Surface and interface science. Volume 7: Liquid and Biological Interfaces 9783527411566, 3527411569, 9783527680535, 9783527680542, 9783527411573, 9783527680559, 9783527680566, 9783527411580, 9783527680573, 9783527680580, 9783527411597, 9783527680597, 9783527680603, 9783527413812, 9783527822492, 9783527822508

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Edited by Klaus Wandelt Surface and Interface Science

Surface and Interface Science Edited by Klaus Wandelt Volume 1: Concepts and Methods Volume 2: Properties of Elemental Surfaces Print ISBN 978-3-527-41156-6 oBook ISBN 978-3-527-68053-5 (Volume 1) oBook ISBN 978-3-527-68054-2 (Volume 2) Volume 3: Properties of Composite Surfaces: Alloys, Compounds, Semiconductors Volume 4: Solid-Solid Interfaces and Thin Films Print ISBN 978-3-527-41157-3 oBook ISBN 978-3-527-68055-9 (Volume 3) oBook ISBN 978-3-527-68056-6 (Volume 4) Volume 5: Solid-Gas Interfaces I Volume 6: Solid-Gas Interfaces II Print ISBN 978-3-527-41158-0 oBook ISBN 978-3-527-68057-3 (Volume 5) oBook ISBN 978-3-527-68058-0 (Volume 6) Volume 7: Liquid and Biological Interfaces Volume 8: Interfacial Electrochemistry Print ISBN 978-3-527-41159-7 oBook ISBN 978-3-527-68059-7 (Volume 7) oBook ISBN 978-3-527-68060-3 (Volume 8) Volume 9: Applications of Surface Science I Volume 10: Applications of Surface Science II Print ISBN 978-3-527-41381-2 oBook ISBN 978-3-527-82249-2 (Volume 9) oBook ISBN 978-3-527-82250-8 (Volume 10)

Edited by Klaus Wandelt

Surface and Interface Science Volume 7: Liquid and Biological Interfaces

The Editor Prof. Dr. Klaus Wandelt University of Bonn Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry Germany and University of Wroclaw Institute of Experimental Physics Poland Cover Pictures: Left: Kindly provided by Dr. Paul Mulheran, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK. Middle: Schulz Grafik-Design, Fußgönheim, Germany. Right: Kindly provided by Prof. Klaus Wandelt, University of Bonn, Germany. Cover Design: Klaus Wandelt and Grafik-Design Schulz

All books published by Wiley-VCH are carefully produced. Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher do not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors. Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate. Library of Congress Card No.: applied for British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at . © 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Boschstr. 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers. Registered names, trademarks, etc. used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law. Print ISBN: 978-3-527-41159-7 Typesetting SPi Global, Chennai, India Printing and Binding

Printed on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

V

Contents Volume 7 About the Editor XIII Preface XV List of Abbreviations XIX

49 49.1 49.2 49.2.1 49.2.2 49.2.3 49.3 49.3.1 49.3.2 49.4 49.4.1 49.4.2 49.4.3 49.4.4 49.4.5 49.4.6 49.5 49.5.1 49.5.2 49.5.3 49.5.4 49.6 49.6.1 49.6.2

Probing Liquid/Solid Interfaces at the Molecular Level 1 Francisco Zaera Introduction 1 Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy 3 Attenuated Total Reflectance Spectroscopy (ATR) 4 Reflection–Absorption Infrared Spectroscopy (RAIRS) 10 Transmission 14 Other Vibrational Spectroscopies 15 Raman Scattering Spectroscopy 17 Sum Frequency Generation 23 Other UV–Vis and Acoustic Techniques 29 UV–Vis Absorption Spectroscopy 29 Fluorescence Emission Spectroscopy 31 Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) 35 Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) 40 Ellipsometry 45 Quartz Crystal Microbalance (QCM) 48 X-ray- and Neutron-based Techniques 52 X-ray Absorption (XAS) and Emission (XES) Spectroscopies 53 X-ray Reflectivity and Scattering 58 X-ray Diffraction 62 Neutron Scattering and Diffraction 67 Other Spectroscopies 70 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 70 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 74

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Contents

49.6.3 49.7 49.7.1 49.7.2 49.7.3 49.7.4 49.8 49.8.1 49.8.2 49.8.3 49.9 49.10 49.11

Electron Spin Resonance (ESR and EPR) 80 Optical Microscopies 83 Fluorescence Microscopy 84 Raman Microscopy 90 Other Nonlinear Optical Microscopies 93 Infrared and X-ray Microscopies 94 Scanning Microscopies 96 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) 98 Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy (SECM) Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 106 Optical Scanning Microscopy 110 Electron Microscopies (SEM and TEM) 112 Concluding Remarks 114 Acknowledgment 117 References 118

50

Structure and Dynamics of Solid/Liquid Interfaces 143 Marie-Pierre Gaigeot and Marialore Sulpizi Introduction 143 Brief Review on Methods 145 Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics and Density Functional Theory (DFT) 145 Calculation of Acidity Constants at Solid–Liquid Interfaces from Reversible Proton Insertion/Deletion 149 Theory for VSFG Vibrational Spectroscopy at Solid–Liquid Interfaces 151 VSFG Signal from Velocity–Velocity Correlation Functions 154 Organization of Water at the (0001) α-quartz/Water Neat Interface 156 How Surface Acidities Dictate the Interfacial Water Structural Arrangement 161 Nonlinear VSFG Vibrational Spectroscopy at the Quartz–Water Interface 165 Electrolytes at the Quartz/Water Interface 170 Acidity at Quartz/Water/Electrolyte Interfaces 176 Fluorite/Water Interface, Structures, and VSFG Intertwined 182 Some Perspectives for Future Works 188 Acknowledgements 190 References 190

50.1 50.2 50.2.1 50.2.2 50.2.3 50.2.4 50.3 50.4 50.5 50.6 50.7 50.8 50.9

51 51.1 51.2

102

Adsorption of Proteins and Anti-biofilm Strategies 197 Vincent Humblot and Claire-Marie Pradier Introduction to Biofilms 197 Protein Adsorption, Key Parameters, and Protein Film Description 199

Contents

51.2.1 51.2.2 51.2.3 51.2.4 51.2.5 51.2.6 51.2.7 51.3 51.3.1 51.3.2 51.3.2.1 51.3.2.2 51.3.3 51.4

52 52.1 52.2 52.2.1 52.2.2 52.2.3 52.2.3.1 52.2.3.2 52.2.3.3 52.2.3.4 52.2.3.5 52.2.3.6 52.2.3.7 52.2.3.8 52.2.3.9 52.2.3.10 52.2.3.11 52.2.4 52.2.5 52.2.6 52.3 52.3.1 52.3.1.1 52.3.1.2 52.3.2 52.3.2.1 52.3.2.2

Some General Considerations 199 Possible Protein Surface Types of Interactions 200 Effects of Surface Hydrophobicity/Hydrophilicity 201 Influence of Surface Topography 204 Effect of Surface Charge on Protein Binding 206 Effect of Concentration and pH of the Protein Solution 209 Protein Unfolding/Denaturation on Surfaces 210 Biofilm Prevention, Some Well-Settled or Innovative Strategies 212 Some General Considerations 212 Antimicrobial Action 213 Antimicrobial Peptides from Animals or Microorganisms 213 Enzymes 218 Surface Structuration 220 Conclusion 223 References 225 Liquid Surfaces 229 Gunther Andersson and Harald Morgner Introduction 229 Methods 230 Metastable-Induced Electron Spectroscopy 230 Angle Resolved X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 233 Neutral Impact Collision Ion Scattering Spectroscopy 236 General 236 Elastic Energy Loss 239 Cross Section 240 Neutralization 243 Inelastic Energy Loss 244 Stopping Power and Energy Loss Straggling 245 Thermal Broadening 253 Concentration Depth Profiles 253 Simulations of NICIS Spectra 260 Experimental Equipment 261 Sputtering and Damaging of the Surface 263 Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy (EELS) 264 Preparing a Liquid Surface Compatible with High Vacuum 265 Methods Not Covered in This Contribution 267 Concentration Depth Profiles 268 Composition of Top Surface Layer 269 From MIES, a Technique with Perfect Surface Sensitivity 269 Extrapolation from NICISS and ARXPS 279 Depth Dependence of Composition at Liquid Surfaces 280 Surfactant Solutions 280 Thin Foam Films 289

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Contents

52.3.2.3 52.3.2.4 52.4 52.4.1 52.4.2 52.4.2.1 52.4.2.2 52.4.2.3 52.4.3 52.4.3.1 52.4.3.2 52.5 52.6

53 53.1 53.2 53.3 53.4 53.4.1 53.4.2

53.4.3 53.5 53.5.1 53.5.2 53.5.3 53.5.4 53.6

54

54.1

Solutions with Inorganic Salts 303 Ionic Liquids 305 Surface Spectroscopy vs. Thermodynamic Concepts 312 Gibbs Equation 312 Evaluation of the Chemical Potential 316 Solutions with Ionic Surfactants 316 Solutions with Nonionic Surfactants 319 POPC/TBABr/HPN: Solution with a Mixture of Nonionic and Ionic Surfactants 322 Bimodal Distribution of Free Energy 324 Solution of Nonionic Surfactant Near CMC: A Challenge to Common Understanding of Micelle Formation 324 Binary Liquid Mixture with Large Difference in Surface Tension 326 3D Surface Topography of Liquid Surfaces 334 Outlook 342 References 343 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids 351 Kaoru Nakajima, Martin Lísal and Kenji Kimura Introduction 351 Principle of Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy 354 Experimental Details 356 Surface Structures of Pure Ionic Liquids 358 1-Ethyl-3-Methylimidazolium Bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide 358 1-Alkyl-3-Methylimidazolium Bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([Cn C1 Im][Tf2 N]): Effect of Alkyl Chain Length on the Surface Structure 364 Effect of Anion Size 371 Surface Structures of Binary Mixtures of Ionic Liquids 373 Equimolar Mixture of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] and [C2 C1 Im][BF4 ]: Comparison Between HR-RBS and MD Simulation 374 Surface Structure of [C4 C1 Im]0.5 [C12 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N]: An Example of Mixtures with Common Anions 379 Systematic Study on the Surface Structures of Binary Mixtures of Ionic Liquids 382 Comparison with Other Techniques 385 Conclusion 386 References 387 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics 391 Muhammad A. Raza and E. Stefan Kooij Introduction 391

Contents

54.1.1 54.1.2 54.1.3 54.1.4 54.1.4.1 54.1.4.2 54.1.5 54.1.5.1 54.1.5.2 54.1.5.3 54.1.6 54.2 54.2.1 54.2.1.1 54.2.1.2 54.2.1.3 54.2.2 54.2.3 54.2.4 54.2.5 54.2.5.1 54.2.5.2 54.3 54.3.1 54.3.2 54.3.3 54.3.4 54.3.5 54.4 54.4.1 54.4.2 54.4.3 54.5 54.5.1 54.5.1.1 54.5.1.2 54.5.1.3 54.5.2 54.5.3 54.5.4 54.5.5 54.5.5.1 54.5.5.2

Surface Wettability 391 Natural (Super)Hydrophobicity 391 Biomimetic Surfaces 395 Fabrication Methods 395 Top-down 395 Bottom-up 396 Application in Technology 397 Self-cleaning Surfaces 397 Anti-icing/Antifogging Coatings 398 Microdroplet Manipulation 398 Outline of This Chapter 398 Wetting of Isotropic Surfaces 399 Surface Tension 399 Drops of Water 401 Walking on Water 401 Floating Solid Objects 402 Wetting Regimes 402 Static Contact Angle 403 Dynamic Contact Angles 405 Characterization Techniques 406 Static Contact Angle Techniques 407 Dynamic Contact Angles 408 Chemical Patterning and Morphological Structuring 409 Cassie–Baxter Model 409 Wenzel Model 411 Superhydrophobicity 411 Metastable Wetting States 413 Hierarchical Roughness 415 Dynamic Wetting Behavior 418 Slip Length 419 Contact Angle Hysteresis 420 Impinging Droplets 421 Novel Applications and New Horizons 424 Novel Applications of Superhydrophobic Surfaces 425 Anticorrosion Coatings 425 Drag Reduction 425 Oil–Water Separation 425 Omniphobic Surfaces 426 Slippery Liquid-Infused Porous Surfaces (SLIPS) 429 Recrystallization of Natural Epicuticular Waxes 431 Directional Wetting 432 Anisotropic Wettability 434 Wettability Gradients 436 References 438

IX

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Contents

55

55.1 55.2 55.3 55.4 55.5 55.5.1 55.5.2 55.5.2.1 55.5.2.2 55.5.2.3 55.5.2.4 55.6 55.6.1 55.6.2 55.6.3 55.6.4 55.7 55.8 55.8.1 55.8.2 55.8.2.1 55.8.2.2 55.8.3 55.9

Cell-Penetrating Peptides Targeting and Distorting Biological Membranes 441 Corina Ciobanasu and Ulrich Kubitscheck Introduction 441 Definition 442 Discovery of CPPs 442 Classification of CPPs 443 Modes of Action 444 Endocytosis 445 Membrane Translocation 446 Types of Mechanisms 446 Cationic Peptides 447 Amphipathic Peptides 447 Role of Membrane Composition and Lipid Topology 448 Application Aspects 449 Clinical Application of CPPs 449 Targeting CPPs 450 Cell-Penetrating Homing Peptides 451 Toxicity 452 Focus on TAT 453 Internalization of TAT Peptides 453 Experimental Results on Cellular Systems 453 TAT Peptide and Its Interaction with Model Membranes 455 Membrane Binding 455 Membrane Translocation 457 TAT Peptides for the Delivery of Therapeutic Agents 461 Summary and Conclusions 463 References 463

XI

About the Editor

Klaus Wandelt is currently Professor Emeritus at the University of Bonn, Germany, where he was also Director of the Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry until 2010. He received his PhD on electron spectroscopy of alloy surfaces in 1975 in München; spent a postdoctoral period at the IBM Research Laboratory in San Jose, California, in 1976/1977; and qualified as a professor in 1981 in München. Since then his research focuses on fundamental aspects of the physics and chemistry of metal surfaces under ultrahigh vacuum conditions and in electrolytes, on the atomic structure of amorphous materials, and more recently on processes at surfaces of plants. Professor Wandelt was visiting scientist at the University of Caracas, Venezuela; the University of Hefei, China; the University of Newcastle, Australia; and the University of California, Berkeley, and he was guest professor at the University of Messina, the University of Padua, and the University of Rome Tor Vergata, Italy; the University of Linz and the Technical University of Vienna, Austria; and the University of Wroclaw, Poland. He chaired the surface physics divisions of the German and European Physical Society as well as of the International Union of Vacuum Science Techniques and Applications, has organized numerous workshops and conferences, and was editor of journals, conference proceedings, and books.

XIII

Preface Surfaces and Interfaces: A “Divine Gift”

For decades books, book chapters, theses of generations of PhD students, and, more recently, also presentations on the Internet about subjects of surface and interface science, i.e. the research of physical and chemical properties and processes at solid surfaces, often start with the quotation God made the bulk, surfaces were invented by the devil attributed to Wolfgang Pauli, Nobel Prize Laureate in Physics 1945 [1]. Of course, quotes like this are to be understood from the respective era; a systematic experimental “surface science” did not exist at that time. A description of the field ion microscope (FIM), which for the first time enabled the visualization of individual surface atoms, was published only a few years later by Erwin W. Müller [2]. Now, nearly seventy years later, our profound scientific understanding of the fascinating peculiarities of solid surfaces presented in Volumes 1–8 of this series of books and their fundamental importance for so many vital technological areas emphasized below, and in part addressed in Volumes 9 and 10, make the “invention of surfaces” truly a gift from God. Surfaces and interfaces enrich our world in a double sense. On the one hand, they structure our world and make it so diverse and beautiful. On the other hand, surfaces and interfaces are locations of gradients, which drive spontaneous and mancontrolled processes. These processes change our world and, therefore, our all living conditions in a fundamental way. On the one hand, heterogeneous catalysis of chemical reactions at solid surfaces has enabled the large-scale production of (i) fertilizers and pesticides for agriculture, (ii) a vast variety of plastic commodities, and (iii) pharmaceuticals for medicine and the “health industry.” These products (i) have contributed to a better food supply of the world population and thereby its rapid growth, (ii) appear no longer indispensible in our daily life, and (iii) help to fight diseases and save lives, if produced and applied responsibly and sustainably. On the other hand, besides the growing world population itself, the profit-driven excess production of these products and the accompanying ruthless exploitation of our natural resources are

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Preface

an increasing thread for humanity’s survival. The excess production and thoughtless use and uncontrolled disposal of these products disturbs natural equilibria and leads to an increasing contamination of soil and groundwater, pollution of the atmosphere and oceans, and a weakening or failure of the natural immune systems. Insufficient or neglected air pollution control is most likely a reason for the obvious “global warming.” The concomitant rise of the sea level will cause dramatic erosion processes at ocean shores and dikes, the largest-scale solid/liquid interfaces. The consequent shrinkage of man’s living space will, at best, cause a process of mass migration of people. The physics of interfaces and low-dimensional systems has opened the door to modern electronic devices that are revolutionizing the collection, processing, and availability of information, which not only changes our own communication behavior but has also created the vision of the “Internet of things (IoT)” in which people and mobile and immobile physical objects including buildings communicate within a single and common network with each other, which in the opinion of some people will change the world for the better, while others fear that man may lose control. Biological processes function via processes at and through interfaces of membranes, which in turn can be influenced by traces of drugs. It is, thus, not only a great scientific challenge to investigate the properties and processes at surfaces and interfaces, but also of vital importance for mankind’s future, provided we make wise use of this knowledge. Although theoretical predictions about properties of surfaces as well as intuitive models of surface processes existed much earlier, modern experimental surface science started by now about 50 years ago with the commercial availability of ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) technology. Under UHV conditions, it became possible to prepare clean surfaces and to develop and apply a growing number of “surface-sensitive” methods based on particle beams. Unlike photon beams, for instance, used in X-ray crystallography, electron, ion, and atom beams interact only with the outermost layers of a solid and therefore provide information pertaining only to the surface. While in the beginning, practical surface investigations were concentrated on the changes of surface properties due to exposure to gases or vapors, it soon turned out that the properties of the bare surfaces themselves pose a lot of scientific surprises. Now 50 years later, the so-called reductionist “surface science approach,” that is, the use of well-defined, clean single-crystal surfaces under UHV conditions, enables a microscopic and spectroscopic characterization of these bare surfaces atom by atom. The overwhelming achievements of this research may ultimately be summarized by the general statement: Surfaces are a different state of matter! Moreover, nowadays, it is possible not only to study the interaction of individual atoms and molecules with a surface but also to manipulate them on the surface according to our will. The present series of books aims not only at giving a broad overview of the present state of understanding of the basic physics and chemistry at surface and interfaces but also at highlighting a number of technological applications that rely on the established knowledge about surfaces, like thin film and nanotechnology, highly integrated electronics, heterogeneous catalysis in gaseous and liquid phases,

Preface

electrochemical energy conversion and storage, and bio-functionalization of inorganic materials, to name a few. The intention of this series of books is, thus, not only to give an introduction for those who enter the field of surface research but also to provide an overview for those whose work needs conceptual and analytical input from surface science. According to the original concept, this book series should comprise six volumes. The first volume was planned to describe “bare surfaces and methods,” that is, all the physical properties of clean surfaces of elemental and composite solids as well as the most relevant surface analytical methods. However, it turned out immediately that an adequate treatment of just these topics exceeded by far the reasonable size of a single volume and instead filled three volumes, extending the number of intended volumes to eight. But also the material for Volumes 7 and 8 went beyond the limits of one book each, so, after all, the series comprises 10 volumes now: Volume 1: Concepts and Methods Volume 2: Properties of Elemental Surfaces Volume 3: Properties of Composite Surfaces: Alloys, Compounds, Semiconductors Volume 4: Solid/Solid Interfaces and Thin Films Volume 5: Solid/Gas Interfaces I Volume 6: Solid/Gas Interfaces II Volume 7: Liquid and Biological Interfaces Volume 8: Interfacial Electrochemistry Volume 9: Applications of Surface Science I Volume 10: Applications of Surface Science II. The first eight volumes emphasize the basic insights into the physics and chemistry at surfaces and interfaces and the most important experimental and theoretical methods, which led to these results. The methods are grouped according to the applied probe, namely, electrons, ions, photons, and proximity probes, and are described to an extent to give the reader enough confidence in “what surface scientists are able to do nowadays”; more detailed descriptions of these methods can be found in the existing specialized literature. The last two volumes present a selection of some daily phenomena and technological applications, which depend on and arise from surface-specific properties and processes. The vast material is laid out in 80 chapters and is structured according to increasing complexity of the subject in question. Each chapter is written by experts in the respective field and is supposed to start with an introduction of the basic phenomenon, to develop the problem from simple to more specific examples, and to end, if possible, with the identification of open questions and challenges for future research. This intended strategy “from simple to complex” is graphically expressed by the veil rising from left to right on all book covers. One person alone could hardly ever have written such an extensive and divers oeuvre. I am extraordinarily thankful to all authors who have contributed to this series of books. I am also very grateful to the publisher, namely, Ulrike Werner, Nina Stadthaus, Dr. Frank Weinreich, and Dr. Martin Preuss at Wiley, for their continuous

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support and their understanding and flexibility to adapt the original concept of the whole project to “new circumstances” and to agree with the expansion from 6 to 10 volumes. Altogether it took 12 years to realize this project, and obviously a great deal of patience and persistence was necessary to complete it, patience of the authors and the publisher with the editor, but also persistence of the editor and his patience with some authors. The result of this joint effort of all three parties is now in the hands of the critical readers. After all, surfaces and interfaces are a “divine gift” and as such by no means fully fathomed. Bonn, Wroclaw January 11, 2019

References 1. Quoted in: Jamtveit, B. and Meakin, P.

(eds.) (1999). Growth, Dissolution and Pattern Formation in Geosystems, 291. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 2. Müller, E.W. (1951). Z. Phys. 131: 136.

Klaus Wandelt

XIX

List of Abbreviations 1D-PSD AA AFM AMP APTMS AR-XPS ATR Bac7 BSA CARS CCD CCS CDI CFS cfu CHO CK2 CLSM CPMAS CPP DMPO DMSO DOPC DOPE DOPS DPPC DPPS DRS EDX EELS EGFP EPR EPR

one-dimensional position-sensitive detector amino acid atomic force microscopy antimicrobial peptides (3-aminopropyl)trimethoxysilane angle-resolved X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy attenuated total reflectance bactenecin-7 bovine serum albumin coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering charge-coupled device cell-containing saliva coherent diffraction imaging cell-free saliva colonies forming unit chinese hamster ovary casein kinase 2 confocal laser scanning microscopy cross-polarization magic angle spinning cell-penetrating peptides 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide dimethyl sulfoxide 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine direct recoil spectroscopy energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy electron energy loss spectroscopy enhanced green fluorescent protein electron paramagnetic spectroscopy enhanced permeability and retention

XX

List of Abbreviations

EPS ER ESR EXAFS FDA FLIM FMOC FRET FT FTIR GA GdH GFP GISANS GISAXS GIXD GSH GUV HEWL HIV HR-ERDA HR-RBS HSA IFN-β IL-24 IPE IR IRRAS ITC Ld LEIS L-NPU-Si Lo LUV MAP MAS MBC MCAO MD MIC MIES MMP2 MOF MRI NAG

extra polymeric substances endoplasmic reticulum electron spin resonance extended X-ray absorption fine structure food and drug administration fluorescence lifetime imaging fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl Förster (or fluorescence) resonance energy transfer Fourier transformation Fourier-transform infrared glutaraldehyde glutamate dehydrogenase enzyme green fluorescent protein grazing-incidence small-angle neutron scattering grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering grazing-incidence X-ray diffraction glutathione-SH giant unilamellar vesicles lysozyme from hen egg white human immunodeficiency virus high-resolution elastic recoil detection analysis high-resolution Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy human serum albumin interferon beta interleukin-24 internal photoemission infrared infrared reflection–absorption spectroscopy isothermal calorimetry liquid-disordered low-energy ion scattering N-L-phenylalaninoyl, 11-undecyl-silicon liquid-ordered large unilamellar vesicles model amphipathic peptide magic angle spinning minimal bactericidal concentration middle cerebral artery occlusion molecular dynamics minimal inhibitory concentration metastable impact electron spectroscopy metalloprotease 2 metal–organic frameworks magnetic resonance imaging N-acetylglucosamine

List of Abbreviations

NAM Nc–Lu–OEP NEA NEXAFS NHS NICISS NIR NLP NMR NOE NR OER PBS PC PCA PDMS PE PEG PEI PEM PG PKC PM-IRRAS PMO POPC PPII PS PTD QCM RAIRS RBS RIXS R-TAT SAM SANS SAXS SE-CARS SECM SEM SERS SFG SHG siRNA

N-acetylmuramic acid naphtalocyanine–lutetium–octaethylporphyrin 1-(1-naphthyl)ethylamine near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure N-hydroxysuccinimide neutral impact collision ion scattering spectroscopy near-infrared N-lauroyl phenylalanine nuclear magnetic resonance nuclear Overhauser effect neutron reflectivity oxygen evolution reaction phosphate buffer salt phosphatidylcholine protein-fragment complementation assay polydimethylsiloxane phosphatidylethanolamine polyethylene glycol polyethyleneimine photoelastic modulator phosphatidylglycerol protein kinase C polarization-modulation infrared reflection–absorption spectroscopy phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers 1-oleoyl, 2-palmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine polyproline II phosphatidylserine protein transduction domains quartz crystal microbalance reflection–absorption infrared spectroscopy Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy resonant inelastic X-ray scattering rhodamine-TAT self-assembled monolayers small-angle neutron scattering small-angle X-ray scattering surface-enhanced coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering scanning electrochemical microscopy scanning electron microscopy surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy sum frequency generation second harmonic generation small interfering RNA

XXI

XXII

List of Abbreviations

SNIFTIRS SNOM SPR SS SSBD STM SUV SXRD TAT TCP TEM TERS THF TIFR TNF-α TNT ToF-SIMS TP10 TXM UHV XAFS XANES XAS XES XPS XR XRD XRR

subtractively normalized interfacial Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy scanning near-field optical microscopy surface plasmon resonance stainless steel silicon surface barrier detector scanning tunneling microscopy small unilamellar vesicles surface X-ray diffraction trans-activator of transcription trichloro-2-pyridinol transmission electron microscopy tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy tetrahydrofuran total internal reflection tumor necrosis factor-α trinitrotoluene time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry transportan 10 transmission X-ray microscopy ultra-high-vacuum X-ray absorption fine structure X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy X-ray absorption spectroscopy X-ray emission spectroscopy X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy X-ray reflectivity X-ray diffraction X-ray reflectivity

1

49 Probing Liquid/Solid Interfaces at the Molecular Level Francisco Zaera

49.1 Introduction

The ability to obtain a molecular-level understanding of the chemistry that takes place at liquid/solid interfaces is the key to the development and improvement of many chemical and biological systems and is arguably the next big challenge for the surface science community [1]. Liquid/solid interfaces are certainly ubiquitous in nature. The biology of life, for instance, relies heavily on the uptake of molecules from aqueous phases onto surfaces, either onto “soft” bilayers or other membranes or onto “hard” surfaces such as bones, cartilages, or teeth. The phenomena related to self-assembly, including the formation of micelles and the use of surfactants, are also based on chemistry at liquid/solid interfaces. Environmental issues involving liquid/solid interfaces go from the chemistry of aerosols to the purification of ground water. The evolution of minerals is greatly affected by their interactions with liquid solutions. The corrosion of many metals is a common problem, and other electrochemical processes are relevant to the development of batteries, fuel cells, catalysts, and many other industrial applications. Lubrication and other tribological problems rely on the use of liquids to improve the performance of solid moving parts. Multiple synthetic processes in industry involve liquid phases and require the use of solid catalysts. A variety of sensors, including a large number of bioassays used nowadays for the analysis of biological samples in medicine, center on chemistry at liquid/solid interfaces. It is not easy to investigate the chemistry of liquid/solid interfaces at a molecular level. Already, the study of the chemistry of any interface is hampered by the need to discriminate between the few atoms at that interface and the much larger number of atoms that exist in the two bulk phases involved. A number of modern surfacesensitive techniques were developed in the late twentieth century to overcome this obstacle, and with those great advances were made on the understanding of the chemistry that occurs on solid surfaces [2–4]. However, many of those techniques Adapted with permission from Chem. Rev. 2912, 112, 5, 2920–2986, https://doi.org/10.1021/ cr2002068; Copyright (2012) American Chemical Society. Surface and Interface Science: Liquid and Biological Interfaces, First Edition. Edited by Klaus Wandelt. © 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2020 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

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49 Probing Liquid/Solid Interfaces at the Molecular Level

rely on the use of particles such as electrons, ions, or atoms, which work best under a vacuum environment. A second generation of setups has been developed more recently to extend the use of surface probes to cases where the solid is immersed in a gaseous environment [5, 6], and many areas of research have benefited from these advances, heterogeneous catalysis in particular, but systems with interfaces buried between two condensed phases, between a liquid and a solid in particular, can still not be easily probed with the standard surface science approach developed for operation in vacuum or a gas phase. New approaches are needed to study liquid/solid interfaces at a molecular level. Some electron-based surface science techniques are being adapted to probe liquid/solid interfaces by minimizing the paths that the probing particles need to travel through the liquid phase. More promising perhaps is the boon seen in the use of techniques based on light or other electromagnetic radiation for surface analysis, as those are less affected by condensed matter. Optical analytical techniques are typically not surface sensitive, hence their sparse use in surface science problems in the past, but can be made so by using specific setups or by taking advantage of the uniqueness of the surface chemistry to be investigated. Clearly, the study of liquid/solid interfaces is difficult, but a variety of tools are being developed to rise to the challenge. In this review, which is an updated version of previous articles [1, 7] and complements other recent reviews on this subject [8, 9], we take a broad interpretation of what constitutes a solid surface and include examples on the study of liquid/solid interfaces involving not only conventional solids but also nanoparticles and membranes such as lipid bilayers and other self-assembled layers used to emulate biological systems. The liquid phases in our discussions include regular solutions, neat liquids, melts, ionic liquids, and liquid crystals. We start with a review of the use of infrared (IR) absorption spectroscopy to the interrogation of liquid/solid interfaces, perhaps the technique most used for this purpose, and continue with an overview of other vibrational spectroscopies, in particular, Raman scattering spectroscopy and sum frequency generation (SFG). Next, we introduce the use of UV–vis spectroscopies, which are employed mainly to obtain electronic information of adsorbates at the interface but can also be employed to quantify coverages. Acoustic-based techniques such as quartz crystal microbalances (QCMs), which are also used for the latter application, are also mentioned. The Section 49.5 focuses on the use of X-rays and neutrons, both in spectroscopic studies, to extract electronic information about the liquid/solid interface and, in scattering and diffraction modes, to acquire structural details of the interface. The potential use of techniques such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopies for the characterization of liquid/solid interfaces is briefly surveyed. The last chapters are dedicated to the discussion of the approaches available for the acquisition of spatially resolved information on liquid/solid interfaces, including optical and scanning microscopies. We finish our review with some concluding remarks where we provide a brief guideline on the criteria to select the most appropriate techniques for the study of a specific system and give our own

49.2 Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy

assessment of the status and future of the field of surface science as it pertains to liquid/solid interfaces. 49.2 Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy

Perhaps the technique most commonly used to date for the molecular-level characterization of liquid/solid interfaces is IR absorption spectroscopy (see also Chapter 3.4.1 in Volume 1). In IR absorption spectroscopy, the sample being studied is exposed to a broadband IR beam, typically covering the so-called midrange that encompasses wave numbers between approximately 400 and 4000 cm−1 , and the absorption of that light is analyzed to identify the molecular vibrations that the light excites [10]. Modern IR spectrometers are based on the use of a Michelson interferometer, where the full IR beam is split, each half is made to travel a separate path, and the two are recombined again before steering the full reconstituted beam into the sample. By varying the difference in path length traveled by the two half-beams with time, by scanning the mirror used in the path of one of them, an oscillating interference pattern is developed for each wavelength; a Fourier transformation (FT) of the intensity of the beam vs. time provides a plot of light intensity vs. wavelength. The introduction of this FT-IR approach greatly advanced the use of IR absorption spectroscopy because the new technique enhances performance in two ways: (i) the information on the intensity of all wavelengths of light is collected at once; and (ii) the throughput of light is not limited by entrance and exit slits, as is the case with the old monochromator-based spectrometers. Infrared absorption spectroscopy is quite versatile, and with the advent of FT instruments, it has become quite easy and cheap to implement; nowadays, FT-IR instruments are found in almost all analytical chemistry laboratories worldwide. IR absorption spectroscopy is also ideal for the study of chemical problems, including those involving surfaces [11], because it provides information on the vibrational details of molecular structures, which are quite sensitive to local chemical environments [12]. On the negative side, IR absorption spectroscopy is a nonzero background technique; that is, full signal is detected when there is no light absorption at all, a fact that sets a limit on its dynamic range and with that its sensitivity. This is particularly critical in the study of interfacial systems, where the size of the sample is often severely limited (there are only ∼1013 –1015 molecules/cm2 in a typical saturated monolayer of adsorbates). Thankfully, the recent development of highly sensitive, low-noise detectors has minimized this problem. In addition, IR absorption spectroscopy, like most optical analytical techniques, is not intrinsically surface sensitive, although it can be made so in certain circumstances, as discussed in more detail below. Infrared radiation is absorbed by almost all solids and liquids, which means that it is not always easy to reach the interface of interest, especially when dealing with liquid/solid boundaries. Fortunately, great flexibility is provided to address that problem because of the availability of several arrangements for the performance of IR absorption spectroscopy, which

3

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49 Probing Liquid/Solid Interfaces at the Molecular Level

Liquid Adsorbates Solid film

(a) Attenuated total reflectance (ATR)

Prism

Prism (b) Reflection absorption (RAIRS, IRRAS)

Liquid Adsorbates Solid film

(c) Transmission

Prism

Liquid

Adsorbates

Solid nanoparticles

Mirror Figure 49.1 Schematic representation of the different modes available for infrared (IR) absorption spectroscopy studies of liquid/solid interfaces. (a) In attenuated total reflectance (ATR) mode, the IR beam travels through a prism while the evanescence wave that extends toward the outside is used to probe the chemical system of interest, typically molecules adsorbed on the prism itself or on a thin film grown on top. (b) In absorption–reflection (RAIRS) mode, the beam is bounced directly off the solid

substrate where adsorption takes place, and on metals, the surface selection rule that establishes that only p-polarized light can be absorbed at the surface is used to discriminate between molecules on the surface vs. in solution. (c) Transmission IR absorption spectroscopy can also be performed with the RAIRS setup if the metal is used as a mirror and the solid, typically a powder or another type of nanoparticle, is suspended in solution.

include attenuated total reflectance (ATR), reflection–absorption infrared spectroscopy (RAIRS), and transmission (Figure 49.1). In the next few subsections, an overview of the use of these arrangements for the study of liquid/solid interfaces is reviewed. 49.2.1 Attenuated Total Reflectance Spectroscopy (ATR)

Perhaps the most established IR absorption spectroscopy setup for the study of liquid/solid interfaces is ATR (Figure 49.1a) [13–15]. ATR takes advantage of the total internal reflection (TIFR) of light that occurs when the beam impinges on an interface at a certain angle; the angle at which total reflection occurs is determined by the difference in refractive index between the two materials forming that interface. Such reflection results in the generation of an evanescent wave that penetrates

49.2 Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy

into the other side of the interface, to a depth of between 0.5 and 2 μm depending on the wavelength of the light, the angle of incidence, and the relevant indices of refraction. Thanks to this property, an IR beam can be made to travel through the inside of an optical element, a prism typically made out of silicon, germanium, or another high-refractive-index element, while using its outer surface to carry out the chemistry of interest. The absorption of light from the evanescence wave by the chemical system being probed can be then detected on the beam collected at the exit of the prism. Many research projects based on this approach have involved chemistry on the surface of the prism itself, but others have being directed at the study of other systems such as metal thin films, which may be deposited on the surface of the prism, or powders or nanoparticles, which may be placed in a suspension within the liquid right above the ATR optical element. ATR IR absorption spectroscopy has been extensively used for the study of problems related to general adsorption, mineral chemistry, environmental chemistry, biology, surfactants, sensors, electrochemistry, catalysis, and materials science. Recent applications in catalysis include the detection of oxalate intermediates during the photocatalytic decomposition of amino acids over Au/TiO2 catalysts [16], the determination of photoelectrochemical water oxidation intermediates on hematite (α-Fe2 O3 ) electrode surfaces [17], and the study of aqueous-phase hydroxyacetone reforming catalytic reactions at high temperatures (500 K) and pressures (30 bar) [18]. Time resolution was added to the ATR to obtain compelling evidence for the surface hydroperoxide reaction intermediate, by recording the O–O vibrational mode at 830 cm−1 , during water photooxidation at IrO2 nanoclusters in aqueous solutions [19], and two more surface intermediates, a three-electron surface superoxide, and an oxo-Co(IV) species, on Co3 O4 catalysts [20]. The simplest studies of liquid/solid interfaces with ATR-IR have been those on the characterization of adsorption processes. This application already has a relatively long history, particularly in terms of the quantitation of the uptake of adsorbates to estimate adsorption isotherms [21, 22]. As with most optical spectroscopies, IR absorption can be linearly related to concentration, and chemical specificity can be obtained by following a particular vibrational feature in the spectra associated with the compound of interest. One example illustrating this type of application is the ATR-IR study of the adsorption of ethyl acetate and 2-propanol on silica sol–gel films in contact with n-heptane solutions, which was focused on extracting information related to solute retention and elution in normal-phase chromatography [23]. The nonlinear isothermal behavior observed in those systems was explained by differences in the adsorption behavior on silanol groups free on the surface vs. covered with water. ATR-IR has also been recently implemented to monitor the concentrations of solutes in solutions flowing through the microfluidic channels of lab-in-a-chip systems [24]. Spectra could be acquired in those cases for the chemical characterization of the system at the same time as concentration measurements were carried out, affording independent measurements of concentrations of solutes with distinct spectral features in mixed solutions.

5

49 Probing Liquid/Solid Interfaces at the Molecular Level 5.0 × 10–3 4.5

D

Absorbance

Quasi-racemate in solution

L D L D

L-NLP

4.0

+ D-d23-NLP

3.5 3.0 D-d23-NLP

2.5 2.0

L

D

1.5

Evanescent L N-Lauroyl phenylalanine (NLP) wave

L-NLP

1.0

3.0 × 10–3 L L

L L

D L

L

D L

L

L L

L L

L-d23-NLP

L

L L

N-L-Phenylalaninoyl, 11-undecyl (L-NPU)

2.5

L

Covalently attached chiral film

IR beam

Absorbance

6

L-d23-NLP

+ D-NLP

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5

D-NLP

0.0 3200 3000 2800 2600 2400 2200 2000 1800

Internal reflection element Figure 49.2 Example of the use of infrared absorption spectroscopy in ATR mode to probe liquid/solid interfaces [25]. In this study, the enantioselective uptake of Nlauroyl-phenylalanine (NLP), a surfactant, on a silicon surface modified with a chiral N-L-phenylalaninoyl-11-undecyl (L-NPU) layer is tested. Panel (a) schematically shows the experimental setup, in which an ATR prism derivatized with an L-NPU monolayer is exposed to a quasi-racemate solution of NLP in carbon tetrachloride in which one NLP enantiomer (the D isomer in the right top panel, the L form in the right bottom

Wavenumber (cm–1)

panel) was fully deuterated to differentiate it from its normal hydrogen-labeled NLP counterpart (L in the top, D in the bottom). Preferential adsorption of the L-NLP enantiomer is evidenced by the larger signals for the C–H (C–D) stretching modes in L-NLP (D-NLP) seen around 3000 (2200) cm−1 in the IR spectra compared to those for the C–D (C–H) peaks around 2200 (3000) cm−1 because of D-d23 -NLP (L-d23 -NLP) in the data on the right top (right bottom) panel. (Source: Häbich et al. 2010 [25]. Copyright 2010. Reprinted with permission of American Chemical Society.)

More sophisticated adsorption uptake ATR-IR experiments can be designed by taking advantage of unique characteristics of the surface chemistry to be investigated. Figure 49.2 shows key results from an example where the enantioselectivity of adsorption was tested on chirally modified surfaces [25]. Specifically, the enantioselective adsorption of the chiral N-lauroyl phenylalanine (NLP) surfactant onto a chiral monolayer consisting of N-L-phenylalaninoyl, 11-undecyl-silicon (L-NPU-Si) was demonstrated by using deuterium labeling in one of the enantiomers of the pseudoracemic NLP mixture used in the solution. Another very different recent application where the uniqueness of the chemistry involved was used in the experimental design was for the characterization of the electronic properties of a photocatalyst [26]. In that case, the photogeneration of charge carries in a Pt/GaN photocatalyst developed for hydrogen evolution under light irradiation was investigated by following the vibrational frequency of adsorbed carbon monoxide,

49.2 Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy

used here as a probe: it was determined that after irradiation, the C–O stretching frequency first shifts to higher values, indicating that the Fermi level of the metal particles is positively shifted by the photogenerated holes, but then reverts toward lower frequencies as hydrogen is produced. This is a clever way of using local bonding information as a proxy for changes in local electronic properties. ATR-IR can also be used to determine adsorption geometries [15]. This has often been reported in connection with the characterization of adsorbed surfactants and self-assembled monolayers (SAMs), but the same approach can be easily extended to other systems. In fact, when thin metal films are added to the ATR surface, the electric field distribution of the evanescent wave at the substrate–sample interface is modified, so only the p-polarized light, which is oriented perpendicular to the surface, penetrates into the adsorbed phase [27]. This effectively gives rise to a surface selection rule similar to that more usually associated with reflection–absorption experiments (see Section 49.2.2) by which only IR vibrations with dynamic dipoles with a component perpendicular to the plane of the surface are detected [28–31]. An example on how this selection rule can be used to determine adsorption geometry is provided by the in situ ATR-IR report on the average orientation of the methylene tail of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide adsorbed from solution onto a silica surface as a function of coverage and pH, where it was found that the equilibrium orientation of the surfactant was with a larger angle away from the plane of the surface at higher pH values [32]. This was interpreted as due to an increase in packing density with increasing surface excess. No preferred orientation of the surfactant was observed during the initial stages of adsorption, but a rapid reorientation to a direction normal to the surface was observed after higher surface excesses, as time evolved. In another example, the adsorption of a related surfactant, dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide, was followed as a function of uptake to correlate structural transitions with changes in the properties of the interface determined from contact angle, zeta potential, and force measurements [33]. The data indicated that initially the molecules adsorb in random orientations, but that they then form hemi-micelles (two-dimensional aggregates) above a certain critical concentration, presumably because of hydrophobic association between the surfactant tails, and rearrange again into randomly oriented spherical aggregates at even higher coverages. In terms of mineral and environmental chemistry, Cwiertny et al. provided an example where the adsorption of oxalate on α-FeOOH was used to represent the way the surfaces of mineral aerosol dust dissolve by complexation with organics in solution [34]. Particularly interesting in that study was the identification of a possible dependence of the dissolution on particle size and/or surface orientation. In another report, Strongin’s group characterized the photodissolution of ferrihydrite in the presence of oxalic acid [35]. They found that the oxalate displaces the original carbonate endings on the surface and slowly produces a new type of carbonate. In a third example involving ionic species, Lefèvre et al. followed the IR absorption frequencies of sulfates, phosphates, and carbonates adsorbed on metal oxy-hydroxides to determine bonding modes and to distinguish between outer sphere and inner sphere complexes [36]. These examples illustrate the great chemical specificity of IR

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49 Probing Liquid/Solid Interfaces at the Molecular Level

absorption spectroscopy, which can be used to obtain information about the chemical nature of new adsorbed species. Another interesting application of ATR-IR is in the study of systems of biological interest. In one example related to the biocompatibility of proteins and amino acids with materials used in prostheses, an in situ ATR-IR study of the adsorption of glutamic acid on titania led to the identification of fairly complex chemistry, with several spectroscopically distinct structures and maximized adsorption at pHs where electrostatic interactions between the surface and adsorbate are unfavorable [37]. In another case, the selection rules described above were used to contrast the adsorption geometry of bovine serum albumin on hydrophilic naked silicon oxide/silicon surfaces vs. hydrophobic lipid-covered substrates [38]. On the original silicon surfaces, the protein was found to adsorb in a side-on geometry but with some flattening because of either unfolding or denaturation, whereas on the hydrophobic surface, the adsorption was shown to lead to a film about half as thick but with the same contact angle, indicating more protein unfolding. A third, more recent example of the use of ATR-IR in biological chemistry has shown how the choice of buffer solution can affect protein uptake on solid surfaces in terms of both adsorption kinetics and the evolution of the secondary structure [39]. The adsorption of most proteins exhibits a short period of rapid adsorption involving large secondary structural changes that is followed by a long period of quasi-linear adsorption, but competitive adsorption between the buffer and the protein sometimes depresses the adsorption in the latter kinetic region. One last biological example is that of the study of the setting reaction of calcium phosphate cements, used as bone substitutes, in aqueous citric acid solutions. Citric acid is typically used as a retardant, to increase setting times and mechanical strength [40]. The ATR-IR data in this case provided evidence for the formation of an intermediate dicalcium phosphate–citrate complex, the concentration of which increases with the concentration of citric acid in solution. It was proposed that the reduction in strength of the final material may be related to the formation of that intermediate at the early stages of setting of the cement. All together, these examples show how ATR-IR absorption spectroscopy can be used to identify new surface species and surface chemistry, establish adsorbate structural information, and collect adsorption kinetics at the liquid/solid interfaces of biologically relevant systems. ATR-IR can also provide information on the chemistry that occurs at the surface of electrodes. For this, the electrodes are typically deposited as thin films or pressed in close contact against the ATR prism. In a recent example, the adsorption of adenine on gold electrodes was proposed, based on such IR studies, to involve two nitrogen atoms, a sp3 -hybridized amino nitrogen and the N7 atom of the five-member ring, and to require a tilted geometry [41]. In another study, it was concluded that during the oxidation of methanol on Pt–Ru electrodes, the platinum sites are responsible for the dehydrogenation of adsorbed methanol to CO, whereas the ruthenium sites adsorb water preferentially and promote oxidation between the CO and H2 O adsorbed species [42]. Yet, another example of ATR-IR studies of electrochemical systems is that of the electrooxidation of ethanol on Pt electrodes, where the IR spectra indicated the formation of acetaldehyde and/or acetyl reaction intermediates on

49.2 Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy

the surface and provided a correlation between the rate of acetate formation and the current seen in voltammetry [43]. Again, these examples illustrate the power of ATR-IR as a way to identify surface species and their adsorption sites and geometries and as a means to isolate elementary steps in the mechanism and measure the kinetics of surface electrochemical reactions. ATR-IR can also be set up to study adsorption on powders and nanoparticles. Typically, this is done by placing a suspension of the particles directly above the surface of the prism used as the optical element. Commercial devices are available for the characterization of such samples under flowing liquids and/or while heating to moderate temperatures. Being able to study powders with ATR-IR is quite useful in catalysis because heterogeneous catalysts are typically composed of metal particles or other solid-active phases finely dispersed on high-surface-area supports. An illustration of this type of application is that from the group of Williams, who have reported on the adsorption of species such as CO and formaldehyde on Pt/Al2 O3 catalysts from aqueous and ethanolic solutions [44]. In their investigation on the hydrogenation of butyronitrile in hexane in particular, they were able to detect the presence of a new adsorbed imine species with the CN group in a tilted configuration that, once formed, can be converted into amine products [45]. ATR-IR studies of catalytic systems have been particularly useful for the determination in situ of reaction mechanisms [15, 46–48]. For example, several adsorbed intermediates have been identified during the hydrogenation of nitrites over Pt/Al2 O3 in water, including NO, HNO, and HNO−2 , the conversion of which was determined to result mainly in the production of NH+4 (although traces of N2 O, a potential intermediate for the formation of N2 , was also observed) [49]. In another study, by Ferri and Baiker, on the oxidation of benzyl alcohol over a Pd/Al2 O3 catalyst, selective blocking of adsorption sites was carried out using bismuth and probed with CO. [50] It was determined that open terraces favor product decomposition. The group of Baiker has also carried out extensive in situ studies of chiral catalysis in liquid phase [46]. For instance, regarding the enantioselective hydrogenation of 4-methoxy-6-methyl2-pyrone promoted by Pd/TiO2 powder catalysts modified by cinchonidine, they were able to establish that carboxylate species are formed on the titania surface via alcoholysis of the lactone, which is obtained by a second hydrogenation step, and that the adsorption of those carboxylates follow different kinetics than adsorption of the primary hydrogenation product [51]. In one last example, the catalytic esterification of 1-octanol and hexanoic acid in either cumene or n-decane solvents was tested in situ using a Nafion/silica catalyst in an open reflux configuration at atmospheric pressure [52]. One interesting result in that case was the detection of Si–O–R bonds during reaction, presumably associated with the covalent bonding of octanol to the silica surface. To conclude this subsection, it is worth mentioning the early extensive ATR-IR characterization work performed on surfaces of interest to the microelectronics industry. Those have taken advantage of the fact that the most common materials used for the optical prism in ATR-IR are silicon, germanium, and other semiconductor elements, the same components used in microelectronics fabrication, so the investigation in those cases can be performed directly on the naked optical element.

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49 Probing Liquid/Solid Interfaces at the Molecular Level

Much has been learned this way about the surface chemistry of etching of the native silicon dioxide layer that grows on silicon wafers, which is typically carried out by using aqueous HF or NH4 F solutions [53, 54]. IR spectra has been used to follow and characterize the disappearance of the oxide, the formation of new single and geminal Si–H bonds, and the formation of silicic acid associated with hydrogen-bonded water molecules. More recent studies by Chabal and coworkers have established that the SiO2 /Si(100) interface that is revealed as the overlying oxide is stripped away is structurally distinct from the rest of the SiO2 film [55]. 49.2.2 Reflection–Absorption Infrared Spectroscopy (RAIRS)

Another common arrangement for the performance of IR absorption spectroscopy studies on liquid/solid interfaces is in single reflection mode. In that type of setup, the IR beam is directed through the liquid onto a mirror-finished surface and collected after reflection (see also Chapter 3.4.1 in Volume 1). The catch is that, because of the high density and strong absorption in the IR region of most liquids, this approach requires the use of thin films, down to a few micrometers in thickness, in order to minimize the path length of the beam through that media. This is commonly achieved by sandwiching the liquid in between the solid surface being studied and the prism used to guide the light in and out of the liquid/solid interface (Figure 49.1b). The advantage of using this setup is that it affords the characterization of small (∼1 cm2 ) flat surfaces, although the technique requires that those are polished and highly reflective. This single-reflection IR absorption spectroscopy approach is typically referred to as either RAIRS or infrared reflection–absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS). Because it requires a reflecting surface, it has been most commonly used for the study of systems involving metals. In fact, the use of metals brings the added advantage that a surface selection rule can be applied according to which only p-polarized light can be absorbed by the adsorbed species [28, 30, 31, 56]. By contrast, light absorption by species in solution is isotropic, which means that the contribution to the IR spectra from adsorbed species can be separated via the subtraction or ratioing of the traces obtained with p- vs. s-polarized light. Several optical arrangements have been developed to obtain such p/s ratio directly, the most common of which is the use of a photoelastic modulator (PEM) to modulate the polarization of the light [10, 57–60]. The surface selection rule can also be used to extract adsorption geometries, as already mentioned in connection with ATR and as discussed in more detail below. By and large, the most common application of RAIRS has been in the study of electrochemical systems involving metal electrodes. Perhaps disappointedly, those have so far focused mainly on the characterization of only a handful of simple adsorbates [61–64]. A quite extensive RAIRS work has been published on the adsorption of carbon monoxide [65, 66], from which the pioneering work by Weaver’s group aimed at the identification of the effects of electrode potential on the C–O stretching frequencies and local adsorption geometries deserves special

49.2 Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy

mention [67, 68]. Those were interpreted in terms of alterations in both the local electrostatic field and the coordination of the adsorbate on the surface, which are influenced in great part by the solvent (via electrostatic interactions and because of competition for adsorption sites). RAIRS characterization studies are also available on other small molecules, including NO [69], and even on small organics such as indols [70]. In all these, the adsorbates have usually been chosen because they exhibit at least one vibrational mode with a large absorption cross section and a frequency in a relatively clean region of the IR spectrum, ideally between approximately 1500 and 2200 cm−1 . That makes their detection easier, given that the sensitivity of RAIRS in liquid/solid interfaces is limited and the elimination of contributions from the solvent in practice is incomplete. RAIRS has also been used extensively to follow the evolution of the intermediates that may form on electrode surfaces during electrocatalysis. Much of that work in recent years has been directed to the study of fuel cell reactions, which are ideally suited for this technique because they usually involve the simple, high dynamic dipole molecules (CO, carboxyl-containing organics, and alcohols) that best behave for RAIRS detection; many reports have centered on the characterization of hydrogen oxidation/evolution and oxygen reduction reactions and on the electrooxidation of carbon monoxide, formic acid, and methanol [71, 72]. In terms of the electrooxidation of alcohols in particular, a number of surface intermediates have been repeatedly identified with RAIRS, including CO, COH, HCOH, and H2 COH, and two reaction pathways have been confirmed, one involving the oxidation of adsorbed CO and a second involving the formation of an organic intermediate such as an aldehyde or an organic acid [73, 74]. RAIRS studies of oxidation and reduction reactions under electrochemical conditions can, in principle, be extended to other types of systems. In polymer electrochemistry, for instance, the redox processes of aminophenols on a platinum electrode in aqueous acid solutions were shown to differ markedly depending on the isomer used as the reactant [75]. It was established that while p-aminophenol undergoes hydrolysis to hydroquinone/p-benzoquinone, m-aminophenol grows a blocking polymeric film; phenoxazine units are produced during the oxidation/reduction of poly(o-aminophenol). Moreover, with poly(o-aminophenol), the redox chemistry was determined to occur via two consecutive reactions involving a charged intermediate [76]. In a different example, with 2,5-dihydroxybenzyl mercaptan, electrochemical oxidation on a gold electrode was determined to involve a quinone-type moiety [77]. One interesting side conclusion from this latter work is the fact that the performance of RAIRS was found to be quite similar to that of ATR. RAIRS studies with these types of polymers are helped by the strong signals associated with the breathing modes of their aromatic rings and the fact that the corresponding vibrational frequencies appear in a relatively clean spectral range (>1500 cm−1 ). The identification of adsorbed species in electrochemical systems can be enhanced by light polarization modulation, as indicated above, but also by potential modulation, a technique known as subtractively normalized interfacial Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (SNIFTIRS). For instance, SNIFTIRS (and other

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49 Probing Liquid/Solid Interfaces at the Molecular Level

potential-dependent IR techniques) has been used to investigate the reaction mechanism of the electrooxidation of ethanol on PtSn electrodes [78]. These studies have helped to determine that the presence of tin on the surface allows ethanol to adsorb dissociatively and to be activated via scission of its C–C bond at lower potentials and with a higher selectivity than on pure Pt, to form acetic acid. A potential modulation approach has also been used to explain that the anomalous peaks seen in the cyclic voltammetry of Pt(111) in sulfuric acid are associated with the adsorption of bisulfate anions [79]. In connection with the electrooxidation reactions seen in lithium batteries, SNIFTIRS has been used to establish that, in general, the Li insertion processes include the migration of Li ions through surface films but with surface chemistry that is highly dependent on the solution used: in LiAsF6 , for instance, the chemistry is dominated by solvent reduction, whereas in either 1,3-dioxolane or tetrahydrofuran (THF), the products from salt anion reduction are the major constituents in the surface films formed [80, 81]. In these battery-related studies, the most characteristic species, the easiest to identify by RAIRS, are carbonates, although signals from other moieties such as trifluoromethyls are also observable. By using single crystals, RAIRS can also afford the identification of structural factors in the chemistry of electrodes. For example, in a study on the reduction of nitrate anions on a series of single-crystal platinum electrodes in sulfuric and perchloric acid solutions, it was found that there are noticeable differences in reactivity among different exposed facets but that those are essentially controlled by other species (hydrogen and sulfate) interacting strongly with the electrode surface, not by a structure-sensitive nitrate adsorption, dissociation, or reduction [82]. This type of information may be lost if polycrystalline surfaces are used instead, but, in exchange, an enhancement in IR signal may be gained. Indeed, surface enhancement has been reported on rough metal electrodes, mainly on coinage metals (Au, Ag, and Cu), and may occur on other late transition metals as well [83, 84]. This phenomenon, which also applies to ATR setups, has been explained by an electric field enhancement because of collective electron resonances associated with the island nature of the thin metal films [85, 86]. In a recent example involving a Pt electrode/Nafion interface in HClO4 aqueous solutions (a relevant system in polymer electrolyte fuel cells), SO−3 groups were identified in the ionomer membrane, with their geometrical orientation driven by the electric field [87]. It was inferred that the SO−3 groups act like counterions at the Pt/ionomer interface to form the electric double layer. However, full acceptance and utilization of this IR surface enhancement is yet to be reached. More recently, the use of RAIRS has been extended to the study of the adsorption of species involved in catalysis. For instance, in a study by Baiker’s group, the selectivity of the liquid-phase oxidation of benzyl alcohol to benzaldehyde on a Pd film was contrasted between anaerobic conditions, where toluene was the major side product, and aerobic conditions, where large quantities of CO2 and benzoic acid were also observed [88]. CO formation by decarbonylation of benzaldehyde was also observed on a Pd(111) surface under anaerobic conditions, delayed with respect to the formation of benzaldehyde. We, in our laboratory, have worked

49.2 Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy

Cd in CCI4/Pt RAIRS Polarization dependence

Pt sample

60° CaF2 prism

To MCT detector

5%

p Polarization s Polarization

Micrometer Transmittance

IR beam from FTIR

Pt counter electrode

p-Polarized IR (adsorbed + dissolved) s-Polarized IR (dissolved)

Oscilloscope Syringe Ar

O2

p/s ratio (adsorbed)

Constant-current oscillator

H2 Gas purifier

(a) Figure 49.3 Illustration of the use of RAIRS to characterize the adsorption of molecules from solution onto metal surfaces [89]. (a) Schematic representation of the RAIRS setup used in this study. The cell consists of a calcium fluoride prism and a manipulator for holding, moving, and applying voltages to the platinum solid surface; the liquid samples are pressed in the small volume between those two elements. (b) Spectra obtained by using this instrument for the characterization of the adsorption of cinchonidine, a chiral modifier, from a carbon tetrachloride solution onto the platinum surface. The data provided here illustrate

1200

(b)

1300

1400

1500

Wavenumber (cm–1)

the use of a surface selection rule to discriminate between signals from adsorbates on metals and species dissolved in solution: as the species in solution absorb light isotropically, similar spectra are obtained with s- and p-polarized light, whereas for the adsorbed molecules, only the p component is absorbed. Therefore, a ratio of the traces obtained with p- vs. s-polarized light (the two top traces) yields a spectrum originating exclusively from cinchonidine adsorbed on the platinum surface (bottom trace). (Source: Kubota et al. 2003 [89]. Copyright 2003. Reprinted with permission of American Chemical Society.)

extensively on the use of RAIRS to characterize the adsorption of chiral molecules on metal surfaces, by using a system derivative from those developed for the electrochemical studies (Figure 49.3a) [89, 90]. In catalysis-relevant RAIRS studies, as in the electrochemical work, discrimination between adsorbed species and species dissolved in solution can be achieved by using polarized light (Figure 49.3b) [89], and geometrical information can be extracted from polarization-dependent measurements by using the surface selection rule mentioned before [91–94]. Particularly noteworthy from the example illustrated in Figure 49.3 is the correlation that was identified between the adsorption of cinchona alkaloids with their aromatic ring flat on the surface, which occurs at intermediate coverages and disappears at higher solution concentrations, and their ability to promote enantioselective hydrogenations [91]. In addition, by comparing IR absorption spectra for a family

13

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49 Probing Liquid/Solid Interfaces at the Molecular Level

of related compounds with specific substitutions, we have also determined that it is the amine group and not the aromatic ring that binds to the surface, at least in the case of 1-(1-naphthyl)ethylamine (NEA) [95]. It was also possible to establish in that work the role that adsorbed gases [96] and the nature of the solvent [97] play in the uptake of the cinchona and to characterize the adsorption under competitive conditions [98] and measure adsorption equilibrium constants [93]. More recently, we have used in situ RAIRS to identified differences in adsorption geometry of chiral compounds as a function of enantiocomposition: a significant difference in RAIRS was seen for cases of enantiopure vs. racemic mixtures [99]. Unfortunately, examples such as these where RAIRS has been used to study catalytic reactions at liquid/solid interfaces are quite scarce. 49.2.3 Transmission

Much less common in the IR absorption spectroscopy study of liquid/solid interfaces is the use of transmission modes. First, many solids are opaque to the IR radiation and that renders them nonviable for the use of this setup. In addition, IR signal intensity is easily lost in transmission because of absorption by the solvent. In spite of those difficulties, however, there are a few examples of the use of transmission IR absorption spectroscopy for the characterization of the adsorption of molecules from a liquid phase onto the surface of catalysts or nanoparticles. For instance, if the solid samples are transparent, as in the case of some thin layer electrochemical cells, a simple transmission cell can be easily devised [100]. Baiker’s group has published some reports on the feasibility of an alternative design involving thin liquid films, which they have used for the study of the heterogeneously catalyzed hydrogenation of ethyl pyruvate over Pt/Al2 O3 under high pressures [101]. In their arrangement, however, the surface chemistry is still followed by ATR; transmission IR absorption spectroscopy is used for the simultaneous recording of changes in the liquid phase. Another reported example of the use of transmission IR in liquid/solid systems involves the extraction of chemicals (i.e. CpMn(CO)) by a polymer (polyethylene) in a CO2 supercritical fluid [102]. In our laboratory, we have adapted our RAIRS setup (Figure 49.3) to be used in transmission mode by employing the back metal surface as a mirror and by suspending the solid sample in a liquid thin film trapped between the prism and the mirror. This arrangement is shown schematically in Figure 49.1c. That transmission IR setup has been used to investigate the adsorption of carbon monoxide on dendrimer-encapsulated platinum nanoparticles (Pt-DENs) immersed in different solvents (Figure 49.4) [103]. It was found that although only limited, weak, and reversible adsorption is possible in the gas phase, extensive and stronger adsorption occurs in the liquid phase. It was speculated that the dendrimer structure may collapse in the gas phase, blocking access to the Pt surface, but may expand and open up in the presence of a proper solvent. The same approach was also used to determine the accessibility of metal nanoparticles in yolk–shell structures, where the metal nanoparticles are embedded inside shells

49.3 Other Vibrational Spectroscopies

CO on Pt-DEN IR spectra in ethanol

CO on Pt-DEN/SiO2 IR spectra vs. solvent Tads = 300 K

Tads = 300 K

CCl4

Transmittance

Pt-DEN alone (a)

(a)

Ethanol Pt-DEN/SiO2 (b) as is

(b)

2-Propanol Pt-DEN/SiO2 calcined (c)

1900 (A)

2100

2300 –1

Wavenumber (cm )

(c)

1800 (B)

Figure 49.4 IR absorption spectra for CO adsorbed on Pt dendrimer-encapsulated nanoparticles (Pt-DENs) dispersed on a sol–gel silica support [103]. This provides an example on how the setup in Figure 49.3 can be used to characterize liquid/solid interfaces in transmission mode. (A) Data for CO adsorption on three samples suspended in ethanol: the Pt-DENs by themselves (a); the Pt-DENs dispersed onto a high-surface-area silica support, as prepared (b); and the same supported Pt-DENs after calcination of the

2000

2200 –1

Wavenumber (cm )

organic matter (c). Access of CO to the Pt surface is virtually unhindered even before any pretreatment of the catalyst on Pt-DENs where the dendrimer structure is still intact. (A) Spectra for the silica-supported Pt-DENs suspended in three different solvents (a, carbon tetrachloride; b, ethanol; and c, 2propanol). CO adsorption is greatly affected by the nature of the solvent. (Source: Albiter et al. 2010 [103]. Copyright 2010. Reprinted with permission of American Chemical Society.)

made out of porous oxide materials, to adsorbates diluted in liquid solvents, to carbon monoxide [104], as well as large molecules such as cinchona alkaloids and porphyrins [105]. 49.3 Other Vibrational Spectroscopies

Vibrational information can also be obtained by using visible or ultraviolet light, via the detection of Raman scattering or by using nonlinear laser-based optical spectroscopies such as SFG (Figure 49.5). Often, light in the visible and ultraviolet ranges is absorbed less efficiently by condensed matter than IR radiation and can therefore travel better through thin liquid films. In addition, the high energy of visible and ultraviolet photons affords their individual detection, a fact that makes

15

49 Probing Liquid/Solid Interfaces at the Molecular Level

1

=ω 3

SFG ω3 = ω 2 + ω1

ω

Vis ω2

IR ω 1

Surface-enhanced raman scattering (SERS)

2

Vis ω2

SF G +ω

Sum frequency generation (SFG)

Raman (anti-stokes) ω2 = ω1 + ω3

IR, ω1 (b)

1

=ω 2

ω1

SH G

±ω

3

Second harmonic generation (SHG)

Vis ω1

ω

2

Vis ω 1

1

s Vi

SE RS

ω3

×ω

Raman (stokes) Vis ω2 = ω1 – ω3 ω1

=2

Vis ω1

ω

16

Vis ω1 (a)

SHG ω2 = 2 × ω1

(c)

Figure 49.5 Schematic representation of the laser-based spectroscopies discussed in this review for the characterization of liquid/solid interfaces using UV–vis light. (a) Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), a technique where the scattered light from a laser illuminating the liquid/solid interface is analyzed for gains and/or losses in energy because of molecular vibrations. (b) Sum frequency generation (SFG), where a tunable infrared laser beam, used as the probe, is combined with a fixed-energy

visible laser at the liquid/solid interface in order to up-convert and individually count the reflected IR photons. A vibrational spectrum is obtained by recording the intensity of those vs. the energy of the IR beam. (c) In second harmonic generation (SHG), two photons from the same laser are added at the liquid/solid interface and detected. The intensity of the outgoing beam is recorded as a function of the energy of the incident photons to follow changes in electronic properties at the interface.

the associated spectroscopy quite sensitive. A third advantage to the use of visible or UV radiation for vibrational studies is that most of the spectroscopies in this category detect signals on top of a zero (or negligible) background. On the negative side, vibrational information can only be extracted from visible or UV excitation indirectly, by relying on low-probability secondary or multiphoton processes. This means that intense beams may be required to increase the signal intensity, leading to a high risk of sample damaging. The latter problem is exacerbated by the possible promotion of decomposition photoreactions by the visible or UV radiation. Also, high-beam intensity can, in many instances, only be obtained with specialized high-power lasers, adding to the cost of the experiment, although laser technology has progressed much in recent years, so cheap lasers are now available for many photon energies. In spite of their limitations, vibrational spectroscopies based on the use of visible or UV light have become quite popular and have, in some instances, been adapted to address issues associated with liquid/solid interfaces.

49.3 Other Vibrational Spectroscopies

49.3.1 Raman Scattering Spectroscopy

In Raman spectroscopy, the light scattered from the sample is energy-analyzed to detect quantum gains or losses because of energy excitations within the molecules being probed (Figure 49.5a). This technique is widely used to obtain vibrational information on many types of samples, not only liquid/solid interfaces. The main shortcoming is the fact that the Raman scattering signals are weak and difficult to separate from the much more intense signal due to the elastically (Rayleigh) scattered light and also from any possible fluorescence that may emanate from the sample upon laser excitation. This makes the general use of Raman spectroscopy for the analysis of surfaces difficult. Some signal augmentation can be achieved by resonantly exciting a particular electronic transition of the sample being probed, but that requires the use of tunable lasers, limits the range of accessible vibrational modes, and increases the probability of sample damage by the laser radiation. Instead, for the study of interfaces, Raman spectroscopy is most commonly set to take advantage of the signal enhancement that comes from excitation of surface plasmons in rough surfaces. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), as the technique is known, has long been employed to characterize a variety of molecules, in particular organic species, on gold and silver surfaces [106–110]. Those studies have afforded the determination of chemical identities, structures, and adsorption orientation and also to follow chemical and electrochemical reactions of anions, surfactants, environmental pollutants, biomolecules, and dye molecules. Raman surface enhancement occurs mainly on silver and gold substrates, a fact that makes its application somewhat limited, but by electrodepositing other metals on top of gold nanoparticles, it has been possible to extend the use of SERS to other solid surfaces [111, 112]. To date, the main use of SERS has been for the characterization of bulk samples, which are deposited on rough metal surfaces or on metal nanoparticles only to take advantage of the signal enhancement afforded by those [113]. Many particularly interesting developments have been reported on the analytical use of SERS for the study of biomedical samples [114–119], including live cells [120–122]. It has been possible, for instance, to detect self-assembled Au–imidazole structures formed in vivo in tumor-bearing mice [123]. Sensors have also been developed in which targetspecific SERS probes are prepared by derivatizing appropriate metal surfaces or nanoparticles with labels displaying a characteristic vibrational signature (mercaptobenzoic acid and Rhodamine 6G) and specific binding sites (biomolecules such as antibodies) for the corresponding target molecule (proteins or a nucleic acid) [124]. Analytical applications of SERS have also been advanced for environmental uses such as for the detection of aqueous or airborne contaminants [119]. One example in this category is the SERS-based detection of perchlorate ions in groundwater [125]. Several studies have also focused on the detection and identification of trace elements and compounds [126], in some instances in combination with electrochemistry to tune the cell potential for maximum adsorption [127]. More recently,

17

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49 Probing Liquid/Solid Interfaces at the Molecular Level

SERS has been implemented as a detection tool in chromatography and in capillary electrophoresis schemes [128]. In one example, silica sol–gels were used for the dual purpose of acting as the stationary phase in liquid chromatography and of immobilizing the metal particles needed for SERS detection [129]. Another detection scheme combined SERS with thin layer chromatography, using silica gel coupled with citrate-reduced Ag colloids, to analyze the composition of natural dyes on works of art [130]. In a third case, SERS was used as the detection method in a microflow, lab-on-a-chip cell for the detection of trinitrotoluene (TNT) [131]. In all these examples, however, the interest was to selectively detect and quantify specific compounds in solution; no attention was directed in any of those cases to the study of the adsorption of the molecules probed on the surface of the solid. Although less common, there are also reports on the use of SERS for the characterization of liquid/solid interfacial chemistry [132], many of them related to electrochemistry [111, 133]. One of the early examples of this use of SERS is that of Pemberton and Buck, who combined the advantages of the surface enhancement obtained by using silver rough surface with the resonant effect afforded by tuning the excitation source to obtain adsorption isotherms and determine adsorption geometries during the uptake of diphenylthiocarbazon anions from an alkaline aqueous solution onto a silver electrode at the potential of maximum uptake [134]. Another early example of the use of SERS in electrochemistry is that of Shi et al., who followed the time evolution of the oxidation of p-nitrobenzoic acid on a Ag electrode [135]. In addition to three stable intermediates, p-nitrosobenzoate, hydroxylamine, and azoxy compounds, a transient p-nitrosobenzoate free-radical anion intermediate was detected. The voltage required to decompose methanol on platinum electrodes could be followed by SERS as well; a strong dependence on surface roughness was identified [109]. In all those cases, unique information has been extracted from SERS data about the kinetics and thermodynamics of the adsorption processes and about the chemical and structural details of the adsorbates. Time-resolved SERS has also afforded the measurement of the kinetics of electrochemical processes upon either step changes in potential [136] or fast voltage ramping, as done in cyclic voltammetry [137]. Applications of SERS to other fields involving liquid/solid interfaces are sparser. In those, SERS has typically used to provide molecular information on the interaction of adsorbates with the solid surface and also some indications on adsorption geometry. For instance, SERS was recently used to aid in the identification of the mechanism by which iodine ions enhance the effect of benzotriazole as an inhibitor in iron corrosion [109]. It was concluded that the electrostatic interaction induced by adsorbed I− facilitates the adsorption of a protonated version of benzotriazole and that the resulting mixed layer can protect the iron substrate from corroding agents. In an earlier study, SERS was used to evaluate the effectiveness of selfassembled monolayers of alkanethiols adsorbed on the surface of a polycrystalline bulk copper against corrosion in an aerated Na2 SO4 solution [138]. It was determined that the alkanethiols chemisorb via the formation of strong bonds between Cu and S atoms following cleavage of the S–H bond and form densely packed, water-repellent, monolayers on the surface. Other SAMs, based on benzenethiol,

49.3 Other Vibrational Spectroscopies

benzenemethanethiol, p-cyanobenzenemethanethiol, diphenyl disulfide, and dibenzyl disulfide, were also determined by SERS to adsorb dissociatively as thiolates on rough gold electrodes [139]. The aromatic rings in those cases were found to adopt a tilted geometry, but a reduction in surface coverage was seen upon switching of the applied potential to positive or negative extremes. In terms of the formation of colloidal particles, pyrazinamide and 2-mercaptopyridine were shown to form Ag colloid–adsorbate films at the interface between the silver colloid aqueous and dichloromethane adsorbate solutions, in contrast to 4-mercaptopyridine, which forms Ag organosol aggregates via the transfer of adsorbate-covered Ag colloidal particles from the aqueous to the organic phase [140]. The differences between the two latter systems confirmed that the formation of Ag colloid–adsorbate films is an adsorbate-specific process. In a more complex study of biological relevance, an SERS characterization of the uptake of cytochrome c (Cyt c) on SAMs of mercaptoalkanoic acids on colloidal silver indicated that the adsorption is selective on negatively charged surfaces, on a second layer on top of an SAM directly attached to the Ag [141]. Previous SERS studies had indicated that adsorption of heme proteins on aqueous silver sols occurs with formation of surface-bound hemin μ-oxo dimers, implying that the heme prosthetic groups are extracted from their binding pockets in at least some of the protein molecules and that heme extraction is facilitated under oxidizing conditions, perhaps via increased surface charge on the Ag surface [142]. SERS has also been used to look into the adsorption of amino acids in silver colloidal solutions to determine the geometry and orientation of the adsorbates and to identify their specific interactions with the surface [143]. In most instances, with L-methionine, L-glycine, L-leucine, L-phenylalanine, and L-proline as well as with their homodipeptides, it was found that the majority of the C–C bonds adopt an almost parallel orientation with respect to the surface. In the case of L-cysteine, however, the SERS spectra indicated a potential-induced reorientation of the molecules adsorbed from a KCl solution onto a polycrystalline silver electrode, from bonding with the protonated amino group pointing toward the surface at positive potentials to the carboxylate group becoming closer to the surface at negative potentials [144]. Again, in these examples, key information was extracted from SERS experiments about adsorption affinity and adsorption geometry. In materials chemistry, SERS can also be used to investigate adsorption processes. A SERS study of the adsorption and acidity behavior of the highly fluorescent anthraquinone-based pigment alizarin on Ag colloids, for instance, indicated that the order of deprotonation of the two OH groups reverses on the metal in comparison with the way it happens in the aqueous solution [145]. Other SERS studies have been directed at the characterization of interfaces between solids and nonaqueous liquids [146]. In some instances, SERS can be used to characterize photochemical reactions, as in the case of methylviologen adsorbed on a roughened silver electrode, which was determined to undergo a reduction step at its cation radical position upon irradiation with the blue spectral region of laser excitation light even at liquid nitrogen temperature [147]. It was also established in that study that the dication form of methylviologen interacts more strongly with the

19

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49 Probing Liquid/Solid Interfaces at the Molecular Level

surface than the monocation. SERS can provide information about the collective vibrational characteristics of solids as well. For instance, SERS was used to map the phonon characteristics of mixed CdS/CdSe layers on gold, a system with potential applications in electronics [148]. A phonon band associated with a CdS phonon was found to soften with increasing thickness because of the crystallographic strain caused by expansion to match more closely the adjacent CdSe layer. It has even been possible to record the SERS data from nanomaterials without the aid of any signal-enhancing metals, as in the case of the study of the adsorption of pyridine on InAs/GaAs quantum dots [149]. It was suggested, based on the SERS data, that adsorption occurs via coordination of the lone pair electrons of the N atom to the semiconductor surface. Only a few examples are available to date on SERS applications to materials problems, but those illustrate the range of both molecular and solid-state information that can be extracted from such studies. Next, a couple of examples are provided of applications of SERS to problems of heterogeneous catalysis involving liquid/solid interfaces. In one, Heck et al. looked into the time dependence of the hydrodechlorination of 1,1-dichloroethene in water catalyzed by Pd–Au nanoshells [150]. They identified a sequence of dechlorination and hydrogenation steps involving several intermediates, including π and di-σ bonded species, vinylidene, and other oligomeric moieties (Figure 49.6). In another report, from our laboratory, the adsorption of cinchonidine was tested by SERS on a thin film of platinum deposited on a rough gold surface [92]. Clear features could be identified in the SERS spectra because of the adsorbed molecule, including the ring-breathing mode at close to 1600 cm−1 , even if some interference from the solvent could not be completely avoided (Figure 49.7), and those could be used to establish a change in adsorption geometry with the concentration of cinchonidine in solution. One important conclusion from our work was that the information obtained with SERS is complementary to that extracted from RAIRS experiments because of the different selection rules that apply to each technique, the different cross sections of the different vibrational modes to both types of excitation, and the different experimental setups needed. More recently, SERS work has been reported on the aqueous-phase conversion of glycerol oxidation catalyzed by supported Au nanoshells (on Si wafer) in which glycerate surface species, identified by sharp peaks at 0.990 ± 0.022 Å(KCl). Moreover, although the in-plane silanols accept one H-bond from one water molecule at the neat interface, such silanol–water H-bond is lost at the interfaces with NaCl and NaI electrolytes, and it is only intermittently present (≈50% of the time) and displays rather larger H-bond lengths in the case of the KCl electrolyte. Stabilization of the conjugated SiO− base by both the solvent and the neighboring silanols can also play a key role in shaping the surface silanols pKa , as already demonstrated at the amorphous silica/water interface [33, 37]. In the presence of interfacial cations, these must also play a significant role, given the additional electrostatic interaction between the positively charged cation and the negatively charged silanolate. Representative snapshots showing the local environment of the deprotonated in-plane silanols are depicted in Figure 50.13a–d. At all interfaces but the NaCl interface, the silanolate is stabilized by three hydrogen bonds: either SiO− receives two H-bonds from nearby silanols and one from one water (neat and NaI electrolyte interfaces, Figure 50.13a,c), or SiO− receives three H-bonds (two

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 50.13 Snapshots of the Si-O− silanolate-conjugated base (dark blue) with their direct hydrogen bond environments (dark blue lines) at the hydroxylated (0001) α-quartz/water interface. Sodium appears in orange, potassium in pink, chloride in blue, and iodide in green. From left to right:

(a) the neat interface, (b) the NaCl electrolyte interface, (c) the NaI electrolyte interface, and (d) the KCl electrolyte interface. (Source: Pfeiffer-Laplaud et al. 2016 [100]. reproduced with the permission of American Chemical Society.)

50.7 Acidity at Quartz/Water/Electrolyte Interfaces

H-bonds in the case of NaCl interface) from water molecules only (NaCl and KCl interfaces, Figure 50.13b,d). Analyzing the average H-bond distances one immediate conclusion is that the KCl electrolyte interface is an outlier, the average distances being 1.82 Å while shorter H-bonds about 1.60–1.70 Å are observed for the interfaces with other electrolytes. The SiO− -conjugated base is therefore far less stabilized at the KCl electrolyte interface than at the two others, consistently with the highest pKa indeed calculated at the interface with the KCl electrolyte (most basic silanol among the interfaces with the three electrolytes). Furthermore, the average distance between the silanolate oxygen and the cation (inner-sphere at all interfaces) is substantially larger than the one observed when the surface site is protonated (SiOH), except for the NaCl electrolyte. This increase in the results from the increase in ionic radius in going from the OH form to the O− one. In summary, for NaCl, the cation remains very close to the SiO− surface site, stabilizing the deprotonated form and favoring proton dissociation. This is not the case for NaI. Interestingly, Na+ is also slightly closer to SiOH at the NaCl interface than at the two other interfaces. However, this is not affecting the intrasurface H-bond to the nearby silanol, which remains close to the one at the neat interface. Together, the strong H-bond to the nearby silanol and the conjugated base stabilization explain why the pKa for NaCl is the closest to the one of the neat interface. Finally, the intermediate pKa value at the NaI interface arises from the stabilization of the SiO− -conjugated base: the three H-bonds formed around the silanolate are comparable in distance to the values observed at the NaCl interface, but the Na+ cation is pushed much farther away from the base than it is at the NaCl interface (presumably because the more polarizable I− attracts and displaces the Na+ at the interface). This possibly explains the difference between the two NaCl and NaI interfaces, leading to less stabilization of SiO− at the NaI interface, and therefore turning the silanols at the NaI electrolyte interface into more basic sites than they are at the NaCl interface. Although the specific anion effect on the pKa seems to act mostly on the deprotonated form (comparing NaCl and NaI), specific cation effects, comparing NaCl and KCl, affect both protonated and deprotonated forms. We recall that the surface silanol out-of-plane population is less reduced in the presence of Na+ than in the presence of K+ [80] because of the smaller ionic radius of Na+ . Thus, in the case of the interface with NaCl electrolyte, it is more probable for an in-plane silanol, for which the pKa is here discussed, to find a more acidic (out-of-plane) neighbor silanol with whom to share its proton. On the contrary, in the presence of KCl, the more probable neighbors are the more basic (in-plane) SiOH and the O–H bond is stabilized (higher pKa ). Besides, regarding the conjugated base, the Na+ /SiO− affinity is larger than the K+ /SiO− . In a nutshell, the trend in the pKa ’s for quartz/water/electrolyte interfaces can primarily be understood as the result of the weaker H-bond network around silanol/silanolate in the electrolyte solutions, in comparison to the neat quartz/water interface. At the neutral surface/water interface, the ions weaken the H-bond network around the in-plane Si-OH surface site, therefore stabilizing the O–H covalent bond and preventing deprotonation of the chemical entity. The presence of ions

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50 Structure and Dynamics of Solid/Liquid Interfaces

also reduces the stabilization of the conjugated base, making the proton insertion more favorable, or in other words making the protonated form again more stable, thus rendering these sites more basic compared to the case without interfacial electrolytes. The details in the Hofmeister series of the pKa can be quantitatively understood in terms of silanols properties as they take part in the cation direct solvation shell.

50.8 Fluorite/Water Interface, Structures, and VSFG Intertwined

Water–mineral interactions are of general importance for a wide range of environmental, chemical, metallurgical, and ceramic processes [122, 123]. The interaction of fluorite (CaF2 ) with water is of specific relevance for industrial, environmental, and medical applications, e.g. for understanding fluorine dissolution in drinking water [124]. Recently, there has been a proposal to use CaF2 as an analogue of UO2 in dissolution experiments in order to understand the long-term dissolution behavior of spent nuclear fuel. This has accordingly raised the interest in the interaction of CaF2 with water [125]. Despite the apparent importance of the fluorite/water interface, it has been challenging to obtain detailed insights into this interface at the molecular scale. Recently, frequency modulation atomic force microscopy (FM-AFM) [126] has provided important new information on molecular length scales by analyzing the fluorite/water interface, not only as a function of the pH but also as a function of the concentration of ions in the solution and addressing fluorite/water interfaces with saturated and supersaturated solutions. At high pH, the presence of surface adsorbates is detected and attributed to calcium hydroxo complexes [126]. At low pH, atomic scale disorder was observed, which could be attributed to either partial dissolution of the topmost layer by the creation of F− vacancies or to proton adsorption at the interface. Still experiments seem not to be able to distinguish between the two possible scenarios [126]. As another surface-sensitive technique, VSFG spectroscopy has the ability to selectively address the nanometric interfacial water layer and indeed has contributed substantially to our understanding of the physical and chemical properties of the CaF2 /water interface [127, 128]. VSFG is rather unique in its ability to provide the vibrational spectrum of water molecules specifically at the interface, as the selection rule of VSFG requires symmetry to be broken, i.e. no VSFG signal can be generated from the adjacent centrosymmetric bulk. Previous VSFG investigations of water at the CaF2 /water interface by the Richmond group [127, 128] have revealed dramatic changes in the interfacial hydrogen bonding structure upon changing the pH of the aqueous phase. In particular at low pH, the VSFG experiments have suggested that positive charge develops on the surface, causing orientation of water molecules into highly ordered, tetrahedrally coordinated states. At near-neutral pH, the VSFG signal vanishes and this has been interpreted as the result of a more random orientation of the interfacial water molecules at a near-neutral surface. Finally, in the basic pH regime, dissociative

50.8 Fluorite/Water Interface, Structures, and VSFG Intertwined

adsorption was hypothesized to take place on the solid surface resulting in the formation of Ca–OH species. There are still some open questions: how do these OH groups contribute to the VSFG spectrum? What type of order is established in the interfacial water region? Here, we review a recent simulation study aimed at answering these questions and to provide a new microscopic understanding of the CaF2 /water interface as a function of pH [51]. We explore the effect of surface termination on the interfacial water arrangement and we show the importance of the local electrical field due to ions in solution in the near-surface region on water orientation. Such a detailed analysis is now possible thanks to recent advances in the computational techniques. In particular, we use density functional theory DFT-based molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, which allow an accurate description of the structure and dynamics of hydrogen bonding in highly heterogeneous environments, also including electronic polarization. A newly developed approach is used for the calculation of the VSFG spectra [51, 52] as described in Section 50.2.4, which only requires the atomic positions and velocities without the cost of the additional calculation of molecular dipoles and polarizabilities. At the same time, appropriate selection rules for the VSFG are also taken into account. We describe here atomistic models for the fluorite/water interfaces at different pH conditions. The models are used to calculate the interface vibrational spectra and to provide their molecular interpretation. At low pH, positive charge is expected to accumulate at the fluorite/water interface. In particular, the following reaction is expected to take place: (CaF2 )surf + H+aq ⇄ (CaF+ )surf + HFaq

(50.20)

Fluoride ions dissolving into the water solution leave positive vacancies on the surfaces, which are responsible for “aligning” the water molecules. As the VSFG signal increases with increasing interfacial order in the system, a large VSFG signal is detected [127, 128]. For low pH, model systems that resemble the final equilibrium state can be built with various concentrations of fluorite vacancies on the surface, which correspond to different extents of positive charge on the surface (Figure 50.14). In particular, our model consists of a CaF2 slab in contact with water where two equivalent interfaces are present. Fluoride counterions are added to the solution to compensate the positive surface charge, i.e. to get an overall neutral system. We find that the F− ions tend to prefer to be solvated by water and form a diffuse layer in the near-surface region. Overall, the surface-localized positive charge and the near-surface negative counterions generate a double layer, giving rise to a rather strong electrical field at the solid/liquid interface. We have considered more extreme conditions with 2.58 vacancies/nm (4 vacancies on each surface) and milder conditions with 1.29 vacancies/nm (2 vacancies) or with 0.64 vacancies/nm (1 vacancy), respectively. At high pH, the hydroxide ions in excess are expected to react with the CaF2 surface leading to the following substitution: (CaF2 )surf + HO−aq ⇄ (CaFOH)surf + F−aq

(50.21)

183

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50 Structure and Dynamics of Solid/Liquid Interfaces

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 50.14 (a) Random snapshot of the system used to describe the CaF2 /H2 O interface for the neutral pH. Miniatures highlighting the differences between the neutral pH and the (b) low pH with an excess of proton in the form of dissociated HCl, (c) low pH system with partial dissolution of fluoride

(d) ions, (d) high pH with six substitutions of fluorides by hydroxides per surface. For (b)–(d), the water molecules are transparent in order to highlight the position of the ions. The hydrogens are colored in white, the oxygens in red, the fluorines in pink, the chlorines in green, and the calciums in turquoise.

The Ca–OH groups on the surface have been suggested responsible for the narrow band signal at 3645 cm−1 [127, 128]. For high pH, we have constructed a model where a surface modification of the CaF2 has taken place in response to the increased concentration of OH groups in the solution. In the topmost fluorite layer, F− were partially or totally replaced by HO− (Figure 50.14). Different concentrations of OH have been considered in order to establish a relation between the VSFG signal intensity and the pH: 1, 6, and 12 substitution over the 12 available sites per surface. Using the described models, we have calculated the spectral responses from the surface-sensitive vibrational density of states using surface-specific VVCF (see Section 50.2.4) for the XXZ polarization (the indexes of 𝜒 (2) will be omitted hereafter). In the case of low pH, the spectra for the different vacancy densities are reported in Figure 50.15a. The common feature for all the different concentrations of surface vacancies is the presence of a broad negative band in the Im𝜒 (2) spectrum, which, for the 1 and 2 vacancies systems, is located around 3300 cm−1 . As the charge concentration increases to four positive charges, the intensity of the band increases and the band position moves toward lower frequencies, with a maximum located at

185

1

2 0

0

–2

1

2

0

0

3600

2800

Re(X) and Im(X) (arb. units)

0

0

3600

2800

1

2 0

0

–2 –4 3200

3600

2800

3200

3600

Frequency (cm–1)

(a)

(b)

1

2

–4 3200

2 4 2HCl

–2

–4 3200

2 4 1+

–2

–4 2800

2 4 2+

|X|2 (arb. units)

2 4 4+

2 4 12 OH 1

2 0

0

–2

1

2

0

0

3600

2800

4 Neutral 1

2

0

0

–4 3200

3600

2800

2

Int Im Re

0

2 1 0

–2

–2

–4 3200

2 4 1 OH

–2

–4 2800

2 4 6 OH

–4 3200

3600

2800

3200

3600

Frequency (cm–1)

Figure 50.15 Comparison of the Im𝜒 (2) , Re𝜒 (2) , and |𝜒 (2) |2 for different values of the surface defect concentration (plain lines). (a) Low pH. (b) High pH. In order to facilitate

the comparison, the spectra with two HCl per surface have been plotted in dotted lines on the spectra with two vacancies per surface.

3100 cm−1 . If we compare the calculated spectra to the experimental ones [51], we can see that such strong red shift for the four vacancy system is not consistent with the experiment. Better agreement is found for the one and two vacancy systems. Additional information can also be extracted from a comparison between the calculated and experimentally measured Re𝜒 (2) . The computed Re𝜒 (2) (Figure 50.15, blue lines) shows two main peaks, a positive peak at higher frequencies and a negative one at lower frequencies. In the case of one or two positive charges on the surface, the peak position and the crossing from positive to negative values are in good agreement with the experimental spectra (Figure 50.16). However, as the defect number increases to 4, we notice a very strong shift of the negative band to lower frequencies that also shifts the zero crossing toward 3200 cm−1 . Moreover, also for the intensity spectrum, the best match between theory and experiment is found for one or two vacancies per site. Overall, these considerations suggest that the vacancy density is around 0.65 per nm2 for the experimental condition of pH = 2. What is the molecular origin of the strong negative band in Im𝜒 (2) ? A detailed molecular analysis unveils that such a band is due to an ordered layer of water that builds up at the interface, with water dipoles oriented toward the bulk. The water order extends over 4–5 Å, as it can be deduced from the convergence of the Im𝜒 (2) spectrum with increasing probing thickness (Figure 50.17a). Including water molecules more than 5 Å from the surface does not change the shape or intensity of the calculated VSFG spectrum. It is interesting to notice that even for a strongly charged interface, the aqueous order only extends over 4–5 Å, which corresponds to roughly two to three layers of water. However, we should note here that the high computational cost of electronic structure-based methods imposes

|X|2 (arb. units)

Re(X) and Im(X) (arb. units)

50.8 Fluorite/Water Interface, Structures, and VSFG Intertwined

50 Structure and Dynamics of Solid/Liquid Interfaces

2

2

1

1

0

0

0

–1

–1

–1

–2 2800

3200

3600

–2 2800

(111)

3200

3600

6

2

Int Im 1 Re

1+

–2 2800

6 OH

4 2 0

3200

|X|2 (arb. units)

Re(X) and Im(X) (arb. units)

186

3600

Frequency (cm–1) Figure 50.16 Re𝜒 (2) , Im𝜒 (2) , and |𝜒 (2) |2 obtained from simulations (blue, red, and black respectively). Low pH (1+), neutral (111), and high pH (6OH) systems are considered.

severe limitations on the size of the accessible models. In this respect, our model is expected to capture the contribution to the spectra of the Stern layer (possibly the major contribution here) but cannot account for the full diffuse layer, which is expected to extend over a few nanometers thickness. In the case of CaF2 , the experimentally estimated Debye length is around 30 Å [129]. Alternative models have been proposed for the low pH fluorite/water interface. In particular, as also mentioned in the introduction, one of the suggested interpretation for the atomic scale disorder observed at low pH in the FM-AFM experiments, is proton adsorption at the interface [126]. In order to investigate the spectral response of such a system and to compare it to the experimental one, we build an additional model without fluoride vacancy, but instead with an excess of protons in the form of dissociated HCl is present (4HCl, 2.5 M solution). Such a system is reported in Figure 50.14b and would eventually corresponds to two excess protons per surface. The calculated VSFG spectra for this system are shown in Figure 50.15 in the last panel of (a). The first striking result is that overall the signal is much weaker than that obtained for the model with two fluorine vacancies per surface, which exhibit the same overall positive charge at the interface. Moreover, the main peak in the Im𝜒 (2) is located at ≈3500–3600 cm−1 , which is quite far from the peak location in the experimental spectra. This analysis would suggest that the excess proton alone cannot be responsible for the measured spectra, which instead originates from the water aligned by the positive fluorine vacancies. Let us now move to the analysis of the high pH conditions. The imaginary and real part of the VSFG spectrum together with the intensity spectrum calculated from the surface-selective VVCF analysis are presented in Figure 50.15b for the three different values of OH concentration on the surface. For the one and six substitutions, two main features can be observed in the imaginary part: the first is a positive band between 3280 and 3400 cm−1 , the second is a negative feature between 3400 and 3700 cm−1 . In the case of 12OH substitutions, the overall profile of Im𝜒 (2) is very different, with a broad negative band extending up to 3200 cm−1 where a crossing to positive values is finally observed. The real part and the intensity spectrum have a very high intensity below 3600 cm−1 (Figure 50.16), which is not present in the

50.8 Fluorite/Water Interface, Structures, and VSFG Intertwined

10

6

(a)

9 (Bulk)

(b)

3 0 0

–6 –20 2800 10 (c)

–9 3200

3600

2800 6 (d) 3

3200

3600

5

0 0

Slab thickness (Å)

Im(X) (arb. units)

7

–3

–10

3

–3

–10

–6 –20 2800 (A)

–9 3200

3600

Frequency (cm–1)

2800 (B)

3200

3600

1 (Interface)

Frequency (cm–1)

Figure 50.17 Im𝜒 (2) (top) and Re𝜒 (2) (bottom) as a function of the layer thickness included in the calculation. (a) Low pH (1 defect per surface); (b) High pH (6 substitutions per surface).

experiment [51]. The best agreement between calculated and experimental spectra is found for the models with one or six OH substitutions. From this, we can set, for the experimental pH = 13, an upper limit of six OH substitutions per surface corresponding to 3.87 substitutions/nm2 . As done for the low pH, also for the high pH conditions, we can decompose the overall signal in molecular contributions, thus providing a microscopic interpretation of the experimental spectra. In particular, the peak between 3600 and 3700 cm−1 is only associated with the OH groups on the surface, namely those OH groups that replace F− in the topmost layer, which is clear from the purple spectrum in the bottom panel of Figure 50.17. This frequency is very close to that of “free OH” [130, 131]; indeed, such an OH group does not form any hydrogen bond with water. This is clearly shown in the radial distribution function of the Ca–OH hydrogen with water oxygens: the distance between the proton of the Ca–OH and the oxygen from water (red curve, Figure 50.18) is much larger than the distance between the proton from one water molecule and the oxygen from the next water molecule (black curve Figure 50.18). The presence of a “free OH” signal at the solid/liquid interfaces is not so uncommon. A similar high-frequency peak has also been observed for the alumina/water interface [132], where no hydrogen bond is formed between the surface OH groups and the water molecules. In addition to the “free OH” peak, the high pH spectra also present a band between 3280 and 3400 cm−1 , which is instead associated with hydrogen-bonded water molecules at the interface. These hydrogen-bonded waters have an opposite

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50 Structure and Dynamics of Solid/Liquid Interfaces

1.5 Intensity (arb. units)

188

HW –OW HOH –OW HOH –HW

1.0 CaF2–ε 0.5

H H

O

O H

0.0

2

3

4

5

Distance (Å) Figure 50.18 HO and HH radial distribution functions. The subscript “W” stands for water, whereas the subscript “OH” stands for the grafted hydroxide.

orientation with respect to that of the OH groups, as evident from the opposite sign of Im𝜒 (2) for the two different peaks. The water ordering is not very pronounced and saturates with a distance of 2 Å (Figure 50.17). Finally, let us briefly comment on the neutral pH conditions. The neutral pH model is given by a fluorine-terminated surface in contact with neutral water (no excess of hydronium or hydroxide). The calculated Im𝜒 (2) is reported in Figure 50.16 (blue line), along with the overall signal intensity (Figure 50.16, black line). The signal for the Im𝜒 (2) is very weak and presents a negative sign in the higher frequency region (3400–3500 cm−1 ) and a positive band in the lower frequency range (3000–3200 cm−1 ). A molecular analysis shows that there is a strongly adsorbed layer of water at the interface with little or no preferential orientation at the interface. As a summary, the calculation of VSFG spectra from the DFT-based MD simulations and their comparison to experiments allowed us to pin down the atomistic details of the CaF2 interface with water and to provide a first molecular interpretation of the spectra. The very good agreement between theory and experiments in both the Re𝜒 (2) and Im𝜒 (2) signals give us confidence in our interpretations, at an unprecedented level of accuracy. We find that at low pH, the strong band in the hydrogen bond region is due to the highly ordered water as the surface is positively charged because of the F− dissolution. We also show that an eventual excess proton at the interface can only have a minor impact on the spectra. At high pH, the “free OH” signal is due to the surface Ca-OH groups, which do not hydrogen bond strongly to water.

50.9 Some Perspectives for Future Works

In this chapter, we have presented a few selected examples from our current research activity, which show how AIMD simulations can provide a microscopic

50.9 Some Perspectives for Future Works

understanding of properties at oxide/water interfaces, effectively complementing the experiments. We have discussed how ab initio MD simulations can be successfully employed to describe the water structure and dynamics at interfaces, and to understand the microscopic molecular origin of the vibrational properties measured in the experiments. Additionally, we have also shown how it is possible to use AIMD to calculate the local acidity of mineral surfaces, namely the dissociation constants of different surface sites. In addition to the more general challenges to make AIMD techniques more accurate and efficient, which are of course common to other fields, such as solid-state physics or computational biochemistry, we would like to highlight here a few points, which, we believe, are specific to solid/liquid interfaces and therefore of interest for the reader of this book. Several challenges remain ahead in order to move toward more realistic and predictive models of interfaces of interest for geochemistry but also for industrial purposes. The first challenge we foresee is certainly to move from crystalline, welldefined planar surfaces to more realistic amorphous mineral surfaces. Our work on amorphous silica is a first step in this direction. We have shown how the local environment has a strong impact on the silanols acidity and the geminals sites on the silica surface are a good example of how different environments, namely the local topology (nanoroughness) and hydrophobicity/philicity, can lead to very different local reactivity. A second challenge is the microscopic characterization of charged solid/water interfaces. In the last few years, attention has been shifting from uncharged interfaces (e.g. simpler water–vapor interfaces) to charged interfaces. Here, the use of accurate methods that address the heterogeneity of the interface and treat solid and liquid at the same level of theory is even more crucial. Indeed, the presence of localized/delocalized charges on the surface of ions with very different properties, as well as of external fields, is expected to strongly modify the water properties. One has to unravel how the ions are structurally organized at these interfaces, and how these microscopic charged systems compare to the debated EDL or Langmuir models at mineral/water interfaces. Directly or indirectly related is the investigation of inhomogeneous catalysis at solid/water interfaces. This is especially of interest for industrial purposes where rational design of the surface and rational optimization of chemical reactions in a controlled local environment is highly desirable. Our investigation of silica–water interfaces represent a pioneering work on addressing the role of ions from an AIMD point of view. In particular, we have shown how the ions influence the water organization at interfaces and how they can strongly modify the local reactivity, e.g. shifting the local acidity constants by a few units. A rationalization of pKa changes with respect to the types of electrolytes has shown that the stabilization of the conjugated base has to be accounted for. We have also started to address the role of ions in modifying the interfacial vibrational spectra and further investigations in this direction are in progress in order to accurately include the effect of local electric fields on VSFG spectra. Another challenge is to extend the use of ab initio methods to larger systems and longer time scales, which would improve the prediction of macroscopic properties. Addressing realistic interfaces call for multiscale methods where the accuracy

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50 Structure and Dynamics of Solid/Liquid Interfaces

of AIMD techniques may be combined with the efficiency of more approximate methods. In particular, accurate force fields designed from AIMD calculations can help in the equilibration of complex systems, such as those containing ions, where the presence of charges can slow down equilibration processes, e.g. water dynamics. Progresses are also needed in making the calculation of vibrational interface spectra computationally more affordable. In our recent work, we have shown how it is possible to use suitable velocity–velocity correlation functions, also including the appropriate selection rules, to calculate the one-dimensional VSFG spectra. Such progresses have made possible to investigate multiple model systems, still retaining a full electronic structure description of interfaces. Further progress is required in order to tackle more complex spectroscopic response functions, as for example those measured in time-resolved, pump-probe vibrational experiments. Acknowledgements

We are indebted to Dr Morgane Pfeiffer-Laplaud, Dr Rémi Khatib, Dr. Alvaro Cimas, and Simone Pezzotti (PhD student) for their essential works that have been presented here. Marialore Sulpizi thanks Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) for financial support through TRR146, project A4.

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conformations, and permutational symmetries. J. Chem. Theory Comput. 8: 224. Corcelli, S.A. and Skinner, J.L. (2005). Infrared and Raman line shapes of dilute hod in liquid H2 O and D2 O from 10 to 90 degree. J. Phys. Chem. A 109 (28): 6154–6165. Marzari, N. and Vanderbilt, D. (1997). Maximally localized generalized wannier functions for composite energy bands. Phys. Rev. B 56: 12847–12865. Cimas, A., Tielens, F., Sulpizi, M. et al. (2014). The amorphous silicaliquid water interface studied by ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD): local organization in global disorder. J. Phys. Condens. Matter 26 (24): 244106–244115. Pfeiffer-Laplaud, M. and Gaigeot, M. (2016). Electrolytes at the hydroxylated (0001) α-quartz/water interface: location and structural effects on interfacial silanols by DFT-based MD. J. Phys. Chem. C 120: 14034. Pfeiffer-Laplaud, M. and Gaigeot, M.P. (2016). Adsorption of singly charged ions at the hydroxylated (0001) alphaquartz/water interface. J. Phys. Chem. C 120 (9): 4866–4880. Kosmulski, M. (2002). The pHdependent surface charging and the points of zero charge. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 253: 77. VandeVondele, J., Krack, M., Mohamed, F. et al. (2005). Quickstep: fast and accurate density functional calculations using a mixed gaussian and plane waves approach. Comput. Phys. Commun. 167 (2): 103–128. Grimme, S. (2006). Semiempirical GGA-type density functional constructed with a long-range dispersion correction. J. Comput. Chem. 27 (15): 1787–1799. VandeVondele, J. and Hutter, J. (2007). Gaussian basis sets for accurate calculations on molecular systems in gas and condensed phases. J. Chem. Phys. 127 (11): 114105–114113. Bellucci, F., Lee, S.S., Kubicki, J.D. et al. (2015). Rb+ adsorption at the quartz(101)-aqueous interface: comparison of resonant anomalous X-ray

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reflectivity with ab initio calculations. J. Phys. Chem. C 119 (9): 4778–4788. Kroutil, O., Chval, Z., Skelton, A.A., and Predota, M. (2015). Computer simulations of quartz (101)-water interface over a range of pH values. J. Phys. Chem. C 119 (17): 9274–9286. Lopes, P.E.M., Murashov, V., Tazi, M. et al. (2006). Development of an empirical force field for silica. Application to the quartz-water interface. J. Phys. Chem. B 110 (6): 2782–2792. Notman, R. and Walsh, T.R. (2009). Molecular dynamics studies of the interactions of water and amino acid analogues with quartz surfaces. Langmuir 25 (3): 1638–1644. Wander, M.C.F. and Clark, A.E. (2008). Structural and dielectric properties of quartz-water interfaces. J. Phys. Chem. C 112 (50): 19986–19994. Skelton, A.A., Fenter, P., Kubicki, J.D. et al. (2011). Simulations of the quartz(10(1)over-bar1)/water interface: a comparison of classical force fields, ab initio molecular dynamics, and Xray reflectivity experiments. J. Phys. Chem. C 115 (5): 2076–2088. Fenter, P. and Sturchio, N.C. (2004). Mineral-water interfacial structures revealed by synchrotron X-ray scattering. Prog. Surf. Sci. 77 (5–8): 171–258. de Leeuw, N.H., Higgins, F.M., and Parker, S.C. (1999). Modeling the surface structure and stability of α-quartz. J. Phys. Chem. B 103 (8): 1270–1277. Adeagbo, W.A., Doltsinis, N.L., Klevakina, K., and Renner, J. (2008). Transport processes at α-quartz-water interfaces: insights from first-principles molecular dynamics simulations. Chem. Phys. Chem. 9 (7): 994–1002. Musso, F., Mignon, P., Ugliengo, P., and Sodupe, M. (2012). Cooperative effects at water-crystalline silica interfaces strengthen surface silanol hydrogen bonding. An ab initio molecular dynamics study. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 14 (30): 10507–10514. Leung, K., Nielsen, I.M.B., and Criscenti, L.J. (2009). Elucidating the bimodal acid-base behavior of the water-silica interface from first

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51 Adsorption of Proteins and Anti-biofilm Strategies Vincent Humblot and Claire-Marie Pradier

51.1 Introduction to Biofilms

More than 70 years ago, the scientific community described for the first time the presence of bacterial contaminations at surfaces and named that effect on a solid surface a biofilm [1]. A biofilm is a multicellular community that is more or less complex, often composed of symbiotic microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, algae, etc.) adhering to a surface or together as aggregates, and characterized by the secretion of a protective and adhesive matrix. Consequently, bacteria can be found in two different states when encountered in natural environment: planktonic, i.e. free in media, and sessile, anchored or attached to a surface [2]. Biofilms generally form in water or in an aqueous medium [3]. The biofilm matrix usually encapsulates and protects the embedded bacteria, thus conferring high resistance to surrounding stresses [4]. The formation of a biofilm is a potentially normal step of the life cycle of most bacteria, displaying cooperative behavior and producing differentiated phenotypes that lead to specific functions, sometimes in response to stress [5]. Nowadays, biofilms are still raising accurate problems in a broad range of fields from biomedical to environmental and food industries [6, 7]; two routes are commonly investigated in order to face the issue of biofilm development, trying to get a comprehensive understanding of the initial step of biofilm formation, and, as a direct consequence, design and elaborate strategies to prevent adsorption/adhesion of biomolecules. Figure 51.1 displays a very complete and complex description of the formation of a biofilm [8]. However, one can simplify this complex mechanism to four major steps to form a functional and mature biofilm: 1)

Initial attachment of bacterial cells (before that, adsorption of proteins and extracellular macromolecules), 2) Aggregation and accumulation of cell layers, 3) Biofilm maturation by secretion of an exopolymeric matrix, and 4) Detachment of cells from the biofilm into the planktonic state [9]. This chapter aims at making a point of some recent advances in these two fields, namely the adsorption of proteins on solid surfaces, the numerous parameters that Surface and Interface Science: Liquid and Biological Interfaces, First Edition. Edited by Klaus Wandelt. © 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2020 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

1. Substratum pre-conditioning by ambient molecules

2. Cell deposition

6. Convective and diffusive transport of O2 and nutrients

4. Desorption

3. Cell adsorption

5. Cell-to-cell signaling and onset of exopolymer production

9. Detachment, erosion and sloughing 8. Secretion of polysaccharide matrix 7. Replication and growth

Substratum Figure 51.1 Processes governing biofilm formation. (Source: Breyers and Ratner 2004 [8]. Reproduced with permission of the American Society for Microbiology.)

51.2 Protein Adsorption, Key Parameters, and Protein Film Description

can influence it, and the consequence on the biofilm formation; in Section 51.3, we propose an overview of the various strategies, some being at a mature state of development and some still in their infancy, to develop antibacterial surfaces. A brief overview of the mechanism of biofilm formation is given here below; for extensive details, readers should consult comprehensive reviews [10–12]. During the first stage of biofilm formation (steps 1–3 of Figure 51.1), the only reversible step, the interactions that are taking place between proteins and microorganisms and the surface are nonspecific, although they are driven by a multitude of very specific forces such as electrostatic, hydrophobic, and/or van der Waals and also the texture or roughness of the surface or the surface charge and chemistry. One should also consider parameters within the media that could influence cell attachment, such as pH, temperature, or flow velocity, to cite a few. These parameters are of high importance when considering the adsorption of proteins, before the cell adhesion step. Section 51.2 will, thus, specifically look into protein adsorption and the parameters influencing it, while Section 51.3 will deal with the following steps when bacteria are ready to colonize a substratum. During the maturation phase of a biofilm, i.e. once the substratum is almost fully covered by microorganisms, cell-to-cell communication and interactions take place, usually accompanied with the secretion of extra polymeric substances (EPSs) that protect the biofilm against external aggressions. At that point, the only way to get rid of the biofilm is, most of the time, by mechanical methods, such as scratching or polishing of the surface. The key step is thus indeed how to reduce, even suppress, these interorganism interactions, in order to reduce the attachment of microorganisms.

51.2 Protein Adsorption, Key Parameters, and Protein Film Description 51.2.1 Some General Considerations

Protein interaction is a determining step in the formation of biofilms on solid materials, at stake in various fields, going from the integration of materials in the human body [13] to biorecognition, and even biocorrosion and ruin of materials in the building industry or marine environment. Overall, it is now widely admitted that the initial step of biofilm formation is the adsorption of proteins, often surrounded par extracellular polymers and carbohydrates. Proteins are the species that ensure an irreversible attachment of biofilms, providing both a source of nutriments for coming bacterial cells and strong anchoring points to the surface. The biorecognition phenomena indeed greatly influence cell adhesion, implant osseointegration, blood coagulation or biofouling, etc. It is now commonly admitted that all these biointerface phenomena start with protein and exopolymer adsorption, justifying the focus of this chapter. Biosensing is another field of research where adsorption of proteins (specific vs. nonspecific) has to be controlled the best possible way.

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Indeed, after water interaction, which may lead to various situations depending on the material surface properties, proteins arrive at the surface and may undergo simple and nondegrading adsorption or full denaturation; this also depends on the type of interactions (electrostatic, van der Waals, chemical, etc.) between the protein and the surface. One sees the importance of studying theses interactions at the molecular scale. Proteins are the elementary functional molecules of the living world; they are constituted of peptide chains, organized in 2D and 3D structures (conformation), which determine their bioactivity. It is thus essential to address both the nature of the protein–solid surface interaction and the kinetics, energetics, as well as the resulting changes in the protein 3D structure. All these parameters obviously depend on the material chemistry and structure but also on the conditions of interactions, pH, protein concentration, ionic force, etc. Last but not least, talking about the issue of protein–surface interactions cannot be done without citing the extensive work by Latour [14]. The author already established that the understanding and control of the initial protein films is a key issue in the controlled growth of a biofilm on a surface. He then stressed on the importance of understanding the parameters involved in protein–surface interactions, in particular the surface hydrophobicity; last but not least, he then recalled that, by adsorbing proteins from multicomponent solutions, a small adsorbed protein on a surface may be displaced by another one, which is larger and strongly interacting (Vroman effect [15]). Of course, it is not possible to write an exhaustive description of all criteria that regulate protein adsorption; our goal in this chapter is to mention the most important ones and exemplify them with significant results from the recent literature. We encourage the readers to learn more from other well-documented reviews, some of them being cited in Ref. [16]. 51.2.2 Possible Protein Surface Types of Interactions

Protein molecules may interact with materials via at least four types of bonding, ionic, hydrophobic, van der Waals interaction, and charge transfer. Hydrogen bonds are rarely cited as playing an important role in the interaction of proteins with materials; however, they do ensure the 3D structure of the macromolecules and may be altered or modified upon adsorption of the latter. It is now commonly admitted that proteins denature at a solid–liquid or air–liquid interface while they retain their original conformation more easily on neutral hydrophilic surfaces than on hydrophobic or charged ones [17]. Various parameters should be taken into account when studying protein adsorption, going from surface properties, roughness, hydrophobicity, charge, etc., to protein and solution characteristics, size, stiffness, and acidic properties, to mention some that will be exemplified here below. The type of interactions involved in protein binding is also very much dependent on the protein flexibility. As an example, Kubiak-Ossowska et al. used molecular

51.2 Protein Adsorption, Key Parameters, and Protein Film Description

z x

Figure 51.2 Results of a molecular dynamics calculation of lysozyme on a charged silica surface. The protein adsorbs at its N/C terminal as observed experimentally. Only residues close to the surface are shown;

y

for the silica surface, yellow and red balls represent the Si and O atoms, respectively. (Source: Kubiak-Ossowska and Mulheran 2010 [18]. Reproduced with permission of the American Chemical Society.)

dynamics simulations to describe the adsorption of lysozyme on a charged silica surface; they came to the conclusion that thanks to its flexibility, lysozyme can strongly bind to the surface via its N/C terminals (electrostatic interaction between the positively charged Arg128 fragment and the negatively charged surface). By the way, such geometry leaves the active site intact and available for interactions in solution (see Figure 51.2). In other cases, most frequently, the protein flexibility permits multisite interactions, which is also synonymous of protein denaturation (see examples below). Figure 51.3 illustrates the possible interactions between protein and substrate, making clear the role of both actors and the likely unfolding of proteins to maximize their interactions with the surface [19]. 51.2.3 Effects of Surface Hydrophobicity/Hydrophilicity

Proteins are generally organized in such a way that their hydrophobic residues are buried inside, whereas their hydrophilic functional groups are oriented outside, in contact with the aqueous/biological solvent. This naturally implies that contacts with a hydrophobic or hydrophilic surface will cause protein reorientation and possible change of its conformation. Effects of surface hydrophobicity on protein adsorption were very clear for human serum albumin (HSA) IgG, fibrinogen, and lysozyme on silica (oxidized silicon) and on methylated silica. Surprisingly, results were not the same for these four proteins. HSA, IgG, and fibrinogen adsorb in

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51 Adsorption of Proteins and Anti-biofilm Strategies

–

– + + + +

– –

+

Protein –

+

–

– – – – – –

+

+

+

+ +

+

+

+

– – –

+ + + + + + + +

Biomaterial

–

Negative charge

Polar region

+

Positive charge

Hydrophobic region

Figure 51.3 Schematic illustration of molecular surface possible types of interactions. (Source: Dee et al. 2003 [19]. Reproduced with permission of John Wiley & Sons.)

much lower amounts on hydrophilic surface, whereas the reverse was observed for lysozyme [20]. The larger amount of lysozyme on silica, compared to methylated silica was attributed to the electrostatic attractions between oppositely charged surface and enzyme, which overcome hydrophobic interactions; let us recall that such an effect was observed in a 0.01 M phosphate buffer, which represents a rather high ionic strength. Moreover, differences in the layer structure and homogeneity were observed, suggesting the importance of protein chemistry: fibrinogen layers on silica and CH3 –silica have very different thicknesses but rather similar refractive indexes; the authors concluded that fibrinogen exists on the surface under several different orientations and always show quite low density. Lysozyme behaves differently; it adsorbs in a much higher amount on SiO2 and forms a much denser layer (several equivalent monolayers), accompanied by a much higher refractive index on the hydrophilic surface (see Figure 51.4). Interestingly, fibronectin (Fn), a compact and stiffer protein, does not behave like bovine serum albumin (BSA) on polypyrrole surfaces, whatever their roughness. Fn undergoes a considerable unfolding on the hydrophilic surface, even greater than that on the hydrophobic one, conversely to what is commonly observed for most proteins, in particular BSA, the most studied one [21]. Note that this conformation change Fn on a hydrophilic surface, leading to a more “open” and hydrated protein layers, also leads to an enhanced bioactivity (enhanced cell adhesion). Energy loss, upon protein adsorption, is often said to be greater on hydrophilic than on hydrophobic surfaces [22]. Note eventually that changing the hydrophilic/ hydrophobic properties of a surface may have a consequence not only on the amount of adsorbed proteins but also on their orientation and thus bioactivity; this was clearly demonstrated in Lebec et al. work [23, 24] which describes the

5

1.4

4

1.39 1.38

3 nr

Γ (mg/m2)

51.2 Protein Adsorption, Key Parameters, and Protein Film Description

2

1.36

1 0

1.37

1.35 0

2000

4000

6000

1.34

8000

0

Time (s)

6000

8000

1.7

4

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3 nr

Γ (mg/m2)

4000 Time (s)

5

1.5

2 1.4

1 0 0 (a)

2000

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 Time (s)

1.3 (b)

0

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 Time (s)

Figure 51.4 (a) Adsorbed layer thickness and (b) mean adsorbed layer refractive index for fibrinogen (upper curves) and lysozyme (lower curves) on silica (full circles) and methylated silica (empty circles). (Source: Malmsten 1995 [20]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)

adsorption of an antibody against the glutamate dehydrogenase enzyme (anti-GdH) adsorb on a COOH- or CH3 -terminated surface. From either in situ quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) or ex-situ polarization-modulation infrared reflectionabsorption spectroscopy (PM-IRRAS), both described in Chapter 49 in this Volume (see Figure 51.5), antibodies tend to adsorb preferentially on the latter surface because of strong hydrophobic interactions. The surfaces were also characterized by time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), followed by a protein-fragment complementation assay (PCA) data analysis, which revealed a net difference in the detected fragments, demonstrating a change in the antibody orientation (see Figure 51.6). This has a direct consequence on GdH recognition, which was only efficient on the COOH-terminated surface, despite the lower amount of immobilized probes [23]. Last but not least, the folding/unfolding process that proteins undergo at a surface, in particular the exposure of their hydrophobic segments toward a hydrophobic surface, is a dynamic one; it is time dependent and sometimes reversible when, for instance, proteins are adsorbed after one another. Proteins may first interact via a limited number of sites; they then unfold to expose additional functional groups that bind to the surface (see scheme of Figure 51.7a). Note that, at high protein concentration in solution, more proteins adsorb and undergo lower unfolding (Figure 51.7b).

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51 Adsorption of Proteins and Anti-biofilm Strategies

5.00 Amide I + II bands area (arb. units)

204

+ Milk

Anti-GDH

+ GDH

4.00

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00 –COOH

–COOH, NHS-EDC

–CH3

Figure 51.5 PM-IRRAS amide band intensities, measured on the COOH− , COOH+ activation, and CH3 -terminated surfaces, bare (dark line), after anti-GdH binding (gray line),

after saturation by milk proteins (dark gray line), and after GdH recognition (light gray line). (Source: Lebec et al. 2014 [24]. Taken with permission of Elsevier.)

Fab Anti-GDH

GDH

Fc

GDH/anti-GDH = 0

GDH/anti-GDH ≈ 0.5

–CH3 Gold

–COOH Gold

Figure 51.6 Schematic representation of the adsorbed antibodies on the –CH3 , –COOH, and –COOH activated by N-hydroxysuccinimide

GDH/anti-GDH ≈ 1.3

–COOH, NHS-EDC Gold

(NHS)-1-(3-(dimethylamino)propyl)-N-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC)-terminated surfaces. (Source: Dolatshahi-Pirouz et al. 2008 [24]. Taken with permission of Elsevier.)

51.2.4 Influence of Surface Topography

Another important, although rarely mentioned, parameter is the roughness of the surface, which may greatly affect protein interactions, as well as the growth of protein films in a biological environment; its influence is complex and sometimes controversial. Moreover, how surface roughness changes protein films also depends on the nature of the proteins. Let us take the example of BSA, a so-called “soft” protein; the influence of surface roughness at various scales on its adsorption has been recently performed by several authors. The amount of adsorbed BSA was shown to increase with the surface

51.2 Protein Adsorption, Key Parameters, and Protein Film Description

Low bulk concentration

High bulk concentration

(a)

(b)

Figure 51.7 (a) Schematic representation of the time-dependent unfolding of proteins. (b) Schematic representation of the concentration-dependent unfolding of proteins. (Source: Dee et al. 2003 [19]. Taken with permission of Wiley.)

roughness, in a proportion higher than the variation in the surface geometric areas [25, 26]. In some cases, this was explained by the role of nanobumps on a surface as nucleation sites and ordering promoters for BSA (in the case of nanopyramids on platinum). As an example, fibronectin and BSA were adsorbed on polypyrrole doped with dextran sulfate on a flat gold-coated quartz [27]. On polypyrrole, the authors suggest that a rough surface facilitates the formation of BSA multilayers, driven by a reorientation of the macromolecules and a decrease of the adlayer viscoelasticity. BSA can adsorb in a more compact way on rough surfaces; this goes together with a higher protein denaturation to comply with the surface structure; this is why the viscoelasticity of a protein film is lower on a rough surface than on a flat surface. Linked to the surface topography, adsorption of proteins on nanoparticles, a crucial question for nanomedicine applications, very much depends on particle size and porosity. Clemments et al. characterized the adsorption of proteins from fetal bovine serum on spherical and mesoporous silica nanoparticles whose diameters were in the range of 70–900 nm [28]. They observed that smallest particles adsorb the highest amount of proteins per surface area. Interestingly, a lower amount of proteins adsorb on large and porous nanoparticles than on small porous ones; this has been explained by a blocking of the available sites by proteins, which adsorb first and gather close to the pore entrance. Of course, these considerations have to be modulated by protein size, the smallest ones adsorbing in higher amounts on smallest nanoparticles. This paper is a basic one for designing efficient “particlebased strategies.” In the same vein, Schlipf et al. demonstrated that tuning the size of pores may permit a selective adsorption and loading of proteins into mesoporous silica [29] and reference therein. This result opens the way toward a new type of

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51 Adsorption of Proteins and Anti-biofilm Strategies

biosensors or bioseparation devices. Noticeable is the influence of pH upon protein unfolding (vide infra), which of course may render insertion of unfolded proteins possible while it is not at certain pH values. The control of surface topography is now well known to be essential for the biocompatibility of implants; talking about the possible growth of an osteoblast on a new hydroxyapatite material, the prerequisite of osteointegration is the ability to adsorb bioactive proteins such as immunoglobulins, fibrinogen, and fibronectin, to cite a few of them [30]. It is thus obvious that improving the biocompatibility of a material also means improving protein adsorption. This motivated Lin et al. who fabricated Hap bioceramics of various shapes and sizes and investigated the adsorption of Fg, Fn HSA, and Vn [31]. Compared to flat surfaces, 3D micro- or nanotextured surfaces enhance adsorption of proteins, in particular Fn and Vn in plasma, and further promote cell proliferation. BSA (66 kDa) and Fg, a much larger protein (340 kDa), were adsorbed on silica particles whose sizes were in the range of 15–165 nm and covered either by OH or CH3 groups; protein adsorption isotherms were then determined. Interestingly, the affinity constant and the total amount of proteins at a saturated surface are determined in opposite ways, regardless of the surface hydrophilicity, when varying the size of the particles. Higher affinity constants and lower saturation values were observed on the smaller particles, with net different behaviors of the two proteins (see Figure 51.8). By studying the conformation changes of the adsorbed proteins, the authors correlated the influence of the nanoparticle sizes on the amount and affinity of proteins with their softness or rigidity: BSA, a globular protein, is less distorted on high surface curvature nanoparticles, whereas fibrinogen, a rodlike protein, tends to spread onto the nanoparticle surface [32]. Protein orientation and/or unfolding is also a key issue for chromatographic surfaces where protein binding is at the basis of a purification process. An overview of the complex behavior of proteins on chromatographic substrates, making clear the various parameters influencing protein orientation and unfolding, can be found in Ref. [33]. 51.2.5 Effect of Surface Charge on Protein Binding

An example has been extensively described, namely the case of titanium surfaces. Titanium is a material of choice for bone or dental implant for which protein and other biomolecule adhesion is a clue to biocompatibility or osseointegration. In this context, Guo et al. reported that negatively charged surfaces of titanium have a higher ability to promote bone implant integration; this was explained by the attraction of Ca2+ cations, which in turn attract negatively charged phosphate ions, precursors of apatite, and most importantly cell adhesion proteins (integrins or fibronectin as examples) [34]. On the contrary, positively charged surfaces are commonly said to be antiadhesive [35]. Gluthatione-SH (GSH) (Glu–Cys–Gly), a ubiquitous tripeptide bearing two COOH and one NH2 groups, was adsorbed from solutions at pH 1, 6, or 12

4 0 7.5

10

30

40

82.5

Protein per unit

12 8 4 0 7.5

10

30 15 Substrate radius (nm)

Saturation amount 3 2 1 0 7.5

10

40

82.5 (d)

15

30

40

82.5

40

82.5

Substrate radius (nm)

(c)

Substrate radius (nm)

Affinity constant

Hydrophilic

15

Protein per unit

8

(a)

(b)

Fg

surface area (mg/m2)

BSA

surface area (mg/m2)

Hydrophilic

Affinity constant

Affinity constant 12

3 2 1 0 7.5

10

15

30

Substrate radius (nm)

Figure 51.8 Affinity constants of BSA and Fg on hydrophilic and hydrophobic nanoparticles of various sizes. (Source: Roach et al. 2006 [32]. Taken with permission of the American Chemical Society.)

51 Adsorption of Proteins and Anti-biofilm Strategies

BSA in PBS 20 mg/l 9 8

PM-IRRAS 0.05 XPS

7

0.04

6 0.03 5

3

0.01

2 Cationic Zwitterionic GSH GSH

(a)

Anionic GSH

Au

BSA in water 20 mg/l 9 PM-IRRAS XPS

8 7

0.05 0.04

6 0.03 5 0.02

4 3

XPS : area(N1s)/Au4f

(b)

0.02

4

XPS : area(N1s)/Au4f

PM-IRRAS : amides I and II bands area

on a gold surface; it was first shown that after soft rinsing conditions, the peptides retain on the surface the charges it bears in solution. Tuning the solution pH thus enables to obtain a positively charged surface by adsorption of the cationic (NH3 + /COOH/COOH), neutral (NH2 /COOH/COOH), or anionic (NH2 /COOH/COO− ) form of the peptide. The BSA protein was then adsorbed, either from pure Milli-Q water (pH 5) or from a buffer solution (pH 7); the main result from these experiments is the evidence of a direct influence of the surface charge on BSA adsorption. The latter was significant only in water and when electrostatic interactions were favored by opposite charges of the surface and protein (see Figure 51.9); adsorption from a saline buffered solution was very weak because of the screening of electrostatic interactions by ions in solution [36, 37].

PM-IRRAS : amides I and II bands area

208

0.01

2 Cationic Zwitterionic GSH GSH

Anionic GSH

Figure 51.9 Adsorption of BSA, measured from PM-IRRAS and XPS surface analysis on a gold surface modified by preadsorption of GSH at various pH. (a) Adsorption of BSA in

Au

a PBS saline buffer and (b) adsorption of BSA from water. (Source: Taken with permission of Valle et al. 2011 [36].)

51.2 Protein Adsorption, Key Parameters, and Protein Film Description

51.2.6 Effect of Concentration and pH of the Protein Solution

As biocompatibility is a major concern for polymer-based biomaterials, adsorption of proteins on these materials has also been the subject of detailed investigations [38]. As for inorganic materials, topography and chemistry of the material surface may influence protein adsorption and either favor protein repellence (anti-biofilm surfaces) or, on the contrary, favor selective interaction of proteins. It is now well established that some chemical groups may be used to modify surfaces and increase their resistance to protein adsorption. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains are among the most commonly mentioned as efficient protein repellants [39]. We saw several examples where the surface charge and/or hydrophilicity may significantly change protein affinity to the material. Such properties obviously change as a function of the solution pH, which can, in turn, be a way to tune protein adsorption. Let us take the example of titanium surfaces; in solution concentration ranging from 1 to 10 g/l, at physiological pH, BSA adsorption obeys a Langmuir law. Moreover, the Langmuir constant strongly varies with the pH, with a behavior out of the Langmuir law at low pH (5.2), obviously because of the absence of repelling charges at a pH close to the isoelectric points of both the BSA and the titanium surfaces (see Figure 51.10) [40]. Adsorption of various forms of lactoglobulin was also investigated at various pH, on a Pt electrode, and measured by cyclic voltammetry [41]. The amount of adsorbed proteins was the highest at pH 2 and the lowest at pH 11. It is now admitted that the adsorption of β-lactoglobulin on a metal involves a chemical binding of its carboxyl groups [42]. Of course, the adsorption behavior, dictated by such interactions,

1.0 0.8

θ

0.6 0.4 0.2

pH 5.2 pH 7.0 pH 8.5

0.0 0.0000

1E–3

0.01 0.1 c(BSA) (g/l)

Figure 51.10 Surface coverage by BSA, measured by XPS and ToF-SIMS on pure titanium, from solutions at various pH. A Langmuir fit was correct for pH 7 or 8.5. At low

1

10

pH, the surface is saturated at all concentrations. (Source: Wilhelmi et al. 2011 [40]. Taken with permission of Springer.)

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51 Adsorption of Proteins and Anti-biofilm Strategies

is logically affected by pH, the enhanced chemisorption at acidic pH, where the protein has a net positive charge and gets depleted in calcium ions, being attributed to an unfolding of the macromolecule that maximizes the number of interactions. At elevated pH, carboxyl groups are deprotonated, they strongly interact with water, and this increases the energy necessary to their binding to the surface. Similar to pH, buffer may also have an influence on protein adsorption; phosphate-buffered saline is the most commonly used solvent at physiological pH, and the presence of phosphate ions compete for adsorption on a surface. It was, for instance, shown that adsorption of negatively charged proteins, such as BSA, IgG, or fibrinogen, is lower in phosphate buffer salt (PBS), compared to tris-HCl on a Ge surface, and this is because of the adsorption of negative phosphate ions from the solvent, in disfavor of protein attachment. Lysozyme, a positively charged protein, was similarly tested; a little effect of solvent was observed confirming the above-cited interpretation [43]. 51.2.7 Protein Unfolding/Denaturation on Surfaces

Proteins mediate the interactions between cells and solid materials in a biological environment. As example, some cell-adhesive proteins, such as fibrinogen, fibronectin, or laminins, have been used to coat substrates and favor cell adhesion and growth [44]. Moreover, once adsorbed, the structure conformation of proteins may either promote or disfavor cell adhesion and/or tissue repairing. In that sense, understanding and controlling protein interactions are vital for designing functional biomaterial surfaces. This was particularly well exemplified in Roach et al.’s paper; they characterized and compared the adsorption of BSA and fibrinogen (Fg) on CH3 - and OH-terminated gold surfaces and paid special attention to the modifications in the infrared (IR) amide bands to obtain a very accurate witness of protein conformational changes. As expected, BSA has a higher affinity toward the CH3 than the OH-terminated surfaces. Grazing angle infrared analysis revealed changes in the shape and positions of the amide I band, as well as of the amide I/II intensity ratio. It is particularly clear that on the CH3 -terminated surface, the contribution at c. 1655 cm−1 , characteristic of a helices, significantly decreases, much more than on COOH-terminated ones; this was true for both proteins, nevertheless less pronounced for fibrinogen, and attributed to a strong interaction with hydrophobic surfaces [45]. Eventually, observing the adsorption isotherms of BSA and Fg on the two surfaces indicates that an elongated protein, such as Fg, adsorbs in a two-step process while a globular one, such as BSA, adsorbs in a continuous way; the authors interpreted these different behaviors in the following way: Fg tends to maximize the number of interactions (i) first with the surface and (ii) then in-between molecules, thus leading to a more compact adsorbed layer. Comparatively, BSA, which has a more “symmetrical” shape, is likely slightly distorted on the surface but does not undergo further rearrangement upon further adsorption (see model on Figure 51.11).

51.2 Protein Adsorption, Key Parameters, and Protein Film Description

BSA

Fg

(i)

Figure 51.11 Schematic representation of conformational changes of globular or elongated proteins (like BSA and Fn, respectively), caused by interaction with a solid surface;

(ii)

the first one is slightly distorted, while the second one adsorbs and rearranges on the surface in two steps. (Source: Taken with permission of Roach et al. [45].)

Interestingly, some authors demonstrated that coadsorption of several proteins may induce a switch in the conformation of one of them, which would not occur if adsorbed alone. As an example, fibronectin can be coadsorbed with HSA on a hydrophobic polymer [46]. Indeed, understanding the complex interplay of several constituents of a biointerface is a necessary step toward controlling differentiation or biofilm construction. Note that the simultaneous presence of several proteins is an obvious case in all biofilms. Giamblanco et al. investigated the change in the conformation, and thus the bioactivity of fibronectin (Fn) when coadsorbed with HSA on a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) surface. This analysis was done by examining the availability of the 4 F1 and 5 F1 Fn subunits, supposed to be recognized by the anti-Fn antibodies. To that goal, spectroscopic ellipsometry was combined with atomic force microscopy (AFM) (see Chapter 3.5 in Volume 1 and Chapter 49 in this Volume) and QCM to determine the amount of adsorbed proteins as well as the layer thickness and morphology. Importantly, the accessibility of the Fn binding fragments (4 F1 and 5 F ) was evaluated by submitting the protein films to anti-Fn antibodies and compar1 ing the amount of bound antibodies on a pure Fn and on a mixed Fn + HSA layer. The main results are the following: (i) Fn and Fn + HSA adsorption yield layers of similar thicknesses while a pure layer of HSA is less than twice smaller, suggesting that the layer resulting from a HSA + Fn mixture is mainly composed by Fn proteins. (ii) However, a net lower recognition anti-Fn antibody was observed after adsorption of a HSA + Fn binary mixture. The conclusion is that a low amount of HSA is present and sufficient to considerably reduce the accessibility of the 4 F1 and 5 F1 Fn domains; these results indicate a different conformation of the Fn proteins (less denatured) when coadsorbed with HSA as schematized in Figure 51.12. The first part of this chapter tells us that protein–surface interactions are governed by a combination of numerous factors, some of them being possibly modulated “à façon,” like the pH or concentration of the protein solution and, to a certain extent, the surface topography/roughness. Chemical modifications of surfaces may of course change their hydrophobicity as well as their chemical reactivity; it open new routes toward the control of protein adsorption and subsequent biofilm formation.

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51 Adsorption of Proteins and Anti-biofilm Strategies

RGD

4

Fn

F15F1

Water

Fn on PHMS (a) 4

F15F1

RGD

Fn

Water

HSA

Fn + HSA on PHMS (b) Figure 51.12 Schematic illustration of the change in the HSA conformation when (a) adsorbed alone or (b) coadsorbed with Fn on a PDMS surface; the accessibility of the

4F 1

and 5 F1 Fn subunits, targeted by the anti-Fn antibodies is obviously affected. (Source: Giamblanco et al. 2011 [46]. Taken with permission of ACS Publications.)

51.3 Biofilm Prevention, Some Well-Settled or Innovative Strategies 51.3.1 Some General Considerations

It is now established that the development of a biofilm is done in several steps; it is initiated by the formation of a primary film, which results from the ad-, or the absorption of organic macromolecules (proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, etc.) and the liquid present in the inorganic phase. This phenomenon leads to the change of physical and chemical properties of the surfaces and promotes bacterial adhesion. One of the proposed solutions is to act directly on the first step of forming a biofilm: by inhibiting the adhesion of the primary film. Recent work has been done in this direction with the use of hydrophobic polymers (e.g. PEG) or covalent binding of antibacterial peptides or enzymes [47–49]. These chemical treatments significantly reduce the adhesion of microorganisms but only for limited periods of time. Obtaining bacteria-resistant materials for long-term (several months or even years) is yet another challenge faced by one major difficulty to solve: surface chemistry; if one can slow or reduce protein adsorption, the first layer can hide the chemical functionality of a protective layer underneath. In contrast, the effects of surface topography on bacterial adhesion and subsequent biofilm formation have been identified but and are still not fully exploited because their mechanism of action is still poorly understood [50]. The “structure” of surface (roughness, adding

51.3 Biofilm Prevention, Some Well-Settled or Innovative Strategies

nano or microparticles, etc.) may provide more permanent effects that modify the interactions between bacteria and surfaces. We will show below, through a few chosen examples, how the first steps of biofilm formation can be inhibited or reduced by applying surface protections as above mentioned. 51.3.2 Antimicrobial Action

In this section, examples of antimicrobial functionalization will be presented, which highlight differences in the possible modes of action of surface agents, either bactericidal/biocidal or bacteriostatic (i.e. unable bacterial growth). One of the strategies for preventing the proliferation of microorganisms on surfaces consists in coating the surface with a layer of biocidal molecules, which are able to kill the microorganisms either by contact or by release of active substances. According to their chemical nature, these products may target various physiological or metabolic functions of microorganisms. For instance, some interact with the cell wall, resulting in structural or functional changes that often lead to the lysis of the cell wall; others interact with the cytoplasmic membrane, disrupting its structural organization or increasing its permeability to ions, thereby causing effusion of the intracellular material; others target the cytoplasmic constituents (enzymes and metabolites), inhibiting the cell wall synthesis, proteins, or nucleic acids. Some reviews give details on the various antimicrobial molecules, ranging from antibiotics, polymers, and enzymes to natural products, their grafting strategies, and antifouling efficiency [51, 52]. Depending on the mechanism of action involved, microorganisms may develop a natural resistance to the active substance. Microorganisms can also become resistant to a given product by mutation or gene transfer. This resistance results from several physiological and molecular events: inactivation of biocidal products by enzymatic degradation or modification, alteration of the molecular target, etc. To counter these resistance phenomena, it seems nowadays necessary to reduce the use of biocidal substances and develop new molecular strategies. The efforts focus on finding biocidal agents capable of inducing cell death by acting on several targets (i.e. broad spectrum) or developing original mechanisms of action. Therefore, biocidal molecules that will target microorganism membranes with no specificity, for instance, a molecule attacking any kind of peptidoglycans regardless of the bacterial strain, appear particularly interesting. In this context, an increasing attention has been paid to the strategies developed by Nature and biocides secreted by plants, animals, and microorganisms themselves. These biomimetic approaches have led to put great effort to find, among others, peptides, antimicrobial enzymes, and essential oils. 51.3.2.1 Antimicrobial Peptides from Animals or Microorganisms

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are the key actors of the innate immune system of various organisms (animals, plants, fungi, bacteria, and viruses); they

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51 Adsorption of Proteins and Anti-biofilm Strategies

protect against a broad spectrum of adverse microorganisms through their antimicrobial and immunoregulatory activities [53]. There are numerous natural peptides displaying various structural and functional properties but are all characterized by their cationic and amphiphilic character resulting from the presence of hydrophobic portions in their composition [54]. Among the 2500 AMPs quoted in the literature, we will present here below one example of AMP surface coating from a bio-derived molecule: nisin. However, reviews or articles concerning other AMP studies and mode of action can interest readers, for instance, the use of gramicidin [55, 56], magainin [47, 49], and temporin [57, 58], to cite a few. The Nisin A peptide, a 34 amino acid (AA) AMP produced by Lactococcus lactis [59], is commonly used as a food preservative; it is recognized as a safe preservative by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and known to be effective against Gram-positive bacteria [60, 61]. This peptide is amphiphilic, as most of the antimicrobial bio-derived peptides; it is composed of a hydrophilic part, in the inner part of the molecule, and a hydrophobic part that is located at the C-ter end (right-hand side of Figure 51.13). Nisin immobilized on the surface has been mainly applied in food industry [59, 62, 63], as well as in the biomedical and veterinary fields [64, 65] and, eventually, recent examples report the use of nisin incorporated within polyester fabrics [66]. We will present here few examples of the use of nisin as an antibiofilm agent, either in vitro to attest to the efficiency of the peptides or adsorbed on surfaces as a food antibiofilm coating. Kapila et al. have carried out in vitro saliva-derived biofilm assays to attest to the efficiency of nisin toward Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria that could be present in a human oral biofilm [64]. In solution, i.e. toward planktonic bacteria, nisin has very low minimum inhibition and bactericidal concentrations, minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC), respectively. The nisin MIC values are in the range of 2–40 μg/ml for Gram negative- and Gram-positive oral biofilm bacteria, respectively, which are only higher by 1 order of magnitude compared to common Ciprofloxacin antibiotic’s MIC, measured at 0.25 μg/ml. Moreover, the MIC/MBC ratio is for several tested Hydrophobic part

Hydrophilic part

Figure 51.13 Nisin structure showing the hydrophobic C-ter side at the right-hand side of the molecule.

51.3 Biofilm Prevention, Some Well-Settled or Innovative Strategies

A

Nisin (μg/ml) Control

40 μm

0.5

40 μm

1

40 μm

Figure 51.14 Nisin inhibits the formation of multispecies biofilms in a static model system. Cell-containing saliva (CCS) was inoculated in filter-sterilized cell-free saliva (CFS) for 20–22 hours at 37 ∘ C with or without nisin. Confocal microscopy images are represented in the x–y plane. A green signal indicates viable/live cells (Syto9), and a red

4

40 μm

8

40 μm

signal indicates damaged/dead cells (propidium iodide). (Source: Reproduced with permission of Shin et al. 2015 [64]. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Copyright 2015, Creative Commons.)

bacterial strains equal to, or higher than, 4, which evidences a bacteriostatic affect rather than a bactericidal one [67]. The next step in this reported study was to monitor the potential biofilm inhibition in the presence of nisin. Saliva-derived multispecies biofilms were grown with or without nisin. Under static growth conditions, early signs of biofilm membrane damage were observed at nisin concentrations ≥0.5 μg/ml (Figure 51.14). Confocal microscopy gives other information about the biofilm health. Using fluorescent markers (Syto 9 and PI), one can discriminate alive (appearing in green) from damaged (appearing in red) bacteria (see Figure 51.14). The conclusion that can be drawn from the experiments presented in Figure 51.14 is twofold: first the biofilm growth is inhibited from a very low concentration of nisin, c. 0.5 μg/ml, to be almost completely annihilated at 8 μg/ml; second, when looking at the fraction of green vs. red bacteria in the remaining biofilm, it appears that most of the bacteria are colored in red, thus dead. This clearly demonstrates the bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects of nisin in vitro toward a complex multispecies biofilm. Similar studies were carried out using nisin immobilized on surfaces. Among them, one can cite the functionalization of stainless steel (SS) [62, 63] or polyethylene (PE) [59] surfaces, both to solve problems linked to food industry, mainly concerning food-borne diseases due to the packaging or in tools used for food preparation. In all cases, the surfaces need to be pretreated with an anchoring primer before the nisin molecules could be linked. Based on the precedent example showing in vitro (in solution) biofilm growth assays, the primers used in these studies play, most of the time, a twofold role: first as an anchoring platform for strong binding of nisin and second as a possible antiadhesive effect. Thus, in the case of PE, the primer layer was acrylic acid, which renders the surface more hydrophilic with the consequence to increase by a factor of 3 the quantity of adsorbed nisin [59]. Assessment of the antimicrobial activity of these modified PE films was then achieved against food pathogens, namely Listeria innocua or Listeria

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51 Adsorption of Proteins and Anti-biofilm Strategies

monocytogenes. Again, the results of these experiments brought answers to multiple issues, showing various aspects of biofouling. For instance, Chihib and coworkers show that the efficiency of the films was directly correlated with both the nature of the film and the amount of nisin adsorbed on the surfaces [59]. First, by modifying the PE films with acrylic acid, the surface becomes more hydrophilic, and this impact the adsorption of nisin in two ways: nisin has a predominant hydrophobic part, see Figure 51.13, and the molecule will experience less conformational changes when adsorbed on a hydrophilic surface than on a hydrophobic one; hence, its bactericidal activity will be maintained, similar to the one observed for free nisin molecules in solution. The second point lies in the efficiency of the nisin-coated surface, its antimicrobial activity increases by 1 order of magnitude (compared to bare PE), when the PE film was precoated with AA. Turning now to metallic surfaces, and more precisely to SS surfaces, the grafting strategy is different. SS is a material of choice for use when sterile surface are absolutely needed, in food or medical industries for instance; in addition, the coating needs to be resistant to possible leaching of the active compounds. Therefore, the choice of a covalent binding through the use of primers is often made. General grafting strategy is presented in Figure 51.15, where SS is first hydroxylated before being functionalized by spacers that will then anchor the active product. In this example, the functionalization of the SS surface is carried in a three-step process, with the use of a primer, chitosan; a glutaraldehyde (GA) spacer is added in-between the primer and the nisin molecule in order to drive the antibacterial molecule further away from the surface. The second example shows a slightly different two-step process [63]; after activation of the surface by atmospheric plasma, the nisin was covalently bound to the SS surface via an aminosilane, (3-aminopropyl)trimethoxysilane (APTMS). In these two examples, the modified surface was characterized by means of IR spectroscopy and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) in order to attest to the grafting and calculate the amount of nisin grafted on the surface. Conditions were optimized to obtain the highest possible coverage in nisin at the surface. The nisin-modified surfaces were then assayed against Gram-positive bacteria, Listeria HO OH H H 2C

HO

H O HO H

OH H H2C H

H H3C

CHI step1

O

NH H C O

SS-SC

HO

OH

H

OH

NH H C O

OH

H H3C

OH

GA-Tere step2

NIS-MAG step3

Figure 51.15 Scheme of the three-step adsorption process leading to the covalent grafting of nisin. (Source: From Héquet et al. 2011 [62]. Copyright 2011, Elsevier.)

51.3 Biofilm Prevention, Some Well-Settled or Innovative Strategies

ivanovii in the first example and Bacillus subtilis in the second one. In both cases, the efficiency of the immobilized nisin was made clear by two different biological methods. Héquet et al. carried out killing assays, i.e. the bacteria are in contact with the nisin-modified surface (SS-nisin) for a given time (typically three hours) and then all bacteria are recovered and grown on an agar plate. The killing rate is obtained by comparing the amount of bacteria that grows on the nonmodified control surface (SS) and on the nisin-modified surface (SS-nisin); it rose to more than 95% of killed bacteria in the latter case [62]. In the second example by Choquet and coworkers [63], the antibacterial test was slightly different: the growth inhibition was tested in order to evidence, not directly the killing efficiency of the modified surface but its capacity to reduce the development of a biofilm. Thus, it was evidenced that the nisin-modified surface inhibits by 3.6 log (i.e. more than 99.9% efficiency) the bacterial growth compared to the SS control surface; in other words, when 1000 bacteria colonies forming unit (cfu) develop from a bacterial solution deposited on the SS surface, only one does on the modified SS–nisin surface. In addition, after 24 hours of contact, the bacteria that are still present in the surface are almost all dead (see on Figure 51.16, the dead bacteria in red). These examples demonstrate that nisin is a very efficient antibiofilm molecules and that its mode of action can be very different and complementary by either killing bacteria or inhibiting their growth. It was first shown that biofilms could be almost annihilated by a low concentration of nisin in solution. In the case of nisin immobilized on SS surface, the chosen examples illustrate two different modes of action for these modified surface: on the one hand, reduce the possible development of a biofilm by 99.9% (bacteriostatic effect); on the other hand, for the remaining bacteria that can be adhered to the surface, a 95% killing efficiency was observed

(a)

(b)

Figure 51.16 Fluorescence microscopic analyses of B. subtilis bacteria incubated for 24 hours on APTMS (a) and on nisin peptide-grafted APTMS (b). Bacteria were stained by using a LIVE/DEAD BacLight viability kit. Live cells are indicated by green

™

fluorescence, whereas cells with damaged membranes are indicated by red fluorescence. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Duday et al. 2013 [63]. Copyright 2013, Elsevier.)

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51 Adsorption of Proteins and Anti-biofilm Strategies

(bactericidal effect), demonstrating the important applications that the use of nisin may have for the engineering of antibacterial surfaces. 51.3.2.2 Enzymes

Another class of antibiofilm molecules, frequently used in coatings in the biomedical field, is the family of enzymes; in fact, the natural antimicrobial strategies of many living organisms involve enzymes. These proteins are capable of lowering the energy of activation of chemical reactions that are involved to limit the growth of microorganisms [68–71]. The antimicrobial activity of proteases (or peptidases) is targeted against the peptides contained in the cell wall. Indeed, these enzymes, such as trypsin, subtilisin, or papain, are capable of breaking the peptide bonds of proteins, in the presence of water. The biocidal mechanism of lysozymes consists in the destruction of microbial walls by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the peptidoglycan component. Enzymes can also be used to produce biocidal compounds; as an example, glucose oxidase produces hydrogen peroxide and haloperoxidases generate halogen acids, such as HOBr or HOCl. However, the fragility and cost of enzymes restrict their wide-scale use. In addition, for surface applications, where enzymes must be immobilized, one needs to make sure to preserve the accessibility of their active site after immobilization. Among the hundreds of antimicrobial enzymes listed in the literature, we will present one example of surface coating by an enzyme, the lysozyme, but examples of surfaces coating with other enzymes such as trypsin [48], subtilisin [72], papain [73], and lysozyme [74] can also interest the readers. Lysozyme, found in tears, mucous, saliva, plasma, tissue fluid, etc., breaks peptidoglycan in bacteria causing osmotic lysis. Specifically, it breaks the bond between the N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM), the two sugars that constitute the backbone of peptidoglycan. Over the multiple lysozyme enzymes, one has proven to be particularly potent against Gram-positive bacteria, the lysozyme from hen egg white, HEWL, Figure 51.17, especially when immobilized at the surface of polymeric packaging films led to materials displaying bacterial growth inhibiting properties, for instance [75, 76]. Several examples also reported the use of lysozyme, grafted on SS surfaces, often used in the food industry [48, 74, 77]. Most of the grafting strategies on hydroxylated SS surfaces rely on the creation of a first anchoring layer (catechol, polyethyleneimine [PEI], chitosan, etc.), followed by the covalent grafting of a spacer (GA, PEG-derivated, etc.) before the creation of an amide bond between the spacer and the enzyme. Caro et al. have proposed a multiple step process to carry out the grafting of HEWL via the use of two spacers, PEI and GA, Figure 51.18. In this work, the authors have studied different parameters that may influence the enzymatic activity of bounded HEWL such as the quantity of grafted enzymes, the distance from the surface via short or long spacers, and compared the activity of HEWL with another enzyme, trypsin. The authors concluded that the covalent immobilization processes led to firmly bound and active enzyme layers and that their hydrolytic activity originated exclusively from surface-bound

51.3 Biofilm Prevention, Some Well-Settled or Innovative Strategies

Figure 51.17 Structure of lysozyme from hen egg white (HEWL). (Source: Reproduced with permission of Dreamstime.com.)

ENZ CHO CHO

CHO NH2 NH2

O

NH2

NH2 NH2 NH2 OH OH O OH OH OH

SS-SC-PEI

N N

O

ENZ N

N

N

N N

N

N

NH2 NH2 NH2 OH OH O OH OH OH

NH2 NH2 NH2 OH OH O OH OH OH

O

SS-SC-PEI-GA

SS-SC-PEI-GA-ENZ

Figure 51.18 Schematic representation of functionalization steps of stainless steel surface by HEWL. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Caro et al. 2010 [74].)

molecules. The thickening of the attachment layer contributed significantly to the increase of surface enzymatic activity by moving away the proteins from the surface. Another interesting study using lysozyme was reported by Muszanska et al. where they coupled a pluronic copolymer with lysozyme [78]. Their aim was to reduce adhesion of bacteria and kill nonetheless the adhered bacteria onto a hydrophobic surface. They studied the influence of the conformation of an active molecule in the adlayer by varying the fraction of lysozyme into the pluronic copolymer. Surprisingly, the layer exhibiting the lowest amount of pluronic–lysozyme copolymers (1 : 99) was more effective in killing B. subtilis bacteria than the 100% pluronic–lysozyme (100 : 0) adlayer, see green and red pancakes in Figure 51.19. However, the less pluronic–lysozyme conjugate, the better antiadhesive effect was observed toward B. subtilis. A 100% pluronic–lysozyme conjugate layer reduces the bacterial adhesion by 70%, while the 1% conjugate reduces the adhesion of

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51 Adsorption of Proteins and Anti-biofilm Strategies

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Dead Live 7 CFUs cm–2 × 107

220

6 5 4 3 2 1 0

(a)

(b)

Figure 51.19 Adhesion of B. subtilis 168 after 20 hours of growth on (a) unmodified pluronic coating, (b) uncoated silicone rubber, (c) 100% pluronic–lysozyme conjugate, and (d) 1% pluronic–lysozyme-coated silicone rubber together with the percentage

(c)

(d)

of viability of adhered bacteria represented by the pancakes. Error bars indicate standard deviation over four separate experiments. (Source: Muszanska et al. 2011 [78]. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.)

B. subtilis by 85%. This last example clearly demonstrates that the conformation and quantity of bactericidal agents are key parameters in the anti-biofouling strategies. 51.3.3 Surface Structuration

Nature provides few clues concerning the efficiency of surface roughness to prevent microbial colonization. For example, while the hulls of ships are constantly accumulating layers of algae and crustaceans, materials with topographical features mimicking shark skin, for example, showed a remarkable resistance to marine biofouling [79]. The lotus leaf, on which water and dirt slide are ultrahydrophobic, also prevent microorganism colonization, hence biofilms formation: this is all related to their roughness. This natural micro- or nanostructuration is expressed and act in different ways depending on the animals or plants. For instance, the shark skin, constituted of microstructure ribblets, prevents biofouling by increasing the water flow rate at the solid–liquid interface, thus preventing the building up of biofouling, in addition to some self-cleaning properties. Turning now to lotus leaves, composed of hierarchical micro- or nanopapillae (i.e. micro- or nanobumps superimposed in wax nanostructures), they exhibit superhydrophobic properties and thus causes low adhesion surfaces. Even more impressive are rice leaves (Figure 51.20a) and butterfly wings (Figure 51.20b), which combine the effects observed on both sharks and lotus. One can observe in Figure 51.20a the two different hierarchical structuration of a rice leaf, one at the microlevel showing ribbons, inside which the nanostructuration is visible by the presence of papillae.

51.3 Biofilm Prevention, Some Well-Settled or Innovative Strategies

(a)

(b)

Figure 51.20 SEM and TEM of (a) rice leaf. (Source: Copyright 1996, Museum of Science, Boston.) (b) Butterfly wings. (Source: Copyright 2011, University of Sidney.)

Thus, many research groups tried to mimic Nature, engineering surfaces, and structured adlayers to bestow antiadhesive and/or self-cleaning properties to these surfaces. One can cite some examples where the biofouling control is achieved by plasma polymerization to render surface hydrophobic by smoothing the polypropylene surface [80]; another example shows that bioinspired superhydrophobic surfaces can be created by soft lithography nanostructuring, tuning the size, spacing, and stiffness of the resulting surfaces; promising superhydrophobic and antiadhesive surfaces were obtained [81]. Hochbaum and Aizenberg reported the creation of periodic nanostructure arrays on epoxy surfaces to target and orientate specific bacteria, thus lowering the bacterial attachment, compared to the flat, non-nanostructured surface [50]. We will describe in the following section a study carried out by Lee’s team, who developed bioinspired microstructured surfaces, mimicking the properties of rice leaves and butterfly wings [82]. The authors used photolithography and soft lithography methods to PDMS materials and evaluated their antifouling efficiency (see Figure 51.21a). They tested various geometries in order to unravel which parameters such as height of ribbons, size of pillars, or next-neighboring pillar array are of highest importance in biofouling and antiadhesive properties, as presented in Figure 51.21a. Rice leaf bioinspired surfaces with microsized features were fabricated following a three-step soft lithography procedure [82]. The material PDMS was chosen because of its low surface energy, which leads to high contact angle, and highly hydrophobicity, and therefore promising for biofouling properties. Figure 51.21b presents scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images for each samples 1–4 with top views tilted, by 45∘ or not. The features are accurately produced for each sample with geometric dimensions as indicated in Figure 51.21a, thus validating the procedure of lithography. Moreover, the difference in height and spacing will be of high importance when carrying out antifouling assays. Dual-height pillars are evident in images of sample 3 along with the dual-height pillars/ribs of sample 4. Samples were subjected to bioassay experimentation to determine their antifouling efficiency toward relevant bacterial strain, Escherichia coli HB2151. Antifouling

221

Rice leaf inspired geometries for antifouling Pillar

Rib

Top views

Flow direction

5 μm

D

P

Top view

2 μm high

Sample 2

P

Sample 1

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Top view, tilted at 45°

5 μm

4 μm high

W

5 μm

5 μm

5 μm

5 μm

Side views Sample 1

Sample 4

Sample 2 H2

Sample 3

2 μm high

H1

H2

H2 Sample 4

Sample 3

H1

(a)

4 μm high

H1 2 μm high

4 μm high

5 μm

5 μm

(b)

Figure 51.21 (a) Rice leaf and butterfly wings bioinspired geometries for antifouling assays on PDMS surfaces. (b) Montage of SEM images of the actual PDMS-fabricated samples. Arrows indicate direction of droplet movement for selfcleaning experiments. Each sample is shown with the top view tilted at 45∘ (left side column) and with no tilt (right side column) in order to highlight the feature heights. (a) Sample 3 images show the dual-height pillars and sample 4 images show the combination of pillars and ribs. (Source: Bixler and Bhushan 2014 [82]. Reproduced with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)

51.4 Conclusion

assays were then conducted on all four microstructured samples for two bacteria dilution (1/10th and 1/100th from overnight bacterial culture growth) and for two incubation times (two and four hours). Optical microscopy results are presented in Figure 51.22. On a flat PDMS sample, the quantity of adhered bacteria increases with contact time. Moreover, the initial concentration of the bacterial strain is an essential point, as for the highest dilution; only a few bacteria are visible on the surface, while at 1/10 dilution, the amount of bacteria present at the surface after two hours is almost equivalent to the one after four hours at dilution 1/100th. More interesting is the comparison between the flat sample and the various microstructured sampled, for a given dilution and time of incubation. No obvious difference can be noticed between samples 1 and 2, suggesting that the height difference between pillars (2 and 4 μm) has no real influence on E. coli colonization. On the other hand, when the height of the pillars varies on the same surface, sample 3, only a small reduction of the bacteria adhesion was observed. Finally, the simultaneous presence of ribbons and pillars, Sample 4, drastically reduces the bacterial colonization at the highest concentration and incubation time. The authors concluded that the greatest antibiofouling benefit is attained with sample 4, with a reduction of bacterial colonization of 33%; interestingly, the other tested surfaces, samples (1–3), also show a reduction of the bacterial colonization but with values in the range of 20%. Finally, anti-inorganic fouling experimentations have also been carried out in order to assess the self-cleaning properties of these samples; these experiments are carried out by exposing the various surfaces to microorganisms and follow by optical microscopy the evolution of the surface upon rinsing. Results show that the sample being the closest to a rice leaf replica, i.e. sample 4, possesses the better self-cleaning properties, with more than twice as much contaminant being removed, compared to the flat sample.

51.4 Conclusion

After having recalled the successive steps leading to the appearance and growth of a biofilm, this chapter reports on two main issues: first, the adsorption of proteins, the very first, and key step, toward an irreversible surface contamination; second, some strategies, relying on the immobilization of some natural antibiofilm molecules or on the surface nanostructuring, which already proved their efficiency against biofilms. Although far from being exhaustive, this review points out some key features. Proteins interact via numerous and diverse types of interactions; their identification today leads to develop strategies to reduce this adsorption, either by tuning surface chemistry and structure; progresses still need to be done by, for instance, developing in situ characterization of the solid–liquid interfaces or by coupling experimental results and modeling to fully determine the main parameters influencing protein adsorption or nonadsorption.

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E. coli at 1/100 concentration 2 h incubation

E. coli at 1/10 concentration

4 h incubation

2 h incubation

4 h incubation

Flat (PDMS)

E. coli

Sample 1 (PDMS)

Pillar

Sample 2 (PDMS)

Sample 3 (PDMS)

Sample 4 (PDMS)

Rib

Figure 51.22 Light microscopy images using oil immersion techniques at 1000× magnification of samples after bioassay experiments using E. coli. Presented are images of flat PDMS, samples 1–4. Long and

narrow cylindrically shaped objects are the E. coli. (Source: Bixler and Bhushan 2014 [82]. Reproduced with permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry.)

References

Great effort has also to be paid to study cell adhesion and viability, which are the main causes of biofilm building up. Although far from being fully understood, various strategies have proven to be efficient against these steps. We review a few of them; interestingly, they rely either on the chemical modification of surfaces, followed by the binding of antiadhesive or bactericidal species, or on surface structuring in a bio-inspired way. Note eventually that changing the surface chemical properties, or building up 3D hierarchical nanostructures, has the potential of promoting cell adhesion when improving surface biocompatibility is at stake. This demonstrates the complexity of the parameters to be controlled and the overall necessity of a multiscale understanding of the mechanisms of protein– and cell–surface interactions. Finally, recent technical developments associate several of the above-cited strategies; more and more hybrid substrates are developed by combining specific structuration (nano or micro), antiadhesive coatings, and grafting of antimicrobial agents.

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52 Liquid Surfaces Gunther Andersson and Harald Morgner

52.1 Introduction

In 1927, Davisson and Germer reported the experimental observation of diffraction of electrons off crystalline nickel. At the time, the significance of the experiment was considered in demonstrating that particles with rest mass can behave as waves, thus verifying de Broglie’s concept. However, the practical usefulness of the lowenergy electron diffraction (LEED) technique to study the surface as opposed to bulk properties was recognized as well, e.g. by demonstrating the sensitivity of the signal to the presence of adsorbed gas [1]. Another technique, which was introduced by Siegbahn and coworkers under the name of electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA), emerged as a natural complement to X-ray spectroscopy. Instead of observing the attenuation of an X-ray beam by a solid sample or the X-ray fluorescence from it, he and his coworkers analyzed the photoelectrons and Auger electrons [2]. Again, inspection of the emitted electrons restricts the information gained to a thin surface layer because of their limited mean free path. The habit of applying these techniques to solid samples led to the notion that solid surfaces were the natural domain of these surface spectroscopies. This widespread notion can be retrieved in the renowned German encyclopedia Brockhaus in the year 1991. The entry on surface physics starts with the explanation: “special subject of solid state physics that is occupied with the physical properties of the interfaces of solids with respect to gas phase or vacuum” [3]. It is noteworthy that this statement was written about two decades after the pioneering work of H. Siegbahn characterizing liquid surfaces by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) [4]. However, even today, the field of liquid surfaces is not generally accepted as a genuine scientific subject in surface science. Instead, it is often assigned to colloid science. The most recent online edition of Brockhaus starts with the same sentence but adds later on that studying the interface between solids and liquids is now incorporated into the concept of surface physics [5]. Thus, one may conclude that some scientists are still reluctant to accept liquid surfaces (or else the liquid/vapor interfaces) as an established field of scientific activity. Other presentday encyclopedias explicitly list the liquid/gas interface as a subject of surface science Surface and Interface Science: Liquid and Biological Interfaces, First Edition. Edited by Klaus Wandelt. © 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2020 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

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[6]. We hope that the present contribution helps to convince readers that studying the surfaces of liquids unrelated to solid substrates is a field in its own merit that is interesting and useful. The motivation in investigating liquid surfaces with spectroscopic techniques arises from the interest to understand the structure of liquid surfaces itself and from the interest in the relationship between the structure and the properties of liquid surfaces as well as the relationship between the structure of liquid surfaces and processes involving liquid surfaces. Traditionally, the properties of liquid surfaces of main interest are surface tension (another term for surface energy) and the electric properties such as the surface potential and the dielectric constant. The processes of main interest are the adsorption kinetics and uptake of gases across the gas/liquid interface. The latter finds its counterpart in the transport over the liquid/liquid interface, which is of interest in extraction processes. The structural features of interest at liquid surfaces are the composition of the outermost layer (or the surface excess), orientation of molecules, and density and concentration depth profiles. A number of techniques have been developed for analyzing the molecular structure of liquid surfaces. Each of the techniques has its own strength. A comprehensive understanding is often only possible by considering the results of a range of techniques. Electron spectroscopy can be used as XPS [4], UV photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) [7], and metastable-induced electron spectroscopy (MIES) [8] revealing both composition and electronic structure. Rutherford backscattering (RBS) [9] and neutral impact collision ion scattering spectroscopy (NICISS) [10] are used to determine the concentration depth profiles. Density and concentration depth profiles can be determined with neutron reflectivity (NR) [11] and X-ray reflectivity (XR) [12]. Both techniques are complementary to RBS and NICISS. Nonlinear optical methods such as second harmonic generation (SHG) [13] and sum-frequency generation (SFG) [14] have their strength in determining the orientation of molecules at surfaces. All these spectroscopic techniques analyzing the structure of the surface are complemented by measuring the forces at surfaces and interfaces. The methods to be named are the surface force apparatus (SFA) [15] and colloid probe atomic force microscope (AFM) [16]. Detailed descriptions of several of these methods are given in Volume 1 and in Chapter 49 in this Volume. The present contribution is focused on electron spectroscopies and ion spectroscopies as this is the field of expertise of the authors.

52.2 Methods 52.2.1 Metastable-Induced Electron Spectroscopy

Any version of electron spectroscopy is suited to characterize surface properties, as the limited mean free path of electrons discriminates strongly against signal from the bulk. The observation depth of, say, photoelectron spectroscopy or electron energy

52.2 Methods

loss spectroscopy (EELS) is governed by the energy-dependent mean free path of electrons in condensed matter that ranges from a few tenths of a nanometer to several nanometers. There is, however, one particular electron spectroscopy whose surface sensitivity is perfect and which does not rely on a small mean free path. This is MIES. This method consists in colliding a beam of electronically excited metastable particles with the investigated surface. In most cases, the projectiles are helium atoms He* (23 S,21 S) in a metastable state, which carries about 20 eV excitation energy. The transfer of this energy to the surface is very efficient and causes electron emission with high probability. After the reaction with the surface, the helium atoms have returned to their ground state. Thus, there is no danger that they contaminate the surface. Further, the kinetic energy being in the thermal energy range, the helium projectiles do not penetrate the surface nor can they modify the surface by means of their impact energy. This is important as it is a desirable property of an analytical tool that it does not induce changes in the surface investigated. In conclusion, we state that the electron spectroscopy based on the excitation energy of metastable helium atoms has an excellent potential for surface analysis. Indeed, the small number of research groups employing the technique has slowly, but steadily, grown in the past years. Those who have applied MIES for the characterization of liquid surfaces have overwhelmingly focused on ionic liquids (ILs). This is easily understood, as this class of liquids is distinguished by a negligible vapor pressure. Accordingly, the typical ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) equipment designed for analysis of solid surfaces can be used to investigate ionic liquids [17–19]. Liquids with higher but moderate saturation pressure up to 10 Pa can nonetheless be investigated by MIES, the first study being published in 1986 [20]. The application of MIES to more volatile liquids such as water has been made possible in 1999 [21]. Further experimental details are summarized in Section 52.2.6. In the following, we will focus on the mechanism of energy transfer in the case of MIES that causes the mentioned perfect surface sensitivity. The transfer of energy from the approaching metastable atoms to the surface may occur along two different mechanisms [22]. If allowed with respect to energy and symmetry, the dominant process is the resonant transfer of the excited electron of the metastable atoms into unoccupied states at surfaces. As metals do have unoccupied states in resonance with the excited orbital of the metastable atoms, the occurrence of this process can be taken as an indication of the metallic character of a surface, e.g. if metal atoms are deposited on an insulating surface, MIES can provide an unambiguous indication for metallization to set in. The accepted term for this process is resonant ionization (RI) that has been introduced by Hagstrum 1954 [23]. The ensuing process of electron emission called Auger neutralization (AN) involves two electrons from the surface, one electron tunneling into the 1s-hole of the helium ion while the other is emitted. The requirement of total energy conservation couples the initial and final states of both electrons. Auger neutralization leads to electron energy spectra, which are not related in a simple manner to the target density of states, and, thus, look very different from spectra obtained by UPS.

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If RI + AN does not occur, e.g. because of the lack of unoccupied states at an insulating surface, electron emission occurs via the process of Auger de-excitation (AD). Again, an electron from the surface tunnels into the hole orbital of the metastable atom while the excited electron of the metastable is emitted. The resulting spectra show, in general, the same bands as UPS, even though the relative activities of the different target orbitals are different between MIES and UPS. The electron density of an orbital outside the surface defined via the turning points plays the key role for its activity in the AD process [24]. According to the typical interaction potential between He* and surfaces, the AD process samples the electron density approximately 2–4 Å above the outermost atomic layer of a surface. The perfect surface sensitivity of MIES is now easily explained. The metastable atoms approach the surface with a kinetic energy in the thermal energy range. This prevents them from penetrating into the surface. Their turning point is about 2 Å in front of the topmost surface layer. As in both energy transfer mechanisms, RI and AN and AD, a tunneling process from an orbital at the surface into the hole at the metastable atoms is involved, and as tunneling occurs only over short distances, the technique is sensitive for those orbitals with a high electron density about 2 Å in front of the surface. As a consequence, we understand, in addition, why MIES is able to discover a preferred orientation of a molecule at the surface: the molecular orientation decides which orbital protrudes out of the surface layer. The influence of molecular orientation on the shape of MIE spectra is discussed for several molecules in Ref. [22]. For most liquid surfaces, the energy transfer mechanism that plays a role is AD, which leads to a spectrum that reflects the electron density in front of the surface. However, a liquid surface may well have metallic character and thereby react via the RI and AN mechanism. An example is found in Ref. [25], where the spectra taken by MIES at a surface of liquid mercury are displayed and discussed. They are interpreted in terms of the symmetry of the involved electronic bands of metallic mercury, which are the sp-conduction band and the two d-bands d5/2 and d3/2 . Thus, the interpretation of the spectra obtained from MIES depends on the electronic nature of the surface. In general, the interpretation of MIES data is less straightforward compared to data taken by UPS. Strategies for quantitative data evaluation have been discussed in detail in Ref. [22]. In particular, the evaluation of a series of spectra is discussed where one experimental parameter is varied in a controlled manner. The mathematical tool singular value decomposition (SVD) can be employed to perform a rigorous test on the question whether the series of spectra is to be interpreted by a finite number of reference spectra each representing a well-defined chemical species at the surface. Two different species in the sense of this strategy of data evaluation may refer to different chemical compounds, but as well to one compound found in different orientations [22]. It turns out that the composition of the topmost layer of a liquid surface as well as the distribution of molecular orientations can be recognized with good accuracy, provided that data with good quality have been measured. A few examples will be presented in Section 52.3.1.1.

52.2 Methods

52.2.2 Angle Resolved X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

XPS is known for identifying elements as well as the chemical situation within which the elements are found (see also Chapter 3.2.2 in Volume 1). Thus, two species that can be distinguished by XPS may either be different elements or else the same element in two different chemical environments. The observation depth of XPS is governed by the mean free path 𝜆(Eel ) of the emitted electrons whose size depends on the material studied and on the energy of the electron. A typical value for the mean free path amounts to a few nm. The probability of a photoelectron to travel in a bulk material on a straight trajectory over a distance d without losing a significant amount of kinetic energy is given by ) ( d (52.1) P = exp − ( ) 𝜆 Eel From our own experience, we found this formula to be valid with good accuracy for electron energies above 250 eV, cf. [26]. For electron energies below 250 eV, correction factors had to be applied in order to compensate for slight deviations from the assumption of straight trajectories underlying the above formula. The concept of the mean free path and the expression in Eq. (52.1) can be employed to determine the concentration depth profiles of all species that can be distinguished by XPS. The strategy relies on the relation between the observed signal intensity for every species and the observation depth 𝜆′ (Eel , 𝜃) = 𝜆(Eel ) ⋅ cos 𝜃

(52.2)

that can be controlled either by varying the angle of emission of the photoelectrons (𝜃 = 0∘ referring to the surface normal) or by varying the photon energy h𝜈 = Ebind +Eel and thereby the energy Eel of the photoelectrons. The following expression evaluates the experimental signal intensity for species i as a function of the observation depth 𝜆′ (Eel , 𝜃), provided the depth-dependent concentration ci (z) of the species is known. ) ( ∞ z ′ (52.3) c (z) ⋅ exp − ( Ii (𝜆 ) = ) dz ∫0 i 𝜆′ Eel , cos 𝜃 Here, we have made use of Eq. (52.1). The range of experimental parameters that justify this approximation will be addressed at the end of this section. Of course, hardly ever do we encounter the situation that we know the concentration depth profile ci (z) and wish to predict the signal intensity. In contrast, in general, we measure the signal intensity for as many values of 𝜆′ (Eel , 𝜃) as possible and try to evaluate the depth-dependent concentration ci (z) of the species. Formally, one could interpret I i (𝜆′ ) in Eq. (52.3) as Laplace transform of the concentration profile ci (z) and conclude that ci (z) could be evaluated as inverse Laplace transform of I i (𝜆′ ). This would allow a direct inversion of the measured intensity I i (𝜆′ ) into the concentration profile ci (z). Unfortunately, it is well known that small uncertainties in I i (𝜆′ ) lead

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52 Liquid Surfaces

to unbearable uncertainties in ci (z). Therefore, it has been a common practice from early on to represent ci (z) by an analytical expression with a set of parameters and to carry out a fit of these parameters to the experimental data, cf. [27]. With increasing number and precision of experimental data points, it pays to invest even more effort into the evaluation of the concentration depth profiles ci (z). Based on a large data set with the observation depth 𝜆′ in Eq. (52.2) being varied both by varying angle 𝜃 as well as by varying the electron energy Eel , the concentration depth profile of the system tetrabutyl ammonium iodide/formamide (TBAI/FA) has been evaluated with the aid of the genetic algorithm, cf. [26] and references quoted therein. In this study, the surface layer has been subdivided into 30 equidistant sublayers with each sublayer being assigned a value for the concentration of solute and solvent. Effectively, one can say that this approach is free from an analytical model function. Details of the procedure are found in Ref. [26]. Nonetheless, some key formulae will be given below after introducing a few definitions:

• i, k are indices of the species that can be distinguished by XPS in the liquid with i, k ∈ [1, imax ]

• j numbers the layers with j = 1 indicating the topmost layer and j ∈ [1, jmax ]; beyond layer j = jmax , the system is supposed to have bulk properties

• dj is the thickness of layer j • qj denotes the photoionization cross section of species i, which depends on the orbital ionized, the photon energy, and the light polarization (as in Ref. [26], only signal from C1s orbitals is evaluated, these dependencies are not relevant in that study) • ci (j) denotes the concentration of species i in layer j The experimental contribution for species i in layer j can then be expressed as Ii (j, 𝜃) = qi ci (j) 𝜆′j (Eel , 𝜃) ⋅ (1 − exp(−dj ∕𝜆′j (Eel , 𝜃)) ⋅

j−1 ∏

exp(dj ∕𝜆′j′ (Eel , 𝜃)) (52.4)

j′ =1

The factor on the right side contains the weakening of the signal strength of the electrons from layer j when passing through all layers above. The respective contribution from the bulk, i.e. from the material below the last layer jmax , is given as Ii (bulk, 𝜃) = qi ci (bulk) 𝜆′bulk (Eel , 𝜃) ⋅

jmax ∏

exp(dj ∕𝜆′j′ (Eel , 𝜃))

(52.5)

j′ =1

The total signal from species i at emission angle 𝜃 and electron energy Eel is then Ii (𝜃) =

jmax ∑

Ii (j, 𝜃) + Ii (bulk, 𝜃)

(52.6)

j=1

The number of parameters to be fitted is fairly large. If the surface near range is subdivided into, say, 30 layers and contains two species, then this leads to no less than 60 parameters to be determined. The genetic algorithm, which has been applied in Ref. [26] and other studies later on, is ideally suited to come up with a stable answer. The strategy underlying the genetic algorithm is taken from biological evolution.

52.2 Methods

Any set of parameters is considered as individual. In Ref. [26], a number of 1000 individuals constitute a generation. The members of the first generation are established by means of a random number generator. No attempt is made to create the first generation in a somehow “meaningful” way. In contrast, as the researcher stays away from introducing his expectations into the fitting procedure, the outcome can be considered as particularly reliable. As in biological evolution, all members of a generation are tested for their “ability,” which in the present case is evaluated by the expression ( )2 ∑ Iicalc (𝜃) − Iiexp (𝜃) (52.7) D= exp Ii (𝜃) all data

Equation (52.7) determines the deviation between the calculated and the experimental data. The sum in Eq. (52.7) runs over all combinations of emission angle 𝜃 and electron energy Eel that have been used in the experiment. The individuals that show least agreement with the experiment are disposed of. In Ref. [26], this fraction is chosen to be 50%. The remaining individuals are crossbred (again with the aid of a random number generator) in order to create offsprings until the disposed individuals are replaced. The individuals existing now form the next generation and are processed in the same way as the preceding generation. Experience shows that this procedure begins to converge after a few generations. After a few hundred generations, the quality of the individuals does not improve any more, i.e. with respect to the fitting purpose, one has achieved convergence. It is interesting to note that the quality of the evolution is considerably improved if one allows for mutations, i.e. a random number-controlled arbitrary change of individuals. The rate of mutations itself has successfully been made a subject of evolutionary development, cf. [26]. At the end of the evolution process, one has a few thousand individuals that represent equally good fits to the experimental data. Thus, in contrast to normal fitting routines, one does not come up with the most likely solution, but with a large number of solutions of comparable quality. It turns out that this result is not an disadvantage but, in contrast, can be turned into an advantage: one evaluates over all good solutions the average and the standard deviation, thus ending up with an intrinsic error bar for the evaluated concentrations ci (j). One can show that the error bar determined in this way is very conservative, i.e. it overestimates the real error. Still, in all cases studied so far, we have obtained clear answers as to the behavior of, say, a surfactant at the surface of a solution. For example, the question whether the surfactant forms a monolayer or leads to a thicker layer has been unambiguously answered by the genetic algorithm, cf. [26]. Details of the numerical procedure, e.g. the introduction of reduced quantities as proposed by Baschenko [28] and the conversion from decimal numbers into binary numbers for the purpose of crossbreeding, are found in Ref. [26]. The determination of a concentration depth profile is based on a known relation between the measured intensity of the XPS signal and the experimental parameters Eel and 𝜃. In Eq. (52.3), a simple relation is noted. There are limitations for the applicability of this simple expression.

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52 Liquid Surfaces

For liquids containing overwhelmingly second-row elements, we found 𝜃 ≤ 60∘ a safe regime for electron energies above 250 eV [26]. Beyond this parameter range, correction factors are to be applied, which can be built into the expression in Eq. (52.3) in a straightforward manner, cf. [26]. The first to study correction factors by means of computer simulation was Baschenko more than two decades ago [28]. However, today, the topic is still actively investigated, cf. [29]. Our own experience, Baschenko’s findings [28], and the recent results by S. Oswald and R. Oswald [29] indicate that employing emission angles 𝜃 > 70∘ is accompanied by a large amount of uncertainty. To which extend angles 𝜃 ≥ 80∘ can lead to data that contain useful information on the system investigated rather than artifacts of electron scattering is far from settled. Some authors have developed the habit of taking data only at the two angles 𝜃 = 0∘ and 80∘ in order to qualitatively test whether a compound displays enrichment in the surface or not [30–32]. As quantitative data evaluation for establishing concentration profiles is not attempted by these groups, one could accept this strategy, were it not for the unanswered doubt, whether the measurement at 𝜃 = 80∘ contains artifacts from elastic scattering which in turn depends on the mass of the atomic species that the electrons encounter, cf. [29]. Thus, electrons originating from different species and thereby experiencing different species on their way to and through the surface may show very different deviations from a straight trajectory. To our knowledge, there is no clear proof, that a compound, that shows an enlarged intensity at 𝜃 = 80∘ compared to 𝜃 = 0∘ , necessarily must be considered surface active. On the other hand, taking several data points at angles between 𝜃 = 0 ∘ and 80∘ would allow judging whether the outcome of measurements at several angles appears consistent and, thus, make data at large angles more trustworthy. 52.2.3 Neutral Impact Collision Ion Scattering Spectroscopy 52.2.3.1 General

Ion scattering spectroscopy uses the interaction of ions with matter to gain information on the composition and the structure and surfaces or the near-surface region. The interaction involves charge transfer processes, elastic transfer of kinetic energy, inelastic energy transfer such as electronic excitations, or removing atoms or groups of atoms by sputtering. There is a broad range of methods that differ in the energy, type, and charge state of the projectiles, the scattering angle, and charge state and type of the detected particles. A number of selected methods are listed in Table 52.1 (see also Chapter 3.3 in Volume 1). Here, the focus is on NICISS, which is particularly important for the investigation of soft matter surfaces. The reason why NICISS is so important in this area is that the technique can be used to determine concentration depth profiles delivering very important information for the understanding of the structure of soft matter surfaces. NICISS uses rare gas ions as projectiles with a kinetic energy of a few keV. The projectiles backscattered under an angle close to 180∘ are detected with a time-of-flight (TOF) analyzer. Projectiles are detected irrespective of their charge state with most of them being in the neutral state. NICISS was originally developed to investigate

Table 52.1 Overview over frequently used ion scattering techniques. Method

Projectile and energy

Detection of

Information about

Low-energy ion scattering (LEIS) [33–37]

Ions (rare gas), kinetic energy 1–10 keV

Ions backscattered at ∼135∘ (90∘ –180∘ )

Elemental composition of the outermost layer

Impact collision ion scattering spectroscopy (ICISS) [38–41]

Ions (rare gas), kinetic energy 1–10 keV

Ions backscattered at 180∘

Elemental composition of the outermost layer Crystalline structure of solid surfaces

Neutral impact collision ion scattering spectroscopy (NICISS) [40, 42]

Ions (rare gas), kinetic energy 1–10 keV

Neutrals backscattered at 180∘

Concentration depth profiles of the elements (noncrystalline samples) Crystalline structure of solid surfaces

Direct recoil spectroscopy (DRS) [43, 44]

Ions (rare gas), kinetic energy 1–10 keV

Composition of the outermost layer

Rutherford backscattering (RBS) [45–48]

Single and multiple charged ions, kinetic energy 1–10 MeV

Recoils (fragments removed from the surface by a single energy transfer) Single and multiple charged backscattered ions

Elastic recoil detection analysis (ERDA) [47, 49]

Single and multiple charged ions, kinetic energy 1–10 MeV

Recoils (fragments removed from the surface by a single energy transfer)

Concentration depth profiles of the “heavy” (atomic number ≤ 10) elements of crystalline and noncrystalline samples

Concentration depth profiles of the “heavy” (atomic number ≥ 10) elements of crystalline and noncrystalline samples

52 Liquid Surfaces

3keV He+

W atom d Rs = dsinαc

αc L = dcosαc

1Å

(a)

(b) α0 αc2 αc1

α

Δαc

Δαc

A Intensity

238

d

B

(c) Figure 52.1 Schematic for the shadowing cone. At a given impact direction, backscattering from an atom in the shadowing cone (a) is not possible. Scattering from an atom located on the line indicating the shadowing cone is just possible (b). Thus, in the

(d)

αc1

α0

αc2

α

interval of the polar angle 𝛼 c1 to 𝛼 c2 (variation of the angle of incidence (c), the intensity of backscattered projectiles drops dramatically (d). (Source: Choi et al. 2011 [53]. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier.)

the structure of single-crystal surfaces. Changing the azimuth and the polar angle, the position of the atoms in the outermost layer relative to each other, the crystal structure, and the orientation of the crystal can be determined [50–52]. The effects used here are shadowing and blocking. Shadowing and blocking effects appear when a projectile is scattered off an atom in the sample (target). The scattering leads to a shadowing cone as illustrated in into which the scattered projectile cannot enter and thus cannot be backscattered from an atom in this cone [53] (Figure 52.1). Later, it was shown that the method can also be used to determine concentration depth profiles at surfaces [10, 54]. The prerequisite for determining concentration depth profiles with NICISS is that the structure of the sample does not show a longrange order in the sample, which is especially the case for soft matter but not for crystalline structures. Only in this case, the influence of the effects is excluded that enabled to determine the crystal structure. Before we go into details, we will first describe schematically in an overview which processes the projectiles experience in a NICISS experiment carried out at soft matter surfaces. Subsequently, the processes will be described in detail.

52.2 Methods

The projectiles backscattered from the sample are almost all in a neutral charge state. Only a few tenths of a percent of projectiles leave upon backscattering the sample as ions. The trajectories of the backscattered projectiles consist of a number of small-angle scattering events and one process with a large scattering angle [10]. The energy loss during backscattering depends on the mass of the atom hit. The small-angle scattering events have a scattering angle of a few tenths of a degree while the scattering angle of the large-angle scattering event is close to the total scattering angle. The small-angle scattering together with the electronic excitations along the trajectory of the projectile can be treated as a continuous energy loss. The energy losses on the entire trajectory can be summarized in two different classes of energy losses. The first consists of the large energy losses depending on the mass of the backscattering atom and appearing only once on a single trajectory. The second consists of small energy losses appearing in a large number on a single trajectory and can be treated as a continuous energy loss proportional to the length of the trajectory. Thus, by determining the energy loss of the projectiles, the information is gained first from which type of element the projectile is backscattered and second in which depth this target atom has been during the backscattering process. This is all the information required to determine concentration depth profiles. It is most common to use helium ions as projectiles. Soft matter mainly consists of the elements hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, and these elements can be detected only when helium is used as a projectile. A second reason is that the projectiles sputtered hydrogen. Using neon instead of helium increases the sputter rate of hydrogen so strong that the sputtered hydrogen particles dominate the spectra. NICISS is used to determine concentration depth profiles in a similar way as in a RBS experiment. The main difference between both techniques is in the energy of the projectiles and the depth that can be investigated. RBS uses ions with kinetic energies of a few MeV. The depth up to which concentration depth profiles can be determined with RBS is about an order of magnitude larger compared to those obtained with NICISS. The depth resolution in a NICISS experiment, however, is about an order of magnitude higher than in a RBS experiment. In the intermediate energy range of a few ten to a few hundred keV, the method is called medium energy ion scattering (MEIS) with a range and depth resolution between NICISS and RBS. In the following sections, several details of the method NICISS will be discussed in more detail. 52.2.3.2 Elastic Energy Loss

The elastic transfer of energy from the projectile to the target atom during the collision can be calculated from energy and momentum conservation (Figure 52.2). A projectile with the mass m1 and the velocity v1i parallel to the x-axis in the laboratory system hits the target atom with the mass m2 being initially at rest. From the momentum conservation, the equations m1 v1,i = m1 v1,f cos 𝜃 + m2 v2,f cos 𝜙

(52.8)

0 = m1 v1,f sin 𝜃 + m2 v2,f sin 𝜙

(52.9)

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52 Liquid Surfaces

θ

y x

1

2

Φ

Figure 52.2 Scattering of a Projectile in the Laboratory System.

are obtained, where v1f is the velocity of the projectile and v2f is the velocity of the target atom after the collision and 𝜃 and 𝜙 the scattering angles. From energy conservation, the equation 1 1 1 m v2 = m v2 + m v2 2 1 1,i 2 1 1,f 2 2 2,f

(52.10)

is obtained with E0 = 1∕2 ⋅ m1 v21,i is the kinetic energy of the projectile before hitting the target atom and Ef = 1∕2 ⋅ m1 v21,f is the kinetic energy of the projectile after the collision. The scattering angle, the initial energy, the final projectile energy, the scattering angle of the projectile 𝜃, and the mass of the projectile are known. The mass of the target atom, the scattering angle of the target atom 𝜙, and the kinetic energy of the target atom after the collision are not known. Inserting the Eqs. (52.8) and (52.9) into (52.10) and solving for Efinal yields Efinal = E0 A=

[cos 𝜃 + (A2 − sin2 𝜃)1∕2 ]2 (1 + A)2

m2 m1

(52.11)

It can be seen from Eq. (52.11) that backscattering (scattering angle >90∘ ) is only possible for A > 1, i.e. for target atoms that have a greater mass than the projectile. It must be noted that Eq. (52.11) considers only elastic energy transfer and can be used to calculate all elastic scattering processes including small-angle scattering. 52.2.3.3 Cross Section

For quantitative data evaluation, it is required to calculate the cross section of the scattering processes. An excellent description for the calculation of the cross section is given with a similar approach as here also in [37]. The cross section d𝜎/dΩ of a scattering process is defined as 2 ⋅ π ⋅ p ⋅ dp p ⋅ dp d𝜎 = = (52.12) dΩ 2 ⋅ π ⋅ d cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 d𝜃 As shown in Figure 52.3, all projectiles passing through the area d𝜎 will hit the target atom with the same impact parameter p and will be scattered under the same angle 𝜃 into the solid angle dΩ. For calculating the cross section, the scattering

52.2 Methods

dp p

O dσ

dΩ Figure 52.3 Schematic of the definition of the cross section.

angle 𝜃 has to be determined as a function of the impact parameter and is calculated by solving the equations of motion of projectile and target atom. It is convenient to solve the equations of motion in the center of mass system (CMS). The most appropriate coordinate system for this calculation is the CMS in polar coordinates. The velocity of the center of mass vc is related to the initial velocity of the projectile v0 in the laboratory system by vc =

Mc v m2 0

(52.13)

where Mc is the reduced mass given by Mc =

m1 m2 m1 + m2

(52.14)

The velocity of the target atom in the CMS is vc , whereas the velocity of the projectile is v 0 − v c = A ⋅ vc

(52.15)

with A from Eq. (52.11). The scattering angle 𝜑 in the CMS is related to the scattering angles 𝜃 and 𝜙 of the laboratory system by tan 𝜃 =

A sin 𝜑 1 + A cos 𝜑

(52.16)

tan 𝜙 =

sin 𝜑 1 − cos 𝜑

(52.17)

A schematic for the scattering process in the CMS is shown in Figure 52.4. The total energy ECM in the CMS can be written in polar coordinates as [( ) ( )2 ] 2 dr 1 2 d𝜑 + V (r) (52.18) +r ECM = MCM 2 dt dt where V (r) is the interaction potential between target atom and projectile, r the distance between target atom and projectile, and 𝜑 the scattering of the projectile

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52 Liquid Surfaces

φ V0 -VCM p

1 2 VCM

Figure 52.4 Scattering process in the CM system.

as illustrated in Figure 52.4. The angular momentum J CM in the CMS with p as the impact parameter can be written as JCM = MCM vCM p

(52.19)

when the projectile and the target atom are far away from each other. The angular momentum can also be expressed in polar coordinates as JCM = MCM r2

d𝜑 dt

which leads to d𝜙 vCM ⋅ p = dt r2 Inserting Eq. (52.21) into Eq. (52.18) and rearranging yields ( )1∕2 E − V (r) vCM2 ⋅ p2 dr − = 2 CM dt MCM r2

(52.20)

(52.21)

(52.22)

Combining Eqs. (52.21) and (52.22), we obtain p d𝜑 dt d𝜑 = = dr dt dr (1 − V (r)∕ECM − p2 ∕r2 )1∕2

(52.23)

And thus, the scattering angle in the CMS is given by ∞

𝜑=π−2

pdr ∫rmin (1 − V (r)∕ECM − p2 ∕r2 )1∕2

(52.24)

The value of rmin is the distance of closest approach between the projectile and the target atom and is calculated from Eq. (52.22) for the case that dr/dt = 0. The integral in Eq. (52.24) is an improper integral and has to be calculated numerically. A screened Coulomb potential has to be used as an interaction potential V (r) in Eq. (52.24) and is given by ) ( Z1 Z2 e2 Φ(r∕a) (52.25) V (r) = 4π𝜀0 r where Φ(r/a) is the screening function. Different screening functions are used in the literature. The empirical universal screening function (USP) [55] with the screening

52.2 Methods

length aUSP Φ(r∕a) = 0.0281 exp(−0.2016(r∕a)) + 0.2802 exp(−0.4029(r∕a)) + 0.5099 exp(−0.9423(r∕a)) + 0.1818 exp(−3.2(r∕a)) 0.4685 with aUSP = 0.23 Z1 + Z 20.23

(52.26)

and the Moliére potential [56, 57] with the screening length aLin proposed by Lindhard et al. [58] and aFir proposed by Firsov [59] Φ(r∕a) = 0.35 exp(−0.3(r∕a)) + 0.55 exp(−1.2(r∕a)) + 0.1 exp(−6.0(r∕a)) 0.8854 ⋅ a0 with aLin = 2∕3 2∕3 (Z1 + Z2 )1∕2 0.8854 ⋅ a0 or aFir = 1∕2 (52.27) 1∕2 (Z1 + Z2 )2∕3 are frequently used. Experimental data to measure cross sections at low and medium energies are rare [60–62]. Good agreement between measured and calculated cross sections can be achieved only by further corrections of the screening length. One example is multiplying the screening length with the expression [63] a = aFir ⋅ (0.045(Z1 1∕2 + Z2 1∕2 ) + 0.54)

(52.28)

52.2.3.4 Neutralization

In an NICISS experiment, rare gas ions – mostly helium ions – are used as projectiles. Helium ions with low kinetic energies undergo charge exchange as soon as they are in close distance of a few Å to another atom. Charge exchange processes have been studied experimentally [64, 65] and theoretically based on molecular orbital calculations [66–69]. Projectiles moving through matter experience a continuous charge exchange with their environment where the charge state of the rare gas projectiles is most of the time neutral. Rare gas ions have a low probability not to be neutralized because of their large ionization energy. The probability is much higher for alkali ions. The charge exchange processes are very complex and depend on the electronic configuration of the projectile and atoms in the sample, kinetic energy of the projectile and the impact parameter or the scattering angle. This subject is described comprehensively and very clearly by Brongersma et al. in Ref. [34]. The electronic states of a projectile approaching another atom shift and broaden. There are different charge exchange mechanisms leading to the neutralization of the projectiles. (i)

A first channel is Auger neutralization, which is possible for all types of samples. An electron tunnels from an occupied state of the substrate into the 1s ground state of the helium ion (see Figure 52.5a). The energy difference between the occupied state of the substrate and the 1s ground state of the helium is used to emit an Auger electron [70, 71].

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244

52 Liquid Surfaces

Ebin

1: resonant neutralization

Ebin

Auger neutralization

2

Evac

1

2s

EFermi

2s

e–

2s

2 1s

1s (a)

2: Auger de-excitation

He+

He*

1s He+

(b)

Figure 52.5 Schematic for the neutralization processes of helium ions: (a) Auger neutralization and (b) Auger de-excitation subsequent to resonant neutralization.

(ii)

A second channel is Auger de-excitation, which requires the transition of the helium ion into an excited state via resonant neutralization [70, 71] (see Figure 52.5b).

Auger de-excitation and Auger neutralization mechanisms are also used for the transition of excited helium atoms to the ground state that follow the resonant neutralization. The Auger neutralization mechanism requires the ionization of the excited helium into via RI. The process opposite to neutralization, i.e. ionization of the projectile, is possible during the collision. Because of the large excitation energy of helium, the ionization processes are a few orders of magnitude less likely than the neutralization processes. The probability for the charge transfer processes depends on the length of the time interval for which the projectile and the ion are in close contact. Thus, the probability + Psurv for an ion not to be neutralized depends on its velocity parallel to the surface normal and can be described with [34, 71] ( ) vc vc + Psurv = exp − − (52.29) v0,⊥ vf ,⊥ where vc is the characteristic velocity specific for an element, v0,⊥ the velocity of the projectile parallel to the surface normal before the collision, and vf ,⊥ the velocity of the projectile parallel to the surface normal after the collision. Measuring characteristic velocities require the knowledge of the surface number density of the respective element. 52.2.3.5 Inelastic Energy Loss

The charge transfer processes described in the previous Section 52.2.3.4 are inelastic energy loss processes. The energy loss due to excitation processes has been measured experimentally [64, 65] and are also part of the calculation of neutralization processes, which is the subject of the following section. Excitation processes for medium and high energies have been calculated from first principles [72, 73]. The calculated spectra for the energy transfer at high kinetic energies show peaks for

52.2 Methods

the excitation of the electrons to various energy levels including multiple excitation. Energy loss spectra of the scattered ions show a broad distribution and are asymmetric with the broader part toward the low energy side of the spectrum. The different excitation processes could not yet be resolved experimentally in an energy loss spectrum of scattered ions [74] because of several reasons. One reason is the broadening of the spectra because of thermal motion of the target atom. Another reason is the experimental resolution of the analyzer. Experimental spectra could be fitted by convoluting the calculated energy loss spectra with a typical assumed experimental resolution [74]. Inelastic energy losses appear during both forward scattering and backscattering. Nevertheless, the amount of inelastically lost energy depends on the impact parameter of the projectiles and decreases with increasing impact parameter [70, 74]. In general, the inelastic energy loss during a backscattering process is greater than the inelastic energy loss during a forward scattering process because the distance of closest approach is smaller in the first case than in the latter case. In the data analysis of a NICIS spectrum, the inelastic energy loss has to be considered in two different ways. First, inelastic energy loss has to be taken into account for gauging the energy of a projectile backscattered from a target atom. Equation (52.11) considers only the elastic energy loss, and for determining the energy of the projectile after the scattering process, the inelastic energy loss Qin has to be added yielding [10] Efinal = E0

[cos 𝜃 + (A2 − sin2 𝜃)1∕2 ]2 − Qin (1 + A)2

(52.30)

The term Qin is the mean inelastic energy loss during the backscattering process. We will see later that Qin will be considered by measuring NICIS spectra of gas phases. Second, the inelastic energy loss of the small-angle scattering processes is part of the continuous energy loss of the projectiles penetrating through matter, which is subject of the section “stopping power and energy loss straggling.” 52.2.3.6 Stopping Power and Energy Loss Straggling

Particles penetrating through matter lose energy because of low-angle scattering and electronic excitations. Examples for electronic excitations are the Auger neutralization and de-excitation processes as described in the previous Sections 52.2.3.4 but also excitations to bound states with subsequent radiative decay are possible [75]. The total energy loss is a sum of independent processes where each of them could be calculated either as a low-angle scattering process with Eq. (52.11) or by calculating the electronic excitation of the individual process as described in the previous section. In general, this approach is possible but is rather elaborate. A common and very practical way is to treat the energy loss of the independent processes as a continuous energy loss. The mean value of this energy loss is referred to the energy loss after penetration of a projectile through a layer of 1015 particles/cm2 . Another, however, less frequently used unit is energy loss per length of the trajectory. The energy loss due to excitation of electrons is called electronic stopping power and the energy loss due to low-angle scattering is called nuclear stopping power. At low

245

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52 Liquid Surfaces

energies (approximately a few keV), the nuclear part of the stopping power prevails the electronic part while at high kinetic energies (approximately a few hundred keV or more). Because of the fact that there is a distribution in energy loss of the nuclear and electronic energy loss processes and that each projectile experiences usually a number of various energy loss processes, the total energy loss which a projectile experiences has a statistical fluctuation. As a consequence, a beam of monoenergetic particles has a distribution of energies after penetrating through a thin layer, even if this layer has a constant thickness and composition over its entire area. The first moment of the energy loss distribution is the mean energy loss and called stopping power while the second moment is a measure for the width of the energy loss distribution and is called straggling [76]. The stopping power and the energy loss straggling have to be determined experimentally. 52.2.3.6.1 Stopping Power The usual way to determine the stopping power is measuring the energy loss of projectiles passing through a layer of well-defined thickness. Instead of measuring the stopping power for all substances separately, it is possible to calculate the stopping power of a particular substance as a linear combination of the stopping power of the elements constituting the substance according to Braggs rule [77] and taking into account the binding energy between the atoms [78, 79]. Taking into account, the binding energy becomes less important for low energies because the nuclear stopping power is the dominant part in this energy regime. Theories have been developed to calculate the energy loss of particles traveling through matter [80–82]. The stopping power of high energy projectiles is measured with a variety of samples [83, 84]. In most cases, self-supporting foils of the desired material with a thickness of a few 10 nm are used. The minimum thickness of self-supporting foils depends on their material and is around a few tens of nm. Such thickness is appropriate for energy loss measurements at high kinetic energies because the energy loss in the foil is small compared to the kinetic energy of the projectiles and the kinetic energy can be approximated as a constant on the trajectory through the foil. Thin self-supporting foils cannot be used for low-energy projectiles because the thickness of self-supporting foils is comparable to the penetration depth of the projectiles in matter. Thus, the energy loss of low-energy projectiles in the foil would be almost as large as the kinetic energy of the projectile. Hence, the kinetic energy cannot be approximated as being constant when passing through the foil. The stopping power of low-energy projectiles can be extrapolated from measurements at higher energies. However, a more reliable method to obtain data for lower energies is making use of thin layers adsorbed on substrates. The prerequisites for this method are that the adsorbed layer has a homogeneous thickness and composition over a large area and that the thickness of the layer can be determined experimentally with another technique. Based on this procedure, Andersson and Morgner have determined the stopping power of helium projectiles in alkanethiolate monolayers adsorbed on silver and gold [85]. The quality of the

52.2 Methods Theta = 35° Theta = 20°

250

loss of energy [eV]

E0 = 4.5 keV

Theta = –20°

200

Theta = 0°

150 Theta = –20° Theta = 0° Theta = 20° Theta = 35°

100 50 0 0

20

40

60

80

100

effective length of trajectory [Å] Figure 52.6 Energy loss of helium projectiles with a kinetic energy of 4.5 keV in alkanethiolate monolayers of varying alkyl chain length. (Source: Andersson and Morgner 1999 [85]. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier.)

self-assembled alkanethiolate layers was controlled with MIES and the thickness determined with XPS [86]. The energy loss of the projectiles in the alkanethiolate monolayers was determined by comparing NICIS spectra of the uncovered substrate and the substrate covered with alkanethiolate layers of different alkane chain length. In addition to varying the length of the trajectories of the projectiles in the alkanethiolate layer by varying the chain length, spectra were measured at different azimuths. The energy loss as a function of the length of the trajectory did not show a constant slope. However, the data points for a single azimuth could be fitted with a straight line as shown in Figure 52.6 [85]. Simulations of the trajectories showed that those trajectories with a direction almost parallel to the orientation of the alkyl chain have a reduced nuclear energy loss than other trajectories. As the nuclear part of the stopping power prevails over the total stopping power, the conclusion is justified that the alkanethiolate monolayer is more transparent for the projectiles because of the orientation of the alkyl chains. The measurements had been carried out at 1.2 and 4.5 keV. The stopping power between these values can be interpolated by using the proportionality of the stopping power to the square root of the projectile kinetic energy [87]. Energy Loss Straggling The variation of the thickness of thin selfsupporting foils determines the uncertainty in the measured energy loss. In most cases, the contribution of the thickness variation to the variation of the measured energy loss cannot be separated from the energy loss straggling, because the thickness variation is not known. The same holds for thin layers adsorbed on substrates. The measured energy loss variation only gives an upper estimation for the energy loss straggling. However, knowing the energy loss straggling quantitatively becomes important when all the factors are considered, which influence the shape of the spectra. The shape of a measured NICIS spectrum is given firstly by the concentration depth profiles of the sample, secondly by the inelastic energy loss during the backscattering 52.2.3.6.2

247

248

52 Liquid Surfaces

process, and thirdly by the straggling of the energy loss. In some cases, it is of interest to determine the details of the concentration depth profiles as exactly as possible. In such cases, the measured spectra have to be corrected for the distribution of the energy loss, which requires not only knowing the straggling of the energy loss but also measuring the energy loss distribution itself. In general, the straggling of the stopping power could be determined from the NICIS spectra of alkanethiolate layers on gold and silver. However, there are two reasons why these spectra should not be used to determine the energy loss straggling. First, the alkanethiolate layers have a thickness and density variation, which is difficult to be determined. These variations cannot be separated from the straggling. Second, the energy loss distribution can be determined most accurately if both the rising and the falling edge of a signal can be used for the data evaluation. However, the spectra of alkanethiolate layer on gold only show the raising edge of the silver spectrum. A suitable alternative for determining the energy loss straggling is the surface of the surfactant solutions in equilibrium with a gas phase. The gas phase should have a density that is so high that the energy loss in the gas phase is not negligible, i.e. the energy loss in the gas phase should be larger than a few eV. Surfactants have an enhanced concentration at the surface and lead to a peak-like structure in the NICIS spectra. The broadening of such peaks due to the energy loss straggling in the gas phase can readily be determined. Also, the fluctuations of the density of the gas phase are so small that variation in energy loss caused by the fluctuations is small compared to the energy loss straggling. Andersson et al. [88, 89] have investigated the spectra of an aqueous 0.01 m Bu4 NI and 2.5 m LiCl solution at temperatures between −13.2 and −4 ∘ C. Bu4 NI is a surfactant and the iodide spectra have a peak showing the enrichment of this ion at the surface. Thus, in the iodide spectra, a peak both with a rising and a falling edge can be identified. The vapor pressure of these solutions is a few mbar and the projectiles lose energy not only in the bulk of the liquid phase but also in the gas phase as shown schematically in Figure 52.7. In Figure 52.7a, the case is sketched when the energy loss in the gas phase can be neglected: the projectiles backscattered from the outermost layer lose energy only during the backscattering process. In Figure 52.7b, the case is sketched when the energy loss in the gas phase cannot be neglected: the projectile lose energy passing through the gas phase. As the projectiles experience different energy loss processes – both in number and in magnitude – a monoenergetic beam of projectiles turns into a beam of projectiles with an energy distribution. Thus, the part of the spectrum that has to be assigned to projectiles backscattered from the liquid surface will be shifted to a greater energy loss. Also, the width of the spectrum will be increasing with increasing density of the gas phase. Projectiles passing through the bulk experience the same energy loss processes for all temperatures investigated. The energy loss spectra show the broadening and shift with increasing temperature and increasing vapor pressure, respectively [89]. The series of energy loss spectra can be used to determine the energy loss distribution quantitatively. The energy loss in the gas phase can be determined by comparing spectra at different temperatures of the solutions. The vapor pressure of the solution

52.2 Methods

liquid phase E0

E1 E2

(a) liquid phase

gas phase E0

E1* E2*

(b) Figure 52.7 Scheme of the influence of the gas phase on the energy loss of the backscattered projectiles [88]. (a) The projectiles backscattered from the outermost layer lose energy only during the backscattering process and have the energy E 1 and projectiles backscattered from a deeper layer E 2 . (b) The projectiles lose energy also in the

gas phase, and E1∗ < E1 as well as E2∗ < E2 . E1∗ has to be considered as the mean value of an energy distribution as the projectiles experience different energy loss processes depending on whether their trajectory goes through the gas phase or not. (Source: Andersson 2007 [88]. Reprinted with permission of American Physical Society.)

is increasing with the temperature and thus also the densities of the gas phase. The single energy loss processes of the projectiles in the gas phase are independent, which is justified by their small cross section of the energy loss processes. As a consequence, it is appropriate to seek for an energy loss distribution, which depends solely on the mean energy loss. Two different procedures have successfully been used to determine the energy loss distribution. (i)

The first method [88] seeks for a single energy loss distribution f sing at a fixed mean energy loss Emean . The energy loss distribution of a mean energy loss, which is a multiple integer of Emean , is described by a repetitive self-convolution of the single energy loss distribution, where the number of repetitive convolutions is given by the multiple integers. This procedure is solely a consequence of the fact that the energy loss events are independent. The energy loss distribution f sing is determined from the energy loss spectra [88]. A spectrum measured at a lower vapor pressure (lower temperature) is repetitively convoluted with the single energy loss distribution f sing to fit a spectrum measured at a higher vapor pressure (higher temperature). As a first step in the procedure, it has to be determined how often a low vapor pressure spectrum has to be convoluted to fit a high vapor pressure spectrum. Thus, the first step determines the multiple integers. For this purpose, the center of gravity Ei of all spectra are

249

52 Liquid Surfaces

calculated with Ea

Ei =

∫Eb

E ⋅ Ii (E)dE∕

Ea

∫Eb

(52.31)

Ii (E)dE

where E is the energy loss, I i (E) the energy loss spectrum, and Ea and Eb are reasonable boundaries. The multiple integer for a pair of spectra is calculated from the difference of their center of gravity divided by Emean . This means that the number of convolutions nij to fit spectrum j by convoluting spectrum i is given by (52.32)

nij = (Ei − Ej )∕Emean

In practice, the nij are not integers but have to be rounded off to the closest integer. The choice of the value of Emean has no physical meaning. However, Emean has to be chosen for a particular set of spectra such that the values of nij are as close as possible to integers. The shifts of the center of gravity (Ei − Ej ) as a function of the pressure difference of the spectra i and j during their data acquisition are shown in Figure 52.8. The shifts are a linear function of the difference of the pressure during the measurement in the vacuum chamber and can be used to determine the offset of the depth scale because of the presence of the water gas phase as will be discussed below. In the second step, the energy loss distribution f sing at a fixed mean energy loss Emean has to be found. This is achieved by fitting the measured spectra with the energy loss distribution f sing . The fitting parameters are the intensities of the single energy loss distribution f sing with the condition that f sing is the same for all possible combinations of spectra. The single energy loss distribution f sing has been determined using the spectra in Ref. [88] for Emean = 8.3 eV. The measured spectra have been the fitted curves 200 shift center of gravity [eV]

250

55±2 eV/10–4 mbar 150 100 pressure difference 50

fit pressure difference

0 0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

pressure difference [10–4 mbar] Figure 52.8 Shift of the center of gravity as a function of the pressure difference of the respective spectra during data acquisition. The slope of the linear fit is 54 ± 2 eV/10−4 mbar. (Source: Andersson 2007 [88]. Reprinted with permission of American Physical Society.)

52.2 Methods

while the probabilities of the single energy loss distribution have been used as the fitting parameters. Thus, this method does not require a mathematical function to describe the energy loss distribution. The energy loss distributions for a multiple integer of the energy loss of 8.3 eV can then be calculated. The advantage of this procedure is that no assumption has to be made about the shape of the energy loss distribution function. The disadvantage is that energy loss distributions with a mean energy loss other than a multiple integer of Emean are complicated to calculate. (ii) The second procedure is based on the Poisson statistic [89]. The Poisson statistic can be used as the energy loss events are independent as discussed above. As additional simplification, it can be assumed that all collisions lead to the same amount of energy loss ΔEloss . This is less well justified, but it will be seen later that comparison with experiment indicates this approximation being acceptable. ΔEloss is a parameter that has to be determined by comparison with the experiment. It turns out that the value of this parameter is not very critical. The number of scattering centers per area in the layer considered is d. This quantity grows linearly with the layer thickness and thus can be considered as a measure for layer thickness. The cross section for the event leading to energy loss ΔEloss is 𝜎. The Poisson distribution yields the probability that the projectile undergoes a number of k scattering events when passing through the considered layer. PPoisson (k) = (𝜎 ⋅ d)k ⋅

exp(−𝜎 ⋅ d) k!

(52.33)

The values of 𝜎 and d cannot be fitted independently but only their product. The distribution is normalized to give ∞ ∑

PPoisson (k) = 1

(52.34)

k=0

The mean energy loss ⟨Eloss ⟩ described by the Poisson distribution is given by ⟨Eloss ⟩ = 𝜎 ⋅ d ⋅ ΔEloss

(52.35)

The individual energy loss is related to the number of collision events by Eloss = k ⋅ ΔEloss

(52.36)

To any layer thickness d belongs a distribution of k and, thus, a distribution of energy losses. For the application, it would be easier to have the distribution not as a function of k but of the energy loss. For this purpose, we set k=

Eloss ΔEloss

(52.37)

This turns the integer number k into a continuous variable. This can be accounted for by replacing the faculty k! by the Gamma function Γ(k + 1),

251

52 Liquid Surfaces

0.12 0.08

no. of energy loss events

energy loss 16.6 eV energy loss 41.5 eV energy loss 66.4 eV energy loss 91.3 eV energy loss 116.2 eV

0.16 probability

252

0.04 0 0

(a)

100

200

300

400

(b)

Figure 52.9 (a) Energy loss distributions for indicated mean energy losses in water vapor described with Poisson distributions. The energy loss per energy loss event is chosen as 6 eV (b) number of energy loss events as

PPoisson (Eloss ) =

(

(𝜎 ⋅ d)

Eloss ΔEloss

Γ

(

60 40

9.7 events/10–4 mbar

20 6.6 events/10–4 mbar

0 0

500

energy loss

which leads to

–4 loss/event = 3 eV 18.7 events/10 mbar loss/event = 6 eV loss/event = 9 eV

1

2

3

4

pressure difference [10–4 mbar]

a function of the pressure difference in the vacuum chamber during the measurements. (Source: Andersson 2007 [88]. Reprinted with permission of American Physical Society.)

)

⋅ exp(−𝜎 ⋅ d) ) +1

Eloss ΔEloss

(52.38)

The fitting procedure is similar to the previous method. A spectrum measured at a lower temperature is convoluted with a Poisson distribution to fit the spectra measured at a higher temperature. The parameter d is the only fitting parameter while 𝜎 is set equal to unity. Fits were carried out for ΔEloss in the range of 3–9 eV. The justification for this range of ΔEloss is that approximating the water molecules as spheres and taking into account the density of water, the number of water molecules per monolayer in the condensed phase is about 0.9 × 1015 cm−2 . Using the extrapolated stopping power from [90] the average energy loss of a projectile passing by an oxygen atom is about 5.5 eV and by a single water molecule about 8.3 eV. The energy loss passing by a single hydrogen atom is small and can be neglected in reasoning the chosen range of ΔEloss . However, the fit results are almost independent from the value of ΔEloss in this range. The energy loss distributions for ΔEloss = 6 eV are shown in Figure 52.9. The slopes of the mean energy loss as a function of the pressure difference slightly depend on the value of ΔEloss and they vary between 56 and 59 eV eV/10−4 mbar, which is very similar to the value of the slope in Figure 52.8. Andersson et al. found that both descriptions of the energy loss distribution fit the measured spectra almost equally well and the authors concluded that further measurements will be required to decide whether or not one of both procedures should be preferred. Comparing the energy loss distributions of both methods, it can be seen that both descriptions differ in their strength of asymmetry with the Poisson distribution being less asymmetric. The advantage of the first procedure is that no

52.2 Methods

mathematical function is required to describe the slope of the distribution and thus does not restrict the slope. The advantage of the procedure using the Poisson distribution is in its simplicity, which makes it preferable for practical applications. 52.2.3.7 Thermal Broadening

The thermal motion of the atoms in the sample leads through momentum transfer to a broadening of the energy of the scattered projectile. In a solid sample, the thermal motion is described by the phonon energy. In soft matter, the thermal motion has to be expressed by translational, vibrational, and rotational motion of the atoms. The broadening can be estimated with [91] ΔEtherm =

8(A − 1)(A ⋅ E0 Etherm )1∕2 (A + 1)2

(52.39)

where A is the same as in Eq. (52.11), E0 the primary energy of the projectile, and Etherm the thermal energy of the target atom. Etherm can be estimated for typical molecules. A nonlinear molecule consisting of three atoms has three translational, three rotational, and three vibrational degrees of freedom. For the transfer of momentum, only the motion parallel to the direction of the trajectory is important, which is only 3 out of the 9 degrees of freedom of the considered molecule, neglecting whether or not each degree of freedom is thermally activated. Thus, Etherm can be estimated as 1.5 kT or 38 meV. The energy broadening for a 3 keV helium projectile backscattered from carbon yields ΔEtherm = 19 eV and for helium projectiles backscattered from iodide ΔEtherm = 14 eV. Both values are small compared to the total line width of backscattered projectiles of about 50 eV at these conditions as measured in the spectra of gas phases. 52.2.3.8 Concentration Depth Profiles

NICIS spectra are measured as TOF spectra. The ratio between a TOF spectrum and an energy spectrum is given by [10] I(t) = I0 ∕((d𝜎∕dΩ)∕(d𝜎∕dΩ)0 )

(52.40a)

I(E) = I(t)(dt∕dE)∕(dt∕dE)0

(52.40b)

where t is the TOF, E the energy, d𝜎/dΩ(E) is the differential cross section, (d𝜎/dΩ)0 a reference cross section of arbitrary value and det(E) the detector sensitivity. The factor dt/dE has to be taken into account since as equal intervals on the TOF scale are not equal on the energy scale because of the nonlinear relation between the TOF and the energy. The factor (dt/dE)0 is also of arbitrary value to normalise the conversion. dE f (52.41) dz where z is the depth and f a factor relating the concentration to the yield of backscattered projectiles. In most cases, the purpose of the measurement is to determine the concentration depth profiles of the elements. The NICIS spectra have a contribution of helium projectiles backscattered from the different elements constituting the sample and of I(d) = I(E)

253

52 Liquid Surfaces

4000

C

3500 count rate [counts/h/nA]

254

3000

O

2500 2000

photons

recoil hydrogen

1500 1000 step O

500

step C

0 –500 –1.0

0.0

1.0

Figure 52.10 Spectrum of benzyl alcohol with 4.5 keV helium ions used as projectiles. The spectrum consists of the broad distribution of recoil hydrogen and steps for the elements oxygen and carbon.

2.0 3.0 time-of-flight [μs]

4.0

5.0

6.0

The photons are used to gauge the zero mark of the TOF scale. (Source: Andersson 2005 [92]. Reprinted with permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry.)

sputtered hydrogen atoms. Different steps are required to determine the concentration depth profiles: 1. Extracting the NICIS spectra of a single element 2. Converting the NICIS spectra to the depth scale and gauging the depth scale 3. Deconvolution Although the first two steps are required for each NICISS data evaluation, the third will be carried out only if the exact details of the concentration depth profiles are of interest. 52.2.3.8.1 Extracting the NICIS Spectrum of a Single Element In Figure 52.10, a TOF spectrum of benzyl alcohol (BA) is shown as a typical example of a NICIS spectrum of an organic compound. The spectrum consists of backscattered projectiles, which appear as a step for each element constituting the sample: a step for oxygen and a step for carbon. Additionally, there is a broad background consisting of hydrogen atoms, which are hydrogen atoms sputtered by the projectiles. In the evaluation of the spectra, each step has to be separated from the total spectrum. Photons are emitted from the surface upon the impact of the projectiles. The photons appear as a peak in the spectrum. The photon peak is used to determine the zero mark of the TOF scale. The procedure of separating the steps from the total spectrum is based on two assumptions. Firstly, the background of the sputtered hydrogen is a smooth curve.

52.2 Methods

This is evident from the spectra of alkanes, which only show one step and a smooth distribution before and after the onset of the carbon step [10]. Upon adding a solute to a solvent, the distribution of the sputtered hydrogen atoms remains smooth. As long as the concentration of heavy elements does not change strongly upon adding a second component to the sample, the shape of the recoil hydrogen distribution does not change significantly. As an example, the recoil hydrogen distribution of a pure solvent can also be used for the evaluation of the spectra of a solution as long as the concentration of the solute is low. In most cases, concentrations 1 nm. In the angle-resolved mode, NICISS can achieve even higher depth resolution. DRS detects particles that are sputtered from the surface in a single scattering process. Such particles are called recoils. The interpretation of DRS usually requires simulations [122]. A further scattering technique is molecule scattering allowing to investigate the uptake and solvation processes of gases into liquids [123]. Other techniques are the reflectivity techniques, NR and XR. NR probes the profile of index of refraction of neutrons along the surface normal, which is determined by the scattering length density at the gas/liquid interface. The index of refraction is determined by both the local composition of the sample and the local density of the sample. It is difficult to separate change in composition and change in density. The scattering lengths of hydrogen and deuterium are very different [124]. The deuterium:hydrogen ratio of the different species can be adjusted to match the index of refraction of a selected compound to that of the gas phase. Thus, it is possible to choose whether a given species is visible or invisible for the neutrons. The composition of the surface is determined with NR from a set of different measurements where the index of refraction of each compound is changed. In general, it should be possible to determine the concentration depth profiles of the constituents by Fourier transformation of the reflectivity profiles. In practice, this is not done because of the statistical uncertainty of the reflectivity profiles. Instead, the measurements are mostly fitted by assuming that the distribution of

267

268

52 Liquid Surfaces

each substance at the surface can be described with a Gaussian curve. The FWHM of the Gaussian curves and the relative distance of them in the direction parallel to the surface normal are fitting parameters. NR is mostly used to determine the surface excess of surfactant solutions. In the case of mixed surfactant solutions, the relative distance of both surfactant monolayers can also be determined. XR probes the profile of the index of refraction of the X-ray. The index of refraction is determined by the electron density profile across the surface and thus the concentration depth profiles and the density profile in the surface near region [125]. As for NR, it is difficult to separate change in concentration and change in density. XR allows investigating density profiles and distributions of species at liquid interfaces such as concentration depth profiles of ions [125, 126]. In summary, both NR and XR measure the reflectivity close to the angle of total reflection and probe the difference in reflectivity predicted by the Fresnel formula for an ideal, smooth, and flat interface and the reflectivity of a real interface [127]. Nonlinear optical methods such as SFG or SHG make use of the nonvanishing first-order nonlinear susceptibility at interfaces because of the broken inversion symmetry at the interfaces. The interaction of differently polarized light with the molecules is probed and yields conclusions about the orientation [128–130] and the electric field [131] at interfaces. As long as the absorption of light in the upper phase is not too great, it is possible to also probe liquid/liquid interfaces. In some cases, non-linear optics (NLO) methods were used to quantitatively probe the amount of surfactants at an interface [132, 133]. This requires the calibration of the signal with surfaces of a known composition. For the quantitative analysis of the composition of the surface, it has to be assumed that the orientation of the molecules in the reference surface and the probed surface are the same. It is hard to prove this assumption independently by the method itself. 52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

The quantities of interest at liquid surfaces that can be derived from concentration depth profiles are the amount of substances adsorbed at the surface or desorbed from the surface, orientation of molecules, the change of the overall density, the distribution of charges along the surface normal, and as a consequence also the electric field and the electric potential along the surface normal. In the above list, the density profile is named separately to the concentration depth profiles. Both quantities have to be distinguished. The concentration depth profile usually means the concentration relative to a reference concentration, e.g. the bulk concentration, and is given in units of amount of solute per amount of solvent. The density profile means the change in total density of the substances. The density changes across the gas/liquid interface from that of the gas phase to that of the liquid phase. When we consider a pure substance, the concentration does not change at all in such a case because it is unity across the interface. In multicomponent systems, both the concentration and the density can change and usually do. Some experimental methods are sensitive for either concentration or density changes and some are sensitive for both. Electron

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

and ion scattering spectroscopies are usually sensitive only for changes in concentration and allow for determining the absolute concentration. The depth is derived in both electron and ion scattering spectroscopies indirectly. In the case of ion scattering spectroscopy, the depth is measured with reference to the stopping power; in the case of electron spectroscopy, the electron mean free path serves as the reference. Both electron and ion scattering spectroscopies could thus use a reduced length as the depth scale instead of a depth scale in units of meters. Baschenko has used this concept for electron spectroscopy data [28]. The reflectivity methods are sensitive for both changes in density and changes in relative concentration. However, applying reflectivity methods, it can be difficult to disentangle changes in concentration and changes in density. The quantities that can be derived from concentration depth profiles are of interest in many areas. We want to name here explicitly the formation of thin liquid films and adsorption at solid surfaces from solutions as two examples. The stability of foam films impacts on the coalescence of bubbles that has practical consequences for flotation and emulsification. Bubbles are used to separate minerals in the flotation process and their formation and stability impact on the efficiency of the separation [134, 135]. In emulsion, two liquids are dispersed into each other forming a twophase system consisting of small bubbles and thin liquid films. The stability of the bubbles and the thin liquid films determines the overall stability of the emulsion [136]. Adsorption at solid surfaces impacts on coating and again on flotation [135]. Surfactant molecules adsorb onto small mineral particles determining the attachment of the particles to a foam bubble. In all these processes, dynamics plays an important role. Often, the dynamics is difficult to be investigated with the existing analytical techniques because they all rely on the formation of equilibrium or at least a static situation. The only possibility for investigating the dynamic of liquid surfaces would be the isolation of a liquid surface and investigating the concentration depth profiles of the liquid at a given time after formation and isolation. 52.3.1 Composition of Top Surface Layer 52.3.1.1 From MIES, a Technique with Perfect Surface Sensitivity 52.3.1.1.1 Binary Mixture of Two Polar Solvents A few years ago, the surface of several binary mixtures of polar solvents [137] has been studied by the combination of surface tensiometry and surface spectroscopy MIES. As all mixtures investigated are miscible in all proportions, the bulk molar fraction could be varied over the full range from zero to unity. It turned out that the MIE spectra of the mixtures Smix (Eel ) could be reproduced by a linear combination of the spectra taken for the pure liquids SA (Eel ) and SB (Eel )

Smix (Eel ) = 𝛼A ⋅ SA (Eel ) + 𝛼B ⋅ SB (Eel )

(52.46)

The meaning of the coefficients 𝛼 A and 𝛼 B was identified as representing the fraction of the surface covered by either of the components. For all mixtures of the three

269

52 Liquid Surfaces

binary mixture HPN/FA

62

surface tension (mN/m)

270

60 58 56 54

plotted against surface fraction plotted against surface molar fraction

52 50 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

surface fraction HPN Figure 52.17 Binary mixture of HPN and FA. The surface tension when plotted against the surface fraction of either component yields a straight line with great accuracy. The plot against the surface molar fraction clearly

indicates that linearity is less well satisfied if the surface tension is plotted against the molar fraction in the surface layer. (Source: Kirmse and Morgner (2006) [137]. Adapted with permission of ACS Publications.)

liquids, FA, 3-HPN, and PEG, we made the observation that the surface tension when plotted as a function of the surface fraction obtained from MIES via Eq. (52.46) rather than as a function of the bulk molar fraction can be fitted to high precision by a straight line. For the mixture HPN/FA, this outcome is displayed in Figure 52.17. It has been argued in Ref. [137] that this linearity proves that the topmost layer is identical to the entire surface layer. For comparison, we have defined another quantity that characterizes the surface. It is the molar fraction within the top surface layer (or surface molar fraction). It can be computed from the surface fractions 𝛼 via the relations 2

xsurf A

=

2

𝛼A ⋅ nA3 2

2

𝛼A ⋅ nA3 + 𝛼B ⋅ nB3

and

xsurf B

=

𝛼B ⋅ nB3 2

2

(52.47)

𝛼A ⋅ nA3 + 𝛼B ⋅ nB3

where nA and nB are the molar densities of the pure components. Once the top surface layer is identified with the entire surface, one can easily evaluate the surface concentration for both components. Equation (52.48) assumes that the molar areas 2 of the molecules are proportional to n 3 , i.e. that no preferential orientation prevails. It is important to note that any definition of the surface molar fraction depends on a model assumption. Thus, we choose here a definition that is easily computed from the data available. It is interesting to note that the surface tension displays a noticeable deviation from linearity if plotted against the molar fraction in the surface, cf. Figure 52.17. From the observation that Eq. (52.46) reproduces the spectra of the binary mixtures so well, one can conclude that the average orientation of the molecules in the mixture must be very similar to the average orientation of the molecules in the environment of the pure liquids. As is well known [22], the perfect surface

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

binary mixture BA/FA

surface tension [mN/m]

60

55

50

45

40 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

surface fraction BA Figure 52.18 Plotted is the surface tension of the mixture BA/FA as a function of the surface fraction 𝛼 BA of benzyl alcohol. Three piecewise linear sections can be discerned. (Source: Kirmse and Morgner (2006) [137]. Adapted with permission of ACS Publications.)

sensitivity of the MIES technique implies an orientation sensitivity. As no change of orientation is observed in the mixture, one could be inclined to assume that those molecules forming the topmost layer have a high probability to be in an environment similar to that in the pure liquid. This is best understood if one assumes that the surface is composed of domains of like molecules. Although the difference in surface tension between the three liquids HPN, FA, and PEG does not exceed 10 mN/m, we will now address a system in which the respective surface tensions differ by almost 20 mN/m. It is the binary mixture of BA and FA. The absence of a miscibility gap allows again measuring the two quantities, surface tension and surface fraction, over the entire range of concentrations. Plotting for this system, the surface tension as a function of the surface fraction leads to a surprise: the curve turns out to be linear, but piecewise linear. No less than three linear parts can be discerned in the plot, cf. Figure 52.18. The intersections occur at 𝛼 BA = 0.79 and 0.96. The interpretation of this phenomenon will be discussed in Section 52.4. 52.3.1.1.2 Sodium Oleate/FA The capability of MIES to identify the orientation of molecules at a liquid surface has been used to study the surfactant sodium oleate (NaOl) dissolved in FA [138]. Even though the evaluation technique SVD has not been employed at that time, a spectroscopic feature could be used in order to assess the orientation of the surfactant: NaOl contains a double bond 𝜋 C = C in the hydrocarbon chain, which has the lowest binding energy among all occupied orbitals in the system. Thus, it can be easily identified in the spectrum.

271

272

52 Liquid Surfaces

(a) t=1.5 ms

πC = C

× 20

(b) t=5.5 ms

× 20

(c) t=11.5 ms × 20

(d) t=17.5 ms × 20

4

6 8 10 kinetic energy [eV]

12

Figure 52.19 Time evolution of the surface of a 8.7 mmolal solution of sodium oleate in formamide. The spectra are taken at increasing age of the surface (a–d). This is experimentally realized by taking the spectrum at varying distance from the outlet of the liquid beam. The first spectrum (a) represents a situation with a just completed NaOl layer.

The peak area of the 𝜋 C = C orbital falls off as (a) 100%, (b) 50%, (c) 44%, and (d) 38% indicating that the center of the hydrocarbon chain gets less accessible with increasing surface age and, thus, with increasing coverage. (Source: Morgner et al. 1993 [138]. Data are taken with permission of Taylor and Francis.)

In MIES, this orbital can only be populated if it protrudes from the surface, which is impossible if the hydrocarbon chain stands upright on the surface. The occurrence of this orbital is therefore an unambiguous indication that sodium oleate molecules are lying flat on the surface. We found that the intensity of the 𝜋 C = C -orbital is largest at low concentration and decreases with increasing coverage. This is demonstrated by the time evolution of the spectrum at constant bulk concentration, displayed in Figure 52.19. With increasing surface age, the relative intensity of the 𝜋 C = C orbital decreases significantly. In view of the perfect surface sensitivity of MIES, this observation clearly indicates that the broad side of the hydrocarbon chains is less and less exposed to the impinging metastable helium atoms. On the other hand,

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

increasing surface age leads to an increased amount of surfactant at the surface. The combination of these two facts indicates that increasing coverage causes the surfactant molecules to push each other into a more and more upright orientation. The same observation has been made for other surfactants dissolved in polar solvents, e.g. lecithin and 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC) dissolved in HPN. These systems will be discussed in the next Sections 52.3.1.1.3 and 52.3.1.1.4. 52.3.1.1.3 Lecithin and POPC (Two Orientations of Surfactant Molecules) In this section, we summarize the results on lipids dissolved in the polar solvent HPN (Figure 52.20). The systems are distinguished by the property of forming micelles and by the fairly low diffusion coefficient that makes it possible to follow the building up of the surface layer as a function of time on a time scale between a few ms and several seconds, which lends itself to experimental observation. The first experiments have been carried out with egg lecithin, which is a mixture of molecules with phosphatidylcholine as the head group [139, 140]. Later on, chemically pure lipids were employed: 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) [141] and DOPC [142]. At first, we will focus on the time evolution of the lipid layer. This aspect has been extensively studied for lecithin dissolved in HPN, the surface age being Lecithin / HPN curves of constant surface composition

5 a=0.6 a=0.15

bulk concentration [mmol/l]

4

F=1

a=0.45 a=0.3

3

F=0.5

2

1

0 1

10

100

1000

age of surface [ms] Figure 52.20 Composition of the top layer of the surface of lecithin/HPN as a function of bulk concentration and surface age. F measures the fraction of the surface covered by lecithin. In the case of full coverage, i.e.

beyond F = 1, the quantity a denotes the fraction of the surface covered by upright standing lecithin. (Source: Knoll et al. 2000 [140]. Adapted with permission of Taylor and Francis.)

273

52 Liquid Surfaces

HPN pur

8000

Lecithin lying 3500

7000

3000

6000

2500

5000

Counts

Counts

4000 3000

2000 1500

2000

1000

1000

500

0

0 0

2

4 6 8 10 12 Kinetic Energy/eV

14

0

2

4 6 8 10 12 14 Kinetic Energy/eV

Lecithin standing

2500 2000 Counts

274

1500 1000 500 0 0

2

4 6 8 10 12 Kinetic Energy/eV

14

Figure 52.21 The three reference spectra the linear combination of which allows reproducing all spectra taken by MIES from the surface of the system lecithin/HPN.

varied in the range from 2 to 650 ms and the bulk concentration between 0.1 and 7 mmol/l. The data were taken with the spectroscopic technique MIES, which identifies not only the species but also its sensitiveness to the orientation of the lipid molecules. The spectra taken by MIES from the surface of lecithin/HPN can, under all experimental conditions, be reproduced by the linear combination Smix (Eel ) = 𝛼 HPN • SHPN (Eel ) + 𝛼 Lec, lying • SLec, lying (Eel ) + 𝛼 Lec, upright • SLec, upright (Eel ). The three reference spectra are plotted in Figure 52.21. It was found that the lecithin molecules are lying flat on the surface as long as the solvent is not entirely covered. After the spectral features of the solvent have vanished from the spectrum, the lecithin molecules start to reorient into an upright position. Evaluating the fractions of the surface covered by lying and by standing lecithin molecules allows computing the coverage ΓLec (t) of the surface by the solute. From these data, it is possible to assess the diffusion coefficient of the molecules via the equation by Ward and Tordaj [143] √ D⋅t ΓLec (t) = 2c0 (52.48) 𝜋

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

Cholesterol (full coverage) 3500 3000

Counts

2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Kinetic Energy (eV) Figure 52.22 The spectrum of cholesterol at the surface of HPN at full coverage. It serves as the reference spectrum for cholesterol for all bulk concentrations of the ternary mixture lecithin/cholesterol/HPN. This

proves that cholesterol showing up at the surface has always either the same orientation or the same superposition of different orientations.

As long as experimental conditions leading to back diffusion are omitted, the diffusion coefficient amounts to D = (2 ± 0.5) × 10−7 cm2 /s [139, 144]. 52.3.1.1.4 Lecithin/Cholesterol The interaction of lecithin with cholesterol plays a role in biological transport of cholesterol in the bloodstream. The solubility of cholesterol in blood is so low that effective cholesterol is transported inside lipoproteins that are spherical particles composed of a polar surface of protein, phospholipid, and free cholesterol, plus a nonpolar core containing cholesterol esters and triglycerides [145]. Even though the solvent employed in our experiment is HPN rather than water (or blood), it still appeared interesting to study the interaction between cholesterol and lecithin in the polar solvent HPN [146]. The spectra taken by MIES from the surface of the ternary mixture lecithin/cholesterol/HPN could be reproduced by the linear combination of four reference spectra. In addition to the three spectra displayed in Figure 52.21, a fourth reference spectrum indicating the presence of cholesterol was required, cf. Figure 52.22. An interesting observation is noteworthy: unlike the system lecithin/HPN, the present ternary system does not show the orientation of lecithin into an upright position at full coverage. The data analysis is carried out with all four reference spectra, but the weight of the reference spectrum for standing lecithin (right panel in Figure 52.21) always remains negligibly low. Again, it is possible to study the time dependence of the surface composition. In particular, it was found that the diffusion of lecithin toward the surface is strongly influenced by the concentration of cholesterol. The diffusion coefficient of lecithin is plotted in Figure 52.23 for three different concentrations of cholesterol.

275

52 Liquid Surfaces 2.5E–7

2.5E–7

c(chol) = 0.2mmolal D(Lec) (cm^2/s)

D(Lec) (cm^2/s)

2.0E–7 1.5E–7 1.0E–7 5.0E–8 0.0E+0

c(chol) = 0.4mmolal

2.0E–7 1.5E–7 1.0E–7 5.0E–8 0.0E+0

0

1 2 bulk conc. Lec / mmolal

3

0

1 2 bulk conc. Lec / mmolal

3

c(chol) = 0.8mmolal

2.5E–7 D(Lec) (cm^2/s)

276

2.0E–7 1.5E–7 1.0E–7 5.0E–8 0.0E+0 0

1

2

3

4

bulk conc. Lec / mmolal

Figure 52.23 The diffusion coefficient of lecithin as a function of lecithin concentration for three selected values of the cholesterol concentration. The full line is the best fit with an analytical expression.

One finds in all three cases that the diffusion coefficient of lecithin passes through a pronounced minimum below the concentration of cLec = 1 mmolal and then recovers with increasing lecithin concentration in order to drop again. The behavior has been fitted with an analytical expression flexible enough to model the local minima and maxima. The diffusion coefficient of lecithin DLec is composed of a power function plus a Lorentzian DLec (cLec ) = D0 ⋅ exp(−b ⋅ cLec ) + const

c2 ((cLec − d)2 + c2 )

(52.49)

The diffusion coefficient of pure lecithin D0 and the parameter const are kept constant, whereas the parameters b, c, and d depend on the cholesterol concentration cChol via a second-order polynomial. These parameters vary smoothly with the concentration of cholesterol. By interpolation, it is possible to evaluate the diffusion coefficient for all combinations of lecithin and cholesterol concentrations, cf. Figure 52.24. Cholesterol lowers the diffusion coefficient, the effect being small or very pronounced depending on the ratio of both lipids. It is interesting to note that the maximum value is taken on for low concentration of cholesterol (as expected), but as well for low concentration of lecithin irrespective of the cholesterol concentration. Obviously, the diffusion coefficient of lecithin is significantly lowered, if the concentrations of both lipids are comparable, cf. Figure 52.24. The strong effect of cholesterol onto the diffusion coefficient of lecithin suggests that aggregates form as a consequence of the interaction between both lipids. If one relates the effective diffusion coefficient of lecithin to the size of the aggregate it forms together with cholesterol, it is possible to give an estimate for the size of the

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

0.8 0-0.5

0-0.5 0.5-1.0

2-2.5 1.5-2 1-1.5 0.5-1 0-0.5

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4

1.0-1.5

0.3 0.2

1.5-2.0

0.1

concentration of cholesterol[mmolal]

diffusion coefficient of lecithin in HPN in presence of cholesterol[10–7cm2/s]

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0

0.0 concentration of lecithin [mmolal]

Figure 52.24 Diffusion coefficient of lecithin concentration. The presence of cholesterol causes a significant variation of the diffusion in HPN in the presence of cholesterol. In coefficient with both concentrations. the absence of cholesterol, the diffusion coefficient of lecithin hardly depends on its

aggregate for any value of the diffusion coefficient. Under the experimental conditions of the study, the maximum radius of the aggregates estimated amounts to 70 nm [146]. So far, we have discussed the influence that cholesterol exerts on the behavior of lecithin. Of course, the spectroscopic technique allows focusing on the behavior of the other component cholesterol as well. At low surface age (225 ms), the presence of lecithin enhances the adsorption of cholesterol compared to pure cholesterol, whereas at larger surface age (900 ms), lecithin appears to suppress cholesterol adsorption noticeably [146]. It is interesting to keep in mind that even though surface analytical techniques were employed in the experiments, the information gained refers to diffusion, i.e. to bulk properties. We will encounter a similar situation for another system with two surfactants in Section 52.4.2.3. There, the experimental data allow evaluating the influence of one surfactant onto the activity of the other surfactant, i.e. on static bulk properties. 52.3.1.1.5 PD/FA (Three Reference Spectra, Unresolved Problem of Upright PD Molecules, Mixture of Liquid with Miscibility Gap) An interesting phenomenon has

been found for a binary liquid mixture composed of the polar component FA and the nonpolar component pentadecane (PD) [147]. The nonpolar component PD has an electric conductivity that is so low that electron spectroscopy of the pure liquid is prohibited by severe charging up. Thus, the primary goal of mixing these two liquids has been to create a thin layer of PD on top of a conducting substrate consisting of FA. As these two liquids have a large miscibility gap and as the surface tension of PD is much below that of FA, it was expected that the formation of the thin PD layer on top of FA would proceed spontaneously. Indeed, thermodynamic principles are driving the system into the desired arrangement. The time scale on which this arrangement was achieved had to be explored experimentally. The two

277

52 Liquid Surfaces

mixture of pentadecane and formamide

reference 1: pure formamide

intensity [a.u.]

278

reference 3: standing pentadecane

reference 2: lying pentadecane

0

2

4 6 8 electron energy [eV]

Figure 52.25 The three reference spectra are identified as the spectrum of pure FA (reference 1), the spectrum of lying PD (reference 2), and the spectrum of alkanes

10

12

standing upright (reference 3). The error bars indicate possible uncertainties in determining the third reference spectrum. (Source: Data are taken from [147].)

parameters that could be varied were the relative amount of PD and the age of the surface at the location of the experiment. The relative amount of PD was set to 0, 2.7, 5.4, and 20% by weight and the age of the surface could be changed between 2 and 23 ms. Spectra were taken for several combinations of these parameters. It was obvious that the characteristic spectral features of FA vanished as larger as the relative amount of PD and as greater as the age of the surface was. Increasing age and/or increasing PD fraction made the spectrum converge to a shape that did not show any features of FA but resembled the spectrum of lying alkanes [148]. Thus, the strategy to build up a thin liquid layer of PD to overcome its low conductivity was successful (Figure 52.25). It turned out, however, that the spectra showing up for intermediate values of surface age and PD amount displayed even more interesting findings. It was found that the intermediate spectra could not be reproduced by the simple formula in Eq. (52.46). The SVD algorithm required three rather than only two reference spectra in order to reproduce all spectra taken for all surface ages and all relative PD amount [22]. Two of the reference spectra could easily be assigned: the spectrum of pure FA and the converging spectrum of PD that had been identified as that of lying alkanes. The third reference spectrum had to be reconstructed and could be reconstructed according to the guidelines developed in a previous publication [22]. The shape of the third reference spectrum could unambiguously be identified as the spectrum of alkane molecules standing upright, i.e. exposing their methyl groups to the impinging metastable helium atoms [22, 148].

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

Although this result of the spectroscopy rests on firm grounds, the understanding of the intermediate upright orientation of the PD molecules represents an open question until now. The first attempt to solve the riddle was inspired by the fact that the upright position shows up only as long as the PD layer is incomplete. Thus, we were misled to associate this orientation with the dynamics of the transport process of the PD molecules to the surface. The reptation [149] model for the motion of polymers would suggest that the PD molecules would arrive at the surface with their head group first. Although this concept was put down in the first draft, a referee kindly pointed out that the time scale for transport of the PD molecules and the time scale for carrying out the spectroscopy were too different in order to expect the transport-related orientation of the molecules to be preserved until the spectroscopy experiment is carried out. We removed the remark from the manuscript and are still grateful to the referee for his common sense. Thus, the observation of the standing PD molecules remains an unsolved question. 52.3.1.2 Extrapolation from NICISS and ARXPS

In the previous Section 52.3.1.1, we have discussed the properties of the top surface layer of a liquid system as evaluated by the technique MIES, which is distinguished by perfect surface sensitivity. Here, we address the obvious ability of any surface spectroscopy to yield information about the composition of the top surface layer: if the concentration depth profile is known, the composition of the top layer is necessarily known as well. As MIES is specialized to characterize the top layer, it appears obvious that the precision of MIES in doing so is most reliable. Thus, the information obtained from the techniques NICISS and ARXPS with respect to the top layer can be gauged against MIES. Here, we will inspect data obtained for the system TBAI/FA, which consists of the ionic surfactant dissolved in the polar solvent formamide. The surface of this system has been investigated by the three methods MIES, ARXPS, and NICISS and thereby is a suitable testing ground for comparison. For a large number of concentrations, the composition of the top layer has been studied by MIES. The results are found in Figure 52.26. MIES data have been taken for the range of concentrations 0.02–0.95 mol/kg almost up to the solubility limit. No less than 37 concentrations have been investigated. Any data point stands for one spectrum, which has been evaluated as linear combination Ssolution (Eel ) = 𝛼TBAI ⋅ STBAI (Eel ) + 𝛼FA ⋅ SFA (Eel ) Expressed as a ratio between surface molar fraction over bulk molar fraction, the surface enhancement reaches a factor of about 20 at low concentrations and drops off to about 8 at the largest concentration investigated. The concentration depth profile has been taken at three concentrations by ARXPS. The composition of the top surface extrapolated from these data is indicated in Figure 52.26 as open circles, together with the estimated error bar. The comparison with the technique NICISS has been carried out for the concentration of 0.25 mol/kg, indicated by a full quadrangle. The general agreement between the methods is not perfect, but certainly satisfactory.

279

52 Liquid Surfaces

surface molar fraction / bulk molar fraction

280

25

solution of TBAI in FA composition of top surface layer MIES best fit to MIES upper bound lower bound ARXPS NICISS

20 15 10 5 0 0.0

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 bulk concentration [mol TBAI / kg FA]

Figure 52.26 TBAI/FA in the range of concentrations 0.02–0.95 mol/kg. The composition of the top layer is directly measured with MIES. The thick line represents the best fit of a smooth curve to all MIES data. The estimated uncertainties of the data are indicated by the lower and upper bounds (thin

1.0

lines). ARXPS has been carried out for the system at three concentrations (0.1, 0.4, and 0.5 mol/kg). The extrapolated surface composition is inserted (open circle) including the estimated error bar. The result from NICISS for a 0.25 m solution is added for comparison as well.

52.3.2 Depth Dependence of Composition at Liquid Surfaces 52.3.2.1 Surfactant Solutions 52.3.2.1.1 Quantification with XPS and ARXPS The first publication investigating liquid surfaces with electron spectroscopy was published by Siegbahn et al. in 1973 [4]. The first quantitative results were reported by the group of Hans Siegbahn, the son of Kai Siegbahn, who won in 1981 the Nobel Prize for Physics for inventing XPS – or ESCA as it was called at that time. His group was the first to apply angle-resolved electron spectroscopy for analyzing the structure of a surfactant solution [27, 150]. The solutions investigated were tetra-N-alkylammonium halide salts – with one to six C atoms per alkyl chain – in the solvent formamide. The tetra-N-alkylammonium halide salts are known to be surface active in water. With these pioneering measurements, Holmberg et al. aimed for a quantitative measurement of the surface excess and the influence of both the length of the alkyl chain of the cation and the counterion on the overall surface excess. The measurements were recorded at single X-ray excitation energy, three different observation angles, and some variation in surfactant concentration. The investigators recorded the C, O, and halide signals. In the C signal, three different C species could be identified: the C atom not bound to the central N atom of the tetra-N-alkylammonium cation, the C atom bound to the N atom, and the C in the solvent. Each set of three measurements was fitted with a step model and a model describing the concentration

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

gradient from the surface to the bulk with an exponential function. The surface excess for both models was largely the same and increasing with increasing bulk concentration. The halide counterions were found to also influence the surface excess with a decreasing order from I− to Cl− . Eschen et al. further developed Holmberg’s ideas and added two qualitative new ideas to the concept [151]. Firstly, they performed angle- and energy-resolved measurements and secondly they strongly improved the data evaluation by applying the genetic algorithm. The first introduces a second way to change the depth sensitivity of the XPS signal, which is independent of the variation of the observation angle. The latter allows quantitative data analysis in cases where the number of variables is very large and fitting procedures have to take variation of the starting values for the fitting procedures into account. In the data analysis, the variation of the concentration was considered not only for the concentration depth profile itself but also for the electron mean free path. Both the local elemental composition and the density influence the electron mean free path. The advancement of the model for fitting the ARXPS data allowed that the concentration in each layer can be considered as a fitting parameter opposed to the simplified model of Holmberg et al. who assumed an exponential relationship between concentration and depth. The concentration depth profiles determined with ARXPS of a 0.5 M solution of tetraN-butylammonium iodide (Bu4 NI) in formamide is shown in Figure 52.27. Because of the excitation energy range available to Eschen et al., only spectra for C could be recorded, and as a consequence, only the concentration depth profile for the alkyl chains could be determined. The profile of the counterion I− is not available for these measurements. 3.5E-07 3E-07

TBAI/(mol/m^2)

2.5E-07 0.5 m TBAI / FORMAMIDE

2E-07 1.5E-07 1E-07 5E-08 0 1

6

11

16 LAYERS

21

26

Figure 52.27 Concentration depth profiles of the cation of Bu4 NI in a 0.5 M solution in formamide. The thickness of the layers can be approximated with ∼1.5 Å. (Source: Reprinted from [151].)

281

52 Liquid Surfaces

3

Concentration/(mol/L)

282

Cation

Anion

2

1

0 0

5

10

20 15 Depth/Å

25

30

35

Figure 52.28 Concentration depth profiles of the cations and anions of Bu4 NI in a 0.5 M solution in formamide. (Source: Reprinted from [153].)

Wang et al. investigated with a lab-based X-ray source for Al-K𝛼 radiation solutions of Bu4 NCl and Bu4 NI in formamide at various concentrations [152–154]. Calibration of the analyzer transmission function allowed for quantitatively determining the concentration depth profiles of anions and cations. However, the lab-based Xray source did not allow to change the excitation energy; thus, the depth resolution in these experiments is more limited than for those of Eschen et al. In Figure 52.28, the profiles of both cations and anions are shown. The position of the cation is closer to the surface than that of the anion. However, such information has to be treated cautiously because the cation is represented by the carbon atoms of the cation butyl groups rather than nitrogen, which is the place where the charge is located on the cation. Hence, it is likely that the distribution of the positive charge is slightly different from that indicated by the cation profile and is most likely shifted for a few Å toward the bulk relative to the curve displayed in Figure 52.28. 52.3.2.1.2 Quantification with NICISS Andersson et al. were the first to apply ion scattering techniques for investigating liquid surfaces. In their first published work, they investigated by means of NICISS solutions of various tetra-N-butylammonium and tetra-N-butylphosohonium halides in formamide [10]. NICISS allows determining the elemental concentration depth profiles. However, different from ARXPS, it is not possible to separate chemical species of the same element. It is described in a previous chapter that the quantification of the stopping power [85], straggling, [88, 155] and the inelastic energy losses through the backscattering process [94] allow for the deconvolution of the measured concentration depth profiles and calibration of the depth scale. In Figure 52.29a, the concentration depth profiles of cations and anions of Bu4 PBr are shown [94]. The cation represented by P is positioned slightly closer to the surface than the anion. Different from the ARXPS study by Wang et al. [153], the position of the positive and negative charge can be determined directly from the concentration depth profiles of the cation and anion. The only remaining limitation

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles 2.5 Bromide Phosphor

concentration [10–3 mol/cm3]

concentration [10–3 mol/cm3]

2

1.5

1

0.5

0

2 1.5 1 0.5 0

–5

(a)

Bromide Iodide

0

5

10 Depth [Å]

15

20

–5

25

(b)

0

5

10

15

20

25

Depth [Å]

Figure 52.29 (a) Concentration depth profiles of the cations and anions of Bu4 PBr and (b) concentration depth profiles of the anions of Bu4 NBr and of Bu4 NI in 0.25 m solutions in formamide. (Source: Reprinted from [94].)

is that the profiles shown in Figure 52.29a assume that the surface is laterally homogeneous. In a later chapter, a method will be discussed that also allows probing lateral inhomogeneity of a liquid surface. In Figure 52.29b, the concentration depth profiles of iodide and bromide are compared, showing that iodide is located slightly closer to the surface than bromide. Measuring concentration depth profiles at surfaces of surfactant solutions can be used to determine the surface excess. The surface excess is a quantity relevant to the thermodynamic understanding of surfaces of solutions, which will be the subject of a later chapter. The surface excess has to be measured over a range of concentrations and concentration depth profiles of the solute and the solvent need to be determined Figure 52.30). Andersson et al. have studied both solutions with an ionic [93] and a nonionic surfactant [156]. As a side remark, it is worth mentioning that it was shown that NICISS is able to detect the presence of surface-active impurities [93]. The ionic surfactant Bu4 PBr investigated appeared to contain a non-negligible concentration of starting material of the synthesis in case purification of the synthesized surfactant had not been carried out carefully. The impurity appeared as surface-active P containing compound and was detectable with nuclear spin resonance [93]. The unbalance between P and Br disappeared in the NICIS spectra after recrystallization of the surfactant. The focus of the publication, however, was not on the procedure of purifying the surfactant. From Figure 52.29b, it is evident that the nature of the counterion has an influence on the amount of surfactant adsorbed to the surface. Iodide has a stronger presence at the surface than bromide. Even though the profiles of Bu4 N+ could not be measured in this case, it can be concluded based on charge equilibration that the iodide surfactant (Bu4 NI) covers the surface to a larger extent than the bromide surfactant (Bu4 NBr) at the same bulk concentration. This observation is in line with the report by Holmberg et al. described above who concluded from ARXPS data that the surface excess increases in the order Bu4 NCl < Bu4 NBr < Bu4 NI for these

283

52 Liquid Surfaces 30 measurement 25 20

10 5

–20

–10

0

10

20

30

depth [Å] surface excess [10–10 mol/cm2]

(a)

Gibbs dividing plane

15

0 –30 –5

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 –0.1–30 –20 –10

concentration [10–3mol/cm3]

concentration [10–3mol/cm3]

284

Gibbs dividing plane

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

depth [Å]

(b)

2 1.5 1

– Br +

Bu4P

0.5 0 0

(c)

– Br

0.5

1

1.5

2

concentration [molal]

Figure 52.30 (a) Gibbs dividing plane of a Bu4 PBr in formamide solution determined from the concentration depth profile of the solvent, (b) surface excess of the solution using the position of the Gibbs dividing

plane determined from (a), and (c) surface excess of the solutions over a wide range of concentrations. (Source: Reprinted from [93].)

cationic surfactants [150]. Wang et al. found for the anionic surfactants sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and cesium dodecyl sulfate (CDS) in formamide solutions that the surface excess depends on the alkali halide anion [157–159]. Keeping the total surfactant concentration constant, Wang et al. showed that the total surface excess increases (Figure 52.31a). A similar effect was reported by Schelero et al. for aqueous solutions based on the evaluation of surface tension data [160]. As NICISS also reveals the position of the elements relative to the surface, the authors could also demonstrate that Cs+ is located closer to the surface than Na+ (Figure 52.31b). Also, the variation in charge density with depth is stronger for the CDS solutions than for the SDS solutions [157] The same correlation between the position of the counterion and the total surface excess was found for the tetra-N-alkylammonium halide cationic surfactants. The debate is still ongoing in the literature how the ionic radius and the size of the solvation sphere are correlated with the positioning of ions relative to the surface, i.e. whether there is a correlation between adsorption and desorption of the ions and the ionic radius [160–173]. Computer simulations show that the ionic radius in solution increases with the atomic number for both the halide ions [174, 175] and the alkali ions [176] with the larger ions seeming to have a less ordered solvation sphere in aqueous solutions [175, 176]. Although ion-specific adsorption at interfaces has been demonstrated with computer simulations and calculations [165, 168,

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

1.2E-06

1.6

Dodecyl sulfate Sodium Cesium

Concentration [mol/L]

Surface excess/(mol/sqm)

1.5E-06

9.0E-07 6.0E-07 3.0E-07 0.0E-00 –10%

(a)

Na S of SDS S of CDS Cs

1.2

0.8

0.4

0 10%

30%

50%

70%

0

90% 110%

CDS-fraction in bulk

Figure 52.31 (a) The surface excess of mixed SDS/CDS formamide solution. The total surfactant concentration was kept constant and the ratio between Na+ and Cs+

(b)

10

20

30

40

Depth [Å]

was changed [159]. (b) The position of the cation and the anion of both the SDS and the CDS solution. (Source: Reprinted from [157].)

171, 173], questions have been raised whether the potentials used for calculations and simulations are sufficiently accurate [170]. Schulze et al. used the information available through the concentration depth profiles to derive information about a material property. The dielectric permittivity as a material property could be different for surface and bulk and depend on the presence of ions in a solution. The reason is that the ability of the solvent molecules to adapt the orientation to the existing electric field might be limited at the surface and might be limited in a solvation shell purely because of the constraint of the possible orientation of the molecules. It can be shown that the charge distribution, the dielectric permittivity, and the electric surface potential are correlated [177]. Measuring two of the three quantities directly allows calculating the third quantity. Schulze et al. determined the concentration depth profiles of the ions at surfaces of Bu4 XY solutions where X stands for either N or P and Y stands for Cl, Br, and I. The authors found that the surface excess is increasing with increasing atomic number of the anion, i.e. from Cl− to I− , and that the cation and anion separate with Cl− being further away from the surface than I− . From the measured concentration depth profiles, the charge distribution was determined. Measuring also the electric surface potential with the Kelvin probe, the dielectric permittivity was determined. Because of the applied procedure, the dielectric permittivity is a lateral average over the region of the surface where enhanced concentration of the surfactant is found. The key quantity determining the dielectric permittivity in the solution turned out to be the ion concentration. The dielectric permittivity decreases with the ion concentration approximately exponentially (Figure 52.32). Schulze et al. modeled the dielectric constant by assuming that the solvent molecules in the solvation shell of the ions are limited in their orientation because of the local electric field generated by the ions. Based on this model, the number of ions in the solvation shell can be estimated. The number determined for bromide and chloride is quite similar (31 for Br− and 25 for Cl− ) but much smaller for I− (12). Even though the model is simplifying the complexity of a solvation shell, this finding is another indication that the size of the solvation sphere increases with the decreasing size of the ion and is

285

52 Liquid Surfaces

dielectric permittivity

120 100 80 60

TBPCI

40

TBPBr TBPI

20 0

0

1

2 3 4 5 6 max. ion concentration / M

7

8

Γ ePOPC [10–10 mol/cm2]

Figure 52.32 Dielectric permittivity of formamide as a function of the ion concentration in the surface layer. (Source: Reprinted from [177].)

CPOPC [10–4 mol.cm–3]

286

8 6 4 2

0 –20 –2 (a)

0

20

40

depth [Å]

60

80 (b)

2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.1

1.0

10.0

100.0 1000.0

CPOPC [10–5 mol.kg–1]

Figure 52.33 Concentration depth profile of P of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3phosphocholine in 3-hydroxypropionitrile (a) and surface excess as a function of concentration of the solution (b). (Source: Reprinted from [156].)

in agreement with the above discussion of Migliorati’s and Ikeda’s calculations and simulations [175, 176] The concentration depth profile of P of the nonionic surfactant solution POPC in 3-HPN is shown in Figure 52.33. Different from the Bu4 PBr solutions in formamide, the POPC in HPN solutions have a negligible bulk concentration, thus determining that the Gibbs dividing plane is not required for quantitative determination of the surface excess. The POPC molecule is a large molecule with a length in the order of ∼20 Å depending on the configuration of the molecule. Investigations with MIES of phospholipid solutions had shown indications for a preferential orientation at the surface of the phospholipid molecule depending on the coverage of the surface [139]. Pohl et al. determined with NICISS the orientation of the POPC molecule over a large range of concentrations in HPN and formamide solutions [178]. Measuring of the concentration depth profile of P is demonstrated in Figure 52.33. Determining the C concentration depth profile of the POPC molecule is demonstrated in Figure 52.34a. The profile of nitrogen is a good approximation of the concentration depth profile of the solvent 3-hydroxypropionitrile (HOPC) because

distance between C and P maxima [Å]

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

cc [10–2 mol.cm–3]

6 5

0 –5 –10

4 total carbon

3

carbon HPN

2

formamide HPN

0

1

2

3

4

5

surface excess [10–10 mol cm–2]

carbon POPC

1 0 –20

20 15 10 5

vacuum P C

0

20 depth [Å]

40

60

solution

P

C

C P

Figure 52.34 Concentration depth profile of C of the solvent and the surfactant in a POPC molecule in HPN solution (a) and orientation of the POPC molecule in HPN and formamide solutions (b). (Source: Pohl et al. (2009). Reprinted from [178]).

N is almost exclusively found in the solvent. The small amount of N in POPC can be neglected. The C of HPN can be approximated with the N profile. Subtracting the C contribution from the overall C concentration depth profile then results in the profile of C in POPC. This procedure demonstrates that contributions of various compounds to the concentration depth profile of a specific element can also be separated with NICISS in special cases. Pohl et al. found that comparing the P and C profile of POPC allows for analyzing the orientation of the phospholipid molecule. In formamide, the POPC molecule has an orientation with its long axis parallel to the surface at low surface excess, whereas at high surface excess, the alkyl chains point away from the surface as shown in Figure 52.34. For HPN, the situation is different. At the highest surface excess – which is below the highest surface excess of the formamide solutions – the orientation of the molecule is parallel to the surface, thus rather similar to the situation in formamide. However, at low surface excess, it is the polar group that is exposed to the surface and not the alky chains. This finding is counterintuitive to considerations of the surface energy. Coverage with the nonpolar alkyl chains should result in a lower surface energy than coverage with the polar phosphocholine head group. Reconciling the experimental finding with the surface energy considerations did not succeed so far. NICISS and ARXPS are two powerful tools to determine concentration depth profiles. The underlying concepts of the two methods are very different and it is worthwhile to compare the experimental results that can be achieved with the two methods. In Figure 52.35, concentration depth profiles measured with the two methods are shown. The kinetic energy of the He ions used for NICISS was 4.5 keV. For ARXPS, monochromatic Al K𝛼 was applied and the observation angle varied. The authors considered three criteria for the comparison of the concentration depth profiles: (i) the surface excess, (ii) the gradient of concentrations between the surface and the bulk, and (iii) the relative position between the maxima of the cation and anion distribution. The demand of the accuracy in the details of the concentration depth profiles increases from (i) to (iii). Wang et al. found good agreement between the

287

Bu4P+ ARXPS

3

Bu4P+ NICISS

2 1 0

(a)

Bu4N+ Eschen et al.

0

10

20

30

40

concentration [mol/dm3]

52 Liquid Surfaces

concentration [mol/dm3]

288

Figure 52.35 (a) The concentration depth profiles of Bu4 P+ measured with NICISS and ARXPS and (b) the concentration depth profiles of Br− are compared [179]. For

Br– ARXPS

5

Br– NICISS

4 3 2 1 0

50

depth [Å]

6

(b)

0

10

20

30

40

50

depth [Å]

comparison, the Bu4 N+ concentration depth profile measured by Eschen et al. is shown in (a) as well. Source Eschen et al. (1995). Reprinted from [151].)

methods for the surface excess and the length over which the concentration changes from the surface to the bulk, thus for the first and second criteria. Separation of the ions in their concentration depth profiles is not achieved with either method. The last conclusion takes NICISS results into account that were obtained at lower kinetic ion energy; thus at experimental conditions that allow for a higher depth resolution in NICISS. The authors conclude that neither ARXPS nor NICISS at higher kinetic energies is suitable for accurate identifying of the position of maximum concentration of the ions. For meeting the third criterion, NICISS at lower kinetic energy would have to be applied. 52.3.2.1.3 Quantification with NR, XR, and NLO Both NR and XR can be used to quantitatively determine the distribution of solute and solvent at interfaces. In this section, we will discuss a few examples and will not cover the field comprehensively. Both the quantity of surfactant molecules adsorbed at the air/liquid interface and the orientation of the surfactant molecules are of interest. NR offers the possibility to change the reflectivity of various components of the solutions by fully or partially deuterating thus by changing the scattering length of a specific component. In Figure 52.36, NR curves are shown and in Figure 52.37 the model fitted to the NR data. Luo et al. have used XR to determine the distribution of bromide across the interface between a 0.01 M tetrabutylammonium tetraphenylborate (TBATPB) solution in nitrobenzene and aqueous tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBABr). The concentration profile of bromide across the interface can be determined by fitting the reflectivity curves [181]. The authors found that the ion distribution across the interface is substantially different from profiles predicted by the Gouy–Chapman theory. Fitting of the experimental reflectivity curves shown in the left panel in Figure 52.38 cannot be fitted well with profiles calculated on the basis of the Gouy–Chapman theory. However, computer simulation results using a mean force potential in a generalized Poisson–Boltzmann equation taking the ion size and ion–solvent interactions into account lead to the profiles of the bromide ions, which can be used to well fit

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

10–3

Reflectivity

10–4

10–5

10–6

10–7 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 k/Å–1 (a)

0.20

0.25 0.30 0.05 (b)

Figure 52.36 Neutron reflectivity curves including their fits of hexadecyltrimethylamonium bromide (C16 TABr) in water. (a) Either the chain of the C16 TABr has been

0.10

0.15 0.20 k/Å–1

0.25 0.30

deuterated (Δ) or the head is deuterated (○) or the entire molecule. (b) Null reflecting water has been used. (Source: Lu et al. 2000 [180]. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier.)

the measured reflectivity curves [181]. The profiles calculated on the basis of the Gouy–Chapman theory and on the basis of the computer simulation are shown in the right panel of Figure 52.38. Koelsch et al. have determined with XR the distribution of bromide at a charged interface between water and a mixed layer of the cationic surfactant di-octadecyl-di-methyl-ammonium-bromide (DODAB) and the neutral phospholipid 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) attached to a silicon substrate [173]. The variation of the charges at the interface was achieved by changing the ratio between the ionic compound DODAB and the nonionic compound DPPC. The authors could fit the measured XR curves with a model for the bromide distribution, which is based on the Poisson–Boltzmann theory. The authors included in the fitting of the XR curves a broadening of the measured signal reflecting height fluctuations of the mixed DODAB/DPPC layer, the finite size of the ions, and the experimental resolution [173]. Bu et al. used a similar approach for investigating the distribution of ions across a liquid interface by generating a monolayer of the ionic compound dihexadecyl hydrogen phosphate floating on an aqueous CsI solution [182]. 52.3.2.2 Thin Foam Films

Foam films are thin liquid films. They have a very large surface to bulk ratio. Creating surface requires energy; thus, foam films are thermodynamically not in a stable state. However, foam films can exist over minutes, hours, or even much longer time scales and thus can be described as metastable. Thus, it can be assumed that there must be stabilizing forces within foam films. These stabilizing forces are the origin of the structure of foam films but also influence the process of their formation,

289

52 Liquid Surfaces

(I)

0.03 0.02 0.01

(II)

0.002 0.001 0.002

(III)

0.001

(I)

0.03 0.02 Number density/Å–3

290

0.01 (II)

0.002 0.001 0.002

(III)

0.001

(I)

0.03 0.02 0.01

(II)

0.002 0.001 0.002

(III)

0.001

–10

0 10 Distance/Å

Figure 52.37 Distribution of various components (I, water; II, heads; and III, chain) of the C16 TABr/water surface. The interface has been fitted either with a two uniform layer model (top three sections),

20

a single-block model (middle three blocks), or with a Gaussian distribution (bottom three blocks). (Source: Lu et al. 2000 [180]. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier.)

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

104 kscat α

x-rays kin α

nitro– benzene

100

10–2

10–4

10–6

10–8 0

0.1

0.2

Qz (Å–1)

Figure 52.38 Investigations of the interface between a 0.01 M tetrabutylammonium tetraphenylborate (TBATPB) solution in nitrobenzene and aqueous tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBABr) with TBABr. On the left side the reflectivity curves including fits and on the right side the bromide across the interface for the 0.08 M TBABr solution is shown [181]. The dashed reflectivity curves

Electron Density xy (e–/Å3)

X-ray Reflectivity

102

water Qz

0.37

0.35

0.33 –40

nitro– benzene

water

–20 0 20 40 Interfacial Depth, z (Å)

in the left panel on the left side and the ion distribution on the right side are calculated on the basis of the Gouy–Chapman theory. The solid curves in both panels are based on a computer simulation taking the ion size and ion-solvent interactions into account. (Source: Luo et al. (2006) [181]. Reprinted with permission of Science.)

drainage, and collapsing. The pressure resulting from the stabilizing forces are called disjoining pressure. In foam films, two surfaces come into such close contact that Coulomb and van der Waals forces – the main forces in colloid materials – can reach across the foam film, and each surface of a foam film experiences a force because of the presence of the other surface. For this reason, foam films offer the unique opportunity to directly investigate the structure of the liquid surface and simultaneously the forces between the liquid surfaces. Other forces that are considered to play a role in foam films are related to structuring of the foam film on the scale of the individual molecules. One example is the steric forces that are considered to play a role in films with a thickness of 0.1 M is of interest but difficult to be described by theory [170]. Secondly, by solving the Poisson–Boltzmann equation, the course of the electric potential is usually assumed to be [185] Φ(x) ∝ log(cos2 Kx)

(52.56)

where K is a constant and depends on the charge density at the surface and the dielectric constant of the liquid phase. Assuming the charge distribution in the foam film allows reducing the electric properties of the foam film to one quantity, which is either the surface charge or the surface potential leading to Eqs. (52.52) and (52.53). In contrast, measuring the charge distribution directly allows both investigating ionspecific effects and makes the need to assume the charge distribution in the foam film redundant. The investigation of the structure of foam films in comparison with the structure of the surface of the bulk solution offers the possibility to gain insight into the forces stabilizing foam films because the size of the liquid structure is changed between much larger than the range of the forces (surface of the bulk liquid) to be in the order of the range of the forces (foam film). Changing the size of the liquid sample should result thus in differences in the structure of the surface and the near-surface region. Concentration depth profiles of the components are the most interesting structural information because changing of the size of the sample in the order of the range of the forces will influence how the forces affect the composition of the nearsurface region. Further concentration depth profiles reveal the charge distribution in the near-surface region and thus the course of the electric potential and also allow insight into ion-specific effects. We first want to consider the concentration depth profiles of a foam film formed by an ionic surfactant. In Figure 52.43, the concentration depth profiles of cation and anion of 4.0 mM hexadecyltrimethylphosphonium bromide (C16 TPB) in glycerol are shown [186]. The cation is represented by the phosphorous (P) and the

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Film Bulk

0

(a)

Concentration [mol/dm3]

Concentration [mol/dm3]

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

40

20 Depth [Å]

Figure 52.43 Concentration depth profile of cation and anion and space charge at the surface of a bulk solution (a) of 4.0 mM hexadecyltrimethylphosphonium bromide (C16 TPB) in glycerol and the surface of a

60

4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Film Bulk

0

(b)

20

40

60

Depth [Å]

foam film (b) [186]. The pressure across the film was 5000 Pa. (Source: Ridings and Andersson (2015) [186]. Reprinted with permission of Wiley.)

anion by bromide (Br). The measurements are performed with NICISS and have been deconvoluted. In Figure 52.43a, the profiles at the surface of the bulk solution and in Figure 52.43b the profiles at the surface of the foam film can be found. The authors had found less anion than cation in the concentration depth profiles, which they ascribe to bromide forming a diffuse layer below the surface. Other reasons for the unbalance of P and Br could be excluded. The difference of the profiles of cation and anion is the space charge distribution and is also shown. At the surface of the bulk solution, there is a small region with some positive charge followed by a broader region with negative and then again a positive charge. As a consequence, the surface potential is found to be negative. The surface of the foam film shows an inverted distribution of charges. A small region with negative charge is followed by a broader region with positive charge and then again negative charge resulting in a positive surface potential. The charge distribution can be determined from the difference of the concentration depth profile of cation and anion and the electric potential by integrating twice the charge distribution [177]. The electric potential at the surface was found to be −0.81 ± 0.2 V for the bulk surface and −0.17 ± 0.2 V for the foam film surface. It must be emphasized that for calculating the electric field and electric potential, the dielectric constant of glycerol at the surface was assumed by Ridings et al. to be the same as of that of the bulk solvent. This assumption is in contrast to the finding of Schulze et al. who determined the dielectric constant at the surface of surfactant solutions of formamide to be about 10% of the dielectric constant of the value in the bulk of formamide. However, the dielectric constant at the surface of glycerol has not yet been determined and thus cannot be used. Any error in the assumption of the dielectric constant at the surface leads to a scaling of the values of the electric field and potential by a factor. Although for the calculation of the electric field and electric potential assumptions about the value of the dielectric constant have been made and the concentration depth profiles have an uncertainty (in particular, the exact shape of the diffuse layer of the anion at larger depth), the overall result is that the absolute value electric potential at the surface of the C16 TPB solution is larger than in the foam film [186]. The surface excess in contrast is higher

299

1 0

0.5 0.0

–1

–0.5

–2

–1.0

–3 0

40

20

(a)

1.0

3 Charge Distr. Electric Potential

2

0

0.0

–1

–0.5

–2 –1.0

–3

60

0

20

(b)

Depth [Å]

Figure 52.44 Charge distribution and electric potential at the surface of a bulk surface (a) and foam film (b) formed by a 4.0 mM hexadecyltrimethylphosphonium bromide (C16 TPB) in glycerol [186]. The pressure across the film is 5000 Pa. For calculating the electric field and electric potential, the

0.5

1

Electr. Potential [V]

Charge dis. [×108 c/m3]

Charge Distr. Electric Potential

Electr. Potential [V]

1.0

3 2

Charge dis. [×108 C/m3]

52 Liquid Surfaces

40 Depth [Å]

60

dielectric constant of glycerol at the surface was assumed to be 10% of that of the bulk solvent. The electric potential of the bulk surface is −0.81 ± 0.2 V for the foam film surface −0.17 ± 0.2 V. (Source: Ridings and Andersson (2015) [186]. Reprinted with permission of Wiley.)

at the surface of the foam film. However, Ridings and Andersson could not yet determine whether the electrochemical potential overall increases or decreases when the foam film forms (Figure 52.44) [186]. As a second case of concentration depth profiles, we want to consider foam films formed by a nonionic surfactant solution. Through Figure 52.45, it can be seen that the head group of the nonionic surfactant dodecyldimethyl phosphine oxide (C12 DMPO) moves slightly away from the surface upon formation of the foam film. It is worth noting that the concentration depth profiles shown in Figure 52.45b are of a film with a very low ion concentration. No ions were present through an added salt and glycerol has an autodissociation constant much lower than that of water; thus, autodisscociation of the solvent cannot contribute significantly to the concentration of cations and anions in the foam film [197]. Figure 52.46 shows that adding the salts NaI and NaCl increases the amount of surfactant at the foam film 3

3 2.5 2

P

1.5 1 0.5 0 –20

(a)

Alkyl Concentration (M)

Concentration (M)

300

Alkyl

2.5

P

2 1.5 1 0.5 0

–10

0

10 20 Depth (Å)

30

40

Figure 52.45 (a) Concentration depth profiles of the alkyl chain represented by C and the head group represented by P are shown for a 2.66 mM solution of dodecyldimethyl phosphine oxide (C12 DMPO) in glycerol [199]. (b) The respective profiles of

–20

(b)

–10

0

10 20 Depth (Å)

30

the foam film are shown. The head group shifts slightly toward the bulk after the formation of the film. (Source: Ridings et al. 2015 [199]. Reprinted with permission of American Chemical Society.)

40

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

2.5 No salt Concentration (M)

2

NaCl Nal

1.5 1 0.5 0 –20

–10

0

10

20

30

40

50

Depth (Å) Figure 52.46 Concentration depth profiles of phosphorus at the glycerol/C12 DMPO bulk liquid surface without adding salt and with 7.90 mM adding NaCl and NaI, respectively. (Source: Ridings et al. 2015 [199]. Reprinted with permission of American Chemical Society.)

surface. Both anions, i.e. I− and Cl− , appear on the outermost layer. The cation Na+ , however, cannot be detected with NICISS and is assumed to form a diffuse layer in the surface near region. Because of the atomic masses, Na is more difficult to be detected in NICISS compared to I− and Cl− . The cross section for backscattering from Cl− is about twice as large as that for Na+ , which causes the count rate of backscattering from Na being lower than that for backscattering from Cl and I. It is interesting to note that I− is found at the surface of the bulk solution as well as that of the foam film while Cl− only appears at the surface of the foam film. I− has a larger ionic radius than Cl− and the first is more polarizable than the latter. The finding that iodide has a stronger tendency to be found at the surface of the surfactant solution corresponds to the finding at other liquid surfaces that the propensity of ions to adsorb at liquid surfaces is as stronger as the polarizable the ion is [164, 198]. Figure 52.47 demonstrates that iodine moves toward the surface when the foam film is formed. Moving of the anion toward the surface increases the surface potential as long as the counterion does not change its location. As stated above, the authors could not detect the cation in the spectrum; thus, it cannot be determined whether the surface potential in fact changes. It can be seen in the disjoining pressure curves of the respective aqueous system in Figure 52.48 that the films formed by salty solutions are thicker than the films formed without adding salt to the solution with the films formed by the solution containing NaI being slightly thicker than that containing NaF. The concentration depth profiles and the TFPB data complement each other. Firstly, the increase in the thickness of the foam film upon adding salt is related to the increase of the surfactant concentration at the foam film surface. Secondly, cation and anion show separation with I− having a stronger preference for the surface than Cl− causing the foam film surface more negatively charged in the case of adding NaI compared to adding NaCl to the surfactant solution. The separation

301

52 Liquid Surfaces

0.4

Concentration (M)

Bulk 0.3 Film 0.2

0.1

0 –20

–10

0

10

20 30 40 Depth (Å)

50

60

70

Figure 52.47 Concentration depth profiles of iodide for glycerol/C12 DMPO/7.90 mM NaI solutions. The profiles are shown for the bulk surface and the foam film surface [199]. (Source: Ridings et al. 2015 [199]. Reprinted with permission of American Chemical Society.)

10000

No salt 0.1 mM Nal 0.1 mM NaF

Disjoining pressure (Pa)

302

OH- / q0 = 0.5 mC m–2 Nal / q0 = 1.5 mC m–2 NaF / q0 = 1.3 mC m–2 1000

100

0

20

60 40 Thickness (nm)

Figure 52.48 The thickness of the foam film as measured with a TFPB is shown as a function of the disjoining pressure aqueous solutions of C12 DMPO. Data are shown for films formed without added salt and after adding 0.1 mM NaI, and 0.1 mM NaF, respectively

80

100

[199]. The dotted lines are fits to the measured data based on the DLVO theory. The surface charge resulting from the fits is given in the legend. (Source: Ridings et al. 2015 [199]. Reprinted with permission of American Chemical Society.)

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

of charges at the surfaces is related to an increase in the thickness of the foam film with the anion showing the stronger propensity for the surface forming the thickest films. 52.3.2.3 Solutions with Inorganic Salts

Binary solutions can show depletion and enrichment of one of the components at the solution surface. Although solutions of inorganic salts are strictly binary systems, separation of the ions in the system, i.e. cation and anion, is possible to a limited extent while obeying overall charge neutrality. Overall depletion or enrichment of one of the components of a solution would influence macroscopic properties such as the surface tension. Even separation of the ions alone would influence macroscopic properties such as the electric surface potential. However, it is not possible to deduce from macroscopic properties how a given ion species is distributed along the surface normal. Instead, the concentration depth profiles and the composition of the outermost layer have to be measured directly and for specific combinations of all species, which could involve the solvent, inorganic anions, and cations or in some cases also surfactants. The positioning of ions relative to a surface is part of the larger research area ion-specific effects. The composition of the surface and interface of solutions with inorganic salts has practical relevance. One example is the uptake of gases into solutions where the presence of ions determines the rate of uptake [200–203]. Another example is the biological membranes where the concentration and position in the membrane is related to their functioning [204, 205]. Bubble coalescence has been found to depend on the combination of anion and cation present in a solution. Anions and cations can be separated in two classes each [167, 172]. The combination of the ions is assumed to influence the drainage of foam films and consequently the coalescence of bubbles [172]. Ion-specific effects at surfaces are a large research area. It is not the aim of this contribution to cover this research area comprehensively. More detailed information can be found in a number of reviews [173, 205–207]. The aim of this chapter is to show how surface and interface analysis can contribute to the understanding of ion-specific effects at surfaces formed by solutions with inorganic ions. Systems involving surfactants also show ion-specific effects but have been covered in the Section 52.3.2.1. Ionic liquids are substances constituting exclusively of ions and are different from ionic solutions. Ionic liquids will be covered below in a separate chapter. The subject of this chapter is concentration depth profiles of solutions with inorganic solutes. NICISS has been applied to investigate solutions of inorganic salts in formamide [208–210] and in water [88, 155]. In Figures 52.49 and 52.50, concentration depth profiles of halides at the surface of 0.85 M alkali halide solutions in formamide are shown. In Figure 52.49, the profile of I− shows an enrichment of iodide in the outermost layer followed by a depletion region between 6 and 12 Å [210]. In Figure 52.51 the chloride profile is almost constant and shows a slight depletion between 6 and 12 Å [210]. The surface excess of the solute in both cases is negative. The iodide and chloride profiles have similarities to those calculated by Jungwirth and Tobias for

303

52 Liquid Surfaces

concentration iodide [mol/cm3]

1.8

measurement

1.6

conc. depth profile

1.4

fit non-monotonic

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 –20

–10

0

20 10 depth [Å]

Figure 52.49 Concentration depth profile of iodide of a 0.85 M solution of LiI in formamide. The measured NICISS data are deconvoluted and show an enrichment of

1.8

concentration iodide [mol/cm3]

304

30

40

I− at the surface of the solution followed by a depletion at a deeper layer. (Source: Andersson et al. 2007 [210]. Reprinted with permission of American Chemical Society.)

measurement

1.6

conc. depth profile

1.4

fit

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 –20

–10

0

20 10 depth [Å]

Figure 52.50 Concentration depth profile of chloride of a 0.85 M solution of LiCl in formamide. The measured NICISS data are deconvoluted and show an almost constant level of Cl− concentration at the surface

30

40

and in the near-surface region of the solution with a slight depletion between 6 and 12 Å. (Source: Andersson et al. 2007 [210]. Reprinted with permission of American Chemical Society.)

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

concentration [molal]

8

6

4

measurement fit

2

0 –20

deconvoluted

0

20

40

60

80

100

depth [Å]

Figure 52.51 Concentration depth profile of iodide of a 7.2 M solution of LiI in water. The solution was investigated at −13.8 ∘ C. The measured NICISS data are deconvoluted and show a depletion of I− concentration at

the surface and in the near-surface region of the solution. (Source: Andersson et al. 2008 [155]. Reprinted with permission of American Physical Society.)

the same anions at the surface of aqueous sodium halide solutions [164]. In case of water, the calculated and measured surface tension of the sodium halide solution increases which is in agreement with an overall depletion of the solute at the surface and surface near region of the solution. 52.3.2.4 Ionic Liquids

ILs are substances that consist only of ions where typically either anions or cations are organic ions. ILs are liquid at low temperatures with the threshold usually taken at around 373 K [211–213]. The structure of the organic ion is usually the reason that the interaction between the ions is not as strong as in a typical inorganic salt like NaCl [212]. The concentration of ions in ILs is much higher than in a typical salty solution and the interaction between the ions is thus very different from that in a solution. The structure of the organic ion makes the ion often amphiphilic and presents an interesting case how electrostatic and van der Waals forces interact. The chemical structure of the ions can easily be varied and allows tailoring the properties of ILs such as viscosity, density, surface tension, surface composition, and surface potential. Surface properties can be measured macroscopically. However, for understanding the relationship between surface properties, surface structure, and the chemical structure of the ionic liquid, analysis of the surface is required. Structural properties of interest are the arrangements of ions at the surface [214] such as the orientation of molecules [215–218], the preferential adsorption of ions, [217–220] or more specifically the charge distribution along surface normal, the influence of the chain length on the surface structure [221, 222], the presence of water, [223, 224]and other impurities [225]. The literature on analyzing the structure of ionic liquids is extensive and it is beyond the scope of this chapter to cover the literature in a representative way. We

305

52 Liquid Surfaces

0

1

DEPTH (nm) 2

3

4

electron density 4

30 C F

20

P (X5)

2

10 N

0

0

1 2 DEPTH (1016 atoms cm–2)

3

4

ELECTRON DENSITY (1023 cm–3)

40

CONCENTRATION (at.%)

306

0

Figure 52.52 Concentration depth profiles of the elements C, F, P, and N of [BMIM][PF6 ] as well as the electron density. (Source: Ohno et al. 2009 [215]. Reprinted with permission of AIP Publishing.)

will focus here on electron spectroscopy and ion scattering spectroscopy techniques (see Chapter 53 in this Volume). Both methods give complementary information about the surface structure of ILs. Aspects of the structure that are of interest are the composition of the surface, the orientation of the molecules, the position of the charges relative to the surface, but also the influence of the presence of water on the surface structure. Ohno et al. have investigated the surface of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate ([BMIM][PF6 ]) with RBS. Figure 52.52 shows the concentration depth profiles of the elements C, P, N, and F of [BMIM][PF6 ] [215]. The C profile in Figure 52.52 indicates an enhanced concentration at the surface while the profiles of N, P, and F show broad maxima just below the surface. The authors conclude that the alkyl chain of the cation is pointing toward the surface and consequently that the cation and anion are depleted at the surface. As a consequence, the cation and anion show an enhanced concentration just below the surface [215]. The finding that the alkyl chains are oriented toward the gas phase is compatible with the concept that a surface is preferentially covered with that component of a system that gives rise to the lowest surface energy. Surfaces covered with alkyl chains have a lower surface energy than those covered with more polar groups such as the immidazolium ring or the hexafluorophosphate anion. Thus, the finding of Ohno et al. that the alkyl chains are oriented toward the surface is compatible with the concept that a system tries to lower the surface energy as much as possible. Lockett et al. investigated a series of 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ILs with ARXPS [218]. The high-resolution spectra can be plotted with a

52.3 Concentration Depth Profiles

2.2

C4/(C1 + C2 + C3)

2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 0

30

60

90

Take-off angle (°) Figure 52.53 Ratio of the C 1s peak intensities [OMIM][BF4]. C4 represents the aliphatic carbon chain whereas C1–C3 represent the C atoms in or close to the immidazolium ring. (Source: Lockett et al. 2008 [218]. Reprinted with permission of Royal Society of Chemistry.)

series of four peaks [218]. The change of the ratio of the intensity of the peaks in the C1s spectrum informs about the orientation of the alkyl chain of the cation. In Figure 52.53, the ratio of the intensity of the peak representing the alkyl chain to the intensity of all other carbon atoms representing the immidazolium ring is shown for the IL 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([OMIM][BF4 ]). The intensity ratio increases with the angle of observation, which gives evidence that the alkyl chain is oriented toward the gas phase [218]. In regard to the angles used for the ARXPS measurements, it should be noted that the maximum angle for ARXPS at the excitation energy used by the authors should be about 70∘ . At larger angles, it cannot be excluded that artifacts influence the intensity ratios [28]. However, the conclusions the authors are drawing are also supported by the measurements with an angle of observation angle M1 ) are masses of the incident ion and the target atom, respectively. The energy of the scattered ion depends on the mass of the atom from which the ion is scattered. The heavier the atom, the higher the energy of scattered ion is. The ratio K, which is called “kinematic factor,” is the basis of the identification of elements. The differential cross section for Coulomb scattering (Rutherford cross section) is given by a simple analytical formula (Rutherford formula), ) )2 ( ( Z1 Z2 e2 4[(M22 − M12 sin2 𝜃)1∕2 + M2 cos 𝜃]2 d𝜎 = , (53.2) dΩ R 4E M2 sin4 𝜃(M22 − M12 sin2 𝜃)1∕2 where Z 1 and Z 2 are the atomic numbers of incident ion and target atom, respectively (see also Chapter 3.3 in Volume 1), and E is the ion energy. This simple formula allows to extract quantitative information about the abundance of elements from measured Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS) spectra. The cross section is proportional to Z2 2 , indicating that the sensitivity of RBS is higher for heavier elements. When the incident ion travels through the specimen, the ion loses its energy mainly through excitation of electrons. The rate of energy loss per unit path length, dE/dx, is called stopping power. There were a number of measurements of stopping powers for various combinations of ions and target elements. The accumulated data were fitted to a semi-empirical formula [58]. Using this formula, the stopping power can be estimated with the accuracy of several percentages. For the estimation of the stopping power of compound materials, it is convenient to introduce the stopping cross section given by ( ) dE 1 , (53.3) 𝜀= Natom dx

53.2 Principle of Rutherford Backscattering Spectroscopy

where N atom is the atomic density. The stopping power of a compound can be calculated using the so-called Bragg’s rule, ( ) ∑ dE i = Natom 𝜀i , (53.4) dx i i and 𝜀i are the atomic density and the stopping cross section of element i, where Natom respectively. The energy of the backscattered ion depends on the depth t from which the ion was scattered, ] ( ) ( ) [ dE t t dE − , (53.5) E(t) = K E0 − dx in sin 𝜃i dx out sin 𝜃e

where the subscript “in” and “out” refer to the inward and outward paths, respectively, and 𝜃 i and 𝜃 e are the incident and exit angles with respect to the surface plane. Using Eq. (53.5), the energy can be converted to the depth. In conventional RBS, 1–4 MeV He ions are used as primary ions and the energy of the scattered ion is measured using a silicon surface barrier detector (SSBD). The depth resolution of the conventional RBS is about 10 nm, which is mainly determined by the energy resolution of SSBD (∼15 keV). Improvement of the depth resolution up to atomic level can be achieved when a high-resolution spectrometer (energy resolution of ∼0.1% can be easily realized using an electrostatic or a magnetic spectrometer) is used instead of SSBD. This is called HR-RBS. An example of HR-RBS spectrum observed for a PbSe(111) single crystal is shown in Figure 53.3. Shown is the energy spectrum of He+ ions scattered at 65∘ when 300 keV He+ ions were incident on PbSe(111). There are several well-defined peaks. These peaks correspond to the Pb and Se in the individual atomic planes. The depth Depth for Pb (nm) 1 0.5

1.5 300 keV He

+

0

PbSe(111)

600

Counts

Se edge

Pb edge

400

200

0

280

285 Energy (keV)

290

295

Figure 53.3 Energy spectrum of He+ ions scattered from PbSe(111) when 300 keV He ions are incident on the surface.

355

356

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

scale shown in the upper abscissa was calculated for Pb using Eq. (53.5). It is shown that the observed peak separation is about 0.3 nm, which is equal to the interplanar distance of PbSe(111). The peak yield directly corresponds to the atomic areal density of each atomic layer. The width of the first peak is about 0.1 nm, showing that the depth resolution of ∼0.1 nm can be achieved at the surface in this case. It is worth noting that that the energies of ions passing through the same path length fluctuate around an average value because of the stochastic nature of the energy loss process [59]. This is called energy loss straggling and causes deterioration of depth resolution. Because the energy loss straggling increases with increasing path length, the depth resolution becomes worse with increasing depth. This can be seen as the broadening of the peak of the individual atomic plane with increasing depth in Figure 53.3. In order to reduce the effect of the energy loss straggling on the depth resolution, grazing geometry (measurement at grazing exit angle) is useful. In the grazing geometry, the path length becomes longer. The energy loss straggling (corresponding to peak width) is proportional to the square root of the path length [59], whereas the energy loss itself (corresponding to peak separation) is proportional to the path length. Accordingly, a smaller ratio of the peak width to the peak separation, i.e. better depth resolution, can be achieved in the grazing geometry [60].

53.3 Experimental Details

Figure 53.4 schematically shows a setup of HR-RBS [55]. An ion beam of 400 keV He+ was produced by a Cockcroft Walton-type accelerator. The ion beam was collimated to 2 × 2 mm2 by two sets of a four-jaw slit system. The beam (typical bam current is 50 nA) was sent to a UHV scattering chamber (base pressure 1 × 10−8 Pa) via a differential pumping system. A sample was placed in the UHV chamber and irradiated with the He+ ions. The He+ ions scattered from the sample were energy

Differential pumping UHV chamber

Accelerator 1D-PSD

1m

Spectrometer

Figure 53.4 Setup of HR-RBS. The same equipment can be used for HR-ERDA. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Kimura et al. 2004 [55]. Copyright 2004, Elsevier.)

53.3 Experimental Details

analyzed by a 90∘ sector-type magnetic spectrometer, which has a one-dimensional position-sensitive detector (1D-PSD) of 100 mm length on the focal plane. The measured position spectrum can be converted to the energy spectrum. The energy resolution and the energy window of the spectrometer is 0.1% and 25% of the central energy, respectively. The acceptance angle of the spectrometer is 0.3 msr, which is 2 orders of magnitude smaller than the typical acceptance angle of SSBD used in the conventional RBS. This small acceptance angle can be compensated by large scattering cross sections of 400 keV He+ (6–100 times larger than 1–4 MeV He+ , which are used in the conventional RBS). There is an additional advantage of medium energy (400 keV) over 1–4 MeV. The stopping powers of He+ have a maximum around 400 keV for various materials. Accordingly, better depth resolution can be obtained using 400 keV He+ compared to 1–4 MeV He+ . It is worth noting that that the same setup can also be used for HR-ERDA measurements. In the HR-ERDA measurements, ions recoiled from the sample by the incident ions are energy analyzed using the magnetic spectrometer. A thin selfsupporting mylar foil (typical thickness 1 μm) is placed in front of the 1D-PSD to reject both scattered primary ions and recoiled heavy elements. Quantitative depth profiling of hydrogen can be performed with a subnanometer depth resolution using this setup [56]. For the measurement of liquid samples, a special preparation technique is required. The most popular method for preparing liquid surfaces for the ion beam analysis is the “rotating disc” method [61]. Figure 53.5 shows a picture of the rotating disc used for HR-RBS measurements. A flat disc made with stainless steel

Rotating disc

Reservoir

Figure 53.5 Rotating disc target used in HR-RBS measurements of ionic liquids. A fresh thin layer of ionic liquid is continuously prepared on the disc surface. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2009 [62]. Copyright 2009, Elsevier.)

357

358

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

(diameter 38 mm) was partially immersed in a reservoir of ionic liquid. The surface of the rotating disc was continuously covered by a fresh thin layer of ionic liquid after every immersion into the reservoir. For the ionic liquids having higher surface tensions, the disc was coated with gold to improve the wettability. The radiation damage caused by incident ions can be avoided by choosing an appropriate rotation rate, typically 5 rpm [62]. This rotating disc system was mounted on a precision goniometer in the UHV scattering chamber. After loading the reservoir with ionic liquids, the scattering chamber was maintained under UHV conditions for more than 1 day before measurements to reduce possible water contamination. In the following sections, unless otherwise stated, HR-RBS (HR-ERDA) spectra were measured at a scattering angle of ∼50∘ (recoil angle ∼25∘ ) with 400 (200) keV He+ ions as primary ions.

53.4 Surface Structures of Pure Ionic Liquids 53.4.1 1-Ethyl-3-Methylimidazolium Bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide

The most commonly studied ionic liquids are imidazolium-based ionic liquids, such as 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([Cn C1 Im][Tf2 N]) [42]. In this section, the result of HR-RBS measurement of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] is presented as an example of HR-RBS analysis. The result is compared with the results of other techniques, including MD simulations. The molecular structures of [C2 C1 Im] cations and [Tf2 N] anions are shown in Figure 53.6. The [Tf2 N] anion has two stable conformers of C 1 and C 2 symmetry and the C2 conformer is more stable than C1 by 3.5 kJ/mol [63]. Figure 53.7 shows the HR-RBS spectra for [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] observed at exit angles 𝜃 e = 3∘ and 5∘ with respect to the surface plane. The spectra have five steps at ∼365, ∼343, ∼332, ∼323, and ∼312 keV. These energies correspond to the energies of He ions scattered from S, F, O, N, and C atoms, which can be calculated with Eq. (53.1). The energy scale can be converted to the depth scale using Eq. (53.5). The obtained depth scales for Surface

0.5 nm

[C2C1lm]

[Tf2N] C1 conformer

[Tf2N] C2 conformer

Figure 53.6 Two conformers of [Tf2 N] anions and their possible orientations at the surface together with [C2 C1 Im] cations.

53.4 Surface Structures of Pure Ionic Liquids

20 000

400 keV He+

[C2C1Im] [Tf2N]

Depth for F (nm) 3

Counts (arb.units)

15 000

2

1

0

θe = 3° θe = 5° 10 000

Depth for S (nm) 3

2

1

0

C N O

5 000

Depth for S (nm)

F 3 2 1 0 Depth for F (nm)

0 300

3 2 1 0

S

320 340 360 Energy of scattered He+ (keV)

Figure 53.7 HR-RBS spectra of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] observed at exit angles 𝜃 = 3∘ and 5∘ with respect to the sure

face plane. The incident energy of He ions was 400 keV and the scattering angle was 50∘ . The dashed lines show the calculated spectrum for a uniform and stoichiometric

composition. The solid lines show the spectrum calculated with the composition depth profiles derived by the combination analysis of HR-RBS and HR-ERDA. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2010 [64]. Copyright 2010, AIP Publishing LLC.)

sulfur and fluorine are shown in the figure. If a uniform stoichiometric composition is assumed, the expected spectra can be easily calculated and the results are shown by dashed lines. The calculated spectra are roughly in agreement with the observed spectra. There are, however, discrepancies at the leading edges of elements. For example, there is a sharp peak at ∼342 keV near the leading edge of fluorine at 𝜃 e = 3∘ . This peak is followed by a shallow dip at ∼340 keV. There is another small peak at ∼363 keV near the leading edge of sulfur. Such structures are not seen in the calculated spectrum. These discrepancies suggest that the composition deviates from the stoichiometric one in the surface region of ∼1 nm. The discrepancy is more clearly seen at smaller 𝜃 e , indicating that better depth resolution can be achieved at smaller 𝜃 e . On the other hand, the energy spectrum observed at larger 𝜃 e provides other important information, i.e. the information of the deeper region. The observed spectrum at 𝜃 e = 5∘ agrees with the calculated spectrum (dashed line) in the region deeper than ∼2 nm, indicating that the composition is stoichiometric in this region. This allows to separate the contribution of each element from the observed spectrum [65]. The yield of each element divided by the Rutherford cross section is proportional to the concentration of the element. The depth information can be derived from the scattered ion energy using the stopping power. The Rutherford cross section can be precisely calculated using the simple Rutherford formula (Eq. (53.2)) and the stopping power can be estimated with good precision (error is less than 5% in the present energy region). Thus, precise

359

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

quantitative depth profiling can be performed by HR-RBS. The depth resolution can be roughly estimated from the width of the observed fluorine peak at 342 keV. The observed width is about 1.5 keV, which corresponds to ∼0.3 nm, indicating that the depth resolution is better than 0.3 nm at the surface in the present case. There are, however, some drawbacks in HR-RBS as was discussed in the introduction. The major drawback is its low sensitivity for light elements. In the present case, carbon signal is clearly seen, but hydrogen cannot be detected at all. However, if HR-RBS is combined with HR-ERDA, perfect composition depth profiling, including hydrogen, can be performed. Figure 53.8 shows HR-ERDA spectra for [Cn C1 Im][Tf2 N] (n = 2, 6, 10) observed at 𝜃 e = 5∘ . Shown are energy spectra of H+ ions recoiled at 25∘ when 200 keV He+ ions were incident on these ionic liquids. The depth scale derived from the stopping power of [C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N] is shown in the upper abscissa. The depth scales for other two ionic liquids are not shown but are approximately the same. The expected spectra calculated for the uniform stoichiometric compositions are shown by dashed lines for comparison. Although the calculated spectra show a simple steplike structure, the observed spectra have a broad peak at the surface. The peak becomes larger with increasing length of alkyl chain n, indicating that the hydrogen concentration is enhanced at the surface especially for the ionic liquids having longer alkyl chains. Note that the width of the peak corresponds to ∼0.5 nm. This demonstrates that the depth resolution of Depth for [C6C1Im][Tf2N] (nm) 2 1

3

600

+

200 keV He

[CnC1Im][Tf2N]

0

ERDA θr = 25°

[C10C1Im][Tf2N] 400 Counts

360

[C6C1Im][Tf2N]

200

[C2C1Im][Tf2N]

0 100

102 104 Energy of recoiled H+ (keV)

Figure 53.8 HR-ERDA spectra for [Cn C1 Im][Tf2 N] (n = 2, 6, 10) observed at 𝜃 e = 5∘ with respect to the surface plane. The incident energy of He ions was 200 keV and the recoil angle was 25∘ . The dashed lines show the calculated spectra for uniform and stoichiometric compositions. The solid

106

lines show the spectrum calculated with the composition depth profiles derived by the combination analysis of HR-RBS and HRERDA. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2016 [42]. Copyright 2016, The Japan Society for Analytical Chemistry.)

53.4 Surface Structures of Pure Ionic Liquids

HR-ERDA is better than ∼0.5 nm at the surface, which is comparable to the depth resolution of HR-RBS. The elemental depth profiles of all constituent elements can be derived so that the profiles would reproduce both the HR-RBS and HR-ERDA spectra in parallel. The result of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] is shown by histograms in Figure 53.9. It should be noted that both HR-RBS and HR-ERDA provide the depth scale in units of areal density of atoms (e.g. atoms/cm2 ). This is because the depth information is derived on the basis of the energy loss of the ion. If the areal atomic density is the same, the energy loss is also the same irrespective of the thickness of the specimen (see Eqs. (53.4), (53.5)). The depth scale obtained in units of areal atomic density can be converted to “nanometer” using the stopping power of bulk and the result is shown in the upper abscissa of Figure 53.9. This scale in nanometer is just a rough measure because the atomic density may deviate from the bulk density in the surface region. The derived composition agrees with the bulk composition at the depth deeper than ∼1.5 nm while there is a large deviation in the surface region. The thickness of one molecular layer can be estimated by 1/n1/3 , where n is the density of ion pair (2.34 × 1021 ion pairs/cm3 for [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]). The depth regions corresponding to the first and second molecular layers are shown by arrows in Figure 53.9. By integrating the depth profiles in the first molecular layer, the composition of the first molecular layer is estimated to be S2.0 F6.0 O4.0 N2.8 C8.0 H11.2 , which is very close to the stoichiometric composition of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] (S2 F6 O4 N3 C8 H11 ). Depth (nm) 1

0 First layer

Concentration (at.%)

40

2 [C2C1Im][Tf2N]

Second layer

H C ×1.2

20

F O N S

0

0

1 Depth (1016 atoms/cm2)

Figure 53.9 Composition depth profiles for [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] derived from the combination analysis of HR-ERDA and HR-RBS (histograms). The depth scale shown in the upper abscissa was calculated using the bulk stopping power. The dashed lines show the

2

result of MD simulation. The solid lines show the result of MD simulation including the effect of capillary waves. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2016 [42]. Copyright 2016, The Japan Society for Analytical Chemistry.)

361

362

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

This indicates that neither the cation nor the anion is enriched in the surface in agreement with the results of XPS [66, 67], NICISS [68], and MIES [46]. On the other hand, the compositions of the top and bottom half of the layer are estimated to be S2.0 F7.2 O3.5 N2.3 C8.0 H11.0 and S2.1 F4.8 O4.4 N3.2 C8.0 H11.3 , respectively, which significantly deviate from the stoichiometric composition. The origin of the observed deviation can be attributed to the preferential orientation of the cations and/or anions in the first molecular layer. Looking at the depth profiles, fluorine has a sharp peak at the surface and sulfur has a broad peak around ∼0.4 nm. This indicates that [Tf2 N] anions are oriented with their CF3 groups pointing toward the vacuum and N(SO2 )2 groups pointing toward the bulk. Such a preferential orientation of [Tf2 N] anions was also observed by MIES [46] and LEIS [39]. Figure 53.6 schematically shows possible surface orientations of [Tf2 N] anions for both C 1 and C 2 conformers. If the C 2 conformer is dominant at the surface, fluorine profile would have two peaks corresponding to the two CF3 groups. The theoretical separation between two fluorine planes in C 2 conformer is ∼0.5 nm [63]. There is, however, no second fluorine peak at the expected depth in the observed depth profile. Instead, there is a large dip at ∼0.5 nm. This indicates that the C 1 conformer is dominant at the surface and has a preferential orientation shown in Figure 53.6. This seems in contradiction with the theoretical energy difference between these conformers (C 2 conformer is energetically more stable than C 1 conformer by 3.5 kJ/mol [63]). The abundance of C 2 conformer is calculated to be ∼80% at room temperature from the energy difference. This discrepancy may be explained by the large reduction of surface energy caused by the fluorine exposure to the vacuum. Concerning the orientation of [C2 C1 Im] cations, the nitrogen peak seen at ∼0.4 nm indicates that the imidazolium rings do not occupy the surface but locate in the subsurface region. A small hydrogen surface peak suggests that the ethyl chains are pointing toward the vacuum because the majority of hydrogen atoms are in the ethyl chain. Although this is consistent with the SFG result [33], AR-XPS and NICISS showed no preferential orientation of [C2 C1 Im] [68]. In order to confirm the preferential orientation of [C2 C1 Im], MD simulations would be useful. Since the pioneering work by Lynden-Bell [50], there have been a number of MD simulations on the surface structures of ionic liquids [51–53]. Sophisticated force fields have been developed specifically for ionic liquids [51]. As a result, MD simulation becomes a reliable method and qualitatively reproduces many experimental findings such as surface-layered structures [54], preferred orientation of molecules [52], and so on. Figure 53.10 shows the atomic number density profiles for [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] at 300 K derived by the MD simulation [42, 53]. In order to quantitatively compare this result with the HR-RBS result, the depth scale of the simulation profile was converted to the areal atomic density. The ordinate was also converted from “atomic number density” to “concentration” and the results are shown by dashed curves in Figure 53.9. The agreement with the HR-RBS result (histogram) is roughly good. For example, the fluorine profile has a sharp peak at the surface and a dip at

53.4 Surface Structures of Pure Ionic Liquids

[C2C1Im][Tf2N] MD simulation

Atomic number density (nm–3)

30 H Total (×0.3) 20

C F O N S

10

0

0

1 2 3 Distance from center of simulation box (nm)

Figure 53.10 Atomic number density profiles for [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] at 300 K derived from MD simulations. The abscissa shows the distance, perpendicular to the surface, from the center of the simulation box.

∼0.5 nm, which qualitatively reproduces the HR-RBS result. The simulation profile, however, shows more pronounced structures, and there is even the second peak at ∼0.9 nm, which is not seen in the observed profile. For other elements, namely oxygen and nitrogen, the simulation profiles show reduction at the surface and have a broad peak in the subsurface region. These features are qualitatively the same as the observed ones, but again more pronounced compared to the observed profiles. These results suggest that the fine structures seen in the simulation are smeared out in the observed result. A possible origin of the observed discrepancy between the HR-RBS measurement and the MD simulation is surface roughening caused by capillary waves. The surface roughness cause by capillary waves is given by [69], ) ( kmax dqx dqy kmax k T kB T ≈ , (53.6) ln 𝜎𝜌2 = B2 2π𝜎 kg 4π 𝜎 ∫0 (qx2 + qy2 ) + kg2 where k g 2 = 𝜌g/𝜎, k max = 𝜋/a, 𝜌 is the mass density, g is the acceleration of gravity, 𝜎 is the surface tension, a = 1/n1/3 is the size of the molecule, T is temperature, and k B is the Boltzmann constant. Because of the finite size of the simulation box (5.98 × 5.98 × 16 nm3 in the present simulation), the MD simulation does not include capillary waves with wave length longer than 𝜆sim = 2 × 5.98 nm. The effect of these capillary waves should be taken into account to compare the MD simulation with the HR-RBS result [70]. The modified simulation profiles are shown by solid lines in Figure 53.9. The agreement with the HR-RBS profiles is improved dramatically, demonstrating that the MD simulation is a reliable method to study the surface structures of ionic liquids. Knowing that the MD simulation reproduces the observed result almost perfectly, the orientation of [C2 C1 Im] cations can be discussed based on the simulation

363

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

1 [C2C1Im][Tf2N] θ

[C6C1Im][Tf2N] Surface

364

CT

0.5 N1

0

–1

0 1 2 Depth from Gibbs dividing surface (nm)

Figure 53.11 Orientation of the ethyl chain for [C2 C1 Im] (solid line) calculated by the MD simulation. The results for [C6 C1 Im] (dashed line) are displayed for comparison. The origin of z-coordinates coincides with the position of the surface as determined by the Gibbs

3

dividing surface. The inset shows the definition of the tilt angle, 𝜃. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2016 [42]. Copyright 2016, The Japan Society for Analytical Chemistry.)

result. Figure 53.11 shows the orientation of the ethyl chain evaluated by the MD simulation. The orientation of the ethyl chain was characterized by the tilt angle 𝜃 between the surface normal and vector pointing from the ring nitrogen to the terminal C atom of the ethyl chain as shown in the inset of Figure 53.11. It is evident that the alkyl chains are pointing toward the vacuum in the topmost molecular layer (⟨cos 𝜃⟩∼0.7) and that there is no preferential orientation in the deeper layers. Thus, the MD simulation confirms the preferential orientation of the [C2 C1 Im] cations suggested by the HR-RBS and HR-ERDA analysis. 53.4.2 1-Alkyl-3-Methylimidazolium Bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([Cn C1 Im][Tf2 N]): Effect of Alkyl Chain Length on the Surface Structure

Figure 53.12 shows observed HR-RBS spectra of [Cn C1 Im][Tf2 N] (n = 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12). For comparison, the calculated spectra for uniform stoichiometric compositions are shown by dashed lines. Looking at [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N], the agreement with the observed spectra is rather good except for the sharp fluorine peak at ∼341 keV, as was discussed in the Section 4.1. With increasing chain length n, the spectrum systematically changes. For the detailed discussion of these systematical changes, the composition depth profiles were derived from these spectra so that the observed spectra can be reproduced by the spectrum calculated with the derived

53.4 Surface Structures of Pure Ionic Liquids

400 keV He+

[CnC1Im][Tf2N]

n = 12 n = 10

Counts (arb. units)

30 000

n=8 n=6

20 000

n=4 n=2 C N O

10 000

F S 0

300

320

340

360

Energy of scattered He+ (keV) Figure 53.12 HR-RBS spectra of [Cn C1 Im][Tf2 N] (n = 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12) observed at exit angles 𝜃 e = 3∘ with respect to the surface plane. The incident energy of He ions was 400 keV and the scattering angle was 50∘ . The dashed lines show the calculated spectrum for uniform and

stoichiometric compositions. The solid lines show the best fit results. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al., 2010, 2016, 2017 [64, 70, 71]. Copyright 2010, 2016, AIP Publishing LLC and Copyright 2017, Elsevier.)

depth profiles. The calculated spectra are shown by solid lines in Figure 53.12. The good agreement with the observed spectra indicates that the derived depth profiles are reliable. Figure 53.13 shows thus derived carbon (a), nitrogen (b), fluorine (c), and sulfur (d) profiles. Except for n = 2, all carbon profiles have a surface peak and the peak becomes larger and broader with increasing chain length n. There is a shallow dip just behind the surface peak for n ≥ 6. On the other hand, nitrogen profiles have a subsurface peak and the peak moves to deeper regions with increasing n. Considering that carbon and nitrogen are representative elements of the alkyl chain and the imidazolium ring, respectively, these behaviors indicate that the alkyl chains of [Cn C1 Im] protrude to the vacuum in the topmost molecular layer. Similar preferential orientation of [Cn C1 Im] was also observed using AR-XPS for n ≥ 4 [66]. In XPS, signals of the carbon atoms that have nitrogen atoms as neighbors (denoted as Chetero ) and the carbon atoms with exclusively carbon (or hydrogen)

365

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

Concentration of C (at.%)

35

[CnC1Im][Tf2N]

30 n = 12 n = 10n = 8 n=6 n=4

25

n=2

20

0

(a)

1 2 Depth (1016 atoms/cm2)

3

Concentration of N (at.%)

[CnC1Im][Tf2N]

10 n=2 n=4 n=6 n=8 n = 10 n = 12

5

0

0

(b)

1 2 Depth (1016 atoms/cm2)

3

30

[CnC1Im][Tf2N] Concentration of F (at.%)

366

20

n=4 n=6 n=8 n =10 n =12

10

0

(c)

n=2

0

1 2 Depth (1016 atoms/cm2)

3

Figure 53.13 Elemental depth profiles of [Cn C1 Im][Tf2 N] derived by HR-RBS measurements. The results of carbon (a), nitrogen (b), fluorine (c), and sulfur (d) are shown. The concentration ratio of fluorine to sulfur is also shown (e).

53.4 Surface Structures of Pure Ionic Liquids

8

Concentration of S (at.%)

[CnC1Im][Tf2N] n=2

6

n=4 n=6 n=8 n = 10 n = 12

4

2

0

0

1 2 Depth (1016 atoms/cm2)

(d) 8

n=2 n=4 n=6 n=8 n = 10 n = 12

[CnC1Im][Tf2N]

6

Ratio of F/S

3

4

2

0

(e)

0

1 Depth (1016 atoms/cm2)

2

Figure 53.13 (Continued)

neighbors (denoted as Calkyl ) can be distinguished. Figure 53.14 shows the intensity ratio of Calkyl /Chetero for [Cn C1 Im][Tf2 N] observed at emission angles of 0∘ , 70∘ , and 80∘ , as a function of chain length n. The nominal ratio is shown by a dashed line [66]. At grazing emission angles, the observed intensity ratio is larger than the nominal ratio for n ≥ 4, indicating that Calkyl atoms are located at shallower depth compared to Chetero . SFG measurements provided detailed information on the orientation of [Cn C1 Im] cations, namely the alkyl chains of [Cn C1 Im] are tilted by 50∘ at the surface [32]. With this tilt angle, the thicknesses of the topmost molecular layer can be calculated using the lengths of [Cn C1 Im] cations. By integrating the elemental depth profiles in the topmost molecular layer, the surface composition can be estimated as was done for [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] in the Section 4.1. The results are shown in Table 53.1 together

367

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

7 0° 70° 80° Nominal

6 IC1s(Calkyl)/IC1s(Chetero)

368

5 4 3 2 1 0 0

2

4

6

8

10 12 14 16 18

[CnC1Im][Tf2N] Figure 53.14 XPS intensity ratio of Calkyl /Chetero for [Cn C1 Im][Tf2 N] observed at emission angles of 0∘ , 70∘ , and 80∘ , as a function of chain length n. Calkyl denotes carbon atoms with exclusively carbon (or

hydrogen) neighbors and Chetero denotes carbon atoms, which have nitrogen atoms as neighbors. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Lovelock et al. 2009 [66]. Copyright 2009, American Chemical Society.)

with the stoichiometric compositions. The table also shows the results of some other imidazolium-based ionic liquids. All measured compositions are in good agreement with the stoichiometric compositions, indicating that there is no surface enrichment of either cation or anion. The position and orientation of [Tf2 N] anions can also be discussed based on the observed elemental depth profiles. It is seen that all sulfur profiles have a peak in the subsurface region (Figure 53.13d). The peak position and width are almost the same as the nitrogen peak (Figure 53.13b). Considering that sulfur and nitrogen are representative elements of [Tf2 N] and the imidazolium ring, respectively, this indicates that [Tf2 N] anions (more precisely, N(SO2 )2 groups) are located at the same depth where the imidazolium rings are. This is a reasonable result because the positive charge of the [Cn C1 Im] cation is localized in the imidazolium ring and the negative charge of the [Tf2 N] is localized in the N(SO2 )2 group. Concerning the orientation, the fluorine profile has a peak at the surface and the sulfur profile has a peak in the subsurface region for n ≤ 6. This indicates that the [Tf2 N] has the preferential orientation with their CF3 groups pointing toward the vacuum and the N(SO2 )2 group toward the bulk. With increasing chain length n, the fluorine surface peak becomes less pronounced and disappears for n ≥ 8, suggesting that the preferential orientation of [Tf2 N] disappears. In order to confirm this, the concentration ratio of fluorine to sulfur is calculated from the observed profiles and shown in Figure 53.13e. The ratio is higher than the nominal ratio of 3 in the surface region irrespective of the length of the alkyl chain n. This indicates that the preferential orientation of [Tf2 N] still exists even for [C12 C1 Im][Tf2 N], although the degree of the orientation becomes weaker with increasing chain length [64].

Table 53.1 Summary of ionic liquids observed using HR-RBS. Chemical formula

Name

𝝈: Surface

d: Areal atomic

A: Molar

Bulk

Observed surface

tension

density of

surface area

composition

composition

(mN/m)

surface layer

(1010 cm2 )

(1015 atoms/cm2 )

[C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]

[C4 C1 Im][Tf2 N]

[C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N]

[C8 C1 Im][Tf2 N]

[C10 C1 Im][Tf2 N]

1-Ethyl-3methylimidazolium bis[(trifluoromethyl) sulfonyl]imide 1-Butyl-3methylimidazolium bis[(trifluoromethyl) sulfonyl]imide 1-Hexyl-3methylimidazolium bis[(trifluoromethyl) sulfonyl]imide 1-Octyl-3methylimidazolium bis[(trifluoromethyl) sulfonyl]imide 1-Decyl-3methylimidazolium bis[(trifluoromethyl) sulfonyl]imide

36.43 [72], 41.6 [73], 35.1 [74]

5.74

12.1

S2 F6 O4 N3 C8 H11

S2.0 F6.1 O3.9 N2.8 C8.0 H11.2

33.09 [72], 33.6 [75]

7.25

13.3

S2 F6 O4 N3 C10 H15

S2.0 F6.0 O3.9 N2.8 C10.0 H15.2

31.76 [72], 31.0 [75]

8.85

14.4

S2 F6 O4 N3 C12 H19

S2.0 F5.7 O3.5 N2.7 C12.4 H19.7

31.30 [72]

10.47

15.6

S2 F6 O4 N3 C14 H23

S2.0 F6.0 O3.8 N2.8 C14.4 H23.0

31.34 [72]

12.12

16.7

S2 F6 O4 N3 C16 H27

S1.7 F5.4 O3.7 N2.9 C16.5 H27.9

(continued overleaf )

Table 53.1 (Continued) Chemical formula

Name

𝝈: Surface

d: Areal atomic

A: Molar

Bulk

Observed surface

tension

density of

surface area

composition

composition

(mN/m)

surface layer

(1010 cm2 )

(1015 atoms/cm2 )

[C12 C1 Im][Tf2 N]

[C2 C1 Im][TfO]

[C2 C1 Im][BF4 ]

[C4 C1 Im][PF6 ]

[C6 C1 Im][PF6 ]

[C6 C1 Im][Cl]

1-Dodecyl-3methylimidazolium bis[(trifluoromethyl) sulfonyl]imide 1-Ethyl-3methylimidazolium trifluoromethylsulfonate 1-Ethyl-3methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate 1-Butyl-3methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate 1-Hexyl-3methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate 1-Hexyl-3methylimidazolium chlorine

29.8 [76]

14.87

16.6

S2 F6 O4 N3 C18 H31

S2.1 F5.8 O3.7 N2.7 C18.2 H31.4

44.4 [73]

6.24

7.0

S1 F3 O3 N2 C7 H11

S1.1 F3.1 O3.3 N2.1 C7.7 H9.8

53.9 [76]

6.74

5.1

F4 N2 C6 B1 H11

F4.1 N2.0 C6.0 B1.0 H10.9

42.8 [75], 47.2 [77]

8.18

7.5

P1 F6 N2 C8 H15

P1.0 F6.2 N2.1 C8.5 H14.1

38.25 [75], 43.0 [77]

9.92

8.8

P1 F6 N2 C10 H19

P0.9 F5.0 N1.7 C10.5 H19.9

41.5 [77]

10.2

6.0

Cl1 N2 C10 H19

Cl1.1 N2.3 C10.1 H18.5

(Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2017 [71]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier.)

53.4 Surface Structures of Pure Ionic Liquids

53.4.3 Effect of Anion Size

In this section, the effect of the anion size on the surface structure is briefly discussed. Figure 53.15 shows the observed HR-RBS spectrum of [C6 C1 Im][Cl]. The composition depth profiles derived from the observed HR-RBS spectrum are shown in Figure 53.16. The nitrogen profile has a peak at ∼0.9 nm, and the carbon profile has a small surface peak. This indicates that the hexyl chains of [C6 C1 Im] protrude to the vacuum similar to [C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N]. Concerning the position of the anion, the chlorine profile has a peak at ∼0.7 nm. This suggests that chlorine is located at slightly shallower depth compared to the imidazolium ring. In order to confirm this, the concentration ratio of chlorine to nitrogen is shown by a dashed line in Figure 53.16. The ratio is slightly larger than the nominal ratio (0.5) near the surface, confirming that chlorine is located at a shallower depth but only slightly shallower. Thus, the surface structures of [C6 C1 Im][Cl] are very similar to those of [Cn C1 Im][Tf2 N], although the size of Cl− anion is much smaller than that of [Tf2 N]. The surface structures of ionic liquids having various anions (see Table 53.1) were also studied using HR-RBS [65, 71, 78]. The results showed that all these ionic liquids have similar surface structures to [Cn C1 Im][Tf2 N], irrespective of the size of anions, namely (i) there is no surface enrichment of either cation or anion, (ii) alkyl chains protrude to the vacuum, (iii) the polar parts of anions are located at almost the same depth as the imidazolium rings (i.e. the polar part of cations), and (iv) CF3 moieties of [Tf2 N] and [TfO] anions are pointing toward the vacuum. Similar results were also obtained by the MD simulations for various ionic liquids [51–53]. It is worth noting that that such a surface structure reduces the electrostatic energy because

10

4000

Depth for Cl (nm) 5

0

[C6C1Im]Cl, θe = 3°

+

400 keV He

3000

Counts

C 2000

N 1000 3

2

1

0

Cl

Depth for N (nm)

0 300

320 340 360 Energy of scattered He+ (keV)

Figure 53.15 HR-RBS spectrum of [C6 C1 Im]Cl observed at exit angles 𝜃 e = 3. The dashed line shows the calculated spectrum for a uniform and stoichiometric composition. The solid line shows the best fit result.

371

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

20

Depth (nm) 1

0

2

1

[C6C1Im]Cl C ×0.5 15

Cl/N

10

0.5

Cl/N ratio

Concentration (at.%)

372

N 5

Cl 0

0 Depth

(1016

1 atoms/cm2)

2

0

Figure 53.16 Composition depth profiles for [C6 C1 Im]Cl derived from the HR-RBS spectrum. The depth scale shown in the upper abscissa was calculated using a bulk density.

(i) the polar parts of cations and anions attract each other and (ii) the electrostatic field induced by the polar parts is effectively screened by the nonpolar parts located in the outer region. Effect of the anion size was also studied using AR-XPS [67]. Figure 53.17a shows the intensity ratio of Calkyl /Chetero for [C8 C1 Im][X] observed at emission angles of 0∘ and 80∘ , as a function of molecular volume. At 80∘ , the intensity ratio is larger than the nominal ratio (1.4) for all anions, indicating that the octyl chains protrude to the vacuum irrespective of the anion size. The ratio increases with decreasing size of anion. This suggests that the surface enrichment of alkyl carbon relative to the ring carbon is more pronounced for the smaller anions [67]. The relative position of the anion with respect to the imidazolium ring was also discussed based on AR-XPS measurements. Figure 53.17b shows the intensity ratio of the XPS signals of the representative element of anion to the nitrogen in the imidazolium ring for [C8 C1 Im][X] [67]. The nominal ratio is 0.5 for all ionic liquids studied. The ratio seems to increase with an increasing emission angle, suggesting that the anions are located at slightly shallower depth compared to the imidazolium ring. The signalto-noise level for the measured ratio was, however, quite low because of the low intensity of the anion-related element, especially at grazing emission angles. Consequently, only a tentative conclusion derived that the anions are located nearly at the same depth as the imidazolium rings, irrespective of the nature of the anion [67]. In passing, the surface enhancement of electron density observed by XR [27] can be explained by the surface structure observed by HR-RBS. Figure 53.18 shows the composition depth profiles of [C4 C1 Im][PF6 ] measured by HR-RBS [65]. The electron density profile calculated with the measured composition depth profiles is shown by a thick line. The profile has a peak at ∼0.3 nm with a long tail toward

53.5 Surface Structures of Binary Mixtures of Ionic Liquids

IC1s(Calkyl) / IC1s (Chetero)

3.5 3.0

Cl–

0° 80° Nominal

Br– I– [PF6]–

2.5

[Pf2N]– [BF4]–

2.0

[TfO]–

[Tf2N]–

[FAP]–

1.5

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Ionic liquid molecular volume (nm3)

(a) 0.7

Cl–

Aanion:Ncation ratio

Br– I–

0.6

[PF6]– [BF4]–

0.5

[TfO]– [Tf2N]– 0.4

[Pf2N]– [FAP]– 0

(b)

70 80 Electron emission angle (°)

Figure 53.17 (a) XPS intensity ratio of Calkyl /Chetero for [C8 C1 Im][X] observed at emission angles of 0∘ and 80∘ , as a function of molecular volume, where X denotes anion. (b) XPS intensity ratio of Aanion /Ncation for [C8 C1 Im][X], where Aanion and Ncation denote

Nominal

the element selected from anion and nitrogen in the imidazolium ring, at different electron emission angles. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Kolbeck et al. 2009 [67]. Copyright 2009, American Chemical Society.)

the bulk, which is similar to the profiles of phosphor and fluorine. Thus, the origin of the electron density enhancement is attributed to the enrichment of these heavy elements in the subsurface region. The dotted line shows the result of XR measurement analyzed with a single-box model [79]. Although XR cannot provide detailed profiles, the result is roughly in agreement with the HR-RBS result.

53.5 Surface Structures of Binary Mixtures of Ionic Liquids

The surface properties of ionic liquids can be tuned by choosing an appropriate combination of a wide range of cations and anions. Fine-tuning can be realized by

373

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

0

1

Depth (nm) 2

3

4

Electron density 4

30

C F

20

2

P (×4) 10

N

0

0

1 2 Depth (1016 atoms/cm2)

Figure 53.18 Composition depth profiles for [C4 C1 Im][PF6 ] derived from the HR-RBS spectrum. The depth scale shown in the upper abscissa was calculated using a bulk density. The electron density profile calculated with the measured composition depth

3

4

Electron density (1023 /cm3)

40

Concentration (at.%)

374

0

profiles is shown by a thick line. The dotted line shows the electron density profile measured by XR [71]. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Ohno et al. 2009 [65]. Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing LLC.)

utilizing the mixtures of ionic liquids [38]. There have been several studies on the surface structures of ionic liquid mixtures. In some cases, strong surface segregation of one component was observed [38, 45]. This suggests the possibility that the surface properties can be controlled separately from the bulk properties. In this respect, understanding the mechanism of surface segregation and predicting the degree of surface segregation are of pivotal importance. In the following sections, the results of HR-RBS studies on ionic liquid mixtures are presented. As an example of mixtures, a mixture of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] and [C2 C1 Im][BF4 ] is chosen because large surface segregation of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] is expected because of their large surface tension difference (36.43 and 53.9 mN/m for [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] and [C2 C1 Im][BF4 ], respectively [72, 76]). The result is compared with the MD simulation to see if the MD simulation can reproduce the observed surface segregation or not. 53.5.1 Equimolar Mixture of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] and [C2 C1 Im][BF4 ]: Comparison Between HR-RBS and MD Simulation

Figure 53.19 shows the observed HR-RBS spectrum of pure [C2 C1 Im][BF4 ] [80]. The dashed line shows the calculated spectrum for a uniform stoichiometric composition. The agreement with the observed spectrum is reasonably good, although there is small discrepancy at the leading edge of fluorine, i.e. the observed fluorine yield is higher than the expected spectrum at energies higher than 340 keV. It is worth noting

53.5 Surface Structures of Binary Mixtures of Ionic Liquids

8000

6000

400 keV He+

[C2C1Im][BF4]

B

Counts

C 4000

2000

0 300

N

Experimetal Stoichiometric Best fit MD simulation (CHARMM) 310

320

F

330

340

350

Energy of scattered He+ (keV) Figure 53.19 HR-RBS spectrum of [C2 C1 Im][BF4 ] observed at an exit angle 𝜃 e = 3∘ with respect to the surface plane. The incident energy of He ions was 400 keV and the scattering angle was 50∘ . The dashed line shows the calculated spectrum

for a uniform and stoichiometric composition. The solid line shows the best fit result of the spectrum calculation. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2016 [80]. Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing LLC.)

that that boron leading edge is seen at ∼308 keV, but it is not clear because of its small cross section. Figure 53.20 shows the composition depth profiles derived from the observed spectrum (histograms). The profiles slightly deviate from the uniform stoichiometric composition in the surface region. By integrating these profiles in the first molecular layer, the surface composition was estimated to be F4.1 N2.0 C6.0 B1.0 H10.9 . In this estimation, the thickness of the first molecular layer (0.722 nm) was calculated using the length of [C2 C1 Im] cation and its tilt angle (50∘ ) [32]. The good agreement with the stoichiometric composition (F4 N2 C6 B1 H11 ) shows that there is no surface enrichment of either cation or anion. For comparison, composition depth profiles derived by the MD simulation including the effect of capillary waves are shown by dashed lines. Similar to [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N], the MD simulation reproduces the HR-RBS result very well. Figure 53.21 shows the HR-RBS spectrum of the equimolar mixture of [C2 C1 Im][BF4 ] and [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] together with the spectrum calculated with the uniform stoichiometric composition (short dashed line). There are large discrepancies near the leading edges of constituent elements, especially sulfur and fluorine. The elemental depth profiles derived from the observed spectrum are shown by histograms in Figure 53.22. The composition of the first molecular layer was estimated to be S1.4 F5.0 O2.6 N2.6 C7.1 B0.2 H10.1 by integrating the profiles in the first molecular layer (from 0 to 0.6243 atoms/cm2 , which is the average thickness of the first molecular layer of [C2 C1 Im][BF4 ] and [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]). Differently from the pure ionic liquids, the obtained surface composition significantly deviates from the stoichiometric composition S1 F5 O2 N2.5 C7 B0.5 H11 . Sulfur

375

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

Depth (nm) 1

0

2

[C2C1Im][BF4] Experimental (histogram) MD simulation C

Concentration (at.%)

30

20

F

10

N B

0

0

1 Depth (1016 atoms/cm2)

Figure 53.20 Composition depth profiles for [C2 C1 Im][BF4 ] derived from the observed HR-RBS spectrum through spectrum modeling (histograms). The depth scale shown in the upper abscissa is calculated using a bulk

400 keV He+

15 000

B

10 000

2

density. The dashed lines show the result of the MD simulation including the effect of capillary waves. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2016 [80]. Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing LLC.)

[C2C1Im][Tf2N]0.5[BF4]0.5 Experimental Stoichiometric Estimation 1 Estimation 2

C

N

Counts

376

O F 5 000

Depth for S (nm) 3 2 1 0

S 355

0 300

360

Energy (keV)

S

365

320 340 Energy of scattered He+ (keV)

Figure 53.21 HR-RBS spectrum of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 [BF4 ]0.5 observed at an exit angle 𝜃 e = 3∘ with respect to the surface plane. The incident energy of He ions was 400 keV and the scattering angle was 50∘ . The short dashed line shows the spectrum calculated with a uniform stoichiometric composition. The long dashed line shows the spectrum calculated with the first molecular layer

360

composition of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.72 [BF4 ]0.28 . The solid line shows the spectrum calculated with the first molecular layer composition of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.72 [BF4 ]0.28 and the second molecular layer composition of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.55 [BF4 ]0.45 . (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2016 [80]. Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing LLC.)

53.5 Surface Structures of Binary Mixtures of Ionic Liquids

Depth (nm) 30

0

1

2

[C2C1Im][TFSI]0.5[BF4]0.5

Concentration (at.%)

C Experimental (histogram) MD simulation

20

F N ×1.4 10

O S B 0

0

1

2

Depth (1016 atoms/cm2) Figure 53.22 Composition depth profiles for [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 [BF4 ]0.5 derived from the observed HR-RBS spectrum through spectrum modeling (histograms). The depth scale shown in the upper abscissa is calculated using the average density. The dashed lines

show the result of the MD simulation including the effect of capillary waves. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2016 [80]. Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing LLC.)

and oxygen concentrations are enhanced by 35–40%. Because these elements are representatives of [Tf2 N], this indicates strong surface enrichment of [Tf2 N] over [BF4 ]. If the first molecular layer of the mixture has a composition [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]x [BF4 ]1−x , the surface concentration (concentration in the first molecular layer), Cαmix (x), of element 𝛼 can be estimated from the observed surface concentrations C i,𝛼 of the pure ionic liquids [80], Cαmix (x) =

C1,α N1 x + C2,α N2 (1 − x) N1 x + N2 (1 − x)

,

(53.7)

where N i is the number of atoms in one ion pair of the ith ionic liquid (i = 1 and 2 denote [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] and [C2 C1 Im][BF4 ], respectively). The surface mole fractions, x1 , of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] can be determined so that Eq. (53.7) reproduces the observed surface concentrations, Cαobs , of the mixture. Figure 53.23 shows the squared relative deviation from the observed surface concentration (53.8) Δ2α (x) = {(Cαmix (x) − Cαobs )∕Cαobs }2 , ∑ together with the summation α=S,F,O,N,C Δ2α (x). The summation has a minimum at x = 0.72. Accordingly, the surface mole fraction is determined to be ∑ x1 = 0.72 ± 0.05, where the error 𝛿x1 was estimated so that α=S,F,O,N,C Δ2α (x1 ± ∑ 2 𝛿x1 ) = 2 α=S,F,O,N,C Δα (x1 ). In this procedure, boron and hydrogen were excluded because hydrogen cannot be measured by RBS and the accuracy of boron concentration is poor because of its small scattering cross section.

377

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

0.1

First layer 2 Σ Δα(x) Δ2S(x) Δ2F(x) Δ2O(x)

Δ2α (x)

378

Δ2N(x)

0.05

0

x = 0.72

Δ2C(x)

0

0.5 x: [C2C1Im][Tf2N]x[BF4]1–x

Figure 53.23 The squared relative deviation of the estimated surface composition from the observed result, Δ2α (x) = {(Cαmix (x) − Cαobs )∕Cαobs }2 for sulfur, fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon, where Cαobs is the observed composition of element 𝛼 in the first molecular layer and Cαmix (x) is the

1

estimated composition when the mole fraction of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] is x. The summation ∑ 2 Δα (x) is also shown by a solid line. The best fit is obtained at x = 0.72. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2016 [80]. Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing LLC.)

The mole fraction of the second molecular layer was also estimated using the same procedure. The obtained mole fraction was x2 = 0.55 ± 0.05. Using these mole fractions (x1 = 0.72 and x2 = 0.55) and mole fractions equal to 0.5 for other layers, the elemental depth profiles of the mixture were estimated by the weighted average of the measured profiles of the pure ionic liquids. The energy spectrum was calculated using the estimated elemental depth profiles and the result is shown by a solid line in Figure 53.21. The agreement with the observed spectrum is very well. It is worth noting that that if x2 = 0.5 is used instead of x2 = 0.55, the agreement is relatively poor (see long dashed line in Figure 53.21). This confirms that [Tf2 N] is enriched not only in the first molecular layer but also in the second molecular layer. The MD simulation for the [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 [BF4 ]0.5 mixture was performed using 512 ion pairs (512 [C2 C1 Im] cations, 256 [Tf2 N] anions, and 256 [BF4 ] anions) in a simulation box of 5.62 × 5.62 × 14 nm3 [80]. The composition depth profiles derived by the MD simulation are shown by dashed lines and compared with the HR-RBS result in Figure 53.22. The MD simulations qualitatively reproduce the HR-RBS result. The agreement is reasonably good, especially for fluorine and carbon profiles. For other elements (sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen), however, the agreement is less satisfactory. The simulation profiles of these elements have a peak at 0.3 × 1016 atoms/cm2 , indicating the surface enrichment of [Tf2 N] in agreement with the result of HR-RBS. However, these peaks are smaller compared to the peaks observed by HR-RBS. From the result of MD simulations, the surface mole fraction of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] was estimated to be x1 = 0.59, which is much smaller than

53.5 Surface Structures of Binary Mixtures of Ionic Liquids

the HR-RBS result (x1 = 0.72). Such a large discrepancy is somewhat surprising because the MD simulations reproduce the HR-RBS results of the pure ionic liquids very well (see Figures 53.9 and 53.20). This suggests that a refinement of the force field describing the interactions between [Tf2 N] and [BF4 ] is required in addition to a refinement of the partial charges to better mimic the anions to cation charge transfer and many-body effects. It is interesting to see if the surface tension difference between [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] and [C2 C1 Im][BF4 ] can explain the observed surface segregation of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]. According to the classical thermodynamics, the surface tension of a mixture of liquids can be given by the Sprow–Prausnitz equation [81] ) ( xi,s 𝛾i,s A RT 𝜎 = i 𝜎i + , (53.9) ln xi,b 𝛾i,b Ai Ai where 𝜎 and 𝜎 i are the surface tensions for the mixture and the component i, Ai is the molar surface area of component i, Ai is the partial molar surface area of component i in the mixture, R and T are the universal gas constant and the temperature, respectively, xi,b and xi,s are the mole fractions in the bulk and surface, respectively, and 𝛾 i,b and 𝛾 i,s are the corresponding activity coefficients. Assuming that the binary mixture is an ideal solution, i.e. 𝛾 i, s = 1, 𝛾 i, b = 1, and Ai = Ai , the surface mole fraction x1,s of component 1 can be calculated using the following equation: ( ( )) (1 − x1,b )n (1 − x1,s )n A1 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = exp , (53.10) x1,s x1,b RT where n = A1 /A2 . The present assumption of ideal solution may be justified by the recent study, which demonstrated that bulk properties of ionic liquid mixtures adhere closely to ideal mixing laws [82]. Using Eq. (53.10), the surface mole fraction of [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] is estimated to be 0.86. In this estimation, the molar surface area was calculated by Ai = N A N i /di , where N A is the Avogadro number and di is the areal atomic density of the first molecular layer. If a simple relation, i.e. Ai = N A ni −2/3 , is used, the surface mole fraction is estimated to be 0.84. The difference may be considered as the error of the estimation, i.e. x1,s = 0.86 ± 0.02. The estimated mole fraction is slightly larger but roughly in agreement with the observed fraction x1 = 0.72 ± 0.05. 53.5.2 Surface Structure of [C4 C1 Im]0.5 [C12 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N]: An Example of Mixtures with Common Anions

In this section, an example of the ionic liquid mixtures with common anions is presented [71]. The chosen mixture is [C4 C1 Im]0.5 [C12 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N]. Figure 53.24 shows the observed HR-RBS spectra of [C4 C1 Im][Tf2 N], [C12 C1 Im][Tf2 N], and [C4 C1 Im]0.5 [C12 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N]. From these spectra, composition depth profiles were derived for the mixture and the pure ionic liquids as well. Using the derived composition depth profiles, the surface mole fraction of [C12 C1 Im][Tf2 N] was determined to be xs = 0.63 ± 0.03 by the same procedure explained in the Section 5.1.

379

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

20 000

Best fit Stoichiometric 15 000

Counts

380

C

10 000

N 5 000

0

O

[C4C1Im][Tf2N] [C12C1Im][Tf2N] [C4C1Im]0.5[C12C1Im]0.5[Tf2N] 300

F S

320 340 Energy of scattered He+ (keV)

Figure 53.24 HR-RBS spectra of [C4 C1 Im][Tf2 N], [C12 C1 Im][Tf2 N], and [C4 C1 Im]0.5 [C12 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N] observed at a scattering angle of 50∘ . The dashed lines show the calculated spectra for uniform

360

stoichiometric compositions. The solid lines show the best fit results. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2016 [80]. Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing LLC.)

This result agrees with the surface mole fraction xs = 0.60 ± 0.04 calculated using Eq. (53.10). With the obtained surface mole fraction, xs = 0.63, for the topmost molecular layer and mole fractions equal to 0.5 for deeper layers, the expected HR-RBS spectrum was calculated using the weighted average of the composition depth profiles of pure ionic liquids. The result is shown by a solid line and compared with the observed spectrum (dots) in Figure 53.25. A very good agreement indicates that the derived surface composition, xs = 0.63, is reliable. It should be noted that the shown HR-RBS spectrum was calculated assuming that the two ionic liquids are randomly mixed with xs = 0.63 in the topmost molecular layer. If the surface has a domain structure, namely the surface is divided into the [C12 C1 Im][Tf2 N] and [C4 C1 Im][Tf2 N] domains, the expected HR-RBS spectrum is slightly different from the random mixture as shown by a dashed line in Figure 53.25. It is clear that the agreement with the observed spectrum is worse in the case of domain structure, indicating that there is no domain structure at the surface. The above two examples, [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 [BF4 ]0.5 and [C4 C1 Im]0.5 [C12 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N], showed that the composition depth profile of the mixture can be approximated by the weighted average of the profiles of pure ionic liquids. However, this is not always the case. As an example of such exceptions, the surface structure of [C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 Cl0.5 is discussed below. Figure 53.26 shows the observed HR-RBS spectrum of [C6 C1 Im] [Tf2 N]0.5 Cl0.5 . Because the chlorine mass is very close to sulfur, separation of the chlorine signal from the sulfur signal is difficult. This makes accurate analysis of these elements difficult. Accordingly, the surface mole fraction x ([C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N]x Cl1−x ) was

53.5 Surface Structures of Binary Mixtures of Ionic Liquids

20 000

[C4C1Im]0.5[C12C1Im]0.5[Tf2N] Estimation (xs = 0.63) Domain structure (xs = 0.63)

Counts

15 000

C C

N

10 000

S O F

O 5 000

F 0

300

S

320 340 Energy of scattered He+ (keV)

Figure 53.25 The comparison between the observed HR-RBS spectrum (dots) and the spectrum calculated using the estimated composition depth profiles (solid line) for [C4 C1 Im]0.5 [C12 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N] (see text). The HR-RBS spectrum calculated for the domain

360

structure is also shown by a dashed line for comparison. Parts of the spectrum are magnified for clarity. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2017 [71]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier.)

estimated using Eq. (53.8) but without these elements. Using the obtained surface mole fraction of [C6 C1 Im] [Tf2 N] (xs = 0.58 ± 0.04), the expected HR-RBS spectrum was calculated. The result is shown by a solid line and compared with the observed spectrum in Figure 53.26. The overall agreement is rather good, but there are small Stoichiometric Estimation

[C6C1Im][Tf2N]0.5Cl0.5 10 000

C Counts

F N O

5 000

S

F

S Cl 0

300

Cl

320 340 Energy of scattered He+ (keV)

Figure 53.26 Observed HR-RBS spectra of [C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 Cl0.5 . The dashed line shows the calculated spectra for a uniform stoichiometric composition. The solid line shows the spectrum calculated using the estimated

360

surface mole fraction of [C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N], x s = 0.58. Parts of the spectrum are magnified for clarity. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2017 [71]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier.)

381

382

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

deviations near the chlorine and fluorine edges. The observed chlorine edge is shifted to lower energies compared to the calculated one. The observed fluorine surface peak is more pronounced compared to the calculated one. Note that the observed surface fluorine peak is also more pronounced compared to the pure [C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N] (see Figure 53.12). These results indicate that chorine ions move toward the bulk compared to the pure [C6 C1 Im]Cl and fluorine atoms (and so [Tf2 N] anions) move toward the surface compared to the pure [C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N]. Similar shifts of larger (smaller) anions to the surface (bulk) in the mixture were also found in the mixtures [C4 C1 Im][PF6 ]0.5 Cl0.5 and [C4 C1 Im][TfO]0.5 Cl0.5 using the MD simulation [83]. The MD simulation showed that [PF6 ] and [TfO] anions are located at slightly shallower positions than the imidazolium rings, whereas Cl anions are located at deeper positions in the topmost molecular layer. 53.5.3 Systematic Study on the Surface Structures of Binary Mixtures of Ionic Liquids

All three mixtures discussed above show that the larger cation or anion is enriched in the first molecular layer [71]. A systematic study was performed to see if this behavior is universal or not [71]. The chosen ionic liquids are 1-alkyl-3methylimidazolium-based ionic liquids (from [C2 C1 Im] to [C12 C1 Im]) with anions ranging from small anions (Cl and [BF4 ]), medium-sized anions ([TfO] and [PF6 ]), to a large anion ([Tf2 N]), which are listed in Table 53.1. The surface tensions of these ionic liquids found in the literature [72–77] are also shown. Eleven equimolar mixtures of these ionic liquids (Table 53.2) were observed using HR-RBS. The surface mole fractions of constituent ionic liquids were derived from the observed results using the same procedure explained in the Sections 5.1 and 5.2. The derived surface mole fractions are summarized in Table 53.2. All results showed that the larger ionic liquid (the ionic liquid having a larger cation or anion) is enriched at the surface. Table 53.2 also shows the surface mole fractions calculated using Eq. (53.10). Figure 53.27 shows the relation between the measured and calculated surface mole fractions. The abscissa shows the calculated mole fraction of larger ionic liquids and the ordinate shows the measured one. The simple calculation based on the assumption of ideal solution (i.e. Eq. (53.10)) reproduces the measured results reasonably well. The agreement is especially good for the mixtures with common anions (shown by open circles). For the mixtures of common cations (shown by closed circles), however, the ideal solution assumption overestimates the surface enrichment of a larger ionic liquid. Figure 53.28 shows the ratio of the calculated to measured surface mole fractions, xcal ∕xmeas , as a function of the ratio of molar surface areas, A1 /A2 , 1,s 1,s where the subscript “1” denotes the larger ionic liquid. There is a positive correlation between xcal ∕xmeas and A1 /A2 . The ratio xcal ∕xmeas is almost unity when A1 /A2 is 1,s 1,s 1,s 1,s small and increases with increasing A1 /A2 . This means that Eq. (53.10) overestimates the surface mole fraction of the larger ionic liquid when A1 /A2 is large. In the derivation of Eq. (53.10), the partial molar surface area of the mixture is assumed to be equal to the molar surface area of the pure ionic liquid (i.e. Ai = Ai ). In the actual mixture, such an assumption does not hold and the ratio A1 ∕A2 would

Table 53.2 Observed and calculated surface mole fraction of larger ionic liquids. Mixture

Observed surface mole

Calculated surface mole

Surface tensions used

fraction of larger ionic liquids

fraction of larger ionic liquids

in the calculation

[C2 C1 Im]0.5 [C6 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N]

0.66 ± 0.07

0.65 ± 0.01

[C2 C1 Im]0.5 [C8 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N]

0.67 ± 0.08

0.66 ± 0.02

[C2 C1 Im]0.5 [C10 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N]

0.67 ± 0.07

0.66 ± 0.02

[C2 C1 Im]0.5 [C12 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N]

0.66 ± 0.06

0.70 ± 0.04

[C4 C1 Im]0.5 [C12 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N]

0.63 ± 0.03

0.60 ± 0.04

[C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 [TfO]0.5 [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 [BF4 ]0.5 [C4 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 [PF6 ]0.5 [C6 C1 Im][PF6 ]0.5 [Cl]0.5 [C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 [Cl]0.5 [C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 [PF6 ]0.5

0.57 ± 0.33 0.72 ± 0.05 0.61 ± 0.07 0.53 ± 0.05 0.58 ± 0.04 0.71 ± 0.05

0.58 ± 0.02 0.86 ± 0.02 0.73 ± 0.04 0.47 ± 0.02 0.72 ± 0.07 0.68 ± 0.04

36.43 [72], 31.76 [72] 36.43 [72], 31.30 [72] 36.43 [72], 31.34 [72] 36.43 [72], 29.8 [72] 33.09 [72], 29.8 [76] 41.6 [73], 44.4 [73] 35.1 [74], 53.9 [76] 33.6 [75], 42.8 [75] 43.0 [77], 41.5 [77] 31.0 [75], 41.5 [77] 31.0 [75], 38.25 [75]

The surface tensions used in the calculation are shown. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2017 [71]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier.)

Measured surface mole fraction of larger IL

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

1 Common anion Common cation [C2C1Im]0.5[C8C1Im]0.5[Tf2N]

0.8

[C2C1Im]0.5[C10C1Im]0.5[Tf2N]

[C6C1Im][Tf2N]0.5[PF6]0.5 [C C Im][Tf N] [BF ] 2 1 2 0.5 4 0.5

[C2C1Im]0.5[C6C1Im]0.5[Tf2N]

[C2C1Im]0.5[C12C1Im]0.5[Tf2N] [C4C1Im][Tf2N]0.5[PF6]0.5

[C4C1Im]0.5[C12C1Im]0.5[Tf2N]

0.6 [C6C1Im][Tf2N]0.5Cl0.5 [C2C1Im][Tf2N]0.5[TfO]0.5 [C6C1Im][PF6]0.5Cl0.5

0.4 0.4

0.6 0.8 Calculated surface mole fraction of larger ionic liquid

cal

[C2C1Im]0.5[C12C1Im]0.5[Tf2N]

[C4C1Im]0.5[C12C1Im]0.5[Tf2N]

meas

1.2

[C2C1Im]0.5[C8C1Im]0.5[Tf2N]

[C2C1Im]0.5[C6C1Im]0.5[Tf2N]

1.4

[C2C1Im]0.5[C10C1Im]0.5[Tf2N]

Figure 53.27 Comparison between the measured and calculated surface mole fractions of the larger ionic liquid for the mixtures studied. The open (closed) circles show

x1, S/x1, S

384

1

the results of mixtures having a common anion (cation). (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2017 [71]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier.)

[C6C1Im][Tf2N]0.5Cl0.5 [C4C1Im][Tf2N]0.5[PF6]0.5

[C2C1Im][Tf2N]0.5[BF4]0.5

1 [C2C1Im][Tf2N]0.5[TfO]0.5 [C6C1Im][Tf2N]0.5[PF6]0.5 [C6C1Im][PF6]0.5Cl0.5

0.8 1

Common anion Common cation

1.2 1.4 1.6 A1/A2: Ratio of molar surface area

Figure 53.28 Ratio of the calculated to the measured surface mole fraction of the larger ionic liquid as a function of the ratio of molar surface area. The open (closed) circles show the results of mixtures having a

1.8

common anion (cation). The dashed line is drawn to guide the eye. (Source: Reproduced with permission of Nakajima et al. 2017 [71]. Copyright 2017, Elsevier.)

be smaller than A1 /A2 because of the interaction between the two ionic liquids [71]. In this case, Eq. (53.10) is modified: ( ( )) (1 − x1,b )𝛼n (1 − x1,s )𝛼n A1 𝜎1 − 𝛼𝜎2 = exp , (53.11) x1,s x1,b RT

53.5 Surface Structures of Binary Mixtures of Ionic Liquids

where 𝛼 = (A1 A2 )∕(A2 A1 ). Considering that 𝛼 = (A1 A2 )∕(A2 A1 ) is smaller than unity (i.e. A1 ∕A2 < A1 ∕A2 ), Eq. (53.11) gives smaller x1, s compared to Eq. (53.10). In the case of [C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 [Cl]0.5 , for example, Eq. (53.11), with 𝛼 = 0.87, reproduces the observed result xs = 0.58. The observed results for [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 [BF4 ]0.5 and [C4 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 [PF6 ]0.5 can also be reproduced with 𝛼 = 0.8 and 0.88, respectively. For the mixtures of common anions, the molar surface areas of constituent ionic liquids are similar in size, i.e. A1 ∕A2 ≈ A1 ∕A2 ≈ 1 (see Table 53.1). This is the reason why Eq. (53.10) reproduces well the observed results of the mixtures with common anions. 53.5.4 Comparison with Other Techniques

The HR-RBS measurements show moderate surface enrichment of larger ionic liquids for the mixtures studied. On the other hand, LEIS and ToF-SIMS showed very strong surface enrichment [38, 45]. For example, ToF-SIMS showed strong surface enrichment of [C4 C1 Im][Tf2 N] for [C4 C1 Im][Tf2 N]x [PF6 ]1−x [45]. The present HR-RBS measurement, however, shows only slight surface enrichment. The LEIS measurements also demonstrated that the surface of [C4 C1 Im][Tf2 N]x Cl1−x is predominantly occupied by [C4 C1 Im][Tf2 N] for x ≥ 0.3 [38], whereas the present HR-RBS measurement does not show such strong surface enrichment in the similar mixture ([C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 Cl0.5 ). These discrepancies are attributed to the difference in the probing depth between different techniques. Both ToF-SIMS and LEIS exclusively analyze the topmost atomic layer. As was discussed above, in the case of [C6 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 Cl0.5 mixture, [Tf2 N] anions (fluorine atoms) are shifted to the surface and Cl anions are shifted to the bulk. Because LEIS is very surface sensitive, these shifts may result in larger enhancement of the fluorine signal and larger reduction of the chlorine signal compared to the actual composition of the topmost molecular layer. The same thing happens for ToF-SIMS because of its excellent surface sensitivity. There is also discrepancy between the HR-RBS and XPS measurements. Figure 53.29 shows the XPS spectra of C 1s observed at emission angles 0∘ and 80∘ for [C2 C1 Im]0.9 [C12 C1 Im]0.1 [Tf2 N] and pure ionic liquids as well [84]. The peaks seen at 285 and 286.5 eV correspond to Calkyl and Chetero , respectively. For the 80∘ measurement with increasing surface sensitivity, the Calkyl intensities are enhanced compared to the 0∘ measurement. The degree of enhancement for the mixture is similar to that for [C4 C1 Im][Tf2 N], but much smaller than that for [C12 C1 Im][Tf2 N]. From this observation, no preferential enrichment of [C12 C1 Im][Tf2 N] as compared to [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] at the surface was concluded [84]. This seems in contradiction with the HR-RBS results, which showed weak but notable surface enrichment of [C12 C1 Im] (xs = 0.66 ± 0.06) for [C2 C1 Im]0.5 [C12 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N]. If the XPS results are carefully examined, however, weak surface enrichment of [C12 C1 Im][Tf2 N] can be concluded as shown below. At 𝜃 = 80∘ , the observed Calkyl intensity of the mixture is approximately equal to that of [C4 C1 Im][Tf2 N] (see Figure 53.29b), namely the number of Calkyl seen at 𝜃 = 80∘ is 3. The number of Calkyl seen at 𝜃 is

385

53 Surfaces of Ionic Liquids

0° Emission

300

(a)

[C2C1Im][Tf2N] 9 : 1 mixture [C4C1Im][Tf2N] [C12C1Im][Tf2N]

Intensity

386

0 80° Emission

300

(b)

[C2C1Im][Tf2N] 9 : 1 mixture [C4C1Im][Tf2N] [C12C1Im][Tf2N]

0 297

294

291

288

285

282

Binding energy (eV)

Figure 53.29 XPS spectra of C 1s region for [C2 C1 Im]0.9 [C12 C1 Im]0.1 [Tf2 N], [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N], [C4 C1 Im][Tf2 N], and [C12 C1 Im][Tf2 N] observed at emission angle 0∘ (a) and 80∘ (b). (Source: Reproduced with permission of Maier et al. 2010[84]. Copyright 2010, Royal Society of Chemistry.)

given by [ ( N(𝜃) = Ns 1 − exp −

t 𝜆 cos 𝜃

)]

( + Nb exp −

) t , 𝜆 cos 𝜃

(53.12)

where N s and N b are the numbers of Calkyl atoms per one ion pair in the surface and the bulk, respectively, 𝜆 is the inelastic mean free path of photoelectrons (typically 3 nm for organic materials [66]), and t is the thickness of one molecular layer. Using Eq. (53.12) with 𝜆 = 3 nm, t = 1.65 nm, N b = 2 and the abovementioned result N(80∘ ) = 3, N s is estimated to be 3.0. This means that the surface composition is [C2 C1 Im]0.8 [C12 C1 Im]0.2 [Tf2 N], i.e. there is weak surface enrichment of [C12 C1 Im][Tf2 N]. This surface composition is also in good agreement with the surface mole fraction calculated using Eq. (53.10), i.e. xs = 0.19.

53.6 Conclusion

In this contribution, the results of HR-RBS studies on the surface structures of typical ionic liquids, i.e. imidazolium-based ionic liquids, and their binary mixtures are reviewed. Not only the surface composition but also the orientation of molecules can be derived using HR-RBS. For the pure ionic liquids studied so far, the HR-RBS measurements show a universal surface structure: (i) there is no surface enrichment

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics Muhammad A. Raza and E. Stefan Kooij

54.1 Introduction 54.1.1 Surface Wettability

When a liquid (for example, water, milk, or oil) is brought into contact with a solid surface (for example, paper, wood, or our skin), it either spreads completely or partially wets the surface and forms droplets. In specific cases, the degree of wetting is very low and the liquid adopts a spherical shape. A measure for the preferential tendency of immiscible fluids to spread over a solid surface is referred to as “wettability.” Wettability refers to the interaction between the liquid and solid phases and depends on the competition of cohesive forces of liquid molecules among themselves and the adhesive forces that result from the molecular interactions between the liquid and solid. In Figure 54.1, the cohesion (L/L) and dispersive adhesion (S/L) between liquid and solid molecules are depicted. Cohesive forces within the liquid hinder the droplet to contact with the solid surface, inducing the natural tendency to adopt a spherical bead-like shape. On the other hand, adhesion forces between liquid and solid give rise to spreading of the liquid on the solid surface. Large cohesive forces with respect to the adhesion interaction will lead to a limited contact with the substrate, which results in a “low” surface wettability. On the other hand, if the adhesive forces between solid and liquid molecules are greater than the cohesive forces within the bulk liquid, the liquid tends to contact as much surface as possible, thus leading to a “high” surface wettability. To summarize, wettability is closely linked to the relative strength of cohesive (liquid/liquid) and adhesive (solid/liquid) forces as summarized in Table 54.1. 54.1.2 Natural (Super)Hydrophobicity

Natural evolution over billions of years has resulted in a range of materials with many fascinating characteristics. “Superhydrophobicity” comprises one of such marvelous Surface and Interface Science: Liquid and Biological Interfaces, First Edition. Edited by Klaus Wandelt. © 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2020 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

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Liquid

Solid Work of cohesion (L/L) Work of adhesion (S/L) Figure 54.1 Schematic representation showing cohesive interaction between liquid molecules (red lines) and adhesive interaction between solid and liquid molecules (yellow lines). Table 54.1 Dependence of surface wettability on the relative strength of cohesion and adhesion forces. Wettability

Cohesion (L/L)

Adhesion (S/L)

Complete (very high) Partial Moderate Low Nonwetting

Very weak Weak Weak Strong Very strong

Very strong Strong Weak Weak Very weak

properties. It refers to the complete nonwetting state of water on a solid surface; a droplet typically adopts a spherical shape on such a substrate. Superhydrophobic surfaces can be categorized into two groups on the basis of liquid–solid adhesion: a. Slippery or nonsticky: Water droplets not only exhibit a pearl-like shape but also roll off upon slightly tilting the substrate; the spherical water droplet as it were “floats” on the surface. b. Sticky: Water droplets still assume a spherical shape but stick to the surface upon tilting the substrate to large angles, or even upside down. In nature, there are many biological materials that possess the ability to resist water from wetting and spreading on their surfaces. Biomaterials employ superhydrophobic characteristics to keep dry and clean or protect from diseases. Naturally occurring superhydrophobic surfaces include plant leaves, bird feathers, and insect wings and legs (Figure 54.2). The most famous example is the lotus leaf (Nelumbo nucifera), a symbol of purity in several Asian countries. Despite growing in muddy water, the leaves remain clean. Droplets on the surface cannot wet the surface and remain “suspended” maintaining a spherical shape. When rolling off the leaf surface, any contamination is effortlessly carried along, revealing the self-cleaning property

54.1 Introduction

(a)

(b)

(d)

(e)

Figure 54.2 A wide variety of superhydrophobic surfaces occurring in nature: (a) water droplets on a lotus leaf, leading to (b) self-cleaning performance of the nonsticky surface, (c) sticky superhydrophobic rose petal, and (d) superhydrophobic

(c)

(f) butterfly wing. (e) Duck feathers with strong water-repellent properties and (f ) superhydrophobic spider silk with dew drops. (Source: Koch et al. 2009 [1]. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier.)

also referred to as the “lotus effect” [2]. The lotus leaf, together with that of rice (Oryza sativa), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), and Taro (Colocasia esculenta), belongs to the category of nonsticky superhydrophobic surfaces [3]. In contrast to the aforementioned superhydrophobic plant leaves with negligible liquid–solid adhesion, there are other plants that exhibit superhydrophobic properties but where water droplets are firmly pinned to the surface (Figure 54.2c); in this case, there is a strong adhesion between the liquid and the solid surface. Rose petals (Rosa rehd), scallions (Allium wakegi), and garlic (Allium sativum) leaves are examples of such naturally occurring sticky superhydrophobic surfaces [4]. These superb nonwetting phenomena are also exhibited by feathers of, for example, ducks (Figure 54.2e) and swans. In addition to plant leaves and bird feathers, many insects also benefit from water-repellent properties. The most prominent example comprises the nonwetting legs of the water strider, enabling it to stand and “walk” on the surface of water [5]. The water repellency of butterfly wings (Figure 54.2d) serve several purposes: (i) dew and rain drops remove dust, (ii) enables them to fly in the rain, and (iii) directionality keeps their body dry and free from disastrous effects of osmosis [6]. Gecko feet, mosquito eyes, and spider silk (Figure 54.2f ) are other examples of naturally occurring superhydrophobic surfaces [7]. The wide diversity of water-regulating properties, including superhydrophobicity of natural surfaces, has raised the question where these characteristics originate

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from. Why do some surfaces show strong water repellency? And why is there a distinction between sticky and nonsticky behavior? The answers lie in the competition between cohesion and adhesion of liquid and surface entities. The wettability of a surface strongly depends on the surface energy of solid and liquid. However, even a smooth surface with a minimal surface energy [8] cannot exhibit superhydrophobicity as observed in nature, indicating that there is another relevant ingredient. With the help of advanced imaging methods, such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), it became possible to study the surface morphology of naturally occurring superhydrophobic surfaces. Detailed examination of these surfaces revealed that the interesting nonwetting properties originate from a combination of surface chemistry and morphological roughness. It even turned out that the role of surface roughness is more prominent than the chemical nature [9]. For example, the lotus leaf surface structure consists of micron-sized papillae decorated with nanosized wax crystals [3]. Although the wax has a low surface energy, a smooth surface will not exhibit superhydrophobicity; a hierarchical roughness with low surface energy is required [10]. Furthermore, the morphology of the rough surfaces is described by the dimensions, arrangement, and pattering of its features. These quantities play a crucial role in tuning the superhydrophobic properties from sticky to nonsticky. For example, surfaces of both lotus leaf and rose petals are superhydrophobic, but the dynamic behavior of water is significantly different. Water droplets easily roll off the lotus leaf, while they remain firmly attached to the rose petal even when tilting it vertically. This originates from differences in size, spacing, and design of micro- and nanostructures of the hierarchically rough surfaces. The papillae on the lotus surface are well separated and decorated with wax crystals, while rose petal papillae are periodic and covered with nanofolds. Typical biological surfaces with their specific wetting properties and other functionalities are listed in Table 54.2; for details on the surface microstructure of selected examples, a nice overview is provided by Zhang et al. [11]. Table 54.2 Typical naturally occurring surfaces with different functionalities, including superhydrophobicity. Bio-surface

Functionalities

Lotus leaf Rose petal Rice leaf Water strider leg Cicada wing Gecko foot Peacock feather Butterfly wing

Superhydrophobic, low adhesion, self-cleaning Superhydrophobic, color, strong adhesion Superhydrophobic, anisotropic wetting Durable and robust superhydrophobic Superhydrophobic, antireflection Reversible adhesive, superhydrophobicity, self-cleaning Structural color, superhydrophobicity Superhydrophobicity, directional adhesion, structural color, self-cleaning, chemical sensing capability

54.1 Introduction

54.1.3 Biomimetic Surfaces

Biomimetics refers to the field in which naturally occurring phenomena are mimicked or copied from biological systems [12]. In the previous section, we summarized the amazing wetting properties of (super)hydrophobic substrates. A relevant question is whether it is possible to mimic these biosurfaces and manufacture artificial surfaces with similar properties. Natural phenomena have not only fascinated scientists and engineers for decades but it has also been an inspiration and source of information for great novel inventions [13, 14]. From morphological analysis of natural superhydrophobic surfaces, it is now widely established that the nonwetting properties derive from two essential factors, i.e. (i) the surface chemistry and (ii) the surface roughness. Moreover, the surface roughness turns out to be the most prominent of the two. As such, controlling the morphological and structural parameters allows tuning of the wettability characteristics. Inspired by naturally occurring surfaces, researchers have successfully replicated a range of biomaterial functionalities for practical purposes, which include lotus and rice leaves, butterfly wings, water strider legs, fish scales, and spider silk [13]. In the following section, we will briefly discuss the many techniques available to fabricate substrates with controllable wetting properties. 54.1.4 Fabrication Methods

Many different ways have been described, which enable fabrication of surfaces with predefined wetting properties including superhydrophobic substrates. The approaches can be divided into two categories: (i) top-down and (ii) bottom-up methods. 54.1.4.1 Top-down

Carving, molding, or machining of bulk materials by mechanical means, solution etching, and laser-induced modification are frequently used to achieve surface roughness. Top-down approaches often include templating and lithography methods. 54.1.4.1.1 Templation Molding of a master surface followed by removal of the template by dissolution, lift-off, or sublimation leaves a replica of the original surface. As master surfaces for the templates, not only artificial micro- and nanostructured substrates but also natural surfaces can be used, including leaves, butterfly wings, and reptile skin. 54.1.4.1.2 Lithography This category includes optical (photo)lithography, soft lithography, nanoprint lithography, and colloidal lithography. Owing to developments in the field of microfabrication and nanotechnology, lithography

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comprises a well-established class of top-down techniques to fabricate superhydrophobic surfaces. As an example, in photolithography, a surface covered with photoresist is irradiated by light, X-rays, or electrons through a mask with a predefined pattern. After developing and washing off the photoresist, etching of surface features provides the desired roughness. Subsequently, the surface energy is modified by applying a suitable chemical coating. 54.1.4.2 Bottom-up

In contrast to top-down approaches, bottom-up fabrication comprises the assembly of smaller components into larger well-defined superstructures to create the desired surface roughness. Chemical deposition, colloidal assembly, layer-by-layer deposition, and sol–gel processes are examples of bottom-up methods. 54.1.4.2.1 Chemical Deposition In this case, thin films of crystalline inorganic materials (for example, ZnS, CuSe, and CdS) are deposited on selected substrates by chemical reactions. Examples include chemical bath deposition (CBD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and electrochemical deposition. Desired roughness is created with different surface morphologies including nanopins, nanotubes, and nanorods. Superhydrophobic substrates can be manufactured using the proper materials and specific deposition conditions. 54.1.4.2.2 Layer-By-Layer Deposition In this relatively simple and potentially inexpensive technique, which does not require sophisticated equipment, multilayers of particles (or polymers) are repetitively adsorbed by taking advantage of different interactions between subsequent layers to obtain the desired surface roughness. Often the employed particles are hydrophilic and a hydrophobic coating is applied to achieve superhydrophobicity. Substrates with hierarchical roughness are created by using particles of different sizes, enabling control over the wetting properties. 54.1.4.2.3 Colloidal Assembly In this approach, which is effectively a derivative of the aforementioned layer-by-layer deposition, the desired hierarchical roughness is created by depositing multilayers of different length scale structures using processes such as dip coating, spin coating, or substrate immersion. Monodispersed particles can be self-assembled on different substrates through chemical bonding, van der Waals forces, or other interactions driving the colloidal assembly process. This method is cost-effective as no expensive lithography technique is required, is relatively easy to master, and can be applied under normal laboratory conditions. Furthermore, it can also be used in combination with other techniques such as lithography, sol–gel processing, and chemical deposition to prepare micro- and/or nanostructured surfaces. Finally, there are also methods that involve a combination of bottom-up and top-down approaches. Examples include electrospinning, electrospraying, polymer solution casting, and phase separation.

54.1 Introduction

54.1.5 Application in Technology

The tremendous interest in the fabrication of biomimetic superhydrophobic surfaces with special adhesion (sticky and nonsticky behavior) by various methods as mentioned above are due to their emerging application in modern technology and industry. These promising applications include self-cleaning surfaces, anti-icing/antifogging coatings, (micro)droplet manipulation, water collection, nonfouling coatings, corrosion-resistive surfaces, and water/oil separation, to name only a few [11, 15, 16]. Below we will comment on a few of these applications. 54.1.5.1 Self-cleaning Surfaces

“Self-cleaning” is one of the most amazing and well-documented applications of superhydrophobic surfaces. In nature, the lotus leaf demonstrates this unique property, the so-called “lotus effect.” As with many plants, the leaf surface always appears clean despite growing in a mire environment. The ability to remain free of contaminants even in dirty ambient has triggered research interest in the development of artificial superhydrophobic surfaces toward dirt-resistant applications. In fact, the morphological structure leads to dust particles residing as it were suspended on the surfaces asperities, which results a very low contact area and weak physical adhesion force, i.e. a weak van der Waals force [17] between particle and surface [3]. When water droplets come in contact with such particles, they are picked up by the droplets because of stronger capillary forces between particles and droplets [18] as these roll over the surfaces (as shown schematically and in an experiment in Figure 54.3).

(a)

(b)

Figure 54.3 Self-cleaning mechanism. (a) Schematic illustration of dust particles adhering to a water droplet, which rolls over a rough superhydrophobic surface [3].

(b) Experiment showing a water droplet on an artificial nonsticky superhydrophobic surface picking up dust particles as it rolls over the surface. (Source: Raza 2012 [19].)

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54.1.5.2 Anti-icing/Antifogging Coatings

In cold regions of the world, especially in winter, ice and fog pose serious problems by disturbing daily routing and aeronautics, for example slippery roads, frozen engines, attenuated signals, burst pipes, ice-covered airplane wings, and electrical transmission lines or towers. Preemptive deicing methods, which avoid ice formation or decrease the ice adhesion and accretion, are of great interest [16]. The superhydrophobic and antifogging properties of mosquito eyes [20, 21] have inspired researchers to mimic surfaces preventing ice accumulation, as droplets can bounce off before ice nucleation takes place even in supercooled conditions. Many successful attempts to manufacture anti-icing and antifogging surfaces have been reported [22–24]. As compared to current conventional (physical or chemical) deicing methods, superhydrophobic surfaces provide a relatively simple and cost-effective strategy to tackle the frost deposition problem [16]. 54.1.5.3 Microdroplet Manipulation

Loss-free transportation of microdroplets is of great importance for microfluidic devices, such as channel-free microfluidic systems, low-cost microfluidic chips, and surface microfluidic channels, and also for smart droplet microreactors. A wide range of applications is involved including liquid transportation, biochemical separation, localized chemical synthesis, and in situ detection. Superhydrophobic surfaces enable simple microdroplet manipulation owing to tuneable/adjustable droplet adhesion (switching between sticky and nonsticky). As such, they can be used as a “mechanical hand” [25, 26] for controllable and no-loss transportation. In Figure 54.4, an example of lossless transportation is shown. The adhesion is switched by varying the curvature of the surface, thereby enabling pick up and release of droplets at will [27]. 54.1.6 Outline of This Chapter

In the following sections, we will build up knowledge relevant to understand the basics of superhydrophobic surfaces. In Section 54.2, we first summarize the general aspects of surface wetting, such as surface tension, wetting regimes, and contact angles, both static and dynamic. We finish the section by describing a few relevant techniques to probe the wetting characteristics of surfaces. In Section 54.3, we give an overview of the effect and potential of patterning substrates to control wetting properties. First, the effect of chemical patterning on morphologically flat surfaces is presented, and the Cassie–Baxter model is introduced. After that, morphologically structured surfaces are considered; the Wenzel model and mixed wetting states are reviewed, and we touch upon the effect of hierarchical roughness. In Section 54.4, several features related to dynamic wetting properties are described. The concept of slip length is treated, and contact angle hysteresis and the impact and bouncing of droplets on superhydrophobic surfaces are also discussed.

54.2 Wetting of Isotropic Surfaces

Transitional Wenzel’ state

PDMS pillar arrays

Capture

(a)

Cassie’s state

Releasing

Superhydrophobic surface with low adhesion force to water dorplet

1

2

3

4

5

6

(b) Figure 54.4 Lossless water droplet transport using superhydrophobic surfaces. (a) Schematic illustration of curvature-driven switching between “pinned” and “roll down” states to capture and release, respectively. (b) Demonstration of “picking-up” and “sampling” a water droplet. A flat

superhydrophobic surface (the pinned state) picks up the water droplet without any mass loss and releases it on target by changing into the “roll-down” state by increasing the surface curvature. (Source: Wu et al. 2011 [27]. Reproduced with permission of Wiley.)

Finally, in Section 54.5, a number of timely new subjects in the realm of wetting properties in general and liquid-repellent superhydrophobicity are reviewed. The potential of these novel horizons are briefly summarized.

54.2 Wetting of Isotropic Surfaces 54.2.1 Surface Tension

Abundant in nature, water has unique, interesting properties. A water molecule, H2 O, consists of an oxygen atom covalently bound to two hydrogen atoms; the H–O bonds are at an angle of 104.5∘ as shown in Figure 54.5a. Owing to the difference in electronegativity of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms, the electron distribution within

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

Hydrogen bonding between water molecules δ+

Water molecule H

δ–

H O

(a)

δ+

δ+

δ– δ+

H-bond

(b)

Figure 54.5 Schematic representation of the water molecule (a) and hydrogen bonding between water molecules arising from molecular polarization (b).

the covalent bond is pulled toward the oxygen side, resulting in a net polarization of the water molecule with a slight negative charge 𝛿 − on the oxygen atom and a small positive charge 𝛿 + on the hydrogen atoms. As a result, neighboring water molecules experience a net attractive interaction, ultimately leading to the well-known hydrogen bonding (Figure 54.5b), which leads to some of the fascinating properties of water. Within a volume of water, but more generally for every liquid, sufficiently far from the surface, each molecule is surrounded by neighboring molecules on all sides. Because of this isotropic coordination, the average cohesive interactions are balanced and the liquid molecule experiences no net force (Figure 54.6). At the surface, the situation is different as a result of the broken symmetry. The absence of liquid molecules on the outside of the liquid–air interface gives rise to a net inward cohesive force. Because of this inward pull, the liquid surface behaves like a starched

Surface molecule

Interior molecule

Figure 54.6 Schematic overview of attractive forces acting on molecules within the interior and at the surface of a liquid.

54.2 Wetting of Isotropic Surfaces

elastic membrane or film and is in an energetically unfavorable state. This imbalance of intermolecular attractive forces gives rise to a natural resistance of the surface to external forces, generally referred to as “surface tension,” which is represented by the symbols 𝛾 or 𝜎 and has units of force over length or equivalently energy per unit area. Thus, it can be described as energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid by a unit area or alternatively the amount of external force required to break a stretched film of a unit length. Since the intermolecular forces depend on the nature of the liquid, various liquids exhibit different surface tension properties. As an example, the surface tension of water amounts to 𝛾 = 72.8 dynes∕cm, which means a force of 72.8 dynes is required to break a film of 1 cm length; alternatively for mercury 𝛾 = 465 dynes∕cm. In our everyday life, the action of surface tension and especially that of water is omnipresent: 54.2.1.1 Drops of Water

Water from a tap generally does not flow in a continuous stream Figure 54.7a but breaks up in a series of drops when the flow is sufficiently slow. Because of surface tension, the drops tend to minimize their surface area and thereby the total surface free energy and consequently adopt a spherical shape. The same is the case for example with falling rain drops. 54.2.1.2 Walking on Water

Water striders and a range of other insects can easily move on the water surface, as shown in Figure 54.7b, without actually penetrating the liquid–air interface due to the surface tension. Owing to the specially designed legs, the weight of the insect is

(a)

(c) Figure 54.7 (a) To minimize their surface energy, water droplets (from a tap) adopt a spherical shape. (b) Water striders are able to “walk” on water without penetrating the

(b) liquid surface. (c) Surface tension enables solid objects with a higher density than that of water, such as a paperclip, to float on the water surface.

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evenly distributed; moreover, directional wetting with a preferential flow of liquid along the legs allows it to move along the surface. 54.2.1.3 Floating Solid Objects

Similar to the water strider, a carefully placed needle or paper clip, Figure 54.7c, can be made to float on the surface of water without sinking into it, even though the density is markedly larger than that of water. Generally, when a solid object is deposited onto the water surface, its weight pushes the water molecules apart. If the weight of the object is greater than the attractive intermolecular forces, it will break through the surface layer and sink into the water. On the other hand, if the effect of the weight is limited, it will lead to depression of the meniscus and surface tension forces can balance the gravitational pull, effectively allowing the object to float on the water. Careful observation of a floating paperclip shows that the water surface curves down under the metal surface because of its weight; interfacial tension makes the surface of water behave like a “flexible skin” supporting the object. 54.2.2 Wetting Regimes

In the previous section, we considered the interactions within and at the surface of a free spherical droplet. When such a droplet is brought into contact with a perfectly flat substrate, different wetting regimes can be observed [28], as schematically summarized in Figure 54.8. When the liquid has a strong affinity for the solid surface, total wetting occurs. An example of such a complete wetting case is a water droplet on a clean glass surface. The liquid forms a thin film, which is in contact with the entire surface. When the same droplet is deposited on a plastic sheet, for which it has a low affinity, partial wetting leads to a finite contact angle 𝜃 of the sessile droplet.

θ=π

0 𝛼L . Alternatively, if 𝛼S < 𝛼L , the system is in a partial wetting state. 54.2.3 Static Contact Angle

In the case of partial wetting, liquid droplets form spherical caps characterized by a contact angle 𝜃. When 𝜃 ≤ 90∘ , the liquid is referred to as mostly wetting; for 𝜃 > 90∘ ,

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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 54.9 Natural surfaces exhibiting the different classes of wettability. (a) Hydrophobic Regnellidium diphyllum. (b) Superhydrophobic Brassica oleracea. (c) Hydrophilic Alocasia odora. (d) Superhydrophilic Ruellia devosiana. (Republished with permission [31].)

we speak of mostly nonwetting. The value 𝜃 = 90∘ has no particular implications from a thermodynamic point of view. However, as we will show later on, this is important in the case of rough surfaces when we deal with the Wenzel equation. Now, we turn to the magnitude of the droplet contact angle 𝜃 in relation to the liquid and substrate properties. There are two ways to approach this, which are schematically shown in Figure 54.10. The first method considers the capillary forces acting on the three-phase contact line (also often referred to as the triple line). In a

γlv

dx cos θ

θ

γsv

θ

γsl dx (a)

(b)

Figure 54.10 Determination of the equilibrium contact angle 𝜃 by considering the force balance (a) and from the work associated with a movement of the contact line (b).

54.2 Wetting of Isotropic Surfaces

stationary situation, the net force on a section of the triple line of unit length is balanced in the horizontal direction. Taking the projection 𝛾LV cos 𝜃 of the liquid–vapor surface tension, and equating the forces directed outward and inward, we find 𝛾SV = 𝛾SL + 𝛾LV cos 𝜃

(54.2)

The famous Young’s equation [33] follows from simple rewriting of Eq. (54.2) 𝛾 − 𝛾SL (54.3) cos 𝜃 = SV 𝛾LV We can substitute the spreading parameter (Eq. (54.1)) into Eq. (54.2) to obtain cos 𝜃 = 1 + S∕𝛾LV

(54.4)

from which it immediately follows that the contact angle 𝜃 is only defined for S < 0 corresponding to partial wetting. One may wonder what happens to the vertical components of the force balance, as the liquid–vapor surface tension 𝛾LV also has a vertical component. This component is balanced by a distortion of the substrate, the extent depending on the hardness of the surface; for hard surfaces, the distortion cannot be observed, while droplets on soft surfaces such as plastics indeed give rise to a notable deformation. The contact angle can also be derived by considering the work dW done by moving the contact angle a distance dx as schematically shown in Figure 54.10b. Calculating the changes of the different contributions, one obtains dW = (𝛾SV − 𝛾SL )dx − 𝛾LV dx cos 𝜃 = [(𝛾SV − 𝛾SL ) − 𝛾LV cos 𝜃]dx

(54.5)

For a droplet in equilibrium, the net work done for any arbitrary distance dx is zero. Setting dW = 0 and rewriting, the Young’s equation in Eq. (54.3) again follows. 54.2.4 Dynamic Contact Angles

On an ideal planar surface without any contaminants, the equilibrium contact angle is given by Eq. (54.3). However, in real life, a range of static contact angles can be observed, which differs from the equilibrium value. The origin of this range of different static contact angles is ascribed to defects, either physical in the form of surface roughness and contaminants or chemical arising from uncontrolled stains or deliberately fabricated patterns. The nonunique values of the contact angles are observed when a droplet is inflated or deflated, as is schematically shown in Figure 54.11a,b. Upon adding liquid to the droplet, the contact angle will increase to values exceeding the equilibrium value 𝜃. Up to the advancing angle 𝜃A , the contact line will not move; only when passing this threshold, the contact line will start to move. Similarly, when drawing liquid from the droplet, the contact angle will decrease until it reaches the receding angle 𝜃R . The advancing and receding contact angles, also often referred to as the dynamic contact angles, can also be determined by monitoring a droplet sliding on an inclined

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

θA

(a)

θR

Advancing angle

(b)

Receding angle

θR

θA (c) Figure 54.11 Advancing (a) and receding (b) contact angles when a droplet is inflated and deflated, respectively. (c) The dynamic contact angles 𝜃A and 𝜃R determined for a droplet on an inclined surface.

surface, as shown in Figure 54.11c. Upon tilting the surface away from horizontal, the contact angle on the low side will increase while that on the high side will decrease. At a certain tilt angle, the droplet will start to slide on the surface; this angle is often termed the sliding angle, or alternatively the roll-off angle. Once the droplet starts sliding, the contact angles on the front and rear sides of the droplet will be equal to 𝜃A and 𝜃R , respectively. The difference between the maximum and minimum angles is referred to as the contact angle hysteresis. In the literature, two definitions of the contact angle hysteresis are found. Simply taking the difference 𝜃A − 𝜃R is often used. Nonsticky surfaces with low hysteresis are characterized by 𝜃A − 𝜃R < 5∘ , while for sticky surfaces, the hysteresis can be as large as 50∘ . For more quantitative analyses, the hysteresis is defined as cos 𝜃A − cos 𝜃R , as this quantity in fact represents the difference in forces acting on the front and rear of the sliding droplet. 54.2.5 Characterization Techniques

To characterize the wettability of a surface, the ability to accurately measure fluid contact angles is essential as it provides information about the attraction of molecules within the droplet with respect to the (attractive or repulsive) interaction of the liquid with the surface. Wettability measurements can be divided into two categories: (i) based on optical detection or (ii) based on force tensiometer experiments. In the first category, both static and dynamic contact angles are easily obtained. Typically, a droplet is placed on the solid surface and the image of the

54.2 Wetting of Isotropic Surfaces

Fcapillary

d l

θc

Figure 54.12 Schematic representation of the Wilhelmy plate method. (Source: Berry et al. 2015 [34]. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.)

drop is recorded, followed by fitting of the droplet profile to some model shape. In the second category, the force tensiometer is mostly used to assess dynamic wetting characteristics. Force tensiometry effectively measures the force a solid experiences as it is brought into contact with a liquid. An example of the second category is the Wilhelmy plate method (Figure 54.12), which is mainly used to measure equilibrium surface or interfacial tension at an air–liquid or liquid–liquid interface. A plate is oriented perpendicular to the interface and the force Fcapillary because wetting is measured via a tensiometer or a microbalance. The surface tension 𝛾 follows from the Wilhelmy equation [35] 𝛾=

Fcapillary 𝓁 cos 𝜃c

(54.6)

where 𝓁 is the wetted perimeter of the immersed Wilhelmy plate and 𝜃c is the observed contact angle. Of the aforementioned two approaches to assess wetting properties, the optical method is the most frequently used owing to its versatility and ease of use. Moreover, it enables studying the homogeneity of the sample by measuring contact angles at several different places. With force tensiometer methods, this is not possible as the calculated contact angle is the average over the entire immersed area. 54.2.5.1 Static Contact Angle Techniques

Frequently used techniques to measure static contact angles are shown in Figure 54.13. The most widely used method to measure contact angles of liquid droplets on solid surfaces is the “sessile drop” method. Typically, in an optical goniometer, a well-defined volume of liquid with known surface energy is placed on the substrate. By viewing the droplet profile from the side, and specifically the three-phase contact line, the contact angle is defined as the angle between

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

θ

γlv γsv

θ

θ γsl

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 54.13 Schematic representation of different ways to measure static contact angles: (a) sessile drop, (b) capillary rise, and (c) captive bubble.

the liquid/solid and liquid/air interface, as shown in Figure 54.13a. Nowadays, automated drop shape analysis systems are commercially available, which comprise a computer-controlled goniometer equipped with imaging hardware and software incorporating curve-fitting tools. To assess the wetting properties of tubular geometries and inner coatings, the “capillary rise” method can be used. In this method, which is schematically shown in Figure 54.13b, a hollow material is immersed into the test liquid; the liquid will typically rise under the influence of capillary interactions. When the adhesive intermolecular forces between the liquid and the inner surface of the tube are stronger than the cohesive intermolecular forces inside the liquid, a concave meniscus forms. The contact angle of the meniscus with the vertical surface is directly accessible in a side view geometry. The “captive bubble” method depicted in Figure 54.13c is very similar to the aforementioned sessile drop technique. Instead of placing a drop on the solid as in the case of the sessile drop, a gas bubble is formed in the liquid by an inverted syringe beneath the substrate. The contact angle is again measured by means of an optical goniometer. In this method, the solid–vapor interface is in equilibrium with the saturated vapor pressure of the liquid within the bubble. The contact angle measured within the bubble is equal to 180∘ − 𝜃. This method is particularly suitable for solids with a high surface-free energy on which liquids show considerable spreading. 54.2.5.2 Dynamic Contact Angles

Accurate measurement of dynamic contact angles and the hysteresis enable assessment of dynamic wetting properties of a solid surface, also in relation to its chemical functionality and morphological structure. The approaches relate to and are often adaptions of the static techniques. The sessile drop (or captive bubble) method is a very simple and often used approach. As described in relation to Figure 54.11, liquid (or gas, in the case of the captive bubble methods) is pumped into and out of the droplet (or bubble) at the solid–liquid interface to attain the advancing and receding contact angles, respectively. In many cases, the liquid volume is varied through an inserted syringe needle, which deforms the liquid–vapor interface. A more accurate setup is depicted in Figure 54.14; liquid is added or removed through a channel in the substrate, keeping the droplet meniscus intact. The sessile drop technique can be modified slightly to the so-called “evaporation method,” in which the receding angle is measured as a droplet evaporates.

54.3 Chemical Patterning and Morphological Structuring

Vapor θ

Liquid

Solid

Liquid flow

Figure 54.14 Schematic representation of a modified setup to determine dynamic contact angles. Volume variations are applied through a channel in the substrate; the droplet meniscus remains spherically shaped.

The “tilted plate” method is demonstrated in Figure 54.11c, where the liquid droplet is positioned on an inclined substrate. It can also be used in the captive bubble configuration. The inclination or tilt angle is increased up to the moment the droplet start to slide over the surface. At this moment, the difference of the dynamic contact angles (advancing and receding angles at the lower and higher side of the droplet, respectively) provide the contact angle hysteresis. Simultaneously, the latter method yields the sliding angle, which is equal to the substrate tilt angle at which the droplet starts to move.

54.3 Chemical Patterning and Morphological Structuring

In the previous section, we considered isotropic homogeneous surfaces. Contact angles were defined independent of direction, only relating to the omnidirectional surface energy. In this section, we deal with the effect of surface heterogeneities, i.e. regions of variable surface energy, and also morphological structuring. As such, the local contact angle varies as a function of spatial position on the surface. These heterogeneities may be on a large scale, with dimensions of the order of the droplet size, or much smaller, in which case we speak of microscopic heterogeneities. In the first section, we start with morphologically flat surfaces comprising areas of different wettability, followed by a description of the effect of surface roughness. In the second half of this section, we focus specifically on superhydrophobcity and briefly touch upon hierarchical roughness. 54.3.1 Cassie–Baxter Model

In many cases, the chemical heterogeneities on a surface are much smaller than the dimension of the droplet. As such, the contact line is not substantially distorted and a macroscopic effective contact angle can be observed. For isotropic surfaces, i.e. without any directionality of the chemical pattern, the droplet shape will be spherical; effects due to anisotropic wetting properties will be discussed in Section 54.5. We are interested in the relation between the effective contact angle of a droplet on such a heterogeneous surface in relation to that of the various composing elements

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

of the surface heterogeneity. The approach described below, which is generally accepted and widely used, is referred to as the Cassie–Baxter model [36]. Consider the surface to be composed of two species with different surface energies and thus characterized by their own local contact angles 𝜃A and 𝜃B . The fractional surface areas occupied by these two species are denoted as fA and fB , respectively; obviously, fA + fB = 1. We denote the apparent effective contact angle in the Cassie–Baxter model with 𝜃CB . As in the previous section, 𝜃CB can be evaluated by considering a small displacement of the contact line over a distance dx (see also Figure 54.15a). As a result, the surface energies change by dW (per unit length of the contract line). This can be written as dW = fA (𝛾SL,A − 𝛾SV,A )𝛿x + fB (𝛾SL,B − 𝛾SV,B )dx + 𝛾LV dx cos 𝜃CB

(54.7)

in which the indices A and B refer to the two different surface species. Minimizing the energy, i.e. the situation where dW = 0, combined with Young’s equation (Eq. (54.3)) for the different surface species, yields the well-established Cassie–Baxter relation cos 𝜃CB = fA cos 𝜃A + fB cos 𝜃B

(54.8)

Effectively, the cosine of the apparent macroscopic contact angle is the weighted average of the cosines of the individual contact angles. A straightforward extension of the derivation shows that in principle the Cassie–Baxter model is not restricted to two chemical species but can be applied in the case of many components. From Eq. (54.8), it follows that the effective contact angle 𝜃CB is always restricted between the values 𝜃A and 𝜃B of the constituting entities. As such, an isotropic surface consisting of various chemical species will never exhibit contact angles exceeding that of the most nonwetting species. As the most water-repellent chemical coatings give rise to contact angles of 115∘ –120∘ at most, only providing chemical patterning will not allow the manufacture of superhydrophobic coatings with effective contact angles exceeding 150∘ .

dx cos θ

dx cos θ

A (a)

B

θ

θ dx

dx (b)

Figure 54.15 Schemes representing the evaluation of the apparent macroscopic contact angle in the Cassie-Baxter (𝜃CB ; left) and Wenzel (𝜃W ; right) regimes in relation to the

local Young’s angle 𝜃 and the composition (two components A and B are schematically shown) or roughness r of the surface.

54.3 Chemical Patterning and Morphological Structuring

54.3.2 Wenzel Model

The Wenzel model is one of the first attempts to account for the wetting properties of chemically homogeneous but rough surfaces. The essential assumption in Wenzel’s theory [37] is that liquid penetrates into the voids and completely encloses asperities of the surface structure, as is schematically shown in Figure 54.15b. Using a similar approach as done earlier, it is assumed that the length scale of the roughness is well below the dimension of the liquid droplet. The local contact angle, i.e. on a microscopic level, is defined by Young’s equation (54.3) and equal to that of a perfectly flat surface. Using the Wenzel model, the effective macroscopic contact angle 𝜃W can again be evaluated by considering a small displacement dx of the three-phase contact line in a direction parallel to the surface, as schematically depicted in Figure 54.15b. Because of this displacement, the surface energy changes by an amount dW given by (again per unit length of the contact line) dW = r(𝛾SL − 𝛾SV )dx + 𝛾LV dx cos 𝜃W

(54.9)

where r is an important parameter describing the roughness; r is defined as the ratio between the actual and projected surface areas. By minimizing the overall change in surface energy, i.e. dW = 0, we obtain the Wenzel equation cos 𝜃W = r cos 𝜃

(54.10)

in which 𝜃 is the Young’s angle for a flat surface with identical chemical composition. Obviously, for a flat surface with r = 1, it follows that 𝜃W = 𝜃. It is interesting to note that in the Wenzel model, the surface roughness effectively acts as an amplifier for the wetting properties. In the case of hydrophilic surfaces with 𝜃 < 90∘ , we see that 𝜃W < 𝜃 as in all cases r > 1; the hydrophilic surface becomes more hydrophilic. Similarly, for hydrophobic substrates with a finite roughness, the nonwetting properties will be enhanced giving rise to larger contact angles than perfectly flat surfaces with the same chemical functionalization. More specifically focusing on superhydrophobicity, it is obvious that the Wenzel model can account for very large effective contact angles, with values approaching 180∘ . This will happen as soon as the product on the right side of Eq. (54.10) becomes equal to −1. In fact, for a specific Young’s angle 𝜃, there is an upper limit for the roughness rmax = −1∕ cos 𝜃 above which the substrate become totally nonwetting. As an example, more specific in numbers, for surfaces characterized by 𝜃 = 110∘ , total nonwetting already sets in at a roughness amounting to rmax = 2.9. In the next section, we further zoom in on superhydrophobicity and we will discuss the limits of the Wenzel model. 54.3.3 Superhydrophobicity

In the aforementioned Wenzel model, the liquid is in all cases assumed to wet the entire surface and penetrate into the cavities of the surface structure, as shown in

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

(a)

(b)

Figure 54.16 Schematic representation of a liquid droplet on a rough surface. In the Wenzel state (a), the liquid completely wets the surface structure, while in the Cassie–Baxter state (c), the liquid is

(c) suspended on the asperities. In a mixed or intermediate regime (Wenzel–Cassie state) as shown in (b), the liquid partially infiltrates the surface micro/nanostructure.

Figure 54.16a. However, for hydrophobic surfaces with 𝜃 > 90∘ , the surface energy of the dry substrate is less than that of the wet substrate. As such, it is not obvious that the liquid will wet the entire rough surface and the solid–liquid interface may not completely conform to the topography of the substrate. As the roughness increases above a certain critical value [38], liquid may not fully penetrate into the cavities of the surface structures , as shown in Figure 54.16c. Air can be entrapped below the liquid droplet as long as locally the Young’s equation is satisfied for the three-phase contact lines [39]. As such, the liquid partially wets the surface and effectively a droplet resides on a composite surface consisting of the solid and air pockets. To evaluate the apparent contact angle of a droplet on a composed air/solid surface, we follow the approach described by Bico et al. [38, 40] and consider a flat liquid meniscus resting on flat pillars (or ridges) as shown in Figure 54.16c. The fraction of the liquid–solid interface of this meniscus is denoted by f , while the liquid/air fraction amounts to 1 − f . Again the energy change upon movement of the three-phase contact line can be derived as done in previous cases [28, 40]. However, more straightforward and intuitive is to use the Cassie–Baxter model of Eq. (54.8) and insert contact angles and fractions for the solid (𝜃A = 𝜃; fA = f ) and air (𝜃B = 180∘ ; fB = 1 − f ) below the droplet meniscus. After rearrangement, we obtain an effective apparent, macroscopic contact angle 𝜃eff given by cos 𝜃eff = f (1 + cos 𝜃) − 1

(54.11)

When comparing this relation with the Wenzel model in Eq. (54.10), a number of pronounced differences are obvious. These can also be visualized in a plot of the effective contact angle 𝜃eff as a function of Young’s contact angle 𝜃 as shown in Figure 54.17. In the Cassie–Baxter state, the effective contact angle jumps to a value f − 1 and slowly increases to 180∘ , when the wetted area of the substrate is small. Moreover, Eq. (54.11) also suggests that the maximum value 𝜃eff = 180∘ can never be reached, as this would require either 𝜃 = 180∘ or f = 0; both are physically not realistic. This is markedly different from the Wenzel model, in which the effective contact angle already reaches the maximum value for a Young’s contact angle equal to 𝜃 = −1∕r.

54.3 Chemical Patterning and Morphological Structuring

cos θeff

θc

–1

Wen zel

cos θ

xter

f–1

Ba sie–

Cas

–1 –1/r

Figure 54.17 Apparent effective contact angle 𝜃eff as a function of Young’s angle 𝜃 for liquid on a morphologically structured surface. Only the hydrophobic

(negative–negative cosine) quadrant is shown. The green and red lines represent the Cassie–Baxter and Wenzel models, respectively, as described in the text.

In the aforementioned analysis, we have assumed that the liquid meniscus is completely flat, residing on pillars that are also characterized by a flat top. Most often the wetted fraction f is not smooth but also exhibits roughness on a different length scale. In the expression for the effective contact angle, the combined effects on the wettability of chemical composition by the presence of air at the interface and roughness can be incorporated to obtain [41, 42] cos 𝜃eff = f (r cos 𝜃 + 1) − 1

(54.12)

Extending this to the liquid–air meniscus underneath the droplet, the assumption that this interface is flat is certainly not valid because of the finite Laplace pressure. This dictates that the radius of curvature is identical for the entire droplet, so both on the outside and below the droplet. To incorporate this, a similar relation can be derived [43] cos 𝜃eff = f (rsolid cos 𝜃 + rliquid ) − rliquid

(54.13)

in which rsolid is equal to the roughness r defined earlier and rliquid relates the actual area of the liquid meniscus to the projected area parallel to the substrate. Analysis shows that the effects due to roughness of the solid can be substantial and essential for superhydrophobicity as we will discuss in the next section; the correction due to the (limited) curvature of the liquid meniscus is relatively small [43]. 54.3.4 Metastable Wetting States

By now, it is clear that the so-called “fakir” state, in which liquid droplets are suspended on top of surface asperities, is a requirement for superhydrophobicity

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

characterized by large contact angles and small sliding angles; the latter we will further deal with in the next section. In relation to Figure 54.17, one may wonder which of the two states is the stable one. For nonwetting surfaces with large Young’s contact angles, analysis of the overall surface energy of the system reveals that the Cassie–Baxter state with entrapped air is the stable configuration. For small Young’s contact angles, the complete wetting Wenzel state is energetically most favorable. The crossover between the two states in terms of energetics is defined by 𝜃c (see Figure 54.17), which is easily derived using Eqs. (54.8) and (54.10): 1−f (54.14) cos 𝜃c = r−f Therefore, when the surface chemistry defines 𝜃 > 𝜃c , the “fakir” state is the stable state. As an example, let us consider a few numbers. The maximum contact angle for a flat surface that has experimentally been obtained amounts to approximately 𝜃 = 120∘ , corresponding to cos 𝜃 = −0.5; this implies that in actual situations, the left half of the negative–negative quadrant in Figure 54.17 does not occur in actual experiments. Now let us assume the realistic values for the roughness and the wetted fraction, for example f = 0.1 and r = 2. Equation (54.14) yields cos 𝜃 = 0.9∕1.9 = 0.47. This implies that in most cases, the Wenzel state is the stable one. Despite the fact that in many situations the Wenzel state has a lower overall energy, experimental reports have shown that highly nonwetting systems do exist; we have provided many examples in Section 54.1. Further analysis of the vast amount of reports in the literature indeed confirm that the Wenzel state is very often energetically the most favorable wetting state. Nevertheless, the suspended “fakir” state turns out to be a metastable one [40]. As liquid droplets are generally deposited gently on the surface and thereby onto its extremities, the metastable Cassie–Baxter state is the initial state. If on the other hand droplets are formed for example by condensation of vapor or accumulation of much smaller droplets by means of a spray, it has been shown that the liquids completely wet the surface and there is no entrapment of air between liquid and structured solid [44]. As the “fakir” state is a metastable one, the question arises what would drive a transition to the more stable Wenzel state. In other words, what is needed to force the system into its energetically most favorable configuration? It has been shown [44] that increasing pressure may lead to irreversible impalement of the liquid into the surface structures. Alternatively, increasing the impact energy during droplet deposition will lead to a transition to the lower energy Wenzel state. In the aforementioned cases, the Cassie-to-Wenzel transition was induced by an external stimulus (pressure or impact energy). McHale et al. [45] analyzed the spontaneous impalement observed during evaporation of liquid droplets on a superhydrophobic surface consisting of flat-topped pillars. As described above, in the case of a metastable superhydrophobic surface, gently deposited large droplets will reside on top of the pillars while much smaller droplets sprayed onto the substrate will lead to complete wetting. This suggests that upon evaporation, the Cassie-to-Wenzel transition will at some point occur. Reyssat et al. [18] performed a more elaborate study focusing on the origin of the transition. Using dilute pillar arrays, the critical radius of the droplet at which

54.3 Chemical Patterning and Morphological Structuring

(a)

(b)

Figure 54.18 Schematic representation of liquid impalement on a surface consisting of pillars, with (a) low and (b) high pillars. Upon increasing the pressure within the liquid droplet, the meniscus radius of

curvature will decrease, as indicated by the lighter blue shade and gray lines. Depending on the height or mutual spacing of the pillars, impalement of the liquid can be due to touchdown (a) or depinning (b) of the liquid.

the impalement transition occurs was determined as a function of pillar height and spacing. We first assume relatively low pillars, on which a large droplet rests as shown in Figure 54.18a. Upon evaporation, the radius of the outer droplet surface decreases. However, the radius of curvature of the liquid–air interface should be identical everywhere and consequently the liquid meniscus near the substrate will be further deformed. Eventually, it will reach the surface between the pillars. As soon as this happens, the solid–liquid interface will spread since the complete wetting state is the energetically more favorable one. To prevent the aforementioned impalement transition, the substrate design can be modified to either (i) increase the density of the pillars or alternatively (ii) increase the pillar height. In the former case, adding more pillars with the same top area will increase the fraction f of liquid in contact with the solid, and thereby smaller effective contact angles. To prevent this, thinner pillars can be fabricated, which will pose challenges in terms of structural stability and robustness. The second option is to increase the height of the pillars, as schematically shown in Figure 54.18b. When the radius of curvature decreases, the liquid/air interface lowers but does not reach the bottom surface as was the case with the shorter pillars of Figure 54.18a. However, the liquid meniscus will not only bend down upon increasing the curvature. Also, the angle of the liquid–air interface at the edges of the pillar top will increase. As soon as the contact angle becomes larger than the advancing angle on the sides of the pillars, the three-phase contact line will move down as schematically depicted by the gray lines in Figure 54.18b. Eventually, the liquid will contact the bottom surface again initiating the impalement transition [18]. 54.3.5 Hierarchical Roughness

As discussed in the previous section, the superhydrophobic nature of nonwetting surfaces generally originates from the combination of a hydrophobic material with a certain degree of surface roughness. To obtain sufficiently large contact angles, and corresponding small roll-off angles, the contact area of the liquid with the underlying

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

substrate should be very high. However, this poses challenges as to the stability of the wetting state. In designing artificial superhydrophobic surfaces, dilute arrays of surface asperities are required, but impalement of the liquid, i.e. the Cassie-to-Wenzel transition, must be prevented. Over the past two decades, many studies have focused on the properties of superhydrophobic surfaces encountered in nature. The lotus leaf has become the most important example; the combination of large contact angles, small roll-off angles, and self-cleaning properties is generally referred to as the “lotus effect.” However, many plant leafs and also other naturally occurring surfaces exhibit similar nonwetting properties. Electron microscopy images of the lotus leaf, such as those shown in Figure 54.19, reveal that the surface is characterized by a hierarchical structure consisting of randomly oriented small hydrophobic wax tubules on top of convex cell papillae. As mentioned, the characteristic nonwetting properties are not unique for the lotus leaf. Other examples are shown in Figure 54.20. Both the rice leaf and the wings of the Blue Morpho butterfly exhibit specific wetting properties [47]. The hierarchy is clearly observed in the electron microscopy images. Moreover, in the examples of Figure 54.20, the surface structure also defines a directionality in the wetting properties. In turn, these give rise to specific directions in which the liquid will roll off the surfaces. In the vast amount of research reported in the literature over the past 15–20 years, it has been established that superhydrophobicity does not primarily originate from the chemical nature of the surface but that the roughness is the predominant cause for ultimate nonwetting properties of naturally occurring surfaces [11, 46, 48, 49]. The hierarchical roughness on two or more length scales has been identified as an essential ingredient for nonstick, water-repellent surfaces. Many theoretical model has been discussed over the past years [49–51], ranging from qualitative descriptions to quantitative analyses; a full review lies outside the scope of this chapter. In Section 54.1, the various fabrication routes to superhydrophobic surfaces have been summarized. One of these involves the assembly of well-defined particles of various shapes and sizes. Here, we briefly review a facile and inexpensive bottom-up colloidal approach to achieve two-tier superstructures using micro- and Lotus leaf (Nelumbo nucifera)

10 μm

Figure 54.19 SEM micrographs (shown at three magnifications) of the lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) leaf surface, which consists of a microstructure formed by papillose epidermal cells covered with epicuticular wax

2 μm

0.4 μm

tubules on surface, which create a nanostructure. (Source: Koch et al. 2009 [46]. Reprinted with permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry.)

54.3 Chemical Patterning and Morphological Structuring

Micropapilla

10 μm (a)

(b)

2 μm (c)

100 μm (d)

(e)

Figure 54.20 Macroscopic and microscopic images of a rice leaf (Oryza sativa; a) and a butterfly wing (Blue Morpho didius; d). SEM images show that the rice leaf consists of sinusoidal grooves (b) decorated with micropapillae (c). The butterfly wing

10 μm (f)

consists of shingle-like scales (e) with aligned microgrooves (f ). Arrows indicate the direction of anisotropic fluid flow. (Source: Bixler and Bhushan 2012 [47]. Adapted with permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry.)

nanoparticles [52]. A typical example is shown in Figure 54.21. Colloidal silica particles with a radius of 440 nm are assembled on a flat silicon substrate by means of spin-coating. Depending on the density of the silica suspension and the spin-coating parameters, deposited layer thicknesses range from a single layer to multilayered structures [43]. The untreated silica arrays are essentially complete wetting structures, characterized by very small contact angles. Silica itself is hydrophilic with low contact angles. The roughness only enhances the effective contact angles, in line with the Wenzel model as discussed in relation to Eq. (54.10). By chemical modification using a fluorinated long-chain alkanesilane (such as 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecyltrichlorosilane [PFDTS]), the silica can be modified to render the surface hydrophobic. This indeed leads to relatively high contact angles, but since, there is still a substantial part of the surface which is wetted in a mixed-wetting configuration (Eq. (54.12)), the threephase contact line experiences relatively strong pinning and liquid sticks to the surface. Even turning the substrate upside down (inset in Figure 54.21a) does not lead to detachment of the droplet. A second length scale is introduced by irreversible assembly of gold nanoparticles typically with diameters in the range of 15–50 nm, as shown in Figure 54.21b. Because of the polar nature of the gold surface, without any coating, it will be

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

500 nm

500 nm (a) Figure 54.21 Helium ion microscopy (HIM) images showing the surface morphology of bare (a) and gold nanoparticle decorated (b) silica spheres, revealing the single and double length scales, respectively. The insets

(b) demonstrate the sticky nature of the microsphere arrays (a) and the nonsticky, sliding properties of the dual-length scale arrays (b). (Raza et al. 2012 [52]. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier.)

hydrophilic. Derivatization by alkanethiols is the way to modify the gold to exhibit hydrophobic properties; typical contact angles of hydrophobized flat gold surfaces amount to 105∘ –110∘ . However, the roughness combined with the double-length scale superstructure gives rise to strong water repellency (contact angles exceeding 150∘ ) and very small sliding angles, as shown by the inset in Figure 54.21b. To end this section, we summarize the colloidal route to control wetting properties in Figure 54.22. Flat silicon substrates with a thin layer of natural oxide exhibit very low contact angles (a). After hydrophobizing, the contact angle markedly increases to values in the range 110∘ –120∘ . Roughness induced by assembly of nano- or microparticles (c and d, respectively) followed by derivatizing with waterrepellent coatings gives rise to even larger contact angles. However, these substrates cannot be categorized as superhydrophobic and self-cleaning as contact angles are below 150∘ and sliding angles are relatively small, leading to sticky surfaces. The only way to obtain true superhydrophobic surfaces using colloidal assembly requires at least two length scales (e). Large contact angles are accompanied by very small sliding angles in the range 1∘ –5∘ [52, 53].

54.4 Dynamic Wetting Behavior

In the previous sections, we focused on static wetting properties of liquids interacting with solid surfaces. The motion of liquids and/or droplets on such surfaces relates to the dynamic wetting characteristics of the interface. As before, factors that

54.4 Dynamic Wetting Behavior

(a)

CA ≈ 128°

CA ≈ 111°

CA < 5°

(b)

(c)

Figure 54.22 Schematic (top) and measured (bottom) wetting behavior of the various different substrates based on siliconoxide coated with various micro- and nanoparticles. (a) A water droplet on flat silicon without any chemical treatment spreads fully. (b) After chemical modification, the surface becomes hydrophobic. (c) The contact angle further increases by decorating the

CA ≈ 148°

(d)

CA ≈ 162°

(e)

surface with gold nanoparticles, combined with chemical derivatization. (d) Larger silica sphere arrays followed by chemical treatment gives rise to larger contact angles. (e) The largest contact angle is achieved on a chemically treated surface with hierarchical roughness composed of gold nanoparticles on silica spheres. (Source: Raza et al. 2012 [52]. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier.)

affect the fluid dynamics include surface roughness, chemical heterogeneities, and thereby the macroscopic surface hydrophobicity. Important parameters related to the hydrodynamics of a superhydrophobic solid surface are the slip length, contact angle hysteresis, and the sliding angle. 54.4.1 Slip Length

The interactions between a solid surface and the motion of fluid in contact with that surface determine the dynamic wetting behavior. One of the basic parameters of interest in fluid flow is slip. Different scenarios at the solid–liquid interface depend on the nature of solid and fluid, as schematically shown in Figure 54.23. Generally, the flow velocity increases for larger distances to the solid–liquid interface. In the no-slip boundary condition, the velocity at the interface is considered to reduce to zero (Figure 54.23a). The molecules in the liquid closest to the interface are effectively immobilized at the surface; adhesion of liquid molecules to the solid surface is (much) stronger than the cohesion between liquid molecules. Most often, the no-slip boundary condition is considered to be important at hydrophilic surfaces. On the other hand, when the adhesion is less strong and cohesive interactions within the liquid dominate, with the extreme case being that of superhydrophobic surfaces, the fluid velocity at the solid–liquid interface may not vanish. The “nonzero slip” boundary condition is schematically shown in Figure 54.23b. The degree of boundary slip at the solid–liquid interface is characterized by the slip length b, which

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

Solid surface

Solid surface

b

V

V Flow direction b

Solid surface (a)

Velocity Profile without slip

(b)

Figure 54.23 Velocity profiles of fluid flow between two solid surfaces showing (a) the no-slip boundary condition and (b) the situation with a finite, nonzero slip. The “slip

Solid surface

Velocity Profile with slip

length” and the velocity of the liquid are represented by b and V, respectively; arrows indicate the flow direction.

is defined as the length of the vertical intercept along the axis orthogonal to the interface when a tangent line is drawn along the velocity profile at the interface [54]. From the above, it is obvious that the average flow velocity in the case of finite slip increases for larger slip lengths. As such, to reduce the fluid drag and to enhance flow, design of functional surfaces focuses on increasing the slip length. As mentioned, the balance between adhesion and cohesion is important. Consequently, the slip length can be enlarged by lowering the surface energy of the solid surface, effectively making it more hydrophobic. Another option is to enlarge the roughness of the substrate in an attempt to minimize the fluid–solid contact area. Different scenarios can be envisaged when considering the effect of surface roughness on the slip; if the liquid completely impales the surface structures (Wenzel state), the “no-slip condition” holds as shown in Figure 54.24a. However, if the liquid does not penetrate into the openings of the substrate cavities, due to hydrophobicity of the material (Cassie state in Figure 54.24b), the finite effective slip length can give rise to reduced flow resistance [55]. 54.4.2 Contact Angle Hysteresis

As already outlined in Section 54.2, another important parameter in the dynamic wetting properties is the contact angle hysteresis, which can be observed in many

Liquid

Liquid

Gas Solid (a)

Solid (b)

Figure 54.24 Schematic illustrations of local flow profiles at the interface between a liquid and a solid, in the case of (a) the Wenzel state and (b) the Cassie state.

54.4 Dynamic Wetting Behavior

daily experiences. For example, when rain drops on glass windows creep downward, typically a characteristic stick-slip motion occurs. The competition of gravity pulling the liquid down and the adhesion of the water to the glass surface lead to an asymmetric shape of the droplet with a smaller contact angle at the top and a high contact angle on the lower side. When the droplet has attained a certain size, it will start to move and slide down in this asymmetric shape. The difference between the contact angles on the advancing and receding sides comprises the hysteresis, as shown in Figure 54.25. The contact angle hysteresis is strongly dependent on the specific material, chemical functionalization, and roughness of the underlying substrate [56, 57]. The hysteresis arises from the fact that on a nonideal surface, a range of static contact angles are possible, which are referred to as “metastable” states. The range of metastable contact angles is defined by the advancing and receding angles. Owing to the existence of barriers in the free energy between the metastable states, it is not possible to measure a true “equilibrium.” Only on an “ideal” surface with a pure liquid, there will be only one unique thermodynamically stable contact angle. As such, ideal surfaces do not exist in real life. Measuring of a static contact angle is generally not sufficient to characterize the wetting properties of the surface. It is important and relevant to always measure the contact angle hysteresis to identify the range of stable contact angles, especially when focusing on dynamic behavior of liquids and droplets. One more example of a system where advancing and receding contact angles are essential is shown in Figure 54.26; here, the motion of droplets on various surfaces with different wettabilities is induced by a laminar flow of air over the surface [58]. 54.4.3 Impinging Droplets

Solid surface

θR Liquid

Solid surface

The phenomenon of droplet impact on surfaces has been a topic of research interest since the nineteenth century with the pioneering contribution of Worthington [59]. The impact dynamics can be affected by a variety of parameters, such as impact velocity, liquid density, surface tension, viscosity, droplet size, and the roughness and

θA (a)

θR

Liquid

θA (b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 54.25 (a and b) Schematic representation and (c and d) experimental images of different asymmetric shapes of liquid droplets on morphologically structured surfaces with different roughness and structural dimensions.

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

Surface A

Surface B

Surface C 1 mm

Airflow

Z X

FCL θ R

(a)

Time

422

FD

θA

(b)

Figure 54.26 (a) Schematic representation of droplet motion induced by laminar air flow; the drag and capillary forces are indicated by FD and FCL , respectively. (b) Experimental results for a 13 μl droplet on surfaces with different wetting properties. Surface A:

𝜃 = 90.1∘ , 𝜃A = 99.5∘ and 𝜃R = 76.2∘ ; Surface B: 𝜃 = 85.5∘ , 𝜃A = 87.1∘ and 𝜃R = 60.2∘ ; Surface C: 𝜃 = 80.4∘ , 𝜃A = 82.5∘ and 𝜃R = 48.8∘ . (Source: Fan et al. 2011 [58]. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier.)

wettability of the solid surface [60]. The dynamic behavior of droplets impacting on solid surfaces is of fundamental importance because of its industrial applications in various technological areas including inkjet printing, spray painting and coating, spray cooling, pesticide spraying, metal forming, soil erosion because of rain drop impact, and turbine wear [61]. In the study of dynamic properties of impacting droplets, various parameters are of interest, such as the maximum spreading diameter, the “bouncing” on superhydrophobic surfaces, the rebound height, the contact time, and contact angle variation during and after impact on the surface. Different application areas dictate the relevant parameters to be investigated. For example, in herbicide treatment, the maximum spreading diameter is of interest to improve the herbicide efficiency; a key issue is to prevent droplet rebound. On the other hand, to improve the watercooling of a hot solid, the contact time of the droplet with the surface is an important quantity. When a liquid droplet with a certain velocity impacts on a solid surface, the combined role of potential energy, kinetic energy, and liquid surface energy give rise to an interesting phenomena [62]. The dynamics are governed by a competition of the liquid–solid adhesion force and the inertial behavior of the droplet. When inertia dominates, the droplet bounces off, which is often referred to as the rebounding or nonwetting regime. If adhesion exceeds the inertial rebound force, a permanent solid–liquid interface is formed and the droplet sticks to the solid surface; this is referred to as the pinning or wetting regime. As discussed in previous sections, chemical modifications and/or morphologically structuring of substrate surfaces markedly affects the interactions between the liquid droplet and solid substrate, resulting in considerable variation of the macroscopic surface wettability. In Figure 54.27, a series of snapshots are shown for two

54.4 Dynamic Wetting Behavior

3 ms

4 ms

6 ms

7 ms

8.5 ms

15 ms

33 ms

59 ms

9 ms

13 ms

16 ms

23 ms

30 ms

37 ms

44 ms

(a)

6 ms (b)

Figure 54.27 Time lapse of impact events exhibiting (a) jetting, complete rebounding and oscillation on a superhydrophobic surface and (b) jetting and oscillation on

a sticky hydrophobic surface. The impact velocity of the droplet in both cases was to 0.41 ± 0.02 ms; the liquid volume was 10 μl.

typical movies, as observed by high speed imaging, in which a 10 μl water droplet impinges on surfaces with different morphologies and thus different wetting properties. The results represent (a) the complete rebounding (nonwetting) on a superhydrophobic surface and (b) wetting by pinning of the contact line on a hydrophobic substrate [53]. In Figure 54.28, a typical transient is depicted of the height (center of mass) of a bouncing droplet such as the one in Figure 54.27a. The overall motion of the droplet can be divided into three regimes: (i) free fall (bold points), (ii) bouncing (dotted line), and (iii) sticky oscillation (solid line).

Height (mm)

6

4

2

0

0

100

200

300

400

Time (ms) Figure 54.28 Typical transient of the height free fall regime, the dashed line represents bouncing (three times), and the solid line the of the droplet’s center of mass (10 μl) as damped oscillation of the droplet. extracted from a movie such as that in Figure 54.27a. The dotted line indicates the

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

After colliding with the substrate, the droplet adopts different shapes. Upon touching the surface, a surface capillary wave is excited and the droplet deforms into a pyramid-like shape as shown in the images at 3 ms and 4 ms in Figure 54.27a. The droplet spreads to achieve a maximum wetted area (at 6 ms in Figure 54.27a) due to inertia; during spreading, kinetic energy is converted into surface energy. The maximum spreading ratio Dmax ∕D0 , defined as ratio of the maximum width Dmax upon impact and the initial droplet diameter D0 , is often considered as a relevant parameter [63, 64], which generally depends on hydrophobicity of the substrate. For more wetting surfaces, the smaller advancing contact angles typically lead to higher maximum spreading ratios. Owing to the droplet deformation combined with the surface capillary waves, the droplet becomes toroidal, creating a cylinder-like cavity in the center as can be seen at 7 ms in Figure 54.27a. Because of air being entrapped when the droplet recoils, a jet is formed [60, 65] as shown in the image at 8.5 ms. The droplet continues to retract as a result of the surface energy and its inertial motion. On sufficiently hydrophobic surfaces, splashing or rebound of the droplet (dotted line in Figure 54.28) is often observed for a relatively high impact momentum. Just before detaching from the substrate, the droplet shape becomes elongated (at 15 ms) before taking off. The number of bounces increases with the substrate hydrophobicity, while lower impact velocities lead to a decrease of the number of bounces. After a number of bounces, the droplet resides on the surface asperities of the structured superhydrophobic substrate, with air-trapped underneath the droplet and thus a large contact angle. However, the remaining kinetic energy after the bouncing regime gives rise to oscillating behavior before reaching the equilibrium state (last four images in Figure 54.27a; the actual oscillation lasts longer, typically up to a few seconds). During the relaxation toward its final equilibrium shape, the dynamics are governed by a typical frequency and a relaxation rate, both of which depend on the wetting properties of the substrate [53]. In the case of impact on a sticky hydrophobic surface [19], the droplet is deformed to achieve maximum spreading (at 6 ms in Figure 54.27b), followed by recoiling behavior. Similar jetting as for the nonsticky superhydrophobic behavior can be observed, as shown in the image at 9 ms. Owing to the strong adhesion between liquid and substrate, the droplet is not able to completely rebound and does not bounce. This suggests that the liquid penetrates into the cavities formed by the surface structure corresponding to the Wenzel state. Again, owing to the kinetic energy, the droplet continues to oscillate like a sticky vibrating sphere as shown in the images after 13 ms in Figure 54.27b.

54.5 Novel Applications and New Horizons

In this last section, we briefly review the relevance of superhydrophobicity in modern society and its conceptual potential in competing with established

54.5 Novel Applications and New Horizons

technologies, such as anticorrosion coatings, drag reduction, and oil separation. Another intriguing development comprises omniphobic surfaces, which exhibit nonwetting properties for all types of liquids, polar and nonpolar. Slippery liquid infused porous surfaces (SLIPS) have properties very comparable to those of superhydrophobic surfaces, but the underlying mechanisms are very different. Finally, two topics that have attracted considerable attention over the past decade are reviewed. Recrystallizing natural wax onto artificial surfaces is an interesting and potentially viable approach to not only replicate natural phenomena but also use natural resources to recreate superhydrophobic surfaces. Finally, directional wetting is described with a focus on the application of wetting gradients to actively control liquid movement without any external stimulus. 54.5.1 Novel Applications of Superhydrophobic Surfaces 54.5.1.1 Anticorrosion Coatings

In humid atmosphere, many surfaces gradually deteriorate due to oxidation and corrosive reactions. Especially in the case of (re)active metals, this gives rise to decrease of their efficiency and in addition leads to environmental contamination and corresponding health hazards. Traditional methods to prevent corrosion include oilbased paint and chromium-containing coatings. Superhydrophobic coatings have been suggested as an effective alternative solution. Air trapped between the surface microstructures develops a neutral isolation and prevents direct contact between corrosive ions and the substrate. 54.5.1.2 Drag Reduction

For marine application, friction is a major issue leading to reduction of speed and increased consumption of fuel. Conventionally, methods to reduce drag include creating a gas layer at or near the solid–liquid interface by ionizing the liquid, by a cushion of air (e.g. below a hovercraft), or by creating bubbles at the interface. However, these methods require continuous energy input. Approaches involving superhydrophobic surfaces are considered as an alternative, as air-filled surface structures reduce the effective solid–liquid composite interfaces and give rise to enhanced slip lengths, thereby reducing drag. 54.5.1.3 Oil–Water Separation

Oil–water separation is of great importance for a range of biomedical, agricultural, environmental, and industrial applications. Accidental leakage of organic pollutants, such as crude oil and toxic aromatics into environmental water, poses a serious health threat. Available methods to limit pollution rely on absorption materials such as zeolites, activated carbon, natural clays, straw, and wool fibers. Owing to their hydrophilic nature, these absorbents usually show poor selectivity for organic pollutants. Superhydrophobic surfaces are a promising candidate for oil–water separation, owing to the low surface energy, i.e. oleophilic properties. In combination with the surface roughness, this effect is enhanced giving rise to superoleophilic surfaces.

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

54.5.2 Omniphobic Surfaces

As discussed in the previous sections, wetting properties of solid surfaces can be classified as superhydrophilic, hydrophilic, hydrophobic, and superhydrophoic, primarily based on the water contact angle on such substrates. Similarly, on the basis of interaction with oils (and other low surface tension liquids), surfaces can also be categorized into superoleophilic (oil CA < 10∘ ), oleophilic (CA < 90∘ ), oleophobic (CA > 90∘ ), and superoleophobic (CA > 150∘ ). In the latter case, true superoleophobicity is characterized by a contact angle hysteresis < 5∘ for oils, alcohols, or other organic solvents [66, 67]. If a surface exhibits nonwetting properties for high and low surface tension liquids, such as water and oil, respectively, these are referred to as “omniphobic” or amphiphobic surfaces, as shown in Figure 54.29. Thus, superomniphobic surfaces exhibit contact angles exceeding 50∘ and low contact angle hysteresis with essentially all liquids, organic or inorganic, polar or nonpolar, Newtonian or non-Newtonian [68, 69]. Superhydrophobic surfaces are abundant in nature, but to date, not a single example of naturally occurring superoleophobic surfaces has been observed. This originates from the much lower surface tension of oil as compared to that of water, leading to spreading on most substrates. However, a few examples of natural oleophobic surfaces have been reported; a prominent one is that of “Springtails” (Collembola). Microscopic analysis using SEM (shown in Figure 54.30) reveals that Springtail skin is composed of three types of surface features with different length scales [70]. The fascinating and durable omniphobic properties of the Springtail skin are ascribed to its unique structural design. As shown in the right part of Figure 54.30, the skin design provides various levels of antiwetting protection. The hairy cover constitutes the first wetting barrier; liquids can be pinned on the bristle tips. If external forces or very low surface tensions enable liquids to overcome this first barrier, a second stage comes into play: nanoscopic comb structures of interconnected primary granules can still pin liquids by effective retention of entrapped gas within the surface nanocavities. The third level that ensures gas retention is provided by the overhanging structural elements, which exhibit a negative curvature with

Methanol

Octane

Methylene iodide

Water

5 mm

Figure 54.29 Nonwetting characteristics of a dip-coated polyester fabric against various polar and nonpolar liquids. (Source: Cho et al. 2009 [68]. Adapted with permission of Wiley.)

Tetrodontophora bilanensis

4 mm

∼ 200 nm < 1 μm

SG

Primary granule with overhanging Comb pattern Interconnecting ridges

B Arrays of air filled nanocavities are A formed within the Bristle shield surface comb the surface by structure macroscopic air cushions

C Negative curvature on overhanging profiles prevents liquids from advancing

Figure 54.30 SEM images of Springtail skin showing the surface morphology consisting of microscopic bristles and the rhombic or hexagonal comb pattern formed by unique nanoscopic primary granules connected by ridges. The microelements papillous secondary granules (SG), which further provide stability of the antiwetting performance, are shown. (Source: Helbig et al. 2011 [70].)

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

θ

ψ

ψ

(a)

θ

(b)

Figure 54.31 Schematic diagrams highlighting the critical role of re-entrant texture in achieving a stable Cassie–Baxter state; liquid–vapor interfaces on two different surfaces have identical surface energy and the same equilibrium contact angle 𝜃,

but different geometric angles 𝜓: (a) nonre-entrant texture with 𝜓 > 𝜃 and (b) reentrant texture with 𝜓 < 𝜃. (Source: Tuteja et al. 2008 [71]. Reproduced with permission of National Academy of Sciences.)

respect to an orthogonal axis to the surface. Because of this negative curvature, an energy barrier must be overcome by the advancing liquid phase before wetting becomes irreversible even for liquids with very low surface tension, resulting in a dramatically reduced solid–liquid contact area [70]. In the previous section, we have seen that to obtain extreme nonwetting properties, two key ingredients are important: (i) surface chemistry and (ii) hierarchical roughness. The role of hierarchical roughness is essential to ensure the Cassie–Baxter state. However, to create superomniphobic surfaces, a special type of hierarchical roughness is required, the so-called “re-entrant texture” or “overhanging structures” similar to that of the Springtail skin. The critical role of such re-entrant texture can be illustrated qualitatively by considering the diagrams shown in Figure 54.31. In both cases, 𝜃 represents the local contact angle of any liquid (Eq. (54.3)) contacting the texture in the Cassie–Baxter state and is equal to the Young’s contact angle on a flat surface with the same surface energy. The angle 𝜓 is the local geometric angle, describing the shape of the surface structures. For 𝜓 > 𝜃 as shown in Figure 54.31a, there will be a downward net force on the liquid–vapor interface because of the capillary force, which will promote imbibition of the liquid into the solid texture, thereby potentially leading to a fully wetted Wenzel state. Thus, for liquids with low surface tensions and contact angles 𝜃 < 90∘ , a stable Cassie–Baxter state cannot be achieved on textures characterized by 𝜓 > 90∘ . On the other hand, when 𝜓 < 𝜃, the net force is directed upward and the liquid–vapor interface will recede to the top of the pillars, creating a composite liquid–solid–air interface. Even for contact angles 𝜃 < 90∘ , a robust Cassie–Baxter state is possible if the texture is such that 𝜓 < 90∘ (Figure 54.31b). Such re-entrant surface textures are found to be essential in the design of superomniphobic surfaces [66]. An example of re-entrant texture exhibiting true superomniphobicity is shown in Figure 54.32 [72].

54.5 Novel Applications and New Horizons

(a)

(b)

Figure 54.32 (a and b) Microscopic images of the “re-entrant texture” of two different silicon nanonail surfaces. (c) Droplets of water and ethanol exhibiting

(c) Water

Ethanol

superomniphobic behavior on these nanonail substrates. (Ahuja et al. 2008 [72]. Reprinted (adapted) with permission of American Chemical Society.)

54.5.3 Slippery Liquid-Infused Porous Surfaces (SLIPS)

In the case of “superhydrophobic” and “superomniphobic” surfaces as inspired by biomaterials such as the lotus leaf and Springtails, respectively, the primary role of hierarchical or re-entrant texture is to entrap air beneath the contacting liquid and thereby to minimize the contact area. In this way, a maximum contact angle and a minimum sliding angle (contact angle hysteresis) are achieved, aiding in the movement of fluid over the surface seemingly without any hindrance. Here, we describe how SLIPS are different from the aforementioned antiwetting surfaces. In fact, SLIPS exhibit extreme repellency and slippery properties repelling all types of liquids, ranging from water to blood to crude oil, with negligible roll-off angles. A fascinating feature of SLIPS is their self-healing capability after physical damage. Although the characteristics are very similar to superhydrophobic or superomniphobic surfaces, SLIPS are conceptually different. With the former surfaces, entrapped air plays a key role to achieve ultra-non-wetting properties, while in the case of SLIPS, “infused lubricating fluid” is locked in place between nano/microstructures of the substrate. This lubricant forms a stable, defect-free, and inert “slippery” interface, which repels various simple and complex liquids (water, hydrocarbons, crude oil, and blood) maintaining low contact angle hysteresis (< 2.5∘ ), quickly restores liquid repellency after physical damage, resists ice adhesion, and even operates at high pressures [73]. The basic idea of SLIPS is again inspired by nature, this time by the Nepenthes Pitcher plant, which provides a simple alternative approach that is different from that of the lotus effect. Instead of using surface structures to directly repel liquids, the surface features are used to lock-in a liquid, which acts as the repellent surface. Structural analysis reveals a hierarchical multilevel ridge morphology, of which the surface is perfectly wetting. The highly stable and slippery surface of the pitcher plant surface is a result of the combination of this microstructural roughness and compatibility of solid and liquid surface energies, where the liquid fills the spaces within the

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

Functionalized porous/textured solid

Test liquid (liquid A)

Lubricating film (liquid B)

Tilt

(a) Ordered nano-post array

5 μm

Random network of nanofibres

5 μm

(b) Figure 54.33 (a) Schematical representation of different SLIPS fabrication stages. (left) Functionalized porous/textured solid is prepared with a low surface energy; (middle) a physically smooth and chemically homogeneous lubricating film on the substrate is achieved by a chemically inert liquid; (right) slippery performance of the prepared

surface with a contacting liquid. (b) Electron micrographs showing the morphologies of porous/textured substrate materials: (left) an epoxy resin-based nanofabricated post array and (right) a Teflon-based porous nanofiber network. (Wong et al. 2011 [73]. Adapted with permission of Springer Nature.)

texture and forms a continuous overlying film. This aqueous film is sufficiently slippery to cause insects, on which the plant feeds, to slip from the rim into the digestive juices [74, 75]. In Figure 54.33a, a typical approach to prepare a SLIPS substrate is schematically shown. As a first step, the porous solid with suitable texture is prepared either from some low surface energy materials such as Teflon, or in the case of hydrophilic material, first, a porous substrate is created followed by functionalizing with a hydrophobic layer. In the next step, a lubricating fluid film (a low surface tension perfluorinated liquids, for example 3 M Fluorinert FC-70, or DuPont Krytox oils, that are nonvolatile and immiscible with both aqueous and hydrocarbon phases) is applied onto the porous solids to form an overcoating layer. With matching surface chemistry and roughness, the lubricating fluid will spread spontaneously onto the whole substrate through capillary wicking and is locked in place by the micro/nanoporous substrate. Typical microstructured surfaces used for SLIPS are shown in Figure 54.33b: (i) periodically ordered and random arrays of nanoposts functionalized with a low surface energy polyfluoroalkyl silane (left) and (ii) a random network of Teflon nanofibers distributed throughout the bulk substrate (right). For the successful fabrication of SLIPS, the following criteria must be met:

• the lubricating liquid must wick into, wet, and stably adhere to the substrate; • the solid must be preferentially wetted by the lubricating liquid rather than by the liquid to be repelled;

• the lubricating and impinging liquids must be immiscible.

54.5 Novel Applications and New Horizons

SLIPS Tilting = 5°

1 cm Physical damage

Tilting = 5°

Tilting = 5°

Crude oil

t=0s

t=1s

t=2s

Teflon AF treated flat surface Tilting > 10°

Tilting = 10°

Tilting = 5°

1 cm Crude oil Physical damage

Pinned droplet

t=0s Figure 54.34 Time-lapse showing the restoration of liquid repellency of a SLIPS substrate after physical damage, as compared to a typical hydrophobic flat surface (coated with DuPont Teflon AF amorphous

t=2s

t = 17 s

Pinned droplet

fluoropolymer) on which oil remains pinned at the damage site. (Source: Wong et al. 2011 [73]. Adapted with permission of Macmillan Publishers Ltd.)

When these design criteria are fulfilled, SLIPS provide a smooth, stable interface that completely eliminates pinning of the liquid contact line for both high- and lowsurface-tension liquids, minimizes pressure-induced impalement into the porous structures, self-heals and retains its function following mechanical damage, and can be made optically transparent. As mentioned, one of the remarkable characteristics of SLIPS is the self-healing capability. SLIPS can repeatedly restore the liquid-repellent function upon recurring, large-area physical damage as demonstrated in Figure 54.34; in this example, crude oil easily slides over the SLIPS substrate, even after physical damage. The lubricating film also serves as a self-healing coating to rapidly restore the liquid-repellent function after damage of the porous material by abrasion or impact. Due to the fluidic nature of the lubricant, the liquid simply flows toward the damaged area by surface energy-driven capillary action and spontaneously refills the physical voids within a time frame of milliseconds. 54.5.4 Recrystallization of Natural Epicuticular Waxes

As outlined in the Introduction section, nonwetting surfaces are omnipresent in nature. Inspired by their often amazing properties, there is a strong drive to mimic these natural surfaces [12]. By far, the most famous example of natural superhydrophobicity is the lotus leaf [76], but there are many more. High-resolution imaging combined with compositional analysis on many different plants has revealed that the microstructured epicuticular wax surface is decorated with a variety of nanostructures. Strong water repellency arises primarily from this hierarchical roughness; Figures 54.19 and 54.35 depict two examples (lotus and Euphorbia, respectively). The lotus leaf surface is covered with an epicuticular layer from which tubule-like nanostructures protrude outward. The nanofeatures not only give rise to the specific

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

100 μm

20 μm

5 μm

Figure 54.35 Microscopy images of Euphorbia myrsinites (bottom; field-of-view 100 μm, 20 μm and 5 μm, resp.).

wetting and self-cleaning properties, but the epicuticular wax layer also plays a major role in the optical properties of the plant surface [77]. Surface characterization of these wax layers has revealed that the tubules, with typical widths of 300 nm and lengths up to 1000 nm, are crystalline and primarily composed of nonacosan-10-ol and a small amount (0–5%) of nonacosan-4,40-diol. Most interesting for future applications is the ability to recrystallize these wax layers on a range of inorganic surfaces, including Highly Oriented Pyrolythic Graphite (HOPG), glass, silicon, and gold [78–80]. Recrystallization can be done either by solution casting or by thermal vapor deposition. In all cases, under the proper experimental conditions, the tubular wax structures form typically within a few hours. Surprisingly, the nanotubules also appear to be highly crystalline, while they originate from the amorphous precursor layer [81]. Moreover, the orientation of the nanotubules appears to depend on the nature of the supporting substrate. For example, on HOPG, the tubules are formed perpendicular to the substrate, while on a Au(111) surface, they grow parallel to the surface (see Figure 54.36). In both cases, the length and width seems to be self-regulated to specific dimensions. (A detailed description of Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) can be found in Chapter 3.5 in Volume 1.) As another example in Figure 54.37, we show results obtained using wax extracted from leaves of the Euphorbia myrsinites. Superhydrophobicity on the leaves arises from a dense superstructure consisting of platelets. The primary component in the E. myrsinites wax has been identified as hexacosan-1-ol, which can be extracted very similar to that described above. The more symmetric shape of the molecules (no side groups) is assumed to give rise to the plate-like configurations. Preliminary results show that this wax can also be recrystallized on a silicon wafer. As shown in Figure 54.37b, a dense superstructure with nanoscale plate-like features appear, which gives rise to water contact angles up to 110∘ . 54.5.5 Directional Wetting

The ability to control liquid motion on surfaces has attracted the attention of a large scientific community, including fluid physicists, materials, and interface scientists.

54.5 Novel Applications and New Horizons

1 2

X 650 nm

(a)

980 nm

(b)

Figure 54.36 Atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of tubule growth (lotus) on HOPG (a) and Au(111) (b). Orientation perpendicular to the HOPG surface and parallel to the Au surface is clearly observed [80].

2 μm

(a)

1 μm

(b)

Figure 54.37 Nanostructured wax platelets of Euphorbia myrsinites. (a) Helium ion microscopy image of an actual plant surface and (b) redeposited wax on a Si/SiO2 wafer. The primary wax component is hexacosan-1-ol.

Smart surfaces with artificially designed wetting characteristics are highly relevant for a number of application areas, ranging from micro/nanofluidics to car windows. Directional anisotropic wetting can be achieved by a number of surface modifications. A substrate can be morphologically structured, for example by creating a set of parallel grooves [82–85]. An alternative way to create anisotropy is by selective chemical modification of a surface. Various methods to create a chemical pattern on a surface include CVD with different exposure times or diffusion-controlled silanization [86, 87], destruction of a monolayer with UV light after a CVD procedure [88], and microcontact printing [89]. An example we present here makes use of lithographic tools to pattern silicon wafers with a photoresist, which is subsequently employed to protect the wafer against CVD of PFDTS. After PFDTS deposition, the photoresist is removed, resulting in a chemically patterned surface with areas of different wettabilities, expressed by the two contact angles as shown in Figure 54.38. A recent review by Xia et al. [90] describes the latest advances in this field.

433

54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

θ

θ (b)

(a)

Figure 54.38 Water droplets on different surfaces. (a) Bare SiO2 with a high affinity for water and therefore a low contact angle 𝜃 = 40∘ . (b) SiO2 with a hydrophobic selfassembled monolayer with a low affinity for water and a large contact angle 𝜃 = 106∘ .

54.5.5.1 Anisotropic Wettability

A typical chemically patterned surface is displayed in Figure 54.39, with stripes of high and low wettability (referred to as dry and wet stripes, respectively). Droplets deposited on these stripes typically exhibit an anisotropic shape [88, 92, 93]. When Hydrophobic: PFDTS F F F

F F F FF F F

F

FF FF

F F

Cl Si Cl Cl

(a)

Parallel Θ⊥

Length

Hydrophilic: SiO2

10 μm

WPFDTS WSiO

434

Width

y Perpendicular Θ|| (b)

x

Figure 54.39 (a) Scanning electron microscopy image of a stripe-patterned surface consisting of hydrophilic SiO2 and hydrophobic PFDTS regions, as indicated. (b) Schematic top-view representation and photograph of an anisotropic glycerol

droplet on the striped surface. Note that the actual number of lines underneath the droplet is much larger than is shown in the sketch. (Source: Kooij et al. 2012 [91]. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier.)

435

54.5 Novel Applications and New Horizons

the three-phase contact line moves in the direction perpendicular to the stripes, it alternatingly crosses wet and dry stripes, giving rise to a stick-slip motion [94, 95]. For spreading in the direction parallel to the stripes, the contact line “feels” both stripes simultaneously. The energy barrier for spreading in the parallel direction does not depend on location, as it does for the perpendicular direction. The shape of a droplet on a chemically striped surface depends on the energy landscape, which, in the perpendicular direction, is mainly governed by the contact angle of the dry stripe, and in the parallel direction on the relative width of the stripes, which is expressed by the parameter 𝛼 𝛼=

𝑤PFDTS 𝑤SiO2

(54.15)

where 𝑤PFDTS and 𝑤SiO2 are the widths of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic stripes. The length of the droplet is always taken in the direction parallel to the stripes, while the width of the droplet is always taken in the direction perpendicular to the stripes. The aspect ratio of the droplet is defined as the length divided by the width. In Figure 54.40, the aspect ratio of 1 μl glycerol droplets is plotted as a function of 𝛼, as well as the contact angles. The contact angles for glycerol amount to 40∘ and 106∘ on the wet and dry pristine surfaces, respectively (see Figure 54.38). For low 𝛼, the droplet is markedly elongated; it is more favorable to spread in the direction parallel to the stripe than perpendicular to the stripes. The contact angle in the parallel direction is also close to the contact angle on the wet stripe. When 𝛼 is increased, the elongation decreases. The droplet becomes more spherical, exhibiting an aspect ratio slightly above unity for 𝛼 = 6.0. The perpendicular contact angle remains almost constant as a function of 𝛼, only for the smallest values, the contact angle becomes lower. The contact angle in the parallel direction shows a clear dependence on 𝛼 and is actually defined by the relative widths of the stripes. The 110

3.5

100 Contact angle (°)

Aspect ratio

3 2.5 2 1.5

80 70 60

CA|| CA⊥ CB eq

50 40

1 0

(a)

90

1

2

3 α

4

5

6

(b)

0

1

2

3 α

4

5

Figure 54.40 (a) Aspect ratio and (b) direc- represented by circles and squares, respectional contact angles as a function of the rel- tively. The dashed curve in (b) represents the ative stripe width 𝛼 for 1 μl glycerol droplets. modified Cassie–Baxter equation. Parallel and perpendicular contact angles are

6

436

54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

Cassie–Baxter equation was adapted to incorporate the parameter 𝛼 ( cos 𝜃 + 𝛼 cos 𝜃 ) wet dry 𝜃|| = arccos 1+𝛼

(54.16)

where 𝜃|| is the parallel contact angle, and 𝜃wet and 𝜃dry are contact angles on the high and low wettable stripe, respectively. A good agreement between the Cassie–Baxter equation and the data points is observed in Figure 54.40. 54.5.5.2 Wettability Gradients

In the aforementioned example of chemically patterned surfaces, the variation of the parallel contact angle can be used to achieve a surface energy gradient. Consecutive patterns with different 𝛼 values enable control over liquid motion on these surfaces. In Figure 54.41, the asymmetric droplet shape on a surface with different macroscopic wettability on both sides is shown. The droplet velocity is generally determined by the balance of a driving capillary force and opposing forces [96, 97]. Typically, the driving force originates from the unbalanced Young’s force related to the contact angles on either side of the droplet. An intuitive expression can be given for a ribbon of unit length F = 𝛾LV (cos 𝜃A − cos 𝜃B )

(54.17)

where 𝛾LV represents the surface tension of the liquid. Ideally, as soon as 𝜃B < 𝜃A , the ribbon will experience a net driving force and will start to move. For a droplet with a spherical cap shape with radius R, the driving force is given by [96] ) ( d cos 𝜃 (54.18) FY = πR2 𝛾LV dx V θB

θA A (a)

B Surface tension gradient PFDTS

SiO2

y

(b)

x

Figure 54.41 (a) Schematic representation between striped patterns with different valof a sessile droplet on a wettability gradient ues for 𝛼. (Source: Kooij et al. 2012 [91]. changing from hydrophobic to hydrophilic. Reprinted with permission of Elsevier.) (b) Schematic droplet shape in the boundary

54.5 Novel Applications and New Horizons

Two opposing forces hinder the movement of the droplet. Viscous drag, also referred to as the friction force, slows down the droplet as soon as its starts to move. However, typically, the viscous drag is orders of magnitude smaller than the driving force [98]. As such, droplets are expected to move on all surfaces as soon as the contact angles on both sides of the droplet are different. In actual experimental situations, contact angle hysteresis provides an additional energy barrier for droplet motion [97]. In Figure 54.42, typical sequential top-view images of droplet motion over linear (panel A) and radial (panel B) patterned surfaces are shown [99, 100]. When the three-phase contact line touches the boundary between striped patterns, wider SiO2 stripes result in higher overall surface energy inducing a preferential spreading direction. Sequentially, the contact line reaches patterns with decreasing 𝛼 values, i.e. with increasing hydrophilicity. At the outer border of the patterned areas, the droplet spreads on the unpatterned SiO2 . Although the liquid is on the stripe-patterned surface areas, motion in the direction perpendicular to the stripes is hindered effectively confining the droplet, thereby enhancing its motion in the direction along the stripe direction. Only when the droplet starts to spread isotropically on SiO2 , does it become wider in the perpendicular direction. Although a full quantitative analysis of the liquid motion lies outside the scope of this chapter, it is worth summarizing that using linear stripe-patterned surfaces, (a)

0.4 s

(b) 2.6 s

(c)

5.4 s (d)

(A)

(B)

Figure 54.42 Top-view images of droplets on surfaces patterned with a wettability gradient. (A) 2 μl glycerol/water droplet on a striped pattern constituting 1 mm wide regions with decreasing 𝛼 values of 0.9, 0.5, and 0.3. (B) 1 μl glycerol droplet on a radially

striped pattern. Around the circular central area (1.4 mm diameter) are two 1mm wide annular regions with 𝛼 values of 0.5 and 0.25. (Kooij et al. 2012 [91]. Adapted with permission of Elsevier.)

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54 Toward Superhydrophobic Surfaces: Controlling Wetting Characteristics

liquid droplets can be moved over distances up to several millimeters, typically 3–5 mm, with velocities as large as 10 mm/s. For the radial patterns, lower velocities are typically observed, which can be ascribed to the reduced confinement between the radially oriented stripes as compared to the parallel stripes of the linear patterns. Obviously, the viscosity of the liquid has a pronounced effect. For lower viscosity, the velocities will be markedly larger.

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55 Cell-Penetrating Peptides Targeting and Distorting Biological Membranes Corina Ciobanasu and Ulrich Kubitscheck

55.1 Introduction

Biological membranes play a key role for all living beings. Membranes form hydrophobic barriers that allow living organisms to construct separate structural and functional compartments. The fundamental compartment is a biological cell representing the minimum unit of life, which can autonomously reproduce itself. Living organisms may comprise only one cell, such as bacteria, or several trillion cells, which then serve hundreds of specialized functions, as in mammals. Biological membranes are formed by lipid molecules and proteins. Lipids are small amphiphilic molecules, which can spontaneously form planar bilayers in aqueous solution. In that case, the polar residues of the lipids, the so-called lipid head groups, face the aqueous surroundings, whereas the nonpolar residues of lipids face each other and form a two-dimensional hydrophobic sheet. In biological membranes, these planar lipid bilayers contain a high concentration of proteins, to which carbohydrates may be conjugated. The composition of a native biological membrane is exceedingly complex containing numerous diverse components, which carry out a great number of specific functions. A very important function of membrane proteins is the specific and regulated transport of information and matter across the membrane barrier. Protein channels with complex structures can translocate ions such as Ca2+ or H+ in a welldefined manner. Other membrane proteins specifically bind ligands and transmit the information of ligand binding by structural rearrangements into the cellular interior. Large molecules such as soluble proteins or carbohydrates can only translocate across membranes by means of membrane pores formed by proteins of very complex composition and structure. The translocation of charged molecules across the nonpolar central layer is virtually impossible without the help of the mentioned transporter membrane molecules because of their high free energy of solvation. Notably, this was the scientific consensus until the 1980s. Then, a class of water-soluble biological molecules was discovered that could seemingly traverse biological membranes without any energy-supplying processes. These results were very controversially discussed for Surface and Interface Science: Liquid and Biological Interfaces, First Edition. Edited by Klaus Wandelt. © 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2020 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

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55 Cell-Penetrating Peptides Targeting and Distorting Biological Membranes

many years until this surprising fact was generally accepted about 10 years later. In this chapter, we will shortly review the discovery of these so-called cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), discuss the meanwhile accepted translocation modes of action, and highlight new developments in the field. For one of the most prominent and widely used CPPs, the so-called trans-activator of transcription (TAT) peptide corresponding to the amino acids 48–57 of a poly-cationic protein, the TAT protein of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1), we will discuss the current state of knowledge and its applications in more detail.

55.2 Definition

CPPs are short sequences of up to 40 amino acids capable to traverse lipid bilayers, which usually represent strict barriers for water-soluble molecules. CPPs have been shown to pass the plasma membrane of living cells in a nondestructive manner and enter cells by various passive and active mechanisms. The direct passage of membranes without any cellular enzymatic processes is designated as translocation. Because of this ability, CPPs can facilitate the intracellular delivery of numerous molecular cargoes in a nontoxic manner, which is extensively employed in cell biology, medical, and pharmaceutical studies.

55.3 Discovery of CPPs

The first CPP was discovered in the late 1980s, when two laboratories independently found that the transcription trans-activating (TAT) protein of HIV-1 was efficiently internalized in different cell lines [1, 2]. In 1991, the Drosophila Antennapedia transcription factor (later named Penetratin) was shown to translocate across cell membranes and enter the cellular interior [3]. These discoveries opened the new field of protein transduction domains (PTDs) and were followed by the revelation that even short sequences of these proteins exhibited membrane-crossing properties. Thus, in 1997, the group of Lebleu identified the minimal section of the TAT protein necessary for cellular uptake [4]. One year later, the group of Langel introduced the term “cell-penetrating peptide” for the first chimeric peptide carrier, transportan, which was derived from the N-terminal of the neuropeptide galanin and linked to mastoparan, a wasp venom peptide [5]. Cellular uptake of transportan was not mediated by endocytosis, as it could not be blocked by treating cells with phenylarsine oxide and occurred efficiently at 37, 4, and 0 ∘ C. Since then, the field of CPPs became of great interest and the number of known CPPs increased considerably. Almost 2000 of such peptides were meanwhile identified (see CPPsite 2.0, the internet database of CPPs, http://crdd.osdd.net/raghava/ cppsite). CPPs have been demonstrated to enter a large number of different cell types and were used as vectors for a plethora of cargos such as drugs, proteins, imaging

55.4 Classification of CPPs

and radiotherapeutic agents, gold nanoparticles, nucleotides, DNA and even huge cargoes such as liposomes, or magnetic nanoparticles [6]. Low cytotoxicity and the capability to transport many different types of cargo across the cell membrane made CPPs optimal candidates for the delivery of therapeutic molecules. The exact molecular mechanisms, by which translocation of CPPs across membranes occurs, are not easy to uncover. Meanwhile, it became clear why this is so difficult: there is no unique translocation mechanism. Rather, the translocation process depends on numerous parameters such as the chemical nature of the CPPs in terms of their amino acid sequence and possible chemical modifications thereof, concentrations, the molecular composition of the membrane, the chemical nature of the cargo, and the topology of the membrane system. This creates a huge parameter space, in which numerous different translocation mechanisms exist. As a consequence, there exists a huge – mostly descriptive – research literature on CPP action and applications.

55.4 Classification of CPPs

CPPs can be classified according to their origin in naturally occurring and synthetic or chimeric peptides. However, a classification based on their structural and chemical properties is more meaningful in order to systematically study and understand the mechanisms of CPP internalization. Thus, CPPs can be divided into cationic, amphipathic, and hydrophobic peptides [7]. Here, we will focus on cationic and amphipathic peptides, as they are mostly used and studied. Figure 55.1 shows some representative peptides for these classes. TAT and nona-arginine (R9) possess a high positive net charge and represent typical cationic penetrating peptides. The number

TAT: GRKKRRQRRRPPQ VP22: NAKTRRHERRRKLAIER SV40: PKKKRKV (nuclear localization)

Cationic

Polyarginines: R8, R9, R10, R12 DPV3: RKKRRRESRKKRRRES DPV6: GRPRESGKKRKRKRLKP R6H4: RRRRRRHHHH

Natural

CPPs

Synthetic

Penetratin: RQIKIWFQNRRMKWK MPG: GLAFLGFLGAAGSTMGAWSQPKKKRKV pVEC: LLIILRRRIRKQAHAHSK

Amphipathic

MAP: KLALKLALKALKAALKLA Pep-1: KETWWETWWTEWSQPKKKRKV TP10: AGYLLGKINLKALAALAKKIL (chimeric of galanin and mastoparan transpotan) CADY: GLWRALWRLLRSLWRLLWRA (chimeric peptide PPTG1)

Figure 55.1 Examples of typical CPPs. Peptide sequences are given in the one-letter amino acid notation.

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of arginine residues can vary, and studies demonstrated that at least six positive charges are required for an efficient peptide uptake [8]. Amphipathic CPPs consist of hydrophilic and hydrophobic surface domains and can be subdivided into primary and secondary amphipathic peptides. The mentioned transportan 10 (TP10) is a primary amphipathic CPP and contains both polar and nonpolar regions [5]. The hydrophobicity of primary amphipathic CPPs is essential for the cellular uptake. They bind strongly to both neutral and anionic lipid membranes, and their internalization mechanism depends on the membrane potential and composition [9]. Secondary amphipathic CPPs are amphipathic only because of the secondary structure, usually an α-helix or β-sheet, that they assume in contact with hydrophilic/hydrophobic liquid interfaces. Then, they form one hydrophobic face while the opposite may be cationic, anionic, or polar. Unlike primary CPPs, the secondary amphipathic CPPs have a greater affinity to anionic than neutral membranes because of electrostatic interactions [10]. Proline-rich amphipathic CPPs show a well-defined secondary structure because of their pyrrolidine ring, which is designated as polyproline II (PPII). PPII is a lefthanded extended helix of three amino acids per turn [11]. Several proline-rich CPPs have been reported: bactenecin-7 (Bac7) [12], the synthetically designed peptides SAP [13], (PPR)n, and (PR)n (where n = 3, 4, 5, and 6) [14]. Hydrophobic peptides contain only nonpolar residues, having a low net charge or have a hydrophobic motif that is essential for uptake [11]. A recent review suggested a new classification for CPPs based on the respective mechanism of internalization, which are (i) efficient plasma membrane lysis, (ii) spontaneous membrane translocation, (iii) uptake by energy-dependent endocytosis, followed by nondestructive endosomal release, (iv) transient plasma membrane disruption, and (v) uptake by energy-dependent endocytosis followed by endosomal membrane disruption [15].

55.5 Modes of Action

CPPs can be used as vectors to deliver a great variety of cargo molecules or particles into living cells. In contrast to other traditional techniques to accomplish this goal, such as microinjection and electroporation, CPPs are internalized without largescale destruction of the membrane integrity [16]. Although CPPs have been widely used to deliver cargo molecules into cells, the exact uptake mechanism of these peptides is still a topic of debate, although significant progress has been made. Meanwhile, there is evidence for two fundamentally different mechanisms of internalization: energy-independent penetration of membranes, which is designated as translocation and sometimes as transduction, and endocytic uptake by one or more of the three endocytic routes for ingestion of molecules or small particles into cells: clathrin-dependent endocytosis, caveolae-mediated endocytosis, or macropinocytosis [17]. All endocytic uptake pathways require metabolic energy of the ingesting cell. The mode of entry into the cell of a specific CPP is influenced by a variety of

55.5 Modes of Action

Passive mechanism

Active mechanism

Caveolae and clathrin independent endocytosis CPP Cell membrane

Macropinocytosis Caveolae or clathrin mediated endocytosis Inverted micelles Barrel-stave/ toroidal pore

Carpet

Direct penetration

Endosome

Endosomal escape

Nucleus Cytoplasm

Figure 55.2 Different mechanisms for CPP internalization. CPPs or CPP–cargo complexes enter cells via endocytosis pathways (clathrin-dependent, caveolaedependent, clathrin-independent, and caveolae-independent) or macropinocytosis.

After endocytic capture, CPPs can escape from endosomes and be released into the cytosol. On the left side, energy-independent pathways are shown: micelle formation, pore formation, and carpet-mediated transfer.

factors: the physiochemical properties of the CPP such as concentration, length, secondary structure, charge distribution, and hydrophobicity and the properties of the conjugated cargo molecule such as its type, size, and charge (see Figure 55.2). For example, TAT conjugated to large protein cargoes was reported to be ingested by caveolae-mediated endocytosis [18]. However, TAT conjugated to small molecules, e.g. fluorophores, can be directly transduced [19] and was reported to be taken up by clathrin-mediated endocytosis [20] (although this was challenged in Ref. [19]). Presumably, the pathway of cell entry also depends on the target cell type [21, 22]. 55.5.1 Endocytosis

Macropinocytosis is a nonselective endocytic route used by cells to ingest bigger particles and fluids with solutes [23]. This process begins with the formation of large endocytic vesicles, the so-called macropinosomes, which may have diameters beyond 200 nm and are generated by actin-driven circular ruffles of the plasma membrane. Usually, cargoes are delivered to the early endosomes after

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internalization. Endosomes consist of either vesicular (clathrin- or caveolin-coated vesicles) or tubular intermediates. Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is the best studied active internalization pathway. It is initiated by the binding of a ligand molecule to its receptor. Then, the uptake of material and formation of an endocytic vesicle are mediated by the cytosolic protein clathrin. The size of formed vesicles depends on the cargo and is smaller than that of macropinosomes, usually significantly less than 200 nm in diameter [24]. A broad variety of cargo molecules are internalized by this pathway, which is often complementary to macropinocytosis [25]. Caveolae-mediated endocytosis, also known as lipid raft-mediated endocytosis, is a dynamin-dependent and receptor-mediated pathway. Caveolae are plasma membrane buds coated with the protein caveolin existing on the surface of many, but not all, cell types. Caveolin, the structural protein of caveolae, is a cholesterol-binding protein. The formed vesicles are relatively small, approximately 50–100 nm in diameter [26], limiting the uptake of big CPP–cargo complexes by this pathway. It is generally accepted that the electrostatic interactions mediate the first contact between the cationic CPPs and the cell surface. The extracellular matrix and the cell surface proteoglycan platform are also involved [27]. Their side chains are glycosaminoglycans, which are highly negatively charged. CPPs trigger the remodeling of the actin network and selectively activate the small GTPase Rho A or Rac1 [10, 28]. Concentration is a further parameter relevant for the cellular uptake of CPPs. Thus, at low concentrations of CPP-cargo conjugates, the internalization is associated with an energy-dependent endosomal pathway depending on cargo properties [29]. In contrast, at high concentrations, the uptake is partially associated with energy-independent processes [30]. In most cases, when CPP-cargo conjugates are internalized, only 2% of the delivered cargos are biologically active, the rest end up trapped in endosomes [31]. From here, they are directed to either recycling routes for exocytosis or to degradation. Thus, the CPP-cargo conjugates need to escape from the endosomes for exerting their intended biological effects. This can be achieved either by traversing or by rupturing the endosomal membrane. 55.5.2 Membrane Translocation 55.5.2.1 Types of Mechanisms

Three different mechanisms have been suggested, by which CPPs can be internalized without utilizing an enzymatic membrane transport system: direct membrane penetration [32], transfer by the formation of inverted micelles [33], or a translocation similar to the action of antimicrobial peptides killing bacteria [34, 35]. The classical models that describe the transport of antimicrobial peptides across bacterial membranes are the toroidal pore model, the barrel-stave model, and the carpet model [36]. The carpet model is a widely used model that describes defects in the lipid bilayer induced by coverage with CPPs. It is assumed that peptides accumulate on the membrane surface with their hydrophobic surfaces facing the membrane

55.5 Modes of Action

and their hydrophilic surfaces facing the solvent, thus forming a “carpet.” As soon as a critical local concentration is reached, the CPPs disrupt the membrane bilayer in a detergent-like manner. The pore model is related to the phenomenon of flip-flop of phospholipids between both leaflets of the membrane. Here, it is thought that a limited number of peptides assemble on the membrane surface and then enter into the bilayer with the hydrophobic regions associating with the lipid core, whereas the hydrophilic regions of the peptides remain associated with the phospholipid head groups. When a threshold concentration of peptides is reached, transient pores may be formed. In the barrel-stave model, the peptides enter with the hydrophobic regions interacting with the lipid bilayer and the hydrophilic regions facing the lumen of the pore, perpendicular to the plane of the bilayer forming the “staves” in a “barrel”-shaped cluster. Direct CPP translocation into cells can be studied by either knocking down the genes responsible for specific endocytic cellular pathways, by chemical inhibition of the different endocytic pathways, or by simply lowering the temperature to 4 or 0 ∘ C to inhibit any active transport processes [19]. However, experiments with model lipid systems completely avoid the presence of any possibly distorting active cellular processes and thus early proved their utility for the understanding of the molecular peptide–membrane interactions and translocation (see e.g. the review by [37]). In general, the interactions and orientations of peptides in lipid bilayers depend on the sequence of the CPPs, concentration of peptides, the nature of lipids, cargo, and the characteristics of the chosen model system. We will shortly present the current understanding for cationic and amphipathic CPPs. 55.5.2.2 Cationic Peptides

The observation that strongly charged cationic peptides can cross membranes was especially astonishing because of the high Born energy that such peptides should exhibit in the hydrophobic membrane environment [38]. At low-to-moderate cationic peptide concentrations or in model bilayers containing only small amounts of anionic lipids, charged CPPs such as TAT or R9 bind to, but neither translocate nor disrupt, membranes [37, 39]. At high concentrations, these peptides can effectively cross anionic model bilayers, e.g. membranes of giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs), containing anionic lipids at a mole fraction greater than 0.3. Disruption of the bilayer structure by pore formation was also observed [37]. Not surprisingly, the affinity of cationic CPPs for anionic membranes is high and the electrostatic contribution leads to a decrease of the Born energy [40]. Herce et al. showed by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations that R9 is able to induce transient pores in the bilayer [41]. Also, R9 increases the membrane fluidity and make the lipid bilayer more prone to reorganization. Greater details for the behavior of cationic peptides are given below for a representative example of this class, the TAT peptide. 55.5.2.3 Amphipathic Peptides

In contrast to cationic peptides, the amphipathic TP10 does not require the presence of anionic lipids for translocation. Using confocal microscopy, it was shown that TP10 readily translocates into the interior of GUVs made from zwitterionic

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phosphatidylcholine (PC) only [42]. This observation suggested that the interaction between primary amphipathic CPPs and membranes is governed by hydrophobic interactions [43]. The affinity of Penetratin – a secondary amphipathic CPP – for membrane bilayers was studied using isothermal titration calorimetry of fluorescently labeled peptides [44]. The binding constant is ∼106 M−1 for large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) containing ≥20% anionic lipids and drops significantly for less anionic LUVs [45]. It was also shown that the affinity of Penetratin for membrane is driven by enthalpy. Thus, the binding of this CPP to bilayer surfaces is rather governed by the “nonclassical” hydrophobic effect [46], although this notion has been questioned in Ref. [47]. Binding of secondary amphipathic CPPs to membranes involves an exothermic conformational transition of CPPs from a random coil to α or β motifs that contributes to the binding energy [48]. For example, Penetratin is a random coil in the presence of zwitterionic lipids. Increasing the percentage of anionic phosphatidylglycerol (PG) lipids in the composition of the membrane Penetratin adopts a helical conformation [49, 50]. Lamazière et al. showed that Penetratin induces a negative membrane curvature, which resulted in the induction of membrane tubulations and invaginations in GUVs that mimic an endocytic uptake [51]. Consequently, they designated this process as “physical endocytosis.” It is inhibited in liquid-ordered (Lo) membranes, but favored in liquid-disordered (Ld) membranes. This suggests that internalization of such peptides requires a certain lipid mobility. Lamaziere et al. further showed that Penetratin is able to induce phase separation of membrane bilayers in combination with Penetratin-rich cluster formation [52]. They suggested that the increase of peptide local concentration on separated membrane domains then leads to membrane-negative curvature causing undulations, vesiculation, and/or tube formation and possibly inverse micelles. These stark alterations of membrane topology would cause transient pores and influx of the peptide. In summary, for primary amphipathic CPPs, the hydrophobic contribution is essential to membrane binding, while for secondary amphipathic CPPs, the electrostatic contribution increases with the percent of anionic lipids in membranes. 55.5.2.4 Role of Membrane Composition and Lipid Topology

The lipid topology determines the local curvature of bilayers [53]. Cone-shaped lipids such as phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) can locally induce negative membrane curvatures, whereas cylinder-shaped lipids such as phosphatidylserine (PS), PG, and PC form planar bilayers. It was observed that accumulation of CPPs in LUVs is less efficient than in GUVs. To explain this behavior, Persson et al. proposed a correlation between membrane curvature, membrane tension, and the ability of Penetratin to translocate across model membranes [54]. In general, peptides favoring negative curvatures are more efficient in membrane translocation [55]. The orientation and insertion of a peptide in the bilayer depends not only on its secondary structure but also on the lipid composition of the membrane. Pep-1 is inserted perpendicular to the surface into the hydrophobic domain of

55.6 Application Aspects

1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) membrane, whereas in more fluid membranes, such as 1-oleoyl, 2-palmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC), it shows no preferred orientation [56, 57]. The interaction of CPPs with charged vesicles strongly depends on the model system and is quite different for small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs) compared to LUVs [50]. Generally, the translocation depends on the membrane composition and peptide chain length [58, 59]. Recent experiments with vesicles made from native plasma membranes containing the native lipid mixture, membrane proteins, and glycoconjugates revealed that CPPs such as TAT, Penetratin, and TP10 are internalized without membrane disruption [60]. The translocation of CPPs across these native membranes usually occurs through Ld membrane domains low in cholesterol and sphingomyelin [61].

55.6 Application Aspects 55.6.1 Clinical Application of CPPs

CPP-modified nanocarriers are very promising tools for pharmaceutical research in the field of intracellular delivery of drugs to selected tissues [62]. A “smart” nanocarrier conjugated with TAT was recently developed to be sensitive to the extracellular matrix metalloprotease 2 (MMP2), an enzyme upregulated in tumors [63]. These delivery platforms are composed of liposomes loaded with the drug, hydrophilic, and flexible, long polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains to prevent nonspecific interactions and extend their circulation time, an antinucleosome monoclonal antibody (mAb 2C5) for specific targeting of the carrier, a linker sensitive to MMP2 between PEG and liposome, and TAT peptides. The nanocarriers specifically target tumor sites by action of mAb 2C5 and are retained there because of the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect typical for malignant tumor tissue. Then, MMP2 from the tumor microenvironment cleaves the MMP2-sensitive linker and removes the protective long-chain PEG. Thus, TAT is exposed and facilitates the cellular internalization. Such nanocarrier delivery systems optimize the internalization of drug molecules in cancer cells. Another recent study exploited CPPs as bioenhancers for the nasal delivery of interferon beta (IFN-β) and IFN-β in its PEGylated form (PEG-IFN-β) in rats. It was shown that a noncovalent administration strategy of Penetratin combined with PEG-IFN-β significantly increased the nasal absorption of the drug and extended the retention time in a dose-dependent manner. Also, the toxicity assessments showed no damage to the epithelial membranes after nasal absorption [64]. Gene therapy is a further application field with promising perspectives for CPPs. CPPs conjugated with plasmid DNA represent a classical tool for restoration or replacement of functioning, respectively, malfunctioning genes [65]. Arginine-rich CPPs (SR9, HR9, and PR9) were successfully used to transfer plasmid DNA into human cells in a noncovalent manner [66]. Liu et al. also reported that the

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treatment with calcium chloride did not facilitate transfection efficiency with CPPs but improved the gene expression intensity. Delivery of small interfering RNA (siRNA) has also promising therapeutic applications in viral infection treatments, hereditary disorder, or cancer treatments [67]. Until now, phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMOs) are the most widely used antiviral cargos conjugated to CPPs [68]. CPP-PMO conjugates are water-soluble, nuclease-resistant, and act as steric-blocking antisense agents because of the formation of stable duplexes with complementary RNA and reduce viral replication and increase survival in infected mice [69]. A new developed cationic lipid peptide, Deca-(R)8, was shown to inhibit duck hepatitis B virus replication by a novel antiviral mechanism, without targeting the viral polymerase [70]. A large number of preclinical studies on CPP-based therapies have been performed in the past two decades, but only a few peptides are currently in actual clinical trials. Thus, CPPs and CPP-drug conjugates were successfully used to deliver chemotherapeutics (e.g. doxorubicin, methotrexate, cyclosporine A, and paclitaxel) in muscular dystrophy, cardiology, prion diseases, and both viral and bacterial infections [69]. The first clinical trial involving a CPP was a cyclosporine– polyarginine conjugate for treatment of the skin disease psoriasis (PsorBan1 by CellGate Inc.) [71]. The drug entered phase II of clinical trials in 2003, but it was eventually discontinued. At present, CPPs involved in clinical trials include AZX100 (Capstone Therapeutics), a peptide that mimics heat shock proteins (HSP20), KAI9803 (KAI Pharmaceuticals), a protein kinase C𝛿 inhibitor-TAT conjugate for myocardial infarction, pain, and cytoprotection/ischemia, and XG-102 (Auris Medical) for curing intraocular inflammation and hearing loss [65]. 55.6.2 Targeting CPPs

CPPs are generally accepted as putative unique tools to overcome the cell membrane barrier and carry different cargo molecules into the cellular interior, but their low specificity limits their application for targeted delivery of drugs or imaging agents. In the attempt to overcome this drawback, numerous studies offering new ideas to increase the specificity of CPPs were performed. As mentioned above, one possibility is bioconjugation of CPPs with “smart” molecules. These “smart” nanocarrier delivery systems are sensitive to local environmental conditions typical for certain physiological conditions as they occur in cancer or in infarct inflammatory tissue such as lower pH, higher temperature, altered redox potentials, and diseaseassociated proteases [72]. Also, there exist smart carriers that can be activated by external triggers such as heat, radiation, ultrasound, radiofrequencies, or magnetic fields [73]. Improved active tumor targeting includes the use of protein ligands for special cell surface receptors [74] that can be constructed based on monoclonal antibodies, aptamers, or peptides. The major advantage of receptor-mediated nanocarrier targeting is their accumulation on or within targeted cells and tissues for longer periods of time, thus avoiding the fast redistribution into systemic circulation [75]. CPP-mediated delivery of bioactive molecules has the advantage to allow reducing

55.6 Application Aspects

the administered dose, which also moderates putative unwanted side effects of drugs on healthy tissues. There are two ways to deliver cargo molecules into cells with CPPs: either by covalent or by noncovalent conjugation of cargo and CPP. The first one requires chemical synthesis with the cargo involving methods usually based on thioether or thiolmaleimide ester formation and click chemistry [76]. Alternatively, noncovalent complexes of CPPs and cargo may be formed. This method is often used to deliver negatively charged molecules such as nucleotides, siRNA, or large DNA plasmids [77]. A major challenge in using CPPs as a cargo delivery system is the efficient release of cargo from endosomes after the endocytosis-mediated uptake into the cell of the peptide–cargo complex. Endosomes have an important role in the degradation of molecules and also in recycling of internalized molecules and receptors to the cell surface [7]. There are several strategies that exploit the low pH conditions of endosomes to enhance the intracytoplasmatic delivery such as fusogenic peptides, pH-sensitive polymers, pH-sensitive core–shell nanoparticles, and pH-sensitive liposomes [78]. Another solution is to use spontaneous membrane-translocating peptides, which deliver cargos under avoidance of endocytosis [79]. 55.6.3 Cell-Penetrating Homing Peptides

Over the past few years, much attention has been paid to so-called homing peptides, a class of peptides that bind after systemic delivery specifically to either normal tissues or tissues in pathological conditions [80]. Each healthy organ displays a specific molecular signature, a “zip code” system on their vasculature, which is modified under pathological conditions. This can be exploited to target cargo molecules using peptides that aim for such molecular markers. Peptides homing tumor blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and/or tumor cells or normal organs can be isolated using in vivo phage display [81]. This technique is based on genetic engineering of bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) and repeated rounds of antigen- or receptorguided selection and phage propagation. In vivo phage display uses phage libraries, in which each individual phage expresses a unique peptide sequence or protein fragment on its surface [82]. This method has also been used to identify cell- and tumortype-specific CPPs [83]. So far, homing peptides are the preferred ligands to achieve specificity for drug delivery systems because of their low molecular weight, low immunogenicity, long-term storage stability, easy synthesis, and modification and low interference in vivo [84]. The first homing peptides revealed by in vivo phage display include arginine– glycine–aspartic acid (RGD) and asparagine–glycine–arginine (NGR) [85]. The RGD peptide has affinity for αvβ3 and αvβ5 integrins, which are heterodimeric proteins that mediate interactions with the extracellular matrix. They play an important role in tumor cell growth, migration, and invasion. Poor penetration of anticancer drugs into tumors often limits their efficacy. Conjugation of the anticancer agent tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) with either RGD or NGR peptides significantly enhanced their antitumor activity. The required dose was approximately 1000-fold

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lower than that of unconjugated free TNF-α. Therefore, the side effects of this highly toxic cytokine could dramatically be reduced [86]. A big step forward in the field of homing peptides was the discovery of multifunctional peptides that are capable not only of tumor homing but also of membrane penetration. The tumor-penetrating peptide iRGD (CRGDK/RGPD/EC) specifically homes to αv integrins that are expressed on tumor endothelium, tumor fibroblast, and tumor cells [87]. Coadministration of iRGD and antitumor drugs facilitates their penetration into tumor tissues. The delivery of the drug is efficient even without chemical conjugation to the peptide [88]. Tumor-penetrating iRGD peptides contain a C-terminal arginine (or lysine) CendR motif, R/KXXR/K, where X designates a random amino acid, which is essential for the internalization [87]. These peptides follow an active transport pathway. After binding to integrins, the peptide is proteolytically cleaved, which leads to the C-terminal exposure of the CendR motif as the binding motif for the cell surface receptor neuropilin-1, which finally mediates penetration into the tumor cells [89]. The iRGD peptide was already tested in phase I and II clinical trials [80]. Besides iRGD, further penetrating homing peptides containing the CendR motifs have been identified, such as Lyp-1 and F3 [83]. The cell-penetrating homing peptides differ from the classical CPPs in the internalization way into cell, being tumor-type specific, while CPPs are able to enter all cells they encounter, without any selection. Therefore, the development of such peptides means a considerable advance in current cancer treatment and diagnosis methods. 55.6.4 Toxicity

In general, CPPs display a low level of cellular toxicity, which is the one of the main reasons for their application in drug delivery systems. Cationic peptides such as Penetratin, TAT, or R9 showed only low or mild toxic effects [90]. Systematic studies on arginine-based peptides comprising between 5 and 12 arginines revealed that eight was the minimal number of arginines required for cellular internalization to occur [91]. The cellular uptake of peptides increases with the number of arginines, but so does the cytotoxicity. Nona-arginine displays the best combination of high translocation efficiency and tolerable toxicity. Among cationic peptides, cytotoxicity varies in the following order: TAT < Penetratin < oligoarginines [92]. The toxicity can be modified by the conjugation with cargo molecules. For example, TAT or Penetratin linked to large cargo peptides display an enhanced toxicity compared to small cargoes or unconjugated peptides [93]. Penetratin alone has a significantly higher toxicity than TAT inducing cell death at concentrations above 10–30 μM, whereas TAT peptide shows some toxicity at a concentration beyond 100 μM. There are also reports that low-molecular-weight molecules such as carboxyfluorescein would increase CPP toxicity [94]. Large molecular cargoes are internalized by endocytosis and the lower toxicity in this case may just result from the lower bioavailability of CPP-cargo molecules in the cytoplasm [95]. Not surprisingly, amphipathic peptides such as transportan and model amphipathic peptide (MAP), which induce

55.8 Internalization of TAT Peptides

membrane leakage, are generally more toxic than R9 or TAT. The toxicity of these peptides is probably associated with their hydrophobicity [96].

55.7 Focus on TAT

The TAT peptide is the best known and mostly utilized CPP. The HIV1-TAT protein comprising 86–101 amino acids (depending on the subtype) was discovered in the context of AIDS research in 1988. This 10 kDa protein displayed a remarkable ability to penetrate cell plasma membranes [1, 2]. Further studies revealed that the minimal section required for cell penetration of this molecule was much shorter, namely the amino acids 48–57 (GRKKRRQRRR) of the protein. This peptide is designated as HIV1-TAT [4] or simply TAT. TAT is highly cationic containing six arginines and two lysines. It has been shown that the amount and rate of cellular uptake of arginine-rich CPPs strongly depends on the number of basic residues and especially arginines [91]. Thus, substitution of a noncharged glutamine residue with alanine has no effect on cellular uptake, but substitution of any of the basic residues (arginine or lysine) significantly decreases the cellular uptake. TAT peptides show a great capability to deliver a plethora of cargoes such as fluorophores, nucleotides, proteins, drugs [97], imaging and radiotherapeutic agents [98], and genes into living cells [99]. TAT peptides could not only deliver large molecules such as proteins with a mass exceeding 100 kDa but also magnetic nanoparticles with diameters of 40 nm, quantum dots and even 200 nm liposomes into the cellular interior [100, 101].

55.8 Internalization of TAT Peptides 55.8.1 Experimental Results on Cellular Systems

Growing evidence revealed both active and passive, i.e. nonendocytic, internalization pathways for TAT. Caveolin-dependent endocytosis in HeLa and HL3T1 cells was shown for TAT-avidin and a fusion protein comprising the TAT peptide and an enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) [18]. Clathrin-dependent endocytosis for fluorescently labeled TAT peptides was observed in HeLa, HepG2, and Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells [20, 102]. Wadia et al. had shown the evidence for a macropinocytotic mechanism of TAT internalization in live mouse cells [103]. Experiments with the inhibitor of lipid raft formation methyl-β-cyclodextrin suggested that uptake of fluorescently labeled TAT peptide and 30 kDa TAT fusion proteins is mediated by lipid raft-dependent macropinocytosis in Namalwa cells [104]. Duchardt et al. showed using inhibitors for different active mechanisms, i.e. chlorpromazine, 5-(N-ethyl-N-isopropyl) amiloride, and methyl-β-cyclodextrin,

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that TAT and other arginine-rich CPPs were internalized by all three endocytic pathways, clathrin- and caveolae-mediated endocytosis and macropinocytosis, depending on peptide concentration [17]. At low peptide concentrations up to 10 μM, TAT entered through caveolae/lipid-raft-mediated endocytosis and macropinocytosis and at higher concentrations clathrin-mediated internalization was more likely. Tünnemann et al. [95] showed that TAT traverses cell membranes with high efficiency by at least two mechanisms depending on the size of the cargo. Big molecules, such as proteins or quantum dots, enter via caveolae endocytosis and macropinocytosis. Small cargoes, such as peptides of less than 30–40 amino acids, enter slowly by endocytosis and rapidly by direct translocation designated as transduction that utilizes the membrane potential. Growing evidence does not support the idea of specific cell surface receptors for TAT as the experiments with L- and D-enantiomeric peptides suggested [105]. Ziegler et al. found that internalization of a fluorescein-labeled TAT peptide was heparan sulfate dependent [106]. Further studies showed that heparan sulfatedependent uptake rely on the concentration of the peptide [17]. At low peptide concentrations (1 μM), removal of cell surface heparan sulfates had no effect on TAT peptide uptake. Instead, TAT at 100 μM was internalized only in the presence of cell surface heparan sulfate. To clarify the question of endocytic or nonendocytotic pathways of TAT translocation, Ter-Avetisyan et al. used genetically modified cell systems to inhibit the various endocytic uptake routes [19]. They excluded the pathway of clathrin-mediated endocytosis by a carefully controlled knockdown experiment. Furthermore, they showed that also caveolin-mediated endocytosis was not involved in TAT translocation because caveolin knockout cells showed an identical transduction frequency to wild-type cells. Most importantly, TAT was not excluded from cells that were gently transferred to 4 ∘ C, a state where all potential active endocytic pathways including macropinocytosis were inhibited. Thus, these experiments demonstrated – in stark contrast to many of the above cited studies – that the translocation of TAT into living cells is not dependent on any endocytic or pinocytic process, although the frequency and kinetics of TAT uptake varied between different cell types. A significant breakthrough in the understanding of the translocation mechanism of arginine-rich peptides such as TAT or R9 was achieved by [107]. An elegant combination of theoretical computations, in vitro, and live cell experiments revealed an efficient translocation mechanism of arginine-rich peptides on the basis of fatty acids and the plasma membrane pH gradient [107]. They proposed that fatty acids contained in the cellular membrane bind extracellular arginine-rich peptides at high pH, mediate their membrane transport, and release them into the lower pH environment of the cytosol. They presented in vitro experiments that demonstrated all of the major steps of this mechanism. Computational results revealed that deprotonated fatty acids reduce the free energy of insertion of arginine-rich peptides into model phospholipid bilayers, and this insertion leads to the formation of a water-filled channel across the cellular lipid bilayer. Accordingly, live-cell experiments showed that both the extracellular pH and the cell membrane fatty acid content modulate the cell transduction of arginine-rich

55.8 Internalization of TAT Peptides

peptides into living cells. Furthermore, the proposed mechanism described the puzzling cell uptake differences observed between poly-arginine and poly-lysine peptides. The suggested mechanism should be universal across cells from different species. 55.8.2 TAT Peptide and Its Interaction with Model Membranes 55.8.2.1 Membrane Binding

Model membranes are very useful to elucidate the nonendocytic entry routes of peptides because enzyme-driven, energy-dependent processes do not exist. It is generally agreed that electrostatic forces between the positively charged peptide TAT and negative charges of phospholipids play an important role for the binding of the peptide to the membrane [108]. Ziegler et al. showed by isothermal calorimetry (ITC) experiments that the electrostatic contribution is large and accounts for 80% of the binding energy between peptides and membrane [109]. Nonelectrostatic forces, such as hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic or van der Waals forces, contribute about ∼20% to the binding energy. Ziegler et al. also showed that the affinity of peptides for membranes below 37 ∘ C is enthalpy driven and that the binding entropy increases with temperature. As a result, nonelectrostatic interactions are due to hydrophobic effects. As expected, the interaction between TAT peptide and the negatively charged membrane remains unaffected by changing the chemical nature of the negative charge, such as replacing PG with PS, and it is attenuated in the presence of a high salt concentration [109]. It was suggested that efficient binding of TAT requires a fluid membrane with lipids in the Ld state [108]. We could not corroborate these results. We studied the binding of fluorescently labeled TAT peptides to membranes of GUVs by singlemolecule microscopy [110]. To this end, we generated neutral and anionic GUVs containing DPPC, 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC), and cholesterol and containing DPPC, DOPC, cholesterol, and 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3phospho-L-serine (DPPS), respectively, by electroformation. Notably, the mole fraction of anionic DPPS was chosen as 0.15. In order to obtain reference values, we first measured the diffusion of single fluorescently labeled lipid tracers (Texas Redlabeled DHPE) within Lo and Ld lipid phases by single-molecule tracking yielding a DLo of 0.6 ± 0.05 μm2 s−1 and a DLd of 2.5 ± 0.05 μm2 s−1 , respectively. The mobility was identical for neutral and anionic lipids. Figure 55.3 shows the jump distance histograms, which were the basis of the analysis. To obtain these data, the diffusional motion of single fluorescent lipid tracer molecules was observed on the GUV surface by sensitive and fast video microscopy. Single-molecule signals could be well detected and connected to single-particle trajectories. Each single-molecule trajectory was defined by coordinates (xi , yi ). The probability that a molecule starting at a given position is found in a distance r within a shell of width dr from the start position at time t is given by: p(r, t) dr =

1 −r2 ∕4Dt 2𝜋 r dr e 4𝜋D t

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55 Cell-Penetrating Peptides Targeting and Distorting Biological Membranes

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Figure 55.3 Analysis of TR-DHPE diffusion on neutral and anionic GUVs. Jump distance analysis for TR-DHPE in neutral GUVs made from (a) DPPC/cholesterol (Lo, neutral) and (b) DOPC/cholesterol (Ld, neutral). TR-DHPE moves more rapidly within GUVs known to have an Ld phase with a diffusion coefficient of D = 2.53 ± 0.05 μm2 /s compared to GUVs known to comprise an Lo phase, D = 0.6 ± 0.02 μm2 /s. (c and d) Jump distance analysis for TR-DHPE in anionic GUVs made from (c) DPPC/cholesterol/DPPS

0

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(Lo, anionic) and (d) DOPC/cholesterol/1,2dioleoyl-sn- glycero-3-phospho-L-serine (DOPS) (Ld, anionic). Here, TR-DHPE diffuse faster within GUVs with an Ld phase with a diffusion coefficient of D = 2.54 ± 0.05 μm2 /s compared to GUVs, which exhibit an Lo phase, D = 0.55 ± 0.02 μm2 /s. Thus, lipid mobility does not depend on the charge of the membrane. (Source: Ciobanasu et al. 2009 [110]. Reprinted with permission of American Chemical Society.)

This equation is valid for a single-particle species diffusing in two dimensions. Experimentally, this probability distribution can be approximated by a frequency distribution, determined by counting the jump distances within respective intervals [r, r + dr] traveled by single particles after t. In the jump distributions shown in Figure 55.3, the distances between molecular positions in successive frames were evaluated. In further experiments, the behavior of fluorescently labeled TAT peptides on the GUV surface was examined. The peptides slightly accumulated on neutral GUVs but bound very efficiently to negatively charged GUVs. Single-molecule tracking revealed that HIV1 TAT peptides move on neutral GUVs with a DTAT of 5.3 ± 0.2 μm2 /s and on anionic GUVs with a DTAT of 3.3 ± 0.2 μm2 /s (Figure 55.4). Obviously, TAT diffusion was significantly faster than lipid diffusion. Also, we found it to be independent of the phase state of the GUV membrane. Thus, we concluded that TAT peptides are not integrated into the membrane bilayer but rather “floating” on the membrane surface. The lower diffusion coefficient on

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55.8 Internalization of TAT Peptides

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Figure 55.4 Analysis of R-TAT diffusion on neutral and anionic GUVs at low concentration. Jump distance analysis for rhodamine-TAT (R-TAT) in neutral GUVs made from (a) DPPC/cholesterol (Lo, neutral) and (b) DOPC/cholesterol (Ld, neutral). (c and d) Jump distance analysis for R-TAT in anionic GUVs made from (c) DPPC/cholesterol/DPPS (Lo, anionic) and

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(d) DPPC/cholesterol/DPPS (Ld, anionic). R-TAT moves more rapidly within or on membranes of neutral GUVs with a diffusion coefficient of 5.3 ± 0.2 μm2 /s compared to anionic GUVs, D = 3.3 ± 0.2 μm2 /s. Obviously, TAT mobility does not depend on the lipid phase. (Source: Ciobanasu et al. 2009 [110]. Reprinted with permission of American Chemical Society.)

negatively charged lipid bilayers suggested that they immerged deeper into the head group domain of anionic lipids. Furthermore, we determined the peptide mobility as a function of TAT concentration in a concentration range from 150 pM to 2 μM and did not find any dependence. From this, we concluded that the peptides were independent from each other, indicating that the peptides did not form any “carpet.” These results were consistent with those of previous studies, who also did not observe a significant distortion of the membrane structure by TAT [108, 109]. 55.8.2.2 Membrane Translocation

There are experimental reports that suggest that translocation of TAT peptides depends on the curvature of model membranes. Thus, it was seen that fluorescently labeled TAT peptides can directly traverse the lipid bilayers of GUVs but not that of LUVs of the same composition [111]. Together with the topology, the composition of the membrane seems to play a very important role in TAT peptide translocation. Mishra et al. [112] showed internalization of the peptide in GUVs with diameters of 5–30 μm comprising 40% of 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DOPE). Using synchrotron-based small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), they

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55 Cell-Penetrating Peptides Targeting and Distorting Biological Membranes

detected that TAT induces a negative Gaussian (“saddle-splay”) membrane curvature that might eventually lead to disruption of membranes and actual pore formation. The formation of transient, water-filled pores by arginine-rich TAT peptides was initially predicted by MD simulations [113] and later experimentally observed at the structurally related example of R9 by electrophysiology experiments on planar lipid bilayers [41]. The extensive MD simulations revealed a possible molecular mechanism for TAT peptide translocation based on the strong interactions between the cationic TAT and the negatively charged phosphate groups of the lipid bilayer [113]. The proposed mechanism was composed of five steps: (i) At low peptide concentration, the arginines and lysines bind to the phospholipid phosphate and carbonyl groups and accumulate at the interface with the carbon chains of lipids. (ii) The binding leads to an increase of the local TAT concentration and the peptides start to sequester phosphate groups from neighboring phospholipids. At a certain concentration, the positive charges of the TAT peptides from the proximal layer begin to interact with the negatively charged phosphate groups in the distal bilayer. This distorts and thins the bilayer. (iii) Because of stochastic thermal motion, arginine side chains may translocate to the distal face of the bilayer and thus nucleate the formation of transient water pores with a size of 3 nm in the membrane with a half-life shorter than 1 ms. (iv) Once the pore is formed, a few peptides may translocate by diffusing along the walls of the pore. (v) Finally, the pore closes when the negative charges on the distal bilayer are locally compensated. An explicit pore formation was also observed in our own experiments. We used confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) to systematically examine the interaction of fluorescently labeled TAT with GUVs of different lipid compositions and putative peptide and tracer translocation [34]. We observed that for GUVs made of neutral phosphatidylcholine (PC) and cholesterol, peptides just accumulate on the vesicle surface without internalization. Upon systematically increasing the molar ratio of the anionic PS in the model membranes containing PC, PS, and cholesterol, accumulation of the peptide on the GUVs dramatically increased (Figure 55.5a,b). Even more, at a threshold of 40 mol% anionic PS, peptides directly translocated into GUVs (Figure 55.5c). In this case, we also observed that the interaction between peptides and some anionic GUVs was so strong that it could provoke vesicle disruption caused by membrane destabilization. Furthermore, we performed efflux experiments of GUVs that were loaded with fluorescent tracers of different molecular weights before addition of the peptides (Figure 55.6). GUVs with 40 mol% PS released small dye molecules with molecular weight up to 4 kDa, but not large molecules such as 40 or 70 kDa dextran upon incubation with 2 μM TAT (Figures 55.5c and 55.6c). We concluded that the TAT translocation into the GUVs was due to the formation of membrane pores with diameters up to 1.3–2.0 nm. Similarly to PS, we gradually increased the concentration of PE in the composition of GUVs, a cone-shaped lipid that creates local and intrinsic negative curvature. In this case, the translocation of TAT peptide across the GUV membrane was observed already at 20 mol% PE. Efflux experiments showed that only small dye molecules (AlexaFluor 647) were completely released

55.8 Internalization of TAT Peptides 250

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Figure 55.5 Interaction of fluorescently labeled TAT peptides with anionic GUVs. Confocal imaging of TAT peptide labeled with Alexa Fluor 647 (AF-TAT) interaction with anionic GUV after 30 minutes of incubation: (a) membranes with 20 mol% PS, (b) membranes with 30 mol% PS, and (c) membranes with 40 mol% PS. The plots in the upper plane quantify the intensity of fluorescent TAT peptides along a central line across the

PS 30%

(c)

PS 40%

GUVs. The internalization of TAT peptide can be seen in (c) by the equilibration of the fluorescence across the GUV membrane. Also, it can be noted that the vesicles were deformed. All experiments were done in the presence of 40 kDa FITC-dextran (lower panel). It does not pass the membrane in any of the experiments. Scale bar, 20 μm. (Source: Ciobanasu et al. 2010 [34]. Reprinted with permission of Biophysical Society.)

from GUVs, suggesting a smaller diameter for induced pores in PE than for PS containing membranes. In conclusion, membrane staining of neutral GUVs by fluorescently labeled TAT can be observed and increases with the content of PS or PE but does depend on the lipid composition. In a recent paper, the role of PS and cholesterol for TAT peptide translocation was systematically investigated by coarse-grained MD simulations [114]. Hu and Patel use DPPC/DPPS lipids as model bilayers with 0 or 20 mol% cholesterol. Thus, they reproduced the same membrane compositions that we used in our experiments discussed above. As expected, Hu and Patel observed that the addition of cholesterol stabilized the liquid-ordered membrane phase. Simultaneously, this increased the energy barrier for peptide translocation. Upon addition of the anionic PS to the membrane, however, TAT peptide translocation was favored in agreement with our experimental observations. In the simulations, even the formation of distinct toroidal pores with a hydrophilic interior was observed. Once a pore was formed, peptide translocation occurred with little energetic costs. Notably, the size of the

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55 Cell-Penetrating Peptides Targeting and Distorting Biological Membranes

R-TAT

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Figure 55.6 Pore formation by TAT peptides in GUVs with 40 mol% PS. (a) The upper panel shows the binding and translocation of 2 μM R-TAT (not quantified here, but see Figure 55.5), and the lower panel shows the leakage of Alexa Fluor 647 out of the vesicle. (b) Upper panel shows the binding and translocation of AF-TAT peptide, and

the lower panel shows the partial release of 3 kDa dextran labeled with Alexa Fluor 546. (c) Upper panel, AF-TAT; lower panel, 70 kDa dextran labeled with Alexa Fluor 546. This large molecule cannot pass the membrane. Scale bar, 20 μm. (Source: Ciobanasu et al. 2010 [34]. Reprinted with permission of Biophysical Society.)

55.8 Internalization of TAT Peptides

observed pores in the simulation with a diameter of 1.5–2.0 nm agreed well with our previous experimental results. Interestingly, Hu and Patel also examined the mobility of TAT peptides on the membrane surface in silico [114]. The peptide diffusion was found to be faster on neutral lipid systems than on the anionic membranes, which again agreed with our data (Figure 55.4). However, the diffusion constants of the simulation yielded values that were 10 times faster than our experimental results. This difference may be due to several factors: our diffusion measurements were performed at room temperature (300 K) using fluorescently labeled TAT peptides, whereas the simulation resembled 350 K and pure, unlabeled TAT peptides. Also, it is well known that it is not straightforward to translate the time unit of MD simulations to real-world data. Lattig-Tunnemann and coworkers investigated the membrane translocation of TAT and other arginine-rich peptides as a function of their structural rigidity. They examined a rigid cyclic TAT peptide and its linear and more flexible counterparts by a combination of MD simulations, analytical ultracentrifugation, and live cell microscopy [115]. MD simulations of TAT peptides on membranes composed of DOPC or DOPC:DOPE (1 : 1) suggested that TAT peptides localize in the head group region of bilayers close to the carbonyl-glycerol group. The peptide entered more frequently into the hydrophobic core of PC : PE membranes than into bilayers composed of PC lipids only. The existence of PE facilitated translocations of the peptide by stabilizing intermediate states, in which hydrated peptides span the bilayer. Lattig-Tunnemann et al. found that the maximal separation of the guanidium groups due to the cyclization enhanced the transduction efficiency of arginine-rich CPPs. They proposed that this is due to increased membrane contacts facilitated by the rigid cyclic backbone structure. The data of Lattig-Tunnemann propose that rigidity resulting in an ideal interface for interaction with membrane constituents is more important than structural flexibility to facilitate peptide transduction. They demonstrated that “needle”-like peptide structures are not required for transduction. Their findings suggest interesting alternative molecular engineering strategies for putative, more efficient vectors for transporting cargo molecules into living cells. 55.8.3 TAT Peptides for the Delivery of Therapeutic Agents

TAT peptides can be used to increase the intracellular delivery of nanocarriers loaded with poorly water-soluble drugs and of inorganic nanoparticles including silica, iron, silver, and gold nanoparticles [7]. TAT-modified silver nanoparticles display antitumor activity in both multidrug-resistant and nonresistant cancer cells, while nanosilver alone is poorly internalized [116]. Dekiwadia et al. delivered gold nanoparticles with TAT into lysosomes and lysosome-like structures with minimal toxicity [117]. The intracellular targeting using gold nanoparticles has therapeutic applications such as the near-infrared thermal ablation of tumors.

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The TAT peptide can be administered via almost all clinical routes: orally, injection (intravenous, subcutaneous, and intramuscular), transdermal delivery [118], or mucosal drug delivery [119]. Recently, Zhang et al. developed a novel recombinant fusion protein, TAT-IL-24-KDEL, as an anticancer drug [120]. Interleukin-24 (IL24) selectively induces apoptosis in cancer cells through a mechanism involving endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response without harming normal cells. Thus, the fusion protein is composed of three distinct functional domains, IL-24, TAT, and finally the tetrapeptide Lys–Asp–Glu–Leu (KDEL), that link at its amino and carboxy terminal. KDEL targets the fusion protein to the ER and Golgi apparatus. The natural recombinant IL-24 does not penetrate into cancer cells, unlike TAT-IL-24, which enters cells but without the ability to locate at the ER as effective as TAT-IL24-KDEL. The in vitro results indicated that TAT-IL-24-KDEL inhibited growth in bladder cancer cells, in a lung cancer cell line, and in a breast cancer cell line, but the normal human lung fibroblast cell line was not affected. This indicated a significant cancer specificity of TAT-IL-24-KDEL. More recent publications suggest that TAT peptides have a great potential in treatments of neurodegenerative diseases, malignant brain tumors, cerebral ischemia, pain, and myocardial infarction (see reviews in Ref. [121, 122]). The field is immense; here, we can only give a few examples. The antiapoptotic protein Bcl-xL conjugated to TAT was used for neuroprotection in a murine middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model [123]. In addition, TAT-BH4 domain of the Bcl-xL conjugate could decrease apoptosis in primary cardiomyocytes after intravenous injection in a myocardial ischemia mouse model [124]. In vivo evidence showed the antitumor effects of Tat-conjugated P15, a peptide inhibiting the activity of casein kinase 2 (CK2), which induced apoptosis when conjugated to TAT in different tumor cell lines [125, 126]. TAT peptide was fused to therapeutic proteins to facilitate their entry in various cell types at a dose-dependent approach [127]. For example, a large protein (β-galactosidase, 480 kDa) could be carried across the blood–brain barrier by fusion with TAT after intraperitoneal injection [128]. TAT peptides have entered different phases of clinical trials, although no therapy has yet been approved by the American Food and Drug Administration. Some examples are as follows. In 2007, subcutaneous injection of protein kinase C𝛿 inhibitor-TAT conjugates was evaluated in phase I and II clinical trials for blood flow restoration after a heart attack, spinal cord injury, or postoperative pain and prevention of ischemic injury [129]. Only one successful clinical trial for TAT showed good results and was closed in 2012 (with number NCT00728182, ClinicalTrials.gov). In this trial, TAT peptide was conjugated with NA-1, a compound that disrupts the signaling pathways that maintain the neuronal viability and inhibits the brain damage caused by reduced blood flow. This conjugate could be tested in phase II of clinical trials for reducing small embolic strokes in patients that experienced neurosurgery to repair aneurysms [29, 129]. A further phase II clinical trial was performed using TAT peptides to deliver botulinum toxin type A/wrinkles removal (RT-001) [127].

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55.9 Summary and Conclusions

In the last two decades, CPPs have been intensively investigated and developed as vectors to deliver various kinds of cargo molecules and particles into living cells. CPPs were shown to be able to transport macromolecules across membranes to the cytoplasm, nucleus, and even through the blood–brain barrier. Different biophysical factors and physiochemical properties including charge, amphipathicity, secondary structure, length, charge distribution, concentration, and the properties of the conjugated cargo molecule such as its type, size, and charge play important roles for entry of CPP-cargo into cells. Meanwhile, it is accepted that peptides are internalized by two fundamentally different mechanisms, energy-independent penetration of membranes and active, endocytic uptake. A major challenge in the field of CPPs is to target the delivery of drugs or imaging agents to specific cell types, tissues, or organs. Several options to improve the specificity of CPPs have been employed, i.e. bioconjugation with “smart” molecules sensitive to local environmental properties such as pH, temperature, altered redox potentials, and disease-associated proteases or with ligands for special cell surface receptors. For this purpose, monoclonal antibodies, aptamers, or peptides have been used. Nevertheless, translation into medical applications of CPPs still needs clarification of underlying mechanisms of internalization and delivery of CPP conjugates. Understanding the mechanisms driving the cell entry and toxic effects of CPPs will help to design improved and optimized peptides with low toxicity, high penetration activity, and efficient conjugation for the delivery of therapeutic molecules.

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Index a ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations 144–146, 482, 487, 488, 785 – Born–Oppenheimer approximation 146, 148 – electronic structure problem 146 adsorbate free electrode surfaces 547 adsorbed iodide 595 adsorption – computational methods 784–788 – electrocatalysis 782–784 advanced light source (ALS) 758 alcohol crossover 850 alcohol oxidation 848–850 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ionic liquids – alkyl chain length effect on surface structure 364–370 – anion size effect on surface structure 371–373 – HR-ERDA spectra 360, 361 – HR-RBS spectra 358, 360, 361, 363 – MD simulations 362–364 – molecular structure 358 – preferential orientation 362, 364 𝛼-reconstruction 611 ambient pressure XPS (APXPS) 758–760 amorphous solid water (ASW) layer 266 amphipathic cell-penetrating peptides 444, 447 angle resolved ion scattering spectroscopy (ARISS) 335, 336 – polymer-stabilized Pt nanoparticles embedded in ionic liquids 340 – of pure solvents (formamide and benzyl alcohol) 335–338 – surfactant solutions 337, 339

anionic O sites, hydroxylation and de-hydroxylation 766 anisotropic wettability 434 anodic polarization 765 anthropogenic CO2 emissions 733 anti-icing/anti-fogging coatings 398 antimicrobial activity 215, 216, 218 antimicrobial peptides (AMP) 213–218 apertureless IR version, of SNOM 111 arginine-rich – clinical application, of CPPs 449–450 – TAT peptides, translocation mechanism of 454 ARXPS 233 – 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ionic liquids 307 – concentration depth profile determination 267, 287 – POPC/TBABr/HPN system 322–324 – TBAI/formamide system 279 atomic cations adsorption – cadmium – Cu(111), Cu(100) 638–647 – copper – Au(111) 647–659 – metal deposition 635–638 atomic force microscopy (AFM) 106, 535 – biological systems 103, 108 – force-mapping mode 107 – freshly isolated outer mitochondrial membranes 107 – interaction forces between biomolecules 108 – liquid/solid interfaces – – asymmetric cationic Gemini surfactant on mica surface 109 – – limitation 106 – – in nonbiological systems 108 – – poly(2-vinylpyridine) conformations 110

Surface and Interface Science: Interfacial Electrochemistry, First Edition. Edited by Klaus Wandelt. © 2020 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA. Published 2020 by Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

948

Index

atomic force microscopy (AFM) (contd.) – in living systems, identifying changes 107 – vs. scanning tunneling microscopy 106 – tip functionalization approach 108 – ultrathin liquid film deposition on solid surface 335 attenuated total reflectance (ATR) spectroscopy 4–10 Auger de-excitation (AD) 232, 244 Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) 545, 546, 793 Auger neutralization (AN) 231, 243–245

boron-doped diamond (BDD) 71, 879 bottom-up approach 396, 416 bovine serum albumin (BSA) 51, 202, 205–207 bromide – Cu(110) 583–585 Brønsted-Evans-Polanyi principle 782, 816 Butler–Volmer (BV) equation 532, 776, 778, 779 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([BMP]+ [TFSA]– ) 509

c b bare metal 518, 547, 556 barrel-stave model 446, 447 basal planes 39, 98, 792, 793 battery-electric vehicles 733 bead electrode 544 Becke, Lee, Yang, and Parr (BLYP) functional 148 Belousov– Zhabotinsky reaction 891 Besocke-type scanner 539 binding energy (BE) 489, 760, 785, 815, 819, 825, 830, 831 biocompatibility 8, 85, 200, 209 biofilms – bacteria-resistant materials 212 – description 199 – formation 199 – functional and mature 199 – primary film 212 biofouling properties 221 biological membranes 343, 441 biomass electrocatalytic transformation 877–878 biomimetic surfaces 395 see also superhydrophobic surfaces biorecognition phenomena 199 biosensing 30, 199 bistable behaviour – CO electrooxidation – – cyclic voltammogram 908 – – electrooxidation mechanism 897 – – mathematical modeling 899–901 – CO oxidation – – bifurcation diagram 894, 895 – – hysteresis 894 – – mathematical modeling 896–897 – – UHV conditions 893–894 Bonn EC-STM 541, 542 Born–Oppenheimer approximation 146, 780 Born–Oppenheimer MD 145, 148

cadmium – Cu(111), Cu(100) 638–647 capillary rise method 408 capillary waves 335, 361, 363, 375–377, 424 captive bubble method 408 carbon model 904 Car–Parrinello molecular dynamics (CPMD) 532 carpet model 446 Cartesian coordinate system 497 Cassie–Baxter model 409–410 cationic peptides 447 caveolae-mediated endocytosis 444–446, 454 caveolin-dependent endocytosis 453 cell penetrating homing peptides 451–452 cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) – bioconjugation 450 – bioenhancers 449 – cargo delivery system 451 – classification 443–444 – clinical applications 449–450 – definition 442 – discovery 442–443 – endocytosis 446 – gene therapy 449 – membrane translocation 446 – modes of action 444–449 – nanocarriers 449 – physiochemical properties 445 – targeting 450–451 – toxicity 452–453 – translocation 449 charge distribution, in foam film 298 chemical contrast enhancement agents 95 chemical deposition 396 chemical patterning 398, 409 – Cassie–Baxter model 409–410 – Wenzel model 411 chemical potential – 1-(palmitoyl)-2-(oleoyl)-sn-glycero3-phosphocholine 449

Index

– tetratbutylphosphonium bromide in formamide 316 chlor-alkali electrolysis 819 chlor-alkali process 820 chloride, bromide – Cu(100) 567–572 chloride, bromide – Cu(111) 554–565 chlorine evolution reaction (CER) – dimensionally stable anodes 820 – fundamental studies 821 clathrin-dependent endocytosis 444, 453 clathrin-mediated endocytosis 445, 446, 454 closed-cell TEM approach 112 13 C NMR 75, 76 CO electrooxidation – bistable behaviour – – cyclic voltammogram 908 – – electrooxidation mechanism 897 – – mathematical modeling 899–901 – oscillatory behaviour – – anion concentration 909 – – electrode rotation rate 909 – – electrolyte conductivity 911–912 – – mathematical modeling 914–918 – – negative feedback loops 911 – – polycrystalline Pt electrode 908, 909 – – S-NDR 907–908 – – supporting electrolytes 911 – – surface crystallographic orientation 913–914 – spatio-temporal patterns – – experimental techniques 925–927 – – galvanostatic conditions 927–932 – – potentiostatic conditions 932–934 CO oxidation 844–847 – bistable behaviour – – bifurcation diagram 894, 895 – – hysteresis 894 – – mathematical modeling 896–897 – – UHV conditions 893–894 – oscillatory behaviour – – mathematical modeling 904, 907 – – skeleton bifurcation diagram 907 – – surface reconstruction 905 – spatio-temporal patterns – – bistable behaviour 38, 39 – – oscillatory behaviour 39, 40 CO2 reduction 857–863, 873–876 cobalt protoporphyrin (Co-PP) 874 coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) 21, 23, 90, 93 colloidal assembly process 396 colloidal synthesis 796, 797 common black films (CBF) 294 complex self-organization 891

computational hydrogen electrode (CHE) 474, 477, 502, 786 concentration depth profile – description 268–269 – liquid surfaces – – ionic liquids 305–312 – – solutions with inorganic salts 303–305 – – surfactant solutions 280–282 – – thin foam films 289–303 – NICISS 238, 254 – – benzyl alcohol, TOF-spectrum of 254, 255 – – gauging the depth scale 256 – of tetra-N-butylammonium iodide 281 – top surface layer of liquid system 269 confocal fluorescence microscopy 85 confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) 458 confocal microscopy 215, 447 constant current mode 97, 537, 539 constant height mode 537, 539 contact angle hysteresis 398, 406, 409, 419–421, 426, 429, 437 coordination number 56, 840 copper – Au(111) 647–659 copper dissolution reaction (CDR) 531, 573, 623, 711 copper iodide 592–599 copper redeposition reaction 569, 572, 573, 583, 623, 665, 671 copper reduction 531 core hole lifetime broadening 740 counter electrode 494, 499, 504, 535, 540, 702, 775 critical micelle concentration (CMC) 316 crystal truncation rods (CTRs) 579 cubo-octahedron 796 cyclic voltammetry – adsorbed state 532 – defined 528 – features of 531 – in situ STM 529 – Randles–Sevcik equation 533 – three electrode 528 cyclic voltammogram – dibenzylviologen – Cu(111) 703–708 – DPV 687 – polycrystalline platinum electrode 791 – Pt(100) electrode 795 – Pt(111) electrode 794 – sulfide – Cu(111) 600–608 – TMPyP – Cu(100) 668–674 – TMPyP – Cu(111) 664–668 – viologen molecules 681

949

950

Index

d Damascene 517 d-band centers 786 Debye–Hückel theory 319 Debye length 186, 292, 295, 479, 526 deconvolution procedure, NICISS 259, 260 Δμ technique 742, 743 density-derived atomic point charges (DDAPC) method 171 density-functional theory (DFT) 145–149, 472, 482, 582, 785 designer solvents 352 dialkylviologens – Cu(100) 681–685 1,1′ -dibenzyl-4,4′ (propane-1,3diyl)dipyridinium (C3-DBDP) molecules 679, 708 dibenzyl-dipyridinium – Cu(100) 708–710 dibenzylviologen – Cu(100) 693–700 – reactive vs. non-reactive adsorption 700–701 – tip-induce phase transition 701–703 dibenzylviologen – Cu(111) 703–708 dicarboxydiheptylviologen – Cu(100) 685–687 dicarboxydiheptylviologen (DCDHV) 679, 685 differentially pumped lens system 758 differential pumping 261, 262, 266, 267, 356, 758, 760, 761 diheptylviologen – Cu(100) 682–685 dimensionally stable anodes (DSA) – chlorine evolution 820–821 – Raman spectra 824 dimethyl (DMV)- and diethyl (DEV)-viologen 681 dimethyl – Cu(100) 681–682 diphenylviologen – Cu(100) 687–692 direct CPP translocation 447 directional wetting – anisotropic wettability 434–436 – chemical vapor deposition 433 – wettability gradients 436–438 direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) 848 direct recoil spectroscopy (DRS) 237, 267, 353 dispersion-corrected atom-centered potentials (DCACPs) 148 dissipative solitary waves 936–937 1,1′ -disubstituted 4,4′ -bipyridinium molecules 677 dodecyldimethyl phosphineoxide (C12 DMPO), TFPB data 297 double-layer region 790 double-reference method 495, 498

dynamic contact angles 405–406, 408–409 dynamic wetting properties – contact angle hysteresis 420–421 – impinging droplets 421–424 – slip length 419–420

e effective screening method 504, 507 elastic energy loss, NICISS 239–240 electric double layer (EDL) 144, 479 electroannealing 545, 584, 588 electrocatalysis – adsorption – – computational methods 784–787 – – importance of 782–784 – biomass transformation 877–878 – chlorine evolution reaction – – dimensionally stable anodes 820 – – fundamental studies 821–825 – defined 773 – electrocatalytic ammonia synthesis 876–877 – electrochemical kinetics – – Butler–Volmer equation 776–778 – – macroscopic approach 774–776 – – Marcus–Hush model 780 – – schematic fashion concepts 778 – – Tafel equation 774–776 – electrochemical oxidation processes 879 – features 774 – hydrogen evolution reaction – – kinetic reaction mechanisms 812–814 – – rationalizing trends, activity 814–819 – macromolecules and enzymes – – CO2 reduction 873–876 – – concepts 863–868 – – HER and HOR 868–870 – – OER and ORR 870–873 – metal catalysts 880 – multi-product reactions – – CO2 reduction 857–863 – – nitrate reduction 852–857 – oxygen evolution reaction – – energetics 841–844 – – fundamental 836–840 – – materials 844 – oxygen reduction reaction – – fundamental reaction 825–830 – – materials for 835–836 – – reaction trends and surface sensitivity 830–835 – small organic molecules – – alcohol oxidation 848–850

Index

– – – – – –

– CO oxidation 844–847 surface-and product-sensitive techniques – EC-SERS 809 – infrared spectroscopy 807–809 – online mass spectrometry 810 – scanning-probe microscopy techniques 811 – – semi-online liquid chromatography 810–811 – – sum-frequency generation 810 – well-defined surfaces – – and structure sensitivity 788–792 – – controlling composition 805 – – from single-crystal electrodes to shape-selective nanoparticles 792–799 – – reactions classification 799–801 – – surface modifications 801–805 electrocatalyst surfaces 741 electrocatalytic ammonia synthesis 876 electrochemical annealing 545, 569, 581, 587, 592, 634, 635 electrochemical atomic layer epitaxy (ECALE) 599 electrochemical cells 14, 70, 503, 528, 529, 540, 542, 545, 753, 760, 762, 768, 774–776, 793, 810, 903, 921 electrochemical desorption 636, 812–814 electrochemical double layer 542 – adsorption–desorption 524–525 – defined 518, 525, 542 – electrolytes properties 522 – Gouy–Chapman model 525–526 – Gouy–Chapman–Stern–Grahame model 519, 526–527 – Helmholtz model 525 – metal surfaces structure 518–522 electrochemical electrodes – electrode potential 474 – heterogeneous catalysis 473 – metal surfaces adsorption 476 – reaction intermediates 478 electrochemical equilibrium 476, 635, 775 electrochemical kinetics – Butler–Volmer equation 776–778 – macroscopic approach 774–776 – Marcus–Hush model 780 – schematic fashion concepts 778–779 – Tafel equation 774–776 electrochemical oxide 836 electrochemical preparation 545, 621 electrochemical process 1, 18, 101, 498, 734, 758, 760, 774, 788, 819, 852, 876, 892, 920

electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy (EC-STM) 526, 811 electrochemical surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (EC-SERS) 809 electrochemistry – porphyrin molecules 663–664 – surface science approach 527 – underpotential deposition 490 – viologen molecules 678–681 electrocompression 562, 567, 573 electrode emersion technique 70 electrode flooding 760, 763, 764 electroetching 517 electrolyte meniscus 738 electrolytes 473 – properties 522–524 – quartz/water interface 170–175 electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) 264–265 electronic stopping power 245 electronic structure problem 146 electron paramagnetic spectroscopy (EPR) 80–83 electron spin resonance (ESR) 80–83 electron tunneling, principle 535–537 electropolishing 790 electrosorption valency 782 electrostatic energy 371, 496, 497 elegant method 504 ellipsometry 45–46 embedded atom method (EAM) 481 empirical valence bond (EVB) model 481 endosomes 445, 446, 451 energy loss straggling 247–253 evaporation method 408 exchange current density 778 extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) 52–54, 56, 736 external reflection configuration 808, 853

f face-centered cubic (fcc) 518, 521 fakir state 413, 414 Faraday’s laws 776 Fe/Ni oxyhydroxides 752 fibronectin 202, 205, 206, 210, 211 flame annealing 543–544 flow cytometry 86, 116 fluorescein-labeled TAT peptide 454 fluorescence detection 32, 88, 110, 737–740 fluorescence emission spectroscopy 31–35 fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) 87, 88 fluorescence microscopy – catalytic sites identification 89

951

952

Index

fluorescence microscopy (contd.) – confocal 85 – near-infrared multiphoton microscopy 85 – single-molecule time-resolved 87 – total internal reflection mode 85 fluorescence SNOM 111 fluorescently labeled TAT peptides 453, 455–459, 461 fluorite/water interfaces 182–188 foam films 289 force tensiometry 407 formamide (FA) 264 Förster (fluorescence) resonance energy transfer (FRET) 87, 88 Fourier transformation (FT) 3, 259, 267, 558, 566, 567 Franck–Condon principle 780 free energy, bimodal distribution of 324–334 frequency modulation atomic force microscopy (FM-AFM) 182 Frumkin effect 556, 569, 624 fuel cell stack 734

g Gaussian-shaped counter electrode 499, 504 generalized gradient approximation (GGA) 482, 785 Gibbs equation 312–316 Gibbs free energy 292, 473, 841, 842 Gouy–Chapman–Stern–Grahame model 519, 526–527 Gouy–Chapman theory 288, 289, 291, 526 grazing-incidence small-angle neutron scattering (GISANS) 68 grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering (GISAXS) 52 grazing-incidence X-ray diffraction (GIXD) 52 – advantage 63 – calcite crystallization 65 – electrochemical systems 64 – phytosterol and sphingomyelin mixtures 63 – uses 64 green chemistry 877

h Haber–Bosch process 876 half-cell reactions 734, 775 halide anions adsorption – bromide – Cu(110) 583–585 – chloride and bromide – Cu(100) 567–572 – chloride and bromide – Cu(111) 554–565

– – – – –

chloride – Cu(110) 585–592 copper iodide 592–599 iodide – Cu(100) 572–578 iodide – Cu(111) 565–567 XRD of chloride, bromide, iodide on Cu(100) 578–583 Hamaker constant 293 hard and soft X-ray spectroscopy 735 hard sphere model 521, 567, 568, 571, 573, 585, 587, 604, 610, 626, 645, 669, 670 H2 electrooxidation 893, 901–902 Helmholtz layer 64, 479, 480, 526 Helmholtz model 525 HER/hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) 868 heterogeneous catalysis 473, 773 Heyrovsky reaction 505, 506, 812 hidden N-shaped negative differential resistance (HN-NDR) systems 892–893 – oscillations 918–919 – pattern formation – – global coupling 938 – – migration coupling 922, 932–934 hierarchical roughness 394, 396, 398, 409, 415–419, 428, 431 high energy ion scattering (HEIS) 267 high energy resolution fluorescence detection (HERFD) mode 740 high free reaction enthalpy 734 highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) 99, 102, 539 high-resolution elastic recoil detection (HR-ERDA) spectra 354 – 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide 364–370 – for [Cn C1 Im][Tf2 N] 360 – experimental setup 356 high-resolution Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (HR-RBS) – 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide 358 – [C2 C1 Im][BF4 ] equimolar mixture 374 – [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] 359, 374 – [C6 C1 Im][Cl] 371 – [C6 C1 Im] [Tf2 N]0.5 Cl0.5 380, 381 – drawback 354 – experimental setup 356 – for PbSe(111) single crystal 355 – rotating disc method 357, 358 high-resolution X-ray microscopy 95 HIV1-TAT protein 453 1 H NMR 75, 76 Hohenberg–Kohn (HK) theorems 146

Index

homing peptides 451, 452 homogeneous topography 335, 336 hydration enthalpy 523, 525 hydrogen-bonded network 480, 491, 510, 763 hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) – HOR 868 – kinetic reaction mechanisms 812–814 – rationalizing trends, activity 814–819 hydrogen fuel cell vehicles 733 hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) 812, 901 hyphenated techniques 784, 807, 811, 850, 853, 860, 877

i inelastic energy loss 244–245 infrared (IR) absorption spectroscopy – FT-IR approach 3 – liquid/solid interfaces – – attenuated total reflectance spectroscopy 4–10 – – reflection–absorption infrared spectroscopy 10–14 – – transmission modes 14–15 infrared (IR) microscopy 94–96 infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS) 10, 614, 808 infrared spectroscopy 807–809 inhomogeneous topography 335, 336 inner-sphere electron transfer 780 inner vs. outer Helmholtz plane 526 in situ infrared reflection absorption spectra (IRRAS) 697 in situ scanning tunneling microscopy – atomic force microscopy 535 – electrochemical STM 540–542 – electron tunneling principle 535–537 – sample preparation – – electrochemical preparation 545 – – flame annealing 543 – – UHV-EC transfer 545–546 – tip position control 537–540 in situ surface-sensitive technique 789 interfacial electron transfer 866 interferometric SNOM setup 111 internal reflection configuration 808, 809 in vivo phage display 451 iodide anions 551, 562, 572, 577, 578, 592, 593 iodide – Cu(100) 572–578 iodide – Cu(111) 565–567 ionic liquids (IL) 71, 303, 509

– 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide 307 – 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate 306 – cations and anions, examples of 352 – description 305–312 – ion concentration 300 – properties 351, 352 – protic 310 – surface mole fraction of 383 – surface structure of binary mixtures 373–374 ion scattering spectroscopy (ISS) 236–239, 267, 269, 306, 318, 353, 527, 640 iridium oxide 765, 767 isoelectric point, of foam film 298

j Jellium model

520

k K𝛼 fluorescence 738 K-edges (L-edges) 740 kinetic reaction mechanisms 812–814 Kohn–Sham DFT 146 Kolbe reaction 878 Koutecky–Levich plots 827, 828 Krasil’shchkov mechanism 837

l lactoglobulin 209 Langmuir–Hinshelwood mechanism 812, 893, 894, 897, 898, 907, 917, 920 Langmuir isotherm 782, 788 laser induced liquid bead ion desorption (LILBID) 266 lateral homogeneity 342–343 layer-by-layer deposition 396 length-extension resonator (LER) 539 Li intercalation/deintercalation reactions 734 Li-ion batteries 733 linear voltammogram 528, 534, 637, 653 lipid raft-mediated endocytosis 446, 454 lipid topology 448–449 liquid jet method 73 liquid surface analysis 265 liquid surfaces 3D surface topography, 334 liquid/solid interfaces, at molecular-level 1 – atomic force microscopy 97, 106 – electron-based surface-science techniques 2 – electron microscopy 112

953

954

Index

liquid/solid interfaces, at molecular-level (contd.) – electron spin resonance 80 – ellipsometry 45 – extended X-ray absorption fine structure 54–56 – fluorescence emission spectroscopy 31 – fluorescence microscopy 84 – infrared absorption spectroscopy 3 – neutron reflectivity 67 – nuclear magnetic resonance 74 – quartz crystal microbalance 48 – Raman scattering spectroscopy 17 – resonant inelastic X-ray scattering 57 – scanning electrochemical microscopy 102 – scanning near-field optical microscopy 110, 111 – scanning tunneling microscopy 96, 98 – second harmonic generation 35 – sum frequency generation 23 – surface plasmon resonance 40 – transmission electron microscopy 112-114 – UV–Vis absorption spectroscopy 29 – X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy 53–56 – X-ray absorption spectroscopy 53–57 – X-ray diffraction 62 – X-ray microscopy 96 – X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 70 – X-ray reflectivity and scattering 58 Listeria innocua 215 Listeria monocytogens 215–216 lithography 395–396 local density approximation (LDA) 147, 148 local density of states (LDOS) 485, 486, 536 Lotus effect 393, 397, 416 low energy electron diffraction (LEED) 342, 527, 545, 341, 342, 793, 904 low energy ion scattering (LEIS) 237, 353, 641 lysozyme – biocidal mechanism 218 – molecular dynamics calculation 201 lysozyme from hen egg white (HEWL) 218, 219

m macromolecules – CO2 reduction 873–876 – HER and HOR 868–870 – molecular electrocatalysis 863 – OER and ORR 870–873 macropinocytosis 444–446, 453, 454

magic angle spinning (MAS) 74 Marcus–Hush model 780 mass spectrometry 810 medium energy ion scattering (MEIS) 239 membrane proteins, function of 441 meniscus method 74 metal deposition – cadmium – Cu(111), Cu(100) 638–647 – copper – Au(111) 647–659 – Nernst equation 635 metal-electrolyte interfaces – adsorbate free electrode surfaces 547 – atomic cations adsorption – – cadmium – Cu(111), Cu(100) 638–647 – – copper – Au(111) 647–659 – – metal deposition 635 – cyclic voltammetry 528 – electrochemical double-layer – – adsorption–desorption 524–525 – – electrolytes properties 522 – – Gouy–Chapman model 525–526 – – Gouy–Chapman–Stern–Grahame model 526–527 – – Helmholtz model 525 – – metal surfaces structure 518–522 – halide anions adsorption – – bromide – Cu(110) 583–585 – – chloride – Cu(110) 585–592 – – chloride, bromide – Cu(100) 567–572 – – chloride, bromide – Cu(111) 554–565 – – copper iodide 592–599 – – iodide – Cu(100) 572–578 – – iodide – Cu(111) 565–567 – – XRD of chloride, bromide, iodide on Cu(100) 578–583 – in situ scanning tunneling microscopy – – electrochemical STM 540–542 – – electron tunneling principle 535–537 – – imaging modes 542 – – sample preparation 543–546 – – tip position control 537–540 – – tip preparation 542–543 – – tunneling through an electrolyte 537 – perchlorate anions adsorption 618–621 – porphyrins adsorption – – porphyrin molecules electrochemistry 663–664 – – TMPyP – Cu(100) 668–674 – – TMPyP – Cu(111) 664–668 – – TTMAPP – Cu(111) and Cu(100) 674–677 – porphyrins and viologens, co-adsorption 710–713 – sulfate anions adsorption 621–635

Index

– – – – – – – – – –

sulfide anions adsorption – sulfide – Cu(100) 608–612 – sulfide – Cu(111) 600–608 surface science approach 527 thiocyanate anions adsorption – thiocyanate – Cu(100) 614–618 – thiocyanate – Cu(111) 613–614 viologens adsorption – dialkylviologens – Cu(100) 681–685 – dibenzyl-dipyridinium – Cu(100) 708–710 – – dibenzylviologen – Cu(100) 693–700 – – dibenzylviologen – Cu(111) 703–708 – – diphenylviologen – Cu(100) 687–692 – – viologen molecules electrochemistry 679–681 metal surfaces structure 518–522 metastable induced electron spectroscopy (MIES) 231, 269 – binary mixtures of two polar solvents 269–271 – lecithin/cholesterol 275–277 – lecithin and POPC 273–275 – liquid surface analysis 265 – NICISS and ARXPS 279–280 – orientation sensitivity 271 – PD/FA 277–279 – sodium oleate/FA 271–273 metastable wetting states 413–415 Michaelis–Menten kinetics 868 Michelson interferometer 3 (micro)droplet manipulation 398 microjet technique 265, 266 miscibility gap, in binary liquid mixture 330 Moirè pattern 606, 643 molecular dynamics (MD) simulation 458, 481, 784 – 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide 362–364 – [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N]0.5 [BF4 ]0.5 mixture 378 – [C2 C1 Im][Tf2 N] and [C2 C1 Im][BF4 ] equimolar mixture 374–379 molecular mechanics (MM) 481 Monte Carlo simulations (MC) 784, 787 multiproduct reactions – CO2 reduction 857–863 – nitrate reduction 852–857

near-infrared (NIR) multiphoton microscopy 85 negative differential resistance (NDR) 892 Nernst equation 635 neutral impact collision ion scattering spectroscopy (NICISS) – concentration depth profile 238, 253–254 – convolution function 259 – cross section 240–243 – deconvolution procedure 259 – elastic energy loss 239–243 – energy loss straggling 247–253 – experimental equipment 261–263 – inelastic energy loss 244–245 – to liquid surfaces 335 – neutralization 243–244 – POPC/TBABr/HPN system 322–324 – poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) 258 – vs. Rutherford backscattering 353 – simulations 260–261 – stopping power 246–247 – TBAI/formamide system 279 – thermal broadening 253 neutralization of projectiles, NICISS 243 neutron reflectivity (NR) 67–69, 230 – hexadecyltrimethylamonium bromide in water 289 Newton black films (NBF) 295 nisin 214–218 nitrate reduction 852–857 noncovalent interactions 804 nonequilibrium thermodynamic conditions 891 nonlinear optical methods 268 nonlinear VSFG spectroscopy, silica-water interfaces 165 nonwetting regime 422 nonzero slip boundary condition 419 Nosé–Hoover thermostat 507 N-shaped negative differential resistance (N-NDR) 892 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) – high-pressure 77 – vs. ESR 80 – liquid/solid interfaces – – advantage 78 – – limitations 74 nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) 77 nuclear stopping power 245

n

o

nafion membrane 762 nanopipettes 811 nanosized single-crystals

oil–water separation 425 – anticorrosion coatings 425 – anti-icing/anti-fogging coatings

794

398

955

956

Index

oil–water separation (contd.) – bottom-up colloidal approach 416, 418 – categories 392 – drag reduction 425 – hierarchical roughness 416 – micro-droplet manipulation 398 – in nature 416 – omniphobic/amphiphobic surfaces 426 – self-cleaning 397 oleophilic properties 425 omniphobic surfaces 425, 426 online mass spectrometry 810 operando X-ray and electron spectroscopy – CoOOH and (Ni,Fe)OOH catalysts, for alkaline water electrolysis 750–757 – Δμ technique 742–743 – fuel cell model catalysts 743–749 – methods – – fluorescence detection 737–740 – – HERFD XAS 739–741 – – XAS transmission 737 – X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy – – ambient pressure 758–760 – – electrochemical XPS 760–762 – – oxygen reduction reaction, on Pt 762–765 – – oxygen evolution reaction, on IrO2 765–768 open circuit potential (OCV) 65, 765, 766 optical matrix method 67 optimized water structures 489 oscillatory behaviour – CO electrooxidation – – anion concentration 909 – – electrode rotation rate 909 – – electrolyte conductivity 911–912 – – mathematical modeling 914–918 – – negative feedback loops 911 – – polycrystalline Pt electrode 908, 909 – – S-NDR 907–908 – – supporting electrolytes 911 – – surface crystallographic orientation 913–914 – CO oxidation – – mathematical modeling 904, 907 – – skeleton bifurcation diagram 907 – – surface reconstruction 905 outer Helmholtz-plane 498, 506, 525, 526 overpotential deposition 636, 652, 656 oxide model 904 oxygen electrocatalysis 735 oxygen evolution reaction (OER) 663 – energetics 841–844 – free energy diagram 478

– fundamental reaction 477, 836 – Gibbs free energy 841, 842 – on IrO2 765–768 – materials 844 – ORR 870–873 – on Pt 765 oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) – fundamental reaction 825–830 – materials for 835–836 – OER 870–873 – reaction trends and surface sensitivity 830–835 – on Pt 762–764 oxygen-containing species 54, 743, 744, 791, 828

p 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3phosphocholine (POPC)/tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBABr)/3-hydroxioropionitrile (HPN) system 322 penetratin 442, 448, 452 perchlorate – Cu(111) 618–621 perchlorate anions adsorption 618–621 phosphate buffer saline 210 phosphinoxide 318 phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMOs) 450 photoelectron emission microscopy (PEEM) 922 physical endocytosis 448 physisorption processes 783 pluronic–lysozyme copolymers 219, 220 point of zero charge (PZC) 822 – of quartz surface 161, 170 Poisson–Boltzmann equation 288, 298, 479 Poisson equation 496, 497 Poisson statistic 251 polarization sensitivity, of SHG signal 93 polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) 211 polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) 734, 735 polyproline II (PPII) 444 pore model 447 porphyrin molecules electrochemistry 663 porphyrin adsorption – co-adsorption 710 – porphyrin molecules electrochemistry 663 – TMPyP – Cu(100) 668–675 – TMPyP – Cu(111) 664–668 – TTMAPP – Cu(111) and Cu(100) 674–677

Index

porphyrins and viologens, co-adsorption 710–713 potential of zero total charge (pztc) 784 Potential-dependent series 692 potentiostatic mode 542 proline-rich amphipathic CPPs 444 protein solution 78 – concentration and pH effect 209–211 protein–surface interactions 44, 200, 211 protein transduction domains (PTDs) 442 protein unfolding/denaturation 210–211 protic ionic liquids 310, 328 proton-coupled electron transfers 829, 858 pseudo-halides 612, 613 pseudomorphic Cu monolayer 649–653, 655 pseudopotentials 149, 156, 497, 498, 785 Pt catalyst electrode 764 Pt-skeleton structures 806 Pt-skin structures 806 195 Pt NMR 74 purely empirical model 779 pyrolitic edge graphite (PGE) 868

q quantum chemistry methods 481 quantum mechanical/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) methods 481 quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) 48–51, 203 quartz–water interfaces – electrolytes 170–175 – nonlinear VSFG vibrational spectroscopy 165–169 – water organisation 156–160

r Raman microscopy 90–93 Randles–Sevcik equation 533, 688 rate-determining step (rds) 779, 783, 813, 818, 821, 837, 853, 854, 860, 881 reaction intermediates 5, 8, 83, 478, 492, 493, 782, 783, 828–830, 841, 857, 877 reactive vs. non-reactive adsorption 700 receptor-mediated nanocarrier targeting 450 reconstruction model 903, 908 recrystallisation, of natural epicuticular waxes 431–432 redox reactions, catalysis 773 reference electrode 528, 775 reflectance anisotropy spectroscopy (RAS) 585

reflection–absorption infrared spectroscopy (RAIRS) 4, 10–14 relative humidity, of water vapor 760 renewable gasoline 733 resonant inelastic X-ray scattering (RIXS) spectroscopy 52, 750 resonant ionization (RI) 231 room temperature ionic liquids 351 rotating disc method 357 rotating ring-disk electrode (RRDE) 826 Rutherford backscattering (RBS) 230, 267 – 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate surface 306 – neutral impact collision ion scattering spectroscopy 239 – principle of 354–356

s Sabatier principle 783 sample preparation, in situ STM – electrochemical preparation 545 – flame annealing 543 – UHV-EC transfer 545 scaling relationships 786, 834 scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) 102–106 scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM) – advantage 110 – fluorescence detection 110 – liquid/solid interface 110, 111 scanning-probe microscopy techniques 811 scanning transmission X-ray microscopy 96 scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) 342, 509, 519 – vs. atomic force microscopy 106 – cyclic voltammetry 529 – electrochemical 540 – images 644 – liquid/solid interfaces 98 scattering process, in CM system 242 second harmonic generation (SHG) 35–40, 230, 618 – 1-alcyl-4-dimethylaminopyridinium bromide solutions in water 319 self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) 7, 599 self-cleaning surfaces 397 self-organization 891 – bistable behaviour see bistable behaviour – dissipative systems 891 – oscillatory behaviour see oscillatory behaviour – solid/gas interface 892, 893 – solid/liquid interface 892

957

958

Index

self-organization (contd.) – spatial pattern formation see spatio-temporal patterns sessile drop method 407, 408 shape-controlled nanoparticles 794 silica-water interfaces – electrolytes 170 – non-linear VSFG vibrational spectroscopy 165 – surface acidities 161 – water organization 156 siloxane 318 single-crystal metal surfaces 792 single-molecule time-resolved fluorescence microscopy 87 single-reflection IR absorption spectroscopy 10 slip length 398, 420 slippery liquid infused porous surfaces (SLIPS) 425, 429–431 small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) 68, 69 small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) 52, 59, 457 small organic molecules – alcohol oxidation 848–850 – CO oxidation 844–847 soft X-ray spectroscopy 740 solid/electrolyte interfaces – atomistic first-principles 480–493 – continuum models 479–480 – defined 471 – electrochemical electrodes 473–479 – electrode potentials 493–508 – non-aqueous electrolytes 508–510 – structure of 471 solid/gas interface 892 solid–liquid interfaces 892 – acidity constants calculation 149–151 – role in modern chemistry 143 – VSFG spectroscopy see vibrational sum frequency generation (VSFG) spectroscopy solid surfaces, types of 403 solvated ions 525 spatial resolution 84 spatio-temporal pattern – CO electrooxidation – – experimental techniques 925–927 – – galvanostatic conditions 927–932 – – potentiostatic conditions 932–934 – CO oxidation – – bistable behaviour 922 – – oscillatory behaviour 924, 925

– – UHV conditions 922 – diffusion coupling 921 – HN-NDR systems – – global coupling 938 – – migration coupling 937, 938 – local and global coupling 921 spectroelectrochemical flow cell 926 spectroscopy cell 760, 762 spin labeling method 80 spontaneous membrane-translocating peptides 451 Springtails 426 sputtering 263, 806 S-shaped negative differential resistance (S-NDR) 892, 893 – CO electrooxidation 907 – oscillations 918–919 stainless steel (SS) surface functionalization 216 standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) 474 Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource (SSRL) 760 state-of-the-art synthetic methods 796 static contact angle 403 – measurement techniques 407 steric forces 291, 295 Stern model 480 stick-and-ball model 661, 688 STM-derived structure model 646 stopping power 246, 354 subtractively normalized interfacial Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (SNIFTIRS) 11 sulfate anions adsorption 621 sulfate – Cu(111) and Cu(100) 600, 608 – adsorption peak 622 – cyclic voltammograms 621 – electrochemical annealing 634 – Moiré formation 632 – Moiré-type superstructure 627 – spectroscopic STM 627 – sulfate-covered 624 sulfide anions adsorption – sulfide – Cu(100) 608–612 – sulfide – Cu(111) 600–608 – sulfur interaction 599 Sulfide Moiré-structure 607 sum frequency generation (SFG) 23, 26, 93, 810 – adsorption of aminoacids 27 – advantage 28 – corrosion studies 25 – electrochemical systems 25 – liquid/solid interfaces 23, 24

Index

– vibrational transitions 23 superhydrophobicity 391, 413 superhydrophobic surfaces 393 surface charge effect, on protein binding 206, 208 surface damage 263 surface-enhanced CARS (SE-CARS) 23 surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) 17, 20, 809, 850 – adsorption processes 19 – cytochrome c (Cyt c), uptake 19 – liquid/solid interfaces 18 – perchlorate ion detection 17 – self-assembled alkanethiols monolayers 18 – use of 17 surface excess 283, 313, 318 surface fabrication methods 395 – bottom-up approach 396 – chemical deposition 396 – colloidal assembly process 396 – layer-by-layer deposition 396 – lithography 395–396 – templation 395 – top-down approach 395 surface hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity 201–204 surface hydroxo-complex 840 surface miscibility gap 333, 334 surface modifications – catalytic effect 804 – inert adatoms blocking 802 – noncovalent interactions 804 surface plasmon resonance (SPR) 40 surface science approach 527 surface selection rule 614, 697 surface sensitive techniques – EC-SERS 809 – infrared spectroscopy 807 – online mass spectrometry 810 – scanning-probe microscopy techniques 811 – semi-online liquid chromatography 810 – sum-frequency generation 810 surface structuration 220 surface structure – binary mixtures of ionic liquids 373–374 – of [C4 C1 Im]0.5 [C12 C1 Im]0.5 [Tf2 N] 379–382 – of pure ionic liquids 358–373 surface tensiometry 269, 312, 324 surface tension 312 – alkyltrimethylammonium bromides in water 315

– BA and FA 271, 328, 330 surface topography 204 surface wettability 391, 392, 406, 422 surface X-ray diffraction (SXRD) 62

t Tafel equation 774–776 Tafel reaction 505, 506, 812 Tafel slope 814 TAT-IL-24-KDEL 462 TAT peptides 453 – delivery of therapeutic agents 461–462 – membrane binding 455–457 – membrane translocation 457–461 tetrakis (4-trimetyl ammonium-phenyl) porphyrin (TTMAPP) 662 tetra-N-alkylammonium halide salts 280 bis(terpyridine) (BTP) 510 3D CuI clusters 597 thermal desorption spectra 636, 638 thin film pressure balance (TFPB) 292, 294 thin foam film – charge distribution 298 – concentration depth profiles – – by ionic surfactant 298, 300 – – measurement equipment 295 – – by nonionic surfactant solution 300–302 – description 289–303 – electrochemical potential 293 – isoelectric point 298 – steric forces 291 – thickness 294, 297 – thin film pressure balance 292, 294 thin layer cell 614 thiocyanate anions adsorption – thiocyanate – Cu(100) 614–618 – thiocyanate – Cu(111) 613–614 third body effect 803, 804 tilted plate method 409 time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) 203, 353 time-resolved neutron diffraction 69 tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS) 111, 809 TMPyP – Cu(100) 668–675 TMPyP – Cu(111) 664–668 top-down approach 395, 396 total energy loss 245, 246 total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy 34, 85 transfer coefficient 506, 532, 777 transition metal oxide materials 765

959

960

Index

transmission electron microscopy (TEM) 112–114 transmission IR absorption spectroscopy 14 transportan 10 (TP10) 444 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene (TCB) 510 TTMAPP – Cu(111), Cu(100) 674–677 2D CuI film 596 2D reaction–diffusion systems 922

u UHV-EC transfer 545, 597 ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) 517, 535, 793, 891 ultra-microelectrode (UME) 811 underpotential deposition (UPD) 64, 490, 549, 636, 790 UV–Vis absorption spectroscopy 29–32 UV–Vis Raman, on liquid/solid interfaces 20, 21

v van-der-Waals forces 293, 294 vibrational sum frequency generation (VSFG)spectroscopy 182 – theory for 151 – velocity-velocity correlation functions 154 viologen adsorption 677 – co-adsorption 710 – dialkylviologens – Cu(100) 681–685 – dibenzyl-dipyridinium – Cu(100) 708–710 – dibenzylviologen – Cu(100) 693–700 – dibenzylviologen – Cu(111) 703–708 – dicarboxydiheptylviologen – Cu(100) 685–687 – dimethyl – Cu(100) 681–682 – diphenylviologen – Cu(100) 687–692 viologen molecules electrochemistry 679–681 volcano plot 783 volcano type relationship 735 Volmer reaction 500, 502, 812

w water bilayers 484–486, 491, 501, 505, 506 water electrolysis 734, 735, 750–757 water-mineral interactions see fluorite/water interfaces

water monomer 484–486 water-repellent properties 393 water-soluble biological molecules 441 water splitting process 768 Wenzel model 411 wettability 391 see also surface wettability – measurements, categories of 406 Wigner–Seitz radius 522 Wilhelmy plate method 407 working electrode 528, 775

x X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy (XANES) 53–56, 736 X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) 52, 53, 55–57, 59, 736, 737 X-ray back illumination cell 754 X-ray diffraction (XRD) 62–66 X-ray microscopy 96 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) 2, 70–74, 546 – ambient pressure 758–760 – electrochemical 760–762 – 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide thin film formation 71 – ionic liquid surfaces 353 – liquid/solid interfaces – – electrode emersion technique 70 – – platinum electrode and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ionic liquid 70 – oxygen evolution reaction – – on IrO2 765–768 – – on Pt 765 – oxygen reduction reaction, on Pt 762–764 – spectra, water electrolyzer Pt anode 766 – ultrahigh vacuum conditions 70 – voltammetric characteristics of polycrystalline Au and W electrodes 71 X-ray reflection 343 X-ray reflectivity (XRR) 32, 58–62, 64, 230, 268 X-ray voltammetry 65, 747

z zero-point energy (ZPE) 786 Zisman’s rule 403