The Chemical Analysis of Prehistoric Bones: A paleodietary and ecoarcheological study of Bronze Age West-Friesland 9780860544715, 9781407346380

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Opening Quotation
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Table of Contents
I. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF BONE IN ARCHEOLOGY
II. THE GEOGRAPHICAL AND ARCHEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
III. ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES IN BONE ANALYSIS
IV. ANALYSIS OF BONE: THE MACRO ELEMENTS CALCIUM, PHOSPHORUS AND IRON
V. ANALYSIS OF BONE: STRONTIUM
VI. ANALYSIS OF BONE: ZINC
VII. ANALYSIS OF BONE: MISCELLANEOUS TRACE ELEMENTS
VIII. TRACE ELEMENTS IN CREMATIONS
IX. ANALYSIS OF SOIL AND PLANT MATERIAL
X. STABLE ISOTOPES IN BONE COLLAGEN
XI. DISCUSSION: AGRICULTURAL AND DIETARY IMPLICATIONS
REFERENCES
APPENDIX 1 CATALOGUE OF HUMAN REMAINS FROM WEST-FRIESLAND
APPENDIX 2 Abbreviations

Citation preview

The Chemical Analysis of Prehistoric Bones A paleodietary and ecoarcheological study of Bronze Age West-Friesland

L. T. Runia

BAR International Series 363 1987

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S363, 1987: 'The Chenical Analysis of Prehistoric Bones' © L. T. Runia, 1987 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544715 paperback ISBN 9781407346380 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544715 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

" Denken a lleen i s n iet v oldoende", z egt d e v os. " De v olgende k eer m oet j e h et

z eker w eten."

W aar i s P iep N .

B enchley & A . A msterdam:

L obel

P loegsma

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS The p resent work a nd t he analyses d escribed and d iscussed i n i t c ould n ot h ave b een c arried o ut a nd c ompleted w ithout t he h elp, a ssistance, c ooperat ion, c ri ticism a nd p at ience o f a number o f p ersons. I w ish t o t hank t hem a ll: d r. Gerard I Jzereef, d r. C lason, drs. d e Haas, drs. van d e Walle van d er Woude, d r. Constandse-Westerman and drs. Bergström f or s ubmitting b ones and b one s amples; dr. A . C . Z even, mr. van L aar and mr. T opper f or p lant s amples; drs. v an Raaphorst, D ick Börger, Bart B roerse, G erard Heeringa a nd d r. T jip Lub f or analytical f aci lities; dr. George Maat f or physical-anthropological i nstruct ions; dr. W .G. Mook and s taff o f h is l aboratory f or s table i sotope a nalyses; d r. Margaret S choeninger f or h ospita lity a nd i ntroducing me i nto b one c hemistry; F red G i jbels, B ob D onker, B ert B rouwest i jn and Ab V isser f or drawings and photographs; J akob T iesinga a nd S ytze F aber f or many b ooks and p apers; R ik Mal iepaard f or c leaning and measuring b ones; d r. J an A lbert Bakker, drs. Roel B randt, drs. J an P eter P als, d rs. L inda Therkorn and d rs. W illy d e V ries-Metz f or d iscussions;

B ert d e L eeuw f or X R D and DT A and Domela

Grondstra f or p roviding working s pace. S pecial t hanks a re due t o d r. W i lly Groenman-van Waateringe and d r. L oes v an W i jngaarden-Bakker f or g iving me t he o pportunity t o c arry out t his s tudy, f or c ontinuous s upport and f or c rit ical d iscussions; and t o d r. C arol v an D riel-Murray f or c orrect ing t he English t ext and f or s timulat ing i deas. The i nvestigat ions were s upported by t he F oundation f or Archaeological R esearch, which i s s ubsidised by t he N etherlands Organization f or t he Advancement o f Pure Research ( ZWO). A grant f rom t he S t.0 hristophor ileen t ot O ldehove, f ounded i n 1 480, i s g ratefully a cknowledged. W ieke, T essel, J etteke, Mer li jn and E lke h ad t o endure s eeing me change i nto an a ddict o f b ones, graphs a nd f loppy d isks- I h ope t o change b ack.

2

C ontents

I . I I.

C hemical a nalysis o f b one i n a rcheology

4

T he g eographical a nd a rcheological c ontext

2 3

A nalytical p rocedures i n b one a nalysis

5 3

A nalysis o f b one: a nd i ron

t he m acro e lements c alcium, p hosphorus 5 5

V .

A nalysis o f b one:

s trontium

6 0

V I.

A nalysis o f b one:

z inc

9 0

V II.

A nalysis o f b one:

m iscellaneous t race e lements

I II. I V.

V III. I X. X . X I.

1 08

T race e lements i n c remations

1 25

A nalysis o f

1 30

s oil a nd p lant m aterial

S table i sotopes i n b one c ollagen

1 52

D iscussion:

1 61

a gricultural a nd d ietary i mplications

R eferences

A ppendix

1 :

A ppendix 2 :

1 99

C atalogue o f p rehistoric h uman b one m aterial f rom W est—Friesland

2 13

A bbreviations

2 34

3

C HEMICAL A NALYSIS O F B ONE I N A RCHEOLOGY

A . IN T RO DUC TIO N A .1 General a spects A lbert E gges v an G iffen, t he f ounder o f modern Dutch a rcheology, was t ra ined a s ab iologist. The s ub ject o f h is d issertat ion ( 1913) was "Die F auna d er Wurten", a nd during h is l ong a nd a ctive c areer a s a n a ll—round a rcheologist h e r emained i nterested i n z ooarcheology and i n p aleoenvironmental r esearch i n g eneral ( Waterbolk 1 973, C lason 1 983). R eputedly, t here h ave b een o ccasions where h e e ntertained l i ttle r egard f or human r emains: upon d iscovery o f s ome human b ur ial h e r ecorded i ts p osit ion, t ook a photograph, c ol lected s kull, p elvis a nd o ne f emur a nd d iscarded t he r est o f t he b ones. Obviously, V an G iffen c ould n ot f oresee t he p otentials o f p rehistor ic b ones i n t he r econstruction o f ' past b ehaviour ', t hough e ven i n h is t ime a nalyses o f b ones f rom R oman t imes were b eing a ttempted i n r ela tion t o l ead p o llution (Nriagu 1 983a). H is s ampling s trategy r esulted i n t he l oss o f material, but h e s aved e nough t o make t he p resent s tudy c oncerning t he c hemical a na lysis o f human a nd a nimal b ones p ossible: as tudy which was c onducted a t t he I nst itute b earing h is n ame. V an G iffen 's d isserta tion i s a n e xample i n t he l ong h istory o f t he m orphological s tudy o f human a nd a nimal b ones f rom a rcheological s ites. The s tudy o f morphology, metrical c haracteristics, p rovenance a nd many o ther a spects o f p rehistoric human a nd a nimal b ones s t i l l r emains an i mportant f ield o f r esearch i n a rcheology. I n t he N etherlands, more o r l ess i n t he l ine o f V an G i ffen 's a tt itude t owards human b ones, t he s tudy o f p rehistor ic h uman b ones i s n ot v ery we l l e stablished. A rcheologists l eave t he s tudy o f h uman b ones f rom t heir e xcavations t o i nterested physical a nthropologists o n a more o r l ess a d—hoc b asis. This a pproach m ight r esult, f or i nstance, i n t he s i tuat ion whereby t he N eo lithic a nd B ronze Age s keletons f rom t he O ostwoud b arrows ( Van G i ffen 1 962), t he l argest c omplex o f s keletons o f t hat p eriod i n t he N etherlands, were m islayed i n ad epot. The r ecent p o licy o f r educing g overnment e xpenses a nd t he c losing o f t he ' Inst ituut v oor Anthropobiologie ' i n U trecht w il l n ot c ause a n i mprovement o f t his s ituation. I n c ontrast t o t his, t he s tudy o f a n imal b ones f rom e xcavated p rehistoric s ites i s wel l e stabl ished i n t he N etherlands: t he a rcheological i nstitutes o f Amsterdam a nd Groningen a nd t he ROB a ll h ave z oological d epartments. The i ni tiat ive f or t he p resent s tudy o f, p rincipa lly, human s keletal material was t aken by t he z ooarcheological d epartment o f t he I PP . I n p ersonal c ontacts w ith Dutch physical a nthropologists, i t a ppeared t hat t heir r esearch i nterests a re, more o r l ess a s ac onsequence o f t heir p ositions i n f acult ies o f m edicine, ma inly i n r esearch a reas o ther t han t he s tudy o f s keletal material f rom a rcheological e xcavations. The p ossib i li ties o f c hemical a nalyses o f p rehistoric b one i n r elation t o p aleodietary a nd p aleoecological p roblems a ppeared t o b e unfami l iar. Though c hemical a nalysis o f b one i n r elat ion t o a rcheological p roblems i s n ot " as o ld a s t he r oad t o Rome", t he f irst a ttempts were made i n t he b eginning o f t his c entury when Rosenblatt a nalysed human b ones f rom t he R oman P eriod ( Rosenblatt 1 906, Kobert 1 909, c i ted i n G il f i llan 1 965 a nd

4

N riagu 1 983a). These a nalyses, p robably w ith d oubtful r esults b ecause o f t he i naccurate a nalytical t echniques, were a c ontribution t o t he d iscussion o n l ead p ol lution a nd l ead p oisoning i n R oman t imes. The c ausal r elat ion b etween l ead p ollution a nd t he d ec line a nd f al l o f t he Roman Empire i s s t i ll d isputed e ven t hough b one a nalysis r ema ins o ne o f t he t ools i n t he s tudy o f t his p roblem. This e arly u se o f b one a nalyses i n a rcheological c ontexts i s but a sma ll f oretaste o f t he m enu o f p otential u ses o f b one c hemistry i n a rcheological, a nthropological a nd p aleoecological r esearch. A t p resent, t he f ocus o f a nalyses o f p rehistor ic b ones i s o n d ietary r econstruction by means o f a na lysis o f t race e lement ( strontium, z inc a nd o thers) c oncentra tions i n b one m ineral a nd d etermination o f s table i sotope ( carbon, n itrogen) r at ios i n b one c ollagen. P rice ( 1986) s tates t hat ' the s tudy o f a rchaeologica l b one c hemistry i s a t at urning p oint, i n t ransit ion f rom a n e xperimental p rocedure t o a ma jor r esearch t echnique ' . Though t his s tatement may b e o ptimistic i n t he l ight o f t he p roblems s ti ll p resent i n t he i nterpretat ion o f b one t race e lement l evels i n t erms o f d ietary c omposition, we may a gree w ith P rice i n t hat ' there i s j us tificat ion f or e nthusiasm a bout t he p otential o f t his m ethodology t o p rovide g reater r esolut ion f or o ur v iews o f t he p ast ', but ( Price e t a l . 1 985b:429) ' t race e lement a nalysis, a long w ith i sotopic s tudies, a s at ool i n t he s tudy o f t he p ast i s i n i ts i nfancy ' . B one c hemistry s tudies r ely o n d ata g athered by r esearchers w ith medical a nd physiologicalinterests. However, l i ttle was d one i n t he f ield o f b one c hemistry, e .g. o n t race e lement c oncentrat ions, b efore t he 1 960 's. The i nterest i n t he i ncorporation i n b one o f r adioactive s tront ium d eriving f rom a tmospheric nuclear t esting i s a n e xcept ion t o t his g eneral p icture (C omar e t a l . 1 957). I n o ne o f t he f irst r eports o n b one t race e lement c oncentrat ions, A lexander & Nusbaum ( 1962) g ive z inc c oncentrations i n 2 5 human r ib s amples. These r ib s amples h ad o rigina lly b een c ol lected f or s trontium a na lysis. Many p apers o n t race e lements i n f resh human a nd a nimal t issues d o n ot c ontain i nformat ion o n c oncentrat ions i n b one m ineral ( for i nstance, S chroeder & B alassa 1 966, S chroeder e t a l . 1 966). The p aper b y B ecker e t a l . ( 1968) may b e t he f irst t o c ontain r e liable d ata o n t race e lement c oncentrations i n p rehistor ic human b ones. B esides f resh b one s amples, p rehistor ic P eruvian a nd P ennsylvanian b ones were a nalysed i n o rder t o c ompare r ecent a nd p rehistoric l evels o f t race e lements. N o d ietary e xtrapolations were made. The s tudy o f t he c hemistry o f p rehistoric b ones a ims t o a dd n ew, i ndependent i nformat ion a nd t o b roaden a nd r efine t he p icture o f p rehistoric human d iets t hat h as b een p roduced by t he e stablished a rcheological a nd e coarcheological r esearch m ethods. ' Tradit iona l ' phyto— a nd z ooarcheologica l r esearch i s c arried o ut a s a matter o f r outine ( or, a t l east, i t s hould b e) i n m any a rcheological p ro jects. B esides g iving c lues o n t he p ast e nvironment a nd, f or i nstance, s easona lity o f s ites, o ne o f t he a ims o f t he e coarcheologist i s t o p rovide i nsight i n t he r ange o f a vai lable f ood r esources, a nimal a nd v egetable, m arine a nd t errestrial ( Wing & B rown 1 979, Mann 1 981, G ilbert & M ielke 1 985). The c haracterist ics o f t he r emains o f p lants a nd a nimals a nd o f t aphonomic p rocesses i nevitably r esult i n a qua litatively a nd quantitat ively i ncomplete a nd b iased p icture o f t he f oods t hat were c onsumed ( Jones 1 983). U sua l ly, t he m ethods u sed i n e coarcheologica l s tudies d o n ot a llow f or d istinguishing d ifferences i n t he c omposit ion o f d iets o f v arious i ndividuals a nd g roups o f i ndividua ls. E ven d i fferences b etween s ites may n ot b e q uanti fiable b y t he t radit ional methods.

5

The c hemical c omposit ion o f human a nd a nimal b one, a nd e specia lly t he c oncentrations o f t race e lements a nd t he r at ios o f t he s table i sotopes o f c arbon a nd n itrogen, i n p rinciple r eflects t he d ietary r egime o f t he i ndividuals c oncerned. Thus, t heoretical ly, by e xtracting t he i nformat ion o n d iet t hat i s h idden i n t he c omposit ion o f t he b ones, i t i s p ossible t o r econstruct i ndividual d iets. A fter f i ltering o ut b iases due t o a number o f f actors, s uch a s d iagenetic a lteration o f t he b one c omposit ion, physiological e ffects o f a ge, s ex a nd d isease: a nd g eographica l v ariations, t he d iets o f v arious i ndividuals, o r r ather g roups o f i ndividuals, c an b e c ompared. Obviously, t his i s ac lear a dvantage o f t he b one a nalysis m ethod c ompared t o t he ' t radit ional ' e coarcheological methods. The n eed f or t his k ind o f d ata o n p rehistoric d iets, a nd e specia lly o n t he amount o f m eat t herein, may b e most u rgently f elt by r esearchers o f h ominids a nd e arly humans ( Harding & T eleki 1 981, S i llen 1 981, c ompare a lso S choeninger 1 982) where a rcheological a nd e coarcheological ' Begleitfunde ' n ext t o t he f ossil h ominid b ones a re r elatively s carce. Unfortunately, i n t he f ossi lized b ones o f h ominids a nd e arly humans d iagenetic c hanges o f t race e lement l evels may b e c onsiderable. S t il l , a nother p roblem i s p osed b y t he w ide r ange o f f ood r esources which w ere p robably e xploited b y o ur a ncestors ( Mann 1 981) t he t race e lement c oncentrat ions o f which a re i ncompletely known ( section V . A , I X.E). B asic r esearch i n T his f ield i s u rgent ly n eeded. P rehistoric b one t issue may b e u sed f or o ther p urposes. F or i nstance, p aleoserological s tudies ( Borgognini T ar li e t a l . 1 986). However, t he r e liabil ity o f t hese s tudies a re quest ioned b y s ome a nthropologists ( compare P iepenbrink 1 986) A number o f r eviews o f u ses a nd p otent ials o f ' bone c hemistry a nd p ast b ehaviour ' were publ ished r ecently ( Parker & T oots 1 980, S il len & Kavanagh 1 982, P rice e t a l . 1 985b, G ilbert 1 985), t o which a nother c ontribut ion i s a dded h ere ( section I . B .).

A .2. The present s tudy The p resent s tudy was i nitiated a nd c arried o ut a t t he A lbert Egges v an G iffen I nstituut v oor P rae- e n P rotohistorie ( IPP) i n Amsterdam. The I PP was f ounded i n 1 951, a nd a t radition o f c lose c ooperation o f a rcheologists a nd e coarcheological r esearchers was e stab lished i n t he p eriod a fter 1 960. E coarcheological i nformat ion i s c onsidered e ssent ial i n t he d escript ion a nd r econstruction o f p rehistoric human b ehaviour. When t he p otentials a nd f irst r esults o f t he c hemical s tudy o f p rehistoric b ones i n America b ecame known i n Europe, i t w as r ecognized t hat t he c omplexes o f human a nd a nimal b ones f rom a n umber o f B ronze Age s ites i n W est-Friesland were p otent ial ly s uitable f or c hemical a nalysis i n r elation t o d ietary r econstruction. A c rucial r ole i n t he p rocess o f r ecognit ion o f t he p otentials o f b one c hemistry was p layed b y d r. C .S. P eebles, who h ad j ust f inished a p aper o n s tront ium i n human b ones ( Schoeninger & P eebles 1 981), a nd who was a t t hat t ime a guest p rofessor a t t he I PP. I n t he s ame p eriod, G .F. I Jzereef was working o n h is d issertat ion, which c ontains a model f or t he a gricultural e xploitat ion o f ap art o f West-Friesland ( Brandt & I Jzereef 1 980, I Jzereef 1 981, 1 983), a nd R . W. B randt w rote a p aper o n ac omparable s ub ject ( Brandt 1 980). The A ssendelver P older P ro ject, w ith i mportant c ontribut ions by e coarcheologists, was p lanned a nd c arried o ut ( Brandt e t a l . 1 985). Thus, t here was a nd s t il li s, a w ide i nterest i n t he r econstruction o f t he p aleoenvironment a nd o f t he a ctivities o f humans l iving

6

i n t hat e nvironment . Chemical a nalysis o f t he human a nd a nimal b ones f rom West-Friesland was p otent ial ly c apable o f a dding a nother a nd n ew d imension t o a rcheological r esearch. The p resent work s hould s how whether o r n ot t he a ttempt t o a dd t his d imension was s uccesful . Ag rant f or t he a na lysis o f West-Frisian b ones was r equested b y d r. L . H. v an W i jngaarden- B akker a nd p rof. d r. W . Groenman- v an Waateringe, a nd was awarded by t he F oundat ion f or Archaeological Research, which i s a s ubsidiary o f t he N etherlands O rganization f or t he Advancement o f P ure R esearch ( grant 1 23-21-022). On March i st, 1 984, t he a ctual work c ommenced. Chemical a nalyses w ere c arried o ut a t t he N etherlands Energy R esearch F oundat ion ( EC N ) i n P etten ( N-H), a nd s table i sotope a ssesment was d one a t t he L aboratium v oor I sotopenfysica i n G roningen.

7

B . CHEMIC AL AN ALYSIS OF PREHISTO RIC BO NE I dea lly, e xcavated, n on—fossi lized p rehistoric b one c onsists o f t wo f ractions: o rganic a nd i norganic. I n vivo, t he i norganic f raction o f b one i s h ydroxyapatite, which i s p resent i n b one a s smal l c rystals, whereas t he o rganic f ract ion o f b one i s made u p o f c o llagen: l ong, h e lical c hains o f aminoacids. The t wo b one f ract ions h ave t heir o wn p otentials a nd p roblems i n c hemical a nalysis a nd i n r esistence t o d iagenet ic i nfluences. Hydroxyapat ite i s s tudied f or i ts t race e lement c oncentrations. I n c o llagen, t he i n vivo s table i sotope r at ios may b e p reserved more o r l ess unaltered. The n atura l b ipar tit ion d emands f or s eparate t reatises o n t he ' state o f t he a rt ' o f a nalyses o f t he f raction i nvolved.

B .1. Trace e lements B .1.1. Trace e lements i n paleodietary r esearch The p otential o f p rehistor ic b ones f or d ietary a na lysis w ere f irst e xploited w ith t he a nalysis o f s tron tium c oncentra tions i n a nimal b ones s ome t wenty y ears a go ( Toots & V oorhies 1 965). S trontium w as t he f irst e lement t o b e u sed i n b one a na lysis f or d ietary r econstruction, a nd i t i s s t i ll t he most i mportant t race e lement i n p aleodietary r esearch. O ther e lements o f i nterest a re z inc, c opper a nd b ar ium. S ome b asic physical c haracter istics o f t he most i mportant e lements i n c hemical a na lysis o f p rehistoric b one a re a ssembled i n t able I .1.

T able 1 .1. P hysical c haracteristics o f ( Weast 1 974). e lement

s ymbol

--atomic--n o. w eight

s ome m acro— a nd t race e lements

i onic(+2) r adius n m

p hosphorus c alcium i ron c opper z inc a rsenic s trontium

P C a F e C u Z n A s S r

1 5 2 0 2 6 2 9 3 0 3 3 3 8

3 0.98 4 0.08 5 5.85 6 3.54 6 5.37 7 4.92 8 7.62

b arium l ead

B a P b

5 6 8 2

1 37.34 2 07.19

a bundance i n l ithosphere a bsolute r el.to C a p pm

m g / g C a

0 .112

180 3 6300 5 0000 7 0 1 32 5 3 00

3 2.51 1 000 1 377 1 .93 3 .63 0 .14 8 .26

0 .134 0 .120

2 50 1 6

6 .89 0 .44

0 .099 0 .074 0 .072 0 .074

*i n l ithosphere The e arly u se o f s tront ium a nd i ts i mportant p lace i n b one a nalyses i s a c onsequence o f a number o f f actors. B efore d ea ling w ith s trontium i n more d etai l, i t i s u seful t o r eview t he r equirements o f t race e lements i n b one a nalyses. T o b e o f p otentia l u se i n p alaeodietary s tudies, t he a nte—mortem, i n vivo b ehaviour, a nd t he p ost—mortem, i n s oi l, b ehaviour o f at race e lement has t o b e understood qua litat ively a nd, a bove a ll, a lso quant itat ively. The i n vivo b ehaviour o f t he t race e lement c omprises t he r elat ionships b etween d ietary

8

c omposit ion, i ntake a nd u ptake o f t he e lement, d isease a nd s tress, a nd t he u ltimate c oncentrat ion o f t he e lement i n t he b one m ineral . A p rerequisite i s t hat t he p rovenance o f t he t race e lement i n v arious f ood i tems, i n r ela tion t o t he c oncentrations o f o ther e lements, s uch a s c alcium, a nd t he e nergy v alue h as t o b e known. I dea lly, t he d istribut ion o f at race e lement i n t he r ange o f f ood i tems s hould b e c orrelated w ith d i fferent o rigins o f f ood i tems: v egetable, a nimal, t errestrial o r marine. An e lement w ith a we ll-known r elationship b etween d ietary l evels a nd b one c oncentrations, but w ith a uni form d istribution o ver t he f ood-stuffs, i s o f l i ttle u se i n p aleodietary s tudies. However, s uch a n e lement m ight b e u seful i n o ther a spects, f or i nstance, t he s tudy o f d iseases. The s econd a spect i n t he b ehaviour o f p oten tia lly u sable t race e lements c omprises t he p ost-mortem b ehaviour o f t he e lement c oncentrat ions i n b one. B ones f rom a n a rcheological c ontext h ave g eneral ly b een e nveloped i n as o il m atrix b etween d eath a nd t he moment o f a na lysis. The main t aphonomic p rocess i s t he i nfluence o f t he s oil s olut ion o n e lemental c oncentrat ions i n t he b one m ineral . Obviously, f or e lements t o b e u sed, t his d iagenetic i nfluence s hould b e a bsent o r sma l l: we a re i nterested i n t he a nte-mortem c oncentrations o f t he e lement. I n g enera l, e lements t hat c losely r esemble Ca ( table 1 .1) w i ll b e t he l east a ffected b y d iagenet ic p rocesses. S trontium i s a n e lement t hat a nswers well t o t he a bove-mentioned r equirements. S trontium a nd c alcium t urnover i n t he f ood c hain a re r elat ively wel l-known a s ar esult o f much r esearch i n t he 1 950 's a nd 1 960 's ( for i nstance, Comar e t a l . 1 957, Russel l 1 966a,b). The i nterest i n S r was a r esult o f t he c oncern o ver t he d angerous c onsequences o f r adioact ive f a l lout, e specia lly o f S r-90, t hat r esulted f rom a tmospheric nuclear t ests a nd, p otentia lly, f rom nuclear war. A fter t he b anning o f a tmospheric t esting i n 1 963, t he i nterest i n S r i n t he f ood c hain f aded away. S table S r i s n ot a n e ssential n or a t oxic e lement ( Underwood 1 977). I n t he 1 970 's a nd 1 980 's, t he i nterest i n t he r ole o f t race e lements, t oxic a nd/or e ssentia l, i n human a nd a nimal m etabolism i n h ealth a nd d isease i ncreased. L ittle n ew work o n S r was d one b y nutritionists. However, t he amount o f d ata c o llected o n S r t urnover ( section V . A ) e nabled a nthropologists t o u se S r i n p aleodietary r esearch. A s ynopsis o f t he knowledge o n S r a nd C a t urnover i n f ood c hains i s v isua lized i n f igure 2 o f P rice e t a l . ( 1985b), h owever, t he f igures i n t his s cheme a re a r ithmetical ly i nconsistent ( compare V an W i jngaarden-Bakker 1 986). The d anger o f r adioact ive S r-90 f or human h ealth i s c onnected w ith t he a ffinity o f S r f or b one. L ike C a, which r esembles S r i n c hemical c haracterist ics, t he m a jor p art o f b ody S r i s p resent i n t he s keleton. Thus, r adioactive S r, o nce i n t he b ody, would b e i ncorporated i n t he b one m ineral matrix a s a n i on s ubst i tuting f or a C a i on. The S r-90, i ncorparated i n b one, b ecomes a s emi-permanent s ource o f r adiation i n t he b ody, which may c ause r adiation d iseases s uch a s b one marrow c ancer. The p ropert ies o f S r, which i n i ts r adioact ive f orm make i t d angerous f or human and a nimal h eal th, o n t he o ther h and make i t as uitable e lement f or p aleodietary s tudies. The i nsensi tivity o f b one S r c oncentrations t o i nfluences o f t he s oil s olut ion i s ac onsequence o f t he l ocation o f S r i ons a s s ubst itutes f or Ca i n t he hydroxyapat ite c rystal l att ice ( Posner 1 969). Thus, t he r at io o f S r a nd C a i n t he b ody, which i s o f i nterest b ecause o f i ts d ependency o n d ietary S r a nd C a c oncentrat ions, i s f ixed i n t he b one m ineral matrix.

9

Af urther r equirement f or a t race e lement t o b e u sed i n p aleodietary a nalyses i s t hat i t s hould e xhibit a n on-uniform d istribution i n t he r ange o f a vai lable f ood i tems. I n t he c ase o f S r, t he d iscrimination a gainst S r i n f avour o f C a i n t he i ntest inal t ract o f a nimals c auses d istinct d ifferences b etween S r/Ca r atios i n v egetable a nd a nimal t issues. Thus, S r c oncentrat ions i n b ones o f humans a nd a nimals r eflect t he r elat ive i mportance o f a nimal a nd v egetable f oods i n t he d iets o f t he i nvolved i ndividuals. The b ipart it ion: a nimal v ersus v egetable f ood i tems i s a r elevant o ne i n many a rcheological a nd a nthropological c ontexts ( Harding & T eleki 1 981, J ones 1 983). B esides, t here i s ad i fference i n S r c oncentrations i n t errestrial a nd mar ine h abitats, a d is tinction which may a lso h ave a rcheological r elevance. S trontium a nd c alcium r elationships i n v arious s teps o f t he f ood c ha in w i ll b e d ea lt w ith i n more d etail i n s ections V .A a nd I X. 0 C.

B .1.2. S trontium i n paleodietary s tudies T oots & V oorhies ( 1965) a nalysed S r c oncentra tions i n f ossil b ones o f P liocene a nimals i n o rder t o b e a ble t o c ompare t heir f eeding h abits w ith d ental morphology. Though t heir methodology i s s ound a nd upti l n ow t he b asis f or d ietary r econstruction, t he material u sed was p robably n ot s uitable f or t heir purposes, a nd t hus t he v al idi ty o f t heir c onclusions m ay b e questioned (S i llen & Kavanagh 1 982). I n my v iew, t he v irtual a bsence o f a ny d i fference b etween t he m ean S r c oncentrat ions i n v arious s keletal e lements o f Merycodus a nd t he l ow c oefficients o f v ariation i n t he s amples o f T oots a nd V oorhies may b e s een a s i ndicators f or d iagenet ic a lterat ions o f S r c oncentrat ions. I n t able 1 .2, t he d ata o f T oots a nd Voorhies a re c ompared w ith d ata o n f resh b one S r c oncentrations. Compared w ith t hese d ata, t he Merycodus v alues a ppear unrea listiccal ly uniform.

T able 1 .2. C omparison b etween d ata o f T oots & V oorhies ( 1965) a nd o ther d ata o n b one S r c oncentrations ( Schoeninger 1 979) a nd b one S r/1000 C a r atios ( Price e t a l. 1 985a, T anaka e t a l. 1 981) n

s ample M erycodus

m ean

S D

C V(%)

m andibles m ature m etacarpals

1 0 1 0

5 23 5 26

2 7 3 4

5 .1 6 .5

i mmature m etacarpals

1 0

5 29

2 8

5 .3

3 5

2 70

5 2

1 9.3

f resh w hite t ailed d eer f oreleg, m ales 2 6 f emales 1 2 f awns 1 5

0 .385 0 .273 0 .301

0 .125 0 .091 0 .082

3 2.5 3 3.3 2 7.2

f resh h uman b ones,

f resh m ink b ones

J apan:

a ge 8 y ear 1 3 y ear

7 1 0

0 .334 0 .484

0 .024 0 .175

7 .2 . 3 6.2

2 0-25 y ear

1 5

0 .506

0 .081

1 6.0

T oots & V oorhies ( 1965) s ought t o d i fferentiate b etween g razing a nd b rowsing a nimals. However, t heir a ssumptions o n S r c ontents i n f ood o f g razers v ersus t hat i n f ood o f b rowsers, i .e. r elatively h igh S r c oncentrations i n s ucculents a nd h erbs t hat a re c onsumed by b rowsing

1 0

a nimals, a re n ot r elevant i f C a c oncentrat ions a re n ot t aken i nto a ccount. I nterestingly, T oots a nd V oorhies 's a ssumpt ions o n d ifferences i n S r c oncentrat ions i n t he v egetation a re n ot r eflected i n l ater S r s tudies where e qual S r/Ca r atios i n t he v egetation a re e qua lly a ssumed. The p roblems e ncountered h ere, i .e. d i fferences b etween g razers a nd b rowsers a nd v ariations i n S r/Ca r at ios i n av egetat ion r emain o f i nterest ( sec tions V . A , I X. D ). B one a nalysis c an b e a pplied i n t wo p artly o verlapping f ields o f r esearch: t he f irst c oncerns d iachronic p roblems, t he o ther w ith p roblems w ithin n arrower t ime a nd s pace l imits may b e t erme ' i sochronous ' . I n d iachronic a ppl icat ions, t he f ocus i s o n s hifts i n d ietary h abits i n t he c ourse o f t ime. Changes i n d iet i n t ime w i ll u sua l ly b e ar eflect ion o f c hanges i n t he exploitation o f t he e nvironmental r esources. S uch c hanges may b e f orced upon t he p eople a s ac onsequence o f e nvironmental f actors, f or i nstance c l imat ic c hanges. I n c oastal a reas i n g enera l, a nd i n o ur s tudy a rea W est—Friesland i n p art icular, marine r egression a nd t ransgression i nfluence t he a vai labil ity o f a reas o f l and s uitable f or f ood p rocurement, which i n t urn a ffects t he hunt ing/gather ing a nd a gricultural p otentia l . T echnical i mprovements, c ul tural e volution a nd p opulat ion p ressure may b e o ther c auses f or c hanging s trategies i n t he e xploitat ion o f e nvironmental c apacities. I n d iachronic s tudies, t he d ifferences b etween i ndividuals o r g roups o f i ndividuals w ithin s ites r eceive l ess a ttent ion. B one c hemistry—based d ietary r econstruction a ppears t o b e more s uccessful i n t he d iachronic f ield t han i n t he i sochronic f ield. I n t he l ight o f t he g reater d i fferences i n d ietary c omposit ion a nd i n S r c oncentrations t hat o ccur i n t ime a nd i n s pace t han t hat w ithin a g iven s i te, t his would a ppear t o b e o bvious. I n t he i sochronous r esearch f ield, f ew p apers h ave b een pub lished i n which a r eflection o f t he a rcheologica lly d etermined s tatus d i fferences o n t he b one S r l evels was f ound. I n t he c lassic p aper o f S choeninger ( 1979) o n s tatus d ifferences i n Cha lcatzingo, n o c ontrol o n physiological f actors ( e.g., s ex a nd a ge) a s ac ause f or t he o bserved s tatus d ifferences i n S r l evels was p erformed ( Si lien & Kavanagh 1 982). However, t his p aper r emains o ne o f t he f ew i n which a c orrelation b etween a rcheologica l ly d etermined s tatus a nd b one S r l evels i s d escribed. The d iachronic a spects o f t he Chalcatzingo s ite r emain unclear due t o t he l imited number o f b ones. L ambert a nd c o—workers u sed b ones f rom t wo N orth—American Woodland s ites p rimar ily f or methodological s tudies o n t race e lement l evels i n b ones. They p roduced u seful d ata o n d iagenet ic i nfluences o n t he c oncentrat ions o f v arious t race e lements ( Lambert e t a l . 1 979, 1 982, 1 984, 1 985). I sochronic a spects o f t race e lement l evels a re l imited t o d ifferences b etween males a nd f emales ( Lambert e t a l . 1 982) a nd b etween a ge g roups ( Lambert e t a l . 1 979). The d iachronic a spect o f t hese s ites c onsists o f t he d i fferences b etween hunter/gatherers o f t he G ibson s ite a nd maize c ul tivating p eople o f t he L edders s ite. These d i fferences a ppear t o b e r ather sma l l . S pecial c ases o f i sochronic s tudies a re t hose i n which weaning a ges o f i nfants a re d etermined ( Si llen & Smith 1 984, Grupe 1 986b). P ossibi li ties f or s uch s tudies a re l imited b ecause i n most e xcavated c omplexes o f human b ones t he v ery y oung c h ildren a re underrepresented o r a bsent. I n t he d iachronic r esearch f ield, S r a nalysis may y ield i nformat ion o n t he c hange f rom hunting/gathering t o a griculture. S choeninger ( 1981, 1 982)

1 1

a nd S il len ( 1981) s tudied t his p roblem u sing b ones f rom M iddle—Eastern s ites. S i l len ( 1981) i n h is methodological s tudy d id n ot v enture a ny c onclusions o n N atufian d ietary c omposi tion. Though t he b ones h e u sed w ere t o ac ertain e xtent a ffected b y d iagenesis, t he d ifference b etween h erbivorous a nd c arnivorous a nimal b one S r c oncentrations c orroborates t heoretical c onsidera tions. Humans a re i ntermediate b etween c arnivores a nd h erbivores. S choeninger ( 1981, 1 982) i n a number o f M iddle—Eastern s ites c ompared S r/Ca r atios i n human a nd h erbivorous a nimal b ones. The number o f a nimal b ones was smal l a nd n o c arnivores were s tudied. X—ray d i ffraction p atterns s uggest r ecrista l l izat ion o f a t l east p art o f t he h ydroxyapatite. S choeninger s tates t hat t his w i ll a ffect S r l evels i n a l l , s pecies e qua lly s o t hat t he r elat ive l evels a re n ot a ffected. There i s, h owever, n o c heck f or t his s tatement. There a ppear t o b e c lear d i fferences b etween s ites. S ome o f t he hunter/gatherers g roups more c losely r esemble s ettled g roups ( i .e. a gricultura lists) t han o ther hunter/gatherer g roups. A ccording t o S choeninger, t his i s ac onsequence o f t he e nvironment: o n t he o ne h and, s ome o f t he hunter/gatherers p robably r e lied h eavily o n a bundantly g rowing w ild c ereals f or t heir s ubsistence, wh i le o thers r el ied more o n a nimal f ood; o n t he o ther h and s ome s ettled g roups k ept h erds f or a l iving r ather t han g rowing c ereals. On t he N orth—American c ont inent, t he i ntroduct ion o f a griculture ( i .e. maize c ult ivation) i s i n many i nstances b etter t raceable b y u sing c arbon i sotope a nalysis t han b y t race e lement a nalysis ( section I . B .2). B eck ( 1985) u sed Z n a nd S r c oncentrat ions i n a n a ttempt t o t race a gr icultural a ctivit ies. D iachronic s tudies i n E urope w il, i n many c ases, n ot d eal w ith t he i ntroduct ion o f a griculture, but w il l r ather b e c arried o ut i n o rder t o d etect c hanges i n t he e xploitation o f v egetable a nd a nimal f ood r esources w ithin a gricultural s ystems. C onsumpt ion o f s eafood w i l l r esult i n h igh S r c oncentrat ions i n b one ( Kyle 1 986). Thus, S r l evels may b e u sed t o c ompare d iets o f c oastal a nd i nland s ites. C onnor & S laughter ( 1984) u sed S r a nd o ther t race e lement l evels i n b ones f rom mummified I nuit t o c ompare d iets f rom A laskan c oastal s ites. S trontium l evels i n t hese p eople w ere, h owever, n ot h igh c ompared t o S r l evels i n b ones f rom a sma ll i sland o n t he P apua N ew Guinean c oast ( Kyle 1 986)

B .1.3. Prac tical problems and r esearch needs i n s trontium s tudies The r esults o f p revious a nalyses o f b ones h ave emphasised t hat much f undamental r esearch r emains t o b e d one i n o rder t o b e a ble t o f i lter o ut t he b ackground n oise r esul ting f rom v arious f actors a nd which o bscures t he d ietary o r e cological meaning o f b one t race e lement c oncentrations. This i s t he c ase f or S r, but e ven more f or o ther t race e lements, s uch a s z inc, which p lay e ssential r oles i n p lant a nd a nimal metabo lism. S ome e xperimental work h as b een c arried o ut a lready. S choeninger ( 1979) s tudied m ink f or d ata o n t he v ariation i n S r l evels i n a nimals r aised o n t he s ame d iet. P rice e t a l . ( 1985a) measured S r c oncentrations i n f resh white—ta iled d eer, a s pecies t hey p ropose u sing a s ab ase line s pecies. Runia ( 1987b) analysed v arious g rain s pecies a nd v ariet ies f or t heir S r/Ca r at ios. F ew d ata o n c oncentrations o f s table S r i n f resh human b ones h ave b een published. The p aper by T anaka e t a l . ( 1981) i s o ften c ited f or t he d ata o n

1 2

t he d ifferences i n S r/Ca r at ios w ithin i ndividuals ( table 1 .3). R ela tively h igh S r/Ca r at ios a re f ound i n t he s kul l , p robably i n p art due t o h igh S r c ontents i n t he t eeth which may t ake up S r a nd C a d irectly f rom t he f ood ( compare d ata i n C omar e t a l . 1 961). B ones w ith a r elat ively l arge amount o f t rabecular b one, e .g. r ibs a nd v ertebrae, s how r elat ively l ow S r/Ca r atios. D i fferences a re s ma l l w ithin l ong b ones. S choeninger ( in manuscript) f ound n o s trong l inear r elat ionship b etween S r c oncentrations i n f emora a nd v ertebrae o f 1 7th c entury Dutch whalers f rom S pitsbergen. The r ate o f r eplacement o f b one m ineralis h igher i n v ertebrae t han i n l ong b ones (B ryant & L outit 1 964). Consequently, S r l evels i n v ertebrae w il l s ooner b e i n b alance w ith n ew d ietary S r l evels t han f emoral S r l evels. This i mplies t hat marked d i fferences b etween v ertebra a nd f emur S r l evels may i ndicate a s hift i n d iet s hort ly b efore d eath. T anaka e t a l . ( 1981) s upply d ata o n t he a ge d ependency o f human S r/Ca r atios, a nd i mp licitely, o n t he v ariat ion o f S r/Ca r at ios i n humans ( table 1 .2). A fter a r apid i ncrease i n t he e arl iest phase o f l i fe, S r/Ca r at ios i n human b ones s how a s l ight i ncrease w ith a ge ( compare a lso B ryant e t a l . 1 958). This i s ar eflection o f t he a ge d ependency o f t he d iscriminat ion a gainst S r i n t he u ptake p rocesses i n t he i ntestina l t ract ( section V .A ).

T able 1 .3. R elative S r/Ca r atios i n t he J apanese a dult m ale. A fter T anaka e t a l. ( 1981). b one

S r/Ca r atio r elative

f emur s kull ( including m andible a nd t eeth) v ertebral c olumn c hest c age ( scapula, c lavicula,

t o f emur

1 .00 1 .13 0 .63

r ib a nd s ternum)

0 .72

s acrum i nnominates h umerus

0 .66 0 .69 0 .88

r adius

0 .88

u lna h ands t ibia

0 .88 0 .81 0 .88

f ibula f eet

0 .88 0 .81

T o r ule o ut r egiona l d i fferences i n l evels o f S r a nd o ther e lements, t he p ossibi lities o f u sing a nima l b ones a s r eference mater ial f or t race e lement l evels i s s tressed b y v arious a uthors (S il len & Kavanagh 1 982, P rice e t a l . 1 985a, Runia 1 985). S i l len ( 1981) a dvises t he u se o f b ones f rom b oth h erbivorous a nd c arnivorous a nimals. However, i n many s ites f ew o r n o b ones o f c arnivorous a nima ls a re p resent. I f o nly a f ew b ones a re p resent, i t i s n ever c ertain whether t hey s tem f rom s pecimens t hat l ived i n o r n ear t he i nvest igated s ite ( compare P rice 1 985). Thus, c aut ion i n t he u se o f t hese b ones i s n ecessary. S pecies u sed a s b ase line s pecies a re white—ta iled d eer ( Price e t a l . 1 985a, P rice 1 985), c att le a nd s heep/goat ( Runia 1 985, 1 987a) a s wel l a s o ther h erbivores (S choeninger 1 981, 1 982, S il len 1 981).

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F ew s tudies e xist i n which S r c oncentrat ions i n b ones o f h erbivorous, omnivorous a nd c arnivorous a nimal s pecies a re g iven. S il len ( 1981) a na lysed b ones o f v arious c arnivorous a nd h erbivorous s pecies f rom Hayonim C ave ( Israel); i n t his s ite, r elative S r c oncentrations i n t he a nimal s pecies a re c onsistant w ith t heore tical c onsiderat ions, i .e. h igh S r c oncentrations i n t he h erbivores, l ow S r c oncentrations i n t he c arnivores, w ith humans h aving i ntermediate S r l evels. Connor & S laughter ( 1984) r eport o n t race e lement c oncentrations i n s ome c aribou a nd p olar b ear b ones but t he o rigin o f t hese b ones r emains unclear; b esides, p olar b ear h as h igh S r l evels d ue t o c onsumption o f marine f ood. P rice ( 1985) g ives S r c oncentra tions i n s ome l ynx b ones b esides S r l evels i n d eer. The n eed f or a b ase line s pecies i n o rder t o m inima lize b ias due t o r egional d i fferences i n s oil S r l evels i s a pparent f rom v arious s tudies. S choeninger ( 1985) f ound n o c onsistent t rophic l evel e ffect i n S r c oncentrations i n a nimals f rom a w ide g eographic r ange. However, i n as et o f s amples f rom a l imited r egion t here i s ad iscrimination b etween h erbivores a nd c arnivores. Runia ( 1987a) h as s hown t hat i n c ertain r egions r elatively l arge v ariat ions i n s o il S r/Ca r at ios may o ccur w ithin s hort d istances. Aw ide r ange i n m ean S r l evels i n human b ones f rom v arious s ites i s a pparent f rom many s tudies. I n i nland s ites, S r c oncentrations o f af ew h undred p pm i n p rehistoric human b ones a ppear t o b e n orma l. I n ac oastal s ite, a mean S r l evel o f 1 790 ppm i n b one a sh was f ound ( Kyle 1 986). This h igh l evel i s p robably l argely due t o c onsumption o f s hel lf ish. I n a nother s ite n ear t he c oast, Het V alk je, a mean c oncentration o f c . 1 000 mg S r / kg b one a sh was f ound ( Runia 1 987a, c ompare s ection V . D ). I n t his c ase, h igh S r l evels a re t he r esult o f h igh s oi l S r/Ca r a tios ( Runia 1 987a). S ea water h as a h igh S r/Ca r atio ( Rosenthal e t a l . 1 970). C onsequently, s eafood w i ll a lso h ave h igh S r/Ca r at ios, a nd marine s ediments, s uch a s a re p resent i n W est—Friesland a nd i n t he western p art o f t he N etherlands i n g eneral , w i ll a lso b e c haracterized b y h igh S r/Ca r a tios. When u sing a b ase line s pecies i t must b e c ertain t hat t he animals l ived i n t he s ame s ite o r r egion a s t he humans ( Pate & B rown 1 985, c ompare a lso Runia 1 987a). B ohman e t a l . ( 1966) f ound t hat S r l evels i n c attle b ones r eflected t he S r l evels o f an ew e nvironment a pproximately t wo y ears a fter t ransferring t he a nimals. I n a n e arl ier p aper, a nother r eason f or e xercising c aut ion i n t he s elec tion o f ab ase line s pecies was m entioned, n amely t he d i fferences t hat may o ccur i n S r/Ca r atios i n t he v arious p lants a nd p lant p arts t hat a re c onsumed by h erbivores a nd b y man ( Runia 1 987b). This a spect w i ll b e d iscussed f urther i n s ections I X.0 a nd I X .D . A s s tated a bove, a number o f r eviews o f ' the s tate o f t he a rt ' o f b one a nalyses h ave b een pub lished r ecently & Kavanagh 1 982, P rice e t a l . 1 985, G i lbert 1 985). F rom t hese p apers i t b ecomes c lear t hat t he f ield o f b one a na lysis was e stablished a nd i s s t i ll d ominated by N orth—American r esearchers. S ome o f t he f irst u sers o f t he S r t echnique were p aleontologists r ather t han a rcheologists. The n eed f or i nformation o n t he amount o f meat i n d iets was i nit ia lly e special ly f elt i n r elat ion t o t he d iscussion o n e volut ion a nd meat c onsumption, i .e. s cavenging v ersus h unting o f e arly humans ( Harding & T eleki 1 981, Mann 1 981, c ompare a lso t he i ntroduct ion i n S choeninger 1 979). Though b ones f rom v arious c ont inents were e xamined ( North America, G ilbert 1 975, 1 977 ( cited i n G ilbert 1 985), L ambert et ai . 1 979, 1 982; C entral America, S choeninger 1 979; A sia, S choeninger 1 981, 1 982, S il len 1 981), t he N orth—American,

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a nthropological r ather t han a rcheological b ackground o f r esearchers may h ave c aused a s kew t owards hunter/gatherers a nd t he t ransition f rom hunt ing/gathering t o a griculture. I n Europe, a griculture s tarted s everal m il lennia BC a nd a l arge p art o f E uropean a rcheological r esearch i s f ocussed o n a gricultural c ultures. Un like t he s ituation i n p re-contact America, i n t he O ld World numerous d omest ic a nimal a nd p lant s pecies were d eveloped a nd e xploited. I n America, t he main f ood c rop was maize, t he i mportance o f which i n t he d iet i s more e asily d etected by s table c arbon i sotope a nalysis t han by t race e lement a nalysis. H owever, o ther c ultures i n t he Americas a nd i n t ropical r egions i n g eneral may h ave t hrived o n t he c ult ivation o f r oot c rops ( cassave, manihoc, y am, Hawkes 1 969). I n s tudying s uch c ultures, t he h igh S r c ontents o f r oots s hould b e r emembered ( Russe ll & N ewbould 1 966, Runia 1 987b). A s ac onsequence o f t he d ominance o f a griculture i n Europe s ince t he N eo lithic, p aleodietary r esearch h ere i s f aced b y d ifferent p roblems t han i n Amer ica. F or i nstance, d iverging S r a nd C a r at ios i n v arious c ul tivated p lants a nd p arts t hereof may b ias t he r econstruction o f d iets ( section I X . 0 ) . O f g reater i mportance, p robably, i s t he p roduction o f m ilk b y d omestic animals a nd i ts c onsumpt ion b y humans. M i lk h as a r elatively h igh C a c oncentration a nd a l ow S r/Ca r at io; m ilk i n t he d iet w i ll h ave a marked e ffect o n t he S r/Ca r at io o f t he t otal d iet ( Runia 1 987a). This a spect o f m ilk h as b een r ecognized p reviously ( Si l ien & Kavanagh 1 982), a nd h as t o s ome e xtent b een u sed i n s tudies o n weaning a ges o f c h ildren ( Silen & Smith 1 984, Grupe 1 986b), b ut o nly o ne p reliminary r eport ( Runia 1 987a) h as y et b een published o n a na lyses o f b ones f rom p otential m ilk-consumers. Grupe ( 1986a) i n h er e xtensive s urvey o f t race e lements i n medieval s keletons f rom N orthern G ermany c oncludes t hat a l arge p ortion o f t he d iet o f t he p eople c oncerned c onsisted o f meat. However, s he d id n ot t ake m i lk a nd c heese i nto c onsideration. A s s tated a bove, d iachronic p aleodietary s tudies i n Europe i n many i nstances w i ll d eal w ith c hanges w ithin a gricultura l s ystems. F or i nstance, t he i ntroduction o f d a irying, t he e xploita tion o f d omest icated a nima ls f or t heir m ilk r ather t han t heir meat, may b e d etected by u sing t race e lement a nalyses. Another p roblem t o which b one a na lyses m ight g ive c lues i s t he c hange o f d iet which m ight r esult f rom t he r eact ion o f p re-or p rotohistoric f armers t o ac hange i n c l imate, s uch a s, f or e xample, o ccurred i n N orth-Western Europe i n t he 1 0th c entury ( Heidinga 1 984). The s tudy o f hunter/gatherer d iets, t he p roblem o f t he d i fferences i n t he S r/Ca r at ios i n a nimals a nd p lants a lso p lays a r ole. Modern hunter/gatherers make u se o f aw ide v ariety o f p lants a nd a nimals f or t heir s ubsistence ( Hayden 1 981). B esides mammals, o ther v ertebrates a nd i nvertebrates s uch a s b irds, s na ils a nd i nsects a re c onsumed. E ven c lay may b e c onsumed i n s ome c ultures ( Hayden 1 981). Our knowledge o n S r/Ca r atios i n a nimals o ther t han mammals i s l imited ( sec tion V . A ). This l eaves u s w ith a r ange o f uncertainty o n t he S r/Ca r at ios o f hunter/gatherer d iets. E ven sma ll amounts o f f oods w ith h igh C a c oncentrat ions a nd a berrant S r/Ca r at ios may s eriously a ffect S r/Ca r at ios o f t he t otal d iet (Runia 1 987a). I n g eneral, n o e xact i nformation o n t he d iets o f p rehistoric p eople a s r evealed by b one c hemistry i s a va ilable. P aleobotanists a nd z ooarcheologists, by s tudying p lant a nd a nimal r ema ins may p rovide a r ange o f f ood i tems p otent ial ly c onsumed by t he p eople who a re t he s ub ject o f b one c hemical r esearch. The r elat ive i mportance o f t he f oods i n t he d iets,

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h owever, r ema ins o bscure ( V an W i jngaarden—Bakker 1 986). Though b one a nalysis i s e xecuted t o o vercome t his i nherent s hortcoming o f t radi tiona l e coarcheological r esearch, i t a lso i mplies t hat t here i s n o i ndependent c heck o n t he r esults o f b one a nalysis i n d ietary r econstruction. I n a t l east o ne c ase, h owever, t here i s i ndependent i nformat ion o n t he d iet o f humans who were i nterred s ome 3 00-400 y ears a go: Dutch whalers, buried o n S pitsbergen i n t he 1 7th-18th c entury a nd e xcavated i n 1 980 were s tudied b y M .J. S choeninger ( in manuscript). The d iet o f t he whalers i s f airly a ccurately known f rom t he J ournals a nd ' victua l ing l ists ' ( Van W i jngaarden—Bakker 1 986) o f t he wha ling s hips. The r econstruct ion o f d iet b ased o n b one c hemistry was c ompared w ith h istorical d ata. A r easonably g ood a greement b etween t he t wo r econstructions was f ound, t hough t he c onsumption o f c heese b y t he whalers i s ac omplicating f actor ( Van W i jngaarden—Bakker 1 986). I n t his c ase, d iagenetic i nfluences o n t race e lement c oncentrat ions a re p robably m inor a s ac onsequence o f t he r elatively s hort p eriod o f burialin a c old e nvironment.

B.1.4. Z inc I n t he wake o f t he a pplicat ion o f S r a nalyses, a nthropologists h ave s earched f or o ther e lements t o b e u sed c omplementar ily. Due t o t he l arge n umber o f v ariables i n t he p ast d iet, a nalyses o f o nly o ne e lement, e .g. S r, o ften c annot g ive unequivocal r esults o n p aleodietary questions (Runia 1 987a). I n t he l ight o f t he a bove mentioned p rerequisites f or s uitable t race e lements f or p aleodietary r esearch, o nly a f ew e lements would a ppear t o b e p otentia l ly u seful . C oncentrations o f most e lements s uffer f rom d iagenetic i nfluences ( Lambert e t a l . 1 979, 1 982). One o f t he p otentia lly most p romising e lements i s z inc. The f unct ioning a nd m etabo lism o f Z n i n o rganisms a nd i ts d istribution i n b oth g eosphere a nd b iosphere h as b een t he s ub ject o f much r ecent r esearch ( Prasad 1 976). The e lement c oncentration i n b one i s c onsidered t o b e r easonably i nsensit ive t o d iagenetic i nfluences ( Lambert e t a l . 1 979, 1 982). G ilbert ( 1975, c ited i n P rice e t a l . 1 985b) was t he f irst t o u se Z n c oncentrations. I n h is s tudy, c orrelations b etween Z n c oncentrat ions a nd, i n f emales, b ody l ength a nd, i n ma les, i ncidence o f d iseases were r ecorded. More r ecently, b ivariate p lots, i n which S r a nd Z n c oncentrat ions a re p lotted, were u sed. However, t he u se o f Z n i s s omewhat p roblematical due t o t he l ack o f af irm r elat ionship b etween d ietary Z n l evels a nd b one Z n c oncentrations ( Lambert e t a l . 1 982), a nd t he l ack o f d etai led d ata o n t he e ffects o f Z n s hortage i n d iet a nd Z n s tress i n c ases o f p regnancy a nd d isease o n t he b one Z n l evels. An e xample f or t he u se o f b ivariate p lots i s t he s tudy by B eck ( 1985). This p aper may b e u sed t o i lustrate t he p otentials a nd t he d angers o f b ivar iate a nalyses. U sing human b one s amples f rom t hree N orth American s ites, B eck t ested a hypothesis o n t he way t he t ransition o f hunting/gathering t o a griculture would b e v isible i n human b one S r a nd Z n l evels. Though h is r esults a ppear t o b e p lausible e nough, t he l arge v ariat ion i n t he b one Z n c oncentrations a nd t he l ack o f ac ontrol o n b ackground l evels o f S r a nd Zn i n t he s ites i nvolved, i n t he f orm o f a nalyses o f a nimal b ones f rom t he s ame s ites, make t he i nterpretation l ess r e liable. B esides, B eck ( 1985) i s s omewhat o ptimistic when s tat ing t hat ' af irm r ela tionship b etween d ietary a nd s keleta l c oncentrat ions h as b een d emonstrated r ecently ': t he p aper by Rheingold e t a l . ( 1983) t o which h e r efers m erely s upplies a t able w ith r anges o f Z n c oncentrations i n b ones i n t hree g roups o f a nimals, w ithout

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a ny i nformation o n d iet, o rigin o r o ther d eta ils o f t he a na lysed s pecimens. This i nformation i s c ertainly n ecessary b efore d eclaring t hat t hese d ata p rovide a f irm b ase f or t he i nterpretation o f b one Z n l evels. I n t he s ame p aragraph, B eck s tresses t he r egional v ar iation i n Z n l evels.

B .1.5. Other t race e lements I n c onsequence o f t he l ack o f i nsight i n t he r elat ionship b etween l evels i n f ood a nd t he c oncentrations i n human a nd a nimal b ones, i dentical p roblems t o t hose e ncountered i n t he i nterpretation o f z inc c oncentrat ions i n b ones a rise f or t he o ther t race e lements. B esides, c oncentrations i n b one o f many e lements a ppear s usceptible t o d iagenet ic c hanges ( Lambert e t a l . 1 981). Thus, only a l imited n umber o f e lements a ppear t o a nswer t he p rerequisites f or t race e lements i n p aleodietary s tudies a s o ut lined i n s ection 1 . 8.1.1. A mul ti-element a pproach t o p aleodietary o r p aleoenvironmental p roblems i s a dvocated b y s everal a uthors ( Price e t a l . 1 985b, Grupe 1 986a). I t would s eem t o b e a dvisable t o t est f or d iagenet ic i nfluences o n t he c oncentrat ions o f t race e lements i n as ubsample o f t he c omplex o f b ones t hat i t i s i ntended t o a nalyse. S uch a t est would a lso g ive a n i nsight i nto t he c oncentrat ion r anges t hat a re p resent i t , t he b one s amples. Analysing l arge n umbers o f b ones f or a w ide r ange o f t race e lements may p rove t o b e a waste o f t ime a nd e nergy when s pecific a nswers t o s peci fic q uest ions a re b eing s ought; o n t he o ther h and, a b asic a mount o f r eference d ata o n n atural ly o ccurring r anges o f t race e lement c oncentrat ions i n human b ones s hould b e p resent t hough i t i s s t i ll l acking f or a n umber o f e lements. Therefore, s tudies s uch a s t he o ne b y Grupe ( 1986a), which l ist c oncentrations o f numerous e lements i n a c omplex o f m edievalinhumat ions ( 11th-12th c entury) may p rove u seful a s r eference mate r ial i n t he i nterpretation o f t race e lement c oncentrations i n p rehistoric human b ones. H atch & Geidel ( 1985) a lso u sed a mul ti-element a pproach. Their p aper c ontains wel l d efined r elat ionships b etween t race e lement l evels a nd v ariables i n p otentia l p aleodiets w ith v egetable f oods, meat a nd nuts. B esides S r a nd Z n, c oncentrat ions o f Mn, Cu a nd V were d etermined. C ombined t race e lement d ata s uggest s ome s tatus d i fference i n t wo N ew W orld c ultures. Vanadium l evels s uggest t hat l ow s tatus g roups s upplemented t heir d iet w ith nuts. However, d iagenetic e ffects o n Vl evels i n b one h ave n ot b een s tudied i n d eta il . B esides t his, t here may d oubt o n t he v a lidity o f a ssumptions o f h igh t race e lement l evels When v iewed i n r elat ion t o e nergy c ontents, nuts a ppear t o h ave e xcessively h igh c oncentrat ions o f t race e lements ( Runia 1 987b, V I. A )

b e s ome i n nuts. n ot s ect ion

B elow S r i n t he P er iodic Table o f t he e lements i s b arium. P ossibly, d iscrimination a gainst t his e lement i n f avour o f C a, a nd p robably a lso S r, i n d igestive t racts o f a nimals r esembles t he s ituation f or S r a nd C a, but w ith s tronger d iscr imination b ecause o f t he g reater d i fferences b etween C a a nd B a t han b etween S r a nd C a r espect ively ( table 1 .1). I f s o, t his would a lso m ake B a s uitable f or p aleodietary s tudies, p rovided t hat n o p ost-mortem a lterat ions o f b one B a l evels o ccur i n t he s oi l . Unfortunately, B a s eems t o b e r ather s usceptible t o d iagenetic i nfluences ( Lambert e t a l . 1 984); a nd t here a re n o s tudies o n B a t urnover r elative t o C a t urnover i n f ood c hains. R eports on t he a nalysis o f B a i n p rehistor ic human a nd a nimal b ones a re s carce.

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B .1.6. Trace e lements i n c remations A s i n many r ecent s ocieties, t he burning o f t he b odies o f t he d ead f ormed p art o f t he f uneral r itual i n numerous p rehistor ic c ultures. A shes o f t he d eceased may b e h andled i n v arious ways, f or i nstance s cattered o ver l and o r water. Only t hose p rehistoric c remat ions t hat were i nterred h ave a c hance o f b eing f ound i n e xcavat ions. B ecause c remation o f t he d ead was a p redominant f uneral r itual i n an umber o f p rehistoric c ultures, i n many i nstances c remated r emains r ather t han b ones a re a vailable f or physical- a nthropologica l a nd c hemo-archeological s tudies. Physical- a nthropological s tudy o f c remated human b one i s n ow r elatively well e stablished ( Herrmann 1 972, Wahl 1 982), but s o f ar n o d ata o n t race e lement l evels i n c remated b ones h ave b een published. S ome e xperimental work o n t he e ffects o f v ar ious b o i l ing a nd h ea ting t reatments o n t he macro a nd m icro s tructure o f b ones h as b een c arried o ut ( Shipman e t a l . 1 984). U pon h eating, b one w i ll b e f resh, d efleshed b one, f ats 3 60 - 5 25 ° C ( Shipman e t a l . r eacts w ith o xygen a t a bout

a ltered i n v arious w ays. The o rganic f raction i n a nd c o llagen, w i l l b urn a t t emperatures o f s ome 1 984). The o rganic f raction o f p rehistoric b ones 3 00-400 ° C (DT A t ests by B . d e L eeuw,

p ers.comm.). Heat ing t o s uch t emperatures r esults i n c harred b one, which i s c omposed e ssent ia l ly o f o nly s l ight ly a ltered h ydroxyapatite c rystals. A t h igher t emperatures, t he c rystal s tructure o f t he b ones i s a ltered. The m icroscopic c rystals o f hydroxyapat ite p resent i n f resh b one r ecrysta l lize t o l arger c rystals o f hydroxyapatite which p roduce s harp p eaks i n X-ray d i ffract ion p atterns ( Shipman e t a l . 1 984). C onsidering t he f act t hat i n many i nstances c remations a re t he o nly human r emains a vailable f or s tudy, t he p otent ials o f t his k ind o f material f or t race e lement a nalysis s hould b e f urther i nvest igated.

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B .2. S table i sotopes o f c arbon and n itrogen B .2.1. I ntroduct ion The o rganic f ract ion o f b one, c ollagen, a ppears t o b e r elatively unsuscept ible t o t he d iagenetic i nfluences o f t he s o il . M icrobiological p rocesses may h ave c aused t he s plitt ing u p o f l ong c hains o f aminoacids i nto s mal ler units, but i n m any i nstances a l arge f ract ion o f t he c o llagen aminoacids w ill s t i ll b e p resent. The c arbon a nd n itrogen i sotopic c omposition o f t he c ol lagen a ppears t o b e r elatively s table i n t he s o il a nd c an t herefore b e s tudied i n p rehistoric b ones.

B .2.2. Theoretical background I ntroduction I sotopes o f a n e lement h ave i dentical a tomic numbers a nd e lectron c onfigurat ion, but d i fferent a tomic weights due t o d ifferent numbers o f n eutrons i n t he nuclei . Most e lements p ossess s table i sotopes. I n many o f t he e lements, o ne o f t he i sotopes i s by f ar t he most a bundant. Though c hemically e qual, i sotopes w i ll r eact a t sl ightly d i fferent r ates i n c onsequence o f t he d i fferences i n mass. This e ffect i s most p ronounced i n e lements w ith a l ow a tomic number, b ecause t heir mass d i fferences a re c omparatively l arge. The i sotopes o f i nterest i n p aleodietary s tudies a re t he s table i sotopes o f c arbon a nd n itrogen. B one c o llagen c onsists o f l ong c hains o f amino a cids a nd i s r ich i n Ca nd N . The amino a cids n eeded f or t he s ynthesis o f c o llagen i n t he human b ody a re ma inly d erived f rom p roteins i n t he d iet, b ecause a number o f amino a cids c an n ot b e s ynthesised b y humans (Den Hartog e t a l . 1 978, W ing & B rown 1 979). I n c onsequence, t he i sotopic c omposi tion o f b one c ol lagen d epends o n t he i sotope r atios i n t he d ietary p roteins. B one c ol lagen C a nd N r at ios t herefore c ontain i nformation i n t he r elat ive i mportance o f v arious p rotein s ources i n human d iets ( Chisholm e t a l . 1 983a, H obson & S chwarcz 1 986, J ohansen e t a l . 1 986). I n c ompar ison t o C , Nh as s eldom b een u sed i n p aleodietary s tudies ( Price e t a l . 1 985b). N itrogen i sotopic r at ios a re n ot r out inely measured i n 1 4C d at ing l aboratories a s a re d elta 1 3C v alues ( Tauber 1 981, Burleigh e t a l . 1 984). R eference d ata o n Ca nd N i sotopic r atios i n v arious o rganic materials i ncluding b one c ollagen h ave b een a ssembled by v arious a uthors ( Schoeninger & D eNiro 1 984, S choeninger 1 985, D eNiro 1 985, D eNiro & Hastorf 1 985, Ambrose & D eNiro 1 986). The i nterpretat ion o f Ca nd N r at ios i n b ones i s more s traightforward t han t he i nterpretation o f b one t race e lement l evels. R egional d i fferences a re a bsent, a nd t hus t here i s n o n eed t o a na lyse b ones f rom a ' base line ' s pecies a s i s d one i n t race e lement r esearch ( Tauber 1 981, 1 986). V ariations i n t he i sotopic c omposi tion i n a nimal p opulations a ppear t o b e sma ll ( Hobson & S chwarcz 1 986). Terminology The ' heavy 'i sotopes 1 3C a nd 1 5N a re p resent i n quanti ties t hat a re v ery sma ll when c ompared t o t he amounts o f t he l ighter i sotopes 1 2C a nd 1 4N. I t

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i s t herefore c ustomary t o e xpress t he amounts o f 1 3C and 1 5N i n t he f orm o f ' delta ' v alues r elat ive t o as tandard: d elta 1 3C = ((13C/12C s ample)/(13C/12C s tandard) — 1) *1000 p er m i l a nd d elta 1 5N = ((15N/14N s ample)/(15N/14N s tandard) — 1) *1000 p er m i l The s tandard f or C i s P ee D ee B elemnite, which i s r elat ively r ich i n t he h eavy i sotope 1 3C a nd which i mplies t hat a lmost al d elta 1 3C v alues o f l iving t issues a re n egative ( Van d er Merwe 1 982). More 1 3C r esults i n l ess n egat ive d elta 1 3C v alues. The s tandard f or d elta 1 5N i s a tmospher ic N . D elta 1 5N v alues o f o rganic materials a re u sua l ly p osit ive, b ecause t hey c ontain more o f t he h eavy i sotope t han a ir. H igher amounts o f 1 5N r esults i n h igher d elta 1 5N v alues. Trophic l evel e ffects I n f ood c hains, t here i s ag eneral t rophic l evel e ffect o n C and N i sotope r atios. The s l ightly d ifferent r eaction r ates o f t he i sotopes r esult i n a g radual c hange i n i sotopic c omposition. The d i fferences b etween h erbivores a nd c arnivores a ppear t o b e r ather s mal l . S choeninger ( 1985) f ound d ifferences o f l ess t han 2 p er m il . i n mean d elta 1 3C a nd d elta 1 5N v alues o f t he t wo a nd t here was a lso a n a lmost c omplete o verlap i n t he r anges o f d elta 1 3C v alues. F or d elta 1 5N v alues, t he o verlap was s l ightly l ess, but s ti ll t oo l arge t o b e a ble t o d ist inguish b etween t rophic l evels. A s imi lar e ffect was a lso f ound b y S choeninger & D eNiro ( 1984). W ithin sma ller a reas, d i fferences b etween t rophic l evels m ay, h owever, b e s omewhat l ess o bscure. A t l ower t rophic l evels, t he i sotope f ractionat ion e ffects a ppear t o b e more p ronounced. D ifferences b etween d elta 1 3C a nd d elta 1 5N i n p lants a nd i n c ol lagen f rom h erbivores a re a bout 5 p er m il ( Van d er Merwe 1 982, S choeninger & D eNiro 1 984).

I sotopic r atios i n p lant groups Measurement o f c arbon a nd n itrogen i sotopic r a tios a llows t hree g roups o f t errestrial p lants t o b e d ist inguished ( Bender 1 968, D eNiro & Hastorf 1 985, f igure 1 .1). L egumes d i ffer f rom o ther C 4 p lants i n d elta 1 5N v alues whereas C 3 a nd C 4 p lants c an b e d ist inguished by means o f t heir d elta 1 3C v alues. The d ifference b etween p lants which u t i lize a tmospher ic N f ixed b y m icroorganisms, s uch a s Leguminosae a nd p addy r ice, a nd p lants which u t il ize N f rom d ecomposing o rganic matter c an b e s een a s ar esult o f t rophic l evel e ffects. D elta 1 5N v alues i n l egumes a re c loser t o z ero ( = d elta 1 5N o f a tmospheric N ) t han t hose i n o ther p lants which u t i lize N f rom s oi l o rganic matter. S oi l o rganic matter h as d elta 1 5N v alues o f a bout + 3 t o + 7 p er m i l ( Letol le 1 980). The d ifference b etween C 3 a nd C 4 p lants i s ac onsequence o f d i fferent photosynthet ic p athways ( Bender 1 968, Van d er Merwe 1 982). C 3 p lants b ind c arbon d ioxide t o f orm a phosphoglycerate which h as t hree C a toms while C 4 p lants c onvert c arbon d ioxide t o ad icarboxylic a cid w ith f our C a toms ( Van d er Merwe 1 982). The g roup o f C 3 p lants e ncompasses a lmost a ll p lants f rom t emperate r egions i ncluding ma jor f ood p lants s uch a s wheat ( Triticum s pp.) a nd p otatoes ( Solanum t uberosum). P lants o f t he C 4 g roup o ccur i n t ropica l a nd s ubtropical r egions a nd i nclude t he i mportant f ood p lants Z ea mays, m illet ( Panicum s pp.) a nd s ugar c ane ( Saccharum s pp.).

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The i sotopic r atios i n b one c o llagen o f mammals r eflect t he i sotopic r atios i n t heir f oods. Animals a nd man c onsuming p redominantly e ither C 3 o r C 4 p lants c an t herefore b e d is tinguished ( Van d er Merwe 1 982, Ambrose & D eN iro 1 986).

+ 15 -

6 15N

C 4

C 3

+ 10

P LANTS

P LANTS

+ 5-

L EGUMI

0 -

-

N OSAE

-5

1 0

-

30

f igure 1 .1 G roups o f p lants a s c haracterized b y v alues o f d elta ( adapted f rom D eNiro & H astorf

6 1 3C

5

1 3C a nd d elta 1 5N

1 985).

Marine and t errestrial o rganisms There i s ac lear d istinction b etween mean C a nd N i sotopic r at ios i n marine a nd t errestrial a nimals ( Tauber 1 981, 1 983, Chisholm e t a l .1983a, b , S choeninger e t a l . 1 983, S choeninger & D eNiro 1 984). The r elat ive i mportance o f marine a nd t errestrial p rotein s ources c an t herefore b e e stimated o n t he b asis o f i sotope r at ios i n human b one c o llagen ( Tauber 1 981, Chisholm e t a l 1 983a, b , S ealy & V an d er Merwe 1 985, D eNiro 1 985, J ohansen e t a l . 1 986). D elta 1 3C v alues f or m arine mammals a nd f ish b one c o llagen o f a bout — 12 t o — 14 p er m il h ave b een f ound, a s c ompared t o — 19 t o — 23 p er m il f or t errestrial mammals ( Tauber 1 983, S choeninger & D eNiro 1 984, Hobson & S chwarcz 1 986). F lesh a ppears t o h ave d elta 1 3C v alues t hat a re a bout 4 p er m i l more n egat ive: Chisholm e t a l . ( 1983a) l ist mean v alues o f a bout — 18 p er m il f or marine f lesh a nd — 26 p er m il f or t errestria l f lesh. The d ifference b etween mean d elta 1 5N v alue i n marine a nd t errestrial a nimals a ppears t o b e s omewhat g reater. S choeninger & D eNiro f ound mean v alues o f + 5.3 p er m i l f or t errestrial a nimals a nd + 14.8 p er m il f or marine a nimals.

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B .2.3. S table i sotope analysis i n a rcheological s tudies I sotopic s tudies c an b e u sed a s t ools i n t wo ma jor f ields o f p aleodietary r esearch. Most o f t he s tudies o f s table i sotope r at ios i n p rehistoric b ones h ave b een c arried o ut i n t ropical a nd s ubtropical r egions o r were d ea ling w ith C 4 p lant s pecies i n t emperate r egions. The p oint o f i nterest i n t hese a reas i s t he r elat ionship b etween C 3 p lants a nd C 4 p lants i n p rehistoric d iets ( Van d er Merwe 1 982). The c lassical e xample o f t his o b ject o f s tudy i s t he s pread o f Z ea mays c ult ivation o n t he N orth Amer ican c ont inent ( Van d er Merwe & V ogel 1 978). M any o f t he p roblems a nd p otent ials e ncountered i n t hese s tudies a re o f l i ttle r elevance t o s tudies o f p rehistoric c ultures i n t emperate r egions. The o ther p aleodietary r esearch f ield i n which i sotopic s tudies may b e u seful , i .e. t he d ist inction o f marine a nd t errestrial c omponents i n d iets i s o f m ore i nterest f or N orth-Western Europe. The p otent ials o f Ci sotope a nalysis i n t his f ield a re d emonstrated b y T auber ( 1981, 1 983) who c ollected a b ody o f d elta 1 3C v alues f rom D anish p rehistoric human b ones. A d istinct d ifference i n d iets o f Meso lithic a nd N eo lithic p eoples may b e i nferred f rom t heir d el ta 1 3C v alues, which r anged f rom 11 t o 16 p er m i l a nd 18 t o 25 p er m il , r espectively. O ther s tudies i n t emperate r egions w ere c arried o ut i n N orth America a nd i nvolved c oast dwel ling, s almon e at ing p eople ( Chisholm e t a l . 1 983b). J ohansen e t a l . ( 1986) f ound c lear d i fferences i n Ci sotopic r atios i n p rehistoric a nd h istoric s keletons f rom a number o f i nland a nd c oastal s ites i n N orway. These a uthors s uggest a r anking f or human d iets w ith v arious amounts o f marine a nd t errestrial p roteins i n r elation t o d elta 1 3C v alues i n human b one c o llagen.

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I I T HE G EOGRAPHICAL A ND A RCHEOLOGICAL C ONTEXT

A . IN T RO DUC TIO N The main o bject ive o f t he p resent s tudy i s t he c hemical a nalysis o f human a nd a nimal b ones f rom L ate N eo lithic a nd B ronze Age West-Friesland. F or t he i nterpretation o f t he a nalyt ical r esults, i t i s n ecessary t o understand t he a rcheological a nd e cological c ontext f rom which t he b one s amples were t aken. An o verview o f t he a rcheology a nd p aleogeography o f e astern W est-Friesland, t he a rea f rom which b ones h ave b een a nalysed, i s g iven i n t he p resent c hapter, f ollowed b y as ummary o f t he numbers a nd o rigins o f t he human a nd anima l b one s amples.

B.

TH E LA N DS C APE

The l andscape o f e astern West-Friesland i n t he L ate N eo lithic a nd B ronze A ge i s r elatively c omprehensibly d escribed i n a number o f s tudies. The g eology o f t he a rea w as d escribed b y D e Mulder & B osch ( 1982) a nd b y H allewas ( 1981), who a dded a rcheological a spects. The v egetationa l h istory

alA nd i jk O ostwoud aVa lk je •Z waagdük a lG rootebroek

H oogkarspf ln

z

0

f igure I 1.1

5 km

L ocation o f e as,ern W est—Friesland a nd s ome i mportant s ites m entioned i n t he t ext.

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h as b een s tudied i n p eat s ect ions f rom t he K lokkeweel b og n ear Hoogkarspel ( Pals e t a l . 1 980) a nd f rom under t he s eadike n ear Enkhuizen ( Van G eel e t a l . 1 983). The L ate N eo lithic a nd B ronze Age o ccupat ion t races a re p resent o n C alais I Va2-IVb d eposits. The a rea f ormed t he e astern e nd o f at idal c reek s ystem t hat o pened t o t he N orth S ea b etween B ergen a nd A lkmaar ( figure 1 1.1, 1.2 ) . B etween c . 4 300 a nd 3 800 BP p eat was f ormed i n al arge p art o f e astern W est-Friesland. C lastic marine s ediments were d eposited i n t he O ostwoud-Hauwert r egion. I n t he f o l lowing p eriod ( 3800-3500 BP), al o f e astern West-Friesland c ame under marine i nfluence t hrough a n ew b ranch o f t he t ida l c reek s ystem, which r an f rom Hoogwoud v ia Wognum a nd B lokker t o Hem, b ending n orth i n t he d irect ion o f B ovenkarspel a nd Andi jk. The s andy t o s andy-loamy c reek r idges a nd c layey b asins f ormed i n t his p eriod w ere t he ma jor g eographic f eatures during t he s ubsequent L ate N eo lithic a nd B ronze Age p eriod o f o ccupat ion. The a rea c hanged i nto a f resh water e nvironment a fter t he s ea h ad l ost i ts i nfluence. I n t he a rea a round W estwoud-Zwaagdi jk, mar ine s edimentat ion c ontinued unti l c . 3 000 BP. During t he o ccupat ion p eriod c . 3 300-2600 BP, t he water t able i n t he a rea g radual ly r ose. A s ac onsequence, marshes e xtended. A round 2 600 BP, t he water t able h ad r isen s o much t hat t he a rea b ecame unsuitable f or a griculture. The n orthern p art o f t he a rea was c overed b y al ayer o f s o-ca lled k iek c lay. A ccording t o Van Z eist ( in Modderman 1 964), t he a rea was c overed b y n atural g rassland during t he L ate N eo lithic a nd B ronze Age o ccupat ion p eriod. This i s s ubstantiated by B akker e t a l . ( 1977) a nd Van G eel e t a l . ( 1983). T rees were v irtua lly a bsent. Only o n t he l owlying c lay s o ils may s ome w il low a nd b irch h ave b een p resent ( Van G eel e t a l . 1 983). M ice a nd v ole s pecies p resent i n t he s ite Het Va lk je a re a lso i ndicat ive o f a n a lmost t reeless l andscape w ith g rassland, p asture a nd a rable f ields (Hzereef 1 981).

C . THE S ITES C .1.1. Archeological background o f e astern West-Friesland I n t he l ast t wenty y ears, t he e astern p art o f West-Friesland h as b een e xtensively s tudied b y a rcheologists. The l arge s cale r ea llotment p ro jects p lanned i n t hese y ears t hreatened e ventual ly t o d estroy much o f t he a rcheological r ecord unless i nventarization a nd r escue e xcavat ions c ould b e c arried o ut. Much o f t he f ield work a nd a erial s urvey t hat was d one s ti ll h as t o b e published i n i ts d efinite f orm, t hough many p re liminary r eports a nd, o f c ourse t he r aw d ata, a re a vai lable. The f irst e xcavat ions i n West-Friesland were c arried o ut by V an G iffen i n 1 929, 1 942 a nd 1 949. I n 1 929, N eo lithic s ettlement t races were f ound a t Z andwerven ( Van G iffen 1 930, Butter 1 935). B arrows n ear Zwaagdi jk ( Van G i ffen 1 944), Grootebroek ( Van G iffen 1 953) a nd Hoogkarspel (B akker 1 959, 1 966) were mapped a nd s ome o f t hese were e xcavated. P rior t o t hese e xcavat ions, West-Friesland was a rcheologica l ly a lmost ' t erra i ncognita ' ( Woltering 1 985).

2 4

3 800-3500 B . P N 0 111 110

L egend

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End o f c lost ic d epos it ion a nd/or s tart o f p eat g row th o n t op o f t he l ower me mber A peat g row th o r n on d epos it ion i n A rea ß C ont inuous mar ine s ed i mentat ion t hroughout t he p er iod Beach b arr iers/sand r idges

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O r s ta t t ma in t ime-interva l

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o f ma in

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—

—

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Boundary a ssu med Max i mum

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o f t he l ower me mber A

f or t op o f L ower P eat

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C1 4 dat ing

•

CM-dat ing

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•

G IL

f or t op o f Ho l land

-d ol ing

f or base

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o f H ol land Peat o n t op o f

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P aleogeographical r up o f t he n orthern p art o f N orth—Holland f or t he p eriod 3 800-3500 B P ( from D e M ulder & B osch 1 982).

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V arious f actors c aused a r apid i ncrease i n i nterest i n a nd knowledge o f t he p rehistory o f West-Friesland a fter 1 950 ( Wolter ing 1 985). The mapping o f p art o f t he a rea by Ente ( 1963) r esulted i n as o i l map o n which numerous p atches o f ' kadet jesland ', t hat i s, l and w ith c onspicious m icrore lief c aused b y p rehistoric o ccupat ion, were i ndicated. P arts o f t hese s ettlement s ites n ear Hoogkarspel were i nvest igated by t he I PP i n a number o f e xcavations b etween 1 965 a nd 1 969 ( Bakker & B randt 1 966, B akker & Metz 1 967, B akker e t a l . 1 968, B akker e t a l . 1 977). I n a ddition t o Ente 's map, o ther s oil maps o f t he a rea were made i n c onnect ion w ith t he l and r ea llotment p ro jects t hat were t o b e c arried o ut i n t he a rea i n t he y ears a fter 1 970. The r eal lotment s chemes were a t hreat t o p ractical ly al t races o f p rehistoric a ctivity i n W est-Friesland. C oncern i n t he a rcheological c ommunity a bout t his s ituat ion l ed t o l arge s cale p ro jects i n t he a rea. O ccupation t races were mapped by s ystematic f ield wa lking b y t he ROB a nd a ir r econnaissance by t he I PP ( Wolter ing 1 985). Numerous e xcavations were c arried o ut. The p icture emerging f rom t hese a ctivit ies i s t hat o f a n a rea r ather d ensely p opulated i n t he E arly/Middle B ronze Age, a lmost uninhabited during t he s ubsequent I ron Age a nd E arly M iddle Ages, a nd r eclaimed a gain a fter t he 1 0th c entury. I t i s o bvious t hat i n a n a rea s uch a s West-Friesland, c omposed o f marine s ediments a nd w ith t he p ermanent i nfluence o f ar e- a nd t ransgressing s ea n earby, t he s ettlement h istory a nd t he s pat ial c haracterist ics o f human a ctivities c annot b e s eparated f rom e nvironmenta l , e specia lly g eological , v ar iables. I n t he f ol lowing s ection, s ome i mportant c haracter istics o f B ronze A ge o ccupation o f e astern West-Friesland a re d escr ibed.

C .1.2. The s ettlement t races: houses and d itches B ronze Age f arm h ouses a re known f rom a number o f s ites i n t he a rea. H ouses were t hree-aisled, s ome 6 m w ide a nd c . 1 5-30 m l ong ( Bakker e t a l . 1 977, I Jzereef 1 981). The l ength o f t he h ouses s uggests t hat c attle a nd p robably o ther a nimals c ould b e k ept i ndoors dur ing p art o f t he y ear. Most h ouses were s urrounded b y d itches. I n t he l ater o ccupa tion phase, h ouses were p robably bu ilt o n s mal l a rtificial dwe l ling mounds ( terps) s urrounded b y d itches. I nterruptions o f t he d itches s how t hat t he e ntrances o f t he h ouses were o n t he s hort s ides. P lans o f o ther buildings, s uch a s g ranaries, h ave n ot b een r ecognized. Ac onspicuous f eature o f t he B ronze Age s ites i n West-Friesland a re t he c ircular a nd f igure-of-eight d itches, w ith d iameters o f c . 4m ( Modderman 1 964, B akker & Metz 1 967, Buurman 1 979) which a re t hought t o h ave p ossessed a f unction i n t he a gr icultural s ystem. P robably, t he g rain o r h ay h arvest was t emporar ily s tored i n r icks w ithin t hese c ircles ( Bakker & Metz 1 967, B akker e t a l . 1 977, Buurman 1 979). F or l onger p eriods, t he a gricultural p roducts may h ave b een s tored i n t he f arm h ouses t hemselves. '

C .1.3. The graves The L ate N eol ithic a nd B ronze Age s ettlements o f West-Friesland y ielded a number o f bur ial monuments, g raves a nd i solated human b ones. Only a s ma l l p roportion o f t he known b airows h ave b een e xcavated. A d iscussion o f t he g rave r itual i n t he a rea i s i n p reparat ion ( R. W. B randt, I PP, c ompare

2 6

B randt 1 980). An i nventory o f known b arrows, b ased o n a erial photography a nd f ieldwork i s i n p reparat ion ( W.H. d e Vries-Metz, I PP). A s ynopsis o f t he g rave r itual, b ased o n published d ata a nd o n s ome n ew f indings, i s p resented h ere. The b arrows p resent i n t he a rea were r aised i n t he b eginning o f t he B ronze A ge o ccupat ion o f t he a rea. Radiocarbon d ates o f t he t umuli f a ll w ithin a t imespan o f c . 1 00 C 14 y ears ( 3050-2950 BP, L anting & Mook 1 977). Only t he d ated s keletons f rom t umulus I I i n O ostwoud a re e ar lier: c . 3 500-3900 BP ( section I I. C . 2.3. ) . V arious p eriphera l s tructures o ccur a round t he West-Frisian b arrows ( table 1 1.1). The p ost c ircles t hat a re c ommon o n t he P leistocene s ands i n o ther p arts o f t he N etherlands i n t his p eriod a re v irtua lly a bsent i n e astern W est-Friesland, p ossibly a s ac onsequence o f t he s carcity o f t imber. The c losely s paced p osts o f t umulus X III n ear Zwaagdi jk were r emoved s hortly a fter t hey h ad b een p laced ( Van d er Waals 1 961). M ost o f t he b arrows a re s urrounded by a d itch which may o r may n ot b e c ircular. S ome d itches a re i nterrupted. I n a number o f c ases, t he r ing d itches a re c onnected t o l arger s ystems o f d itches ( Bakker e t a l . 1 977).

T able 1 1.1. E xamples o f p eripheral s tructures a s p resent i n p ublished r eports o n b arrow e xcavations. B ased o n s ection C .2. s tructure r itual ( ?) a rd r ing o f p its

s cratches

b arrow w ith s tructure

r eference

O ostwoud I I

V an G iffen 1 963

O o st wo u d I

V an G iffen 1 963

d ouble

r ing o f p osts

Z waagdijk X III-1,2

V an d er W aals

s ingle

r ing o f p osts

Z waagdijk I V

V an G iffen 1 944

Z waagdijk I V Z waagdijk X III-3,4 H oogkarspel I I G rootebroek 1 11-3 G rootebroek I I G rootebroek I -1,2,3 H oogkarspel I a-1,2

i bid. V an d er W aals 1 961 B akker & B randt 1 966 V an G iffen 1 953 i bid.

c ircular i nterrupted d itch

G rootebroek 1 11-1,2 H oogkarspel I a-3

V an G iffen 1 953 B akker e t a l. 1 977

n oncircular d itch

Z waagdijk 1 -2 Z waagdijk 1 11-2 H oogkarspel I II

V an G iffen 1 944

H oogkarspel I

B akker e t a l. B akker 1 959

c ircular d itch

d itch p art o f f ield b oundary

i bid. B akker e t a l.

1 961

1 977

i bid. B akker & B randt

1 966

1 977 '

G rave g ifts f rom t he B ronze Age a re s carce i n West-Friesland. The r ichest f ind, a b ronze sword w ith a d ecora tion o f g old w ire f rom a b arrow i s o nly known t hrough o ral t radit ion ( Van G i ffen 1 944). A s ynopsis o f g rave g ifts k nown f rom West-Friesland i s g iven i n t able 1 1.2. A number o f t hese g rave g i fts o nly c ame t o l ight when t he s torage c ases c ontaining t he s keletal

2 7

material were o pened i n t he c ourse o f t his s tudy. B esides b ronze o b jects, t he g rave g i fts c onsist mainly o f t he b ones o f s ma ll w ild c arnivores.

T able 1 1.2. S ynopsis o f g rave g ifts i n W est-Frisian L ate N eolithic a nd B ronze A ge g raves. C at. n os. r efer t o t he c atalogue ( Appendix 1 ) s ite

n o.

c at.

s ex

Z waagdijk Z waagdijk

3

4 3

m ale

G rootebroek O ostwoud

1 -2 2 36

1 3 3 3

f e r n? m ale

O ostwoud

5 33

3 8

m ale

I a 2 28

5 1

m ale?

H oogkarspel

g rave g ift

r eference

b ronze s word w ith V an G iffen 1 944 g old w ire d ecoration b ronze r apier B utler 1 964 a mber b eads R unia 1 986 w orked f lint, s andstone 1 1.C.2.1 w orked ( ?) a nimal b one b ronze s piral r ing s kull & l ong b ones o f m arten ( Martes s p.) p robably: s mall b ones o f f ox ( Vulpes v ulpes) t ibia o f y oung w ild c at ( Fells s ilvestris)

V an G iffen 1 953 I I.C.2.3 I I.C.2.3 I I.C.2.7

The o rientation o f t he s keletons may b e au seful p arameter i n t he r econstruction o f t he g rave r itua l . As ynopsis o f t he p osi tions a nd o rientat ions o f t he i nhumat ions i n b arrows a nd f lat g raves ( n=26) i s g iven i n t able 1 1.3. The c rouched i nhumations a re, w ith o ne e xcept ion ( 16: G rootebroek, c rouched o n l eft-side l ooking SW) p resent i n Oostwoud b arrow I a nd a re o f L ate N eo lithic d ate. The s trict c orrespondence b etween s ex and t he s ide o n which t he d ead was i nterred a grees w ith o ther s ites f rom t he s ame p eriod ( Molenaarsgraaf: L ouwe Kooymans 1 974). I n t he g roup o f c rouched i nhumations, t he o rientat ion a ppears t o b e more v ariable i n f emales t han i n males. I nterestingly, t he o pposite i s t he c ase f or t he extended i ndividuals who d ate t o t he B ronze Age. Here, a l l f emales a re i nterred i n an E -W d irection, whereas i n t he male g roup v arious o rientations o ccur.

2 8

T able 1 1.3. T he p osition a nd o rientation o f t he i nhumations f rom W est-Friesland. T he o rientation g iven i s f or t he e xtended i nhumations: h ead-feet, f or t he c rouched i ndividuals t he d irection o f

' sight'.

B ased o n d ata i n A ppendix 1 .

p osition

o rientation

e xtended o n i ts b ack

--- n umber o f i ndividuals -m ales f emales s ex u nkown

S -N

c rouched o n r ight s ide

c rouched o n l eft s ide

1

3

2

N NE-SSW E -W E SE-WNW W -E

2 1

5

f acing S W f acing W

1 2

f acing

1

N 5

f acing S

t otal

1

1 1

1

9

6

The way i n which t he L ater B ronze Age i nhabitants o f West- F riesland t reated t heir d ead i s n ot known. Most l ikely, n ot a ll t he r emains were i nterred. This f o l lows f rom t he a bsence o f a ny c emetary o r u rnfield f rom t his p eriod. T aking t he s o il c onservat ion c ondit ions i n t he a rea a nd t he n umber a nd e xtent o f t he e xcavations i nto c onsideration, i t i s un likely t hat s uch a f eature would h ave r emained unnot iced i fi t h ad e xisted. The L ater B ronze Age i n West-Friesland i s c ontemporary w ith t he u rnfields i n t he n orthern a nd e astern p art o f t he N etherlands ( Lanting & Mook 1 977). C remation may h ave b een p racticed i n t he a rea i n t his p eriod, but n o u rnfield i s known. The a bsence o f u rnfields may b e ac onsequence o f t he s carcity o f l and a nd i ntensive l and u se dur ing t he o ccupation p eriod ( Wolter ing 1 985). However, a much s tronger a rgument a gainst c remation a s t he method o f t reating t he d ead i s t he s carcity o f f uel i n t his t reeless l andscape. A c onsiderable amount o f f uel i s n ecessary f or t he c remat ion o f a human b ody a nd dung o r p eat w i l l p robably n ot g enerate t he r equired t emperatures. I n c ases where t he c orpses were burned i n t he g rave p it ( for e xample, i n Hoogkarspel b arrow I I, s ect ion I I .0 . 2.7) wood was u sed a s f uel . Cremated human b ones f rom Grootebroek a nd Hoogkarspel s t i ll c ontained c onsiderable amounts o f o rganic matter ( chapter V III). I n a number o f b arrows, h owever, p rimary a nd s econdary g raves c onsisted o f c remat ions. S o c remations were c arried o ut i n t he a rea, but t hey d ate f rom t he e ar liest phase o f o ccupation. F inds o f c harcoal i ndicate t hat wood was u sed i n burning t he b odies. S econdary i nterments i n t he b arrows a re i nhumations, which s uggests t hat c remation h ad d ec lined i n i mportance. L anting & Mook ( 1977) p oint t o t he p ossibi lity o f f lat g raves a s g rave f orm i n t his p eriod. However, o nly o ne s uch g rave f rom t his p eriod i s known. This g rave i n Het Valk je, which c ontained t wo i ndividuals, may b e s omewhat a noma lous: t wo g irls a ged 1 4-20 were i nterred i n ad itch r ather t han a g rave p it ( section I.C.2.6). Burial o f t he d ead i n o r c lose t o t he h ouses, o f which t his d ouble g rave may b e a n e xample, may h ave b een p racticed i n t his p eriod ( Woltering 1 985). I f, h owever, t his method o f burying was p redominant i n

2 9

t he l ater p eriod, a l arger number o f g raves c ould b e e xpected t han t he s ingle e xample known. On t he o ther h and, i t m ight e xplain t he o ccurrence o f t he i solated b ones i n t he s ettlement f eatures. The e xcavat ions h ave p roduced a number o f i solated human b ones, f ound i n v arious k inds o f d itches a nd p its. These r epresent o nly a f raction o f t he t otal number o f human b ones t hat must h ave b een ' produced ' during t he p eriod o f o ccupation. The t aphonomy o f t he i solated human b ones i s n ot c lear. The a bsence o f t races o f gnawing s uggests t hat t he b ones were n ot p resent o n t he s o il s urface f or a ny l ength o f t ime. Cutting marks a re a lso a bsent, s o d efleshing o f b odies a nd c anniba lism a ppears unlikely. Only s ome o f t he b arrows o riginally p resent i n t he a rea were i nvestigated. Many h ave d isappeared a nd c an o nly b e r ecognized o n a erial photographs. I t i s l ikely t hat a number o f s econdary i nterments i n t he upper p arts o f b arrows w i ll h ave d isappeared t ogether w ith g reater o r l esser s egments o f t he b arrows t hemselves. This i s a lso s uggested b y i nformation f rom i nhabitants o f t he a rea, c ommunicated by v arious a uthors ( for i nstance, V an d er Waals 1 961). I t i s unl ikely t hat t he d isappearance o f b arrows i s a ma jor c ause f or t he l ack o f burials f rom t he l ate p er iod o f o ccupation. The i nclusion o f t wo b arrows ( r ) f t he e arly p eriod i n at erp o f t he l ate p er iod, a s i n Hoogkarspel (B akker & B randt 1 966) s uggests t hat i n t he l ate p eriod a t l east s ome o f t he b arrows h ad l ost t heir o rigina l r itual f unct ion. I n Het V alk je, a b arrow d ated 3 275 + 3 5 BP ( GrN-7472) was l evel led b efore t he building o f a h ouse which was d ated t o 3 035 + 3 0 BP ( GrN-8560). O ther a rcheological ly untraceable methods o f d isposing o f t he d ead may h ave b een p racticed. T o m ent ion s ome, t he p lacing o f t he d ead o n r afts which were a llowed t o f loat t o t he s ea, o r t he t ransportation o f t he d ead t o t he dune a rea where a bundant wood was p resent f or c remat ion.

C .1.4. Subsistence Abundant materialis p resent f or t he a ssesment o f human s ubsistence i n W est-Friesland i n t he B ronze Age. L argely due t o t he h igh water t able a nd t he c layey, c alcareous s oi ls, o rganic material a nd s o il t races a re we ll p reserved. The e arl iest c lues t o t he a grarian a ctivities o f t he B ronze Age p eople w ere f ound i n t he b arrow e xcavations i n 1 942. B elow t he b arrow, Van G i ffen f ound a rd f urrows, a nd i n f act a c onsiderable p art o f h is 1 944 p aper o n t he Zwaagdi jk b arrows i s d edicated t o a rds a nd a rd t races. C omparable t races, which a re c learly v isible due t o t he c ontrast b etween t he d ark s o il o f t he a rable l ayer a nd t he l ight s ubsoi l, t urn up i n a lmost e very e xcavat ion i n t he a rea. As econd i ndicat ion f or t he i mportance o f a gr iculture a re t he numerous f l int s ickles f rom West-Friesland which a re a lso e xtensively d iscussed b y V an G i ffen ( 1944). The t ypical ' s ickle g loss ' o f t hese f l ints i s e xplained b y t he p o lishing e ffect o f c ereal s traw o n t he c utt ing e dges o f t he h arvest ing t ools. However, o ther n on-agricultural a ct ivities, s uch a s t he c utting o f r eeds f or t hatched r oofs, may r esult i n s imilar m icrowear t races. P aleobotanical a nd z ooarcheologica l s tudies w ere c arried o ut i n v arious s ites i n West-Friesland. B oth c rop g rowing a nd a nimal husbandry were p racticed b y t he B ronze Age i nhabitants. W i ld a nimals a nd f ish were o f m inor i mportance a s f ood r esources (l lzereef 1 981) a s was, p robably, t he g athering o f p roducts o f t he w ild t hough t his i s l ess e asy t o p rove. F orests

3 0

w ere a bsent i n t he a rea ( Van G eel e t a l . 1 983) a nd t he c reek r idges were f airly d ensely o ccupied w ith f arm h ouses a nd f ields, t hus l eaving t he l owlying wet a reas a s t he o nly p ossible e nvironment f or uncultivated p lants. Roots a nd o ther p arts o f p lants g rowing i n t his p art o f t he e cosystem m ay b e r ich s ources o f e nergy ( Lievense, p ers.comm.). The d egree o f e xploitation o f t he l owlying a reas i s n ot known. The g eology o f t he a rea c aused a s pa tial s eparation o f t he t wo ma in a gricultural a ctivities. The c reek r idges w ere s uitable f or c ereal c ult ivation. The d itch s ystems p resent i n t he a rea a re c onf ined t o t he r idges a nd p robably r epresent t he b oundaries o f a rable f ields ( Bakker e t a l . 1 977). The l ow-lying, g rassy a reas p resented g ood p ossib il ities f or a nimal h usbandry. However, f a llow a rable o n t he r idges may a lso h ave b een u sed a s g razing a rea. •Z ooarcheological s tudies i ndicate t hat c attle d ominated a nimal husbandry. S ma ller animals, p igs, s heep a nd g oats w ere p resent i n t he s tudied s ites, b ut a re o f l esser i mportance a s f ood s ources ( IJzereef 1 981). Smaf l numbers o f d ogs were p resent, but p robably n ot e aten. These d omestic a nimal s pecies d iffer i n d enta l morphology a nd i n morphology a nd physiology o f t heir i ntest inal t racts. They a re a dapted t o i ngestion a nd d igest ion o f d i fferent f oods a nd d i ffer i n f eeding s trategies. Herbivores c an b e g razers, b rowsers o r i ntermediate f eeders ( sect ion V . A ), a dapted t o f eeding o n p lant m aterial o f l ow o r h igher qua lity. Omnivores c onsume a nd d igest a c ertain a mount o f n on-vegetable f ood. The d i fferences i n r elat ive numbers b etween t he a nimal s pecies p resent i n t he s ettlements ( table 1 1.4) a re p robably a r eflection o f t he e nvironments o f t he s ites, s uch a s t he a rea o f c reek r idge r elative t o t he a rea o f l owlying g razing g rounds ( compare P rummel 1 979). The l atter r atio i s d ependent o n t he g eology, but a lso o n t he g round water l evel, and t hus, i n t his r egion, c omprises a spects o f s pace a nd t ime. Andi jk d i ffers s lightly f rom t he o ther s ites i n t he l ow p ercentages o f p igs a nd t he h igh p ercentage o f c att le. Zwaagdi jk r esembles Andi jk, but h ere o nly a smal l b one s ample was p resent. Unfortunately, d ata o n o ther s ites a re n ot a vailable y et. I n t he s ite V elsen-Hofgeest, g ame was p robably r ather more i mportant t han i n t he W est-Frisian s ites ( section I I.C.2.10). The c orrespondence b etween h igh p ercentages o f s heep/goat a nd o f d og s uggests t hat d ogs m ay h ave h ad a f unction i n s heep/goat h erding.

3 1

T able 1 1.4. R elative a mounts o f b ones o f d omestic a nimals i n s ome s ites. S ee a lso s ection I I.C.2.2. D ata f rom C lason ( 1964), V an M ensch & I Jzereef i n B akker e t a l. ( 1977), P rummel ( 1979), V an M ensch & I Jzereef ( 1975), I Jzereef ( 1981) a nd T herkorn ( pers.comm .). s ite

n o. o f b ones

c attle

Z waagdijk 1 961 H oogkarspel W atertoren H oogkarspel T olhek

2 76 3 02 5 448

A ndijk H et V alkje

144

e arly p eriod l ate p eriod S chagen-Muggenburg

p ercentages p ig s heep/goat

d og

8 3.7 7 5.5 8 0.7

4 .0 7 .3 8 .0

1 0.1 8 .9 9 .7

2 .2 8 .3* 1 .4

8 6.2

3 .5

8 .9

1 .4

> 5000

7 8.5

6 .7

1 3.5

1 .5

> 5000 1 641 #

6 2.8 7 1.5

9 .1 3 .4

2 4.3 1 7.6

3 .8 1 .0

*d ue t o t he o ccurrence o f s ome c omplete d og s keletons, m ay b e t oo h igh # i ncluding 6 .1.% b ones o f h orse

t his p ercentage

N ear Grootebroek, s ome s mal l c lay a nimals were f ound ( Van Regteren A ltena e t a l . 1 977). Their f unction, t oy o r r itua l o b ject, i s n ot c lear. B esides c attle, sma ll c lay p igs a re p resent, but n either t he numerical ly more i mportant s heep/goat ( table 1 1.4) n or t he d ogs a re r epresented. I f o nly t he a nimals r egularly p resent i n t he s ettlement were modelled, t his m ight a gree w ith t he i dea t hat c att le a nd p igs were f or v ar ious r easons k ept i n o r c lose t o t he h ouses. I n s uch a n a nimal husbandry s ystem, s heep/goat, t hat a re well a dapted t o h erding would b e g razed a t s ome d istance f rom t he f arms. P igs p resumably were k ept n ear t he h ouses b ecause o f t he a bsence o f woodland. They c ould f eed o n d omest ic r efuse a nd o n f al low f ields, p robably a lso p laying a r ole i n t i l lage (T en C ate 1 972). R easons f or k eeping c attle c lose t o t he f arms may b e l ess c lear. However, c attle, a t l east t he modern b reeds, n eed more a ttention f rom t he f armer i n o rder t o p revent t hem r unning w ild. As econd mot ive m ight b e t he s upply o f m ilk. B esides, t he s ize o f t he h ouses s uggests t hat c att le were s ta l led a t n ight o r i n t he w inter, p ossibly a lso f or t he ir manure p roduct ion. The a nalysis o f s eeds, f ruits a nd o ther p lant r emains f rom t he s ites i n t he a rea y ielded i nformation o n t he c ereal s pecies a nd t he o ther p lants t hat were c ult ivated. Weeds p resent i n t he s amples a re i ndicators f or t he methods e mployed i n c ereal c ult ivation. The ma in c ereal s pecies were hul led b arley ( Hordeum vulgare) a nd e mmer ( Triticum d icoccum). I n t he l ater o ccupa tion phase, hulled b arley b ecame t he p redominant g rain s pecies (Buurman 1 979). O ccasiona lly, g rains o f n aked s ix-row b arley ( Hordeum vulgare var. nudum) a nd e inkorn ( Triticum m onococcum) a re f ound (Buurman 1 979). The c ereals were p robably g rown i n m ixed c ul tivation. Weeds i n t he s amples f rom Hoogkarspel s how t hat c ereals w ere g rown o n s andy s oi ls, e g. t he c reek r idges, p robably a s s ummer c rops ( Bakker e t a l . 1 977). The sma ll r ing d itches a nd f igure-of-eight d itches, which a re r estricted t o t he s andy t o s andy l oamy a rea e nclosed by d itches, p robably h ad a f unction a s g rain r icks ( Bakker & Metz 1 967, Buurman 1 979). S uch d itches a re a bsent i n a n unparcelled p art o f ar idge west o f Hoogkarspel-Watertoren ( excavation 1 978, B akker 1 979) a nd i n t he c layey b asins.

3 2

F lax ( Linum u sitatissimum) was f ound a t t wo s ites i n t he a rea ( Bakker e t a l . 1 977) and t his p lant was p robably a lso c ult ivated l ocal ly (Buurman & P als 1 974). I n a ddi tion t o t he c ul tivated c ereals, s eeds o f c ertain weeds may h ave b een g athered a nd c onsumed, a s i s s uggested by r elatively l arge quantities o f s eeds o f f at h en ( Chenopodium a lbum), f ig— leaved g oosefoot ( Chenopodium f icifolium) a nd c ock s pur g rass ( Echinochloa c rus—galli) f ound i n p its o f p it c ircles (Buurman 1 979). Af urther d iscussion o n a va ilable v egetable f ood i tems i s p resented i n s ect ion I X.E. A model o f t he s ubsistence o f t he West—Frisian B ronze Age f armers h as b een d escribed by B randt a nd I Jzereef ( Brandt & I Jzereef 1 980, I Jzereef 1 981). The model s hows t hat a griculture, i .e. c ul tivat ion o f c ereals a nd a nimal husbandry, i s c apable o f s upplying f ood i n s ufficient quantity t o s upport t he r elatively d ense o ccupa tion o f t he a rea. The p lant f ood p roduction, ( i .e. t he a rea o f t he g rain f ields) p er f arm i s p robably l imited o nly by t he a vailable amount o f human l abour. A n i mportant a spect i n t he models i s t he p roduct ion o f m ilk. I Jzereef ( 1981) c alculated t he r elative amounts o f v egetable a nd anima l f ood i n t erms o f e nergy which would b e a va ilable f or t he human p opulation under v arious a gr icultural r egimes f or f arms i n t he a rea a round Het V alk je. M ilk p roduction i n c onnect ion w ith t he c ult ivation o f c ereals may b e t he most p roductive a gricultural s ystem c onsidering t he l imitat ions o f human l abour a nd t he a rea o f l and a vai lable f or s tock b reeding a nd c rop g rowing. I mportant v ariables i n t he models a re t he c ereal g rain y ields a nd t he m ilk p roduct ion p er c ow p er a nnum. Y ield r atios ( seed/yield) o f 1 :3 o r 1 :4, a s c a lculated f or m edieval s ituations by S licher v an B ath ( 1960), s eem much t oo l ow f or t he f ert i le s o ils i n t his a rea. I Jzereef ( 1981) e stimates t hat a 1 :30 y ield r atio would s eem t o b e more a cceptable w ithin t he o ther v ariables i n t he m odel . The f ields were p robably manured. F or t he m ilk p roduct ion, I Jzereef ( 1981) e stimates t hat p er c ow p er a nnum, i .e. p er l actation p eriod o f c . 2 00 d ays, a s urplus o f s ome 1 00 l i tres may h ave b een a va ilable f or human c onsumpt ion. F or o ur s tudy, t he model o f I Jzereef s upplies i mportant r eference material f or t he d ietary a nd a gr icultural e xtrapolations o n t he b asis o f t he b one t race e lement c oncentrat ions ( chapter X I).

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C .2. S ites f rom which bones were analysed I n t he f o llowing s ect ion, t he s ites f rom which human a nd/or a nimal b ones were t aken a re d escribed b rief ly. Three s ites, S chagen-Muggenburg, V elsen a nd V alkenburg ( prov. o f S outh-Holland) f el l o utside t he l imits o f t ime a nd/or a s d efined i n s ection C .1. The bold p rinted c atalogue numbers r efer t o t he c atalogue o f t he human s keletal material i n Appendix 1 , o n which a lso t he e stimat ions o f a ge a nd s ex a re b ased.

C .2.1. Zwaagdi jk: barrows and f lat graves Zwaagdi jk: barrows The t umuli n ear Zwaagdi jk were t he f irst B ronze Age b arrows t o b e e xcavated i n West-Friesland ( Van G iffen 1 944). V an G iffen e xcavated t hree b arrows ( nrs. I , I II a nd I V) o f ac omplex o r igina lly c onsisting o f a t l east 1 2 b arrows. A number o f t hese mounds h ad b een l evelled i n p receding y ears. I n f act, when V an G i ffen g ot t o h ear o f i t, i t was t he f ind o f ab ronze s word d ecorated w ith g old w ire i n o ne o f t hese b arrows was t he d irect c ause f or h is i nterest i n t he a rea. The sword i s n ow l ost, a s i s t he g old d ecora tion w ire ( Van G iffen 1 944: f ig. 1 6). The b arrows Ia nd I V were a lmost c ompletely e xcavated wh ile t wo t ria l t renches were dug i nto b arrow I II. This b arrow h ad t wo building phases, b oth w ith a c ircular ( ?) r ing d itch. N o human r ema ins were f ound. The t wo-period b arrow I was a lmost c ompletely e xcavated. The f irst phase was s urrounded b y a more o r l ess c ircular d itch w ith a d iameter o f c irca 1 0 m . The g rave o f t his phase, o rientated c irca NNW-SSE, c onsisted o f c remated human b ones ( 1). The d ead p erson was p robably burned o n t he s oil s urface, a nd s ubsequent ly c overed b y ab arrow. I n t he s econd p er iod, t he b arrow was s urrounded by a d itch l ayed o ut i n t he f orm o f at rapezium w ith a xes measuring a bout 2 0 m . The p rimary g rave o f t he s econd phase c onsisted o f ac remat ion ( 2). I n t he upper p art o f t he c entre o f t his b arrow, t wo l ater i nterments i n e xtended E-W p osition w ere p resent ( 3, 4 ). B oth were p robably f emale. I n b arrow I V o nly o ne building phase was r ecognized, but t he d ouble p er ipheral s tructure, a r ing o f p ost h oles a nd a c ircular r ing d itch, m ight i ndicate t hat t he b arrow was built i n t wo phases ( f ig. I I.3a). W ith b arrow X III a t Zwaagdi jk ( Van d er Waals 1 961), a nd a b arrow a t Hoogkarspel ( sect ion I I.C.2.7) t hese a re t he o nly e xcavated b arrows w ith a p ost c ircle i n W est-Friesland. N o p rimary g raves were p resent. S ix i nhumations were f ound i n t he t op o f t he b arrow. V an G iffen 's i nit ial a ssumption t hat t he uppermost i ndividuals ( 5, 6 , 8 ), i nterred i n t he c entre o f t he b arrow i n a n e xtended E -W p osit ion, were m edieval warriors o f c ount W i l l iam I I, a s t he l ocal l egend would h ave i t, a ppears un l ikely i n t he l ight o f t he l ater r esearch. The s tate o f c onservation o f t he b ones o f t hese i ndividuals i s n o d i fferent f rom t hat o f t he o ther i ndividuals. F urthermore, a t l east t wo o f t he i ndividuals ( 5, 6 ) were p robably f emales, whose E -W o rientation i s c onsistent w ith t hat o f o ther i nhumed f emales ( section I I.0 . 1.3.). A f urther t hree i ndividuals were p resent a l i ttle d eeper i n t he c entre o f t he b arrow. These s keletons w ere o rientated a pproximately N-S o r S -N. One o f t hese i ndividuals ( 10) was a c h ild o f l ess t han 1 0 y ears o ld. The t wo o ther i ndividuals ,7 and 9 , were p robably m ales. The p osition o f t he b odies i s n ot c learly i ndicated by V an G i ffen ( 1944).

3 4

f igure I I.3a

E xcavation p lan o f b arrow Z waagdijk I V ( Van G iffen 1 944).

f igure I I.3b E xcavation p lan o f b arrow G rootebroek I II. L egend: 1 r ing d itch f irst p eriod; 2 r ing d itch s econd p eriod; 3 r ing d itch t hird p eriod; 4 g rave f irst p eriod; 5 g rave s econd p eriod; 6 p ost h oles; 7 p ost h ole ( presumed) ( Van G iffen 1 953, d rawing a nd l egend f rom W oltering 1 985).

3 5

Zwaagdi jk: f lat graves I n 1 961 s ome burials were uncovered a bout 5 00 m west o f t he g roup o f b arrows n ear Zwaagdi jk ( Van G iffen 1 944) during g round l eve l ling a ctivit ies. F ive g raves were f ound i n t he r esult ing r escue e xcavat ion c arried o ut by t he ROB ( Modderman 1 964). Only s ome b ones c ould b e s aved f rom o ne o f t he g raves; t he p osi tion o f t he s keleton was n ot r ecorded ( 41). Three o ther i ndividuals, t wo a dults ( 43, 4 4) a nd a c h ild ( 45), were f ound c lose t ogether. The a dults were i nterred i n e xtended p ositions, t he c h ild l ay o n i ts b ack w ith l egs f olded a bove t he c hest. S keleton 3 ( 43) i s o ne o f t he r ichest g raves known f rom West-Friesland: a part f rom t he b ronze r apier ( Butler 1 964), amber b eads ( Runia 1 986), t wo p ieces o f s tone ( sandstone a nd worked f l int) a nd a s mal l a nimal b one, p robably a d iaphysis f ragment o f t he t ibia o f a mamma l t he s ize o f d og o r s heep, were f ound i n t he g rave. The a nimal b one h as a s omewhat p o l ished s urface. A f urther s keleton ( 42), a lso l ayed o ut o n i ts b ack, was f ound s ome 3 0 m NW o f t his sma ll g roup o f t hree i ndividuals. This i ndividual i s c haracterized by a number o f p athological f eatures. A p reliminary d escription o f t he s keletons h as b een published by Huizinga ( 1964). I n t he s ame p lot o f g rouad i n which t he s keletons were f ound, a smal l e xcavat ion y ielded s ome s ettlement t races: d itches, p ost h oles a nd a f igure-of-eight d itch, o bviously d ating f rom t he B ronze Age. Charcoal f rom o ne o f t he d itches y ielded a 1 4C d ate o f 3 200 + 6 0 BP ( GrN 4 243). Animal b ones f rom t his smal l e xcavat ion were u sed a s r eference material f or t he human b ones f rom t he Zwaagdi jk f lat g raves a nd b arrows. These a nimal b ones h ave b een d escribed b y C lason ( 1964, c ompare t able 1.4).

C .2.2. Grootebroek: barrows Three b arrows s outh o f Grootebroek were e xcavated i n 1 949 ( Van G iffen 1 953). Only t he e astern h al f o f b arrow I I was p reserved a nd e xcavated but n o human b ones o r c rema tions were f ound. Three c onstruct ion phases c an b e r ecognized i n b arrow I . The e ar l iest b arrow, w ith a d iameter o f c . 1 6.5 m , was t he s ma llest a nd c ontained a s ha llow c entral g rave p i t i n which t he c orpse h ad b een c remated ( 11). This g rave was d ated a t 3 000 + 1 40 BP ( GrN 1 60, L ant ing & Mook 1 977). The s econd phase, e ncircled by a n arrow, s l ightly r ectangular d itch, c ontained a n e xcentrical ly s ituated g rave w ith c remated b ones ( 12). I n t he t hird phase, a n e xcentr ica l ly s ituated g rave w ith a c remated woman ( ?, 1 3) a nd an i nhumed smal l c h ild ( 14) was p resent. This g rave c ontained a b ronze r ing. F urthermore, t wo i nhumat ion g raves were p resent i n b arrow I I: a n e xtended S -N o rientated s keleton ( 15) a nd a s econd wkeleton, i nterred o n t he r ight s ide w ith c ontracted l egs, a nd f acing S -W ( 16). A ccording t o Van G i ffen, t hese were medieval i nterments. However, t he s tate o f c onservat ion o f t he b ones a nd t he p osit ion o f t he b odies s uggest a B ronze Age d ate. B arrow I II i s c haracter ized b y i ntrigueing d itches a nd p ost h oles ( fig. I.3b). The t wo e ar liest phases a re e nclosed b y a lmost p erfectly c oncentric, c ircular, i nterrupted d itches. The t hird a nd l atest phase h as a b road, uninterrupted r ing d itch w ith a c onspicuous a venue o f t wo d itches a nd a c entral r ow o f p ost h oles ( fig 1 1.3). I t i s t empt ing t o work o ut a n a stronomical f unct ion f or t his b arrow ( compare Woltering 1 985). The o ldest phase c ontained a ' Leichenbrandgrab ' ( 17), t he s econd phase a n i nhumation ( 18) i n a n e xtended, a lmosL N-S o r S -N p osition. The t hird a nd l atest phase o f t he b arrow c ontained a c remation g rave ( 19). A s econd i nhumation,

3 6

NNE-SSW e xtended, w as p resent i n t he c entre o f t he b arrow ( 20). A ccording t o Van G i ffen, t his was a l ate s econdary i nterment.

C .2.3. Oostwoud: barrows The b arrows i n Oostwoud h ave b een e xplored a nd d iscussed by a rcheologists r epeatedly s ince t he f irst e xcavation c ampaign by V an G iffen i n 1 956. Two b arrows w ere p resent: t umulus I e ncircled by a r ing o f p its h as ad iameter o f c . 1 8 m ; a nd t umulus I I w ith a d iameter o f c . 2 0 m a nd a more c omplex s tructure a nd h istory. The b arrows y ielded t he l argest c omplex o f N eol i thic! B ronze Age human s keletal material i n t he western N etherlands ( table 1 1.5). Upti l n ow, n o physical-anthropological s tudy o n t he O ostwoud s keletons h as b een p ub lished; t he materia l mer its more t horough s tudy t han my, r ather s uperficial, i nventarizat ion i n Appendix 1 .

T able 1 1.5. S ynopsis o f i nhumations i n t he O ostwoud b arrows. C atalogue n umbers r efer t o A ppendix 1 , e xcavation n umbers t o V an G iffen ( 1962) a nd D e W eerd

( 1966).

A bbreviation

' C'

i n c olumn p osition o f

t he b ody s tands

f or a c rouched b urial. s ex

a ge

c at.

e xc.

n o.

n o.

2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9

2 30 2 31 1 27 2 28

2 5-35 m ale 5-35 f emale 2 1 5-20 2 0 m ale

2 29 2 32 2 33

m ale 2 5-30 5-35 f emale 2 3-45 f emale 3 a dult m ale m ale > 40 m ale 2 0-25 1 7-25 m ale f emale 3 5-50 f emale 2 5-35

3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6(1) 3 6(2) 3 7 3 8 3 9

2 35 2 36 2 39 2 42 2 43 2 47 5 16 5 33 #

m ale

2 5-35

p osition o f b ody

p osition

e xtended E -W e xtended E -W C . L s ide E -W C . L s ide E -W

c entral e xcentric e xcentric e xcentric

C .

R s ide N -S

e xcentric c entral ?

C . C .

L s ide E -W L s ide E -W

c entral e xcentric

C . C . C .

L s ide E -W R s ide E -W R s ide N NW-SSE

C .

L s ide E -W

e xcentric e xcentric e xcentric e xcentric

g rave g ift

i n b arrow

* t his n umber a nd n o.35 r epresent p arts o f o ne a nd # t his s keleton c ould n ot b e t raced b ack

t he

m arten b ones

s ame i ndividual

I n t umulus I , t wo i nhumat ions l ying o n t heir b acks i n e xtended, E -W p osit ions were f ound, o ne ( 25) a lmost i n t he c entre o f t he b arrow, t he o ther ( 26) s ome 5 m t o t he s outh. A ccording t o V an G i ffen, t hese a re s econdary g raves, but n o o ther, p rimary g rave was f ound. A c omplete s keleton o f a p ig was f ound i n t he S -E quarter o f t he b arrow. This p ig was n ot mentioned a nd d escribed by C lason ( 1967), p robably b ecause i t was o f r ecent d ate ( Van W i jngaarden-Bakker, p ers.comm). S keletal material o f a t l east 1 2 i ndividua ls was f ound i n t umulus I I ( fig. 1.4). The s keletons w ere e xcavated by m embers o f t he L aboratorium v oor Anthropobiologie i n Amsterdam. The p osition o f a lmost a ll s keletons was r ecorded; males were i nterred o n l eft s ide i n ac rouched p osition, f emales i n

3 7

f igure 1 1.4

E xcavation p lan o f O ostwoud b arrow I I, e xcavation 1 955-1956 ( Van G iffen ( 1962). T op o f f igure i s N . N umbers o f s keletons c orrespond w ith e xcavation n umbers i n t able 1 1.5.

t he s ame p osit ion, but o n t he r ight s ide. S imi lar g raves w ere f ound i n c onnection w ith L ate N eo lithic o ccupat ion t races o n r iver dunes ( Louwe Kooymans 1 974). As ynopsis o f t he f eatures o f t hese b arrows u ncovered a fter 1 957 i s g iven . b y L anting ( 1979). L anting 's v iew t hat 2 36 ( 33) r ather t han 2 32 ( 30) i s t he p rimary g rave o f b arrow I I i s i nteresting i n t he l ight o f t he r esults o f o ur e xaminat ion o f t he s keletal materia l . S keleton 3 3 was a r elat ively o ld male, w ith a number o f o bvious p athologies, whereas 3 0 was a 2 5-35 y ear o ld f emale. S ome r adiocarbon d ates f or t he b arrows a nd t he l evee o n which t he b arrows a re s ituated a re a va ilable ( table 1 1.6).

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T able 1 1.6. R adiocarbon d atings o f

t he O ostwoud b arrows

no.

m aterial

b arrow

s keleton

c at.no

G rN-797 G rN-8801 G rN-6650C

c harcoal c ollagen c ollagen

I I I I I

G rN-8721 G rN-8722

s hells f rom g ully n ext t o l evee p eat b elow c lay n ext t o l evee

2 32 5 16

d ate B P 3 025 + 8 0 3 530 71 2 5 3 945 T 5 5

3 0 3 7

4 085 + 4 0

7

4 210

3 0

The c hronology o f s ome o f t he i nhumations i n t he NW quarter o f t umulus I I i s s omewhat o bscure. A ccording t o L anting ( 1979), t he g rave f ound i n 1 963 ( De Weerd 1 966, 3 7) i s aL ate N eo lithic f lat g rave c onnected w ith a c . 8m w ide r ing o f p ost h oles. However, t he b ones f ound s cattered a bove t he w estern p art o f t his g rave ( 533, 3 8) a re c omplementary t o t he b ones o f s keleton 2 42 ( 35, Van G iffen 1 962, f ig. 1.4). The t wo c atalogue numbers 3 5 a nd 3 8 r epresent a s ingle i ndividual, a s c an b e c onclusively p roved b y c hemical analysis ( table I I.7). The e xcavation p lan o f V an G i ffen s uggests t hat 3 5 was f ound i n s itu, w ith c ontracted l egs a nd l ying o n t he L s ide, f acing S . I f D e W eerd 's 1 963 s keleton ( 37) i s e ar lier t han 3 5/38, h ow d id t he b ones o f 3 8 c ame t o b e s cattered? A p ossible e xplanation, n amely c areless e xcavat ion by V an G i ffens workmen, l eaving t he p art ( i .e. 3 8) o f 3 5/38 d isturbed i n t he s oi l , i s o ut o f t he quest ion b ecause 3 8 was e xcavated f rom s oi l t hat h ad n ot b een d isturbed r ecently. Burial 3 7 i s t herefore p robably a ntedated by burial 3 5/38.

T able 1 1.7. C omparison o f s keleton 2 42 C hemical d ata a re i n m g / kg b one a sh. c at. n o. 3 5 3 8

n o.

2 42 5 33

s ex

m ale m ale

s tature

1 81 1 81

( 35)

a nd s keleton 5 33

( 38).

c hemical a nalysis s keletal p art S r B a

Z n

f emur t ibia

2 61 2 35

8 62 8 71

1 31 1 23

N o g rave g ifts w ere f ound e xcept s ome b ones o f a marten ( Martes s p.) n ear s keleton 3 3. The marten b ones, i ncluding p art o f t he s kull a nd s ome o f t he l ong b ones, were p resent i n t he s torage c ase c ontaining s keleton 3 3. C onsequently, t hey were n ot e xamined a nd d escribed by C lason ( 1967). The s ku ll o f t he marten i s v isible b ehind t he h ead o f 3 3 o n f ig. 5 o f V an G i ffen ( 1962). The b ones o f ah are o r r abbit mentioned b y V an G iffen i n r elat ion t o s keleton 3 0 a re l ost (C lason 1 967:16), a nd were n ot p resent i n t he s torage b ox o f s keleton 3 0 e ither. V an G iffen 's ( 1962) f ig. 9 o f s keleton 3 0 d oes n ot s how a ny h are o r r abbi t b ones. Though t his d oes n ot p rove a nything, a nd t hough i t a ppears un likely t hat V an G i ffen m istook a marten s kul l f or a h are s kul l, I am i nc lined t o d oubt whether a h are o r r abbit was f ound n ear 3 0 a t al . Two b ones o f af ox ( Vulpes vulpes) were f ound t ogether w ith t he d isturbed b ones o f 3 8; whether t hese were i nterred i n r elat ion t o t his s keleton i s u ncertain.

3 9

C .2.4. Enkhuizen, De Tent: barrow A B ronze Age t umulus n ear ' De T ent ', municipa lity o f Enkhuizen, was p art ly e xcavated i n 1 960 ( Lehmann 1 963). The b arrow was e ncircled by t wo, p robably c oncentric, d itches. The o ldest, b roader d itch was c onnected t o a nother d itch t hat may b e p art o f al arger c omplex o f d itches, a s i s t he c ase i n t he Hoogkarspel b arrows ( Bakker e t a l . 1 977). The l ater d itch was r ather n arrow a nd p robably more o r l ess r ectangular. The d iameter o f t he b arrow i n b oth p eriods was a bout 2 0 m . F ew f inds were made. The d at ing o f t he b arrow i n t he B ronze Age i s b ased o n g eological c onsiderat ions: t he p eat o n t he f lank o f t he b arrow a nd t he ' kiek ' c lay o ver t he b arrow ( compare s ection B ). The c entre o f t he b arrow was n ot e xcavated, a nd n o p rimary g rave o r s econdary i nterments w ere p resent i n t he e xcavated p art o f t he b arrow. S ome smal l human b ones a nd b one f ragments were f ound ( 40). The r esidual p art o f t his a nd a n earby b arrow w ere l eft i ntact during t he e xecution o f t he l and r ea llotment p rogram i n t his a rea ( Jaarverslag ROB 1 974).

C .2.5. Andi jk: s ettlement t races and barrows T races o f B ronze Age o ccupation were e xcavated n ear Andi jk i n 1 973 ( Van H aaff 1 973). B esides s ome 2 5 h ouse p lans s ituated o n o r n ear a s andy c reek r idge, t he r emains o f t wo b arrows were f ound. A h ouse p lan measuring c . 1 8 x 6mi s s hown i n V an Haaff ( 1973). N o e xcavat ion r eport o n t his s ite h as y et b een pub lished y et. V an Mensch & I Jzereef ( 1975) s tudied human a nd a nimal b ones f rom t he s ite ( table 1 1.4). Human b ones ( 54) were p resent i n t he r ing d itch o f o ne o f t he b arrows a s we ll a s i n o ther d i tches.

C .2.6. Bovenkarspel—Het Valkje: s ettlement t races, barrow and i nhu mations F ol lowing t he t rial e xcavations i n Andi jk i n 1 973, s ubsequent l arge s cale e xcavations were c arried o ut n orth o f B ovenkarspel n ear Het Valk je. N o d efini tive r eport o n t his e xcavat ion h as y et b een published, but I Jzereef ( 1981) i n h is s tudy o f t he a nimal b ones f rom t he s ite g ives s ome i nformat ion o n t he s ettlement t races t hat were f ound. The e xcavated a rea a t Het Valk je i s s ituated o n ab road, N—S r unning s andy a nd l oamy c reek r idge ( fig. 1.5). Numerous h ouse p lans were e xcavated o n t he f lanks o f t he r idge. I Jzereef ( 1981) u ses t he p reliminary p eriodizat ion o f t he s ettlement a t H et V alk je. F or o ur s tudy, we u se t he s imp lified

p er i _odizat ion w ith a d ivision i n

a n E arly ( phase 1 -4, C 14 d ated 3 275-2845 BP) a nd a L ate ( phase 5 -7, C 14 d ated 2 760-2620 BP) P eriod o f o ccupat ion. I n t he L ate P eriod, h ouses w ere s ituated o n s ma ll t erps s urrounded by d itches. The a gricultural p otential o f t he a rea g radual ly d eteriorated t hroughout t he p er iod o f o ccupa tion a s ac onsequence o f t he r ising water t able. I n t he L ate P eriod, t he a rea s uitable f or h ouse building, c rop g rowing a nd g razing was c onsiderably sma ller t han i n t he E arly P er iod. The s hift i n a gricul tural s trategy f orced upon t he f armers by t he r ising water t able i s r ef lected i n t he a nima l b ones r ecovered ( IJzereef 1 981, 1 983). I n t he L ate P eriod, r elatively more s heep/goat a nd d og were p resent i n c omparison t o c attle t han i n t he E arly P eriod ( table 1 1.8). The r atio c ows/(bul ls + s teers) i n t he L ate P er iod i s h igher t han i n t he E arly P eriod. This s uggests a s hift t owards d airying ( IJzereef 1 981).

4 0

T able 1 1.8. P ercentages o f n umbers o f b ones f rom d omestic a nimals i n H et V alkje ( IJzereef 1 981). C attle f emale/male r atio c alculated f rom I Jzereef 1 981:53. F rom e ach p eriod, o ver 5 000 a nimal b ones w ere s tudied. p eriod E arly L ate

c attle

f emale/male

7 8.5 6 2.8

r atio

1 .29 2 .24

p ig

s heep

g oat

d og

h orse

6 .7

1 2.7

9 .1

2 2.7

0 .8

1 .5

0 .1

1 .6

3 .8

P aleobotanical a nalysis o f g rain s amples s hows t hat i n t he t wo p eriods d i fferent g rain s pecies were d ominant. I n t he E arly P eriod b arley ( Hordeum vulgare) a nd emmer ( Triticum d icoccum) were e qua lly i mportant. I n t he l ater p eriod Hordeum vulgare was t he p redominant g rain s pecies (Buurman 1 979).

A

f igure 1 1.5

S oil m ap

( 1 k m2 ) o f H et V alkje a nd s urrounding a rea.

( 1) e xcavation

B ovenkarspel-Het V alkje, ( 2-4) e xcavation B ovenkarspel-Monument. S oil u nits: A s and ( ridge); B s andy l oam; C l oam o n c lay; 0 c lay ( basin). A dapted

f rom I Jzereef

( 1981).

The s ite h as y ielded a n umber o f i solated human b ones. These b ones, mainly l ong b ones, w ere f ound i n d itches a nd p its. They h ave b een c atalogued by I Jzereef ( 1981: Appendix) a nd were r eexamined f or t he p resent s tudy ( App.1). Though t he r emains o f ab arrow were f ound, n o i nhumat ions o r c remat ions r emained f rom t he E arly P eriod. Charcoal f rom t he r ing d itch was d ated t o 3 275 + 3 5 BP ( GrN 7 472). This d ate may b e s omewhat t oo e arly ( Lant ing & Mook 1 977). F rom t he L ate P eriod, s keletons o f t wo i ndividuals were f ound t ogether i n ad itch ( 55 1 -2-45, C 14 d ated 2 710

4 1

+3 5 BP, GrN 7 509). T ogether w ith a c hi ld 's s keleton f rom a d isturbed g rave, t hese r epresent t he o nly i nhumations f rom Het V alk je. I n ' t errein V isser ', a sma ll e xcavation s outh o f H et Valk je, a n a lmost c omplete s keleton ( 57, ' the w itch o f B ovenkarsper) was f ound i n ad itch ( Maat, i n p ress). F or o ur s tudy, s amples f rom t his s keleton were p laced i n t he g roup o f s amples f rom Het V alk je. Ap re liminary r eport o n t he a nalysis o f human a nd animal b ones f rom t his was b een published e lsewhere ( Runia 1 987a).

C .2.7. Hoogkarspel: barrows and s ettlement t races T races o f p rehistor ic s ett lements were e xcavated b oth t o t he n orth a nd t o t he s outh o f t he v il lage o f Hoogkarspel . S outh o f Hoogkarspel a number o f e xcavat ions were c arried o ut by t he I PP i n t he y ears 1 965-1969 ( Hoogkarspel-Tolhek: B akker & B randt 1 966, B akker & Metz 1 967, B akker e t a l . 1 968, B akker e t a l . 1 977) while t o t he n orth ( Hoogkarspel-Watertoren) s ome b arrows a nd s ettlement t races were i nvest igated b y t he I PP a nd I PL ( Bakker 1 959, 1 966, Modderman 1 974, B akker e t a l . 1 977, f ig. 1.6). The e ar liest e xcavat ion t o b e c arried o ut n ear H oogkarspel c oncerned a b arrow ( Hoogkarspel I , B akker 1 959, B akker e t a l . 1 977). A c remat ion was f ound i n t his b arrow a s wel l a s af ew human s ku ll f ragments f rom t he d itch. These c ould n ot b e e xamined. The w estern h al f o f as econd b arrow s ituated n orth o f t he v il lage ( Hoogkarspel 1 a) was e xcavated i n 1 972 by t he I PL ( Modderman 1 974, B akker e t a l . 1 977). A t rial t rench h ad a lready b een dug t hrough p art o f t he b arrow b y B akker during h is e xcavation o f b arrow I ( Bakker 1 959). B arrow I a h as t hree a lmost c oncentric r ing d itches. The t wo e ar liest phases o f t he b arrow were r elated t o c remat ion burials. I n t he s torage b ag c ontaining o ne o f t he c remations were a f ew sma l l uncremated b ones, p robably o f a n i nfant. The a lmost c omplete s keleton ( 51), i nterred o n i ts b ack i n a n e xtended E -W p osit ion p robably r epresents t he l ast phase o f t he b arrow, which was d ated 3 035 + 5 5 BP ( GrN 6 837). I n t he s torage b ox c ontaining t his s keleton was t he p roximal p art o f at ibia o f ak i tten ( Fells s ilvestris). This m ight r epresent a g rave g ift. I n 1 973, t he r emaining p art o f t he b arrow was i nvestigated (B akker e t a l . 1 977). A f ragment o f a human s kull was f ound ( 53, B akker 1 974, B akker e t a l . 1 977) i n t he t hird r ing d itch but c ould n o l onger b e t raced i n t he s torage d epots a nd was t herefore n ot a va ilable f or a na lysis. The l ater e xcava tion c ampaigns i n Hoogkarspel-Watertoren were p rimarily i ntended t o map t he s ett lement f eatures s uch a s t he d itches a nd h ouse p lans ( Bakker e t a l . 1 977). The working s trategy a nd t he machinery a llowed l i tt le t ime f or t he c o l lect ion o f a rt i facts. This may b e o ne o f t he r easons why o nly o ne human b one was f ound i n t his p art o f t he s ett lement ( 53). B randt ( in B akker e t a l . 1 977) r ecognises c ertain i ndividual a gricultural h oldings which c onsisted o f ah ouse s ite a nd p lots o f l and s urrounded b y a d itches. Sma ll r ing d itches were p resent o n s ome o f t he p lots. The d itches o f t he b arrows s ituated h ere ( Hoogkarspel I , I a) f orm p art o f t he e xtensive s ystem o f d itches c onnected t o t hese a gr icultural h oldings which a re c learly c onfined t o t he l ighter s o ils o f t he c reek r idge ( Bakker i n B akker e t a l . 1 977, f ig.II.6) I n 1 978 t he a rea w est o f t,e 1 973 excava tion w as i nvestigated (V ons-Comis 1 978, B akker i n Woltering 1 979). Here, t he r emains o f a number o f b arrows

4 2

w ere f ound. I n ab arrow w ith a r ing d itch a n a lmost c omplete human s keleton ( 56) l ay i n a sma ll ( c. 1 .3 x 0 .4 m ), s econdary, g rave p it. The b ody was p laced o n i ts b ack, w ith t he l egs c rossed a nd c ontracted a bove t he b ody, h ead S , f eet N . The h ead was p laced s omewhat upright, t he f ace t urned a l i ttle t o t he w est.

[ 0 e i , f igure 1 1.6

S ettlement t races o f t he s ite H oogkarspel—Watertoren, N o f t he v illage o f H oogkarspel. 1 s and; 2 s andy l oam ; 3 s andy l oam o n c lay; 5 h ouse s ite; 6 d itch; 7 s mall r ing d itches ( Bakker e t a l. 1 977, d rawing f rom W oltering 1 985).

The e xcavat ions c arried o ut by t he 1 PP t o t he s outh o f

Hoogkarspel

y ielded s ettlement t races a nd b arrows ( Hoogkarspel—Tolhek). The s ettlement t races c onsist o f numerous d itches o f v arious k inds, s ome h ouse p lans a nd s ome h ouse t erps. I n t his s ite, t he c onspicuous sma ll r ing d itches, f igure—of—eight d itches a nd r ings o f p its were extensively s tudied f or t he f irst t ime ( Bakker & Metz 1 967). These f eatures p robably h ad a n a gricultural f unction (B uurman 1 979, c ompare s ect ion I I.0 . 1.4.). Two b arrows were f ound, b arrow I I w ith a c ircular a nd b arrow I II w ith a m ore o r l ess r ectangular d itch ( Bakker & B randt 1 966). A s econdary g rave p i t i n b arrow I I c onta ined t he r emains o f a woman ( ?, 4 6) which h ad b een c remated, a nd a lso t he r emains o f a n i nhumed i nfant ( 47). This g rave was d ated t o 3 020 + 4 0 BP ( GrN 5 050). I n t he l ate s ett lement p eriod, a h ouse t erp w as r aised o ver t he t wo b arrows. The ' t erp phase ' was d ated a round 2 650 BP ( GrN-5048, GrN-5051). N o o ther g raves were f ound b esides t he b arrow, t hough a number o f i solated human b ones w ere p resent i n t he d itches ( 48). Animal b ones f rom t he s ettlement t races n ear Hoogkarspel were s tudied by V an Mensch & I Jzereef ( 1977) a nd Smits ( cited i n P rummel 1 979, t able 1 1 .4).

4 3

C .2.8. Westwoud: s ettlement t races I n t he s ummer o f 1 984, s ome t races o f B ronze A ge o ccupation i n t he p ath o f ar oad under c onstruct ion were i nvestigated b y W . d e V ries—Metz. I n a B ronze Age d itch, a number o f a nimal b ones were f ound i n a ddition t o p ottery s herds. S ome o f t hese b ones were a nalysed, b ecause h ere i t w as c ertain t hat t he b ones c ame f rom o ne a nd t he s ame d itch. S ome s o il s amples w ere a lso t aken but h ave n ot y et b een a nalysed.

C .2.9. S chagen—Muggenburg: s ettlement t races and f lat graves P art o f an at ive s ettlement o f t he Roman p er iod ( c. 2 nd-3rd c entury AD) was e xcavated i n 1 983-1984 ( Therkorn 1 984). The e xcavation y ielded o nly o ne h ouse p lan b esides numerous p its a nd h earths. The p its c ontained, among o ther t hings, c harred g rain. B esides n at ive p ottery, s ome s herds o f i mported R oman p ottery were f ound. I n t he e ar lier phase o f o ccupat ion, h ouses were b uilt o n p eat. I n al ater p hase, t he s urface o f t wo p robable h ouse s ites w as r aised u sing p eat ( turfs). Due t o o xydat ion o f t he p eat, t he t erps h ave b een r educed t o a l ayer o f c . 1 5 cm t hick w ich a h igh c oncentrat ion o f p ottery. The o xydat ion o f t he p eat h as r esulted i n t he d isappearance o f a lmost a ll t he p ost h oles. I nhumations o f f our human i ndividuals w ere f ound ( 59) b esides t he c ompletely i nterred s keletons o f s ome d ogs a nd a h orse. A c luster o f s even l arge u rns, e ach c ontaining a c remated human i ndividual was a lso e xcavated. Af inal r eport o n t his e xcavat ion a nd t he e conomic b asis o f t he s ett lement i s i n p reparation (Therkorn, I PP). The f inds o f, f or e xample, l arge quant ities o f c harred g rains a nd e ar f ragments o f Hordeum vulgare a nd Triticum d ic occum ( C. D. T roostheide, p ers. c omm.) a nd a gricultural i mplements may b e i ndicative f or t he a gricultura lly b ased e conomy o f t he s ite. I t i s l ikely t hat Hordeum vulgare a nd T riticum d icoccum were g rown o n t he p eat a round t he s ettlement o r o n s alt marsh s o ils i n t he n eighbourhood ( Van Haaster 1 985). The r elatively l arge number o f h orse b ones ( table 1.4) a nd t he p resence o f s ome e xceptiona lly l arge c attle s pecimens may s uggest t hat s ome o f t he a nimal husbandry p roducts were t raded. On t he o ther h and, a n umber o f l arge h earth p laces a nd s ome s lags may i ndicate t hat t he i nhabi tants o f t his s ite were employed i n ' i ndustrial ' a ctivi ties o f s ome k ind.

C .2.10. Velsen—Hofgeest: s ettlements t races and barrows I n t he V elserbroekpolder ( gemeente V elsen), s outh o f t he Hofgeesterweg, s ettlement r ema ins d ating t o t he B ronze Age were e xcavated (B eemster & B randt 1 986). These t races may b e c ontemporary w ith t he b arrows e xcavated i n 1 972/1978 ( Woltering 1 979). V elsen—Hofgeest i s s ituated o n t he s outh—western e dge o f t he i nlet o f t he O er—IJ e stuary, s hielded f rom t he s ea b y t he b road s andy c oastal b arr ier

,

( Hallewas 1 981). N ear t he s ite, l ow—lying s alt marshes a nd h igher, s andy a reas c overed w ith woods must h ave b een p resent ( Jelgersma e t a l . 1 970). N o d ata o n t he s ubsistence e conomy o f t his s ite a re a vailable y et. The main f ood r esource was t o a ll p robabi lity a gricultural p roduction, t hough t he l ocat ion o f t he s ite, n ear t he i nlet o f t he O er—IJ, may s uggest t hat s eaf ish f ormed p art o f t he d iet. The s ettlement i s r oughly c ontemporary w ith t he B ronze Age o ccupation i n W est—Friesland w ith s imilar h ouse p lans a nd

4 4

p ottery. A s was t he c ase i n West-Friesland, s andy s oils were u sed f or c rop g rowing, a s i s i ndicated by t he p resence o f a rd s cratches a nd d ark l ayers o f ' arable s o il '. V elsen-Hofgeest d iffers f rom t he West-Frisian s ites i n t he p resence o f f orests i n t he n eighbourhood. B esides, c ompared t o W est-Friesland, t he a rea o f c layey s oils a ppears t o b e r elatively sma ll . The maps o f Hallewas ( 1981) s how e xtensive a reas o f p eat e ast o f V elsen-Hofgeest. N o e xact z ooarcheological d ata o n t he s ite a re a vailable. However, i n a n e xcavation c arried o ut i n 1 986 c lose t o t he 1 984 s ite, a pproximately 8 0% o f t he b ones were c attle b ones, whereas s heep/goat r epresented o nly s ome 1 0%. I n a ddi tion, a s ma l l amount o f g ame ( deer a nd o thers) was p resent ( L.L. Therkorn, p ers. c omm.). A number o f a nimal b ones f rom V elsen-Hofgeest were r andomly c hosen f or a na lysis f rom t he e xcavated b one materia l . The o nly human b one p resent i n t his s ite, a s kull f ragment ( R h al f o s f rontale o f a dult p erson w ith s utura metopica) was a lso a nalysed a nd a s eries o f s amples was t aken f rom t he s ix i nhumat ions p resent i n o ne o f t he n earby b arrows ( barrow A , Woltering 1 979 a nd p ers. c omm.). These b ones h ave b een s tudied by d r. W . R. K. P erizonius ( Utrecht) a nd a re n ot d escribed i n A ppendix 1 . I t i s p robable t hat t he p rimary g rave o f t he f irst p eriod o f t he b arrow which was e ncircled by c losely s paced p osts, w as a c remation. The s econd p eriod o f t he b arrow was e nclosed b y an arrow, c ircular d itch. F our i nhumat ion g raves were p resent i n t his phase. A c rouched i nhumation o f af emale i nterred o n t he R s ide a nd l ooking N , p robably r epresents t he p rimary g rave o f t his phase. Three more i nhumat ions, e xtended o n t heir b acks were p resent i n t he b arrow: a male ( SE-NW) and t wo f emales ( NE-SW a nd S E-NW, r espect ively). A f urther s keleton, a f emale, e xtended NE-SW, was p resent i n ap it t hat c ut t he c ircular d itch. The s ixth s keleton, a male, e xtended SW-NE, was f ound j ust e ast o f t he b arrow. I n t he o rientation o f t he b odies, t his b arrow a ppears t o b e d i fferent f rom t he b arrows i n West-Friesland, where a ll e xtended f emale buria ls a re o rientated E-W ( table 1.3).

4 5

D . THE BO NES D .1. The human bones D .1.1. S trategy The number o f b ones p resent p er i ndividual i s v ariable. S ome s keletons a re a lmost c omplete, o thers a re r epresented by o nly a s ingle f ragment o f b one. F or s tudies s uch a s t he p resent o ne, t he number o f i ndividuals t o b e a nalysed s hould b e a s l arge a s p ossible. I t was t herefore d ecided t o s ample n ot o nly t he more o r l ess c omplete s keletons, b ut a lso i solated b ones. A s econd r eason t o d o t his i s t he d i fference b etween t he c ontexts i n which t he i solated b ones a nd t he s keletons were f ound. I n t he g roup o f t he i solated b ones, e ach i ndividual i s r epresented b y o nly o ne s ample. The ma jority o f t he i solated b ones a re l ong b ones ( femur, t ibia, humerus) o ften i ncomplete. These l ong b ones w ere i nvariably s ampled e xcept when t he f ragment was t oo s mal l . O ther i solated s keletal e lements, e .g. f ragments o f s kul l o r smal ll ong b ones ( ulna, r adius, f ibula) were s ampled o nly i f t his was j usti fied b y t he f ragment s ize a nd a nthropological v alue. F or r easons o f c omparison a nd d iagenesis, i t i s o bvious t hat we must s trive t o s ample a nd t o a nalyse t he s ame s keleta l e lement i n e ach i ndividua l . L ong b ones a re t he most s uitable f or s ampling a nd a na lysis f or b oth p ractical a nd c hemical r easons. The t hick c ort ica l b one o f l ong b ones i s l ess a ffected b y s oi l c ondit ions, a nd o n a ccount o f t heir r obustness o ne o r more l ong b ones a re u sua lly p resent f or most o f t he i ndividuals. C omparison b etween t race e lement l evels w ithin i n i s p ossible t hrough t he a nalysis o f s amples o f v arious s keletal e lements f rom e ach i ndividua l . F urthermore, t his method p ermits c omparison w ith i solated n on— long b one s amples. Another r eason f or a na lysing more b ones p er i ndividualis t hat a s ac onsequence o f f aster b one r eplacement i n c ertain s keletal e lements, t his m ight y ield c lues o n d ietary c hanges s hortly b efore d eath.

D .1.2. The s amples A s f ar a s p ossible, a s ample f rom o ne o f t he l ong b ones, f emur, t ibia o r humerus, was t aken f rom e ach i ndividual . A ddit ional s amples were t aken f rom t he s keletons f rom o ne o r more o ther b ones ( skul l , v ertebrae, r ibs). An o verview o f t he human b one s amples a nalysed i s g iven i n t able 1.9.

D .1.3. Age, s ex and s tatus groups One o f t he a ims o f t he p resent s tudy i s t he a ssessment o f d ifferences b etween g roups o f i ndividuals. B esides a n o bvious s eparation i nto g roups o n t he b asis o f s ettlement p eriods, g roupings b ased o n s ex, a ge a nd s tatus a re p ossible. Ad ivision i nto t wo s tatus g roups i s o bvious, t he o ne g roup c onsist ing o f t he i nhumations, t he o ther o f t he i ndividuals r epresented by i solated b ones. H owever, b esides s tatus d ifferences, t hese g roups a lso r epresent d ifferent phases o f o ccupa tion. The i nhumations s tem f rom t he e arl ier o ccupat ion p eriod whi le t he i solated b ones o ccur i n f eatures f rom t he l ater p eriod ( section M C . 2). W ithin t he h igh s tatus g roup, i .e. t he i nhumat ions, a f urther d ivision i s p ossible o n t he b asis o f l ocat ion o f t he g rave a nd t he

4 6

g rave g ifts. However, due t o t he l imited number o f i nhumations t his would r esult i n g roups c onsisting o f n o more t han a f ew i ndividuals. Due t o i ndividual v ariations i n t race e lement l evels, s uch a d ivision w i ll n ot p roduce m eaningful r esults a nd h as t herefore b een a voided. P ossible s tatus d ifferences s hould h owever b e k ept i n m ind.

T able 1 1.9. S ynopsis o f s amples o f h uman b ones f rom t he s ites i n W est-Friesland. T he s ex s eparation i ncludes i ndividuals t ermed ' probably m ale'

a nd

' probably f emale'

s ite u nknown

n o.

a nd i s b ased o n A ppendix 1 .

o f s amples

n o.

o f

m ale

f emale

l ong b ones

o ther

i ndividuals

s ex

b arrows f lat g raves G rootebroek H oogkarspel

7 5 3

5 4 2

8 5 5

3 2 2

4 2 2

1 1 1

s ettlement i nhumations

1 1 3

3 3

1 4 5

2 1

2

1 2 2

1 3

8

4

1

Z waagdijk

O ostwoud E nkhuizen D e T ent B ovenkarspel i nhumations

1 2

2 3

H et V alkje

1

A ndijk S chagen M uggenburg V elsen

1

b arrow s ettlement V alkenburg t otals

2 3

2 ?

4

2 ?

3

1 1

3

2 0

8

m ax.

1 9

8

3

5

4

9 m ax.

1 0

4

9

5

3

1

1

6

4 1

6 1

1

1 1

4

4 8 0

4 7 9

m ax.

1 10

4 3 5

2 7

4 8

The s tatus g roups may b e d ivided i nto a ge a nd s ex c lasses, a p rocedure r arely p ossible i n t he g roup o f i solated b ones s ince n either a ge n or s ex o f t he ma jority o f i ndividuals c an b e e stablished. I n t he g roup o f t he i nhumat ions i n f lat g raves a nd b arrows, 2 9 i ndividuals w ere g rouped a ccording t o s ex a nd a ge o n t he b asis o f i nformat ion i n A ppendix 1 . ( table 1 1.10). The a ge c lass d ivision ( < 10, 1 5-25, 2 5-35 a nd > 35) was c hosen f or v arious r easons. The l imited number o f i ndividuals d oes n ot alow n arrower a ge g roups. The l imits o f t he a ge g roups c orrespond t o a ge g roup b oundaries i n t he t ooth wear a ge e st imation s cheme o f B rothwel l ( 1981). I ndividuals e stimated a s ' adult ' were p laced i n t he g roup 1 5-25. The g rouping r esults i n af airly e qua l d istribution o f t he i ndividuals o ver t he g roups. However, t he d istribution o f s amples f rom t he s ame b arrow o ver t he g roups i s n ot e qua l . F or i nstance, i n t he a ge g roup o f 1 5-25 a lmost a ll f ema les, but n one o f t he males c ome f rom t he Zwaagdi jk b arrows. This u neven d istribution m ight c ause b ias due t o g eographical d i fferences i n t race e lement c oncentrat ions a nd t herefore h as t o b e t aken i nto a ccount i n

4 7

t he a ssessment o f t he t race e lement l evels i n t he v ar ious a ge a nd s ex g roups.

T able 1 1.10. D ivision i nto a ge a nd s ex g roups o f t he i ndividuals f rom f lat g raves a nd b arrows. B ased o n A ppendix 1 . a ge g roup

b arrow

0 -10

Z waagdijk 1 V-15

1 0

G rootebroek 1 -2(2) Z waagdijk 5 H K 2

1 4 4 5 4 7

c at.no

f emale b arrow

m ale c at.no

b arrow

c at.no

1 0-15 1 5-25

Z waagdijk I V-11 Z waagdijk 1 -16 Z waagdijk 1 -17 G rootebroek 1 -4 Z waagdijk 1

6 3 4 1 6 4 1

G rootebroek 1 -7 O ostwoud 1 1-228 O ostwoud 1 1-235 O ostwoud 1 1-239 O ostwoud 1 1-242 Z waagdijk 3

1 5 2 8

2 5-35

Z waagdijk 1 V-10 O ostwoud 1 -231 O ostwoud 1 1-232 O ostwoud 1 1-247

5 2 6 3 0 3 6(2)

Z waagdijk I V-12 Z waagdijk I V-14 O ostwoud 1 1-229 O ostwoud 1 -230

7 9 2 9 2 5

> 35

O ostwoud 1 1-243 H w 7 1 H B

3 6(1) 5 6 5 7

O ostwoud 1 1-236 Z waagdijk 2 H oogkarspel I a 2 28

3 3 4 2 5 1

3 2 3 4 3 5 4 3

D .2. The animal bones D .2.1. S trategy F or r easons e xplained i n s ect ion I . B .1, t he a nalysis o f a nimal b ones i n a ddition t o human b ones i s e ssent ial i n t race e lement s tudies. A number o f a n imal b ones were t herefore s ampled f rom e ach o f t he s ites. I n most s i tes i n t he a rea, b ones o f h erbivorous a nimals, c attle a nd t o al esser e xtent s heep/goat, a re p resent i n s ufficient quant it ies. B ones o f omnivorous a nimals, p igs a nd d ogs, a re i n many c ases a lso p resent, t hough i n sma ller n umbers. N o s trict ly c arnivorous a nimals a re p resent i n t he b one material f rom t he e xcavat ions. F rom t he l arger s ites, c att le metapodia were s elected f or a nalysis. I t i s p ossible t o s ex t hese b ones u sing t he c r iteria d escribed by I Jzereef ( 1981). Thus, f or t hese s ites t he c omparison b etween t race e lement l evels i n c ows a nd bu lls/steers i s p ossible.

4 8

B ecause o f t he r elat ively a nd numerica lly small number o f b ones f rom p igs a nd d ogs, i t was n ot p ossible t o maintain t he r estriction t o l ong b ones o nly a nd o ther s keletal e lements s uch a s mandibles a nd r ibs were a lso s ampled.

D .2.2. Samples A n o verview o f t he s amples o f p rehistoric a nimal b ones i s g iven i n t able 1.11. I n a ddit ion t o t hese b ones, s ome f resh c attle b ones were s ampled a nd a na lysed. A s eries o f f resh c attle b ones was o btained t hrough t he a id o f d rs. P .L. B ergström ( IV 0 Z eist). A s econd s eries o f f resh c attle b ones was o btained f rom t he Amsterdam Abattoir.

T able 1 1.11. N umbers o f c hemically a nalysed a nimal b ones f rom t he W est-Frisian s ites s ite

c attle m ale f emale

p ig

d og

s heep/ g oat

2

3

t otal

Z waagdijk G rootebroek

6 6

3

O ostwoud E nkhuizen

7

1

D e T ent B ovenkarspel

5

1

H et V alkje A ndijk H oogkarspel S chagen

1 5 1 0

1 7 1 0

3 2 2 0 1 9

M uggenburg V elsen W estwoud

1 2

1 4

3 2 1 0 8

t otals

3 7

4 1

1 45

1 5 7

1 4 2

9 2 1

7 2 1

3 8

2 9

h orse

1 5 1 0

f ish

6

1 1 5

1

4 4

1

2

8

D .3. S tate o f c onservation The s tate o f c onservat ion o f t he b ones c an b e a ssessed u sing macroscopic, m icroscopic, m ineralogical a nd c hemical c haracterist ics. Macroscopic appearance M ost o f t he b ones a ppear t o b e unaffected o r o nly s l ight ly s o by t he p eriod o f bur ial . A m inor p art o f t he material c oncerned i s weathered, but most o f t he b ones h ave a r ather s mooth, undamaged c ortex. The c olour o f t he b ones h as c hanged f rom t he o r iginal y e llow-white hues t o b rown, g rey-brown o r y el low-brown c olours a t p resent. Many b ones d isplay d ark b rown mott ling ( plate 1 ). When s amples were s awn o ut o f t he b ones w ith a n e lectric b and s aw ( section II. A ), most g ave o ff a n asty smel l r esembling t he smell o f h eated f resh b ones. This, a nd t he weight l oss when a shed i ndicate t hat a t l east s ome o f t he o rganic f raction i s s t i ll p resent i n t he b ones.

4 9

p late

1

E xamples o f h uman b ones u sed i n t his s tudy: a c omplete f emur a nd a f emur d iaphysis f rom H et V alkje. T riangular s amples h ave b een t aken f rom e ach.

M icroscopic appearance Two t hin—sections o f r andomly c hosen b ones u sed i n t his s tudy were made b y t he Anatomisch—Embryologisch L aboratorium o f t he R i jksuniversiteit L eiden ( dr G .J. R. Maat).

N o e tching o r c olour ing was u sed. The

t hin—sections were s tudied w ith a m icroscope u sing n ormal a nd p olarized l ight. S ome p ictures were t aken t o s how t he h istological s tructure s t il l p resent i n t he b ones ( plate 2 ). The ma jor p art o f t he i nterior o f t he b ones c onsists o f b irefringent b one t issue o rdered i n h aversian s ystems. S ome o paque ( iron o r o ther) c ompounds h ave b een d eposited a long t he c ortex o f t he b one a nd i n t he Haversian c hannels, but t he i nterior o f t he b ones a ppears p ractical ly unaltered. Opaque, more o r l ess d endr itic p atterns a re v isible i n t he b one ( plate 3 ) which p robably r esult f rom b iogenous d ecomposition by f ungi o r b acteria ( compare P iepenbrink 1 986) a nd ma inly a ffect t he o rganic b one f raction.

p late 2

T hin s ection o f ( A le o f

t he b ones u sed

c anals a nd c ircularly a rranged b one

5 0

i n t his s tudy,

t issue ( half

s howing h aversian

p olarized

l ight).

p late 3

T hin s ection o f o ne o f

t he b ones u sed

i n t his s tudy,

s howing o paque

d endritic s tructure n ear t he o uter c ortex ( half p olarized l ight).

M ineralogy A s c an b e i nferred f rom t he m icroscopic a ppearance o f t he b ones, t he m ineralogical c omponents o f t he b ones, i .e. t he hydroxyapat ite c rystals, a re h ardly a ffected b y t he s oi l s olution. To c heck t his a ssumpt ion, s ome X-ray d iffractograms o f p owdered excavated b one were made by B . d e L eeuw ( Universiteit v an Amsterdam). The d i ffractograms s howed t he p attern o f b road l ines t ypical f or b one hydroxyapatite. No o ther m inerals w ere d etected.

Chemistry The chemistry o f t he b ones, and e specially t he amount o f F e a nd t he r elation b etween amounts o f Ca a nd P , i s a n i ndication f or t he s tate o f c onservation. These a spects w i f i b e d iscussed i n c hapter I V.

D .4. Cremations D .4.1. S trategy The i nterred r ema ins o f c remated humans h ave b een f ound i n a ddit ion t o t he i nhumations a t a number o f s ites i n West-Friesland. No i nformation on t race e lements i n c remated b one i s a va ilable ( sect ion I . B .1.6), and i t was t herefore d ecided t o e xplore t he p otential o f c remated b one f or p aleodietary s tudies by a nalysing a l imited number o f c alcinated r emains f rom t hose

s ites

f rom which s amples o f n on-burnt b one were t aken. The s ites a re d escribed' i n more deta il i n s ect ion I I. C . 2.

5 1

D .4.2. The s amples S amples o f c remation r emains f rom f our s ites w ere t aken ( table 1 1.12): Grootebroek Two s amples were t aken f rom e ach o f f our c remat ions. The c remation f rom t he t hird phase o f b arrow I II i s n ot mentioned b y A ssies ( in Van G iffen 1 953: 2 1) and was n ot p resent i n t he b ox w ith t he o ther c remations. The f our a na lysed c remat ions a re 1 1, 1 2 and 1 3 f rom t he t hree phases o f b arrow I , a nd 1 7 f rom t he f irst phase o f b arrow I II. The woman ( ?) f rom t he t hird phase o f b arrow I was i ncompletely burnt. I n t his c ase, burnt and p artly burnt o r c harred b one c an b e c ompared ( Van G iffen 1 953) Hoogkarspel F rom b arrow Hoogkarspel I a t wo c remat ions were a vailable f or a nalysis b esides a n a lmost c omplete s keleton. One o f t he c remation s amples was t aken f rom an i ncompletely burnt ( charred) l ong b one f ragment. I n t his c ase, t he e ffect o f burning on b one t race e lement c oncentrat ions c ould b e monitored. S chagen—Muggenburg I n t he 1 984 c ampaign, a c luster o f s even u rns, e ach c ontaining human c remation r emains, was e xcavated (Therkorn 1 984). A s ample o f c remated b one was t aken f rom e ach u rn. Valkenburg The l arge—scale e xcavat ions o f ac emetery a nd s ettlement t races o f t he R oman P eriod n ear Valkenburg ( prov. S outh—Hol land) y ielded numerous f inds o f c remations ( Bult & Hal lewas 1 986, Hal lewas 1 986). I nhumations were a lso f ound i n t he s ame s ite. I n v iew o f t he p otential o f t his l arge s ite f or c omparisons b etween c remation a nd i nhumat ion a nalysis, a p ilot s tudy was c arried o ut a nd a sma l l number o f s amples was a na lysed.

T able 1 1.12. m aterial

N umbers o f

f rom v arious

s ite

s amples o f c remated b one

s ites s amples

i ndividuals

G rootebroek

8

4

S chagen—Muggenburg

7

7

V alkenburg ( S—H) H oogkarspel

4 2

4 2

t otal

2 1

5 2

1 7

I II ANALYTICAL BONE

PROCEDURES

IN

ANALYSIS

A . AN ALY TIC AL PRO CE DU RE Analysis o f b ones a nd o ther materials was c arried o ut a t t he N etherlands Energy Research F oundat ion ( EC N ) a t P etten. The g eneral p rocedure o f t he a nalysis o f b one s amples i s d escribed i n t his c hapter w ith d etai ls o n t he a nalysis o f s pecific e lements p resented i n t he s ubsequent c hapters. The p rocedures i n t he a nalysis o f c remations a nd s o il a nd p lant mater ial w i ll b e d escribed i n c hapter V III and I X. B ones were s uperficial ly c leaned a t t he e xcavat ion. I n t he l aboratory, s amples were s awn o ut o f t he s elected b ones u sing a n e lectric b and s aw o r a s imple c arpenter 's s aw.

B one s amples were c leaned i n an u ltrasonic b ath

w ith warm d emineral ized water. A fter d rying, s amples were g round i n ad isc m il l ( Siebtechnik), w ith t ungsten-carbide v essel a nd d iscs. The d isc m il l p roved t o b e h ighly s at isfactory f or g rinding t he t ough and c ompact b one. The e xcessive h eating o f t he s amples due t o l ong m i l l ing t imes, a s e ncountered i n b al l m il ls, was n o p roblem i n t his t ype o f m il l: s ome 1 5 s econds o f g rinding w ere e nough t o r educe t ough b one t o af ine p owder. However, c leaning t he gr inding v essel i tself i s r ather t ime c onsuming. S ieving was n ot n ecessary. B one p owder was s tored i n p olyethylene s ample t ubes. As econd method f or g rinding b one was employed: t he b one s ample was m echanical ly b roken i n smal l p ieces. These b one p ieces were a shed a nd s ubsequent ly g round i n a n a gate mortar. F resh c attle b ones were b oiled a nd manual ly c leaned p rior t o s ampling and a shing.

A fter a shing, t he a sh was g round i n t he d isc m il l ..

B one p owder ( c.q. p ieces) was a shed i n 2 -4 g ram p ortions i n quartz d ishes i n a n e lectric f urnace ( 6 h ours, 7 50 ° C ). B one a sh was d igested u sing PTFE p ressure v essels w ith s tainless s teel c ontainers.

Approximately 0 .25 g o f b one a sh was weighed a ccurately i nto

t he v essels a nd h eated w ith a m ixture o f c oncentrated HNO h ours a t 1 75 0 C .

3

and HCl f or 6

The hydrochloric a cid a ttacks t he s tainless s teel p ressure c ontainers. To a void t his, d igestion w ith a H N 03 / H C 10 4 m ixture was t ried. F or f resh b one s amples, t his g ave a nalytical r esults c omparable t o t he m ixture w ith H C l, b ut i n c ase o f p rehistoric b one materia l, c oncentrations o f S r a nd o ther e lements were s l ightly l ower when t he H C 10 4 m ixture was u sed. S trontium c oncentrations i n t he n i tric-hydrochlor ic a cid d igest ion were c loser t o t he c oncentrations d etermined by i sotope d i lution ( IDMS, s ee b elow) t han t he c oncentrations i n H N0 .4-H C 10

4

d igest ions. I t was, t herefore, d ecided t o

c ont inue u sing t he HNO 3-HCL m ixture d espite t he e xtra work i nvolved i n c leaning t he p ressure c ontainers. Apart f rom t he s amples f rom Andi jk, a ll b one s amples were d igested w ith t he H N 03 / H C l m ixture. The s ample s olutions w ere t ransferred t o p olyethylene f lasks a nd g ravimetrica l ly d iluted w ith d emineralised water. A fter d i lut ion, c oncentrations o f P , F e, B a and S r were measured u sing I nductively C oupled P lasma A tomic Emission S pectrometry ( IC P -AES, J obin-Yvon t ype J Y38 P I-VH R). Calcium a nd Zn were d etermined u sing A tomic Absorption

5 3

S pectrometry ( Perkin-Elmer 3 030 and J arrell-Ash 8 11). I n t he S r, B a a nd F e d etermination, Merck T itrisol was u sed a s as tandard. I sotope D i lution Mass S pectrometry ( IDMS) was p erformed on a number o f b one s amples by t he EC N Mass S pectrometry d epartment. B one a sh was d igested i n am ixture o f n itric a nd hydrochloric a cid i n PTFE p ressure v essels ( 180

°

C , 1 . 6 h r) t ogether w ith 4 4Ca a nd 8 6Sr s pikes. A fter

e vaporat ion a nd c at ion e xchange, mass s pectrometry ( triple f i lament, t hermic i onisation) was c arried o ut. Results have c oefficients o f v ariat ion o f 1 .% .

B . AC C U R AC Y AN D REPR O DU CIBILIT Y N o duplicate s amples were a nalysed, but a number o f s amples were d igested and a nalysed t wice o r more t o o btain a n i nsight i nto t he r eproducibil ity a nd a ccuracy o f t he a nalyses. The r esults o f t hese t ests f or t he v arious e lements a re d iscussed i n t he c hapters I V-VII, r espectively. Twenty-five s amples were a nalysed by i sotope d ilut ion ( IDMS) f or Ca a nd S r c ontent. Results o f I DMS measurements a re d iscussed i n c hapter I V and V .

5 4

I V A NALYSIS O F B ONE: T HE MACRO E LEMENTS C ALCIUM,

P HOSPHORUS A ND I RON

A . IN T R O DU C TIO N I n t his c hapter t he a nalysis o f t he macro e lements Ca, P a nd F e i s d iscussed. The c oncentrations o f t hese e lements a re o f i nterest i n r elation t o p ossible d iagenet ic a lterations o f b one m ineral a nd b one t race e lement c oncentrations. The c oncentrations o f t he ma jor e lement i n b one m ineral, C a, f orm t he b ackground a gainst which t he c oncentrat ions o f o ther e lements a re r eviewed.

B . CALCIU M AN D PH OSPH O RUS: THE AP ATITE BUILDING ST O NES B .1. General C alcium and phosphorus i n c ombinat ion w ith o xygen make up hydroxyapat ite ( here a bbreviated HAP) which c onstitutes t he m ineral phase o f b one. Theoretical ly, Ca a nd Pare p resent i n a n a tomic r at io o f 1 0 t o 6 . In vivo b one C a/P r at ios o ften a re b elow t he t heoretical v alue o f 1 .67, p robably a s ar esult o f t he p resence o f o ther i ons o n Ca s ites i n t he a patite o r o f t he p resence o f d efects i n t he c rystal l attice ( Jowsey 1 977). Hydroxyapatite i s am ember o f t he l arge g roup o f a patites a nd h as t he i deal f ormula Ca 1 0 ( PO 4 )6 ( OH )2 ( Posner 1969 ) . I n a patites p art o f th e Ca a nd P c an b e s ubst ituted b y o ther i ons, s uch S r, Pb, B a, Zn f or Ca and A s a nd V f or P . P art o f t he hydroxy g roups c an b e r eplaced by CO

3

,F o r o ther i ons.

HAP i s s table a t pH v alues h igher t han a pproximately 7 a nd s pecific c oncentrat ions o f HPO4 a nd Ca. A t o ther HPO A a nd Ca c oncentrat ions o ther phosphate m inerals s uch a s o ctocalcium phosplate (Ca 4 H (PO b rushite ( CaHPO

A* 2H20)

A l o r o ther phosphate m inerals s uch a s v ariscite (A l( 0H ) ,PO s trengite ( Fe(OH) 2 H2 PO

4

4 )3 * 3H20

) and

a re s table. A t pH values b elow 7 , a number o f F e, 4 )a nd

)a re s table ( Lindsay & V lek 1 9/7)

Throughout t his p aper a tomic Ca/P r at ios a re u sed. Published Ca/P mass r at ios have b een c onverted t o a tomic r at ios by mult iplying by 0 .774.

B .2. Experimental P hosphorus c oncentrations were measured i n t he b one a sh s olutions u sing I C P —AES a t 2 13.6 a nd 2 14.9 nm. F or t he Ca c oncentrations measurements 1 :200 d ilutions o f t he o riginal b one a sh s olutions were p repared g ravimetrically. The C a c oncentrat ions i n t hese s olutions were measured u sing AAS a t 4 22.7 nm. C oefficients o f v ariat ion i n mult iple i ndependent a nalyses o f r eference s amples were a pproximately 1 % f or t he P a nalyses a nd 1 .8 % f or t he Ca d eterminations. The c oncentrations o f Ca were d etermined i n 2 5 r eference s amples u sing I sotope D ilut ion Mass S pectrometry a s d escr ibed i n s ection I II. A . The c orrelation b etween I DMS and AAS Ca d eterminat ions i s 0 .98 ( n=25).

5 5

B .3. Results and d iscussion I n t otal, 3 2 s amples o f f resh c attle b ones were a nalysed. Mean Ca c oncentrat ion i n t he a sh o f f resh b ones s amples was 3 8.68 + 1 .14 % (CV=2.9 % , n =32) and t he mean P c oncentration 1 8.05 + 0 .44 % ( C V=2.4 % , n =32). The m ean a tomic Ca/P r atio i n t hese s amples i s 1 .E T 6 +0 .07 ( C V=4.1%, n =32). This c orresponds e xactly w ith t he t heoretical v alue f or HAP. The c oncentrat ions o f C a a nd P i n t he e xcavated b ones a re s lightly l ower t han i n f resh b ones: 3 5.96 + 3 .61 % Ca a nd 1 6.03 + 1 .52 % P i n b one a sh ( table I V 1 ,2). The d i fference w ith f resh b ones i s p robably a r esult o f d eposition o f i ron a nd o ther e lements i n t he b ones: t he mean F e c ontent i n a sh o f t he e xcavated b ones i s 2 .37 + 1 .63 % ( table I V.3). The d i fferences i n mean Ca a nd P c oncentrat ions i n a nimal s pecies a re s ma ll b ut, p robably a s ac onsequence o f small s tandard deviat ions, i n s ome c ases s igni ficant a t t he 9 5% l evel ( Student 's t t est). The Ca/P r at ios, however, d o n ot s how d i fferences b etween a nimal s pecies. This a grees w ith f indings o f G rupe ( 1986) f or a ge g roups i n humans: b oth C a a nd P l evels s how v ariat ions, but Ca/P r atios a re w ithin a n arrow r ange.

T able I V.1.

C oncentrations

f rom W est-Frisian s ites. c olumn

' significance'

( mass % i n b one a sh)

G roups w ith t he

d o n ot d iffer a t

s ame

t he

o f

C a i n b ones

l etters

i n t he

5 % l evel

( Student's

t

C V(%)

s ignificance

t est) s pecies h uman l ong b ones h uman o ther b ones c attle p ig

m ean 8 0 7 9

3 7.27 3 2.20

S D 2 .08 5 .10

5 .6 1 5.8

A A

1 44

3 7.49

1 .64

4 .4

3 6

3 6.70

2 .32

6 .3

d og

3 6

3 5.20

3 .61

1 0.3

s heep/goat

4 4

3 6.01

2 .41

6 .7

B

B

C D C

D

The mean a tomic Ca/P r atio i n t he p rehistoric b ones i s 1 .74 which c orresponds t o 1 0.44 a toms o f Ca p er 6 a toms o f P . S ome Ca must t herefore h ave b een d eposited i n t he b ones o r e lse P h as b een l eached out o f t he b ones s l ightly more t han Ca. The r esults f or t he f resh b one s amples d o n ot s uggest t hat s ystematical a nalytical e rrors a re i nvolved.

5 6

T able I V.2.

C oncentrations

W est-Frisian s ites.

( mass % i n b one a sh)

I dentical

t hat g roups d o n ot d iffer a t t he

l ast

C a/P)

c olumn,

l etters t he

i n c olumn

5 % l evel

o f P i n b ones f rom ' sign.'

( Student's

t he m ean a tomic C a/P r atio

i ndicate

t t est).

( = 0 .774 * m ass

I n

r atio

i s g iven

s pecies

m ean

S D

C V(%)

s ign.

a tomic r atio C a/P

h uman *

8 0

1 6.52

. 69

4 .2

h uman

7 9

1 4.39

2 .20

1 5.3

1 45 3 7

1 6.59 1 6.19

. 54 . 86

3 .2 5 .3

d og

3 6

1 5.54

1 .62

1 0.4

s heep/goat

4 4

1 6.41

1 .03

6 .3

§

c attle p ig

A

1 .75

B

1 .73 1 .75

A

1 .75 1 .75 A

1 .70

B

* l ong b ones § o ther b ones The chemical and m icrobiological d eterioration o f buried b one i s a pparently ac omplex p rocess, t he o utcome o f which d epends o n a number o f f actors. A s s tated by Nelson & S auer ( 1984), e very bur ial c ontext i s unique. This i s i lustrated b y t he Ca/P r at ios o f excavated b ones f rom v arious s ites ( table I V.3), which i ndicates t hat e ither C a o r Pi s p resent i n t oo h igh r elat ive quant ities. This i ndicates t hat Ca was e ither l eached o ut o f, o r d eposited i nto, t he b one. Phosphorus, i n o ne o r a nother c ompound, a ppears t o b e r ather i mmobile due t o t he l ow s olubil ity o f many P c ompounds ( Bolt & B ruggenwert 1 976).

T able I V.3.

S ynopsis o f p ublished C a/P r atios

i n e xcavated a nd

f resh b ones a uthor

G rupe ( 1986) W hite & H annus K yle

( 1986)

t his

p aper

n o. o f s amples

( 1983)

f resh c attle b ones

- C a/P r atio m ass a tomic

1 06 2 4

1 .96 2 .37

1 .52 1 .83

n o. o f C a i ons p er 6 P i ons 9 .1 1 1.0

1 6

1 .77

1 .35

8 .1

3 7

2 .81

2 .17

1 3.1

4 59

2 .24

1 .74

1 0.4

3 2

2 .14

1 .66

1 0.0

A m odel f or t he d ecomposit ion o f b one i n s oi l was f ormulated b y White & Hannus ( 1983). This model c omprises t he m icrobiological d ecomposit ion o f c o llagen which r esults i n t he r elease o f H+ i ons

t hat t hereupon r eplace Ca i n

HAP. Calcium i ons may t hen e ither b e l eached o ut o f t he b one o r r emain p resent i n t he b one i n a nother m ineral f orm. This p rocess p ossibly a lso c ompr ises t he f ormat ion o f b rushite. B rushite h as a Ca/P r atio o f 1a nd h as b een i denti fied i n e xcavated b ones ( Piepenbrink 1 986). This p rocess may b e o perat ive e ven i n c alcareous s oils, b ecause t he a cids a re f ormed i nside t he b one. However, o xygen a nd water h ave t o b e p resent. That t his p rocess i s un l ikely t o h ave b een o f s ignificance i n t he b ones s tudied h ere may b e c oncluded f rom t he h igh Ca/P r atios.

5 7

Kyle ( 1986) f ound a s trong n egat ive c orrelation b etween S i and C a c oncentrations i n b ones. S uperfluous Ca a ppears t o b e p resent i n t he b one i n c ombination w ith S i and o ther e lements. Kyle u sed r egression l ines f or t race e lement and S i c oncentrations i n e stimat ing c oncentrations n ot due t o c ontamination. S tront ium c oncentrations a ppeared t o b e c orrelated w ith S i a nd C a c oncentrat ions. Regression analysis r esulted i n an a djusted m ean c oncentration o f 1 320 ppm S r i n b one a sh c ompared w ith a measured, ' contaminated ' v alue o f 1 790 ppm. The d eviation f rom t heoret ical Ca/P r atios i s v ery h igh i n t he s amples o f Kyle ( 1986). S ome a lterat ions i n Ca c oncentrations may h ave o ccurred i n t he b ones f rom West—Frisian excavations t hough t hese a re r elatively smal l ( table I V.3). We d id n ot a nalyse f or S i c oncentrations b ut F e c oncentrations may b e u sed s im ilarly f or e xtrapolat ions t o ' original ' t race e lement l evels ( section I V.C). I t may b e e xpected, h owever, t hat i n t he s peci fic c ase o f t he W est—Frisian b ones, d iagenet ic c hanges w i l l h ave b een m inor.

C . IR O N C .1. General Only t races o f i ron a re p resent i n f resh b ones, whereas s oils c ontain r elatively h igh amounts o f F e. I ron i n e xcavated b ones must t herefore r esult f rom c ontaminat ion, a nd F e c oncentrations may t hus b e u sed i n t he a ssessment o f d iagenet ic c hanges o f b ones. Concentrations o f t race e lements t hat a re c orrelated w ith F e c oncentrations a re s uspect. I t i s f or t his r eason t hat F e c oncentrations i n t he b ones f rom West—Friesland were measured.

C .2. Experimental I ron c oncentrat ions i n t he b one a sh s olut ions w ere measured u sing I C P —AES a t 2 59.9 nm. Mult iple analysis o f r eference s amples y ielded c oefficients o f v ar iation o f a pproximately 0 .5-2 % .

C .3. Results and d iscussion The F e c ontent i n t he f resh b ones i s v ery l ow, a ll F e c oncentrations b eing l ower t han 0 .02% ( n=32). Analytical e rrors may b e r elatively l arge due t o t hese l ow c oncentrations, C onsiderable amounts o f F e a re p resent i n t he e xcavated b ones ( table I V.4). The l owest F e c oncentrations a re f ound i n t he c attle b ones a nd t he human l ong b ones. The b ones o f t he smal ler a nimals i n g eneral c ontain h igher amounts o f F e. This a grees w ith m icro— a nd macroscopic o bservations o n t he b ones. The d ark s tains and t he o paque i ntrusions a re c oncentrated ' n ear t he s urface o f t he b ones ( section I I. D .3). Small b ones, o bviously, h ave a r elatively l arge s urface a rea.

5 8

T able I V.4. I ron c oncentrations ( mass % i n b oneash) i n b ones f rom W est-Frisian s ites. I dentical l etters i n c olumn ' sign.' i ndicate t hat

l evels d o n ot d iffer a t t he 9 5% l evel

s pecies h uman l ong b ones h uman o ther b ones * c attle p ig d og s heep/goat

( Student's

m ean

S D

C V(%)

8 0 1 03 1 45 3 7

2 .01 2 .73 1 .94 2 .40

1 .63 2 .52 . 72 . 87

6 8.9 9 2.1 3 6.9 3 6.9

3 6 4 4

3 .19 2 .32

1 .75 1 .31

5 4.9 5 6.5

t t est) s ign. C D E A B E B C A BC D

* i ncluding c remations T he d ata s uggest t hat ' o ther human b ones ', t he c ategory c omprising r ibs, v ertebrae a nd o ther n on l ong b ones may b e l ess s uitable f or c hemical a na lysis. T he c oncentrat ions o f Ca a nd F e a ppear t o b e c orrelated n egat ively. This p robably i s ar esult o f t he d ecreasing C a c ontent which i n i ts t urn i s t he c onsequence o f i ncreasing b one w eight due t o d eposi tion o f F e. C orrelations o f c oncentrations o f F e w ith o ther e lements a re d iscussed i n c hapter V-VII.

5 9

V A NALYSIS O F B ONE: S TRONTIUM.

A . ST R O N TIU M/C ALCIU M DISC RIMIN ATIO N IN MAN AN D ANIM ALS A .1. I ntroduction: c alcium and s trontium i n t he f ood chain I n p aleodietary r esearch we a re d eal ing w ith C a a nd S r c oncentrations i n human a nd a nimal b ones. The c oncentrat ions o f C a i n b one i n g eneral s how l i tt le v ariation. I n vivo S r c oncentrations i n b ones a re t he r esult o f as eries o f p rocesses t hat b egin w ith t he i nteract ions b etween Ca, S r and o ther e lements i n t he s oil, a re f ol lowed by d iscriminat ion p rocesses i n t he f ood c hain a nd end w ith t he S r/Ca d iscrimination i n t he human b ody during t he f ormat ion o f b one m ineral . The physiological and/or physico-chemical d iscriminat ion p rocesses i n t he f ood c hain d etermine t he S r/Ca r at ios i n t he c omponents o f human d iets. F or t he i nterpretation o f S r l evels i n p rehistoric human b ones t hese p rocesses, o r r ather t heir e ffects, must b e understood. Furthermore, knowledge o f t he r ange o f a vai lable a nd u ti l ized f ood i tems i s e ssent ial . The i mpact o f ap articular f ood i tem on t he o veral l S r/Ca r atio o f ah uman d iet i s af unct ion o f t hree f actors: ( 1 .) t he r elat ive quantity i n which i ti s c onsumed, ( 2) i ts Ca c ontent a nd ( 3) i ts S r/Ca r atio r elative t o t he S r/Ca r at ios o f t he o ther f ood i tems. I n t his chapter, d ata o n t he S r/Ca r at ios i n g roups o f n on-vegetable f ood i tems a re p resented. These r atios s hould b e r eviewed i n r elat ion t o t he a ccessory Ca c oncentrations p er unit o f e nergy ( table V .1). S tront ium/calcium r elationships i n p lants and i n v egetable f ood i tems a re d ealt w ith i n as imilar way i n c hapter I X. The S r/Ca d iscriminat ion i n mammals, i ncluding man, i s o f i nterest, o n t he o ne h and b ecause i t i ncludes t he t erminal s tep i n t he S r/Ca d iscriminat ion i n t he f ood c hain t o human b one, o n t he o ther h and b ecause mammals a nd t heir p roducts f orm a c onsiderable p ortion o f t he human d iet.

A .2. Mam mals and man A .2.1. The Observed Ratio The r elationship b etween S r a nd Ca i n mamma l ian b odies h as b een s tudied b y a number o f r esearchers. The t erminology i ntroduced by Comar e t a l . ( 1957) i s c ommonly u sed t o e xpress t he d iscr iminat ion a gainst S r o n v arious t rop h ic l evels. The o veral l d iscrimination i s expressed a s t he Observed R atio, which i s e qual t o OR = ( Sr/Ca s ample) / ( Sr/Ca p recursor) The OR i s t he r esult o f t he d iscrimat ion p rocesses i n v arious o rgans o f t he b ody, which a re e xpressed a s D iscrimination F actors (DF): OR = (DF1)x( DF2)x...x( DFn).

6 0

T able V .1.

E nergy v alues a nd C a c ontents

C alculated f rom d ata o n m odern 1 983).

V alues

f oods

f or s ome g roups o f P aul & S outhgate

( means + s tandard d eviation)

g roup

p er

e nergy v alue k J p er

m ushrooms

1 *

5 3

e dible

2

6 9

f ungi

l eafy v egetables

1 3

l eafy v egetables

1 1 7

r oots r oots

7

w holemeal

f lour

c ereal g ra i ns f ruits f ruits

1 00 g

1 31

2 1

n uts

3

2 061

h oney

1 *

1 369

4

1 349 + 1 08

c arcasses

m ilk

•67 9

7

1 *

8 25 —

1 *

9 66

7 7

3 4+ 1 2 0 +•17

1 5

8-0 -

1 5 7 I -•1 0 _ 7

1 14 + 8 2

6+ 3

10

6+ 2 _ 0 .4

; 5 -

6 7

7+ 0 .4

0 .5

2 72

1 0 1 20

1 .2 4 4 4 4

1 *

2 84

1 25

c hickens'

e ggs

1 *

6 12

5 2

8 .5

c hickens'

e ggs

1 *

6 39

6 0

9 .4

m ilk

9

5 67 + 2 55

2 4 + 1 1

f ish

1 § 8

4 79 3 90 + 1 27

2 0 1 36 + 8 4

4 1 + 2 7

4

2 95

1 08 T A- 5 5

3 6

s hellfish

m arine s hellfish#

7

7 2

4 .9 + 3 .1

7

s eaweeds

b a b

4 .2

7

_

b a b b a b b a b a b

f ish m arine

a

a

1 6

2 3

1 886

1 03

4 6 ; 2 2

5 1 + 1 5

5

7

1 23

2 2

4 1 402 + 9

n uts

b

1 42 + 1 33

5 3

7

r ef. a

4 5 ; 1 8

4

. 9 1 140 T

d ressed

7 9 ; 5 4

+ 5 6 1 44 1 1 . 51 7 3

1 00kJ

5 4 ; 2 9 3 5 —

4

m eat

m g p er 6

1 16 + 1 59

1 35 ; 7 0

N VT

2 4

1 351

8 $

1 00g

3

•67

b :

C a c ontent m g p er

1 8

7 5 + 3 1 1 7•45 8 3 -

f ood i tems.

1 978,

1 00 g e dible p roduct.

1 * 1 1

p ulses

c ows' c ows'

( a:

1 3

a b a b a b

s nails i nsects $p er

1 00 g d ry p roduct

*m ean v alue b ased o n m any a nalyses §m ean v alue f or

f resh w ater a nd

# c rab,

m ussel,

l obster,

s ea f ish,

5 g f at/100g

s hrimp

A lthough t he Observed Ratio i s n ow c ommonly u sed, t he t erm ' bone r etent ion f actor ' was i ntroduced e arlier by A lexander e t a l . ( 1956). The b one r etent ion f actor, F b, i s d efined a s t he S r/Ca r atio i n b one d ivided by t he S r/Ca r atio i n d iet. I t i s t herefore mathemat ical ly e qual t o t he OR. F or o ur purposes t he o veral l S r/Ca d iscriminat ion b etween f ood a nd t he b ody t issues i s o f p rime i nterest. W ithin t he b ody t here a ppears t o b e n o d i fference i n S r/Ca r at ios i n t he p lasma, t he s oft t issues a nd i n t he b one ( Comar 1 963, f ig. V .1). Observed Rat ios h ave b een e stablished f or man a nd a number o f mammal s pecies ( table V .2). V ar ious t echniques may b e u sed i n t he a ssesment o f OR 's. F or i nstance, t he t otal S r a nd Ca i ntake i n f ood and e xcretion i n urine

6 1

a nd f aeces c an b e measured. O ther t echniques u se o ne o r t wo r adioactive t racers. S ome r esearchers h ave e stablished OR 's b y c omparing human b one S r l evels w ith a verage S r/Ca r at ios o f f oods w ithin a l imited a rea ( Knizhnikov ( S t Marei 1 967, T anaka e t a l . 1 981). A c omparable method was u sed f or f resh white t a iled d eer ( Price e t a l . 1 985a).

T able V .2.

A dult S r/Ca O bserved R atios f or a n umber o f m ammal s pecies.

T echniques a re ( a) c omparison o f g eneralized d ietary S r/Ca r atios w ith b one S r/Ca; ( b) S r a nd C a i sotope s tudy ; ( c) c omparison o f S r a nd C a i n d iet a nd e xcreta; ( d) c omparison o f S r/Ca r atios i n d iets a nd b one s pecies

O R

t echnique

m an m an m an

0 .12 0 .20 0 .25

a a a

T anaka e t a l. 1 981 K nizhnikov & M arei R ivera 1 964 §

m an

0 .25

a

B ryant e t a l.

r at

0 .27

m ouse g uinea p igs d esert r ats r at n on-milk d iet m ilk d iet

0 .35 0 .22

g oat c ow w hite t ailed d eer r abbit

0 .16-0.22 0 .23 0 .61

a

0 .28 c irca 0 .25 0 .204

r abbit §c ited i n R osenthal e t a l.

a

0 .25 0 .21

r eference

1 967

1 958

A lexander e t a l. i bid. i bid. i bid. W asserman e t a l. i bid.

1 956

1 957

C omar e t a l. 1 961 i bid. P rice e t a l. 1 985a R osenthal & H arbor 1 965§ R osenthal e t a l. 1 972

1 972

A mean v alue o f 0 .20-0.25 f or t he OR b one-diet i n a dult mammals a nd m an i s c ommonly a ccepted ( Comar 1 963, 1 967, P rice e t a l . 1 985b, V an W i jngaarden-Bakker 1 986).

A .2.2. Age e ffects D iscr imination a gainAt S r i n t he i ntest inal t ract i s sma ll i n v ery y oung m ammals. A t l ow a ges t he v alues o f OR 's a re s igni ficantly h igher t han i n o lder a nima ls. I n humans, a dult d iscr iminat ion r ates a re p resent w ithin a f ew y ears a fter b irth ( Bryant e t a l . 1 958, L engemann 1 963, Tanaka e t a l . 1 981). I n a ny c ase, s keletal material o f c h ildren o f l ess t han a f ew y ears o ld i s s carce i n a rcheological c ontexts. A t h igher a ges t he a dult OR v alues a ppear t o r emain a t ac onstant l evel . D ata by T anaka e t a l . ( 1981) s how a s l ight i ncrease i n b one S r c oncentrat ions w ith a ge ( compare a lso B ryant & L out it 1 964). N o s uch e ffect i s, h owever, a pparent i n t he d ata o f B ryant e t a l . ( 1958). F or p ract ical p aleodietary s tudies t he a ssumpt ion t hat n o physiological a ge e ffect e xists i n t he S r/Ca d iscrimination i n mammals a nd man would a ppear t o b e a cceptable.

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A .2.3. E ffects o f pregnancy and l actation I n p rehistoric s ociet ies many o f t he f ema les o f r eproductive a ge w ere p robably e ither p regnant o r l actating ( Hassan, 1 981). Physiological e ffects o f p regnancy a nd l actation o n f emale S r/Ca d iscriminat ion h ave t herefore t o b e understood i n o rder t o c ompare S r l evels i n b ones o f males a nd f emales o f r eproductive a ge. B esides t his, t he r elat ion b etween S r/Ca r atios i n t he d iet a nd i n t he m ilk i n mammals i s o f i nterest. The S r/Ca r elat ionships i n m ilk p roducing a nimals s uch a s c ows a nd n anny-goats h ave b een s tudied b ecause m ilk i s a n i mportant f actor i n t he t ransfer o f r adioact ive S r f a llout t o man. V alues o f t he OR m i lk-diet a re c lose t o 0 .1 f or a number o f s pecies (C omar e t a l . 1 961, C omar 1 963, Kahn e t a l . 1 965). W ith OR b ody-diet v alues o f 0 .20-0.25 t his i mplies OR m i lk-body values o f 0 .5-0.4. F oetal S r/Ca r at ios a re c lose t o at enth o f S r/Ca r atios i n maternal d iet ( Knizhnikov & Marei 1 967) t hus c orroborat ing t o t he v alue o f 0 .4-0.6 f or t he OR f oetus-mother r eported by C omar ( 1963). O ther published OR f oetus-mother v alues a re w i thin t he l atter r ange ( Bryant & L outit 1 964, T anaka e t a l . 1 981). P regnant a nd l acta ting mammals e xcrete r elatively more C a t han S r t o t he f oetus a nd i n t he m ilk. I n c onsequence o ne m ight e xpect r elatively h igh S r l evels i n t issues o f p regnant a nd l actating f emales. This i s, h owever, n ot c orroborated b y e xperimental d ata. F emale whi te t a iled d eer h ave l ower b one S r c oncentrations t han male d eer ( Price e t a l . 1 985a). This m ight b e t he r esult o f a lterations i n t he d iscriminat ion i n t he i ntest inal t ract o f f emales. I n p regnant a nd l actating f emales t he d iscriminat ion a gainst S r i s p ossibly d ecreased i n c omparison t o n ormal s ituat ions a s ar esult o f t he i ncreased d emand f or C a a nd t he r esul ting i ncreased e fficiency o f Ca uptake ( Su llen & K avanagh 1 982, P rice e t a l . 1 985a).

A .2.4. E ffect o f h igh Ca l evels and l actose M ilk i s c haracterized b y ah igh C a c ontent ( table V .1) a nd a l ow S r/Ca r atio, which i s 1 /10 o f t he S r/Ca r at io i n t he d iet o f t he m ilk p roducing a nimal . N o e ffect o f h igh d ietary C a l evels o n t he OR b ody-diet h as b een f ound i n l aboratory s tudies w ith C a s upplemented f ood ( Wasserman e t a l . 1 957, C omar e t a l . 1 961). L actose, o n t he c ontrary, h as a well e stabl ished p ositive e ffect o n t he u ptake o f Ca a nd o ther i ons f rom t he i ntest inal t ract (Dupuis & F ournier 1 963, Alen 1 982). Apparently, t he d iscrimination a gainst S r i s d ecreased by l actose ( Lengemann, 1 963). This i s s ubstantiated by t he d i fference i n t he v alues o f OR b ody-diet i n r ats a nd man o n m ilk a nd n on-milk d iets ( Wasserman e t a l . 1 957, C omar & Wasserman 1 958, t able V .2). However, t he q uantitat ive e ffect o f l actose o n t he OR b ody-diet o f t he c onsumer r emains o bscure i n c ases where m i lk i s am inor d ietary c omponent.

A .2.5. Grazers and b rowsers Ruminants c an b e s eparated i n g roups a ccording t o t heir f eeding h abits: g razers, b rowsers a nd i ntermediate f eeders ( Van d e V een 1 979, V an d e V een & Van W ieren 1 980, c ompare Groenman-van Waater inge 1 986). G razers o r bulk-and-roughage f eeders i ngest l arge quant i ties o f v egetable matter, m a inly g rasses. B rowsers o r c oncentrate s electors f eed more s electively a nd c oncentrate o n f oods o f h igher qua lity s uch a s h erbs a nd f ruits. I ntermediate f eeders b ehave a s g razers o r b rowsers d epending o n t he

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a va ilabi lity o f f ood. Examples o f g razers a re c attle ( Bos t aurus), s heep ( Ovis aries) and p lains b ison ( Bison b ison), e xamples o f b rowsers a re e lk ( Alces a lces), white t ai led d eer ( Odocoileus virginianus) a nd g oat ( Capra h ircus). R eindeer ( Rangifer t arandus), e uropean b ison ( Bison b onasus) a nd r ed d eer ( Cervus e lephus) a re e xamples o f i ntermediate f eeders. The f eeding b ehaviour o f t he a nimals i n t he g roups i s r eflected i n t he a natomy a nd f unct ioning o f t heir d igestive t racts. Grazers a re a dapted t o d igest l arge quant i ties o f f ood which p ass r elat ively s lowly t hrough t he i ntestinal t ract. This r esults i n d igestion a nd u ptake o f ar elatively l arge p art o f t he c el l wal l material t hat i s p resent i n t he f ood. B rowsers, o n t he c ontrary, h ave i ntest inal t racts t hat a re a dapted t o ar elatively f ast p assage o f h igh—qua lity f ood. O f t he i ngested material, i t i s mainly t he c el l c ontents which a re d igested, whereas most o f t he c ell wal l materia l p asses t he i ntestinal t ract undigested a nd i s e xcreted. F or t race e lement s tudies t hese d i fferences s hould b e understood b ecause t hey i nfluence many Observed Ratio measurements. This d i fference b etween g razers a nd b rowsers w il l p robably n ot b e d etected i n s tudies where S r and C a t racers a re a dded t o f ood i n t he f orm o f s oluble s alts. F ew d ata o n D istribution Ratios ( sect ion I X . C) o n t he p lant c el ll evel a re a va ilable. I n t he l ight o f t he d ata a ssembled i n c hapter I X, i t a ppears h owever l ikely t hat d i fferences b etween S r/Ca r atios i n c el l c ontents a nd i n c e ll wa lls d o e xist. A s ac onsequence, o vera ll S r/Ca r atios i n f odder o ften w i ll n ot r epresent t he S r/Ca r at io i n t he f raction t hat c an b e d igested b y t he a nimals. I n s tudies i n which b one a nd f odder S r/Ca r at ios a re c ompared ( for i nstance, P rice e t a l . 1 985a), t his e ffect m ight b ias t he c alculat ion o f t he Observed Rat io. I n f act, t he OR ( Sr/Ca r at io i n b one)/(overal l S r/Ca r at io i n f odder)

( 1)

i s d etermined i n t his k ind o f f ield s tudies. The OR ( Sr/Ca r at io i n b one)/( S r/Ca r atio i n d igestable f raction)

( 2)

i s p robably i n b etter a ccordance w ith l aboratory s tudies. The white t a i led d eer, t he s pecies s tudied b y P rice e t a l . ( 1985b), i s c lassi fied a s a c oncentrate f eeder b y V an d e V een ( 1979). I n c ases l ike t his, a nalysis o f e xcreta would b e au seful a ddit ion t o t he a na lysis o f f ood a nd b ones. I f d i fferences b etween t he o vera ll S r/Ca r atio i n p lant mater ial a nd t he S r/Ca r atio i n t he d igestable f ract ion e xist, t hese may b ias t he e xtrapolation f rom S r/Ca r a tios i n b ase line s pecies t o r egional v egetational S r/Ca r at ios. When ah erbivorous b ase line s pecies i s u sed, t he r elation b etween OR 's ( 1) a nd ( 2) s hould b e known. I t i s t o b e e xpected t hat t he d i fference b etween t hese OR 's f or g razers w i l l b e smal l . The g razer—browser e ffect may r esult i n d ifferences i n S r/Ca r at ios i n t he b ones o f a nimals t hat f eed o n p lants w ith e qual o vera ll S r/Ca r atios, e ven i f t hese a nimals e xhibit e qual Observed Rat ios a s d etermined by d ouble t racer s tudies. B esides f ood s election, t he d ifferent ial d igest ion o f f ood may b e one o f t he c auses f or d ifferences i n S r/Ca r atios i n h erbivorous s ingle a nimals i n ar egion. I t i s n ot c lear t o what e xtent t his p rocess i s o perative, f or i nstance i n t he c ase o f a nomalous S r c oncentrations i n s heep/goat b ones when c ompared t o c att le ( compare Runia 1 987a). B oth s heep and c attle a re g razers, but g oats a re n ot. Unfortunately, s heep a nd g oat b ones a re a lmost i ndist inguishable f rom e ach o ther i n a rcheological b one a ssemblages.

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A .3. B irds B oth t he f lesh o f b irds a nd t heir e ggs c an b e c onsumed by humans. I n c ertain cultures t hese f oodstuffs c onstitute a c onsiderable p art o f t he human d iet. Ostrich e ggs, f or i nstance, a re e aten b y modern hunter/gatherers ( Mann 1 981). P re-contact N ew World c ul tures h ad t he t urkey a s t he o nly d omesticated animal s pecies b esides t he d og ( Zeuner 1 963). I n wet e nvironments i n t emperate r egions s uch a s t he western p art o f t he N etherlands during t he N eo lithic a nd B ronze Age, waterfowl a nd t heir e ggs a re a bundantly a vailable a nd may s easona lly b e o f ma jor i mportance a s f ood f or hunter/gatherers a nd, p robably t o al esser e xtent, f armers. S ome w aterfowl b ones were f ound i n t he B ronze Age s ites i n West-Friesland ( IJzereef 1 981). The r elat ive i mportance o f waterfowl a nd o ther e ggs i n t he h uman d iet r emains, h owever, o bscure. F or Dutch p rehistory t his p oint i s o f ma jor i nterest, b ecause e stuarine l andscapes were t he v ery e nvironments i n which p rehistoric c ultures i n t he Holocene p art o f t he c ountry t hrived. D ata o n S r/Ca r elat ionships i n b irds a re n ot a va ilable. S ome work h as b een d one o n t he e ffect o f r adioactive a nd s table S r i n c hickens ' d iets o n t he p roduction a nd f irmness o f e ggs ( Mraz e t a l . 1 967), but we d o n ot h ave d ata o n t he d iscriminat ion a gaiist S r i n t he e gg p roduction. E ggs may b e o f s ome i mportance i n t he C a s upply o f humans, b ecause C a l evels p er unit o f e nergy a re r elat ively h igh ( table V .1).

A .4. Marine and f resh water f ish F ew d ata o n S r/Ca d iscriminat ion i n marine a nd f reshwater f ish a re a vailable. F ish a re a ble t o t ake u p S r a nd C a d irectly f rom t he water v ia g i lls a nd s kin, a nd f rom f ood i n t he i ntest ines, t hough t he l atter mode o f m ineral u ptake i s c onsidered t o b e o f m inor i mportance ( Kornberg & D avis 1 966, Chipman 1 966). F resh water d i ffers d istinctly f rom s ea-water i n t race e lement c oncentrations. Rosenthal e t a l . ( 1970) c alculated a verage S r/Ca r a tios o f 8 m g/g f or f resh water a nd 2 0 mg/g f or s ea-water. S ea-water h as a r elat ively c onstant Ca c oncentrat ion o f 4 00 mg/1 whereas f resh water h as l ow a nd v ar iable m ineral c ontents. Observed Ratios t issue-water f or v arious f resh water a nd marine a nimals a s c alculated by Ophel & J udd ( 1967) a nd Rosenthal e t a l . ( 1970) r anged f rom 0 .19 t o 0 .82. OR 's a ppeared t o b e s im ilar i n a nima ls o ccupying c omparable e cological n iches ( Rosenthal e t a l, 1 970). I n my v iew, t his p oints t o af ish b one S r/Ca r at io d ependent o n f ood S r/Ca r at ios r ather t han o n w ater S r/Ca r atios. Ophel & J udd ( 1967) t ested a s imilar hypothesis b y a nalysing b ones a nd s tomach c ontents o f c arnivorous p erch a nd h erbivorous c arp f rom L ake Huron. Though t he a nalysed s tomach c ontents a nd b ones a re n ot f rom t he s ame f ish s pecimen, t hese d ata were u sed i n c alcula ting OR b ody-diet v alues ( table V .3). Un like t he OR b ody-water, t hese OR 's a ppear t o b e s imilar: 0 .47 a nd 0 .49 f or p erch a nd c arp, r espectively. This s uggests t hat d ietary S r/Ca r atios d etermine b one S r/Ca r atios i n f ish, which i s i n c ontradiction w ith c urrent v iews o n t he uptake o f Ca a nd S r b y f ish where t he uptake o f m inerals b y t he i ntest inal t ract i s c onsidered t o b e o f m inor i mportance ( Chipman 1 966, Kornberg & D avis 1 966). F urther r esearch i s n eeded i n o rder t o e stablish more unequivocal r elationships b etween S r/Ca r atios i n f ish, f ood a nd water.

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T able V .3.

R elationships b etween S r a nd C a ( atoms o f

o f C a) i n L ake H uron p erch a nd c arp. t ables I V, V a nd V I.

n

S r/Ca r atio s tomach b one

p erch

3

p erch c arp

1 0 3

0 .77 _ + 0 .07

s pecies

c arp

3

2 .57 . + .18 . . 0

S r p er 1 000 a toms

D ata f rom O phel & J udd

( 1967),

O bserved R atio b one-water b one-diet

0 .36 + 0 .07

0 .19

0 .47

1 .25 _ + 0 .6

0 .66

0 .49

M arine f oods h ave h igh S r/Ca r atios c ompared w ith t errestrial f oods. A ( paleo)diet w ith s eafood w il l h ave a r elatively h igh S r/Ca r atio. This s hould b e t aken i nto a ccount when a na lyzing b ones f rom c ontexts i n which f ish was p otential ly p art o f t he d iet ( compare Kyle 1 986). E ven small amounts o f f oods w i th d eviant S r/Ca r at ios may c onsiderably a ffect t he S r/Ca r atio o f t he t otal d iet (Runia , 1 987a, b ). N o b ones o f marine f ish were f ound i n B ronze Age s ites i n West-Friesland. The amount o f marine f oods i n t he d iet o f B ronze Age f armers i s d iscussed i n c hapter I X. S ome r emains o f f resh water f ish were d escribed by I Jzereef ( 1981). These b ones a re t o s ome e xtent t he r esult o f n atural t hanatocoenose. F resh water S r/Ca r atios w i l l p robably b e r elatively c lose t o S r/Ca r atios i n t errestrial a nima ls i n t he s ame r egion.

A .5. Marine and f resh water molluscs and c rustacea M arine mol luscs s uch a s mussels ( Mytilus e dulis), o ysters ( Ostrea e dulis) a nd c ockles ( Cerastoderma e dule e dule) may b e i mportant a s f ood r esources f or c oast-dwel ling humans. Mar ine mo l lusc s hells h ave b een s tudied f or t heir S r c ontents a nd S r/Ca r elationships. C onsiderable v ariat ions o f S r c oncentrations o ccur i n mollusc s hel ls. There may b e ar elat ionship b etween water t emperature a nd S r c oncentrat ions ( Hallam & P rice 1 968). An OR s he ll-water o f a pproximately 0 .2 f or s ome marine mo lluscs w as e stablished b y Rosenthal e t a l . ( 1970). However, n o d ata on t he S r/Ca r elat ionship i n t he e dible p art o f t he mo l luscs a re p resented. Ha llam & P rice ( 1968) c onclude t hat s ome b iochemica l c ontrol s ystem r egulates t he c oncentrat ions o f Ca a nd t race e lement i n t he mo lluscs. I t r emains, h owever, unclear a t which p lace i n t he molluscan b ody d iscriminat ion a gainst S r o ccurs. I t t herefore r emains p ossible t hat S r/Ca r atios i n t he mol lusc f lesh a re h igher t han i n t he water a s ac onsequence o f p referent ial s ecretion o f C a i n s hell a ragonite f ormation. I n s hort, n o quant itat ive i nformation o n S r/Ca r atios i n mo llusc meat i s a vailable. D espite t his, i t i s e vident t hat m ar ine m o lluscs h ave h igh C a c ontents a nd c ompared t o t errestrial f oods, h igh S r/Ca r atios. F reshwater mol luscs a ppear t o h ave OR s hel l-water v alues s imilar t o marine m o lluscs d espite t he d ifferences i n o smot ic g radients ( Rosenthal e t a l . 1 970). S ome f reshwater s pecies a re e dible. A s w ith marine mo lluscs, n o d ata o n f lesh S r/Ca r atios a re a va ilable. N o marine mol luscs were a va ilable i n B ronze Age West-Friesland, a nd t here a re n o i ndications f or t he c onsumption o f f reshwater mol luscs (W.J. Kuyper, p ers. c omm.).

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S trontium c oncentrat ions i n marine a nd f reshwater C rustacean e xoskeletons were s tudied b y Rosentha l e t a l . ( 1970). V alues f or OR e xoskeleton-water i n t hree s pecies r anged f rom 0 .52-0.82. Again, n o d ata o n S r/Ca r atios i n t he e dible s oft t issues a re a vai lable.

A .6. Reptiles R ept iles s uch a s t urtles a nd c rocodi les may c onstitute p art o f human d iets ( Hayden 1 981). B esides t heir f lesh, t heir e ggs may a lso b e e aten. F or i nstance, e ggs o f l arge s ea t urtles d eposited i n warm b each s ands may p rovide f ood f or c oast dwe l ling humans. N o i nformat ion o n t he S r/Ca d iscr iminat ion i n r ept iles i s a va ilable. I n t emperate r egions t his w i l l n ot c ause p roblems i n p aleodietary s tudies b ecause r ept iles a nd r ept ile e ggs a re o f n o i mportance a s f oodstuffs.

A .7. Terrestrialinvertebrates T errestrialinvertebrates s uch a s i nsects a nd s na i ls may b e o f s ome i mportance a s f oodstuffs. P resent d ay hunter/gatherers may f or i nstance c onsume t he p rotein-rich w inged male a nd f emale t ermites t hat o nce a y ear l eave t he t ermite mounds i n g reat numbers ( Hayden 1 981). L ocusts a re e aten i n many c ultures i n t ropical a nd s ubtropical r egions (B rothwel l & B rothwell 1 969). The i nsects o f t he c older r egions a re o f l i tt le i mportance a s human f ood, p robably b ecause t hese i nsects g enera lly h ave sma ller b odies t han t heir t ropical a nd s ub-tropical r elatives, a nd o ther f oods c an p robably b e c o llected much more e fficient ly. However, l ice i n t he e xcreta o f I nuit mummies c orroborate s tor ies b y p olar e xplorers t hat t he I nuit c onsumed t heir l ice w ith d e light ( Hart Hansen 1 985). Most l ikely, t his f ood d oes n ot c ontribute much t o t he C a s upply o f t he c onsumers. C alcium a nd s tront ium r ela tionships i n i nsects h ave, t o my knowledge, n ot b een i nvest igated. H oney g athered b y b ees h as a lways b een o f s ome s igni ficance a s f ood f or m an a nd a nimals (B rothwell & B rothwel l 1 969). Though Hayden ( 1981) c ounts h oney a s a n i nsect p roduct, i t i s i n f act a p lant p roduct t hat i s n ot p rocessed b y t he b ees. Honey c ontains s ome 5 mg Ca p er 1 00 g ( table V .1) a nd i ts r ole i n human C a a nd S r s upply i s n egligible. E ven n ow, s na ils o ccupy a p osition o f h onour i n t he mediterranean c uisine a nd i n N orth-Western E uropean d iets. S na i ls l ike o ther mol luscs p robably h ave s ome physiologic c ontrol ling s ystem f or t he t urnover o f Ca b ecause t his e lement i s n eeded f or t he f ormat ion o f t he s hel l . W e h ave n o d ata o n t his s ystem but i t i s l ikely t hat s ome d iscrimination o ccurs. N o d ata o n C a c ontents o f s na ils a re p resent i n NV T ( 1983) a nd P aul & S outhgate ( 1978). I n t he B ronze Age o f W est-Friesland s na i ls w ere o f l i ttle i mportance a s f ood i tem ( W.J Kuyper, p ers.comm.).

6 7

B . EXPERIMEN T AL The s tront ium c oncentrations were measured u sing I C P -AES a t 4 07.7 a nd 4 21.5 nm ( section I II. A ). T o g ain a n i nsight i nto t he r e liabi lity a nd r eproducabi lity o f t he S r d etermination, a number o f b one a sh s olutions w ere p repared i n dup licate o r t riplicate t hough f or t he bulk o f t he s amples t his was n ot d one. Two r eference s amples ( St Ia nd S t I I, c attle b ones f rom Westwoud) were r un 6 a nd 9 t imes r espectively, r esul ting i n c oefficients o f v ariation o f 0 .9 % . M ean c oefficient o f v ariation f or t he I C PS r d eterminat ion i n i ndependently p repared s olut ions o f b one a sh f or a g iven s ample was < 1 .5 % . G eneral ly, t he c orrelat ion b etween I C P -AES a nd I DMS S r measurements i s f airly g ood w ith a c orrelation c oefficient o f 0 .996 ( n=24). I n as ingle s ample, h owever, t he d ifference b etween I C Pa nd I DMS d eterminat ion was 1 2 % . P robably, t his i s ar esult o f a n i nterchange o f s amples. F or t he s tandard s amples, I C Pa nd I DMS d etermined S r c oncentrations w ere 1 111 a nd 1 115 ( St I ) a nd 1 120 a nd 1 125 ( St I) mg S r/kg b one a sh, r espect ively. As econd c heck o n t he a ccuracy o f t he a nalysis was t he a nalyses o f t he I AEA H-5 a nimal b one r eference material . Our r esult i s 1 80 + 7 .4 ( C V=4.1%, n =4) mg S r/kg b one a sh. This c orresponds t o 1 02 mg S r/kg d ry b one, t he a sh c ontent o f H-5 b eing 5 6.44 % . This i s c lose t o t he p rel iminary mean v alues g iven b y t he I AEA ( 104.85 + 1 7.61), but h igher t han t he mean ( 91.1 + 1 ) f ound by Mahant i & B arnes ( 198 ) who u sed I CP-AES. The 1-5 a nimal — b one s ample h as a l ow S r c oncentra tion c ompared t o o ur B ronze Age s amples. The CV f ound f or H-5 ( 4.1%) i s h igh c ompared w ith c oefficients o f v ar iat ion f ound f or t he o ther r eference s amples ( less t han 1 .5 % ). Thus, b oth t he r eproducabil i ty ( indicated by t he l ow c oefficients o f v ariat ion f or s amples a nalysed a t v arious moments) and t he a ccuracy ( indicated b y t he c oefficients o f v ariation, t he c orrespondence b etween I C P a nd I DMS r esults, a nd t he r esult f or t he I AE A H-5 r eference material) a re s ufficient f or o ur purposes. Compared w ith t he c oefficient o f v ar iation o f a bout 2 0 %i n ap opulat ion e at ing t he s ame d iet ( Schoeninger 1 979), a nalyt ical e rrors a re n egligible.

C . RESULTS & D ISC USSIO N C .1. General S tront ium c oncentrations i n s ome 4 50 p rehistor ic b one s amples were m easured. The mean S r c oncentrations f or t he h umans a nd t he animal s pecies a re g iven i n t able V .4. The s tandard d eviations a ppear r ather l arge w ith t he c oefficients o f v ar ia tion h aving v alues o f a bout 2 0 % . P lotting t he c umulative f requencies o f t he S r c oncentrations o n p aper w ith an ormal d istribution a xis r esults i n more o r l ess s traight l ines ( figure V .1). Only i n t he h igh a nd l ow c oncentrat ion r anges d oes s ome d ivergence f rom t he s traight l ines o ccur. S tudent 's t -test was t herefore c onsidered u seful t o t est t he s ignificance o f d ifferences b etween mean S r c oncentrat ions ( table V .4). S tront ium c oncentrations i n t he humans a re s igni ficantly l ower t han i n a ll o f t he a nimal s pecies. F urthermore, s igni ficant d ifferences i n mean S r c oncentrat ions b etween t he d ifferent a nimal s pecies a re a lso p resent.

6 8

•

§

0 4 ) . 0

a )( n c . )

c u

-

t e . 4e

4 1 0

0 U

N

C r ) C D 0 •• 0 1 - i n c r P : 1 . 4 1 C I ) 1 I

8 • o

\•

0 1 4 0

»

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0

•

• \ •

0

0

N . ,

V S

C I 4 4 I n

axis

1 4

\\

: cumulative

C 0 4 4 1

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4 4 1 4 0 4 4 §

-

0

0 , - 0 C I

C A C I ) . 4 4 U

4 . 1 C O ) a )

( I )E C 0

V ' C ) 4 4 1 4 4 1 C P 4 1 ) 0

0 g

0

c l n c : n 0

c n

2

•• C l ) ( C 4 1 . 4 G 0 . 0

0 4 0 C / 2

0

0

0 1 E

4 4 « 1

f igure V .1

•

0

4 . ) O 0 0 C W U 0 1 .

T able V .4. S trontium c oncentrations ( mg/kg b one a sh) i n b ones f rom W est-Frisian s ites: t otals f or a nimal s pecies a nd h umans. T he l ast t wo c olumns i ndicate s tatistical r elevance o f d ifferences ( Student's s pecies h uman * c attle p ig d og s heep/goat

t t est) n

a t 9 5% a nd 9 9% l evel. m ean

S D

8 0 1 45

9 41 1 145

2 08 2 32

2 2 2 0

3 7 3 6 4 4

1 250 1 373 1 385

2 21 2 48 2 40

1 8 1 8 1 7

*o nly s amples f rom l ong b ones

C V(%)

9 5%

9 9%

a b

A B

c d d

BC C C

( femur, h umerus e tc.)

The S r/Ca r at ios were c alculated f or t he g roups o f animals. The d i fferences i n S r/Ca r at ios b etween t he humans a nd t he a nimal s pecies s how ap attern t hat d oes n ot d iverge f rom t hat o f t he S r c oncentrations ( table V .5) The d ata o n humans a nd a nimals a re t reated i n more d eta ilin t he f o l lowing s ections.

T able V .5. A s t able V .4, s pecies h uman * c attle p ig s heep/goat d og

n

f or S r/Ca r atios ( mg S r/g C a)

m ean

S D

8 0 1 45 3 6 4 4

2 .55 3 .07 3 .44 3 .89

0 .67 0 .66 0 .70 0 .88

3 6

3 .97

0 .94

* o nly s amples f rom l ong b ones

( femur,

9 5%

9 9%

a

A

CD

h umerus e tc.)

C .2. D iagenesis P rior t o t he d iscussion a nd i nterpretat ion o f t he S r c oncentrations i n t he b ones t he e xtent o f d iagenetic c hanges must f irst b e e stablished. P ost m ortem c hanges i n t he c oncentrations o f S r i n b ones during p rolonged p er iods o f c ontact b etween s o il a nd b one h ave b een s tudied e xtensively ( sect ion I . C ). S tront ium a ppears t o b e o ne o f t he v ery f ew e lements o f which t he c oncentrat ion i n buried b one i s n ot, o r o nly s l ightly, c hanged b y d iagenetic p rocesses. I n o ur p articular c ase, t here a re s everalindica dons t hat d iagenet ic a lterat ions o f S r c oncentrations a re o nly a m inor f actor. The f irst i ndication i s f ormed by t he c onsistency i n t he d istribut ion o f t he c oncentrations ( figure V .1), i n t he c oefficients o f v ariat ion ( table V .4), a nd i n t he d i fferences b etween t he a nimal s pecies a s d escr ibed a bove. S econdly, t he S r c oncentrations i n t he b ones a re n ot c orrelated w ith t he c oncentrat ions o f F e ( figure V .2) which i n p rehistoric b ones d oes d er ive f rom t he s o il ( chapter I V). I n f igure V .2, many o f t he h igh F e-high S r v alues r epresent r ibs a nd v ertebrae, whereas t he l ow F e-low S r p oints

7 0

-0

+

+ +

+

+

+

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++ +

+ +

+

o o

+

+

+ +

+

+

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+

+

+

+

+

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+

.

+

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+

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.; + .

; Z :

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+H I + #_ 0E c z

+

+

++ +

11 t + +

+

+ +

t

+

e

4 1 + +

a ) b o
35

i n i nhumations

E xplanation i n

t he

( n=29)

a ge

g rouped o n

t he

b asis

t ext.

d i fference i n d iet b etween y oung c h ildren a nd t he o lder c hi ldren a nd a dults. Unfortunately, n o i ndividuals o f t he a ge g roup 1 0-15 y ears a re p resent. S ince a dult OR v alues a re f airly c onstant, t he d iet o f t he males b etween t he a ges o f 1 5 a nd 3 5 a ppears t o h ave b een o f a n a lmost uniform c omposit ion a s f ar a s S r/Ca r atios a re c oncerned. I n c omparison t o t he males, t he f emales s how a s tronger d ecrease i n b one S r l evels a fter t he a ge o f 1 0. The l owest S r c oncentrations a re f ound i n t he a ge 1 5-25 y ears, t he p eriod o f l i fe i n which most o f t he r eproduction a ct ivities o f t he f emales p robably o ccur. P regnancy a nd l actat ion a re l ikely t o c ause a d ecrease o f S r c oncentrations i n b one ( section V . A .2). The d ata t hus s uggest t hat t he d ifference b etween male a nd f emale S r c oncentrations r eflect physiological f actors elated w ith r eproductive a ctivit ies r ather t han d i fferences i n t he d iets o f ma les a nd f emales.

8 2

The l ow S r c oncentrat ion i n t he sma ll g roup ( n=3) o f males o ver 3 5 y ears o f a ge i s d ifficult t o e xplain. They may r esult f rom o ne o r more o f t he f ollowing f actors: r egional v ariat ions i n S r l evels, physiological c auses i ncluding t he e ffect o f d isease, a nd d ietary d i fferences, p robably r elated t o s tatus. The f irst o f t hese f actors a ssumes t hat t he l ow mean S r c oncentration r esults f rom a f ortui tous c oincidence o f a ge g rouping a nd s ites w ith l ow S r l evels. I n t he g roup o f males o lder t han 3 5 y ears, t he i ndividuals c ome f rom t hree d ifferent s ites ( table 1 1.10). The o ld male f rom t he Zwaagdi jk f lat g raves ( 42) h as a l ower S r c oncentration t han b oth t he male a nd t he f emale a ged 1 5-25 f rom t his s ite ( 43, 4 1). The o ld male f rom O ostwoud ( 33) a lso h as aS r c oncentration l ower t han a lmost a ll t he o ther i ndividuals f rom t his s ite. I t a ppears t herefore un likely t hat t he l ow S r l evels i n t he o ld males r esult f rom g eographical b ias. Ac hange i n S r/Ca u ptake a nd metabo lism w ith a dvancing a ge i n males i s n ot l ikely ( section V .A .2). A t h igher a ges t he d ifference b etween male a nd f emale S r/Ca metabol ism i s p robably s ma ller t han a t t he r eproductive a ge. The f emales d o n ot s how a d ecrease i n S r c oncentrations w ith a dvancing a ge. The d ifference b etween t he o lder males a nd f emales i s p robably r elated t o d i fferences i n d iet which may b e s tatus d etermined. D ifferences b etween S r l evels i n males a nd f emales c an a lso b e s een i n t he s tray human b ones f rom t hree s ettlements. The v alue o f s tray b ones i s l imited a s f ar a s e stimation o f s ex a nd a ge i s c oncerned, but i n a number o f c ases a t entat ive d iagnosis c an b e made ( Appendix 1 ). Mean S r l evels f or males and f emales f rom s ettlements a re a ssembled i n t able V .12. I n Andi jk t he f ema les s how s omewhat h igher S r c oncentra tions t han t he males, i n Het Valk je m ean S r c oncentrations f or males a nd f emales a re a lmost e qual . S amples o f unknown s ex h ave s l ightly h igher S r c oncentrat ions, which f or a p arcmay b e t he r esult o f t he p resence o f a number o f b ones f rom y oung i ndividuals i n t his g roup. The d ifference i n S r c oncentra tions i n males and f emales i n g eneral c orroborates t he p icture o f t he S r c oncentrations i n t he i nhumed ma les a nd f emales.

T able V .12. M ean S r c oncentrations i n m ales, f emales a nd i ndividuals o f u nknown s ex f rom t wo s ites. A ll b one s amples

( long b ones a nd o ther b ones)

a re

i ncluded. R eliability o f s exing i n c ertain c ases p oor. V alues i n m g S r/kg b one a sh . s ite V alkje

( total)

s ex

n

m ean

S D

( prob.) m ale ( prob.) f emale

8 5

9 49 9 43

1 30 2 5

9

9 80

1 32

5 4 1 0

1 037 1 069 1 086

1 14 1 46 1 49

u nknown A ndijk

( prob.) m ale ( prob.) f emale u nknown

8 3

C .4.3. E ffect o f s tatus General a spects The materia l f rom West-Friesland c an b e d ivided i n t wo o bvious s tatus g roups. A number o f i nhumations f rom b arrows a nd f lat g raves o ccur i n a ddition t o a number o f s tray f inds o f human b ones f rom s ettlement f eatures ( sect ion I I. D .1.3). B oth c ategories a re p resent a t t he s ites Het Valk je a nd H oogkarspel . W ithin t he c ategory i nhumation, a f urther d ivision i n h igher and l ower s tatus c an b e b ased o n a rcheological d ata, a ge a nd s ex. One o f t he a ims o f b one S r a nalyses i s t he c ompar ison o f g roups o f i ndividuals o f d i fferent s ocial s tanding. I n t he p receding s ection we h ave a lready t ouched u pon t his s ub ject b ecause d ifferences b etween a ge and s ex g roups may a lso i nvolve a s tatus d ifference. The s ex o f t he p ersons h as a p hysiological e ffect o n b one S r l evels quite a part f rom b eing a f actor i n t he s tatus-system. The physiological e ffects o f a ge a nd s ex p robably a ffects t he a ssessment o f s tatus d i fferences b etween s ites b ecause t he d istribution o f males a nd f emales o f v arious a ges o ver t he b arrows i s n ot e qual . The mean a bsolute a nd r elative S r c oncentrations h ave b een c alculated f or e ach s ite ( table V .10). The Zwaagdi jk b arrows a re o f i nterest i n t his a spect: t he l ow S r l evel i n t his b arrow may b e t he r esult o f t he r elat ively l arge number o f f emales. I nhumations and s tray f inds o f human bones M ean S r/Ca r atios f or i nhumat ions a nd s tray f inds o f human b ones, r espectively, a re g iven i n t able V .13., w ith t he i nclusion o f c attle b one S r/Ca r at ios. S r/Ca r a tios i n mg S r/g C a a re a bbreviated Rh f or t he human b ones a nd Rc f or t he c attle b ones. F or e ach o f t he s ites a nd g roups t he n orma lized S r/Ca r atio ( Rh/Rc *100 % ) i s c alculated, b ecause t his r atio i s o f i nterest i n d ietary e xtrapolations ( chapter X I). On a t otal o f 3 1 i ndividuals f rom g raves a nd 3 4 i ndividuals f rom s ettlement f eatures, b oth a bsolute ( Rh) a nd n orma lized S r/Ca r atios a re l ower i n t he i nhumat ions t han i n t he material f rom t he s ett lement f eatures. The d i fference i n Rh i s s igni ficant a t t he 9 9 %l evel ( Student 's t= 3 .71, 6 3 DF). W ithin t he s ites Hoogkarspel a nd Het V alk je t he S r/Ca r at ios o f t he i nhumations a re l ower t han t hose o f t he s tray f inds. These d ifferences a re n ot s igni ficant ( Student 's tt est: Hoogkarspelt=1.84, 1 2 DF; Het V alk je L ate t =0.81, 5 DF). The number o f s amples i n e ach s ite i s, h owever, sma ll . The i ndividuals r epresented by s tray b ones f rom t he s ettlement f eatures a re p robably ma inly i n t he a ge g roup 1 5-35 y ears. This a ssumption would a ppear t o b e j usti fied, b ecause b ones o f y oung c hildren a re more l ikely t o b e d estroyed i n t aphonomic p rocesses while p eople o lder t han 3 5 y ears were p robably f ew i n number a nyway. I n o rder t o e l iminate t his t aphonomic b ias, t he s tray b ones f rom t he s ettlements may b e c ompared w ith t he a ge g roups 1 5-35 y ears f rom t he i nhumations ( table V .11, V .14).

8 4

T able V .13. S r/Ca r atios i n m g S r/g C a f or h uman l ong b ones ( Rh) a nd c attle b ones ( Rc). G roup I c onsists o f m ore o r l ess c omplete i nhumations, g roup I I c onsists o f s tray f ind h uman s keletal e lements f rom s ettlement f eatures. s ite

g roup

--- R h --n m ean S D

n

R c m ean

S D

R h/Rc * 1 00%

O ostwoud b arrow I I b arrow I

I I

1 0 2

2 .50 2 .72

0 .42

7

3 .32

0 .25

7 5 8 2

f lat g raves b arrows G rootebroek H oogkarspel

I I I

4 6 3

2 .19 2 .00 2 .06

0 .15 0 .12 0 .36

6

2 .48

0 .19

6

2 .90

0 .44

8 8 8 1 7 1

b arrows H et V alkje L ate

I

3

2 .09

0 .41

1 9

3 .39

0 .19

6 2

f lat g raves H oogkarspel

I

3

2 .60

0 .10

1 4

2 .83

0 .31

9 2

2 .65

0 .44

1 9

3 .39

0 .19

7 8

Z waagdijk

s ettlement V alkje E arly

I I

s ettlement V alkje L ate s ettlement A ndijk

I I

8

2 .54

0 .28

1 8

2 .81

0 .21

9 0

I I

4

2 .82

0 .39

1 4

2 .83

0 .31

1 00

s ettlement V elsen

I I

2 .75

0 .40

2 0

3 .35

0 .24

8 2

B A S chagen-Mug i nhumations t otal

1 1

1 1

I

6

1 .92

0 .32

1 0

2 .55

0 .33

7 5

I

3

3 .64

0 .69

3 2

3 .37

0 .49

1 08

3 1

2 .31

0 .39

5 2

3 .07

0 .42

7 5

3 4

2 .68

0 .40

7 1

3 .12

0 .36

8 6

*

i nhumations t otal s ettlements

I I I

*e xcept V elsen a nd S chagen-Muggenburg The mean S r/Ca r atio f or t he l atter g roup i s o nly sl ight ly h igher t han t he v alue f or a ll t he i nhumations, but s igni ficant ly d ifferent f rom t he S r/Ca r at io o f t he s tray f inds f rom t he s ettlements ( Student 's t =2.38, 5 1 DF, 9 5 % l evel o f s ign.). S r/Ca r a tios o f i nhumed f emales a ged 1 5-35 y ears a re s igni ficantly d ifferent ( t=3.15, 4 1 DF, 9 9 %l evel o f s ign.) f rom t he s tray f ind S r/Ca r a tio, while t he r atio f or i nhumed males i s n ot ( t=0.80,42 DF). I f w e a ssume t hat t he s ett lement materia l c onsists o f b oth males a nd f ema les, t he males amongst whom h ave h igher S r l evels, t his s uggests t hat d i fferent mean S r/Ca r atios a re p resent b oth f or males a nd f emales f rom i nhumat ions a nd f rom s ett lement f eatures. The o bvious e xplanat ion f or t his d ifference i s t he c omposi tion o f t he d iet, r elated t o t he s ocial r anking o f t he i ndividua ls i nvolved. An a lterna tive c ause s hould h owever a lso b e c onsidered. The i nhumat ions r epresent i ndividuals f rom t he e ar l iest phase o f t he B ronze Age o ccupation o f t he a rea ( sect ion I. C . 1.3) whereas most o f t he s tray f inds d ate f rom l ater o ccupat ion phases. The d ifferent S r/Ca r at ios o f t he g roups may t herefore

8 5

r eflect a c hange i n a gricultural a nd d ietary p otent ial a nd p ractices. This a spect i s t reated i n c onnection w ith o ther d ata i n c hapter X I.

T able V .14. S r/Ca r atios f or t he i nhumations f rom b arrows a nd f lat g raves, a ge g roup 1 5-35 y ears, c ompared w ith s tray b ones f rom s ettlement f eatures. s ex/group

m g S r/g C a

S D

9 1 0

2 .24 2 .56

0 .27 0 .44

1 2 1 7

t otal i nhumations

1 9

2 .40

0 .41

1 7

s tray f inds

3 4

2 .68

0 .40

1 5

i nh. i nh.

f emale m ale

C V(%)

S tatus and age A fter t he f irst f ew y ears o f human l i fe, t here i s n o a ge e ffect on S r/Ca m etabo lism (V . A .2.2.). Age e ffects i n b one S r c oncentrations i n e ssence a re s tatus e ffects. A s pecial s tatus a cquired by a ge a nd a chievement may r esult i n ad ifferent d ietary c omposition. W ithin t he g roup o f i nhumations, t he males a nd f emales o lder t han 3 5 y ears h ave d i fferent mean S r c oncentrations. F emales a nd m ales i n t his a ge g roup h ad p robably a cquired a r elatively h igh s tatus a s i ndicated by t he f act t hat t hey were burled i n b arrows o r f lat g raves. The S r l evels i n t heir b ones s uggest, h owever, t hat t heir r ank r esulted i n d i fferent d ietary r egimes f or t he t wo s exes. The o lder males g et d iets l ow i n S r, whereas t he f emales r emain o n ad iet w ith a c onstant amount o f S r e ven wh ile g rowing o lder. S t i ll a nother e xplanation f or t he o bserved d ifference i n t he o lder ma les a nd f emales may b e f ound i n t he p athological e ffects o n S r/Ca metabo lism. P athological f eatures a re ma inly p resent i n t he b ones o f t he o lder i ndividuals ( sect ion 4 .5).

C .4.4. S trontium i n l ong bones and o ther bones I n t he p receding s ect ions, o nly l ong b one S r l evels a re d iscussed. B esides t hese, S r c oncentrations i n as eries o f o ther b ones were measured. A s p ointed o ut i n I . B .1.3, t he c omparison b etween l ong b one a nd o ther b one S r l evels i s o f i nterest i n r elat ion t o d ietary questions. Mean S r c oncentra tions i n ' o ther b ones ' a re a ssembled i n t able V .15. The m ean ' o ther b one ' S r l evel a re g enera lly c lose t o t he S r c oncentra tion i n l ong b ones. A mean v a lue f or ' o ther b one ' S r l evels e xpressed a s p ercentage o f l ong b one S r c oncentrations o f 1 05 % c an b e c alculated f or 1 0 s ites. F resh ' other b ones ' h ave l ower S r c oncentrations t han l ong b ones ( table 1 .3). The ' o ther b one ' S r l evels a re p robably t o s ome extent a ffected b y d iagenetic p rocesses. This r enders t he c omparison b etween S r l evels i n l ong b ones a nd t he o ther b ones v alueless i n t he d iscussion o f d iets. The a lternative explanat ion f or t he h igh S r l evels i n t he o ther b ones would b e t hat a ll i ndividuals h ad c hanged t o d iets w ith h igher S r/Ca r atios r elat ively s hort ly b efore t heir d ecease, which i s v ery unlikely. R ela tively l arge d ifferences b etween l ong b one a nd o ther b one S r c oncentra tions a re f ound i n t he Zwaagdi jk i nhumat ions a nd i n t he i ndividuals f rom S chagen.

8 6

Two i nhumations i n as ingle f lat g rave i n ad itch a t Het V alk je were o f f emales a ged 1 5-19 y ears ( 55 1 -2-45). A p rel iminary d iscussion o n t he S r l evels i n t hese i ndividuals was g iven i n Runia ( 1985). A t f irst, a metatarsal f rom e ach was a nalysed f or S r c oncentrat ions. These y ielded h igh c oncentrations ( 1263 a nd 1 174 mg/kg), which r esulted i n t he c onclusion t hat t hese a bnorma lly buried i ndividuals h ad a bnormal S r l evels ( Runia 1 985). This p roved t o b e i ncorrect i n t he l ight o f t he s ubsequent a nalysis o f s amples o f c ompact b one f rom t he f emurs o f t hese p ersons. These s amples y ielded ' normal ' v alues ( 960 a nd 9 26 mg/kg). This i lustrates t he n ecessity o f u sing, i f a t a ll p ossible, c ompact b one f or a nalysis a nd f or c aut ion i n e xplaining a berrant S r c oncentrations. The h igh S r c oncentrat ions i n t he m etatarsals r emain, h owever, t o b e e xplained. N o o ther human m etatarsals w ere a nalyzed. T anaka e t a l . ( 1981, s ee t able 1 .3) f ound l ower S r c oncentrations i n b ones f rom t he f eet t han i n l ong b ones. B ecause S r l evels i n t he ' o ther b ones ' a ppear t o b e l ess r eliable t han t he l ong b one S r l evels, c onclusions o n c hanges i n t he d iet s hortly b efore d eath r emain uncertain.

T able V .15. M ean S r c oncentrations i n

' other b ones',

e xcluding i ndividuals y ounger t han 1 0 y ears, i n m g S r/kg b one a sh . I n t he l ast c olumn, S r c oncentrations i n o ther b ones a re e xpressed a s a p ercentage o f l ong b one S r c oncentrations. s ite V elsen Z waagdijk b arrow G rootebroek Z waagdijk f latgr. O ostwoud V alkje E arly p er. H oogkarspel V alkje L ate p eriod A ndijk S chagen

n

m ean

S D

C V

% o f l ong b ones

5 5 1 3 2 3 7 5 5

7 29 9 15 6 94 1 003 8 38 9 36 9 51 1 043

9 2 1 35

1 3 1 5

4 2 1 60 1 58 4 2 1 50

4 1 9 1 7 4 1 4

1 00 1 22 9 0 1 18 9 4 9 8 9 7 1 06

8 8

100 1 525

1 28 2 40

1 2 1 6

1 05 1 18

C .4.5. S trontium c oncentrations, pathology and body l ength Dental pathology The r elat ion b etween b one S r c oncentrations a nd i ncidence o f c arious a nd p eriapical l esions i s o f s pecial i nterest. The c omposition o f t he d iet, f ood p rocessing a nd e ating h abits i nfluence t he i ncidence o f t hese l esions ( Casel i tz 1 986). B esides t his, a ge, a nd h ence a brasion o f t he e lements, p lays a r ole. Ag roup o f i ndividuals e xhibiting c lear l esions i n d entit ion a nd t he a ssociated j aw-bone was s elected f rom t he material a ssembled i n Appendix 1 . I n t he g roup o f i nhumations, 1 5 i ndividuals h ave n o c aries, o ne i ndividual h as c arious t eeth a nd e ight i ndividuals h ave c aries a nd a ssociated p eriapical a bcess c avities. I n t he material f rom O ostwoud e ight i ndividuals a re c aries f ree a nd t hree i ndividua ls h ave c aries a nd p eriapical l esions. I n t able V .16, S r l evels i n t he g roups o f c arious i ndividuals

a re c ompared

w ith S r l evels i n t he g roup w ithout c aries. The g roup w ith d ental

8 7

p athologies h ave l ower S r l evels t han t he c aries-free i ndividuals. The d i fferences a re n ot s ignificant.

T able V .16.

S trontium c oncentrations

( mg/kg a sh)

i n

h umans w ith a nd w ithout c aries a nd p eriapical a bcesses. m ean

S D

8

8 95

1 04

g roup O ostwoud

n o c aries c aries & a bcesses

3

8 46

3 9

t otal

n o c aries c aries & a bcesses

1 5 7

8 54 7 92

1 19 1 02

Other pathologies S tront ium i s n ot a n e ssent ial e lement a nd t hough S r may h ave s ome i nfluence o n b one g rowth, n o p athological f eatures c an b e r elated t o h igh o r l ow d ietary S r l evels ( Underwood 1 977). S ti ll, i t may b e o f i nterest t o c ompare i ncidence o f c ertain p athological phenomena a nd b one S r l evels. I n d oing t his, c orrela tions b etween a ge a nd i ncidence o f p athologies s uch a s a rthrit is may c loud t he p icture. F or i nstance, t he males o lder t han 3 5 a ll h ave a rthrit ic f eatures, which may h ave a r elat ion w ith t he l ow S r c oncentrat ions i n t his g roup. O f t he o ld f emales, 3 6(1) h as a b owed t ibia, 5 6 ab roken a nd unhealed u lna a nd 5 7 a number o f p athological f eatures.

• S r + Zn 10 0 -

1 000•

4 00

900•

800

300

-

•

7 00

200

-

•

1 00

6 00-

1 65

1 70

1 55

1 60

1 85

BODY L ENGTH am

f igure V .6

S trontium a nd z inc c oncentrations ( mg/kg b one a sh, v ertical a xis) r elation t o t he b ody l engths

8 8

( cm, h orizontal a xis)

o f

i n

i nhumed m ales.

Body l ength Human s tature t o ac ertain e xtent r eflects g enera ll iving c ondi tions, which i ncludes h ealth and d ietary a spects. D iets c ontaining h igh amounts o f p roteins i n g eneral w i l l t end t o i ncrease b ody l ength. I t i s, t herefore, o f i nterest t o c ompare b one S r l evels w ith s tature. A n umber o f b ody l engths c ould b e e s timated ( Appendix 1 ). Males a re b etween 1 65 a nd 1 85 cm i n h eight, f emales b etween c . 1 55 a nd 1 70 cm. S trontium c oncentrations a nd b ody l ength o f t he males a re p lotted i n f igure V .6. There i s n o c orrelation ( r=-0.21) b etween t hese v ariables.

C .4.6. D ietary implications S trontium l evels i n human b ones c an b e u sed a s i ndicators o f p rehistoric d iets. Qua lit itive a nd q uantitative a spects o f t he d iets o f t he B ronze Age f armers f rom West-Friesland c an, h owever, n ot b e d iscussed s olely o n t he b asis o f human b one S r l evels. D ata o n t he r ange o f p otential f ood i tems and o n t heir r elative S r/Ca r a tios a re n eeded. B esides t his, a gricultural c ircumstances a nd nutritional r equirements h ave t o b e t aken i nto c onsideration. Animal f ood i tems h ave a lready b een d iscussed i n s ection V . A. I n s ection I X . E, S r/Ca r atios a nd t he a rcheological a spects o f p otential v egetable f ood i tems w i l l b e d iscussed while t he d ietary i mplications o f t he c oncentrations o f S r w i l l b e t reated i n ab roader c ontext i n c hapter X I.

8 9

V I A NALYSIS O F B ONE: Z INC.

A . Z INC IN FO O D AN D MET ABOLISM A .1. Z inc i n metabolism The i mportant r ole o f z inc i n many physiological p rocesses was r ecognized o nly r ecent ly ( Prasad 1 976). S ince t hen t he e ffects o f h igh and l ow Z n l evels o n v arious physiological p rocesses h ave b een s tudied e xtensively ( Jonxis 1 983). Z inc f orms p art o f a number o f meta lloenzymes t hat a re i nvolved i n many metabo lic p rocesses b oth i n animals a nd p lants ( Riordan & Va llee 1 976). Z inc d eficiency may manifest i tself i n an umber o f s ymptoms, s uch a s d elayed maturation, g rowth r etardat ion, l oss o f a ppetite, p oor wound h ea l ing a nd i mpaired f unctioning o f male a nd f ema le r eproductive o rgans ( Prasad 1 976, Underwood 1 977). Ad ministra tion o f Z n t o p at ients s howing Z n d eficiency s ymptons u sua lly l eads t o c onsiderable i mprovement. B ecause Z n i s a n e ssent ia l e lement i n a number o f physiological p rocesses, i ti s a ctively h andled w ithin t he o rganism. I n c onsequence, t here a ppears t o b e n o d irect c orrelat ion b etween d ietary Z n c oncentrations a nd Z n l evels i n v ar ious t issues ( Underwood 1 977). When ample Z n i s a va ilable, i t may b e i ncorporated i n t he b one m ineral . I n c ase o f i nsufficient d ietary Z n i ntake, s keletal Z n may b e r eleased upon r emodel ling o r b reakdown o f b one m ineral . Under Z n s tress a nd l ow p lasma Z n l evels, b one Z n l evels may r emain h igh a s l ong a s n o b one m inera li s r esorbed. I t i s l ikely t hat t here i s n o a ge a ccret ion i n b one Z n; i n t his, Z n b ehaves d i fferently f rom o ther, n on-essent ia l e lements s uch a s l ead. P regnancy i nfluences p lasma Z n l evels i n t he f emale ( Sandstead e t a l . 1 976, P ories e t a l . 1 976), but t here a ppears t o b e n o unanimity i n which d irection. I n ad iagram, S andstead e t a l . ( 1976) s how p lasma Z n l evels o f p at ients w ith v arious d iseases. Z inc l evels i n p regnant women a re s igni ficantly l ower t han n ormal Z n l evels, a nd a ppear t o d ecrease p ost-de livery ( Pories e t a l . 1 976). The r elatively h igh c oncentration o f Z n i n human m ilk ( Jonxis 1 983) may r esult i n d ecreasing Z n l evels i n l actat ing f ema les. G i lbert ( 1985) s uggests a d ifference i n Z n m etabo lism i n males a nd f emales o n t he b asis o f d ifferences i n c orrelation b etween l ong b one g rowth, i ncidence o f p athology a nd b one Z n l evels i n males a nd f emales i n s ome p rehistoric I ndian p opulations. I n f ema les t he Z n r esources would b e u sed i n t he f irst p lace f or g aining s ufficient g rowth t o a llow f or p regnancy, whereas i n males Z n s urplus would b e u sed i n b ody ma intenance i n o rder t o w ithstand d isease. There may b e s ome d oubt o n t his e xplana tion, but i t i l lustrates t hat b one Z n l evels a re n ot a d irect d erivat ive o f d ietary Z n l evels. A s tudy o f b one Z n l evels i n ar ecent p opulation i s u rgent ly n eeded. The e fficiency o f t he u ptake o f Z n f rom f ood d epends o n a number o f f actors. A t l ow p lasma Z n l evels r elatively h igh amounts o f Zn a re a bsorbed f rom t he i ntest ina l t ract. S imultaneous p resence o f Zn a nd o ther e lements s uch a s C a, Cu, F e may a dversely a ffect uptake o f Z n ( Underwood 1 977, J onxis 1 983). The r ole o f phytate a nd/or f ibers, which a re mainly p resent i n c ereal g rains, i n i nhibit ing Zn uptake i n t he i ntestinal t ract has b een f requently d iscussed ( Spencer e t a l . 1 976, V an B arneveld 1 983). I n c ereal g rains, Z n, phytate a nd f ibers a re mainly p resent i n t he b ran wh ile t he

9 0

e ndosperm p ossesses l ow Z n l evels. A s tudy by Andersson e t a l . ( 1983) s howed t hat phytate r ather t han f ibre i s r esponsible f or l ow Z n uptake f rom wholemeal p roducts.

A .2. Z inc i n f ood I n t he f ourth e dit ion o f McCance & W iddowsons ' T ables o n t he C omposit ion o f F oods ( Paul & S outhgate 1 978) t he Z n p resent i n v arious f ood i tems a re t abulated. Dutch t ables o n t he c omposit ion o f f oods (N V T 1 983) d o n ot c ontain i nformat ion o n Z n l evels t hough s ome d ata a re p rovided by S taar ink & Hakkenbrak ( 1984). M ean Z n c oncentrations c ombined w ith e nergy v alues a nd Ca c oncentrations f or c ertain f ood i tems a re a ssembled i n t able V I.1. H igh Zn l evels a re f ound i n r ed meat, o rgans, o ysters a nd o ther s eafoods ( Underwood 1 977, t able V I.1). V egetable f ood i tems g eneral ly h ave l ower Zn c ontents; h owever, wholemeal p roducts, nuts a nd l eafy v egetables h ave r ela tively h igh Z n c ontents. S ome o f t he Z n i n t he v egetable f oods may b e p oorly a vai lable due t o b inding t o phytate ( Spencer e t a l . 1 976, Underwood 1 977). L eafy v egetables a ppear t o h ave h igh Z n c ontents p er unit o f e nergy. Animal p roducts a re d ist inct i n t heir v ery h igh Zn/ C a r atio, a nd h ence a r elatively l arge p art o f t he Z n i n meat may b e t aken up i n t he i ntestinal t ract. The c oncentrat ions o f F e which may a lso a ct a s ac ompetat ive i on i n i ntestinal uptake i n g eneral a re much l ower t han Ca c oncentrations. I n g eneral, c arnivores w il l a chieve c onsiderable i ntake o f e asily a bsorbable Z n. This i s r eflected i n t heir b one Z n c oncentrations: Rheingold e t a l . ( 1983) g ive v alues o f 9 0-150 ppm Z n i n h erbivores a nd 1 75-250 ppm i n c arnivores ( table V I.6). I n p resent-day Dutch d iets, s ome 4 0 %o f Z n i ntake i s p resent i n meat, f ish a nd e ggs, s ome 2 0 %i n m ilk a nd d airy p roducts a nd s ome 1 5 %i n b read a nd c ereals ( Hulshof 1 985). Animal p roducts t hus s upply more t han h a lf o f t he Z n.

T able V I.1. Z inc c oncentrations i n a n umber o f f ood i tems. C alculated f rom P aul & S outhgate

--- m g Z n p er ---

i tem n f ruits f ish c ows' m ilk n uts m eats w heat w holemeal c hickens' e ggs r oot c rops l eafy v eg's w heat b ran

( 1978).

6 7 1 * 3 4 1 * 1 * 5 1 2 1 *

m arine s hellfish 7

1 00 g 0 .1 0 .5 + 0 .1 0 . -1 5 2 .8 + 0 .3 2 .5 ; 0 .7 3 .0 1 .5 0 .3 + 0 .1 0 .4 7 -- 0 .2 1 6.7 8 .9 + 1 4.9

M J

m g Z n/g C a

0 .7 + 0 .3 0 .9 + - 0 .3 1 .3

1 0.3 + 7 .3 2 1 6 2 79

1 .4 + 0 .1 1 .9 7 - 0 .7 2 72 2 .5 2 .6 + 1 .3 1 9

3 9 + 1 9 3 42 1 03 8 6 2 9 7 .7 + 5 .3 6 .1 T .4 .0 1 47

3 5 + 7

7 3 + 9 0

*m ean v alue f or m any a nalyses A s s tated b efore, c oncentrations o f Z n a nd o ther e lements i n f ood i tems s hould b e s een i n r elation t o t he e nergy v alues ( concentrat ions p er unit o f

9 1

e nergy) b ecause t hese t o ac ertain extent d etermine t he amount ( in kg) which w i ll b e c onsumed ( Runia 1 987b). The d ata i n t able V I.1 s how, f or i nstance, t hat t he Z n/MJ r atios i n nuts a re l ower t han i n c ereal g rains. Nut d iets w i ll t herefore h ave l ower Z n c ontents t han c ereal d iets.

A .3. Z inc i n bones and s oil Z inc c an b e p resent o n Ca s ites i n t he m ineral matrix o f a patite ( McConne ll 1 973, L indsay & V lek 1 977). I t t herefore r esembles S r i n t he r ela tive unsusceptibil i ty t o d iagenetic i nfluences ( compare t able 1 .1). On t he b asis o f c omparisons b etween Z n l evels i n e xcavated r ibs, s o il ( Lambert e t a l . 1 979) a nd f emurs ( Lambert e t a l . 1 982) f rom N orth American Woodland s ites, i t was c oncluded t hat Z n i s l i ttle a ffected b y d iagenetic p rocesses. E arlier, G i lbert ( 1975, c ited i n G ilbert 1 985) h ad r eached t he c onclusion t hat Zn was u seful a s ad ietary d iscriminator. I n t he s o il , t he d ivalent Z n c at ion i s p redominant but Z n c an b e p resent b oth i n p osit ively a nd i n n f. fg at ively c harged c ompounds ( de Haan & Zwerman 1 976). L ike o ther i ons Z n i s a dsorbed t o c harged s o il p articles ( clay, o rganic matter), t hough i t i s p ossibly s omewhat l ess s trongly a dsorbed t han C a ( sect ion I X .A ).

B . EXPERIMENT AL Z inc c oncentrations i n t he b one a sh s olutions w ere measured u sing A AS. M easurements were d one w ith c orrect ion f or b ackground a bsorption a t 2 13.9 nm i n a n a ir-acetylene f lame. R eference s amples o n which t wo o r more i ndependent Z n d eterminat ions w ere c arried o ut y ielded a m ean c oefficient o f v ariation o f a bout 2 % . Two s tandards S t Ia nd S t I I y ielded 3 34 + 6 .5 mg Z n/ kg b one a sh ( C V=1.95%, n =6) and 2 58 + 3 .7 mg Z n/ kg b one a sh ( C V=1.43 % , n =9) r espectively. R eproducibi l ity o f t he a nalysis t hus a ppears t o b e f airly g ood. Ana lyses o f I AE A H-5 a nimal b one r eference material y ielded a mean o f 1 71 + 1 .87 ( C V=1.1 % , n =4) mg Z n/kg b one a sh. This c orresponds t o 9 6.5 mg Z n/kg d ry b one, which i s r ather h igh c ompared c • a ith t he p reliminary 8 9.91 + 1 5.39 mg/kg a nd t he v alue o f Mahanti & B arnes ( 1983) mg/kg. The r ela tively s ma l l c oefficients o f v ariat ion i ndicate t hat t he w ithin o ur a nalyses i s f airly g ood. Compared w ith c oefficients e ncountered i n t he Z n c oncentra tions i n g roups o f i ndividuals

I AEA v alue o f o f 7 6.6 + 0 .9 a ccuracy o f v ariat ion t he

c oefficients o f v ariat ion i n a nalysis a re sma ll a nd b ias due t o analyt ical p rocedures n egligible.

C . RESULTS AN D DISC USSIO N C .1. General M ean Z n c oncentrat ions i n t he g roups o f a nalysed b ones a re a ssembled i n t able V I.2. A s triking f eature o f t he r esults i s t he h igh c oefficient o f v ariation: t he h ighest v alue ( 86%) i s r eached b y t he c attle. W ithin s ites, s mal ler c oefficients o f v ariation a re f ound ( table V I.4, V I.5). However, i n c omparison w ith a nalyses o f b ones f rom o ther s ites, t he CV values d o n ot a ppear t o b e e xcessively h igh. L ambert e t a l . ( 1979) g ive c oefficients o f

9 2

v ariation o f 8 -76 % f or Woodland s ites, wh ile i n t he s ame s ites L ambert e t a l . ( 1982) f ound c oefficients o f v ariation i n Z n c oncentrat ions up t o 1 01 % . I n s uch c ases i t i s n ot s urprising t hat n o s tatist ica lly s ignificant d ifferences b etween males a nd f emales a re f ound.

T able V I.2. Z inc c oncentrations i n h uman a nd a nimal b ones. M ean a nd s tandard d eviation i n m g Z n/kg b one a sh. I dentical l etters i n t he c olumn ' significance' i ndicate t hat t he m ean v alues d o n ot d iffer s ignificantly a t t he 9 9% l evel ( Student's t -test). I n t he l ast c olumn, t he r elative c oncentration i s g iven a s p ercentage o f c attle b one Z n c oncentrations. m ean

S D

C V

8 0

2 38

1 30

5 5

A

1 45 3 7

2 56 3 21

2 20 1 62

8 6 5 0

A

4 4 3 6

3 78 4 24

1 82 2 53

4 8 6 0

s pecies h uman * c attle p ig s heep/goat d og

s ignificance

r elative c onc. 9 3

B B

C

1 00 1 25

C C

1 48 1 66

*o nly l ong b ones Unfortunately, f ew d ata o n t he v ariation i n Z n i n b ones f rom a nimals r aised o n i dentical d iets a re a va ilable. T issue a nd p lasma Z n l evels i n n orma l h ealthy p ersons a ppear t o h ave a sma ller v ariat ion ( Prasad 1 976, S andstead e t a l . 1 976). B ones f rom 1 1 r ats f ed t he s ame d iet y ielded mean Z n c oncentrations o f 3 80 mg/kg a nd a c oefficient o f v ariation o f 6 % (Alexander & Nusbaum 1 962). D ata i n t he s ame p aper i ndicate t hat t he c oefficients o f v ariat ions a re h igher i n g roups o f humans. B ones o f 2 5 humans f rom t he USA y ielded a CV o f 3 9 % , as ubsample f rom L os Angeles a CV o f 3 6 % . B ecker e t a l . ( 1968) f ound a CV o f 1 3 %f or f ive f resh human b ones, but a CV o f 3 7 %f or f ive p rehistoric d esiccated P eruvian human b ones. F resh b one s amples f rom Dutch c attle w ith unknown d ietary r egime g ive a m ean c oefficient o f v ariation o f 1 5 %( n=29, t able V I.3). Connor & S laughter ( 1984) r eport o n Z n c oncentrations i n p olar b ear a nd c aribou, b oth s pecies e xhibiting a l arge d ifference b etween t he t wo a nalysed s pecimens ( polar b ear: 1 113 a nd 2 47 ppm Z n, c aribou 3 51 a nd 1 35 p pm Z n). his, h owever, n ot c lear whether t hese were f resh b one s amples.

T able V I.3. Z inc c oncentrations i n f resh c attle b ones f rom t he A chterhoek ( IVO s amples) a nd t he A msterdam A battoir ( AA s amples). M ean a nd s tandard d eviation i n m g Z n/kg b one a sh. s ample

s ex

I VO 1 -10

m ale

I VO

f emale

8 -10

f emale m ale f emale

2 -3 1 .5 5 -5.5

1 1-20

A A 1 -6 A A 7 A A 8 -9

a ge(years) c a.

1 .5

n

C V(%)

1 0

1 00

1 0

1 0

1 08

2 0

1 9

2 9

9 3

S D

1 0 6 1 2

t otal

m ean

1 14 1 28 1 34 1 27

9

1 7

8

1 5

Z inc p lays a r ole i n s everal e nzymes a nd i ti s t herefore a ct ively p rocessed. This may r esult i n al arge v ariation i n t he Z n c oncentrat ions i n b one: i t i s t he b alance b etween d ietary Z n l evels, a nd o f Z n r equirements f or t he b ody which a ffects i ts d eposi tion i n, o r r emoval f rom b ones. F or a nimals which a re k ept under i dent ical c ircumstances s uch a s l aboratory r ats t hese p rocesses m ay r esult i n l ow v ariat ions i n Z n c oncentra tions ( compare A lexander & Nusbaum 1 962). However, f or humans a nd unconfined animals c onsiderable v ariations i n Z n c oncentrations may b e e xpected. The d ata o n f resh material , h owever, d o n ot s how v ariations i n Z n c ontent a s h igh a s r eported f or s ome c omplexes o f e xcavated b ones, a nd p ost-mortem, d iagenet ic c hanges i n b one Z n l evels s hould b e r eviewed a s a c ause f or t his v ariation.

C .2. D iagenesis L ambert e t a l . ( 1984) f ound Z n t o b e h omogenously n on-patterned d istributed i n s oi l a round b ur ied b ones, which would i ndicate t hat n o Z n h ad e ntered o r l eft t he b one. L ow s o il Z n l evels a re, a ccording t o L ambert e t a l . ( 1979) a n a rgument i n f avour o f Z n l evels i n b one b eing n ot a ltered. H owever, i n t he s o il a number o f c omplex i nteract ions c an t ake p lace, s uch a s b etween i ons i n s olution, i n m inerals, a dsorbed o n c harged p art icles o r b ound b y c helat ing a gents. Consequent ly, t he c ompar ison o f a bsolute c oncentrat ions ( by weight) o f j ust o ne e lement i n s oi l a nd b one i s a n o ver-simpli fication. B one m ineral i nteracts w ith t he s oil s olution, i n which t he i onic c oncentrat ions a re d etermined b y a number o f f actors. The e xtent o f i n- o r e fflux o f Z n i n b one i s p robably p art ly d etermined by t he Z n/Ca r at io ( or r ather t he t otal i onic c omposition) o f t he s o il s olut ion. B one a nd s oi l Z n/Ca r at ios r ather t han Z n c oncentrations s hould t herefore b e u sed i n j udging t he p otent ial e ffect o f burial o n b one Z n l evels. I n t he c ase o f G ibson/Ledders ( Lamber e t a l . 1 979) t he Z n c oncentrat ion i n t he s oi l i s much l ower t han i n t he b ones ( mean v alue o f 4 1 a nd 3 00 p pm r espectively). H owever, t he Z n/Ca r at io i n t he s o il ( approximately 1 .5 mg Z n/g C a) i s h igher t han i n t he b one ( 0.9 mg Z n/g C a). I n S chagen-Muggenburg s oil s amples were t aken a t v arious p oints a round a human a nd a d og s keleton. Z inc c oncentrat ions a nd Z n/Ca r at ios were s igni ficantly d i fferent i n t he s ubso il a nd i n t he s ettlement l ayer ( section I X .B . ) . The s ubso il h as s ignificantly l ower C a c oncentrations t han t he s ettlement l ayer. Z inc c oncentrat ions i n t he s o i l a re l ower, but Z n/ C a r atios h igher t han i n a djacent b one ( sku ll o f Mug 8 1: 4 14 mg Z n/kg b one a sh a nd 1 .25 mg Z n/g Ca, s o il f rom s kul l 1 29 mg Z n/kg a nd 1 2.9 mg Zn/g C a; v ertebra o f d og 3 96 mg Z n/kg b one a sh a nd 1 .26 mg Zn/g Ca, s o il b elow v ertebrae 9 9 mg Z n/kg a nd 8 .8 mg Z n/g C a). I n t his c ase t he Z n/Ca r at ios i n t he s oi l may b e h igh e nough t o c ause c ontamination o f t he bur ied b one. As catttergram w ith o n t he F e c ontent o n t he o ne, a nd t he Zn c ontent o f t he p rehistoric b one s amples o n t he o ther a xis was made ( Figure V I.1). The c oncentrations o f F e a nd Z n a re weakly c orrelated ( R =0 .43, R s quared = 0 .19). This i ndicates t hat, i f Z n c oncentrat ions i n t he b ones a re a ltered due t o s oil c ontaminat ion, t he c ontaminat ion i s n ot c orrelated w ith t he i ron i nflux. I n a number o f s tudies b one Z n l evels were c onsidered t o b e o f u se a s d ietary i ndicators ( sect ion I . B .1.4). I n s ome c ases ( for i nstance, L ambert e t a l . 1 979) t he v a lidity o f t he a rguments r aised a gainst d iagenet ic a lterations may b e d oubted. An e xplanat ion f or t he c oefficients o f v ar iat ion,

9 4

0

r4

+

+

o _0 , .

+

+

0 1 a c C N

0 E 0 , c i ) 0 ,

U ) . w ,

0 —0 C O

I V b 0
2 .5 % .

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The maximum amounts o f r oot c rops a nd l eafy v egetables t hat were c onsumed may b e r oughly e st imated a t 5 % o f t he e nergy v alue o f d iets e ach, i .e. a mean maximum o f s ome 4 000 g o f l eafy v egetables a nd s ome 2 300 g o f r oots p er f amily p er d ay. I t i s unlikely t hat i n t he West-Frisian a grarian s etting l arger quanti ties o f t hese f ood i tems c ould h ave b een c ol lected a nd c onsumed e ach d ay. Agricultural p ract ice p robably d oes n ot p ose s trict l imitat ions t o t he c ereal c ontents o f d iets. The maximum amount o f g ra in n eeded under t he a ssumptions o utl ined i n C .1.4 ( 2000 kg) c ould h ave b een p roduced o n s ome 2 h a o f a rable. A ccording t o I Jzereef ( 1981), a t Het Valk je i n t he L ate P eriod s ome 3 h a, a nd i n t he E arly P eriod s ome 3 .6 t o 8 .8 h a a rable l and was a va ilable p er f arm. I n t he marginal s ituation ( 3 h a a rable p er f arm), w ith o ne-third f a llow a nd u nder t he p resent a ssumptions, j ust e nough c erea ls f or a1 00% c ereal g rain d iet c ould h ave b een p roduced. The maximum amount o f meat t hat c ould h ave b een p roduced p er f arm was e stimated a t s ome 1 0000 MJ p er y ear. This amount i s s ome 4 5% o f t he 2 2000 MJ t hat a re r equired. S imilarly, t he maximum amount o f 3 000 MJ o f m ilk c orresponds w ith s ome 1 4 %o f t he e nergy n eeded. I n t otal , t he amount o f e nergy d erived f rom d ietary c omponents o ther t han c ereals, i .e. meat p lus m ilk p lus v egetables, i s a t maximum s ome ( 100 -4 5 %( meat) - 1 4 % (m i lk) - 1 0 %( roots a nd v egetables) = ) 7 0 %o f t he e nergy n eeded. Thus, d iets c ontaining l ess t han 3 0 %c ereal g rains s hould b e c onsidered a s unrea list ic. A l ower l imit f or t he amount o f m eat i n t he d iet c an b e d erived f rom d ata o n d iets o f r ecent s ubsistence f armers. P roteins i n meat a ccount f or s ome 2 5 %o f t otal p rotein i ntake i n i ndustrial c ountries, s ome 8 % i n t hird world c ountries a nd a bout 2 2 %i n Europe ( Den Hartog 1 976). P rotein/energy r atios i n meat a nd c erea ls a re a pproximately e qual ( table X .5). A r elat ive p roportion o f a bout 2 0 %a nima l p roteins i n d iets a ppears t o b e ar easonable l ower l imit. This v alue c orresponds t o am inimum o f s ome 2 0 %o f e nergy f rom meat. Thus, t he maximum p roportion o f g rain i n t he d iet i s a bout ( 100 % - 2 0 %( meat) - 5 % ( vegetables, m i lk, r oots) = ) 7 5 % . The a bsolute quantitat ive a pproach may s upply s olutions f or t heoret ica lly f easible d iets. However, i n t he c omparison o f material f rom v arious s ites, t he w ide margins make t he a bsolute amounts l ess s uitable. E ven i f a dditional nutrit ional a nd a gricul tural c onstraints a re i mposed o n t he models, t he ' bodies ' o f p oints r epresent ing p ossible d ietary c omposit ions ( section X I.C.2.2) b ecome s mal ler but numerous d iets s ti ll r ema in f easible. I n r ea lity t he s ituation i s e ven m ore c omplex b ecause i n t he models mutton a nd p ork, which may h ave S r a nd Z n c ontents d i fferent f rom b eef, a s wel l a s s eafood h ave b een i gnored. B esides t his, i t s hould b e r emembered t hat t he b asic a ssumpt ion underlying t he model, i .e. t hat S r/Ca r atios i n b ones h ave n ot b een a ltered o r o nly s l ightly s o, may p rove n ot quite c orrect. I n t he f o llowing s ect ions a number o f s ites a re t herefore c ompared i n a s emiquantitative s ense.

C .3.2. I sochronic and d iachronic a spects Upt i l n ow, n o e xtrapolations o f t he a va ilable d ata t owards v ariat ions i n t he c omposition o f human d iets i n t ime a nd s pace, which i s t he a spect o f p aleodietary s tudies most i nteresting f or a rcheologists, a nd t he r eason why t his k ind o f s tudies a re c arried o ut, h ave b een p resented. The d ata a nd d iscussions i n t he p receding s ect ions i n f act s eem t o f rustrate a ny c omparison b etween human d iets i n d i fferent s ites. A s s tated a bove, t he

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margins i n t he p ossible p roportions o f c omponents i n d iets a re w ide, a nd t he s olut ions f or t he e quat ions o f s ect ion X I. C . 2.1 f or v arious c ombinat ions o f R c a nd Rh l argely o verlap. I t i s t empt ing a nd w orthwile t o t ry t o o vercome t he methodological p roblems i n o rder t o c ompare t he c omposit ions o f a verage human d iets i n t he s ites under s crutiny. The s tudy o f t he b ones was, a fter al, undertaken t o e ffectuate s uch a c omparison. The ma jority o f t he material a nalysed d ates f rom a r ather l imited t ime s pan, d ated by r adiocarbon t o b etween c . 3 300-2600 BP. S ti ll, s ome i sochronic a nd d iachronic a spects c an b e d iscussed. A part f rom d ifferences b etween a ge a nd s tatus g roups w ithin s ites ( section X I.0 . 3.3) ,t he i sochronous a spects o f p aleodiets c omprise t he e ffects o f d i fferent e nvironments a nd a gricultural p otentials o f t he s ites o n t he a verage d iets o f t heir i nhabitants. W ithin W est-Friesland, t he d i fferences i n e nvironments o f t he s ites may b e r elatively smal l, but t hey a ppear t o b e s ufficient a s t o l eave t races i n t he e coarcheological material, a s d iscussed i n s ection X I. B . Ac omparison b etween t he d iets o f p articular s ites i s i mpaired b y t he l ack o f a' complete ' s pectrum o f c hemical a nalysis o f b ones o f t he d omest ic a nima ls f rom t he s ites c oncerned. The material f rom Het Valk je i s t herefore u sed a s r eference i n t he d iscussions o n human d iets b ecause i t c onsists o f c omplete s pectra o f t race e lement c ontents i n d omestic a nima ls f or t wo o ccupat ion phases, t he e conomic b ackground t o which h as a lready b een e xtensively d iscussed ( I s lzereef 1 981). R elatively l arge d ifferences i n e nvironment a re p resent b etween t he s ites i n West-Friesland a nd V elsen, which i s s ituated i n t he dune a rea. The d iachronic a spects o f p aleodiets t o s ome e xtent r epresent s imilar p roblems a s t he i sochronic a spects, b ecause t here i s av ariation o f s ubsistence p otentials o f e nvironments n ot o nly i n s pace, but a lso i n t ime. F or Het V alk je, t he i solated human b ones f rom s ettlement f eatures c an b e r elated t o o ccupat ion c hronology, which i n t he p resent s tudy i s c ondensed t o a n E arly a nd a L ate P er iod. On a l arger s cale t here i s t he d ifference b etween t he B ronze Age s ites i n West-Friesland a nd t he I ron Age / Roman P er iod s ite S chagen-Muggenburg. I n t he c omparison o f human d iets a t v arious s ites r eference, i s r egulary m ade t o t he h istograms which s how t he S r a nd Z n c oncentrations i n human a nd a nima l b ones r elative t o t he c oncentrations i n c att le b ones ( fig. V .3, V I .2). The S r a nd Z n c oncentrations i n t he c att le b ones w ithin e ach s ite a re u sed a s r eference b asis t o which t he l evels o f t race e lement c oncentrations i n o ther s pecies a re c ompared. I n f act, c attle a re u sed a s a' basel ine ' s pecies. I n t he d iscussions i ti s a ssumed t hat meat f rom a nima ls whose b ones s how h igh Z n l evels a lso c ontains h igh c oncentrat ions o f Z n. A t p resent, t his a ssumption l acks e xperimental p roof. Z inc l evels i n b ones r eact r ela tively s lowly t o c hanges i n Z n c oncentrat ions i n p lasma. Z inc i s a ctively t reated i n t he b ody ( sect ion V I. A ), but o rganisms a pparently d o n ot maintain t heir p lasma Z n l evels a t a more o r l ess f ixed l evel . H igh e nvironmental Z n l evels may t herefore r esult i n h igh Z n l evels i n t issue.

Het Valkje: Early and Late Period There a re n o a rcheologicalindica dons f or s tatus d ifferences w ithin t he s keletal material f rom t he t wo p eriods o f Het V alk je, s o t hat i t may b e a ssumed t hat t he c omparison o f t he p eriods i s n ot b iased b y s tatus e ffects.

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C att le b one S r l evels i n t he E arly a nd L ate P eriod d o n ot d iffer. I n t he L ate P eriod, S r/Ca r a tios i n t he human b ones a re a lmost e quivalent t o c attle b one S r/Ca r at ios wh ile i n t he E arly P eriod t hey a re l ower. A d ifference b etween t he t wo p eriods i s t o b e f ound i n t he a bsolute a nd r elative Z n c oncentrat ions. I n t he L ate P eriod, Z n l evels i n t he b ones a re quite h igh ( table X I.6). Z inc l evels i n human a nd s heep/goat b ones f rom t he L ate P er iod a re t wice a s h igh a s t hose i n t he E arly P er iod. D ifferences i n p ig and c attle b ones a re smal ler, a nd t he d ogs a re i ntermediate. Thus, S r l evels s uggest t hat n o ma jor c hanges i n human d iets o ccurred during t he o ccupat ion p eriod, whereas Z n l evels s uggest t he o pposite.

T able X I.6. C omparison b etween m ean c oncentrations o f S r a nd Z n i n h uman a nd a nimal b ones f rom t he E arly a nd L ate P eriod o f H et V alkje: ( mean c oncentrations o f L ate P eriod)/(mean c oncentrations o f E arly P eriod). C alculated f rom t able V .6, V .10, V I.4 a nd V I.7 e lement

h uman

c attle

p ig

d og

s heep/goat

S r

1 .0

1 .0

1 .1

1 .0

1 .1

Z n

2 .0

1 .3

1 .2

1 .5

2 .3

The h igh Z n l evels i n t he humans f rom t he L ate P eriod may i ndicate t hat i n t his p eriod meat was a more i mportant c onstituent o f t he d iet t han i n t he E arly P eriod. An a lternative e xplanation i s, h owever, t hat Z n l evels i n L ate P er iod d ietary c omponents were h igher t han i n E arly P eriod f oods. S imilar d iets would t hen c onta in d i fferent amounts o f Z n. T entative i ndications f or t he l atter o ption c an b e f ound i n t he a nalysis o f s oi l s amples. I n s ection I X .B , i t h as b een s uggested t hat during t he h abi tation p eriod t he Z n l evels i n t he upper s oi llayers o n t he r idges, where t he a rable f ields were s ituated, g radual ly i ncreased. I n t he b asins, t he Zn l evels i n t he upper s o i llayers d ecreased. I f t he o bserved p attern i n t he b one Z n c oncentrat ions i s r elated t o a c hange i n c oncentrations o f Zn i n t he s o il, i t m ight b e t entatively e xplained b y a model which c omprises a c hange i n b oth human d ietary c omposit ion a nd i n a nimal husbandry p ractices. The Z n l evels i n s heep/goat a re c omparatively s trongly a ffected, which may i ndicate t hat c hanges i n h erding p ract ices a re i nvolved i n a ddition t o t he c hanges i n s oil Z n l evels. The Z n l evels i n d ogs a lso s how r eveal a d i fference b etween t he E arly a nd L ate P eriod but l ess marked t han t hat f or s heep/goat. By t he L ate P eriod t he l ower p arts o f t he b asins h ad b ecome t oo w et f or g razing, a nd t he s heep/goat woudl h ave h ad t o g raze o n o ther g rounds, p erhaps i ncluding t he f al low a rable o n t he r idges. The c hanges i n c attle a nd p ig b one Z n l evels may r eflect t he c hanges i n s oil Z n which may h ave o ccurred i n t he r idges ( section I X. B .4). The p roducts f rom t he a rable f ields, s uch a s c ereals, i n t he L ate P eriod would h ave h ad h igher Z n c ontents t han i n t he E arly P eriod. The i ncrease i n human b one Zn l evels, which i s more m arked t han t he c hange i n c attle a nd p igs, m ight b e t he r esult o f a n i ncreased p ort ion o f s heep/goat meat i n t he d iet. This i s a lso s uggested b y t he z ooarcheological d ata which s how a n i ncrease i n t he r elat ive p roport ion o f s heep/goat i n t he L ate P eriod ( section C .2.6). S heep/goat h ave h igher Z n l evels t han c attle ( compare t able V I.4). The

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h igher S r l evels i n t he s heep/goat b ones c ompared w ith c attle b ones would t hen a lso h ave c aused h igher S r l evels i n L ate P eriod human d iets. This i s, h owever, n ot v isible i n t he human b one S r l evels. The h igher S r l evels were p robably t o s ome e xtent c ompensated b y ah igher m ilk c onsumpt ion i n t he L ate P eriod ( compare I Jzereef 1 981 a nd s ection I I.C.2.6). I n t his model, t he a verage L ate P eriod d iet w ould h ave c ontained more s heep/goat meat, l ess b eef a nd more m ilk t han t he E arly P eriod d iet. The t entative d i fferences b etween E arly a nd L ate P eriod d iets a re s chemat ica lly i ndicated i n t able X I.7.

T able X I.7. T entative c omparison o f a verage h uman d iets i n t he E arly a nd L ate P eriod o f H et V alkje. i tem

L ate r elative e qual

S r/Ca r atio Z n/Ca r atio b eef c onteat m utton c ontent m ilk c ontent t otal m eat c ontent c ereals a nd v egetables

t o E arly

s trong i ncrease d ecrease i ncrease i ncrease a pproximately e qual a pproximately e qual

Oostwoud and Het Valkje The c omparison b etween t he d iet t he humans f rom Oostwoud w ith t hat o f t he i nhabitants o f H et V alk je i s p roblema tical b ecause o f t he p ossib i lity o f d istortion b y s tatus d i fferences. N o s tatus d i fferences c an b e e stablished amongst t he s cattered human r emains f rom Het V alk je. I t i s, h owever, p ossible t hat t he material f rom O ostwoud r epresents a s pecific ( high r anking ? ) s egment o f t he p opulation whereas t he mater ial f rom H et Valk je would b e r epresentative o f t he a verage p opulation. I n a ddition t o t he p ossible d i fferences i n s tatus, t he s ites a lso r epresent d i fferent p eriods o f o ccupat ion. The mater ial f rom Oostwoud d ates f rom t he L ate N eo lithic whereas t he material f rom Het V alk je d ates f rom t he B ronze Age. A s s hown a bove, d i fferences i n r elat ive S r c oncentrat ions i n human b ones c an b e t he r esult o f v ar ious f actors. Unfortunately, o nly o ne p ig b one f rom O ostwoud was a nalysed b esides human a nd c att le b ones. I t i s e vident t hat a dequate c hemical a nd z ooarcheological d ata a re n eeded i n ad iscussion o n t he c omposi tion o f d iets (X I. C . 1.1). The r ela tive S r l evels a re l ow i n t he Oostwoud s amples a nd h igher i n t he s amples f rom t he s ettlement ( table V .13). These l ower S r l evels a re, h owever, n ot c orrelated w ith r elat ively h igher Z n l evels, a s m ight b e e xpected i f t he l ower S r l evels were c aused b y t he p roportion o f meat i n t he d iet. Though t he amount o f meat i n t he d iets i n Oostwoud may h ave b een s l ightly h igher t han i n Het Valk je, a nother p ossible c ause f or t he l ow d ietary S r l evels i s t he c onsumption o f m ilk. The c alcula tions ( C.2.2) s how t hat f or O ostwoud, h igh p ropor tions o f m ilk i n t he d iet a re t heore t ical ly p ossible. Considering t he r elatively h igh S r/Ca r atios i n c ereals, i t a ppears

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l ikely t hat a t Oostwoud t he amount o f c ereal i n t he human d iet was l ower t han i n Het V alk je. The t entative d i fferences i n t he human d iets s hown i n t able X I.8 a grees w ith t he g eneral p icture f or d i fferences b etween, o n t he o ne h and, t he Oostwoud ' pastoral ists ', w ith emphasis o n o ptimal e xploitat ion o f d omestic a nimals, a nd t he o ther h and t he s ett led f armers f rom Het Valk je, who p robably employed a n a gricultural s ystem i n which g rain c ult ivation was r elatively i mportant. The r elatively h igh c onsumpt ion o f m ilk i n O ostwoud i s s omewhat unexpected i n t he l ight o f t he ' secondary p roducts r evolution ' t he e ffects o f wh ich a re n ot s upposed t o b e v isible unt il a s lightly l ater p eriod ( Sherratt 1 981). The i nhabitants o f O ostwoud may, h owever, h ave k ept r elat ively l arge numbers o f a nimals.

T able X I.8 . T entative c omparison o f a verage h uman d iets i n O ostwoud a nd H et V alkje. W ithin e ach s ite, c attle b ones a re u sed a s r eference m aterial. i tem

O ostwoud r elative t o H et V alkje

S r/Ca r atio i n h uman d iet Z n/Ca r atio i n h uman d iet % o f m ilk i n h uman d iet % o f c ereals i n h uman d iet % o f m eat i n d iet

l ower l ower h igher l ower l ower

Het Valkje and Andi jk A s p ointed o ut i n s ect ion X I. B , t he d ata f or t he d omestic a nimals s uggest t hat d i fferences i n a gricultural p ractices e xisted b etween Het V alk je a nd Andi jk. The q uest ion i s whether t hese d i fferences a re r eflected i n t he h uman t race e lement l evels and i n t he a verage d iets a t Het V alk je a nd Andi jk. Ac onspicious f eature i n Andi jk i s t he r elatively l ow mean Z n c oncentration i n t he human b ones, which i s a lmost e qua l t o t he mean Z n c oncentration i n c attle b ones ( fig. V I.2). This d i ffers f rom a t heoretica lly e xpected p attern ( section V I. C) . I n Andi jk, b eef a nd mutton w i l l h ave h ad a pproximately e qual S r/Ca r at ios whereas i n Het V alk je mutton S r/Ca r atios were h igher t han t hose i n b eef ( compare f ig. V . 3). The r elative number o f c attle i n Andi jk i s h igher t han i n H et V alk je. A s ac onsequence o f t hese t wo f actors, t he meat t ota l, i .e. b eef a nd mutton, i n Andi jk w i l l h ave h ad a l ower S r/Ca r atio t han i n Het V alk je. This i mplies t hat, i f S r l evels i n human b ones r elative t o c attle b one S r l evels i n Andi jk a nd H et V alk je were e qual, t he p roport ion o f p lant mater ial, i .e. c ereals, i n t he d iet a t Andi jk would h ave b een c orrespondingly h igher. R elative human S r/Ca r at ios i n Andi jk a re h owever l ower t han i n Het V alk je. I t i s unclear whether t his d ifference r esults s olely f rom t he l ower S r/Ca r atio i n t he meat c omponent o f d iet o r i f t he p roportion o f c ereals i n Andi jk d iets was a lso h igher. Though c erea ls h ave h igh Zn l evels, t he amount o f Zn t hat c an b e a bsorbed f rom m eat i s p robably much l arger ( section V I. A .2). H igher p ropor tions o f c ereals i n d iet may t herefore r esult i n l ower Z n l evels i n b one. his, h owever, more l ikely t hat t he l ow Z n l evels i n t he Andi jk d iets r esult f rom a

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r elatively l arge p roport ion o f m ilk i n t he d iet. The d ata t hus s uggest t hat t he r elative amounts o f m ilk a nd c ereals i n Andi jk d iets may h ave b een h igher t han i n d iets o f Het Valk je. Ac onsiderable a rea o f s andy t o s andy l oamy s o ils i s p resent a round t he s ite Andi jk. Thus, more a rable, a nd h ence a h igher amount o f g rain m ight h ave b een a vailable. At entative c ompar ison b etween d iets i n Het V alk je and Andi jk c an b e b ased o n t he a vialable material ( table X I.9). I t must b e s tressed t hat c ertain c omponents o f d iets, s uch a s r oots a nd v egetables, a re n ot t aken i nto a ccount. Moreover, a ll S r a nd Z n v alues a re mean values f or l imited numbers o f b ones, s ometimes w ith r elat ively l arge s tandard d eviations. N o d ata o n male/female r atios i n t he Andi jk c attle a re a va i lable. I n a ny c ase, t he d i fferences i n d iet were p robably sma l l .

T able X I.9. T entative c omparison b etween a verage d iets i n A ndijk a nd H et V alkje. C attle b ones a re t he r eference m aterial w ithin b oth s ites. i tem

A ndijk r elative

S r/Ca i n m utton

t o H et V alkje

l ower

S r/Ca i n b eef + m utton

l ower

r atio b eef/mutton i n d iet S r/Ca i n h uman b ones Z n c ontent i n d iet

h igher l ower l ower

a mount o f c ereals i n d iet a mount o f m ilk i n d iet

h igher ? h igher ?

Bronze Age and I ron Age/ Roman Period One s ite f rom a n ative Roman c ontext was s tudied. T o d ate, n o e coarcheological r eport f or t his s ite h as b een p ublished. P re liminary r esults o f t he s tudy o f a nima l b ones were g iven by L .L. Therkorn ( IPP, p ers. c omm.). The s ite c an b e v iewed i n c omparison w ith t he B ronze Age s ites i n t he b roader c ontext o f N orth—West European a griculture a s o ut lined by R andsborg ( 1985) and B arker ( 1985). The o ccupation a t S chagen—Muggenburg was s ituated o n p eat ( section I.0 . 2.9). S alt marshes were p resent n ear t he s ite, a nd t hough c ereals w ere p robably c ul tivated l ocal ly, t he p otent ial f or c ereal c ult ivation a ppears t o b e l ess f avourable t han i n t he s urroundings o f H et Valk je. The z oological a ssemblage o f S chagen—Muggenburg d i ffers f rom t he e ar lier s ites i n t hat s ome a bnorma lly l arge c attle s pecimens were p resent a nd h orse f orms s ome 6 % o f t he d omest ic a nimal b one ( table 1 1.4). I t i s l ikely t hat t he i nhabitants o f S chagen—Muggenburg were i n c ontact w ith t he Roman Empire ( section V II.0 ) which may h ave i nfluenced t he c omposit ion o f t he z oological a ssemblage f rom t he s ite. S ome o f t he a nimals t hat were r aised n ear t he s ite may h ave b een e xported, e ither o n t he h oof o r s laughtered, i .e. i n p reserved f orm. The a ge o f s laughter c ould b e e s timated f rom a sma ll n umber o f c attle mandibles ( n=32). Half o f t he a nimals w ere s laughtered b etween 4 a nd 5 y ears (Therkorn, p ers. c omm.). I n c omparison w i th Het V alk je, r ather more a nimal3 r eached t he a ge o f f our, which may s uggest t he e xport o f y ounger b easts.

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Ac onsequence o f c attle t rade ( i .e. i mport) may b e t hat t race e lement l evels i n s ome o f t he a nima ls which were c onsumed d iffered f rom t he l evels which w ould b e p resent i n a nimals i n o r n ear t he s ite. A s p ointed o ut i n s ect ion X I. A , t wo g roups o f c attle b ones c an b e d istinguished a t S chagen— Muggenburg o n t he b asis o f Z n l evels. Though Zn l evels i n b ones p robably c hange r elatively s lowly i n c omparison w ith c hanges i n p lasma, i t may b e a ssumed t hat t he b eef t hat was c onsumed s howed v ariations i n Z n l evels c omparable t o t he v ar iations i n t he b ones. F or t he d iscussion o n d iets, t he m ean Z n l evels o f t he c attle b ones a re t herefore u sed a s a n i ndication o f m ean Zn l evels i n b eef. A s f ar a s t he c hemical c omposit ion o f t he b ones a re c oncerned, S chagen—Muggenburg i s d ist inct f rom t he o ther s ites i n t hat i t i s t he o nly s ite i n which t he human b ones h ave S r/Ca r atios h igher t han c attle b ones ( fig. V .3). I n c omparison t o Het Valk je, t he p igs o f S chagen a lso h ave r elatively h igh S r c ontents, but l ow Z n c oncentrations. H orses were r ather m ore f requent a t S chagen—Muggenburg t han a t t he e ar lier s ites ( table 1 1.4). Horse meat p robably h ad S r/Ca r atios a pproximately e qual t o S r/Ca r atios i n mutton ( table V .6). I f h orse meat was e aten, t he S r/Ca r atio i n t he meat c omponent o f t he d iet, i .e. b eef, mutton, p ork a nd h orse meat t aken t ogether, must h ave b een h igher i n S chagen— Muggenburg t han i n H et Valk je. The mean Z n c ontent i n human b ones r elat ive t o mean c attle b one Z n c oncentrations o f S chagen— Muggenburg i s s l ightly h igher t han t he E arly p eriod o f Het Valk je, but l ower t han t he L ate p eriod ( fig. V I.2). The c omparatively h igh S r c oncentrations i n human b ones a t S chagen—Muggenburg may b e -the r esult o f ag reater r ole o f c ereals i n t he d iet. I t i s, h owever, a lso p ossible t hat t he h igh d ietary S r l evels r esult f rom al ower amount o f m ilk c onsumed o r f rom t he c omparat ively h igh l evels o f S r i n t he n on—beef meat, which a t S chagen—Muggenburg f ormed a r ather l arger p art o f t he d iet. The c alculat ions ( section X I.C.2.2) s uggest t hat t he u pper l imit f or t he p ercentage o f m ilk i n t he d iet was f airly l ow.

T able X I.10. T entative c omparison o f a verage h uman d iets a t H et V alkje a nd S chagen—Muggenburg. C attle b ones a re u sed a s r eference m aterial w ithin e ach s ite. i tem

S chagen r elative H et V alkje

r atio o f b eef/non—beef m eat S r/Ca r atio i n m eat* S r/Ca r atio i n h uman d iet Z n/Ca r atio i n h uman d iet a mount o f c ereals i n h uman d iet a mount o f m ilk i n h uman d iet

t o

l ower h igher h igher a pproximately e qual h igher? l ower

* b eef + m utton + p ork + h orse m eat

Velsen and Het Valkje V elsen i s t he o nly s ite under s crutiny t hat was s ituated i n t he dune a rea. V elsen a nd Het Valk je a re r oughly c ontemporaneous. The human b ones f rom V elsen were f ound i n ab arrow a nd d iffer f rom t he i solated b ones f rom Het

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V a lk je. A ' complete ' s pectrum o f S r a nd Z n c oncentrations i n animal b ones i s a vailable ( fig. V .3, V I.2) f or b oth s ites. The S r c ontent i n human b ones f rom V elsen i s r elatively l ow a nd t he Z n c ontent r elatively h igh. Though V elsen was f airly c lose t o t he s ea t he amount o f s eafood i n t he human d iet was p robably j ust a s l ow a s a t Het Valk je ( section X . 0 . 4, t able X .4). The l ow S r l evels a lso p oint t o l ow p roportions o f s eafood i n d iets a t V elsen. The l ow c oncentrations o f S r i n t he human b ones f rom V elsen m ight b e r egarded a s i ndicat ive f or m ilk c onsumption. The h igh Z n c oncentrations s uggest, h owever, t hat meat c onsumption was t he c ause o f t he l ow S r l evels. The c ombinat ion o f h igh Z n l evels a nd l ow S r l evels i n human b one f rom V elsen may t herefore b e t he r esult o f a c omparat ively l arge p roportion o f meat i n t he d iet. I n a ddition t o d omestic a nimals s ome g ame may h ave b een e aten. I n c onsequence, t he p roport ion o f c ereals i n t he d iet was p robably d epressed. The d ifferent e nvironments o f V elsen a nd Het V alk je a ppear t o b e r eflected i n t he c hemical d ata. The f airly l ow S r l evels i n p igs f rom V elsen h ave a lready b een d iscussed ( sect ion X I. A ). The woods i n t he dune a rea may h ave s upplied t he i nhabitants o f V elsen w ith n uts a nd f ruits. I t i s, h owever, n ot l ikely t hat t he h igh Z n l evels r esul t f rom a h igh p roportion o f n uts i n t he d iets b ecause Z n l evels p er unit o f e nergy a re n ot h igh ( section V I . A ). A rd s cratches i ndicate t hat a rable was s ituated o n t he s andy s o ils (B eemster & B randt 1 986), which were p robably l ess f avourable f or t he c ultivation o f c ereals t han t he c reek r idges a t H et Valk je. At entative c omparison o f human d iets i n V elsen a nd Het Valk je i s p resented i n t able X I. 1 1. I n t his c ase, t he t heoret ical c oncept o f l ow S r-much meat a nd h igh Z n -much meat a ppears t o b e a pplicable.

T able X I.11. T entative c omparison o f a verage h uman d iets a t H et V alkje a nd V elsen. C attle b ones a re u sed a s r eference m aterial w ithin e ach s ite. i tem

V elsen r elative t o H et V alkje

S r/Ca r atio i n h uman d iet Z n/Ca r atio i n h uman d iet a mount o f s ea f ood i n d iet a mount o f m eat i n d iet a mount o f c ereals i n d iet a mount o f m ilk i n d iet a mount o f n uts & f ruits i n d iet

l ower h igher e qually l ow h igher l ower e qual? h igher?

C .3.3. S ex and s tatus d ifferences Though s ex a nd s tatus d ifferences i n b one t race e lement l evels a ppear t o b e p resent i n t he s keletons f rom West-Friesland, i t i s e vident f rom t he mater ial p resented i n t he p receding s ection t hat t hese d ifferences d o n ot n ecessar ily r eflect d i fferences i n r elative p ropor tions o f meat a nd v egetable f oods i n t he d iets. A ctual d iets, o bviously, a re more c omplex b ecause t hey c onsist o f a number o f c omponents e ach w ith S r a nd Z n l evels t hat d epend o n e nvironmental f actors. I t i s, t herefore, h ardly, i f a t a ll, p ossible t o i nterpret t he o bserved d i fferences ( sect ion V .C.4, V I. C . 4) i n t erms o f d ifferences i n r elative p roportions o f d ietary c omponents.

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The question o f what m ight b e t he c ause f or t he o bserved d ifference b etween t he i nhumat ions a nd t he i solated human b ones, p ossibly r epresenting a s tatus d ifference, r emains t o b e a nswered. L ow S r l evels i n d iets may b e c aused b y h igher amounts o f m ilk a nd/or meat, h igh Z n l evels b y h igh amounts o f m eat. A s s tated b efore, t he c hemical c omposition o f human b ones i s t he r esult o f a number o f f actors. The d iscussions i n s ection C .3.2. s how t hat f or e ach s ite t he d ietary r elevance o f h igh o r l ow S r and Z n l evels i n human b ones may b e d ifferently e xplained o nce t hey a re d iscussed i n r elation t o o ther e coarcheological i nformat ion, f or i nstance r egarding S r a nd Z n l evels i n a nimal b ones. The d iscussion o n t he d iets i n s ection C .3.2 r egards a verage d iets f or t he s ites. Any d iscussion o f i ndividual d iets o r d iets o f h igher r anking p ersons would a ppear t o b e h azardous i n t he l ight o f t he g reat number o f v ariables i nvolved. As pecial p roblem i n t he S r a nd Z n l evels i n a ge/sex g roups o f t he i nhumed i ndividuals i s f ormed b y t he l ow S r l evels i n t he males o ver 3 5 y ears o f a ge ( table V .11). The t hree i ndividuals c oncerned s uffered f rom a rthri tis. I t i s t hus p ossible t hat d isease r ather t han d iet was t he c ause f or t he l ow S r l evels. There a re n o o ther a rthritic i ndividuals p resent i n t he mater ial f rom t he a rea n or a re t here o ld males w ithout a rthr it ic f eatures, a nd i t i s t hus n ot p ossible t o c heck t he r elat ionship, i f a ny. Ad iet w ith h igh amounts o f meat a nd/or m ilk m ight b e r esponsible f or t he l ow S r l evels. The Z n c ontent o f t he b ones i s a varage a nd d oes n ot s uggest t hat t he o ld males c onsumed l arge amounts o f meat. A h igh p ropor tion o f m ilk i n t he d iet o f t hese i ndividuals i s, h owever, n ot c ontradicted by t he Z n d ata. Though c onsump tion o f meat r ather t han m ilk i s u sua lly a ssociated w ith h igh r anking, t he d ata t hus s uggest t hat t he o lder males c onsumed c omparatively more m i lk o r d airy p roducts. The p oor s tate o f t he d entition o f t he i ndividuals i nvolved may, h owever, a lso h ave p layed a r ole i n t heir f ood c hoice. This a ssumption i s n ot c ontradicted b y t he d ata i n t able V .16 a nd V I.13 which s how t he l ow mean S r a nd Z n c oncentrations i n i ndividuals w ith d ental p athologies. Though i t i s unclear i f ac ausal r elat ionship i s p resent b etween t he b one t race e lement l evels a nd t he c ondition o f t he d ent ition, i t i s o bvious t hat d ental p athologies a ffect t he masticating c apacit ies a nd t he c hoice o f f ood. The d enti tion o f t he o ld f emales i s, h owever, i n p ossibly a n e ven worse s tate t han t hat o f t he o ld males. T o c onclude, t he d ata s uggest t hat t he o lder males were f ed d ifferently t han t he o lder f emales. Males a t h igher a ges p ossibly r eceived a h igher p roportion o f m ilk i n t heir d iets whereas f emales r emained more o r l ess o n t he s ame d iet.

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D . EC O NO MIC ASPEC TS: SU RPLUS AN D TR ADE D .1. I ntroduction The a nalysis o f b ones f rom d omestic a nimals may y ield s uggest ions o n t rade a nd o ther e conomic a spects o f a nimal husbandry ( sect ion X I. A ), a nd t he a nalysis o f human b ones may p rovide a ddit ionalinformation. The Pb c ontent o f human b one may, f or i nstance, b e u sed a s as ource o f i nformat ion o n t rade l inks b etween n ative s ettlements a nd I mperial Rome ( section V II .C.3). There i s a lso a p ossib i lity t hat c hemical a nalysis o f b one may a dd t o s olving p roblems o n t rade i n s t il l a nother way. This ( st i l l t heoret ical) a spect o f t race e lement a nalysis o f human b ones i s d iscussed i n t his c hapter. I n s ection X I.0 . 1 mention h as b een made o f t he t wo s ides o f human d iet, l oosely u sing t he e conomic t erms ' supply s ide ' a nd ' demand s ide '. The s upply s ide o f t he d iet c omprises t he a gricultural s ystem a nd i ts o utput o f a gricultural p roducts, which i n s ubsistence a griculture f or a ma jor p art c onsists o f e dible p roducts. The amounts o f f ood a ctua lly c onsumed m ay i n t urn b e v iewed a s t he d emand s ide o f d iet. I n as ituat ion where i t i s p ossible t o s tudy b oth s ides o f t he d iet i ndepedently, t he c omparison o f t hese c ould b e i nteresting. A d escrepancy b etween s upply a nd d emand would s uggest a s urplus o f p roducts which c ould h ave b een t raded. I n t he f ollowing s ect ion, b oth s ides o f t he d iet a re d iscussed.

D .2. The ' supply s ide ' I n t he p resent c ase, we a re d ea ling w ith a n a gricultural s ystem which i n e ssence p roduced f or h ome c onsumption, t hough a s urplus i n t he p roduction was p robably p resent. The a gricultural s ystem o f B ronze Age W est-Friesland h as b een d escribed a s b eing r ather p roductive ( section X I.C.1.4). The material c ulture i s, h owever, p oor. Grave g ifts a re s carce a nd p oor i n c omparison w ith o ther r egions ( Butler 1 979, Coles & Harding 1 979) but t his may a lso h ave h ad n on-economic r itual c auses. West-Friesland i s s ituated a t t he f ringe o f t he c ont inent a nd i s d evoid o f a ny n atura l ( mineral) r esources e xcept f or t he a gricultural p otential o f t he s o ils. D espite t his, t he i nhabitants o f B ronze Age West-Friesland must h ave b een a ble t o purchase b ronze a nd f l int o b jects, a number o f which h ave b een f ound ( Woltering 1 985). The e conomic v alue o f i mported materialis unknown, a s i s t he s ystem b y which t he material was purchased, but a gricultural p roduce was o ne o f t he p ossible c omodit ies which t he West-Frisian f armers c ould h ave o ffered i n e xchange. The d iscussion o f t he a gricultural s ystem o f t he a rea ( section X I.C.1.4) s uggests t hat c ereals r ather t han meat may h ave b een p roduced i n s urplus. Under t he a dopted a ssump tions, t he f armers c ould h ave p roduced e nough c ereals f or a n e ntirely v egetarian way o f l i fe whereas t he a nimal p roducts meat a nd m ilk c ould o nly h ave s upplied a maximum o f s ome 6 0% o f t he e nergy n eeded ( section X I.C.3.1). There a re, o f c ourse, o ther f actors which, i n a ddit ion t o p roduction p otentials, i nfluence t he p ossible r ole o f a gricultural p roducts a s merchandise. The t echnical a nd l ogist ic p roblems i n t emporary s torage o f ac erea l s urplus a nd t he t ransport t hereof may h ave b een c onsiderable i n p rehistoric c ontexts, t hough i n l ater p eriods t hese p roblems were p robably s olved, a s may b e c oncluded f rom f ort ified c omplexes o f g rain s torage bu ildings which h ave b een f ound i n t he e astern p art o f t he N etherlands ( Waterbolk 1 977).

1 96

The p roducts o f a nima l husbandry, i .e. l iving animals, c an b e t ransported r elat ively e asily ' on t he h oof ' a nd may t herefore p redate c ereals a s at rading c omodity. The e ase w ith which a nimals c an b e moved f rom o ne a rea t o a nother c an b e i l lustrated w ith many p resent-day, h istoric a nd p rehistoric c ultures which make u se o f t ranshumance s ystems. Exchange o f l iving a nimals may a lso h ave t aken p lace i n o rder t o p revent i nbreeding. Animals e xported o n t he h oof d o n ot l eave t races i n t he a rcheological r ecord o f as ite a nd may t herefore b ias e st imates o f t he a nimal husbandry s ystem. The e stimates o f t he p roductivity o f s tock r aising i n West-Friesland were b ased o n t he d imensions o f s tables, which may b e l ess s usceptible f or s uch b ias. The s upply o f a gr icultural p roducts may b e e stimated by u sing s traightforward e st imates f or t he ( maximum) o utput o f c ereals, meat, m ilk a nd o ther a gricultural p roducts i rrespective o f c osts. There may, h owever, b e more s ophist icated m ethods which c an b e employed i n e stimating p roductivity o f s ubsistence a griculture. L inear p rogramming h as b een u sed i n e s timates o n d iets o f hunter-gatherers ( Keene 1 981, 1 985, B elovsky 1 987) and t he p otentials o f t his t echnique i n mode l ling s ubsistence f arming s hould b e i nvestigated. L inear p rogramming i s at echnique u sed i n e conomics t o c alculate o pt imal s olut ions f or p roduct ion, c onsumpt ion o r t ransportation p roblems ( Van d e P anne 1 976). F or i nstance, d iet p roblems, t hat i s, t he f ulf il ling o f n utri tional d emands a t m inimal c osts u sing v arious f ood i tems o f v arious p rices and nutri tiona l v alues, may b e s olved ( for i nstance, Gould & S parks 1 969). I n t he p resent c ase l inear p rogramming would h ave t o p roduce a p roduction s cheme which would o ptima lly u se t he a va ilable r esources, l and a nd l abour, i n t he p roduction o f s ufficient f ood. A pplication o f l inear p rogramming i n c ase o f t he West-Frisian B ronze Age a griculture a nd, b asica lly, i n a ll a gricultural s ystems p oses a number o f p roblems which d iffer f rom t hose f or t he s ubsistence o f hunter-gatherers. L inear p rogramming i nvokes quant itat ive d ata o n t he c osts o f p rocurement o f v arious c omponents o f d iet. I n s ubsistence a griculture t he c ost f actors a re t he amounts o f l and a nd l abour n eeded i n t he p roduct ion. A d i fference w ith hunter-gatherer s ubsistence i s t hat i n s ubsistence f arming a more s tringent y ear-round p lanning o f p roduct ion ( and c onsumption) o f f ood i s n eeded. Keene ( 1981) r eckons f ood s torage, but i n t he e st imated d iet s tored f oods a re o f m inor i mportance f or most o f t he y ear. I n a griculture much work d one during t he g rowing s eason o f c ereals d oes n ot i mmediately r esult i n f ood t hat c an b e e aten. Thus, i n a n a gricultural s ystem much o f t he l abour h as ' delayed p roductivity '. Another a spect o f a griculture i s t hat t here a re d istinct p eaks i n a ctivity. Mention h as b een made o f t he h arvest which g enera lly i s t hought a b ottleneck i n g rain p roduct ion ( section X I.C.1.4). F or a nimal husbandry s imilar phenomena a re p resent. The i nput o f l and a nd l abour i n g rain, meat a nd m ilk p roduction may s omewhat r oughly b e e st imated u sing e thnographic a nd e xperimental d ata. I t i s questionable whether o r n ot t he B ronze Age f armers were f ree t o p roduce e ither f ood i tem A o r f ood i tem B . The maximalization o f c ereal p roduction i mplies manur ing, which i n t urn i mplies animal husbandry. I n a n a ttempt t o model t he u se o f a rable a nd p asture, a n ew p roduct ion c ost f actor, n ext t o l and a nd l abour, c ould t herefore b e i ntroduced: t he amount o f manure. This p roduct ion f actor i n t urn d epends o n o ther c osts, i .e. l abour a nd t he a rea o f p asture a nd meadow. I n s uch a model, t he a dditional o utput o f t he p roduction o f manure a re meat, m ilk a nd t ract ion p ower. S uch am odel a ssumes a p redominancy o f c ereal c ult ivation, a p remise which may

197

n ot b e ap riori j ust f or t he West—Frisian B ronze Age. I n t his a rea, i ti s a lso p ossible t hat a nimal husbandry was p redominant, c ereal c ultivat ion b eing a n a ttract ive e xtra t o t he f armers. A more f undamental c rit icism o f model ling p rehistoric s ubsistence b y mathematicel methods i s i l lustrated by a r emark o f R . W. B randt ( IPP) t hat ' people may walk t ens o f k ilometers j ust f or o ne l i ttle s pecial f eather t hey want t o put o n t heir h ats ', o r more p lainly, t he c onduct o f p eople c an b e quite s trange a nd unexpected f rom a n e conomic p oint o f v iew. I t c an b e c oncluded t hat t he d evelopment o f as ophisticated model o f West—Frisian a grarian p roduction i s b eyond t he s cope o f t he p resent s tudy, b ut d espite t he f undamental a nd p ractical p itfa l ls i n l inear p rogramming o f s ubsistence f arming i t m ight b e r ewarding t o t ry t o d evelop a model f or a ( prehistoric) a gricultural s ystem.

D .3. The ' demand s ide ' A ttempts t o a ssess what h as b een t ermed t he ' demand ' s ide o f human d iet i n q uantita tive t erms h ave b een p resented i n s ection X I.0 . 2 and X I.0 . 3. I f c ertain a ssumptions a re a ccepted, i t i s p ossible t o e stimate t he m inimum a nd maximum p roport ions o f c omponents i n human d iets. A s h as b een p ointed o ut p reviously, a more d eta iled a pproximation o f t he c omposi tion o f human d iet c annot b e made o n t he b asis o f t he a va ilable c hemical a nd e coarcheological d ata. N o e cological d ata o n t he c onsumption o f l eafy v egetables, r oots a nd m ilk, which a ll e xert a marked i nfluence o n t he c hemical c omposition o f t he d iet, a re a vailable.

D .4. Conclusion The p receding s ect ions s how t hat t he p resent knowledge o f b oth a gricultura l p roduct ion a nd c omposit ion o f human d iet l acks t he d eta i l which i s n eeded i n o rder t o d raw c onclusions o n s urplus a nd t rade o f a gricultural p roducts. The c omparison b etween t he p ossible d ietary c ompositions a nd t he a gricultural p otentia ls o f t he a rea s hows, o n t he o ther h and, n o d iscrepancies. The d ietary c omposit ions c alculated i n s ection X I.C.2.2 t urn o ut t o b e f easible i n t he c ontext o f t he a gricultural s ystem a s d iscussed i n s ect ion X I.0 . 1.4. This s uggests t hat t he p rocedures which h ave b een u sed i n e st imat ing t he B ronze Age d iets y ield r esults t hat a re r ea lis tic. D espite t he n egat ive r esult o f t he c omparison b etween t he t wo s ides o f d iet, i t m ight b e r ewarding t o f urther e xplore t his a spect o f t race e lement a nalysis o f human b ones.

1 98

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D e o ogstopbrengsten v an v erschillende

g ewassen, v oornamelijk g ranen, i n v erhouding t ot h et z aaizaad, c a. 8 10-1820. A AG b ijdragen 9 , 9 -28 S licher v an B ath, B .H., 1 963b. Y ield r atios, 8 10-1820. A AG b ijdragen 1 0, 3 -264 S mith, J .L., 1 976. M etabolism a nd t oxicity o f l ead. i n ( A .S. P rasad, e d) T race e lements i n h uman h ealth a nd d isease, V ol I I: E ssential a nd t oxic e lements. N ew Y ork: A cademic P ress, 4 43-452 S mith, K .A ., 1 971a. T he c omparative u ptake a nd t ranslocation b y p lants o f c alcium, s trontium, b arium a nd r adium. I B ertholettia e xcelsa ( Brazil N ut T ree). P lant a nd S oil 3 4, 3 69-379 S mith, K .A., 1 971b. T he c omparative u ptake a nd t ranslocation b y p lants o f c alcium, s trontium, b arium a nd r adium. I I T riticum v ulgare ( wheat). P lant a nd S oil 3 4, 6 43-651 S mith, L .H., R asmussen, D .C. & M yers, W .M., 1 963. I nfluence o f g enotype u pon r ealtionship o f s trontium-89 t o c alcium i n g rain o f b arley a nd w heat. C rop S cience 3 , 3 86-389 S pencer, H ., O sis, D ., K ramer, L . & N orris, C ., 1 976. I ntake, e xcretion a nd r etention o f z inc i n m an. i n ( A .S. P rasad, e d) T race e lements i n h uman h ealth a nd d isease, V ol 1 : Z inc a nd c opper. N ew Y ork: A cademic P ress, 3 45-361 S taarink, T . & H akkenbrak, P ., 1 984. H et c ontaminantenboekje. ' s G ravenhage: S taatsuitgeverij T anaka, G -I., K awamura, H . & N omura, E ., 1 981. R eference J apanese m an-II. D istribution o f s trontium i n t he s keleton a nd i n t he m ass o f m ineralized b one. H ealth P hysics 4 0, 6 01-614 T auber, H ., 1 981. 1 3C e vidence f or d ietary h abits o f p rehistoric m an i n D enmark. N ature 2 92, 3 32-333 T auber, H ., 1 983. 1 4C D ating o f h uman b eings i n r elation t o d ietary h abits. i n ( W.G. N ook & H .T. W aterbolk, e ds) P roceedings o f t he f irst i nternational s ymposium 1 4C a nd A rchaeology, G roningen 1 981. P ACT 8 . S trasbourg: C ouncil o f E urope. 3 65-375 T auber, H ., 1 986. A nalysis o f s table i sotopes i n p rehistoric p opulations. i n ( B. H errmann, e d) I nnovative T rends i n d er p rähistorischen A nthropologie M itteilungen d er B erliner G esellschaft f ür A nthropologie, E thnologie u nd U rgeschichte 7 , 3 1-38 T herkorn, L .L., 1 984. S chagen: M uggenburg. i n ( P.J. W oltering) A rcheologische k roniek v an H olland o ver 1 983. I N oord-Holland. H olland 1 6, 2 15-216 T herkorn, L .L., B randt, R .W., P als, J .P., & T aylor, M ., 1 984. A n E arly I ron A ge f armstead: S ite Q o f t he A ssendelver P olders P roject. P roceedings o f t he P rehistoric S ociety 5 0, 3 51-373 T herkorn, L .L., & R unia, L .T., i n p rep. S tock r aising a nd c attle t rade i n a n ative R oman s ettlement. C ingula

2 10

T ipton,

I .H.,

S tewart, P .L.

& M artin,

d iets a nd e xcreta. H ealth P hysics T oots,

H .

& V oorhies, M R.,

1 965.

r econstruction o f f ood c hains.

1 966.

T race e lements i n

1 683-1689

S trontium i n f ossil b ones a nd t he S cience

T ylecote, R .F., S ociety

1 976.

U belaker,

1 978. H uman s keletal

D .H.,

P .G.,

1 2,

1 49,

8 54-855

A h istory o f m etallurgy. r emains;

L ondon:

T he M etals

e xcavation,

a nalysis,

i nterpretation. C hicago: A ldine U nderwood, E .J., 1 977. T race e lements i n h uman a nd a nimal n utrition. Y ork:

V an d er M erwe, a rchaeology.

N .J., 1 982. C arbon i sotopes, p hotosynthesis a nd A merican S cientist 7 0, 5 96-606

V an d er M erwe,

N .J.

& V ogel,

J .C.,

1 978.

a s a m easure o f p rehistoric d iet 2 76, 8 15-816 V een,

H .E.

v an d e,

1 979.

( Cervus e laphus L .). V een,

N ew

A cademic P ress

H .E.

v an d e,

1 3C C ontent o f h uman c ollagen

i n W oodland N orth A merica.

N ature

F ood s election a nd h abitat u se i n t he r ed d eer

t hesis R ijksuniversiteit G roningen

& W ieren,

S .E.

v an,

1 980.

V an g rote g razers,

k ieskeurige f ijnproevers e n o pportunistische g elegenheidsvreters. I nternal

r eport,

I VM, A msterdam

V ons-Comis, S .Y., 1 978. I nternal r eport, I PP, W aals,

J .D.

v an d er,

E xcavation r eport H oogkarspel-Watertoren 1 978. A msterdam

1 961.

D e

z ool v an t umulus X III b ij

g emeente W ervershoof. WFON X XVIII, W ahl,

J .,

1 982.

L eichenbranduntersuchungen.

E in U berblick ü ber d ie

B earbeitungs u nd A ussagemöglichkeiten v on B randgräben. Z eitschrift 5 7, 1 -125 W aldron,

H .A.,

V iner a nd C .

1 982.

H uman b one

l ead c oncentrations.

i n ( A.

M cWhirr,

L .

C irencester E xcavation

2 03-204

W aldron, H .A., t issues. J AS W aldron,

P rähistoriches

W ells) R omano-British c emetaries a t C irencester.

C irencester e xcavations I I C irencester: C ommittee,

' De A rk',

5 2-96

1 983. O n t he p ost-mortem a ccumulation o f 1 0, 3 5-40

H .A., Khera, H ., W alker,

G ., W ibberley,

G .

l ead b y s keletal

& G reen,

C .J.S.,

1 979. L ead c oncentrations i n b ones a nd s oil. JAS 6 , 2 95-298 W aldron, H .A., M ackie, A . & T ownshend, A ., 1 976. T he l ead c ontent o f s ome R omano-British b ones.

A rchaeometry

1 8,

2 21-227

W allace, A . & R omney, E .M., 1 971. S ome i nteractions o f C a, p lants. A gronomy J ournal 6 3, 2 45-248

S r a nd B a i n

W asserman, R .H., C omar, C .L. & P apadopoulou, D ., 1 957. D ietary c alcium l evels a nd r etention o f r adiostrontium i n t he g rowing r at. S cience 1 26,

1 180-1182

W aterbolk,

H .T.,

1 973.

A .E.

v an G iffen,

1 884-1973.

H .T.,

1 977. W alled e nclosures o f

P alaeohistoria X V,

7 -12 W aterbolk,

t he N etherlands.

P alaeohistoria X IX,

W east, R .C. ( ed), 1 973. H andbook o f C RC ( 54th e dition) W eerd, M .D.

d e,

1 966.

t he I ron A ge i n t he N orth o f

9 7-172

c hemistry a nd p hysics.

C leveland:

N ederzettingssporen v an d e v roege k lokbekercultuur

b ij O ostwoud ( N.H.). V oortgezet o nderzoek 1 964. i n ( W. G lasbergen & W . G roenman-van W aateringe, e ds) I n h et v oetspoor v an A .E. v an G iffen, t weede, W hite,

v ermeerderde d ruk.

E .M.

& H annus,

L .A.,

a rchaeological s oils. W ijn,

J .F.

G roningen: W olters, 1 983.

A merican A ntiquity 4 8,

d e & S taveren, W .A.

1 74-175

C hemical w eathering o f b one i n

v an,

1 980.

3 16-322

D e v oeding v an e lke d ag.

U trecht: B ohn, S cheltema & H olkema W ijngaarden- B akker, L .H. v an, 1 986. T race e lements e nvironment a nd f ood c hains.

i n ( B.

2 11

H errmann,

e d)

i n p rehistoric I nnovative T rends

i n

d er p rähistorischen A nthropologie M itteilungen d er B erliner G esellschaft f ür A nthropologie, E thnologie u nd U rgeschichte 7 , 2 5-29 W ing, E .S., & B rown, A .B., 1 979. P aleonutrition. M ethod a nd t heory i n p rehistoric f oodways. N ew Y ork: A cademic P ress W oltering, P .J., 1 979. A rcheologische k roniek v an N oord-Holland o ver 1 978. H olland 1 1, 2 42-273 W oltering, P .J., 1 985. P rehistorie e n R omeinse t ijd i n W est-Friesland. W FON 5 2, W oltering,

1 99-232 P .J., 1 986.

A rcheologische k roniek v an N oord-Holland o ver

1 985. H olland 1 8, 2 73-303 Z euner, F .E., 1 963. A h istory o f d omesticated a nimals. &R ow

2 12

N ew Y ork: H arper

A PPENDIX 1 C ATALOGUE O F HUMAN REMAINS F ROM WESTFRIESLAND

I ntroduction T he h uman r emains f rom W est-Friesland a re c atalogued o n t he b asis o f y ear o f e xcavation a nd p ublication. T he b asis f or t he p resent c atalogue i s t he p reliminary l ist b y J .A . B akker ( 1974). T he c atalogue n umbers 1 -53 a re p resent i n B akker's l ist, t he h igher n umbers a re n ewly a dded. T he c atalogue c ontains t he f ollowing i nformation p er e ntry: G eneral i nformation:

N umber,

s ite, y ear o f e xcavation a nd

p ublication, p lace w here t he m aterial i s s tored. A : A nthropological d ata 1 . G eneral d ata: w hich e lements a re p resent/absent, c onservation 2 . M easurements, b ody h eight 3 . E stimation o f s ex 4 . E stimation o f a ge 5 . S pecial f eatures s uch a s p athology 6 . B .

s tate o f

I f m ore t han o ne i ndividual i s p resent, t he n umber o f i ndividuals A rcheological d ata: p osition o f t he b ody i n t he g rave,

d ate.

S exing a ccording t o t he m orphological m ethod o f A eA ( 1979), ( feminine) t o + 2 ( masculine).

s core 2

A ge d etermination a ccording t o B rothwell ( 1981, t ooth w ear) a nd U belaker ( 1978, t ooth e ruption) a nd A eA ( 1979, f using o f e piphyses). B ody l engths e stimates a ccording t o T rotter & G leser ( in B rothwell 1 981). A bbreviations: L : l eft R : r ight D entition: M l: f irst m olar, M 3: t hird m olar C : c anine t eeth P 1: f irst p remolar, P 2 s econd p remolar S ex c haracteristics o n p elvis

( AeA 1 979):

P 1 P 2 P 3

S ulcus p raeauricularis I ncisura i schiadica m ajor A ngulus p ubis

P 4 P 5

A rc c ompose O s c oxae

P 6 P 7 P 8

F oramen o bturatem C orpus o ssis i schii C rista i liaca

P 9 P 10

F ossa i liaca P elvis m ajor

2 13

S ex c haracteristics o n c ranium ( AeA 1 979): S i G labella S 2 A rcus s uperciliarus S 3 T ubera f rontalia & p arietalia S 4 S 5 S 6

I nclinatio f rontale P rocessus m astoideus r elief p lanum n uchale

S 7 S 8 S 9

P rotuberantia o ccipitalis e xterna P rocessus z ygomaticus O s z ygomaticum

S 10 S ll

C rista s upramastoidea M argo s upraorbitale &

F orma o rbitae

S ex c haracteristics o n m andibula ( AeA 1 979): S 12 g eneral i mpression S 13 M entum S 14 A ngulus S 15

M argo

C ATALOGUE

1 -10 A s eries o f b urials f rom a g roup o f b arrows n ear Z waagdijk, e xcavated 1 942 ( Van G iffen 1 944). S tored a t t he B AI. 1 -2 C remations. 3 Z waagdijk I , n o.16 A 1 . V ery i ncomplete, o nly p arts o f l ong b ones a nd t wo p elvis f ragments p reserved. 3 . 4 . B .

I ncisura i schiadice m ajor a ppears r ather w ide: f emale? P roximal e piphysis o f u lna f used, i ndicating a ge > 18. O n b ack e xtended E -W i n u pper p art o f c entre o f b arrow .

4 Z waagdijk I , n o. 1 7 A 1 . I ncomplete s keleton.

L arge p arts o f h ands,

f eet a nd a xial b ones

m issing. 3 .

P robably f emale, c haracteristics S i, S 2, S 4, S 5, S 12, S 13 a nd S 14 s core 1 - 2, b ut s exing s omewhat a mbiguous d ue t o r elatively l ow a ge.

4 .

T hird m olars i n m andibula n ot y et e rupted, v ery l ittle w ear o n f irst a nd s econd m olars. A ge c . 1 5. E xcavation a nd s torage o f s keleton w as n ot d one v ery c arefully. B ones w ith n umbers 1 5 a nd 1 6 f it t o b ones o f s keleton 1 7.

5 . B .

O n b ack e xtended E -W i n u pper p art o f c entre o f b arrow .

5

Z waagdijk I V,

n o.

1 0

A 1 . V ery i ncomplete s keleton; o nly f ragments o f s kull, l ower a rms a nd l ower l imbs p resent. 3 . F emale? L ower j aw s omewhat l ess g racile t han 4 , b ut f emale i n a ppearance. l acking.

S kull r ather w eathered,

2 14

c lear m asculine f eatures a re

4 .

N o t hird m olars h ave e rupted i n m andibula. L m axillar M 3 l ost a nte-mortem . M olar w ear s uggests a ge o f 2 5-35, p robably < 30. 5 . M 3 i n m axilla L l ost a nte-mortem i n c onnection w ith p eriapical

B .

a bscess. O n b ack e xtended E -W i n t op o f b arrow .

6 Z waagdijk I V, n o. 1 1 A 1 . V ery i ncomplete s keleton, p resent.

o nly f ragments o f s kull,

p elvis a nd l imbs

3 . 4 .

D istinct s ulcus p raeauricularis ( P1): f emale. E piphyses o f p resent m etacarpalia a nd r adius ( proximal) h ave f used, p ointing t o a n a ge > c . 2 0.

5 . B .

P oor s tate o f p reservation. O n b ack e xtended E -W i n t op o f b arrow .

7 Z waagdijk I V, n o. 1 2 A 1 . V ery i ncomplete s keleton. F ragment o f p elvis, s ome s kull a nd m andibula f ragments, s ome r ib f ragments a nd p arts o f u pper a nd l ower 2 .

l imbs p resent. T hree m ore o r l ess c omplete b ones a llow c alculation o f b ody l ength:

c . 1 70-175 c m. 3 . M ale? P elvis f ragment t oo s mall f or s exing. C aput f emoris d iameter 4 7 m m, m entum a ppears m asculine. 4 . M andibular R M 3 l ost p ost-mortem . M olar w ear s uggests a ge o f 2 5-35. B . I n t op o f b arrow, e xtended o n b ack, S -N o r N -S. 8 Z waagdijk I V, n o. 1 3 A 1 . V ery i ncomplete, o nly i ncomplete s kull, m andibula a nd s ome f ragments o f l ower l imbs p resent. 3 . S ex a mbiguous; o n m andibula, f emale c haracteristics d ominant,

o n

s kull m ale c haracteristics d ominate. 4 . M andibular R M 3 l ost p ost-mortem . M olar w ear i ndicates a ge o f 2 5-35. B . I n t op o f b arrow, e xtended o n b ack E -W . 9 Z waagdijk I V, n o. 1 4 A 1 . V ery i ncomplete, b esides i ncomplete s kull o nly s mall f ragments o f p ostcranial b ones p resent. P elvis a bsent. S kull s urface r ather w eathered. G labella a nd a rcus s uperciliarus m asculine r ather t han f eminine. 4 . M andibular L M 3 l ost p ost-mortem. A ge o f 2 5-35 s uggested b y w ear o f 3 .

B .

M 1 a nd M 2. I n t op o f b arrow,

e xtended o n b ack N -S o r S -N.

1 0 Z waagdijk I V, n o. 1 5 A 1 . V ery i ncomplete, o nly s ome s mall s kull f ragments a nd s mall f ragments o f p ostcranial s keleton p reserved. 3 . 4 .

S exing n ot p ossible d ue t o l ow a ge. A ge c an o nly b e g uessed b ecause n o f ragments o f

B .

e piphyses a re p resent. D imensions o f l ong b ones I n t op o f b arrow, N -S o r S -N.

s kull,

d entition o r

s uggest a ge < 10

1 1-20 A s eries o f c remations a nd s keletons f rom t wo b arrows n ear G rootebroek, e xcavated 1 949. ( Van G iffen 1 953) T he m aterial i s s tored a t

t he I PP

2 15

1 1 G rootebroek I ,

n o.

1

n o.

2

C remation. 1 2 G rootebroek I , C remation. 1 3 G rootebroek I n o. 3 C remated w oman ( ?). 1 4 G rootebroek I n o. 3 ( 2) A 1 .Incomplete s keleton o f y oung c hild. 3 . S exing n ot p ossible d ue t o a ge. 4 . C hild. B . 1 5

B uried t ogether w ith c remated i ndividual G rootebroek I ,

n o.

1 3.

7

A 1 . I ncomplete s keleton. H and, f eet, a xial b ones a nd l arge p art o f c ranium m issing. 2 . L ength o f f emur R a nd h umerus R i ndicate b ody l ength o f a bout 1 73 c m. 3 . 4 . B .

P elvis c haracteristics P 1 a nd P 2 s core + 1; a lso o n t he m andibula m ale c haracteristics a re p redominant. B oth M 3's i n t he m andibula a re p resent. M olar w ear i ndicates a ge o f 2 0-25. S keleton p laced o n b ack i n e xtended S -N p osition.

1 6 G rootebroek I , n o. 4 A 1 . V ery i ncomplete s keleton, p resent. 3 . 4 . B .

o nly p arts o f a rms,

l egs a nd p elvis

S ulcus p raeauricularis a nd i ncisura i schiadica m ajor s uggest f emale s ex. A dult. B ody w as p laced o n R s ide l egs c ontracted, c hest. N W-SE, f acing S W.

1 7 G rootebroek I II, C remation.

1 8/20

n o.

a rms f olded i n f ront o f

1

F rom G rootebroek I II o nly o ne s keleton p resent,

t hough t wo

s keletons w ere f ound ( Van G iffen 1 953). 1 8

G rootebroek I II, n o. 1 2 T his s keleton w as p robably n ot e xcavated c arefully b ecause V an G iffen a ssigned i t t o a r elatively r ecent p eriod. S keleton o n b ack, N NE-SSW p osition. B ones c ould n ot b e t raced.

1 9 G rootebroek I II, n o. 1 3 A 1 . V ery i ncomplete s keleton. p resent. 2 . 3 .

e xtended

I ncomplete s kull a nd p arts o f l ower l imbs

T rochanteric o blique l ength o f L f emur c . 4 5 c m. G labella a nd a rcus s uperciliarus m asculine, m andibula t oo w eathered f or s exing.

4 . M andibular R M 3 n ot y et e rupted, L M 3 l ost p ost-mortem. T ogether w ith w ear o f p resent m olars ( M1 R , M 2 L ), t his s uggests a n a ge o f 1 5-20. 5 . T here i s s ome d oubt i f s kull a nd l imb b ones b elong t o s ame s keleton. B .

R ectangular g rave p it s uggests e xtended p osition. O rientation o f p it i s a pproximately N NE-SSW, p osition o f h ead a nd f eet n ot i ndicated.

2 16

2 0 ( empty n umber) 2 1-22

H oogkarspel-Watertoren I

B akker ( 1959) m entions f ind o f a c remation a nd s ome h uman b one f ragments. T hese f ragments h ave n ot ( yet) b een t raced.

2 3-24 Z waagdijk X III H uman b ones m entioned b y C lason ( 1961) c ould n ot b e t raced. N o. 2 3 r epresents d isturbed c entral g rave, a nd c onsists o f f ragment o f L h umerus, R a nd L f emur. N o. 2 4 c omprises f inds f rom r ing d itch: R f emur ( fragment?) a nd t hree n on-determinable f ragments. F ig. 1 0 i n C lason ( 1961) s hows n o. 2 3; f ragments a ppear t oo s mall t o a llow a ny s ex, a ge o r s tature e stimate.

2 5-36

A s eries o f s keletons f rom t wo b arrows n ear O ostwoud,

1 956-57

( Van G iffen 1 962, L anting

1 979).

e xcavated

S tored a t t he U niversity o f

A msterdam . 2 5 O ostwoud I , n o. 2 30 A 1 . I ncomplete s keleton, h ands, f eet a nd m ajor p art o f r ibs a nd v ertebrae a re m issing. L arge p art o f c ranium a nd m andible p resent. 2 . M ost o f l ong b ones d amaged. O nly o ne b one p resent i n f ull l ength: L h umerus, l ength c . 3 6 c m, i ndicating b ody l ength o f c . 1 82 c m. 3 . P elvis a nd s kull s uitable f or s exing; b oth h ave m ale c haracteristics 4 . M andibula a nd m axilla p resent. L M 3 i n m andibula n ot y et e rupted, 5 . B .

w ear s uggests a ge o f 2 5-35. B one s urface w eathered. B ody o n b ack, a rms a longside c hest, o f b arrow .

e xtended E -W p osition i n c entre

2 6 O ostwoud I , n o. 2 31 A 1 . I ncomplete s keleton. H ands, f eet, v ertebrae a nd r ibs m issing. p artly p resent b ut d eformed. 2 . N o c omplete l ong b ones p resent.

S kull

3 .

P 1 a nd P 2 a re c learly f emale, c haracteristics o n s kull l ess c lear, s ex m ost p robably f emale. 4 . M andibular M 3 n ot y et e rupted. M axilla f ragment t oo s mall t o o bserve s tate o f M 3. M olar w ear s uggests a ge o f 2 5-35. 5 . B ones i n p oor s tate o f c onservation d ue t o c racking a fter e xcavation. P eriapical a bscess c avities a re p resent i n t he L h alf o f t he m andibular C a nd M l. I n c onnection, M 1 l ost a nte-mortem . B . T he b ody w as l aid o n b ack i n f lank o f b arrow, e xtended E -W, a rms a longside c hest. 2 7 O ostwoud I I, n o. 1 27 A 1 . I ncomplete s keleton;

h ands,

f eet a nd a xial s kelton m issing.

2 .

F emora a nd t ibia p resent. E piphyses n ot f used, s o m easuring l ength p roblematical. W ith t his r estriction, b ody l ength c an b e e stimated a t 1 55-165 c m. 3 . S ex? 4 . A ge e stimation d ifficult. E piphyses o f l ong b ones n ot f used, s uggesting a ge b elow c . 1 9 y ears. A ll M 3 h owever e rupted. A ll m olars s how v ery l ittle w ear ( m aximum 2 + o n M 1). s um, a ge a t d eath p robably w as 1 5-20.

2 17

A ll t eeth r ather s mall.

I n

B .

S econdary g rave;

b ody c rouched o n L s ide, E -W,

2 8 O ostwoud I I, n o. 2 28 A 1 . I ncomplete s keleton,

f acing S .

f eet a nd l arge p art o f a xial b ones m issing.

2 .

B ody l ength c an b e e xtrapolated f rom l engths o f 1 72 c m.

t hree l ong b ones:

c .

3 . 4 .

S kull a nd p art o f p elvis p resent, b oth s uggesting m ale s ex. D entition s uggests a ge o f c .20. P art o f t he M 3 e rupted, M 1 a nd M 2 s how l ittle w ear, s tage 2 - 2 +.

B .

C rouched o n L s ide, a rms i n f ront o f c hest, E -W, f acing S . R h and a nd d istal p arts o f R u lna a nd r adius f ound t ogether w ith m anubrium s terni ' onder d e v oeten' ( below t he f eet). E xact p osition u nknown d ue t o a mbiguous w ord ' below ' t he m eaning o f w hich d epends o n r eference ( body, i .e. ' caudal', o r t he s oil s urface). ' Caudal' p osition r esulting o f p ost-burial d isplacement i s s uggested b y p resence o f p art o f s ternum .

2 9 O ostwoud I I, n o. 2 29 A 1 . I ncomplete s keleton, h ands a nd a xial b ones n ot p resent. M andible a nd l arge p art o f L h alf o f s kull m issing. 2 .

F our l ong b ones m ore o r l ess c omplete; 1 73 c m.

e xtrapolated b ody l ength c .

3 .

S ex c haracteristics o n s kull a nd p elvis i ndicate m ale

s ex.

4 . M andible a bsent, m axilla p artly p resent. R M 3 i n m axilla p ost-mortem l ost. M olar w ear s uggests a ge o f c a. 2 5-30. 5 . T ibiae v ery f lat, p latycnemic i ndex 5 1. B . E xcavation p lan ( Van G iffen 1 962) s hows l ocation o f 2 29, b ut p osition o f b ody u nclear. 3 0 O ostwoud I I,

n o.

2 32

A 1 . I ncomplete s keleton, r emoved i n a b lock i n f ixed p osition. I ndividual b ones c annot b e t aken o ut. R ibs, s ternum a nd a lmost a ll h and- a nd f oot b ones m issing. S kull f ractured a nd p ressed t ogether. P elvis b roken a nd o nly p artly v isible. M ost o f l ong b ones b roken. 2 .

E xact m easurements c annot b e m ade d ue t o f ixation a nd f ractures. L ength o f f emur c . 4 3 c m, t ibia c . 3 7 c m, s uggesting b ody l ength o f 1 60 a nd 1 69 c m, r espectively.

3 .

S kull n ot s uitable f or s ex d etermination. P elvis b roken a nd p artly c overed b y s oil. L h alf o f p elvis v isible f rom b ehind. I ncisura i schiadica m ajor n ot e asily v isible, b ut p robably r ather w ide. S ulcus p raeauricularis a ppears p resent. s ex.

4 .

A ge e stimation d ifficult.

B oth c haracteristics

s uggest f emale

M l, M 2 a nd M 3 i n u pper a nd l ower j aw L

a ppear t o b e p resent. O cclusal s urfaces n ot v isible. M olar w ear p robably n ot v ery e xtreme, s o a n a ge o f 2 5-35 i s s uggested. 5 .

L eft f emur a nd t ibia u sed f or r eplaced b y c asts.

B .

C rouched o n R s ide, h ands i n f ront o f f ace. f urther c omments, s ee 3 3.

3 1 O ostwoud I I,

n o.

4 .

N -S,

3 530 + 2 5 B P)

f acing W .

a nd

F or

2 33

A 1 . V ery i ncomplete s keleton. R h alf o f p elvis p resent. 3 .

1 4C d ating ( GrN 8 801:

O nly s kull, m andibula,

p art o f L a rm a nd

S ex c haracteristics o n s kull a nd p elvis n ot v ery c lear b ut p robably t his w as a f emale. A ll m olars p resent. M olar w ear o n M 3 s tage 2 + - 3 +, o n M 1 5 +. A ge c . 3 3-45.

2 18

5 . B .

C aries i n P 2 a nd M 1 i n m andibula L , b oth s econd p remolars i n m andibula. P osition o f b ody u nknown.

3 2 O ostwoud I I, n o. 2 35 A 1 . I ncomplete s keleton, m issing.

s kull,

h ands,

p eriapical a bscess c avities b elow

f eet a nd m ost a xial b ones

2 .

S ix b ones c an b e u sed f or b ody l ength e stimation. c m.

S tature w as c .

1 65

3 . 4 .

P elvis s hows c lear m ale c haracteristics. A dult.

B .

T hough m entioned i n f inds l ist o f e xcavation d ocuments o f V an G iffen, p osition o f s keleton w as n ot d rawn o n e xcavation p lans.

3 3 O ostwoud I I, n o. 2 36 A 1 . A lmost c omplete s keleton, l ower L a rm, R h and a nd b oth f eet m issing. S kull a lmost c omplete b ut d eformed. 2 .

F emora a nd t ibiae d amaged a t p roximal a nd d istal e nds. O nly R h umerus c omplete, s uggesting b ody l ength o f c . 1 71 c m. 3 . S exing o f p elvis i s p roblematical: P 1 s cores 1, P 2 + 1. S kull a nd m andibula, h owever, c learly m ale. 4 . M 3 i n m andibula R n ot e rupted. H eavily w orn M 1 a nd M 2 s uggest f airly a dvanced a ge ( >40). 5 . A n umber o f p athological f eatures c an b e o bserved: - d entition i n v ery p oor s tate. P remolars f rom m andibula l ost a nte-mortem i n c onnection w ith p eriapical a bscesses; M 1 R a nd M 2 L l ost a nte-mortem, o ther m olars v ery h eavily a nd u nequally w orn, -v ertebra o f n eck s how c lear t races o f o steoarthritis, - R u lna b roken a nd h ealed, R d istal e nds o f u lna a nd r adius s how o steoarthritis, B .

- j oint o f h umerus a nd s capula R s hows e burnation. C rouched o n L s ide, a rms f olded i n f ront o f c hest, E -W, f acing S . T ogether w ith t he s keleton, b ones ( skull, m andibula, l ong b ones) o f a m arten ( Harter s p.) w ere f ound. A ccording t o V an G iffen, g rave 2 32 ( 30) w as p rimary g rave o f b arrow. L anting ( 1979), o n t he c ontrary, i s o f t he o pinion t hat s keleton 2 36 i s p rimary b urial. T he l atter o pinion m ay b e c orroborated b y t he a nthropological d ata, a s i t w ould m ean t hat t he b arrow w as r aised f or a r elatively o ld m ale r ather t han f or a y ounger f emale.

3 4 O ostwoud I I, n o. 2 39 A 1 . I ncomplete s keleton,

o nly l ower l imbs,

p art o f p elvis,

p art o f L

a rm a nd p arts o f m andibula a nd m axilla p resent. 2 . L ength o f t ibia a nd f emora s uggest b ody l ength o f c . 1 80 c m . 3 . P elvis s hows c lear m ale c haracteristics. 4 . M 3 i n m anibula R p robably l ost p ost-mortem, t hree m olars p resent i n R m axilla. W ear o f m olars s uggests a ge o f 2 0-25. B . C rouched o n L s ide, a rms i n f ront o f c hest. E -W, f acing S . 3 5 O ostwoud I I, n o. 2 42 A 1 . I ncomplete s keleton, o nly s kull, m andibula, f emur a nd s ome v ertebra p resent ( fig. 1 .1). 2 . 3 .

p art o f u pper l imbs,

L

L ength o f L f emur s uggests b ody l ength o f c . 1 81 c m. S kull s hows c lear m ale c haracteristics; d iameter o f c aput f emoris 5 1 m m,

b oth s uggesting m ale s ex.

2 19

4 .

A ll m olars p resent e xcept f or n ot y et e rupted M 3 i n m andibula R . M olars s how l ittle w ear ( stage 3 o n f irst m olars) s uggesting a ge o f 1 7-25.

B .

E xcavation p lan o f V an G iffen s uggests c rouched p osition o n L s ide, E —W, f acing S ( see a lso 3 8).

3 6 ( 1) O ostwoud I I, n o. 2 43 A 1 . I ncomplete s keleton, r ibs a nd v ertebrae f or l arge p art a bsent. 2 . 3 .

B ody l ength c an b e e stimated o n b asis o f l engths o f c . 1 65 c m. B oth p elvis a nd s kull s how f emale c haracteristics.

t hree l ong b ones:

4 .

D entition i n v ery p oor s tate. M 3 i n m andibula R s hows w ear s tage 4 +, M 1 h ave w ear s tage 5 , s uggesting a ge o f 3 5-50. 5 . L t ibia a nd f ibia b owed. D entition i n v ery p oor s tate, w ith c aries i n p resent m olars. S everal e lements l ost a nte—mortem i n c onnection w ith p eriapical a bscesses. l ines. B .

C rouched o n R s ide,

R adiographs o f t ibiae s how n umber o f H arris'

h ands i n f ront o f f ace.

E —W,

3 6 ( 2) O ostwoud I I, n o. 2 47 A 1 . I ncomplete s keleton. O nly s kull a nd m andibula, a nd l ower l imbs p resent. 3 .

I ncisura i schiadica m ajor r ather w ide, c haracteristics.

f acing N .

a nd p arts o f u pper

s kull t oo s hows f emale

4 . M 3 p robably a ll e rupted. M olar w ear s uggests a ge o f 2 5-35. B . P robable p osition o f b ody: c rouched o n R s ide, N WN—SES, f acing W .

3 7 — 3 9 O ostwoud I I, e xcavation 1 963 ( De W eerd 1 966). a t t he I PP ( 38) a nd W estFriesch M useum ( Hoorn). 3 7 O ostwoud I I A . 1 . A lmost c omplete s keleton,

2 .

3 . 4 . 5 .

M aterial s tored

e xcept f or c omplete a nd r econstructed

s kull i n—situ e mbedded a nd f ixed i n s oil. S tate o f p reservation g ood, s ome l ong b ones b roken . E xact m easurements n ot p ossible d ue t o f ixation o f b ones. L ength o f f emur c . 4 7.5 c m, t ibia c . 3 8.0 c m, h umerus c . 3 3.0 c m, s uggesting s tature o f c . 1 75 c m. S ex c haracteristics o n s kull a nd p elvis s uggest m ale s ex . A ll d ental e lements c ompletely e rupted. M olar w ear s uggests a ge o f 2 5-35 y ear. T he s kull i s a symmetric t o m edial p lane, p ossibly d ue t o d eformation i n s oil. I n t his a spect, i t c an b e c ompared t o t he M olenaarsgraaf I I s kull ( Louwe K ooymans, 1 974, P late X V). B oth s keletons w ere l ying o n L s ide. R p rocessus m astoideus l arger t han L . M edial p art o f l inea

B .

n uchalis s uperior f orms a c rest. I n l ambdoid s uture s ome f ive W ormian b ones. C rouched o n L s ide, a rms f olded i n f ront o f c hest. E —W, f acing S .

3 8 O ostwoud I I,

n o.

5 33

A . 2 .

1 . B ones f rom l ower h alf o f b ody ( fig. 1 .1). L t ibia m easures c . 4 1 c m, s uggesting b ody l ength o f c .

3 .

P elvis f ragments s how c lear m ale c haracteristics. s uggests m ale s ex. A dult.

4 . 6 .

T hough b ones w ere n ot f ound i n a natomical p osition, f rom o ne i ndividual.

2 20

1 81

c m.

B ody l ength a lso

t hey p robably a re

f igure

1 .1

S cheme s howing t he 3 8 ( light s hading).

r ecovered

s keletal e lements o f

2 21

3 5 ( dark s hading)

a nd

B .

B ones w ere f ound a bove a nd n ext t o 3 7, a nd m ay r epresent a d isturbed g rave. T he b ones o f 3 5 a nd 3 8 m ost l ikely r epresent o ne i ndividual a s s uggested b y f ig.1.1, t he d imensions o f t he b ones a nd c hemical a nalysis. I n t he c luster o f b ones s ome b ones o f f ox ( Vulpes v ulpes) w ere f ound.

3 9 O ostwoud

I I

A .1. A ccording t o D e W eerd, a nother i ncomplete h uman s keleton w as f ound. 2 -6. N o f urther i nformation c an b e g iven b ecause t he b ones c ould n ot b e t raced.

4 0 B arrow ' De T ent' n ear E nkhuizen, M aterial s tored a t t he I PP.

e xcavated

1 960

( Lehmann 1 963).

A 1 +2. f ive b ones: 2 7. f ragment o f c lavicula R , s ternial p art a nd a cromial f acet m issing, 3 7. n eck a nd p arts o f a cromion a nd c oracoid p rocess o f s capula R , 5 0. f ragment o f o s t emporale R , s quamous p art a nd z ygotomatic p rocess m issing, 5 6. f ragment o f c lavicula L , m edial p art a nd a cromial f acet m issing, 5 8. 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .

c ervical v ertebra,

s pine m issing.

S exing n ot p ossible, 5 0 m ay b e f emale ( S5:-1, S 10:-1). A dult . 5 8: o steoporosis? T hese b ones w ere f ound i n S W q uadrant o f b arrow, 5 6 a nd 5 8 c lose t o e ach o ther i n s econd p eriod r ing d itch, 2 7 a nd 3 7 i n t h f lank o f b arrow, 5 0 p ossibly i n f irst p eriod r ing d itch. D istance b etween 5 6/58 a nd 2 7 s ome 1 0 m . A ll f ragments s tem f rom t he u pper p art o f t he b ody, p ossibly f rom o ne i ndividual. C laviculae a re a lmost p erfect c ounterparts. A n o ld g rave m ay h ave b een d isturbed d uring c onstruction o f t he b arrow . L ehmann ( 1963, p .240) w rites ( my t ranslation) t hat " two f ragments o f w hat m ay h ave b een a h uman m andible" w ere f ound i n t he f irst p eriod r ingditch. N o h uman m andible f ragments w ere, h owever, f ound i n t he s torage b ox c ontaining t he

B .

m obilia o f t he e xcavation n either d oes t he f inds l ist m ention a h uman m andible. D uring t he e xcavation, o nly 3 7 a nd 5 0 w ere r ecognized a s b eing h uman. F ragments w ere f ound i n t he d itches f rom a t wo-period B ronze A ge b arrow .

4 1 - 4 5 F lat g raves n ear Z waagdijk, e xcavated 1 961 ( Modderman 1 964) a nd p reliminary d escribed b y H uizinga ( 1964). M aterial a t p resent a t I PP, b ut o wned b y t he R OB . 4 1 Z waagdijk, f lat g rave 1 , s torage b ox n o. 6 36 A 1 +2. I ncomplete s keleton, o nly p art o f s kull, u pper a rms a nd l egs p resent. 3 .

E ight s ex c haracteristics o n t he s kull c ould b e s cored, f emale s ex.

4 .

O nly r ight h alf o f m andible p resent. M 1 l ost p ost-mortem, M 2 a nd M 3 s how l ittle w ear, i ndicating a ge o f c . 2 0-25 y ears. B ones w ere c ollected a fter t he g rave h ad b een d isturbed, s o n o

B .

i nformation o n b urial p osition i s a vailable.

2 22

s uggesting

4 2 Z waagdijk, f lat g rave 2 , s torage b ox n o. 6 37 A 1 +2. A lmost c omplete s keleton. P art o f s acrum, p atellae a nd p roximal p arts o f R f ibula a nd o f L t ibia a nd f ibula m issing. L a nd R f emur a nd R t ibia i ndicate s tature o f c . 1 69 c m. 3 . P elvis a nd s kull h ave c lear m ale c haracteristics. 4 . M 3 p resent i n m andibula a nd l ost i n m axilla. W ear i ndicates a ge o f 3 0-40. 5 .

S ome p athological f eatures c an b e o bserved: - L u lna b roken a nd h ealed, -M 2 a nd M 3 i n m axilla L s how s evere c aries; m ore t han h alf o f M 3 h as d isappeared, -R a pex c apitis f ibulae i s s urrounded b y b one e xostotes, u nfortunately R c aput f ibulae a bsent, - l ower l umbar v ertebrae a nd b asis o ssis s acri s how b one e xostoses a round t he a rticulation f acets. T he l ower p art o f t he v ertebral c olumn s hows s coliosis.

B . O n b ack e xtended E -W, R a rm s traight a longside b ody, L a rm i n f ront o f c hest, h and o n n eck . 4 3 Z waagdijk, f lat g rave 3 , s torage b ox n o. 6 38 A 1 +2. I ncomplete s keleton, h and, f eet, l ower a rms a nd a xial b ones m issing. 3 .

C omplete L f emur s uggests s tature o f c .

1 85 c m.

P elvis a nd s kull s how c lear m ale c haracteristics. R obustness o f b ones a nd d iameter o f t he c aput f emoris ( 51 m m) a lso s uggest m ale s ex.

4 . M 3 p resent i n m axilla a nd m andibula, t ooth w ear s uggests a ge o f 2 0-25. 5 . O n t he p lace o f i ncisura r adialis o f R u lna s ome b one e xostoses a re B .

p resent. M 3 i n R m axilla h as c aries. O n b ack e xtended E SE-WNW, a rms a longside b ody. A r ecent d rain t rench h ad b een d ug t hrough m iddle o f b ody. I n t his g rave, a b ronze s word, a mber b eads, a p iece o f w orked f lint, s mall a nimal b one w ere f ound.

a p iece o f

s andstone a nd a

4 4 Z waagdijk, f lat g rave 4 , s torage b ox n o. 6 39A A 1 +2. V ery i ncomplete s keleton i n p oor s tate o f p reservation.

O nly

f ragments o f s kull, m andibula, v ertebrae, u lnae a nd r adii, a nd d iaphyses o f b oth f emurs a nd t ibiae a nd o f R h umerus p resent. 3 .

T hough H uizinga ( 1964) s uggests f emale s ex, i n m y v iew m ale s ex i s a lso p ossible. 4 . S mall p art o f R h alf o f m andibula w ith M 1 a nd M 2 p reserved. B oth s how v ery l ittle w ear. T hough n ot c ertain b ecause m andible i s i ncomplete, M 3 h ad p robably n ot y et e rupted. A ge e stimated c . 1 5-20. B .

O n b ack e xtended W -E.

4 5 Z waagdijk, f lat g rave 5 , s torage b ox n o. 6 39B A 1 +2 A lmost c omplete s keleton o f c hild. 4 . D entition s uggests a ge o f c . 6 . B . P osition o f b ody r econstructed b y H uizinga ( 1964). b ack,

4 6 - 4 7

l egs a bove c hest a nd a rms a round l egs.

C hild b uried o n

O rientation ?

S econdary g rave i n b arrow I I o f H oogkarspel-Tolhek,

1 965 ( Bakker & B randt 1 966). M aterial s tored a t W estFriesch M useum ( Hoorn).

2 23

e xcavated

t he I PP a nd

4 6 A 1 +2. F ragments o f c remated b one a nd s ome f ragments o f i ncompletely b urnt b ones. P resent a re i ncompletely b urned p arts o f p elvis, s acrum a nd f emora. S kull f ragments w ere a lso f ound, b ut a re n ow m issing. L arge p art o f s keleton i n-situ f ixed a nd k ept i n t he W estFriesch M useum a t H oorn. 3 .

D r. d e B oer, w ho e xamined t he s keletal r emains i n 1 966, c oncluded t hat t he p erson w as f emale ( letter o f D r. W d e B oer t o d irector o f

4 .

I PP, M ay 2 6, 1 966). O f r emaining b ones, p elvis f ragments s how d istinct s ulcus p raeauricularis a nd s uggest a r ather w ide i ncisura i schiadica m ajor, w hich s uggest f emale s ex . D iameter o f c aput f emoris r ather l arge ( c. 4 7 m m). N o a ge e stimation c an b e g iven o n b asis o f t he n ow p resent m aterial.

B .

D e B oer e stimated a ge o f a bout 3 0-40, s ee 4 7.

4 7 A 1 . 2 . 4 .

I ncomplete s keleton o f c hild.

p robably 3 5 o r o lder.

L ower l egs, h ands a nd s kull n ot

p resent. S tudied b y D r. d e B oer i n 1 966 ( see 4 6). B oth f emora p resent, b ut p roximal e piphyses m issing. L ength o f d iaphyses 1 8.5-19 c m. S kull m issing, s o n o e xact a ge e stimation c an b e g iven. O n b asis o f f emur d iaphyses l ength, a ge c an b e e stimated a t 4 -5. l ower t han d e B oer's e stimate o f 7 .

5 . B .

T his i s s omewhat

S ome s mall f ragments ( of r ibs, h ands ? ) a re c harred . F ound t ogether w ith 4 6, w ho w as d eposited i n a s ecundary, t angential g rave a nd i ncompletely b urnt i n g rave p it, c rouched o n R s ide, E -W, f acing N . S mall p ieces o f c harred b one o f 4 7 s uggest t hat t he c hild w as d eposited n ear t he w oman s hortly a fter s he h ad b een c remated. T he c hild w as o n i ts R s ide, a rms a nd l egs f olded i n f ront o f b ody, i n f ront o f 4 6.

4 8

H oogkarspel-Tolhek I n a s eries o f e xcavations n ear H oogkarspel

( section I I.C.2.7) a

n umber o f i solated h uman b ones w ere f ound i n o ccupation f eatures, a s w ere a nimal b ones, s tones a nd p ottery f ragments. B ones f rom a m aximum n umber o f 3 1 i ndividuals i s p resent. E stimation o f s ex a nd a ge i n m ost c ases n ot p ossible. M aterial a t p resent s tored a t t he I PP . H KL 1 8 A 1 . F ragment o f L c lavicula. 4 . A dult. H KL 6 5 A 1 +2. P art o f R h alf o f m andibula.

C ,

P 1 a nd P 2 l ost p ost-mortem, M 1

a nd M 2 p resent, M 3 n ot y et e rupted. P art o f r amus p resent, b ut a ngulus m andibulae a bsent. 3 . F ragment t oo s mall t o a llow f or s ex d etermination. 4 . M olar w ear ( M1:5, M 2:2) a nd a bsence o f M 3 s uggest a ge o f 1 5-20. H KL 8 3 A 1 +2. P art o f d istal h alf o f L f emur, 4 .

c . 2 0 c m. A dult.

H KL 1 73 A 1 +2. P halanx. 4 . A dult. 2 24

p arts o f c ondyles p resent. L ength

H KL 1 77 A 1 . S mall 4 .

s kull f ragment.

A dult.

H KL 1 94 A 1 . 4 .

S mall

s kull f ragment.

A dult.

H KL 2 07 A 1 +2. F ragment o f h umerus 4 . A dult.

s haft,

l ength 9 c m.

H KL 2 17 A 1 +2. 4 .

( 1)

D istal p art o f R h umerus,

( 2)

f ragments o f

l ength c .

1 5 c m,

t wo v ertebrae b odies.

A dult.

H KL 2 42 A 1 +2.

C alcined,

d eformed, whitish s kull f ragment.

H KL 2 57 A 1 +2. 4 .

P roximal e nd a nd s haft o f R r adius,

l ength c .

1 7

c m.

A dult.

H KL 2 58 A 1 +2. 4 .

( 1) ( 2)

D istal e nd o f R r adius, l ength c . 1 1 c m, s mall f ragment o f p roximal e nd a nd c aput o f L r adius.

A dult.

H KL 2 69 A 1 +2.

( 1)

P roximal p art o f

s mall R f emur,

( 2) M 1 w ith s mall p art o f m andibula. 4 .

( 1)

c hild

(
35.

5 . P athological f eatures p resent i n m andibula a nd u pper i n c ervical v ertebrae. R M 1 c aries a nd p eriapical a bscess c avity. B . E xtended E -W. A k itten t ibia m ight r epresent a g rave g ift. 5 2 H oogkarspel I a,

n o.

2 27

C remation. 5 3 H oogkarspel-Watertoren A h uman b one f ragment w as f ound i n t he o ccupation t races o f H oogkarspel-Watertoren ( Bakker e t a l. 1 977). S tored a t t he 1 PP. A 1 +2. F ragment o f R p art m axilla, C l, P l, P 2, M I, M 2, M 3 p resent. 4 . T ooth w ear s uggests

1 7-25 y ear.

5 4 A ndijk An umber o f h uman b ones f rom s ettlement t races n ear A ndijk, e xcavated b y t he R OB i n 1 973-74 ( Van M ensch & 1 Jzereef 1 975). S tored a t t he R OB. 1 1-64 A 1 +2. R f emur, l ength 5 1 c m. 3 . D iameter c aput f emoris 5 3 m m, 4 . A dult, 1 1-117 A 1 +2.

s uggesting m ale s ex.

e piphysis f used.

D iaphysis o f L h umerus,

l ength 2 3.7 c m.

4 . A dult. 1 11-3 A 1 +2. A lmost c omplete L o s t emporale. 3 . S ex? P rocessus m astoideus n ot v ery l arge. 4 . A dult. 1 11-30 A 1 +2. S mall s kull f ragment,

p robably o f o s t emporale.

4 . A dult. 1 11-36 A 1 . F ragment o f o s f rontale. 4 . A dult. 1 11-37, 1 11/1V-37 A 1 +2. ( 1) L p elvis, o s p ubis m issing, ( 2) R f emur, l ength 4 5.2 c m, s uggesting b ody l ength o f c . 1 66 c m, ( 3) d iaphysis f ragment o f R r adius, l ength 1 6.0 c m, m arked t uberosity, ( 4) f ragment o f L o s t emporale, s quamous p art a nd p rocessus z ygomaticus m issing, ( 5) f ragment o f L h alf o f o s f rontale,

2 27

( 6) 3 . ( 1)

f ragments o f o s f rontale a nd o s p arietale. P 1 a nd P 2 i ndicate f emale s ex,

( 2) d iameter c aput f emoris 4 5 m m s uggests f emale s ex, ( 4) S i a nd S 10 s uggest f emale s ex, ( 5) S 2 i ndicates m ale s ex. 4 .

A ll f ragments p robably a dult.

6 .

( 5) a nd ( 6) o f t wo i ndividuals. L c ounterpart o f ( 2) w ould p robably f it i n ( 1). F ragments a re t herefore o f a t l east t wo, a t m ost s ix i ndividuals.

1 11-38 A 1 +2. ( 1) R f emur,

l ength 4 6.5 c m s uggesting b ody l ength o f

e piphysis n ot f used, ( 2) f ragment o f d iaphysis R f emur, a spera,

1 69 c m,

p roximal

l ength 2 5.5 c m, w ell d eveloped l inea

( 3) f ragment o f d iaphysis R t ibia, l ength 2 2.5 c m, ( 4) p art o f R o s p arietale, m argo o ccipitalis p artly p resent.

I n t his

m argo a s mall w ormian b one, ( 5) h umerus f ragment, l ength 7 .6 c m. 3. ( 1) F emale s ex s uggested b y c aput d iameter, 4 . ( 1) E piphysis s uggests a ge u nder ( 2)-(5) A dult. 6 .

4 3 m m.

1 6-19.

A t l east t wo i ndividuals.

1 11-39 A 1 +2. D iaphysis a nd p roximal p art o f L f emur, l ength 3 6.5 c m, c aput 4 5 m m. 3 . D iameter o f c aput f emoris m ay s uggest f emale s ex. 4 . A dult.

d iameter

1 11-44 A 1 .

C omplete L u lna.

2 . 3 .

L ength 2 8.2 c m, s uggesting b ody l ength o f c . B ody l ength m ay s uggest m ale s ex.

4 .

A dult.

1 80 c m.

I II/IV-45 A 1 +2. D iaphysis a nd p roximal p art o f L f emur, p resent. 4 . E piphysis n ot f used, s uggesting a ge < 2 0.

l ength 3 7 c m.

C aput n ot

1 11-46 A 1 +2. ( 1) C omplete m andible, C 2 L l ost p ost m ortem, L P 2 d amaged p ost m ortem, ( 2) f ragment o f L p elvis, ( 3) s mall s kull f ragment. 3 . M andible p robably f emale; s uggesting f emale s ex.

i ncisura i schiadica m ajor o f p elvis w ide

4 .

I n m andible a ll e lements e rupted, w ear s uggests a ge o f p robably a dult.

5 . 6 .

L a nd R M 1 a nd M 2 h ave c aries. N umber o f i ndividuals ?

2 28

1 7-25.

P elvis

1 11-48 A 1 +2. F ragment o f o s f rontale, 3 . 4 .

p osterior p art m issing.

G labella a nd a rcus s upraciliaris s uggest m ale s ex. A dult.

1 11-49/5 A 1 . A lmost c omplete R r adius, o nly c aput m issing. 2 . L ength o f p robably a bout 2 7 c m, s uggesting b ody l ength o f a bout c m. 3 . 4 .

1 80

B ody l ength s uggests m ale s ex. A dult.

1 1I-50A A 1 +2. P art o f L o s p arietale, s quamosus p resent. 4 . A dult.

p arts o f m argo o ccipitalis a nd m argo

1 11-62 A 1 +2. ( 1) ( 2)

T wo s kull f ragments a nd f ragment R o s t emporale, f ragment o f s mall m andibula, n o e lements p reserved,

( 3) f ragment o f c orpus o ssis i schii, ( 4) d iaphysis o f R f emur, l ength c . 3 0 c m, ( 5) d iaphysis o f R t ibia, l ength c . 2 8 c m, ( 6) d iaphysis o f f ibula, l ength c . 2 5 c m, ( 7) f ragment o f d istal p art o f r adius, l ength c . ( 8) R h umerus,

p roximal p art m issing,

l ength c .

2 0 c m, 3 5 c m,

( 9) d iaphysis o f s mall c hild's L f emur, ( 10) t hree d iaphysis f ragments. 4 . E xcept ( 2) a nd ( 9), a dult. 5 . 6 .

E xostosis a t l ocus t uberositas d eltoidea o n ( 8). A t l east t wo i ndividuals.

5 5 B ovenkarspel-Het V alkje D uring 1 974-1975, t he R OB e xcavated a l arge s ettlement s ite n ear t he s mall l ake H et V alkje n ear B ovenkarspel. H uman b ones w ere f ound m ixed w ith o ther f inds i n d itches a nd p its. 1 Jzereef ( 1981) h as l isted t he f inds. A fter r e-examination, a l ist i s a lso g iven h ere. F ind n os. 4 0-1-40, 1 01-2-15 a nd 1 73-0-1, a ll l ong b one d iaphysis f ragments l isted b y 1 Jzereef, c ould n ot b e s tudied. 1 -2-45 A 1 +2. ( 1) I ncomplete s keleton, p reserved. ( 2)

I ncomplete s keleton, p reserved.

B ones s tored a t t he R OB.

s kull, m andibula,

f emur a nd f eet b ones

s kull, m andibula,

f emur a nd f eet b ones

3 . ( 1) C haracteristics o f s kull a nd m andibula s uggest f emale s ex, ( 2) A ccording t o I Jzereef ( 1981, 1 983) m ale i ndividual. M andibula l ess g racile t han ( 1) b ut S 12-S14 s core n ot f eminine. S 5 s uggests m ale, b ut S i a nd S 2 f emale. t o a ge

C onclusion:

p robably f emale,

b ut u ncertain d ue

4 . ( 1) M 3s n ot y et e rupted, w ear o n o ther m olars s uggest a ge o f c . 1 5. ( 2) M 3 i n m axilla e rupted, i n m andibula e rupting, s uggesting a ge o f 1 7-19. B . E xtended a longside e ach o ther i n g rave i n d itch. 2 29

c .

8 -1-4/24 A 1 +2. S mall f ragment o f o s o ccipitale. 4 . A dult. 1 7-1-1 A 1 +2. M andible f ragment, a ll e lements e rupted b ut p ost-mortem l ost. 3 . S 12 a nd S 13 s uggest f emale s ex. 4 . A dult. 3 0-1- 4 /1 A 1 +2. S haft a nd d istal e nd o f L h umerus, l ength c . 3 . C learly m arked t uberositas d eltoidea: m ale? 4 . A dult.

2 0 c m.

3 1-1-3 A 1 +2. I ncomplete s keleton o f i nfant. 3 8-2-1 A 1 .

T hree s kull f ragments:

t wo s mall f ragments o f

t he c ranium a nd a

2 .

c omplete R o s z ygomaticum. C ranium f ragments b oth m easure a bout 8 s quare c m.

3 .

T he o s z ygomaticum h as a s omewhat r ough s urface a nd t he e dge o f

4 . 6 .

o rbit i s r ather r ounded. A dult. O ne o r t wo i ndividuals.

4 0-1-35 A 1 +2. D iaphysis o f R f emur, 3 . 4 .

B oth s uggest m ale s ex.

l ength c .

2 7

c m .

L inea a spera m ight s uggest m ale s ex. A dult.

4 4-1-15 A 1 . C omplete p halanx. 4 . A dult. 4 5-1-9 A 1 +2. D iaphysis o f L f emur, 4 . A dult.

l ength 3 4 c m .

4 8-1-1/23 A 1 +2. L f emur, l ength 4 5 c m s uggests b ody l ength o f c . 3 . D iameter c aput 5 1 m m s uggests m ale s ex . 4 . A dult. 9 7-2-16 A 1 . 4 .

C omplete p halanx.

A dult.

9 8-1-3 A 1 +2. P roximal p art o f R f emur. 3 . F emale s ex s uggested b y d iameter c aput, 4 2 mm . 4 . A dult. 9 9-2-26 A 1 +2. F ragment d iaphysis f emur, 4 .

l ength 1 8.5 c m.

A dult.

2 30

1 70 c m.

t he

1 02-2-2 A 1 +2. P roximal a nd d istal f ragment o f R f emur, d iaphysis n ot p resent 3 . D iameter o f c aput 4 5.5 mm m ight s uggest f emale s ex. 4 . A dult. 1 03-1-11 A 1 +2. F ragment o f L o s p arietale, 4 .

p art o f m argo f rontalis a nd

p arietalis p resent. A dult.

1 03-2-21 A 1 +2. D iaphysis o f L f emur, 4 . A dult.

l ength 2 6 c m.

17-2-8 A 1 +2. F ragment o f o s f rontale a nd R o s p arietale. 3 . 4 .

S i a nd S 2 s uggest m ale s ex. A dult.

1 17-2-12 A 1 +2. C omplete s lightly d amaged s kull, b ut e xcept L M 1 p ost m ortem l ost. 3 . 4 .

C lear m ale c haracteristics. A dult. W ear o f L M I s uggests a ge

a ll e lements i n m axilla e rupted

1 7-25.

17-1-15 A 1 +2. S mall s kull f ragment. 17-2-24 A 1 +2. D iaphysis o f R t ibia, 4 . A dult.

l ength 2 9.5 c m.

1 50-3-8 A 1 +2. S mall f ragment o f f emur d iaphysis, 4 .

l ength 9 c m.

A dult.

1 50-3-17 A 1 +2. L arge p art o f Rh alf o f c ranium, 3 . P robably f emale. 4 . A dult.

a lmost c omplete o s f rontale.

1 57-2-1 A I . P art o f R c alcaneus. 4 .

A dult.

1 85-2-2 A 1 +2. S mall f ragment o f p roximal p art o f L f emur o f y oung c hild. 4 . D imension o f f emur s uggests a ge u nder c . 7 . 1 97-2-1 A 1 +2. A lmost c omplete m andibula, a ll e lements e rupted. 3 . S 12-S14 s uggest m ale s ex. 4 . W ear o f m olars s uggests a ge o f 1 7-25. 2 01-1-3 A 1 +2. L o s t emporale, z ygomaticum.

s quamous p art m issing,

2 31

a nd f ragment o f R o s

3 . 4 .

S 5 , S 10 s uggest m ale s ex. A dult.

5 6 H oogkarspel-Watertoren E xcavation o f a n a rea N o f H oogkarspel i n 1 978 ( Bakker 1 979). A s keleton f rom a b arrow a nd s ome s mall h uman b one f ragments. S tored a t t he I PP. H w 7 1 A 1 .

2 . 3 . 4 .

5 .

I ncomplete s keleton,

s kull a nd m andibula a lmost c omplete, m ajor

p arts o f a rms a nd l egs p resent. R ibs a nd v ertebra p artly p resent, b ut i n s mall f ragments. N o c omplete l ong b ones a re p resent. I n t he p elvis, b oth P 1 a nd P 2 s core 2, o n s kull f emale c haracteristics p resent. F emale. D entition s uggests r ather a dvanced a ge. A n umber o f e lements l ost a nte-mortem, a lveolar b one r esorption i s c onsiderable. B oth M 1 i n m andibula p resent, b ut h eavily w orn ( stage 5 ++) a nd w ith c onsiderable c alculus. A ge p robably o ver 4 5. D entition i s p oor s tate, e lements h eavily w orn, a lveolar b one r esorption a nd p eriapical a bcesses ( at b oth P 2's i n t he m andibula). L u lna b roken s ome 3 c m a bove d istal e nd,

B .

f used. I n s mall g rave p it i n s mall b arrow,

H w 7 8 A 1 +2.

F ragment o f

c allus p resent b ut b one n ot

c rouched o n b ack,

S -N.

s kull a nd f ragment o f c ondyle(?).

5 7 B ovenkarspel-Monument t errein V isser A lmost c omplete s keleton o f a nd o ld w oman, n icknamed

' the w itch o f

B ovenkarspel' b ecause o f a dvanced a ge a nd a n umber o f p athological f eatures. D escribed b y G .J.R. M aat ( in p ress a ). S tored a t t he R OB.

5 8 A ndijk 1 982 D uring a s mall e xcavation ( de V ries-Metz

1 983,

I PP,

p ers.

c omm . . )

s ome

h uman b one f ragments w ere f ound: A n 8 2-3 A 1 +2. F ragment o f c ranium, c . 1 0 c m2, w ith p art o f m argo. 4 . F ragment r elatively t hin w hich s uggests s ub-adult a ge. A n 8 2-39 A 1 +2. P art o f f ractured L o s p arietale, o ccipitalis p resent. 4 .

T hin b ones,

p art o f m argo s agittalis a nd

s uggesting l ow a ge.

5 9 S chagen-Muggenburg A t S chagen-Muggenburg,

r emains o f f ive h uman i ndividuals w ere f ound.

T he m aterial w as s tudied a nd d escribed b y G .J.R. M aat.

H ere,

n umbered M ug 1 -5. D escription b ased o n M aat ( in p ress b ). s tored a t t he I PP.

2 32

t hey a re

B ones

M ug

1 .

I solated h uman b one f rom f eature 2 7

A 1 . I ncomplete R o s c oxae. 3 . C haracteristics P l, P 2, P 4 a nd P 7 i ndicate m ale s ex. 4 . A dult ( epiphyses f used). M ug 2 . S keleton f rom f eature 7 7 A 1 . A lmost c omplete c hild's s keleton, b ones f ragmented. 4 . A n umber o f c haracteristics i ndicate t his w as a p erinatal c hild w ith g estational a ge o f 9m onths. M ug 3 . S keleton f rom f eature 1 50 A 1 . A lmost c omplete s keleton, b ones f ragmented. 2 . S tature o f 1 49 c m m easured i n s itu. 3 . P elvis c haracteristics i ndicate f emale s ex. 4 .

A ge o f

B .

r emodelling. O n b ack e xtended,

1 7-24 i s s uggested b y m olar w ear a nd i nternal b one o rientation? f ace t urned R ,

R h and o n R h ip.

M ug 4 . S keleton f rom f eature 3 21 A 1 . A lmost c omplete s keleton, b ones f ragmented. 2 . I nsitu l ength 1 60-165 c m, l ength o f R f emur i ndicates b ody l ength o f 3 . 4 .

c . 1 65 c m. C omplete p elvis i ndicates m ale s ex. A ge 5 0-56, b ased o n s tate o f d entition a nd o n A eA c omplex m ethod.

5 . B .

C aries i n R M 3s, a bscess a t a pex M 3 m andibula. O n b ack, e xtended o rientation?, L h and o n R p elvis,

f ace t urned R .

M ug 5 . S keleton f rom f eature 3 22 A 1 . A lmost c omplete s keleton, b ones f ragmented. 2 . I n s itu l ength n ot m easurable, l ong b ones t oo f ragmented t o a llow m easuring. 3 . P elvis i ndicates t his w as a m ale. 4 . A ge o f 2 3-25 s uggested b y d entition, f used p roximal e piphysis o f c lavicula, a nd o bliteration o f s utures o f t abula i nterna. B .

C rouched o n L s ide,

a rms i n f ront o f c hest.

6 0 V enhuizen-Kestelo M r. K estelo o f V enhuizen o n h is l and f ound s ome h uman b one f ragments i n a ddition t o p ot s herds a nd f lint a rtifacts. ( 1) A 1 +2. P art o f o s f rontale, w idth c . 7 c m, s quama f rontalis a bsent. 3 . A rcus s uperciliaris n ot v ery p ronounced, s uggesting f emale s ex. 4 . A dult. ( 2) A 1 +2. S mall c ranium f ragment,

c .

6 s quare c m,

( 3) A 1 +2.

S mall c ranium f ragment,

c .

2 5 s quare c m,

( 4) A 1 +2.

F ragment o f o s f rontale, R p rocessus z ygomaticus a nd p art o f

p art o f m argo p resent. p art o f m argo p resent.

m argo o rbitalis, c . 2 x4 c m. 3 . R ather s harp m argo o rbitalis s uggests f emale s ex. 4 . A dult. 5 . C olour w hitish,

s uggesting i t w as

( incompletely)

2 33

b urnt.

A PPENDIX 2

A bbreviations A AS

A tomic A bsorption S pectrometry

A PM

A verage P lant M aterial, p arts

i .e.

y oung,

g reen s hoots a nd p lant

( section I X.D.4)

B AI

B iologisch-Archeologisch I nstituut,

C V

G roningen C oefficient o f v ariation:

S tate U niversity a t

m ean/standard d eviation x 1 00%

d elta

1 3C

( (13C/12C

s ample)/(13C/12C s tandard)-1)x1000 p er m il,

d elta

1 5N

( (15N/14N s ample)/(15N/14N s tandard)-1)x1000 p er m il,

s tandard i s P DB ( section I .B) s tandard i s a tmospheric n itrogen ( AIR) D R

( section I .B)

D istribution R atio = ( Sr/Ca r atio i n i tem x ) i n i tem y );

( Runia

1 987b,

/ ( Sr/Ca r atio

s ection I X.C)

E CN

N etherlands E nergy R esearch F oundation,

I CP-AES

I nductively C oupled P lasma A tomic E mision S pectrometry

P etten ( N-H)

I DMS

I sotope D ilution M ass S pectrometry

I PP

A lbert E gges v an G iffen I nstituut v oor P rae- e n

I PL

I nstituut v oor P raehistorie,

O R

l eft O bserved R atio = ( Sr/Ca r atio i n s ample)/(Sr/Ca r atio i n

P rotohistorie,

p recursor);

U niversity o f A msterdam

( Comar e t a l.

S tate U niversity a t L eiden

1 957,

s ection V .A)

r ight R c

m g S r/g C a i n c attle b ones

R d

m g S r/g C a i n h uman d iet

R h

m g

R OB

R ijksdienst v oor h et O udheidkundig B odemonderzoek,

S r/g C a i n h uman b ones

( section V .C.4.3)

( section X I.C.2) ( section V .C.4.3) A mersfoort