The Bible and Art: Exploring the Covenant of God's Love in Word and Image [1 ed.] 1443886939, 9781443886932

Table of contents :
Contents
Frontispiece (The Covenant Cross, Antibes)
List of Biblical Abbreviations
List of Figures
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Part 1
Chapter One
1A. Genesis
i) The Primordial History
Iconography
a. Creation
b. The Fall
c. Noah and the Flood
d. The Tower of Babel
ii) The Patriarchal Narratives
1B. Exodus
Iconography
1C. Deuteronomy
Iconography
Chapter Two
2A.The Prophetic Tradition
Hebrew Prophecy
The Book of I
Iconography
2B.The Wisdom Books
The Tradition of Wisdom in the Life of Ancient Israel
The Book of Job
Iconography
Part 2
What is the Gospel?
Chapter Three
3A. Parables of the Kingdom in the Gospel of Matthew
Iconography
3B. Miracles in the Gospel of Luke
Iconography
3C. Farewell Discourses in the Gospel of John
John 14
John 15
John 16
John 17
Iconography
a. The Miracles, or ‘Signs’ (semeia)
b. The ‘I Am’ Sayings
c. The Farewell Discourse in the Upper Room
3D. Passion and Resurrection Narratives
Iconography
a. The Passion and Crucifixion
b. The Resurrection
c. The Ascension
Chapter Four
4A. The Acts of the Apostles
Iconography
4B. The Letter to the Romans
4C. The Letters to the Corinthians
The First Letter to the Corinthians
The Second Letter to the Corinthians
4D. The Letter to the Hebrews
Iconography
St Peter and His Mission to the Jews
a. The Authority of St Peter
b. Images of St Peter
c. The Ministry of St Peter
St Paul and His Mission to the Gentiles
a. Images of St Paul
b. St Paul’s Early Life
c. St Paul’s Missionary Journeys
d. The Imprisonment and Martyrdom of the Two Apostles
4E. The Revelation to John (The Apocalypse)
Iconography
Appendix One
Appendix Two
Bibliography
Index
A. Biblical Index
1. Biblical References
2. Index of Biblical Names
3. Index of Places, Objects, Images and Themes
4. Index of Texts and Scholars
B. Iconographical Index
1. Index of Artists
2. Index of Museums, Galleries, Other Locations

Citation preview

The Bible and Art

The Bible and Art: Exploring the Covenant of God’s Love in Word and Image By

Robert Ignatius Letellier and Janet Mary Mellor

The Bible and Art: Exploring the Covenant of God’s Love in Word and Image By Robert Ignatius Letellier and Janet Mary Mellor This book first published 2016 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2016 by Robert Ignatius Letellier and Janet Mary Mellor Cover image: The Prophets and Evangelists, the 13th-century south transept lancet windows, Chartres Cathedral. The New Testament Evangelists are seated on the shoulders of the Old Testament Prophets. From left to right: Luke is supported by Jeremiah, Matthew by Isaiah, John by Ezekiel, and Mark by Daniel. In the centre is the Madonna and Child, Mary, the Daughter of Zion, presenting Jesus the Word of God incarnate. The whole presents an icon of salvation history as distilled in the mystery of covenant. All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-8693-9 ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-8693-2

The Covenant Cross, pavement mosaic at Antibes Cathedral, Provence (early 13th century). The design depicts in concentric circles the covenants with Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, and the Prophets, all subsumed and held in embrace by the Cross of Calvary.

Quoting Marc Chagall, the great Jewish artist of the twentieth century, the Pope recalled how artists through the ages have ‘dipped their paintbrush in that coloured alphabet which is the Bible’. Indeed, most Western art for centuries was literally inspired by the biblical vision, both Old and New Testament, which is still at the centre of Catholic liturgy and life. —Ronald D. Witherup, on Pope Benedict XVI

CONTENTS Frontispiece (The Covenant Cross, Antibes) ............................................... v List of Biblical Abbreviations ..................................................................... x List of Figures............................................................................................ xii Acknowledgements .................................................................................. xiv Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 Part 1: The Old Testament Chapter One ............................................................................................... 16 The Torah, or Pentateuch 1A. Genesis .......................................................................................... 16 i) The Primordial History ..................................................................... 17 Iconography ......................................................................................... 21 a. Creation ............................................................................................ 21 b. The Fall ............................................................................................ 22 c. Noah and the Flood .......................................................................... 23 d. The Tower of Babel ......................................................................... 25 ii) The Patriarchal Narratives ............................................................... 25 1B. Exodus ........................................................................................... 29 Iconography ......................................................................................... 32 1C. Deuteronomy ................................................................................. 37 Iconography ......................................................................................... 40 Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 41 The Prophets and Wisdom 2A.The Prophetic Tradition ................................................................. 41 Hebrew Prophecy.. ............................................................................... 41 The Book of Isaiah ............................................................................... 42 Iconography ......................................................................................... 47 2B.The Wisdom Books ........................................................................ 49 The Tradition of Wisdom in the Life of Ancient Israel.. ..................... 49 The Book of Job ................................................................................... 50 Iconography ......................................................................................... 52

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Part 2: The New Testament What is the Gospel? ................................................................................... 56 Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 60 Gospel Themes 3A. Parables of the Kingdom in the Gospel of Matthew ..................... 60 Iconography ......................................................................................... 63 3B. Miracles in the Gospel of Luke ..................................................... 65 Iconography ......................................................................................... 67 3C. Farewell Discourses in the Gospel of John ................................... 70 John 14: The Second Advent and the Spirit’s Coming ........................ 73 John 15: Union with Christ and Bearing Spiritual Fruit ...................... 73 John 16: The Work of the Promised Spirit........................................... 74 John 17: Christ’s Great High Priestly Prayer ....................................... 74 Iconography ......................................................................................... 75 a. The Miracles, or ‘Signs’ (semeia) .................................................... 75 b. The ‘I Am’ Sayings .......................................................................... 78 c. The Farewell Discourse in the Upper Room ................................... 79 3D. Passion and Resurrection Narratives ............................................. 80 Iconography ......................................................................................... 84 a. The Passion and Crucifixion ............................................................ 84 b. The Resurrection .............................................................................. 88 c. The Ascension .................................................................................. 92 Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 95 Early Church Themes 4A. The Acts of the Apostles ............................................................... 95 Iconography ....................................................................................... 100 4B. The Letter to the Romans ............................................................ 101 4C. The Letters to the Corinthians ..................................................... 106 The First Letter to the Corinthians ..................................................... 106 The Second Letter to the Corinthians................................................. 108 4D. The Letter to the Hebrews ........................................................... 112 Iconography ....................................................................................... 115 St Peter and His Mission to the Jews ................................................. 116 a. The Authority of St Peter ............................................................... 116 b. Images of St Peter .......................................................................... 117 c. The Ministry of St Peter ................................................................. 117 St Paul and His Mission to the Gentiles............................................. 119 a. Images of St Paul ........................................................................... 119

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b. St Paul’s Early Life ........................................................................ 120 c. St Paul’s Missionary Journeys ....................................................... 121 d. The Imprisonment and Martyrdom of the Two Apostles ............... 123 4E. The Revelation to John (The Apocalypse) .................................. 125 Iconography ....................................................................................... 130 Appendix One.......................................................................................... 134 The Pontifical Biblical Commission, The Jewish People and Their Sacred Scriptures in the Christian Bible (Éditions Paulines, 2001), para 85. Appendix Two ......................................................................................... 136 Complete List of Iconography Bibliography ............................................................................................ 173 Index ........................................................................................................ 181 A. Biblical Index 1. Biblical References ................................................................ 181 The Old Testament The New Testament 2. Index of Biblical Names ......................................................... 185 3. Index of Places, Objects, Images and Themes ....................... 186 4. Index of Texts and Scholars ................................................... 193 B. Iconographical Index 1. Index of Artists ....................................................................... 194 2. Index of Museums, Galleries, Other Locations ...................... 198

LIST OF BIBLICAL ABBREVIATIONS

The Old Testament Am 1 Chron 2 Chron Dan Deut Eccles Est Ex Ezk Ezr Gen Hab Hag Hos Is Jer Job Joel Jon

Amos 1 Chronicles 2 Chronicles Daniel Deuteronomy Ecclesiastes (Qoheleth) Esther Exodus Ezekiel Ezra Genesis Habakkuk Haggai Hosea Isaiah Jeremiah Job Joel Jonah

Josh Judg 1 Kgs 2 Kgs Lam Lev Mal Mic Nah Neh Num Obad Prov Ps (pl. Pss) Ruth 1 Sam 2 Sam Song Zech Zeph

The Deutero-Canonical Books Bar Ecclus Jud 1 Macc 2 Macc Sir Tob Wis

Baruch Ecclesiasticus (=Sirach) Judith 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees Sirach (=Ecclesiasticus) Tobit Wisdom (=Wisdom of Solomon)

Joshua Judges 1 Kings 2 Kings Lamentations Leviticus Malachi Micah Nahum Nehemiah Numbers Obadiah Proverbs Psalms Ruth 1 Samuel 2 Samuel Song of Songs Zechariah Zephaniah

List of Biblical Abbreviations

xi

Apocrypha 1 Esd 2 Esd

1 Esdras 2 Esdras

The New Testament Acts Apoc Col 1 Cor 2 Cor Eph Gal Heb Jas Jn 1 Jn 2 Jn 3 Jn Jude Lk Mk Mt 1 Pet 2 Pet Philm Phil Rev Rom 1 Thess 2 Thess 1 Tim 2 Tim Tit

Acts of the Apostles Apocalypse (=Revelation) Colossians 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Ephesians Galatians Hebrews James John (Gospel) 1 John (Epistle) 2 John (Epistle) 3 John (Epistle) Jude Luke Mark Matthew 1 Peter 2 Peter Philemon Philippians Revelation (=Apocalypse) Romans 1 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians 1 Timothy 2 Timothy Titus

All citations from Scripture, unless otherwise stated, are from the Revised Standard Version (1881).

LIST OF FIGURES Old Testament Images Fig. 1 God as Creator of the World ........................................................... 21 Fig. 2 The Creation of Adam ..................................................................... 22 Fig. 3 The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden ......................................... 23 Fig. 4 The Building of the Ark .................................................................. 23 Fig. 5 Landscape with Noah’s Thanksoffering .......................................... 24 Fig. 6 The Tower of Babel......................................................................... 25 Fig. 7 The Sacrifice of Isaac ...................................................................... 28 Fig. 8 Jacob Wrestling with the Angel ...................................................... 29 Fig. 9 Joseph orders his servants to fill the sacks with wheat .................... 29 Fig. 10 The Burning Bush ......................................................................... 33 Fig. 11 The Crossing of the Red Sea ........................................................ 34 Fig. 12 The Israelites Gathering the Manna .............................................. 35 Fig. 13 Moses ............................................................................................ 36 Fig. 14 Moses and the Tablets of the Law ................................................. 36 Fig. 15 The Adoration of the Golden Calf ................................................. 36 Fig. 16 The Tree of Jesse 1 ........................................................................ 47 Fig. 17 The Tree of Jesse 2 ........................................................................ 48 Fig. 18 Isaiah ............................................................................................. 48 Fig. 19 The Torment of Job ....................................................................... 53 Fig. 20 The Triumph of Job ....................................................................... 54

New Testament Images Fig. 21 The Parable of the Hidden Treasure .............................................. 64 Fig. 22 The Parable of the Sower 1 ........................................................... 64 Fig. 23 The Parable of the Sower 2 ........................................................... 65 Fig. 24 The Healing of a Possessed ........................................................... 68 Fig. 25 Christ Healing the Blind ................................................................ 68 Fig. 26 The Raising of Jairus’s Daughter .................................................. 69 Fig. 27 The Wedding Feast at Cana 1........................................................ 75 Fig. 28 The Wedding Feast at Cana 2........................................................ 76 Fig. 29 The Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes ........................................... 77 Fig. 30 The Raising of Lazarus ................................................................. 77 Fig. 31 I am the True Vine ........................................................................ 79

List of Figures

xiii

Fig. 32 The Last Supper ............................................................................ 79 Fig. 33 The Arrest of Christ....................................................................... 85 Fig. 34 Christ Crowned with Thorns ......................................................... 85 Fig. 35 Christ on the Cross ........................................................................ 86 Fig. 36 The Isenheimer Altar ..................................................................... 86 Fig. 37 Pietà ............................................................................................... 86 Fig. 38 The Resurrection of Christ ............................................................ 88 Fig. 39 Anastasia, or The Harrowing of Hades ......................................... 89 Fig. 40 Noli me tangere ............................................................................. 90 Fig. 41 Doubting Thomas .......................................................................... 90 Fig. 42 The Road to Emmaus 1 ................................................................. 91 Fig. 43 The Road to Emmaus 2 ................................................................. 91 Fig. 44 The Ascension 1 ............................................................................ 93 Fig. 45 The Ascension 2 ............................................................................ 94 Fig. 46 Pentecost 1 .................................................................................. 100 Fig. 47 Pentecost 2 .................................................................................. 100 Fig. 48 Gravestone of the little boy Asellus ............................................ 115 Fig. 49 Saint Peter and Saint Paul ........................................................... 115 Fig. 50 Christ Giving the Keys to St Peter .............................................. 117 Fig. 51 Saint Peter ................................................................................... 117 Fig. 52 The Penitent Apostle Peter .......................................................... 117 Fig. 53 The Apostle Peter Preaching ....................................................... 118 Fig. 54 The Healing of the Lame Man .................................................... 118 Fig. 55 The Vision of St Peter of Unclean Animals ................................ 119 Fig. 56 Saint Paul .................................................................................... 120 Fig. 57 St Paul Writing ............................................................................ 120 Fig. 58 The Stoning of St Stephen ........................................................... 121 Fig. 59 The Conversion on the Way to Damascus................................... 121 Fig. 60 St Paul Preaching at Athens ........................................................ 122 Fig. 61 St Paul’s Shipwreck in Malta ...................................................... 123 Fig. 62 St Paul in Prison .......................................................................... 123 Fig. 63 St Peter Released from Prison ..................................................... 124 Fig. 64 The Martyrdom of St Paul ........................................................... 124 Fig. 65 The Crucifixion of St Peter ......................................................... 124 Fig. 66 The Ecstasy of St Paul ................................................................. 125 Fig. 67 Saint Peter ................................................................................... 125 Fig. 68 St John on Patmos ....................................................................... 130 Fig. 69 The Apocalypse ........................................................................... 131 Fig. 70 Adoration of the Mystic Lamb .................................................... 132

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful for help received, especially from -

Fr John Baggley (for Figures 2, 19 and 23) Father Russell Radoicich, Parish Priest, Holy Trinity Orthodox Christian Church, Butte, Montana, USA (for Figure 39) Dr Joseph Bezzina, Assistant National Archivist in Malta, and the The President of Malta (for Figure 61) Fr Sébastien Robert and Gilles Fresson from Chartres Cathedral for facilitating and giving permission to use the image of the south transept lancet windows for the front cover of this book.

Thanks also go to Elaine Thornton for her assistance, to Courtney Blades for her work on the cover, and especially to Amanda Millar for her patience and skill in preparing the text.

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this book is to provide an opportunity for studying some specially chosen areas of Scripture, building on the fundamental revelation of the Word of God. These introductions are aimed at illustrating the foundations of biblical studies, covering the content of both Old and New Testaments, some of the critical issues implicit to the study of both, and some of the approaches used in biblical scholarship. The specific focus is the revelation of the Covenant between God and his chosen people in the Old Testament, and its fulfilment or completion in the coming of Jesus Christ in the New Testament (cf. Rom 9—11). The book is designed to enable readers to consider special themes and selected passages of the Bible in a way that sharpens reactions, and makes application of the Bible to contemporary issues in the world possible. The process, alert to both diachronic (or historical) and synchronic (or literary) challenges in the sacred texts, puts major emphasis on exegetical and hermeneutical issues, and the theological application of interpretive findings, whether in study or in preaching, pastoral or teaching situations. It continues the study of the Bible at a higher level, and hopes to allow the reader to build on and expand knowledge gained from earlier reading or experience. It also aims to develop the use of imagery and art as creative tools in the better understanding of salvation history. This is not meant to be a textbook, nor another introduction to the Bible, but a working manual, or sourcebook. The ideas presented are meant to inspire a desire to study the sacred texts in detail, particularly how they track the revelation of God’s love in his covenantal relationship with the Chosen People and in the incarnation of Jesus Christ. This includes examining how some artists have sought in their work to reflect the interpretations of the Bible by scholars of the Christian tradition. Careful study of the iconography is in turn meant to enable a sharper appreciation of the scriptural texts and to develop an awareness of how they can be used for reflection, for instruction and in catechesis.

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A Catholic Worldview and Understanding of Art The Catholic worldview and understanding of art expresses in its various forms all the different elements of faith. It consists of any works of art, like sculpture, painting, mosaics, metal- or needlework and architecture, which reflect the belief that Jesus is the Saviour of the world. Such works convey the Church’s teaching in this respect through recognizable symbols and images.1 Spirituality is generated in accessing a dimension of being and meaning that transcends the purely physical and material, and in perceiving a sacredness when it enshrines values that are universally considered to be sacrosanct and sublime. St Clement of Alexandria (c.150–c.215) reminded the Church of its “Master’s delight in the beauty of the world”, emphasizing the relevance of Greek philosophy to Christian thought. If our eyes are opened by divine grace, we can see that everything in creation, other than sin, has been purified by the Incarnation—Jesus’ birth as man.2 This idea encouraged and even enabled artists to understand the value of cultivating beauty for the enrichment of the mind and the nourishment of the soul.3 Art, even when pursuing worldly aims and objectives, may also be used to evoke religious fervour when it is perceived as serving the Kingdom of God. There are many stories in the Scriptures that have been illustrated in Christian art and tell of sacrifice and heroism. In the Old Testament there are the instances of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac for God (Gen 22); the young David and the slaying of Goliath (1 Sam 17:4849); and the intrepid Daniel in the Lions’ Den (Dan 6). The New Testament provides examples in the stoning of Stephen the Deacon, the proto-martyr (Acts7:54-60); and of course, centrally, in the Crucifixion of Jesus, which illustrates the ultimate sacrifice for humankind (Mt 28, Mk 15, Lk 23, Jn 19). Christian art, used in these ways, fulfills its spiritual purpose by stimulating people into action as it seeks to portray the invisible and divine through material means.

1

See Edward Hulme, Symbolism in Christian Art (Blandford Press, 1976). Clement of Alexandria, Protrepticus (Exhortation), c. AD 195. 3 St Clement is revered as a saint and Church Father in Eastern Catholicism, and until 1586 was also venerated by the Church of Rome when he was removed from Roman Martyrology by Pope Sixtus V. 2

Introduction

3

This didactic role of art in Christianity, and the focus that it has on prayer and contemplation, has, over time, played an important role in contributing to the spiritual development and growth of the Christian faith. But there have also been misgivings concerning the relationship between expensive and overtly flamboyant works of art and the teachings of Christ, who was more concerned with relieving the misery of the sick and the poor. Indeed, Puritanism, and more modern types of evangelical Christianity, have verged on philistinism in perceiving works of art as a distraction or even temptation, aimed more at the glorification of the individual patron than at the worship of God.4 But from the Catholic perspective, the elaborate nature of some works of art should not be a distraction from the purpose of art, nor be confused with the simplicity and clarity of Jesus’ message, but rather be understood as an articulation of the creative gifts bestowed on man, an expression of glory given to God. In this, man recognizes the creative power of the Spirit, and the redeeming beauty of the Son Jesus, rather than just the skills of the artist. What emerges therefore out of the early beginnings of Christian art, and subsequent Catholic interpretation of it, is an ecclesial culture based on a way of life that is seen as ‘universal’ or ‘worldwide’.5 The Catechism teaches that the word ‘catholic’ has several related meanings: it refers to wholeness, integrity and oneness (CCC 830–831).6 This wholeness is vested in Jesus, because Christ is present in his Church, and in Christ there is fullness of life (Col 1:15), Christ’s body united with its head—the Totus Christus. The Church therefore seeks to affirm the nature and essence of faith, this sense of universality and wholeness, through the belief that Jesus Christ the Son of God died on the Cross for the redemption of mankind, and through his Resurrection brought salvation to all people. Art carries an innate message, and Christian art should attempt to penetrate the faith in Jesus and his Resurrection in portraying the invisible and the divine by material means. Most Christian art is therefore based on Scripture, since the Bible reveals the Word of God—his Utterance (CCC 102-104). For Catholics, Scripture 4

See the discussion in Francis A. Schaeffer. Art and the Bible (1973) (Downers Grove, Ill: IVP Books, 2007). 5 St. Ignatius of Antioch was the first person to use the word ‘catholic’ when he wrote to his local Church in Smyrna. See Early Christian Writings. The Apostolic Fathers. Trans. Maxwell Staniforth (Penguin Books, 1980), pp. 117-24. 6 The Catechism of the Catholic Church (London: Burns & Oates,1994).

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is sacred because it is the divine Word which gives support and vigour to the life of the Church. It provides food for the soul and is the font of the spiritual life. It follows that the Church perceives Catholic art also as sacred since it is there to represent and express through Scripture the divine teachings of salvation, and the truths expounded in its theology and pastoral teaching (CCC 131-133; 141). The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy Sacrosanctum Concilium (SC) promulgated at the Second Vatican Council (4 December 1963)7 teaches that sacred art and furnishings, especially religious art, are by their very nature an expression of the creative power and infinite beauty of God. Such work made by human hands is of one of the highest achievements, since sacred art, when dedicated to God, extends his glory on earth and serves the sole purpose of turning people’s spiritual aspiration devoutly towards God (SC 7:122). Expressing devotion to God should not thus be confused with idolatry since the two actions have different outcomes. Catholic art does not encourage idolatry. Devotion fosters the virtues of religion, disposing us to acknowledge God as Creator and Saviour. This leads to appropriate worship of God as Lord and Master through whom everything exists (CCC 2095-2097). Idolatry leads to the veneration of objects in themselves, idols and other false divinities, which is contrary to the teaching of the Judeo-Christian traditions. It is contrary to the teaching contained in the Decalogue (Ex 20:2-17), the Ten Commandments given to Moses: “You shall have no other gods before me” (cf. also Deut 5:6-21). Idolatry leads to superstition and irreligion, emptying worshippers, leaving them devoid of feeling because the idols they worship are vacuous since they have “mouths but do not speak and eyes that do not see” (Ps 115:4-5). Idolatry is a temptation from faith, but Catholic art encourages and even nurtures faith. Jesus said that “no man can serve two masters” (Mt: 6.24), and man commits idolatry when he reveres anything other than God (CCC 2113). Despite the ban on graven images in the Decalogue, the basis of all Puritanical rejection of art, the Old Testament has several examples of the association of art with sacred things, even with revelation itself. The construction of the Tabernacle in the Wilderness is given in great detail (Ex 23—30), with minute instructions about the fabrication of the priestly 7

Vatican Council II. Vatican Council II. The Conciliar and Postconciliar Documents. Ed. Austin Flannery, (1975; New revised edition. Dublin: Dominican Publications, 1992), pp. 1-40.

Introduction

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garments (Ex 25:9) and of the Ark of the Covenant with its crafted cherubim (Ex 37:7). The same procedure is followed later for the construction of Solomon’s great Temple in Jerusalem (2 Chron 2—7), with specific patterns for various parts of the whole (1 Chron 28:11-12), all to be filled with artifacts and covered in precious stones, with bas reliefs and carved cherubim on the walls (2 Chron 3:6-7). Secular art is also discussed. Solomon’s throne, known as the Mercy Seat, is lovingly described in all its aesthetic beauty (1 Kgs 10:18-20). Poetry features prominently, especially in the life and achievements of great King David, creator of the Psalms (2 Sam 23:1-2). Music is mentioned, as in the celebration of Miriam’s Canticle that follows on the crossing of the Red Sea (Ex 15:20-21). Music was part of the Temple liturgy (1 Chron 2:3-5; 2 Chron 29:25-26). King David greeted the return of the Ark to Jerusalem by dancing before it (2 Sam 6:14-15), and the Psalms combine musicmaking and dancing in praise of the Lord (Ps 150). Many of these images are pulled together in Ezekiel’s extended and glorious vision of the restored Temple (Ezk 40—47). Another striking use of art in the Old Testament is the creation of the Bronze Serpent in the Wilderness, raised on high as an icon of healing (Num 21:6). This is of particular pertinence because of its links with the Gospel: here Jesus himself refers to it in relation to his own anticipated elevation on the Cross, where he in turn becomes the ultimate icon of salvation (Jn 3:14-15). The use of art in the New Testament is more restricted than in the Old, and probably the best examples come from The Revelation to John (The Apocalypse). Here the depiction of the end times, the celebration of the Liturgy in Heaven with its song of the redeemed (Rev 15), and then the vision of the New Heaven and the New Earth, and of the Holy City of Jerusalem (Rev 20), are all envisaged in terms of movement and song, in terms of massive archaeological/material concepts and exquisite decoration.

The Rise of Christian Art Christian art emerges from the early history of Christianity, which according to the Acts of the Apostles, was initiated when the Holy Spirit descended upon the disciples after Christ’s ascension into heaven (Acts 1:9-11). They were gathered together in Jerusalem and were transformed, principally through the gifts of wisdom and fortitude, into an enduring Church (Acts 2:1-4, 41-43). The Apostle Paul explains that despite their lack of power they nevertheless became an extraordinary force “having

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nothing, and yet possessing everything” (2 Cor 6:10). They had known Jesus, or those close to him, and their hope in him was stronger than their fear of death. Many died as martyrs (or witnesses). The first Roman Christians were buried along the Appian Way at catacombs in the city where a vast network of passages were excavated. The historian Publius Cornelius Tacitus (c.55-c.120), an eyewitness of the early persecutions, left a vivid account of such events in his writings.8 These persecutions forced Christians to hide and meet secretly in private houses, and ironically, in the catacombs dug for their burial. These were dark and maze-like and this allowed them to preach the Gospel and celebrate the Eucharist without detection. Under the Emperor Diocletian (AD 245-313), who initiated the last great persecution of Christians in 303, many thousands were killed and buried in these catacombs spread around the city. It was in these Roman catacombs that the earliest surviving Christian art works have been found. These give evidence of the emerging faith, with scenes from Scripture, or of rituals such as preaching and celebrating the Eucharist. There are still priceless artifacts that bear witness to early Christian religious practice and ceremony, such as sculptures on Roman sarcophagi used for burial and honouring the dead;9 and also paintings which depict typical religious scenes and actions.10 Many of the illustrations have a Roman influence, like the image derived from the Old Testament of Noah and the Dove (Gen 8:8-12) where Noah wears Roman dress and has a laurel wreath on his head. The Jesuit priest and cultural historian Pierre de Bourguet explains how early Christian art constitutes an “impressive body of work” of Roman influence, even in the context of a disintegrating Empire, and not generally associated with the ravaged and decaying contemporary image of the

8

Tacitus, Roman senator and historian, is known for his two major works Annals and Histories. 9 The carvings on these stone sarcophagi would often include an image of the deceased as well as images of biblical figures. There are two rams at each end of the stone coffin which represent strength, and are Old Testament figures (God supplied Abraham with a ram in place of the sacrifice of his son Isaac Gen: 22:13). In the centre is the figure of a shepherd carrying a sheep which, picking up on the pastoral ideas, represents Jesus as the Good Shepherd watching over and rescuing mankind. 10 This depicts the deceased Christian man at prayer with widow and child from the Chamber of Velati, Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome.

Introduction

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Eternal City.11 The importance of this early art was, however, specifically for inspiration and instruction, imparting a symbolism underpinning Christian doctrine and belief. During the first three centuries this Christian art was largely confined to secret signs and symbols, as in a painting found in the Catacomb at Saint Callistus in Rome. Christ is symbolized by the drawing of a fish, since the letters that make up the word fish in Greek are ICHTHUS.12 This was taken to represent I(esus) Ch(ristos) U(ios) S(oter), interpreted as “Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour”. The painting depicts two fishes, one bearing on its back loaves of bread, and the other carrying beakers of wine, so defining the two elements of the Eucharist. A further example is the famous cypher ‘chi-rho’ (XP), which stood for the first two letters of Jesus Christ in Greek. The Catacombs of Priscilla and of Peter and Marcellinus contain wall paintings, understood to date from the 3rd century, portraying the Eucharist in a more realistic manner. These show women and men seated around a table with various signs indicating that this is a meal of love and peace (agape) (cf. 1 Cor 10). This picture is also interesting as it seems that women are portrayed as ministers. At much the same time in Cappadocia, in the eastern part of the Empire, there are examples of the homes of ‘hermit’ troglodytes who settled in caves naturally sculpted out of a volcanic plain from around the 4th century AD. Later generations, fearing persecution, made underground cave dwellings sculpted by their own hands and with primitive tools. By around the 11th century the caves were adorned with frescoes. Each small community seems to have had a chapel built into their cave complexes, complete with a recognizable apse and a stone altar from around 5th to 6th cc. AD, making this one of the oldest ‘sacred’ Christian places. The 4th century brought a radical change for Christianity; the catalyst being the conversion of Emperor Constantine I (c.272-337) to Christianity. As a result of his conversion, Christianity moved from being the religion of the persecuted minority to the official religion of the vast Roman 11

Pierre du Bourguet, S.J., Early Christian Painting (London, 1965). André Grabar, Christian Iconography. A Study of Its Origins (Princeton, 1968), p. 87: “Early Christian iconography often limited itself to highly schematic figurations, which evoked scenes and persons described in the Bible but did not represent them. ...it more often produced image-signs than narrative scenes and portraits of the protagonists of religious history”. 12

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Empire. The Pax Constantiniana (the Peace of Constantine) saw great many changes to the way Christians practiced their religion, and this new found freedom provided a fresh impetus to art as an expression of faith.13 In 330 Constantine transferred his capital from Rome to the ancient Greek city Byzantium which he renamed Constantinople, and dedicated to the Virgin Mary. This became a new and important centre for Christian art, developing a distinctive style of art known as Byzantine. The style of this art, and its theological influence, assumed huge importance for the history of religion, as did the prolonged and passionate debate about the role of art in religion and theology, issues which remain enduringly divisive into the present age. During the period 726–843, the restoration of orthodoxy in the Eastern Church under Emperor Leo III (717-740) resulted in a strict use and interpretation of religious imagery. The imperial attack on image worship in fact initiated the Iconoclast Movement:14 Eastern Art became more conservative as a result of concessions to sentiment disposed against the use of icons for religious purposes, and the debate generated controversy, even persecution, throughout the Byzantine Empire. Adherents of the movement sought to abolish the veneration of icons. While this did not affect the attitudes of people in Western Europe, it required the Third Council of Nicaea (787) to rule on this matter, and reinstate the full use of icons in the Church. But the violent controversy ended only in 843 when the limited veneration (dulia) of icons was officially authorized and distinguished from the full worship (latria) offered to God.15

Theology and Art The Fathers of the Church distinguished between theology (theologia) and economy (oikonomia), the latter illuminating “all the works by which God reveals himself and communicates his life” (CCC 236). One such way is through the skills and talents of the artist. Through their work they are able to reveal some of the beauty of God, his creation, and the mystery that surrounds belief in Him. 13 See Book 10 “Peace and Recovery of the Church: Victory of Constantine” in Eusebius, The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine. Trans. G. A. Williamson (Penguin Books, 1964, 1983), pp. 380-414. 14 Iconoclast: A breaker or destroyer of images especially those set up for religious veneration. 15 See IX “The Iconoclastic Teaching and the Orthodox Response” in Leonid Ouspensky, Theology of the Icon (New York: St Vladimir, 1978), pp. 145-78.

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When art and theology combine ‘core’ values, the ensuing ‘culture’ can be expressed and illuminated, an important aspect in teaching the faith and upholding the Christian ethos. Art has a power to speak deeply to mankind in a visual way that carries greater impact and resonance than the word. Long before man could read and write, from earliest prehistory, he could paint, and use this as a way of expressing human experience and ideas. When the ice cap that covered northern Europe at the beginning of the Quaternary compelled man to live in caves, he decorated them with engravings and paintings representing the fauna of the period— mammoths, bears, chamois, wild horses—with amazing realism and movement.16 The earliest forms of writing, found in the Sumerian civilization around 4000 BC, were pictures or pictograms which were developed into a cuneiform script. Much later, the catacomb paintings of Ancient Rome are a good example of this pictorial instinct, since as discussed above, they illustrated and teach us about the beginnings of Christian ‘catholic’ culture and its practices. The word ‘culture’ derives from the Latin verb colere, the past participle of which is cultus, carrying two connotations. The first can be taken to mean a farmer or gardener who cultivates and cares for the soil. The second relates to cultus or ‘cult’ as a form of religious belief or devotion. From this secondary meaning comes the idea of reverence and worship.17 In addition, theology understands that the whole of creation begins and ends in God, the exitus reditus (coming from God and returning to Him). For the Christian, caring/nurturing and worship stand at the heart of the idea of culture. However, the exercise of these acts requires an object. The philosophy and theology of Catholicism are associated with the ‘unity of being’ that comes from the belief in an archetypal ‘oneness’ that is God (cf. Deut 6:4: “Hear, O Israel: the Lord our God is one LORD”). The source of reality is one, human nature is one, and there is one divine image. This understanding of ‘oneness’ forms a cohesiveness so that human life, nature and culture are intimately linked together (Gaudium et Spes, 1:53).18 This union means that whenever art is portrayed or viewed 16

P. M. Grand, Art Préhistoique (Paris: La Bibliothèque des Arts, 1967). Culture is essentially the training and development of the mind, the social and religious structures and intellectual and artistic manifestations that characterize a society. 18 The Pastoral Constitution of the Church in the Modern World (7 December 1965) in Vatican Council II. The Conciliar and Post-Conciliar Documents, pp. 903-101. 17

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from the perspective of faith, it should reflect the belief that this sense of ‘oneness’ generates the strength and power in the faith that represent the essential principles of Christian culture. These principles include: a triune God, creation, grace, deliverance and redemption, the sacraments (especially Baptism and Eucharist), and the united body of believers, the Church. In Christian art all these principles are foundational in every subject. In theology the mystery of three divine persons in one God permeates all of the Church’s doctrines, liturgy, prayers and its sacramental life. Catholic understanding is that God is Trinity and Love, and whilst distinct, these elements are in total communion with each other. Belief in God brings ‘total communion’ with the oneness of God. And since the Judeo-Christian traditions are ‘ecclesial cultures’, their gathering together as religious assemblies (qahal and ecclesia) brings about and images forth this oneness and unity. This is apparent in Synagogue worship, and preeminently in the ecclesial celebration of the Eucharist and the reception of the sacraments. God reveals himself to his faithful through the sacrifice of his Son Jesus; at the Mass He becomes present. The Church, being faithful from the beginning to the Lord’s command, teaches how the celebration of the Eucharist is the source and summit of Christian life and stands at the centre of its devotion (CCC 1324; 1342). Therefore the celebration of the Eucharist serves to reflect all of the ‘core’ principles that are a part of Catholic culture, and at the same time lifts the faithful beyond the present to a transcendental level, projecting the innate unity, truth, goodness and beauty of God. As much as Catholic culture seeks this unity, truth, goodness and beauty in faith, and especially in the Eucharist, it has also sought the same transcendent principles in art. It expects to perceive an intrinsic truth and beauty expressed in a religious painting or sculpture, even though extrinsically this might not be obvious. The work of some artists can appear very brutal, harsh or even weak, not seemingly reflecting the goodness, beauty and strength of a God of love. The historian Diarmaid MacCulloch refers to the perception of changing art in his book on Christianity. He refers to “culture wars” in various parts of the world during the 20th century where movements looked to the sacrifice of the Cross for strength, but instead, paradoxically, found in the powerlessness

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of the Crucifixion the basis for resurrection freedom and transformation.19 It cannot always be assumed that art will necessarily be beautiful in the obvious sense of the word. Indeed, the Greek word for art, agios, means ‘awe’, and awe is not necessarily associated with beauty. What is often more important in art, and especially in religious art, is the intention and extrapolated meaning that tries to understand the source and inspiration behind it.20 In Christian theology, the essential values concern deliverance and redemption. This involves the concept of sin and its implications, emphasizing that through human intelligence and freedom, mankind is able to choose to do good or evil. Sin has the effect of separating man from the goodness we associate with God. The consequence of unrepented sin is isolation from this goodness by an eternal separation that is traditionally understood as ‘damnation’ or hell (CCC 1033-1057): “Depart from me, you cursed, into the eternal fire” (Mt 25:41). Artists over the years have illustrated hell as the consequence of sin, some in disturbing graphicness; others, by contrast, have shown the reward of heaven for those who have followed God’s ways. In this way art has underpinned the Church’s teaching on moral behaviour. Pope Benedict XVI, speaking in August 2011, observed that artistic expressions are true paths to God, the supreme source of beauty. Art is capable of envisioning our need to go beyond what we see, and reveals a thirst for God. Such works, he said, are born of faith, and express faith.21 Pope Francis, at a meeting in Rome with the Patrons of the Arts in 2013, observed “that in every age the Church has called upon the arts to give expression to the beauty of her faith and to proclaim the Gospel message of the grandeur of God’s creation, the dignity of human beings made in his image and likeness, and the power of Christ’s Death and Resurrection to

19 Diarmaid MacCulloch, A History of Christianity (Penguin Books, 2009), p. 979. “Christian art created in the twentieth century has interesting shifted away from old priorities, even in Catholic art, and there is a greater stress on Christ on the Cross with themes of crucified weakness where the tiny seed of mustard becomes a great tree”. 20 H. R. Rookmaker in Modern Art & Death of Culture (Crossways, 1994) uses famous and lesser-known paintings to propose that modern art reflects a dying culture, and that Christian attitudes can create hope in current society. 21 From a General Audience at Castel Gandolfo on 31 August 2011, reported by the CAN (Catholic News Agency).

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bring redemption and rebirth to a world touched by the tragedy of sin and death.”22 These two statements serve to illustrate how valued and important art is for the Church, the role that it has in expressing doctrine and theology, and in teaching the faith. In particular, art can evoke in people a deep sense of mystery and desire—in recognizing the beauty in creation, in reflecting on the history of salvation, and in drawing closer to the Creator beyond them.

Covenant God wishes to draw all men into communion with himself. This idea is emphasized in the doctrine of salvation and expressed most cogently in the theme of covenant. The free gift of divine love is the essence of covenant. ‘Covenant’ is a word that occurs frequently in the liturgy of the Catholic Church, both in the Scripture readings chosen in the lectionary, and in the forms of worship which have evolved for the sacraments, including the Mass, most notably Eucharistic Prayer IV. The statement “Time and again you offered them covenants and through the Prophets taught them to hope for salvation” from this prayer (The Order of Mass, para.117) is foundational to any study of the covenant, because it identifies the medium of divine love from the first, and stresses the frequency of the action of God. The very inception of revelation is this self-communication of the creative and saving power of the Lord. The Hebrew term berit has an emphasis on the inequality of the two parties, and on the protection offered by the more powerful to the weaker. The repeated action of God shows his faithfulness and loving–kindness (chesed) in caring for the world he created. When the Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek under Ptolemy II (250 BC), the translators chose diatheke for berit rather than the more contractual concept represented in the word suntheke. Diatheke describes a universal gift, such as in a will. So the Lord gives covenant to Israel unilaterally, and Israel responds. Eucharistic Prayer IV continues to assert how the coming of the Messiah was prophesied from the first, and how the plan for salvation was accomplished through the passion, death and resurrection of Jesus the Christ (or Anointed One), and the special sending of the Holy Spirit. The Divine Office includes prayers such as that in Morning Prayer for 22 From a meeting with Pope Francis and the “Patrons of Art” held in the Vatican Museums on 19 October 2013, reported by the CNA.

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Wednesday of Week 4, where the faithful ask that God remembers his “solemn covenant, renewed and consecrated by the blood of the Lamb” (i.e. Jesus) “so that [the faithful] may obtain forgiveness of their sins and a continued growth in grace”. The covenant is then seen to be the major focus in the spiritual life of the Church. It is therefore a key reason why study of covenantal revelation, unfolding from Old Testament times to the sacrifice of Christ on Calvary, is enriching for all who hold or teach the Christian faith.

What do the covenants actually mean in the context of salvation history? The covenants all reveal a pattern of election, commission and promise, and each one has something unique to say. Covenant is about salvation: it is the advent of sin that created the need for covenants. In the Garden of Eden everything was perfect, so it would have been unnecessary for God to have made a covenant with Adam. Only after the Fall (Gen 3:22-24) is there necessity for some saving plan. This is proleptically referred to in the primordial prediction of the Gospel, or the Protoevangelium, of Gen 3:15. Once the Fall had taken place, the dynamic of God’s call and saving power is demonstrated in his loving care for his People. It is also clear that human irresponsibility and disobedience to God can return creation to chaos (Jer 4:23-26). Nevertheless, God’s readiness to pardon his rebellious People’s many transgressions indicates the loving and forgiving nature of this relationship. By his covenants, God communicated his love and thus his saving plan. Therefore, understanding the concept of covenant is crucial to understanding the nature of God’s relationship with his People, and indeed with all humankind. Each covenant represents a key Biblical moment, when a chosen personality is called to be God’s agent, and a defining symbol or concept is provided, governing the proclamation of the covenant and indicating its specific recipients: 1) Noah and the Rainbow, with all creation (Gen 9) 2) Abraham and Circumcision, with his family (Gen 15—17) 3) Moses and the Law, with all the People of Israel (Ex 19—24) 4) David and the Messiah, with the House of Judah (2 Samuel 7) 5) Jeremiah (the Prophets) and the New Heart, with all God’s people (Jer 31:31-34)

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Each represents a key moment in the unfolding of God’s saving plan of love. An exploration of the rich content of each of the covenants draws one more deeply into the mystery of divine grace. The theme of covenant, the principal theological key to the whole Bible, is a history of God’s passionate, merciful and steadfast love. Indeed, the Old Testament shows God’s redemptive work as an ever-growing communication of his love. Eventually this love takes perfect embodiment in the Incarnation: “For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, that whoever believes in him should not perish but have eternal life” (John 3:16). The significance of this is exposed by the Apostle Paul when he speaks of the faith of Abraham, God’s choice of the Jews, the question of circumcision, and why the Gentiles are not bound by the Law, and affirms that those who believe in Christ are descended from Abraham. The old covenant is not annulled, but brought to completion in the new covenant in Christ (cf. Rom. 4:1-25; Rom. 9—11; Gal.3:6-9).23

23 See The Pontifical Biblical Commission, The Jewish People and Their Sacred Scriptures in the Christian Bible (Éditions Paulines, 2001), which warns against “supersessionism”, the error of regarding Christianity as “replacing Judaism in God’s plan of salvation” (no. 85, cited in Appendix 1); cf. Vatican II, Nostra Aetate (Declaration on Relations of the Church with Non-Christian Religions), no 4. Dominus Iesus is a response to misunderstandings arising from the latter. Cardinal Ratzinger’s article “The Heritage of Abraham” (L’Osservatore romano, 29 December 2000) affirms that “Judaism is the faithful response of Jews to God’s irrevocable covenant” which is “salvific for them” because God is faithful to his promise. See also Walter Kasper, “The Good Olive Tree”, America, 185:7 (2001): 12-14 (delivered at the 17th meeting of the International Catholic-Jewish Liaison Committee, New York, 1 May 2001): “One of these questions is how to relate the covenant with the Jewish people, which according to St. Paul is unbroken and not revoked but still in vigour, with what we Christians call the New Covenant. As you know, the old theory of substitution is gone since II Vatican Council. For us Christians today the covenant with the Jewish people is a living heritage, a living reality. There cannot be a mere coexistence between the two covenants. Jews and Christians, by their respective specific identities, are intimately related to each other. It is impossible now to enter the complex problem of how this intimate relatedness should or could be defined. Such question touches the mystery of Jewish and Christian existence as well, and should be discussed in our further dialogue.”

PART 1: THE OLD TESTAMENT

CHAPTER ONE THE TORAH, OR PENTATEUCH

The Torah, or Pentateuch (Five Scrolls), traditionally the most revered part of the Hebrew canon, comprises a series of narratives, interspersed with codes of law, providing an account of events from the beginning of the world to the death of Moses. Modern critical scholarship tends to hold that there were originally four books (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers) resulting from the division into manageable scrolls, to which was added a fifth scroll or book, Deuteronomy. The five books that have come down in various texts and versions have been seen as a unit in the various religious communities that preserved them. Their basic content may be divided into six sections, as: 1) the beginnings of the world and man (the primeval history) 2) the Patriarchal narratives (from Abraham to Joseph) 3) Egyptian slavery and liberation (the Exodus) 4) the divine revelation and Covenant at Sinai (the Ten Commandments) 5) wanderings and guidance in the Wilderness (divisible into two separate blocks, before and after Sinai) 6) various legal materials (the Decalogue, Covenant Code, passages of cultic and Deuteronomistic laws) interspersed in the narrative, which take up the greater portion of the Pentateuch.

1A. Genesis Genesis is called Bereshit in Hebrew, after the first word of the Bible, meaning ‘in the beginning’. It tells of the beginnings of the world and of man and of those acclaimed as ancestors of the Hebrew people, all under the shaping action and purpose of God. This section investigates this fundamental book of the Bible which falls into two main parts, Gen 1—11, dealing with the Primordial History, and Gen 12—50, dealing with the Patriarchal Narratives. Gen 1—11 contains the archetypal themes of Creation, sin, death, the formation of human

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society, the Flood and God's covenant with all mankind. Gen 12—50 has the stories of the Patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph) and the themes of election (individual, family, tribal), covenant (personal, people, land, circumcision) and salvation. This latter section is again divided into the story of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Gen 12—36), and the story of Joseph (Gen 37—50) which may be treated as a unit on its own.

(i) The Primordial History The Bible begins with the creation of the universe. It tells the story with images borrowed from Babylonian mythology, transformed to express its own distinctive view of God and man. Out of primary chaos, darkness, void, depths and waters God creates the heaven and the earth and all that dwell there—a coherent order of things—by his will and his word alone. There are two creation accounts: the first (Gen 1—2:4) gives a formal and structured day-by-day account including the culminating creation of man in the divine ‘image and likeness’ (Gen 1:26), followed by the primordial Sabbath on the seventh day. The second (Gen 2:5-25) starts with an arid wasteland and the creation of man[kind] (adam), described specifically as being formed by God out of dust or the soil (adamah) and made into a living thing by God blowing the breath of life on him. The cosmic setting and concern of the first Priestly (P) account is followed by the human setting and concerns of the second Yahwist (J) version. These accounts seek to answer the fundamental questions every civilization has asked, and continues to ask: 1) How did the world begin? 2) Does it have a purpose? 3) What does that mean for me? 4) What is my place in the world? God's making and ordering of creation is described as ‘good’. Everything in creation is totally dependent on God: all life has its origins in him. God created the universe out of love. We are part of creation and see our place in it because God desires to enter into a relationship of love with the world and with humankind. At the heart of this story is the creation of humanity. Men and women are made in this image and likeness of God, a specific point underlining our difference from other living creatures. We are related to the Creator in a very special way. The phrase ‘made in his image and likeness’ is difficult to understand, and yet of immense importance. It

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embraces our spiritual nature, rational faculties, and moral responsibilities. All this has personal, social and political significance if we perceive ourselves in relation to God. We are led to understand that as persons God has declared his love for us (by creating us) and his deep interest in us (by making us like he is). So our creation innately declares God's love and his estimate of our worth. This has enormous implications for our understanding of the world and our sense of ‘religion’. The idea has immense consequence for social and political thought. If we are made in the image and likeness of God, and we are made equal and for him and each other, then we must have concern for a full and dignified human existence. This is nothing less than a theory of anthropology, a charter for humanity, and a call to fight all oppression, poverty and ignorance, or any other manifestation in society which dehumanizes people. The Second Creation Account, focused on this world and on relationships between men and women, also emphasizes that humanity has a special duty to exercise responsibility over the rest of creation, to ‘rule’ the earth as God's stewards, with a special concern for life. Creation is followed by temptation, disobedience, and fall, and all that ensues from that for the history of mankind. The primal human couple are punished by God for their disobedience by being driven out of the idyllic garden into the world of pain, toil and death. The reason given by the Lord to the human beings is: “Behold, the man has become like one of us, knowing good and evil; and now, lest he put forth his hand to take also of the tree of life, and eat, and live for ever” (Gen 3:22b). The words point back to the polytheistic mythology (the existence of the divine, magical powers; the gods’ jealousy of mankind; the tree of eternal life) from which the ancient writer drew his images and symbols explaining man's suffering, frustration, and limitations. In the biblical framework, the archaic stories and images acquire a different meaning, suitable to the idea of a transcendent deity and an imperfect mankind. The nature of the world is only half explained by the Creation Accounts. Many other perennial questions, always asked afresh in every generation, are also addressed. Why, if God made creation perfectly, and was pleased with it, is there such violence and disruption in nature? Why is life hard and painful for so many? Why are human relationships so often characterized by tension and distrust, even cruelty? Why do children and the innocent suffer and die? Why must anyone, for that matter, die? The story in Gen 2—3 points to the answers. The archetypal man and woman have it in their power to live in harmony with God indefinitely, but using

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their freedom of choice, they lose that potential because they do the very thing that God has forbidden. The result is a disruption in all the relationships brought into being with the creation of humanity. The man and the woman are at odds (Gen 3:12). Together they are now in tension with the rest of the created order, as symbolized by their enmity with the serpent, and the difficulty which they will henceforth have in deriving their living from the soil. Most tragically, they have lost the immediacy of their former relationship with God, and must go out into a hostile world. Thus there is an attempt at explanation (or an etiology), not only of human sin in the world, but also of every kind of disharmony, disease, and trouble. A fundamental unity in creation has now disintegrated. Immediately, however, in the midst of the sadness and disappointment there is the promise of some kind of healing or mending. There is judgement, but also the revelation of God's will to save. To the woman he said, “I will greatly multiply your pain in childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth children, yet your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you.” And to Adam he said, "Because you have listened to the voice of your wife, and have eaten of the tree of which I commanded you, You shall not eat of it, cursed is the ground because of you; in toil you shall eat of it all the days of your life; thorns and thistles it shall bring forth to you; and you shall eat the plants of the field. In the sweat of your face you shall eat bread till you return to the ground, for out of it you were taken; you are dust, and to dust you will return.” (Gen 3:16-19)

With the exile from the garden, human history and culture begin. In the story of Adam's sons, Cain and Abel (Gen 4), man has already become a herdsman and farmer, and also a murderer. This again probably reflects older mythical material, and again puts an emphasis on human sin and estrangement from God. In the story of the Flood that follows (Gen 6—9), there are evident borrowings from the Mesopotamian stories of a flood sent by the gods to destroy mankind, but in the biblical account it is emphasized that man's wickedness is the cause and that Noah and his family are saved by God's

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deliberate choice because he is a righteous man. After the Flood, God blesses Noah and bestows on man the earth and makes a covenant with Noah and all creatures that he will never again unleash a world-destroying flood. “I establish my covenant with you, that never again shall all flesh be cut off by the waters of a flood to destroy the earth.” And God said, “This is the sign of the covenant which I will make between me and you and every living creature that is with you, for all future generations: I set my bow in the cloud, and shall be a sign of the covenant between me and the earth. When I bring clouds over the earth, and the bow is seen in the clouds, I will remember my covenant which is between you and every living creature of all flesh; and the waters shall never again become a flood to destroy all flesh. When the bow is in the clouds, I will look upon it and remember the everlasting covenant between God and every living creature of all flesh that is upon the earth.” (Gen 9:8-16)

The Flood shows that the sinful world is under the judgement of God: indeed the theme of judgement remains a basic part of the message of the Bible. The ordered act of creation has been put in reverse, but there is the chance of a new start. The permanent order of the world is assured, and God's blessing and covenant, or solemn undertaking, make their first explicit appearance in the Bible. However, despite the goodness of God in his covenant, Noah’s drunkenness and disgrace illustrate how mankind is tainted by the sin of Adam (Gen 9:20-24). The covenant with Noah is concerned with God’s involvement with creation, and the divine concern for humanity. The rainbow, in its mysterious fusion and refraction of light and water (symbols of the divine nature and of cleansing power), is a metaphor for God hanging up his bow of war. It therefore becomes a symbol of God’s unlimited mercy towards creation and thus to all mankind, a sign of the divine faithfulness and the irrevocability of God’s promise. Never again will all flesh be cut off by the waters of the flood (Gen 9:11). In these days of concern about global warming, and responsibility for creation, this topic could hardly be more contemporary and apposite. In the story of the Tower of Babel (Gen 11), the final story of the primeval history, the ancient unity of mankind in which there is only one language is shattered when men in their pride decide to build a city and a tower that will reach up to heaven. The Lord confuses their speech and scatters them over the earth. Again mythological motifs have been adapted to illustrate the ruin of primordial harmony by human wilfulness and pride. Different

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languages, a mark of distinction, will degenerate into endemic hostility between peoples and nations.

Iconography a.

Creation

A 13th century representation of the creation of the world shows God holding a compass and measuring out the sphere of the earth. God as Creator of the World is the frontispiece of the Bible moralisée (c.1220-30, folio 1 verso, Paris, Austrian National Library) [1] [Fig. 1], one of the remaining copies of the medieval picture bibles which attempted to explain the relationship between the Old and New Testaments and present moral teaching by juxtaposing texts and making extensive use of illustrations. This image has been much reproduced and has evoked wide debate, especially since it seems to be original to the manuscript. God is shown bending forward over the newly formed cosmos, setting it off in a spinning motion with his left hand. It is a lively image which expresses faith in God as creator. William Blake’s dramatic image, The Ancient of Days [2], the frontispiece to the work Europe a Prophesy (1794, 13 copies in existence, copy D, British Museum) shows a similar image of an old bearded man with a compass, but he represents Urizen, a mythological figure, who is creating the universe but within certain constraints. He has power and strength but shows none of the literal ‘hands-on’ approach of God in the first image. Raphael’s ceiling fresco in the Room of the Signature in the Vatican Museum [3] (1509-11), however, shows the very personal act of creation of a blue globe with stars, touched by the hand of a strangely female-looking figure. The day-by-day account of Genesis is shown for example in a series of colourful windows (c.1500) in the Church of St Madeleine in Troyes, France [4], and in the extensive mosaics in Monreale Cathedral, Sicily [5], dating from the 1180s. The Creation Story [6] from the Souvigny Bible (c.1180-1200, Bibliothèque municipale de Moulins, France) narrates the biblical text in the illustrations through to the temptation scene. In northern Germany the Grabow Altarpiece by Master Bertram [7], originally made in 1383 for St Peter’s church in Hamburg and now displayed in the Hamburger Kunsthalle, shows the red robed figure of the Creator with a powerful raised hand, bringing into existence aspects of a beautiful world, as well as Adam and Eve who are condemned to a life of tilling the land. More famous are the frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome (Michelangelo, 1508-12) where five scenes represent the creation story,

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the most recognisable being the vivification of Adam [8]. To the modern eye the power of God is almost like a spark of electricity passing between God’s finger and that of Adam, his perfect creature. In contrast, the 13thcentury sculpture of the creation of Adam in the north portal of Chartres Cathedral [9] [Fig. 2] shows the tenderness and love of God as he creates man in his own image. b. The Fall The Garden of Earthly Delights – The Earthly Paradise (Garden of Eden) by Hieronymus Bosch (1480-1505, Prado Museum, Madrid) [10] is the left panel of a triptych. It shows Adam and Eve in a beautiful and colourful garden with exotic animals, birds and vegetation. God stands in the midst of them, holding Eve’s hand. She is his new creation and Adam lies on the ground beside her. It is a scene of great harmony, the only hint of potential discord being a serpent twisted around a tree. The idyllic beauty of the Garden of Eden is depicted also in magnificent colour and detail, with about two hundred animals and birds, in Adam and Eve in the Garden of Paradise (Peter Wenzel, 1745-1829), at the Vatican Museum [11]. In the centre are Adam and Eve again enjoying the beauty and harmony of the world, but at the moment of the Temptation. The fresco The Temptation of Adam and Eve (Masolini, 1426-27) in the Brancacci Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence [12] shows the two figures standing naked beneath the apple tree with the serpent hovering above. Eve has fruit in her hand. In many images, including this in Florence, the serpent has a female head and face which mirrors that of Eve, emphasizing the belief that Original Sin came into the world through the woman. Other examples of this can be seen in the centre of the left door of the façade of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, where the temptation scene is below the statue of Mary. She is the new Eve, and by her participation in the incarnation of Christ, she has redeemed the sin in the Garden of Eden [13]. Raphael’s version of the temptation scene (1508, ceiling of the Room of the Signature, Vatican Museum) [14] has an almost mirror image of the woman in the face of the serpent. The intensity of the moment of taking the forbidden fruit is captured in Pieter van der Werff’s Adam and Eve by the Tree of Good and Evil (c.1700, Louvre) [15], where the couple gaze fixedly at each other. There is a rich excitement in the eyes of Adam as Eve holds out the apple for him to eat. Albrecht Dürer’s engraving Adam and Eve (1504, The Morgan Library and Museum, New York) [16] shows Eve taking fruit from a realistic serpent which is coiled around the tree. She has her own apple in her other hand. The consequences of their betrayal of God are already shown by the presence

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of the fig leaves. The Creation of the World and the Expulsion from Paradise by Giovanni de Paolo (1445, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) [17] illustrates in one dramatic picture a summary of the first three chapters of Genesis. God as creator of the world looks towards the couple, who look over their shoulders as if to plead with the angel who is pushing Adam out of the exquisite garden full of flowers and fruit-bearing trees, with Eve ahead of him. Masaccio’s The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden (c. 1425, Brancacci Chapel, Florence) [18] [Fig. 3] shows the couple’s horror and disgrace as they are expelled from the garden. The artist has chosen to depict the couple still naked, and although this is not in line with the scriptural text, the sexual exposure caused by their fall is underlined. Prior to modern restoration of the paintings, the fig leaves were in place. A mighty angel brandishing a sword chases them away. Michelangelo’s portrayal The Fall and Expulsion (1508-12, Sistine Chapel, Vatican) [19] shows the angel’s sword pointing directly at Adam’s neck. Eve’s gentle face, mirrored in that of the serpent, is now transformed into a harsh masculinity. c.

Noah and the Flood

The close relationship of Noah and God is shown in the manuscript of the Bedford Hours (1423-30, the British Library) [20] [Fig. 4] where God looks down in blessing on Noah as he supervises the building of the ark. It is a large wooden box-like construction with sections and three storeys. In the background animals are being herded together ready for loading. The Sistine Chapel ceiling has three frescoes depicting Noah [21], which are not in chronological order. The central fresco shows the trauma of the suffering of the majority of humanity as they try to save themselves in the rising waters, with Noah and his family safe in the ark in the background. Beneath this busy and dramatic image is Noah’s thanksgiving sacrifice of a sheep, and above it Noah in a drunken and naked state. Elsewhere the story can be seen in more detail, for example, in the 12th-century mosaics at St Mark’s Cathedral in Venice, where the various episodes of the story are portrayed, including Noah releases the Dove [22]. A representation of the entry of the animals into the ark is given by Jacopo dal Ponte (Bassano) in The Entry of the Animals into Noah’s Ark (Louvre, after 1579) [23], showing frenetic activity to prepare for the care of a wide variety of creatures. Three pictures serve to illustrate the horror of drowning humanity. Antonio Carracci’s grim The Flood (c.1616, Louvre) [24] focuses on the young and old as well as the able bodied clinging to

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rocks as the ark sails on the waters in the background. Hans Baldung’s The Flood (1516, Neue Residenz, Bamberg, Germany) [25] has a dark red boxlike ark secured with iron bars floating on stormy waters as the heavens open. People frantically cling to it, even trying to climb up the side to reach openings at the top. Others cry for mercy or sink beneath the waves with their children and horses. Poussin’s Winter (the Flood) (1660-64, Louvre) [26] is more restrained, though each of the small number of people shown has a story to tell as the lightening rips though the grey sky, while in the distance the ark sails on calmer waters. In contrast to these horrific scenes of rising waters, Noah and the Ark, by The Master of Sir John Fastolf, (image 382 in the Book of Hours, mid-15th century, Bodleian Library, Oxford) [27] is a charming scene of deliverance set in a colourful border, with a prayer for ‘Peace in our time’ below. A large crate-like ark is set in a boat on peaceful waters. Two members of Noah’s family peer out of a side opening at the abating waters, and from an opening in the top Noah receives the dove with an olive leaf, a sign that vegetation had returned to the earth. The ark is encompassed by a rainbow, and above is an image of a loving God who looks down in blessing on Noah. An early wall painting in the Catacomb of Saints Marcellinus and Peter [28] is a simple image of Noah emerging from a box with hands outstretched and the dove returning, bringing the leaf. Simon de Myle’s Noah’s Ark on the Mount Ararat (1570, private collection) [29] illustrates the rapid joyful exit from the ark. The huge ark lies firmly on the land and all kinds of animals and birds are released. There is an orderly march down the walkway in the centre of the painting, but then no apparent organization, even some aggression between animals, as reality returns. The subsequent events of the covenant between God and man in the person of Noah, and Noah’s sacrifice of thanksgiving, are shown in the series of mosaics in Monreale Cathedral in Sicily [30]. The act of thanksgiving is also portrayed in Joseph Koch’s Landscape with Noah’s Thanksoffering (Städelmuseum, Frankfurt-am-Main, 1803) [31] [Fig. 5], where a fire burns in the centre of the picture and animals are being brought forward or prepared for the sacrifice. The details of the image show the beauty of the earth restored, with a range of living creatures and vegetation. Chartres Cathedral has a 13th-century window dedicated to the story of Noah [32] positioned as pilgrims entered on the north side. For medieval pilgrims who were unable to read, stained glass provided a stimulus for the understanding of sacred scripture. Medieval theologians regarded the

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Flood of Noah as a prefigurement of baptism, the first sacrament of the washing away of sin, and often a Noah window was placed in the baptistery of the church. The Chartres glass has as its climax a panel showing the rainbow embracing Noah and his wife who raise their hands in the presence of God. It is an assurance of the protection offered by God to his faithful people. d. The Tower of Babel Pieter Bruegel the Elder’s The Tower of Babel (1563, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) [33] [Fig. 6] is a most dramatic portrayal of man’s attempt to reach heaven, showing complex and incomplete architectural structures on a wide base that decrease in width gradually with height. Breugel displays the impossibility of King Nimrod’s project by showing the tower as already unstable, as it sinks down on the left side. Lucas van Valckenborgh’s version (Louvre, 1594) [34] is, in contrast, stable. He shows a base well supported by buttresses, and a busy building site which is being calmly directed by the king in the centre foreground. The Bedford Hours’ version of the Tower of Babel (1423-30, The British Library) [35] is much downsized, and this time shows the skill of the builders, whose work is being frustrated by two angels with sticks who are destroying the top of the tower, causing stones to fall and a man to tumble to the ground. This does not appear, however, to be deterring the workforce.

(ii) The Patriarchal Narratives The universal primordial history of mankind is followed by an account of the fathers of the Hebrew people, i.e. the origins of a particular group. From a literary point of view, this portion may be divided into the sagas of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph. Although these narratives are not historical in the ordinary sense of the word, they have an evident historical setting and refer to various particulars that fit in with what is generally known of the time and era. They would seem to be based on the traditions of particular families, clans or tribes and were probably passed down orally before they took written form. Theologically, these stories show us God doing something entirely new. His will to save his creation takes on a new dynamic in the call of Abram (Gen 12). These stories are an account of a divine promise and covenant, of man’s faith and unfaith in response, with Abraham as the model of the man of trust. There are various cult legends in this portion of Genesis, etiological accounts of the origins of various cult sites and practices; these

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all indicate the places and customs held holy by the Israelites, inherited from their Hebrew ancestors. There are direct appearances of God to some of the main figures in these narratives, intimate personal communication between God and man. God's particular blessing upon, and covenant with, Abraham is the high point, a paradigm alluded to continually in later biblical and post-biblical traditions. And the LORD said to Abram, “Go from your country and your kindred and your father's house to the land that I will show you. And I will bless you. And I will make you a great nation, and I will bless you and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and him who curses you I will curse; and by you all the families of the earth shall bless themselves.” (Gen 12:1-3)

Abram is called, or elected by God, to go on a special journey. He will become the father of a great nation, which will have a special relationship with God. Because of this nation, all the peoples of the world will be blessed. This, then, is how God has chosen to save the chaotic world, to repair the disruption of his loving plan of creation. Abram, and in him the nation of Israel yet to come, is chosen, not in order to keep the blessings for themselves, but to be the medium of that blessing, and so to restore the lost harmony of the first creation for all humanity. This promise becomes the special theme of the remainder of Genesis, and also of the rest of the Bible. God's love, and the furtherance of his plan, will be manifested in the signs of his love for the people chosen to be the channel of his love and grace to the world. And God said to Abraham, “As for you, you shall keep my covenant, you, and your descendants after you throughout their generations. This is my covenant will you shall keep, between me and you and your descendants after you: every male among you shall be circumcised. You shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskins, and it shall be a sign of the covenant between me and you. He that is eight days old among you shall be circumcised, and it shall be a sign of the covenant between me and you.” (Gen 17:9-12)

Abraham, through his faith and obedience to God, through his intercession for sinful humanity (Gen 18), and especially in his preparedness to offer his long-awaited son Isaac (Gen 22), becomes our ‘Father in Faith’. He believed that God is powerful enough to fulfil his promises, however impossible the odds might seem. His faith gave him a simple readiness to give up what was most dear to him because it was God's command. From the depth of his sorrow he could nonetheless see that it was God's intention to bless him and deepen his faith. He could therefore say with real

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conviction: “the Lord will provide” (Gen 22:14). The covenant with Abraham focuses on the promise of salvation for all the people of the world, and deals with the permanent mark of God’s love on the body (circumcision, with its strong symbolism of the blood of sacrifice, of purification, and of the generation of life). For Christians, this mark is now branded by the Holy Spirit on the soul in baptism. The People will have a relationship with God; they will become a nation, and inherit a land. God will reveal himself to Israel through the covenants so that they might carry out his divine will and be a representative in the world, “a light to the nations” (cf. Is 43:6b; 49:6b). This Abrahamic covenant underlies the whole subsequent development of God’s redemptive promise, in word and action. The saving grace of God attains its realization in the unfolding of this promise given to Abraham, to be a father to the nations (“By you all the families of the earth shall bless themselves,” Gen 12:3b). Jacob shows just how crude and unformed is the type that God is prepared to use in the plan of salvation. God's favour comes purely from grace (chen in Hebrew). Jacob meets God face to face and wrestles with him (Gen 32:24-32). Jacob holds on to this man, this nocturnal adversary, a persistence that marks the turning point in his life. Jacob is given a new name ‘Israel’, the essential meaning of which is that he has obtained a new standing with God. He has now become fully the man through whom God will carry forward his plan for the nation. The struggle becomes the expression of his need for God; Jacob appears less the cheat, manipulating situations to his own advantage, but a man trying to follow a course through the fortunes and misfortunes of life. Among the Patriarchal Narratives the story of Joseph (Gen 37—48) is the longest. Why is such a large section of Genesis devoted to Joseph? He is the crucial link between the family of Jacob and the nation of Israel. Joseph's connection with Egypt is directly linked to the birth of the nation. Joseph is the most complete type of Jesus in the Bible. Just as Abraham became the father of Isaac, and through him the father of Jacob and his sons, Joseph is able to save his family from famine and disaster so that they can go forward in God's plan. Numerous parallels between his life and work and that of Jesus make his prefigurative, Messianic role clear: 1) Both Joseph and Jesus were objects of a father's special love (Gen 37:3; Mt 3:17) 2) Both were hated and rejected by their brothers (Gen 37:4; Jn 15:25)

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3) Both made unusual claims which were rejected by their brethren (Gen 37:8; Mt 21:37-39) 4) In both cases brothers conspired to kill them (Gen 37:18; Mt 26:3-4) 5) Joseph's brothers intended to put him to death; Jesus was actually killed (Gen 37:24; Mt 27:35-37) 6) Both became a blessing among the Gentiles (Gen 41:1-45; Acts 15:14) 7) Joseph reconciled his brothers to himself and afterwards exalted them. Jesus, when he comes again, will be reconciled to Israel who will be caught up completely in God's plan of salvation (Gen 45:115; Rom 11:1, 15, 25, 26).

Iconography The important covenantal ritual of circumcision is featured overwhelmingly in Christian art in the topos of the Circumcision of Christ, with Mary and Joseph as onlookers. Depictions of the operation as Old Testament fulfillment of the Law are relatively rare. However, the Verduner Altar (1171-81) in Klosterneuburg near Vienna contains the scene in enamel work [36]. The illustrations from Figures de la Bible by Gerard Hoet (1728, The Hague, P. de Hondt) include the graphic scene, Abraham Took Ishmael with All the Males Born in His House and Circumcised Them [37]. The Regensburg Pentateuch (c.1300, The Israel Museum, Jerusalem) [38] contains an image of the ritual with another child being held in the queue, emphasizing the loyal response of Abraham to the command of God for a sign of the covenant. The sacrifice of Isaac is inspiration for many painters. The drama of the scene with the son lying bound and the father ready with a knife is rarely short on detail. Intervening at the last moment is an angel to prevent the killing, whilst a ram is lurking in the nearby bush, shortly to be taken as an alternative to the boy. An example of this is the work of Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo from the mid-1750s, The Sacrifice of Isaac (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) [39]. Both of Caravaggio’s versions of this theme (c.1598 Piasecka-Johnson Collection, Princeton, New Jersey [40] and 1603, Uffizi, Florence) [41] [Fig. 7] show the angel seeming to reason with him. There are also versions showing Isaac carrying the wood for the sacrifice in the shape of a cross, in order to illustrate the interpretation of this event as prefiguring the sacrifice of Christ. An example of this is to be seen in an illustration in the 13thcentury Maciejowski Bible (leaf 3) (The Pierpont Morgan Library, the

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Bibliothèque Nationale de France) [42]. This is emphasized at Chartres where, in the Redemption Window, Isaac carries green wood for the sacrifice. The image has been placed next the Crucifixion Scene where the cross is also green [43]. The enigmatic story of Jacob’s lonely wrestling with God from Genesis 32 is represented by artists generally as a struggle with an angel, who locks Jacob into a firm grasp with one leg. Rembrandt’s painting, Jacob Wrestling with the Angel, (c.1659, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin) [44], however, shows a lack of aggression and a certain calm amidst the intensity of the action. The facial expressions focus on a positive relationship. Gustav Doré’s engraving of 1855 (Gustave Doré Gallery, London) [45] [Fig. 8] sets the action in the context of a nearby expanse of water in the background (the Jabbock), hardly a stream (Gen 32:24), the two figures fighting with clasped hands and Jacob pushing with the force of arms and legs against a firmly positioned angel. Both artists show the angel in a commanding position, yet compassionate towards Jacob. Marc Chagall’s painting of 1963 (Musée du Message Biblique Marc-Chagall, Nice) [46] is a further development, and shows Jacob kneeling humbly in the presence of his Lord. Artists' portrayals of the parallels between Joseph and Jesus may be seen in the series of images in the National Gallery by Pontormo and Bacchiacca, most clearly in that of Pontormo (c.1515) Joseph’s Brothers Beg for Help, where the artist has used a title for Christ as an inscription, namely ‘Salvator Mundi’ [47]. The action of Joseph in supporting his family by giving them the wheat for which they plead is shown in the late 15th-century Bible illustration by Raphaël de Mercatelli (Ghent Cathedral, Ms10, fol.74). In the background two brothers beg for help from the brother they no longer recognize. In the foreground Joseph stands in a commanding position whilst servants work to fill sacks as large grains of wheat fall from a hopper. There is a suggestion that one servant may be following instructions to return the money the brothers had paid by hiding it in the sacks. The events are set in palatial surroundings and water flows around the building, suggesting the Nile [48] [Fig. 9].

1B. Exodus The second book of the Torah (Shemot or ‘Names’) carries the title Exodus in the Greek, Latin, and English versions, meaning ‘a going out’. This refers to the seminal event of the liberation of Israel from Egyptian

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bondage through the wondrous acts and power of God. The book celebrates and memorializes this great saving event in story and song, and particularly in the awesome revelation and covenant at Mt. Sinai. This section investigates Exodus as the Book of Redemption: 1) freedom from slavery, deliverance from bondage 2) development of the theme of covenant, with Moses as the bridge between the Lord and the People of Israel 3) the Years in the Wilderness as an image of the life of faith 4) the highpoint of the compact between God and his People at Sinai in the granting of the Ten Commandments, a summary of God's Law of justice and mercy as the sign of obedience to his sovereignty The contents of the book may be summarized as: 1) Israel in Egypt (Ex 1—10) 2) the Exodus and wanderings in the Wilderness (Ex 11—18) 3) the Covenant at Sinai (Ex 19—31) 4) the apostasy of the people with the Golden Calf, and the renewal of the Covenant (Ex 32—34) 5) the instructions on building the Tabernacle and their execution (Ex 35—40) Not only is God the creator, but also the powerful liberating deity who breaks into human affairs to establish justice. Essentially this book is about redemption and revelation. God's special concern for the Hebrew slaves is expressed in the early chapters when he refers to them as ‘my people’, and in his revelation of himself to Moses, the rebel Egyptian courtier he picks as their leader. He reveals himself as YHWH, the God of their fathers, an abiding presence who will rescue them from their oppression and misery, and bring them into Canaan, the land of the promise God made to Abraham from the first moment of his election to do God’s will (“The LORD appeared to Abram and said, “I To your descendants I will give this land”, Gen 15:7). Then Moses said to God, “If I come to the people of Israel and say to them, ‘The God of your fathers has sent me to you,’ and they ask me, ‘What is his name?’ what shall I say to them?" God said to Moses, “I AM WHO I AM.” And he said, “Say this to the people of Israel, ‘I AM has sent me to you.’” God also said to Moses, “Say this to the people of Israel, ‘The LORD, the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of

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Isaac, and the God of Jacob, has sent me to you’: this is my name for ever, and thus I am to be remembered throughout all Generations.” (Ex 3:1315)

This assurance is repeated at the critical moments which follow. In a series of frustrations, obstacles, and redeeming events, God's special causal power and presence are shown to be at work, as he afflicts the Egyptians with the Ten Plagues, opens the water of the Red Sea (or Sea of Reeds) to the fleeing Hebrews, engulfs the pursuing Egyptians, and guides the people in their wandering in the wilderness. “Behold, I send an angel before you, to guard you on the way and to bring you to the place I have prepared. Give heed to him and harken to his voice, do not rebel against him, for he will not pardon your transgressions; for my name is in him. But if you harken attentively to his voice and do all that I say, then I will be an enemy to your enemies, and an adversary to your adversaries.” (Ex 23:21-22)

The constancy and saving power of God's love are shown in the period of the forty years of wandering in the wilderness. This is most importantly manifested in the account of the covenant at Mount Sinai (Horeb) where he reveals to Moses the terms of the covenant, summarized in the Ten Commandments (or ‘Ten Words’) (Ex 20:1-17), and expanded in the Covenant Code (or Book of the Covenant) of lesser, specific ordinances, moral precepts and cultic regulations (Ex 20—23). Then Moses came and told the people all the words of the LORD and all the ordinances; and all the people answered with one voice, and said, “All the words which the LORD has spoken we will do.” And Moses wrote all the words of the LORD....Then he took the book of the covenant, and read it in the hearing of the people; and they said, “All that the LORD has spoken we will do, and we will be obedient.” And Moses took the blood and threw it upon the people, and said, “Behold the blood of the covenant which the LORD has made with you in accordance with all these words.” (Ex 24:3, 7-8)

The Lord, heretofore connected with the Israelites only through the covenant with the Patriarchs, now brings them to himself nationally through redemption, and puts them under a new covenant with Moses. This covenant has law, tabernacle, priesthood and the glory of his presence in the Shekinah. Even as today the cry for liberation and justice is heard on all sides of the suffering world, so we can see in the Exodus a model of God's passionate concern for the suffering and oppressed, and his desire that they should be liberated. The Exodus shows the breadth of God's

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concern for humankind. The People of Israel were set free in three different ways: 1) politically from oppression as an immigrant minority 2) economically from exploitation as cheap labour 3) spiritually from bondage to false gods. The Exodus is thus not merely liberation out of slavery, but the establishment of a new relationship with God—the particular emphasis of the second half of the book. This relationship is established at Mt Sinai in three specific ways, in: 1) The Covenant through which God renewed his pact with the people. In return for his saving power they were to respond with loyalty and obedience. 2) The Law. Obedience to God's will was to be expressed in acknowledgement of his instructions on how to live life in justice, mercy and integrity. His Law (summarized in the Ten Commandments) gave a practical framework for the way in which God wanted them to live, to conduct their lives and organize society. 3) Worship. The amount of space devoted to the description of the Sacred Tent shows how important this was for the People. The Tabernacle became the focus of God's presence among them, the place of sacrifice where they could receive his forgiveness and hear his Word as taught by the priests (Ex 28). Exodus therefore presents salvation as the essential nature of God’s justice and love. It brings deliverance from all that enslaves and dehumanizes men and women. It brings revolution, a radical turning away from an old and corrupt system into a dynamic new style and understanding of life. It also brings wholeness to a broken and demoralized people, giving them new hope and identity, and opening up the prospect to a new future when God will usher in his everlasting reign of true justice and peace.

Iconography The drama of the events of Exodus has inspired visual representations and interpretations. Amongst the most detailed are those from The Golden Haggadah, a 14th-century Jewish prayer book (British Library) [49] created for use at the Passover festival when the story of the freeing of the Israelites is recounted and tradition handed on through the generations of Jewish families. The illustrations follow the Scripture readings in detail,

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showing for example the making of bricks and the cruel treatment by the Egyptians, who watch over the work with sticks in their hands. Other illustrations depict the plagues in graphic detail. In the picture of the escape from Egypt the Israelites hold unleavened bread, which links to the Passover meal at which this bread is consumed. Words, pictures and actions combine in the Jewish annual remembrance of the Lord’s power to free his chosen people from tyranny. The long and eventful life of Moses receives attention from both painters and sculptors. The early scene of Pharaoh’s daughter bringing ashore the baby from the Nile is portrayed sometimes in a similar way to the nativity of Jesus. The child is surrounded by an amazed crowd with arms outstretched, for example in the painting The Finding of Moses by Poussin (1651, National Gallery, London) [50]. In his earlier painting of the scene he sought to depict a realistic backcloth, with a pyramid on the far side of the river (1638, Louvre) [51]. God’s call of Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt is depicted mostly in a blaze of light from the Burning Bush, from which Moses shields his eyes. God is a bearded figure at the rear of the bush. Matteo Rosselli’s picture The Burning Bush (pre-1623, Pisa Cathedral) [52], however, shows Moses humbly kneeling as he listens to God’s call, evoking the moment of submission to the will of God to save his people from slavery. The image of the bush burning without being destroyed by the fire also occurs with a figure of Mary and the infant Jesus, as artists seek to represent a parallel with the teaching of the Immaculate Conception. This can be seen in The Burning Bush by Nicolas Froment (1475-76, Saint Sauveur Cathedral, Aix-en-Provence) [53] [Fig. 10]. In Grellet’s mosaic of the Visitation in the Rosary Basilica in Lourdes (1903) [54] the Burning Bush is directly above the dove, representing the Holy Spirit which casts rays down on to Mary. Artists’ portrayals of the escape of the Israelites from Egypt focus on the defining event of the Red Sea crossing. They leave no doubt that the destruction of the Egyptians, their horses and chariots perishing as they are overcome by a vast body of water, signified that the Israelites were saved, enabling them to proceed on their journey towards the Promised Land. Lucas Cranach the Elder’s The Pharaoh’s Hosts Engulfed in the Red Sea (1530, Schloss Johannisburg, Aschaffenburg, Germany) [55] is a comparatively simple image but with rich detail. On the right the Egyptians are shown drowning as the waters overtake them, and on the left, below a craggy landscape, and separated from them by huge waves in the form of a wall, the Israelites stand safe on dry land with Moses at their head. Pharaoh’s army is shown in total disarray, with men and horses

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falling beneath the sea, some attempting in vain to retreat, whilst a few who appear to be in a commanding position show the stubbornness to which the account in Exodus refers. Bernardino Luini’s The Passage of the Red Sea (1510-20, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan) [56] again shows the contrast between safety and annihilation, but without a wall of water, simply the waters lapping on to the shore with Egyptian men and chariots overturned and horses struggling for safety. On the shore is Moses, with hand still raised. The figure next to him, urging him to continue, may be a representation of the Angel of God who had followed the Israelites through the Red Sea and now stands with them on dry land. A later picture by Poussin, The Crossing of the Red Sea (1633-37, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia) [57], focuses almost entirely on the Israelites. It is a work full of action as men pull spoils from the waters and others raise their hands in gratitude to God and to Moses, whose attention remains with the drowning enemy. Dark clouds hover above the sea whilst the sky is lighter in the area to which God’s people will shortly be progressing. Darkness also characterises the painting, The Crossing of the Red Sea by Cosimo Rosselli (1481-82, The Sistine Chapel, Vatican) [58], where there appears to be a very heavy downpour of rain over the sea which is shown as a narrow channel. The buildings on the far side are clearly delineated, and there are Egyptians watching the catastrophe. Meanwhile, to the left, the Israelites also watch the scene, headed by Moses who has the appearance and stance of a saviour figure. Agnolo Bronzino’s large fresco The Crossing of the Red Sea (1555, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence) [59] [Fig. 11] is situated on the wall of the chapel and shows in the background the drowning of Pharaoh’s army, and the Israelites in safety. Attention is mostly drawn, however, to the foreground where Moses sits with a small group of his followers. He is painted with the horns or rays of light which postdate this Red Sea scene, leading to an interpretation that this could be the moment when Joshua is made Moses’ successor (cf. Num 27:18; Deut 33:9). Certainly this second figure (possibly Joshua) stands out from amongst the rest of the people, some of whom are shown semi-naked in the style of painting of that period. Two Russian artists from the 19th century provide a different type of image. The Armenian-Russian marine painter Ivan Aivazovsky in Passage of the Jews through the Red Sea (1891, location unknown) [60] provides a dramatic bluish-green scene of raging waters, with an army reminiscent of more contemporary times, and a vast crowd of Israelites encamped on the shore behind their defiant leader. Only a few are closely visible, but the painting shows them to be relieved and thankful. An earlier Russian painting of 1861, A Prayer of Moses after the Israelites go through the

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Red Sea, by Ivan Kramskoy (National Art Museum of the Republic of Belarus, Belarus) [61] , focuses on the person of Moses as he raises his hands and eyes in thanksgiving for the deliverance of God’s people. Around him are a handful of Israelites, also praying the prayer which continues to be used in liturgy in the 21st century. Modern pictures, including cartoons, include neat and tall walls of water with a path through a wide expanse of sea. Reality was probably very different as the ‘Red Sea’ was most likely rather the ‘Sea of Reeds’, but artists have used their freedom to depict the crucial happenings in a way that shows the drama in its full significance, as the escape through the abating waters assures the Israelites that their trek towards the Promised Land will continue. As with Noah’s Flood, a parallel has been developed in Christian teaching with the Sacrament of Baptism. The huge 12thcentury baptismal font at the Basilica of San Frediano in Lucca (the Fonte Lustrale) [62] is decorated with sculptures of the story of Moses, including the crossing of the Red Sea with men on horses giving chase, one already falling victim to the encroaching waters. The wanderings of the Israelites prior to the giving of the Ten Commandments receive some attention from artists, especially the gathering of manna. This is regarded as a pre-figuring of the Feeding of the Five Thousand by Christ, as well as of the Holy Eucharist, the sign of the new covenant given by him. Nicolas Poussin’s work The Israelites Gathering the Manna (1639, Louvre) [63] shows that all of the people were involved in the collection of this mysterious food falling from the sky, regardless of age or sex. Other work, including that by Hendrick de Clerk (1620s, National Museum of Warsaw) [64], shows God in the sky commanding the descent of the food for the starving people. Some artists paint the manna as very plentiful so that it has to be scooped up, for example Bernardino Luini (c. 1520, Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan) [65]. Dieric Bouts (1464-67, St Peter’s Church, Louvain) [66] [Fig. 12] has sparse minute particles which need to be placed in elaborate vessels, clearly pointing to the sacred hosts at Mass. This painting forms part of a set of five paintings in the triptych of an altar in St Peter’s Church, Louvain. The large central painting shows the Last Supper, in order to illustrate the Christian teaching about the link between the Old and New Testaments. The Covenant at Sinai is the climax of the wanderings in the desert and attention is focused on Moses who appears as an old man with a beard and sometimes with two horns. The mistranslation of the text after the second

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account of the giving of the Ten Commandments (Ex 34:29-30), where the radiance of his face was translated by St Jerome as ‘horned’, gave rise to work such as that of Michelangelo in his sculpture for the tomb of Julius II (1513-15) in the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome [67] [Fig. 13]. Other depictions show Moses with two small beams of light shining from his head, for example Moses at Mount Sinai by Jacques de Letin (c.1655, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Troyes) [68], but depictions vary over the centuries as the association of the two horns with the devil has been a concern. Images of Moses with the Tablets of the Law vary. There are portrait representations, as in two paintings by Claude Vignon, Moses and the Tablets of the Law. One is held in a private collection [69]. The other, in the Musée des Beaux Arts in Rouen [70], shows the inscriptions on the Tablets in French. Both show a seated Moses pointing to the words inscribed on the stone. José de Ribera has a similar work (1638, Museo Nazionale di San Martino, Naples) [71] [Fig. 14]. In contrast, there is the scene of the giving of the Tablets to Moses, such as a 9th -century illustration in the Moutier-Grandval Bible, now in the British Museum [72], where a hand reaches down from the cloud, and a young Joshua waits eagerly at the bottom of the mountain. Rembrandt’s painting of 1659 in the Gemäldegalerie in Berlin shows Moses holding the Tablets with inscriptions in Hebrew, but about to smash them [73]. Other images show what is happening whilst Moses is absent. Marc Chagall has the Golden Calf in the background as the Tablets are handed over in his Moses with the Tablets of the Law (1956, Musée National Message Biblique Marc Chagall, Nice) [74]. Cosimo Rosselli combines events in his fresco (1481-82) [75] on the south wall of the Sistine Chapel, from Mount Sinai to a sleeping Joshua, to the showing and breaking of the Tablets, the worship of the Golden Calf and the punishment of those involved. Dancing and feasting feature in pictures of the Adoration of the Calf. Lucas van Leyden in The Adoration of the Golden Calf (c. 1530, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam) [76] shows meat and barrels, presumably of wine, a far cry from the manna which had been provided for the starving people. The artist is underlining the temptation to which the Israelites have succumbed, and by implication, the bounty of God in granting a covenant to the people with a protected future in the Promised Land. Nicolas Poussin’s painting The Adoration of the Golden Calf (1633-34, National Gallery, London) [77] [Fig. 15] shows wild dancing around a large lifelike festooned image. Colour and movement create an atmosphere of intense festivity.

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The building of the Tabernacle is illustrated in detail in The Erection of the Tabernacle and the Sacred Vessels (1728, Figures de la Bible) by Gerard Hoet and others [78]. Moses is shown seated, and supervising the work to create the Ark of the Covenant which was to hold the Tablets of the Law (Ex 40:17-19).

1C. Deuteronomy This section investigates the Book of Deuteronomy 1) as the exposition in greater detail and refinement of God's Law, and 2) its place in salvation history. The English title of this work, meaning ‘second law’, is derived from a faulty Greek translation of Deut 17:18 referring to “a copy of this law”: the implication being that the book is a second law, or an expanded version of the original law for the new generation of Israelites about to enter Canaan. The Hebrew text takes the opening words of the book as title: Ele ha-Devarim (‘These are the words’), or simply Devarim (‘Words’). In form, the book is ostensibly a discourse by Moses “to all Israel” in the final month in Moab before they go over the Jordan into Canaan. It actually comprises three separate discourses, a set of laws, two poems, and various other matters, all ascribed to Moses directly. Here it is Moses who sets forth the laws, not God through him. These materials centre on the presentation of the rules of life and worship for the coming sojourn in the Promised Land, along with exhortations and explanations pointing to YHWH, the marvellous liberator and guide through the Wilderness, as the divine source and reason for the commands. Deuteronomy is the nearest thing the Ancient Israelites had to a constitution, setting out the covenant principles governing the relationship which existed between God and his people. This is distinctly a book of obedience. Moses emphasizes that to remember is to observe, and to observe means to do. Everything depended on this: life, the Promised Land, victory over enemies, prosperity and happiness. Blessing is the reward of obedience, curse the result of disobedience. It is a book of remembrance and retrospection. It looks back to the decisive events of salvation in Egypt, and the discipline, training and punishment of the Wilderness years, contemplating the goodness and absolute justice of the Lord. But at the same time it is a book of hope and prospect, leaning into

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the future of the nation, and the forecast of Israel's redemptive role. “Now this the commandment, the statutes and the ordinances which the LORD your God commanded me to teach you, that you may do them in the land to which you are going over, to possess it; that you may fear the LORD your God, you and your son's sons by keeping all his statutes and his commandments, which I command you, all the days of your life; and that your days may be prolonged. Hear therefore O Israel, and be careful to do them, that it may go well with you, and that you may multiply greatly, as the LORD, the God of your fathers, has promised you, in a land flowing with milk and honey. Hear, O Israel: the LORD our God is one LORD; and you shall love the LORD your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your might. And these words which I command you this day shall be upon your heart; and you shall teach them diligently to your children, and shall talk about them when you sit in your house, and when you walk by the way, and when you lie down, and when you rise. And you shall bind them as a sign upon your hand, and they shall be as frontlets before your eyes. And you shall write them on the doorposts of your house and upon your gates.” (Deut 6:1-9)

The traditional view was that, with the exception of the account of Moses’ death, the whole book was written by Moses, based on the phrase “And Moses wrote this song” (Deut 31:22). The book may be divided as follows: 1) an introductory discourse to the whole book (Deut 1—4:43); 2) an introductory discourse to the lawbook (Deut 4:44—11); 3) the lawbook (Deut 12—28); 4) a concluding exhortation and traditions about the last days and death of Moses (Deut 29—34). The mystery and beauty of God's way of life as enshrined in the Law are celebrated. The requirements of the Law involved every aspect of living. The regulations cover everything from the administration of justice (Deut 16 &17), dealing with serious criminal offences (like murder or rape) (22), to trivial points (like allowing a passerby to pluck grapes from a vineyard for his refreshment, but not to take any of the fruit away, 23:24). There are rules about employers and workers (24:14-15), the correct way to worship (13 & 16), the generous management of money and human resources (14:22—15:18), the right kind of diet (14), even the treatment of wild animals (22:6-8). These rules involve both individuals and the nation as a whole. There is no distinction between religious and secular regulations.

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“You shall not oppress a hired servant who is poor and needy, whether he is one of your brethren or one of the sojourners who are in your land within your towns; you shall give him his hire on the day he earns it, before the sun goes down (for he is poor, and sets his heart on it); lest he cry against you to the LORD, and it be sin in you. “The fathers shall not be put to death for the children, nor shall the children be put to death for the fathers; every man shall be put to death for his own sin. "You shall not pervert the justice due to the sojourner or to the fatherless, or take the widow's garment in pledge; but you shall remember that you were slaves in Egypt and the LORD your God redeemed you from there; therefore I command you to do this. “When you reap your harvest in your field, and have forgotten a sheaf in the field, you shall not go back to get it; it shall be for the sojourner, the fatherless, and the widow; that the LORD your God may bless you in all the work of your hands. And when you beat your olive trees, you shall not go over the boughs again; it shall be for the sojourner, the fatherless and the widow. When you gather the grapes of your vineyard, you shall not glean it afterward; it shall be for the sojourner, the fatherless and the widow. You shall remember that you were a slave in Egypt; therefore I command you to do this.” (Deut 24:14-22)

The whole of life is subject to God's love, mercy and justice. If the People were to represent God to the world, and show what he is like, they had to do so in every single aspect of life. The idea of religion not involving itself in business, politics or any other area of activity is nonsensical to a true living of the Law. Everything we do must reflect God and show the world what He is like, and it must be done wholeheartedly out of love for Him. “Keep them and do them; for that will be your wisdom and your understanding in the sight of the peoples, who, when they hear all these statutes, will say, 'Surely this great nation is a wise and understanding people.' For what great nation is there that has a god so near to it as the LORD our God is to us, whenever we call upon him? And what great nation is there that has statutes and ordinances so righteous as all this law which I set before you this day?” (Deut 4:6b-7)

It is interesting to note that Deuteronomy was the book Jesus turned to, as the witness of obedience reflecting his own perfect submission to the Father. He quoted from it in repelling the disobedience suggested by the Tempter in the Wilderness (Mt 4:1-11; Lk 4: 1-13 cf. Deut 8:3: 6:13; 6:16 and 10:20). The Torah (‘Law’) is a ‘Gospel’ story, the good news of the gracious purposes and initiatives of God. This should be the trajectory for a

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searching analysis of the nature of the Law and the transforming and redeeming way of life it offers to the individual, family, society and nature. Covering as it does every aspect of living, its rules for daily conduct become theologized into the ways of justice and mercy that should convert the heart, change the world, and so lead to God's peace (shalom). The centrality of the Law is a complete God-given way of life based on the divine righteousness and loving-kindness. Israel was chosen to live totally and exclusively for God: the Mosaic Covenant, born out of the liberation from servitude in Egypt, bestowed a moral and social order, giving the People a unified character and affirmation of life. Israel was elected for a service to all the world, and to live totally and exclusively for God.

Iconography In portraying the arrival of Moses on the borders of the Promised Land artists have frequently focused on the prophet standing on the mountain and surveying Canaan, for example in the engraving of Gérard Jollain, Moses Views the Promised Land, in La Saincte Bible (1670) [79]. Nicolas Poussin used the story of the spies and the grapes for his painting of autumn in the four seasons series, The Spies with the Grapes of the Promised Land (1660-64, Louvre) [80], showing the abundance of the harvest of fruit. The death of Moses on Mount Nebo (Deut 33:5-6) seems to offer artists a double challenge as he passes from this world with the added sadness of not experiencing himself the life he had striven so hard to achieve for the Israelites. In Alexandre Cabanel’s painting (1851, Dahesh Museum, New York) [81] he lies surrounded by angels with arms outstretched to God. It is an intimate picture of a lonely death far from the people for whom he has been a faithful leader and guide.

CHAPTER TWO THE PROPHETS AND WISDOM

This chapter comprises a consideration of the Prophets by reference to the Messianic and Wisdom traditions. It includes: 1) A survey of the Prophetic phenomenon in the context of the political history of Israel and Judah 2) The Monarchy and its failure, the disaster of political independence, the tragedy of confrontation with Assyria and Babylon 3) The Exile and its meaning for the Jews 4) Prophecy as the voice of justice, as beacon of hope, as custodian of the spiritual values of the nation, as mystical call to fullness of life now and in the future 5) The figure of the Suffering Servant and the fulfilment of God's plan of salvation in time and space 6) Finding God revealed in the natural world and in the rhythms of life.

2A. The Prophetic Tradition Hebrew Prophecy This phenomenon was rooted in the prophetic activities of various individuals and groups from the peoples of the Ancient Near East. Although prophecy among the ancient Egyptians, Mesopotamians and Canaanites was generally connected with predicting the future, the Hebrew view of prophecy centred on proclaiming the truth, though it also included a predicative aspect. The sentence “Thus says the Lord” is repeated constantly to emphasize this proclamatory aspect. The Hebrew prophets were very conscious of the absolute holiness (or separateness) of God, and his plans for his chosen people Israel. Because of this consciousness, they developed an acute awareness of sin and its effects on the individual and society. The consequence of this awareness was a radical ethical outlook that applied to person and community.

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The Hebrew term for prophet (navi´) is related to the Akkadian nabu (‘to call’, ‘to name’), and the prophet may therefore be viewed as caller or spokesman for God. The distinctive element of Hebrew prophecy is the relationship of the prophet to God, the Lord of the Covenant, and to Israel, the People of the Covenant. He spoke for the Lord to remind, cajole, castigate, reprove, comfort and give hope to the people of the covenant, constantly reminding them that they were chosen to be a witness to the nations of the love, mercy and goodness of God. Some of the Hebrew prophets from the 11th to the 8th centuries BC belonged to bands or guilds of ecstatic prophets (1 Samuel 10:5). Their uncontrollable actions and words caused them to be feared. Other prophets, like Samuel (the first great prophet of Israel, 1 Samuel), Nathan (2 Sam 7 & 12, 1 Kgs 1) and Elijah (1 Kgs 17—19, 21; 2 Kgs 1—2), were more independent, and worked alone, but were also regarded as uncontrollable and dangerous by the political authorities. These early non-writing prophets spoke out against the oppression of the weak by the strong, a theme that was constantly expressed in Judaism throughout the centuries. The activities of these early prophets, including Elisha in the 9th century BC (2 Kgs 2—6), are described in those history books called the Former Prophets by the Jews. In the 8th century BC, the writing prophets (i.e. Latter Prophets) began their activities. In the books that bear their names, the editors or disciples of the prophets preserved as far as possible the words, activities and idiosyncratic themes of the prophetic personalities. Some of them were associated with the priestly class (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel), but most were free of priestly connections. The Book of Isaiah The Book of Isaiah, made up of 66 chapters, is one of the most profound theological and expressively literary works in the Bible. It is thought to have been prepared over a period of about two centuries (from the 8th century to latter 6th century BC), and has been divided by scholars into two, sometimes three, major sections: 1) First Isaiah (Is 1—39) 2) Second, or Deutero-Isaiah (Is 40—55) 3) Third, or Trito-Isaiah (Is 56—66). Isaiah, prophet, priest and statesman, lived during the last years of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, and during the reigns of four kings of Judah;

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Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. He was also a contemporary of the prophets of social justice: Amos, Hosea, and Micah. Indeed he was influenced by their outcries against the horrors of social injustice, and added themes of his own, peculiar to his prophetic mission. To kings, political and economic leaders, and to the people of the land, he issued a message that harked back nearly five centuries to the period of the Judges: 1) 2) 3) 4)

the holiness of YHWH the coming Messiah of the Lord the judgement of the Lord the necessity of placing one's own and the nation's trust in the Lord rather than in political manoeuvring and the transient might of nations.

From about 742 BC, when he first experienced his call to become a prophet, to about 687, Isaiah influenced the course of Judah's history by his oracles of destruction, judgement and hope, as well as his messages containing both threats and promises. Again the LORD spoke to Ahaz, “Ask a sign of the LORD your God; let it be deep as Sheol or high as heaven.” But Ahaz said, “I will not ask, and I will not put the LORD to the test.” And he said, “Hear then, O house of David! Is it too little for you to weary men, that you weary my God also? Therefore the LORD himself will give you a sign. Behold, a young woman shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel. He shall eat curds and honey when he knows how to refuse the evil and choose the good. For before the child knows how to refuse the evil and choose the good, the land before whose two kings you are in dread will be deserted. The LORD will bring upon you and upon your people and upon your father's house such days as have not come since that Ephraim departed from Judah— the king of Assyria.” (Is 7:10-15)

The year was about 735 BC. Ahaz, king of Judah, was being pressured by two other kings (those of Israel and Damascus) to join an alliance against the superpower, Assyria. The Prophet met the king and told him he must not join the alliance but put his faith absolutely in the Lord. When Ahaz hypocritically refuses a sign that God would be with him, Isaiah gives him the sign nonetheless. The sign was primarily for Ahaz. It was the promise of a son, a royal heir, to be born in his own time. This is clear from the verse where it says that before the child reaches the use of reason, the lands of the two attacking kings would be deserted. And indeed, they were invaded and ravaged by Assyria in 732 BC. Who is the young maiden? She was probably a member of the harem, and the child to be born would

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be a royal son, a fulfilment of Nathan's prophecy made to the House of David (2 Sam 7:12-16): that his dynasty would last forever. This is a more immediate result of Isaiah's prophecy. But it might be that Isaiah himself, having delivered this oracle, and others about a special child (cf. Is 9:1-7 and 11:1-5) gradually realized that the son of Ahaz was only a foreshadowing, an anticipation of a greater wonder to come. He would have seen in Ahaz's royal child a type of the perfect son of David who would come at the end-time. Matthew applies it to Mary and Jesus, recognising that the words have complete meaning only in these two figures. Jesus, whose name means ‘God with us’, is really the sign of God's presence with us (Mt 1:23). There is real continuity in history because of the divine word. History is not a meaningless chain of events. It is a mystery that is gradually unfolded for those who believe. God's word in the past has an inherent power that releases itself only in the time of perfect fulfilment. The covenant of King David is about the mystery of the Messiah, God’s special anointed servant who will come in the future with salvation (“I have made a covenant with my chosen one, I have sworn to David my servant,” Ps 89:3). The king was thought of in royal ideology as the blessed deputy of God. David was later called the adopted ‘son of God’. So the covenant with David was a prelude to the Messianic concept. God was not only the king of the universe, but also the king of Israel (cf. Nathanael’s words to Jesus in Jn 1:49: “Rabbi, you are the Son of God! You are the King of Israel!”). This covenant focuses on the emergence of this promise and the hope it generated, the role it played in political disaster, moral collapse and the Exile, and in shaping the view of the future born of the divine promise. The Psalms always provide comparative reflection on the great themes of salvation history (creation, election, covenant, Law, God's saving love, worship, pilgrimage, prayer, sin, repentance, suffering, joy, hope, comfort). During the Exile in Babylon the deported Israelites had deep questions about why this national disaster had befallen them. Had Marduk of Babylon defeated the LORD, the God of Israel? Had God been unfaithful to his promises? Had he rejected his people for ever? The prophecies of Is. 40—55 seek to give answers to these questions. Second Isaiah comes from the school of Isaiah's disciples, and can be divided into two periods: Is 40—55 (Deutero-Isaiah) were written about 538 BC after the experience of the Exile in Babylon; Is 56—66 (TritoIsaiah) were written following the return of the exiles to Jerusalem after

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538 B.C. “Fear not, for you will not be ashamed; be not confounded, for you will not be put to shame; for you will forget the shame of your youth, and the reproach of your widowhood you will remember no more. For your Maker is your husband, the LORD of hosts is his name; and the Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer, the God of the whole earth he is called. For the LORD has called you like a wife forsaken and grieved in spirit, like a wife of youth when she is cast off, says your God. For a brief moment I forsook you, but with great compassion I will gather you. In overflowing wrath for a moment I hid my face from you, but with everlasting love I will have compassion on you, says the LORD your Redeemer.” (Is 54:4-10) “The Spirit of the LORD GOD is upon me, because the LORD has anointed me to bring good tidings to the afflicted; he has sent me to bind up the broken-hearted, to proclaim liberty to the captives, and the opening of the prison to those who are bound; to proclaim the year of the LORD'S favour, and the day of vengeance of our God; to comfort all who mourn... For I the LORD love justice, I hate robbery and wrong: I will faithfully give them their recompense, and I will make an everlasting covenant with them. Their descendants shall be known among the nations, and their offspring in the midst of the peoples; all who see them shall acknowledge them, that they are a people whom the LORD has blessed.” (Is 61: 1-4, 8-9)

The prophecy announces that she who was put away during her sin and unfaithfulness, like an adulterous wife, is now restored (54:4-6). This restoration will be permanent and God's covenant of peace will not depart from her (54:7-10). Israel is likened to a beautiful city (54:11-12). Her citizens will be spiritually prosperous (54:13-14), and will be victorious and secure (54:15-17). God's agent in these wonderful developments will be his special servant, one empowered with the extraordinary charism of leadership and healing (61:1-9). In his spiritual character his ministry is anointed by the Spirit of God. In its specific character it is a ministry of

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preaching and spiritual restoration, of gracious favour to believers (61:12). Waste places will be rebuilt, Israel the enslaved will be served, the abased will be exalted, divinely gathered together and comforted; the scattered will be gathered and guided; the reproached will be vindicated. Who is the servant? Is 40—55 identify him with Israel. The prophet proclaims that Israel will be liberated from exile and will have the opportunity of bringing God's salvation to the nations. Israel never completely realized this role, but Jesus was to fulfil it perfectly. The New Testament identifies Jesus as the Servant of the Lord (see Mt 12:18-21). Of all the prophetic books of the Old Testament, Isaiah is the most messianic. Indeed, it has been called “the Fifth Gospel”. Only the Psalms contain more messianic predictions. The Messiah is to be from the stock of Jesse, the father of King David (There shall come forth a shoot from the stump of Jesse, and a branch shall grow out of its roots); he will be anointed with spiritual power, and reveal what are called the Gifts of the Holy Spirit (And the Spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him, the spirit of wisdom and understanding, Is 11:1-2). Every aspect of Jesus’ life on earth is set forth in this great evangelical prophecy: 1) his deity, eternity, preexistence, creatorship, omnipotence, omnipresence, omniscience, incomparableness (40:12-18; 51.13) 2) his lowliness and youth in Nazareth (7:15; 9:1-2; 11:1; 53:2) 3) his appearance as the Servant of the LORD, anointed as such (11:2), and chosen and delighted as such (42:1) 4) his mild manner (42:2) 5) his tender ministering kindness (42:3; cf. Mt 12:18-20) 6) his obedience (50:2) 7) his message (61:1-2) 8) his miracles (35:5-6) 9) his sufferings (50:6) 10) his sufferings as the gateway to exaltation (52:13-15) 11) his rejection by his own people (53:1-3) 12) his shame in being struck, wounded, bruised (53:4-6) 13) his vicarious death (53:8) and burial (53:9) 14) his resurrection (53:10) and ascension (53:13) 15) his spiritual progeny (53:10) and 16) his high priestly ministry (53:12). After Is 53, the Messiah is not mentioned as servant again, and his future glory comes into focus (59:20; 63:1-6; 66:15-19).

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The Prophets constitute the fifth great manifestation of covenant, and in the words of Jeremiah concerning the New Heart (Jer 31:31-33) become the medium of one of the greatest consolatory promises in Scripture, one explored in different ways by all the Prophets, with special contributions from Isaiah (the Messianic Promise and future age of redemption, the Suffering Servant poems, the making of all things new) and Ezekiel (the Shepherd of the Sheep, Ezk 34; the New Heart once more, 36:26; the Valley of Dry Bones resurrected , 37; the New Temple and the Streams of Living Water, 44—47). The power of these covenantal promises and symbols speaks to believers still, and in Isaiah 54:5-10 they are renewed, spiritualized and universalized for all time. God’s pact with his creation, and ultimate act of love in the sending of his Servant the Messiah, are combined in revealing his supreme mercy and saving power: “Thus says the Lord: If I have not established my covenant with day and night and the ordinances of heaven and earth, then I will reject the descendants of Jacob and David my servant and will not choose one of his descendants to rule over the seed of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. For I will restore their fortunes, and will have mercy upon them” (Jer 33:25-26).

The covenant is the divine promise, bringing communion with God, redemptive revelation. They are signs of divinity in initiation, administration, confirmation and fulfilment, divinity at the height of its activity and disclosure. From the very beginning of salvation history, the covenants are the medium of the divine economy of grace and promise.

Iconography A major way in which the prophecy of Isaiah is represented in iconography is the Tree of Jesse which can be found in medieval manuscripts, glass and sculpture, for example in a fine large 15th-century wall painting in the village church of St Bris in Burgundy [82] [Fig. 16]. The image was popular too in Victorian times in England, for instance in the east window of the Anglican Church of St John the Baptist in Tideswell, Derbyshire (1876, Heaton, Butler and Bayne) [83]. This form of representation of the prophecy arose from the concept of the shoot springing from the stock of Jesse (Is11:1), and from the closeness of the Latin word virga meaning ‘twig’ or ‘rod’ from the Vulgate Bible with the word virgo for virgin: et egredietur virga de radice Iesse et flos de radice eius ascendet [and there shall come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a flower shall rise up out of his roots]

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This is most famously represented in the west window at Chartres Cathedral [84], the earliest complete stained glass version, dating from 1145, where at the bottom of the window Jesse sleeps and from his groin there rises a stem in seven stages, with central figures including David and Solomon, and finally Mary and Jesus surrounded by the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit. At each side of each central figure is a prophet carrying a scroll. The opening section of Matthew’s Gospel, where the genealogy of Jesus is given in detail, is thus represented visually, albeit in a condensed form. Jesse Trees are also represented in a circular form, as at the church of St Martin in Clamecy, Burgundy (15th century) [85] [Fig. 17], and in the 13th century north transept window at St Denis Cathedral [86]. Isaiah’s prophecy of the Messiah is also visualised in the north door at Chartres where the sculptured figure of the prophet has a rod in his hand, now sadly broken, and stands on a sleeping Jesse [87] [Fig. 18]. The link between the Prophet Isaiah and the Gospel of Matthew is shown in a most extraordinary manner in the stained glass at both Paris and Chartres Cathedrals [88 and 89], where the Evangelist is seen as a small figure sitting on the shoulders of the Prophet (see the cover of this book). The Evangelist makes 10 direct references to Isaiah in his Gospel. In other images Isaiah is seen as a lone figure. Wisdom is conveyed through the beard and age of the figure. Often he is holding a scroll showing words of his prophecy, for example in Raphael’s 16th-century fresco at Sant’Agostino in Rome [90], or with a book in James Tissot’s 19th-century painting of the prophet [91]. Michelangelo portrays him (1509, Sistine Chapel) [92], as a classical Roman with a book, listening to the angelic figure speaking in his right ear and pointing with arm and thumb outstretched, as if to urge action. Tiepolo’s fresco (1726-29) shows an angel with the tongs and ‘live coal’ (Is 6:6) taken from the altar, when he was called to prophesy [93]. With regard to the Babylonian Exile, James Tissot’s painting of The Flight of the Prisoners (1902) shows the vast stream of Israelites leaving the burning city of Jerusalem [94]. Their misery in exile in the land which is now Iraq, is well depicted in Eduard Bendemann’s Die trauernden Juden im Exil (c. 1832, Wallraf-Richartz-Museum, Cologne) [95]. The group of exiles is dejected and weeping beneath a tree on the banks of the River Euphrates. The harp is laid down. On the frame of the original version of this painting Bendemann had inscribed the opening words of Psalm 137 (in German), “By the waters of Babylon, there we sat and wept when we remembered Zion”. Isaiah’s prophecy of liberation from exile is depicted in Maarten van Heemskerk’s painting The Prophet Isaiah predicts the

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return of the Jews from exile (1560-65, Frans Hals Museum, Haarlem) [96] where the Prophet looks over the ruins of Israel towards green fields and farming activity. This contrasts with the melancholy and lethargy of the previous painting.

2B. The Wisdom Books The Tradition of Wisdom in the Life of Ancient Israel This section investigates the confrontation with the challenges of living daily life in the natural world, in ordinary circumstances, especially in the face of suffering and injustice, and the apparent silence of God in the light of human perplexity. It includes the whole theme of theodicy, or innocent suffering. The Wisdom Literature is not concerned with the destiny of the People of God in the great sweep of sacred history. It focuses rather on the individual in everyday society. These books are the Old Testament’s code of practice about daily living and behaviour, and translate God’s plan for his creation into an everyday guide to life, a meditation on life’s mysteries, especially the place of suffering, and the understanding of divine providence (as in Job). The Psalms are Israel’s prayerbook, 150 pieces of religious poetry celebrating the goodness, the mystery and purposes of God in creation, in salvation history and especially the life of the individual believer, with all its challenges, sorrows, bewilderment and joys. The Song of Songs is a poem about the meaning of love (the divine sanction of sexuality, also allegorized as God’s love for his people), full of the vigour and passion, like a young man’s view of life. The Proverbs seek to find a balanced view about life, and how best to live it in accordance with the revelation of God’s laws in nature (both natural creation and human nature). This is like the reflection of a mature human being in early middle age. Ecclesiastes provides a discourse on living that is more questioning and shaped by long experience of life, with a sober perception of its transience, futility and disillusionment. This sober realism is like the reflections of someone in their older age. One must hold on to belief in God’s goodness, the hope born of belief in his immortal power and care. Only the later Greek books provide a more direct form of optimism born of overt belief in the immortality of the soul (the Book of Wisdom, 5:15; 6:18 ) and the witness of salvation in history, a return to a more direct covenant theology (Ecclesiasticus/Sirach, 24:23-24).

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Proverbs is probably the oldest extant document of the Hebrew wisdom movement of which King Solomon was the founder and patron. Wisdom literature flourished throughout the Ancient Near East, some Egyptian examples dating back to before the middle of the third millennium BC. It revolved around the professional sages, wise men and scribes in the service of the court, and it consisted primarily of maxims about the practical, intelligent way one should conduct one's life, and to some extent, speculation about the worth and meaning of human life. These were usually in the form of a comparative parable (Hebrew mashal), or riddles, allegories and eventually full-scale compositions. Two principal types of wisdom arose, both inside and outside Israel: one practical and utilitarian, the other speculative and frequently pessimistic. Practical wisdom consisted chiefly of wise sayings that appealed to experience and offered prudential guidelines for a successful and happy life. The moral nature of this advice contributed to a well-ordered society. Speculative wisdom went beyond maxims of self-conduct to reflect on the deeper problems of the value of life and the nature of good and evil. In some wisdom literature like Proverbs, God's revelation of himself is given in the universal laws and patterns characteristic of nature, especially human nature, rather than in a special series of historical events: in other words, the revelation of God is in the order of creation rather than in the order of redemption. The character of God is conceived almost entirely in terms of ethical norms, and the rewards for their observance are defined in terms of human values: e.g., health, long life, respect, possessions, security and self-control. The Book of Job The Book of Job is the finest expression of Hebrew poetic genius; indeed, it can be accorded a place among the greatest masterpieces of world literature. The work is grouped with Proverbs and Ecclesiastes as a product of the Wisdom movement, even though it contains what might be called an anti-wisdom strain in that the hero protests vehemently against the rationalistic ethics of the sages. Yet it is the supreme example among ancient texts of speculative wisdom in which a man attempts to understand and respond to the human situation in which he exists. The story of Job shows that innocent suffering does happen. But if there is no obvious divine justice in the pattern of things, in what sense is God sovereign? How can we be sure that God is just? Would a just God not intervene to help the suffering multitudes in the world? These are

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perennial questions, asked as much in our world today, where war, famine and natural disaster produce huge numbers of innocent victims. Job's depiction of the starving and oppressed whose cry for justice goes unheeded is still deeply disturbing (24:12). From out of the city the dying groan, and the soul of the wounded cries for help; yet God pays no attention to their prayer.

The book consists of two separate portions. The bulk of the work is an extended dialogue between the hero and his friends, and eventually with YHWH himself, in poetic form. The poem is set within the framework of a short narrative in prose form. The book falls into five sections: 1) a prologue (Job 1—2) 2) the dialogue between Job and his friends (Job 3—31) 3) the speeches of Elihu (Job 32—37) 4) the speeches of YHWH and Job's reply (Job 38—42:6) 5) an epilogue (Job 42:7-17). Job is pictured as an ideal patriarch who has been rewarded for his piety with material prosperity and happiness. Satan (‘the Accuser’ rather than the tempter), a member of the heavenly council of YHWH, acts with the Lord's permission to test whether or not Job's piety is rooted in selfinterest. Faced with the appalling loss of his worldly possessions, his children, and finally his own health, Job refuses to curse the Lord. His capacity for trusting YHWH's goodness has made him an unsurpassed model of patience. Three of Job's friends now arrive to comfort. At this point the poetic dialogue begins. “Have pity on me, have pity on me, O you my friends, for the hand of God has touched me! Why do you, like God, pursue me? Why are you not satisfied with my flesh? Oh that my words were written! Oh that they were inscribed in a book! Oh that with an iron pen and lead they were graven in the rock for ever! For I know that My Redeemer lives, and that at last he will stand upon the earth; and after my skin has been destroyed, and from my flesh I shall see God, whom I shall see on my side, and my eyes shall behold, and not another.

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The Prophets and Wisdom My heart faints within me!” (Job 19.21-28) Then the LORD answered Job out of the whirlwind: “Gird up your loins like a man; I will question you, and you declare to me, Will you even put me in the wrong? Will you condemn me that you may be justified? Have you an arm like God, and can you thunder with a voice like his?” (Job 40: 6-9) “Who is he that can stand before me? Who has given to me, that I should repay him? Whatever is under the whole heaven is mine.” (Job 41:10b-11)

The conclusion of the tale, given in the epilogue, describes the various restorations of Job, who receives double his original possessions and lives to a ripe old age. But at its deepest level the book asks how we can possibly relate to God when the world he has created does not seem to make sense. The answer provided is that God is to be trusted because he has made and governs the world according to his wisdom. While we cannot categorize his work in terms of reward and punishment, there is a basic integrity to be discerned about the order of the universe. Even though we cannot know why suffering happens, the greatness of God, revealed in the vastness and variety of creation, is worthy of our faith and worship. Affliction is permitted by God to refine the human spirit so that we may see God in all his magnitude and splendour, and ourselves in our puniness and sinfulness, and so lead us to repentance of our pride.

Iconography The story of Job provides a rich source of inspiration for artists as they seek to portray the stages of his life from piety and prosperity to intense torment, and then to restoration of material possessions and the gift of a long life as a result of his fidelity to YHWH. Job’s status of a man of uprightness and devotion to God is shown in icons of the Orthodox Church, for example Job the Long-Suffering (2005, Holy Transfiguration Monastery) [97]. His life as described at the start of the Book of Job is shown in one of the wall paintings in the Cathedral of San Gimignano in Tuscany (c.1356) [98]. Job sits at the table with his wife, both wearing crowns and surrounded by their family who are banqueting in great style with music from several musicians. In the top left corner Satan is shown in conversation with God, interpreted as a discussion on

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the strength of Job’s piety. Job, however, is most easily recognised as an old, almost naked and emaciated figure suffering pitiably from the ulcers which cover all his body. Amongst the starkest are those by William Blake because they lack the colour used by other artists, for example Satan Smiting Job with Boils in William Blake's Illustrations of the Book of Job (1826) [99]. Job is often pictured lying on a dungheap, though this was due to a mistranslation and should most likely have been a pile of ashes, with a broken piece of pottery with which he could scratch his sores. Jean Fouquet’s Job and his False Comforters (1452-60), an illustration for the Book of Hours of Étienne Chevalier in the Musée Condé, Chantilly, France [100], shows the three friends who come to comfort Job (Job 2:11-13), but they seem to offer little compassion, rather disgust and judgement. They seem not to be weeping, tearing their robes and throwing dust over themselves as a sign of penitence and mourning as in Job 2:12. Despite its title, Georges de la Tour’s Job Ridiculed by his Wife (c. 1650, Musée Departemental des Vosges, Epinal) [101], has an aspect of tenderness as husband and wife gaze at each other in the candlelight. The words from her mouth are meant to be those of intolerance, impatience and unkindness, but this is not immediately evident in the picture. Job’s hands are clasped together showing a quiet determination to resist her entreaty to surrender and curse God. Chartres Cathedral has a 13th-century tympanum with the scene of Job’s suffering [102] [Fig. 19]. Job lies in the middle with Satan enfolding him in extended arms and attacking him morally and physically as he grasps Job’s head and feet with huge claws. He gazes up at God in delight at the suffering he is imposing. To the left are the three friends, one of whom this time seems to offer some comfort, and to the right Job’s wife simply watches over him. Job is indifferent to the presence of others and concentrates on enduring the suffering to which he is subjected. At the top of the tympanum the image of God has the attributes of Christ watching down from heaven upon his beloved servant. Job has featured in Christian art throughout history because of the parallels between his suffering and that of Jesus. This is indicated clearly for example in the mosaic in the Rosary Basilica at Lourdes for the Second Sorrowful Mystery, the Scourging at the Pillar, by M. Louis-Édouard Fournier (1904) [103]. The violence of the undeserved beating of Christ is shown to be prefigured in Job’s torment by an image of the prophet with a scroll indicating the nature of his suffering (Job 2:7). There is also an image of Isaiah with a scroll bearing the words in Latin from Is 53:5: “We have been healed by his bruises”.

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Guido Reni’s The Triumph of Job (1636) which hangs in the north transept of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris shows the restored Job sitting high above family and friends who bring gifts [104] [Fig. 20]. He is portrayed with a halo of light around his head, clothed in a red cloak and bearing a sceptre. It is the image of a saint who has reaped the rewards of fidelity to God.

PART 2: THE NEW TESTAMENT

WHAT IS THE GOSPEL?

What were the Gospel writers trying to do? They were preaching the euangelion, “the Good News”, presenting Jesus as the Christ, the Son of God (Mk 1:1). They wrote in order that their readers might believe in him and so have eternal life (Jn 20:31). Many attempts have been made to explain the actual composition of the Gospels. The authors have, surely to some extent, interpreted the story of Jesus to show its significance for their readers. They have provided a kind of commentary on the ministry of Jesus in which it is hard to distinguish between original ‘text’ and its ‘interpretation’. The important point is that there really is a text which the Evangelist is explaining to us: he is not commenting on something that never existed. Apostolic witness is the basis of the Gospels. It is also recognized that it is the one and the same Jesus who is described in all four Gospels. Whereas critics of a former era argued that the Gospels had little basis in history, it is now seen that all four build on historical traditions, each preserving different aspects of it, and in doing so, providing their own unique perspectives. Considering the portrait of Jesus requires some specific knowledge about the nature of the presentation of this person in a comparative mode. The New Testament contains much thematic complexity and theological variation (with a spectrum of writings: Synoptic, Lucan, Johannine, Pauline, Petrine, Jamesian). The Synoptic Gospels present a picture of Jesus loaded with significance that needs to be interpreted. John and Paul, in gospel and epistles, tell the reader what to believe about Jesus: John from the very first words, Paul as it emerges from his theological discussions. The Christological titles give insight into the perception of Jesus as both man and saviour (Son of Man, Son of God, Christ, Messiah, Lord, Teacher, Master, on the one hand; on the other, Word, Wisdom, Son, Image of the Invisible Father, Firstborn of All Creation, God’s Reconciliation). The nature of selection, the different types of writing in the New Testament, result in different ways of reading, of making sense of the texts (through the dominant genres of gospel and letter). What were the personal differences between the Evangelists? What was the specific audience they had in mind in writing their Gospels (Jewish, Greek,

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Roman, universal)? How did this affect their portrait of Jesus? How does Paul’s methodology differ? There is an aim, firstly, at showing the divine and human elements of the single man Jesus, so ordinary and loving, and yet full of saving and healing power in the course of his ministry. The ordinary becomes the moment for divine revelation—as in the Multiplication of the Loaves, where everyday food and eating suddenly reveals God in our midst in his limitless generosity (Mt 14:15; Mk 6:30; Lk 9:10; Jn 6:1-14); or the Transfiguration, where the ordinary time of prayer on a mountain opens for a moment a window into the eternal and sublime (Mt 17; Mk 9:2; Lk 9:29). In the Synoptics, in spite of the specific approach of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, there is an ongoing process of realization that Jesus is the Son of God through his words and deeds (cf. Mk 14:61-62, 15:39, Lk 24:32). This happens in the context of the special emphasis each of the Evangelists brings to bear: —Mark sees Jesus as Suffering Servant; —Matthew sees him as the New Moses and New David; —Luke sees him as Perfect Man and Universal Saviour. —In John we are told from the very first verse that Jesus is the Divine Logos. This retrospective declaration is maintained throughout: Jesus is the Son of God, and uses the divine designation of himself as “I AM” (Jn 8:58 cf. Ex 3:14). The Evangelists portrayed Jesus as his followers saw him. To them he was no ordinary man, not even a unique prophet. He was the Lord whom God had raised from the dead, and who was now alive and active in heaven. They knew no other Jesus than this. They might have thought differently about him before the Resurrection (Lk 24:19-24), and even the Resurrection did not compel everyone who heard about it to believe. But they had come to believe because of the total impact Jesus had made on them, and so they could not present him in any other way. The eschatological and apocalyptic vision of the Son of Man in Daniel forms the climax of Jesus’ trial before the High Priest, and leads directly to the highpoint of his public ministry, his atoning sacrifice on the Cross. But he was silent and made no answer. Again the high priest asked him, “Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed?” And Jesus said, “I am; and

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The Bible and Art you will see the Son of man seated at the right hand of Power, and coming with the clouds of heaven.” And the high priest tore his garments, and said, “Why do we still need witnesses? You have heard his blasphemy. What is your decision?” And they all condemned him as deserving death. (Mk 14:61-64; cf. Dan 7:13-14)

Earlier, during his debates with the religious leaders, Jesus had also indirectly identified himself with the Messianic promise made to David and his descendants, and expressed most mysteriously in the greatest of the Messianic Oracles, Psalm 110: And as Jesus taught in the temple, he said, “How can the scribes say that the Christ is the son of David? David himself, inspired by the Holy Spirit, declared, ‘The Lord said to my Lord, Sit at my right hand, till I put thy enemies under thy feet.’ David himself calls him Lord; so how is he his son?” And the great throng heard him gladly. (Mk 12:35-37)

Jesus himself most overtly identified himself with the Messiah promised by the prophets at the beginning of his public ministry when in the synagogue of Nazareth he read from the scroll of Isaiah: And he came to Nazareth, where he had been brought up; and he went to the synagogue, as his custom was, on the Sabbath day. And he stood up to read; and there was given to him the book of the prophet Isaiah. He opened the book and found the place where it was written, “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord.” And he closed the book, and gave it back to the attendant, and sat down; and the eyes of all in the synagogue were fixed on him. And he began to say to them, “Today this scripture has been fulfilled in your hearing.” And all spoke well of him, and wondered at the gracious words which proceeded out of his mouth; and they said, “Is not this Joseph's son?” And he said to them, “Doubtless you will quote to me this proverb, ‘Physician, heal yourself; what we have heard you did at Capernaum, do here also in your own country.’” (Lk 4:16-23; cf. Mt 11:5)

Here are the key terms of ‘Good News’: freedom, consolation, praise, peace and glory—all of which are the hallmarks of the Gospel record. Jesus’ own identification of himself not only with the Covenant, but actually as the new Covenant, takes place at the Last Supper as a prevenient realization of the sacrifice of Calvary which would take place on the next day. The Apostle Paul drew on the earliest living tradition in his account of the institution of the Eucharist.

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For I received from the Lord what I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus on the night when he was betrayed took bread, and when he had given thanks, he broke it, and said, “This is my body which is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.” In the same way also the cup, after supper, saying, “This cup is the new covenant in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me.” For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord's death until he comes. (1 Cor 11:23-26; cf. Mt 26:26-28; Mk 14:22-24; Lk 22:17-19)

Paul’s words recall the ratification of the Covenant of the Law at the foot of Sinai, when Moses sprinkled the People of God with the blood of sacrifice (Ex 24:5-8). But the most remarkable adaptation and development of the covenant theme comes in the opening verses of the Gospel of John, where the implications of the Messianic Psalm are projected further back beyond time and space to the very existence of God himself, and the way God has revealed himself to us. The Word of the creating God became flesh, as God united himself with humanity in the Incarnation, and “tented” himself in a tabernacle of flesh—just as the Word of the Law had been housed in the Tabernacle in the Wilderness (Ex 25:10-30). The advent of Jesus is the pledge of future glory, like the glorious theophany of God on Sinai (Ex 19). To Moses was entrusted the revelation of the Law, but in Jesus, who makes the invisible God known, a new age of grace and truth is inaugurated (Jn 1:14-18). Creation, revelation, covenant, law, light, truth, grace and glory, all unfolded in the Old Testament, are now given their unique and full expression in the Incarnation of the Word, the self-revelation of God, and in the record of the life-giving ministry of Jesus the anointed servant, the Christ of God.

CHAPTER THREE GOSPEL THEMES

3A. Parables of the Kingdom in the Gospel of Matthew This section examines Jesus' preaching in terms of the Parables, especially as found in the Gospel of Matthew. Matthew's Gospel can be seen as an exposition of the coming of the Kingdom of God: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

its preparation (Mt 1—2) its proclamation (Mt 3—7) its preaching (Mt 6—10) obstacles in its way (Mt 11—13) its embryonic existence (Mt 13—18) its approaching advent (Mt 19—25) its coming (Mt 26—28)

A survey of the Parables of the Kingdom concentrates on 1) The Parable of the Sower (Mt 13:1-9) 2) The Parable of the Weeds (Mt 13:24-30) 3) The Parables of the Mustard Seed, the Yeast, the Hidden Treasure, the Pearl, and the Net of Fish (Mt 13:44-50) The outstanding feature of Matthew is its division into five discourses, or sermons. There is an emphasis on Jesus as teacher, the teacher of the Kingdom, and his new perception of the Law in an eschatological context: 1) the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 5—7), a sharpened ethic of the kingdom and a higher righteousness than that of the Pharisees 2) a discourse on mission, witness and martyrdom (Mt 10) 3) parables about the coming of the Kingdom (Mt 13) 4) discussion of the Church, its discipline, leaders and flock (Mt 18) 5) prediction of the end of time (Mt 23—25), watching for the Parousia, watching and waiting for it, with firmness in faith.

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Jesus is presented not in secret but as an openly heralded Messiah, King, and Judge. After the Resurrection, he proclaims all authority in heaven and on earth. Messianic titles are more used in Matthew than in Mark. In the exorcism of the possessed, the demons cry out, calling him Son of God (Mt 8:29). The antitheses of the Sermon on the Mount are not new, but demonstrate a higher ethic, one that is strict and more immediate in its challenges. The depiction of Jesus as Lord, King, Judge, Saviour, Messiah, Son of Man and Son of God is made in an eschatological tone. The Jewish origins of Jesus’ teaching and the way Matthew presents him do not deny the Law but push beyond it. The prophecies are fulfilled, the Law is kept, and the Church’s mission is finally universal, partly because the unbelief of the Jewish leaders had neglected the message to the poor, the sick, the sinner, the outcast, and the Gentile. “Again, the kingdom of heaven is like a treasure hidden in a field, which a man found and covered up; then in his joy he goes and sells all that he has and buys that field.” (Mt 13:45-46)

The Seven Parables (Mysteries) of the Kingdom (Mt 13:3-52) are called ‘mysteries’ because they contain truths previously not revealed. The seven parables deal with the present age when Israel, the vineyard, is untended (cf. Is 5:1-7). 1) Parable 1 (13:2-23) reveals that the Lord sows the seed of the Word in the field (the world). 2) Parable 2 (13:24-33).The good seed and the tares (interpreted in 13:36-43) indicate Satan's activity and deception during this age in counterfeiting the wheat (the true children of the kingdom) with the poisonous tares of false teachers (cf. Mt 7:21-23). 3) Parable 3 (13:31-32).The mustard seed symbolizes the rapid and secret growth of the kingdom. 4) Parable 4 (13:35). The leaven hidden in three measures of meal warns of the permeation/ infiltration of the truth of the Word with the error of leaven by false teaching (the woman depicted as Eve) during this age (cf. Mk 16:11-12; Mk 8:15; 1 Cor 5:6; Gal 5:9). 5) Parable 5 (13:44) portrays the Lord who gave all he had to possess the treasure (Israel) hidden in the field (cf. Is 53:4-9; Ps 22:1; 2 Cor 8:9). He will reinstate this treasure on the basis of his atoning death. 6) Parable 6 (13:45-47) shows the Lord as a merchant, who finds a pearl of great price (the Church, cf. Eph 5:25-27) and sells everything (through his Passion) to purchase it.

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7) Parable 7 (13:47-55) presents the net gathering both the good and the bad, which will remain together during this age until separated at its consummation. There is further evidence of the rejection of the King (13:53-58) as he returned to Nazareth. Jesus’ idea of the Kingdom (God’s reign) is new and different from the usual political notions. For him: 1) the Kingdom is already here. The signs he performed, the words he spoke were indicators of God's power and presence breaking into this world. 2) the Kingdom is the rule of God in human hearts. What concerns Jesus is not territory or property, but people: those who acknowledge him as Lord and follow him. The Kingdom is a spiritual reality present in the heart of men and women. 3) the Kingdom became a reality through Jesus’ death and resurrection. The Kingdom and the Cross are closely linked. The kingdom becomes a reality for us through what Jesus did on the Cross: his death is the key to the Kingdom. 4) the Kingdom in all its fullness is yet to come. God's reign is partially established in the hearts of all believers, but will only be fully established when Jesus will return. In the meantime that part of creation which accepts his authority (the Church) continues to preach the message of the Kingdom. Belonging to the Kingdom is indicated by the way in which we live, expressing compassion and concern for others. It might also involve us in political and social action. One must, however, always guard against the notion that the Kingdom is a blueprint for social utopias. Jesus never gave a specific definition of the Kingdom, but taught about it in parables. This was a revolutionary message given ‘in code’ so that he could be heard and received in equal measure by poor and rich, slave and freeman, Jew and Gentile. Jesus was in this respect himself an original artist of the Word. His parables use, to great and enduring effect, concrete images in an agricultural context. He had a special way of encouraging his listeners to see reality differently from the norm, and so to experience spirituality in a new way—particularly through his ability to use striking and memorable expressions, and challenging, even jarring, comparisons. His provocative

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juxtaposing of rich and poor becomes forever memorable through the exaggerated image of a camel passing through the eye of a needle (Mk 10:25); or the unrealistic even ludicrous idea of a shepherd leaving his 99 sheep to search for one gone astray (Mt 18:12); or the humour endemic in the analogy of the Church as a tiny seed growing into a huge tree to serve as the roost for flocks of birds (Mk 4:30-32). His famous comparison of the earthly splendour and fashion of Solomon’s court to the ineffable natural loveliness of the birds and flowers of the fields is never forgotten once heard (Mt 6:28-30). These are teaching stories with a moral and artistic edge, going beyond appearances to stir up reaction and address profound truths of experience. This is exactly how art helps to touch the depths and recesses of the human heart. This was one of the main reasons why Jesus’ teaching was so different from that of the Jewish religious leaders, and seemed filled with conviction, authority and power (Mk 1:22). The imagery he used in his favourite form of discourse is elemental, looking to the natural work and to ordinary human experience, touching the very life of God’s creation, drawing his audience into the divine mystery encoded in the world around us and hidden in the everyday lives we lead.

Iconography The artists who have depicted the Parables of the Kingdom have had a varied approach. Some have chosen to illustrate the detail of the biblical text, either in a scene imagined from the time of Jesus in Palestine, or transposed into their own times with the conventions of contemporary art. Others have taken on more fully the role of interpreters of the parables, though the brevity of the text of some of the parables requires in any case some explanation. Falling into the category of illustrators are the works of Jan Luyken (16491712), a Dutch engraver whose work was used by Robert Bowyer (17581834) for his Illustrated Bible in 45 volumes, now in the possession of Bolton Archives in Lancashire. His engravings mirror the biblical texts; for example, The Parable of the Pearl of Great Price, showing the harvesting of a huge quantity of oysters or mussels from water, and indicating how precious is the finding of the one pearl [105]. Sir John Everett Millais’s work, engraved by the Dalziel Brothers, published in 1864 and available for viewing at Tate Britain [106], shows the finder of the pearl holding it ready to hand it to the purchaser as he takes the money bags with his other hand. Domenico Fetti’s work on this theme (early 17th

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century, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) [107], shows an excited group around a table in a busy contemporary setting with an array of onlookers. In all three works there is intensity and determination in the search, but only in the image by Millais is there a clear indication of the purchase. The Parable of the Hidden Treasure offers a parallel challenge to the painter. Luyken’s image in Bowyer’s Illustrated Bible shows a rural landscape with the finding of a cache of coins and jewellery [108]. Millais’s image (as above) could be described rather as a close-up with the finder kneeling behind the plough to examine the treasure [109]. Gerard Dou shows the finder in the centre of his painting The Parable of the Hidden Treasure (c. 1630, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest) [110] [Fig. 21]. He has a spade in his hand, and the appearance of having worked hard to find the valuables. He looks backwards in peaceful satisfaction and joy that the toil has been rewarded. As with the images for the pearl, the emphasis is on accomplishment in finding. The Parables of the Mustard Seed and of the Yeast are again well represented by Luyken in Bowyer’s Bible [11]. In The Parable of the Mustard Seed the tree is admired by onlookers, but it is not a comparatively large tree, and the emphasis of the parable lies with the rapid growth from the tiny seed. Birds fly around happily and eat, and there is no sense of the interpretation lifted from the parable of the sower that they represent false doctrine or forces of evil. Luyken’s image of The Parable of the Leaven [112] shows a woman kneading a large quantity of dough, taking a small amount of yeast to mix with the dough. Millais’s image The Leaven [113] is similar, and shows a young girl taking the dough for a loaf away, perhaps to a place where it can rise. The interpretation of the contagious nature of the yeast forming dough which is then divided into loaves foreshadows the development of the Church as it develops beyond the ‘kitchen’ of Palestine. The Parables of the Sower, the Weeds and the Net are depicted in terms of the work of the devil and subsequent final judgement. The sower is portrayed in Pieter Bruegel the Elder’s Landscape with the Parable of the Sower (1557, Timken Museum of Art, California) [114] [Fig. 22]. This is a wide landscape painting with a background of mountains resembling the Alps, a river or part of a lake, with a detail reminiscent of Jesus preaching on the far side, and a lonely sower scattering seed. Other fields have been successful in producing crops possibly, and by implication, because the sower is following Jesus’ teaching. A Romanian wall painting in the

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Cathedral of Târgu-Mureè (c. 1930) [115] [Fig. 23] is more explicit in showing Jesus as the sower and shows the varied fate of the seed, for example the birds eating the seed, or the darnel preventing its growth. Millais’s version, The Sower [116], is equally comprehensive, with emphasis on the stony ground. The Parable of the Weeds in works by Domenico Fetti and Félicien Rops moves the depiction forward and shows the devil as the sower. Rops’s etching Satan Sowing Seeds (1882, Musée Provincial Félicien Rops, Namur) [117] portrays the devil astride a city giving a warning to postindustrialised Europe. Satan is sowing human bodies, stored in his own body, onto the city. Fetti’s The Sower of Weeds (1622, Museo ThyssenBornemisza, Madrid) [118], has the devil clearly delineated with horns and pointed ears, whilst the peasants are unaware of him in their slumber. Abraham Bloemaert’s Parable of the Wheat and the Tares (1624, Walters Art Museum, Baltimore) [119] is the most stark in its moral tone. Again the devil is recognizable in the background, but the main interest is the group of peasants as they sleep, two of them naked. They are lazy and lustful. The dovecote which dominates the picture provides food for them and they do not need to work for meat. The goat looks on, symbolic of lubricity and of those who are damned in the final judgement. On the extreme left a peacock, symbolic of the resurrection as it sheds its feathers each year and shows the new life, has its back to the peasants. This is a landscape painting with a clear moral tone. Luyken’s etching in the Bowyer Bible showing the Parable of the Drawing in the Net [120] shows nets being drawn on to the shore and in the foreground fishermen sorting fish, with some going into a large container and others rejected and left on the beach. The action of slitting open the fish finds a parallel in the judgement of souls. Luyken has included an image resembling the Tower of Babel in the background, as if to emphasise the folly and sinfulness of mankind.

3B. Miracles in the Gospel of Luke This section analyses the healing dimension in Jesus' ministry. The Gospel of Luke is by ‘the Beloved Physician’, and is characterized by themes of Jesus’ mercy and forgiveness, especially in his compassion for the poor, the outcast, the weak and the sick. Jesus’ powers of healing were a sign of the presence of God's Kingdom, for example 1) Healing many people (Lk 4:38-41)

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2) The Man with the paralysed Hand (Lk 6:6-11) 3) The Roman Officer's Servant (Lk 7:1-10) 4) The Raising of the Widow's Son (Lk 7:11-17) 5) The Man with Demons (Lk 8:26-39) 6) Jairus's Daughter and the Woman with a Haemorrhage (Lk 8:40-56) 7) The Boy with an Evil Spirit (Lk 9:37-43) 8) The Crippled Woman (Lk 13:10-17) 9) A Sick Man (Lk 14:1-6) 10) Healing of Ten Men (Lk 17:11-18) 11) The Blind Beggar (Lk 18:35-43) Luke's sources were embedded in tradition and proclamation, but he is an historian structuring this information, especially his chronology, into periods to show how God’s plan of salvation was unfolded in world history. Almost half of this Gospel is from Luke's special source, especially the Infancy Narratives of John the Baptist and Jesus (Lk 1—2), and parables peculiar to Luke, e.g., the Good Samaritan (Lk 10:30-37); the Rich Fool (Lk 12:16-21); the Prodigal Son (Lk 15:11-32). While Matthew situates similar material in his five discourses, Luke places them in an extensive travel account that takes Jesus from Galilee to Judaea, and via Jericho to Jerusalem. The author has been identified as Luke, Paul's companion on his journeys (Col 4:14 and 11; 2 Tim 4:11). Writing out of the cultural tradition of Hellenism and that of the Jewish ‘anawim piety’ (the piety of the poor and overlooked), Luke has deepened the human portrait of Jesus. Piety and prayer (Jesus’ own and that of others) are stressed. Love and compassion for the poor and despised, and disdain for the rich, are emphasized, as is Jesus’ attitude towards women, children, and sinners. Uniquely Lucan stories (the Importunate Friend, Lk 11:5-9; the Lost Coin, Lk 15:8-10; the story of Zacchaeus, Lk 19:2-10 as well as the supremely famous Good Samaritan and Prodigal Son) have elements of warmth and tenderness. Luke thus softens the starker eschatological emphasis of Mark and Matthew. What does it mean to be made whole? What did Luke have in mind when he spoke of salvation? Can salvation be equated with ‘wholeness’ of body, mind and spirit? For Luke salvation is concerned with moral rather than material matters, how we think and act, rather than what we have. The healing miracles of Jesus can often be translated as ‘made well’ or ‘whole’. Luke's theme of salvation is not a guarantee of freedom from disease, drowning and death. Jesus could say to the cleansed Samaritan Leper “Your faith has saved you” (Lk 17:19), but the cure was not the

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salvation, but simply a way of portraying salvation. Nonetheless, Luke does show Jesus particularly concerned for people's physical and mental health. Jesus was moved to compassion for those held in bondage to disease or the demons of mental derangement. Wholeness of health in every respect was his concern, and means that Christians should also be involved in many different areas of health and healing, all within the wider context of giving people the Good News of Jesus in “the knowledge of salvation”. Jesus did not work miracles solely by virtue of his divinity, but in the person of his sinless humanity. It was the Holy Spirit working with unhindered power through the medium of Jesus’ immaculate human nature that brought about these dynamic signs, often by his spoken words. The purpose of the miracles was to authenticate the King (Matthew), the Servant (Mark), the Perfect Man (Luke) and God in our midst (John). As creator-redeemer, God become man, the eternal Word become flesh, Jesus’ miracles were proof of his deity and messiahship as Israel’s king and the saviour of the world. It must be remembered that most of Jesus’ miracles were unrecorded (cf. Mt 4:24; 15:30-31; Mk 6:53-56; Lk 4:40; 6:17-19). Those that are written down, as in John's Gospel, are especially selected and for a specific purpose: to arouse faith in Jesus as “the Christ, the Son of God; and that believing you might have life through his name” (cf. Jn 20:30-31). Association of the miracles with the Kingdom means that we are not pushed into either the extremes of scepticism or fantastic sensationalism. The Kingdom has come in embryo, ambiguously, in the person and ministry of Jesus: “the kingdom of God is among you” (Lk 17:21). At the same time the Kingdom is in the future, and his disciples are to pray “your kingdom come” (Mt 6:10). This means that a line can be drawn from the Gospel miracles to our own ministry today because the Kingdom has already come and is already present. But the Kingdom is veiled and incognito. This paradoxical interplay means that at times our prayers will be answered with what are ‘signs and wonders’. At other times, there is what seems like frustration and ambiguity, no healing. The Kingdom is here and yet still to come.

Iconography The scenes of the miracles are presented as tender moments of the encounter of the suffering of humanity with God incarnate. The healing is witnessed usually by several onlookers, representing a crowd.

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The two exorcisms, that of the epileptic boy and that of the man with the demons from Gadara (the Gadarenes), offer a challenge to artists. The late mediaeval illuminated manuscript of the Van Limburg Brothers (1413-16) The Healing of a Possessed in Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry (Musée Condé, Chantilly, France) [121] [Fig. 24] shows the healed young man with a black evil spirit flying away from his head. The Healing of the Gadarene (or Gerasene) Demoniac depicts the drama of the herd of pigs rushing down into the lake. This is portrayed clearly by Sébastien Bourdon in his The Exorcism of the Gerasene Demoniac (c. 1653-57) [122]. Jesus stands authoritatively over the fettered man who looks up with some fear of what Jesus will do. Behind him are disciples or other onlookers who hold up their hands in amazement. A 10th-century ivory by the Master of the Magdeburg Antependium at the Hessisches Landesmuseum, Darmstadt, Germany [123], has a tighter image with the pigs waiting beside the demoniac and the devil escaping from his mouth as previously seen with the epileptic boy. Greater understanding of mental illnesses and epilepsy has led to more restrained interpretation of the miracles. The physical illnesses in Luke’s writing have attracted the attention of artists to a varied extent. Amongst the most popular is the Healing of the Blind Beggar, Bartimaeus of Jericho. Jesus is surrounded by a crowd, as Luke records. Duccio di Buoninsega’s The Healing of the Man Born Blind (1307/8-11, National Gallery, London) [124], forms part of a panel for an altarpiece. Jesus is in the centre and there are twelve people behind him, possibly the disciples. He is touching the eyes of Bartimaeus, who is then shown a second time looking upwards with sight restored. As the panel placed next to this was that of the transfiguration of Jesus, the man looks up at an image of the divinity of Christ, confirming what he was able to affirm even when blind in recognising Jesus as Son of David and Messiah. El Greco’s Christ Healing the Blind (c.1570, variants in Gemäldegalerie, Dresden, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) [125] [Fig. 25] has excitement and movement in the figures surrounding Jesus and the blind man, though a figure to the immediate left seems to be distracting the onlookers by pointing elsewhere. Lucas van Leyden’s Healing of Blind Man of Jericho (1531, Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg) [126] is also full of movement, but in contrast to El Greco’s Venetian backcloth, there is a rural setting with the city of Jericho in the background. Several figures point towards the figure of Christ whilst there is some discussion amongst the crowd and some hands are turned in the opposite direction. The Healing of the Blind of Jericho by Nicolas Poussin (1650, Louvre, Paris) [127] is a more harmonious portrayal of the miracle, with a small homely gathering of faithful people at the entrance to the city. The pictures show a

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development from the times of the aftermath of the Reformation, with El Greco and Lucas van Leyden using the miracle to mirror the revelation of true faith at the time of the Counter-Reformation, when issues of belief were hotly debated. Poussin, working at a later time, was able to portray a more stable community of faith. The Healing of Jairus’s Daughter and of the Woman with the Haemorrhage give rise to popular images, providing as they do opportunity for painting an encounter of Christ with a sick child and with a woman whose illness is of a more sensitive nature. The faith of the woman with the issue of blood was revered in early Christian times as is evident in a simple 4th-century image in the Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter in Rome, showing her kneeling to touch the hem of Christ’s garment [128]. James Tissot’s The Woman with an Issue of Blood (1886-96, Brooklyn Museum) [129] is a grey watercolour and shows her in the midst of a dense crowd in a narrow street. Paolo Veronese’s Raising of Jairus’s Daughter (1546, Louvre, Paris) [130] depicts a crowded bedside with Jesus holding the hand of the daughter, rather older than might be expected, and speaking to her father. Nineteenth-century artists have chosen to portray a younger child, for example Ilya Repin in Raising of Jairus’s Daughter (1871, Russian Museum, St Petersburg) [131] [Fig. 26]. This painting shows a much calmer scene with Jesus alongside the bed and the anxious parents in the background. Edwin Long’s popular The Raising of Jairus's Daughter (1889, The Victoria Art Gallery, Bath) [132] is another scene of profound calm and beauty, as the little girl lies in death on her couch with her long hair trailing beside her pillow. Jesus bends forward to touch her hand and bid her to wake up. In the painting of the Czech artist Gabriel Max, The Raising of the Daughter of Jairus (1878, The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, Maryland) [133], the girl is already sitting up and Jesus is a dark figure in the background, with light on his face and his hands as they enfold those of the girl. Although there is much sentimentality in these images, the tender compassion of Jesus is clearly conveyed. Paolo Veronese has portrayed several miracles, amongst them Christ and the Centurion (c.1571, Prado, Madrid) [134]. Here the centurion as an older man kneels in front of Jesus supported by two soldiers. It is an environment of wealth. Christ extends his hand to him, granting the request for a miracle for his servant. Veronese’s The Raising of the Youth of Nain (1570, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) [135] shows the widow entreating Jesus, but the dead son is in the extreme left corner and the main focus of the picture is the mother, supported by two women, facing Jesus backed up by several disciples. She is hardly dressed as a

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grieving widow but nevertheless the compassion of Jesus is evident. The watercolour by James Tissot (1890, The Resurrection of the Widow’s Son at Nain, Brooklyn Museum) [136] succeeds in giving a more credible view of the grief and drama of a funeral procession as the dead man is raised. Jesus is clearly touching the bier and the crowd is beginning to rejoice. Equally, Tissot’s paintings of The woman with an infirmity of eighteen years [137] and The healing of the ten lepers (both c. 1890, Brooklyn Museum) [138] are successful in showing a realistic image of the biblical text. Rembrandt’s famous etching Christ Preaching (known as the Hundred Guilder Print, 1646-1650, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam) [139] could be seen to sum up the healing ministry of Jesus as he stands raised up, authoritative and with a large halo to emphasize his divinity, with the sick surrounding him, but also enquirers and many other recognizable figures from the Gospels.

3C. The Farewell Discourses in the Gospel of John This section focuses on Chapters 13—17 of the Fourth Gospel. The Farewell Discourses present the most sustained theological thought in the four Gospels, and are a special way into many of the implications of Jesus’ person, life, ministry and teaching. 1) Believe also in me (Jn 14). Belief in God means belief in Jesus, the Spirit he sends, and the Church he establishes. 2) Remain in me (Jn 15—16). Jesus the “true vine” offers guidance and hope in all the circumstances of life. Difficulties are used for good, if we remain united with and in Christ, by obedience, prayer and fellowship. 3) The Farewell Prayer (Jn 17). This is the prayer of the Father’s obedient Son. Jesus exercises a ministry of the “name”, of the “glory”, of “unity”, and an invitation to participate in the life of the Triune God. The question in the Synoptic Gospels concerns the extent to which the divine reality broke into history at Jesus’ coming. John, from the very outset, presents Jesus in terms of glory: the Christ, the exalted Lord, mighty from the beginning throughout his ministry, pointing to the Cross as his glorification and a revelation of the glory of the Father. The Resurrection, together with Jesus’ promise to send the Paraclete (the Holy

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Spirit) as witness, spokesman and helper of the Church, is a continuation of this glorious revelation and manifestation. In John there is a mixture of long meditational discourses on definite themes and concrete events recalling the complex structure of Matthew. Action is centred around eight miracles, or “signs” (semeia): 1) turning Water into Wine at Cana (Jn 2:1-11) 2) the Healing of an Official’s Son (Jn 4:46-54) 3) the Healing of a Paralytic at the Pool of Bethsaida (Bethzatha) (Jn 5:1-18) 4) the Feeding of the Multitude (Jn 6:1-14) 5) Jesus walking on Water (Jn 6:15-21) 6) the Cure of the Man Born Blind (Jn 9:1-12) 7) the Raising of Lazarus from the dead (Jn 11:1-44) 8) the Catch of 153 Fish after the Resurrection (Jn 21:1-14) The other major portion of John is the self-revelatory discourses by Jesus. The Christology in John is consequently heightened. In the Synoptics, Jesus speaks of the Kingdom, but in John he speaks about himself. This can be seen in many of the “I Am” sayings of Jesus, with their accompanying sign and discourse. 1) Bread “I am the bread of life; he who comes to me shall not hunger” (Jn 6:35). 2) Light “I am the light of the world; he who follows me shall not walk in the darkness, but shall have the light of life” (Jn 8:12). 3) Gate “I am the gate; if anyone enters through me, he shall be saved, and shall go in and out, and find pasture” (Jn 10:9). 4) Good Shepherd “I am the good shepherd; the good shepherd lays down his life for his sheep” (Jn10:11). 5) Resurrection and Life “I am the resurrection and the life; he who believes in me shall live even if he dies” (Jn 11:25). 6) Way, Truth, Life “I am the way, and the truth, and the life; no one comes to the Father, but through me” (Jn 14:6). 7) True vine “I am the true vine, and My Father is the vinedresser” (Jn 15:1).

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8) I am Jesus said, “Truly, Truly, I say to you, before Abraham was, I am” (Jn 8:58). This means that Jesus, appropriating the divine self-identity revealed to Moses at the Burning Bush (Ex 3:14), existed with and as God before His human life on earth. The Farewell Discourse in the Upper Room John 14 is a speech of parting, one of a linked series, before the Passion. In the form of a testament, it is the bidding of farewell by one who is about to die, and giving comfort to those whom he loves. In John the eons or ages overlap. The significance of the Farewell Address is in the teaching that Jesus presents for the Father. The fact that he must go to the Father means that the eschatological era has already started in Jesus’ presence as the Christ, and will be intensified at his death, and manifested further in the coming of the Spirit to the Church. The times move on, the eschatology— here and still to come—also shifts, but remains realized in John on the whole, although there is still that tension between the ‘already’ and the ‘not yet’. “I am the way, the truth and the life; no one comes to the Father, but by me. If you had known me, you would have known my Father also; henceforth you know him and have seen him.” (Jn 14:6-7) “If you keep my commandments, you will abide in my love, just as I have kept my Father's and abide in his love. These things I have spoken that your joy may be full.” (Jn 15:10) “I have many things to say to you, but you cannot bear them now. When the Spirit of truth comes, he will guide you into all the truth.” (Jn 16:12) “I do not pray for these only, but also for those who believe in me through their word, that they may all be one, even as thou, Father, art in me , and I in thee, that they also may be in us, so that the world may believe that thou hast sent me.” (Jn 17:20-21)

The Farewell or Upper Room Discourse (Jn 14—17) involves the private instruction of Christ, directed to his own whom he was soon to leave. In some ways Jn14:1sums up the whole message of the Gospel: belief in God means belief in Jesus. For John the two are inseparable. But the time is coming when Jesus will no longer be present. How can Jesus be ‘the Way’

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when he is no longer there? John 14: The Second Advent and the Spirit's Coming 1) Jesus expounds his divinity (14:7-15) and declares his union with the Father. 2) Jesus promises the Spirit (14:16-26). Jesus assures that his disciples will not be left orphaned. The Paraclete (‘one called alongside to assist’) is the Holy Spirit, called “another Comforter” because he will continue the ministry of Christ through his disciples after the Lord's death, resurrection and ascension. He is also called “the Spirit of Truth” because of his revelatory ministry which will dwell in the disciples (after Pentecost). For those who follow him, Jesus offers his peace (14:27). This is the peace of the obedient servant who has the full confidence and support of his master, and carries out his commission effectively and joyfully. Of course, the Spirit was always there from all eternity since God is triune. Every aspect of salvation history is permeated with this divine power, inspiration and peace, from the very first verses of Genesis—Creation, Covenant, Law, Prophecy, Wisdom, Gospel: these are all aspects of the gifts the Spirit brings (cf. Is 11:1-2). Jesus now highlights this aspect of God’s presence and saving love in the promise and joy of Pentecost. John 15: Union with Christ and Bearing Spiritual Fruit 1) Abiding and Fruit-Bearing (15:1-17).The believer's relation to Christ is here prefigured as one of union and abiding. The union will be effected by the death, resurrection and ascension of Christ, and the advent of the Spirit. The experience of abiding is the result of knowing and actually reckoning on this situation of union. This will result in spiritual fruit (15:2, 4; cf. Gal 5:22), because Jesus is “the True Vine”, fulfilling the vocation which the nation of Israel had not accomplished (cf. Is 5:1-7; Jer 2:21; Ezk 19:10-14). The branches are the new People of God, the Church issuing from union with Christ by the baptism of the Spirit. The fruit is manifested in prayer (15:7), loving obedience (15:9-10), joy (15:11), love towards fellow believers (15:12-14), and a new intimacy as friends, not merely servants (15:15-17). 2) The believer and the world (15:18-27). The world will hate and persecute the true abiding disciple who bears this spiritual fruit,

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since the world is in deadly opposition to Christ and all those joined to him in call and practice. John 16: The Work of the Promised Spirit 1) The disciples are warned of suffering (16:1-6). The Lord faithfully warns of dangers. 2) The threefold work of the coming Spirit (16:7-11). Jesus’ death and resurrection are necessary prerequisites for the advent of the Spirit at Pentecost. The promised Spirit will work by convincing sinners: i) of sin in not believing in Jesus ii) of righteousness because faith in Christ will result in the acceptance of the sinner iii) of judgement since rejection of Christ and his righteousness results in sinners sharing the devil’s fate. 3) The teaching ministry of the Spirit (16:12-15). The Spirit who comes at Pentecost will guide into all truth, will be the divine teacher in the new age. 4) Jesus predicts his death, resurrection and second advent (16:1633). This will involve new access to the Father on the basis of the work accomplished by Christ. John 17: Christ's Great Highly Priestly Prayer This is the prayer of the Father’s obedient Son. The Cross will not be a shameful death, but a glorious return to the Father where he will take up his position as God's Eternal Son. There are seven petitions: 1) That the Son may be glorified (17:4). This involves our salvation. 2) For restoration to his pre-incarnate glory with the Father (17:5). This concerns the mystery of Jesus’ person as the pre-existent Word. 3) For the safety of his own from the world (17:11). The saved sinner will be secure in the divine love. 4) For the sanctification of believers (17:17). This affirms their fellowship with God and their service or usefulness in this life as servants of the Gospel. 5) For the spiritual oneness of believers (17:11, 20-21). This looks to the advent of the Spirit at Pentecost and the baptism of all believers into union with Christ, and with one another in him. 6) That the world might believe (17:21). This involves recognition of

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the oneness of the Church in its union with Christ. 7) That believers might be with him in heaven to behold and share his glory (17:24). There will be security and eternal happiness for all who belong to him. The ‘oneness’ Jesus promises is more than a unity of spirit and feeling: it is a unity which flows out of a common commission. Those who have received the Word of God are set aside to share this Word with others. “As you have sent me into the world, I have sent them...” (17:18). When we share our faith with others, they will find joy and life through Jesus. We are called to carry on what Jesus began.

Iconography a.

The Miracles, or “Signs” (semeia)

The eight miracles from the Gospel of St John are a source of inspiration to artists who seek to show through their work the glory of Jesus during his earthly ministry. In studying the work, however, other aspects of Jesus may be equally present, like compassion, but these combine to express the full nature of the glory of the Saviour which reaches its climax at the Crucifixion. The Wedding Feast at Cana by Veronese (1562-63, Louvre, Paris) [140] is a prime example of how the miracle, recounted only by John, has been portrayed to show Jesus’ glory. In the painting Jesus sits centrally at the wedding table, in a scene of 16th-century Venetian opulence, amidst a throng of busy servants, musicians, guests, birds and animals. He is a calm presence as all the guests witness the servants pouring out the red wine which has been transformed from water, in contrast to the biblical account where they seem unaware of the wine’s origin. The scene is already reminiscent of the Last Supper, when Jesus gives the sign of the shedding of his own blood in the cup of wine at the Institution of the Holy Eucharist. Giotto’s depiction of the miracle on the wall of the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua (1304-06) [141] [Fig. 27] is far more intimate, with bride and groom holding a more central position. Attention is drawn to Jesus and Mary by their halos. Jesus holds his hand up in blessing over a plate of food. The image is not so obviously linked to the Last Supper as the Veronese version, despite the simplicity of the scene. Veronese’s huge 70m² painting originally covered the refectory wall of the Benedictine monastery of San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice, and reminded the monks and their guests of the link between the wine of the table and the wine

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used at the Mass. The presence of the Mother of Jesus at his right hand shows the power of her role in this scene, as her intercession leads to action on her son’s part. The miracle is also much evoked at shrines of Our Lady, for example at Chartres where medieval stained glass artists have placed scenes of the wedding feast below the 12th-century ‘Blue Virgin’ [142]. At Lourdes the 21st-century artist Marko Rupnik shows Mary in the mosaic on the door to the Rosary Basilica at table next to her son, indicating to the servant with the stone jars to do as Jesus commands [143] [Fig. 28]. The wedding couple look on humbly. Jesus holds his hand over his right side, emphasising the shedding of water and blood at the Crucifixion. In stressing the role of Mary at the wedding in Cana, John is clearly giving her prominence in the life of the Church and in the glory of the kingdom of Christ. The three healing miracles chosen by John also receive appropriate attention from artists. Joseph-Marie Vien’s Healing the Royal Official’s Son (1752, Musée des Beaux Arts, Marseille) [144] shows Jesus standing in the presence of the kneeling official who by the gesture of his hands is open to Jesus’ power to save his son. He is clothed in red to indicate high status and he is accompanied by two Roman soldiers and a horse. The crowd behind Jesus seem to be astonished at the official’s humility, and on the part of the disciples there is some trepidation, but Jesus is portrayed as totally in command of the situation and open to healing the boy. The halo indicates his divinity, whilst his demeanour shows his willingness to embrace all humanity, whatever the status of the individual, which could include the difficulty of political sensitivity. In the compassion which Jesus shows for this man, the all-embracing nature of his glory and love for humanity is indicated. Jesus’ compassion is also portrayed movingly in Murillo’s Christ Healing the Paralytic at the Pool of Bethsaida (1667-70, National Gallery, London) [145]. It shows a similar central encounter to the previous painting, with Jesus and the sick man holding out arms towards each other. The picture helps the reader of the Gospel account to visualize the scene as the paralysed man lies helpless at a distance from the pool, with a number of others lying nearer and thus more able to reach the healing water. In the sky is the angel who appears from time to time to stir the waters and bring healing to the first of the sick to reach the pool. This time the disciples seem more confident as Jesus talks to the man and begins to work the miracle. From his head are rays of light rather than a halo, but Jesus is clearly shown in glory as the compassionate Saviour. Images of the third healing miracle, that of the Man Born Blind, are more difficult to locate precisely because of the attraction for artists of the

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similar account of the blind beggar in other Gospels. In John there is a command to go to the pool of Siloam (Jn 9:7) which necessitates the portrayal of a dual location. Orthodox icons illustrate this well and could be used effectively to illustrate the miracle, in which Jesus identifies himself as the Light of the World, and as one whose compassion extends beyond the confines of the traditional Sabbath restrictions. The remaining three miracles show the divinity of Jesus as he cares for humanity in feeding them on the hillside, and as he manifests his power to save, and his authority over creation and death. These miracles point forward to the Last Supper and to the Resurrection. Painters of the Feeding of the Five Thousand include Bernardo Strozzi whose work The Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes (early 17th century, The Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow) [146] shows the encounter of the boy with loaves and fish before Jesus with the disciple Andrew. The boy’s eyes are wide open as he questions Jesus about how this small amount of food can be enough for the whole crowd. The choice of red clothing for Jesus indicates his coming Passion and the spiritual feeding of his followers through the bread and wine of the Eucharist. Tintoretto’s similarly titled painting (1545-50, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) [147] [Fig. 29] illustrates the next stage in the account where Jesus hands food to Andrew to be distributed. The crowd is seated haphazardly and there is an opening to a tomb and groups of trees, a possible allusion to the garden of the Resurrection. Some people are depicted in the style of Tintoretto’s Venice, bringing the Gospel account fully into the contemporary world. James Tissot’s late-19th-century version (Brooklyn Museum, New York City) [148] shows the multitude sitting on a mountainside in a very orderly fashion alongside paths, and receiving the food from baskets. Jesus walking on the Sea of Galilee is often depicted in a rather ghostly manner, for example in Ivan Aivazovsky’s painting (1888, private collection) [149]. The brightness of the figure of Jesus casts light over the darkened lake and its troubled waters. Peter reaches out in adoration whilst the other disciples watch from the safety of their boat. This painting shows the leadership qualities of Peter. The Raising of Lazarus foreshadows the Resurrection of Jesus and has been an important image throughout many centuries of the Church’s history. An image from the 6th -century mosaics at the Church of Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna [150] [Fig. 30], shows Lazarus walking out of his tomb at the call of Jesus. He is covered from head to feet in burial cloths in the form of long bandages. Duccio has a similar image (1310-11,

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Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas) [151]. The setting matches the style of the tombs in the Holy Land. The drama of the call of Lazarus is shown in Carl Henry Bloch’s painting (1870, Frederiksborg Palace, Hillerød, Denmark) [152], with Jesus standing at the door of the tomb and Lazarus just about visible behind the stone. Jesus has light shining from his head indicating his divine nature. Luca di Tommè’s painting The Raising of Lazarus (before 1362, Pinacoteca, Vatican) [153] is generally loyal to the text of John, with Mary and Martha on their knees before Jesus at the entrance to the tomb, and the disciples and others standing around, the two nearest the tomb covering their noses because of the smell of the corpse. There is a banner stretching from the mouth of Jesus across the painting to Lazarus, which presumably once contained Jesus’ command, “Lazarus, come forth!”, and Lazarus stands at the door of the tomb, his body, not just his hands and feet, bound with strips of material again like bandages. His head is covered but not his face, as stated in Jn 11:43. Other images, however, show Lazarus rising immediately from a stone coffin, or with a stone coffin in the background, sometimes without much covering. This reflects contemporary burial customs. An example of this is the work of Caravaggio (1609, Museo Regionale, Messina) [154] which shows a dead body brought from a stone coffin with Jesus standing over it and commanding that he be restored to life. b. The ‘I Am’ Sayings The two self-descriptions of Jesus in chapters 14 and 15 of John’s Gospel, “I am the Way, the Truth and the Life” and “I am the True Vine” have received much attention from photographers, who have shown, for example, a beautiful pathway, a newborn baby or a bunch of grapes with Christ’s saying written beneath. The abstract nature of ‘truth’ has proved more difficult for artists, but those whose role is to teach about these sayings, and the other six in this Gospel, may well wish to challenge learners to find ways of portraying them for themselves. A 16th-century Orthodox icon, Christ the True Vine in the Byzantine and Christian Museum in Athens [155] shows Christ in the centre of the vine, with a book on his lap, holding out his hands in teaching. Around him on the branches are the Twelve Apostles. There are vine leaves and grapes indicating a healthy plant with Jesus and the Gospel at the centre, giving new life to the Old Testament image of Israel as the vine in the prophecy of Ezekiel (Ezk 17:5-10). Benedict XVI, in his reflection on the beautiful apse mosaic of the Basilica

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of San Clemente in Rome (in Images of Hope [Ignatius Press, 2006], pp.75-76) [156] [Fig. 31], refers firstly to the peaceful image of the crucified Christ in the centre, and then to the Cross as a tree growing from living waters and to the great vine “whose branches grow forth from the roots and limbs of the tree of the Cross”. This fills the whole mosaic like the world, making it a “single large vineyard”. In between the coils are all kinds of creatures and people in various activities, dependent on the lifegiving vine. Benedict considers that the artist was inspired by Christ’s saying “I am the vine, you are the branches” (Jn 15:5) and urges his readers to let themselves “be drawn into the vine of God”. Again, those teaching about the life of the Church or Christ’s love for all mankind may well find inspiration in this image, and seek to adapt it to their own work in the world (be it the classroom, local parish or community). Benedict’s reflection, given for the Feast of Corpus Christi, moves a step further and points also to the transforming power of the Holy Eucharist, stating that “the world should become Eucharistic, should live in the vine of God”. c.

The Farewell Discourse in the Upper Room

John’s Gospel gives no account of the Last Supper, but artists have been prolific in the portrayal of the accounts in the Synoptic Gospels. Many depictions are similar to that of the world-famous mural painting (149498) of Leonardo da Vinci on the wall of the Santa Maria della Grazie convent in Milan [157] [Fig. 32]. The disciples sit on one side of a long table with Christ in the centre. They are perplexed at his saying that one of them is about to betray him. Other portrayals are more explicit about Judas and he is shown as the only figure seated with his back to the viewer, for example in the fresco in the Sistine Chapel by Cosmino Rosselli (1481-82) [158], which also shows in three windows above the table three events which are about to happen, the prayer on the Mount of Olives, the betrayal, and the crucifixion. The link with the Mass as Catholics know it today and celebrated as the memorial of the New Covenant, is made explicit in work such as that of the Master of Portillo (1523-30, Allen Memorial Art Museum, Ohio, USA) [159] where Jesus passes what looks like a white host, and there is a large chalice on the table. On a board there is a slain lamb, indicating the sacrifice of Jesus, so often also featured in nativity scenes to foreshadow the suffering of the infant Jesus.

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The long discourse is depicted very sensitively by Duccio di Buoninsegna in Christ Taking Leave of the Apostles from the Maestà del Duomo di Siena, (1308-11, Museo dell’Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena) [160]. Christ is seated on the left, clearly in the role of a teacher (didaskalos) with his right hand raised and finger pointing upwards. The eleven remaining disciples sit huddled together facing him, attentive, their eyes fixed on their master. There is a sad and serious look on their faces and some rest their heads wearily on their hands. In the background the door is open, showing that the move to the Mount of Olives is imminent.

3D. Passion and Resurrection Narratives This section investigates Jesus’ conquering of death in his Passion and Resurrection: a comparison of the various Gospel accounts of Jesus' dying and rising from death as the ultimate sign of his God-given mission and unique power as the Son of God. 1) Mark 13—16 2) Matthew 28 3) Luke 24 4) John 20—21 In Mark the last section of the Gospel is shifted to Jerusalem, where Jesus is going to die. His entry is described as triumphal and openly messianic, and is accompanied by acted-out parables in a judgement of a barren fig tree (11:13), casting the money changers out of the Temple (11:15-26), and in the parable of a vineyard in which the beloved son of the owner is murdered (12:1-11). There is increasing conflict and alienation of the authorities. Mk 13, the “Little Apocalypse”, serves as instruction to the disciples and thence to the Church that they must endure tribulation and persecution until the end of time. Although the setting is Jerusalem, the orientation is toward Galilee where the Parousia is expected (16:7). The Holy Spirit will come to those who must witness in situations of trial (13:11). Because this chapter (14) is shaped as a discourse that precedes the Passion Narrative (15), it serves as a farewell address, a type of testament, including apocalyptic sayings and warnings. The Cross is the highpoint of the Gospel and its lowest level of dereliction and agony (15:33-37). The cosmic sign of the rending of the sanctuary veil in the Temple draws from the Gentile centurion an acknowledgement of Jesus as the Son of God (15:38-39). The disciples react to the scandal of the Cross with discouragement, although the scene is set for a meeting in Galilee

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(16:1-8). In many of the manuscripts, there is no vision of the risen Lord (16:9-20 are held to be later additions), and Mark thus remains an openended Gospel. The Resurrection is neither described nor interpreted. The empty tomb points to hope of final victory and glory. The Gospel ends on the note of expectation: the mood from the last words of Jesus to the disciples remains: “What I say to you I say to all: Watch!” (13:37). Of particular interest are some little details provided, as if of personal memories, or information known only to the writer. And a young man followed him, with nothing but a linen cloth about his body; and they seized him, but he left the linen cloth and ran away naked. (Mk 14: 51-52) And they compelled a passer-by, Simon of Cyrene, who was coming in from the country, the father of Alexander and Rufus, to carry the cross. (Mk 15:21)

The disputed final verses fascinatingly present a summary of the Resurrection Accounts given in John and Luke. Now when he rose early on the first day of the week, he appeared first to Mary Magdalene, from whom he had cast out seven demons. She went and told those who had been with him, as they mourned and wept. But when they heard he was alive and had been seen by her, they would not believe it. After this he appeared in another form to two of them as they were walking in the country. And they went back and told the rest, but they did not believe him. Afterwards he appeared to the eleven themselves as they sat at table; and he upbraided them for their unbelief... (Mk 16:1-14)

In Matthew the Passion Narrative is forceful and direct. Pontius Pilate’s part in sentencing Jesus to be crucified is somewhat modified, and the guilt of the Jews increased in comparison with the account in Mark. So when Pilate saw that he was gaining nothing, but rather that a riot was beginning, he took water and washed his hands before the crowd, saying, “I am innocent of this righteous man's blood; see to it yourselves.” And the people answered, “His blood be on us and on our children!” (Mt 27:2425)

In Matthew the Resurrection is properly witnessed by more than one witness, according to the Law (Num 35:30; Deut 17:6), so that there is no ambiguity as to the meaning of the empty tomb (28:1-10). The risen Lord directs his disciples to go to Galilee (28:10), and the Gospel of Matthew

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ends with a glorious epiphany there, and with Jesus’ commission to the disciples, and hence to the whole Church, to go to the Gentiles with the saving power of the sacraments, because the risen Jesus is Lord of heaven and earth for all time (28:16-20). In Luke the concern for the poor and despised is carried into the Passion. On the way to execution, Jesus stops to address the women of Jerusalem (23:26-31). At the Crucifixion, the discussion between the Two Thieves, and Jesus’ assurance that one of them will be with him in paradise (23:3243), as well as the words “Father, into your hands I commit my spirit” (23:46)—which are in contrast to the cry of dereliction in Mark and Matthew—all point to the paradigm of the truly pious man. The account of the Road to Emmaus is also unique to Luke (24:13-35), though we see that it is obliquely referred to in Mark. The actions and words of Jesus look to the power of his resurrected presence, and already initiate the great work of proclamation that will begin in Acts. And beginning with Moses and all the prophets, he interpreted to them in all the scriptures the things concerning himself....When he was at table with them, he took the bread and blessed, and broke it, and gave it to them. And their eyes were opened and they recognized him; and he vanished from their sight. They said to each other, “Did not our hearts burn within us while he talked to us on the road, while he opened to us the scriptures?” (Lk 24:27, 30-32)

In John Jesus is depicted as saying, “When I am lifted up, I will draw all men to myself” (12:23), an exaltation and glorification that points to the Crucifixion. At the moment of death on the Cross, Jesus’ words “It is finished” (19:30) are interpreted to mean that the eschaton is consummated, fulfilled. After Peter and John find the tomb empty, there is a resurrection appearance to the disciples in the Upper Room. This includes Jesus breathing the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles (20:22) and the account of “Doubting Thomas” (20:24-29) (who was absent when Jesus first appeared), which teaches that those who have to depend on the witnesses to the Gospel are at no disadvantage to those who saw him in the flesh. An appended chapter (21) presents the touching story of the Apostle Peter who having denied the Lord three times, is thrice asked by Jesus if he [Peter] loves him (21:15-17). Peter affirms that Jesus knows what is in his heart, and Jesus then entrusts to him the care of the Church, and predicts that he, Peter, will himself be persecuted and crucified (21:18-19). John places the Crucifixion at the time of the Passover sacrifice of the lambs to emphasize that Jesus is the paschal lamb (19:14).

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There is no celebration of the Last Supper in John. Rather the Feeding of the Five Thousand (Jn 6) provides the opportunity for celebrating a Eucharistic discourse. In place of the Institution of the Eucharist is the Washing of the Feet (Latin Pedilavium)(13:1-11), a unique insight into the inseparable nature of humility and servanthood in the Incarnation (cf. the Hymn of the Self-Emptying, or kenosis, in the Letter to the Philippians, 2:5-11). These elements of humility are now made crucial to the true following of Christ, who becomes the personification of the Suffering Servant (doulos kyriou). “If I then, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you ought also to wash one another’s feet. For I have given you an example, that you should also do as I have done to you” (13:14-15). This then is the commandment (Old French mandé) of Maundy Thursday. There is a strong insistence on the personal authenticity of the witness and narration: Simon Peter followed Jesus, and so did another disciple. As this disciple was known to the high priest, he entered the court of the high priest along with Jesus, while Peter stood outside the door. So the other disciple, who was known to the high priest, went out and spoke to the maid who kept the door, and brought Peter in. (Jn 18:15-16) He who saw it has borne witness—his testimony is true, and he knows that he tells the truth—that you may also believe. (Jn 19: 35) Then the other disciple, who reached the tomb first, also went in and he saw and believed. (Jn 20:8) Now Jesus did many other signs in the presence of the disciples, which are not written in this book; but these are written that you too may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in his name. (Jn 20: 30-31) This is the disciple who is bearing witness to these things, and who has written these things; and we know that his testimony is true. (Jn 21:24)

This is why the Gospels were written: that others may believe by reading what Jesus said and did, even though they were not there to see him. “These [words] are written that you may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing, you may have life in his name” (20:32). The life of each believer, of whatever time and place, becomes the continuation of the Gospel story of God’s love made available in and through Jesus Christ.

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Now there are many other things that Jesus did. If they were all written down one by one, I suppose the whole world could not hold the books that would be written. (Jn 21:25).

Iconography a.

The Passion and Crucifixion

Because the Passion and Crucifixion of Jesus are at the heart of the Christian faith, art has reflected scenes from the Gospel in great detail and abundance. The scenes are intense objects of devotion and inspiration to prayer, both in a formal and a personal manner. Teachers and catechists may well find examples of suitable art in their local parish churches, not least in stained glass windows and in the images for the Stations of the Cross, though some of these are not rooted strictly in Scripture. The Stations of the Cross erected at Lourdes on flat land between 2003 and 2008 offer an opportunity for sick and disabled pilgrims to follow the path of Jesus to Calvary. Sculpted by Maria de Faykod, they are a stark contrast to those in many churches in that they are freestanding at ground level and are hewn from white Carrara marble [161]. They focus on the figure of Christ in his suffering and serenity, a model and inspiration for those also forced to bear a cross of suffering. The iron figures on the steep hillside by Raffl (1898-1911) are more distant and reflect the drama of the Gospel accounts [162]. Pilgrimage sites in the Holy Land often contain powerful depictions of the events which are thought to have taken place there. The Church of All Nations next to the Garden of Gethsemane, for example, contains a mosaic in the apse which shows Christ’s agonised prayer whilst the disciples sleep [163]. Andreas Mantegna’s The Agony in the Garden (1458-60, National Gallery, London) [164] shows the detail of Judas and the approaching soldiers, the walled city of Jerusalem and the sleeping disciples. Christ faces in prayer a group of angels carrying a cross and the instruments of the passion. Behind him in the tree is a lonely black vulture, a grim symbol of approaching death. Eugène Delacroix painted, however, an image, Le Christ au Jardin des Oliviers (1826, Church of St Paul and St Louis, Paris) [165] which shows very dramatically the conflict of the garden scene and Christ at the moment of turning away from temptation. Christ holds up his hand in resistance to the three angels who evoke fear of what is to come. Depictions of the detail of the cutting off of Malchus’s ear are sometimes

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incorporated in the scenes of the betrayal, as in Fra Angelico’s Arrest of Christ (c.1450, Museo di San Marco, Florence) [166] [Fig. 33]where the left ear is under attack, whereas John and Luke specify the right (Lk 22:50; Jn 18:10-11). This is also the case in The Capture of Christ (anonymous, c.1520, Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon) [167]. Duccio di Buoninsegna in Christ Taken Prisoner from the Maestà del Duomo di Siena, (1308-11, Museo dell’Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena) shows a scene of arrest with a host of soldiers, and Peter slashing Malchus’s right ear behind Judas’s back whilst the other disciples flee hastily [168]. Illustrations for the sorrowful mysteries of the rosary also offer potential for matching art with Sacred Scripture. The Lourdes Rosary Basilica, for example, offers five mosaics which depict in a profound manner the links between the Old and New Testaments. In the Crowning of Thorns mosaic (1905, Louis-Édouard Fournier, Paris) [169], the central scene showing the mockery of Jesus by the Roman soldiers is surmounted by an image of the Ark of the Covenant with the two angels on the top, in between which is the space considered by the Israelites to be the most sacred as it contained the invisible presence of God (Ex 25:21-22). Two angels carry a scroll acclaiming the link between the crown of thorns and the crown of glory. To the left is the figure of Abraham with a knife. Above, the ram caught in the bushes reminds Christians of God’s sacrifice of his Son, and to the right, Solomon is shown in the contrastingly earthly and transitory vesture of a king. The earlier Scourging at the Pillar by the same artist (1904) [170] shows Isaiah and his prophecy “we have been healed by his bruises” (Is 53:5), Job and his suffering, and a slain lamb on an altar. Christ Crowned with Thorns by Hieronymus Bosch (c.1479-1516, The National Gallery, London) [171] [Fig. 34] is a close-up portrayal of a suffering Christ who seems to wish the onlooker to share in his suffering, or at least to comprehend it, as he is surrounded closely by four torturers. Their malevolence and vehemence is clear, especially that of the man at the top right who seems to be wearing a collar reminiscent of those worn by aggressive dogs. The man at the bottom right has symbols on his clothing which indicate views held in the time of Bosch about the enemies of Christianity. Spanish Baroque sculpture from the 17th and 18th centuries is also a rich source for contemplation of the events of Holy Week. Some can be seen in churches and chapels, but the annual re-enactment in Spanish cities of the Passion of Christ attracts huge crowds especially in Valladolid and Seville. It involves the carrying of large painted sculptures, each on a float (paso), around the streets, swaying to give the impression of the living reality of

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Jerusalem. Some of the statues are modern but others are from the 17th and 18th centuries, and all aim to represent stark reality and anatomical correctness. The body of Christ is shown therefore with bleeding wounds, bent under the heavy weight of the Cross, with all the tensions of muscles which that involved. Gregorio Fernandez (c.1576-1636) was based in Valladolid, and the city holds many examples of his work. The excellence of the finished product depended on his close collaboration with painters and the use of materials such as the horn of a bull for the fingernails. In the Church of La Vera Cruz is his popular processional sculpture of Christ at the Column (c.1619) [172], showing a serene Christ bound and stripped of clothing as he endures the flagellation. Juan Martínez Montañés’s Christ on the Cross (1671, Inglesia Conventual del Santo Angel, Carmelitas Descalzos, Seville) [173] [Fig. 35] and that of Juan de Mesa (c.1618-20, Archicofradia del Santisimo Christo del Amor, Collegiate Church of El Salvador, Seville) [174] both give a realistic image of Christ’s emaciated body as it hangs in death, with details of the wounds and ribcage. The sculptures were used as objects of devotion, evoking an awareness of the extent of Christ’s suffering and endurance for the sake of the salvation of mankind. The central painting of the crucifixion on the Isenheimer Altar by Matthias GrĦnewald (1512-16, Musée Unterlinden, Colmar) [175] [Fig. 36] also shows the huge suffering of Christ, although here the focus is on body sores such as those generated by the plague. The monks at the monastery of St Anthony, for which this work was commissioned, specialised in hospital care for those afflicted by the plague and skin diseases, and the painting helped patients to understand that Christ identified himself with them. Although the focus of Crucifixion Scenes is always on the figure of Christ, paintings very frequently have incorporated study of the figures of Mary and John, as well as Mary Magdalene, Roman soldiers, and the two crosses on either side, as well as hordes of other onlookers. Artistic licence has permitted artists throughout the centuries to develop images with figures from later times, for example Fra Angelico’s Crucifixion with Mourners and Saints Dominic and Thomas Aquinas (1442, Convento di San Marco, Florence) [176] . Salvador Dali’s Christ of St John of the Cross (1951, Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, Glasgow) [177] reverts to a single figure on the Cross but without wounds and viewed from above, looking down on to the world. The image was inspired by a drawing from a vision (c. 1574-77) of St John of the Cross, and includes a triangular formation of the arms and head of Christ, emphasising Christ’s role in the Holy Trinity.

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An interesting debate could be developed around the contrasting images of Christ suffering on the Cross, and Christ in his resurrected form. Early Christians rarely used images of the crucified or the resurrected Christ. The catacombs in Rome contain rather images of Old Testament events, such as Jonah’s three days in the whale and his subsequent escape, presented as the pre-figuring of Christ’s resurrection (cf. Mt 12:39; Lk 11:29). Crucifixion was regarded as a disgrace, and images of the suffering Christ do not begin to appear until after the abolition of that form of punishment following the Emperor Constantine’s conversion to Christianity in 312. Many modern churches have opted for images of the resurrected triumphant Christ, looking back to the Romanesque style as seen at Lucca Cathedral, Italy. This crucifix, known as the ‘Holy Face’ [178] stems from the early 13th century, and is said to be the work of a group of artists surrounding Benedetto Antelami. It is claimed to be a copy of the original brought to Lucca in the mid-8th century. Other and more complex images of Christ crucified, with angels collecting blood from his wounds into chalices, provide a visual link with the sacrament of the Holy Eucharist. An example of this is Raphael’s The Mond Crucifixion (1502, National Gallery, London) [179], which was originally intended as an altarpiece. Gregorio Fernandez’s Dead Christ (1630, Church of San Miguel, Valladolid) [180] has the grim reality of a lifeless corpse, taken down from the Cross and as yet unprepared for burial. Standing next to it the onlooker becomes a mourner. A similar experience can be had at the Pontifical Institute Notre Dame of Jerusalem Centre, where a sculpture of The Man of the Shroud [181] forms the climax of a permanent exhibition on the Shroud of Turin by the Institute of Shroud Studies, opened in 2006. This has been created through computer technology and modelled by Luigi Mattei. The final traditional station of the cross, the Deposition, Jesus placed in the arms of his mother, is hugely important in Catholic devotion. Michelangelo’s Pietà (1498-99, St Peter’s Basilica, Rome) [182] [Fig. 37] remains by far the most famous depiction. A series of photographs of the work by Robert Hupka (1975) [183] enables close scrutiny of the skill of the sculptor. Paintings of the scene are able to show more movement as the body is sometimes shown being placed in Mary’s arms, for example in Jean Malhouel’s Large Round Pietà (1400-10, Louvre, Paris) [184], where Mary is surrounded by distressed angels, St John and possibly Nicodemus. Other statues and paintings depict the heart of Mary stabbed with the sword as in the prophecy of Simeon (Lk 2:33-35, known as ‘Our Lady of

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Seven Sorrows’). The joint work of Bernard van Orley and Pedro Campana (1520-35, Musée des Beaux-Arts et d’Archéologie, Besançon) [185] shows Mary at the foot of the Cross, a sword piercing her heart. Around her are six circular paintings of the other moments of sorrow in her life as the Mother of Christ. The media of film has also presented the final hours of Jesus’ life, notably The Passion of the Christ (2004, directed by Mel Gibson) [186] with particularly graphic and historically informed recreation of the details of every stage of Jesus’ suffering and execution. b. The Resurrection The fundamental concept in resurrection art has to be that of triumph. Many pictures are interpretive of the immediate resurrection scene and show Christ in a white garment standing in the top half of the picture with arms outstretched and carrying the white flag with a red cross, symbolizing victory. Giovanni Bellini’s work The Resurrection (1475-79, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin) [187] [Fig. 38] shows the empty tomb in the lower half, with two disconcerted soldiers at the entrance, their eyes raised, and two sleeping. Interesting details include the vulture in the tree with its back to Jesus, and a rabbit which runs around beneath his feet. Death is overcome and new life is assured. The positioning of Christ has a Eucharistic significance in that it reflects the raising of the host at the consecration during the Mass. Other paintings show the tomb in the form of a stone altar with Christ hovering above, for example Jacopo di Cioni’s The Resurrection: Upper Tier Panel (1370-71, The National Gallery, London) [188]. Some pictures show Christ stepping victoriously out of a sarcophagus with the lid set to one side. Ugolino di Nerio’s The Resurrection (1325-28, The National Gallery, London) [189] depicts a simple representation of victory with four sleeping soldiers, and Ambrogio de Stefano Bergognone’s Christ Risen from the Tomb (c.1490, The National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC)[190] is even simpler in that it concentrates on Christ alone as he steps forth. His wounds are clearly visible in line with the episode of Thomas’s incredulity. Matthias GrĦnewald’s colourful resurrection picture, The Resurrection of Christ, (1515, from the Isenheimer Altar, Musée d’Unterlinden, Colmar) [191], is a huge contrast to his Crucifixion Scene. He shows Christ in a large halo surrounded by a rainbow, a reference to the covenant of God with Noah (Gen 9:12-17). Christ seems to have been propelled out of the tomb with great power,

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which forces the soldiers to fall back, looking away from the blinding light. None of the Gospels recount the actual event of the Resurrection, presumably because no one was there to witness what happened. The evidence of the empty tomb, and the encounters with the risen Christ, form the recorded material. The sixteenth station of the cross at Lourdes by Maria de Faykod (2003-08) [192] offers an attempt to show the coming to life again of Jesus. The body seems to be shaking into new life, releasing new energy. The Orthodox Church has maintained a tradition of the Anastasis (‘Resurrection’) where Christ is shown descending to Hades and personally raising Adam. This illustrates the theology of the descent into hell of the soul of Christ whilst his body remained in the tomb, known in Western tradition as the Harrowing of Hell. A modern fresco of this icon (2003-06, iconographers from Belgrade, Serbia) [193] [Fig. 39], can be viewed in Holy Trinity Serbian Orthodox Church, Butte, Montana, USA. The clear central image of Christ surrounded by a mandorla breaking the gates of Hades with the Cross, and sending the bolts and bars tumbling down at the base of the icon, is that of triumph over all time. Alongside him are figures from the Old Testament, including prophets and kings stepping out of tombs, and John the Baptist standing alongside in his role of forerunner of Christ. Above are angels in a ministering role and behind are the women who came to the tomb with their precious ointments. Adam is being pulled forth and Eve kneels awaiting her turn. They represent all humanity, who have awaited the coming of the Messiah and are now saved by the death and resurrection of Christ. This is a much loved icon in the Orthodox Church and there are countless versions. A powerful western image can be seen in Duccio’s Christ in Limbo from the Maestà del Duomo di Siena, (1308-11, Museo dell’Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena) [194], where Jesus is trampling on the grim figure of the devil whilst pulling forth Adam and a host of other figures. Paintings which refer directly to the texts of the Scriptures are abundant in Western art and the Three Women visiting the tomb are often depicted in the background of Resurrection Scenes. Their distress on arriving at the tomb is depicted for example by Fra Angelico in his fresco Resurrection of Christ and the Women at the Tomb (1440, Convent of San Marco, Florence) [195]. They seem to be asking the angel seated on the side of the sarcophagus what has happened, but they remain dignified. Above is Christ in a mandorla, watching over them. Bartolomeo Schedoni’s The

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Two Marys at the Tomb (1630, Galleria Nazionale, Parma) [196] concentrates on the intense emotions of the women as they gather round the empty tomb and are told by the angel pointing upwards that Christ is risen. The meeting of the resurrected Jesus with Mary Magdalene in the touching Noli me tangere scene offers an interesting composition as the two outstretched hands, that of Jesus and that of Mary Magdalene, are separated in a tantalizing and emotionally charged moment. Many pictures have a similar format, with Christ standing and Mary Magdalene kneeling on the ground, looking up at her Risen Lord. Examples of this are paintings by Titian (1514, The National Gallery, London) [197], Fra Bartolomeo (c.1506, The Louvre, Paris) [198] and Fra Angelico [199] [Fig. 40], with its beautiful detail of flowers, plants and trees (1440-41, Convent of San Marco, Florence). Although the original Greek phrase has been commonly regarded as meaning ‘don’t touch me’, in fact it means more accurately ‘stop clinging to me’. Paintings of this meeting in the garden depicting an element of touch apprehended by the Risen Christ are rare. Alonso Cano’s Noli me tangere (c.1610, Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest) [200] shows Christ touching Mary Magdalene’s head in what would appear to be blessing as she reaches out, seemingly touching, or about to touch, his side. Other resurrection appearances are depicted in works such as Christ appears to the Apostles during Supper [201] and The Miraculous Catch of 153 Fish [202] by Duccio di Buoninsegna from the Maestà del Duomo di Siena, (1308-11, Museo dell’Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena). One of the dramatic portrayals of doubting Thomas is The Incredulity of Saint Thomas by Caravaggio (1600-01, Neues Palais, Potsdam) [203]. The artist captures the moment of the insertion of Thomas’s finger into the open wound in Christ’s side. This act was popular in art from early times, at least from the sixth century. At Ravenna’s Basilica di Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo (561 AD), for example, there is a mosaic of Thomas [204]. In the Holy Land 6th- century pilgrims could purchase ampullae or small flasks with the image of Thomas engraved, and it is thought that a link was developed between Thomas’s touching of the Risen Christ and pilgrims seeing and touching sacred relics. Other images show Thomas surrounded by the whole group of disciples, for example the relief in the cloister of the Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos, Burgos (c.1150) [205] [Fig. 41], where Christ raises his right arm in order to show the wound. A famous sculpture of this scene, Christ and St Thomas, by Andrea del Verrocchio, (1467-83), can be seen in the Museo di Orsanmichele, Florence [206], where the

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absence of the colour in Caravaggio’s painting makes the scene less graphic, but nonetheless powerful in its affirmation of Christ’s suffering, death and resurrection. In depicting the Road to Emmaus (Lk 24:13-35), some artists may have been keen to try to indicate why Jesus was not immediately recognised. For example, Lelio Orsi’s The Walk to Emmaus (1565-75, The National Gallery, London) [207] shows the walk taking place in the darkness. At a time when pilgrimages were popular, it is hardly surprising that this resurrection episode should be given a further significance in artistic portrayal. Pilgrimages enabled participants to draw nearer to Christ, just as happens to the disciples as they talk to the stranger. The Latin word peregrinus has the two meanings of ‘pilgrim’ and ‘stranger’. Some artists depict Jesus in a pilgrim’s hat, for example in a 15th-century fresco at the oratory of the Holy Trinity, San Nazzaro della Costa, Novara [208] [Fig. 42]. Lelio Orsi’s painting has all three figures wearing pilgrim hats. In an earlier painting by Altobello Melone, The Road to Emmaus (1516-17, The National Gallery, London) [209] the figure of Christ wears the hat of the pilgrim to Compostella with its scallop shell badges, and he carries the traditional staff. Duccio’s On the Road to Emmaus (1308-11, Museo dell’Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena) [210] has Christ carrying a satchel with scallop shells and the pilgrim hat resting on his back. In contrast Robert Zünd’s Gang nach Emmaus (1877, Art Museum, St Gallen, Switzerland) [211] [Fig. 43] is set in green forested countryside reminiscent of a northern Europe landscape. Christ is portrayed in a traditional manner, wearing white and raising his hand authoritatively as he explains the Scriptures. In the distance among the trees is the village towards which they are walking. It is also the Heavenly City, the goal of all our destinations. One of the famous 12th-century capitals in the cathedral of the pilgrimage city of Autun in Burgundy has the theme of Emmaus [212]. It shows the disciples pleading with Jesus to stay with them for a meal. The innkeeper waits behind ready to receive them. The meal has been the focus for many artists, most powerfully and emotionally by Caravaggio in his The Supper at Emmaus (1601, The National Gallery, London) [213]. The moment when the disciples recognise the identity of the stranger as he blesses the bread is captured. Strangely and unusually, Christ is portrayed without a beard. The theme of pilgrimage is present with the man on the right, thought to be Cleopas, wearing a scallop shell on his cloak. Most paintings of the scene feature servants who are unaware of the significance of the events, as if to show that these are very early days in the history of the

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Church. The table is covered in a white cloth and often a sumptuous display of food, though the bread is centre-stage. Abraham Bloemaert’s The Emmaus Disciples (1622, Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp) [214] has a candle on each side of the table and the whole scene takes on a relationship with the consecration of the Host at Mass. Just as images of the Crucifixion do not appear in early Christian times, so also the Resurrection remained undepicted for about the first two Christian centuries. Early believers saw the death and resurrection of Jesus in terms of the whole history of salvation, with a keen eye to the events of the Old Testament, which certainly for converts from the Jewish faith, were very close to their hearts. In the catacombs in Rome inscriptions are frequent. The inscription of the cross with the vertical line forming a letter P, for the Latin Pax (peace) with the Greek letters for Alpha and Omega on each side was used, for example, to denote faith in God who brought peace through the Cross of Jesus. This was later developed into the ‘Chi-Ro’ sign, after the first two letters of the name of Jesus the Christ following the vision of Constantine reported by Eusebius, though this is not without controversy. The symbol was surmounted or encircled by a wreath which denoted victory. The Cross and Resurrection of Jesus were therefore seen as inseparable. “On the top of the whole was fixed a wreath of gold and precious stones, and within this the symbol of the Saviour's name, two letters indicating the name of Christ by means of the initial letters, the letter X intersecting P at the centre” (Eusebius, The History of the Church, 9.7). c.

The Ascension

Images of the Ascension usually take a similar format to that of the Resurrection where Christ occupies the top half of the picture, but now it is a crowd of disciples, usually with Mary in the centre, who look upwards as Christ moves heavenwards. There can be confusion with pictures of the Transfiguration, but in that case the pictures show clearly Moses and Elijah at Christ’s side. Ascension pictures generally show the disciples in an attitude of adoration of Christ’s glory and divinity, which is now very clear to them. An Ascension picture which has these two clear sections, the earthly and the heavenly parts, is by Dosso Dossi, The Ascension of Christ (16th century, private collection, Padua/Milan) [215]. The risen Christ is shown as an Easter figure with the flag of victory, surrounded by clouds and angels, and there is an indication of movement upwards. He raises his

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hand in blessing of the group of disciples below, from whom the Church is to grow. Andrea Mantegna’s The Ascension (1462, Uffizi, Florence) [216] shows Christ in a neat mandorla surrounded by angels, looking down as he blesses with his left hand. In the centre is his mother Mary with hands upturned in prayer. Rembrandt’s version, The Ascension (1636, Alte Pinakothek, Munich) [217] [Fig. 44] is more dramatic, with light shining down on the Christ figure from the barely visible hovering dove, the Holy Spirit. Christ looks upwards with arms outstretched. Some of the light reaches down to the disciples but the group fades into semi-darkness. The moment of the blessing recorded in Scripture has passed. Some earlier artists have sought to portray a more realistic aspect of the Ascension. Colijn de Coter’s The Ascension of Christ (c.1500, National Museum, Warsaw) [218] shows two lower legs and feet disappearing into the clouds and two footprints on a slab of stone below, as Mary and the disciples look upwards with hands together in prayer. The Master of Vyšší Brod’s painting of The Ascension of Christ from the Vyšší Brod Altarpiece (c.1350, National Gallery, Prague) [219] has a similar image, but here with footprints left on green grass, and some disciples almost seeming to wave Christ goodbye, even salute his departure from the earth. The disappearing feet are represented above the altar in the Chapel of the Ascension at the Anglican shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham (c.1930) [220]. Pilgrims to the Holy Land can visit the Chapel of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem, the ‘Ædicule’ [221] and view what is said to be the imprint of the right foot of Jesus as he left this earth. As this site has been venerated since the time of Saint Helena, the mother of Constantine I, it seems likely that the artistic representations derived from the holy place. The Ascension has featured in Christian art since the 4th century, most notably in the Reidersche Tafel (c.400, Milan or Rome, Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich) [222]. This ivory panel shows the women visiting the tomb, and above is Christ striding up a hill and being pulled by his right hand into a cloud by the hand of God. In his left hand he holds a scroll representing his work on earth. Giotto’s painting in the Scrovegni Chapel at Padua (1305-13) [223] has a similar portrayal of the Ascension, but Christ is being pulled from a cloud and surrounded on each side by hosts of angels. Below on earth Mary is a key figure, and Giotto also shows the two angels in white, as recorded in Acts 1:10-11. For the Orthodox Church, Mary’s place as Mother of God and the head of the Church on earth is demonstrated in all the icons of the Ascension. The 6th-century Syriac Gospel book, known as the ‘Rabbula Gospels’, contains

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an illustration of the Ascension in which Mary has a significantly central role, and the tradition has continued to modern times [224]. For the Western Church, the Assumption of Mary in a similar artistic form to this topos has to some extent complemented the theme of Jesus’ Ascension. However, there are examples of the development of Jesus’ Ascension as a motif for the interior paintings of domes and roofs. Santa Prassede Church in Rome, for example, has the Ascension as the theme in the Olgiati Chapel. The work was completed by Giuseppe Cesari in 1587 [225] [Fig. 45]. In the centre of the roof is a rectangular painting of the Ascension with Christ standing on a cloud supported by two angels. He looks up to the heavens in a gesture similar to that in the Rembrandt painting. Below are the disciples and Mary kneeling in the centre. In the panels around are the hierarchy of the Church, with Prophets who have foretold Christ and Fathers of the Church who interpret the events. They are surrounded by sibyls, angels and cherubs, carrying scrolls. In contrast, the Lourdes Rosary Basilica has a simple representation of the Ascension scene, The Ascension (1899, M. Edgard Maxence) with Christ hovering in dazzling white above the group of disciples, Mary and the holy women [226]. The Beloved Disciple John kisses the hem of his garment as a touching farewell. Above and around the arch the two angels announce through a message in Latin written on scrolls that one day Christ will come again.

CHAPTER FOUR EARLY CHURCH THEMES

4A. The Acts of the Apostles This section provides an examination of the establishment and spread of the Church in the period after Jesus’ death, resurrection and ascension. The Acts of the Apostles, written shortly after the Gospel of Luke (c. 65 AD, others prefer a later date of 85 AD) as a companion volume, depicts the shift from Jewish Christianity to Gentile Christianity, and is the earliest “church history”, viewing the church as guided by the Spirit until the future Parousia, or coming of the Lord. This book bridges the period between the Four Gospels and the later Epistles. In dealing with the history of Christian origins, it is the natural sequel to the Gospels, and at the same time it is an indispensable introduction to the Pauline labours and letters. The division of the Acts of the Apostles into three parts reflects the ever-widening spread of the Good News: 1) The Beginning of the Christian Movement in Jerusalem, and the Ministry of Peter and the Disciples (Acts 2—8) 2) The Witness in Judaea and Samaria (Acts 8—12) 3) The Ministry of Paul (Acts 13—28). Special emphasis is placed always on the power of the Holy Spirit, the power of proclamation and preaching, and the fellowship of believers. The book illustrates: 1) the progress of Christianity from Jerusalem to all Judea and Samaria, then to Asia Minor, and to the ends of the earth (1:8). This commission of the Risen Lord had already been reported incipiently by Luke (Lk 24:46-49). Here it is again described and traced in its effects as a result of the advent of the Spirit. 2) The book continues the acts of the Risen Lord through the Holy Spirit. “In the former treatise” (the Gospel of Luke) the writer

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dealt with “all that Jesus began to do and teach” (Acts 1:1). In the Acts he describes what Jesus continued/continues to do and teach through his Body (the Church) brought into existence at Pentecost (Acts 2), and infused by the Holy Spirit. The truth of Christ in glory working on earth through the believer filled with the Holy Spirit, seen in historical consequence in Acts, is the subject of the Pauline Epistles. Acts is a book about mission, God's mission. His intended purposes will not be thwarted while his Spirit directs his Church. The same work continues today: telling and sharing the Good News of Jesus and his Kingdom. Acts can also be broadly divided into two parts: 1) the mission to the Jews under Peter, centred in Jerusalem (Acts 1—12) 2) the mission to the Gentiles under Paul, all the way to Rome (Acts 13—28). The earlier sections deal with the church in Jerusalem under Peter and the gradual spread of the Gospel beyond Jewish limits, as with the baptism of the Ethiopian eunuch by the deacon Philip, and the baptism of the Roman Cornelius by Peter (Acts 10—11). Paul’s activity is separated into three parts: 1) the First Missionary Journey (13:1—14:28), followed by the Council of Jerusalem (15:1-35) 2) the Second Missionary Journey (15:36—18:22), with a stop at Antioch 3) the Third Missionary Journey (18:23—21:14) after which Paul is imprisoned and sent to Rome where he witnesses openly and unhindered in the capital of the Empire. So those who received the word were baptized, and there were added that day about three thousand souls. And they devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers. (Acts 2:41-42) Now those who were scattered went about preaching the word. Philip went to a city of Samaria, and there proclaimed to them the Christ. (Acts 8:4-5) When they had preached the gospel to that city and had made many disciples, they returned to Lystra and to Iconium and to Antioch,

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strengthening the souls of the disciples, exhorting them to continue in the faith, and saying that through many tribulations we must enter the kingdom of God. (Acts 14:21-22) And he lived there two whole years at his own expense, and welcomed all who came to him, preaching the kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ quite openly and unhindered. (Acts 27:30-31)

Acts is characterized structurally and generically by the many speeches proclaiming the Good News, all carefully reported ‘verbatim’ by Luke, and showing that different contexts and situations call for different approaches: 1) The words of the Risen Jesus (Acts 1:7-11) 2) Peter in the election of Matthias (Acts 1:16-26) 3) Peter to the people at Pentecost (Acts 2:14-36) 4) Peter in the Portico of Solomon in the Temple (Acts 3:12-26) 5) Peter to the Jewish Authorities (Acts 4:8-12) 6) The Prayer of the Apostles (Acts 4:24-30) 7) Peter and the Apostles to the Council (Acts 5:29-32) 8) Gamaliel’s words of caution to the Council (Acts 5:35-39) 9) Words of the Twelve prior to the election of the Seven Deacons (Acts 6:2-4) 10) Stephen’s Speech to the Sanhedrin (Acts 7:2-53) 11) Peter to Simon in Samaria (Acts 8:20-23) 12) Cornelius to Peter (Acts 10:30-33) 13) Peter at the house of Cornelius (Acts 10:34-43) 14) Peter on the mission to the uncircumcised (Act 11:5-19) 15) Paul at Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:16-47) 16) Barnabas and Paul at Lystra (Acts 14:15-17) 17) Peter at the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15:7-11) 18) James at the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15:13-23) 19) The letter of the Apostles and Elders to the Church (Acts 15:23-29) 20) Paul at the Areopagus in Athens (Acts 17:22-31) 21) Paul to the Jews of Corinth (Acts 18:6) 22) Gallio to the Jews of Corinth (Acts 18:14-15) 23) Demetrius the silversmith in Ephesus (Acts 19:25-27) 24) The Town Clerk of Ephesus (Acts 19:35-40) 25) Paul to the Elders of Ephesus at Miletus (Acts 20:18-35) 26) Agabus the prophet from Judea in Caesarea (Acts 21:11) 27) Paul to the disciples in Caesarea (Acts 21:13-14) 28) James and the Elders of Jerusalem to Paul (Acts 21:20-25)

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29) The Jews from Asia (Acts 21:28) 30) Paul to the Jews of Jerusalem (Acts 21:1-21) 31) Paul before the Council and his words to the Pharisees (Acts 23:36) 32) Paul’s nephew to the tribune (Acts 23:20-21) 33) Claudius Lysias’s letter to Felix (Acts 23:26-30) 34) Tertullus’s accusation to Felix (Acts 24:2-8) 35) Paul’s address to Felix (Acts 24:10-21) 36) Paul’s address to Festus (Acts 25:10-11) 37) Festus to King Agrippa and Bernice (Acts 25:14-21; 23-28) 38) Paul’s address to King Agrippa (Acts 26:2-23) 39) Paul’s encouragement to the crew during the sea voyage (Acts 27:21-26) 40) Paul to the Jewish leaders in Rome (Acts 28:17-22) There are thirty-eight speeches in all, with two more in the form of letters: by the Apostles after the Council of Jerusalem (15:23-29), and by the tribune Claudius Lysias (23:26-30). Some are very brief but decisive (like Paul’s words to the Jews of Corinth, about expanding the mission to the Gentiles, 18:6); others are extended discourses (like Peter to the people at Pentecost in Acts 2, Peter in the Portico of Solomon in Acts 3; Stephen to the Sanhedrin in Acts 7; Paul at Antioch in Pisidia in Acts 13; Paul in Athens in Acts 17). This not only affects the content, but also the style and emphasis. For example, Stephen’s long oration to the Jewish Council asserts that Christianity fulfils what is promised in the Old Testament (7:253), while Paul's address at the Areopagus in Athens points pagans to Jesus, not idols, for a true knowledge of God (17:22-31). The major apostolic speeches by Peter, Stephen and Paul are based on the assurance of divine authority, and present dramatic utterance filled with theological, and particularly Christological, content. Cumulatively, they present an overview of the operation of God’s plan, the special marking of times and seasons in history. The end of the Gospel of Luke and the beginning of the Acts of the Apostles form a continuity of witness that is consistently corroborated in the reported action of the mission. The repetitious nature of the contents demonstrates a various use of the past by sustained allusion to the Old Testament, and from the vital and challenging present, launches a trajectory looking beyond the situations at hand. The speeches stress unity, emphasize faith in the theme of salvation in Jesus, and sustain the future expectation that this brings. The speeches, while literary devices and compositions, nevertheless reflect the original kerygma (proclamation) of the apostolic preaching (Peter’s speech at

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Cornelius’s house in Acts 10 presents the Gospel of Mark in miniature; and that of Stephen to the Council in Acts 7 a ranging survey and interpretation of salvation history).The early speeches are moreover characterized by a strong Semitic flavour and turn of phrase, and all of them are soaked in Old Testament allusion. There are: —19 references to the Psalms —14 to Isaiah —14 to Exodus —12 to Genesis —9 to Deuteronomy —6 to Jeremiah —2 to Numbers —2 to Joel —2 to Amos —2 to Joshua —2 to 1 Samuel —1 to Leviticus —1 to 2 Samuel —1 to 1 Kings —1 to Habakkuk In all, there are 35 allusions to the Pentateuch, 25 to the Prophets, 19 to the Psalms, and 6 to the Historical Books. Acts outlines a situation all too familiar: where the Gospel flourishes, it results in opposition. But where the powerful Word of the Lord is preached, opposition is dissolved and the Good News spreads even further. God is always in control, in spite of trouble and opposition. Acts is therefore the Book of the Holy Spirit who is: 1) the Spirit of Jesus. The Spirit never proclaims himself, but rather glorifies the Christ, and seeks to make each believer more like Jesus. 2) the Spirit of mission. The Holy Spirit continues the work of Jesus in every age, coming in power on the Apostles, dwelling in the hearts of all believers, guiding the Church. 3) the Spirit of the Church. Without the Spirit there is no Church. This is the distinctive mark of Jesus' ministry: the Spirit, active in the hearts of all believers, is the centre of the Church’s unity, the mainspring of its life. 4) the Spirit of power. The explosive power of God (dunamis) is

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expressed in the work of the Spirit. This is seen in the transformation of the Apostles who become bold witnesses of the resurrection of Christ, and is manifested as gifts given to all believers. In many ways Acts is about ‘the church in the home’. From the moment the Spirit comes upon the Apostles in the Upper Room, “in the house where they were sitting” (2:1-13), to the closing verses where we find Paul under house arrest (28:30), the home becomes a central place of the Spirit’s dynamic activity. Communion is celebrated in homes, the Gospel is proclaimed and people pray together in each other’s homes (like the upper room at Troas (20:5-12). The most personal and intimate places become the launching pad for the transforming work of the Spirit and the trajectory of the mission to the peoples and to the world.

Iconography The birth of the Christian Church is dated to the coming of the Holy Spirit on the disciples, fifty days after the resurrection of Christ. Traditional iconography shows the Twelve seated in a room, often around the Virgin Mary, although she is not mentioned as being present in the text in the Acts of the Apostles. This can be found in many early Psalters, Gospel books and icons of the Orthodox Church. A typical western image is that of Duccio di Buoninsegna, Pentecost, (1308-11, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Siena,) [227] [Fig. 46]. From above, thirteen rays descend to the head of each person, though the image of one disciple is missing from the picture. Each head is surrounded by a golden halo and from the top is a red flame showing that each has been touched by the Holy Spirit. Individuals are recognizable, especially Peter and John, and possibly Matthew with his Gospel. In the background the door is open, indicating that the group will not long remain assembled but will soon be on their way to preach the Good News. Giotto’s image Pentecost from the Capella Scrovegni in Padua (c.1305) [228] does not include the Virgin Mary, whereas in Jean Restout the Younger’s picture Pentecost (1732, Louvre) [229] [Fig. 47] she is supremely dominant and upright, as the disciples fall away, the flames reaching their heads. Her confidence is underlined, in contrast to the humility with which she is portrayed, when overshadowed by the Holy Spirit at the Annunciation. Here the Holy Spirit is represented as a dove, and this is the most frequent image of the third person of the Holy Trinity

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except when Pentecost is specifically portrayed. However, another work of Giotto (and his Workshop) in the National Gallery in London, Pentecost (1308-11) [230], has the traditional scene with the dove as the source of the rays and the flames. The consequent ability to speak in many languages to large crowds is anticipated in the portrayal of those listening in the foreground.

4B. The Letter to the Romans This section explores the greatest single apostolic exposition of fundamental Christian theology to a young Church. The question of Paul and his epistles raises questions about the nature of the genres of the various books of the Bible. The Synoptic Evangelists and John wrote gospels (a combination of narrative and theology); Paul wrote letters (theology emerging from a personal first-person discussion of topical issues) which grew out of the facts of his biography and the exigencies of his missionary experiences, the particular needs of the communities of faith he founded and nourished. All of these forms and intentions are concerned with the proclamation of God’s Word and his great plan of salvation, but perception of the different approaches and emphases makes a very useful contribution to understanding and interpretation. In the New Testament canon of 27 books, 21 are called epistles or letters, and even the Revelation to John starts and ends in letter form. Of the 21, 13 belong to the Pauline Corpus. The Church was poor and widespread, and at least in the early stages, expected an imminent Parousia. The Letters of Paul, written about 20-30 years after the Crucifixion, were preserved, collected and distributed. In general they answered questions from the churches he had founded, and were probably collected and circulated for use by the end of the 1st century. Appreciation of the generic differences between gospel and letter inevitably affects our respective understanding of the approaches of the authors. Nonetheless, both are based by their own testimonies on personal experience of Jesus—but bearing in mind the difference between John’s eyewitness account of Jesus’ ministry (Jn 20:30, 21:24) and the thirdperson description of Paul’s theophany of the Son (Acts 9:1-9). The essence of the Evangelists is identifying Jesus as the living presence of God’s saving love. —The Johannine message is witness to the Word of God, the challenge to

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faith, the promise of participation in God’s glory. For John the dynamic is God’s transforming love in giving his Son to the world for our salvation (Jn 3:16). —The Pauline message is more complicated because the theology emerges according to the particular subject Paul is discussing (faith, creation, sin, justification, protology, eschatology, the work of the Holy Spirit, daily morality, the centrality of love, hope in the future). Experience of the Risen Lord (beginning with the Road to Damascus) leads to faith, leads to justification, leads to sanctification, leads to glorification. It is all a process, a mystical union, of ‘being in Christ’ (en Christo) and receiving the power of the Holy Spirit. Paul emphasizes God’s saving plan in the Incarnation —the Father reconciling the world to himself in the life and work of Jesus (2 Cor 5:17-19). With Paul there is a future retrospective understanding of Jesus. This emerges particularly in the great Christological Hymns that are found throughout the Letters: here Jesus is understood as: 1) pre-existent in the form of God (Phil 8:5-11), 2) the revealed image of the invisible God (Col 1:15), 3) the one who will come in glory to unite all things in heaven and on earth (Eph 1:10) when he appears again in the fullness of time (1 Thess 4:13-18) in the power of his resurrection (1 Cor 15). The letters to the Galatians and Romans both contain extensive discussion about the Law and justification in order to solve the problem of the relationship of Christianity to Judaism. Romans addresses the question of the Jews, the Christian faith, and the Church in God's plan of salvation. The Epistle was written to prepare the way for a visit by Paul to this established Christian community where he planned to work for some time. He wrote explaining his understanding of the Christian faith and its practical application in the daily lives of Christians, and the letter contains his most complete statement of the message he preached. It remains one of the most vital expositions of the essence of the Christian faith. The fundamental theme is how God puts mankind right with himself, through faith (Rom 1—8). Paul discusses the purpose of the Law of God and the power of God's Spirit in the believer's life, and the role of the Jews in God's plan (Rom 9—11). He then discusses at length how the Christian life should be lived (Rom 12—16): in relation to the state (Rom 13), to one another, and in matters of conscience (Rom 14—15).

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In Romans, because Paul was writing to a church he had not founded, he used the opportunity to present his theological views in a systematic way, which he had not done in other letters. He reflects on how his special mission fitted into God's plan of salvation for the whole of mankind, both Jews and Gentile, a theme that reaches its climax in Rom 9—11. The first part (Rom 1—8) unfolds in detail how the coming of Jesus the Messiah had made it possible for the Jews to become the heirs to God's promises. Paul’s argument is at first negative, since neither Jew nor Gentile could affect their own salvation. He then shows that both can be delivered from the bondage of sin by being justified (i.e. being put right with God), not through acceptance of the Law, but by faith in the crucified Lord. This theological section (Rom 1—11) is followed by ethical instructions (Rom 12—16) and concludes with a doxology (16:25-27).The Greeting encodes the whole message to be explored. Paul, a servant of Jesus Christ, called to be an apostle, set apart for the gospel which he promised beforehand through his prophets in the holy scriptures, the gospel concerning his Son, who was descended from David according to the flesh and designated Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord, through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith for the sake of his name among the nations, including yourselves who are called to belong to Jesus Christ; to all God's beloved in Rome, who are called to be saints: Grace and peace to you from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ. (Rom 1:1-7)

The opening words of the Epistle are like an overture which conveys in compressed form the whole theme of this vast theological disquisition. The author's whole life mission is captured here: he presents himself as “servant” in his personal relations to Jesus, “apostle” in his official public relation to him, especially chosen to preach the Gospel. This Gospel or Good News has been part of God's plan from the beginning, and it was testified by the witness of the Prophets. This son Jesus is truly man, descended from the family of King David in the flesh. He is also truly God, as witnessed by the power of the Holy Spirit, through whom he has risen from the dead. In this way Jesus is the Christ, the anointed one, to whom we can give the title ‘Lord’, reserved for God, YHWH (adonai, Kyrios, or the LORD). Paul's conversion is indirectly referred to when he speaks of ‘grace received’. This led to his commitment, or ‘apostleship’— as counted among the closest followers of Jesus, and those sent to proclaim the message of salvation in faith. Jesus is the only name by which humankind may be saved, and hence the mission is for all the nations, for the whole world. This includes the addressees of the letter in

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Rome, and indeed every one of us who are called to be holy and perfect as our Father in heaven is perfect (cf. Lev 19:2; Mt 5:48). The combination of ‘grace’ and ‘peace’ is unique of traditional Greek and Jewish greetings, re-formed into something uniquely Christian. The grace is the manifestation of God's saving love in Christ; the peace summons up the shalom of God’s reign, the justice, mercy and healing of his Way revealed in his Law. Rom 1:7-17 show us further something unique about Paul. While caught up in the most complex of intellectual and theological considerations, he never loses interest in the personal outreach to the people to whom the letter is addressed. He is full of appreciation for them, and longs to see and share with this group of believers he has not yet met. He is convinced that the Gospel of Christ presented to them is worthy of pride even in Imperial Rome, because it is effective to save and is a revelation of the divine righteousness as the basis of faith. For I am not ashamed of the gospel: it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who has faith, to the Jew first and also to the Greek. For in it the righteousness of God is revealed through faith for faith; as it is written, ‘He who through faith is righteous shall live.’ (1:16-17)

This is a crucial statement of theme, and the great concepts and words of the epistle emerge: ‘the Gospel’, ‘power of God’, ‘salvation’, ‘faith’, ‘revealed’, ‘righteousness’, ‘live’. Paul believes the new way of life he promotes was foreshadowed in the Old Testament. In Rom 4 he refers to Abraham, the Father of Israel, our Father in Faith. In 1:17 he quotes from the prophet Habakkuk (2:4) where the prophet says that righteousness, our right standing with God, comes through faith, rather than through our own efforts in trying harder. Faith is the sole condition of salvation. Paul conducts an argument about human nature and God’s grace for eight chapters. He concludes it with an intense passage about God’s attitude towards humanity, which is expressed in the person of Jesus Christ. He shows that God actually longs for the good of the human race. Jesus reveals the true nature of God's mind: perhaps even his motives. God is perfect, and humankind is congenitally unable to meet his standards. The central fact, however, is that the Son has come. Paul can therefore ask, “Who shall bring a charge against those whom God has chosen?” (Rom 8:33). I consider that the sufferings of this time are not worth comparing with the glory that is to be revealed to us. For the creation waits with eager longing

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for the revealing of the sons of God; for the creation was subjected to futility, not of its own will but by the will of him who subjected it in hope; because creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay and obtain the glorious liberty of the children of God. We know that the whole of creation has been groaning in travail together until now; and not only the creation, but we ourselves, who have the first fruits of the Spirit, groan inwardly as we wait for adoption as sons, the redemption of our bodies. For in this hope we were saved. Now hope that is seen is not hope. For who hopes for what he sees? But if we hope for what we do not see, we wait for it with patience... (Rom. 8:18-25) What shall we say to this? If God is for us, who is against us? He who did not spare his own son but gave him up for us all, will he not also give us all things with him? Who shall bring any charge against God's elect? It is God who justifies; who is to condemn? Is it Christ Jesus, who died, yes, who is at the right hand of God, who indeed intercedes for us? Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall tribulation or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or peril? As it is written, “For thy sake we are being killed all the day long; we are regarded as sheep to be slaughtered.” No, in all these things we are more than conquerors through him who loved us. For I am sure that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor things present, nor things to come, nor powers, nor height, nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God in Christ Jesus our Lord. (Rom. 8:31-39)

The unshakeable grace of God does not necessarily make the hurts of life less. These hurts exist whether we know God or not. Experiences such as trouble or hardship or persecution or famine or nakedness or danger or the sword are part of living. But the Good News of God’s love makes it certain that these things are not to be viewed as judgements. They are simply what they are. God’s grace is ours, and in this we are more than conquerors. The Apostle breaks into exultation. Man’s awful condemnation (1:18—3:20) has been overcome by God's glorious justifying grace (3:21—5:21), and leads to the triumph of sanctification (6:1—8:39). Every possible experience that could separate us from the love of God is called up, but nothing in time or eternity can keep us from God's love manifested in Christ. We are “more than conquerors through him who loved us” (8:37). This expresses what John in his Gospel has put rather differently, “For God sent the Son into the world, not to condemn the world, but that the world might be saved through him” (Jn 3:17). All Scripture inspires hope (Rom 15:4), by instructing us in God’s redemptive purposes for mankind and the earth. Human relationships among those redeemed by God must glorify the Father, promoting his

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praise and honour. Harmony and understanding among God’s people thus has a purpose of praise to God. We who are strong ought to bear with the failings of the weak, and not to please ourselves; let each of us please his neighbour for his good, to edify him. For Christ did not please himself; but as it is written, “The reproaches of those who reproached you fell on me.” For whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that by steadfastness and by the encouragement of the scriptures we might have hope. May the God of steadfastness and encouragement grant you to live in such harmony with one another, in accord with Christ Jesus, that together you may with one voice glorify the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. (Rom 15:16)

What we humans need, Paul claims, is to be loved precisely as we are— locked in our own inability to love properly. From God’s grace in loving us as we are, through Jesus Christ on the Cross, comes the fruit of our love for one another. Everything depends on God loving us first. The closer we are to his grace, his loving of us as we are, the closer we are able to be to other people. This is the core of the ethical implications of faith in Jesus.

4C. The Letters to the Corinthians This section investigates the life of an established Christian Community, its characteristics and problems, as reflected in Paul's two letters to the church in Corinth. —1 Corinthians was written to deal with problems of Christian life and faith which had arisen in the church Paul had established in Corinth. The chief themes are difficulties concerning divisions and immorality, with questions about sex and marriage, conscience, church order, gifts of the Holy Spirit and the resurrection. —2 Corinthians was written during a difficult period in Paul's relations with this church. Some members had made strong attacks on him, but the Apostle shows his deep longing in friendship for reconciliation with them, and expresses his joy that this was brought about. Other themes include the call to generous charity, and the witness of true apostleship. The First Letter of Paul to the Corinthians This epistle is part of Paul's correspondence with the Corinthian congregation which he founded, and which was composed of Gentile

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Christians. The problems of Galatians and Romans, written to Christians with Jewish and Roman legal concepts, are quite different from those written to the Greek community of 1 Corinthians: here the language of justification is absent. This is the most specifically practical of Paul's letters, with consideration of daily and theological problems. As a letter, it does not stand as a unit, and is not uniform in its treatment of the various themes and situations addressed. However, permeating the discussion of the individual topics is the theme of Christian unity and edification, a topic introduced in the preface. For him, the necessity of unity is seen in the wisdom of God demonstrated in the scandal of the Cross. Love is to extend beyond the immediate community and is to be shared with all the members of the Church. The main themes can be summarized as: 1) the concept of love and views on the resurrection (1 Cor 13 & 15) 2) the question of freedom and unity (1 Cor 3—10) 3) ethical questions and views on marriage (1 Cor 6) 4) discussions of corporate worship (1 Cor 11) 5) the spiritual gifts and charismatic service (1 Cor 12). Where is the wise man? Where is the scribe? Where is the debater of this age? Has not God made foolish the wisdom of the world? For since, in the wisdom of God, the world did not know God through wisdom, it pleased God through the folly of what we preach to save those who believe. For Jews demand signs and Greeks seek wisdom, but we preach Christ crucified, a stumbling block to Jews and folly to Gentiles, but to those who are called, both Jews and Greeks, Christ the power of God and wisdom of God. For the foolishness of God is stronger than men, and the weakness of God is stronger than men. (1 Cor 1:20-25)

Only at the Cross can the sin of division over a message be avoided. Only the Cross can save us from human philosophies and bring us the true wisdom of God. The preaching of the Cross is ‘foolishness’ to the lost, but the power of God for the saved. The futility of worldly speculation (1:1920 cf. Is. 29:14) is contrasted to the triumph of preaching the Cross. Faith in the message of the Cross releases both the wisdom and power of God. God is the source of our life in Christ Jesus. God has made him our wisdom, our sanctification and our redemption. He who would boast must do so in the name of the Lord Jesus (1:31 cf. Jer 9:23-24), i.e. from his position in Christ, not in what he is in himself. The essential points of his argument can be further detailed: 1) There is only one saviour, so there should be no divisions in the Church (1 Cor 1—3).

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2) Have nothing to do with immoral Christians (1 Cor 5—6). 3) Christians should not settle their differences in the courts of nonbelievers (1 Cor 6). 4) Advice is proffered on marriage (1 Cor 7). 5) Christians must be certain that their behaviour does not harm other Christians: everything must bring glory to God (1 Cor 8—9). 6) There must be no discord when Christians meet to celebrate the Lord's Supper (1 Cor 10). 7) The gifts of the Spirit all contribute to the well-being of the body (1 Cor 12—14). 8) The resurrection proclaims Jesus as the first of many to be raised (1 Cor 15). 9) Believers should give generously to help others (1 Cor 16). Discussion of the charismatic gifts and the Resurrection fixes attention on the passing and the final and enduring aspects of all faith. Spiritual gifts will not be needed in heaven, but love never ends and will be an essential part of the heavenly existence (1 Cor 13). The Gifts of the Spirit bring a partial and indirect knowledge of God. But when we see God face to face, we will know God entirely, just as he now completely knows us. Love is the connection between this world and the world to come. Love is the greatest gift because it will remain unchanged, because it is of the very nature of God, and is at the centre of the destiny in store for those who believe in him. The Second Letter of Paul to the Corinthians This Epistle is also composed of a collection of fragments, a result of the rather turbulent history of Paul and his congregation. Paul had been in despair over the Corinthians, but Titus, bearing this letter, seemed to have restored them to order. The Epistle unfolds as: 1) a ‘letter of reconciliation’ and a ‘letter of tears’ (2 Cor 2—5) 2) the problem of outside agitators (2 Cor 6) 3) an attack on ‘super apostles’ (2 Cor 6) 4) Paul's defence of his own apostleship (2 Cor 7—9) 5) use of the street theatre technique of the ‘Fool's Speech’ (2 Cor 10—12) 6) an intention to visit the congregation again (2 Cor 12). The collection represents a bond of mutual and reciprocal relationship that reaches a climax in thanksgiving and praise of God. The opening words of

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the Letter enshrine a glorious understanding of the nature of God, and how this understanding should affect the lives and actions of all believers. Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Father of all mercies, and the God of all comfort, who comforts us in all our affliction, so that we may be able to comfort those who are in any affliction, with the comfort with which we ourselves are comforted by God. For as we share abundantly in Christ's sufferings, so through Christ we share abundantly in comfort too. If we are afflicted, it is for your comfort and salvation; and if we are comforted, it is for your comfort, which you experience when you patiently endure the same sufferings that we suffer. (2 Cor 1:3-6)

Once again it is the greeting that provides a succinct entry into the mind of the Apostle and the overall theme of his letter. After a typical salutation, Paul presents a benediction directed to the deity as: 1) “The Father of our Lord Jesus Christ” and 2) “The Father of mercies” since divine grace comes to us in its fullest sense through the Son, and 3) “the God of all comfort” since comfort flows from grace. Comfort (the Greek is paraklesis, ‘a calling alongside’) is divine aid that comes to our side to help us in extremity of sorrow (cf. Jn 14:16, 26; 16:7; 1 Jn 2:1). The purpose of this merciful comfort is that we may stand at the side of anyone in need, and in turn help them in the strength of the divine consolation and solace which we ourselves have assuredly received already. When extremities and sufferings abound, experience of God's comfort multiplies, and so can our helpfulness in comforting others. Paul emphasizes what has already been taught by the Book of Job: the common expectation that the life of faith should be free of pain is inaccurate. While we live in this world we will experience setback and sorrow (cf. 2 Cor 10—12). However, sometimes a Christian will know God's special deliverance or healing. The life of Paul shows us that these sufferings can take on a new significance when all is seen as ‘bound’ to Christ in his life and death. These experiences can be used to benefit others, and can be the means whereby we discover and experience God's support, his ‘comfort’ and love, in the sympathy and help of our fellow believers. Do I make my plans like a worldly man, ready to say Yes and No at once? As surely as God is faithful, our word to you has not been Yes and No. For the Son of God, Jesus Christ, whom we preached among you, Silvanus and

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Paul's pastoral action, his loving concern for his Corinthian flock, grows out of the fullness of his perception of the active and dynamic nature of God’s saving actions. These are pre-eminently manifested in the Incarnation, in the life and work of the pre-existent Word who assumed the limitations of his human condition in a perfect and positive action of obedience to the Father (cf. Phil 2, Heb 5). He is therefore the embodiment of God’s love which expresses itself in creation and redemption. In this way Jesus is the great ‘Yes’ as opposed to the spirit of darkness, who always negates and limits, and leads to despair. Satan is traditionally “the spirit who denies”, the one who says ‘no’ (cf. Goethe’s Mephistofeles in the great drama Faust [1808], who is identified as der Geist der stets veneint, “the spirit who always denies”). Knowledge of the true nature of God should infuse all evangelical witness and ministry. The mercy of the Father is manifested in the love of the Son, and this becomes the dynamic inspiration, the indwelling comfort of the Spirit and the gifts he brings to each of us in different ways. Such a ministry is grounded in a personal experience of God's mercy in Christ. This becomes a powerful incentive for unselfish service in carrying the message to others. It rejects every semblance of a false life, and commends itself by a true testimony lived before God as well as among our fellow brothers and sisters. In any authentic ministry Jesus must be proclaimed and set forth, for unless he becomes visible in our actions, the Gospel message will be veiled. It is essential that Christ be preached, not ourselves. Jesus is the divine source of life (cf. Jn 8:12), we the human reflection. The light must shine from God through us, no matter how much we might be limited in our wretched human bodies, the fragile earthen containers of God's glory. But thanks be to God, who in Christ always leads us in triumph, and through us spreads the fragrance of the knowledge of him everywhere. (2 Cor 2:14) For what we preach is not ourselves, but Jesus Christ as Lord, with ourselves as your servants for Jesus' sake. For it is the God who said, “Let light shine out of the darkness,” who has shone in our hearts to give the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in Christ. But we have this treasure in earthen vessels, to show that the transcendent power belongs to God and not to us. We are afflicted in every way, but not crushed;

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perplexed, but not driven to despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; struck down, but not destroyed; always carrying in the body the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be manifested in our bodies. For while we live we are always being given up to death for Jesus' sake, so that the life of Jesus may be manifested in mortal flesh. So death is at work in us, but life in you. Since we have the same spirit of faith as he did who wrote, “I believed , and so I spoke,” we too believe, and so we speak, knowing that he who raised the Lord Jesus will raise us also with Jesus and bring us with you into his presence. For it is all for your sake, so that as grace extends to more and more people it may increase thanksgiving, to the glory of God. (2 Cor 4:5-15) Therefore, if any one is in Christ, he is a new creation; the old has passed away, behold, the new has come. All this is from God, who through Christ reconciled us to himself, and gave us the ministry of reconciliation; that is, God was in Christ reconciling the world to himself, not counting their trespasses against them, and entrusting to us the message of reconciliation. So we are ambassadors for Christ, God making his appeal through us." (2 Cor 5:17-20)

The believer will experience suffering and death, as did the Lord, so that Christ's life may be reflected in them. The Christian has the strong assurance of a future existence. So whether still in this body (life), or absent from the body (death), we must be of good courage, bold and cheerful in the fullness of this glorious hope. Faith therefore becomes the mainstay of our living. What we do not see is often more important and lasting than what we do see. Absence from the body (death) for the believer means to be present with the Lord (in heaven). This is the great incentive for valour. We have been reconciled to God through the saving actions of Jesus. This ministry of reconciliation and comfort has been passed on to us. Reconciliation describes the effect of Christ's death upon mankind as sinners, alienated and estranged from God by original sin. In response to the believer’s faith in Christ, divine power works in the believer a complete transformation towards God, from enmity and aversion to loving trust. We are to be Christ's ambassadors: and to be an ambassador means to represent one’s country (heaven) and government (the Lord) with prestige, wisdom, maturity and dignity. This is the incentive and expression of true discipleship.

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4D. The Letter to the Hebrews This section provides an investigation of the most complete theological exposition of the mystery of the salvific work of Jesus Christ. The anonymous Letter to the Hebrews was written to a group of believers under difficulty, and in danger of losing their faith. It encourages them in their faith by showing that Jesus is the true and final revelation of God. 1) Jesus is the eternal Son of God (Heb1—4) 2) Jesus is the eternal High Priest (Heb 5—7) 3) Through Jesus, the mediator, the believer is saved from sin, fear and death (Heb 8—10) 4) The reader is urged to remain faithful to the end, with eyes fixed on Jesus (Heb 11—13) Hebrews has no salutation and the name of the author is not revealed, even in the doxology and greeting at the end. (It was possibly the eloquent disciple Apollos mentioned in Acts 18:24, 19:1; 1 Cor 1:12; 3:4.) It is essentially a theological treatise rather than a letter. It is homiletic in style, and calls itself a paraklesis, an act of encouraging, with the various nuances of consolation, exhortation, sermon, advocacy, example and intercession. The thoughts, metaphors and ideas of Hebrews are distinct from the rest of the New Testament. The closest affinities are with the speech of the first martyr Stephen in chapter 7 of the Acts of the Apostles. It attempts to prove the superiority and ultimacy of the revelation in Christ and the perfection of his offering of himself once and for all which supersedes and makes obsolete any other revelation. Heb gives strength to its readers through the example of Christ and the hope and promise of free access to God and to eternal rest, an access in which Christ is High Priest and mediator for ever. Such a promise, on the basis of Christological developments and new covenant hopes, enables endurance in persecution; its language, however, is that of the sacrificial language of the Old Testament. Another typological analogy is with the Wilderness wanderings of Israel in which, despite their murmurings of unbelief, the people persevered. Thus, the Church, as the new pilgrim people of God, travels towards the future place of rest with Christ as their pioneer and perfecter of grace. Hope during persecution and trial is expressed in the image of Christ as the perfect high priest, one of whose functions is to stand as intercessor and

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protector. In many and various ways God spoke of old to our fathers by the prophets; but in these last days he has spoken to us by a Son, whom he appointed the heir of all things, through whom also he created the world. He reflects the glory of God, and bears the very stamp of his nature, upholding the universe by his word of power. When he had made purification for sins, he sat down at the right hand of the Majesty on high, having become as much superior to angels as the name he has obtained is more excellent than theirs. (Heb 1:1-4)

Hebrews meets a pivotal need to show the relationship of Christianity to Judaism, to reconcile the old and the new, and to show the essential unity, a unity born of organic development, between the old and new dispensations. This has been a crucial issue in the Christian church since the Apostolic Age. Jesus is the central factor in all our attempts at understanding history and religion. In him we see the exact representation of God’s nature. God is seen and made visible in the person of Jesus Christ. The Son is God's active principle of love at work in the world. Indeed he is the sustainer and maintainer of the universe (cf. Col 1:17b), “upholding all things by the power of his word”. In his redemptive act he has further completely removed sin from the sinner, not merely covering it temporarily by animal sacrifice, as in the Old Dispensation. In his Resurrection and Ascension he becomes for all time the ultimate interceding priest, all on the basis of his accomplished redemption. Let us therefore strive to enter that rest, that no one fall by the same sort of disobedience. For the word of God is living and active, sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing to the division of soul and spirit, of joints and marrow, and discerning the thoughts and intentions of the heart. And before him no creature is hidden, but all are open and laid bare to the eyes of him with whom we have to do. Since then we have a great high priest who has passed through the heavens, Jesus, the Son of God, let us hold fast our confession. For we have a high priest who is able to sympathize with our weaknesses, but one who in every respect has been tempted as we are, yet without sinning. Let us then draw near to the throne of grace, that we may receive mercy and find grace to help in time of need. (Heb 4:11-16)

The believer is exhorted to be eager to enter into a spiritual rest through quiet belief. The reminder is that some in Israel in ancient times failed to enter the rest of the Promised Land because of their unbelief (Heb 3). Faith is the necessary prerequisite to possess the rest which only Christ as the

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embodiment of the covenant can provide. The instrument God uses to bring humankind into the rest of faith is the living and dynamic Word of God. This is the verbal embodiment of the Word made flesh, and it has a power like that of a two-edged sword, able to sever to the point where attitudes and motives are laid bare, where one’s innermost thoughts are judged (Heb 4:12-13). It strips away sham and pretence, revealing to us who we really are. Christ is our great High Priest because he has decisively finished the work of redemption (Heb 5). Worship and intercession are perfectly fulfilled in the heavenly sanctuary, directly in God's presence. Christ is also great because he is Jesus, the Son of God, qualified by his Incarnation to represent us before the throne of the Father. He is touched with the feelings of our infirmities, and so sympathizes with our weaknesses because he has been tested in all the ways that we are, but remained untouched by sin. He has no connection with sin: he was tempted in every way, but remains the sinless one, the perfect image of mankind (Heb 5:510). Christ is also great because he transforms God’s throne of holy judgement into a throne of grace for believers. Like the blood sprinkled at Sinai, this throne is touched by his blood. There the believer finds a continual supply of mercy and grace, for help in all times of need. So we may draw near in confidence and assurance that grace can be expected from this throne. Remember your leaders, those who spoke to you the word of God; consider the outcome of their life, and imitate their faith. Jesus Christ is the same yesterday, today and for ever. Do not be led away by diverse and strange teachings; for it is well that the heart be strengthened by grace.... (Heb 13:7-9)

Faith requires stability in one’s life of discipleship. The great spiritual leaders of the past had spoken the Word of God, and now Jesus, the Word himself, is the great example of stability. Legalism is barren of spiritual reality, but grace is its very medium. Feeding on grace will lead to stability of life and testimony. The concluding Great Benediction contains essential elements for the spiritual well-being of believers (Heb 13:20-21). Now may the God of peace who brought again from the dead our Lord Jesus, the great shepherd of the sheep, by the blood of the eternal covenant, equip you with everything good that you may do his will, working in you that which is pleasing in his sight, through Jesus Christ; to whom be glory for ever and ever. Amen. (Heb 13:20-21)

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1) It is “the God of peace” who has established harmony between mankind and himself through the sacrifice of Christ who gives peace of mind and soul to those who trust in him. 2) The hope of resurrection is founded on God’s raising of Jesus from the dead. This is the believer’s ultimate hope and comfort. 3) Jesus is the Good Shepherd who cares for the flock of the Lord. 4) There is an assurance of the covenant perfectly fulfilled in the blood of Christ. 5) There is a request that each believer may have the strength and motivation to follow Jesus’ command to be perfect like our Father in heaven (cf. Lev 11:44; Mt 5:48). 6) There is a request to allow the indwelling of Christ to work in the heart of each believer, to bring about that which is pleasing to God: may his will be done on earth as in heaven (Mt 6:10).

Iconography The approach to iconography in this section is given over chiefly to depictions in painting and sculpture of the two great pillars of the early Church, the Apostles Peter and Paul, and also of the events of their mission to spread the Good News of Jesus Christ. In both cases, this culminated in martyrdom. From early times the two saints have often been depicted together— as on the gravestone from the catacombs (313 AD) of a boy, Asellus, now in the Vatican Museum [231] [Fig. 48]. They often appear as a pair of statues, like those erected by Pope Pius IX in St Peter’s Square, Rome. These were sculpted from 1838-40, St Paul by Adamo Tadolini, and St Peter by Giuseppe De Fabris [232]. El Greco’s painting of 1587-92 in the Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg [233], and the subsequent version of 1590-1600 in the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona [234] [Fig. 49], show the two saints holding open hands pointing towards each other, indicating mutual dependency. St Paul seems to be the more dominant as he points to his writing, but there is power in the depiction of an older St Peter, shown as quietly devout. The later version emphasizes more strongly that mutual dependency, with hands intertwined but not quite touching. In their other hands they hold their symbols, St Peter with the Key and St Paul with the Sword. The paintings have been seen to depict the meeting of the two saints after disagreement, and also of St Peter recognizing the role of St Paul in the evangelization of the wider world. Orthodox icons of the two saints show them standing together holding an image of the Church, as shown on the homepage of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of the

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British Isles and Ireland [235]. Saint Peter and His Mission to the Jews a.

The Authority of St Peter

The sarcophagus of a prominent Roman convert who died in 359 AD has an early representation of St Peter as leader of the Church. Junius Bassus’ tomb has a central image of Christ as a beardless youthful figure seated with Saints Peter and Paul on each side [236]. He hands a scroll to St Peter in the manner of an emperor handing on his authority to his heir. The message is clearly that of recognition of the authority for leadership of the Church handed to Peter by Christ. A series of images created by Raphael for the Sistine Chapel asserts the legitimacy of papal succession. The ‘Raphael Cartoons’, that is the designs commissioned in 1515 by Pope Leo X for tapestries to adorn the lower walls of the chapel, are now housed in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. They were completed in 1516. The Miraculous Draught of Fishes [237] refers to Luke’s account (Lk 5:1-11) and especially to Peter’s words in verse 8, “Depart from me, for I am a sinful man, O Lord ” and Jesus’ reply in verse 10, “Do not be afraid; henceforth you will be catching men”. Christ’s Charge to Peter [238] has Peter again kneeling before Jesus, now at the head of the ten remaining disciples. He is holding the keys to which Jesus is pointing, and with his other hand Jesus indicates the sheep behind him. The image brings together the mission of Peter to hold the authority for the Church (Mt 16:18-19) and to look after and feed the people of God (Jn 21:15-17). Raphael was doubtless following the instructions of his patron who desired images for the key scriptural passages which justified the pre-eminence of the Church and his own papal authority. Around 35 years before the completion of the cartoons, Pietro Perugino had painted his frescoes of the life of Jesus on the upper part of the northern wall of the Sistine Chapel. Christ Giving the Keys to Saint Peter (1481-82) [239] focuses on the delivery of two large keys, one silver and one gold. St Peter kneels before Christ and the disciples watch. They are portrayed with elegance. Peter’s blue undergarment is wrapped in a gold robe. Raphael seems to have imitated this with the first cartoon showing the disciple as a fisherman in a blue garment and then similarly with an additional golden robe when receiving the keys. Perugino shows a bearded grey haired Peter, having developed a bald patch. Raphael shows him with a full head of grey curly hair. Peter Paul Rubens’s painting Christ Giving

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the Keys to St Peter (c.1614, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin) [240] [Fig. 50]shows Peter as a more wizened figure with a wild beard but wearing a rich gold robe in contrast to the red cloth of Jesus which only partly covers his wounded body. b. Images of St Peter The 6th-century icon of St Peter in St Catherine’s Monastery, Mount Sinai, Egypt [241], again shows the Apostle with grey hair, which may have indicated from early times the gravity of his position as head of the growing Christian Church. He has a large golden halo. In addition to bearing the Keys, he carries a cross which may be the parallel representation to that of St Paul’s Sword, as Peter suffered crucifixion like Jesus, though upside down. Above him are represented in mandalas (circles) Christ in the middle and Mary to the right. The youthful figure to the left is possibly St John, present at the foot of the cross with Jesus’ mother. The south portal of Chartres Cathedral has a sculpture of St Peter with a large key and a beam of the cross [242] [Fig. 51]. His neat curly haircut is reminiscent of that of depictions of early Roman emperors. The sculpture in the north portal shows the saint wearing an ephod, a symbol of the priest of the Old Covenant, but dressed as a pope and standing on a rock. He is placed at the end of a row of figures linking the Old Testament with the New. There is Simeon with the child Jesus and St John the Baptist, and then Peter shown as bridging the two covenants [see 87, Fig. 18]. Paintings of the 14th century also show St Peter wearing the pallium, the emblem of papal authority. This can be seen in Simone Martini’s Altarpiece of San Domenico (1320-21, Orvieto) [243] as well as in Lippo Memmi’s St Peter (c.1330, Louvre, Paris) [244] where the saint has the tonsure. The influence of the Italian Renaissance is clearly evident in Peter Paul Rubens’s painting, Saint Peter (1610-12, Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid) [245] where the image of the saint has become more life-like. He bears the silver and golden keys of paradise and again is shown with the pallium and wild grey hair and beard. He is a forceful character and looks toward heaven, showing his obedience to his mission. Anthony van Dyck’s The Penitent Apostle Peter (1618, Hermitage, St Petersburg, Russia) [246] [Fig. 52] again shows the saint looking heavenward, but here he has his left hand across his chest in a humble sign of recognition of his sinfulness. c.

The Ministry of St Peter

St Peter’s ministry as a preacher is represented visually in Lorenzo

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Veneziano’s painting The Apostle Peter Preaching (c.1370, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin) [247] [Fig. 53], where he stands in a pulpit surrounded by about 30 people, his hand raised as if to indicate the resurrection of Christ. A similar gesture is shown in Masolino da Panicale’s St Peter Preaching (1426-27, Brancacci Chapel, Florence) [248], and the Apostle is easily recognizable by his grey hair and beard, and golden robe over the blue undergarment, despite the lack of keys. In these two paintings the Apostle has a rapt audience though less so in Saint Peter Preaching in the Presence of St Mark by Fra Angelico (c.1433, Museo di San Marco, Florence) [249]. Here some are clearly not paying full attention and resemble contemporary Florence rather than 1st -century Palestine. The second main focus of the picture, however, is the image of St Mark who is writing down the teaching of St Peter for his Gospel. The Brancacci Chapel is a major source of artwork for the life of St Peter. The chapel was commissioned by Pietro Brancacci in 1386 but it was a descendant who commissioned the frescoes in honour of his relative’s patron saint in the mid-1420s. The work includes Masaccio’s Baptism of the Neophytes (1424-25) [250], illustrating the success of the Apostle’s preaching, with a queue of converts and St Peter baptizing a young man, almost naked, who is kneeling in the water and receiving Christian baptism by having water poured over his head. The account in the Acts of the Apostles of the power of Peter to perform miracles (Acts 5:12-16) is shown in Masaccio’s portrayal of a cripple and an old man waiting for the Apostle’s shadow to pass over them (1424-25, St Peter Healing the Sick with His Shadow, 1424-25) [251]. As he walks the streets of what looks again like contemporary Florence, the Apostle is followed by St John. Their curing of the lame man, recorded in Acts 3:1-8, is the subject of one of the Raphael cartons, The Healing of the Lame Man (1515, Victoria and Albert Museum, London) [252] [Fig. 54] where a robust St Peter and a more graceful St John stand over the cripple who waits in the busy Temple in Jerusalem for a miraculous cure along with others. Nicolas Poussin’s Saints Paul and John Healing the Lame Man (1655, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) [253] also captures the moment when the crippled man is urged to stand. This time it is St John who raises his arm in authority and St Peter holds out both hands to support the man. Poussin has a more spacious setting but the busy world of the Temple is well represented. St Peter’s role in the ministry of sharing resources is the subject of a fresco in the Brancacci Chapel as well as a Raphael cartoon. Masaccio, in his St. Peter Distributing the Common Goods of the Church and the Death of

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Ananias (1424-25, Brancacci Chapel) [254], has fitted within a tight space on the wall the episode of the fraud of Ananias into the context of the almsgiving (Acts 5:1-11). Peter is seen giving money to a woman with a scantily clad child, whilst a man on crutches with a wooden leg waits for the Apostle’s support. Meanwhile dead on the ground is the figure of Ananias who has kept back some of his money from the selling of his possessions. Although there is some sadness in Peter’s gaze there is a determination that the work must go on. Raphael has a more dramatic scene in The Death of Ananias (1515-16, Victoria and Albert Museum, London) [255], concentrating on the judgement of Ananias by the apostles and his approaching fate. In the background the task of almsgiving continues but also Ananias’s wife, Sapphira, stands counting money, apparently unaware of her husband’s fate. Her own death is shown in Poussin’s Death of Sapphira (1652, Louvre, Paris) [256] where she falls to the ground, condemned by Peter. Another apostle raises his hands in exasperation and John stands firmly and calmly at the side of Peter. A further image from the Brancacci Chapel illustrates St. Peter Healing a Cripple, and the Raising of Tabitha (Masolino, c.1424) [257] from the dead. The setting is again clearly Tuscany, and, through this artistic convention, the frescoes speak directly to the contemporary world. The discussions of the early Church, especially the Council of Jerusalem, are not well documented in imagery. However, the Vision of Peter (Acts 10:9-16), after which Peter realizes that the Jewish dietary laws are abrogated, and cannot be enforced on Gentiles, has been recorded in a painting by Domenico Fetti, The Vision of St Peter of Unclean Animals (c.1619, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) [258] [Fig. 55]. St Peter slumbers on the rooftop, while above a white sheet is suspended. In this there are some recognizable animals, a calf, a hare and a dog or wolf. Burgos Cathedral has a coloured carving with the Apostle side-by-side with the sheet of animals and reptiles. This is part of the altarpiece in the Chapel of St John Sahagún [259]. Here St Peter is standing and ready to implement what has been revealed to him. Above, rays come out from a cloud in which there sits an image of God with sceptre and hand raised in blessing. Saint Paul and His Mission to the Gentiles a.

Images of St Paul

In 2009 the earliest known image of St Paul (early 4th century) was discovered in the Catacomb of St Thekla in Rome, not far from the

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Basilica of St Paul Outside the Walls, built on the site where he was said to be buried [260]. He has a thin face and dark sunken eyes, a long pointed beard and a receding hairline. Asellus’s gravestone (see above, 313 AD) depicts the Apostle in a similar fashion [261] [Fig. 48]. Later iconography picks up the classic features, for example the 13th-century sculpture to the immediate left of Christ in the south door at Chartres Cathedral, where the gaunt figure presides beneath the Last Judgement Scene to the side of Christ, next to St John and opposite St Peter [262]. Saint Paul by Bartolomeo Montagna (1482, Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan) [263] [Fig. 56] shows the saint standing as a dignified figure, clothed in the red robe of martyrdom, bearing a book in his left hand and resting his right hand on the Sword, the instrument of his decapitation. As a Roman citizen, St Paul was not allowed to be crucified, hence execution in this manner. Benedict XVI gives a further insight into the symbol of the Sword. In “The Warrior and the Sufferer” (Images of Hope, pp. 23-24), he states that it indicates the warrior nature of St Paul’s ministry, summed up in his own words “I have fought the good fight” (2 Tim 4:7). Furthermore, it is a symbol of the Word of God (Heb 4:12), “the power of truth, which is of a wholly unique nature. Truth can hurt; it can wound—that is its nature as sword” (p. 26). The Pope sees the link between the purely practical executioner’s tool and the truth of the Gospel which hurts ultimately to the point of martyrdom. Statues and painting of St Paul are also recognizable by the book, or scroll which he carries. As a writer of 13 letters contained in the New Testament, his huge contribution to the development of Christianity is acknowledged. In addition to that of Montagna (see above) paintings by Masaccio (1426, Museo Nazionale di Pisa) [264] and El Greco (1598-1600, Saint Louis Art Museum, Missouri) [265], the huge statue in front of the Basilica of St Paul Outside the Walls by Giuseppe Orbici (1807-78) [266] and the mosaic of St Paul with Scrolls in the Arian baptistery at Ravenna [271] are amongst the images which testify to his written work. The painting, which is probably by Valentin de Boulogne, Saint Paul Writing His Epistles (c.1618-20, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston) [268] [Fig. 57], shows Paul in a red robe at a table writing with a quill pen and ink, the Sword at his side. Pier Francesco Sacchi has a painting Saint Paul Writing with similar details (1520s, National Gallery London) [269], though here he is gazing at the Crucifix for inspiration in the process of writing one of his most famous passages on love from the First Letter to the Corinthians (1 Cor 13:4).

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b. St Paul’s Early Life St Paul’s life is documented well in art, principally his early life as a persecutor of Christians. Vittore Carpaccio’s series of five pictures for the Scuola di Santo Stefano (1511-20) include The Stoning of St Stephen (1520, Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart) [270], with a figure in a red robe and carrying a sword which is likely to be a portrayal of Saul. The figures are in Turkish-style clothing which was possibly intended to emphasize hostility to Christianity, although the stoning took place outside the walls of Jerusalem. Paolo Uccello’s fresco in the Cathedral at Prato, The Stoning of St Stephen (c.1435) [271] [Fig. 58], shows Saul in the centre behind Stephen. He has the characteristic features of the Apostle. St Paul’s dramatic conversion on the Road to Damascus is represented probably most famously by Caravaggio in The Conversion on the Way to Damascus (1601, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome) [272] [Fig. 59] although there is no portrayal of a vision, and the horse and the groom appear oblivious of what is happening. The artist’s use of light and the positioning of the Apostle’s body show the intensity of the experience. Michelangelo, on the other hand, in his Conversion of Saul (1542, The Pauline Chapel, Vatican) [273], shows Christ in the sky surrounded by bright light and a heavenly host. On the ground, Saul’s eyes are closed and he shields his brow. The group of characters around him also tries to protect their faces, or else seem keenly aware of an intense experience. The horse is intent on bolting and is only restrained by a servant. Some artists have included (in Latin) the text: “Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me?” (Acts 9:4), emanating from the heavenly vision of Christ, such as Bartolomé Estabán Murillo in his The Conversion of St Paul (1675, Prado, Madrid) [274]. Following this crucial event in Saul’s life, his healing and baptism are recorded in Jean Restout the Younger’s painting Ananius Imposing His Hands on Saint Paul (1719, Louvre, Paris) [275]. St Paul kneels humbly in front of the old man who holds his hands above the Apostle for whom this is clearly a profound moment. Above him the Holy Spirit as a white dove casts a bright light over the seven people present. A cloud which seems to be moving over the group indicates the presence of God as Saint Paul begins his new mission to the Gentiles. c.

St Paul’s Missionary Journeys

Raphael’s cartoon St Paul before the Proconsul (1515, The Victoria and Albert Museum, London) [276] illustrates an event on the Apostle’s First

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Missionary Journey, when Elymas the Sorcerer is struck blind as a result of his opposition to the Roman Consul’s wish to hear the preaching of Paul and Barnabas (Acts 13:3-12). An angry Sergius Paulus is seated in the middle of the picture with the two apostles on the left with their halos, and there is a disconcerted crowd around Sergius who, with eyes closed indicating his blindness, holds his arms out to find his way forward. The result is the conversion of the Consul to Christianity. In this series of cartoons drawn by Raphael as designs for tapestries for the lower walls of the Sistine Chapel is Paul Preaching at Athens (1515-16, The Victoria and Albert Museum, London) [277] [Fig. 60]. Here the Apostle, in an equally commanding and confident stance, preaches to a group of intellectuals at the Areopagus (Acts 17:16-34). He is shown holding them in rapt attention, and some figures seem to suggest they are already converted. A third cartoon The Sacrifice at Lystra (1515-16, The Victoria and Albert Museum, London) [278] shows how Paul and Barnabas were mistaken for the gods Jupiter and Mercury following the healing of a crippled man (Acts 14:8-18). The mistake is explained by the rich background of pagan gods, but Paul angrily tears his red robe. The ox is saved by the entreaty of a young man in the crowd, also wearing red. Ephesus was the place of preaching and miracles (Acts 19). Paul preaching at Ephesus by Eustache Le Sueur (1649, National Gallery, London) [279] shows St Paul witnessing the collection of books and scrolls which are to be destroyed as a rejection of beliefs which are now cast aside. Behind him other apostles exercise a ministry of blessing and the distribution of alms. In the background a disciple gives thanks. Jean Restout the Younger’s painting The Miracles of Saint Paul at Ephesus (1693, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Rouen) [280] is equally busy and again shows Saint Paul in a dominant position, in his red robe and gazing heavenward. Around him are those cured through the power vested in him, and to his right a man holds out a white cloth for him to touch. Colours are vibrant in this picture, with white reserved for those who seek healing and blue used largely for those assisting the sick. The more negative aspects of St Paul’s experience are shown in such paintings as Jean-Baptiste de Champaigne’s Saint Paul Knocked Over and Stoned at Lystra (second half of 17th century, Musée National Magnin, Dijon) [281] (Acts 14:19). Here St Paul lies on the ground covered partly by his red robe, as some protection for his body, whilst an angry, wild crowd takes up stones to throw at him. The painting is full of violent action encouraged by two figures in authority, both of whom point to the

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Apostle, though they do not throw a stone. They are handing Paul over to the mob. In the midst of the crowd a determinedly evil-looking character is about to lift the largest stone. The Apostle’s face shows a stoical and forgiving look. The background to the picture is a classical scene with pagan statues. This is the reality which St Paul confronts in his mission. His bravery is further shown in images of his shipwreck. An example is the mosaic given by Benedict XVI to the President of Malta on the occasion of the Apostolic Voyage in 2010, St Paul’s Shipwreck in Malta [282] [Fig. 61], which was created in the Vatican Mosaic Studio and was inspired by a fresco in the Sala della Meridiana at the Vatican by Niccolo Cirgignani, known as Pomarancio (1580-82). The mosaic shows the shipwreck, as well as St Paul, who has thrown the viper which had attached itself to his hand into the fire. The Apostle is unharmed and stands tall and confident, again in red and with a book in his hand, ready to greet the local people who are still suspicious that he will be poisoned (Acts 28:1-7). d. The Imprisonment and Martyrdom of the Two Apostles Many artists have been moved to paint the periods of imprisonment of the two Apostles and their latter years. Rembrandt’s St Paul at his Writing Desk (1630, Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg) [283] shows an exhausted old man with pen in hand obviously struggling to write in the poor light. The later version, St Paul at his Desk (c.1633, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna) [284] shows the documents more clearly and a less tired Apostle. Both pictures have the sword in the background to identify Paul, equally so in an earlier work of 1627, St Paul in Prison (Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart) [285] [Fig. 62]. Rembrandt’s painting, St Peter in Prison (1631, The Israel Museum, Jerusalem) [286] shows his fellow apostle, kneeling on the straw with keys at his side. The Apostles are now a far cry from the physically robust pair, so easily recognizable on the left of Mantegna’s San Zeno Altarpiece (1456-59, Church of San Zeno, Padua) [287], but their integrity, prayerfulness and devotion is apparent. The freeing from imprisonment of both of the Apostles is the inspiration for many paintings, including Filippino Lippi’s St Peter Being Freed from Prison (1485, Brancacci Chapel, Florence) [288], and his parallel painting St Paul Visiting St Peter in Prison based on the Golden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine. The angel leads out the Apostle whilst the guard sleeps, all unaware (Acts 12:6-11). Raphael’s fresco in three sections, The Liberation of St Peter (1514, Vatican Galleries) [289] shows a central scene of St Peter asleep and in chains being wakened by an angel surrounded in light.

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On the right the angel leads the Apostle to freedom past sleeping guards whilst on the left other guards begin to wake up to the events. Gerard van Honthorst’s St Peter Released from Prison (1616-18, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin) [290] [Fig. 63] is a more intimate portrayal with the angel opening the door of the cell to a baffled Apostle. For the release of Paul and Silas after the earthquake in Acts 16:25-31, The Conversion of the Warder, an engraving after Jan van der Straet (1582, British Museum) [291] mirrors the biblical text, showing the stocks and the gaoler with his drawn sword. The martyrdom of Saints Peter and Paul in Rome is recorded explicitly in paintings, although not in the Scriptures, except that the words of Jesus at the end of St John’s Gospel have been taken to predict crucifixion for St Peter (Jn 21:18-19). The joint feastday of 29 June, which has been in the Catholic calendar since early times, is probably the reason why the deaths are shown in the same picture, as for example in The Martyrdom of Saint Peter and Saint Paul by Ludovico Carracci and Francesco Camullo (c.1615, probably Musée des Beaux-Arts, Rennes) [292]. St Paul is barechested as the sword is beginning to swing towards him, and St Peter is being prepared for his crucifixion. In the sky Jesus stretches out his arms in welcome and angels wave the palms of victory. Tintoretto’s The Martyrdom of St Paul (c.1556, Church of Madonna dell’Orto Venice) [293] [Fig. 64] shows Paul alone with hands raised in prayer and an angel holding the martyr’s crown. In contrast The Beheading of St Paul by Enrique Simonet (1887, Cathedral of Málaga, Spain) [294] shows a crowd of onlookers, the decapitated body and the head of the Apostle shining brightly as it begins to bounce along the paved street striking it three times, and causing fountains to spring up. The Church of the Three Fountains in Rome has art depicting these events. In the apocryphal story of St Peter escaping martyrdom by fleeing Rome and encountering Jesus on the way, Peter asked, “Domine quo vadis?” (‘Lord, where are you going?’). This led to the reply that Jesus was going to Rome to be crucified again. The scene is represented in Domine Quo Vadis or Christ Appearing to Saint Peter on the Appian Way by Annibale Carracci (1602, National Gallery, London) [295], where the wounded Christ bears his Cross and points towards the city whence St Peter is fleeing. The saint is instantly recognizably in blue and yellow clothing and bearing the Keys which hang from his arm. He holds up his hands in recognition of his human lack of courage in this moment of extreme trial. St Peter’s crucifixion is depicted very famously in Caravaggio’s painting The Crucifixion of Saint Peter (1600, Church of Santa Maria del Popolo,

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Rome) [296] [Fig. 65]. It shows the physical effort required to lift the heavy cross with the aged Apostle nailed firmly to it, and his blue of the fisherman’s garment laid to the side. Michelangelo’s fresco The Crucifixion of St Peter (1546-50, The Pauline Chapel, Vatican) [297] has a wider perspective with a crowd of distressed onlookers. Again it is the moment when the cross is being raised. A man ensures that the hole is deep enough for the weight of the heavy cross. Filippino Lippi’s work The Crucifixion of St Peter (1483-84, Brancacci Chapel, Florence) [298] has the cross almost upright, a pulley being used to enable the task to be conducted efficiently. Masaccio, in The Crucifixion of St. Peter (1426, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin) [299] shows the cross erect with the Apostle’s feet spread across a smaller beam at the top and the executioners finishing off the task by inserting the nails into the hands. In all of the paintings the artists are concerned with the mechanics and consequent suffering of Peter during his martyrdom. Poussin’s The Ecstacy of St Paul (1649, Louvre, Paris) [300] [Fig. 66] could easily be mistaken for an image of the Apostle ascending to heaven, because it is very similar to Poussin’s other work on the bodily translation of Mary to heaven. Poussin has used the mystical experience of St Paul (2 Cor 12:1-6) and invested it with motifs of assumption and glorification. The Apostle is carried up by two angels. He wears the martyr’s red robe, and his Sword and Book of Letters are left behind to the Church. St Peter’s legacy is represented in pictures and statues of him as the first pope, clad in heavy ecclesiastical vestments and the papal tiara. Such is the painting by Grão Vasco, Saint Peter (1506, Museu Grão Vasco de Viseu, Portugal) [301] [Fig. 67]. He holds the Key as a sceptre, the book of his epistles, or perhaps the Gospel of Mark, is on his knee, and the other hand is raised in blessing. Behind to his left is Jerusalem, and to his right a scene from his early life as a fisherman and disciple.

4E. The Revelation to John (The Apocalypse) The Book of Revelation provides a dramatic conclusion not only to the New Testament writings, but to the whole of the Scriptures. If the creation of the cosmos, of the world, forms the protology of Genesis, then it is the universal conflict and the advent of the new heaven and the new earth that provides the eschatology which brings the Bible to its symbolically powerful conclusion. There is strong reason to date the work to 96 AD, the close of the reign of

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the Emperor Domitian, when the Apostle John was exiled to the island of Patmos. The Fathers of the Church explicitly testify to a Johannine origin of this puzzling and mysterious book. This work, which brings together the mission of the early Church, its place in society, the traditions of exhortation and encouragement in the form of letters, and the elaborate allegories of apocalyptic prophecy, elicited challenge and mystification from the first. It remains to this day a source of speculation and varying, often absurd, interpretation. These interpretations traditionally fall into three types: Praeterist (past), Continuous (historical) and Futurist (millennial or chiliastic). The first of these approaches considers the prophecies as referring to events now past, especially the overthrow of Jerusalem (in the destruction of 70 AD) and of pagan Rome (by the Edict of Milan in 313 AD). The second approach sees the prophecies as part of a process of continuous fulfilment taking place in the course of history; while the third looks to future events bound up with the Second Coming of Jesus (cf. Mt 24—25, Mk 13, Lk 15—17, “the Day of the Son of Man”, the Parousia). The Book has both a Prologue and an Epilogue, between which are unfolded the revelations to John on Patmos (1:19—22:5). It is visionary in nature, coming directly from Jesus Christ, and about him. God’s secret purposes are revealed through these visions. It is also prophetic and pastoral. The prophetic dimension is made clear in the Prologue, John stating that “The witness of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy” (Rev 19:10). Jesus is the Word of God that inspired the Prophets, and John sees the ancient oracles fulfilled in him. A pastoral concern is developed in the messages to the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. The mystical and prophetic elements—derived from situations and imagery found in the Books of Isaiah (the heavenly liturgy), Ezekiel (the celestial temple) and Daniel (the cosmic conflicts)—are underscored by the continuous use of symbolism, revealed especially in the systematic recurrence of numbers— with three, four, seven twelve and twenty-four being frequent. I John, your brother, who share with you in Jesus the tribulation and the kingdom and the patient endurance, was on the island called Patmos on account of the word of God and the testimony of Jesus. I was in the Spirit on the Lord's day, and I heard behind me a loud voice like a trumpet saying, “Write what you see in a book and send it to the seven churches, to Ephesus and to Smyrna and to Per'gamum and to Thyati'ra and to Sardis and to Philadelphia and to La-odice'a.” Then I turned to see the voice that was speaking to me, and on turning I saw seven golden lampstands... (Rev 1:9-12)

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The prevalence of the number seven links this numerology to the origins of all things in the Seven Days of Creation (6 + 1), to the sign of the divine covenant in the sacredness of the Sabbath (Gen 2:2, Ex 16:23-25, cf. Heb 4:4), and thence to the omniscience and controlling power of God spatially and temporally throughout the whole of creation, the universe, and the passing ages. This is conveyed in the fundamental structure of the work which can be seen in a sequence of sevens, the occurrence of Seven Visions: 1) the Seven Churches of Asia Minor (Rev 1—3) 2) the Seven Seals (Rev 4—7) 3) the Seven Trumpets (Rev 8—11) 4) the Seven Persons (Rev 12—14) 5) the Seven Books (Rev 15—16 6) the Seven Woes or Dooms (Rev 17—20) 7) the Seven New Things (Rev 21—22) The significance is underpinned by interludes between these seven stylized parts: 1) the Vision of the Throne of God and the Lamb (Rev 4:5) 2) the Vision of the Heavenly Multitude (Rev 5—7) 3) the Vision of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (Rev 6:1-7) 4) the Vision of the Heavenly Liturgy (Rev 8) 5) the Vision of the Lamb and the Angels of Judgement (Rev 14) 6) the Vision of the Seven Vials of Wrath (Rev 15:1-6—16:21 7) the Vision of the Final Triumph (Rev 17:1—22:5) The strength of the imagery and its symbolic appeal has resulted in many of these concepts becoming part of general culture and the store of eschatological concepts, proverbial language and idiomatic expression: the Alpha and the Omega (Rev 1:8); Jesus’ words “Behold, I stand at the door and knock” (Rev 3:20); the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (Rev 6); the Martyrs Washed in the Blood of the Lamb (Rev 7); the Bottomless Pit (Rev 8—9); the Bitter Scroll (Rev 11); the War in Heaven between Michael the Archangel and the Dragon (the Ancient Serpent) (Rev 11); the Great Beast with his mark (666) (Rev 13); the Great Prostitute or Whore (the Scarlet Woman) (Rev 17); the Great Babylon (Rev 18); the Bride (the Church) (Rev 19); the Millennium (Rev 20); the Last Judgement (Rev 20); the New Heaven and the New Earth (Rev 21—22). The text is a dense web of Scriptural allusion, and pulls together traditions,

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topoi and modes from the whole Bible, with: —47 references to the Prophet Isaiah, —28 to the Book of Psalms, —27 to the Book of Daniel, —24 to the Prophet Ezekiel, —18 to the Prophet Jeremiah, —21 to Exodus, —9 to the Prophet Zechariah, —9 to Genesis, —8 to 1 & 2 Kings, —8 to the Prophet Joel, —6 to Deuteronomy, —3 to the Prophet Hosea, —2 to Leviticus, —2 to Numbers, —2 to Proverbs, —2 to Job, —1 to the Prophet Amos, —1 to the Prophet Micah, —1 to 2 Maccabees. There are also incipient allusions to already extant New Testament books: —Mt 24:30 and Mk 14:62 (cf. Rev 1:7) —Mt 10:32 (Rev 3:5) —Jn 1:1-3 (Rev 3:14) —Acts 2:20 (Rev 6:12) —Lk 21:24 (Rev 11:2) —Mt 13:30 (Rev 14:15) —1 Thess 5:2 (Rev 16:5) —2 Thess 3:18 (Rev 22:21) There are further internal links in the text itself, especially to some key verses referring to the topos of the Book of Life. The Book of the Living (Ps 69:28) refers to everyone who is alive, while the Book of Life refers to everyone who has eternal life (Dan 12:1; Phil 4:3; Rev 21:27), that is, those who have spiritual life in Christ. Indeed, the Book of Life is sometimes called the Lamb’s Book of Life (e.g. Rev 13:8, 21:27). The names of unbelievers were never written in the Book of Life (Rev 13:8; 17:8), and never will be if they die in unbelief.

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He who conquers shall be clad thus in white garments, and I will not blot his name out of the book of life; I will confess his name before my Father and before his angels. He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches.' (Rev 3:5-6)

This motif captures the eschatological hope and the nature of prophecy inspired by the Holy Spirit, the dynamic and working principle of the whole Book of Revelation. Rev 3:5 cf. Rev 13:8; 17:8, 20:12, 15; 21:27 Rev 3:12 cf. Rev 21:2 Rev 17:8 cf. Rev 3:5 Rev 20:12, 15 cf. Rev 3:5 Rev 21:2 cf. Rev 3:12 Rev 21:27 cf. Rev 3:5 This series of allusions and cross-references, covering so many of the Biblical books and all the literary modes (epic, dramatic, lyric) and genres (primordial narrative, law, theology, history, poetry, prophecy, wisdom, eschatology, apocalyptic, oracle, vision, hymn, gospel and letter), is rivalled only by the Acts of the Apostles in thematic density. The vitality of language and imagery, the sustained liturgical, juridical and military symbolism, the enduring influence on popular language, expression and thought, imparts a textured richness to the allusive and illusive text of Revelation that is both a summation of the Biblical traditions, and a trajectory into the future. Every age has been, and is, engaged by this text, reflecting on the mysteries of the depicted action, on the implications of the symbolism, on the persona, insights and teaching. These are rich both in moral and figurative/tropological implications for election, covenant, discipleship, witness and mission. Fundamentalist interpretation of Revelation has led to one of the most recurrent and often destructive theological-political phenomena in history, millenarianism. According to this reading of Rev 20, Jesus will return and establish a throne in this world and reign for a thousand years before the resumption of cosmic conflict. The Bible teaches that Jesus already reigns in eternity (1 Cor 15:24-27, Rev 4 & 5) and that the beginnings of his Kingdom are already present in his Church. This is the Thousand Years— a Hebrew way of indicating a long, indefinite period, in this case the time between the first and second comings (Incarnation and Parousia), the last days in the broadest sense. In the context of the Book of Revelation, this era is situated between the persecutions of the Roman pagans of the 1st

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century and the final unleashing of evil at the end of time. Jesus’ coming will be triumphant and everlasting, not subject to a temporal and limited millennium. The Book begins with a vision of Christ in glory, the answer to the ages (the Alpha and Omega, 1:8), and ends with the certainty of Christ’s return (21:6), his overcoming of the tumult of the times, his perfect victory over his enemies, and his recapitulation, restoration, renewal, and reconciliation of all things in existence, in heaven and on earth (Rev 21:5 cf. 2 Cor 5:19). John to the seven churches that are in Asia: Grace to you and peace from him who is and who was and who is to come, and from the seven spirits who are before his throne, and from Jesus Christ the faithful witness, the first-born of the dead, and the ruler of kings on earth. To him who loves us and has freed us from our sins by his blood and made us a kingdom, priests to his God and Father, to him be glory and dominion for ever and ever. Amen. Behold, he is coming with the clouds, and every eye will see him, every one who pierced him; and all tribes of the earth will wail on account of him. Even so. Amen. “I am the Alpha and the Omega,” says the Lord God, who is and who was and who is to come, the Almighty. (Rev 1:4-8) “I Jesus have sent my angel to you with this testimony for the churches. I am the root and the offspring of David, the bright morning star.” The Spirit and the Bride say, “Come.” And let him who hears say, “Come.” And let him who is thirsty come, let him who desires take the water of life without price. I warn every one who hears the words of the prophecy of this book: if any one adds to them, God will add to him the plagues described in this book, and if any one takes away from the words of the book of this prophecy, God will take away his share in the tree of life and in the holy city, which are described in this book. He who testifies to these things says, “Surely I am coming soon.” Amen. Come, Lord Jesus! The grace of the Lord Jesus be with all the saints. Amen. (Rev 22:16-21)

Iconography St John has been portrayed by many artists as he records the visions being given to him. St. John on Patmos by Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1500, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin) [302] [Fig. 68] refers to the opening verses of Revelation and shows the Apostle looking upwards to the small figure of Mary sitting on a crescent moon and positioned in the sun, with the Christ Child on her lap. An angel is pointing towards the vision and the young Apostle’s face is serene. In his hand the pen is poised as he records all that he is experiencing. The bird at the bottom left of the picture represents the symbol of John the Evangelist, the eagle. In Georges Trubert’s illuminated

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manuscript St. John on Patmos (c.1480-90, J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles) [303] the island location is clear and the artist writes on a long scroll, linking his work with that of the Prophets. The eagle in this image resembles more closely that in other portrayals of the Apostle. A third example, St John at Patmos by Berto di Giovanni, the central panel of the St John Altarpiece, (c.1518, Galleria Nazionale, Perugia) [304] shows the Apostle seated on a rock and writing in a book, the black bird with open beak beside him. The background is fairly contemporary to the painting. St John is focusing on his writing, some of which can be clearly read. The complex nature of the Book of the Revelation has led artists to draw out several themes, some intertwined and difficult to unravel, as is the text itself. The frontispiece for the 9th-century Book of Revelation in the Bible of Saint Paul’s Outside the Walls, Rome [305], shows seven angels sitting on thrones, and placed to the left centre is the Lamb with the book on an altar, and to the right and seated, God the Father, surrounded by the four symbols of the Evangelists, the young man (Matthew), the lion (Mark), the ox (Luke), and at the top the eagle (John). The Synoptic Writers look in praise and worship to the one on the throne, whereas the eagle has a fixed gaze on the Lamb, the Christ figure. Three overall depictions of the Revelation are major sources of images. The Angers Apocalypse was commissioned by Louis I, Duke of Anjou, and executed by Jean Bondol and Nicholas Bataille in 1377-1382 [306]. Of its original 90 tapestries, 71 can now be viewed at the Château d’Angers, having undergone serious maltreatment during the French Revolution, but now beautifully restored and exhibited. Many aspects of the text are interpreted, most famously the Fourth Horseman who is shown as a laughing skeleton, as well as the Dragon with seven heads and ten horns. The Bamberg Apocalypse (1000-20, Bamberg State Library) [307] has over 100 folios depicting scenes from the Revelation, for example the vision of the ‘One who was sitting on the throne’ surrounded by a mandorla and the Evangelists, and five flashes from the rainbow at the foot of the throne. There are actually eight, rather than seven, flaming torches, but this is possibly to give the work symmetry. A further rich source of imagery is known as the Escorial Beatus which is a 10th-century commentary on Revelation (c.950, Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Spain) [308]. Brightly coloured illustrations show angels blowing trumpets, and there are animals and birds. In addition to these compendia of images, the Osogovo Monastery in the Republic of Macedonia [309] [Fig. 69] has a series of frescoes of the Apocalypse in a dome: especially dramatic are the images of Satan, and Four Horsemen,

132

Early Church Themes

the last looking like a woman bearing the scythe of the grim reaper. There are also many images which capture particular aspects of Revelation. The familiar reading about the Woman and the Dragon (Rev 12:1-7), which the Catholic Church uses for the Mass of the Assumption, appears in Rubens’s Madonna on the Crescent Moon (1625, Freising Cathedral) [310]. Here Mary is shown in blue and white robes, holding the child Jesus who reaches up to an angel carrying a laurel and a crown of victory. Beneath her feet she crushes the Serpent, the symbol of evil from the Book of Genesis. To the left the Archangel Michael beats down the Dragon with its seven heads, and at the top of the picture God reigns supreme in heaven. The final triumph of the worship of the Lamb (Rev 21:22-27), Jesus Christ, is shown in DĦrer’s The Adoration of the Lamb (1496-98, The National Gallery of Art, Washington DC) [311] where the Lamb pours out its blood which is caught in a chalice, and below are a whole host of the faithful who worship the Lamb with palms in their hands. The centrepiece of Van Eyck’s Ghent Altarpiece, known as the Adoration of the Mystic Lamb (c.1390-1441) [312] [Fig. 70] is a masterpiece of art and is also closely related to the liturgy for All Saints’ Day. In the centre, as with DĦrer’s work, is the Lamb, now on an altar surrounded by angels bearing censers and instruments of the passion of Jesus. The blood of the Lamb pours into a golden chalice, but the Lamb stands serene and victorious. All around are martyrs, saints and prophets, and above the dove, symbol of the Holy Spirit. Directly about that is the panel containing God the Father. The altarpiece in its entirety celebrates the final triumph, the salvation brought by Jesus Christ to the world. Some Concluding Allegories of the Covenants A Lutheran overview of the covenant revelation of Old and New Testaments can be seen in the didactic work of Hans Holbein the Younger, An Allegory of the Old and New Testaments (1530, The National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh) [313]. The picture has three sections, left, right and central foreground, with small images and clear labelling of what they represent. To the left are scenes from the Old Testament and to the right the New Testament, but there is a clear bias towards the latter. In the centre sits a naked and agonized man, urged by both Isaiah and John the Baptist to look to the Crucified Jesus who, in another scene, rises victorious over death (the inevitable result of the sin of Adam and Eve), which, in the form of a skeleton, is also portrayed to the left. As in Lucas Cranach the Elder’s similar images, Law and Grace (1529, Stiftung Schloss Friedenstein, Gotha, Germany) [314], there is a clear indication

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that the Law of the Old Testament is rejected because of the sacrifice of Christ on the Cross, and the grace which that imparts. Holbein and Cranach are clearly representing the Protestant theology of their time, and one which rejects the concept of a continued revelation of God’s love in the covenantal relationship throughout all time (cf. Rom 9—11).

APPENDIX 1

The Pontifical Biblical Commission, The Jewish People and Their Sacred Scriptures in the Christian Bible (Éditions Paulines, 2001). 85. But it is especially in studying the great themes of the Old Testament and their continuation in the New which accounts for the impressive symbiosis that unites the two parts of the Christian Bible and, at the same time, the vigorous spiritual ties that unite the Church of Christ to the Jewish people. In both Testaments, it is the same God who enters into relationship with human beings and invites them to live in communion with him; the one God and the source of unity; God the Creator who continues to provide for the needs of his creatures, in particular those who are intelligent and free, and who are called to recognize the truth and to love; God especially is the Liberator and Saviour of human beings, because, although created in his image, they have fallen through sin into a pitiful slavery. Since it is a project for inter-personal relationships, God's plan is realized in history. It is impossible to discover what that plan is by philosophical speculation on the human being in general. God reveals this plan by unforeseeable initiatives, in particular, by the call addressed to an individual chosen from all the rest of humanity, Abraham (Gen 12:1-3), and by guiding the destiny of this person and his posterity, the people of Israel (Ex 3:10). A central Old Testament theme (Deut 7:6-8), Israel's election continues to be of fundamental importance in the New Testament. Far from calling it into question, the birth of Jesus confirms it in the most spectacular manner. Jesus is “son of David, son of Abraham” (Mt 1:1). He comes “to save his people from their sins” (1:21). He is the Messiah promised to Israel (Jn 1:41,45); he is “the Word” (Logos) come “to his own” (Jn 1:11-14). The salvation he brings through his paschal mystery is offered first of all to the Israelites. As foreseen by the Old Testament, this salvation has universal repercussions as well. It is also offered to the Gentiles. Moreover, it is accepted by many of them, to the extent that they have become the great majority of Christ's disciples. But Christians from the nations profit from salvation only by being introduced, by their faith in Israel's Messiah, into the posterity of Abraham (Gal 3:7,29). Many Christians from the “nations” are not aware that they are by nature “wild

Table of Images

135

olives” and that their faith in Christ has grafted them onto the olive tree chosen by God (Rom 11:17-18). Israel's election is made concrete and specific in the Sinai covenant and by the institutions based on it, especially the Law and the Temple. The New Testament is in continuity with this covenant and its institutions. The new covenant foretold by Jeremiah and established in the blood of Jesus has come through the covenant between God and Israel, surpassing the Sinai covenant by a new gift of the Lord that completes and carries forward the original gift. Likewise, “the law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus” (Rom 8:2), which gives an interior dynamism, remedies the weakness (8:3) of the Sinai Law and renders believers capable of living a disinterested love that is the “fulfilment of the Law” (Rom 13:10). As regards the earthly Temple, the New Testament, borrowing terms prepared by the Old Testament, relativizes the adequacy of a material edifice as a dwelling place of God (Acts 7:48), and points to a relationship with God where the emphasis is on interiority. In this point, as in many others, it is obvious that the continuity is based on the prophetic movement of the Old Testament. In the past, the break between the Jewish people and the Church of Christ Jesus could sometimes, in certain times and places, give the impression of being complete. In the light of the Scriptures, this should never have occurred. For a complete break between Church and Synagogue contradicts Sacred Scripture.

Part 1 Chapter 1 The Torah, or Pentateuch A: Genesis Fig. 1

Ceiling of the Room of the Signature, Vatican Museum

Church of Ste Madeleine, Troyes

Creation of the World by Raphael (1509-11)

Day-by-day acts of creation (c.1500)

4

British Museum

3

2

God as Creator of the World, from the Bible moralisée (1220-30) The Ancient of Days by William Blake, frontispiece to Europe as a Prophesy (1794, 13 copies in existence, Copy D) Austrian National Library, Vienna

Location

1

Image number, title, artist and date

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Vitrail_de_la_Cr%C3%A9ation_Eg lise_de_la_Madeleine_Troyes_51208_ 01.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia /commons/9/90/Raphael__Ceiling_of_the_Selling_Room.jpg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Europe_a_Prophecy_copy_D_1794 _British_Museum_object_1.jpg

https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wik i/File:God_the_Geometer.jpg

Source

THE COMPLETE LIST OF IMAGES

APPENDIX 2

stained glass

fresco

manuscript

illuminated manuscript

Notes

Fig. 2 Chartres Cathedral, north portal

Prado Museum, Madrid, the left panel of triptych

The Creation of Adam (13th Century)

The Garden of Earthly Delights – The Earthly Paradise (Garden of Eden) by Hieronymus Bosch (1480-1505) Adam and Eve in the Garden of Paradise by Peter Wenzel (1745-1829) The Temptation of Adam and Eve by Masolini (1426-7)

9

10

13

12

11

The Temptation in the Garden of Eden (13th century)

Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Rome

The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo (1508-12)

8

Notre Dame, Paris

Brancacci Chapel of Church of Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence

Vatican Museum

Bibliothèque municipale de Moulins, France Grabow Altarpiece, Hamburger Kunsthalle

7

6

Cathedral of Monreale, Sicily

Day-by-day acts of creation (1180s) The Creation Story from the Souvigny Bible (c.11801200) Three Creation Scenes by Master Bertram (c.1383)

5

Appendix 2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_an d_Eve#/media/File:Temptation_Adam _Eva.jpg

http://mv.vatican.va/3_EN/pages/xSchede/PINs/PINs_Sala16_06_062.ht ml http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia /commons/6/6e/Masolino%2C_adamo _ed_eva.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hier onymus_Bosch__Triptych_of_Garden_of_Earthly_Del ights_(detail)_-_WGA2519.jpg

Image available on various websites

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia /commons/6/64/Creaci%C3%B3n_de_ Ad%C3%A1n_%28Miguel_%C3%81 ngel%29.jpg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Monreale_adam_eva_meeting.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Bible_de_Souvigny__Bibliothèque_de_Moulins_f4v.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grabow_ Altarpiece

sculpture

fresco

painting

painting

sculpture

fresco

painting

manuscript

mosaics

137

Fig. 4

Fig. 3

138

The Creation of the World and the Expulsion from Paradise by Giovanni de Paolo (1445) The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden by Masaccio (c.1425)

17

22

21

20

19

18

British Library, London

The Building of the Ark from The Bedford Hours (142330) The Flood, The Sacrifice of Noah, and The Drunkenness of Noah by Michelangelo (1508-12) Noah releases the Dove (12th-13th century) The story of Noah in the mosaics at St Mark’s Cathedral, Venice.

Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, Rome

Sistine Chapel, Vatican

The Fall and Expulsion by Michelangelo (1508-12)

Brancacci Chapel of Church of Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

The Morgan Library and Museum, New York City

Louvre, Paris

Adam and Eve by the Tree of Good and Evil by Pieter van der Werff (c.1700), (sometimes attributed to Adriaen van der Werff) Adam and Eve by Albrecht Dürer (1504)

15

16

Ceiling of the Room of the Signature, Vatican Museum

Adam and Eve by Raphael (1508)

14

The Bible and Art

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noah#/m edia/File:Noah_mosaic.JPG

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Albrecht_Dürer,_Adam_and_Eve,_ 1504,_Engraving.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni _di_Paolo#/media/File:Creation-andthe-expulsion-from-the-paradise11291.jpg https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wik i/File:MasaccioTheExpulsionOfAdamAndEveFromE den-Restoration.jpg https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wik i/File:Michelangelo,_Fall_and_Expuls ion_from_Garden_of_Eden_00.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi a/commons/6/6c/BL_Bedford_Hours_ MS_Additional_18850_f_15v.jpg http://mv.vatican.va/3_EN/pages/CSN /CSN_Volta_StCentr.html

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:0_Adam_et_Eve__Fresque_de_Rapha%C3%ABl__Stanza_della_Signatura_(2).JPG http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/A driaen_van_der_Werff#/media/File:A driaen_van_der_Werff__Adam_en_Eva.jpg

mosaic

fresco

illuminated manuscript

fresco

fresco

painting

engraving

painting

fresco

Fig. 6

Fig. 5

Neue Residenz, Bamberg, Germany Louvre, Paris

Window 47, Chartres Cathedral, north side of nave

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

The Flood by Hans Baldung (1516) Winter (the Flood) by Poussin (1660-4) Louvre) Noah and the Ark, by The Master of Sir John Fastolf, (image 382 in the Book of Hours, mid 15th century Noah and the Dove (2nd-4th century) Noah’s Ark on the Mount Ararat by Simon de Myle’s (1570) The rainbow and Noah’s sacrifice (c.1180-90) Landscape with Noah’s Thanksoffering by Joseph Koch (1803) The Noah Window (13th century)

The Tower of Babel by Pieter Bruegel the Elder (1563)

25

33

32

31

30

29

28

27

Monreale Cathedral, Sicily, south wall of nave Städelmuseum, Frankfurt am Main

The Catacomb of Saints Marcellinus and Peter, Rome Private collection

Bodleian Library, Oxford

Louvre, Paris

The Flood by Antonio Carracci (c.1616)

24

26

Louvre, Paris

The Entry of Animals into Noah’s Ark by Jacopo dal Ponte (Bassano) (after 1579)

23

Appendix 2

www.cathedrale-chartres.org Les vitraux, Bas-côté/Déambulatoire, Vitrail 47- Noé, ‘Le deluge et l’Alliance’ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piet er_Bruegel_the_Elder__The_Tower_of_Babel_(Vienna)__Google_Art_Project_-_edited.jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Noah%27s_Ark_on_Mount_Arar at_by_Simon_de_Myle.jpg http://www.wga.hu/art/zgothic/mosaic s/5monreal/3nave02s.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Josep h_Anton_Koch_006.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orans

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ Category:16thcentury_paintings_of_Old_Testament #/media/File:Bassano,_Jacopo_Entry_ into_the_Ark.jpg https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anto nio_Carracci_-_The_Flood_-_16161618.jpg http://www.wikiart.org/en/hansbaldung/the-flood-1516 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nic olas_Poussin_046.jpg http://www.english.cam.ac.uk/mediev al/zoom.php?id=382

painting

stained glass

painting

mosaic

painting

fresco

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

139

Fig. 7

140

The Sacrifice of Isaac by Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo (mid-1750s)

The Sacrifice of Isaac by Caravaggio (1) (1598) The Sacrifice of Isaac by Caravaggio (2) (1603)

39

40

41

38

37

36

35

The Tower of Babel by Lucas van Valckenborgh (1594) The Tower of Babel from The Bedford Hours (142330) The circumcision, part of the Verdun altarpiece by Nikolaus von Verdun (c. 1171-81) Abraham Took Ishmael with All the Males Born in His House and Circumcised Them, in Figures de la Bible by Gerard Hoet and Others (1728) Isaac’s circumcision, unknown artist (c.1300)

34

Piasecka-Johnson Collection, Princeton, New Jersey Uffizi, Florence

Regensburg Pentateuch, Israel Museum, Jerusalem; Cod. 180/52, fol. 81b. Copy scanned from BIU today, Vol. 4 Fall/Winter 2007. (Bar-Ilan University magazine) Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York

Published in The Hague by P. de Hondt, 1728

Verduner Altar, Klosterneuburg near Vienna

British Library

Louvre, Paris

The Bible and Art

http://www.metmuseum.org/collection s/search-thecollections?ft=tiepolo%2c+giovanni+ domenico&ao=on&noqs=tru e http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrifice_ of_Isaac_(Caravaggio) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrifice_ of_Isaac_(Caravaggio)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Isaac %27s_circumcision,_Regensburg_c13 00.jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Figures_017_Abraham_Took_Ish mael_with_All_the_Males_Born_in_ His_House_and_Circumcised_Them.j pg

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verduner _Altar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_v an_Valckenborch#/media/File:Tour_d e_babel.jpeg http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer. aspx?ref=add_ms_18850_f013r

painting

painting

painting

illuminated manuscript

engraving

enamel

illuminated manuscript

painting

National Gallery, London

Joseph’s Brothers beg for Help, by Pontormo (c.1515)

National Gallery, London

British Library

The Golden Haggadah (14th century) The Finding of Moses by Nicolas Poussin (1651)

49

B: Exodus

50

Ghent Cathedral

Joseph orders his servants to fill the sacks with wheat by Raphaël de Mercatelli ( late 15th century)

48

Musée du Message Biblique Marc-Chagall, Nice, France

47

46

Gustave Doré Gallery, London

Jacob Wrestling with the Angel by Gustave Doré (1855) Jacob Wrestling with the Angel Marc Chagall (1963)

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

The Pierpont Morgan Library, the Bibliothèque nationale de France (MS nouv. acq. lat. 2294) and the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles (MS 16). Chartres Cathedral

45

Isaac carrying wood in the shape of a cross, Maciejowski (or Morgan Crusader) Bible (leaf 3) (13th century). Isaac carrying wood in the shape of a cross (13th century) Jacob Wrestling with the Angel, Rembrandt (c.1659)

Fig. 9

Fig. 8

44

43

42

Appendix 2

http://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/inside/ goldhaggadahstories/goldenhagg.html http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/nicolas-poussin-the-finding-ofmoses

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/pontormo-josephs-brothersbeg-for-help https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_( patriarch)#/media/File:Joseph_workin g_02.gif

http://diglib.library.vanderbilt.edu/actimagelink.pl?RC=54651

www.cathedrale-chartres.org Les vitraux, Bas-côté/Déamublatoire Passion Typologique https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_w restling_with_the_angel#/media/File: Rembrandt__Jacob_Wrestling_with_the_Angel__Google_Art_Project.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_w restling_with_the_angel

http://www.medievaltymes.com/court yard/images/maciejowski/leaf3/otm3r c.gif

Jewish prayer book painting

illuminated manuscript

painting

painting

woodcut

painting

stained glass

illuminated manuscript

141

Fig. 10

142

The Pharaoh’s Hosts Engulfed in the Red Sea by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1530) The Passage of the Red Sea by Bernardino Luini (151020)

55

57

56

The Crossing of the Red Sea by Poussin (1633-37)

Saint Sauveur Cathedral, Aix-enProvence

The Burning Bush part of a triptych by Nicolas Froment (1475-6) The Visitation by M.Grellet (1903)

53

National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia

Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan

Schloss Johannisburg, Aschaffenburg, Germany

Rosary Basilica in Lourdes

Pisa Cathedral

The Burning Bush, by Matteo Rosselli (pre-1623)

52

54

Louvre, Paris

The Finding of Moses by Nicolas Poussin (1638)

51

The Bible and Art

http://www.brera.beniculturali.it/Page/ t04/view_html?idp=244 http://www.wikigallery.org/wiki/painti ng_254936/Bernardino-Luini/TheCrossing-of-the-Red-Sea https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cro ssing_of_the_Red_Sea_(Poussin)#/me dia/File:The_Crossing_fo_The_Red_S ea.jpg

Best viewed in Perrier, J. Lourdes, The Basilica of Our Lady of the Rosary. 2008 Strasbourg: Éditions du Signe p.40-43 0r Lourdes Magazine n.121 (133)/ March-April 2005 Mosaics of Lourdes, The Mysteries of the Life of Christ p.18-33 http://www.wikiart.org/en/lucascranach-the-elder/sinking-of-thepharaoh-in-the-red-sea-1530

http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?s rv=obj_view_obj&objet=cartel_2133_ 76116_AD100880.jpg_obj.html&flag =true http://2.bp.blogspot.com/8YanX5R7jjE/TmebbzmDCiI/AAAA AAAAAJM/iSyrkjGfms8/s1600/Ross elli+Matteo%252C+1623.JPG http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nicol as_Froment_003.jpg

painting

painting

painting

mosaic

painting

painting

painting

Fig. 12

Fig. 11

Palazzo Vecchio, Florence

The Crossing of the Red Sea by Agnolo Bronzino (15412) Passage of the Jews through the Red Sea by Ivan Aivazovsky (1891) A Prayer of Moses after the Israelites go through the Red Sea, by Ivan Kramskoy (1861)

The Story of Moses on the Fonte Lustrale, baptismal font, by Master Roberto (12th century) The Israelites Gathering the Manna by Nicolas Poussin (1639) The Israelites Gathering the Manna by Hendrick de Clerk (1620s) The Israelites Gathering the Manna Bernardino Luini (c.1520) The Israelites Gathering the Manna by Dieric Bouts (1464-7)

59

62

66

65

64

63

61

60

St Peter’s Church, Louvain

Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan

National Museum of Warsaw

Louvre, Paris

Basilica of San Frediano, Lucca

National Art Museum of the Republic of Belarus, Belarus

location unknown

The Sistine Chapel, Vatican

58

The Crossing of the Red Sea by Cosimo Rosselli (1481-2)

Appendix 2

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ Category:Reredos_of_the_Holy_Sacra ment#/media/File:Dieric_Bouts__The_Gathering_of_the_Manna__WGA03012.jpg

http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?s rv=car_not_frame&idNotice=2135&la ngue=fr http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Clerck_Israelites_gathering_Manna .jpg http://www.brera.beniculturali.it/Page/ t04/view_html?idp=134

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_ of_San_Frediano#mediaviewer/File:L ucca.San_Frediano03.JPG

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cro ssing_of_the_Red_Sea_(Sistine_Chap el) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossing _of_the_Red_Sea_(Bronzino)#/media/ File:Angelo_Bronzino_022.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Aivazovsky_Passage_of_the_Jew s_through_the_Red_Sea.jpg http://www.wikiart.org/en/ivankramskoy/prayer-of-moses-after-theisraelites-go-through-the-black-sea1861#supersized-artistPaintings195876

painting(altarpiec e)

painting

painting

painting

sculpture

painting

painting

fresco

fresco

143

Fig. 14

Fig. 13

144

Private collection

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Rouen, France

Musée national Message Biblique Marc Chagall, Nice, France Sistine Chapel, Vatican, south wall

Moses and the Tablets of the Law, by Claude Vignon, c.1625-50)

Moses and the Tablets of the Law by Claude Vignon (c.1650) Moses and the Tablets of the Law, by José de Ribera (1638) The giving of the tablets to Moses (ninth century illustration) Moses and the Tablets of the Law, by Rembrandt (1659)

Moses with the Tablets of the Law by Marc Chagall (1956)

Handing over the Tablets of the Law,by Cosimo Rosselli (1481-82)

69

70

74

75

73

72

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Moutier-Grandval Bible, British Museum

Museo Nazionale di San Martino, Naples

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Troyes

Moses at Mount Sinai by Jacques de Letin (c.1655)

68

71

The tomb of Julius II, the church of San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome

Moses by Michelangelo (1513-15)

67

The Bible and Art

http://mv.vatican.va/3_EN/pages/CSN /CSN_Sud.html

Image available on various websites

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia /commons/3/3d/Rembrandt__Moses_with_the_Ten_Commandmen ts_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg

http://www.bl.uk/manuscripts/Viewer. aspx?ref=add_ms_10546_f001r

http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Wave/ima ge/joconde/0591/m072904_sr84_p.jpg http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia /commons/4/4c/Moses041.jpg

Available to view on commercial site http://a1reproductions.com/mosesand-the-tablets-of-the-law-by-claudevignon.jpg

http://www.artbible.info/art/large/61.h tml

Image available on various websites

fresco

painting

painting

manuscript

painting

painting

painting

painting

sculpture

Chapter 2 The Prophets A: Isaiah/ DeuteroIsaiah Fig. 16

C: Deuteronomy

Fig. 15

82

81

80

79

78

77

76

La Saincte Bible (1670)

The Tree of Jesse (15th century)

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Jollain_Moses_Views_the_Promi sed_Land.jpg http://uploads6.wikiart.org/images/nic olas-poussin/autumn-1664.jpg

Figures de la Bible by Gerard Hoet and others, published by P. Hondt, The Hague, 1728.

Church of St Bris, Burgundy.

Dahesh Museum, New York

http://www.wikiart.org/en/alexandrecabanel/the-death-of-moses-1851

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Figures_The_erection_of_the_Tabe rnacle_and_the_Sacred_vessels.jpg

National Gallery, London

The Adoration of the Golden Calf by Nicolas Poussin (1633-34) The Erection of the Tabernacle and the Sacred Vessels in Figures de la Bible by Gerard Hoet and others Moses Views the Promised Land by Gerard Jollain (1670) The Spies with the Grapes of the Promised Land (Autumn) by Nicolas Poussin (166064) The death of Moses by Alexandre Cabanel (1851) Louvre, Paris

https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/my/co llections/87876--ad-van-denende/lucas-van-leijden/objecten#/SKA-3841,19 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_ calf#/media/File:GoldCalf.jpg

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

The Adoration of the Golden Calf by Lucas van Leyden (c.1530)

Appendix 2

fresco

painting

painting

engraving

engraving

painting

painting

145

Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, south transept Sant’Agostino, Rome

Created as Bible illustration

Sistine Chapel, Rome

Palazzo Patriarcale, Udine, Italy

Matthew and Isaiah –stained glass (13th century) Isaiah (16th century)

Isaiah by James Tissot (19th century)

Isaiah by Michelangelo (1509)

The Prophet Isaiah by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, (1726-9)

89

91

92

93

90

Chartres Cathedral, south transept

Matthew and Isaiah (13th century)

88

Chartres Cathedral, north door

St Denis Cathedral, France, north transept

Front cover

The Tree of Jesse –stained glass window (13th century) Isaiah (13th century)

86

St Martin, Clamecy, Burgundy

St John the Baptist church, Tideswell, Derbyshire Chartres Cathedral

87

The Tree of Jesse (15 century)

th

The Tree of Jesse (1876, Heaton, Butler and Bayne) The Tree of Jesse (1145)

85

84

83

The Bible and Art

Fig. 18

Fig. 17

146

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Udine_Palazzo_Patriarcale__Sala_rossa_Prophet_1.jpg.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophet_ Isaiah_(Michelangelo)

http://www.notredamedeparis.fr/South -Rose-Window http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia /commons/f/f0/Raffael__The_Prophet_Isaiah_-_15111512.jpg http://www.wikiart.org/en/jamestissot/isaiah

See Front Cover Image available on various websites

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The _north_transept_rose_window_at_StDenis.png Image available on various websites

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Tideswell_Church_altar_2.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fran ce_Chartres_JesseTree_c1145_a.JPG

fresco

fresco

painting

fresco

stained glass

stained glass

sculpture

stained glass

stained glass

stained glass

stained glass

B: JOB

Holy Transfiguration Monastery

Wall painting, the Cathedral of San Gimignano in Tuscany 8th print from William Blake's Illustrations of the Book of Job, William Blake Archive

Musée Condé, Château de Chantilly, France

Musée Departemental des Vosges, Epinal

Job the Long-Suffering (c.2005)

The early life of Job (c.1356) Satan Smiting Job with Boils by William Blake (1826)

Job and his False Comforters by Jean Fouquet (1452-60)

Job Ridiculed by his Wife by Georges de la Tour (c.1650)

97

98

100

101

99

Frans Hals Museum, Haarlem

Wallraf-Richartz-Museum , Cologne.

Die trauernden Juden im Exil by Eduard Bendemann (c. 1832) The prophet Isaiah predicts the return of the Jews from exile by Maarten van Heemskerk (1560-5)

95

96

The Jewish Museum, New York

The Flight of the Prisoners by James Tissot (1902)

94

Appendix 2

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia /commons/3/35/Georges_de_La_Tour _044.jpg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Jean_Fouquet__Job_and_his_False _Comforters_-_WGA08033.jpg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Maarten_van_Heemskerck__Prophet_Isaiah_predicts_the_return_ of_the_Jews_from_exile_15601565_FHM01_OS-I-173.jpg http://orthodoxwiki.org/File:Job_the_ Long-Suffering.jpg Copyright © by Holy Transfiguration Monastery (Brookline, Massachusetts). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collegiate _Church_of_San_Gimignano http://www.blakearchive.org/exist/bla ke/archive/copy.xq?copyid=bb421.1& java=no

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Tissot_The_Flight_of_the_Prison ers.jpg http://www.museenkoeln.de/home/bil d-der-woche.aspx?bdw=2002_26

painting

illustration for a Book of Hours

drawing

fresco

icon

painting

painting

painting

147

Chapter 1: Gospel Themes A: Parables of the Kingdom

Part 2: The New Testament

Fig. 20

Fig. 19

148

Mosaic in the Rosary Basilica, Lourdes

Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris (north transept)

The Scourging at the Pillar by M. Louis-Edouard Fournier (1904)

The Triumph of Job by Guido Reni (1636)

103

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Tate Britain

The Parable of the Pearl of Great Price by Sir John Everett Millais, engraved by the Dalziel Brothers (1864) The Parable of the Pearl of Great Price by Domenico Fetti (early 17th century)

106

107

Used by Robert Bowyer (17581834) for his illustrated Bible in 45 volumes, Bolton Archives in Lancashire.

The Parable of the Pearl of Great Price by Jan Luyken (17th century)

105

104

North portal, Chartres Cathedral

The Torment of Job (13th century)

102

The Bible and Art

http://www.khm.at/en/

http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/mi llais-the-pearl-of-great-price-a00804

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Teachings_of_Jesus_11_of_40._p arable_of_the_pearl_of_great_price._J an_Luyken_etching._Bowyer_Bible.gi f

Best viewed in Perrier, J. Lourdes, The Basilica of Our Lady of the Rosary. 2008 Strasbourg: Éditions du Signe p.60-63 Or Lourdes Magazine n.121 (133)/ March-April 2005 Mosaics of Lourdes, The Mysteries of the Life of Christ p.18-33 Image available on various websites

painting

engraving

etching

painting

fresco

sculpture

116

115

Fig. 23

Cathedral of Târgu-Mureè, Romania Tate Britain

Timken Museum of Art, California

Tate Britain

The Leaven by Sir John Everett Millais, engraved by the Dalziel Brothers (1864) The Parable of the Sower by Pieter Bruegel the Elder’s (1557) The Parable of the Sower, (c.1930) The Sower by Sir John Everett Millais, engraved by the Dalziel Brothers (1864)

113

114

Used by Robert Bowyer (17581834) for his illustrated Bible in 45 volumes, Bolton Archives in Lancashire.

The Parable of the Yeast by Jan Luyken (17th century)

Used by Robert Bowyer (17581834) for his illustrated Bible in 45 volumes, Bolton Archives in Lancashire.

Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest

Used by Robert Bowyer (17581834) for his illustrated Bible in 45 volumes, Bolton Archives in Lancashire. Tate Britain

112

111

110

The Parable of the Hidden Treasure by Millais, engraved by the Dalziel Brothers (1864) The Parable of the Hidden Treasure by Gerard Dou (or Rembrandt ) (c.1630) The Parable of the Mustard Seed by Jan Luyken (17th century)

109

Fig. 22

Fig. 21

The Parable of the Hidden Treasure by Jan Luyken (17th century)

108

Appendix 2

http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/mi llais-the-sower-a00800

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piete r_Bruegel_d._%C3%84._030.jpg

http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/mi llais-the-leaven-a00796

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_o f_the_Leaven

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Parable_of_the_hidden_treasure_Re mbrandt_-_Gerard_Dou.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Teachings_of_Jesus_5_of_40._para ble_of_the_mustard_seed._Jan_Luyke n_etching._Bowyer_Bible.gif

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Teachings_of_Jesus_10_of_40._par able_of_the_hidden_treasure._Jan_Lu yken_etching._Bowyer_Bible.gif http://www.tate.org.uk/art/artworks/mi llais-the-hidden-treasure-a00810

engraving

fresco

painting

engraving

etching

etching

painting

engraving

etching

149

Fig. 25

B: Miracles Fig.24

150

125

124

123

122

The Exorcism of the Gerasene Demoniac 10th century ivory by the Master of the Magdeburg Antependium The Healing of the Man born Blind by Duccio di Buoninsega (1307/8-11) Christ Healing the Blind by El Greco (c.1570)

The Healing of a Possessed in Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry Van Limburg Brothers (1413-16) The Exorcism of the Gerasene Demoniac by Sebastien Bourdon (c. 16537)

121

Variants in Gemäldegalerie, Dresden, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

National Gallery, London

Hessisches Landesmuseum, Darmstadt, Germany

Location unknown

Used by Robert Bowyer (17581834) for his illustrated Bible in 45 volumes, Bolton Archives in Lancashire. Musée Condé, Château de Chantilly, France

The Parable of Drawing in the Net by Jan Luyken (17th century)

120

119

118

Musée Provincial Félicien Rops, Namur Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid Walters Art Museum, Baltimore

Satan Sowing Seeds by Félicien Rops (c.1872) The Sower of Weeds by Domenico Fetti (1618-22) The Parable of the Wheat and the Tares by Abraham Bloemaert (1624)

117

The Bible and Art

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/duccio-the-healing-of-the-manborn-blind http://www.wikiart.org/en/elgreco/christ-healing-the-blind-man1560 and http://www.metmuseum.org/collection /the-collection-online/search/436572

http://museumstock.com/items/16972

http://necspenecmetu.tumblr.com/post /39954615485/sebastien-bourdon-theexorcism-of-the-gerasene

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Folio _166r_-_The_Exorcism.jpg .

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sata nsowing.JPG http://www.museothyssen.org/en/thyss en/ficha_obra/465 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abr aham_Bloemaert__Parable_of_the_Wheat_and_the_Tar es_-_Walters_372505.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable_ of_Drawing_in_the_Net

painting

painting

ivory

painting

manuscript

etching

painting

painting

drawing

Fig. 26

Louvre, Paris

Russian Museum, St Petersburg

Raising of Jairus’s Daughter by Paolo Veronese (1546)

The Raising of Jairus’s Daughter by Ilya Repin (1871) The Raising of Jairus's Daughter by Edwin Long (1889) The Raising of the Daughter of Jairus, by Gabriel Max (1878) Christ and the Centurion by Paolo Veronese (c.1571) The Raising of the Youth of Nain by Paolo Veronese (1570)

135

134

133

132

131

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Prado, Madrid

The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, Maryland

The Victoria Art Gallery, Bath

Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter Brooklyn Museum

Louvre, Paris

130

129

128

127

Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg

Healing of Blind Man of Jericho by Lucas van Leyden (1531) The Healing of the Blind of Jericho by Nicolas Poussin (1650) The Woman with an Issue of Blood (4th century) The Woman with an Issue of Blood by J.J. Tissot (188696)

126

Appendix 2

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:JesusHealingCenturionServant.jpg http://www.khm.at/en/

http://art.thewalters.org/detail/35058/t he-raising-of-the-daughter-of-jairus/

http://www.victoriagal.org.uk/edwinlong

http://www.arthermitage.org/Lucasvan-Leyden/Healing-of-Blind-Manof-Jericho.html http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?s rv=car_not_frame&idNotice=2131&la ngue=fr https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_he aling_the_bleeding_woman https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/ope ncollection/objects/13413/The_Woma n_with_an_Issue_of_Blood_Lh%C3% A9moro%C3%AFsse http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?s rv=car_not_frame&idNotice=28429&l angue=fr http://www.wikiart.org/en/ilyarepin/raising-of-jairus-daughter-1870

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

fresco

painting

painting

151

C: Farewell Discourses in John's Gospel a: The seven ‘signs’ in John Fig. 27

152

Scrovegni Chapel, Padua

The Wedding Feast at Cana by Giotto (1304-06)

141

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Christ Preaching (known as the Hundred Guilder Print) by Rembrandt (1646-50)

139

Louvre, Paris,

Brooklyn Museum, New York City

The Healing of the Ten Lepers by J. J. Tissot (c.1890)

138

The Wedding Feast at Cana by Veronese (1562-63)

Brooklyn Museum, New York City

The Woman with an Infirmity of Eighteen Years by J J Tissot (c.1890)

137

140

Brooklyn Museum, New York City

The Resurrection of the Widow’s Son at Nain, by J J Tissot (1890)

136

The Bible and Art

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriage _at_Cana

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_We dding_at_Cana

https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/ope ncollection/objects/13427/The_Woma n_with_an_Infirmity_of_Eighteen_Ye ars_La_femme_malade_depuis_dixhuit_ans https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/ope ncollection/objects/4527/The_Healing _of_Ten_Lepers_Gu%C3%A9rison_d e_dix_l%C3%A9preux https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/search ?s=objecttype&p=13&ps=12&f.princi palMaker.sort=Rembrandt+Harmensz. +van+Rijn&ii=9

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Brooklyn_Museum__The_Resurrection_of_the_Widow%2 7s_Son_at_Nain_(La_r%C3%A9surre ction_du_fils_de_la_veuve_de_Na%C 3%AFm)_-_James_Tissot__overall.jpg

fresco

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

Fig. 29

Fig. 28 Door to the Rosary Basilica, Lourdes

Musée de Beaux Arts, Marseille

The Wedding Feast at Cana by Marko Rupnik (21st century)

Healing the royal official’s son by Joseph-Marie Vien (1752) Christ Healing the Paralytic at the Pool of Bethesda by Murillo (1667-70)

The Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes by Bernardo Strozzi (early 17th century, ) The Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes by Jacopo Tintoretto (1545-50)

143

144

146

Brooklyn Museum, New York City

private collection

The Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes by James Tissot (late 19th century)

Jesus walking on the Sea of Galilee by Ivan Aivazovsky (1888)

149

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Location unknown

148

147

145

National Gallery, London

Chartres Cathedral

142

The Wedding Feast at Cana in The Blue Virgin 12th century stained glass

Appendix 2

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Jacopo_Tintoretto__The_Miracle_of_the_Loaves_and_Fi shes_-_WGA22566.jpg https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/ope ncollection/objects/13423/The_Miracl e_of_the_Loaves_and _Fishes_La_multiplicité_des_pains http://www.wikiart.org/en/ivanaivazovsky/jesus-walks-on-water1888

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/bartolome-esteban-murillochrist-healing-the-paralytic-at-thepool-of-bethesda http://jesusfeast.org/2010/08/fiveloaves-fed-5000-men/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SonR oyalHeal.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartres _Cathedral#/media/File:Chartres__cath%C3%A9drale__ND_de_la_belle_verri%C3%A8re.JP G Can be viewed in Perrier, J. Lourdes, The Basilica of Our Lady of the Rosary. 2008 Strasbourg: Éditions du Signe p.18-21 Or Lourdes Magazine n.156 A Catechesis in Mosaics

painting

painting

painting

Painting

painting

painting

mosaic

stained glass

153

c: The Upper Room Discourse Fig. 32

b: The ‘I Am’ sayings Fig. 31

Fig. 30

154

Frederiksborg Palace, Hillerød, Denmark Pinacoteca, Vatican

Museo Regionale, Messina Byzantine and Christian Museum in Athens Basilica of San Clemente, Rome

Santa Maria della Grazie convent, Milan.

Sistine Chapel, Rome

The Raising of Lazarus by Carl Henry Bloch (1870) The Raising of Lazarus by Luca di Tommè (before 1362)

The Raising of Lazarus by Caravaggio (1609) Christ the True Vine (16th century Orthodox icon)

I am the True Vine (apse mosaic) (c.1200)

The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci (1494-98)

The Last Supper by Cosmino Rosselli (1481-2), The Last Supper by the Master of Portillo (1523-30)

152

154

156

157

158

159

155

Allen Memorial Art Museum, Ohio, USA

Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas

The Raising of Lazarus by Duccio (1310-11)

151

153

Saint’ Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna

The Raising of Lazarus sixth century mosaic

150

The Bible and Art

http://mv.vatican.va/3_EN/pages/CSN /CSN_Nord_StCristo.html http://fineartamerica.com/featured/thelast-supper-master-of-portillo.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Las t_Supper_(Leonardo_da_Vinci)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_ of_San_Clemente#/media/File:Rom,_ Basilika_San_Clemente,_Apsis_1.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:S._ Apollinare_Nuovo_Resurr_Lazzaro.jp g https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%27 The_Raising_of_Lazarus%27,_temper a_and_gold_on_panel_by_Duccio_di_ Buoninsegna,_1310%E2%80%9311,_ Kimbell_Art_Museum.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rais ingofLazarusBloch.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Luca_di_Tomme._The_raising_o f_Lazarus._before_1362.Pinacoteca_ Vatican.jpg http://www.torrese.it/Museo_DecimaS ala.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Vine

painting

fresco

Fresco

Mosaic

Icon

Painting

painting

painting

painting

mosaic

Fig. 33

D: Passion and Resurrection narratives (i) Suffering

The Agony in the Garden by Andreas Mantegna (145860) Le Christ au Jardin des Oliviers by Eugène Delacroix (1826) The Arrest of Christ by Fra Angelico (c.1450) The Capture of Christ anonymous (c.1520)

164

168

167

166

165

163

Christ Taken Prisoner from the Maestà del Duomo di Siena, by Duccio di Buoninsegna (1308-11)

The Stations of the Cross by Raffl (1898-1911) The Agony in the Garden, apse mosaic (20th century)

162

161

Christ Taking Leave of the Apostles from the Maestà del Duomo di Siena, by Duccio di Buoninsegna (1308-11) The Stations of the Cross by Maria de Faykod (2003-8)

160

Museo dell’Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena

Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon

Museo di San Marco, Florence

Church of St Paul and St Louis, Paris

The Church of All Nations next to the Garden of Gethsemane, Jerusalem National Gallery, London

Lourdes, France

Lourdes, France

Museo dell’Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena

Appendix 2

http://lourd.es/thumbnails.php?album= 4 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jeru salem_Church_of_all_nations_BW_2. JPG http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/andrea-mantegna-the-agony-inthe-garden http://www.patrimoinehistoire.fr/Patrimoine/Paris/ParisSaint-Paul-Saint-Louis.htm https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fra_ Angelico_020.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:The_capture_of_Christ_mg_1677 .jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Duccio_di_Buoninsegna__Christ_Taken_Prisoner_(detail)__WGA06795.jpg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bh xEDnlT5ms

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Christ_Taking_Leave_of_the_Ap ostles.jpg

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

sculpture (bronze) mosaic

sculpture

painting

155

Fig. 36

(ii) Crucifixion Fig. 35

Fig. 34

156

La Vera Cruz, Vallodolid

Christ at the Column processional sculpture, by Gregorio Fernandez (c.1619) Christ on the Cross by Juan Martínez MontaĖés (1671)

Christ on the Cross by Juan de Mesa (c.1618-20)

172

174

175

The Isenheimer Altar by Matthias GrĦnewald (151216)

The National Gallery, London

Christ Crowned with Thorns by Hieronymus Bosch (c.1479-1516)

171

Archicofradia del Santisimo Cristo del Amor, Collegiate Church of El Salvador, Seville Musée Unterlinden, Colmar

Inglesia Conventual del Santo Angel, Carmelitas Descalzos, Seville

Lourdes Rosary Basilica

The Scourging at the Pillar by M.Louis-Edouard Fournier (1904)

170

173

Lourdes Rosary Basilica

The Crowning of Thorns mosaic by M.Louis-Edouard Fournier (1905)

169

The Bible and Art

http://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/f eatures/slideshows/the-sacred-madereal.html#slide_4 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mat his_Gothart_Gr%C3%BCnewald_019 .jpg

Best viewed in Perrier, J. Lourdes, The Basilica of Our Lady of the Rosary. 2008 Strasbourg: Éditions du Signe p.64-67 Lourdes Magazine n.121 (133)/ March-April 2005 Mosaics of Lourdes, The Mysteries of the Life of Christ p.18-33 Best viewed in Perrier, J. Lourdes, The Basilica of Our Lady of the Rosary. 2008 Strasbourg: Éditions du Signe p.60-63 Lourdes Magazine n.121 (133)/ March-April 2005 Mosaics of Lourdes, The Mysteries of the Life of Christ p.18-33 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Hieronymus_Bosch__Christ_Mocked_(The_Crowning_wit h_Thorns)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cris to_atado_a_la_columna_20131225.jp g https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Cristo_de_los_c%C3%A1lices.jp g

paintings

sculpture

sculpture

sculpture

painting

mosaic

mosaic

Fig. 37

(iii) Death and Deposition

185

184

183

182

Michelangelo, Pietà (1975, Robert Hupka) Large Round Pietà by Jean Malouel (c.1400) Our Lady of Seven Sorrows by Bernard van Orley and Pedro Campana (1520-35)

The Man of the Shroud bronze statue of the body created through computer technology and modelled by Luigi Mattei (before 2006) Pietà by Michelangelo (1498-99)

181

180

179

178

177

Crucifixion with Mourners and Saints Dominic and Thomas Aquinas by Fra Angelico (1442) Christ of St John of the Cross by Salvador Dali (1951) The Holy Face of Lucca (early 13th-century copy of original) The Mond Crucifixion by Raphael (1502) Dead Christ by Gregorio Fernandez (1630)

176

Musée des Beaux-Arts et d’Archéologie, Besançon

Louvre, Paris

Publication

St Peter’s Basilica, Rome

Pontifical Institute Notre Dame of Jerusalem Center, permanent exhibition on the Shroud of Turin by the Institute of Shroud Studies.

Iglesia de San Miguel, Valladolid

National Gallery, London

http://www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvrenotices/large-round-pieta http://www.mbaa.besancon.fr/lescollections/peinture/

See Bibliography

http://shroud3d.com/wpcontent/uploads/2010/09/VERSI%C3 %93N-JERUSALENINGL%C3%89S-JUNIO-2010.pdf (Page 26) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mic helangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropnclea ned_edit.jpg

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/raphael-the-mond-crucifixion https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cris to_yacente_Gregorio_Fernandez_2.jp g

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Fa ce_of_Lucca

Lucca Cathedral, Italy.

Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, Glasgow

http://www.wikiart.org/en/fraangelico/crucifixion-with-mournersand-sts-dominic-and-thomas-aquinas1442 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_o f_Saint_John_of_the_Cross

Convento di San Marco, Florence

Appendix 2

painting

painting

photography

sculpture

sculpture

sculpture

painting

sculpture

painting

fresco

157

Fig. 39

(iv) Whole Passion b. The Resurrection Fig. 38

158

Christ Risen from the Tomb by Ambrogio de Stefano Bergognone (c.1490) The Resurrection of Christ by Matthias GrĦnewald (1515) Resurrection by Maria de Faykod (2003-8)

190

195

194

193

192

191

189

Anastasia or The Harrowing of Hades iconographers from Belgrade, Serbia (2003-6) Christ in Limbo from the Maestà del Duomo di Siena,by Duccio di Buoninsegna (1308-11) Resurrection of Christ and the Women at the Tomb by Fra Angelico (1440)

The Resurrection: Upper Tier Panel by Jacopo di Cioni (1370-1) The Resurrection by Ugolino di Nerio (1325-8)

188

187

The Passion of the Christ directed by Mel Gibson (2004) The Resurrection of Christ by Giovanni Bellini (1475-9)

186

Convent of San Marco, Florence

Museo dell’Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena

Holy Trinity Serbian Orthodox Church, Butte, Montana, USA

The sixteenth station of the cross, Lourdes

The Isenheimer Altar, Musée d’Unterlinden, Colmar

The National Gallery of Art, Washington DC

The National Gallery, London

The National Gallery, London

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

DVD

The Bible and Art

http://www.wikiart.org/en/fraangelico/resurrection-of-christ-andwomen-at-the-tomb-1442

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Duccio_di_Buoninsegna_028.jpg

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/jacopo-di-cione-and-workshopthe-resurrection-upper-tier-panel http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/ugolino-di-nerio-theresurrection https://images.nga.gov/en/search/do_q uick_search.html?q=Christ+risen+fro m+the+tomb http://www.wikiart.org/en/matthiasgr-newald/the-resurrection-of-christright-wing-of-the-isenheim-altarpiece http://www.ipernity.com/doc/jacquesp fjc/9368493 see Lourdes Magazine n.130 (142)/2006 The Way of the Cross in Lourdes p.22-37 http://www.holytrinitybutte.org/fresco .html

www.wikiart.org/en/giovannibellini/resurrection-of-christ-1479

fresco

painting

fresco

sculpture

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

film

Fig. 41

Fig. 40

Doubting Thomas (c.1150)

Christ and St Thomas, by Andrea del Verrocchio (1467-83)

The Walk to Emmaus by Lelio Orsi (1565-75)

206

207

Noli me tangere by Fra Angelico (1440-41) Noli me tangere by Alonso Cano (c.1610) Christ appears to the Apostles during Supper, by Duccio di Buoninsegna (1308-11) The miraculous catch of 153 fish from the Maestà del Duomo di Siena, by Duccio di Buoninsegna (1308-11) The Incredulity of Saint Thomas by Caravaggio (1600-01) Mosaic of Thomas (561 AD)

The Two Marys at the Tomb by Bartolomeo Schedoni (1630) Noli me tangere by Titian (1514) Noli me tangere by Fra Bartolomeo (c.1506)

205

204

203

202

201

200

199

198

197

196

The National Gallery, London

Basilica di Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna The cloister, Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos, Burgos, Spain Museo di Orsanmichele, Florence

Neues Palais, Potsdam

Museo dell’Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena

Museo dell’Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena

Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest

Convent of San Marco, Florence

The Louvre, Paris

The National Gallery, London

Galleria Nazionale, Parma

Appendix 2

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/lelio-orsi-the-walk-to-emmaus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silo s-Duda.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mus eo_di_orsanmichele,_verrocchio,_incr edulit%C3%A0_di_s._tommaso_03.J PG

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Incr edulity_of_Saint_Thomas_(Caravaggi o) Image available on various websites

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The _miracle_of_the_Catch_of_153_fish.j pg

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/titian-noli-me-tangere http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?s rv=car_not_frame&idNotice=13793&l angue=fr http://www.wikiart.org/en/fraangelico/noli-me-tangere-1442 http://www.wikiart.org/en/alonzocano/noli-me-tangere https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Duccio_di_Buoninsegna_017.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galleria_ nazionale_di_Parma

painting

sculpture

relief

mosaic

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

159

Fig. 44

c. Ascension

Fig. 43

Fig. 42

160

218

217

216

215

214

213

212

The Ascension by Rembrandt (1636) The Ascension of Christ by Colijn de Coter (c.1500)

The Emmaus Disciples by Abraham Bloemaert (1622) The Ascension of Christ by Dosso Dossi (16th century) The Ascension by Andrea Mantegna (1462)

Museo dell’Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena

On the Road to Emmaus from the Maestà del Duomo di Siena, by Duccio di Buoninsegna (1308-11) The Road to Emmaus (Gang nach Emmaus) by Robert ZĦnd (1877) Capital in the cathedral of the pilgrimage city (12th century) The Supper at Emmaus by Caravaggio (1601)

210

National Museum,Warsaw

Alte Pinakothek, Munich

Uffizi, Florence

Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Antwerp Private collection, Padua/Milan

The National Gallery, London

Autun, Burgundy

Art Museum, St Gallen, Switzerland

The National Gallery, London

The Road to Emmaus by Altobello Melone (1516-17)

209

211

The Oratory of the Holy Trinity, San Nazzaro della Costa, Novara

The Road to Emmaus, fresco (15th century)

208

The Bible and Art

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/michelangelo-merisi-dacaravaggio-the-supper-at-emmaus https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bloe maert_Emmaus.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dos so_Dossi_022.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Andrea_Mantegna__The_Ascension_of_Christ__WGA13956.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Rembrandt_van_Rijn_192.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Coter_Ascension_of_Christ.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Z% C3%BCnd_Gang_nach_Emmaus_187 7.jpg http://flickrhivemind.net/Tags/gisleber tus,sculpture/Interesting

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mo mo_Chiesa_SS_Trinit%C3%A0_Disc epoli_Emmaus.jpg http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/altobello-melone-the-road-toemmaus https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_to _Emmaus_appearance

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

sculpture

painting

painting

painting

fresco

The Ascension by Giotto, (1305-13) The ‘Rabbula Gospels’(6th century Syriac gospel book) The Ascension as the theme in the Olgiati Chapel by Giuseppe Cesari (1587).

223

225

224

222

Introduction to Early Church Themes Pentecost Fig. 46

227

226

Pentecost by Duccio di Buoninsegna (1308-11)

The Ascension by M.Edgard Maxence (1899) ACTS OF THE APOSTLES

Fig. 45

The Ædicule (The Ascension Rock) (current chapel, c.1150) Reidersche Tafel (c.400)

221

220

The Ascension of Christ from the Vyšší Brod altarpiece by The Master of Vyšší Brod (c.1350) The Ascension (c.1930)

219

Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Siena

Rosary Basilica, Lourdes

Biblioteca Mediceo Laurenziana, Florence Santa Prassede Church, Rome

Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich The Scrovegni Chapel at Padua

The Chapel of the Ascension at the Anglican shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham Mount of Olives, Jerusalem

National Gallery, Prague

Appendix 2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ducc io_di_Buoninsegna_018.jpg

http://www.frenchmoments.eu/ascensi on-day-le-jeudi-de-lascension/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:502 9-20080122-jerusalem-mt-olivesascension-rock.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Reidersche_Tafel_c_400_AD.jpg http://www.wikiart.org/en/giotto/theascension https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rab ulaGospelsFol13vAscension.jpg

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Ascencion__Vy%C5%A1%C5%A1%C3%AD_B rod_altarpiece.jpeg grahamhoward.jalbum.net

painting

mosaic

illuminated manuscript fresco

fresco

ivory

rock

sculpture

painting

161

230

229

228

Fig. 49

235

233/2 34

Saints Peter and Paul as pillars of the Christian Church Fig. 48 231 see also 261 232

Fig. 47

162

Louvre, Paris

Pentecost by Jean II Restout (1732) Pentecost by Giotto and Workshop (1308-11)

Orthodox icon of Saints Peter and Paul

St Peter’s Square, Rome

Statues of St Peter by Giuseppe De Fabris and St Paul by Adamo Tadolini (1838-40) Saint Peter and Saint Paul by El Greco 1.(1587-92) 2.(1590-1600)

To be viewed on the homepage of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of the British Isles and Ireland

1.Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain 2. Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg

Vatican Museum, Rome (originally from catacombs)

Gravestone of the little boy Asellus (313AD)

The National Gallery, London

Capella Scrovegni, Padua

Pentecost by Giotto (c.1305)

The Bible and Art

2. http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/ht ml_En/03/hm3_3_1_2a.html www.antiochian-orthodox.co.uk

1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Pet er_and_Saint_Paul_(El_Greco)

www.stpetersbasilica.org

www.christusrex.org/www1/vaticano/ PC1-Cristiano.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jean_ II_Restout_-_Pentec%C3%B4te.jpg http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/giotto-and-workshop-pentecost

http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/giott o/pentecost-1

icon

paintings

sculpture

sculpture

painting

painting

fresco

Christ Giving the Keys to St Peter by Pietro Perugino (1481-82) Christ Giving the Keys to St Peter by Peter Paul Rubens (c.1614) St. Peter anon (6th century)

239

Museo dell’Opera del Duomo Orvieto, Italy

Altarpiece of San Domenico by Simone Martini (132021) St Peter by Lippo Memmi (c.1330)

243

244

Chartres Cathedral, south portal

Saint Peter, 13th century

242

Fig. 51

Louvre, Paris

St Catherine's monastery, Mount Sinai, Egypt

241

b. Saint Peter – image

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

240

Fig. 50

Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome

Victoria and Albert Museum, London

Victoria and Albert Museum, London

The Miraculous Draught of Fishes by Raphael (1515-16) Christ’s Charge to Peter by Raphael (1515-16)

237

238

Vatican Museum, Rome

Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (c.359)

SAINT PETER 236 a. Authority

Appendix 2

http://christchurchwindsor.ca/wpcontent/uploads/2012/06/Martini_StPe ter.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Lippo_Memmi_-_St_Peter__WGA15019.jpg

Image available on various websites

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_G iving_the_Keys_to_St._Peter_(Ruben s) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:St_Peter_Icon_Sinai_7th_century.jp g

http://mv.vatican.va/3_EN/pages/CSN /CSN_Nord.html

http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles /t/raphael-cartoons/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1057__Roma,_Museo_d._civilt%C3%A0_R omana__Calco_sarcofago_Giunio_Basso__Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_12Apr-2008.jpg http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles /t/raphael-cartoons/

painting

painting

Sculpture

icon

painting

fresco

cartoon

cartoon

relief sculpture

163

Hermitage, St Petersburg

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence

Museo di San Marco, Florence

Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence

Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence

Penitent Apostle Peter by Anthony van Dyck (1617-8)

The Apostle Peter Preaching by Lorenzo Veneziano (c.1370)

St. Peter Preaching by Masolino da Panicale (1426-27)

Saint Peter Preaching in the Presence of St Mark by Fra Angelico (c.1433)

The Baptism of the Neophytes by Masaccio (1424-25)

St Peter Healing the Sick with his Shadow by Masaccio (1424-25)

247

248

249

250

251

c. Ministry Fig. 53

Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid

Saint Peter, by Peter Paul Rubens (1610-12)

246

245

The Bible and Art

Fig. 52

164

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Masa cc14.jpg Acts 5: 12-16

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bapti sm_of_the_Neophytes_02.jpg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Fra_Angelico__St_Peter_Preaching_in_the_Presence _of_St_Mark_-_WGA00464.jpg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Capp ella_brancacci,_Predica_di_San_Pietr o_(restaurato),_Masolino.jpg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Lorenzo_veneziano,_predica_di_sa n_pietro.jpg

http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/antho ny-van-dyck/the-penitent-apostlepeter-1618

http://www.artbible.info/art/large/773. html

fresco

fresco

painting

fresco

painting

painting

painting

Fig. 55

Fig. 54

Victoria and Albert Museum, London Louvre, Paris

The Death of Ananias by Raphael (1515-16)

The Death of Saphire by Nicolas Poussin (c. 1652) St Peter Healing a Cripple and the Raising of Tabitha by Masolino (c.1424)

255

256

259

258

The Vision of St Peter of Unclean Animals by Domenico Fetti(c.1619) Peter’s Vision at Joppa (1765)

Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence

St. Peter distributing the common goods of the church and the death of Ananias by Masaccio (1424-25)

254

Burgos Cathedral, Chapel of St John Sahagún

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Saints Peter and John Healing the Lame Man by Nicolas Poussin (1655)

253

257

Victorian and Albert Museum, London

The Healing of the Lame Man by Raphael (1515-16)

252

Appendix 2

http://www.aug.edu/augusta/iconograp hy/spain2005/peterVisionBurgos.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dom enico_Fetti_007.jpg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Maso lino,_resurrezione_di_tabita_(full).jpg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nicol as_Poussin_017.jpg

http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles /t/raphael-cartoons/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Masa cc12.jpg

http://www.metmuseum.org/Collectio ns/search-thecollections/437330?rpp=20&pg=1&ao =on&ft=nicolas+poussin%2c+(15941665)&pos=4 http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/wor ks-of-art/24.45.2

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael _Cartoons#/media/File:V%26A__Raphael,_The_Healing_of_the_Lam e_Man_(1515).jpg

Altarpiece

painting

fresco

painting

cartoon

fresco

painting

cartoon

165

Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan

Museo Nazionale di Pisa

Saint Louis, Art Museum, Missouri, USA Basilica of St Paul Outside the Walls, Rome

Roof of Arian baptistery, Ravenna

Saint Paul by Bartolomeo Montagna (1482)

Saint Paul by Masaccio (1426)

Saint Paul by El Greco (1598-1600)

Saint Paul by Giuseppe Obici (1807-78).

St Paul Mosaic (late 5th century)

263

264

265

266

267

Fig. 56

South door, Chartres Cathedral

Saint Paul,13th century statue

Catacomb of Saint Thekla, Rome

Vatican Museum, Rome (originally from catacombs)

261 see also 231 262

Fig.48

Saint Paul, (early 4th century)

The Bible and Art

Gravestone of the little boy Asellus (313 AD)

260

a. Saint Paul – image

SAINT PAUL

166

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rom a_San_Paolo_fuori_le_mura_BW_1.J PG My Photo http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bapti stery.Arians06.jpg

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:El_Greco_-_St._Paul.jpg

http://faculty.vassar.edu/antallon/chart res/vr/pano/Pano_Flash_089.swf My photo http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Bartolomeo_Montagna__Saint_Paul__Google_Art_Project.jpg http://www.museopoldipezzoli.it/en/n ode/1631 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Pau l_(Masaccio)

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worl dnews/europe/vaticancityandholysee/5 675461/Oldest-image-of-St-Pauldiscovered.html http://www.catholicapologetics.info/a pologetics/general/Peter.jpg

mosaic

statue

painting

painting

painting

sculpture

sculpture

fresco

Museum of Fine Arts, Houston

National Gallery, London

Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart

Assumption Chapel, Cathedral of St Stephen, Prato, Italy Church of Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome

Pauline Chapel, Vatican

Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid

Saint Paul Writing by Valentin de Boulogne, (c.1618-20)

Saint Paul Writing by Pier Francesco Sacchi (1520s)

The Stoning of St Stephen By Vittore Carpaccio (1520)

The Stoning of St Stephen By Paolo Uccello (c.1435)

The Conversion on the Way to Damascus by Caravaggio (1601)

Conversion of Saul by Michelangelo (1542)

The Conversion of St Paul by Bartolomé Estabán Murillo (1675)

269

270

271

272

273

274

b. Early Life and Conversion Fig. 58

Fig. 59

Fig. 57

268

Appendix 2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversio n_on_the_Way_to_Damascus OR http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Caravaggio__La_conversione_di_San_Paolo.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Conv ersion_of_Saint_Paul_(Michelangelo_ Buonarroti).jpg https://www.museodelprado.es/colecci on/galeria-on-line/galeria-online/?tx_obras%5Bregs%5D=20&tx_o bras%5Bold%5D=YTo0OntzOjM6Im FkdiI7czoxOiIwIjtzOjg6ImNyaXRlc mlvIjtzOjE6IjEiO3M6ODoiZXhwdW VzdG8iO3M6MToiMSI7czo2OiJzdH JpbmciO3M6Mjc6Ik11cmlsbG8sIEJh cnRvbG9tw6kgRXN0ZWJhbiI7fQ%3 D%3D&cHash=d773fd742c&gbobras [expuesto]=1

http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/paolo -uccello/stoning-of-st-stephen

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Probably_Valentin_de_Boulogne__Saint_Paul_Writing_His_Epistles__Google_Art_Project.jpg http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/pier-francesco-sacchi-saintpaul-writing www.staatsgalerie.de

painting

fresco

painting

fresco

painting

painting

painting

167

Musee des Beaux-Arts, Rouen

The Miracles of St Paul at Ephesus by Jean II Restout (1693) Saint Paul Knocked Over and Stoned at Lystra by Jean-Baptiste de Champaigne (second half of 17th century)

282

281

280

St Paul’s Shipwreck in Malta by Vatican Mosaic Studio (2010)

Victoria and Albert Museum, London National Gallery, London

The Sacrifice at Lystra by Raphael (1515-16) Paul Preaching at Ephesus by Eustache Le Sueur (1649)

278

Fig. 61

Victoria and Albert Museum, London

St Paul Preaching at Athens by Raphael (1515-16)

277

Fig. 60

The Palace, Valletta

Musée national Magnin, Dijon

Victoria and Albert Museum, London

St Paul before the Proconsul by Raphael (1515-16)

276

a. St Paul’s Missionary Journeys

279

Louvre, Paris

Ananias Imposing His Hands on St Paul by Jean II Restout (1719)

The Bible and Art

275

168

Image made available by courtesy of the President of Malta.

http://www.culture.gouv.fr/public/mist ral/joconde_fr?ACTION=CHERCHE R&FIELD_1=AUTR&VALUE_1=C HAMPAIGNE%20Jean%20Baptiste% 20de&DOM=All&REL_SPECIFIC=1 &IMAGE_ONLY=CHECKED

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael _Cartoons#/media/File:V%26A__Raphael,_St_Paul_Preaching_in_Ath ens_(1515).jpg http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles /t/raphael-cartoons/ http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/eustache-le-sueur-saint-paulpreaching-at-ephesus Available on commercial websites

http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles /t/raphael-cartoons/

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:Jean_II_Restout__Ananias_Restoring_the_Sight_of_St _Paul_-_WGA19317.jpg

mosaic

painting

painting

painting

cartoon

cartoon

cartoon

painting

Fig. 63

Fig. 62

d. The Imprison -ment and Martyrdom of the Two Apostles

291

290

289

St Peter Released from Prison by Gerard van Honthorst (1616-18) The Conversion of the Warder after Jan van der Straet (1582)

St Peter Being Freed from Prison and St Paul Visiting St Peter in Prison by Filippino Lippi (1485) The Liberation of St Peter by Raphael (1514)

288

287

286

British Museum, London

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Vatican Galleries, Vatican

Brancacci Chapel, Florence

Church of San Zeno, Padua

Israel Museum, Jerusalem

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart

St Paul at his Desk by Rembrandt (c.1633) St Paul in Prison by Rembrandt (1627) St Peter in Prison by Rembrandt (1631) San Zeno Altarpiece by Mantegna (1456-9)

284

285

Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg

St Paul at his Writing Desk by Rembrandt (1630)

283

Appendix 2

https://www.britishmuseum.org/resear ch/collection_online/collection_object _details.aspx?objectId=3037696&part Id=1&searchText=the%20conversion %20of%20the%20warder

www.wikiart.org/en/raphael/theliberation-of-st-peter-in-the-stanza-deliodoro-1514 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:St._Peter_by_Honthorst.JPG

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brancacc i_Chapel

http://www.artbible.info/art/large/744. html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_p aintings_by_Rembrandt http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_p aintings_by_Rembrandt http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Zeno _Altarpiece_(Mantegna)

http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/remb randt/st-paul-at-his-writing-desk-1630

engraving

painting

fresco

fresco

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

169

Fig. 66

Fig. 65

Fig. 64

170

National Gallery, London

Church of Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome

The Pauline Chapel, Vatican

Domine Quo Vadis? or Christ Appearing to Saint Peter on the Appian Way by Annibale Carracci (1601-2)

The Crucifixion of Saint Peter by Caravaggio (1600)

The Crucifixion of St Peter by Michelangelo (1546-50) The Crucifixion of St Peter by Filippino Lippi (1483-84) The Crucifixion of St. Peter by Masaccio (1426 ) The Ecstacy of St Paul by Nicolas Poussin (1649)

296

297

300

299

298

295

294

Louvre, Paris

Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence

Church of Madonna dell’Orto Venice Cathedral of Málaga, Spain

The Martyrdom of St Paul by Tintoretto (c.1556) The Beheading of St Paul by Enrique Simonet (1887)

293

Musée des Beaux-Arts, Rennes

The Martyrdom of Saint Peter and Saint Paul by Ludovico Carracci and Francesco Camullo (c.1615)

292

The Bible and Art

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Filip pino_lippi,_crocifissione_di_san_pietr o,_cappella_brancacci,_1482-85.jpg http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/masa ccio/crucifixion-of-st-peter-1426 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Poussin,_Nicolas__Ecstasy_of_Saint_Paul_-_1643.jpg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mart yrdom_Michelangelo.jpg

http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/pai ntings/annibale-carracci-christappearing-to-saint-peter-on-theappian-way http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Domi ne,_quo_vadis.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixio n_of_St._Peter_(Caravaggio)

http://www.wikipaintings.org/en/tintor etto/the-martyrdom-of-st-paul http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fi le:'La_decapitaci%C3%B3n_de_San_ Pablo',_de_Enrique_Simonet_(s._XIX )..jpg

This location and the date needs to be confirmed

painting

painting

fresco

fresco

painting

painting

painting

painting

painting

Fig. 69

302

Revelation Fig. 68

Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Spain Osogovo Monastery, Republic of Macedonia Freising Cathedral, Germany

Escorial Beatus c.950 The Apocalypse (date unknown)

Madonna on the Crescent Moon by Rubens (1625) The Adoration of the Lamb by DĦrer (1496-98)

308

310

311

309

307

The National Gallery of Art, Washington DC

Musée de la Tapisserie, Château d’Angers, France Bamberg State Library, Germany

Basilica of St Paul’s Outside the Walls, Rome

Frontispiece, Book of Revelation, Bible of San Paolo fuori le Mura, (9th century) The Apocalypse Tapestry, (1377-82) The Bamberg Apocalypse (1000-20)

305

306

Galleria Nazionale, Perugia

J.Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles

Museu Grão Vasco de Viseu, Portugal, Gemäldegalerie, Berlin

St John at Patmos by Berto di Giovanni (c.1518)

Saint Peter by Grão Vasco, (1506) St. John on Patmos by Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1500) St. John on Patmos by Georges Trubert (c.1480-90)

304

303

301

Fig. 67

Appendix 2

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Peter_Paul_Rubens_215.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National _Gallery_of_Art

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocaly pse_Tapestry https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamberg _Apocalypse https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi a/commons/7/76/BambergApocalypse Folio010vWorshipBeforeThroneOfGo d.JPG https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ Category:Beatus_Escorial https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orth odox-Apocalypse-Fresco.jpg

http://www.getty.edu/art/collection/art ists/3274/georges-trubert-frenchactive-provence-france-1469-1508/ http://www.keytoumbria.com/Perugia/ Berto_di_Giovanni_files/Per-GalBerto-Patmos.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedi a/commons/b/b6/BibleSPaoloFol331v FrontRev.jp

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saint _Peter_by_Gr%C3%A3o_Vasco.jpg https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._John _the_Evangelist_on_Patmos

engraving

painting

illuminated manuscript fresco

illuminated manuscript

Tapestry

illuminated manuscript

painting

illuminated manuscript

painting

painting

171

Fig. 70

172 Central panel of the Ghent Altarpiece, St Bavon’s Cathedral, Ghent

National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh

Stiftung Schloss Friedenstein, Gotha, Germany

Adoration of the Mystic Lamb by Van Eyck (1432)

An Allegory of the Old and New Testaments by Hans Holbein the Younger (1530)

Law and Grace by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529)

312

313

314

The Bible and Art https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghent_A ltarpiece https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghent_A ltarpiece#/media/File:Retable_de_l%2 7Agneau_mystique_(7).jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Hans_Holbein_the_Younger__An_Allegory_of_the_Old_and_New _Testaments__Google_Art_Project.jpg http://www.wikiart.org/en/lucascranach-the-elder/law-and-grace-15 painting

painting

painting

BIBLIOGRAPHY Essential References THE BIBLE. Study Edition of the Bible, preferably the Revised Standard Version or the New Jerusalem Bible. BEITZEL, B. J. Biblica, the Bible Atlas. Sydney: Global Book Publishing, 2006. BROWNING, W. R. F. The Oxford Dictionary of the Bible. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. GROLLENBERG, Luc H. The Penguin Shorter Atlas of the Bible. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1959, 1983. MAY, Herbert G. The Oxford Bible Atlas. London: Oxford University Press, 1974. McKENZIE, John L. The Dictionary of the Bible. London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1976.

Select Bibliography General Theology Early Christian Writings. The Apostolic Fathers. Translated by Maxwell Staniforth. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1968, 1980; pp. 117-24. The Catechism of the Catholic Church. London: Burns & Oates, 1994. Vatican Council II. The Conciliar and Postconciliar Documents. Ed. Austin Flannery, 1975; New revised edition. Dublin: Dominican Publications, 1992. Compendium Catechism of the Catholic Church. London: CTS, 2006. CORIDEN, James. Canon Law as Ministry. New York: Paulist Press, 2000. DIX, Dom Gregory. The Shape of the Liturgy. London: A. & C. Black Ltd, 1993. Encyclopedia of Catholicism. London: Harper Collins, 1989. EUSEBIUS. The History of the Church from Christ to Constantine.Translated with an Introduction by G. A. Williamson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1964, 1983. KASPER, Walter. “The Good Olive Tree”. America 185:7 (17 September 2001): 12-14.

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MACCULLOCH, Diarmaid. History of Christianity. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 2009. PONTIFICAL BIBLICAL COMMISSION, THE. The Jewish People and Their Sacred Scriptures in the Christian Bible. Éditions Paulines, 2001. RATZINGER, Joseph. “The Heritage of Abraham”. L’Osservatore romano, 29 December 2000.

Scripture General Introductions: OLD TESTAMENT BOADT, Lawrence. Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction. New York: Paulist Press, 1984. BRIGHT, J. A History of Israel. London: The Westminster Press, 1980. BROWN, Raymond, FITZMYER, J. A. & MURPHY, R.E. (eds). The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1989. DUGGAN, Michael. The Consuming Fire: A Christian Introduction to the Old Testament. New York: Ignatius Press, 1991. EICHRODT, Walther. Theology of the Old Testament. 2 vols. London: SCM Press Ltd., 1961. HAHN, Scott. A Father who Keeps His Promises, God's Covenant love in Scripture. Michigan: Servant Publications, 1998. —. (2003) Covenant, the Master Key that Unlocks the Bible. www.salvationhistory.cpm JENSEN, Joseph. God’s Word to Israel. Collegeville: The Liturgical Press, 1988. McCONVILLE, Gordon. The Old Testament. Reading: Teach Yourself Books, 1996. RATZINGER, Joseph Cardinal. Many Religions - One Covenant: Israel, the Church and the World. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, San Francisco, 1999. RENDTORFF, Rolf. The Old Testament: An Introduction. London: SCM Press Ltd, 1985. VON RAD, Gerhard. Old Testament Theology. 2 vols. London: SCM Press, 1962, 1975.

Bibliography

175

Selected Studies: OLD TESTAMENT Genesis COHN, Norman. Noah’s Flood: the Genesis Story in Western Thought. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999. VAWTER, Bruce. On Genesis London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1977. Prophets HEATON, E. W. The Old Testament Prophets. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1958. NORTH, C. R. The Suffering Servant in Deutero-Isaiah. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963. PREVOST, Jean-Pierre. How to Read the Prophets. London: SCM Press, 1996 VON RAD, Gerhard. The Message of the Prophets. New York: Harper & Row, 1968. Job and Wisdom GORDIS, Robert. The Book of Job. New York: Ktav Press, 1978. VON RAD, Gerhard. Wisdom in Israel. London: SCM Press, 1972. General Introductions: NEW TESTAMENT BROWN, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. New York/London: Doubleday, 1997. BROWN, Raymond, FITZMYER, J. A. & MURPHY, R.E. (eds). The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1989. HAHN, S. Swear to God, The Promise and Power of the Sacraments. London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 2004. LAWLER, M. G. Symbol and Sacrament: A Contemporary Sacramental Theology. New York: Paulist Press, 1987. LOHSE, Eduard. The New Testament Environment. London: SCM Press Ltd., 1976. SCHILLEBEECKX, Edward. Christ the Sacrament. London: Sheed & Ward, 1963. SENIOR, Donald and Carroll STUHLMELLER. The Biblical Foundations for Mission. London: SCM, 1983. STONE, David. The New Testament. London: Teach Yourself Books, 1996. THORNHILL, John. Sign and Promise. London: Collins, 1998.

176

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Selected Studies: NEW TESTAMENT Gospels FULLER, R. H. Interpreting the Miracles. London: SCM, 1963, 1971. JEREMIAS, J. The Parables of Jesus. London: SCM Press, 1962. PANNENBERG, W. The Theology of the Kingdom of God. London: SCM Press, 1971. VERAS, R. Jesus of Israel, Finding Christ in the Old Testament. Ohio: Servant Books, 2007. WRIGHT, N. T. Jesus and the Victory of God. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996. Acts BARRETT, C. K. Acts. 2 vols. (International Critical Commentary.) Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1994, 1998. CWIEKOWSKY, Frederick J. The Beginnings of the Church. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1988. DULLES, Avery. Models of the Church. Critical Assessment of the Church in All its Aspects. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1963. SOARDS, Marion L. The Speeches in Acts. Their Content, Context, and Concerns. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1994. Paul BARTH, K. A Shorter Commentary to the Romans. Richmond: Knox, 1959. BENEDICT XVI. Saint Paul. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2009. KILGALLEN, J. J. First Corinthians: An Introduction and Study Guide. New York: Paulist, 1987. SANDERS, E. P. Paul. London: SPCK, 1991. SAVAGE, T. B. Power through Weakness: Paul's Understanding of the Christian Ministry. (Society for New Testament Studies Series, 86.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. SANDERS, E. P. Paul: A Very Short Introduction. New edition. Oxford: Oxford Paperbacks, 2001. —. .Paul, the Law and the Jewish People. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress,1983. ZIESLER, John. Pauline Christianity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Bibliography

177

Hebrews FULLER, R. H. Hebrews. Rev. ed. (Proclamation Commentaries.) Philadelphia: Fortress, 1995. Revelation BOXALL, Ian. Revelation: Vision and Insight: Vision and Insight. An Introduction to the Apocalypse. London: SPCK, 2002. —. The Revelation of Saint John. (Black’s New Testament Commentary.) Baker Academic, 2009. HAHN, Scott. The Lamb's Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth. New edition. London: Darton, Longman & Todd Ltd, 2003.

Iconography BAGGLEY, John. Doors of Perception-Icons and Their Spiritual Significance. Oxford: A.R. Mowbray & Co. Ltd, 1987. —. Festival Icons for the Christian Year. Bath: The Bath Press, 2000. BENEDICT XVI. Images of Hope: Meditations on Major Feasts. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2006. BAGNOLI, M., KLEIN, H.A., GRIFFITH MANN, C. and ROBINSON, J. (eds). Treasures of Heaven: Saints, Relics and Devotion in Medieval Europe. London: The British Museum Press, 2011. BORCHGRAVE, Helen De. A Journey into Christian Art. Lion Publishing, 1999. BRAY, X. The Sacred Made Real: Spanish Painting and Sculpture 16001700. London: The National Gallery Company, 2009. BROWN, Michelle P. Christian Art. Lion Publishing, 2008. BOUBE DU HERTUIT, J.-L. Saint Paul dans la Peinture. Paris: Médiaspaul, 2008. BOURGUET S.J., Pierre du. Early Christian Painting. London: Weidenfield & Nicolson, 1965. CARLI, Enzo. Duccio’s Maestà. Florence: Istituto Fotocromo Italiano, 1982. CHILVERS, I. Art. New York: Dorling Kindersley Ltd, 2010. DAMIANI, G. and GARNOT, N.-S.-F. Fra Angelico et les maîtres de la lumière. Brussels: Fonds Mercator, 2011. DEBRAY, Regis. The New Testament through 100 Masterpieces of Art. London: Merrell, 2004. —. The Old Testament through 100 Masterpieces of Art. London: Merrell Publishers, 2004. DE CAPOA, Chiara. Old Testament Figures in Art. Los Angeles: Getty

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Publications, 2003. DORÉ, Gustave. Gustave Doré. Engravings. London: Alpine Fine Arts Collection Ltd., 1995. DRURY, J. Painting the Word: Christian Pictures and their Meanings. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999. FINALDI, G. (ed.). The Image of Christ. London: National Gallery Company Ltd, 2000. GRABAR, André. Christian Iconography. A Study of Its Origins. (Bollingen Series, 35:10.) Princeton University Press, 1968. GRAND, P. M. Art Préhistoique. Paris: La Bibliothèque des Arts, 1967. GREBE, A. The Louvre: All the Paintings. New York: Black Dog and Leventhal Publishers, 2011. —.The Vatican: All the Paintings, New York: Black Dog and Leventhal Publishers, 2013. GROSSMANN, F. “A Religious Allegory by Hans Holbein the Younger”. The Burlington Magazine, 103:705 (Dec., 1961): 490-494. HARRIES, R. The Passion in Art. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 2004. HARTHAN, John. Books of Hours and Their Owners. London: Thames & Hudson, 1977. HONOUR, Hugh and FLEMING, John. A World History of Art. 7th Edition, London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd, 2005. HOWARD, K. (ed.). The Metropolitan Museum of Art Guide. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1983. HULME, Edward. Symbolism in Christian Art. Poole: Blanford Press, 1976. HUPKA, R. Michelangelo, Pietà. Angers: Éditions Arstella, 1975. JANSON, H. W. A History of Art. A Survey of the Visual Arts from the Dawn of History to the Present Day. New Edition. London: Thames & Hudson, 1979. LEVEY, Michael. A Concise History of Painting from Giotto to Cézanne (1962). London: Thames & Hudson, 1974. MÂLE, E. The Gothic Image, Religious Art in France of the Thirteenth Century. New York: Icon Editions, Harper & Row, 1972. —. Chartres. New York: Harper & Row 1983. MANCINELLI, Fabrizio. The Catacombs of Rome and the· Origins of Christianity. Florence: Scala, 1981. MANNERING, Douglas. Great Works of Biblical Art. Bristol: Parragon Book Service, 1995. MATELET, P. Saint-Bris-le-Vineux, Son Église. (original version of

Bibliography

179

current guide book, published by Studio Activa, Appoigny, photos Plouvier, G. but authorship and date unknown). MICHON, R. and Delaporte, Y. Notre-Dame de Chartres, Librairie Hachette, 1957. MILLER, M. Chartres Cathedral, London: Pitkin Publishings, 3rd edition, 1996. MURRAY, Peter and Linda. A Dictionary of Art and Artists (1959). Third Edition. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1975. —. The Oxford Companion to Christian Art and Architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. OUSPENSKY, Leonid. Theology of the Icon. Crestwood, New York: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1983. OUSPENSKY, Leonid and LOSSKY, Vladimir. The Meaning of Icons. Crestwood, New York: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press. 1983. PARRAGON. Essential History of Art. Bath: Parragon, 2001. PERRIER, J. Lourdes, the Basilica of the Rosary. Strasbourg: Éditions du Signe, 2008. PISCHEL, Gina. A World History of Art. Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Decorative Arts. Revised and Expanded Version. Oxford: Phaidon Press, 1968. ROOKMAKER, H. R. Modern Art & Death of Culture. Crossways, 1994. SCHAEFFER, Francis A. Art and the Bible (1973). Downers Grove, Ill: IVP Books, 2007. STODDARD, W.S. Art and Architecture in Medieval France. New York: Icon Editions, Harper & Row, 1972. VANTAGGI, R. San Gimignano, Town of Fine Towers. Plurigraf: Narni Terni, 1979. WALTHER, Ingo F. (ed.). Masterpieces of Western Art. A History of Art on 900 Individual Studies. 2 vols. Cologne: Taschen, 1996. WITHERUP, Ronald D. “Catholicism, art and the priesthood: A natural trio”. The Pastoral Review 8:1 (2014): 9-12. WRIGHT, Susan. The Bible in Art. New York: Todtri, 1996. ZUFFI, Stefano. Gospel Figures in Art. Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2003.

Journals Lourdes Magazine —. “Mosaics of Lourdes, The Mysteries of the Life of Christ”, 121:133 (March-April 2005): 18-33; “A Catechesis in Mosaics”, Vol. 156. —. “The Way of the Cross in Lourdes”, 130:142 (2006): 22-37.

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The Sower Gracey, L. “The Profession of the Christian Faith”, (July 2006): 19. —. and Farey, C. “Junius Bassus Sarcophagus”, (April 2013): 20-21 —. “The Woman with the Haemorrhage” (July 2013): 23 —. “The Agony in the Garden, Andrea Mantegna” (April-June 2014): 21

INDEX A. Biblical Index 1. Biblical References ................................................................ 181 The Old Testament The New Testament 2. Index of Biblical Names ......................................................... 185 3. Index of Places, Objects, Images and Themes ....................... 186 4. Index of Texts and Scholars ................................................... 193 B. Iconographical Index 1. Index of Artists ....................................................................... 194 2. Index of Museums, Galleries, Other Locations ...................... 198

A. Biblical Index 1. Biblical References (page references in bold denote quoted text) The Old Testament Genesis 1—11 1—2:1 2—3 3:12 3:15 3:16-19 3:22b 3:22-24 4 6—9 8:8-12 9 9:8-16 9:11 9:12-17 9:20-24

16, 17 17 18 19 13 19 18 13 19 19 6 13 20 21 88 20

11 12—50 12—36 12:1-3 12:3b 15—17 17:9-12 22 22:13 22:14 32:24-32 37—48 37—50 37:3 37:4 37:8 37:18

21 16, 17 17 26, 133 27 13 26 2, 26 6 27 27 27 17 28 28 28 28

37:24 28 41:1-45 28 45:1-15 28 Exodus 3:10 3:13-15 3:14 15:20-21 19—24 19 20—23 20:1-17 20:2-17 23—30 23:21-22 24:3, 7-8

134 30 57, 72 5 13 59 31 4, 31 4 4 31 31

182 24:5-8 59 25:9 5 25:10-30 59 25:21-22 85 28 32 34:29-30 36 37:7 5 40:17-19 37 Leviticus 11:44 115 19:1-2 104 Numbers 21:6 5 27:18 34 35:30 81 Deuteronomy 4:6b-7 39 5:6-21 4 6:1-9 37-38 6:4 9 6:13, 16 39 7:6-8 134 8:3 39 10:20 39 14:22—15:18 38 16—17 38 17:6 81 17:18 37 22 38 22:6-8 38 23:24 38 24:14-22 38-39 31:32 38 33:5-6 40 33:9 34 1 Samuel 10:5 42 17:48-49 2

The Bible and Art 2 Samuel 6:14-15 5 7 13, 42 7:12-16 44 12 42 23:1-2 5 1 Kings 1 42 10:18-20 5 17—19 42 2 Kings 1—2 42 2—6 42 1 Chronicles 2:3-5 5 28:11-12 5 2 Chronicles 2—7 5 3:6-7 5 29:25-26 5 Job 2:7 53 2:11-13 53 19:21-28 50-51 24:12 51 40:6-9 51 41:10b-11 51 Psalms 22:1 69:28 110 115:4-5 150

61 128 58 4 5

Isaiah 5:1-7 6:6 7:10-15 7:15

61, 73 48 43 46

9:1-10 44 9:1-2 46 11:1-2 46, 73 11:1 47 11:5 44 29:14 107 35:5-6 46 42:1, 2, 3 46 43:6b 27 40—55 44 40:12-18 46 49:6b 27 50:2, 6 46 51:13 46 52:13-15 46 53:1-3, 4-6, 9-13 46 53:3 53 53:4-9 61 53:5 85 54:4-10 45 54:13-14, 15-17 45 56—66 44 59:20 46 61:1-4, 8-9 45 61:1-2 46 63:1-6 46 66:13-19 46 Jeremiah 2:21 73 4:23-26 13 9:23-24 107 31:31-34 13, 47 33:25-26 47 Ezekiel 17:5-10 19:10-14 34 36:26 37 40—47 44—47

78 73 47 47 47 5 47

Index Habakkuk 2:4 104

7:13-14 58 12:1 128

Daniel 6

Wisdom 5:15 49

2

183 6:18

49

Ecclesiasticus/ Sirach 24:23-24 49

The New Testament Matthew 1:1 133 1:21 133 1:23 44 3:17 27 4:11 39 4:24 67 5:48 104, 115 6:10 67, 115 6:24 4 6:28-30 63 7:21-22 61 8:26 61 11:5 58 12:36 87 12:39 87 13:2-58 61-62 13:45-46 61 14:15 57 15:30-31 67 16:18-19 116 17 57 18:12 63 21:27-39 28 24—25 126 25:41 12 26—28 80 26:3-4 28 26:26-28 59 27:24-25 81 27:35-37 28 28 2, 80 28:16-20 82 Mark 1:1 1:22

56 63

4:30-32 6:30 6:53-56 8:15 9:2 10:25 12:36-37 13—16 13 13:37 14:22-24 14:51-52 14:61-64 15 15:21 16:9-14 16:11-12

63 57 67 61 57 63 58 80 126 81 59 81 57-58 2 81 81 61

Luke 1—2 2:33-55 4:11-13 4:16-23 4:40 5:1-11 6:17-19 9:10 9:29 10:30-37 11:5-9 11:29 12:16-21 15—17 15:8-10 15:11-32 17:19 17:21

66 67 39 58 67 116 67 57 57 66 66 87 66 126 66 66 67 67

19:2-8 66 22—24 80 22:17-19 59 23 2 24 24:19-24 57 24:27, 30-32 82 John 1:14-18 1:41, 45 1:49 3:14-15 3:16 3:17 6:1-14 6:58 8:12 9:7 11:43 12:23 13:1-11 13:14-15 14—17 14 14:6-7 14:27 15 15:5 15:10 15:25 16 16:12 17 17:18 17:20-21

59 133 44 5 14 105 57 57 110 77 78 82 83 83 70-80 73 72 72 73 79 72 28 74 72 74-75 75 72

The Bible and Art

184 18:15-16 19 19:30 19:35 20:8 20:15-17 20:24-29 20:30-31 20:30 20:31 20:32 21:15-17 21:19-18 21:24 21:25

83 2 82 83 83 82 82 67 101 56 83 82 124 83, 101 84

Acts 1:1 96 1:9-11 5, 93 2 98 2:1-13 100 2:1-4, 41-43 5 2:41-42 96 3 98 3:1-8 118 5:1-11 119 5:12-16 118 7 112 7:2-53 98 7:48 134 7:54-60 2 8:4-5 96 9:1-9 101 9:4 121 12:6-11 123 13 98 13:3-12 121 14:8-18 122 14:9 122 14:19 122 14:21-22 97 15:13-29 98 15:14 28 16:25-31 123 17:16-34 122 17:22-31 98

18:6 18:24 19 19:1 20:5-12 27:30-31 28:1-7 28:30

98 112 122 112 100 97 123 100

Romans 1—8 102-103 1:1-17 103 1:18—3:20 105 1:16-17 104 3:21—5:21 105 4:1-15 14 6:1—8:39 105 8:2,3 134 8:18-25 104-105 8:31-39 105 8:33 104 9—11 14, 102103 11:1, 15, 25-26 28 11:17-18 134 12—16 102-103 13:10 134 15:1-6 106 15:4 105 16:25-27 103 1 Corinthians 1:12 112 1:19-20 107 1:20-25 107 1:31 107 3:4 112 5:6 61 10 7 11:23-24 59 13 108 13:4 120 15 102

15:24-27 129 2 Corinthians 1:3-6 109 1:17-20 109-110 2:14 110 4:5-15 110-111 5:17-19 102 5:19 130 6:10 6 8:9 61 10—12 109 12:1-6 125 Galatians 3:6-9 14 3:7, 29 133 5:9 61 5:22 73 Ephesians 1:10 102 5:25-27 61 Philippians 2 110 3:4 128 8:5-11 102 Colossians 1:15 3, 102 1:17b 113 4:14 66 2 Timothy 4:7 120 4:11 66 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18 102

Index Hebrews 1:1-4 113 3 113 4:2 120 4:11-16 113 4:12-13 114 5 110 13:7-9 114 13:20-21 114

185

Revelation (Apocalypse) 1:4-8 130 1:8 127, 129 1:19—22:5 126 1:9-12 126 3:5-6 128 3:20 127 4—5 129 12:1-7 124

13:8 15 17:8 19:10 20 21:5 21:6 21:22-27 21:27 22:16-21

128 5 128 126 129 130 129 132 128 130

2. Index of Biblical Names Abraham (Abram), 2, 6n., 13, 14, 16, 25, 26-27, 133 Adam, 13, 18, 19, 22-23 (iconography) Apollos, evangelist in Acts,112 Ahaz, king of Judah, 43, 44 Apostles, the, 5, 95-101, 103 Ark, 24 Amos, the prophet, 43 Barnabus, companion of Paul, 121 Bartimaeus (the Man Born Blind/the Blind Man of Jericho), 68 Cain and Abel, 19 Centurion (the Roman soldier in Luke), 69 Claudius Lysias, Roman centurion in Acts, 98 Cornelius, Roman centurion in Acts, 99 Daniel, 2 David, the king, 2, 5, 13, 44, 46, 57 (new David), 58, 103, 133 Elijah, the prophet, 42 Elisha, the prophet, 42 Eve, 19, 22-23 (iconography), 61 Ezekiel, the prophet, 5, 42, 47 Father, the, 39, 71, 105, 109, 114, 115 Gadarene Demoniac, 68 God (see also YHWH), 4 (creator, redeemer), 9 (oneness of, creator), 12, 14, 22, 23, 24, 25, 30-31 (redeeming power), 30

(the Holy Name), 31-32 (as liberator), 39 (the divine justice and mercy), 43 (judgement and holiness), 50-51 (and suffering), 59 (creation), 104 (salvation), 105, 109, 110 (love), 111, 112 (nature), 115 (of peace), 134 Good Samaritan, Lucan parable, 66 Goliath, 2 Holy Spirit, the, 3, 5, 12, 27, 33, 45, 46 (the Gifts), 48, 58, 67, 71, 73 (the Comforter), 74 (the threefold work), 80, 82, 93, 95, 96, 99 (Acts), 100, 102, 103, 106 (charismatic gifts), 114, 121, 128, 132, 134 Hosea, the prophet, 43 Isaac, 2, 6n., 25, 26 (as prefiguring Jesus), 28-29 (iconography) Isaiah, the prophet, 42-46, 58 Jacob (Israel), 17, 25, 27, 29 Jairus’s Daughter, 69 Jeremiah, the prophet, 13, 42, 47, 134 Jesse, father of David, 46 Jesus the Christ, 2 (Incarnation, Crucifixion), 3 (redemption, resurrection, fullness of life), 6 (the Good Shepherd), 12 (Passion, death and resurrection), 13 (Calvary), 2728, 29 (prefigured by Joseph), 46 (prefigured by the Suffering

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Servant), 56-57 (titles, biographical portraits), 57 (feeding miracles, Transfiguration), 57-58 (as Son of Man), 58-59 (Incarnation), 59, 60-65 (parables), 60 (as teacher), 61 (titles, roles), 66 (human portrait), 73 (divinity), 74-75 (High-Priestly prayer), 80-94 (Passion and Resurrection), 98 (proclamation of), 99 (Spirit of), 101(ministry of divine love), 103 (as LORD), 104, 106, 109, 110 (God’s ‘Yes’), 111(ambassadors for), 112 (salvific work), 114 (mediator, High Priest), 115 (Good Shepherd), 128 (Lamb of God), 129 (glory), 130 (reconciliation), 133 (Son of David), 134 Job, 49 John, the Apostle, 125, 130-132 (iconography) John the Baptist, 66 Joseph, the carpenter, 28 Joseph, the patriarch, 16, 17, 25, 2728, 29 (and Jesus) Kings of Judah (Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah), 43 Luke, the evangelist, 66, 82, 95 Mark, the evangelist, 66, 80-81 Mary (the Blessed Virgin Mary), 8,

28, 44, 47, 76, 100 Matthew, the evangelist, 66, 81-82 Micah, the prophet, 43 Miriam, 5 Moses, 4, 13, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40 (iconography), 57 (new Moses), 59, 72, 82, 92, 140, 142, 143, 144 Nathan, the prophet, 42 Nimrod, 25 Noah, 6, 13, 20-21 Paul, the Apostle, 5-6, 14, 58-59, 66, 96 (missionary journeys), 98, 102-103, 108 (apostleship), 109 (life), 115 & 119-125 (iconography) Peter, the Apostle, 82, 96, 98, 99, 115-119 (iconography) Pontius Pilate, Roman governor, 81 Prodigal Son, Lucan parable, 66 Samaritan Leper, Lucan story, 66 Samuel, the prophet, 42 Satan, 110 Simon of Cyrene, 81 Solomon, the king, 5 Stephen, proto-martyr, 2, 98, 112 Thomas, the Apostle (Doubting Thomas), 82 YHWH (the tetragrammaton; adonai, kyrios, LORD), 30, 37, 43, 51, 52, 57, 103. See also God Zaccheus, tax-collector, 66

3. Index of Places, Objects, Images and Themes Acts of the Apostles, the, 95-101, 95-96 (structure, themes), 96-97 (ministry of Peter & Paul), 9799 (speeches), 99 (Book of the Holy Spirit), 100-101 (iconography), 129 (and Revelations) Agitators, 108 Akkadian, 42

Alpha and Omega, 127, 129 Altar, 7 Ambassadors, 111 (for Christ) Anawim (the poor of the Lord), 66 Angel, 31 Anointing, 45, 59 Antioch (Syria), 96, Antioch (Pisidia), 98 Apocalypse, 80 (the Little

Index Apocalypse), 125 Apocalypse, the. See Revelation to John Apocalyptic, the, 57 Apostasy, 30 Apostles, the, 56 (traditions), 103, 108 super apostles), 115-125 (iconography) Apostleship, 106, 108 (Paul’s), 111, 115-125 (iconography) Apostolic Age, 113, Appian Way, 6 Art, 1 (as catechesis), 2 (understanding of), 3 (didactic role), 4 (as sacred), 5 (in Old Testament, aesthetic beauty), 6 (Roman art), 7 (symbolism), 7-8 (Byzantine art), 8-9 (theology and art), 9 (Prehistoric art), 10 (metaphysical values), 10-11 use of ugliness), 11 (use of beauty, as expression of faith), Ascension, 92-94 (iconography), 113 Assembly (qahal, ecclesia), 10 Assyria, 43 Athens, 98 Author, 23, 101, 103, 112 Authority, viii, 8, 42, 61, 63, 63, 66, 58, 70, 77, 80, 91, 97, 98, 116, 117, 118 122, 161 Babel, Tower of, vii, xii, 20, 25 (iconography), 65, 138, 139 Baptism, 10, 27, Beauty, 11 Beginnings (Bereshit, Genesis), 1636 Benediction, 114 Birds: blackbird,130 dove, 6, 23, 24, 33, 65, 93, 100, 101, 121, 132, 137, 138 eagle, 130, 131 peacock, 65 vulture, 84, 88 Biblical traditions, 129

187 Blood, 27, 59, 114, 115, 134 (of Jesus) Bondage, 29 Book of Life, 128 Bread and Wine, 7 Bronze Serpent, 5 Byzantine Empire, 8-9 Canaan, 30, 37, 40, 41 Calvary, 13 Canticles, 5 Canon (of sacred books), x, 16, 101 Cappadocia, 7 Catacombs, 6 (Priscilla), 7 (Peter and Marcellinus), 7 (Callistus) Catholic worldview, 2, 9-12 Cave, 7 Chiliasm. See Millenarianism Charismatic service, 107 Charity, 106 Chaos, 13 Chesed (loving kindness, steadfast love), 12, 14 Christ. See above under Jesus the Christ Christianity, 113 Christological Hymns, 102 Christology, 56 (titles of Jesus), 71, 99, 112 (Hebrews) Church (qahal/ekklesia), 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 21,2, 25, 35, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 80, 82, 87, 91, 92, 93, 85-132 (early Church themes), 115-125 (iconography),134 Church order, 106 Circumcision, 13, 26, 27, 28 Colours: black: 68, 84, 130 blue: 21, 62, 76, 116, 118, 122, 124, 131, 152 green: 29, 34, 49, 91, 93 gold: xii, 30, 32, 36, 92, 100, 116, 117, 118, 123, 126, 132, 140, 144, 153 red: xii, 11, 5, 21, 24, 31, 33, 34,

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35, 54, 75, 76, 77, 88, 100, 117, 120, 122, 123, 125, 141, 142 silver: 97, 116, 117 white: 79, 84, 88, 91 Comfort (see Encouragement), 109, 112 Commandment, 115 Communion, 10, 100 Compassion, 66 Condemnation, 105 Congregation, 108 Conscience, 106 Constantine, Roman emperor, 7-8, 87, 93 Constantinople, 8 Corinth, 98, 106 Corinthians, Paul’s Letters to, 106111, 106 (themes), Corinthians, Paul’s First Letter to, 106-108, 107 (structure), Corinthians, Paul’s Second Letter to, 108-111, 108 (structure) Cosmic conflict, 126 Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15), 98, 119 Covenant (berit, diatheke), 1, 12-14, 20, 26, 27, 30, 32, 42, 47, 58, 59, 73, 114, 115, 129, 133-134 Creation, 9, 11-12, 13, 17-21, 17-18 (two accounts), 51 (order of creation), 59, 63, 73, 125 Creator, 133 Cross, the, 57, 82, 101, 106, 107 Culture, 9 Daniel, Book of, 2, 57-58,126 Day of the Lord/Son of Man, 126 Day of Judgement, 127 Death, 11, 12, 111 Demons, 61, 67 Deuteronomy (Ele ha-devarim), 3740, 38 (structure), 40 (iconography) Diocletian, Roman emperor, 6 Disciple/Discipleship, 111, 129, 133 Disobedience, 18

Disunity, 19, 107 Divine: aid, 108 authority, 98 concern, 20 consolation,109 covenant, 124 elements, 57 faithfulness, 20 grace 2, 14, 47, 109 image, 9, 17 justice, 50 Logos, 57 love, 12, 74 mystery, 63 nature, 20, 78 persons, 10 powers, 18, 23, 111 promise, 25, 44, 47 providence, 49 reality, 70 revelation, 16, 57 righteousness, 40, 104 sanction, 49 self-identity, 72 source, 37, 110 teacher, 74 teaching, 4 will, 27 Word, 4, 44 Divinity, 73 Division, 107 Domitian, emperor, 125 Dove, 6, 121 Doxology, 103, 112, 114 Dragon, 127, 131, 132 Ecclesiastes, the Book of, 49, 50 Eden, the Garden of, 13, 18 Early Church Themes, 95-132, 115125 (iconography) Edict of Milan, 7-8. 86, 126 Edification, 107 Egypt, 27, 29, 30 Election, 20, 26, 129, 134 Emmaus, the Road to, xiii, 82, 9192 (iconography), 158, 159

Index Encouragement (paraklesis), 109, 112 Ephesus. 122 Eschatology (see also Parousia), 57, 60, 66, 72 (realized), 102, 125, 128-129 Eternal Life, 128 Etiology, 19, 26 Eucharist, 6, 7, 10, 58-59, 79 Exile, 19 (from Eden), 41 (to Babylon), 44, 46, 48-49 (iconography), 125, 146 Exodus (Shemot), 29-36, 30 (structure), 31 (themes), 32-36 (iconography), Eyewitness, 101 Ezekiel, Book of, 42, 47,126 Faith, 11, 74, 75, 83, 102, 106, 112, 113, Faithfulness, 112 Fall, the, 13, 18-19, 22-23 (iconography), Farewell Discourses (Upper Room) in John, 70-75, 79-80 (iconography) Father, 71, 105, 109, 110, 114, 115 Fish (Ichthus), 7, 60, 65, 72 Flood, 6, 19-20, 23-24 (iconography), Fool’s Speech, topos of, 108 Forgiveness, 65 Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, 127, 132 Freedom, 30, 31-32, 107 Friendship, 106 Fundamentalist interpretation, 129 Galatia, 102, 106 Galilee, 66 Genesis (Bereshit), 16-36, 125 Genre, 56-59 (Gospel), 63 (Jesus’ use of parables), 101 (epistles), 112 (Hebrews), 125-126 & 129 (Revelation) Gentiles, 62, 133 Gifts of the Holy Spirit, 46, 106, 108

189 Giving/Generosity, 108 Glorification, 102 Glory (kabod, doxa) (see also Theophany), 71, 74-75, 101102, 129 Golden Calf, 30 Good News, 56, 97 Good Shepherd, 71, 115 Gospel/the Gospels, 56-94, 56-59 (definition, genre), 60-94 (themes), 60-65 (Parables of the Kingdom), 65-69 (miracles of healing), 70-80 (Farewell Discourses), 100, 101 Grace (chen), 10, 14, 104, 105, 106, 114 Greeks, 107 Great Commission, 82 Harrowing of Hell, the, 89 Healing, 45, 65-69, 67-70 (iconography), Health, 69 Heart, 13, 47 Heaven, 5, 11, 17, 20, 24, 25, 43, 47, 51, 52, 53, 57, 58, 61, 75, 82, 91, 92, 94, 102, 104, 108, 111, 113, 114, 115, 117, 121, 122, 125, 126, 127, 130, 132, 176 Hebrews, the, 42, 115, 129 Hebrews, Letter to the, 112-115, 112 (structure, genre, style) Helena, empress, 93 Hell, xiii,11, 89, 157 Hellenism, 66 Help, 109, 114 Hermit, 7 High Priest, 57, 112 (Hebrews) History, 126 Historical Books, 99 Holiness (cf. Perfection), 104, 115 Holy Spirit (see above under Biblical Names) Home, 100 (church in) Homeletics, 112 Hope, 102, 105, 115, 128-129

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Human nature, 50 Human race, 104 Human values, 50 ‘I Am’ sayings, 71-72, 78-79 (iconography) ‘In Christ’ (en Christo), 102 Iconoclasm, 8-9 Idolatry, 4, 8 Image, 8, 12 (image and likeness of God) Immorality, 107 Incarnation, 59, 102, 109, 129 Indwelling of Christ, 115 Infancy Narratives, 66 Inspiration, 5, 73 Intercession, 114 Interiority, 134 Interpretation, 126 Isaiah, the book of, 42-46, 42 (structure), 43 (themes), 58, 126 Israel (People of), 9, 12, 13, 26, 27, 38, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 61, 67, 73, 78, 85, 104, 112, 113, 123, 133, 134, 139, 142, 148 Jeremiah, the Book of, 134 Jericho, 66 Jerusalem, 5, 28, 44, 66, 80, 82, 84, 86, 87, 93, 97, 93, 95, 96, 97, 98, 118, 119, 121, 123, 125, 126, 139, 154, 156, 160, 168 Jewish People, the, 14, 62, 107, 133, 134 Job, the Book of, 49, 50-54, 51 (structure), 52-54 (iconography), Job’s comforters, 53 John, Gospel of, 59, 70-80 (Farewell Discourses), 70-71 (the Signs), 71-72 (the ‘I Am’ sayings), 7580 (iconography), 82 (Passion), Johannine traditions, 56 (epistolary), 57 & 100-101 (evangelical), 125-126 (apocalyptic) Jordan, river, 38

Joy, 106 Judaism, 113 Judea, 66, 98 Judgement, 20, 114 Justice, 30, 31-32 (the Law), 37, 38, 39, 41(the Prophets), 43, 45, 49, 50, 51, 104 (reign of) Justification, 102, 105 Kerygma (proclamation), 99, 100, 101 Keys, 115 &125 (Peter) King, 2, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 61, 67, 89, 98, 130 Kingdom [of God], 60, 61-62 (parables of), 63-65 (iconography), 66, 67, 71, 76, 96, 97, 128, 129, 130, 147, 175 Lamb, xiii, 13, 79, 82, 85, 127, 128, 131, 132, 171, 176 Lamb of God, the, 128, 132 (Adoration) Land. See Promised Land Last Supper, the, 58 Law (torah), 13, 32, 39-40, 59, 104, 134 Leadership, 45 Leo III, Byzantine emperor, 8 Legal concepts, 107 Legalism, 114 Letters (Apostolic epistles, Revelation), 101-115, 125, 129 Liberation, 31-32 Life, 110, 111 Light, 26, 71, 110 Light to the Nations, 26 Literary modes, 129 Liturgy, 5, 127 (heavenly), Logos (Word of God), 57, 59 Lord’s Supper, 108 Love (the divine love), 12, 13, 14, 17, 66, 83, 101, 102, 106, 107, 108, 110, 134 Luke, the Gospel of, 65-69 (miracles), 66 (list), 82 (Passion), 95 Malta, 123

Index Man[kind] (adam), 17, 57 & 67 (Jesus as perfect man), Mandala, 117 Mandorla, 89, 93, 131 Mark, the Gospel of, 80-81 (Passion), 125 Marriage, 106, 107 Martyrdom (see also Witness), 6, 60, 127, 129 Mass, the, 12 Matthew, the Gospel of, 60-65 (parables), 81-82 (Passion), Mediator, 112 Mercy, 65, 110 Mesopotamia, 19 Messiah (Immanuel/Christos) (see also Suffering Servant, Son of Man), 12, 13, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 56, 58, 61, 67, 48, 58, 59, 65, 89 (iconography), 103, 133 Metaphysics, 10 Millennium, 126, 127, 129 Ministry, 46, 59, 101, 110 Miracles, 65-69 (in Luke), 66 (list), 71, 67-70 (iconography), 128, 122, 149, 168 Mission, 99, 129 Murder, 19 Mustard seed, 61, 64 Mythology, 21 Name, 30 (of God), 56-57 (titles of Jesus), Nature/natural world, 4, 9, 18, 39, 49, 50, 51 Nature of God, 13, 32, 51, 104, 108, 110, 113 Nazareth, 58 New Heaven & New Earth, 5 New Testament, 1-6, 12-13, 55-132, 128 (cross-references), 133, 134 Numerology (Revelation), 126-127 Obedience, 110 Old Testament, 1, 4-5, 12-14, 16-54, 58-59, 98, 99, 112, 113, 117, 127-128, 133, 134 Olive tree, 134

191 Orthodox Church, 89 Oneness, 75 Paganism, 129 Parables (mashal), 50, 60-65 (of the Kingdom), 63 (Jesus’ generic use of), 63-65 (iconography), 66 (unique to Luke), Paraclete, 73 Paraklesis. See Encouragement Parousia, 60, 101, 126, 127, 129 Pascal Lamb, 82 Pascal mystery, 133 Passion and Crucifixion, 84-88 (iconography) Passion and Resurrection Narratives, 80-94 Passover, 82 Pastoral concerns, 126 Patmos, island of, 125, 130 Patriarchs, 16, 25-29, 31 Pauline Epistles, 101-111 Peace (shalom), 32, 40, 73, 104 Pearl, 61, 63, 64 Pedilavium. See Washing of the Feet Pentateuch (Torah), the, 16-40, 99 Pentecost, 98, 100101(iconography) People of God, 49, 59, 73, 112, 116. See also Israel, Church Perfect Man (Jesus), 57, 67 Perfection, call to, 104, 115 (see also Holiness) Persecution, 129 Philosophy, 9 Piety, 66 Poetry, 5, 49 Power (dunamis), 63, 73, 99-100, 102, 107, 113 Prayer, 66 Preaching, 60, 70 Prehistoric/Primitive art, 9 Presence (shekinah), 31 Priestly Writer, 17 Proclamation, 110 Primordial history, 17-36

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Promise, 13, 14, 19, 20, 25, 26, 27, 30, 38, 43, 44, 47, 58, 71, 74, 75, 98, 101, 103, 110, 112, 133 Promised Land, 33, 35, 36, 37, 40, 113 Prophets, 12, 13, 40, 41-49, 47-49 (iconography), 57, 58, 82, 89, 94, 97, 99, 103, 104, 113, 125, 127, 128, 130, 132, 134, 135, 144, 145, 146 Prophecy, 61, 73, 78, 85, 87, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130 Protoevangelium, 13 Protology,17-25, 102, 125 Proverbs, the Book of, 49, 50 Providence, 49 Psalms, the Book of, 5, 44, 46, 49, 59, 99 Ptolemy 11, Egyptian king, 12 Puritanism, 2 Rain, 21 Rainbow, 13, 21 Recapitulation, 130 Reconciliation, 106, 108, 111 (ministry of), 130 Red Sea, 31 Redemption, 10, 11, 29-31 (Exodus as Book of Redemption), 47, 50, 113, 114 Renewal, 130 Restoration, 130 Resurrection, 3, 11, 12, 46, 57, 61, 62, 65, 70, 71, 73, 74, 77, 80, 81, 82, 87, 88-94 (iconography), 95, 100, 102, 103, 106, 107, 108, 113, 115, 118, 151, 154, 157 Revelation, 30, 47 Revelation to John (the Apocalypse), 125-130, 126 (structure), 126-127 (symbolism), 128-129 (allusions), 130-132 (iconography) Road to Damascus, 102 Romans, the, 6, 104, 107, 126, 129

Romans, Paul’s Letter to, 101-106, 101-102 (structure), Rome, 7, 9, 96, 103, 124, 126 Sanhedrin, 58, 98 Sarcophagus, 6 Sacraments, 10 (Baptism and Eucharist), Sacrifice, 2, 6, 13, 21, 27, 112 Salvation (saving plan), 13, 28, 2931, 58-59, Sanctification, 74, 105 Saviour, 57, 65-67 Scriptures, 133 Second Coming, 126 Seed, 61, 65 Septuagint (LXX), 12 Sermon on the Mount, 60 Servant, 59, 67 Service, 107 Seven Churches of Asia Minor, 126 Seven Sets of Seven (Revelation), 127 Seven Visions (Revelation), 127 Sex/Sexuality, 39, 106 Shalom (see Peace) Signs (semeia), 7, 26, 47, 62, 67, 70-71, 75-78 (iconography), 83, 107, 151 Sinai (covenant), 30, 31, 32, 114, 134 Sin, 11, 12, 18-20, 38, 51, 133 Slave/Slavery, 32, 62 Soil (adamah), 17 Son, the, 110 Son of God, 44, 112, 113 Son of Man, 57-58 Song of Songs, the, 49 Sorrow, 109 Speech, 20-21, 97-98 Spirit (see also Holy Spirit), 99 (Jesus, Church, mission, power) Spirit of negation, 110 Spiritual fruit, 73 Spiritual gifts, 107 Stability. 114 Suffering, 49, 50, 51, 109

Index Suffering Servant (ebed adonai/doulos kyriou), 41, 46, 57, 83, 109 Sword, 114 (Word), 115 &125 (Paul) Symbolism, 125 Symbols and Idiomatic Expressions (Revelation), 127 Sympathy, 109 Synagogue, 134 Synoptic Gospels, 57, 70, 101 Tabernacle, 4, 5, 30, 59 Teacher (didaskalos), 60 Tears, 108 Temple, the, 5, 98, 126 (celestial), 134 Temporal calculation/interpretation, 126, 129 Ten Commandments (the Ten Words), 4, 16, 30, 31, 32, 35, 143 Ten Plagues of Egypt, the, 31 Testimony, 101 Theodicy (innocent suffering), 49 Theophany, 59, 101 Throne, 114 Titles (Christological), 56, 61 Torah. See Law Tradition, 56 (Apostolic), Transformation, 11 Trinity, 10, 86, 100

193 Troas, 100 Typology, 112 Union, 73 Unity, 10, 74, 107, 113 Upper Room (Cenacle), 72, 82, 100 Vine, 38, 39, 61, 70, 73, 78-79 (iconography), 80, 153 Vineyard, 61 (Israel) Vision, 126-127, 131 Voragine, Jacobus de, 123 Washing of the Feet (Pedilavium), 83 Water, 21 Way, the, 71, 72, 78, 104, 110 Weakness, 114, 134 Wheat and tares, 61, 65 Wholeness, 67 Wilderness (midbar), 4, 5, 16, 30, 31, 37, 39, 59, 112 Wisdom (chokmah), 49-52, 52-54 (iconography),73, 107 Witness (see also Martyrdom), 60, 100, 101, 106, 129 Woman (Eve), 17, 22-23, 61 Word of God, 3-4, 30, 47, 57 (Logos), 67, 101, 110, 113, 114, 126 World, 109 Worship (dulia, latria), 4-5, 8, 32, 107, 114 Yahwist (author/editor/redactor), 17

4. Index of Texts and Scholars Benedict XVI, Pope, v, 11, 120, 123 Bourguet, Pierre de, 6-7 Catechism of the Catholic Church, 3, 4, 8, 11 Catholic News Agency, 11n. Chagall, Marc, artist, v, Clement of Alexandria, SubApostolic Father, 2 Divine Office (the Liturgy of the Hours), 12-13 Eusebius, Greek historian, 8, 92

Francis, Pope, 11-12 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, Faust 110 Gaudium et Spes, 9 Grabar, André, 7n. Grand, P. M., 9 Hulmes, Edward, 2n. Ignatius of Antioch, Apostolic Father, 3 MacCulloch, Diarmaid, 10-11 Nicea III, the Third Council of

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Nicea, 7 Oupensky, Leonid, 8n. Pontifical Biblical Commission, 133-134 Roman Missal, the, 12 (Eucharistic Prayer 4) Rookmaker, H. R., 11n. Sacrosanctum Concilium, 4

Schaeffer, Francis, 3 Sixtus V, Pope, 2n., Tacitus, Publius Cornelius, Roman historian, 6 Vatican II, the Second Vatican Council, 4, 9 Williamson, G. A., translator, 8 Witherup, Ronald D., v

B. Iconographical Index 1. Index of Artists Aivazovsky, Ivan, 34, 77, 143, 154 Altarpieces: Ædicule, Chapel of the Ascension, Mount of Olives, 93 Altar of the Ascension, Anglican Shrine, Walsingham, 92 Ghent Cathedral, 132, 171 Verduner Altar, Klostenneuburg, 28 Vyšší Brod, the Master of, 93 Anastasis, 89 Antelami, Benedetto, 87 Asellus, gravestone, Rome, xiii, 115, 119, 161, 165 Baldung, Hans, 24, 138 Bacchiacco (and Pontormo), 29 Baptismal Font, San Frediano, Lucca, 35, 142 Bataille, Nicholas, 132 Bellini, Giovanni, 88, 157 Bendemann, Eduard, 48, 146 Bergognone, Ambrogio de Stefano, 88, 157 Bertram, Master, 21, 150 Bibles, illuminated/Medieval Picture Bibles: Angers Apocalypse, 131 Bamber Apocalypse, 131 Bible of St Paul Outside the

Walls, 131(frontispiece) Escorial Beatus, 131 Ghent Cathedral, 29 Maciejowski Bible, 29 Moutier-Grandval Bible, 36 Regensburg Pentateuch, 28 Souvigny, 21, 136 Illustrated: Bowyer, Robert, 63, 64 Blake, William, 21, 53, 135, 146 Bloch, Henry, 78, 153 Bloemaert, Abraham, 65, 92, 149, 159 Bondol, Jean, 131 Books of Hours: Bedford Hours, 23, 25, 137, 139 Etienne Chevalier, 53 Très riches heures du Duc de Berri, 68 Bosch, Hieronymous, 22, 85, 130, 136, 155, 170 Boulogne, Valentin de, 120, 166 Bouninsega, Duccio di, 68, 78, 80, 85, 89, 90, 91, 100, 149, 153, 154, 157, 158, 159, 160, 176 Bourdon, Sébastien, 68, 149 Bouts, Dieric, 35, 142 Bronzino, Agnolo, 34, 142 Bruegel, Pieter, the Elder, 25, 64, 138, 148 Cabanel, Alexandre, 40, 144

Index Camullo, Francesco, 124, 169 Campana, Pedro, 88, 156 Cano, Alonso, 90, 158 Caravaggio, 28, 78, 90, 91, 121, 124, 139 (4), 153, 158, 159 (2), 166 (2), 170 (2) Carpaccio, Vittore, 120-121 Carracci, Annibale, 124, 169 Carracci, Antonio, 23, 138 Carracci, Ludovico, 124, 169 Carvings: St Peter, Chapel of St John Sahagún, Burgos, 119, 165 Catacombs, Rome, 6, 9, 87, 92, 115, 161, 165, 177 Priscilla, 6, 7 Saint Callistus, 7 Saints Marcellinus and Peter, 7, 24, 69, 138,150 Saint Thekla, St Paul’s Outside the Walls, 119, 165 Cesari, Giuseppe, 94 Chagall, Marc, v, 29, 36, 140, 143 Champaigne, Jean-Baptiste de 122, 168 Chartres Cathedral, France, 22, 2425, 29 (Redemption Window), 48 (Jesse Tree), 48 (Isaiah), 53 (tympanum), 76, 117 (portal), 120 (south door),136, 138, 140, 145, 147, 152, 162, 165, 177, 178 Chi-Ro, 92 Church Windows/Stained glass: Chartres, 24-25, 29 (Redemption Window), 48 (Jesse Tree), 48 (Isaiah), 76 Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, 48, 145 St Denis Cathedral, Paris, 47, 145 St John the Baptist, Tideswell, Derbyshire, 47, 145 St Madeleine, Troyes, 21, 135 St Martin, Clamecy, Burgundy, 48, 145

195 Cioni, Jacopo di, 88, 157 Clerk, Hendrick de, 35, 141 Coter, Colijn de, 93, 159 Cranach, Lucas, the Elder, 33, 132, 141, 171 Crucifix: Lucca Cathedral, 87, 156 Dali, Salvator, 86, 156 Dalziel Brothers, 63, 147, 148 Delacroix, Eugène, 84, 154 Doré, Gustave, 29, 140, 177 Dossi, Dosso, 92, 159 Dou, Gerard, 64, 148 Duccio. See Bouninsega Dürer, Albrecht, 22, 132, 137, 171 Dyck, Anthony van, 117, 163 El Greco, 68-69, 115, 120, 150, 161, 165 Eyck, Jan van, 132, 171 Fabris, Giuseppe De, 115, 161 Fastolf, Master of, 23, 24, 25, 138 Faykod, Maria di, 84, 89, 154, 157 Fernandez, Gregorio, 86, 87, 155, 156 Fetti, Domenico, 64, 65, 119, 147, 149, 165 Film: Mel Gibson, 88, 156 Fouquet, Jean, 53, 146 Fournier, Louis-Edouard, 53, 85, 147, 155 Fra Angelico, 85, 86, 89, 90, 118, 154, 156, 157, 158, 163, 176 Fra Bartolomeo, 90, 158 Frescoes: Brancacci Chapel, Florence, 22, 136 Osogovo Monastery, Republic of Macedonia, 131, 171(Apocalyse) Froment, Nicolas, 33, 141 Gibson, Mel (film director), 88, 156

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Giotto (Giotto di Bondone), 75, 93, 100, 101, 151, 160 (3), 161, 177 Giovanni, Berto di, 130, 170 Gospel Books: Rabbula Gospels, 93, 160 Gravestones: Asellus, Rome, xiii, 115, 119, 161, 165 GrĦnewald, Matthias, 86, 88, 155, 157 Heemskerk, Martin van, 48-49, 146 Hoet, Gerard, 28, 36, 139, 144 Honthorst, Gerard van, 123, 169 Hupka, Robert, 87, 156 Icons: Anastasis, Holy Trinity Serbian Church, Butte, Montana, 89, 157 Holy Transfiguration Monastery, 52, 146 Christ the True Vine, Athens, 78, 153 St Peter, St Catherine’s Monastery, Mount Sinai, 117, 162 Sts Peter and Paul, Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of the British Isles and Ireland, 89, 157 Ichthus, 7 Ivory: Master of the Magdeburg Antependium, 68, 149 Reidersche Tafel, Milan or Rome, 93, 160 Jollain, Gérard, 40, 144 Koch, Joseph, 24, 138 Kramskoy, Ivan, 34, 142 Leonardo. See Vinci, Leonardo da Le Sueur, Eustache, 122, 167 Letin, Jacques de, 35, 143

Leyden, Lucas van, 36, 68-69, 144, 150 Limburg, Van, Brothers, 68, 149 Lippi, Filippino, 123, 125, 169, 170 Long, Edwin, 69, 150 Luini, Bernardino, 33, 35, 141 Luyken, Jan, 63, 64, 147, 148, 149 Malhouel, Jean, 87, 156 Mantegna, Andreas, 84, 93, 123, 154, 159, 168, 179 Martini, Simone, 117, 162 Masaccio (Tommaso di ser Giovanni di Mone), 23, 118, 119, 120, 125, 137, 163, 164, 165, 170 Masolino. See Penicale, Masolino da Mattei, Luigi, 87, 156 Max, Gabriel, 69, 150 Maxence, M. Edgard, 94, 160 Medieval Picture Bible: Ghent Cathedral, 29, 136 Souvigny Bible, 21, 136 Melone, Altobello, 91, 159 Memmi, Lippo, 117, 162 Mercatelli, Raphaël de, 29, 136 Mesa, Juan di, 86, 155 Michelangelo (Michelangelo Buonarroti), 21, 23, 35, 48, 87, 121, 124-125, 136, 137 (3), 143, 145 (2), 156 (2), 159, 160, 166, 170, 177 Millais, John Everett, 63, 64, 65, 147, 148, 149 Montagna, Bartolomeo, 120, 165 Montañés, Juan Martínez, 86, 155 Mosaics: Basilica of San Clemente, Rome, 79, 153 Church of the Nations, Gethsemane, 84, 154 Monreale, Sicily, 21, 24, 136, 138 Presidential Palace, Valletta, 123, 168

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Rosary Basilica, Lourdes, 53, 85, 94, 141, 147, 152, 155 (4), 160, 178 Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, 77, 90, 120, 153, 158, 166 St Mark’s, Venice, 23, 137 Murals: Cathedral of Târgu-Mure‫܈‬, Rumania, 65, 148 St Bris, Burgundy, 47, 144 San Gimignano, 52, 146, 178 Sistine Chapel, Rome, 21, 23, 34, 36, 48, 79, 116, 122, 136, 137, 142, 143, 145, 153, 162 Murillo, Bartolomé Estabán, 76, 121, 152, 167 Myle, Simon de, 24, 138

48, 116, 118, 119, 121-122, 123, 135, 137, 156, 162 (4), 164 (5), 167 (6), 169 Rembrandt van Rijn, 29, 36, 70, 93, 94, 123, 140, 148, 151, 159, 168 (5) Reni, Guido, 54, 84, 147 Repin, Ilya, 69, 150 Restout, Jean II/the Younger, 100, 121, 122, 160, 167, 168 Ribera, José, 36, 143 Roberto, Master, 35, 142 Rops, Félicien, 64, 65, 149 Rosselli, Cosimo, 34, 36, 79, 142, 143, 153 Rosselli, Matteo, 33, 141 Rubens, Peter Paul, 116, 117, 132, 162, 163, 171 Rupnik, Marko,76, 152

Nerio, Ugolino di, 88, 157

Sacchi, Pier Francesco, 120, 166 Sarcophagi: Junius Bassus’ tomb, Rome, 116, 161, 179 Schedoni, Bartolomeo, 89-90, 157 Sculpture: Autun, Burgundy, 91, 159 (capitals), Chartres Cathedral, 22 (north portal), 47, 53 (tympanum), 117 (south portal), 120 (south door), Santo Domingo di Silos, Spain, 90 (bas-relief), 90, 136, 147, 162 Simonet, Enrique, 124, 169 Souvigny Bible, 21, 136 Straet, Jan van der, 124, 169 Strozzi, Bernard, 77, 152

Orbici, Giuseppe, 120, 165 Orley, Bernard van, 88, 156 Orsi, Lelio, 91, 158 Paintings: The Capture of Christ, Dijon, 85, 154 Panicale, Masolino da, 22, 118, 119, 136, 163, 165 Paolo, Giovanni de, 23, 137 Perugino, Pietro, 116, 162 Ponte, Jacopo del, 23, 138 Pontormo, Jacopo, 29, 140 Portillo, Master of, 79, 153 Poussin, Nicolas, 24, 33, 34, 35, 36, 40, 68-69, 118, 119, 125, 138, 140 (3), 141, 142, 144 (4), 150, 164 (3), 170 Prayer Books: The Golden Haggadah, 32, 140 Pujol, Abel de, 29, 140 Rabbula Gospels, 94, 160 Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio), 21, 22,

Tadolini, Adamo, 115, 161 Tiepolo, Giovanni Domenico, 28, 48, 139 Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti), 77, 124, 152 Tissot, James, 48, 69, 70, 77, 145,

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146, 150,151(3) Titian (Tiziano Vecelli), 90, 158 Tommé, Luca di, 78, 153 Tour, Georges de la, 53, 139, 146 Trubert, Georges, 130, 170

Verrocchino, Andrea del, 90, 158 Veronese, Paolo, 69, 71, 75-76, 150 (3), 151 Vien, Joseph-Marie, 76, 152 Vinci, Leonardo da, 79, 153 Vignon, Claude, 36, 143

Uccello, Paolo, 121, 166 Valckenborgh, Luca van, 25, 139 Vasco, Grão, 125, 170 Veneziano, Lorenzo, 117, 163

Wenzel, Peter, 22, 136 Werff, Pieter van der, 22, 137 Zünd, Robert, 91, 159

2. Index of Museums, Galleries, Other Locations Archives and Libraries - Austrian National Library, Vienna, 21, 135 - Bamberg State Library, Bamberg, Germany, 131, 171 - Biblioteca Mediceo Laurenziana, Florence, 93,160 - Bibliothèque Nationale de France, 29, 140 - Bodleian Library, Oxford, 24, 138 - Bolton Archives, Lancashire, 63, 147, 148, 149 - British Library, London, 23, 25, 32, 137, 139, 140 - Morgan Library and Museum, New York [Pierpont Morgan Library], 22, 137 - Moulins, France, Bibliothèque Municipale, 21, 136 Catacombs, Rome, 6, 9, 87, 92, 115, 161, 165, 177 - Priscilla, 6,7 - Saint Callistus, 7

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Saints Marcellinus and Peter, 7, 24, 69, 138, 150 Saint Thekla, 119, 165

Cathedrals - Aix-en-Provence, Saint Sauveur, France, 33, 141 - Autun, France, 91, 159 - Burgos, Spain, 119, 165 - Chartres, France, 22, 24, 25, 29, 48, 53, 76, 117, 120, 136, 138, 140, 145, 147, 152, 162, 165, 177, 178 - Freising, Germany, 131, 171 - Ghent, Belgium, 132, 171 - Lucca, Italy, 87, 156 - Malaga, Spain, 124, 169 - Monreale Cathedral, Sicily, 21, 24, 136, 138 - Paris, Notre Dame, 22, 54, 136, 145, 147 - Pisa, Italy, 33, 141 - Prato, Italy, 121, 166 - Saint Denis, France, 48, 145 - San Gimignano, Tuscany, 52, 146 - Târgu-Mure‫܈‬, Romania ,65, 148 - Venice, Saint Mark’s, 23, 137

Index Churches and Chapels, Religious Houses - Archicofradia del Santisimo Cristo del Amor, Collegiate Church of El Salvador, Seville, 86, 155 - All Nations, Jerusalem, 84, 154 - Arian baptistery, Ravenna, Italy, 120, 166 - Basilica of San Clemente, Rome 79, 153 - Basilica of San Frediano, Lucca, Italy, 35, 142 - Basilica of St Paul Outside the Walls, Rome, 119, 120, 165 - Brancacci Chapel of Church of Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, I22, 23, 118, 119, 123, 125, 136, 137, 163, 164, 169, 170 - Chapel of the Ascension, Anglican shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham, Norfolk, 93, 160 - Chapel of the Ascension, Mount of Olives, Jerusalem, 93, 160 - Convento di San Marco, Florence, 86, 156 - Inglesia Conventual del Santo Angel, Carmelitas Descalzos, Seville, 86, 155 - La Vera Cruz, Vallodolid, Spain, 86, 155 - Madonna dell’Orto, Venice, 124, 169 - Oratory of the Holy Trinity, San Nazzaro della Costa, Novara, Italy, 91, 158 - Osogovo Monastery, Republic of Macedonia,131, 171 - Saint Bris, France, 47,1 44

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Saint John the Baptist, Tideswell, Derbyshire, 47, 145 Saint Martin, Clamecy, France, 48, 145 Holy Trinity Serbian Orthodox Church, Butte, Montana, USA, 89, 157 Holy Transfiguration Monastery, Massachusetts, USA, 52, 146 Klosterneuburg, near Vienna, 28, 139 Royal Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Spain, 131, 171 St Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai, Egypt, 117, 162 Saint Peter’s, Louvain, Belgium, 35, 142 Saint Peter’s Basilica, Rome, 87, 156 Saint Peter’s Square, Rome, 115, 161 Sainte Madeleine, Troyes, France, 21, 135 Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, Italy, 77, 90, 153, 158 San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice, 76 San Miguel, Valladolid, Spain, 87,156 San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome, 35, 143 San Zeno, Padua, Italy, 123, 168 Sant’Agostino, Rome, 48,145 Santa Maria della Grazie Convent, Milan, 79, 153 Santa Prassede, Rome, 94,160 Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, 121, 124, 166, 170

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Santo Domingo de Silos Abbey, Burgos, Spain, 90, 158 Scrovegni Chapel, Padua, Italy ,75, 93, 100, 151, 160 St Paul and St Louis, Paris, 84,154 Stiftung Schloss Friedenstein, Gotha, Germany, 132, 171

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Galleries - Alte Pinakothek, Munich, Germany, 93, 159 - Galleria Nazionale, Parma, Italy, 89, 157 - Galleria Nazionale, Perugia, Italy, 130, 170 - Gemäldegalerie, Berlin, 29, 88, 116, 117, 123, 125, 130, 140, 143, 157, 162, 163, 169, 170 - Gemäldegalerie, Dresden, Germany, 68, 150 - Gustave Doré Gallery, London, 29, 140 - Hamburger Kunsthalle, Germany, 21, 136 - National Gallery, London, 29, 33, 36, 76, 84, 85, 87, 88, 90, 91, 101, 120, 122, 124, 140, 144, 149, 152, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161, 166, 167, 169, 176, 177 - National Gallery, Prague, 93,159 - National Gallery of Scotland, 132, 171 - National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia, 34, 141 - National Gallery, Warsaw, 93, 159

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National Gallery of Art, Washington, USA, 88, 132, 157, 171 Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan, 33, 35, 141, 142 Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart, Germany, 120, 123, 166, 168 Uffizi Gallery, Florence, 28, 93, 139, 159 Tate Britain, London, 63, 147, 148, 149 Victoria Art Gallery, Bath, 69, 150

Lourdes - Rosary Basilica, 33, 53, 76, 85, 94, 141, 147, 152, 155, 178 - Stations of the Cross, 84, 154, 157, 178 Museums - Allen Memorial Art Museum, Ohio, USA , 79, 153 - Art Museum St Gallen, Switzerland, 91, 159 - Bayerisches Nationalmuseum, Munich, 93, 160 - British Museum, London, 21, 36, 124, 135, 143, 169, 176 - Brooklyn Museum, New York, 69, 70, 150, 151, 152 - Byzantine and Christian Museum, Athens, 78, 153 - Dahesh Museum, New York, 40, 144 - Frans Hals Museum, Haarlem, Netherlands, 49, 146 - Germanisches Nationalmuseum,NĦrember g, Germany, 123, 168

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Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, 68, 115, 117, 150, 161, 163 Hessisches Landesmuseum, Darmstadt, Germany, 68, 149 Israel Museum, Jerusalem, 28, 123, 139, 168 J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, 130, 140, 170 Jewish Museum, New York, 48, 146 Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, Glasgow, 86, 156 Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas, USA, 78, 153 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, 25, 64, 69, 119, 123, 138, 147, 150, 165, 168 Louvre Museum, Paris, 22, 23, 24, 25, 29, 33, 35, 40, 68, 69, 75, 87, 90, 100, 117, 119, 121, 125, 137, 138, 139, 140, 142, 144, 150, 151, 156, 158, 160, 162, 164, 167, 170, 177 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 23, 28, 68, 77, 118, 137, 139, 150, 152, 164, 177 Morgan Library and Museum, New York, 22, 137 Musée Condé, Château de Chantilly, France, 53, 68, 146, 149 Musée Departemental des Vosges, Epinal, France, 53,146 Musée des Beaux-Arts et d’Archéologie, Besançon, France, 88, 156 Musée des Beaux-Arts de Dijon, France, 85, 154 Musée des Beaux Arts, Marseille, France, 70, 152

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Musée des Beaux-Arts, Rennes, France, 124, 169 Musée des Beaux-Arts, Rouen, France, 36, 122, 143, 168 Musée des Beaux-Arts, Troyes, France, 35, 143 Musée de la Tapisserie, Château d’Angers, France, 131, 170 Musée National Magnin, Dijon, France, 122, 168 Musée National Message Biblique Marc Chagall, Nice, 29, 36, 140, 143 Musée Provincial Félicien Rops, Namur, France, 60, 149 Musée Unterlinden, Colmar, France, 86, 155 Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Orvieto, Italy, 117, 162 Museo dell’Opera Metropolitana del Duomo, Siena, Italy, 80, 85, 89, 90, 91, 154, 157, 158, 159 Museo di Orsanmichele, Florence, 90,158 Museo di San Marco, Florence, 86, 118, 154, 163 Museo Nazionale di Pisa, 120, 165 Museo Nazionale di San Martino, Naples, 36, 143 Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan, 120,165 Museo Regionale, Messina, Sicily, 78, 153 Museo ThyssenBornemisza, Madrid, 65, 149 Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, Barcelona, 115, 161

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Museu Grão Vasco de Viseu,Portugal, 125, 170 Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest , 64, 90, 148, 158 Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, USA, 120, 166 Musée National Magnin, Dijon, France, 122, 168 Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid, 22, 69, 117, 121, 136, 150, 163, 167, National Art Museum of the Republic of Belarus, 34, 142 National Museum, Warsaw, 35, 93, 142, 159 Piasecka-Johnson Collection, Princeton, New Jersey, USA, 28, 139 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, 36, 70, 144, 151 Royal Museum of Fine Art, Antwerp, Belgium, 92, 159 Russian Museum, St Petersburg, 69, 150 Saint Louis, Art Museum, Missouri, USA, 120, 165 Städelmuseum, Frankfurtam-Main, Germany, 24, 138 Timken Museum of Art, California, USA, 64, 148 Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 118, 119, 121, 122, 162, 164, 167 Wallraf-Richartz-Museum, Cologne, Germany, 48, 146

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Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, USA, 65, 69, 149, 150

Palaces, residences - Frederiksborg Palace, Hillerød, Denmark, 78, 153 - Neue Residenz, Bamberg, Germany, 24, 138 - Neues Palais, Potsdam, Berlin, 90, 158 - Palazzo Patriarcale, Udine, Italy , 48, 145 - Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, 34, 142 - Pontifical Institute Notre Dame of Jerusalem Centre, Jerusalem, 87,156 - Schloss Johannisburg, Aschaffenburg, Germany, 33, 141 - The Palace, Valletta, Malta, 123, 168 Vatican - Cappella Paolina (Pauline Chapel), 121, 124, 166, 170 - Museum, 12, 21, 22, 115, 135, 136, 137, 162 - Mosaic Studio, 123, 168 - Pinacoteca, 78, 153 - Stanza della Segnatura (Room of the Signature), 123, 169 - Sala della Meridiana, 123 - Sistine Chapel, 23, 34, 137, 142, 143, 153, 162