Text and Image in Pre-Columbian Art: Essays on the interrelationship of the verbal and visual arts 9780860542308, 9781407333045

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CONCEPTUAL CATEGORIES FOR THE STUDY OF TEXTS AND IMAGES IN MESOAMERICA
IMAGE AND TEXT IN PRE-HISPANIC ART: APPLES AND ORANGES
THE RELATIONSHIP OF ANCIENT AMERICAN WRITING SYSTEMS TO THE VISUAL ARTS
THE WARRIOR AND THE BUTTERFLY: CENTRAL MEXICAN IDEOLOGIES OF SACRED WARFARE AND TEOTIHUACAN ICONOGRAPHY
SEEN BUT NOT HEARD: WOMEN IN AZTEC RITUAL--THE SAHAGUN TEXTS
TEXT AND IMAGE IN SAHAGUN'S PRIMEROS MEMORIALES
ANCIENT ANDEAN ART AS EXPLAINED BY ANDEAN ETHNOHISTORY: AN HISTORICAL REVIEW
UPSTREAMING ALONG THE PERUVIAN NORTH COAST
NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Citation preview

44

Proceedings International Congress of Americanists Congreso Internacional de Americanistas Manchester 1982

General Editor: Norman Han1n1ond

Text and Image in Pre-Columbian Art Essays on the interrelationship of the verbal and visual arts edited by

Janet Catherine Berlo BAR International Series 180 1983

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phi l. D.R. Walker. M.A.

B.A.R. -S180,198J: 'Text and Image in Pre-Columbian Art' ©

The Individual Authors,1983

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542308 paperback ISBN 9781407333045 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542308 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

TABLE O F C ONTENTS

P reface/Prefacio A cknowledgements

I .

v iii

MESOAMERICA 1 .

C onceptual C ategories

f or t he S tudy o f T exts a nd I mages

i n Mesoamerica J anet C atherine B erlo

2 .

1

I mage a nd T ext i n P re-Hispanic A rt:

Apples a nd O ranges

A rthur G . M iller

3 .

4 1

T he R elationship o f Ancient American W riting S ystems

t o

t he V isual A rts O riana Baddeley

4 .

5 5

T he Warrior a nd t he Butterfly:

C entral Mexican

I deologies o f S acred Warfare a nd T eotihuacan I conography J anet C atherine B erlo

5 .

S een But N ot H eard:

7 9

Women i n A ztec R itual--

T he S ahagun T exts B etty Ann B rown

6 .

T ext a nd I mage i n S ahagun 's P rimeros Memoriales E llen T aylor B aird

I I.

1 19

1 55

T HE A NDES 1 .

Ancient Andean A rt a s Explained b y Andean E thnohistory: An Historical R eview A lana C ordy-Collins

2 .

1 81

U pstreaming A long t he P eruvian N orth C oast A lana C ordy-Collins a nd D onna M cClelland

N otes o n C ontributors

1 97

2 11

P REFACE H istorical r ecords t hat p ertain d irectly t o p re-Hispanic a rt a re s cant. A ncient h ieroglyphic i nscriptions a nd p ictorial c odices a re u seful s ources i n Mesoamerica , i n t he Andes e ven t hese f ew s ources a re l acking. I n b oth a reas, e thnohistoric a ccounts a nd m odern a nthropolo gical d ata a re t he p rimary t exts t hat i lluminate a rt m ade b efore t he c oming o f t he S paniards. T he l ast t wo d ecades h ave s een m uch c ontrov ersy o ver t he r ole o f s uch t exts i n a rt h istorical r esearch : C an t exts f rom o ne e ra b e u sed t o e lucidate t he a rt o f a p receding e ra? I s d isjunction o f f orm a nd meaning a s c ommon i n p re-Columbian a rt a s i t i s i n European a rt? The

f ield

o f

p re-Columbian

a rt

a nd

a rchaeology

s upports

m any

m ethodolog ical d isag reements a s t o t he r elevance a nd p lace o f t exts i n i conographic r esearch. Sa ne s cholars u se n ative t exts u ncritically a s e xplanations f or w orks o f a rt w ithout c onsidering t he unique c haracter a nd e xpressiveness o f t he i ndividual o bject. O ther s cholars r eject t he u se o f t exts, b elieving t hat t exts a re a d istorting l ens t hrough which t o v iew t he p ast. The p apers c ollected h ere ex amine t hese i ssues i n an umber o f w ays. Two e ssays i nvestigate t he h istorical b ackground o f t he s tudy o f t exts a nd i mages. My i ntroductory e ssay, " Conceptual C ategories f or t he S tudy o f T exts a nd I mages i n Mesoamerica," s uggests t hat Mesoamerican t exts f all i nto t hree t ypes. T he u se o f e ach t ype h as i ts p articular p roblems a nd p itfalls. I n a ddition t o s uggesting t hree c ategories o f t exts, I e xamine s ome p revious m ethodological s tudies. A lana CordyC ollins p rovides a c o mpanion h istoriog raphic e ssay o n t he A ndean a rea i n " Ancient Andean Art a s E xplained b y A ndean Ethnohistory : A n H istorical R eview." T o m y k nowledge, this i s t he f irst s uch r eview o f A ndean s tudies. Cordy-Collins' e ssay h ighlights t he f act t hat A ndeanists h ave a nd r elevance

n ot o f

p racticed t he s elf-examination about t exts f or a rt h istorical s tudies

t he m eaning t hat Meso-

a mericanists h ave e ngaged i n f or n early t wenty y ears. Two more e ssays c ontinue t he i nquiry i nto t he r elationship o f t ext t o

i mage

f r o m

a t heoretical

v iewpoint.

In

" Image

a nd T ext

in P re-

H ispanic Art : A pple a nd Oranges," Arthur Miller e xplores t he f undam ental d ifferences b etween v isual a nd w ritten m odes o f c ommunication a nd t he n ature o f v isual c ommunication i n Mesoamerica. O riana B addeley 's p aper, " The Relationship o f A ncient A merican Writing S ystems t o t he Visual Arts," f inds i n n ineteenth-century d evelo r x nental t heories about c ivilization t he r oots o f our t wentieth-century v iew o f Mesoa merica. I n a ddition, F I lddeley c ompares a nd c ontrasts Maya a nd Central M exican m ethods o f c ommunication. b etween Western n otions o f t he A merindian Four

B oth M iller a nd B addeley d istinguish t ext/image d ichotomy a nd i ndigenous

p erception o f t hese m odes. e ssays

p rovide

a pplications

s et f orth i n t he o ther f ou r

p apers.

o f

t he methodolog ical

M y o wn c ontribution,

q uestions

" The W arrior

a nd t he B utterfly : C entral M exican I deologies o f Sacred Warfare a nd T eotihuacan I conography," a nalyzes a rt v ia t he m irror o f e thnoh istoric t exts a nd s uggests l ongevity i n Central M exican i deas a bout w arfare a nd t he g ods. " Upstreaming a long t he P eruvian N orth C oast" b y A lana C ordyC ollin s a nd Donna McClelland p osits s imilar l ongevity i n t he b elief syste r ns o f M oche a nd C himu p eoples o f P eru. S trictly s peak ing, t wo m ore p apers d o n ot f all u nder t he r ubric o f p re-Columbian a rt, f or t hey c onsider p ost-conquest m anuscripts. B etty A nn Brown 's c ontribution " Seen B ut Not Heard : W cmen i n A ztec Ritual" a nd Ellen Taylor B aird 's e ssay o n " Text a nd I mage i n S ahagun 's Primeros Memoriales" b oth e xamine h ow a t hird v ariable, E uropean c ultural c ontact, c ompounds t he p roblem o f i nterpreting t exts a nd i mages i n c olon ial m anuscripts which c cmbine E uropean-style t ext w ith p reconquest-style i magery.

F our o f t he p apers i n t his v olume w ere p resented o riginally i n t he s ession " Pre-Columbian Art : T exts a nd Images," h eld a t t he 4 4th I ntern ational C ongress o f A mericanists i n M anchester d uring S eptember 1 982. We w ere j oined i n t hat s ymposium b y B erthold R iese, who s poke o n " Recons tructing C entral M exican P ictorial M anuscripts." The c ontributions b y Brown a nd B aird w ere a dded t o l end g reater r egional a nd c hronolog ical c overage t o t he c ollection. Two a dditional e ssays t hat a ppear i n t his v olume, t he c onceptual a nd h istorical r eviews b y B erlo a nd C ordyCollins o n Mesoamerica a nd t he A ndes r espectively, p rovide a f ramework f or t he d iscussions o f t he o ther a uthors.

PR EFA C IO La informaciön h ist6rica r elacionada d irectamente c on e l a rte p reh ispänico e s e scasa ; l as a ntiguas i nscripciones j eroglificas y l os c 6dices p ict6ricos q ue, a unque p ocos, s on r ecursos ü tiles e xistentes e n Mesoam6rica, f altan e n l a r egion a ndina. P or e llo e n a mbas r eg iones, l os r ecuentos e tnohistOricos y los d atos a ntropolegicos m odernos s on l os t extos p rimarios q ue n os s iguen i luminando s obre e l a rte a ntes d e l a l leg a .da d e l os e spe .f toles. D urante l as d os ü ltimas d dcadas h a h abido m ucha c ontroversia e n c uanto a l a f unciOn d e tales t extos e n l as i nvestigaciönes s obre l a h istoria d el a rte : , : , Pueden t extos d e u na d poca p osterior s er ü tiles p ara e lucidar e l a rte p roveniente d e u n p eriodo a nterior? z , Existen marcadas d iferenciaciönes e ntre f orma y fondo e n e l a rte p re-colcmbino, t al c am° s e d a e n e l a rte e urop6o? En

e l

c ampo

d el

a rte

y

d e

l a

a rqueologia

p re-colc t nbinos

s e

m anifiestan m ültiples d iscrepancias m etodolOg icas e n c uanto a l s ignific ado y e l l ugar d e l os mencionados t extos e n i nvestigaciem i conogräfica .. A lgunos i nvestigadores u tilizan l ibre nente t extos a ut6ctonos c omo e xplicaciones p ara l as o bras d e a rte s in c onsiderar e l c aracter t inico y e xpresivo d el o bjeto e n c uestiOn ; o tros i nvestigadores r echaza .n e l u so d e e stos t extos c onsiderändolo c omo u na l ente q ue d istorciona l a v isiOn d el p asado.

v i

Los

t rabajos

a qui

c ompilados

e xaminan

e stos

t emas

d esde

v arios

p untos d e v ista. D os d e e stos e nsayos i nvestigan e l t rasfondo h istörico d el e studio d e t extos e i mägenes, e n m i e nsayo i ntroductorio i ntitulado " Categorias c onceptuales p ara e l e studio d e t extos e i mägenes e n M esoa m6rica", s ugiero q ue l os t extos m esoamericanos p ueden e ncajar d entro d e t res t ipologias b äsicas y q ue l a u tilizaci6n d e c ada t ipologia t rae s us p ropios p roblemas y d ificultades. A demäs d e s ugerir t res c ategorias, e xamino t ambign a lgunos e studios m etodol6gicos a nteriores. E l e studio d e Alana Cordy-Collins - " El a ntiguo a rte d e l os Andes a t rav6s d e l a e tnohistoria a ndina : u na r esef ta h istörica" o frece un c oncepto

h istoriogräfico

p rimera r esef ta e n e studios a ndinos.

p aralelo

s obre

l a

r egion

a ndina

y e s

l a

e ste s entido q ue y o c onozco e n e l c ampo d e l os E l e nsayo d e Cordy-Collins d estaca e l h echo d e q ue

l os a ndinistas n o h an e xaminado s uficientemente e l s ignificado e i mport ancia d e l os t extos p ara s us e studios e n l a h istoria d el a rte d el m odo c omo l os mesoamericanistas l o h an h aciendo durante c asi v einte a nos. Dos

e nsayos

a dicionales

c ontindan e l

c uestionamiento

d e l a r ela-

c i6n e ntre t exto e i magen d esde u na p erspectiva t eorica. E n e l a rticulo " Imagen y t exto e n e l a rte p re-hispänico : l o u no y lo o tro", A rthur M iller a naliza l as d iferencias b äsicas q ue ex isten e ntre l os m odos d e c omunicaciön t anto v isuales c omo e scritos y l a n aturaleza d e l a c cmunicaci6n v isual e n Mesoam6rica. E l e studio d e Oriana B addeley l lamado " La r elaciön e ntre l os a ntiguos s istemas a merica .nos d e e scritura y las a rtes v isuales ", d escubre l as r aices d e n uestra v isi6n s obre B addeley a demäs, c ompara y c ontrasta l os m 6todos d e c cmunicaci6n m aya c on l os m 6todos c entro mejicanos. Tanto M iller como B addeley d istinguen e ntre l as n ociones o ccidentales d e l a d icotomia t exto-imagen y l a p ercepci6n aut6ctona a mericana s obre e stas modalidades. Hay c uatro e nsayos e ntre l os s iguientes q ue o frecen a p neac iones a l as c uestiones m etodol6gicas p ropuestas. M i p ropia c ontribuc ion intitulada " El g uerrero y la mariposa : l as i deologias c entromejicanas d e l a g uerra s anta e i conog rafia t eotihuacana ", a naliza e l a rte p or m edio d el e spejo d e l os t extos e tnohist6ricos y d estaca la l ongevidad d e las i deas c entro mejicanas a cerca d e l a g uerra y l os d ioses.

E l e studio " Navegando h acia l as f uentes a l o l argo d e l a c osta

n orte d el P er i l" p or A lana C ordy-Collins y Donna McClelland a signa u na a nti g ledad a l os s istemas d e c reencias d e l os p ueblos Mochd y Chim i l d el p ueden

H ablando e n s entido e stricto, l os d os t rabajos s iguientes n o s e d efin i _r c omo a rte p re-colombino, p uesto q ue c onsideran

r a anuscritos p osteriores a l a C onquista. S in e mbargo, t anto l a c ontribuciön d e B etty A nn B rown " Vistas p ero n o o idas: l as m ujeres e n e l r itual azteca ", c cmo e l e nsayo d e E llen T aylor B aird, " Texto e i magen e n Primeros Memoriales d e Sahagün ", examinan c omo u na t ercera v ariable - e l c ontacto c ultural europ6o ca nplica e l p roble m d e l a i nterpret acion d e t extos e i mägenes e n b ase a manuscritos c oloniales q ue c cmbinan u n e stilo d e t exto europeo c on u na i magineria a nterior a l a C onquista.

v ii

D e l os e studios p ublicados e n e ste v olu r nen c uatro e nsayos s e p resentaron o riginalmente e n l a s esi6n " Arte p re-cola nbino : t extos e i mägenes" l levada a c atx ) d urante e l C uadragdsimo Cuarto C ong reso I nternacional d e A mericanistas r eunida e n M anchester e n e l m es d e s eptiembre d e 1 982. N os a compa .m6 d urante e se s imposio B erthold R iese, q uien e xpuso s abre e l tema " La r econstruci6n d e l os r n anuscritos p ict6ricos c entro mejica .nos". L as c ontribuciones d e B rown y B aird h an s ido a dicionadas p ara d ar e u na m ayor a mplitud r egional y c ronol6gica a l a c olecciön y d os e nsayos a dicionales q ue c ontiene e ste v olumen r esef tas c onceptuales e h istöricas p ar B erlo y C ordy-Collins s obre Mesoam6rica y l a r egion a ndina r espectivamente f ueron a gregados c on e l f in d e p roveer u n m arco t ebrico p ara l as d iscusiones d e l os d emas a utores.

A CKNO ILEDGEMENTS F or t he i dea o f a s ymposium o n t his t opic, I o we a n i ndirect d ebt t o Dr. J oyce W . B ailey w ho inaugurated me i nto t he mysteries a nd p leasures o f t he s tudy o f p re-Columbian a rt. Holyoke College, o f t he s ame t itle a s t his

H er 1 973 seminar a t M ount v olu me , w as m y i ntroduction

t o t he f ield, a s well a s t o sa ne o f t he i ssues t hat m y colleagues a nd I ex pl o re i n t he f ollowing e ssays. I n a ddition, P rofessor George K ubler 's writings a nd m any s timulating g raduate seminars a t Yale University ( 1974-78) h ave i nfluenced my t hinking o n t hese t opics. I t hank t he o rganizers o f t he 4 4th I nternational C ongress Americanists f or g iving me t he o pportunity t o h old t he s ymposium

o f o n

which this v olume i s b ased. D r. A nthony H ands, e ditor a t B .A.R., h as b een h elpful i n a ll a spects o f t he p reparation o f t his b ook, a s h as Dr. Norman Hammond. A s e ditor o f t his v olume a nd o rganizer o f t he s ymposium, I w ould l ike t o t hank m y c olleagues w ho p articipated i n t he s ymposium a nd c ont ributed g rant

t o

f rom

t his

v olume.

My o wn

t he A merican C ouncil

p articipation

w as

m ade

o f L earned S ocieties

a nd

e asier t he

b y

a

Weldon

S prings Fund o f t he University o f Missouri. J une H illiard t yped t he m anuscript, a nd c heerfully put u p w ith m y e ndless r evisions. F inally, Kate Kane d eserves a s pecial n ote o f t hanks. A s m y r esearch a ssistant, p roofreader, a nd c opyeditor, l ightened t he b urden o f o rganizing a c ollection o f p apers.

J anet C atherine B erlo

St.

L ouis, Missouri

October

v iii

1 983

s he

C ONCEPTUAL

C ATEGORIES F OR T HE S TUDY O F

T EXTS A ND IM AGES I N

M ESOAMERICA

b y J ANET

C ATHERINE BERLO

I ntroduction T he s tant

p roblem

c oncern

t o

o f w resting meaning f rom a ncient a ll

w ho

s tudy

p re-Columbian

o bjects

a rt.

T oo

i s

o f

o ften,

c ont hese

o bjects, r emote f rom u s i n t ime, s pace, a nd c ultural a ffiliation, s tand mute a nd u nyielding o f t heir m eaning. M any d ifferent a venues o f i nvest igation h ave b een e xplored d uring t he c entury t hat s cholars h ave g rapp led w ith t he p roblem o f t he i nterpretation o f M esoamerican a rt, b ut n one h as b een u sed q uite s o c onsistently a s t he a pplication o f t extual s ources t o t he s tudy o f p re-Columbian a rt. T he u se o f w ritten s ources i n t he a nalysis o f a rt r aises s ome f undamental q uestions f or t he d iscipline. W hat i s t he r elationship o f t exts t o i mages i n a c ivilization w here p re-Hispanic t exts a re r elat ively f ew a nd a re g lyphic o r p ictographic i n n ature? W hat r ole d oes v isual i magery p lay i n s uch a c ulture? C an t exts b e u sed t o " explain" i mages o r d o t he t wo s ystems c arry d ifferent k inds o f m eaning? T hese q uestions a re large o nes, a nd a re e xplored b y a ll t he c ontributors t o t his v olume. I n t his e ssay , I s hall p rovide sa ne h istoriographic b ackg round f or t hese q uestions, a nd I s hall s uggest s ome n ew c ategories f or t hinking about Mesoamerican t exts a nd i mages. Textual s ources r elevant t o t he s tudy o f p re-Columbian a rt c an e ssentially b e d ivided i nto t wo t ypes : c onjoined t exts a nd d iscrete t exts.

I d efine c onjoined t exts a s t hose t exts l inked w ith i magery b y

t he p re-Hispanic a rtists t hemselves. A n i nscription o n aM aya s tela i s a n e xample o f at ext c onjoined w ith a v isual i mage. D iscrete t exts a re t hose t exts r emoved t emporally, g eographically, o r e thnically f rom t he i mages t hey p urport t o i lluminate. A n A ztec p oem o f t he s ixteenth c entury o r a t wentieth-century Z inacantan M aya m yth a n e arlier w ork o f a rt f all i nto t his c ategory.

u sed t o e xplicate

D iscrete t exts h ave f ormed t he major i nformation s ource f or s chola rs o f p re-Hispanic s ome c ontroversy i n a nd t he p itfalls i n C onjoined t exts a re

a rt. H owever, t he u se o f d iscrete t exts h as a roused M esoamerican s tudies. T he h istory, t he p roblems, t he u se o f d iscrete t exts w ill b e d iscussed f irst. n ot o nly l ess c ommon, b ut t hey a re l ess c ommonly

1

u sed, e xcept b y e pigraphers. E xamination o f c onjoined t exts b rings u p q uestions o f h ow M esoamerican a rtists a nd s cribes t hemselves m ay h ave v iewed t he i nterrelationship o f v isual a nd t extual s ystems. I w ill e xamine d iscrete t exts a nd c onjoined t exts e ach i n t urn b efore moving o n t o a c ategory I l abel e mbedded t exts. I n a n e mbedded t ext, m eaning t hat w e n ormally a ssociate w ith v erbal o r l iterary s ources i s p art o f t he i mage i tself ; t he a rt f unctions b oth a s i mage a nd a s p artial t ext. A lthough t his i s a p rinciple u nderstood b y m any p reC olumbian a rt h istorians, t o m y k nowledge i t h as n ot b een a rticulated c learly a nd d efined a s a f undamental a spect o f a ncient M esoamerican a rt.

D iscrete t exts T he

c ategory o f

d iscrete

t exts

i ncludes n ot

o nly t hose t exts

i n-

s cribed, p ainted, o r w ritten b y t he p re-Hispanic a rtist h imself, b ut a lso e thnohistoric a nd e thnographic d ocuments t hat r eveal a n i ndigenous b elief s ystem. D escriptions, p oems, a nd r ituals r ecorded b y s cholars s uch a s Sahagun o r D uran i n t he s ixteenth c entury, a s w ell a s t hose r ecorded b y m ore r ecent e thnographers, f all i nto t his c ategory. P ostc onquest t exts a re l egion, a s ap erusal o f v olumes 1 2-15 o f t he Handbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians w ill a ttest ( Cline 1 972-5). F or European c olonists, t he p uzzling a nd a lien i magery, r itual p ractices, a nd b elief s ystems o f t he i nhabitants o f M esoamerica w ere m ade c omprehensible b y s etting t hem d own i n n arrative t exts.

T hese s cholars s olicited i nfor-

m ation, w rote d own s ongs, h istorical e pics, p oems, g enealogies, a nd s o f orth, t o r ender s ome o rder t o w hat t hey p erceived a s a v ery c onfusing N ew W orld. T heir e thnohistoric d ocuments, i n t urn, h ave b ecome o ur t exts f or e xplicating t he Mesoamerican p ast. J oined t o t his i s a g rowing b ody o f l iterature b y t wentieth-century e thnologists d ocum enting a h igh d egree o f c onservatism i n t he w orld-view a nd r eligion o f c ontemporary Mesoameri^an I ndian c ommunities ( see, f or e xample, V ogt 1 969). S ince t he t urn o f t he c entury, when t he g reat Mesoamerican s cholar E duard Seler p ioneered t he u se o f t extual a nd e thnographic m aterials t o e xplicate p re-Columbian a rt, u se o f n ative t exts h as b een s een a s t he k ey t o t he p re-Hispanic p ast. This a pproach h as v ariously b een c alled " ethnographic a nalogy," " upstreamin e ( Fenton 1 952:334-5), o r " the d ir ect h istorical a pproach" ( Steward 1 942 ). Seler, w hom H . B . N icholson h as c haracterized a s t he f irst m odern m aster o f t he d irect h istorical a pproach ( 1976:159 ), was h ighly s killed a t i nterweaving v aried s trands o f

e vidence

f rom

h is

e ncyclopedic

k nowledge

o f

Mesoamerican

a rt

a nd

p rehistory. O thers h ave f ollowed h is l ead t o s uch a n e xtent t hat i n t he t wentieth c entury t he p rimary m ethod o f e xplaining a ncient a rt h as b een t hrough t he u se o f t exts. 1 N evertheless, t here h as b een a n o ngoing c ontroversy i n Mesoamericanist c ircles a bout t he p roper u se o f e thnoh istorical d ocuments

( what I h ave t ermed " discrete t exts") i n t he s tudy

2

o f p re-Columbian a rt a nd c ivilization. S ome a spects o f t his c ontrovers y r aise i mportant q uestions about t he r elationship o f t hese t exts t o p re-Hispanic

i mages.

B efore

e xamining

t he

c ontroversy ,

h owever,

i t

w ill b e u seful t o a ttempt t o d efine e thnographic a nalogy m ore p recisely. S ome c onfusion e x ists i n t he l iterature a bout w hat d oes o r d oes n ot c onstitute a nalogy a nd about t he d ifferent w ays a nalogy m ay b e u sed. " Ethnographic a nalogy"

i s a n i mprecise p hrase t hat a ppears t o e n-

c ompass t hree d istinct t ypes o f a nalogy. I f t hese t ypes a re n ot c learly d ifferentiated, i t b ecomes d ifficult t o s ort o ut o bjections t o t he u se o f e thnographic a nalogy. T he t hree t ypes a re : 1 . General c ultural a nalogy. T his i nvolves " assaying a ny b elief about n on-observed b ehavior b y r eferral t o o bserved b ehavior which i s t hought t o b e r elevant" ( Ascher 1 961:317). I n ag eneral c ultural a nalo gy,

f or e xample,

o ne m ight c ompare M aya p yramids w ith E gyptian p yra-

m ids

( without i mplying a ny c ultural c onnection) i n o rder t o make o bser-

v ations about t he u se o f f unerary m onuments i n s ocieties ruled b y h eredi tary k ings ( see M . C oe 1 956). A rt h istorians c ustomarily make a nalogies b etween p re-Columbian a rtistic s ystems a nd t hose o f t he M editerr anean b asin ( see K ubler 1 973a; B erlo 1 983). When G eorge K ubler d raws a n a nalogy b etween t he t alud-tablero a rchitectural s ystem o f T eotihuac an a nd t he a rchitectural o rders o f G reco-Roman a ntiquity ( 1973a:36-7), h e d oes s o i n o rder t o i lluminate t he p re-Columbian w orld b y s uggesting t hat i ts a rtistic s ystem h as f eatures i n c ommon w ith o ther g reat a rt s tyles o f t he a ncient w orld. G eneral c ultural a nalogy i s o ften u sed m etaphorically. I t i s m eant t o b e s uggestive, n ot e vidential. 2 . A nalogy b etween c ultures t hat m anipulate s imilar e nvironments i n s imilar w ays. Again, a s i n g eneral c ultural a nalogy, t here i s n o i mplication o f d irect g enetic r elationship b etween t he t wo c ultures d iscussed. A scher c alls t his " the n ew a nalogy " ( 1961) b ecause o f i ts i mportance i n t he model-building a nd h ypothesis-testing o f n ew a rchaeol ogists. ( Despite i ts t itle, t his t ype o f a nalogy a ctually has b een i n u se s ince t he e arly d ays o f a nthropology.) When W illiam Sanders c omp ares C lassic M aya s ettlement p atterns t o t hose o f s everal s ub-Saharan c hiefdoms i n o rder t o d etermine c ausal p atterns u nderlying p articular s ocio-economic i nstitutions, h e i s e ngaging i n t he " new a nalogy" ( 1981).

3 .

A nalogy i n w hich d irect h istoric c ontinuity i s a ssumed.

T his t ype

o f a nalogy m ight m ore p recisely b e c alled " ethnographic h omology," t hough I k now o f n o i nstance i n t he l iterature w here i t h as b een r ef erred t o a s s uch. Homology, a t erm u sed i n t he b iological s ciences, i mplies n ot m erely s imilarity o r c omparison a s d oes a nalogy, b ut r ather s imilarity b ased o n c ommon o rigin a nd s tructure. M esoa r nericanists a re most p roperly c oncerned w ith t he p roblem o f h omology. T hose s cholars w ho r ely o n e thnohistoric o r e thnog raphic a nalogy d o s o w ith t he i mplici t u nderlying a ssumption

t hat

t hey a re

3

d ealing w ith h istorically a nd

i deologically r elated c ultures. T his b elief i n c ontinuity i s t he m etho dological b asis f or t heir w ork. G ordon W iley h as o utlined t his s tance m ost s uccinctly, e numerating t hree f undamental m ethodological a ssumptions u pon which t he u se o f e thnohistoric d ocuments r ests : a .

A ncient Mesoamerica c an b e v iewed a s au nif ied c ultural t radition.

b .

W ithin t his Mesoamerican c ultural s ystem t here was a u nified i deological s ystem. T here w as a n i ntegrity o f b elief a nd c om-

c .

m unication w ithin t his M esoamerican i deol ogical s ystem t hat p ermits u s, i n a rchaeol ogical r etrospect, t o a scribe s imilar meanings t o s imilar s igns o r s ymbols. ( 1973:153-4) W illey 's a ssumptions h ave f ormed t he m odus o perandi o f Mesoameric anists a t l east s ince t he t ime o f Seler, b ut o ne c rucial i ntellectual d evelopment h as c aused s ome s cholars t o q uestion t hese a ssumptions. W hen Seler u sed A ztec t erms a nd b eliefs t o c larify T eotihuacan a rtif acts, f or e xample ( 19 15), h e w as u naware o f t he p rofound t ime d epth o f t he c ultures i n t he Valley o f M exico i n p articular a nd i n M esoamerica i n g eneral. T his t ime d epth w as r evealed b y t he r igorous a rchaeological m ethod o f t he n ext g eneration o f s cholars, w ho d evoted t hemselves t o u nderstanding a nd r efining t he s equences o f a ncient c ultures. T o Seler 's g eneration, M esoamerican h istory l ooked r elatively s hallow ; t hey n ever i magined t he t hree-thousand-year p eriod o f a dvanced c iviliz ation t hat w e n ow k now existed. This g reat t emporal s pan o f c ulture h istory f orms t he b asis f or s ome o bjections t o t he u se o f e thnog raphic a nd e thnohistoric d ata. I n

1 967,

George

K ubler,

a n

h istorian

o f M esoamerican

a rt,

f irst

raised objections t o t he u se o f t emporally u nrelated d ocuments a s t he k ey t o t he meaning o f p re-Columbian a rt. H is r easons, b ased o n h is t raining a s a h umanistic s cholar w ell v ersed i n European a rts, w ere s et f orth i n a n umber o f a rticles ( 1967, 1 970a, 1 970b, 1 972, 1 973a, 1 973b). H is i deas m ay b e s ummarized a s f ollows : a .

Mesoamerica

b .

n ecessarily u nified c ultures. T he a rt o f e ach c ulture r ecords i nformation

c onsists

o f

r elated,

b ut

n ot

c .

t hat d oes n ot o ccur i n t exts. " Misconceptions a rise f rom a ssuming

t hat

i mages e xist i n a o ne-to-one r elation w ith t exts ; . . .a nd a n i rrelevant t ext c an b e d .

m ore m isleading t han n o t ext." ( 1973b:165) B ased o n o ur k nowledge o f European c ultural s equences, w e must a ssume d isjunction o f f orm a nd meaning w hen f orms o ccur o ver l ong

4

t ime p eriods, f or l ater p eoples o ften r eint erpreted e arlier f orms : " Disjunction, which i s a f orm o f r enovation, may b e s aid t o h appen w henever s or c ivilization i tance b y g earing t o n ew m eaning s,

e .

t he members o f a s uccesr efashion t heir i nhert he p redecessor 's f orms a nd b y c lothing i n n ew

f orms t hose c eptable."

o ld m eanings which (1 970a: 114 3)

R ather

a ssume c ontinuity o ver

t han

r emain a ca l ong

t ime p eriod, o ne must p rove i t, f or " errors a rise f rom i mposing u pon t he r emote p ast a g rid o r c ode o riginating m ore l ennium l ater." (1 973b: 1 6 14 ) S tudents

o f Mesoamerican

s tudies

t han a m il-

sa netimes

s ee

t he

d ispute

o ver

t he u se o f d iscrete t exts a s f alling a long d isciplinary l ines, w ith K ubler r epresenting t he a rt h istorical c amp t hat s tands i n o pposition t o t he mainstream a pproach o f C oe ( 1973, 1 97 14 ), F urst ( 1968, 1 973a, 1 973b), W illey ( 1973), a nd t heir a nthropological c olleagues a nd p redec essors. B ut t his o versimplifies t he i ssue. C ritics o f e thnog raphic a nalogy exist b oth w ithin M esoamerican a rchaeology a nd w ithin t he l arger d iscipline o f a nthropological a rchaeology. 2 J imenez-Moreno i s o ne o f f ew M exican a rchaeologists t o d isag ree w ith p revailing a ssumpt ions o f c ultural u nity a nd c ontinuity. H e b elieves t here w as a p rof ound c ultural r upture a t t he b eginning o f t he P ost-Classic p eriod i n w hich n ew r eligious c onfigurations w ere f ormed f rom t he d iverse t radit ions o f t he p receding e ra. H e c autions s cholars t o t ake t his i nto a ccount w hen d iscussing c ultural c ontinuity ( 1968). R . E . T aylor, a N orth A merican specialist i n West M exican a rchaeology, c alls t he u se o f a nalogy a " seductive a ttraction" a nd c riticizes p roponents l ike Furst. Curiously, T aylor s ays t hat t here a re f ew a nalytical t ools c apable o f e xtracting r eligious c ontent f rom t he m aterial r ecord. T hus h e d eterm ines t hat " nonhistoric a rchaeology, i n t he a rea o f r eligious o r i deol ogical i nterpretation, a pparently h as n o o ther r ecourse b ut t o b e d ependent o n e thnog rapnic a nalogy"

( 1970:167).

Taylor 's s tatements t o t he c ontrary , t he d iscipline o f a rt h istory d oes p rovide p recisely t hose " analytical t ools c apable o f extracting m eaning " f rom a rchaeolog ical m aterials w hich Taylor s ays a re n eeded. 3 K ubler 's w ork s hows o f w hat t hat " other r ecourse" c onsists. H is i nvest igation o f Teotihuacan i conography ( 1967) a nd Maya i conography ( 1969) s tand a s l andmark s tudies i n which t he c ontextual a pproach i s u naided b y d iscrete t exts o f l ater

p eriods.

The g eneration o f a rt h istorians f ollowing Kubler h as u tilized a v ariety o f a pproaches t o t he r elationship o f t ext a nd i mage. T heir d iverse methods s hare w ith Kubler 's a n i mplicit ag reement t hat meaning i s t o b e f ound p rimarily w ithin t he object i tself a nd i ts c ontex t. I ndeed, t his " agreement" i s t he f oundation o f a rt h istorical m ethodolo gy i n g eneral.

5

W here t hese s cholars d iverge i s i n h ow m uch w eight t o g ive d iscrete t exts. Some, l ike Quirarte, p refer a c ontex tual a pproach, w hich c onsiderations o f s pace,

t o i n

f ormat, s tyle, material, a nd t he c ompo-

n ent e lements o f p articular t hemes a re a nalyzed ( 1979). 4 C oggins ( 1975, 1 982) a nd A . Miller ( 1973, 1 982) h ave s tudied materials w ith v erifiable a rchaeological ( and i n M iller 's c ase, a rchitectural) c ont exts. T hus, c ontext a nd c omparative a ssociations h ave p rovided t he f ocal p oint f or t heir s tudies, f or s ubstantiating e vidence. ( 1972), t hough s he a rgues Mesoamerican a rt ( 1973).

t hough b oth r ely o n t extual t raditions P asztory , t oo, h as f ocused o n c ontext

f or a " synthetic a pproach" t o t he s tudy o f H er s ynthetic a pproach i ncludes c ontextual

a nalysis o f m otifs a nd c omparative a nalysis b ased o n c oeval c ultures, s ixteenth-century t exts, a nd modern e thnography. Grieder h as a rticul ated a p rinciple t hat s eems t o guide t his w hole s econd g eneration Mesoamerican a rt h istorians:

o f

D isjunction i s a u seful c oncept, b ecause i t i dentifies a c ultural p henomenon, b ut r ather t han d enying u s a ccess t o a ncient meanings, i t c larifies t he m ethod b y which t hey m ay b e s tudi ed. D isjunction i s t he r esult o f p articular s ocial o r e nvironmental e vents o f o r c ircums tances w hich c an b e d etermined b y a rchaeology a nd h istory. ( 1975:853) I n a nalyzing a rt i n t he V alley o f Mexico, P asztory , K lein , a nd Townsend h ave f ound evidence f or c ontinuity, r enewal, a nd r einte uatiön o f a ncient s ymbols a nd c oncepts ( Pasztory n .d.; K lein 1 980; T ownsend 1 979). These s cholars u se a r igorous a nalytical a pproach t hat c ombines t he b est o f t raditional a nthropological u se o f d iscrete t exts w ith t he t raditional a rt h istorical c ommitment t o t he p rimacy o f t he a rt o bject. P asztory a nd K lein b oth h ave r emarked o n d iscrepancies b etween t exts a nd i mages, a s h as B oone ( 1980). P asztory has c ommented t hat t he i mportance o f Q uetzalcoatl i n t he c olonial t exts may r eflect t he i ntere st t hat t he S panish h ad i n h is t raits a nd p ersonality r ather t han h is t rue i mportance t o Mexica s ociety ( n.d.:2). K lein f orcefully c ritic izes t hose s cholars w ho r ely o n e thnohistoric t exts r ather t han a nal yzing t he i mages

t hemselves:

Few modern s cholars h ave a ttempted t o d eal w ith t he numerous d epictions o f T laloc t hat f ail t o s quare w ith t he a ppearance a nd f unction a scribed t o h im b y t he e arly w riters. . . . Failure t o d eal w ith t his d iscrepancy b etween t ext a nd i ma ge m ay b e a ttributed i n p art t o t he p aralysis t hat s trikes t hose Western s cholars s o d ependent o n t he w ritten w ord w hen, f or so me r eason, t heir v erbal s ources a re s trangely s ilent o n a g iven s ubject. b old a s t o apt t o g et

I n

s uch

a s ituation,

o nly

t hose

s o

c onfront t he mystique o f " art" a re c lose t o r eality. While t he t rue

6

p rimary s ources--the i mages--may a lone s upply a m essage t hat i s n ot c onfirmed, a n o f t heir i mplications w ith m odern

i nterweaving e thnographic

d ata c an p roduce a f abric w hose t exture i s e ven, a nd w hose d esign s tructurally p arallels t he t ruth. ( Klein 1 980:156) Her c omments o n Western s cholars ' d ependence o n t he w ritten w ord, e ven i n t he f ace o f o pposing evidence i n t he p ictorial r ecord, a re a n i mport ant c riticism o f f laws i n o ur d iscipline a nd s hould b e h eeded b y a ll w ho u se t exts i n t he a nd R aird

1 979,

s tudy

o f M esoamerican a rt.

( See

a lso B rown

1 977

a s w ell a s Brown i n t his v olume).

The p ossible d iscrepancies t hat K lein h as h ighlighted b etween t ext ual a nd v isual t raditions s uggests t hat s ome a rtists m ay h ave w orking p rincipally f rom o ther v isual m odels, while sa ne r elied

b een m ore

c losely o n t ex ts o r v erbal t raditions. T he s tyle a nd i cono g raphy o f c ertain A ztec m onuments, f or e xample, i ndicate t hat t heir c reators w ere d eliberately c opying s tone s culpture l eft b y t heir Toltec p redecessors ( see Townsend 1 979:17, a nd h is f igures 5 a nd 6 ). This c opying d erived f rom

t he

Mexica 's

n eed

t o

a ffirm

t hat

t heir

a uthority w as

l inked

t o

a ncient t raditions i n t he Valley o f M exico. M aya v ase p ainting, i n c ontrast, c losely f ollowed a l iterary t radition. I ndeed, a ccording t o s ome s cholars, M aya v ase p ainting was s o c losely b ound t o t exts t hat, l acking extant t exts, w e c an r econstruct t he mythic c ycles b ased o n t he v isual t ableaux o n t he p olychrome p ots ( Robicsek a nd Hales 1 982). P anofsky h as s uggested a s imilar p rocess o f v arying a ttachment e ither t o v isual o r t extual m odels t o a ccount f or d isjunction i n R enaissance a rt : o ne a rtist, u sing a C lassical m otif f or a C hristian i mage, may h ave b een f ollowing v isual m odels, w hereas a nother a rtist, u sing M ediev al f orms f or a C lassical i dea, may h ave b een " translating i nto i mages a m ere d escription f rom l iterary s ources"

( 1955: 2424 ).

D iscussion o f t he t ies b etween t extual a nd v isual t raditions l eads t o o ne l ast q uestion i n t his s ection o n d iscrete t exts. H ow d id a ncient Mesoamerican p eoples t hemselves p erceive t he r elationship o f t he v isual a rts t o a b ody o f r itual, p olitical, a nd h istorical k nowledge? This q uestion must b e c onsidered t wice, o nce f or t he p opulation i n g eneral a nd o nce f or . t he e lite a nd t he s elect g roup o f a rtists i n t heir e mploy. C ertainly t here w ere v arying d egrees o f a ttachment t o l iterary o r v erbal " texts." T o t he v ast majority o f t he p opulation, j ust a s t o t he g reat p easant p opulations o f t he Middle Ages i n Europe, a rt w as t he main " text," t he p rimary m eans o f c omprehending t he s upernatural a nd u nders tanding t he r elationship b etween d ivine a uthority a nd d ynastic a uthori ty. 5 T o t he p riestly a nd r uling c lasses, p ublic m onumental a rt was t he m eans f or i nculcating r espect a nd s ubservience t o h uman a nd g odly rule. For t his u pper s tratum o f s ociety, a rt a nd w riting w ere s ystems i n which t o e ncode r eligious b eliefs a nd t o c ast p olitical p ropaganda i n c osmic l ight. A rt was a lso t he a rea f or v erbal a nd v isual w ord p lay a nd e legant

p uns.

P olysemous

i ntentions a re

7

c ommon i n

Mesoamerican a rt ;

l ayers o f m eaning r eveal t hemselves a ccording t o t he e rudition o f t he v iewer. T he i mportance o f p olysemy, a nd a rt a s t ext i n M esoamerica w ill b e d iscussed l ater, u nder t he c ategory o f n bedded t exts. H owever, b efore d iscussing a rt a s t ext, I w ill e xamine sa ne i nstances i n w hich t he p re-Hispanic a rtist l inked a rt a nd t ext a s w e k now t hem o n t he s ame o bject.

C onjoined t exts a nd i mages Texts a ccompany i mages i n v arious m edia f rom s everal a reas o f Mesoamerica. From t he F ormative p eriod, r emaining e xamples s urvive o nly o n l ithic materials. L arge p ublic monuments s uch a s Monument 1 3 f rom La V enta a nd t he D anzantes a t M onte A lban i ndicate t hat e ven i n t he Formative

p eriod,

s cribe

a nd

a rtist

c ollaborated

i n

t he

m aking

o f

e xpressive w ork s ( Bernal 1 969: p late 2 9; C oe 1 977:plate 2 3). I n t he l ate Formative a nd Early C lassic p eriods, t exts b ecome more c ommon 6 a nd a re f ound o n s mall-scale p ortable objects l ike t he T uxtla s tatuette a nd t he Leyden p laque ( Coe 1 977 :f ig. 1 9 , 1 976 :f ig. 1 6) a s w ell a s p ublicly e rected m onuments. During t he C lassic p eriod, Z apotec a nd M aya s tone c arvers c reated s culptures i n w hich t ext a nd i mage w ere s uccessfully c onjoined. These a re m ost numerous i n t he M aya a rea, f rom which a re k nown h undreds o f s telae, z oomorphs, a ltars, l intels, a nd m iscellaneous s culptures. 7 A m uch s maller c orpus o f w orks was c reated i n t he Valley o f Oaxaca. Early s cholars

v aried i n t heir a ssessment

o f t he

r elationship o f

M aya t exts a nd i mages. Brinton, B owditch, a nd F orstemann, c oncentrati ng o n a stronomical a nd c alendrical d ecipherment, a voided d etailed d isc ussion

o f t he c onjoined i magery

( Brinton

1 89 14 :32).

S pinden a nalyzed

t he f ormal d evelopment a nd i conographic p rograms o f t he monuments, b ut e quivocated o n t heir m eanings. H e b elieved i t u nlikely t hat t he s telae r epresented i ndividuals a nd s uggested t hat s uch monuments s erved e ither a s m arkers o f t he c ompletion o f a t ime p eriod o r a s i mages o f t he g ods w ho g overned t he t ime p erio ds ( 19 13:129). Morley , d espite h is l ate s ingle-minded f ocus

o n t he

c alendrical

p assages

o f

t he

i nscriptions,

w rote i n 1 9 11: While a dmitting t hat t he i nscriptions m ay , a nd p robably d o, c ontain s uch a stronomical matter a s Doctor Brinton a nd Mr. B owditch h ave s uggested, t he w riter b elieves n evertheless t hat f undament ally t hey a re h istorical; t hat t he monuments upon which t hey a re p resented w ere e rected a nd i nscribed o n o r a bout t he d ates t hey s everally r ecord ; a nd f inally, t hat t he g reat majority o f t hese d ates a re t hose o f c ontemporaneous e vents, a nd a s s uch p ertain h istory. ( 19 15:33)

t o

8

t he

s ubject

m atter

o f

N early h alf a c entury l ater, T atiana P roskouriakoff ' s b reak through o n t he dynastic c ontent o f M aya i nscriptions ( 1960, 1 963, 1 96 24 ) d emons trated b eyond d oubt t hat i n b oth t ext a nd i mage o n p ublic monuments t he M aya 's o verriding c oncern was h istorical a nd c ommemorative, n ot s imply numerological o r c hronographic. I t s eems i ncreasingly l ikely t hat s imilar c oncerns p reoccupied Z apotec s culptors a s well ( Marcus 1 980). A nother c ategory o f

c onjoined t ext a nd i mage o ccurs i n Maya v ase-

p ainting, a n a rt f orm t hat c ombines l ongevity w ith p ortability. I n 1 973 M ichael C oe p ointed o ut t hat t he t exts o n many Maya v ases o ccurred r epeatedly, w ith sa ne v ariation. H e t ermed t his t extual p attern t he " Primary S tandard Sequence" ( PSS), a nd s uggested t hat i t r eferred t o " rigidly c odified c hants o r r ecitations" ( 1973 : 18 ) . More r ecently, C ne h as d iscussed t he P SS a s a d escription o f t he d escent i nto X ibalba, t he M aya u nderworld ( 1978:13). C oncurrent w ith h is f ormulation o f t he Primary S tandard Sequence, Coe a lso d emonstrated t hat m any Maya v ases d epicted t he e xploits o f t he i nfamous h ero t wins o f t he M aya e pic t he P opul V uh. T hus, s ome Maya v ases a ppear t o b e s imilar t o C lassic Greek v ase p ainting i n which mythological c haracters e nact s cenes f rom w ritt en o r o ral m ythic c ycles. I n f act, R obicsek a nd Hales h ave r ecently s uggested t hat, f or t he M aya, p ainted c eramic v essels t hemselves f unctioned a s c odex "pages" t hat c ould b e a ppropriately a ssembled t o r ecord t he c ontinuous n arrat ive o f r eligious a nd s ecular e vents i n a m anner a nalogous t o s creenf old manuscripts ( 1982:251). 8 I n a ny e vent, t extual r eferents i n Maya p olychrome c eramics r ange f rom t he s pecific a nd h istorical t o f he s acred a nd mythological. H istorical t ies a re a ffirmed b y t he r ecording o f p ersonal n ames o r e mblem g lyphs o f p articular M aya c ities. T he t ext o n o ne Maya v ase, f or e xample, makes r eference t o Calakmul, Machaquila, a nd T ikal ( Coe 1 978:96-8). Mythic a nd r itual l inks a re e ncoded i n t he r epeating l itany o f t he P rimary S tandard Sequence. T he t ies b etween this w orld a nd t he u nderworld a re a ffirmed i n t he i mages t hemselves. Maya a nd Mexican manuscripts p rovide a nother medium f or t he c onj unction o f t exts a nd i mages. In M exican c odices, t he t exts a re u sually r udimentary , n oting w ho, where, a nd w hen. T his a rmature o f a ppellat ives, t oponyms, a nd d ates i s a ugmented b y p ictorial n arratives w herein h istory a nd r itual a re made manifest. T exts i n Maya c odices a re r icher, b ecause t he M aya w riting system b ears m ore o f t he b urden o f c ommunicat ion t han d o t he more r udimentary Mexican a nd Mixtec s ystems. C onjoined t exts a nd i mages r aise a number o f q uestions f or t he a rt h istorian. What i s t he i nterplay o f t ext a nd i mage w hen t he t wo a re p resented s imultaneously? W ere a rtist a nd s cribe t he s ame p erson ? W hat w ere t he i ntentions o f t he a rtist/scribe? W ere t he i mages " illustrat ions" o f t exts? A mplifications o f t exts? O r a re t he t wo i nformation s ystems f undamentally d ifferent b ut e qual? W hile I w ill b y n o means a ttempt t o a nswer a ll t hese q uestions, a f ew r emarks m ay h elp i lluminate t he

i nterrelationships

o f

t hese

t wo

9

i nformational

s ystems.

B oth

B addeley a nd Miller c onsider t his t opic i n f uller d etail i n t heir e ssays i n this v olume. 9 J .

E ric S .

T hompson, i n d iscussing t he Dresden a nd Madrid c odices,

o nce observed t hat " the p ictures s upplement t he h ieroglyphic t ext : t he t exts d o n ot i nterpret t he p ictures" ( 1958:2 9 7). T he p re-Columbian a rtist skillfully u sed s everal i nformational s ystems i n t he p resentat ion o f c omplex i nformation. I ndeed, t he i nterplay i tself o f t he s ys tems s eems t o h ave C olumbian s cribe.

b een

a m atter

o f

sa ne

f ascination

t o

t he

p re-

E lsewhere I h ave d iscussed a s eries o f v erbal a nd v isual p uns i n t he t ext a nd i magery o n p ages 3 8, 4 2, a nd 14 3 o f t he M adrid C odex ( Berlo 1 976:26-8). I n t hat a rticle , I d emonstrate t hat w hat h ad p reviously b een i nterpreted a s m istakes o r s loppy t ranscriptions b y t he M aya s cribe w as a ctually a p lay o n w ords w ith t wo d ifferent r eferents, o ne b ased o n p artial h cmophony, t he o ther o n v isual s imilarity. The m eaning o f t his w ord p lay i s m anifested b y g lyphs w orking i n c oncert w ith i mages. T he s cribe purposefully j oined v isual a nd v erbal m etaphor i n o rder t o e mphasize t he n uances o f l anguage a nd i mage. T his p rovides i nsight i nto t he s cribe 's v iew o f t hese t wo informational s ystems : The s cribe p layed b ack a nd f orth b etween t he t wo s ystems, t o t he mutual e nrichment o f e ach.lo P ictures a mplified t ext ; t ext a mplified p ict ures. A b asic a esthetic p rinciple o f M aya a rts a nd l etters i s t he r es tatement o f t he s ame i nformation i n s lightly a ltered f orm. I n v erbal a rts, this o ccurs a s r hymed c ouplets t hat r estate a nd c orroborate b ut d o n ot r epeat v erbatim. The P opul V uh i s f ull o f e xamples o f t his, which Bricker c alls "parallelistic c ouplets" ( 1981:185). 1 I s uggest t hat t he p unning r eferred t o i n t he Madrid C odex, a s well a s t he m any i nstances i n Maya a rt i n w hich g lyphic i nformation i s " restated" i n p ictorial f orm, a re e xamples o f this b asic a esthetic p attern. H ere, h owever, t he p arallel s tatements a re made i n d ifferent b ut r elated m edia : v erbal a nd v isual a rt. Later i n t his e ssay, I s hall d iscuss f urther

t he

" embedding "

examples f rcm M aya,

o f

t extual

m aterial

i n p ictorial

a rt,

u sing

T eotihuacan, a nd Z apotec c ultures.

S ometimes t ext i s j ust o ne a spect o f a n a mbitious p resentation o f i nformation. O n t he g rand h ieroglyphic s taircase a t C opan, a rchitect ure s erves a s a v ehicle f or b oth w riting a nd s culptural d isplay. More a mbitious c onjunctions o ccur a t B onampak a nd P alenque, f or e xample, w here t exts, w all p aintings o r r eliefs, l intels, s telae, s tucco f acade s culpture, a nd a rchitecture c reate a unified p resentation o f h istorical a nd c osmological i nformation ( see M . Miller 1 981; C ohodas 1 974, 1 976). I n s uch i nstances, h ieroglyphic t exts p rovide o ne s ort o f i nformation. Layers o f m eaning a ccrue b y means o f c omplex i conog raphic p rog rams, s ite

l ayouts,

a nd

a stronomical

o rientation.

Sometimes

our

o ver-

r eliance o n t extual i nformation c auses b lindness t o t he o ther modes o f c ommunication, a lthough i t i s c lear t hat t o t he M aya a rtist i t was t he

1 0

c omplementarity e xpression.

o f

t hese

modes

t hat

p rovided

t he

m aximum

m eans

o f

T he r elationship o f t ext t o c onjoined i mage i s s ituational. T ext g ains o r d iminishes i n i mportance a ccording t o m edium a nd a ccording t o i ndividual w orks o f a rt i n t he s ame medium.

P ublic monumental i nscrip-

t ions b ear a d ifferent r elationship t o t heir a ssociated i mages t han d o t exts o n s mall-scale, i ntimate m edia l ike c odices a nd c eramics. A lt hough t he p ast t wenty y ears h ave s een r enewed i nterest i n a nd s uccess a t t he d eciphering o f Maya g lyphs, e pig raphic s tudies m ust a lways b e c arried o ut i n c onjunction w ith s ensitive i conograph ic " decipherment" a s w ell. D espite t his e xcursion i nto t he u nique p roblems o f c onjoined t ex ts a nd i mages, i nstances o f s uch c onjunctions a re d ecidedly i n t he m inori ty i n p re-Hispanic a rt. A s Miller p oints o ut i n t his v olume, a ll k nown examples o f Mesoamerican t exts Images t hemselves u sually b ear

w ould n ot e ven f ill a l ibrary s helf. t he w eight o f i nformation-transmittal

w ithout c ontiguous t exts. U nraveling t he m eaning o f s uch i mages c ust omarily h as p roceeded p rincipally t hrough r eference t o o ther t extual s ources, n amely t o w hat I h ave c alled d iscrete t ext. H owever, i t s eems l ikely t hat Mesoamerican i magery o ften h as m ultiple r eferents, s ome o f which a re l inguistic o r g lyphic i n n ature. G reater a ttention s hould b e p aid t o t he messages t hat a re e mbedded i n t he i mages t hemselves.

E mbedded T exts Having examined t he r elationship o f c onjoined t exts a nd i mages a nd t he m eans b y which d iscrete t exts h ave b een u tilized i n d eciphering i mages t hat s tand a lone, I s hall p ropose o ne more c ategory o f " text" t hat I b elieve h as sa ne u tility f or a n u nderstanding a rt. T his i s t he c ategory o f e mbedded t ext.

o f

p re-Colu mbian

I n a n e mbedded t ext, m eaning which i n o ur W estern t radition w ould b e c arried b y w riting i s e mbedded i n t he i mage i tself. A ccording t o o ur W estern, l inear n otions o f t exts a s f undamentally d ifferent f rom i ma ges, e mbedded t exts a re n ot r eally t exts a t a ll. Y et i n a lmost a ll a ncient M esoamerican a rtistic s ystems, a rt i s t he v ehicle f or c arrying t ext-like i nformation. S tudy o f i mages a s e mbedded t exts i s n ot s imply t he s tudy o f i conog raphy, a s i t m ay s eem a t f irst. F or i n m ost p reC olumbian c ultures, a rt i ntersects w ith "writing" a nd l inguistic i nformation t o s uch a n extent t hat a k nowledge o f t he a ssociated w ritten, o ral, o r l inguistic t raditions p rovides i nsight i nto t he a rt o n ar icher l evel. This unity o f t ext a nd i mage i s s uggested i n M aya l anguage i tself, w herein n o d istinction i s m ade b etween w riting a nd d rawing. T he M otul d ictionary g losses t s 'ib :

t o w rite, t o d raw ;

d rawing o r w riting o n s tone.

1

t s 'ibtun :

a n i dol;

a rt.

I s hall p rovide s everal s amples o f e mbedded t exts i n p re-Columbian A gain, t he i nterpenetration o f v erbal a nd v isual m edia m entioned

e arlier

a s

a b asic t enet

o f

p re-Columbian a rts a nd l etters c omes

i nto

p lay h ere : A rt r estates l inguistic ( or, w here a ppropriate, g lyphic) i nformation i n a d ifferent f orm, s ometimes t hrough t he u se o f m u ltiple m etaphor. J oyce M arcus h as p ointed o ut t hat t he b lood-like s crolls i ssuing f rom t he g enital a rea o f sa ne f ormative p eriod d anzante r eliefs a t Monte A lban l ink Z apotec a rt t o Z apotec s poken l anguage: The Z apotec w ord f or f lower i s g ui, t he w ord f or s exual o rgan g ui p lus t he p ossessive p refix x o r s h. Still a nother m eaning f or s ui i s g iven b y C ordova i n h is d ictionary o f s ixteenth-century Z apotec : " that which i s o ffered i n s acrifice." T he g roin s crolls o f t he d anzantes m ay t herefore r epresent a t riple p un f or " flower"-"sexual o rg an"-"sacrificial Tatiana

Proskouriakoff

v ictim." h as

( 1976: 14 5)

d emonstrated

s imilar

o ccurrences

i n

I zapan a nd Maya a rt ( 1976). S tela 2 5 a t I za .pa d epicts a h uman f igure h olding a s taff, a top which s its a n a nthrop o morphic b ird ( fig. 2 ). To t he l eft o f t he s taff i s a n u pended c ayman o r c rocodile. I ts s nout a nd f ront p aws extend t oward t he g roundline.

I ts u pended b ody t urns i nto a

l eafy t ree. I n t he b ranches o f t his t ree p erches a s mall b ird. P roskouriakoff n oted t hat t he M aya w ord f or c ayman o r c rocodile i s a ir ) ; t he r elated w ord a m ok m eans " that w hich i s g ummy o r r esinous." Thus, t he upended c rocodile/tree c ould e asily b e a v isual r endering o f a l inguistic metaphor i n w hich " that w hich s ounds l ike a m " r efers t o t he p lant o r t ree t hat y ields r esin f or i ncense. o f a n e mbedded t ext. I n b oth t his a nd t he s ort o f r ebus p rinciples k nown f rcm b oth A ztec c ommunication s ystems t hat a re n ot p rimarily Proskouriakoff

This i s a p erfect example Z apotec e xample, t he s ame a nd M aya w riting o ccur i n g lyphic.

p rovides o ne f urther e xample t hat

f its m y c oncept

o f a n e mbedded t ext i n a rt. O ne o f t he most f amiliar Maya monuments o f t he E arly C lassic p eriod i s s tela 3 1 f rom T ikal ( fig. 1 ). O n t he f ront o f t his s tela, t he r uler Stormy S ky i s d epicted. A l engthy h ieroglyphic t ext o n t he b ack p rovides t he h istorical a nd dynastic c ontext f or h is r ule. A t t he t op o f t he s tela , a bove t he f igure o f Stormy S ky i s a d ownward-peering d isembodied h ead. This d ownward-peering h ead h as a h and f or a l ower j aw. P roskouriakoff p oints o ut t hat i n Maya g lyphs a f ace w ith a h and a t t he l ower j aw s tands f or a f our-hundred-year p eriod ( baktun). N oting t hat i n Stormy S ky 's r eign B ai ctun 8 i n t he Maya c alendar c hanged t o B aktun 9 , she s uggests t hat t his i mage m ight g raphic ally

i ndicate

c alendar ( 1976).

c ame

t hat t o

t he

a c lose

e ig nth d uring

f our-hundred-year t he

1 2

r eig n

o f

c ycle

t his

o f

t he

i mportant

Maya ruler

I t i s l ikely t hat i n many o ther r espects t he f ront o f s tela 3 1 f unctions a s a n e laborate t ex tual m essage. M any o f t he abstract a nd f igural e mble ms w orn a s p art o f t he c ostume a sse mblage o n t he f ront r ecur i n t he l inear g lyphic p assage o n t he b ack o f t he s tela. A s we b ecome more p roficient a t d eciphering Maya s cript, t he e laborate c ost ume-encoded " messages" o n m any M aya s telae s hould b ecome m ore c ompreh ensible. The s ides o f P acal' s s arcophagus a t P alenque p rovide f urther e xamp les o f t extual r eferents e mbedded i n a n i mage. A round a ll f our s ides o f t he s arcophagus a re t en h uman f igures w ho e merge f rom o penings i n t he e arth. B ehind e ach f igure i s a f ruiting t ree, e ach o f which h as b een i dentified b otanically b y Ruz L huiller ( 1970:107). F eatures o f t he n ame g lyphs o f ' sa ne o f t hese a ncestors o f P acal o ccur i n t heir h eadd resses. F or e xample, a f orebear f rom t he s eventh k atun o f c ycle 9 , L ord B ahlum ( "Lord J aguar ") w ears a l ivelier v ersion o f h is j aguar n ame g lyph a s t he most p rominent f eature o f h is h eadgear ( fig. 3 ) L ady Z acK uk ( "Lady R esplendent Q uetzal") h as a n extra q uetzal c rest i n h er h eaddress, a ccording t o Lounsbury ( 1974:16 ), d istinguishing h er f rom t he o ther i ndividuals w ho h ave j ust o ne

q uetzal c rest e ach.

I n a c ontroversial p aper, T homas B arthel h as s uggested t hat t hese a ncestor f igures a nd f ruit t rees e ncode a f urther m essage b ased o n h omophonous p uns. 1 2 A ccording t o B arthel, t he Maya n ames f or t he v ari ous f ruit t rees s erve a s h omophonous e xpressions o f m ourning a nd l ame ntation f or t he d ead P acal. F or e xample, t he c acao t ree b ehind t wo o f t he f igures c an b e r ead a s am etaphor f or c a c au, " our s trong o ne," " our j ewel" a nd k a k au , " our g randfather" ( Barthel 1 980:82). T hese p hrases, i n turn, a re m etaphors f or t he ruler. A lthough sa ne o f B arthel 's t ranslations m ay b e d isputed, h is b asic t hesis d eserves f urthor c onside ration. B arthel exhorts M aya i conog raphers t o t ake i nto a ccount p oss ible l inguistic c ontent a s w ell a s t he more s tandard i conographic c ontent o f a n i mage ( 1980:88) . So f ar i n t his b rief s urvey o f e mbedded t exts, w e h ave s een i magery s erving a s metaphor o r p un, a s i dentification o f s tatus ( the d anzante a s s acrificial v ictim), a s c hronological m arker, a s a ppellative, a nd a s l itany o f p recious q ualities. P lace s igns a re a lso c ommonly f ound e mbedded i n p ictorial i magery. I n t his

v olume,

B a .ddeley o bserves

t hat i n t he e clectic Maya-style

murals a t C acaxtla i n T laxcala, N ahua g lyphic s igns a ppear a s p art o f t he p ictorial n arrative. S he p oints o ut t hat a t oponymic t ooth-and-gum t lan s ign i s a ppended t o t he s pear i n e dificio B ( Baddeley, f ig. 5 ). Here, a t extual m essage e mbedded i n t he p ictorial n arrative may p lace t his b attle g eog raphically. S imilar l ocatives o ccur i n t he m onumental s telae a t Monte A lban, w here e mbedded t ex ts w ork t ogether w ith l inear t exts. F or e xample, i n s telae 2 , 3 , 6 , a nd 8 , t he c entral t heme i s a b ound f igure s tanding o n a p lace s ign ( fig. 14 a nd P addock 1 966: f igs. 1 / 43, 114 6, 114, 1 47). These i mages f unction b oth p ictorially a nd t ext ually. T hough t hey a re f lanked b y more t raditionally n arrative t ex ts

1 3

i n c olumnar f ormat,

t he main message a bout

p erson,

p lace, a nd e vent

i s

c onveyed i n a v isually c o mpelling l ogo g -aphic f ormat. B addeley s ees t his " interweaving o f t extual a nd p ictorial e lem ents" a s p articularly c haracteristic o f M exican ( as d istinct f rom M aya) c ultures ( p. 6 3); I p refer t o c lassify i t a s ap an-Mesoamerican t radition.

H owever, I b elieve t hat i t i s m ore r eadily a pparent t o u s i n

t hose c ultures w here w e d o n ot h ave a h ighly-developed g lyphic s ystem u pon which t o f ocus our i nterest i n t he w ritten w ord. O ne s uch c ulture i s t he Teotihuacan c ivilization o f C entral M exiI ncreasingly d uring t he l ast t wenty y ears, s cholars h ave b egun t o

c o.

r ecognize t he p ivotal i mportance o f Teotihuacan i n t he p olitical, e conomic, a nd c ultural l ife o f C lassic P eriod M esoamerica ( see P arsons 1 969;

P asztory

1 978;

R .

Millon

s elf-evident t hat t he c ivilized d eveloped t radition o f w riting c ultural a nd i ntellectual h ub o f e minence o f Teotihuacan d uring

1 981).

P reviously ,

i t w as

c onsidered

a nd s cholarly M aya, w ith t heir h ighlya nd r ecord k eeping, must h ave b een t he t he N ew W orld. R ecognition o f t he p ret his p eriod h as r aised s ome q uestions

about t he n ecessity o f r ecord-keeping a nd w ritten t raditions f or s uch a v ast a dministrative e mpire. F or s ome, t his h as s uggested s imply t hat w e h ave n ot l ooked w riting system.

h ard e nough a nd w ill s ome d ay " find" t he T eotihuacan O thers t reat t he c omplex T eotihuacan s ymbol s ystem a s

i f i t w ere a w riting s ystem. Thomas B arthel, f or e xample, a s cholar o f Maya w riting a nd Mexican c odices, h as s uggested t hat t rue " texts" d o exist a t T eotihuacan. H e h as c haracterized t he s ymbols c ascading f rom h ands a nd s peech s crolls i n T eotihuacan mural p ainting a s " infixed g raphemes" ( 1982:5), n oting t heir o ccasional " columnar" p lacement a nd " vertical t ext p rog ression" ( 1982:7). H e e xhorts o ther s cholars t o compile a c atalog o f s uch " text o ccurences" a nd t he g raphemes t hat o ccur w ithin t hem, c harting f requenc y a nd a ssociated s igns. T rying t o f orce t he r ich a nd v aried m anifestat ions o f Teotihuacan l ogog rams a nd s ymbols i nto a l inear p attern o f t exts s eems f undamentally m isguided ; t he s earch f or l inear t exts a t Teotihuacan i mposes a Western-style n otion o f w riting u pon a c ommunicat ion s ystem t hat was m uch l ess r igid a nd c odified t han t rue w riting s ystems. I ndeed, l inear t exts n ever d eveloped i n t he Valley o f Mexico. The A ztec w riting s ystem was e ssentially a s ystem o f p ictographic a nd p honetic mnemonic

d evices.

N ames,

p laces,

a nd

d ates

c ould b e

e asily

r endered i n s uch a system. B ut t he A ztecs h anded d own t he m ore c omplex w orks o f h istory , myth, s ong , p oetry , a nd d ramatic n arrative t hrough o ral t radition c arried o n b y s pecialists. S uch w orks w ere n ot w ritten d own i n l inear f ashion u ntil t he c oming o f Europeans. 1 3 A s t heir p recurs ors i n t he Valley o f M exico, T eotihuacanos m ay h ave h ad a s imilarly e laborate o ral t radition. T heir v isual t radition w as e xceedingly r ich i n s ymbol, m etaphor, a nd d escription a nd m ay h ave p roven a m ore s atisf actory l ingua f ranca The T eotihuacanos

t han t he more r econdite Maya w riting system. l acked t he

k ind

o f

g lyphic

s ystem t hat

t he Maya t o w rite i n s entences a nd r ecord h istorical

i l l

e vents.

1 4

a llowed

T hey d id,

h owever, h ave a n umber o f c onventional s igns t hat f unctioned i n ag lyphl ike m anner.

K ubler l ists n inety-seven s uch s ig ns

o f Teotihuacan

s ig ns

i s

n ot

l inear,

a s

w e

a re

( 1967).

w ont

t o

T he f ormat

t hink g lyphic

s ystems s hould b e. I b elieve t hat t he c oncept o f " embedded t ext " b est e xplains t he Teotihuacan i conographic s ystem. A lthough Kubler d id n ot u se t his t erm, h e was t he f irst t o r ecognize t he e ssential c haracter o f Teotihuacan i conography : T he e ntire r epertory o f

p ictorial

e xpression a t

T eotihuacan s upports t he v iew t hat p ainters a nd s culptors w ere s eek ing f orms o f l ogog raphic c larity a nd s implicity. They w ere l ess i ntere sted i n r ecording a ppearances t han i n c ombining a nd c cmpounding a ssociative m eanings i n a q uest f or v iable f orms o f w ri t ing .(1 967 : 5) O thers h ave s tudied t hese " compound a ssociative m eanings" t ihuacan.

S ee, f or e xample, H asso v on W inning 1 961,

1 968,

a t T eo-

1 979, a nd i n

p ress ; C . M illon 1 973; P asztory 1 973, 1 97 14 . Their w ork c harts r egularities a nd c lusterings i n t he Teotihuacan p ictorial s ystem.

t he T he

c harting o f t he m eaning o f t hese s ymbols i s a p ainstak ing p rocess. S eldom d oes o ne o bject p rovide t he w hole " text." I nstead, w e f ind a n o verlapping s eries o f s ymbol c lusters. The i conog raphic p uzzle c an o nly b e w orked o ut b y c onsulting many i mages, c onducting a " configurat ional a nalysis" a s s uggested b y K ubler ( 1967) a nd a " synthetic a naly sis" a s a dvocated b y P asztory ( 1973:150). O nly t hen d oes t he s imple e legance o f t he T eotihuacan s ystem r eveal i tself. I ts s igns w ere f ew e nough t hat t hey w ere e asily r emembered, a s w e r emember i nternational g raphic l ogos l ike t he R ed C ross s ymbol 4 1 m or the "prohibited" symbol . Yet t he meanings o f t he Teotihuacan s igns w ere f lexible e nough t hat t hey c ould c ombine, r egroup, a nd a lter s emantically b y t heir a ssoc iated s ymbols. A t Teotihuacan,

t he i mages

t hemselves w ere

t he

t exts.

T here w ere

n o o thers. " Visual l iteracy " was i mperative ( see M iller 's remarks o n v isual l iteracy i n t his v olume). A t Teotihuacan, e mbedded t extual i magery s erves t he s ame f unction t hat w e h ave d emonstrated f or o ther Mesoamerican s ocieties: i t i dentifies, n ames, d escribes, a nd l ocates. I n sa ne i nstances t he T eotihuacan s ystem o f s igns a nd p rotog lyphic s ymbols b ecomes m ore p recise i n n aming t han i s u sually t he c ase i n T eotihuacan i conog raphy. I n t hese c ases i t a pproaches t he p ictog raphic a nd p honetic c haracter o f A ztec n ames a nd p lace s igns. I s hall examine s everal s uch i nstances i n o rder t o p resent a m ore d etailed e xample o f t he e xpressive p ossibilities i nherent i n a n e mbedded t ext. A n umber o f T eotihuacan mural f ragments i n d iverse collections d epict r ows o f f lowering p lants ( figure 5 ) .15 T he f lowers a nd l eaves o f t he p lants d iffer, a lthough sa ne f oliar f orms r epeat. T he l ong s inuous r oots o f e ach p lant a re r endered i n s imilar f ashion i n e ach i nstance, b ut w ith e nough v ariation t o i ndicate t hat t hey w ere n ot s tenciled.

1 5

A t

t he b ase o f e ach p lant, d irectly a bove t he r oots, a re g lyph-like s igns. These s igns, t oo, o cca sionally r epeat. I n t he c orpus o f f ragments i n M ilwaukee, Columbia, a nd San Francisco, t welve d ifferent s igns o ccur o n t hirty-one t rees. Sa ne s igns a re s imple a nd p ictographic : a r epeated m aguey s pine, a s hell. O thers a re c ompound a nd a bstract: a t ri-lobed s ign u nder f eathered e ye, a n etted o void. Sa ne

s ig ns

a re made

u p

o f

g raphemes

t hat

o ccur

i n l ater Nahuatl

p lace n ames. Most o f t hese r ecurring s igns a re p ictures o f o rdinary n atural o bjects--maguey s pines, s hells, eyes, b ones, a rms, e tc.--theref ore, i t m ay b e h azardous t o s uggest a l inguistic o r g eog raphic c onnect ion w ith s pecific A ztec t oponyms. H owever, w e must n ot d iscount t he p ossibility t hat i n t hese murals Teotihuacan s cribes w ere e mploying a m ixed p honetic a nd i deographic s ystem o f r ecording n ames o r p laces m uch l ike t hat F or

u sed b y t heir A ztec d escendants. e xample,

i n o ne

o f

t he

p ublished

d e Young murals,

t he

g lyph

c cmpound a t t he b ase o f t he t ree i s a t ripartite s ign c onsisting o f a s evered h uman a rm w ith b racelet, surmounted b y a b i -valve s hell a ttached t o a c rown-like o r s heaf-like object ( figure 6 a). T o m y k nowledge, n o s uch c ompound e xists i n t he A ztec v ocabulary , b ut a s evered human a rm o ccurs a s t he main s ign f or A colhuacan, Coliman, a nd s everal o ther t oponyms i n t he Codex Mendoza ( see f igure 6 b a nd c , a nd P ehafiel 1 885: plates I , V III). T he a rm ( Nahua : a colli) i s t he p honetic c lue t o t he p lace n ame. 1 6 I n b oth Nahua i nstances, water p ours f rom t he s evered j oint o f t he a rm. C ould t he m arine s hell i n t he T eotihuacan e xample b e t he c onceptual e quivalent o f t his w ater s ign? I n a T eotihuacan mural f ragment a t t he M ilwaukee P ublic Musuem, t hree maguey s pines a re p ainted a t t he b ase o f t he t ree ( figure 5 , r ight a nd 7 a). M aguey s pines f orm t he N ahua p lace-name s ig ns Huitznahuac a nd H uitztlan ( Nahuatl: h uiztli, t horn, s pine) ( figure 7 b, a nd P ehafiel 1 885:plate X IV ). T he Teotihuacan s igns m ay b e e ven more c omplex , i f t he t rees t hems elves a re c onsidered p art o f t he p lace s ign. I n t he C odex M endoza, s ometimes a t ree, i rrespective o f b otanical s pecie, i s t he p honetic c lue t o t he p lace n ame. In C uahitlixco o r C uauhnahuac, i s t he i mportant o pening s yllable ( Penafiel 1 885:91).

c uahuitl ( tree) I n o ther n ames,

i t i s t he t ype o f t ree t hat p rovides c lues t o i dentification. I n t hese c ases, t rees a re r endered w ith a ttentiveness t o d etail o f t horn, l eaf, f ruit, a nd f lower. The a huacatl o r avocado t ree i s t he p lace s ign f or Ahuacatlan ( figure 8 a a nd P ef tafiel 1 885 : plate I I). T he h uixachin t ree ( acacia a lbicans k .) w ith t he l ocative t lan a t i ts b ase s ig n f or Huixactitlan ( figure 8 b a nd P e f iafiel 1 885:124). n amed

b y

a z apote

t ree

( figure

8 c

a nd

P ef tafiel

i s t he p lace T zapotlan i s

1 885:225).

I n

t he

Teotihuacan murals, f lower a nd l eaf t ypes v ary a mong t he t rees a s w ell ( figure 5 ) a nd m ay p rovide c lues n ot o nly t o b otanical s pecies b ut t o p lace-name d esi g nations.

1 6

I n b oth t he Codex Mendoza a nd t he Teotihuacan murals u nder c onside ration, t ree r oots c url i n as inuous m anner. S imilar a ttention t o t ree r oots i s f ound i n e arlier I zapa s culpture, w here t hose u nder d iscussion o ccur i n s tela 5 ( Norman

t ree r oots r esembling p late 9 ). Sa ne-

1 973:

t imes s uch r oots a re a nimated, a s i n s tela 2 ( Norman 1 973:plate 3 ) o r i n t he p reviously d iscussed s tela 2 5, w here t ree r oots a re i n c rocodilian f orm ( fig. 2 ). E arly c hroniclers r ecorded t hat t he n atives o f Chiapas b elieved t hat t heir l ineage a ncestors e merged i nto t his w orld t hrough t he r oots o f ' a c eiba t ree ( Thompson 1 950:71). Mixtec a rt a nd e thnohist ory r ecord r oyal b irth f rom t rees a s well ( J . Furst 1 977). I n t he P alenque s arcophagus p reviously d iscussed, w e s aw t hat e ach o f P aca r s a ncestors was B acabs,

a ssociated w ith a p articular t ree.

I n t he R itual

e ach h uman i s a ssociated w ith a p articular p lant a t

o f t he

b irth :

W ho i s y our t ree? Who i s y our b ush ? What was y our a rbor When y ou w ere b orn? ( Roys R ather

t han

1 956: 14 ) t oponyms,

c ould

t he

t rees

i n

t he

Teotihuacan mural

f ragments r efer t o i mportant a ncestral f amilies o f e lite T eotihuacanos? A lthough t here i s l ittle a pparent i nterest i n t he d ynastic o r t he i ndiv idual i n T eotihuacan a rt, t he evidence f or t rees b eing l inked t o i mport ant i ndividuals o r l ineages e lsewhere i n Mesoamerica s uggests t hat i t was a w idespread b elief. I f i t c an b e p roven t hat t hese b otanical e mblems a t Teotihuacan f unctioned e ither a s p atrony r as o r t r )ponyms, i t w ould b e t he f irst s trong evidence f or i nterest i n g enealogy, p honetic ism, o r p recise g lyphic l ocatives i n t he a rt o f Teotihuacan. 1 7 I n a ny e vent, whether t hese s igns w ill e ver b e i dentified p rec isely w ith c ertain f amilies o r w ith A ztec s ites o r p lace n ames i s n ot i mportant f or o ur d iscussion o f e mbedded t exts. T he i mportant p oint i s t hat, i n c ontrast t o t he Z apotec a nd Maya a reas, i n c entral M exico l inear t exts n ever d eveloped w ithin t he i ndigenous system. g eog raphic a reas o f Mesoamerica, v isual i magery e ncoded m ixed a nd p ictorial m essages. o nly t exts. I n Z apotec

a nd Maya

B ut i n C entral M exico,

e mbedded

t exts,

t he

I n a ll g lyphic

e mbedded t exts w ere t he

a mbiguous

n ature

o f

t he

r ebus-like i magery was r esolved b y m eans o f r elated l inear t exts o r o ther s emantic d eterminatives ( see Durbin 1 968). I n t he Teotihuacan s ymbol system,

t he

p rocess

v iewer, w ho u sed c ontextual

o f

d isambiguation f ell m ore h eavily o n t he

c lues w ithin t he a rt i tself t o r esolve

m eaning o f t he i mages.

1 7

t he

C onclusion I n

t his

e ssay,

I h ave

a ttempted

t o

c ombine

a n

h istoriog raphic

r eview o f sa ne a spects o f M esoamerican a rt h istory w ith a s uggestion f or a n ew c ategorization o f t ex tual s ources. I h ope t hat t he h istoriog raphic r eview h as i llustrated t he f act t hat n o s ingle a pproach t o t he s tudy o f a ncient Mesoamerican a rt c an b e c onsidered t he o nly p roper o ne. A r ange o f m ethods i s n eeded t o i nterpret t his a rt. I h ave a ttempted t o d emonstrate t hat n o matter w hat t he a pproach, n o o ne s ource s hould b e u sed u ncritically. R ather, m any s ources a nd m any a venues o f i nvestigat ion, u sed w ith d iscernment, c an f orm u nderstanding o f p re-Columbian a rt. A rt

h istorians,

b y

t he

n ature

o f

i nterlocking

o ur

s upports

d iscipline,

f or

i nterpret

a n

t he

p ast b y m eans o f t hose objects c hosen b y a ncient p eoples t hemselves t o b e i nterpretive o bjects. When d iscussing t extual e vidence w e m ust n ot l ose s ight o f t he p rimacy o f t he i mage, f or i t i s o nly t he i mage-makers -the a ncient s culptors, p otters, a rchitects, a nd p ainters--who k new exactly w hat meaning t hey i ntended t o c onvey i n t heir w orks o f a rt. Their i mages s till s peak t o u s a cross t he c enturies. I n t he o bjects t hat t hey f ashioned w ith t heir o wn h ands, t he a ncient p eoples o f t he Americas l eft u s a n e nduring l egacy.

R ESUNEN A l r evisar l a f orma e n

q ue

l a r elaciön e ntre f uentes

t extuales e

i magineria v isual h a s ido t ratada p or l os i nvestigadores m odernos, e l a utor s ugiere u na c lasificaciön d e t extos mesoamericanos d entro d e t res c ategorias. E stas c ategorias s on: 1 ) T extos d iscretos 2 ) T extos c onjuntos y 3 ) T extos n crustados. S e d iscute y s e e jemplifica c ada u na d e e stas c ategorias , a l a v ez s e t rata s obre t eems d e i nteres metodo ngico e n e l e studio d el a rte p re-colombino.

A CKNOWLEDGENENTS I w ould l ike t o e xpress m y a ppreciation t o t he f ollowing f riends a nd c olleagues f or t heir c omments a nd c riticisms o f a n e arlier d raft o f this p aper : M arshall Durbin, K ate K ane, M iriam M unson , J ohn Nunley , L ee A . P arsons, a nd Raymond E . S enuk.

1 8

R onald M unson,

NO TES 1 .

T hough p ioneered b y S eler i n M esoamericanist c ircles, t he u se

o f e thnographic a nalogy must b e v iewed a s p art o f al arger t rend w ithin t he f ield o f New W orld a rchaeology a nd a nthropology. E arly i n t he c entury, A . V . K idder d rew f rom h is k nowledge o f c ontemporary a nd h ist oric P ueblo p eoples t o e xplain a rchaeological m aterials h e u ncovered a t P ecos a nd e lsewhere i n t he A merican S outhwest ( 1924). E lsie C lews P arsons l ater s tated e xplicitly w hat h ad b een i mplicit i n K idder 's e arly w ork : t hat t he h istorically-related l iving c ultures o f a n a rea w ill s hed l ight o n t he b uried o nes ( E . C . P arsons 1 939). S oon t herea fter, Julian S teward p ut f orth w hat w as t o b ecome a g uiding p rinciple o f N ew World a rchaeology : A rchaeology s upplements t he c ultural p icture d rawn f rom h istoric d ocuments a nd i nformant t est imony. E thnography e xplains a rchaeological materials i n t heir c ultural c ontext. A nd w here a rchaeology t races p ast, e thnography ( 1942:341) More

r ecently,

K .

C .

C hang

c hanges b ackwards m ay t race t hem

h as

d eclared

i nto t he f orward.

a nalogy

t he

a rchaeological r econstruction ( 1967:230). F or a u seful t he a nalogical a pproach w ithin a rchaeology i n g eneral r eview o f t he l iterature o n a rchaeological a nalogy,

c ornerstone

o f

d iscussion o f a s w ell a s a

s ee C harlton 1 981.

I m ight p oint o ut t hat e thnographic a nalogy i s a lso l inked t o t rends i n O ld W orld a rchaeology , i n t he C lassical w orld, a rchaeology h as a lways g one h and-in-hand w ith p hilology. F rom H einrich S chliemann s earching f or T roy i n t he n ineteenth c entury w ith a c opy o f t he I liad i n h is h and, t o t he l ater e xplication o f s cenes o n C lassical v ase p ainting b y m eans o f a s tudy o f c oeval t exts, C lassical a rchaeology h as a lways b een d ependent o n t he w ritten w ord. 2 .

A gain

w e

l ook

t o

t he

A merican

Southwest

t o

f ind

a rchaeo-

l ogists w ho h ave q uestioned t he m ethodological l egitimacy o f h omologi cal e vidence. J ames O tis Brew, i n h is i nfluential w ork T he A rchaeology o f A lkalai R idge, U tah, c autions t hat c ultures c ontinually c hange, a nd t hat t his r enders e thnographic a nalogy s uspect: W e must e ver p aradox " trace" t ype,

b e

o n g uard a gainst

o f a nthropology a " complex" o f,

p ottery

t ype,

a nd

t hat

p eculiar

w hich p ermits m en t o l et u s s ay, p hysical r eligion

o ver

1 0,000

m iles o f t errain a nd d own t hrough 1 0 ,000 y ears o f h istory, while i n t he s ame b reath, o r i n t he n ext l ecture, t he s ame m en v igorously d efend t he t heory o f c ontinous c hange.

1 9

( 1946:65)

B aerreis

e choes

t his

c aution f ifteen y ears

l ater.

H e p oints

o ut

t hat

t he e thnohistoric a pproach i gnores t he m obility o f t ribal g roups ( 1961:52) w hich d iminishes t he r eliability o f p rojecting e thnohistoric d ata f rom a g roup c urrently l iving i n a n e ra b ack t o a rchaeological m aterials f rom t he s ame a rea. K ubler, t oo, c hampions c hange a nd m ovem ent a s b asic t o c ivilization. B ased o n P anofsky ( 1955), h e a lso p oints o ut t he f requent a pplication o f n ew m eanings t o o ld f orms a nd v ice v ersa. I n p aleolithic a rchaeology, F reeman h as a rgued t hat e thnographic a nalogy ( of my t ypes 1 a nd 2 ) " has p revented t he d evelopment o f f ramew orks o f t heory w hich m ight l ead t o a n u nderstanding o f t he s ignificance o f a rchaeological r esidues b ased d irectly o n t he c omparison o f t hose r esidues" ( 1968:268) a nd t hat w ith m odels " which a re o nly s ensitive t o t he e lucidation o f p arallels w ith m odern g roups, t he d iscovery s ociocultural s tructure u nique t o p rehistoric t imes i s i mpossible." H ere

w e

h ave

a n

a rgument

w hich

s tructurally

p arallels

t hat

o f

o f

K ubler. F reeman a rgues f or a c ontextual, c omparative a pproach t o p aleo lithic a rchaeology a nd c hampions t he u niqueness o f e ach p rehistoric c ulture. Kubler e schews a nalogy, e mbracing i nstead a c ontextual, c omp arative a pproach t o t he s tudy o f M esoamerican a rt f or t he u nique e xpressiveness o f t he a rt o bject.

( 1967),

a nd a rgues

3 . F or a b rief b ut i ncisive d iscussion o f t he i nterrelationship o f a rt h istorical a nd a rchaeological m ethods, s ee Z . M atthews 1 982. 4 .

S ee

Q uirarte 's

1 979 a rticle f or

a f uller

d iscussion

o f

h is

m ethods, a nd a b ibliography o f t he s tudies i n which t hey a re u sed. Q uirarte h as a lso m ade t he i nteresting o bservation, g ermane t o o ur t opic, t hat o ur n ormative e xperience o f l inear t extual f ormats w ithin o ur o wn c ulture c olors o ur a ppreciation o f p re-Columbian a rt. T he e xample h e u ses i s t he c urrent i nterest i n r ollout p hotography o f M aya v ases. T his, h e s ays, " reflects o ur o wn v iew o f r eality, which makes i t d ifficult i f n ot i mpossible f or u s t o d eal w ith t he i mages a s t he p reC olumbian a rtist a nd o bserver d id , t hat i s, i n a n on-linear f ashion" ( 1979:393). 5 .

S ee

P asztory 's

t he P re-Industrial S tate"

f orthcoming

a rticle

" The F unction

o f A rt

i n

f or f urther d iscussion o f t his t opic.

6 . S ee Marcus 1 976 a nd C oe 1 976 f or d iscussions o f t he o rigin a nd d evelopment o f w riting i n Mesoamerica. 7 .

A mbitious

i nclude M orley

( 1920 ,

p rojects 1 937-8),

f or

t he

r ecording

o f

s uch

i nscriptions

a nd m ore r ecently, G raham ( 1975-).

8 . N orman H ammond w arns t hat s cholars s hould n ot e mbrace u ncriti cally t he i conography o f l ooted p ots o f q uestionable a uthenticity. H e s uggests

t hat

t he

c orrespondence

b etween

2 0

t he

P opul

V uh

a nd

s ome

v ase

s eries

m ay b e

d ue

g raphic s ource

t o

a modern

f orger

u sing t he

( Personal C ommunication,

P opul V uh a s

a n i cono-

1 983).

9 . B oth i n t his v olume a nd e lsewhere, B etty A nn B rown ( 1977) a nd E llen T aylor B aird ( 1979) h ave w ritten i nsightfully o n t he r elationship o f

c onjoined

s tudies d iffers

t exts

a nd

i mages

s how t hat a nalysis f rom t he a ssociated

i n

e arly

o f i mages t ext. F or

c olonial

m anuscripts.

B oth

m ay r eveal i nformation t hat e xample, i n h er e ssay i n t his

v olume, Brown s hows t hat while t he t ext r eveals t he c ultural p rejudices o f t he S panish f riars, 1 0.

t he i llustrations d epict

t he i ndigenous r eality.

E dmund C arpenter' s c omments o n t he multiplicities

o f m eaning

i nherent i n e thnographic a rt a re g ermane h ere: If p uns w ere a m inor f eature o f p reliterate a rt, t hey m ight b e d ismissed a s mere c uriosities,

b ut

f ar

e s-

f rom

s ence. t hat

r are,

t hey a re

A gain a nd a gain

t he g oal

i mplosive

o f t he

p atterns

a ppreciation t aneously

o f

c annot

b e s een apart

m atter

a nother, b e

t ribal

a ll

p un?

t he

t hat

experience

v isual N o

o ften i ts m ark a nd

s ustained

a rtist i s

t o c reate

e lements.

n o :

a lternate

H ere

a rtists

o f

" a

f rom

a

s hape

o ne

r eadings

b y

c ompress

t o

c annot

a nyone.

e vidence f rom p re-literate s ocieties t his.

s imul-

i nterpretation."

s witch

s imultaneously

o ne

r eadings

s ays,

f rom i ts w e

s imultaneous

C an

a lternate

r apidly

d isjunctive

i ndicates

r equire

W ittgenstein h ow

evidence

Yet

c hallenges

k nowledge

i nto

mythic f orms o f multiple b ut s imultaneous d eterm inancies. 1. well.

( see S ullivan 1 2.

1 3. t he

s ame

1 4.

v erbal

a rts a s p oetry

T his

i s

s imilar

t o t he p roblem i n t he Madrid Codex d escribed

9 and i n B erlo 1 976. T he A ztec l iterary t radition, t hough o ral, maintained s ome o f a esthetic

1 970:234-44,

t he

o ccur i n Nahuatl

v ariant m etaphors a re a c onvention o f Nahuatl

1 976:16-7).

a lliteration,

was

1 969:210)

S imilar a esthetic p rinciples

R epeating,

o n p age

( in B iebuyck

a nd

d evices p honetic

a nd S ullivan

E duard f irst

t o

Seler,

m entioned a nd

1 976:16-7

t he

r ecognize

g reat t he

f or

s emantic

t he M aya,

s uch

p arallelism.

e arly s cholar

g lyph-like

o r

o f

p re-Hispanic

e mblematic

( In) t he Teotihuacan c ulture, t he d evelopment o f o rnament

h ad

a ttained s uch a d egree

2 1

p unning,

.

T eotihuacan s ymbols :

t he

a s

S ee Soustelle

o f

c on

a rt,

q uality

o f

v entionalism t hat i nstead o f talk o f g lyphs ( 1 9 15 : 48 ) 4).

o rnament w e

H e n oted t he " synbolic/hieroglyphic n ature" C asa,

t oo,

l ater d iscussed "g lyphs"

1 5.

T hese f ragments

c an b e

s hould

o f s ome d esig ns

a t Teotihuacan

f ound i n t he Milwaukee

( #56931), t he Museum o f Art a nd Missouri-Columbia ( #71.136) a nd

Archaeology i n t he d e

( 19 15:509 ).

( 1958-9,

1 966 ).

P ublic Museum

a t t he University o f Y oung Museum i n San

F rancisco, where more t han t wenty e xamples o f t hese f lowering t rees a nd t heir

a ssociated

Y oung murals

f eathered

w ill

s erpent

e ventually

b e

s urround

n ot y et a vailable f or p ublication. ( Braun

1 982:102).

a re

i n

s torage.

T he

c onserved a nd t hen p ublished,

b ut

d e a re

O nly o ne f ragment h as b een p ublished

A lthough I h ave

p ersonally e xamined

a ll

t he mural

f ragments, my d rawing i s b ased o n t he o ne p ublished i mage. The c ontext

o nly i nstance i n which i s

( Pasztory w ho

o n

t he

1 972:figs.

s uggests

t hat

t oponyms o r s ymbols 1 6 .

N umerous

P ehafiel

1 885:3-4.

1 7 . a re

p art

t alud

o f

t he

4 4-2). t he

s imilar f amous

This s cene h as

t rees

w ith

g lyphs

o f t he " owner" o ther

t rees

A ztec

h ave

" Tlalocan"

b een

d iscovered i n

m ural

a t Tepantitla

b een a nalyzed b y P asztory, a t

t heir

b ases

s pirits o f t he p lants

t oponyms

u se

t he

a rm

a re

e ither

( 1972:187).

a s

w ell.

My r emarks o n Teotihuacan a rt a re p reliminary i n n ature, o f

a l arger

s tudy,

i n

T eotihuacan i conographic s ystem.

2 2

p rogress,

o f

t his

a spect

o f

S ee

t hey t he

R EFER ENCES A scher,

C ITED

R obert

1 961

A nalogy i n a rchaeolog ical i nterpretation. J ournal o f A nthropology 1 7:317.

S outhwest

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T he

e thnohistoric

a pproach a nd

a rchaeology.

E thno-

h istory 8 :1. B aird,

E llen T aylor

1 979

S ahagun 's

" Primeros

Memoriales":

A S tructural

a nd

S tylistic A nalysis o f t he D rawings. P h.D. d issertat ion, D epartment o f A rt H istory, University o f N ew M exico. University Microfilms. A nn Arbor. B arthel,

T hcmas

1 980

M ourning

a nd

c onsolation :

t hemes

o f

t he

P alenque

S arcophagus. Third P alenque R ound T able, 1 978, e di ted b y Merle Green Robertson. p p. 8 1-90. Univers ity 1 982

o f T exas P ress.

Austin.

V eritable " texts" i n Teotihuacan a rt? T he Masterkey 5 6 ( 1):4-11. The S outhwest Museum. L os A ngeles.

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T he

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World .

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o f

C alifornia

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a nd Creativity i n Tribal Art .

o f California P ress.

University

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University o f Texas.

2 3

S an Antonio.

B raun,

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B rew ,

S ubtle d iplomacy 8 1(6):100-3.

s olves

a c ustody

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T he

Archaeology

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Alkalai 2 1.

R idge,

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University.

o f

C am-

V ictoria R .

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I ndian K ing .

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ys ignos

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A rchaeology, e thnohistory , a nd e thnology : i nterpret ive i nterfaces. A dvances i n A rchaeolo g ical M ethod a nd Theory 4 :129-76. A cademic P ress. N ew York.

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N ew Y ork.

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f t he S un, Cross, a nd T he i conog raphy o f t he p anel s o art I I. Primera M esa Foliated C ross a t P alenque, P R edonda d e P alenque, e dited b y Merle Greene Robertouis S tevenson s on. p p. 9 5-10 7 . R obert L P ebble B each, Calif.

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f t he S un, Cross, a nd The i conog raphy o f t he p anel s o art I II. S egunda Mesa Foliated C ross a t P alenque, P y Merle Greene Robert R edonda d e P alenque, e dited b ouis S tevenson S chool. s on. p p. 1 55-7 6 . R obert L Pebble B each, Calif.

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H arvard University.

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T he

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J aguars i n t he Valley o f M ex ico. Feline, e dited b y E . B enson. p p. O aks. Washington, D . C .

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L a e videncia i ntrinseca y l a a nalog ia e tnologica e n e l e studio d e l as r elig iones m esoa r nericanas. Relig ion e n Mesoamerica : MI M esa R edonda . S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropologia.

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I conographic

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o f M iddle A merican

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( n.f.)

1 979

The b inding T eotihuacan.

i n p ress

L a

Te otihuacan.

B aessler

o f t he y ears a nd t he n ew I ndiana 5: 1 532 . B erlin.

i conografia

s ignos. M ex ico.

i n

A rchiv

1 6:31- 14 6.

d e

Teotihuacan :

Universidad

N acional

l os

f ire

d io se s

Autoncma

d e

a t

y l os M exico.

W illey, G ordon 1 973

Mesoamerican a rt a nd i conog raphy a nd t he i nteg rity o f t he Mesoamerican i deological s ystem. T he I conography o f M iddle American S culpture. Metropolitan Museum o f Art. p p. 1 53-62. N ew York.

3 1

F igure

1 .

T ikal s tela 3 1, f ront a nd b ack. D rawing b y W illiam C oe f rom J ones a nd S atterthwaite 1 982:figs. 5 1 a nd 5 2.

3 2

F igure 2 .

I zapa s tela 2 5.

A fter N orman 1 973:fig.

3 3

4 2.

F igure 3 . P alenque,

s ide o f s arcophagus. A fter G reene 1 967 :fig .

3 1 4

2 9

F igure 4 , Monte Alban s tela 6 .

3 5

P hoto b y a uthor.

3 6

a.

b .

C.

F igure 6 . a .

P ossible t oponym ,

T eotihuacan m ural f ragment,

M useum , S an F rancisco. A fter B raun 1 982:102. b . A colhuacan t oponym , C odex M endoza. c .

C oliman t oponym ,

C odex M endoza.

3 7

D eYoung

a .

b .

F igure 7 .

a .

P ossible t oponym ,

b .

P ublic M useum. H uitztlan t oponym ,

T eotihuacan m ural C odex M endoza.

3 8

f ragment,

M ilwaukee

a.

b .

C.

F igure 8 . Toponyms f rom t he C odex M endoza. a . A huacatlan b .

H uixactitlan

c .

T zapotlan

3 9

I MAGE A ND T EXT I N P EE-HISPANIC ART: A PPLES A ND O RANGES b y A RTHUR G . M ILLER

I ntroduction I nterpretation

o f

m eaning

i n

t he

v isual

a rts

o f

p re-Hispanic

A merica h as r elied t o a s ignificant d egree o n w ritten m aterial.

W hile

s ome Americanists h ave t aken f or g ranted t hat t exts w ritten i n European s cript a fter 1 517 c an e xplicate t he m eaning o f a rt m ade p rior t o E uropean c ontact ( designated h ere a s t he " Upstreaming S chool"), o thers h ave r ejected t he i nterpretive u se o f s uch w ritten m aterials o n t he b asis o f t he d isjunctive e ffect t ime e xerts o n t he r elationship b etween f orm a nd m eaning ( designated h ere a s t he " Disjunctive S chool"). R ecently d eciphered t exts c oeval w ith a rt i n t he Maya a rea a re u sed b y s ome t o i nterpret m eaning i n t he v isual f orms w ith which t he g lyphs a re a ssociated ( designated h ere a s t he " Epigraphic S chool"). N either t he Upstreaming, D isjunctive n or E pigraphic S chools c onsider t hat a ttempts t o r elate a rt a nd t exts a re f lawed a t t he o utset : b etween v isual a nd w ritten f orms o f c ommunication t here e xist f undamental d ifferences t hat a re c ommon t o a ll c ivilizations i n a ll p arts o f t he w orld. This

p aper d oes n ot c omment o n t he i ssues c oncerning t he v arious

p ractitioners w ithin t he Upstreaming o r Disjunctive Schools, n or d oes i t s peak s pecifically t o t he m ethods o f i nterpreting M aya a rt t hrough Maya h ieroglyphic w riting. R ather, t he p aper t akes a b roader v iew o f t he f ormal p roblems i nherent i n c onsidering v isual f orms a nd w ritten t exts t ogether. I t i s m y c ontention t hat d ifferences i n t he m echanisms o f v isual a nd w ritten c ommunications i mpair u ncritical p arallels b etween t he t wo. T he r elationship a mong v isual i mages, w riting, a nd t he c ultures t o w hich t hey p ertain i s n ot well u nderstood. R ecently, s ome s cholars h ave i nvestigated t he i mplications o f w riting a s a c ognitive s ystem i n c ertain " traditional s ocieties" which h ave r ecently b ecame l iterate. G oody ( 1975, 1 978) q uestions t he c ontention o f Bloomfield ( 1933) a nd o thers t hat w riting i s m erely r ecorded s peech. H e h as s hown t hat w riting i nvolves f undamentally d ifferent m ental p rocesses f rom s peech a nd c an a nd C onsideration

o ften o f t he

d oes a ctually a lter t he m eaning r elationship b etween o ral t raditions

o f s peech. a nd w ritten

t exts s uggests t hat w hen a ssessing t he r elationship b etween w ritten a nd

4 1

v isual

s ymbols

t he

p roblem

o f

e quivalences

i s

n ot

u nlike

c omparing

a pples a nd o ranges. A s s poken a nd w ritten l anguage a re d ifferent m echanisms o f c ommunication w hich a ffect m eaning, s o d o d ifferences i n w ritten a nd v isual c ommunication i nfluence m eaning. H ow i nformation i s c onveyed i s i nextricably l inked t o w hat i s c onveyed. T his i s n ot t o a ssert t hat " the m edium i s t he m essage." B ut t he e ffect o f m ethod o f c ommunication o n w hat i s c ommunicated h as b een l argely i gnored i n Ameri canist s tudies. I n c onsidering h ow w ritten w ords r elate t o p ictures, w e a re i n e ffect c onsidering h ow a pples r elate t o o ranges. T he t wo a re n ot t he s ame. K ubler has e xpressed t he u niqueness o f a rt b y s tating t hat i t c annot r ecord a nything i t i s n ot a ctually p rogrammed t o r egister.

. .

s till

a nother

m isconception

a rises f rom a ssuming t hat i mages e njoy a o ne-too ne r elation w ith t exts a nd t hat t exts c an b e m ade f ully t o e xplain o bjects w ithout l eaving a ny u nintelligible r esidue.

( 1975:766)

While t exts c an b e u sed t o e xplicate P anofsky 's f irst a nd s econd l evel o f i conography a nd s erve a s d o " captions" ( e.g., t hat a f igure r epres ented o n a s tela i s t he s on o f am ember o f a c ertain d ynasty, t hat h e m arried a w oman f rom a c ertain c ity, e tc.), s uch c onsiderations a re s uperficial l evels o f m eaning i n t he i nformation-laden i mages o f p reH ispanic A merica. I t i s a s p roblematic t o t ry t o u se w ritten t exts t o e xplain t he m eaning o f a rt a s i t i s f utile t o a nalyze a rt f or i nformat ion i n written w ords. A c onsideration o f t he d iffering m echanisms o f c ommunication i n t exts a nd i mages i s c rucial t o u nderstanding t he i nf ormation t ransmitted i n e ach m ode a s well a s t o u nderstanding t he r ole e ach p lays i n t he c ulture i t e xpresses.

A C ivilization o f F ew Written W ords Students o f p re-Hispanic a rt d o n ot h ave t he r ich s ources o f w ritt en h istory, p hilosophy, a nd l iterature a vailable f or b etter-known a rtistic t raditions. T he o ne p re-Hispanic c ivilization w ith t he most a dvanced f orm o f w riting, t hat w ritten t exts t hat i s a t a ll

o f t he M aya, d oes n ot h ave a b ody o f c omparable t o t hat a vailable f or t he

h istorian o f Western a rt. I f a ll k nown t exts f rom t he a ncient M aya c arved o n s tone, p ainted o n p ots, w alls, m anuscripts a nd i ncised o n m iscellaneous m aterials w ere p rinted i n a r eadable s cale o n p aper, b arely o ne h alf o f an ormal l ibrary s helf w ould b e f illed. A nd i f t hat q uantity w ere m ultiplied b y f actors o f 1 ,000 o r e ven 1 0 ,000 t o r epresent Maya

t exts

l ost,

t he

q uantity

o f

s uch

w ritten

m aterial

w ould

n ot

a pproach w hat c ould b e f ound i n a s mall l ibrary o f t he O ld W orld. C learly, w riting c ould n ot h ave b een t he m ajor f orm o f r ecorded c ommunic ation o f t he a ncient M aya. T he M aya s imply d id n ot w rite v ery m uch a nd w hat t hey d id w rite i s r epetitive, t elling u s v ery l ittle a bout w hat d istinguishes

t he M aya f rom o ther c omplex s ocieties,

1 4 2

r evealing l ittle

m ore t han h ow t hey a re l ike o ther c ivilizations o n t his p lanet: t hat t hey h ad k ings, d ynasties, t hat t hey m arried, m ade w ar, f ormed m ilit ary, e conomic a nd p olitical a lliance, c elebrated p olitical a nd r elig ious e vents, w ere c oncerned a bout v arious k inds o f a nniversaries a nd t he l ike, u sing a u nique n otational s ystem f or m arking t he p assage o f t ime. T he h ieroglyphic w riting t hat e xists a nd t hat e xisted d oes n ot, n or c an i t, t ell u s v ery much a bout w hat i s u nique a bout t he Maya n or j ust h ow t hey d iffer f rom t rappings o f c ivilization

o ther a ncient p eoples w ith i n t he f orm o f m onumental

t he e laborate a rchitecture,

s culpture, a nd p ainting. M uch m ore a bundant i s t heir r ichly d etailed v isual s ymbolism. T herein l ies t he p otential f or e lucidating t he u niqueness o f M aya c ivilization ; l ocked w ithin a n e soteric v isual l ang uage

t here

i s

m ore

i nformation

c oncerning Maya

b eliefs

a nd

h istory

t han i n t he w riting. T o i llustrate t his p oint, o ne o nly n eeds t o l ook a t t he r ecent p ublications o f t he P alenque Round Table. While a dvances i n g lyphic d ecipherments t here c hart o utlines o f d ynastic h istories, t he a rt o f P alenque, w ith i ts c omplex s ymbolic meanings, i s f ar r icher a s ource f or u nderstanding t he M aya o f t hat L owland C lassic s ite. A nd t he c omplex p olitical a nd r eligious d imensions o f t he Tikal Maya w ould b e h ardly v isible i f t he g lyphic t exts t here w ere t he o nly s ources o f i nformation. F ortunately , t he i conography o f Tikal s culpture, p ainting, a nd a rchitecture i n a n a rchaeological c ontext ( giving p recise s patial a nd t emporal a ssociations) p rovides r ich s ources f or u nders tanding w hat m akes T ikal a unique M aya s ite. Even i f o ne t akes i nto a ccount w ritten s ources w hich p ostdate t he p roduction o f p re-Hispanic a rt, i ncluding e thnohistorical t exts ( the p ost-Conquest w ritings b y a nd a bout n ative American p eoples c oncerning t heir h istory a nd r eligion--their mythologies, f olklores a nd p rophe sies--as w ell a s t heir m edical l ists a nd i ncantations), t he q uantity o f t exts r emains m inute w hen c o mp ared t o t he b ody o f w ritten m aterials c urrently a vailable f or t he s tudy o f W estern a rts. T he y ard-stick h ere i s t he e thnohistorical s egment o f t he H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians. Granting t he c ritical o bj e ction o f t he Disjunctive School c oncerning t he a pplicability o f t he t exts which p ostdate a rtistic t rad itions, t he f act r emains t hat a t b est, t here i s n ot v ery much o f i t t o s tudy a nd t hat a n a ttempt t o m ake a ny s ort o f c omparison b etween w ritten a nd v isual s ources i s f aced w ith a s triking i mbalance o f s ources. G iven t he i nherent s ituation o f p aucity o r l ack o f written materials t o c ompare w ith v isual e xpression, i t i s i ndeed p roblematic t o u se a m ethod o f a nalysis i n t he i nvestigation o f m eaning i n t he v isual a rts d esigned f or a rtistic t raditions w ith a bundant t exts, s uch a s i n t he h istory

o f W estern a rt

a s c urrently

p racticed.

Y et t his i s

p recisely t he c ase. S cholars h ave a ttempted t o r elate v isual s ymbols t o t exts i n p re-Hispanic s tudies w ithout c oming t o t erms w ith t he f undam ental m ethodological p roblem o f l ack o f s ignificant t exts. A nd w hen o ne e xamines t he m echanism o f h ow written a nd v isual c ommunications d iffer f rom e ach o ther, t he d ifficulty i n u sing w riting t o i nterpret a rt i n p re-Hispanic A merican b ecomes e ven m ore a cute. T he p roposed r eading

1 4 3

f or t he " primary s tandard s equence" C lassic P eriod i s t he g laring c ase

i n Maya p olychrome p ottery o f t he ( Coe

1 973).

The M echanism o f Visual C ommunication A c omparison b etween t he m echanisms o f w ritten a nd v isual c ommunic ation r eveals t hat t he d ifferences a re m ore s ignificant t han a re t he s imilarities. F irst s ome o f t he s imilarities: 1 .

B oth p rovide a m ode f or t he t ransmission o f k nowledge f rom g enera-

t ion t o g eneration ( although t he k ind o f k nowledge i s q uite d ifferent-more o f t hat l ater. 2 .

B oth

p rovide

a r eliable m ethod

t ween c enter a nd p eriphery, o f l arge e mpires.

3 .

f or

t ransmitting i nformation b e-

a nd h ence m itigate t he f issive

B oth l end t hemselves t o r estrictive k nowledge ;

t endencies

o nly t hose w ho c an

" read" w riting o r v isual s ymbols h ave a ccess t o c ertain k nowledge which i s p ower. P ower i n t his f orm c an b e c onceived a s t he a ccess o f c ertain l ineages t o t he s upernatural s ources o f p ower. S ome i mportant d ifferences: 1 . I n t he t ransmission o f k nowledge f rom t he a ural t o t he v isual domain, w riting i s r eordered i n a s pecific l inear f ormat which r eprod uces i n s pace w hat s poken w ords d o i n t ime. V isual i mages a re n ot n ecessarily c onfined t o t his l inear f ormat, d espite t he e xistence i n t he West o f c ertain i conographic " programs" b ased o n i llustrating w ritt en t exts s uch a s " The S tations o f t he C ross." B ut i n t his c ase t he o rder i s p redicated o n t he w ritten m edium w hich i t i llustrates a nd i s n ot a f eature o f t he i mages p er s e. I n t he v isual a rts, t he p ossibilit ies o f c ombinations o n t wo-dimensional o r t hree-dimensional s urfaces a re i nfinite a nd t he o bserver d oes n ot h ave t o " read" t hem i n a c ertain o rder a s i n w riting. T his i s a most i mportant d ifference t o w hich I w ill r eturn s hortly. 2 . While s ound c an b e r epresented b y g raphic s ymbols i n w riting , a nd while g lyphs d o a ppear i n p ictures i n M aya a rt, t here i s n o s uch e quiva lence t o s ound i n v isual i magery. S peech s crolls i n T eotihuacan a nd l ater m anuscript p ainting r efer n ot t o s ound p er s e b ut t o t he a ction o f making s ounds. T here i s as ignificant d ifference. V isual i mages d o n ot r elate t o w ords,

3 . E ven

b ut t o t he t hought o r a ction b ehind t he w ords.

Writing c an a bstract r eality, whereas p ictorial i mages c annot. i n v isual h ieratic c omposites s uch a s t he " jaguar-serpent-bird"

c ompounds, t he a bstraction i s l imited t o a c oncept e voking t he a ttrib utes o f t he c ombined i mages. I mages p resent a r eality b ounded b y t he w orld o f a ppearances, t he s urface s ubstance o f t hings: v isual i mages

1 4 4

a re c oncrete r ather t han a bstract. F or e xample, t he w ritten n otation o f c ounting t hings c an b e a bstracted f rom w hat i s c ounted s o t hat t he m ethod

o f

c ounting c owries a nd

c ows

i s

t he

s ame

( Goody

1 978:12).

B ut

t he p ictorial n otation i s i nextricably l inked t o w hat i s c ounted a nd c annot b e r educed t o a s ingle a bstract s ystem. I mages a re i rreducible ; t heir m eaning d epends d irectly o n t he c ontextualization o f t he e ntity d epicted. F or e xample, t he " jaguar, b ird, s erpent" c omposite o nly m akes s ense i n t he c ontext o f i ts u se : a t t he b ase o f a c olumn a t C hichen I tza, o r i n a f rieze a t Tula. The

i ssues

r aised

b y

t he

a bove

d ifferences

a re

i ncluded

i n

S aussure 's ( 1959) o bservation t hat t he l inguistic s ign h as t wo p rimord ial c haracteristics: 1 . a rbitrariness o f t he s ign ; 2 . l inear n ature o f t he s ignifier. I n v isual i magery, t he s ign i s n ot a rbitrary, l inked i nextricably t o w hat i s d epicted a nd h ow i t i s s hown ; n either i s i t l inear, h aving v irtually i nfinite p ossibilities o f c omposition a nd p erc eption. I t i s t he d ifferences b etween t he m echanisms o f w ritten v isual c ommunication t hat a re m ost i mportant t o b ear i n m ind i n t he n ext s ection : a n e xploration o f a n a lternate f orm o f l iteracy t han t hat w ith which w e i n t he W est a re f amiliar.

Visual Literacy o f t he Americas If w riting w as a nd i s

t he main v ehicle f or r ecording h uman k nowl-

e dge about t he p ast a nd f or r ecording i deas a bout s cience a nd r eligion i n l iterate s ocieties, what i s t he c orresponding v ehicle f or t hose c ivilizations w ithout w riting? I c onsider p re-Hispanic c ivilization t o b e v irtually w ithout w riting. A nd I s ee t he p aucity o f w riting a s p urposeful. A s i n t he c ase o f t he w heel, h ad t here b een a n eed, w riting w ould h ave b een d eveloped i n p re-Hispanic America, a s i t w as i n t he most a ncient N ear E ast. B ut i n t he a bsence o f w riting, s omething e lse t ook i ts p lace: v isual i magery, s ometimes c alled p ictorial a rt. I t i s a d ifferent s ort o f a rt t han t hat w ith which w e i n t he W est a re f amiliar. I t i s n ot a n i mage -making t radition t hat e xisted s ide b y s ide w ith a w ritten t radition, a s i n t he W est. P re-Hispanic a rt t akes o n s ome o f t he b urden o f w riting, i ncorporating w ithin i t av isual l anguage t hat i s i ntricately c omplex, e rudite, r econdite, a n e lite f orm o f v isual c ommunication w hose c omplexity i s t he d irect r esult o f t aking o n t he b urden o f writing. I f t his t hesis i s v alid, t hen t he a bsurdity o f c omparing i t w ith w riting a s w e k now i t b ecomes p articularly o bvious. I d o n ot m ean t o s uggest t hat t he u se o f w ritten t exts t o h elp e xplain m eaning i n t he v isual a rts i s a f lawed m ethod. T o s ay s o w ould b e t o d eny a l arge p art o f t he h istory o f a rt. O bviously, t here i s s ome c onnection, a nd t exts h ave s uccessfully b een u sed t o h elp e xplain m eaning i n t he w orld.

v isual a rts i n m any a rtistic

What I d o m ean t o c onvey, h owever,

1 4 5

i s

t raditions t hroughout t he

1 . t hat t he American s ituation i s u nique i n h aving v ery f ew t exts w ith which t o f erret o ut m eaning i n ac omparatively v oluminous b ody o f v isual material; 2 . t hat t his s ituation H ispanic A merica ;

r aises

t he

q uestion

o f

l iteracy

i n

p re-

3 . i f a rt p erforms t he f unction o f w riting, i f i t i s g raphic a rt t hat m akes p re-Hispanic c ivilization l iterate, t hen j ust h ow d oes i t o perate a s a m echanism o f c ommunication? That l iteracy i n t he p re-Hispanic c ivilizations e xisted d espite t he p aucity o f w ritten l anguage t here r equires a r edefinition o f t he n ormal u nderstanding o f t he t erm " literacy." I f ollow Goody ( 1975, 1 978) a nd o thers w ho h ave c ogently a rgued t hat t he m oment i n t ime w hen m an b egan t o make r ecorded l ists m arks t he b eginning o f l iteracy, n ot w hen h e d eveloped a f orm c all

w riting.

A ccording

o f n otation r ecorded i n t he l inear t o

t his

v iew,

while

s ome s ort

o f

f ormat w e r ecording

m echanism i s n ecessary, l iteracy c an a nd d oes e xist w ithout w riting. T his i s w hat I w ould l ike t o s uggest f or a ncient America: t hat a f orm o f n otation w hich t ook a n a ltogether d ifferent f orm o f r ecording k nowl edge d eveloped i n t he Americas t o s uch a s ophisticated d egree t hat w e, h eirs t o t he f orms o f w riting t hat t akes a l inear f ormat c ommonly c alled w riting, s till d o n ot u nderstand i t t o t his d ay. I t p roduce m ade i n t ising

i s e asy e nough f or W estern m an t o b elieve t hat c ivilized m an c an w riting i n t he f orm o f r ecorded l ists. B ut t hat l ists c an b e a v ariety o f w ays i s l ess e asy t o a ccept. T he u se o f a dverl ogos t oday i s a v ery e ffective f orm o f l ist-making w hich

i nfluences o ur a ctions i n v ery s ubtle a nd t angible w ays, b ut i t i s n ot d one i n a l inear f ormat. T here i s n othing i nherent i n l ist-making t hat r equires a l inear f ormat. F or e xample, n ames c an b e a rranged i n a r ound r obin f orm i nstead o f t op t o b ottom o r r ight t o l eft o r l eft t o r ight. L ists n eed n ot a re n ot l ists. l ists

u sing

b e w ritten l inearly, b ut t hey m ust b e r ecorded o r t hey T he Q uipu o f t he Inca i s a mnemonic d evice w hich r ecords

a f orm

s ignificant c ultural

o f

p ositional

n otation

w hich

i s

n on-linear.

T he

a ct i s n ot w riting , b ut l ist-making.

T here a re m any k inds o f l ists, b ut t hey a ll f all i nto t wo b road c ategories: l ists o f t hings w hich a re r epresented a nd l ists o f t hings w hich a re p resented. T he f ormer o ne i s t o n otate t en s heep, i ts m ost e asily r ecorded b y ag raphic a re made o f g ods, t hen t he a ct i s

e ncompasses c ommercial a ctivity. I f r epresentation b ecomes a f inite t ask f orm i n al inear m anner. B ut i f l ists f undamentally d ifferent b ecause o f t he

a mbiguity i nvolved i n a ny p resentation o f t he s upernatural. S uch a n a ct e ntails t he m echanism o f a f orm o f c ultural c ommunication f ar b etter s uited t o c onveying i deas about w hich q ualities, i .e., i mage-making. T his

t here a re c omplex, o verlapping i s w hy i t i s e asier t o w rite

c ommercial t allies about w hich t here c an b e l ittle a mbiguity ( graphic s igns w hich s tand f or t angible o bjects) t han t o m ake i mages o f g ods about w hich t here must b e a mbiguity. H ow d oes o ne d evise a g raphic s ign

4 6

t o

a dequately

r epresent

a p owerful

g od

w hose

v ery

n ature

i ncludes

a pparently i llogical a nd c onflicting a ttributes? T he t wo a cts o f l istmaking, o ne i n t he s ervice o f c ommerce a nd t he o ther i n t he s ervice o f r eligion, a re b oth p roducts o f as imilar n eed, o n v ery d ifferent s cales : t he n eed t o c ontrol t he e nvironment, t o m ake c oordinate t he w orld i nto a k nowable r eality.

o rder

o ut

o f

c haos,

t o

D uring o ne b rief p eriod, i n o ne a rea o f a ncient America, w riting d id b egin t o d evelop a s af orm o f l inear l ist-making. This i s t he M aya a rea f rom a bout c a. A .D. 2 50 t o c a. A .D. 8 00, when g od a nd d ynastic l ists i n l inear f orm a re f ound i n v arious m edia. I t i s a t ime w hen d ynasties a re v ery p rominent a nd r ulers w ish t o d elineate c learly t he l egitimacy o f t heir r ule b y d ivine a ssociations. P erhaps t hat i s t he s ignificant

c lue

a s

t o

w hy l inear w riting d eveloped

i n

t he Maya a rea

d uring t he C lassic P eriod : w hen p ersons w ho c ontrol i nformation i n a p articular c ulture a t a p articular t ime a re i nterested i n m aking l ess a mbiguous t he m eaning o f d ivinity a s f or e xample i n t he s tatement " my f amily d escends f rom G od X ," o r " I r ule b ecause my f amily d escends f rom a m ore p owerful d eity t han t he p erson I k illed t o g et t o w here I a m t oday," t hen i mages a re l ess u seful t o c onvey t hat s pecific m essage a nd w riting d evelops t o g et t hat m essage a cross i n af orm which c ontributes t o making i t h appen. T he c hoice o f m ode o f c ommunication i s t herefore d irectly r elated t o t he k ind o f i nformation i n t he m essage. H ere i magemaking a nd m agic b ecome i nextricably i ntertwined. F or e xample, t he s acred i mage o f K inich-Ahau n ot o nly r efers t o d ivinity ; t he s ign b ecomes t he d ivinity. A ccording t o s uch a v iew, t he p re-Hispanic f eeding o f i mages o f t he g ods a s r ecorded i n e thnohistorical s ourcez makes s ense. T he i mage o f t he g od i s t he g od a nd m ust b e n urtured. I f t he r ecorded m essage i s s o p owerful, t hen t he r eason f or t he d evelopment o f g lyphic t exts i s r elated t o t he k ind o f i nformation b eing r ecorded. T hus w hen r ulers d ecide t o s pecify u nambiguously t heir p ower, a s d uring t he C lassic p eriod i n t he Maya L owlands, t hen a f orm o f r ecorded c omm unication i s put i nto s ervice w hich e nables t his i nformation t o b ecome r eality ; t hat f orm o f c ommunication w e k now t oday a s Maya h ieroglyphic writing. T he r elationship b etween t he c hoice o f m edium a nd t he c ontent o f t he message i n p re-hispanic s tudies i s a f ascinating p roblem t hat i s b est d eveloped e lsewhere. I m ention i t o nly t o r aise t he p robability t hat t he m echanism f or t he c ommunication o f l ists d epends t o a l arge d egree o n t he p erceived n eeds o f t he m essage, h ow t he m essage i s t o f unction i n a p articular s ociety a t ap articular t ime, a nd t hat t his c an c hange i n t ime. Ancient American a rt i s a f orm o f n otational w riting w hich o rigi nally

d erived

b eings c ation

i n material f orm. I p refer t o c all P resentational I magery a s d istinct

f rom

t he

c ultural

a ctivity

o f

r ecording

s upernatural

t his m echanism o f c ommunif rom R epresentational Im-

a gery , t o u nderscore t he f undamental d ifference i nvolved i n t he t wo k inds o f l ist-making a ctivity I a m d efining a s l iteracy. I f w e a ccept t he p remise t hat i mages w e c all a rt i n p re-Hispanic America a re a f orm o f " literacy," t hen w e h ave a n e normous b ody o f v isual " texts" t o s tudy. B ut w e d o n ot h ave t he k ind o f a rt t hat d eveloped o utside o f t he a ncient

1 7

W estern

w orld,

s eparated

f rom

w riting.

P re-Hispanic

a rt

w as

n ever

d isencumbered o f l ist-making f unctions, a s i n a ncient M esopotamia. L iteracy i n p re-Hispanic America i nvolved i mage-making. I t i s t heref ore f undamentally p roblematic t o a pproach p re-Hispanic p resentational a rt u sing t he s ame m ethods t hat h ave b een d eveloped f or W estern a rt w hose r oots f orm i n a ncient M esopotamia. W estern a rt c an f all b ack o n t he s eparate l ist-making s ystem o f w riting w hich d eveloped a part f rom t he d evelopment o f r epresentational i mages. T he M esopotamian b ifurc ated l ist-making f orms c an b e s een i n S umerian s culpture b y r epresent ational i mages o f t he l ist-maker G uda a nd h is s eparate c uneiform t ext b elow. E gyptian " writing" e xists a part f rom i ts f igural r epresentat ions. I mages i n t he W est w ere f ree t o e volve o utside o f l ist-making c onstraints. I mages i n t he West, i ts h istory o f a rt, a re n ot a h istory o f l iteracy , t here w riting d eveloped a s a s eparate s ystem o f c ommunic ation, f orever i solated f rom i mage-making. I n c ontrast, i mages i n p re-Hispanic A merica c ombined e xpression ( Diagram 1 ).

b oth

f unctions

WESTERN

i nto

a s ingle

P RE H ISPAN IC

T RAD IT I ON

T RADIT I ON

r ep re s en ta t iona l i mage ry

p r e sen ta t iona l

t e x t s

M AY A H IE R O GL YP HI C W RITI N G

ART

f orm

W RITI N G

IM A GE M AKI N G

D iagram

4 8

1 .

i magery

o f

P re-Hispanic V isual L ist-Making : P ictorial M etaphors ; T he C ontextual A pproach A rt i n p re-Hispanic A merica i s a m etaphorical s ystem, a k ind o f s ymbolic k nowledge w hose m eaning b ecomes c lear b y e voking o ther m etap hors p erceptible i n v arious m edia. I t i s a k nowledge n ot o f t hings o r o f w ords, b ut o f t he " memory o f t hings a nd w ords, o f c onceptual r epres entations. I t d epends o n p rocesses o f d isplacement o f a ttention, a nd o f e vocation ; i t i s a n i mprovisation w hich r ests u pon i mplicit k nowl edge a nd o beys u nconscious r ules" ( Leach 1 975). I n e xamining v isual s ymbols a s " literacy" c onveying i nformation, i t i s i mportant t o r ememb er t hat i n t he A merican c ase, a s w ith a ll k inds o f s ymbols, w e a re n ot d ealing w ith a u niversal n otion b ut r ather a c ultural o ne, " differing f rom c ulture t o c ulture, o r e ven w ithin a g iven c ulture. I t i s s ubject t o t he s ame s ort o f c ritical a nalysis a s t hat f ormulated b y R odney N eedham ( 1972) c oncerning t he n otion o f b elief" ( Sperber 1 975:50). A n e ssential c aveat i n s uch s tudies i s t hat t he s pecific c ontext o f e ach p articular a rtistic t radition u nder i nvestigation must b e u nderstood a s f ully a s p ossible t o r econstruct m eaning. H ow c an a s ystem b ased o n i mages b e d evised t o c onvey t hought, i deas w hich w riting i n t he West i n s o-called " literate s ocieties" r ecords l inearly? I n p re-Hispanic A merica a n on-linear p ictorial l ang uage w as d eveloped, a s ystem w hich t ook many l ocal v ariations, a ll o f which c an b e c haracterized a s a gglutinated v isual i mages. T he l inchpin o f t he s ystem w as t he u se o f m etaphor, p ictorial m etaphor, t o c onvey c omplex, e ven p oetic m eaning. I t i s as ystem which, i n S perber 's t erms, e vokes t he " encyclopaedic" k nowledge o f a c ulture b y " focalizing " i mages ( Sperber c ontext.

1 975:139-140),

i .e.,

i mages which o nly m ake

s ense

i n

The h ypothesis t hat Mesoamerican a rt w as i nextricably b ound u p i n t he p roblems o f n on-linear p ictorial l anguage i s o ne which f inds s upp ort i n t he w ork o f John Rowe ( 1962). I n h is r emarkable s tudy o f C havin a rt, R owe i nterprets s ome C havin a rt f orms a s b eing m etaphorical s ubs titutions, a nalagous t o l iterary k ennings. R owe's c haracterization o f C havin a rt a s a s eries o f v isual c omparisons o ften s uggested b y s ubstit ution r epresents a n a ttempt t o e xamine t he m echanism o f v isual c omm unication i n a p articularly c omplex a rtistic t radition o f p re-Hispanic America ( Rowe 1 962). A nother a nalysis o f t he m echanism o f v isual c omm unication, f ocusing o n t he r ichly v aried a nd e laborated i magery o f Teotihuacan, c an b e f ound i n t he w ork o f G eorge K ubler ( 1967). K ubler u nravels t he s tructure o f T eotihuacan v isual f orms b y c haracterizing s uch i mages a s a gglutinated s igns, h aving g rammatical v alues s uch a s n ouns, a djectives, v erbs, a nd a dverbs. I t i s ac reative e xplanation f or T eotihuacan a rt t hat i s a f irst s tep i n u nraveling i ts c omplex meaning b y m eans o f c onsidering T eotihuacan i mages a s v isual l anguage w ith a r econstructable g rammar. B oth Rowe's a nd K ubler 's a nalyses s eek t o f athom

t he

i nternal

m echanisms

o f

s crutinizing i ts i nternal s tructure.

1 4 9

a n

a rt

f orm

i n

i ts

o wn

t erms

b y

Another

m ethod

o f

e xamining

t he

m eaning

o f

p re-Hispanic

i mages

w ithout r esorting t o t he m ethodologically d ubious s olution o f c omparing i t t o w ritten t exts i nvolves f inding a nalogous e xplanations i n t he c ultural a nd e nvironmental c ontexts i n w hich t he a rtistic t radition d eveloped. F or e xample, t he i nterpretation o f m urals p ainted a t T ulum a fter A .D . 1 400 was a chieved b y c omparing m ural p ainting w ith o ther c lasses o f m aterial c ulture s uch a s m asonry c utting t echniques a nd c eramic m anufacture ( Miller 1 982 ). T he r esultant p atterns w ere t hen c ompared t o s alient e nvironmental f actors a nd a r econstruction o f e conomic a nd p olitical p atterns p ieced t ogether f rom a rchaeologically r ecorded material c ulture. I n o ther w ords, t he a rtistic t radition w as a nalyzed w ithin i ts m aterially r econstructed c ultural matrix w ith t he e nd r esult o f a n e xplanation o f m eaning w hich c ould t hen b e c hecked a gainst o ther p erceptible p atterns. L ikewise, t he a rchitectural s culpt ure o f Tikal, Guatemala f rom A .D. 5 0 - A .D. 8 00 was i nterpreted b y c omparing i ts d evelopment w ith t he d evelopment o f o ther c lasses o f material c ulture s uch a s a rchitecture, a rtifacts, a nd c eramics, a s w ell a s w ith c omplexes o f c lasses f orming d iscrete c ultural e ntities i n s patially a nd t emporally d efinable e ntities s uch a s b urials, c aches, o r s pecial d eposits ( Miller, n .d.). A s i n t he c ase o f Tulum m urals, i nterpretation o f Tikal a rchitectural s culpture w as a chieved b y p lacing i t a s m uch a s p ossible w ithin i ts c ultural c ontext a s r econstructed b y w ell-controlled a rchaeological a ssociations. T he k ey t o s uccess i n s uch a n a pproach l ies i n t he c ompleteness o f t he a rchaeologic a l r ecord i n o rder t o e stablish a s m uch a s i s p ossible t he c ontext o f t he v isual t radition u nder i nvestigation.

A pples a nd O ranges T he

c omparison o f v isual w ith w ritten f orms

t o t he s imple f act t hat a pple i s f rom a n o range.

i s

p roblematic o wing

t hey a re a s d ifferent f rom e ach o ther a s a n B ut c onsider a n a pple a nd a n o range. T hey a re

b oth r ound a nd a re m ore o r l ess t he s ame s ize. T hey a re b oth f ruits a nd b oth h ave a s egmented s tructure, s eeds, a nd a re s urrounded b y a membrane t hat d iffers f rom i ts i nternal m atter. S imilarly, i mages a nd w riting a re b oth f orms o f r ecording l ists i n a p ermanent f orm. A s m entioned e arlier, t hey b oth c an t ransmit k nowledge o ver v ast d istances ; b oth p rovide a m eans

o f

p arisons o f a pples, t han s imilarities.

k eeping i nformation r estrictive. o ranges,

B ut

f urther c om-

i mages, a nd t exts r eveal m ore d ifferences

I n t he c ase o f c omparing i mages a nd w ritings, I w ish t o s tress t hat t he d ifferences b etween t he t wo r elate t o d ifferent w ays o f e xpressing c ultural m etaphors w hich may e xplain r ealities o f ap articular t ime a nd s pace ; a nd f urther, t hat t he c hoice o f f orm u sed t o c onvey c ontent d etermines m eaning. We c an v iew p ictorial ex pression a s t he a pex o f a p yramid. A t i ts b ase i s t he v ast s torage, t he memory o f a p articular c ivilization a t a mo ment i n t ime a nd s pace, w hich S perber ( 1975) c alls " encyclopaedic k nowledge." T he m eans b y w hich t he i mage i s c onnected t o

5 0

e ncyclopaedic k nowledge d epends o n t he c ontext t ial a nd t emporal f ramework ( Diagram 2 ).

I MAGES

o f t he

i mage,

i ts

s pa-

o f e voca t ion

T EXTS

" ENCYCL OPAED IC" KN O WLEDGE D iagram 2

I n o rder t o " interpret" a p ictorial m etaphor, w ritten m etaphor i s l ess u seful t han i s a n e xploration o f t he m echanisms i nvolved i n f orming t he v isual m etaphor i tself. S uch a n a pproach c onsiders c ontext, which i s t he k ey t o u nderstanding t he e ncyclopaedic k nowledge f rom w hich v isual i mages s pring. A ccording t o s uch a v iew, t he m ethod o f f ormation b ecomes m ore i mportant, i s c loser t o r evealing meaning, t han i s a nother m etaphor. Writing t ells u s l ess about p ictures t han d oes a n a nalysis o f t he p rocess b y w hich p ictures a re f ormed.

R ESUMEN E l a utor d iscute l os p roblemas f ormales i nherentes a l a a grupaci6n d e

t extos

e i mägenes

y s ugiere

q ue

5 1

d iferencias

f undamentales

e n

l os

m ecanismos

d e

l a

c omunicaci6n

v isual

y e scrita

i mpiden

p aralelos

a criticos e ntre l os d os s istemas. L a a ntigua M esoam6rica s e d istingue p or s er u na c ivilizaci6n d e p ocas p alabras e scritas y e l a utor d emuestra q ue, e n s u l ugar, e l a rte v isual s e e ncargaba d el m ayor p eso d e l a c omunicaciem.

5 2

R EFERENCES B loomfield,

C ITED

L . L anguage.

1 933

N ew Y ork.

C oe, M ichael 1 973

T he

Maya

Scribe

a nd

His

World .

Grolier

C lub,

N ew

Y ork. G oody,

J ack,

e d.

1 975

L iteracy i n Traditional Societies. s ity P ress.

1 978

T he Domestication o f t he Savage Mind. v ersity P ress.

K ubler, G eorge 19 67

C ambridge Univer-

C ambridge.

T he

C ambridge Uni-

C ambridge.

I conography o f t he Art o f Teotihuacan.

S tudies

i n P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology 4 . Dumbarton O ak s, T rustees f or H arvard University, Washington, D . C . 1 975

L each, E dmund 1 975

H istory-or Anthropology-of Art?

I n C ritical Inquiry

1 (4):757-68. C hicago.

o f

R eview

T he

University

C hicago

o f Dan S perber 's Rethink ing S ymbolism

P ress.

i n The

T imes L iterary S upplement. M iller, A rthur G . 19 82

O n t he Edge o f t he Sea. Mural P ainting a t TancahTulum, Q uintana R oo, M exico. D umbarton O aks, Washi ngton,

n .d.

N eedham , R odney 1 972

D . C .

T he Art o f Tikal. A nalyses o f Architecture, S culp t ure, a nd P ainting i n A rchaeological C ontexts. T ikal R eport No. 3 6. University Museum Monog raphs, Univers ity o f P ennsylvaina. I n p reparation.

B elief,

L anguage

a nd

E xperience.

B asil

Blackwell.

Oxford. R owe,

J ohn Howland 19 62 C havin Art.

A n Inquiry i nto

T he Museum o f Primitive A rt. S aussure, F . d e 1 959

C ourse r ary.

i n

General

N ew Y ork.

5 3

i ts Form a nd Meaning . N ew Y ork.

Ling uistics.

P hilosophical

Lib-

S perber, D an 1 975

R ethinking

S ymbolism .

C ambridge.

5 1 4

C ambridge

University

P ress.

T HE

R ELATIONSHIP

O F A NCIENT A MERICAN W RITING SYSTEM S T O THE V ISUAL ARTS b y O RIANA BADDELEY

T he d iscipline o f a rt h istory i s ar elatively r ecent p henomenon i n t he f ield o f Mesoamerican s tudies. T he l ast f ew d ecades h ave s een t he g rowth o f a rt h istorical i nterest i n c ultures which h ad p reviously, w ith a f ew n otable e xceptions, b een t he p reserve o f t he a rchaeologist a nd a nthropologist. I n t his s ense t he b ackground a nd t raditions o f t he s ubject a re more d ependent u pon multi-disciplinary r esearch t han i s o ften t he c ase i n t he m ore t raditional p ractice o f a rt h istory. While i n many w ays b eneficial, t his a malgamation o f a pproach a nd method h as m ade t he t heoretical f ramework u pon which Mesoamerican s cholarship i s b ased l ess o bvious. A g reater u nderstanding o f t his f ramework a nd t he b ackground t o t he i nitial i ntroduction o f t he m ethodologies o f a rt h istory i nto t he a rea o f Mesoamerican s tudies i s v ital i f t he s ubject i s t o c ontinue t o f lourish a s a n a cademic d iscipline. I n

t his

e ssay,

I p ropose

t o

e xamine

t he

w ay i n w hich

t he

r igid

a pplication o f t he d efining c haracteristics a nd p rinciples o f W estern c ulture t o t he v arious m anifestations o f t he Mesoamerican p ast h as o ften o bscured r ather t han cast l ight u pon t he values a nd c onventions o f i ts i ndigenous i nhabitants. Many o f t he more e xtreme t heoretical p osit ions o f e arly s cholars, s uch a s L ord K insborough 's a ttempt t o e stabl ish a c onnection b etween t he i nhabitants o f a ncient Mexico a nd t he l ost t ribe o f I srael ( Kingsborough 1 831-1848:Vols. 6 & 8 ) a re n ow g enerally d ismissed. A t t he s ame t ime, h owever, a g reat number o f t he u nderlying a ssumptions o f t he n ineteenth c entury c ontinue t o b e u nquestioningly a ccepted. I n t he c ase o f K ingsborough, t he a rguments a nd m ethods u sed b y t he a uthor a re a t l east a pparent. T his a rticle i s c oncerned w ith t he m ore f undamental a nd opaque w ays i n w hich t he n ineteenth c entury has s tructured t he c ontemporary a pproach t o Mesoamerican c ulture. While s imilar m ethodological p roblems exist i n m any a reas o f Mesoa merican s tudies, o f p rimary i nterest t o t he a rt h istorian a re t he w ays i n which Eurocentric i deas o f i mage a nd t ext h ave a ffected o ur p ercept ion o f t he Maya a nd Mexican g roups. T he d evelopment o f c ertain d efinit ions o f " image" a lso r elates d irectly t o t he g rowth o f i nterest i n M esoamerican modes o f c ommunication. I t w as t he a pplication o f r ecogn izable

d istinctions

b etween a reas

5 5

o f

t ext

a nd

i mage

t hat

l ed

t o

a n

a cceptance

o f

t he

i dea o f " literacy"

i n Mesoa r nerica a nd

t hereby t o a n

i ncreased a dmiration o f M esoamerican c ulture b y European s cholars. W ithin European c ulture t here e xists a s trong d istinction b etween t he p rocesses o f " writing " a nd o f " making i mages." T he t wo a ctivities a re s een t o r equire s eparate c apabilities a nd t raining, a nd t o e xhibit d ifferent skills a nd s ensibilities. A s eparation o f t he f unctions o f w riter a nd p ainter i s n ot, o f c ourse, a c ultural n ecessity. I n China t he p resentation o f a n i deograph was o ften m ore i mportant t han i ts a ctual m eaning. T he p resentation w as s een a s c apable o f r evitalizing a well-known t ext o r p oem, w hereas t he m eaning was a ssumed t o b e u norigin al ( Fitzgerald 1 965:442). I n Mesoamerica, t he s ystems u sed t o c onvey m eaning d o n ot a llow f or a n e asy d istinction b etween " pure" t ext o r " pure" i mage. What i n t he Graeco-Roman s ystem c an b e s een a s t wo s eparate e lements w ith d ifferent t raditions a nd f unctions, i n Mesoa merica f requently o verlap a nd c an b e i nterchangeable. A s K elley s tates i n r eference t o M aya g lyphic s cript " sa ne g lyphs c an a lso a ppear a s c omplete f igures o f h umans o r a nimals ( or d eities) w ith n o k nown c hange i n m eaning, o r p resumably, i n t he m anner o f r eading " ( Kelley 1 976:7). T he example o f f ull f igure g lyphs f rom s tela D a t Q uirigua ( figure

1 )

a mply d emonstrates t his a spect o f t he M aya s ystem.

S imilar l evels o f c omplexity a re f ound i n Mex ico i n w ork s uch a s t he s culptural r epresentation o f t he n ame g lyph o f t he A ztec e mperor Ahuixotl o n t he l id o f as tone b ox i n t he c ollection o f t he Museum f ür Volkerkunde i n B erlin. T he b ox i tself, w ith a c ast o f t he l id, i s i n t he c ollection o f t he B ritish Museum ( B . M . N o. Q 82 A m 8 60). O n t he i nterior o f t he b ox t he c arved n ame g lyph c onforms t o t he a ccepted d efinitions o f " text" i n A ztec c ulture. T hese d efinitions w ould n ot n ormally b e a pplied t o t he t hree-dimensional " Ahuixotl" o n t he l id o f t he b ox, y et b oth i nterior a nd e xterior f orms r elate s imilar i nformat ion. T he r espective h ieroglyphic a nd p ictog raphic s ystems o f t he Maya a nd M exicans c cmplicate y et f urther a ny a ttempt t o r econcile t he Mesoa merican f orms w ith o ur European c oncept o f t ext a nd i mage. I n s everal w ays t he M aya h ieroglyphic s ystem p roduces s harper d ivisions b etween t he d ifferent m odes o f s ignification, t hough n ever p roducing s uch a d efinable d ivision a s t hat o f t he c onventional European s ystem. A p age f rom t he Dresden C odex c an b e s een t o c ontain r eco g nizable d istinctions b etween a reas o f " writing " a nd o f " images" ( figure 2 ). I t i s v ital, h owever, t o r ealize t hat t he r elationship t hat e xists b etween t hese t wo r ecognizably s eparate e lements d oes n ot c onform t o t he p resentation o f a n a lphabetic t ext a nd i llustration t o b e f ound i n a European m anus cript. B erlo, i n a d iscussion o f t his p roblem Madrid C odex, d raws a ttention t o t his f act:

i n

r elation

t he i nteraction o f t ext a nd i mage i s maintained i n t he p ost-classic c odices, where o ften t he i ma ge a mplifies t he g lyphic p rognostication i n s ome

w ay,

p roviding

i nformation

5 6

b eyond

t hat

t o

t he

which i s 1 976:26)

w ritten

i n

t he

b rief

t ext.

( Berlo

The s ystem e mployed b y t he v arious Mexican g roups ( the Teotih uacanos, Toltecs, a nd A ztecs) w as l ess f lexible t han t hat o f t he M aya i n t erms o f t he i nterplay b etween t he u se o f " text" a nd " image." Each s ymbol was m ade u p o f w hat R obertson calls " an a ssembly o f s eparable p arts" ( Robertson 1 970); a dditional e lements q ualified a nd a ltered t he f inal m eaning, t hus a llowing f or n o d efinable a reas o f o rnamentation o r d ecoration. A b rief s tudy o f p age o ne o f t he Fejervary-Mayer C odex ( 1971) i s a mple d emonstration o f t his a spect o f t he p ictographic t radit ion. T he e xtremely c omplex c alendrical a nd r itual i nformation f ound o n this p age ( see B rotherston 1 979:139) i s c onveyed b y c ompositional d evices a nd p atterns w hich i n E uropean c ulture w ould b e s een a s c haract eristic o f ap urely p ictorial t radition. A t t he s ame t ime t he s pecific ity a nd mathematical e xactness o f t he p age a re o utside t he n orms o f European i magery, w here p recise i nformation i s u sually c ombined w ith d efinable a reas o f o rnamentation o r d ecoration. While f raming a nd c ontainment a re u sed t o d ivide t he v arious a reas o f m eaning a nd p rovide r elevant c ontexts i n b oth Maya a nd Mex ican s ystems, t he Maya a llowed f or a g reater f luidity a nd e xperimentation i n t he p roduction o f i mages. I n t his s ense Maya a rt d raws c loser t o t he European c onventions o f i llus ion, w ith t he u se o f p lanar s pace, f oreshortening a nd multiplicity o f v iewpoint, t han d oes Mex ican a rt. E ven t he most c ursory l ook a t t he w riting s ystems o f Mesoamerica r eveals a d istinction i n f orm b etween t he Maya a nd Mexican s ystems o f c ommunication. What a lso b ecomes a pparent, h owever, i s t hat t his d istinction h as b een exaggerated a nd s tressed o ver t he l ast c entury t o t he d etriment o f a c learer u nders tanding o f t he t wo g reat M esoamerican c ultures, a nd o f t he i nteraction b etween t hese t wo g roups. The d evelopment o f c ontemporary models o f Mesoamerican c ulture i s, o f n ecessity, d ependent upon t he a ttitudes a nd t heoretical s tance o f e arlier w riters, p articularly t hose o f t he n ineteenth c entury. O f m ost i nterest t o t his a rgument i s t he e mergence i n t he l ate n ineteenth c entury o f t he i dea o f t he Maya a s t he "high c ulture" o f Mesoamerica. I f o ne l ooks a t t he g rowth o f Mesoamerican s tudies f rom a h istoriog raphical p erspective, a p attern o f i nterpretive m ethods e merges. T hroughout t his p eriod t here d eveloped w ithin Mesoamerican s tudies a n a nalogy b etween t he Maya a nd t he a ncient Greeks. T his r eached i ts p eak i n t he 1 950s i n t he w ork o f J .E .S . T hompson. H is i nvaluable w ork, M aya H ieroglyphic Writing ( 1950), makes t he c omparison o vertly : " Maya t emples a nd M aya s culpture c an b e compared w ith t he p roducts o f P hidias o r

Praxiteles."

H e

g oes

o n,

h owever,

t o

s tress

t hat

i t

i s

i n

t he

h ieroglyphic t exts o f t he M aya t hat m ost value l ies : " . . .t hese a lone a re w orthy o f c omparison w ith t he p roducts o f t he m inds o f P ythagoras a nd P lato,

P indar a nd Aristotle"

( Thompson 1 975:2).

The i mposition o f t he q ualities o f a " golden a ge" u pon t he Maya, c ast i n t he r ole o f c lassic G reek c ulture, i s p erhaps n ot a s h armful a s t he a ccompanying c haracteristics o f a " debased" o r " decadent" R oman

5 7

c ulture w hich t his a nalogy a scribes, b y j uxtaposition, t o t he Mex icans. The

i mpossible

p osition

o f t he M exicans w ithin t his European m odel

c ultural i nteraction i s s imultaneously d evelopmentally c ulturally d egenerative. This i dealization o f M aya d ependent u pon a p rocess o f c ultural i dentification i n

o f

i nferior a nd c ulture was w hich i t w as

p ossible t o p erceive i n t he a ncient M aya t raits which w ere a lso valued b y t he n ineteenth-century E uropean s cholar. T he s etting u p o f a model o f a ncient European c ivilization a gainst w hich t o j udge M esoamerican c ultures b egan l ong b efore t he n ineteenth c entury, b ut i t w as a t t he b eginning o f t hat c entury t hat i t t ook o n a n ew c oherence a nd a s tanda rdized a pplication. I n Europe a nd t he Near East t he d evelopment o f t he d iscipline o f a rchaeology h ad l ed, p rior t o a ny c onscious a cceptance o f a s tatus o f " civilization" i n p re-Hispanic Mesoamerica ., t o a d esire t o u nearth t he M esoamerican p ast. H umboldt ( 18 10), B ullock ( 182 / 4),

T ravellers a nd e xplorers s uch a s Dupaix ( 183 0 a nd l ater Stephens a nd

C atherwood ( 18 14 1) w ere t he f irst t o b ring t he m aterial c ulture o f t he a rea t o a w ider a udience. T o t hese men a nd t heir c ontemporaries, t he a ccounts o f t heir j ourneys a nd t he i ncorporation o f t he o bjects a nd p laces d iscovered i nto a b ody o f European k nowledge w as a n e nd i n i tself. I t was n ot s o m uch t he b uildings a nd o bjects f ound t hat w ere i mportant a nd v alued b ut t he w hole p rocess o f t heir d iscovery. I n t his s ense t he p hysical a nd c onceptual i naccessibility o f p re-Hispanic c ulture w as o ne o f i ts g reatest a ssets ; t he more r emote a nd d istant t he p laces a nd t hings d iscovered, t he g reater t he a chievement o f t heir " discoverer." This a spect o f t he n ineteenth-century i nterest i n Mesoamerica i s summed up i n t he f amous q uote f rom S tephens : " It i s i mpossible t o d escribe," h e s tates i n h is a ccount o f h is f irst v isit t o C opan, " the i nterest w ith which I e xplored t he ruins. T he g round was e ntirely n ew, t here w ere n o g uide b ooks o r g uides; t he w hole w as v irgin s oil"

( Stephens

1 8 14 1

1 :11 9 ).

E lements o f t his p leasure i n t he d iscovery a nd e xploration o f Mesoamerica r emain a pparent t hroughout t he c entury b ut e ven b y t he t ime o f Stephen 's p ublication o f Incidents o f Travel i n C entral America, Chiapas a nd Y ucatan t he i ntellectual c limate h ad b egun t o c hange. I n t he 1 820s C hampollion h ad c aused a g reat i nterest i n d ecipherment f oll owing h is b reakthroughs i n t he u nderstanding o f E gyptian h ieroglyphs ( Champollion 1 822), a nd i n t he p eriod f ollowing t he p ublication o f t hese d iscoveries a n ew e mphasis b egan t o b e p laced u pon t he ruins o f Mesoamerica. T o t he p ost-Champollion g eneration o f s cholars, t he c oncern w ith d iscovery d ecipherment, a nd t he

b egan t o t ake s econd p lace h ieroglyphic s ystem o f t he

o bvious f ocal p oint o f s cholarly i nterest. t his n ew d irection :

t o a d esire Maya b ecame

S tephens h imself i ndicates

O ne t hing I b elieve,

t hat i ts h istory i s g raven

o n i ts b rought

N o C hampollion h as y et e nerg ies o f h is i nquiring

m onuments. t o t hem t he

m ind. W ho s hall r ead t hem ? " Chaos o f r uins ! Who s hall t race t he v oid, o 'er t he d im f ragments c ast

a l unar

l ight,

a nd

5 8

s ay

f or t he

' here

was

o r

i s'

where a ll 1 :15 9 )

w ith

i s

d oubly

n ight."

( Stephens

1 841

This g rowing i nterest i n d ecipherment d eveloped s imultaneously a f ormalization o f t he c ross r eferences t o c lassical European

c ultures i nto a r igourous f ramework o f c ultural

d evelopment.

While t he

c ultures o f Mesoamerica h ad b een j udged a gainst t he v alues a nd r equirem ents o f a European-based c ulture s ince t he f irst c ontact o f t he t wo s ocieties i n t he s ixteenth c entury, t he l ater n ineteenth c entury i mposed u pon t hese methods o f a ssessment a s trict d evelopmental s truct ure. Writers s uch a s L ewis M organ p ut f orward a D arwinian m odel o f c ultural e volution i n h is i nfluential Ancient Society o f 1 877. I n t his t ext a ll s ocieties w ere p laced upon a l adder t hat r an f rom ' savagery " t o " civilization." The model c ivilization w as, o f c ourse, t hat o f Europe; t he c loser a s ociety c ame t o t he g overning c onventions o f European t hought,

t he

n earer

i t

w as

t o

a chieving

t he

s tatus

o f

c ivilization.

A ccording t o this s cheme, t he p ossession o f a s ystem o f w riting was a n e ssential c omponent f or a ny s ociety t o b e e levated f rom b arbarism t o t he m iddle s tage o f t he e volutionary p rocess t o c ivilization. I n A ncient S ociety t his p romotion w as d enied t o t he w hole o f Mesoamerica, which r emained f irmly c ategorized a s b eing i n a s tate o f " barbarism " ( Morgan 1 877:16-18). T he d issimilarity b etween Mexican a nd European s ystems o f r epresentation a nd b ehaviour l ed M organ t o p lace t he A ztecs o n a l evel e quivalent t o p re-Hcmeric Greece. I n t his w ay t he a lien n ature o f t he c ultural f orms d ocumented b y e arlier w riters was r endered a cceptable b y e xaggerating t heir t emporal a nd e volutionary d istance f rom European c ulture. S ince

t he

a rchitecture a nd a rtifacts o f Mesoamerica

d id n ot

c on-

f orm t o t he p rinciples o f G reek a nd R oman a rt, t hey h ad t o b e s een a s d eveloping t owards t hose p rinciples. T his a ttitude i n p articularly c lear in W illiam H . C ities o f Mexico:

Holmes '

A rchaeological S tudies A mong t he A ncient

I n t he c ultural s cale t hese p eople s tood a t t he h ead o f t he A merican t ribes. There w ere s till, p roperly s peaking, b arbarians b ut i n s everal r es pects s eemed c ivilization.

t o b e o n t he v ery t hreshold o f T heir s tatus m ay b e c ompared t o

t hat o f t he G reeks a nd E gyptians i mmediately p receding t he d awn o f t heir h istory, a nd w e may a ssume t hat t hey w ere, a s m easured b y A ryan r ates o f p rogress, p erhaps n ot m ore t han a f ew t housand y ears b ehind t he f oremost n ations i n t he g reat p rocession o f t he r aces f rom s avagery t oward e nlightenment. I n t his

s ense,

a ttempts

( 1895:20)

t o h istoricize

p re-Col u mbian America w ere s i-

multaneously a ttempting t o p rovide a h istory, o r a t l east a n e xplanat ion, o f t he more i naccessible e ras o f t he European p ast.

5 9

I t w as

t he

i nterest

i n Maya w riting s ystems

a nd

t he k nowledge o f

t he M aya a ccumulated b y m en l ike F orstemann ( 1887-189 7 ) a nd S chellhas ( 1897) i n t he l ast d ecade o f t he n ineteenth c entury t hat m ade i t f inally p ossible t o v iew t he M aya a s a" civilized" c ulture. F rom t hat p oint o n, t he p osition o f t he Maya a s a more d eveloped a nd a dvanced c ulture b ecame m ore a nd m ore c onsolidated. L iteracy was a v ital c omponent o f t he " status o f c ivilization" a nd i t w as n ecessary t o a chieve t his s tatus b efore a ny culture c ould b e a dmitted t o h ave p roduced a rt w orthy o f c ritical c omparison t o European models a nd t herefore p ossible t o c ons ider a s " art" i n n ineteenth-century t erms. I t was o nly w hen t his a ppreciation o f t he c omplexity o f t he Maya h ieroglyphic s ystem b ecame w idespread t hat t he f irst w orks o n M aya " art" b egan t o b e p roduced. A n i nnovative e arly w ork , a nd t he f irst t o o utline a h istor ! c al d evelopm ent i n t he s tyle o f Mesoamerican objects was H erbert S pinden 's A S tudy o f Maya Art ( 19 13). S pinden d id n ot a ttempt t o d eny t he e xistence o f a h ierarchical s cale o f c ultural d evelopment b ut h e a rgued f or a h igher p osition o n t hat s cale f or Maya a rt : A t f irst g lance t oo e xotic a nd unique t o b e c omp ared t o t he Old World, n evertheless Maya a rt f urnishes upon examination many a nalogies t o t he e arlier p roducts o f t he c lassic Mediterranean l ands. I ndeed upon t echnological g rounds s uch a s k nowledge o f f oreshortening, c omposition a nd d esign, M aya a rt m ay b e p laced i n a dvance o f t he a rt o f Assyria a nd E gypt a nd o nly b elow t hat o f G reece m ents S pinden

i n

t ne

l ist

o f

g reat

n ational

a chieve-

(1 9 13 : 15 ) •

p romotes

Maya

c ulture

b y

d eftly

s idestepping what,

f or

e arlier writers, h ad b een a n i nsurmountable o bstacle : t he equation o f a b arbarous c ontent w ith a b arbarous f orm. T he s trangeness o f M aya a rt a nd i ts d ivergence f rom European n orms i s s een b y S pinden ( as i t h ad b een b y t he e arlier n ineteenth c entury w riters) a s " the e xpression o f b arbarous r elig ious c oncepts" ( 19 13:1 5 ). T he p hilosophical a nd r elig ious b eliefs w hich f orm t he c ontent o f Maya a rt w ere s een a s o f l ess value t han t he v ehicles b y which t hese b eliefs w ere c onveyed. H owever, S pinden g oes o n t o s tate t hat " upon t he s cale o f d evelopment t he a rt i s many p oints h igher t han t he r eligion " ( 19 13:1 5 ). This d ivision o f f orm f rom c ontent a llows f or t he l ocation o f a rtistic merit, n ot i n t he o verall a ppearance o f M aya a rt b ut i n i ts p roduction. The w ay o f m aking t he o bjects i s s een a s c omparable t o t hat o f a ncient Greece a nd t hus d eserving o f t he d efinition " Art," e ven t hough, f or S p inden, t he c ont ent i s s till b arbarous a nd t he materials a nd t ools t hemselves u nworthy o f M aya skill : " The M aya m ight h ave a cc o mplished g reater w onders i f t hey h ad h ad f ine g rained marble i nstead o f c oarse a nd u neven l imestone a nd i ron a nd b ronze c hisels i nstead o f s tone k nives" ( 1 9 13:1 6 ). S pinden i s d irectly r elevant t o t he l arger p roblem o f i nterpretat ion, w ith which t his a rticle i s c oncerned, b ecause h e m anages t o d isloc ate t he i dea o f a rt, o f ' " images," f rom a n i dea o f o vert m eaning. T his

6 0

i nitial

d isjunction

r emained

t he

b asis

o f

m any l ater

a rt

h istorical

w orks. T he d efining c haracteristics o f a rt b ecame f or S pinden t he " way o f m aking"; t he c ontent o r m eaning c an i n t his w ay e scape e valuation. The t iming o f S pinden 's w ork, t he f irst t hat c ould b e p roperly c lassed a s a rt h istorical ( despite S pinden ' s a nthropological t raining), c oinc ided w ith t he e mergence o f a b ody o f w ork o n M aya h ieroglyphic w riting. T he d ivision o f f orm a nd c ontent w hich c onstitutes t he b asis o f S pinden 's a ppreciation o f M aya c ulture c ould o nly h ave b een f ormulated i n t andem w ith t his e mphasis u pon t he w riting s ystems o f t he Maya. This s eparation o f " way o f m aking" a nd o f m eaning a chieved b y S pinden i n t he Maya a rea c ould n ot e asily b e a pplied t o t he Mexicans. I n t his s ense t hey w ere n ot s een, a t this s tage, t o p roduce a rt o f a n e quivalent l evel t o t he Maya o r e ven t o p roduce a rt a t a ll. C ontemp oraries o f S pinden 's s uch Seler ( 1902-23) f ound i t i mpossible t o m ake a d istinction b etween a c oncept o f " image" a nd o ne o f m eaning i n Mexican a rt. T he i mage was t he t ext a nd t herefore b y d efinition m eaningful. Seler 's i nterest r emained b asically o ne o f d ecipherment. H is d escrip t ion o f t he t emple o f t he p lumed s erpent a t X ochica lco, which a ccording t o Seler i s " the g randest monument k nown o f a ncient American a rt" ( Bowditch 1 939:81), c oncerns i tself o nly w ith i ntepretation o f t he " meaning " o f t he s culptural r eliefs a nd g ives a t horough b ut f actual d escription o f t he t emple p latform w ithout expressive d escriptive a djectives o f S pinden.

r esorting

t o

t he

m ore

The mural p ainting a nd s culpture o f t he M aya c ould b e l ooked a t i n a d ifferent w ay, appreciated f or q ualities s uch a s E macc, e legance, a nd n aturalism which w ere i mportant a ttributes o f European a rt. T he a rea d efined a s a rt b ecame s ynonymous w ith i deas o f r epresentation r ather t han t he c onveyance o f m eaning. T he h ieroglyphic s cript o f t he M aya was s een t o e mbody t he v ital c omponent o f m eaning w ithin t he o verall w ork. I n s aying t his, i t i s n ot t o d eny t he i mportance o f t he g lyphic s cript b ut t o s tress t he v alue o f ar e-definition o f t he i nter-relationship o f t ext a nd i mage i n M aya a rt. D iscovery b y P roskouriakoff ( 1960) o f t he h istorical n ature o f m any Maya monuments, t hough r esting o n g lyphic i nterpretation, was a d irect p roduct o f a ctually l ooking a t t he p ict orial c omponents o f t he monuments i n a s ystematically i nterpretive m anner. Work s uch a s t his ( as well a s l ater c ontributions which e xpanded u pon Proskouriakoff 's d iscoverie s), was l argcly r esponsible f or t he re-introduction o f a l evel o f c ohesive m eaning i nto t he p ict orial

r ealm o f Maya s culpture.

D espite t he g reat c hanges i n a pproach o ver t he last f ew d ecades, t he r elationship p ossible b etween t he M aya a nd t he M exican s ystems o f c onvey ing meaning r ema ins o nly l oosely d efined. I f o ne a ccepts, a s o ne i s l ogically b ound, t hat t he d evelopmental a rgument i s a p roduct o f n ineteenth-century h istorical d octrine a nd l argely i rrelevant t o t went ieth-century m ethodology, s everal c omplex b ut i llum inating e lements o f t his r elationship s urface.

6 1

I ndications o f t he f lexibility p ossible b etween t he t wo s ystems a re m ost a pparent a t t hose s ites w here a n oticeable m ixture o f M aya a nd M exican p ictorial c onventions i s e vident. A n u nderstanding o f t he m ore o bvious p rocesses a t w ork a t s ites s uch a s C acaxtla i n t he s tate o f T laxcala, C entral M exico o r Santa R ita o n t he C aribbean c oast o f B elize w ill p ossibly h elp t o i nterpret t he l ess a ccessible w ays i n which a s imilar, t hough l ess d ominant, i nteraction h as o ccurred a t Maya s ites s uch a s C opan, T ikal, a nd Y axchilan. F or p urposes o f t his a rgu ment C acaxtla o ffers s everal p oints o f i nterest. Much h as b een w ritten a bout t he murals a t C acaxtla ( Abascal, e t a l., 1 976; F oncerrada d e Molina 1 976, 1 978 a & b ; K ubler 1 980; Lopez d e Molina 1 976; R obertson 1 980; Langley 1 981) a nd t hey w ill b e d ealt w ith h ere i n o nly a f ragmentary manner. Many o f t hese a rticles h ave l isted t he v arying e lements o f b oth M ex ican a nd M aya i nfluence i n t he s tyle a nd i conography o f t he murals. While s ome c onclusions o f t he a uthors d iffer, a ll a gree o n t he e clectic ism a pparent i n t he murals. M aya a nd M exican p ictorial c onventions a ppear a t Cacaxtla i n h itherto u nknown c ombinations. T he so-called " Battle S cene" o f Edificio B i s g enerally ag reed a s b eing t he e arliest o f t he t wo mural c ycles w ith a p robable d ate o f s eventh t o e ighth c enturies A .D. ( Langley 1 981). I t s eems t o b e a l ess f ormalized

a nd

more

i nnovative

e xploration

o f

t he

Maya

a nd

Mexican

t raditions which a ppears i n a n i ncreasingly s tandardized f orm i n t he mu rals o f Edificio A . T hough i t p resents c ertain i nnovations, i t i s d ifficult t o c onceive o f t he mural a s b eing e ither e soteric o r c onfused i n meaning. I ts a rchitectural c ontext, f lanking a s taircase o n t he talud o f a s ubstantial s tructure which f aces o nto t he c entral p lace, i ndicates t hat i t w as a p ublic w ork. I ndeed, t his p ublic n ature may b e t he k ey t o g reater u nderstanding o f t he i ntentions b ehind t he m ural 's e xecuti o n. T he mural d eals w ith t he c onflict o f t wo o pposing g roups, o ne w ith j aguar r egalia a nd o ne w ith b ird h eaddresses. T he j aguar w arriors a re t he o bvious v ictors i n as cene o f c arnage ( figure 3 ). S urprisingly f or a mural i n t he M exican a rea, t here a re n arrative e lements w ithin t he w ork. T he j aguar w arriors ' l eader, i dentified b y t he n ame g lyph Three ( Deer?) A ntler ( figure 14 ) a ppears t wice ; o nce o n e ach s ide o f t he s tairway. I n t he e astern t alud mural, this f igure 's f eet h ave b een t ransformed i nto e agle t alons, a m etamorphosis which c ould i ndicate a s upernatural e lement w ithin t he c onflict a s o pposed t o t he "historical b attle s cene" f avoured b y R obertson ( 1980). A t b oth h is a ppearances t his l eader h as a y ear s i g.) i n h is h eaddress a nd a n o rnate s ymbol o f a c urled l ip a nd f angs ( associated w ith t he A ztec rain g od T laloc) d irectly i n from o f h is o pen mouth ( figure / 4 ). O n t he e astern t alud t his s ymbol i s

a lso a ttached t o h is

b elt.

T he i mage o f t he rain d eity

a lso appears a s a s mall m anikin f igure e merging f rom t he s hield o f o ne o f t he j aguar w arriors ( figure 2 ). The i magery o f t he M ex ican rain g od s eems t o b e d efinitely l inked t o t he v ictors o f t he Cacax tla c onflict, w hich puts t he M ayan e lements w ithin t he mural i n a n i nteresting c ont ext.

6 2

I f o ne l ooks a t t he s tyle o f p resentation o f t he v arious s igns o r g lyphs a t C acaxtla i t b ecomes i mmediately a pparent t hat t heir t reatment v aries o nly s lightly f rom t he m ore r ecognizably p ictorial e lements o f t he mural. F igure 5 s hows t he c ompound " bleeding h eart" s ign which Langley ( 1981:32) i nterprets a s a s ymbol o f h uman s acrifice. T he o ccur r ence o f t his s ymbol a t T eotihuacan ( Mural 1 , r oom 3 , S outh C omplex, Z one 2 ) a nd X ochicalco ( Stela 3 ) makes i t t he most d efinably Mexican o f t he Edificio B s ymbols. D irectly b elow t his i s a n u nusual s ign, p ossibly a f olded m antle a nd a d isembodied h and ( this d evice a lso a ppears i n t he u pper l eft o f f igure 8 ). While hands a ppear f requently i n b oth t he h ieroglyphic a nd p ictographic t raditions, t he C acaxtla h and s eems s trangely u nfamiliar a t f irst a ppraisal. A s imilar u neasy r ecogn ition i s c aused b y e xamples o f t he o ther s ymbols t o b e f ound i n t he m ural ( figure 6 ) a lthough b ones, a s h ands, a re a lso f ound i n b oth t raditions a nd t he h and e merging f rom t he d ecapitated h ead s ymbol a ppears o n p age f our o f C odex C ospi ( 1968). D espite t he f act t hat t hese s igns f loat, p hysically u nattached a nd p roportionally s eparate f rom t he b ackground, t he i nitial i mpulse i s t o t ry t o s ee t hem a s d escriptive e lements o f t he l arger p ictorial n arrative; t hat i s a s d irectly r epres entative o f n atural f orms r ather t han s ymbolically s o. T he d istinct ion b etween t ext a nd i mage t hat w e h ave c ome t o e xpect f rom Maya p ictorial f orms d oes n ot e xist a t C acaxtla, t hough t he m eans o f r epres entation h ave a ll t he s ophistication a nd s imilarity t o European i deas o f i llusion f ormerly s een t o b e t he s ole a ttribute o f M aya r ather t han Mexican a rt. The

m ural

i s

d ominated

b y

a n

i nter-weaving

o f

t extual

a nd

p ic-

t orial e lements t hat i s c haracteristic o f M exican c ulture, f rom T eot ihuacan t hrough t o t he A ztecs. T he r elationship o f t he s igns i n t he C acaxtla murals t o t he k nown M exican c odices i s t oo c omplex t o b e d ealt w ith i n d etail h ere. H owever i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t he s imilarity o f t he t ooth a nd g um e lement o f f igure 5 t o t he " tlan" e lement o f t he p lace s igns o f t he Mendoza Codex ( e.g., p . 1 0) a s i t r aises t he p oss ibility o f b oth a p honetic r eading a nd d irect N ahua c ultural c onnect ions. T he m eans b y which t hese p ictorial a nd t extual e lements a re t ransmitted w ould, p rior t o t he d iscovery o f t he murals o f C acaxtla s o f ar i nto Mexican t erritory, h ave b een a ccepted u nquestionably a s t he s pecific a chievement o f M aya a rt. T he o bviously p ublic n ature o f t he m urals o f Edificio B i ndicate a w ide u nderstanding o f t he c onventions a t p lay i n t he C acaxtla murals a mong i ts c ontemporary a udience. A ll t he a uthors o n Cacaxtla c oncur t hat t he i nhabitants o f t he s ite w ere b asi cally M exican i n o rigin. I f t he p articular a rtists i nvolved w ere i ndeed Maya, a s Robertson ( 1980:23) s uggests, t he n eed f or t he m ural t o b e r eadily c omprehensible t o t he i nhabitants o f C acaxtla a nd t he s urr ounding a rea w ould s till h ave b een a major c onsideration i n t heir c onstruction. Another

i mportant

a spect

o f t his

p roblem o f s tylistic d erivation

i s i ts r elationship t o t he i conography o f t he mura l. T he t wo m ost s trikingly Mayan f igures a re t hose d epicted i n f igures 7 a nd 8 . R obertson d escribes t hese f igures a s " presiding l ike d eities o ver t he

6 3

s trife"

( 1980:6).

B oth, h owever, a re r elated t o i mages o f d efeat.

T hat

o f t he e astern t alud h as a c heek p ierced b y a n a rrow, w hile o n t he w estern t alud t he h ands o f t he f igure a re t ied, r ather t han s imply c rossed o ver. B oth t hese f igures a re d irectly c onnected t o t he t wo a ppearances o f t he j aguar l eader, s eparated f rom h im o nly b y a s ubjugated b ird w arrior o n t he l ower l evel o f t he c omposition. T he s plendour a nd c ompositional p rominence o f t hese f igures i s e xplained b y t heir r ole a s c aptive l eaders ( or l eader a t t wo d ifferent o ccasions) o f t he d efeated b ird w arriors. T he r elative a chievement o f t he v ictors i s e mphasized b y t he i mportance o f t heir c aptives. W ithin t he m ural 's n arrative

t hen,

t hose

f igures

w hich

a re

most

e asily

i dentifiable

a s

M aya i n a ppearance a re t he v anquished a nd t he d ying. This w ould s eem t o i mply t hat t he a doption o f t he s tyle o f w hat Robertson ( 1980:23) d escribes a s " their c ultural b etters" b y t he i nhabitants o f C acaxtla w as i n f act t he r epresentation o f t he " betters" i n a s tyle r ecognizably b elonging t o t he c onquered. This t hrows a d ifferent l ight u pon t he " Maya i nfluences"

o r i ndeed

t he p ossible u se o f Maya c raftsmen a t t he

s ite. T he a ppropriation o f t he c ultural f orms o f ac onquered o r h ostile p eoples i s c ertainly c onceivable. H owever, t here i s l ittle e vidence t hat C acaxtla, t hough f ortified, was a n e xtensive m ilitary p ower. T he m urals c ould p ossibly r epresent a m ythical a nd n ot a p olitical h istory o r e ven a d esired r ather t han a ctual o ccurrence. t he m urals i s n ot o f p rimary i mportance t o t he

T he e xact m eaning o f l arger p roblems t his

a rticle a ttempts t o b roach. H owever, w hat i s o f i nterest i s t he p oss ibility o ffered b y t his i nterpretation o f t he m urals t hat t he Maya s tyle c ould b e a dopted f or s pecific i deological p urposes, a s o pposed t o i ndicating a h igher s tage o f a rtistic d evelopment. A t C acaxtla t here i s a n a cute c onsciousness o f s tyle, a nd i ts e xpert m anipulation m ust h ave b een d ependent u pon a l ong-standing c omprehension o f t he d ifferences b etween t he M aya a nd M exican s ystems. A pparent i n t his h omogenous t reatment o f t extual a nd p ictorial e lements i s a d eliberate r efusal t o a bandon w hat m ust h ave s ity.

i s

b een i mportant

a spects

o f t his

c ultural

d iver-

T he a doption o f t he p ictorial c onventions o f t he Maya a t C acaxtla n o s tranger t han t he a malgamation o f M aya h ieroglyphs a nd M exican

p ictographic f orms i n t he m urals o f Santa R ita i n t he Maya a rea. What b oth t hese s ites i llustrate i s a c onscious m anipulation o f f oreign f orms o f c ommunication f or s pecific p olitical p urposes. A t S anta R ita t he n ature o f t he i nteraction o f t he t wo f orms i s d ifferent f rom t hat a t C acaxtla, b ut n o l ess s ophisticated. T he d estruction o f t he Santa R ita m urals s ubsequent t o t heir d isc overy b y T homas G ann i n 1 896 m akes a ny a nalysis o f t heir e xact c omposit ion s peculative. T he t racings m ade b y G ann a nd p ublished b y t he B ureau o f A merican E thnology ( Gann 1 900) a ppear, h owever, r eliable. W ithin t he m urals c ertain Mexican e lements i ntrude u pon t he b asically Maya n ature o f t he p aintings.

T he s eries o f f igures w hich c overs t he n orth-

e ast a nd n orthwest w alls a re l iterally b ound t ogether b y a s pecifically M aya c alendrical s equence. T he " tun s equence" f irst d escribed b y L ong ( 19 19) i s o f p urely Maya s ignificance a nd i s o f p rimary i mportance

6 1 4

w ithin t he m urals ' i conography ( Baddeley 1 978). What i s f ascinating a bout t he murals, h owever, i s t he p articularly M exican f ormat d isplayed b y t he o verall s tructure, s patial a rrangement, a nd c omposition. T he e arth p anels a nd s ky b ands a re a lmost i dentical t o t hose u sed i n t he V ienna ( 1963) a nd Nuttall ( 1975) c odices a nd t he r egister s pace w hich t hey d efine i s am ore c haracteristically M exican c onvention t han a M aya o ne. T he c onstruction o f t he f igures b y a n a ssemblage o f s eparable p arts i s a lso a r ecognizable u se o f M exican p ictorial c onventions ( Robertson 1 970). A s a t C acaxtla, h owever, t he p ictorial c onventions o f a d ifferent c ultural g rouping a re u sed t o c onvey a n i ndigenous c ont ent. T he " meaning" b ehind t he Santa R ita m urals i s Maya, j ust a s t he e ssential m essage c onveyed b y t he C aclxtla murals i s o ne o f M exican m ilitary s uperiority. A t b oth s ites t here h as b een a t actical a doption o f a nother a rea 's c haracteristic s tyle o f p ictorial e xpression. W hat t he p rocesses a t w ork a t b oth t hese s ites m ake a pparent i s t hat t he p ictographic s ystem o f t he M exicans was n ot a s topping p lace o n t he d evelopmental p ath t owards Maya h ieroglyphic w riting a ny more t han i t w ould n ecessarily h ave d eveloped i nto a n a lphabetic t ext. I t was a c omplex a nd u nique p ictorial l anguage, c apable o f l evels o f m eaning d ifficult t o c omprehend w ithin a European d efinition o f " image." This d efinition, when a pplied t o Mesoamerica, d enies t he c omplexity o f b oth M aya a nd M exican a rt, w hile s imultaneously d istorting o ur u nderstanding o f t he i nter-relationship o f t heir r espective h ieroglyphic a nd p ict ographic s ystems o f c ommunication.

R ESL 1MEN E l a utor d iscute e l t rasfondo h ist6rico q ue c aracteriza e l e studio o ccidental d el a rte p re-colambino y e nfatiza p articularmente n ociones s obre l a d iferenciaci6n e ntre " texto" e " imagen". L a a utora c ontrasta l a a preciaci6n o ccidental d el a rte c entro mejicano y m aya, s ef talando q ue l a m ayoria d e l os e studiosos e nvisionan e l a rte m aya c omo l a c ulminaci6n d e l a c ivilizaci6n p re-colombina. B addeley a tribuye e sto, e n p arte, a l h echo d e q ue l os m aya t uvieron u n c omplejo s istema d e e scritura, u n r asgo q ue l os e uropeos a sociaron c on e l a vance c ultural. Se c omparan l os s istemas m aya y c entro m ejicanos p oniendo e special a tenci6n e n s u c onvergencia e n C acaxtla.

6 5

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O klahoma

a Maya

P hilosophical

Hiero-

S ociety.

P hilidelphia. V ienna C odex 1 963

C odex V ienna Vindobonensis Mexicanus. A delhofer. G raz,

A kademische D rucke - u .

A ustria.

6 9

S ummary b y O . V erlagsanstalt.

F igure

1 . S tela B ,

Q uirigua, G uatemala.

7 0

F igure 2 .

D resden C odex , p age

O .

F igure 3 . C acaxtla ,

7 2

E dificio B .

F igure 4 .

3 ( Deer?)

A ntler, C acaxtla ,

7 3

E dificio B .

F igure 5 .

' Bleeding h eart '

g lyph, C acaxtla,

7 1

E dificio B .

04 .

F igure

6 . C acaxtla g lyphs,

E dificio B .

F igure 7 . D efeated B ird W arrior L eader, C acaxtla , E dificio B .

7 6

F igure 8 . Captive B ird W arrior L eader, C acaxtla,

7 7

E dificio B .

T HE W ARRIOR A ND T HE B UTTERFLY : C ENTRAL M EXICAN I DEOLOGIES O F S ACRED W ARFARE A ND T EOTIHUACAN I CONOGRAPHY

b y J ANET

C ATHERINE B ERLO

I ntroduction T he p ast f ifteen y ears h ave w itnessed a f lowering o f i nterest i n t he s tudy o f T eotihuacan i conography. A lthough s tudents o f T eotihuacan a rt a re r elatively f ew ( compared t o t he n umerous s cholars a t w ork o n p roblems i n M aya a rt a nd i conology, f or e xample), a s teady s tream o f s tudies b y a r elatively s mall g roup o f i ndividuals h as f urthered o ur k nowledge o f t he m eaning o f t he T eotihuacan s ymbolic s ystem. A pproaches t o t he s tudy o f Teotihuacan a rt h ave v aried f rom t he " contextual a pproach" o f K ubler ( 1967) which e schews t he u se o f d ocum ents t emporally u nrelated t o t he a rt o bject, t o t he " synthetic a pproach" o f P asztory ( 1973), C . M illon ( 1973), H eyden ( 1975), a nd V on W inning ( 1977) i n w hich c ontextual s tudy c ombines w ith a n e thnohistoric a nalysis. I n t his e ssay, I s hall d raw u pon t he e thnohistory a nd l iterature o f t he A ztecs a s a m eans o f e lucidating t he m eaning o f o bjects m ade b y t heir Teotihuacan f orbears. I n c onjunction w ith t his a nalogical a pproach, I s hall c onsider t he c ontext a nd c omparative a ssociations o f t he

o bjects

t hemselves.

T hrough

t his

m ulti-faceted

a nalysis,

I w ill

d emonstrate t hat c ertain a spects o f A ztec m ilitarism a nd r eligion m ay h ave o riginated i n t he p olitically-based r eligious i deology f ormulated d uring T eotihuacan 's p eriod o f s outhward i mperial e xpansion i n t he M iddle C lassic p eriod. For n early f orty y ears, Mesoamericanists h ave r ecognized t hat Teot ihuacan maintained a f ar-flung n etwork o f t rade a nd i nfluence i n t he Maya a rea. S ince t he g round-breaking w ork o f K idder, J ennings, a nd Shook a t K aminaljuyu, G uatemala ( 19 ) 46), t here h as b een i ncreasing i nterest i n t he c omplex e conomic, p olitical, a nd i deational t ies f ormed b y T eotihuacanos w ith t heir s outhern n eighbors. S pecific s tudies o f T eotihuacan s ettlement a t K aminaljuyu ( Sanders a nd Michels 1 977), p olitical a nd a rtistic i nfluence a t T ikal ( Coe 1 972, C oggins 1 975, 1 979), a nd p rovincial c raft p roduction i n t he d epartment o f E scuintla

7 9

( Hellmuth

1 975,

1 978;

B erlo

1 980,

a nd

i n p ress)

a s w ell

a s m ore w ide-

r anging t heoretical e fforts ( Parsons 1 969, K . B rown 1 977; P asztory 1 978), h ave a ll a mply d emonstrated t he p ivotal i mportance o f T eotihuac an c ivilization i n t his s outhern a rea d uring t he M iddle C lassic p eriod.

Is hall e xamine j ust o ne a spect o f T eotihuacan p resence a broad:

t he a rtistic m anifestations o f m ilitaristic i deology maintained w ithin T eotihuacano c ommunities i n t he P acific s lopes o f G uatemala. E laborate f igural i ncense b urners a nd m old-impressed c ylindrical t ripod v essels i n Teotihuacan s tyle l ooted f rom s ites i n E scuintla h ave b een a ppearing o n t he i nternational a rt m arket f or m ore t han a d ecade ( figures 1 a nd 4 ). A m ore c omplete u nderstanding o f t he m eaning o f t his a rt i s h ampered b y t he p aucity o f s cientific e xcavation o n t he s outh c oast. A t p resent, w e h ave n o f irm i dea h ow t hese f oreign o bjects f it i nto l ocal h istory, f or t he s equence o f l ocal h istory i s n ot y et c lear. Those s ites t hat h ave b een e xcavated, s uch a s B ilbao a nd E l B aul, f lourished a fter t he T eotihuacano a ppearance o n t he c oast. O nly a f ew o f t he many s ites d otting t he P acific l ittoral t hat h ave b een m apped o r s urveyed h ave Until

b een p ublished

l arge-scale

( Boyd

l ooting

i s

1 981). r eplaced

b y

l arge-scale

s cientific

e xcavation, t here i s m uch t hat w e w ill n ot k now a bout T eotihuacan p rese nce i n s outhern Guatemala. A rt h istorical a nalysis, h owever, c an p rovide m any c lues t o t he n ature o f t he T eotihuacan p resence h ere, b ased o n a n e xamination o f t he v isual s ymbols t hat T eotihuacanos d isplayed i n t his f oreign l and. I ncontrovertible f acts c an n ot b e p rovided b y s uch a n a nalysis, b ut s ome s uggestive h ypotheses c an b e p ut f orth, b a ed o n t he c ombined m ethods o f a rt h istory ( stylistic a nd i conographic a nalys is)

a nd

e thnohistory

( ethnographic

a nalogy).

T hese

h ypotheses,

o f

c ourse, m ay well b e r evised b ased o n m ore e xtensive e mpirical e vidence g ained i n t he f uture f rom i n-depth e xcavation. T he

f igural

i ncense

b urners

a nd

t ripod

v essels

r ecovered

f rom

E scuintla e mphatically d epict a c oncern w ith a r eligious e thos b ased o n m ilitarism. I b elieve t hat t his e thos a rose d uring t he E arly C lassic p eriod w ithin Teotihuacan p rovincial o utposts i n Escuintla. T he m ain i conographic c ategories d isplayed o n t hese o bjects c oncern w arriors a nd a m artial b utterfly d eity ( figures 1 a nd 4 ). I s hall e xamine t his i conographic c onfiguration b oth w ithin t he s pecific c ontext o f T eotih uacano p olitical c oncerns i n s outhern G uatemala, a nd w ithin t he m ore g eneral c ontext o f M esoamerican r eligious b eliefs a bout w arfare a nd t he g ods. A lthough t he A ztec e mpire f lourished m ore t han s even h undred y ears a fter t he d emise o f t he T eotihuacan e mpire, m ost p re-Columbian s cholars a gree t hat t he u se o f A ztec a nalogies i s r elevant i n d iscussion o f e arlier c ultures, f or M esoamerica was a u nified c ulture a rea. N onethel ess, t here h as b een s ome d isagreement a bout t he u se o f e thnohistoric a nalogy i n s tudying c ultures p rior t o t he l ate P ost-Classic p eriod. 1 I w ill n ot r eview t hat d ebate h ere, b ut w ill s ay o nly t hat a t housand-year p eriod o f i deological c ontinuity i n t he p re-Hispanic M exican r eligious

8 0

s ystem s hould n ot

s eem u nlikely i f w e

c onsider

t hat

o ur

o wn r eligions

m aintain a n a stonishing d egree o f c ontinuity i n t heir e ssential c ore f eatures, d espite r adical c hanges i n s ociety. E ven i n o ur o wn v ery m utable w orld, r eligious s ymbols a re t he m ost p ersistent t hrough t ime. Analogical e xplication h as b een u sed b efore, n ot o nly i n T eotihuac an s tudies, w here i t h as b een e mployed s ince Seler 's w ork e arly i n t he c entury ( 1902-23; a lso P asztory 1 973; H eyden 1 975) b ut a lso i n s pecific r eference t o T eotihuacan p resence i n t he s outhern M aya a rea. I n 1 977 W illiam Sanders d iscussed Teotihuacano " mercantile i mperialism" i n t he M aya h ighlands o n t he b asis o f e thnohistoric a nalogy w ith t he l ater A ztec p ochteca, a h igh-status p rofessional m erchant c lass. A lthough A ztec p ochteca w ere p rincipally t raders, S ahagun a lso r elates t hat t hey w ent o n s pying m issions i n f oreign l ands, a nd t hat w hen t hey w ent a broad t o t rade t hey w ere a rmed f or w ar : They b ore t heir s hields, t heir o bsidian-bladed s words, a nd t heir d evices, b ecause t hey p assed t hrough t he e nemy 's l and, where t hey m ight d ie a nd w here t hey t ook c aptives. ( 1950-1969, B ook 9 :17) C alling t rade

t he m otivation f or Teotihuacan c ontact, W illiam S anders

s uggests t hat a s pecialized c lass o f T eotihuacan m erchants m oved e xotic g oods o ver g reat d istances. H e f urther s tates t hat " the s pecific o bject ive o f t he T eotihuacan p ochteca a t K aminaljuyu w as p robably t o s ecure a h old o n t he t rade b etween e nvironmentally d iverse a reas s uch a s t he P acific c oast, F eten l owlands"

P acific p iedmont, ( 1977:408).

While n o e mpirical

t he

e vidence h as

G uatemalan

y et

h ighlands,

a nd

t he

b een u ncovered t o p rove t hat

T eotihuacan h ad a s e laborate a m ercantile o rganization a s t he A ztec, t he w idespread m ovement o f Teotihuacan o bjects a s w ell a s t he m ilitar istic i conography a ssociated w ith T eotihuacanos i n E scuintla, K aminaljuyu, a nd t he F eten s uggests t hat s ome s ort o f o rganized g roup o f a rmed t raders e xercised e conomic v ery l east, a p ersuasive o ne.

c ontrol.

T he A ztec m odel

i s,

a t t he

From my o wn r esearch o n Teotihuacan c eramics i n Escuintla, I h yp othesize t hat t he P acific s lopes s erved a s t he s taging a rea f rom which T eotihuacano m ilitia o r p ochteca m ade t heir i ncursions n orthward i nto t he h ighlands a nd F eten. In E scuintla, T eotihuacan a rt c onformed m ore r igidly t o s tylistic c ategories e stablished a t t he m other c ity ; w ith f ew e xceptions, l ess d iluted s tyle a rt f ound a t K aminaljuyu

b y M aya i nfluence t han T eotihuacan( Kidder, e t a l. 1 946), A matitlan

( Borhegyi 1 959) o r T ikal ( Coggins 1 975); a nd was t hus, e arly manifestation o f Teotihuacan p resence a broad. B ecause E scuintla

a rt

b oth

s tylistically

m aintains

c loser

i t w as,

a nd

t ies

i conographically,

w ith Teotihuacan

T eotihuacan-derived i mages w e s ee a t K aminaljuyu,

8 1

p resumably,

a n

T eotihuacan-

i tself

A matitlan,

t han

t he

o r T ikal,

w e c an e xpect i t t o a rticulate m ore c learly t he a ims a nd i deologies o f i ts m akers a nd u sers t han d o t he h ybrid T eotihuacan/Maya i mages f ound e lsewhere. Y et, a s I w ill d emonstrate, i t a lso b rings t o t he f orefront c ertain t hemes t hat,

a lthough n ot d ominant a t T eotihuacan i tself, w ere

c learly p art o f t he C entral M exican b elief s ystem i n t he C lassic p eriod. Later, w hen t he M exica b uilt t heir c ivilization u pon t he c ultures t hat h ad p receded t hem i n t he Valley o f M exico, t hey e laborated t hese b eliefs a bout s acred w arfare a nd a b utterfly g oddess i n o rder t o f ormulate a s tate a nd a w orld v iew t hat r evolved a round s acred b loodshed a nd m ilitary m ight.

Forms And S ymbols In Escuintla Art E lsewhere I h ave d iscussed i n d etail t he s tylistic a nd i conog raphic f eatures o f t he T eotihuacan-style i ncense b urners a nd c ylindric al t ripod v essels f ound i n E scuintla, a s w ell a s t heir r elationship t o t he i ndigenous c ulture o f t he P acific s lopes o f G uatemala ( Berlo 1 980, 1 983, a nd i n p ress). I s hall n ot r epeat t hat d iscussion h ere. B y s tylistic a nalysis I h ave d etermined t hat T eotihuacan-style c ensers a s w ell a s a t l east s ome o f t he c ylindrical t ripod v essels w ere m ade b y w orkshops o f T eotihuacan a rtists w ho t raveled s outh w ith t he w arriors a nd t raders w ho e stablished c ommunities i n s outhern G uatemala. 2 T he c ensers a re m ade o f l ocal c lays, t hough s ome o f t he molds u sed i n t heir m anufacture may h ave b een i mported f rom t he Valley o f Mexico. A t T eotihuacan, c ensers h ave b een d iscovered b roken o r d isassemb led i n b urials, c aches, a nd o fferings. T hey s eem t o h ave h ad p articul ar i mportance i n h ousehold a nd a partment-compound r itual, w here t hey p robably f unctioned a s i cons f or r eligious p ractices i nvolving m embers o f a c ommon l ineage, c lan, o r c ult g roup ( Berlo 1 982:91). A g reat d eal more e xcavation i s n eeded i n Escuintla b efore w e c an a ssess t he c ontext a nd e xact m eaning o f t he c enser c ult i n t his a rea. T he e mblems a nd i mages o n e xtant c ensers, h owever, p ertain q uite c losely t o Teotihuacan c ategories ( unlike t he a ssociated c ylindrical t ripod v essels w hich s eem m ore e clectic i n t heir i ntermixture o f Teotihuacan, Maya, a nd G ulf C oast i magery. S ee Hellmuth 1 978, a nd B erlo 1 980:Chapter 3 ). F rom t his w e m ight c onclude t hat f or Teotihuacanos i n E scuintla, l acking t he g rand p ublic a renas f or r itual t hat l ined t he S treet o f t he D ead i n t heir n ative m etropolis, t he c enser c ult w as t he f ocus f or g roup r itual a nd w as i nstrumental i n e mphasizing t he i deological c oncerns o f w arrior/trader c ommunity. J udging f rom t he r elative s tylistic

t he a nd

i conographic " purity" maintained i n t heir r itual a rts, t he T eotihuacan i mmigrants r emained a c losely-knit g roup d uring t he f irst d ecades o f i ngression i n t his a rea o f G uatemala. T heir t raditional c enser c ult m ay h ave b een a m echanism f or m aintaining e thnicity i n a n a lien e nvironm ent. ( One i s r eminded h ere o f r esident Z apotecs a t T eotihuacan p res erving t heir e thnic i dentity b y b uilding O axacan-style t ombs a nd u sing b oth i mported a nd l ocally-made f unerary u rns i n Z apotec s tyle. M illon

1 981:241.)

8 2

S ee R .

J udging b y t heir m aterial r emains, T eotihuacan w arrior/traders i n E scuintla f ocused mainly o n o ne c ult, r ather t han t he p anoply o f c ults a ctive

a t

t heir m other

c ity.

T hat

c ult s eems

t o h ave b een d evoted t o

d eified w arriors a nd w arrior d eities a s d emonstrated b y t he s everely r estricted s ymbolic r epertory i n u se o n t hese p rovincial c ensers: t he s ymbols r efer a lmost e xclusively t o m otifs o f w arfare a nd a m artial b utterfly w hose a ttributes w ill b e d iscussed b elow. T his s tands i n c ontrast t o c ensers a t T eotihuacan i tself, w here c ensers d isplay w ider anging c oncerns, a nd m ay i n s ome c ases h ave b een " custom-made" f or a p articular r itual o ccasion

( Berlo

1 982).

L ike t heir c ounterparts a t Teotihuacan, E scuintla a rtists m ade c ensers w ith a n a nthropomorphic f ace a s t he c entral c ompositicnal f ocus ( figures 1 a nd ) 4 ). 3 T he c lay s tructure w as b uilt a rchitectonically a round t he f ace, w ith a c himney e xtending u p t he b ack o f t he o bject. A ttached t o t he c enser, b adge-like e mblems c alled a dornos e xpress g lyphic s ymbols d erived f rom T eotihuacan 's s tandard v isual v ocabulary s uch a s s hields, s pears, r eptile-eye g lyphs, f eathered c ircles, a nd t ri-mountain s igns. E xplicit m artial i conography, f eaturing s hields, s pears, s crapers, a nd g lyphic s igns a ssociated w ith Teotihuacan w arf are, o ccurs o n m ore t han h alf o f s ome f orty c ensers f rom E scuintla t hat I h ave s tudied ( Berlo 1 980:152-158). N early t wo-thirds o f t hese w arrior f igures w ear b utterfly i nsignia i n t heir h eadgear. F rom t his w e may c onclude t hat b utterfly i conography i s o f p ivotal s ignificance t o o ur u nderstanding o f t hese i mages. A c enser f rom t he c ollection o f t he B russels Museum i s i llustrated a s a r epresentative e xample o f w arrior c ensers f rom E scuintla ( figure 1 ). Many more s uch o bjects a re i llustrated b y Hellmuth ( 1975) a nd B erlo ( 1980). I n t his c eramic a ssemblage, a h uman f igure w ears a c haracteri stic Teotihuacan-style a bstract b utterfly n oseplaque a nd l arge r ound e arplugs. I n b oth h ands t he f igure h olds f eathered r ondels s urmounted b y a c luster o f t hree o bjects w ith t asselled e nds. C omparison w ith m ilitaristic f igures i n T eotihuacan mural p ainting a nd p ottery, a s w ell a s w ith o ther Escuintla c ensers, s uggests t hat t his e mblem i s m eant t o r epresent a c luster o f t hree s pears o f w hich o nly t he d ecorated a nd t asselled e nds a re v isible. T he c enser l id i n f igure 1 i s t opheavy w ith a n e laborate h eaddress which s urmounts t he h uman f ace. I n t he h eaddress, f eathered r ondels, m ore s pear-end b adges, a nd c lay r eplicas o f f ringed a nd f eathered f laps s urround a c entral b utterfly i mage. T he d iagnostic p roboscis c urls f orward, a nd t he t asseled a ntennae e xtend f rom t he p roboscis o ver e ach o f t he i nsect e yes. O n s ome c ensers, a l arge f anged m outh c ompletes t he i mage

( figure 4 ). These

s ame

f eatures

a re

d iagnostic

o f

s ome

b utterfly i magery a t

T eotihuacan i tself. F or e xample, o n t he v essel wall o f a mold-impressed c ylindrical t ripod i llustrated i n f igure 2 , w e s ee a f rontal b utterfly w ith f anged m outh, a nd

a s ideways

f eathered e yes,

c urling

p aired t assels s erving a s a ntennae,

p roboscis

8 3

( rendered

more

a ccurately

i n

t he

E scuintla

t hree-dimensional

o bjects a s

f orward c urling).

W ings

c om-

p lete t he b utterfly i mage. B ecause t his i magery i s m anifest i n m etrop olitan Teotihuacan a rt, w e c an a ssume t hat c entral M exico w as t he s ource o f t his i magery, T eotihuacan a rt a broad.

d espite

t he f act t hat

i t o ccurs m ore

o ften i n

O ne o f t he b asic a nd m ost c ommonly k nown f eatures o f M esoamerican r itual d ress i s t he p redilection f or d isplaying n ame, r ank, o r o ther i dentifying i nsignia i n h eadgear , i t o ccurs i n A ztec m anuscripts, i n Z apotec u rns, a nd i n M aya h istorical s telae, t o c ite j ust a f ew i nstances.

T he

r epeated

u se

o f

a s tandard

b utterfly i nsignia i n t he

h eaddresses o f n umerous c ensers s uggests t hat a p articular c lass o f m ilitary f igures, r ather t han i ndividual h istorical w arriors, i s b eing n amed h ere. A c omparison o f t he Escuintla b utterfly-warrior w ith s ymbols u sed a t T eotihuacan i tself r eveals t hat, i n a ddition t o m ilitaristic a ssocia tions, b utterflies p lay a r ole i n a n umber o f i conographic t hemes t here, a nd t heir e xact m eaning i s n ot c lear. B utterflies a re a mong t he most c ommon e mblems o n i ncense b urners m ade a nd u sed a t Teotihuacan ( Berlo 1 982:figure 1 0). T hey a re f ound i n c onjunction w ith a w ide r ange o f o ther e mblems b oth o n c ensers a nd c ylindrical t ripod v essels. K ubler h as f ound t hat a t T eotihuacan t he b utterfly i s c onjoined m ost o ften w ith r eptile-eye g lyphs, f lowers, mountains, a nd Tlaloc h eads. I ts p osit ioning o n i ncense b urners " . . .s uggests t hat t his c luster r elates t o f uneral r ites a nd t hat t he b utterfly m ay b e a n i mage f or t he s oul" ( 1967:9). B utterflies a re a lso l inked t o l iquid o f a n u nspecified s ort i n a n umber o f p rofile r epresentations ( Franco 1 961 : Lamina V ). B utterfly-warrior i magery was o nly o ne c omponent o f b utterfly s ymbolism a t Teotihuacan i tself, a nd o nly o ne s mall p art o f a c omplex a nd n ot w ell-understood p antheon. S tucco-painted c ylindrical t ripod v essels a t Dumbarton Oaks ( Kubler 1 967:13) a nd a t t he D iego R ivera Museum i n M exico C ity ( figure 3 ) d epict p rofile w arriors w ith t he b utterfly h eadgear i nsignia c haracteristic o f t he r epresentations t hat w e h ave b een c onsidering i n E scuintla. T he w arrior w ears e arplugs a nd b utterfly n oseplaque. I n h is h eaddress, w e s ee t he b utterfly 's f orward-curling p roboscis a nd f eathered e ye. T he i nsect 's w ings e xtend o ut t o e ither s ide o f al arge f eathered s hield. T his i con, n ot a m ajor t heme a t T eotihuacan i tself, b ecame p reeminent i n t he p rovincial a rt o f Escuintla, r eflecting t he i mmediate c oncerns o f a n e lite w arrior t rader c ommunity. B ecause t he m eaning o f Teotihuacan s ymbols i s e mbedded i n c ont extual a ssociations t hat a re n ot a lways c lear, a nd b ecause w e h ave n o c oeval t exts t o i lluminate t hese s ymbols, w e m ust t urn t o l ater C entral M exican b elief s ystems, e arlier

e mblems.

A n

w here

c lues c an

e xamination

b e f ound t o h elp d ecode t hese

o f A ztec

h elps c larify t heir m eaning.

8 4

b eliefs

a bout

b utterflies

To

t he

A ztec,

t he

b utterfly,

o r

p apalotl,

h ad

s everal

m eanings.

F oremost a mong t hese w as t he i dea o f t he b utterfly a s t he t ransformed s oul o f a d ead p erson. S ahagun r elates t hat d ead w arriors r eturn t o e arth t ransformed i nto b utterfies a nd b irds t hat s ip n ectar f rom f lowers: And w hen f our y ears h ad g one b y, t hen t hey w ere c hanged i nto b irds o f p recious f eather--humming b irds, f lower b irds, y ellow b irds b lackened a bout t he e yes ; c halky b utterflies, f eatherd own b utterflies, l arge v an -colored b utterf lies, w hich s ucked h oney f rom t he f lowers t here w here t hey d welt. A nd h ere u pon e arth t hey c ame t o s uck h oney f rom a ll ( 1950-1969, B ook 3 :47-48)

t he

v aried

f lowers.

A ztec l yric p oetry e xpands t his i mage. A n umber o f p oems d escribe b utterflies s ucking n ectar f rom f lowers which a re l ikened t o h uman h earts: Y a v iene, y a v iene l a m ariposa : v iene v olando, v iene a briendo s us a las : s obre f lores v ive: a nda c hupando m iel. i Que s e d eleite : y a s u c oraz6n s e a bre : e s u na f lor! ( Leander 1 972:93) T hus t he M exica p oet h as d rawn a l ink b etween t he b utterfly n ourished b y f lower n ectar a nd t he w arrior w ho s heds h uman b lood. T he A ztec p ictograph f or t he s oul o f a d ead w arrior i ncludes a s tylized b utterfly i mage r esembling t he n oseplaque d epicted i n f igure 1 ( see T ozzer 1 957:figure 5 24). Seler r ecounts t hat t he c entral e ffigy i n t he A ztec Xocotl u etzi f east ( feast o f t he a dult d ead) w as a d ough i dol i n t he f orm o f a m ummy b undle w ith b utterfly m arkings : t he p ainting a nd a dornment o f t his i dol w ere white, a nd i ts s pecial m arks a re t wo o r t hree n otched p lates m ade o f w hite o r s hining metal a nd f astened t o a h andle. T hey a re i mitations o f a b utterfly f igure o r a re i ntended t o r epres ent t he a ppurtenances o f a b utterfly, a nd w ere s tuck i n t he h air o r t he h eadband o f t he i dol. This i dol i s t he s pirit

t he o f

g od o f t he w arrior 's d eath o r t he d ead w arrior. ( Seler

1 904:1039) S cholars h ave g enerally a ssumed t hat t he A ztec l inkage o f b utterf ly a nd w arrior was a l egacy f rom t he Toltecs. T he uniform f or a Toltec w arrior, a s d epicted b oth i n m onumental s culpture a nd i n m ural p ainting, i ncluded a p ectoral p laque i n s tylized b utterfly s hape ( Nicholson

1 971b: figures

2)4 a nd

3 1; V illagra C aleti

8 5

1 971:figure

2 7).

T he

e vidence

f rom

Teotihuacan

a nd

E scuintla

s uggests

t hat

i t

i s

a ctually a n e ven e arlier l egacy f rom t he C lassic p eriod Valley o f M exico c ivilization p receding t he Toltec. B y A ztec t imes, b utterfly e mblems a nd d evices c omprised o nly o ne s mall p art o f t he m any s pecialized t ypes o f i nsignia f or A ztec w arriors. Both C odex Mendoza a nd C odex Matritense i llustrate a v ariety o f b utterf ly i nsignia ( Ross 1 978:42 , 4 4, S ullivan 1 972:figures 2 , 1 3, 1 7 , 4 ) 4, a nd 5 1). I n C odex Matritense, o ne o f t he e mblems a ppropriate f or a c aptain i s d escribed a s a n o bsidian b utterfly ( Sullivan 1 972:figure 5 1). T he A ztecs a lso d epicted f lames i n t he s hape o f b utterflies. T he l inkage o f b utterfly w ith f ire a nd w ith d eath r evolves a round t he i dea o f m etamorphosis: l iving w arriors t ransmute i nto b utterflies a fter d eath. In E scuintla a rt, w arriors w ith b utterfly i nsignia o ccur m ost o ften o n i ncense b urners, a lthough t hey o ccasionally a re f ound o n c ylindrical t ripod v essels a s w ell ( Hellmuth 1 975:plate 7 ). T he f lames o f a n i ncensario r itual t ransmute c opal i nto t he s weet s moke t hat r ises t o t he g ods. As I h ave p ointed o ut e lsewhere, t he t hree-step l ife c ycle o f t he b utterfly makes i t al ogical c hoice f or a t ransformational s ymbol ( 1982:99). E arlier e vidence f or t he l ink b etween b utterflies a nd t he s ouls o f t he d ead c an b e f ound i n t he T lalocan m ural a t t he T epantitla r esidence c omplex a t Teotihuacan, where l arge b utterflies w ith r inged e yes c avort w ith h umans a nd o ther i nsects ( Pasztory 1 973:figure 4 ), As P asztory n otes i n r eference t o t he b irds a nd b utterflies i n t he T lalocan m ural, i n

m any M esoamerican

c ultures,

d ead

s ouls

a re

b elieved t o j oin t he r anks o f b eneficent s maller s pirits t hat a ccompany t he major d eities, a s t he r ain a nd f ertility g ods, a nd t o t heir d escendants o n e arth. ( 1972:159)

s uch h elp

T zotzil Maya a t Z inacantan t oday s till r etain t he c oncept o f t he " transf ormed b utterfly," i nvisible, ( Blaffer

a nd

i s

s mayol,

t hat

b elieved

t o

f lies a nd s ings

o nly a t

n ight, m ay

b e

o f

a ncestor

a m essenger

t he

b e

g ods

1 972:82).

T he s ixteenth-century B ishop L anda o f Y ucatan w rote t hat t ravelers a nd m erchants c arried i ncense a nd i ncense b urners o n t heir j ourneys s o t hat a t n ight, n o m atter w here t hey w ere, t hey c ould b urn i ncense t o t he g ods, p raying f or a s afe r eturn h ome f rom t heir t ravels ( Tozzer 1 941:107). T he e xistence o f s cores o f Teotihuacan-style i ncense b urners i n E scuintla, G uatemala s uggests t hat T eotihuacano m erchants, t ravelers, a nd w arriors a pparently h eld t o s imilar c ustoms m ore t han o ne t housand y ears e arlier. A lthough a f ew o f t hese o bjects m ay h ave b een c arried b y t heir u sers, a s Landa d escribed, i t i s m ore l ikely t hat c ensers o f T eotihuacan s tyle w ere m ade i n s itu i n E scuintla.

T hey a re

l arge o bjects, f ragile i n t heir c on s truction, a nd b ulky t o c arry. N o c hemical a nalysis o f t heir p astes h as y et b een d one, b ut i t i s l ikely

8 6

t hat

t hey a re m ade o f

t he

l ocal

c lays

o f

t he E scuintla r egion.

S tyl-

i stic a nalysis r eveals t hem t o b e e xtremely c lose t o T eotihuacan t ype i n t he t elling d etails o f p roportion, f ormat, i conography, a nd s tylistic c onventions. F or t his r eason, I b elieve t hat T eotihuacan c eramic s pecialists w ere r esponsible f or t heir m anufacture o n t he P acific p iedmont o f G uatemala. E scuintla c ensers w ith w arrior i magery m ay h ave b een u sed i n r ites p ropitiating t hose w arrior s pirits w ho h ad p assed o n t o t heir h eavenly r ewards.

P erhaps t hey w ere s een a s i ntermediaries o r

t utelary s pirits w ho w ould g uide l iving w arriors a nd t raders t o s uccess a nd s afety i n t heir e ndeavors. A nother

g roup

o f E scuintla

c ensers

r epresents

n ot

j ust w arriors

a dorned w ith b utterfly i nsignia, b ut a nthropomorphic b utterflies t hems elves ( figure ) 4 ). More t han t wenty-five p ercent o f t he c ensers k nown t o m e f rom E scuintla f it t his c ategory, i n w hich a b utterfly w ith c entral h uman f ace i s f ormed o n t he c onical l id o f t he c enser. F ringed b utterfly e yes, t asselled a ntennae, p roboscis, a nd i n s ome c ases a l arge f anged mouth s till o ccur i n t he h eadgear, a s o n t he w arrior c enser i n f igure 1 ; h ere, t hey a re i n f act g iven a n e ven m ore p rominent p osit ion. I n t he c lass o f o bjects r epresented b y t he c enser i n f igure 4 , h owever, l arge b utterfly w ings a re a ttached t o t he l id b eneath t he f ace, g iving t he i mpression t hat t he f igure w ears a b utterfly c ape o r q uechquemitl ( Central M exican-style woman 's b louse). I n c ontrast t o t hese c ensers, t he b ody d ress o f t he f igure i s n ever s hown i n t he g roup o f w arrior c ensers r epresented b y t he o bject i n f igure 1 . T he h ead e merges f rom t he r ecessed a rea o f t he c enser, a nd t he h ands h old i dentif ying i mplements, b ut t he b ody i s n ot i ndicated. T he c areful d elineat ion o f b utterfly w ings o n t he u pper t orso o f t he s econd g roup o f c eramic o bjects s uggests t hat t hese w ings a re a n i mportant c lue t o t he i dentity a nd t he s ex o f t he b eing. T his

b utterfly

i n

f emale

d ress

a ppears

a lso

i n

t he

G uatemalan

h ighlands, j ust n orth o f t he d epartment o f E scuintla. I n B urial I I o f Mound B e xcavated b y K idder, J ennings, a nd Shook a t K aminaljuyu, a s tucco-painted c ylindrical t ripod v essel d epicts a s tanding f rontal f igure w earing t he b utterfly h eaddress a nd n oseplaque s pread

b utterfly

w ings

w ith

p endant

s pear-end

( figure 5 ).

t assels

s erve

a s

O uth er

q uechquemitl. S he w ears a l ong s kirt a nd h as l ong h air. O n t he l id o f t he v essel, T eotihuacan t rapeze-and-ray g lyphs a lternate w ith f lowers. What r elationship d oes t his b utterfly g oddess h ave w ith t he c oncerns o f T eotihuacanos i n E scuintla a nd K aminaljuyu? I b elieve t hat a n e xcursus i nto A ztec r eligious b elief p rovides t he a nswer.

B utterflies, G oddesses,

a nd W arriors :

An A ztec M odel

Among t he A ztec, t he p rimary w ar d eity w as Huitzilopochtli, whose t emp le, a long w ith T laloc 's, was t he f ocal p oint o f r itual a t T enochtitlan. However, a s B etty A nn B rown h as s hown ( 1981), m any A ztec g ods a nd g oddesses w ere d epicted i n aw arrior-like m anner i n A ztec a rt a nd c ult.

8 7

B rown a sserts t hat t he o verwhelmingly m ilitaristic s ymbolism i n p ublic c eremonialism was a m eans o f b uttressing p olitical a ims o f t he M exica s tate.

t he

b loodthirsty

v alues

a nd

I t b ecomes s ignificant f or t his s tudy, h owever, t o r ealize t hat A ztec g oddesses, i n p articular, a re r epeatedly a nd c onsistently l inked t o w ar, n ot o nly i n p ublic c eremony , b ut i n m yth a nd l iterature. I n A ztec s ong a nd p oetry, o ne f inds m any r eferences t o g oddesses a nd w arf are. S ometimes t he p urpose o f t his l inkage w as t o r ecall s pecific e vents i n A ztec m ilitary h istory, a s B rown h as p ersuasively a rgued f or t he a llusions t o t he C olhuacan w ar t hat a re m anifest i n t he O chpaniztli c eremony h onoring t he g oddess T oci ( in p ress); t his l inkage o f g oddesses a nd m ilitarism

h owever , I s uggest t hat a lso r eflects a ncient

r eligious t raditions i n t he Valley o f M exico. I n t his p art o f m y e ssay, I s hall e xamine t hese l inked t hemes i n A ztec a rt a nd r eligion i n o rder t o p rovide i nsight i nto t he m eaning o f s imilar i mages i n T eotihuacanE scuintla a rt,

t hus

c ano w arriors,

t raders,

e lucidating t he i deological a nd

c oncerns

o f T eotihua-

e missaries f ar f rom t heir h omelands.

T he m ost w ar-like o f t he g oddesses, a nd t he o ne w hose c ult r elated m ost c losely t o t he m ilitary o rigins a nd d evelopment o f t he A ztec e mpire, w as C ihuacoatl ( see K lein 1 979:1). S everal s tanzas o f a n A ztec h ymn t o t his g oddess s uggest h er m artial m ight : T he e agle w oman, t he w arrior w oman, t he f emale w arrior, s he i s p ainted w ith t he b lood o f t he s erpent a nd e agle f eathers f orm h er c rown. T he t all c yprus t ree ( the d efense, t ion) o f

t he

C olhuacan.

c ountry

o f

t he

t he

C halmeca,

p rotecs he

. .

The Maguey s pine, r ests i n m y h and

t he m aguey s pine

o n t he f ield o f t he g od. O n t he r attling s taff s he s upports h erself. T he r attle s taff i s h er s upport. Our m other, t he f emale w arrior O ur m other, t he f emale w arrior t he d eer o f C olhuacan w ears e agle f eathers. The d ay h as d awned, t he m orning, t he c ommand f or w ar h as g one o ut, c aptives w ill b e d ragged a long t he g round! T he w hole l and w ill b e d estroyed. T he d eer o f C olhuacan w ears e agle f eathers.

I g ive y ou e agle f eathers. Eagle f eathers a re y our a dornment,

8 8

o f

H e w ho f ights v aliantly i n w ar i s a dorned w ith e agle f eathers. ( author 's t ranslation, f rom A sturias

1 960:37-8)

I n t his h ymn, c ontinued r eferences t o t he t horny maguey s pine a ffirm t he A ztec a dmiration f or a m ilitary d eath a s t he u ltimate i n a uto-sacrif ice: o ne m ight r itually p rick o ne 's e xtremities w ith a m aguey s pine t o o ffer s mall a mounts o f b lood t o t he h ungry d eities, b ut d eath o n t he b attlefield i s t he u ltimate i n b lood s acrifice. T he g lory o f n oble d eath i n w arfare i s a r ecurrent t heme i n A ztec p oetry. T he n ame C ihuacoatl w as a lso a pplied t o t he m an w ho w as s econd i n c ommand i n t he A ztec n ation, a s w ell a s t o w ar c hiefs i n t he a rmy. S ahagun 's i nformants c alled t he g oddess C ihuacoatl a n " omen o f w ar" ( 1950-1969 , B ook I :11). C ihuacoatl i s a lso k nown b y t he n ame Q uilaztli. S he i s a ddressed a s s uch i n o ther h ymns ( Brinton 1 890:64). K lein p oints o ut t hat C ihuacoatl/Quilaztli was t he a ncient o f t he c ities s outh o f Tenochtitlan :

p atron d eity

o f

s everal

T he M exica t ook h er c ult f rom C olhuacan, a c ity o f p ivotal i mportance t o t he Mexica r uling c lass b ecause o f i ts a lleged r esidue o f Toltec n obili ty , t he a ntiquity o f Toltec h abitation o f t he r egion

g ave

Mexica

t he

C olhua

n ewcomers

l acking.

f elt

a l egitimacy t hey

t hat

t hemselves

t he w ere

( 1979:3)

T hus w e h ave r eason t o b elieve t hat a w arrior a vatar o f t he e arth g oddess h as a r elatively a ncient h istory i n t he Valley o f M exico. This l ends s trength t o m y a rgument t hat A ztec b eliefs a bout m ilitary d eities m ay,

i n f act, T he

h ave t heir b asis i n C lassic p eriod T eotihuacan c ulture.

A ztec

g oddess

X ochiquetzal,

p acific p atron o f f ertility, f lowers, i s a lso c losely a ssociated w ith w ar.

n ormally

c haracterized

a s

a

t errestrial w ater, a nd w eaving, H er f all f estival " Farewell t o

F lowers" c ommemorates t he d ying o f f lowers a t t he e nd o f t he g rowing s eason. I t i s n oteworthy t hat i n t his f estival o f t he d eath o f f lowers, X ochiquetzal i s l inked w ith t he b irth o f a w arrior. D uran w rote t hat t he p riestesses a ssociated w ith t he H uitzilopochtli t emple ( to w hich t he X ochiquetzal s hrine was a n a djunct) s et a l ump o f d ough a t t he s ummit o f t he t emple. A fter m idnight t he d ough w as e xamined f or t he i mprint o f a b aby 's f oot, which w ould i ndicate t he a rrival a nd b irth o f t he w arrior Y aotzin ( Duran 1 971:241). X ochiquetzal i s f urther l inked t o w arfare b y h er a ssociation x ochitl, i n h er n ame. I n A ztec

l iterary m etaphor,

w ith

f lowers,

a nd

t he

t erm

f lower,

f lowers a re c losely a llied w ith w ar :

T here i s a c lamor o f b ells, t he d ust r ises a s i f i t w ere s moke. T he G iver o f L ife i s g ratified.

8 9

S hield f lowers o pen t heir t he g lory s preads,

b lossoms,

i t b ecomes l inked t o e arth. D eath i s h ere a mong t he f lowers i n t he m idst o f t he C lose t o t he w ar,

p lain !

w hen t he w ar b egins, i n t he m idst o f t he p lain, t he d ust r ises a s i f i t w ere s moke, e ntangled a nd t wisted r ound w ith f lowery s trands o f d eath. O h C hichimec p rinces! D o n ot f ear, m y h eart ! I n t he m idst o f t he p lain m y h eart c raves d eath b y t he o bsidian e dge. O nly t his m y h eart c raves : d eath i n w ar.

( Leon-Portilla

1 969:87-8)

I n a n e ven m ore f lamboyant p oem e ntitled C anto E xhortatorio P ara Los Q ue No Q uieren I r a La G uerra, t he f lorid l anguage m atches t he f lowery i magery : Los d ivinos j ardines d e l a a urora f lorecen. Tin6 s u r ostro e n l a g uerra a guel q ue e stä c erca y j unto. G ratisimos a l a lma, i rradian c uajados d e r ocio. V ed : e n n ada l os e stiman, s olo f lorecen e n v ano : 1 0h a migos, q ue n inguno d e v osotros l os a mbicione ! S6lo e n v ano v ivirän l os f lores,

e n l os j ardines

d e r ojas n utridoras d e f lores ! Las q ue e mbriagan d e v ida l as a lmas a llä s blo e xisten y a bren s us c orolas e n l as b oscocas m ontanas, e n l os e scabrosos, e n m edio d e

l a

l lanura

d onde

s e

l ugares

b rinda

e n

l a

g uerra e l d ivino l icor d el c ombate, a lli d onde s e m atizan l as d ivinas ä guilas, a llä d onde r ugen d e r abia l os t igres ; d onde l lueven l as v ariadas p iedras p reciosas d e l os j oyeles, d onde o ndulan l os r icos c olgajos d e p lumas f inas ;

9 0

a llä ,

d onde s e r esquebrajaron e h icieron a f ticos

l os p rincipes. ( Asturias T his

p oem m ixes

t he

1 960:135-6) i magery o f f lowers a nd p recious

s tones:

t he

y oung w arriors a re l ikened t o p recious, f ragrant f lowers t hat b loom i n t he g arden o f w ar , i n al ater v erse t hey a re c ompared t o p recious j ewels t hat a re b roken i nto s mall b its a nd g round i nto s hards o n t he b attlef ield. I n o ne myth, X ochiquetzal w as t he f irst m ortal t o d ie i n w ar.

I n

a nother v ersion, s he i s r eplaced b y t he o bsidian b utterfly, I tzpapalotl, who s lays f our h undred Mimixcoa. O ne s urvivor r evives t he o ther 3 99 w ho k ill a nd c remate I tzpapalotl w ho t hen, i nstead X ochiquetzal, b ecomes t he f irst t o d ie i n w ar ( Nicholson 1 971a :402).

o f I n

e ither c ase, i t i s s ignificant f or o ur p urposes t hat t he p rimordial s oldier i s f emale. O bsidian B utterfly, a s k nown f rom t he Anales d e C uauhtitlan, was a C hichimec g oddess. H er e xploits t here i nvolve t ransformation f rom d eer t o w oman t o o bsidian k nife i n a n e pic c ycle c oncerned w ith h unting a nd w arfare ( Anales d e C uauhtit ]an 1 945, H eyden 1 974). T he A ztecs, h owever, i n t heir u sual s ynthesizing f ashion, c onf lated I tzpapalotl w ith X ochiquetzal i n m any i nstances b esides t he myth c ited a bove. T he c onfounding o f t he t wo m ay b e a ccounted f or i n p art b ecause o f t heir c ommon b utterfly n ature. X ochiquetzal w ears b utterfly a dornments b oth i n h er c ostume a nd a s an oseplaque. e ven

O ccasionally s he i s

d epicted a s a n a nthropomorphic b utterfly ( Franco 1 961:plate I tzpapalotl i s ah uman b utterfly, g littering b rightly w ith t he

s harp p oints

o f o bsidian b lades o n h er w ings

B rundage

p oints

Telleriano R emensis X ochiquetzal's d ouble,

o ut

t hat

i n

b oth

I I, O bsidian a ssociated w ith

( figure

C odex

6 ).

V aticanus

B utterfly t he b roken

i s t ree

a nd

C odex

d epicted a s o f Tamoanchan

( 1979:173). S heet 1 5 o f t he T onalamatl A ubin a lso p airs I tzpapalotl w ith T amoanchan ( Seler 1 901:105), a s d oes a n A ztec p raise p oem : T he white f lower h as b loomed. She, o ur m other, who i s p ainted w ith t he t high s kin o f t he g oddess o n h er f ace S he c ame f rom T amoanchan. O h, s he h as b ecome t he g od o n t he m elon c actus, o ur m other, I tzpapalotl. ( author 's t ranslation, G aribay

c haracterizes

I tzpapalotl

a s

f rom Seler " la

d iosa

1 904:994-95) m adre

e n

s u

a specto

n octurno. Mariposa n egra c omo l a o bsidiana d ice e ste n ombre. E s u na f orma d e C ihuacoatl, p ero e n s u a specto tf trico" ( 1968:18). L ike C ihuacoatl, I tzpapalotl i s c losely i dentified w ith w arriors i n A ztec p raise p oetry :

9 1

W here a re y ou g oing? W here a re y ou g oing? T o w ar, t o t he d ivine w ater. T hat i s w here o ur m other, O bsidian B utterfly, s tains m en w ith c olor. ( author 's t ranslation f rom G aribay I n a nother l yric, i s e vocative:

1 953:119)

I tzpapalotl i s n ot r eferred t o b y n ame,

b ut t he i mage

I n t he m idst o f t he p lain m y h eart c raves d eath b y t he o bsidian e dge. Only t his m y h eart c raves : d eath i n w ar. ( Leon Portilla I f i n

1 969:87-8)

b attle t he v aliant w arrior d esires

d eath b y t he o bsidian

b lade,

w hat b etter i mage f or t his t han t he i mpressive g oddess O bsidian B utterf ly, w hose w ings s hine w ith s cores o f o bsidian k nives? I n s ome o f t he m yths a nd l yrics q uoted a bove, t he s ame e vents r epeat w ith d ifferent p layers, f or i n t he A ztec p antheon t here was g reat f luidity i n t he r oles o f t he g oddesses i n p articular. T hey w ear e ach o ther 's i nsignia, a nd s tand f or e ach o ther i n c rucial e vents o f m ythic d rama. T hey a re i dentical, y et d ifferent, b ut o ne t hing e merges w ith r emarkable c onsistency : g oddesses a re c losely a ssociated w ith w armaking. T hey a re s een a s p atrons a nd p rotectors o f w arriors, a r ole b efitting a m other g oddess i nterested i n t he w elfare o f h er c hildren. 4 G oddesses a lso a ct a s p articipants i n w ar, e ven, i n t he c ase o f X ochiquetzal a nd I tzpapalotl, a s t he p rimordial p articipant a nd v ictim i n c osmic w ar. T his d eath-dealing a spect o f c hthonic f ertility g oddesses i s i n p erfect c oncordance w ith M esoamerican i deals o f w arfare a s p ropitiation f or t he s un, i n w hich b loodshed a llows f or f urther l ife a nd c osmic r enewal. W e m ight

a lso

c onsider

h ere

t he A ztec

c oncept

o f

t he

p arturient

m other a s aw arrior : s he w ho d ies i n c hildbirth r eaps a h eavenly r eward e quivalent t o t hat o f t he b ravest s lain w arrior. S eler, t ranslating f rom t he N ahuatl,

p oints

o ut t hat

t he w oman w ho

d ies i n c hildbirth i s

m ocivaquetzqui " the w arrior w ho h as a ssumed t he f orm o f aw oman" ( Seler 1 904:999). C ecelia K lein h as v ery s uccintly o utlined t he c omplementary f unctions o f d ead w arriors a nd w omen w ho d ie i n c hildbirth : A ll A ztec w arriors w ho w ere k illed i n b attle o r s acrificed o n a v ictor 's s tone w ere b elieved t o j oin t he s un a t t he e astern h orizon. T here, i n t he h onorable c apacity o f m essengers a nd " lords" o f t he s un, t o

i ts

t hey d aily e scorted t hat s olar b ody

z enith i n t he m idday s ky.

S ince

c hild-

b irth was i tself l ikened t o d eath a nd t o b attle, t he

w oman

w ho

s uccessfully " conquered"

9 2

a c hild

w as

a lso

c onsidered

a w arrior.

T hus,

t hose

w omen w ho d ied i n t he p rocess o f g iving b irth w ere t hemselves r egarded a s d ead h eroes w ho w ent t o

s erve

t he

s un.

T hese

w ere

t he

w omen

w ho

c onstituted t he r anks o f t he C ihuateteo, t he f emale d emons w ho l ived i n t he w est i n t he " land o f w omen" a nd w ho d aily e scorted t he s un f rom i ts z enith t o i ts s etting o n t he w estern h orizon. T he d eath o f t hese w omen t ogether w ith t he s acrifice o f t he male w arriors n ourished a nd m a intained t he l ife o f t he s un, a nd h ence t hat o f t he e ntire u niverse.

( 1972:40)

The m any r eferences t o t he m artial a spects o f g oddesses s uggest t hat t his w as n ot o nly a well-established t heme i n A ztec m yth, b ut o ne h aving c onsiderable t ime d epth a s w ell. I h ave p resented i t a t l ength b ecause t he e xistence o f t he s ame c onfiguration o f t raits i n T eotih uacan, K aminaljuyu, a nd Escuintla a rt s upports t he i dea t hat s imilar b eliefs w ere h eld b y C lassic-period M exicans. W e f ind i n T eotihuacan i conography t he e xistence o f b utterfly f igures i n p aradise s cenes ( the T epantitla mural), b utterflies c onjoined w ith b oth m artial a nd f ire s ymbolism ( tripod p ottery a nd c ensers), a nd t he e xistence o f a f emale b utterfly d eity w ho s eems t o d ominate t he r eligious i conography o f T eotihuacan-derived c ommunities i n G uatemala 's s outhern p iedmont. We h ave i llustrated A ztec p arallels f or t hese f orms a nd c onsidered t heir i deological a ssociations. I t i s i mportant t o s tress t hat s ince s everal d ifferent m otifs c oincide i n t he s ame c onfiguration i n l ater C entral Mexican a rt, t he i nterpretations o ffered h ere a re l ess s haky t han j ust o ne f eature h ad b een t aken o ut o f c ontext a nd i ts c ontinuity m eaning a sserted. 5 B ecause i t i s a c onstellation o f f orms t hat

i f o f i s

c arried t hrough t ime, w e h ave g reater c onfidence t hat t he m eaning h as r emained i ntact. I n m ethodology, I f ollow P asztory 's " synthetic a pproach"

t o i conographic s tudies

( 1973).

T he i nterlocking c orrobora-

t ive e vidence a fforded b y c ontextual a nalysis, c omparative a nalysis, a nd e thnohistoric a nalogy u sed i n c oncert m ay p rove t o b e t he m ost s uccessful k ey t o u nlock t he r iddle o f Mesoamerican i conography, a s s he h as p ointed o ut. I n r elying o n A ztec a ccounts f or a n u nderstanding o f p rovincial T eotihuacan a rt, t he Kaminaljuyu v essel ( figure 5 ) i s a c rucial w ork o f a rt, l inking A ztec b elief t o t he e arlier i mages. I t i s t he o ne Middle C lassic d epiction t hat u nequivocably s hows t he b utterfly a s f emale. I n t he Escuintla c ensers, s ex i s n ot c learly i ndicated, a lthough t he w ing p lacement s trongly s uggests a q uechquemitl, a s I h ave a rgued. E scuintla a rt i n g eneral c losely f ollows Teotihuacan p rototypes, s igns, a nd c onventions. B ecause t he p atrons ( Teotihuacan m ilitia a nd p ochteca) w ere f amiliar w ith t he m eanings i mplicit t here was n o n eed t o s pell t hem o ut i n f ull. A t

i n t he o bjects, K aminaljuyu t he

s ituation w as d ifferent: t he a udience w as a m ixed Teotihuacan a nd h ighland M aya c ommunity. W e f ind i n K aminaljuyu v ase p ainting a nd i ncising b oth Teotihuacan a nd Maya i magery ( Kidder, J ennings, a nd S hook

9 3

1 946:figures 2 04-207). I t i s a ppropriate t hat t he i dentity o f t he f igures w ould b e m ore c learly d elineated a t K aminaljuyu, t o a void c onf usion w ith u nfamiliar r epresentations o f g ods a nd m ythic s cenes. T he f emale b utterfly g oddess i s s hown a lmost d iagrammatically o n t he K aminaljuyu v essel: l ong s kirt a nd q uechquemitl i ndicate s ex ; q uechquemitl a nd h eaddress i ndicate b utterfly p ersona.6 T he e mblems o n t he v essel l id f urther p rompt t he v iewer: t he f lower, x ochitl, s uggests t he n ame X ochiquetzal ; t he t rapeze a nd r ay h eaddress i s a T eotihuacan i nsignia a ssociated w ith w arriors ( Berlo 1 976). Is uggest t hat t he v ase p ainter i s t rying t o p rompt u s t o r ecognize X ochiquetzal w earing b utterfly g arb i n h er m artial a spect. M any y ears a go, L aurette S6journd i dentified X ochiquetzal f iguri nes a t T eotihuacan b ased o n c ostume a nalysis ( 1959:figure 4 ). M ore r ecently, P asztory ( 1973) h as c onvincingly d emonstrated t hat a n a ncestral v ersion o f X ochiquetzal was i ndeed o ne o f t he major d eities v enerated a t Teotihuacan, a nd t hat h er i mage s urmounts t he m ountain p aradise s cene i n t he f amous m rlalocan" mural a t T epantitla. S pranz h as i dentified X ochiquetzal a nd o ther A ztec g oddesses i n M etepec-phase mold-made f igurines o f T eotihuacan s tyle e xcavated a t X ochitecatl, T laxcala ( 1973:22 ) 4-5; S pranz, Dumond, a nd H ilbert 1 978:tafel 2 3, 2 6). S o n ot o nly w as a n a ncestral v ersion o f t he A ztec g oddess w orshipped a t T eotihuacan, b ut h er c ult w as e xported t o r egional c enters o utside t he T eotihuacan v alley, s uch a s t hat i n T laxcala. I s uggest t hat X ochiquetzal's c ult, c ombined w ith t hat o f O bsidian B utterfly, w as a lso e xported

t o t he

s outhern M aya

a rea,

f or

w e

s ee

i ts m anifestations

i n

E scuintla a nd a t K aminaljuyu. I b elieve t hat X ochiquetzal's a ttributes w ere c onflated w ith t hose o f I tzpapalotl i n t he s cene o n t he K aminaljuyu t ripod v essel i n f igure 5 , a s t hey w ould s o o ften b e c onflated o ne t housand y ears l ater i n A ztec s ong, myth, a nd c odex. S imilarly, i n t he T eotihuacan c ensers f ound i n Escuintla ( figure 4 ), t he g oddess a ppears i n a b utterfly a spect. I f a n a ncestral v ersion o f t he m artial g oddess k nown t o t he A ztecs a s O bsidian B utterfly was v enerated b y T eotihuacan w arriors a nd t raders i n s outhern G uatemala , t his s uggests t hat Teotihuacanos h ad d evised a r eligious i deology t o b uttress t heir e conomic a nd p olitical p ursuits i n f oreign l ands, a nd a p atron d eity t ailored t o t heir m ilitaristic a nd i mperialistic a ims. N ot o nly i s o bsidian t he i nstrument o f a w arrior 's d eath ( "my h eart c raves d eath b y t he o bsidian e dge"); o bsidian w as p robably t he k ey n atural r esource t hat T eotihuacan was t rying t o e xploit a nd c ontrol i n t hese f oreign l ands ( Parsons a nd P rice 1 971; S ander a nd M ichels 1 977) j ust a s t hey d id i n t he Valley o f M exico. A m aterialist

a pproach

t o

t he

f ormation o f r eligious

i magery m ight s ug-

g est t hat " our m other Obsidian B utterfly" w as d eveloped b y T eotih uacanos i n r esponse t o t he r ealities o f e conomic e xchange a s w ell a s t o s ustain e laborate i deologies a bout n oble d eath i n w ar. I t m ay b e s ignificant f or o ur a rgument t hat b utterflies a re l inked w ith o bsidian a nd o ther s tones n ot j ust i n t he C hichimec t ale o f t he a dventures o f I tzpapalotl, b ut a lso i n o ther A ztec b eliefs, a nd a mong

9 1 4

t he Maya a s w ell. S ahagun m entions t hat l apidaries w orshipped t he g oddess C hiconautilzcuintli P apaloxanal T lapalo. O n h er f ace w as p ainted a b utterfly, a nd i n h er l eft h and s he h eld a s hield ( 1950-1969, B ook IX:79). I n t he A nales d e C uautitlan ( which h as a lways b een u sed a s t he s ource f or t he o rigin o f A ztec b eliefs a bout I tzpapalotl), I tzpapalotl i s t ransformed b y f ire i nto f ive s tone f ragments o f v arious c olors. Mixcoatl s elected t he s harp w hite s tone, w rapped i t i n as acred b undle, a nd c arried i t w ith h im. I t was t hereafter v enerated a s a p ersonified k nife o f s acrifice. I n a c urious p arallel, i n t he Maya R itual o f t he B acabs, f our c olored f lint k nives a re i dentified w ith b utterflies: S hortly a go I r eceived t he f orce o f t he r ed c huk-tok ( flint), t he w hite c huk-tok. S hortly a go I r eceived t he f orce o f t he b lack c huk-tok; s hortly a go I r eceived t he f orce o f t he y ellow c huk-tok . S hortly

a go

i ts

f orce

w as

t aken,

y e

g ods,

y e

B acabs. W hat i s i ts s ymbol? T he r ed p epemb utterfly, t he w hite p epem , t he b lack epem , t he y ellow p epem a re i ts s ymbols. T hese t hen a re t he f our b y t hemselves. ( Roys 1 965:62) T hese r epeated a ssociations o f b utterflies a nd v alued s tones ( be t hey f lint, t he v arious s tones o f t he l apidary a rtist, o r o bsidian) l eads m e t o b elieve t hat t he c onjoining o f b utterfly a nd l ithic m aterials c annot s imply b e a l ater C hichimec i ntroduction i nto A ztec c osmogony ; r ather, t he C hichimec v ersion i s s imply o ne v ersion o f a n o lder, w idespread b elief a bout g oddesses, s acred s tones, a nd b utterflies. S ome a spects o f t his b elief, a s I h ave a rgued, m ay h ave b een c odified b y T eotihuac anos d uring t he M iddle C lassic p eriod. T he n umerous c eramic o bjects i n T eotihuacan-style f ound i n s outhern G uatemala s uggest t hat a m ilitarist ic b utterfly d eity w as t he p redominant c ult f igure f rom t he Teotihuac an p antheon t hat T eotihuacan w arriors a nd m erchants t ook a broad w ith t hem. D iego Garcia d e P alacio 's s ixteenth-century a ccounts o f Escuintla l end s upporting e vidence t o m y h ypothesis t hat C entral M exican g odd esses w ere i mportant i n t he a ncient c ulture o f t he P acific p iedmont. 7 P alacio m entions t hat a g oddess n amed I tzcueye ( Nahuatl: " possessor o f a n o bsidian s kirt") was w orshipped i n E scuintla ( 1860). L awrence Feldman, s uggests

i n h is a nalysis o f N ahuatl l oan w ords i n e arly G uatemala, t hat b oth X ochiquetzal a nd I tzpapalotl, a long w ith I tzcueye,

w ere v enerated o n t he P acific p iedmont o f G uatemala ( 1976:239-41). I ndependent v erification t hrough a rt h istorical a nalysis, e thnohistoric t exts, a nd l inguistic a nalysis o f l oan w ords s uggests a h igh d egree o f p robability t hat t hese g oddesses p layed i mportant r oles i n t he p rec onquest h istory o f t his r egion.

9 5

V ariant A spects o f t he G oddess i n E scuintla a nd O axaca O ne o f t he f oremost s cholars o f A ztec r eligion, h as d escribed t he A ztec p antheon i n t his m anner :

H .

B .

N icholson,

t his g reat l egion o f d eities w as o rganized a round a f ew f undamental c ult t hemes, a lthough t hey g reatly o verlapped a nd n o c lear l ine c an b e d rawn b etween t hem. W ithin e ach t heme w hat c an b e t ermed " deity c omplexes" c an b e d iscerned, c lusters o f d eities e xpressing v arious a spects o f w hat a mount t o s ub-themes.

( 1971a:408)

S cholars h ave l ong r ecognized t his f lexibility i n t he Mesoamerican p ant heon. Deities w ear e ach o ther 's c lothes a nd e mblems, s tand i n f or e ach o ther i n c ertain e vents, a nd t ake o n n ew a spects f or s pecialized c ult c oncerns. T hese p rocesses a re d emonstrated i n s everal c eramic o bjects k nown f rom E scuintla a nd f rom Oaxaca. I n

E scuintla,

t he

Teotihuacan

b utterfly

uddess

t akes

o n

o ne

v ariant a spect : p atroness o f c acao. O n o ne u nusual c enser ( figure 7 ), t he b utterfly d eity r ises o ut o f as plit c acao p od. O ther p od s ections a re molded o n t he b ase o f t he c enser l id. T he b utterfly w ears a w ingq uechquemitl, w ith p ainted d esigns s till v isible u pon i t. F lowery b uds r ise f rom b ehind t he s houlders o f t he f igure. T he P acific p iedmont o f G uatemala w as a c acao-growing r egion i n c olonial t imes ; t he c onquerer A lvarado f orced t he t own o f E scuintla t o s urrender b y t hreatening t o d estroy i ts c acao g roves ( Millon 1 955:70). B ased o n am odel o f A ztec t ribute l ands, c ontrol o f t he c acao t rade m ay h ave b een o ne o f t he g oals o f t he Teotihuacanos i n t heir f orays i nto s outhern G uatemala, f or c onditions i n t he C entral M exican h ighlands w ere n ot s uitable f or c acao c ultivation. T he e xact m eaning o f t he e mergence o f t he b utterfly d eity f rom a c acao p od i s u nknown t o u s; t he g oddess a nd t he p lant m ay b e r elated i n s everal w ays. I f o ur a nalysis o f t he b utterfly d eity a s X ochiquetzal i s c orrect, h er r elationship t o c acao m ay b e a s imple o ne o f e arth g oddess t o t he f ruits o f h er e arth. T hompson r elates t hat c acao may h ave h ad a r elationship w ith h uman s acrifice, t he f ruit b eng a m etaphor f or t he h uman h eart. B oth c ontain p recious d ark l iquids: c hocolate a nd b lood. I n t he C hilam B alam o f C humayel, a r iddle d raws t his a nalogy b etween b lood a nd c hocolate ( Thompson 1 956:101). I n h er m artial a spect a t E scuintla, t he g oddess c ould t hus b e l inked t o c acao a s a r itual m etaphor

b utterfly f or h uman

h eart a nd b lood. N eedless t o s ay , t he t wo a spects m entioned, a gricult ural f ertility a nd h uman s acrifice, a re n ot m utP11: e xclusive. T he E scuintla a rtist w ho c reated t his l ively i mage w as w orking i n t he T eotih uacan s tylistic m ode, y et i nfusing h is w ork w ith a s ymbolic m essage f or t he l ocal c ommunity l iving i n t he h eart o f a c acao-producing r egion.

9 6

T hey w ere p erhaps i nvolved i n t he t rade a nd d istribution o f t he s acred b ean f or t heir m other c ity, w hich i nvolved e stablish o utposts i n t hese l ands. T eotihuacan

t raits

h ave

l ong

b een

b loodshed

r ecognized

a s

i n

t hey t ried

C lassic

t o

P eriod

Z apotec a rt. S tone s culptures a t M onte A lban d epict T eotihuacan e miss aries ( Marcus 1 980), a nd s ome Z apotec b raseros a nd u rns s how a spects o f s tyle a nd i conography b orrowed f rom T eotihuacan, p rincipally i n P eriod I IIa. N o t horough s tudy o f t he T eotihuacanoid f eatures o f Z apotec a rt h as b een c arried o ut ; h ere, a b rief l ook a t t he f ate o f t he T eotihuacan b utterfly g oddess i n Oaxaca w ill i llustrate T eotihuacan a nd Z apotec r eligious b eliefs.

t he

p uzzling

m erger

I n Oaxaca, t he b utterfly w ent t hrough a nother t ransformation.

o f

H er

a daptation t o l ocal c oncerns r esulted i n a p artial d isjunction o f f orm a nd m eaning. A s w e s hall s ee, s he w as s ubsumed i nto t he Z apotec p antheo n, c onflated w ith l ocal d eities, a nd s tripped o f h er m ilitaristic a ssociations. B oth B oos ( 1964, 1 966) a nd Caso ( 1949) h ave c ommented o n t he a ppearance o f a f oreign b utterfly d eity i n P eriod I IIa Z apotec a rt. Both a gree t hat i t i s a Teotihuacan i nvention, y et n either a uthor h azards a g uess a s t o i ts m eaning. S ome o f t he s ame f eatures f ound o n Escuintla b utterfly c ensers a ppear c onsistently o n O axacan u rns : i n t he h eaddress o f s eated h umans a re f ound t he d iagnostic c urled p roboscis a nd f eathered e yes o f t he b utterfly ( figures 8 a nd 9 ). T hese t wo f eatures a re c onstant. Antennae, a c onstant f eature i n Escuintla, a re v ariable h ere, o ccurring s poradically. O ther v ariable e lements i n O axacan b utterfly r epresentat ions i nclude a s quare k not, s hells, f ire s ymbols, a nd h anging h eadd ress f laps, m otifs.

a ll o f which I b elieve a re T eotihuacan r ather t han Z apotec

Six o f t he t hirteen b utterfly u rns t hat I h ave s tudied c onjoin b utterfly i magery w ith a j aguar m outh, a l ocal O axacan f orm. T he Z apotecs a ssimilated t he b utterfly a spect f or t heir o wn p urposes, p erh aps t o i ndicate a v ariable a spect o f t heir o wn i ndigenous j aguar g od. B oos s ay o f t his: l a y uxtaposition d e mascaras s imbolicas, o d e c aracteristicas d e d ioses d iferentes, ( es) p ara c rear u n d iseno q ue o cultara a t odos l a i dentida d e l a d eidad o d eidades. ( 1964:87) U nlike t he s ituation i n E scuintla, h ere w e h ave a n i nstance o f p artial d isjunction : t he T eotihuacan b utterfly f orm, a nd p erhaps s ome o f i ts s ymbolic a ssociations, h ave b een c onjoined t o t he n ative j aguar g od i n o rder t o p roduce a n ew c omposite b eing ( one i s r eminded h ere o f t he maize Tlalce a t Z acuala d iscussed b y P asztory, 1 973:148). N o e mblems o f w arfare a re c onjoined w ith t he T eo-Oaxacan b utterfly, a lthough a s w e h ave s een, t his i s i ts m ost c ommon a ssociation a t Teotihuacan a nd

9 7

E scuintla. I ndeed, t he Teotihuacan b utterfly i n Oaxaca n ever h as m ilit aristic a ssociations. T his f urther s upports t he i dea o f p artial d isj unction. S uch a s elective c luster i s o ne o f t he b est s ymbolic f orms. I t

i s

n oteworthy

t hat

a doption o f e lements o f a n i conographic c lues t o p ossible s hifts i n m eaning o f

t he

l ack o f m ilitaristic

a ssociations

f or

t he b utterfly g oddess i n O axaca i s c onsistent w ith o ther T eotihuacan i magery i n t his r egion ( C. Millon 1 973; M arcus 1 980). F or e xample, t he " estela l isa" a t M onte A lban ( Marcus 1 980:60) d epicts T eotihuacan e miss aries i n w hat m ay b e m ilitary g arb, b ut t hey c arry i ncense b ags r ather t han w eapons. T he T eotihuacan-Zapotec r elationship must h ave b een c ons iderably m ore p acific t han t hat b etween Teotihuacanos a nd t he Maya, f or M aya d epictions o f T eotihuacanos l ay p articular s tress o n t heir w eapons a nd m artial e mblems. D espite s tellation t he

t he

l ack o f m artial

o f T eotihuacan

a ssociation

o f

t he

e mblems,

b utterfly

t wo

s ymbols

b utterfly w ith f ire,

f eatures

a re a nd

f rom

r etained t he

i n

t he

c on-

O axaca :

d epiction o f t he

b utterfly p ersonage a s a t l east s ometimes f emale. O ccasionally, t he o ld w rinkled f ace o f t he f ire g od w ears t he b utterfly h eadgear i n O axaca ( figure 8 ). I n b oth c ases, a j aguar m outh o ccurs b eneath t he p roboscis, s o t here i s a t riple c onflation h ere: b utterfly/jaguar/old g od. B utt erfly a nd o ld f ire g od i magery i ntersect o n t wo c ensers k nown t o m e f rom Teotihuacan i tself ( Berlo 1 980:plates 3 8 , 2 9). I c onsider t hem t o b e a d ual e xpression o f t he t ransformational s ymbolism d iscussed e arlier : t he t ransformation o f t he h uman s oul i nto a b utterfly a nd t he p hysical t ransformation o ccurring i n a f ire s acrifice. I t i s u nclear w hether t his s ymbolic a ssociation i s maintained i n Oaxaca. Caso n oted t hat b utterfly d eities a re b oth masculine a nd f eminine ( 1949:85),

y et

h e

s eemed

t o

c onsider

a ll

O axacan

r epresentations

a s

masculine, u ndoubtedly b ecause a ll w ear t he m axtlatl o r h anging l oin c loth. Y et, o f t he s even b utterfly u rns i n m y s ample t hat a re c omplete, o r w here a b ody i n i ndicated, s ix a lso w ear a q uechquemitl t hat c overs t he a rms ( figure 8 ). ( In t he o ther i nstance, i t i s C ocijo w ho w ears t he b utterfly j aguar h eaddress a nd h is a rms a re b are, a s i s u sual i n O axacan male d ress). C lassic p eriod Z apotec m ales e ither w ear s hort c apes ( above t he e lbow) o r h ave b are a rms ( Caso a nd B ernal 1 952:figures 1 58,162). F emales w ear e ither a p ointed o r a r ounded q uechquemitl t hat o ften, t hough n ot a lways, c overs t he l ower a rms.

P erhaps t hese f igures

w ith b oth maxtlatl a nd q uechquemitl a re f emale i mpersonators. W e k now f rom A ztec a ccounts a nd f rom T eotihuacan m urals t hat p riests o f f emale d eities w ore f emale d ress. A n a lternative e xplanation i s t hat, a s C aso s tates, b utterfly d eities c an b e b oth masculine a nd f eminine, a nd t heir b isexual n ature i s d epicted h ere b y t he u nion o f m ale a nd fe hale d ress. A j aguar-butterfly u rn i n t he Smithsonian was c ollected i n 1 885 a t Z aachila ( figure 9 ). I n f ormat, t his u rn c losely r esembles a n Escuintla c enser. T he f igure i s a b ust-type e ffigy. T he h ands g rasp b ird e mblems.

F lexible

f laps

h ang f rom

9 8

t he

s ides

o f

t he

b utterfly j aguar

h eaddress, b ackdrop.

a nd

Teotihuacan-style

f ringed

s tarfish

T he f ace i s u nmistakably Z apotec,

b ands

s erved

a s

a

h owever.

T he i conographic v ariety t hat t hese b utterfly u rns e xhibit f urther s upports t he i dea t hat t his i s a n i mported d eity, o ne w hose f unctions a re n ot c learly f ixed i n t he m inds o f a ncient, t raditional s ymbolic c ategory.

t he

p opulace.

I t

i s

n ot

a n

S ome Z apotec p ottery o bjects d isplay c lusters o f Teotihuacan e mblems. O thers d o n ot. T he Z apotecs a ssimilated s ome a spects o f T eotihuacan a rt a nd r eligion i nto t heir o wn c ulture. U nlike most o ther p eoples o f s outhern M esoamerica, t hey s eemingly d id n ot s eek o ut T eotih uacano f ine t rade w ares, y et a ccepted c ertain Teotihuacan c once ,pts i nto t heir o wn r eligious s ystem. T he v ariable a cceptance o f f oreign t raits i s o ne o f t he m ost i nteresting a spects o f a s tudy o f t he i nterr elationship o f c ultures, a nd o ne t hat m ay p rove m ost p rofitable f or o ur u nderstanding o f t he c ultural z ations.

d ynamics o f a ncient Mesoamerican c ivili-

T he Oaxaca d ata d emonstrate t hat e thnohistoric a nalogy m ust b e u sed w ith d iscernment, a nd a lways i n c onjuction w ith c orroborative c ont extual e vidence. T he f orce o f d isjunction, s ubstitution, a nd r einteg ration t hat K ubler d escribes ( 1977) o bviously d id o ccur i n s ome i nstances i n t he h istory o f M esoamerican r eligion. T he a doption a nd a daptation o f t he T eotihuacan b utterfly d eity t o l ocal Z apotec c oncerns i s ag ood e xample o f t his. I n Oaxaca, t he b utterfly l acked a m ilitarist ic i dentification, i ts s ex w as c hangeble, a nd i t s eemed t o e xpress s ome a spect o f t he i ndigenous j aguar g od o f t he Z apotecs. In E scuintla, t he T eotihuacan g oddess X ochiquetzal a ppeared p rinc ipally i n h er m ilitaristic a spect, wherein h er t raits w ere c onflated w ith t hose o f O bsidian B utterfly. T he m artial b utterfly g oddess, i n t urn, a ssumed a n ew a spect ( Cacao B utterfly) b ased o n s pecialized l ocal c oncerns. In O axaca, t he T eotihuacan b utterfly g oddess was a ssimilated i nto t he Z apotec p antheon a nd t ransformed o nce a gain. I n t he F eten, w here m uch T eotihuacan i nfluence i s e vident, s he s eems t o h ave a ppeared n ot a t a ll. T he Teotihuacan w arriors c ommemorated t here w ear T laloc, j aguar, t assel, a nd t rapeze-and-ray r egalia i n t heir h eadgear ( see C . M illon 1 973, Berlo 1 976, 1 980). T his i s f urther s upport f or t he i dea t hat " Butterfly W arrior" p robably i s n ot a r ank o r d ivision d esignat ion, o r e ven a n e thnic i nsignia, b ut a d esignation o f t hose w arriors w ho h ave " met t he b utterfly g oddess o n t he b attlefield" a nd h ave d ied, a nd a re s o i dentified w ithin t he c onfines o f t heir o wn c ulture.

C onclusion S ince

Seler 's w ork a t

t he

b eginning

o f

t he

t wentieth

c entury,

e thnohistoric a nalogy h as b een u sed t o i lluminate M esoamerican p reh istory. T his s hould b e s een a s p art o f t he g eneral t radition w ithin

9 9

Americanist a rchaeology o f r elying u pon e thnohistoric d ata e xplain t he a rchaeological r ecord ( see C harlton 1 981:136-40).

t o h elp T he u se

o f e thnohistoric a nalogues h as b een c riticized, e specially b y A meric anist a rt h istorians ( Kubler 1 973, 1 977), b ecause o f i ts m argin f or e rror a nd m isinterpretation. Y et e thnohistory c ontinues t o b e a m ajor s ource o f i nformation o n t he p re-Hispanic w orld. W hen u sed w ith c aut ion, a nd i n c oncert w ith c ontextual e vidence, a nd w ith a m osaic o f c orroborating d etails, e thnohistoric a nalogy c an s hed g reat l ight o n t hose a rtifacts o f a ntiquity t hat m ight o therwise r emain m ute. Y et i ts u ser must h eed t he c aveat t hat " analogue m odels f urnish p lausible h ypotheses, n ot p roofs" ( Black 1 962:223).

t hat

I n t his e ssay, I h ave e ndeavored t o c larify t he r eligious f orms e mbodied Teotihuacan m ilitary i deology i n s outhern G uatemala,

b ased o n t he T eotihuacan-style a rtifacts f ound t here, a rt a t m etropolit an Teotihuacan, a nd l ater i mages a nd b eliefs k nown f rom A ztec c ulture. I h ave s uggested t hat t hose a spects o f A ztec w arrior i deology i nvolving a m artial b utterfly d eity may h ave o riginated i n t he p olitically-based r eligious b eliefs t hat w ere p romulated a mong t heir s outhern n eighbors.

d uring T eotihuacano i ncursions

R ESUMEN E ste

e studio e xamina e l

e stilo t eotihuacano d e l os

i ncensarios

y

d e l as v asijas c ilindricas t ripoidales d escubiertos e n E scuintla, G uatemala, o r c uanto e stos r evelan a cerca d e l as i deologias d e l os p ueblos T eotihuacanos q ue i ncursionaron e n e sta a rea. S e e xtraen d e e stos o bjetos yt ambi6n p or m edio d e a nalogia l a i deologia r eligiosa d e l os p ueblos c entro mejicanos p osteriores e videncias s obre l as c reencias m ilitares y r eligiosas d e l os Teotihuacanos e n r elaciön a l a d iosa m arcial m ariposa q uien p arece s er p recursora d e l as d iosas a ztecas I tzpapalotl y K ochiquetzal. L a a utora s ugiere q ue c iertos a spectos d el m ilitarismo a zteca y s u r eligion s e o riginaron e n l a i deologia r eligiosa b asada e n l a p olitica f ormulada d urante e l p eriodo T eotihuacano c läsico.

d e

e xpansiOn

i mperial

1 00

p erteneciente

a l

p eriodo

m eso-

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I a m p articularly g rateful t o Dr. C lara Milon, whose d etailed c omments a nd c riticisms o f a n e arlier d raft o f t his e ssay w ere e xtremely u seful. I n a ddition, I w ould l ike t o t hank P rofessors C ecelia K lein a nd E sther P asztory, w ho c riticized t he m anuscript i n i ts e arly s tages.

NOTES 1 . F or a r eview B erlo, i n t his v olume.

i ssues

a nd

2 . D etailed s upporting e vidence f ound i n B erlo 1 980, a nd i n p ress..

f or

3 .

F or

a n

a nalysis

c ensers a t T eotihuacan, 4 .

o f

t he

o f

t he

s ee B erlo

s tyle

a nd

r elevant

t hese

l iterature,

s tatements

m ethod

o f

s ee

c an

b e

p roduction

o f

1 982.

T he mother-child r elationship b etween g oddess a nd w arrior i s

d epicted i n h ollow f igurines k nown f rom b oth T eotihuacan a nd E scuintla ( Hellmuth 1 975: f igure 4 2; E ckholm 1 970:49). I n e ach c ase, t he c hest a rea o f a s eated f igure o pens t o r eveal s mall mold-made w arrior f igures a ttached, l iterally , w ithin t he b osom o f m other e arth. A s imilar f igure i n T eotihuacan s tyle was e xcavated a t B ecan, Q uintana R oo ( Ball 1 974). T hese f igures m ust h ave b een d ressed i n p erishable c lothing, f or t heir b odies a re s mooth a nd u nadorned e xcept f or n eckbeads. 5 . T he o ne e xception t o t his i s a c lass o f c ylindrical t ripod v essels t hat a re e clectic b oth i n s tyle a nd i conography. H ellmuth ( 1978) a nd I ( 1980:187-202) h ave b oth d iscussed t hese p ots. 6 . s urvived

I t i s i nteresting t hat m uch o f t he v essel p ainting t hat h as a t K aminaljuyu h as t he s ame d iagrammatic q uality e vident i n

t his o ne v essel. I n b oth t he Maya-style a nd Teotihuacan-style p ainted eliance o n f ull-figure d epictions which a re c arev essels t here i s a r f ully l aid o ut o n t he s ides o f t he v essels ; g lyphic e mblems a re ids ( Kidder, J ennings, a nd S hook 1 946:figures 2 04, d isplayed o n t he l 2 05, t he

2 07a, 2 07e).

O ne r ecognizes a c onscious d idacticism o n t he p art o f

p ainter, w ho i s a iming f or c larity a nd m aximum u nderstanding.

7 .

I a m g rateful

t o H .

B .

N icholson f or b ringing t his

t ary evidence t o m y a ttention.

1 01

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H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians, e dited b y R obert W auchope, 1 0:92-134. U niversity o f T exas P ress. A ustin. P alacio, D iego G arcia d e. 1 860 C arte d irijida a l r ey d e E spana, S quier. N orton C o. N ew Y ork. P arsons, L ee A . 1 969

L ee A . a nd B .

1 971

E .

G .

o f t he P ubli-

Milwaukee P ublic Museum.

P rice

Mesoamerican t rade a nd i ts r ole i n t he e mergence o f c ivilization. C ontributions o f t he University o f C alifornia Archaeological

P asztory, E sther 1 972

T rans.

B ilbao, G uatemala : A n Archaeological Study P ac ific C oast C otzumalhuapa R egion , Volume 2 . c ations i n Anthropology 1 2.

P arsons,

1 576.

9 5.

B erkeley.

T he

Murals

o f

R esearch Facility 1 1:169-

Tepantitla,

T eotihuacan .

Garland

S eries : Outstanding D issertations i n t he F ine A rts. 1 976. N ew Y ork.

1 973

T he

G ods

o f

Teotihuacan :

a s ynthetic

T eotihuacan i conography. 4 0th g ress o f Americanists 1 :147-59.

1 06

a pproach

I nternational R ome.

i n

C on-

P asztory,

E sther

T he i conography o f t he Teotihuacan T laloc. D umbarton O aks S tudies i n P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology 1 5. Washington, D .C.

1 978

M iddle C lassic Mesoamerica : University P ress. N ew Y ork.

R oss, K urt 19 78 R oys,

( cont .)

1 97 14

C odex Mendoza:

A D

A ztec Manuscript.

1 4 00-700.

C olumbia

F ribourg.

Ralph 19 65

R itual o f t he B acabs. N orman.

S ahagun, B ernadino d e 19 50-69 F lorentine Codex : N ew S pain. D ibble. Sanders, W illiam 1 977

S chool

19 77

t he Things

o f

b y A .J.O. A nderson a nd C .

E .

o f American R esearch.

a nalogy

a nd

T eotihuacan a nd a nd J . Michels.

s ity P ress. Sanders, W illiam T .,

G eneral H istory o f

T ranslated

E thnographic s tyle. Sanders

University o f Oklahoma P ress.

a nd J . W .

t he

Teotihuacan

h orizon

K aminaljuyu, e dited b y W . P ennsylvania State Univer-

University P ark,

P ennsylvania.

M ichels, e ditors

T eotihuacan a nd Kaminaljuyu : A S tudy i n Prehistoric C ulture C ontact. P ennsylvania S tate University P ress,

P hiladelphia.

University P ark,

S 6journd , L aurette 19 59 L as f igurillas d e Z acualpa y l os E studios d e C ultura N ahuatl 1 : 14 3-57. Seler, E dward 19 01

S anta Fe.

T he Tonalamatl

o f

P ennsylvania.

t extos Nahuas. M exico.

t he A ubin C ollection.

B erlin a nd

L ondon. 19 0 14

D ie

Religiosen

G esange

d er

a lten

Mexikaner.

G esammelte A bhandlungen z ur A merikanischen u nd A lter-tumskunde. Volume 2 . B erlin. 19 02-23

S pranz, B odo 19 73

I n

S prach-

Gessammelte A bhandlungen z ur Amerikanischen S prachu nd A ltertumskunde. 5 Volumes. B erlin.

L ate

C lassic

f igurines

f rom

Tlaxcala ,

Mexico,

a nd

t heir p ossible r elation t o t he C odex B orgia G roup. Mesoamerican Writing S ystems, e dited b y E . B enson. Dumbarton O aks.

W ashington, D .C.

1 07

S pranz,

B odo, D . E . D umond,

1 978

P . P . H ilbert

D ie P yramiden v om M exico. W iesbaden.

S ullivan, T helma 19 72

T he

a rms

a nd

i nsignia

Cultura N ahuatl T hompson, J . 19 56

P.

C erro

o f

1 0:155-93.

X ochi t ecatl ,

t he

Mexica.

T laxcala,

E studios

d e

M exico.

S . N otes o n t he u se o f c acao i n M iddle America.

N otes o n

M iddle A merican A rchaeology a nd E thnology 5 :95-11 6 . C arnegie I nstitution o f Washington. T ozzer, A . 1914 1

L anda 's R elacion d e l as C osas d e Y ucatan. P apers o f t he P eabody Museum 1 8 . H arvard University. C ambridge.

19 57

C hichen I tza a nd i ts C enote o f Sacrifice. t he P eabody Museum C ambridge.

V illag ra C aleti,

1 1

a nd

1 2.

Memoirs o f

H arvard University.

A .

19 71

M ural p ainting i n C entral M exico.

H andbook o f M iddle

A merican I ndians, e dited b y R obert W auchope, 56 . University o f Texas Press. A ustin. v on W inning, 19 77

1 0:135-

Hasso T he O ld Fire God a nd h is I ndiana / 4 :7-6 1 . B erlin.

1 08

s ymbolism

a t

Teotihuacan.

F igure 1 . T eotihuacan-style w arrior i ncensario, G uatemala. C ollection o f t he M useum B russels, B elgium .

1 09

f ound i n E scuintla , o f A rt a nd H istory,

bg A r e m o d in ga t i Ma i l i t h

F igure 2 .

B utterfly i magery T eotihuacan, M exico.

o n c ylindrical t ripod v essel A fter K ubler 1 967:figure 4 2.

10

f rom

F igure 3 .

D rawing

o f

a f resco-painted

b utterfly w arrior M useum ,

i magery,

M exico.

1 11

c ylindrical

t ripod

f rom T eotihuacan.

v essel D iego

w ith

R ivera

F igure 4 . T eotihuacan-style i ncensario w ith b utterfly i conography, f ound i n E scuintla, G uatemala. P hoto c ourtesy o f N icholas H ellmuth , F oundation f or L atin A merican A nthropological R esearch.

12

F igure 5 .

B utterfly g oddess p ainted o n c ylindrical t ripod v essel f rom B urial I I, M ound B . K aminaljuyu, G uatemala. A fter K idder, e t a l., 1 946: f igure 2 07h.

13

F igure

6 .

I tzpapalotl " Piedra

d e

w ith

o bsidian

I tzpapalotl,"

M exico.

11 4

w ings. M useo

D rawn

N acional

f rom d e

t he

A ztec

A ntropologia,

i ncensario G uatemala. 4 )

4 )

H

( 1 )

0 r a l

• 5 t o 0 m • 4 . 4

c )

O c t i

b i )

•

5 t i ) r -4

• 0 4 3 . 0 C O 0 ( 1 ) g , t ;E 4 t n

C D

15

F igure 8 .

Z apotec u rn d epicting a n o ld-faced g od w ith b utterf ly-jaguar e mblems i n t he h eadgear. F rissel M useum, M itla. P hoto b y R aymond E . S enuk.

16

F igure

9 :

Z apotec u rn w ith b utterfly i conography f rom Z aachila. c ourtesy o f t he Smithsonian I nstitution, # 15151.

117

P hoto

S EEN B UT N OT H EARD: W OMEN I N A ZTEC R ITUAL--THE S AHAGUN T EXTS b y B ETTY ANN BROWN

I ntroduction I n d ealing w ith t he s odalities a nd r ituals o f P acific B asin m en 's h ouses, t he " Man B long C ustom" p rogram o f T ime-Life 's T ribal E ye t elev ision

s eries

c ussed : m ales,

b rings

g iven

t o

t hat

w omen 's

p ublic

m ost

f orum

a p oint

a nthropological

s cholars

r esearch

a ctivities--particularly t hose o f

h ave

h as

l ong d is-

b een

s acred

o r

d one

s ecret

b y n a-

t ure--have o ften b een n eglected. T he n arrator o f t he "Man B iong C ustom" what

r hetorically,

s odalities. t ion

o f

about

T hen h e

t he

a bout

p ossible

l aments

t wentieth

i nformation

t he

t he

c entury

s uch

f act

h as

p rogram m uses, a lbeit s ome-

p arallel t hat

n o

t he

d oubt

h ypothetical

e xistence

e liminated

f emale

o f

w omen 's

a ccelerated a cculturaa ny

c eremonial

s ource

g roups;

o f t he

O ceanic p eoples d iscussed i n t he p rogram l eft n either t exts n or n arrat ive a rt t o g ive u s c lues a s t o t he r ole o f w omen i n i ndigenous r itual. S uch i s n ot t he c ase w ith t he p re-Columbian p eople o f Mesoamerica. Maya Indians

o f t he C lassic p eriod

( circa

3 00-900 A .D.)

c reated e labo-

r ately c arved s tone m onuments d ocumenting t he i ntegral r ole o f w omen i n p ublic

a nd

p rivate

o f

t he Maya

l intels

c eremonies. s ite

o f

F or

Y axchilan

e xample,

t he

d epict

women

s tone

s telae

p erforming

a nd

a uto-

s acrifice a nd e xperiencing t he s ubsequently i nduced v isions

( Yaxchilan

L intel

W omen

2 5

f rom

i nvolved

i n

p riestesses ( Anawalt T he

B uilding

t he a nd

g oddesses

Maya

i dentify

K ubler

p ortrayed

a re

f ound

t itles

9 00-1520 i n

A s

a nd

t he

t he r oles

t hroughout

I nternational Post

9 6).

o n

Maya

f unerary

t he

p ages

o f Maya

i mages

p ositions

A .D.)

p erusing i n

o n

1 975:plate

a re

c eramics; m anuscripts

1 6).

I n c omparison,

f emales

a ttendant.

s ee

o ften a ccompanied s uch

( circa

Nonetheless,

p late

t he

t ime a nd p lace. p eriod

r ituals

1 981:124,

t exts l isting

2 3,

w ith c omplex h ieroglyphic

o f t he women,

l ocating

t hem i n

t he Mixtec I ndians o f t he P ost C lassic

h ad

a m uch

Mixtec o f

g oddess,

Mesoamerica

C lassic S tyle

a bbreviated

s creenfold

( a

p riestess,

d uring

t erm

t he

c oined

w riting

b ooks,

w e a nd

s ystem. e asily

c eremonial

f luorescence b y

R obertson,

w omen a re r ecognized b y t heir a ttire ( see Anawalt 1 981:213).

11q

c an

o f

t he

1 970),

L ike t heir

d escendants o f t he Mixteca C osta o f Oaxaca t oday , M ixtec w omen i n t he manuscripts w ear l ong w rap skirts a nd p oncho-like b louses t hat e ither c ome t o a p oint i n t he c enter, t he q uechquemitl ( see C odex Nuttall, p ages 1 3, 1 7, 1 9, p assim) o r ( see C odex Nuttall, p ages 5 , special c ontext ( appearing i n i n Codex Nuttall, p age 1 8) o r h ead ( Codex Nuttall p age 4 4; M ixtec-related Codex B orgia). Mixtec

p riestesses,

l ike

h ave a n e ven h orizontal h em, t he huipil 9 , p assim ). G oddesses a re i ndicated b y h eaven o r d welling i n a c ave-temple, b oth b y f antastic f eatures s uch a s a s keletal n umerous d eities a re p ortrayed i n t he

p riests,

a re

o ften

s hown

h olding

t he

purse-like b ags t hat c ontained t he c opal i ncense r eligious o fficials b urned d uring r ituals ( such a p riestess a ppear . o n C odex Nuttall p age 1 8;

a ruler a cting a s a p riestess i s s een o n C odex Selden p age

5 ).

The

p riestesses m ay a lso b e s hown p erforming s pecific r eligious a cts, s uch a s s acrif icing a b ird o r a nimal ( Codex Nuttall p age 18 ). When what i s o therwise a ssumed t o b e a s upernatural c haracter i s s hown i n a s acerdotal f unction--dancing ( Codex Selden p age 7 ), i ncensing a r itual d omain ( Codex Nuttall p age 1 8), o r v erbally c ounseling a n h istorical f igure ( Codex Selden p age 6 )--a h uman a ppearing a s a d eity i mpersonator i s p robably i ndicated. ( The d istinction i s o ften c onfusing , a nd may i n f act c ans

b e o f i mportance o nly t o n on-native s cholars : b elieved t hat t he i mpersonator " became" t he

m any N ative A merid eity.) C eremonial

a ttendants i n t he M ixtec m anuscripts a re f ound p reparing a nd s erving t he f ood a nd d rink f or r itual o ccasions, p articularly t he f oaming c hocolate s hared b y m arriage c ouples ( Codex Nuttall p ages 1 3, 2 6, 2 8). T he

A ztecs

w ere

h eir

t o

t he

a rtistic

t radition

o f

t he

M ixtec ;

D onald R obertson h as c onvincingly d emonstrated t hat t he s tyle o f A ztec r elief s culpture i s p redicated b y t he International Post C lassic c onv entions s een i n t he M ixtec b ooks ( 1951:12 p assim ; 1 97 0 ). N o d oubt t he A ztecs w ere h eir t o m any o ther Mixtec c ultural p henomena a s w ell. Unfortunately, t here a re n o k nown A ztec manuscripts t hat a re u ncontestably f rom t he p re-European e ra. I n o rder t o a scertain w hether A ztec w cmen, l ike t heir M aya a nd M ixtec p redecessors, w ere s imilarly i mportant i n r itual, w e m ust t urn t o b ooks c reated a fter t he S panish C onquest. T his p aper examines a p air o f e arly c olonial m anuscripts o n t he A ztecs i n o rder t o e xplore t he r ole o f wa nen i n t he o fficial r eligion. T he d ocuments i nspected h ere, a mong t he e arliest e xtant t exts o n Native A merica, a re t he w ork o f aS panish f riar w ho s ought information o stensib ly f or c onversion p urposes. I llustrated b y A ztec a rtists, w ith g losses a nd t exts i n European s cript, t hey a re t he t o d ata f rom s ixteenth-century Indian i nformants. B ernardino o rder o f S pain.

c losest w e c an ca ne

d e Sahug l In was a f riar i n t he h umanistic F ranciscan H e c ame t o Mex ico i n 1 52 9 a nd s oon b egan w ork o n w hat

was t o b eca ne t he m ost c cmprehensive e ncyclopedic e ffort o n t he I ndians o f t he New World. T he P rimeros Memoriales, c ompleted i n 1 561 ( see G lass

1 20

a nd R obertson 1 975:188), i s t he e arliest k nown v ersion o f Sahugün 's t ext. Written while t he f riar was r esiding i n T epeapulco, i t r ecords t he l ife a nd c ulture o f t he A ztecs v ery n ear ( and c ertain ly u nder t he i nfluence o f) t he i mperial c apital. S ahagün 's F lorentine C odex ( 15758 0) i s m uch more e xtensive. C ompleted i n t he c apital o f T enochtitlan, i t b oth r eflects r egional d ifferences f rom t he d ata o f T epeapulcc a nd m ore t ightly s tructures t he f orm a nd c ontent o f t he m aterial f irst r ecorded i n t he Primeros M emoriales. The l ater d ate a nd m anifest c ontin ental p rototype o f t he F lorentine C odex ( it c learly e choes t he s truct ure o f a m edieval e ncyclopedia--see R obertson 1 959:172) a llowed i ncreased European i nfluence i n t he p resentation o f m aterial, b oth t extually a nd p ictorially. I n o rder t o a pproach a n ative v iew o f A ztec r itual, t his p aper c oncentrates o n t he d ata i n t he P rimeros Memoriales, u ses t hem a s a c onstant o r c ontrol, a nd r efers t o t he F lorentine C odex t o d ocument c hanges t hat o ccurred a fter i ncreased a cculturation t o S panish w ays.

P rimeros M e moria les:

t he Deities

C hapter I o f Sahagün 's Primeros Memoriales i s d ivided i nto f our p aragraphs o r s ections: 1 ) d eities, 2 ) p ublic c eremonies o f t he s olar y ear c alendar, 3 ) t emples a nd r itual s tructures, 14 ) s ervices a nd o ffering t o t he g ods M uch h as

( Sahagün

1 905-07:Vol.

6 ).

b een w ritten a bout A ztec s upernaturals,

N icholson 's

1 971

a rticle b eing t he b est s ummary t o d ate. Here w e s hould n ote t hat t he P rimeros M e moriales l ist i ncludes t hirty-six d eities, e ach i llustrated w ith a f ull-figure

d rawing.

These a re f ollowed b y f ive " minor "

g ods,

t he " Tepictoton," a nd b y t wo s ketchy d epictions o f p riests. O f t he f ull f igure d eities, t welve ( or o ne-third o f t he t otal) a re f emale. They a re C hicomecoatl ( #7), T eteuinan ( #1 24 ), C halchiuhtlicue ( #17), X ilonen ( #18), I zaputlteua ( #19), C ivacoatl Q uilaztli ( #20), U ixtocivatl ( #21), Y ztaccivatl C oatlicue ( #22), T ezcacoac A iopechtli ( #30), T iamaxac C ivapipiltinanaca ( #32), C hantico ( #3 24 ), a nd C halmecacivatl L ike t heir male c ounterparts, t he g oddesses a re d rawn s tanding,

( #35). f acing

t o t he l eft. E ach h olds a c ircular w ar s hield i n h er l eft h and a nd a s taff o r o ther i dentifying i nsignia i n h er r aised r ight h and. The a rticles i n t heir r ight h ands a re p erhaps t he most s ignificantly d iagn ostic p araphernalia : Chica necoatl ( figure 1 ), t he c orn g oddess, h olds a n h ourglass-shaped v essel f rom which e merge t wo c orn c obs d raped i n c orn s ilk ; T eteuinan ( figure 2 ) c arries a b room o f b ound t wigs ; C ivacoatl

( figure 3 ) g rasps t he a ngular w eaving s tick o r b atten u sed b y

wo men w ho e mploy b ack-strap l ooms. g oddess, h olds a t wo-tiered s taff

U ixtocivatl ( figure 24 ), t he s alt s plattered w ith l iquid r ubber, a s

d oes h er r elative T lalloc, t he r ain g od. c arry s imilar s taffs a nd t wo o thers w ear

( Two o f t he f ive T epictoton h eaddresses w hich a re, l ike

U ixtocivatls', c omposed o f t hree t runcated t riangles f lanked b y r osettes.) Coatlicue, a s h er n ame " She o f t he Serpent S kirts" m ight s uggest,

c arries a s erpent s taff.

C ivapipiltin

1 21

( figure 5 ) i s a n e xcep-

t ional c ase : r epresenting t he w omen w ho a re d eified a fter d eath i n c hildbirth, s he holds n either s taff n or s hield. W ithout f ace p aint o r h eaddress s kirt,

s he

a ppears

h er h air

T he

a s

a c ommon

d esigns

o f

t he

g oddesses'

f ace p aint, a nd h eaddresses. # 30,

w oman,

i n

a l ong w hite

h uipil

a nd

b raided a nd w rapped a round h er h ead.

# 34,

a nd # 35,

Each

g oddess

s hields

v ary,

a s

d o

t heir c lothes,

A ll o f t he g oddesses w ear h uipiles, e xcept

who a re a ttired i n t he t riangular q uechquemitl. i s

l abelled

w ith

h er

n ame

g loss

i n

Nahuatl

( the

l anguage s poken b y t he A ztecs a nd t he l anguage o f t he e ntire P rimeros Memoriales t ext), a nd further d iscussed b y a n a ccompanying p aragraph o f t ext. A s w e s hall s ee, t he s cribe o f t he n ext s ection d id n ot s o l ucidly l abel t he f emale c haracters p ortrayed. However, w e m ay u sed t he r epresentations o f t he g oddesses a nd o f C ivapipiltin ( as o n a n e arthly commoner) s econd s ection.

t o i lluminate t he s ignificance

Primeros Me r noriales:

t he

t he Ceremonial

o f t he f emales i n t he

C alendar

The s econd s ection o f t he Primeros Me r noriales, Cahpter I , e ighteen p ublic c eremonies o f t he s olar y ear c alendar,

a dditional f estival said t o Each

o f

d rawing a nd t here

a re

t hese

n ineteen

d escribed

n o

b e celebrated e very

w omen

i n

a n

c eremonies a djacent

d epicted

i n

t he

i s

y ears »

i llustrated

column f irst

e ight

o f Nahuatl

t hree

p resents p lus a n

b y

a f ramed

t ext.

c eremonial

While

i llustra-

t ions, t here a re s even i n t he d rawing f or t he f ourth, U ey T ozortli, G reat Vigil"

( Sullivan n .d. : 5) .

" The

I n t he u pper r ight h and c orner o f t he

r ectangular c cmposition, f our women s tand f acing r ight, t heir a rms o uts tretched

a nd

o verlapping e ach

p rocessional l ine, s tands

v ery n ear

who c arries

t he

a nd m ay

t he

b e

c enter

o ther

( figure

d ancing.

o f

t he

6 ).

T hey form a n a ctive

A f ifth

p lainly d ressed w oman

c omposition.

B elow h er i s a w oman

c ircular w ar shield

a nd h ourglass

vessel

o f c orn c obs

t hat a lly h er w ith t he c orn g oddess Chicomecoatl.

S he a lso f aces r ight,

t owards

t he

s tairs

p yramid

t emple

s eventh

f emale,

w hich

h as

who

p aired

s tands c orn

o n

c obs

t he o n

i ts

o f

r oof.

a f rontal

S he

w ears

a

d ouble r osette h eaddress r esembling t hat w orn b y Chicomecoatl i n t he d eity s eries o f t he P rimeros Manoriales. H er c lose a ssociation w ith t he t emple i ndicates t hat t he s eventh f emale m ay b e a d eity o r d eity i mpers onator. T hat i t i s t he latter i s s uggested b y t he b lood s plattered o ver h er t orso, a nd b y t he p riest w ho s tands t o h er l eft, c arrying a n i ncense b ag i n o ne h and a nd r aising t he r eddened b lade o f a s acrificial k nife i n t he o ther. The

t ext

i mpersonator, t he

c orn

o fferings,

o n Uey Tozortli m entions n o s uch s acrifice h owever.

p lant: maidens

The c elebration i s s aid t o

a fter

p eople

c arried

e ars

c ut o f

1 22

c orn

c orn

o n

s talks t heir

o f

a g oddess-

b e h eld i n h onor a nd b acks

o f

made

h ousehold

a nd

d eposited

t hem b efore

t he

t emple o f Chicomecoatl.

T he d ivergence i n i nformation

b etween t ext a nd i llustration l eaves u s w ith many q uestions a bout t he f unction a nd s ignificance o f t he d rawn f igures h ere a nd i n o ther c erem onies. S ix f emales a ppear i n T oxcatl o r " Parched T hroat"

t he i llustration o f ( Sullivan n .d. : 7).

t he f ifth c eremony, F our s tand b efore a

l arge p ost-and-lintel s tructure t hat h as c ircles d ecorating t he f ront o f i ts m ansard r oof ( figure 7 ). They h old u p s quare f lags d ecorated w ith t he s pikey s tars w hich a re d escribed i n t he t ext a s " papers s plattered w ith l iquid r ubber." W e a re t old t hat a t s undown w omen p erformed a d ance w ith s uch f lags a nd t hen l eft t hem " around t he t emple o f T ezcatlipoca." A s econd a spect o f w omen 's p articipation i n Toxcatl i s a d ance c alled t he " Toxcatl L eap. . . the w omen d anced i n t heir p opcorn n eckl aces, t heir a rms a round e ach o ther" ( Sullivan n .d.:7). T he t wo o ther w omen o f t he T oxcatl i llustration a re p ressed u p a gainst t he r ight h and f rame o f t he c omposition. T hey w ear p opcorn n ecklaces, a s i ndicated i n t he t ext. They a lso h ave t all v ertical b anners p rojecting f rom t heir h eads. I n t he p re-Columbian s ystem o f p ictorial c onventions, s imilar t all white b anners w ere o ne w ay o f i ndicating s acrifice ( see C odex N uttall p age 7 6). I f t hese a re s acrificial v ictims, why a re t hey n ot d iscussed a s s uch i n t he a ccompanying t ext? The i llustration f or c eremony s ix, E tzalcualiztli o r " The Eating o f C orn a nd B ean S tew " ( Sullivan n .d. : 8 , f n. 214 ), i ncludes a r ow o f t hree w omen i n t he u pper r ight c orner. A n a bbreviated v ersion--abbrev iated b oth i n n umber a nd a rtistic d etail--of t he d ancers i n c eremony f our, t hey p robably r epresent e ither t he s inging w omen o r t he p rocess ion m entioned i n t he a ccompanying t ext. T he t ext o f t he P rimeros Memoriales t ells u s t hat t he s eventh f estival, T ecuilhuitontli o r " The L ittle Festival o f t he L ords" ( Sullivan n .d. : 9), w as t he f estival d uring which t he s alt g oddess U ixtocivatl was s acrificed. I t i s t herefore n ot s urprising t o s ee t he i llustration d ominated b y f emales ( figure 8 ). T he i llustration i s c omposed i n t hree t iers. A t c enter t op i s a l arge f rontal t emple. O n t he p orch s tands a f emale c arrying a t all s taff a nd w earing t he t riang le-and-rosette h eaddress t hat i dentify h er a s t he g oddess o f s alt, o r h er i mpersonator. T he f rontal t emple, w ith i ts c ross-hatched mansard r oof, i s r epeated o nce o n t he c entral l evel o f t he c omposition a nd t wice m ore o n t he b ottom, e ach t ime w ith i ncreasingly r educed r epresentations o f t he g oddess p ositioned b efore i t. T o t he l eft o n t he m iddle l evel i s a p rofile o r " T-elevation" t emple ( Robertson 1 959:19), i n f ront o f w hich s tands a p riest w ith i ncense b ag a nd s acrificia l k nife. B elow h im, o n t he b ottom l evel, i s a nother T-elevation t emple. What a ppears t o b e aT epictoton r ests o n t he t emple p orch ; o f

c orn.

1 23

b efore h im i s a d ouble e ar

The

t ext

t ells u s

t hat Tecuilhuitontli

w as

a t ime w hen

t he w omen

s ang " arrayed i n g arlands o f w ormwood f lowers" ( Sullivan n .d. : 10), b ut s uch s ingers d o n ot a ppear i n t he i llustration : a nother c ase o f d iverg ence

b etween U ey

p icture a nd t ext.

Tecuihuitl

n .d. : 10) , t he

o r

e ighth

" The

Great

c eremony,

Festival

was

w hen

o f

t he

t he

Lords"

g oddesses

( Sullivan

X ilonen

a nd

C ivacoatl w ere s acrificed. I n t he d eity s ection, X ilonen i s s hown w ith a h eaddress d istinguished b y t wo d angling e lements ; t he f emale b efore t he r ight-hand t emple i n t he f estival i llustration w ears s imilar g ear ( figure s econd

9 ).

She

i s

t emple a nd

t he d eity s ection. l ong sacrificial

p aired

w ears

w ith

a s econd

a q uechquemitl

T hese

t wo

b anners.

f ace

f igure

l ike

w ho

t hat

s tands

b efore

w orn b y C ivacoatl

t wo we i nen f rom w hose

h eads

a i n

p roject

A re w e s eeing t wo s tages o f t he c eremony--the

d eity i mpersonators a ppearing b efore t he t emples,

t hen dying i n s acri-

f ice? In t he l ower h alf o f t he Uey Tecuilhuitl w ho s tands k nife

a nd

b efore i ncense

b ag.

r epresent t hose w ho,

H e

f aces

a s t he t ext

s kirts a nd h uipiles a nd. a nd o n t heir h eads. w ear g arlands;

i llustration i s

a p riest

aT -elevation t emple a nd a gain c arries a s acrificial

. . "

a r ow

t ells

o f

u s,

t hree

w omen

w ho

n o

d oubt

" dressed t hemselves i n n ew

. . wore g arlands o f f lowers a round t heir n ecks ( Sullivan n .d. : 10).

These t hree w omen d o n ot

t heir d epiction s eems a s c onventionalized a s t hat o f t he

p riest. Just a s t he p resence o f t he p riest p robably m eant s acrifice o f a g oddess i mpersonator i n c eremonies f our, s even, and e ight ( he d oes n ot a ppear a gain w ith t he s ame raised knife i n t he r emainder o f t he P rimeros Memoriales c eremonial c alendar i llustrations), s o t he r ows o f w omen i n c eremonies f our, s ix, a nd e ight must h ave i ndicated a w omen 's r ite. c ontent

t he

s pecific

r ite--the

s pecific s ong,

d ance,

The

p rocession--must

h ave b een c learly c lued b y p ictorial c ontext i n p re-Columbian p rotot ypes, r eady f or r ecitation o f t he m emorized e xplanation b y t he r eligious w ho " read" A ztec b ooks. t o

v isual

s timulii

i n

t he

A ztec o ral

manuscripts

c ontrolled t exts t hat r emain a re

i s

h istory a nd i ts r elation

n ow

l ost.

T he

o ften f rustratingly v ague.

EuropeanW e s imply

d o n ot k now e xactly what w omen ' sr ite i s r epresented i n t he d epiction o f U ey T ecuilhuitl. W omen 's

r ituals a re

n ot

i llustrated w ith e ither

c eremony n ine o r

t en, b ut a f emale f igure w ho c arries t he shield o f c oncentric c ircles a nd t wig b room i dentifying h er a s Teteuinan d oes a ppear. I n n ine ( Micailhuitontli), s he f aces t he f our p riests w ho d rag i nto t own t he t ree s oon t o b e t ransformed i nto t he x ocotl p ole. I n t en ( Uey M iccailhuitl) , s he s tands i n t he u pper l eft c orner, o pposite t he p rize a top t he p ole. A lthough t here i s n o m ention o f w omen o r g oddess f or c era nony o fferings

t en, t o

t he

t ext

d oes

s ay

Teteuinan

t he p ole d uring c eremony n ine

a nd

t he

n oble

w omen

m ade

( Sullivan n .d.:11).

Teteuinan was s acrificed d uring O chpaniztli o r " Sweeping" ( Sullivan n .d. : 13), c eremony e leven. T he l arge, c omplex i llustration f or

t his

f estival

c ontains

e ight

r epresentations

1 2 1 4

o f

f emales

( figure

1 0).

F our c arry t he g oddess '

t wig b room a nd c oncentric c ircle s hield ;

f our o thers w ear h er s pun c otton h eaddress. T he f our w ith b rooms a nd s hields o ccupy t he u pper r ight q uarter o f t he c omposition. T hey a re e ach a ssociated w ith a c omplex f orm o f f olded p aper c overed w ith s platt ered l iquid r ubber. T hose w ith c otton h eadgear a re a rrayed i n t he u pper l eft. T hree h old t he o utstretched l imbs o f af ourth ; t he s acrific ial k nife r aised b y o ne o f t he t hree h olders a lludes t o t he f ate o f t he p rone f ourth f igure. A lthough t he t ext t ells u s t hat A ztec w omen s ang f or t wenty d ays d uring t his f estival, n o p erformers s eem t o b e p ortrayed i n t he O chpaniztli i llustration. T he t ext a lso d iscusses t he f act t hat a fter t he i mpersonator o f T eteuinan was s acrificed, s he was f layed a nd " a m an d ressed h imself i n h er s kin" ( Sullivan n .d.:1 5 ). H e t hen w ent t o t he c ourtyard o f t he T emple o f Huitzilopochlti, t he A ztec p atron w ar g od. L ater, a mask made o f t he s kin o f t he i mpersonator w as p laced o n t op o f a p ole. This i s r epresented i n t he Primeros Memoriales i llustration b y a h ead o n t op o f l adder-like s tructure. T he t wo b anners p rojecting a bove t he h ead u nderscore i ts s acrificial o rigin. T he t ext t ells u s t hat t he O chpaniztli f estival c oncluded w ith m ock c ombat i n f ront o f a r epresentation o f t he g oddess. " For t his r eason s he ( Teteuinan) w as c alled ' W o man Warrior '" ( Sullivan n .d:1 6 ). T he men w ith raised m acana w eapons a nd t iny c ircular s hields b efore t he l adder a ppear t o b e p erforming s uch mock c ombat.

a rrayed

The o nly w omen w ho a ppear i n t he t welfth c eremon ial i llustration a re f ound c lose t o t he l eft-hand f rame. T hey s it w ith t heir l egs d rawn u p u nder t heir b odies, a s d o w omen i n A ztec s tone s culpture ( Kubler 1 975:plate

3 1B ).

T heir

o utstretched

h ands

p roffer

c ircular

o bjects

s urmounted b y w hat a ppear t o b e s evered h ands o r c laws ( ?). T he t ext o n T eteo E co o r " The Gods Arrive" ( Sullivan n .d.:1 6 ) s ays t hat i t w as a t ime

f or

f eathers"

t he

o fferings

( this

o f

f irst

f ruits

which

w ere

" adorned

w ith

r ed

p hrase may b e a l inguistic p un f or t he s evered i tems).

Women a re absent f rom t welve. T hey d o n ot a ppear

b oth i llustration a nd t ext o f f estival i n t he i llustration o f c eremony t hirteen,

e ither ; t he t ext c learly s tates, " Only t he m en d anced. h unting c elebration ( Sullivan n .d.:1 7 ).

. . " d uring t his

I n c ontrast, t he t ext o n t he f ifteenth c eremony, P anquetzaliztli, s ays t hat " all t he maidens a nd y ouths d anced" ( Sullivan n .d.:1 9 ). B ut t he ma idens a re e xcluded f rom t he i llustration o f t he main c eremony d edicated t o Huitzilopochtli. A temortli

o r " Descent

o f

t he Water"

( Sullivan n .d.:20),

t he

t eenth c eremony, was w hen d ough f igures o f t he T epictoton w ere a nd " sacrificed" b y h aving t heir h eads c ut o ff b y w omen 's b attens. The i llustration c ontains f our f emales a nd f our males 1). A t t op, f rom l eft t o r ight, a re a male c arrying a n i ncense

s ix-

c reated w eaving ( figure b ag a nd

h olding a m acana w eapon, a f emale w ho s tands b efore a f lat-roofed t emple

1 25

a nd c arries a t wo-tiered s taff l ike t hat o f t he Tepictoton, a nd a X ilonen f igure holding a b owl i n h er o utstretched h ands. B ehind X ilonen i s a c olumn o f f our s ymbols f or r ain o r p recious j ewel. The l ower h alf f igures a lternating

o f t he A temortli c omposition male-female. T hey s tand o n

i s f illed b y s mall p etate

f ive m ats

f acing l eft, a nd h old b owls i n t heir p rojecting a rms. B efore e ach i s a v essel w ith a r ing h andle a t i ts l ip. N one o f t he " offering f igures" o r a ttendants i s e xplained i n t he t ext. L ike n ies,

t hose

o f

t he

f ourth,

s eventh,

t he s eventeenth i llustration

e ighth,

f ocuses o n t he

a nd

e leventh c eremo-

r epresentation

o f

a

g oddess. T he s eventeenth c eremony i s c alled Tititl o r " Stretching " ( Sullivan n .d.:21). I n t his c ase, C ivacoatl i s c learly i dentified b y t he w eaving s tick , q uechquemitl, a nd h eavy f ace p aint. S he s tands i n t he

c enter

o f

t emple-pyramid.

t he

c omposition,

b efore

a

c arefully

l imned

f rontal

A t h er f eet a re t wo b ags, t ied w ith r ope, a nd d escribed

i n t he t ext a s t he " barn p layful m ock c ombat.

o wl"

b ags

w ith

which

Around C ivacoatl a re a rrayed s even g ods.

m en

s truck

w omen

i n

C lockwise f rom t op , t hey

a re Atlaua ( #25 i n t he P rimeros Memoriales d eity l ist), T ezcatlipoca ( #3), I xtlilton ( #12) ( or p ossibly Macuilxochitl, # 29), H uitzilopochtli ( #1), T lalloc ( #6), a nd Q uetzalcoatl ( #4). T his i s a n i mpressive l ist, t he k ey p owers o f t he m ale s upernatural h ierarchy, b ut C ivacoatl i s d epicted a s l arger t han t hey, a nd c ompositionally d ominant. T he t ext s tates t hat t his was a t ime w hen a ll t he g ods d anced, a nd t hat t he f estival w as a lso c alled " Ilamatecuhtli's Leap" ( Ilamatecuhtli b eing a nother n ame f or C ivacoatl). T he t ext a dds t hat a t t his t ime t he p riest d ressed a s t he C ivateteo ( another t erm f or t he C ivapipiltin, t he w omen w ho d ied i n c hildbirth). A lthough t his e vent i s n ot i llustrated, i t s hould b e r emembered, a s c ross-dressing w as a m ajor c omponent o f A ztec r itual. T he h istorical c hronicles t ell u s t hat w hen t he C olhuacän p rincess was s acrificed b y a n A ztec p riest, h e d onned h er f layed s kin a nd d ress. T hat t his e vent w as r itually r epeated i n O chpaniztli i s s uggested b y t he t exts a s well

( see Brown 1 984).

The p rime m inister o f t he A ztec e mpire

o ften d ressed a s t he g oddess C ivacoatl w hen a ppearing i n s tate ( see K lein 1 979). C ross-dressing c ontinues i n M exican f estivals t oday, w here m en d ress a s w omen a nd d ramatically e nact p roper ( or h ysterically i mproper) f emale b ehavior ( Esser 1 979). T he l ast o f t he e ighteen s olar y ear f estivals d iscussed i n t he P rimeros Memoriales i s I zcalli o r " growth" ( Sullivan n .d.:22 ). I zcalli i s s aid t o h ave i ncluded " the e ating o f t he a maranth g reens t amales," " the s owing o f s eeds a new," t he " stretching" o f c hildren a nd o f v arious p lants t o e nsure r apid g rowth, a nd t he d ancing a nd d rinking o f a lcoholic b everages

b y c hildren.

1 26

None t ion.

o f

t hese

Instead,

s ixteen

e vents

w e

h ave

i s

d epicted

a " re-make"

i n

o f

t he

t he

c orresponding i llustra-

i llustration

f or

c eremony

( Atemortli), w ith a d eity i n ac entral f rontal t emple f lanked b y

a p riest o n t he l eft a nd a w oman ( apparently n ot a g oddess t his t ime) o n t he r ight. B elow t hem a re t he a lternating male-female f gures w ith o ffering

b owls,

r inged

v essels,

a nd

p etate

m ats.

The

d eity

i n

t he

c enter i s a male--I mozauhqui--not a f emale Tepictoton a s i n t he c opied p rototype.

B ut t he

o therwise, t ext

t he

c omposition was

s ense

t hat

c oncludes

h eld,

exactly l ike t he o ne h eld i n A temortli" Atamalcualiztli

o r

w ith " .

" The

. . at

Eating

o f

r epeated,

s undown

s o

i t m akes

a p rocession

Water

Tamales"

( Sullivan

n .d.:24) i s unique i n b eing g iven a full p age i llustration a nd i n d iscussed a s a festival

c elebrated e very e ight

i s d escribed a s a " movable" s ometimes i n Tepiehuitl.

f east, c elebrated Perhaps "feast"

A tamalcualiztli

a t ime

b egan

w ith

o f o f

I ndians

f rom

Tlalloe,

g rabbed

f rogs

a nd

s nakes

a nd t hen d anced w ith t hem.

y ears.

b eing

A tamalcualiztli

s ometimes i n Q uecholli, i s a m isleading t erm :

f asting.

i mpersonators d anced i n t he g uises

w as

( Sullivan n .d.:23).

Then

numerous

b irds a nd i nsects. a p ool

b efore

d eity

T he Mazateca t he

t emple

o f

T he p eriod o f a bstinence w as e nded

w ith a g reat s upper o f f ruit t amales a nd t he r itual o f c orn.

d istribution o f b ins

The Atamlcualiztli i llustration, r inged b y t he f ootprints i ndicati ng m ovement o r d irection, i ncludes t hirty-four f igures, a re

c learly f emale.

s hields

a nd

F our o f t hese a re g oddesses.

s taffs,

Chicomecoatl

( goddess

# 7

o f which e ight

S tanding w ith t heir i n

t hc

d eity

l ist),

C halchiuhtlicue T ezcacoac C uipechtli ( #30), a nd X ilonen ( #18) a lternate o n t he r ight h alf o f t he c omposition b etween s even g ods. A n e arthly

w oman

s its

u nder

t he

t hatch

r oof

o f

a c ommoner's

o thers s it t heir l egs s imilarly c urled u nderneath t hem, v essels o ut t o e ither s ide o f Tlalloc's s erpent p ool. b ottom o f t he c omposition,

a w oman s its w eaving o n t he

t hat i s t ied t o a f lowering t ree.

h ome.

T wo

a nd h old f ood A t t he c enter b ackstrap l oom

T wo f eather t ufts s et i nto h er c oiled

h air i ndicate h er e lite s tatus. n ineteen

s olar

c alendar f estival i llustrations o f Sahagün 's Primeros Memoriales.

T hus

w e

s ee

f emales

d epicted

i n

t hirteen

o f

t he

Many

o f t hose r epresented a re d eities o r d eity i mpersonators:

g oddesses a re

o f t he c eremonial d rawings ( in i llustrations 4 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 , 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 8 , and 1 9). T hey a re t he f ocus o f i llustrations 4 , 7 , 8 , 1, 1 6, a nd 1 7, o r t hirty p ercent o f t he t otal. d epicted i n h alf

B ut m ere w ho

t here

a re many f emales

p articipants p repare,

s erve,

e nactors, i .e., ( Ochpaniztli), I t

s eems

g oddesses

( or

( dancers, o ffer

w ho

a re

s ingers) f ood),

o r

o r

n ot

g oddesses.

c eremonial t hey

c an

b e

T hese

a ttendants p owerful

c an b e ( those r itual

p riestesses, a s i s p articularly o bvious i n c eremony # 11 w here t hey h old a nd s acrifice a f emale v ictim.

o bvious t heir

t hat

t he

f emales

o f

i mpersonators)--were

1 27

t he

o f

s upernatural

c rucial

r ealm--the

i mportance

t o

t he

A ztec r itual s tructure. I n t he P rimeros Memoria les a ccount, t hey d ominate s ix o f t he c eremonial i llustrations, a ppear i n f our m ore. E arthly w omen a ppear i n n ine o r f ifty p ercent o f t he i llustrations. ( In c ontrast, while e arth ly males a ppear i n a ll b ut t wo i llustrations, male d eities a ppear i n o nly n ine.)

o f t he c ere non ial

B ut t he Primeros Memoriales d oes n ot c larify t he r ole ( s )o f t hese e arthly w omen. Wh ich w ere p riestesses? W hat w ere t heir f unctions? Which o f t he d ancers/singers/ceremon ial s ervants p erformed s ociallys pecialized f unctions f or which t hey w ere h ie ily t rained? f igures r epresent t he " masses," i f a ny?

W h ich d rawn

What, f or e x ample, d o t he s cribes m ean w hen t hey w rite ( of t he T oxcatl c eremony), " Each w oman w ent a long d ancing, c arrying p apers s plattered w ith l iquid r ubber"? D o t hey mean a ll t he w omen o f t he t own? O r d o t hey m ean t hey mean

w hen

a ll

t he w omen

t hey w rite

o f a c ertain

( of Tecuilhtuil)

t hey d anced i n t heir n ew c lothes?

r eligious t hat

Which wa nen?

t he

o rder? w omen

W hat d o

s ang ,

t hat

Sometimes t he i ssue i s

c lear, a s w hen t hey w rite ( of Mic a .ilhuitontli) t hat t he n oble w omen made o fferings o r ( of O chpaniztli) " Everyone, a ll t he p eople, d anced" ( Sullivan n .d.:1 14 ). B u t o ften t he meaning r emains o bscure. A lthough w e c an i dentify f emales ( or t hose a cting a s f emales) b y t heir a ttire i n t he i llustrations, i t i s s ometime s n ot s o e asy t o d o s o i n t he Nahuatl t ext o f S ahag t in 's Primeros Memoriales. F or while t here a re v ery e xplicit Nahuatl n ouns f or w omen ( especially c ihuatl), t he l anguage 's p ersonal p ronouns a re v ague. Y ehuatl c an m ean h e o r s he ; te- c an mean ( to) h im o r ( to) h er ; c an m ean h is o r h ers ( Anderson 1 973:17-19). C ontrary t o w hat m ight b e e xpected f rom t he v isual i nform ation, n o w ords e xpressly f or p riestess a re f ound i n t he P rimeros Memoriales c eremonial d escriptions. t lateochivalli a nd t eopixqui f or p riest

B ut a lthough Molina ( "sacerdote" i n S panish ;

l ists M olina

1 977:107), t he t wo t erms c an b e u sed t o r efer t o s acerdotal p ersonages o f e ither s ex. P arts o f t he P rimeros Me noriales t ext c an t hus b e i nterpreted a s a mbiguous a s t o s exual d esignation. T he

c onfusion

i s

c ompounded

w hen

t he

p roduction

o f

Sahag t in ' s

Primeros Me r noriales i s exam ined. E llen T . B aird 's d issertation ( 1979) i s t he most c omplete s tudy o f t he P rimeros Memoriales p ictoria ls t o d ate. A cknow ledging t hat t he p resent f ormat o f t he Primeros M emoria les f ollows t hat o f a European b ook ( Baird 1 979:52), s he f eels t hat t he i llustrations f or t he e ighteen c eremonies w ere c opied f rom a p reconq uest t ira o r s creenf o ld manuscript ( R aird 1 979:87), a nd t hat t hey p receded t he a cc a npanying t ext ( Baird 1 979:114). Austin w ho s uggests t hat t he t ext w as d eveloped

B aird c ites L opgz f rom r esponses t o a

q uestionnaire S ahag t in c reated : B ased

o n

t he

o rder

o f

i nformation g iven,

L opgz

Austin s uggests t hat t he q uestions w ere t he f oll owing : 1 . What i s t he n ame o f t his e nce t o t he r ectangle d rawing)?

1 28

f east ( in r eferc ontaining t he

2 .

Why i s a rouses

3 .

What

i t c alled t hat h is c uriosity)?

h uman

s acrifices

( when

o r

t he

n ame

o fferings

w ere

made f or t his f east? 4 .

H ow w as

5 .

O n

t he

w hat

c eremony p erformed?

d ate

o f

t he

J ulian

c alendar

d id

this m onth fall? The

o rder

v aries

o nly

i n

t he

material

o n

t he

f irst t wo m onthly f easts. ( Lopez

A ustin

B aird c ontinues,

1 974:125,

M3 ahagdn 's

q uoted in B aird

u se

1 979:112)

o f a q uestionnaire a nd

h is a dher-

e nce t o it h elp e xplain w hy o ne-half o f t he t exts g ive l ess o r d ifferent i nformation t han t he a ccompanying d rawing s.

Sahagdn d id n ot a sk f or a n

i temized i dentification o f a ll t he f igures a nd o bjects i n e ach d rawing ; h e

a sked f or r esponses t o h is Of c ourse Sahagdn w as

q uestions"

male.

( 1979:112).

H e t ells u s

h is

p rincipales

( native

n oble men)--informants a nd h is g ramäticos ( the s tudents t rained a t t he College o f Santa Cruz, T latelolco, whom Sahagün u sed a s s cribes) w ere a ll male a s w ell.

( Baird

t he a rtist/copyists y oung s cribes w ere p riesthood. n ot

a ppear

The t o

t he

q uestionnaire,

h ave

t he c eremonies.

[ 1979:219 ]

h ypothesizes t hat t he s cribes w ere

o f t he i llustrations.) t rained i n a t radition

Neither S ahagün n or t he t hat s upported a f emale

a s r econstructed b y L opez Austin,

e ncouraged

d iscussion

o f

w omen 's

d oes

p articipation

i n

W here t hen m ay we l ook t o g arner f urther i nformation o n

r ole o f w omen i n A ztec r itual?

Primeros Memoriales : One

s ource

C hapter I , s paces

S ervices t o t he G ods

i s

i tself.

t he

f ourth

( in s ection t hree),

( services

t o

t he

d iscussed

( is

i t

r epeats

s ection

o f

t he

Primeros

Memoriales,

F ollowing d iscussion o f t he t emples a nd o ther s acred i s

g ods). more

a l ist

o f

E ighteen

t han

t he

" Servicios

s ervices

a c oincidence

a re

t hat

t he n umber o f s olar y ear c eremonies?).

a l os D ioses"

i llustrated

t his

n umber

a nd

e xactly

A ll s how s ingle f igures

e ngaged i n t he i ndicated r itual a ct, e xcept s ervice # 17, w hich i ncludes f ive

f igures

f lanking a c entral

s tructure.

Of t he

s ix--including t he f irst f our--are female f igures. f emale ;

e ighteen s ervices, T he f igure i s

a lso

a nd o ne w o man i s i ncluded i n t he s eventeenth d rawing.

The

f irst

s ervice

commoner i n skirt

a nd

d epicted,

h uipil,

T lamanaliztli,

holding a b owl

o bjects a nd a t ripod c ontaining a s evered h and t he i llustration f or Teteo E co Tlamanaliztli m eans "offering" ( it

shows

a

c ontaining f our ( figure

f or s imilar i s t ranslated

1 2a;

w oman,

a

c ircular

a lso c onsult

" severed h ands"). a s o frecimiento i n

Molina 1 977:90); t he t ext t ells u s t hat b oth f ood ( "from a ll k inds o f l iving things") and c apes ( i.e., t extiles) w ere o ffered t o t he "devil" 2 b y t he

y oung w cmen.

3

1 29

T lenamaquiliztli

i s

t he o ffering o f

t his was d one b y b oth men a nd women ;

c opal

i ncense.

t he i llustration

T he

( figure

t ext s ays 1 2b) s hows

a w oman w ith a c lay i ncense l adle f rom w hich r ise s ix c urves o f p erfumed s moke. C opaltemaliztli i s t he c asting o f c opal

i ncense, which w as d one b y

t ossing nuggets o f t he r esin f rom a g ourd v essel i nto a b razier f ull o f c oals. T his w as d one " when a ny w eighty w ords w ere y et t o b e s aid" ( Sahagdn 1 951:182). A w oman e xtends h er h ands o ver t he s moking b razier i n t he P rimeros Memoriales i llustration ( figure 1 2c). The e arth, T his

f ourth

which

was

w as

v ery

i llustration t owards

s ervice d one

s acred ( figure

t o

t o

t he

g ods

s wear

t o

i s T lalqualiztli,

a s tatement

r ite

( Sahagdn

1 2d),

a w oman

o r

1 951:182). b ends,

t o

I n

t he

e ating

s how h igh

o f

h onor.

t he T lalqualiztli

p ointing

h er

i ndex

f inger

d irt a t h er f eet.

The

e ighteenth

o r l ast

s ervice

i s Tlachpanaliztli,

t he

s weeping .

A w cman i s s hown w ith t he s ame k ind o f b room t hat t he g oddess T eteuinan c arries

i n t he c eremonial d epictions

b oth g enders made t he s weeping Service # 17, t he g od i n

( Sahagdn

x icolli

( figure

o ffering

T euquauquetzaliztli, 1 951:186).

g arments

f lank

1 4),

( Sahagdn

i s t he p iling u p o f f irewood f or

I n t he i llustration a r itual

b ut t he t ext t ells u s 1 951:186).

s tructure,

( figure t he

t wo

1 3),

f our m en

c losest

t o

i t

a ctually a ppearing t o h old i t u p. T o t he f ar r ight a w oman a pproaches, c arrying a b unch o f w ood w ith ' u he t umpline s uspended f rom h er f orehead. Her p osition a nd c ontext r ecall t hat o f t he t eomane o r " god-carriers" o f A ztec h istorical m anuscripts. P eregrinaci6n ( Codice B otturini), t hree

m en

a nd

t hroughout a re,

a s

a w oman--carrying

t he A ztec

m ight

P articularly i n t he T ira d e l a w e s ee f our h ighly r anked p ersons--

b e

m igration

p resumed,

t he

p araphernalia

f rom A ztlän

t he

o riginal

o f

t he

p atron

t o T enochtitlan.

p riests

a nd

g od

I f t hese

p riestess

o f

t he

A ztec t ribe, t hey m ay b e i nterpreted a s a ncient r itual a rchetypes. T he i nclusion o f a w oman m ust i ndicate t hat t here w as a l ong h istory o f f emales i mages

c arrying a lso

o bjects

i nclude

o f

a w oman

C odex Nuttall

p ages

1 7 a nd

A lthough

w omen

a re

a nd

f or

a mong

t he

A ztec

a q uartet

g ods.

o f

( Early

M ixtec

p riestly f igures;

s ee

1 8.).

n either

i llustrated

n or

c learly

d iscussed

i n

t erms o f t he m ore b loody a spects o f A ztec c eremonialism ( as a nimal a nd h uman s acrificial s laying, o r t he d rawing o f s traws a nd t horn t hrough t he b ody i n s elf-inflicted p enitence), a nd

d iscussed

a s

i ntegral

s acerdotal f unctions,

t o

t he

t hey a re n onetheless i llustrated

s ervices

t o

t he

g ods,

t hat

i s,

t o

i n t he f ourth s ection o f t he P rimeros Memoriales.

D etails f rom t he T ira d e l a P eregrinaci6n i ndicate t his r ole h ad a l ong h istory a mong t he A ztecs.

1 30

T he F lorentine C odex :

S ervices t o t he G ods

T he e xact l ist o f e ighteen s ervices t o t he g ods i s r epeated i n S ahagün 's l ater e ncyclopedic t ome, t he F lorentine C odex ( Sahagün 1 951:181-86), l argely w ithout i llustrations, h owever. T hese e ighteen a re t hen a mplified b y t wenty-one a dditional s ervices, C ihuapacuiquiztli, " Singing i n t he M anner o f a W oman"

i ncluding ( Sahagün

1 951:188). I n t he F lorentine C odex , t he s ervices a re f ollowed b y " A T rue R elation o f a ll T hose W ho S erved i n t he H ouses o f t he G ods" ( Sahagün 1 951:193-201). O nly t wo o f t he t hirty-eight " servers i n t he g od h ouses" ( read " priests") a re o bviously f emale : t he C ivaquacuilli ( Old P riestess) i n c harge o f t he o fferings a t t he T emple o f A tenchicalan ( i.e., t he T emple o f T eteuinan) a nd t he C ihoaquacuilli i ztac c ihoacoatl w ho w as i n c harge o f t he s weeping a nd l aying o f f ire a t t he T eteuinan t emple ( Sahagün 1 951:197-98). " And a ny w ho m ade s upplication ( to t he g oddess) s poke t o t he I ztac c ivatl c uiaquacuilli. T his o ne d etermined a ll t hat w as d one h ere a t ( the T emple o f) A tenchicalcan" ( Sahagün 1 951:198). I f a w oman w as h ead p riestess a t t he T eteuinan t emple, a nd T eteuinan w as a s r itually i mportant a s t he P rimeros M emoriales i llustrations m ight i ndicate ( she i s t he o nly g oddess i n t hree c eremonial i llustrations, t he f ocus o f t he m ajor f estival O chpaniztli), t hen w e h ave a c lear t extual i ndication o f a v ery i mportant w oman i n A ztec r itual. I f o r h ow t his p riestess i s i llustrated i n t he S ahaguntine c orpus i s a nother q uestion. She d oes n ot s eem t o a ppear i n t he F lorentine C odex i llustrations o f t he c eremonial c alendar ( figures 1 -49, f ollowing p age 1 02 i n S ahagün 1 951). Unlike t he P rimeros Memoriales, t he F lorentine C odex i s n ot c onsistent w ith a o ne-to-one r elation o f i llustration t o c eremonial d escription. S ome c eremonies h ave s everal f ramed i llustrations: T lacaxipehualiztli, t he s econd f estival, h as t welve , A tamalcualiztli ( called " Ixcocauhqui" i n t he F lorentine C odex) h as f ifteen. O thers, a s t he f irst, a re n ot i llustrated a t a ll. A nd w hile t he o verall t otal o f f estival c alendar i llustrations i n t he F lorentine C odex i s g reater t han t hat o f t he P rimeros M emoriales ( forty-nine i n t he f ormer c ompared t o n ineteen i n t he l atter),

t he

p roportion w hich c ontains w omen i s l ess.

W omen a re s hown w ashing t heir h air d uring T lacaxipehauliztli ( Florentine C odex c eremonial i llustration 1 0), o ffering c orn d uring U ei T ocortli o fferings f estival.

( illustration 1 3). T he g oddess C hicomecoatl r eceives f rom m en i n i llustration 1 4, a lso f or t he U ei T ocortli Women f orm p art o f a n o n-looking c rowd i n i llustration 1 6 f or

t he T oxcatl f estival. They a ccompany t he s alt g oddess w ith o fferings i n i llustration 2 4 ( Tecuilhuitontli f estival), a lthough m ales s acrifice t he g oddess-impersonator i n t he f ollowing p ictorial

" barn

p anel.

T he i llustration f or T ititl, #33, s hows m en t hrowing a t w omen t he o wl" b ags s een a t C ivacoatl 's f eet i n t he P rimeros M emoriales

1 31

v ersion. A w oman p ulls h er c hild 's e ars t o " stretch" h er f or g rowth i n t he I zcalli i llustration 3 4. I xcocauhqui, l ike t he P rimeros M emoriales A tamalcualiztli, i s v isu ally u nique. I t i s p ortrayed b y f ifteen i llustrations a nd w omen a re i n m ost o f t hem. Women r eceive f ood ( #35) a nd p repare i t ( #36). a dmonish y ouths ( #38), t hen g ive t hem d rink ( #43). Women r eceive t iles ( #40), t ake b abies ( #41) a nd y ouths ( #42) t o t he t emples. a lso d o m uch t alking , a s t he n umerous s peech s crolls i ndicate # 44). T he c eremonial

d escriptions

T hey t exT hey ( #42,

i n t he F lorentine C odex a re l onger b y

m any t imes t han t he c orresponding o nes i n t he P rimeros Memoriales. Women a re m entioned i n r eference t o m any r ituals, b ut a gain t here i s n o c lear i ndication o f t heir r ank o r r ole. A nd w hile t he t ext o n t he f irst e ighteen s ervices t o t he g ods v ery c losely p arallels t hat o f t he Primeros Memoriales, o nly o ne s ervice o f t he t en i llustrated i n t he F lorentine C odex i ncludes a w oman ( Tlachpanaliztli, i llustration 5 3).

F lorentine C odex :

What Women D id a t t he Temples

That n either S ahagdn h imself n or h is i nformants a nd s cribes c ons idered w omen 's r ole a p riority i s m anifest i n t he l ast e ntry t o B ook I I o f t he F lorentine C odex. " Account o f W hat t he Women D id T here a t t he T emples" s eems a n a fterthought, a r eluctant c oda ( Sahagün 1 951:215-16 , i .e., t he v ery e nd o f t he v olume). A lthough t he s ection b egins " Behold t he l ife o f ap riestess w hom ( their m others) v owed ( to s ervice) t here i n t he g reat t emple" a ll t hat i s r eally d escribed i s: 1 ) t hat p arents c ould d edicate t heir d aughters t o t he t emple a t v ery y oung a ge; 2 ) t hat t he c hild w ould l eave b rooms a nd i ncense a t t he t emple e very t wenty d ays; a nd f inally 3 ) t hat t he t emple w as a ctually e ntered b y maidens w ho p erformed w hat i s c alled a " veiling c eremony." T he

b rief

a ccount

c oncludes

b y

s aying t hat

i f

t he

w oman,

t hen a

p riestess ( "cihoatlamacazqui") w ere a sked i n m arriage, s he w ould t ake h er o fferings a nd p erform a nother " veiling." T his l ast i s a mbiguous a t b est. l eave

J acques S oustelle i nterprets i t t o m ean t hat t he w omen w ould t he t emples f or m arriage, a dding, " But i t a ppears t hat m any p re-

f erred t o g ive t hemselves u p e ntirely t o r eligion "

( 1955:73 ).

S oustelle d oes n ot m ake c lear w hy h e s ays m any p referred t he r itual l ife. P erhaps h e, t oo, s tudied t he r epresentations o f w omen i n t he P rimeros Memoriales a nd Florentine Codex c eremonial i llustrations a nd l ikewise c oncluded t hat w omen p layed a k ey r ole i n A ztec r eligion a nd h istory. B ut i f h e t hen t urned t o t he t exts a ccompanying S ahagdn 's p ictorials, h e w ould h ave f ound t he a llusions t o w omen 's r oles e lusive a t

b est.

O nly

h inted

a t

i n

t he

d rawings

a nd

v irtually l ost

i n

t he

q uestionnaire/interview p rocess ( and i ts f urther r eduction i n l ater c olonial w riting), i nformation a bout w omen 's r ole i n A ztec r itual--like

1 32

t he

d ata

o n

m any

s acred

o r

European s ocieties--remains

s ecret

a spects

o f

w omen 's

l ives

i n

n on-

a n e vocative m ystery.

C onclusions T his

p aper

h as

e xamined

t he

p ictorial

a nd

t extual

i nformation o f

t he w ork o f F ray B ernardino d e S ahagün i n o rder t o e xplore t he r ole o f w omen i n A ztec p ublic r itual. T he e arlier o f Sahagün 's i llustrated w orks,

t he

P rimeros

Memoriales,

was

e mphasized

a s

i t

m anifests

l ess

E uropean i nfluence t han t he l ater F lorentine C odex. G oddesses were u nquestionably i mportant t hirty-six

d eities

Memoriales,

t welve

i s

l isted

i n

p assage i n Nahuatl

f igure

f estival

p aragraph I I

o f

t he

A ztecs ,

I o f

t he

a re f emale.

d rawing a nd

o f

t he

P rimeros

E ach d eity

d escribed i n a a djacent

t he

P rimeros Memoriales

i s

d evoted t o

f emale c haracters a re f ound i n t hirteen o f t he n ineteen

i llustrations. c eremonies

g oddesses

t he

A ztec d eities, t he e ighteen s olar y ear A tamalcualiztli. Women a ppear i mportant

O f t he t otal

f ifteen a re c learly g oddesses. o n

a mong

p aragraph

t ext.

t he c eremonies i n h onor o f f estivals p lus a n ineteenth, h ere a s well :

I ,

( or o ne t hird o f t he t otal)

i llustrated w ith a f ull

C hapter I ,

C hapter

i dentifies

p ortrayed,

i mpersonators,

n one

o f

p riestesses,

o f f ifty-five f emales p ortrayed,

B ut w hile t he Primeros Memoriales t ext a nd

t he

b riefly

f orty

d iscusses

o ther

m ost

f emales--be

o f

t hey

t he d eity

c eremonial a ttendants o r m erely c ommoners--

i s a dequately d iscussed. W e

k now

f rom

C hapter

I ,

p aragraph

I V

o f

t he

P rimeros

M emoriales

t hat w omen p erformed s everal o f t he k ey r ites, a nd f rom r eferences ( however e lusive) i n t he Florentine C odex t hat w omen j oined t he t emples a nd h eld major p ositions i n t he r eligious

h ierarchy.

W hy d oesn 't t he P rimeros Memoriales t ext c orrespond t o ( and t hereb y t o

e lucidate) t he c eremonial i llustrations, p articularly i n r eference w omen 's r oles? A m ajor f actor m ust h ave b een Sahagün 's r esearch

t echniques. h e

w as

n ot

I f h e u sed t he q uestionnaire r econstructed b y Lopez Austin a ctively

p ursuing

i nformation

o f

w omen 's

p articipation

i n

t he c eremonies. Sahagün 's o wn c ultural h eritage--the C atholic e xclus ion o f w omen f rom t he p riesthood--may h ave b linded h im ( as e thnocent rism o f v arious s orts B ut

t here

i s

h as

b iased many s ubsequent a nthropologists.)

a nother p ossibility.

I t a ppears

a nts a nd s cribes Sahagün e mployed w ere a ll male. t o

t he k nowledge o f w omen 's r itual

c hildren

t oday,

w ho

u nderstanding t he

s ee

t he

a ctivities?

k achinas

e merge

t he

n ative

O r w ere f rom

t he

t hey l ike H opi k ivas

t ransition t heir u ncles a nd n eighbors h ave

u nderground?

1 33

i nform-

W ere A ztec m en p rivy w ithout

u ndergone

W hatever t he c ause o r c ombination o f c auses, w hile b oth p rior c ultural i nformation f rom t he M aya p eoples a nd t he c eremonial i llustrat ions o f S ahagün 's P rimeros M emoriales i ndicate t hat w omen w ere i mport ant i n p re-Columbian r itual, e arly c olonial t exts a re f rustratingly l imited o n t he t opic. W e m ust c ontinue t o s tudy t he p ictures, n ot j ust t he w ords, t o i ncrease o ur k nowledge o f w omen 's r oles i n p re-Columbian America.

R ESUMEN S e v e m uchas m ujeres e n l as i lustraciones d el c alendario c eremonial a zteca e n l os P rimeros M emoriales d e F ray B ernardino d e S ahagün. S in e mbargo, l os t extos q ue a compaf tan l as i lustraciones n i i dentifican n i e xplican l as s ignificaci6n d e l as m ujeres. E ste c apitulo e xamina l as o bras d e Sahagün c on f in d e o btener d atos s obre e l p apel d e l a m ujer e n l os r itos p üblicos a ztecas. H ay m uchas s ugestiones s obre l a i mportancia d e l as m ujeres e n l os r itos, p ero e l s exo d e F ray S ahagün y s u m etodo e studio p rofundo d el a sunto.

d e

r ebusca a parentemente

i mpedieron

N OTES 1 .

My d issertation

( Brown

1 978)

d isputes

t he g enerally a ccepted

s tructure o f t he A ztec c eremonial c alendar o f t he s olar y ear, s uggesti ng t hat w hat w as r ecorded i n t he e arly c olonial p eriod w as g reatly i nfluenced b y European c oncepts o f r eligious c alendars. T hat a rgument i s n ot g ermaine t o t his a rticle, s o I h ere d iscuss t he c eremonial s tructure e xactly a s p resented b y S ahagün. 2 . T he e arly c olonial S panish w riters c onstantly r eferred t o p re-Columbian d eities a s d evils o r " diablos" ( Sahagün 1 951:190) a nd t o p re-Columbian t emples a s d evils ' h ouses ( Sahagün 1 951:204).

3 .

T o t he b est o f m y k nowledge, t he " Servicios a l os d ioses" h as

b een t ranslated n either t o E nglish n or S panish. F or t he d iscussion h ere, I c ombine m y o wn r udimentary k nowledge o f N ahuatl w ith c onstant c hecks o f A nderson a nd D ibble 's f ine t ranslation o f t he p arallel t ext i n S ahagün 's F lorentine C odex ( Sahagün 1 951:181-87).

1 3 1 4

NOTE O N THE I LLUSTRATIONS A ll l ine d rawings a re b y t he author a fter C hapter I o f t he Primeros Me r noriales

( Sahagün

1 905-7) •

13 5

R EFERENCES A nawalt,

P atricia R ieff

1 981

I ndian C lothing B efore C ortes : f rom t he N orman.

A nderson,

A rthur J .

19 73

0 .,

C odices.

M esoamerican C ostumes

University

o f

O klahoma

t rans.

University

o f

U tah

P ress.

Salt

E llen T aylor

1 979

S ahagün 's Primeros Memoriales: A S tructural a nd S tylistic A nalysis o f t he D rawings. P h.D. d issertat ion. D epartment o f A rt, University University Microfilms. A nn Arbor.

Brown,

P ress.

R ules o f t he A ztec Language, C lassical N ahauatl G ramm ar, f rom F rancis X avier C lavigero 's R eglas d e l a l engua M exicana. L ake C ity.

B aird,

C ITED

o f N ew M exico.

B etty Ann

1 978

E uropean a nd

I nfluences

I llustrations

i n o f

Early t he

C olonial

M exica

D escriptions

M ontly

Calendar.

P h.D. d issertation. D epartment o f Art, University o f N ew Mexico. University Microfilms. A nn Arbor. 1 984

O chpaniztli i n H istorial P erspective. D umbarton O aks C onference o n R ival S acrifice, e dited b y E lizabeth B oone. Washington, D .C.

C odex B otturini 1 946

C odex B otturini: M iguel O thon d e

P eregrinaci6n d e M en d iz abal , 0b ras

l os A ztecos. C omplet a s 3 .

M dxico C odex Nuttall

( London,

1 975

B ritish Museum Mss.

T he Codex Nuttall,

3 9671)

AP icture Manuscript f rom Ancient

M exico, e dited b y Z elia Nuttall. N ew Y ork. Codex S elden 1 964

( Oxford, B odleian L ibrary) I nterpretaci6n d el C odice Selden b y A lfonso C aso. M exico.

E sser ,

D over P ublications.

3 135

( A .2),

e dited

S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropoologia.

J anet B rody

1 979

G lass, J ohn B ., 1 975

M asks o f Wa nen f rom M ichoacän. S outhwest Museum. L os A ngeles. a nd Donald R obertson A C ensus o f Native

American

Pictorial

G uide t o E thnohistorical S ources.

1 36

T he Masterkey 5 3 : 3.

M anuscripts.

H andbook o f M iddle

Ameri c an Indians 114 , e di t ed b y R obert University o f T exas P ress. Austin.

W auchope

K lein, C ecelia F ord 1 979

R ethinking C ihuacoatl: A ztec P olitical Imagery o f t he C onquered Wa nan. P aper p resented a t t he 1 979 I nternational C ongress o f Americanists, V ancouver, British C olubia.

K ubler, G eorge 1 975

T he Art a nd Architecture o f Ancient America. P enguin B ooks.

L opez Austin, 1 974

H armondswork, M iddlesex,

2 nd e d.

E ngland.

A lfredo T he r esearch method o f Fray B ernardino d e Sahagün : t he q uestionnaires. S ixteenth c entury M exico, e dited b y Munro S . E dmunson. University o f New Mexico P ress.

A lbuquerque.

Molina, F ray A lonso d e 19 77 V ocabulario M exicana

y

e n

l engua

C astellar ia

Castellaf ia.

y

Editorial

Mex icana, P orrda,

y

S .A.

M exico. N icholson , 19 77

H enry B . R eligion i n Pre-Hispanic C entral M ex ico. A rchaeol o gy o f N orthern M exico. H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians, V ol. 1 0, e dited b y Robert W auchope. University o f T exas P ress. Austin.

R obertson, D onald 19 59 M ex ican P eriod, P ress. 1 970

T he

Manuscript P ainting o f t he E arly Colonial t he M etropolitan S chools. Yale University N ew H aven.

Tu lu m

Mural s :

T he

International

Style

o f

t he

L ate P ost C lassic. P roceedings o f t he 3 8th I nternat ional C ongress o f Americanists 2 . Munich. S ahagün F ray B ernardina d e 1 905-07 F ray B ernardion d e Sahagün : H istoria d e l as c osas d e N ueva E spaf ta., 4 v ols. H auser y M enet. M adrid. 1 951

T he Florentine C odex, o f N ew S pain.

B ook 2 :

General History o f

t he Thin p

The C eremonies, t ranslated b y

A rthur J . 0 . A nderson a nd Charles E . D ibble. T he S chool o f A merican R esearch a nd t he University o f N ew M exico.

S anta Fe.

1 37

Soustelle,

J acques

1 961

T he Daily Life o f t he A ztecs o n t he Eve o f t he S panish C onquest, t ranslated b y P artick Books. H armondsworth, Middlesex,

O 'Brien. E ngland.

P enguin

S ullivan Thelma D . n .d.

Festivals o f t he Gods. P arag raph I I: Described t he Festivals o f t he G ods. t ranslation o f Chapter I , P aragraph I I Primeros Memoriales.

1 38

I n Which I s U npublished o f Sahagün 's

c . 1 ) 1-cu r ne co a tt

F igure

1 .

C hicomecoatl

1 39

F igure 2 .

T et e ui n an

1 40

c i f i l az oo l. c l u i l £ 1 3 . i t i

F igure 3 .

Ci vacoatl

1 41

\ \ . \ , -\\•, , ,, • . . . \ »•\ .\sys .,,, . • , , , ,, . .••• ., ,,,,• ., •\,\ . •,• . ••

F igure 4 .

"

U ixtocivatl

1 42

b acorc9 c0 4

F igure 5 .

iu tp ;f i l l i manc •

T he C ivapipiltin

1 43

F igure 6 .

U ey T ozortli

F igure 7 .

T oxcatl

1 45

F igure 8 .

T ecuil h ui t ontli

1 46

F igure

9 .

Uey Tecuihuitl

1 47

F igure

1 0.

O chpaniztli

1 48

F igure

1.

A temortli

1 49

4_cL yrbaY 1c.,

a

-

A

i

1

_ ena r nc i , 1u v l v \

b

F igure 1 2. S ervices t o t he g ods: a . T lamanaliztli b . T lenamaquiliztli

1 50

6 " ) , 4c t

F igure

1 2. S ervices t o t he g ods: c . C opalte r naliztli d . T lalqualiztli

1 51

rte l a, U3 f f i

F igure

1 3.

S ervices t o t he g ods:

1 52

T lachpanaliztli.

F igure

1 4.

S ervices

t o

t he g ods:

1 53

T euquaquetzaliztli.

T EXT A ND IMAGE I N S AHAGUN'S PR IME R OS M EM JRIALES b y E LLEN T AYLOR BAIRD

F ray B ernardino d e Sahag t in 's e ncyclopedic w ork, t he H istoria g eneral d e l as c osas d e Nueva Espana, i s a major s ource o f i nformation o n p reconquest r eligion, c ulture, a nd l anguage i n C entral M exico. The t exts o f Sahagdn 's m anuscripts p rovide d irect s ources o f f actual i nform ation o n t he p reconquest p ast. w ell; t hey n ot o nly i llustrate

The i llustrations a re r ich s ources a s t he t exts t hey a ccompany b ut f urther

p rovide much valuable d irect a nd i ndirect p reconquest information a nd y ield s ignifica .nt i nsight i nto t he d ramatic c hanges w hich t ook p lace i n M exico d uring t he e arly p ostconquest

p eriod.

A c areful a nalysis o f t he p ictorial s tructure a nd f unction o f t he i llustrations o f S ahagdn 's Primeros Me r noriales, t he f irst i n a s eries o f w orking manuscripts o f h is Historia g eneral, r eveals i nformation o n S ahag t in 's m ethodology a nd t he p reconquest p ictorial manuscripts h e c ons ulted. I n 1 557 F ray Francisco Toral,

F ranciscan Provincial

o f New S pain ,

o rder Sahag l in t o w rite i n N ahuatl a ll t hat a ppeared t o S ahag L in t o b e " useful f or t he i nstruction, c ultivation, a nd maintenance o f C hristiani ty o f t he n atives o f N ew S pain a nd f or t he a id o f t he w orkers a nd m issionaries w ho i nstruct t hem [ the n atives j" ( Sahag t in 1 93 8 , I : xvii). 1 I n r esponse t o T oral 's o rder, S ahag t in b egan collecting information a nd p reparing t he manuscript t hat i s n ow k nown a s t he P rimeros M emoriales. I n

t he

p rologue

t o

B ook

I I

o f

t he

C odex F lorentino,

t he

f inal

c omplete v ersion o f t he Historia g eneral e xecuted u nder Sahagdn 's d irect s upervision , S ahag t in c learly s tated t he m anner i n which h e w ent a bout c ollecting i nformation f or h is p rojected w ork. A fter r eceiving T oral 's d irective, S ahag t in d rew u p a " minuta o r memoria o f a ll t he m atters t hat h ad t o b e t reated" ( Sahagün 1 938 , 1 :79). S ahag t in 's m inuta i s b elieved t o h ave b een e ither a memorandum o utlining t he t opics h e w ished t o p ursue

( Lopez A ustin 1 974:111-12,

15) o r, more s pecifically ,

a q uestionnaire ( Sahag t in 1 938 , I :xvii). T he m inuta was i n S panish a nd i s n ow l ost. H e a lso p repared f or h is w ork b y c hoosing f our y oung n ative m en, r eferred t o C ollege

o f

g ramäticos ( grammarians) o r l atinos ( latinists), a s h e t hem, w ho h ad b een f ormer s tudents o f h is a t t he Indian S anta

C ruz

i n

T latelolco.

1 55

These

y oung

m en,

t rilingual

( Nahuatl, S panish , a ssistants. Sahagt in

w ent

L atin)

f irst

a nd

t o

t he

w ell

e ducated,

s ma ll

t own

o f

w ere

t o

s erve

Tepepulco

a s

h is

( mo dern-day

T epeapulco), a pproximately s ixty m iles n ortheast o f M exico C ity, i n 1 558 o r 1 559 ( Nicholson 1 973:207). I n Tepepulco t en o r t wel v e p rincipales a ncianos ( old n ative n oblemen) w ere s elected t o b e h is i nformants. A ccording t o S ahag t in, W ith t hese p rincipales a nd g ramäticos, a lso p rincipales, I s poke m any d ays, a lmost t wo y ears, f ollowing t he o rder o f t he m inuta w hich I h ad made. Everything t hat w e d iscussed w as g iven t o m e b y m eans o f p ictures, which was t he w riting t hey h ad u sed o f o ld , a nd t he g ramäticos e xplained t hem i n t heir l anguage, w riting t he e xplanation a t t he f oot o f t he p icture. E ven n ow I h ave 1 :80)

t hese

o riginals.

( Sahag t in

I n B ook X , C hapter 2 7 , o f ' t he Codex F lorentino ,

1 938,

S ahagün l ater a dded

t hat These p eople h ad n o l etters n or a ny c haracters, n or d id t hey k now h ow t o r ead a nd w rite ; t hey c ommunicated b y i mages a nd p aintings, a nd a ll t heir a ntiquities a nd t he b ooks t hat t hey h ad w ere p ainted w ith f igures a nd i mages i n s uch a w ay t hat t hey k new a nd h ad m emory o f ' t he things t heir a ncestors h ad d one a nd h ad l eft i n t heir a nnals, m ore t han a t housand y ears ago, b efore t he a rrival o f ' t he S paniard i n t his l and. Most o f t he b ooks a nd w ritings w ere b urned a t t he t ime o f ' t he d estruction o f ' t he o ther i dolatries, b ut m any h idden o nes which w e h ave n ow s een d id s urvive a nd a re s till k ept, f rom w hich w e h ave u nderstood t heir a ntiquities. ( Sahag t in 1 938 , 1 11:87) Sahag in i s s tatements m ake i t q uite c lear t hat n ative p ictorial d ocum ents w ere s ignificant s ources o f i nformation f or h im i n p reparing t he Pr im e ros Memori a le s. I n

t he l ate n ineteenth c entury t he Mexican

s cholar Francisco d el e ighty-eight t o m aterials

P aso y T roncoso g ave t he t itle Primeros M emoriales t o f olios o f t he Madrid c odices "which h e b elieved b elonged

F ifty-four S ahag t 1n h ad c ollected i n T epepulco " ( Nicholson 1 973:208). 280), a nd f olios a re i n t he B iblioteca d el P alacio Nacional ( No . 3 t hirty-four a re f rom t he B iblioteca d e l a R eal A cademia d e l a H istoria ( Ace.

1 762;

N icholson

1 973:208;

G lass

1 55

1 975: 14 21,

1 4 22).

T he manuscript

i s w ritten a nd d rawn o n European p aper,

c learly e xcluding t he p ossibi-

l ity t hat o riginal p reconquest material w as p hysically i ncluded ( Glass a nd Robertson 1 975:188). I t i s w ritten p rimarily i n Nahuatl a nd h as a pproximately 1 4 1 45 i ndividual d rawings. A p hotofacsimile o f t he m anus cript p ages w as p ublished b y P aso y Troncoso i n 1 905 ( Sahagdn 1 905), m aking i t r eadily a ccessible. The b asic f ormat o f t he P rimeros Ma noriales i s q uite s imple a nd c onsistent. The p ages a re d ivided i nto t wo c olumns. The d rawings a re v ertically a ligned i n t he c olumn o n t he r ight w ith t he e xplanatory N ahuatl t ext o n t he l eft ( figure 1 ). m anuscript' s p ages a re i llustrated. 2

A pproximately

o ne-half

o f

t he

The f ormat o f t he P rimeros Ma norial e s i s c learly n ot t hat o f t he k nown f orms o f p reconquest manuscripts. I t c losely d uplicates t hat o f s ixteenth-century E uropean b ooks s uch a s t he p opular Liber Chronicarum o f H artmann S chedel, f irst p ublished i n 114 93 a nd m ore p opularly k nown a s t he Nuremberg Chronicle ( figure 2 ). T he n eat h andwriting i n t he Primeros

Me noriales

C hronicle .

I n

t he

a lso

s eems

Nuremberg

t o

i mitate

C hronicle

t he

t here

p rinted

a re

o ver

t ext 1 800

o f

t he

p rinted

i mages, b ut o ne s oon b eccmes a ware t hat t he i mages a re r epeated. F or t he 5 98 i llustrations o f k ings, p opes, a nd o ther f igures, o nly n inetys ix b lock p rints w ere u sed ( Levarie 1 968:105). The i mages s erve a d ecorative f unction a longside t he t ext. I n t he p ictorial m anuscripts which Sahag i ln u sed i n c ompiling i nformation f or t he Primeros Memoriales, t he f unction o f t he i mages w as q uite d ifferent. I n p reconq uest m anuscripts, t he

p ictures a re t he t ext.

S ahag t in 's d escription o f t he manner i n w hich h e g athered i nformat ion a t T epepulco u sing a m inuta s uggests t hat t he d rawings w ere m ade f irst b y t he i nformants i n r esponse t o Sahagün 's q uestions, a nd t he w ritten t ext was a dded a fterwards. I ndeed o n o ne p age, t his p roves t o b e s o ( figure 3 ). T wo i ncomplete s ketches a re f ound ; t here a re n o t races o f w riting o n t he l eft s ide o f t he p age. These s ketches w ould s eem t o c onfirm t hat t he d rawings

w hich

p receded t he w ritten t ext.

O n c cmpleted p ages o f t he Primeros Menoriales t he s equence i n t he w ritten a nd d rawn e lements w ere e xecuted i s n ot a lways

o bvious. A n examination o f c ertain p ages o f t he manuscript r eveals t heir s tructure a nd t he r elationship o f a rtist t o s cribe. O n t he f irst p age o f t he p arag raph which t reats t he a ccoutrements o f t he g ods, t he l ayout o f t he p age i s s omewhat u nusual ( figure 14 ). I nstead o f as ingle c olumn o f f igures v ertically a ligned o n t he r ight, t here a re t wo g ods h orizontally an g led w ith a t hird u nderneath t he o ne o n t he r ight. T his a rrangement o rig inally w ould h ave p resented a p roblem t o t he r eader a s t he w ritten t ex t , i s n ot a lig ned e xactly w ith t he f igure i t d escribes. This p roblem h as b een s olved b y h aving a p ointing h and a t t he u pper l eft t o i ndicate t hat t he f irst p arag raph d escribes t he g od t o t he f ar r i et. T he a ddition o f t he p ointing h and, c rude a s i t m ay b e, r eveals a c oncern f or

t he

r elationship b etween

t he

w ritten

5 7

t ext

a nd

t he

d rawing s;

t h is

k ind o f c oncern w ould h ave b een n onexistent i n t he p reconquest w orld in t he absence o f a lphabetical s cript. The s equence o f t he e lements b ecomes c learer w hen o ne l ook s l eft o f t he third g od. f igure,

a rm

O ne c an b arely d etect t he h ead a nd h ea .dress o f a

extended,

co mparison

o f

t o t he

t he

h olding

s ketch

a s ickle-shaped

a nd

t he

o bject

co mpleted

( figure

f igure

o f

5 ). t he

A g od

Q uetzalcoatl a t t he t op o f t he f igure i n t he i nc o mplete sketch

n ext p age r eveals t he i dentity o f t he ( figure 6 ). A pparently i t was d ecided

a fter

t here s hould b e

t he sketch w as

b egun

t hat

o nly t hree g ods

o n

t he

f irst p age i nstead o f f our, a nd t he f orth g od was r epresented a t t he t op o f t he n ext p age. T here a re n o r emains o f w ords i n t he l eft c olumn o f t he f irst

p age, which

c learly i ndicates t hat o n this

again p receded t he w ritten w ord. h ave

meant

l ayout;

t hat

l ess

white

i n o ther w ords,

i llustrations a nd t ext, p reconquest

space

more

o f

was

t he

l eft

s pace

t han

H owever,

the

c hange

t here was a c oncern t hat t he p age b e r eadable ; c lear

r elationship

w ith

w ould h ave

n ot unlike t he e conomical

m anuscripts.

b etween

p age t he d rawings

T he o riginal l ayout o f t he p age w ould

t he

w ritten

t he

u se

o f space

i n f ormat a nd

i n

t he

i mplies

t hat t here

t ext

s ubsequent

b een t aken u p b y t hat

b e a l ogical,

t he

d rawing

i t

d escribes. O ne p age o n which t he s equence o f p ictures a nd t ext i s q uite c lear ( although

d ifferent

" Services

t o t he Gods, O fferings"

l isted i n a c olumn f igures It

i s

i s n ot

o n

t he

f rom

t he

p receding

o n t he left, r ight,

d ifficult

t o

p ages)

( figure 7 ). s omewhat

i s

t he

p age

d epicting

H ere v ocabulary t erms a re

e venly

spaced.

A colt =

o f

e ach i llustration w ith a n a cco r nparying t ext.

s ee t hat

the

v ocabulary

t erms

a nd

t he

a ccom-

p anying t ext a re n ot an g led. L ines a re d rawn f rom t he t erms t o t he t exts. A p artially c cmpleted sketch a ppears u nder t he completed d rawing

o f

t he

n ext

t o

t he

l ast

f igure

( figure

8 );

t his

s ketch

c orresponds t o t he v essel i n f ront o f t he l ast f igure.

The t erm f or t he

l ast

t he

d rawing,

h owever,

appears

o n

t he

s ame l evel

a s

n ext-to-the-

last d rawing. The a rtist a pparently b egan t o s ketch i n t he f igure t o i llustrate t he last t erm b efore h e h ad i llustrated t he t erm p receding i t, r ealized h is e rror ( or h ad i t p ointed out t o h im), a nd m ade t he n ecessary c orrection. This w ould s eem t o i ndicate t hat t he a rtist c ould e ither r ead written N ahuatl who w ould h ave p robable

a s

i t

i nvestig ation. w ritten w ords The c alendar

Nahuatl

f its

d escription

v eintena

d epicted P age

o f

t ext

t he

T he latter s eems t he more

Sahag t . in

g ave

o f

h is

m ethod

o f

H owever, the s equence o f e lements d iffers a s s ome o f t he

e ighteen

l ayout

o r was w ork ing i n c oncert w ith t he s cribe

t he t erms t o t he a rtist.

p recede t he d rawing s.

a re

Me r noriales. The

r ead

t he t o

o n

c eremonies the

2 ( figure 9 ) p age t he

d rawings are s o mewhat

o f

t he

d rawing s

d ifferent

t he

s even

i s t ypical

f ollows

l eft,

f irst

o f

o f t he p ages

b asic t o

3 65-day

p ages

p attern t he

f r o m o thers

o f

v ague

t he

y ear

Primeros

i n t his s ection. t he

r ight.

m anuscript,

H owever,

i n t he manuscript.

t hese A s

i s

o bvious, g roups o f f igures a re d epicted r epresenting e ach c eremony , a nd e ach

o ne

i s

f ramed

b y

a

thick

l ine.

1 58

E lsewhere

i n

t he

Primeros

Me r noriales

f ramed

g roups

o f

which e ach o ccupy a full

f igures

a re

f ound

o nly i n

t he

t wo

s cenes

p age.

W ithin e ach f ramed s cene d epicting o ne o f t he v eintena c eremonies, t he

i mages a re

a rms

r ather e venly s cattered.

o utstretched,

T ozortli c eremony Toxcatl c eremony E tzalcualiztli o ften

l inked

a s

O ften i n

t he

f igures a re s hown w ith u pper

r ight

o f

t he Huey

( the t opmost s cene o n p age 2 ), t he l ower r ight o f t he ( the c enter d rawing), a nd t he u pper r ight o f t he

c eremony

r epresent

t ogether

( the

l owermost

d ancing p articipants

s cene).

i n t he

L inked

f igures

c eremony d epicted.

m ost O ther

f igures a re a lso h orizontally a ligned, n ot b y l inked arms but b y s haring a c ommon,

i maginary g round l ine.

f igures f ace f requently o thers

r ight a s

i n t he

T he

a lternates,

d irection in w hich

sane

o f

c enter s cene, T oxcatl.

i ndividual s cenes s hould a lso b e n oted. s ame s ize.

r ows

O nly o n o ne p age a re

t hese l inked

f igures f acing l eft,

T he v arying s izes o f t he

N o t wo a djacent s cenes a re t he

t he s izes

o f t he

s cenes approximately

( but n ot exactly) t he s ame. On p age 1 0).

1 the

v ariation

i n

s ize

i s

e ven more p ronounced

Nahuatl

t ext

p icture. a lso

t o

The

i ndicate

more

r elationship

b ecomes

more

c learly

t he

r elationship

o f t he thick f ram ing l ine

a pparent.

T he

l ine

d ividing

t o

t he

C uauitleua, f rom t he m iddle s cene, T lacaxipehualiztli, t he

( figure

One further n otes t he a ddition o f thick l ines a t t wo p oints i n t he

feet

o f

t wo f igures

i n t he

u pper

a nd

o f t he

t ext

t o

d rawings

u pper

s cene,

c learly o verlaps

o ne i n t he m iddle s cene.

I n

a ddition, t he f raming l ine o verlaps t he l ower e dge o f t he h ouse i n t he l ower l eft o f t he Cuauitleua s cene. T he left f raming l ine t hat i s common t o a ll t hree s cenes o verlaps s uccessively, f rom t op t o b ottcm, t he left e dge o f a t emple, a h ouse, the h eels o f a man, the left e dge o f a nother t emple, a nd a b anner. I t s eems q uite c lear l ine w as i mposed o n t he s cenes a fter t hey w ere d rawn. s eparates o ne

p ictorial

a lphabetic t exts The

o n

manner

t ext f rom t he

a s l ines s eparate t he

t he left.

i n w hich

t he

v eintena

much about t he p rototype f rom which, a lternating

n ext m uch

t hat t he f raming T he f raming l ine

d irectional

c eremonies

w ere

d epicted

t ells

p resumably, t hey w ere c opied.

p atterns

o f

l inked

f igures

i s

The

s tri k ingly

r eminiscent o f t he s ame p atterning o f t he f igures i n p reconquest M ixtec manuscripts

i n

m anuscripts,

g uidelines i ndicate t he p attern t o b e followed t o r ead t he

which

a meander

manuscript a ccurately. o mitted,

I n t he

c hanging t he f ormat

p attern

i s

f ollowed.

P rimeros Memoriales

I n

t he

Mixtec

t he g uidelines

o f t he s cene f rom a meander

w ere

p attern i n a

p reconquest p ictori a l ma nuscript t o a Eu ropean-type m a nuscript w it h f ramed, f ocused c o mpositions. This c auses s o me c onfusion i n r eading t he s cenes. u sed

I n p lace o f t he p reconquest g uidelines, a framing l ine w as

s imilar

f igures.

The

t o

t hose

d iscount

t he

Primeros

Memori a le s

p atterning a fter

t he

f ound

a round

v ariation i n s ize p ossibility

o f m any d rawings

h ad o f

t hat large

the

w ere

o f

t he

m ost

t he

European-style

d ifferent

p reconquest

s in g le-page

s cenes

p rototype

s cenes.

f igures,

t he

i mposition

c ompleted,

a nd

t he

1 59

T he o f

v ariation

g roups

w ould s eem u sed

f or

t he

meander- l ike

a f raming in

o f t o

s ize

o f

l ine t he

s cenes a ll i ndicate t hat t he e ighteen c eremonies w ere c opied ( although n ot a lways a ccurately) f rom a p reconquest s creenfold m anuscript w ith i mages a rranged i n a c ontinuous m eander p attern. As A lfredo Lopez Austin ( 1974:125) a nd o thers h ave p ointed o ut, S ahagün u sed a p redetermined q uestionnaire t o o btain i nformation f rom h is

T epepulco

i nformants

o n

t he

e ighteen

v eintena

c eremonies.

T he

r egular o rder i n w hich t he i nformation i s w ritten c onfirms t he u se o f a q uestionnaire. T he i nformants ' a nswers a re e ssentially o rdered n arrat ives o f t he r ituals i n q uestion. T he d epictions o f t he f irst e leven c eremonies a re a lso n arrative i n s equence, w ith t he e xception o f o ne c eremony, t he t hird, w hich i s e ntitled Tozortontli. K ubler a nd G ibson h ave r eferred t o t hese n arrative c eremonial d epictions a s " simultaneous i llustration: [ in w hich ] s everal d istinct r ites p ertaining t o t he p eriod a re g athered i nto o ne p ictorial unit" ( Kubler a nd G ibson 1 951 : 39) . T he t erm " simultaneous i llustration" i mplies t hat t he d ifferent e vents a re p ortrayed a s t ak ing p lace s imultaneously. The r ites

a re

s imultaneously

d epicted

i f

t he

s cenes

a re

c onsidered

a s

European f ocused c o mpositions, b ut t hey a re n ot. T he p rototype f rom w hich t he s cenes d erive w as most p robably a p reconquest t ira o r s creenf old m anuscript w ith t he i mages a rranged i n a c ontinuous m eander p attern. I n s uch a manuscript t he r ites a re d epicted a s t aking p lace s equentially i n t he o rder i n which t he m anuscript i s r ead, m uch a s w ords a re r ead s equentially r ather t han s imultaneously i n European b ooks. I n e ach o f t he f irst e leven v eintena c eremonies o f t he Primeros Memoriales ( with t he e xception o f Tozortontli ) , t he r ites a re d epicted i n as equent ially o rdered f ashion. Thus t he t erm " sequential n arration " i s a m ore a ccurate d escription o f t he s cenes t han " simultaneous i llustration." 3 The

s cene

o f

t he T lacaxipehualiztli

c eremony

i s

a n

e xample

o f

" sequential n arration" i n w hich t he s equential e vents o f t he c eremony a re d epicted ( figure 1 0, c enter). However, i n t he l ast s even c eremonies, t here i s a s tatic, more r igid a lignment o f t he i mages t hat d epict e ither a s ingle p hase o f t he c eremony o r a g rouping o f i mages m eant t o s ymbolize t he c eremony. 4 A n e xception i s f ound i n t he d epict ion o f P anquetzaliztli, which i s s equentially n arrative. The o ther s ix c eremonies m i nt b e t ermed e xamples o f " static i magery " i n c ontrast t o t he " sequential n arration " o f t en o f t he f irst e leven c eremonies. An e xample o f " static i magery "

i s t he d epiction o f t he s eventeenth

c eremony, T ititl ( figure 1). I t i s h elpful t o compare t he T ititl c eremony t o t hat o f Tlacaxipehualiztli. T he c hange i n b ody p roportions a nd p oses o f t he f igures i s p erhaps m ost o bvious. I n t he d epiction o f T lacaxipehualiztli, t he f igures a ppear t aller p rimarily b ecause t hey h ave s maller h eads a nd s lenderer b odies t han d o t hose i n T ititl w ith t heir l arger h eads a nd s tockier b ody p roportions. More s ig nificant a re t he p oses o f t he f igures. In T lacaxipehualiztli, t he f igures f ace b oth l eft a nd r ight, suggesting a meander p attern a s m entioned e arlier. I n T ititl, a ll t he f igures f ace l eft. In T lacaxipehualiztli, sane o f t he s equences a re fairly o bvious e ven i f o ne l acks s pecific k nowledge o f t he r ite i nvolved.

A t t he u pper r ight t he c aptive s tands t ied t o a c ircular

1 60

s tone, t he t emalacatl; d ark s plotches o n h is b ody i ndicate b lood f lowing f rom w ounds. I n t he u pper c enter a f igure i s b eing s la in b efore a t emple, a nd t o t he l eft a f igure i s b eing f layed. I t i s r easonably c lear t hat t hree s eparate a ctions t ake p lace. N o s uch s ense o f i ndividu al a ctions, s equential o r o therwise, appears i n t he d epiction o f T it itl. The c entral f igure i n t he g roup r epresents t he g oddess I lamatecuhtli, t o w hom t he c eremony i s d edicated, a nd t o e ither s ide o f h er a re t he g ods o r d eity i mpersonators w ho t ake B eneath t he g oddess ' p art i n t he r ituals.

p art i n h er c eremony.

f eet a re t wo r ope-tied b ags t hat p lay a n i mportant A bove t he g oddess i s a t emple. The e lements i n

t he s cene d epict n either p ast, p resent, n or f uture a ction, i n marked c ontrast t o t he m any a nd v aried e lements o f T lacaxipehualiztli. T he m arked d ifference i n s tyle a nd o rder b etween t he f irst e leven s cenes, o f which T lacaxipehualiztli i s r epresentative, a nd t he l ast s even s cenes, o f which Tititl i s r epresentative, w ould s eem t o r eveal f urther i nformation about Sahag t in 's s ources f or t he e ighteen v eintena c eremonies. I t s uggests t hat h e u sed t wo d ifferent p reconquest m anuscripts f rom which t hese s cenes w ere c opied. I f a s ingle m anuscript s erved a s Sahag t in ' s p rototype, i t c learly d erived f rom t wo p arallel b ut s tylistically a nd p ictorially q uite d ifferent manuscripts, t he f irst o f w hich h ad s equentially n arrative p ictorials a nd t he s econd o f w hich h ad m ore r igid, h ieratic i magery. The s hift i n i magery i s r eflected, t o ac ertain e xtent, i n a c hange i n t he r elationship o f t he w ritten t exts t o t he p ictures. O n c omparing t he v eintena s cenes t o t he w ritten t ext, c ertain p atterns e merge t hat f urther s eparate t he f irst e leven c eremonies f rom t he l ast s even. I n t he f irst e leven c eremonies t he r elationship o f t he w ritten t ext t o t he p ictures i s a s f ollows. I n f ive s cenes t he s cene h as m ore i nformation t han t he t ext; t his o ccurs i n Tlacaxipehualiztli, Uey Tozortli, T oxcatl, U ey T ecuilhuitl, a nd U ey M iccailhuitl. The t ext c onveys m ore i nformation t han t he p icture i n o nly o ne s cene, T ozortontli; T ozortontli h as a lready b een i dentified a s b eing p ictorially unlike t he o ther c eremonies o f t he f irst e leven. I n f ive s cenes, t he i nformation c onveyed b y t he p icture a nd t he w ritten t ext i s t he s ame o r a t l east c losely s imilar ; t his o ccurs i n C uauitleua, E tzalcualiztli, T ecuilhuitontli, M iccailhuitontli, a nd O chpaniztli. On c omparing t he l ast s even s cenes t o t he a ccompanying w ritten t exts, a d ifferent r elationship dominates. I n t hree i nstances t he t ext c onveys m ore i nformation t han t he p ictu re ; t his h appens i n Tepeilhuitl, P anquetzaliztli, a nd T ititl. I t s hould b e r emembered t hat o f t he f irst e leven c eremonies o nly Tozortontli f alls i n t his c ategory. I n f our c eremonies, t he w ritten t ext i s b asically d ifferent f rom t he p icture. I n Teteo Eco, b oth t he t ext a nd t he p icture h ave more a nd d ifferent information t han t he o ther. I n Q uecholli a nd Izcalli, o nly t he d eity r epresented i n t he d rawing i s m entioned i n t he t ext. I n t he d epiction o f A temortli,

o nly t he f our

e lements r epresenting r ain d rops

( seen i n

t he r i et c orner o f t he d rawing) h ave a ny c onnection w ith t he T able 1 s ets f orth t he r elationships o f t exts t o p ictures.

1 6 1

t ext.

1 :

T he Relationship o f W ri t ten Text e intena C eremonies

t o

T ext h as i nformation

Table

a )

1 .

Cuaui t le ua

2 .

T lacaxipehualiztli

3 .

T ozo z tontli

4 .

Uey To zo z tli

5 .

T oxcatl

6 .

E tzal c ualiztli

7 .

T ecuilhui t ontli

8 .

Uey Te cuilhui t l

9 .

Miccailhui t l

1 0.

Uey Miccailhui t l

1.

O chpaniztli

1 2.

T eteo Ec o

1 3.

T epeilhui t l

114 .

Quecholli

1 5.

P anquetzaliztli

1 6 .

A temortli

1 7 .

T iti t l

1 8 .

I zcalli

1 62

t he Drawings

i n t he

The

t otal

r esults a re

t hat

i n f ive

c eremonies

t he

p icture

c onveys

m ore information t han t he t ext ; i n f our c ere r nonies t he t ext c onveys m ore i nformation ; i n f ive c eremonies t he information i n t ext a nd p icture i s c losely s imilar ; s ubstantially

a nd i n f our c eremonies t he i nformation i n t he t ext i s

d ifferent

f rom

t hat

o f

t he

p icture.

O ne-half

o f

t he

p ictures t hus c onvey e ssentially t he s ame o r l ess information t han t he t ext. S ince t hese n ine s cenes c onvey information t hat i s p arallel o r v irtually i dentical t o t hat o f t he a ccompanying s cenes a re i llustrative i n n ature. The

o ther

n ine

v eintena

s cenes

c ontain

m ore

information t han t hat c onveyed b y t he writing. r ole

o f '

t hese n ine

p ictorials

i s

n ot

f ar

a lphabetic

t exts,

a nd/or

t he

d ifferent

This i ndicates t hat t he

r emoved

f rom

t heir o riginal

p reconquest p icture t o

f unction : t o c onvey i nformation. The r elationship w ritten t ext i s a ctually t he r everse o f what m ight

o f b e

e xpected i n

a European-style manuscript.

o n

t he

p ictures

w hich a re,

n ot

i llustrations

p roviding v isual t ex t

i n

in e ffect,

t he European

r elief;

t hey

The w ritten t ext d epends

the main t ext. s ense

o f

c arry t he

u ltimately d erives f rom t hem

d ecorating

main message

( cf. D ibble

t he

a nd

p age

t he

a nd

w ritten

1 963:57).

The w ritten t exts a re n ot, h owever, p ure tures f rom which t hey d erive.

T he p ictorials a re

d escriptions

o f t he p ic-

The o rder i n which t he information i n t he

w ritten t ex t i s g iven r eflects Sahagdn 's u se o f a q uestionnaire.

B ased

o n t he o rder o f information g iven, Lopez Austin s uggests t hat t he t ions w ere t he following :

q ues-

1 .

What

i s

t he

r eference d rawing)? 2 .

Why

t o

i s

i t

a rouses

h is

n ame t he

o f

t his

r ectangle

c alled

t hat

f east

( when

t he

n ame

o fferings

w ere

What

L .

made f or this f east? H ow w as t he c eremony p erformed?

5 .

O n

w hat

t he

c uriosity)?

3 .

h uman

( in

c ontaining

s acrifices

d ate

o f

t he

o r

Julian

c alendar

d id

this month fall? The o rder v aries o nly in t he f irst t wo monthly f easts.

material ( L6pez

o n t he Austin

1 974:125) Sahagdn 's u se o f

a q uestionnaire

a nd

h is

a dherence

t o

e xplain w hy o ne-half o f t he t exts g ive l ess o r d ifferent t han t he a ccompanying d rawings. S ahagdn d id n ot a sk for

i t h elp t o information a n i temized

i dentification o f a ll t he f igures a nd objects i n e ach d rawing ; f or r esponses t he

p ictures

i n

t he

t o h is q uestions.

a s e ssentially d ecorative.

m anuscript

t extual

value

t orial

manuscripts

t o

t he

h owever

i ndicates

The i nclusion h is

n atives a nd c onfirms i n

h e a sked

I n t his r espect h e s eems t o h ave v iewed

c ompiling

t he

Memoriales.

1 63

o f t he

a cimowledgement

t he

u se

o f

i nformation

p ictures o f

p reconquest o f

t he

t heir p ic-

P rimeros

T he

f our

c eremonies

i n

w hich

t he

t exts

a nd

t he

p ictures

d o

n ot

c cmpletely c orrespond f urther i ndicates t he m anner i n w hich t he p reconq uest p ictorial m anuscripts w ere r ead. T o r ead t he p ictures w as n ot m erely t o d escribe t hem : T he d irect t estimony o f c onquistadors a nd m iss ionary c hroniclers t ells u s t hat i n t he i ndigenous c enters o f e ducation t he [ preconq uest n ative ] p riests a nd t eachers e xplained t he p aintings o f t he c odices, m aking t he s tudents l earn t heir c ommentaries b y r ote. . . T hus, i f t he n ucleus o f t he t eachings was i n t he c odices, t he c ommentaries a ccompanying t he t eaching r ema ined f irmly o n t he m inds o f t he s tudents, w ho r epeated t hem u ntil t hey k new t hem b y h eart. I n t his m anner a f orm o f systematic t radition a rose, s upported b y t he c odices a nd c ommunicated f rc r n g eneration 1 971: 14 53)

t o

g eneration.

( Le6n-Portilla

I t w ould a ppear t hat t he ma norized a ccount o f e ach c eremony w as evoked i n r esponse t o Sahag l in 's q uestions a bout t he f our c eremonies i n w hich t he t ext a nd d rawing d o n ot agree. T hese f our p ictures a re a mong t he l ast s even which d iffer v isually f rom t he o ther e leven c eremonies. T his s eems t o b e more t han a c oincidence a nd l ends a dded c redence t o t he p ossibility t hat t he l ast s even p ictures ca ne f rom a v eintena t radition p arallel b ut n ot i dentical t o t hat o f Sahag i ln ' s Tepepulco i nformants. I s i t p ossible t hat t he t wo t ypes o f s cenes a nd t he l ack o f c oncordance o f p icture a nd t ext i n f our c eremonies r eveal t he i mposition o f Mexica i magery a nd r itual o n t he A colhua t raditions n ative t o T epepulco? I s o ne g roup o f s cenes e ssentia lly Mex : i _ca ( Tenochtitlan) i n o rigin a nd t he o ther A colhua T he

( Texcoco)?

d rawings

o f

t he

v eintena

c eremonies

d irectly c onvey a g reat

d eal o f information a bout A ztec p reconquest r eligious r itual. A s ign ificant a mount o f i ndirect i nformation i s p resented a s w ell. A nalysis o f t he p ictorial s tructure s uggests t hat t he d rawing s p receded t he w ritten t ext. T hus t he s equence i n w hich t he p ictorial a nd a lphabetic e le t nents w ere a dded t o t he p age i ndicates t he p rimarily informative f unction o f t he p ictures. C areful s tudy o f t he

d rawings

o f t he P rimeros Memoriales c onfirms

t heir i nformative r ole. The d rawings r evea l a spects o f S ahagdn 's m etho dology, t he w ay i n w hich t he manuscript w as p ut t ogether, t he w orking r elationship b etween informants a nd Sahagdn 's a ssistants. T he d raw ings f urther s uggest s pecific t ypes o f p reconquest m anuscripts w hich m ay h ave b een u sed i n c cmpiling p arts o f t he Primeros M emorials. H owever, t he European f ormat a nd t he i nclusion o f a nd c oncern f or t he w ritten w ord s eem l ogical a nd e xpected i n t he m anuscript, s ince i t was i ntended f or t he u se o f Europeans, n ot Indians.

16 1 4

Sahagdn b egan g athering information a t Tepepulco a lmost f orty y ears a fter t he c onquest o f Tenochtitlan a nd a lmost thirty y ears a fter a Franciscan m ission h ad b een e stablished e arliest i n M exico ( Nicholson 1 974:152, M emoriales m onk,

r epresents t he j oint e ffort o f Sahag i in, a S panish Franciscan

a pproximately

y oung,

i n Tepepulco, o ne o f t he n ote 1 ). The Primeros

n ative

s ixty

n oblemen,

F ranciscans in M exico ;

y ears

who

o ld

h ad

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f our

a European

g ramäticos, e ducation

b y

a nd t en o r t welve o ld n ative n oblemen t o w hom t he

p reservation o f t heir h eritage h ad b een e ntrusted. T he d rawings o f t he Primeros Memoriales r eflect, i n v arying d egrees, t he d ifferent t radit ions

o f t hose w ho w ere

r esponsible f or t he

c reation o f t he manuscript

a nd t he cultural c hanges which M exico was u ndergoing i n t he e arly p ostc onquest p ericd. A side f rom t he i nvaluable information which t he d rawi ngs

o f

t he Primeros Memoriales

p rovide

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p reconquest

c ivilization,

t hey a lso c onvey t he e xtent o f t he s pread o f European c ulture i n Mex ico w ithin f our d ecades

o f t he c onquest.

5

R ESLMEN A unque e l f ormat° d e Primeros Memoriales s igue a aquellos d e l os l ibros e uropeos u na

d atan

d esde

t exto. u n

c ontemporäneos a l

t radici6n

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t ambi6n t exto,

d e

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i lustraciones d e P .M. s iguen

los P M

la Conquista,

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1 8 meses,

i lustraciones la

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manuscritos

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"la v eintena". y e l

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f uentes

c omparaciön d e

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l as

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m anuscrito ;

i lustraciones

i lustraciones

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Esto e s c ierto s obre t odo e n c uanto a l as c eremonias

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y e l

s ugeridas

la informaciön i mpartida p or l as

p or

i lustra-

t exto.

NOTES 1 .

A ll t ranslations

f rom S panish a re my o wn e xcept w here

o ther-

w ise i ndicated. 2 .

I t s hould b e n oted t hat, w ith t he e xception o f t he f our

c ited i n this a t

t he

f oot

p aper,

o f

t he

t he t ext p icture.

p ages

o f t he Primeros Memoriales d oes n ot fall T his

c onflicts

1 65

w ith Sahagdn 's s tatement

t hat h is a ssistants w rote t he i nformants ' e xplanations " at t he f oot t he p icture " ( Sahag t in 1 938 , I :80; "al p ie d e l a p intur a ") .

3 . Kubl e r a nd G ibson ( 1951 : 39 ) identify a ll t he Memorials v eintena s cenes a s " simultaneous i llustration."

o f

P rimeros

4 . T his t ype o f d epiction s eems p artially t o f it K ubler a nd G ibson 's c lassification "t heomorphic i llustrati o n [ in wh ic h ] e laborately c ostumed f igures o f t he p atron d eity o r d eities synbolize t he p eriod. Ceremonial i nstruments a nd c elebrants s ometimes a ccompany t he f igures. . . " ( Kubler a nd G ibson 1 951:39). H owever, n ot a ll s cenes d epict

t he p atron d eity.

5 . Sa ne o f t he information c ontained i n t his p aper d erives f rom a t hesis I w rote f or t he d egree o f Master o f A rts ( 1970) a t Tulane University u nder t he d irection o f Professor Donald Robertson. T his p aper a lso d erives f rom my d issertation w ritten u nder t he d irection o f Professor Mary E lizabeth Smith a t t he University o f New Mex ico ( 1979). I w ould l ike t o t hank P rofessors R obertson a nd Smith f or t heir a dvice a nd e ncouragement. I a lso w ant t o t hank Mr. R obert Boyce, f ormer S pecial Collections L ibrarian, University o f N ebraska-Lincoln, f or mak ing i t p ossible f or m e t o p hotograph p rints i n t he Nuremberg C hronicle.

16

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Edited b y J oaquin R amirez C abanas. I ntroduction W igberto J im6nez Moreno. 5v ols. Mexico.

1 68

b y

t e mx t

n( c h i ch i h

m otxrch t( 4 . 1 1 14 , i n t i ct kh L c on o te / mk • c 4. 4 1 4 t f c c gc . . y j a l e rh tr n a i• yr a y ,t eyem e t t . mot groyebat ua t y e ama y iea rxma t , e ya r no,m o t i re

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4 ( 4 1 .c ut ter %G .A lined

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r tfr r If t

O i to l kra ff CA tif r i A ; d .

v ac am e4 ) ya P e aca l Y )4 1 3 f i zeon

y lo t tr ap i i ym t . moe ind p i f t in c 3141e f

Y O IC '

a I ;yy ca 1 A g n ya r l c 4 ir

j

" l i ed c o lt / fe l l %W ri t st haw

F igure

1 :

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&a la if i lu oc a yn M I 4p i :am ino t x tu nc rp tcu tu rI nl i no t f tt u t us e f t an i to p . nr it :r tn.7' .a nno £ > ot n i id tf t nI NO : c .4 . 7o . t i n t .f r t .7 6o .obn t ' Lin n Cl e i f il ha b e t ,t lJ uno 0 o cn t tgo t ton . 91 .e ta fAu c i .t 5. L " Ca i i . t r i . tp &ra tJ t c t u l tuu t in onganoe a nnoe 3 mc . c run tn ano c ar na la da n t ic p auc tu t : e l ign as a b la te d az t Af u t tp e rt n t ra cu l t ie imm ia dt i t uk tphand i ig a ins b U r t la t l i 1o di c ta ta t i i p un c ip t . tI n uen tcndi .Eun te t . if a in tn an t r an t :q :b onunc t e mu t tn u : l ions c ö : p i cnon t» zt n a tO t t,: l t 3r tc ;o :or t tJ t i t i .' O M bab c tx i tc um M ik ar n a tot so f r aq u i t d cm b om tnco * -n un c .t in & i l i c tp nc sAU n iun iD tat .i in to m aps ; S c en tt e a* c u r f iun rÄ to m inom c o :p af a t na n t r 4 :t i c ma ;n t_ I on t u do g ig . . in to; v i de af a i d c u tt nard ib t i t t 3r e t t a t u rr a c r ab i t iona i n C e t l9 f ev i d i f f cm o l a r em r o w = m4 c e i r um b e n t es f a in tm odu l ua tn o f t r ef t en p o t tu tran .i Nx i tez tu6u f t .u . .q )n ub° t n odo a ud tend tr u n t: l i tg u tt na i tt amn ui r el a z e ui t a us i l os a nnos :c pE UC 5r e I t h 9f 3 c tun tv unm i tn o es :a te n ong en tos u nn i .00 ./ lam b tu l en t i ls a d b u cf u n t6 0 1t e t i 4. c .2 n n t s ;v uu t . bf i lms d e .da le c tg u ti n t e rp : c t a t u re c f c c nd ens f l u er o bo zans v r f a FpAora z an c in ame i .a n no p ane f u i .I r v .f u p :a c an tf un in e c i i .v .m üd tt o

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c a yn q uo 8t am e nf e r ip t u r af abn et r a T a in inv t+ p an i ca dn o ev b ta mb a r tun 6 e . # n e a log ian il au tt a rn : I I 2t n Jbo l tb t f c r cno c onc r cuo te n u t :g ram( :a d fe ta l h am c u tf a c t aa i r ep zon i if t io c rc b r i t to n a f a t u r oq u i ea t pb a 7o zappo c a l ip . t . a x c rq uod r c npn t r a Ga i tq uor d3m p Incmou t .n c eo mn cs i t :p z imoo en i t i4 « t c np t u ra n On l ina tV tc a yn c ognou t tvr ce cn if o am 2g en t i t tE no cb .n oe f tc o n i c t r ee c pe nod ,f u na uo p a rno t; e n i t un .2 f i ec rJ i nn . bums e et aup ef i l t if ob ri n( Tu r n 'i nf i c cpuo p a t r is c un tI t up l t c tu t ec o :d to p af eu e r an t eo af i l Us C a , y mp c i f in ii s( l i nd en )i no t i in t u rum p u t t ap f is n i u t t am al t pe tr u nt i l o cb M i l t° 3 1 J ra t tn ame d ia n no p an ts t u i .c . I xv .i 5 c r i .v .möd iv e ro l o zz .fa i in 1 s e .v c . 4: 1 + 5.f m .47 . ii zz. / R an iv a cc e f um . 5 6 1 .3 t t ee n o cb f e pnmus a b/ A d am i x op l ac tu ttt r an f l an in c f ti np a r ad ifm : 7( cr an ia t a l i :F es p d i c a t u ra dL Iw. 1 3t r i f f em i r onus q u i t an i if em m ee ta t ek a l i fc bn f t f a dn oun f o :m a tu r .v i u i ta n ti np a r ad i f oi nc o rpon t i 2f p f is t r anqu i t t i t a t ec äb e l y av fe a dt e mp u oa nn e i an v i la d Me lt z f e n f ion e tn .* A r emo m a r ty r i oc o t o na nd i .b l i ci u d as a po f t o l us i ne p i f to l af l un onnu l l2 f aw f i tt cr e f =4 a ba n t t i qu i ta t ef u f c ep t cf u la ap a tnbuo r e f u t a t af u n t .

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i l tur a l e tn f it iu se n t yd ,n u tmeg J uno p a ne l i t i . ird .m in i& v a c,f i n I g t .i " .8 7 . Amu q u ib t i nv i r i tf i l e r e .969 .3 1 f t ea b a t u f ak rn a t i t iqu i f f ne f u t te t nn t i iq uo af c r ipn a r ap t u cu to za t .r e ea nn in a u t ed un b i t i e r f ef l i n t w i l es .f i nt r . in t e r i i t in c ompu t anonan V IP f r e t . 14 .a n n9 p o l lb i lum um . . l ed n on l e g i t u rf u i f f ei nar c b 2f l o e .& N e ro .t oa f e r in cp c o d es i n °b i l inn im o z # t u ne f i t .e ep ta t ie bi c bu oa n t eb i lu inum f e pu l tus . Qu id am t oa im c um p a t f r . :f u oe no ch t r a ' i l an im f u nk v ot u nn 2b i tuud if i t c r i f f ep u t aba n tc a u f an t cbo t DI 0 4 . r f t r a t cc o d id in o f t ro z : 2b eb : co z , : :f i n au G u t in ß ab . .2 y f i .g u tm in es u i c u n ta im a b fe o n in ia mb i G uo n on v ip I r e .i . .a n tep o l lD i l uu f u r nt u r n' b i r d , n i .v in .Junn cf a b l ef i e ban t .

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t a m ed ,c u in e f fa a n no t un u g e nu i th o cq u e rn c um 6 c nu i f f e tb um . l i t c .f . -P o ec o n f oL ib i r u rn on at a bonbuo m an tn in o f t r a r um i nt e r r ac u t *m a id a mt r immu i 34t c s r iu i tm e ta ' P e ef i t :on 2f i b» .e t CM e tfret r eP e t t l fg t00 ( Cp tt lae t t l f .d ep tC M 3 f 1 1 10 t 3t T a i l td it MU IC Ipa t l i tr i1 30C f i l IC, MO Z tU t le e f t , e og u ld en ,t e np o r e Lup in es c r am ( ea t e r r an i :v in v t i e gf ams f i 7i n c r ebo t i ep o t e n t i c( a cm es b e t t um . •

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. . a 4 c . , . 4 ,t i n. i r r i g . .C . . ,.. 5 . 1s ri I 1 e r n .v s s d p s . s e , L r i t > t i r s , 1 .4K t s t s i t s s .: v i s t i 1 . 44 . 4 . . . r. . .. . . -y . A . ,, 8K..r . . s s 4 , V* ‘ s a4.4 i , ,,, ,r , ., , ,4 - r r. . 4. r . . . , . ,.7 ) , e ld e y r t e t ee I * A le * • : . .. z r ,r tte -Af t,. . . . 1. 1 , . .. .r ille d t , ,r e. .v . “ ' h4 ,4 , , A , r en t .+ 7 , . .. . ., .erteietette,44 IKey ,. te r-4 . i .f i tmr ojr s i i£ ' N s . .W .. . .-0 . .1 . * . A s r *c ,O rez i se i . o r i t i . tz ‘ 1,a ir ,h i r r ia i a iN * -a ir s t ia P p, ' e : * . e r i l a sZ mi Z . 1 • 6 i / .b t s , .' r .5 ur ile.5 ad ei •o r,i v r t r i. t ' a wr it/ " , i, C € 1

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P rimeros Memoriales, p aragraph G ods" ( from S ahag t in 1 905:10)

17 5

d epicting " Services

t o

t he

1 76 D eta il o f f igure 7

X3 , t ' e t t t 4 te t u mu t am t k iv a t :Cm tud a t a t ø4 ,1f l iC 1Uø I tonya t t t 1 u t h Iø ! J ' >, i n to( f i t I t if f i 4cyac i t, f Lw i t.t t /r 49ut m s ta tt f o cao tac , 1 4 ta t i, "mob e z e t t r ttacu) .r, e r ect ar e e k ti d , i t oc ,t i t qu t giui t ir t e r W i t rr . e it im s, C , C en A il + .a . e lt nc hr : , ' t n ape , " Nn i , t 0a 4 1 . 1 4 1d . -u ncan c o nc a tuaya .» .‘a r t t o j ey ou tc n r i t cey e, t o r :rad io i mu t tu l t i r e n ov ia t 4 f ld 4 f tu . t e en h dpu . .f icu i scacauk e i t t e d : t a me , Jet C ay oa l i nm itof4 1y 4 t, t i tt r a tt ru i r. t u ra i n ic tu 'r i o poc kk C a jo led . n ckg4 ,, n t ro c oLU : tut t t ict t

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t Z, 11 .4 1 . 3t 1 . i o n crian t i. j u ix ti l ttla ` • ' -t u an mA i t t i e t u e l dü b ta tya , 214 4 34 , c an tp a t t l , tha l t i t i e ta , 444 " ‘0 .01 4, 1 ‘ 4 • 4 1 /y e c t i th d a t lac :i taf t s tam ay / s . f *f l4f ltn 1 . 4 3 ; te se t t l e t t,e , h i t ch i t t i in ty te igyo . , i nt ot ams ,1 , i ttn ea tna . t " t h i te , ec eh l t ai ih ib ia . i n tt 4r um e gm in r n aa t te le s e c e t ud e te; thcive,t .f ju Of t .tt gape ,? et. % f i e ld r ye t aailatthi L ti u j c t i lde / t i ter : AA i nd el ' t le tTe 44 10.e. i h raC4gt Ou t , e l if p n i t* . i ' ty kpe ; o noime7. c a l la bu tP i, 3 v e e tt n . «e tt it iL iy . . . i

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F igure 9 :

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Primeros M emoria les, p age 2 o f t he v eintena c eremonies ( from S ahagün 1 905:2)

1 77

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17 8

F igure

1: P rimeros Memoriales, d etail o f Tititl c eremony ( from Sahagün 1 905:7)

1 79

A NCIENT A NDEAN A RT

A S E XPLAINED BY ANDEAN E THNOHISTORY :

A N H ISTORICAL

R EVIEW

b y A LANA

O DRDY-COLLINS

I ntroduction B efore t he S panish Conquest o f Peru i n 1 521, w riting was u nknown i n t he A ndean a rea.

Therefore, t he f irst w ritten i nformation about A ndean

p eoples w as r ecorded i n European l anguages d erived a nd

f rom

f rom

d irect

r ecording

( mainly i n S panish)

o bservation,

f rom

n ative

t raditions.

o ral

q uestioning

n ative

T his

c orpus

a nd w as

i nformants, o f

w ritten

i nformation c onstitutes w hat h as c ome t o b e k nown a s A ndean e thnoh istory. I t w as r ecorded i n t he s ixteenth a nd s eventeenth c enturies b y s oliders, l iterate

p riests, m estizos,

n avigators, a nd

e xplorers,

e ducated

Indians.

r oyal

A ndean l ife c hanged s oon a fter European c ontact, u nique s ource o f

i nformation a bout

N evertheless,

t here

a re

e thnohistoric d ocuments. m ents i n t he g eneral

f irst

p enned o r,

p lace.

i f s oon

many

a spects

o f

s uch c hronicles a re a

t he p re-European p eriod.

many

p roblems

i nherent

i n

t he

u se

o f

N ot t he l east o f t hese i s l ocating t he d ocuMany w ritten a ccounts

a nd p articular, w ere n ot

o ften o bscure

r epresentatives,

B ecause

p ublished,

e ditions.

p ublished u ntil

o f A ndean l ife,

w ere t hen a vailable

Many a re

u npublished

b oth

y ears a fter t hey w ere o nly i n l imited a nd

s till

a nd must

b e p ain-

s takingly s leuthed a nd r etrieved f rom a myriad o f a rchival s ources b y d edicated p aleographers. A side f rom t he d ifficulty i n o btaining t hese d ocuments, t here a re t wo major p roblems a ccompanying t heir u se. F irst, t here i s t he q uestion o f p rimacy. Until m odern c opyright l aws m ade p lagiarism a c riminal o ffense ( and, i ndeed, u ntil m odern s cholarship d enounced i t a s u nprofessional), i t w as n ot a t a ll u ncommon f or c hroniclers t o f reely c opy f rom e arlier s ources, t he p revious w ork.

u sually w ithout c iting

T herefore, o n f irst a nalysis, what m ay s een t o b e a

c orroboration o f d ata b etween r eports m ay i n f act b e a ppropriation

( and

p ossible

e ven

d istortion)

o f

p rimary

i nformation

b y

s econdary

o r

t ertiary authors. C learly, t he c haracter o f t he author must b e e stabl ished, i f a t a ll p ossible, b efore c redence may b e l ent t o h is d ocument. U nderstandably, s ource h as

t his

A s econd major e asy

t o

p articular

b een l ost,

i solate,

p roblem

d estroyed,

p roblem i s

s uch

a s

t he

i s

c ompounded

i f

t he

p rimary

o r b uried i n a n u nknown a rchives.

b ias.

S ome authors '

i dentification

1 81

o f

b iases

t he

a re r ather

P eruvian

d eity

c ulture h ero V iracocha a s Saint T homas— O ther b iases a re m ore s ubtle , b ecause t hey u nconsciously h ave b ent f oreign d ata t o e thnocentric m ental t emplates--templates w hich a re s till e xtant, s hared b y a ll d escendants o f Western c ivilization. S uch b ias m ay b e d ifficult t o r ecognize. R . T om Z uidema ( 1982) h as a rgued t hat t he I nca k ing l ist w as t hought t o b e al ineal s equence b ecause l ineality was ( and s till i s) t he W estern c oncept o f r oyal d escent, n ot b ecause i t w as c ulturally t rue f or t he I nca. Z uidema c ontends t hat t here w ere a t l east t wo a nd p erhaps f our Inca k ings w ho r uled s imultaneously o ver t he d ifferent d ivisions o f C uzco ( see a lso Demarest 1 98 1:13). D espite s uch p roblems, e thnohistoric d ocuments c an b e e mployed, a lbeit c autiously, t o t he p rofit o f h istory, a nthropology, a nd a rt h istory. Whereas t he h istorian 's i nterest i n Andean c hronicles i s a imed p rincipally a t u nderstanding p articular e vents i n t emporal o rder, t he a nthropologist 's g oals a re t o f lesh o ut o r h elp r econstruct c ultural p rocesses. The h istoric i nformation i s i conographic Many

a im o f t he a rt h istorian i n u tilizing e thnod ifferent s till: t o e xplicate f ormal a nd

q uestions r aised b y a rtistic d ata.

t imes,

h owever,

A ndean

r esearch

i s

b est

s erved

b y

c ross-

c utting t hese t hree s ubject a reas a nd a malgamating t he s pecific p ursuits o f e ach d iscipline i nto a n i ntegrated s tudy d esign. T o d ate, r esearch i n A ndean a rt h istory i nvolving e thnohistorical s ources h as b een c arried o ut b y a nthropologists, w ho h ave e xamined a rt a s am eans o f s tudying p rehistoric A ndean c ulture. H istorians h ave u sed a rth istorical a nalysis a s a w ay o f s ubstantiating t he v alidity o f t he c hronicles. C uriously, w hereas Mesoamericanists h ave l ong m ade u se o f c odical d ata i n t he a nalysis o f M esoamerican a rt ( Berlo, t his v olume ; K lein 1 982), a s T erence G rieder h as p ointed o ut ( personal c ommunicat ion, 1 983), A ' ideanists h ave b een s omewhat r emiss i n e xploiting t he p otential o f d ocumentary m aterial t o e lucidate A ndean a rt. f or l ack o f e thnohistoric d ocuments.

This i s n ot

P hilip A insworth Means c ompiled a b ibliographic h andbook o f t he A ndean c hronicles w hich w as p ublished i n 1 928 . T his was f ollowed i n 1 939 b y Fr. R uben Vargas U garte 's s ourcebook. S even y ears l ater, J ohn H . R owe 's a rticle o n I nca c ulture a ppeared a nd i ncluded a l ist o f A ndean c hronicles, w here t hey w ere a vailable, a nd t he r elative r eliability o f e ach ( 1946 ). R owe t hen t urned h is a ttention t o t hose d ocuments n ot c oncerned p rimarily w ith t he I nca, b ut w ith t he p re-Inca C himu c iviliz ation o f n orthern P eru ( 1948). I n 1 970 , J ohn Murra p ublished a c ommentary o n t he t extual s ources p ublished s ince R owe's r eports. Therein h e s tressed t he n eed t o l ook b eyond t hese p ublished c hronicles t o t he m ore m undane a dministration a nd l itigation r eports s tored i n n ational a rchives. These l atter d ocuments h ave p roven p articularly f ruitful f or a uthors o f a rea s tudies s uch a s P atricia N etherly ( 1977) a nd M aria R ostworowski 1 977),

d e D iez

C anseco

F rank S alomon o n h ighland E cuador

T hompson o n r ural I nca s ettlements

o n

( 1968).

1 82

c oastal

( 1977/ 1978,

P eru

( 1970 ,

1 978),

1 975,

a nd D onald

C learly,

t here

i s

n o

d earth

o f

Andean

e thonohistoric

d ocuments.

However, i t i s n ot t he p urpose o f t his p aper t o e nnumerate t hem , t he i nterested r eader i s r eferred t o t he a forementioned a uthors' l isting. G iven t he p lethora o f e thnohistoric a ccounts a vailable f or a nalysis, i s

r emarkable t hat N evertheless,

t he n umber o f

a rt-related s tudies

while

i n number,

l imited

i t

r emains s mall.

t hese " ethno-art

h istory"

s tudies a re n ot l imited i n t ype o f a pplication. T hey r ange f rom s ingle unit s tudies t o e ntire t hematic p roblems. I nterestingly, m ost h ave c oncentrated o n t he a rt a nd a rchitecture o f t he Inca a nd o f t he late p re-Hispanic

n orth c oast

c ultures.

t ion a ppears t o h ave o ccurred, a rt

extant

a nd,

s econd,

This

c ultural-regional

c oncentra-

f irst, b ecause o f t he w ealth o f d etailed

b ecause

o f

t he

o verwhelming number

h istoric d ocuments i n e xistence p ertaining t o

o f

e thno-

t hose a reas.

I nca C ulture J ohn

H .

R owe

( 1964)

h as

u tilized

s ixteenth-century

l exical

a nd

c hronical d ocuments t o e stablish t he s tylistic d evelopment o f t he I nca w ooden

c up

( gero

i nformation,

o r

k ero).

a llowed

R owe

T hese t o

d ata,

c oupled

s eparate

t he

w ith

e arliest

a rchaeological s urvivig

p re-

H ispanic c ups f rom t hose b eing made a t t he t ime o f t he S panish Conquest, a nd b oth t hese g roups f rom t hose which c ontinued t o b e m ade u p u ntil t he e arly n ineteenth c entury. More r ecently, T homas C ummins ( 1983) h as e mbarked u pon a n ew a rea o f k ero r esearch i n a n a ttempt t o l earn about p roduction a nd c onsumption o f t he w ooden c ups, Colonial

B oth John H . g ations ( 1979)

o f

R owe a nd R .

r oyal

c ombined

S panish

I nca t he

c hronicles

s eventeenthZ uidema 's

a nd

r esearch

T om Z uidema h ave p ursued f ruitful i nvesti-

t apestry s tandard

w ith

g arments

r eference

t o

e ighteenth-century ( 1973,

1 980)

( gompi).

e thnohistoric

was

p roductive

i n

h is

mentioned

b eing able

p aintings

c oncerned w ith

i n

t he

t o m atch

c hronicles,

w ith

A rthur D emarest

h as

a n

o f

a pproach u tilizing

s ources,

n otable

o f

n obles.

t he

Inca

i dentification

H is s tudy was e specially

s pecific

Museum o f Natural H istory i n Washington,

l em :

Rowe 's

p rocedure

i llustrative o il

o f r oyal t extile t ypes b y t heir Q uechua n ames. c asana ,

p articularly d uring t he

p eriod.

v ariety a ctual

o f s hirt,

s pecimen

i n

t he t he

D .C.

w orked w ith a p articularly i nteresting p rob-

t he i dentification o f n ow n on-existent I nca g old s culptures f rom

t he Coricancha i n C uzco ( 1981:14-15 f f.). Using c hroniclers' w ritten d escriptions a nd s ketches o f t he s culptures, t ogether w ith e thnoh istoric r eferences t o t he Inca p antheon, s uggest p lausible i dentifications o f t hree a ttributes.

1 8 3

Demarest h as b een a ble t o d eities a nd t heir r elative

N orth C oast C ultures S everal r esearchers, a s p articipants i n t he C han C han-Moche V alley P roject, h ave u tilized e thnohistoric d ata t o i nterpret a rchitecture o f t he C himu c ulture. K ent Day ( 1982:63) h as i ndicated t hat t he t en g reat c ompounds ( ciudadelas, c uadros) a t C han C han a re a ssignable t o s pecific C himu k ings a s k nown f rom t he e thnohistoric k ing l ist f or t he n orth c oast. G eoffrey C onrad c oncurs b ut h as h ad d ifficulty c orrelating h is o wn d ata o n r oyal b urial p latform c onstruction i n t he c ompounds w ith A lan K olata 's a dobe b rick s equence ( 1982) f or t hose c omplexes, s o t hat i t h as n ot y et b een p ossible t o a ssign u nequivocally t he n ames o f i ndividual k ings t o i ndividual c ompounds ( Conrad 1 982:109-110 ). H owe ver, R ichard K eatinge a nd G eoffrey C onrad h ave b een a ble t o u se e thnoh istoric w ritings t o i dentify a r ural a dministrative a rchitectural c omp lex f ounded b y t he C himu g eneral P acatnamu a s t he a ncient c ity o f F arfän, r ather t han t he n earby s ite w hich n ow b ears t he g eneral 's n ame ( Keatinge a nd C onrad i n p ress, K eatinge 1 982). I n t he r ealm o f C himu a rt o ther t han a rchitecture, J udith D avidson ( 1980, 1 982) h as b een s uccessful i n e xplaining t he f requent r epresentat ion o f S pondylus s hells i n c eramic a nd m etal w orks b y r eference t o b oth C himu a nd I nca e thnohistories. I n a ddition, Madeleine Fang ( 1975:454 6) h as s uggested t hat t he d ynastic o rigin myth f or t he C himu o f C han C han a nd t hat o f t he Lambayeque p eople o f C hotuna t o t he n orth m ay w ell b e l inked b ecause o f t he s trong s imilarities i n f rieze i conography i n t he r oyal r esidences o f t he t wo s ites. F urthermore, M aria R ostworowski d e D iez C anseco ( 1977:178-81) h as f ound r eferences i n t he S panish v isitas t o g uilds o f C himu a rtisans: p otters, metalsmiths, a nd t extile p ainters. T he

e arliest

e xtrapolation

f rom

i nformation

p reviously

a ssumed

( and s till a ssumed b y s ome) t o b e p ertinent o nly t o t he C himu w as m ade b y Rafael Larco Hoyle ( 1946:17 1), who i dentified t he r epresentation o f f anged h umans i n t he a rt o f t he p re-Chimu M oche c ulture ( A.D . 1 00-700) a s t he C himu c reator g od A i a paec. B oth A lan Sawyer ( 1966:52 p assim ) a nd E lizabeth B enson ( 1972:28) a dopted L arco 's i dentification. H owe ver, J ohn R owe h as r efuted L arco 's c laim t hat A i a paec w as t he a ctual n ame o f a d ivinity. H e p oints o ut t hat L arco 's s ixteenth-century s ource f or t he n ame, t he J esuit m issionary Fernando d e l a C arerra, " translates ' creator ' l iterally, m aking a w ord ' aipaec ' f rom t he v erb ' to m ake ' w hich h e u ses a s a t itle o f G od i n h is c atechism, a nd L arco H oyle a ssumes t hat i t w as t he n ame o f t he n ative h igh g od, b ut t his i s m erely w ishful t hinking" ( Rowe 1 948:49-50). f Moche i conography, which d raw u pon H owever, more r ecent s tudies o ave p roven q uite i ntriguing. I n r eliable e thnohistoric m aterial, h hat, a lthough t here a re n o w ritten f act, i t s eems s omewhat i ronic t ulture, i t i s h ere t hat t he g reatest r ecords w hich r efer t o t he M oche c c oncentration o f Andean e thno-art h istoric s tudies a ppears. A lana C ordy-Collins ( 1972), i n a nalyzing t he r eed b oat i conographic t heme i n M oche

c eramics,

w as

a ble

t o

d ocument

t he

r epresentation

o f

m ultiple

p assenger t ury.

b oats

a s

a t ype

o f

c raft m ade p rior

t o

t he s eventeenth c en-

U tilizing a n e xpanded s ample o f d ocuments a nd a rt, P atricia Lyon ( 1981) h as r e-analyzed a p roposed c orrelation b etween t he m yth o f a n u prising o f i nanimate o bjects a nd t he d epiction o f w eaponry a ttacking h uman b eings. S he h as c arefully b ody o f m yth f ragments a nd a s imilar s mall n umber o f a nd u nequivocally d emonstrated t hat t he t wo g roups o f t o

t he

s ame

i ncident,

a s

h ad

b een

i nitially

a nthropomorphized c ollated a s mall a rtistic d esigns, d ata d o n ot r efer

p roposed

b y

Walter

K rickeberg ( 1928) a nd f requently a ccepted t hereafter. H owever, i t i s w ith t he a ccounts o f h istoric i ndividuals a nd p ractices t hat t he most s triking c omparisons w ith M oche a rt h ave b een m ade. A nne Marie H ocqueghem ( 1977a) h as i dentified a modeled c eramic p ortrait h ead v ase a s t hat o f aw oman. I n s upport o f h er i nterpretation s he c ites J ohn Rowe, who h as n oted r eferences t o t he a pparent e quality o f w omen i n C himu s ociety, a nd M aria R ostworowski d e D iez C anseco, w ho n otes t he r ole o f w omen a s c hiefs, o r c apullanas, f arther n orth a mong t he Tallanes a ccoutrements

p eople. Furthermore, o f c ertain f igures a nd

b y b y

s tudying t he p ostures a nd c omparing t hese w ith e thno-

h istoric d ata r eported b y R owe, H ocqueghem ( 1977b) h as i dentified t he f igures a s s hamans, o r f olk h ealers. A dditionally, H ocquenhem ( 1981) h as r eported o n t he j uxtaposition o f s keletal o r d eath f igures a nd i nsects o n t wo c eramic v essels, i dentifying t he i nsects s pecifically a s f lies b y r eference t o a c ompilation k nown a s t he H uarochiri d ocument w hich m entions f lies a s d eath-related i nsects. H ocquenghem ( 1983) h as a lso a ttempted t o i nterpret r epresentations o f a c omposite b east, t he " deer-serpent-jaguar," a s t he a maru o r a maro , " a mythical c omposite b eing p ossessing c ervine, o phidian, a nd f eline c haracteristics" m ent ioned b y s ixteentha nd s eventh-century c hronicles ( 1983:5). A s imilarly-conceived-of a nimal was a lso k nown a s U scaiguai o r M achcuay ( ibid .). A c lear p roblem w ith t his i nterpretation, h owever, i s t hat n one o f t he c reature 's n ames i s i n t he n orth c oastal l anguage g roup a nd, t herefore, m ade.

n o

F inally,

s trong l ink b etween

t he

m ost

e xtensive

t he

i mage

a nd

t he

d ocuments

r esearch c omparing Moche

c an b e

i conography

w ith n orth c oast e thnohistoric d ata h as b een c onducted b y C hristopher D onnan. H e h as i dentified i ndividuals i n t he a rt b y a ctivity, b y o ccupation,

a nd--occasionally--by

n ame.

D onnan

h as

s uggested

t hat

s everal r epresentations o f ad etailed s cene i nvolving a n e rotic c ouple, h uman d ismemberment, a nd a pparent c onsumption o f a s uspcious s ubstance m ay b e i dentified a s a ctivities a t t he m eeting o f " witches ' g uild" i n t he l ocale o f B arranca w herein a s exual o rgy a long w ith r itual c annibali sm w as c hronicled ( Do rman 1 976:82; 1 978:87 a nd 9 0). F urther, Donnan ( 1976:82;

1 978:90) h as i llustrated t hree v ases w hich s eem t o r epresent

a n otoriously

l ice-ridden,

i f

p rophetic,

" witch"

k nown

a s Mollep t he

L ousey. M oreover, a s eries o f b ottles w hich d epicts t he b urial o f a n i mportant d ignitary a lso s hows a d eceased f emale b eing c onsumed b y c arnivorous

b irds.

D onnan

h as

c ompared

1 85

t his

l atter

i ndividual

w ith

e thnohistoric p atient

a ccounts

t hrough b e

o f

s tate-supported

malpractice,

d evoured

b y

w ere

b irds

h ealers

s ummarily

w hile

t he

w ho,

k illed

p atient

i f

t hey l ost a

a nd

w as

l eft

a bove

g round

t o

c eremoniously

b uried Donnan

( Do rman 1 976:82; 1 978:87; 1 98 1; D onnan a nd McClelland 1 979). h as a lso i dentified g ourd-supported r afts t owed b y s wimmers a s

a ctual c raft f or c rossing r ivers ( 1976:86-87; 1 978:93-9) 4), a g roup o f f igures b lowing i nto t ubes a round a d ome-shaped s tructure a s m etal s miths c reating a f orced-air d raft i n t heir s melter ( 1976:87; 1 978:94), a nd n umerous d epictions o f s potted a dult d eer b eing s talked b y e labor ately-garbed h unters t he

c hronicler

a s a n e lite c eremonial a ctivity

Cabello

B alboa 's

a ccount

o f

a

( n.d.).

Lastly,

Lambayeque

d ynasty

i ncludes m ention o f c ourtiers w hose l ikenesses o ccur i n M oche a rt : P itozofi, t he s hell t rumpeter; R inacola , t he master o f r oyal l itter a nd t hrone ;

a nd N inagintue,

t he r oyal c ellarer

( Do rman 1 976:88;

1 978:101).

While, a s m entioned a bove, t here may s till b e s ome s kepticism t hat Chimu e thnohistories a re a pplicable t o M oche a rt, e vidence

t hat n o a ppreciable c ultural

a nd Chimu c ultures To t his

( Cordy-Collins a nd McClelland,

p oint,

a ll

t o

d ate

h as

i s

i ncreasing

t his

v olume).

e thno-art h istory s tudies c ited h ave p ertained

t o w hat i s n ow t he c ountry o f P eru. r esearch

t here

g ap e ver d eveloped b etween Moche

b een

s o

While i t i s t rue t hat m ost o f t he

o riented,

c oncentrated o n E cuador a s well.

t here

However,

a re

s tudies

w hich h ave

t hese a re y et f ew,

b ut w ith

t he w ork o f d edicated s cholars, such a s Maria-Isabel Silva, t his s ituat ion i s sure t o c hange.

I n r eview, t he w ork o f J ohannes W ilbert

( 197) 4)

i n r eldting s ome o f t he i conographic motifs o n Manteho s pindle w horls t o e arly a ccounts m iniature a rt,

o f a nimal s ymbolism i s n otable. A lso i n t he r ealm o f R esfa P arducci h as c onvincingly c ompared d esign motifs

o n a g roup o f c lay s tamps f rom Manabi w ith e thnohistoric d escriptions o f c oastal t emples a nd h ouses

( 1965:19

e mployed Mesoamerican e thnohistoric

) .

A lana Cordy-Collins

d ata

a s well

t he r ationale f or t he Mantef to h ocker f igures.

( 1982) h as

a s A ndean t o s uggest

J orge Marcos a nd Norton 's

i ntriguing a ccount o f S pondylus s hell p rocurement a nd d ispersal s uffers o nly in

t hat

t hey i dentify what

i s

d emonstrably a C himu i con s howing

S pondylus d iving a s a n E cuadorian o ne.

However, t his i ncident i s n ot a s

i mportant

t he

Norton

a s

i s

t he

i dentification o f

a ctivity i tself

( Marcos

a nd

1 98 1:1) 48 ).

I t m ust b e n oted t hat w hile e thnohistory h as n ot b een e xploited a s f ully a s i t m ight b e t o e ludicate A ndean a rt, t he s ame c annot b e s aid o f e thnography which h as b een a nd c ontinues t o b e u sed e xtensively a nd p rofitably. I n f act, e thnographic r esearch i n S outh A merica o ver t he l ast h undred y ears h as p rovided a v ery r ich r esource f or a rt h istorical i nvestigation. a pparent A merica. f ace

o f

A t enacious

t hroughout

m ost

c onservatism

n on-

o r

o f

t hought

l ittle-urbanized

a nd

p ractice

a reas

o f

i s

South

This m arked r esistance t o c hange i s e specially n otable i n t he n ineteenth-

a nd

t wentieth-century e ncroachment.

I mportantly,

t he observed t enacity has c onvinced many s cholars t hat e thnographic d ata may b e e mployed, w ith c are, t o i nterpret p re-Columbian p atterns o f

18 6

b ehavior 1 974,

c odified a s

1 977;

W ilbert

a rt

( Furst

1 968;

L athrap

1 973; S haron a nd Donnan

1 974).

T he l ast t wo d ecades h ave w itnessed a n i ncreasingly a ctive a pplic ation o f e thnographic d ata t o t he p roblem o f d eciphering a ncient A ndian a rt. T he a forementioned w orks b y C ordy-Collins ( 1972), D avidson ( 1980 , 1 982), D onnan ( 1976 , 1 978), a nd H ocquenghem ( 1977b, 1 981, 1 983) a ll u tilize e thnographic d ata i n c onjunction w ith e thnohistoric r ecords t o a chieve a n u nderstanding o f C himu o r M oche a rt. I nvestigations i nto t he m eaning o f t he e ven e arlier C havin m aterial h ave b een e specially f ruitful. S pearheaded

b y D onald Lathrap 's

a rt

s tyle

1 973 p aper,

u sing

e thnographic

p articular

a ttention

h as b een p aid t o t he r eligious c ontent o f C havin i conography. L athrap a rgued t hat w idespread t ropical f orest b elief i n as aurian d ual d eity a s t he p rogenitor o f a griculture was d irectly a pplicable t o C havin i mages. A lso i n t his v anguard o f r esearch w ere Douglas Sharon a nd C hristopher D onnan ( 1974, 1 977), w ho t raced t he p resence o f s hamanism o n t he n orth c oast o f Peru f rom t he p resent b ack t hrough C himu a nd Moche a rt, a nd i nto t hat o f C havin. A lana C ordy-Collins ( 1977) s imilarly d emonstrated t hat a s ignificant n umber o f C havin m otifs w ere e xplicable v ia t he s hamanism m odel. S he f urther d eveloped t his t heme i s 1 980 , p ointing o ut t hat t he o nly p lausible i nterpretation f rom s ome v ery e xtraordinary C havin m otifs was a s hamanistic o ne. C ordy-Collins ( in p ress) h as a lso a nalyzed t he i conography o f t he r emarkable C erro S echin c arvings a nd s uggests t hat t hey m ay d etail s hamanistic i nitiation r ites r ather t han a l iteral b attle. A dditionally, A lana C ordy-Collins ( 1978), P atricia Lyon 1 973

( 1980), a nd P eter R oe ( 1978) h ave a ll f ollowed D onald L athrap 's i nvestigation i nto t he p resence o f d iadic male-female i mages i n

C havin a rt. S everal o ther i nvestigators h ave e mployed e thnographic c omparisons w ith v arious Andean a rt s tyles t o s omewhat l esser d egrees ( see B ruhns n .d.). A n a dditional a pproach t o t he s tudy o f a ncient A ndean a rt h as b een o utlined b y P atricia Lyon ( in p ress). A s w ell a s o ther c riteria, s he h as s tressed t he n eed t o e xamine t he n atural e nvironment i n d etail a s a m eans o f e xploring i conography. This u se o f n atural m odels a lso h as b een u tilized s uccessfully f or i nvestigations o f a rchaeological a rt b y D avidson ( 1982) a nd b y Lathrap ( 1973, 1 977, i n p ress). Furthermore, G erardo R eichel-Dolmatoff ( 1978) h as c learly d emonstrated t he e fficacy o f t he n atural m odels a pproach b y a pplying i t t o e thnographic a rt w here c onclusions d rawn a re i mmediately v erifiable t hrough t he u se o f l iving i nformants. I n s ummary, i t m ay b e s aid b enefits f rom m any d isciplines.

t hat t he I ndeed,

s tudy o f a ncient Andean a rt m any a uthors h ave s een t he

v alue i n u sing a n o verarching a pproach b y e mploying a c ombination o f a rchaeology, e thnography, b iology, e thology, a nd e thnohistory t o a rrive a t a n u nderstanding o f a ncient Andean a rt.

i8 7

R ESUMEN La

a utora

h ace

u na

d e

reseha

d ocumentos

h istbricos

y

e tnohistöricos p or e studiosos i nteresados e n a nalizar e l a rte a ntiguo d e l os Andes y d iscute l os p roblemas i nherentes a l u so d e t al d ocument aciön. E stos p roblemas i ncluyen l a l ocalizaciön d e l os p rimeros t estimonios, l a p rimacia d e l os t estimcnios f rente a u na p osible c opia d e f uentes m äs p rimitivas a dn, y l os p rejuicios d el e scritor o d el i nformante. R ecientes c ontribuciones e ruditas s obre l as c ulturas I nca y l a

c ultura

r egistros

d e

l a

c osta

n orte

s on

e valuadas

e n

b ase

a s us

p ropios

e tnogräficos y e tnohistörioos.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I w ould

l ike

t o

t hank Margaret Thomas

t heir h elp w ith French t ranslations. e ditorial

a ssistance

o f K en H edges

a nd J eanette

P eterson

f or

I a m f urther a ppreciative f or t he a nd Margaret T homas.

J anet B erlo f or u rging me t o u ndertake t his

I a lso

t hank

t ask.

D ISCLAIMER I n

a ny

c ompilation

o f

l ists,

i ndividuals

i ncluded a re u nintentionally o mitted.

w ho

I a pologize

h ave o verlooked a nd u rge t hem t o a dvise m e

s hould

h ave

b een

t o t hose w hom I m ay

o f t heir r esearch s o t hat I

may c ite t hem i n f uture r eferences.

NOTES 1 .

T he

Andean

a rea

i s

t he

g eographical

r egion

I nca Empire a t t he t ime o f i ts g reatest e xpansion,

o ccupied

b y

t he

a t erritory s tretch-

i ng s ome t hree t housand m iles n orth-south f rom t he C olombia-Ecuador b order t o n orth-central C hile. Inland, t he E mpire r an e ast t o i ncorpo-

1 88

r ate

w estern

B olivia

a merica" has b een ( L ii nbreras 1 982). 2 . idiom

A r are i s

t he

n orthwestern

e xception

H uarochiri

Hermann Trimborn i n

3 .

a nd

Argentina.

T he

n ame

" Andino-

p roposed r ecently t o s upplant t he t erm " Andean A rea"

o f

a d ocument

c ollection

o f

w ritten

i n

s tories,

a n ative

f irst

Andean

p ublished

b y

1 939 .

A s James Lockhart h as

s hown

( 1972:1 7 -22),

t he

t erm " soldier"

a s a pplied t o t he s ixteenth-century c onquerors o f P eru i s a m isnomer b ecause s uch men h ad n either m ilitary r ank n or e ven m ilitary t raining. However, t he w idespread u se o f " soldier" i n b oth g eneral l iterature a nd p arlance

h as

h istorically s uch a s L L

s imilar

p rompted me t o a dopt more

a ccurate,

p artner/companion B etty

A nn

c hroniclers'

c oncept

5 .

u se h ere

a nd

( 1982)

h as

e xplication

m ore

o f

e quivocal

( vecino)

r ecently

d emonstrated

s cholars t he A ztec

t erm,

( ibid .:20).

v is-a-vis c alendar

t he

t hat

a

e arly

u tilizing

o f what a calendar was.

I t s hould b e n oted t hat

o nly t wo o f

b east exhibit c ervine a ttributes.

s entations may b e

r ather t han t o e mploy a

o r c itizen

f or Mesoamerican

t heir o wn European m odel

t ions o f this

i ts

c ontemporarily

( compar iero)

B rown

p roblem exists

b ut

o f o ther c reatures.

1 89

h er f ive

c ited i llustra-

The o ther t hree r epre-

R EFERENCES B enson,

E lizabeth P .

1 972

B erlo,

C ITED

T he Mochica, N ew Y ork.

a C ulture o f P eru .

J anet C atherine

19 83

C onceptual

c ategories

i mages i n M esoamerica. B rown,

P raeger P ublishers.

f or

t he

( This

s tudy

o f

t exts

a nd

v olume).

B etty A nn

19 82

E arly c olonial r epresentations o f t he A ztec monthly c alendar. P re-Columbian A rt H istory : Selected R eadi ngs, e dited b y A lana C ordy-Collins. P eek P ublicat ions. P alo A lto.

B ruhns, K aren O lsen n. d.

A rchaeology a nd i conog raphy o r a rt a s e vidence.

P re-

p ublication t ypescript. D epartment o f A nthropology, San Francisco S tate University. C onrad, G eoffrey W . 19 82 T he

b urial

p latforms

o f C han C han :

s ome s ocial

a nd

p olitical i mplications. C han C han : A ndean D esert C ity , e dited b y M ichael E . Moseley a nd K ent C . D ay. University o f N ew M exico P ress. A lbuquerque. C ordy-Collins, 1 972

A lana T he Tule B oat Theme i n Moche Art: A P roblem i n Anc ient P eruvian I conography. Master s T hesis. I nstit ute o f A rchaeology. University o f C alifornia , L os A ngeles.

1 977

C havin Art : i ts s hamanic/hallucinogenic o rigins. P re-Columbian A rt H istory : S elected R eadings v ol. 1 . Edited b y A lana C ordy-Collins a nd J ean S tern. P eek P ublications. P alo A lto.

1 979

C otton a nd t he S taff G od : a nalysis o f a n a ncient C havin T extile. T he J unius B . B ird P re-Columbian T extile C onference, e dited b y A nn P . R owe, E lizabeth P . B enson, a nd A nne-Louise S chaffer. T he T extile M useum a nd D umbarton Oaks.

19 78

T he d ual d ivinity c oncept i n C havin a rt. E l D orado, A N ewsletter-Bulletin o f S outh A merican A rchaeology I II,

19 80

Washington, D .C.

n o.

2 .

A n a rtistic r ecord o f t he C havin h allucinatory e xper ience. T he Masterkey 514 , n o. 1 .

19 0

1 982

E arth Mother/Earth Monster i n E cuadorian Mantef lo a rt. P re-Columbian A rt H istory : b y A lana C ordy-Collins.

Selected R eadings, P eek P ublications.

e dited P alo

A lto. i n p ress

The

C erro

Sechin massacre:

T echnology Notes C ordy-Collins,

A lana,

1 983

1 8.

d id i t h appen?

Museum o f Man.

E thnic

San D iego.

a nd D onna McClelland

U pstreaming

a long

t he

P eruvian

North

Coast.

( This

v olume) Cummins,

T homas B .

1 983

F . T he s ources a nd t ypology o f c olonial k ero i magery a nd t heir

r elation

p resented

t o

a t

k ero

t he

p roduction

Institute

o f

a nd

u se.

Andean

P aper Studies.

B erkeley. Davidson,

J udith R .

1 980

T he S pondylus Thesis.

Shell

D epartment

State University, 1 982

i n C himu I conography . o f

A nthropology.

N orthridge.

E cology,

a rt,

b olism.

P re-Columbian Art H istory :

i ngs,

e dited

t ions.

a nd myth : b y

Master ° s California

a n atural

a pproach

t o

s ym-

Selected R ead-

A lana Cordy-Collins.

P eek P ublica-

P alo A lto.

D ay, K ent C . 1 982

S torage a nd labor s ervice:

a p roduction a nd manage-

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C han C han :

A ndean

e dited b y Michael E . Moseley a nd Kent C .

University o f N ew M exico P ress.

A lbuquerque.

Arthur A . V iracocha: H igh G od.

t he

U niversity. Donnan, C haristopher B . 1 976 Moche

Nature

a nd Antiquity o f

P eabody Museum M onographs, n o.

Art

t he

6 .

Andean H arvard

Cambridge.

a nd

I conography .

3.

P ublications

University

L atin o f

American

C enter

California,

L os

Angeles. 1 978

Moche

Art

c ation.

o f

C alifornia, 1 981

Peru :

Museum

Pre-Columbian S ymbolic Communi-

o f Cult u ral H istory.

University

A M oche V b ottle w ith c omplex f ineline d rawing. Shape

o f

L os Angeles.

o f t he P ast :

1 9 1

S tudies i n H onor

T he

o f F ranklin D .

M urphy ,

e dited

b y

G iorgio

B uccelati

S peroni. I nstitute o f A rchaeology. C alifornia, L os Angeles. n .d.

a nd

C harles

U niversity

o f

D eer Hunting i n Moche A rt. P re-publication t ypes cript. Museum o f C ultural H istory. U niversity o f C alifornia, L os Angeles.

D onnan, C hristopher B . a nd D onna M cClelland 1 979

T he

B urial

Theme

i n Moche

I conography .

P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology O aks. Washington, D . 0 .

2 1.

F ang, M adeleine W eihsien 1 975 T he Marine Theme o f C himu F riezes. D epartment o f A nthropology. C alifornia , L os Angeles. Furst, P eter T . 1 968

T he

0l mec

w ere-jaguar

m otif

S tudies

i n

D umbarton

Master 's Thesis. University o f

i n

t he

l ight

o f

e thnographic r eality. T he D umbarton O aks C onference o n t he Olmec, e dited b y E lizabeth P . B enson. D umbarton O aks. H ocquenghem ,

1 977a

A nne M arie U n " vase

Washington,

p ortrait"

D .C.

d e

f emme

Mochica.

d e

c hamans

N l awpa

P acha

1 5:117-122.

1 977b

L es

r epresentations

M ochica.

19 81

l a i conographie

B erkeley.

L es m ouches e t l es m orts d ans l ' i conographie Mochica.

f awpa P acha 1 9 : 63 -7 0 . 19 83

d ans

S l awpa P acha 1 5:123-130 .

T he " beauty"

B erkeley.

o f t he D eer-Serpent-Jaguar.

p lement t o M exicon),

v ol.

C aMak ( sup-

1 .

K eatinge, R ichard W . 1 982 T he C himu Empire i n a r egional p erspective: c ultural a ntecedents a nd c ontinuities. C han C han : A ndean D esert C ity , e dited b y M ichael E . M oseley a nd K ent C . D ay. University o f N ew M exico P ress. A lbuquerque. K eatinge, R ichard W ., a nd Kent C . D ay i n p ress I mperialist e xpansion i n P eruvian p rehistory : a dministration o f a c onquered t erritory. F ield A rchaeology. K lein, C ecelia F . 1 982

C himu

J ournal

o f

T he r elation o f M esoamerican a rt h istory t o a rchaeol ogy i n t he United S tates. P re-Columbian A rt

1 92

K olata,

H istory :

S elected

C ollins.

P eek P ublications.

R eadings,

e dited b y

A lana C ordy-

P alo A lto.

A lan L ouis

1 982

C hronology a nd s ettlement g rowth a t C han C han. C han C han : A ndean D esert C ity, e dited b y M ichael E . Moseley a nd K ent C . D ays. P ress. A lbuquerque.

University

o f N ew M exico

K rickeberg, Walter 1 928

M exikanisch-peruanische P arallelen E in U eberlick u nd e ine E rgänzung. F estschrift/Publication d 'hommage o fferte a u/P.W. S chmidt. M echitharisten-Congregat ions-Buchdruckerei. V ienna.

L athrap, D onald W . 1 97 3

G ifts o f t he c ayman : s ome t houghts o n t he s ubsiste nce b asis o f C havin. V ariation i n A nthropology, e dited b y Donald W .

L athrap a nd J ody Douglas.

n ois A rchaeological S urvey.

19 77

O ur Father t he C ayman,

I lli-

U rbana.

O ur Mother t he G ourd :

S pinden

r evisited, o r a unitary m odel f or t he e mergence o f a griculture i n t he New World. O rigins o f Ag ricult ure, e dited b y C harles A . T he Hague. C omplex

i n p ress

i conog raphic

R eed.

f eatures

M outon P ublishers.

s hared

b y

Olmec

a nd

C havin a nd s ome s peculations o n t heir p ossible s ign ificance. P rimer s ymposio d e C orrelationes AndinoMesoamerican° L arco H oyle,

19 46

( July,

1 971).

G uayaquil.

Rafael A c ultural s equence f or t he North H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians

Coast o f P eru. I I . B ureau o f

A merican E thnology B ulletin 114 3, e dited b y Julian H . S teward. S mithsonian I nstitution. Washington, D . 0. L ockhart, J ames 19 72

T he Men o f C ajamarca: A S ocial a nd B iog raphical S tudy o f t he F irst C onquerors o f P eru. Un iversity o f T exas P ress.

Lu r nbreras, 1 982

Lyon,

Austin.

Luis G . A ndinoamerica. Gaceta Archaeolögica Andina. t uto A ndino d e E studios A rqueologicas. L ima.

I nsti-

F emale

P acha ,

P atricia J . 1 978

S upernaturals

v ol. 1 6.

19 3

i n Ancient

P eru.

i awpa

1 981

A rqueologia y m itologia :

l a e scena d e " los

a nimados" y e l t ema d e " El t os." S cripta E tnologia 6 . i n p ress

H acia

u na

P eruano.

T ercera

H istoria , M arcos,

r igurosa

J ornada

2 7-29 d e m ayo d e

d e

d el

d el

Museo

1 981.

L ima.

o bjetos

l os

a rte

o bje-

a ntiquo

N acional

d e

J orge G . a nd P resley N orton

1 981

M eans,

i nterpertacion

a lzamiento

I nterpretaciön s obre l a a rqueologia d e l a I sla d e La P lata. M iscelanea A ntropologia E cuatoriana 1 :1361 5 / 4. Guayaquil.

P hilip A insworth

1 928

B iblioteca Andina,

P art One, t he C hroniclers, o r, t he

Writers o f t he S ixteenth a nd S eventeenth C enturies W ho T reated o f t he H istory a nd C ulture o f t he A ndean C ountries. C onnecticut A cademy o f A rts a nd S ciences, T ransactions, 2 9:27 1-525. Murra, J ohn V . 1 970

C urrent r esearch a nd p rospects i n Andean e thnohistory L atin A merican R esearch R eview 5 :3-37.

N etherly, P atricia J oan 1 977 L ocal Level Lords o f t he North C oast o f Peru . P h.D. D issertation. D epartment o f A nthropology. C ornell U niversity. University M icrofilms. A nn Arbor. P arducci Z ., 1 965

R esfa R epresentation d e C asas e n Sello Triangulares d e M anabi. C uadernos d e H istoria y A rqueologia 1 0 , n o. 2 7 .

1 981

Guayaquil.

T emplos R evista

R epresentados E spagnola

d e

e n

Sellos

Pianos

A ntropologia

d e

Manabi.

A mericana

1.

M adrid. R eichel-Dolmatoff, G erardo 1 978 B eyond t he M ilky Way : T ukano I ndians, U CLA

Hallucinatory Imagery o f t he L atin A merican C enter. L os

A ngeles. R oe,

P eter G . 1 978

R ecent d iscoveries

i n C havin a rt :

s ome s peculations

o n m ethodology a nd s ignificance i n t he a nalysis o f a f igural s tyle. E l D orado, A N ewsletter-Bulletin o n S outh A merican A rchaeology 3 , n o. 1 .

19 2 4

R ostworowski

d e D iez C anseco, M aria

1 970

M ercaderes

d el

Valle

h ispaAnica : R evista 1 78. 1 975

Un

Espaf tjola

C hincha

d e

e n

y

l a

U nos

Antropologia

E poca

P re-

C omentarios.

Americana

5 :135-

P escadores, a rtesanos, y m ercaderes costehos e n e l P er u p rehispaAnico. R evista d el Museo N acional 4 1:311-349 .

1 977

C oastal i n t he

L ima.

f ishermen,

H ispanic

P eru.

J ohn Howland 1 946 I nca

merchants,

P re-Columbian World ,

c ulture

H andbook

E lizabeth P .

t he

S outh

t ime

o f

A merican

t he

1 948

T he

1 964

T he

e d.

o f

C himor.

A cta

2 .

C onquest. B ureau

o f

Washington, D . 0

6 ,

Americana

n os.

1 -

M exico.

c hronology o f I nca

C olumbian A rt L athrop,

Pre-

Edited b y Julian H .

S mithsonian Institution.

k ingdom

2 :26-59.

i n

B enson,

S panish

I ndian

A merican E thnology B ulletin 1 43. S teward.

a rtisan

Washington, D .C.

a t

o f

a nd

Dumbarton O aks C onference o n T he S ea

Dumbarton O aks. R owe,

d e

D ocumento

e t.

w ooden

c ups.

a nd A rchaeology, a l.

H arvard

E ssays

e dited

University

b y

i n Pre-

S amuel

P ress.

K .

Cam-

b ridge. 1 979

S tandardization i n Inca t apestry t unics. B .

T he Junius

B ird P re-Columbian T extile C onference,

e dited

b y

A nn Pollard R owe, E lizabeth P , B enson, a nd A nn-Louis S chaffer. T he Textile Museum a nd Dumbarton Oaks. Washington, Salomon,

D .C.

F rank

19 77 / 1 978

P cchteca a nd Mindala : t raders

A c omparison o f l ong-distance

i n Ecuador a nd Mesoamerica.

S teward A nthropological S ociety 1 978

E thnic Lords

o f

Q uito

Political E conomy D issertation. f ilms. Sawyer,

J ournal

9 , n os.

i n t he Age

o f

1 -2.

U rbana.

t he Incas:

o f North A ndean C hiefdoms.

C ornell University.

o f t he

The P h.D.

University M icro-

A nn Arbor.

A lan R .

19 66

A ncient Peruvian C eramics: l ection.

t he Nathan C ummings Col-

The Metropolitan Museum o f A rt.

c ut.

19 5

C onnecti-

Sharon, Douglas G ., a nd C hristopher B . D onnan 1 974 S hamanism i n Moche i conography. e dited

b y

C lewlow, o gy.

19 77

C hristopher

J r.

B .

Monography I V.

a nd

C .

W illiam

I nstitute o f Archaeol-

University o f C aliforn ia.

T he Magic C actus: P eru. A rchaeology

E thnoarchaeology ,

D onnan

L os A ngeles.

e thnoarchaeological 3 0, n o.6.

c ontinuity i n

Thompson, D onald E . 1 968

H uänuco, e mpire.

W ilbert,

P eru :

A s urvey o f

A rchaeology 2 1,

a p rovince

o f

t he

Inca

3:1 74- 18 1.

n o.

J ohannes

1 974

T he Thread o f Life : E cuador. o gy

Vargas U garte, 1 939

1 2.

S ymbolism o f M iniature Art f rom

S tudies i n P re-Columbian Art a nd A rchaeolD umbarton Oaks.

Washington, D .C.

R uben H istori a

d el

Pe rC i

( curso

u niversitario)

F uentes.

L ima. Z uidema, 1 973

R .

Tom E thnohistory P aper

a nd

p resented

I conography a t

T extile Conference.

o f

t he J unius

B .

Peruvian B ird

Textiles.

P re-Columbian

T he Textile Museum.

Washington,

D .C. 1 980

Mimeographed l etter t o t he e ditors, p articipants, a nd d iscussants

o f The J unius B . B ird P re-Columbian T ex-

t ile C onference. 1 982

G enealogy 4 4th

a nd

Archaeology.

I nternational

c hester,

E ngland.

19 6

C ongress

P aper

p resented

o f Americanists.

a t

t he Man-

U PSTREAMING A LONG T HE P ERUVIAN N OBTH

C OAST

b y A LANA

O ORDY-COLLINS a nd

D ONNA M cCLELLAND

I ntroduction I n t his p aper w e w ritten b y t he S panish

i ntend t o s how t hat t he h istorical d ocuments c hroniclers a fter t he c onquest o f P eru c an b e

u sed a s a n a dditional r esource i n t he i nterpretation o f t he p reH ispanic M oche a nd C himu a rt o f t he P eruvian n orth c oast. W e w ill a rgue f or a c ontinuity o f b elief a nd i mage b etween t hese t wo c ultures - a c ontinuum w hich i s s till d etectable i n t he a rea t oday. E vidence f or t his c ontinuity i s d rawn f rom e thnographic a ccounts, e thnohistoric r ec ords, a rchaeological i nvest igations, a nd p rimarily f rom i conographic a nalyses. T his e vidence s trongly s uggests t hat, e ven t hough t he n orth c oast f elt t he i mpact o f f oreign p owers a t l east t wice, s ome o f t he i ndigenous c ultural t raditions w ere t enacious e nough t o w ithstand s uch o nslaught a nd s urvive.

T he Methodological Problem T raditionally, t he l ack o f w ritten d ocuments i n p re-Columbian P eru h as b een s een a s a major l imitation i n t he i nterpretation o f t he p rec onquest c ultures. Writing w as n ot i ntroduced i n Peru u ntil t he S panish C onquest i n 1 532. Following t his, t he S panish c hroniclers s et a bout r ecording v erbal a ccounts o f t he p reconquest p ractices a nd b eliefs o f t he I ndians. However, t hey s eemed t o h ave n o i nkling o f t he t remendous c ultural t ime d epth o f Peru a nd t heir w ritings s eem t o b e l imited t o t he l iving p eoples a nd t heir i mmediate p redecessors : t he p reviously r uling I nca a nd t he c ontemporary Inca-conquered p eoples s uch a s t he C himu o n t he n orth c oast o f P eru. I n m ore r ecent t imes, a rchaeological i nvestig ations

i n Peru h ave

u ncovered

l ayers

o f

r emains

f rom

c ultures

w hich

l ong p receded t he a rrival o f t he S panish. T herefore, p erhaps i t s hould n ot b e s urprising f or u s t o l earn t hat t he C himu g ave t heir i nterrogat ors m ore i nformation t han was a nticipated o r a ppreciated--information o f e vents a nd t raditions r eaching b ack h undreds o f y ears. We s hall s how

1 97

t hat

t here

i s

a v iable b asis

f or

u sing t he

h istorical

d ocuments

a s

a

means o f u nderstanding n ot o nly t he p re-Hispanic Chimu a rt o f t he P eruv ian n orth c oast, well. I t

i s

t he

b ut t he a rt o f t he Moche c ulture w hich p receded i t a s

a uthors'

c ontention

t hat

t here

w as

n egligible d isjunc-

t ion b etween t he M oche culture o f t he E arly I ntermediate p eriod a nd t he Chimu c ulture o f t he Late Intermediate p eriod o n t he P eruvian n orth c oast. Our p rimary evidence i s a n i cono g raphic a nalysis o f t wo a rtistic t hemes,

T ule

B oats

t ion ( McClelland, g ures 1 a nd 2 )

( Cordy-Collins,

1 972)

a nd A quatic Deity Confronta-

m s.), which a ppear initially o n M oche E thnographic a ccounts, e thnohistoric

a rchaeological i nvestigations

c eramics r ecords,

( fia nd

p rovide a dditional s upport.

The Middle Horizon in Peru h as

b een v iewed a s

t he t ime b etween t he

E arly a nd t he Late I ntermediate p eriods i n which t he Huari E mpire f rom t he s outhern s ierra invaded t he Moche c ulture o n t he n orth c oast. I nd eed, t he M iddle Horizon o n t he n orth c oast was s een a s d isruption

a nd

foreign

influence,

s undering t he

a t ime

indigenous

o f major

c ontinuum.

The r adical c hange i n burial p atterns o n t he n orth c oast f rom extended Moche b urials i n t he Early Intermediate p eriod t o t he f lexed Chimu burials i n t he Late I ntermediate

p eriod l ends

c redence t o

p retation.

Horizon

s een

F inally,

waning o f H uari Chimu.

the

Middle

w as

t o

this i nter-

c lose w ith

t he

p ower a nd t he r eassertion o f a n orth c oast c ulture, t he

C hristopher Donnan 's r esearch into Moche i conog raphy u sing matic a pproach " Chimu" ture.

( 1975,

d ata f ound For

( Dorman

w as

s everal

S panish

u sed

c ross

t o

1 978:93-94).

o f t he

c hroniclers

r ivers

e arlier Moche c ul-

d escribed

a long t he

c oast

t hese r afts

f t .

. .i t s eems r easonable t o a ssume t hat this i s what i s ( Donnan

s upernatural

s imilar

1 978:86-102).

t o w hat

1 978:94).

f igures,

a s

O ther related

i s

b eing d epicted

Moche t o

v essels

o f

n orthern

t he

o n Moche b ottles,

s eemed

S panish

b eing i llust o

i llustrate

c hroniclers

H owever, what Donnan d emonstrated t o

cult t o u nderstand : t hrough t he Huari

a t ype o f

Donnan s uggested t hat s ince t he d escription

o f

t rated"

i s

t he-

1 978) s uggested t hat c ertain e thnohistoric

r epresentation i n t he a rt

example,

g ourd r aft w hich P eru

1 976 ,

b e

( Do rman

t rue w as d iffi-

How h ad b eliefs f rom t he M oche c ulture s urvived i nterregnum t o s urface a mong t he Chimu a nd b e

d ocumented b y t he S panish following t he C onquest? Archaeological

e xcavation o n

s ubstantial

q uantities

a nd Mosel e y

1 977 : 511n , Mackey

h ave

b een

b lending

d ocu nented o f

Huari

q uantitatively

i n

a nd

v ery

t he

n orth c oast h as

o f t he e xpected H uari t he

1 982) . n orth

Moche

l imited.

c lear-cut

h iatus

b etween

R ecently,

M ackey

a nd

Thus, a nd

( Hoyt

h ad

Chimu h ave

h ad

f ailed

s ome Huari m ateri a ls

1 973)

( Donnan

w hat

( 1982)

y ield

s ure,

( Do r man

a rtistry

Moche

Hasting s

T o b e

t o

i ntrusive material a nd

t here

i s

b ut

b oth

1 972), b een

i nterpreted

b een

p roposed

t o a

s ome a re a s

a

r eevaluated. solution

t o

a ccount f or t he u nobtrusive Huari p resence b y h ypothesizing a c ommon r eligious b ase f or M oche a nd Huari c ultures extending b ack t o t he o ld Chavin r eligion o f

1 98

t he E r ly Horizon

( ca.

1 400-400

B .C.).

I f t his

i s

t he c ase,

t hen, w e

w ould n o l onger n eed t o a ssume t hat t he c omponents o f t he n orth c oast c ultural s equence w ere r adically a ltered d uring t he Middle Horizon. T herefore, i t i s p ossible t hat t he a rt s tyle o f t hat t ime a nd p lace r epresents a n u ninterrupted e volution f rom Moche t o C himu w ith a s light H uari a dmixture ( as t he P acatnamu t extiles [ Keatinge 1 978 ] a nd t he I llimo f rescoes [ Schaedel 1 978 ] i ndicate). T heresa Topic 's ( 1982:2808 ) 4) i nterpretation o f t he a rchaeological d ata f rom h er w ork i n t he M oche v alley o n t he Early Intermediate p eriod a rgues " . . .f or s trong t ies b etween t he M oche a nd C himu t raditions" a nd t hat " the C himu e mpire . . .w as a d irect d escendant o f t he Moche s tate." A lthough

a c ultural

b reak

d uring

t he M iddle H orizon

c an

n ot

h e

s upported, t here w ere d ecidedly s tylistic c hanges i n t he a rt w rought o n t he n orth c oast d uring t he M iddle H orizon , a nd t heir i nception c an b e t raced t o t he t erminal p eriod o f M oche d evelopment, P hase V . We h ave t raced t hese a forementioned t hemes--the Tule B oat a nd t he A quatic Deity C onfrontation —backward a nd f orward t hrough t ime. I t i s s ignificant t hat t hese t wo t hemes a re r epresented i n b oth M oche a nd C himu a rt a nd t hat

w ithin

t hese

t hemes

t he

e volution

o f

t he

a rt

s tyle may b e

s een.

E ven m ore s ignificantly, o ur a nalysis s uggests t hat t here i s a major s hift o f c ontent w ithin t he i conography a s e arly a s P hase V M oche w hich a ccelerates i n C himu. T herefore, s ince s uch a t ransition c an b e d ocum ented, i t i s v ery u nlikely t hat t here w as a d isjunction o f t hematic c ontent v is-a-vis M oche a nd C himu b eliefs.

A R eturn t o

t he S ea

M oche f ineline p ainted p ottery made d uring P hase V s hows a marked o cean o rientation. O ver h alf o f t he 1 70 f ineline v essels d ocumented f rom t his p eriod h ave o cean-related m otifs. T his n umber i s e specially s triking w hen c ompared w ith t he f igures f or t he p receding P hase I V, w hen f ewer t han o ne-fourth o f t he 4 50 d ocumented f ineline v essels d isplay a quatic m otifs. M oreover, i n t his f inal p hase o f t he M oche c ulture, t here i s a d ramatic t ransformation i n t he a rt s tyle o f t he f ineline d rawings. The c hange i n a rtistic c onventions i n P hase V f rom e arlier p hases a lters t he a ppearance o f a quatic Moche d eities, making t hem d ifficult t o i dentify. T he a rtists s eem t o h ave a dded n ew a quatic d eities d uring t his p hase, t hus f urther c omplicating t he i dentification p roblem ( e.g., i n f igure 2 , t he s piked a nthropomorphized s ea u rchin). A lthough t he a rt s tyle c hanges i n P hase V , t he major t hemes a bout t he a quatic d eities a re p resent i n e arlier M oche p hases, d emonstrating a c ontinuity i n t he b eliefs o f t he Moche. T he a bove-mentioned d ramatic s hift i n e mphasis o f v essel d esign c ontent t o w ater i magery a nd m arine a ctivity, p lus t he c hange o f a rtisic c onventions f rom P hase I V t o P hase V , s uggest a major d isruption w ithin t he M oche c ulture d uring t his t ime. T he c ontinuity o f o ceanic r epresentations a nd t he M oche a rt s tyle i nto t he C himu t radition, h owever, p rogression f rom t he Moche c ulture

t o t he C himu.

1Q Q

e volution o f t he s uggest a s teady

Not

o nly d o

a quatic d eities

Tule B oat Theme, I n f act, n ence, o ther

n ot

b ut

o nly d oes

t he

t ule

t he Tule B oat

b oats

t hemes w hich must

c ance.

I n

b ecome p rominent

i n P hase V ,

f igure

a nd

t hen,

t he

b y a ssociation,

s udden a ppearances

t ake

P hase

3 , t ule b oatmen a ppear i n t he exclusively P hase V 1 979).

T he c ostumes o f t he f igures

t he c ostume o f t he l eft b oatman i n f igure

V b ottle

i n

o n a quatic s ignifi-

i n t he t hree r ows t o t he l eft o f t he v ertical r opes i n f igure t o

t he

t hematic c omplex g ain n ew p romi-

b oatmen m ake

B urial Theme ( Do rman a nd McClelland s imilar

b ut

p resent f rom P hase I I, r eally f lourishes a t t his t ime.

h as

r ecently

b een

i dentified

1 .

w hereon

3a re v ery

I n a ddition, a t ule

b oats

a re

i ncluded i n t he r itual p resentation-of-goblets s cene f rom t he P resentat ion T heme, I n

t raditionally a P hase I V a ctivity

P hase

V ,

t he

f inal

M oche

p eriod,

( Dorman

i t

w ould

1 978:158-73). s eem

t hat

w e

a re

w itnessing a s ignificant s hift i n e mphasis t o m aritime a ctivity i n t he mythology.

T he

n on-secular mythological

h as b een well a rgued

( Dorman 1 976,

n ature

1 978).

o f Moche

f ineline a rt

Therefore, w hen o ver h alf t he

v essels i n t he P hase V s ample s how a n a quatic o rientation, c ompared w ith less t han o ne-quarter a ppear

t hat

Moche

o f t he

mythology

b ottles i n t he P hase e xperienced

I V

s ample,

a m etamorphosis

i t w ould

d uring

t his

p eriod. The c hange was n ot t emporary. The e mphasis o n m aritime a ctiv ity c ontinued into t he Chimu t radition ; Fang ( 1975) h as c ontended t hat a ll C himu f riezes a re m arine-related. For s ome r eason t he s ea gained a rtistic i mportance b etween Moche P hases I V a nd V a nd Chimu i conography c ontinued t he e mphasis. a d ramatically

S urvival d uring t his p eriod m ay well h ave m eant

i ncreased

r eliance

u pon

t he

r ich

which h ad g iven Andean c ivilization i ts i nitial

maritime

t hrust

r esources

( Moseley 1 975).

S panish e thnohistories f or t he n orth c oast o f Peru r eveal t hat t he Chimu l ooked u pon t he s ea a s a d eity, m ade s hipped i t b y t he t itle Ni ( Rowe ( 1946:50). r iding m aritime b ecause

w e

f ocus,

h ave

c orroborates

d emonstrated

f rcm M oche a rt b efore i t,

o fferings t o i t, a nd w orC himu a rt, w ith i ts o ver-

t he w ritten t estimony.

i conographically

t hat

C himu

Moreover, a rt

e volved

i t i s r easonable t o c onclude t hat t he s ea was

a lso c onsidered d ivine b y t he Moche. I t

i s

e conomic

i mportant

f unction

c oincidental

t hat

s its w ith h is

t o

o n

n ote

t he

t he

t hat

P eruvian

s ea

s till

c oast,

p lays

a nd

i t

a n

i mportant

s eems

h ardly

c ontemporary n orth c oast s haman Eduardo C alderon

b ack t o t he s ea f or

c eremony ( Sharon

t he n orth

p rotection w hen h e c onducts a r itual

1 978).

I n s ummary, w e b elieve t hat w e h ave d emonstrated t hat t hemes o f t he s ea, n orth

b oth

i n

c oast

b elief

a nd

o f Peru f or

i mage,

h ave

c enturies.

t ion.

2 00

b een We

a c ultural

f ind

n o

c onstant

e vidence

f or

o n

t he

d isjunc-

R ESUMEN En

e ste

t rabajo l os

a utores

m uestran

q ue

los

d ocumentos

e scritos

p or l os c ronistas e spaf toles d espu6s d e l a c onquista d el P erd p ueden s er u tilizados

c omo r ecursos

M ochd y Chi ra l. i magen e ntre

p ara la interpretacibn d el

a rte p re-hispänico

Los autores a rgumentan p or l a c ontinuidad d e c reencia e

e stas

d os

c ulturas - u n c ontinuo

t odavia p ercibible e n e l

a rea h oy d ia. La evidencia p ara e sta c ontinuidad s e extrae d e l os t estimonios e tnog räficos y e tnohistbricos, d e l a a rqueologia y d e los a nälisis i conogräficos. E sta evidencia s ugiere f uertemente q ue, a unque l a c osta d el n orte s intiera e l i mpacto d el p oder invasor e xtranjero, p or l o m enos e n d os o casiones

a lgunas t radiciones culturales i ndigena s h an

s ido l o s uficientemente t enaces

p ara p oder

2 01

s ubsistir a dn.

R EFERENCES C ordy-Collins,

C ITED

A lana

1 972

T he T ule B oat i n Moche A rt : A P roblem i n A ncient P eruvian I conography. Master 's t hesis. I nstitute o f A rchaeology, U niversity o f C alifornia, L os A ngeles.

D onnan, C hristopher B . 1 972 M oche-Huari m urals 2 5 ( 2):85-95.

f rom

n orthern P eru.

A rchaeology

1 973

M oche O ccupation o f t he Santa Valley, P eru . U nivers ity o f C alifornia P ublications i n A nthropology 8 . U niversity o f C alifornia, B erkeley.

1 975

T he T hematic A pproach t o Moche I conography. o f L atin A merican L ore

1 ( 2):

J ournal

1 47-62.

1 976

M oche A rt a nd I conography . L atin A merican S tudies 3 3. U CLA L atin A merican C enter P ublications. L os Angeles.

1 978

M oche A rt o f P eru :

P re-Columbian S ymbolic C ommunica-

t ion. Museum o f C ultural C alifornia, L os A ngeles.

H istory.

University

D onnan, C hristopher B ., a nd D onna M cClelland 1 979 T he B urial T heme i n Moche I conography. P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology 2 1. O aks. Washington, D .C.

o f

S tudies i n D umbarton

F ang, M adeleine W . 1 975

T he Marine T heme o f C himu F riezes. Master 's t hesis. D epartment o f A nthropology. University o f C aliforn ia, L os Angeles.

H oyt, M argaret A ., a nd M ichael E . M oseley 1 977 T he B urr F rieze: A r ediscovery a t C han C han.

P re-

C olumbian A rt H istory : S elected R eading, e dited b y A lana C ordy-Collins a nd J ean S tern, p p. 4 95-512. P eek P ublications. P alo A lto. K eatinge, R ichard W . 1 978 T he P acatnamu t extiles. M ackey, C arol J . 1 982

A rchaeology 3 1(2):30-41.

T he M iddle H orizon a s v iewed f rom t he Moche V alley. C han C han : A ndean D esert C ity, e dited b y M ichael E . M oseley

a nd

K ent C .

P ress.

A lbuquerque.

2 02

D ay.

University

o f N ew M exico

M ackey, Carol J ., 1 982

a nd C harles M . H astings M oche murals f rom t he H uaca b ian A rt H istory :

d e l a L una.

Selected R eadings,

C ordy-Collins, p p. 2 93-312. A lto. McClelland, D onna m s. M oche A quatic Deities

P re-Colum-

e dited b y A lana

P eek P ublications.

P alo

i n P hase V .

M oseley, M ichael E . 1 975

R owe,

T he Maritime Foundations C ummings. M enlo P ark.

J ohn H owland 1 9 14 8 T he K ingdom o f C himor.

o f

Andean

C ivilization .

A cta Americana 6 :2659.

Sharon, D ouglas G . 1 978

T he W izard o f t he Four W inds : F ree P ress.

S chaedel, R ichard P . 1 978 T he Huaca

A S haman ' s Story .

T he

N ew Y ork.

P intada

o f Il limo.

A rchaeology 3 1( 1 ) :2 7-

3 7 . T opic, T heresa L ange 1 982 T he Early Intemediate p eriod a nd i ts l egacy. C han C han : A ndean D esert C ity, e dited b y M ichael E . M oseley a nd K ent C . D ay. University o f N ew M exico P ress. A lbuquerque.

2 03

2 05

2 07

•

0 ,

‘ .

-

• a )

'

4 ) r I 0 O 4 )

t u

5 , f : L t

b urial t heme. M cClelland.

•

• • • ••

2 09

NOTES

O N

C ONTRIBU TORS

O RIANA B ADDELEY i s a g raduate s tudent i n A rt H istory a t t he University o f E ssex, E LLEN

a nd a n i nstructor a t

T AYLOR

B AIRD

i s

t he C amberwell S chool

A ssistant

U niversity o f Nebraska-Lincoln. v ersity o f N ew M exico i n 1 979. Sahagün 's " Primeros Memoriales"

P rofessor

S he

s tudy o f

t he

A rt

H istory

r eceived h er P h.D.

f rom

a t

t he

t he Uni-

A n a nalysis o f t he i llustrations o f w as t he s ubject o f h er d octoral t hesis

f rom w hich t he p resent p aper was d erived. a nalytical

o f

o f Arts a nd C rafts.

S he i s c urrently p reparing a n

i conography o f Toltec

a rchitectural

s culpture

a t Tula. J ANET C ATHERINE BERLO i s Assistant Professor o f Art a t t he University o f M issouri-St.

L ouis.

She r eceived h er d octorate i n H istory o f A rt f rom

Y ale University i n

1 980.

h uacan-Maya c ontact,

S he h as p ublished o n Teotihuacan a rt,

a nd m odern M aya t extiles.

D r.

T eoti-

B erlo 's b ook-length

a nnotated b ibliography o f a ncient Mesoamerican a rt w ill b e p ublished b y G .K.

Hall i n 1 984.

BETTY ANN BROWN i s c urrently Director o f t he Visual Arts Program o f t he College n ia,

o f C ontinuing E ducation o f t he University o f S outhern C alifor-

L os

Angeles.

S he

a lso

t eaches

Pre-Columbian

a nd

Native

North

American a rt h istory f or U SC 's S chool o f F ine Arts. Brown r eceived h er d octorate i n t he h istory o f a rt f rom t he University o f New Mexico, A lbuquerque i n

1 977.

The main t hrust

b een Mesoamerican c eremonial A LANA C ORDY-COLLINS,

a rts,

o f h er r esearch a nd w riting h as

b oth a ncient a nd modern.

a g raduate o f UCLA, i s a P rofessor o f A nthropology

a t t he University o f San Diego a nd Curator o f t he Latin American c ollect ions a t t he San D iego Museum o f Man.

H er a reas o f e xpertise a re n orth

c oast Peruvian a rchaeology a nd i conography.

D r. Cordy-Collins h as

c ently p ublished a m onograph e ntitled The C erro S echin Massacre : Happen?

r e-

D id I t

t hrough t he Museum o f Man.

D ONNA M cCLELLAND i s a Research A ssociate a t t he Museum o f C ulture H istory a t U CLA a nd a member o f t he I nstitute o f A ndean S tudies. S he i s i nvolved i n a p roject o f r ecording Moche c eramic i magery t hrough f inel ine d rawings. r esearch

f or

Donna McClelland f ourteen

D onnan 's A rchive ARTHUR

G .

Maryland

M ILLER

i s

Professor

a nd C onsulting a rt i n

t hrough

b een p ursuing M oche t he

u se

o f

Dr.

i conographic

Christopher

B .

University

o f

o f M oche C eramics.

o f Pennsylvania. H ispanic

y ears

h as

H e i ts

m ajor monographs,

o f

S cholar a t

h as

Art

History

a t

t he

t he University Museum,

p ublished

a rchaeological

w idely o n c ontexts.

v arious B est

T he Mural P ainting o f Teotihuacan

University

a spects

k nown f or ( 1973)

o f

p re -

h is

t wo

a nd On t he

E dge o f t he S ea:

Mural P ainting a t Tancah-Tulum ( 1982), D r. M iller h as

r ecently f ocused

h is

t ive m ethodologies

s cholarly a ttention o n t he

f or

t he

s tudy

o f

2 11

d evelopment

p re-Hispanic

a rt.

D r.

o f

e ffec-

Miller

i s

c urrently d irecting a p roject r ecording a nd a nalyzing t he p re-Hispanic mural t radition o f O axaca, M exico.

2 12