262 46 135MB
English Pages [220] Year 1983
Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CONCEPTUAL CATEGORIES FOR THE STUDY OF TEXTS AND IMAGES IN MESOAMERICA
IMAGE AND TEXT IN PRE-HISPANIC ART: APPLES AND ORANGES
THE RELATIONSHIP OF ANCIENT AMERICAN WRITING SYSTEMS TO THE VISUAL ARTS
THE WARRIOR AND THE BUTTERFLY: CENTRAL MEXICAN IDEOLOGIES OF SACRED WARFARE AND TEOTIHUACAN ICONOGRAPHY
SEEN BUT NOT HEARD: WOMEN IN AZTEC RITUAL--THE SAHAGUN TEXTS
TEXT AND IMAGE IN SAHAGUN'S PRIMEROS MEMORIALES
ANCIENT ANDEAN ART AS EXPLAINED BY ANDEAN ETHNOHISTORY: AN HISTORICAL REVIEW
UPSTREAMING ALONG THE PERUVIAN NORTH COAST
NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
44
Proceedings International Congress of Americanists Congreso Internacional de Americanistas Manchester 1982
General Editor: Norman Han1n1ond
Text and Image in Pre-Columbian Art Essays on the interrelationship of the verbal and visual arts edited by
Janet Catherine Berlo BAR International Series 180 1983
B.A.R.
122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phi l. D.R. Walker. M.A.
B.A.R. -S180,198J: 'Text and Image in Pre-Columbian Art' ©
The Individual Authors,1983
The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542308 paperback ISBN 9781407333045 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542308 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
TABLE O F C ONTENTS
P reface/Prefacio A cknowledgements
I .
v iii
MESOAMERICA 1 .
C onceptual C ategories
f or t he S tudy o f T exts a nd I mages
i n Mesoamerica J anet C atherine B erlo
2 .
1
I mage a nd T ext i n P re-Hispanic A rt:
Apples a nd O ranges
A rthur G . M iller
3 .
4 1
T he R elationship o f Ancient American W riting S ystems
t o
t he V isual A rts O riana Baddeley
4 .
5 5
T he Warrior a nd t he Butterfly:
C entral Mexican
I deologies o f S acred Warfare a nd T eotihuacan I conography J anet C atherine B erlo
5 .
S een But N ot H eard:
7 9
Women i n A ztec R itual--
T he S ahagun T exts B etty Ann B rown
6 .
T ext a nd I mage i n S ahagun 's P rimeros Memoriales E llen T aylor B aird
I I.
1 19
1 55
T HE A NDES 1 .
Ancient Andean A rt a s Explained b y Andean E thnohistory: An Historical R eview A lana C ordy-Collins
2 .
1 81
U pstreaming A long t he P eruvian N orth C oast A lana C ordy-Collins a nd D onna M cClelland
N otes o n C ontributors
1 97
2 11
P REFACE H istorical r ecords t hat p ertain d irectly t o p re-Hispanic a rt a re s cant. A ncient h ieroglyphic i nscriptions a nd p ictorial c odices a re u seful s ources i n Mesoamerica , i n t he Andes e ven t hese f ew s ources a re l acking. I n b oth a reas, e thnohistoric a ccounts a nd m odern a nthropolo gical d ata a re t he p rimary t exts t hat i lluminate a rt m ade b efore t he c oming o f t he S paniards. T he l ast t wo d ecades h ave s een m uch c ontrov ersy o ver t he r ole o f s uch t exts i n a rt h istorical r esearch : C an t exts f rom o ne e ra b e u sed t o e lucidate t he a rt o f a p receding e ra? I s d isjunction o f f orm a nd meaning a s c ommon i n p re-Columbian a rt a s i t i s i n European a rt? The
f ield
o f
p re-Columbian
a rt
a nd
a rchaeology
s upports
m any
m ethodolog ical d isag reements a s t o t he r elevance a nd p lace o f t exts i n i conographic r esearch. Sa ne s cholars u se n ative t exts u ncritically a s e xplanations f or w orks o f a rt w ithout c onsidering t he unique c haracter a nd e xpressiveness o f t he i ndividual o bject. O ther s cholars r eject t he u se o f t exts, b elieving t hat t exts a re a d istorting l ens t hrough which t o v iew t he p ast. The p apers c ollected h ere ex amine t hese i ssues i n an umber o f w ays. Two e ssays i nvestigate t he h istorical b ackground o f t he s tudy o f t exts a nd i mages. My i ntroductory e ssay, " Conceptual C ategories f or t he S tudy o f T exts a nd I mages i n Mesoamerica," s uggests t hat Mesoamerican t exts f all i nto t hree t ypes. T he u se o f e ach t ype h as i ts p articular p roblems a nd p itfalls. I n a ddition t o s uggesting t hree c ategories o f t exts, I e xamine s ome p revious m ethodological s tudies. A lana CordyC ollins p rovides a c o mpanion h istoriog raphic e ssay o n t he A ndean a rea i n " Ancient Andean Art a s E xplained b y A ndean Ethnohistory : A n H istorical R eview." T o m y k nowledge, this i s t he f irst s uch r eview o f A ndean s tudies. Cordy-Collins' e ssay h ighlights t he f act t hat A ndeanists h ave a nd r elevance
n ot o f
p racticed t he s elf-examination about t exts f or a rt h istorical s tudies
t he m eaning t hat Meso-
a mericanists h ave e ngaged i n f or n early t wenty y ears. Two more e ssays c ontinue t he i nquiry i nto t he r elationship o f t ext t o
i mage
f r o m
a t heoretical
v iewpoint.
In
" Image
a nd T ext
in P re-
H ispanic Art : A pple a nd Oranges," Arthur Miller e xplores t he f undam ental d ifferences b etween v isual a nd w ritten m odes o f c ommunication a nd t he n ature o f v isual c ommunication i n Mesoamerica. O riana B addeley 's p aper, " The Relationship o f A ncient A merican Writing S ystems t o t he Visual Arts," f inds i n n ineteenth-century d evelo r x nental t heories about c ivilization t he r oots o f our t wentieth-century v iew o f Mesoa merica. I n a ddition, F I lddeley c ompares a nd c ontrasts Maya a nd Central M exican m ethods o f c ommunication. b etween Western n otions o f t he A merindian Four
B oth M iller a nd B addeley d istinguish t ext/image d ichotomy a nd i ndigenous
p erception o f t hese m odes. e ssays
p rovide
a pplications
s et f orth i n t he o ther f ou r
p apers.
o f
t he methodolog ical
M y o wn c ontribution,
q uestions
" The W arrior
a nd t he B utterfly : C entral M exican I deologies o f Sacred Warfare a nd T eotihuacan I conography," a nalyzes a rt v ia t he m irror o f e thnoh istoric t exts a nd s uggests l ongevity i n Central M exican i deas a bout w arfare a nd t he g ods. " Upstreaming a long t he P eruvian N orth C oast" b y A lana C ordyC ollin s a nd Donna McClelland p osits s imilar l ongevity i n t he b elief syste r ns o f M oche a nd C himu p eoples o f P eru. S trictly s peak ing, t wo m ore p apers d o n ot f all u nder t he r ubric o f p re-Columbian a rt, f or t hey c onsider p ost-conquest m anuscripts. B etty A nn Brown 's c ontribution " Seen B ut Not Heard : W cmen i n A ztec Ritual" a nd Ellen Taylor B aird 's e ssay o n " Text a nd I mage i n S ahagun 's Primeros Memoriales" b oth e xamine h ow a t hird v ariable, E uropean c ultural c ontact, c ompounds t he p roblem o f i nterpreting t exts a nd i mages i n c olon ial m anuscripts which c cmbine E uropean-style t ext w ith p reconquest-style i magery.
F our o f t he p apers i n t his v olume w ere p resented o riginally i n t he s ession " Pre-Columbian Art : T exts a nd Images," h eld a t t he 4 4th I ntern ational C ongress o f A mericanists i n M anchester d uring S eptember 1 982. We w ere j oined i n t hat s ymposium b y B erthold R iese, who s poke o n " Recons tructing C entral M exican P ictorial M anuscripts." The c ontributions b y Brown a nd B aird w ere a dded t o l end g reater r egional a nd c hronolog ical c overage t o t he c ollection. Two a dditional e ssays t hat a ppear i n t his v olume, t he c onceptual a nd h istorical r eviews b y B erlo a nd C ordyCollins o n Mesoamerica a nd t he A ndes r espectively, p rovide a f ramework f or t he d iscussions o f t he o ther a uthors.
PR EFA C IO La informaciön h ist6rica r elacionada d irectamente c on e l a rte p reh ispänico e s e scasa ; l as a ntiguas i nscripciones j eroglificas y l os c 6dices p ict6ricos q ue, a unque p ocos, s on r ecursos ü tiles e xistentes e n Mesoam6rica, f altan e n l a r egion a ndina. P or e llo e n a mbas r eg iones, l os r ecuentos e tnohistOricos y los d atos a ntropolegicos m odernos s on l os t extos p rimarios q ue n os s iguen i luminando s obre e l a rte a ntes d e l a l leg a .da d e l os e spe .f toles. D urante l as d os ü ltimas d dcadas h a h abido m ucha c ontroversia e n c uanto a l a f unciOn d e tales t extos e n l as i nvestigaciönes s obre l a h istoria d el a rte : , : , Pueden t extos d e u na d poca p osterior s er ü tiles p ara e lucidar e l a rte p roveniente d e u n p eriodo a nterior? z , Existen marcadas d iferenciaciönes e ntre f orma y fondo e n e l a rte p re-colcmbino, t al c am° s e d a e n e l a rte e urop6o? En
e l
c ampo
d el
a rte
y
d e
l a
a rqueologia
p re-colc t nbinos
s e
m anifiestan m ültiples d iscrepancias m etodolOg icas e n c uanto a l s ignific ado y e l l ugar d e l os mencionados t extos e n i nvestigaciem i conogräfica .. A lgunos i nvestigadores u tilizan l ibre nente t extos a ut6ctonos c omo e xplicaciones p ara l as o bras d e a rte s in c onsiderar e l c aracter t inico y e xpresivo d el o bjeto e n c uestiOn ; o tros i nvestigadores r echaza .n e l u so d e e stos t extos c onsiderändolo c omo u na l ente q ue d istorciona l a v isiOn d el p asado.
v i
Los
t rabajos
a qui
c ompilados
e xaminan
e stos
t emas
d esde
v arios
p untos d e v ista. D os d e e stos e nsayos i nvestigan e l t rasfondo h istörico d el e studio d e t extos e i mägenes, e n m i e nsayo i ntroductorio i ntitulado " Categorias c onceptuales p ara e l e studio d e t extos e i mägenes e n M esoa m6rica", s ugiero q ue l os t extos m esoamericanos p ueden e ncajar d entro d e t res t ipologias b äsicas y q ue l a u tilizaci6n d e c ada t ipologia t rae s us p ropios p roblemas y d ificultades. A demäs d e s ugerir t res c ategorias, e xamino t ambign a lgunos e studios m etodol6gicos a nteriores. E l e studio d e Alana Cordy-Collins - " El a ntiguo a rte d e l os Andes a t rav6s d e l a e tnohistoria a ndina : u na r esef ta h istörica" o frece un c oncepto
h istoriogräfico
p rimera r esef ta e n e studios a ndinos.
p aralelo
s obre
l a
r egion
a ndina
y e s
l a
e ste s entido q ue y o c onozco e n e l c ampo d e l os E l e nsayo d e Cordy-Collins d estaca e l h echo d e q ue
l os a ndinistas n o h an e xaminado s uficientemente e l s ignificado e i mport ancia d e l os t extos p ara s us e studios e n l a h istoria d el a rte d el m odo c omo l os mesoamericanistas l o h an h aciendo durante c asi v einte a nos. Dos
e nsayos
a dicionales
c ontindan e l
c uestionamiento
d e l a r ela-
c i6n e ntre t exto e i magen d esde u na p erspectiva t eorica. E n e l a rticulo " Imagen y t exto e n e l a rte p re-hispänico : l o u no y lo o tro", A rthur M iller a naliza l as d iferencias b äsicas q ue ex isten e ntre l os m odos d e c omunicaciön t anto v isuales c omo e scritos y l a n aturaleza d e l a c cmunicaci6n v isual e n Mesoam6rica. E l e studio d e Oriana B addeley l lamado " La r elaciön e ntre l os a ntiguos s istemas a merica .nos d e e scritura y las a rtes v isuales ", d escubre l as r aices d e n uestra v isi6n s obre B addeley a demäs, c ompara y c ontrasta l os m 6todos d e c cmunicaci6n m aya c on l os m 6todos c entro mejicanos. Tanto M iller como B addeley d istinguen e ntre l as n ociones o ccidentales d e l a d icotomia t exto-imagen y l a p ercepci6n aut6ctona a mericana s obre e stas modalidades. Hay c uatro e nsayos e ntre l os s iguientes q ue o frecen a p neac iones a l as c uestiones m etodol6gicas p ropuestas. M i p ropia c ontribuc ion intitulada " El g uerrero y la mariposa : l as i deologias c entromejicanas d e l a g uerra s anta e i conog rafia t eotihuacana ", a naliza e l a rte p or m edio d el e spejo d e l os t extos e tnohist6ricos y d estaca la l ongevidad d e las i deas c entro mejicanas a cerca d e l a g uerra y l os d ioses.
E l e studio " Navegando h acia l as f uentes a l o l argo d e l a c osta
n orte d el P er i l" p or A lana C ordy-Collins y Donna McClelland a signa u na a nti g ledad a l os s istemas d e c reencias d e l os p ueblos Mochd y Chim i l d el p ueden
H ablando e n s entido e stricto, l os d os t rabajos s iguientes n o s e d efin i _r c omo a rte p re-colombino, p uesto q ue c onsideran
r a anuscritos p osteriores a l a C onquista. S in e mbargo, t anto l a c ontribuciön d e B etty A nn B rown " Vistas p ero n o o idas: l as m ujeres e n e l r itual azteca ", c cmo e l e nsayo d e E llen T aylor B aird, " Texto e i magen e n Primeros Memoriales d e Sahagün ", examinan c omo u na t ercera v ariable - e l c ontacto c ultural europ6o ca nplica e l p roble m d e l a i nterpret acion d e t extos e i mägenes e n b ase a manuscritos c oloniales q ue c cmbinan u n e stilo d e t exto europeo c on u na i magineria a nterior a l a C onquista.
v ii
D e l os e studios p ublicados e n e ste v olu r nen c uatro e nsayos s e p resentaron o riginalmente e n l a s esi6n " Arte p re-cola nbino : t extos e i mägenes" l levada a c atx ) d urante e l C uadragdsimo Cuarto C ong reso I nternacional d e A mericanistas r eunida e n M anchester e n e l m es d e s eptiembre d e 1 982. N os a compa .m6 d urante e se s imposio B erthold R iese, q uien e xpuso s abre e l tema " La r econstruci6n d e l os r n anuscritos p ict6ricos c entro mejica .nos". L as c ontribuciones d e B rown y B aird h an s ido a dicionadas p ara d ar e u na m ayor a mplitud r egional y c ronol6gica a l a c olecciön y d os e nsayos a dicionales q ue c ontiene e ste v olumen r esef tas c onceptuales e h istöricas p ar B erlo y C ordy-Collins s obre Mesoam6rica y l a r egion a ndina r espectivamente f ueron a gregados c on e l f in d e p roveer u n m arco t ebrico p ara l as d iscusiones d e l os d emas a utores.
A CKNO ILEDGEMENTS F or t he i dea o f a s ymposium o n t his t opic, I o we a n i ndirect d ebt t o Dr. J oyce W . B ailey w ho inaugurated me i nto t he mysteries a nd p leasures o f t he s tudy o f p re-Columbian a rt. Holyoke College, o f t he s ame t itle a s t his
H er 1 973 seminar a t M ount v olu me , w as m y i ntroduction
t o t he f ield, a s well a s t o sa ne o f t he i ssues t hat m y colleagues a nd I ex pl o re i n t he f ollowing e ssays. I n a ddition, P rofessor George K ubler 's writings a nd m any s timulating g raduate seminars a t Yale University ( 1974-78) h ave i nfluenced my t hinking o n t hese t opics. I t hank t he o rganizers o f t he 4 4th I nternational C ongress Americanists f or g iving me t he o pportunity t o h old t he s ymposium
o f o n
which this v olume i s b ased. D r. A nthony H ands, e ditor a t B .A.R., h as b een h elpful i n a ll a spects o f t he p reparation o f t his b ook, a s h as Dr. Norman Hammond. A s e ditor o f t his v olume a nd o rganizer o f t he s ymposium, I w ould l ike t o t hank m y c olleagues w ho p articipated i n t he s ymposium a nd c ont ributed g rant
t o
f rom
t his
v olume.
My o wn
t he A merican C ouncil
p articipation
w as
m ade
o f L earned S ocieties
a nd
e asier t he
b y
a
Weldon
S prings Fund o f t he University o f Missouri. J une H illiard t yped t he m anuscript, a nd c heerfully put u p w ith m y e ndless r evisions. F inally, Kate Kane d eserves a s pecial n ote o f t hanks. A s m y r esearch a ssistant, p roofreader, a nd c opyeditor, l ightened t he b urden o f o rganizing a c ollection o f p apers.
J anet C atherine B erlo
St.
L ouis, Missouri
October
v iii
1 983
s he
C ONCEPTUAL
C ATEGORIES F OR T HE S TUDY O F
T EXTS A ND IM AGES I N
M ESOAMERICA
b y J ANET
C ATHERINE BERLO
I ntroduction T he s tant
p roblem
c oncern
t o
o f w resting meaning f rom a ncient a ll
w ho
s tudy
p re-Columbian
o bjects
a rt.
T oo
i s
o f
o ften,
c ont hese
o bjects, r emote f rom u s i n t ime, s pace, a nd c ultural a ffiliation, s tand mute a nd u nyielding o f t heir m eaning. M any d ifferent a venues o f i nvest igation h ave b een e xplored d uring t he c entury t hat s cholars h ave g rapp led w ith t he p roblem o f t he i nterpretation o f M esoamerican a rt, b ut n one h as b een u sed q uite s o c onsistently a s t he a pplication o f t extual s ources t o t he s tudy o f p re-Columbian a rt. T he u se o f w ritten s ources i n t he a nalysis o f a rt r aises s ome f undamental q uestions f or t he d iscipline. W hat i s t he r elationship o f t exts t o i mages i n a c ivilization w here p re-Hispanic t exts a re r elat ively f ew a nd a re g lyphic o r p ictographic i n n ature? W hat r ole d oes v isual i magery p lay i n s uch a c ulture? C an t exts b e u sed t o " explain" i mages o r d o t he t wo s ystems c arry d ifferent k inds o f m eaning? T hese q uestions a re large o nes, a nd a re e xplored b y a ll t he c ontributors t o t his v olume. I n t his e ssay , I s hall p rovide sa ne h istoriographic b ackg round f or t hese q uestions, a nd I s hall s uggest s ome n ew c ategories f or t hinking about Mesoamerican t exts a nd i mages. Textual s ources r elevant t o t he s tudy o f p re-Columbian a rt c an e ssentially b e d ivided i nto t wo t ypes : c onjoined t exts a nd d iscrete t exts.
I d efine c onjoined t exts a s t hose t exts l inked w ith i magery b y
t he p re-Hispanic a rtists t hemselves. A n i nscription o n aM aya s tela i s a n e xample o f at ext c onjoined w ith a v isual i mage. D iscrete t exts a re t hose t exts r emoved t emporally, g eographically, o r e thnically f rom t he i mages t hey p urport t o i lluminate. A n A ztec p oem o f t he s ixteenth c entury o r a t wentieth-century Z inacantan M aya m yth a n e arlier w ork o f a rt f all i nto t his c ategory.
u sed t o e xplicate
D iscrete t exts h ave f ormed t he major i nformation s ource f or s chola rs o f p re-Hispanic s ome c ontroversy i n a nd t he p itfalls i n C onjoined t exts a re
a rt. H owever, t he u se o f d iscrete t exts h as a roused M esoamerican s tudies. T he h istory, t he p roblems, t he u se o f d iscrete t exts w ill b e d iscussed f irst. n ot o nly l ess c ommon, b ut t hey a re l ess c ommonly
1
u sed, e xcept b y e pigraphers. E xamination o f c onjoined t exts b rings u p q uestions o f h ow M esoamerican a rtists a nd s cribes t hemselves m ay h ave v iewed t he i nterrelationship o f v isual a nd t extual s ystems. I w ill e xamine d iscrete t exts a nd c onjoined t exts e ach i n t urn b efore moving o n t o a c ategory I l abel e mbedded t exts. I n a n e mbedded t ext, m eaning t hat w e n ormally a ssociate w ith v erbal o r l iterary s ources i s p art o f t he i mage i tself ; t he a rt f unctions b oth a s i mage a nd a s p artial t ext. A lthough t his i s a p rinciple u nderstood b y m any p reC olumbian a rt h istorians, t o m y k nowledge i t h as n ot b een a rticulated c learly a nd d efined a s a f undamental a spect o f a ncient M esoamerican a rt.
D iscrete t exts T he
c ategory o f
d iscrete
t exts
i ncludes n ot
o nly t hose t exts
i n-
s cribed, p ainted, o r w ritten b y t he p re-Hispanic a rtist h imself, b ut a lso e thnohistoric a nd e thnographic d ocuments t hat r eveal a n i ndigenous b elief s ystem. D escriptions, p oems, a nd r ituals r ecorded b y s cholars s uch a s Sahagun o r D uran i n t he s ixteenth c entury, a s w ell a s t hose r ecorded b y m ore r ecent e thnographers, f all i nto t his c ategory. P ostc onquest t exts a re l egion, a s ap erusal o f v olumes 1 2-15 o f t he Handbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians w ill a ttest ( Cline 1 972-5). F or European c olonists, t he p uzzling a nd a lien i magery, r itual p ractices, a nd b elief s ystems o f t he i nhabitants o f M esoamerica w ere m ade c omprehensible b y s etting t hem d own i n n arrative t exts.
T hese s cholars s olicited i nfor-
m ation, w rote d own s ongs, h istorical e pics, p oems, g enealogies, a nd s o f orth, t o r ender s ome o rder t o w hat t hey p erceived a s a v ery c onfusing N ew W orld. T heir e thnohistoric d ocuments, i n t urn, h ave b ecome o ur t exts f or e xplicating t he Mesoamerican p ast. J oined t o t his i s a g rowing b ody o f l iterature b y t wentieth-century e thnologists d ocum enting a h igh d egree o f c onservatism i n t he w orld-view a nd r eligion o f c ontemporary Mesoameri^an I ndian c ommunities ( see, f or e xample, V ogt 1 969). S ince t he t urn o f t he c entury, when t he g reat Mesoamerican s cholar E duard Seler p ioneered t he u se o f t extual a nd e thnographic m aterials t o e xplicate p re-Columbian a rt, u se o f n ative t exts h as b een s een a s t he k ey t o t he p re-Hispanic p ast. This a pproach h as v ariously b een c alled " ethnographic a nalogy," " upstreamin e ( Fenton 1 952:334-5), o r " the d ir ect h istorical a pproach" ( Steward 1 942 ). Seler, w hom H . B . N icholson h as c haracterized a s t he f irst m odern m aster o f t he d irect h istorical a pproach ( 1976:159 ), was h ighly s killed a t i nterweaving v aried s trands o f
e vidence
f rom
h is
e ncyclopedic
k nowledge
o f
Mesoamerican
a rt
a nd
p rehistory. O thers h ave f ollowed h is l ead t o s uch a n e xtent t hat i n t he t wentieth c entury t he p rimary m ethod o f e xplaining a ncient a rt h as b een t hrough t he u se o f t exts. 1 N evertheless, t here h as b een a n o ngoing c ontroversy i n Mesoamericanist c ircles a bout t he p roper u se o f e thnoh istorical d ocuments
( what I h ave t ermed " discrete t exts") i n t he s tudy
2
o f p re-Columbian a rt a nd c ivilization. S ome a spects o f t his c ontrovers y r aise i mportant q uestions about t he r elationship o f t hese t exts t o p re-Hispanic
i mages.
B efore
e xamining
t he
c ontroversy ,
h owever,
i t
w ill b e u seful t o a ttempt t o d efine e thnographic a nalogy m ore p recisely. S ome c onfusion e x ists i n t he l iterature a bout w hat d oes o r d oes n ot c onstitute a nalogy a nd about t he d ifferent w ays a nalogy m ay b e u sed. " Ethnographic a nalogy"
i s a n i mprecise p hrase t hat a ppears t o e n-
c ompass t hree d istinct t ypes o f a nalogy. I f t hese t ypes a re n ot c learly d ifferentiated, i t b ecomes d ifficult t o s ort o ut o bjections t o t he u se o f e thnographic a nalogy. T he t hree t ypes a re : 1 . General c ultural a nalogy. T his i nvolves " assaying a ny b elief about n on-observed b ehavior b y r eferral t o o bserved b ehavior which i s t hought t o b e r elevant" ( Ascher 1 961:317). I n ag eneral c ultural a nalo gy,
f or e xample,
o ne m ight c ompare M aya p yramids w ith E gyptian p yra-
m ids
( without i mplying a ny c ultural c onnection) i n o rder t o make o bser-
v ations about t he u se o f f unerary m onuments i n s ocieties ruled b y h eredi tary k ings ( see M . C oe 1 956). A rt h istorians c ustomarily make a nalogies b etween p re-Columbian a rtistic s ystems a nd t hose o f t he M editerr anean b asin ( see K ubler 1 973a; B erlo 1 983). When G eorge K ubler d raws a n a nalogy b etween t he t alud-tablero a rchitectural s ystem o f T eotihuac an a nd t he a rchitectural o rders o f G reco-Roman a ntiquity ( 1973a:36-7), h e d oes s o i n o rder t o i lluminate t he p re-Columbian w orld b y s uggesting t hat i ts a rtistic s ystem h as f eatures i n c ommon w ith o ther g reat a rt s tyles o f t he a ncient w orld. G eneral c ultural a nalogy i s o ften u sed m etaphorically. I t i s m eant t o b e s uggestive, n ot e vidential. 2 . A nalogy b etween c ultures t hat m anipulate s imilar e nvironments i n s imilar w ays. Again, a s i n g eneral c ultural a nalogy, t here i s n o i mplication o f d irect g enetic r elationship b etween t he t wo c ultures d iscussed. A scher c alls t his " the n ew a nalogy " ( 1961) b ecause o f i ts i mportance i n t he model-building a nd h ypothesis-testing o f n ew a rchaeol ogists. ( Despite i ts t itle, t his t ype o f a nalogy a ctually has b een i n u se s ince t he e arly d ays o f a nthropology.) When W illiam Sanders c omp ares C lassic M aya s ettlement p atterns t o t hose o f s everal s ub-Saharan c hiefdoms i n o rder t o d etermine c ausal p atterns u nderlying p articular s ocio-economic i nstitutions, h e i s e ngaging i n t he " new a nalogy" ( 1981).
3 .
A nalogy i n w hich d irect h istoric c ontinuity i s a ssumed.
T his t ype
o f a nalogy m ight m ore p recisely b e c alled " ethnographic h omology," t hough I k now o f n o i nstance i n t he l iterature w here i t h as b een r ef erred t o a s s uch. Homology, a t erm u sed i n t he b iological s ciences, i mplies n ot m erely s imilarity o r c omparison a s d oes a nalogy, b ut r ather s imilarity b ased o n c ommon o rigin a nd s tructure. M esoa r nericanists a re most p roperly c oncerned w ith t he p roblem o f h omology. T hose s cholars w ho r ely o n e thnohistoric o r e thnog raphic a nalogy d o s o w ith t he i mplici t u nderlying a ssumption
t hat
t hey a re
3
d ealing w ith h istorically a nd
i deologically r elated c ultures. T his b elief i n c ontinuity i s t he m etho dological b asis f or t heir w ork. G ordon W iley h as o utlined t his s tance m ost s uccinctly, e numerating t hree f undamental m ethodological a ssumptions u pon which t he u se o f e thnohistoric d ocuments r ests : a .
A ncient Mesoamerica c an b e v iewed a s au nif ied c ultural t radition.
b .
W ithin t his Mesoamerican c ultural s ystem t here was a u nified i deological s ystem. T here w as a n i ntegrity o f b elief a nd c om-
c .
m unication w ithin t his M esoamerican i deol ogical s ystem t hat p ermits u s, i n a rchaeol ogical r etrospect, t o a scribe s imilar meanings t o s imilar s igns o r s ymbols. ( 1973:153-4) W illey 's a ssumptions h ave f ormed t he m odus o perandi o f Mesoameric anists a t l east s ince t he t ime o f Seler, b ut o ne c rucial i ntellectual d evelopment h as c aused s ome s cholars t o q uestion t hese a ssumptions. W hen Seler u sed A ztec t erms a nd b eliefs t o c larify T eotihuacan a rtif acts, f or e xample ( 19 15), h e w as u naware o f t he p rofound t ime d epth o f t he c ultures i n t he Valley o f M exico i n p articular a nd i n M esoamerica i n g eneral. T his t ime d epth w as r evealed b y t he r igorous a rchaeological m ethod o f t he n ext g eneration o f s cholars, w ho d evoted t hemselves t o u nderstanding a nd r efining t he s equences o f a ncient c ultures. T o Seler 's g eneration, M esoamerican h istory l ooked r elatively s hallow ; t hey n ever i magined t he t hree-thousand-year p eriod o f a dvanced c iviliz ation t hat w e n ow k now existed. This g reat t emporal s pan o f c ulture h istory f orms t he b asis f or s ome o bjections t o t he u se o f e thnog raphic a nd e thnohistoric d ata. I n
1 967,
George
K ubler,
a n
h istorian
o f M esoamerican
a rt,
f irst
raised objections t o t he u se o f t emporally u nrelated d ocuments a s t he k ey t o t he meaning o f p re-Columbian a rt. H is r easons, b ased o n h is t raining a s a h umanistic s cholar w ell v ersed i n European a rts, w ere s et f orth i n a n umber o f a rticles ( 1967, 1 970a, 1 970b, 1 972, 1 973a, 1 973b). H is i deas m ay b e s ummarized a s f ollows : a .
Mesoamerica
b .
n ecessarily u nified c ultures. T he a rt o f e ach c ulture r ecords i nformation
c onsists
o f
r elated,
b ut
n ot
c .
t hat d oes n ot o ccur i n t exts. " Misconceptions a rise f rom a ssuming
t hat
i mages e xist i n a o ne-to-one r elation w ith t exts ; . . .a nd a n i rrelevant t ext c an b e d .
m ore m isleading t han n o t ext." ( 1973b:165) B ased o n o ur k nowledge o f European c ultural s equences, w e must a ssume d isjunction o f f orm a nd meaning w hen f orms o ccur o ver l ong
4
t ime p eriods, f or l ater p eoples o ften r eint erpreted e arlier f orms : " Disjunction, which i s a f orm o f r enovation, may b e s aid t o h appen w henever s or c ivilization i tance b y g earing t o n ew m eaning s,
e .
t he members o f a s uccesr efashion t heir i nhert he p redecessor 's f orms a nd b y c lothing i n n ew
f orms t hose c eptable."
o ld m eanings which (1 970a: 114 3)
R ather
a ssume c ontinuity o ver
t han
r emain a ca l ong
t ime p eriod, o ne must p rove i t, f or " errors a rise f rom i mposing u pon t he r emote p ast a g rid o r c ode o riginating m ore l ennium l ater." (1 973b: 1 6 14 ) S tudents
o f Mesoamerican
s tudies
t han a m il-
sa netimes
s ee
t he
d ispute
o ver
t he u se o f d iscrete t exts a s f alling a long d isciplinary l ines, w ith K ubler r epresenting t he a rt h istorical c amp t hat s tands i n o pposition t o t he mainstream a pproach o f C oe ( 1973, 1 97 14 ), F urst ( 1968, 1 973a, 1 973b), W illey ( 1973), a nd t heir a nthropological c olleagues a nd p redec essors. B ut t his o versimplifies t he i ssue. C ritics o f e thnog raphic a nalogy exist b oth w ithin M esoamerican a rchaeology a nd w ithin t he l arger d iscipline o f a nthropological a rchaeology. 2 J imenez-Moreno i s o ne o f f ew M exican a rchaeologists t o d isag ree w ith p revailing a ssumpt ions o f c ultural u nity a nd c ontinuity. H e b elieves t here w as a p rof ound c ultural r upture a t t he b eginning o f t he P ost-Classic p eriod i n w hich n ew r eligious c onfigurations w ere f ormed f rom t he d iverse t radit ions o f t he p receding e ra. H e c autions s cholars t o t ake t his i nto a ccount w hen d iscussing c ultural c ontinuity ( 1968). R . E . T aylor, a N orth A merican specialist i n West M exican a rchaeology, c alls t he u se o f a nalogy a " seductive a ttraction" a nd c riticizes p roponents l ike Furst. Curiously, T aylor s ays t hat t here a re f ew a nalytical t ools c apable o f e xtracting r eligious c ontent f rom t he m aterial r ecord. T hus h e d eterm ines t hat " nonhistoric a rchaeology, i n t he a rea o f r eligious o r i deol ogical i nterpretation, a pparently h as n o o ther r ecourse b ut t o b e d ependent o n e thnog rapnic a nalogy"
( 1970:167).
Taylor 's s tatements t o t he c ontrary , t he d iscipline o f a rt h istory d oes p rovide p recisely t hose " analytical t ools c apable o f extracting m eaning " f rom a rchaeolog ical m aterials w hich Taylor s ays a re n eeded. 3 K ubler 's w ork s hows o f w hat t hat " other r ecourse" c onsists. H is i nvest igation o f Teotihuacan i conography ( 1967) a nd Maya i conography ( 1969) s tand a s l andmark s tudies i n which t he c ontextual a pproach i s u naided b y d iscrete t exts o f l ater
p eriods.
The g eneration o f a rt h istorians f ollowing Kubler h as u tilized a v ariety o f a pproaches t o t he r elationship o f t ext a nd i mage. T heir d iverse methods s hare w ith Kubler 's a n i mplicit ag reement t hat meaning i s t o b e f ound p rimarily w ithin t he object i tself a nd i ts c ontex t. I ndeed, t his " agreement" i s t he f oundation o f a rt h istorical m ethodolo gy i n g eneral.
5
W here t hese s cholars d iverge i s i n h ow m uch w eight t o g ive d iscrete t exts. Some, l ike Quirarte, p refer a c ontex tual a pproach, w hich c onsiderations o f s pace,
t o i n
f ormat, s tyle, material, a nd t he c ompo-
n ent e lements o f p articular t hemes a re a nalyzed ( 1979). 4 C oggins ( 1975, 1 982) a nd A . Miller ( 1973, 1 982) h ave s tudied materials w ith v erifiable a rchaeological ( and i n M iller 's c ase, a rchitectural) c ont exts. T hus, c ontext a nd c omparative a ssociations h ave p rovided t he f ocal p oint f or t heir s tudies, f or s ubstantiating e vidence. ( 1972), t hough s he a rgues Mesoamerican a rt ( 1973).
t hough b oth r ely o n t extual t raditions P asztory , t oo, h as f ocused o n c ontext
f or a " synthetic a pproach" t o t he s tudy o f H er s ynthetic a pproach i ncludes c ontextual
a nalysis o f m otifs a nd c omparative a nalysis b ased o n c oeval c ultures, s ixteenth-century t exts, a nd modern e thnography. Grieder h as a rticul ated a p rinciple t hat s eems t o guide t his w hole s econd g eneration Mesoamerican a rt h istorians:
o f
D isjunction i s a u seful c oncept, b ecause i t i dentifies a c ultural p henomenon, b ut r ather t han d enying u s a ccess t o a ncient meanings, i t c larifies t he m ethod b y which t hey m ay b e s tudi ed. D isjunction i s t he r esult o f p articular s ocial o r e nvironmental e vents o f o r c ircums tances w hich c an b e d etermined b y a rchaeology a nd h istory. ( 1975:853) I n a nalyzing a rt i n t he V alley o f Mexico, P asztory , K lein , a nd Townsend h ave f ound evidence f or c ontinuity, r enewal, a nd r einte uatiön o f a ncient s ymbols a nd c oncepts ( Pasztory n .d.; K lein 1 980; T ownsend 1 979). These s cholars u se a r igorous a nalytical a pproach t hat c ombines t he b est o f t raditional a nthropological u se o f d iscrete t exts w ith t he t raditional a rt h istorical c ommitment t o t he p rimacy o f t he a rt o bject. P asztory a nd K lein b oth h ave r emarked o n d iscrepancies b etween t exts a nd i mages, a s h as B oone ( 1980). P asztory has c ommented t hat t he i mportance o f Q uetzalcoatl i n t he c olonial t exts may r eflect t he i ntere st t hat t he S panish h ad i n h is t raits a nd p ersonality r ather t han h is t rue i mportance t o Mexica s ociety ( n.d.:2). K lein f orcefully c ritic izes t hose s cholars w ho r ely o n e thnohistoric t exts r ather t han a nal yzing t he i mages
t hemselves:
Few modern s cholars h ave a ttempted t o d eal w ith t he numerous d epictions o f T laloc t hat f ail t o s quare w ith t he a ppearance a nd f unction a scribed t o h im b y t he e arly w riters. . . . Failure t o d eal w ith t his d iscrepancy b etween t ext a nd i ma ge m ay b e a ttributed i n p art t o t he p aralysis t hat s trikes t hose Western s cholars s o d ependent o n t he w ritten w ord w hen, f or so me r eason, t heir v erbal s ources a re s trangely s ilent o n a g iven s ubject. b old a s t o apt t o g et
I n
s uch
a s ituation,
o nly
t hose
s o
c onfront t he mystique o f " art" a re c lose t o r eality. While t he t rue
6
p rimary s ources--the i mages--may a lone s upply a m essage t hat i s n ot c onfirmed, a n o f t heir i mplications w ith m odern
i nterweaving e thnographic
d ata c an p roduce a f abric w hose t exture i s e ven, a nd w hose d esign s tructurally p arallels t he t ruth. ( Klein 1 980:156) Her c omments o n Western s cholars ' d ependence o n t he w ritten w ord, e ven i n t he f ace o f o pposing evidence i n t he p ictorial r ecord, a re a n i mport ant c riticism o f f laws i n o ur d iscipline a nd s hould b e h eeded b y a ll w ho u se t exts i n t he a nd R aird
1 979,
s tudy
o f M esoamerican a rt.
( See
a lso B rown
1 977
a s w ell a s Brown i n t his v olume).
The p ossible d iscrepancies t hat K lein h as h ighlighted b etween t ext ual a nd v isual t raditions s uggests t hat s ome a rtists m ay h ave w orking p rincipally f rom o ther v isual m odels, while sa ne r elied
b een m ore
c losely o n t ex ts o r v erbal t raditions. T he s tyle a nd i cono g raphy o f c ertain A ztec m onuments, f or e xample, i ndicate t hat t heir c reators w ere d eliberately c opying s tone s culpture l eft b y t heir Toltec p redecessors ( see Townsend 1 979:17, a nd h is f igures 5 a nd 6 ). This c opying d erived f rom
t he
Mexica 's
n eed
t o
a ffirm
t hat
t heir
a uthority w as
l inked
t o
a ncient t raditions i n t he Valley o f M exico. M aya v ase p ainting, i n c ontrast, c losely f ollowed a l iterary t radition. I ndeed, a ccording t o s ome s cholars, M aya v ase p ainting was s o c losely b ound t o t exts t hat, l acking extant t exts, w e c an r econstruct t he mythic c ycles b ased o n t he v isual t ableaux o n t he p olychrome p ots ( Robicsek a nd Hales 1 982). P anofsky h as s uggested a s imilar p rocess o f v arying a ttachment e ither t o v isual o r t extual m odels t o a ccount f or d isjunction i n R enaissance a rt : o ne a rtist, u sing a C lassical m otif f or a C hristian i mage, may h ave b een f ollowing v isual m odels, w hereas a nother a rtist, u sing M ediev al f orms f or a C lassical i dea, may h ave b een " translating i nto i mages a m ere d escription f rom l iterary s ources"
( 1955: 2424 ).
D iscussion o f t he t ies b etween t extual a nd v isual t raditions l eads t o o ne l ast q uestion i n t his s ection o n d iscrete t exts. H ow d id a ncient Mesoamerican p eoples t hemselves p erceive t he r elationship o f t he v isual a rts t o a b ody o f r itual, p olitical, a nd h istorical k nowledge? This q uestion must b e c onsidered t wice, o nce f or t he p opulation i n g eneral a nd o nce f or . t he e lite a nd t he s elect g roup o f a rtists i n t heir e mploy. C ertainly t here w ere v arying d egrees o f a ttachment t o l iterary o r v erbal " texts." T o t he v ast majority o f t he p opulation, j ust a s t o t he g reat p easant p opulations o f t he Middle Ages i n Europe, a rt w as t he main " text," t he p rimary m eans o f c omprehending t he s upernatural a nd u nders tanding t he r elationship b etween d ivine a uthority a nd d ynastic a uthori ty. 5 T o t he p riestly a nd r uling c lasses, p ublic m onumental a rt was t he m eans f or i nculcating r espect a nd s ubservience t o h uman a nd g odly rule. For t his u pper s tratum o f s ociety, a rt a nd w riting w ere s ystems i n which t o e ncode r eligious b eliefs a nd t o c ast p olitical p ropaganda i n c osmic l ight. A rt was a lso t he a rea f or v erbal a nd v isual w ord p lay a nd e legant
p uns.
P olysemous
i ntentions a re
7
c ommon i n
Mesoamerican a rt ;
l ayers o f m eaning r eveal t hemselves a ccording t o t he e rudition o f t he v iewer. T he i mportance o f p olysemy, a nd a rt a s t ext i n M esoamerica w ill b e d iscussed l ater, u nder t he c ategory o f n bedded t exts. H owever, b efore d iscussing a rt a s t ext, I w ill e xamine sa ne i nstances i n w hich t he p re-Hispanic a rtist l inked a rt a nd t ext a s w e k now t hem o n t he s ame o bject.
C onjoined t exts a nd i mages Texts a ccompany i mages i n v arious m edia f rom s everal a reas o f Mesoamerica. From t he F ormative p eriod, r emaining e xamples s urvive o nly o n l ithic materials. L arge p ublic monuments s uch a s Monument 1 3 f rom La V enta a nd t he D anzantes a t M onte A lban i ndicate t hat e ven i n t he Formative
p eriod,
s cribe
a nd
a rtist
c ollaborated
i n
t he
m aking
o f
e xpressive w ork s ( Bernal 1 969: p late 2 9; C oe 1 977:plate 2 3). I n t he l ate Formative a nd Early C lassic p eriods, t exts b ecome more c ommon 6 a nd a re f ound o n s mall-scale p ortable objects l ike t he T uxtla s tatuette a nd t he Leyden p laque ( Coe 1 977 :f ig. 1 9 , 1 976 :f ig. 1 6) a s w ell a s p ublicly e rected m onuments. During t he C lassic p eriod, Z apotec a nd M aya s tone c arvers c reated s culptures i n w hich t ext a nd i mage w ere s uccessfully c onjoined. These a re m ost numerous i n t he M aya a rea, f rom which a re k nown h undreds o f s telae, z oomorphs, a ltars, l intels, a nd m iscellaneous s culptures. 7 A m uch s maller c orpus o f w orks was c reated i n t he Valley o f Oaxaca. Early s cholars
v aried i n t heir a ssessment
o f t he
r elationship o f
M aya t exts a nd i mages. Brinton, B owditch, a nd F orstemann, c oncentrati ng o n a stronomical a nd c alendrical d ecipherment, a voided d etailed d isc ussion
o f t he c onjoined i magery
( Brinton
1 89 14 :32).
S pinden a nalyzed
t he f ormal d evelopment a nd i conographic p rograms o f t he monuments, b ut e quivocated o n t heir m eanings. H e b elieved i t u nlikely t hat t he s telae r epresented i ndividuals a nd s uggested t hat s uch monuments s erved e ither a s m arkers o f t he c ompletion o f a t ime p eriod o r a s i mages o f t he g ods w ho g overned t he t ime p erio ds ( 19 13:129). Morley , d espite h is l ate s ingle-minded f ocus
o n t he
c alendrical
p assages
o f
t he
i nscriptions,
w rote i n 1 9 11: While a dmitting t hat t he i nscriptions m ay , a nd p robably d o, c ontain s uch a stronomical matter a s Doctor Brinton a nd Mr. B owditch h ave s uggested, t he w riter b elieves n evertheless t hat f undament ally t hey a re h istorical; t hat t he monuments upon which t hey a re p resented w ere e rected a nd i nscribed o n o r a bout t he d ates t hey s everally r ecord ; a nd f inally, t hat t he g reat majority o f t hese d ates a re t hose o f c ontemporaneous e vents, a nd a s s uch p ertain h istory. ( 19 15:33)
t o
8
t he
s ubject
m atter
o f
N early h alf a c entury l ater, T atiana P roskouriakoff ' s b reak through o n t he dynastic c ontent o f M aya i nscriptions ( 1960, 1 963, 1 96 24 ) d emons trated b eyond d oubt t hat i n b oth t ext a nd i mage o n p ublic monuments t he M aya 's o verriding c oncern was h istorical a nd c ommemorative, n ot s imply numerological o r c hronographic. I t s eems i ncreasingly l ikely t hat s imilar c oncerns p reoccupied Z apotec s culptors a s well ( Marcus 1 980). A nother c ategory o f
c onjoined t ext a nd i mage o ccurs i n Maya v ase-
p ainting, a n a rt f orm t hat c ombines l ongevity w ith p ortability. I n 1 973 M ichael C oe p ointed o ut t hat t he t exts o n many Maya v ases o ccurred r epeatedly, w ith sa ne v ariation. H e t ermed t his t extual p attern t he " Primary S tandard Sequence" ( PSS), a nd s uggested t hat i t r eferred t o " rigidly c odified c hants o r r ecitations" ( 1973 : 18 ) . More r ecently, C ne h as d iscussed t he P SS a s a d escription o f t he d escent i nto X ibalba, t he M aya u nderworld ( 1978:13). C oncurrent w ith h is f ormulation o f t he Primary S tandard Sequence, Coe a lso d emonstrated t hat m any Maya v ases d epicted t he e xploits o f t he i nfamous h ero t wins o f t he M aya e pic t he P opul V uh. T hus, s ome Maya v ases a ppear t o b e s imilar t o C lassic Greek v ase p ainting i n which mythological c haracters e nact s cenes f rom w ritt en o r o ral m ythic c ycles. I n f act, R obicsek a nd Hales h ave r ecently s uggested t hat, f or t he M aya, p ainted c eramic v essels t hemselves f unctioned a s c odex "pages" t hat c ould b e a ppropriately a ssembled t o r ecord t he c ontinuous n arrat ive o f r eligious a nd s ecular e vents i n a m anner a nalogous t o s creenf old manuscripts ( 1982:251). 8 I n a ny e vent, t extual r eferents i n Maya p olychrome c eramics r ange f rom t he s pecific a nd h istorical t o f he s acred a nd mythological. H istorical t ies a re a ffirmed b y t he r ecording o f p ersonal n ames o r e mblem g lyphs o f p articular M aya c ities. T he t ext o n o ne Maya v ase, f or e xample, makes r eference t o Calakmul, Machaquila, a nd T ikal ( Coe 1 978:96-8). Mythic a nd r itual l inks a re e ncoded i n t he r epeating l itany o f t he P rimary S tandard Sequence. T he t ies b etween this w orld a nd t he u nderworld a re a ffirmed i n t he i mages t hemselves. Maya a nd Mexican manuscripts p rovide a nother medium f or t he c onj unction o f t exts a nd i mages. In M exican c odices, t he t exts a re u sually r udimentary , n oting w ho, where, a nd w hen. T his a rmature o f a ppellat ives, t oponyms, a nd d ates i s a ugmented b y p ictorial n arratives w herein h istory a nd r itual a re made manifest. T exts i n Maya c odices a re r icher, b ecause t he M aya w riting system b ears m ore o f t he b urden o f c ommunicat ion t han d o t he more r udimentary Mexican a nd Mixtec s ystems. C onjoined t exts a nd i mages r aise a number o f q uestions f or t he a rt h istorian. What i s t he i nterplay o f t ext a nd i mage w hen t he t wo a re p resented s imultaneously? W ere a rtist a nd s cribe t he s ame p erson ? W hat w ere t he i ntentions o f t he a rtist/scribe? W ere t he i mages " illustrat ions" o f t exts? A mplifications o f t exts? O r a re t he t wo i nformation s ystems f undamentally d ifferent b ut e qual? W hile I w ill b y n o means a ttempt t o a nswer a ll t hese q uestions, a f ew r emarks m ay h elp i lluminate t he
i nterrelationships
o f
t hese
t wo
9
i nformational
s ystems.
B oth
B addeley a nd Miller c onsider t his t opic i n f uller d etail i n t heir e ssays i n this v olume. 9 J .
E ric S .
T hompson, i n d iscussing t he Dresden a nd Madrid c odices,
o nce observed t hat " the p ictures s upplement t he h ieroglyphic t ext : t he t exts d o n ot i nterpret t he p ictures" ( 1958:2 9 7). T he p re-Columbian a rtist skillfully u sed s everal i nformational s ystems i n t he p resentat ion o f c omplex i nformation. I ndeed, t he i nterplay i tself o f t he s ys tems s eems t o h ave C olumbian s cribe.
b een
a m atter
o f
sa ne
f ascination
t o
t he
p re-
E lsewhere I h ave d iscussed a s eries o f v erbal a nd v isual p uns i n t he t ext a nd i magery o n p ages 3 8, 4 2, a nd 14 3 o f t he M adrid C odex ( Berlo 1 976:26-8). I n t hat a rticle , I d emonstrate t hat w hat h ad p reviously b een i nterpreted a s m istakes o r s loppy t ranscriptions b y t he M aya s cribe w as a ctually a p lay o n w ords w ith t wo d ifferent r eferents, o ne b ased o n p artial h cmophony, t he o ther o n v isual s imilarity. The m eaning o f t his w ord p lay i s m anifested b y g lyphs w orking i n c oncert w ith i mages. T he s cribe purposefully j oined v isual a nd v erbal m etaphor i n o rder t o e mphasize t he n uances o f l anguage a nd i mage. T his p rovides i nsight i nto t he s cribe 's v iew o f t hese t wo informational s ystems : The s cribe p layed b ack a nd f orth b etween t he t wo s ystems, t o t he mutual e nrichment o f e ach.lo P ictures a mplified t ext ; t ext a mplified p ict ures. A b asic a esthetic p rinciple o f M aya a rts a nd l etters i s t he r es tatement o f t he s ame i nformation i n s lightly a ltered f orm. I n v erbal a rts, this o ccurs a s r hymed c ouplets t hat r estate a nd c orroborate b ut d o n ot r epeat v erbatim. The P opul V uh i s f ull o f e xamples o f t his, which Bricker c alls "parallelistic c ouplets" ( 1981:185). 1 I s uggest t hat t he p unning r eferred t o i n t he Madrid C odex, a s well a s t he m any i nstances i n Maya a rt i n w hich g lyphic i nformation i s " restated" i n p ictorial f orm, a re e xamples o f this b asic a esthetic p attern. H ere, h owever, t he p arallel s tatements a re made i n d ifferent b ut r elated m edia : v erbal a nd v isual a rt. Later i n t his e ssay, I s hall d iscuss f urther
t he
" embedding "
examples f rcm M aya,
o f
t extual
m aterial
i n p ictorial
a rt,
u sing
T eotihuacan, a nd Z apotec c ultures.
S ometimes t ext i s j ust o ne a spect o f a n a mbitious p resentation o f i nformation. O n t he g rand h ieroglyphic s taircase a t C opan, a rchitect ure s erves a s a v ehicle f or b oth w riting a nd s culptural d isplay. More a mbitious c onjunctions o ccur a t B onampak a nd P alenque, f or e xample, w here t exts, w all p aintings o r r eliefs, l intels, s telae, s tucco f acade s culpture, a nd a rchitecture c reate a unified p resentation o f h istorical a nd c osmological i nformation ( see M . Miller 1 981; C ohodas 1 974, 1 976). I n s uch i nstances, h ieroglyphic t exts p rovide o ne s ort o f i nformation. Layers o f m eaning a ccrue b y means o f c omplex i conog raphic p rog rams, s ite
l ayouts,
a nd
a stronomical
o rientation.
Sometimes
our
o ver-
r eliance o n t extual i nformation c auses b lindness t o t he o ther modes o f c ommunication, a lthough i t i s c lear t hat t o t he M aya a rtist i t was t he
1 0
c omplementarity e xpression.
o f
t hese
modes
t hat
p rovided
t he
m aximum
m eans
o f
T he r elationship o f t ext t o c onjoined i mage i s s ituational. T ext g ains o r d iminishes i n i mportance a ccording t o m edium a nd a ccording t o i ndividual w orks o f a rt i n t he s ame medium.
P ublic monumental i nscrip-
t ions b ear a d ifferent r elationship t o t heir a ssociated i mages t han d o t exts o n s mall-scale, i ntimate m edia l ike c odices a nd c eramics. A lt hough t he p ast t wenty y ears h ave s een r enewed i nterest i n a nd s uccess a t t he d eciphering o f Maya g lyphs, e pig raphic s tudies m ust a lways b e c arried o ut i n c onjunction w ith s ensitive i conograph ic " decipherment" a s w ell. D espite t his e xcursion i nto t he u nique p roblems o f c onjoined t ex ts a nd i mages, i nstances o f s uch c onjunctions a re d ecidedly i n t he m inori ty i n p re-Hispanic a rt. A s Miller p oints o ut i n t his v olume, a ll k nown examples o f Mesoamerican t exts Images t hemselves u sually b ear
w ould n ot e ven f ill a l ibrary s helf. t he w eight o f i nformation-transmittal
w ithout c ontiguous t exts. U nraveling t he m eaning o f s uch i mages c ust omarily h as p roceeded p rincipally t hrough r eference t o o ther t extual s ources, n amely t o w hat I h ave c alled d iscrete t ext. H owever, i t s eems l ikely t hat Mesoamerican i magery o ften h as m ultiple r eferents, s ome o f which a re l inguistic o r g lyphic i n n ature. G reater a ttention s hould b e p aid t o t he messages t hat a re e mbedded i n t he i mages t hemselves.
E mbedded T exts Having examined t he r elationship o f c onjoined t exts a nd i mages a nd t he m eans b y which d iscrete t exts h ave b een u tilized i n d eciphering i mages t hat s tand a lone, I s hall p ropose o ne more c ategory o f " text" t hat I b elieve h as sa ne u tility f or a n u nderstanding a rt. T his i s t he c ategory o f e mbedded t ext.
o f
p re-Colu mbian
I n a n e mbedded t ext, m eaning which i n o ur W estern t radition w ould b e c arried b y w riting i s e mbedded i n t he i mage i tself. A ccording t o o ur W estern, l inear n otions o f t exts a s f undamentally d ifferent f rom i ma ges, e mbedded t exts a re n ot r eally t exts a t a ll. Y et i n a lmost a ll a ncient M esoamerican a rtistic s ystems, a rt i s t he v ehicle f or c arrying t ext-like i nformation. S tudy o f i mages a s e mbedded t exts i s n ot s imply t he s tudy o f i conog raphy, a s i t m ay s eem a t f irst. F or i n m ost p reC olumbian c ultures, a rt i ntersects w ith "writing" a nd l inguistic i nformation t o s uch a n extent t hat a k nowledge o f t he a ssociated w ritten, o ral, o r l inguistic t raditions p rovides i nsight i nto t he a rt o n ar icher l evel. This unity o f t ext a nd i mage i s s uggested i n M aya l anguage i tself, w herein n o d istinction i s m ade b etween w riting a nd d rawing. T he M otul d ictionary g losses t s 'ib :
t o w rite, t o d raw ;
d rawing o r w riting o n s tone.
1
t s 'ibtun :
a n i dol;
a rt.
I s hall p rovide s everal s amples o f e mbedded t exts i n p re-Columbian A gain, t he i nterpenetration o f v erbal a nd v isual m edia m entioned
e arlier
a s
a b asic t enet
o f
p re-Columbian a rts a nd l etters c omes
i nto
p lay h ere : A rt r estates l inguistic ( or, w here a ppropriate, g lyphic) i nformation i n a d ifferent f orm, s ometimes t hrough t he u se o f m u ltiple m etaphor. J oyce M arcus h as p ointed o ut t hat t he b lood-like s crolls i ssuing f rom t he g enital a rea o f sa ne f ormative p eriod d anzante r eliefs a t Monte A lban l ink Z apotec a rt t o Z apotec s poken l anguage: The Z apotec w ord f or f lower i s g ui, t he w ord f or s exual o rgan g ui p lus t he p ossessive p refix x o r s h. Still a nother m eaning f or s ui i s g iven b y C ordova i n h is d ictionary o f s ixteenth-century Z apotec : " that which i s o ffered i n s acrifice." T he g roin s crolls o f t he d anzantes m ay t herefore r epresent a t riple p un f or " flower"-"sexual o rg an"-"sacrificial Tatiana
Proskouriakoff
v ictim." h as
( 1976: 14 5)
d emonstrated
s imilar
o ccurrences
i n
I zapan a nd Maya a rt ( 1976). S tela 2 5 a t I za .pa d epicts a h uman f igure h olding a s taff, a top which s its a n a nthrop o morphic b ird ( fig. 2 ). To t he l eft o f t he s taff i s a n u pended c ayman o r c rocodile. I ts s nout a nd f ront p aws extend t oward t he g roundline.
I ts u pended b ody t urns i nto a
l eafy t ree. I n t he b ranches o f t his t ree p erches a s mall b ird. P roskouriakoff n oted t hat t he M aya w ord f or c ayman o r c rocodile i s a ir ) ; t he r elated w ord a m ok m eans " that w hich i s g ummy o r r esinous." Thus, t he upended c rocodile/tree c ould e asily b e a v isual r endering o f a l inguistic metaphor i n w hich " that w hich s ounds l ike a m " r efers t o t he p lant o r t ree t hat y ields r esin f or i ncense. o f a n e mbedded t ext. I n b oth t his a nd t he s ort o f r ebus p rinciples k nown f rcm b oth A ztec c ommunication s ystems t hat a re n ot p rimarily Proskouriakoff
This i s a p erfect example Z apotec e xample, t he s ame a nd M aya w riting o ccur i n g lyphic.
p rovides o ne f urther e xample t hat
f its m y c oncept
o f a n e mbedded t ext i n a rt. O ne o f t he most f amiliar Maya monuments o f t he E arly C lassic p eriod i s s tela 3 1 f rom T ikal ( fig. 1 ). O n t he f ront o f t his s tela, t he r uler Stormy S ky i s d epicted. A l engthy h ieroglyphic t ext o n t he b ack p rovides t he h istorical a nd dynastic c ontext f or h is r ule. A t t he t op o f t he s tela , a bove t he f igure o f Stormy S ky i s a d ownward-peering d isembodied h ead. This d ownward-peering h ead h as a h and f or a l ower j aw. P roskouriakoff p oints o ut t hat i n Maya g lyphs a f ace w ith a h and a t t he l ower j aw s tands f or a f our-hundred-year p eriod ( baktun). N oting t hat i n Stormy S ky 's r eign B ai ctun 8 i n t he Maya c alendar c hanged t o B aktun 9 , she s uggests t hat t his i mage m ight g raphic ally
i ndicate
c alendar ( 1976).
c ame
t hat t o
t he
a c lose
e ig nth d uring
f our-hundred-year t he
1 2
r eig n
o f
c ycle
t his
o f
t he
i mportant
Maya ruler
I t i s l ikely t hat i n many o ther r espects t he f ront o f s tela 3 1 f unctions a s a n e laborate t ex tual m essage. M any o f t he abstract a nd f igural e mble ms w orn a s p art o f t he c ostume a sse mblage o n t he f ront r ecur i n t he l inear g lyphic p assage o n t he b ack o f t he s tela. A s we b ecome more p roficient a t d eciphering Maya s cript, t he e laborate c ost ume-encoded " messages" o n m any M aya s telae s hould b ecome m ore c ompreh ensible. The s ides o f P acal' s s arcophagus a t P alenque p rovide f urther e xamp les o f t extual r eferents e mbedded i n a n i mage. A round a ll f our s ides o f t he s arcophagus a re t en h uman f igures w ho e merge f rom o penings i n t he e arth. B ehind e ach f igure i s a f ruiting t ree, e ach o f which h as b een i dentified b otanically b y Ruz L huiller ( 1970:107). F eatures o f t he n ame g lyphs o f ' sa ne o f t hese a ncestors o f P acal o ccur i n t heir h eadd resses. F or e xample, a f orebear f rom t he s eventh k atun o f c ycle 9 , L ord B ahlum ( "Lord J aguar ") w ears a l ivelier v ersion o f h is j aguar n ame g lyph a s t he most p rominent f eature o f h is h eadgear ( fig. 3 ) L ady Z acK uk ( "Lady R esplendent Q uetzal") h as a n extra q uetzal c rest i n h er h eaddress, a ccording t o Lounsbury ( 1974:16 ), d istinguishing h er f rom t he o ther i ndividuals w ho h ave j ust o ne
q uetzal c rest e ach.
I n a c ontroversial p aper, T homas B arthel h as s uggested t hat t hese a ncestor f igures a nd f ruit t rees e ncode a f urther m essage b ased o n h omophonous p uns. 1 2 A ccording t o B arthel, t he Maya n ames f or t he v ari ous f ruit t rees s erve a s h omophonous e xpressions o f m ourning a nd l ame ntation f or t he d ead P acal. F or e xample, t he c acao t ree b ehind t wo o f t he f igures c an b e r ead a s am etaphor f or c a c au, " our s trong o ne," " our j ewel" a nd k a k au , " our g randfather" ( Barthel 1 980:82). T hese p hrases, i n turn, a re m etaphors f or t he ruler. A lthough sa ne o f B arthel 's t ranslations m ay b e d isputed, h is b asic t hesis d eserves f urthor c onside ration. B arthel exhorts M aya i conog raphers t o t ake i nto a ccount p oss ible l inguistic c ontent a s w ell a s t he more s tandard i conographic c ontent o f a n i mage ( 1980:88) . So f ar i n t his b rief s urvey o f e mbedded t exts, w e h ave s een i magery s erving a s metaphor o r p un, a s i dentification o f s tatus ( the d anzante a s s acrificial v ictim), a s c hronological m arker, a s a ppellative, a nd a s l itany o f p recious q ualities. P lace s igns a re a lso c ommonly f ound e mbedded i n p ictorial i magery. I n t his
v olume,
B a .ddeley o bserves
t hat i n t he e clectic Maya-style
murals a t C acaxtla i n T laxcala, N ahua g lyphic s igns a ppear a s p art o f t he p ictorial n arrative. S he p oints o ut t hat a t oponymic t ooth-and-gum t lan s ign i s a ppended t o t he s pear i n e dificio B ( Baddeley, f ig. 5 ). Here, a t extual m essage e mbedded i n t he p ictorial n arrative may p lace t his b attle g eog raphically. S imilar l ocatives o ccur i n t he m onumental s telae a t Monte A lban, w here e mbedded t ex ts w ork t ogether w ith l inear t exts. F or e xample, i n s telae 2 , 3 , 6 , a nd 8 , t he c entral t heme i s a b ound f igure s tanding o n a p lace s ign ( fig. 14 a nd P addock 1 966: f igs. 1 / 43, 114 6, 114, 1 47). These i mages f unction b oth p ictorially a nd t ext ually. T hough t hey a re f lanked b y more t raditionally n arrative t ex ts
1 3
i n c olumnar f ormat,
t he main message a bout
p erson,
p lace, a nd e vent
i s
c onveyed i n a v isually c o mpelling l ogo g -aphic f ormat. B addeley s ees t his " interweaving o f t extual a nd p ictorial e lem ents" a s p articularly c haracteristic o f M exican ( as d istinct f rom M aya) c ultures ( p. 6 3); I p refer t o c lassify i t a s ap an-Mesoamerican t radition.
H owever, I b elieve t hat i t i s m ore r eadily a pparent t o u s i n
t hose c ultures w here w e d o n ot h ave a h ighly-developed g lyphic s ystem u pon which t o f ocus our i nterest i n t he w ritten w ord. O ne s uch c ulture i s t he Teotihuacan c ivilization o f C entral M exiI ncreasingly d uring t he l ast t wenty y ears, s cholars h ave b egun t o
c o.
r ecognize t he p ivotal i mportance o f Teotihuacan i n t he p olitical, e conomic, a nd c ultural l ife o f C lassic P eriod M esoamerica ( see P arsons 1 969;
P asztory
1 978;
R .
Millon
s elf-evident t hat t he c ivilized d eveloped t radition o f w riting c ultural a nd i ntellectual h ub o f e minence o f Teotihuacan d uring
1 981).
P reviously ,
i t w as
c onsidered
a nd s cholarly M aya, w ith t heir h ighlya nd r ecord k eeping, must h ave b een t he t he N ew W orld. R ecognition o f t he p ret his p eriod h as r aised s ome q uestions
about t he n ecessity o f r ecord-keeping a nd w ritten t raditions f or s uch a v ast a dministrative e mpire. F or s ome, t his h as s uggested s imply t hat w e h ave n ot l ooked w riting system.
h ard e nough a nd w ill s ome d ay " find" t he T eotihuacan O thers t reat t he c omplex T eotihuacan s ymbol s ystem a s
i f i t w ere a w riting s ystem. Thomas B arthel, f or e xample, a s cholar o f Maya w riting a nd Mexican c odices, h as s uggested t hat t rue " texts" d o exist a t T eotihuacan. H e h as c haracterized t he s ymbols c ascading f rom h ands a nd s peech s crolls i n T eotihuacan mural p ainting a s " infixed g raphemes" ( 1982:5), n oting t heir o ccasional " columnar" p lacement a nd " vertical t ext p rog ression" ( 1982:7). H e e xhorts o ther s cholars t o compile a c atalog o f s uch " text o ccurences" a nd t he g raphemes t hat o ccur w ithin t hem, c harting f requenc y a nd a ssociated s igns. T rying t o f orce t he r ich a nd v aried m anifestat ions o f Teotihuacan l ogog rams a nd s ymbols i nto a l inear p attern o f t exts s eems f undamentally m isguided ; t he s earch f or l inear t exts a t Teotihuacan i mposes a Western-style n otion o f w riting u pon a c ommunicat ion s ystem t hat was m uch l ess r igid a nd c odified t han t rue w riting s ystems. I ndeed, l inear t exts n ever d eveloped i n t he Valley o f Mexico. The A ztec w riting s ystem was e ssentially a s ystem o f p ictographic a nd p honetic mnemonic
d evices.
N ames,
p laces,
a nd
d ates
c ould b e
e asily
r endered i n s uch a system. B ut t he A ztecs h anded d own t he m ore c omplex w orks o f h istory , myth, s ong , p oetry , a nd d ramatic n arrative t hrough o ral t radition c arried o n b y s pecialists. S uch w orks w ere n ot w ritten d own i n l inear f ashion u ntil t he c oming o f Europeans. 1 3 A s t heir p recurs ors i n t he Valley o f M exico, T eotihuacanos m ay h ave h ad a s imilarly e laborate o ral t radition. T heir v isual t radition w as e xceedingly r ich i n s ymbol, m etaphor, a nd d escription a nd m ay h ave p roven a m ore s atisf actory l ingua f ranca The T eotihuacanos
t han t he more r econdite Maya w riting system. l acked t he
k ind
o f
g lyphic
s ystem t hat
t he Maya t o w rite i n s entences a nd r ecord h istorical
i l l
e vents.
1 4
a llowed
T hey d id,
h owever, h ave a n umber o f c onventional s igns t hat f unctioned i n ag lyphl ike m anner.
K ubler l ists n inety-seven s uch s ig ns
o f Teotihuacan
s ig ns
i s
n ot
l inear,
a s
w e
a re
( 1967).
w ont
t o
T he f ormat
t hink g lyphic
s ystems s hould b e. I b elieve t hat t he c oncept o f " embedded t ext " b est e xplains t he Teotihuacan i conographic s ystem. A lthough Kubler d id n ot u se t his t erm, h e was t he f irst t o r ecognize t he e ssential c haracter o f Teotihuacan i conography : T he e ntire r epertory o f
p ictorial
e xpression a t
T eotihuacan s upports t he v iew t hat p ainters a nd s culptors w ere s eek ing f orms o f l ogog raphic c larity a nd s implicity. They w ere l ess i ntere sted i n r ecording a ppearances t han i n c ombining a nd c cmpounding a ssociative m eanings i n a q uest f or v iable f orms o f w ri t ing .(1 967 : 5) O thers h ave s tudied t hese " compound a ssociative m eanings" t ihuacan.
S ee, f or e xample, H asso v on W inning 1 961,
1 968,
a t T eo-
1 979, a nd i n
p ress ; C . M illon 1 973; P asztory 1 973, 1 97 14 . Their w ork c harts r egularities a nd c lusterings i n t he Teotihuacan p ictorial s ystem.
t he T he
c harting o f t he m eaning o f t hese s ymbols i s a p ainstak ing p rocess. S eldom d oes o ne o bject p rovide t he w hole " text." I nstead, w e f ind a n o verlapping s eries o f s ymbol c lusters. The i conog raphic p uzzle c an o nly b e w orked o ut b y c onsulting many i mages, c onducting a " configurat ional a nalysis" a s s uggested b y K ubler ( 1967) a nd a " synthetic a naly sis" a s a dvocated b y P asztory ( 1973:150). O nly t hen d oes t he s imple e legance o f t he T eotihuacan s ystem r eveal i tself. I ts s igns w ere f ew e nough t hat t hey w ere e asily r emembered, a s w e r emember i nternational g raphic l ogos l ike t he R ed C ross s ymbol 4 1 m or the "prohibited" symbol . Yet t he meanings o f t he Teotihuacan s igns w ere f lexible e nough t hat t hey c ould c ombine, r egroup, a nd a lter s emantically b y t heir a ssoc iated s ymbols. A t Teotihuacan,
t he i mages
t hemselves w ere
t he
t exts.
T here w ere
n o o thers. " Visual l iteracy " was i mperative ( see M iller 's remarks o n v isual l iteracy i n t his v olume). A t Teotihuacan, e mbedded t extual i magery s erves t he s ame f unction t hat w e h ave d emonstrated f or o ther Mesoamerican s ocieties: i t i dentifies, n ames, d escribes, a nd l ocates. I n sa ne i nstances t he T eotihuacan s ystem o f s igns a nd p rotog lyphic s ymbols b ecomes m ore p recise i n n aming t han i s u sually t he c ase i n T eotihuacan i conog raphy. I n t hese c ases i t a pproaches t he p ictog raphic a nd p honetic c haracter o f A ztec n ames a nd p lace s igns. I s hall examine s everal s uch i nstances i n o rder t o p resent a m ore d etailed e xample o f t he e xpressive p ossibilities i nherent i n a n e mbedded t ext. A n umber o f T eotihuacan mural f ragments i n d iverse collections d epict r ows o f f lowering p lants ( figure 5 ) .15 T he f lowers a nd l eaves o f t he p lants d iffer, a lthough sa ne f oliar f orms r epeat. T he l ong s inuous r oots o f e ach p lant a re r endered i n s imilar f ashion i n e ach i nstance, b ut w ith e nough v ariation t o i ndicate t hat t hey w ere n ot s tenciled.
1 5
A t
t he b ase o f e ach p lant, d irectly a bove t he r oots, a re g lyph-like s igns. These s igns, t oo, o cca sionally r epeat. I n t he c orpus o f f ragments i n M ilwaukee, Columbia, a nd San Francisco, t welve d ifferent s igns o ccur o n t hirty-one t rees. Sa ne s igns a re s imple a nd p ictographic : a r epeated m aguey s pine, a s hell. O thers a re c ompound a nd a bstract: a t ri-lobed s ign u nder f eathered e ye, a n etted o void. Sa ne
s ig ns
a re made
u p
o f
g raphemes
t hat
o ccur
i n l ater Nahuatl
p lace n ames. Most o f t hese r ecurring s igns a re p ictures o f o rdinary n atural o bjects--maguey s pines, s hells, eyes, b ones, a rms, e tc.--theref ore, i t m ay b e h azardous t o s uggest a l inguistic o r g eog raphic c onnect ion w ith s pecific A ztec t oponyms. H owever, w e must n ot d iscount t he p ossibility t hat i n t hese murals Teotihuacan s cribes w ere e mploying a m ixed p honetic a nd i deographic s ystem o f r ecording n ames o r p laces m uch l ike t hat F or
u sed b y t heir A ztec d escendants. e xample,
i n o ne
o f
t he
p ublished
d e Young murals,
t he
g lyph
c cmpound a t t he b ase o f t he t ree i s a t ripartite s ign c onsisting o f a s evered h uman a rm w ith b racelet, surmounted b y a b i -valve s hell a ttached t o a c rown-like o r s heaf-like object ( figure 6 a). T o m y k nowledge, n o s uch c ompound e xists i n t he A ztec v ocabulary , b ut a s evered human a rm o ccurs a s t he main s ign f or A colhuacan, Coliman, a nd s everal o ther t oponyms i n t he Codex Mendoza ( see f igure 6 b a nd c , a nd P ehafiel 1 885: plates I , V III). T he a rm ( Nahua : a colli) i s t he p honetic c lue t o t he p lace n ame. 1 6 I n b oth Nahua i nstances, water p ours f rom t he s evered j oint o f t he a rm. C ould t he m arine s hell i n t he T eotihuacan e xample b e t he c onceptual e quivalent o f t his w ater s ign? I n a T eotihuacan mural f ragment a t t he M ilwaukee P ublic Musuem, t hree maguey s pines a re p ainted a t t he b ase o f t he t ree ( figure 5 , r ight a nd 7 a). M aguey s pines f orm t he N ahua p lace-name s ig ns Huitznahuac a nd H uitztlan ( Nahuatl: h uiztli, t horn, s pine) ( figure 7 b, a nd P ehafiel 1 885:plate X IV ). T he Teotihuacan s igns m ay b e e ven more c omplex , i f t he t rees t hems elves a re c onsidered p art o f t he p lace s ign. I n t he C odex M endoza, s ometimes a t ree, i rrespective o f b otanical s pecie, i s t he p honetic c lue t o t he p lace n ame. In C uahitlixco o r C uauhnahuac, i s t he i mportant o pening s yllable ( Penafiel 1 885:91).
c uahuitl ( tree) I n o ther n ames,
i t i s t he t ype o f t ree t hat p rovides c lues t o i dentification. I n t hese c ases, t rees a re r endered w ith a ttentiveness t o d etail o f t horn, l eaf, f ruit, a nd f lower. The a huacatl o r avocado t ree i s t he p lace s ign f or Ahuacatlan ( figure 8 a a nd P ef tafiel 1 885 : plate I I). T he h uixachin t ree ( acacia a lbicans k .) w ith t he l ocative t lan a t i ts b ase s ig n f or Huixactitlan ( figure 8 b a nd P e f iafiel 1 885:124). n amed
b y
a z apote
t ree
( figure
8 c
a nd
P ef tafiel
i s t he p lace T zapotlan i s
1 885:225).
I n
t he
Teotihuacan murals, f lower a nd l eaf t ypes v ary a mong t he t rees a s w ell ( figure 5 ) a nd m ay p rovide c lues n ot o nly t o b otanical s pecies b ut t o p lace-name d esi g nations.
1 6
I n b oth t he Codex Mendoza a nd t he Teotihuacan murals u nder c onside ration, t ree r oots c url i n as inuous m anner. S imilar a ttention t o t ree r oots i s f ound i n e arlier I zapa s culpture, w here t hose u nder d iscussion o ccur i n s tela 5 ( Norman
t ree r oots r esembling p late 9 ). Sa ne-
1 973:
t imes s uch r oots a re a nimated, a s i n s tela 2 ( Norman 1 973:plate 3 ) o r i n t he p reviously d iscussed s tela 2 5, w here t ree r oots a re i n c rocodilian f orm ( fig. 2 ). E arly c hroniclers r ecorded t hat t he n atives o f Chiapas b elieved t hat t heir l ineage a ncestors e merged i nto t his w orld t hrough t he r oots o f ' a c eiba t ree ( Thompson 1 950:71). Mixtec a rt a nd e thnohist ory r ecord r oyal b irth f rom t rees a s well ( J . Furst 1 977). I n t he P alenque s arcophagus p reviously d iscussed, w e s aw t hat e ach o f P aca r s a ncestors was B acabs,
a ssociated w ith a p articular t ree.
I n t he R itual
e ach h uman i s a ssociated w ith a p articular p lant a t
o f t he
b irth :
W ho i s y our t ree? Who i s y our b ush ? What was y our a rbor When y ou w ere b orn? ( Roys R ather
t han
1 956: 14 ) t oponyms,
c ould
t he
t rees
i n
t he
Teotihuacan mural
f ragments r efer t o i mportant a ncestral f amilies o f e lite T eotihuacanos? A lthough t here i s l ittle a pparent i nterest i n t he d ynastic o r t he i ndiv idual i n T eotihuacan a rt, t he evidence f or t rees b eing l inked t o i mport ant i ndividuals o r l ineages e lsewhere i n Mesoamerica s uggests t hat i t was a w idespread b elief. I f i t c an b e p roven t hat t hese b otanical e mblems a t Teotihuacan f unctioned e ither a s p atrony r as o r t r )ponyms, i t w ould b e t he f irst s trong evidence f or i nterest i n g enealogy, p honetic ism, o r p recise g lyphic l ocatives i n t he a rt o f Teotihuacan. 1 7 I n a ny e vent, whether t hese s igns w ill e ver b e i dentified p rec isely w ith c ertain f amilies o r w ith A ztec s ites o r p lace n ames i s n ot i mportant f or o ur d iscussion o f e mbedded t exts. T he i mportant p oint i s t hat, i n c ontrast t o t he Z apotec a nd Maya a reas, i n c entral M exico l inear t exts n ever d eveloped w ithin t he i ndigenous system. g eog raphic a reas o f Mesoamerica, v isual i magery e ncoded m ixed a nd p ictorial m essages. o nly t exts. I n Z apotec
a nd Maya
B ut i n C entral M exico,
e mbedded
t exts,
t he
I n a ll g lyphic
e mbedded t exts w ere t he
a mbiguous
n ature
o f
t he
r ebus-like i magery was r esolved b y m eans o f r elated l inear t exts o r o ther s emantic d eterminatives ( see Durbin 1 968). I n t he Teotihuacan s ymbol system,
t he
p rocess
v iewer, w ho u sed c ontextual
o f
d isambiguation f ell m ore h eavily o n t he
c lues w ithin t he a rt i tself t o r esolve
m eaning o f t he i mages.
1 7
t he
C onclusion I n
t his
e ssay,
I h ave
a ttempted
t o
c ombine
a n
h istoriog raphic
r eview o f sa ne a spects o f M esoamerican a rt h istory w ith a s uggestion f or a n ew c ategorization o f t ex tual s ources. I h ope t hat t he h istoriog raphic r eview h as i llustrated t he f act t hat n o s ingle a pproach t o t he s tudy o f a ncient Mesoamerican a rt c an b e c onsidered t he o nly p roper o ne. A r ange o f m ethods i s n eeded t o i nterpret t his a rt. I h ave a ttempted t o d emonstrate t hat n o matter w hat t he a pproach, n o o ne s ource s hould b e u sed u ncritically. R ather, m any s ources a nd m any a venues o f i nvestigat ion, u sed w ith d iscernment, c an f orm u nderstanding o f p re-Columbian a rt. A rt
h istorians,
b y
t he
n ature
o f
i nterlocking
o ur
s upports
d iscipline,
f or
i nterpret
a n
t he
p ast b y m eans o f t hose objects c hosen b y a ncient p eoples t hemselves t o b e i nterpretive o bjects. When d iscussing t extual e vidence w e m ust n ot l ose s ight o f t he p rimacy o f t he i mage, f or i t i s o nly t he i mage-makers -the a ncient s culptors, p otters, a rchitects, a nd p ainters--who k new exactly w hat meaning t hey i ntended t o c onvey i n t heir w orks o f a rt. Their i mages s till s peak t o u s a cross t he c enturies. I n t he o bjects t hat t hey f ashioned w ith t heir o wn h ands, t he a ncient p eoples o f t he Americas l eft u s a n e nduring l egacy.
R ESUNEN A l r evisar l a f orma e n
q ue
l a r elaciön e ntre f uentes
t extuales e
i magineria v isual h a s ido t ratada p or l os i nvestigadores m odernos, e l a utor s ugiere u na c lasificaciön d e t extos mesoamericanos d entro d e t res c ategorias. E stas c ategorias s on: 1 ) T extos d iscretos 2 ) T extos c onjuntos y 3 ) T extos n crustados. S e d iscute y s e e jemplifica c ada u na d e e stas c ategorias , a l a v ez s e t rata s obre t eems d e i nteres metodo ngico e n e l e studio d el a rte p re-colombino.
A CKNOWLEDGENENTS I w ould l ike t o e xpress m y a ppreciation t o t he f ollowing f riends a nd c olleagues f or t heir c omments a nd c riticisms o f a n e arlier d raft o f this p aper : M arshall Durbin, K ate K ane, M iriam M unson , J ohn Nunley , L ee A . P arsons, a nd Raymond E . S enuk.
1 8
R onald M unson,
NO TES 1 .
T hough p ioneered b y S eler i n M esoamericanist c ircles, t he u se
o f e thnographic a nalogy must b e v iewed a s p art o f al arger t rend w ithin t he f ield o f New W orld a rchaeology a nd a nthropology. E arly i n t he c entury, A . V . K idder d rew f rom h is k nowledge o f c ontemporary a nd h ist oric P ueblo p eoples t o e xplain a rchaeological m aterials h e u ncovered a t P ecos a nd e lsewhere i n t he A merican S outhwest ( 1924). E lsie C lews P arsons l ater s tated e xplicitly w hat h ad b een i mplicit i n K idder 's e arly w ork : t hat t he h istorically-related l iving c ultures o f a n a rea w ill s hed l ight o n t he b uried o nes ( E . C . P arsons 1 939). S oon t herea fter, Julian S teward p ut f orth w hat w as t o b ecome a g uiding p rinciple o f N ew World a rchaeology : A rchaeology s upplements t he c ultural p icture d rawn f rom h istoric d ocuments a nd i nformant t est imony. E thnography e xplains a rchaeological materials i n t heir c ultural c ontext. A nd w here a rchaeology t races p ast, e thnography ( 1942:341) More
r ecently,
K .
C .
C hang
c hanges b ackwards m ay t race t hem
h as
d eclared
i nto t he f orward.
a nalogy
t he
a rchaeological r econstruction ( 1967:230). F or a u seful t he a nalogical a pproach w ithin a rchaeology i n g eneral r eview o f t he l iterature o n a rchaeological a nalogy,
c ornerstone
o f
d iscussion o f a s w ell a s a
s ee C harlton 1 981.
I m ight p oint o ut t hat e thnographic a nalogy i s a lso l inked t o t rends i n O ld W orld a rchaeology , i n t he C lassical w orld, a rchaeology h as a lways g one h and-in-hand w ith p hilology. F rom H einrich S chliemann s earching f or T roy i n t he n ineteenth c entury w ith a c opy o f t he I liad i n h is h and, t o t he l ater e xplication o f s cenes o n C lassical v ase p ainting b y m eans o f a s tudy o f c oeval t exts, C lassical a rchaeology h as a lways b een d ependent o n t he w ritten w ord. 2 .
A gain
w e
l ook
t o
t he
A merican
Southwest
t o
f ind
a rchaeo-
l ogists w ho h ave q uestioned t he m ethodological l egitimacy o f h omologi cal e vidence. J ames O tis Brew, i n h is i nfluential w ork T he A rchaeology o f A lkalai R idge, U tah, c autions t hat c ultures c ontinually c hange, a nd t hat t his r enders e thnographic a nalogy s uspect: W e must e ver p aradox " trace" t ype,
b e
o n g uard a gainst
o f a nthropology a " complex" o f,
p ottery
t ype,
a nd
t hat
p eculiar
w hich p ermits m en t o l et u s s ay, p hysical r eligion
o ver
1 0,000
m iles o f t errain a nd d own t hrough 1 0 ,000 y ears o f h istory, while i n t he s ame b reath, o r i n t he n ext l ecture, t he s ame m en v igorously d efend t he t heory o f c ontinous c hange.
1 9
( 1946:65)
B aerreis
e choes
t his
c aution f ifteen y ears
l ater.
H e p oints
o ut
t hat
t he e thnohistoric a pproach i gnores t he m obility o f t ribal g roups ( 1961:52) w hich d iminishes t he r eliability o f p rojecting e thnohistoric d ata f rom a g roup c urrently l iving i n a n e ra b ack t o a rchaeological m aterials f rom t he s ame a rea. K ubler, t oo, c hampions c hange a nd m ovem ent a s b asic t o c ivilization. B ased o n P anofsky ( 1955), h e a lso p oints o ut t he f requent a pplication o f n ew m eanings t o o ld f orms a nd v ice v ersa. I n p aleolithic a rchaeology, F reeman h as a rgued t hat e thnographic a nalogy ( of my t ypes 1 a nd 2 ) " has p revented t he d evelopment o f f ramew orks o f t heory w hich m ight l ead t o a n u nderstanding o f t he s ignificance o f a rchaeological r esidues b ased d irectly o n t he c omparison o f t hose r esidues" ( 1968:268) a nd t hat w ith m odels " which a re o nly s ensitive t o t he e lucidation o f p arallels w ith m odern g roups, t he d iscovery s ociocultural s tructure u nique t o p rehistoric t imes i s i mpossible." H ere
w e
h ave
a n
a rgument
w hich
s tructurally
p arallels
t hat
o f
o f
K ubler. F reeman a rgues f or a c ontextual, c omparative a pproach t o p aleo lithic a rchaeology a nd c hampions t he u niqueness o f e ach p rehistoric c ulture. Kubler e schews a nalogy, e mbracing i nstead a c ontextual, c omp arative a pproach t o t he s tudy o f M esoamerican a rt f or t he u nique e xpressiveness o f t he a rt o bject.
( 1967),
a nd a rgues
3 . F or a b rief b ut i ncisive d iscussion o f t he i nterrelationship o f a rt h istorical a nd a rchaeological m ethods, s ee Z . M atthews 1 982. 4 .
S ee
Q uirarte 's
1 979 a rticle f or
a f uller
d iscussion
o f
h is
m ethods, a nd a b ibliography o f t he s tudies i n which t hey a re u sed. Q uirarte h as a lso m ade t he i nteresting o bservation, g ermane t o o ur t opic, t hat o ur n ormative e xperience o f l inear t extual f ormats w ithin o ur o wn c ulture c olors o ur a ppreciation o f p re-Columbian a rt. T he e xample h e u ses i s t he c urrent i nterest i n r ollout p hotography o f M aya v ases. T his, h e s ays, " reflects o ur o wn v iew o f r eality, which makes i t d ifficult i f n ot i mpossible f or u s t o d eal w ith t he i mages a s t he p reC olumbian a rtist a nd o bserver d id , t hat i s, i n a n on-linear f ashion" ( 1979:393). 5 .
S ee
P asztory 's
t he P re-Industrial S tate"
f orthcoming
a rticle
" The F unction
o f A rt
i n
f or f urther d iscussion o f t his t opic.
6 . S ee Marcus 1 976 a nd C oe 1 976 f or d iscussions o f t he o rigin a nd d evelopment o f w riting i n Mesoamerica. 7 .
A mbitious
i nclude M orley
( 1920 ,
p rojects 1 937-8),
f or
t he
r ecording
o f
s uch
i nscriptions
a nd m ore r ecently, G raham ( 1975-).
8 . N orman H ammond w arns t hat s cholars s hould n ot e mbrace u ncriti cally t he i conography o f l ooted p ots o f q uestionable a uthenticity. H e s uggests
t hat
t he
c orrespondence
b etween
2 0
t he
P opul
V uh
a nd
s ome
v ase
s eries
m ay b e
d ue
g raphic s ource
t o
a modern
f orger
u sing t he
( Personal C ommunication,
P opul V uh a s
a n i cono-
1 983).
9 . B oth i n t his v olume a nd e lsewhere, B etty A nn B rown ( 1977) a nd E llen T aylor B aird ( 1979) h ave w ritten i nsightfully o n t he r elationship o f
c onjoined
s tudies d iffers
t exts
a nd
i mages
s how t hat a nalysis f rom t he a ssociated
i n
e arly
o f i mages t ext. F or
c olonial
m anuscripts.
B oth
m ay r eveal i nformation t hat e xample, i n h er e ssay i n t his
v olume, Brown s hows t hat while t he t ext r eveals t he c ultural p rejudices o f t he S panish f riars, 1 0.
t he i llustrations d epict
t he i ndigenous r eality.
E dmund C arpenter' s c omments o n t he multiplicities
o f m eaning
i nherent i n e thnographic a rt a re g ermane h ere: If p uns w ere a m inor f eature o f p reliterate a rt, t hey m ight b e d ismissed a s mere c uriosities,
b ut
f ar
e s-
f rom
s ence. t hat
r are,
t hey a re
A gain a nd a gain
t he g oal
i mplosive
o f t he
p atterns
a ppreciation t aneously
o f
c annot
b e s een apart
m atter
a nother, b e
t ribal
a ll
p un?
t he
t hat
experience
v isual N o
o ften i ts m ark a nd
s ustained
a rtist i s
t o c reate
e lements.
n o :
a lternate
H ere
a rtists
o f
" a
f rom
a
s hape
o ne
r eadings
b y
c ompress
t o
c annot
a nyone.
e vidence f rom p re-literate s ocieties t his.
s imul-
i nterpretation."
s witch
s imultaneously
o ne
r eadings
s ays,
f rom i ts w e
s imultaneous
C an
a lternate
r apidly
d isjunctive
i ndicates
r equire
W ittgenstein h ow
evidence
Yet
c hallenges
k nowledge
i nto
mythic f orms o f multiple b ut s imultaneous d eterm inancies. 1. well.
( see S ullivan 1 2.
1 3. t he
s ame
1 4.
v erbal
a rts a s p oetry
T his
i s
s imilar
t o t he p roblem i n t he Madrid Codex d escribed
9 and i n B erlo 1 976. T he A ztec l iterary t radition, t hough o ral, maintained s ome o f a esthetic
1 970:234-44,
t he
o ccur i n Nahuatl
v ariant m etaphors a re a c onvention o f Nahuatl
1 976:16-7).
a lliteration,
was
1 969:210)
S imilar a esthetic p rinciples
R epeating,
o n p age
( in B iebuyck
a nd
d evices p honetic
a nd S ullivan
E duard f irst
t o
Seler,
m entioned a nd
1 976:16-7
t he
r ecognize
g reat t he
f or
s emantic
t he M aya,
s uch
p arallelism.
e arly s cholar
g lyph-like
o r
o f
p re-Hispanic
e mblematic
( In) t he Teotihuacan c ulture, t he d evelopment o f o rnament
h ad
a ttained s uch a d egree
2 1
p unning,
.
T eotihuacan s ymbols :
t he
a s
S ee Soustelle
o f
c on
a rt,
q uality
o f
v entionalism t hat i nstead o f talk o f g lyphs ( 1 9 15 : 48 ) 4).
o rnament w e
H e n oted t he " synbolic/hieroglyphic n ature" C asa,
t oo,
l ater d iscussed "g lyphs"
1 5.
T hese f ragments
c an b e
s hould
o f s ome d esig ns
a t Teotihuacan
f ound i n t he Milwaukee
( #56931), t he Museum o f Art a nd Missouri-Columbia ( #71.136) a nd
Archaeology i n t he d e
( 19 15:509 ).
( 1958-9,
1 966 ).
P ublic Museum
a t t he University o f Y oung Museum i n San
F rancisco, where more t han t wenty e xamples o f t hese f lowering t rees a nd t heir
a ssociated
Y oung murals
f eathered
w ill
s erpent
e ventually
b e
s urround
n ot y et a vailable f or p ublication. ( Braun
1 982:102).
a re
i n
s torage.
T he
c onserved a nd t hen p ublished,
b ut
d e a re
O nly o ne f ragment h as b een p ublished
A lthough I h ave
p ersonally e xamined
a ll
t he mural
f ragments, my d rawing i s b ased o n t he o ne p ublished i mage. The c ontext
o nly i nstance i n which i s
( Pasztory w ho
o n
t he
1 972:figs.
s uggests
t hat
t oponyms o r s ymbols 1 6 .
N umerous
P ehafiel
1 885:3-4.
1 7 . a re
p art
t alud
o f
t he
4 4-2). t he
s imilar f amous
This s cene h as
t rees
w ith
g lyphs
o f t he " owner" o ther
t rees
A ztec
h ave
" Tlalocan"
b een
d iscovered i n
m ural
a t Tepantitla
b een a nalyzed b y P asztory, a t
t heir
b ases
s pirits o f t he p lants
t oponyms
u se
t he
a rm
a re
e ither
( 1972:187).
a s
w ell.
My r emarks o n Teotihuacan a rt a re p reliminary i n n ature, o f
a l arger
s tudy,
i n
T eotihuacan i conographic s ystem.
2 2
p rogress,
o f
t his
a spect
o f
S ee
t hey t he
R EFER ENCES A scher,
C ITED
R obert
1 961
A nalogy i n a rchaeolog ical i nterpretation. J ournal o f A nthropology 1 7:317.
S outhwest
B aerreis, D avid 1 961
T he
e thnohistoric
a pproach a nd
a rchaeology.
E thno-
h istory 8 :1. B aird,
E llen T aylor
1 979
S ahagun 's
" Primeros
Memoriales":
A S tructural
a nd
S tylistic A nalysis o f t he D rawings. P h.D. d issertat ion, D epartment o f A rt H istory, University o f N ew M exico. University Microfilms. A nn Arbor. B arthel,
T hcmas
1 980
M ourning
a nd
c onsolation :
t hemes
o f
t he
P alenque
S arcophagus. Third P alenque R ound T able, 1 978, e di ted b y Merle Green Robertson. p p. 8 1-90. Univers ity 1 982
o f T exas P ress.
Austin.
V eritable " texts" i n Teotihuacan a rt? T he Masterkey 5 6 ( 1):4-11. The S outhwest Museum. L os A ngeles.
B erlo, Janet Catherine 1 976 P unning in t he Madrid Codex : a n i nteractior o f t ext a nd i mage. N ew M ex ico S tudies i n t he F ine Arts 1 :268 . University o f New Mex ico. A lbuquerque. 1 983
B ernal, Ignacio 1 969
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T he
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World .
University
o f
C alifornia
P ress.
B erkeley. B iebuyck, D aniel P . 1 969 T radition
a nd Creativity i n Tribal Art .
o f California P ress.
University
B erkeley.
B oone, E lizabeth H . 1 980 H ow e fficient a re e arly c olonial M exican Manuscripts a s i conog raphic t ools? R esearch C enter f or t he A rts R eview 3(4 ):1-5.
University o f Texas.
2 3
S an Antonio.
B raun,
B arbara
1 982
B rew ,
S ubtle d iplomacy 8 1(6):100-3.
s olves
a c ustody
c ase.
A rt News
J ames O tis 1 946
T he
Archaeology
o f
t he P eabody Museum b ridge. Bricker,
Alkalai 2 1.
R idge,
H arvard
Utah .
P apers
University.
o f
C am-
V ictoria R .
1 981
T he Indian Christ, t he T exas P ress. Austin.
I ndian K ing .
University o f
Brinton, D aniel 1 894
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1 977
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Caso,
A lfonso 1 958-9
G lifos
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A ntropologicos
1 966
D ioses
R evista M—dcana d e Estudios
1 5:51-70.
ys ignos
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Mesa R edonda 1 :249-75. p ologia. M exico.
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O nceava
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Major a spects o f t he i nterrelationship o f a rchaeology a nd e thnology. Current A nthropology 8 (3 ).
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A rchaeology, e thnohistory , a nd e thnology : i nterpret ive i nterfaces. A dvances i n A rchaeolo g ical M ethod a nd Theory 4 :129-76. A cademic P ress. N ew York.
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1 2:387-94.
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T he i conology o f O lmec a rt. T he I conog raphy o f M idd le A merican S culpture. p p. 1 -11. M etropolitan Museum o f A rt.
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N ew Y ork.
T he Maya Scribe Y ork. E arly
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t he
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Grolier
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19 78
M exico. t ion.
P raeger P ublishers.
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N ew Y ork.
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Pr inceton. C oggins, C lEmency 19 75 P ainting a nd Drawing S tyl e s a t Ti kal :
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t he
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a nd
t he
s ea.
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f t he S un, Cross, a nd The i conog raphy o f t he p anel s o art I II. S egunda Mesa Foliated C ross a t P alenque, P y Merle Greene Robert R edonda d e P alenque, e dited b ouis S tevenson S chool. s on. p p. 1 55-7 6 . R obert L Pebble B each, Calif.
L inguistics a nd w riting systems I V: t he i ncorporat ion o f l inguistic information i nto a n a rt s tyle. Proceeding s o f t he 3 8th International C ongress o f A mericanists
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A t heoretical
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Man t he H unter, e dited b y A ldine P ress. Chicago.
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T he t ree b irth t radition i n t he Mixteca, Mexico. J ournal o f Latin A merican L ore 3 (2 ):1 8 3-22 6 .
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T he
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w ere-jaguar
m otif
i n
t he
l ight
o f
e thno-
g raphic r eality. Dumbarton O aks C onference o n t he O lmec, e dited b y E . B enson. p p. 1 43-7 14 . Washington, D . C .
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Morning g lory a nd Mother Goddess a t Tepantitla, T eotihuacan : I conography a nd a nalogy i n p re-Columb ian a rt. Mesoamerican Archaeology : N ew A pproaches, e dited b y Norman Hammond. o f Texas. A ustin.
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West Mexican a rt :
p p.
1 87-21 5 .
s ecular o r s acred?
T he I conog ra-
p hy o f M iddle A merican S culpture. Metropolitan Museum o f Art. N ew Y ork. G raham ,
U n iversity
p p.
9 8-133.
I an
1 975-
Grieder,
C orpus
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Museum ,
H arvard University.
M aya
Hieroglyphic Inscriptions.
P eabody
C ambridge.
T erence
1 975
T he
i nterpretation
o f
a ncient
s ymbols.
A merican
A nthropologist 7 : 8 49-55.
J imenez-Moreno ,W . 1 968
K idder, A . 1 924
R eligion o r elig iones m esoamericanas? t ional C ong ress o f A merican ists 3 .
3 8th Interna-
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m eaning
i n
N ew L iterary H istory 1: 2.
a ncient
American
a rt.
C harlottesville.
1 970b
J aguars i n t he Valley o f M ex ico. Feline, e dited b y E . B enson. p p. O aks. Washington, D . C .
19 72
L a e videncia i ntrinseca y l a a nalog ia e tnologica e n e l e studio d e l as r elig iones m esoa r nericanas. Relig ion e n Mesoamerica : MI M esa R edonda . S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropologia.
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I conographic
a spects
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T he C ult o f t he 1 9-44. Dumbarton
a rchitectural
p rofiles
2 t
T eotihuacan a nd i n M esoamerica. The I conog raphy o f M iddle American Sculpture. p p. 2 4-3 9 . Metropolitan Museum o f A rt.
S cience a nd h umanism a mong Americanists.
19 73b
g raphy
L ounsbury, 19 74
N ew Y ork.
o f M iddle A merican
S culpture.
M etropolitan Museum o f A rt.
N ew Y ork.
T he I conop p.
1 63-67.
F loyd T he i nscription o f t he s arcophagus l id a t P alenque. Primera M esa R edonda d e P alenque, P art I I, e dited b y M erle G reen R obertson. p p. 5 -1 9 . R obert L ouis S tevenson School. P ebble B each, Calif.
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Z apotec w riting. Z ena P earlstone T he a rt
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t o Trubowitz a nd
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t he
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The
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E duard
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Townsend, R ichard F . 1 979 S tate a nd c osmos i n Dumbarton O aks S tudies A rchaeology 2 0. E von 19 69
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( n.f.)
1 979
The b inding T eotihuacan.
i n p ress
L a
Te otihuacan.
B aessler
o f t he y ears a nd t he n ew I ndiana 5: 1 532 . B erlin.
i conografia
s ignos. M ex ico.
i n
A rchiv
1 6:31- 14 6.
d e
Teotihuacan :
Universidad
N acional
l os
f ire
d io se s
Autoncma
d e
a t
y l os M exico.
W illey, G ordon 1 973
Mesoamerican a rt a nd i conog raphy a nd t he i nteg rity o f t he Mesoamerican i deological s ystem. T he I conography o f M iddle American S culpture. Metropolitan Museum o f Art. p p. 1 53-62. N ew York.
3 1
F igure
1 .
T ikal s tela 3 1, f ront a nd b ack. D rawing b y W illiam C oe f rom J ones a nd S atterthwaite 1 982:figs. 5 1 a nd 5 2.
3 2
F igure 2 .
I zapa s tela 2 5.
A fter N orman 1 973:fig.
3 3
4 2.
F igure 3 . P alenque,
s ide o f s arcophagus. A fter G reene 1 967 :fig .
3 1 4
2 9
F igure 4 , Monte Alban s tela 6 .
3 5
P hoto b y a uthor.
3 6
a.
b .
C.
F igure 6 . a .
P ossible t oponym ,
T eotihuacan m ural f ragment,
M useum , S an F rancisco. A fter B raun 1 982:102. b . A colhuacan t oponym , C odex M endoza. c .
C oliman t oponym ,
C odex M endoza.
3 7
D eYoung
a .
b .
F igure 7 .
a .
P ossible t oponym ,
b .
P ublic M useum. H uitztlan t oponym ,
T eotihuacan m ural C odex M endoza.
3 8
f ragment,
M ilwaukee
a.
b .
C.
F igure 8 . Toponyms f rom t he C odex M endoza. a . A huacatlan b .
H uixactitlan
c .
T zapotlan
3 9
I MAGE A ND T EXT I N P EE-HISPANIC ART: A PPLES A ND O RANGES b y A RTHUR G . M ILLER
I ntroduction I nterpretation
o f
m eaning
i n
t he
v isual
a rts
o f
p re-Hispanic
A merica h as r elied t o a s ignificant d egree o n w ritten m aterial.
W hile
s ome Americanists h ave t aken f or g ranted t hat t exts w ritten i n European s cript a fter 1 517 c an e xplicate t he m eaning o f a rt m ade p rior t o E uropean c ontact ( designated h ere a s t he " Upstreaming S chool"), o thers h ave r ejected t he i nterpretive u se o f s uch w ritten m aterials o n t he b asis o f t he d isjunctive e ffect t ime e xerts o n t he r elationship b etween f orm a nd m eaning ( designated h ere a s t he " Disjunctive S chool"). R ecently d eciphered t exts c oeval w ith a rt i n t he Maya a rea a re u sed b y s ome t o i nterpret m eaning i n t he v isual f orms w ith which t he g lyphs a re a ssociated ( designated h ere a s t he " Epigraphic S chool"). N either t he Upstreaming, D isjunctive n or E pigraphic S chools c onsider t hat a ttempts t o r elate a rt a nd t exts a re f lawed a t t he o utset : b etween v isual a nd w ritten f orms o f c ommunication t here e xist f undamental d ifferences t hat a re c ommon t o a ll c ivilizations i n a ll p arts o f t he w orld. This
p aper d oes n ot c omment o n t he i ssues c oncerning t he v arious
p ractitioners w ithin t he Upstreaming o r Disjunctive Schools, n or d oes i t s peak s pecifically t o t he m ethods o f i nterpreting M aya a rt t hrough Maya h ieroglyphic w riting. R ather, t he p aper t akes a b roader v iew o f t he f ormal p roblems i nherent i n c onsidering v isual f orms a nd w ritten t exts t ogether. I t i s m y c ontention t hat d ifferences i n t he m echanisms o f v isual a nd w ritten c ommunications i mpair u ncritical p arallels b etween t he t wo. T he r elationship a mong v isual i mages, w riting, a nd t he c ultures t o w hich t hey p ertain i s n ot well u nderstood. R ecently, s ome s cholars h ave i nvestigated t he i mplications o f w riting a s a c ognitive s ystem i n c ertain " traditional s ocieties" which h ave r ecently b ecame l iterate. G oody ( 1975, 1 978) q uestions t he c ontention o f Bloomfield ( 1933) a nd o thers t hat w riting i s m erely r ecorded s peech. H e h as s hown t hat w riting i nvolves f undamentally d ifferent m ental p rocesses f rom s peech a nd c an a nd C onsideration
o ften o f t he
d oes a ctually a lter t he m eaning r elationship b etween o ral t raditions
o f s peech. a nd w ritten
t exts s uggests t hat w hen a ssessing t he r elationship b etween w ritten a nd
4 1
v isual
s ymbols
t he
p roblem
o f
e quivalences
i s
n ot
u nlike
c omparing
a pples a nd o ranges. A s s poken a nd w ritten l anguage a re d ifferent m echanisms o f c ommunication w hich a ffect m eaning, s o d o d ifferences i n w ritten a nd v isual c ommunication i nfluence m eaning. H ow i nformation i s c onveyed i s i nextricably l inked t o w hat i s c onveyed. T his i s n ot t o a ssert t hat " the m edium i s t he m essage." B ut t he e ffect o f m ethod o f c ommunication o n w hat i s c ommunicated h as b een l argely i gnored i n Ameri canist s tudies. I n c onsidering h ow w ritten w ords r elate t o p ictures, w e a re i n e ffect c onsidering h ow a pples r elate t o o ranges. T he t wo a re n ot t he s ame. K ubler has e xpressed t he u niqueness o f a rt b y s tating t hat i t c annot r ecord a nything i t i s n ot a ctually p rogrammed t o r egister.
. .
s till
a nother
m isconception
a rises f rom a ssuming t hat i mages e njoy a o ne-too ne r elation w ith t exts a nd t hat t exts c an b e m ade f ully t o e xplain o bjects w ithout l eaving a ny u nintelligible r esidue.
( 1975:766)
While t exts c an b e u sed t o e xplicate P anofsky 's f irst a nd s econd l evel o f i conography a nd s erve a s d o " captions" ( e.g., t hat a f igure r epres ented o n a s tela i s t he s on o f am ember o f a c ertain d ynasty, t hat h e m arried a w oman f rom a c ertain c ity, e tc.), s uch c onsiderations a re s uperficial l evels o f m eaning i n t he i nformation-laden i mages o f p reH ispanic A merica. I t i s a s p roblematic t o t ry t o u se w ritten t exts t o e xplain t he m eaning o f a rt a s i t i s f utile t o a nalyze a rt f or i nformat ion i n written w ords. A c onsideration o f t he d iffering m echanisms o f c ommunication i n t exts a nd i mages i s c rucial t o u nderstanding t he i nf ormation t ransmitted i n e ach m ode a s well a s t o u nderstanding t he r ole e ach p lays i n t he c ulture i t e xpresses.
A C ivilization o f F ew Written W ords Students o f p re-Hispanic a rt d o n ot h ave t he r ich s ources o f w ritt en h istory, p hilosophy, a nd l iterature a vailable f or b etter-known a rtistic t raditions. T he o ne p re-Hispanic c ivilization w ith t he most a dvanced f orm o f w riting, t hat w ritten t exts t hat i s a t a ll
o f t he M aya, d oes n ot h ave a b ody o f c omparable t o t hat a vailable f or t he
h istorian o f Western a rt. I f a ll k nown t exts f rom t he a ncient M aya c arved o n s tone, p ainted o n p ots, w alls, m anuscripts a nd i ncised o n m iscellaneous m aterials w ere p rinted i n a r eadable s cale o n p aper, b arely o ne h alf o f an ormal l ibrary s helf w ould b e f illed. A nd i f t hat q uantity w ere m ultiplied b y f actors o f 1 ,000 o r e ven 1 0 ,000 t o r epresent Maya
t exts
l ost,
t he
q uantity
o f
s uch
w ritten
m aterial
w ould
n ot
a pproach w hat c ould b e f ound i n a s mall l ibrary o f t he O ld W orld. C learly, w riting c ould n ot h ave b een t he m ajor f orm o f r ecorded c ommunic ation o f t he a ncient M aya. T he M aya s imply d id n ot w rite v ery m uch a nd w hat t hey d id w rite i s r epetitive, t elling u s v ery l ittle a bout w hat d istinguishes
t he M aya f rom o ther c omplex s ocieties,
1 4 2
r evealing l ittle
m ore t han h ow t hey a re l ike o ther c ivilizations o n t his p lanet: t hat t hey h ad k ings, d ynasties, t hat t hey m arried, m ade w ar, f ormed m ilit ary, e conomic a nd p olitical a lliance, c elebrated p olitical a nd r elig ious e vents, w ere c oncerned a bout v arious k inds o f a nniversaries a nd t he l ike, u sing a u nique n otational s ystem f or m arking t he p assage o f t ime. T he h ieroglyphic w riting t hat e xists a nd t hat e xisted d oes n ot, n or c an i t, t ell u s v ery much a bout w hat i s u nique a bout t he Maya n or j ust h ow t hey d iffer f rom t rappings o f c ivilization
o ther a ncient p eoples w ith i n t he f orm o f m onumental
t he e laborate a rchitecture,
s culpture, a nd p ainting. M uch m ore a bundant i s t heir r ichly d etailed v isual s ymbolism. T herein l ies t he p otential f or e lucidating t he u niqueness o f M aya c ivilization ; l ocked w ithin a n e soteric v isual l ang uage
t here
i s
m ore
i nformation
c oncerning Maya
b eliefs
a nd
h istory
t han i n t he w riting. T o i llustrate t his p oint, o ne o nly n eeds t o l ook a t t he r ecent p ublications o f t he P alenque Round Table. While a dvances i n g lyphic d ecipherments t here c hart o utlines o f d ynastic h istories, t he a rt o f P alenque, w ith i ts c omplex s ymbolic meanings, i s f ar r icher a s ource f or u nderstanding t he M aya o f t hat L owland C lassic s ite. A nd t he c omplex p olitical a nd r eligious d imensions o f t he Tikal Maya w ould b e h ardly v isible i f t he g lyphic t exts t here w ere t he o nly s ources o f i nformation. F ortunately , t he i conography o f Tikal s culpture, p ainting, a nd a rchitecture i n a n a rchaeological c ontext ( giving p recise s patial a nd t emporal a ssociations) p rovides r ich s ources f or u nders tanding w hat m akes T ikal a unique M aya s ite. Even i f o ne t akes i nto a ccount w ritten s ources w hich p ostdate t he p roduction o f p re-Hispanic a rt, i ncluding e thnohistorical t exts ( the p ost-Conquest w ritings b y a nd a bout n ative American p eoples c oncerning t heir h istory a nd r eligion--their mythologies, f olklores a nd p rophe sies--as w ell a s t heir m edical l ists a nd i ncantations), t he q uantity o f t exts r emains m inute w hen c o mp ared t o t he b ody o f w ritten m aterials c urrently a vailable f or t he s tudy o f W estern a rts. T he y ard-stick h ere i s t he e thnohistorical s egment o f t he H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians. Granting t he c ritical o bj e ction o f t he Disjunctive School c oncerning t he a pplicability o f t he t exts which p ostdate a rtistic t rad itions, t he f act r emains t hat a t b est, t here i s n ot v ery much o f i t t o s tudy a nd t hat a n a ttempt t o m ake a ny s ort o f c omparison b etween w ritten a nd v isual s ources i s f aced w ith a s triking i mbalance o f s ources. G iven t he i nherent s ituation o f p aucity o r l ack o f written materials t o c ompare w ith v isual e xpression, i t i s i ndeed p roblematic t o u se a m ethod o f a nalysis i n t he i nvestigation o f m eaning i n t he v isual a rts d esigned f or a rtistic t raditions w ith a bundant t exts, s uch a s i n t he h istory
o f W estern a rt
a s c urrently
p racticed.
Y et t his i s
p recisely t he c ase. S cholars h ave a ttempted t o r elate v isual s ymbols t o t exts i n p re-Hispanic s tudies w ithout c oming t o t erms w ith t he f undam ental m ethodological p roblem o f l ack o f s ignificant t exts. A nd w hen o ne e xamines t he m echanism o f h ow written a nd v isual c ommunications d iffer f rom e ach o ther, t he d ifficulty i n u sing w riting t o i nterpret a rt i n p re-Hispanic A merican b ecomes e ven m ore a cute. T he p roposed r eading
1 4 3
f or t he " primary s tandard s equence" C lassic P eriod i s t he g laring c ase
i n Maya p olychrome p ottery o f t he ( Coe
1 973).
The M echanism o f Visual C ommunication A c omparison b etween t he m echanisms o f w ritten a nd v isual c ommunic ation r eveals t hat t he d ifferences a re m ore s ignificant t han a re t he s imilarities. F irst s ome o f t he s imilarities: 1 .
B oth p rovide a m ode f or t he t ransmission o f k nowledge f rom g enera-
t ion t o g eneration ( although t he k ind o f k nowledge i s q uite d ifferent-more o f t hat l ater. 2 .
B oth
p rovide
a r eliable m ethod
t ween c enter a nd p eriphery, o f l arge e mpires.
3 .
f or
t ransmitting i nformation b e-
a nd h ence m itigate t he f issive
B oth l end t hemselves t o r estrictive k nowledge ;
t endencies
o nly t hose w ho c an
" read" w riting o r v isual s ymbols h ave a ccess t o c ertain k nowledge which i s p ower. P ower i n t his f orm c an b e c onceived a s t he a ccess o f c ertain l ineages t o t he s upernatural s ources o f p ower. S ome i mportant d ifferences: 1 . I n t he t ransmission o f k nowledge f rom t he a ural t o t he v isual domain, w riting i s r eordered i n a s pecific l inear f ormat which r eprod uces i n s pace w hat s poken w ords d o i n t ime. V isual i mages a re n ot n ecessarily c onfined t o t his l inear f ormat, d espite t he e xistence i n t he West o f c ertain i conographic " programs" b ased o n i llustrating w ritt en t exts s uch a s " The S tations o f t he C ross." B ut i n t his c ase t he o rder i s p redicated o n t he w ritten m edium w hich i t i llustrates a nd i s n ot a f eature o f t he i mages p er s e. I n t he v isual a rts, t he p ossibilit ies o f c ombinations o n t wo-dimensional o r t hree-dimensional s urfaces a re i nfinite a nd t he o bserver d oes n ot h ave t o " read" t hem i n a c ertain o rder a s i n w riting. T his i s a most i mportant d ifference t o w hich I w ill r eturn s hortly. 2 . While s ound c an b e r epresented b y g raphic s ymbols i n w riting , a nd while g lyphs d o a ppear i n p ictures i n M aya a rt, t here i s n o s uch e quiva lence t o s ound i n v isual i magery. S peech s crolls i n T eotihuacan a nd l ater m anuscript p ainting r efer n ot t o s ound p er s e b ut t o t he a ction o f making s ounds. T here i s as ignificant d ifference. V isual i mages d o n ot r elate t o w ords,
3 . E ven
b ut t o t he t hought o r a ction b ehind t he w ords.
Writing c an a bstract r eality, whereas p ictorial i mages c annot. i n v isual h ieratic c omposites s uch a s t he " jaguar-serpent-bird"
c ompounds, t he a bstraction i s l imited t o a c oncept e voking t he a ttrib utes o f t he c ombined i mages. I mages p resent a r eality b ounded b y t he w orld o f a ppearances, t he s urface s ubstance o f t hings: v isual i mages
1 4 4
a re c oncrete r ather t han a bstract. F or e xample, t he w ritten n otation o f c ounting t hings c an b e a bstracted f rom w hat i s c ounted s o t hat t he m ethod
o f
c ounting c owries a nd
c ows
i s
t he
s ame
( Goody
1 978:12).
B ut
t he p ictorial n otation i s i nextricably l inked t o w hat i s c ounted a nd c annot b e r educed t o a s ingle a bstract s ystem. I mages a re i rreducible ; t heir m eaning d epends d irectly o n t he c ontextualization o f t he e ntity d epicted. F or e xample, t he " jaguar, b ird, s erpent" c omposite o nly m akes s ense i n t he c ontext o f i ts u se : a t t he b ase o f a c olumn a t C hichen I tza, o r i n a f rieze a t Tula. The
i ssues
r aised
b y
t he
a bove
d ifferences
a re
i ncluded
i n
S aussure 's ( 1959) o bservation t hat t he l inguistic s ign h as t wo p rimord ial c haracteristics: 1 . a rbitrariness o f t he s ign ; 2 . l inear n ature o f t he s ignifier. I n v isual i magery, t he s ign i s n ot a rbitrary, l inked i nextricably t o w hat i s d epicted a nd h ow i t i s s hown ; n either i s i t l inear, h aving v irtually i nfinite p ossibilities o f c omposition a nd p erc eption. I t i s t he d ifferences b etween t he m echanisms o f w ritten v isual c ommunication t hat a re m ost i mportant t o b ear i n m ind i n t he n ext s ection : a n e xploration o f a n a lternate f orm o f l iteracy t han t hat w ith which w e i n t he W est a re f amiliar.
Visual Literacy o f t he Americas If w riting w as a nd i s
t he main v ehicle f or r ecording h uman k nowl-
e dge about t he p ast a nd f or r ecording i deas a bout s cience a nd r eligion i n l iterate s ocieties, what i s t he c orresponding v ehicle f or t hose c ivilizations w ithout w riting? I c onsider p re-Hispanic c ivilization t o b e v irtually w ithout w riting. A nd I s ee t he p aucity o f w riting a s p urposeful. A s i n t he c ase o f t he w heel, h ad t here b een a n eed, w riting w ould h ave b een d eveloped i n p re-Hispanic America, a s i t w as i n t he most a ncient N ear E ast. B ut i n t he a bsence o f w riting, s omething e lse t ook i ts p lace: v isual i magery, s ometimes c alled p ictorial a rt. I t i s a d ifferent s ort o f a rt t han t hat w ith which w e i n t he W est a re f amiliar. I t i s n ot a n i mage -making t radition t hat e xisted s ide b y s ide w ith a w ritten t radition, a s i n t he W est. P re-Hispanic a rt t akes o n s ome o f t he b urden o f w riting, i ncorporating w ithin i t av isual l anguage t hat i s i ntricately c omplex, e rudite, r econdite, a n e lite f orm o f v isual c ommunication w hose c omplexity i s t he d irect r esult o f t aking o n t he b urden o f writing. I f t his t hesis i s v alid, t hen t he a bsurdity o f c omparing i t w ith w riting a s w e k now i t b ecomes p articularly o bvious. I d o n ot m ean t o s uggest t hat t he u se o f w ritten t exts t o h elp e xplain m eaning i n t he v isual a rts i s a f lawed m ethod. T o s ay s o w ould b e t o d eny a l arge p art o f t he h istory o f a rt. O bviously, t here i s s ome c onnection, a nd t exts h ave s uccessfully b een u sed t o h elp e xplain m eaning i n t he w orld.
v isual a rts i n m any a rtistic
What I d o m ean t o c onvey, h owever,
1 4 5
i s
t raditions t hroughout t he
1 . t hat t he American s ituation i s u nique i n h aving v ery f ew t exts w ith which t o f erret o ut m eaning i n ac omparatively v oluminous b ody o f v isual material; 2 . t hat t his s ituation H ispanic A merica ;
r aises
t he
q uestion
o f
l iteracy
i n
p re-
3 . i f a rt p erforms t he f unction o f w riting, i f i t i s g raphic a rt t hat m akes p re-Hispanic c ivilization l iterate, t hen j ust h ow d oes i t o perate a s a m echanism o f c ommunication? That l iteracy i n t he p re-Hispanic c ivilizations e xisted d espite t he p aucity o f w ritten l anguage t here r equires a r edefinition o f t he n ormal u nderstanding o f t he t erm " literacy." I f ollow Goody ( 1975, 1 978) a nd o thers w ho h ave c ogently a rgued t hat t he m oment i n t ime w hen m an b egan t o make r ecorded l ists m arks t he b eginning o f l iteracy, n ot w hen h e d eveloped a f orm c all
w riting.
A ccording
o f n otation r ecorded i n t he l inear t o
t his
v iew,
while
s ome s ort
o f
f ormat w e r ecording
m echanism i s n ecessary, l iteracy c an a nd d oes e xist w ithout w riting. T his i s w hat I w ould l ike t o s uggest f or a ncient America: t hat a f orm o f n otation w hich t ook a n a ltogether d ifferent f orm o f r ecording k nowl edge d eveloped i n t he Americas t o s uch a s ophisticated d egree t hat w e, h eirs t o t he f orms o f w riting t hat t akes a l inear f ormat c ommonly c alled w riting, s till d o n ot u nderstand i t t o t his d ay. I t p roduce m ade i n t ising
i s e asy e nough f or W estern m an t o b elieve t hat c ivilized m an c an w riting i n t he f orm o f r ecorded l ists. B ut t hat l ists c an b e a v ariety o f w ays i s l ess e asy t o a ccept. T he u se o f a dverl ogos t oday i s a v ery e ffective f orm o f l ist-making w hich
i nfluences o ur a ctions i n v ery s ubtle a nd t angible w ays, b ut i t i s n ot d one i n a l inear f ormat. T here i s n othing i nherent i n l ist-making t hat r equires a l inear f ormat. F or e xample, n ames c an b e a rranged i n a r ound r obin f orm i nstead o f t op t o b ottom o r r ight t o l eft o r l eft t o r ight. L ists n eed n ot a re n ot l ists. l ists
u sing
b e w ritten l inearly, b ut t hey m ust b e r ecorded o r t hey T he Q uipu o f t he Inca i s a mnemonic d evice w hich r ecords
a f orm
s ignificant c ultural
o f
p ositional
n otation
w hich
i s
n on-linear.
T he
a ct i s n ot w riting , b ut l ist-making.
T here a re m any k inds o f l ists, b ut t hey a ll f all i nto t wo b road c ategories: l ists o f t hings w hich a re r epresented a nd l ists o f t hings w hich a re p resented. T he f ormer o ne i s t o n otate t en s heep, i ts m ost e asily r ecorded b y ag raphic a re made o f g ods, t hen t he a ct i s
e ncompasses c ommercial a ctivity. I f r epresentation b ecomes a f inite t ask f orm i n al inear m anner. B ut i f l ists f undamentally d ifferent b ecause o f t he
a mbiguity i nvolved i n a ny p resentation o f t he s upernatural. S uch a n a ct e ntails t he m echanism o f a f orm o f c ultural c ommunication f ar b etter s uited t o c onveying i deas about w hich q ualities, i .e., i mage-making. T his
t here a re c omplex, o verlapping i s w hy i t i s e asier t o w rite
c ommercial t allies about w hich t here c an b e l ittle a mbiguity ( graphic s igns w hich s tand f or t angible o bjects) t han t o m ake i mages o f g ods about w hich t here must b e a mbiguity. H ow d oes o ne d evise a g raphic s ign
4 6
t o
a dequately
r epresent
a p owerful
g od
w hose
v ery
n ature
i ncludes
a pparently i llogical a nd c onflicting a ttributes? T he t wo a cts o f l istmaking, o ne i n t he s ervice o f c ommerce a nd t he o ther i n t he s ervice o f r eligion, a re b oth p roducts o f as imilar n eed, o n v ery d ifferent s cales : t he n eed t o c ontrol t he e nvironment, t o m ake c oordinate t he w orld i nto a k nowable r eality.
o rder
o ut
o f
c haos,
t o
D uring o ne b rief p eriod, i n o ne a rea o f a ncient America, w riting d id b egin t o d evelop a s af orm o f l inear l ist-making. This i s t he M aya a rea f rom a bout c a. A .D. 2 50 t o c a. A .D. 8 00, when g od a nd d ynastic l ists i n l inear f orm a re f ound i n v arious m edia. I t i s a t ime w hen d ynasties a re v ery p rominent a nd r ulers w ish t o d elineate c learly t he l egitimacy o f t heir r ule b y d ivine a ssociations. P erhaps t hat i s t he s ignificant
c lue
a s
t o
w hy l inear w riting d eveloped
i n
t he Maya a rea
d uring t he C lassic P eriod : w hen p ersons w ho c ontrol i nformation i n a p articular c ulture a t a p articular t ime a re i nterested i n m aking l ess a mbiguous t he m eaning o f d ivinity a s f or e xample i n t he s tatement " my f amily d escends f rom G od X ," o r " I r ule b ecause my f amily d escends f rom a m ore p owerful d eity t han t he p erson I k illed t o g et t o w here I a m t oday," t hen i mages a re l ess u seful t o c onvey t hat s pecific m essage a nd w riting d evelops t o g et t hat m essage a cross i n af orm which c ontributes t o making i t h appen. T he c hoice o f m ode o f c ommunication i s t herefore d irectly r elated t o t he k ind o f i nformation i n t he m essage. H ere i magemaking a nd m agic b ecome i nextricably i ntertwined. F or e xample, t he s acred i mage o f K inich-Ahau n ot o nly r efers t o d ivinity ; t he s ign b ecomes t he d ivinity. A ccording t o s uch a v iew, t he p re-Hispanic f eeding o f i mages o f t he g ods a s r ecorded i n e thnohistorical s ourcez makes s ense. T he i mage o f t he g od i s t he g od a nd m ust b e n urtured. I f t he r ecorded m essage i s s o p owerful, t hen t he r eason f or t he d evelopment o f g lyphic t exts i s r elated t o t he k ind o f i nformation b eing r ecorded. T hus w hen r ulers d ecide t o s pecify u nambiguously t heir p ower, a s d uring t he C lassic p eriod i n t he Maya L owlands, t hen a f orm o f r ecorded c omm unication i s put i nto s ervice w hich e nables t his i nformation t o b ecome r eality ; t hat f orm o f c ommunication w e k now t oday a s Maya h ieroglyphic writing. T he r elationship b etween t he c hoice o f m edium a nd t he c ontent o f t he message i n p re-hispanic s tudies i s a f ascinating p roblem t hat i s b est d eveloped e lsewhere. I m ention i t o nly t o r aise t he p robability t hat t he m echanism f or t he c ommunication o f l ists d epends t o a l arge d egree o n t he p erceived n eeds o f t he m essage, h ow t he m essage i s t o f unction i n a p articular s ociety a t ap articular t ime, a nd t hat t his c an c hange i n t ime. Ancient American a rt i s a f orm o f n otational w riting w hich o rigi nally
d erived
b eings c ation
i n material f orm. I p refer t o c all P resentational I magery a s d istinct
f rom
t he
c ultural
a ctivity
o f
r ecording
s upernatural
t his m echanism o f c ommunif rom R epresentational Im-
a gery , t o u nderscore t he f undamental d ifference i nvolved i n t he t wo k inds o f l ist-making a ctivity I a m d efining a s l iteracy. I f w e a ccept t he p remise t hat i mages w e c all a rt i n p re-Hispanic America a re a f orm o f " literacy," t hen w e h ave a n e normous b ody o f v isual " texts" t o s tudy. B ut w e d o n ot h ave t he k ind o f a rt t hat d eveloped o utside o f t he a ncient
1 7
W estern
w orld,
s eparated
f rom
w riting.
P re-Hispanic
a rt
w as
n ever
d isencumbered o f l ist-making f unctions, a s i n a ncient M esopotamia. L iteracy i n p re-Hispanic America i nvolved i mage-making. I t i s t heref ore f undamentally p roblematic t o a pproach p re-Hispanic p resentational a rt u sing t he s ame m ethods t hat h ave b een d eveloped f or W estern a rt w hose r oots f orm i n a ncient M esopotamia. W estern a rt c an f all b ack o n t he s eparate l ist-making s ystem o f w riting w hich d eveloped a part f rom t he d evelopment o f r epresentational i mages. T he M esopotamian b ifurc ated l ist-making f orms c an b e s een i n S umerian s culpture b y r epresent ational i mages o f t he l ist-maker G uda a nd h is s eparate c uneiform t ext b elow. E gyptian " writing" e xists a part f rom i ts f igural r epresentat ions. I mages i n t he W est w ere f ree t o e volve o utside o f l ist-making c onstraints. I mages i n t he West, i ts h istory o f a rt, a re n ot a h istory o f l iteracy , t here w riting d eveloped a s a s eparate s ystem o f c ommunic ation, f orever i solated f rom i mage-making. I n c ontrast, i mages i n p re-Hispanic A merica c ombined e xpression ( Diagram 1 ).
b oth
f unctions
WESTERN
i nto
a s ingle
P RE H ISPAN IC
T RAD IT I ON
T RADIT I ON
r ep re s en ta t iona l i mage ry
p r e sen ta t iona l
t e x t s
M AY A H IE R O GL YP HI C W RITI N G
ART
f orm
W RITI N G
IM A GE M AKI N G
D iagram
4 8
1 .
i magery
o f
P re-Hispanic V isual L ist-Making : P ictorial M etaphors ; T he C ontextual A pproach A rt i n p re-Hispanic A merica i s a m etaphorical s ystem, a k ind o f s ymbolic k nowledge w hose m eaning b ecomes c lear b y e voking o ther m etap hors p erceptible i n v arious m edia. I t i s a k nowledge n ot o f t hings o r o f w ords, b ut o f t he " memory o f t hings a nd w ords, o f c onceptual r epres entations. I t d epends o n p rocesses o f d isplacement o f a ttention, a nd o f e vocation ; i t i s a n i mprovisation w hich r ests u pon i mplicit k nowl edge a nd o beys u nconscious r ules" ( Leach 1 975). I n e xamining v isual s ymbols a s " literacy" c onveying i nformation, i t i s i mportant t o r ememb er t hat i n t he A merican c ase, a s w ith a ll k inds o f s ymbols, w e a re n ot d ealing w ith a u niversal n otion b ut r ather a c ultural o ne, " differing f rom c ulture t o c ulture, o r e ven w ithin a g iven c ulture. I t i s s ubject t o t he s ame s ort o f c ritical a nalysis a s t hat f ormulated b y R odney N eedham ( 1972) c oncerning t he n otion o f b elief" ( Sperber 1 975:50). A n e ssential c aveat i n s uch s tudies i s t hat t he s pecific c ontext o f e ach p articular a rtistic t radition u nder i nvestigation must b e u nderstood a s f ully a s p ossible t o r econstruct m eaning. H ow c an a s ystem b ased o n i mages b e d evised t o c onvey t hought, i deas w hich w riting i n t he West i n s o-called " literate s ocieties" r ecords l inearly? I n p re-Hispanic A merica a n on-linear p ictorial l ang uage w as d eveloped, a s ystem w hich t ook many l ocal v ariations, a ll o f which c an b e c haracterized a s a gglutinated v isual i mages. T he l inchpin o f t he s ystem w as t he u se o f m etaphor, p ictorial m etaphor, t o c onvey c omplex, e ven p oetic m eaning. I t i s as ystem which, i n S perber 's t erms, e vokes t he " encyclopaedic" k nowledge o f a c ulture b y " focalizing " i mages ( Sperber c ontext.
1 975:139-140),
i .e.,
i mages which o nly m ake
s ense
i n
The h ypothesis t hat Mesoamerican a rt w as i nextricably b ound u p i n t he p roblems o f n on-linear p ictorial l anguage i s o ne which f inds s upp ort i n t he w ork o f John Rowe ( 1962). I n h is r emarkable s tudy o f C havin a rt, R owe i nterprets s ome C havin a rt f orms a s b eing m etaphorical s ubs titutions, a nalagous t o l iterary k ennings. R owe's c haracterization o f C havin a rt a s a s eries o f v isual c omparisons o ften s uggested b y s ubstit ution r epresents a n a ttempt t o e xamine t he m echanism o f v isual c omm unication i n a p articularly c omplex a rtistic t radition o f p re-Hispanic America ( Rowe 1 962). A nother a nalysis o f t he m echanism o f v isual c omm unication, f ocusing o n t he r ichly v aried a nd e laborated i magery o f Teotihuacan, c an b e f ound i n t he w ork o f G eorge K ubler ( 1967). K ubler u nravels t he s tructure o f T eotihuacan v isual f orms b y c haracterizing s uch i mages a s a gglutinated s igns, h aving g rammatical v alues s uch a s n ouns, a djectives, v erbs, a nd a dverbs. I t i s ac reative e xplanation f or T eotihuacan a rt t hat i s a f irst s tep i n u nraveling i ts c omplex meaning b y m eans o f c onsidering T eotihuacan i mages a s v isual l anguage w ith a r econstructable g rammar. B oth Rowe's a nd K ubler 's a nalyses s eek t o f athom
t he
i nternal
m echanisms
o f
s crutinizing i ts i nternal s tructure.
1 4 9
a n
a rt
f orm
i n
i ts
o wn
t erms
b y
Another
m ethod
o f
e xamining
t he
m eaning
o f
p re-Hispanic
i mages
w ithout r esorting t o t he m ethodologically d ubious s olution o f c omparing i t t o w ritten t exts i nvolves f inding a nalogous e xplanations i n t he c ultural a nd e nvironmental c ontexts i n w hich t he a rtistic t radition d eveloped. F or e xample, t he i nterpretation o f m urals p ainted a t T ulum a fter A .D . 1 400 was a chieved b y c omparing m ural p ainting w ith o ther c lasses o f m aterial c ulture s uch a s m asonry c utting t echniques a nd c eramic m anufacture ( Miller 1 982 ). T he r esultant p atterns w ere t hen c ompared t o s alient e nvironmental f actors a nd a r econstruction o f e conomic a nd p olitical p atterns p ieced t ogether f rom a rchaeologically r ecorded material c ulture. I n o ther w ords, t he a rtistic t radition w as a nalyzed w ithin i ts m aterially r econstructed c ultural matrix w ith t he e nd r esult o f a n e xplanation o f m eaning w hich c ould t hen b e c hecked a gainst o ther p erceptible p atterns. L ikewise, t he a rchitectural s culpt ure o f Tikal, Guatemala f rom A .D. 5 0 - A .D. 8 00 was i nterpreted b y c omparing i ts d evelopment w ith t he d evelopment o f o ther c lasses o f material c ulture s uch a s a rchitecture, a rtifacts, a nd c eramics, a s w ell a s w ith c omplexes o f c lasses f orming d iscrete c ultural e ntities i n s patially a nd t emporally d efinable e ntities s uch a s b urials, c aches, o r s pecial d eposits ( Miller, n .d.). A s i n t he c ase o f Tulum m urals, i nterpretation o f Tikal a rchitectural s culpture w as a chieved b y p lacing i t a s m uch a s p ossible w ithin i ts c ultural c ontext a s r econstructed b y w ell-controlled a rchaeological a ssociations. T he k ey t o s uccess i n s uch a n a pproach l ies i n t he c ompleteness o f t he a rchaeologic a l r ecord i n o rder t o e stablish a s m uch a s i s p ossible t he c ontext o f t he v isual t radition u nder i nvestigation.
A pples a nd O ranges T he
c omparison o f v isual w ith w ritten f orms
t o t he s imple f act t hat a pple i s f rom a n o range.
i s
p roblematic o wing
t hey a re a s d ifferent f rom e ach o ther a s a n B ut c onsider a n a pple a nd a n o range. T hey a re
b oth r ound a nd a re m ore o r l ess t he s ame s ize. T hey a re b oth f ruits a nd b oth h ave a s egmented s tructure, s eeds, a nd a re s urrounded b y a membrane t hat d iffers f rom i ts i nternal m atter. S imilarly, i mages a nd w riting a re b oth f orms o f r ecording l ists i n a p ermanent f orm. A s m entioned e arlier, t hey b oth c an t ransmit k nowledge o ver v ast d istances ; b oth p rovide a m eans
o f
p arisons o f a pples, t han s imilarities.
k eeping i nformation r estrictive. o ranges,
B ut
f urther c om-
i mages, a nd t exts r eveal m ore d ifferences
I n t he c ase o f c omparing i mages a nd w ritings, I w ish t o s tress t hat t he d ifferences b etween t he t wo r elate t o d ifferent w ays o f e xpressing c ultural m etaphors w hich may e xplain r ealities o f ap articular t ime a nd s pace ; a nd f urther, t hat t he c hoice o f f orm u sed t o c onvey c ontent d etermines m eaning. We c an v iew p ictorial ex pression a s t he a pex o f a p yramid. A t i ts b ase i s t he v ast s torage, t he memory o f a p articular c ivilization a t a mo ment i n t ime a nd s pace, w hich S perber ( 1975) c alls " encyclopaedic k nowledge." T he m eans b y w hich t he i mage i s c onnected t o
5 0
e ncyclopaedic k nowledge d epends o n t he c ontext t ial a nd t emporal f ramework ( Diagram 2 ).
I MAGES
o f t he
i mage,
i ts
s pa-
o f e voca t ion
T EXTS
" ENCYCL OPAED IC" KN O WLEDGE D iagram 2
I n o rder t o " interpret" a p ictorial m etaphor, w ritten m etaphor i s l ess u seful t han i s a n e xploration o f t he m echanisms i nvolved i n f orming t he v isual m etaphor i tself. S uch a n a pproach c onsiders c ontext, which i s t he k ey t o u nderstanding t he e ncyclopaedic k nowledge f rom w hich v isual i mages s pring. A ccording t o s uch a v iew, t he m ethod o f f ormation b ecomes m ore i mportant, i s c loser t o r evealing meaning, t han i s a nother m etaphor. Writing t ells u s l ess about p ictures t han d oes a n a nalysis o f t he p rocess b y w hich p ictures a re f ormed.
R ESUMEN E l a utor d iscute l os p roblemas f ormales i nherentes a l a a grupaci6n d e
t extos
e i mägenes
y s ugiere
q ue
5 1
d iferencias
f undamentales
e n
l os
m ecanismos
d e
l a
c omunicaci6n
v isual
y e scrita
i mpiden
p aralelos
a criticos e ntre l os d os s istemas. L a a ntigua M esoam6rica s e d istingue p or s er u na c ivilizaci6n d e p ocas p alabras e scritas y e l a utor d emuestra q ue, e n s u l ugar, e l a rte v isual s e e ncargaba d el m ayor p eso d e l a c omunicaciem.
5 2
R EFERENCES B loomfield,
C ITED
L . L anguage.
1 933
N ew Y ork.
C oe, M ichael 1 973
T he
Maya
Scribe
a nd
His
World .
Grolier
C lub,
N ew
Y ork. G oody,
J ack,
e d.
1 975
L iteracy i n Traditional Societies. s ity P ress.
1 978
T he Domestication o f t he Savage Mind. v ersity P ress.
K ubler, G eorge 19 67
C ambridge Univer-
C ambridge.
T he
C ambridge Uni-
C ambridge.
I conography o f t he Art o f Teotihuacan.
S tudies
i n P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology 4 . Dumbarton O ak s, T rustees f or H arvard University, Washington, D . C . 1 975
L each, E dmund 1 975
H istory-or Anthropology-of Art?
I n C ritical Inquiry
1 (4):757-68. C hicago.
o f
R eview
T he
University
C hicago
o f Dan S perber 's Rethink ing S ymbolism
P ress.
i n The
T imes L iterary S upplement. M iller, A rthur G . 19 82
O n t he Edge o f t he Sea. Mural P ainting a t TancahTulum, Q uintana R oo, M exico. D umbarton O aks, Washi ngton,
n .d.
N eedham , R odney 1 972
D . C .
T he Art o f Tikal. A nalyses o f Architecture, S culp t ure, a nd P ainting i n A rchaeological C ontexts. T ikal R eport No. 3 6. University Museum Monog raphs, Univers ity o f P ennsylvaina. I n p reparation.
B elief,
L anguage
a nd
E xperience.
B asil
Blackwell.
Oxford. R owe,
J ohn Howland 19 62 C havin Art.
A n Inquiry i nto
T he Museum o f Primitive A rt. S aussure, F . d e 1 959
C ourse r ary.
i n
General
N ew Y ork.
5 3
i ts Form a nd Meaning . N ew Y ork.
Ling uistics.
P hilosophical
Lib-
S perber, D an 1 975
R ethinking
S ymbolism .
C ambridge.
5 1 4
C ambridge
University
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T HE
R ELATIONSHIP
O F A NCIENT A MERICAN W RITING SYSTEM S T O THE V ISUAL ARTS b y O RIANA BADDELEY
T he d iscipline o f a rt h istory i s ar elatively r ecent p henomenon i n t he f ield o f Mesoamerican s tudies. T he l ast f ew d ecades h ave s een t he g rowth o f a rt h istorical i nterest i n c ultures which h ad p reviously, w ith a f ew n otable e xceptions, b een t he p reserve o f t he a rchaeologist a nd a nthropologist. I n t his s ense t he b ackground a nd t raditions o f t he s ubject a re more d ependent u pon multi-disciplinary r esearch t han i s o ften t he c ase i n t he m ore t raditional p ractice o f a rt h istory. While i n many w ays b eneficial, t his a malgamation o f a pproach a nd method h as m ade t he t heoretical f ramework u pon which Mesoamerican s cholarship i s b ased l ess o bvious. A g reater u nderstanding o f t his f ramework a nd t he b ackground t o t he i nitial i ntroduction o f t he m ethodologies o f a rt h istory i nto t he a rea o f Mesoamerican s tudies i s v ital i f t he s ubject i s t o c ontinue t o f lourish a s a n a cademic d iscipline. I n
t his
e ssay,
I p ropose
t o
e xamine
t he
w ay i n w hich
t he
r igid
a pplication o f t he d efining c haracteristics a nd p rinciples o f W estern c ulture t o t he v arious m anifestations o f t he Mesoamerican p ast h as o ften o bscured r ather t han cast l ight u pon t he values a nd c onventions o f i ts i ndigenous i nhabitants. Many o f t he more e xtreme t heoretical p osit ions o f e arly s cholars, s uch a s L ord K insborough 's a ttempt t o e stabl ish a c onnection b etween t he i nhabitants o f a ncient Mexico a nd t he l ost t ribe o f I srael ( Kingsborough 1 831-1848:Vols. 6 & 8 ) a re n ow g enerally d ismissed. A t t he s ame t ime, h owever, a g reat number o f t he u nderlying a ssumptions o f t he n ineteenth c entury c ontinue t o b e u nquestioningly a ccepted. I n t he c ase o f K ingsborough, t he a rguments a nd m ethods u sed b y t he a uthor a re a t l east a pparent. T his a rticle i s c oncerned w ith t he m ore f undamental a nd opaque w ays i n w hich t he n ineteenth c entury has s tructured t he c ontemporary a pproach t o Mesoamerican c ulture. While s imilar m ethodological p roblems exist i n m any a reas o f Mesoa merican s tudies, o f p rimary i nterest t o t he a rt h istorian a re t he w ays i n which Eurocentric i deas o f i mage a nd t ext h ave a ffected o ur p ercept ion o f t he Maya a nd Mexican g roups. T he d evelopment o f c ertain d efinit ions o f " image" a lso r elates d irectly t o t he g rowth o f i nterest i n M esoamerican modes o f c ommunication. I t w as t he a pplication o f r ecogn izable
d istinctions
b etween a reas
5 5
o f
t ext
a nd
i mage
t hat
l ed
t o
a n
a cceptance
o f
t he
i dea o f " literacy"
i n Mesoa r nerica a nd
t hereby t o a n
i ncreased a dmiration o f M esoamerican c ulture b y European s cholars. W ithin European c ulture t here e xists a s trong d istinction b etween t he p rocesses o f " writing " a nd o f " making i mages." T he t wo a ctivities a re s een t o r equire s eparate c apabilities a nd t raining, a nd t o e xhibit d ifferent skills a nd s ensibilities. A s eparation o f t he f unctions o f w riter a nd p ainter i s n ot, o f c ourse, a c ultural n ecessity. I n China t he p resentation o f a n i deograph was o ften m ore i mportant t han i ts a ctual m eaning. T he p resentation w as s een a s c apable o f r evitalizing a well-known t ext o r p oem, w hereas t he m eaning was a ssumed t o b e u norigin al ( Fitzgerald 1 965:442). I n Mesoamerica, t he s ystems u sed t o c onvey m eaning d o n ot a llow f or a n e asy d istinction b etween " pure" t ext o r " pure" i mage. What i n t he Graeco-Roman s ystem c an b e s een a s t wo s eparate e lements w ith d ifferent t raditions a nd f unctions, i n Mesoa merica f requently o verlap a nd c an b e i nterchangeable. A s K elley s tates i n r eference t o M aya g lyphic s cript " sa ne g lyphs c an a lso a ppear a s c omplete f igures o f h umans o r a nimals ( or d eities) w ith n o k nown c hange i n m eaning, o r p resumably, i n t he m anner o f r eading " ( Kelley 1 976:7). T he example o f f ull f igure g lyphs f rom s tela D a t Q uirigua ( figure
1 )
a mply d emonstrates t his a spect o f t he M aya s ystem.
S imilar l evels o f c omplexity a re f ound i n Mex ico i n w ork s uch a s t he s culptural r epresentation o f t he n ame g lyph o f t he A ztec e mperor Ahuixotl o n t he l id o f as tone b ox i n t he c ollection o f t he Museum f ür Volkerkunde i n B erlin. T he b ox i tself, w ith a c ast o f t he l id, i s i n t he c ollection o f t he B ritish Museum ( B . M . N o. Q 82 A m 8 60). O n t he i nterior o f t he b ox t he c arved n ame g lyph c onforms t o t he a ccepted d efinitions o f " text" i n A ztec c ulture. T hese d efinitions w ould n ot n ormally b e a pplied t o t he t hree-dimensional " Ahuixotl" o n t he l id o f t he b ox, y et b oth i nterior a nd e xterior f orms r elate s imilar i nformat ion. T he r espective h ieroglyphic a nd p ictog raphic s ystems o f t he Maya a nd M exicans c cmplicate y et f urther a ny a ttempt t o r econcile t he Mesoa merican f orms w ith o ur European c oncept o f t ext a nd i mage. I n s everal w ays t he M aya h ieroglyphic s ystem p roduces s harper d ivisions b etween t he d ifferent m odes o f s ignification, t hough n ever p roducing s uch a d efinable d ivision a s t hat o f t he c onventional European s ystem. A p age f rom t he Dresden C odex c an b e s een t o c ontain r eco g nizable d istinctions b etween a reas o f " writing " a nd o f " images" ( figure 2 ). I t i s v ital, h owever, t o r ealize t hat t he r elationship t hat e xists b etween t hese t wo r ecognizably s eparate e lements d oes n ot c onform t o t he p resentation o f a n a lphabetic t ext a nd i llustration t o b e f ound i n a European m anus cript. B erlo, i n a d iscussion o f t his p roblem Madrid C odex, d raws a ttention t o t his f act:
i n
r elation
t he i nteraction o f t ext a nd i mage i s maintained i n t he p ost-classic c odices, where o ften t he i ma ge a mplifies t he g lyphic p rognostication i n s ome
w ay,
p roviding
i nformation
5 6
b eyond
t hat
t o
t he
which i s 1 976:26)
w ritten
i n
t he
b rief
t ext.
( Berlo
The s ystem e mployed b y t he v arious Mexican g roups ( the Teotih uacanos, Toltecs, a nd A ztecs) w as l ess f lexible t han t hat o f t he M aya i n t erms o f t he i nterplay b etween t he u se o f " text" a nd " image." Each s ymbol was m ade u p o f w hat R obertson calls " an a ssembly o f s eparable p arts" ( Robertson 1 970); a dditional e lements q ualified a nd a ltered t he f inal m eaning, t hus a llowing f or n o d efinable a reas o f o rnamentation o r d ecoration. A b rief s tudy o f p age o ne o f t he Fejervary-Mayer C odex ( 1971) i s a mple d emonstration o f t his a spect o f t he p ictographic t radit ion. T he e xtremely c omplex c alendrical a nd r itual i nformation f ound o n this p age ( see B rotherston 1 979:139) i s c onveyed b y c ompositional d evices a nd p atterns w hich i n E uropean c ulture w ould b e s een a s c haract eristic o f ap urely p ictorial t radition. A t t he s ame t ime t he s pecific ity a nd mathematical e xactness o f t he p age a re o utside t he n orms o f European i magery, w here p recise i nformation i s u sually c ombined w ith d efinable a reas o f o rnamentation o r d ecoration. While f raming a nd c ontainment a re u sed t o d ivide t he v arious a reas o f m eaning a nd p rovide r elevant c ontexts i n b oth Maya a nd Mex ican s ystems, t he Maya a llowed f or a g reater f luidity a nd e xperimentation i n t he p roduction o f i mages. I n t his s ense Maya a rt d raws c loser t o t he European c onventions o f i llus ion, w ith t he u se o f p lanar s pace, f oreshortening a nd multiplicity o f v iewpoint, t han d oes Mex ican a rt. E ven t he most c ursory l ook a t t he w riting s ystems o f Mesoamerica r eveals a d istinction i n f orm b etween t he Maya a nd Mexican s ystems o f c ommunication. What a lso b ecomes a pparent, h owever, i s t hat t his d istinction h as b een exaggerated a nd s tressed o ver t he l ast c entury t o t he d etriment o f a c learer u nders tanding o f t he t wo g reat M esoamerican c ultures, a nd o f t he i nteraction b etween t hese t wo g roups. The d evelopment o f c ontemporary models o f Mesoamerican c ulture i s, o f n ecessity, d ependent upon t he a ttitudes a nd t heoretical s tance o f e arlier w riters, p articularly t hose o f t he n ineteenth c entury. O f m ost i nterest t o t his a rgument i s t he e mergence i n t he l ate n ineteenth c entury o f t he i dea o f t he Maya a s t he "high c ulture" o f Mesoamerica. I f o ne l ooks a t t he g rowth o f Mesoamerican s tudies f rom a h istoriog raphical p erspective, a p attern o f i nterpretive m ethods e merges. T hroughout t his p eriod t here d eveloped w ithin Mesoamerican s tudies a n a nalogy b etween t he Maya a nd t he a ncient Greeks. T his r eached i ts p eak i n t he 1 950s i n t he w ork o f J .E .S . T hompson. H is i nvaluable w ork, M aya H ieroglyphic Writing ( 1950), makes t he c omparison o vertly : " Maya t emples a nd M aya s culpture c an b e compared w ith t he p roducts o f P hidias o r
Praxiteles."
H e
g oes
o n,
h owever,
t o
s tress
t hat
i t
i s
i n
t he
h ieroglyphic t exts o f t he M aya t hat m ost value l ies : " . . .t hese a lone a re w orthy o f c omparison w ith t he p roducts o f t he m inds o f P ythagoras a nd P lato,
P indar a nd Aristotle"
( Thompson 1 975:2).
The i mposition o f t he q ualities o f a " golden a ge" u pon t he Maya, c ast i n t he r ole o f c lassic G reek c ulture, i s p erhaps n ot a s h armful a s t he a ccompanying c haracteristics o f a " debased" o r " decadent" R oman
5 7
c ulture w hich t his a nalogy a scribes, b y j uxtaposition, t o t he Mex icans. The
i mpossible
p osition
o f t he M exicans w ithin t his European m odel
c ultural i nteraction i s s imultaneously d evelopmentally c ulturally d egenerative. This i dealization o f M aya d ependent u pon a p rocess o f c ultural i dentification i n
o f
i nferior a nd c ulture was w hich i t w as
p ossible t o p erceive i n t he a ncient M aya t raits which w ere a lso valued b y t he n ineteenth-century E uropean s cholar. T he s etting u p o f a model o f a ncient European c ivilization a gainst w hich t o j udge M esoamerican c ultures b egan l ong b efore t he n ineteenth c entury, b ut i t w as a t t he b eginning o f t hat c entury t hat i t t ook o n a n ew c oherence a nd a s tanda rdized a pplication. I n Europe a nd t he Near East t he d evelopment o f t he d iscipline o f a rchaeology h ad l ed, p rior t o a ny c onscious a cceptance o f a s tatus o f " civilization" i n p re-Hispanic Mesoamerica ., t o a d esire t o u nearth t he M esoamerican p ast. H umboldt ( 18 10), B ullock ( 182 / 4),
T ravellers a nd e xplorers s uch a s Dupaix ( 183 0 a nd l ater Stephens a nd
C atherwood ( 18 14 1) w ere t he f irst t o b ring t he m aterial c ulture o f t he a rea t o a w ider a udience. T o t hese men a nd t heir c ontemporaries, t he a ccounts o f t heir j ourneys a nd t he i ncorporation o f t he o bjects a nd p laces d iscovered i nto a b ody o f European k nowledge w as a n e nd i n i tself. I t was n ot s o m uch t he b uildings a nd o bjects f ound t hat w ere i mportant a nd v alued b ut t he w hole p rocess o f t heir d iscovery. I n t his s ense t he p hysical a nd c onceptual i naccessibility o f p re-Hispanic c ulture w as o ne o f i ts g reatest a ssets ; t he more r emote a nd d istant t he p laces a nd t hings d iscovered, t he g reater t he a chievement o f t heir " discoverer." This a spect o f t he n ineteenth-century i nterest i n Mesoamerica i s summed up i n t he f amous q uote f rom S tephens : " It i s i mpossible t o d escribe," h e s tates i n h is a ccount o f h is f irst v isit t o C opan, " the i nterest w ith which I e xplored t he ruins. T he g round was e ntirely n ew, t here w ere n o g uide b ooks o r g uides; t he w hole w as v irgin s oil"
( Stephens
1 8 14 1
1 :11 9 ).
E lements o f t his p leasure i n t he d iscovery a nd e xploration o f Mesoamerica r emain a pparent t hroughout t he c entury b ut e ven b y t he t ime o f Stephen 's p ublication o f Incidents o f Travel i n C entral America, Chiapas a nd Y ucatan t he i ntellectual c limate h ad b egun t o c hange. I n t he 1 820s C hampollion h ad c aused a g reat i nterest i n d ecipherment f oll owing h is b reakthroughs i n t he u nderstanding o f E gyptian h ieroglyphs ( Champollion 1 822), a nd i n t he p eriod f ollowing t he p ublication o f t hese d iscoveries a n ew e mphasis b egan t o b e p laced u pon t he ruins o f Mesoamerica. T o t he p ost-Champollion g eneration o f s cholars, t he c oncern w ith d iscovery d ecipherment, a nd t he
b egan t o t ake s econd p lace h ieroglyphic s ystem o f t he
o bvious f ocal p oint o f s cholarly i nterest. t his n ew d irection :
t o a d esire Maya b ecame
S tephens h imself i ndicates
O ne t hing I b elieve,
t hat i ts h istory i s g raven
o n i ts b rought
N o C hampollion h as y et e nerg ies o f h is i nquiring
m onuments. t o t hem t he
m ind. W ho s hall r ead t hem ? " Chaos o f r uins ! Who s hall t race t he v oid, o 'er t he d im f ragments c ast
a l unar
l ight,
a nd
5 8
s ay
f or t he
' here
was
o r
i s'
where a ll 1 :15 9 )
w ith
i s
d oubly
n ight."
( Stephens
1 841
This g rowing i nterest i n d ecipherment d eveloped s imultaneously a f ormalization o f t he c ross r eferences t o c lassical European
c ultures i nto a r igourous f ramework o f c ultural
d evelopment.
While t he
c ultures o f Mesoamerica h ad b een j udged a gainst t he v alues a nd r equirem ents o f a European-based c ulture s ince t he f irst c ontact o f t he t wo s ocieties i n t he s ixteenth c entury, t he l ater n ineteenth c entury i mposed u pon t hese methods o f a ssessment a s trict d evelopmental s truct ure. Writers s uch a s L ewis M organ p ut f orward a D arwinian m odel o f c ultural e volution i n h is i nfluential Ancient Society o f 1 877. I n t his t ext a ll s ocieties w ere p laced upon a l adder t hat r an f rom ' savagery " t o " civilization." The model c ivilization w as, o f c ourse, t hat o f Europe; t he c loser a s ociety c ame t o t he g overning c onventions o f European t hought,
t he
n earer
i t
w as
t o
a chieving
t he
s tatus
o f
c ivilization.
A ccording t o this s cheme, t he p ossession o f a s ystem o f w riting was a n e ssential c omponent f or a ny s ociety t o b e e levated f rom b arbarism t o t he m iddle s tage o f t he e volutionary p rocess t o c ivilization. I n A ncient S ociety t his p romotion w as d enied t o t he w hole o f Mesoamerica, which r emained f irmly c ategorized a s b eing i n a s tate o f " barbarism " ( Morgan 1 877:16-18). T he d issimilarity b etween Mexican a nd European s ystems o f r epresentation a nd b ehaviour l ed M organ t o p lace t he A ztecs o n a l evel e quivalent t o p re-Hcmeric Greece. I n t his w ay t he a lien n ature o f t he c ultural f orms d ocumented b y e arlier w riters was r endered a cceptable b y e xaggerating t heir t emporal a nd e volutionary d istance f rom European c ulture. S ince
t he
a rchitecture a nd a rtifacts o f Mesoamerica
d id n ot
c on-
f orm t o t he p rinciples o f G reek a nd R oman a rt, t hey h ad t o b e s een a s d eveloping t owards t hose p rinciples. T his a ttitude i n p articularly c lear in W illiam H . C ities o f Mexico:
Holmes '
A rchaeological S tudies A mong t he A ncient
I n t he c ultural s cale t hese p eople s tood a t t he h ead o f t he A merican t ribes. There w ere s till, p roperly s peaking, b arbarians b ut i n s everal r es pects s eemed c ivilization.
t o b e o n t he v ery t hreshold o f T heir s tatus m ay b e c ompared t o
t hat o f t he G reeks a nd E gyptians i mmediately p receding t he d awn o f t heir h istory, a nd w e may a ssume t hat t hey w ere, a s m easured b y A ryan r ates o f p rogress, p erhaps n ot m ore t han a f ew t housand y ears b ehind t he f oremost n ations i n t he g reat p rocession o f t he r aces f rom s avagery t oward e nlightenment. I n t his
s ense,
a ttempts
( 1895:20)
t o h istoricize
p re-Col u mbian America w ere s i-
multaneously a ttempting t o p rovide a h istory, o r a t l east a n e xplanat ion, o f t he more i naccessible e ras o f t he European p ast.
5 9
I t w as
t he
i nterest
i n Maya w riting s ystems
a nd
t he k nowledge o f
t he M aya a ccumulated b y m en l ike F orstemann ( 1887-189 7 ) a nd S chellhas ( 1897) i n t he l ast d ecade o f t he n ineteenth c entury t hat m ade i t f inally p ossible t o v iew t he M aya a s a" civilized" c ulture. F rom t hat p oint o n, t he p osition o f t he Maya a s a more d eveloped a nd a dvanced c ulture b ecame m ore a nd m ore c onsolidated. L iteracy was a v ital c omponent o f t he " status o f c ivilization" a nd i t w as n ecessary t o a chieve t his s tatus b efore a ny culture c ould b e a dmitted t o h ave p roduced a rt w orthy o f c ritical c omparison t o European models a nd t herefore p ossible t o c ons ider a s " art" i n n ineteenth-century t erms. I t was o nly w hen t his a ppreciation o f t he c omplexity o f t he Maya h ieroglyphic s ystem b ecame w idespread t hat t he f irst w orks o n M aya " art" b egan t o b e p roduced. A n i nnovative e arly w ork , a nd t he f irst t o o utline a h istor ! c al d evelopm ent i n t he s tyle o f Mesoamerican objects was H erbert S pinden 's A S tudy o f Maya Art ( 19 13). S pinden d id n ot a ttempt t o d eny t he e xistence o f a h ierarchical s cale o f c ultural d evelopment b ut h e a rgued f or a h igher p osition o n t hat s cale f or Maya a rt : A t f irst g lance t oo e xotic a nd unique t o b e c omp ared t o t he Old World, n evertheless Maya a rt f urnishes upon examination many a nalogies t o t he e arlier p roducts o f t he c lassic Mediterranean l ands. I ndeed upon t echnological g rounds s uch a s k nowledge o f f oreshortening, c omposition a nd d esign, M aya a rt m ay b e p laced i n a dvance o f t he a rt o f Assyria a nd E gypt a nd o nly b elow t hat o f G reece m ents S pinden
i n
t ne
l ist
o f
g reat
n ational
a chieve-
(1 9 13 : 15 ) •
p romotes
Maya
c ulture
b y
d eftly
s idestepping what,
f or
e arlier writers, h ad b een a n i nsurmountable o bstacle : t he equation o f a b arbarous c ontent w ith a b arbarous f orm. T he s trangeness o f M aya a rt a nd i ts d ivergence f rom European n orms i s s een b y S pinden ( as i t h ad b een b y t he e arlier n ineteenth c entury w riters) a s " the e xpression o f b arbarous r elig ious c oncepts" ( 19 13:1 5 ). T he p hilosophical a nd r elig ious b eliefs w hich f orm t he c ontent o f Maya a rt w ere s een a s o f l ess value t han t he v ehicles b y which t hese b eliefs w ere c onveyed. H owever, S pinden g oes o n t o s tate t hat " upon t he s cale o f d evelopment t he a rt i s many p oints h igher t han t he r eligion " ( 19 13:1 5 ). This d ivision o f f orm f rom c ontent a llows f or t he l ocation o f a rtistic merit, n ot i n t he o verall a ppearance o f M aya a rt b ut i n i ts p roduction. The w ay o f m aking t he o bjects i s s een a s c omparable t o t hat o f a ncient Greece a nd t hus d eserving o f t he d efinition " Art," e ven t hough, f or S p inden, t he c ont ent i s s till b arbarous a nd t he materials a nd t ools t hemselves u nworthy o f M aya skill : " The M aya m ight h ave a cc o mplished g reater w onders i f t hey h ad h ad f ine g rained marble i nstead o f c oarse a nd u neven l imestone a nd i ron a nd b ronze c hisels i nstead o f s tone k nives" ( 1 9 13:1 6 ). S pinden i s d irectly r elevant t o t he l arger p roblem o f i nterpretat ion, w ith which t his a rticle i s c oncerned, b ecause h e m anages t o d isloc ate t he i dea o f a rt, o f ' " images," f rom a n i dea o f o vert m eaning. T his
6 0
i nitial
d isjunction
r emained
t he
b asis
o f
m any l ater
a rt
h istorical
w orks. T he d efining c haracteristics o f a rt b ecame f or S pinden t he " way o f m aking"; t he c ontent o r m eaning c an i n t his w ay e scape e valuation. The t iming o f S pinden 's w ork, t he f irst t hat c ould b e p roperly c lassed a s a rt h istorical ( despite S pinden ' s a nthropological t raining), c oinc ided w ith t he e mergence o f a b ody o f w ork o n M aya h ieroglyphic w riting. T he d ivision o f f orm a nd c ontent w hich c onstitutes t he b asis o f S pinden 's a ppreciation o f M aya c ulture c ould o nly h ave b een f ormulated i n t andem w ith t his e mphasis u pon t he w riting s ystems o f t he Maya. This s eparation o f " way o f m aking" a nd o f m eaning a chieved b y S pinden i n t he Maya a rea c ould n ot e asily b e a pplied t o t he Mexicans. I n t his s ense t hey w ere n ot s een, a t this s tage, t o p roduce a rt o f a n e quivalent l evel t o t he Maya o r e ven t o p roduce a rt a t a ll. C ontemp oraries o f S pinden 's s uch Seler ( 1902-23) f ound i t i mpossible t o m ake a d istinction b etween a c oncept o f " image" a nd o ne o f m eaning i n Mexican a rt. T he i mage was t he t ext a nd t herefore b y d efinition m eaningful. Seler 's i nterest r emained b asically o ne o f d ecipherment. H is d escrip t ion o f t he t emple o f t he p lumed s erpent a t X ochica lco, which a ccording t o Seler i s " the g randest monument k nown o f a ncient American a rt" ( Bowditch 1 939:81), c oncerns i tself o nly w ith i ntepretation o f t he " meaning " o f t he s culptural r eliefs a nd g ives a t horough b ut f actual d escription o f t he t emple p latform w ithout expressive d escriptive a djectives o f S pinden.
r esorting
t o
t he
m ore
The mural p ainting a nd s culpture o f t he M aya c ould b e l ooked a t i n a d ifferent w ay, appreciated f or q ualities s uch a s E macc, e legance, a nd n aturalism which w ere i mportant a ttributes o f European a rt. T he a rea d efined a s a rt b ecame s ynonymous w ith i deas o f r epresentation r ather t han t he c onveyance o f m eaning. T he h ieroglyphic s cript o f t he M aya was s een t o e mbody t he v ital c omponent o f m eaning w ithin t he o verall w ork. I n s aying t his, i t i s n ot t o d eny t he i mportance o f t he g lyphic s cript b ut t o s tress t he v alue o f ar e-definition o f t he i nter-relationship o f t ext a nd i mage i n M aya a rt. D iscovery b y P roskouriakoff ( 1960) o f t he h istorical n ature o f m any Maya monuments, t hough r esting o n g lyphic i nterpretation, was a d irect p roduct o f a ctually l ooking a t t he p ict orial c omponents o f t he monuments i n a s ystematically i nterpretive m anner. Work s uch a s t his ( as well a s l ater c ontributions which e xpanded u pon Proskouriakoff 's d iscoverie s), was l argcly r esponsible f or t he re-introduction o f a l evel o f c ohesive m eaning i nto t he p ict orial
r ealm o f Maya s culpture.
D espite t he g reat c hanges i n a pproach o ver t he last f ew d ecades, t he r elationship p ossible b etween t he M aya a nd t he M exican s ystems o f c onvey ing meaning r ema ins o nly l oosely d efined. I f o ne a ccepts, a s o ne i s l ogically b ound, t hat t he d evelopmental a rgument i s a p roduct o f n ineteenth-century h istorical d octrine a nd l argely i rrelevant t o t went ieth-century m ethodology, s everal c omplex b ut i llum inating e lements o f t his r elationship s urface.
6 1
I ndications o f t he f lexibility p ossible b etween t he t wo s ystems a re m ost a pparent a t t hose s ites w here a n oticeable m ixture o f M aya a nd M exican p ictorial c onventions i s e vident. A n u nderstanding o f t he m ore o bvious p rocesses a t w ork a t s ites s uch a s C acaxtla i n t he s tate o f T laxcala, C entral M exico o r Santa R ita o n t he C aribbean c oast o f B elize w ill p ossibly h elp t o i nterpret t he l ess a ccessible w ays i n which a s imilar, t hough l ess d ominant, i nteraction h as o ccurred a t Maya s ites s uch a s C opan, T ikal, a nd Y axchilan. F or p urposes o f t his a rgu ment C acaxtla o ffers s everal p oints o f i nterest. Much h as b een w ritten a bout t he murals a t C acaxtla ( Abascal, e t a l., 1 976; F oncerrada d e Molina 1 976, 1 978 a & b ; K ubler 1 980; Lopez d e Molina 1 976; R obertson 1 980; Langley 1 981) a nd t hey w ill b e d ealt w ith h ere i n o nly a f ragmentary manner. Many o f t hese a rticles h ave l isted t he v arying e lements o f b oth M ex ican a nd M aya i nfluence i n t he s tyle a nd i conography o f t he murals. While s ome c onclusions o f t he a uthors d iffer, a ll a gree o n t he e clectic ism a pparent i n t he murals. M aya a nd M exican p ictorial c onventions a ppear a t Cacaxtla i n h itherto u nknown c ombinations. T he so-called " Battle S cene" o f Edificio B i s g enerally ag reed a s b eing t he e arliest o f t he t wo mural c ycles w ith a p robable d ate o f s eventh t o e ighth c enturies A .D. ( Langley 1 981). I t s eems t o b e a l ess f ormalized
a nd
more
i nnovative
e xploration
o f
t he
Maya
a nd
Mexican
t raditions which a ppears i n a n i ncreasingly s tandardized f orm i n t he mu rals o f Edificio A . T hough i t p resents c ertain i nnovations, i t i s d ifficult t o c onceive o f t he mural a s b eing e ither e soteric o r c onfused i n meaning. I ts a rchitectural c ontext, f lanking a s taircase o n t he talud o f a s ubstantial s tructure which f aces o nto t he c entral p lace, i ndicates t hat i t w as a p ublic w ork. I ndeed, t his p ublic n ature may b e t he k ey t o g reater u nderstanding o f t he i ntentions b ehind t he m ural 's e xecuti o n. T he mural d eals w ith t he c onflict o f t wo o pposing g roups, o ne w ith j aguar r egalia a nd o ne w ith b ird h eaddresses. T he j aguar w arriors a re t he o bvious v ictors i n as cene o f c arnage ( figure 3 ). S urprisingly f or a mural i n t he M exican a rea, t here a re n arrative e lements w ithin t he w ork. T he j aguar w arriors ' l eader, i dentified b y t he n ame g lyph Three ( Deer?) A ntler ( figure 14 ) a ppears t wice ; o nce o n e ach s ide o f t he s tairway. I n t he e astern t alud mural, this f igure 's f eet h ave b een t ransformed i nto e agle t alons, a m etamorphosis which c ould i ndicate a s upernatural e lement w ithin t he c onflict a s o pposed t o t he "historical b attle s cene" f avoured b y R obertson ( 1980). A t b oth h is a ppearances t his l eader h as a y ear s i g.) i n h is h eaddress a nd a n o rnate s ymbol o f a c urled l ip a nd f angs ( associated w ith t he A ztec rain g od T laloc) d irectly i n from o f h is o pen mouth ( figure / 4 ). O n t he e astern t alud t his s ymbol i s
a lso a ttached t o h is
b elt.
T he i mage o f t he rain d eity
a lso appears a s a s mall m anikin f igure e merging f rom t he s hield o f o ne o f t he j aguar w arriors ( figure 2 ). The i magery o f t he M ex ican rain g od s eems t o b e d efinitely l inked t o t he v ictors o f t he Cacax tla c onflict, w hich puts t he M ayan e lements w ithin t he mural i n a n i nteresting c ont ext.
6 2
I f o ne l ooks a t t he s tyle o f p resentation o f t he v arious s igns o r g lyphs a t C acaxtla i t b ecomes i mmediately a pparent t hat t heir t reatment v aries o nly s lightly f rom t he m ore r ecognizably p ictorial e lements o f t he mural. F igure 5 s hows t he c ompound " bleeding h eart" s ign which Langley ( 1981:32) i nterprets a s a s ymbol o f h uman s acrifice. T he o ccur r ence o f t his s ymbol a t T eotihuacan ( Mural 1 , r oom 3 , S outh C omplex, Z one 2 ) a nd X ochicalco ( Stela 3 ) makes i t t he most d efinably Mexican o f t he Edificio B s ymbols. D irectly b elow t his i s a n u nusual s ign, p ossibly a f olded m antle a nd a d isembodied h and ( this d evice a lso a ppears i n t he u pper l eft o f f igure 8 ). While hands a ppear f requently i n b oth t he h ieroglyphic a nd p ictographic t raditions, t he C acaxtla h and s eems s trangely u nfamiliar a t f irst a ppraisal. A s imilar u neasy r ecogn ition i s c aused b y e xamples o f t he o ther s ymbols t o b e f ound i n t he m ural ( figure 6 ) a lthough b ones, a s h ands, a re a lso f ound i n b oth t raditions a nd t he h and e merging f rom t he d ecapitated h ead s ymbol a ppears o n p age f our o f C odex C ospi ( 1968). D espite t he f act t hat t hese s igns f loat, p hysically u nattached a nd p roportionally s eparate f rom t he b ackground, t he i nitial i mpulse i s t o t ry t o s ee t hem a s d escriptive e lements o f t he l arger p ictorial n arrative; t hat i s a s d irectly r epres entative o f n atural f orms r ather t han s ymbolically s o. T he d istinct ion b etween t ext a nd i mage t hat w e h ave c ome t o e xpect f rom Maya p ictorial f orms d oes n ot e xist a t C acaxtla, t hough t he m eans o f r epres entation h ave a ll t he s ophistication a nd s imilarity t o European i deas o f i llusion f ormerly s een t o b e t he s ole a ttribute o f M aya r ather t han Mexican a rt. The
m ural
i s
d ominated
b y
a n
i nter-weaving
o f
t extual
a nd
p ic-
t orial e lements t hat i s c haracteristic o f M exican c ulture, f rom T eot ihuacan t hrough t o t he A ztecs. T he r elationship o f t he s igns i n t he C acaxtla murals t o t he k nown M exican c odices i s t oo c omplex t o b e d ealt w ith i n d etail h ere. H owever i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t he s imilarity o f t he t ooth a nd g um e lement o f f igure 5 t o t he " tlan" e lement o f t he p lace s igns o f t he Mendoza Codex ( e.g., p . 1 0) a s i t r aises t he p oss ibility o f b oth a p honetic r eading a nd d irect N ahua c ultural c onnect ions. T he m eans b y which t hese p ictorial a nd t extual e lements a re t ransmitted w ould, p rior t o t he d iscovery o f t he murals o f C acaxtla s o f ar i nto Mexican t erritory, h ave b een a ccepted u nquestionably a s t he s pecific a chievement o f M aya a rt. T he o bviously p ublic n ature o f t he m urals o f Edificio B i ndicate a w ide u nderstanding o f t he c onventions a t p lay i n t he C acaxtla murals a mong i ts c ontemporary a udience. A ll t he a uthors o n Cacaxtla c oncur t hat t he i nhabitants o f t he s ite w ere b asi cally M exican i n o rigin. I f t he p articular a rtists i nvolved w ere i ndeed Maya, a s Robertson ( 1980:23) s uggests, t he n eed f or t he m ural t o b e r eadily c omprehensible t o t he i nhabitants o f C acaxtla a nd t he s urr ounding a rea w ould s till h ave b een a major c onsideration i n t heir c onstruction. Another
i mportant
a spect
o f t his
p roblem o f s tylistic d erivation
i s i ts r elationship t o t he i conography o f t he mura l. T he t wo m ost s trikingly Mayan f igures a re t hose d epicted i n f igures 7 a nd 8 . R obertson d escribes t hese f igures a s " presiding l ike d eities o ver t he
6 3
s trife"
( 1980:6).
B oth, h owever, a re r elated t o i mages o f d efeat.
T hat
o f t he e astern t alud h as a c heek p ierced b y a n a rrow, w hile o n t he w estern t alud t he h ands o f t he f igure a re t ied, r ather t han s imply c rossed o ver. B oth t hese f igures a re d irectly c onnected t o t he t wo a ppearances o f t he j aguar l eader, s eparated f rom h im o nly b y a s ubjugated b ird w arrior o n t he l ower l evel o f t he c omposition. T he s plendour a nd c ompositional p rominence o f t hese f igures i s e xplained b y t heir r ole a s c aptive l eaders ( or l eader a t t wo d ifferent o ccasions) o f t he d efeated b ird w arriors. T he r elative a chievement o f t he v ictors i s e mphasized b y t he i mportance o f t heir c aptives. W ithin t he m ural 's n arrative
t hen,
t hose
f igures
w hich
a re
most
e asily
i dentifiable
a s
M aya i n a ppearance a re t he v anquished a nd t he d ying. This w ould s eem t o i mply t hat t he a doption o f t he s tyle o f w hat Robertson ( 1980:23) d escribes a s " their c ultural b etters" b y t he i nhabitants o f C acaxtla w as i n f act t he r epresentation o f t he " betters" i n a s tyle r ecognizably b elonging t o t he c onquered. This t hrows a d ifferent l ight u pon t he " Maya i nfluences"
o r i ndeed
t he p ossible u se o f Maya c raftsmen a t t he
s ite. T he a ppropriation o f t he c ultural f orms o f ac onquered o r h ostile p eoples i s c ertainly c onceivable. H owever, t here i s l ittle e vidence t hat C acaxtla, t hough f ortified, was a n e xtensive m ilitary p ower. T he m urals c ould p ossibly r epresent a m ythical a nd n ot a p olitical h istory o r e ven a d esired r ather t han a ctual o ccurrence. t he m urals i s n ot o f p rimary i mportance t o t he
T he e xact m eaning o f l arger p roblems t his
a rticle a ttempts t o b roach. H owever, w hat i s o f i nterest i s t he p oss ibility o ffered b y t his i nterpretation o f t he m urals t hat t he Maya s tyle c ould b e a dopted f or s pecific i deological p urposes, a s o pposed t o i ndicating a h igher s tage o f a rtistic d evelopment. A t C acaxtla t here i s a n a cute c onsciousness o f s tyle, a nd i ts e xpert m anipulation m ust h ave b een d ependent u pon a l ong-standing c omprehension o f t he d ifferences b etween t he M aya a nd M exican s ystems. A pparent i n t his h omogenous t reatment o f t extual a nd p ictorial e lements i s a d eliberate r efusal t o a bandon w hat m ust h ave s ity.
i s
b een i mportant
a spects
o f t his
c ultural
d iver-
T he a doption o f t he p ictorial c onventions o f t he Maya a t C acaxtla n o s tranger t han t he a malgamation o f M aya h ieroglyphs a nd M exican
p ictographic f orms i n t he m urals o f Santa R ita i n t he Maya a rea. What b oth t hese s ites i llustrate i s a c onscious m anipulation o f f oreign f orms o f c ommunication f or s pecific p olitical p urposes. A t S anta R ita t he n ature o f t he i nteraction o f t he t wo f orms i s d ifferent f rom t hat a t C acaxtla, b ut n o l ess s ophisticated. T he d estruction o f t he Santa R ita m urals s ubsequent t o t heir d isc overy b y T homas G ann i n 1 896 m akes a ny a nalysis o f t heir e xact c omposit ion s peculative. T he t racings m ade b y G ann a nd p ublished b y t he B ureau o f A merican E thnology ( Gann 1 900) a ppear, h owever, r eliable. W ithin t he m urals c ertain Mexican e lements i ntrude u pon t he b asically Maya n ature o f t he p aintings.
T he s eries o f f igures w hich c overs t he n orth-
e ast a nd n orthwest w alls a re l iterally b ound t ogether b y a s pecifically M aya c alendrical s equence. T he " tun s equence" f irst d escribed b y L ong ( 19 19) i s o f p urely Maya s ignificance a nd i s o f p rimary i mportance
6 1 4
w ithin t he m urals ' i conography ( Baddeley 1 978). What i s f ascinating a bout t he murals, h owever, i s t he p articularly M exican f ormat d isplayed b y t he o verall s tructure, s patial a rrangement, a nd c omposition. T he e arth p anels a nd s ky b ands a re a lmost i dentical t o t hose u sed i n t he V ienna ( 1963) a nd Nuttall ( 1975) c odices a nd t he r egister s pace w hich t hey d efine i s am ore c haracteristically M exican c onvention t han a M aya o ne. T he c onstruction o f t he f igures b y a n a ssemblage o f s eparable p arts i s a lso a r ecognizable u se o f M exican p ictorial c onventions ( Robertson 1 970). A s a t C acaxtla, h owever, t he p ictorial c onventions o f a d ifferent c ultural g rouping a re u sed t o c onvey a n i ndigenous c ont ent. T he " meaning" b ehind t he Santa R ita m urals i s Maya, j ust a s t he e ssential m essage c onveyed b y t he C aclxtla murals i s o ne o f M exican m ilitary s uperiority. A t b oth s ites t here h as b een a t actical a doption o f a nother a rea 's c haracteristic s tyle o f p ictorial e xpression. W hat t he p rocesses a t w ork a t b oth t hese s ites m ake a pparent i s t hat t he p ictographic s ystem o f t he M exicans was n ot a s topping p lace o n t he d evelopmental p ath t owards Maya h ieroglyphic w riting a ny more t han i t w ould n ecessarily h ave d eveloped i nto a n a lphabetic t ext. I t was a c omplex a nd u nique p ictorial l anguage, c apable o f l evels o f m eaning d ifficult t o c omprehend w ithin a European d efinition o f " image." This d efinition, when a pplied t o Mesoamerica, d enies t he c omplexity o f b oth M aya a nd M exican a rt, w hile s imultaneously d istorting o ur u nderstanding o f t he i nter-relationship o f t heir r espective h ieroglyphic a nd p ict ographic s ystems o f c ommunication.
R ESL 1MEN E l a utor d iscute e l t rasfondo h ist6rico q ue c aracteriza e l e studio o ccidental d el a rte p re-colambino y e nfatiza p articularmente n ociones s obre l a d iferenciaci6n e ntre " texto" e " imagen". L a a utora c ontrasta l a a preciaci6n o ccidental d el a rte c entro mejicano y m aya, s ef talando q ue l a m ayoria d e l os e studiosos e nvisionan e l a rte m aya c omo l a c ulminaci6n d e l a c ivilizaci6n p re-colombina. B addeley a tribuye e sto, e n p arte, a l h echo d e q ue l os m aya t uvieron u n c omplejo s istema d e e scritura, u n r asgo q ue l os e uropeos a sociaron c on e l a vance c ultural. Se c omparan l os s istemas m aya y c entro m ejicanos p oniendo e special a tenci6n e n s u c onvergencia e n C acaxtla.
6 5
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O klahoma
a Maya
P hilosophical
Hiero-
S ociety.
P hilidelphia. V ienna C odex 1 963
C odex V ienna Vindobonensis Mexicanus. A delhofer. G raz,
A kademische D rucke - u .
A ustria.
6 9
S ummary b y O . V erlagsanstalt.
F igure
1 . S tela B ,
Q uirigua, G uatemala.
7 0
F igure 2 .
D resden C odex , p age
O .
F igure 3 . C acaxtla ,
7 2
E dificio B .
F igure 4 .
3 ( Deer?)
A ntler, C acaxtla ,
7 3
E dificio B .
F igure 5 .
' Bleeding h eart '
g lyph, C acaxtla,
7 1
E dificio B .
04 .
F igure
6 . C acaxtla g lyphs,
E dificio B .
F igure 7 . D efeated B ird W arrior L eader, C acaxtla , E dificio B .
7 6
F igure 8 . Captive B ird W arrior L eader, C acaxtla,
7 7
E dificio B .
T HE W ARRIOR A ND T HE B UTTERFLY : C ENTRAL M EXICAN I DEOLOGIES O F S ACRED W ARFARE A ND T EOTIHUACAN I CONOGRAPHY
b y J ANET
C ATHERINE B ERLO
I ntroduction T he p ast f ifteen y ears h ave w itnessed a f lowering o f i nterest i n t he s tudy o f T eotihuacan i conography. A lthough s tudents o f T eotihuacan a rt a re r elatively f ew ( compared t o t he n umerous s cholars a t w ork o n p roblems i n M aya a rt a nd i conology, f or e xample), a s teady s tream o f s tudies b y a r elatively s mall g roup o f i ndividuals h as f urthered o ur k nowledge o f t he m eaning o f t he T eotihuacan s ymbolic s ystem. A pproaches t o t he s tudy o f Teotihuacan a rt h ave v aried f rom t he " contextual a pproach" o f K ubler ( 1967) which e schews t he u se o f d ocum ents t emporally u nrelated t o t he a rt o bject, t o t he " synthetic a pproach" o f P asztory ( 1973), C . M illon ( 1973), H eyden ( 1975), a nd V on W inning ( 1977) i n w hich c ontextual s tudy c ombines w ith a n e thnohistoric a nalysis. I n t his e ssay, I s hall d raw u pon t he e thnohistory a nd l iterature o f t he A ztecs a s a m eans o f e lucidating t he m eaning o f o bjects m ade b y t heir Teotihuacan f orbears. I n c onjunction w ith t his a nalogical a pproach, I s hall c onsider t he c ontext a nd c omparative a ssociations o f t he
o bjects
t hemselves.
T hrough
t his
m ulti-faceted
a nalysis,
I w ill
d emonstrate t hat c ertain a spects o f A ztec m ilitarism a nd r eligion m ay h ave o riginated i n t he p olitically-based r eligious i deology f ormulated d uring T eotihuacan 's p eriod o f s outhward i mperial e xpansion i n t he M iddle C lassic p eriod. For n early f orty y ears, Mesoamericanists h ave r ecognized t hat Teot ihuacan maintained a f ar-flung n etwork o f t rade a nd i nfluence i n t he Maya a rea. S ince t he g round-breaking w ork o f K idder, J ennings, a nd Shook a t K aminaljuyu, G uatemala ( 19 ) 46), t here h as b een i ncreasing i nterest i n t he c omplex e conomic, p olitical, a nd i deational t ies f ormed b y T eotihuacanos w ith t heir s outhern n eighbors. S pecific s tudies o f T eotihuacan s ettlement a t K aminaljuyu ( Sanders a nd Michels 1 977), p olitical a nd a rtistic i nfluence a t T ikal ( Coe 1 972, C oggins 1 975, 1 979), a nd p rovincial c raft p roduction i n t he d epartment o f E scuintla
7 9
( Hellmuth
1 975,
1 978;
B erlo
1 980,
a nd
i n p ress)
a s w ell
a s m ore w ide-
r anging t heoretical e fforts ( Parsons 1 969, K . B rown 1 977; P asztory 1 978), h ave a ll a mply d emonstrated t he p ivotal i mportance o f T eotihuac an c ivilization i n t his s outhern a rea d uring t he M iddle C lassic p eriod.
Is hall e xamine j ust o ne a spect o f T eotihuacan p resence a broad:
t he a rtistic m anifestations o f m ilitaristic i deology maintained w ithin T eotihuacano c ommunities i n t he P acific s lopes o f G uatemala. E laborate f igural i ncense b urners a nd m old-impressed c ylindrical t ripod v essels i n Teotihuacan s tyle l ooted f rom s ites i n E scuintla h ave b een a ppearing o n t he i nternational a rt m arket f or m ore t han a d ecade ( figures 1 a nd 4 ). A m ore c omplete u nderstanding o f t he m eaning o f t his a rt i s h ampered b y t he p aucity o f s cientific e xcavation o n t he s outh c oast. A t p resent, w e h ave n o f irm i dea h ow t hese f oreign o bjects f it i nto l ocal h istory, f or t he s equence o f l ocal h istory i s n ot y et c lear. Those s ites t hat h ave b een e xcavated, s uch a s B ilbao a nd E l B aul, f lourished a fter t he T eotihuacano a ppearance o n t he c oast. O nly a f ew o f t he many s ites d otting t he P acific l ittoral t hat h ave b een m apped o r s urveyed h ave Until
b een p ublished
l arge-scale
( Boyd
l ooting
i s
1 981). r eplaced
b y
l arge-scale
s cientific
e xcavation, t here i s m uch t hat w e w ill n ot k now a bout T eotihuacan p rese nce i n s outhern Guatemala. A rt h istorical a nalysis, h owever, c an p rovide m any c lues t o t he n ature o f t he T eotihuacan p resence h ere, b ased o n a n e xamination o f t he v isual s ymbols t hat T eotihuacanos d isplayed i n t his f oreign l and. I ncontrovertible f acts c an n ot b e p rovided b y s uch a n a nalysis, b ut s ome s uggestive h ypotheses c an b e p ut f orth, b a ed o n t he c ombined m ethods o f a rt h istory ( stylistic a nd i conographic a nalys is)
a nd
e thnohistory
( ethnographic
a nalogy).
T hese
h ypotheses,
o f
c ourse, m ay well b e r evised b ased o n m ore e xtensive e mpirical e vidence g ained i n t he f uture f rom i n-depth e xcavation. T he
f igural
i ncense
b urners
a nd
t ripod
v essels
r ecovered
f rom
E scuintla e mphatically d epict a c oncern w ith a r eligious e thos b ased o n m ilitarism. I b elieve t hat t his e thos a rose d uring t he E arly C lassic p eriod w ithin Teotihuacan p rovincial o utposts i n Escuintla. T he m ain i conographic c ategories d isplayed o n t hese o bjects c oncern w arriors a nd a m artial b utterfly d eity ( figures 1 a nd 4 ). I s hall e xamine t his i conographic c onfiguration b oth w ithin t he s pecific c ontext o f T eotih uacano p olitical c oncerns i n s outhern G uatemala, a nd w ithin t he m ore g eneral c ontext o f M esoamerican r eligious b eliefs a bout w arfare a nd t he g ods. A lthough t he A ztec e mpire f lourished m ore t han s even h undred y ears a fter t he d emise o f t he T eotihuacan e mpire, m ost p re-Columbian s cholars a gree t hat t he u se o f A ztec a nalogies i s r elevant i n d iscussion o f e arlier c ultures, f or M esoamerica was a u nified c ulture a rea. N onethel ess, t here h as b een s ome d isagreement a bout t he u se o f e thnohistoric a nalogy i n s tudying c ultures p rior t o t he l ate P ost-Classic p eriod. 1 I w ill n ot r eview t hat d ebate h ere, b ut w ill s ay o nly t hat a t housand-year p eriod o f i deological c ontinuity i n t he p re-Hispanic M exican r eligious
8 0
s ystem s hould n ot
s eem u nlikely i f w e
c onsider
t hat
o ur
o wn r eligions
m aintain a n a stonishing d egree o f c ontinuity i n t heir e ssential c ore f eatures, d espite r adical c hanges i n s ociety. E ven i n o ur o wn v ery m utable w orld, r eligious s ymbols a re t he m ost p ersistent t hrough t ime. Analogical e xplication h as b een u sed b efore, n ot o nly i n T eotihuac an s tudies, w here i t h as b een e mployed s ince Seler 's w ork e arly i n t he c entury ( 1902-23; a lso P asztory 1 973; H eyden 1 975) b ut a lso i n s pecific r eference t o T eotihuacan p resence i n t he s outhern M aya a rea. I n 1 977 W illiam Sanders d iscussed Teotihuacano " mercantile i mperialism" i n t he M aya h ighlands o n t he b asis o f e thnohistoric a nalogy w ith t he l ater A ztec p ochteca, a h igh-status p rofessional m erchant c lass. A lthough A ztec p ochteca w ere p rincipally t raders, S ahagun a lso r elates t hat t hey w ent o n s pying m issions i n f oreign l ands, a nd t hat w hen t hey w ent a broad t o t rade t hey w ere a rmed f or w ar : They b ore t heir s hields, t heir o bsidian-bladed s words, a nd t heir d evices, b ecause t hey p assed t hrough t he e nemy 's l and, where t hey m ight d ie a nd w here t hey t ook c aptives. ( 1950-1969, B ook 9 :17) C alling t rade
t he m otivation f or Teotihuacan c ontact, W illiam S anders
s uggests t hat a s pecialized c lass o f T eotihuacan m erchants m oved e xotic g oods o ver g reat d istances. H e f urther s tates t hat " the s pecific o bject ive o f t he T eotihuacan p ochteca a t K aminaljuyu w as p robably t o s ecure a h old o n t he t rade b etween e nvironmentally d iverse a reas s uch a s t he P acific c oast, F eten l owlands"
P acific p iedmont, ( 1977:408).
While n o e mpirical
t he
e vidence h as
G uatemalan
y et
h ighlands,
a nd
t he
b een u ncovered t o p rove t hat
T eotihuacan h ad a s e laborate a m ercantile o rganization a s t he A ztec, t he w idespread m ovement o f Teotihuacan o bjects a s w ell a s t he m ilitar istic i conography a ssociated w ith T eotihuacanos i n E scuintla, K aminaljuyu, a nd t he F eten s uggests t hat s ome s ort o f o rganized g roup o f a rmed t raders e xercised e conomic v ery l east, a p ersuasive o ne.
c ontrol.
T he A ztec m odel
i s,
a t t he
From my o wn r esearch o n Teotihuacan c eramics i n Escuintla, I h yp othesize t hat t he P acific s lopes s erved a s t he s taging a rea f rom which T eotihuacano m ilitia o r p ochteca m ade t heir i ncursions n orthward i nto t he h ighlands a nd F eten. In E scuintla, T eotihuacan a rt c onformed m ore r igidly t o s tylistic c ategories e stablished a t t he m other c ity ; w ith f ew e xceptions, l ess d iluted s tyle a rt f ound a t K aminaljuyu
b y M aya i nfluence t han T eotihuacan( Kidder, e t a l. 1 946), A matitlan
( Borhegyi 1 959) o r T ikal ( Coggins 1 975); a nd was t hus, e arly manifestation o f Teotihuacan p resence a broad. B ecause E scuintla
a rt
b oth
s tylistically
m aintains
c loser
i t w as,
a nd
t ies
i conographically,
w ith Teotihuacan
T eotihuacan-derived i mages w e s ee a t K aminaljuyu,
8 1
p resumably,
a n
T eotihuacan-
i tself
A matitlan,
t han
t he
o r T ikal,
w e c an e xpect i t t o a rticulate m ore c learly t he a ims a nd i deologies o f i ts m akers a nd u sers t han d o t he h ybrid T eotihuacan/Maya i mages f ound e lsewhere. Y et, a s I w ill d emonstrate, i t a lso b rings t o t he f orefront c ertain t hemes t hat,
a lthough n ot d ominant a t T eotihuacan i tself, w ere
c learly p art o f t he C entral M exican b elief s ystem i n t he C lassic p eriod. Later, w hen t he M exica b uilt t heir c ivilization u pon t he c ultures t hat h ad p receded t hem i n t he Valley o f M exico, t hey e laborated t hese b eliefs a bout s acred w arfare a nd a b utterfly g oddess i n o rder t o f ormulate a s tate a nd a w orld v iew t hat r evolved a round s acred b loodshed a nd m ilitary m ight.
Forms And S ymbols In Escuintla Art E lsewhere I h ave d iscussed i n d etail t he s tylistic a nd i conog raphic f eatures o f t he T eotihuacan-style i ncense b urners a nd c ylindric al t ripod v essels f ound i n E scuintla, a s w ell a s t heir r elationship t o t he i ndigenous c ulture o f t he P acific s lopes o f G uatemala ( Berlo 1 980, 1 983, a nd i n p ress). I s hall n ot r epeat t hat d iscussion h ere. B y s tylistic a nalysis I h ave d etermined t hat T eotihuacan-style c ensers a s w ell a s a t l east s ome o f t he c ylindrical t ripod v essels w ere m ade b y w orkshops o f T eotihuacan a rtists w ho t raveled s outh w ith t he w arriors a nd t raders w ho e stablished c ommunities i n s outhern G uatemala. 2 T he c ensers a re m ade o f l ocal c lays, t hough s ome o f t he molds u sed i n t heir m anufacture may h ave b een i mported f rom t he Valley o f Mexico. A t T eotihuacan, c ensers h ave b een d iscovered b roken o r d isassemb led i n b urials, c aches, a nd o fferings. T hey s eem t o h ave h ad p articul ar i mportance i n h ousehold a nd a partment-compound r itual, w here t hey p robably f unctioned a s i cons f or r eligious p ractices i nvolving m embers o f a c ommon l ineage, c lan, o r c ult g roup ( Berlo 1 982:91). A g reat d eal more e xcavation i s n eeded i n Escuintla b efore w e c an a ssess t he c ontext a nd e xact m eaning o f t he c enser c ult i n t his a rea. T he e mblems a nd i mages o n e xtant c ensers, h owever, p ertain q uite c losely t o Teotihuacan c ategories ( unlike t he a ssociated c ylindrical t ripod v essels w hich s eem m ore e clectic i n t heir i ntermixture o f Teotihuacan, Maya, a nd G ulf C oast i magery. S ee Hellmuth 1 978, a nd B erlo 1 980:Chapter 3 ). F rom t his w e m ight c onclude t hat f or Teotihuacanos i n E scuintla, l acking t he g rand p ublic a renas f or r itual t hat l ined t he S treet o f t he D ead i n t heir n ative m etropolis, t he c enser c ult w as t he f ocus f or g roup r itual a nd w as i nstrumental i n e mphasizing t he i deological c oncerns o f w arrior/trader c ommunity. J udging f rom t he r elative s tylistic
t he a nd
i conographic " purity" maintained i n t heir r itual a rts, t he T eotihuacan i mmigrants r emained a c losely-knit g roup d uring t he f irst d ecades o f i ngression i n t his a rea o f G uatemala. T heir t raditional c enser c ult m ay h ave b een a m echanism f or m aintaining e thnicity i n a n a lien e nvironm ent. ( One i s r eminded h ere o f r esident Z apotecs a t T eotihuacan p res erving t heir e thnic i dentity b y b uilding O axacan-style t ombs a nd u sing b oth i mported a nd l ocally-made f unerary u rns i n Z apotec s tyle. M illon
1 981:241.)
8 2
S ee R .
J udging b y t heir m aterial r emains, T eotihuacan w arrior/traders i n E scuintla f ocused mainly o n o ne c ult, r ather t han t he p anoply o f c ults a ctive
a t
t heir m other
c ity.
T hat
c ult s eems
t o h ave b een d evoted t o
d eified w arriors a nd w arrior d eities a s d emonstrated b y t he s everely r estricted s ymbolic r epertory i n u se o n t hese p rovincial c ensers: t he s ymbols r efer a lmost e xclusively t o m otifs o f w arfare a nd a m artial b utterfly w hose a ttributes w ill b e d iscussed b elow. T his s tands i n c ontrast t o c ensers a t T eotihuacan i tself, w here c ensers d isplay w ider anging c oncerns, a nd m ay i n s ome c ases h ave b een " custom-made" f or a p articular r itual o ccasion
( Berlo
1 982).
L ike t heir c ounterparts a t Teotihuacan, E scuintla a rtists m ade c ensers w ith a n a nthropomorphic f ace a s t he c entral c ompositicnal f ocus ( figures 1 a nd ) 4 ). 3 T he c lay s tructure w as b uilt a rchitectonically a round t he f ace, w ith a c himney e xtending u p t he b ack o f t he o bject. A ttached t o t he c enser, b adge-like e mblems c alled a dornos e xpress g lyphic s ymbols d erived f rom T eotihuacan 's s tandard v isual v ocabulary s uch a s s hields, s pears, r eptile-eye g lyphs, f eathered c ircles, a nd t ri-mountain s igns. E xplicit m artial i conography, f eaturing s hields, s pears, s crapers, a nd g lyphic s igns a ssociated w ith Teotihuacan w arf are, o ccurs o n m ore t han h alf o f s ome f orty c ensers f rom E scuintla t hat I h ave s tudied ( Berlo 1 980:152-158). N early t wo-thirds o f t hese w arrior f igures w ear b utterfly i nsignia i n t heir h eadgear. F rom t his w e may c onclude t hat b utterfly i conography i s o f p ivotal s ignificance t o o ur u nderstanding o f t hese i mages. A c enser f rom t he c ollection o f t he B russels Museum i s i llustrated a s a r epresentative e xample o f w arrior c ensers f rom E scuintla ( figure 1 ). Many more s uch o bjects a re i llustrated b y Hellmuth ( 1975) a nd B erlo ( 1980). I n t his c eramic a ssemblage, a h uman f igure w ears a c haracteri stic Teotihuacan-style a bstract b utterfly n oseplaque a nd l arge r ound e arplugs. I n b oth h ands t he f igure h olds f eathered r ondels s urmounted b y a c luster o f t hree o bjects w ith t asselled e nds. C omparison w ith m ilitaristic f igures i n T eotihuacan mural p ainting a nd p ottery, a s w ell a s w ith o ther Escuintla c ensers, s uggests t hat t his e mblem i s m eant t o r epresent a c luster o f t hree s pears o f w hich o nly t he d ecorated a nd t asselled e nds a re v isible. T he c enser l id i n f igure 1 i s t opheavy w ith a n e laborate h eaddress which s urmounts t he h uman f ace. I n t he h eaddress, f eathered r ondels, m ore s pear-end b adges, a nd c lay r eplicas o f f ringed a nd f eathered f laps s urround a c entral b utterfly i mage. T he d iagnostic p roboscis c urls f orward, a nd t he t asseled a ntennae e xtend f rom t he p roboscis o ver e ach o f t he i nsect e yes. O n s ome c ensers, a l arge f anged m outh c ompletes t he i mage
( figure 4 ). These
s ame
f eatures
a re
d iagnostic
o f
s ome
b utterfly i magery a t
T eotihuacan i tself. F or e xample, o n t he v essel wall o f a mold-impressed c ylindrical t ripod i llustrated i n f igure 2 , w e s ee a f rontal b utterfly w ith f anged m outh, a nd
a s ideways
f eathered e yes,
c urling
p aired t assels s erving a s a ntennae,
p roboscis
8 3
( rendered
more
a ccurately
i n
t he
E scuintla
t hree-dimensional
o bjects a s
f orward c urling).
W ings
c om-
p lete t he b utterfly i mage. B ecause t his i magery i s m anifest i n m etrop olitan Teotihuacan a rt, w e c an a ssume t hat c entral M exico w as t he s ource o f t his i magery, T eotihuacan a rt a broad.
d espite
t he f act t hat
i t o ccurs m ore
o ften i n
O ne o f t he b asic a nd m ost c ommonly k nown f eatures o f M esoamerican r itual d ress i s t he p redilection f or d isplaying n ame, r ank, o r o ther i dentifying i nsignia i n h eadgear , i t o ccurs i n A ztec m anuscripts, i n Z apotec u rns, a nd i n M aya h istorical s telae, t o c ite j ust a f ew i nstances.
T he
r epeated
u se
o f
a s tandard
b utterfly i nsignia i n t he
h eaddresses o f n umerous c ensers s uggests t hat a p articular c lass o f m ilitary f igures, r ather t han i ndividual h istorical w arriors, i s b eing n amed h ere. A c omparison o f t he Escuintla b utterfly-warrior w ith s ymbols u sed a t T eotihuacan i tself r eveals t hat, i n a ddition t o m ilitaristic a ssocia tions, b utterflies p lay a r ole i n a n umber o f i conographic t hemes t here, a nd t heir e xact m eaning i s n ot c lear. B utterflies a re a mong t he most c ommon e mblems o n i ncense b urners m ade a nd u sed a t Teotihuacan ( Berlo 1 982:figure 1 0). T hey a re f ound i n c onjunction w ith a w ide r ange o f o ther e mblems b oth o n c ensers a nd c ylindrical t ripod v essels. K ubler h as f ound t hat a t T eotihuacan t he b utterfly i s c onjoined m ost o ften w ith r eptile-eye g lyphs, f lowers, mountains, a nd Tlaloc h eads. I ts p osit ioning o n i ncense b urners " . . .s uggests t hat t his c luster r elates t o f uneral r ites a nd t hat t he b utterfly m ay b e a n i mage f or t he s oul" ( 1967:9). B utterflies a re a lso l inked t o l iquid o f a n u nspecified s ort i n a n umber o f p rofile r epresentations ( Franco 1 961 : Lamina V ). B utterfly-warrior i magery was o nly o ne c omponent o f b utterfly s ymbolism a t Teotihuacan i tself, a nd o nly o ne s mall p art o f a c omplex a nd n ot w ell-understood p antheon. S tucco-painted c ylindrical t ripod v essels a t Dumbarton Oaks ( Kubler 1 967:13) a nd a t t he D iego R ivera Museum i n M exico C ity ( figure 3 ) d epict p rofile w arriors w ith t he b utterfly h eadgear i nsignia c haracteristic o f t he r epresentations t hat w e h ave b een c onsidering i n E scuintla. T he w arrior w ears e arplugs a nd b utterfly n oseplaque. I n h is h eaddress, w e s ee t he b utterfly 's f orward-curling p roboscis a nd f eathered e ye. T he i nsect 's w ings e xtend o ut t o e ither s ide o f al arge f eathered s hield. T his i con, n ot a m ajor t heme a t T eotihuacan i tself, b ecame p reeminent i n t he p rovincial a rt o f Escuintla, r eflecting t he i mmediate c oncerns o f a n e lite w arrior t rader c ommunity. B ecause t he m eaning o f Teotihuacan s ymbols i s e mbedded i n c ont extual a ssociations t hat a re n ot a lways c lear, a nd b ecause w e h ave n o c oeval t exts t o i lluminate t hese s ymbols, w e m ust t urn t o l ater C entral M exican b elief s ystems, e arlier
e mblems.
A n
w here
c lues c an
e xamination
b e f ound t o h elp d ecode t hese
o f A ztec
h elps c larify t heir m eaning.
8 4
b eliefs
a bout
b utterflies
To
t he
A ztec,
t he
b utterfly,
o r
p apalotl,
h ad
s everal
m eanings.
F oremost a mong t hese w as t he i dea o f t he b utterfly a s t he t ransformed s oul o f a d ead p erson. S ahagun r elates t hat d ead w arriors r eturn t o e arth t ransformed i nto b utterfies a nd b irds t hat s ip n ectar f rom f lowers: And w hen f our y ears h ad g one b y, t hen t hey w ere c hanged i nto b irds o f p recious f eather--humming b irds, f lower b irds, y ellow b irds b lackened a bout t he e yes ; c halky b utterflies, f eatherd own b utterflies, l arge v an -colored b utterf lies, w hich s ucked h oney f rom t he f lowers t here w here t hey d welt. A nd h ere u pon e arth t hey c ame t o s uck h oney f rom a ll ( 1950-1969, B ook 3 :47-48)
t he
v aried
f lowers.
A ztec l yric p oetry e xpands t his i mage. A n umber o f p oems d escribe b utterflies s ucking n ectar f rom f lowers which a re l ikened t o h uman h earts: Y a v iene, y a v iene l a m ariposa : v iene v olando, v iene a briendo s us a las : s obre f lores v ive: a nda c hupando m iel. i Que s e d eleite : y a s u c oraz6n s e a bre : e s u na f lor! ( Leander 1 972:93) T hus t he M exica p oet h as d rawn a l ink b etween t he b utterfly n ourished b y f lower n ectar a nd t he w arrior w ho s heds h uman b lood. T he A ztec p ictograph f or t he s oul o f a d ead w arrior i ncludes a s tylized b utterfly i mage r esembling t he n oseplaque d epicted i n f igure 1 ( see T ozzer 1 957:figure 5 24). Seler r ecounts t hat t he c entral e ffigy i n t he A ztec Xocotl u etzi f east ( feast o f t he a dult d ead) w as a d ough i dol i n t he f orm o f a m ummy b undle w ith b utterfly m arkings : t he p ainting a nd a dornment o f t his i dol w ere white, a nd i ts s pecial m arks a re t wo o r t hree n otched p lates m ade o f w hite o r s hining metal a nd f astened t o a h andle. T hey a re i mitations o f a b utterfly f igure o r a re i ntended t o r epres ent t he a ppurtenances o f a b utterfly, a nd w ere s tuck i n t he h air o r t he h eadband o f t he i dol. This i dol i s t he s pirit
t he o f
g od o f t he w arrior 's d eath o r t he d ead w arrior. ( Seler
1 904:1039) S cholars h ave g enerally a ssumed t hat t he A ztec l inkage o f b utterf ly a nd w arrior was a l egacy f rom t he Toltecs. T he uniform f or a Toltec w arrior, a s d epicted b oth i n m onumental s culpture a nd i n m ural p ainting, i ncluded a p ectoral p laque i n s tylized b utterfly s hape ( Nicholson
1 971b: figures
2)4 a nd
3 1; V illagra C aleti
8 5
1 971:figure
2 7).
T he
e vidence
f rom
Teotihuacan
a nd
E scuintla
s uggests
t hat
i t
i s
a ctually a n e ven e arlier l egacy f rom t he C lassic p eriod Valley o f M exico c ivilization p receding t he Toltec. B y A ztec t imes, b utterfly e mblems a nd d evices c omprised o nly o ne s mall p art o f t he m any s pecialized t ypes o f i nsignia f or A ztec w arriors. Both C odex Mendoza a nd C odex Matritense i llustrate a v ariety o f b utterf ly i nsignia ( Ross 1 978:42 , 4 4, S ullivan 1 972:figures 2 , 1 3, 1 7 , 4 ) 4, a nd 5 1). I n C odex Matritense, o ne o f t he e mblems a ppropriate f or a c aptain i s d escribed a s a n o bsidian b utterfly ( Sullivan 1 972:figure 5 1). T he A ztecs a lso d epicted f lames i n t he s hape o f b utterflies. T he l inkage o f b utterfly w ith f ire a nd w ith d eath r evolves a round t he i dea o f m etamorphosis: l iving w arriors t ransmute i nto b utterflies a fter d eath. In E scuintla a rt, w arriors w ith b utterfly i nsignia o ccur m ost o ften o n i ncense b urners, a lthough t hey o ccasionally a re f ound o n c ylindrical t ripod v essels a s w ell ( Hellmuth 1 975:plate 7 ). T he f lames o f a n i ncensario r itual t ransmute c opal i nto t he s weet s moke t hat r ises t o t he g ods. As I h ave p ointed o ut e lsewhere, t he t hree-step l ife c ycle o f t he b utterfly makes i t al ogical c hoice f or a t ransformational s ymbol ( 1982:99). E arlier e vidence f or t he l ink b etween b utterflies a nd t he s ouls o f t he d ead c an b e f ound i n t he T lalocan m ural a t t he T epantitla r esidence c omplex a t Teotihuacan, where l arge b utterflies w ith r inged e yes c avort w ith h umans a nd o ther i nsects ( Pasztory 1 973:figure 4 ), As P asztory n otes i n r eference t o t he b irds a nd b utterflies i n t he T lalocan m ural, i n
m any M esoamerican
c ultures,
d ead
s ouls
a re
b elieved t o j oin t he r anks o f b eneficent s maller s pirits t hat a ccompany t he major d eities, a s t he r ain a nd f ertility g ods, a nd t o t heir d escendants o n e arth. ( 1972:159)
s uch h elp
T zotzil Maya a t Z inacantan t oday s till r etain t he c oncept o f t he " transf ormed b utterfly," i nvisible, ( Blaffer
a nd
i s
s mayol,
t hat
b elieved
t o
f lies a nd s ings
o nly a t
n ight, m ay
b e
o f
a ncestor
a m essenger
t he
b e
g ods
1 972:82).
T he s ixteenth-century B ishop L anda o f Y ucatan w rote t hat t ravelers a nd m erchants c arried i ncense a nd i ncense b urners o n t heir j ourneys s o t hat a t n ight, n o m atter w here t hey w ere, t hey c ould b urn i ncense t o t he g ods, p raying f or a s afe r eturn h ome f rom t heir t ravels ( Tozzer 1 941:107). T he e xistence o f s cores o f Teotihuacan-style i ncense b urners i n E scuintla, G uatemala s uggests t hat T eotihuacano m erchants, t ravelers, a nd w arriors a pparently h eld t o s imilar c ustoms m ore t han o ne t housand y ears e arlier. A lthough a f ew o f t hese o bjects m ay h ave b een c arried b y t heir u sers, a s Landa d escribed, i t i s m ore l ikely t hat c ensers o f T eotihuacan s tyle w ere m ade i n s itu i n E scuintla.
T hey a re
l arge o bjects, f ragile i n t heir c on s truction, a nd b ulky t o c arry. N o c hemical a nalysis o f t heir p astes h as y et b een d one, b ut i t i s l ikely
8 6
t hat
t hey a re m ade o f
t he
l ocal
c lays
o f
t he E scuintla r egion.
S tyl-
i stic a nalysis r eveals t hem t o b e e xtremely c lose t o T eotihuacan t ype i n t he t elling d etails o f p roportion, f ormat, i conography, a nd s tylistic c onventions. F or t his r eason, I b elieve t hat T eotihuacan c eramic s pecialists w ere r esponsible f or t heir m anufacture o n t he P acific p iedmont o f G uatemala. E scuintla c ensers w ith w arrior i magery m ay h ave b een u sed i n r ites p ropitiating t hose w arrior s pirits w ho h ad p assed o n t o t heir h eavenly r ewards.
P erhaps t hey w ere s een a s i ntermediaries o r
t utelary s pirits w ho w ould g uide l iving w arriors a nd t raders t o s uccess a nd s afety i n t heir e ndeavors. A nother
g roup
o f E scuintla
c ensers
r epresents
n ot
j ust w arriors
a dorned w ith b utterfly i nsignia, b ut a nthropomorphic b utterflies t hems elves ( figure ) 4 ). More t han t wenty-five p ercent o f t he c ensers k nown t o m e f rom E scuintla f it t his c ategory, i n w hich a b utterfly w ith c entral h uman f ace i s f ormed o n t he c onical l id o f t he c enser. F ringed b utterfly e yes, t asselled a ntennae, p roboscis, a nd i n s ome c ases a l arge f anged mouth s till o ccur i n t he h eadgear, a s o n t he w arrior c enser i n f igure 1 ; h ere, t hey a re i n f act g iven a n e ven m ore p rominent p osit ion. I n t he c lass o f o bjects r epresented b y t he c enser i n f igure 4 , h owever, l arge b utterfly w ings a re a ttached t o t he l id b eneath t he f ace, g iving t he i mpression t hat t he f igure w ears a b utterfly c ape o r q uechquemitl ( Central M exican-style woman 's b louse). I n c ontrast t o t hese c ensers, t he b ody d ress o f t he f igure i s n ever s hown i n t he g roup o f w arrior c ensers r epresented b y t he o bject i n f igure 1 . T he h ead e merges f rom t he r ecessed a rea o f t he c enser, a nd t he h ands h old i dentif ying i mplements, b ut t he b ody i s n ot i ndicated. T he c areful d elineat ion o f b utterfly w ings o n t he u pper t orso o f t he s econd g roup o f c eramic o bjects s uggests t hat t hese w ings a re a n i mportant c lue t o t he i dentity a nd t he s ex o f t he b eing. T his
b utterfly
i n
f emale
d ress
a ppears
a lso
i n
t he
G uatemalan
h ighlands, j ust n orth o f t he d epartment o f E scuintla. I n B urial I I o f Mound B e xcavated b y K idder, J ennings, a nd Shook a t K aminaljuyu, a s tucco-painted c ylindrical t ripod v essel d epicts a s tanding f rontal f igure w earing t he b utterfly h eaddress a nd n oseplaque s pread
b utterfly
w ings
w ith
p endant
s pear-end
( figure 5 ).
t assels
s erve
a s
O uth er
q uechquemitl. S he w ears a l ong s kirt a nd h as l ong h air. O n t he l id o f t he v essel, T eotihuacan t rapeze-and-ray g lyphs a lternate w ith f lowers. What r elationship d oes t his b utterfly g oddess h ave w ith t he c oncerns o f T eotihuacanos i n E scuintla a nd K aminaljuyu? I b elieve t hat a n e xcursus i nto A ztec r eligious b elief p rovides t he a nswer.
B utterflies, G oddesses,
a nd W arriors :
An A ztec M odel
Among t he A ztec, t he p rimary w ar d eity w as Huitzilopochtli, whose t emp le, a long w ith T laloc 's, was t he f ocal p oint o f r itual a t T enochtitlan. However, a s B etty A nn B rown h as s hown ( 1981), m any A ztec g ods a nd g oddesses w ere d epicted i n aw arrior-like m anner i n A ztec a rt a nd c ult.
8 7
B rown a sserts t hat t he o verwhelmingly m ilitaristic s ymbolism i n p ublic c eremonialism was a m eans o f b uttressing p olitical a ims o f t he M exica s tate.
t he
b loodthirsty
v alues
a nd
I t b ecomes s ignificant f or t his s tudy, h owever, t o r ealize t hat A ztec g oddesses, i n p articular, a re r epeatedly a nd c onsistently l inked t o w ar, n ot o nly i n p ublic c eremony , b ut i n m yth a nd l iterature. I n A ztec s ong a nd p oetry, o ne f inds m any r eferences t o g oddesses a nd w arf are. S ometimes t he p urpose o f t his l inkage w as t o r ecall s pecific e vents i n A ztec m ilitary h istory, a s B rown h as p ersuasively a rgued f or t he a llusions t o t he C olhuacan w ar t hat a re m anifest i n t he O chpaniztli c eremony h onoring t he g oddess T oci ( in p ress); t his l inkage o f g oddesses a nd m ilitarism
h owever , I s uggest t hat a lso r eflects a ncient
r eligious t raditions i n t he Valley o f M exico. I n t his p art o f m y e ssay, I s hall e xamine t hese l inked t hemes i n A ztec a rt a nd r eligion i n o rder t o p rovide i nsight i nto t he m eaning o f s imilar i mages i n T eotihuacanE scuintla a rt,
t hus
c ano w arriors,
t raders,
e lucidating t he i deological a nd
c oncerns
o f T eotihua-
e missaries f ar f rom t heir h omelands.
T he m ost w ar-like o f t he g oddesses, a nd t he o ne w hose c ult r elated m ost c losely t o t he m ilitary o rigins a nd d evelopment o f t he A ztec e mpire, w as C ihuacoatl ( see K lein 1 979:1). S everal s tanzas o f a n A ztec h ymn t o t his g oddess s uggest h er m artial m ight : T he e agle w oman, t he w arrior w oman, t he f emale w arrior, s he i s p ainted w ith t he b lood o f t he s erpent a nd e agle f eathers f orm h er c rown. T he t all c yprus t ree ( the d efense, t ion) o f
t he
C olhuacan.
c ountry
o f
t he
t he
C halmeca,
p rotecs he
. .
The Maguey s pine, r ests i n m y h and
t he m aguey s pine
o n t he f ield o f t he g od. O n t he r attling s taff s he s upports h erself. T he r attle s taff i s h er s upport. Our m other, t he f emale w arrior O ur m other, t he f emale w arrior t he d eer o f C olhuacan w ears e agle f eathers. The d ay h as d awned, t he m orning, t he c ommand f or w ar h as g one o ut, c aptives w ill b e d ragged a long t he g round! T he w hole l and w ill b e d estroyed. T he d eer o f C olhuacan w ears e agle f eathers.
I g ive y ou e agle f eathers. Eagle f eathers a re y our a dornment,
8 8
o f
H e w ho f ights v aliantly i n w ar i s a dorned w ith e agle f eathers. ( author 's t ranslation, f rom A sturias
1 960:37-8)
I n t his h ymn, c ontinued r eferences t o t he t horny maguey s pine a ffirm t he A ztec a dmiration f or a m ilitary d eath a s t he u ltimate i n a uto-sacrif ice: o ne m ight r itually p rick o ne 's e xtremities w ith a m aguey s pine t o o ffer s mall a mounts o f b lood t o t he h ungry d eities, b ut d eath o n t he b attlefield i s t he u ltimate i n b lood s acrifice. T he g lory o f n oble d eath i n w arfare i s a r ecurrent t heme i n A ztec p oetry. T he n ame C ihuacoatl w as a lso a pplied t o t he m an w ho w as s econd i n c ommand i n t he A ztec n ation, a s w ell a s t o w ar c hiefs i n t he a rmy. S ahagun 's i nformants c alled t he g oddess C ihuacoatl a n " omen o f w ar" ( 1950-1969 , B ook I :11). C ihuacoatl i s a lso k nown b y t he n ame Q uilaztli. S he i s a ddressed a s s uch i n o ther h ymns ( Brinton 1 890:64). K lein p oints o ut t hat C ihuacoatl/Quilaztli was t he a ncient o f t he c ities s outh o f Tenochtitlan :
p atron d eity
o f
s everal
T he M exica t ook h er c ult f rom C olhuacan, a c ity o f p ivotal i mportance t o t he Mexica r uling c lass b ecause o f i ts a lleged r esidue o f Toltec n obili ty , t he a ntiquity o f Toltec h abitation o f t he r egion
g ave
Mexica
t he
C olhua
n ewcomers
l acking.
f elt
a l egitimacy t hey
t hat
t hemselves
t he w ere
( 1979:3)
T hus w e h ave r eason t o b elieve t hat a w arrior a vatar o f t he e arth g oddess h as a r elatively a ncient h istory i n t he Valley o f M exico. This l ends s trength t o m y a rgument t hat A ztec b eliefs a bout m ilitary d eities m ay,
i n f act, T he
h ave t heir b asis i n C lassic p eriod T eotihuacan c ulture.
A ztec
g oddess
X ochiquetzal,
p acific p atron o f f ertility, f lowers, i s a lso c losely a ssociated w ith w ar.
n ormally
c haracterized
a s
a
t errestrial w ater, a nd w eaving, H er f all f estival " Farewell t o
F lowers" c ommemorates t he d ying o f f lowers a t t he e nd o f t he g rowing s eason. I t i s n oteworthy t hat i n t his f estival o f t he d eath o f f lowers, X ochiquetzal i s l inked w ith t he b irth o f a w arrior. D uran w rote t hat t he p riestesses a ssociated w ith t he H uitzilopochtli t emple ( to w hich t he X ochiquetzal s hrine was a n a djunct) s et a l ump o f d ough a t t he s ummit o f t he t emple. A fter m idnight t he d ough w as e xamined f or t he i mprint o f a b aby 's f oot, which w ould i ndicate t he a rrival a nd b irth o f t he w arrior Y aotzin ( Duran 1 971:241). X ochiquetzal i s f urther l inked t o w arfare b y h er a ssociation x ochitl, i n h er n ame. I n A ztec
l iterary m etaphor,
w ith
f lowers,
a nd
t he
t erm
f lower,
f lowers a re c losely a llied w ith w ar :
T here i s a c lamor o f b ells, t he d ust r ises a s i f i t w ere s moke. T he G iver o f L ife i s g ratified.
8 9
S hield f lowers o pen t heir t he g lory s preads,
b lossoms,
i t b ecomes l inked t o e arth. D eath i s h ere a mong t he f lowers i n t he m idst o f t he C lose t o t he w ar,
p lain !
w hen t he w ar b egins, i n t he m idst o f t he p lain, t he d ust r ises a s i f i t w ere s moke, e ntangled a nd t wisted r ound w ith f lowery s trands o f d eath. O h C hichimec p rinces! D o n ot f ear, m y h eart ! I n t he m idst o f t he p lain m y h eart c raves d eath b y t he o bsidian e dge. O nly t his m y h eart c raves : d eath i n w ar.
( Leon-Portilla
1 969:87-8)
I n a n e ven m ore f lamboyant p oem e ntitled C anto E xhortatorio P ara Los Q ue No Q uieren I r a La G uerra, t he f lorid l anguage m atches t he f lowery i magery : Los d ivinos j ardines d e l a a urora f lorecen. Tin6 s u r ostro e n l a g uerra a guel q ue e stä c erca y j unto. G ratisimos a l a lma, i rradian c uajados d e r ocio. V ed : e n n ada l os e stiman, s olo f lorecen e n v ano : 1 0h a migos, q ue n inguno d e v osotros l os a mbicione ! S6lo e n v ano v ivirän l os f lores,
e n l os j ardines
d e r ojas n utridoras d e f lores ! Las q ue e mbriagan d e v ida l as a lmas a llä s blo e xisten y a bren s us c orolas e n l as b oscocas m ontanas, e n l os e scabrosos, e n m edio d e
l a
l lanura
d onde
s e
l ugares
b rinda
e n
l a
g uerra e l d ivino l icor d el c ombate, a lli d onde s e m atizan l as d ivinas ä guilas, a llä d onde r ugen d e r abia l os t igres ; d onde l lueven l as v ariadas p iedras p reciosas d e l os j oyeles, d onde o ndulan l os r icos c olgajos d e p lumas f inas ;
9 0
a llä ,
d onde s e r esquebrajaron e h icieron a f ticos
l os p rincipes. ( Asturias T his
p oem m ixes
t he
1 960:135-6) i magery o f f lowers a nd p recious
s tones:
t he
y oung w arriors a re l ikened t o p recious, f ragrant f lowers t hat b loom i n t he g arden o f w ar , i n al ater v erse t hey a re c ompared t o p recious j ewels t hat a re b roken i nto s mall b its a nd g round i nto s hards o n t he b attlef ield. I n o ne myth, X ochiquetzal w as t he f irst m ortal t o d ie i n w ar.
I n
a nother v ersion, s he i s r eplaced b y t he o bsidian b utterfly, I tzpapalotl, who s lays f our h undred Mimixcoa. O ne s urvivor r evives t he o ther 3 99 w ho k ill a nd c remate I tzpapalotl w ho t hen, i nstead X ochiquetzal, b ecomes t he f irst t o d ie i n w ar ( Nicholson 1 971a :402).
o f I n
e ither c ase, i t i s s ignificant f or o ur p urposes t hat t he p rimordial s oldier i s f emale. O bsidian B utterfly, a s k nown f rom t he Anales d e C uauhtitlan, was a C hichimec g oddess. H er e xploits t here i nvolve t ransformation f rom d eer t o w oman t o o bsidian k nife i n a n e pic c ycle c oncerned w ith h unting a nd w arfare ( Anales d e C uauhtit ]an 1 945, H eyden 1 974). T he A ztecs, h owever, i n t heir u sual s ynthesizing f ashion, c onf lated I tzpapalotl w ith X ochiquetzal i n m any i nstances b esides t he myth c ited a bove. T he c onfounding o f t he t wo m ay b e a ccounted f or i n p art b ecause o f t heir c ommon b utterfly n ature. X ochiquetzal w ears b utterfly a dornments b oth i n h er c ostume a nd a s an oseplaque. e ven
O ccasionally s he i s
d epicted a s a n a nthropomorphic b utterfly ( Franco 1 961:plate I tzpapalotl i s ah uman b utterfly, g littering b rightly w ith t he
s harp p oints
o f o bsidian b lades o n h er w ings
B rundage
p oints
Telleriano R emensis X ochiquetzal's d ouble,
o ut
t hat
i n
b oth
I I, O bsidian a ssociated w ith
( figure
C odex
6 ).
V aticanus
B utterfly t he b roken
i s t ree
a nd
C odex
d epicted a s o f Tamoanchan
( 1979:173). S heet 1 5 o f t he T onalamatl A ubin a lso p airs I tzpapalotl w ith T amoanchan ( Seler 1 901:105), a s d oes a n A ztec p raise p oem : T he white f lower h as b loomed. She, o ur m other, who i s p ainted w ith t he t high s kin o f t he g oddess o n h er f ace S he c ame f rom T amoanchan. O h, s he h as b ecome t he g od o n t he m elon c actus, o ur m other, I tzpapalotl. ( author 's t ranslation, G aribay
c haracterizes
I tzpapalotl
a s
f rom Seler " la
d iosa
1 904:994-95) m adre
e n
s u
a specto
n octurno. Mariposa n egra c omo l a o bsidiana d ice e ste n ombre. E s u na f orma d e C ihuacoatl, p ero e n s u a specto tf trico" ( 1968:18). L ike C ihuacoatl, I tzpapalotl i s c losely i dentified w ith w arriors i n A ztec p raise p oetry :
9 1
W here a re y ou g oing? W here a re y ou g oing? T o w ar, t o t he d ivine w ater. T hat i s w here o ur m other, O bsidian B utterfly, s tains m en w ith c olor. ( author 's t ranslation f rom G aribay I n a nother l yric, i s e vocative:
1 953:119)
I tzpapalotl i s n ot r eferred t o b y n ame,
b ut t he i mage
I n t he m idst o f t he p lain m y h eart c raves d eath b y t he o bsidian e dge. Only t his m y h eart c raves : d eath i n w ar. ( Leon Portilla I f i n
1 969:87-8)
b attle t he v aliant w arrior d esires
d eath b y t he o bsidian
b lade,
w hat b etter i mage f or t his t han t he i mpressive g oddess O bsidian B utterf ly, w hose w ings s hine w ith s cores o f o bsidian k nives? I n s ome o f t he m yths a nd l yrics q uoted a bove, t he s ame e vents r epeat w ith d ifferent p layers, f or i n t he A ztec p antheon t here was g reat f luidity i n t he r oles o f t he g oddesses i n p articular. T hey w ear e ach o ther 's i nsignia, a nd s tand f or e ach o ther i n c rucial e vents o f m ythic d rama. T hey a re i dentical, y et d ifferent, b ut o ne t hing e merges w ith r emarkable c onsistency : g oddesses a re c losely a ssociated w ith w armaking. T hey a re s een a s p atrons a nd p rotectors o f w arriors, a r ole b efitting a m other g oddess i nterested i n t he w elfare o f h er c hildren. 4 G oddesses a lso a ct a s p articipants i n w ar, e ven, i n t he c ase o f X ochiquetzal a nd I tzpapalotl, a s t he p rimordial p articipant a nd v ictim i n c osmic w ar. T his d eath-dealing a spect o f c hthonic f ertility g oddesses i s i n p erfect c oncordance w ith M esoamerican i deals o f w arfare a s p ropitiation f or t he s un, i n w hich b loodshed a llows f or f urther l ife a nd c osmic r enewal. W e m ight
a lso
c onsider
h ere
t he A ztec
c oncept
o f
t he
p arturient
m other a s aw arrior : s he w ho d ies i n c hildbirth r eaps a h eavenly r eward e quivalent t o t hat o f t he b ravest s lain w arrior. S eler, t ranslating f rom t he N ahuatl,
p oints
o ut t hat
t he w oman w ho
d ies i n c hildbirth i s
m ocivaquetzqui " the w arrior w ho h as a ssumed t he f orm o f aw oman" ( Seler 1 904:999). C ecelia K lein h as v ery s uccintly o utlined t he c omplementary f unctions o f d ead w arriors a nd w omen w ho d ie i n c hildbirth : A ll A ztec w arriors w ho w ere k illed i n b attle o r s acrificed o n a v ictor 's s tone w ere b elieved t o j oin t he s un a t t he e astern h orizon. T here, i n t he h onorable c apacity o f m essengers a nd " lords" o f t he s un, t o
i ts
t hey d aily e scorted t hat s olar b ody
z enith i n t he m idday s ky.
S ince
c hild-
b irth was i tself l ikened t o d eath a nd t o b attle, t he
w oman
w ho
s uccessfully " conquered"
9 2
a c hild
w as
a lso
c onsidered
a w arrior.
T hus,
t hose
w omen w ho d ied i n t he p rocess o f g iving b irth w ere t hemselves r egarded a s d ead h eroes w ho w ent t o
s erve
t he
s un.
T hese
w ere
t he
w omen
w ho
c onstituted t he r anks o f t he C ihuateteo, t he f emale d emons w ho l ived i n t he w est i n t he " land o f w omen" a nd w ho d aily e scorted t he s un f rom i ts z enith t o i ts s etting o n t he w estern h orizon. T he d eath o f t hese w omen t ogether w ith t he s acrifice o f t he male w arriors n ourished a nd m a intained t he l ife o f t he s un, a nd h ence t hat o f t he e ntire u niverse.
( 1972:40)
The m any r eferences t o t he m artial a spects o f g oddesses s uggest t hat t his w as n ot o nly a well-established t heme i n A ztec m yth, b ut o ne h aving c onsiderable t ime d epth a s w ell. I h ave p resented i t a t l ength b ecause t he e xistence o f t he s ame c onfiguration o f t raits i n T eotih uacan, K aminaljuyu, a nd Escuintla a rt s upports t he i dea t hat s imilar b eliefs w ere h eld b y C lassic-period M exicans. W e f ind i n T eotihuacan i conography t he e xistence o f b utterfly f igures i n p aradise s cenes ( the T epantitla mural), b utterflies c onjoined w ith b oth m artial a nd f ire s ymbolism ( tripod p ottery a nd c ensers), a nd t he e xistence o f a f emale b utterfly d eity w ho s eems t o d ominate t he r eligious i conography o f T eotihuacan-derived c ommunities i n G uatemala 's s outhern p iedmont. We h ave i llustrated A ztec p arallels f or t hese f orms a nd c onsidered t heir i deological a ssociations. I t i s i mportant t o s tress t hat s ince s everal d ifferent m otifs c oincide i n t he s ame c onfiguration i n l ater C entral Mexican a rt, t he i nterpretations o ffered h ere a re l ess s haky t han j ust o ne f eature h ad b een t aken o ut o f c ontext a nd i ts c ontinuity m eaning a sserted. 5 B ecause i t i s a c onstellation o f f orms t hat
i f o f i s
c arried t hrough t ime, w e h ave g reater c onfidence t hat t he m eaning h as r emained i ntact. I n m ethodology, I f ollow P asztory 's " synthetic a pproach"
t o i conographic s tudies
( 1973).
T he i nterlocking c orrobora-
t ive e vidence a fforded b y c ontextual a nalysis, c omparative a nalysis, a nd e thnohistoric a nalogy u sed i n c oncert m ay p rove t o b e t he m ost s uccessful k ey t o u nlock t he r iddle o f Mesoamerican i conography, a s s he h as p ointed o ut. I n r elying o n A ztec a ccounts f or a n u nderstanding o f p rovincial T eotihuacan a rt, t he Kaminaljuyu v essel ( figure 5 ) i s a c rucial w ork o f a rt, l inking A ztec b elief t o t he e arlier i mages. I t i s t he o ne Middle C lassic d epiction t hat u nequivocably s hows t he b utterfly a s f emale. I n t he Escuintla c ensers, s ex i s n ot c learly i ndicated, a lthough t he w ing p lacement s trongly s uggests a q uechquemitl, a s I h ave a rgued. E scuintla a rt i n g eneral c losely f ollows Teotihuacan p rototypes, s igns, a nd c onventions. B ecause t he p atrons ( Teotihuacan m ilitia a nd p ochteca) w ere f amiliar w ith t he m eanings i mplicit t here was n o n eed t o s pell t hem o ut i n f ull. A t
i n t he o bjects, K aminaljuyu t he
s ituation w as d ifferent: t he a udience w as a m ixed Teotihuacan a nd h ighland M aya c ommunity. W e f ind i n K aminaljuyu v ase p ainting a nd i ncising b oth Teotihuacan a nd Maya i magery ( Kidder, J ennings, a nd S hook
9 3
1 946:figures 2 04-207). I t i s a ppropriate t hat t he i dentity o f t he f igures w ould b e m ore c learly d elineated a t K aminaljuyu, t o a void c onf usion w ith u nfamiliar r epresentations o f g ods a nd m ythic s cenes. T he f emale b utterfly g oddess i s s hown a lmost d iagrammatically o n t he K aminaljuyu v essel: l ong s kirt a nd q uechquemitl i ndicate s ex ; q uechquemitl a nd h eaddress i ndicate b utterfly p ersona.6 T he e mblems o n t he v essel l id f urther p rompt t he v iewer: t he f lower, x ochitl, s uggests t he n ame X ochiquetzal ; t he t rapeze a nd r ay h eaddress i s a T eotihuacan i nsignia a ssociated w ith w arriors ( Berlo 1 976). Is uggest t hat t he v ase p ainter i s t rying t o p rompt u s t o r ecognize X ochiquetzal w earing b utterfly g arb i n h er m artial a spect. M any y ears a go, L aurette S6journd i dentified X ochiquetzal f iguri nes a t T eotihuacan b ased o n c ostume a nalysis ( 1959:figure 4 ). M ore r ecently, P asztory ( 1973) h as c onvincingly d emonstrated t hat a n a ncestral v ersion o f X ochiquetzal was i ndeed o ne o f t he major d eities v enerated a t Teotihuacan, a nd t hat h er i mage s urmounts t he m ountain p aradise s cene i n t he f amous m rlalocan" mural a t T epantitla. S pranz h as i dentified X ochiquetzal a nd o ther A ztec g oddesses i n M etepec-phase mold-made f igurines o f T eotihuacan s tyle e xcavated a t X ochitecatl, T laxcala ( 1973:22 ) 4-5; S pranz, Dumond, a nd H ilbert 1 978:tafel 2 3, 2 6). S o n ot o nly w as a n a ncestral v ersion o f t he A ztec g oddess w orshipped a t T eotihuacan, b ut h er c ult w as e xported t o r egional c enters o utside t he T eotihuacan v alley, s uch a s t hat i n T laxcala. I s uggest t hat X ochiquetzal's c ult, c ombined w ith t hat o f O bsidian B utterfly, w as a lso e xported
t o t he
s outhern M aya
a rea,
f or
w e
s ee
i ts m anifestations
i n
E scuintla a nd a t K aminaljuyu. I b elieve t hat X ochiquetzal's a ttributes w ere c onflated w ith t hose o f I tzpapalotl i n t he s cene o n t he K aminaljuyu t ripod v essel i n f igure 5 , a s t hey w ould s o o ften b e c onflated o ne t housand y ears l ater i n A ztec s ong, myth, a nd c odex. S imilarly, i n t he T eotihuacan c ensers f ound i n Escuintla ( figure 4 ), t he g oddess a ppears i n a b utterfly a spect. I f a n a ncestral v ersion o f t he m artial g oddess k nown t o t he A ztecs a s O bsidian B utterfly was v enerated b y T eotihuacan w arriors a nd t raders i n s outhern G uatemala , t his s uggests t hat Teotihuacanos h ad d evised a r eligious i deology t o b uttress t heir e conomic a nd p olitical p ursuits i n f oreign l ands, a nd a p atron d eity t ailored t o t heir m ilitaristic a nd i mperialistic a ims. N ot o nly i s o bsidian t he i nstrument o f a w arrior 's d eath ( "my h eart c raves d eath b y t he o bsidian e dge"); o bsidian w as p robably t he k ey n atural r esource t hat T eotihuacan was t rying t o e xploit a nd c ontrol i n t hese f oreign l ands ( Parsons a nd P rice 1 971; S ander a nd M ichels 1 977) j ust a s t hey d id i n t he Valley o f M exico. A m aterialist
a pproach
t o
t he
f ormation o f r eligious
i magery m ight s ug-
g est t hat " our m other Obsidian B utterfly" w as d eveloped b y T eotih uacanos i n r esponse t o t he r ealities o f e conomic e xchange a s w ell a s t o s ustain e laborate i deologies a bout n oble d eath i n w ar. I t m ay b e s ignificant f or o ur a rgument t hat b utterflies a re l inked w ith o bsidian a nd o ther s tones n ot j ust i n t he C hichimec t ale o f t he a dventures o f I tzpapalotl, b ut a lso i n o ther A ztec b eliefs, a nd a mong
9 1 4
t he Maya a s w ell. S ahagun m entions t hat l apidaries w orshipped t he g oddess C hiconautilzcuintli P apaloxanal T lapalo. O n h er f ace w as p ainted a b utterfly, a nd i n h er l eft h and s he h eld a s hield ( 1950-1969, B ook IX:79). I n t he A nales d e C uautitlan ( which h as a lways b een u sed a s t he s ource f or t he o rigin o f A ztec b eliefs a bout I tzpapalotl), I tzpapalotl i s t ransformed b y f ire i nto f ive s tone f ragments o f v arious c olors. Mixcoatl s elected t he s harp w hite s tone, w rapped i t i n as acred b undle, a nd c arried i t w ith h im. I t was t hereafter v enerated a s a p ersonified k nife o f s acrifice. I n a c urious p arallel, i n t he Maya R itual o f t he B acabs, f our c olored f lint k nives a re i dentified w ith b utterflies: S hortly a go I r eceived t he f orce o f t he r ed c huk-tok ( flint), t he w hite c huk-tok. S hortly a go I r eceived t he f orce o f t he b lack c huk-tok; s hortly a go I r eceived t he f orce o f t he y ellow c huk-tok . S hortly
a go
i ts
f orce
w as
t aken,
y e
g ods,
y e
B acabs. W hat i s i ts s ymbol? T he r ed p epemb utterfly, t he w hite p epem , t he b lack epem , t he y ellow p epem a re i ts s ymbols. T hese t hen a re t he f our b y t hemselves. ( Roys 1 965:62) T hese r epeated a ssociations o f b utterflies a nd v alued s tones ( be t hey f lint, t he v arious s tones o f t he l apidary a rtist, o r o bsidian) l eads m e t o b elieve t hat t he c onjoining o f b utterfly a nd l ithic m aterials c annot s imply b e a l ater C hichimec i ntroduction i nto A ztec c osmogony ; r ather, t he C hichimec v ersion i s s imply o ne v ersion o f a n o lder, w idespread b elief a bout g oddesses, s acred s tones, a nd b utterflies. S ome a spects o f t his b elief, a s I h ave a rgued, m ay h ave b een c odified b y T eotihuac anos d uring t he M iddle C lassic p eriod. T he n umerous c eramic o bjects i n T eotihuacan-style f ound i n s outhern G uatemala s uggest t hat a m ilitarist ic b utterfly d eity w as t he p redominant c ult f igure f rom t he Teotihuac an p antheon t hat T eotihuacan w arriors a nd m erchants t ook a broad w ith t hem. D iego Garcia d e P alacio 's s ixteenth-century a ccounts o f Escuintla l end s upporting e vidence t o m y h ypothesis t hat C entral M exican g odd esses w ere i mportant i n t he a ncient c ulture o f t he P acific p iedmont. 7 P alacio m entions t hat a g oddess n amed I tzcueye ( Nahuatl: " possessor o f a n o bsidian s kirt") was w orshipped i n E scuintla ( 1860). L awrence Feldman, s uggests
i n h is a nalysis o f N ahuatl l oan w ords i n e arly G uatemala, t hat b oth X ochiquetzal a nd I tzpapalotl, a long w ith I tzcueye,
w ere v enerated o n t he P acific p iedmont o f G uatemala ( 1976:239-41). I ndependent v erification t hrough a rt h istorical a nalysis, e thnohistoric t exts, a nd l inguistic a nalysis o f l oan w ords s uggests a h igh d egree o f p robability t hat t hese g oddesses p layed i mportant r oles i n t he p rec onquest h istory o f t his r egion.
9 5
V ariant A spects o f t he G oddess i n E scuintla a nd O axaca O ne o f t he f oremost s cholars o f A ztec r eligion, h as d escribed t he A ztec p antheon i n t his m anner :
H .
B .
N icholson,
t his g reat l egion o f d eities w as o rganized a round a f ew f undamental c ult t hemes, a lthough t hey g reatly o verlapped a nd n o c lear l ine c an b e d rawn b etween t hem. W ithin e ach t heme w hat c an b e t ermed " deity c omplexes" c an b e d iscerned, c lusters o f d eities e xpressing v arious a spects o f w hat a mount t o s ub-themes.
( 1971a:408)
S cholars h ave l ong r ecognized t his f lexibility i n t he Mesoamerican p ant heon. Deities w ear e ach o ther 's c lothes a nd e mblems, s tand i n f or e ach o ther i n c ertain e vents, a nd t ake o n n ew a spects f or s pecialized c ult c oncerns. T hese p rocesses a re d emonstrated i n s everal c eramic o bjects k nown f rom E scuintla a nd f rom Oaxaca. I n
E scuintla,
t he
Teotihuacan
b utterfly
uddess
t akes
o n
o ne
v ariant a spect : p atroness o f c acao. O n o ne u nusual c enser ( figure 7 ), t he b utterfly d eity r ises o ut o f as plit c acao p od. O ther p od s ections a re molded o n t he b ase o f t he c enser l id. T he b utterfly w ears a w ingq uechquemitl, w ith p ainted d esigns s till v isible u pon i t. F lowery b uds r ise f rom b ehind t he s houlders o f t he f igure. T he P acific p iedmont o f G uatemala w as a c acao-growing r egion i n c olonial t imes ; t he c onquerer A lvarado f orced t he t own o f E scuintla t o s urrender b y t hreatening t o d estroy i ts c acao g roves ( Millon 1 955:70). B ased o n am odel o f A ztec t ribute l ands, c ontrol o f t he c acao t rade m ay h ave b een o ne o f t he g oals o f t he Teotihuacanos i n t heir f orays i nto s outhern G uatemala, f or c onditions i n t he C entral M exican h ighlands w ere n ot s uitable f or c acao c ultivation. T he e xact m eaning o f t he e mergence o f t he b utterfly d eity f rom a c acao p od i s u nknown t o u s; t he g oddess a nd t he p lant m ay b e r elated i n s everal w ays. I f o ur a nalysis o f t he b utterfly d eity a s X ochiquetzal i s c orrect, h er r elationship t o c acao m ay b e a s imple o ne o f e arth g oddess t o t he f ruits o f h er e arth. T hompson r elates t hat c acao may h ave h ad a r elationship w ith h uman s acrifice, t he f ruit b eng a m etaphor f or t he h uman h eart. B oth c ontain p recious d ark l iquids: c hocolate a nd b lood. I n t he C hilam B alam o f C humayel, a r iddle d raws t his a nalogy b etween b lood a nd c hocolate ( Thompson 1 956:101). I n h er m artial a spect a t E scuintla, t he g oddess c ould t hus b e l inked t o c acao a s a r itual m etaphor
b utterfly f or h uman
h eart a nd b lood. N eedless t o s ay , t he t wo a spects m entioned, a gricult ural f ertility a nd h uman s acrifice, a re n ot m utP11: e xclusive. T he E scuintla a rtist w ho c reated t his l ively i mage w as w orking i n t he T eotih uacan s tylistic m ode, y et i nfusing h is w ork w ith a s ymbolic m essage f or t he l ocal c ommunity l iving i n t he h eart o f a c acao-producing r egion.
9 6
T hey w ere p erhaps i nvolved i n t he t rade a nd d istribution o f t he s acred b ean f or t heir m other c ity, w hich i nvolved e stablish o utposts i n t hese l ands. T eotihuacan
t raits
h ave
l ong
b een
b loodshed
r ecognized
a s
i n
t hey t ried
C lassic
t o
P eriod
Z apotec a rt. S tone s culptures a t M onte A lban d epict T eotihuacan e miss aries ( Marcus 1 980), a nd s ome Z apotec b raseros a nd u rns s how a spects o f s tyle a nd i conography b orrowed f rom T eotihuacan, p rincipally i n P eriod I IIa. N o t horough s tudy o f t he T eotihuacanoid f eatures o f Z apotec a rt h as b een c arried o ut ; h ere, a b rief l ook a t t he f ate o f t he T eotihuacan b utterfly g oddess i n Oaxaca w ill i llustrate T eotihuacan a nd Z apotec r eligious b eliefs.
t he
p uzzling
m erger
I n Oaxaca, t he b utterfly w ent t hrough a nother t ransformation.
o f
H er
a daptation t o l ocal c oncerns r esulted i n a p artial d isjunction o f f orm a nd m eaning. A s w e s hall s ee, s he w as s ubsumed i nto t he Z apotec p antheo n, c onflated w ith l ocal d eities, a nd s tripped o f h er m ilitaristic a ssociations. B oth B oos ( 1964, 1 966) a nd Caso ( 1949) h ave c ommented o n t he a ppearance o f a f oreign b utterfly d eity i n P eriod I IIa Z apotec a rt. Both a gree t hat i t i s a Teotihuacan i nvention, y et n either a uthor h azards a g uess a s t o i ts m eaning. S ome o f t he s ame f eatures f ound o n Escuintla b utterfly c ensers a ppear c onsistently o n O axacan u rns : i n t he h eaddress o f s eated h umans a re f ound t he d iagnostic c urled p roboscis a nd f eathered e yes o f t he b utterfly ( figures 8 a nd 9 ). T hese t wo f eatures a re c onstant. Antennae, a c onstant f eature i n Escuintla, a re v ariable h ere, o ccurring s poradically. O ther v ariable e lements i n O axacan b utterfly r epresentat ions i nclude a s quare k not, s hells, f ire s ymbols, a nd h anging h eadd ress f laps, m otifs.
a ll o f which I b elieve a re T eotihuacan r ather t han Z apotec
Six o f t he t hirteen b utterfly u rns t hat I h ave s tudied c onjoin b utterfly i magery w ith a j aguar m outh, a l ocal O axacan f orm. T he Z apotecs a ssimilated t he b utterfly a spect f or t heir o wn p urposes, p erh aps t o i ndicate a v ariable a spect o f t heir o wn i ndigenous j aguar g od. B oos s ay o f t his: l a y uxtaposition d e mascaras s imbolicas, o d e c aracteristicas d e d ioses d iferentes, ( es) p ara c rear u n d iseno q ue o cultara a t odos l a i dentida d e l a d eidad o d eidades. ( 1964:87) U nlike t he s ituation i n E scuintla, h ere w e h ave a n i nstance o f p artial d isjunction : t he T eotihuacan b utterfly f orm, a nd p erhaps s ome o f i ts s ymbolic a ssociations, h ave b een c onjoined t o t he n ative j aguar g od i n o rder t o p roduce a n ew c omposite b eing ( one i s r eminded h ere o f t he maize Tlalce a t Z acuala d iscussed b y P asztory, 1 973:148). N o e mblems o f w arfare a re c onjoined w ith t he T eo-Oaxacan b utterfly, a lthough a s w e h ave s een, t his i s i ts m ost c ommon a ssociation a t Teotihuacan a nd
9 7
E scuintla. I ndeed, t he Teotihuacan b utterfly i n Oaxaca n ever h as m ilit aristic a ssociations. T his f urther s upports t he i dea o f p artial d isj unction. S uch a s elective c luster i s o ne o f t he b est s ymbolic f orms. I t
i s
n oteworthy
t hat
a doption o f e lements o f a n i conographic c lues t o p ossible s hifts i n m eaning o f
t he
l ack o f m ilitaristic
a ssociations
f or
t he b utterfly g oddess i n O axaca i s c onsistent w ith o ther T eotihuacan i magery i n t his r egion ( C. Millon 1 973; M arcus 1 980). F or e xample, t he " estela l isa" a t M onte A lban ( Marcus 1 980:60) d epicts T eotihuacan e miss aries i n w hat m ay b e m ilitary g arb, b ut t hey c arry i ncense b ags r ather t han w eapons. T he T eotihuacan-Zapotec r elationship must h ave b een c ons iderably m ore p acific t han t hat b etween Teotihuacanos a nd t he Maya, f or M aya d epictions o f T eotihuacanos l ay p articular s tress o n t heir w eapons a nd m artial e mblems. D espite s tellation t he
t he
l ack o f m artial
o f T eotihuacan
a ssociation
o f
t he
e mblems,
b utterfly
t wo
s ymbols
b utterfly w ith f ire,
f eatures
a re a nd
f rom
r etained t he
i n
t he
c on-
O axaca :
d epiction o f t he
b utterfly p ersonage a s a t l east s ometimes f emale. O ccasionally, t he o ld w rinkled f ace o f t he f ire g od w ears t he b utterfly h eadgear i n O axaca ( figure 8 ). I n b oth c ases, a j aguar m outh o ccurs b eneath t he p roboscis, s o t here i s a t riple c onflation h ere: b utterfly/jaguar/old g od. B utt erfly a nd o ld f ire g od i magery i ntersect o n t wo c ensers k nown t o m e f rom Teotihuacan i tself ( Berlo 1 980:plates 3 8 , 2 9). I c onsider t hem t o b e a d ual e xpression o f t he t ransformational s ymbolism d iscussed e arlier : t he t ransformation o f t he h uman s oul i nto a b utterfly a nd t he p hysical t ransformation o ccurring i n a f ire s acrifice. I t i s u nclear w hether t his s ymbolic a ssociation i s maintained i n Oaxaca. Caso n oted t hat b utterfly d eities a re b oth masculine a nd f eminine ( 1949:85),
y et
h e
s eemed
t o
c onsider
a ll
O axacan
r epresentations
a s
masculine, u ndoubtedly b ecause a ll w ear t he m axtlatl o r h anging l oin c loth. Y et, o f t he s even b utterfly u rns i n m y s ample t hat a re c omplete, o r w here a b ody i n i ndicated, s ix a lso w ear a q uechquemitl t hat c overs t he a rms ( figure 8 ). ( In t he o ther i nstance, i t i s C ocijo w ho w ears t he b utterfly j aguar h eaddress a nd h is a rms a re b are, a s i s u sual i n O axacan male d ress). C lassic p eriod Z apotec m ales e ither w ear s hort c apes ( above t he e lbow) o r h ave b are a rms ( Caso a nd B ernal 1 952:figures 1 58,162). F emales w ear e ither a p ointed o r a r ounded q uechquemitl t hat o ften, t hough n ot a lways, c overs t he l ower a rms.
P erhaps t hese f igures
w ith b oth maxtlatl a nd q uechquemitl a re f emale i mpersonators. W e k now f rom A ztec a ccounts a nd f rom T eotihuacan m urals t hat p riests o f f emale d eities w ore f emale d ress. A n a lternative e xplanation i s t hat, a s C aso s tates, b utterfly d eities c an b e b oth masculine a nd f eminine, a nd t heir b isexual n ature i s d epicted h ere b y t he u nion o f m ale a nd fe hale d ress. A j aguar-butterfly u rn i n t he Smithsonian was c ollected i n 1 885 a t Z aachila ( figure 9 ). I n f ormat, t his u rn c losely r esembles a n Escuintla c enser. T he f igure i s a b ust-type e ffigy. T he h ands g rasp b ird e mblems.
F lexible
f laps
h ang f rom
9 8
t he
s ides
o f
t he
b utterfly j aguar
h eaddress, b ackdrop.
a nd
Teotihuacan-style
f ringed
s tarfish
T he f ace i s u nmistakably Z apotec,
b ands
s erved
a s
a
h owever.
T he i conographic v ariety t hat t hese b utterfly u rns e xhibit f urther s upports t he i dea t hat t his i s a n i mported d eity, o ne w hose f unctions a re n ot c learly f ixed i n t he m inds o f a ncient, t raditional s ymbolic c ategory.
t he
p opulace.
I t
i s
n ot
a n
S ome Z apotec p ottery o bjects d isplay c lusters o f Teotihuacan e mblems. O thers d o n ot. T he Z apotecs a ssimilated s ome a spects o f T eotihuacan a rt a nd r eligion i nto t heir o wn c ulture. U nlike most o ther p eoples o f s outhern M esoamerica, t hey s eemingly d id n ot s eek o ut T eotih uacano f ine t rade w ares, y et a ccepted c ertain Teotihuacan c once ,pts i nto t heir o wn r eligious s ystem. T he v ariable a cceptance o f f oreign t raits i s o ne o f t he m ost i nteresting a spects o f a s tudy o f t he i nterr elationship o f c ultures, a nd o ne t hat m ay p rove m ost p rofitable f or o ur u nderstanding o f t he c ultural z ations.
d ynamics o f a ncient Mesoamerican c ivili-
T he Oaxaca d ata d emonstrate t hat e thnohistoric a nalogy m ust b e u sed w ith d iscernment, a nd a lways i n c onjuction w ith c orroborative c ont extual e vidence. T he f orce o f d isjunction, s ubstitution, a nd r einteg ration t hat K ubler d escribes ( 1977) o bviously d id o ccur i n s ome i nstances i n t he h istory o f M esoamerican r eligion. T he a doption a nd a daptation o f t he T eotihuacan b utterfly d eity t o l ocal Z apotec c oncerns i s ag ood e xample o f t his. I n Oaxaca, t he b utterfly l acked a m ilitarist ic i dentification, i ts s ex w as c hangeble, a nd i t s eemed t o e xpress s ome a spect o f t he i ndigenous j aguar g od o f t he Z apotecs. In E scuintla, t he T eotihuacan g oddess X ochiquetzal a ppeared p rinc ipally i n h er m ilitaristic a spect, wherein h er t raits w ere c onflated w ith t hose o f O bsidian B utterfly. T he m artial b utterfly g oddess, i n t urn, a ssumed a n ew a spect ( Cacao B utterfly) b ased o n s pecialized l ocal c oncerns. In O axaca, t he T eotihuacan b utterfly g oddess was a ssimilated i nto t he Z apotec p antheon a nd t ransformed o nce a gain. I n t he F eten, w here m uch T eotihuacan i nfluence i s e vident, s he s eems t o h ave a ppeared n ot a t a ll. T he Teotihuacan w arriors c ommemorated t here w ear T laloc, j aguar, t assel, a nd t rapeze-and-ray r egalia i n t heir h eadgear ( see C . M illon 1 973, Berlo 1 976, 1 980). T his i s f urther s upport f or t he i dea t hat " Butterfly W arrior" p robably i s n ot a r ank o r d ivision d esignat ion, o r e ven a n e thnic i nsignia, b ut a d esignation o f t hose w arriors w ho h ave " met t he b utterfly g oddess o n t he b attlefield" a nd h ave d ied, a nd a re s o i dentified w ithin t he c onfines o f t heir o wn c ulture.
C onclusion S ince
Seler 's w ork a t
t he
b eginning
o f
t he
t wentieth
c entury,
e thnohistoric a nalogy h as b een u sed t o i lluminate M esoamerican p reh istory. T his s hould b e s een a s p art o f t he g eneral t radition w ithin
9 9
Americanist a rchaeology o f r elying u pon e thnohistoric d ata e xplain t he a rchaeological r ecord ( see C harlton 1 981:136-40).
t o h elp T he u se
o f e thnohistoric a nalogues h as b een c riticized, e specially b y A meric anist a rt h istorians ( Kubler 1 973, 1 977), b ecause o f i ts m argin f or e rror a nd m isinterpretation. Y et e thnohistory c ontinues t o b e a m ajor s ource o f i nformation o n t he p re-Hispanic w orld. W hen u sed w ith c aut ion, a nd i n c oncert w ith c ontextual e vidence, a nd w ith a m osaic o f c orroborating d etails, e thnohistoric a nalogy c an s hed g reat l ight o n t hose a rtifacts o f a ntiquity t hat m ight o therwise r emain m ute. Y et i ts u ser must h eed t he c aveat t hat " analogue m odels f urnish p lausible h ypotheses, n ot p roofs" ( Black 1 962:223).
t hat
I n t his e ssay, I h ave e ndeavored t o c larify t he r eligious f orms e mbodied Teotihuacan m ilitary i deology i n s outhern G uatemala,
b ased o n t he T eotihuacan-style a rtifacts f ound t here, a rt a t m etropolit an Teotihuacan, a nd l ater i mages a nd b eliefs k nown f rom A ztec c ulture. I h ave s uggested t hat t hose a spects o f A ztec w arrior i deology i nvolving a m artial b utterfly d eity may h ave o riginated i n t he p olitically-based r eligious b eliefs t hat w ere p romulated a mong t heir s outhern n eighbors.
d uring T eotihuacano i ncursions
R ESUMEN E ste
e studio e xamina e l
e stilo t eotihuacano d e l os
i ncensarios
y
d e l as v asijas c ilindricas t ripoidales d escubiertos e n E scuintla, G uatemala, o r c uanto e stos r evelan a cerca d e l as i deologias d e l os p ueblos T eotihuacanos q ue i ncursionaron e n e sta a rea. S e e xtraen d e e stos o bjetos yt ambi6n p or m edio d e a nalogia l a i deologia r eligiosa d e l os p ueblos c entro mejicanos p osteriores e videncias s obre l as c reencias m ilitares y r eligiosas d e l os Teotihuacanos e n r elaciön a l a d iosa m arcial m ariposa q uien p arece s er p recursora d e l as d iosas a ztecas I tzpapalotl y K ochiquetzal. L a a utora s ugiere q ue c iertos a spectos d el m ilitarismo a zteca y s u r eligion s e o riginaron e n l a i deologia r eligiosa b asada e n l a p olitica f ormulada d urante e l p eriodo T eotihuacano c läsico.
d e
e xpansiOn
i mperial
1 00
p erteneciente
a l
p eriodo
m eso-
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I a m p articularly g rateful t o Dr. C lara Milon, whose d etailed c omments a nd c riticisms o f a n e arlier d raft o f t his e ssay w ere e xtremely u seful. I n a ddition, I w ould l ike t o t hank P rofessors C ecelia K lein a nd E sther P asztory, w ho c riticized t he m anuscript i n i ts e arly s tages.
NOTES 1 . F or a r eview B erlo, i n t his v olume.
i ssues
a nd
2 . D etailed s upporting e vidence f ound i n B erlo 1 980, a nd i n p ress..
f or
3 .
F or
a n
a nalysis
c ensers a t T eotihuacan, 4 .
o f
t he
o f
t he
s ee B erlo
s tyle
a nd
r elevant
t hese
l iterature,
s tatements
m ethod
o f
s ee
c an
b e
p roduction
o f
1 982.
T he mother-child r elationship b etween g oddess a nd w arrior i s
d epicted i n h ollow f igurines k nown f rom b oth T eotihuacan a nd E scuintla ( Hellmuth 1 975: f igure 4 2; E ckholm 1 970:49). I n e ach c ase, t he c hest a rea o f a s eated f igure o pens t o r eveal s mall mold-made w arrior f igures a ttached, l iterally , w ithin t he b osom o f m other e arth. A s imilar f igure i n T eotihuacan s tyle was e xcavated a t B ecan, Q uintana R oo ( Ball 1 974). T hese f igures m ust h ave b een d ressed i n p erishable c lothing, f or t heir b odies a re s mooth a nd u nadorned e xcept f or n eckbeads. 5 . T he o ne e xception t o t his i s a c lass o f c ylindrical t ripod v essels t hat a re e clectic b oth i n s tyle a nd i conography. H ellmuth ( 1978) a nd I ( 1980:187-202) h ave b oth d iscussed t hese p ots. 6 . s urvived
I t i s i nteresting t hat m uch o f t he v essel p ainting t hat h as a t K aminaljuyu h as t he s ame d iagrammatic q uality e vident i n
t his o ne v essel. I n b oth t he Maya-style a nd Teotihuacan-style p ainted eliance o n f ull-figure d epictions which a re c arev essels t here i s a r f ully l aid o ut o n t he s ides o f t he v essels ; g lyphic e mblems a re ids ( Kidder, J ennings, a nd S hook 1 946:figures 2 04, d isplayed o n t he l 2 05, t he
2 07a, 2 07e).
O ne r ecognizes a c onscious d idacticism o n t he p art o f
p ainter, w ho i s a iming f or c larity a nd m aximum u nderstanding.
7 .
I a m g rateful
t o H .
B .
N icholson f or b ringing t his
t ary evidence t o m y a ttention.
1 01
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H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians, e dited b y R obert W auchope, 1 0:92-134. U niversity o f T exas P ress. A ustin. P alacio, D iego G arcia d e. 1 860 C arte d irijida a l r ey d e E spana, S quier. N orton C o. N ew Y ork. P arsons, L ee A . 1 969
L ee A . a nd B .
1 971
E .
G .
o f t he P ubli-
Milwaukee P ublic Museum.
P rice
Mesoamerican t rade a nd i ts r ole i n t he e mergence o f c ivilization. C ontributions o f t he University o f C alifornia Archaeological
P asztory, E sther 1 972
T rans.
B ilbao, G uatemala : A n Archaeological Study P ac ific C oast C otzumalhuapa R egion , Volume 2 . c ations i n Anthropology 1 2.
P arsons,
1 576.
9 5.
B erkeley.
T he
Murals
o f
R esearch Facility 1 1:169-
Tepantitla,
T eotihuacan .
Garland
S eries : Outstanding D issertations i n t he F ine A rts. 1 976. N ew Y ork.
1 973
T he
G ods
o f
Teotihuacan :
a s ynthetic
T eotihuacan i conography. 4 0th g ress o f Americanists 1 :147-59.
1 06
a pproach
I nternational R ome.
i n
C on-
P asztory,
E sther
T he i conography o f t he Teotihuacan T laloc. D umbarton O aks S tudies i n P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology 1 5. Washington, D .C.
1 978
M iddle C lassic Mesoamerica : University P ress. N ew Y ork.
R oss, K urt 19 78 R oys,
( cont .)
1 97 14
C odex Mendoza:
A D
A ztec Manuscript.
1 4 00-700.
C olumbia
F ribourg.
Ralph 19 65
R itual o f t he B acabs. N orman.
S ahagun, B ernadino d e 19 50-69 F lorentine Codex : N ew S pain. D ibble. Sanders, W illiam 1 977
S chool
19 77
t he Things
o f
b y A .J.O. A nderson a nd C .
E .
o f American R esearch.
a nalogy
a nd
T eotihuacan a nd a nd J . Michels.
s ity P ress. Sanders, W illiam T .,
G eneral H istory o f
T ranslated
E thnographic s tyle. Sanders
University o f Oklahoma P ress.
a nd J . W .
t he
Teotihuacan
h orizon
K aminaljuyu, e dited b y W . P ennsylvania State Univer-
University P ark,
P ennsylvania.
M ichels, e ditors
T eotihuacan a nd Kaminaljuyu : A S tudy i n Prehistoric C ulture C ontact. P ennsylvania S tate University P ress,
P hiladelphia.
University P ark,
S 6journd , L aurette 19 59 L as f igurillas d e Z acualpa y l os E studios d e C ultura N ahuatl 1 : 14 3-57. Seler, E dward 19 01
S anta Fe.
T he Tonalamatl
o f
P ennsylvania.
t extos Nahuas. M exico.
t he A ubin C ollection.
B erlin a nd
L ondon. 19 0 14
D ie
Religiosen
G esange
d er
a lten
Mexikaner.
G esammelte A bhandlungen z ur A merikanischen u nd A lter-tumskunde. Volume 2 . B erlin. 19 02-23
S pranz, B odo 19 73
I n
S prach-
Gessammelte A bhandlungen z ur Amerikanischen S prachu nd A ltertumskunde. 5 Volumes. B erlin.
L ate
C lassic
f igurines
f rom
Tlaxcala ,
Mexico,
a nd
t heir p ossible r elation t o t he C odex B orgia G roup. Mesoamerican Writing S ystems, e dited b y E . B enson. Dumbarton O aks.
W ashington, D .C.
1 07
S pranz,
B odo, D . E . D umond,
1 978
P . P . H ilbert
D ie P yramiden v om M exico. W iesbaden.
S ullivan, T helma 19 72
T he
a rms
a nd
i nsignia
Cultura N ahuatl T hompson, J . 19 56
P.
C erro
o f
1 0:155-93.
X ochi t ecatl ,
t he
Mexica.
T laxcala,
E studios
d e
M exico.
S . N otes o n t he u se o f c acao i n M iddle America.
N otes o n
M iddle A merican A rchaeology a nd E thnology 5 :95-11 6 . C arnegie I nstitution o f Washington. T ozzer, A . 1914 1
L anda 's R elacion d e l as C osas d e Y ucatan. P apers o f t he P eabody Museum 1 8 . H arvard University. C ambridge.
19 57
C hichen I tza a nd i ts C enote o f Sacrifice. t he P eabody Museum C ambridge.
V illag ra C aleti,
1 1
a nd
1 2.
Memoirs o f
H arvard University.
A .
19 71
M ural p ainting i n C entral M exico.
H andbook o f M iddle
A merican I ndians, e dited b y R obert W auchope, 56 . University o f Texas Press. A ustin. v on W inning, 19 77
1 0:135-
Hasso T he O ld Fire God a nd h is I ndiana / 4 :7-6 1 . B erlin.
1 08
s ymbolism
a t
Teotihuacan.
F igure 1 . T eotihuacan-style w arrior i ncensario, G uatemala. C ollection o f t he M useum B russels, B elgium .
1 09
f ound i n E scuintla , o f A rt a nd H istory,
bg A r e m o d in ga t i Ma i l i t h
F igure 2 .
B utterfly i magery T eotihuacan, M exico.
o n c ylindrical t ripod v essel A fter K ubler 1 967:figure 4 2.
10
f rom
F igure 3 .
D rawing
o f
a f resco-painted
b utterfly w arrior M useum ,
i magery,
M exico.
1 11
c ylindrical
t ripod
f rom T eotihuacan.
v essel D iego
w ith
R ivera
F igure 4 . T eotihuacan-style i ncensario w ith b utterfly i conography, f ound i n E scuintla, G uatemala. P hoto c ourtesy o f N icholas H ellmuth , F oundation f or L atin A merican A nthropological R esearch.
12
F igure 5 .
B utterfly g oddess p ainted o n c ylindrical t ripod v essel f rom B urial I I, M ound B . K aminaljuyu, G uatemala. A fter K idder, e t a l., 1 946: f igure 2 07h.
13
F igure
6 .
I tzpapalotl " Piedra
d e
w ith
o bsidian
I tzpapalotl,"
M exico.
11 4
w ings. M useo
D rawn
N acional
f rom d e
t he
A ztec
A ntropologia,
i ncensario G uatemala. 4 )
4 )
H
( 1 )
0 r a l
• 5 t o 0 m • 4 . 4
c )
O c t i
b i )
•
5 t i ) r -4
• 0 4 3 . 0 C O 0 ( 1 ) g , t ;E 4 t n
C D
15
F igure 8 .
Z apotec u rn d epicting a n o ld-faced g od w ith b utterf ly-jaguar e mblems i n t he h eadgear. F rissel M useum, M itla. P hoto b y R aymond E . S enuk.
16
F igure
9 :
Z apotec u rn w ith b utterfly i conography f rom Z aachila. c ourtesy o f t he Smithsonian I nstitution, # 15151.
117
P hoto
S EEN B UT N OT H EARD: W OMEN I N A ZTEC R ITUAL--THE S AHAGUN T EXTS b y B ETTY ANN BROWN
I ntroduction I n d ealing w ith t he s odalities a nd r ituals o f P acific B asin m en 's h ouses, t he " Man B long C ustom" p rogram o f T ime-Life 's T ribal E ye t elev ision
s eries
c ussed : m ales,
b rings
g iven
t o
t hat
w omen 's
p ublic
m ost
f orum
a p oint
a nthropological
s cholars
r esearch
a ctivities--particularly t hose o f
h ave
h as
l ong d is-
b een
s acred
o r
d one
s ecret
b y n a-
t ure--have o ften b een n eglected. T he n arrator o f t he "Man B iong C ustom" what
r hetorically,
s odalities. t ion
o f
about
T hen h e
t he
a bout
p ossible
l aments
t wentieth
i nformation
t he
t he
c entury
s uch
f act
h as
p rogram m uses, a lbeit s ome-
p arallel t hat
n o
t he
d oubt
h ypothetical
e xistence
e liminated
f emale
o f
w omen 's
a ccelerated a cculturaa ny
c eremonial
s ource
g roups;
o f t he
O ceanic p eoples d iscussed i n t he p rogram l eft n either t exts n or n arrat ive a rt t o g ive u s c lues a s t o t he r ole o f w omen i n i ndigenous r itual. S uch i s n ot t he c ase w ith t he p re-Columbian p eople o f Mesoamerica. Maya Indians
o f t he C lassic p eriod
( circa
3 00-900 A .D.)
c reated e labo-
r ately c arved s tone m onuments d ocumenting t he i ntegral r ole o f w omen i n p ublic
a nd
p rivate
o f
t he Maya
l intels
c eremonies. s ite
o f
F or
Y axchilan
e xample,
t he
d epict
women
s tone
s telae
p erforming
a nd
a uto-
s acrifice a nd e xperiencing t he s ubsequently i nduced v isions
( Yaxchilan
L intel
W omen
2 5
f rom
i nvolved
i n
p riestesses ( Anawalt T he
B uilding
t he a nd
g oddesses
Maya
i dentify
K ubler
p ortrayed
a re
f ound
t itles
9 00-1520 i n
A s
a nd
t he
t he r oles
t hroughout
I nternational Post
9 6).
o n
Maya
f unerary
t he
p ages
o f Maya
i mages
p ositions
A .D.)
p erusing i n
o n
1 975:plate
a re
c eramics; m anuscripts
1 6).
I n c omparison,
f emales
a ttendant.
s ee
o ften a ccompanied s uch
( circa
Nonetheless,
p late
t he
t ime a nd p lace. p eriod
r ituals
1 981:124,
t exts l isting
2 3,
w ith c omplex h ieroglyphic
o f t he women,
l ocating
t hem i n
t he Mixtec I ndians o f t he P ost C lassic
h ad
a m uch
Mixtec o f
g oddess,
Mesoamerica
C lassic S tyle
a bbreviated
s creenfold
( a
p riestess,
d uring
t erm
t he
c oined
w riting
b ooks,
w e a nd
s ystem. e asily
c eremonial
f luorescence b y
R obertson,
w omen a re r ecognized b y t heir a ttire ( see Anawalt 1 981:213).
11q
c an
o f
t he
1 970),
L ike t heir
d escendants o f t he Mixteca C osta o f Oaxaca t oday , M ixtec w omen i n t he manuscripts w ear l ong w rap skirts a nd p oncho-like b louses t hat e ither c ome t o a p oint i n t he c enter, t he q uechquemitl ( see C odex Nuttall, p ages 1 3, 1 7, 1 9, p assim) o r ( see C odex Nuttall, p ages 5 , special c ontext ( appearing i n i n Codex Nuttall, p age 1 8) o r h ead ( Codex Nuttall p age 4 4; M ixtec-related Codex B orgia). Mixtec
p riestesses,
l ike
h ave a n e ven h orizontal h em, t he huipil 9 , p assim ). G oddesses a re i ndicated b y h eaven o r d welling i n a c ave-temple, b oth b y f antastic f eatures s uch a s a s keletal n umerous d eities a re p ortrayed i n t he
p riests,
a re
o ften
s hown
h olding
t he
purse-like b ags t hat c ontained t he c opal i ncense r eligious o fficials b urned d uring r ituals ( such a p riestess a ppear . o n C odex Nuttall p age 1 8;
a ruler a cting a s a p riestess i s s een o n C odex Selden p age
5 ).
The
p riestesses m ay a lso b e s hown p erforming s pecific r eligious a cts, s uch a s s acrif icing a b ird o r a nimal ( Codex Nuttall p age 18 ). When what i s o therwise a ssumed t o b e a s upernatural c haracter i s s hown i n a s acerdotal f unction--dancing ( Codex Selden p age 7 ), i ncensing a r itual d omain ( Codex Nuttall p age 1 8), o r v erbally c ounseling a n h istorical f igure ( Codex Selden p age 6 )--a h uman a ppearing a s a d eity i mpersonator i s p robably i ndicated. ( The d istinction i s o ften c onfusing , a nd may i n f act c ans
b e o f i mportance o nly t o n on-native s cholars : b elieved t hat t he i mpersonator " became" t he
m any N ative A merid eity.) C eremonial
a ttendants i n t he M ixtec m anuscripts a re f ound p reparing a nd s erving t he f ood a nd d rink f or r itual o ccasions, p articularly t he f oaming c hocolate s hared b y m arriage c ouples ( Codex Nuttall p ages 1 3, 2 6, 2 8). T he
A ztecs
w ere
h eir
t o
t he
a rtistic
t radition
o f
t he
M ixtec ;
D onald R obertson h as c onvincingly d emonstrated t hat t he s tyle o f A ztec r elief s culpture i s p redicated b y t he International Post C lassic c onv entions s een i n t he M ixtec b ooks ( 1951:12 p assim ; 1 97 0 ). N o d oubt t he A ztecs w ere h eir t o m any o ther Mixtec c ultural p henomena a s w ell. Unfortunately, t here a re n o k nown A ztec manuscripts t hat a re u ncontestably f rom t he p re-European e ra. I n o rder t o a scertain w hether A ztec w cmen, l ike t heir M aya a nd M ixtec p redecessors, w ere s imilarly i mportant i n r itual, w e m ust t urn t o b ooks c reated a fter t he S panish C onquest. T his p aper examines a p air o f e arly c olonial m anuscripts o n t he A ztecs i n o rder t o e xplore t he r ole o f wa nen i n t he o fficial r eligion. T he d ocuments i nspected h ere, a mong t he e arliest e xtant t exts o n Native A merica, a re t he w ork o f aS panish f riar w ho s ought information o stensib ly f or c onversion p urposes. I llustrated b y A ztec a rtists, w ith g losses a nd t exts i n European s cript, t hey a re t he t o d ata f rom s ixteenth-century Indian i nformants. B ernardino o rder o f S pain.
c losest w e c an ca ne
d e Sahug l In was a f riar i n t he h umanistic F ranciscan H e c ame t o Mex ico i n 1 52 9 a nd s oon b egan w ork o n w hat
was t o b eca ne t he m ost c cmprehensive e ncyclopedic e ffort o n t he I ndians o f t he New World. T he P rimeros Memoriales, c ompleted i n 1 561 ( see G lass
1 20
a nd R obertson 1 975:188), i s t he e arliest k nown v ersion o f Sahugün 's t ext. Written while t he f riar was r esiding i n T epeapulco, i t r ecords t he l ife a nd c ulture o f t he A ztecs v ery n ear ( and c ertain ly u nder t he i nfluence o f) t he i mperial c apital. S ahagün 's F lorentine C odex ( 15758 0) i s m uch more e xtensive. C ompleted i n t he c apital o f T enochtitlan, i t b oth r eflects r egional d ifferences f rom t he d ata o f T epeapulcc a nd m ore t ightly s tructures t he f orm a nd c ontent o f t he m aterial f irst r ecorded i n t he Primeros M emoriales. The l ater d ate a nd m anifest c ontin ental p rototype o f t he F lorentine C odex ( it c learly e choes t he s truct ure o f a m edieval e ncyclopedia--see R obertson 1 959:172) a llowed i ncreased European i nfluence i n t he p resentation o f m aterial, b oth t extually a nd p ictorially. I n o rder t o a pproach a n ative v iew o f A ztec r itual, t his p aper c oncentrates o n t he d ata i n t he P rimeros Memoriales, u ses t hem a s a c onstant o r c ontrol, a nd r efers t o t he F lorentine C odex t o d ocument c hanges t hat o ccurred a fter i ncreased a cculturation t o S panish w ays.
P rimeros M e moria les:
t he Deities
C hapter I o f Sahagün 's Primeros Memoriales i s d ivided i nto f our p aragraphs o r s ections: 1 ) d eities, 2 ) p ublic c eremonies o f t he s olar y ear c alendar, 3 ) t emples a nd r itual s tructures, 14 ) s ervices a nd o ffering t o t he g ods M uch h as
( Sahagün
1 905-07:Vol.
6 ).
b een w ritten a bout A ztec s upernaturals,
N icholson 's
1 971
a rticle b eing t he b est s ummary t o d ate. Here w e s hould n ote t hat t he P rimeros M e moriales l ist i ncludes t hirty-six d eities, e ach i llustrated w ith a f ull-figure
d rawing.
These a re f ollowed b y f ive " minor "
g ods,
t he " Tepictoton," a nd b y t wo s ketchy d epictions o f p riests. O f t he f ull f igure d eities, t welve ( or o ne-third o f t he t otal) a re f emale. They a re C hicomecoatl ( #7), T eteuinan ( #1 24 ), C halchiuhtlicue ( #17), X ilonen ( #18), I zaputlteua ( #19), C ivacoatl Q uilaztli ( #20), U ixtocivatl ( #21), Y ztaccivatl C oatlicue ( #22), T ezcacoac A iopechtli ( #30), T iamaxac C ivapipiltinanaca ( #32), C hantico ( #3 24 ), a nd C halmecacivatl L ike t heir male c ounterparts, t he g oddesses a re d rawn s tanding,
( #35). f acing
t o t he l eft. E ach h olds a c ircular w ar s hield i n h er l eft h and a nd a s taff o r o ther i dentifying i nsignia i n h er r aised r ight h and. The a rticles i n t heir r ight h ands a re p erhaps t he most s ignificantly d iagn ostic p araphernalia : Chica necoatl ( figure 1 ), t he c orn g oddess, h olds a n h ourglass-shaped v essel f rom which e merge t wo c orn c obs d raped i n c orn s ilk ; T eteuinan ( figure 2 ) c arries a b room o f b ound t wigs ; C ivacoatl
( figure 3 ) g rasps t he a ngular w eaving s tick o r b atten u sed b y
wo men w ho e mploy b ack-strap l ooms. g oddess, h olds a t wo-tiered s taff
U ixtocivatl ( figure 24 ), t he s alt s plattered w ith l iquid r ubber, a s
d oes h er r elative T lalloc, t he r ain g od. c arry s imilar s taffs a nd t wo o thers w ear
( Two o f t he f ive T epictoton h eaddresses w hich a re, l ike
U ixtocivatls', c omposed o f t hree t runcated t riangles f lanked b y r osettes.) Coatlicue, a s h er n ame " She o f t he Serpent S kirts" m ight s uggest,
c arries a s erpent s taff.
C ivapipiltin
1 21
( figure 5 ) i s a n e xcep-
t ional c ase : r epresenting t he w omen w ho a re d eified a fter d eath i n c hildbirth, s he holds n either s taff n or s hield. W ithout f ace p aint o r h eaddress s kirt,
s he
a ppears
h er h air
T he
a s
a c ommon
d esigns
o f
t he
g oddesses'
f ace p aint, a nd h eaddresses. # 30,
w oman,
i n
a l ong w hite
h uipil
a nd
b raided a nd w rapped a round h er h ead.
# 34,
a nd # 35,
Each
g oddess
s hields
v ary,
a s
d o
t heir c lothes,
A ll o f t he g oddesses w ear h uipiles, e xcept
who a re a ttired i n t he t riangular q uechquemitl. i s
l abelled
w ith
h er
n ame
g loss
i n
Nahuatl
( the
l anguage s poken b y t he A ztecs a nd t he l anguage o f t he e ntire P rimeros Memoriales t ext), a nd further d iscussed b y a n a ccompanying p aragraph o f t ext. A s w e s hall s ee, t he s cribe o f t he n ext s ection d id n ot s o l ucidly l abel t he f emale c haracters p ortrayed. However, w e m ay u sed t he r epresentations o f t he g oddesses a nd o f C ivapipiltin ( as o n a n e arthly commoner) s econd s ection.
t o i lluminate t he s ignificance
Primeros Me r noriales:
t he
t he Ceremonial
o f t he f emales i n t he
C alendar
The s econd s ection o f t he Primeros Me r noriales, Cahpter I , e ighteen p ublic c eremonies o f t he s olar y ear c alendar,
a dditional f estival said t o Each
o f
d rawing a nd t here
a re
t hese
n ineteen
d escribed
n o
b e celebrated e very
w omen
i n
a n
c eremonies a djacent
d epicted
i n
t he
i s
y ears »
i llustrated
column f irst
e ight
o f Nahuatl
t hree
p resents p lus a n
b y
a f ramed
t ext.
c eremonial
While
i llustra-
t ions, t here a re s even i n t he d rawing f or t he f ourth, U ey T ozortli, G reat Vigil"
( Sullivan n .d. : 5) .
" The
I n t he u pper r ight h and c orner o f t he
r ectangular c cmposition, f our women s tand f acing r ight, t heir a rms o uts tretched
a nd
o verlapping e ach
p rocessional l ine, s tands
v ery n ear
who c arries
t he
a nd m ay
t he
b e
c enter
o ther
( figure
d ancing.
o f
t he
6 ).
T hey form a n a ctive
A f ifth
p lainly d ressed w oman
c omposition.
B elow h er i s a w oman
c ircular w ar shield
a nd h ourglass
vessel
o f c orn c obs
t hat a lly h er w ith t he c orn g oddess Chicomecoatl.
S he a lso f aces r ight,
t owards
t he
s tairs
p yramid
t emple
s eventh
f emale,
w hich
h as
who
p aired
s tands c orn
o n
c obs
t he o n
i ts
o f
r oof.
a f rontal
S he
w ears
a
d ouble r osette h eaddress r esembling t hat w orn b y Chicomecoatl i n t he d eity s eries o f t he P rimeros Manoriales. H er c lose a ssociation w ith t he t emple i ndicates t hat t he s eventh f emale m ay b e a d eity o r d eity i mpers onator. T hat i t i s t he latter i s s uggested b y t he b lood s plattered o ver h er t orso, a nd b y t he p riest w ho s tands t o h er l eft, c arrying a n i ncense b ag i n o ne h and a nd r aising t he r eddened b lade o f a s acrificial k nife i n t he o ther. The
t ext
i mpersonator, t he
c orn
o fferings,
o n Uey Tozortli m entions n o s uch s acrifice h owever.
p lant: maidens
The c elebration i s s aid t o
a fter
p eople
c arried
e ars
c ut o f
1 22
c orn
c orn
o n
s talks t heir
o f
a g oddess-
b e h eld i n h onor a nd b acks
o f
made
h ousehold
a nd
d eposited
t hem b efore
t he
t emple o f Chicomecoatl.
T he d ivergence i n i nformation
b etween t ext a nd i llustration l eaves u s w ith many q uestions a bout t he f unction a nd s ignificance o f t he d rawn f igures h ere a nd i n o ther c erem onies. S ix f emales a ppear i n T oxcatl o r " Parched T hroat"
t he i llustration o f ( Sullivan n .d. : 7).
t he f ifth c eremony, F our s tand b efore a
l arge p ost-and-lintel s tructure t hat h as c ircles d ecorating t he f ront o f i ts m ansard r oof ( figure 7 ). They h old u p s quare f lags d ecorated w ith t he s pikey s tars w hich a re d escribed i n t he t ext a s " papers s plattered w ith l iquid r ubber." W e a re t old t hat a t s undown w omen p erformed a d ance w ith s uch f lags a nd t hen l eft t hem " around t he t emple o f T ezcatlipoca." A s econd a spect o f w omen 's p articipation i n Toxcatl i s a d ance c alled t he " Toxcatl L eap. . . the w omen d anced i n t heir p opcorn n eckl aces, t heir a rms a round e ach o ther" ( Sullivan n .d.:7). T he t wo o ther w omen o f t he T oxcatl i llustration a re p ressed u p a gainst t he r ight h and f rame o f t he c omposition. T hey w ear p opcorn n ecklaces, a s i ndicated i n t he t ext. They a lso h ave t all v ertical b anners p rojecting f rom t heir h eads. I n t he p re-Columbian s ystem o f p ictorial c onventions, s imilar t all white b anners w ere o ne w ay o f i ndicating s acrifice ( see C odex N uttall p age 7 6). I f t hese a re s acrificial v ictims, why a re t hey n ot d iscussed a s s uch i n t he a ccompanying t ext? The i llustration f or c eremony s ix, E tzalcualiztli o r " The Eating o f C orn a nd B ean S tew " ( Sullivan n .d. : 8 , f n. 214 ), i ncludes a r ow o f t hree w omen i n t he u pper r ight c orner. A n a bbreviated v ersion--abbrev iated b oth i n n umber a nd a rtistic d etail--of t he d ancers i n c eremony f our, t hey p robably r epresent e ither t he s inging w omen o r t he p rocess ion m entioned i n t he a ccompanying t ext. T he t ext o f t he P rimeros Memoriales t ells u s t hat t he s eventh f estival, T ecuilhuitontli o r " The L ittle Festival o f t he L ords" ( Sullivan n .d. : 9), w as t he f estival d uring which t he s alt g oddess U ixtocivatl was s acrificed. I t i s t herefore n ot s urprising t o s ee t he i llustration d ominated b y f emales ( figure 8 ). T he i llustration i s c omposed i n t hree t iers. A t c enter t op i s a l arge f rontal t emple. O n t he p orch s tands a f emale c arrying a t all s taff a nd w earing t he t riang le-and-rosette h eaddress t hat i dentify h er a s t he g oddess o f s alt, o r h er i mpersonator. T he f rontal t emple, w ith i ts c ross-hatched mansard r oof, i s r epeated o nce o n t he c entral l evel o f t he c omposition a nd t wice m ore o n t he b ottom, e ach t ime w ith i ncreasingly r educed r epresentations o f t he g oddess p ositioned b efore i t. T o t he l eft o n t he m iddle l evel i s a p rofile o r " T-elevation" t emple ( Robertson 1 959:19), i n f ront o f w hich s tands a p riest w ith i ncense b ag a nd s acrificia l k nife. B elow h im, o n t he b ottom l evel, i s a nother T-elevation t emple. What a ppears t o b e aT epictoton r ests o n t he t emple p orch ; o f
c orn.
1 23
b efore h im i s a d ouble e ar
The
t ext
t ells u s
t hat Tecuilhuitontli
w as
a t ime w hen
t he w omen
s ang " arrayed i n g arlands o f w ormwood f lowers" ( Sullivan n .d. : 10), b ut s uch s ingers d o n ot a ppear i n t he i llustration : a nother c ase o f d iverg ence
b etween U ey
p icture a nd t ext.
Tecuihuitl
n .d. : 10) , t he
o r
e ighth
" The
Great
c eremony,
Festival
was
w hen
o f
t he
t he
Lords"
g oddesses
( Sullivan
X ilonen
a nd
C ivacoatl w ere s acrificed. I n t he d eity s ection, X ilonen i s s hown w ith a h eaddress d istinguished b y t wo d angling e lements ; t he f emale b efore t he r ight-hand t emple i n t he f estival i llustration w ears s imilar g ear ( figure s econd
9 ).
She
i s
t emple a nd
t he d eity s ection. l ong sacrificial
p aired
w ears
w ith
a s econd
a q uechquemitl
T hese
t wo
b anners.
f ace
f igure
l ike
w ho
t hat
s tands
b efore
w orn b y C ivacoatl
t wo we i nen f rom w hose
h eads
a i n
p roject
A re w e s eeing t wo s tages o f t he c eremony--the
d eity i mpersonators a ppearing b efore t he t emples,
t hen dying i n s acri-
f ice? In t he l ower h alf o f t he Uey Tecuilhuitl w ho s tands k nife
a nd
b efore i ncense
b ag.
r epresent t hose w ho,
H e
f aces
a s t he t ext
s kirts a nd h uipiles a nd. a nd o n t heir h eads. w ear g arlands;
i llustration i s
a p riest
aT -elevation t emple a nd a gain c arries a s acrificial
. . "
a r ow
t ells
o f
u s,
t hree
w omen
w ho
n o
d oubt
" dressed t hemselves i n n ew
. . wore g arlands o f f lowers a round t heir n ecks ( Sullivan n .d. : 10).
These t hree w omen d o n ot
t heir d epiction s eems a s c onventionalized a s t hat o f t he
p riest. Just a s t he p resence o f t he p riest p robably m eant s acrifice o f a g oddess i mpersonator i n c eremonies f our, s even, and e ight ( he d oes n ot a ppear a gain w ith t he s ame raised knife i n t he r emainder o f t he P rimeros Memoriales c eremonial c alendar i llustrations), s o t he r ows o f w omen i n c eremonies f our, s ix, a nd e ight must h ave i ndicated a w omen 's r ite. c ontent
t he
s pecific
r ite--the
s pecific s ong,
d ance,
The
p rocession--must
h ave b een c learly c lued b y p ictorial c ontext i n p re-Columbian p rotot ypes, r eady f or r ecitation o f t he m emorized e xplanation b y t he r eligious w ho " read" A ztec b ooks. t o
v isual
s timulii
i n
t he
A ztec o ral
manuscripts
c ontrolled t exts t hat r emain a re
i s
h istory a nd i ts r elation
n ow
l ost.
T he
o ften f rustratingly v ague.
EuropeanW e s imply
d o n ot k now e xactly what w omen ' sr ite i s r epresented i n t he d epiction o f U ey T ecuilhuitl. W omen 's
r ituals a re
n ot
i llustrated w ith e ither
c eremony n ine o r
t en, b ut a f emale f igure w ho c arries t he shield o f c oncentric c ircles a nd t wig b room i dentifying h er a s Teteuinan d oes a ppear. I n n ine ( Micailhuitontli), s he f aces t he f our p riests w ho d rag i nto t own t he t ree s oon t o b e t ransformed i nto t he x ocotl p ole. I n t en ( Uey M iccailhuitl) , s he s tands i n t he u pper l eft c orner, o pposite t he p rize a top t he p ole. A lthough t here i s n o m ention o f w omen o r g oddess f or c era nony o fferings
t en, t o
t he
t ext
d oes
s ay
Teteuinan
t he p ole d uring c eremony n ine
a nd
t he
n oble
w omen
m ade
( Sullivan n .d.:11).
Teteuinan was s acrificed d uring O chpaniztli o r " Sweeping" ( Sullivan n .d. : 13), c eremony e leven. T he l arge, c omplex i llustration f or
t his
f estival
c ontains
e ight
r epresentations
1 2 1 4
o f
f emales
( figure
1 0).
F our c arry t he g oddess '
t wig b room a nd c oncentric c ircle s hield ;
f our o thers w ear h er s pun c otton h eaddress. T he f our w ith b rooms a nd s hields o ccupy t he u pper r ight q uarter o f t he c omposition. T hey a re e ach a ssociated w ith a c omplex f orm o f f olded p aper c overed w ith s platt ered l iquid r ubber. T hose w ith c otton h eadgear a re a rrayed i n t he u pper l eft. T hree h old t he o utstretched l imbs o f af ourth ; t he s acrific ial k nife r aised b y o ne o f t he t hree h olders a lludes t o t he f ate o f t he p rone f ourth f igure. A lthough t he t ext t ells u s t hat A ztec w omen s ang f or t wenty d ays d uring t his f estival, n o p erformers s eem t o b e p ortrayed i n t he O chpaniztli i llustration. T he t ext a lso d iscusses t he f act t hat a fter t he i mpersonator o f T eteuinan was s acrificed, s he was f layed a nd " a m an d ressed h imself i n h er s kin" ( Sullivan n .d.:1 5 ). H e t hen w ent t o t he c ourtyard o f t he T emple o f Huitzilopochlti, t he A ztec p atron w ar g od. L ater, a mask made o f t he s kin o f t he i mpersonator w as p laced o n t op o f a p ole. This i s r epresented i n t he Primeros Memoriales i llustration b y a h ead o n t op o f l adder-like s tructure. T he t wo b anners p rojecting a bove t he h ead u nderscore i ts s acrificial o rigin. T he t ext t ells u s t hat t he O chpaniztli f estival c oncluded w ith m ock c ombat i n f ront o f a r epresentation o f t he g oddess. " For t his r eason s he ( Teteuinan) w as c alled ' W o man Warrior '" ( Sullivan n .d:1 6 ). T he men w ith raised m acana w eapons a nd t iny c ircular s hields b efore t he l adder a ppear t o b e p erforming s uch mock c ombat.
a rrayed
The o nly w omen w ho a ppear i n t he t welfth c eremon ial i llustration a re f ound c lose t o t he l eft-hand f rame. T hey s it w ith t heir l egs d rawn u p u nder t heir b odies, a s d o w omen i n A ztec s tone s culpture ( Kubler 1 975:plate
3 1B ).
T heir
o utstretched
h ands
p roffer
c ircular
o bjects
s urmounted b y w hat a ppear t o b e s evered h ands o r c laws ( ?). T he t ext o n T eteo E co o r " The Gods Arrive" ( Sullivan n .d.:1 6 ) s ays t hat i t w as a t ime
f or
f eathers"
t he
o fferings
( this
o f
f irst
f ruits
which
w ere
" adorned
w ith
r ed
p hrase may b e a l inguistic p un f or t he s evered i tems).
Women a re absent f rom t welve. T hey d o n ot a ppear
b oth i llustration a nd t ext o f f estival i n t he i llustration o f c eremony t hirteen,
e ither ; t he t ext c learly s tates, " Only t he m en d anced. h unting c elebration ( Sullivan n .d.:1 7 ).
. . " d uring t his
I n c ontrast, t he t ext o n t he f ifteenth c eremony, P anquetzaliztli, s ays t hat " all t he maidens a nd y ouths d anced" ( Sullivan n .d.:1 9 ). B ut t he ma idens a re e xcluded f rom t he i llustration o f t he main c eremony d edicated t o Huitzilopochtli. A temortli
o r " Descent
o f
t he Water"
( Sullivan n .d.:20),
t he
t eenth c eremony, was w hen d ough f igures o f t he T epictoton w ere a nd " sacrificed" b y h aving t heir h eads c ut o ff b y w omen 's b attens. The i llustration c ontains f our f emales a nd f our males 1). A t t op, f rom l eft t o r ight, a re a male c arrying a n i ncense
s ix-
c reated w eaving ( figure b ag a nd
h olding a m acana w eapon, a f emale w ho s tands b efore a f lat-roofed t emple
1 25
a nd c arries a t wo-tiered s taff l ike t hat o f t he Tepictoton, a nd a X ilonen f igure holding a b owl i n h er o utstretched h ands. B ehind X ilonen i s a c olumn o f f our s ymbols f or r ain o r p recious j ewel. The l ower h alf f igures a lternating
o f t he A temortli c omposition male-female. T hey s tand o n
i s f illed b y s mall p etate
f ive m ats
f acing l eft, a nd h old b owls i n t heir p rojecting a rms. B efore e ach i s a v essel w ith a r ing h andle a t i ts l ip. N one o f t he " offering f igures" o r a ttendants i s e xplained i n t he t ext. L ike n ies,
t hose
o f
t he
f ourth,
s eventh,
t he s eventeenth i llustration
e ighth,
f ocuses o n t he
a nd
e leventh c eremo-
r epresentation
o f
a
g oddess. T he s eventeenth c eremony i s c alled Tititl o r " Stretching " ( Sullivan n .d.:21). I n t his c ase, C ivacoatl i s c learly i dentified b y t he w eaving s tick , q uechquemitl, a nd h eavy f ace p aint. S he s tands i n t he
c enter
o f
t emple-pyramid.
t he
c omposition,
b efore
a
c arefully
l imned
f rontal
A t h er f eet a re t wo b ags, t ied w ith r ope, a nd d escribed
i n t he t ext a s t he " barn p layful m ock c ombat.
o wl"
b ags
w ith
which
Around C ivacoatl a re a rrayed s even g ods.
m en
s truck
w omen
i n
C lockwise f rom t op , t hey
a re Atlaua ( #25 i n t he P rimeros Memoriales d eity l ist), T ezcatlipoca ( #3), I xtlilton ( #12) ( or p ossibly Macuilxochitl, # 29), H uitzilopochtli ( #1), T lalloc ( #6), a nd Q uetzalcoatl ( #4). T his i s a n i mpressive l ist, t he k ey p owers o f t he m ale s upernatural h ierarchy, b ut C ivacoatl i s d epicted a s l arger t han t hey, a nd c ompositionally d ominant. T he t ext s tates t hat t his was a t ime w hen a ll t he g ods d anced, a nd t hat t he f estival w as a lso c alled " Ilamatecuhtli's Leap" ( Ilamatecuhtli b eing a nother n ame f or C ivacoatl). T he t ext a dds t hat a t t his t ime t he p riest d ressed a s t he C ivateteo ( another t erm f or t he C ivapipiltin, t he w omen w ho d ied i n c hildbirth). A lthough t his e vent i s n ot i llustrated, i t s hould b e r emembered, a s c ross-dressing w as a m ajor c omponent o f A ztec r itual. T he h istorical c hronicles t ell u s t hat w hen t he C olhuacän p rincess was s acrificed b y a n A ztec p riest, h e d onned h er f layed s kin a nd d ress. T hat t his e vent w as r itually r epeated i n O chpaniztli i s s uggested b y t he t exts a s well
( see Brown 1 984).
The p rime m inister o f t he A ztec e mpire
o ften d ressed a s t he g oddess C ivacoatl w hen a ppearing i n s tate ( see K lein 1 979). C ross-dressing c ontinues i n M exican f estivals t oday, w here m en d ress a s w omen a nd d ramatically e nact p roper ( or h ysterically i mproper) f emale b ehavior ( Esser 1 979). T he l ast o f t he e ighteen s olar y ear f estivals d iscussed i n t he P rimeros Memoriales i s I zcalli o r " growth" ( Sullivan n .d.:22 ). I zcalli i s s aid t o h ave i ncluded " the e ating o f t he a maranth g reens t amales," " the s owing o f s eeds a new," t he " stretching" o f c hildren a nd o f v arious p lants t o e nsure r apid g rowth, a nd t he d ancing a nd d rinking o f a lcoholic b everages
b y c hildren.
1 26
None t ion.
o f
t hese
Instead,
s ixteen
e vents
w e
h ave
i s
d epicted
a " re-make"
i n
o f
t he
t he
c orresponding i llustra-
i llustration
f or
c eremony
( Atemortli), w ith a d eity i n ac entral f rontal t emple f lanked b y
a p riest o n t he l eft a nd a w oman ( apparently n ot a g oddess t his t ime) o n t he r ight. B elow t hem a re t he a lternating male-female f gures w ith o ffering
b owls,
r inged
v essels,
a nd
p etate
m ats.
The
d eity
i n
t he
c enter i s a male--I mozauhqui--not a f emale Tepictoton a s i n t he c opied p rototype.
B ut t he
o therwise, t ext
t he
c omposition was
s ense
t hat
c oncludes
h eld,
exactly l ike t he o ne h eld i n A temortli" Atamalcualiztli
o r
w ith " .
" The
. . at
Eating
o f
r epeated,
s undown
s o
i t m akes
a p rocession
Water
Tamales"
( Sullivan
n .d.:24) i s unique i n b eing g iven a full p age i llustration a nd i n d iscussed a s a festival
c elebrated e very e ight
i s d escribed a s a " movable" s ometimes i n Tepiehuitl.
f east, c elebrated Perhaps "feast"
A tamalcualiztli
a t ime
b egan
w ith
o f o f
I ndians
f rom
Tlalloe,
g rabbed
f rogs
a nd
s nakes
a nd t hen d anced w ith t hem.
y ears.
b eing
A tamalcualiztli
s ometimes i n Q uecholli, i s a m isleading t erm :
f asting.
i mpersonators d anced i n t he g uises
w as
( Sullivan n .d.:23).
Then
numerous
b irds a nd i nsects. a p ool
b efore
d eity
T he Mazateca t he
t emple
o f
T he p eriod o f a bstinence w as e nded
w ith a g reat s upper o f f ruit t amales a nd t he r itual o f c orn.
d istribution o f b ins
The Atamlcualiztli i llustration, r inged b y t he f ootprints i ndicati ng m ovement o r d irection, i ncludes t hirty-four f igures, a re
c learly f emale.
s hields
a nd
F our o f t hese a re g oddesses.
s taffs,
Chicomecoatl
( goddess
# 7
o f which e ight
S tanding w ith t heir i n
t hc
d eity
l ist),
C halchiuhtlicue T ezcacoac C uipechtli ( #30), a nd X ilonen ( #18) a lternate o n t he r ight h alf o f t he c omposition b etween s even g ods. A n e arthly
w oman
s its
u nder
t he
t hatch
r oof
o f
a c ommoner's
o thers s it t heir l egs s imilarly c urled u nderneath t hem, v essels o ut t o e ither s ide o f Tlalloc's s erpent p ool. b ottom o f t he c omposition,
a w oman s its w eaving o n t he
t hat i s t ied t o a f lowering t ree.
h ome.
T wo
a nd h old f ood A t t he c enter b ackstrap l oom
T wo f eather t ufts s et i nto h er c oiled
h air i ndicate h er e lite s tatus. n ineteen
s olar
c alendar f estival i llustrations o f Sahagün 's Primeros Memoriales.
T hus
w e
s ee
f emales
d epicted
i n
t hirteen
o f
t he
Many
o f t hose r epresented a re d eities o r d eity i mpersonators:
g oddesses a re
o f t he c eremonial d rawings ( in i llustrations 4 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 , 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 8 , and 1 9). T hey a re t he f ocus o f i llustrations 4 , 7 , 8 , 1, 1 6, a nd 1 7, o r t hirty p ercent o f t he t otal. d epicted i n h alf
B ut m ere w ho
t here
a re many f emales
p articipants p repare,
s erve,
e nactors, i .e., ( Ochpaniztli), I t
s eems
g oddesses
( or
( dancers, o ffer
w ho
a re
s ingers) f ood),
o r
o r
n ot
g oddesses.
c eremonial t hey
c an
b e
T hese
a ttendants p owerful
c an b e ( those r itual
p riestesses, a s i s p articularly o bvious i n c eremony # 11 w here t hey h old a nd s acrifice a f emale v ictim.
o bvious t heir
t hat
t he
f emales
o f
i mpersonators)--were
1 27
t he
o f
s upernatural
c rucial
r ealm--the
i mportance
t o
t he
A ztec r itual s tructure. I n t he P rimeros Memoria les a ccount, t hey d ominate s ix o f t he c eremonial i llustrations, a ppear i n f our m ore. E arthly w omen a ppear i n n ine o r f ifty p ercent o f t he i llustrations. ( In c ontrast, while e arth ly males a ppear i n a ll b ut t wo i llustrations, male d eities a ppear i n o nly n ine.)
o f t he c ere non ial
B ut t he Primeros Memoriales d oes n ot c larify t he r ole ( s )o f t hese e arthly w omen. Wh ich w ere p riestesses? W hat w ere t heir f unctions? Which o f t he d ancers/singers/ceremon ial s ervants p erformed s ociallys pecialized f unctions f or which t hey w ere h ie ily t rained? f igures r epresent t he " masses," i f a ny?
W h ich d rawn
What, f or e x ample, d o t he s cribes m ean w hen t hey w rite ( of t he T oxcatl c eremony), " Each w oman w ent a long d ancing, c arrying p apers s plattered w ith l iquid r ubber"? D o t hey mean a ll t he w omen o f t he t own? O r d o t hey m ean t hey mean
w hen
a ll
t he w omen
t hey w rite
o f a c ertain
( of Tecuilhtuil)
t hey d anced i n t heir n ew c lothes?
r eligious t hat
Which wa nen?
t he
o rder? w omen
W hat d o
s ang ,
t hat
Sometimes t he i ssue i s
c lear, a s w hen t hey w rite ( of Mic a .ilhuitontli) t hat t he n oble w omen made o fferings o r ( of O chpaniztli) " Everyone, a ll t he p eople, d anced" ( Sullivan n .d.:1 14 ). B u t o ften t he meaning r emains o bscure. A lthough w e c an i dentify f emales ( or t hose a cting a s f emales) b y t heir a ttire i n t he i llustrations, i t i s s ometime s n ot s o e asy t o d o s o i n t he Nahuatl t ext o f S ahag t in 's Primeros Memoriales. F or while t here a re v ery e xplicit Nahuatl n ouns f or w omen ( especially c ihuatl), t he l anguage 's p ersonal p ronouns a re v ague. Y ehuatl c an m ean h e o r s he ; te- c an mean ( to) h im o r ( to) h er ; c an m ean h is o r h ers ( Anderson 1 973:17-19). C ontrary t o w hat m ight b e e xpected f rom t he v isual i nform ation, n o w ords e xpressly f or p riestess a re f ound i n t he P rimeros Memoriales c eremonial d escriptions. t lateochivalli a nd t eopixqui f or p riest
B ut a lthough Molina ( "sacerdote" i n S panish ;
l ists M olina
1 977:107), t he t wo t erms c an b e u sed t o r efer t o s acerdotal p ersonages o f e ither s ex. P arts o f t he P rimeros Me noriales t ext c an t hus b e i nterpreted a s a mbiguous a s t o s exual d esignation. T he
c onfusion
i s
c ompounded
w hen
t he
p roduction
o f
Sahag t in ' s
Primeros Me r noriales i s exam ined. E llen T . B aird 's d issertation ( 1979) i s t he most c omplete s tudy o f t he P rimeros Memoriales p ictoria ls t o d ate. A cknow ledging t hat t he p resent f ormat o f t he Primeros M emoria les f ollows t hat o f a European b ook ( Baird 1 979:52), s he f eels t hat t he i llustrations f or t he e ighteen c eremonies w ere c opied f rom a p reconq uest t ira o r s creenf o ld manuscript ( R aird 1 979:87), a nd t hat t hey p receded t he a cc a npanying t ext ( Baird 1 979:114). Austin w ho s uggests t hat t he t ext w as d eveloped
B aird c ites L opgz f rom r esponses t o a
q uestionnaire S ahag t in c reated : B ased
o n
t he
o rder
o f
i nformation g iven,
L opgz
Austin s uggests t hat t he q uestions w ere t he f oll owing : 1 . What i s t he n ame o f t his e nce t o t he r ectangle d rawing)?
1 28
f east ( in r eferc ontaining t he
2 .
Why i s a rouses
3 .
What
i t c alled t hat h is c uriosity)?
h uman
s acrifices
( when
o r
t he
n ame
o fferings
w ere
made f or t his f east? 4 .
H ow w as
5 .
O n
t he
w hat
c eremony p erformed?
d ate
o f
t he
J ulian
c alendar
d id
this m onth fall? The
o rder
v aries
o nly
i n
t he
material
o n
t he
f irst t wo m onthly f easts. ( Lopez
A ustin
B aird c ontinues,
1 974:125,
M3 ahagdn 's
q uoted in B aird
u se
1 979:112)
o f a q uestionnaire a nd
h is a dher-
e nce t o it h elp e xplain w hy o ne-half o f t he t exts g ive l ess o r d ifferent i nformation t han t he a ccompanying d rawing s.
Sahagdn d id n ot a sk f or a n
i temized i dentification o f a ll t he f igures a nd o bjects i n e ach d rawing ; h e
a sked f or r esponses t o h is Of c ourse Sahagdn w as
q uestions"
male.
( 1979:112).
H e t ells u s
h is
p rincipales
( native
n oble men)--informants a nd h is g ramäticos ( the s tudents t rained a t t he College o f Santa Cruz, T latelolco, whom Sahagün u sed a s s cribes) w ere a ll male a s w ell.
( Baird
t he a rtist/copyists y oung s cribes w ere p riesthood. n ot
a ppear
The t o
t he
q uestionnaire,
h ave
t he c eremonies.
[ 1979:219 ]
h ypothesizes t hat t he s cribes w ere
o f t he i llustrations.) t rained i n a t radition
Neither S ahagün n or t he t hat s upported a f emale
a s r econstructed b y L opez Austin,
e ncouraged
d iscussion
o f
w omen 's
d oes
p articipation
i n
W here t hen m ay we l ook t o g arner f urther i nformation o n
r ole o f w omen i n A ztec r itual?
Primeros Memoriales : One
s ource
C hapter I , s paces
S ervices t o t he G ods
i s
i tself.
t he
f ourth
( in s ection t hree),
( services
t o
t he
d iscussed
( is
i t
r epeats
s ection
o f
t he
Primeros
Memoriales,
F ollowing d iscussion o f t he t emples a nd o ther s acred i s
g ods). more
a l ist
o f
E ighteen
t han
t he
" Servicios
s ervices
a c oincidence
a re
t hat
t he n umber o f s olar y ear c eremonies?).
a l os D ioses"
i llustrated
t his
n umber
a nd
e xactly
A ll s how s ingle f igures
e ngaged i n t he i ndicated r itual a ct, e xcept s ervice # 17, w hich i ncludes f ive
f igures
f lanking a c entral
s tructure.
Of t he
s ix--including t he f irst f our--are female f igures. f emale ;
e ighteen s ervices, T he f igure i s
a lso
a nd o ne w o man i s i ncluded i n t he s eventeenth d rawing.
The
f irst
s ervice
commoner i n skirt
a nd
d epicted,
h uipil,
T lamanaliztli,
holding a b owl
o bjects a nd a t ripod c ontaining a s evered h and t he i llustration f or Teteo E co Tlamanaliztli m eans "offering" ( it
shows
a
c ontaining f our ( figure
f or s imilar i s t ranslated
1 2a;
w oman,
a
c ircular
a lso c onsult
" severed h ands"). a s o frecimiento i n
Molina 1 977:90); t he t ext t ells u s t hat b oth f ood ( "from a ll k inds o f l iving things") and c apes ( i.e., t extiles) w ere o ffered t o t he "devil" 2 b y t he
y oung w cmen.
3
1 29
T lenamaquiliztli
i s
t he o ffering o f
t his was d one b y b oth men a nd women ;
c opal
i ncense.
t he i llustration
T he
( figure
t ext s ays 1 2b) s hows
a w oman w ith a c lay i ncense l adle f rom w hich r ise s ix c urves o f p erfumed s moke. C opaltemaliztli i s t he c asting o f c opal
i ncense, which w as d one b y
t ossing nuggets o f t he r esin f rom a g ourd v essel i nto a b razier f ull o f c oals. T his w as d one " when a ny w eighty w ords w ere y et t o b e s aid" ( Sahagdn 1 951:182). A w oman e xtends h er h ands o ver t he s moking b razier i n t he P rimeros Memoriales i llustration ( figure 1 2c). The e arth, T his
f ourth
which
was
w as
v ery
i llustration t owards
s ervice d one
s acred ( figure
t o
t o
t he
g ods
s wear
t o
i s T lalqualiztli,
a s tatement
r ite
( Sahagdn
1 2d),
a w oman
o r
1 951:182). b ends,
t o
I n
t he
e ating
s how h igh
o f
h onor.
t he T lalqualiztli
p ointing
h er
i ndex
f inger
d irt a t h er f eet.
The
e ighteenth
o r l ast
s ervice
i s Tlachpanaliztli,
t he
s weeping .
A w cman i s s hown w ith t he s ame k ind o f b room t hat t he g oddess T eteuinan c arries
i n t he c eremonial d epictions
b oth g enders made t he s weeping Service # 17, t he g od i n
( Sahagdn
x icolli
( figure
o ffering
T euquauquetzaliztli, 1 951:186).
g arments
f lank
1 4),
( Sahagdn
i s t he p iling u p o f f irewood f or
I n t he i llustration a r itual
b ut t he t ext t ells u s 1 951:186).
s tructure,
( figure t he
t wo
1 3),
f our m en
c losest
t o
i t
a ctually a ppearing t o h old i t u p. T o t he f ar r ight a w oman a pproaches, c arrying a b unch o f w ood w ith ' u he t umpline s uspended f rom h er f orehead. Her p osition a nd c ontext r ecall t hat o f t he t eomane o r " god-carriers" o f A ztec h istorical m anuscripts. P eregrinaci6n ( Codice B otturini), t hree
m en
a nd
t hroughout a re,
a s
a w oman--carrying
t he A ztec
m ight
P articularly i n t he T ira d e l a w e s ee f our h ighly r anked p ersons--
b e
m igration
p resumed,
t he
p araphernalia
f rom A ztlän
t he
o riginal
o f
t he
p atron
t o T enochtitlan.
p riests
a nd
g od
I f t hese
p riestess
o f
t he
A ztec t ribe, t hey m ay b e i nterpreted a s a ncient r itual a rchetypes. T he i nclusion o f a w oman m ust i ndicate t hat t here w as a l ong h istory o f f emales i mages
c arrying a lso
o bjects
i nclude
o f
a w oman
C odex Nuttall
p ages
1 7 a nd
A lthough
w omen
a re
a nd
f or
a mong
t he
A ztec
a q uartet
g ods.
o f
( Early
M ixtec
p riestly f igures;
s ee
1 8.).
n either
i llustrated
n or
c learly
d iscussed
i n
t erms o f t he m ore b loody a spects o f A ztec c eremonialism ( as a nimal a nd h uman s acrificial s laying, o r t he d rawing o f s traws a nd t horn t hrough t he b ody i n s elf-inflicted p enitence), a nd
d iscussed
a s
i ntegral
s acerdotal f unctions,
t o
t he
t hey a re n onetheless i llustrated
s ervices
t o
t he
g ods,
t hat
i s,
t o
i n t he f ourth s ection o f t he P rimeros Memoriales.
D etails f rom t he T ira d e l a P eregrinaci6n i ndicate t his r ole h ad a l ong h istory a mong t he A ztecs.
1 30
T he F lorentine C odex :
S ervices t o t he G ods
T he e xact l ist o f e ighteen s ervices t o t he g ods i s r epeated i n S ahagün 's l ater e ncyclopedic t ome, t he F lorentine C odex ( Sahagün 1 951:181-86), l argely w ithout i llustrations, h owever. T hese e ighteen a re t hen a mplified b y t wenty-one a dditional s ervices, C ihuapacuiquiztli, " Singing i n t he M anner o f a W oman"
i ncluding ( Sahagün
1 951:188). I n t he F lorentine C odex , t he s ervices a re f ollowed b y " A T rue R elation o f a ll T hose W ho S erved i n t he H ouses o f t he G ods" ( Sahagün 1 951:193-201). O nly t wo o f t he t hirty-eight " servers i n t he g od h ouses" ( read " priests") a re o bviously f emale : t he C ivaquacuilli ( Old P riestess) i n c harge o f t he o fferings a t t he T emple o f A tenchicalan ( i.e., t he T emple o f T eteuinan) a nd t he C ihoaquacuilli i ztac c ihoacoatl w ho w as i n c harge o f t he s weeping a nd l aying o f f ire a t t he T eteuinan t emple ( Sahagün 1 951:197-98). " And a ny w ho m ade s upplication ( to t he g oddess) s poke t o t he I ztac c ivatl c uiaquacuilli. T his o ne d etermined a ll t hat w as d one h ere a t ( the T emple o f) A tenchicalcan" ( Sahagün 1 951:198). I f a w oman w as h ead p riestess a t t he T eteuinan t emple, a nd T eteuinan w as a s r itually i mportant a s t he P rimeros M emoriales i llustrations m ight i ndicate ( she i s t he o nly g oddess i n t hree c eremonial i llustrations, t he f ocus o f t he m ajor f estival O chpaniztli), t hen w e h ave a c lear t extual i ndication o f a v ery i mportant w oman i n A ztec r itual. I f o r h ow t his p riestess i s i llustrated i n t he S ahaguntine c orpus i s a nother q uestion. She d oes n ot s eem t o a ppear i n t he F lorentine C odex i llustrations o f t he c eremonial c alendar ( figures 1 -49, f ollowing p age 1 02 i n S ahagün 1 951). Unlike t he P rimeros Memoriales, t he F lorentine C odex i s n ot c onsistent w ith a o ne-to-one r elation o f i llustration t o c eremonial d escription. S ome c eremonies h ave s everal f ramed i llustrations: T lacaxipehualiztli, t he s econd f estival, h as t welve , A tamalcualiztli ( called " Ixcocauhqui" i n t he F lorentine C odex) h as f ifteen. O thers, a s t he f irst, a re n ot i llustrated a t a ll. A nd w hile t he o verall t otal o f f estival c alendar i llustrations i n t he F lorentine C odex i s g reater t han t hat o f t he P rimeros M emoriales ( forty-nine i n t he f ormer c ompared t o n ineteen i n t he l atter),
t he
p roportion w hich c ontains w omen i s l ess.
W omen a re s hown w ashing t heir h air d uring T lacaxipehauliztli ( Florentine C odex c eremonial i llustration 1 0), o ffering c orn d uring U ei T ocortli o fferings f estival.
( illustration 1 3). T he g oddess C hicomecoatl r eceives f rom m en i n i llustration 1 4, a lso f or t he U ei T ocortli Women f orm p art o f a n o n-looking c rowd i n i llustration 1 6 f or
t he T oxcatl f estival. They a ccompany t he s alt g oddess w ith o fferings i n i llustration 2 4 ( Tecuilhuitontli f estival), a lthough m ales s acrifice t he g oddess-impersonator i n t he f ollowing p ictorial
" barn
p anel.
T he i llustration f or T ititl, #33, s hows m en t hrowing a t w omen t he o wl" b ags s een a t C ivacoatl 's f eet i n t he P rimeros M emoriales
1 31
v ersion. A w oman p ulls h er c hild 's e ars t o " stretch" h er f or g rowth i n t he I zcalli i llustration 3 4. I xcocauhqui, l ike t he P rimeros M emoriales A tamalcualiztli, i s v isu ally u nique. I t i s p ortrayed b y f ifteen i llustrations a nd w omen a re i n m ost o f t hem. Women r eceive f ood ( #35) a nd p repare i t ( #36). a dmonish y ouths ( #38), t hen g ive t hem d rink ( #43). Women r eceive t iles ( #40), t ake b abies ( #41) a nd y ouths ( #42) t o t he t emples. a lso d o m uch t alking , a s t he n umerous s peech s crolls i ndicate # 44). T he c eremonial
d escriptions
T hey t exT hey ( #42,
i n t he F lorentine C odex a re l onger b y
m any t imes t han t he c orresponding o nes i n t he P rimeros Memoriales. Women a re m entioned i n r eference t o m any r ituals, b ut a gain t here i s n o c lear i ndication o f t heir r ank o r r ole. A nd w hile t he t ext o n t he f irst e ighteen s ervices t o t he g ods v ery c losely p arallels t hat o f t he Primeros Memoriales, o nly o ne s ervice o f t he t en i llustrated i n t he F lorentine C odex i ncludes a w oman ( Tlachpanaliztli, i llustration 5 3).
F lorentine C odex :
What Women D id a t t he Temples
That n either S ahagdn h imself n or h is i nformants a nd s cribes c ons idered w omen 's r ole a p riority i s m anifest i n t he l ast e ntry t o B ook I I o f t he F lorentine C odex. " Account o f W hat t he Women D id T here a t t he T emples" s eems a n a fterthought, a r eluctant c oda ( Sahagün 1 951:215-16 , i .e., t he v ery e nd o f t he v olume). A lthough t he s ection b egins " Behold t he l ife o f ap riestess w hom ( their m others) v owed ( to s ervice) t here i n t he g reat t emple" a ll t hat i s r eally d escribed i s: 1 ) t hat p arents c ould d edicate t heir d aughters t o t he t emple a t v ery y oung a ge; 2 ) t hat t he c hild w ould l eave b rooms a nd i ncense a t t he t emple e very t wenty d ays; a nd f inally 3 ) t hat t he t emple w as a ctually e ntered b y maidens w ho p erformed w hat i s c alled a " veiling c eremony." T he
b rief
a ccount
c oncludes
b y
s aying t hat
i f
t he
w oman,
t hen a
p riestess ( "cihoatlamacazqui") w ere a sked i n m arriage, s he w ould t ake h er o fferings a nd p erform a nother " veiling." T his l ast i s a mbiguous a t b est. l eave
J acques S oustelle i nterprets i t t o m ean t hat t he w omen w ould t he t emples f or m arriage, a dding, " But i t a ppears t hat m any p re-
f erred t o g ive t hemselves u p e ntirely t o r eligion "
( 1955:73 ).
S oustelle d oes n ot m ake c lear w hy h e s ays m any p referred t he r itual l ife. P erhaps h e, t oo, s tudied t he r epresentations o f w omen i n t he P rimeros Memoriales a nd Florentine Codex c eremonial i llustrations a nd l ikewise c oncluded t hat w omen p layed a k ey r ole i n A ztec r eligion a nd h istory. B ut i f h e t hen t urned t o t he t exts a ccompanying S ahagdn 's p ictorials, h e w ould h ave f ound t he a llusions t o w omen 's r oles e lusive a t
b est.
O nly
h inted
a t
i n
t he
d rawings
a nd
v irtually l ost
i n
t he
q uestionnaire/interview p rocess ( and i ts f urther r eduction i n l ater c olonial w riting), i nformation a bout w omen 's r ole i n A ztec r itual--like
1 32
t he
d ata
o n
m any
s acred
o r
European s ocieties--remains
s ecret
a spects
o f
w omen 's
l ives
i n
n on-
a n e vocative m ystery.
C onclusions T his
p aper
h as
e xamined
t he
p ictorial
a nd
t extual
i nformation o f
t he w ork o f F ray B ernardino d e S ahagün i n o rder t o e xplore t he r ole o f w omen i n A ztec p ublic r itual. T he e arlier o f Sahagün 's i llustrated w orks,
t he
P rimeros
Memoriales,
was
e mphasized
a s
i t
m anifests
l ess
E uropean i nfluence t han t he l ater F lorentine C odex. G oddesses were u nquestionably i mportant t hirty-six
d eities
Memoriales,
t welve
i s
l isted
i n
p assage i n Nahuatl
f igure
f estival
p aragraph I I
o f
t he
A ztecs ,
I o f
t he
a re f emale.
d rawing a nd
o f
t he
P rimeros
E ach d eity
d escribed i n a a djacent
t he
P rimeros Memoriales
i s
d evoted t o
f emale c haracters a re f ound i n t hirteen o f t he n ineteen
i llustrations. c eremonies
g oddesses
t he
A ztec d eities, t he e ighteen s olar y ear A tamalcualiztli. Women a ppear i mportant
O f t he t otal
f ifteen a re c learly g oddesses. o n
a mong
p aragraph
t ext.
t he c eremonies i n h onor o f f estivals p lus a n ineteenth, h ere a s well :
I ,
( or o ne t hird o f t he t otal)
i llustrated w ith a f ull
C hapter I ,
C hapter
i dentifies
p ortrayed,
i mpersonators,
n one
o f
p riestesses,
o f f ifty-five f emales p ortrayed,
B ut w hile t he Primeros Memoriales t ext a nd
t he
b riefly
f orty
d iscusses
o ther
m ost
f emales--be
o f
t hey
t he d eity
c eremonial a ttendants o r m erely c ommoners--
i s a dequately d iscussed. W e
k now
f rom
C hapter
I ,
p aragraph
I V
o f
t he
P rimeros
M emoriales
t hat w omen p erformed s everal o f t he k ey r ites, a nd f rom r eferences ( however e lusive) i n t he Florentine C odex t hat w omen j oined t he t emples a nd h eld major p ositions i n t he r eligious
h ierarchy.
W hy d oesn 't t he P rimeros Memoriales t ext c orrespond t o ( and t hereb y t o
e lucidate) t he c eremonial i llustrations, p articularly i n r eference w omen 's r oles? A m ajor f actor m ust h ave b een Sahagün 's r esearch
t echniques. h e
w as
n ot
I f h e u sed t he q uestionnaire r econstructed b y Lopez Austin a ctively
p ursuing
i nformation
o f
w omen 's
p articipation
i n
t he c eremonies. Sahagün 's o wn c ultural h eritage--the C atholic e xclus ion o f w omen f rom t he p riesthood--may h ave b linded h im ( as e thnocent rism o f v arious s orts B ut
t here
i s
h as
b iased many s ubsequent a nthropologists.)
a nother p ossibility.
I t a ppears
a nts a nd s cribes Sahagün e mployed w ere a ll male. t o
t he k nowledge o f w omen 's r itual
c hildren
t oday,
w ho
u nderstanding t he
s ee
t he
a ctivities?
k achinas
e merge
t he
n ative
O r w ere f rom
t he
t hey l ike H opi k ivas
t ransition t heir u ncles a nd n eighbors h ave
u nderground?
1 33
i nform-
W ere A ztec m en p rivy w ithout
u ndergone
W hatever t he c ause o r c ombination o f c auses, w hile b oth p rior c ultural i nformation f rom t he M aya p eoples a nd t he c eremonial i llustrat ions o f S ahagün 's P rimeros M emoriales i ndicate t hat w omen w ere i mport ant i n p re-Columbian r itual, e arly c olonial t exts a re f rustratingly l imited o n t he t opic. W e m ust c ontinue t o s tudy t he p ictures, n ot j ust t he w ords, t o i ncrease o ur k nowledge o f w omen 's r oles i n p re-Columbian America.
R ESUMEN S e v e m uchas m ujeres e n l as i lustraciones d el c alendario c eremonial a zteca e n l os P rimeros M emoriales d e F ray B ernardino d e S ahagün. S in e mbargo, l os t extos q ue a compaf tan l as i lustraciones n i i dentifican n i e xplican l as s ignificaci6n d e l as m ujeres. E ste c apitulo e xamina l as o bras d e Sahagün c on f in d e o btener d atos s obre e l p apel d e l a m ujer e n l os r itos p üblicos a ztecas. H ay m uchas s ugestiones s obre l a i mportancia d e l as m ujeres e n l os r itos, p ero e l s exo d e F ray S ahagün y s u m etodo e studio p rofundo d el a sunto.
d e
r ebusca a parentemente
i mpedieron
N OTES 1 .
My d issertation
( Brown
1 978)
d isputes
t he g enerally a ccepted
s tructure o f t he A ztec c eremonial c alendar o f t he s olar y ear, s uggesti ng t hat w hat w as r ecorded i n t he e arly c olonial p eriod w as g reatly i nfluenced b y European c oncepts o f r eligious c alendars. T hat a rgument i s n ot g ermaine t o t his a rticle, s o I h ere d iscuss t he c eremonial s tructure e xactly a s p resented b y S ahagün. 2 . T he e arly c olonial S panish w riters c onstantly r eferred t o p re-Columbian d eities a s d evils o r " diablos" ( Sahagün 1 951:190) a nd t o p re-Columbian t emples a s d evils ' h ouses ( Sahagün 1 951:204).
3 .
T o t he b est o f m y k nowledge, t he " Servicios a l os d ioses" h as
b een t ranslated n either t o E nglish n or S panish. F or t he d iscussion h ere, I c ombine m y o wn r udimentary k nowledge o f N ahuatl w ith c onstant c hecks o f A nderson a nd D ibble 's f ine t ranslation o f t he p arallel t ext i n S ahagün 's F lorentine C odex ( Sahagün 1 951:181-87).
1 3 1 4
NOTE O N THE I LLUSTRATIONS A ll l ine d rawings a re b y t he author a fter C hapter I o f t he Primeros Me r noriales
( Sahagün
1 905-7) •
13 5
R EFERENCES A nawalt,
P atricia R ieff
1 981
I ndian C lothing B efore C ortes : f rom t he N orman.
A nderson,
A rthur J .
19 73
0 .,
C odices.
M esoamerican C ostumes
University
o f
O klahoma
t rans.
University
o f
U tah
P ress.
Salt
E llen T aylor
1 979
S ahagün 's Primeros Memoriales: A S tructural a nd S tylistic A nalysis o f t he D rawings. P h.D. d issertat ion. D epartment o f A rt, University University Microfilms. A nn Arbor.
Brown,
P ress.
R ules o f t he A ztec Language, C lassical N ahauatl G ramm ar, f rom F rancis X avier C lavigero 's R eglas d e l a l engua M exicana. L ake C ity.
B aird,
C ITED
o f N ew M exico.
B etty Ann
1 978
E uropean a nd
I nfluences
I llustrations
i n o f
Early t he
C olonial
M exica
D escriptions
M ontly
Calendar.
P h.D. d issertation. D epartment o f Art, University o f N ew Mexico. University Microfilms. A nn Arbor. 1 984
O chpaniztli i n H istorial P erspective. D umbarton O aks C onference o n R ival S acrifice, e dited b y E lizabeth B oone. Washington, D .C.
C odex B otturini 1 946
C odex B otturini: M iguel O thon d e
P eregrinaci6n d e M en d iz abal , 0b ras
l os A ztecos. C omplet a s 3 .
M dxico C odex Nuttall
( London,
1 975
B ritish Museum Mss.
T he Codex Nuttall,
3 9671)
AP icture Manuscript f rom Ancient
M exico, e dited b y Z elia Nuttall. N ew Y ork. Codex S elden 1 964
( Oxford, B odleian L ibrary) I nterpretaci6n d el C odice Selden b y A lfonso C aso. M exico.
E sser ,
D over P ublications.
3 135
( A .2),
e dited
S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropoologia.
J anet B rody
1 979
G lass, J ohn B ., 1 975
M asks o f Wa nen f rom M ichoacän. S outhwest Museum. L os A ngeles. a nd Donald R obertson A C ensus o f Native
American
Pictorial
G uide t o E thnohistorical S ources.
1 36
T he Masterkey 5 3 : 3.
M anuscripts.
H andbook o f M iddle
Ameri c an Indians 114 , e di t ed b y R obert University o f T exas P ress. Austin.
W auchope
K lein, C ecelia F ord 1 979
R ethinking C ihuacoatl: A ztec P olitical Imagery o f t he C onquered Wa nan. P aper p resented a t t he 1 979 I nternational C ongress o f Americanists, V ancouver, British C olubia.
K ubler, G eorge 1 975
T he Art a nd Architecture o f Ancient America. P enguin B ooks.
L opez Austin, 1 974
H armondswork, M iddlesex,
2 nd e d.
E ngland.
A lfredo T he r esearch method o f Fray B ernardino d e Sahagün : t he q uestionnaires. S ixteenth c entury M exico, e dited b y Munro S . E dmunson. University o f New Mexico P ress.
A lbuquerque.
Molina, F ray A lonso d e 19 77 V ocabulario M exicana
y
e n
l engua
C astellar ia
Castellaf ia.
y
Editorial
Mex icana, P orrda,
y
S .A.
M exico. N icholson , 19 77
H enry B . R eligion i n Pre-Hispanic C entral M ex ico. A rchaeol o gy o f N orthern M exico. H andbook o f M iddle A merican I ndians, V ol. 1 0, e dited b y Robert W auchope. University o f T exas P ress. Austin.
R obertson, D onald 19 59 M ex ican P eriod, P ress. 1 970
T he
Manuscript P ainting o f t he E arly Colonial t he M etropolitan S chools. Yale University N ew H aven.
Tu lu m
Mural s :
T he
International
Style
o f
t he
L ate P ost C lassic. P roceedings o f t he 3 8th I nternat ional C ongress o f Americanists 2 . Munich. S ahagün F ray B ernardina d e 1 905-07 F ray B ernardion d e Sahagün : H istoria d e l as c osas d e N ueva E spaf ta., 4 v ols. H auser y M enet. M adrid. 1 951
T he Florentine C odex, o f N ew S pain.
B ook 2 :
General History o f
t he Thin p
The C eremonies, t ranslated b y
A rthur J . 0 . A nderson a nd Charles E . D ibble. T he S chool o f A merican R esearch a nd t he University o f N ew M exico.
S anta Fe.
1 37
Soustelle,
J acques
1 961
T he Daily Life o f t he A ztecs o n t he Eve o f t he S panish C onquest, t ranslated b y P artick Books. H armondsworth, Middlesex,
O 'Brien. E ngland.
P enguin
S ullivan Thelma D . n .d.
Festivals o f t he Gods. P arag raph I I: Described t he Festivals o f t he G ods. t ranslation o f Chapter I , P aragraph I I Primeros Memoriales.
1 38
I n Which I s U npublished o f Sahagün 's
c . 1 ) 1-cu r ne co a tt
F igure
1 .
C hicomecoatl
1 39
F igure 2 .
T et e ui n an
1 40
c i f i l az oo l. c l u i l £ 1 3 . i t i
F igure 3 .
Ci vacoatl
1 41
\ \ . \ , -\\•, , ,, • . . . \ »•\ .\sys .,,, . • , , , ,, . .••• ., ,,,,• ., •\,\ . •,• . ••
F igure 4 .
"
U ixtocivatl
1 42
b acorc9 c0 4
F igure 5 .
iu tp ;f i l l i manc •
T he C ivapipiltin
1 43
F igure 6 .
U ey T ozortli
F igure 7 .
T oxcatl
1 45
F igure 8 .
T ecuil h ui t ontli
1 46
F igure
9 .
Uey Tecuihuitl
1 47
F igure
1 0.
O chpaniztli
1 48
F igure
1.
A temortli
1 49
4_cL yrbaY 1c.,
a
-
A
i
1
_ ena r nc i , 1u v l v \
b
F igure 1 2. S ervices t o t he g ods: a . T lamanaliztli b . T lenamaquiliztli
1 50
6 " ) , 4c t
F igure
1 2. S ervices t o t he g ods: c . C opalte r naliztli d . T lalqualiztli
1 51
rte l a, U3 f f i
F igure
1 3.
S ervices t o t he g ods:
1 52
T lachpanaliztli.
F igure
1 4.
S ervices
t o
t he g ods:
1 53
T euquaquetzaliztli.
T EXT A ND IMAGE I N S AHAGUN'S PR IME R OS M EM JRIALES b y E LLEN T AYLOR BAIRD
F ray B ernardino d e Sahag t in 's e ncyclopedic w ork, t he H istoria g eneral d e l as c osas d e Nueva Espana, i s a major s ource o f i nformation o n p reconquest r eligion, c ulture, a nd l anguage i n C entral M exico. The t exts o f Sahagdn 's m anuscripts p rovide d irect s ources o f f actual i nform ation o n t he p reconquest p ast. w ell; t hey n ot o nly i llustrate
The i llustrations a re r ich s ources a s t he t exts t hey a ccompany b ut f urther
p rovide much valuable d irect a nd i ndirect p reconquest information a nd y ield s ignifica .nt i nsight i nto t he d ramatic c hanges w hich t ook p lace i n M exico d uring t he e arly p ostconquest
p eriod.
A c areful a nalysis o f t he p ictorial s tructure a nd f unction o f t he i llustrations o f S ahagdn 's Primeros Me r noriales, t he f irst i n a s eries o f w orking manuscripts o f h is Historia g eneral, r eveals i nformation o n S ahag t in 's m ethodology a nd t he p reconquest p ictorial manuscripts h e c ons ulted. I n 1 557 F ray Francisco Toral,
F ranciscan Provincial
o f New S pain ,
o rder Sahag l in t o w rite i n N ahuatl a ll t hat a ppeared t o S ahag L in t o b e " useful f or t he i nstruction, c ultivation, a nd maintenance o f C hristiani ty o f t he n atives o f N ew S pain a nd f or t he a id o f t he w orkers a nd m issionaries w ho i nstruct t hem [ the n atives j" ( Sahag t in 1 93 8 , I : xvii). 1 I n r esponse t o T oral 's o rder, S ahag t in b egan collecting information a nd p reparing t he manuscript t hat i s n ow k nown a s t he P rimeros M emoriales. I n
t he
p rologue
t o
B ook
I I
o f
t he
C odex F lorentino,
t he
f inal
c omplete v ersion o f t he Historia g eneral e xecuted u nder Sahagdn 's d irect s upervision , S ahag t in c learly s tated t he m anner i n which h e w ent a bout c ollecting i nformation f or h is p rojected w ork. A fter r eceiving T oral 's d irective, S ahag t in d rew u p a " minuta o r memoria o f a ll t he m atters t hat h ad t o b e t reated" ( Sahagün 1 938 , 1 :79). S ahag t in 's m inuta i s b elieved t o h ave b een e ither a memorandum o utlining t he t opics h e w ished t o p ursue
( Lopez A ustin 1 974:111-12,
15) o r, more s pecifically ,
a q uestionnaire ( Sahag t in 1 938 , I :xvii). T he m inuta was i n S panish a nd i s n ow l ost. H e a lso p repared f or h is w ork b y c hoosing f our y oung n ative m en, r eferred t o C ollege
o f
g ramäticos ( grammarians) o r l atinos ( latinists), a s h e t hem, w ho h ad b een f ormer s tudents o f h is a t t he Indian S anta
C ruz
i n
T latelolco.
1 55
These
y oung
m en,
t rilingual
( Nahuatl, S panish , a ssistants. Sahagt in
w ent
L atin)
f irst
a nd
t o
t he
w ell
e ducated,
s ma ll
t own
o f
w ere
t o
s erve
Tepepulco
a s
h is
( mo dern-day
T epeapulco), a pproximately s ixty m iles n ortheast o f M exico C ity, i n 1 558 o r 1 559 ( Nicholson 1 973:207). I n Tepepulco t en o r t wel v e p rincipales a ncianos ( old n ative n oblemen) w ere s elected t o b e h is i nformants. A ccording t o S ahag t in, W ith t hese p rincipales a nd g ramäticos, a lso p rincipales, I s poke m any d ays, a lmost t wo y ears, f ollowing t he o rder o f t he m inuta w hich I h ad made. Everything t hat w e d iscussed w as g iven t o m e b y m eans o f p ictures, which was t he w riting t hey h ad u sed o f o ld , a nd t he g ramäticos e xplained t hem i n t heir l anguage, w riting t he e xplanation a t t he f oot o f t he p icture. E ven n ow I h ave 1 :80)
t hese
o riginals.
( Sahag t in
I n B ook X , C hapter 2 7 , o f ' t he Codex F lorentino ,
1 938,
S ahagün l ater a dded
t hat These p eople h ad n o l etters n or a ny c haracters, n or d id t hey k now h ow t o r ead a nd w rite ; t hey c ommunicated b y i mages a nd p aintings, a nd a ll t heir a ntiquities a nd t he b ooks t hat t hey h ad w ere p ainted w ith f igures a nd i mages i n s uch a w ay t hat t hey k new a nd h ad m emory o f ' t he things t heir a ncestors h ad d one a nd h ad l eft i n t heir a nnals, m ore t han a t housand y ears ago, b efore t he a rrival o f ' t he S paniard i n t his l and. Most o f t he b ooks a nd w ritings w ere b urned a t t he t ime o f ' t he d estruction o f ' t he o ther i dolatries, b ut m any h idden o nes which w e h ave n ow s een d id s urvive a nd a re s till k ept, f rom w hich w e h ave u nderstood t heir a ntiquities. ( Sahag t in 1 938 , 1 11:87) Sahag in i s s tatements m ake i t q uite c lear t hat n ative p ictorial d ocum ents w ere s ignificant s ources o f i nformation f or h im i n p reparing t he Pr im e ros Memori a le s. I n
t he l ate n ineteenth c entury t he Mexican
s cholar Francisco d el e ighty-eight t o m aterials
P aso y T roncoso g ave t he t itle Primeros M emoriales t o f olios o f t he Madrid c odices "which h e b elieved b elonged
F ifty-four S ahag t 1n h ad c ollected i n T epepulco " ( Nicholson 1 973:208). 280), a nd f olios a re i n t he B iblioteca d el P alacio Nacional ( No . 3 t hirty-four a re f rom t he B iblioteca d e l a R eal A cademia d e l a H istoria ( Ace.
1 762;
N icholson
1 973:208;
G lass
1 55
1 975: 14 21,
1 4 22).
T he manuscript
i s w ritten a nd d rawn o n European p aper,
c learly e xcluding t he p ossibi-
l ity t hat o riginal p reconquest material w as p hysically i ncluded ( Glass a nd Robertson 1 975:188). I t i s w ritten p rimarily i n Nahuatl a nd h as a pproximately 1 4 1 45 i ndividual d rawings. A p hotofacsimile o f t he m anus cript p ages w as p ublished b y P aso y Troncoso i n 1 905 ( Sahagdn 1 905), m aking i t r eadily a ccessible. The b asic f ormat o f t he P rimeros Ma noriales i s q uite s imple a nd c onsistent. The p ages a re d ivided i nto t wo c olumns. The d rawings a re v ertically a ligned i n t he c olumn o n t he r ight w ith t he e xplanatory N ahuatl t ext o n t he l eft ( figure 1 ). m anuscript' s p ages a re i llustrated. 2
A pproximately
o ne-half
o f
t he
The f ormat o f t he P rimeros Ma norial e s i s c learly n ot t hat o f t he k nown f orms o f p reconquest manuscripts. I t c losely d uplicates t hat o f s ixteenth-century E uropean b ooks s uch a s t he p opular Liber Chronicarum o f H artmann S chedel, f irst p ublished i n 114 93 a nd m ore p opularly k nown a s t he Nuremberg Chronicle ( figure 2 ). T he n eat h andwriting i n t he Primeros
Me noriales
C hronicle .
I n
t he
a lso
s eems
Nuremberg
t o
i mitate
C hronicle
t he
t here
p rinted
a re
o ver
t ext 1 800
o f
t he
p rinted
i mages, b ut o ne s oon b eccmes a ware t hat t he i mages a re r epeated. F or t he 5 98 i llustrations o f k ings, p opes, a nd o ther f igures, o nly n inetys ix b lock p rints w ere u sed ( Levarie 1 968:105). The i mages s erve a d ecorative f unction a longside t he t ext. I n t he p ictorial m anuscripts which Sahag i ln u sed i n c ompiling i nformation f or t he Primeros Memoriales, t he f unction o f t he i mages w as q uite d ifferent. I n p reconq uest m anuscripts, t he
p ictures a re t he t ext.
S ahag t in 's d escription o f t he manner i n w hich h e g athered i nformat ion a t T epepulco u sing a m inuta s uggests t hat t he d rawings w ere m ade f irst b y t he i nformants i n r esponse t o Sahagün 's q uestions, a nd t he w ritten t ext was a dded a fterwards. I ndeed o n o ne p age, t his p roves t o b e s o ( figure 3 ). T wo i ncomplete s ketches a re f ound ; t here a re n o t races o f w riting o n t he l eft s ide o f t he p age. These s ketches w ould s eem t o c onfirm t hat t he d rawings
w hich
p receded t he w ritten t ext.
O n c cmpleted p ages o f t he Primeros Menoriales t he s equence i n t he w ritten a nd d rawn e lements w ere e xecuted i s n ot a lways
o bvious. A n examination o f c ertain p ages o f t he manuscript r eveals t heir s tructure a nd t he r elationship o f a rtist t o s cribe. O n t he f irst p age o f t he p arag raph which t reats t he a ccoutrements o f t he g ods, t he l ayout o f t he p age i s s omewhat u nusual ( figure 14 ). I nstead o f as ingle c olumn o f f igures v ertically a ligned o n t he r ight, t here a re t wo g ods h orizontally an g led w ith a t hird u nderneath t he o ne o n t he r ight. T his a rrangement o rig inally w ould h ave p resented a p roblem t o t he r eader a s t he w ritten t ex t , i s n ot a lig ned e xactly w ith t he f igure i t d escribes. This p roblem h as b een s olved b y h aving a p ointing h and a t t he u pper l eft t o i ndicate t hat t he f irst p arag raph d escribes t he g od t o t he f ar r i et. T he a ddition o f t he p ointing h and, c rude a s i t m ay b e, r eveals a c oncern f or
t he
r elationship b etween
t he
w ritten
5 7
t ext
a nd
t he
d rawing s;
t h is
k ind o f c oncern w ould h ave b een n onexistent i n t he p reconquest w orld in t he absence o f a lphabetical s cript. The s equence o f t he e lements b ecomes c learer w hen o ne l ook s l eft o f t he third g od. f igure,
a rm
O ne c an b arely d etect t he h ead a nd h ea .dress o f a
extended,
co mparison
o f
t o t he
t he
h olding
s ketch
a s ickle-shaped
a nd
t he
o bject
co mpleted
( figure
f igure
o f
5 ). t he
A g od
Q uetzalcoatl a t t he t op o f t he f igure i n t he i nc o mplete sketch
n ext p age r eveals t he i dentity o f t he ( figure 6 ). A pparently i t was d ecided
a fter
t here s hould b e
t he sketch w as
b egun
t hat
o nly t hree g ods
o n
t he
f irst p age i nstead o f f our, a nd t he f orth g od was r epresented a t t he t op o f t he n ext p age. T here a re n o r emains o f w ords i n t he l eft c olumn o f t he f irst
p age, which
c learly i ndicates t hat o n this
again p receded t he w ritten w ord. h ave
meant
l ayout;
t hat
l ess
white
i n o ther w ords,
i llustrations a nd t ext, p reconquest
space
more
o f
was
t he
l eft
s pace
t han
H owever,
the
c hange
t here was a c oncern t hat t he p age b e r eadable ; c lear
r elationship
w ith
w ould h ave
n ot unlike t he e conomical
m anuscripts.
b etween
p age t he d rawings
T he o riginal l ayout o f t he p age w ould
t he
w ritten
t he
u se
o f space
i n f ormat a nd
i n
t he
i mplies
t hat t here
t ext
s ubsequent
b een t aken u p b y t hat
b e a l ogical,
t he
d rawing
i t
d escribes. O ne p age o n which t he s equence o f p ictures a nd t ext i s q uite c lear ( although
d ifferent
" Services
t o t he Gods, O fferings"
l isted i n a c olumn f igures It
i s
i s n ot
o n
t he
f rom
t he
p receding
o n t he left, r ight,
d ifficult
t o
p ages)
( figure 7 ). s omewhat
i s
t he
p age
d epicting
H ere v ocabulary t erms a re
e venly
spaced.
A colt =
o f
e ach i llustration w ith a n a cco r nparying t ext.
s ee t hat
the
v ocabulary
t erms
a nd
t he
a ccom-
p anying t ext a re n ot an g led. L ines a re d rawn f rom t he t erms t o t he t exts. A p artially c cmpleted sketch a ppears u nder t he completed d rawing
o f
t he
n ext
t o
t he
l ast
f igure
( figure
8 );
t his
s ketch
c orresponds t o t he v essel i n f ront o f t he l ast f igure.
The t erm f or t he
l ast
t he
d rawing,
h owever,
appears
o n
t he
s ame l evel
a s
n ext-to-the-
last d rawing. The a rtist a pparently b egan t o s ketch i n t he f igure t o i llustrate t he last t erm b efore h e h ad i llustrated t he t erm p receding i t, r ealized h is e rror ( or h ad i t p ointed out t o h im), a nd m ade t he n ecessary c orrection. This w ould s eem t o i ndicate t hat t he a rtist c ould e ither r ead written N ahuatl who w ould h ave p robable
a s
i t
i nvestig ation. w ritten w ords The c alendar
Nahuatl
f its
d escription
v eintena
d epicted P age
o f
t ext
t he
T he latter s eems t he more
Sahag t . in
g ave
o f
h is
m ethod
o f
H owever, the s equence o f e lements d iffers a s s ome o f t he
e ighteen
l ayout
o r was w ork ing i n c oncert w ith t he s cribe
t he t erms t o t he a rtist.
p recede t he d rawing s.
a re
Me r noriales. The
r ead
t he t o
o n
c eremonies the
2 ( figure 9 ) p age t he
d rawings are s o mewhat
o f
t he
d rawing s
d ifferent
t he
s even
i s t ypical
f ollows
l eft,
f irst
o f
o f t he p ages
b asic t o
3 65-day
p ages
p attern t he
f r o m o thers
o f
v ague
t he
y ear
Primeros
i n t his s ection. t he
r ight.
m anuscript,
H owever,
i n t he manuscript.
t hese A s
i s
o bvious, g roups o f f igures a re d epicted r epresenting e ach c eremony , a nd e ach
o ne
i s
f ramed
b y
a
thick
l ine.
1 58
E lsewhere
i n
t he
Primeros
Me r noriales
f ramed
g roups
o f
which e ach o ccupy a full
f igures
a re
f ound
o nly i n
t he
t wo
s cenes
p age.
W ithin e ach f ramed s cene d epicting o ne o f t he v eintena c eremonies, t he
i mages a re
a rms
r ather e venly s cattered.
o utstretched,
T ozortli c eremony Toxcatl c eremony E tzalcualiztli o ften
l inked
a s
O ften i n
t he
f igures a re s hown w ith u pper
r ight
o f
t he Huey
( the t opmost s cene o n p age 2 ), t he l ower r ight o f t he ( the c enter d rawing), a nd t he u pper r ight o f t he
c eremony
r epresent
t ogether
( the
l owermost
d ancing p articipants
s cene).
i n t he
L inked
f igures
c eremony d epicted.
m ost O ther
f igures a re a lso h orizontally a ligned, n ot b y l inked arms but b y s haring a c ommon,
i maginary g round l ine.
f igures f ace f requently o thers
r ight a s
i n t he
T he
a lternates,
d irection in w hich
sane
o f
c enter s cene, T oxcatl.
i ndividual s cenes s hould a lso b e n oted. s ame s ize.
r ows
O nly o n o ne p age a re
t hese l inked
f igures f acing l eft,
T he v arying s izes o f t he
N o t wo a djacent s cenes a re t he
t he s izes
o f t he
s cenes approximately
( but n ot exactly) t he s ame. On p age 1 0).
1 the
v ariation
i n
s ize
i s
e ven more p ronounced
Nahuatl
t ext
p icture. a lso
t o
The
i ndicate
more
r elationship
b ecomes
more
c learly
t he
r elationship
o f t he thick f ram ing l ine
a pparent.
T he
l ine
d ividing
t o
t he
C uauitleua, f rom t he m iddle s cene, T lacaxipehualiztli, t he
( figure
One further n otes t he a ddition o f thick l ines a t t wo p oints i n t he
feet
o f
t wo f igures
i n t he
u pper
a nd
o f t he
t ext
t o
d rawings
u pper
s cene,
c learly o verlaps
o ne i n t he m iddle s cene.
I n
a ddition, t he f raming l ine o verlaps t he l ower e dge o f t he h ouse i n t he l ower l eft o f t he Cuauitleua s cene. T he left f raming l ine t hat i s common t o a ll t hree s cenes o verlaps s uccessively, f rom t op t o b ottcm, t he left e dge o f a t emple, a h ouse, the h eels o f a man, the left e dge o f a nother t emple, a nd a b anner. I t s eems q uite c lear l ine w as i mposed o n t he s cenes a fter t hey w ere d rawn. s eparates o ne
p ictorial
a lphabetic t exts The
o n
manner
t ext f rom t he
a s l ines s eparate t he
t he left.
i n w hich
t he
v eintena
much about t he p rototype f rom which, a lternating
n ext m uch
t hat t he f raming T he f raming l ine
d irectional
c eremonies
w ere
d epicted
t ells
p resumably, t hey w ere c opied.
p atterns
o f
l inked
f igures
i s
The
s tri k ingly
r eminiscent o f t he s ame p atterning o f t he f igures i n p reconquest M ixtec manuscripts
i n
m anuscripts,
g uidelines i ndicate t he p attern t o b e followed t o r ead t he
which
a meander
manuscript a ccurately. o mitted,
I n t he
c hanging t he f ormat
p attern
i s
f ollowed.
P rimeros Memoriales
I n
t he
Mixtec
t he g uidelines
o f t he s cene f rom a meander
w ere
p attern i n a
p reconquest p ictori a l ma nuscript t o a Eu ropean-type m a nuscript w it h f ramed, f ocused c o mpositions. This c auses s o me c onfusion i n r eading t he s cenes. u sed
I n p lace o f t he p reconquest g uidelines, a framing l ine w as
s imilar
f igures.
The
t o
t hose
d iscount
t he
Primeros
Memori a le s
p atterning a fter
t he
f ound
a round
v ariation i n s ize p ossibility
o f m any d rawings
h ad o f
t hat large
the
w ere
o f
t he
m ost
t he
European-style
d ifferent
p reconquest
s in g le-page
s cenes
p rototype
s cenes.
f igures,
t he
i mposition
c ompleted,
a nd
t he
1 59
T he o f
v ariation
g roups
w ould s eem u sed
f or
t he
meander- l ike
a f raming in
o f t o
s ize
o f
l ine t he
s cenes a ll i ndicate t hat t he e ighteen c eremonies w ere c opied ( although n ot a lways a ccurately) f rom a p reconquest s creenfold m anuscript w ith i mages a rranged i n a c ontinuous m eander p attern. As A lfredo Lopez Austin ( 1974:125) a nd o thers h ave p ointed o ut, S ahagün u sed a p redetermined q uestionnaire t o o btain i nformation f rom h is
T epepulco
i nformants
o n
t he
e ighteen
v eintena
c eremonies.
T he
r egular o rder i n w hich t he i nformation i s w ritten c onfirms t he u se o f a q uestionnaire. T he i nformants ' a nswers a re e ssentially o rdered n arrat ives o f t he r ituals i n q uestion. T he d epictions o f t he f irst e leven c eremonies a re a lso n arrative i n s equence, w ith t he e xception o f o ne c eremony, t he t hird, w hich i s e ntitled Tozortontli. K ubler a nd G ibson h ave r eferred t o t hese n arrative c eremonial d epictions a s " simultaneous i llustration: [ in w hich ] s everal d istinct r ites p ertaining t o t he p eriod a re g athered i nto o ne p ictorial unit" ( Kubler a nd G ibson 1 951 : 39) . T he t erm " simultaneous i llustration" i mplies t hat t he d ifferent e vents a re p ortrayed a s t ak ing p lace s imultaneously. The r ites
a re
s imultaneously
d epicted
i f
t he
s cenes
a re
c onsidered
a s
European f ocused c o mpositions, b ut t hey a re n ot. T he p rototype f rom w hich t he s cenes d erive w as most p robably a p reconquest t ira o r s creenf old m anuscript w ith t he i mages a rranged i n a c ontinuous m eander p attern. I n s uch a manuscript t he r ites a re d epicted a s t aking p lace s equentially i n t he o rder i n which t he m anuscript i s r ead, m uch a s w ords a re r ead s equentially r ather t han s imultaneously i n European b ooks. I n e ach o f t he f irst e leven v eintena c eremonies o f t he Primeros Memoriales ( with t he e xception o f Tozortontli ) , t he r ites a re d epicted i n as equent ially o rdered f ashion. Thus t he t erm " sequential n arration " i s a m ore a ccurate d escription o f t he s cenes t han " simultaneous i llustration." 3 The
s cene
o f
t he T lacaxipehualiztli
c eremony
i s
a n
e xample
o f
" sequential n arration" i n w hich t he s equential e vents o f t he c eremony a re d epicted ( figure 1 0, c enter). However, i n t he l ast s even c eremonies, t here i s a s tatic, more r igid a lignment o f t he i mages t hat d epict e ither a s ingle p hase o f t he c eremony o r a g rouping o f i mages m eant t o s ymbolize t he c eremony. 4 A n e xception i s f ound i n t he d epict ion o f P anquetzaliztli, which i s s equentially n arrative. The o ther s ix c eremonies m i nt b e t ermed e xamples o f " static i magery " i n c ontrast t o t he " sequential n arration " o f t en o f t he f irst e leven c eremonies. An e xample o f " static i magery "
i s t he d epiction o f t he s eventeenth
c eremony, T ititl ( figure 1). I t i s h elpful t o compare t he T ititl c eremony t o t hat o f Tlacaxipehualiztli. T he c hange i n b ody p roportions a nd p oses o f t he f igures i s p erhaps m ost o bvious. I n t he d epiction o f T lacaxipehualiztli, t he f igures a ppear t aller p rimarily b ecause t hey h ave s maller h eads a nd s lenderer b odies t han d o t hose i n T ititl w ith t heir l arger h eads a nd s tockier b ody p roportions. More s ig nificant a re t he p oses o f t he f igures. In T lacaxipehualiztli, t he f igures f ace b oth l eft a nd r ight, suggesting a meander p attern a s m entioned e arlier. I n T ititl, a ll t he f igures f ace l eft. In T lacaxipehualiztli, sane o f t he s equences a re fairly o bvious e ven i f o ne l acks s pecific k nowledge o f t he r ite i nvolved.
A t t he u pper r ight t he c aptive s tands t ied t o a c ircular
1 60
s tone, t he t emalacatl; d ark s plotches o n h is b ody i ndicate b lood f lowing f rom w ounds. I n t he u pper c enter a f igure i s b eing s la in b efore a t emple, a nd t o t he l eft a f igure i s b eing f layed. I t i s r easonably c lear t hat t hree s eparate a ctions t ake p lace. N o s uch s ense o f i ndividu al a ctions, s equential o r o therwise, appears i n t he d epiction o f T it itl. The c entral f igure i n t he g roup r epresents t he g oddess I lamatecuhtli, t o w hom t he c eremony i s d edicated, a nd t o e ither s ide o f h er a re t he g ods o r d eity i mpersonators w ho t ake B eneath t he g oddess ' p art i n t he r ituals.
p art i n h er c eremony.
f eet a re t wo r ope-tied b ags t hat p lay a n i mportant A bove t he g oddess i s a t emple. The e lements i n
t he s cene d epict n either p ast, p resent, n or f uture a ction, i n marked c ontrast t o t he m any a nd v aried e lements o f T lacaxipehualiztli. T he m arked d ifference i n s tyle a nd o rder b etween t he f irst e leven s cenes, o f which T lacaxipehualiztli i s r epresentative, a nd t he l ast s even s cenes, o f which Tititl i s r epresentative, w ould s eem t o r eveal f urther i nformation about Sahag t in 's s ources f or t he e ighteen v eintena c eremonies. I t s uggests t hat h e u sed t wo d ifferent p reconquest m anuscripts f rom which t hese s cenes w ere c opied. I f a s ingle m anuscript s erved a s Sahag t in ' s p rototype, i t c learly d erived f rom t wo p arallel b ut s tylistically a nd p ictorially q uite d ifferent manuscripts, t he f irst o f w hich h ad s equentially n arrative p ictorials a nd t he s econd o f w hich h ad m ore r igid, h ieratic i magery. The s hift i n i magery i s r eflected, t o ac ertain e xtent, i n a c hange i n t he r elationship o f t he w ritten t exts t o t he p ictures. O n c omparing t he v eintena s cenes t o t he w ritten t ext, c ertain p atterns e merge t hat f urther s eparate t he f irst e leven c eremonies f rom t he l ast s even. I n t he f irst e leven c eremonies t he r elationship o f t he w ritten t ext t o t he p ictures i s a s f ollows. I n f ive s cenes t he s cene h as m ore i nformation t han t he t ext; t his o ccurs i n Tlacaxipehualiztli, Uey Tozortli, T oxcatl, U ey T ecuilhuitl, a nd U ey M iccailhuitl. The t ext c onveys m ore i nformation t han t he p icture i n o nly o ne s cene, T ozortontli; T ozortontli h as a lready b een i dentified a s b eing p ictorially unlike t he o ther c eremonies o f t he f irst e leven. I n f ive s cenes, t he i nformation c onveyed b y t he p icture a nd t he w ritten t ext i s t he s ame o r a t l east c losely s imilar ; t his o ccurs i n C uauitleua, E tzalcualiztli, T ecuilhuitontli, M iccailhuitontli, a nd O chpaniztli. On c omparing t he l ast s even s cenes t o t he a ccompanying w ritten t exts, a d ifferent r elationship dominates. I n t hree i nstances t he t ext c onveys m ore i nformation t han t he p ictu re ; t his h appens i n Tepeilhuitl, P anquetzaliztli, a nd T ititl. I t s hould b e r emembered t hat o f t he f irst e leven c eremonies o nly Tozortontli f alls i n t his c ategory. I n f our c eremonies, t he w ritten t ext i s b asically d ifferent f rom t he p icture. I n Teteo Eco, b oth t he t ext a nd t he p icture h ave more a nd d ifferent information t han t he o ther. I n Q uecholli a nd Izcalli, o nly t he d eity r epresented i n t he d rawing i s m entioned i n t he t ext. I n t he d epiction o f A temortli,
o nly t he f our
e lements r epresenting r ain d rops
( seen i n
t he r i et c orner o f t he d rawing) h ave a ny c onnection w ith t he T able 1 s ets f orth t he r elationships o f t exts t o p ictures.
1 6 1
t ext.
1 :
T he Relationship o f W ri t ten Text e intena C eremonies
t o
T ext h as i nformation
Table
a )
1 .
Cuaui t le ua
2 .
T lacaxipehualiztli
3 .
T ozo z tontli
4 .
Uey To zo z tli
5 .
T oxcatl
6 .
E tzal c ualiztli
7 .
T ecuilhui t ontli
8 .
Uey Te cuilhui t l
9 .
Miccailhui t l
1 0.
Uey Miccailhui t l
1.
O chpaniztli
1 2.
T eteo Ec o
1 3.
T epeilhui t l
114 .
Quecholli
1 5.
P anquetzaliztli
1 6 .
A temortli
1 7 .
T iti t l
1 8 .
I zcalli
1 62
t he Drawings
i n t he
The
t otal
r esults a re
t hat
i n f ive
c eremonies
t he
p icture
c onveys
m ore information t han t he t ext ; i n f our c ere r nonies t he t ext c onveys m ore i nformation ; i n f ive c eremonies t he information i n t ext a nd p icture i s c losely s imilar ; s ubstantially
a nd i n f our c eremonies t he i nformation i n t he t ext i s
d ifferent
f rom
t hat
o f
t he
p icture.
O ne-half
o f
t he
p ictures t hus c onvey e ssentially t he s ame o r l ess information t han t he t ext. S ince t hese n ine s cenes c onvey information t hat i s p arallel o r v irtually i dentical t o t hat o f t he a ccompanying s cenes a re i llustrative i n n ature. The
o ther
n ine
v eintena
s cenes
c ontain
m ore
information t han t hat c onveyed b y t he writing. r ole
o f '
t hese n ine
p ictorials
i s
n ot
f ar
a lphabetic
t exts,
a nd/or
t he
d ifferent
This i ndicates t hat t he
r emoved
f rom
t heir o riginal
p reconquest p icture t o
f unction : t o c onvey i nformation. The r elationship w ritten t ext i s a ctually t he r everse o f what m ight
o f b e
e xpected i n
a European-style manuscript.
o n
t he
p ictures
w hich a re,
n ot
i llustrations
p roviding v isual t ex t
i n
in e ffect,
t he European
r elief;
t hey
The w ritten t ext d epends
the main t ext. s ense
o f
c arry t he
u ltimately d erives f rom t hem
d ecorating
main message
( cf. D ibble
t he
a nd
p age
t he
a nd
w ritten
1 963:57).
The w ritten t exts a re n ot, h owever, p ure tures f rom which t hey d erive.
T he p ictorials a re
d escriptions
o f t he p ic-
The o rder i n which t he information i n t he
w ritten t ex t i s g iven r eflects Sahagdn 's u se o f a q uestionnaire.
B ased
o n t he o rder o f information g iven, Lopez Austin s uggests t hat t he t ions w ere t he following :
q ues-
1 .
What
i s
t he
r eference d rawing)? 2 .
Why
t o
i s
i t
a rouses
h is
n ame t he
o f
t his
r ectangle
c alled
t hat
f east
( when
t he
n ame
o fferings
w ere
What
L .
made f or this f east? H ow w as t he c eremony p erformed?
5 .
O n
w hat
t he
c uriosity)?
3 .
h uman
( in
c ontaining
s acrifices
d ate
o f
t he
o r
Julian
c alendar
d id
this month fall? The o rder v aries o nly in t he f irst t wo monthly f easts.
material ( L6pez
o n t he Austin
1 974:125) Sahagdn 's u se o f
a q uestionnaire
a nd
h is
a dherence
t o
e xplain w hy o ne-half o f t he t exts g ive l ess o r d ifferent t han t he a ccompanying d rawings. S ahagdn d id n ot a sk for
i t h elp t o information a n i temized
i dentification o f a ll t he f igures a nd objects i n e ach d rawing ; f or r esponses t he
p ictures
i n
t he
t o h is q uestions.
a s e ssentially d ecorative.
m anuscript
t extual
value
t orial
manuscripts
t o
t he
h owever
i ndicates
The i nclusion h is
n atives a nd c onfirms i n
h e a sked
I n t his r espect h e s eems t o h ave v iewed
c ompiling
t he
Memoriales.
1 63
o f t he
a cimowledgement
t he
u se
o f
i nformation
p ictures o f
p reconquest o f
t he
t heir p ic-
P rimeros
T he
f our
c eremonies
i n
w hich
t he
t exts
a nd
t he
p ictures
d o
n ot
c cmpletely c orrespond f urther i ndicates t he m anner i n w hich t he p reconq uest p ictorial m anuscripts w ere r ead. T o r ead t he p ictures w as n ot m erely t o d escribe t hem : T he d irect t estimony o f c onquistadors a nd m iss ionary c hroniclers t ells u s t hat i n t he i ndigenous c enters o f e ducation t he [ preconq uest n ative ] p riests a nd t eachers e xplained t he p aintings o f t he c odices, m aking t he s tudents l earn t heir c ommentaries b y r ote. . . T hus, i f t he n ucleus o f t he t eachings was i n t he c odices, t he c ommentaries a ccompanying t he t eaching r ema ined f irmly o n t he m inds o f t he s tudents, w ho r epeated t hem u ntil t hey k new t hem b y h eart. I n t his m anner a f orm o f systematic t radition a rose, s upported b y t he c odices a nd c ommunicated f rc r n g eneration 1 971: 14 53)
t o
g eneration.
( Le6n-Portilla
I t w ould a ppear t hat t he ma norized a ccount o f e ach c eremony w as evoked i n r esponse t o Sahag l in 's q uestions a bout t he f our c eremonies i n w hich t he t ext a nd d rawing d o n ot agree. T hese f our p ictures a re a mong t he l ast s even which d iffer v isually f rom t he o ther e leven c eremonies. T his s eems t o b e more t han a c oincidence a nd l ends a dded c redence t o t he p ossibility t hat t he l ast s even p ictures ca ne f rom a v eintena t radition p arallel b ut n ot i dentical t o t hat o f Sahag i ln ' s Tepepulco i nformants. I s i t p ossible t hat t he t wo t ypes o f s cenes a nd t he l ack o f c oncordance o f p icture a nd t ext i n f our c eremonies r eveal t he i mposition o f Mexica i magery a nd r itual o n t he A colhua t raditions n ative t o T epepulco? I s o ne g roup o f s cenes e ssentia lly Mex : i _ca ( Tenochtitlan) i n o rigin a nd t he o ther A colhua T he
( Texcoco)?
d rawings
o f
t he
v eintena
c eremonies
d irectly c onvey a g reat
d eal o f information a bout A ztec p reconquest r eligious r itual. A s ign ificant a mount o f i ndirect i nformation i s p resented a s w ell. A nalysis o f t he p ictorial s tructure s uggests t hat t he d rawing s p receded t he w ritten t ext. T hus t he s equence i n w hich t he p ictorial a nd a lphabetic e le t nents w ere a dded t o t he p age i ndicates t he p rimarily informative f unction o f t he p ictures. C areful s tudy o f t he
d rawings
o f t he P rimeros Memoriales c onfirms
t heir i nformative r ole. The d rawings r evea l a spects o f S ahagdn 's m etho dology, t he w ay i n w hich t he manuscript w as p ut t ogether, t he w orking r elationship b etween informants a nd Sahagdn 's a ssistants. T he d raw ings f urther s uggest s pecific t ypes o f p reconquest m anuscripts w hich m ay h ave b een u sed i n c cmpiling p arts o f t he Primeros M emorials. H owever, t he European f ormat a nd t he i nclusion o f a nd c oncern f or t he w ritten w ord s eem l ogical a nd e xpected i n t he m anuscript, s ince i t was i ntended f or t he u se o f Europeans, n ot Indians.
16 1 4
Sahagdn b egan g athering information a t Tepepulco a lmost f orty y ears a fter t he c onquest o f Tenochtitlan a nd a lmost thirty y ears a fter a Franciscan m ission h ad b een e stablished e arliest i n M exico ( Nicholson 1 974:152, M emoriales m onk,
r epresents t he j oint e ffort o f Sahag i in, a S panish Franciscan
a pproximately
y oung,
i n Tepepulco, o ne o f t he n ote 1 ). The Primeros
n ative
s ixty
n oblemen,
F ranciscans in M exico ;
y ears
who
o ld
h ad
a t
b een
t he
t ime ;
g iven
f our
a European
g ramäticos, e ducation
b y
a nd t en o r t welve o ld n ative n oblemen t o w hom t he
p reservation o f t heir h eritage h ad b een e ntrusted. T he d rawings o f t he Primeros Memoriales r eflect, i n v arying d egrees, t he d ifferent t radit ions
o f t hose w ho w ere
r esponsible f or t he
c reation o f t he manuscript
a nd t he cultural c hanges which M exico was u ndergoing i n t he e arly p ostc onquest p ericd. A side f rom t he i nvaluable information which t he d rawi ngs
o f
t he Primeros Memoriales
p rovide
o f
p reconquest
c ivilization,
t hey a lso c onvey t he e xtent o f t he s pread o f European c ulture i n Mex ico w ithin f our d ecades
o f t he c onquest.
5
R ESLMEN A unque e l f ormat° d e Primeros Memoriales s igue a aquellos d e l os l ibros e uropeos u na
d atan
d esde
t exto. u n
c ontemporäneos a l
t radici6n
las
t ambi6n t exto,
d e
e n
las
i lustraciones d e P .M. s iguen
los P M
la Conquista,
d e
1 8 meses,
i lustraciones la
r elaciön
ca no
las
e n l os
manuscritos
i lustraciones
u na
y e l
"la v eintena". y e l
v isual
y f inalmente,
medio d e c iones
a ntes
s iglo X VI ,
Tanto
las
t exto q ue
e xiste
f uentes
c omparaciön d e
L os
f ueron d e
t emas
e ntre
l as
l as
a l
i ncluyen
m anuscrito ;
i lustraciones
i lustraciones
e l
q ue duraban
d iscutidos
i ncorporados
q ue
c onstituyen
Esto e s c ierto s obre t odo e n c uanto a l as c eremonias
p eriodo
c emo
d istinta.
y e l
s ugeridas
la informaciön i mpartida p or l as
p or
i lustra-
t exto.
NOTES 1 .
A ll t ranslations
f rom S panish a re my o wn e xcept w here
o ther-
w ise i ndicated. 2 .
I t s hould b e n oted t hat, w ith t he e xception o f t he f our
c ited i n this a t
t he
f oot
p aper,
o f
t he
t he t ext p icture.
p ages
o f t he Primeros Memoriales d oes n ot fall T his
c onflicts
1 65
w ith Sahagdn 's s tatement
t hat h is a ssistants w rote t he i nformants ' e xplanations " at t he f oot t he p icture " ( Sahag t in 1 938 , I :80; "al p ie d e l a p intur a ") .
3 . Kubl e r a nd G ibson ( 1951 : 39 ) identify a ll t he Memorials v eintena s cenes a s " simultaneous i llustration."
o f
P rimeros
4 . T his t ype o f d epiction s eems p artially t o f it K ubler a nd G ibson 's c lassification "t heomorphic i llustrati o n [ in wh ic h ] e laborately c ostumed f igures o f t he p atron d eity o r d eities synbolize t he p eriod. Ceremonial i nstruments a nd c elebrants s ometimes a ccompany t he f igures. . . " ( Kubler a nd G ibson 1 951:39). H owever, n ot a ll s cenes d epict
t he p atron d eity.
5 . Sa ne o f t he information c ontained i n t his p aper d erives f rom a t hesis I w rote f or t he d egree o f Master o f A rts ( 1970) a t Tulane University u nder t he d irection o f Professor Donald Robertson. T his p aper a lso d erives f rom my d issertation w ritten u nder t he d irection o f Professor Mary E lizabeth Smith a t t he University o f New Mex ico ( 1979). I w ould l ike t o t hank P rofessors R obertson a nd Smith f or t heir a dvice a nd e ncouragement. I a lso w ant t o t hank Mr. R obert Boyce, f ormer S pecial Collections L ibrarian, University o f N ebraska-Lincoln, f or mak ing i t p ossible f or m e t o p hotograph p rints i n t he Nuremberg C hronicle.
16
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Edited b y F rancisco d el P aso y T roncoso. 1 938
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Edited b y J oaquin R amirez C abanas. I ntroduction W igberto J im6nez Moreno. 5v ols. Mexico.
1 68
b y
t e mx t
n( c h i ch i h
m otxrch t( 4 . 1 1 14 , i n t i ct kh L c on o te / mk • c 4. 4 1 4 t f c c gc . . y j a l e rh tr n a i• yr a y ,t eyem e t t . mot groyebat ua t y e ama y iea rxma t , e ya r no,m o t i re
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&a la if i lu oc a yn M I 4p i :am ino t x tu nc rp tcu tu rI nl i no t f tt u t us e f t an i to p . nr it :r tn.7' .a nno £ > ot n i id tf t nI NO : c .4 . 7o . t i n t .f r t .7 6o .obn t ' Lin n Cl e i f il ha b e t ,t lJ uno 0 o cn t tgo t ton . 91 .e ta fAu c i .t 5. L " Ca i i . t r i . tp &ra tJ t c t u l tuu t in onganoe a nnoe 3 mc . c run tn ano c ar na la da n t ic p auc tu t : e l ign as a b la te d az t Af u t tp e rt n t ra cu l t ie imm ia dt i t uk tphand i ig a ins b U r t la t l i 1o di c ta ta t i i p un c ip t . tI n uen tcndi .Eun te t . if a in tn an t r an t :q :b onunc t e mu t tn u : l ions c ö : p i cnon t» zt n a tO t t,: l t 3r tc ;o :or t tJ t i t i .' O M bab c tx i tc um M ik ar n a tot so f r aq u i t d cm b om tnco * -n un c .t in & i l i c tp nc sAU n iun iD tat .i in to m aps ; S c en tt e a* c u r f iun rÄ to m inom c o :p af a t na n t r 4 :t i c ma ;n t_ I on t u do g ig . . in to; v i de af a i d c u tt nard ib t i t t 3r e t t a t u rr a c r ab i t iona i n C e t l9 f ev i d i f f cm o l a r em r o w = m4 c e i r um b e n t es f a in tm odu l ua tn o f t r ef t en p o t tu tran .i Nx i tez tu6u f t .u . .q )n ub° t n odo a ud tend tr u n t: l i tg u tt na i tt amn ui r el a z e ui t a us i l os a nnos :c pE UC 5r e I t h 9f 3 c tun tv unm i tn o es :a te n ong en tos u nn i .00 ./ lam b tu l en t i ls a d b u cf u n t6 0 1t e t i 4. c .2 n n t s ;v uu t . bf i lms d e .da le c tg u ti n t e rp : c t a t u re c f c c nd ens f l u er o bo zans v r f a FpAora z an c in ame i .a n no p ane f u i .I r v .f u p :a c an tf un in e c i i .v .m üd tt o
6
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e D c i . It .f a in tb e .v e. f if a in t .I , r x .i nt e r p : c t es .9 7 6 .v ia t au t on n om s en too 7f e r ion ta D uos .e na tA ng u r t z .o ;m u l t ir u n tG an t t ante O du t a t i it er ez c t u i
c a yn q uo 8t am e nf e r ip t u r af abn et r a T a in inv t+ p an i ca dn o ev b ta mb a r tun 6 e . # n e a log ian il au tt a rn : I I 2t n Jbo l tb t f c r cno c onc r cuo te n u t :g ram( :a d fe ta l h am c u tf a c t aa i r ep zon i if t io c rc b r i t to n a f a t u r oq u i ea t pb a 7o zappo c a l ip . t . a x c rq uod r c npn t r a Ga i tq uor d3m p Incmou t .n c eo mn cs i t :p z imoo en i t i4 « t c np t u ra n On l ina tV tc a yn c ognou t tvr ce cn if o am 2g en t i t tE no cb .n oe f tc o n i c t r ee c pe nod ,f u na uo p a rno t; e n i t un .2 f i ec rJ i nn . bums e et aup ef i l t if ob ri n( Tu r n 'i nf i c cpuo p a t r is c un tI t up l t c tu t ec o :d to p af eu e r an t eo af i l Us C a , y mp c i f in ii s( l i nd en )i no t i in t u rum p u t t ap f is n i u t t am al t pe tr u nt i l o cb M i l t° 3 1 J ra t tn ame d ia n no p an ts t u i .c . I xv .i 5 c r i .v .möd iv e ro l o zz .fa i in 1 s e .v c . 4: 1 + 5.f m .47 . ii zz. / R an iv a cc e f um . 5 6 1 .3 t t ee n o cb f e pnmus a b/ A d am i x op l ac tu ttt r an f l an in c f ti np a r ad ifm : 7( cr an ia t a l i :F es p d i c a t u ra dL Iw. 1 3t r i f f em i r onus q u i t an i if em m ee ta t ek a l i fc bn f t f a dn oun f o :m a tu r .v i u i ta n ti np a r ad i f oi nc o rpon t i 2f p f is t r anqu i t t i t a t ec äb e l y av fe a dt e mp u oa nn e i an v i la d Me lt z f e n f ion e tn .* A r emo m a r ty r i oc o t o na nd i .b l i ci u d as a po f t o l us i ne p i f to l af l un onnu l l2 f aw f i tt cr e f =4 a ba n t t i qu i ta t ef u f c ep t cf u la ap a tnbuo r e f u t a t af u n t .
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i l tur a l e tn f it iu se n t yd ,n u tmeg J uno p a ne l i t i . ird .m in i& v a c,f i n I g t .i " .8 7 . Amu q u ib t i nv i r i tf i l e r e .969 .3 1 f t ea b a t u f ak rn a t i t iqu i f f ne f u t te t nn t i iq uo af c r ipn a r ap t u cu to za t .r e ea nn in a u t ed un b i t i e r f ef l i n t w i l es .f i nt r . in t e r i i t in c ompu t anonan V IP f r e t . 14 .a n n9 p o l lb i lum um . . l ed n on l e g i t u rf u i f f ei nar c b 2f l o e .& N e ro .t oa f e r in cp c o d es i n °b i l inn im o z # t u ne f i t .e ep ta t ie bi c bu oa n t eb i lu inum f e pu l tus . Qu id am t oa im c um p a t f r . :f u oe no ch t r a ' i l an im f u nk v ot u nn 2b i tuud if i t c r i f f ep u t aba n tc a u f an t cbo t DI 0 4 . r f t r a t cc o d id in o f t ro z : 2b eb : co z , : :f i n au G u t in ß ab . .2 y f i .g u tm in es u i c u n ta im a b fe o n in ia mb i G uo n on v ip I r e .i . .a n tep o l lD i l uu f u r nt u r n' b i r d , n i .v in .Junn cf a b l ef i e ban t .
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t a m ed ,c u in e f fa a n no t un u g e nu i th o cq u e rn c um 6 c nu i f f e tb um . l i t c .f . -P o ec o n f oL ib i r u rn on at a bonbuo m an tn in o f t r a r um i nt e r r ac u t *m a id a mt r immu i 34t c s r iu i tm e ta ' P e ef i t :on 2f i b» .e t CM e tfret r eP e t t l fg t00 ( Cp tt lae t t l f .d ep tC M 3 f 1 1 10 t 3t T a i l td it MU IC Ipa t l i tr i1 30C f i l IC, MO Z tU t le e f t , e og u ld en ,t e np o r e Lup in es c r am ( ea t e r r an i :v in v t i e gf ams f i 7i n c r ebo t i ep o t e n t i c( a cm es b e t t um . •
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. . a 4 c . , . 4 ,t i n. i r r i g . .C . . ,.. 5 . 1s ri I 1 e r n .v s s d p s . s e , L r i t > t i r s , 1 .4K t s t s i t s s .: v i s t i 1 . 44 . 4 . . . r. . .. . . -y . A . ,, 8K..r . . s s 4 , V* ‘ s a4.4 i , ,,, ,r , ., , ,4 - r r. . 4. r . . . , . ,.7 ) , e ld e y r t e t ee I * A le * • : . .. z r ,r tte -Af t,. . . . 1. 1 , . .. .r ille d t , ,r e. .v . “ ' h4 ,4 , , A , r en t .+ 7 , . .. . ., .erteietette,44 IKey ,. te r-4 . i .f i tmr ojr s i i£ ' N s . .W .. . .-0 . .1 . * . A s r *c ,O rez i se i . o r i t i . tz ‘ 1,a ir ,h i r r ia i a iN * -a ir s t ia P p, ' e : * . e r i l a sZ mi Z . 1 • 6 i / .b t s , .' r .5 ur ile.5 ad ei •o r,i v r t r i. t ' a wr it/ " , i, C € 1
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,
P rimeros Memoriales, p aragraph G ods" ( from S ahag t in 1 905:10)
17 5
d epicting " Services
t o
t he
1 76 D eta il o f f igure 7
X3 , t ' e t t t 4 te t u mu t am t k iv a t :Cm tud a t a t ø4 ,1f l iC 1Uø I tonya t t t 1 u t h Iø ! J ' >, i n to( f i t I t if f i 4cyac i t, f Lw i t.t t /r 49ut m s ta tt f o cao tac , 1 4 ta t i, "mob e z e t t r ttacu) .r, e r ect ar e e k ti d , i t oc ,t i t qu t giui t ir t e r W i t rr . e it im s, C , C en A il + .a . e lt nc hr : , ' t n ape , " Nn i , t 0a 4 1 . 1 4 1d . -u ncan c o nc a tuaya .» .‘a r t t o j ey ou tc n r i t cey e, t o r :rad io i mu t tu l t i r e n ov ia t 4 f ld 4 f tu . t e en h dpu . .f icu i scacauk e i t t e d : t a me , Jet C ay oa l i nm itof4 1y 4 t, t i tt r a tt ru i r. t u ra i n ic tu 'r i o poc kk C a jo led . n ckg4 ,, n t ro c oLU : tut t t ict t
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err
i t hu sgj o i n t 4 3O r ' 7 h :6a .
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t Z, 11 .4 1 . 3t 1 . i o n crian t i. j u ix ti l ttla ` • ' -t u an mA i t t i e t u e l dü b ta tya , 214 4 34 , c an tp a t t l , tha l t i t i e ta , 444 " ‘0 .01 4, 1 ‘ 4 • 4 1 /y e c t i th d a t lac :i taf t s tam ay / s . f *f l4f ltn 1 . 4 3 ; te se t t l e t t,e , h i t ch i t t i in ty te igyo . , i nt ot ams ,1 , i ttn ea tna . t " t h i te , ec eh l t ai ih ib ia . i n tt 4r um e gm in r n aa t te le s e c e t ud e te; thcive,t .f ju Of t .tt gape ,? et. % f i e ld r ye t aailatthi L ti u j c t i lde / t i ter : AA i nd el ' t le tTe 44 10.e. i h raC4gt Ou t , e l if p n i t* . i ' ty kpe ; o noime7. c a l la bu tP i, 3 v e e tt n . «e tt it iL iy . . . i
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F igure 9 :
e a rr i e
t i a t t hic n tr ta l l i >
Primeros M emoria les, p age 2 o f t he v eintena c eremonies ( from S ahagün 1 905:2)
1 77
2
9 1C
t r ato c i vnt
t c f 1 1n av if t ecti, , 0 10 4 , l e e rn o ri t zva i c ee t i n tna te goa l i t 1 4 7T 1 CCX 1t e lf r a ha l. . . 6 1 4 1 .1 i n to " , c . ‘ e .r un v i nh tI n ( n1„ , , 1„ i k ‘ tv , 1 i p a t i ten o n tr an In . 4 dI1 4 .4, i nr ir t ie t it ini t e h iP i tha s t ra l 4 k i h th e e a t n v 'V g , tn i t 3,9 " I na ell ,.
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P rimeros M emorial e s ,p age 1 o f t he v eirtena c eremonies ( from S ahag t in 1 905 :1 )
17 8
F igure
1: P rimeros Memoriales, d etail o f Tititl c eremony ( from Sahagün 1 905:7)
1 79
A NCIENT A NDEAN A RT
A S E XPLAINED BY ANDEAN E THNOHISTORY :
A N H ISTORICAL
R EVIEW
b y A LANA
O DRDY-COLLINS
I ntroduction B efore t he S panish Conquest o f Peru i n 1 521, w riting was u nknown i n t he A ndean a rea.
Therefore, t he f irst w ritten i nformation about A ndean
p eoples w as r ecorded i n European l anguages d erived a nd
f rom
f rom
d irect
r ecording
( mainly i n S panish)
o bservation,
f rom
n ative
t raditions.
o ral
q uestioning
n ative
T his
c orpus
a nd w as
i nformants, o f
w ritten
i nformation c onstitutes w hat h as c ome t o b e k nown a s A ndean e thnoh istory. I t w as r ecorded i n t he s ixteenth a nd s eventeenth c enturies b y s oliders, l iterate
p riests, m estizos,
n avigators, a nd
e xplorers,
e ducated
Indians.
r oyal
A ndean l ife c hanged s oon a fter European c ontact, u nique s ource o f
i nformation a bout
N evertheless,
t here
a re
e thnohistoric d ocuments. m ents i n t he g eneral
f irst
p enned o r,
p lace.
i f s oon
many
a spects
o f
s uch c hronicles a re a
t he p re-European p eriod.
many
p roblems
i nherent
i n
t he
u se
o f
N ot t he l east o f t hese i s l ocating t he d ocuMany w ritten a ccounts
a nd p articular, w ere n ot
o ften o bscure
r epresentatives,
B ecause
p ublished,
e ditions.
p ublished u ntil
o f A ndean l ife,
w ere t hen a vailable
Many a re
u npublished
b oth
y ears a fter t hey w ere o nly i n l imited a nd
s till
a nd must
b e p ain-
s takingly s leuthed a nd r etrieved f rom a myriad o f a rchival s ources b y d edicated p aleographers. A side f rom t he d ifficulty i n o btaining t hese d ocuments, t here a re t wo major p roblems a ccompanying t heir u se. F irst, t here i s t he q uestion o f p rimacy. Until m odern c opyright l aws m ade p lagiarism a c riminal o ffense ( and, i ndeed, u ntil m odern s cholarship d enounced i t a s u nprofessional), i t w as n ot a t a ll u ncommon f or c hroniclers t o f reely c opy f rom e arlier s ources, t he p revious w ork.
u sually w ithout c iting
T herefore, o n f irst a nalysis, what m ay s een t o b e a
c orroboration o f d ata b etween r eports m ay i n f act b e a ppropriation
( and
p ossible
e ven
d istortion)
o f
p rimary
i nformation
b y
s econdary
o r
t ertiary authors. C learly, t he c haracter o f t he author must b e e stabl ished, i f a t a ll p ossible, b efore c redence may b e l ent t o h is d ocument. U nderstandably, s ource h as
t his
A s econd major e asy
t o
p articular
b een l ost,
i solate,
p roblem
d estroyed,
p roblem i s
s uch
a s
t he
i s
c ompounded
i f
t he
p rimary
o r b uried i n a n u nknown a rchives.
b ias.
S ome authors '
i dentification
1 81
o f
b iases
t he
a re r ather
P eruvian
d eity
c ulture h ero V iracocha a s Saint T homas— O ther b iases a re m ore s ubtle , b ecause t hey u nconsciously h ave b ent f oreign d ata t o e thnocentric m ental t emplates--templates w hich a re s till e xtant, s hared b y a ll d escendants o f Western c ivilization. S uch b ias m ay b e d ifficult t o r ecognize. R . T om Z uidema ( 1982) h as a rgued t hat t he I nca k ing l ist w as t hought t o b e al ineal s equence b ecause l ineality was ( and s till i s) t he W estern c oncept o f r oyal d escent, n ot b ecause i t w as c ulturally t rue f or t he I nca. Z uidema c ontends t hat t here w ere a t l east t wo a nd p erhaps f our Inca k ings w ho r uled s imultaneously o ver t he d ifferent d ivisions o f C uzco ( see a lso Demarest 1 98 1:13). D espite s uch p roblems, e thnohistoric d ocuments c an b e e mployed, a lbeit c autiously, t o t he p rofit o f h istory, a nthropology, a nd a rt h istory. Whereas t he h istorian 's i nterest i n Andean c hronicles i s a imed p rincipally a t u nderstanding p articular e vents i n t emporal o rder, t he a nthropologist 's g oals a re t o f lesh o ut o r h elp r econstruct c ultural p rocesses. The h istoric i nformation i s i conographic Many
a im o f t he a rt h istorian i n u tilizing e thnod ifferent s till: t o e xplicate f ormal a nd
q uestions r aised b y a rtistic d ata.
t imes,
h owever,
A ndean
r esearch
i s
b est
s erved
b y
c ross-
c utting t hese t hree s ubject a reas a nd a malgamating t he s pecific p ursuits o f e ach d iscipline i nto a n i ntegrated s tudy d esign. T o d ate, r esearch i n A ndean a rt h istory i nvolving e thnohistorical s ources h as b een c arried o ut b y a nthropologists, w ho h ave e xamined a rt a s am eans o f s tudying p rehistoric A ndean c ulture. H istorians h ave u sed a rth istorical a nalysis a s a w ay o f s ubstantiating t he v alidity o f t he c hronicles. C uriously, w hereas Mesoamericanists h ave l ong m ade u se o f c odical d ata i n t he a nalysis o f M esoamerican a rt ( Berlo, t his v olume ; K lein 1 982), a s T erence G rieder h as p ointed o ut ( personal c ommunicat ion, 1 983), A ' ideanists h ave b een s omewhat r emiss i n e xploiting t he p otential o f d ocumentary m aterial t o e lucidate A ndean a rt. f or l ack o f e thnohistoric d ocuments.
This i s n ot
P hilip A insworth Means c ompiled a b ibliographic h andbook o f t he A ndean c hronicles w hich w as p ublished i n 1 928 . T his was f ollowed i n 1 939 b y Fr. R uben Vargas U garte 's s ourcebook. S even y ears l ater, J ohn H . R owe 's a rticle o n I nca c ulture a ppeared a nd i ncluded a l ist o f A ndean c hronicles, w here t hey w ere a vailable, a nd t he r elative r eliability o f e ach ( 1946 ). R owe t hen t urned h is a ttention t o t hose d ocuments n ot c oncerned p rimarily w ith t he I nca, b ut w ith t he p re-Inca C himu c iviliz ation o f n orthern P eru ( 1948). I n 1 970 , J ohn Murra p ublished a c ommentary o n t he t extual s ources p ublished s ince R owe's r eports. Therein h e s tressed t he n eed t o l ook b eyond t hese p ublished c hronicles t o t he m ore m undane a dministration a nd l itigation r eports s tored i n n ational a rchives. These l atter d ocuments h ave p roven p articularly f ruitful f or a uthors o f a rea s tudies s uch a s P atricia N etherly ( 1977) a nd M aria R ostworowski 1 977),
d e D iez
C anseco
F rank S alomon o n h ighland E cuador
T hompson o n r ural I nca s ettlements
o n
( 1968).
1 82
c oastal
( 1977/ 1978,
P eru
( 1970 ,
1 978),
1 975,
a nd D onald
C learly,
t here
i s
n o
d earth
o f
Andean
e thonohistoric
d ocuments.
However, i t i s n ot t he p urpose o f t his p aper t o e nnumerate t hem , t he i nterested r eader i s r eferred t o t he a forementioned a uthors' l isting. G iven t he p lethora o f e thnohistoric a ccounts a vailable f or a nalysis, i s
r emarkable t hat N evertheless,
t he n umber o f
a rt-related s tudies
while
i n number,
l imited
i t
r emains s mall.
t hese " ethno-art
h istory"
s tudies a re n ot l imited i n t ype o f a pplication. T hey r ange f rom s ingle unit s tudies t o e ntire t hematic p roblems. I nterestingly, m ost h ave c oncentrated o n t he a rt a nd a rchitecture o f t he Inca a nd o f t he late p re-Hispanic
n orth c oast
c ultures.
t ion a ppears t o h ave o ccurred, a rt
extant
a nd,
s econd,
This
c ultural-regional
c oncentra-
f irst, b ecause o f t he w ealth o f d etailed
b ecause
o f
t he
o verwhelming number
h istoric d ocuments i n e xistence p ertaining t o
o f
e thno-
t hose a reas.
I nca C ulture J ohn
H .
R owe
( 1964)
h as
u tilized
s ixteenth-century
l exical
a nd
c hronical d ocuments t o e stablish t he s tylistic d evelopment o f t he I nca w ooden
c up
( gero
i nformation,
o r
k ero).
a llowed
R owe
T hese t o
d ata,
c oupled
s eparate
t he
w ith
e arliest
a rchaeological s urvivig
p re-
H ispanic c ups f rom t hose b eing made a t t he t ime o f t he S panish Conquest, a nd b oth t hese g roups f rom t hose which c ontinued t o b e m ade u p u ntil t he e arly n ineteenth c entury. More r ecently, T homas C ummins ( 1983) h as e mbarked u pon a n ew a rea o f k ero r esearch i n a n a ttempt t o l earn about p roduction a nd c onsumption o f t he w ooden c ups, Colonial
B oth John H . g ations ( 1979)
o f
R owe a nd R .
r oyal
c ombined
S panish
I nca t he
c hronicles
s eventeenthZ uidema 's
a nd
r esearch
T om Z uidema h ave p ursued f ruitful i nvesti-
t apestry s tandard
w ith
g arments
r eference
t o
e ighteenth-century ( 1973,
1 980)
( gompi).
e thnohistoric
was
p roductive
i n
h is
mentioned
b eing able
p aintings
c oncerned w ith
i n
t he
t o m atch
c hronicles,
w ith
A rthur D emarest
h as
a n
o f
a pproach u tilizing
s ources,
n otable
o f
n obles.
t he
Inca
i dentification
H is s tudy was e specially
s pecific
Museum o f Natural H istory i n Washington,
l em :
Rowe 's
p rocedure
i llustrative o il
o f r oyal t extile t ypes b y t heir Q uechua n ames. c asana ,
p articularly d uring t he
p eriod.
v ariety a ctual
o f s hirt,
s pecimen
i n
t he t he
D .C.
w orked w ith a p articularly i nteresting p rob-
t he i dentification o f n ow n on-existent I nca g old s culptures f rom
t he Coricancha i n C uzco ( 1981:14-15 f f.). Using c hroniclers' w ritten d escriptions a nd s ketches o f t he s culptures, t ogether w ith e thnoh istoric r eferences t o t he Inca p antheon, s uggest p lausible i dentifications o f t hree a ttributes.
1 8 3
Demarest h as b een a ble t o d eities a nd t heir r elative
N orth C oast C ultures S everal r esearchers, a s p articipants i n t he C han C han-Moche V alley P roject, h ave u tilized e thnohistoric d ata t o i nterpret a rchitecture o f t he C himu c ulture. K ent Day ( 1982:63) h as i ndicated t hat t he t en g reat c ompounds ( ciudadelas, c uadros) a t C han C han a re a ssignable t o s pecific C himu k ings a s k nown f rom t he e thnohistoric k ing l ist f or t he n orth c oast. G eoffrey C onrad c oncurs b ut h as h ad d ifficulty c orrelating h is o wn d ata o n r oyal b urial p latform c onstruction i n t he c ompounds w ith A lan K olata 's a dobe b rick s equence ( 1982) f or t hose c omplexes, s o t hat i t h as n ot y et b een p ossible t o a ssign u nequivocally t he n ames o f i ndividual k ings t o i ndividual c ompounds ( Conrad 1 982:109-110 ). H owe ver, R ichard K eatinge a nd G eoffrey C onrad h ave b een a ble t o u se e thnoh istoric w ritings t o i dentify a r ural a dministrative a rchitectural c omp lex f ounded b y t he C himu g eneral P acatnamu a s t he a ncient c ity o f F arfän, r ather t han t he n earby s ite w hich n ow b ears t he g eneral 's n ame ( Keatinge a nd C onrad i n p ress, K eatinge 1 982). I n t he r ealm o f C himu a rt o ther t han a rchitecture, J udith D avidson ( 1980, 1 982) h as b een s uccessful i n e xplaining t he f requent r epresentat ion o f S pondylus s hells i n c eramic a nd m etal w orks b y r eference t o b oth C himu a nd I nca e thnohistories. I n a ddition, Madeleine Fang ( 1975:454 6) h as s uggested t hat t he d ynastic o rigin myth f or t he C himu o f C han C han a nd t hat o f t he Lambayeque p eople o f C hotuna t o t he n orth m ay w ell b e l inked b ecause o f t he s trong s imilarities i n f rieze i conography i n t he r oyal r esidences o f t he t wo s ites. F urthermore, M aria R ostworowski d e D iez C anseco ( 1977:178-81) h as f ound r eferences i n t he S panish v isitas t o g uilds o f C himu a rtisans: p otters, metalsmiths, a nd t extile p ainters. T he
e arliest
e xtrapolation
f rom
i nformation
p reviously
a ssumed
( and s till a ssumed b y s ome) t o b e p ertinent o nly t o t he C himu w as m ade b y Rafael Larco Hoyle ( 1946:17 1), who i dentified t he r epresentation o f f anged h umans i n t he a rt o f t he p re-Chimu M oche c ulture ( A.D . 1 00-700) a s t he C himu c reator g od A i a paec. B oth A lan Sawyer ( 1966:52 p assim ) a nd E lizabeth B enson ( 1972:28) a dopted L arco 's i dentification. H owe ver, J ohn R owe h as r efuted L arco 's c laim t hat A i a paec w as t he a ctual n ame o f a d ivinity. H e p oints o ut t hat L arco 's s ixteenth-century s ource f or t he n ame, t he J esuit m issionary Fernando d e l a C arerra, " translates ' creator ' l iterally, m aking a w ord ' aipaec ' f rom t he v erb ' to m ake ' w hich h e u ses a s a t itle o f G od i n h is c atechism, a nd L arco H oyle a ssumes t hat i t w as t he n ame o f t he n ative h igh g od, b ut t his i s m erely w ishful t hinking" ( Rowe 1 948:49-50). f Moche i conography, which d raw u pon H owever, more r ecent s tudies o ave p roven q uite i ntriguing. I n r eliable e thnohistoric m aterial, h hat, a lthough t here a re n o w ritten f act, i t s eems s omewhat i ronic t ulture, i t i s h ere t hat t he g reatest r ecords w hich r efer t o t he M oche c c oncentration o f Andean e thno-art h istoric s tudies a ppears. A lana C ordy-Collins ( 1972), i n a nalyzing t he r eed b oat i conographic t heme i n M oche
c eramics,
w as
a ble
t o
d ocument
t he
r epresentation
o f
m ultiple
p assenger t ury.
b oats
a s
a t ype
o f
c raft m ade p rior
t o
t he s eventeenth c en-
U tilizing a n e xpanded s ample o f d ocuments a nd a rt, P atricia Lyon ( 1981) h as r e-analyzed a p roposed c orrelation b etween t he m yth o f a n u prising o f i nanimate o bjects a nd t he d epiction o f w eaponry a ttacking h uman b eings. S he h as c arefully b ody o f m yth f ragments a nd a s imilar s mall n umber o f a nd u nequivocally d emonstrated t hat t he t wo g roups o f t o
t he
s ame
i ncident,
a s
h ad
b een
i nitially
a nthropomorphized c ollated a s mall a rtistic d esigns, d ata d o n ot r efer
p roposed
b y
Walter
K rickeberg ( 1928) a nd f requently a ccepted t hereafter. H owever, i t i s w ith t he a ccounts o f h istoric i ndividuals a nd p ractices t hat t he most s triking c omparisons w ith M oche a rt h ave b een m ade. A nne Marie H ocqueghem ( 1977a) h as i dentified a modeled c eramic p ortrait h ead v ase a s t hat o f aw oman. I n s upport o f h er i nterpretation s he c ites J ohn Rowe, who h as n oted r eferences t o t he a pparent e quality o f w omen i n C himu s ociety, a nd M aria R ostworowski d e D iez C anseco, w ho n otes t he r ole o f w omen a s c hiefs, o r c apullanas, f arther n orth a mong t he Tallanes a ccoutrements
p eople. Furthermore, o f c ertain f igures a nd
b y b y
s tudying t he p ostures a nd c omparing t hese w ith e thno-
h istoric d ata r eported b y R owe, H ocqueghem ( 1977b) h as i dentified t he f igures a s s hamans, o r f olk h ealers. A dditionally, H ocquenhem ( 1981) h as r eported o n t he j uxtaposition o f s keletal o r d eath f igures a nd i nsects o n t wo c eramic v essels, i dentifying t he i nsects s pecifically a s f lies b y r eference t o a c ompilation k nown a s t he H uarochiri d ocument w hich m entions f lies a s d eath-related i nsects. H ocquenghem ( 1983) h as a lso a ttempted t o i nterpret r epresentations o f a c omposite b east, t he " deer-serpent-jaguar," a s t he a maru o r a maro , " a mythical c omposite b eing p ossessing c ervine, o phidian, a nd f eline c haracteristics" m ent ioned b y s ixteentha nd s eventh-century c hronicles ( 1983:5). A s imilarly-conceived-of a nimal was a lso k nown a s U scaiguai o r M achcuay ( ibid .). A c lear p roblem w ith t his i nterpretation, h owever, i s t hat n one o f t he c reature 's n ames i s i n t he n orth c oastal l anguage g roup a nd, t herefore, m ade.
n o
F inally,
s trong l ink b etween
t he
m ost
e xtensive
t he
i mage
a nd
t he
d ocuments
r esearch c omparing Moche
c an b e
i conography
w ith n orth c oast e thnohistoric d ata h as b een c onducted b y C hristopher D onnan. H e h as i dentified i ndividuals i n t he a rt b y a ctivity, b y o ccupation,
a nd--occasionally--by
n ame.
D onnan
h as
s uggested
t hat
s everal r epresentations o f ad etailed s cene i nvolving a n e rotic c ouple, h uman d ismemberment, a nd a pparent c onsumption o f a s uspcious s ubstance m ay b e i dentified a s a ctivities a t t he m eeting o f " witches ' g uild" i n t he l ocale o f B arranca w herein a s exual o rgy a long w ith r itual c annibali sm w as c hronicled ( Do rman 1 976:82; 1 978:87 a nd 9 0). F urther, Donnan ( 1976:82;
1 978:90) h as i llustrated t hree v ases w hich s eem t o r epresent
a n otoriously
l ice-ridden,
i f
p rophetic,
" witch"
k nown
a s Mollep t he
L ousey. M oreover, a s eries o f b ottles w hich d epicts t he b urial o f a n i mportant d ignitary a lso s hows a d eceased f emale b eing c onsumed b y c arnivorous
b irds.
D onnan
h as
c ompared
1 85
t his
l atter
i ndividual
w ith
e thnohistoric p atient
a ccounts
t hrough b e
o f
s tate-supported
malpractice,
d evoured
b y
w ere
b irds
h ealers
s ummarily
w hile
t he
w ho,
k illed
p atient
i f
t hey l ost a
a nd
w as
l eft
a bove
g round
t o
c eremoniously
b uried Donnan
( Do rman 1 976:82; 1 978:87; 1 98 1; D onnan a nd McClelland 1 979). h as a lso i dentified g ourd-supported r afts t owed b y s wimmers a s
a ctual c raft f or c rossing r ivers ( 1976:86-87; 1 978:93-9) 4), a g roup o f f igures b lowing i nto t ubes a round a d ome-shaped s tructure a s m etal s miths c reating a f orced-air d raft i n t heir s melter ( 1976:87; 1 978:94), a nd n umerous d epictions o f s potted a dult d eer b eing s talked b y e labor ately-garbed h unters t he
c hronicler
a s a n e lite c eremonial a ctivity
Cabello
B alboa 's
a ccount
o f
a
( n.d.).
Lastly,
Lambayeque
d ynasty
i ncludes m ention o f c ourtiers w hose l ikenesses o ccur i n M oche a rt : P itozofi, t he s hell t rumpeter; R inacola , t he master o f r oyal l itter a nd t hrone ;
a nd N inagintue,
t he r oyal c ellarer
( Do rman 1 976:88;
1 978:101).
While, a s m entioned a bove, t here may s till b e s ome s kepticism t hat Chimu e thnohistories a re a pplicable t o M oche a rt, e vidence
t hat n o a ppreciable c ultural
a nd Chimu c ultures To t his
( Cordy-Collins a nd McClelland,
p oint,
a ll
t o
d ate
h as
i s
i ncreasing
t his
v olume).
e thno-art h istory s tudies c ited h ave p ertained
t o w hat i s n ow t he c ountry o f P eru. r esearch
t here
g ap e ver d eveloped b etween Moche
b een
s o
While i t i s t rue t hat m ost o f t he
o riented,
c oncentrated o n E cuador a s well.
t here
However,
a re
s tudies
w hich h ave
t hese a re y et f ew,
b ut w ith
t he w ork o f d edicated s cholars, such a s Maria-Isabel Silva, t his s ituat ion i s sure t o c hange.
I n r eview, t he w ork o f J ohannes W ilbert
( 197) 4)
i n r eldting s ome o f t he i conographic motifs o n Manteho s pindle w horls t o e arly a ccounts m iniature a rt,
o f a nimal s ymbolism i s n otable. A lso i n t he r ealm o f R esfa P arducci h as c onvincingly c ompared d esign motifs
o n a g roup o f c lay s tamps f rom Manabi w ith e thnohistoric d escriptions o f c oastal t emples a nd h ouses
( 1965:19
e mployed Mesoamerican e thnohistoric
) .
A lana Cordy-Collins
d ata
a s well
t he r ationale f or t he Mantef to h ocker f igures.
( 1982) h as
a s A ndean t o s uggest
J orge Marcos a nd Norton 's
i ntriguing a ccount o f S pondylus s hell p rocurement a nd d ispersal s uffers o nly in
t hat
t hey i dentify what
i s
d emonstrably a C himu i con s howing
S pondylus d iving a s a n E cuadorian o ne.
However, t his i ncident i s n ot a s
i mportant
t he
Norton
a s
i s
t he
i dentification o f
a ctivity i tself
( Marcos
a nd
1 98 1:1) 48 ).
I t m ust b e n oted t hat w hile e thnohistory h as n ot b een e xploited a s f ully a s i t m ight b e t o e ludicate A ndean a rt, t he s ame c annot b e s aid o f e thnography which h as b een a nd c ontinues t o b e u sed e xtensively a nd p rofitably. I n f act, e thnographic r esearch i n S outh A merica o ver t he l ast h undred y ears h as p rovided a v ery r ich r esource f or a rt h istorical i nvestigation. a pparent A merica. f ace
o f
A t enacious
t hroughout
m ost
c onservatism
n on-
o r
o f
t hought
l ittle-urbanized
a nd
p ractice
a reas
o f
i s
South
This m arked r esistance t o c hange i s e specially n otable i n t he n ineteenth-
a nd
t wentieth-century e ncroachment.
I mportantly,
t he observed t enacity has c onvinced many s cholars t hat e thnographic d ata may b e e mployed, w ith c are, t o i nterpret p re-Columbian p atterns o f
18 6
b ehavior 1 974,
c odified a s
1 977;
W ilbert
a rt
( Furst
1 968;
L athrap
1 973; S haron a nd Donnan
1 974).
T he l ast t wo d ecades h ave w itnessed a n i ncreasingly a ctive a pplic ation o f e thnographic d ata t o t he p roblem o f d eciphering a ncient A ndian a rt. T he a forementioned w orks b y C ordy-Collins ( 1972), D avidson ( 1980 , 1 982), D onnan ( 1976 , 1 978), a nd H ocquenghem ( 1977b, 1 981, 1 983) a ll u tilize e thnographic d ata i n c onjunction w ith e thnohistoric r ecords t o a chieve a n u nderstanding o f C himu o r M oche a rt. I nvestigations i nto t he m eaning o f t he e ven e arlier C havin m aterial h ave b een e specially f ruitful. S pearheaded
b y D onald Lathrap 's
a rt
s tyle
1 973 p aper,
u sing
e thnographic
p articular
a ttention
h as b een p aid t o t he r eligious c ontent o f C havin i conography. L athrap a rgued t hat w idespread t ropical f orest b elief i n as aurian d ual d eity a s t he p rogenitor o f a griculture was d irectly a pplicable t o C havin i mages. A lso i n t his v anguard o f r esearch w ere Douglas Sharon a nd C hristopher D onnan ( 1974, 1 977), w ho t raced t he p resence o f s hamanism o n t he n orth c oast o f Peru f rom t he p resent b ack t hrough C himu a nd Moche a rt, a nd i nto t hat o f C havin. A lana C ordy-Collins ( 1977) s imilarly d emonstrated t hat a s ignificant n umber o f C havin m otifs w ere e xplicable v ia t he s hamanism m odel. S he f urther d eveloped t his t heme i s 1 980 , p ointing o ut t hat t he o nly p lausible i nterpretation f rom s ome v ery e xtraordinary C havin m otifs was a s hamanistic o ne. C ordy-Collins ( in p ress) h as a lso a nalyzed t he i conography o f t he r emarkable C erro S echin c arvings a nd s uggests t hat t hey m ay d etail s hamanistic i nitiation r ites r ather t han a l iteral b attle. A dditionally, A lana C ordy-Collins ( 1978), P atricia Lyon 1 973
( 1980), a nd P eter R oe ( 1978) h ave a ll f ollowed D onald L athrap 's i nvestigation i nto t he p resence o f d iadic male-female i mages i n
C havin a rt. S everal o ther i nvestigators h ave e mployed e thnographic c omparisons w ith v arious Andean a rt s tyles t o s omewhat l esser d egrees ( see B ruhns n .d.). A n a dditional a pproach t o t he s tudy o f a ncient A ndean a rt h as b een o utlined b y P atricia Lyon ( in p ress). A s w ell a s o ther c riteria, s he h as s tressed t he n eed t o e xamine t he n atural e nvironment i n d etail a s a m eans o f e xploring i conography. This u se o f n atural m odels a lso h as b een u tilized s uccessfully f or i nvestigations o f a rchaeological a rt b y D avidson ( 1982) a nd b y Lathrap ( 1973, 1 977, i n p ress). Furthermore, G erardo R eichel-Dolmatoff ( 1978) h as c learly d emonstrated t he e fficacy o f t he n atural m odels a pproach b y a pplying i t t o e thnographic a rt w here c onclusions d rawn a re i mmediately v erifiable t hrough t he u se o f l iving i nformants. I n s ummary, i t m ay b e s aid b enefits f rom m any d isciplines.
t hat t he I ndeed,
s tudy o f a ncient Andean a rt m any a uthors h ave s een t he
v alue i n u sing a n o verarching a pproach b y e mploying a c ombination o f a rchaeology, e thnography, b iology, e thology, a nd e thnohistory t o a rrive a t a n u nderstanding o f a ncient Andean a rt.
i8 7
R ESUMEN La
a utora
h ace
u na
d e
reseha
d ocumentos
h istbricos
y
e tnohistöricos p or e studiosos i nteresados e n a nalizar e l a rte a ntiguo d e l os Andes y d iscute l os p roblemas i nherentes a l u so d e t al d ocument aciön. E stos p roblemas i ncluyen l a l ocalizaciön d e l os p rimeros t estimonios, l a p rimacia d e l os t estimcnios f rente a u na p osible c opia d e f uentes m äs p rimitivas a dn, y l os p rejuicios d el e scritor o d el i nformante. R ecientes c ontribuciones e ruditas s obre l as c ulturas I nca y l a
c ultura
r egistros
d e
l a
c osta
n orte
s on
e valuadas
e n
b ase
a s us
p ropios
e tnogräficos y e tnohistörioos.
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I w ould
l ike
t o
t hank Margaret Thomas
t heir h elp w ith French t ranslations. e ditorial
a ssistance
o f K en H edges
a nd J eanette
P eterson
f or
I a m f urther a ppreciative f or t he a nd Margaret T homas.
J anet B erlo f or u rging me t o u ndertake t his
I a lso
t hank
t ask.
D ISCLAIMER I n
a ny
c ompilation
o f
l ists,
i ndividuals
i ncluded a re u nintentionally o mitted.
w ho
I a pologize
h ave o verlooked a nd u rge t hem t o a dvise m e
s hould
h ave
b een
t o t hose w hom I m ay
o f t heir r esearch s o t hat I
may c ite t hem i n f uture r eferences.
NOTES 1 .
T he
Andean
a rea
i s
t he
g eographical
r egion
I nca Empire a t t he t ime o f i ts g reatest e xpansion,
o ccupied
b y
t he
a t erritory s tretch-
i ng s ome t hree t housand m iles n orth-south f rom t he C olombia-Ecuador b order t o n orth-central C hile. Inland, t he E mpire r an e ast t o i ncorpo-
1 88
r ate
w estern
B olivia
a merica" has b een ( L ii nbreras 1 982). 2 . idiom
A r are i s
t he
n orthwestern
e xception
H uarochiri
Hermann Trimborn i n
3 .
a nd
Argentina.
T he
n ame
" Andino-
p roposed r ecently t o s upplant t he t erm " Andean A rea"
o f
a d ocument
c ollection
o f
w ritten
i n
s tories,
a n ative
f irst
Andean
p ublished
b y
1 939 .
A s James Lockhart h as
s hown
( 1972:1 7 -22),
t he
t erm " soldier"
a s a pplied t o t he s ixteenth-century c onquerors o f P eru i s a m isnomer b ecause s uch men h ad n either m ilitary r ank n or e ven m ilitary t raining. However, t he w idespread u se o f " soldier" i n b oth g eneral l iterature a nd p arlance
h as
h istorically s uch a s L L
s imilar
p rompted me t o a dopt more
a ccurate,
p artner/companion B etty
A nn
c hroniclers'
c oncept
5 .
u se h ere
a nd
( 1982)
h as
e xplication
m ore
o f
e quivocal
( vecino)
r ecently
d emonstrated
s cholars t he A ztec
t erm,
( ibid .:20).
v is-a-vis c alendar
t he
t hat
a
e arly
u tilizing
o f what a calendar was.
I t s hould b e n oted t hat
o nly t wo o f
b east exhibit c ervine a ttributes.
s entations may b e
r ather t han t o e mploy a
o r c itizen
f or Mesoamerican
t heir o wn European m odel
t ions o f this
i ts
c ontemporarily
( compar iero)
B rown
p roblem exists
b ut
o f o ther c reatures.
1 89
h er f ive
c ited i llustra-
The o ther t hree r epre-
R EFERENCES B enson,
E lizabeth P .
1 972
B erlo,
C ITED
T he Mochica, N ew Y ork.
a C ulture o f P eru .
J anet C atherine
19 83
C onceptual
c ategories
i mages i n M esoamerica. B rown,
P raeger P ublishers.
f or
t he
( This
s tudy
o f
t exts
a nd
v olume).
B etty A nn
19 82
E arly c olonial r epresentations o f t he A ztec monthly c alendar. P re-Columbian A rt H istory : Selected R eadi ngs, e dited b y A lana C ordy-Collins. P eek P ublicat ions. P alo A lto.
B ruhns, K aren O lsen n. d.
A rchaeology a nd i conog raphy o r a rt a s e vidence.
P re-
p ublication t ypescript. D epartment o f A nthropology, San Francisco S tate University. C onrad, G eoffrey W . 19 82 T he
b urial
p latforms
o f C han C han :
s ome s ocial
a nd
p olitical i mplications. C han C han : A ndean D esert C ity , e dited b y M ichael E . Moseley a nd K ent C . D ay. University o f N ew M exico P ress. A lbuquerque. C ordy-Collins, 1 972
A lana T he Tule B oat Theme i n Moche Art: A P roblem i n Anc ient P eruvian I conography. Master s T hesis. I nstit ute o f A rchaeology. University o f C alifornia , L os A ngeles.
1 977
C havin Art : i ts s hamanic/hallucinogenic o rigins. P re-Columbian A rt H istory : S elected R eadings v ol. 1 . Edited b y A lana C ordy-Collins a nd J ean S tern. P eek P ublications. P alo A lto.
1 979
C otton a nd t he S taff G od : a nalysis o f a n a ncient C havin T extile. T he J unius B . B ird P re-Columbian T extile C onference, e dited b y A nn P . R owe, E lizabeth P . B enson, a nd A nne-Louise S chaffer. T he T extile M useum a nd D umbarton Oaks.
19 78
T he d ual d ivinity c oncept i n C havin a rt. E l D orado, A N ewsletter-Bulletin o f S outh A merican A rchaeology I II,
19 80
Washington, D .C.
n o.
2 .
A n a rtistic r ecord o f t he C havin h allucinatory e xper ience. T he Masterkey 514 , n o. 1 .
19 0
1 982
E arth Mother/Earth Monster i n E cuadorian Mantef lo a rt. P re-Columbian A rt H istory : b y A lana C ordy-Collins.
Selected R eadings, P eek P ublications.
e dited P alo
A lto. i n p ress
The
C erro
Sechin massacre:
T echnology Notes C ordy-Collins,
A lana,
1 983
1 8.
d id i t h appen?
Museum o f Man.
E thnic
San D iego.
a nd D onna McClelland
U pstreaming
a long
t he
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North
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( This
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T homas B .
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r elation
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t o
a t
k ero
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Master ° s California
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Art
t he
6 .
Andean H arvard
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a nd
I conography .
3.
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L atin o f
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C enter
California,
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Art
c ation.
o f
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Peru :
Museum
Pre-Columbian S ymbolic Communi-
o f Cult u ral H istory.
University
A M oche V b ottle w ith c omplex f ineline d rawing. Shape
o f
L os Angeles.
o f t he P ast :
1 9 1
S tudies i n H onor
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b y
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a nd
C harles
U niversity
o f
D eer Hunting i n Moche A rt. P re-publication t ypes cript. Museum o f C ultural H istory. U niversity o f C alifornia, L os Angeles.
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T he
0l mec
w ere-jaguar
m otif
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i n
D umbarton
Master 's Thesis. University o f
i n
t he
l ight
o f
e thnographic r eality. T he D umbarton O aks C onference o n t he Olmec, e dited b y E lizabeth P . B enson. D umbarton O aks. H ocquenghem ,
1 977a
A nne M arie U n " vase
Washington,
p ortrait"
D .C.
d e
f emme
Mochica.
d e
c hamans
N l awpa
P acha
1 5:117-122.
1 977b
L es
r epresentations
M ochica.
19 81
l a i conographie
B erkeley.
L es m ouches e t l es m orts d ans l ' i conographie Mochica.
f awpa P acha 1 9 : 63 -7 0 . 19 83
d ans
S l awpa P acha 1 5:123-130 .
T he " beauty"
B erkeley.
o f t he D eer-Serpent-Jaguar.
p lement t o M exicon),
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1 .
K eatinge, R ichard W . 1 982 T he C himu Empire i n a r egional p erspective: c ultural a ntecedents a nd c ontinuities. C han C han : A ndean D esert C ity , e dited b y M ichael E . M oseley a nd K ent C . D ay. University o f N ew M exico P ress. A lbuquerque. K eatinge, R ichard W ., a nd Kent C . D ay i n p ress I mperialist e xpansion i n P eruvian p rehistory : a dministration o f a c onquered t erritory. F ield A rchaeology. K lein, C ecelia F . 1 982
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T he r elation o f M esoamerican a rt h istory t o a rchaeol ogy i n t he United S tates. P re-Columbian A rt
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K olata,
H istory :
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C ollins.
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P alo A lto.
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C hronology a nd s ettlement g rowth a t C han C han. C han C han : A ndean D esert C ity, e dited b y M ichael E . Moseley a nd K ent C . D ays. P ress. A lbuquerque.
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o f N ew M exico
K rickeberg, Walter 1 928
M exikanisch-peruanische P arallelen E in U eberlick u nd e ine E rgänzung. F estschrift/Publication d 'hommage o fferte a u/P.W. S chmidt. M echitharisten-Congregat ions-Buchdruckerei. V ienna.
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G ifts o f t he c ayman : s ome t houghts o n t he s ubsiste nce b asis o f C havin. V ariation i n A nthropology, e dited b y Donald W .
L athrap a nd J ody Douglas.
n ois A rchaeological S urvey.
19 77
O ur Father t he C ayman,
I lli-
U rbana.
O ur Mother t he G ourd :
S pinden
r evisited, o r a unitary m odel f or t he e mergence o f a griculture i n t he New World. O rigins o f Ag ricult ure, e dited b y C harles A . T he Hague. C omplex
i n p ress
i conog raphic
R eed.
f eatures
M outon P ublishers.
s hared
b y
Olmec
a nd
C havin a nd s ome s peculations o n t heir p ossible s ign ificance. P rimer s ymposio d e C orrelationes AndinoMesoamerican° L arco H oyle,
19 46
( July,
1 971).
G uayaquil.
Rafael A c ultural s equence f or t he North H andbook o f S outh A merican I ndians
Coast o f P eru. I I . B ureau o f
A merican E thnology B ulletin 114 3, e dited b y Julian H . S teward. S mithsonian I nstitution. Washington, D . 0. L ockhart, J ames 19 72
T he Men o f C ajamarca: A S ocial a nd B iog raphical S tudy o f t he F irst C onquerors o f P eru. Un iversity o f T exas P ress.
Lu r nbreras, 1 982
Lyon,
Austin.
Luis G . A ndinoamerica. Gaceta Archaeolögica Andina. t uto A ndino d e E studios A rqueologicas. L ima.
I nsti-
F emale
P acha ,
P atricia J . 1 978
S upernaturals
v ol. 1 6.
19 3
i n Ancient
P eru.
i awpa
1 981
A rqueologia y m itologia :
l a e scena d e " los
a nimados" y e l t ema d e " El t os." S cripta E tnologia 6 . i n p ress
H acia
u na
P eruano.
T ercera
H istoria , M arcos,
r igurosa
J ornada
2 7-29 d e m ayo d e
d e
d el
d el
Museo
1 981.
L ima.
o bjetos
l os
a rte
o bje-
a ntiquo
N acional
d e
J orge G . a nd P resley N orton
1 981
M eans,
i nterpertacion
a lzamiento
I nterpretaciön s obre l a a rqueologia d e l a I sla d e La P lata. M iscelanea A ntropologia E cuatoriana 1 :1361 5 / 4. Guayaquil.
P hilip A insworth
1 928
B iblioteca Andina,
P art One, t he C hroniclers, o r, t he
Writers o f t he S ixteenth a nd S eventeenth C enturies W ho T reated o f t he H istory a nd C ulture o f t he A ndean C ountries. C onnecticut A cademy o f A rts a nd S ciences, T ransactions, 2 9:27 1-525. Murra, J ohn V . 1 970
C urrent r esearch a nd p rospects i n Andean e thnohistory L atin A merican R esearch R eview 5 :3-37.
N etherly, P atricia J oan 1 977 L ocal Level Lords o f t he North C oast o f Peru . P h.D. D issertation. D epartment o f A nthropology. C ornell U niversity. University M icrofilms. A nn Arbor. P arducci Z ., 1 965
R esfa R epresentation d e C asas e n Sello Triangulares d e M anabi. C uadernos d e H istoria y A rqueologia 1 0 , n o. 2 7 .
1 981
Guayaquil.
T emplos R evista
R epresentados E spagnola
d e
e n
Sellos
Pianos
A ntropologia
d e
Manabi.
A mericana
1.
M adrid. R eichel-Dolmatoff, G erardo 1 978 B eyond t he M ilky Way : T ukano I ndians, U CLA
Hallucinatory Imagery o f t he L atin A merican C enter. L os
A ngeles. R oe,
P eter G . 1 978
R ecent d iscoveries
i n C havin a rt :
s ome s peculations
o n m ethodology a nd s ignificance i n t he a nalysis o f a f igural s tyle. E l D orado, A N ewsletter-Bulletin o n S outh A merican A rchaeology 3 , n o. 1 .
19 2 4
R ostworowski
d e D iez C anseco, M aria
1 970
M ercaderes
d el
Valle
h ispaAnica : R evista 1 78. 1 975
Un
Espaf tjola
C hincha
d e
e n
y
l a
U nos
Antropologia
E poca
P re-
C omentarios.
Americana
5 :135-
P escadores, a rtesanos, y m ercaderes costehos e n e l P er u p rehispaAnico. R evista d el Museo N acional 4 1:311-349 .
1 977
C oastal i n t he
L ima.
f ishermen,
H ispanic
P eru.
J ohn Howland 1 946 I nca
merchants,
P re-Columbian World ,
c ulture
H andbook
E lizabeth P .
t he
S outh
t ime
o f
A merican
t he
1 948
T he
1 964
T he
e d.
o f
C himor.
A cta
2 .
C onquest. B ureau
o f
Washington, D . 0
6 ,
Americana
n os.
1 -
M exico.
c hronology o f I nca
C olumbian A rt L athrop,
Pre-
Edited b y Julian H .
S mithsonian Institution.
k ingdom
2 :26-59.
i n
B enson,
S panish
I ndian
A merican E thnology B ulletin 1 43. S teward.
a rtisan
Washington, D .C.
a t
o f
a nd
Dumbarton O aks C onference o n T he S ea
Dumbarton O aks. R owe,
d e
D ocumento
e t.
w ooden
c ups.
a nd A rchaeology, a l.
H arvard
E ssays
e dited
University
b y
i n Pre-
S amuel
P ress.
K .
Cam-
b ridge. 1 979
S tandardization i n Inca t apestry t unics. B .
T he Junius
B ird P re-Columbian T extile C onference,
e dited
b y
A nn Pollard R owe, E lizabeth P , B enson, a nd A nn-Louis S chaffer. T he Textile Museum a nd Dumbarton Oaks. Washington, Salomon,
D .C.
F rank
19 77 / 1 978
P cchteca a nd Mindala : t raders
A c omparison o f l ong-distance
i n Ecuador a nd Mesoamerica.
S teward A nthropological S ociety 1 978
E thnic Lords
o f
Q uito
Political E conomy D issertation. f ilms. Sawyer,
J ournal
9 , n os.
i n t he Age
o f
1 -2.
U rbana.
t he Incas:
o f North A ndean C hiefdoms.
C ornell University.
o f t he
The P h.D.
University M icro-
A nn Arbor.
A lan R .
19 66
A ncient Peruvian C eramics: l ection.
t he Nathan C ummings Col-
The Metropolitan Museum o f A rt.
c ut.
19 5
C onnecti-
Sharon, Douglas G ., a nd C hristopher B . D onnan 1 974 S hamanism i n Moche i conography. e dited
b y
C lewlow, o gy.
19 77
C hristopher
J r.
B .
Monography I V.
a nd
C .
W illiam
I nstitute o f Archaeol-
University o f C aliforn ia.
T he Magic C actus: P eru. A rchaeology
E thnoarchaeology ,
D onnan
L os A ngeles.
e thnoarchaeological 3 0, n o.6.
c ontinuity i n
Thompson, D onald E . 1 968
H uänuco, e mpire.
W ilbert,
P eru :
A s urvey o f
A rchaeology 2 1,
a p rovince
o f
t he
Inca
3:1 74- 18 1.
n o.
J ohannes
1 974
T he Thread o f Life : E cuador. o gy
Vargas U garte, 1 939
1 2.
S ymbolism o f M iniature Art f rom
S tudies i n P re-Columbian Art a nd A rchaeolD umbarton Oaks.
Washington, D .C.
R uben H istori a
d el
Pe rC i
( curso
u niversitario)
F uentes.
L ima. Z uidema, 1 973
R .
Tom E thnohistory P aper
a nd
p resented
I conography a t
T extile Conference.
o f
t he J unius
B .
Peruvian B ird
Textiles.
P re-Columbian
T he Textile Museum.
Washington,
D .C. 1 980
Mimeographed l etter t o t he e ditors, p articipants, a nd d iscussants
o f The J unius B . B ird P re-Columbian T ex-
t ile C onference. 1 982
G enealogy 4 4th
a nd
Archaeology.
I nternational
c hester,
E ngland.
19 6
C ongress
P aper
p resented
o f Americanists.
a t
t he Man-
U PSTREAMING A LONG T HE P ERUVIAN N OBTH
C OAST
b y A LANA
O ORDY-COLLINS a nd
D ONNA M cCLELLAND
I ntroduction I n t his p aper w e w ritten b y t he S panish
i ntend t o s how t hat t he h istorical d ocuments c hroniclers a fter t he c onquest o f P eru c an b e
u sed a s a n a dditional r esource i n t he i nterpretation o f t he p reH ispanic M oche a nd C himu a rt o f t he P eruvian n orth c oast. W e w ill a rgue f or a c ontinuity o f b elief a nd i mage b etween t hese t wo c ultures - a c ontinuum w hich i s s till d etectable i n t he a rea t oday. E vidence f or t his c ontinuity i s d rawn f rom e thnographic a ccounts, e thnohistoric r ec ords, a rchaeological i nvest igations, a nd p rimarily f rom i conographic a nalyses. T his e vidence s trongly s uggests t hat, e ven t hough t he n orth c oast f elt t he i mpact o f f oreign p owers a t l east t wice, s ome o f t he i ndigenous c ultural t raditions w ere t enacious e nough t o w ithstand s uch o nslaught a nd s urvive.
T he Methodological Problem T raditionally, t he l ack o f w ritten d ocuments i n p re-Columbian P eru h as b een s een a s a major l imitation i n t he i nterpretation o f t he p rec onquest c ultures. Writing w as n ot i ntroduced i n Peru u ntil t he S panish C onquest i n 1 532. Following t his, t he S panish c hroniclers s et a bout r ecording v erbal a ccounts o f t he p reconquest p ractices a nd b eliefs o f t he I ndians. However, t hey s eemed t o h ave n o i nkling o f t he t remendous c ultural t ime d epth o f Peru a nd t heir w ritings s eem t o b e l imited t o t he l iving p eoples a nd t heir i mmediate p redecessors : t he p reviously r uling I nca a nd t he c ontemporary Inca-conquered p eoples s uch a s t he C himu o n t he n orth c oast o f P eru. I n m ore r ecent t imes, a rchaeological i nvestig ations
i n Peru h ave
u ncovered
l ayers
o f
r emains
f rom
c ultures
w hich
l ong p receded t he a rrival o f t he S panish. T herefore, p erhaps i t s hould n ot b e s urprising f or u s t o l earn t hat t he C himu g ave t heir i nterrogat ors m ore i nformation t han was a nticipated o r a ppreciated--information o f e vents a nd t raditions r eaching b ack h undreds o f y ears. We s hall s how
1 97
t hat
t here
i s
a v iable b asis
f or
u sing t he
h istorical
d ocuments
a s
a
means o f u nderstanding n ot o nly t he p re-Hispanic Chimu a rt o f t he P eruv ian n orth c oast, well. I t
i s
t he
b ut t he a rt o f t he Moche c ulture w hich p receded i t a s
a uthors'
c ontention
t hat
t here
w as
n egligible d isjunc-
t ion b etween t he M oche culture o f t he E arly I ntermediate p eriod a nd t he Chimu c ulture o f t he Late Intermediate p eriod o n t he P eruvian n orth c oast. Our p rimary evidence i s a n i cono g raphic a nalysis o f t wo a rtistic t hemes,
T ule
B oats
t ion ( McClelland, g ures 1 a nd 2 )
( Cordy-Collins,
1 972)
a nd A quatic Deity Confronta-
m s.), which a ppear initially o n M oche E thnographic a ccounts, e thnohistoric
a rchaeological i nvestigations
c eramics r ecords,
( fia nd
p rovide a dditional s upport.
The Middle Horizon in Peru h as
b een v iewed a s
t he t ime b etween t he
E arly a nd t he Late I ntermediate p eriods i n which t he Huari E mpire f rom t he s outhern s ierra invaded t he Moche c ulture o n t he n orth c oast. I nd eed, t he M iddle Horizon o n t he n orth c oast was s een a s d isruption
a nd
foreign
influence,
s undering t he
a t ime
indigenous
o f major
c ontinuum.
The r adical c hange i n burial p atterns o n t he n orth c oast f rom extended Moche b urials i n t he Early Intermediate p eriod t o t he f lexed Chimu burials i n t he Late I ntermediate
p eriod l ends
c redence t o
p retation.
Horizon
s een
F inally,
waning o f H uari Chimu.
the
Middle
w as
t o
this i nter-
c lose w ith
t he
p ower a nd t he r eassertion o f a n orth c oast c ulture, t he
C hristopher Donnan 's r esearch into Moche i conog raphy u sing matic a pproach " Chimu" ture.
( 1975,
d ata f ound For
( Dorman
w as
s everal
S panish
u sed
c ross
t o
1 978:93-94).
o f t he
c hroniclers
r ivers
e arlier Moche c ul-
d escribed
a long t he
c oast
t hese r afts
f t .
. .i t s eems r easonable t o a ssume t hat this i s what i s ( Donnan
s upernatural
s imilar
1 978:86-102).
t o w hat
1 978:94).
f igures,
a s
O ther related
i s
b eing d epicted
Moche t o
v essels
o f
n orthern
t he
o n Moche b ottles,
s eemed
S panish
b eing i llust o
i llustrate
c hroniclers
H owever, what Donnan d emonstrated t o
cult t o u nderstand : t hrough t he Huari
a t ype o f
Donnan s uggested t hat s ince t he d escription
o f
t rated"
i s
t he-
1 978) s uggested t hat c ertain e thnohistoric
r epresentation i n t he a rt
example,
g ourd r aft w hich P eru
1 976 ,
b e
( Do rman
t rue w as d iffi-
How h ad b eliefs f rom t he M oche c ulture s urvived i nterregnum t o s urface a mong t he Chimu a nd b e
d ocumented b y t he S panish following t he C onquest? Archaeological
e xcavation o n
s ubstantial
q uantities
a nd Mosel e y
1 977 : 511n , Mackey
h ave
b een
b lending
d ocu nented o f
Huari
q uantitatively
i n
a nd
v ery
t he
n orth c oast h as
o f t he e xpected H uari t he
1 982) . n orth
Moche
l imited.
c lear-cut
h iatus
b etween
R ecently,
M ackey
a nd
Thus, a nd
( Hoyt
h ad
Chimu h ave
h ad
f ailed
s ome Huari m ateri a ls
1 973)
( Donnan
w hat
( 1982)
y ield
s ure,
( Do r man
a rtistry
Moche
Hasting s
T o b e
t o
i ntrusive material a nd
t here
i s
b ut
b oth
1 972), b een
i nterpreted
b een
p roposed
t o a
s ome a re a s
a
r eevaluated. solution
t o
a ccount f or t he u nobtrusive Huari p resence b y h ypothesizing a c ommon r eligious b ase f or M oche a nd Huari c ultures extending b ack t o t he o ld Chavin r eligion o f
1 98
t he E r ly Horizon
( ca.
1 400-400
B .C.).
I f t his
i s
t he c ase,
t hen, w e
w ould n o l onger n eed t o a ssume t hat t he c omponents o f t he n orth c oast c ultural s equence w ere r adically a ltered d uring t he Middle Horizon. T herefore, i t i s p ossible t hat t he a rt s tyle o f t hat t ime a nd p lace r epresents a n u ninterrupted e volution f rom Moche t o C himu w ith a s light H uari a dmixture ( as t he P acatnamu t extiles [ Keatinge 1 978 ] a nd t he I llimo f rescoes [ Schaedel 1 978 ] i ndicate). T heresa Topic 's ( 1982:2808 ) 4) i nterpretation o f t he a rchaeological d ata f rom h er w ork i n t he M oche v alley o n t he Early Intermediate p eriod a rgues " . . .f or s trong t ies b etween t he M oche a nd C himu t raditions" a nd t hat " the C himu e mpire . . .w as a d irect d escendant o f t he Moche s tate." A lthough
a c ultural
b reak
d uring
t he M iddle H orizon
c an
n ot
h e
s upported, t here w ere d ecidedly s tylistic c hanges i n t he a rt w rought o n t he n orth c oast d uring t he M iddle H orizon , a nd t heir i nception c an b e t raced t o t he t erminal p eriod o f M oche d evelopment, P hase V . We h ave t raced t hese a forementioned t hemes--the Tule B oat a nd t he A quatic Deity C onfrontation —backward a nd f orward t hrough t ime. I t i s s ignificant t hat t hese t wo t hemes a re r epresented i n b oth M oche a nd C himu a rt a nd t hat
w ithin
t hese
t hemes
t he
e volution
o f
t he
a rt
s tyle may b e
s een.
E ven m ore s ignificantly, o ur a nalysis s uggests t hat t here i s a major s hift o f c ontent w ithin t he i conography a s e arly a s P hase V M oche w hich a ccelerates i n C himu. T herefore, s ince s uch a t ransition c an b e d ocum ented, i t i s v ery u nlikely t hat t here w as a d isjunction o f t hematic c ontent v is-a-vis M oche a nd C himu b eliefs.
A R eturn t o
t he S ea
M oche f ineline p ainted p ottery made d uring P hase V s hows a marked o cean o rientation. O ver h alf o f t he 1 70 f ineline v essels d ocumented f rom t his p eriod h ave o cean-related m otifs. T his n umber i s e specially s triking w hen c ompared w ith t he f igures f or t he p receding P hase I V, w hen f ewer t han o ne-fourth o f t he 4 50 d ocumented f ineline v essels d isplay a quatic m otifs. M oreover, i n t his f inal p hase o f t he M oche c ulture, t here i s a d ramatic t ransformation i n t he a rt s tyle o f t he f ineline d rawings. The c hange i n a rtistic c onventions i n P hase V f rom e arlier p hases a lters t he a ppearance o f a quatic Moche d eities, making t hem d ifficult t o i dentify. T he a rtists s eem t o h ave a dded n ew a quatic d eities d uring t his p hase, t hus f urther c omplicating t he i dentification p roblem ( e.g., i n f igure 2 , t he s piked a nthropomorphized s ea u rchin). A lthough t he a rt s tyle c hanges i n P hase V , t he major t hemes a bout t he a quatic d eities a re p resent i n e arlier M oche p hases, d emonstrating a c ontinuity i n t he b eliefs o f t he Moche. T he a bove-mentioned d ramatic s hift i n e mphasis o f v essel d esign c ontent t o w ater i magery a nd m arine a ctivity, p lus t he c hange o f a rtisic c onventions f rom P hase I V t o P hase V , s uggest a major d isruption w ithin t he M oche c ulture d uring t his t ime. T he c ontinuity o f o ceanic r epresentations a nd t he M oche a rt s tyle i nto t he C himu t radition, h owever, p rogression f rom t he Moche c ulture
t o t he C himu.
1Q Q
e volution o f t he s uggest a s teady
Not
o nly d o
a quatic d eities
Tule B oat Theme, I n f act, n ence, o ther
n ot
b ut
o nly d oes
t he
t ule
t he Tule B oat
b oats
t hemes w hich must
c ance.
I n
b ecome p rominent
i n P hase V ,
f igure
a nd
t hen,
t he
b y a ssociation,
s udden a ppearances
t ake
P hase
3 , t ule b oatmen a ppear i n t he exclusively P hase V 1 979).
T he c ostumes o f t he f igures
t he c ostume o f t he l eft b oatman i n f igure
V b ottle
i n
o n a quatic s ignifi-
i n t he t hree r ows t o t he l eft o f t he v ertical r opes i n f igure t o
t he
t hematic c omplex g ain n ew p romi-
b oatmen m ake
B urial Theme ( Do rman a nd McClelland s imilar
b ut
p resent f rom P hase I I, r eally f lourishes a t t his t ime.
h as
r ecently
b een
i dentified
1 .
w hereon
3a re v ery
I n a ddition, a t ule
b oats
a re
i ncluded i n t he r itual p resentation-of-goblets s cene f rom t he P resentat ion T heme, I n
t raditionally a P hase I V a ctivity
P hase
V ,
t he
f inal
M oche
p eriod,
( Dorman
i t
w ould
1 978:158-73). s eem
t hat
w e
a re
w itnessing a s ignificant s hift i n e mphasis t o m aritime a ctivity i n t he mythology.
T he
n on-secular mythological
h as b een well a rgued
( Dorman 1 976,
n ature
1 978).
o f Moche
f ineline a rt
Therefore, w hen o ver h alf t he
v essels i n t he P hase V s ample s how a n a quatic o rientation, c ompared w ith less t han o ne-quarter a ppear
t hat
Moche
o f t he
mythology
b ottles i n t he P hase e xperienced
I V
s ample,
a m etamorphosis
i t w ould
d uring
t his
p eriod. The c hange was n ot t emporary. The e mphasis o n m aritime a ctiv ity c ontinued into t he Chimu t radition ; Fang ( 1975) h as c ontended t hat a ll C himu f riezes a re m arine-related. For s ome r eason t he s ea gained a rtistic i mportance b etween Moche P hases I V a nd V a nd Chimu i conography c ontinued t he e mphasis. a d ramatically
S urvival d uring t his p eriod m ay well h ave m eant
i ncreased
r eliance
u pon
t he
r ich
which h ad g iven Andean c ivilization i ts i nitial
maritime
t hrust
r esources
( Moseley 1 975).
S panish e thnohistories f or t he n orth c oast o f Peru r eveal t hat t he Chimu l ooked u pon t he s ea a s a d eity, m ade s hipped i t b y t he t itle Ni ( Rowe ( 1946:50). r iding m aritime b ecause
w e
f ocus,
h ave
c orroborates
d emonstrated
f rcm M oche a rt b efore i t,
o fferings t o i t, a nd w orC himu a rt, w ith i ts o ver-
t he w ritten t estimony.
i conographically
t hat
C himu
Moreover, a rt
e volved
i t i s r easonable t o c onclude t hat t he s ea was
a lso c onsidered d ivine b y t he Moche. I t
i s
e conomic
i mportant
f unction
c oincidental
t hat
s its w ith h is
t o
o n
n ote
t he
t he
t hat
P eruvian
s ea
s till
c oast,
p lays
a nd
i t
a n
i mportant
s eems
h ardly
c ontemporary n orth c oast s haman Eduardo C alderon
b ack t o t he s ea f or
c eremony ( Sharon
t he n orth
p rotection w hen h e c onducts a r itual
1 978).
I n s ummary, w e b elieve t hat w e h ave d emonstrated t hat t hemes o f t he s ea, n orth
b oth
i n
c oast
b elief
a nd
o f Peru f or
i mage,
h ave
c enturies.
t ion.
2 00
b een We
a c ultural
f ind
n o
c onstant
e vidence
f or
o n
t he
d isjunc-
R ESUMEN En
e ste
t rabajo l os
a utores
m uestran
q ue
los
d ocumentos
e scritos
p or l os c ronistas e spaf toles d espu6s d e l a c onquista d el P erd p ueden s er u tilizados
c omo r ecursos
M ochd y Chi ra l. i magen e ntre
p ara la interpretacibn d el
a rte p re-hispänico
Los autores a rgumentan p or l a c ontinuidad d e c reencia e
e stas
d os
c ulturas - u n c ontinuo
t odavia p ercibible e n e l
a rea h oy d ia. La evidencia p ara e sta c ontinuidad s e extrae d e l os t estimonios e tnog räficos y e tnohistbricos, d e l a a rqueologia y d e los a nälisis i conogräficos. E sta evidencia s ugiere f uertemente q ue, a unque l a c osta d el n orte s intiera e l i mpacto d el p oder invasor e xtranjero, p or l o m enos e n d os o casiones
a lgunas t radiciones culturales i ndigena s h an
s ido l o s uficientemente t enaces
p ara p oder
2 01
s ubsistir a dn.
R EFERENCES C ordy-Collins,
C ITED
A lana
1 972
T he T ule B oat i n Moche A rt : A P roblem i n A ncient P eruvian I conography. Master 's t hesis. I nstitute o f A rchaeology, U niversity o f C alifornia, L os A ngeles.
D onnan, C hristopher B . 1 972 M oche-Huari m urals 2 5 ( 2):85-95.
f rom
n orthern P eru.
A rchaeology
1 973
M oche O ccupation o f t he Santa Valley, P eru . U nivers ity o f C alifornia P ublications i n A nthropology 8 . U niversity o f C alifornia, B erkeley.
1 975
T he T hematic A pproach t o Moche I conography. o f L atin A merican L ore
1 ( 2):
J ournal
1 47-62.
1 976
M oche A rt a nd I conography . L atin A merican S tudies 3 3. U CLA L atin A merican C enter P ublications. L os Angeles.
1 978
M oche A rt o f P eru :
P re-Columbian S ymbolic C ommunica-
t ion. Museum o f C ultural C alifornia, L os A ngeles.
H istory.
University
D onnan, C hristopher B ., a nd D onna M cClelland 1 979 T he B urial T heme i n Moche I conography. P re-Columbian A rt a nd A rchaeology 2 1. O aks. Washington, D .C.
o f
S tudies i n D umbarton
F ang, M adeleine W . 1 975
T he Marine T heme o f C himu F riezes. Master 's t hesis. D epartment o f A nthropology. University o f C aliforn ia, L os Angeles.
H oyt, M argaret A ., a nd M ichael E . M oseley 1 977 T he B urr F rieze: A r ediscovery a t C han C han.
P re-
C olumbian A rt H istory : S elected R eading, e dited b y A lana C ordy-Collins a nd J ean S tern, p p. 4 95-512. P eek P ublications. P alo A lto. K eatinge, R ichard W . 1 978 T he P acatnamu t extiles. M ackey, C arol J . 1 982
A rchaeology 3 1(2):30-41.
T he M iddle H orizon a s v iewed f rom t he Moche V alley. C han C han : A ndean D esert C ity, e dited b y M ichael E . M oseley
a nd
K ent C .
P ress.
A lbuquerque.
2 02
D ay.
University
o f N ew M exico
M ackey, Carol J ., 1 982
a nd C harles M . H astings M oche murals f rom t he H uaca b ian A rt H istory :
d e l a L una.
Selected R eadings,
C ordy-Collins, p p. 2 93-312. A lto. McClelland, D onna m s. M oche A quatic Deities
P re-Colum-
e dited b y A lana
P eek P ublications.
P alo
i n P hase V .
M oseley, M ichael E . 1 975
R owe,
T he Maritime Foundations C ummings. M enlo P ark.
J ohn H owland 1 9 14 8 T he K ingdom o f C himor.
o f
Andean
C ivilization .
A cta Americana 6 :2659.
Sharon, D ouglas G . 1 978
T he W izard o f t he Four W inds : F ree P ress.
S chaedel, R ichard P . 1 978 T he Huaca
A S haman ' s Story .
T he
N ew Y ork.
P intada
o f Il limo.
A rchaeology 3 1( 1 ) :2 7-
3 7 . T opic, T heresa L ange 1 982 T he Early Intemediate p eriod a nd i ts l egacy. C han C han : A ndean D esert C ity, e dited b y M ichael E . M oseley a nd K ent C . D ay. University o f N ew M exico P ress. A lbuquerque.
2 03
2 05
2 07
•
0 ,
‘ .
-
• a )
'
4 ) r I 0 O 4 )
t u
5 , f : L t
b urial t heme. M cClelland.
•
• • • ••
2 09
NOTES
O N
C ONTRIBU TORS
O RIANA B ADDELEY i s a g raduate s tudent i n A rt H istory a t t he University o f E ssex, E LLEN
a nd a n i nstructor a t
T AYLOR
B AIRD
i s
t he C amberwell S chool
A ssistant
U niversity o f Nebraska-Lincoln. v ersity o f N ew M exico i n 1 979. Sahagün 's " Primeros Memoriales"
P rofessor
S he
s tudy o f
t he
A rt
H istory
r eceived h er P h.D.
f rom
a t
t he
t he Uni-
A n a nalysis o f t he i llustrations o f w as t he s ubject o f h er d octoral t hesis
f rom w hich t he p resent p aper was d erived. a nalytical
o f
o f Arts a nd C rafts.
S he i s c urrently p reparing a n
i conography o f Toltec
a rchitectural
s culpture
a t Tula. J ANET C ATHERINE BERLO i s Assistant Professor o f Art a t t he University o f M issouri-St.
L ouis.
She r eceived h er d octorate i n H istory o f A rt f rom
Y ale University i n
1 980.
h uacan-Maya c ontact,
S he h as p ublished o n Teotihuacan a rt,
a nd m odern M aya t extiles.
D r.
T eoti-
B erlo 's b ook-length
a nnotated b ibliography o f a ncient Mesoamerican a rt w ill b e p ublished b y G .K.
Hall i n 1 984.
BETTY ANN BROWN i s c urrently Director o f t he Visual Arts Program o f t he College n ia,
o f C ontinuing E ducation o f t he University o f S outhern C alifor-
L os
Angeles.
S he
a lso
t eaches
Pre-Columbian
a nd
Native
North
American a rt h istory f or U SC 's S chool o f F ine Arts. Brown r eceived h er d octorate i n t he h istory o f a rt f rom t he University o f New Mexico, A lbuquerque i n
1 977.
The main t hrust
b een Mesoamerican c eremonial A LANA C ORDY-COLLINS,
a rts,
o f h er r esearch a nd w riting h as
b oth a ncient a nd modern.
a g raduate o f UCLA, i s a P rofessor o f A nthropology
a t t he University o f San Diego a nd Curator o f t he Latin American c ollect ions a t t he San D iego Museum o f Man.
H er a reas o f e xpertise a re n orth
c oast Peruvian a rchaeology a nd i conography.
D r. Cordy-Collins h as
c ently p ublished a m onograph e ntitled The C erro S echin Massacre : Happen?
r e-
D id I t
t hrough t he Museum o f Man.
D ONNA M cCLELLAND i s a Research A ssociate a t t he Museum o f C ulture H istory a t U CLA a nd a member o f t he I nstitute o f A ndean S tudies. S he i s i nvolved i n a p roject o f r ecording Moche c eramic i magery t hrough f inel ine d rawings. r esearch
f or
Donna McClelland f ourteen
D onnan 's A rchive ARTHUR
G .
Maryland
M ILLER
i s
Professor
a nd C onsulting a rt i n
t hrough
b een p ursuing M oche t he
u se
o f
Dr.
i conographic
Christopher
B .
University
o f
o f M oche C eramics.
o f Pennsylvania. H ispanic
y ears
h as
H e i ts
m ajor monographs,
o f
S cholar a t
h as
Art
History
a t
t he
t he University Museum,
p ublished
a rchaeological
w idely o n c ontexts.
v arious B est
T he Mural P ainting o f Teotihuacan
University
a spects
k nown f or ( 1973)
o f
p re -
h is
t wo
a nd On t he
E dge o f t he S ea:
Mural P ainting a t Tancah-Tulum ( 1982), D r. M iller h as
r ecently f ocused
h is
t ive m ethodologies
s cholarly a ttention o n t he
f or
t he
s tudy
o f
2 11
d evelopment
p re-Hispanic
a rt.
D r.
o f
e ffec-
Miller
i s
c urrently d irecting a p roject r ecording a nd a nalyzing t he p re-Hispanic mural t radition o f O axaca, M exico.
2 12