ite m ay r esult p artially f rom t heir e nhanced p reservational q ualities c ompared t o t he r emains o f s maller a nimals ( Duffield 1 979), s everal f actors a ttested b y t he material i nventory a t t he s ite s uggest t he pervasive i mportance o f d eer i n t he e conomy. A rtifacts ( antler b illets a nd p ressure f lakers u sed i n c hipped s tone manufacture, antler t ine p rojectile points, antler a tlatl h andles a nd h ooks, b one f ishhooks and n eedles, awls and p ins) made f rom d eer b one o r a ntler most d irectly a ttest t o t he i mportance o f deer i n t he e conomy. S everal specimens o f w orked l ong b one o r metatarsal o f deer f rom t he s ite w ere i nterpreted a s " blanks" f rom which f ishhooks h ad b een c ut ( Boisvert e t a l. 1 979:408-417). T he m ethod o f manufacture appears t o h ave i nvolved a s eries o f g rooves i ncised i n t he b one u sing a s harp c hipped s tone t ool. T he hook w as t hen apparently g round t o s hape a nd s harpened. A tlatl h andles a nd h ooks were a lso made f rom d eer a ntler a t t he Rosenberger S ite. A lthough e xterior s haping w as apparently a chieved t hrough abrading, t he c enter o f t he t ine o r antler b utt was d rilled, p robably u sing chipped s tone d rill b its. Antler w as f irst c ut b y g rooving w ith a s harp t ool s uch a s a f lake a nd t hen t he p iece w as s napped i n t wo. The c enter w as t hen d rilled a s a s ocket f or t he wooden s haft o f t he a tlatl. T he d rill b it may h ave b een hand-held a s would b e possible w ith s ome s tyles e xhibiting l arge, f lared b ases; b ut s ome o f t he d rill b its appear t o h ave b een h afted. I t i s p resumed t hat t he h unter's t ool k it a t t he Rosenberger S ite i ncluded t he a tlatl ( throwing s tick) a nd s pear b ecause t hese t ools a re r epresented i n t he c ollections ( both f rom g eneral s ite m atrix a nd i n b urial a ssociations)

1 8

b y s tone a nd b one p rojectile p oints, a ntler a tlatl h andles a nd hooks and g round a nd polished a tlatl w eights. H afted s crapers a nd d rills were a lso p rominent c hipped s tone t ool t ypes f ound a t t he Rosenberger S ite a nd w ere p resumably u sed i n p rocessing d eer h ide and b one o r a ntler, r espectively. B ecause o f t he c omplex o ccupational h istory o f t he s ite and t he e xtensive o ccupational d isturbance i ncurred d uring i ts u se, a rchaeological i nvestigations a t t he Rosenberger S ite r evealed o ften c onfusing p atterns o f a rtifact d istributions. However, o f p articular i mportance t o t he p resent s tudy, f eatures and p erishable materials, s uch a s b one and c harred p lant p arts, were p reserved i n a ddition t o t he durable s tone a rtifacts. T hus, t he a rchaeological a ssemblage f ound a t t he Rosenberger S ite p rovides a m uch more c omplete p icture o f d omestic, manufacturing, a nd s ubsistence a ctivities d uring t he m iddle p eriod t han i s possible t o o btain f rom t he d isturbed, s urficial l ithic s catters i n t he r egion.

The L acustrine L owland

I n c ontrast t o t he a lluvium, t he a djoining a rea o f l acustrine l owland h as b een v ery poorly i nvestigated p rimarily d ue t o t he e arly u rban s pread o f t he c ity o f Louisville and i ts s uburbs i nto t he a rea ( Granger 1 976). Two l arge s ites ( KYANG a nd L one H ill), a t l east s uperficially r esembling t he l arge s ites o f t he a lluvium, h ave b een i nvestigated b ut h ave n ot a s y et b een r eported i n any d etail ( Granger 1 976). L ike t he a lluvium, s mall s ites a nd l ithic s catters a re k nown b ut poorly i nvestigated.

The Upland

A rchaeological i nvestigation o f t he uplands, w hich c onstitutes t he majority o f l and a rea i n t he r egion, h as b een poor; b ut t he s ample s urvey o f t he F t. K nox m ilitary r eservation ( O'Malley e t a l. 1 980), t he e xcavations a t Ashworth S helter ( DiBlasi 1 981) a nd a t S ite 1 5SP243 ( McGraw e t a l. 1 978), a nd t he i ntensive a rchaeological r esearch a t Taylorsville L ake ( Leedecker 1 978; B all 1 978; R obinson e t a l. 1 979; S orensen e t a l. 1 980; D riskell 1 983) h ave p rovided i mportant d ata o n m iddle period a rchaeology. B luff s helters l ike A shworth a nd l arge s ites l ike 1 5SP243 a re r are i n c omparison t o t he d iffuse l ithic s catters c ommonly occurring on r idge-tops a nd f loodplains a like i n t he uplands. T he s ample s urvey o f t he F t. K nox m ilitary r eservation ( O ' Malley e t a l. 1 980) r evealed t he p resence o f l arge n umbers o f t hese s ites a nd a t T aylorsville L ake, a

1 9

6 ,300 a cre r eservoir, p rehistoric l ithic s catters w ere i dentified a t an a verage d ensity o f a bout o ne p er 3 2 a cres. T aylorsville L ake s ites i n p articular o ffered a rchaeologists an e xcellent opportunity t o s ample s hallow, d isturbed u pland s ites. Two i nter-related f actors appear t o a ccount f or t he p resent s hallow, d isturbed s tatus o f t he 1 99 p rehistoric s ites i nvestigated a t T aylorsville L ake. F irst, u se o f t hese s ites was s uch t hat t hick c ulturally d erived m iddens d id n ot d evelop. The d ensities o f b urned a nd f ire-cracked r ock a nd l ithic d ebris c haracteristic o f t he l arge s ites o f t he a lluvium a re n ot u sually f ound i n t he upland s ites ( Janzen 1 977; D riskell 1 983) e ven t hough t hese a rtifact c lasses would e ndure t he r avages o f p lowing and e rosional d eflation. R ather, t he s ites a re c haracterized b y d iffuse l ithic s catters ( primarily c hipped s tone a rtifacts) i n w hich t he l ow d ensity o f material r emains a lone would s uggest t ransient o r s hort-term ( and p ossibly f unctionally s pecific) o ccupation. While t he s ize o f t hese s ites v aries c onsiderably, t he a real e xtent o f e ach s ite s eems t o b e a ssociated w ith t he n umber o f a rchaeological c omponents r epresented ( Driskell 1 983:273-285). S pecifically, t he s mallest s ites t end t o b e s ingle c omponent w hile t he l arge s ites u sually p roduce t emporally s ensitive a rtifacts s uggestive o f multiple o ccupations. S econd, s ediment a ggradation which i s o ften r esponsible f or p reserving s urficial a rchaeological s ites t hrough r apid b urial does n ot appear t o h ave b een a n i mportant a spect o f t he f luvial r egime i n t he uplands d uring most o f p rehistory. I nvestigations ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980) s uggested t hat t he S alt R iver v alley f loor i n t he T aylorsville L ake p roject a rea h as b een g eomorphologically s table f rom t he e arly Holocene until t he a dvent o f m odern a gricultural a ctivities i n t he e arly 1 800s. As a r esult, t he p roject a rea d uring most o f p rehistory w as c haracterized by h eavily f orested v alley f loors, s lopes a nd u plands w ithin a f luvial r egime which w as s table a nd n ot p rone t o f looding. A rchaeological s ites were n ot d eeply b uried a nd w ith t he advent o f r apid e rosion a s a r esult o f d eforestation a nd a gricultural t illage, s hallow a rchaeological d eposits w ere r apidly d egraded. A rchaeologists working a t T aylorsville L ake h ave a ttempted t o e xamine t he f unctional characteristics o f s hallow, d isturbed s ites e ncountered i n t he r eservoir i n s everal w ays. T he s tudy b y L eedecker ( 1978) made u se o f a s et o f f unctional i ndices s imilar t o t hat d evised by F aulkner a nd M cCollough ( 1973), w hile t he r esearch by R obinson e t a l. ( 1979) c lassified s ites b ased on a n i ndex o f d iversity s imilar t o t hat o f F ish e t a l. ( 1978). S orensen e t a l. ( 1980) approached t he p roblem d ifferently by u sing c orrelational a nd t hen f actor a nalysis t o i solate t hree c omponents o f t he a rtifact a ssemblage t hought t o b e s ensitive i ndicators o f 1 ) g eneral m aintenance a ctivities,

2 0

2 ) t ool p roduction a ctivities, a nd 3 ) h unting a ctivities. E ach method was s uccessful i n d ifferentiating t he s ites i nto s everal a ssemblage t ypes, b ut n one o f t he m ethods p rovided a n a cceptable m eans o f e valuating t he i mportance o r t he m eaning o f d ifferences i n r egard t o t he a ctivities o ccurring a t e ach s ite. T his was p rimarily b ecause w hile e ach method r elied o n a ssumptions a bout t he f unction o f e ach a rtifact c lass as a p reliminary s tep i n analysis, t he p recise r ole o f a rtifacts ( both t ools a nd w aste p roducts) i n manufacturing a nd o ther e conomic a ctivities w as n ot s pecifically i nvestigated n or s atisfactorily e stablished. A s a r esult, s everal s easons o f i nvestigation a t T aylorsville L ake h ad i dentified l arge n umbers o f s urficial s ites, b ut h ad p rovided l ittle a dditional i nsight i nto t heir f unctional c haracteristics. I t w as t herefore d ecided t hat t he a rtifact c ollections f rom t wo o f t hese s ites, t he B ig B end S ite ( 15SP340) and t he P ossum R idge S ite ( 15SP412), s hould b e c losely e xamined i n a n a ttempt t o r etrieve more r igorously c ontrolled a rtifact f unctional d ata upon which t o i nterpret t he n ature o f a ctivities a t e ach s ite. F ield i nvestigators a t T aylorsville L ake ( Robinson e t a l. 1 979; S orensen e t a l. 1 980) h ad r ecorded t he d istribution o f s urface materials f rom n ine s ites ( including t he B ig B end a nd Possum R idge s ites) i n t he T aylorsville r eservoir i n a n a ttempt t o r ecover s ome c ontextual d ata o n a rtifact a ssociations. T he B ig B end a nd Possum R idge s ites w ere s elected f rom a mong t hese f or c areful e xamination b ecause t hey o ffered r elatively l arge a rtifact s amples a nd t he most s ystematic r ecording o f d istributional d ata ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980; D riskell 1 983).

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The B ig B end S ite l ocated o n a l ow t errace a nd f loodplain o f t he S alt R iver on t he o utside o f a l arge meander l ocally k nown a s t he B ig B end, e xhibited a r ound p attern o f l ithic d ebris o ccupying a n a rea o f 2 5,000 s quare meters ( Figure 3 ). Recorded i n a n e arlier s urvey, t he s ite w as r evisited b y a University o f K entucky f ield p arty i n 1 979 ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980). A t t hat t ime i t w as overgrown w ith dense v egetation. An a rea o f a bout 4 00 m b y 1 50 m was f irst mowed a nd t hen p lowed p rior t o c ollecting b y t he f ield p arty. " All a rtifacts, i ncluding f lakes, w ere f lagged a nd s ubsequently m apped" ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980:319). A rtifacts w ere t hen r emoved a nd l abeled a ccording t o i ndividual point p rovenience. T he f ield p arty a lso h and-excavated e ight 1 x 2 m t est p its ( HE1 t hrough HE8) w ithin t he b ounds o f t he s ite. As a r esult o f t his g eneral r emarks w ere m ade:

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The p lowzone on t his s ite w as v ariable i n t hickness. I t f luctuated f rom 2 0 t o o ver 3 0 cm i n d epth. A lmost a ll o f t he c ultural material w as c ollected f rom t he s urface o r e xcavated f rom t he p lowzone. T he f ew f lakes collected f rom t he s ubplowzone w ere n ot i n s itu. There was n o i ndication o f a ny u ndisturbed m idden a t t his s ite. ..The n umber o f p rojectile points, c ores, u nifaces, h afted s crapers, d rills, h ammerstones a nd g round s tone f ragments i s v ery i mpressive. T he amounts o f d ebris a nd t ools c ollected f rom t his s ite r anks i t among t he more i mportant b ase c amps w ithin t he p roject a rea o f t he S alt R iver V alley. However, t he material o n t his s ite i s n ot d ense e nough t o i ndicate a l ong-term and/or i ntensive o ccupation. I t i s more l ikely t hat t his l ocation w as i ntermittently s elected a s a b ase c amp t hrough most o f t he o ccupational h istory o f t he a rea. The h igh o ccurrence o f L ate A rchaic d iagnostic a rtifacts s uggests t he s ite w as u tilized more s ystematically d uring t his p eriod t han a t o ther t imes. S orensen e t a l. 1 980:326 The Possum R idge S ite w as l ocated d uring a s urvey o f t he p roposed Possum R idge R ecreation A rea b y t he U niversity o f K entucky i n 1 978 ( Robinson e t a l. 1 979:198). The s ite i s s ituated o n t he e dge o f a r idge-top o verlooking t he c onfluence o f B eech C reek and t he S alt R iver ( Figure 4 ). D uring t he i nitial v isit, t he f ield p arty n oted a moderate c oncentration o f p rehistoric l ithic d ebris a nd a small s ample was r ecovered. T he s ite w as t hought t o b e a p rehistoric l ithic w orkshop a nd, c onsequently, f urther i nvestigation was r ecommended. A f ield p arty f rom t he University o f K entucky r eturned i n 1 979 ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980) t o conduct a more e xtensive i nvestigation. At t he t ime o f t his s econd v isit, a t obacco c rop h ad j ust b een h arvested a nd v isibility i n t his a rea was e xcellent. H owever, t he s ite apparently e xtended i nto d ense v egetation t o t he n orth, w est a nd e ast o f t he t obacco p atch, p recluding i ntensive i nvestigation o f t hese a reas. T he s ite a rea e ncompassed b y t he t obacco p atch w as i nvestigated i n t he f ollowing m anner: Upon t he e stablishment o f a d atum, a g rid s ystem c onsisting o f 1 0 m s quares w as l aid o ver t he s ite w ith t he a id o f a t ransit a nd s tadia. S takes w ere d riven i nto t he g round a nd s equentially n umbered. ..A 2 0% s ample o f e ach s quare w as obtained b y a ttaching a d og l eash t o t he s take a nd c ollecting a ll a rtifacts w ithin 2 .52 m o f t he s take. A l ength o f c anvas webbing, s ewn i n a l oop a t o ne e nd a nd appropriately marked w ith i ndelible b lack i nk, w as

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u sed f or t he l eash. A rtifacts c ollected n ear e ach s take w ere b agged t ogether, e xcept f or potential d iagnostics w hich were a lso g iven point p rovenience. S orensen e t a l. 1 980:348 T hree 1 x 2 m t est p its ( HE72, HE73 a nd HE74) w ere a lso e xcavated b y h and w ithin t he a rtifact c oncentration. T hese t est p its r evealed n o c ultural materials b elow t he p lowzone. General o bservations t his i nvestigation a re a s

a nd i nterpretations f ollows:

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On t his r idge-top s ite, t he p lowzone was quite t hin, measuring 2 0 cm o r l ess. Most o f t he c ultural m aterial r ecovered f rom t his s ite c ame f rom t he s urface, v ery l ittle w as observed i n t he p lowzone a nd n othing w as r ecovered f rom b elow t he p lowzone. T his s ite w as o riginally i nterpreted a s an upland l ithic workshop s ite ( Robinson e t a l. 1 979:234). Our collections i ndicate t hat s ome f lint/knapping a ctivity d id t ake p lace o n t he s ite b ut a w ide r ange o f o ther a ctivities i s a lso r epresented. T he p resence o f p rojectile points, h afted s crapers, h ammerstones and g round s tone d emonstrates t hat a l arge n umber o f s ubsistence a nd m aintenance a ctivities a lso t ook p lace. This a rtifact a ssemblage i s t he b est r ecorded e xample o f an upland b ase c amp i n t he r eservoir a rea. S orensen e t a l. 1 980:350 T ables 1 a nd 2 p resent t he f requency o f a rtifacts r ecovered f rom e ach s ite b y f our g eneral a rtifact c ategories: c hert d ebitage, c hipped s tone t ools, g round s tone t ools, a nd h istoric a rtifacts. T he h istoric a rtifacts a re o f n o c oncern t o t he p resent d iscussion. C hert d ebitage d ominates e ach c ollection. C hipped s tone a rtifacts t hought t o b e t ools w ere r ecovered i n much s maller f requency. The s pecific c haracteristics o f t he c hipped s tone c ollections a re d iscussed l ater i n Chapter V where t he r esults o f f unctional a nalysis o f t he 1 979 s urface c ollections o f c hipped s tone a re r eported ( see a lso D riskell 1 983). G round s tone a rtifacts a re v ery poorly r epresented a t e ach s ite. Twenty-eight g round s tone a rtifacts o r f ragments w ere r ecovered f rom t he B ig B end S ite while t he P ossum R idge S ite a ssemblage c ontains 1 2 s pecimens. T hese a rtifacts h ave b een d ivided i nto s everal g roups i ncluding b attered s tone, c hipped and g round s tone, g rinding s labs, abraded s tone, polished a xe f ragments a nd d rilled a nd polished s tone. B attered s tone ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980:137-140) i ncludes s everal t ypes o f " hammerstones," ( i.e., s tones p resumed t o h ave b een u sed a s h ammers d ue t o t he p resence o f c rushed o r

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P rojectiles: An i nteresting r esult o f m icroscopic w ear analysis i s t hat a lmost a ll t raditionally d efined p rojectile points e xhibited n o e xtensive u se-wear o n b lade e dges o r t ips. P rojectile points l ike o ther b ifaces w ill s how i ndications o f polish a nd d amage s uperficially s imilar t o t hat p roduced b y u se, b ut t hese t races, w hich r esult f rom t he manufacturing p rocess, a re d istinguishable f rom w ear t races u nder h igh power magnification. The l ack o f u se-wear on a lmost a ll p rojectile points i ndirectly c onfirms t heir f unction a s s tone t ips f or p rojectiles u sed i n h unting. More a ccurately, t he l ack o f u se-wear c onfirms t hat t hey w ere g enerally u sed f or l ittle e lse. A lthough t he l ack o f u se-wear m ay i ndicate t hat s ome s pecimens w ere n ever u sed a t a ll, i n o ther c ases, t he a rtifacts s how e vidence o f u se i ncluding c ertain f ractures ( impact f ractures, e tc.) w hich t ends t o c onfirm t heir s uggested u se a s p rojectiles. T able 8 l ists p rojectile points b y g eneral c ondition and material t ype. P articular point s tyles ( as t hey r elate t o t emporal a ssociation) a re d iscussed i n Appendix A . ( For a dditional i nformation o n p rojectile p oint s tyles, s ee S orensen e t a l. 1 980). A s w ill b e d iscussed l ater, t he v ery l imited u se o f l ocally a vailable c herts f or p rojectile points i s s triking a t b oth s ites. T able 9 l ists t he d istribution o f r ecognizable b reak t ypes f or t he b roken p rojectile p oints. Not a ll b roken p rojectile p oints w ere c onsidered h ere s ince s ome b reaks w ere n ot i nterpretable. Additionally, t he t able o nly c onsiders f ractures w hich h ave r educed t he l ength o f t he p rojectile points. O f t he f ractures which c ould b e a ssigned t o a t ype, y -axis b reaks w ere b y f ar t he m ost c ommon. These a re f ractures t hat t ransverse t he l ong a xis o f t he p rojectile point and o riginate a s a r esult o f i mpact o r p ressure t o o ne e dge o f t he point. While t hese b reaks may r esult f rom e ither u se, m anufacturing p rocesses, o r s imply b y a ccident, t hey w ill o ccur o n t he l ateral e dges o f a p rojectile a s t he r esult o f s triking a h ard t arget. C lassic i mpact f ractures, which r esult when t he t ip o f t he p rojectile point i mpacts a h ard material, a re n ot c ommon i n t he c ollection. Two o f t he a rtifacts p resented i n t he t able s uffered t hermal d amage. I t i s l ikely t hat t his d amage o ccurred a fter t he p rojectile point w as a bandoned.

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certain morphological c lasses a nd particular p atterns o f u se a s i ndicated by t he d iscussions above. Two p rimary modes o f t ool u se - t hat o f c onvenient u sage a nd d esign consistent u sage - a re s uggested. C lose e xamination o f design/use p rinciples r eveals a f airly r egular b ipartite pattern o f t ool u se a s d epicted i n F igure 1 8. I n F igure 1 8, convenient u sage r efers t o a p rinciple o f t ool u se i n which an a rtifact i s s imply s elected f rom t he c hipped s tone d ebris a t hand f or a s harp c utting e dge, e tc., a nd u sed. Alternatively, d esign c onsistent u sage r efers t o a p rinciple of t ool u se i n w hich a rtifacts a re d esigned a nd p roduced f or specific, and n arrowly d efined, t ool applications. A lthough t he d istinction b etween t hese t wo p rinciples o f t ool u se must b e b ased o n c ertain a ssumptions a bout t he r elationship o f r eductive s tage, c ondition s tatus, o verall morphology, a nd mode o f u se, a l ogical p attern o f t ool p roduction and u se i s i ndicated i n t he c ollections f rom e ach s ite. T he l argest c ategory o f a rtifacts a t e ach s ite i s obviously c hipped s tone d ebris ( largely c omposed o f byproducts o f m anufacturing a ctivities b ut a lso i ncluding a f ew unfinished o r f ragmentary t ools), a nd t his g roup o f a rtifacts p rovided a c onvenient s ource o f s harp c utting o r s craping i mplements. This p attern o f c onvenient u sage ( see F igure 1 8) i nvolves p rimarily r aw f lakes a nd p roducts o f r eductive s tage I II, s ince t hese a rtifacts t ogether a re t he most abundant i n t he c hipped s tone d ebris. A rtifacts a ssigned t o t he t ools o f c onvenience a re p rimarily u tilized f lakes b ut a lso i nclude a f ew a rtifacts which were i nterpreted t o b e e ither a borted d uring manufacture o r r eused a fter i nitial abandonment. T he marginally modified f lakes a nd f lake t ools e xhibit e dge modification o r d amage s uggestive o f u tilization, a nd m icroscopic analysis r evealed t hat a n umber o f a rtifacts i n t hese morphological c lasses w ere u tilized. T he a rtifacts f ound t o e xhibit r ecognizable w ear p atterns c onstituted a small percentage ( 5.4% a t B ig B end a nd 2 .0% a t P ossum R idge) o f t he f lakes ( both modified a nd u nmodified) f rom e ach s ite. D amage f rom u se appeared t o b e t he o nly d istinction b etween marginally modified f lakes o r f lake t ools a nd u nmodified f lakes. A r ather w ide r ange o f work a ctions ( that i s, s craping, c utting, d rilling, e tc.) w ere e xhibited b y t he m arginally modified f lakes and f lake t ools w hich e xhibited u se-wear. However, o f t he 1 9 t ools i n t hese t wo morphological c lasses, n ine specimens w ere apparently u sed t o w ork b one o r a ntler, while f our s pecimens were u sed i n h ideworking. T he r emaining s pecimens were n ot i nterpretable a s t o c ontact material w ith t he e xception o f o ne s pecimen w here t he contact material might h ave b een e ither wood o r b one/antler. S hared morphological c haracteristics w ithin t hese c lasses would appear t o r esult p rimarily f rom c ircumstances o f manufacturing, s ince t he a rtifacts appear t o b e i ncidental byproducts o f t he manufacturing p rocess. T his i nference i s

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The u se o f s ome aborted b ifaces a nd r euse o f s everal b iface f ragments i n s imilar ways t o t he f lakes a lso s upports t he i nference t hat a ll o f t hese t ools w ere s imply s elected f rom t he d ebitage a t h and on e ach s ite. I n t he c ase o f t he a borted b ifaces, b oth specimens were u sed a s h ide s crapers, w hile o f t he f ive b iface f ragments, f our w ere u sed t o work b one o r antler. Additionally, t he s ix b utchering t ools r ecognized i n t he c ollections i ncluded f our b iface f ragments a nd one l arge f lake. The r emaining b utchering t ool w as a n i ntact p rojectile point which may h ave a lso b een p icked up f rom t he d ebitage and u sed. While t here w as n o i ndication t hat t his w as t he c ase, i t i s c ertainly c lear t hat p rojectile points were n ot n ormally u sed a s b utchering t ools. Four u nifaces w ere i ncluded i n t he t ools o f c onvenience a lthough t wo s pecimens may b e u nifacial e xamples o f h afted h ide s crapers w hich a re n ormally b ifacially worked. The r emaining t wo s pecimens w ere t oo f ragmentary t o a scertain t heir overall morphological o r u se-wear c haracteristics. C ertainly, t he t hree u nifacially worked s pecimens i ncluded i n t he h afted h ide s crapers a re q uite s imilar t o t he s pecimens p laced i n t he t ools o f c onvenience, b ut d o e xhibit a definite hafting e lement. I t would s eem t hat t he overall d esign o f t he t ool was more i mportant t han s trict a dherence t o unifacial o r b ifacial s haping. A good e xample o f t his c haracteristic i s S pecimen I , s ee F igure 1 7, which i s a u niface b ut c onforms i n g eneral s hape a nd m echanical p rinciples t o o ther h afted h ide s crapers. U nlike t ools o f c onvenience, most o f a rtifacts w hich e xhibit design c onsistent u sage p atterns a re p roducts o f r eductive s tages I V o r V I. T hese s ystematically d esigned t ools i nclude t he d rills, h afted s crapers, and p rojectile points. A rtifacts w ithin e ach c lass h ave b een s ystematically modified p roducing overall ( gross) morphologies which m ay b e r ather n arrowly d efined, s o much s o t hat ( as t he n ames i mply) a p articular work a ction i s s uggested. P atterns o f u sage among p roducts o f s tages I V and V I a re quite s traightforward a nd consistent w ith t he d esign c haracteristics o f t he a rtifact c lass. Where u se p atterns a re e xhibited, a rtifacts a ssigned t o t he morphological c lass o f d rills, a re i n f act f ound t o e xhibit e vidence o f d rilling. H afted s crapers a re l ikewise q uite c onsistently f ound t o h ave b een u sed i n t he w ay postulated b y t he n ame. N egative e vidence o f u se-wear s erved t o c onfirm t he h ypothesis t hat p rojectile points g enerally s erved n o o ther purpose t han j ust t hat. R esults o f u se-wear analysis a lso s upport a s pecific r ole o f e ach c lass o f a rtifacts i n p rocessing c ertain m aterials. T aken t ogether, t hese r esults s trongly s upport t he i nterpretation o f t he n ormative r ole o f s tone d rills a s bone/antler working t ools. E ach d rill w hich e xhibited i nterpretable u se-wear, w ith t he p ossible e xception o f

1 03

Specimen D ( see F igure 1 6) f rom B ig B end, was f ound t o h ave b een u sed i n working b one/antler. T hese t ools w ere most l ikely u sed t o hollow o ut t he s ockets i n t he m anufacture of antler a tlatl h andles and hooks. A t l east s ome o f t he d rill b its w ere apparently h afted a lthough t he method o f p roviding r otary power i s n ot k nown. A t a ny r ate, t he c orrelation b etween t his e asily r ecognizable morphological c lass a nd u se i s s trong e nough t o i nfer a v ery s pecific f unctional r ole i n t he p roduction/use c ycle. L ike t he c hipped s tone d rills d iscussed above, h afted s crapers appear t o h ave f unctioned q uite s pecifically as h ide s crapers. However, unlike t he d rills, h afted s crapers were n ot t he o nly t ools u sed f or h ide s craping; o ne f lake t ool, t wo u nifaces, a nd t wo aborted b ifaces w ere a lso u sed i n t his w ay. I t may b e a ssumed, h owever, t hat t he u nhafted t ools u sed f or p rocessing h ides w ere n ot a s e fficient a s t he h afted s craper a nd were, t herefore, o f l esser i mportance i n t his activity. T he r esults o f m icroscopic e xamination o f t he p rojectile points s uggest t hat t hey were r arely u sed a s t ools i n activities o ther t han h unting. E xceptions t o t his w ere u sually f ound t o r esult f rom r euse a fter t he a rtifact h ad b een b roken and possibly d iscarded. However, u se o f one i ntact s pecimen a s a b utchering i mplement may constitute an e xception t o t his g eneral r ule. I n s ummary, t ools i dentified i n t he c ollections f rom t he B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge s ites a ppear t o b e r elated p rimarily t o a nimal p rocurement a nd p rocessing a ctivities. Most particularly, h ide-processing a nd, t o a l esser e xtent, bone o r a ntler working a nd b utchering a re a ttested by m icrowear o n t he t ools f rom e ach s ite. W hen m icrowear d ata a re c ombined w ith o ther a rtifact c haracteristics, i t b ecomes possible t o r ecognize s everal t ool t ypes u sed i n p reparing animal p roducts. The t ool t ypes i nclude h afted h ide s crapers, and d rills u sed t o work b one o r more l ikely a ntler. On t he o ther h and, t he n egative e vidence of u se-wear o n p rojectile points must c ertainly a ttest t o t heir p rimary f unction a s p rojectiles u sed i n h unting r ather t han a s c utting o r p erforating t ools. T he a ctivity o f b utchering d oes n ot appear t o b e c losely c orrelated w ith any p articular morphological c lass of a rtifacts. L arge f lakes, b ifaces, h afted b ifaces, and p rojectile points may a ll h ave s ometimes s erved i n t his r ole. Thin-edged b ifaces and p articularly f lakes would h ave b een most e ffective i n c utting meat, while d uller and s turdier t ools w ould b e more u seful i n s kinning a ctivities. S turdy b ifaces o r l arge c leaver-shaped f lakes would b e most u seful t o c ut a nd b reak j oints a nd t endons. V arious c utting and s craping t asks, i ncluding b utchering, were m ostly e xecuted u sing c onveniently s haped s pecimens available i n t he s ite d ebris.

1 04

The R elationship o f E conomy

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T he e vidence c ited above f or t he n ature o f u se o f a rtifacts i n t he c ollections f rom B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge does not n ecessarily d emonstrate t hat t ool w ear a ccrued t hrough work activities a t t hese t wo s ites. I t i s l ikely t hat t ransient g roups t ravelled w ith a t l east s ome o f t he t ools n ecessary f or e very d ay, o r e ven o ccasional, p rocessing a ctivities. This, o f c ourse, may mean t hat t ool w ear m ight occur a t a l ocation f ar r emoved f rom t he l ocus o f l oss o r a bandonment. I n a ll p robability, t he l ess c omplex t ools o f convenience were n ot c urated o r t ransported a ny d istance f rom t he l ocus o f u se. T his a ssumption i s i mplicit i n t he d efinition o f t his mode o f t ool u se a nd i s s upported above. However, s ince t he s ystematically d esigned t ools ( hafted s crapers, d rills, and p rojectile p oints) a ll e xhibit h afting e lements, t hey l ikely f ormed t he w orking e dge o f c omposite t ools; t ools t hat w ere p robably h abitually c urated a nd t ransported f rom o ne s ite t o a nother. T his l ikelihood i s s upported by e vidence o f m icrowear on a s ample o f t ools f rom v arious F alls Region s ites ( see Appendix G ). I n t he c ase o f t he a rtifacts d escribed i n Appendix G , a s mall s ample o f a rtifacts f rom t he morphological c lasses o f d rills, h afted s crapers, and e ach o f t he f ive m iddle p eriod p rojectile point s eries w ere d rawn t hrough r andom s election f rom t he t otal c atalog o f a rtifacts f rom F alls R egion s ites i nvestigated b y Collins ( 1979), O ' Malley e t a l. ( 1980), Robinson e t a l. ( 1979), a nd S orensen e t a l. ( 1980). Appendix G p resents a more d etailed a ccount o f s ample s election and a d iscussion o f m icrowear analysis. B riefly, t he r esults obtained t hrough u se-wear s uggested t hat t ool u se was e ntirely c onsistent f rom one s ite t o a nother i mplying t hat e ach t ool t ype w as a p art o f a b asic, c urated t ool k it o f t he m iddle p eriod i nhabitants o f t he F alls Region. • The t ools appear t o b e i ntentionally d esigned f or specific p urposes; t hat i s, t he d rills, h afted s crapers, a nd p rojectile points, apparently f unctioned i n s imilar w ays a t o ther s ites i n b oth t he uplands a nd a lluvium. T hus, o f a ll t he a rtifacts e xamined, t hese t hree a rtifact c lasses c learly possess t he most f unctionally s pecific r oles a s t ools i n t he t echnology. As f inal p roducts o f t he p roduction p rocess, i t i s a lso c lear t hat p roduction o f t hese a rtifact c lasses w as an i mportant, possibly e ven p aramount goal i n c hipped s tone manufacturing a ctl pvities a t s ites i n t he F alls R egion d uring t he m iddle period. T his o bservation w ould i mply t hat t he c ontext o f d iscovery o f members o f e ach o f t hese t ool c lasses m ay b ear n o d irect and e asily i nterpreted r elationship t o t he work activities f or w hich t he t ool w as d esigned and u sed, s ince

1 05

any o f t hese t ools m ight o ccur a t a ny l ocus o f h uman h abitation. When t his p roblem a rises i n a rchaeological i nterpretation i t i s s tandard p ractice t o a ttempt t o d emonstrate spatial c orrelation o f t ool t ypes w ith o ther d ata i ndicating d iscrete a ctivity a reas and a ssociations. I n t his w ay, t he a rchaeologist c an a rgue t hat t he t ool k it a ctually f unctioned a t t he s ite i n t he r ole i mplied b y d esign a nd u se-wear c haracteristics o f t he a rtifacts. S ince t his was n ot possible a t t he B ig B end a nd Possum R idge s ites, t he a lternative o f t he d evelopment o f a rguments f or s ite-wide a ctivities b ased s trictly o n t he i nter-relationships o f a rtifact ( both t ool and n ontool) c lasses i s u sed b elow t o i nterpret t he n ature o f s ite f unction a t e ach s ite.

Chert Acquisition and T ool

F abrication S tages

Chipped s tone t ool m anufacturing w as a n i mportant activity a t t he B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge s ites, a s a ttested by t he l arge quantities o f manufacturing byproducts p resent a t e ach s ite. N ineteen c hert t ypes a re r epresented a t t he t wo s ites ( see Appendix B f or d escriptions and d etails o f r egional d istribution). C herts t hat o ccur upstream i n t he S alt R iver d rainage a re g enerally r edeposited a s c obbles i n t he S alt R iver i n t he T aylorsville L ake a rea a nd w ould b e l ocally available. These i nclude C urdsville, B rannon, C ane Run, S alvisa, B oyle, G rier, N ewman and S t. L ouis ( green a nd r ed). There a re apparently n o e xploitable c hert o utcrops i n t he p roject a rea. I t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat a rtifacts made o f t hese c herts w ere manufactured i n t he g eneral v icinity i f n ot a t t he s ite where t hey w ere d iscovered. Cherts c onsidered t o b e n onlocal r equired h uman t ransport i nto t he p roject a rea s ince t hey o utcrop e ither d ownstream i n t he S alt R iver d rainage o r e ntirely o utside t he d rainage. These i nclude Harrison C ounty, Muldraugh, S te. G enevieve, B eechwood, Harrodsburg, B reathitt a nd L ost R iver c herts. Vanport ( Ohio F lint R idge) a nd D elaware o ccur i n s outhern Ohio, and D egonia o ccurs a c onsiderable d istance t o t he w est n ear L and-Between-the-Lakes. V anport a nd D elaware m ay h ave b een t ransported c onsiderable d istances a nd c ertainly D egonia would h ave b een i mported. A ll o f t hese c herts a re considered n onlocal c herts i n t he c ontext o f t his a nalysis. There was a lso a l arge n umber o f s pecimens t hat could n ot b e i dentified; i t w as s uggested i n S orensen e t a l. ( 1980:417) t hat a h igh f requency o f t hese may b e S alvisa s ince t his c hert i s h ard t o i dentify i n s mall s pecioens. T able 1 0 p resents t he d istribution o f a rtifacts b y c hert t ype a nd c ortex t ype f or t he B ig B end and P ossum R idge s ites. S everal obvious c onclusions c oncerning c hert e xploitation may b e d rawn f rom a n i nspection o f t hese d ata. D isregarding c herts o f unknown t ype, t he l argest p roportion o f a rtifacts

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( about 6 9% f rom B ig B end and 8 4% f rom P ossum R idge) a re made o f n onlocal c herts, p rimarily c herts obtainable t o t he s outhwest a nd w est ( downstream) o f t he p roject a rea. Most o f t he n onlocal c herts e xhibit n o c ortex ( Table 1 1). A rtifacts made o f l ocal c herts o ften e xhibit c obble o r undifferentiated c ortex ( Table 1 1). C obble c ortex would b e t he e xpected t ype o n a ny c herts obtained f rom t he S alt R iver n ear t he s ites. N o specimens o f l ocal c hert w ith n odular o r t abular c ortex w ere i dentified i n t he P ossum R idge collection, a nd o nly 5 % o f t he s pecimens f rom B ig B end possessed t abular o r n odular c ortex. A f airly l arge p roportion o f t he l ocal c hert t ypes p resent a t e ach s ite a re S alvisa c herts ( about 5 6% o f t he l ocal c herts f rom B ig B end a nd a bout 3 8% f rom P ossum R idge). This m ay r eflect a p reference f or S alvisa o r may s imply r eflect i ts a vailability i n l ocal r iver c obbles. Muldraugh, S te. G enevieve, a nd B eechwood c herts a ccount f or about 8 5% o f t he n onlocal c herts a t e ach s ite. P roportions o f e ach o f t hese c hert t ypes a re f airly s imilar a t e ach s ite w ith B eechwood r epresented i n 4 6.6% ( Big B end) a nd 3 5.2% ( Possum R idge) o f t he n onlocal c herts, M uldraugh r epresented i n 2 3.5% ( Big B end) a nd 3 0.2% ( Possum R idge) o f n onlocal c herts, a nd S te. G enevieve r epresented i n 1 6.8% ( Big B end) and 1 9.1% ( Possum R idge) o f t he n onlocal c herts. B eechwood c hert o ccurs i n t he M iddle Devonian B eechwood L imestone a nd i s k nown t o o utcrop s everal m iles t o t he s outh and s outhwest o f t he p roject a rea ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980:574, F igure C -2). I t w as apparently a vailable f rom p rimary a nd s econdary s ources a long t he R olling F ork o f t he S alt R iver. Muldraugh c herts f rom t he M ississippian B orden F ormation occur s ome 3 0-40 m iles t o t he s outhwest o f t he p roject a rea ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980:578, F igure C -6) a nd were available i n t he m iddle a nd l ower r eaches o f t he R olling F ork o f t he S alt R iver. S te. G enevieve c herts o ccur i n t he M ississippian S te. Genevieve L imestone ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980:587) i n t he E astern K nobs a s w ell a s i n a reas o f t he M ississippian P lateau t o t he w est a nd s outhwest o f t he p roject a rea. I t i s n ot k nown w hether S te. Genevieve c herts w ere obtained f rom t he K entucky R iver d rainage o r f urther t o t he e ast, o r f rom a reas t o t he w est n ear t he Ohio R iver. The c losest s ource would appear t o b e s ome 3 0 m iles t o t he e ast o f t hese s ites. When t hese d ata a re c onsidered a long w ith t he d ata o n r eductive s tage a nd c ondition s tatus, s everal i mportant t rends i n t ool m anufacture c an b e s een. T able 1 2 p resents t he d istribution o f c hipped s tone a rtifacts b y r eductive s tage and c ondition. T here a re s everal i mportant t rends e xpressed i n t hese d ata. F irst, f lakes a ssigned t o r eductive s tages II a nd I V a re m uch more n umerous t han I t hose a ssigned t o t he i nitial r eduction s tage. This i s t o b e e xpected t o s ome e xtent s ince f lakes a re g enerally t hinner, s maller a nd a ccount f or l ess r aw material b ulk t han

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C lasses

W ith t hese t rends d escribed, t he d iscussion r eturns t o t he question o f t he l ocal u se o f t he s ystematically d esigned t ools ( hafted s crapers, d rills, a nd p rojectile p oints). P reliminary i nvestigations a t B ig B end ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980:394-421) s uggested s ome c orrelation b etween c hert t ype a nd morphology. T able 1 4 p resents t he d istribution o f t he p rincipal n onlocal ( Beechwood, Muldraugh, a nd S te. G enevieve) and l ocal ( Salvisa and B oyle) c hert t ypes b y m orphology f or e ach s ite. Local c herts o ther t han B oyle a nd S alvisa a re f airly e venly d istributed w ithin t he r eductive s equence b ut t hese c herts a re more p oorly r epresented i n t he s ystematically d esigned t ool c lasses ( projectile points, h afted s crapers a nd d rills) a t e ach s ite. L ikewise, S alvisa c herts were u sed p rimarily f or a rtifacts r esulting f rom t he e arly s tages o f r eduction a nd r arely f or h afted t ools a t B ig B end. While B oyle c herts a re p roportioned e venly b etween e arly a nd l ater r eductive s tage p roducts a t B ig B end, s ome 4 3% o f t hese c herts w ere u sed i n p roduction o f s econdary r eduction b ifaces. The f requency o f S alvisa and B oyle c herts a t P ossum R idge i s s o l ow a s t o b e u ninformative i n t his r egard. A t B ig Bend, t he n onlocal c herts e xcluding M uldraugh and S te. Genevieve ( constituting a bout 5 2% o f t he n onlocal c herts) a re most h eavily d istributed among t he n onhafted t ools which a lso r esult f rom t he e arlier s tages o f r eduction. T he h igher p roportions o f n onhafted t ool t ypes would a rgue f or t ransport o f t ools o r p reforms t o t he s ite. T his i s consistent w ith f lake a nd d ebitage d istributions d iscussed above. I nterestingly, a l arge p roportion o f t he B eechwood c herts ( 68%) w ere r estricted t o modified f lakes. S te. Genevieve c herts a t B ig B end, while o f l esser f requency t han Muldraugh c hert t ools, a re more e venly d istributed among t he morphological c lasses a lthough t he h ighest f requency f or a s ingle c lass i s t hat o f p rojectile points ( n=5), and h afted t ools a ccount f or 5 0% o f t he S te. G enevieve c herts. The h igh f requency o f Muldraugh c herts a t B ig B end u sed i n p roduction o f p rojectile points ( 43%) a nd h afted s crapers ( 17%) ' does s uggest t hat Muldraugh was a p referred m aterial f or t hese a rtifacts. ( Incidentally, h afted s crapers may h ave b een manufactured i n p art o r t otally f rom b roken p rojectile points.) This p attern o f u se i s a lso s upported b y t he p roportion o f b ifaces o f Muldraugh c hert ( 26%) which m ay have s erved a s p reforms f or t he manufacture o f h afted t ools. This g roup o f a rtifacts ( bifaces a nd h afted t ools) t ogether a ccount f or a lmost 8 6% o f t he M uldraugh c herts u sed f or t ools a t B ig B end. T aken t ogether, M uldraugh a nd S te. G enevieve specimens account f or 4 6% o f t he b ifacially worked t ools and 6 0% o f t he h afted b ifacial t ools f rom B ig B end.

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A lthough f requencies a t P ossum R idge a re m uch l ower f or a ll c herts i ncluding Muldraugh, a s imilar p attern o f u se f or Muldraugh c hert i s s uggested. A s omewhat d issimilar u tilization o f S te. Genevieve a nd particularly B eechwood i s s uggested where t hese c herts appear t o h ave b een u sed mostly f or t ools i n t he f inal s tages o f r eduction o r f or b ifaces which may h ave b een u nfinished t ools o r p reforms.

S ystematically D esigned Tools Activities

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I n e ssence, while t he c ollections f rom t he t wo s ites a re p rimarily a rtifacts made o f n onlocal c herts, s ome o f t he s ystematically d esigned t ools a re made o f c herts o f l ocal o rigin. These i nclude f ive h afted s crapers, o ne d rill, a nd f our p rojectile points f rom B ig B end a nd t wo p rojectile points f rom P ossum R idge. T hese a rtifacts w ere l ikely manufactured o n o r n ear e ach s ite, a nd u se-wear characteristics l ikely p ertain t o a ctivities t ranspiring a t t he s ite o f d iscovery. While i t i s more d ifficult t o make t his a ssumption f or s ystematically d esigned t ools m ade o f n onlocal c herts, t he manufacturing s equence f or n onlocal c hert t ypes d oes s uggest t hat c hert o f nonlocal o rigin w as b rought t o e ach s ite, p robably mostly i n p artially r educed f orm, a nd u sed i n manufacture o f s ystematically d esigned t ools. T he d ebitage c ertainly a ttests t o r eduction o f n onlocal m aterials. T his observation i s c ompatible w ith t he p roposition t hat many o f t he s ystematically d esigned t ools made o f n onlocal c herts were e ither manufactured, f inished, o r r efurbished a t t he s ite o f d iscovery. T his w ould s uggest a d irect s patial r elationship b etween p roduction/maintenance a ctivities a nd t ool application m eaning t hat u se-wear c haracteristics p robably a ccrued t hrough w ork a ctivities a t t hese t wo s ites.

T he Local

P roduction/Use C ycle

I n . summary, a rtifacts f rom e ach s ite c ollection w ere e xamined f or a s eries o f morphological a ttributes o bserved a t b oth t he macroscopic and m icroscopic l evel o f r esolution. Various o f t hese a ttributes w ere u sed t o m ake l ow l evel i nferences about t he r eductive s tage, c ondition s tatus, g ross morphology, a nd u se o f e ach a rtifact. R eductive s tage, c ondition s tatus, a nd g ross morphology w ere t hen u sed t o a ssign e ach a rtifact t o a p roduction c lass. P atterns o f u se o f t he m embers w as t hen c onsidered i n e valuating e ach p roduction c lass a s t o i ts i ntegrity a s a f unctional c lass. Many o f t he p roduction c lasses, p articularly t hose o f r eductive s tages I I and I II, w ere f ound t o b e n ontool

1 15

c lasses c omposed o f b yproducts, o r a borted, u nfinished, o r b roken p roducts. As s ite d ebitage t hese, a long w ith s ome abandoned s tage I V/VI t ool f ragments, f ormed a r eady r esource o f e xpedient, s harp e dged t ools and w ere s ometimes u sed o r r eused a s s uch. S tage I V a nd V I p roducts ( hafted s crapers, d rills, and p rojectile points) were f ound t o e ach c onstitute d iscrete, i ntentionally d esigned, t ool c lasses where u se i n e ach c ase c ould b e n arrowly d efined. P atterns o f c hipped s tone manufacture and t ool u se a t e ach s ite appear q uite s imilar. Notably, t he much s maller c ollection f rom t he P ossum R idge S ite meant t hat m ost a rtifact c ategories w ere l ess a dequately r epresented t han a t t he B ig B end S ite. However, c haracteristics o f t he c ollections f rom e ach s ite s upport t he c ontention o f a l ocal p roduction/use c ycle n arrowly f ocused o n p roduction o f t ools f or, a nd u se o f t ools i n, a nimal p rocurement a nd p rocessing o f a nimal p roducts. An a nalysis o f manufacturing c haracteristics o f t he c hipped s tone c ollections r eveals s everal quite c lear c haracteristics o f t he i ndustry a t e ach s ite. A lthough c hipped s tone d ebitage c onstitutes t he b ulk o f a rtifacts r ecovered f rom e ach s ite, c hipped s tone manufacture appears t o b e p rimarily c oncerned w ith f inal p reparation a nd maintenance o f t ools. The a ssemblages a re c haracterized by h igh p roportions o f a rtifacts r esulting f rom t he l ater r eduction s tages, b y h igh p roportions o f a rtifacts m ade of n onlocal c herts, a nd b y h igh p roportions o f b ifaces ( particularly p rojectile p oints a nd h afted s crapers). T his would appear t o i ndicate t hat c hipped s tone a rtifacts w ere g enerally b rought t o e ach s ite i n a partially, b ut n ot a lways a f ully f inished s tate, a nd t hat t he p rimary f ocus was p roduction a nd maintenance o f t he s ystematically designed t ools ( projectile points, h afted s crapers, a nd d rills). While t he s ystematically d esigned t ools w ere l ikely t he f ocus o f manufacturing a nd maintenance a ctivities a t e ach s ite, t he b yproducts o f m anufacturing f ormed a r eady s ource o f s imple, s harp t ools. T hese a rtifacts ( that i s, t he t ools o f c onvenience) were u sed i n v arious c utting a nd s craping t asks w hich c omplemented t he r oles o f t he s ystematically d esigned t ools i n b utchering a nd h ide o r b one/antler p rocessing. I t i s c oncluded t hat p rojectile p oints, h afted s crapers, and d rills f ormed t he w orking e dge o f c omposite t ools, w ere u sually c urated and t ransported, a nd w ere i mportant e lements i n a m iddle p eriod h unting/processing t ool k it i n t he r egion. Their u se i n work a ctivities a t t hese t wo s ites i s s upported by t he p resence o f f ragments p robably l ost d uring work a nd b y t he p resence o f a f ew t ools m ade o f l ocal c herts. Additionally, w hen t he o verall manufacturing c haracteristics, u se c haracteristics o f t he t ools of c onvenience, a nd u se c haracteristics o f t he s ystematically

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d esigned t ools a re c onsidered t ogether, a r ather s trong c ase c an b e made f or t he d irect r elationship b etween u se-wear a nd s ite-wide activities. Chapter V I p resents o verall i nterpretations a nd d iscusses t he c ontributions o f t his r esearch t o F alls R egion p rehistory.

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CHAPTER V I

-C ONTRIBUTIONS TO FALLS REGION PREHISTORY

M iddle p eriod p lowzone s ites i n t he F alls R egion o f c entral K entucky h ave a ssumed c onsiderable i mportance i n r egional r esearch o bjectives s ince t hey appear t o r eflect i mportant a spects o f r egional s ettlement and s ubsistence n ot g enerally r epresented b y t he i ntact s ites. A t t wo o f t hese s ites ( Big B end a nd P ossum R idge) l ocated i n t he T aylorsville L ake a rea, t he a uthor w as u nable t o d elineate d iscrete s patial p atterns o f a ctivities ( Driskell 1 983, s ee a lso Chapter I I above). However, i t was f elt t hat b ecause o f r ecent d evelopments i n methods t o a nalyze and d elineate manufacturing a s w ell a s u se-wear c haracteristics o f c hipped s tone t ools, s ome a ctivities o ccurring a t e ach s ite c ould b e i nferred b ased s trictly o n t he r econstruction o f t he p roduction/use c ycle r eflected b y t he c ollection o f c hipped s tone t ools f rom e ach s ite. Chapter I V p resented t he m ethods u tilized t o a ccomplish t his objective w hile Chapter V p resented a d iscussion o f t he d ata and r esults o f a nalysis a t t he B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge s ites. I n e ssence, t he a nalysis r evealed t hat t here i s a c lose c orrespondence b etween f orm and u se o f a rtifact c lasses i n r eductive s tages I V a nd V I ( the f inal s tages o f s haping o r r eworking, r espectively) i ncluding p rojectile points, h afted s crapers, a nd d rills. B ecause o f t he c lose c orrespondence s uggested b etween r ather c omplex f orm c haracteristics a nd specific f unctions, t hese t ool c lasses w ere c onsidered s ystematically d esigned t ools. A lternatively, a s econd mode o f t ool u se was i dentified which i nvolved u se o f d iscarded f lakes, u nfinished o r b roken t ools, o r s ometimes i ntact, b ut p resumably d iscarded t ools. T hese were c alled t ools o f c onvenience e xpressing t he a ssumption t hat t hey were s imply s elected f rom t he d ebris a t e ach s ite and u sed r ather t han h aving b een i ntentionally d esigned and/or p roduced f or a s pecific t ype o f work a ctivity. A t B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge, a ctivities r eflected b y t he c hipped s tone a rchaeological a ssemblages g enerally f orm a n i ntegrated a nd l ogical s et o f b ehaviors r elated t o p reparation, maintenance a nd u se o f t ools f or p rocurement a nd t hen p rocessing o f animals ( probably mostly d eer) i nto s tabilized, u seful a nd t ransportable p roducts. This c hapter p resents a s ynopsis o f i nterpretations r esulting f rom a c onsideration o f g eneral c haracteristics o f e ach s ite f ollowed b y a d iscussion o f t he c ontributions a nd i mplications o f t he r esearch f or F alls R egion p rehistory.

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An

I nterpretative

S ynopsis

Most o f t he a rtifacts r ecovered f rom B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge a re l ithic manufacturing b yproducts. T hese, i n c onjunction w ith t he f ew p reforms a nd p resumably a lso t he f ew h ammerstones r ecovered ( see c hapters I I a nd V ), a ttest t o c hipped s tone manufacturing a ctivities a t e ach s ite. While t he b ulk o f a rtifacts r ecovered r elate t o t his a ctivity, c hipped s tone t ool manufacture was h eavily c oncentrated i n t he f inal s tages o f r eduction i ncluding r eworking o r r efurbishing. I t would appear t hat c hipped s tone manufacturing a ctivities w ere, f or t he most p art, f undamental t o s everal s pecific a ctivities r equiring c hipped s tone t ools and c hipped s tone t ool maintenance. S everal s uch a ctivities r elated t o a nimal p rocurement and p rocessing a re a ttested b y t he m icrowear o bserved o n t he s tone t ools. These i nclude h unting, b utchering, b one/antler working a nd h ide p rocessing. T his s et o f a ctivities, p redominately h unting and h ide p rocessing, emerges a s a dominant f ocus o f t he i nhabitants a t e ach s ite. P rocessing o f o ther materials a re n ot s ignificantly r epresented i n t he a rtifact d ata. The r esults o f t he a nalysis o f t he a rtifact c ollections f rom t he t wo s ites f irmly s upport t he i nterpretation o f e ach s ite a s p rimarily a h unting/animal p rocessing c amp, o r more appropriately, a s eries o f h unting/animal p rocessing episodes a s i ndicated b y t he t emporally s ensitive a rtifacts r ecovered. The apparent a bsence o r r arity o f a rtifacts possibly i ndicative o f o ther f unctions ( such a s v egetal f ood p rocessing o r s torage, p rimary l ithic manufacturing a ctivity, collection o r p rocessing o f aquatic r esources, a nd mortuary p ractices) i s c onsidered c ompatible w ith t he a bove i nterpretation. Occupations o f s hort d uration a re p robably i ndicated b y t he l ow d ensities o f a rtifacts p resent ( see C hapter I I). The l arge s ize o f e ach s ite d oes n ot n ecessarily i mply l arge occupations and i t may, i n f act, d erive f rom p recise r elocation o f a n umber o f s mall c ampsites. H owever, s patial a nalysis by S orensen e t a l. ( 1980) a nd D riskell ( 1983) o f a rtifact d istributions w as n ot s uccessful i n d elineating l ocalized , and/or d iscrete i ntrasite p atterns s upporting t his p roposition. C ontrasting n atural s ettings o f f loodplain ( Big B end) v ersus r idge-top ( Possum R idge) d o n ot emerge a s i mportant f actors r elated t o s ite f unction. A ssuming t hat t hese d ata t ruly r eflect t he h istorical d evelopments and d emographic a rrangements a t e ach s ite, t he f ollowing s cenario o f a ctivities a t e ach s ite i s s uggested. Three p rincipal a ctivities l ikely t ranspired a fter t he s uccessful h unters r eturned t o t he c amp. These i nclude h ide p rocessing, manufacture o f t ool p arts a nd possibly o rnaments f rom bone and antler, a nd p rocessing o f t he meat a nd s oft

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t issue p arts. T he f irst a ttested b y wear t races o n

t wo a ctivities a re d efinitely s tone t ools f ound a t e ach s ite.

Although t here i s e vidence f rom m icrowear t hat h ides w ere s ometimes s craped a nd c leaned w ith s impler t ools, a v ery c onsistent and p recise r elationship b etween h afted s crapers a nd h ide s craping w as s uggested. I t i s t herefore l ikely t hat t hese a rtifacts f ormed t he working e dge o f a c omposite t ool d esigned t o s erve o nly i n t his r ole. The r emainder o f t he t ool w as n ot p reserved n or w ere t he p roducts p rocessed r epresented i n t he a rchaeological d eposits. D ue t o t he d esign o f t he c hipped s tone t ool part a nd t he n ature a nd l ocation o f t he polish r esulting f rom u se, t hese a rtifacts w ere hafted i n s uch a w ay t hat t he s teep b evel o n t he e nd w as i n c ontact w ith t he h ide a cross i ts e xtent a nd f ormed t he t railing f acet a s w ork p rogressed. T he s oil-like w ear o n s ome o f t he s crapers w as l ikely t he r esult o f p rocessing h ides which w ere p articularly d irty. Whether o r n ot t his w as an i ntentional t reatment i s u nknown. S ome s imple t ools ( particularly f lakes) e xhibited e vidence o f u se i n c utting h ide. I t i s l ikely t hat t hese s imple c utting t ools w ere u sed d uring p rocessing o f h ide o r, a lternatively, i n h ide r emoval a nd b utchering, o r more l ikely, i n b oth w ays. Another i mportant a ctivity a t e ach s ite was r elated t o p rocessing o f b one and/or a ntler. S ince t he b one o r a ntler a rtifacts and d etritus r esulting f rom m anufacturing a ctivities a t t he t wo s ites were n ot p reserved, i t i s i mpossible t o d etermine t he s pecific a rtifacts w hich w ere manufactured a t e ach s ite, o r t he f aunal species r epresented. T he u se-wear on v arious c utting t ools a s well a s c hipped s tone d rills s upports t he c ontention o f bone o r a ntler manufacturing b ut, a t p resent, m ethods o f i dentification o f u se p olish d o n ot a llow f or a d istinction b etween b one o r a ntler, o r i n t he c ase o f b one, b etween a nimal s pecies. I t i s, h owever, e nticing t o s uppose t hat much o f t he bone/antler p rocessing a t t hese t wo s ites w as f ocused o n p roduction o f a ntler a tlatl h andles, h ooks o r f laking t ools, a nd possibly d eer b one f ishhooks, n eedles, awls, a nd o rnaments. C ertainly, t he c hipped s tone d rills appear t o h ave b een u sed f or p reparing t he s ockets i n a ntler a tlatl h andles a nd h ooks ( see C hapter I I). A t a ny r ate, t he o ccurrence o f b one and/or a ntler working a t t hese s ites i s u nderstandable s ince f resh b one and a ntler a re more e asily s haped t han c ured p ieces. While f resh v ersus s easoned a ntler w as n ot d istinguished i n t he m ethods o f w ear analysis u sed, f uture r esearch may r eveal d istinctive d ifferences w hich c ould b e u sed t o i nfer s easonality o f work. I f t he d rills a nd o ther b one/antler working t ools w ere u sed t o p rocess f resh a ntler, a f all t o w inter o ccupation would b e s uggested s ince t his i s t he s eason i n w hich f resh a ntler would b e a vailable.

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I t i s a lso r easonable t o a ssume ( based o n e thnographic a ccounts) t hat meat and a lmost a ll o ther parts o f t he a nimal w ere p rocessed i n one w ay o r another a t t he h unting c amp. F or t he most part, however, t his s et o f a ctivities i s n ot i ndicated b y a nalysis o f t he a rtifacts c ollected f rom e ach s ite. An e xception i s t he f ew a rtifacts e xhibiting u se-wear t races i nterpreted a s r esulting f rom b utchering.

Contributions

t o F alls R egion A rchaeology

I n s pite o f t he l imitations i mposed b y t he p resent s tate o f a nalytical methods, b y t he f laws o f i nadequate s ampling a t B ig B end a nd Possum R idge, a nd b y t he methodological l imitations t o a rchaeological r econstructions i nherent i n i nvestigations o f t he p low d isturbed d eposits a t e ach s ite, t he r esearch r eported h ere h as made a m ajor c ontribution t o F alls R egion a rchaeology. T his d iscussion b egins w ith a b rief r ecapitulation o f t he s tate o f k nowledge and c oncepts o f s ettlement and s ubsistence p atterning i n t he m iddle p eriod p rior t o t he r esearch r eported h ere. ( Chapter I I p resents a more c omplete d iscussion.) I n t he F alls R egion, l arge n umbers o f s ites m ay b e a ssigned t o t he m iddle p eriod e ncompassing a t emporal s pan f rom about 4 ,000 o r 3 ,000 B .C. t o about t he t ime o f C hrist. This i s s omewhat more i nclusive t han t he L ate A rchaic P eriod o f o ther c hronological s chemes a nd i ncludes t he E arly Woodland P eriod o f G riffin ( 1967) and t he B urial M ound I P eriod o f W illey ( 1966). This p eriodization i s u sed b ecause most L ate A rchaic s ites i n t he F alls Region a lso u sually e xhibit E arly Woodland a rtifacts s ometimes i ncluding p ottery s herds. T here i s a s y et n o e vidence f or i ncipient horticultural p ractices d uring t he m iddle period i n t he F alls R egion a lthough t his i s s uggested f or t he G reen R iver a rea t o t he w est ( Marquardt a nd Watson 1 976) a nd t he M ammoth C ave a rea t o t he s outh ( Watson 1 969, 1 974). I t i s c ertainly n ot c lear t hat b urial mounds i n t he r egion d ate t his e arly ( that i s, b efore A .D. 1 ) a lthough l ittle a ttention h as b een d irected t hus f ar t o t his question. The d istinct constellation o f c haracteristics o f t he E arly W oodland " Adena C ulture" i n t he B luegrass R egion t o t he e ast i s n ot c learly r epresented i n t he F alls Region. T aken t ogether, i t i s d ifficult a t t his t ime t o d istinguish any d ifferences i n L ate A rchaic and E arly Woodland s ettlement/subsistence s trategies i n t he F alls R egion. I t i s quite c lear ( Griffin 1 967; W illey 1 966; S toltman 1 978) t hat t he L ate Archaic i s a t ime o f r egional d ivergence i n s ubsistence, t echnology, a nd p ossibly s ocial o rganizational c omplexity and i deology a cross t he e astern woodlands. T his period r epresents t he e arliest p oint a t which a rchaeologists h ave b een a ble t o d iscern m ajor d istinctions i n a daptive modes, p resenting a mosaic o f

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l ocalized c ultural t raditions. This period a lso w itnessed t he f irst s ystematic l ong d istance e xchange o f e xotic m aterials. Gulf and A tlantic c oast s hells, G reat L akes c opper, Appalachian s late a nd s teatite, a nd H arrison County c hert a re f ound f ar a field f rom t heir o rigins. " It i s p robable t hat t he n otable i ncrease i n t he t raffic i n e xotic m aterials i s positively c orrelated w ith t he f lorescence i n b urial c eremonialism t hat o ccurred across t he N ortheast... ( and w hile) c hanges i n r eligious b eliefs may b e a f actor i n t he f lorescence o f t hese v arious A rchaic s tage b urial c ults,...it i s a lso p ossible t hat t hese w ell-endowed b urials a cross t he n ortheast r eflect t he emergence o f n ew, more c omplex f orms o f s ocial o rganization" ( Stoltman 1 978:717). E ven t hough t he F alls Region ( and p articularly t he l arge s ites a long t he Ohio R iver) appear t o b e c entrally l ocated o n s ome o f t he t rade r outes, e xotic materials a re r arely f ound a t t hese s ites, possibly s uggesting t hat m iddle p eriod p eoples o f t he F alls R egion w ere n ot p articipating i n t he e xchange s ystems t o t he e xtent o f t he G reen R iver p eoples t o t he w est ( Winters 1 974). Concomitant w ith t hese d evelopments, t he i ncreased n umbers a nd densities o f L ate A rchaic s ites i n most a reas o f t he Eastern Woodlands s uggests s ubstantial i ncreases i n p opulation n umbers a lthough t his may b e s omewhat m isleading. I n many a reas, s pecific s ite t ypes h ave b een d ifferentiated w hose f unctions r ange f rom t emporary r esource p rocurement c amps t o m ultifunctional b ase c amps. T he p resence o f s ingle f unction s ite t ypes t estifies t o t he d evelopment o f more c omplex s ettlement s ystems which may h ave i ncluded p recise s cheduling o f r esource e xploitation, more s easonal moves, a nd i nhabitation o f particular s ite l ocales f or s pecific r esource e xploitation ( Winters 1 964). Although peoples o f t he F alls Region appear t o h ave b een m inimally i nfluenced b y t he v arious c ultural d evelopments i n s urrounding a reas, i t i s c ertainly t rue t hat s ite n umbers d uring t his period i ncreased d ramatically. R ecognizing t he a bundance a nd v ariety o f L ate A rchaic materials i n t he a rea, D onald J anzen ( 1977) p roposed a h ub a nd s poke model o f s ettlement f or t he L ate A rchaic. B y t his h e meant t o i mply m iddle p eriod g roups i n t his a rea r esided p ermanently, o r a lmost permanently, a t a s ingle c entral l ocation a nd f oraged i n t he s urrounding a rea f or f loral, f aunal, o r m ineral r esources. Janzen f eels t hat t his model i s f easible b ecause o f t he c lose j uxtaposition o f s everal r ich e nvironmental z ones ( alluvium, l owlands, a nd uplands) i n t his a rea o f t he Ohio R iver Valley. Evidence f rom t he Rosenberger S ite, which i n J anzen's t erms would b e an i mportant h ub s ite, s uggested t hat a ctivities a t t he s ite i ncluded v arious d omestic, manufacturing, a nd mortuary a ctivities. T he l ocal e conomy appeared t o b e b ased on t hree p rincipal r esource c ategories--aquatic r esources, white-tailed d eer, a nd n ut c rops. F ishing and c ollecting o f aquatic r esources

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available i n t he n earby Ohio R iver, a nd t he s mall, s luggish s treams a nd marshy a reas o f t he O hio R iver f loodplain c onstitute an i mportant c ategory o f r esources available i n t he i mmediate a rea o f t he s ite. On t he o ther h and, white-tailed d eer and n ut c rops w ere l ikely more abundant i n t he a djacent uplands. Another e xtremely i mportant r esource, chippable s tone, was available f rom p rimary s ources i n t he uplands a s well. These c haracteristics o f t he l ocal e conomy a t Rosenberger s uggested t hat r esource e xploitation s ites ( including h unting c amps, l ithic q uarries and workshops, a nd n utting s tations) s hould o ccur i n t he uplands ( Driskell 1 979; Collins and D riskell 1 979). S ubsequent i ntensive i nvestigations a t Taylorsville L ake, an upland a rea i n t he e astern p art o f t he r egion, demonstrated t hat s ites were mostly s hallow, d isturbed l ithic s catters ( Ball 1 978; Robinson e t a l. 1 979) a nd Collins a nd D riskell ( 1980) s uggested t hat t he L ate A rchaic materials w ere q uite s uggestive o f " base c amps" and " lithic manufacturing s tations." Analysis o f c hert s ources i n t he Taylorsville a rea r evealed t hat a l arge portion o f t he r aw material d erives f rom d istant l ocations ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980:391-392). Most s ites i n t he p roject a rea e xhibit patterns c haracteristic o f t ool maintenance r ather t han p rimary manufacture o f c hipped s tone t ools. T aken t ogether, t hese c haracteristics s trongly s uggested t hat l ithic manufacturing was a s econdary a nd c oincidental f unction a t most s ites i n Taylorsville L ake. Thus, i t s eemed l ikely t hat s ites i n t he T aylorsville p roject a rea f unctioned t hrough m uch o f p rehistory a s t emporary c amps f or e xploitation o f t he animal a nd v egetal r esources o f t he upland r idge a nd v alley domain. T he p reponderance o f a rtifacts t hat c ould b e r elated t o a nimal p rocessing w as quite e vident, s o much s o t hat S orensen e t a l. ( 1980), s uggested a h unting p rimacy h ypothesis f or t he p roject a rea. The majority o f d ateable c omponents i ncluding E arly A rchaic t hrough l ate p rehistoric i n t he p roject a rea a re d efined b y t he p resence o f a f ew d iagnostic p rojectile points a t a s ite. These s ites c haracteristically h ave a l ow p roportion o f g eneral manufacturing t ools l ike modified f lakes a nd u nifaces. These small c omponents w ith s imple t ool a ssemblages a re d istinctive o f t emporary h unting c amps. The s ites where l arge c ollections o f a rtifacts were r ecovered does n ot n ecessarily c ontradict t he above s tatement. On t hese s ites ( 15AN203, 1 5SP340 and 1 5SP343) l arge n umbers o f p rojectile points were r ecovered e ven a fter l arge amounts o f material h ad b een t aken b y r elic c ollectors. These l arge s ites u sually h ave a s urprisingly l ow n umber o f unifacially worked t ools on t hem and a

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s urprisingly l arge n umber o f h afted s crapers a nd o ther b eveled b iface f ragments. T hese l atter t ools a re u sually b ased on r eworked p rojectile points. T he l ow n umber o f o bserved u nifaces i s not t he p roduct o f a b ias ( i.e., t he n umbers r educed b y c ollecting). F or most o f t he s ites i n t he r eservoir a rea t he pattern i s r epeated, small c ollections o f l ithic t ools dominated b y p rojectile p oints a nd o ther b ifaces. This s uggests t hat t he portion o f t he S alt R iver V alley a nd t he s urrounding u plands t hat a re n ow Corps o f E ngineers' p roperty was p rimarily u sed a s h unting g rounds f or a ll t he population t hroughout t he p rehistoric p eriod. T he r esource t hat w as most d esired w as p robably t he white-tailed d eer w ith o ther s maller m ammals a nd b irds t aken f or s ubsistence. T he p rocessing o f meat and a nimal h ides s eems t o b e t he m ajor activity o f t he l arger b ase c amps. S orensen e t a l. 1 980:387 T his hypothesis w as l ogical b ut n ot w ell s upported s ince i t w as based on r ather l oose p reconceptions a bout t he r ole o f c ertain a rtifacts, p articularly p rojectile points a nd h afted s crapers, i n t he s et o f activities i nvolving h unting; and t he s upposed i mportance o f t hese a ctivities i n t he p articular c ontext o f upland l ithic s catters. As d iscussed p reviously, t he approach t o l ithic f unctional analysis by S orensen e t a l. ( 1980) d id n ot i nclude 1 ) a method t o t est s pecific h ypotheses a bout u se o f p rojectile points and h afted s crapers, o r 2 ) a m eans t o s egregate modes o f u se o f a rtifacts a ssumed t o b e t ools b ut whose f orm d id n ot s o o bviously s uggest a s pecific i ntended u se. I n s um, t he r esearch b y S orensen e t a l. ( 1980) a t T aylorsville L ake was u nable t o p rogress a cross a n i mportant t hreshold i n t he s equence o f i nferences f rom a rtifact morphology t o s ite f unction, t hat o f t he r elationships o f p roducts and b yproducts t o o ther e conomic a ctivities a t e ach s ite. R idge s ites The r esearch a t t he B ig B end a nd P ossum gain i n t he o riginally r eported i n D riskell ( 1983) a nd a a nalysis t o tudy a dded t he methods o f m icrowear p resent. s The a uthor's methods u sed b y S orensen e t a l. ( 1980). t hat t he r esearch was a ble t o t est t he h ypothesis ig B end a nd T aylorsville l ithic s catters, a t l east a t t he B h unting a nd P ossum R idge s ites, w ere p rimarily o riented t o a nimal p rocessing. The r esults o f a nalysis h ave d emonstrated t he v iability and u sP .fulness o f t he i ntegrated approach a s a m eans t o r econstruct i mportant a spects o f t he l ocal s ubsistence e conomies o f t hese t wo s ites u sing t he c hipped s tone a ssemblage. T he r esults a re p articularly i mportant a s a s tep i n u nderstanding t he p lace o f l ithic t echnology i n r egional m iddle p eriod e conomic a daptation,

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and i n d efining a nd e xplaining s ettlement/subsistence patterning d uring t his period o f p rehistory i n t he F alls Region. Two s pecific contributions o f t his s tudy a re c onsidered i mportant i n t hese r egards. F irst, t he s tudy h as verified a nd c larified s ome c ommonly h eld, b ut n ot t ested, hypothesis a bout t he modes o f u se o f t he s ystematically designed t ools i ncluding p rojectile points, h afted s crapers, and d rills. I t h as b een o bvious t hat p rojectile p oints f unctioned a s h ard, s harp t ips f or l ances, s pears, o r i n l ater t imes, a rrows. However, a rchaeologists h ave b een r eluctant t o r ule o ut t he possibility t hat t hese t ools were g enerally multifunctional h aving b een h abitually u sed i n o ther a ctivities, s uch a s b utchering, a s i mplied b y B all's ( 1978) c lassification o f Taylorsville materials a s p rojectile p oint/knives ( following F aulkner a nd McCollough 1 973). P rojectile points u sed a s b utchering ( or o ther c utting) t ools w ere s o r arely e xhibited i n t he c ollections f rom B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge, a s w ell a s i n s amples f rom o ther F alls R egion s ites, t hat t he possibility t hat t hese t ools w ere c onceptualized b y t he makers a nd u sers a s multipurpose s eems u nlikely. L ike t he p rojectiles, t he g eneral p urpose o f t he h afted s crapers s eems obvious a s s uggested b y t he n ame, b ut a gain analysis r evealed t hat t hese t ools w ere r egularly u sed o nly a s h ide s crapers. Tasks i n s haping ( through s craping o r p laning) o f o ther m aterials s uch a s w ood, b one o r a ntler apparently i nvolved u se o f o ther t ypes o f t ools. S imilarly, t he h afted d rills ( that i s, t hose d rills r esulting f rom r eductive s tages I V o r V I) a lso appeared t o b e r outinely u sed t o d rill b one o r a ntler. I n a ll l ikelihood, t hese a rtifacts w ere u sed p rimarily f or d rilling a ntler. A s n oted e arlier, t he c hipped s tone t echnology a t B ig B end and P ossum R idge s eems t o h ave b een d irected s trictly t oward p roduction and maintenance o f t hese t hree t ool c lasses, which i t i s r easonable t o a ssume, f ormed t he c hipped s tone t ool parts i n a b asic, c urated t ool k it o f t he h unting p arty. One additional c hipped s tone a rtifact, t he c hipped and g round s tone a xe o r c elt which w as p oorly r epresented i n t he c ollections a t t he B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge s ites ( see C hapter I I), m ay w ell c omplete t he c urated c hipped s tone t ool k it f or t he F alls R egion p eoples o f t he m iddle p eriod. Unfortunately, t he s pecific f unction o f t he c hipped/ground a xes o r c elts h as n ot y et b een v erified t hrough m icrowear a nalysis. As a r esult o f t his s tudy, a rchaeologists c oncerned w ith m iddle p eriod e conomic adaptations i n t he F alls R egion m ay more c onfidently a ssume t hat t he p resence o f p rojectile points, h afted s crapers, and d rills i n any a rchaeological context r epresents t he h unting t ool k it. This does n ot mean, however, t hat t he s ites a t w hich t hese a rtifacts a re f ound a re p rimarily h unting c amps, f or a s c urated t ools t hese a rtifacts may b e e xpected t o a lso o ccur i n o ther

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c ontexts a s i s most s urely a ttested b y t heir a lmost u biquitous p resence a t F alls R egion s ites. R ather, a n u nderstanding ( even t hough t entative a t p resent) o f t he s pecific r ole o f t hese a rtifacts i n s ubsistence a ctivities m ay p rovide a dditional i nsight i nto a ny c ontextual a ssociations w ith o ther a rtifacts and s ubsistence d ata, w ith c hipped s tone o r o ther manufacturing d ebris, o r w ith mortuary a ssociations. S econd, t he a nalysis o f t he c ollections f rom B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge, a lso r eveals t he o ther s ide o f t he l ithic m anufacturing/tool u se r elationship. B esides t he s ystematically d esigned t ools ( projectile p oints, h afted s crapers a nd d rills), i t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat t he d ebitage a t h and on e ach s ite was r eadily u tilized f or c onvenient s harp c utting, s craping, a nd p iercing t ools. T hese i ncluded s ome a rtifacts f rom r eductive s tage I II a nd t ools ( mostly f ragmentary) o f l ater r eductive s tages. These w ere c lassified a s t ools o f c onvenience i n C hapter V . There i s n o r eason t o b elieve t hat any o f t hese t ools w ere i ntentionally d esigned f or a s pecific t ask, r ather t hey w ere p robably s elected b ased on t he d emands o f t he t ask a t h and. T here a re s everal i mportant i mplications o f t his a spect o f t ool u se f or a rchaeological i nterpretations i n t he F alls R egion. The a ssumption made b y Collins ( 1979), Robinson e t a l. ( 1979), O ' Malley e t a l. ( 1980), and S orensen e t a l. ( 1980) t hat modified f lakes and most p articularly f lake t ools a nd u nifaces r epresent, a s a rtifact c lasses, p rimarily s imple t ools i s n ot s upported b y t his a nalysis. Apparently, only a m inor p roportion o f t hese a rtifacts w ere u sed a nd c haracteristics o f o verall morphology i n t he u sed t ools d o n ot appear t o b e c losely c orrelated w ith t he mode o f u se. A lthough t his c ontention n eeds t o b e e xamined i n more d etail w ith o ther c ollections, t here i s a t p resent n o b asis f or g eneral i nferences t hat t hese morphological c lasses r epresent t ool f orms. Thus, t he a rchaeologist s hould b e c autioned t hat a rtifact c ategories r esulting f rom r eductive I I s tages I a nd II s hould b e g enerally c onsidered manufacturing b yproducts i n l ieu o f s pecific a nalysis o f w ear patterns a nd s hould b e t reated i n a nalysis a ccordingly. While t he t ools o f c onvenience appear a t p resent t o i ntroduce an u ncontrolled variable i nto a ny equation o f morphology and t ool u se i n t he analysis o f F alls Region s ites, i t may w ell b e t hat s ome o f t he most i mportant f uture d ata f rom t ool u se w ill c ome f rom e xamination o f t hese t ools. Unlike t he c urated t ools ( i.e., s ystematically d esigned t ools), i t i s e asier t o a rgue t hat t hese t ools would h ave b een d iscarded i n t he v icinity o f work. Where t his i s t he c ase, i dentification o f work action and c ontact material may p rovide i mportant d ata o n both l ocal e conomic p atterns a nd t he s pecific l ocus o f s uch a ctivity i n r elation t o o ther a ctivities. Additionally, s ince i t appears a t p resent t hat t he s ystematically d esigned t ools w ere

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p rimarily u sed i n animal p rocessing, i t may w ell b e o nly t ools o f c onvenience which were i nvolved, a t o ther s ites, i n work a ctivities unrelated t o animal p rocessing. F or i nstance, s everal o f t he t ools o f c onvenience r eported i n Chapter V m ight h ave b een u sed i n w oodworking. A t o ther s ites, patterns o f p rocessing o f w ood o r s oft v egetal materials w ith s tone t ools m ight i n f act emerge a s i mportant o r e ven d ominate a ctivities. I n c onclusion, t he i ntegrated a nalysis p erformed o n chipped s tone a rtifacts f rom t he B ig B end and Possum R idge s ites c onstitutes a small, b ut s ignificant s tep across t hat e xplanatory t hreshold t hat s eparates d escriptions a nd i nterpretations o f t he n ature o f c hipped s tone manufacturing f rom t he d elineation o f t he p urpose o f s uch a ctivities i n t he l arger f ramework o f p rehistoric e conomic s trategies. A s s uch, u se o f t his approach p resents t he a rchaeologist w ith an i mportant, b ut n ot i deally s elf s ufficient, t ool i n t he i nterpretation o f s ettlement a nd s ubsistence p atterns. T his t ool a ssumes e ven more i mportance i n t he i nvestigation o f p low d isturbed s ites s uch a s B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge w here c hipped s tone a rtifacts a re s o p rominent. T hese a spects o f t he s tudy a re d iscussed i n t he n ext, a nd f inal, c hapter.

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CHAPTER V II

-M ETHODOLOGICAL CONTRIBUTIONS A f l I MPLICATIONS

This monograph h as p roposed a means o f f unctional analysis o f c hipped s tone a rtifact a ssemblages which i s c onsidered u seful i n i nvestigation o f p lowzone s ites. G iven a c hoice of a rchaeological s ites t o i nvestigate, t he a rchaeologist h as n ot t raditionally opted f or i ntensive i nvestigation o f s ites which h ave b een s everely i mpacted b y w ind and water e rosion, o r man-made d isturbances. R ecent i nterest i n t he s tudy o f r egional s ettlement and s ubsistence p atterns, o r t he n eed t o a ssess a rchaeological r esources f or s cientific s ignificance i n c ulture r esource m anagement a ctivities, h as d rawn a ttention t o t hese d isturbed s ites a s i mportant i n r esearch objectives. A c ommon r esponse t o i nvestigation o f a d isturbed s ite i s t he a ttempt t o r econstruct o riginal s patial c ontext i n o rder t o p rovide t he d ata n ecessary t o analyze s ite materials i n a manner s imilar t o t hat u sed i n a nalysis o f i ntact d eposits. However, w hen i t i s i mpossible t o r econstruct spatial c ontext, o r approach t he a nalysis o f a ctivities t hrough a rtifact s patial c lustering, t his monograph h as p roposed an a lternative approach u sing f unctional a nalysis o f c hipped s tone t ools. Chapter II d iscussed t wo i mportant approaches t o I f unctional analysis o f chipped s tone a ssemblages ( that i s, t he t ool production approach a nd t he t ool u se approach)7 Chapter I V described methods o f analysis which i ncorporated a spects o f t he t wo approaches t o f unctional analysis i nto a l ogical f ramework t hat embraced a much l arger r ange o l f a nalysis o f v ariation a nd i ts i nterpretation t han d oes e ither o f t he approaches u sed s eparately. This w as applied i n analysis a t t wo d isturbed s ites i n Chapter V a nd p roduced i mportant r esults c oncerning s pecific activities a nd o verall s ite f unction. This i ntegrated approach s tipulates a nalysis o f e ach a rtifact i n t he c ollection f or c haracteristics o f r eductive s tage o f manufacture ( based o n morphological r elationships modeled b y Collins 1 974), c ondition s tatus ( as d eveloped i n Collins 1 979), g ross morphology ( see Robinson e t a l. 1 979; S orensen e t a l. 1 980; D riskell 1 983), and u se-wear ( based o n t echniques d eveloped by K eeley 1 980). Where t ime c onstraints w ill n ot a llow analysis o f e ach s pecimen f or u se-wear, a method i s p roposed i n which morphological c lasses o f a rtifacts d efined b y c haracteristics o f r eductive s tage, c ondition s tatus a nd g ross morphology a re s ampled. Obviously, t his approach i s b ased o n t he a ssumption t hat s ome c orrespondence w ill e xist b etween p roduction c haracteristics, f orm, and t ool u se. F urther, i t i s p roposed t hat a c lose e xamination o f t hese c orrespondences w ill a llow t he a rchaeologist t o r econstruct t he l ocal ( site s pecific) chipped s tone p roduction/use c ycle. Where i t i s possible t o r econstruct t his s ite s pecific o rganizational s tructure, t he work activities i mplied b y u se-wear o n t he t ools c an be more f ully u nderstood i n t he c ontext o f l ocal

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e conomic p ursuits, u se c haracteristics.

t hose

i mplied b oth b y m anufacturing a nd

T his c hapter s ummarizes t he p rinciple m ethodological c ontributions o f t he approach, i ts l imitations, a nd i mplications f or f uture r esearch i ncluding u se o f t he approach i n a nalysis o f d isturbed s ites. I n e ssence, t he i ntegrated a pproach p roposed a nd u sed h ere p rovides t he a rchaeologist w ith a t ool o f a nalysis which i s c onsidered i mportant f or s everal r easons. F irst, t he a pproach a llows t he a rchaeologist t o u nderstand t he r ole o r r oles o f e ach c hipped s tone a rtifact i n t he t echnological s ystem. T here a re, h owever, s everal i mportant l imitations o r p otential b iases which m ust b e c onsidered i n t his r egard. S econd, i t i s a rgued t hat t he approach i s i mportant i n t he i nterpretation o f p rehistoric a ctivities a t d isturbed s ites s ince s ome o f t he e conomic d ata u sually g leaned f rom l ess d urable m aterials ( such a s f loral a nd f aunal r emains) i s r evealed o r s uggested b y e xamination o f l ithic a rtifacts a lone. I t s hould a lso b e n oted t hat t he i nterpretations p resented a bove a re p otentially b iased b y t he s pecific f ailure t o r ecognize i mportant c ulturally p roduced s patial u nits s maller t han t he o verall s ite a rea. T hese i ssues a re d iscussed s eparately b elow.

Contributions o f

t he Approach

M ethods o f f unctional a nalysis d eveloped b y o thers h ave b een a ltered i n t his s tudy t o t he e xtent n ecessary t o f it t he c onstraints i mposed b y t he m aterial a nalyzed f rom t he B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge s ites; b ut g enerally, t he monograph's p rincipal c ontribution i s n ot i n n ew m ethods, b ut r ather i n i ntegrating m ethods i nto a n a pproach t o e xamine t he t otal r ange o f work a ctivities i nvolved i n t he l ocal p roduction/use c ycle a nd r eflected i n t he morphological c haracteristics o f t he a rtifact a ssemblage. M ost s pecifically, c hipped s tone a rtifact s tudies u sually f ail t o a chieve a n o verall p erspective o f t he t otal manufacturing p rocess a nd i ts r elationships t o o ther a ctivities ( Collins 1 974:459). T he p reliminary r esults f rom t he B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge s ites p resented h ere w ould s uggest t hat w hen c haracteristics o f r eductive s tage, c ondition, a nd g ross morphology a re e xamined i n c onjunction w ith w ear c haracteristics, a n o verall p erspective m ay b e a chieved; a p erspective w hich a llows t he a rchaeologist t o u nderstand t he r ole o f a rtifacts ( as b yproducts o r p roducts) i n t he f abrication p rocess, t he r ole o f t ools i n o ther a ctivities, a nd t he s tructural r elationships o f t he t wo. Most i mportantly, t he a pproach a llows t he a rchaeologist t o make s ome f irmly b ased i nferences a bout t he p urpose o r p urposes o f t he s ite-wide l ithic i ndustry i n s pite o f t he absence o f d ata o n i ntrasite a reas o f a ctivity.

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F or i nstance, i t s eems l ikely t hat t he p rincipal i ntent o f t he p roduction/use c ycle a t B ig B end and P ossum R idge w as p roduction, maintenance, o r r ecycling o f p rojectile points a nd c hipped s tone d rills f or u se i n v arious a ctivities o f p rocessing animal p roducts. ( Note t hat h afted s crapers a re p robably r eworked f rom p rojectile points.) T hese f inished t ools were s haped f rom b ifacial p reforms, s ome o f which were i mported f rom e lsewhere while o thers w ere p robably p roduced a t t he s ites. The i mportant point i s t hat t hese r elationships would n ot h ave b een s uggested h ad t he approach n ot i ncluded 1 ) a means t o d efine t he p atterns o f a ctual t ool u se and, 2 ) t he data n ecessary t o u nderstand t he d istinction b etween u se o f t he s ystematically d esigned t ools a nd t he t ools o f c onvenience. R egarding t he f ormer, m icrowear e vidence w as o f p articular i mportance, b ut c oncerning t he l atter, t he i nterplay o f c haracteristics o f r eductive s tage, condition, g ross morphology a nd m icrowear w as n ecessary t o make t he d istinction b etween t hese t wo c ategorically d ifferent modes o f a rtifact u tilization. Once t he d istinction b etween t ools o f c onvenience a nd s ystematically d esigned t ools was r ecognized, t he s eemingly c omplex v ariation i n t he r elationships o f t ool p roduction, f orm and u se w as more e asily u nderstood and e xplained. This i s an i mportant methodological c ontribution o f t he s tudy presented h ere. P revious s tudies o f t he f unctional c haracteristics o f s tone t ools h ave b een c onstrained b y f airly s trict a dherence t o t he b oundaries o f t he t ool p roduction approach o r t he t ool u se approach. C ollins' ( 1974) o riginal r esearch, while p roposing t he e ssential r elationships b etween manufacturing a nd u se, f ailed t o e xamine modes o f t ool u se p resumably b ecause r eliable methods t o do s o were n ot available a t t hat t ime. L ater, when Collins' m ethods w ere applied i n a nalysis o f a rtifact c ollections i n t he F alls R egion ( Collins 1 979; R obinson e t a l. 1 979; S orensen e t a l. 1 980), a s tep was t aken t o d efine a dditional a rtifact v ariation w hich r esulted f rom manufacturing e rrors ( see t he d iscussion o f c ondition s tatus i n Chapter I V). While t his a llowed t he a rchaeologist t o c ontrol ( i.e., u nderstand) a b roader r ange o f morphological v ariation and t o n arrow t he s earch f or r elationships b etween t ool p roduction and u se, methods w ere u nsuccessful i n d efining t ool c lasses. I n _ essence, t he a ttempt b y S orensen e t a l. ( 1980) t o u se t he t ool p roduction approach t o i nfer s ite f unction w as s omewhat m isleading f or r easons d iscussed e arlier. A ssumptions about t he r ole o f a rtifacts i n e ach morphological c lass, e ither a s t ools o r manufacturing b yproducts, w ere g enerally s peculative a nd n ot v ery s pecific. I n s ome c ases, morphological c lasses ( such a s f lake tools) were a ssumed t o r epresent t ool f orms w hen, i n f act, m icrowear analysis ( Driskell 1 983; s ee Chapter V ) s uggested t hat most o f t hese a rtifacts w ere n ot t ools. Thus, i n t hese c ases, i mportant c haracteristics o f c lass

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membership ( that i s, a r etouched e dge) had t hrough i nadvertent d amage, n ot u se a s t ools.

o ften

a ccrued

I n r etrospect, t he t ool p roduction approach w as u seful f or c haracterizing t he a ssemblage a long p arameters o f manufacturing b ehavior a nd w as f ound t o b e a u seful w ay t o s egregate morphological c lasses r esulting f rom t he m anufacturing p rocess. S ome o f t hese c lasses a re l ogically b yproducts o f m anufacturing while o thers may b e c onsidered, o n t echnical g rounds, t o b e aborted a nd/or u nfinished t ools. S till o ther a rtifact c lasses emerged a s t echnically c omplete a nd u sable t ools whose mechanical p roperties a re s uggestive o f s pecific modes o f u se. P ast t his point, however, t he i nferential potential o f t he t ool p roduction approach w as e xhausted. This approach d id n ot i ncorporate a means t o s upport i nferences c oncerning t he s pecific n ature o f t ool u se n or w as t here a w ay o f v erifying t he modes o f u se w hich w ere postulated. U se-wear a nalysis i s an obvious w ay t o approach t his p roblem. On t he o ther h and, t he t ool u se approach p rimarily a ddresses v ariability p roduced a t t he p oint o f a rticulation o f t he t echnological s ystem w ith t ool u se i n o ther e conomic p ursuits. This i s b ecause t he t ool u se approach f ocuses o n e xamination o f t he morphologies o f t ool e dges f or u se-wear a nd n ot on morphological c haracteristics r esulting f rom f abrication. Most i mportantly, t his approach d oes n ot d irectly address t he i ssue o f t he r espective a nd r elated r oles o f a rtifacts n ot e xhibiting u se-wear, a nd i t i s p rimarily l imited i n i nterpretation t o i ndividual a rtifacts a ctually e xhibiting r ecognizable w ear p atterns. T he m ethods o f m icrowear a nalysis, e ither t hose p roposed b y K eeley ( 1980) o r Odell ( 1977), do n ot a rticulate p rogrammatic m eans t o r elate w ear p atterns t o o ther a spects o f a rtifact v ariability. A s a r esult, m icrowear a nalysis o f a rtifacts f rom t he B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge s ites, i n l ieu o f a nalysis o f manufacturing c haracteristics o f e ach c ollection, w ould n ot h ave r evealed m any o f t he p articular r elationships o f t ool d esign t o t ool u se, and a rtifact f unctional h istory would h ave r emained o bscure. While any m icrowear a nalyst would r ecognize t he o bvious morphological c lasses s uch a s f lakes, c ores, u nifaces, a nd h afted b ifaces, i t would n ot h ave b een o bvious t hat s ome t ool u se , e pisodes w ere l ikely u nrelated t o p roduction motives. S uch a s ituation, a s i ndicated f or t he t ools o f c onvenience d efined i n Chapter V , w ould n ot h ave b een o bvious. Additionally, u se-wear a nalysis a lone w ould n ot h ave b een s ufficient t o r ecognize t he o verall p atterns o f c hipped s tone manufacturing w hich a ppear t o h ave b een c oncentrated i n t he f inal s tages o f f abrication a nd maintenance, n or would a s trict t ool u se approach h ave r evealed t he c lose r elationship o f t his manufacturing s equence t o t he animal p rocessing a ctivities s uggested b y t ool wear p atterns. I n a ll f airness, t he u se-wear a nalyst d oes n ot f ocus h is a ttention s o n arrowly a s t o i gnore o ther

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i mportant morphological c haracteristics o f t he a rtifact c ollection under s crutiny, b ut t he t ool u se approach does n ot demand t his and c haracterization o f v ariability r esulting f rom manufacturing h as n ot g enerally b een r igorously defined and c ontrolled b y u se-wear a nalysts. I t i s i nevitable, a s t he f ocus o f l ithic f unctional s tudies s hifts f rom t he d evelopment o f s pecific m ethods o f a nalysis o f i ndividual a rtifacts t o more s ynthetic o bjectives o f t he i nterpretation o f c omplete a rtifact a ssemblages, t hat t he t wo approaches would, a nd w ill i n t he f uture, b e combined i n a n approach s uch a s t he o ne d escribed h ere. When t he a rchaeologist's o bjective i s t o u se methods o f f unctional a nalysis i n s ite o r r egional r esearch d esigns, t he approach must i nclude methods t o derive d ata on a ll a spects o f t he l ithic t echnology and m ust i nclude a f ramework which a rticulates t hese methods i n a p ractical w ay. T his m ay well i nclude s ampling m ethods ( as was d iscussed above) particularly i n r egards t o m icroscopic a nalysis o f w ear patterns. M icrowear analysts h ave n ot y et c losely e xamined i ssues o f s ampling ( see H ayden 1 979; N ance 1 979), b ut i t i s f elt t hat t he s ampling m ethods p roposed h ere w ill b e o f c onsiderable u tility i n t he a nalysis o f l arge a rtifact c ollections. Once m ethods t o e xamine manufacturing c haracteristics a s w ell as t ool u se c haracteristics a re c ombined, t he s um i s g reater t han a ll t he p arts i n t hat t he i ntegrated approach a llows t he analyst t o potentially s egregate, d efine and e xplain t he r ole o r r oles o f e ach a rtifact i n t he a rchaeological a ssemblage t hereby l aying t he c ritical g round w ork for f irmly s upported i nferences a bout t he r elationships o f f abrication a nd t ool u se, a nd u ltimately, t he p urpose ( or motivation) underlying t he h uman b ehavioral s ystem. This a spect o f i nterpretation w as r evealed most c learly a t t he B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge s ites i n t he r elationships d iscovered b etween manufacturing a ctivities, a spects o f a rtifact d esign, and u se o f p rojectile p oints, h afted s crapers, and d rills. S econdarily, t he approach a lso a llowed t he a uthor t o u nderstand t he b ackground n oise i ntroduced i nto m anufacture/design/use r elationships b y t he t ools o f c onvenience. T he a bility t o move t o t his l evel o f i nterpretation t hrough l ithic f unctional a nalysis i s a n i mportapt s tep t oward a h olistic understanding o f a p articular l ithic t echnology. I n e ssence, t he a pproach p rovides a means t o e xplanation s imilar t o t hat r ecently c alled f or by H ayden a nd K amminga ( 1979:5-6) w ho e nvision a n ew f ocus o f f unctional a nalysis w hich t hey c alled " design t heory"; t hey s uggest t hat: While i t i s c lear t hat t here i s n ot a o ne-to-one r elation b etween t ool f orm a nd f unction, i t i s equally w rong t o s ay t here i s n o correlation...Although s ome a rchaeologists o bject to a rchaeology a s " paleopsychology," d esign t heory

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d eals d irectly w ith t he d ecision-making p rocess...Whereas only a f ew y ears a go p rehistorians r eacted n egatively t o t he p rospect o f i nferring p ast d ecision-making b ases, i t n ow appears a s an i nevitable, c entral, operational, a nd j ustifiable c oncern o f a rchaeology, w ith u se-wear a s t he c ornerstone f or t he P aleolithic. A s s uch, t he r esearch r eported here i s a n i mportant a nd s uccessful c ontribution t o t he f ield o f l ithic a nalysis. However, t he approach i s n ot w ithout i ts s hortcomings.

Methodological

L imitations

i n A rtifact Analysis

E ach s tep i n a rtifact a nalysis i n t he p resent s tudy i s b ased on c omparison o f t he a rtifact's morphological c haracteristics t o t hose k nown and p roduced e xperimentally. T hese c omparisons a re n ever e xact b ecause t he i nter-relationships o f v arious c haracteristics o f t he material and i ts g eometry, a nd v arious a ttributes o f a ttrition a re n ever i dentical b etween e xperimentally a nd a rchaeologically d erived s pecimens. A t t his c ritical point i n analysis o f r eductive s tage, c ondition, g ross morphology, a nd u se-wear, t he a nalyst makes i nferences w hich a re b ased on s ubjective j udgments about t he c ritical l imits o f v ariability r esulting f rom a k nown c ause. A s C ollins ( 1974:461) n otes, t o make v alid i nterpretations b ased o n t he s tatistical d escription o f a ttributes i n a n a ssemblage, w e n eed t o a ugment o ur p resent a nd l argely q ualitative e xperimental data b ase w ith q uantified d escriptions o f t he e ffects o f d ifferent v ariables derived f rom controlled e xperimentation. U ntil s uch a corpus o f d ata i s a t h and, i nferences...must n ecessarily r emain s ubjective a nd s tand w ithout b enefit o f computable c onfidence l evels. This d ata b ase h as n ot y et b een d eveloped b ut t he i ncreasing i nterest i n c arefully c ontrolled b asic r esearch ( see H ayden 1 979) h olds c onsiderable p romise f or t he f uture. The i nterpretation o f s pecific modes o f u se t hrough methods o f m icrowear analysis i s a c rucial a spect o f t he s tudy i n t his r egard. I t i s q uite c lear t hat c ertain t ypes o f t ool u se p roduce more, a nd more e asily i dentifiable, wear p atterns t han o ther t ypes o f u se. H ide polish d evelops r ather q uickly a nd i s e asily i dentified a nd i nterpreted. O n t he o ther h and, s oft p lant polish a nd meat polish d evelop s lowly and a re d ifficult t o r ecognize. T his appears t o b e p articularly t rue i n t he c ase o f c hert t ypes i n t he F alls R egion ( see t he r esults o f t he s kills t est i n Appendix F ).

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Most particularly, w ood polish a nd b one/antler p olish a re q uite s imilar i n i ncipient s tages o f d evelopment. W ood p olish b ecomes d istinctive o nly w hen w ell-formed. I t i s t herefore p robable t hat t ools u sed i n p lant p rocessing, i f t hey o ccurred a t B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge, w ould n ot b e a s e asily r ecognized a s a nimal p rocessing t ools. C ertainly, u se o f c hipped s tone t ools i n p lant p rocessing h as n ot b een d efinitely r uled o ut a t e ither s ite. Hopefully, f uture d evelopments i n m icrowear a nalysis w ill r esult i n more s ensitive m ethods t o i dentify modes o f t ool u se a nd m aterials w orked. T he n ature o f i nterpretations f orthcoming f rom m icrowear a nalysis a t t he t wo s ites a re c ertainly i mportant b ut, i n r eality, o nly a f ew t ools w ere a ctually f ound t o b e f ully i nterpretable a s t o u se. S ome o f t hese t ools ( projectile points, h afted s crapers, a nd d rills) s uggested v ery s pecific r elationships b etween t he d esign c haracteristics o f s tages I V a nd V I t ool c lasses a nd m odes o f u se. This s upported t he l ogical c onclusion o f s pecific i ntent o f p roduction a nd u se a s i mplied i n t he i nterpretations p resented a bove. H owever, i t i s p ossible t hat an e xamination o f a l arger n umber o f t ools i n t hese c lasses o r more l ikely, a n e xamination o f a l arger n umber o f t he t ools o f c onvenience m ight e xhibit p atterns o f t ool u se a nd c ontact materials n ot f ound t hus f ar o n t he t ools t hat w ere a nalyzed. The s ample o f t ools a vailable t o t he a uthor f or analysis w as s mall m aking i nferences o n t he p atterns o f t ool u se l ess t han c ompletely r eliable.

B enefits a nd L imitations a t D isturbed S ites

I t i s, h owever, o bvious t hat t he i mportance o f t he approach p resented h ere t o o verall g oals o f i nterpretation o f d isturbed s ites w ill d epend o n t he p rominence o f c hipped s tone a rtifacts i n t he m aterial i nventory. I n s ituations l ike t hose f ound a t m any p lowzone s ites i n c entral K entucky, c hipped s tone a rtifacts a re g enerally t he o nly m ajor c ategory o f material c ulture r emaining. T hus, a ny a nalysis m ust s eriously c onsider w ays t o m aximize r ecovery o f d ata o n s ite f unction f rom t he c hipped s tone a rtifact a ssemblages a lone. T he p rincipal c ontribution o f t his s tudy c oncerns m ethods t o i nterpret p lowzone o r d isturbed d eposits. U nlike o ther s tudies o f p lowzone s ites w hich f ocus o n r econstruction o f s patial r elationships o f a rtifactual m aterials, t he i ntegrated approach d iscussed a nd a pplied a bove a ttempts t o r econstruct t he n ature o f t he s ite's p roduction/use c ycle ( that i s, t he l ocal e conomic o rganization o f c hipped s tone m anufacture a nd u se) b y a n e xamination o f t he s tructural c haracteristics o f t he o rganization a s r eflected i n v arious morphological c haracteristics o f t he a rtifacts i n t he a ssemblage. T his approach h as p roved t o b e a v iable

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approach t o i nferences about s ite a ctivities and o verall f unction, a nd an i mportant a lternative t o approaches w hich a ttempt t o r econstruct i ntrasite s patial p atterning a s a c ritical s tep i n i nferential l ogic. T he approach u sed h ere i n t he analysis o f c hipped s tone a rtifacts f rom t he B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge s ites p roved s uccessful i n d emonstrating t he g eneral n ature o f manufacturing a ctivities and t he e conomic a ctivities i n which t he p roducts o f manufacturing w ere engaged e ven t hough d ata on a rtifact s patial c lustering w as n ot a vailable. T his w as possible b ecause t he m ethods a rticulated i n t he a pproach a re e ssentially i ndependent o f a ny c onsiderations o f a rtifact context, s patial d istributions, and c haracteristics o f s ite d isturbance. I t s hould however b e a rgued t hat i nterpretations o f s ite-wide p atterns, s uch a s t hose g enerated above c ould be c onsiderably enhanced i f r ecognizable p atterns o f t emporal and s patial d istributions c ould h ave b een d elineated. I n t he o riginal s tudy ( Driskell 1 983), a n approach t o f unctional analysis o f c hipped s tone a rtifacts s imilar t o t hat d iscussed h ere was u sed a s a means f or a ssigning a rtifacts t o f unctional c lasses. This w as d one p rior t o a n e xamination o f spatial patterning o f t he a rtifacts a t e ach s ite ( see Chapter I I). I t was f elt t hat t his was o f p remier i mportance i n i nterpretation o f t he n ature o f any d iscrete t emporal/spatial d istributions f ound a t e ach s ite. O riginally, a n u nderstanding o f t he r ole o f a rtifacts i n v arious a ctivities was c onsidered a n ecessary f irst s tep i n i nterpretation o f t he m eaning o f a ny spatial p atterns o f a ssociation. T he s ubsequent f ailure t o d istinguish d iscrete a ctivity a reas w ithin e ach s ite w as a ssumed t o r esult f rom s everal f actors: 1 ) t he i nability t o s egregate m ost a rtifacts by t emporal a ssociation i n d eposits r esulting f rom m ixing o f s everal t emporally d istinct components, 2 ) t he small n umber o f a ctual t ools i dentified i n c ollections f rom e ach s ite, a nd 3 ) t he methodological l imitations i mposed i n analysis o f d isturbed d eposits ( see C hapter I I). These a re d iscussed i n more d etail b elow. I t i s, however, possible t o i nclude s tylistic t ypes w ithin t he f ramework o f a nalysis a s w as done h ere w ith t he p rojectile point t ypes ( see D riskell 1 983 and Appendix A ). A ttempts were made t o u se t he d istributions o f t hese t ypes a t e ach s ite t o d istinguish " horizontal" s tratigraphy b ut t his w as n ot s uccessful ( Driskell 1 983). The o riginal o bjectives o f r esearch a t t hese t wo s ites would h ave b een b etter s erved b y a nalysis o f s ingle c omponent s ites. A n umber o f s ites i n t he T aylorsville p roject a rea appeared t o b e s ingle c omponent s ites, b ut t he f ocus t hroughout t he f ieldwork a t T aylorsville w as o n t he l arger s ites w hich p roduced t he l argest a nd most v aried a rtifact collections. I n r etrospect, t he a rchaeologist s hould b e a dvised t o a void t he p roblem o f i ntermixing o f s everal c omponents w here possible i n i nvestigations o f p lowzone s ites.

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T he l imitations i mposed by small t ool c lasses i n r esearch a t t he B ig B end a nd Possum R idge s ites p robably r esulted f rom both a rtifact g leaning b y c ollectors a nd f rom l imited e ffort i n f ield c ollecting b y t he a rchaeologists. T he c ollections f rom e ach s ite were o riginally c onsidered q uite a dequate f or t he p urposes o f s ite f unctional a nd s patial a nalysis b ecause t hey were l arge ( particularly t hat f rom B ig B end) i n r elation t o o ther T aylorsville s ites a nd i n r egards t o t he postulated t ools ( mostly modified f lakes a nd f lake t ools) i n e ach c ollection. However, t he s ize a nd n umber o f t ool c lasses r evealed i n t he f unctional a nalysis w as m uch s maller t han p ostulated. T he absence o f u se-wear o n m any a rtifacts i n c ategories s uch a s marginally modified f lakes a nd f lake t ools s uggested o nly m inimal u se a s t ools b y t he p rehistoric i nhabitants. M icrowear o n c ertain t ools g enerally c onfirmed c ommonly made i nferences a bout t ool u se a nd f unction. This i ncludes h afted s crapers a s h ide p rocessing t ools and " drills" a s b one o r a ntler working t ools a nd p rojectile points a s d art o r l ance t ips. U nfortunately, t hese t ools w ere r epresented b y s mall s amples f rom e ach s ite. W ith s uch l imited n umbers o f a rtifacts i n t ool c lasses, d istributions a t s ites w ith s uch a l arge a real e xtent w ere n ot a dequately portrayed. I n r etrospect, much l arger a rtifact s amples o f p articular c ategories f rom e ach s ite s hould h ave b een c ollected. T his w ould h ave b een possible t hrough applications o f m ultiple p lowing/plotting/collection e pisodes ( see C hapter I I). B y d ramatically i ncreasing t he s ize o f t he s ample o f t ool c lasses, t he opportunity t o d istinguish i ntrasite a ctivity a reas and horizontal s tratigraphy would h ave b een e nhanced. F or i nstance, h ad t he s ample f rom t he B ig B end S ite b een 1 0 f old t hat o f t he e xtant c ollection ( that i s, a bout 1 6,000 r ather t han a bout 1 ,600 a rtifacts), one m ight postulate t hat i t would i nclude about 6 90 i ntact a nd f ragmentary p rojectile p oints, 1 90 i ntact a nd f ragmentary h afted s crapers, a nd 5 0 d rills. P resumably, a bout 4 00 o f t hese s pecimens ( primarily p rojectile points and h afted s crapers) w ould b e a ssignable T ne d istribution t o t emporally s ensitive s tylistic t ypes. o f t hese 4 00 s pecimens m ight b e s ignificantly d ifferent f rom t hat f ound f or a bout 4 0 s pecimens; a t a ny r ate, t he i ncreased s ample s ize would h ave p rovided a m uch more r eliable r epresentation o f s patial d istributions. Much l arger c ollections w ould n ot n ecessarily m ean t hat s ignificantly d ifferent methods o f f unctional a nalysis w ould b e r equired. Obviously, more e ffort would b e r equired i n r ecording a ll a rtifacts b y r eductive s tage, c ondition s tatus, a nd morphology; b ut doing t his o n c ollections e ven t en-fold t hat o f t he B ig B end S ite i s possible. T his w as done f or t he c ollections f rom t he s outhwest J efferson C ounty f loodwall p roject ( Collins 1 979) w here a bout 1 5,000 a rtifacts i n a ddition t o h undreds o f t housands o f f lakes were p rocessed a lthough o nly s mall s amples o f t he f lakes w ere a nalyzed i n a ny d etail. To e xamine m icrowear

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c haracteristics on a 1 6,000 s pecimen c ollection u sing t he s ame s ampling r egime a s u sed h ere would b e a l engthy t ask. Rather t han an e xamination o f 2 23 a rtifacts, t he s ame methods o f s ampling m ight p roduce s ome 2 ,230 specimens f or analysis. I f t his were t he c ase, i t w ould b e advisable t o e xamine o nly a s ample of t hese a rtifacts. I t c an b e p redicted, i n r etrospect, t hat analysis o f a 1 0% s ample o f t he p rojectile points, d rills, and h afted s crapers would r eveal u se p atterns s imilar t o t hose f ound i n t his s tudy. P atterns o f u se w ithin e ach o f t hese a rtifact c lasses w ere s uch t hat a r ather c lose r elationship b etween a rtifact d esign a nd u se c an b e i dentified. S ince t his i s t he c ase, t he a rtifact's f orm may b e u sed a s a p redictor o f t he mode o f i ntended u se ( not n ecessarily a ctual u se) i n generalizations about t he r ole o f u nanalyzed specimens i n e ach o f t hese t hree c lasses. L ike t he t emporally s ensitive a rtifacts d iscussed a bove, e xamination o f t he d istribution o f, and spatial r elationships w ithin and b etween, t hese c lasses o f a rtifacts m ight well h ave p roduced d ifferent r esults when t he d istribution o f s ome 9 30 r ather t han 9 3 a rtifacts a re c onsidered. R esults o f a nalysis r eported i n C hapter V s uggest t hat modes o f i ntended t ool u se c annot b e p redicted f rom f orm w ith any r eliability f or c lasses s uch a s marginally modified f lakes, f lake t ools, unifaces ( with t he possible e xception o f t hose c losely r esembling h afted s crapers), s tage I II b ifaces, o r b roken f ragments o f more s ystematically s haped a rtifacts o f s tage I V o r V I r eduction. Where t hese a rtifacts were f ound t o b e u sed, t hey w ere u sually a ssigned t o t he c ategory o f t ools o f c onvenience. Most t ool u se episodes were l ikely u nrelated t o p roduction motives. A lthough t echnically b elonging t o morphological c lasses which w ere more c losely a ssociated w ith o ther r oles, t hey were i nterpreted a s u sed o r r e-used i n an i ncidental way a fter t hey h ad b een o riginally abandoned. T his d istinction w as made b ased o n v arious t ypes o f e vidence s uggesting t hat t he c lasses were p rimarily c ategories o f debris. These t ools o f convenience w ere p rimarily e mployed i n a ctivities i nvolving v arious c utting a ctions which s eem t o b e mostly r elated t o p rocessing o f a nimal p roducts. B utchering a nd o ther c utting a ctivities a re n ot g enerally i ndicated , b y modes o f u se o f t he s ystematically d esigned t ools o f s tages I V o r V I a t t he B ig B end S ite. T he apparent absence o f a c lose r elationship b etween o verall f orm a nd u se i n t he a rtifact c lasses c ontaining p rimarily t ools o f c onvenience p resents an a nnoying p roblem where m icrowear a nalysis o f t he c omplete c ollection i s n ot possible. I t m ight b e possible t o i dentify e asily r ecognizable morphological correlates t o a ctual u se w hich do n ot i nvolve m icroscopic e xamination b ut t his s eems an u nlikely p rospect f or t ools o f c onvenience. B arring t his possibility, t he r ole o f i ndividual s pecimens a s t ools a nd

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t heir mode o f u se a s s uch w ill r emain unknown i n l ieu o f m icroscopic i dentification o f w ear patterns. Under t hese c ircumstances, i t m ight b e a dvisable t o t reat t hese t ools d ifferently i n t he a nalysis. Consider t he f ollowing approach. I t might w ell b e b est t o f irst e xamine t he d istributions o f t he d ebitage a nd s ystematically d esigned t ools i n o rder t o p rovisionally i dentify a ny a reas where t hese m aterials a re concentrated. Then a more i ntensive e xamination o f a rtifacts which o ccur i n c lose p roximity t o any c oncentrations w ould s erve t o f urther c larify t he n ature a nd r ange o f t ool u se a ssociated w ith t he a rea. T his p rocedure would avoid t he n ecessity t o e xamine a ll s pecimens f rom t he s ite which may h ave been t ools o f c onvenience. A l ast, and i mportant, s et o f i ssues i n p lowzone a rchaeology, a nd most p articularly i n i nterpretation o f t he r ole o f t he B ig B end and P ossum R idge s ites i n r egional patterns o f s ettlement a nd s ubsistence, concern methodological l imitations i n a nalysis and i nterpretation. One way t o e xamine t his s et o f i ssues i s t o r eview t he h ard d ata on which i nterpretation o f a ctivities a t t he B ig B end and Possum R idge s ites a re b ased, a nd c ompare t hese d ata t o t hose generated a t s ites l ike R osenberger ( briefly d escribed i n Chapter I I). P robably t he most c ritical i ssue i n t his r egard i s t o w hat e xtent o ne's p erceptions o f overall c ultural patterning o f o ccupation o f s ites l ike Rosenberger and B ig B end m ight b e d etermined b y post-depositional a lternations o f t he m idden c haracteristics.

S ite Context

and

I nterpretations

A rtifacts f rom s ites s uch a s B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge a re, o f c ourse, n ot s trictly d evoid o f a rchaeological c ontext f or we c an d emonstrate a s patial c ontext a t t he s ite l evel and e xamine s ite-wide p atterns i n r egional c ontext. A s w ill h ave b een n oted i n C hapter V , h owever, i t i s d ifficult t o a scertain whether o r n ot t he u se-wear o n s tone t ools actually a ccrued a t t he s ite o f d iscovery when i t i s n ot possible t o s ee convincing a ssociations b etween a rtifact reas o f activity. F or t he t ools o f c onvenience, t ypes .and a i t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat t hey w ere u sed a t, o r quite n ear, t he l ocus o f d iscovery, b ut t he s ystematically d esigned t ools a re a nother matter. T he d iscussions i n Chapter V a nd Appendix G s uggest t hat t hese t ool c lasses ( hafted s crapers, p rojectile points, a nd d rills) f ormed p art o f t he c urated a nd t ransported t ool k it. While t his means t hat wear c haracteristics m ay n ot b e n ecessarily a ssociated w ith t he l ocus o f d iscovery, t wo l ines o f e vidence were u sed t o s upport t he c ontention t hat t hese t ools were u sed a t t he t wo s ites. F irst, s ome o f t he

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t ools were made o f l ocal materials a nd s everal s pecimens were working e dge f ragments w hich w ere l ikely d iscarded a s t he r esult o f work i nduced b reakage. S econd, t he s et o f activities i nferred f rom t he s ystematically d esigned t ools was s imilar t o, o r c omplemented b y, t he t ools o f c onvenience. Together, t hese c haracteristics o f e ach collection s trongly s upport t he c ontention t hat t he s ites f unctioned a s h unting/animal p rocessing c amps. The point i s t hat i n s pite o f t he l oss o f p rimary s patial c ontext a nd t he i nability t o d efine a ctivity a reas, a s trong c ase c an b e made f or a s pecific s et o f l ocal ( that i s, s ite) a ctivities b ased s trictly on t he morphological c haracteristics o f a rtifacts and t heir f unctional i nter-relationships a t e ach s ite. I t i s obvious t hat t he approach u sed h ere i s a n i nferior s ubstitute f or a ctivity a nalysis b ased o n t he d elineation o f d iscrete i ntrasite a ctivity a reas. P otential i nsight i nto s patial/temporal o rganization o f a ctivities i s i rretrievably l ost where t hese s patial p atterns c annot b e r econstructed. Additionally, t he p reservational qualities o f a d isturbed s ite matrix s uch a s t hat a t B ig B end o r Possum R idge, i s a s erious p roblem i n r econstruction o f p atterns o f a ctivity a t e ach s ite. I t i s o f c ourse n ot k nown t o w hat e xtent t emporally i solable s trata were d eveloped a t t he B ig B end S ite b ut t he e vidence f or f luvial c haracteristics o f t he S alt R iver i n t his a rea would s uggest t hat a lluviation w ould h ave b een s light ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980). This w as a lso t he c ase f or t he Rosenberger S ite ( see Chapter I I) w hich, b y v irtue o f i ts positioning o n a h igh t errace, w as r arely f looded i n s pite o f i ts c lose p roximity t o t he O hio R iver ( Driskell 1 979). I n b oth c ases, t he m iddens apparently d eveloped p rimarily a s a r esult o f c ultural p rocesses o f d iscard. As noted i n Chapter I, a c omparison o f t he d ensities o f I d urable, portable a rtifacts a t e ach s ite s uggests d istinctive d ifferences i n o ccupational h istories. T hese d ifferences m ight r elate e ither t o much smaller g roups o f p eople i nhabiting t he B ig B end S ite, o r a m uch s horter t erm occupational h istory a t t he B ig B end S ite, o r possibly b oth. Added t o t his a re t he d istinctively c ontrasting characteristics o f s ite s etting ( alluvium a nd t he r iverine o rientation a s opposed t o t he upland r idge a nd v alleys) a nd t he p reconceived meanings d erived f rom t hese d istinctions. However, i f f or t he moment t hese d istinctions a re d isregarded, and t he l ess d urable a rtifacts o f bone, f lora and f auna, and t he n onportable a rtifacts ( pits, p ostmolds, h earths, b urials, e tc.) f rom R osenberger n ot c onsidered, o ne i s l eft w ith t he l ithic a ssemblages f rom t he t wo s ites. While a d etailed a nalysis o f wear c haracteristics o n t he c hipped s tone a ssemblage f rom Rosenberger h as n ot b een a ttempted y et, i t may b e postulated f rom t he f ew t ools e xamined ( see Chapter V ) t hat u se o f t he s ystematically d esigned t ools ( projectile p oints, h afted s crapers, a nd

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d rills) i s consistent w ith t hat f ound a t B ig B end a nd o ther s ites. Although t he n umber o f p rojectile points, h afted s crapers and d rills e xamined i n Chapter V i s i ndeed o nly a s mall s ample, u se-wear p atterns, where f ound, w ere q uite c onsistent w ith t hose f ound f or s imilar a rtifacts a t B ig B end and Possum R idge. Whether d ifferent p atterns o f u se o f t ools o f c onvenience b etween t he t wo s ites would b e f ound i s u nknown, and w hether n ew r oles f or s ome c lasses o f t ools w ould b e r evealed a t R osenberger i s a lso n ot k nown. B ut b ased s trictly o n an e xamination ( similar t o t hat s tipulated h ere) o f t he n ature o f c hipped s tone t echnology r epresented a t e ach s ite a nd t he i nterpretation o f i ts p rimary p urpose i n l ocal e conomies, t he s ole qualitative d istinction m ight w ell be f ound i n t he r elative p roportions o f materials i n r eductive s tages. T his d istinction m ight, u nder t hese c ircumstances b e a ssumed t o r elate t o v ariables o f a ccess t o r aw materials r ather t han d istinctive d ifferences i n s ite-wide e conomic p ursuits. I n o ther words, h ad R osenberger b een a p lowzone s ite w ith p reservational c haracteristics i dentical t o B ig B end, an application o f t he a pproach t o f unctional a nalysis s tipulated h ere m ight w ell h ave p roduced r esults a nd i nterpretations s imilar t o t hat f or B ig B end a nd Possum R idge. This possibility i ndicates a s erious l imitation o f t he a pproach a s well a s o f i nterpretation o f d isturbed s ites. T he approach i s s trictly a means t o i nfer t he n ature o f a ctivities i nvolved i n, and i nvolving p roducts o f, t he c hipped s tone t echnology. The a rchaeologist u sing t he a pproach s hould r emember t hat t he c hipped s tone t echnology i s only one a spect o f a c ulture's e conomic s trategy, a nd t hat t his a spect may o r may n ot v ary i n d irect a nd e asily p redictable w ays t o o ther a spects o f t he l ocal e conomy o r m ore generally t o t he overall n ature a nd p urpose o f s ettlement. I t i s t herefore a lways n ecessary t o e valuate t he r esults o f s uch a n approach i n l ight o f a ny o ther i dentifiable s ite c haracteristics and w ith d ue r egard f or t he potential i mpact o f d isturbance o n i dentifiable p atterns. I n t he c ase o f t he B ig B end and P ossum R idge s ites, t heir i nterpretation a s h unting/animal p rocessing c amps i s c ompatible w ith postulated s ettlement a nd s ubsistence p atterns during t he m iddle period i n F alls R egion p rehistory. The r esults o f i nvestigations a t t hese t wo s ites p rovided n ew s upport f or u se o f t he uplands i n t his w ay.

S ummary a nd Conclusions

The approach t o a nalysis a nd i nterpretation o f t wo p rehistoric c entral K entucky l ithic s catters i s r eported i n t his s tudy. B ased o n t he methods u sed and t he r esults

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obtained t hrough f unctional a nalysis o f t he chipped s tone c ollections f rom e ach s ite, i t w as s uggested t hat e ach s ite was t he l ocale o f h unting a nd a nimal p rocessing c amps d uring t he m iddle p eriod ( that i s, L ate A rchaic t o E arly Woodland p eriods i n more conventional t erms) o f p rehistory i n c entral K entucky. The approach t aken i n f unctional a nalysis c ombined analysis o f l ithic t ool p roduction c haracteristics w ith an analysis o f u se-wear c haracteristics. I t i s d emonstrated t hat, b y e xamining a c omprehensive r ange o f morphological v ariation r esulting f rom f abrication a nd u se o f e ach a rtifact, t he c ollection c an b e d ivided i nto c oncise f unctional c lasses. F urther, t hese c lasses c an t hen be e xamined a s t o t heir r elationships a nd i nter-relationships w ithin a l ocal s ubsistence a nd manufacturing e conomy. The o rganization o f t his l ocal ( that i s, s ite specific) e conomy, a s i t pertained t o c hipped s tone t ool f abrication and c hipped s tone t ool applications, w as t ermed t he l ocal p roduction/use c ycle. T he most i mportant c ontribution o f t he s tudy i s t o d emonstrate t hat a ctivity a nalysis c an, i f n ecessary, p roceed b y l ogical s teps o f i nference f rom i ndividual a rtifact morphology t o r econstruction o f t he a ctivities i nvolved i n t he p roduction/use c ycle. Obviously, t he r ationale f or a n arrow application o f t he approach i s l egitimate o nly when o ther c ategories o f a rtifacts and a rtifact c ontextual p atterns a nd s patial c orrelations a re m issing. This i s t he c ase w ith s ome d isturbed s ites, a nd as s uch, t he approach d escribed a bove o ffers a potentially v iable means f or a nalysis o f a ctivities and o verall i nterpretations o f s ite f unction. While n ot specifically d emonstrated w ith c ase s tudies h ere, t he approach s tipulated i n t he s tudy may a lso p rovide n ew i nsight i nto l ocal e conomic p atterns w hen applied t o materials f rom b etter a rchaeological c ontext. Up u ntil n ow, t he a nalysis o f t ool p roduction a nd t ool u se h as n ot b een c ombined i nto a c omprehensive a nd h olistic approach t o t he a nalysis o f c hipped s tone a ssemblages. However, t he a dvantages o f doing t his c annot b e s tressed t oo s trongly. S tudies s uch a s t hat o f C ollins ( 1974, 1 975) o n p roduction s teps o r o f K eeley ( 1980) o r Odell ( 1977) on m icrowear p atterns .have l aid g round work f or measurement and i nterpretation o f d iscrete a rtifact p atterns. While t he n ew methods o f f unctional a nalysis ( including m icrowear analysis) i n s ite a nalysis a re n ow b eing u sed by a rchaeologists, s tudies s uch a s t hat o f J efferies and B utler ( 1982), do n ot q uite a chieve a holistic i nsight i nto t he r elationships o f p roducts a nd b yproducts o f f abrication and u se a t t he a ssemblage l evel. T his i s b ecause t he a nalysis o f p roduction c haracteristics o f t he a ssemblage m ust be u nderstood i n r elation t o t he p urpose o f p roduction ( that i s, f abrication o f t ools f or s pecific w ork t asks) a nd c annot

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b e f ully a ssessed and e xplained i n l ieu o f t he e vidence ( or l ack o f i t) f or a rtifact u se. B y p lacing a n equal e mphasis o n b oth a spects o f t he t echnology, t he a rchaeologist c an o ften r econstruct t he e conomic o rganization ( the p roduction/use c ycle) o f t he l ithic t echnology a s r eflected i n t he a ssemblage u nder s crutiny.

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REFERENCES C ITED

Ahler, S tanley A . ( 1979) Functional analysis o f n onobsidian chipped s tone a rtifacts; t erms, v ariables a nd quantifications. I n L ithic Use-wear Analysis, edited by B rian H ayden, pp. 3 01-328. Academic P ress, N ew York. B aker, C .M., and M .B. S chiffer A rchaeological t he s ize e ffect. R esearch R eport Archaeological S urvey, F ayetteville.

evidence f or 6 , A rkansas

B all,

Donald B . ( 1978) S ummary r eport o f a rchaeological s urvey: Taylorsville L ake, S alt R iver B asin, S pencer, Nelson, and Anderson counties, K entucky. U .S. A rmy Corps of E ngineers, Louisville.

B ell,

Robert E . ( 1958) Guide t o t he i dentification o f certain American I ndian _ projectile points. S pecial B ulletin 1 , Oklahoma Anthropological S ociety, O klahoma . C it y ( 1960) A g uide t o t he i dentification o f c ertain American I ndian p rojectile points. Special B ulletin 2 , Oklahoma Anthropological S ociety, O klahoma C ity.

B inford, L . R., S .R. B inford, R . Whallan, and M .A. Hardin ( 1970) Archaeology a t Hatchery West, C arlyle, I llinois. Memoir 2 4, Society f or American A rchaeology, Washington, D .C. B oisvert, R ichard A . ( 1979) A spects o f l ithic t echnology i n Early A rchaic, L ate A rchaic E arly Woodland. I n Excavations a t Four A rchaic S ites i n t he Lower Ohio Valley, J efferson County, K entucky. edited by M .B. Collins, pp. 9 50-978. Occasional P apers i n Anthropology No. 1 , D epartment o f Anthropology, University o f Kentucky, L exington. B oisvert, R ichard A ., B .N. D riskell, K . W. Robinson, S .D. Smith, and L .F. D uffield ( 1979) M aterials r ecovered. I n E xcavations a t Four A rchaic S ites i n t he L ower Ohio Valley, Jefferson County, K entucky, e dited b y M .B. C c Illins, pp. 6 2-470. D epartment o f Anthropology, University o f K entucky, L exington. B ordes, F rancois, and Don E . C rabtree ( 1969) T he b lade t echnique and o ther e xperiments. Tebiwa

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1 45

C ambron, James W ., and D avid D . Hulse ( 1975) Handbook o f Alabama a rchaeology, part 1 : point t ypes. Archaeological Research Association o f Alabama, Moundville. C lay,

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Thomas Genn ( 1980) Typology and d escription o f h afted s tone t ools. I n A rchaeological s alvage e xcavations a t Patoka L ake, I ndiana: p rehistoric o ccupations o f t he Upper Patoka R iver Valley, e dited b y Cheryl Munson, pp. 3 49-454. G lenn A . B lack L aboratory o f A rchaeology, I ndiana University, B loomington.

Cotterell, B rian, and Johan K amminga ( 1979) The mechanics o f f laking. I n L ithic U se-wear Analysis, e dited by B rian Hayden, pp. 9 7-112. Academic P ress, New Y ork. Cowan, C . Wesley ( 1976) T est e xcavations i n t he p roposed R ed R iver L ake, K entucky: 1 974 s eason. Museum o f Anthropology, University o f Kentucky, Lexington. C rabtree, Don ( 1968) p rismatic b lades.

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( 1972) An i ntroduction t o f lintworking. I n: Occasional P apers o f t he I daho S tate University Museum 2 8, part I I, e dited b y E .H. Swanson and B .R. B utler. Pocatello, I daho. ( 1975) Comments on l ithic t echnology and e xperimental a rchaeology. I n L ithic Technology: Making and U sing S tone Tools, edited b y E arl Swanson, pp. 1 05-114. Mouton Publishers, The H ague. D avis, E .L. ( 1975) The " exposed a rchaeology" o f California. American Antiou lity 4 0:39-53.

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S uzanne, P aul R . F ish, and R ichard J effries ( 1978) An examination o f i nterfluvial s ettlement i n t he G eorgia southern p iedmont: t he Georgia Power Company p lant S cherer a rchaeological s urvey. L aboratory o f Archaeology S eries Report 1 5, U niversity o f G eorgia, Athens.

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Hayden, B rian, and Johan K amminga ( 1979) An i ntroduction t o use-wear: t he f irst CLUW. I n L ithic U sewear Analysis, edited by B . Hayden, pp. 1 -13. Academic P ress, N ew York. Hesse, A . ( 1971) Tentative i nterpretation o f t he s urface d istribution o f r emains o n t he upper f ork o f t he Mirgissa ( Sudanese N ubia). I n Mathematics i n t he a rchaeological and h istorical s ciences, e dited b y F .R. Hodson, D .G. K endall, and P . T autu, pp. 4 36-444. Aldine, Chicago.

1 48

Hughes, P .J., and R .J. Lampert ( 1977) Occupational d isturbance and t ypes o f a rchaeological d eposit. Journal o f A rchaeological S cience 4 :135-140. J anzen, Donald E . Ohio Region. 4 5:373-380.

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( 1972) Archaeological i nvestigations i n Louisville and v icinity: a h istorical s ketch. F ilson C lub H istorical Quarterly 4 6:305-321. ( 1977) An e xamination o f t he L ate A rchaic d evelopment i n t he F alls o f t he Ohio r iver a rea. I n For t he d irector: r esearch e ssays i n honor o f J ames B . G riffin, edited by C harles E . C leland, pp. 1 23-143. Museum o f Anthropology, University o f M ichigan, Ann A rbor. J efferies, R ichard W ., and B . M. B utler ( editors) ( 1982) The Carrier M ills a rchaeological p roject: h uman adaptation i n t he S aline Valley, I llinois ( vols. I and I I). Center f or A rchaeological I nvestigations, Research Paper 3 3. S outhern I llinois University a t Carbondale. J ermann, J erry V . ( 1981) S urface c ollection and analysis o f spatial p attern: an a rchaeological e xample f rom t he Lower Columbia R iver Valley. I n P lowzone A rchaeology, edited by D . O ' Brien and M .J. L ewarch, pp. 7 1-118. Department o f Anthropology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, T ennessee. K amminga, Johan ( 1979) The n ature o f u se-polish and abrasive smoothing o n s tone t ools. I n L ithic U se-wear Analysis, edited by B rian Hayden, pp. 1 43-158. Academic P ress, New Y ork. K eeley, L awrence H . ( 1977) An e xperimental s tudy o f microwear t races on s elected B ritish P aleolithic i mplements. unpublished Ph.D. d issertation, University o f Oxford. ( 1980) Experimental determination o f s tone t ool u ses: a microwear a nalysis. University o f Chicago P ress, Chicago. L awn,

B .R., a nd D .B. Marshall ( 1979) Mechanisms o f m icrocontact f racture i n b rittle s olids. I n L ithic Use-wear Analysis, e dited b y B rian Hayden, pp. 6 3-82. Academic P ress, N ew York.

L eedecker, Charles H . ( 1978) A rchaeological s urvey and evaluation o f t he p roposed Taylorsville L ake p roject a rea, Kentucky. Unpublished Master's t hesis, Department o f Anthropology, George Washington University, W ashington, D .C.

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Lewarch, D ennis E ., and M .J. O ' Brien ( 1981a T he e xpanding r ole o f s urface a ssemblages i n a rchaeological r esearch. I n Advances i n A rchaeological Method and Theory ( vol. 4 ), pp. 2 97-342. ( 1981b E ffect o f s hort t erm t illage on a ggregate p rovenience s urface pattern. I n P lowzone Archaeology, e dited by D . O ' Brien and M .J. L ewarch, pp. 7 -50. D epartment o f Anthropology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. Lewis, Thomas M .N., and Madeline K . L ewis A rchaic s ite. University o f Knoxville.

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Longacre, W . A., and M . G raves ( 1976) P robability s ampling applied t o an e arly multicomponent s urface i n e ast-central A rizona. The K iva 4 1:227-287. Marquardt, W .H., and P .J. Watson ( 1976) E xcavation a nd r ecovery o f b iological r emains f rom two A rchaic s hell m iddens i n western Kentucky. P aper p resented a t t he 3rd S outheastern Archaeological Conference, 3 Tuscaloosa, Alabama. McGraw, Betty J ., G .A. Horvath, A .R. Westover, a nd F .T. W ilson ( 1978) A rchaeological t esting at 1 5SP243, Spencer County, K entucky. D epartment o f T ransportation, Commonwealth o f K entucky, F rankfort. Munson, Cheryl A ., and Thomas G . Cook ( 1980) T he F rench L ick P hase: a d imensional description. I n A rchaeological s alvage e xcavations a t P atoka L ake, I ndiana: p rehistoric occupations o f t he u pper Patoka R iver Valley, edited by Cheryl A . MuNson, pp. 7 21-740. G lenn A . B lack L aboratory o f A rchaeology, I ndiana University, B loomington. Myers, Jeffery A . ( editor) r ecovery a t t he Mary Ann A rmy, Corps o f Engineers,

( 1981) A rchaeological d ata Cole S ite. United S tates Louisville D istrict.

Nance, C . Rover, and D avid C . H urst ( 1981) S tatistical approaches t o s hallow s ite a rchaeology: a nalysis o f t he O ' Neal S ite, Jefferson County, A labama. I n: P lowzone A rchaeology, e dited by M .J. O 'Brien and D .E. L ewarch, pp. 1 59-184. Vanderbilt University, Nashville, T ennessee. Newcomer, M .H. ( 1975) P unch t echnique a nd upper paleolithic b lades. I n L ithic T echnology: M aking a nd Using S tone Tools, e dited by E arly Swanson. M outon P ublishers, The Hague. Oakley, Carey, and E ugene M . F utato ( 1975) A rchaeological i nvestigations i n t he L ittle B ear C reek Reservoir.

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Research S eries 1 , Office o f A rchaeological Research, University o f Alabama, University, A labama. O ' Brien, M .J., a nd D .E. Lewarch ( 1981) P lowzone a rchaeology: contributions t o t heory and t echnique. P ublications i n Anthropology No. 2 7, Vanderbilt University, N ashville, Tennessee. Odell, George H . ( 1977) The applications o f m icro-wear analysis t o t he l ithic component o f an e ntire prehistoric s ettlement: methods, p roblems and f unctional r econstructions. unpublished Ph.D. d issertation, Harvard University. Odell, George H ., and F rieda Odell-Vereecken ( 1980) Verifying t he r eliability o f l ithic u se wear assessments by " blind t ests": t he l ow power approach. Journal o f F ield A rchaeology 7 :87-120. O ' Malley, Nancy, B .N. D riskell, Julie R iesenweber, and R .S. Levy ( 1980) S tage 1 a rchaeological i nvestigations a t Fort Knox, Kentucky. A rchaeological Report 1 6, Department o f Anthropology, University o f K entucky, Lexington. P log,

S ., F . P log, and W . Wait ( 1978) D ecision making i n modern s urveys. I n Advances i n a rchaeological method and t heory ( vol. 1 ), e dited b y M .B. S chiffer, pp. 3 83-421. Academic P ress, New Y ork.

Redman, Charles L ., and P .J. Watson ( 1970) i ntensive s urface collection. American 3 5:279-291.

S ystematic, Antiquity

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1 51

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t o

c hert quarries and I ndiana H istorical

t echnology.

Cory,

Adams,

S orensen, Jerrel H ., M .B. Collins, T . W. Gatus, S usan G rant, R . L evy, C .R. Norville, N . O ' Malley, J . R iesenweber a nd Malinda S tafford ( 1980) F inal r eport: T aylorsville Lake, Kentucky, a rchaeological r esources s urvey a nd I evaluation, s eason I. A rchaeological Report 2 4, Department o f Anthropology, University o f Kentucky, Lexington. Speth, John D . ( 1977) E xperimental i nvestigations o f hard-hammer percussion f laking. I n: E xperimental A rchaeology, edited by D . I ngersoll, J . Y ellen and W . MacDonald, pp. 3 -37. Columbia U niversity P ress, N ew York. S toltman, James B . ( 1978) Temporal models i n p rehistory: a n e xample f rom E astern North America. Current Anthropology 1 9(4):703-746 ( with r eview c omments). Swanson, E arl ( editor) u sing s tone t ools.

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f lint

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t o t he New E dition. I n University o f T ennessee

( 1977) Archaeological Academic P ress, N ew York.

1 53

approaches

I ndian P ress,

t o

t he

APPENDIX A -A RTIFACT

STYLES AND TEMPORAL ASSIGNMENT

A r ather comprehensive, i f possibly overly d issected, c lassification o f s tylistic variation i n h afted a rtifacts w as p roposed i n B oisvert e t a l. ( 1979) f or t he Falls Region. Types occurring i n t he F alls Region a re generally s imilar to t hose i n o ther r egions of t he Ohio Valley and t o s ome e xtent i n o ther a reas o f t he e astern United S tates. Of particular i nterest i n t his s tudy a re t hose t ypes which appear t o date t o t he Late Archaic o r possibly E arly Woodland periods ( middle period). These t ypes ( see Table 1 5) h ave been a ssigned t o one o f f ive t emporal s eries a s d iscussed b elow.

Round

Base

S eries

Artifacts placed w ithin t his s eries vary considerably i n s ize but g enerally share a s traight t o constricted s tem w ith r ounded b ase. Generally s imilar t o Adena points ( Cambron and Hulse 1 975:2-3; Bell 1 958:4; R itchie 1 961:12-13) t ypical o f E arly Woodland " Adena c ulture" i n t he Ohio Valley, s ome o f t hese points f rom Taylorsville have s horter and t hicker s tems than t ypes d escribed i n the l iterature. These points a re s uggested t o date b etween 8 00 B .C. and A .D. 8 00 ( Cambron and Hulse 1 975:2). Cook ( 1980:383-385) h as a lso placed s imilar specimens f rom Patoka L ake i n s out W6rn I ndiana w ithin t he Gary Contracting S tem t ype and he a ssigns an Early t o Middle Woodland date t o t hese. While t his t ime span s eems a r easonable e stimate f or t his s tylistic s eries, s everal Late A rchaic s tyles i ncluding K arnak ( Cook 1 980:386-391), Beacon I sland ( Cambron and Hulse 1 975:9), and Rowlette ( Duffield 1 966:66-69) h ave b een noted i n p re-ceramic c ontext.

Merom

Series

S everal small, corner-notched a rtifact t ypes h ave been a ssigned t o t his s eries. These a rtifacts, s imilar t o t hose defined b y Winters ( 1963) f or t he " Riverton c ulture" o f t he Wabash Valley, I ndiana and I llinois, a re characteristically made on small f lakes and o ften, s ome of t he f lake morphology i s p reserved. A Merom-Trimble g roup i ncluding s everal t ypes w as d efined f rom artifacts r ecovered f rom s ites i n s outhwest Jefferson County, K entucky ( Boisvert e t a l— 1 979:158-164). This g roup i ncluded s everal o f t he t ypes placed i n t he s eries here; however, s everal additional a rtifact t ypes which b ear s imilarity t o t he J efferson County materials h ave b een

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1 56

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b C

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R iver

JD -a

R ound

P rojectile P oint

. a e

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w e I l in

c 'Z

added. These i nclude points which a re s omewhat l arger t han t hose defined by W inters ( 1963, 1 969) o r Boisvert e t a l. ( 1979). The l arger specimens of t his s eries r esemble t he L amoka point defined by R itchie ( 1961:29-30) for New York S tate o r t he Flint C reek points i llustrated by Oakley and F utato ( 1975:135) f or northern Alabama. While a rtifacts a ssigned to t his s eries no doubt d ate t o t he Late A rchaic; a more r efined t emporal e stimate may be v entured a s 2 000-1000 B .C. Some s upport f or t his t ime span comes f rom t he Tennessee Valley, Wabash Valley and s outhwestern Ohio. Winters ( 1969:105) p laces a r ather s hort t emporal span o f 1 500-1000 B .C. on t he " Riverton c ulture" materials f rom t he Wabash Valley. Cambron and Hulse ( 1975:51) a llude t o a f airly l ate, L ate Archaic o r Early Woodland date f or t he F lint C reek t ype i n Alabama. V ickery ( 1980) defines two phases o f t he Late Archaic i n s outhwestern Ohio. The Maple C reek phase i s dated f rom 1 750 t o 1 000 B .C. while t he Central Ohio Valley Archaic i s dated f rom 2 750 t o 1 750 B .C. Merom Expanding S tem and T rimble S ide-Notched t ypes ( which a re i nterpreted by Vickery a s k nives r ather t han p rojectile points f or t he most part) co-occur w ith McWhinney and o ther Late A rchaic p rojectile points i n t he M aple C reek phase ( Vickery 1 980:28). While McWhinney t ypes dominate t he projectile and hafted s craper t ypes i n t he Central Ohio Valley Archaic, Merom and T rimble k nife t ypes a re absent ( Vickery 1 980:35).

McWhinney

S eries

Artifacts which were considered s imilar t o t he McWhinney Heavy S temmed t ype described by Vickery ( 1972) were p laced i n t his s eries. These a rtifacts a re medium t o l arge and r ather variable i n outline and h afting a rea but have a characteristically thick c ross s ection ( Vickery 1 972:1). As n oted above, Vickery ( 1980) f ound McWhinney points and s crapers i n both M aple C reek phase deposits ( 1750-1000 B .C.) and the Central Ohio Valley A rchaic d eposits ( 2750-1750 B .C.) i n southwestern Ohio. However, McWhinney i s t he dominant t ype i n t he e arlier components. While McWhinney a rtifacts may r ange f rom 2 750 t hrough 1 000 B . C., r ecent e vidence f rom e xcavations of s ites 1 2SW89 and 1 2SW99 a t Mexico Bottom on t he Ohio R iver i n s outheastern I ndiana by GAI Consultants, I nc., s uggest t hat a " McWhinney phase" dating about 2 750 t o 1 650 B .C. a t S ite 1 2SW99 was f ollowed by a l ater L ate Archaic manifestation a t S ite 1 2SW89 which i ncluded f ew i f any McWhinney a rtifacts ( McHugh, personal communication). S ince G . A.I. personnel j ust completed f ieldwork and analysis i s i ncomplete, McHugh's i nitial i mpressions may b e modified i n t he f uture. Additionally, Cowan ( 1976), as a r esult o f t est e xcavations a t t he Seldon S kidmore S ite ( 15P017) i n t he Red R iver a rea,

1 57

demonstrated a s tratigraphic s equence w ith McWhinney p oints i n Z one C u nderlying Z one B c ontaining Merom a nd T rimble-like a rtifacts. A r adiocarbon d ate o f 2 070 B .C. ( MASCA corrected) w as obtained f rom Z one C ( see Turnbow a nd Jobe 1 981:462). These d ata p rovide s upport f or p lacing McWhinney s tyle a rtifacts w ithin a t emporal s pan o f 3 000 t o 1 700 B .C. a llowing f or s ome overlap w ith Merom s eries a rtifacts.

S alt R iver

S eries

T his s eries i ncludes a rtifacts which a re s imilar t o t he S alt R iver t ype d efined by D iBlasi ( 1981:40-42) f or t he Ashworth S helter i n B ullitt County, K entucky. While d efined a s medium-sized s ide-notched a rtifacts, s ome o f t he s pecimens i ncluded h ere a re t echnically e xpanded s tem a rtifacts. The s ide-notched t ypes which most appropriately f it i nto t he S alt R iver t ype d efined b y D iBlasi a re s imilar t o t he B ig S andy Type ( Bell 1 960:8-9; C ambron a nd H ulse 1 975:14). While n amed f or t he B ig S andy phase, an u nground v ariant ( Big S andy I I) o f t his point w as n umerous w ithin d eposits o f t he Three M ile I sland p hase a t t he Eva S ite i n Tennessee ( Lewis a nd L ewis 1 961) w here a d ate o f 3 500 t o 1 000 B .C. i s s uggested. At Modoc Rockshelter ( Fowler 1 959) i n s outhwestern I llinois, s imilar p oints appear t o d ate ( from 6 ,000 t o 3 ,000 B .C.) e xtending w ell b ack i nto t he M iddle A rchaic. S ome t ypes i ncluded i n t his s eries a re s imilar t o t he B rewerton e ar n otched t ype f rom N ew Y ork ( Ritchie 1 961:17). At P atoka L ake ( Site 1 20R12A), " Brewerton points i n l evel 3 h ave an a ssociated d ate o f 2 535+/-70 B .C." ( Cook 1 980:373). O ther t ypes w ithin t his s eries, t aken a s a g roup, conform s tylistically t o t he Matanzas C luster d efined b y Cook ( 1980:404-417) f or P atoka L ake. These i nclude both f aint, modal a nd d eep s ide-notched a s w ell a s s traight s temmed v arieties. The Matanza c luster a t P atoka L ake which a lso o ccurs p rominently w ithin t he Helton phase ( 3845 t o 3 030 B .C.) a t t he Koster S ite i n I llinois, appears t o decrease i n f requency i n t he l ater L ate A rchaic. While Cook ( 1976) placed a t emporal s pan o f 3 700 -3000 B .C. o n t he M atanzas c luster f rom t he Koster S ite, t he Matanzas c luster s eems t o b e c losely a ssociated w ith t he F rench L ick phase, d ated t o 3 000 - 1 500 B .C. i n s outhern I ndiana ( Munson a nd Cook 1 980:721-740). T he S alt R iver S ide-notched p oints d iscussed by J anzen f or A rchaic s ites i n t he F alls Region appear t o date t o a period b etween about 3 500 t o 2 000 B .C. ( Janzen 1 977). F or t he purpose o f t his r eport t he S alt R iver s eries h as b een a ssigned a t emporal s pan o f 4 000 t o 2 000 B .C. w ith t he r ealization t hat t he s eries i ncludes s pecimens which m ay b e o f s lightly e arlier o r l ater d erivation.

1 58

L ate A rchaic-Early Woodland S eries

O ther a rtifacts which appear t o d ate t o t he L ate A rchaic o r E arly Woodland ( i.e., about t he f irst t hrough t he t hird m illennia B .C.) h ave b een a ssigned t o t his s eries. These a rtifacts w ill n ot b e d iscussed h ere; r eferences t o t he p rimary d escriptions a re g iven i n T able 1 5.

1 59

APPENDIX

B -C HERT

SOURCES

AND T YPES

I N THE FALLS R EGION

The F alls Region i s particularly r ich i n c hippable s tone, most a re c herts w hich o ccur i n p rimary c ontext a s n odular o r t abular m asses i n t he v arious l imestone f ormations u nderlying t he r egion, and s econdarily a s c obbles i n s treams d raining t he l ocalities o f p rimary o utcrops. A c hert s ource s tudy was c onducted by Thomas Gatus ( see S orensen e t a l. 7 1 980: Appendix C ) i n which h e s earched 7 U .S.G.S. g eological quadrangle maps ( 7.5 m inute) i n t he e ast-central portion o f t he F alls R egion f or r ecorded o ccurrences o f o utcrops o f chert b earing l imestone f ormations. I n most c ases chert s ource a reas w ere f ield c hecked a nd c ollected s ufficiently t o p rovide c omparative s pecimens f or u se i n a nalysis o f material t ype i n a rchaeological s pecimens. This s tudy r esulted i n i dentifications o f p rimary s ource d istributions a s d epicted i n F igure 1 9. I t was f ound t hat a rchaeological s pecimens c ould quite o ften b e a ssigned t o a g eologic h ost b y c onsidering t hree c onstellations o f a ttributes i ncluding c hert t ype, c ortex t ype, and t hermal a lteration. T hus, a rchaeological i nvestigations b y t he University o f K entucky o ver t he p ast s everal y ears i n t he F alls R egion h ave r outinely a ssigned c hipped s tone a rtifacts t o c ategories i n t he f ollowing way.

Chert

Type

E ach a rtifact w as e xamined a s t o g eologic m aterial u sed i n i ts manufacture by c omparison o f t he material's c olor, l uster, t exture, a nd i nclusions t o c omparative materials f rom k nown g eological s ources i n t he F alls R egion. A lthough t he comparison w as made w ithout a id o f magnification o r s pecial p etrographic o r c hemical analysis, most a rtifacts c ould be a ssigned t o one o f t he 2 1 k nown a nd d istinguishable c hert t ypes d escribed b elow.

Harrison County Chert: A f ine-grained c hert o f moderate l uster o riginating a s n odules i n M ississippian l imestones, p robably r estricted t o S t. L ouis a nd/or S te. G enevieve l imestones. This c hert v aries i n c olor f rom medium d ark g rey t o d usky y ellowish b rown a nd o ccasionally, c oncentric b ands o f c olors w ithin t his r ange may b e s een. I t i s most c ommonly g rey w ith a f ew small, white " bird's e yes" o f c halcedony i n e vidence ( Boisvert e t a l. 1 979; Gatus 1 980). H arrison County c hert i s quite w ell-known f rom t he a rchaeological l iterature a nd h as b een a lso c alled " hornstone," " Indiana b lue-grey," a nd " Wyandotte c hert" ( Myers 1 981).

1 61

F L

1 258

1 32 1 B E R I

B R C V G R T W

AREA

T Y

L R I

PROJECT 1 432

1 282

1 ' 7 33

1 2 55 B R G R T W

R I

B E

1 3 13

B E R L

1 0 26

V

B R G R S V

G R S V 1 \ -\

,/7 40 B W B E

B W B E

B W B E

H B M U

10 1

1 225

8 24

B W B E

1 279 G B

1 0 79 .

" SvA, S V

R I

3 7

6 03 B W B E

B W H E L V M U S L

H B L ) I V) MU

8 25

1 0 43

B W

B E

B E G B L M U R L

G E R I S B

1 076

1 379

35 1 B R G R S V T W

G E R I

R L 5 64

5 06

3 034

1 380

1 252,

M ILES 0

8

1 6 U .S.G.S. 1 252 - S t. 1 255

C atherine

-Waddy

1 258 - S helbyville

C HERT TYPES

Q UADRANGLES 5 06 - N ew H aven 5 64 -Nelsonville 6 03 - L ebanon J unction

1 279 -Chaplin

7 37 - C ravens

1 282

-Mt.

7 40 - S hepardsville

1 289

-Ashbrook

1 313 - M t.

W ashington

E den

8 24

S amuels

8 25

-Bardstown

M U - M uldraugh

1 321

- F isherville

1 026 -Lawrenceburg

B R -B rannon

R L -Rowland

1 355

- G lensboro

1 034

B F - B rassfield

S M - S alem

1 378

-Mackville

1 043 - M aud

C V - C urdsville

S V - S alvisa

1 379 - C ardwell

1 076

G B -G ilbert

S B -Sellersburg

1 380 - S pringfield

1 079 - M cBrayer

•B W -B eechwood

L ouis

-Loretto

-B rush G rove

G R - G rier

S L - S t.

1 432

- W aterford

101 1

- B loomfield

H B - H arrodsburg

T W -T anglewood

1 433

- T aylorsville

135 1

-Cornishville

L - L aurel L

T Y - T yrone

1 461

-Simpsonville

F igure 1 9.

1 185 -Perryville 1 225 - F airfield

L V - L ouisville

C hert d istributions i n a nd a round t he T aylorsville p roject a rea ( from S orensen e t a l. 1 980:573-582).

162

L ake

Boyle Chert: A moderate t o h igh l uster c hert, f ine-grained, o ccurring i n m ixtures o f a lmost a ll possible c ombinations o f c olors f rom g rey, white, b lue, p ink, r ed, b rown and t an. C olors a re mottled a nd s treaked w ith t ans a nd whites u sually p redominant. I nclusions o f c rinoid a nd b ryozoan f ragments a re c ommonly observed i n a bundance. T he c hert o riginates i n n odular a nd t abular f orm i n t he M iddle D evonian-aged B oyle D olomite ( Boisvert e t a l. 1 979; G atus 1 980).

Muldraugh C hert: A d ull, moderately c ourse t o c ourse g rained c hert whose c olors v ary f rom p ale o range t o l ight o live g rey b ut t ypically, a p ale y ellowish b rown w ith l ighter and d arker s treaks a nd mottles i s o bserved. F ossils a nd c halcedony " bird's e yes" f orm r are i nclusions. This c hert apparently occurs a s t abular l ayers o f c herty l imestone w ith c onsiderable g radations i n t exture. A rtifacts f rom a rchaeological s ites t end t o r eflect s pecimens o f t he f inest g rain o nly. I t o ccurs p rimarily i n m assive f orm p robably a ssociated w ith t he M ississippian B orden F ormation ( Gatus 1 980). I n s econdary c ontext, i t o ccurs a s a ngular, b locky p ieces i n c olluvia. Two a dditional t ypes, C oquina Muldraugh and M uldraugh B rown c herts, w ere r ecognized b y B oisvert e t a l. ( 1979), b ut t hese c herts a re s ubsumed h ere u nder Muldraugh c hert s ince t hey appear t o d erive f rom t he s ame f ormations. Boisvert e t a l. d istinguished Coquina Muldraugh p rimarily on i ts h ighly f ossiliferous makeup a nd r esulting g raininess, a nd Muldraugh b rown f or i ts p ale y ellowish t o l ight b rown c olor and f iner g rain ( Boisvert e t a l. 1 979:71-73).

Vanport Chert: A d ull t o h ighly l ustrous, v ery f ine-grained c hert whose mottled c olors v ary t remendously f rom b lue, g rey, p ink a nd g reen. M icroscopic f ossil f ragments a nd o ccasionally whole f ossils a s w ell a s s mall r ounded f erruginous s pheres a re c ommon i nclusions. T he c hert, which h as c ommonly b een c alled Ohio F lint R idge, o ccurs i n P ennsylvanian Vanport L imestone o f c entral Ohio ( Gatus 1 980). B oisvert e t a l. ( 1979) c alled t his c hert " Grey-white," a lthough h e s uggested a p robable c onnection w ith Vanport c hert o f Ohio a t t hat t ime, t he s ample w as t oo s mall f or p roper c omparison.

S t. Louis ( Red a nd G reen): A d ull, moderately f ine t o moderately c ourse g rained c hert whose c olors v ary f rom d ark g reenish g rey t o m edium g reen a nd medium t o d ark r ed. L arge f enestrate b ryozoan f ossils a re o ccasionally s een i n t he g reen variety. T he c hert occurs i n p rimary c ontext i n b oth n odular and t abular f orm i n t he M ississippian S t. L ouis L imestone o f C entral K entucky ( Gatus 1 980).

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N ewman c herts: A g roup o f c herts c ontaining Haney a nd P aoli c herts d istinguished b y Boisvert e t a l. ( 1979). " Since t he N ewman L imestone c ontains P aoli/Beaver B end, Haney, a nd S t. Louis L imestones and i s m apped b y t he U .S. Geological S urvey w ithout d istinguishing t he s maller u nits w ithin i t, c omparative s amples w ere s imply l abeled " Newman" ( Gatus 1 980:587). A lthough H aney and P aoli may b e s ometimes r ecognized a s d istinct f rom o ther M iddle D evonian N ewman c herts d ue t o s imilar s patial d istributions i n e ast c entral K entucky, t here i s n o r eason t o a ttempt t o d o t his. N ewman c herts, g enerally, a re o f moderate t o h igh l uster, f ine t o v ery f ine g rain a nd v ary c onsiderably i n c olor f rom l ight b rowns t o b rowns t o g reenish g reys a nd d ark g reenish g reys. I nclusions a re u nusual. P aoli i s u sually b anded ( Boisvert e t a l. 1 979).

S te. G enevieve C hert: A moderately l ustrous, f ine t o medium-grained c hert whose c olors r ange f rom d usky b lue w ith o live g rey t o y ellowish g rey c oncentric z ones t oward t he e xterior o f t he n odule. I nclusions a re n ot u sually e xhibited b ut r are i nclusions o f c halcedony a nd c alcite a re n oted b y Gatus ( 1980:587). The c hert o ccurs i n n odules i n t he M ississippian S te. Genevieve L imestone ( Boisvert e t a l. 1 979; G atus 1 980).

B rassfield Chert: A d ull, moderately c ourse t o c ourse g rained c hert o f l ight t o v ery l ight g rey, i t u sually e xhibits s mall f ossils a s i nclusions. P rimary o rigin i s i n t he B rassfield Dolomite o f n orthern K entucky ( Boisvert e t a l. 1 979).

S alvisa Chert: A moderate t o d ull, f ine t o medium-grained c hert whose c olors v ary f rom d ark b rown t o medium g rey, S alvisa c herts o ccasionally c ontain f ossil f ragments ( pelecepods and b ryozoans) and s ometimes s mall white s pecks o f a white m ineral. S alvisa c herts o ccur i n t he O rdovician S alvisa B ed o f t he P erryville L imestone, p art o f t he L exington L imestone, p rimarily i n t abular f orm b ut a lso o ccasionally a s n odules ( Gatus 1 980).

B reathitt Chert: A c hert o f medium t o e arthy l uster, and r anging f rom f ine g rained t o c ourse, B reathitt v aries considerably i n c olor f rom b lue, g rey, r ed, t o b lack and o live. Sponge s picules h ave b een n oted a s i nclusions ( Whitmore 1 978). The c hert o ccurs i n t abular and n odular f orm i n t he P ennsylvanian B reathitt F ormation ( Gatus 1 980).

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D egonia Chert: A moderately l ustrous t o s emi-vitreous, f ine-grained c hert, D egonia r anges i n c olor f rom b luish-white t o l ight b lue-green. Small, c ubic c oncavities a re o ften o bserved i n t he c hert matrix. The c hert o ccurs i n t he M ississippian D egonia S andstone i n w estern K entucky p rimarily i n t abular f orm b ut a lso a s n odules ( Gatus 1 980).

K anawha Chert: A b lack o r d ark b lue c hert o f moderate t o e arthy l uster a nd medium t o v ery c ourse g rain, K anawha o ccasionally e xhibits w hite m ineral i nclusions, p ossibly c halcedony, i n t he d ark matrix. The c hert o ccurs i n t abular f orm i n t he P ennsylvanian Upper P ottsville K anawha S eries i n w est-central West V irginia ( Gatus 1 980).

B eechwood Chert: Of medium t o s emi-vitreous l uster a nd f ine-grained, B eechwood c hert i s l ight i n c olor r anging f rom t an t o l ight b lue, t o l ight g rey o r white. T he c hert c ommonly e xhibits small c rinoid and b ryozoan f ossil f ragments and o ccasionally, white m inerals ( possibly c alcite) i n i ts m atrix. I t o ccurs i n b oth t abular a nd n odular f orm i n t he M iddle D evonian B eechwood L imestone o f c entral K entucky ( Gatus 1 980).

C ane R un Chert: A t an, o ccasionally f aintly mottled, c hert which may v ary t o d ark o r medium g rey, t his c hert i s c haracteristically d ull t o e arthy i n l uster a nd medium t o c ourse-grained i n t exture. I t c ontains s mall f ossil f ragments a nd white m ineral i nclusions i n t he m atrix. The c hert occurs i n c entral K entucky i n n odular a nd i n t abular ( i.e., l enticular) f orm i n t he O rdovician Cane R un B ed o f t he G rier L imestone ( Gatus 1 980).

Curdsville C hert: Moderate t o s emi-vitreous l uster a nd v ery f ine t o f ine-grained t exture i s c haracteristic o f t his c hert whose colors v ary f rom l ight t o medium g rey, l ight t o m edium b rown and b lack w ith mottling and l amination o f c olors_ c haracteristic. L ight c olored m inerals ( possibly c halcedony a nd/or c alcite) a s w ell a s r are f ossil f ragments a re i ncluded i n t he matrix. The c hert o ccurs i n c entral K entucky a s n odules, l enticular b odies, and t hin b eds i n t he O rdovician C urdsville L imestone, a p art o f t he L exington L imestone ( Gatus 1 980).

G rier Chert: A c hert o f d ull t o moderate l uster a nd f ine t o c ourse g rain, G rier v aries i n color f rom l ight g rey, l ight b rownish g rey t o medium b rownish g rey a nd ( rarely)

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b lue. Characteristic i nclusions a re p elecepods, c rinoids, b ryozoan f ragments and white m inerals, p ossibly c halcedony and/or c alcite. The c hert o ccurs i n c entral K entucky a s n odules ( and b locky masses i n r esiduum) i n t he O rdovician G rier L imestone ( Gatus 1 980).

B rannon Chert: A d ull, medium t o c ourse-grained c hert whose c olors v ary f rom l ight y ellowish b rown t o l ight o r d ark g rey, B rannon Chert s ometimes e xhibits a speckled appearance. S ome specimens appear t o b e m icroscopically b ioclastic w ith m icroscopic f ossils i ncluding p elecepods a nd white m inerals ( possibly c halcedony a nd/or c alcite). T he c hert o ccurs i n c entral K entucky a s n odules ( and b locky masses i n r esiduum) i n t he O rdovician G rier L imestone ( Gatus 1 980).

Harrodsburg Chert: A d ull c hert w ith c ourse t exture r esulting f rom b ioclastic c omposition c ontaining f enestrate b ryozoans, c rinoid s tem f ragments a nd o ccasionally, w hole f ossils a s w ell a s m inerals ( possibly i ncluding c alcite, quartz, c halcedony and a gate), H arrodsburg c herts v ary i n color i ncluding b lue, g rey, maroon, p ink, y ellowish b rown and t an. The c hert o ccurs i n b oth n odular a nd t abular f orm i n c entral K entucky i n t he M ississippian Harrodsburg L imestone ( Gatus 1 980).

L aurel Chert: A d ull, f ine t o m edium g rained c hert, L aurel v aries i n c olor f rom l ight g rayish white, l ight g rey t o t an and e xhibits occasional b anding o f c olors. F ossil f ragments ( bryozoans, c rinoids) a re o ccasional i nclusions and b rachiopods have b een observed i n c ortical a reas. L aurel occurs i n c entral K entucky a nd s outhern I ndiana a s both n odules and t hin d iscontinuous t abular b ands i n t he M iddle S ilurian L aurel D olomite ( or t he L aurel M ember o f t he S alamonie D olomite i n I ndiana)(Gatus 1 980).

Lost R iver Chert: A c hert o f d ull t o s emi-vitreous . ery f ost R iver v l uster a n ( 3 v ine t o m edium g rain, L aries i n color f rom white t o medium g rey. Oolites, f enestrate b ryozoans, b rachiopods a nd c alcite m inerals a re f ound i n t he matrix. The c hert occurs i n c entral K entucky a nd S outhern I ndiana a s i rregularly s haped n odules a nd i n t abular f orm i n t he M ississippian S te. Genevieve L imestone ( Gatus 1 980).

D elaware Chert: A d ull t o s emi-vitreous, f ine-grained c hert o f t an t o d ark b rown c olor, D elaware c hert e xhibits d iscontinuous l aminations, m icroscopic f ossil f ragments, a nd

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o ccasional white t o l ight m ineral i nclusions. o ccurs i n both n odular a nd t abular f orm i n l imestones o f c entral and n ortheastern Ohio ( Gatus

Cortex

T he c hert D evonian 1 980).

Type

The p resence and k ind o f c ortex o n a rtifacts w ere a lso r ecorded. F our d iscrete v alues w ere r ecognized i n a ddition t o t he a lternate v alue o f n o c ortex p resent. T hese i ncluded n odular, t abular, c obble a nd u ndifferentiated. Nodular c ortex o ccurs a s a c hemically w eathered, u sually l ight c olored a nd c halky r ind a round t he o utside o f n odules o f c hert. T abular c ortex w ith c haracteristics s imilar t o n odular c ortex, f orms o n t he f acets o f l enticular p ieces o f c hert. A lthough n odular a nd t abular c herts d iffer i n t he s hape of t he g eological s pecimens, t he p rocesses o f c ortical f ormation a re e ssentially t he s ame s ince i n b oth c ases t he cortex i s f ormed i n t he o riginal g eologic s ource. Therefore, a rtifacts e xhibiting e ither n odular o r t abular c ortex w ere made f rom c hert s ecured f rom p rimary s ource a reas o r q uarries. On t he o ther h and, c obble c ortex r esults f rom a brasive weathering p rocesses o f movement o f materials which e nter s tream s ystems. T he c hert p ieces a re r apidly d ecortified, r ounded a nd s moothed p roducing a c obble r ind which i s h ard, smooth and o ften p olished. T hus, t abular o r n odular c ortex c an a lmost a lways b e d istinguished f rom c obble c ortex b y macroscopic e xamination a lone. T here a re c ases, however, i n which so l ittle o f t he c ortex r emains o n a n a rtifact t hat t he d istinction c annot b e c onfidently r ecognized. T hese specimens w ere a ssigned t he v alue, u ndifferentiated c ortex.

Thermal

A lteration

P hysical changes i n c ertain o f t hese c herts w ere o bserved by Collins i n h eating e xperiments c onducted a t t he University o f K entucky ( see B oisvert e t a l. 1 979:70-73). Color changes w ere g enerally observed i n M uldraugh, V anport, S te. Genevieve, a nd B rassfield. S tructural c hange t o a s ugary t exture w as n oted i n Harrison County a nd S te. Genevieve c herts. C ertain c herts s uch a s B oyle appear t o b e l ittle c hanged b y c ontrolled h eating w hile h eat t reatment appears t o i ncrease t he l uster o f Vanport c hert. E xperiments d id n ot i nclude a ll c hert t ypes a nd t his t ype o f r esearch s hould b e s upplemented w ith more e xhaustive i nvestigations. However, i nvestigations d id g enerally d etermine t hat c hert t ype a ssignments c ould b e m ade i n s pite o f t hermal a lteration a nd t hat t hermal a lteration was potentially r ecognizable i n s ome s pecimens. T hese

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a lterations w ere n oted i n a rchaeological specimens.

P atterns

o f

C hert

t his

r esearch w here

E xploitation a t

r ecognized

o n

T aylorsville L ake

While a ctual quarry s ites i n t he F alls Region a re l argely u nknown ( although S eeman 1 975 a nd Myers 1 981 p rovide s ome i nsight i nto quarrying a reas o f H arrison C ounty c hert), k nowledge o f potential s ource a reas i ncluding both p rimary and s econdary s ource a reas may b e quite u seful when c oupled w ith a nalysis o f a rchaeological s pecimens t o i nvestigate c ertain a spects o f a cquisition b ehaviors. A rtifacts f rom 1 7 s ites w ithin t he T aylorsville L ake p roject i n t he e ast-central portion o f t he F alls R egion were u sed b y S orensen e t a l. ( 1980: 3 88-393) t o e xamine g eneral p atterns o f c hert e xploitation i n r elation t o t he p roject a rea. Results i ncluded t he f ollowing. There w ere f our p rimary l ithic r esource acquisition a reas s uggested b y t he a rtifacts. A rea 1 i ncluded r esources available downstream f rom t he p roject a rea a t t he i nterface o f t he Knobs and t he Western M ississippian P lateau. B ifacially worked a rtifacts, p articularly p rojectile points and h afted s crapers, w ere p redominately m ade f rom c herts f rom t his a rea. A rea 2 w as t hat o f t he p roject a rea i tself where c hert c obbles w ere a vailable i n t he S alt R iver. Resources f rom t his a rea, e ven t hough i t w as t he m ost conveniently a ccessed, w ere r epresented i n a rchaeological materials p redominately i n t he f orm o f f lakes and modified f lakes a nd d id n ot appear t o b e an i mportant s ource a rea f or more s ophisticated t ool p roduction. A rea 3 l ocated t o t he e ast i n t he I nner B luegrass w ith c hert e xposures i n t he K entucky R iver d rainage a nd A rea 4 f urther t o t he e ast i n t he E astern K nobs, w ere r epresented i n t he a rchaeological a ssemblages a s m inor b ut c onsistently r epresented s ource a reas i n both waste a nd t ools. I t w as t herefore quite c lear t hat, i n s pite o f t he availability o f chert r esources i n t he p roject a rea a nd t he approximately equidistant j uxtaposition o f A reas 1 a nd 3 t o t he p roject a rea, A rea 1 was t he p referred source o f r aw materials , f or manufacture o f b ifacial t ools. S ubsequent f ield i nvestigations i n t he p roject a rea b y Turnbow ( see D riskell 1 983:13-17) r evealed t hat c obbles a vailable i n t he p roject a rea a re o f s uitable quality f or t ool manufacture b ut a re g enerally small l imiting u tility t o small t ools. A lternatively, potential c hert r esources i n A rea 1 a re apparently quite abundant a nd n odules, t abular p ieces a nd c obbles a re o f more s uitable s ize f or l arger t ools. S ome o f t he c herts f ound i n A rea I a re a lso o f h igh quality i n c haracteristics o f f lakability a nd s haping a nd t hese f actors must h ave made t hese p referred materials. " If we p ropose t hat t he u se o f l ithic r esources t ends t o b e c onfined t o

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s ource a reas a nd m ove o utward a long e stablished s ocio-political n etworks, t hen t he d ata a ccumulated i n t he r eservoir p oints t o t he p robability o f h igher s ocial a nd p olitical c ontact d ownstream" ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980:392).

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APPENDIX C -A SSIGNMENT OF FLAKES TO REDUCTIVE S TAGES

F lakes a re p roduced a s a n atural b yproduct o f t he manufacture a nd m aintenance o f s tone t ools, b ut i t i s n ot o bvious b y c asual e xamination o f a f lake f rom an a rchaeological c ollection d uring which s tage o f r eduction i t w as p roduced. T he f ollowing method was u sed t o a ssign u nmodified f lakes, where possible, t o a r eductive s tage i n t he manufacturing s equence p roposed b y Collins ( 1974) and i ncorporated i n t he methodology d iscussed i n C hapter I V. F lakes f orm an i mportant a nd o ften l arge c ategory w ithin e ach o f t he p roduct g roups. To a ssist i n u nderstanding t heir r elationship t o p roduction, u nmodified f lakes c an b e a ssigned t o a ppropriate p roduct g roups b y c areful c onsideration o f s everal c ritical a ttributes. However, i t i s d ifficult t o r outinely d istinguish b etween s econdary t rimming f lakes a nd r eworking f lakes s ince t he i mportant c haracteristic i s t hat r eworking f lakes may, b ut n eed n ot n ecessarily, possess w ear t races on e xterior f acets. Thus, t he f lake p roducts o f t hese t wo f inal s tages h ave b een c ombined h ere. While t here a re n umerous " Attributes" t hat may b e d efined a nd measured i n f lake analysis ( Collins 1 974), e ight a ttributes h ave b een f ound particularly u seful f or p urposes o f d efining t he r eductive s tage o f o rigin. E ach f lake a nalyzed w as f irst c haracterized a s t o c ondition i ncluding t he f our a lternative c onditions o f 1 ) i ntact, 2 ) d amaged, b ut c odable, 3 ) h eat d amaged and u ncodable, a nd 4 ) o therwise d amaged a nd u ncodable. T he r emaining s even a ttributes u sed t o d efine r eductive s tage a re d iscussed b elow.

A ttributes o f

t he R eductive

S tages

The s triking p latform o f e ach f lake w as i nspected a nd c haracterized a ccording t o o ne o f n ine a lternative s tates. T hese i nclude 1 ) c ortical, 2 ) s ingle f acet, 3 ) d ouble f acet, 4 ) multi-facet, 5 ) g round, 6 ) s hattered, 7 ) b roken, 8 ) m issing, a nd 9 ) o ther. Cortical p latforms e xhibit c ortex a cross t he p latform. F aceted p latforms, o r t hose p latforms f ormed. b y t he i ntersection o f o ther f lake s cars, m ay b e a s ingle f acet, t wo f acets, o r more t han t wo f acets ( multi-facet). G round p latforms w ere p repared b y a brading while shattered p latforms e xhibit r ough, i rregular, a nd b locky a reas o f d amage. T he c ategory " broken" i mplied t hat p art o f t he p latform i s m issing p rohibiting d efinitive c lassification w hile absence o f a p latform i s c oded a s " missing." The a nomalous c ategory " other" i s u sed when c ombined c haracteristics a re n oted. The b ulb o f p ercussion was r ecorded a s 1 ) f lat, moderate, 3 ) e xuberant, 4 ) m ultiple, 5 ) m issing, o r

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2 ) 6 )

o ther. The f irst f our s tates e xpress points a long a c ontinuum f rom f aint t o p ronounced appearance o f t he b ulb. " Missing" i s s elf e xplanatory a nd " other" was g enerally u sed t o c lassify b ulbs on f lakes w hose i rregular s urface m ade c lassification o f t he b ulb d ifficult. The l ip _ o f t he f lake, o r more s trictly, t he p resence o f a l ip o n t he i nterior e dge o f t he p roximal ( or s triking) e nd o f t he f lake was c oded a s 1 ) n one, 2 ) s light, 3 ) moderate, 4 ) s trong, o r 5 ) m issing. T he c ategory " missing" r efers t o t he a rea o n t he f lake where a l ip m ay b e e xpected r ather t han p resence/absence o f t he phenomenon. The p resence and n ature o f c ortex o n t he e xterior ( or d orsal) s urface o f a f lake w as r ecorded a s 1 ) c omplete c ortex, 2 ) s emi-cortex, 3 ) e dge c ortex, a nd 4 ) n oncortex. " Semi-cortex" r efers t o p resence o f c ortex o n part o f t he dorsal s urface; " edge c ortex" i s r eserved f or v ery l imited c ortex o n o ne o r both e dges o f t he f lake. This a ttribute i n c onjunction w ith c haracterization o f e xterior f lake s cars i s u sed t o c haracterize t he e xterior o f e ach f lake. E xterior f lake s cars w ere r ecorded a s 1 ) n one, 2 ) s equent, 3 ) s ingle, 4 ) double, o r 5 ) t hree o r more. Generally " sequent" was s pecified when f laking w as multiple, e xtensive, p atterned and overlapping. O therwise, one o f t he o ther a ttribute s tates was r ecorded. F lake b ody f orm w as c ategorized a s 1 ) t hin, 2 ) moderate, 3 ) t hick and b locky, 4 ) a ngular a nd k notted, o r 5 ) o ther. The c ategory " other" was r arely u sed. F inally, t ermination o f t he f lake w as c lassified a s t hin a nd s harp, 2 ) t hick a nd a ngular, 3 ) h inged, w eathered/cortical, o r 5 ) b roken ( i.e., m issing).

1 ) 4 )

Collins ( 1974:469-475) f ound t hat t hese s even c haracteristics c onsidered t ogether may r eliably i ndicate t he s tage o f r eduction i n which a f lake w as p roduced. Collins' e xperiments were c onducted i n t he p roduction o f 3 2 b ifacial t ools. D ebitage f rom e ach s tage o f p roduction w as r etained a nd f lakes l arger t han 0 .5 cm e xamined. O f t he approximately 4 ,000 f lakes e xamined, about 2 ,354 w ere r elatively i ntact; analysis o f t hese f orm t he b asis f or t he f ollowing . s ummary. F lakes o f i nitial r eduction ( n=265) e xhibited p rimarily c ortical, s ingle f aceted a nd d ouble f aceted p latforms w hile t hose r esulting f rom p rimary t rimming ( n=1,247) e xhibited p rimarily s ingle and multi-faceted p latforms. F lakes o f s econdary t rimming ( n=842) w ere d ominated b y multi-faceted a nd g round p latforms. B ulbs w ere g enerally n ormal o r e xuberant i n i nitial r eduction f lakes, mostly n ormal i n p rimary t rimming f lakes a nd f lat o r n ormal i n s econdary t rimming f lakes. L ipping, n ot c haracteristic o f i nitial r eduction f lakes, was r are i n p rimary t rimming f lakes, b ut

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w as f airly c ommon i n s econdary t rimming f lakes. I nitial r eduction f lakes o ften e xhibited p rimary a nd s econdary c ortex e xteriors while p rimary t rimming f lakes w ere g enerally f aceted w ith l ittle c ortex e xhibited. S econdary t rimming f lakes were g enerally c ortex f ree a nd e xtensively f aceted. I nitial r eduction f lakes were dominated b y t hick a nd i rregular f orms w ith s harp o r cortical t erminations a nd s ometimes h inge o r t hick a ngular t erminations. P rimary t rimming f lakes were g enerally o f moderate r egularity and t hickness w ith t hin s harp t erminations; w hile s econdary t rimming f lakes w ere g enerally, t hin, o ften c urved, a nd r egular w ith t hin, s harp t erminations. T hese d ata i ndicated t hat t here w ere s tatistical r egularities e xpressed i n f lakes f rom t he t hree a ctivity s ets. Thus, t hese d ata were u sed t o d evelop t he a ttribute w eighting s ystem s hown i n T able 1 6. T he s um o f t he w eighting v alues f or e ach f lake i n e ach o f t he t hree r eductive s tages w as t hen c alculated and t he f lake w as a ssigned t o t he s tage e xpressing t he h ighest n umerical v alue. T his m ethod was f irst u sed d uring a nalysis o f m aterials f rom t he F ort K nox p roject ( O' Malley e t a l. 1 980) a nd l ater u sed a t Taylorsville L ake ( Sorensen e t a l. 1 980). An i ndependent c heck o f t he method was done. About 1 0% o f t he i ndividual f lake r ecords w ere i ndependently a ssessed ( subjectively) b y R ichard Boisvert o f t he University o f K entucky. I n a lmost every c ase, h is c onclusion w as i n a greement w ith t he r esults f rom t he a utomated s ystem d escribed above. While t he w eighting o f a ttributes i s s ubjective, obtained r esults appear t o b e a s g ood as t hose t hat m ight b e obtained b y t he f lake-by-flake overall a ssessment o f a l ithic specialist. O ' Malley e t a l. 1 980:302

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T able 1 6.

A ttribute P latform

A ttributes, A lternative S tates, a nd W eighting U sed t o A ssign F lakes t o a R eductive S tage ( after O 'Malley e t a l. 1 980:303).

A lternative S tate 1 c ortical

2

0

0

2 s ingle

f acet

2

1

1

3 d ouble

f acet

2

0

0

0 0 0 2

1 1 1 0

2 2 2 1

8 missing 9 o ther

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 f lat 2 m oderate 3 e xhuberent

0 2 2

0 2 2

2 0 0

4 multiple 5 missing 6 o ther

0 0 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

1 n one 2 s light

2 0

2 2

2 2

3 m oderate 4 s trong

0 0

0 0

2 2

5 m issing

0

0

0

1 c omplete c ortex 2 s emi c ortex

2 2

0 2

3 e dge c ortex 4 n on c ortex

2 1

2 2

4 5 6 7

B ulb

L ip

E xterior M aterial

E xterior

m ulti f acet g round s hattered b roken

1 n one

2

0

0

2

0

2 2 1

2 2 2

0 2 2

1 t hin 2 m oderate

1 2

1 2

2 1

3 t hick/blocky 4 a ngular/knotted 5 o ther

2 2 0

0 0 0

0 0 0

1 t hin/sharp 2 t hick/angular

2 2 0 2

2 2 0 2

2 0 0 0

0

0

0

f lake

s car

3 s ingle f lake s car 4 t wo f lake s cars 5 t hree o r m ore f lake

T ermination

2

2

2 s equent

B ody f orm

W eighting b y R eductive S tage I I I II I V/VI

s cars

3 h inge 4 w eathered/cortical 5 b roken ( unmeasurable) 1 74

APPENDIX D -C AUSES OF B REAKAGE AND MANUFACTURING ERRORS

E ach a rtifact w hich w as a ssigned t o t he c onditional s tatus C o r D ( see t he d iscussion i n Chapter I V) was a lso e xamined f or a ny e vidence f or t he r easons f or b reak o ccurring on t he s pecimen. A rtifacts a ssigned t o t he c onditional s tatus B o r C w ere e xamined f or manufacturing r elated abandonment. The f ollowing c haracteristics o f b reakage a nd manufacturing e rrors ( called k napping e rrors h ere) were r ecorded o n t he s pecimens e xamined f or t his s tudy.

B reakage

E ight t ypes o f b reakage h ave b een d efined f or a rchaeological s pecimens e xamined f rom t he F alls R egion. T hese b reakage t ypes a re n ot, h owever, p articularistic t o c hipped s tone c ollections i n t his r egion, b ut r ather a re g eneral t ypes which may b e i dentified i n any c ollection. A p articular b roken a rtifact may e xhibit only o ne o r a lmost a ny c ombination o f t he b reaks d escribed b elow.

I ndeterminate

B reak

Considerable n umbers o f a rtifacts were f ound w ith b reaks, c ommonly t ransversing t he c ross s ection o f t he a rtifact, w here t he n ature o f t he b reak w as n ot a scertainable.

X ,

Y and

Z Axis

B reak

These w ere d efined a s i ndeterminate b reaks f rom which t he d irection o f f orce r esulting i n t he b reak c ould b e d etermined. An X a xis b reak r esults f rom f orce d irected more o r l ess parallel t o t he l ong axis ( length d imension) o f t he a rtifact w hile a Y a xis b reak r esults f rom f orce d irected i nto t he s ide a nd approximately p arallel w ith t he p lane determined b y w idth and l ength. A lternatively, a Z a xis b reak r esults f rom f orces d irected i nto t he b ody o f t he a rtifact a t approximately a p erpendicular angle t o t he p lane f ormed by l ength a nd w idth measurements.

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I mpact

F racture

T hese a re X a xis b reaks f or which i t i s possible t o i nfer t he n ature o f f orce r esulting i n b reakage. A rtifacts w hich a re potentially p lunged o r p ropelled may s trike a h ard material r esulting i n . a r ather c haracteristic pattern o f d etachment o f o ne o r more f lakes f rom t he i mpact point, o n e ither o r both a spects, a nd o ften t erminating i n a h inge. Small s tep s cars a nd s hatter may a lso b e a ssociated w ith t he a rea n ear t he i mpact point. This t ype h as b een r eserved f or X a xis b reaks on p rojectile points, a lthough t he t erm " impact f racture" may h ave a b roader c onnotation. T hus, a s u sed h ere, i mpact f racture i mplies a p articular t ype o f u se b reak.

T hermal

F racture

C hert materials o ften f racture a nd/or s hatter w hen e xposed t o e xcessive h eat o r when e xposed t o r apid a nd e xcessive c hanges i n t emperature. S igns o f t hermally i nduced f racture a re s ugary o r r ough g ranular t exture o f t he s urface i n t he f racture p lane, c olor c hanges a nd " pot l id" f racture s cars. Thermal d amage may r esult f rom e ither i mproper a ttempts a t h eat t reating o r a ccidental i nclusion o f t he p iece i n a f ire.

Modern B reak

O ften, r ecent b reaks c an b e d etermined f rom t he appearance o f " freshness" o f t he b reak f acet. I n o ther c ases, e xcavators o r l aboratory workers a ctually observe t he e vent o f b reakage. Recording t hese b reaks obviously r educes i nference e rror.

Manufacturing B reaks

C ertain b reaks which appeared t o r esult f rom m isplaced o r poorly applied f orce d uring t he a rtifact's f abrication w ere a ssigned t o t his c ategory. T he s pecific t ype o f b reak w as f urther c larified under v arious c ategories o f " knapping e rror" ( see t he d iscussion b elow).

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K napping E rrors

T en c ategories o f k napping e rror w ere d efined. T hese i nclude s everal t ypes w hich e xhibit s pecific p atterns o f f racturing. T hese e rrors m ay h ave r esulted i n b reakage o f t he a rtifact i nto p ieces o r, a lternatively, d amaged t he s hape o f t he w orking p iece b eyond c orrection. O ther t ypes o f " errors" a re n ot e rrors i n t he s ame s ense, b ut r esult f rom t echnical p roblems w ith t he p arent m aterial o r a c ombination o f m aterial a nd k napper o riginated p roblem. A t a ny r ate, a ny o ne o f t he " errors" d efined b elow o r a c ombinations o f t hese w ere c onsidered a s s ufficient e vidence t o c onclude t hat w ork o n t he s pecimen w as d iscontinued b ecause o f t he p roblems e ncountered.

T ransverse F racture

T his i s a f racture ( essentially a Y a xis f racture a s d efined a bove) w hich c an b e r ecognized a s r esulting f rom a n i ll d elivered b low t o t he a rtifact's e dge. T he b reak f acet g enerally e xtends f rom o ne e dge t o t he o ther. T his t erm, a s a t ype o f k napping e rror, i s u sed i n a more r estrictive w ay t han m ight o therwise b e t he c ase. Additionally, t he a rtifact m ay e xhibit o ther e vidence o f m anufacturing d amage c onfirming t he i nference o f m anufacturing b reak a s o pposed t o o ther p otential s ources o f b reakage.

H inge F racture

A h inge f lake o r f lake s car i s s imilar t o o ther f lakes e xcept t hat i t t erminates i n a r ounded s tep. While o ften o f l ittle c onsequence, h inge f lakes s ometimes r emove a m uch l arger portion o f t he w ork p iece t han p lanned, r esulting i n i rreparable d amage t o t he c onformation o f t he w ork p iece.

O vershot

F racture

A n a rtifact's s hape a nd o verall c onformation m ay b e r uined b y r emoval o f a f lake w hich r uns o ver t he m edial a rea a nd a lso r emoves a p ortion o f t he o pposing e dge. T his t ype d iffers f rom t ransverse f ractures i n t hat t he f lake i s p arallel t o t he p lane d efined b y l ength a nd w idth w hile a t ransverse f racture o ccurs p erpendicular t o t his p lane.

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E dge Collapse

This f actor r esults f rom f ailure t o p roduce adequately l ong f lakes which r educe t he a rtifact's t hickness. R ather, t he e dge i s i nadvertently r educed p roducing a n otch a nd o ften d estroying t he o utline and c ross s ectional conformation o f t he work p iece.

Edge C rushing

E xhibited b y s hatter and s mall s cars above t he d amaged portion o f t he e dge, t he k napper f ailed t o i nitiate f laking. Results may b e q uite s imilar t o e dge collapse i n t erms o f d estroying t he o verall c onformation o f t he work p iece.

Knot

This i s a l ump on t he s urface o f t he w ork p iece c aused b y t he t ermination o f s everal h inge f ractures o riginating f rom various d irections. Once a k not i s p roduced, i t i s v ery d ifficult t o r emove w ithout s ubstantially r educing t he s ize and s hape o f t he a rtifact. This e rror i s a c ompilation o f h inge f ractures, a ny o ne o f which would n ot p robably h ave r esulted i n t ermination o f work.

Material

F law

F lint k nappers g enerally a ttempt t o a void materials w ith k nown n atural f laws o r n aturally p roduced h airline f ractures, b ut most chippable s tone contains a variety o f i mpurities s uch a s f ossil i nclusions o r m ineralized concretions which c an n ot a lways b e i dentified p rior t o t he beginning o f work. These n atural f laws m ay o ften b e i dentified a s c ontributing s ignificantly t o b reakage o r f ailure t o s hape.

F ailure

t o T hin

I n s ome c ases, t he a nalyst may i nfer t hat t he k napper abandoned h is w ork p iece a s a r esult o f a f ailure t o t hin t he p iece e ffectively. This i s a qualitative j udgment b ut one which i s o ften b ased o n observation o f c ombinations o f o ther e rrors s uch a s edge c ollapse, c rushing a nd k nots.

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F ailure

t o N egotiate a T abular

F acet

C ertain r aw m aterials w hich o ccur i n t abular o r b locky s tates possess f acets w hich f orm a ngles o f a bout 9 0 d egrees. T hese i nitial e dges a re d ifficult t o s uccessfully r educe w hile c ontrolling t he s ize a nd s hape o f f lakes. T he a nalyst's r ecognition o f t his f ailure o n t he p art o f t he k napper i s a gain b ased o n a q ualitative j udgment b ut i n t he m ost o bvious c ases, m ay b e s upported b y e vidence o f m any o ther e rrors i ncurred d uring t he u nsuccessful a ttempt t o r educe t he w ork p iece. T hese p roblems m ay a lso s ometimes b e s een i n a ttempts t o r ework a b reak f acet w hich e xhibits t hese s teep a ngled e dges.

U nsuccessful

S haping

A g eneral a nd q ualitative c ategory w hich e xpresses t he a nalyst's o pinion t hat t he k napper f ailed t o c orrectly s hape t he a rtifact t o a d esirable f orm. T his c ategory s hould b e u sed w ith c are, h owever, s ince c ertain a rtifacts w hich d eviate r adically f rom o thers o f s imilar g eneral morphology i n t erms o f s evere c urvature o r a symmetry i n o ne o r more a xes m ay b e a cceptable c andidates f or t his c ategory. I n m any c ases t he a rtifact m ay a lso e xhibit o ther c haracteristics o r e rrors w hich, t ogether, m ay b e t aken a s r easons f or a bandonment.

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APPENDIX E -A

S YNOPSIS OF METHODS OF M ICROWEAR ANALYSIS

The t echniques o f analysis o f u se-wear t races on c hipped s tone t ools adapted f or t his s tudy a re e ssentially t hose d eveloped and d escribed b y K eeley ( 1980). This appendix b riefly d escribes t he method o f s pecimen p reparation and m icroscopy. T his i s f ollowed b y a b rief d iscussion o f t he a uthor's e xperimentally p roduced collection u sed f or c omparative p urposes i n i dentification o f w ear polishes o n t he a rchaeological s pecimens e xamined.

P reparation o f

S pecimens

a nd M icroscopy

E dge d amage, l inear f eatures and polish a re f eatures i ntrinsic t o t he u tilized a rea o f t he i mplement and n ot r esidues o n t he i mplement. I t i s c ritically i mportant t o r emove o rganic a nd i norganic r esidues f rom t he i mplement p rior t o m icrowear analysis, s ince t hese r esidues may b e c onfused w ith u se-wear o r may obscure u se-wear t races. O bviously, t his m ust b e d one w ith c aution s ince r esidues r esulting f rom i mplement u se may s till adhere t o t he s urface o f t he s pecimen and t hese may p rovide u seful d ata o n u tilization. F or i nstance, Collins ( 1979) f ound t races o f b itumen on s everal c hipped s tone a rtifacts f rom L ate A rchaic s ites i n t he F alls Region. T hus, i t i s i mportant t o i nspect e ach a rtifact c arefully p rior t o c hemical c leaning. After t his i nspection, t he f ollowing p rocedures w ere u sed t o c lean t he a rtifact. T he a rtifact i s f irst l ightly s crubbed w ith a b rush i n d iluted ammonia b ased c leanser. I n t his c ase, Top Job l iquid c leaner w as u sed. T his r emoves most o f t he g rease t hat h as a ccumulated on s pecimens a s a r esult o f h andling. T he a rtifact i s t hen p atted d ry w ith a p aper t owel a nd e xamined f or t races o f a rchaeological r esidues. • T he a rtifact i s t hen s ubjected t o a 1 5 m inute b ath i n 1 5% h ydrochloric a cid ( HCL) t o r emove i norganic r esidues. After r emoval f rom t he b ath, t he s pecimen i s t horoughly w ashed i n w arm water. A s econd b ath o f s imilar d uration i n 1 5% p otassium h ydroxide ( KOH) s olution f ollowed b y v igorous w ashing i n warm w ater r emoves o rganic r esidues f rom t he s pecimen. C are s hould b e t aken n ot t o l eave s pecimens i n t he c hemical b aths f or t oo l ong a s c hemical p atination may o ccur i n s ome s pecimens. Once t he s pecimens a re t horoughly d ry, m icroscopic e xamination may c ontinue. Normally, i n t his s tudy, s pecimens w ere e xamined u nder a s tereoscopic m icroscope a t 1 5 -3 0 magnifications a nd g eneral n ote o f e dge d amage c haracteristics w as made. Then, t he e dges w ere g enerally s canned u nder t he l ight m icroscope a t 5 0X magnifications.

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Most polish which i s s ubstantial e nough f or i nterpretation w ill b e r evealed a s b right s pots u nder 5 0X magnifications. However, r esolution o f particular c haracteristics o f p olish and many l inear f eatures i s u sually only p ossible a t h igher magnifications. T he m icroscopes u sed i n t his s tudy w ere t he S wift S tereo z oom s tereomicroscope and t he O lympus BM1. T he O lympus m icroscope i s e quipped w ith i ncident l ight f or v iewing opaque materials. This a ttachment i s c ritical i n o rder t o s ufficiently i lluminate t he s pecimen f or s tudy. T o a chieve t he b est r esults, t he specimen must b e o riented p roperly on t he m icroscopic s tage. To do t his, a rtifacts were p laced i n a c radle o f modeling c lay o n a p lexiglas t emplate. The a rtifact must b e t ilted, d epending on t he angles o f t he e dges t o b e o bserved, a t a bout 4 5 degrees f rom t he horizontal. The a rtifact c an b e c hecked and a djusted b y l ooking a t t he e dge t hrough t he microscope and positioning t he a rtifact s o t hat t he w idest a rea o f t he e dge f acet i s r esolved a t 5 0X o r 1 00X. N umerous r eadjustments o f t he a rtifact a re n ecessary before a specimen i s c ompletely a nalyzed. I dentifications o f polish observed d uring m icroscopy m ay b e c ross c hecked w ith e xperimentally p roduced polishes o f k nown o rigin on materials s imilar t o t he a rchaeological s pecimen under i nvestigation. F or c omparative purposes i n t he a nalyses r eported i n C hapter V , l ocal c herts were u sed t o p repare a c omparative c ollection.

The Comparative Collection

I nitially, h and-held f lakes o f Muldraugh, H arrison County, a nd B oyle were u sed, i n s everal operations ( for 5 m inutes) o n wood, bone, l eather a nd antler. S pecimens o f e ach o f t he t hree c hert t ypes w ere u sed t o w hittle a nd c ut s easoned s oftwood. S imilarly, a s pecimen o f e ach o f t he t hree c hert t ypes w as u sed t o c ut f resh c ow b one, s crape s ueded c ow h ide l eather, a nd c ut well s easoned d eer a ntler. Additionally, s everal l arge b ifaces u sed f or d igging i n s oft, s andy s oil were p repared b y a nother s tudent a nd e xamined by t he a uthor f or s oil polish. T hese s pecimens were u sed a s t raining a ids f or t his author. L ater, a more e xtensive c omparative c ollection w as p repared by t his a uthor u sing a s pecially constructed machine. Unlike h and-work, t he machine d uplicated p recisely t he s ame movement on e ach s troke a nd p rovision w as made f or r elatively constant p ressure on t he c hert i mplement b y u se o f a s et o f h ead weights. The machine was d esigned t o r eplicate approximate s peed o f h andwork and t he n ormative actions o f work i ncluding s craping, c utting o r s licing, a nd

1 82

b oring. The c hert i mplement was s ecured i n a v ice-like h eadpiece w hose m ovement was d irected by a motor d rive. S peed o f movement a s well a s angle ( in a ll t hree d imensions) o f t he i mplement was adjustable. Additionally, t he t able h olding t he work m aterial c ould b e optionally s et t o s lowly move across t he p ath o f t he i mplement. I n t his way, a w ide r ange o f a ctivities c ould b e r eplicated while a t t he s ame t ime, c ertain v ariables s uch a s a ngle o f a ttack, s troke l ength, s peed a nd p ressure could b e c ontrolled. I n a ll, 7 5 e xperimental s pecimens were p repared o n t he machine ( Table 1 7). I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he machine-processed s pecimens g enerally e xhibited w ell-developed p olish b ut l ess e xtensive e dge d amage t han t he h and p roduced s pecimens. P resumably, t his i s b ecause v ariables o f p ressure a nd angle w ere s table a nd b etter c ontrolled o n t he machine-processed s pecimens. Thus, while t hese s pecimens p rovide g ood c omparisons f or p olish analysis, t hey a re n ot v ery a ccurate e xamples o f e dge d amage r esulting f rom t he r espective a ctivity i n h and-held s pecimens.

1 83

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APPENDIX F -T HE M ICROWEAR ANALYSIS

S KILLS TEST

I ntroduction

I n o rder t o p rovide a n a ssessment o f t he a uthor's a bility t o correctly i nterpret work a ction a nd material worked and t o c larify l imitations i n t he a bility t o i nterpret u se-wear, a s kills t est t o b e t aken b y t he a uthor w as d eveloped by M .B. Collins. T he t ools ( n=35) w ere m ade f rom c hert materials ( Muldraugh, H arrison County, B oyle, e tc., - s ee Appendix B ) which occur i n c entral K entucky a nd w ere t o b e u tilized i n a v ariety o f operations ( i.e., w hittling, c utting, s craping, d igging, e tc.,) o n m aterials s uch a s bone, wood, a ntler, and meat. T he t ools were t hen c leaned b y Collins i n d etergent and water, n umbered a nd g iven t o t he a uthor f or a nalysis. E ach s pecimen w as c leaned a nd p repared a ccording t o t he t echniques d iscussed i n Appendix E . M icroscopic a nalysis a lso c onformed t o t he m ethods d escribed i n Appendix E . After c haracteristics o f e dge damage a nd polish were r ecorded f or e ach s pecimen, t he a rea(s) u tilized, t he work a ction i ndicated, a nd t he work material i nterpreted w as t hen u sed t o c onstruct a n overall a ssessment o f t ool u se. T able 1 8 d epicts a s ynopsis o f t he s kills t est w hen t he i nferred " used part o f t he t ool," " work a ction," a nd " material worked" w as c ompared t o t he a ctual d escription o f u se p repared b y Collins. T he t able a lso p rovides c omparative s tatistics f rom s kills t ests r eported b y K eeley ( 1980) and Odell and Odell-Vereechken ( 1980). The r esults w ere s cored i n t he f ollowing w ay. E ach u tilized o r worked a rea o n t he t ool w as s cored s eparately. P artially c orrect i nterpretations were c onsidered t o b e t hose i n w hich t wo i nterpretations w ere v entured, o ne o f which was c orrect o r, a lternatively one w as v entured when t wo were c orrect. These w ere a ssigned a v alue o f o ne-half o f an unambiguously c orrect r esponse. I n t he c ase o f t he a uthor's i nterpretations, s pecimen 3 ( Area B ) w as a ssigned h alf c redit on t he m aterial worked. S pecimen 1 3 ( Area B ) w as a ssigned h alf c redit f or a ction. I n c ases w here t he analyst correctly i dentified u nused a rtifacts, a c orrect s core was a ssigned f or a ll t hree c ategories o f i nferences. B efore p resenting t he d etails o f t he a ssessment o f e ach specimen, s ome g eneral r emarks a re appropriate. T he u sed portion o f a t ool i s u sually e asily i dentified a s s uggested by t he author's s core a s well a s i n t he o ther t wo s kills t ests. M istakes u sually r esult f rom poorly f ormed e vidence f or u se e ither t hrough u se o n v ery s oft materials ( as i n s pecimen 3 ) o r v ery s hort d uration o f u se ( as i n s pecimen 3 4).

1 85

T able

1 8.

A

C omparison

o f

t he

R esults o f

S kills

T ests

f or

T hree

M icrowear A nalysts.

U sed P art o f T ool

A nalyst

W ork A ction

M aterial W orked

D riskell ( n=47)

9 0.4%

5 6.3%

5 2.1%

K eeley

( n=16)*

8 7.5%

7 5.0%

6 2.5%

( n=46)**

8 2.6%

6 7.7%

3 9.1%

O dell

* from K eeley ( 1980:76) *results r ecomputed f rom T able 4 ( Odell a nd O dell-Vereechken * 1 980:110-112) t o b e c omparable w ith K eeley 's ( 1980) r esults.

Work action m ay b e i nferred w ith more c onfidence b y e ach a nalyst t han c an work material. This i s p articularly e vident i n t he t ests r eported b y K eeley ( 1980) a nd O dell ( Odell and Odell-Vereechken 1 980). The s core b y t he a uthor m ay b e a t l east p artially a ttributed t o quality o f t he c hert m aterials f rom w hich t he s pecimens w ere made. Many o f t he s pecimens analyzed w ere made f rom c herts w ith l arge g rain s ize. These cherts d o n ot " behave" a s p redictably u nder w ork s tress c onditions a s would b e d esired. E dges t end t o c rumble r ather t han f lake a s may b e e xpected i n c herts w ith f iner t exture. S ince m uch o f t he i nference o f work a ction i s b ased o n patterns o bserved i n m icroscarring, t his f actor a ccounts f or s ome o f t he m istakes. Another i mportant f actor t o b e c onsidered i n t he i nference o f work a ction i s t he p roblem o f b lunting a n e dge, p articularly w ith a n a ntler f abricator. T his o ften p roduces a p attern i dentical t o u se o f t he t ool o n material s imilar t o t he f abricator. Analysis o f s pecimens 7 , 8 , 1 0, a nd 1 3 p rovide e xamples o f t his p roblem. S pecific work m aterial i s t he most d ifficult t o i nfer. When t he polish i s e xtensive and w ell-formed, t he d ifficulties a re d ecreased considerably. However, a s n oted a bove, c ertain p olishes a re quite s imilar t o o ne a nother. B one a nd a ntler p olishes w ere n ot d istinguishable f rom e ach o ther by t he a uthor. B one/antler p olish may l ook v ery much l ike wood polish u nless t he wood p olish i s w ell-formed. Meat a nd f resh h ide polish a re v ery d ifficult t o d istinguish f rom o ne a nother a nd a re b oth a lmost i mpossible t o r ecognize i n l ieu o f o ther polishes which may b e c orrelated w ith t he s pecific a ctivity s uch a s b utchering. S oft v egetal materials p rocessed w ith t hese s pecimens d id n ot p roduce p ronounced polish. P resumably, t his r esults f rom l ow s ilica c ontent i n t hese t emperate z one p lants. T he a uthor's a ssessment of m aterial w orked w as 8 0% c orrect i nferences on M uldraugh c hert s pecimens, 5 2.5% c orrect i nferences o n H arrison County c hert s pecimens,and o nly 3 6.6% c orrect o n B eechwood o r Boyle c hert a rtifacts. While M uldraugh c hert i s u sually q uite g rainy, i t a ccepts a polish w ell, t he c omparative s pecimens a lso b ear t his o ut. Additionally, i t i s n ot n aturally v ery b right u nder t he m icroscope w hich m akes t he polish e asily f ound a nd o bserved. The p hysical o r c hemical r easons f or t his i s u nknown. A lthough p olish f orms well o n H arrison C ounty c herts, i nterpretation o f work material f rom p olish o n t hese s pecimens i s c omplicated t o s ome e xtent b y t he n atural l uster o f t he c hert. T his must b e c onsidered i n e ach c ase. T his p roblem i s p articularly p ronounced i n s ome s pecimens o f B oyle and particularly B eechwood c herts, p articularly t hose w ith l arge g rain s ize. T hese s pecimens a re l ight c olored c herts w ith a c rystalline s tructure t hat i s o ften q uite r eflective and b right. A lthough polish d oes n ot appear t o f orm a s quickly o r a s w ell on t hese s pecimens, i t i s

1 87

d ifficult m akeup o r

t o s ay whether t his i s t he r esult o f c hemical t he m asking e ffect o f n aturally b right s urfaces.

While n umerous c lues t o t he s pecific u se o f a s pecimen a re p rovided t hrough physically observable phenomena, i nterpretation i s a matter o f a ssembling t hese i nto a l ogical f ramework. M istakes c an b e c ompounded b y c ommitting t o a n i nterpretation o f o ne e dge o r w ork a rea which m ay a utomatically p redetermine i nterpretation o f a nother a rea. This p roblem w as obvious i n s everal e xamples ( such a s s pecimens 7 , 1 0 a nd 1 3) i n t he s kills t est i n which an i ntentionally b lunted e dge w as i nterpreted a s u se d amaged a nd m inor d amage o n t he opposing e dge w as t herefore i nterpreted a s t he r esult o f p rehension w hen, i n f act, i t h ad r esulted f rom u se. Moreover, t he a nalyst works w ithin a p articular m ind s et. Analysis o f s pecimens 2 6, 3 0, a nd 3 5 i llustrate t his f act w ell. These s pecimens were small, p ointed f lakes which were h afted t o a d ibble s tick a nd u sed f or d igging. The c ritical e vidence w as p resent o n t he s pecimens b ut t he a nalyst's m ind s et d id n ot i nclude t he possibility o f u sing v ery s mall f lakes i n t his w ay. A s w ill b e n oted, t he a ssessments o f t hese a rtifacts r eflected c onfusion o n t he p art o f t he a nalyst. A s a r esult o f c areful s tudy o f t he comparative c ollection a nd r esults o f t he s kills t est, t he f ollowing c oncerns s hould b e n oted a nd g iven d ue c onsideration when making t he m icrowear i nterpretations.

1 .

B one a nd a ntler polishes appear s o s imilar o n a rtifacts e xamined t hat n o d istinction h as b een m ade b etween t he t wo. K eeley ( 1980) r eports d istinctive polishes f or t hese t wo m aterials b ut h is s ample o f antler polishes w as v ery s mall.

2 .

A c lose e xamination o f a ll p ertinent e xperimental s pecimens s uggests t hat b one/antler a nd w ood polishes a re f airly s imilar i n t he i ncipient s tages o f polish f ormation, a t l east o n t he l ithic materials u sed i n t his s tudy. Therefore, n o m aterials s pecific i nterpretations h ave b een f orwarded i n s ome c ases where polish i s n ot w ell-formed.

3 .

While r ather c lear d istinctions b etween s oil and h ide polishes a re e videnced i n e xperimental s pecimens, t he d istinction i s l ess c lear i n a rchaeological s pecimens f rom B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge. T his apparently r esults f rom p rocessing h ides w hich a re d irty ( gritty), s ince t he d istinctions b etween t hese t wo abrasive polishes a re e xpressed u nder e xperimental c onditions a s p rimarily t he l ength, d epth, w idth a nd n umber o f s triations p roduced. G rit p articles i n s oils p roduce abundant a nd l arge s triations. T hus, i n t he

1 88

a rchaeological material i n t his s tudy, p rimary d istinction b etween t he t wo polishes h as b een b ased o n t he l ocation a nd e xtent o f t he polish r ather t han s trictly on p hysical appearance. B ecause o f t he d ifference i n actions a nd d epth o f p enetration a ssociated w ith t hese t wo postulated u ses, t he d istinction i s n ot u sually d ifficult t o d etect, b ut a s w ill b e n oted l ater i n t he c hapter, t he f unctional i nterpretation o f s craper-like a rtifacts a s e ither h ide s crapers o r s oil g rubbers r emains a p roblem. 4 .

M eat p olishes a re d ifficult t o d etect i n t he a bsence o f o ther i ndications o f b utchering s uch a s b one p olish o r e dge d amage. Thus, t he t ools u sed on m eat a re l ikely u nder-represented i n t he f unctional i nterpretations o f t he a rchaeological s pecimens.

5 .

B ecause o f t he n ature o f t he manufacturing p rocess i n b ifacially c hipped t ools, i ncidental polish a s t he r esult o f m anufacturing ( particularly s oft-hammer p ercussion a nd p latform p reparation) i s d ifficult t o d istinguish f rom u se d amage/polish. When i n d oubt, t he analyst a ssumed t hat w ear p atterns r esulted f rom m anufacture only.

T he following p rovides a s pecimen b y s pecimen d escription o f C ollins' u se o f t he t ool ( ACTUAL TOOL U SE) f ollowed b y t he i ndependent a ssessment ( AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT) t hrough u se-wear a nalysis. T he D ISCUSSION i s a c omparison o f t he author's u se-wear a ssessment w ith Collins' a ctual t ool u se.

Results

o f

t he

S kills

T est

S pecimen I ( Figure 2 0): A medial s ection o f a t hick Muldraugh c hert f lake w ith h igh medial r idge a nd t riangular c ross s ection. ACTUAL TOOL USE:

C ollins

d id n ot

u se

t he

AUTHOR' S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: E dges l imited, u nsystematic m icroscarring. f ound. D amage appears r elated t o s pecimen w as n ot u tilized. D ISCUSSION:

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a c orrect

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S PECIMENS DRAWN T O A CTUAL S IZE

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ACTUAL TOOL U SE: The f lake was u sed ( 2,061 s trokes) t o s aw h ard, d ry e lk a ntler. T he work a rea ( A) w as b roken a fter a f ew s trokes l eaving A rea A l a s t he work a rea d uring t he r emainder o f work. Collins n otes t hat a b urin-like f acet a t t he end o f t he f lake d id most o f t he c utting. G rooves i n t he a ntler w ere c ut up t o 3 .5 mm d eep. T he t ool w as h and h eld a long t he o pposite margin i n a p iece o f l eather. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR A SSESSMENT: T wo a reas ( A a nd B ) s how e dge d amage. L arge f lakes r emoved f rom t he e xterior a spect o f t he p roximal e nd o f t he f lake ( Area B ) appear t o b e t he r esult o f f lake p roduction. F rom t he a ppearance o f t he e dge d amage, A rea A l w as u tilized. T his e dge i s c haracterized b y s ignificant a ttrition t o a n o riginally t hin ( 20 d egrees) e dge p roducing a n e dge angle o f a bout 5 0 d egrees. R ounding i s moderate, most s cars a re s calar, s teep ( approaching h alf moon) and p oorly d efined. Most o f t he s cars a re o n t he f lake i nterior a spect s uggesting a t ransverse a ction. These c haracteristics s uggest t ransverse a ction a t a h igh a ngle o f a ttack. P olish a nalysis r evealed n o p olish f ormation l eading t o t he i nterpretation t hat t his e dge w as n ot u tilized s ignificantly a s a t ool b ut d amage m ay h ave r esulted f rom t ool p reparation. A lternatively, p oor p olish f ormation may b e r elated t o i nvasive c ortex p atination o n t he e xterior and e dge o f t he f lake. E dge c haracteristics a re h ighly s uggestive o f u se o f t his e dge ( A) and m ajor i nvolvement o f t he " tip" i n a s craping t o h igh a ngle w hittling a ction on m aterial o f s oft m edium h ardness ( possibly wood) a lthough polish i s a bsent. D ISCUSSION: The a ssessment o f d amage i n A rea B w as c orrect. H owever, a ssessment o f both t he a ctions a nd m aterial w orked b y t he edge a nd b urin-like t ip i n A rea A w as i ncorrect. I n t he absence o f o bservable p olish e dge d amage w as s upportive o f u tilization. T he a ction w as l ongitudinal, n ot t ransverse a s i nferred b y t he a uthor. T his c onfusion r esulted f rom t he a lmost e xclusive p resence o f e dge d amage o n o ne a spect o f t he e dge a nd t he l ack o f polish o n e ither a spect o f t he e dge. I t n ow s eems apparent t hat ( as C ollins n oted) t he w ider, b urin-like t ip, d id most o f t he c utting. T he t railing e dge w as d amaged b ut n ot s ubstantially w orn o r polished b ecause o f p oor c ontact w ith t he material. F laking o n a . single a spect, which w as v ery s teep ( like h alf moon s cars), p robably r esulted f rom s light a nd c onsistent l ateral movement o f t he w ork p iece i n t he a ntler g roove. While g rooves w ere c ut t o a maximum o f 3 -5 mm d eep, t he a ctual p enetration o f t he t ool a t a ny s troke would h ave b een v ery s light w ith h ard, d ry a ntler. A lthough b one o r a ntler p olishes f orm s lowly, i t i s n ot c lear why t he b urin-like t ip w as n ot polished o n t he c ontact s urface. I t w as a braded and i t i s possible t hat p olish w as r emoved b y a ttrition n ear t he e nd o f t he work e pisode. H ad polish b een p resent, a nd p articularly h ad p olish b een

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p resent o n t he t ip and a long b oth a spects i nterpretation would h ave b een apparent.

o f

t he

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S pecimen 3 ( Figure 2 0): A t hin f lake o f H arrison C ounty c hert w ith n odular c ortex a long a major portion o f i ts e xterior. ACTUAL TOOL U SE: A rea D w as d ulled w ith d irect percussion ( percussor u nidentified) b efore u se. T his a rea w as t hen h eld i n t he h and. A rea B , a s harp e dge opposite t he b acking, w as u sed f or 6 84 s trokes t o d ice a t hick p iece o f b eef. B one w as s truck t hree t imes; o n o ne o ccasion b one c aused t he t ool t o n ick w ith a n a udible s nap. The e dge a ngle o f A rea B w as about 1 5 d egrees p rior t o w ork. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: A rea A s hows n o evidence o f u se. T he s nap f racture a t t his point w as p robably p roduced d uring manufacture o f t he f lake. A rea B s hows l imited e dge d amage ( most s evere on t he d istal portion), e xtensive e dge f eathering, a nd a t hin e dge a ngle ( approximately 3 0 d egrees) s uggesting l imited i f a ny u tilization. N o appreciable polish w as observed a lthough s ome b rightness m ay i ndicate l imited u se. I nterpretation i s t hat A rea B w as p robably n ot u tilized; i f u tilized, l imited u se, p robably c utting o r s licing a ction o n s oft m aterial, i s postulated. A rea C p resents an e dge a ngle o f a bout 9 0 d egrees a nd i s c haracterized on t he b eveled f acet b y a c omplex s eries o f s tep s cars a nd s hatter, a nd i s mostly i nvaded b y c ortical patination. P olish d evelopment i s p oor; s triae o n t he b eveled a spect s uggest a t ransverse a ction; e dges r emain s harp i n s pite o f c onsiderable d amage. T he i nterpretation f or A rea C i s t hat d amage r esulted p rimarily f rom e dge p reparation b y u se o f a h ard m aterial, possibly a h ammerstone. T here i s l imited t o n o u tilization o f t he w ork a rea. A rea D p resents an e xtremely well r ounded e dge w ith l arge s calar and s tep f ractures. An o riginal e dge a ngle o f a bout 3 5 d egrees h as b een modified t o a bout 9 0 d egrees w ith c ontinuous r ounding. P olish o n a spects i s poorly developed. L inear f eatures, l ongitudinal t o t he a xis o f t he edge, s uch a s a brasions, s triae and s mears a re p rominent o n h igh points o f t he e dge i tself. I nterpretation i s i ntentional p reparation o f a b lunted e dge b y u se o f a h ard a brader s uch a s a h ammerstone. Overall i nterpretation i s t hat t he s pecimen w as p repared f or u se a s a k nife and/or e nd s craper b ut w as u tilized v ery l ittle i f a t a ll. D ISCUSSION: T his a ssessment w as e ssentially correct f or A reas A , C and D a lthough p resence o f c ortical p atination i n A rea C made i nterpretation d ifficult a nd s omewhat equivocal. Additionally, A rea C e xhibited s ome r etouch w hich w as n ot n oted by Collins s o i ts o rigin i s u nknown. M eat polish w as

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n ot r ecognized i n A rea B a lthough s ome b rightness and edge d amage characteristics s uggested possible u se f or c utting a s oft material. E xperiments confirm t hat meat polish i s d ifficult t o i nterpret i n l ieu o f c haracteristics o f b utchering s uch a s bone o r h ide polish. I n r etrospect, w ith t his c haracteristic o f meat polish i n m ind, t he overall a ssessment ( although l imited) was e ssentially correct.

Specimen 4 ( Figure 2 0): A l arge, course g rained f lake o f Muldraugh chert w ith a wedge-shaped c ross s ection and b reak f acets on e dges opposite A reas A and B which f orm f lat f acets at r ight a ngles t o t he i nterior and e xterior s urfaces o f t he f lake. A CTUAL TOOL USE: The i mplement was u sed a s a s aw w ith t he w orking edge ( A) h eavily a ttrited a s t he r esult o f t he t hin e dge and s ubstantial ( 690 s trokes) work on s oft, d ry wood. T he a rtifact was h afted i n t he a rea opposite A rea A . AUTHOR' S USE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: Analysis r eveals s ystematic e dge collapse a long A reas A and B . General angle o f about 1 5 degrees has b een r educed on t he edge t o about 6 0 - 70 d egrees. Edge A i s generally r ounded; e dge B i s s harp t o f eathered. Scars a re n ot well-formed b ecause o f course g rain of t he c hert material. S carring on both a spects ( facets) o f edge A i n a s omewhat a lternating pattern i s s uggestive of l ongitudinal action. The s carring on e dge B i s p rimarily r estricted t o t he i nterior f lake f acet s uggesting t ransverse a ction a t a moderately h igh angle o f a ttack. Polish a nalysis r eveals wood polish i n both a reas A a nd B . L inear f eatures ( in both a reas) a re s ubperpendicular t o t he axis of t he edges. I nterpretations a re t hat t his t ool was u sed t o whittle wood i n A rea A and u sed t o whittle o r s crape wood i n A rea B . D ISCUSSION: The i dentification o f work material i n A rea A w as correct; t he a ction i ncorrect. Although t here was s ome e vidence o f shaving i n A rea A ( longitudinal action), t he a uthor was s keptical o f t his s ince s carring was i rregular a s a r esult o f l arge g rain s ize. More emphasis was p laced on l inear f eatures which s uggested a t ransverse action; whittling was i nferred, an action which c an p roduce b ifacial e dge damage. I n r etrospect, t he m isleading l inear f eatures p robably r esulted f rom abrasions o f t he spalls f rom t he r apidly attriting e dge a s f orce was applied downward and n ot a long the movement o f t he s awing action. I t i s n ot c lear h ow t he u se-wear i n Area B occurred a s Collins d id n ot n ote u se o f this edge. However, portions o f e dge B , particularly t hose portions c losest t o edge A may h ave b een peripherally i nvolved i n t he s ame s awing episode.

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o f

S pecimen 5 ( Figure 2 0): A l ong, t hick, b lade-like f lake B oyle c hert w ith a p ronounced m edial r idge.

ACTUAL TOOL USE: This a rtifact w as h afted ( method unspecified) i n t he p roximal a rea a nd A rea A was u sed t o " scrape" ( 60 d egree a ngle) h ard, d ry w ood. I t w as u sed f or 8 19 s trokes b efore a l arge p iece o f t he e dge b roke a way. A fterwards, i t w as u sed f or 9 3 more s trokes o n t he s ame material. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: S ystematic e dge d amage w as n oted only o n e dge A . Overall e dge a ngle o f a bout 4 0 d egrees h as b een a ltered t o a bout 6 0 d egrees w ith s light e dge r ounding i n l imited a reas. S cars a re p rimarily s tep w ith a f ew s calar s cars. A lternating pattern o f s carring s uggests l ongitudinal o r l ongitudinal/transverse a ction. I nterior margins o f s cars a re u sually well-defined s uggesting u se on material o f moderate h ardness. P olish occurs o n t he i nterior f lake f acet i s poorly f ormed and appears i n s mall a rea o f t he c entral p ortion o f e dge A . There i s a lso v ery l imited polish f ormed on t he actual e dge i n t his a rea. Polish h as a r elatively s mooth, medium b right appearance. This polish i s p robably w ood o r b one/antler b ut i s s o r estricted t hat c onfidence i n t his a ssessment i s v ery poor. L inear f eatures n oted i nclude a f ew s triations s ubperpendicular t o t he e dge. T his i mplement w as p robably u sed f or w hittling o r s having o f b one/antler o r possibly wood w ith t he e xterior f lake a spect l eading. D ISCUSSION: U se a rea was c orrectly i dentified a s w as t he g eneral a ction. C ollins r eferred t o t he a ction e xecuted a s s craping ( at 6 0 d egrees). A l ow a ngle f or s craping a nd t he h igh e dge a ngle o f t he u tilized e dge m eant t hat t he t railing e dge w as i n s ubstantial c ontact w ith w ork material. T hus, t he a ction e xecuted m ight j ust a s well h ave b een c alled whittling o r s having. I nference o f s pecific work m aterial was h ampered b y poor polish f ormation. Most o f t he p olish was l ikely r emoved when t he e dge c ollapsed n ear t he e nd o f work. H ad d istinctive p atterns o f wood p olish f ormed, w hich o ccurs e ventually i n a lmost a ll s pecimens, i dentification o f work material c ould h ave b een more p recise.

S pecimen 6 ( Figure 2 0): A l ong f lake o f Muldraugh c hert w ith a t hin e dge o n o ne s ide a nd a n atural f lat t hick f acet on t he o ther. ACTUAL TOOL U SE: This a rtifact w as u sed t o s aw d ry s oft w ood ( pine). A rea B and t he adjacent portion o f A rea A w ere i n c ontact w ith t he work material. The a rtifact was u sed f or 1 17 s trokes a t which t ime, i t b roke i n h alf ( caused by wedging i n c urf o f wood). The c urf w as a bout 6 mm d eep. As work p rogressed, Collins n oted c onsiderable e dge l oss i ncluding t he c utting e dge i n A rea A . The a rtifact was h afted ( method n ot s pecified).

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AUTHOR' S USE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: Area A e xhibited morphology s uggestive o f u se b ut i t l acked characteristics o f u se damage ( microscarring) and polish. There i s e vidence o f percussion ( hard h ammer) damage on A rea A ( the p roximal edge o f t he f lake) a nd t he v ery t hin, f eathered e dge r emaining would not s urvive u tilization. A rea A w as n ot u tilized s ignificantly. A rea B s hows s ignificant a nd s ystematic s carring on t he f lake i nterior a spect. S carring i s i rregular d ue p rimarily t o t he l arge g rain s ize o f t he parent material. At any r ate, a t ransverse action w ith t he f lake e xterior f acet l eading i s i ndicated by edge d amage. S ome portions o f t he edge are moderately r ounded but o ther a reas a re s harp i ndicating continuing a ttrition o f t he e dge u ntil t he e nd o f work. The b reak h appened d uring o r a fter work a nd may h ave b een the r eason f or t ermination o f work. L inear f eatures s uggest a t ransverse action w ith a moderate angle o f a ttack. Polish was moderately well-formed on t he f lake i nterior f acet but l imited on t he opposing f acet. This c onfirms l ow t o moderate angle o f a ttack w ith t he e xterior f lake f acet l eading. Polish i s medium b right, e xtensive, b ut s omewhat a typical o f wood polish. However, one a rea n ear t he b reak s hows a c haracteristic s haved, undulating a rea o f wood polish. This i mplement was u sed t o whittle wood. D ISCUSSION: Area o f u tilization i s correct, material worked i s correct, b ut t he i nferred action i s i ncorrect. As w ith specimen 4 above ( which was a lso a c ourse-grained Muldraugh c hert artifact u sed i n s awing) t he p lacement o f s cars, t he i rregularity o f s carring r esulting f rom t he l arge g rain s ize, and t he d irectionality of t he l inear f eatures made i nterpretation o f action d ifficult and r esulted i n an i ncorrect i nference.

Specimen 7 Harrison County e xceed 1 mm.

( Figure c hert.

2 0): The

A small, v ery t hin f lake o f maximum t hickness does not

ACTUAL TOOL U SE: A rea A was b lunted ( instrument not specified) t o p rotect t he h and. The opposite e dge ( B) was u sed to s have ( 15 degree a ngle) d ry c ane. A l arge s ection o f t he used edge w as r emoved d uring u se. The s pecimen was u sed f or 5 31 s trokes. AUTHOR' S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: This small f lake s hows e dge damage on a reas A a nd B . A rea A , w ith a n o verall t hin angled edge ( 10 degrees), h as b een a ttrited t o a h ighly r ounded edge. S car d istribution i s s omewhat u neven w ith occasional scarring on t he e xterior f lake f acet and e ven, r un-together s carring on t he opposite f acet. S carring i s p rimarily s calar, v ery small and w ell-defined. Polish analysis s hows l imited polish o n both a spects b ut well-developed, b right polish on f acets o f t he a ctual e dge. This appears t o b e a r ather i ntense, c areful, s ystematic

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l ongitudinal a ction a t h igh a ngle o f i ncidence on h ard material. I nterpretation i s i ncising o r s awing o f antler. A rea B e xhibits a v ery t hin e dge ( 10 d egrees) which h as b een a ttrited, mostly t hrough e dge c ollapse. Half moon s carring p redominates a nd s carring o ccurs mostly o n t he f lake's e xterior f acet. P olish o ccurs o n both a spects b ut o nly i n t hin r ibbons ( on r idges) on t he f lake's i nterior f acet. M inor a ttrition h as r emoved m ost polish a s i s a lso t rue o n t he o ther a spect. P olish i s b etter developed o n t he f lake e xterior f acet b ut a lso r estricted t o r idges and h igh points. A lthough u ndulations i n t he polish s uggest t ransverse a ction a t moderate a ngle o f a ttack w ith t he f lake's i nterior f acet l eading, p olish i s n ot e xtensive e nough t o c onfirm work material. I n a f ew a reas a long r idges, a ttrition would s uggest h ide o r l eather working. O ther polish e vidence i s n oninformative. H owever, t he t hinness o f t he e dge a nd t he u neven a ttrition s uggest l imited u se a s a c utting e dge. T hus, t he i nterpretation o f A rea B i s t hat d amage r esulted f rom p rehension possibly u tilizing p rotective l eather p ad. D ISCUSSION: T he i nferences made a bout o verall u se o f t his t ool w ere i ncorrect. I n e ssence, t he a uthor i nferred t hat A rea B w as t he p rehended p art a nd A rea A t he w orking e dge. However, t he a nalysis w as p robably n ot f ar w rong o n i dentifying p ertinent c haracteristics o f t he d amage o ccurring t o e ach e dge. While f ailing t o r ecognize t hat A rea A r esulted f rom t ool p reparation, n ot u se, i t i s l ikely t hat C ollins b lunted t his a rea w ith an a ntler b aton ( although h e d id n ot s pecify t he i mplement u sed). T he l oss o f t he w orking e dge o f A rea B p resented a c onfusing a nd m isleading p icture o f t he n ature, i ntensity, a nd duration o f work i n t his a rea.

S pecimen 8 ( Figure 2 0): A s mall, b lade-like f lake o f H arrison County c hert w ith a c entral m edial r idge. T he f lake's t hickness does n ot e xceed 2 .5 mm. ACTUAL TOOL U SE: This f lake was b lunted a long A rea B ( tool u nspecified) a nd A rea A w as u sed t o s have d ry c ane. I t w as h and-held a nd u sed i n a b ack and f orth s having action f or 1 ,403 s trokes a t a l ow ( 15 d egree) a ngle t o t he work p iece. T he d istal e nd o f t he f lake b roke o ff a fter about 1 ,200 s trokes. I t d id n ot a pparently c ontact t he work material. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR A SSESSMENT: There i s n o u tilization d amage on b roken d istal p iece a lthough b reak m ay h ave o ccurred a t i nitiation o f work o n A rea B . A rea A e xhibits an o verall angle o f a bout 2 2 d egrees which h as b een a ltered t o a bout 5 0 d egrees. Rounding o f t he e dge i s l imited. S carring occurs a lmost e xclusively o n t he f lake's e xterior f acet and i s p rimarily v ery s teep, s hort s calar s cars. Together, t hese c haracteristics s uggest t ransverse a ction a t a moderately h igh i ncidence o n s oft t o s oft medium m aterial. Polish on

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t his a spect i s b right, e xtensive a nd i nvasive i nto s cars a nd i s well-developed i n a f ew a reas. P olish i s a lso w ell-developed i n a reas o f t he e dge s howing b road, u ndulated " shaved" a reas s uggesting t ransverse a ction o n w ood, a ntler o r b one. However, polish o n t he opposite a spect i s l imited a lmost e xclusively t o t he i mmediate a rea o f t he e dge a nd f orms a n arrow, b right b and s uggesting l imited c ontact w ith work material. T his i s i nterpreted a s whittling t o s craping o f w ood. A rea B appears a lmost i dentical t o A rea A o f S pecimen 7 . A moderaLe e dge a ngle o f 3 0 d egrees h as b een r educed t o a bout 6 0 d egrees w ith e xcessive r ounding a nd e ven, r un t ogether s carring ( primarily s tep w ith f ew s calar) a long a spect 2 . However, e xtensive polish o n t he e dge s hows more v ariation i n l inear f eatures w ith p redominance o f l ongitudinal, s haved a nd u ndulated a reas; b ut s ome t ransverse t o s ubparallel a brasions o ccur a s w ell. P olish i s poorly d eveloped o n e dge a spects. T his l eads t o t he i nterpretation o f s crubbing o f e dge w ith a ntler a s b acking f or t ool. D ISCUSSION: This i nterpretation i s e ssentially c orrect a lthough w ood r ather t han c ane w as s pecified a s t he work material. Although n o e xperimental s pecimens w ere p repared u sing c ane a s t he work material a nd t he a nalyst w as n ot aware t hat c ane w ould b e u sed, i t appears t hat d ry c ane polish, a t l east w hen w ell-developed, e xhibits c haracteristics q uite s imilar i f n ot i dentical t o w ood.

S pecimen 9 ( Figure 2 0): A t hick f lake o f H arrison C ounty c hert w ith a h igh m edial r idge a nd t riangular c ross s ection. Nodular cortex i s p resent a long t he e dge o f A rea C a nd i nvades t he f lake o n t his s ide f or about 3 mm. ACTUAL TOOL USE: T he t hick s ide o f t he s pecimen ( around a rea C ) w as s ecured i n a h aft ( type u nspecified) a nd t he n otch ( Area C ) w as t he r esult o f d amage f rom t his h aft. T he t ool w as u sed i n A rea A t o s crape f at, l igaments a nd m eat f rom a f resh bone a t an a ngle o f a bout 8 0 d egrees. T he i nterior o f t he f lake w as l eading i n a ll c ases. T he s pecimen w as h eld i n t he haft f or 6 19 s trokes a nd h and h eld f or 1 00 s trokes. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: B oth a reas B a nd C h ave b een s ystematically f laked o n o ne a spect; h owever, b oth a re p rimarily r estricted t o c ortical patinated a reas m aking an a nalysis d ifficult. T hese a reas, m ay h ave b een p repared f or u se; e ach m ay h ave b een u sed. I f u sed, a reas B a nd C would h ave b een u sed i n a t ransverse a ction a t h igh a ngle o f a ttack w ith t he f lake's i nterior a spect l eading. I nterpretation f or a reas B a nd C w as n ot a ttempted d ue t o n ature of c ortical m atrix. A rea A e xhibits a n o verall a ngle o f about a ttrition r esulting i n a n a ngle o f a bout

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4 2 d egrees w ith 5 0. Rounding

o ccurs i n s ome a reas o f t he e dge b ut i s most p ronounced n ear t he c enter. On t he f lake's e xterior f acet, s carring i s e ven, r un-together a nd p redominated b y s tep w ith a f ew s calar s cars. On t he opposite a spect, s carring i s r estricted t o a s mall a rea n ear t he c enter o f t he u se a rea where a s imilar s car p attern i s e xhibited. Action s uggested b y t his p attern i s l ongitudinal o r l ongitudinal/transverse. Polish i s poorly d eveloped o n t he f lake's i nterior f acet a nd a t h igher powers, r ounded e dge a reas r esolve t o a c omplex s eries o f m icroshatter w ith s tep f ractures a nd a b right c rystalline s tructure. P olish i s more e xtensive on t he opposite f acet, b ut n ot h ighly d eveloped. P olish o n t he a ctual e dge i s moderately d eveloped i n m ost a reas but h ighly d eveloped i n s mall a reas n ear t he c enter o f A rea A . P olish i n t hese a reas i s c haracteristic o f b one o r woodworking; h owever, polish e xhibits m icropitting s uggestive o f bone polish. T he i nterpretation o f u tilization o f A rea A i s whittling/shaving o f b one. D ISCUSSION: T he s oft, c halky n ature o f t he c ortex makes i t d ifficult t o p erceive a ny r egularities i n damage, a nd polish w as n ot o bserved o n t his m aterial. Thus, n o i nterpretations o f a reas B a nd C w ere p ossible. The work material f or A rea A w as c orrectly i nferred; h owever, t he a uthor i nferred a s having r ather t han s craping action. A s w ith i nterpretation o f s pecimen 5 a bove, t he p roblem i s p artly one o f d efinition s ince t his f lake's c ross s ection ( triangular) p recludes t he possibility o f a v ery l ow angle o f a ttack. T hus, t he s craping a ction n oted b y Collins a nd t he s having a ction i nferred b y t he a uthor a re n ecessarily n early e quivalent.

S pecimen 1 0 ( Figure 2 0): A t hin, f lat f lake o f H arrison County c hert w ith a s mall a rea o f t he p latform, e xpanding body a nd s napped o ff d istal e nd. ACTUAL TOOL U SE: T he f lake w as b lunted i n A rea B u sing a h ammerstone a nd a ntler b aton p rior t o u se. A rea A was t hen u sed f or a bout 3 20 s trokes t o s lice a nd s aw f resh amaranth s talk which w as v ery j uicy a nd s omewhat d irty ( sand i nclusions). T he t ool w as h and-held i n A rea B . Then t he t ool w as h afted ( also i n A rea B ) i n a l eather-lined s ocket and work c ontinued f or a t otal o f 1 ,056 s trokes. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR A SSESSMENT: A rea B e xhibits a 1 -2 mm b evelling o f t he e dge o n t he e xterior f lake f acet p roduced b y d etachment o f a s eries o f s calar f lakes o verlaid b y a c omplex s et o f s tep s cars a nd s hatter. R ounding o f t he e dge i s moderate t o p ronounced. L inear f eatures on t he b eveled a spect a re p redominately p erpendicular t o t he e dge. On t he a ctual e dge, l inear f eatures a re p redominantly parallel t o t he e dge on t he p roximal e nd a nd p erpendicular t o t he e dge o n t he d istal p ortion. T his s uggests a t ransverse t o l ongitudinal/transverse a ction a t a moderate a ngle o f a ttack o n h ard material.

1 98

P olish e xhibited on t he b eveled a spect i s w ell-developed a nd e xtensive across t he a spect n ear t he e dge b ut i s l imited o n t he opposing a spect. T his polish s hows p atches o n h igh, b right, u ndulating a reas s uggestive o f wood o r b one p olish. M icro-pitting o f t he polish was observed i n s everal p atches s uggesting bone p olish. I nterpretation f or A rea B i s u se i n w hittling/shaving a ction a t h igh i ncidence ( 45 d egrees) on b one w ith t he i nterior f lake f acet l eading. A rea A s hows a t hin e dge angle ( 18 d egrees) modified b y a s eries o f h alf moon f ractures a nd e dge c ollapse. ,T he e dge r etains r ather s harply d efined e dges a nd f lake r idges. P ressures c ausing a ttrition s eem t o b e f rom b oth a spects. P olish i s p resent on t he e dge and r ather e xtensively d eveloped on t he e xterior f lake f acet, b ut i s p oorly d eveloped. O riginal m icro-topography i s maintained. No l ineal f eatures w ere observed. Modifications o bserved may b e t he r esult o f p rehension, o r a lternatively, s licing o r c utting o f v ery s oft material. The s econd a lternative i s n ot c onsidered a s l ikely. D ISCUSSION: I n b oth c ases t he i nterpretations w ere i ncorrect. I n t he c ase o f A rea B , t he a uthor w as s ubstantially c orrect i n a ssessing action a nd m aterial; h owever, i ncorrect i n a ssuming u tilization d amage a s opposed t o t ool p reparation. This h ighlights t he p roblem, i n c ases o f b one o r antler b lunting, o f d etermining whether t he b one/antler o r t he s tone t ool i s t he a ctive a gent. I n t he c ase o f A rea A , t he b right, f luid polish o r s ickle s heen a ssociated w ith w ork on s ome s oft v egetal materials d id n ot d evelop. T he r ather m inor d amage w as a ssumed t o mean e ither d amage f rom s tatic p ressures ( as i n p rehension) o r u se on v ery s oft m aterial. The g eneral and d iffuse quality o f t he p olish was c onsistent w ith polish t hat c an a ccrue f rom p rehension; and, s ince t he opposing e dge h ad b een i nterpreted a s a u se a rea, t his i nterpretation s eemed a pplicable.

S pecimen 1 1 ( Figure 2 0): A s mall, c hunky, c ourse-grained M uldraugh c hert f lake w ith a w edge-like appearance t erminating t o an e dge i n A rea A . A CTUAL TOOL USE: The s pecimen w as u sed i n A rea A t o g ouge a nd s crape f lesh f rom f resh b one. T he s pecimen w as o riginally l onger b ut . broke a fter 2 13 s trokes. Only t he w orking end w as g iven t o t he a uthor f or a nalysis. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR A SSESSMENT: A rea A i s a r elatively h igh e dge a ngle o f a bout 5 0 d egrees which h as b een modified l ittle by u se. U se d amage i ncludes s palling o f p articles f rom t he e dge. T he d amage o ccurs o n b oth a spects a lthough t his may b e m isleading a s t o work a ction ( because o f t he e rratic c haracter o f s palling). A w eak, d iffuse p olish a ppears on b oth a spects a nd c ertain f acets o f t he e dge. I t i s most p ronounced o n t he i nterior f lake f acet and e xtends

1 99

s ome 2 mm f rom t he e dge. There i s s light e dge r ounding i n s ome a reas. T he polish i s o nly moderately b right a t b est a nd a lters m icro-topography v ery l ittle. L inear f eatures, p rimarily d eep s triations a re n umerous a nd g enerally o riented 4 5 -9 0 d egrees f rom t he e dge. This s uggests a t ransverse a ction. T he t ool w as u sed i n s craping f resh h ide w ith possibly both a spects l eading a t o ne t ime o r another. D ISCUSSION: This i nterpretation i s c orrect g iven t hat i t i s d ifficult t o d istinguish f resh h ide f rom meat p olish. I t i s i nteresting t hat b one polish d id n ot d evelop. This may b e r elated t o t he r elatively s hort d uration o f w ork, c are w ith w hich t he work w as e xecuted, o r possibly, t he bone polish was r emoved w ith t he g rains s palling o ff t he c utting e dge. T he possibility o f t ool u se w ith a lternate a spects l eading w as n ot i ndicated b y Collins.

S pecimen 1 2 ( Figure 2 0): A s mall, r ather i rregular o f B eechwood c hert w ith a t abular o r c obble c ortical a long o ne s ide. ACTUAL TOOL USE:

The

s pecimen w as

n ot

f lake f acet

u tilized.

AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: T his s pecimen e xhibits s ome m inor t echnological d amage b ut n o u tilization d amage n or polish f ormation w as observed. I t was n ot u tilized. D ISCUSSION:

This

i s

a c orrect

a ssessment.

S pecimen 1 3 ( Figure 2 1): A l arge, b locky f lake o f H arrison County c hert w ith c ortex a cross o ne half o f t he e xterior a nd i nvading t he e dge, A rea B . ACTUAL TOOL U SE: A rea B was b lunted ( tool u nidentified) p rior t o w ork a nd t his a rea w as p rehended while t he opposite e dge ( Area A ) w as u sed t o b utcher a r aw l eg o f b eef w hich i ncluded s licing a nd s ome s craping t hrough f lesh and j oints. Total n umber o f s trokes was 2 ,259. T he angle o f a ttack v aried f rom 1 0 -90 d egrees. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: A rea A e xhibits s ome m inor e dge d amage a nd l arger f lake s cars. Polish i s poorly d eveloped , o n e ach a spect o r t he e dge and t he edge, ( even u nder 2 00X) i s s harp i n many a reas. N o l ineal f eatures w ere o bserved. The m inor d amage observed r esults f rom p rehension and/or manufacture. A rea B e xhibits a h eavily a braded e dge. S everal l arge f lake s cars ( as t he r esult o f t ool p reparation) o riginate f rom t he e dge a nd a re overlain w ith m icrostep s cars a nd s hatter. These h ave s ubsequently b een h eavily r ounded. While t his e dge i s s omewhat w eathered a nd was covered ( on t he f lake e xterior) w ith c ortical r ind, polish on t he e dge i s w ell-formed a nd o ccurs i n p atches w ith abrasions r unning

2 00

S PECIMENS D RAWN T O A CTUAL S IZE

S pecimen

S pecimen

1 3 1 4

S pecimen

1 8

S pecimen 1 5

S pecimen 1 6

1 7

S pecimen 2 2

S pecimen 2 1

F igure 2 1.

S pecimen

M icrowear

s kills

2 01

t est

S pecimen

1 9

S pecimen 2 3

s pecimens

f rom

S pecimen 2 0

S pecimen 2 4

1 3 t hrough 2 4.

perpendicular t o t he edge. These a brasion t racks a re e xtremely consistent i n angle t o edge. The more h eavily polished a reas a re r estricted t o t he edge. Polish appears m icropitted. I nterpretation i s t hat t his e dge was u sed e xtensively i n t ransverse ( scraping) action on h ard material, p robably bone, w ith t he e xterior f lake a spect l eading. There was poor penetration. N ote t hat p resence o f c ortex on one a spect c auses p roblems o f complete analysis. An a lternative i nterpretation i s t hat abrasions a re t he r esult o f p reparation w ith antler hammer c ausing polish s imilar t o bone. D ISCUSSION: P olish i s s imilar t o polish on o ther i mplements u sed t o s lice meat. Meat polish was n ot r ecognized a lthough s ome d amage o f A rea A was e vident. The a uthor w as a lso n ot s ure a s t o whether t he wear i n A rea B was t he r esult o f u tilization o r t ool p reparation. I n t he c ase o f Area B , t he action and material were e ssentially correct, h owever.

Specimen 1 4 B eechwood c hert

( Figure 2 1): A s hort, f lat w ith a r idge down one s ide o f t he

f lake f lake.

o f

ACTUAL TOOL USE: A rea A w as u sed a t about a 9 0 degree angle t o s aw f resh bone. The t ool was u sed f or 2 50 s trokes b efore Collins f elt i t had b ecome t oo dull f or c ontinued work. AUTHOR'S USE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: Area A e xhibits a s eries o f f lake s cars i n a more o r l ess a lternating pattern; t he l arger underlying s cars a re s calar, overlain w ith m icrostep and s hatter t racks. No polish nor l inear f eatures were f ound. This edge d amage pattern m ight s uggest a l ongitudinal u se pattern, l ight manufacturing r etouch o r unintentional r etouch. The specimen does not appear t o h ave b een s ubstantially u tilized. D ISCUSSION: The author r ecognized t he s alient f eatures o f wear p resent b ut f ailed t o r ecognize conclusively e ither action o r material worked. The absence o f polish may h ave b een due t o t he s hort duration o f work a lthough i t more l ikely r esulted f rom t he a ttrition noted by Collins and t he c essation o f work upon dulling o f t he edge. Work w as abandoned b efore polish accrued on a s table e dge o r i ts margins.

Specimen 1 5 ( Figure 2 1): A Harrison County chert w ith one s harp s ides a re s napped o ff and f aceted. ACTUAL TOOL USE: unspecified) and Area s trokes. AUTHOR'S about 2 0

The A was

small e dge.

f lake f ragment o f The r emaining

a rtifact w as u sed t o s aw d ry

USE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: A rea A , degrees has b een a ttrited t o

2 02

h afted c ane

a l ow about

e dge 5 0

( method f or 4 66

angle o f degrees.

Most s carring i s on one a spect a nd i s p rimarily s calar a lthough t here a re s everal h alf moon b reaks. A small a rea o f t he e dge i s s carred on t he opposite a spect. T hese a re p rimarily s calar. There i s n o s ubstantial e dge o r r idge r ounding. Only a f ew s triations, r unning s ubperpendicular t o t he edge, were n oted. These c haracteristics s uggest a l ongitudinal/transverse a ction. Polish i s poorly d eveloped b ut d iffusely p resent w ithin 1 mm o f t he e dge and o n t he e dge. Polish d evelopment i s s lightly more p ronounced on one a spect. There a re a f ew small patches o f w ell-developed polish on t he e dge and e dge a spects. I t appears t o b e wood polish a lthough t here a re n o a reas l arge e nough t o c onfirm t his. Wood polish i s c onsistent w ith e dge d amage. I nterpretation i s whittling a nd possibly s licing a t medium t o l ow angle o f i ncidence o n medium material ( probably wood) f or a f airly s hort d uration. D ISCUSSION: The w ork material i nferred i s wood w hich i s c onsidered t o b e c orrect s ince d ry c ane e xhibits c haracteristics s imilar t o wood. The a uthor c onsidered t he possibility o f s licing b ut p referred a l ower angle o f a ttack a nd i nferred whittling a ction a s t he most l ikely method o f u se.

S pecimen 1 6 ( Figure 2 1): c hert. Edges a re s harp and ACTUAL TOOL USE:

T he

A v ery t hin.

s pecimen w as

t hin

n ot

f lake o f

B eechwood

u sed.

AUTHOR' S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: The only u tilization d amage o bserved w as t races o f pencil l ead l eft f rom t racing t he e dge o f t he specimen. The s pecimen was n ot u tilized. D ISCUSSION:

This

i s a c orrect

S pecimen 1 7 M uldraugh c hert.

( Figure

ACTUAL TOOL USE:

T he

AUTHOR' S a bsent.

i nterpretation.

2 1):

A small,

s pecimen w as

n ot

USE-WEAR A SSESSMENT: E dge I t does n ot appear t o h ave

D ISCUSSION:

This

i s a c orrection

f airly

t hin

f lake

o f

u sed.

d amage and polish b een u tilized.

a re

i nterpretation.

S pecimen 1 8 ( Figure 2 1): A l arge, f lake f ragment o f B eechwood c hert.

f airly

t hick medial

A CTUAL TOOL USE: T he specimen w as h and-held and A rea A u sed t o s crape h ard, d ry wood f or 7 60 s trokes. Collins n otes t hat t he t ool was n oticeably d ull a fter about 5 80 s trokes.

2 03

AUTHOR'S USE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: A rea A s hows s ome s carring s uggestive o f l ongitudinal action ( sawing/slicing) and s cars a re p rimarily s calar overlaid by m icrostep and s hatter a long edge. Rounding i s poor. No polish was l ocated a lthough s everal small a reas appear t o have s ilica smears, possibly f rom c ontact w ith a hammerstone. L inear f eatures were n ot observed. The damage was p roduced by a hard material possibly a h ammerstone. D ISCUSSION: The action was m isinterpreted. This i s p robably because edge a ttrition on t he h ard wood r esulted i n f laking f rom b oth a spects o f t he edge a lthough t his i s n ot usual f or a s craping a ction. I nference o f h ard material i s basically correct; t he s ilica smears, which i n r etrospect must have derived f rom abrasive action o f c hert s palls f rom t he edge i tself, l ead t o t he s uggestion o f manufacturing damage f rom a hammerstone. The absence o f polish o n t his specimen i s d ifficult t o e xplain s ince Collins u sed t he a rtifact f or some d uration a fter i t f elt d ull ( that i s, a s table s urface may h ave b een developed). The l ack o f r ounding and p resence o f s hatter on t he edge may b e i mportant c lues. I n hard materials s uch a s t his, penetration ( with each s troke) i s v ery s light and polish develops p rimarily on s table edge f acets. This edge was n ever v ery s table. I t was s till b reaking down ( that i s, c rumbling) when work ceased, even t hough i t was perceived t o b e dull by t he u ser.

S pecimen 1 9 ( Figure 2 1): A l ong f lake chert, l arge g rained and wedge s haped i n c ross

o f Muldraugh s ection.

ACTUAL TOOL USE: The specimen was h afted ( nature of h aft unknown) and A rea A was u sed t o s aw hard, d ry wood f irst f or 2 74 s trokes, t hen u sed t o s aw f resh bone f or an additional 1 31 s trokes. Collins noted t hat t he s pecimen b egan t o d ull a t about 2 00 s trokes. AUTHOR'S USE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: Area A ( Al, A2, A 3) e xhibits l imited edge d amage a t A3, and s ignificant damage at A2 a nd Al. S carring a t A2 i s p rimarily on t he f lake's e xterior a spect, and a t Al i s p rimarily on t he opposing a spect. S car d istribution i s even, r un t ogether and s carring i s p rimarily s calar ( allowing f or g raininess o f material). Rounding i s s light i n Al and A2, but more p ronounced i n A3. Polish o n both a spects and edge a t A3 i s e xtensive but not v ery i ntensely developed. Some small patches on r idges s uggest wood polish. Polish i s about equally developed on e ach a spect. Polish i s poorly developed on e dge a t Al and A 2 s uggesting more r ecent f laking o f t he a rea t han damage a t A3. L inear f eatures on a spects a nd edge overwhelming point t o l ongitudinal action. Edge damage and polish s uggest h igh angle o f a ttack and penetration o f 1 -2 mm i s s uggested. T he i nterpretation for t his edge i s u se i n s awing/cutting o f wood.

2 04

A rea B i s a p rotruding t ri-sided e dge w hich s hows l ittle s carring b ut f airly s ignificant r ounding. P olish i s moderately well-formed, e xtensive and s omewhat m att i n t exture s uggesting c ontact w ith h ide. L inear f eatures w ere n ot o bvious. Thus, t he i nterpretation i s made o f c ontact a nd f riction w ith h ide o r s imilar p liable material. This may b e f rom p rehension. D ISCUSSION: The i nterpretation o f a ction o n t he work e dge ( A) was c orrect. T he material worked w as i nterpreted a s wood, a lso c orrect, b ut a dditional work o n f resh b one w as n ot d iscovered. I n t he p resence o f w ell-developed wood polish, b one polish would b e v ery d ifficult t o p erceive s ince i ts appearance i s s o s imilar t o g eneral, d iffuse wood polish. A rea B w as p robably t he r esult o f c ontact w ith h ide, possibly a s t he r esult o f p rehension. I n r etrospect, i t p robably r esulted f rom c ontact w ith a l eather l ined s ocket i n a h aft a lthough Collins d oes n ot s pecify composition o f t he h aft.

S pecimen 2 0 ( Figure 2 1): A small, b lade-like f lake o f Harrison C ounty c hert w ith a p ronounced m edial r idge which p resents a t riangular, w edge-shaped c ross s ection. ACTUAL TOOL USE: T he s pecimen was h and-held a t t he l argest e nd o f t he f lake and t he pointed e nd w as u sed t o d rill a 6 mm d eep hole i n s oft, d ry wood. A b ack a nd f orth r otational movement w as u sed a nd work c ontinued f or 2 75 s trokes b efore t he d istal t ip b roke. T he t ip w as r emoved f rom t he h ole and work was r esumed f or a nother 5 3 s trokes. The s pecimen b roke a gain and w ork w as t erminated. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: The t ri-sided t ip ( Area A ) e xhibits s ome r ounding a nd l ateral m argins e xhibit m icroflaking ( scalar) o n a lternate a spects p rimarily, b ut a lso a f ew s tep s cars o n r everse a spects. T his s uggests u se o f t he t ool a s perforator/drill i n b i-directional r otation w ith emphasis o n c lockwise motion. P olish f ormation i s s light b ut f airly e xtensive a nd m att i n t exture. No i ntense a reas o f polish w ere f ound a nd t he t ip w as c haracterized b y s hatter. D uration o f u se w as s hort and b reaks p robably w ere r elated t o work. L inear f eatures w ere n ot o bserved. I nterpretation i s p erforating o f r elatively s oft, p liable m aterial, p ossibly h ide. D ISCUSSION: The a ction w as c orrectly i nferred. A lthough t he w ork material w as c onsidered t o b e r elatively s oft, t he matt t exture o f t he p olish l ead t he a uthor t o i nfer h ide r ather t han s oft w ood a s t he material worked. I t i s n ot c lear why u se o f t his s pecimen i n t he f ashion d escribed d id n ot p roduce polish more c haracteristic o f wood polish. I t i s p ossible t hat t he more i ntense wood polish, which i s most u seful f or i dentification, w as r emoved o n s palls and a s t he r esult o f t ip s hatter d uring work.

2 05

S pecimen 2 1 f lake w ith s ome

( Figure 2 1): A l arge, f lat Harrison County n odular c ortex p enetrating one c orner.

ACTUAL TOOL U SE: T he s pecimen w as h and-held a nd u sed i n t hree d ifferent w ays on f resh b one. A rea C w as u sed a s a b urin i n a s craping a ction f or 3 93 s trokes. A rea D w as u sed i n a s craping a ction f or 1 ,200 s trokes. A rea B was u sed a t a l ow a ngle ( 20 d egrees) t o r emove f lesh f rom t he b one f or 2 93 s trokes. A rea A was r ecorded a s n ot u tilized. AUTHOR'S USE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: A rea A i s c haracterized by a r elatively s harp, b ut s teep ( 50 d egrees) angled edge w ith f eathering a nd s calar s cars p rimarily o n t he e xterior f lake a spect b ut o ccasionally on t he opposing a spect. Polish i s d iffuse, poorly f ormed and f ound o n b oth a spects about equally. A lthough e vidence f or s pecific u se i s s omewhat equivocal, t he a rtifact may h ave b een u sed i n c utting/slicing a ction on v ery s oft, p liable material s uch a s f resh h ide o r m eat. A rea B s hows s ome s ystematic s carring o n a very s teep angled ( 70 d egrees) e dge. S cars a re m inute and p rimarily s tep s uggesting c ontact w ith a h ard material. Polish i s poorly f ormed a nd b rightness r esults mostly f rom t he e dge s hatter. T his d amage i s i nterpreted a s r esulting f rom t echnological o r m anufacturing p reparation. D ISCUSSION: I t s eems c lear f rom a n e xamination of t he a rtifact's u se c haracteristics t hat Collins mistakenly a ssigned t he a ctivity o f f leshing t o A rea B r ather t han A rea A . The e dge ( Area D ) i s f ormed b y a h igh angled ( 70 degrees) f acet which would n ot b e p ossible t o u se f or f leshing a t a l ow 2 0 d egree a ngle. Thus, a ssuming t hat Collins n otation o f work on A rea B a ctually pertains t o a rea A , t he i nterpretation made by t he a uthor i s c orrect. T he i nterpretation o f A rea B a s r esulting f rom t echnological c auses would a lso b e c orrect. N either a reas C n or D w ere r ecognized b y t he a uthor a s u tilized a reas b ecause o f t he The a bsence o f r ecognizable d amage o r p olish i n t hese t wo a reas.

2 S pecimen 2 ( Figure 2 1): A l arge, i rregular f lake o f B eechwood c hert w ith s ome c ortical p atination a long t he p latform, ACTUAL TOOL U SE: T he s pecimen w as h afted ( method unspecified) a nd u sed a s a f leshing t ool w ith e ngagement o f A rea A a t v arying a ngles ( 10 d egrees t o 9 0 d egrees) i n a s craping and g ouging a ction on f resh b eef. I t was u sed f or 1 ,441 s trokes a nd s ome c ontact w ith bone, l igaments a nd c artilage w as n oted. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR A SSESSMENT: A rea A i s s omewhat e nigmatic i n t hat i t i s a s harp, r elatively s teep a ngled e dge w ith f lake s carring o n t he e xterior f lake f acet which may h ave

2 06

e xisted p rior t o u se d amage a nd p rior t o t he d etachment o f t he f lake i tself. Rounding o f t he e dge i s s light, b ut polish i s f ound well-developed o nly on t he e dge i tself. T his polish i s c omposed o f a s eries o f u ndulating, p laned, s mooth a reas v ery s imilar i n appearance t o i ntense wood p olish. L inear f eatures a re u niformly perpendicular t o t he e dge i ndicating a s craping/planing a ction. I nterpretation i s u se o f s hort d uration o f t he e dge i n s craping o r p laning a t a moderate angle on wood. D ISCUSSION: The i nterpretation o f a ction w as e ssentially c orrect. T he work material w as n ot c orrectly i nferred. This was l ikely b ecause t he p olish w as s o i solated o n t he t hin e dge. I dentification o f polish i n v ery r estricted a reas i s q uite d ifficult, a nd wood and b one p olishes, a s n oted above, s hare many c haracteristics. The t hin b and o f u ndulating, s haved a reas o n t he e dge l ooked v ery m uch l ike wood polish b ut apparently r esulted f rom v ery i ntense b one c ontact i n a l imited a rea.

S pecimen 2 3 ( Figure 2 1): A s mall, t hin f lake o f H arrison County chert w ith a wedge s haped c ross s ection e xtending t o a s harp e dge a t A rea A . ACTUAL TOOL USE: T he a rtifact w as h afted ( type u nspecified) opposite A rea A a nd A rea A w as u sed t o s lice f resh b eef l eg. T he p iece b roke a fter 3 o r 4 s tokes a nd b ecame h ard t o u se. The work c ontinued f or 2 64 s trokes, h owever. T here w as s ome b one c ontact n oted. AUTHOR' S USE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: A v ery t hin e dge i n A rea A o f about 1 0 d egrees h as b een a ttrited t o about 6 0 d egrees w ith s light edge r ounding. V ery s teep, s calar s carring approaching h alf moon f ractures a re r estricted t o t he f lake's e xterior a spect. P olish i s moderately f ormed and i s r etained on i nterior margins o f s cars o f t his a spect a nd i s a lso p resent on t he opposing a spect. The polish, w hich appears t o b e wood polish, i s i ntensely f ormed i n a f ew s pots and on s car r idges. L inear f eatures s uggest l ongitudinal a ction a t h igh a ngle o f a ttack. I nterpretation i s c utting o r s licing wood. D ISCUSSION: T he a ction w as c orrect; t he material worked was i ncorrect. Comments made f or s pecimen 2 2 p robably p ertain h ere. The polish p robably r esulted f rom b one c ontact. Meat polish was n ot detected a t a ll.

S pecimen 2 4 o f Muldraugh t apering t o a n

( Figure 2 1): A l arge, c ourse c hert w ith a w edge-shaped e dge i n A rea A .

g rained f lake c ross s ection

ACTUAL TOOL U SE: T he a rtifact w as h afted ( method n ot s tated) i n t he a rea opposite A rea A a nd A rea A w as u sed t o s aw d ry h ard wood f or a t otal o f 1 27 s trokes a t which t ime Collins

2 07

n otes t hat t he t ool w as t otally d ull a nd n o more s aw d ust was b eing c reated. C ollins a lso n oted c onsiderable a ttrition t o t he e dge d uring t his work. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: E xhibiting a f airly t hin e dge angle a long A rea A , t he s pecimen w as a ttrited t o an a ngle o f about 6 0 d egrees d uring u se. S carring, p rimarily s calar w ith s ome s tep, o ccurs on both a spects i n a s omewhat a lternating p attern s uggesting l ongitudinal a ction. P olish i s g enerally p resent on b oth a spects b ut i s h ighly d eveloped on o ne a spect a t one point. The polish i n t he a rea h as a ll t he c haracteristics o f wood polish a nd l inear f eatures confirm a l ongitudinal a ction. The i nterpretation i s s aving/cutting a ction o n wood. D ISCUSSION: The i nterpretation was c orrect. U se-wear i ndications o n t his s pecimen were v ery e asily p erceived and i nterpreted i n s pite o f t he g raininess o f material and t he l imited d uration ( relatively s peaking) o f u se. The s pecimen e xhibits a l ong, s traight working e dge w hose f lake s cars matched t he g eneral e xpectation f or work a ction and t he one i ntense s pot o f polish c onfirmed t he work material.

S pecimen 2 5 ( Figure 2 2): A l arge f lat Muldraugh f lake, course g rained, w ith a w edge-shaped c ross s ection t apering t o a n e dge a t A rea A . ACTUAL TOOL U SE: The s pecimen w as h afted ( method not s tated) on t he t hick perimeter opposite A rea A a nd A rea A w as u sed t o s aw d ry, h ard wood f or 3 23 s trokes. A fter f ive s trokes, t he s pecimen b roke, b ut work c ontinued. Collins n otes considerable e dge a ttrition. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: A rea A e xhibits a l ow o riginal edge a ngle o f about 1 2 d egrees a ttrited s ubstantially t o about 8 0 d egrees. T his c hert p iece i s e xtremely g rainy a nd s carring i s v ery i rregular. S carring i s b est c haracterized a s e dge c ollapse. The e dge was u tilized s ubstantially b ut polish d evelopment i s poor. P olish d oes o ccur o n both a spects b ut w ell-developed a reas a re v ery l imited. T he l imited polish f ormation i s p robably d ue t o r apid a nd continued e dge a ttrition. A f ew s mall p atches a re s uggestive o f wood p olish b ut bone/antler polish i s n ot out o f t he question. L inear f eatures s uggest a l ongitudinal action. I nterpretation i s t hat t he s pecimen w as most l ikely u sed t o s aw/cut wood a lthough bone/antler i s a possibility. D ISCUSSION: T he a ssessment i s t echnically c orrect i n a ll a spects. S ince polish f ormation w as p oor t he a uthor w as n ot v ery c onfident o f t he a ssessment. Compared t o t he wear patterns e xhibited b y S pecimen 2 4, i nterpretation o f u se o f S pecimen 2 5 s hould b e c onsidered b ased o n an e ducated g uess b etween b one/antler o r wood.

2 08

S PECIMENS DRAWN T O A CTUAL S IZE

S pecimen 2 6

S pecimen 2 7

S pecimen 2 5

S pecimen 2 8

S pecimen 2 9 S pecimen 3 1

S pecimen 3 0

A S pecimen 3 2

S pecimen 3 3

S pecimen 3 4

B

S pecimen 3 5

F igure 2 2. M icrowear s kills t est s pecimens f rom 2 5 * t hrough 3 5.

2 09

• • '

S pecimen 2 6 ( Figure 2 2): A s mall, t riangular B eechwood c hert f lake w ith a p ronounced m edial r idge.

s haped

ACTUAL TOOL U SE: The s pecimen w as h afted t o a d ibble s tick ( method u nspecified) and p lunged r epeatedly ( 527 s trokes) i nto d ry s oil. A rea A f ormed t he t ip. AUTHOR'S USE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: T he s pecimen e xhibits v ery l ittle e dge d amage. However, polish i s w ell-developed o n t he t hree a spects o f A rea A . A r ather b lunt point i s f ormed b y t he t hree s ides a nd a ngles. E dge r ounding i s moderate a nd t he e dge i s s mooth. P olish o ccurs o n t he e dge a nd a spects a nd v ery f ine l inear f eatures s eem t o p rimarily o riginate f rom t he t ip a t p erpendicular a ngles. The polish i s p robably b one a lthough a metallic b rightness i s observed i n s ome a reas. I nterpretation i s g raving a ction on bone u sing a lternately a ll t hree f acets a s t railing e dges a t o ne t ime o r a nother. D ISCUSSION: T he i nterpretation i s i ncorrect. T he author w as c onfused b y t he s hape o f t he a rtifact w hich does not s uggest u se a s a d igging t ool, by t he l imited e dge d amage ( and n o i mpact f ractures), a s ituation u ncharacteristic o f d igging t ools p reviously e xamined, a nd b y t he f ine, s hort s triations which appear a bnormally f ine f or s oil polish. These p roblems a lso apply t o s pecimens 3 0 a nd 3 5. The metallic b rightness a lluded t o i n t he a ssessment p robably was t he r esult o f s ilica polish f rom v ery f ine g rained s oil p articles.

S pecimen 2 7 ( Figure 2 2): A c hert w ith a h igh medial r idge.

l arge

f lake

o f

B eechwood

ACTUAL TOOL U SE: A rea B was b lunted ( percussor o r abrader u nspecified), t he s pecimen w as t hen h and h eld a nd A rea A w as u sed t o f irst " scrape" ( at a bout 3 0 d egree angle) f resh b one and t hen a t a bout t he s ame angle " scrape" d ry hard wood. The b one w as p rocessed f or 1 80 s trokes a nd t he wood f or 2 20 s trokes. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: I n A rea A , a moderate angle o f 3 8-40 d egrees h as b een modified b y r emoval o f p rimarily s calar f lakes f rom t he f lake's e xterior a spect r esulting i n a n e dge a ngle o f about 6 0 d egrees. Rounding o f t he e dge i s moderate t o p ronounced a nd under h igh power, a pattern o f s hatter a nd s tepping i s e vident s uggesting r ather r apid d epletion o f t he e dge. Polish i s p resent i n v ery l imited a reas o f t he f lake's i nterior a spect b ut i s e xtensive o n t he opposing a spect. I n c ertain small a reas, t he polish i s well-developed a nd i s c haracteristic o f w ood polish. L inear f eatures i ncluding polish u ndulations s uggest a t ransverse a ction. The s pecimen w as u sed t o whittle wood w ith t he f lake's i nterior a spect l eading. A rea B i s h eavily worn and e xhibits a p attern o f b atter, s hatter t racks, s tepping a nd l inear f eatures c haracterized b y d eep, s hort s triations a nd

2 10

s ilica smears. This damage b lunting w ith a h ammerstone o r

i s i nterpreted a s i ntentional o ther hard material.

D ISCUSSION: This a ssessment i s correct i n a ll cases. Although Collins specified t he a ction a s s craping f or Area A , an angle of 3 0 d egrees would more appropriately b e c alled whittling o r planing.

S pecimen 2 8 ( Figure 2 2): A t hick, i rregular s haped f lake o f B oyle c hert w ith cobble c ortex on a major portion o f t he e xterior s urface. ACTUAL TOOL USE:

T he

specimen was

n ot

u sed.

AUTHOR' S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: A rea A e xhibits l imited edge d amage. One a spect i s cortical s urface. The opposing a spect r eveals no polish d evelopment. Polish on t he cortical a spect i s p roblematical s ince cortification may obscure any s igns. The edge w as not u tilized. D ISCUSSION:

The

a ssessment

Specimen 2 9 ( Figure County chert w ith t hin f ractured t ermination.

i s

correct.

2 2): A l arge, t hin f lake o f edges on e ach s ide and

Harrison a h inge

ACTUAL TOOL USE: The edge i n Area A was b lunted ( tool unspecified), t he s pecimen was hand-held and A rea B was u sed t o b utcher a f resh l eg of b eef. The work i ncluded 8 27 s trokes and Collins notes t hat l igaments, c artilage a s well a s bone were i n c ontact w ith t he edge. The a ction, according t o Collins, i ncluded s ome s awing b ut mostly s licing. AUTHOR' S USE-WEAR A SSESSMENT: A rea A , beginning a s a t hin edge ( 12 d egrees) has been a ttrited t o a s teep angle ( 80 degrees) w ith s ubstantial t o v ery heavy e dge r ounding ( faceting). S carring i s p rimarily s tep o ccurring on both a spects. P olish i s poorly d eveloped on both a spects and t he edge, a t h igh power, i s c haracterized b y a s eries of abrasions f rom v ery h ard material. Polish, a s s uch, i s not p resent. L inear f eatures a re p rimarily p arallel t o e dge but some a re p erpendicular. I nterpretation i s i ntentional b lunting w ith hard s tone ( hammerstone). A rea B exhibits a r ather t hin o riginal e dge o f approximately 2 5 d egrees worn t o about 5 0 d egrees. Rounding o f t he edge i s very s light, however. S carring occurs on both aspects and i s dominated by s calar f lakes w ith v ery poorly defined i nterior margins. These c haracteristics s uggest use on soft material. Polish i s r ather extensively, but v ery poorly, d eveloped on e ach a spect w ithin 1 -2 mm of t he e dge. L inear f eatures observed i ndicate l ongitudinal action. A f ew very small patches ( resolved a t 4 00X) o f more

2 11

i ntense polish l ook s omewhat l ike wood. I nterpretation i s t hat o f l ight u tilization i n c utting/slicing a ction o n s oft wood o r woody material. ( This may a lso b e m ild polish r esulting f rom s licing f resh h ide/meat on wood b acking s ince a ll polishes r ecognized a s wood a re r estricted t o t he i mmediate a rea o f t he e dge.) D ISCUSSION: A rea A w as c orrectly i nterpreted. The a ction i nferred f or A rea B w as a lso c orrect. Work material w as t hought t o b e wood a lthough t here w as n o good e vidence o f t his. This polish, i n r etrospect, i s m ore l ikely t he r esult o f c ontact w ith b one a lthough Collins m ay have b een u sing a c utting board. This w as n ot n oted, h owever.

S pecimen 3 0 ( Figure 2 2): A t hick, l ong f lake o f Beechwood c hert w ith a p ronounced m edial r idge a nd t riangular c ross s ection. T he t ip ( Area A ) i s t ri-sided a nd r elatively s harp. ACTUAL TOOL U SE: The s pecimen w as h afted t o a d ibble s tick and ( Area A l eading) p lunged r epeatedly ( 495 s trokes) i nto d ry, s andy s oil. T he s pecimen b roke a nd work w as d iscontinued. AUTHOR'S USE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: A rea A f orms a t ri-sided t ip which h as b een u sed a lthough e dge damage i s s light. Rounding o f e dges i s moderate t o w ell-pronounced. P olish analysis r eveals p resence o f w ell-defined and p rofuse polish on e ach o f t he t hree a spects. P olish appears t o b e b one polish e xcept i n o ne a rea n ear t he t ip o n one s ide. T his appears b umpy, r ounded, a nd s anded s imilar t o h ide polish. L inear f eatures s uggest an a ction s ubparallel t o l ong a xis o f f lake, a n a ction l ike g raving o r p erforating ( but n ot r otational). This makes t he i nterpretation s omewhat p roblematical. I nterpretation i s g raving b one o r a lternatively, p erforating h ide. D ISCUSSION: T he a ssessment w as i ncorrect on a ll counts. T he a nalysis s uffered f rom p roblems s imilar t o t hose d iscussed f or s pecimens 2 6 a nd 3 5.

S pecimen 3 1 ( Figure 2 2): B eechwood. c hert w ith c obble p rominent p latform f acet.

A f airly t hin c ortex e xhibited

f lake o n

o f t he

ACTUAL TOOL U SE: T he f lake w as h and-held a long t he p roximal portion and t he d istal e dge ( Area A ) u sed t o s have d ry, s oft wood. Work c ontinued f or 8 49 s trokes. AUTHOR'S USE-WEAR A SSESSMENT: A rea A e xhibits a t hin e dge ( 17 d egrees) modified t hrough u se t o a bout 7 0 d egrees. Rounding o f t he e dge i s s light. A lmost a ll s carring i s s calar, s teep and o n t he f lake's e xterior f acet. S cars a re small. Polish i s p resent i n a n arrow b and a long i nterior

2 12

m argins o f f lake s cars o n t his a spect, m ildly d eveloped a long o ther f lake s car r idges, a nd most i ntensely d eveloped a long t he opposing a spect a djacent t o t he e dge. T his a ll s uggests a s having/whittling a ction a t a moderate a ngle o f a ttack. P olish i n t he i ntense a reas appears t o b e wood. L inear f eatures c onfirm t ransverse a ction. I nterpretation i s w hittling/shaving wood, p robably s oft w ood, w ith t he f lake's i nterior a spect l eading. D ISCUSSION: T his i s c orrect i nterpretation. w ell-developed, e xtensively o bserved p olish i nterpretation e asy a nd s traight f orward.

A made

S pecimen 3 2 ( Figure 2 2): A l arge, t hick f lake o f B eechwood c hert w ith v ery l arge g rain a nd s andy t exture. T he f lake i s wedge s haped i n c ross s ection t apering t o a n e dge i n A rea A . A CTUAL TOOL U SE: The f lake w as h afted ( method u nspecified) a long t he m argin o pposite A rea A a nd A rea A w as t hen u sed t o s aw d ry, s oft wood f or 6 60 s trokes. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR A SSESSMENT: A rea A e xhibits a n e dge angle o f a bout 2 0 d egrees. A rea A a ppears t o b e s ystematically d amaged under l ow p ower e xamination a lthough g rain s ize o f t his specimen i s l arge a nd t he e dge i s i rregular. F laking s eems t o b e on b oth a spects. P olish i s absent o n a spects e xcept possibly o n a small a rea n ear t he c enter o f A rea A . T wo s mall p atches o f polish i n t his a rea s uggest b one/antler p olish r esulting f rom l ongitudinal a ction. T here i s e quivocal e vidence f or u tilization a nd polish b ut may b e e ither s light b lunting o f e dge w ith a n a ntler b aton o r s hort d uration s awing o f bone/antler. D ISCUSSION: The a uthor c orrectly i nterpreted t he d irection o f a ction, a lthough i n t he l ieu o f w ell-formed polish, t he w ork material was n ot i nferred c orrectly. The r easons f or p oor polish f ormation a re n ot k nown a lthough t he l arge g rain s ize and c onsiderable a ttrition may a ccount f or v irtual a bsence o f polish.

S pecimen 3 3 ( Figure 2 2): A t hick, s hort f lake o f B eechwood c hert w ith a l arge p atinated p latform a nd v ery i rregular, t hick, a nd g ranular t ermination. A rea A f orms a s harp edge. A CTUAL TOOL U SE: A rea A w as u sed a s a c utting e dge t o c ut a nd d ice f resh Amaranth f or 1 ,238 s trokes. T he a rtifact w as a pparently h and-held, a lthough C ollins d oes n ot s pecify t his. A UTHOR'S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: T his e dge d amage i n a reas A ,B, a nd C ;

2 13

s pecimen e xhibits m inor b ut p olish a nd o ther

f eatures o f s ubstantially

u se a re u tilized.

absent.

The

s pecimen

w as

n ot

D ISCUSSION: T he i nterpretation i s i ncorrect. T he absence o f t races o ther t han m inor e dge d amage c ould l ead t o n o o ther i nterpretation. I t i s u nclear why t his s pecimen a s w ell a s S pecimen 1 0 ( discussed a bove) d id n ot e xhibit s ubstantial polish f ormation s ince b oth w ere e xtensively u sed.

S pecimen 3 4 ( Figure 2): A f lake o f c ourse g rained 2 Muldraugh c hert w ith a p ronounced medial r idge t apering t o s harp e dges o n b oth s ides. ACTUAL TOOL U SE: T he a rtifact w as h afted ( method n ot specified) a long t he e dge opposite A rea A and Area A w as u sed t o s aw d ry s oft wood f or f ive s trokes b efore t he s pecimen b roke i n h alf. Work w as t hen d iscontinued. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: A ll e dges appear c risp and s ometimes f eathered. s ystematic e dge d amage w as o bserved. i nterpreted a s n ot u tilized. D ISCUSSION: An i ncorrect observable u se d amage c ould

on

t his s pecimen N o polish n or The specimen i s

a ssessment b ut l ead t o n o o ther

t he absence o f a ssessment.

S pecimen 3 5 ( Figure 2 2): A l ong, r elatively t hin f lake o f c ourse g rained Muldraugh c hert w ith a f acet a long o ne e dge a nd a t apered e dge a long t he o ther ( Area A ). The f lake t erminated i n a f airly s harp t ip. ACTUAL TOOL U SE: T he s pecimen w as h afted ( perhaps a s a d ibble s tick t ip a s w ith s pecimens 2 6 a nd 3 0 a bove, b ut t he method o f h afting w as n ot n oted b y Collins) a nd p lunged i nto w et, s andy s oil f or 8 38 s trokes. The t ip b etween a reas A and B w as l eading. AUTHOR'S U SE-WEAR ASSESSMENT: T he s pecimen w as d ropped a nd t he t ip b roken away a nd l ost p rior t o a nalysis. A rea A e xhibits a f airly t hin e dge ( 17 d egrees) a ttrited t o a bove 2 5 d egrees w ith moderate r ounding o f t he e dge i n p rominent a reas. S carring, p rimarily s calar, o ccurs a lmost e xclusively on t he f lake's i nterior a spect and i s e ven a nd r un t ogether. P olish i s poorly d eveloped o n t he opposing a spect; b ut e xtensively, a nd i n s ome a reas i ntensively developed, on t he f lakes i nterior a spect. This polish e xtends 2 mm f rom t he e dge, a nd t he r idges a nd h igher a reas i n t he t opography appear t o b e r ounded a nd s moothed. A reas o f t he e dge a lso s how t his r ounding. T his polish i s c haracteristic o f h ide, p robably d ry h ide o r l eather, polish. The f ew l inear f eatures s een a re s ubperpendicular t o t he e dge. The u se o f t his e dge i s i nterpreted a s s craping o f h ide a t moderate a ngle o f a ttack w ith t he f lake's e xterior a spect l eading.

2 14

D ISCUSSION: The i nterpretation i s i ncorrect. This s uffered f rom s imilar p roblems t o t hat o f specimens 3 0.

2 15

analysis 2 6 and

A PPENDIX G -S YSTEMATICALLY

D ESIGNED TOOLS S ITES

FROM FALLS REGION

A small s ample o f s pecimens f rom t he c lasses o f d rills, h afted s crapers, a nd p rojectile points w ere a nalyzed t o s upplement t he s ample e xamined f rom B ig B end and P ossum R idge i n a n a ttempt t o i solate a ny potential v ariance r elated t o s ite p rovenience. A rtifacts r ecorded a nd a nalyzed f rom s ites i n t he s outhwest J efferson C ounty f loodwall p roject ( Collins 1 979), t he F t. K nox p roject ( O ' Malley e t a l. 1 980), a nd t he T aylorsville L ake p roject ( Robinson e t a l. 1 979; S orensen e t a l. 1 980; D riskell 1 983) w ere u sed a s a s ampling u niverse a nd 2 5 s pecimens were s elected a t r andom f rom e ach o f t he d rill and h afted s craper c lasses. Twenty-five s pecimens w ere a lso d rawn f rom e ach o f t he f ive p rojectile point s eries o ccurring a t m iddle p eriod F alls Region s ites ( see Appendix A ). The s amples w ere d rawn f rom a rtifact c ollections f rom 2 49 s ites a t F ort K nox, f our s ites a t t he s outhwest J efferson C ounty f loodwall p roject, and 1 99 s ites a t Taylorsville L ake. F irst, c omputerized a rtifact r ecords f rom t hese s ites w ere s orted t o i dentify a ll a rtifacts a t e ach s ite a ssigned t o t he s even c ategories i dentified above. The l ist o f a rtifacts i n e ach c ategory w as t hen n umbered and a r andom n umbers t able u sed t o d raw 2 5 s pecimens f rom e ach c ategory. I n t he c ase o f h afted s crapers, t he s ample c onstituted 1 6% o f t he specimens l isted. L ikewise, t he d rills s ampled r epresented 6 7% o f t he l isted a rtifacts. T he f ive p rojectile p oint s eries w ere r epresented a s f ollows: S alt R iver S eries ( 37%); Merom-Trimble s eries ( 41%); McWhinney s eries ( 25%); R ound B ase s eries ( 38%); a nd t he L ate A rchaic/Early Woodland s eries ( approx. 1%). 1 The s ample i s opportunistic t o t he e xtent t hat material w as d rawn o nly f rom t hree p roject a reas f or which a rtifactual d ata h ad b een r ecorded i n e ssentially t he f orm d iscussed i n Chapter I V. However, t he a reas c onstitute a k ind o f a real s ampling o f t he F alls R egion i n t he f orm o f a t ransect f rom t he Ohio R iver a lluvium t o t he p eripheral u pland r idge and v alley d omains. T he B ig B end and P ossum R idge s ites w ere i ncluded when t he s amples w ere d rawn. A s a r esult, a f ew a rtifacts f rom t hese t wo s ites were i ncluded i n t he s amples. T hese were n ot r eplaced. T he f ollowing d iscussion i ndicates w here t his o ccurred. Additionally, s ome o f t he a rtifacts f rom e arlier s easons a t t he B ig B end a nd Possum R idge s ites were s elected. S ince t hese w ere n ot c onsidered i n t he s ite c ollections d iscussed i n C hapter V , t hey w ere r etained i n t he s ample d iscussed b elow. T he r emainder o f s pecimens a re d rawn f rom s ites a s i ndicated i n T able 1 9 a nd i n d iscussions b elow. T he s amples d rew most h eavily o n c ollections f rom t he l arge s ites o f t he a lluvium s ince e ach o f t hese s ites h ad l arge, e xtant c ollections i n c omparison t o s ites o f t he 2 17

T able

1 9.

Artifacts i n t he S ample A nalyzed f or U se—wear C haracteristics f rom t he F alls R egion s ites.

H AFTED

P ROJECTILE

D RILLS

S CRAPERS

P OINTS

1 5JF110

2 9 5

5 6 0

1 8 3 9 2 1

1 5JF243

2

0

S ITES

L arge S ites o f t he A lluvium 1 5JF14 1 5JF18

( Rosenberger S ite).

1 8

S ubtotal

1 1

3 8 1

U pland S ites 1 5AN18

0

0

2

1 5AN24 1 5AN202

1 2

0 1

0 3

1 5AN203 1 5HD164

0 O

0 0

3 1

1 5HD202

0

0

1

1 5HD219

0

0

2

1 5MD152

0

0

1 2

1 5MD159

0

0

1 5MD193

O

0

1

1 5SP18 1 5SP200

0 0

0 0

• 2 2

1 5SP201 1 5SP319

0

3

8

0

0

1

1 5SP329

0 0

0 0

1 2

1 5SP330 1 5SP340

1

1

3

1 5SP343

0

2

0

1 5SP344

O

0

1

1 5SP362

1 1

0 0

1 0

1

0

/

7

7

1 5SP363 1 5SP412 S ubtotal

( Big B end S ite)

( Possum R idge

S ite)

3 8

u plands. a nalysis.

T he

f ollowing

r esults were o btained

f rom m icrowear

D rills

Twenty-five a rtifacts f rom t he morphological c ategory o f d rills were s elected a t r andom f rom s ites i n t he F alls R egion, a nd w ere e xamined f or m icrowear t races. O f t hese, t wo s pecimens f rom B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge w ere d iscussed e arlier. O f t he r emaining 2 3 s pecimens, s ix e xhibited m icrowear c haracteristics w hich w ere d efinitive a s t o action a nd material worked. I n a ll s ix c ases, t he i nterpretation w as t hat w ear w as c aused b y d rilling b one o r antler. T hese a rtifacts a re s hown i n F igure 2 3. A ll b ut S pecimen A ( artifact 1 00376 f rom S ite 1 5JF243) a re u nbroken. S pecimen A e xhibits a t ransverse f racture which d etached t he t ip, possibly d uring u se, a nd t he t ool w as apparently u sed a fter b reakage a s c onfirmed b y a small a rea o f polish o n t he b reak f acet. P olish d evelopment o n t his s pecimen i s o nly moderate b ut d oes s uggest u se i n d rilling bone/antler. S pecimen B ( artifact 1 03335) S pecimen C ( artifact 1 06982) a nd S pecimen D ( artifact 1 08984), a ll f rom t he Rosenberger S ite, e xhibit i solated s pots o f bone/antler polish o n t he s hank s uggesting t hat t hese t ools w ere r eworked a fter u se. I n a ll c ases, t he t ips a re r elatively s harp a lso i ndicative o f r eworking a fter u se. S pecimens E a nd F e xhibit more p ronounced e vidence o f u se. Specimen E i s a rtifact 1 05763 f rom S ite 1 5JF14; S pecimen F i s a rtifact 1 05824 f rom S ite 1 5JF14. B oth t ools e xhibit e xtensive bone/antler polish a nd a reas o f i ntensely f ormed polish o n o r n ear t he t ip. F ive a dditional s pecimens e xhibited polish c haracteristics o f bone/antler b ut t he polish was s o d iffuse t hat i t m ay h ave r esulted f rom m anufacturing r ather t han u se. These s pecimens i ncluded a rtifact 2 55 f rom S ite 1 5AN202, a rtifact 1 44 f rom P ossum R idge, a rtifact 1 03837 f rom 1 5JF110, a rtifact 1 3 f rom 1 5SP363, and a rtifact 2 0 f rom 1 5AN24- N o work m aterials o ther t han b one/antler w ere n oted o n a ny o f t he s pecimens.

H afted S crapers

Twenty-five s pecimens f rom t he c ategory o f b eveled b ifaces were s elected a t r andom f rom F alls R egion s ites. O f t hese, s even w ere f rom B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge a nd h ave b een d iscussed i n C hapter V . O f t he r emaining 1 8 s pecimens,

2 19

F igure 2 3.

D rills w ith u se-wear t races

2 20

f rom t he F alls R egion s ites.

e ight were f ound t o e xhibit w ear p atterns d istinctive e nough f or a n i nterpretation o f a ction a nd work material. These s pecimens a re s hown i n F igure 2 4. S pecimen A ( artifact 1 03324) a nd S pecimen B ( artifact 1 10256), both f rom R osenberger, a re t riangular s haped b ifaces w ith a s teeply b evelled b asal e nd. E ach w as c onsidered t o b e a r eworked a rtifact; b oth m ay w ell b e t he d istal p ortions o f l arge b ifaces o r p rojectile points i n which t he b reak f acet was f laked i nto a s teep b evel. S pecimen A e xhibits a s mall s pot o f wood polish on t he e dge which appears t o h ave r esulted f rom i ncising wood. This u sage d id n ot h ave a nything t o do w ith t he morphological c haracteristic o f t he b evelled a rea. S pecimen B e xhibits b one/antler polish i n a small a rea a t t he c orner o f t he s pecimen. T he polish appears t o r esult f rom s craping b one/antler. I t i s, h owever, possible t hat t his l imited a rea o f polish r esulted f rom manufacture o f t he b evel. There i s n o e vidence t hat t hese s pecimens were h afted, and t hey s hould b e a ssigned t o t he f unctional c ategory o f t ools o f c onvenience. S ix specimens w ere i ntact, h afted b evelled b ifaces ( see F igure 2 4, S pecimens C -H). These s ix a rtifacts a ll p ossessed e vidence o f h ide polish and w ere i nterpreted a s h afted h ide s crapers. S pecimen C ( artifact 1 05645), S pecimen D ( artifact 1 05717) b oth f rom S ite 1 5JF14, and S pecimen E ( artifact 6 1 f rom S ite 1 5SP343) a ll e xhibit u nequivocal e vidence o f h ide polish a long t he e dge and m argins o f t he b evelled working a rea. S pecimen G ( artifact 1 05394 f rom S ite 1 5JF14) and S pecimen H ( artifact 1 735 f rom S ite B ig B end) e xhibited v ery l imited a reas i ndicative o f h ide polish and e ach w as i nterpreted a s r eworked a fter u se a s a h ide s craper. S imilarly, S pecimen F ( artifact 1 92 f rom S ite 1 5SP201) appeared t o b e r eworked a fter u se b ut r etained m ore e xtensive e vidence o f u se a s a h ide s craper. None o f t hese a rtifacts e xhibited t he e xtensive, a brasive polish c haracteristic o f t ype B h afted s crapers d escribed f rom B ig B end a nd P ossum R idge ( see C hapter V ).

P rojectiles

Twenty-five s pecimens f rom e ach o f t he f ive m iddle period p rojectile point s eries w ere r andomly s elected f or m icrowear a nalysis f rom s ites i n t he F alls R egion. I n t he Round b ase s eries s ample, t wo s pecimens h ave b een d iscussed a bove. Of t he r emaining 2 3 s pecimens, t hree e xhibited u se-wear c haracteristics. O f t he 2 5 s pecimens i n t he S alt R iver s eries, t wo s pecimens e xhibited i dentifiable u se-wear t races. Of t he s pecimens i n t he M cWhinney s eries s ample, one s pecimen f rom P ossum R idge w as i ncluded above. Two o f t he r emaining 2 4 s pecimens e xhibited u se-wear. N o s pecimens f rom t he Merom/Trimble s eries, o f which o ne f rom B ig B end i s d escribed above, a nd f rom t he L ate A rchaic/Early Woodland s eries, o f which t hree f rom B ig B end a re i ncluded i n

2 21

F igure 2 4.

S crapers w ith u se—wear t races

2 22

f rom t he F alls R egion s ites.

d iscussions above, e xhibited i nterpretable u se-wear t races. I n t otal, o f 1 18 p rojectile p oints e xamined, s even s pecimens ( or 5 .9%) e xhibited u se-wear c haracteristic o f u ses o ther t han a s p rojectiles. The s pecimens a re d escribed b elow a nd s hown i n F igure 2 5. Three p rojectile points ( A, B , and G ) e xhibit u se-wear t races r esulting f rom r euse o f t he a rtifact a fter i t w as b roken. S pecimen A ( artifact 1 04337 f rom 1 5JF14) e xhibits a b reak f acet w ith o ne small s pot o f a brasive polish, possibly h ide polish, o n t he f acet. I t i s possible t hat a ttempts w ere made t o u se t his a rtifact a s a h ide s craper a fter i t w as b roken. S pecimen B ( artifact 1 52 f rom S ite 1 5SP330) w as r eused, a fter i ts d istal e nd w as b roken, a s a b utchering t ool. I t i s possible t hat i t w as u sed a lso i n t his f ashion p rior t o d amage. E vidence f or u se a s a b utchering t ool d erives f rom e xtensive b one/antler polish o n e dges i ncluding t he b reak f acet a nd m ild abrasive polish and s triations o n i nterior a spects. S pecimen G ( artifact 8 f rom S ite 1 5HD219) i s a p rojectile point w ith a m issing t ip, where a s mall p rojecting a rea o f t he e dge f ormed b y t he p rojectile's s ide a nd b reak f acet w as u sed t o s lice o r c ut h ide. T he u se o f t he s pecimen appears t o b e l imited t o t his a rea. I t i s c lear t hat a ll t hree o f t hese s pecimens w ere o riginally p rojectile points, and t heir u se f or o ther p urposes may h ave b een s ubsequent t o d amage a nd may b ear n o d irect r elationship t o t heir o riginal i ntended u se. I t would, t herefore, b e r easonable t o c onsider t hese t ools o f c onvenience. Specimens C t hrough E a re i nterpreted a s b utchering i mplements. E ach possesses an a rea a ssumed t o b e a h afting a rea, b ased b oth on morphology and o n t he a bsence o f u se-wear i n t hese a reas. While t hese a rtifacts w ere o riginally a ssigned t o morphological c lasses o f p rojectile p oints, i n r etrospect e ach i s r ather c rude a nd t oo amorphous i n s hape t o c onform c losely t o t he r espective s tylistic c anons. Specimen C ( artifact 1 09061 f rom Rosenberger) e xhibits e xtensive polish o r b rightness a cross most o f t he b lade. T here i s l imited polish i n t he b reak f acet s uggesting t hat i ts u se was d iscontinued s hortly a fter l oss o f t he d istal p ortion. This s pecimen would appear t o b e a n e xpended b utchering t ool. S pecimen D ( artifact 1 73 f rom S ite 1 5SP201) e xhibits s imilar c haracteristics t o s pecimens B a nd C above. The b lade, l ike S pecimen C , e xhibits e xtensive e dge d amage e ither f rom u se o r s harpening o r b oth. S pecimen E ( artifact 1 5 f rom S ite 1 5SP344) may b e t he b asal portion o f a s ingle s houldered b utchering t ool. The a rea i ndicated i n F igure 2 5 e xhibits w ell-developed bone/antler p olish w ith i nterior r idge r ounding a nd b rightness. There i s n o s ignificant polish f ormation o n t he opposite e dge o r t he b reak f acet.

23 2

F igure 2 5.

P rojectile s ites.

p oints w ith

u se—wear t races

f rom F alls

R egion

A s ingle s pecimen ( F) f rom t he c ollection o f p rojectile points i s a w ell-formed S alt R iver s ide-notched point e xhibiting g ood c haracteristics o f u se a s a b utchering i mplement. T his s pecimen ( artifact 1 06059 f rom S ite 1 5JF14) e xhibits e xtensive, b ut moderately f ormed abrasive polish on e dges and i nterior r idges. Considerable b rightness i n s ome a reas o f t he i nterior may b e meat polish. S triations a re o ften s ubparallel t o e dges s uggesting a c utting a ction. T he p resence o f s pecimens m ay s uggest t his c an b e n either a nalysis.

h afting e lements o n a ll o f t hese t hat t hey were h afted d uring u se b ut c onfirmed n or d enied t hrough m icrowear

2 25