Spheroids and Battered Stones in the African Early and Middle Stone Age 9780860544104, 9781407345925

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND TO THE EARLY STONE AGE
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 4: DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF ARTIFACT COLLECTIONS
CHAPTER 5: EXPERIMENTAL REPLICATION AND USE OF ARTIFACTS
CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY AND GENERAL IMPLICATIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendix I: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Appendix I: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS OF KEY VARIABLES
Appendix II: DATA SET FOR EARLY STONE AGE ASSEMBLAGES
Appendix IV: DATA SET FOR ZAMBIAN AND ZIMBABWEAN EARLY AND MIDDLE STONE AGE ASSEMBLAGES
CAMBRIDGE MONOGRAPHS IN AFRICAN ARCHAEOLOGY

Citation preview

Spheroids and Battered Stones in the African Early and Middle Stone Age

Pamela R. Willoughby

Can1bridge Monographs in African Archaeology 17

BAR International Series 321 1987

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. -SJ21, 1987: 'Spheroids and Battered Stones in the African Early and Middle Stone Age'

@ Pamela R. Wil loughby, 1987 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544104 paperback ISBN 9781407345925 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544104 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T ABLE O F C ONTENTS P aqe L IST O F F IGURES

v

L IST O F T ABLES C hapter

1 :

v iii

I NTRODUCTION

( a)

S tatement o f t he P roblem

( b)

H istorical

C hapter 2 :

1 1

B ackground

1 6

B ACKGROUND T O T HE E ARLY S TONE A GE

( a) R eview o f t he S ites C oncerned ( b) T he S tructure o f E arly A rchaeological

C hapter 3 :

2 1

A ssemblages

M ETHODOLOGY

2 1 4 4

5 2

( a)

T ypological

( b)

T echnological

( c)

T he A pproach T aken H ere

6 0

( d)

G eofacts v ersus A rtifacts

6 3

C hapter 4 :

A pproaches

5 2

A pproaches

5 4

D ESCRIPTIVE A NALYSIS O F A RTIFACT C OLLECTIONS

( a)

6 6

I ntroduction

6 6

( b) S ize ( c) S hape

6 9 7 9

( d)

R aw M aterial

( e)

M anufacture a nd u se

1 08

( f)

S ummary

1 18

C hapter

5 :

9 8

E XPERIMENTAL R EPLICATION A ND U SE O F A RTIFACTS

1 23

( a) ( b)

I ntroduction T he P urpose o f S pheroids

1 23 1 25

( c)

A rgument b y E thology

1 25

( d)

E thnographic a nd p rehistoric e vidence f or s pheroid

f unction

1 28

( e)

T he e xperimental

r eplication o f s pheroids

( f)

T he u se o f s pheroids

1 55

( g)

S ummary

1 61

1'1

1 36

T ABLE O F C ONTENTS P aqe C hapter 6 :

S UMMARY A ND G ENERAL

I MPLICATIONS

( a)

S ummary o f F indings

( b)

T he N ature a nd R ole o f S pheroids

( c) B ehavioural I mplications ( d) R ates o f T echnological C hange S tone A ge ( e) F urther W ork

1 63

i n t he A frican 1 68 1 71

1 72

A ppendix

I :

A ppendix

I:

A ppendix

II:

I V:

1 65 1 67

B IBLIOGRAPHY

A ppendix

1 63

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS F REQUENCY D ISTRIBUTIONS O F K EY V ARIABLES D ATA S ET F OR E ARLY S TONE A GE A SSEMBLAGES D ATA S ET F OR Z AMBIAN A ND Z IMBABWEAN E ARLY A ND M IDDLE S TONE A GE A SSEMBLAGES

1 94 1 98

2 09

2 48

L IST O F F IGURES F iqure

P aqe

1 .1

A b asic

1 .2

A n e xample o f a p ecked s pheroid

4

1 .3

A n e xample o f a p olyhedral

S

1 .4

A n e xample o f a n atural B ed 3 ,

t ypology o f s pheroids

3

b all

s pheroid o r m anuport f rom

t he C ave o f H earths

6

1 .5

A f laked a nd b attered

2 .1

E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge s ites w ith s ignificant n umbers o f s pheroids a nd o ther b attered s tones

2 2

2 .2

S ites

2 3

2 .3

L ocation o f

i ncluded

t rue s pheroid

7

i n t his s tudy

t he E ast A frican s ites d iscussed

i n

t his s tudy 2 .4

2 5

S tratigraphy o f

t he O lduval

G orge,

n orthern

T anzania

2 6

2 .5

L ocation o f A in H anech,

2 .6

S tratigraphic S ection o f A in H anech,

2 .7

L ocation o f

2 .8

S tratigraphy o f t he C entral ' L Jbeidiya,

2 .9

U beidiya,

A lgeria

2 9 A lgeria

3 0

I srael

3 1

J ordan V alley a nd

I srael

3 4

L ocation o f S terkfontein a nd t he C ave o f H earths, S outh A frica

2 .10

3 6

G eneralized S tratigraphic P rofile o f S terkfontein

3 7

2 .11

S tratigraphic P rofile o f t he C ave o f H earths

3 9

2 .12

S tratigraphy o f

4 0

2 .13

P rovisional

2 .14

L ocation o f M iddle S tone A ge S ites

I simila,

T anzania

s tratigraphy o f K oobi

F ora,

K enya

i ncluded

i n

t his s tudy 3 .1

4 3

4 5

P ossible c lassification o f s pheroids a nd b attered s tones u sing a t ypological

a pproach

v

5 5

L IST O F F IGURES F iqure 3 .2

P aqe P ossible c lassification o f s pheroids a nd b attered s tones u sing a t echnological

3 .3

T he O lduvai

3 .4

H ow a n atural

4 .1

L ength

a pproach

5 9

p attern o f s pheroid p roduction

6 2

s pheroid m ay b e p roduced

( in c entimeters)

6 4

o f s pheroids f rom

E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge s ites 4 .2

A verage d iameter

( in c entimeters)

7 1 o f s pheroids

f rom E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge s ites 4 .3

W eight

( in k ilograms)

7 4

o f s pheroids f rom E arly

a nd M iddle S tone A ge s ites 4 .4

S catter p lot o f

7 6

l ength b y w idth f or s even E arly

S tone A ge s ites 4 .5

8 0

S catter p lot o f w idth b y t hickness f or s even E arly S tone A ge s ites

4 .6

8 1

S catter p lot o f

l ength b y t hickness f or s even E arly

S tone A ge s ites 4 .7

8 2

S catter p lot o f

l ength b y w idth f or M iddle S tone

A ge s pheroids f rom Z ambia a nd Z imbabwe 4 .8

S catter p lot o f f rom T rench K ,

4 .9

l ength b y w idth f or p olyhedrons l evel

K -30 a t

U beidiya

8 5

C alculation o f p ebble s phericity u sing t he m ethod o f W .C.

4 .10

8 4

K rumbein

8 6

S phericity o f p ebbles f rom s even E arly S tone A ge s ites

4 .11

S phericity o f p ebbles f rom O lduvai a nd

4 .12

8 7 G orge,

B eds

8 8

S phericity o f p ebbles f rom M iddle S tone A ge s ites i n Z ambia a nd Z imbabwe

4 .13

I

I I

8 9

S phericity o f p olyhedrons f rom T rench K , K -30 a t

U beidiya

l evel 9 0

v i

L IST O F F IGURES

F iqure 4 .14

4 .15

P aqe

S phericity o f c ore a rtifacts f rom E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge s ites R oundness a ccording t o

9 1

t he m ethod o f W .C.

K rumbein

9 4

R oundness o f s pheroids f rom E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge s ites

9 5

4 .17

R oundness v alues f or

9 7

4 .18

R aw m aterial d istribution b y s ite

4 .16

4 .19

i o i

N umber o f s urfaces w orked o n e ach p ebble o ut o f a p ossible t otal

4 .20

s pheroids

o f s ix f or

t he C ave o f H earths

13

N umber o f s urfaces w orked o n e ach p ebble o ut o f a p ossible t otal B eds I a nd I

o f s ix f or O lduvai

G orge, 13

5 .1

P roposed u ses f or

5 .2

A c haracteristic h ammerstone f orm

1 29

5 .3

A c haracteristic g rindstone f orm

1 30

5 .4

A p itted a nvil

1 32

5 .5

A g rindstone r esharpener o r H ill, S outh A frica

5 .6

s pheroids

1 26

f rom I simila k gekgeto f rom B rodie

1 34

P ossible m ethod o f m anufacture o f l imestone s pheroids a t A in H anech a nd U beidiya

1 39

5 .7

T he O lduvai p attern o f s pheroid p roduction

1 43

5 .8

A n e xample o f r aw m aterial c onstraints

1 52

5 .9

A s pheroid f rom S onywe G orge,

1 57

5 .10

A t hree s tone b olas w ith c ord b ut n ot e ncased i n a h ide

Z ambia

v ii

1 59

L IST O F T ABLES T able 1 .1

P aqe D istribution o f a ll B eds

2 .1

I a nd

I I,

s pheroids a nd s ubspheroids

O lduvai

G orge,

i n

b y R aw M aterial

L ocation a nd s ample s ize o f s pheroids a nd s ubspheroids f rom O lduvai

G orge e xamined

i n t his

s tudy 2 .2

2 .3

2 7

C orrelation o f T est T renches a t I srael G eneral

U beidiya, 3 3

C lassification o f a ssemblages f rom

O lorgesailie, 4 .1

K enya u sed

i n t his A nalysis

6 7

C ontingency t able o f s ite b y

l ength o f

s pheroids 4 .3

C ontingency O lduvai

4 .4 4 .5

4 2

S ample s ize o f s pheroids f rom S even E arly S tone A ge S ites

+ .2

8

7 0 t able f or

G orge,

R aw m aterial

B eds

a ssemblage b y w eight f or

I a nd

I I

d istribution f or

7 8 e ach s ite

C ontingency t able o f r aw m aterial

b y

1 00

l ength o f

s pheroids

1 04

4 .6

C ontingency t able o f s ite b y r aw m aterial

1 05

4 .7

C ondition o f f lake s cars o n s pheroids f rom s even E arly S tone A ge s ites

4 .8

1 07

C ondition o f f lake s cars o n s pheroids b y r aw m aterial

4 .9

P resence o r

1 09 a bsence o f p atination o n s pheroids

f rom s even E arly S tone A ge s ites 4 .10

P resence o r

1 10

a bsence o f p atination b y r aw

m aterial 4 .11

1 11

N umber o f s urfaces w orked o n p ebbles

( out o f a

p ossible s ix) 4 .12

4 .13

12

N umber o f d irections f rom w hich r emoved C ontingency

f lakes w ere

t able o f s ite b y p ercentage c ortex

v iii

1 15 16

L IST O F T ABLES T able 4 .14

4 .15

4 .16

5 .1

5 .2

5 .3

5 .4

5 .5

P aqe C ontingency t able o f r aw m aterial b y p ercentage c ortex

17

C ontingency t able o f s ite b y n umber o f f lake s cars

19

P resence o r a bsence o f m acroscopic u sewear o n s pheroids f rom s even E arly S tone A ge s ites

1 20

C ontingency t able o f r aw m aterial b y r oundness f or s even E arly S tone A ge s ites

1 38

C ontingency t able o f r aw m aterial b y n umber o f f lake s cars f or s even E arly S tone A ge s ites

1 40

C ontingency t able o f r aw m aterial b y s phericity f or s even E arly S tone A ge s ites

1 41

R aw m aterial p roperties f or M iddle S tone A ge a ssemblages f rom Z ambia a nd Z imbabwe

1 45

P resence o r a bsence o f u sewear b y r aw m aterial f or s even E arly S tone A ge s ites

i x

1 49

C HAPTER • .

1 :

I NTRODUCTION

. the r ough b alls o f s tone a re c urious b ecause,

h ammer

s tones,

n one o f

s uch.

I a m m yself

t hem s how a ny

a lthough

t hey s uggest

t races o f h aving b een u sed a s

i nclined t o r egard

t hem a s h aving b een u sed a s

w eights f or b olas f or h unting g ame. U nless t his i s t heir u se t he w hole i ndustry i ncludes n o e ffective w eapons o f o ffense, a nd y et t he m akers m ust

s urely h ave b een h unters,

c atching g ame w as b y c oups-de-poing;

' bolas'

a nd

I s uggest

t hey d oubtless a lso u sed

w ooden c lubs a nd p ointed w ooden s pears

( a)

t hat

t heir m eans o f

a nd b y g ame p its d ug w ith

t he

t he c oups-de-poing

( L.

L eakey

t o m ake

1 931:39).

S tatement o f t he P roblem

O ur u nderstanding o f t he E arly S tone A ge e xpanded

i n t he

l ast

t wenty y ears.

i dentified a nd e xcavated

i n A frica h as g reatly

N ot o nly h as t he n umber o f s ites

i ncreased,

b ut r esearch p roblems h ave s hifted

s o t hat t he q uality o f i nformation g athered h as a lso i mproved. P rehistorians w orking i n t his f ield a re g reatly i ndebted t o D r. L eakey f or h er d escription o f t he l ocated

i n n orthern T anzania

i ndustrial

( Leakey

1 971,

M ary

s equence o f O lduvai

1 975).

G orge

H ere s he d efined a nd

d escribed a s uccession o f a ssemblages t hat e xtended f rom t he f irst s tage o f s tone t ool m anufacture t hrough t he d iversification o f t echniques i nto r egional t raditions. O ne o f t he m ore i nteresting p roblems r aised b y h er r eport c entres o n t he n ature o f t he i ndustries t hemselves. S he d iscovered t hat t he p reviously h eld b elief i n a s ingle, p rogressive, e volutionary l ine o f t echnological d evelopment c ould n ot b e s upported. W hile t he A cheulean a t O lduvai w as " more c omplex"

t echnologically t hat

i nternal

s tages o f e volution a s h ad b een f irst p roposed b y L ouis L eakey

( 1951).

I n a ddition,

i ndustrial O ldowan.

a longside

i t s howed n o

t he A cheulean s ites w as f ound a n

t radition c learly d erived f rom t he o riginal

t echniques u sed p arallel

t he p receding O ldowan,

t here,

a nd

t hus a ppropriately

l abelled

s tone m aking t he D eveloped

I nstead o f a s ingle c ontinuum o f p rogressive d evelopment, p hyla m odel

w as t hen p roposed.

I t d ivided a ssemblages

g roup w ith b ifacial e lements ( handaxes a nd c leavers) a nd c ontrasted w ith a nother t hat l acked t hese a rtifacts. T he e xplanation f or t he d ifference b etween t he t wo i s o ften c ouched i n c ulture-historical t erms: w ith

e ach r epresents

t he t ool

i t

k it o f a d istinct s pecies o f h ominid

i ts o wn a rtifact m anufacturing

1 971:269).

a

i nto a

t radition o r

s tyle

O ther m odels s aw t he p resence o f s pheroids

( M.

L eakey

i n a n a ssemblage

a s p art o f a n e cological f ramework. I f t hese a rtifacts r epresent b olas s tones, t hey w ere m ost l ikely u sed f or h unting i n o pen t errain ( Clark 1 955:+11;

H arrison

o f o pen c ountry W hile

1 9+7:155),

i t h as b een n oted

b ifaces d iffer

a nd c ould

t hen b e u sed

t o m ark

t he e xtent

i n t he p ast. t hat o ther

c lasses o f a rtifacts b esides

i n p resence a nd p ercentage f requency b etween t he t wo 1

i ndustries,

l ittle a ttention h as b een g iven t o

t hem.

T his s tudy

i s a n

a ttempt t o e xamine t he m anufacture, p ossible u ses a nd d istribution o f o ne o f t hese c lasses, t hat o f b attered o r p ounded a rtifacts. V ariously l abelled s pheroids,

s ubspheroids,

s tone b alls a nd e ven p olyhedral

b alls

( or b oules p oly driques), t hey a re c ommon e lements i n a ssemblages b elonging t o t he A frican E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge ( Figure 1 .1). S imilar s haped p ieces c ontinue t o b e u sed i nto t he e thnographic p resent. T hey c an a ppear i n t he f orm o f s mooth s tone b alls a nywhere t he E arly S tone A ge s equence. T hose t hat a re r ecovered f rom s ites

i n

f ound t o b e l ater i n t ime o ften s how e vidence o f t he p ecking t hat u ndoubtedly p roduced t heir s hape ( Figure 1 .2). A s econd t ype i s t he f acetted s pheroid o r p olyhedral s cars a re s till

p reserved

b all

( Figure

w here r idges b etween t he f lake

1 .3).

T hese a re t he u sual

o nes f ound

a t t he e arly s ites s uch a s t hose i n B eds I a nd I I a t O lduvai G orge i n n orthern T anzania ( M. L eakey 1 971:6). I n a ddition, a t hird g roup o f s pherical

o bjects e xist

t hat h ave b een

s tones t hat w ere c arried

t he s hape o f t he s mooth s tone b alls, i n a rtifact c ounts

l abelled m anuports

i nto p rehistoric s ites).

( Figure

1 .4).

( unmodified

T hese a pproximate

a nd a re o ften l umped

i n w ith

t hem

F or p urposes o f t his d iscussion,

a ll

p ieces w ill b e l abelled s pheroids, a lthough i t i s c lear t hat t his n ame o nly r efers t o t he m ore s pherical m embers o f a w ide g roup o f b attered o r p ounded p ieces. S pheroids w ere r ecognized a s a d iscrete c lass q uite e arly h istory o f A frican s tone a ge s tudies. b attered s urfaces g ave r ise t o h eads,

h ammerstones,

t hey v ary

b olas,

i nferences a bout f unction

a nd s o o n).

i n p ercentage f requency o ver

a ppear

( as c lub

l t h as b een r ecognized t hat t ime a nd

S tone A ge a ssemblages h ave a n umber o f t hem. t hey a re s o c ommon

i n t he

T heir r ound s hape a nd o ften

i n o ccurrence a nd s o s imilar

t o b e t aken f rom t he s ame m ould.

L .

s pace.

M ost E arly

I n f act,

a t s ome s ites

i n f orm

R amendo s aid

t hat

t hey

i t b est w hen,

i n r eference t o c ollections f rom t he E arly S tone A ge s ite o f A in H anech i n n ortheastern A lgeria, s he s tated t hat t he p ieces e xhibited u ne q rande m onotonie d e f ormes ( Ramendo 1 963:46). T his i s a p hrase t hat s urely n eeds n o t ranslation. a re p resent i n s mall n umbers r ounded s pheroids a ppear T he

i mportance o f

o f B ed

I I

p ieces.

t o

8 9.3 ' ! .). t he

f or

t he f irst i n t he

f requent t hem.

a s T able

T he n ext m ost c ommon r aw m aterial O ther m inor m aterials

( 29 s pecimens o r 2 .3 ' ! .).

u nmodified m anuports. f acetted. i ncreases f orm.

t ime

( Figure 1 .5).

l ater D eveloped O ldowan B

i n t hese a ssemblages a s

A t O lduvai,

a rtifacts a re q uartz o r q uartzite

t otal).

r emainder

b all

I I

i ncreases

t he p oint w here t hey c omprise a s m uch a s 3 5% o f t he s haped

d iagnostic e lement o f

o f

i n B ed

t his c lass

T hey a re s o

s pheroidal

A t O lduvai, t he m ore a ngular s ubspheroids i n t he e arliest O ldowan s ites. T rue

A ll

o f

i s

1 .1

( 1142 o f l ava

t he q uartz

m ost

1 279 s pecimens o r

( 108 p ieces o r 8 .4 ' ! ,

( mostly g neiss)

M any o f t he

t o b e a s hows,

m ake u p

t he

l ava p ieces a re

a nd q uartzite p ieces a re

S ome s how d amage f rom p itting a ction o n t he s urface; t heir

r oundness a nd r esults

T he p attern o f d ifferential

o ther b attered s tones n orthern K enya

p ercentages o f s pheroids a nd

i s r epeated e lsewhere,

i n t he J ordan V alley o f

I srael.

t hese f orms a re

B ut

a t K oobi

t otally a bsent

2

t his

i n t he p roduction o f a t rue s tone m ost F ora

n otably a t

U beidiya

( East T urkana)

( Harris

1 978:259;

i n

T oth

F igure

1 .1

A b asic

t ypology o f s pheroids

A ttribute A ll

s pherical

m anuports) H igh s phericity

( including

v alues

R oundness ( =smoothness)

P roduced b y...

a rtifacts

s hare h igh s phericity

N atural

H igh

L ow

( round)

( angular)

F orces

H ominids

/

s tone b all,

V

p ecked f orm

m anuport

f acetted s pheroid o r p olyhedral b all

( when

e dges a re b attered, t hey a pproach t he p ecked a nd n atural f orms s hape

3

i n

F igure

1 .2

A n e xample o f a p ecked s pheroid F rom N dola, s pheroid,

Z ambia

W eight 5 80 g rams, L ocation:

( Middle S tone A ge).

W hite q uartz

p ecked o r b attered o ver t he e ntire s urface. s phericity

L ivingstone M useum,

. 99,

r oundness

L ivingstone,

. 9. Z ambia.

p its o r p eck m arks S cale

4

1 :2

F igure

1 .3

A n e xample o f a p olyhedral F rom

U beidiya T rench K -29 V B,

F acetted . 93,

l imestone p ebble.

r oundness

. 3.

s pit

1 2;

b all p iece 4 t U /70/567.

W eight 6 50 g rams,

L ocation:

s phericity

I nstitute o f A rchaeology,

H ebrew U niversity o f

J erusalem.

S cale

5

1 :1

F igure

1 .4

A n e xample o f a n atural s pheroid o r m anuport f rom B ed 3 , t he C ave o f H earths S pecimen * M 7/1-13 7 80 D olerite p ebble, u nmodified, b ut p atinated. W eight 1 025 g rams, s phericity . 94, r oundness

. 8.

L ocation: A rchaeological R esearch U nit, U niversity o f t he W itwatersrand, J ohannesburg, S outh A frica.

i j

s pheroidal

w eathering c ontour

l ines

S cale

6

1 :2

F igure A

1 .5

f laked a nd b attered

t rue s pheroid.

S pecimen 4 1 931-3106 S 6 6.273/P3.16 c ollected f rom O lduvai

G orge,

( left)

s pecimen * 1 931.3108 S 6 6.273/ P 3.13 s ame s ite.

T he s pheroid

W eight 4 25 g rams, N ational

s urface

a long w ith a c hopper, ( right)

f rom t he

i s m ade f rom a p ink w hite q uartz.

s phericity

M useum o f T anzania,

. 94,

r oundness

. 6.

D ar e s S alaam.

b attered f lake c rests b attered c ortex S cale

7

1 :2

L ocation:

T able D istribution o f A ll i n B eds

I a nd

I,

1 .1

S pheroids a nd S ubspheroids

O lduvai

G orge b y R aw M aterial

( compiled f rom L eakey S tratigraphic

L ocality

Q uartz!

a nd C ultural

U nit

1 971) L ava

O ther

Q uartzite

A ssignment U pper

B ed

I I

T uff

B K

( Dev.

O ldowan B )

( including I I-D)

( n=60 )

s pheroids s ubspheroids T KUF

( n=386)

4 3

1 1

6 g neiss

3 45

3 0

1 1 g neiss

( Dev.

O ldowan B ) s pheroids s ubspheroids T KLF

( n 16) ( n=60)

1 5 5 5

1 4

0 1g neiss

( Dev.

O ldowan B ) s pheroids s ubspheroids T uff

( n

3 )

2

1

0

( n 28)

2 5

2

1g neiss

1

0

I l-C

M iddle B ed

I I

S HK

( Dev.

O ldowan B ) s pheroids s ubspheroids

( n 60)

5 9

( n 258)

2 44

1 2

1w elded t uff 1p egmatite

M NK M ain S ite

( Dev.

O ldowan B ) s pheroids s ubspheroids

( n 16) ( n=143)

1 6 1 32

0 8

0 2 g ne is s 1p egmatite

F C W est ( Dev.

O ldowan

B ) s pheroids

( n 10)

1 0

0

0

s ubspheroids

( n=25)

3 2

4

2 g neiss

8

T able S tratigraphic

1 .1

C ontinued

L ocality

U nit

a nd C ultural

Q uartz!

L ava

O ther

Q uartzite

A ssignment

M iddle B ed

I I E F-HR ( Acheulean) s pheroids

( n 2)

2

0

0

s ubspheroids

( n 7)

5

1

1

p egmatite T uff

1 1-B M NK S kull S ite ( Oldowan) s pheroids

( n 0)

0

0

0

s ubspheroids

( n 6)

4

2

0

F LK N orth s andy c onglomerate ( Dev.

O ldowan

A ) s pheroids

( n=10)

9

1

0

s ubspheroids

( n 25)

2 3

2

0

0

0

0

0

H WK E ast s andy c onglomerate L evel

5

( Dev.

O ldowan

A ) s pheroids

(=3)

s ubspheroids

( n 5)

L evel ( Dev.

5

4 O ldowan

A ) s pheroids s ubspheroids

0

( n 6) ( n 17)

1 6

9

1

T able S tratigraphic U nit

M iddle B ed

I

1 .1

L ocality a nd C ultural A ssignment

C ontinued Q uartz/ Q uartzite

L ava

O ther

H WK E ast s andy c onglomerate L evel

3

( 0ev. A )

O ldowan

s pheroids ( n=8) s ubspheroids ( n 75) T uff

7 6 6

1 7

Ig neiss

I l-A

L ower B ed

0 1o bsidian

I

H WK E ast L evel 2 ( indeterminate) s pheroids s ubspheroids L evel

( n 0)

0

( n 11)

0

0

0

0

0 1

0 0

0 0

0 0

1 0

0 0

0 1

0 2

0

1

1

( indeterminate) s pheroids ( n=0) s ubsperoids ( n 1) T uff

I -F

U pper B ed

I

E LK N orth ( all O ldowan) L evel

5

s pheroids ( n=1) s ubspheroids ( n 0) L evel

4

s pheroids ( n 0) s ubspheroids ( n=3)

1 0

T able S trat i graphic

1 .1

C ontinued

L ocality

U nit

a nd C ultural

Q uartz!

L ava

O ther

Q uartzite

As signment

B ed

I

E LK N orth ( Oldowan) L evel s pheroids

( n 0)

0

0

0

s ubspheroids

( n=2)

0

2

0

L evel

T uff

I -D

T uff

I -B

L ower B ed

3

2 /1

s pheroids

( n=3)

2

( r i=9)

2

1 7

0

s ubspheroids

I

0

D K ( Oldowan) s pheroids

( n 0)

0

0

0

s ubspheroids

( n 7)

0

7

0

C olumn T otals

1 142

1 08

2 9 T otal 1 279

(9.3 ' / .)

1 1

( 2.3%)

( 100%)

1 982:138).

A ll

o ther

r epresented h ere.

t ypological

c lasses f ound e lsewhere a re

T his p resents a n otable a nomaly a nd

c arried o ut p artly a s a n a ttempt A s o ne o f

t he b asic

t ool

t o u nderstand

t ypes o f

t his s tudy w as

t he r eason f or

t he D eveloped O ldowan,

b uttressed m odels o f P leistocene c ultural e volution t hat e ntity a s a c ultural f rom,

1 971:272). t ool

t radition c ontinuing c ontemporary

t he A cheulean f or a lmost t ypes o ver

g roups.

a m illion y ears

T his w as d etermined b y s tudying t ime a nd s pace.

i ndustries r epresent D ifferent

s pheroids

s aw t his

t o,

b ut s eparate

( for e xample,

M .

L eakey

t he c hanging f requencies o f

S uch m odels a ssume t hat

t he c ultural

i t.

d ebris o f c losely

s imilar

i nteracting s ocial

i ndustries a re t he p roduct o f s eparate g roups,

i solated f rom t he o thers. A lternative e xplanations, s uch a s v ariation i n f unction, w ere n ot c onsidered t o b e o f e qual i mportance. M ore r ecent r esearch a t K oobi h as t aken a d ifferent

a pproach.

F ora a s w ell

a s a t O lduvai

i tself,

L ithic a nalysis h ere h as c entered o n

w hat i nformation c an b e d educed a bout p rehistoric t echnology. W here p ossible, s ources o f r aw m aterial s elected b y h ominids f or s tone t ools h ave b een d etermined. E xperiments i n r eplication h ave s hown h ow a rtifacts c ould h ave b een m anufactured a nd u sed. T his r esearch i s m ost c losely a ssociated w ith P eter

J ones a t O lduvai

a nd w ith N icholas T oth a t K oobi I n t he

l atter c ase,

l ithic

F ora

( Jones

1 979,

1 980,

( Keeley a nd T oth

1 981;

T oth

t echnological

1 981) 1 982).

s tudies h ave b een c onducted

a ssociation w ith s tudies o f s ite d isturbance,

s patial

a nalysis,

i n

a nd

b one m odification ( Bunn 1 981, 1 982; B unn e t.al. 1 980) t o p roduce a n o verall p icture o f h ominid o ccupation a t o ne m oment i n t ime. T his s tudy

i s a n a ttempt

a llied b attered a rtifacts

t o r e-examine t he r ole o f s pheroids a nd

i n t he A frican E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge.

T hese a rtifacts c omprise a c lass a nd s pace a nd

t hat

t hus o ffers a u seful

a nalysis o f v ariability a mong I nformation w as g athered

v aries s ignificantly o ver

a lternative o n w hich

t he e arlier s tone t ool o ne.

t o b e a ddressed h ere a re

i n t he f ollowing

A ge?

s election f or

I f s o,

w hat

t hese a rtifacts? t han

i ncluded

i s t he r ole o f s uch s pheroids

T hen a re a ll

t he p roducts o f n atural

p rocesses?

I n t his s cenario,

t hem f rom p lace t o p lace, m anufacture.

W hat

b ut

f or

n uts, O r

t o

i n t he f inal

f orm o f

s ite f ormed o f a o bjects n othing

a nd/or g eomorphic

h ominids m ay h ave u sed

t hem,

t hey a re n ot r esponsible f or

r ather

t hese p ieces? H ere

t heir

a nd m oved t heir

A re s pheroids f inal

s hape w ould

t han d eliberate m anufacture.

b attered o bjects m ay h ave b een i ntentionally s haped

s ome u nknown r eason.

b one,

I s t here r aw

i n t he E arly S tone

b attered s pheroidal g eological

W hat w ere s pheroids u sed

b attered o bjects s erve a s p ounders o f o rganic w eapons,

l ist.

i ndividual

i n s tone w orking?

b e s olely a r esult o f u se, r ound

s election

i n a n

i s t he f unction o f

m ainly u sed a s h ammers o ther h and,

S ome o f t he q uestions t hat a re

s pecific c lasses o f a rtifacts

A re a ll

s ingle r aw m aterial? m ore

i ndustries.

t hat c ould b e u sed f or b oth a f unctional

a nalysis a nd a c ulture-historical m aterial

e tc.)?

e ither

C ould

s ingly,

t hongs a s b olas?

t ime

t o b ase t he

t heir g lobular

o r

d oes

1 2

f or?

( bark,

t he

C an p lants,

s hape r eflect u se a s t hrowing

t hrough a ttachment

F inally,

t issues

O n

t o b e

t he

t o h andles a s c lubheads

l ength o f

t ime t hat

i t s eems

t o

t ake t o p roduce s pheroids g ive a ny c lue a bout

o ccupation a t a ny o ne c entral h as s uggested?

p lace,

t he d uration o f

a s D esmond C lark

( 1970:81,91-92)

S pheroids a nd b attered s tones f orm a c lass o f s mooth e dged a rtifacts. T his c lass s eems t o b e a n e ssential p art o f t he c ultural i nventory i n m any E arly S tone A ge a ssemblages b ut o nly i n c ertain p laces. T o d ate, h owever, o nly s harp e dged p ieces h ave b een e xamined. I t i s p ossible t hat t here i s a w hole r ange o f a ctivities t hat c an b e c arried o ut o nly b y u sing s mooth s tones. e xamined

i n t urn,

s uch f unctions w ill

a re f unctionally s pecific, p laces,

a nd n ot o thers?

U nless

t hese p ieces a re

r emain u nknown.

t hen w hy a re t hey f ound

B y a sking q uestions

B ut

i f s pheroids

i n o nly c ertain

i n s uch a m anner,

m ight w iden o ur k nowledge o f t he b ehavioural P leistocene h ominids.

o ne

r epertoire o f M iddle

F laked c ore p ieces f rom a s eries o f E arly S tone A ge s ites a re e xamined

i n t his s tudy.

T hose c onsidered a re A in H anech

i n A lgeria,

U beidiya i n I srael, O lorgesailie i n K enya, O lduvai G orge ( Beds I a nd I I) a nd I simila, b oth i n T anzania, a s w ell a s S terkfontein a nd t he C ave o f H earths

i n S outh A frica.

I n a ddition,

s everal

a ssemblages b elonging

t o t he E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge w ere b riefly e xamined

i n Z ambia a nd

Z imbabwe, t he b est k nown o f w hich i s K abwe o r B roken H ill. T he s ites u nder s tudy r ange i n a ge f rom 1 .4 m illion y ears a go ( Bed I I, O lduvai) t o a bout 2 60,000 y ears a go f or a go f or

t hose a ssigned

t o

I simila,

a nd

t o

l ess

t he M iddle S tone A ge.

t herefore w idely d istributed

i n b oth s pace a nd

t han

1 00,000 y ears

B attered s tones a re t ime,

w hile

i n m any

a reas t hey c ontinue t o b e m ade a nd u sed u ntil v ery r ecently. H owever, i t c annot b e a ssumed a utomatically t hat t hey w ere b eing u sed f or i dentical

o r e ven s imilar

t asks

t hroughout

t his entire s equence.

E arly S tone A ge t echnological s tudies i nvolve t he e xamination o f t he e ntire r ange o f h ominid i nteraction w ith l ithic a rtifacts. T his e xtends f rom t he c ollection o f m anufacture a nd u se, s ubsequently

t he r aw m aterial

a nd u ltimately

t o

t hrough

i ts d iscard

i dentified b y u s a s a rchaeological

u se o f t he l andscape i s w ell d ocumented f or a ppears t o b e t he c ase f or e arlier t imes. T he a pproach

t aken

i n t his s tudy

i ts t ransport,

i nto p laces

s ites.

T his p attern o f

l ater p eriods;

i s s imilar

t o

t hat

i t a lso

u sed w hen

s harp-edged a rtifacts a re t o b e e xamined. B ut i t d iffers i n o ne i mportant w ay. l t s oon b ecomes c lear t hat t here i s n o s tandard m ethod t o d escribe s mooth o r b attered p ieces. p ortrayed a nd

t his

i n

i llustrations w ith

i s f ollowed

s hown b y r ailway

s mall

H ammerstones a re t raditionally p eck m arks p roduced b y a brasion,

i n t he f igures h ere.

t rack

l ines a long

B attered f lake s cars a re

t he e dges.

P its o r p eck m arks t hat

a re i nferred t o b e a p roduct o f u se a re s hown b y d iscontinuous o r s tippled o vals ( such a s F igure 1 .2). T hey c an o ccur o n f laked s urfaces o r o n o therwise u naltered c ortex.

N atural

p its s uch a s v esicles

i n

l ava a re c learly i ndicated a nd d ifferentiated f rom t hose p roduced t hrough u se. L astly, t here i s t he c lass o f u nmodified s tones o ften c arried

i nto s ites.

T his

i s m ost

n otable a t

1 3

t he C ave o f H earths

i n t he

T ransvaal

p rovince o f S outh A frica.

w ere t ransported

t o

t he c ave a nd

H ere a n umber o f d olerite p ebbles

l eft w ith o ther A cheulean a rtifacts.

M ost a re u nmodified, b ut a lmost a ll i n t he s ame w ay t hat a n o nion p eels w eathering

i s s hown b y c ontour

d irection o f w ith

t he d epression

e xhibit s pheroidal w eathering m uch i nto l ayers. T he e xtent o f t he

l ines w ith h atch m arks

( as

i n F igure

1 .1+) .

i ndicating

T his

i s

t heir u se o n t opographic m aps t o s how s udden d rops

t he

i n a nalogy i n e levation.

T echnological s tudies h ave b een c arried o ut i n a n umber o f p laces, b ut h ave o nly r ecently b een a pplied t o t he E arly S tone A ge. F or t he o ldest s ites, h owever, t hey a re o f c ritical i mportance. T he g reat p roblem f or t his t ime p eriod i s n ot t he d iscovery o f m ore a nd m ore s ites, b ut t he d evelopment o f m ethods t o i ncrease t he q uality o f i nformation t hat c an b e r ecovered f rom t he s ites a lready i dentified. F or a s tart, i t m ust b e c learly d emonstrated t hat t he d ebris s catters o f s tone a nd b one t hat w e i dentify a s s ites' a re p redominantly t he p roduct o f h ominid a ctivity. t hem c an b e e xamined f or S ome o f

T hen t he

t he

t ypes o f a rtifacts f ound w ithin

i nformation t hey p rovide a bout

t his e xamination m ust b e e xperimental.

a nalogy f or

t he c ultural

T here

t echnology.

i s n o o bvious

s ystems o f t he E arly a nd M iddle P leistocene.

B ut e xperimental m anufacture a nd u se o f a rtifacts c an g ive f irm i deas a s t o t he l imits o f s uch t echnology. I n t his w ay, o ur k nowledge o f t he b ehavioural

r epertoire o f e arly h ominids m ay b e

d ifferential e xplained.

d istribution o f s pheroids

I n t his s tudy,

a n a ttempt w ill

i ncreased.

T he

i n t ime a nd s pace m ight t hen b e

a lso b e m ade t o a ssess t he r ole

t hat s pheroids a nd b attered s tones p layed i n t he d evelopment o f h ominid t echnology i n t he M iddle P leistocene a s w ell a s i n t he p ossible d irection o f c ultural a p eriod o f o ver

c hange a nd e volution.

d ate h ave o nly s ampled a f ragment o f p atterns h ave b een r evealed i n t he F amily H ominidae a t t o u se b iological t hese p hysical

T he E arly S tone A ge s pans

o ne a nd a h alf m illion y ears,

a nd a rchaeologists t o

t his d istribution.

t hat p arallel

t he p hysical

I t

t he s ame t ime.

B ut c ertain c hanges t raced

m ay t herefore b e p ossible

m odels o f d evelopment a nd c hange d eveloped

f eatures

i n o rder

t o

t race c ultural

t o s tudy

c hange a s w ell.

E volutionary s tudies h ave b een g alvanized i n r ecent y ears b y p roposition t hat t he p rime t empo o f b iological e volution i s

t he

d iscontinuous ( Eldredge 1 971; E ldredge a nd G ould 1 972). A brupt c hange b etween p arent a nd d aughter s pecies i s t he m ost c ommonly o bserved p henomenon. T his i s p roposed s ince, a ccording t o E rnst M ayr's a llopatric s peciation m odel, n ew s pecies o nly e volve i n t he m ost p eripheral

r egions o f

I n g eological

t ime,

E xamples o f s uch r apid r esult o f a n

t he h abitat o f

t herefore,

•o ffered b y C harles D arwin c onversely,

t hat

( 1972)

r ecord. i nstead

1 970:12).

i nterpreted a s t he

t hat

( Darwin

m odel

o f g radual

i n o ne s pecies m ay

o ccurrence.

1 4

1 964:280).

t his c hange w as r eal

( marked b y m orphological

T he o riginal

i ndividuals

( Mayr

T his w as t he e xplanation

i n T he O riqin o f S pecies a rgued

a bsence o f c hange

c ould b e s een a s w ell. a lteration o f a ll

a ncestors

t ransition w ere p reviously

i mperfect g eological

E ldredge a nd G ould

t heir

n ew s pecies c an e volve q uickly.

a nd,

s tasis)

c ontinuous

t herefore b e a r are

T o s ome e xtent, t he p attern o f t echnological d evelopment w ithin t he S tone A ge m imics t he m odels p resented f or b iological e volution. S ome a spects s how g radual o f r ecognizeable t ool a rchaeologists)

a nd a dditive c hange.

f orms

g rows o ver

i ncreasing s ophistication L eakey,

t ime.

L ikewise,

t he n umber

t here s eems t o b e

i n a rtifact m anufacture.

t he D eveloped O ldowan

i s

A s d efined b y M ary

t he o bvious s uccessor a nd c ontinuation

o f O ldowan s tone w orking m ethods. a ppear.

F or e xample,

( the t ypes r ecognized b y m odern

B ut

n ew

i ndustrial

T hese c an b e t he p roduct o f n ew a rtifact

t echniques o f m anufacture a nd u se.

T he u sual

f orms c an r apidly

t ypes,

a s w ell

a s n ew

e xplanation o f s uch

e vents r elies o n i nnovation o r t he i mmigration o f a n ew p opulation. O ne e xample i s p rovided b y t he A frican A cheulean. I t s eems t o a ppear s uddenly,

w ith n o

t he p roduction o f

l ogical p recursor.

I ts m ost s triking

i nnovation

l arge f lakes t hat a re s ubsequently m odified

i s

i nto

b ifaces ( handaxes, c leavers, a nd p icks). I t a ppears t o e xist v irtually u nmodified f or h undreds o f t housands o f y ears. T he p attern o f t he o rigin a nd u ltimate d iversification a nd c hange ( in U pper P leistocene t imes) o f t he A cheulean p arallels t hat o f t he e volution o f H omo e rectus ,

s omething

t hat o thers h ave n oted

( Pilbeam

1 975:480).

W hat d o

s pheroids a nd b attered s tones c ontribute t o a rguments a bout t he r ate a nd m ode o f t echnological c hange w ithin t he A frican S tone A ge? T hese a rtifacts a ppear r apidly

i n t he D eveloped O ldowan a t O lduvai

r eplace m iscellaneous b attered c hunks.

O nce t hey a ppear,

a n i mportant p art o f t he t echnological s ystem t hroughout B ut t heir r ole a nd f orm c hanges o ver t ime a long w ith t he w hich t hey a re f ound. T his m onograph i ntroduction, t he h istorical

i s d ivided

t he s tone a ge. i ndustry i n

T he f irst,

t he

p resents a s tatement o f t he p roblem t o b e e xamined, b ackground

t hat

d escribes t he a rchaeological t heir c ultural

i nto s ix c hapters.

w here t hey

t hey r emain

c ontents.

S tone A ge a ssemblages

l eads

t o

i t.

T he s econd b riefly

s ites e xamined,

T hen t he g eneral

t heir s tratigraphy, T he t hird c hapter

d escribes t he m ethodology o f E arly S tone A ge l ithic a nalysis w ith t ypological

s uch a pproaches a re g iven, w eighed. b oth,

F inally,

a nd

a nd

t heir

t he m ethods u sed

a re p resented.

t echnological.

i n a n a ttempt

p rehistoric s pheroids.

C hapter s ix

t o m anufacture a nd u se r eplicas o f s ummarizes

b etween i nformation o btained f rom e xamining f rom t he e xperimental

p roblems p osed s pheroids

a pproach.

i n t he f irst s ection.

i s r eexamined a s w ell

a s

a c ombination o f

i s t he d escriptive a nalysis o f

T he f ifth c hapter o utlines

e xperiments u ndertaken

t hat

t wo

E xamples o f

s trengths a nd w eaknesses a re i n t his s tudy,

T he f ourth c hapter

t he a rtifact c ollections s tudied.

a nd

c haracteristics o f E arly

i n A frica a re o utlined.

a lternative a pproaches:

a nd

t he r elationships

t he a ctual

a rtifacts a nd

I t a lso r eturns t o

t he

i nitial

T he p osition a nd r ole o f

t he n ature o f A frican E arly S tone

A ge t echnologies a nd h ow t hey c hange o ver t his r esearch a nd f uture p rospects f or c onsidered.

1 5

t ime.

O ther

i ssues r aised b y

t hese m ethods w ill

a lso b e

( b)

H istorical

B ackground

T he r ecognition o f s pheroids a s d istinctive a rtifacts e xtends b ack t o

t he o rigin o f e arly s tone a ge r esearch

B oucher d e P erthes, t he f irst

a c ustoms o fficer

t o r ecognize t hat

i tself.

J acques C revecour

i n A bbeville,

F rance,

s ome f orm o f h uman h ad

t ime a s a nimals t hat a re n ow e xtinct.

w as o ne o f

l ived a t

F urthermore,

t he s ame

t his e arly h uman

w as e quipped w ith a t ool k it m anufactured o ut o f s tone. T he i ndustry w as e ventually n amed t he A cheulean a fter t he r egion o f S t. A cheul w here h e w orked.

U nder

t he

l abel

o f h aches c eltiques,

d escription o f f laked a nd p ecked s tone b alls 1 847:340-342). o f g ranite,

h e

i ncluded a

( Boucher d e P erthes

T hey w ere t he s ize o f a n a verage a pple,

f lint,

a nd e ven c halk.

a nd w ere m ade

H e n oted t hat o ne h ad

t o

t ake c are

t o d istinguish t hese p ieces f rom t he m issiles u sed i n t he f irst s tages o f t he e volution o f a rtillery w eapons ( Boucher d e P erthes 1 847:340). S ome w ere f acetted, b ut t he m ajority h ad p ecked s urfaces, a nd w ere n o d oubt s imilar t o t he p ieces l ater r ecognized i n m any F rench M ousterian s ites 1 924:137-138;

( eg.

M artin

A gache 1 923;

1 958;

P eyrony

C hauvet

1 908;

1 934).

F or e xample,

w ere c ollected f rom d eposits a t L a Q uina M artin t hought M ousterian.

l imestone,

i n t he F rench C harente.

b ut a c ouple o f e xamples

c ases b roken h alves w ere f ound n ext 1 923:97).

r eplace

t he p reviously u sed W hatever k it.

t ie t hem t ogether

t hey r epresented,

H e a lso n oted

a v ariety o f w ays.

t hat

s pheroid'

( boules c alcaires)

m any w ere n either r ound n or m ade o f

I n s ome

l eading h im t o

M artin h imself g ave t hem t he n ame l imestone b alls

t hat

( Martin 1 923:93). t o

i f

a nd o ne

s ince m any l acked

t o o ne a nother,

t hat s ome s ort o f s kin c overing w as u sed

( Martin

l imestone

t hey w ere a n

t o s ince,

( Martin

i mportant e lement o f

t he p ieces m ay h ave b een p roduced

I t w as n ot n ecessary f or

i nhabitants o f t he L a Q uina r ockshelter t hem.

H enri

i n t he

M artin f elt

l ikely s ome s ort o f m issile,

t he c haracteristic b attering o f h ammerstones

t he t ool

i n f lint,

b asalt a nd q uartz a re a lso k nown.

t hese p ieces w ere m ost

1 923:49).

M acCurdy

a h undred

T hey w ere u sually m anufactured f rom a f ine s iliceous,

e ach o f g ranite,

h e n oted,

1 944; o ver

t hat s uch s tone s pheroids w ere a c ommon e lement

f ossiliferous,

t hink

L ambert

i n

t he N eanderthal

t o h ave m anufactured a ll

S ome c ould h ave b een t he p roduct o f n atural

f orces

o f

( Martin

1 923:93). The p resence o f s pheroids

i n a n umber o f M ousterian s ites

l ed

D enis P eyrony t o s tate t hat t hey w ere a d iagnostic t ool f orm o f t his i ndustry. H e s tated u nequivocably t hat t hese p ieces r epresented b olas s tones, A ll

o f

u sed

i n m uch

t he s ame m anner

S pheroids w ere f irst w ell l ed

a s

i n Z ambia

s ites

i n

1 910,

E .G.

1 934:48).

i n N orth A frica a s

T heir d istinctive s hape

a nd p rofessional

a rchaeologists

G obert d escribed f acetted b alles d e s ilex

i n T unisia a nd b ordering a reas o f A lgeria

L onstantine)(Gobert

( Peyrony

t han f acetted.

i dentified a s s tone t ools

( then N orthern R hodesia).

t o e arly r ecognition b y a mateur

a like,

a s m odern o nes

t hese p ieces h e d escribed a re p ecked r ather

1 910).

B y

s ilex h e s eems

1 6

f rom

( in t he D epartment o f

t o h ave m eant

v arious

r ock

t ypes,

n ot

j ust f lint.

T here w as n o q uestion a s t o

t heir

m anufacture b y h ominids s ince m any r etained m arks o f p ercussion f laking. T he f orm o f f laking w as i dentical t o t hat u sed t o m anufacture t he h andaxes f ound i n a ssociation w ith t hem ( Gobert 1 910:417-419). W hile h e

l ater b ack-tracked a nd a rgued

t hat s ome w ere p roduced s olely

b y t hermal a ction, t he f lakes b eing s palled o ff, h e s till a ccepted t he o thers w ere u ndoubtedly a r esult o f h ominid a ction ( Gobert 1 911:172).

t hat

I n 1 921, w orkmen a t t he B roken H ill m ine a t K abwe i n N orthern R hodesia d iscovered a p artial s keleton i ncluding a c ranium o f a f ossil h ominid. r his s keleton, t he B roken H ill m an ( also k nown a s " Rhodesian m an"), w as a ccompanied b y a p erfectly s mooth s tone s pheroid. A n i nitial

p opular

a ccount o f

i ts d iscovery w as p ublished

I llustrated L ondon N ews f or

1 921

a ccompanied b y a b ehavioural

( Smith-Woodward

r econstruction b y A .

w ith a s ketch o f t he h ominid's e rect p osture, p resented:

i n t he

1 921).

I t w as

F orestier.

A long

t he f ollowing s cenario

i s

T he f igure s quatting i n t he f oreground i s i n t he a ct o f c rushing s eeds b y m eans o f a c rusher m ade o f a r ounded b all

o f c halky r ock.

t he r ock o ne o f

A s imilar c rusher

i n f ront o f

i n S mith-Woodward

T his a rticle c ulture

l ying o n

t he s kull

1 921:684).

l ed R aymond D art,

W itwatersrand U niversity

i s s een

I t s hould b e n oted t hat

t hese c rushers w as f ound n ear

( Forestier

b all"

t he m an.

P rofessor o f A natomy a t

i n J ohannesburg,

t o p ropose a " round s tone

i n t he s tone a ge o f s outhern A frica

( Dart

1 925).

T his

i s

a pparently t he f irst a rchaeological p aper t hat D art e ver p ublished ( Goodwin 1 935:330). I n i t, h e e xamined t he a rchaeological c ollections g athered b y a M r. A rthur L omax, a p harmacist f rom H eilbron i n t he O range F ree S tate. T hese i ncluded " some h alf g ross o r s o o f r ound s tones" ( Dart 1 925:437), r anging f rom o ne t o t hree i nches i n d iameter a nd m ade f rom r ocks o f v arying h ardness, e verything f rom q uartz t o s andstone.

D art m ade n o a ttempt

h ave b een h umanly m odified a nd o rigin.

H e w as a ware t hat

d iscovered a t B roken H ill, s pheroids w ere a ssociated w ith n oted

t hat

d irect

s imilar p ieces h ad p reviously b een a nd,

i n t he d iscussions a bout

t hat s ite,

" freely u sed a s r epresenting t he c hief c ultural t he r emains"

( Dart

1 925:438).

o bjects

H e a nd L ouis P eringuey

t he a rtifacts h ad a w ide d istribution a nd w ere d iscovered

a ssociation w ith E arly S tone A ge h andaxes

b ouchers , S o

t o d istinguish b etween p ieces t hat m ay

t hose t hat w ere p robably o f n atural

a fter

( then

i n

l abelled

B oucher d e P erthes).

s pheroids w ere t hus o ne o f

t he f irst

h andaxes t o b e r ecognized a s b elonging

t o

a rtifact

t ypes a part f rom

t he s tone a ge.

T his

i s n ot

s urprising s ince t hey a re o ften c ollected f rom t he s urface o f p rehistoric

s ites.

s ymmetrical

s tone b all

W hile f lakes m ay b e p assed o ver,

c ollector o f g eological

i s a n o bvious,

i f

t empting,

a nd a rchaeological

1 7

a p erfectly

t arget f or a ny

s pecimens.

h e p aleontologist C amille A rambourg d iscovered a bout t hirty p olyhedral b alls d uring h is s earch f or P leistocene m ammal f ossils a t

A i n

H anech,

i n e astern A lgeria

i n t he

l ate

1 940s

( Arambourg

1 950).

U hey w ere m anufactured f rom p ebbles t hat w ere b roken a nd t ransformed i nto l arge p olyhedrons. N oting t hat t he d eposit t hey w ere f ound i n w as f ine g rained c lay, h e a rgued t hat t heir s pherical i n t heir t ransport b y w ater ( Arambourg 1 950:350). f or

t he f act

t hat n o o ther a rtifacts w ere r ecovered f rom t he s ite.

A rambourg w as c ontent s ignificance.

t o

l et

t he a rchaeologists d ebate t heir

I n h is P r histoire d e

1 'Afrique d u N ord,

o utlines t he e volution o f A rambourg's i nitially

l abelled ( Balout

i deas a bout

t hem o b je ts e niqmatigues,

d 'industrie h umaine, p rimitive

f orm m ay h ave a ided T his m ight a ccount

t hen u ltimately

1 955:165;

L ionel

B alout

t hese p ieces.

t races p ossibles d 'une

s ee a lso A rambourg

1 949a,

i ndustrie

1 949b,

1 950,

1 953, 1 955; A rambourg a nd B alout 1 952). H e d id, h owever, s tate u nequivocably t hat n o g eological p rocess c ould a ccount f or t heir ( Arambourg

1 950:350)

w ere c onsulted

a s d id o ther g eologists

( Balout

1 955:165).

f orm

l ike C ailleux w hen t hey

M ore w ere f ound d uring

P an-African C ongress o f P rehistory

H e

t hen v estiges e ventuels

t our o f t he s ite

i n

t he

1 952,

u ltimately b etween f ive a nd s ix h undred w ere c ollected.

a nd

A ll

s how a

p olyhedric f orm i n v arious d egrees a nd s tages o f m anufacture. E ven t hough F rench p rehistorians h ad d ebated b efore t his,

L eakey's p romotion o f b olas

t heir

s ignificance

s pheroids o nly b ecame g enerally k nown d ue t o L .S.B. t hem a s P alaeolithic b olas

i s f ormed o f o ne o r m ore s tones t ethered

a s t o e ntangle t he

l egs o f a n a nimal.

( Leakey

1 931:39).

t ogether a nd

E arly e thnographic r eports

d escribe t he u se o f s uch o bjects b y t he G auchos o f S outh A merica. 1 832,

d uring

t he v oyage o f H .M.S.

D arwin w as a ble t o o bserve h e b olas, w hich o f

o r b alls,

a re o f

i s c hiefly u sed

t wo

r ound s tones,

a t hin p laited

t ools t wo

i n a ction. t he s implest,

t he t hree

l eather,

a bout e ight

i n h aving

f eet

c onsists

a nd u nited b y

l ong.

T he o ther

t hree b alls u nited b y

a nd w hirls t he o ther

t wo r ound a nd r ound h is h ead; t hen, t aking a im, t hem l ike c hain s hot r evolving t hrough t he a ir. b alls n o s ooner i t,

s trike a ny o bject,

t hey c ross e ach o ther,

T he s ize a nd w eight o f t he p urpose f or w hich a lthough n ot

l arger

h orse. w ithout i ron,

d istance

w inding r ound

t he b alls v aries,

t han a n a pple, t o b reak

a ccording

f or

i njuring a nd

t hey a re s ent w ith

t he

l eg e ven o f a

t he s ake o f c atching t hem.

a nd a s

l arge

t hese a nimals

T he b alls a re s ometimes m ade

t hese c an b e h urled

( Darwin

t o

w hen o f s tone,

Ih ave s een t he b alls m ade o f w ood,

a s a t urnip, o f

t han,

s ends T he

a nd b ecome f irmly h itched.

t hey a re m ade;

s uch f orce a s s ometimes

t he

T he G aucho h olds t he

i n h is h and,

1 959:42).

1 8

t o

I n

t he s hip s n aturalist C harles

k inds:

c overed w ith

t hongs t o a c ommon c entre. s mallest o f

B eaqle,

f or c atching o striches,

t hong,

k ind d iffers o nly

t hese

A

t hrown s o

t he g reatest

T he

i mportance o f t hese a rtifacts,

p resence

L eakey a rgued,

l ay n ot

i n E arly a nd M iddle S tone a ge c ontexts a lone;

o ccurrence

i n g roups o f

t hree o n a l iving f loor a t O lorgesailie t hat

w as s een a s d efinitive p roof o f o ne c an s ee f rom

i n t heir

i t w as t heir

l ooking a t

t heir

f unction

t he F rench

C L.

L eakey

l iterature a t

1 948:48>.

A s

t he t urn o f t he

c entury, t his i s n ot a n ew i dea a t a ll. B ut i t w as t he f orce o f L eakey's a rgument a nd p ersonality t hat b rought t he d iscussion t o a h ead.

A v igorous d ebate o ver

l etters c olumn o f M an f rom 1 948b; L owe

L eakey

1 949,

1 952;

1 948;

1 950;

H utton

P yddocke

a nd J effreys

t he f unction o f s pheroids e nsued

1 947

t o

1 948; 1 950;

1 952).

1 951

( see H arrison 1 947,

B urland

1 948;

G oodwin 1 949;

S toneham

1 951;

F osbrooke

I t c oncentrated

v an R iet

1 952;

i nformation a bout

d istribution o f s pheroids a nd e thnographic e xamples f or

i n t he

1 948a, G ordon

t he

t heir p ossible

u se. L ittle a ttention w as p aid t o t heir r elationships t o o ther t ools, s ince m ost w ere i solated s urface f inds. H owever, i t w as p roposed t hat t he d istribution o f b olas m ight b e u sed e nvironments, t errain

( Harrison 1 947:155).

b een u sed h ardly

s ince t hey w ere m ost

i n h istoric

t imes

O thers a rgued i n A frica,

l ikely t o h ave s erved

T his d iscussion D esmond C lark

f or

t o r econstruct p ast

l ikely u sed f or h unting

p rehistoric s tone b alls w ere

i n t his c apacity

i s r eviewed

i n o pen

t hat s ince b olas h ad n ever

i n a s eminal

( Lagercrantz

1 936:34).

a rticle w ritten b y J .

t he S econd P an-African C ongress o n P rehistory t hat

w as h eld i n A lgiers i n 1 952 ( Clark 1 955). C lark o utlines t he s tate o f k nowledge t o d ate c oncerning s pheroids a nd d iscusses m any o f t he s ame q uestions t o b e c onsidered

i n t his s tudy.

M ost r emarkably,

h e s tresses

t he n eed f or e xperimental a nalysis. H e n otes t hat b oth n atural h ominid p roduced s pheroids e xist i n E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge c ontexts.

H e

i s a ware t hat

t he p olyhedral

b all

a nd

a ppears b efore t he

p ecked o ne, a nd t hat n atural s pecimens s pan t he e ntire r ange o f t hese o ther f orms ( Clark 1 955:410). H e p roposes t hat t he s ize o f s pheroids d ecreases o ver

t ime i n t he A frican s tone a ge,

e ither r are o r e xtremely c ommon. s pheroids a t s ome s ites t o e ither m aterials t o m ake s tone b alls o r g eological

s pecimens.

t he u se o f o ther t o

O n t he o ther h and, ( Clark

I t w as s oon r ecognized a s pheroid,

a nd

t his c lass

i s

( perishable)

m aterial

m ight b e

e arly o ccupations a re k nown

1 955:411).

t hat

s hape w as e nough

t he t erm b egan t o a ppear

p rehistory o f t he e ntire O ld W orld. e xamination s hows t hat

t hat

t he a vailability o f u nmodified

i nadequately p reserved s ince a lmost a ll f rom o pen-air c ontexts

a nd

H e a ttributes t he a bsence o f

i n

t o d efine a p iece a s

l iterature f or

H owever,

t he

e ven a c ursory

t here a re m any w ays t o p roduce t he s ame f orm.

S ome w ere f laked w hile o thers w ere m odified o nly b y g eomorphic f orces. B ut

t he

l atter w ere c arried

i nto s ites a s m anuports s o c an b e

i n t he a rtifact d escriptions. A cheulean a ssemblages,

M axine K leindienst

r ecognized

d istinguished b etween t hree k inds o f s pherical b olas s tones, s pheroidal b attered

a nd p olyhedral

s tones.

1 959:68).

a rtifacts:

l ater S he

m issiles,

b olas s tones a re p ecked o r

a nd p olyhedral

S he w as a ttempting

1 9

t his f act.

M issiles a re u sually u naltered

r ocks o r o nly s lightly w orked;

t o p roduce t he s hape,

( Kleindienst

i ncluded

I n t he f irst d etailed a nalysis o f

s tones a re f acetted

t o d istinguish b etween t he

s imilar

s hape o f p ieces b y u sing a ttributes o f m anufacture.

p resence i n v arious r ecorded. M odern r esearch

l ate A cheulean a ssemblages

1 h eir

i n E ast A frica

i s

i n E arly S tone A ge a rchaeology o wes m uch t o M ary

L eakey's a ssumption o f t he O lduvai

e xcavations.

S he w as r esponsible

f or t he d iscovery, e xcavation a nd m apping o f a rtifact a nd b one s catters t hat h ave b een r ecognized a s l iving f loors. S he s tressed t he i mportance o f t he p ercentage f requency o f s pheroids a t t he d etermination o f 1 971:266).

B ut

t he c ultural

t hese s ites f or

a ssignment o f a n a ssemblage

l ittle h as b een d one s ince t his

( Leakey

t ime w ith b attered

s tones a s a n a rtifact c lass. T heir p resence i s m erely n oted, a s well a s t he g eneral s imilarities o f t he p ieces f rom w ithin a nd b etween s ites b elonging t o t he E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge. M any o f t he s ites d escribed i n t he s econd c hapter a re u ndergoing c ontinuous a nalysis. E ither f urther e xcavations a re u nder w a y o r a re p lanned, o r m aterial a lready c ollected i s b eing r e-examined. S ome o f t his r e-examination i nvolves c hanges i n t he a pproach t o a rtifact s tudy. R ecently, c ultural u nder

m any r esearchers h ave d irectly a ddressed a daptation u sing a t echnological

s tudy h ere,

i ssues o f h ominid

f ramework.

F or

m ay h ave b een t he r ole o f s pheroids a nd b attered s tones p rocurement a nd/or p rocessing? c arried o ut u sing

W hat

t hese o bjects?

r equire a t echnological

f ocus.

t he r ange d ifferent f rom t hat

T ypological

t he d istribution o f a c lass o ver a bout f unction. T he d egree o f w ork b all

i ntentional, i nherent

i nvolved

T hese a re q uestions t hat a nalysis m ainly d escribes

t ime a nd s pace;

i t y ields f ew c lues

i n t he p roduction o f a f acetted

i mplies a l engthy p eriod o f a ttention.

o r m erely

W hat

i n f ood

r anges o f a ctivities c an b e

W as

d educed f rom s harp-edged c utting a rtifacts?

p olyhedral

t he m aterial

t he f ollowing q uestions w ould b e a ppropriate.

t he r esult o f

t he m echanical

i n t he e xtensive f laking o f p ebbles.

O ther

T his m ay b e

c ontingencies t han t his,

t he

v arious o bjects l abelled s pheroids a nd b attered s tones m erely s hare a c ommon s hape. W hile t hey d o o ccur i n d ifferent f requencies w ithin a nd b etween E arly S tone A ge a ssemblages a nd s ites, e lse o f

v alue f or c ulture-historical

s pheroids o ffer

r econstruction.

I t

t he s teps t aken

i n t heir m anufacture a nd u se a re e xamined

t hat

i nformation c an b e o btained.

a dditional

a sked o f E arly S tone A ge m aterial W hile c lass, i s

t ypological

s tudies r eveal

a t echnological

l ittle

i s o nly w hen i n d etail

T he k inds o f q uestions

m ust b e c hanged b efore t his h appens. t hat s pheroids r epresent

a n a nomalous

a pproach m ay o ffer a n e xplanation f or w hy

t he c ase.

2 0

t his

C HAPTER 2 : T he o verriding

B ACKGROUND T O T HE E ARLY S TONE A GE

i mpression o f

t he

r ecord

t echnological

e vidence

S tone A ge]

a rchaeological

m onotony.

P erhaps t he m ost o verwhelming e xample o f

i n t he [ Early

i s o ne o f a lmost u nimaginable t his

i s t he

A cheulean o f O lduvai G orge, w here f or a pproximately a m illion y ears n o s ignificant i nnovation i s d iscernable ( Jelinek 1 977:28).

( a)

R eview o f t he S ites C oncerned

T his s tudy e ntails t he e xamination o f f laked a nd/or b attered c ore a rtifacts f rom a s eries o f s even E arly S tone A ge s ites. T hese a re ( a) O lduvai G orge B eds I a nd I I a nd ( b) I simila, b oth i n T anzania, ( c) A m H anech,

A lgeria,

a nd B ed 3 , A frica,

' Ubeidiya

i n

I srael,

t he C ave o f H earths

i n

t he T ransvaal

a nd

( g)

U beidiya.

I t

( d)

O lorgesailie i s

i n K enya.

( e)

A ll

a nd p artly b ecause o f

P rovince o f S outh

a re A frican e xcept f or

i ncluded h ere p artly d ue t o

t he A frican s ites,

M ember 5 o f S terkfontein

i ts b road s imilarities t o

t he u nusual

f eatures o f

i ts

a rtifacts t hat s hed l ight o n t he f unctions o f s pheroids. A ssemblages c ommonly a ssigned t o t he D eveloped O ldowan i nclude s ome f rom U beidiya a s w ell

a s B ed

I I

S terkfontein. ( J lduvai

a nd

a t O lduvai,

a nd

t hose f rom A in H anech a nd

A ssemblages c onsidered A cheulean a re a lso f ound a t U beidiya,

O lorgesailie.

a s w ell

T his d istinction

a s a t

I simila,

t he C ave o f H earths a nd

i s t raditionally d rawn o n

p resence/absence o r f requency o f o ccurence o f b ifacial e lements s uch a s h andaxes a nd c leavers. T he m ajority o f t he a ssemblages c ome f rom o pen-air

a ccumulations.

S terkfontein r epresent s ites r ange

C ave o f H earths a nd

( possibly?)

M ember 5 o f

t he o nly c ave o r r ockshelter o ccupations.

i n a ge f rom t he O ldowan a ssemblages a t O lduvai

m illion y ears) d istribution

t o

I simila a t a round 2 60,000 y ears a go.

i n t ime a nd s pace

i s g iven

( about

T he 1 .8

T heir

i n F igures 2 .1

a nd 2 .2.

T he s even E arly S tone A ge s ites w ere s elected f or s tudy f or a n umber o f r easons. w ide r egional

a nd

F or

a s urvey o f

t emporal

t he d istribution o f s pheroids,

r ange o f m aterial

o ffered b y t he c ollections e xamined h ere. i ndividual m ajor

T hen t he

s ites v aries f rom p lace t o p lace.

s ite f or

g ood s patial e xcavation o f

r esearch

i nto

t his p eriod,

w as n eeded.

i ndividual

a ssemblages.

i mportance o f

O lduvai

a nd o ne o f

i nformation a cquired f rom t he c areful

a

T his i s

r epresents t he t he f irst w ith

c ollection a nd

G ood p reservation a nd a l ong

t emporal s equence o f o ccupation y ield a r egional p icture o f c ultural d evelopment. O lorgesailie a nd I simila a re g ood r epresentatives o f t he f ully d eveloped A frican A cheulean, a p hase n ot y et c ompletely d escribed f or [ J lduvai. U beidiya, A in H anech, a nd t he C ave o f H earths p rovide i mportant a ssemblages w ith s ignificant n umbers o f s pheroids a nd o ther b attered s tones a s w ell a ppears

t o b e

( Stekelis

a s g ood c ontextual

t he e arliest

1 966)

a nd

i nformation.

s ite w ith c ultural

t his m aterial

i s c omparable

2 1

' Ubeidiya a lso

r emains o utside o f A frica i n m ost,

i f n ot a ll,

F igure 2 .1 E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge S ites w ith s ignificant n umbers o f s pheroids a nd o ther b attered s tones

A in H anech U beidiya

A FRICA

O loro sai 1j e O lc tuvai I simila

K abwe

•

( Broken H ill)

. C ave o f H earths S terkfontein

2 2

G orge

/

F igure 2 .2 S ites

A ge

( mya)

. 1

i ncluded

S ites a nd S ource o f D ates

O lduvai

. 1

( K/Ar) . 2

i n t his s tudy

B

m isc.

M SA

K abwe

s ites

i n

( Broken H ill)

Z ambia

o n f auna . 27

I simila

( Uranium/Thorium)

+

t

Z imbabwe

C ave o f H earths?

. 5

S

. 45 O lorgesailie ( K/Ar)

4

. 6

U beidiya . 64 m inimum

. 7

( K/Ar)

/J

a ra mi llo E vent

M 1 .0

A

B ed

I II

T 1 .1

U

R

Y 1 .2

A

U pper B ed

I

i 1 .3

A

A in H anech (f auna) M iddle B ed

I I 1 .5 ? S terkfontei n

L ower 1 .7 V 1 1 4 »lduvai

B ed

I I

M ember

E vent B ed

I

R 1 .9 2 .0

f irst w ell-dated s tone

t ools

2 3

5 ( fauna)

w ays

t o

t hat

f rom E ast A frica.

i ts e xtensive h ominid r emains,

S terkfontein m ay b e b etter b ut

t he c ultural

k nown f or

a ssemblages f rom M ember

S a re s imilar t o t he o ther A frican l ocalities, a nd i ts i nclusion h ere e xtends t he g eographic r ange o f E arly S tone A ge s ites u nder e xamination. Z ambia

T he s everal

E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge a ssemblages f rom

( including K abwe o r B roken H ill)

a nd Z imbabwe t hat w ere e xamined

i llustrate t he c ontinued u se o f s ome f orm o f s pheroidal m ore r ecent t imes. O lduvai

G orge

i s

t he s ingle m ost

( Figure 2 .3).

S ituated

i n

i mportant E arly S tone A ge s ite

A frica a nd p erhaps i n t he e ntire w orld. S tone A ge s ites t hat a re a ssociated w ith s ystem

a rtifact

i n

I t i s o ne o f a s eries o f E arly t he E ast A frican R ift V alley

i n n orthern T anzania,

i t c onsists o f a

s eries o f s tratified b eds w ith a ccumulations o f b one a nd f laked s tones o n p aleosols t hat h ave b een w ater

a ction h as

c ultural l ess

l eft

l abelled

l iving f loors'.

t hese b eds e xposed.

a nd g eological

T here

s equence h ere e xtending f rom

t han 2 00,000 y ears a go

( Figure 2 . ).

D owncutting b y

i s a c ontinuous 1 .9 m illion t o

L ouis a nd M ary L eakey

c ollected a rtifacts f rom t he s urface o f t he d eposit f or s everal d ecades a nd, a s a d irect r esult o f t he d iscovery o f t he Z inianthropus s kull i n 1 959,

e xcavations w ere u ndertaken

L eakey

1 971).

i ndustries:

T he c ultural

t he O ldowan,

m anufacture a nd u se, A cheulean.

i n B eds

m aterial

m arking

I a nd

i ts s ucessor,

t he D eveloped O ldowan,

a nd a nd

T he e arliest s ites a t 0 lduvai,

t his c ontinues

t o b e t he p attern

s tratified b elow

p otassium/argon m ethod

( Hay

i n t he

1 976:25;

l ower

t he b eginning o f w idespread f aulting t he

p osition o f

t he p rehistoric

l akeshore.

c oeval

l ake o f B ed

I t imes

( Hay

s uch a s a t

( at

1 ,

o r

t hat

t hat

t o

L eakey

1 976b:27).

D eveloped O ldowan

T h

t he

L emuta M ember

s ignificantly r educed I n t urn,

t he

t he D eveloped O ldowan f rom

( Hay

t he

l akeshore;

1 975:2 ).

I ndividual

i dentified b y a ccumulations o f s tones i n a ssociation

( Isaac

r emains m ay c onsist o f a s ingle l arge a nimal t he L ) einotherium s ite o f

l evel

é ,

F LK N orth

i n

a c ollection o f m iscellaneous a nimals o f v ariable s ize

t he F LK 2 in 1a nthropus s ite o f M iddle B ed

L eakey

M . I

1 976:26).

f ractured b y h ominids w ith o r w ithout b one

U pper B ed

B ed

l ess t han o ne k ilometer

s ites h ave t raditionally b een

c arcass,

a ssigned

s ites s hifts t o m ore d istant p oints f rom

R ichard H ay d iscovered

F aunal

a re a ll

d ated b y m eans o f

A cheulean o nes a re a lways f urther o ut

1 983:3-4).

I ,

1 .5 m illion y ears a go.

t he s ize o f

o ccurrences a re u sually

t he

e lements.

t hose o f B ed

t he L emuta M ember, t o

t hree

i n t he s outheast m argin o f a n a ncient s oda

l ake w here f resh w ater w as a vailable

t he

t o

T hese a re d efined o n t he p resence o r a bsence,

t he O ldowan a nd a re f ound

m arks

( 1960-1963)(M.

t he f irst s tage o f s tone t ool

p ercentage f requency o f c ertain t ypological

s ites,

I I

u ncovered w as a ssigned

I ,

f or e xample)

( see M .

1 971:50-64).

S pheroids a nd b attered s tones o ccur

i n t heir

h ighest r elative

p ercentages i n t he l ater D eveloped O ldowan s ites ( phase B ) w here t hey r epresent n o l ess t han t wenty p ercent a nd o ften a m any a s t hirty-five p ercent o f s een

i n

t he s haped o r f laked p ieces

l able

1 .1,

t hroughout

( M.

L eakey

171:266).

t he s equence a t 0 1duvai

2 4

A s c an b e

t he m ajority o f

F igure 2 .3 L ocation o f t he E ast A frican s ites d iscussed

i n t his s tudy

K oobi F ora

K ENYA

O lorgesa i j e . •Olduvai

G orge

T ANZANIA

I simi J a

.

2 5

0

F igure 2 .4 S tratigraphy o f t he O lduvai G orge, n orthern T anzania ( compiled f rom M . L eakey 1 971; H ay 1 976:25-28)

A ge

( mya)

B ed

A ssemblages u sed i n t his s tudy

R ecent 0 .015 N aisiusiu 0 .022 t o

. 032 N du t u

0 .40 M asek 0 .60 B ed

I V

B ed

I II

0 .80 1 .15 U pper B ed

T uff

I

B K T KUF T KLF

I l-C

M iddle B ed

T uff

I

S HK M NK M ain F C W est

I

F LK N orth s andy c onglomerate H WK E ast l evel 4 H WK E ast l evel 3

B

M iddle B ed

T uff

I

I l-A

L ower B ed

I

H wk E ast

l evel

2

1 .70 B ed

I

F LK N orth l evels 1 -3 D K l evels 2 a nd 3

1 .85 B asal

L ava

2 .10 P recambrian B edrock

2 6

T able 2 .1 L ocation a nd s ample s ize o f s pheroids a nd s ubspheroids f rom O lduvai G orge e xamined i n t his s tudy S tratigraphic P osition

A ssemblage

N umber o f s pheroids a nd

V . o f s ample a vailable t hat w as

s ubspheroids e xamined e xamined, a nd t otal s ample s ize

U pper B ed

T uff

I

B K

I I

t o t he t otal O lduvai s ample e xamined

1 3 o f 4 46

T KUF

I

7 2 o f 7 6

T KLF

I

3 1

o f 3 1

2 .9 ' / . 9 4.7% 1 00.0 ' ! .

1-C

M iddle B ed

I

S HK I I M NK M ain I F C W est

T uff

% c ontribution o f e ach a ssemblage

1 36 o f 3 18

4 2.8 ' ! .

2 2.8%

1 54 o f

9 6.9%

2 5.8%

1 59

I I

4 8 o f 4 8

1 00.0 ' ! .

8 .1 ' ! .

F LK N orth

3 3 o f 3 5

9 4.3%

5 .5 , ' .

2 3 o f 2 3

1 00.0%

3. 9 ' , .

6 2 o f 8 3

7 4.77 .

1 0.4%

1 0 o f

1

9 0.9 ' ! .

1 .7%

4 o f

1 2

3 3.4 ' ! .

0 .7 ' ! .

1 00.0 ' ! .

1 .77 .

I l-B

M iddle B ed

I I

s andy c onglomerate H WK E ast l evel

4

H WK E ast l evel T uff

L ower B ed

T uff B ed

3

I l-A I

H WK E ast l evel 2

I -A I

E LK N orth I l evels D K I l evels 2 a nd 3

1 -3 1 0 p ieces ( inc. 7 o f 7 s ubspheroids)

2 7

1 00.0 • ! .

t hese a re m ade o f q uartz o r q uartzite a v ariety o f m inor m aterials, m aterial

s elected w as

p ebbles.

F or

( 90%),

g neiss b eing

t he r emainder a re

i n t he f orm o f c obbles a s w ell

t his s tudy,

l ava a nd

t he m ost f requent.

T he r aw

a s w aterworn

5 96 s pheroids a nd s ubspheroids b elonging

t en e xcavated a ssemblages f rom B eds N ational M useums o f K enya, N airobi,

t o

Ia nd I I t hat a re h oused i n t he K enya w ere e xamined. A ll b ut t en

s pecimens c ome f rom B ed I I a nd t he s ample t hus r epresents t he f ull d istribution o f t he D eveloped O ldowan i n t his s tratigraphic u nit ( see l able 2 .1). A dditional m aterial t hat w as c ollected f rom t he s urface o f e ach B ed a t O lduvai p rior t o t he e xcavations o f t he 1 960s w as m ade a vailable f or S alaam.

s tudy a t

H owever,

t he N ational

t his m aterial

M useum o f T anzania

i s n ot

i ncluded

i n D ar e s

i n t he s tatistical

d escription o f e xcavated a ssemblages f rom t he s ite. A in H anech

i s

N ortheast A lgeria S erpent,

l ocated

i n t he D epartment o f C onstantine

( Figure 2 .5),

t he F rench

a nd

t ranslation o f

i n

i s a lso k nown a s t he S ource d u t he o riginal

A rabic n ame.

I t

c onsists o f t wo f ossiliferous c lay l evels w ith o ne m etre o f b rown s terile c lay i n b etween ( Figure 2 .6). T he e ntire s equence i s l ocated d irectly u nder a M edieval 1 955:164).

I slamic c emetery

( Arambourg

1 950:348;

C amille A rambourg d iscovered a nd e xcavated

s earching f or P lio/Pleistocene f ossil

m ammal

r emains.

N oting

d eposits w ere f ormed o f f ine g rained s ediments, h e a rgued t hat s pherical s hape o f t he a rtifacts m ay h ave r esulted i n t heir t ransportation

i nto

t hese s ediments b y w ater

a ction

B alout

t he s ite w hile t hat

t he

t he

( Arambourg

1 950:349). T his m ay e xplain w hy t he m ajority o f t he a rtifacts h ere a re p olyhedral b alls. T hese a rtifact b earing l evels a re d ated t o t he A mirian f aunal

p hase b ased o n a ssociated a nimal

r oughly c oeval

w ith

j ustification f or c ontinuing ( Basal

P leistocene)

P leistocene

( Jaeger

b ones.

t he A cheulean s ite o f T ernifine. r ather

i ts a ssignment t o

t han t o

T his m akes t hem T here

i s n o

t he e arly V illafranchian

t he A mirian o r e arliest M iddle

1 975:403).

During e xcavations b y A rambourg i n 1 949 a nd L ionel B alout a nd o thers i n t he 1 950s, 5 00 t o 6 00 C retaceous l imestone p ebbles w ere d iscovered;

t hey h ad b een f laked

t o p roduce p olyhedral

a rtifact c lasses a re p resent o nly a nother

s triking f eature

w ould c onsider a bsent,

i n

i s t he a bsence o f d ebitage.

t hese p ieces t o b e

b ut s uch a c onclusion

b alls.

i nsignificant n umbers,

D eveloped O ldowan'

i s b y n o m eans c ertain.

M ost r esearchers s ince b ifaces a re A s ample o f o ne

h undred a nd s ixty-six p ieces f rom A in H anech w as e xamined f or s tudy d uring a b rief v isit

t o

t he

O ther

w hile

t his

I nstitut d e P aleontologie H umaine

i n

P aris. A d etailed r e-examination o f t he a rtifacts i s p resently b eing c onducted b y M . M ohammed S ahnouni o f t he I nstitut, a nd t he s ite i tself i s a lso c urrently b eing r einvestigated ( L. B alout, p ersonal c ommunication). T his s tudy d oes n ot t ake i nto a ccount t his m ore r ecent w ork. ' Ubeidiya o f

I srael

i s

A frican R ift Z one s ixty

l ocated s outh o f L ake K inneret

t hat r epresents

i ndividual

i n t he J ordan V alley

t he n orthward e xtension o f

( Figure 2 .7). a rchaeological

t he v ast E ast

T he s ite c onsists o f a s eries o f o ver h orizons e xcavated f rom f our g eological

2 8

F igure 2 .5 L ocation o f A in H anech,

Mediter

A lgeria

r anean

Constantine A lgiers S

A in

H a n e c h ( 0

C ,0 •

/

10' 0

A lgeria

) (

SCALE 200 km.

2 9

F igure 2 .6 S tratigraphic S ection o f A in H anech,

A lgeria

( Redrawn w ith p ermission f rom B alout

1 955:164;

i n t urn m odified f rom A rambourg

1 950:349)

W est

E ast

I slamic C emetery

5

u pper d olomite ( pudding)

l evel

4

s terile c lay

3

g ray c lay,

f ossil i ferous, .

•

‚

°

.

w ith m ost s pheroids 2

1 m etre b rown s teril c lay

1

f ossiliferous

l imestone-

l ike d olomite

( pudding)

w ith s ome s pheroid

-

b rown s te ri

-o S prin

V ertical

( the S ource

s cale

1m etre

3 0

.

.

'.

F igure 2 .7 L ocation o f

' Ubeidiya,

I srael

a •

'

. _ .i

L ake

i t e p

•Gesher Benot

ret ) K inn e

' Ube idiya

Half

I t 4 . 4 .

T el

A v iv

J erus

Y aacov

•

l em , D ead S ea

1

Egypt

I SCALE 8 0 km .

3 1

p its,

l abelled T renches

1 ,

I I,

I II

a nd K ( Goren

t hese t renches h ave b een c orrelated p rehistoric

l and s urface

1 981a:5).

L evels f rom

t o p roduce a g eneral

( Table 2 .2).

p icture o f t he

D iscovered d uring

l and c learance

i n 1 959 a nd e xcavated f rom 1 960 t o 1 974 ( see S tekelis 1 966; S tekelis e t.al. 1 969; B ar-Yosef 1 975, 1 980; B ar-Yosef a nd T chernov 1 972), t he e ntire s ite

i s u sually a ssigned

t o

t he E arly M iddle P leistocene

( Goren

1 981a:49), o r i n t he s ame r ange a s A in H anech. B ut t he t wo p otassium/argon d ates o f 6 40,000±120,000 a nd 6 80,000±50,000 R .P. r epresent m inimal

a ge e stimates.

c ould

T hese d ates w ere o btained f rom

l ocalities n ear t he a rchaeological s ite t hat a re a ssigned t o t he 'U beidiya F ormation ( Horowitz e t.al. 1 973:187; S iedner a nd H orowitz 1 974:24-25).

R ecent r eanalysis o f t he f aunal

R epenning a nd ü ldrich F e3far

r emains h as

( Repenning a nd F ejfar

l ed C harles

1 982:344-347)

t o

a rgue t hat ' Ubeidiya c ould b e a s o ld a s t he e arliest A frican s ites, o n t he o rder o f 1 .5 t o 2 m illion y ears. I his w as c oncluded f rom s tudying t he t emporal

r anges o f k ey m ammal

g roups f ound h ere.

I t c an b e

c oncluded t hat t he d ates o f A in H anech a nd 'Ubeidiya o verlap t hose o f t he E ast A frican E arly S tone A ge s ites, b ut t heir a bsolute a ge i s s till u nclear.

A g eneral

p icture o f t he s tratigraphy o f t he c entral

V alley a nd ' Ubeidiya ( drawn f rom E ar-Yosef a nd T chernov p rovided i n F igure 2 .8.

J ordan

1 972:8)

i s

S ince U beidiya l ies i n t he r ift z one, i t h as b een s ubject t o v iolent g eological a ction s ince t he i ndividual s ites w ere a ccumulated. M any o f

t he a rchaeological

h orizons a re d eformed s o

a lmost c ompletely v ertical p roblems f or e xcavation.

( Goren A s w as

1 981a:10),

t hat

t hey

l ie

p resenting o bvious

t he c ase a t O lduvai,

t he s ites a re

l ocated i n p roximity t o a n a ncient l ake; h owever, a t ' Ubeidiya t he l ake w as l ess s aline t han t he E ast A frican o ne ( Goren 1 981a:6). O ver t ime t he

l ake e bbed a nd f lowed,

a nd

t he r esulting g eological

l evels r ange

f rom d eposits f ormed u nder d eep w ater c onditions t o f ully o nes

( Rar-Yosef a nd T chernov N ot o nly

t errestrial

1 972:26).

t he p lacement o f s ites a t

U beidiya

i s r eminiscent o f

O lduvai. T heir c ontents a re s trikingly s imilar a s w ell, a nd t he v arious l ithic a ssemblages a t U beidiya a re l ikewise a ssigned t o t he D eveloped O ldowan o r A cheulean b ased o n f requency o f o ccurrence o f b ifaces. t he m ost u nusual f eature o f t hese c ollections i s t he c lear e vidence o f s election o f c ertain r aw m aterials, a ll o f w hich w ere l ocally a vailable

i n t he 'Ubeidiya F ormation,

c lasses

1 966:18;

( Stekelis

m ost c ommon m aterial c obbles a nd b oulders, h andaxes.

a vailable;

o ccurring

i t w as c hosen f or

t o p roduce p olyhedral

n odules o f

f lint,

t he r arest o f

s crapers a nd c utting

b alls o r t he

t ools,

s pheroids.

t hree r ock

a s w ell

t ools s uch a s

T he E arly S tone A ge s ite o f G esher

p ebbles a nd

w ere s elected f or

1 981a:82-84; B enat

J aeger

V aacov

i s

t he o nly

s ite t o s how a ny s ort o f s egregation o f a rtifact c lasses

b y r aw m aterial. u sed,

G oren

t ypes,

l imestone

S mall

a s f or c hoppers a nd

1 975:586).

I sraeli

1 969:9;

a rtifact

B asalt w as t he

i n t he f orm o f p ebbles,

( Stekelis e t.al.

m aterial

s pecific

l arge c utting

p olyhedrons o ther

f or

1 969:10).

R arer m aterials s uch a s p ebbles a nd c obbles o f

w ere u sed s mall

S tekelis e t.al.

I n o ther A cheulean a ssemblages,

e ven w hen o thers a ppear

3 2

f lint

i s t he o nly

t o b e e qually a vailable

( Goren

T able 2 .2 C orrelation o f

T est

T renches a t

( compiled f rom G oren

f rench K

T rench

I

U beidiya,

I srael

1 981a:75)

T rench

I I

T rench

II

1 11-63 1 -28 K -55 K -54

1 -27 I -26a

K -53

I -26ab

1 1-40

K -52

I -26b1

K -SO K -49

I -26b2 1 -26b1/b2

K -4/

1 -26 b /c

K -46

1 11-44 1 1-39 1 11-41 1 11-37

I -26c

K -45

* 11-38(1)

* J-26c/d(4)

K -44 K -42

1 -26d

K -41

1 -25

1 11-35 * 111-34(3)

1 1-37 * 11-36(4)

1 11-33

K -40

1 1-35

1 11-32

K -39

1 1-34

1 11-30

1 1-33/34 1 1-33 1 -20 * K-30(9; * K-29(59; * K-28(2)

V B-5)

1 1-32

1 -17/19

* 11-28(2)

1 11-25

V B-15)

* K-27(2)

1 11-23/24 1 -16

* 11-27(1)

* K-26(2) * K-25(6) K -24

* 1-15(105)

* 11-26(11)

K -23 K -22 * 11-25(5)

K -20

1 11-20

* 11-24(10) 1 1-23 1 1-22 1 -13/14

1 1-21

K -12 *

1 11-12

a ssemblages c ontaining s pheroids

t hat w ere a nalyzed

i n t his

s tudy s ample s ize o f s pheroids;

t otal

s ample e quals 2 46

p ieces V'

r epresents b ut

t he V inyard B aulk o riginally p reserved

s ubsequently e xcavated

3 3

i n T rench K ,

F igure E .G S tratigraphy o f t he C entral J ordan V alley a nd ' Ubeidiya, I srael ( redrawn b y p ermission f rom B ar -Yosef a nd T chernov 1 97E:8 a nd G oren D ate a nd S ource o f D ate 0 .018

1 981a:39) G eological

U nit

( C-14)

L isan F ormation

0 .06

( C-14)

u nconformity

R aqqad B asalt

u nconformity

N aharayim F ormation

u nconformity 0 .68 m illion y ears 0 ,64

( K/Ar) Y armouk

B asalt

u nconformity R eversed P olarity U beidiya F ormation ? ? ? E rq e i

A hmar F ormation

u nconformity R eversed P olarity N ormal

P olarity

C over B asalt

( 1.7-2.0 m illion y ears)

3 4

1 981b:198).

T his

i s c ritical w hen o ne t ries t o w eigh a lternative

e xplanations f or t he o ccurence o f s pheroids. O ne c ommon p roposition i s t hat s pheroids r epresent n othing m ore t han t he e nd-product o f f laking a p olyhedral s tone. A ccording t o t his e xplanation, t hey d o n ot r epresent p urposefully d esigned t ools a t a ll, b ut m erely e xhausted c ores ( see J elinek 1 977:17 f or a s tatement t o t his e ffect). P olyhedrons, a ngular a rtifacts w ith t hree o r m ore i ntersecting e dges, a re c losest t o s pheroids i n f orm. S pheroids m ay b e m ore h eavily w orked t han p olyhedrons, b ut a re g rouped i nto t his c lass o n a ccount b y s haring h igh r oundness v alues. T he t wo g roups r epresent a c ontinuum o f v ariation i n e dge s hape f rom h ighly a ngular t o e ntirely s mooth. I t i s p ossible t hat t he p osition o f a s harp-edged p iece i n t his r ange c ould b e s hifted s ignificantly i f i t w as u sed a s s ome s ort o f h ammer. B ut a t U beidiya, r aw m aterial i s n ot c onstant a cross t ypological l ines. H ere p olyhedrons a re a lmost a lways f lint a rtifacts a nd s pheroids a re a lmost a lways l imestone. T his c learly d emonstrates t hat s pheroids m ay h ave b een m anufactured f or a d efinite p urpose, o r a lternately, t hat r aw m aterial f actors c ondition f inal r ecognized.

a rtifact f orm m ore t han p r?viously

' Uheidiya e xhibits t he s ame p attern o f a lteration b etween b iface a nd n on-biface a ssemblages a s t hat s een i n E ast A frica. S pheroids a re a lso q uite v ariable i n p ercentage f requency.

T hey a re a n i mportant

e lement i n t he ' living f loor' o f 1 -15, y et a re a bsent f rom l evels i n c lose p roximity t o i t. T here s eems t o b e n o o bvious s equential p attern o r r eason f or t he p resence o r a bsence o f s pheroids a nd b ifaces i n a p articular a ssemblage, s ince s pheroids a ppear i n l evels a ssigned t o t he A cheulean a s w ell a s t o t he D eveloped O ldowan ( Goren 1 981a:96). I n t his s tudy, 2 95 p ieces h oused a t t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology, H ebrew U niversity o f J erusalem, M t. S copus, w ere e xamined: 2 46 f laked s pheroids f rom 1 6 s eparate l evels ( see T able 2 .2) p olyhedrons f rom T rench K , l evel K -30.

a nd 4 9 f lint

S terkfontein i s o ne o f t hree f ossil h ominid s ites l ocated n ear J ohannesburg i n t he T ransvaal p rovince o f S outh A frica ( Figure 2 .9). A long w ith S wartkrans a nd K romdraai, i t h as p rovided r esearchers w ith a b road r ange o f b iological, a nd s ome c ultural, e vidence f or h ominid e volution.

T hese T ransvaal

f rom t he p artially c oeval

s ites,

o nes

h owever,

a re f undamentally d ifferent

i n E ast A frica.

H ere s urface d ebris w as

d eposited t hrough r andom g eomorphic a ction i n u nderground f issures a nd c aves. T his m aterial i ncluded h ominid a nd o ther a nimal b ones, a s w ell a s s ome s tone t ools, a nd i t w as c emented h ard a nd f ast b y c hemical p rocesses i nto a b reccia o r c onglomerate. I n a m asterful s ynthesis, L .K. B rain ( 1981) h as s hown t hat d irect h ominid a ction i s n ot n eeded t o e xplain t he d eposition o f a ny m aterial i n t hese p laces. T he o nly p ossible J iving f loor i s M ember 5 , o nce k nown a s t he S terkfontein E xtension s ite ( SES), w here a rtifacts h ave b een r ecovered b y b lasting a part t heir b reccia m atrix ( Mason 1 962b)(see F igure 2 .10). A lso f ound i n t his

l evel

a re h ominid r emains a ssigned b y s ome w orkers t o t he g enus

H omo ( Hughes a nd T obias 1 977). T his i s s eparated f rom t he u nderlying M ember 4 w ith A ustralopithecus a fricanus f ossils b y a n u nconformity o f a t

l east o ne h alf t o o ne m illion y ears d uration

3 5

( Stiles a nd P artridge

F igure 2 .9 L ocation o f S terkfontei, i a nd t he C ave o f H earths, S outh A frica

Z i mbabwe

\

N

1

Botswana

Cave

O\f

Hearths

Makapa nsga ' otgiete . v " u

Na m ib ia

• P retor j ('4 i ohannéi U

I

S outh A frica

SCALE 200 km.

3 6

F igure 2 .10 G eneralized s tratigraphic P rofile o f S terkfontein ( from P artridge 1 978 1 B rain 1 981:196-198 a nd S tiles 1 981) M ember

F ormer N ame(s)

6

U pper

D escription

B reccia

insignificant; W est P it

l ocated

i n

( Extension S ite)

poorly c alcified;

l ies

u nconformably o ver M ember 5

5

M iddle B reccia

1

E xtension S ite

c alcified s ilty s and w ith c hert a nd d olomite

t o 5 m .

b rownish-red

i nclusions; W est P it

Member 4

c alcified w here s ubsided

source o f a rtifacts, f ossil 0 .5 t o

H omo

t oo

1 .0 m illion y ear u nconformity

4

L ower B reccia

1

t o 5 m .

r ed b rown

c layey s and most a ustralopithecine f ossils l ocated h ere; T ype S ite t ravertine;

a re

A .

a ll

a fricanus

s teeply d ipping vertical

3

s tr

igraphy o f

D aylight C ave;

1 0 m .

r eddish b rown,

w ell

p ale

c alcified s ediment 0.5 t o 2 m .

2

s andy s i t, c alcified, 1

r ed b rown v ariably w ith s ome b one

0.5 t o 2 m .

w hite

c rystalline c alcite B ed B - w ith d olomite,

c h2rt

a nd s ome b one B ed A -no b one, d olomite f loor

u ncontami t i ted

D aylight C ave

3 7

1 979). O n t he b asis o f b ovid r emains, V rba f eels t hat t he E xtension S ite i s o lder t han 7 00,000 y ears ( Vrba 1 976:69). O thers f eel t hat t his a rtifact-bearing l evel m ay b e a s o ld a s 1 .5 m illion y ears ( Stiles a nd P artridge 1 979:352). T he f laked p ieces t hemselves a re m anufactured o ut o f q uartz, q uartzite a nd c hert, a nd r epresent a f ull r ange o f h eavy a nd l ight d uty f orms ( Stiles 1 979a, 1 981; M ason 1 976). O ne h undred a nd s ix f laked c ore p ieces w ere e xamined f or t his s tudy. T hey a re h oused i n t he D epartment o f A rchaeology, U niversity o f t he W itwatersrand, J ohannesburg, a nd a t t he T ransvaal M useum i n P retoria. T he C ave o f H earths i s l ocated i n t he H akapan V alley o f t he n orthern I ransvaal, S outh A frica ( Figure 2 .9). I t i s f ound q uite c lose t o t he f amous a ustralopithecine s ite o f M akapansgat t hat h as p rovided w orkers w ith t he i nformation f or m any s uppositions a bout e arly h ominid b ehaviour ( such a s D art 1 957). T he C ave o f H earths r epresents t he f irst k nown s ealed a ssociation o f A cheulean a rtifacts w ith f aunal r emains ( van R iet L owe 1 948:128) a nd o ne h ominid m andibular f ragment, o ften a ssigned t o a n e arly f orm o f H omo s apiens, i s a lso k nown f rom t he s ame l evel ( Tobias 1 971:365; M ason 1 962a:163; S ampson 1 974:134-136). I n B ed 3 , 2 150 a rtifacts a nd n umerous f lakes w ere e xcavated a nd a ssigned t o t he U pper A cheulean. T heir e xact a ge i s u nclear, b ut t hey a re s tratified u nder a s eries o f M iddle S tone A ge d eposits ( Figure 2 .11). S pheroids a re a lso p resent i n s mall n umbers i n t hese M SA l evels. F rom B ed 3 , 2 15 d olerite ( 'diabase') s pheroids a re k nown. T hese a re a lmost a ll n atural s mooth s tones " collected a t a d yke n ear t he h ead o f t he v alley, a bout a m ile f rom t he c ave" ( Mason 1 962a:167). T he e xcavator, R evil M ason, w as t he f irst t o p oint o ut t hat n atural r ocks w ere b eing s elected, a nd p ut t o t he s ame u ses a s m anufactured s pheroids ( Mason 1 962a:169). T here w as n o a ttempt t o m odify t hese p ieces. T he f ew n on-dolerite s pheroids a re t he u sual f orm o f p ecked q uartz a rtifacts, s imilar t o t hose f ound a ll o ver s outhern A frica. I n a ddition, a f ull r ange o f o ther A cheulean t ypes a re k nown ( handaxes, c leavers, r etouched f lakes, a nd s o o n). I n a n umber o f w ays, t hese p ieces c an b e u sed a s a c ontrol s ample o f n atural p ebbles t hat i s c omparable t o t he m anufactured p ieces. O ne h undred a nd f ifty-five p ieces w ere s tudied a t t he A rchaeological R esearch U nit o f t he U niversity o f t he W itwatersrand, J ohannesburg. l simila r epresents a s eries o f f ive c ultural h orizons o r

' sands'

( Figure 2 .12) l ocated i n t he h ighlands n ext t o t he E ast A frican R ift V alley n ear t he t own o f I ringa, T anzania ( Howell 1 972; H owell e t.al. 1 962; C ole a nd K leindienst 1 974). b y a t eam l ed b y F . C lark H owell.

I t w as e xcavated i n t he l ate 1 950s . A ll m aterial r ecovered i s a ssigned

t o t he l ate A cheulean. T he s ite h as a d ate o f 2 60,000+70,000 o r m inus 4 0,000 d erived f rom b one u sing t he u ranium/thorium m ethod ( Howell e t.al. 1 972:52). A n i nitial d escription o f t he a rchaeological r emains s tated t hat t here w as c lear s election b y r aw m aterial i n t he h eavy d uty t ools. L arge b lunt p ieces a re g enerally m anufactured o f q uartz, q uartzite o r g ranite. T his i ncludes t ypes s uch a s p icks, c ore s crapers, c hoppers, h andaxes, c leavers,

a nd s pheroids. L arge s harp p ieces s uch a s k nives, f lake s crapers a nd d iscoids, a re m ade o f

m ylonite a nd o r q uartzite,

w hile s mall

3 8

t ools a re u sually m ade o f q uartz

F igure 2 .11 S tratigraphic P rofile o f

t he C ave o f H earths

( redrawn b y p ermission f rom M ason

•

i

1 962a:77)

4

o

P P.

2

A

4

-

4

+

4

. *

+

1 -

4

4

A MM ON IA & W est

E ast

K EY B ed

1 1

I ron A ge

B eds 4 -9

M iddle S tone A ge

B eds

E arly S tone A ge

1 -3

1 f ' _

1 0

L ate S tone A ge

( Smithfield)

( Pietersburg) ( Acheulean)

r ubble g uano a sh

+

-

B ed

- --

h earth d olomite

0

1 0 F eet

t ravertine

3 9

F igure 2 .12 S tratigraphy o f

I simila,

T anzania

( redrawn b y p ermission f rom H ansen a nd K eller

B ed

M aximum T hickness /

_

• • :

m odern s oil

S ands

1 971:1205)

‚ •: ••.

.. .

‚

. •.• . . •. - .. ; o .. ..* .

•••I *

4 00k c m.

. • I,. • .. ..

•

l

•.

.

•

•• •‚•‚ . • .

' : ':

1

5 00

c m. /

T ransition B eds \

S ands 2

2 00± c m. \

S ands 3

5 00

c m.

S ands 4

2 50± c m.

S ands 5

4 00± c m.

P aleosol

4 50± c m.

s ands c lays

C laycrete

5 0

c m. ' /

' -' -

(I G ranitic B edrock

I \

-‚

/

‚ ‚ %

/%

t _ .

I/ . . • •% . _ •• _ •‚

_ • - I - ','

. 1

- /

4 0

\

_

I

'

‚ /

_ \

‚ . • • \•

‚ _ • •l

‚

( Howell

1 972:52).

I t

s hows c lear m aterial s pheroids

( 6.

i s n ow f elt

t hat

t he o nly a rtifact c lass t hat

s election i s t he o ne u nder e xamination h ere,

C ole, p ersonal c ommunication).

S pheroids a re a n

i mportant p art o f m ost a ssemblages, a nd a re u sually m anufactured o ut o f q uartz a nd q uartzite. T wo h undred a nd t hirty-seven p ieces s tored a t t he N ational M useum o f T anzania w ere m ade a vailable f or t his s tudy. r epresent a r andom s ample d rawn f rom t he e ntire c ollection. O lorgesailie,

l ocated

i n s outhern K enya n ear L ake M agadi,

c omposed o f a s eries o f i nterstratified l and s urfaces, s imilar f ormation t o t hose o f U pper B ed I a t O lduvaj ( see I saac 1 977,

T hey

i s i n t heir 1 978c).

I t w as h ere t hat l iving f loors', r epresenting c entral p laces t o w hich a rtifacts a nd b ones w ere b rought a nd/or a ccumulated, w ere f irst i dentified b y L ouis a nd M ary L eakey.

T hese s urfaces h ave s ince b een

d ivided b y G lynn I saac i nto t hree s tratigraphic u nits o r s ets ( a) U pper, c onsisting o f M embers 1 0 a nd 1, ( b) M iddle, M ember 71 a nd ( c) L ower, M ember 1 ( Isaac 1 977:32, a s s hown i n T able 2 .3). P otassium/argon d ates f or t he O lorgesailie F ormation a re 0 .486 a nd 0 .425 m illion y ears,

a nd t hese r epresent m inimal

a ges f or

t he

a rchaeological m aterial ( Isaac 1 977:195, 1 978c). L ava s pheroids a re p resent i n m ost o f t he s ites. I n a ddition, o thers a re m anufactured o n q uartz, a m aterial t hat h ad t o b e t ransported i nto t he s ite f rom s ome d istance a way ( Isaac 1 977:94-95). S eventy-five a rtifacts f rom O lorgesailie s tored a t s tudied. A ll

t he N ational M useums o f K enya,

t he s ites d escribed s o f ar

N airobi, w ere

i n t his c hapter h ave a s trong

c omponent o f p ounded o r b attered s tones, a p attern t hat i s r epeatedly s een e lsewhere. T he m ost n otable e xception i s f ound a t K oobi F ora. T he K oobi F ora a rchaeological

s ites a re a s eries o f a rtifact

a ccumulations f ound n ear o ld s tream c ourses e ast o f L ake T urkana

i n

n orthern K enya t hat r ange i n a ge f rom 1 .9 t o l ess t han 1 .2 m illion y ears a go ( lath 1 982:17; s ee F igure 2 .13). I f a rtifacts a re c lassified u sing M ary L eakey's ( 1971:3-8) t ypological a ttributes, i t b ecomes c lear t hat a t K oobi F ora, t he r ange o f t ypes c overed b y s pheroids a nd o ther , b attered s tones i s c ompletely a bsent ( Isaac a nd H arris 1 978:75; H arris 1 978:259; T oth 1 982:138). T his i s t he m ost s triking d eviation f rom t he E arly S tone A ge p attern s een a lmost e verywhere e lse. I t i s p ossible t hat r aw m aterial

a vailability m ay p lay a r ole

i n t his.

M ost a rtifacts

a t K oobi F ora a re m anufactured f rom a d ark, f ine g rained l ava. S mall b ut i mportant n umbers o f p ieces i n i gnimbrite ( welded t uff) a nd c ryptocrystalline s ilica ( chert a nd c halcedony) a re a lso p resent. C uartz i s o nly f ound a t o ne s ite ( FxJj-50, w here 2 0 p ieces w ere r ecovered t hat r epresent o nly 1 .4% o f t he s ample o f 1 436 p ieces)(Toth 1 982:33,103). I n a ddition t o t hese E arly S tone A ge s ites, a n umber o f A cheulean a nd M iddle S tone A ge a ssemblages f rom Z ambia a nd Z imbabwe w ere b riefly e xamined a t t he L ivingstone M useum, L ivingstone, Z ambia a nd t he L ueen V ictoria M useum, H arare, Z imbabwe. O ne h undred a nd f ifty-two p ieces a re i ncluded i n t his s tudy. T wenty-seven a re f rom K abwe ( Broken H ill), t hirteen f rom K alambo F alls,

a nd t he r emainder r epresent

4 1

t wo o r

t hree

T able 2 .3 G eneral

C lassification o f a ssemblages f rom O lorgesailie,

K enya u sed

S tratigraphic

t his A nalysis

( from

S et

U pper ( Members

i n

I saac

S ite N ame

M ain S ite " Hog" 1 0+11)

M ain S ite,

T rial

( Tr.

M iddle

1 977:32)

T r.

t renches T rench,

( Hog) m ember

M ain S ite G rid S quare H /9,

H orizon

A ( H/9 A ) ( Member 7 ) M ain S ite,

M id T rench

M ain S ite,

( Mid)

G rid S quare H /6,

H orizon A ( H6/A) M ain S ite,

G rid S quare D -E/8-9

H orizon C

L ower ( Member

1 )

( DE/89 C )

H orizon B

( DE/89 B )

H orizon A

( DE/89 A )

I saac S ite 3 ( I B asal

B ed A ,

3 )

l ocus

H ippo B anda S ite

1 0

M IO)

1 a nd 2 ( BRA)

( HBS)

F igure 2 .13 P rovisional S tratigraphy o f K oobi F ora, K enya ( redrawn b y p ermission f rom T oth 1 982:13)

G alan B oi

B eds

{

D istribution o f A rchaeological S ites

I 3 uomde F ormation

K oobi F ora F ormation ( Upper M ember)

{

K arari

•

T uff

1 .2 m ya

O kote T uff

1 .5 m ya

K BS T uff

1 .9 m ya

/

p

K oobi F ora F ormation ( Lower M ember)

r

-

-

T ulu B or T uff

-

4 ,

L

-

• ' V

S uregei

T

'

T uff

H asuma T uff

K ubi A lgi F ormation •

-

-

-

•s

A llia T uff

S

L avas I

7 c

•

'

p .

. • P

.

r

1

T I • ‚ .

I‚ •

A

'

.

»

4 3

1 .2

1 .9

s pheroids e ach f rom a v ariety o f s ites

i n t hese t wo c ountries

( Figure

2 .14). K abwe r epresents t he f irst s ite w here s pheroids w ere e xcavated i n a ny n umbers ( Clark 1 950, 1 959; C lark e t.al. 1 950) a nd t he a rtifact-bearing R ichard K lein

l evels a re d ated

( 1973:312).

t o r oughly

n aturally f ormed p ieces, a s a g roup c ontrast t o t he e arly m aterial.

( b)

1 25,000 y ears a go b y

S ince m ost o f t hese p ieces a re p ecked o r t hey p rovide a n

T he S tructure o f E arly A rchaeological

i nteresting

A ssemblages

T he e arliest e vidence o f s tone t ool m anufacture a nd u se k nown t o d ate

i s A frican.

T he f irst

f laked a rtifacts a re a pproximately t wo

m illion y ears o ld o r s lightly y ounger. S hungura F ormation a t

t he O mo R iver

a pproximately 2 .0 m illion y ears a go) 1 976;

C havaillon

1 971),

1 976),

I ,

( Merrick 0 1duvai

a nd f rom t he L ower M ember o f

e arliest K BS s ites, I saac,

f rom B ed

a t

a bout

H arris a nd C rader

T hey c ome f rom M ember F o f t he

i n s outhern E thiopia 1 976;

a nd M errick

( 1.75 m illion)(M.

t he K oobi F ora F ormation

1 .8 m illion y ears a go)

1 976;

( at

M errick

I saac

a nd H arris

( Isaac

1 978).

I t

L eakey ( the

1 976a; i s e ntirely

p ossible t hat t here a re e arlier s ites, m ost l ikely i n t he H adar r egion o f E thiopia ( Harris 1 983), b ut t his h as n ot y et been c learly d emonstrated t o g eneral s atisfaction. I t i s a lso h ighly l ikely t hat s tones o r o ther o bjects w ere u sed w ell t asks ( as t hrowing w eapons, p ounders, B ut t here a re n o c lear a rchaeological y ears a go.

b efore t his f or

a v ariety o f

f or a ggressive d isplays, e tc.). ' sites' u ntil a bout 2 m illion

T he e arliest s ites a re r ecognized

t hrough a p attern o f

d ebris a ccumulation t hat c ould n ot h ave b een p roduced b y n atural ( Isaac 1 983:3-4). I t i s t herefore g enerally p resumed r epresent t he p roduct o f h uman a ctivities. T his a ssumption

t hat

f orces

t hese

i s u ndergoing a m arked r e-examination a t p resent.

W hile t he c oncept o f ' living f loor' e xtends b ack t o t he e arliest e xcavations i n E ast A frica, i ts m eaning i n b ehavioural t erms w as f irst e xplicitly f ormulated b y G lynn I saac ( 1978a, 1 978b). I saac a rgued t hat c oncentrations o f v arious b one f ragments w ith s tone a rtifacts m ark h ome b ases, m eat

p laces t o w hich h ominids r eturned a t r egular

( the b one)

a cross s pace t o s imilar

a nd s tone

i n

i ntervals.

B oth

t he f orm o f a rtifacts w ere t ransported

t hese c entral

p laces.

E arly h ominids

f ashion t o c ontemporary h unter/gatherers.

I t

t hus a cted

i n a

i s p ossible,

h e

a rgues, t hat i n t his b ehaviour o ne c an s ee i llustrated t he b eginnings o f a s exual d ivision o f l abour a s w ell a s o f f ood s haring ( Isaac 1 978a:320).

D uring a rchaeological

f ieldwork a t K oobi

F ora,

i t w as

d ecided t hat a s eries o f e xperiments s hould b e c reated i n o rder t o t est t he v alidity o f t he a ssumption t hat l iving f loors i ndeed r epresent h ome b ases.

F irst

t he g eological

i ntegrity o f t he s ites h ad

e stablished.

I n s ome d eposits

f ragments a nd

t o f it f lakes b ack o n

t o b e

i t w as p ossible t o r eattach b one t o

t he c ores

t hey w ere t aken f rom.

r his i mplies t hat t he s ites i nvolved h ave n ot b een s ubjected t o p ost-depositional d isturbance b y w ater a ction o r o ther n atural f orces ( see B unn e t.al.

1 980).

R ichard P otts'

4 4

( 1984)

r ecent r eexamination o f

F igure 2 .14 L ocation o f E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge s ites f rom Z ambia a nd Z imbabwe

i ncluded

i n t his s tudy

Ka lambo F alls •

I -

Z a mbia Ndola.

1

Ka bwe.

\

L iv ingstone "

S

V icf ( iFf a

S ongwe "

S

Z i mbabwe

- N-

SCALE 200 km.

4 5

b ones f rom s ix R ed I l ocalities a t O lduvai s hows t hat a ll b ut o ne o f t hese s ites a re u naffected b y h ydraulic a ction, e ven t hough t hey e xisted i n c lose p roximity t o w ater ( Potts 1 984:341). I t i s t herefore p ossible t o s tate w ith s ome d egree o f c ertainty w hether o r n ot t here a re r eal a ssociations o f m aterial. h en t he q uestion a rises o f w ho i s r esponsible f or t hese a ssociations. M any a uthors h ave s hown h ow b one i s g athered, t ransported a nd/or p rocessed b y a n umber o f n on-hominid c arnivores, a mong t hem h yenas a nd p orcupines. C .K. B rain ( 1981) h as o ffered t he m ost d etailed e xamination o f t his i ssue, s pecifically i n r eference t o t he T ransvaal a ustralopithecine s ites. T herefore a m eans h ad t o b e f ound t o d istinguish h ominid u se f rom t hat o f o ther c arnivores. M icroscopic e xamination o f b ones f rom K oobi F ora b y H enry B unn a nd f rom ( i lduvai b y R ichard P otts r eveals t he p resence o f c ut m arks w ith p arallel s triations, p roduced b y s licing o r h acking w ith s tone t ools ( Bunn 1 981; B unn 1 982:45-50; P otts a nd S hipman 1 981; S hipman a nd R ose 1 983). T hese c an b e c learly d ifferentiated f rom t he m arks l eft, o ften o n t he s ame s pecimens, b y c arnivores o r r odents. S o r egardless o f h ow t he a nimals d ied, h ominids w ere o n t he s pot t o m ake u se o f t heir c arcasses. J ust w hat i mportance m eat h ad i n t he d iet o f e arly h umans i s s till a m atter f or m uch c onjecture ( see I saac a nd C rader 1 981; I saac 1 983; B inford 1 981). S uch c onclusions c an b e u sed t o r eexamine t he c lassic s ites u sed t o f ormulate t he h ome b ase m odel. T his h as b een r ecently a ddressed b y R ichard P otts ( 1982, 1 984). H e l ooked a t s ix B ed Is ites a t O lduvai G orge, l ocalities d ated t o b etween 1 .7 a nd 1 .85 m illion y ears a go ( FLK N l evel 6 , E LK Z inj', E LK N N l evels 2 a nd 3 , a nd D K l evels 2 a nd 3 ). A ll s ix h ave a ccumulations o f b one, a nd f ive h ave s tone a rtifacts i n a ssociation. H e s hows t hat h ominids t ransported m eat m ainly i n t he f orm o f l imb b ones, b ut a rgues t hat i t i s m ost l ikely t hat s tone w as t ransported t o t he s ource o f t he m eat, p ossibly b eing l eft a s c aches f or f uture u se ( Potts 1 984:346). I he t ypology o f t hese E arly S tone A ge a ssemblages i s b est i llustrated b y t he e vidence f rom O lduvai G orge. O lduvai p rovides t he f ramework f or m ost o f t his w ork s ince i t h as t he o ne o f t he l ongest a nd m ost c omplete r ecords o f h ominid c ultural o ccupation ( from a l ittle l ess t han t wo m illion y ears a go t o r ecent t imes), i t w as t he f irst s ite t o b e e xamined a nd r eported o n i n a ny d etail, a nd t he q uality o f r esearch b y M ary L eakey

i n i tself r eally e stablished t his s ite a s t he

b aseline f or a ll o ther a nalysis a nd c omparison. A s a r esult, o ur m odels o f c ultural e volution a nd h ominid i nteraction a re l argely d rawn f rom h er w ork. T hree i ndustrial v ariants a re i dentified a t O lduvai: ( 1) t he O ldowan, ( 2) i ts s uccessor, t he D eveloped O ldowan, a nd ( 3) t he A cheulean, c oeval w ith t he D eveloped O ldowan, b ut f undamentally d ifferent f rom i t ( M. L eakey 1 971). T he O ldowan w as d efined b y L ouis a nd M ary L eakey a s t he i nitial s tage o f s tone t ool

m anufacture

( L.

L eakey

1 951;

M .

L eakey

1 966).

A rtifacts w ere m anufactured b y b reaking s tones u sing o ther s tones a s h ammers o r a nvils ( hard h ammer p ercussion). T he O ldowan i s t hus c haracterized b y a n umber o f f laked c ore f orms a s w ell a s v ariable

4 6

a mounts o f d ebitage. g roups

T hese c ommon f orms o r

l abelled c hoppers,

s crapers,

s ubspheroids,

p olyhedrons,

a nd s o o n.

t ypes a re s ubdivided

d iscoids,

S ome o f

h eavy a nd

i nto

l ight d uty

t hese g roups a re d efined o n

s hape a nd n umber o f s urfaces o r d irections f laked, w hile o thers s uch a s h eavy a nd l ight d uty s crapers a re d istinguished s olely b y s ize. M any o f

t hese c lasses s how a c ontinuous r ange o f f ormal

v ariation;

t heir

s ubdivision i s l argely d one f or h euristic p urposes. T he m ost t ypical f orm i n t he O ldowan c ollections i s a c hopper: a c ore f laked o n a t l east o ne e nd

i n a t

l east o ne d irection i n o rder

t o p roduce a c utting e dge

( M. L eakey 1 971:4, 2 64-266). T he u nmodified b utts o f m any o f t hese p ieces o ften e xhibit h ammering o r b attering m arks a s w ell a s t he w orking e dges

( M.

L eakey

e ntire E arly S tone A ge, i tself,

1 971:4,

2 68).

R elative t o

t he d uration o f t he

t he O ldowan h as a s hort h istory a t O lduvai

o n t he o rder o f 5 0,000 t o

1 00,000 y ears

( M.

L eakey

1 977:64),

s ince i t i s r estricted t o t he r apidly a ccumulated B ed I . P artly a s a r esult o f t his, i t s hows n o i nternal c hange. O n t he o ther h and, i t w ould b e d ifficult t o s ee a rtifact c hange e ven i f i t i s p resent, s ince O ldowan t echnology s eems t o b e r estricted t o s mashing p ebbles, p ossibly i n o rder

( M.

t o p roduce s erviceable s harp f lakes f or a v ariety o f

t asks.

T he Developed O ldowan i s a c ontinuation o f t his i ndustrial p attern L eakey 1 971:269). T he v ariety a nd n umber o f f laked e lements

i ncreases a bsolutely ( to t en f rom s ix f orms) a nd r elatively, a nd t he p ercentage o f c hoppers i n t he f laked c lass c orrespondingly d ecreases. t his

i ndustry h as t wo p hases

r estricted 1 976b).

( labelled A a nd B ),

t o a s ingle a ssemblage

i n B ed

I V

a nd p ossibly a t hird

( phase C )

( M.

L eakey

D eveloped O ldowan B a ssemblages h ave s ignifican. .ly

l ower

p ercentages o f b ifaces i n t he s haped a rtifact c lass w hen c ompared t o t he A cheulean, b ut m ore v ariety i n f orms t han i s s een i n t he p receding O ldowan

( M.

L eakey

1 976a:439,

f lake t ools s uch a s a wls a nd

4 46-447;

1 976b:24).

l aterally

b asic O ldowan c omponent a nd t rue s pheroids, s phericity a nd h igh r oundness o r f irst

t ime.

B ifaces a nd s mall

t rimmed f lakes a re a dded

t o

s moothness v alues,

a ppear f or

t he

A n umber o f t hese p ieces s how b atter m arks f rom h ammering.

W hen t hey f irst a ppear,

t he u nshaped m odified b attered c hunks a nd

n odules h itherto c ommon

i n t he O ldowan d ecrease

c hoppers a lso h ave b attered e nds, t heir

i n

t his t ime.

a s w ell

t herefore

i s

S ince t heir

I n o ther

f unction m ay b e t aken o ver b y s pheroids a nd s ubspheroids.

P hase A i s p resent a t E LK N orth a nd H WK E ast, M ember,

i mportance.

i t m ay b e n o c oincidence t hat

p ercentage o ccurrence a lso d rops m arkedly a t w ords,

t he

c haracterized b y b oth h igh

a s

i n a c laystone u nder

i n t he r ange o f

i t

( M.

a bove t he L emuta

L eakey

1 .5 m illion y ears o ld.

1 975:482)

a nd

I t e xhibits t he

U ldowan r eliance o n c hoppers, b ut t hese d ecrease i n p ercentage f requency t o 2 9.5Y . r ather t han t he a verage o f 5 1% o bserved p reviously. E he w ell-known M NK C hert F actory S ite t o t his t ime. r efined s tone m aterial

( Stiles e t.al.

1 974)

a lso d ates

I t s hows t hat e arly h ominids w ere f ully c apable o f q uite t ools w hen p resented w ith f ine g rained h ighly s iliceous

( through

t he e xposure o f c hert b eds b y

l evel).

4 7

t he d rop

i n

l ake

P hase B s ees a n t ools

( scrapers,

f lakes). a nd

I t

i n B ed

i ncreasing p ercentage o f b ifaces a nd

b urins,

i s f ound

I II

a wls,

o utils e caill s,

i n M iddle a nd U pper B ed

a t D K E ast

( N.

L eakey

a nd

I I

a t S HK,

1 976b:30-32,

l ight d uty

l aterally t rimmed B K,

1 977:65:

a nd T KUF,

B ower

1 977:114-115). S pheroids i ncrease m arkedly h ere, a nd s upply u p t o 3 5% o f t he f laked p ieces. P hase B i s c ontemporary w ith t he e arliest A cheulean a t O lduvai, f ound a t s ite E F-HR, a nd a ppears a t r oughly t he s ame t ime. P hase C i s f ound o nly i n U pper B ed I V a t l ocalities W KE, A a nd C , a nd P DK I -Ill, c omprising a t otal o f 9 79 a rtifacts ( M. L eakey 1 975:485,

1 976b:32).

L ight d uty p ieces m ake u p 4 8.7% o f t he s haped

p ieces a nd m icroliths,

p itted a nvils,

b ifacially

t rimmed p oints,

a nd

s mall t hickset p ointed p unches a re a lso f ound. W hile a nvils a re k nown f rom A cheulean s ites i n l ower B ed I V, t hey a re u ncommon. A t t his l ocality,

t hey r epresent

r ecalling t heir 1 975:485).

1 4.2% o f t he s haped p ieces,

f requency

i n B eds

I he A cheulean m ay b e b etter U lorgesailie a nd

I simila,

i t a ppears e arliest I I

a t

a s a n

1 .2 t o

I a nd

( M.

a s

i n E urope a nd

a nd c leavers.

I n t he p ast,

k nown s ample,

t ransport

1 971:7,

i n s ites s uch a s

t he N ear E ast, b ut

( above t he L emuta M ember

1 .3 m illion y ears a go)

( M.

L eakey

i n M iddle B ed

1 975:486).

i ndustry w ith a h eavy r eliance o n b ifacial

o f o ur

s omething

L eakey

r epresented e lsewhere

a s w ell

a t O lduvai

I I

I t

w hen s urface c ollections p rovided t he b ulk

o nly t hese a rtifacts w ere s elected a s w orthy o f

t o m useums.

T his r eflects t he a rchaeologist's i nterests a s

m uch a s t heir

a ctual

a ssemblages.

I n A frica t hese p ieces a re u sually m anufactured

g reat v ariety o f

f requency o f o ccurrence

i gneous r ocks,

i n p rehistoric

a nd s ometimes

i n q uartzite,

e xcavated o ccurrence h as b een p ublished f or O lduvai, i t

i s

i s d efined

t ools s uch a s h andaxes

t he o nly o ne f ound

l ocality E F-HR,

a s

I I

( N.

L eakey

1 971:124).

N inety-seven

a rtifacts a re k nown f rom t his s ite

( M.

L eakey

1 975:486).

T his

t ypical

i n B ed

i n a O nly o ne

i s a

A frican A cheulean a ssemblage c ontaining a h igh p ercentage o f

h andaxes a nd c leavers A cheulean s ite

i n t he s haped a rtifact c lass.

i s 3 K W est

i n L ower B ed

I II,

t hat

T he n ext o ldest

i s a t

l east 7 00,000

y ears o ld b ecause o f t he p resence o f r ock e lements w ith r eversed p olarity

( M.

r eports,

t here a ppears t o b e n o e vidence h ere o f p rogressive o r

d irectional L eakey

Leakey

1 975:4 ( 36).

e volution

1 975:477).

B ased o n s ite s urveys a nd p reliminary

i n t he A cheulean o f B ed

S uch d evelopement

i n t he n umber o f f lakes r emoved f rom r efinements o f o ther m anufacturing i s c learly c ontemporary w ith d ifferent f rom

I I

i ndividual

t echniques.

t imes

( M.

p ieces, H owever,

o r b y t his i ndustry

i t.

T he c oexistence o f h andaxe a nd n on-handaxe c hronostratigraphic w ork o f a nd K ozlowski

n orthwestern F rance. f lake t ool t radition.

l ater

t he D eveloped O ldowan B y et f undamentally

r ecognized f or q uite s ome t ime. ( Bre i iil

a nd

i s u sually m arked b y a n i ncrease

I t d ates t o

t he A bbe H enri

1 931-1934)

i ndustries h as b een

t he p ioneering

B reuil

a nd L .

K ozlowski

i n t he t errace d eposits o f

H ere t hey e stablished a n u nilinear s equence o f

i ndustrial e volution p aralleling t hat o f a c ore t ool L ower P alaeolithic i ndustries i ncluded i n t he f ormer w ere

t he L evallois,

T ayacian,

a nd

t he C lactonian;

4 8

t he

l atter

i s r epresented

b y

t he A cheulean a nd

w ork

r emained

i ts

j unior

s ynonyms s uch a s t he A bbevillian.

t he c ornerstone o f a ll

F rancois B ordes r eassessed

T his

P alaeolithic r esearch u ntil

t he s ame r egion

i n t he

1 950s

( Bordes

1 954).

T his t ype o f p arallel p hyla m odel h as b een r esurrected t ime a nd a gain t o d escribe t he d istribution o f i ndustries i n E urasia a nd A frica ( Movius

1 949;

C ollins

1 969;

c hopper/chopping t ool o utside o f

O hel

t radition

I ndia a s w ell

h as q uestioned

I t c ontrasts a d istinct

a s E astern E urope w ith

o f W estern E urope a nd A frica. m aterial

1 979).

l acking h anda es a nd f ound

t his

i n A sia

t he c lassical

A cheulean

W hile r ecent r eexamination o f s ome A sian i nterpretation

( Freeman

1 977:97-98,103;

D avis e t.al. 1 980:137), i t s till g uides m uch o f o ur t ypological t hinking. O n t he o ther h and, t he m odel o f a c hopper/chopping t ool t radition a nalogous t o

t he D eveloped O ldowan a t O lduvai

m ight b e

b uttressed b y r eports o f t he w idespread d istribution o f f laked a nd f acetted s pheroids a t a bout S ong

i n C hinese M iddle P alaeolithic s ites s uch a s D ingcun

1 00,000 y ears a go

1 984:99),

a s w ell

a s

( Compiling G roup o f t he A tlas

1 980:70,75;

i n L ower P alaeolithic o nes s uch a s L antian

( Gongwangling a nd C henjiawo)

b etween 7 00,000 a nd 5 00,000 y ears a go

( Song 1 984:99). S uch p ieces a re r eferred m eteor' o r h urling' s tones ( Song 1 984).

t o a s l iuxing, m eaning T his n ame r eflects t he

c onclusion b y C hinese p rehistorians t hat t hese t ools m ust h ave b een u sed a s m issiles a nd/or b olas f or h unting ( Song 1 984:99). N owhere a re o ur

t ypological

c onsideration o f t he s tatus o f A frican A cheulean.

c onstraints m ore c lear

t han

i n t he

t he D eveloped O ldowan B r elative t o

F ew w ould q uestion t he d istinctiveness o f

e ntities, b ut t here a re v arious e xplanations p roposed f or t his. p ossible t hat t he i ndustries a re i n s ome d egree t ime-successive; s uch a m odel,

o ne

i ndustry

i s r eplaced b y a nother.

t he

t hese t wo I t i n

i s

T he D eveloped

O ldowan g radually e volves f rom t he O ldowan b y i ncreasing t he n umber o f a rtifact t ypes a nd a t t he s ame t ime d ecreasing t he p ercentage c ontribution o f c hoppers s tep

i n t his u nilineal

i ndustrial

( M.

L eakey

m odel

1 971:269,

1 976b:40).

w ould b e t he a rgument

t radition e xisted a t

a ny o ne t ime.

A f urther

t hat o nly o ne

T he A cheulean a nd

D eveloped O ldowan, t herefore, w ould b e v ariations o n t he s ame g eneral t heme. O thers a rgue t hat a t l east s ome o f t he v ariation i s d ue t o t he i ntrusion o f s ome n ew h ominid g roup A cheulean

i s

i nterpreted

( M.

i n t his m odel

L eakey

l ocality a nd u ltimately a ppearing a t O lduvai t he t erritory o f 1 976a:450). w ith

H ere

t he p roducers o f

1 971:269).

a s d eveloping w hen

i ts m akers o verlap

t he D eveloped O ldowan

i ndustries a re h ominid-specific.

t his a pproach r elates

t he D eveloped O ldowan l asts

t o

t he d uration o f

i nto B ed

m ust h ave e xisted s ide b y s ide f or

I V,

T he

i n s ome u nknown ( M.

L eakey

T he b asic p roblem

t his s eparateness.

I f

t hen d istinct h ominid g roups

h undreds o f

t housands o f y ears w ith

n o v isible e ffect o n e ach o ther. O n t he o ther h and, A ccording

t o

s erve p articular o f

l ocalities.

t o a ctivity.

a ssemblages a re c omposed o f a rtifacts t hat

f unctions,

t hese a ssemblages

d ifferent

t he d ifferences c an b e r elated

t his m odel,

a nd

t hus r epresent

i n s pace r eflects T his f unctional

4 9

t ool

k its.

T he p osition

t he a ctivities c arried o ut m odel

i n

i s m ost c losely a ssociated

w ith L ewis a nd S ally B inford M ousterian W hat i t

i n t heir w ork o n t he F rench a nd L evantine

( Binford a nd B inford i s t he e vidence t hat

a ppears t hat

1 966;

B inford

s upports t hese a lternatives?

t he D eveloped O ldowan i s,

a s

c ontinuation o f t he b asic O ldowan s tone t ool B ut

t he s ituation

i n B ed

I I

d istinction b etween t he t wo I nitial

s ire,

b ifaces w ithin p oint;

i ndustrial

m anufacturing

l evel

c omplexes

a D eveloped O ldowan

( Kleindienst

a s t ime.

L eakey

1 976a:447).

t o f orty t o s ixty p ercent d ivision

o ne h ad a n A cheulean a nd b elow

1 962;

M .

T he

i s u sually d rawn o n

( M.

l ate A cheulean p ointed w as a chieved,

t he

t radition.

T he D eveloped O ldowan a nd

t he s haped a rtifact g roup a s t he c ritical

w hen t his

C ertainly

i mplies,

i n s pace a s w ell

a nd m ethod o f m anufacture

s tudies o f t he

i ts n ame

i s m ore c omplex.

A cheulean s ites a re c lose t o o ne a nother b iface f orm,

1 972).

L eakey

1 971:270).

i t,

T his

d efinition p resented a p roblem t o m any P alaeolithic a rchaeologists. F rancois B ordes w as o ne o f f or m any E uropean s ites, ( Bordes

i n S tiles

1 979b:11).

D eveloped O ldowan i mportant,

i ndicated

i n p articular, L eakey

( M.

t hat,

l east a t O lduvai,

t hat

i t d oes n ot h old

t he t ype s ite o f S t.

A cheul

t hat o ther f eatures a re p erhaps m ore t echnique o f m anufacture e vident

1 976b:31).

l ava f lake p reforms.

t o p oint o ut

" More d etailed w ork o n t he A cheulean a nd

t he

b ifaces" a t

t he f irst

n or e ven f or

E xperimental

w ork b y P eter

i n t he

J ones s hows

A cheulean b ifaces a re m ainly m ade o n

T hese a re h eavily f laked

c haracteristic c utting e dge.

D eveloped O ldowan p ieces,

u sually m ade o n q uartzite s labs.

l arge

t o c reate t he

O nly a f ew f lakes n eed

h owever,

a re

t o b e r emoved

i n o rder t o p roduce a h andaxe. Q uartzite p ieces a lso r etain t heir e dges d uring u se, s o l ack t he c haracteristic r esharpening o f t he l ava o nes

( Jones

1 979).

m anufacture.

T hey t hus

l ook

B y a nalogy w ith

a ssemblages w ere

a s

i f

l ess

t ime w as t aken

t he E uropean A cheulean,

i n t heir

A frican

i nitially r anked o n d egree o f r efinement o f t he

b ifaces a nd p laced i nto a u nilineal e volutionary s equence ( see L . L eakey 1 951). A d egree o f t his t ypological t hinking s till s urfaces t oday.

A ccording

t o

t his s ystem,

D eveloped O ldowan b ifaces a ppear

c ruder t han c ontemporary a nd l ater A cheulean o nes, a nd s o t hey w ere i nterpreted a s t he p roduct o f a l ess s killed t ool m aker ( M. L eakey 1 976b:40), A cheulean O lduvai

p ossibly H omo h abilis a s c ompared i s t hen t he c ultural

w hen t his g roup d oes

O thers

( Binford

o ne o f a ctivity.

e asily b e

C lark

L eakey

1 976:34)

i nterpret

i s a s f ollows.

t he t asks f or w hich

i nterpreted a s

( Clark

b e f actored

1 976:34). i n.

s ites a re f ound

T he

1 971:272,280). t he d ifference a s

A ssemblages o f s tone

t hey w ere c reated,

k inds o f t ools w ere u sed f or d ifferent a ctivities.

S tone A ge s ites o f v arious s pace

( M.

T heir r easoning

t ools c orrelate w ith d ifferent

1 972;

t o H omo e rectus.

b aggage o f H omo e rectus a nd a ppears a t

t ypes f ound

w hile E arly

i n c lose p roximity c an m ost

t he p roduct o f t he m ovement o f o ne g roup o ver I n t he c ase o f O lduvai,

R ichard H ay h as d emonstrated l ess t han o ne k ilometer

s ite

l ocation c an a lso

t hat D eveloped O ldowan

a way f rom t he m argin o f

t he o ld

l akeshore; A cheulean o nes a re a lways f urther o ut ( Hay 1 976:180-186). T his i s n oteworthy f or t his s tudy s ince D eveloped O ldowan s ites h ave a h igher p roportion o f b attered p ieces t han o ther s ites. I f t he e xplanation f or t his s patial v ariation i s f unctional, i s i t a p roduct

5 0

o f

d ifferences b etween t he r esources a vailable c lose a nd f urther o ut

f rom t he p lant

l ake?

f oods,

J ust w hat w ere t hese r esources?

n ormally f ound

s hade a nd c over.

T his

i n a bundance n ear

i s t he c ase o n t he

f orests a long s tream c ourses. b ut

s tates t hat

a ll

T hey m ight

w ater

l akeshore o r

M ary L eakey a ccepts

s ites a re f ound

i nclude

s ources, t he

a s w ell

l ocational d ata,

i n g enerally s imilar e nvironments,

a nd g enerally c ontain t he s ame k ind o f b one a nd s tone r emains L eakey

a s

i n g allery

( M.

1 971:272).

C hoice o f r aw m aterial m ay i nfluence t he f inal f orm o f s tone t ools a nd p ossibly a lso t heir s ubsequent a ssignment t o o ne g roup o ver t he o ther.

H andaxes a nd c leavers f or e xample,

m aterials p hysical

i n A frican s ites. p roperties.

S o

a re m ade

i n a v ariety o f

T hese d ifferent m aterials v ary

t hey a re w orked

i n t heir

i n d ifferent w ays t o p roduce

s imilar f inished f orms. P eter J ones h as c arried o ut a v ariety o f e xperiments d esigned t o r eplicate b iface m anufacture ( Jones 1 979, 1 981). H e s hows t hat q uartzite b ifaces a re m ade f rom s labs o r c hunks t hat o nly n eed m inimal r eworking t o p roduce a f inished f orm. B asalt o nes a re s eldom r etouched P honolite c leavage.

( or r etouchable)

i s a f ine g rained

w hen b lunted d uring u se.

i gneous r ock w ith a p referred p lane o f

B ifaces t herefore c an b e p roduced q uickly o ut o f t his

m aterial, a nd a ppear " more r efined" i n f inished f orm ( Jones 1 979:835-836). T his f inal f orm i s l argely a r esult o f t he m echanical p roperties o f

t he r aw m aterial

s ignificant.

T his

S tiles

s elected,

w hile o ther f actors a re

i s s upported b y s tatistical

( 1979b,1979c,

1 979d,

1 980)

l ess

s tudies d one b y D aniel

a nd J ohn B ower

( 1973,1977).

E ven s ize o f r aw m aterial m ay a ffect t he k inds o f a rtifacts t hat a re m anufactured. A t K oobi F ora, r aw m aterial w as o btained f rom s tream b eds e xtending f rom t he v olcanic h ighlands d own t o t here

i s a c lear g radient

i n s ize o f r aw m aterial

a rtifacts t hat p arallels t he c hange s tream a ction

( Toth

i n e levation,

S pheroids a nd b attered s tones v ary U lc luvai

a nd

' Ubeidiya.

a ll.

t he r ole o f s pheroids

K oobi

l acks t hem c ompletely. i n t hese e arly s ites

t he D eveloped O ldowan a nd A cheulean.

5 1

i n g reat n umbers a nd

F ora r emains t he s ole

t o b etter u nderstand a ssemblage v ariability a nd w ithin

t he

i n p ercentage o ccurrence

T hey a re e ither p resent

o r h ardly p resent a t

t o e xamine

t o

t emporally o verlapping a ssemblages b oth a t

e xample o f a n E arly S tone A ge s ite t hat d ecided

c orresponding

1 982:108).

b etween s patially a nd p ercentages,

t he l akeshore. a nd f inished

I t w as i n o rder

a rtifact f unction

C HAPTER 3 : T echnology:

1 .

T he b ranch o f k nowledge t hat d eals w ith

a pplied s cience, s cience,

e tc.,

i nvention, s ocial

M ETHODOLOGY

e ngineering,

t echnical

m ethod o r

t he

e tc.

2 .

n omenclature. l ike.

4 .

( Stein

3 .

A t echnological

E he s um o f

g roup p rovide t hemselves w ith

c ivilization

i ndustrial

a rts,

T he t erminology o f a n a rt, t he w ays

t he m aterial

p rocess,

i n w hich a

o bjects o f t heir

1 966:1458).

T his c hapter p rovides a n u sed b y p rehistorians

i ntroduction t o

i nterested

t he m ethods o f a nalysis

i n t he s tone a ge.

S ome o f

t hese

m ethods s tress t he m orphology o f a rtifacts w hile o thers c oncentrate o n t he t echnology b ehind u sually o nes.

l abelled I t

t heir m anufacture a nd u se.

t ypological

a pproaches;

t he

T he f ormer a re

l atter

a re t echnological

i s s hown t hat a c ombination o f s uch a pproaches

e specially w hen o ne e xamines c ultural

m aterial

a ssigned

i s o f m ost u se t o

t he E arly

S tone A ge. I n s tone a ge s tudies, t ypological a pproaches s till p redominate; t hese f ocus o n t he k ind a nd s hape o f a rtifacts d iscovered. T he n umber o f d ifferent f orms i s c omputed, a nd t he p ercentage f requency o f t heir o ccurrence d enotes t he i ndustrial t radition t o w hich t hey a re s aid t o b elong.

1 he u se o f s uch m ethods h as

a rchaeological

r ecord

l ed

t o

t he f racturing o f t he

i nto p hases o f d evelopment:

t he f irst m anufacture

o f s tone a rtifacts, l abelled t he O ldowan, t he d evelopment o f w ays o f f ashioning c ores t o r emoved f lakes o f p redetermined s ize a nd f orm ( such a s t he L evallois p repared c ore t echnique), b etween t he u nits m ark m ajor s hifts o r m ethods. d evices,

W hile t hese p hases w ere

a nd s o o n.

i nnovations

i nitially c reated m erely a s h euristic

t hey s eem t o h ave s ince t aken o n a l ife o f

C onclusions f rom s uch m odels o f c ultural

t ypological

T he d ivisions

i n s tone w orking t heir o wn.

s tudies h ave t herefore

e volution s till

l ed t o

l argely a ccepted t oday.

B ut

t he s uch

a pproaches u sually i gnore t he c ontext i n w hich p rehistoric a rtifacts e xisted a nd f unctioned. I n t he l ast f ew y ears, a n umber o f r esearchers h ave t ried t o e xamine t his c ontext s ystematically u sing a v ariety o f m ethods d eveloped p recisely f or t his p urpose. T hese f all u nder t he l abel

o f

t echnological

r eproduction o f a ll I he u se o f

a nd

i nvolve t he e xperimental

s uch a n a pproach h as e nabl d a rchaeologists

t he r emote A frican p ast

( a)

s tudies,

p hases o f m anufartire a nd u se o f s tone a rtifacts.

F ypological h e g oal

o f

t o u nderstand

i n a w ay u nattainable b efore.

A pproaches t ypological

r esearch

i s

t o d efine c ultural

p hases t hat

c hart t he c ourse o f b ehavioural e volution o ver t ime a nd s pace, d iagnostic a rtifact t ypes i n o rder t o d efine t he s ubdivisions.

u sing T he

d istribution o f t hese t ypes c an r eflect t he c hoices m ade b y t he h ominids w ho m anufactured t hem a s w ell a s t hose o f t he a rchaeologists

5 2

w ho c reated

t he c lassifications.

I t

i s c ustomarily a ssumed b y

p rehistorians t hat s uch c hoices a mong a lternative m anufacturing t echniques r eflect i ndividual

t he r ules o r

a rtisan b elonged.

n orms o f

c hoices m ade b y d ifferent g roups, t heir m ark

s tylistic p references. o ut d ifferent

t he c ase o f p roblem. f actors,

1 982 f or

H ere o ne h as

t wo

i mplicit

w hen o ne c onsiders

t hese s tylistic e xplanations p resent a

i ndustrial

c omplexes e xhibiting p arallel

l ikely s cenario.

i t w as c onvenient e ach c ultural

S o

i n o rder

t o s upport

t o h ave a d istinct h ominid

g roup.

O ne c ould

b iological

e vidence.

f actors r ather

r eference t o

t his

t housands

i s n ot a n

i nterpretation,

t axon t o b e a ssigned ( and

t o

t he

t hus

T he d ifference w as t herefore a p roduct

t han o f c ultural

o nes.

I n

i tself,

t his w as f ine,

p aleoanthropologists h ave b een d oing m aterial;

t he s ame t hing

a nthropologists c an b elieve

W hat c an b e s aid a bout E arly S tone A ge

i n r eference t o t he i t

i ndustrial

D istinct s ocial

g roups m arked b y d istinctive a rtifact

c ertainly e xist

l ater

t his p attern e xtend?

i n p rehistory.

t hat

o nly t he

a rchaeologists h ave p roven t his d istinction,

s o p hysical

o f

T his p rovided a

t he a uthority o f a p resumably m ore e stablished f ield,

o f p aleoanthropology.

w ould s ay,

T his

t hereby m aintain t hat

d istinctiveness w as c onfirmed b y b iological i ncontrovertible?)

t raditions

i n E ast A frica f or h undreds o f

u nchanged a nd u ninfluenced b y e ach o ther.

e xtremely

t o A

i n m ost a rchaeological

H owever,

t hen d istinct p opulations w ith d iscrete a rtifact

y ears,

c ultural

i n t ime a nd s pace.

I f a ssemblage d ifferences a re a p roduct o f c ultural

m ust h ave e xisted s ide b y s ide o f

i s

a r eview).

t he E arly S tone A ge,

e volution.

t o w hich a n

s tylistic e lements a re u sed

i ndustries a s t hey a ppear

( see S ackett

g roup

t hen t he c hoices t hemselves r eflect

I n t urn,

s equence o f a rguments s uch a s t his r esearch

t he s ocial

I f v ariations i n t echnique r eflect

B ut h ow f ar b ack

t hey

t oo. v ariability? t raditions i n t ime d oes

M any t ypologists o nly u se s haped a nd r etouched

p ieces i n t heir a nalysis o f l ithic m aterials. T hese a re t he p ieces t hat r eflect t he m ost w orkmanship o r t ime i nvestment, a nd t herefore h ave

t he p otential

t o c ontain

t he m ost s ocial

o r c ultural

i nformation.

T he f irst r esearchers w orking w ith t he A frican A cheulean l argely r estricted t hemselves t o t he l arge b ifacial t ools, h andaxes a nd c leavers

( see L .

L eakey

1 951).

T hey

l ooked f or p atterns o f c hange

i n

t hese a rtifacts t hat w ould r eflect a s equence o f e volutionary d evelopment a nalogous t o t hat p roposed f or W estern E urope i n t he e arly y ears o f

t his c entury

1 971:262).

( Breuil

a nd K ozlowski

S uch a pproaches w ere s uccessful

c ulture-history s tage o f

1 931-1934; f or

t he

M .

L eakey

i nitial

r esearch.

A m odification o f t his k ind o f a pproach m ight b e l abelled t echnological t ypology. T he c lassification s cheme d eveloped b y M axine K leindienst

( 1959,

t ypological

a nd

o n f inished f orm, t echnological

1 961,

1 962)

t echnological

f or

t he

r esearchers w orking

a ttributes.

l ater A cheulean u ses b oth

a ttributes.

R ather

t han c oncentrate o nly

i n N orth A frica h ave r elied o n

B ut o nce a gain,

t heir o verall

p urpose

i s t he

c reation o f m orphological c ategories f or d escription o f a ssemblage v ariability o ver t ime a nd s pare. P ic 'rre B iberson ( 1961, 1 966) p ioneered

t his a pproach

i hen

h e c 1a s

5 3

i2d

" pebble t ools"

f rom M orocco

a nd A lgeria u sing

t he n umber o f d irections f laked.

t hree m ajor c ategories f laked:

u nifacial,

f urther

i nto s ubsets

b ifacial

a nd m ultifacial.

T hese a re b roken d own

l inked b y c ommon s hape.

H eavily w orked p ieces

s uch a s f laked s pheroids f all p olyhedral

t ools.

i nto

t he c ategory o f m ultifacial

T his s ystem w as r evised b y L .

t ype 3 4 c orresponds

H is m ethod p roduced

i n a scending o rder o f d irections a nd s urfaces

t o m ost s pheroids.

m any o f t he p ieces u sed c ome f rom A in H anech.

I t

t o c reate a nd

i s

R amendo

i mportant

o r

( 1963)

w hose

t o n ote t hat

i llustrate t his c lassification

i he m eticulous e xcavations c onducted b y M ary L eakey a t O lduvai t o

t he r ecognition o f t he

f orms

i n E arly S tone A ge a ssemblages t han w as h itherto

e xpected.

l ed

i mportance o f a w ider v ariety o f a rtifact

S o s he c reated a t ypological

k nown o r e ven

c lassification u sing

t hese

a dditional f laked c ore p ieces. B ut i n t urn i t h as b ecome c lear t hat r eliance o n t he m ost m odified p ieces a lone e liminates m uch o f t he m aterial a vailable f or s tudy. S ample s izes i n E arly S tone A ge c ollections a re n ot o verly l arge t o b egin w ith. A t echnological a pproach f urther

t hat

i nvestigates h ow a ll

i ncrease t he a mount o f

p ieces c an b e p roduced a nd u sed m ay

i nformation t hese e arly s ites c ontain.

O ur b asic v iew o f t he E arly S tone A ge i s t aken f rom M ary L eakey's i nterpretation o f t he s equence o f e vents a t O lduvai G orge ( M. L eakey 1 971,

1 975,

1 976a,

l ithic m aterial

1 976b).

( a)

s howing o nly d amage,

a rtifact m anufacture, a nalyzed

s tudy s he s ubdivided a ll

i nto f our c lasses:

u tilised p ieces, a rchaeological

I n h er

s ites

a nd ( M.

i n m ore d etail

( d)

m anuports,

L eakey f ell

a rtifacts, ( c)

o r f laked p ieces,

d ebitage,

( b)

w aste p roducts o f

u nmodified s tones c arried

1 971:7-8).

i nto

o f t he

i nto

M ost o f t he p ieces s he

t he f irst g roup,

t hat o f a rtifacts.

H owever, s he d id s tate t hat p ieces l ike f lakes, p laced i n t he c ategory o f d ebitage, m ay h ave i ndeed s erved a s t ools a nd o ften e xhibit e dge d amage c onsistent w ith s uch a c onclusion

( M.

L eakey

1 971:268).

S o

t he

g eneral c ategories c an o verlap. F igure 3 .1 p resents a n e xample o f s uch a c lassification, a nd w here s pheroids w ould f it i n i t. I t c an b e s een t hat

s pheroids a re a c lass o f f laked a rtifacts,

s tones a re m erely u tilised t hey d o n ot). s urprise

t hat

t hat s hape

( if

F or s uch a m orphological f inal

s hape

i s a cquired

L eakey's w ere c reated

i s n ot

t hat

a nd

d escribed

i n t he s econd c hapter.

T he f irst

s tudies o f p rehistoric T he m ost

q uestions o f a daptation h umans

( if

f actor;

i t

i s h ow

C lassifications s uch a s M ary

b road c ulture h istorical i ndustries

A pproaches s tone t echnology w ere

l argely w ith d eriving u seful

c lassification. q uoted a t

o r m anuports

i t m ight c ome a s a

t hey p roduced t he p attern o f s uccession o f

T echnological

c oncerned

t he m ost c ritical

t o r eveal

p atterns,

( b)

t ypology,

i s i mportant.

l argely

w hile a llied b attered

t hey s how a ny w ear)

r ecent w ork,

i n t erms o f

h owever,

h as t ried

t o f rame

t he f ourth d efinition o f t echnology

t he b eginning o f t his c hapter.

i n A frica a dapt

l ikewise

a ttributes f or a rtifact

t o t he s ocial

5 4

B asically,

a nd p hysical

h ow d id e arly

e nvironment a round

F igure 3 .1 P ossible c lassifiction o f s pheroids a nd b attered s tones u sing a t ypological ( such a s H .

A ll

L eakey

s tone a rtifacts

Z N

f laking

P rimary A ction

/

h ammering

t ransport

o r o ther

( carrying)

u se

f laking

S econdary A ction

a pproach

1 971)

o nly

n one

/ D ebitage

R etouched p ieces

U tilised

M anupor t s

P ieces

( artifacts)

P roduct 1

V m anuports

c ore

f lake

d iscarded

m odified

t ools

t ools

w aste

b attered

I

n odules a nd c hunks

s pheroids

s crapers

s ubs hero i ds

l ight d uty

C � h ammerstones

U0

s crapers

a nvi i s

p olyhedrons

c hoppers

M i

h eavy d uty s crapers

t c. a wls

a

5 5

D

t hem?

H ow d id s tone t ool

d evelop

q uestions? p ermit

m anufacture a nd u se a ssist

t echniques o f a nalysis t hat w ill

r esult

i n t his?

i n a nswers t o

C an w e t hese

C an t he i ntroduction o f n ew r esearch p roblems s uch a s t hese

t he r e-examination o f o ld d ata

i n a n ew w ay?

T echnological s tudies m ay b e s aid t o b egin w ith t he e olith p roblem. W hen t he a ntiquity o f h umans h ad f inally b een a ccepted n ineteenth c entury, s tone f or

t he q uestion s till

i n t he

r emained o f w hen t heir u se o f

t ools a nd a rtifact m anufacture i tself f irst o ccurred.

R esearchers

i n E urope w ere c onfronted w ith a n umber o f b arely m odified

s tone f lakes.

S ince m ost w ere f ound

t heir o riginal

l ocation,

i n r iver g ravels d isplaced f rom

i t w as d ifficult

t o d istinguish r eal

f rom

n aturally p roduced p ieces. S o i t w as d ecided t hat t he b est w ay t o d o t his w as t hrough r eproducing t he m anufacturing t echniques i n o rder t o r eveal

t he d iagnostic

f eatures c haracteristic o f t he a ctual

T he e xpansion o f E uropean t rade a nd c olonialism

a rtifacts.

l ed t o t he

r ecognition o f

t he w ide d iversity o f h uman b ehaviour.

s till

t hat r elied h eavily o n t he m anufacture a nd u se o f s tone

b e f ound

i mplements f or s ubsistence. s tudied, i nto

T heir m ethods c ould b e o bserved a nd

a nd t hen c ompared t o

e thnoarchaeology,

G roups c ould

t he p rehistoric e vidence.

a rgument b y a nalogy f rom p resent

l ithic s tudies a s a r esearch m ethodology.

I n t his w ay

t o p ast,

w as b rought

P rehistorians

i nterested i n s tone m anufacturing t echniques d id n ot e ven h ave t o g o a broad t o s tudy t hem s ince c lose t o h ome w as t he f lint-knapping i ndustry a t B randon, w as s till

i n S uffolk,

b eing f laked

E ngland

( Skertchly

1 879).

t o p rovide t he s triking m aterial

H ere s tone

f or f lint-lock

m uskets a nd p istols. I n t he m id 2 0th c entury, t he e xperimental a ttempting

a n umber o f a rchaeologists r eturned

s tudy o f s tone t ool

t o c reate m ethods

t hat w ould e xpand

o btainable f rom s tone t ools. L ouis t . eakey a nd o ther s howing

( 1954).

r easons.

I n A frica,

1 970)

i n f lint-knapping a nd u sed

R ecent w ith

t his

t echnological

a s

( Bordes ( 1963)

t asks. 1 961; b ecame

t he p roduct o f t heir e xperiments

f eatures.

t he c enter o f P alaeolithic a s w ell

s pecific

a nd J acques T ixier

t o c reate n ew a rtifact c lassifications.

a nd S outhwest A sia,

i nformation

t he p ublic f or

l ike F rançois B ordes

t hese r ely h eavily o n t echnological r emain a t

k nown t o

i n s uch a f ashion f or

r esearchers

B ordes a nd d e S onneville-Bordes i n o rder

t he r ange o f

t he m ost n otable o f t hese w as

H e b ecame v ery w ell

i n F rance,

p roficient

t o

T hey w ere

H e p roposed u ses f or c ertain c lasses o f t ools b y

t hat o ne c ould u se t hem

M eanwhile,

m anufacture a nd u se.

t ool

N ot

s urprisingly,

T heir m ethods c urrently

d escription

i n m ost o f E urope

i n F rancophone A frica.

a pproaches b egan

t he q uantitative r evolution

i n t he

i n a rchaeological

1 960s

i n p artnership

m ethods.

A rtifact

a ttributes o f s hape a nd s ize w ere r ecorded a nd s ubjected t o p owerful m ultivariate s tatistical t echniques t o s ee w hat p atterns w ould b e r evealed. n umerical

T he m ore e xtreme v ersions o f t his f ollowed t he l ead o f t axonomy i n b iology a nd s aw r esearchers c ombining a s m any

v ariables a s p ossible a nd c lassification.

t hen w aiting f or a c omputer

T he p roduct w as

t o c reate

i ts o wn

i nterpreted a s h aving g reater v alidity

5 6

t han t he d ivisions m ade b y a n a rchaeologist s orting t ypes b y h and. T he u se o f s uch m ultivariate t echniques d id p rovide u seful a nd r evealing m athematical

m easurements o f r elationship,

a nother p roblem.

E ven

i f p atterns o f

b ut

t hey a lso u ncovered

i nter-relationship w ere r evealed,

a nd w ere f ound t o b e s tatistically s ignificant, t heir m eaning w as s till u nknown. I n t he 1 960s, L ewis a nd S ally B inford r e-examined a rtifact c ollections t hat w ere t he p roduct o f N eanderthals n eanderthalensis )

i n F rance a nd

t he N ear E ast,

r eferred

t o a s M ousterian

( L.

1 972;

B inford

B inford a nd L .

S .

1 972;

S .

B inford a nd S .

( Homo s apiens

a nd a re g enerally

B inford

B inford

1 966;

1 969).

L .

B inford

T hey s howed

s tatistically t hat m orphological v ariation i n s tone t ool t ype f requencies c ould j ust a s e asily s erve a s a m easure o f a rtifact f unction a s o f c ultural r ealiable

t radition.

t han t he o ther?

T his

B ut w as o ne e xplanation a ny m ore

l ed b ack

t o

t he q uestion o f h ow o ne

c ould e xplain t he r eason f or d ifferent t ypes o f a rtifact c ollections s eemingly i dentical l ocations, o r b ack t o t he c oncept o f i nter-assemblage v ariability. q uestion.

I n a n utshell

i n

i t p oses t he f ollowing

W hat d o c onsistent p atterned d ifferences b etween c oeval

a ssemblages m ean i n b ehavioural t erms? D o t hey r epresent t he r emnants o f v arious a ctivities o f a s ingle p opulation o r t he s ame a ctivities o f s eparate s ocial g roups? T his h as i mportant i mplications f or o ur u nderstanding o f t he d irection o f h ominid c ultural e volution. I t b ecame c lear

t hat n ew t echniques w ere r equired t o a nalyze t he

d ata a lready a vailable f or

t he a nswers t o s uch p roblems.

O ne e xample

o f h ow t his c an b e d one w as p ioneered b y

t he K oobi

P roject.

l ed b y R ichard L eakey a nd

G lynn

I n t he 1 970s,

I saac

a r esearch g roup

F ora A rchaeological

l ocated d ozens o f p rehistoric s ites a nd h undreds o f f ossil

h ominid r emains

i n t he r egion

n orthern K enya.

T o

i mmediately e ast o f L ake T urkana

i ncrease t he

t he a rchaeologists o f

t he K oobi

d ifferent a pproach f or

t heir

r eflected a t ypological

F ora p roject h ave t aken a r adically

a rtifact a nalysis.

a pproach

i dentical

t o

T heir

i nitial

f ramework w as

i n o rder t o a ddress q uestions m ore d irectly u nder

a nd

W hat

i n t heir b ehavioural

h istory,

t hey a re a ttempting

t o u nderstand

t he

t he e arliest f orm o f h uman a ctivity.

R ather

t han r ely o n a d etailed f ormal

t ypology,

a rchaeologists h ave o ne c omposed o f o nly f our g eneral f irst c ategory

i s

' detached p ieces',

f rom a l arger r ock.

( b)

h as h ad f lakes r emoved. m arks o f

t he l abel

B y s tudying h ow a rtifacts c ould h ave b een m ade a nd u sed,

t heir d epositional

n ature o f

a s

i ndustry t heir

H ow d id e arly A fricans u se t heir e nvironment?

t he r ole a nd f unction o f s tone t ools

r epertoire?

s tudies

t hat o f M ary L eakey,

c an b e i llustrated b y J .W.K. H arris' t reatment o f t he K arari ( Harris 1 978; H arris a nd I saac 1 976). B ut t hey s oon s hifted o f p aleoecology.

i n

i nformation p rovided b y t hese s ites,

i mpact f rom u se.

b attered n odules, s pheroids.

( d)

a nvils,

T he s econd ( c)

t he K oobi

F ora

c lasses.

( a)

T he

c omposed o f a ny p ieces r emoved i s

' flaked p ieces',

T hen o ne h as

a nything

' pounded p ieces',

T his e ncompasses h ammerstones,

m odified

a nd o ther u tilised p ieces a s w ell

F inally o ne h as u nmodified p ieces,

o r

a ll

t hat

e xhibiting a s

t hose s tones

t hat a ppear t o b e u naltered i n a ny w ay b ut w ere n onetheless c arried i nto s ites ( Isaac a nd H arris i .p.). T he g roups a re t hus l argely

5 7

d efined o n h ow

i tems w ere m anufactured o r u sed.

c lassification a nd h ow s pheroids f it I n o rder

t o c arry o ut

i nto

i t

a t echnological

A n e xample o f s uch a

i s g iven

s tudy,

i n F igure 3 .2.

i t m ust b e p ossible

t o s ay s omething m ore a bout h ow a rtifacts w ere u sed. A n umber o f m ethods f or t his, f alling u nder t he l abel o f u sewear a nalysis, h ave b een d eveloped o r d iscovered

i n t he

l ast

t wenty o r

s o y ears.

S ergei A .

S emenov ( 1976), a R ussian p rehistorian, w as o ne o f t he f irst t o i dentify t he p resence o f m icroscopic s triations o n s tone t ools. m arks g ive c lues t o h ow t ools w ere m anipulated, t hey m ay h ave b een u sed. 1 900)

F ollowing

t his

l ead,

T hese

a nd o n w hat m aterials L arry K eeley

c arried o ut a s eries o f e xperiments w hich r esulted

( 1977,

i n t he

d iscovery o f m icroscopic p olishes t hat c ould b e s egregated b y t he m aterial

o n w hich

t he t ool

w as u sed

m eat o r p lant p rocessing). f rom K oohi

F ora a nd

( such a s w ood o r h ide w orking,

N icholas T oth h as r eplicated

i s s tudying

t he

t echnical

s ystem

a nd

t he a rtifacts

i nvolved

i n t heir

m anufacture a nd u se ( Toth 1 982). H e s hows t hat a s imple r ange o f s tone f orms c an p erform a w ide v ariety o f f unctions, i ncluding c utting, s licing,

p ounding,

a nd s o o n.

S ome p ieces e ven s how t he c haracteristic

m icroscopic p olish f ormation a ssociated w ith m eat a nd p lant p rocessing ( Keeley a nd T oth

1 981:465)

t hat K eeley h ad f irst

i dentified o n B ritish

A cheulean c halk f lint a rtifacts. l echnological

a nalysis h as t herefore b een a m ajor a spect o f

A frican s tone a ge r esearch f or

a l ong

t ime.

B ut r ecently t he m ethods

u sed h ave b ecome m uch m ore i ntensive. T he c omplete s equence o f m anufacture, f rom s election o f r aw m aterial t hrough u se a nd d iscard i nto p rehistoric s ites,

i s b eing e xamined.

I n t his w ay,

t he c omplete

r ange o f J ithic m aterials c an b e u sed i n a n a nalysis, n ot j ust t he r etouched o nes. W hat h ave t hese m ethods p roduced i n t he w ay o f e xplanation?

A n e xample m ight b e o f u se h ere.

O ne o f t he m ost c ommon a rtifact f orms i n t he E arly S tone A ge i n A frica a nd E urope i s t he h andaxe. N ormally s haped l ike a t ear d rop, t hese a rtifacts a re f ound i n t he h undreds o n p rehistoric s ites. T hanks t o t o m ultivariate s tatistics a nd o ther c omputer-supported m ethods o f d ata a nalysis, w e n ow h ave a d etailed t ypology o f h andaxes. B ut w e s till h ave n o b etter i dea o f t heir f unction t han o ur p redecessors h ad a c entury a go

( Kleindienst a nd K eller

a nalysis o f

a rtifact c ollections f rom O lduvai

1 976;

O 'Brien

1 984).

S tatistical

G orge a nd s outhern A frica

r evealed a s trong c orrelation b etween t he r aw m aterial h andaxes w ere m ade f rom,

a nd

c ommonly u sed

t heir

t raditions p resent, 1 973,

1 977;

f inal

f orm.

T his s hape

i s t he a ttribute

t o a ssign a ssemblages t o o ne o f

S tiles

t he A cheulean a nd 1 979c,

1 979d).

t he

t wo

t he D eveloped O ldowan

E xperimental

t ools h as p rovided o ne e xplanation f or

t hat

i s

i ndustrial ( f lower

r eproduction o f

t he v ariability

i n f orm.

t hese P eter

J ones h as d emonstrated t hat t he d ifferences b etween c ontemporary A cheulean a ssemblages a t O lduvai c an b e a ccounted f or t hrough s election o f a lternative r aw m aterial e xtensive r etouching o f c utting e dges t hat a s w ell

f or

f or b ifaces

( Jones

1 979,

1 980).

t he m argins b ecause t he r aw m aterial

a re q uickly d ulled d uring u se.

S ome s how p roduces

T his s tatement h olds

t he q uartzite h andaxes f rom t he D eveloped O ldowan s ites.

5 8

F igure 3 .2 P ossible c lassification o f s pheroids a nd b attered s tones u sing a t echnological ( such a s

A ll

P rimary

I saac

a nd H arris

a pproach i .p. .)

s tone a rtifacts

N

f laking

A ction

p ounding,

t ransport

h ammering

( carrying)

o nly

S econdary A ction

p ounding

T ypological

D etached

F laked

P ounded

P ieces

P ieces

P ieces

U nmodified P ieces

e quivalents

/

f lakes

f lake t ools

m anupor t s

c ores

c ore t ools

h ammerstones

m odified b attered n odules 0

U a nvils

5 9

T hus s econdary w orking o f s cars r emoved a re n ot

i ndividual

s igns o f

a s w as o nce g enerally a ssumed, t echnique c losely a dapted s imilar f ashion,

t o

t he n umber o f f lake

s kill

o r c ultural

t he p articular m aterial

O ldowan a nd A cheulean c an b e

r ole t hat r aw m aterial

f or

t heir p roduction.

p roperties p lay

p attern o ver A c hange c hange

i n

t ime a nd s pace t hat

i n s ocial

n ot h ave

o r e thnic g roup. o ften t hose

p aleoecological

t hat

i nformation,

i n o rder

l argely s tatic;

N o c onsideration

o n a m ore g eneral t hat

( c)

i dentified.

O n t he o ther h and,

t ypological

a rtifacts a re c lassified b y t heir f inal i s t aken o f t he d ynamic p rocesses S o s uch a pproaches h ave o nly t his f ramework

i n o rder

q uestions o f a rtifact u se a nd d istribution.

a t echnological

p articularistic.

s ince t hey d o

t o g et a b etter u nderstanding o f

l imited v alue w hen o ne p rogresses b eyond s tudy r uns

a nd m ight n ot p roduce l evel.

i ncreases o ur b asic

B ut f or

t o B y

t he r isk o f b eing

I ts c onclusions m ay b e r estricted

u nder e xamination,

t erms.

i ntegrated e asily w ith

i n t heir p roduction a nd u se.

d efinition,

s tudies,

t ypologists h ave a lready

t han t ypology a lone p rovides.

a ddress b ehavioural

i n c ultural

i nterpreted a s m arking a

T echnological

a nalysis c an a lso b e

i nvolved

A

i s a

a re a ble t o o ffer a lternative s olutions f or

b asic p roblems,

f orm a lone.

i ts p roduct

i s b est e xplained

A t echnological

a pproaches a re

f orm a nd o ur

b ut a lso r ecognizeable d rawbacks.

i s t herefore u sually

t his c onstraint,

b ehaviour

i n t ool

i s m ainly u sed f or s ystematics;

i ndustry

a nd t hus s ocial i llustrates t he

i n t he E arly S tone A ge.

B oth a pproaches h ave m erits, o ne

I n a

l argely a ttributed t o w hether q uartzite o r

t he p referred r aw m aterial

c oncepts o f s tyle a nd f unction

t ypological

s elected.

i n b ifaces b etween t he D eveloped

T his c hoice i n i tself r eflects s tylistic p reference, f actors ( Benzecri i n S tiles 1 979b:9-10), b ut i t a lso c ritical

s uperiority,

b ut r ather o f a b asic m anufacturing

t he d ifferences

l ava w as c hosen a s

p ieces a nd

t echnical

t o

t he s ite(s)

i nformation t hat

t he E arly S tone A ge,

k nowledge o f c ultural

i s a pplicable

a ny a pproach

b ehaviour

i s w orthwhile.

T he A pproach T aken H ere I n t his s tudy,

l inked w ith

a c lass d efined b y t ypologists,

i ts t echnological

e quivalent,

s pheroids,

i s

a llied b attered s tones,

a nd

i s a nalyzed u sing b oth a pproaches. A rtifacts f rom a n umber o f E arly S tone A ge s ites w ere e xamined. M etric a nd n on-metric v ariables t hat r eflect

t ypological

u sing s tatistical e xperimental

a nd f unctional

m ethods.

f eatures w ere m easured a nd d escribed

K ey v ariables w ere

t hen u sed t o c reate a n

p rogram t o d etermine t he v arious w ays t hat

t he

c haracteristic f orms o f s pheroids c an b e p roduced. W hile m ember c haracteristic

o f

t his c lass s hare a b road

t hat h ints a t c ommon f unction,

t echnological t heir s hape,

e xhibit a c urious a nd n oteworthy p attern w hen e xamined

t hey a lso

t ypologically.

S pheroids d o c hange m arkedly b etween t he v arious i ndustrial f acies a t ü lduvai. A ngular, u nmodified b ut b attered p ieces a re c ommon I n t he O ldowan. T he d iagnostic a rtifact t ype o f t his p hase i s t he c hopper, a f orm t hat o ften s hows b ruising a nd/or b attering o n t he b utt a s w ell a s

6 0

t he c utting e dge ( M. L eakey 1 971:4,264-266 . T hese d ecrease n otably t he s ucceeding D eveloped O ldowan p hase. H ere t heir r ole i s p erhaps t aken o ver f irst b y s ubspheroids a nd O ldowan a mong

t hen b y s pheroids.

i n

T he D eveloped

i s m arked b y a h igh p ercentage o f s pheroids a nd s ubspheroids

t he f laked c ore p ieces,

t he s ite o f S HK a re p resent,

I I

( M.

u p

L eakey

b ut n ever

t o

t hirty-five p ercent

1 971:265).

i n g reat

i n P hase B a t

I n E arly A cheulean s ites

n umbers o r p ercentages.

A cheulean a nd s uceeding M iddle S tone A ge s ites h ave m any, o f a d ifferent a rtifacts

f orm.

F or e xample,

b ut

t hey a re

t hey c omprise t en p ercent o f t he

i n t he B ed 3 a ssemblage f rom t he C ave o f H earths

1 962a:16/).

t hey

L ater

( Mason

I t m ight b e r easonable t o c onclude t hat s pheroids a re a s

s ignificant a d iagnostic m arker o f t he d ifference b etween t he D eveloped U ldowan a nd E arly A cheulean a s a nything e lse, i ncluding p ercentage a nd/or

t ype o f b ifaces

i n t he a ssemblage.

b etween t he t wo r epresents

( function o r

s ocial/cultural v ariation), i ts e xplanation. I t u sed

i s

i mportant

t o

W hatever

t he d ifference

a ctivity-related

)

o r

t he r ole o f s pheroids m ay b e c ritical

r ealize t hat m any o f

t he a rtifact c ategories

i n a n E arly S tone A ge t ypology a re n ot d iscrete e ntities.

t ypical

c ase

O lduvai

( M.

i n

A

i s p rovided b y t he c lass o f f laked p ieces d efined f or L eakey 1 971:3-8)

t hat

i ncludes c hoppers,

p olyhedrons,

s ubspheroids a nd s pheroids. C hoppers a re p ebbles w orked t o p roduce n o m ore t han t wo i ntersecting e dges, w hile p olyhedrons a re d efined a s a rtifacts t hat t hree.

a re f laked o n a n umber o f s urfaces t hat s how a t

S pheroids a re g lobular p ieces o f v arying s moothness.

s ubspheroids a re m ore a ngular, o thers.

T he s hape o f

a rtificially s egregated i s

i nto

l argely o ne o f r oundness,

s mooth.

B ut

t here

t hus f all

i n b etween t hese t wo

i s t herefore c ontinuous,

t ypes o r c lasses. f actor

a nd

i s only

T his dine o f v ariation

a nd e xtending f rom a ngular

i s a nother

a rtifacts c an c hange t heir t hat

a nd

t hese p ieces

l east B ut

t o p erfectly

t o b e c onsidered h ere b ecause

f orm d uring

t heir u se

l ife.

t he a ngular p ieces m ay b e u nfinished v ersions o f

I t

i s p ossible

t he s moother

o nes. T he a mount o f c ortex o n a p olyhedron i s g reater t han t hat o n a s ubspheroid, w hich i n t urn i s m ore t han t hat o n a s pheroid. T his i s a b asic c riterion 1 971:4-6)

i n M ary L eakey's s ubdivision o f t hese p ieces

A t O lduvaj,

f or a rtifacts.

A s eries o f r eduction s teps t hrough

c an y ield a p olyhedron f rom s uch c ores. p ossibly g ive r ise t o a s ubspheroid, ( Figure

. 3)

w hen s ome a dditional

f acets b etween f lake s cars. t his p rocess r esults

M ore

i s u sed

i s e xtremely

t hat w hat

t ypologically

s ites

i s n ot

l imited.

t he e xclusion o f m ost b ifacial t echnological

( sometimes) e lements.

I t

i n

i n t he

t hen b ecomes

I t

b ut a c oncentration o n

b attered c ore p ieces,

t o

i s a lso o bvious t hat b oth

m ethods a re r equired f or

6 1

i nvolved

i n t he D eveloped O ldowan B

j ust a p reponderance o f s pheroids,

t his e ntire c lass o f f laked a nd a nd

t he a ngular

t he a mount o f v ariation

e ntire f laked a rtifact c lass

t ypological

t o c rush

E xamination o f t he t echniques

i n r ecognition t hat

i mportant

r epeated f laking

i ntensive w ork c ould

a nd u ltimately t o a s pheroid

f orce

c lear

i s

( Leakey

s ubangular p ebbles w ere s elected a s r aw m aterial

t his s tudy.

F igure 3 .3 T he O lduvai P attern o f S pheroid P roduction

R aw m aterial c ollection a nd t ransport

s ubangular s lab, c hunk o r p ebble

m anufacture ± u se

R eduction

P OLYHEDRON

t hrough m anufacture a nd/or u se

m anufacture ± u se

S UBSPHEROID

m anufacture ± u se

S PHEROID

b attered e dges D iscard i nto a rchaeo l og i cal c ontext

6 2

( d)

G eofacts v ersus A rtifacts O ne m ajor q uestion m ust b e d ealt w ith b efore t he a rchaeological

p ieces a re e xamined, o ne t hat p roblem o f t he l ast c entury.

i n a w ay i s a nalogous t o t he e olith I t h as b een a rgued t hat s pheroids a re

u sually t he e nd o f a c ontinuum o f c ore t ools t hat a lso i ncludes a ngular p olyhedrons a nd s ubspheroids, a nd t hus r epresent e xhausted c ores ( Jeline $
.0 c

S

:

•

:

-

:

: — —

- -p . Ne w

S

.r

•

N

:

\ - e w

• •

•

z+ +

o 0

• 0 I n

• • •

U) • N N

S

S

.

S

S

e • 0 N

S

.

. ,

i n S

•

S

S

S

+

S

S

I

••

• • •

• •

•. . . +

e

a

o

5

S

e S

S

S

S

.

5 +

I

p .

i n

N

0

—

—

—

-

OS .4 I

5

II

.

i n •

f l. -

0 1 &(

ZU

N 2 4

— •

C' • rL i. -

•

S o

•

a ) S . -

w i n' c Zr r

:

O D

:

I t u

0 0

• -

:

o

—

u

8 4

Z ,op .

K 3 0 a t ' U h e i d i y a •

•

• 4

•4

.4 . .4

4

4

.

• + •

.

C

.

f r o m T r e n c h

4

c _ )

•

(I

4 •

p .

.

S

• • + •

4

' - C u C ZLf l

C

4

—

•

*4

S

•4

+

.0 *

0 •

ui -C

o

•

4

' a.. I I

S

S c a t e r p l o t o f l e n g t h

.

. 4

e

i ,

•

0

•

.

.

.

.

•

•

•

.

.

.

‚

.

.

.

.

i

,

.

e

i

.

.

.

-

.

i

.

•

•

•4 •

•

ru •

•

r

— 4

>

r t

-

— '

e

0

•

4

e

u f 0

i

I ZU K) .

_

‚

I JJ M

C . D

—

8 5

F igure 4 .9 C alculation o f p ebble s phericity u sing W .C.

K rumbein

t he m ethod o f

( redrawn b y p ermission f rom K rumbein

1 941:68)

1 .0 -

1 .0

. 9 -

B R E

S

. 7-

P

A

H

D T

E

. 6 -

R

H T

I C

. 5 -

I

0

T V

L

. 4.

E N 6

. 3 -

T H . 2 .

. 1-

o 0

. 1

. 2

. 3

. 4

. 5

. 6

. 7

. 8

. 9

1 .0

T HICKNESS T O B READTH

P oint

' *'

r atio o f

w ith

t hickness t o b reath r atio o f

. 60 w ould h ave a s pericity

. 80 a nd b readth

v alue o f a pproximately

8 6

t o . 74.

l ength

L oll Q-

Ui CC

0

N ..

.

.

•

•

Nf

S

4

•

• •4

• •

N

•

• • • •

• ‚. V )

P ) p t 0 0 M — O O M I r O ' P - Oi f

•

•

• •

a ) 0 4 '

> ‚ e c L Lj

K • • • • • + • • • • + •

0 — u g tr , .e , J• M - t I ( ) N I . . . v , p • ' N N N O V N N — N N N I f l*

'— L - l f l N t y Ne4 0 p • t Op t

••

•4 . . . . •

•

N

=

-

-

N

•

-

0 F Ofg — O N

-

N

N

-

N

NP N —

-

-

N

N xlf l •0

N

N N

-

-

N

+

-

0

-

—

— -

-

-

N

-

-

-

-

-

• •

.

-

-

• -

N

-

N

-

4

S

•V

-

-

-

N

.

-

0 0 N c y •C 0 0 V r y o n C M 0 N Q p tt % c y P t Ni( t p tig N N- N . . —

N N P )p ) — N N

•

-

N -

-

-

-

-

• • •

-

i n

P t O . . 4p • O N O,C . P t Nlf l. P t N.. 0P 0 p tq N. — N — t.r t I N • 0 0V P t N N N Nf % i _.. p t Np O N N r t j

P t o n NP

-

•

1

( % j

S

N p t 0 Nt j

-

•

0 0

4

- ..

N

•

a )

•• •

•

P p .e t t J 0 0 0 o4

- - 0 0 p . 0 0 0 -V I 0 0

•

a )

•

-

• •

a )

•

S

•

( I )

•

q N.

-

-

-

T H C K N E S T O B R E A D T H

•

T H I C A P E D

•

• t r t

•V,

S p h e r i c i t y o f p e b l e s

+

4

0

• 1 •

.

.

•

•

.

.

.

•

•

I

•

F , 0

S

•

•

S

•

S

t o

o f

a -o . t wz

— c )l-- =

I - C )

8 7

• 0

S

0

— o

0 .

.

4

•

" j Nulf ' J

•

— \

—

• •

- N

F N

•

N —

JN

r J

r

_

-

—

L 1

)N N

-

—

-

—

r

N

e

-

—

- -

•

r . Ir . .. . .

•

—

•

'

4 • •

-

- -

-

4

•

.

N

--r b .-

—

—

•

N

N

N

.

N. N— . -•

N

N N

—

•

N N — F

•

•

c

-

- -

N —

N

N N

—

N

—

+

—

F J.. J

4

E ' 4— ----

r—

•

—

• •

— —

F

• •

— N

—

r

F. . . . .r

r—

m—

:

-

—

—

—

:

—

_

—

-

—

N

— N

- -

—

N

— N

N —

—

C w T o

• •

I I I

>

T H I C K N E S T O B R E A D T H

N —

• . f ) 4 .

. ' c

4 •

•

r i

• . ‚

( J

S p h e r i c i t y o f p e b l e s

• ‚ ( )

•

• •

.0 •I . ) 4 .

4

I

I

I

•

‚

.

1

.

1

+

•

I

•

1

4

I

I

.

•+

I

.

1

.

4

•

•

i

I r ,

. ‚ r )

•

F ) p..

•

4 U '

N

I -

•

i — c ,

•

I

'

P. .

V I

C 0 — in

10

C _J uj £

. . Jw

i - m

8 8

0

a . , •$

•+

. .

S

1

4

•

S

N •

S

.. . + . .

.

1

4

1

1

1

5

4

•s s s +

I

)

4 .

.- 0 ' 0 •

4

0

.

I . , -

—

-

e .j

-

I

•

N.. -

-

N -

0 0 '

.

Q .

• • 4

a 0 .

•

.0 4

4 . . p . . •0 ' 0

• e

N

• •

.

•

.0 •

•

.0 ) ( 0 . • 4 • • .0

4

4

0 0 p . p .

T H T C 8 D

4

4 . • • 4 • • •0 . $r ) 4 . ' 0 '0 • • + •

T H I C K N E S T O B R E A D T H

5

0 0 C ' p . -

0 0 p 5

•0 • 1 . ( 5 +

0

. 0 4

4

0 0 •

• U , .0 4 S

.

•

0 0

•

.

.

s

i

.

•

S

e

+

a U ,

*

.

.

.

e

»

I , U ,

l

.

.

•

.

.

.

a

‚

S

v s

4 0

.

.

4 . •S 0 s + 0 0 5 . e S« . j v s

•

0 p . -

• U ,

• 0

C o C ' N(J i n N

•

I— CD

N a L w

0.J U J Z

.i L iJ

8 9

C

t-

0

0• i

4

. 4 '

( a C D

p . . >

.. . 4

•

• • •

. 4

.. .J . (

: C )

-

• . . L t 4

. '

E 0 4 -

T H I C K N E S T O B R E A D T H

•

.4)

r )

4 . •

•

' C

'

• •

4 )

. r (

1 3

. t r ) . . . •4

. • .

4

•. •

o •

C .

I

.

+

•

0 . p .

NO

•• + • . . • +

•. . . 4 • . • .

U ) 0 '

U )

o I

S

' 0

U )

• V i

a '-

1c

F i g u r e 4 .

p .

•

zu

90

F igure 414 S phericity o f c ore a rtifacts f rom E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge s ites

0

2 0

4 0

ü lduvai

6 0

8 0

0

( n 596)

0

. 2

. 2

. 4

. 4

. 6

. 6

. 8

. 8

1 .0

1 .0 H anech

( n 166)

U beidiya s pheroids

4 0

S terkfontein

0

A i n

2 0

6 0

( n=106)

C ave o f H earths

( n 246)

8 0

( n=155)

U beidiya p olyhedrons

9 1

( n 49)

F igure 4 .14 c ontinued S phericity o f c ore a rtifacts f rom E arly a nd P u ddle S tone A ge s ites

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

80

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

0 . 2 . 4 . 6 . 8 1 .0 I simila

( n 237)

O lorgesailie

o

( n=75)

0 . 2 . 4 . 6 . 8 1 .0 7 E SA s ites

( n 1581)

Z ambian a nd Z imbabwean E SA a nd M SA(n=152)

9 2

P ossible v alues r ange f rom o ne, e xtremely f lat p ebbles.

o r

f latness a nd m aximum s phericity, e xamined f or

s quare

B y d efinition,

a s e xpected,

m ost o f

t his s tudy h ave f latness v alues c lose

t o o ne.

T he s pecimens s tudied v ary

a nd,

i n c ross-section,

i n s moothness a ll

p olyhedrons t o p erfectly r ounded s tone b alls. r oundness;

i t

i s a ssigned v alues

( completely r ound), T his

t hat

w ell

1 ,

a s s hown

a s a ny o ther

c alculate. v ariables

R oundness

i n F igure 4 .15).

a nd

i t h as

t he w ay f rom a ngular ( angular)

t o 0 .9

K rumbein w ho p rovides a e xamination

( Krumbein

H is s ystem a ppears

t echnique r elying o n m easuring

a ngularity o f e dges,

t he p ieces

t he e dges o f a p ebble a re.

s ilhouettes o f s hape f or r apid v isual

1 941:plate

t en f or

T his c an b e r ecorded a s

r ange f rom 0 .1

m easuring h ow s mooth

i s a lso d erived f rom t he m ethod o f W .C.

s eries o f

t o

s pheroids e xhibit m inimum

t o w ork

t he a rcs o r

t he a dvantage o f b eing m uch e asier

i s o ne o f

t he c ritical

i n t his s tudy b ecause

i t

i s

a nd m ost

a s

t he t o

i nteresting

i ndependent o f m ost o f

t he s ize

a nd s hape m easurements. I t i s i ndependent o f s phericity b ecause p ieces c an h e s mooth a nd r ound w ithout b eing h ighly g lobular. M ost E arly S tone A ge s pheroids a re n ot v ery r ound; m iddle o f

t his r ange.

w ith a m ean o f

. 4 o r

i n f act

. 5

( Figure 4 .16 a nd A ppendix

a r esult o f a p reponderance o f p olyhedral c luster

a round

. 3 t o

i s s een a t a ll

A i n

r etain

N atural

t heir

o riginal

i llustrated b y

( Olduvai,

I I).

s mooth

h igh r oundness v alues

( marked b y

a s s ome a t O lorgesailie).

t he

i s p erhaps

t end

t o

T his d istribution S terkfontein a nd

t hus v ery r ound

a nd s ome e xamples

i n F igure 4 .16).

T his

o n t he o ther h and,

s hape a nd a re

t he C ave o f H earths,

i nto

d istribution,

o nes t hat

U beidiya,

u nmodified p ebbles,

S tone A ge a ssemblages w ell

f orms,

. 5 a nd a re t hus q uite a ngular.

t he e arly s ites

H anech).

t hey f all

T heir h istograms e xhibit a n ormal

t end

i n t he M iddle

T he p ecked p ieces a lso

t end

i ntegral

i s a s urprise s ince

p art o f t he d efinition o f

s pheroids. U nlike t he s pheroids f rom t he s ame s ite, U beidiya p olyhedrons a re e xtremely a ngular ( Figure 4 .16). F or U beidiya i s a c lear b reak b etween p olyhedrons a nd s pheroids,

o ne t hat

f unction o f

s ites,

a ttribute c an b e u sed s pheroids. r oundness s ize,

o ther

i s a c ontinuous v ariable.

t he o riginal

W hile

c ase m ay b e),

r oundness r epresents

r aw m aterial

( pebble,

i n t he m iddle

( around

v alues p er

s ite c an b e s een

b alls

t o c luster

t end

a nd s o o n)

t o

t he

. 5).

o f

s pheroids s how e xtreme r oundness v alues.

t hen t hat,

w hen g rouped

t he e dges.

t ogether,

S ince m ost

b alls,

( Figure 4 .16)

t his m ay t end

t o

t he r oundness

A s p redicted,

t he r ange,

t he

( or p eck m arks a s t he

A s ummary o f

i n F igure 4 .17. l eft

a re

t hat w as

r oundness r eflects

t he s even s ites

. 4 o r

s ince

F or p ieces t hat

t his s tudy a re p olyhedral

e xplain w hy r oundness v alues f or c luster

c obble,

t he d egree o f b attering o f

t he a rtifacts e xamined f or

o ne,

t he s hape a nd c ondition o f

t he c rests b etween t he f lake s cars a nd/or

i s a

t his

i ndependent o f s hape a nd

I f a p iece h as m any f lakes r emoved,

f reshness o f

t here

s egregate t he c lasses o f p olyhedrons a nd

r oundness d oes v ary w ith p ercentage c ortex.

m odified.

p ecked

F or a ll

I n m ost c ases t his d istinction i s a n a rtificial

o nly s lightly w orked,

o f

p roperties.

t o

t o

t he M iddle S tone A ge a ssemblages a s T his d istribution

s mooth e dges f rom b attering a re a n

r aw m aterial

t o

( as

p olyhedral

w hile s tone b alls a nd I t

i s n ot

s urprising

t he s even s ites h ave r oundness v alues

9 3

F igure 4 .15

R oundness a ccording

t o

t he m ethod o f W .

( redrawn b y p ermission f rom K rumbein

C .

K rumbein

1 941 : plate

1 )

R oundness . 3

. 6

R oundness

. 4

. 7

. 8

. 5

. 9

i s c alculated b y c omparison w ith a s eries o f s ilhouettes o f

p ebble s hapes.

B roken p ebbles c an a pproximate t he s ame s hape a nd

a re a ssigned v alues.

R oundness r anges f rom

( very s mooth).

9 4

. 1

( very a ngular)

t o

. 9

t hus

F igure 4 .16 R oundness o f s pheroids f rom E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge s ites

0

2 0

4 0

0 lduvai

6 0

8 0

0

( n 596)

2 0

4 0

S terkfontein

6 0

8 0

( n=106)

. 3 5 . 7 . 9

A i n

H anech

( n 166)

t J beidiya s pheroids

C ave o f H earths

( n=246)

( n 155)

U beidiya p olyhedrons

9 5

( n 49)

F igure 4 .16 c ontinued R oundness o f s pheroids f rom E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge s ites

0

2 0

I simila

4 0

6 0

8 0

0

( n 237)

2 0

4 0

6 0

O lorgesailie

8 0

( n 75)

. 3 . 5 . 7 . 9 7 E SA s ites

( n=1581)

Z ambian a nd Z imbabwean E SA a nd M SA

9 6

( n 152)

F igure 4 .17 R oundness v alues f or

• .— polyhedron

-- . -subspheroid

-

s pheroids

s - spheroid

-

-

-

s tone b all -a -

. 5

. 9

a ngular

s mooth,

' I Jbeidiya f lint p olyhedrons

O lduvai

U beidiya

r ound

l imestone s pheroids

r ange

m ost p ecked p ieces ( MSA

)

l ater A cheulean)

m ost p olyhedral b alls

R oundness f or

s pheroids m easures

o r s lightly m odified p ieces. m easures

F or

t he s hape o f

t he f reshness o f f lake s cars.

m easures t he d egree o f w ear.

I t

t he c ortex

i n u nmodifed

h eavily w orked p olyhedral i s

F or

b alls,

b attered s pheroids,

i t

i t

i ndependent o f s ize a nd s phericity.

9 7

t han r ange t hroughout t he s cale ( .1 t o . 9), m ode o f . 4 ( Figure 4 .16 a nd A ppendix I I).

( d)

w ith a m ean o f

. 45 a nd a

R aw M aterial R aw m aterial

a ttributes a re t ype,

f lakability,

c ondition o f

t he

f lake s cars a nd p atination. S ome o f t hese w ill b e d iscussed i n m ore d etail i n C hapter 5 i n c onnection w ith t he e xperimental d ata. T he s election o f s pecific r aw m aterials f or p articular a rtifact c lasses

i s

a n i mportant f actor i n a ll t he E arly S tone A ge s ites e xamined. T his w as o riginally s uggested b y s tatistical a nalysis c arried o ut b y J ohn B ower

( 1973,

1 977)

a nd D aniel

S tiles

a ppears t o b e a g reater v ariety o f m anufacture

( 1979a,

1 979c,

i n t hese e arly s ites t han a t a ny o ther

o f t his f act s hows c learly t hat r aw m aterial d escribed i n o rder a rtifact f orm.

t o a ssess t heir

I t w as o nce b elieved f orm o f a rtifacts.

1 979d).

B ut

t ypes o f r ock s elected f or t ime.

t here

a rtifact

R ecognition

p roperties m ust b e

r elative c ontribution t o t he f inal

t hat r aw m aterial

d id n ot

i nfluence t he f inal

I n 1 948 G eoffrey B ond p ublished a s tudy o f t he

a rtifacts f rom t he e ntire s tone a ge o f Z imbabwe. N oting a n a bundance o f t ypes, h e f elt t hat p rehistoric h ominids w ere c apable o f m aking m ost a rtifacts o ut o f a ny m aterial M an h as,

a t n early a ll

o f a ppropriate s ize.

t imes,

b een a ble t o m ake h is

t ools

t o s tandard p atterns w ith a lmost a ny r aw m aterial a vailable

l ocally,

a lthough f or s maller t ypes h is

s election w as m ore r estricted.

T he

i nfluence o f m aterial

o n t ypology s eems t o h ave b een s light, v arieties o f r ocks u sed. s tone

i n s pite o f

t he

T his e ncourages t he b elief

t hat

i mplements c an b e u sed w ith c omparative s afety a s

z one f ossils'

a t

l east o ver f airly w ide r egions

( Bond

1 948:59-60).

E ven L ouis L eakey n o d ifference t o c ultural

( 1954:129) t he f laking

e volution s imilar

S omme R iver

t erraces

t o

s tates

t hat

i n N orthwestern F rance.

" the n ature o f

t he m aterial

p roperties m ade

H e u sed a m odel

t hat p roposed f or

t he p resence o f v arious k inds o f s tone q uartzite),

r aw m aterial

t echniques u sed.

o f

c ollections f rom

H e a rgued

( including

l ava,

t hat,

t he

d espite

q uartz,

i s c learly s een t o h ave n o

i nfluence o n

t he n ature o f t he s pecimens m ade a t a ny g iven s tate o f

d evelopment"

( L.

L eakey

s pecific

r aw m aterial

a rtifact

( Clark

1 951:158).

i s a m ajor

1 980),

a nd

I t

f actor

i s n ow r ecognized i n t he f inal

t herefore c an e ven

t hat

t he

f orm o f a n

i nfluence

t he w ay a

t ypologist a ssigns a n a ssemblage t o a p articular i ndustry o r i ndustrial c omplex. I t i s n ot j ust t he t ype c hosen a s a b lank, a lthough t his w as i mportant, b ut a vailability. t he e arliest m aterials

a lso i ts s hape, s trength, f laking p roperties, s ize a nd T o u nderstand t hese f actors i s e specially c ritical f or

s tone

t ool

a ssemblages,

i s n ot c ommonly s een a gain.

9 8

s ince s uch v ariation

i n r aw

A s o ne c an s ee m aterials

i s f ound

i n T able 4 .4 a nd F igure 4 .18, i n t he e arly s ites.

o f a uthors w orking a s w ell

a s

i n

i n A frica s uch a s D esmond C lark

I srael

s urprise t hat

( Goren

t he f orm,

l ikewise g reatly

a w ide v ariety o f

T his h as b een n oted b y a n umber

a nd

1 981b:198).

( 1950:65,

I t s hould n ot

t herefore t ypology,

i nfluenced b y r aw m aterial

1 980:44)

t hen b e a

o f s pheroids

( Goren

i s

1 981a:107)

i n t he

a ssemblages s tudied h ere. T his

i s e specially

i mportant f or

a s tudy o f a c lass

l ike s pheroids

s ince, u nlike m any o ther a rtifact g roups, t hey e xhibit a h igh d egree o f c orrelation w ith a s ingle r aw m aterial t ype ( see t he d istribution i n T able 4 .4 a nd F igure 4 .18). T his i s m ost s triking a nd c lear a t ' Ubeidiya w here p olyhedrons u sually a re r estricted t o o ne m aterial ( flint)

w hile

t heir c losest

a nalogues

i n s hape,

s pheroids,

a re a nother

( limestone). R ecent w ork w ith t he I simila c ollections r eveals a s imilar p attern. H ere q uartz a nd q uartzite ( 88.6% o f t he s ample e xamined h ere) c hoice

w ere p referentially s elected f or

i s n ot s een i n a ny o ther

t ypological

s pheroids,

c lass

w hen s uch

( Glen C ole,

p ersonal

c ommunication). A ll o f t he p ieces f rom A in H anech a re a f ine-grained, o ften f ossiliferous, l imestone, a s a re m ost ( 94%) o f t hose f rom ' Ubeidiya. 0 1duvai p ieces a re u sually q uartz ( 85.7%) o r q uartzite ( 4.2%), w hile t he r emainder a re l ava ( 8.9 ' ! ,), a long w ith a f ew g neiss ( 1.2' ! .).

M ary L eakey s tates t hat

u sed f or h eavy d uty t ool

t here

m anufacture.

I n B ed

i n t he r aw m aterial m ost m embers o f t his

( choppers,

s mall

( 'light d uty')

p ieces a re q uartz a nd q uartzite.

U pper

B ed

a nd q uartzite h ave b ecome t he p referred m aterials

q uartz

p olyhedrons,

I ,

c lass

I I,

s ubspheroids,

i s a s hift

f or a ll c lasses ( M. L eakey 1 971:263). a re u sually m ade f rom t hese m aterials, p redominance t otal

a nd s o o n)

l ava,

w hile

I n M iddle a nd

I f s pheroids a nd s ubspheroids t his m ay h elp t o e xplain t heir

i n t he f laked a rtifact c lasses o f B ed

a bsence f rom t he e arlier

a re

a ssemblages.

H earths p ieces e xamined h ere a re d olerite

I I

a nd

A lmost a ll

( 95.5 ' ! .),

t heir

a lmost

o f t he C ave o f

e xcept f or

f ive

q uartz a nd t wo b asalt f laked o r p ecked s pheroids. A t O lorgesailie, m ost p ieces s tudies a re b asalt o r s ome o ther t ype o f l ava ( 92.0 ' ! .). T here a re a lso a h andful o f l arge q uartz s pheroids ( 8.0 ' ! . o r 6 s pecimens). C learly r aw m aterial s election i s a c ritical f actor s pheroid f ormation,

o r,

a lternately,

i n

i n t he r ecognition o f s pheroids a s

a n a rtifact c lass b y p rehistorians. T able 4 .5 s ummarizes t he w as c omputed b y m erging p roduce o ne c alled

l ength o f s pheroids b y r aw m aterial.

t he c ategories o f b asalt

' lava',

a nd b y d eleting

a nd o ther

I t

l ava t o

t he n ine g neiss a nd

t wo

i ronstone s pecimens. F lint o r c hert a re l umped t ogether a nd u sed i nterchangeably f or a ll c rypto-crystalline s pecimens r egardless o f t heir m ode o f o rigin. a nd

s ubspheroids f or

T his p roduces a s ample s ize o f

i t c an b e s een t hat q uartz p ieces l ava o nes a re s ignificantly

l arger

l imestone p ieces s ampled h ere f all d imension.

T his p erhaps

c hosen f or f laking. p ossibly r eflecting

1 570 s pheroids

t he s even E arly S tone A ge s ites. t end

t o b e s mall,

( Table 4 .5).

F rom

T hree q uarters o f

b etween 6 .0 a nd 8 .7 c m.

i llustrates a c onstant

t his t able

w hile q uartzite a nd

s ize o f

t he

i n m aximum

t he p ebbles

D olerite p ieces s how c ontinuous v ariation, t he e ven d istribution o f n atural

9 9

p ieces.

T able 4 .6

( 1)

T able 4 .4

R aw M aterial

ü lc luvai

( n=596)

G orge

( 2)

A in H anech

( 3)

' Ubeidiya

( 4)

( n 166) ( n 246)

S terkfontein

( n 106)

D istribution f or e ach s ite

( 1) q uartz ( 2) q uartzite ( 4)

g neiss

( 5) ( 6)

b asalt o ther l ava

( 3)

( 6)

( 7)

I simila

( n 155)

( n 237)

O lorgesailie

( n 75)

l imestone

1 66

1 00.0 0 ! .

2 31

9 3.9 ' ! .

( 3)

l imestone b asalt

( 7)

3

1 .2 ' / .

f lint

1 2

4 .9 ' ! .

( 1)

q uartz

3 3

3 1.17 .

( 2)

q uartzite

3 3

3 1.1' ! ,

3 6 2

3 4.0 ' ! . 1 .9 ' ! .

2

1 .9 ' ! .

i ronstone

( 1)

q uartz

5

3 .2 ' ! .

( 5) ( 8)

b asalt d olerite

2 1 48

1 .3 ' ! . 9 5.57 .

( 1) ( 2)

q uartz q uartzite

1 58 5 2

6 6.77 . 2 1.97 .

( 4)

g neiss

2

0 .8 ' ! .

( 5)

b asalt

3

( 6)

o ther

( 7)

c hert

l ava

( 1) q uartz ( 5) b asalt ( 6)

( 8)

1 .27 . 3 .4 ' ! . 5 .5 ' ! .

( 5)

( 9) C ave o f H earths

7

8 5.7 ' ! . 4 .2 ' ! .

2 0 3 3

( 7) c hert ( 8) d olerite

( 5)

n 511 2 5

o ther

l ava

2 1

1 .37 , 8 .9%

1

0 .4 ' ! .

6 1 2

8 .0 ' , ' . 1 6.0 ' ! .

5 7

7 6.0 ' ! .

2 ambia!Zimbabwe E SA a nd M SA

( 1)

q uartz

6 9

4 5.47 .

( n 152)

( 2)

q uartzite

3 6

2 3.7 ' ! .

( 3)

l imestone

1

( 5)

b asalt

2

1 .3%

( 6)

o ther

4

2 .67 .

( 7)

c hert

9

5 .97 .

( 8)

d olerite

1 3

8 .6 ' ! .

( 9)

i ronstone

1 4

9 .2 ' ! .

l ava

0 .7 ' ! .

( 10)

s andstone

2

1 .3 ' ! .

( 11)

g ranite

2

1 .3%

1 00

F igure 4 .18 K ey:

R aw m aterial

d istribution b y s ite

( 1)

q uartz

( 2)

q uartzite

( 3)

l imestone

( 4)

g neiss

( 5) ( 9)

b asalt i ronstone

( 6) ( 10)

o ther l ava s andstone

( 7) ( 11)

f lint/chert g ranite

( 8)

d olerite

0

2 0

4 0

O lduvai

6 0

8 0

1 00

0

( n 596)

2 0

4 0

6 0

S terkfontein

8 0

1 00

( n 106)

1 2

4 5 6 7 B

A i n

H anech

C ave o f H earths

( n 166)

1 01

( n=155)

F igure 4 .18 K ey:

R aw m aterial

d istribution b y s ite

( 1)

q uartz

( 2)

q uartzite

( 3)

( 5)

b asalt

( 6)

o ther

( 9)

i ronstone

( 10)

s andstone

( 7) f lint/chert ( 11) g ranite

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

l ava

1 00

l imestone

0

2 0

4 0

( 4)

g neiss

( 8)

d olerite

6 0

8 0

1 00

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 U beidiya s pheroids

I simila

U beidiya p olyhedrons

( n 246)

O lorgesailie

( n 237)

1 02

( n 49)

( n 75)

F igure 4 .18 K ey:

R aw m aterial

d istribution b y s ite

( 1)

q uartz

( 2)

q uartzite

( 3)

l imestone

( 5) ( 9)

b asalt i ronstone

() ( 10)

o ther l ava s andstone

( 7) ( 11)

f lint/chert g ranite

0

2 0

1 + 0

6 0

7 E SA s ites

8 0

1 00

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

( L i)

g neiss

( 8)

d olerite

8 0

1 00

( n=1581)

Z ambian a nd Z imbabwean E SA a nd M SA

1 03

( n 152)

T able 4 .5

C ontingency t able o f r aw m aterial

b y

l ength o f s pheroids

L ength R aw M aterial

2 .3 t o 6 .0

6 .1

t o 7 .4 ' c m .c m.

7 .5 to 8 .7 c m.

8.8 to c m.

1 9.4

R ow

T otal

q uartz n = 3 41

1 32

1 02

1 38

r ow X47.8 c olumn % 84.8

7 13

1 8.5 3 3.8

1 4.3 2 6.1

1 9.4 3 5.7

4 5.4

8 .4

6 .5

8 .8

t otal

' h 21.7

q uartzite 1 3

2 1

r ow Y .11.8

n =

5 3

10

1 9.1

2 0.9

4 8.2

7 .0

2 3.

c olumn

3 .2

5 .4

5 .9

t otal

0 .8

1 3.7

1 .3

1 .5

3 .4

l imestone 1 8

1 45

1 60

r ow % = 4 .5

n =

7 4

3 97

3 6.5

4 0.3

1 8.6

2 5.3

3 7.2

4 0.9

1 9.1

9 .2

1 0.2

4 .7

c olumn t otal

= 4 .5 X =

1 .1

l ava 5

2 4

4 9

7 3

r ow % = 3 .3

n =

1 51

1 5.9

3 2.5

4 8.3

1 .2

9 .6

6 .2

1 2.5

1 8.9

% = 0 .3

1 .5

3 .1

4 .6

c olumn Y = t otal c hert n =

1 3

2 0

6

1 0

2 6.5

4 9

4 0.8

1 2.2

2 0.4

c olumn % = 3 .2

3 .1

5 .1

1 .5

2 .6

1 .3

0 .4

0 .6

r ow t otal

/ . - 0 .8

d oleri t e n =

1 2

4 8

5 1

3 9

1 50

8 .0

3 2.0

3 4.0

2 6.0

9 .6

c olumn % = 3 .0

1 2.3

1 3.0

1 0.1

3 .1

3 .2

2 .5

r ow t otal

= 0 .8

C olumn

n = 4 02

3 90

3 91

3 87

1 570

T otal

/ . 25.6

2 4.8

2 4.9

2 4.6

1 00.0

X2 4 65.50 w ith

1 5 d egrees o f f reedom;

1 04

s ig.

0 .0;

C ramer's V.31437

T able 4 .6

C ontingency

t able o f s ite b y r aw m aterial R ow

R aw m aterial S ite

q uartz

f l lduvai

B eds

q uartzite

I a nd

I

l imestone

0

0

5 89

9 .0 3 5.1

0 .0 0 .0

0 .0 0 .0

3 7.5

0 .0 0 .0

3 .4

0 .0

0 .0

r ow 8 6.8 c olumn Y , 71.7

4 .2 2 2.7

0 .0

1 .6

A i n

T otal

5 3

0

2 5

' / . 32.5

l ava

d olerite

( 12 a ssemblages)

n = 5 11

t otal

f lint

H anech n =

0

r ow h = 0 .0 c olumn t otal

0 .0 % = 0 .0

' Ubeidiya n =

t otal

%=

0

0

0

1 66

0 .0

1 0.6

0 .0

1 00.0

0 .0

0 .0

4 1.8

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

0 ,0

0 .0

1 0.6

2 31

3

1 2

0

2 46

0 .0

1 5.7

9 3.9 5 8.2

1 .2

0 .0

0 .0 0 .0

4 .9

2 .0

2 4.9

0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

1 4.7

0 .2

0 .8

0 .0

0

3 6

2

1 04

1 .9

6 .6

S terkfontein M ember 5 3 3 n = 3 3 r ow h 31.7 c olumn t otal

1 66

0 .0

( 16 a ssemblages 0 0

r ow % = 0 .0 c olumn

0

4 .6 2 .1

0

3 1.7

0 .0

0 .0

3 4.6

3 0.0

0 .0

0 .0

7 3.5

1 .3 0 .1

2 .1

C ave o f H earths B ed 3 0 n = 5

0 .0

0 .0

2 .3

0

2

0

1 48

1 55 9 .9

r ow % = 3 .2

0 .0

0 .0

1 .3

0 .0

9 5.5

c olumn % = 0 .7

0 .0

0 .0

1 .3

0 .0

9 8.7

0 .0

0 .0

0 .1

0 .0

9 .4

5 2

0

2 4

t otal

% = 0 .3

I simi l a n =

1 58

1

0

2 35 1 5.0

r ow Y , 67.2

2 2.1

0 .0

1 0.2

0 .4

0 .0

c olumn 7 . 22.2

4 7.3

0 .0

1 5.9

2 .0

0 .0

3 .3

0 .0

1 .5

0 .1

0 .0

t otal

' / .lO.l

O lorgesailie n =

6

0

6 9

0

0

0

7 5 4 .8

0 .0

0 .0

9 2.0

0 .0

0 .0

0 .8

0 .0

0 .0

4 5.7

0 .0

0 .0

' I . - 0 .4

0 .0

0 .0

4 .4

0 .0

0 .0

n = 7 13

1 10

3 97

1 51

4 9

1 50

1 570

c olumn Y . 45.4

7 .0

3 .1

9 .6

1 00.0

row % = 8 .0 c olumn t otal T otal

%=

X2= 4141.11

9 .6

2 5.3

w ith 3 0 d egrees o f f reedom

1 05

i g. 0.O

C ramer's V = . 72631

s hows

t he d istribution o f r aw m aterial

r aw m aterial n oted f or a t

p er s ite;

i t

i s v ery c lear

t hat

f or s pheroids i s s ite-specific, a s h as b een p reviously l east o ne o f t he s ites u nder c onsideration h ere. A ny

r eference t o t he l ithic a ssemblages f rom U beidiya m akes n ote o f h ow s triking t his f eature i s ( Stekelis 1 966; S tekelis e t al. 1 969; J aeger 1 975:586; t ools,

G oren

1 981a,

l imestone f or

a nd c hoppers

1 981b).

( Stekelis e t.al.

1 981a:82-84).

H ere b asalt w as u sed f or

s pheroids a nd f lint 1 969:9;

l arge c utting

f or p olyhedrons,

J aeger

N ot o nly d oes t ype o f r ock

1 975:586;

f lake t ools

G oren

i nfluence f inal

a rtifact

f orm, b ut " many o f t he p roperties o f t hese t ools a re i nherited f rom t he o riginal c haracteristics o f r aw m aterial" ( Goren 1 981a:107). T he o bserved d istribution o f r aw m aterial b y s ite d eviates s trongly f rom t he e xpected, a s m easured b y t he C hi-square s tatistic o f 4 141.11 w ith 3 0 d egrees o f f reedom,

( significance 0 .0),

a nd

t he C ramer s V v alue o f

. 72631. N ote t hat i n t his C hi-square t able, 3 o ut o f 4 2 v alid c ells h ave a n e xpected f requency o f l ess t han 5 .0. S ince t hat

t he r aw m aterials a re s o d istinctive,

t heir o riginal

i t

( 7.1 )

o f t he

i s n ot s urprising

l ocation h as b een p inpointed f or s ome o f t he s ites

u nder c onsideration.

R ichard H ay

( 1976)

w as o ne o f

t he f irst

t o

i dentify r aw m aterial s ources f or a n E arly S tone A ge s ite, i n t his c ase O lduvai. H e c oncluded t hat, a lthough m ost w orked s tone c ame f rom l ocalities d iscard,

l ess t han t wo k ilometers a way f rom

s ome a ssemblages w ith

i ts f inal

p oint o f

l arge n umbers o f a rtifacts c ontain

m aterials o nly a vailable a t a d istance o f b etween e ight k ilometers

( Hay

1 976:183;

M .

L eakey

1 971:263).

T he

a nd

t hat p rovide t he b lanks f or s pheroids a t A in H anech w ere a vailable A t

t his

( Balout

I sraeli

r aw m aterial,

1 955:165),

s ite,

f lint

a s w as a pparently

h owever,

l ocally

t he c ase a t

e ven t hough b asalt

U beidiya.

i s t he m ost c ommon

a rtifacts a re t he m ost n umerous

I ts p opularity p robably r eflects

t en

l imestone p ebbles

( Jaeger

1 975:586).

i ts c haracteristic g ood f lakability

a nd r etention o f s harp c utting e dges. A t O lorgesailie, s ome o f t he s pheroids a re m ade f rom q uartz, t he n earest s ource f or w hich a re b etween 4 3 a nd 4 8 k ilometers a way, l ava

( Isaac

1 977:94-95).

A t

w hile o thers a re

t he C ave o f H earths,

w ere t aken f rom a d ike o utcropping d own t he h ill l evel

( Mason

a rtifacts

1 962a:167).

t hat m arks

I t

t heir s tatus a s

c orrelation o f r aw m aterial i mplications f or s ubspheroids q uartzite, q uantity

t rue m anuports.

a nd f inal

a rtifact

i s

I n m ost E ast A frican E arly

l argely c omposed o f q uartz a nd/or

m aterials n ot a vailable a t K oobi

( Toth

T his c lose

f orm m ay h ave

t here a re n o s pheroids o r

F ora a ssemblages.

t his c lass

f rom t he o ccupation

a ssociation w ith f laked A cheulean

t he e xplanation o f w hy

i n t he K oobi

S tone A ge s ites,

i s t heir

l ocally o btainable

r ound d olerite r ocks

F ora

i n a ny s ize o r

1 982:33,103).

W hile o bvious u sewear m arks a re p resent o nly o n a f ew p ieces, o f

t he s pheroids h ave w orn f lake s cars.

t his s tudy a re

l isted.

f resh o r

a lthough d egrees o f w ear

w orn,

t he f ield n otes. b y n atural p ebbles,

I n T able 4 .7,

C ondition o f f lake s cars w as r ecorded a s e ither ( low t o h igh)

w ere

l isted

W orn f lake s cars c ould b e a p roduct o f u se,

f orces a nd/or p atination.

d efined a s

m any

t he r esults f or

t hose r etaining

I n T able 4 .7 a ll 1 00% c ortex,

1 06

i n

a brasion

1 77 u nmodifed

w ere d eleted f rom

t he

T able 4 .7

C ondition o f f lake s cars o n s pheroids f rom s even E arly S tone A ge s ites

S ite

F resh

W orn

R ow T otal

( including b attered) n

0 lduvai

' A

n

' A

2 33

3 9.1%

3 63

6 0.9%

5 96

3 7.7 ' ! .

5 4

3 4.6%

1 02

6 5.4%

1 56

1.1%

' l ibeidiya

3 1

1 2.8%

2 12

8 7.27 .

2 48

1 7.3 ' ! .

S terkfontejn M ember 5

2 7

2 7.6%

7 1

7 2.4%

9 8

7 .0 ' ! .

B eds

A i n

G orge

n

I a nd

I I

H anech

C ave o f H earths B ed 3

2

2 2.2 ' ! .

7

7 7,87 .

9

0 .67 .

I simila

5 2

2 1.9 ' ! .

1 85

7 8.1 ' ! .

2 37

1 6.9%

O lorgesailie

1 6

2 4.67 .

4 9

7 5.47 .

6 5

4 .67 .

4 15

2 9.6%

9 89

7 0.47 .

1 404

1 00.0%

C olumn T otal

X 2

=

6 8.68

C ramer's V N ote:

w ith 6 d egrees o f f reedom =

S ignificance

=

0 .0

0 .22117

I o ut o f

1 4

f requency o f

( 7.1%) l ess

o f

t he v alid c ells h as a n e xpected

t han 5 .0

1 07

c alculations, t wo-thirds o f

l eaving 1 404 p ieces f or c onsideration. M ore t han t hese ( 989 o f 1 404, o r 9 94 o f 1 581) a re w orn w hile o nly

9 .3% a re a ctually b attered

( Tables 4 .7 a nd 4 .15).

S ome o f t he r aw

m aterials r etain s harp e dges, s omething t hat i s u nexpected g iven t heir a ntiquity ( Table 4 .8). I t a ppears t hat t his i s l argely a f unction o f t he r aw m aterial c hosen. F ewer l imestone p ieces r etain f resh e dges t han q uartz o r q uartzite o nes ( contrast t he n umber o f c ases f or O lduvai w ith

t hat

t oo.

A i n

f or

I ronically,

H anech o r

' Ubeidiya),

a lthough m any o f t hese a re w orn

d olerite p ieces s core a s f resh f or c ondition o f f lake

s cars b ecause t hey e xhibit n o f lake s cars. S ince t hey a re m ade o f g ood q uality f lint, t he U beidiya p olyhedrons s how a lmost e qual n umbers o f f resh

( 21

o r

A ge p ieces ( 123 o f

4 2.9/ .)

t end

a nd w orn

5 7.1' ! .)

1 52 p ieces o r 8 0.9% a re w orn;

i dentical

f ashion,

4 .9 a nd 4 .10).

t heir

( 143 o f

f resh,

w eathering.

T his i s

T he

U beidiya f lint

( Olduvai

B eds

s eldom,

i f e ver,

L imestone

i s n ormally a v ery s oft r ock, T he p ebbles f rom w hich

' Ubeidiya a ppear m uch m ore

d urable t hat o ne w ould n ormally e xpect.

O n t he o ther h and,

U beidiya a re f resh,

t he Z ambian a nd Z imbabwean s ites

' Ubeidiya.

a s urprising o utcome w hen o ne

i s h ighly s usceptible t o e rosion.

f lint p olyhedrons f rom

I I, s ince

t o b e p atinated.

l imestone p ieces f rom A in H anech a nd

t hese s how p atination,

Ia nd

n umbers o f p atinated p ieces,

s pheroids w ere m ade a t A in H anech a nd

( e)

t he o nly o nes t hat

8 1.9 ' ! .).

E arly S tone A ge s ites w ith h igh

s how m inimal

c onsiders t he r aw m aterial. o ne t hat

I n a n ( Tables

a s a re m ost o f t he M iddle S tone A ge

q uartz a nd q uartzite p ieces a ppear i s t he

1 55 o r

a nd q uartzite a rtifacts

S terkfontein)

V ery f ew o f

d egradation

1 9.1% a re f resh).

f ormation a s n aturally r ounded p ebbles

1 52 o r 9 4.1' ! .).

p ercentages o f q uartz

T he s urprise

2 9 o r

( 127 c ases o ut o f

t he p rocess o f s pheroidal

p olyhedrons a re a ll

I simila,

T he M iddle S tone

T he C ave o f H earths p ieces r epresent

u ndoubtedly a f unction o f

s pheroids

p ieces.

p atination w as c oded a s p resent o r a bsent

a re h eavily p atinated d uring

( 28 o r

t o b e w orn f rom b attering o r r aw m aterial

( 143 o f

a ll

t he

a s a re m ost o f t hose f rom

1 52 o r

9 4.1 ' / .).

M anufacture a nd U se A ttributes o f m anufacture a nd/or u se i nclude c ortex

p ercentage o f

t otal

s urface a rea),

r etained

t he n umber o f f lake s cars,

( as a

a nd

p resence o r a bsence, a s w ell a s t ype, o f u sewear. W hile m any p ieces h ave b een w orked o ver l ess t han h alf o f t he s urface, a n umber s how a n e xtreme a mount o f a ttention.

T his w as m easured f or

S outhern A frican s pecimens b y u sing a ttribute t hat p ebble

i s c omputed

i n t he f ollowing m anner.

i s a c ube t hat h as s ix

t hese s ix

a re w orked?

()

t he E ast a nd

t he n umber o f s urfaces f laked,

s urfaces

a n

I magine t hat a

( Table 4 .11).

H ow m any o f

A c ollection s uch a s t hat f rom t he C ave o f

H earths s hows m inimal w orking, i llustrating t he n atural f ormation o f t he p ebbles ( Figure 4 .19). M aterial f rom t he e arlier s ites, s uch a s B eds

I a nd

I I

a t O lduvai

s hows h eavy w orking

p erhaps r eflected i n t heir m inimal w eight I simila e xhibit t he s ame c haracteristics. s how a n e ven g radation U lorgesailie.

( Figure 4 .20),

i n n umber o f f aces f laked,

I n b oth c ases

i t

a s d o

i s p erhaps a f unction o f

1 08

a f eature

( Figure 4 .3). T hose f rom S pheroids f rom S terkfontein t he p ieces f rom t he v ariety o f

T able 4 .8

C ondition o f f lake s cars o n s pheroids b y r aw m aterial

C ondition o f F lake S cars R aw

F resh

W orn

R ow T otal

( including

M aterial

b attered)

T ype n

7 .

n

7 .

2 56

3 5.9' ! .

4 57

6 4.17 .

7 13

4 5.47 .

q uartzite

1 7

1 5.57 .

9 3

8 4.5%

1 10

7 .07 .

l imestone

8 6

2 1.77 .

3 11

7 8.37 .

3 97

2 5.3%

l ava

5 9

3 9.1 ' ! .

9 2

6 0.9%

1 51

9 .6 ' ! .

c hert

1 7

3 4.77 .

3 2

6 5.3 ' ! .

4 9

3 .1' ! .

d olerite

1 48

9 8.7 ' ! .

2

1 .3 ' ! .

1 50

9 .6 ' ! .

C olumn

5 83

3 7.1' ! .

9 87

6 2.97 .

1 570

1 00.0 ' ! .

q uartz

n

7 .

T otal

X2

=

3 06.97

C ramer's V

w ith 5 d egrees o f f reedom =

0 .44218

1 09

S ignificance

=

0 .0

T able 4 .9

P resence o r a bsence o f p atination o n s pheroids f rom s even E arly S tone A ge s ites

S ite

P atination

P atination

a bsent n

f l lduvai

' , ' .

n

' h

n

5 93

9 9.5%

3

0 .5 ' ! .

5 96

3 7.7%

A in H anech

1 64

9 8.8 ' ! .

2

1 .2%

1 66

1 0.5%

' Ubeidiya

2 02

8 2.1' ! .

4 4

1 7.9 ' ! .

2 46

1 5.6%

9 8

9 2.5%

8

7 .5 ' ! .

1 06

6 .7%

2 8

1 8.1%

8 1.9%

1 55

9 .8%

2 37

1 00.0 ' ! .

0

0 .0%

2 37

1 5.0 ' ! .

7 5

1 00.0%

0

0 .0 ' ! .

7 5

4 .7%

1 397

8 8.4%

1.6%

1 581

1 00.0%

B eds

G orge

R ow T otal

p resent

I a nd

I I

S terkfontein M ember 5

C ave o f H earths

1 27

B ed 3

I simila

f l iorgesailie

C olumn

1 84

T otal X 2

=

8 86.42

C ramer's V

w ith 6 d egrees o f f reedom =

. 74878

1 10

S ignificance

=

0 .0

T able 4 .10

P resence o r

R aw

a bsence o f p atination b y r aw m aterial

P atination

M aterial

a bsent

P atination

R ow T otal

p resent

T ype n

n

n

q uartz

7 11

9 9.7/ .

2

0 .3%

7 13

4 5.4%

q uartzite

1 08

9 8.2%

2

1 .8%

1 10

7 .0%

l imestone

3 53

8 8.9%

1 1.1%

3 97

2 5.3%

l ava

1 46

9 6.7%

5

3 .3%

1 51

9 .6%

c hert

4 6

9 3.9%

3

6 .1%

4 9

3 .1%

d olerite

2 3

1 5.3%

1 27

8 4.7%

1 50

9 .6%

1 387

8 8.3%

1 83

1 1.7%

1 570

1 00.0%

C ol umn

4 4

T otal

X2

=

8 88.22

C ramer's V

w ith 5 d egrees o f f reedom =

0 .75216

11

S ignificance = 0 .0

T able 4 .11

N umber o f s urfaces w orked o n p ebbles ( out o f a p ossible 6 )

S urfaces S ite

( n)

0

O lduvat

B eds

n = 0 r ow % = 0 .0

1

I a nd

I I

2

3

4

5

6

R ow T otal

( 12 a ssemblages)

3

7

0 .5

1 .2

3 3 5 .5

. 3 1 5.6

2 15 3 6.1

2 46 4 1.1

5 96 1 00.0%

1 2 1 1.3

2 2 2 0.8

2 8 2 6.4

2 0 1 8.9

8 7 .5

1 06 1 00.0 ' ! .

S terkfontein M ember 5 n = r ow

8 7 .5

8 7 .5

C ave o f H earths B ed 3 n =

1 46

r ow % 94.2

1 0 .6

2

4

1 .3

2 .6

1 0 .6

0 0 .0

1 0 .6

1 55 1 00.0%

i simila 0

3

1 0

3 4

5 2

8 0

5 0

r ow % = 0 .0

n =

1 .3

4 .2

1 4.3

2 1.9

3 7.1

2 1.1

2 37 1 00.0%

ü lorgesai 1j e 1 0

4

r ow h =13.3

n =

5 .3

2 2 .7

1 0

9

2 3

1 7

1 3.3

1 2.0

3 0.7

2 2.7

7 5 1 00.0%

M iddle S tone A ge s ites n = r ow

2 7

1 6

2 6

1

2 7

3 3

1 2

1 7.8

1 0.5

1 7.1

7 .2

1 7.8

2 1.7

7 .9

1 12

1 52 1 00.0 ' ! .

F igure 4 .19 N umber o f s urfaces w orked o n e ach p ebble o ut o f a p ossible t otal o f s ix f or t he C ave o f H earths n '155

1 008 06 04 02 00

Jasnssa 0

1

2

3

4

5

r n.a

6

N UMBER O F S URFACES W ORKED

F igure 4 .20 N umber o f s urfaces w orked o n e ach p ebble o ut o f a p ossible t otal

o f s ix f or B eds

I a nd

I I,

O lduvai

n 596

1 008 06 04 02 0 0

i

4 .

0

1

1

.

I . k

q a w s ,

2

S .

U W USI U

3

4

N UMBER O F S URFACES W ORKED

1 13

5

6

G orge

r aw m aterials c hosen. c haracteristic f orms.

W orking o n t he m aximum n umber o f f aces

a ttribute o f p olyhedral

b alls a s w ell

B ut s uch a f eature s hould a lso b e e xpected

m erely e xhausted c ores. i n w hich

T his

i s p aralleled b y

t iakes w ere r emoved f rom a c ore

s pheroids s eem t o h ave b een w orked o nly

i s a

a s o f p ecked

i f

t he p ieces a re

t he n umber o f d irections

( Table 4 .12).

M ost f laked

i n t wo d irections,

a s

i f t hey

w ere h and-held a nd r otated a s f lakes w ere r emoved i n s equence. T hose w ith n o d irections w orked a re t he m anuports ( 8 f rom S terkfontein, 16 f rom t he C ave o f H earths,

1 0 f rom O lorgesailie,

a nd 2 7 f rom t he Z ambian

a nd Z imbabwean E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge s ites). T he s pecimens f rom B eds I a nd I I a t 0 lduvai s how t he h ighest p ercentage o f p ieces w orked i n t hree d irections.

N ote t hat

t here a re n o m anuports

i n t he s eries

e xamined f rom t hese a ssemblages. S pheroids s uch a s t hese c an b e d escribed p ossibly a s n othing b ut t he e nd-product o f a f laking s equence o f c ore a rtifacts t hat

t akes t hem f rom a ngular p olyhedrons t hrough

s ubspheroids t o s mooth s pheroids. e xpect m inimal s een

I f

t his i s t he c ase,

t o b e p resent,

o ne s hould

s omething

t hat c an b e

i n t he c ontingency t able f or s ite b y p ercentage c ortex

4 .13). w ith

a mounts o f c ortex

A s a g eneral

r ule,

t he p ercentage o f c ortex v aries

t he n umber o f f lakes r emoved f rom a p ebble.

( Table i nversely

I n o ther w ords,

a s

t he n umber o f f lakes r emoved i ncreases, t he p ercentage a rea o f c ortex d ecreases. T his i s n ot a n a bsolute n egative c orrelation, a s s ize ( area) o f t he f lakes r emoved c an v ary f rom p iece t o p iece. T rue f laked a nd f acetted s pheroids a nd p olyhedral

b alls,

s ince t hey a re h eavily

w orked, e xhibit l ow p ercentages o f c ortex p reserved. B ut a s urprising n umber o f p ieces f all i nto t he r ange o f 7 5 t o 1 00% c ortex r etained. E xcept f or 0 lduvai ( at 6 .0%), t his n umber n ever f alls b elow t hirty p ercent. A ssemblages w ith m anuports s uch a s t he C ave o f H earths c an e asily b e e xplained c ortex).

B ut

t his

p ieces c an b e u sed a s e xhibiting

( 150 o f

1 55 p ieces o r 9 6.8% h ave 7 5

i s n ot s o e asy f or t o

i llustrate t his.

t he s eries o f s tages

l imestone p ebbles s elected f or s mooth o r

t he o thers.

T he

I n a w ay,

i nvolved

t o

A i n

1 00% H anech

t hey c an b e d escribed

i n t heir p roduction.

T he

t hese a rtifacts w ere n ot p erfectly

r ound o r e ven s pherical

f or

t hat m atter,

b ut

a re

c haracterized b y f acets t hat a re j ust l ike t hose i n t he f inished a rtifacts; t hese f acets m ay h ave b een u sed i n t urn a s p latforms t o s trike o ff a dditional f lakes. t he w hole s urface ( only 2 7 o f

A in H anech p ieces a re s eldom w orked o ver 1 66 p ieces h ave l ess t han 3 5% c ortex).

I ndeed i t i s a lmost p ossible t o o rder t he i ndividual s pecimens b y p ercentage c ortex t o s ee t he s teps t aken i n f laking t hem, t o g ive c lues f or t he e xperimental w ork. M iddle S tone A ge s pheroids a re e qually s pread o ver t he r ange o f c ortex. T he v alues a re a s f ollows: 2 9 ( 19.1%) p ieces w ith 0 t o 2 07 . c ortex, 3 6

t o 7 4%,

a nd 8 0

( 52.6%)

s how a s imilar p attern: b etween 2 1 7 5

t o

1 00%.

c ortex.

a nd 3 5%,

2 5

1 9

( 12.4%)

w ith 7 5 t o

6 ( 12.2%) ( 51.1%)

w ith 2 1

1 00%.

f all

t o 3 5%,

2 4

( 15.9%)

w ith

U beidiya p olyhedrons

b etween 0 a nd 2 0%,

b etween 3 6 a nd 7 4%,

T able 4 .14 s hows r aw m aterial

Q uartz

T he

a nd

1 1

7 ( 14.3%) ( 22.4%)

f rom

p lotted b y p ercentage

a nd q uartzite p ieces t end t o m inimal

a mounts o f

u nworked s urface. L imestone p ieces, a s a lready n oted, t end t o h igh p ercentages o f c ortex r etained. L ava a nd c hert a rtifacts a re e venly s plit,

a nd d olerite p ieces a lways s how

m anuports.

1 00% c ortex

s ince a ll

a re

T he n umber o f f lake s cars p er p iece v aries f rom s ite t o

1 14

T able 4 .12

N umber o f d irections f rom w hich f lakes w ere r emoved

D irections

( n) R ow

S ite

0

D lduvai

B eds n =

r ow

%=

I a nd

1

I I

2

3

4

T otal

( 12 a ssemblages)

0

1 9

4 68

1 08

0 .0

3 .2

7 8.5

1 8.1

1 0 .2

5 96 1 00.07 ,

S terktontein M ember 5 n = r ow

%=

8

3 1

6 2

5

0

1 06

7 .5

2 9.2

5 8.5

4 .7

0 .0

1 00.0 ' ! .

C ave o f H earths B ed 3 1 46

3

6

0

0

1 55

r ow % = 9 4.2

1 .9

3 .9

0 .0

0 .0

1 00.0 ' ! .

-

n =

i simila n = r ow

' / .-

0

2 5

2 06

6

0

2 37

0 .0

1 0.5

8 6.9

2 .5

0 .0

1 00.07 .

( J iorgesail j e n = r ow

%=

1 0

1 1

4 9

5

0

7 5

1 3.3

1 4.7

6 5.3

6 .7

0 .0

1 00.0 ' ! .

Z ambian a nd Z imbabwean E SA a nd M S

r ow

n =

2 7

5 4

6 8

%=

1 7.8

3 5.5

4 4.7

3 2 .0

1 15

0 0 .0

1 52 1 00.0 ' ! .

T able 4 .13

C ontingency

t able o f s ite b y p ercentage c ortex

C or t ex S ite

0 t o 2 0/ .

O lduvai

B eds I a nd n = 3 27

2 1 I

r ow h =54.9 c olumn / . 61.1 t otal

t o 3 5 ' ! .

3 6

t o 7 47 .

7 5

t o

1 007 .

( 12 a ssemblages)

R ow T otal

1 29

1 04

3 6

2 1.6

5 96

1 7.4

6 .0

4 7.8

3 7.7

2 8.6

8 .7

8 .2

6 .6

2 .3

' / . 20.7

A in H anech 1 2

1 5

7 5

r ow % = 7 .2

n =

6 4

9 .0

1 66

4 5.2

2 .2

3 8.6

1 0.5

5 .6

2 0.6

1 5.5

0 .8

0 .9

4 .7

4 .0

c olumn

' / .-

t otal

I ' t ibeidiya

( 16 a ssemblages) n =

5 6

3 6

7 9

r ow Y . 22.8

7 5

2 46

1 4.6

3 2.1

c olumn / .10.5

3 0.5

1 5.6

1 3.3

2 1.7

1 8.2

2 .3

5 .0

4 .7

t otal

% = 3 .5

S terkfontein M ember n =

5

2 8

1 2

3 4

3 2

r ow ' / , 26.4

1 06

1 1.3

3 2.1

3 0.2

6 .7

4 .4

9 .3

7 .8

0 .8

2 .2

2 .0

c olumn t otal

= 5 .2 % =

1 .8

C ave o f H earths B ed 3 n =

1

0

4

1 50

r ow

' / .-

0 .6

0 .0

2 .6

9 6.8

c olumn

' / .=

0 .2

0 .0

1 .1

3 6.4

0 .1

0 .0

0 .3

9 .5

t otal

1 55 9 .8

I simi I a 1 00

6 0

4 7

3 0

2 37

r ow ' / .42.2

n =

2 5.3

1 9.8

1 2.7

1 5.0

c olumn

1 8.7

2 2.2

1 2.9

7 .3

t otal

% = 6 .3

38

3 .0

1 .9

ü lorgesai 1j e n =

1 1

1 8

2 1

2 5

7 5

1 4.7

2 4.0

2 8.0

3 3.3

4 .7

c olumn % = 2 .1

6 .7

5 .8

6 .1

1 .1

1 .3

1 .6

r ow t otal T otal

% = 0 .7 n = 5 35

2 70

3 64

4 12

1 581

c olumn % 33.8

1 7.1

2 3.0

2 6.1

1 00.0

X2 7 46.69 w ith

1 8 d egrees o f f reedom;

16

s ig. 0.0;

C ramer's V =

. 39678

T able 4 .14

C ontingency

t able o f r aw m aterial

b y p ercentage c ortex

C or t ex R aw

t o 2 0 ' / .

2 1

t o

3 5%

3 6

t o 7 4%

o r M ater ial 'N N

7 5 t o

1 00%

R ow T otal

q uart n = 3 71

1 60

r ow % 52.0

1 34

2 2.4

4 8

7 13

c olumn % 69.7

1 8.8

6 .7

6 0.2

4 5.4

3 6.9

1 1.7

1 0.2

8 .5

3 .1

t otal

% 23.6

q uartzite 4 8

1

2 7

r ow % 43.6

n =

2 4

1 0.0

1 10

2 4.5

c olumn % = 9 .0

2 1.8

4 ,1

7 .0

7 .4

5 .9

0 .7

1 .7

1 .5

t otal

% = 3 .1

l imestone 6 3

4 8

1 49

1 37

r ow Y .15.9

n =

3 97

1 2.1

3 7.5

c olumn % =11.8

3 4.5

1 8.0

2 5.3

4 1.0

3 3.5

3 .1

9 .5

8 .7

t otal

% = 4 .0

l ava 3 3

3 5

4 0

4 3

r ow ' / . 21.9

n =

1 51

2 3.2

2 6.5

2 8.5

c olumn % = 6 .2

9 .6

1 3.2

1.0

1 0.5

2 .2

2 .5

2 .7

t otal

% = 2 .1

c hert 1 7

1 2

1 3

r ow % 34.7

n =

2 4.5

2 6.5

/ . = 3 .2

4 .5

3 .6

1 .7

X =

0 .8

0 .8

0 .4

c olumn t otal

1 .1

7 1 4.3

4 9 3 .1

d olor i te 0

0

0

1 50

1 50

r ow % = 0 .0

n =

0 .0

0 .0

1 00.0

9 .6

c olumn % = 0 .0

0 .0

0 .0

3 6.7

0 .0

0 .0

9 .6

t otal

T otal

% = 0 .0

n = 5 32

2 66

3 63

4 09

1 570

c olumn ' / .33.9

1 6.9

2 3.1

2 6.1

1 00.0

X 2 728.41

w ith

1 5 d egrees o f

f reedom;

17

s ig. 0.0;

C ramer's V

. 39326

s ite,

w ith

t he u sual

s pheroids a re

m ean b etween

1 0 a nd 2 0

( Table 4 .15).

j ust o verworked p olyhedrons,

I f f acetted

t his s hould b e r eflected

i n

t he n umber o f f lake s cars o n e ach ( more o n t he f ormer, l ess o n t he l atter). B ut t he ' Ubeidiya p olyhedrons s how a s imilar p attern o f m inimal

w orking:

8 1

( 28.5%)

h ave 9 t o

1 3,

m ore.

O lduvai

a t a ny o ther a mong

a nd

( 42.9%)

( reflecting

t he s pheroids).

s cores:

7 3

b etween

1 4 a nd

h ave

I simila p ieces

s ites

e venly d ivided.

p ieces h ave 0 t o 8 f lake s cars r emoave,

8 ( 16.3%)

t end

a nd

p ieces.

i n e very c ase

( 15.9%)

2 2

h ave

( 14.5%)

i t w as a p roduct o f b attering.

i ndication o f u sewear.

I n m ost c ases,

s mooths t he a cute a ngles o f i nto

p art o f

T his r eflects

u sewear,

1 77

( 2.3%)

t he

t erm,

T he p ecking

h owever,

u sewear

i s

i n f acetted

i s e xpected,

s ince

A

i t f orms

B ut o nly t he e xtreme

i s o ccupied b y b attered

t hat s ome s pheroids,

i n t he

t hrough u se.

O nly

t he f orty-nine

( 2.0%)

p olyhedrons f rom

T his p attern c hanges m arkedly i n t he M iddle S tone A ge, 8 2

( 53.9%)

t he

i s a lmost a n e ven s plit.

s how n o u sewear,

b attering o r p ecking d iagnostic

(f )

( 21.7%)

t he f lake s cars a nd o nly

a re o nly p roduced

w here r egardless o f m odifications, 1 52 p ieces,

3 3

u nmodified E arly S tone A ge p ieces s how a ny

a nd o nly o ne o f

U beidiya.

i n r oundness

t he p ossibility

n arrowest d efinition o f t he

1 3,

t he c ategory o f a t rue s pheroid.

t he d efinition o f a s pheroid.

t he r ange o f v ariation

o f

9 t o

t o b e

f lake

( 147 o f 1 581) s tudied s howed a ny T his w as a lways v isible t o t he n aked

h igh p ercentage o f p ieces w ith s uch u sewear

f our

t end

1 9 o r m ore f lakes r emoved.

t he a brasion o r c rushing o f t he f lake s cars

a c ritical

t han b alls

l ater A cheulean a nd M iddle S tone A ge s ites w as a lso

T he w ear

p ieces.

s pheroids

1 4

h ave 1 9 o r

t o b e m ore h eavily f laked

b etween 0 t o 8 ,

a nd 2 4

t hen d oes t he s pecimen f all

e nd o f

a nd 6 ( 12.1%)

U beidiya a nd A in H anech

f all

1 8,

c haracteristic o f m arked b y

1 8,

T he M iddle S tone A ge s ites t end t o m inimal

( 48.0%)

s cored a s a n

t o

t he h igh p ercentage o f p olyhedral

O nly a bout 1 0% o f t he p ieces e vidence o f u se ( see T able 4 .16). e ye,

1 / +

o f

a nd 7 0

( 48.1%)

O f

t he

s how t he

t his a rtifact c lass.

S ummary I nformation w as c ollected f or

S tone A ge s ites a s w ell p olyhedrons). m easured

I n a ddition,

i n a n

w ere r ecorded

a s f or

i dentical t hat

s pace

t hat m any o f

i n a p atterned,

s hape,

r aw m aterial

c haracteristics,

i t

b alls,

t hese s pheroid a ttributes v ary a cross r ecognizable w ay.

i s a lso p ossible i ntroduced

a nd m anuports).

T his

r oundness a s w ell a nd

f orces a lone,

a s s phericity.

I n t erms o f r oundness,

U sing

1 ( pecked,

a nd

t he v arious t heir s hape

t hey e xhibit e xtreme

P olyhedral

b alls h ave m any f lakes

t hese p ieces a re s till

18

t heir

f laked p olyhedral

t he f lake s cars a re s till

t herefore,

i t

t hese

t o d iscriminate a mong

i n C hapter

t he a cute e dges o f

a nd

t ime a nd

i s r eponsible f or

f orm.

M anuports h ave n o f lakes r emoved,

i s a f unction o f n atural r emoved,

A ttributes

p roperties,

F rom t he r esults p resented h ere,

r ecognition a s a d istinct f laked a rtifact k inds o f s pheroids

( both s pheroids a nd

i n Z ambia a nd Z imbabwe.

s ize,

a spects o f m anufacture a nd/or u se. i s c lear

I srael

s ome E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge p ieces w ere

f ashion

r eflect

s pheroids f rom s ix A frican E arly

U beidiya,

p reserved. q uite a ngular.

T able 4 .15

C ontingency

F lake s cars

t able o f s ite b y n umber

o f f lake s cars

( n)

0 t o 8

9 t o

1 3

1 4

t o

1 8

1 9 o r m ore

S ite 0 1duvai

F eds n =

I a nd 3 5

I

r ow ' / .= 5 .9 c olumn % = 9 .0 t otal

A i n

R ow T otal

2 .2

4 12 a ssemblages) 1 65

2 37

1 59

5 96

7 .7 4 3.3

3 9.8 5 5.8

2 6.7 4 1.0

3 7.7

1 0.4

1 5.0

1 0.1

H anech 6 9

4 9

3 3

1 5

1 66

r ow h41.6

n =

2 9.5

1 9.9

9 .0

1 0.5

c olumn • / .17.8

1 2.9

7 .8

3 .9

3 .1

2 .1

0 .9

t otal t J beidiya

% = 4 .4 ( 16 a ssemblages) n =

6 2

5 9

5 0

7 5

2 46

r ow ' / . 25.2

2 4.0

2 0.3

3 0.5

1 5.6

c olumn Y . =16.0

1 5.5

1 1.8

1 9.3

3 .7

3 .2

4 .7

' 1 3 R.7

1 9

1 4

1 7.9

1 3.2

t otal

% = 3 .9

S terkfontein M ember 5 n =

3 2

r ow % =30.2 c olumn

8 .3

1 0.8

4 .5

3 .6

t otal

% = 2 .0

2 .6

1 .2

0 .9

1 0 ' 6 .7

C ave o f H earths B ed 3 n = r ow

1 48 9 5.5

c olumn ' / . 38.2 t otal

9 .4

4

1

2

2 .6

0 .6

1 .3

1 .0

0 .2

0 .5

0 .3

0 .1

0 .1

1 55 c ? 9

I simi l a n = r ow c olumn h t otal

h

1 7

4 6

7 5

9 9

2 37

7 .2

1 9.4

3 1.6

4 1.8

1 5.0

4 .4

1 2.1 2 .9

1 7.6

2 5.5

1 .1

1 4

7

6 .3

O lorgesam 1j e 1 0

2 4

7 5

r ow Y . 32.0

1 3.3

3 2.0

4 .7

c olumn Y = 6 .2

2 .4

6 .2

0 .6

1 .5

n =

t otal T otal

Y . =

2 4

1 .5

n = 3 87

3 81

c olumn V . 24.5

2 4.1

X2= 686.818 w ith

1 8 d egrees o f

f reedom;

1 19

4 25

3 88

1 581

2 6.9

2 4.5

1 00.0

s ig. 0.0;

C ramer's V

. 3R053

T able 4 .16

P resence o r

a bsence o f m acroscopic

u cewear o n

s pheroids f rom s even Frly S tone A ge s ites L i sewear S ite

N one

0

t e y e d

V .

0

R ow T 't .1

• 1 .

n

I /

O lduval G orge B eds I a nd I

5 00

8 3.9%

9 6

1 6.1%

5 96

3 7.7%

Ai n H anech

1 64

9 8.8%

2

1 .2%

1 66

1 0.5%

t i beidiya

2 41

9 8.0%

5

2 .0V .

2 46

1 5.6%

S terkfontein M ember 5

1 01

9 5.3 ' ! .

5

4 .7%

1 06

6 .7%

C ave o f H earths B ed 3

1 52

9 8.1%

3

1 .9%

1 55

9 .8%

I simila

2 20

9 2.8%

1 7

7 .2%

2 37

1 5.0%

5 6

7 4.7%

1 9

2 5.3%

7 5

4 .7%

1 434

9 0.7%

1 47

9 .3%

O lorgesailie

C olumn

1 581

T otal

X2

=

9 7.80

C ramer's V

w ith 6 d egrees o f f reedom =

0 .24871

1 20

S ignificance

=

0 .0

1 00.0 ' ! .

T rue s pheroids s ensu s tricto m ust h ave h igh r oundess v alues a s w ell a s h igh s phericity. F or t he f laked p ieces, t his i s a chieved b y b attering t he a cute e dges o f t he f lake s cars i n t he p rocess o f a rtifact m anufacture o r u se. T he s ize o f s uch p ieces m ay b e a f unction o f t he s ize o f t he r aw m aterial a vailable a s a b lank a s m uch a s o f d egree o f w orking. P ecked p ieces s hare t hese h igh r oundness a nd s phericity v alues, a nd s how p itting o n a g reat d eal f unction e ither o f m anufacture o r u se.

o f t he s urface t hat

i s a

F rom t he s tudy o f t he a rchaeological p ieces a lone, i t i s n ot p ossible t o d ecide f or c ertain w hether s uch p olyhedral b alls a re a ctually a rtifacts o r j ust c ores t hat o ccasionally h ad t heir u selife e xtended a s h ammerstones o r p ounders o f o rganic t issue. F or s ites s uch a s U beidiya, t he a bsence o f a ny d ebitage, o r, i ndeed, a ny o ther f laked a rtifact c lasses m ade f rom l imestone, s trongly s uggests t hat t hese s pheroids w ere p urposely d esigned t ools. T he s ize o f s pheroids v aries w idely, r egardless o f t heir m ethod o f f ormation. O lduvai G orge i s t he o nly s ite t hat s hows a p reponderance o f e xtremely s mall p olyhedral f orms. S ince t he a rtifact s ize ( weight) i s s ubstantially s maller t here t han a t a ny o ther p lace, i t i s e ntirely p ossible t hat s ome o f t he s pheroids a nd s ubspheroids a t t his s ite a re s imply d iscarded c ores. O n t he o ther h and, t his f eature may j ust r eflect t he s ize o f t he r aw m aterial a vailable f or a rtifact m anufacture. l t w as d iscovered t hat i n t he c lass o f p ounded a nd bat tered a rtifacts, t he r aw m aterial c hosen i nfluenced t he f inal f orm t o a g reat e xtent. M aterial p roperties i nclude t ype, o riginal f orm, f lakability, a nd h ardness. Q uartz a nd q uartzite p rovide t he b ase f or s pheroids i n E ast a nd S outhern A frica, w hile l imestone w as s elected a t A in H anech a nd

' Ubeidiya.

L imestone

i s n ot u sually c onsidered t o b e a h ard r ock;

h owever, a t t hese s ites i t a ppears i n a q uite d urable f orm. S pheroids a re s eldom o f a s tandard s ize; w hen t his i s o bserved i t i s p ossibly a f unction o f s election o f o ne s ize o f r aw m aterial f or t ool b lanks. T his i s m ost s triking f or t he l imestone p ebbles a t A in H anech a nd ' Ubeidiya. O n t he o ther h and, t he s hape o f p ieces i s c onstant, r egardless o f r aw m aterial, s ize, l ocation, o r a ge o f t he s ite c onsidered. T his r ecurring s hape i s l argely r esponsible f or r eports o f t he d iscovery o f s pheroids a t s elected

l ocations t hroughout

t he O ld

W orld. M any f laked s pheroids r epresent

t he e xtreme e nd o f a r ange o f c ore

t ools, a c ontinuum r unning f rom a ngular t o s mooth t hat r eflects r epeated e pisodes o f m anufacture a nd/or u se. O thers m ay h ave o nly s erved a s a s ource o f f lakes f or c utting t ools; a s a r esult, t hey r emain q uite a ngular a nd m ay o nly b e w orked o n . a s mall p ercentage o f t he s urface. T his i s u nexpected i n a c lass o f a rtifacts t hat b y d efinition h ave m inimal c ortex. O f a ll t he p rehistoric s pecimens s tudied, o nly a bout 1 0Y . s how a ny s igns o f u sewear. I n e very c ase t his i s a p roduct o f b attering a nd i t i s c learly v isible a nd u nmistakable. B ut i n a ddition t o t he m anufactured p ieces, w hen o pportunity p resented

1 21

i tself,

n aturally s pherical

p rocesses w ere c ollected a nd s ites.

s tones p roduced s olely b y g eological t ransported

1 22

i nto

t hese E arly S tone A ge

C HAPTER 5 : . and w e'll

E XPERIMENTAL R EPLICATION A ND U SE O F A RTIFACTS

b e s aying a b ig h ello

t o a ll

e verywhere. a nd t o e veryone e lse o ut r ocks t ogether, g uys ( Adams 1 981:96). . .

( a)

i ntelligent

t here,

l ife f orms

t he s ecret

i s t o b ang

t he

I ntroduction W hen D ouglas A dams w rote t he s cience f iction c lassic,

H itchhiker's G uide t o b lares o ut

t he G alaxy ,

h e h ad o ne s cene

t he m essage g iven a bove.

I n A dam's o wn u nique w ay,

s aying w hat o thers h ave r ealized b efore: e arly h ominids a nd

T he

i n w hich a r adio h e

i s

t he r elationships b etween

t heir e nvironment w ere f undamentally a ltered b y t he

a doption o f s tone t ool

m anufacture a nd u se.

h ave a lways u nderstood

t his o n a n

W hile m ost p rehistorians

i ntuitive

l evel,

t hey h ave m erely

p aid l ip s ervice t o t he i ssues i nvolved. S o o ne m ajor s tep t hat h as b een t aken i n t he l ast f ew y ears i s t he d irection o f r esearch p roblems s pecifically p rocesses

t owards t he d escription a nd e xplanation o f

t he a ctual

t hat m ay h ave o ccurred.

E xperimental

s tudies per s e a re n ot a t a ll

P alaeolithic r esearch

n ew t o a rchaeology.

I n

t he b asic q uestion o f w hen s tone t ool m aking

o riginated w as l argely r esolved t hrough e xamination o f t he p ossible t echniques i nvolved i n f lint f racture ( see J ohnson 1 978, a nd f or a n e xample,

W arren

1 914).

T he c onclusions o f s uch s tudies w ere u sed

d istinguish p urposely m odified

i tems o r

a rtifacts'

t o

f rom e oliths,

n aturally s haped s tones t hat a ccidentally s hared s ome o f t he s ame f eatures d iagnostic o f t he m anufactured o nes. I n t his s tudy, s imilar m ethods w ere u sed i n o rder t o d istinguish m anuports f rom p ieces m odified b y h ominids. I t h as b een a rgued b y J ohn C oles e xperiments i nvolved o nes;

i s t hat

i n t he m aterial

i n t his w ay,

a vailable b efore. e xperiments t o

u nder

s tudy,

i nformation c an b e d iscovered

i n o rder

l ithic

t hat

t hat w as n ot

i n s tone a rtifact

t o p roceed

t hat u sed b y t he g roup b eing s tudied. a nd

f actors

a rchaeologists d esign

t o r eproduce t he s teps t aken s uch s tudies a ttempt

t ake

i n a f ashion

I n o ther w ords,

i nto a ccount m aterials

t he k ind o f

t echnology t hey

W hile t here h as r ecently b een s ome b acklash a gainst c arrying

o ut s uch r eplication s tudies f or a nd

t he v alue o f

t han t he m ost o bvious

t heir p art,

a vailable t o a p rehistoric g roup,

m ost

r ather

n ew

a ppropriate e xperiments a re d esigned s hared.

t hat

F or

m anufacture a nd u se; s imilar

( 1977:243)

t hey r equire o ne t o e xamine e qually a ll

a rchaeologists w ould s till

t heir o wn s ake f eel

t hat

( Binford

1 981:187-188),

t hey a re e xtremely v aluable

i mportant.

I t i s t hen p erhaps a s urprise t o f ind a rchaeologists h ave a ddressed e xperimental

1 23

t hat E arly S tone A ge q uestions o nly v ery

r ecently.

W hile m any b riefly d escribe a spects o f

t ool m anufacture i n

t heir r eports, f ew h ave c arried o ut a ny k ind o f s ystematic s tudy d esigned t o p roduce p recise t echnological i nformation. U ntil r ecently, l ittle d ata

i s p resented

l ithic r emains f ound

i n m any r eports a bout

i n p rehistoric s ites,

a ssociations o f t hese m aterials.

t he p roperties o f t he

a long w ith

O n a ccount o f

t heir

t he f unctional a ntiquity,

E arly

S tone A ge a ssemblages c annot h elp b ut b e b etter u nderstood

t hrough s uch

e xperimental

l argely b een

r estricted

m ethods.

H owever,

t o d ate,

t his a pproach h as

t o w ork b y P eter J ones a t O lduvai

a nd N icholas T oth a t K oobi

F ora. A n umber o f p eople h ave r ecognized

t hat

t he f undamental

b etween A cheulean a nd D eveloped O ldowan a ssemblages

l ies

d ifference

i n t he f orm

a nd f requency o f t he b ifaces t hey c ontain ( M. L eakey 1 976a:447). A c lose c orrelation b etween t he t ype o f b ifaces p resent i n e ach g roup a nd t he r aw m aterial ( 1973,

1 977)

t hey w ere m ade f rom w as d emonstrated b y J ohn B ower

a nd D aniel

S tiles

( 1979c,

1 979d)

i n t heir m ultivariate

s tudies o f v arious E astern a nd S outhern A frican E arly S tone A ge a ssemblages. H owever, n o e xplanation f or t his r elationship w as f orthcoming. i dentical

T hrough a s eries o f r eplication e xperiments w ith t he

m aterials u sed a t O lduvai,

d ifference

P eter J ones h as s hown t hat

i s b est d escribed a s a p roduct o f

c ontingencies o f t he r ock

t ype c hosen a s a b lank

l ava s pecimens s how e xtensive s econdary

t his

t he m echanical ( Jones

r etouching'

1 979).

S ome

b ecause t his

m aterial p roduces c utting e dges t hat b ecome q uickly d ulled d uring u se. O n t he o ther h and, q uartzite b ifaces w ere m ade o n t abular p reforms t hat o nly r equired m inimal w orking i n o rder t o p roduce a n e qually f unctional t ool ( Jones 1 979), a nd t he p ieces r etain a s harp e dge t hroughout e xtended u se.

P resence o r

a bsence o f s econdary r etouching w as o nce

u sed a s a m eans t o d iscriminate a p rogressive' f rom a n u nchanging, s tatic, o r e ven s tagnant, t echnology. I n t urn t his i nformation w as u sed f or a k ind o f r elative d ating, a s p rogressive w as u sually t aken t o i mply m ore r ecent i n t ime. T his m ay h ave b een a ppropriate i n W estern E urope w here o nly a s ingle m aterial,

c halk f lint,

a rtifact m anufacture.

t he w ealth o f m aterials s elected.

H owever,

w ith

w as u sed f or m ost

i n t he A frican E arly S tone A ge s ites, s econdary r etouching a nd t he n umber o f f lake s cars r emoved c annot b e i nterpreted a s s igns o f t echnical s kill, b ut a re m ore l ikely a r eflection o f a b asic m anufacturing t echnique c losely a dapted t o t he p articular m aterial u tilised.

K oobi

N icholas T oth r eplicated t he r ange o f s tone a rtifacts f ound i n t he F ora a ssemblages ( Toth 1 982). W hile d oing s o, h e w as a ble t o

t race t he m ovement o f s tone a cross t he p rehistoric a s t he s teps t aken p ieces. t o

S ome o f

i n t he m anufacture,

u se,

l andscape,

a nd a bandonment o f

a s w ell t hese

t he f lakes h e s tudied r etained p olish m arks a naIogou

t hose f ound b y L arry K eeley

t o b e e vidence o f s ome k ind o f

p rocessing o f m eat a nd p lant r emains ( Keeley a nd T oth 1 981). A long w ith t he c ut m arks p roduced b y u sing s tone t ools o n b one ( Bunn 1 981; P otts a nd S hipman

1 981;

S hipman a nd R ose

1 983),

t his w as t he f irst

c oncrete d emonstration o f m eat u se b y e arly h ominids.

1 24

( b)

T he P urpose o f S pheroids S pheroids a nd o ther b attered s tones h ave b een r ecognized a s a

d istinctive a rtifact c lass f or

a lmost a c entury,

a nd d uring t his p eriod

t heir e xact p urpose h as b een t he s ubject o f m uch s peculation. R egardless o f w hether a t echnological o r a t ypological c lassification s ystem i s u sed, i t i s c lear t hat b attered p ieces s tand t ogether a s a d istinctive t ype o f a rtifact,

a c onclusion t hat

i s o nly r einforced b y

t he d escriptive a nalysis o f s pheroids p resented m ust r eturn t o

t he q uestions o f w hether o r n ot

r eflect a c ommon f unction,

i n C hapter 4 .

N ow o ne

t hese s hared a ttributes

a nd w hether one c an d etermine t he r ange o f

a ctivities t hat c ould b e c arried o ut w ith

t hese p ieces.

T wo g eneral

c lasses o f u se h ave g enerally b een s uggested i n t he a rchaeological l iterature. O n t he o ne h and, s pheroids m ay h ave f unctioned a s p ounding o r b attering

t ools f or

s mashing b one o r

p rocessing p lant m aterials,

a s

i s s trongly s uggested b y t he m acroscopic d amage p atterns t hat a re p resent o n t he s urface o f m any o f t he s tones. g lobular s hape m ay h ave e nabled e ither h and h eld a nd

t hrown,

O n t he o ther h and,

t heir

t hem t o s erve a s s ome s ort o f m issile,

o r h afted

t o s ome k ind o f h andle o r

t ether

a s a c lub o r b olas ( Figure 5 .1). A n a lternative e xplanation i s, o f c ourse, t hat t he s pherical s hape o f t hese p ieces i s t otally a p roduct o f a ccident, r ather t han d esign, a nd t hat s pheroids h ad n o r eal s pecific f unction a t a ll i n t he E arly S tone A ge t ool k it. I f t his a rgument

i s a ccepted,

t hen n on-battered p ieces r epresent c ores t hat

w ere d iscarded w hen n o m ore f lakes c ould b e e asily a nd e fficiently r emoved f rom t hem. B attered p ieces m ight t hen o nly r epresent h ammerstones. T he f irst p lace t o l ook f or e vidence o f m anufacture a nd u se t hat w ould e nable u s t o d ecided e thnographic i nsights

( and,

i nto

i n f act,

a mong

t hese a lternatives

e thological!)

c ontexts.

i s

i n

T hese g ive

t he p ossible r ole t hat s pecific c lasses o f s tone

a rtifacts p layed.

( c)

A rgument b y E thology M ost r econstructions o f e arly h ominid b ehaviour h ave a lways b een

f ounded o n a n a rgument b y a nalogy t o o f

t he O rder P rimates.

f undamental

I t

b ehavioural

t he a ctivities o f

i s a ssumed

t hat

l iving m embers

n on-human p rimates s hare

t raits w ith o ur e arliest a ncestors;

s uch a n a ssumption p rovided

t he r ationale f or

s tudies o f p rimate b ehaviour.

t he f irst

i n f act,

l ongitudinal

H ow c lose t his r elationship a ctually

i s

h as b een a s ubject o f m uch s peculation, a nd, i ndeed, m ost p rimatologists h ave a bandoned i t a nd h ave g one o n t o o ther q uestions m ore s pecifically r elated

t o

o f t his d iscussion,

i mportant

i t

i s

t heir o wn f ield o f

m anufacture a nd u se t hat m ay s hed s tones,

a r eport t hat

e thnoarchaeological

t o

l ook

i nquiry.

F or p urposes

a t o ne d escription o f

t ool

l ight o n p ast u ses f or b attered

i s q uite d ifferent

f rom t he a verage

o ne.

T he c haracteristics t hat l ink s pheroids a nd t heir c losest a nalogues a re f irst, t heir s hape, a nd s econd, e vidence o f u se b y m eans o f b attering.

W hile a ny s mooth p ebble c ould p robably f ufill

1 25

t he s ame

F igure 5 .1 P roposed u ses f or

s pheroids

S pheroid

V

N

p ounding o r b attering

m issiles

t ools

n o p urpose; a ccidentally s hare s hape

p ort C

D

e xhausted c ore

h ammer

-

s tones

k gegeko

f ood p rocessor

o r

h and

h afted

t o a ...

t hrown

g rindstone r esharpener h andle

c ord

a s a ... b attering

I

p ounding h ide o r

/\

g rinding

c lub

/

b ark o r o ther

cQ

f ibrous p otential f ood

O

E E 3

c racking b ones f or m arrow

� , 9

Q

Q )C )

1 )

n utting

s tones

1 26

b olas

p urpose, i n t he e arliest S tone A ge s ites a v ariety o f f laked p ieces w ere s elected f or r eduction t o t he s ame s hape. S everal p rimatologists h ave

i ndependently r eported

u nflaked s tones a nd/or k ernels t hey c ontain; L iberia

i n

1 948

t hat c himpanzees

s ticks

i n o rder

i n W est A frica u se s imilar

t o c rack o pen n uts f or

t his b ehaviour w as f irst

( Beatty

1 951:118).

t he

n oted b y H arry B eatty i n

S imilar a ctions u sing o il

p alm

( Elaeis q uineensis) n uts h ave s ince b een o bserved i n t he v icinity o f B ossau, G uinea ( Sugiyama a nd K oman 1 979; S ugiyama 1 981), a nd h ave b een s tudied

i n s ome d etail

i n t he T ai

f orest o f t he

I vory C oast a mong

c himpanzees o f t he s ubspecies P an t roglodytes v erus ( Struhsaker a nd H unkeler 1 971; R ahm 1 971; B oesch 1 978; B oesch a nd B oesch 1 981, 1 983, 1 984a,

1 984b).

P anda o leosa ,

I n t he T ai

f orest,

t he s pecies o f t rees

C oula e dulis, P arinari

S acoqiottis q abonensis ( Boesch a nd B oesch A s a g eneral h ardness o f

r ule,

t he n ut

i n t he

i t a ppears t hat,

t he c himpanzees a re m ore

s tones r ather

t han s ticks a s h ammers,

f racture w ith

i ncreased f orce.

l t

t o c rack

i n s ub-Saharan A frica e pisodes e ither

t he

l arge r oots o f

t he

t hat a re

1 983:269).

t he n ut-bearing

D uring t he b ashing t rees o r o ther

S o d o

o r

f rom

t he s tones t hemselves w hich a re

t he n utting s ources t o p roduce m iniature a rchaeological

s ites t hat a re B oesch

( Panda o leosa)

t o t hat

B oth s how p itting f rom t he f orce u sed,

r epeated e pisodes o f u se. a bandoned a t

i n p assing

t han a ny o thers e xploited b y h unter/gatherers

( Boesch a nd B oesch

s tones s erve a s a nvils.

a s t he

l ikely t o u se

s ince w ooden o nes t end

i s a lso n oted

c himpanzees a re c hoosing s ome s pecies o f n uts p ossibly t ougher

a nd

1 983:267-268).

I vory C oast

i ncreases,

i nvolved a re

e xcelsa, D etarium e xcelsa,

1 981,

l abelled a teliers o r w orkshops

1 983:271).

m ost c ommon v ariety a t l ess t han o ne u p

t o

S ome o f t his s ite

t wenty-four

( Boesch

1 978;

t hese s tones a re q uite i s g ranite. k ilograms,

B oesch a nd

l arge,

T hey r ange

a nd

t he

i n s ize f rom

w ith o ne e normous r ock

w eighing f orty-two k ilograms ( Boesch a nd B oesch 1 983:276). T he s maller s tones a re u sually c arried t o t he f ood s ource f rom a d istance o f u p t o 5 00 m etres a way,

r ather

t han t ransporting

A lthough s uch s tones a re r are h abit o f u sing

t hem

i n t he T ai

( Boesch a nd B oesch

t he f ood f orest,

t o

t he t ools.

c himpanzees m ake a

1 983:283-283).

T he B oeschs c laim t hat f emales a re m ore e fficient a t c racking n uts t han m ales, a nd a re s uccessful a t o pening t hem e ven w hile s itting i n • the n ut-bearing t hat,

t rees

( Boesch a nd B oesch

r ightly o r w rongly,

b een u sed a s a m odel

f or e arly h ominid b ehaviour,

p erhaps f emales w ere r esponsible f or f racturing p roperties t hat m anufacture

b e c onfirmed,

1 984b:436).

N oting

o ne c onclusion

i s

t hey h ypothesize t hat

t he r ecognition o f

l ed d irectly

( Boesch a nd B oesch

s tone h ammers,

1 981:598,

t he a ctions o f c himpanzees h ave r epeatedly

t o

1 981:592).

t ool

W hile t his o bviously c annot

i nescapable.

i n e ffect m anufacturing

t he s tone

t he o rigins o f

t ools

I f c himpanzees c an u se i n t he p rocess,

s urely

s hould b e p ossible f or e arly h ominids t o r eproduce t hem a s w ell.

1 27

i t

( d)

E thnographic

a nd p rehistoric e vidence f or s pheroid f unction

M any s pheroidal b attering,

o bjects s how e vidence o f e xtensive p ounding o r

s uggesting

s ome m aterial

o f a t

t he p rocess o f

t hat

t hey w ere s mashed w ith s ome f orce a gainst

l east e quivalent h ardness.

t ool

m anufacture

o r w hen p rocessing p lant m aterial h ammer I t

a nd a nvil,

o r

i s p ossible t hat

b ones f or

f ood

T he r esolution o f

t he t ypological

I n M ary L eakey's s ystem,

c ategories

f or e xample, t he

t ool-making r ather

c lass,

i nto c ontact w ith a nother s ense a re c ounted a s

i s o nly f urther

t hese a rtifacts f all.

" since t hey r epresent a n

t han a n e nd p roduct"

a re o nly c lassified a s u tilised, s trictest

t his p roblem

i n w hich

a ny e vidence o f b attering m akes

u tilised'

T hese u tilised p ieces m ay o nly d evelop b rought

t hrough p ounding w ith a

t hese a rtifacts m ay a lso h ave b een u sed t o c rack

a n a rtifact a m ember o f a id f or

f or

i n

t hem a s h ammerstones)

i n a m illing a ction w ith a p air o f g rindstones.

t heir m arrow.

c onfused b y

T his c ould h ave b een

( while e mploying

( M.

L eakey 1 971:7).

t heir c haracteristic d amage w hen

s tone.

W hile m any b attered p ieces

s pheroids a nd s ubspheroids t ools'

a t O lduvai

i n t heir

s ince t hey a re f laked

a s w ell a s b attered. I n a w ay, t his d ichotomy i n t he t ypology u nderlies t he a ssumption t hat s pheroids a re t he p urposeful e nd-product o f b attering r ather

t han t he t ool

u sed

t o p rocess s ome u nknown

s ubstance. I t i s p ossible t o b egin t his a nalysis o f s pheroid m anufacture a nd u se w ith w hat m ight b e t ermed a d ifferential d iagnosis o f a ll b attered s tone o bjects f ound i n e arly a rchaeological s ites. S uch a n a pproach r elies o n k ey a ttributes t o d iscriminate b etween a lternative h ypotheses c oncerning f unction.

I t e nables o ne t o e liminate s ome o f t he p ossible

u ses o f t hese p ieces q uite q uickly b y m eans o f

t he f ollowing f eatures.

W hile m ost s pheroids a re b attered, t hey a re p robably n ot j ust h ammerstones t hroughout t he s tone a ge e longated, s mooth p ebbles w ere u sed a s h ammerstones a nd s uch p ieces a re n ormally b attered o nly o n t heir p olar e nds. U beidiya

T his c an b e c learly s een

( Figure 5 .2).

a ssemblages a t O lduvai, a s h ammerstones m aterials c ompared

( M.

T his

i n t he e xample f rom

i s t he c ase e ven

i n t he e arliest

w here w orn p ebbles o f f ine g rained

L eakey

1 971:7).

A t o ther

l ike q uartz w ere c hosen f or u se i n a s imilar t o h ammerstones,

f ashion.

m ost s pheroids a re m ore g lobular

t hat s how u sewear m arks a re b attered

l ava s erved

s ites p ebbles o f h ard

i ndiscriminately a ll

W hen

a nd t hose o ver

t heir

s urface. I t i s a lso p ossible, o n t he o ther h and, t hat s pheroids c ould h ave b een u sed i n s ome f ashion a long w ith a g rindstone o r s ome k ind o f a nvil. F igure 5 .3 s hows s uch a g rindstone f rom a L ate S tone A ge s ite n ear N dola i n t he n orthern Z ambian C opperbelt. M any h and-held g rindstone p arts ( variously l abelled m anos , g rinders o r p estles, d epending o n t heir g eographical l ocation) a ppear t o b e f lattened c ross-section,

a nd a re n ot a t

a ll

s pheroidal.

i n

T hey a re a lso g round

d own r ather t han b attered. I n a ddition, t here a re n o r eal t ypical ' grindstones' i dentified f rom a ny o f t hese e arly s ites. H owever, i t

i s

c ertainly p ossible t hat s pheroids a nd o ther b attered p ieces m ay h ave b een u sed a s p ounders o r t hat

h ammers

i n a ssociation w ith

d o o ccur.

1 28

t he p itted a nvils

F igure 5 .2 A c haracteristic h ammerstone f orm F rom

U beidiya T rench

1 1-38,

s pecimen * U /69/5

L imestone h ammerstone; bOY , c ortex, b attered o n p olar e nds. W eight 2 50 g rams; s phericity . 85, r oundness . 9. L ocation:

H ebrew U niversity o f J erusalem,

J erusalem.

S cale N ote b attering i s u sually r estricted t o e nds o f t he p iece; a s w ell a re u sually e longated, n ot s pherical.

1 29

1 :1 h ammerstones

F igure 5 .3 A c haracteristic g rindstone f orm. Z ambia W eight

G rindstone f rom N dola,

( Late S tone A ge). Q uartzite; e dges g reatly w orn d own. 1 600+ g rams; s phericity . 64, r oundness . 7. 9 5% c ortex;

f lake s cars; L ocation:

a braded c rests

1 l arge d epression o n e ach

L ivingstone M useum,

L ivingstone,

s ide. Z ambia.

-

a braded a nd p itted c ortex S cale N ote p ieces a re f lattened

i n c ross-section;

p robably p roduced b y g rinding a ction

1 30

1 :2

f lake s cars a long e dges

P itted a nvils h ave b een c ollected f rom a ll l evels o f B eds I a nd I I a t O lduvai ( M. L eakey 1 971:7). I n t he O ldowan a ssemblages t hey o ccur a s b locks o r b roken c obblestones e xhibiting e vidence o f c ontusions p roduced b y b attering.

M ary L eakey a rgued

t hat

i n t he D eveloped

O ldowan t hese p ieces s how e vidence a s w ell o f i ntentional s haping p rior t o u se ( M. L eakey 1 971:7). I t i s p ossible t hat i t i s t he f requency o f p itted a nvils

( and t he c oncomitant a bsence o f b ifaces)

r esponsible f or h er C i n B ed

I V

a mount

( M. t o

L eakey

1 975: 1+ 85,

1 976b:32).

1 4.2 ' h o f t he t ools;

a n A cheulean c ontext c ontemporaneous. s ize f rom s mall g enerally o f

t hat

i s

l argely

a cceptance o f t he e xistence o f a D eveloped O ldowan

t hat

H ere p itted a nvils,

t hey a re a lso n umerous i n

i s a pproximately

T he a nvils a re o n s tones t hat r ange i n b oulders t o

l ava.

l arge p ebbles;

t hey a re

T he h ollows o r p its v ary

f rom a f ew m illimeters t o s everal c orresponding v ariation

i n w idth

c entimeters w ith a

i n d epth.

T hey m ay o ccur s ingly

o r b e a s m any a s s ix o n t he s ame s tone.

S pecimens w ith a

p air o r h ollows s et c lose t ogether a re c ommon

( M.

L eakey

1 976b:32-33).

I n t he c ollections f rom

I simila s tored a t

t he N ational

T anzania t here a re a c ouple o f q uartz p itted a nvils i llustrates o ne o f

t hem).

T hey c haracteristically s how s mall

s cars t hat h ave b attered e dges, f lake s cars

i nside.

I t

M useum o f

( Figure 5 .1 +

a s w ell

i s h ighly

f lake

a s o ne o r m ore d eep p its w ith

l ikely

t hat a ll

t his d amage o ccurs

d uring u se. F or c omparative p urposes

i t

i s w orthy o f n ote h ere t hat n o r eal

p itted a nvils a re f ound i n t he K oobi F ora a rchaeological s ites ( Toth 1 982:309). T he o nly e xception i s i n t hree c hannel s ites ( 3 e xamples f rom F xJj

1 6

)

f our f rom F xJj

1 8GL a nd f our

f rom F xJj

c obbles w ere o btainable f rom c lose a t h and i dentical a ll

o f

H arris

f ashion,

( Harris

w here l arge I n a n

s pheroids a nd b attered s tones a re a lso a bsent f rom

t he E arly S tone A ge a ssemblages h ere 1 978:259;

1 8GU)

1 978:31 +1 +).

T oth

1 982:138).

T his

( Isaac a nd H arris

i s a n e xtremely

1 978:75;

i mportant

f eature, s ince t he K oobi F ora a ssemblages r epresent t he o nly k nown E arly S tone A ge o ccurence t hat c ompletely l acks t his r ange o f b attered a nd m odified s tones.

I t

s ome s ort o f f unctional t hat

i s t herefore e ntirely p ossible t hat

a nvils,

s o

o ther.

T heir c ovariance m ay a lso r eflect

p roperties o f r ather

t here

i s

c orrelation b etween b attered s tones a nd p itted

t he a ppearance o f o ne n ecessitates t he p resence o f t he

t he r aw m aterial

t he s ize a nd m echanical

a vailable f or

u se a t

a ny g iven s ite,

t han a c ommon p urpose.

A s tudy W alter D odd

t hat b ears s ome ( 1979)

A rmj3o r ockshelter

i n o rder

t est

t he f unction o f s ome a rtifacts f rom

i n t he A merican S outhwest.

o bjects a nd p roposed m aterials.

l ight o n t his p roblem w as c arried o ut b y t o

t hat t hey h ad b een u sed

D odd e xamined b attered t o p rocess p lant

A ware t hat s uch f ractures c ould o nly b e p roduced b y

s triking a nother

s tone o f e qual

h ardness

1 31

( presumably a n a nvil),

h e

F igure 5 .4 A p itted a nvil S moky q uartz. r oundness . 6. a ppear

p its

f rom

t o b e a p roduct o f

u se a s a n a nvil.

c i

b attered c rests

I simila.

W eight 8 10 g rams; s phericity . 82; S ome b attering; d eep p its o n o ne s ide

S cale 1+ '

1 32

1 :2

c arried o ut a s eries o f e xperiments

i n a n a ttempt

p attern o f d amage v isible o n t he a rchaeological

t o r eproduce t he

p ieces.

t hat p lant p rocessing a lone w as n ot r esponsible f or

H e c oncluded

t he h eavy d amage,

tt a t hno gr aphic r eport d id p rovide a po F .F ; ihle e xplar iatio r i . U sing a r ound s tone t o r esharpen a d ulled g rindstone t o r estore i ts g ritty t exture c an c an p roduce t his p attern o f w ear ( Dodd 1 979: 33,237). A s imilar p henomenon i s n oted i n s ome E ast a nd S outhern A frican c ontexts; i n t he

l ransvaal

s uch a p iece

i s r eferred

t o a s a k qekqeto

( Boshier

1 965; W alker 1 911; D art 1 965:144; M aguire 1 965). C . v an R iet L owe ( 1950) d escribes t he d iscovery o f o ne o f t hese s tones a t B rodie H ill n ear P ietersburg

i n t he n orthern T ransvaal.

A ge c ontext

( described a s

k c iekqeto i s

" a s pheroidal

f or

r oughening

a n o utpost o f o r s pherical

t he Z imbabwe c ulture'),

( van R iet L owe

t he s pecimen f rom B rodie H ill t hat h e d escribes.

s imilar o bject

t he

h ammerstone u sed b y n ative w omen

t heir g rindstones b y p ounding

t hey b ecome t oo s mooth" p iece

C oming f rom a n L ate I ron

t he g rinding s urfaces w hen

1 950:68).

i llustrated

I t

i s p ossible t hat

i n F igure 5 .5 i s t he a ctual

T he f ollowing d escription o f

t he u se o f a

i s t aken f rom a n e arly o bservation m ade

i n a r egion i n

T anzania. W hen v isiting N asa a nd o ther V ictoria N yanza M r.

R .H.

W alker,

v illages a t

t he s outh e nd o f

i n G erman E ast A frica f rom o f

U ganda,

n oticed t hat

u se f or

a h ammer-stone,

b eing

t o

1 907 i n

t he n ative w omen t here h ad a s pecial s everal

o f w hich h e o btained a s

s pecimens. T hese s tones b ecame a bsolutely s pherical u se,

1 887

t he C hurch M issionary S ociety

t urned a bout

f rom c onstant

i n t he h and a nd d ropped u pon t he

r ock. r hey a re j ust t he s ize o f a c ricket b all, a nd s ome c onsist a pparently o f g ranite, o thers o f a s tone r esembling

l imestone,

i n t hat r egion. E he n ative g rain

b ut n o

t hat

l imestone o f a ny s ort e xists

i s e aten t here

i s g round o n a

s tone i n t he h ut, o r i t i s a s o ften g round o n a r ock o n t he h ill s ide. T he w omen d o t he g rinding, a nd t hey k eep t he s urface o f t he r ock o r l ower s tone r ough b y c onstantly d ropping t hese h ammer-stones o n t o i t f rom a h eight o f a bout

1 0

i nches.

T hey a ppear

t o c atch

t he

s tone e ach t ime a s i t r ebounds. I n t ime t he r ock g ets w orn i nto h oles o r b asins b y t his c ontinual

p rocess o f p reparing

h ammer-stone, b egin w ith, a bout

( Walker

( 1955:406)

n otes

A ge s ites t hroughout A frica g rindstones w ere e mployed.

a nd

t he

a nd s hapeless t o

b ecomes s mooth a nd s pherical

i n t he u sing

D esmond C lark

t he s urface,

w hich m ay b e v ery r ough

b y b eing

t urned

1 911:85-86).

t hat

s imilar

s tones a re f ound o n

I ron

t hey u ndoubtedly s hould b e f ound w herever H owever

e ither g ranite o r s ome k ind o f

t he

I ron A ge r esharpeners a re

i gneous r ock,

a nd a re h eavily s moothened

a nd p olished. T he e arlier S tone A ge p ieces, w hat w e a re l abelling s pheroids i n t his s tudy, a re u sually q uartz a nd q uartzite, a nd a re m uch

1 33

F igure 5 .5 A g rindstone r esharpener o r K gekgeto

f rom B rodie H ill,

S pecimen * 6 2/49.

1 00% c ortex.

D olerite p ebble,

o nly s lightly a braded. L ocation:

W eight 4 40 g rams,

D epartment o f A rchaeology,

J ohannesburg, 1 950:68.

S outh A frica.

s phericity

U niversity o f

P ublished r eference:

. 97,

r oundness

. 9.

t he W itwatersrand, v an R iet L owe

S cale

1 34

S outh A frica.

S urface b attered b ut

1 :2

m ore a ngular u nlikely I n t he

a nd r ough

t hat

( Clark

t he e arliest

I ron A ge,

1 955:406).

I t

s pherical

i n c ountries s uch a s l ogo a nd G hana

p ersonal

c ommunication).

R ed o chre

w ith s uch a rtifacts o ccured

i ron a nd/or

( Merrick P osnansky,

( hematite)

m ining a nd p rocessing

i n S waziland p erhaps a s f ar b ack a s M iddle

( Dart a nd B eaumont

H ow c an s pherical

t herefore h ighly

s tones w ere a lso u sed t o c rush

g old o re

S tone A ge t imes

i s

s pheroids r epresent g rindstone r esharpeners.

1 969:127).

s tones b e u sed?

T here a re s ome e thnographic

r eports t hat c an b e o f a ssistance h ere.

M ost f oraging s ocieties h ave

s ome s ort o f g rinding o r p ounding e quipment f or p rocessing f oods s eeds a nd n uts.

S ince t he a nvil

m any a re p ermanently

l eft n ear

l ike

p ortion o f a g rindstone c an b e h eavy,

t he s ources o f t he f oods t hey a re u sed

t o p repare f or f uture u se. I n R ichard B . h e n oted a nvils

L ee's e xtended s tudy o f

t he D obe

' Kung o f B otswana,

t hat m embers o f t his g roup m ade u se o f s tone h ammers a nd

i n o rder

t o c rack

r autanenii S chinz) o pen t he c ase o f

( Lee

n uts o f

t he m ongongo

1 979:151,182).

t he n uts,

a s t he

t ree

( Ricinoder idron

S tone w as o nly u sed

t o c rack

K ung h ad w ooden m ortars a nd p estles

t hat a re e mployed f or a ny f urther p rocessing ( Lee 1 979:439). F or t hese p eople, m ongongo n uts w ere t he m ost p rized f ood s ource a fter m eat, a nd i ndeed

t hey c ontribute g reatly

1 979:188,201-203).

F or

t o

t heir c aloric

A ny r easonably h ard s tone m ay b e u sed, p lentiful

i ntake

( Lee

t hese t ools, i ncluding

c alcrete c obbles f rom t he w idespread h ardpan

m olapo d eposits.

T he h ammerstone

i s f ist-sized,

w ith n o

f lakes s truck o ff. T he a nvil s tone m ay b e a ny s ize a nd s hape a nd m ay w eigh f ive t o t en k ilograms. N either o f t hese s tones

i s

i mproved

i n a ny w ay,

a nd o nly

t he p ecking

m arks s how e vidence o f h uman u se. T he n ut i s h eld o n t he a nvil s tone b etween t he f ingertips o f t he l eft h and a nd i s c racked w ith h ammerstone

t wo

t o f ive s harp b lows w ith

i n t he r ight h and..

u sed f or c racking

l ong b ones

t he

C racking s tones a re a lso

t o e xtract

t he h ighly p rized

m arrow. f te n ut g roves a re l ack n atural T hrough

l ocated o n s andy d une s oils,

t he g enerations,

p airs o f

b ecome d istributed b y t he f orests o f t he D obe a rea. g roves, f or

S imilar

I t

t hese s tones h ave

' Kung t hroughout t he n ut W hen m aking a n ew c amp i n t he

o ne s imply p icks u p

a bandoned c ampsites. c amp

w hich

s ources o f c aicrete f or c racking s tones.

t he s tones f rom n earby

i s o nly o ccasionally n ecessary

a w oman t o c arry h er o wn c racking s tones f rom o ne t o a nother

( Lee

1 979:151-153).

a ccounts a re g iven f or m odern A frican p opulations

i n t he

n orthern T ransvaal o f S outh A frica ( see B oshier 1 985). M any e thnographic a ccounts t hat d escribe t he u se o f g rindstones o r h ammers a nd a nvils

i mply

t hat

i t

i s

t he f emales

1 35

i n t he g roup

t hat u se t hem.

T hey a re p art o f

t he e quipment u sed

v ariety o f u ses.

I n A rnhem L and,

t o p rocess p lant m aterials f or a

A ustralian a borigines u se s tone

m ortars a nd p estles

t o c rack o pen n utshells,

s often f oods,

o r

a s w ell

l ong b ones f or

n uts

m arrow

i nto

f lour,

( Petersen

a s

1 968:567).

t o c rack o pen

A rtifacts w ith a s imilar

i ron w orking

i n

H ere t hey s erved t o s harpen t he f aces of t he s tone h ammers

a nd a nvils t hat a re t ools

s moothen s urfaces

s hape a s s pheroids h ave a lso b een

i n u se a s b lacksmith's t rimming h ammers f or

C ameroun.

t heir

B rian H ayden a lso o bserved w omen u sing

g rindstones t o f inish d igging s ticks, s harpen b lades, o f b owls a nd f ighting s ticks ( Hayden 1 977:185).

o bserved

g rind s eeds

( Jeffreys

i n t urn u sed

1 948,

1 951,

i n t he m anufacture o f f inished

1 952).

T hey a ppear

t o b e u sed

i ron

i n t he s ame

w ay a s t he g rindstone r esharpeners, b asically i n o rder t o r oughen t he s urfaces o f o ther s tones t hat t end t o b ecome s mooth d uring u se. I t h as n ot e scaped n otice h ere t hat,

i f s pheroids r epresent

p ounders, t hey b elong t o s ome s ort o f t ool k it t hat i n e thnographic s ituations w ould n ormally b e u sed b y w omen. E ven i n t he c ase o f c himpanzees,

i t

i s t he f emales w ho a re m ore e fficient

m anipulation o f n utting s tones i t

i s d ifficult

( Boesch a nd B oesch

i n t he

1 981:592).

t o d emonstrate t he u se o f p lant f oods

J ust a s

i n t he r emote

p ast,

a lthough m ost e thnographic a ccounts o f f oraging p eoples e mphasize

t heir

f undamental

i nvisible. a ttempt

i n t he d iet, ( 1979;

i s p resented w ith

d ivision o f

c ultural

l abour,

e volution.

a nd

t he f ood s haring m odel

1 978)

t he f irst

t ime

t hat

l argely i s o ne

i n t his

H ere

i mplies a

t he q uestion o f w hen t his a rose

O ne c ould p ossibly s uggest

s pheroids m ark a f emale a ctivity, f or

f emale r oles a re a lso

Z ihiman a nd T anner

t o b reak a way f rom t his c onscious o r u nconscious b ias.

o nce a gain o ne s exual

i mportance

T he w ork o f T anner

l ight

i n h uman t hat,

i f

t hen s uch a ctivities b ecome v isible

i n t he D eveloped O ldowan-like a ssemblages

i n E ast

A frica.

( e)

T he E xperimental

R eplication o f S pheroids

E xperiments t hat a ttempt c an b e d ivided

i nto

c ould h ave b een m anufactured; d esign o r

a re t hey m erely

o f a f ew f lakes? b e t ested. s ubjected

t o

i llustrate t he p urpose o f s pheroids

t wo c lasses.

F irst

i t m ust b e s hown h ow t he p ieces

a re t hey t he r esult o f s ome p lanned

t he c ore d iscarded a s d ebitage a fter

T hen p ossible a ppropriate u ses f or

C an a ny a ngular

f laked r ock b ecome s pheroidal

w hen

t o a s eries o f h ard b lows d uring p ercussion f laking?

s pheroids n othing m ore t han h and-held h ammers f or m anufacturing o r t he

r emoval

t hese p ieces m ust

f ood p rocessing?

C an n aturally s pheroidal

l ater p ecked p ieces f unction a s w ell

s ome a dvantage

a s

t he f laked o nes?

i n h aving a c ompletely s pherical

A re

s tone t ool

r ock?

r ocks a nd I s

t here

D oes t his s hape

i mply a ny a erodynamic p roperties?

W hat w as t he r ole o f s pheroidal

r ocks

t hose i n t he F rench M ousterian o r

i n n on-African s ites s uch

t he C hinese L ower

a s

a nd M iddle P alaeolithic?

1 36

A rchaeologists c oncerned w ith m echanical

c ontingencies c ontrol

s tone a rtifacts. c lear

l ithic a nalysis h ave n oticed

a g reat d eal

T he w ork o f P eter

t hat a d etailed s tudy o f s ignificance o f

t hat

f orm o f

J ones a nd N icholas T oth m akes

t hese f actors

m ay e liminate a s u nnecessary m uch o f c ultural

o f t he f inal

i ndividual

i t

i n E arly S tone A ge s ites

t he a rgument c oncerning

t he

a rtifact a nd a ssemblage t ypes.

T his a pproach i s o f s pecial i mportance i n a t ime w hen a w ide r ange o f m aterials w ere s elected f or a rtifact m anufacture a nd u se. F or s uch a n e xperimental

s tudy,

v ariation

i s d efined a s t he r esult o f a f lintknapper's

s kill

t he r estrictions p laced u pon h im b y t he

a nd

g eological c ortex, o f

a ttributes

e tc.)

o f

t he c ultural

p roduct

( types,

( Flenniken

r ock

i ssue

d ensity,

s hape,

r estraints p laced u pon

c rystallinity,

t hese p hysical

i n a ny t echnological

h ardness,

i rrespective

t he

i ntended e nd

1 984:191).

M easurement a nd d escription o f i mportant

s ize,

t he r aw l ithic m aterials,

s tudy.

p roperties T he g eneral

i s e xtremely p rinciples o f

t oughness a nd r esiliency f or a s election o f r aw

m aterials w ere o utlined f or a rchaeologists

i n a n e xtremely

a rticle p ublished b y M ary E llen G oodman f our d ecades a go 1 944). o rder

S he s tressed t o a ssess

t hat

t hese c haracteristics h ad

t heir c ontribution

t o

t he f inal

i mportant

( Goodman

t o b e u nderstood

a s h ow i mportant t his i nput w as r elative t o v ariation t hat o f i ndividual o r g roup c hoice ( Goodman 1 944:415). W hen a ssemblages c ontaining p olyhedral b attered s tones a re e xamined a s w as d one

i n

a rtifact f orm a s w ell i s a r esult

s pheroids a nd o ther

i n C hapter 4 ,

i t b ecomes

a pparent t hat a s eries o f f lakes w ere r emoved f rom t he s urface o f a p ebble b lank i n o rder t o p roduce t heir c haracteristic f orm. S omehow t he s harp a ngles o f t he f lake s car e dges a re r educed f urther t o l eave a s mooth s urface. A s a r esult, b attered s tones o ccupy t he e nd o f a s hape c ontinuum t hat r epresents h igh s phericity, a long w ith e xtreme r oundness. r he p referred s hape o f r aw m aterial f or t heir m anufacture, h owever,

d oes n ot s eem t o b e a r ound p ebble;

f acets s imilar

t o

t he r oundness o f v arious m aterials u sed f or

A i n

H anech a nd

a ngular

U beidiya,

a s

A i n

T able 5 .1

s hows

t his a rtifact c lass.

l imestone p ebbles a nd a pparently u sed

t he o riginal

i s o ne t hat e xhibits A t

t he a rtifact m akers t ook h ighly s pherical

f laking p latforms

( Figure 5 .6);

b lank w as n ever a p erfectly s mooth p ebble. t he

i t

t hose s een o n t he f inished p ieces.

H anech c ollections,

a t

l east,

b ut

t he p rotruding e dges a s t herefore t he a rtifact

F igure 5 .6 s hows t hat,

i n

o ne c an s ee g radations o f w orking

i llustrated b y t he n umber o f f lakes r emoved

p ercentage o f u naltered c ortex r emaining

( Table 5 .2),

( Table 4 .14).

I t

a nd

t he

t hen m ay

c ome a s a s urprise t hat m ost o f t he l imestone a rtifacts k nown f rom A m H anech a nd U beidiya f all i nto t he c ategory o f s pheroids r egardless o f t he a mount o f s urface a rea w orked o n t hem. f laked

( Figure 5 .6),

t he e quatorial r eflection o f

M any p ieces a re s lightly

a nd s ome a re w orked o nly

r egion o f

t he s phere.

t he o riginal

s hape o f

i n a s ingle b and a round

T he s pherical

s hape

t he f laked p ebble.

1 37

i s a

T able 5 .3 s hows

T able 5 .1

C ontingency t able o f r aw m aterial

b y r oundness f or

s even E arly S tone A ge s ites R oundness R aw

I

t o

. 3

. 4

. 5

. 6 t o

. 9

M aterial

R ow T otal

q uartz n =

1 60

2 43

2 08

1 02

7 13

2 2.4

3 4.1

2 9.2

1 4.3

4 5.4

c olumn Y . 47.3

5 0.3

4 4.7

3 5.9

1 5.5

1 3.2

6 .5

r ow t otal

h10.2

q uartzite 1 8

3 8

3 3

2 1

1 10

r ow X16.4

n =

3 4.5

3 0.0

1 9.1

7 .0

5 .3

7 .9

7 .1

7 .4

% =

1 .1

2 .4

2 .1

1 .3

n =

c olumn t otal l imestone

9 5

1 31

1 28

4 3

3 97

423.9

3 3.0

3 2.2

1 0.8

2 5.3

c olumn Y , 28.1

2 7.1

2 7.5

1 5.1

8 .3

8 .2

2 .7

r ow t otal

6 .1

l ava 3 9

3 6

4 3

3 3

1 51

r ow V . 25.8

2 3.8

2 8.5

2 1.9

9 .6

c olumn ' I .11.S

7 .5

9 .2

1 1.6

2 .3

2 .7

2 .1

n =

t otal

' / ,-

2 .5

n =

1 7

2 0

1

r ow Y , 34.7

4 0.8

2 2.4

2 .0

5 .0

4 .1

2 .4

0 .4

1 .1

1 .3

0 .7

0 .1

c her t

c olumn t otal

Y =

1

4 9 3 .1

d o1 er it e 9

1 5

4 2

8 4

1 50

r ow

6 .0

1 0.0

2 8.0

5 6.0

9 .6

c olumn

2 .7

3 .1

9 .0

2 9.6

t otal

0 .6

1 .0

2 .7

5 .4

n =

C olumn

n = 3 38

4 83

4 65

2 84

1 570

T otal

' / 21.5

3 0.8

2 9.6

1 8.1

1 00.0

X2 2 00.06 w ith

1 5 d egrees o f f reedom;

1 38

s ig.

0 .0;

C ramer's V.20610

F igure 5 . P ossible m ethod o f m anufacture o f l imestone s pheroids a t A in H anech a nd

U beidiya

R aw M aterial

S tart w ith a f acetted p ebble w ith s mooth s urface,

b ut s till

a ngular

f lakes r emoved

i n s equence

i n o ne d irection

( fresh

e dges u sed a s f laking p latforms);

t his i s t he

o nly w orked s urface ( Ain H anech 5 3.3.488; 8 0Y c ortex; 8 f lake s cars r emoved

e dges s ometimes b attered t hrough u se ( Ain H anech 5 3.3.12 ; 1 0% c ortex;

1 8 f lake s cars

r emoved)

S cale

1 39

1 :e

T able 5 .2

C ontingency t able o f r aw m aterial b y n umber o f f lake s cars f or s even E arly S tone A ge s ites

F lake S cars 0 t o 8

R aw

9 t o

1 3

1 4

t o

1 8

M aterial

1 9 a nd o ver

R ow T otal

q uartz n = 3 7 r ow % = 5 .2 c olumn h = 9 .6 t otal

2 04 2 8.6 5 3.7

% = 2 .4

1 3.0

n = 1 9 r ow ' / ,17.3 c olumn X = 4 .9

2 8 2 5.5 7 .4

2 68 3 7.6 6 3.8 1 7.1

2 0' . 2 8.6 5 2.8 1 3.0

7 13 4 5.4

3 0 2 7.3 7 .8 1 .9

10 7 .0

8 1 2 0.4 2 1.0 5 .2

q uartzite

1 .2

1 .8

3 3 3 0.0 7 .9 2 .1

n = 1 29 r ow Y . 32.5

1 08 2 7.2

7 9 1 9.9

c olumn h33.6 t otal / - 8 .2

2 8.4 6 .9

1 8.8 5 .0

2 6 1 7.2 6 .8 1 .7

2 7 1 7.9 6 .4 1 .7

6 0 3 9.7

1 3 2 6.5 3 .4 0 .8

1 3 2 6.5 3 .1 0 .8

1 2 2.4 2 .8 0 .7

4 9 3 .1

0 0 .0 0 .0

1 50 9 .6

t otal l imestone

3 97 2 5.3

l ava n =

3 8

r ow Y 25.2 c olumn ' / ,= 9 .9 t otal

' / .-

2 .' .

n =

1 2

1 51 9 .6

1 5.5 3 .8

c hert r ow Y 24.5 c olumn %= 3 .1 t otal

Y . = 0 .8

d o1erite n =

1 49

r ow / .99.3 c olumn 7 . =38.8 t otal

C olumn T otal

%=

9 .5

n = 3 84 2 4.5

X2= 651.83 w ith

1

0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0

0 .7 0 .3 0 .1

3 80 2 4.2

1 5 d egrees o f f reedom;

1 40

0 .0

4 20

3 86

2 6.8

2 4.6

s ig.= 0 .0;

1 570 1 00.0

C ramer's V.37201

l able 5 .3

C ontingency

t able o f r aw m aterial

b y s phericity f or

s even E arly S tone A ge s ites S phericity R aw

4 5 t o

. 82

. 83 t o

. 88

. 89 t o

. 92

. 93 t o

1 .00

R ow T otal

M aterial

q uartz 1 76

1 85

1 20

7 13

r ow Y , 32.5

2 4.7

2 5.9

1 6.8

4 5.4

c olumn / . 57.1

4 6.3

4 2.7

3 4.2

1 1.2

1 1.8

7 .6

3 4

1 7

2 1

1 10 7 .0

n = 2 32

t otal

' h14.8

q uartzite n =

3 8

r ow Y 34.5

3 0.9

1 5.5

1 9.1

c olumn h = 9 .4

8 .9

3 .9

6 .0

2 .2

1 .1

1 .3

8 5

1 31

1 44

3 97 2 5.3

t otal

% = 2 .4

l imestone n =

3 7 9 .3

2 1.4

3 3.0

2 6.3

c olumn

= 9 .1

2 2.4

3 0.3

4 1.0

t otal

% = 2 .4

5 .4

8 .3

9 .2

3 5

4 8

3 4

1 51 9 .6

r ow

%=

l ava n =

3 4

r ow Y . 22.5

2 3.2

3 1.8

2 2.5

c olumn / . - 8 .4

9 .2

1.1

9 .7

2 .2

3 .1

2 .2

t otal

% = 2 .2

c hert n =

2 8

6

1 2

3

r ow Y . 57.1

2 4.5

1 2.2

6 .1

c olumn % = 6 .9

3 .2

1 .4

0 .9 0 .2

t otal

4 9 3 .1

/ . =

1 .8

0 .8

0 .4

n =

3 7

3 8

4 6

2 9

1 50 9 .6

d o1 er i te r ow / . 24.7

2 5.3

3 0.7

1 9.3

c olumn % = 9 .1

1 0.0

1 0.6

8 .3

= 2 .4

2 .4

2 .9

1 .8

n = 4 06

3 80

4 33

3 51

1 570

2 7.6

2 2.4

1 00.0

t otal

C olumn T otal

Y . =25.9

X2= 147.81

w ith

2 4.2

1 5 d egrees o f f reedom;

1 41

s ig.

0 .0;

C ramer's V =.17715

t he s phericity m easurements f or a ll t he r aw m aterials f rom t he E arly S tone A ge s ites e xamined. M ost o f t he l imestone p ieces h ave a s phericity m easure o f b etween 9 .3 ' / .).

A t a ll

o riginal

s hape o f

l ess s mooth a nd f orms f ound O ccasional

t he r aw m aterial.

l ess r ound

i n o ther

t he d eposits ( L.

( clays)

A ll

B alout,

p ersonal

1 963:46)

t he o riginal

o f

t o b e m oulded

A p attern s uch a s t his I a nd

I I

t hey w ere r ecovered,

c ommunication).

s tone.

t he A in H anech s pheroids m aterial;

a nd

t hus w ere

i t

t hey w ere

i s f or

i s a f unction o f

t his r eason t hat

t he

t o a c ommon f orm. i s n ot a s c learly s een

a t O lduvai

( Figure 5 .7).

A t a ny p oint

a nd s o a ll

a t

T he q rande m onotonie d e

i n t he c ollections

H ere w hat a pparently

i s a n a ngular p ebble o r c hunk w as r educed

s pherical

t he 1 -15 l evel

r egardless o f w hether o r n ot

s teps o f m anufacture a nd/or u se t o u ltimately a bandoned,

f laked

r ecognizeable a s s pheroids.

t he p ebbles a t A in H anech a re f oreign t o

f rom w hich

t he m onotony o f p ieces a ppear

t o r etain t he

W hile s uch p ieces a re u ndoubtedly

t hey a re s till

t here b y s ome m eans,

f ormes ( Ramendo

h appened

( 175 o f 3 97 s pecimens o r

t hese p ebbles t end

t rue f laked a nd b attered s pheroids a ppear;

t ransported

f rom B eds

1 .00

t han t he n aturally m odified s tones o r

s ites,

' Ubeidiya h as s everal.

f laked

. 89 a nd

s tages o f p roduction,

t hrough a s eries o f

l eave a c ompletely

i n t his p rocess a p iece m ay b e

f orms a long

t he s hape c ontinuum

( polyhedrons,

s ubspheroids, a nd s pheroids) t hat s hare t he s ame r aw m aterial m ay b e f ound. l t w as s hown i n C hapter 4 t hat t he s pheroids f rom O lduvai t end t o b e m ore h eavily w orked

t han t hose f rom a ny o ther s ite.

f unction o f t he u se o f q uartz

a nd q uartzite f or

T his

i s a

t hese p ieces a nd c an b e

s een i n T able 4 .14 ( percentage o f c ortex b y r aw m aterial) a nd T able 5 .3 ( raw m aterial b y n umber o f f lake s cars v isible o n t he s urface o f t he p iece).

I t

i s a n

i nteresting f act

t he m ost a ngular c ore p ieces,

t hat,

a t O lduvai,

p olyhedrons,

v aries

t he f requency o f

i nversely w ith

t hat

o f t he m ost s mooth o nes, s pheroids. P olyhedrons a re m ost f requent i n t he B ed I a ssemblages w hile s pheroids o ccur i n t heir h ighest n umbers i n t he U pper B ed I I o nes ( H. L eakey 1 971:266). I t i s p ossible t hat e ither t he c omplete s et o f m anufacturing s teps w as n ot c arried o ut u ntil B ed I I

t imes,

o r a n ew s et o f f unctions o pened u p f or f laked c ore p ieces a t

t his m oment. f rom F C

I I

a re k nown, A ll

F rom t his

( 32,

t he r emainder a re f our

a s m ost

i nfluence

n odules

( slightly f laked a nd b ashed)

7 9.2 ' ! .)

( M.

t o b e s imilar

L eakey

a re f laked a long

1 971:157). t o

M any o f

t he

R aw

t he p iece

i s

a nd m ost q uartz o r

T here a re a lso 5 3 m odified k nown f rom t his s ite

( M.

( 42 o f 5 3 o r

t he m odified b attered n odules

t he s pheroid f orms a t A in H anech

t he e quatorial

L eakey t hem a re

a s a re m ost o f

t hese a re a lso q uartz o r q uartzite

a ppear

( N.

t hree o f

t he c ategory t o w hich

l ava p ieces a re p olyhedrons,

L eakey a nd m ost o f

f our p olyhedrons

l ava a nd t wo g neiss.

q uartzite o nes a re c onsidered s ubspheroids. b attered

l ocality,

t hirty-eight s ubspheroids

t he s pheroids a re q uartz o r q uartzite,

c ontingencies

a ssigned,

i s t he D eveloped O ldowan B a ssemblage I I.

T here a re o nly a f ew p olyhedrons a nd

s ubspheroids m aterial

i n p oint

i n M iddle B ed

t en s pheroids a nd

1 971:154). l ava.

A c ase

W est

r egion o f t he s phere,

i n t hat

t hey

l eaving m uch

u nmodified c ortex a rea, b ut n ot a nywhere e lse. S uch d amage o r f laking m ight o ccur d uring u se, b ut i t a lso s uggests t hat m any o f t hese p ieces a re

j ust

a n e arlier

v ersion o f a s pheroid f orm.

1 42

M any o f

t he A in H anech

F igure 5 .7 T he O lduvai ( all

P attern o f S pheroid P roduction

s pecimens f rom F E W est

I I

i n M iddle B ed

I I)

s election o f s ubangular

s lab,

c hunk o r r ounded p ebble

m anufacture ± u se

P OLYHEDRON

( FE

I I

W est * 783)

1 5% c ortex s moky q uartz m anufacture ± u se

S UBSPHEROID

( FC

I I

W est * 1296)

4 0% c ortex s moky q uartz s till

r etains s harp e dges

m anufacture ± u se

S PHEROID

( FE

I I

W est * 1217)

5 5% c ortex g reen/gray q uartz

h ighly b attered;

t hese b attered

e dges a re r equired f or S cale

12

p olyhedral

1 43

s pheroid

a t rue

p ieces, i f n ot f or t heir s pherical p reforms, c lassified a s m odified b attered n odules.

w ould p robably a lso b e

T he E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge s pheroids f rom Z ambia a nd Z imbabwe ( Table 5 .4)

p rovide a n

i nteresting p oint o f c omparison w ith

t hose f rom

t he e arlier s ites. T hey t end t o b e h ighly s pherical 1 29 o f t he 1 47 ( 87.1%) p ieces e xamined h ere h ave s phericity v alues o f . 81 o r g reater. I ndeed s ome r aw m aterials n o e xamples d olerite).

l ess t han

. 81

( lava,

T hese p ieces a re a lso v ery r ound w ith 6 9 o f

f lint,

1 47

( 46.97 .)

h aving r oundness v alues o f . 7 t o . 9, a t t he m aximum e nd o f t he c ontinuum ( see A ppendix I I). D olerite a nd i ronstone p ieces, r epresenting m anuports, q uartz

( 49.37 .)

d ue

t he

t o

a re h ighly r ound a nd s pheroidal.

p ieces a lso f all

t his r ange o f

i n t erms o f

B ut 3 4 o f 6 9 . 9,

f orm

( dolerite,

i ronstone,

a nd

o nly 9 o f

A lmost h alf s how u sewear

1 47

( 67 o f

T he r aw

S ome m aterials a re h ardly

l ava),

i nplying

j ust m irrors t he s hape o f t he o riginal

p ieces a re f resh;

p ossibly

t heir p ercentage c ortex r etained

t he n umber o f f lake s cars t hey e xhibit.

w orked a t a ll f inal

. 7 t o

i ntroduction o f p ecking a s a m eans t o f orm t hem.

m aterials a re e venly s plit a nd

i nto

( 6.17 .)

t hat

t heir

a rtifact b lank.

M ost

o f t hem s how a ny p atination.

1 47 o r 4 5.6%),

i ntroduction o f p ecked s urfaces a s w ell

a f unction o f t he

a s t he c ontinuation o f b attered

o nes. T he p rocess o f a rtifact m anufacture a nd u se g oes t hrough a s eries o f s teps,

s tarting w ith t he s election o f

m anufactured t ransport

i nto s ome u sable f orm,

t o a nother

l ocation.

u ltimately d iscarded a rchaeological

t he r aw m aterial.

e ither

a t

t he s ource o r

A t s ome p oint,

t he m aterial

i nto c ontexts t hat p rehistorians

s ites.

F or s pheroids,

t he m ajor

I t

i s t hen

a fter i s

l abel

r aw m aterials c hosen

i n

E astern a nd S outh A frica w ere q uartz a nd s econdarily q uartzite ( Olduvai ) I simila, S terkfontein M ember 5 ), l imestone i n N orth A frica a nd

t he N ear E ast

o f H earths),

( Ain H anech a nd

l ava

( Olorgesailie,

c hert

( 'l lbeidiya)

t here

i s e vidence f or c lear

f or m embers o f

( Table 4 .4).

I n t hese s ites

f requently c hosen

s tudied),

a h andful

( 105 o f

l imestone,

S pheroids a re n ot e xception t o c ontexts,

m anufacture.

( Table 4 .6).

w hile q uartz

I n t he

a nd q uartzite

1 52 o r 6 9.1% o f t he p ieces

( including

t ool

t he C ave

o f s pheroids w ere m ade o f a d iversity o f m aterials

g ranite). p rehistoric

( Bed 3 ,

i t h as b een s hown t hat

c lass o f s pheroids

a s T able 4 .4 s hows,

w ere m ost

d olerite

a nd o ccasionally f lint o r

s election o f s pecific r aw m aterials b y s ite

t he t ypological

M iddle S tone A ge s ites,

' Ubeidiya), I simila)

l ava,

f lint,

d olerite,

i ronstone,

t he g eneral

s andstone a nd

r ule t hat

i n m ost

f ine-grained h omogeneous r ocks w ere c hosen f or

W hat

t hese m aterials a ll

s hare

i s h ardness a nd

d urability; h owever, w hat s ome o f t hem a lso h ave i n c ommon i s a t endency t o f orm s pheroidal s hapes n aturally, w ithout a ny s ort o f i ntervention b y h ominids.

T he d ivision b etween t hese

n atural'

a nd

' cultural' s pheroids c an o ften b e m ade b y r aw m aterial t ype. S ome s tones o bviously t end t o b e m anuports ( dolerite a nd i ronstone), w hile f or o thers, ( many

t he n atural

l ava s pecimens).

o rigin o f

d olerite s pheroidally w eather t his

t ool

c lass;

t he p iece i s h arder

F ine-grained i nto

t o e stablish

i ntrusive p lutonic r ocks s uch a s

t he f orm

( Oilier

1 975:82)

c hosen f or

s uch p ieces a utomatically b ecome m anuports w hen

1 44

T able 5 .4

R aw m aterial s ites

R aw

( a)

p roperties f or

s pheroids f rom E SA a nd M BA

i n Z ambia a nd Z imbabwe

S phericity

( b)

R oundness

M aterial T ype . 61

q uartz ( n=69)

q uartzite ( n=36)

l ava ( n 6)

c hert ( n=9)

d olerite ( n 13)

i ronstone ( n 14)

C olumn l otal

t o

. 80

. 81

t o

1 .00

. 1

. 3

t o

. 4

t o

. 6

. 7 t o

. 9

1 0

5 9

8

2 7

3 4

1 4.5%

8 5.5 ' ! .

1 1.6%

3 9.1%

4 9.3%

6

3 0

3

2 0

1 3

8 .3%

5 5.6%

3 6.1' ! .

1 6.7%

8 3.3 ' ! .

0

6

0 .0 ' ! .

1 00.0%

1 6.7%

0

9

2

6 6 6.7 ' ! .

1

1 1 6.7%

4 6 6.7%

1 1 1.1 ' ! .

0 .0 ' ! .

1 00.0%

2 2.2 ' ! .

3

1 0

0

4

9 6 9.2%

2 3.1%

7 6.9 ' ! .

0 .0%

3 0.8 ' ! .

0

1 4

0

6

8

4 2.9%

5 7.1' ! .

0 .0 ' ! .

1 00.0%

1 9

1 28

1 2.9 ' , ' .

8 7.1' ! .

0 .0%

1 4 9 .5 ' , ' .

( n 147)

1 45

6 4 4 3.5 ' , ' .

6 9 4 6.9 ' , ' .

T able 5 .4

R aw m aterial s ites

R aw

( c)

p roperties f or

s pheroids f rom E SA a nd M SA

i n Z ambia a nd Z imbabwe

Percentage C ortex

( d)

N umber o f F lake S cars

M aterial T ype 0 t o 3 57 .

q uartz ( n 69)

q uartzite ( n=36)

l ava ( n=6)

c hert ( n 9)

d olerite ( n 13)

i ronstone ( n 14)

C olumn T otal

3 6 t o 7 47 ,

7 5 t o

0 t o 8

9 t o

1 8

1 9+

1 007 .

2 3

1 4

3 2

3 3

2 6

1 0

3 3.37 .

2 0.37 .

4 6.4 ' ! .

4 7.3' ! ,

3 7.7' ! .

1 4.57 .

1 5 4 1.77 .

1 1 6.77 .

3 3 3.3%

1 7 .7 ' ! .

4

3 8 .37 .

0 0 .07 ,

2 2 2.27 .

2 1 5.4%

3

1 8

1 1

1 5

1 0

5 0.07 .

3 0.57 .

4 1.7 ' ! .

2 7.8 ' ! .

5

3

8 3.3 ' ! .

5 0.0%

4

5

4 4.47 .

5 5.6' ! .

1 0

1

7 6.97 .

8 4.67 .

7

6

5 0.07 .

4 2.97 .

3 5 0.07 .

2 2 2.2 ' ! .

1 7 .7 ' ! .

7 5 0.07 .

0 0 .0%

2 2 2.2 ' ! .

1 7 .7' ! .

1 7 .1%

2 8.67 .

2 1.47 .

4 7

2 4

7 6

6 9

5 4

2 4

1 6.3%

5 1.77 .

4 6.9%

3 6.77 .

1 6.3%

3 2.07 .

( n 147)

1 46

T able 5 .4

R aw m aterial s ites

R aw

( e)

p roperties f or

s pheroids f rom E SA a nd M SA

i n Z ambia a nd Z imbabwe U sewear

( f)

P atination

M aterial l ype N one

q uartz ( n=69)

q uartzite ( n=36)

l ava ( n 6)

c hert ( n 9)

d olerite ( n 13)

i ronstone ( n 14)

C olumn T otal

3 2 4 6.4 ' ! .

B attered

A bsent

3 7

6 7 9 7.1%

5 3.6

P resent

2 2 .9%

2 2

1 4

3 6

0

6 1.1' ! ,

3 8.9Y .

1 00.0 ' ! .

0 .0 ' ! .

1 1 6.7 ' ! .

9 8 8.9 ' ! ,

5

6

0

8 3.3%

1 00.0%

0 .0 ' ! .

1

8

1 1.1' ! .

8 8.9 ' ! ,

1 1 1.1' ! .

7

6

1 0

3

5 3.8 ' ! ,

4 6.2 ' i ' .

7 6.9%

2 3.1 ' ! ,

1 0

4

1 1

3

7 1.4 ' ! .

2 8.6 ' ! ,

7 8.6%

2 1.4 ' ! .

8 0

6 7

1 38

5 4.4 ' ! .

4 5.6 ' h

9 3.9' ! .

( n 147)

1 47

9 6 .1' ! .

c arried i nto p rehistoric s ites s uch a s t he C ave o f H earths. B asalt c an a lso w eather i nto t he s ame s hape ( Oilier 1 975:81). I ronstone p ieces f orm s pheroidal c oncretions, a nd a re h ighly r esistant t o w eathering o r a brasion. A ll o f t hese m aterials w ere s elected a s m anuports. T heir p resence i s c onditional o n t he o ccurence o f t he r aw m aterial i n t he v icinity o f t he s ite u nder e xamination. L ittle i nformation i s g iven i n t he a rchaeological l iterature c oncerning t he m echanical p roperties o f r aw m aterials, s ince t hese a ttributes o nly b ecame i mportant f or t hose i nterested i n t echnological q ues ' .ions. T he i nformation t hat i s a vailable c omes f rom e xperimental s tudy o f t he f racture a nd u se o f v arious m aterials ( for e xample, G oodman 1 944; S peth 1 977). W hat i s p resented h ere i s a d escription o f t he p hysical p roperties o f t he m ajor r aw m aterials f rom w hich E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge s pheroids w ere m ade. E ach i s f ollowed b y a b rief d escription o f t he e xperimental m aterials c hosen f or c omparison. I t w as n ot p ossible t o o btain i dentical m aterials, s o s amples t hat g enerally m atched t he m echanical p roperties o f t he p rehistoric o nes w ere o btained f rom w herever p ossible. T his i s a c ritical p oint s ince i t b ecomes c lear t hat s pecific r aw m aterials w ere c hosen i n t he p ast f or t his c lass p recisely b ecause o f t hese p roperties. O n t he o ther h and,

t he i nitial

s hape o f s ome m aterials r esults i n t he r etention o f a

s pheroidal s hape r egardless o f t he d egree o f w orkmanship ( as m easured b y p ercentage c ortex a nd n umber o f f lake s cars). W hile t he g eneral c haracteristics o f t he m aterials a re g iven, i t m ust b e n oted t hat t he t exture a nd p roperties o f t he i ndividual r ock t ypes c an v ary e ven w ithin a s ite. H ere t he c hoice i s a p roduct o f s electing a s pheroidal p ebble i nitially, r ather t han a ttempting t o p roduce o ne. T his c onclusion i s n ot u nexpected i n a b asic t echnology w here t he p ossible m otivating f actor w as t he a cquisition o f s harp f lake e dges r ather

t han

f inished c ore t ools. U uartz i s a h ard m aterial ( a s even o n t he M oh's s cale o f h ardness) t hat i s r esistant t o c hemical w eathering, a nd c an f racture i n a c onchoidal p attern ( Semenov 1 976:34). A t O lduvai t he q uartz u sed f or m ost o f t he a rtifact m anufacture i s c olorless o r w hite;

w hile i t

f ractures u nevenly, i t i s h ard a nd p roduces s harp e dges ( Hay 1 971:18, 1 976:184). M any p ieces h ave e xtremely l arge g rains, t hat r esult i n a c oarse o r l umpy, t exture ( see F igure 1 .5 f or a n e xample). T his m aterial c omes f rom t he N aibor S oit i nselberg n ext t o t he g orge 1 976:184).

( Hay

T he t exture a nd p roperties o f t he q uartz c an v ary e ven

w ithin t his s ite. O ccasional p ieces o f p urple q uartz t hat a re v ery f ine g rained a re f ound i n t he U pper B ed I s ites w here t hey a re a lways h ighly b attered a nd b ecome t he t ype f orm o f a s pheroid. Q uartz p ieces t end t o m ake u p t he m ajority o f b attered p ieces a t O lduvai a s w ell a s a t o ther s ites

( see T able 5 .5).

S ome p ieces

i n t he c ollections

e xamined f or t his s tudy w ere e ven b attered o n t he c ortex. S ome p ieces a re m icaceous ( especially o n t heir c ortical s urface), y ielding a p referred p lane o f c leavage p aralleling t he o rientation o f t he m ica g rains. W hile q uartz i s t he m ost c ommon a rtifact m aterial i n m any E ast A frican E arly S tone A ge s ites, a t K oobi F ora t here i s l ittle q uartz p resent. W hat o ccurs i s i n t he f orm o f s mall p ebbles o f l ess t han 4 0

1 48

Table 5.5

Presence or Absence of Usewear by raw material for seven Early Stone Age sites Usewear

Raw Material Type

Row Total

Battered

None n

¼

n

¼

quartz

601

84.3¼

112

15.7¼

713

45.4¼

quartzite

104

94.5¼

6

5.5¼

110

7.0¼

1 imestone

391

98.5¼

6

1.5¼

397

25.3¼

lava

128

84.8¼

23

15.2¼

151

9.6¼

chert

49

100.0¼

0

0.0¼

49

3.1¼

150

100.0¼

0

0.0¼

150

9.6¼

dolerite

¼

n

----------------------------------------------------------------Column x2

=

91.332

1423

90.6¼

147

with 5 degrees of freedom

9.4¼

100.0¼ Total

1570

Significance

=

0.0

Cramer's V = 0.24119 Note: 1 out of 12 (8.3¼) of the valid cells has an expected frequency of less than 5.0

149

mm. in maximum dimension .p . .

U )

U )Z I. .

a

2 10

u

L u

0

.

-‚

D I R E C T I O N S

i

F L A T N E S

.

R D U N D M E S

s-

S P H E R I C I T Y

A S E M B L A G E

-

a

V A R I A B L E

S P E C I M E N

L Z

C I F C U M F E R N C E

A P E N D I X

D A T A S E T

.4

,( )h 4 C ) s0 ( ' J 0r) 4

-‚

0 U C

c r j

— o

1 .

N'CU -

a

cN c.c c

-

F

0 N ø

C Q '

U S

( ) C i .

C \ J—

N —

.

-

. -4

. -

a PU ) sU ) U )Q 4 a : C O N U )4 — U ) OU )d r ( ' 4— — N — — — ( ' 4( ' 4 — N ( ‚ I N .-s — — - ( 4 C i

U ) O OC C O C U ) c

.

t

U )

— N

.

. . i

— ( ' 4

s

N Nr f r )r )r )c \ 1

t i )I r , CL t ) CU ) O c OI( ' ur )C Jf t ) rF ) -

— ( ‚ 4

-

Nf )c ' JcJ Nc \ j Nc ' j Nr ' )i t ) Nc' 4

4 U )U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U )( P U ) U )U ) U ) U ) i n U ) U ) 4 U )U ) 4t o 4 U ) 4 GQ U )'C - 4 U )Q ' —C ( 710 —(71 r )'tf l N 4 NU )4 f )F )r4) r ')r )c ' Ic i t )N . s N 0C s J N 4 N .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

s

.

.

S

.

.

.

ø

e

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

S

.

.

.

.

.

— - -(‚ 4 - ‚

z

•

a C

.

S

Ø

C U )- U ) U ) — Q « - U ) 4C Q D U )0 0 1

B A T ' F P F D

5.

.

.

•

e

•

c o o c 'o c C C c o Cc o e 1 •

P E F E N T A G F

a L i C o z

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

S

.

.

o o c c r C C C •

s

e

s

.

e

s

s

•

r }( ' Jcu

( ' I s - s — N

c 0 0

0c o oc . c o c o c o oc C o. C c

.

•

ø

•

•

F ) U ) C 'O N F )

• -

.

-

—

-

-4

5—

5—

• 5 v•

0 ' •

r - O .

.

.

.

.

e

S

•

•

•

s

F ) Q 4 N U )C 4

U )c a : — sr ) 4 — s

-

F ) — U ) ( ' lU

-

S

3 r )

.

.

S

e

•

—o s — Ncl N r )

a r 0 .

a

a :r i( 2 'C

.

r.

.

cN .

.

.

I

I

•

S

S

F ) 4 NC ' 0 r )r ) - -F )

C ' I* 0 ' .

S

.

.

.

,

.

U -

U ) C 0 '

I t )

U ) C 4P- r s Cif l-C 4 N

L i C

t n

M A T E R I A L

L A

x L i

U I

a 7 « C u • sU ) F .I L J

I t 4 M

0 U

< _ J U i

z « o UL .

c i

0 .

z 0

I 4 0 c F-1 IF I - c 0

i . 4 U I w ( 4 ) D

I < Z I 4 C i .

0

gy

( n

I -

5—

5—

5—

5—

I4 Ljj

i

( 4 )1( 4 )4 2 :

. I I - ö I . _ #

-

5 -.

—4

C

5—

C

( . 1

a :

U ) F ) U ) 4 — s0 ' ( ‚ 4 •• • . . S . . S . 0 5 , 5 • • • • Ø S S S — s 0 U )U )' - U ) 4 U )N U ) 04 U ) ' C U )r ' 4 U )N ' 0 4P ' -

0 N 0 A C C O 4 U ) a ' - a ;a 'o a

C O d N C N c ar - c a ;o C N 4 i t N O4 C U ) t O N M M r l 0 0 U )4 i f )U )c . c N 4 Orn a 0 ' N O r ,U ) U ) N 0 ' N a j N U ) U ) U ) a ; N 0 ' 00 ' U ) « ) U ) F ' -N U ) U ) U ) 0 N -0 'N U ) F ) U ) N N F ) U ) t r 0 - o N N C,

-

C l i r n N r- c 4

-

C F ) a ' e ' i c a ; N c a :r '- q o C C O c C ' - r e )C '( ' J4 U ) op r ) C N U ) U ) O N - cr ,

C c o 4 a ;

-

r i n oa : N 0 ' N a : 0

N - N - N N N N N

N . '

N N

-

N N N N

-

N N N

C - ' . 0N F ) U ) C O 0 ' N U ) N U ) ( \ 44 N N -s 0 4 - 0 4 -# "

C o

-

-

-

-

C F )U ) 0 F ) . _

-

‚

-

-

N -

N

-

N

-

N

-

-

N

N N N

N - -

C o F )N 0 4 a ' -0 ' 0 4(\ jC 0 U ) 44 0 4U ) 4 U ) U ) U ) N C U ) - ‚ . - - -' - N N .‚

.

-

. ‚

U ) U )C U ) 0 C U )C c c U ) U ) 0 U ) C U ) c U )C C U ) U )U )C OC C C C 'U )C OC U )0 0U )C U ) CC C CC 'C ' - -c N N - - 0 4 0 4a ; ' ) -( 7 'r N r4N J r , dU ) . 4 4 - '- N C ' JU ) N N _. 'N

N

N N N N N N N N N c mN ( N i F ) N N N N N i n N i n F ) N N ( ' 4 0 4( ‚ 4NN ( ‚ 4 0 4 0 4N N N c m v i U ) U )F )N I t )U ) U ) U ) ( 1 )4 4 I ) 4 F ) U )F )U ) I t )U ) 4 U ' )U )4 U ) c tU ) U ) F )( I )U ) I t ) U ) 4 e F ) N 4 4 U ) ( I C U ) C " )I t )' . 0 oU )N a ; - c ' .c c - r i r - 0 C O -' - i n( ‚ 4 - F )N i n 4 N i n. 4 F ) N U ) ( ‚ 4U )' d -4 F ) I t )U ) ( ‚ 4' .0 - N F )

-

' . 0u

' .

%0

s O4 9 , U )

i lC O

. t N C U ) U ) 0 'N F ) F ) 4 U ) C I t )4 U ) - r i ( ' àr ' ) 40 4 0 4 - - C 0 4

r ,

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

S

.

.

•

S

.

S

S

.

.

•

S

S

S

.

5

0

5

I

S

0

•

S

•

S

S

.

5

.

0

5

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

.

•

0

9

0

5

0

0

0

e

0

.

e

0

0

1

0

0

.

S

0

0

0

0

•

.

.

•

•

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

S

S

.

I

•

S

S

•

a

•

5

•

S

I

-'

•

S

S

S

*

4 N t f l U )c . - 40 U ) 4 0 ' U ) NN - U ) U ) 0 ".CC ' ) 4 0 0 4 N ( ‚ . 4 ( 4- . a

-4

coO C .

.

I

.

•

0

•

0

•

S

•

•

S

0

S

•

0

S

•

O0 0 0 C CC ,C C C 'C C CC O S

•

.

.

•

.

.

S

.

.

.

.

0

.

0

0

.

.

I

•

S

•

5

•

.

•

r )0 '0 '0 ' - 0 4 U ) - C O0 CQ N N C O a ; U ) 0 ' c ' a ; U ) N U ) 0 ' U ) 0'U ) 0 ' U ) 0 ' U ) U ) U ) I ht , -U )U ) 0 ' 0 '

•

.

.

•

.

.

C 0 0 0 C C eir C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C C O o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C C •

-

' . c '

.

.

-

( ' 40 4 0 4

.

( ' . 4- - U ) U ) U ) 00 ' U )- U )C OC o I t )- 4 I )I t )U ) -w 4-. 'C . U ) U )U ) C O F - 0 ' N U ) C O U ) .U ) U ) U ) N 0 ' U ) U ) C O C o C o N - a ;U )

-

r ,

•

.

.

I

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

•

.

.

S

•

S

•

C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C CC C 0 00 0

.

O 0 N C U )0 ' U ) . s

.1

5

1

e

.

.

.

.

.

.

e

.

0 0 ' C 0 00 U )C ,C . '

-4

-

. 4

.

"

0

F )

.4

S

0

4F -

0 00 . 0C O OC 0 0 0 0 cC . 0 0 0 0 0 .C oC . 0 00 S

0

S

0

0

1

0

S

e

5

.

•

•

•

•

•

0

•

•

•

•

•

•

0 4 4U ) . 4 F ) N OF - C s . 0 N C N 0 ' U )( ‚ 4N C o 4 U ) i t' . 0U ) U ) . 4 - 4 F )F )0 4 4 ' . 0 4C U . 4 4 4 C U4 F )0 4 U )U ) U ) ( ' 1 4 r )U J C N N -4

U ) F ) 0 0 40 ' .U )U ) s . t . ( ‚ 4 0 ' •

.

S

s

.

•

S

0

0

•

.

U ) 4U )N I t ). 4 U )F ) U ) 4

-.

F ) U ) C OI t ) c o

0 'I n S

.

U )0 'U )( 0 O N 0

.

.

S

.

. ' S

F - I t )0 ' .F ) N a ; U ) 0

.

•

I

0

•

' Q•

•

4 4 F ) F )I t )- U )F - i n F ) N 0 4( ‚ I N - ( ' IN

0 4F i 0 'F l S

0

0

S

)0 4 0 4 . 'U )U )0 - U i 0

5

s

0

•

0

•

5

-

S

S

( ‚ I N N ( ‚ 4N F ) ( ' 4( ' . 4( U NC ( ‚ 4F )F ' - N - U ) 0 0 '( ) 1 4 )N O U )F )

0 4 4 U )

•

0

s

0

S

0

S

•

)U ) U ) 4 I t )U ) ( ' I NC i n U ) F )F )F ) ( ' . 1 0 4F )( ‚ 4F )( ‚ 40 4 F )C U C U 4 U f ) OF ) 0 0 0If l 4 O U )C O U )It ) U )0 ' Or- N U ) 0 c r iC O N F )O i

U ) 0 ' 0 ' N 4 O •

S

•

I

•

•

S

•

I

•

•

.

.

.

.

a

.

e

U )F - 0 4N N -( ‚ 4F -

. .

-

.

.

.

5

,

.

.

.

.

S

,

•

S

4 4 . 4 F )C Ui nF )F )N F )

S

S

S

0

5

0

5

S

•

S

•

S

•

•

4 ( ‚ 4F ) F )F ) -4

-4

F ) 4U ' )' .O N a ;0 ' O - Nr ) 4U )' .C N c r i0 ' c N F )4 U ) U ) N C U 0.. 'N F ) 4U ) U )N U ) 0 ' 0 0 4F )4 U ) U )N ( N iN ( ‚ 4( ' . 4( ‚ 4 0 4F ) F )F )F ) F )F ) ( f )F ) F 'F ) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4t o U )U )U ) i n t r L n t o i nt o s . cs . c ' . 0U )' . 0 ' . c j' . 0

2 12

C C, 0 C C — U ) N C O U )C a : I f ) 4 U.)T N 4 U ) a : N

-

c ( \ I 4 C

-

0 U . U ) f . -I f )C N t f l0 C 'r )

N 0 ' N 0 '

N U )

0 C

. -.

U )

'N C '

0 a :< . Nr a : C — a — r C . — ir, r , ' c co ' o 'Na :c F 4 a : o otn a : N N a : a : 0 ' « ) o r,;a ' a : a : a : a : a : a -a :a : a : a - a ' a ' C O a ' t o c a- ‚ cr ' - a ' a : a : U ) N a : a ' aa ' a :N N F - a : a ' t oa ' a :a : -

N —N J

— 4

I t )4 —

— —

a :U ) 4

—

-4

N

4 -

N

N 4 -

N N N a : N 0 1

—

-

IN 1 $ )N N

4 —

—

( '

—

—

—

J

N

—

—

N N

F N N NN U )

N

—

N

N

J

C \ J J

a

a

CJC

-

,

N N U ) N OU ) a : cN C U ) 4 F ) 4 U )

U ) 0 U ) C oC C 0 0 U ) U )C U ) C C CU )U . )0 U ) 0 0I f ) C C C U )CC CU ) C CC C J. . N. 4 0 4 4 - -' 0 - )cir —C ' Ju ) -r ) N 4 N Na 4 N C ) f l — N oj C ' )

U ) C -0 0 C 0 C ' N N.. . N . . 4. - p i -. .

t o N N N F ) 0 4N N N 0 )N N N 0 )N 0 4C ' ) N N ( ' 4N N N N 0 )N ( ‚ 4N C ' )N NC ' ) N 0 4N ( ‚ 4 N N(' )N N 0 )C ' )( ‚ 4( ‚ 4N C ' ) U ) U ), 1 . 0 U )N 0 ( ' 44 4

U ) U ) U )0 4U ) U ) U )U ) U ) I LU ) 4 U ) U ) U ) U ) 4 U — —

a — - 4

0

• ..

—

4 Z — — CC ) N

.

.

a

.

.

— .

U ) U ) U ) O

U )

' l e

i n U ) U ) N U s F )' C 4 U ) U ) N U ) U ) U )

a ' U )C N a :C 4 N Dr -, a U ) U ) a a '0 ' i n . - 4 t f )4 r 4F )a : N C ' )I ,-— a : I C )C ' )C ' )C ' )N N ' - 00 ) ON ( ‚ 44 — N 0 )C ' )U ) t o c

.

, r

N N N

U )

F )F ) i t

-

.

a

.

.

.

4 N d 4 4 4 l e U ) I f )N 4 4 U )4 i n 44 U ) F ) N F ) F )4 N F ) 4 F )( ' 44 ( ‚ 1i nU ) U ) U ) 4 a l a •e • • a a • • •• • • l l * l S l • , Ø . • Ø . , , S

F )F )t o CN F ) ,

s

.

.

.

,

.

l •

•

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

a •

a

• a

l

•

s

a

a

a

l

l

s

l

•

a

.

.

c 0 c o e c o c -e o c e . .

. .

a

N

. . . -s —

.

.-

.

-

.

.

.

.

a

l

•

e

l

•

.

s

•

.

.

.

.

.

ø

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

0 c C oe, c o c o r c o e . c o 0 0 o C oc c o c 0 O C ' Od, C

C ' )

.

.

.

.

.

.

C ' )

.

.

( ‚ 4

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

F ) 4 - N

CC C 0 0 0 c iZ 0 e I r - 0 C C Q C OC C 0 c O O C o O

.

.

.

.

a

0 41' ) -( ‚ 4

—.

. —

0C - 0 0 CC 0 C CC - 0 0 0

0 ' - C ' ) - -0 40 ' j F )a : a : N N N U ) _N r -t 2 r bC e a : U )4 I nF - a : i tU ) —0 ' 0 4F N N — N N. . , —o j N q N F )r , — N 4C ' J 4 N N C - F ) Nr 1 - U ) U )C . O NQ ' qF - C -Q

.

.

.

.

.

C \ J

0

0 o

F - C N N N C ' )U )

U O a

r • •

NC ' J 0 4 0 4. . .C -. i C . 419 0 0 • l

•

l

•

S

•

a

S

•

Ø

I

S

—c ' Jtør ' )o Jp - 0 )0 ' U ) 0 4 No ' 0 4 — a :a ' N i t ) N OU ' ) 0 ) 00 ) S

Ø

Ø

•

•

S

I

S

S

I

I

•

a

•

.

s

a

a

s

U )

l

e

.

. -

.

.

.

a

a

1 .

.

s

I C )F - N d ' c t o )r

—4

00 ' t OF ) U ) N N C — U ) F )U ) F )0 ) 0 'I n0 ' U )4 s OC ' ) ( V 0 ' ( ‚ 4I f )—0 ' 4 C ' )F ) 0 ) 0 ' 0 ' N 0 4 U ) I t )I C ) - 0C 0 ) 0 't o a. • • S . I * S a • S • * l S . . • a . . . ø . . . S . . . . . . . • l S • • • • • a a a U )N 4 ' c N U ) U ) ' c U ) U ) U ) F ) U )N U ) N U )U ) 4 U )N U )0 ' 0 ) NN 4 N F )4 N U ) U )' c U ) U ) 0 0 'U ) 0 ) N 4O D U ) N4 -4

U )I C ) U ) U ) I t )t o t o I t )i nU )U ) I t )U )U ) U ) I f )U ) I t )I t )U )U )U ) U )U ) U ) U ) I t )t oI t )i n U ) U )I t )U )I t ) U )t o U ) U ) I t )U ) L I )I t ) U )I t )U )

0 ) 0 '0 — NN 4 U )

F - 0 ) 01 0 - ( „ 4 N d U ) U ) F - 0 ) 0 0 -0 )N d t os f ,t - 0 )0 ' C

2 13

—

C ' )P I U )U ) N 0 )0 '0 — N F )

C -U U ) 4 4 0 C 4 0 ma ) ; a )r- c ro

4

0 C '

U )Q

U ) N a

-

c ' 4c I nQ 0 0

C O 0 0

-

U ) F )

U) r- Q

0 F CJ 4

C \

F )

j

p-

—

N N N

—

—

.4

-

—

( \ i —

C -. -

-i

F ) c i '

0 U ) U )P - .

cc. —

a ) 0 ' 0 ' C OI ' -

0

t f llf lLf lQ

0 r - 0 0 o r 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' U ) 0 0 ' a,0 0 « 0 ' c i '

N

4

c

U )

—

0 N C '

—

N N

I L

C U )

r ,—

N

C r U a ' U ) c r ,

U )t) —l' a C O N uN ( \ 4 ( \ — N

—

-

-

0 '

( c

C ,a ) a i

C '0 ' Nl it ( \ j

—

—

i U )(r ,r )

CM

O C C OC 'L I )0 0C L I )C U ) I n I )0 0 0 0 I n U ) 0 W O I t )C o I n 0 c : t o I t )W O0 0U ) 0 U ) C I n I t )I t )C U ) I t )C N .4 — — N ( M — N — — N N N ( M N N — N % f ,N — F ) — N - -. F ) N - - — N I N L t ) N — N

0 U ) 0 ' U ) N F ;

—

I

a

I

.

•

I

'

ø

*

•

•

•

•

•

I

a

I

ø

•

•

OC c .

e

.

.

•

.

I

•

I

I

.

.

S

.

l

0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 c 0 .

.

.

.

.

O C C C C a

l

.

l

—

U ) 4 U ) N U ) t o— 0 ' N U )U )

a

•

S

•

I

•

•

•

•

•

—

•

N - U ) 0 U ) •

•

•

•

N - i tC o U ) 0 '

-

•

•

•

•

•

•

U ) 4 U ) C o Y D t r , 4 4r ). .C \ Jc U ) c r ie 0 'C ' JN N 4 C oC o c U ) C )II )r ) O F )Q '0 'cJ U )U ) Q 'Q Q U )C 0 'U 0 '0 O 0 'O ' C o CC )C U ) 0 0 0 f l- r S . I . •• • • . . • • . . • • . e . , . . . . . . l . a . . . . . .

.

.

.

.

N

.

l

i r U )N - U ) I t )U ) N F ) F )F ) 4 4 c t* F )U ) 4 F ) N N eU )F ' )U ) I t )F )( M U ) F )— I t )F )F ) 4 I t )I )4 4 F ) • I • I . e . s • . . I . . . . . .. . . . . ‚ . . . . . . . e . . . . . .

4 4 4 4 U )If l NC b U ) 0 'O U ) U ) ø

•

.

.

0 0 0 Of› c 0 0 c O 0 0 0 c c e l c 0 00 Q 0 0 0 c o 00 0 0 .

.

.

.

.

— N ( U -C \ J —

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

—0 ' 4r ( U F ). . .r ) F ),

N -

0 0 0 0 o 0 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 z0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 C C 0 C 0 0 0 0 o

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

F ) U ) 4 C ) * * O U ) 0(I ) U ) U ) C oI t )U ) F ) C U F )N U )

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

I

ø

e

l

•

•

•

•

I

l

a

I

S

a

a

l

a

S

I

a

a

•

e

.

s

.

.

.

U ) U ) o U ) U )F I 4 o 0 ' F )4 o c oc 4 a ) U ) C U ) U ) eN I n 4 ( U U )N 4 U ) a 4 U ) F )N - t mF )C O 0 ' — N - 00 ' C F )0 a ) 00 ) 00 ' t oL I )N 0 'U ) I ' .N I n F )0 0 0 'N - - - C o U ) N 4r ) U ) F II ' N N4 r )N -4 —o U ) o N 4 4 — 4 -( Y )U )C UU ' ) N F ) 4 r ' - U )C N - U )C 'C U( 4 ) - 00 '0 4( I DU )

u ' )F )C ) U ) U )4

—

—4

C O( I t )U ) C OC O F ' )0 ' •

•

s

e

•

I

•

. I

t o N F ) C o 4 ' l

•

a

s

F ' )C U ) U ) a

e

•

-

l

-

l

N C U a

.

-

l

( 1 )N F )U )- U )F )i n N C )0 "F ( C •

s

.

•

•

S

•

•

•

—4

4

-

•

•

•

C U U )C •

•

•

•

F) •

U ) 0 •

•

—

•

C ) •

r ) 4r ) F ) F )r )r ) 0 )N ' N F )N -r ) U ) U ) U )In N O N t o I f )( ' J O?' 4 ' F ) OP - L I ) OF - U ) U ) U ) o U ) U ) O F ) F ) m Nr ) N -f l, •

•

•

.

•

I n I t )I S ' )t o i n

4( 5 )10? .

•

I f )

U ) 0 ' 0

.

•

.

.

•

.

•

•

.

•

•

•

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

e

.

U ) 0 ' U )U ) U ) U ) U ) N F ) C U ) F ) 4LI ) U ) .

.

a

.

s

.

.

.

,

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

t oU ' )U )I t )I t )U )U ) ( 5 )I t )I nU ) I t )I S )I t )I t )I )I t )I S )U ) U ) I t )U ) I t )I t )I t )U )I t )I f )I S )U )I t )I S )I S )I t )I t )( I ( ' 4C UN C U

- N r d 4 U )0 ' C - N F ) 4U ' ) U )r- U ) o C —cur ' )4 'U ' ) U )? ' U )0 ' O — Nr ) 4U ) QF - U ) 0 " N ( UC U( U( UC U( U ( JN ( UF )F )F )F ) I )F )F )F ' )F )F ) * 4 4 4 4 * 4 4 * 4 I t )I ! )U ) 1 4 )U ) U ) U ' )I f )U ) 1 0

2 14

U )

C .

C

C

Q

4

C

C

-U ) N U )

— F)U

C ' C '

C NC U ] 0 —

JV

V )

a

U )

O

aC P C c& C Oa

c i. .t

ac0aa -

C ' C ' N C ' C ' C ' U ) C 'N N 0 ) N r

Q- 4 - U )r c 4 oe C ' 00 U ) N C ' 0 )N c o

N N N N C ' N N

-

—

tl

N N N

—

N

r ' —

—

—

( ' 4N

-

N

—

. - . '

U )C' 4U )- N 4 C'CP - U ) C ' U ) Nc t .N — N —‚ ‚4

—(‚ 4N U ]r

( ‚ 4 - -N — N ( ‚ 4N ( ‚ 4 0 ' U )U o N o o

( ‚ I ( ‚ 4

4 U ) N U )e

( ‚ 4

N

eL f )

o U )C U ) 0 r.

0 U )U )0 0 U )C 0 C U ) 0 U ) 0 0C C 0 C 0 0 0U )C 0 0 0U )o c c c c o oc U ) c c c U ) 4 U ) 4 U ) N V ) N 4 N ( \ a. 4eJ N r )4 c' 4 N N U ) N N OU )U )

U ) U ) i n.-

I f l( ‚ 4* V I t U )I n i n4 U ) U )U ) U ) U ) 4V )r

.i -

i n

U ) U ) % V 4 U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) 4 U ) i n U ) U ) U ) U )

4 NO ' N U ) U ) U ) N U ) U ) U ) N — U )C U ) 0 N C 0 4 ,0 U ) Or ) ( ‚ 4( ‚ 4 0 )0 0 ' - 4 N N ( 7 U ) U ) -0 ' F - F - I n 4 ( ' 4 0 '— I t ) N i n N V ) - NCO N i nU ) ' 4- r ) 0 N 4 o--Nr n-r )—N—r -( \ JocNor )oN--r )U ) . .

.

.

.

.

. .

‚

•

.

•

.

•

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

‚

.

.

.

0

e .

.

0

.

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0 4 I t )I )4 ( 0 U ) 4 - i nU )U ) 4 U ) U )i n 4 U ) i t i n e i ni n 4 9 4 4 4 ( ‚ 4 4 4 4 4 4 4V ) I t )4 4 I t )I t )U )U ) i n r ' . 0

4

4

0

0

. .

o

.

• .

e

,

.

.

0

.

.

• •

s

•

.

•

•

•

•

•

•

• •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

C U ) U )U )0 —I ) U )U ) C O — -0 ' U )0 0 —U ] — C O U ) - U ) 0 ' U ) 0i NC N U ) U )0 ' N N N — N U ) U ) I t )U ) 4 —U ) U ) C U )0 ) U )O 'Q N U ] 0 )0 0 N U )0 C F - C ' O ' U ) U )0 )F - U ) C,U ] U ) U ]CQ 0 )o U )O U ) U ] Cr -U )N U ) . 0

0

*

O

S

. .

.

.

. 0

0 0 0 0 00 QC C 0 - - Nc ' J 0 4 — C Qo .. . N — U ) - U )U ) N N4

c o c . . • C U )" C ( 7 ' F ) U )r )F

0

0

.

0

0 0C O O

0

o r'C

- - N N N. s- NV .

-

C Oi n0

.

.

0

0

0 0 0 c 0 0 o 0c . . . e . ‚ . . ‚ . . N P -F )I nI f )i n( ‚ 4U ) —0 'F ) 4 j r , i nN F )N ' 4 4 NF l 0 'L ( )r( \ j 0 4 4V ) -

• •

•

•

•

.

0 0

1

•

.

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

.

.

O c 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C O C c O c c c c o c c o c 0 0 N . — N

. -C ' J

- N 0 4 0 4N

o o Ö o 0 o oe . 0 0 o c o c 0 0 0 0 0 0 0c e 0 0 0 0 o o 0 .

0

0

0

0

0

.

0

0

0

0

.

.

• ‚

•

•

s

•

•

e

s

•

•

•

•

• 0

•

4 0 4U )0 '( ‚ 4N U ) 0 ' 4 U ) U )4 0 ' U ) U )( ' 4r n— N 4 ( ' J Q U ) U ) U ) U ) — — U ) — 0 ) 4 C h 0 '04 4 F ) F )t o U ) — F )F ) U )F )F ) —. U )0 ) 4 F - — N 0 4 N U ) V ) — V )0 'U) U )Lf ) — k f ) N 4 F ). 4 0 4 U ) f )I n V ) U )4 — 1 4

U ) I f )0 4 F ) 0 '0 ) N N C ü jC )F ) — I t )0 4

I t )U )U )N e U ) F ) i n

1

V ) -- C s J- -- N N N N N - -

—

o

.

)U ) r nC )L O — 4 i nC o F ) 4 00 ' - - U ) U ) U )

N U ) t r i n4 U )U ) F )0 ' 4 i nN t r i 4 4 F -

F -

)4 i n c tN ( ‚ 4U ) 4 U )U ) 44

-

F )( UV )N O

F )U )e F -

0 ' U )C I n U ) 4 OF - Q( 7 ' or ' )F )N 4 0 ) I t )( f )C U )U ) 0 ) N 0 ) 0 0 U ) I t )4 0 — 0U )0 0I ni n0 ) 0 0 4 i n N 0 4 F ) 0 0

0

•

0

a

ø s

s

•

•

•

•

0

0

•

1

1

0

0 .

0

• S

,

.

•

.

I

S

• •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

S

•

•

•

•

•

•

U ) U ) N0 ' U ) U )'G'C U )N U ) U ) U )* U )U ] 40 ' U ) V )P- U ) * 4 U )N N U )4 F )4 V ) N N U ) U ) U )4 U ) N V ) U ) O0 'F - U ) U ) O O F - 4 4 F ) 0 4U )U ) • .

.

0

e

.

.

.

.

.

0 4f l )V ) 0 U ) 0f r )O C r e )0 ) O V )O ' ( ' Jr- - U )C V ) C U )In U ) 0 Q U ) U )CJ U ) Ni f )U ]U ) .

0

0

.

0

0

0

0

.

a

.

a

• 0

S

.

0

.

0

.

.

.

S

.

0

0

•

a

.

U ) N 0 )C N U ) N 0 ' N C ' 0 ) U ) U ) U )N O 4 0 U ) U ) U ) U ) 4 N U ) U ] O N U ) 4 U ) V )V ) 0 ) U ) U )N U )U ) ( ‚ i N N( ‚ 4 0 4

-

0

.

•

.

• 0

•

4 U ) N —Q 'P-

N I - N N F - F F - F - F - N N N I ' -F - N N N F - N I ' -N F - N F - N . N F - N F - F - N N N C ' C ' 0 ' 0 '

C — N F ) ,4 I t )U )F - U )0 0 -( ‚ 4F ) 41 4 ) U )N C o 0 '0 - N V )4 U ) N C O 0 '0 -N F ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U )IO O P - F - N P -F -F - N N N F - 0 ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U )0 ) 0 ) 0

2 15

U ) U )F - U ) 0 ' C- ( ' IF ) 91 4 ) 0 'Q 'Q 'Q 'O ' O 0 O 0 O 0 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 40 1

C — C - 0 U ) - C F ) eC U ) ( f )U ) N U )I n Q U ) -N 0 'O C L 00 0 0„ U ) U )U 0 ' C U ) N C O U )NC N ) U )Lt )t- 0 0 ' - CC C L ,U )'C N N U ) U C N. - C 0 NN U )NO 0 'O ' U )N

4. F ) N U ) N — N F ) U ) t )N t n U ) i n 0 ' 0 Q d4 o C C o 0 ' t ni n C C 01 c r .o -a : o N U ) U ) ' U ) C C C O 4C U )F w ; %C N N ) F )In N V) m ' U )—c % Jc Nori nU )o - NO '0 N 0 ' 0 ' • U ) 0 ' 0 'U ) O '0 0 '0 '«

N N

N N

-

N N

-

N

N e '1- 4 N N N

—

—

-

N

—

—

—

—

N

-

—

-

( ' 4 ( J N

-

—

N N

( ‚ J U ) U )C ' 4 .'C U )U ) N r , 01 4 e N C C -1- W , 4 4 . - - - - i n - - N. -. - N N 4 cm C ' J - N

-

N

-

-

N

-

—

N ( ‚ 4( \ j N

N - -

—

—

—

—

-

U ) F ) .(‚ 4 N

N

-

C ' J

(‚ 4

-

—

4

0 '

—

4

N

"c

C I t )U )' 0 0U )C 0 C C C O U ) C Ol t ) C O OC C CC I t )C I t ) Ott )U ) I t )C 0 I t )0 0 0 0o C C U ) C 0 CC N F )N L r ,r 4

N- ' 4

U )

44 U ) U ) U ) 4 4 U ) % ( ) i

.

I t ) i

( ' 44 4

.

I t ; i

i

i

•

e

U ) t o U ) F ) U ) U ) U ) 4

N U )i n 0 'U ) I t )N - N U ) 0 'N 0 F ) 4 ( ' 4F N 0 U ) U ) ( ‚ 4N F ) N

( \ J •

.

.

.

i

i

i

.

5

5

0

5

S

i

s

( ‚ 4

I t )U )f l ,I t )t o U ) U ) F ) 4 .U ) U ) U ) 0 I t )U ) U )I t )U )

F )N — F )0 C 4 U ) .-. F )U )0 'U )F )F ) C O N N I t )C o F ) U ) U ) F )- U ) 4 . N F )— C U F )F ) N ( ‚ 4 4 - U ) 4 . 04 ( ' 4

u

e

•

e

e

•

s

i

i

S

i

i

i

i

i

i

i

i n 4 I t )F ) F ) N 44 F ) 4 4 i n U )U )4 I t )4 ( ' . 44 U ) U ) 4 4( C ,14 4 . I t )F )F ) N )U ) 4 .C U N F )F )F ) U )F )I t )4

U ) •

i

i

S

5

i

i

i

S

i

S

•

5

•

i

i

.

1

5

5

5

e

u

1

1

5

5

•

S

i

•

S

5

O U ) U ) ON a ' U ) U )tt )c ' U ) U )0 'N N Q '0 ON -N o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C C C 0 0C 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 .

e

.

.

e

.

u

.

.

i

.

,

.

.

u

.

e

.

.

.

.

G d N U ) U ) U )C .F U ) C o 0 'I t )N ( ' J N - NC U

e

.

e

0 0 .

.

.

0 0 0 0 .

.

.

.

.

00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 .

.

.

.

.

e

i

e

e

i

e

.

.

U ) U ) N o0 U ) -0 ' I t )U ) 0 'U ) N I t )U ) 4 i F ) ( ‚ 4

—

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C O OL , C C C O O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C -0 00 0 0 0 C O N 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e

i

s

e

s

.

i n

-‚

.

.

S

.

.

i

i

e

e

0 'C o ' .rntf lO N F ) 4 0a N N - 4r ) U )0

.

•

•

i

•

i

i

e

i

•

e

i

e

e

u

e

s

s

e

.

.

•

•

u

5

5

5

5

5

i

4 0 40 ' 4 U ) i nU )0 U ) 0 'U )N N - U ) 4 U )N 0 ' . -- N - U )F ) F )I C )U )U ) U ) ' l t 0 ' i d U ) N. 4 F ) U ) 4 0 -in 0 0 0 U )

—4

O N N )

n,2 ' 4jj U )I f , U,U )F )0 4 F )U )U ) U ) ( ' 4 -(' U ) U )

-

Or )

-

U ) t oC U )

-

0 - F )

( ' . 4U ) 4 ( 9' &

-

—

U )F )U ) I t )4 4F ) 4 . I t )F ) 4 4 F ) U )U ) F )N I t )( ‚ 4U ) • 4 .F ) 4 F ) F ) 44 F )U ) 4 4 U ) 4F ) 4 I f )F ) F ) 4F )F ) F )F )F )N ) C ) U ) O pi F ) I t )0 ( ‚ 4 0U ) U )F )U ) Ø ' .i U )F )U ) 4 I t )0 ' I t )N C U F ) •

•

S

s

s

l

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

i

.

u

.

.

.

u

i

e

u

u

s

s

P - 0 t oU ) C o e t oC ON )C o ' 4 i

e

e

e

e

u

i

s

i

F )C o ' . 0F )4 .I t ) F ) 0 ' C UI n N D - -A jU ) 0 C CU ) F )

' ' .

i

e

e

.

-d .

t o 0 ) 0 0 0 •

s

e

e

s

I t )U ) Ott ) i nF )0 0 I f )N - i n .

i

.

.

e

u

i

.

e

.

.

.

s

e

.

e

e

.

.

.

.

.

.

e

s

i

s

s

s

u

i

•

•

•

e

OF ) N - 4 ' C O' N 0C e

e

i

e

u

s

i

s

i

e

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 ' 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 '0

0 0 0 0 C ' )c ' . JN C ' . )( ‚ 4C ' ?N N C ' . )C U( ' . 4( ‚ 4( ‚ 4( ‚ 4C ' )( ‚ 4( ‚ 4C ' )( ‚ i N C ' )C ' )( ' 41' ) N C ' . )N C U( U N c ' . iC ' )C ' )N C ' )C U C U N ( ' 41 % ) Nt ' . ) N C ' )C ' . )

2 16

N ) C ( ' 4 0 I C ( ‚ 4 a :a u ) U )r a U ) C M C d C — - -r ' - N G ,C ' a •o ' — oa : i L f l O -F )O O N C o O D ( X ) a ' a : a :a 'c ' a p .o r -P I a —t -a : Q- a : a ' u ' a : a ' C CC C C C C 00 P , o — r a :r .r - c o - - 0 1—r 4000 U ) 1 -a 'cU )—c p .P a : a : — a ' a ' a ' a : a - a : a : a : a ' a ' a ' a r - a- a :a ' a ' - — Ø a :a ' a ' - a : a ' a : — 0 1 a : — a ' — p . a :

cuc QP

C al - a ' JI1 ) 4 a a ' . i

( ' J N ( " 4( ' 4 1 )F ' .C

—

F )0 N C ( ' J( ' . J 0 U )

- a : —

o t o C I ! )c l U )

cI l )C

-

-

a : 4 N N N I t a : c c ic M ( 7 a ' a ' — — - N — i( Jç' 4( ‚ 4( \ I — —

—

F )N c ua - cI F ) a '

a :N N

—

—

—

—

. 4 -

I t )C OC - I t )0 0 I t )C C .0 00 0 0 0 0 I t )C U )U )0 0U )0 I t )C

I f )

.4

—

a '

-

a : —

0 0 0 0U )C .I i )0

U ) r o e i

I r

( ' ( Ni

c ' 4 F )r

' 4( 4N ( ‚ 4r F ) F 4'U ' JF ) (

f r) i r Ir

t u

U )U )I t )% D 4 U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) 44 4 t o U ) 4 U )U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) CF )U ) U ) U ) c c -4 4 . -1t )F ) N cJ F ) - - -4 ø

.

.

•

ø

.

c o

k c )

.

S

.

•

S

•

-r) - U )U ) l -N - 4 a : U )Q -C c ' u .( ‚ 4 —— 0 F )F )( ' - F ) 0 C - 0 )N 0 - - C .

•

.

U )

D

ar- a :Q -c - a 'a : a :q a ' a : .. . • . . . • . . •

S

o

)

i f ,

.

.

.

S

I

S

'

S

.

•

.

.

U )

•

.

I

•

.

•

a

S

ø

.

ø

—

F ) -

F )4 F ) C 01 $ )

.

.

a : cu

l -

F )

S

•

U)

0 0 0 0 F )

i

.

4 U ) 4 U ) C ' 44 ( ‚ 3F ) 4 F ' . F ) 4 ( ‚ 4( t )I l - F ) U ) U ) 4 U )F ) F ) 4 F ) 1 ) 4 4-4 4 F )4 4 ( 1 4F )F )U )4 U )

4 4 4 *

.

U )U ) 4 4 U ) 4 4 U ) ' 0

a : oa 'a ' •

S

c c C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

.

.

0 l - a : U )c j a : Q '- N -( 1 1c N a : a : U ) U ) a : N ( \ j 0(7 "U)U ) U )U ) a ' a :a : a :a ' C ,a 'a ' a 'a ' C r,a ' a ' a : a :o a : a :a 'r a : a 'a o -P - a :a ' a ' a : •

S

Ø

.

•

S

S

•

S

S

•

S

.

.

.

•

.

•

•

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

•

C 0 0 0 0 0 0C O OC 0 0C 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0C 0 0C o

0 ( \ j( \ i( ' 4 - a 'C a 'C N U ) ( ‚ ' -0 ' C 0 ' a :I t ) 0( ' 3 0 0 ' N I.c . ON — ( ‚ 4U ) U )I t )4 F ) F )4 4 ( \ J( \ IN ( A 4 —a '

O 0c 0C 0O 0c C .0 C C 0 C 0 0 C 0 '0 C .00 00 00 a : 0C . C N C C a :0 c u0 a : i 0 n 0C I t )r 0 , 0 — r 0a 0 o 0 C a :a -F ) O F )P - N O— a : ac - a : U )F ) r( ' J - N

-

C . a : F ) ( ‚ 40 )0 'C U )( ‚ 3U ) — 0 ) 4U ) C F )C

—

-

( ' J

a : - 0

-

F )F )( ' 4F ) F )( ‚ 4C ( " 3 N N ( ‚ I ( ‚ 4 - U ) 1 $ )F ) U ) t U4 4 F )

r ) 4 N N4

( '4

p - F ) U )

.4

(J ( S4

4

f l

- -

U ). .4 .

r da — o a -c u i : . c .— F )c - F lr 4C

( ' 411 ) 4 1 $ )i t ) 1 4 U ) F ) I t ) 44 U ) ( ‚ 3F )

in

F )F )F )F )F ) F )N

U )

a )O

N

U ) N' - i C a ) N0

C O U ) NU U ) 4 U )C 'Q 0 OO 'O U )

U )

C t tf lu DI c jQ U )Q a )

C N C OF )O - Q U ) U ). . - U )N U ) -

Ju

p . .

C C a ) 'U )t o O Dt r )U )N U ) N U )r -r - F ) O 4 U ) U )N U ) O U ) 4 CO U ) U ) CC ' J 0 P p — _e r a )C a ) » - N

e 1.d p U ) a Cc Ja

N - NN N N N N N N N N N I , N

C C

N

—

N

—

N N

—

N

iC O U ) Na U )Q .a N a )N o ' -O r

rn

—

N

—

N N N N N

-

—

C 'c

U )If ltf l C O CU )C C OC U ) O U )U ) o ctf lc c U ) O C e 0 O O

r ,N

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

1 v )

- N N N N N N

U ) 0U ) C N4 o U )

4 a cir - U )C O U )

U ) o U )c U ) o C c oU

oc U ) ctc e

F ) F )N N N N N N F )N N F ) F )c i N c uc i( i N N F )N N N c iN c ic m

4 N c i O 0 NU)P U )Q U )CJ C N CC F )4 -C O 4c Jr ) c i N 4r J c ir a )U ) 4 4.. c i. . . .c jc jC 1 ( \ i4r •• • • • • • • • . . . . .

- 0

t y

U )

t j

ø

4 U )F )U ) U ) U ) U ) N U ) 4 N 4 4 r ' )4 4 U ) U )N t ON 4 U )U ) 1 $ )4 4 4 U ) 4 U ) 4 U )U ) I n A t N O4 F ) U )I t )U ) 4 4 N S

S

Ø

Ø

S

S

Ø

•

O

•

•

I

•

.

•

•

•

•

e

s

S

•

s

•

e

.

s

.

e

Ø

.

.

,

.

.

.

•

.

.

I

.

.

4 N N 0 ' 00 ' U ) N N O0 '- 0 N N N ( 1) O ( )N F )0 'C F )N N ( UI t )F )N N O I t )F )N N C0 '- C U )0 ' 4 c iI ) 0 ' U )Q Q U )( Q 0 ' U ) 0 ' NQ '0 C I D0 U )N N a ) c,0 'C o c u,C o 0 'Q C M-a ) 0 0 -0 ' U ) 0 'I ' U ) U )N N

cOoC oc o or

0 0 0 0

0 'N c i0 0 'F ) - 0U ) U ) 4

- I t )

o o c oc o oc o o c 0 0 0 0 e c c

)U ) N OU ) 40 ' U )4 U )N U ) c i c i -c i

0 0C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C eC 0

- N.-. . N, .

oc

o c c occ ' -c o

c i c i. . c i

C O 0 0 0C e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C O OC 0 0C O0 0 0 0 0

N c iCQ I MU )0 '0 F -F - t o N U iU )U ) c i - c ot o t oC - U ' )N O N 4 4 4C U ) L n0 ' 0 ' I t )U )U ) - U ' )0 ' - U ) f - 0 % a ) 0 'F ) #r " ) U ) N - - -U ) - N N'4 ' N.'. '( ' 1 4 - N - 4 ' 4 N 4It )r f l 4 c i -4

U ) C OC e

—

I ,U ) ' L aU ) -Q 'U ) F )O NC a N U )U ) I n N v iC U )4 N

N U ) 4L f iU) F )' L a U ) 4 F )N

4

•

•

•

'

•

•

.

.

a

.

l

U ) 4 4 U ) 4 4 U )4 4 4 F - 4 N N F )

4 - U ) .

( 7 F )U )U ) ‚ L aU ) 0 '- c i0s( J '

4 I ) 4 c i 4 I nF )I t )4 F ) 4 U ' )d U )N

N U ) U )4 U )F ) N

U ) Or ' )N F -C N OU ) ( ' )

-

a

N 0 41 ' - U ) 4 N N U ) U ) U ) U )

.

0 N U )0 'I t )

U ' )N F ) U )F )I S )U ) U ) d U ) U ) 4 c i N d N N

U ) U ) N U )F -

U ) U )N d C F )F )

C o N OF) 0. .U )- N O NI t ) I i )4 N U )O F )0 'o U ) c i V O NC N U ) 0 0 - 0 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U ) U ) a ) U ) U )U ) U ) U )U )N d U ) F ) 4 U ) 4 U )N 4 U ) F -N a )F - a ) U ) 4 U )F - U ) U )

-4

t o

( \ j

F - U )0 ' C -' N F )4 U ) U ) N 0 ' C -. N F )4 U ) F ' U )0 ' 0' 'c iF )4 U ) N 0 C F ) 4 U ' ) 0F ' U ) 0 C 0 '0 Q ' 0 ' O 0 0 0 0 O Oc O ( Si ( Si N ( S iI n F )F ) F )F )F )F ) F )m N F )F )i ni n N F )F ' )F 'o r ,F ) F ) F ' )F )F 'F ' ) F )F ) F ) N F )F " )N F )F ) F ' )F )F ) F ) F ) F )F )

2 18

C ) NN4 o u ) N 0 '0 F ) 0 ' L 014 U ) 41 - U ) or 4-t c N U ) 0 U )N U )U ) r c >- 4-4 - 4 t? - - -%V 0 ' I ,-C o C cN C o1 1 C .N 0 U )f l 0 0 ' p ' 0 ' 0 ' 0,01 C C 0 '- - C N c o 4 - U ) NN O a N -'C N C )N N N O D ( 1 0 C r, ' U ) U ) Q 4 e 4 01 4-U ) c r -o o 0 ' a o o- c 0 ' 0 N u :N N - 0 '

N C .N CrN u :

-

-

( ' 4 -

-

0-

a

- N -4

C ' , N - C ' )( ‚ JC . J( ' 4- ( ' . 4( ‚ 4

-

P r lN 4 -« C 0 0 0 0 r i f-r 1 -

C ' ,C ' . !( ¼ )

( ¼ ) -

r U ) ( ' 4r c 4 t 0

-

0

U )

C ' i - -C ' J -C ' J N ( ' 4

-

- N C ' . )C ' . )( ' . 4

I r U ) I t ' . 0r - C 'c

( ' 14 -

a 0 4

' . 0' . 0NC 4 -0 ( 1 )U )O N - 0 '( ' . 40 ' . 4C Ur " ) ( ' 4N - I N N - - 4-C C ) - ff,e 4 F )4 ( ' 44 ( ' 44 - ( ' . 4 4 - C ( ' 4 .• . . a . • . . • • . . , • • . I S . S )U )L1 4 - C

0

0

•

•

S

0

0

4

'U ' )-d-d 4 -F 0

0

0

I

0

0

0

4

-

C U

( ' . 4.

-

-

S

I

ø

.

.

r )

S .

S

•

.

S

ø

S

.

S

( ' 4( ' 4

4

( ' 4 ( ' . 4( " 4( ' . 4C " )C ' )F ) C ' )F ) C ' )

•

•

( \ J

C C O OU ) C OC . - - N ( ' Jc ' . Jr )

U )

( ¼ )

-

' . L jC UP - 0,C " )0 ' A t U ) 0 ' .C e U )0 ' .0 0 N F )0 U ) • .

4 d U )F

I

( ‚

a dC ,ON F N U )' . 0u C O a-

0 U ) C O o CU )C L I DO C C ' 1-d .N . . . . 4C ' j NC ' . J

-« ' J- -

N r r N I NI Nr ; N NC ' . )C ) C ' ,( ‚ 4( ¼ )( ‚ 4r ' )( „C ' )( ' 4c mF , ( JC ' 4 C ' . )C ' )C ' . )( ' 4( ‚ 4N ( ' . 4( ' 1

r

m

C ' ,

.

S

.

-

-

C ' )C ' )

' 0N N

.

.

.

.

I

•

•

.

I

*

.

.

S

*

S

'

4 -U ) C ) -. c * N 4 4 -r ) 4 4 -4 4 S

.

I

I

.

I

S

ø

S

.

S

S

Q ' . U ) o c 01 0 - - C c( ' 44 - N - U ) olf l0 ' .N U ) - U )-N U )r ' . - - C U Nu r ) C U ( O N C O0 ' . N U ) 0 'U ) 0 ' U ) 0 'U ) .0 ' a - 0 ' .U ) C O U ) c oC ' - U ) U ) C ' 0 ' t o U ) 0 ' .0 )0 ' . 0 )0 ' N I L c U ) U ) 0 ' .N N NU ) U ) 0 ' .0 ' 00 0 )0 . .

Ø

S

.

•

S

a

e

•

e

I

I

. .

O C CC C 0 C C 0 0 0 0c 0 • .

ø

•

.

I

S

•

•

I

S

.

S

•

.

.

C C S

.

S

.

.

.

e

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

,

.

.

,

.

0C C 0 C ' . C 0 r, c a c C C C 0 0 0 0 0 C C ' .C 0 C 'C 0 0

0

S

S

•

I

S

S

S

I

•

S

I

•

S

S

.

S

S

I

•

•

S

S

I

I

S

Ø

I

• 1 , -

--

. 'C ' . .

F )

( ' JC' 4 Np ' . N

C ' C Q CC . 00 C O C Cc • .

*

S

.

s

•

.

.

•

•

S

- -

' C U

N N f l.4

I N

' .4 ( ' . J

C . .C O O C O C C O O C O O C O C O O C O O C O C O OC C O C O O .

•

•

•

I

•

•

S

S

•

•

•

•

S

S

s

I

S

S

ø

e

S

I

S

I

I

S

*

S

•

S

S

•

0 )

4 4 N 0 ) 4 0 0 ) 4 0 )0 'N 0 '0 )10 0 ' U ) ' 0' . 0N F )F )C ) N ' C U ) C ' )N N N 4 - N 0 ' .0 ) 0 U ) ,0 U ' ) 4-C 0 )0 'U ) N U ) F )- d mK ) t o0 '( ‚ 4C t )N m 0 ' C )- F ) -4 N U ) - 4 -C U ) - N - 4 F ) U )N OF )r 0 O' . D' . 04 i n t O' . 0 4--

4U • S

N .

S

-

-4

0 5

F )F )C U 4 -0 '

. -

4 S

u :

0' C C 0 ' dU ) 44 • ‚

.

Ø

.

a

5

' CC )C . O oU )Q 5

-

.

-

S

•

S

*

S

S

.

O 4 I

S

5

4. Qr , N I

.

F )4r ) j r ,F > 44 -N - F ) ' . oC Ur )I L ' )

0 ' .C ' 4 40 '4 r ,4 c ' j 0 ) .

.

.

.

.

Ø

I

Ø

S

C O S

.

S

S

S

.

ø

0

0

0

0

0

*

*

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

• .

.

S

S

cU N C .0 ' .

I

S

.

I

.

.

S

0 ' 0 0 C(7 Q ' -. " U )4 S

S

S

S

I

I

S

Q

•

.

.

.

C U *

ø

S

S

S

I

S

S

S

I

I

" C -( \ J N"0 'C ' J OO 44 ' . QU ) S

S

•

P

S

e

• S

4 0 ) U ) U ) N C ' )F ) L I )44 - C )F )

C I CO F )U ) 0 )r ) N - C ' 4I t )O N U )' . 0 4( ‚ 4 4 I n0 ) t oF ) t o ( f )( 0 4 *

C

S

N U ) t or >I t ) N U ) N Np ) C OF )F )( ‚ 4C ' )C UF )( ‚ 4( ‚ 4F ) N c o

4 4

.

C

.

r ) U ' ) .

S

4 0 (¼ ) . .

N Cr " ) 0 ' t o ( 1 .

I

ø

.

.

.

I

S

Ø

S

S

•

4 4 0 C U ) U )I S

.

.

S

ø

S

S

'

4r ' >N O N NC ' . 04 ' . 04 - N i n 0 '' . 0 0 ( 0 0 ) N 4 -N ( ' 4 4 -C ' . 0N - 4 00 ' 0 0 ) F ) U ) ' C t o I ! ) 64 4 F ) 4 -F )F ) C ) C -4

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 - 4 4 4 4 -

4 - 4 - 4 4 4 4 4 4 U ) C I )U ) C )1 0 U )I t )C ) U ) I t )' . 0. 0" . 0‚ C ' . 0' 0 4 0' . C ' .' . 0' 0N N - N N N N -P - N P ' -N U ) U ) C O U ) 00 U )U ) C ) m C ' F ) C )i nF ) C " )F ) F )F F )C ) F )F )F )F ) F )F )F ) F )F ) C ' )F ) F ) F )I ' )C ) C ' )F ) C ' )C )C ' I ' )F ) F )C ' ,F )F ) C ) C ) C )

2 19

o C a ; c c o N C ' 0 '0 F - ( 1 4C F ) U ) 4 t oC c U ) C Q U ) F )U ) U )N c 4 U ) 0 Cd a ; 0 N a ; N c — N C I t 0 ) 0 ) U )4 pC OC 4 . a ; 0 ' 0 ) a ;Q c O — 0 )0 F - 0 )0 ' 0 ) 0 ' O N C C O O 01 9,a ; o a ; aaaa ;oa—a-a ; i k 4a ; '0 ' F )r ' O 4 C U) C On C F - — OC 4 4 4 C O 0 ) U )F - 00 )tI )N a ; a ; O N O N a a a a o1a a a ; a ;— c aa 'a a c a ; a ; a a ; a a a 'a ; C O a a ; a ;a a ; a ;a ' a ' a ;a ; C O a a ' a ; a

—

-

N

—

cP 4 N

( ' 4( ‚ 4N N N N ( ‚ 4N ( ‚ 4 ( " )I' 4 ( 4( \ J( ‚ 4 N N N NC '

-

4 a ;4t ( ' J "

— U ) U )C' 4F - N i n N C ' J 4 C ' J

C 4 N

C C

( ‚ 4( ‚ 4N N

—.

—

N.( ‚ 4 —( ‚ 4( ' 4— N N N - N N N -

T ' U )F a ; U ) # 0 ) -F - 0 ) N cLrF - 0 )r )r )r- -! ' -. 'Q 'r N. . N N . 4C \ J N N. '.

C oe C I )U ) U ) C L I )0 U ) L I )U )U ) 0 C C 0 0I )0 C .C U ) C O O U ) 0 U )L I )e U ) U )L I )C OC U ) U )0 C OC ( I ) . N F ) N U ) N9 -F - NF ) — .'F N a ;CJ . 4 4 F ) Nr ) .C ' J N . 4 — .C ' J F ) — . N N . 4 N. 4f r , -4 N N N . 4 U )

r ' ,N % 0

—'

N F )N ( ‚ 4( ‚ 4N

( ' 4( V ( " i N N ( ‚ 4C " N F )N N ( ‚ 4( \ ,( ‚ 4( ‚ 4( ' 4( „ 4( ‚ 4N N N ( ‚ 4( ‚ 4( ‚ 4N ( ' i N( ‚ 4( ‚ 4N ( ‚ 4( ‚ 4( ' 1( ‚ 4( ‚ 4

i f ,. 0 U ) U ) ' 0 1 )L I ) U ) . 04 % b t oU ) U ) U ) 4 U ) . 0 U ) 4

C N F )U ) .. .

4 . o U )

4 . 0U )I t )U ) U ) U ) U )l t U ) U ) U )U ) U )U ) U ) U )

0 ) ( ' JU ) 4 . 00 "( ‚ 4 ' 0 F ) 0 ) ( ‚ ' 4( ‚ ' 4F ,0 ) ( ' 4a ' r ) F - 0 ) ( ' 4S O 4 F )F - F - F - ‚ 0 0F )C 4 4 N M U )m 0 F - U ) o — . N N oG . 0 — . -f l ) N - - -'r ) . C — . . . -r ) N . N - . — N — .C C - - N

s .

.

.

.

.

.

•

•

•

•

.

. .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

•

.

.

.

.

• .

F )F ) 4 I t )U ) F ) 4 F - 4 ' 0 0 )U )F - I )L I )' C U ) ‚ 04 4 0 )U ) oU ) . .

e

• •

.

.

• .

.

‚

.

.

.

.

.

. .

e

.

.

.

.

.

.

,

.

U )U ). 0 U )I t ) U ) . 0U ) U )

‚0 ø

.

.

.

.

a

.

.

.

S

.

.

.

.

S

ø

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

F - U ) U ) U )F ) 44 ø

•

ø

S

S

ø

ao c r.a a 'a 0 "Q 'aO '0 a ' 0 ' a ' a ' a a ;aa o a a ; 0 ) 0 ) 0 ' 0 'Q 0 0 ) 0 ' 0 ) 0 )O ' 0 ' 0 )0 ' 0 ' 0 '0 ) (t0 ' 0 '0 0 ) ' ) 0 o o c 0 0 0 00 ,- o o r

ooc

C O O 0 0 0C) C 0 0 0 0 C C 0 0 0 0 c c c c 0

- . - . - NC ' )

—

. . (‚ 4

. 4

C O 0 0 0C 0 0 0 0 0C 0 C 0 0C O O0 0 C C . .

.

.

e

.

.

.

.

•

•

.

• •

•

•

. .

.

.

.

.

.

U )I - ‚ 0 4 . . - . ( ' 4 0 .

‚ 0 ‚ 0 .' . .

0. 0 4 I t ) F ) N -4 -4

U )

N

— . U ) 1 )U ) 'C . F ) U ) L I )( J 'F ) U ). 'F - U " OF ' ) 0 ' % i ,a '

' 0 .4 ..

0 0 0 , c o

N F )0 ) 4 4 J- 4 C .( ‚ I . . . ... (M N — .

C O OC 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0C c l0 C '0 0 0 0 .

.

.

.

.

.

9 r ) U )U )r ) a ;cJ -If l — U )F )P ' -F Ot t )( ‚ 1 4 ‚0 F ) 4 F ) a ;0 ' —0 F )m a « F ' ).F - a ;U )N OC c o a ; . .. . 0 U ) i nF ) 4 r CJ 4 N N F )F - . 4 . 4F ) # NF )( ' J( ' JF - N N N -

4

F) —

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

e

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

N 0 ) - . 00 ' 0 'P - F - N N P -L t ) i nF )U ) -F -U ) 0 ) - N 9 F )F ' -N - F O 4 .. 4' —. - -‚ 44 -

0 F ) ' 0 0F U )U )' ) ) 1 )0 0 ' ( ' 4. 0U ) F - F )F )F )L I )0 )F - ( ‚ 4

.4

' 0 00 ) 0 - F -I s )U ) a O sN F )( ‚ JO ' N ( ‚ 4 .4 a 'F - C F #0 ' F )U ) — F )C F - F - F) U) 0 ) 01 1 ) a '0 ' 0 " 0 9U ) U )0 'F - 0 ) . • • e • • • • S S S S S • I S S S 5 0 • S S S • S S • S • ‚ 0 F ) N N U ). ' N F -F U ) U )U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) 0 ) 0 ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U )U 5 F - U )4 O '0 ) # 4 4 F )F ) F ) F ) N # #F )t1 )U )F) .4

( r .I N 01 ,-F -C ' )U ) -4 0" •

•

•

s

.

5

.

s

S

ø

0

S

•

s

S

I

S

I

I

S

S

S

0

. .

.4

S

.

S

.

.

S

0 S

# 0 •

S

U ' )C F ' )U ) F -0 " 0 0 4 •

S

S

5 I

5

S

5

•

I )4 F )' 0 F - 4

.4

4 9 4 4 4 44

F - 0 ) 0 ' F ) 9 L I )t O F - U ' ) 01 0 . 0N F ) 9 I t ) F - c 0 ' Q.CJ F ' )4 I ) tO F - 0 ) 0 ' 0.( ‚ 4F ) 4 t ot O P , G o0 ' 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 0 'Q ' 0 ' o 'v " ( 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 4 0 4(M 0 4 0 4 0 40 4C t JC tJ F)ff ) F ) F ) F ) F ) F ) F ) F ) F )f r ) F ) F ) F ) F ) 4 4 # d 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 9 4 4 4 4 # 4 4 4 4 0 9 4 44 4 4 4 4

2 20

C a, ( : ) - 0 c ' ia ) ' . 0' . t4 c ' .- — ' . o U )Q a ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 0 ' U )O C ' Q C d C C O -. r .c 1 0 C ) 0 ' 4 0 C eh 4 N C 1 0 o U ) U )O - a ) a ) -O ( I U ) a ) a )t ' a ) 0 —

-

O ' c . a ) 0 C o C c Q ' r i' . ot o a : r - C 1 0 N L — P ' . a -. — o a : a — o e4 Or o • 0U )a :aar -a :o —o 0 ' -0 U ) 0 C d 0 ' . 0 0C 1 0 0 4 ' C N O 4 4 0C ' C C o F )r - r C O -o a : .-o ' . C-a :a : ' .oa u 0 '

N N N N N N N

-.

N N

—

m ) , e U )O

N

N 0 4 -0 4 0 4 0 40 4 0 4 0 4C ' . )C ' )C \ JC ' ) N - N C J.

' . o

...

N

"

N C ' )N C ' ) - 0 4( " 4C ' )- 0 4

JC ' I0 J N - N

C J

-

N N C ' )N C ' )

. " 4C ' 4 - -. 4

C 1 0C O1 0 0C '0 t O 1 0 0C C 0 0 0U )Ge l 1 0 U ) 0 0 1 0 0 0C OU ) C U ) 1 0 0 1 0 0 0U )0 0C U )t O C Oi l ) - -0 4C ' ir .c ' . J - r - - Nc ' . J - Nc' ) Nc ' . j ' 40 4r r : 0 4 - 0 4 0 44 r ' )c ' . jc ' J a )In 4 Q - ‚ Co Jr ) - Nr 1( ' Jc ' . )C \ Jr N I f, N N N N N N C ' )N C ' )N N N C ' )0 4N C ' )N C ' ) N N N N N N NC ' )N C ' )0 )0 4(\ )0 )

0 4 0 4 010 I 0C 4 C ' )N — - C — C ' )F )U )4

N C ' )r . .

•

.

• e

•

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

‚ C -- -4 . . .

• ø

.

.

• .

•

.

.

•

.

s

.

a

.

.

a a : a ) o C-a : . .

.

.

. .

.

.

.

.

' C NO W ( ' 4C U )

I t . 4

F ) I " )

C ' ) NC ' )C ' )C ' )0 ) N C ' )N N 0 4 -

rz j U )Q ' NQ ' F ) -1O 4 F )N f r o NLO a ) N - C ' )C ' )C ) F ) C ) C ' )C ' . )— c c — C ' . )— C ' )F )( ' 4C ' )

1 010 1 0 .

.

.

N a )O N C ' ) M ,* 0 ' .( ' 4 0 ( ' . 4F ) C C ' ) U )0 ' .0 " -U ) U )( ' 40 . N 4 a :o 'o c ' a ) C,t - a :P - oo 01a ) N U )0 % o a : a : C o N 0 ' O G a : a : aa 'a %a : a « a a : a : a : .

.

e

.

.

.

.

.

C 'C 0 CC 0 0C 0 0 0 0C 0 410 F ) CP -f - 9 1 0 ( ‚ ' 44 -0 )( ' . 4( ' ‚ 4

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

• I

0 CC 0 ' C O C c 0

S

S

e

s

•

.

s

•

s

a

0 0C 0 # 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C C C c -C C

F ' ) F )C c ) U ) 1 0U J o t o A t - 0 ). .4 0 4 i .- - 1 r

U )' .01f l 40 ' .

4 -. —

N ' C 0 ' C D OF ) 4. . . 0f l ) C )N N F ) C )F )

. .0

i t )

...

—

0 0 0 0C C ) 0 0 0 C o c 0 Cc ? C O 0 0 0C O O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C C C C O C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

ø

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

4 4 4 4 4 F ) C ' . )t o4 U )I - r ' -N C ' )F )U ) N N c, . d tgt # L n F ) U ) ‚ . ØF ) L I ). . 01 -. .

‚C

40 ' . 0 'C

4

.

.

.

.

.

.

ø

.

.

.

_ 4

- 4

.

.

.

.

.

.

4 e 4 r ,U )P . 1 0' . 0 N a ) a : .0 d tr i F )F )F )

P . 4 F ) CU ) a ) U )( „ 4 4 - -1 0

U ) M 4P

.

-

.

.

.

F )C ' )

C O 0 F )I . ' U )4 P . F )t O 0 1 - F )F )N F ) - 0 -

4 40 ' . U ) 4' .0LO U )4 4 U ) 4 4' .00;' .0 U )c ' . jQ ' . U )0 ' . 4 4 4 F ) 4 4 r)rq

1 0N' 0 1 00 ' . U ) F )1 0 00 - U ) U )N U ) OP r )O a )C N 0 4 N ' C.-. . 0 " C 0 O " C N 0 0 1 0 -U ) U )4 U )F . .O ' • .

.

U )U )‚ C U )U ) 4 F )F ' -1 0 ' . 0C O 00 ' F ) ‚ CU ) 1 0 F ) - I t )I C )F ' -' . 0I l )

. .

.

•

‚ .

•

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

S .

.

e

.

.

.

‚C

.

.

.

.

.

.

1 )I l )I )U )P . 0 0 C O F )-

—

-4

-

.-.

04 4 4 F ) 4 4 4 F )

—

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 # 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 9 4 4 4 9 4 4 9 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44

C ' )F )4 U )0 F ' -U ) 0 0 -C' )F ) 4 0 0F - U ) 0 ' 0 -( " JF ) 4 1 0 1 0F ' -U )

F )4 1 0 1 0I - U )0 0

N F ) 410 ' . 0

* 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 * 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4

2 21

U ) 0 C C 0C N U ) U )N

a a ll o o '

C

C-

I r

- — C NP N O C ( I C a aO CN -Q ' U )C

o

-r -a : r

aa :oo

r o(13 l 1 )r a :r ic O Nt t ) NQ Q ' U )C C ' 0 a NO ' C C ' U ) U ) 0 ' 0 U )a 'N C U )0 N U ) 0 ' 0 ' aaa :N a ) 0 '0 U )N U ) U ) U ) h h U ) a ' Q 0 '

-4 - - NC ' ! N

—

N N N

-

0

o 'o0 ' a : U ) —

c ' , j N N N N N N

— U ) 0 ' U ) - - N N N N — - -

-

-i -

N N N N N N N

r c cf U ) U ) N N N N — N -

t f )U !C C OC C O I f;U )C C U ) NC ' N 4 N -r

—

-

-

N

—

w —

N N

—

—

4 U )C I DN QC \ j 4t 0 'U ) U ) N -- - — N N N — —

) OC f l O rr 4 N N N N

N

—

—

—

C -

4 —

-

U ) C C U ) O C C OC C ' J — NC ' J -

N —

N N

N

—

N N

—

. . .. .U )C ' JN a )r ).. O - - - - - -4 -4 — ( \ j

-

C O1 ( )( ) C C C OI U ) r )

4 -

N N

4 U )

4 N

S

.

•

S

‚C

N N C \ Io C \ JC ' JC ' !N ( \ JN N N N C ' . !( ¼ !N C ' . !N C ' . !C ' . !

—

C' . 0 N u : U )N U )

4 U ) 4 4

C 0 - - N 4 N C N a

•

S

S

I

•

I

I

.

4 ' Ct r

f , — •

S

S

.

S

J r )

N N N N N N C ' !C ' . !N C ' . !C ' . !C ' . !N

i n

4

.

•

I

s

ø

.

•

A t U ) U ) U ) 0 ' I n U ) 4 U ) 4 C U ) 4 4 U )' 0i n 4 4 ‚ 0 4 4 4 4 N 4 U ) 4 N U )i n U ) 4 U ) U )

‚C

0 '

‚C

.

.

.

' 0 4 ' . 0i f ,‚ C .

S

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

O' . 0 ' 0 U )¼ ! )4

‚C

•

‚C I

U ) N

0 i nU ) ( Y C O U )N ‚ C ) ' 0( ¼ !9 N OU ) U ) U )- C ' . !0 4 C OC ' ! ¼ ! )0 4 0 C ' . 0 0¼ ! )‚ C U ) N C '. .1 ' .0 N - U ) 4 N 0 ' U ) 0 '0 0 ' U ) U ) C L, U ) U ) Q ' .Q 'C ? N U ) Q 0 0 Cr- U ) C I DC U )0 ' U )U ) U ) U ) U )C I D0 'Q 0 ' C ' U ) U )O ' •

.

.

C C ( C C S

4

U ) C ' !N C ( ¼ !‚ C N U ) t oC t o C ' . !

C c ,4 ø

i n

•

I

•

C o C O •

.

.

I

I

*

•

.

S

I

'

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

a

•

ø

.

S

ø

I

I

ø

S

S

.

I

S

ø

I

.

I

ø

.

.

ø

.

S

I

C C 0 0 0 CC 0 0 0 C C ' 0 0C 0 0C CC ' C 0. C O C ' 0 0C CCC 0 0 0 I

.

I

I

ø

I

•

S

‚ CN C U )N 4 U ) 4 ‚ C ‚ CC ' . 0N U )

I

C O

Ø

I

I

.

.

.

I

I

I

.

.

S

I

e

.

.

S

.

.

S

.

S

S

.

I

.

4 0 ' 4 0 I t )I t )N 4 N N 0 'C 4C iC 'N ‚ C U ) N N 0 ' ‚ C — N 0 ' I t ) - -

C O C O OC C O C O C C O CC OC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c 0 0 0 ' O oC O OC 0 0 0 0 0 0 •

•

I

•

•

•

•

S

S

•

•

•

% tC U ) ( ¼ !O N C ' !0 N N N N 0%C O C m ( f ) f r ) % D C J 4 N •

I

S

I

—

I

U )

S

S

S

S

U

•

•

•

S

I

ø

N — I t )C N N N I n 4 t 0,C D 0 V)% u( I J

-

•

—

S

•

•

I

•

I

N C OU ) N U )

I

S

I

I

S

4 4 N N 01 N

•

—

S

S

S

N O U ) 4

I

—

S rS

N P 4 0

C ' — ' C0 4 4- C ' JC ' J N- ) 4 4 i nC ) '- N U )' .i(¼ !0 ' U ) U )' . L jQ 4 *

Ø

S

Ø

S

I

I

I

I

I

S

I

I

•

I

ø

I

I

I

ø

S

S

S

S

S

I

I

I

•

S

S

ø

*

i

I

•

Ø

S

I

S

S

S

N ( ¼ ! 4 N N N N C ' !N N C ' !C ' . !( ¼ !4 94 ( ¼ !U ) d U ) C ' !I t !0 ) C i f !' . C )0 0 - 4 N —4 0 C OU ) U ) . cC ( ¼ ! "O N N N N C C C ' !( t ) r )C o N N N 4 CU) O N a S S S • S • S I a I • S S • I a a S S S I I • S I I • •- S S S I 5 S 5 4 4 N4 U )U ) 0 U ) 9 4 N N U ) NC U )U ) U )U ) N U ) U )r U ) U ) 9 4 4 N N I, 4 N r . ! N

V )

. .‚ a

C ' !I t )0 ' C o •

•

S

S

S

— S

‚C I

9 c N ' C U )

N U ) 0I r )( % j 4 ' CO — U )rr ) 41 1 )' .0 0 N NIn O ' N 0' .C •' .C N U ) 0 U ) NIt )O N U ) CC ' J 0 ' 0%0 N N C ' J 4 U )' .0 ' C 5

0

5

5

5

.

•

.

S

S

S

S

4 9 4 4 N N N N N N C ' )C ' )

S

•

.

a

.

.

.

S

S

I

S

I

S

S

.

S

I

)C ' )C ' )N C ' )N C ' )i f )C ' )( 1; C ' )r )C ' )C ' )N r )N

N U ) 0 C 4C ' . J N 4U )' .0 N U )0 ' C

a

.

.

.

1

5

5

.

1

5

5

5

5

5

0

iN C ' )C ' )N C ' )N C ' . !C ' !C ' !C ' !C ' !C ' ! ( ¼ !( ¼ !( ' . 4

C ' Jr , 4u ) ' 0C ' - U )0 ' O C ' Jr ) 4U ) ON U )Q 'C . 4 N N 4tt )G N U )0 C 4 ( ' ‚ N 4 4 4 4 9 4 9 4 9 4 4 9 4 4 9 4 94 44 4 4 4 U )U ) U )U )U)Lf lIt )I t )U )tf l U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U )U ) U ) U )U )

2 22

0

C a c co

N U )C ' JF Ol C a

c ON 4r r ) N N r- c m N C 4 4 * Po 'r- o

a C T a

c o a-' ao o-

— O m cr - r ,r ' rn o- r - p - o I L a o c aa c o o.

c ra

N

—

( ' iN

4U ) a

—

—

N N N

-

C

f l

4 ' ( U ) U ) U )

.

C,

'

N N

— .

N -

4-'

N O t-

—

N

—

0 ' ' 4 N

N

-

N N

N —

.

.

4 U ) U ) 4

.

.

( \ t —

N N

—

N N N N N

—

—

C Q Otr r o o t o — NN N

N O

o U ) oI r, c U )lü w o c

—

U ) U ) U . )U ) U ) U . ;I t 1 0 t I U )

F ) ' . 0 — a : F ) C 4 — ? -C F ) C ,C F ) N N N - 04 N F ) F ) N F )4 4N U ) F ) P ( \ jC ' )r .

N N N

C U ) C U )l .f lU ) C C C C( t Cc . 0 CU D C UI I C u )4 L —N N F ) -

.

N

( s Jç C U )?- 4 U ) 4F . c C \ JF

—

NC

—

.

.

.

.

'

U ) ' . LU . )U )F ) L I )0 ' 0 0 ' c r l - r ' .

—

•

•

—

•

U ) 4 U )

J r )L O I )L i )U ) 4

W .

L I )

jN C ' 00 ' ‚ . — - U )a : U )I n0 ' ( ' . 4 U )( ' 4 — F ) 44 N F ) - -c U ) - N C 4 •

•

‚

•

•

F )F ) a c ' C U ) U . )? - U ) U ) U ) L I )U ) U ) 4 4 F ) L I ) 4 U )44 ' C U ) U ) U ) F )U ) U ) 4 U ) N U ) W .N N 4 U ) 4U ) U ) oL I )4 L I ) It •

0

0

0

4

0

S

3

6

•

S

S

.

•

4

•

•

S

•

S

•

•

•

0

•

•

S

N4 U )a : a : N N Q o C ) C —c — 4 N ' C4 N O N CC C O D a c o a-m M ) C c-a : C a : C,a : a : ç Qa a : C) N •

0 •

S

ø

cc 0

•

•

a

•

S

•

•

'

.

•

S

.

.

.

i

•

o 5

•

ø

S

I

S

I

.

•

.

.

•

.

•

,

• . . . . • . . . e .

o c c oc -o o S

•

U

S

•

•

•

•

S

-.o S

S

e

•

S

•

J. . U )I X,N' . i r 0 ' ,. ,o I . U )

a

I

S

S

S

•

.

.

S

• .

S

.

.

.

.

.

•

•

' C •

S

S

•

‚‚ • • ‚ • • •

0 C 0 0C ' 0 0C . C C 0 0C ' .

.

0 C C r 'c o c c 0 e l 0 0C - C OC 0 C '

. • • • • • . • . • . ‚ ‚

P- O N N OI '- L UC ' . JP I - 0 4 - F )( L J 0 0 C ) — F )4 ' C ( ‚ 4- -N - - - - N c ' -4 4 r ) — . -(\ j ( ‚ . j N

c c oc C oc 0 0

•

•

4

c c or 0 0 C lC o e l oo c o C ' or 'C cc c o r

"1) Na )1 i —' .0 U ) U ) 0 ' 4 I nrn — U )4 F ) N - N . - — . - — — —' — —‚ . ‚

•

•

•

•

S

•

•

S

•

S

I

•

5

CO

- Co C ' . J' .C ) 4 0 — N F )— —

L J C 0 0C C o Ø •

•

•

•

•

•

•

F ) U ) U )N N -C C ) 0 — F - a : F - 4-' . ou r c .0 ' 0 ' . N - c o -N N - m ‚C N - C OC ON - U ) C ' U ) 0 " - - I ' - k r iU ) 4 ‚C C N - F - —4 L I )N C )0 i N M 4 - N — N 410 —cnr ' i

F - 4

( ‚ 4

U )C N( X )c ' . Jr ' Cr e ) N 4 C Li ) N' . ), N CC' 4 o N0 ' U )C ' J N .. .. • • s . s • • • . • . . . • . s • • . S r t n ' . k c , 4 F )I ' ) d -4 N 4 N F l N 4F )

' .0 F ) 4N U )U) N —r ( '4 4 - -. ' C a : ' C.- U )

—4

— Q N - Nr ) C )r , F ) f r )o 'r )q ' . o ' CN - C o Q N0 'rl — C ) I lC 'C ' J' . .

5

F )

.

5

S

.

.

p ' -' . Q

. .

•

S

S

U )F ) 4 4-4 F )U ) 4 4 F ) ‚ C

.

.

S

.

.

.

.

.

.

S

‚C

F )

Ø

S

.

•

ø

S

' .0 Or -r )() C )' .O Q c o 0 ' i v ) NU)r )c •

S

F )' . 0U ) 4 n U ) F - ' C 4' . 0 U ) F ) ' . 0

S

S

.

.

‚C

•

S

.

S

S

.

.

.

.

.

N - F - U ) 0 ' U )' . 0' . 0N 4 F ) -4

N ( ‚ 4F ) C ' N - ‚ C0 4 ‚ C' . 0 0 0F ) •

•

U ) 4

.

.

•

•

i f )

•

.

•

.

.

•

•

‚C S

U ' .N C ' )U ) F )0 ' .N U ) ( Y '( ' 4U ) 0 N - 0 0 - 0 "0 U ) L I )U ) N - . 4 04I ' )F ) .

.

.

.

.

.

S

S

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

•

ø

S

*

•

4I f ' . •

' . 0 —

r ro

U ) ' C F )' .otf llf l 4U ) U ) U ) 4' .0' .C 4 4 N F --4

—4

C ' )N ( ' 4( ' . 4N ( ‚ 4C ' )( ‚ 4 ( ‚ i N N N ( ‚ 4N ( ' i N N ( ‚ IN ( ' IC' )( ‚ 4( ‚ I N N ( ' I N N ( ‚ I N N( ' I N NC ' )C U ( ‚ i N NN N ( ' I N N

( ‚ I F ) 4 U ) ' C-

2 23

Aj

‚ 4N 0 ' 4 - I ) F )C i . .o 'c y ' t 0 0 0c ra 'a U )U )N U )f l O D U ) NN O D ( 1 0 0 C,C O ao 'o 'c 0 'o 0 'o C r .N U )

r

0 'P

N

—

u ' — c N — —r

a :

( ' 4

-

a

a

a N

U )N U ) 4 '£ 0

-

0 1

a :

C o a a : a a : a C O o c a

( ‚ 4 - —(‚ 4

U ) d N

ar o .C r ,a :a :o a U )

—

a : a : a ' a o U )

—

c -( 7 'cr

a 'a ' a :

C o a a :

C ' 4C ' J

N P , ( I )k cF )N U )U )U ) ( ' s j4 0 N ( v — 00 ' —1 ) 4N N C ' F ) ( ‚ 4 -4 4 — ( ‚ 4 — N — ( ‚ 4. . . — ( ‚ 4 -4 —4

L OC U ) C C O c 0 CC L O 0 U ) L I )0 C NC ' J ‚ or o 'o «e L O

F )r

F ) ( ‚ 4( ' 4( ‚ i N ( ‚ 4( ‚ 4( ‚ 4 ( ' J N

J(I(

un' l

4

0LI )tI )II )C o 0c 0c C 0 U ) oc c o c m- - — N 4 OLI )r

0 jN

( . 0 oLn c U )a —a4a

—

( ‚ 4( ‚ 4 - -( ' 4( ‚ 4N ( ‚ 4F ) —(‚ 4( ' 4.N ( " 4N

-

U ) C 4 4 0 ' Q —.

( J N( ‚ 4( ' 1 N( ' 4

0

— a •o

Jc m( I J

J ( ' j( ' J

' 40

r

F

Q

Q

0000 0

r " ) F )r-) 0 'Q .Q

0 '

00 'o «o 'oC r ,

f iA i C o N 0 - 0 . •

.

.

.

• .

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

S

•

I

S

•

s

e

.

S

4 U ) • •

ø

I

•

•

S

S

I

ø

•

•

•

.

.

.

'

.

.

.

.

I

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

ø

I

•

U )0 "søt1 )N ‚ 4 .

.

S

•

•

e

,

.

s

— Nu " U ) .

s

I

C U ) N F )0 ' s Q U )U ) c U ) NC . N —4 N 0 ' N ( ' 4£ 0 N C .U )C C U ) 0 4 C O 0 ' W . U ) N U )N L I )U ) N I ft o a . c N C o0 ' N U ) N N C o U ) C oC ' U ) U ) C O0 ' 0 U )0 'O N 0 ' 0 U ) 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' a : C,0 " U ) C o a : a ' C O N C O a ' a ' U ) a a ' C o • .

•

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

S .

.

.

,

.

• S

.

I

•

.

a

.

ø

.

S

S

.

.

ø

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

S

,

I

.

.

C O 0 0 0 C C r C 0(" C . 0 0 C 0C C C 0 CC C 0 0 0 0 C C C C . 0 0 C 0 0 0 O 0 C 0C 0 • .

.

.

.

.

.

f r ,O N( ‚ 4i t -

-4

-

.

s

.

.

.

.

.

C — C 0 ' U ) CC '

-

. a -

.

.

.

'

.

'

.

.

.

'

.

s

.

0 0 0 4 F )U )trrnco N N N N N . N a N

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

( ' J-

.

.

.

.

Q ' 0 'O '0 '

o 0 00 0 c . C OQ , C C C 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 0 0 C C,0 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c .0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 . ‚

.

.

.

.

.

.

‚

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

‚

.

I

. •

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

U )0 -U )N U ) U ) N U ) 4 0 U )F ' )( " 4Q " 4 N - 4 4 -0 ' F ' )0 ' U )N U ) U )U ) L I )C C o oc o oU )c U ) U —.r 0 U ) U ) U ) ' 4F N r O N F ) O N a : U ) U ) cUc ' . iP - L n t o 0 O 0tI ) N 0 N(M U ) U ).. N 4F )Q ' N' 4LI ) OU) 0 U ) NLI )U ) 410 # U )

• •

s s

0 " U ) N

. .

a

.

U ' )' 4 )U ) 44 0 4 I

.

.

,

.

.

ø

.

' 4 , i .

— F ) .

.

'

'

.

— - U )— .

S

S

ø

r I

( 0 0 U ) C 0 0 -C . 4C C . ,

S

.

ø

S

.

ø

•

ø

S

.

U ' I

S

'

a

a. a ' •

S

.

F ' S

S

F )N N N N s Q U )N F ) U ' )s t L I )U )N F " 4 0 0 N 0 0 L I )N F ' -‚ 4 )L I ) F )0 • •

U )N F ' -( ' iF ) .

S

Ø

S

*

•

- cc s

F ' - F )0 ' 4 00 '

S 5

5 5

5

5

0 'N • •

L I )m i f ) U )00 'F ' - 01 . 'F ) I )F ) •

•

ø

S

S

5

' 4 m' 4 4 ' NF ) F )F ' ) F ' )F ) ( " I( ‚ 4F )( ‚ 4F )C I ) N N N U ) U )4 L I )

.. • • . • • • • .

‚ 44' 4' 4

L I ) U )U )i f )

a

S

•

•

0 r C —0 "— U ) - N Ø

•

S

. 5

.

5

ø

L I )U ) F )U ) 4 N N I ' - U ) 0 0 U )

eø

5

5

.

F ' -

U )

S

C 5

.

0 0 U )s 4 )F ' -

.. . . . . . . . ‚ . . • . . • . . S s . e . • • 5 • S S . 5 00 'U ) 0 N O 0 ' F )U ) U ) - U ) U ) N U ) U ) N CsOsO U )

U )' 4rr )r )F )F )F )4F )F )U )NN

( ' i N N( ‚ ' i N N N ( ‚ ' I( ‚ i N N( ' I N ( ' I N ( % 4( ‚ 4

F ' -U ) 0 'C

5

c

N F ) 4 U ) ' OF ' - U ) 0 "0 — NF )

( " ' Ic Q ( ' i N N( ‚ i N N( ' i N NN F ) F ) F ' )F )I V )F ) F )F ) F )F )f n M F ' )

-

i t

U ) U ) F ' -U )

( 7 '0

-

( ‚ 4

F ' ) 4' ! ) O N U ) 0 ' C -(‚ 4F ' )

U )(I ) U ) U )LI )LI ) U )I 1 ) U )I J ' )I 1 )U ' )LI )Lf lLI ) i t )U )L L ' )U ' )LI ) U )U ' )U )

2 24

4

J r )

% 0 1 ,-U )0 '

U )LI ) 0 0 0 0SC 0 s O s O s Q

C c ' jt g- 4 C Or ) N

L I )

C

C

4 U ) N U ) 4 U ) 0C ' JI " r Lr l C 7, O 0 ' -O 0 U ) U ) 0 '0 U )0 U ) U )0 C 0 a . a ' C O C r a ' U )0 0 ' a C I D4 U )U ) 0 N C \F )C ' C C N F ) U )N - U ) N OC N N 4 U ) C ' )N F )U ) 4 P , i t )F )- N C r ) U ) 0a D 0 ' % 0 0, - U )c O 0 ' O « 0 o • U ) c , o ' 0 '0 .0 '0 0 ' C C ' 0 ' C 'U ) -

c ,

c o

I ' -I t ) N 0Nu ) U ) O •

N N' N.4 N -(J C ' J( ' J N N N N N - N - N - - N or -

- N

-

C c U )

-

C ' JC ' J

r

N

( " 4

.4

.4

1 $ )c 0 00 0 U ) 0 0 0 0 0U ) I )0 C ' 0 I S )0 0

F )F )

rr,

F )F ) F )

C '

rj r )M r

F )F )F )F )F )

0

r )F )F )F )F )F )

0 ' 0 '

0

0 ' 0 '

0 '0 O ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' C Y ,L b a 0 .0 '

0 ' 4 N -

'N U ) 4 0 0 N U ) 4 U ) 0 F )F )C ( ' JF ) r ) C O ' 4 .4 ( \ JC V N C ' )F ) ,- r .

o 0 o '

-' .4

. 4

( 7 f l U ) -

- r )N C ' )F ) F ) N 4 F )F ) 4 F )

U )

F )

' C U ) 4-F ) F )F ) 4 4 -I S )I ' )U ) F ) 4 44 4 4 i nF ) F ) 4.4 4 - F )F ) U )4 N

t o

4 F )

oN

4 - ( r .L I )U ) C O U )U )- t oU ) I S ) DU )U )U )c . V ). 4 C N ‚-. C O 1 $ ) U ) U )U ) U )U )C U ) I S ) Ott )c U )U ) cU )t oL I )U )U ) U ) 0 . U ) U )0 ' N U ) 0 %U ) 0 ' U ) 0 '0 0 "0 N 0 .0 ' 0 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 'U ) 0 )0 ' 0 )0 ' 0 ' 0 '0 'U )C O 0 0 ' 0 0 '0 N 0 00 0 )NO •

•

•

•

•

•

.

.

S

.

•

.

.

.

.

s

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

e

.

.

.

• .

.

s

.

e

.

.

•

,

.

.

V ' C O 0 0I C,C 0 C c l,O O C O 0 0 C C 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 C C O C O Ø C 0 C . 0 0C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C ' 0 'Q '0 '0 ' 0 ' 01 c c r,e 01 c h 0 '0 'O ' O ' 0 '0 '0 '0 0 ' 0 ' 0 '0 'CP 0 'O 'Q ' 0 '0 . O 'O '0 '0 ' 0 'c ' 9,0 ' 0 'O ' 0 'O 'Q 'Q ' O0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0c . 0 0c 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 C o c 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 U ) 00 0 0 U ) U ) C O O O U ) OC C O 0 0 0 O O O U ) O U ) C O O OU ) 0 U ) U ) U ) O U ) O OII ) O U ) O O O c N0 f l OL r ir - N U ) U ) OO I NU ) C '0 ' o 0 '4 U ) U ) c N oe xN U )C ' o o ' 0 4 A lt o N 44 - 4 4t o L t )N U ) N ( ' 4 4 L I )L I )0 ) 4 N F ) U ) 44 L I )4 I )4 0 ' 0e U ) 04 - ' 0 ' 0 U ) ' 0 4 0 '‚ 0 4 - I ) .4

• 4

S

S

S

S

S

ø

S

S

.

.

.

e

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

,

S

•

ø

4

.

S

S

I

S

,

,

•

S

.

•

.

ø

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

e .

*

.

•

•

.

.

.

*

.

•

.

,

.

Ø

.

.

S

.

.

.

.

,

.

I

ø

.

.

s

s

S

.

.

.

ø

.4

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

•

ø

•

•

•

4

•

ø

.

e

S

S

.

S

•

.

44

a

S

I

.

.

S

.

I

S

a

•

.

•

S

•

ø

.

S

•

.4

C ' )C ' )N C ' )N N N C ' )C ' )N c mN N ( " 4C ' )N C ' )N N P SC L IN N N ( ' 4( ' 4 N c mC ' )( ' 4C ' )P S NC' )N N ( ‚ 4( ' 4( ‚ 4N N ( l j P S NN F )F ) F )( f ) F )F )F )F )F )F )F )F )F )F )F ) F )F ) F ) F ) F )F ) F )F )F )f ' ) F )F ) F ) F )F )F )F )F ) F ' )F ) I ' )F ' ) F )F ) F )F ) F )F )F )F ) N N N N ( JN N P SN ( ‚ 4C ' )( ' 4N ( ‚ 3 5 SC ' ) P S( ‚ 4( ‚ S0 4N N ( ‚ 3N ( ' 3N ( ‚ SC ' )N C ' )C ' SN C ' ) ( ‚ S NC ' SN N N P S ( ‚ 4( ‚ 3N ( ‚ 4 0 - ( ' 4F ) 4 U )' CF - ( 00 0 - NF )4 U )' 0 F - 0 ) 0 '0 C ' SF )4 - U ) ' C N 0 ) 0 ' C —' ( ‚ SF ) 4 U ) U ) F - 0 )0 ' 0 NF ) 4 C % J NC ' J N(UC \ 3 N N N N( f ) F )F ) F ) F )P l F )F ) F )F ) 4 4 4 4 4-4 4 4 4 *U ) ( 0W ) 1 )1 1 )

2 25

C ON U ) v ,

4 4 C N c JN U ) C 'O 'C 4 0 ( 71c o l O U ) c,U ) U ) U )Q C C N N U ) N — N N U ) N 0 " 0 0 N N C ' 4 N 4 U ) 'C O F )C O0 ' U )C 0 1 N C N -. — U )O C C ' a - a « 0 0 '

tc0( Y c 0 f . -I , -a

N 0 ' — U ) C ' U ) C Y U ) U )

4 n

0 0 Cj 4c r . NC O 0 ' C ' U )O C 0 , C 'U U ) 0 0 C N C 'U )0 U ) — C 'U ) 0 "U ) I -C . , . 00 ' — C 0 " 0 't o N 4 —C ' U ). 0 0 " 0 ' C r U ) 0 ' U ) — C U ) 0 ' — N N C cc ( ' J a

N N N N

N N N.N N N N N N

a

N N N — N N N — N N N N — - — N N — N N ( ‚ 4N

—

N N — N N N

N U ) C ) 1 4 )4 N N C ' JQ "O NC O0Q ' N C ) N . 0 F )N ' C U ) —0 " N ON O ' - U )C ' j r ,N O( " J O. — 4 4 F ) C C C 0 C :C 0 t ot o0 C U )' 1 4 G C ‚ C N U ) 0 " ‚ CN U )

‚C

.

1 4 )C 0 C C OC 0 0 0 0C C ( r )C CU " C 01 4 )1 4 ) 0C C 0 0 C i nC ( 7 '0 '1 4 ) 0 N ( S ) U ) U ) I S )U ) 41 4 ) N ‚ C N NO ( 3 'U ) C O OF '1 4 )4 0 'U ) N U ) N U ). 0 4 ‚ C 0 " 0 'C ON

N r M F )N N F ) F )N F ) r nF )F ) F ) F ) F ) F ) F ) F if l ) F ) r 4 l0r " 0 010,o l

0 % 0 'O C ' 0 'C

F )

F )F l N F )F )F )F )

F )

F ) ,N F )F )F )F )F )F )

F )F )

C O 'C 0 "O 0 " 0 '0 0 'O ' 0 'Q " C 'Q a O C Q "O 0 ' 0 '0 " 0 ' 0 'O '0 "0 "0 'O 'O '0 ' 0 'O '

0 '0 " ( I NQ "0 "C CC "O '0 "C O 0 'C 0 'O "O O "Q 'O O C

0 0,01 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' C ' 0 'U '

0 ' 00 "0 ' C '0 '

i L )‚ CU ) U ) -" N ' C N U ) — C N " 0 4 F ) t o ‚C C O N C ) F )C ( 0F ) — 4 ' C N N 0 N 4r , U )C N N 0 ' . 0 N ( ) U )N F ) C 04 r >C - F ) — F ) ‚C ' . 0 N N — C 0'r " ) N N N N —0 "- — t o . 04 0 N a0 " N N N - -F ) ( ' U -F . S .

.

.

.

• •

•

•

•

.

ø

•

•

S

S

S •

0 5

• s

.

I

a

S

.

S

.

S

.

.

.

S

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

S

.

.

.

N F )d 4 4 N 4 4 U ) 4 N . 5

.

.

0 0

0

I

S

5

j r )

1

4 U ) 4 rC " J 4

0

0

0

0

i t

0

0

S

4 4 U ) U ) 4 4 4U )U )U )' C N U ) 4 U )4 ' C. 0 N4 N U ) U )4 U ) 4r ) 0

S

S S

.

.

.

S

S

S

.

S

.

.

S

1

0

1

.

S

.

5

.

.

S

S

.

U )0 LC I t )9 1 0 ( " J OC O 1 4 )0 ' 1 $ ' )F )U ) U ) N I S ).1 4 )1 ) 41 4 )1 4 ) 0U ) U )( f )C ' U )U ) U ) - t oC U ) -0 —U ) F ) N U ' )F ) U ) 0 ' C ' a ) U )Q ' 0 ' 4C '0 'N 0 'O U ) C ' U ) 0 ' C ' U )U )O 'C C ' U ) 0 ' U ) C ' C 'U ) ' Ca DC ' U ) C ' 0 ' C ' U ) 0 '0 ' 0 ' C 'U ) U )O U ) 0 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

5

0

1

0

0

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

9

0

0

0

0

0

I

0

0

5

0

.

0

0

0

0

0

c o o C ec « 0 0 0 0C 0 00 C C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C ' OC ' 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 00 C • e

.

.

0

.

.

I

.

S

e

.

0

S

0

0

.

0

5

0

0

S

S

0

S

.

S

5

.

'

.

0

e

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0 O C ' 0 '0 C 'C 'O Q O 0 'O 0 ' 0 ' C ' C ' 0 ' C 'a 0 'O '0 '0 '0 "Q C '0 ' C 'O 0 C ' 0 "Q "0 'O '0 'O "O 'O ' 0 '0 " 0 "C ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 '0 0 ' 00 ' 0 "0 ' 0 " 0 " 0 ' 0 ' C .0 '0 " 0 ' 0 '0 ' 0 '0 '0 '0 '0 '0 "0 ' 0 '0 ' 0 ' 0 '0 " C '0 '0 ' 0 0 '0 '0 0 " 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 . O C 0 0 0 . S • • i C U )C OU ' )C ' 0 0 0 0 0 01 4 ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C O N N i t )0 " t -9 3 01 - — 0 ' Nc . U )0 0 I S )1 4 ) 0I n I ( i F )0 . 0 4 4 I t )4 i C nN F )U ) U ) I t )4 F )C N U )N C O -

0 00 0 0C OO0 0c .0 0 0C C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 s

.

.

•

i

• 5

0

I

•

•

.

•

•

• Ø

S

Ø

-4

00 G U ) N N NI I ) 4ID N N w ) ,4 . 01 Q ' a ) U ) F )r , 4 c . a

0

S

.

•

S

S

0

S

S

S

i

o

S

.

S

0

.

•

S

•

S

•

S

s

C )U )0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C i0 CC 0 00 0 0 0 I t )U ) U )I t ) U )N ( 71( > U ) C O O N — U) C O N N F ) 4 -N U )U )F ) a 'N r . U ,4

a

0

-

N f )0 U )I r ) C 0 0 0 N-4 N(V U )U )(L U ) U )U ' ) OU ) I

S

S

S

S

•

S

I

S

0

S

S

S

S

I

0

S

0

S

0

S

U ) U ) N U ) ' C ' C ' C 4 ' C ' C 4 ' C N U ) U ) 4 N ' CN ' CP ' U ) U ) U ) . 04 N U ) N NI0 U ) d U ) 0 ' C 4 U ) ' CN F ' -iCU ' ) NU ) a ( N iO ' 5 0

1 4 )' 0 U ) a •

•

•

•

•

•

( ' 4C 0 ) 0 - 0 'C N N 4C O C Ot o CU )C Co U )C )1 4 ) 0 - U )U ) U ' )( C )— N N S

•

•

NO '

•

•

S

•

•

S 0

I

•

I

0

.

S

F )F ) N CU ' ) 0 ' " N

.4

S

S

.

S

S

0

S

5

S

•

S

S

S

S

C ON oc o 0

S

S

S

S

a

‚ C U ) —4

4 .I S .

t o0 U ) 0 "C O C O ( ) C o 4 I ' i ' CU ) .

.

.

0

0

.

I

.

0

.

•

a S S

*

5

S

S

.

N N N ( ‚ 4 N ( ‚ 4N ( ‚ ' 4N ( ' 4( ' 4( ‚ 4( ‚ 4( N ( ' 4N ( ‚ 4N ( ‚ 4

.

S

S

S

F )0 0 00I t )C o0 —( N ( 4 )- ( 4 ) — U )U ) I t )N 4 0 S

.

I

S

S

S

S

S

•

5

S

0

5

JN ( ' 4( ‚ 4N ( ' 4( ‚ 4( ‚ 4( ‚ ' 4N N C N ( " 4( ' 4( ‚ 4( ' 4

5

S

( ‚ 4 a i

0

5

b 0

N 0 4N N

( )‚ CN U )Q ' C . s( ' J N 4 U ) ' CN U )O ' O' N 4 ( S )V C ,N C ) 0 ' C ( ' J N 4 U ) ' C N C ) 0 ' C N F )4 U )' 0N U ) U )U )I t )t o I S )' 0.0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0 . 0N N N N F - P . -F N N a )U )C OU )U )U ) U )U ) U )U ) 0 '0 ' 0 '0 ' C " 0 0 "0 '0 '

226

0

or O sN C

( ) C . J&t )C ' C a ' 4 C Q 4( ' N O D O D CU

Q J

N 4 NU 4 i f,4 O r

cc a r

c j a cc c oc r

cc t oo r -c

c . C

C 'r - N c C ' c0 c FO D N r J Cc c 4 c r N N ao o cc ' a u 0 ' a )c 'o 'O O D c ccr ,c c o c o o c O D o co o a ( Lt - 0 ' O D O D0 ' 0 0 '

.. 4

N N — N . N N N

)C N r 'r . . 4C \ J4 - ... N C Q 'I t ) OC ' CO 0 ' C CN — N0 0 ' C

..

N N N N N N N N N

-

N N N N N N A l N N N —

-

*C P ' f'N O D i nO D C 'r — — — — — N C C C C U CLI )C t I DIf lC ( P C CO ( DC L t ) C C ( PC C ' t T f lU )a 1 ,( 3 .tt )O 4 -0 i nU 0 ' C :0 'C f - C

,

a C 0 ' 0(Y 0 0 0 0

co o

C

— N —

N —

0 'C ( 1 OC O D. . C — c C C C CC 00 C C C L f )- C - -O D 0 ' —

cc

0 ' 0 —

N N N N

—CC 0 ' U )4 0 ' - -I C ( P C C CU D ( P C C - N.- O DN N O D

CO

0 0 ' 0 0 , 0 0 ' 0 '0( t0 0 'C C Y '(7 C 0 ( 30 0 0 (O U '0 Q ( 3 0 0 '0 '0 'O O '0 •0 '0 '

'N t U N4 00 ' C 0P) F ) 4'F ) F )C 4 C ' 4C C ) -4 - r C 4 4Q ( ' . i n ( P — U ) O DC N N r Nc N 4 Nr )cJc ' J —r )c ' J N -c 4 r c -- -r ) N (4 —r 1 ) - -4 N4 — NN — NN1 1 ) — Nc • a . a • . a • s a 5 S • 5 5 • s . S . • 5 . a • • 0 • • • • S • a a a a a s s a s s . U )4 L I ) 4 i n ' s

•

•

U )i n U )0 ' .

.

C •

5

0

i nC ' F ) 0

0

5

S

0

0

4 I p 5

5

5

0

I t )r 0

0

5

i i n i ni n cU ) 4 L I )i n i n C ' N m k r i r i n 0

0

0

s

a

s

s

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

‚

s

•

s

a

.

s

s

a

n a

•

•

•

•

.

.

•

.

•

•

.

•

a

.

.

•

.

•

•

.

.

•

.

s

0 C 'C 'C C C ' 0 0C OC 'C C ' C C C ' C O OC C C s

l

5

s

l

0 'Q 0 . 0 'C 0 'C Q

a

.

s

s

a

a

ø

a

l

s

a

5

0

s

0

0

a

0

a

.

.

F ) i n i n i nF ) .

a

,

5

•

•

a

s

l

.

•

.

•

.

•

•

•

•

.

•

.

•

0

0

0

5

5

0

0

5

0 ' -o a '0 0 0 0 0 'o o .o 00 0 'O O C 0 0 0 ' t hQ 0 O C C Q 'Q 0 'Q 'Q Q

0 0

•

•

•

s

.

•

•

•

.

•

•

5

5

a

s

5

s

5

.

s

a

a

a

l

.

C C ' CC C ' 0 C 0 Cr )C C CC C

e c oc ' o oc C O C O C O C C O O C C O C C C C C C C O C O C C 0 •

.

i n C O(i O f l - CC UD( ' JN U ) 4 N4 O D I; - i nC U D L C ; i n 4 U ) OIPU D.4 U D 0 ' m 01 c 01( 710. 0 ' U ) U ) 0 'O 0 'Q O D U )O O D '0 'Q C 0 'O O DO DO DO U )O 0 '0 O D U ) 0 'C 0 C c o

s

5

s

5

•

5

a

5

1

5

5

a

S

•0 'O ' 0 'O «0 ' 0 ' O 0 ' 0 'O 0 0 '

c O CC OC C O C C S

•

s

a

s

s

a

a

s

.

.

0 ( P O O U D 6 C C OC I PIf lU ) 0 0 0 C OLt ) U )C C CC C CC t ) CC U DU ) C 0 0 C%t ) 0 0 0C ' C i n Nu Q N r u )tr o o N U DN N N i ni n i n C 'NN - N C0 O i nC0 L U D C NC ' JC C U )C N U DC L t )U ) O F ), .tt ) 4 C ' 4 4« ) 4N C ' 4I n 0 ' C ' N F )C ' C ' C ' JF ) 4 N $ 1 ' U )L U C ' U ) L I ) U ) ( U 4 F ) C ' i n N N L U 4 4F , 4(t) 1 ) -4

a

s

U ) C ' •

a

s

a

s

s

e

s

l

a

•

l

C ' U D C ' 4 4 N U D C ' i nU r O D i n L U .

.

.

( P 0 P Lf l

.

.

U D f l .

.

s

a

5

.

.

5

s

5

•

l

5

s

a

5

5

•

ø

s

•

l

a

N C ' N U ) ( PN i n ( P L U C 'L1 )N U D L U N LN C '

a

s

s

l

Ø

s

i n C ' 4 0 'L CH

a

ø

s

s

4U j C ' C '

0C i n( \ j N0 r ) i n 4F )C N - N i nr C C i nN i nC I T ,I U Crllf l C 0ln F )r ) U ) U ) s

a

N C ' U ) C '? ' N

.

.

.

5

.

C 'N

5

5

.

a

a

NLU C '

a

•

5

5

C ' N

a

5

.

5

5

0

.

.

.

.

s

a

a

•

C 'N C ' C ' ( P N C ' N U D C N C '

.

.

.

.

C ' N C '

—4

f l NL) .r O D C i n Nr ' )O D NC r L t )C 'N O D O CIf lP , L I ) F ) OC O JC :C N N C ' r F ) N O N U ) .• . • a • • • . • • • . . . . . . 5 5 . S a . 5 . 5 . • . . 5 a 5 5 5 1 . 5 0 , 5 5 • C '0 ' r- « )N N O N NN 0 'P- U )N Q N ( P'0-O U )N 0 'N N N N C ' « )N U )U )C N —4

i nr F ) F )1 ' )F )F )F )F ) F )F ) F )F )F )

)F )F )F )F )F ) F )F )m m F )F )

N N N N N N NC ' J( ' J NCJ N N N F ) F )F ) F ) F )F ) F )F ) F )F ) F )F ) F ) F )F ) F ) F )

N N N N C UN N N N N N N C U( N JN N N N C U N N N N N N N N N N N N N ( U C UN N N N N ( UC UC U C U C U o C 0 0 C C0 0 CC NN N N NN N -P -N NN

O D 0 'CS C UF ) 41U C 'N U )0 ' 0' N r 4 N N N N N N ( ' IC U C U( UF ) F )F )F )F )F )F ) F )F )F )4 * 4 ' 4 I 'P - P - NN P -N N N N N N N

2 27

11

aU . -

Cc & C )0 0 c C 4 U ) N U ) U ' UI f lC U ' U ' r )— a ' oa )aa ' c a U ) -r - a ' aa 'aa

t f

0

N N

N 'v

aca a 'aa

r :a ' aL r ,0

4 -

ao a N

rr )r r

C

t n tt )CC O

U )U )

a '

—

C o

a 'o 'ø '

—

N — N

C

r ' -

—

a ' U )C 'C O C

I N

— n

F ) 90 Z )

r )r , r F

U ) 0

a a a C r .a a a a a u a a a '

C O

U )

C

F )r )F )r ) r

e

N — N

t oL

ao 'r -

r . .rn r ) F ) 'r r

v( l i

r )r )r )r )r )r

)

. ) F ) F )F )r

a a a a ' a a ' a 'a a ' 0,a a ' a a 'a ' a ' a a a ' a ' a a a a a ' a aa ' a a '

o — — — o •. . .

a '0 'c ' JQ 'Ln N a ' 4 4 F )a ' 4 - - N — . N —U 'r ccJ c 4 - . o - - o 4a j C .. • S . • . • • • S • • a I • • • • • . . .

a. . . . .

4« , 0 0 .

.

,

•

,

,

•

.

.

.

.

•

•

•

•

•

a. • a . . . . . e . . . . . .

U ) — C C N C U ) C — U ' U ) U ) F - N N CU ) ‚ D N 4 U )C U ) N U ) U )U ) N U ) U )0 F )F )0 U )U ) 0 U ) U )U )U ) U ) ao a. . . . . •. . .. . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . .

r

e l o o c cc C O O ' C O 0 0 0C C C C ' 0 0 0 0 C C o e 0 r cC 0If l O c c oe o .. . . . . . . . s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c a aao 'a a ' a 'a ' a ' a ' N N N U ) U ) N ) N U ) N N d,. a ao 'o ' a a ao 'o 01 0 0 %

o • o 'a 'ao

C C CC C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C C c c 0 c c 0 0 0 0 e n , c o c o o c o oc 0 0 0 • *

ø

*

a

.

.

.

a .

.

•

•

0 C U ) 0 0 0C '0 01 $ )C OC '0 C C0 U ) U ) U )0 0 0C U )0 o U )U )U )0 0 0 00C )0 U ) U )0 0 0 0 0 L f lU ) NC t r . t f lLf l L O O O f l OU DU ) U ) N O U ) 0 NO N( \ I C ) a ' F C )i nn a ' C ) U ) f r, r Of l , f lU ) U )U ) U ) U ) U ) U )p'( 4 N U ' U ) 41 w ) U )U ) N N « ,k op F ) -4

U ' C OU ) U ) U ) N U ) U-)\ D 4 0 U )0 ' — U ) U )N N N I ' )c o 0 • ø

•

I

•

.

a ø

.

.

.

' D U ) ' D U ) U ) ' D U ) U )‚ D U ) ' D

-

. • . .• . . . ‚ .

0 g 4 I n U )U ) S

. •

.

S

.

ø

.

.

U ) O U ) DU ) ' D‚ D' D

‚.

.

.

‚D , Ø

U ) .

U ) 04 . QN U )U )C U ) - 4t F ' .

.

s

0U ) U )F ) ' C U )U )

.

e

.

•• • a • • • a • • • . • • .

.

.

.

,

.

,

,

N ‚ D ' D 4

•

,

•• • • ,

.

,

— .

U )- 0 Q ,

.

.

,

)N N N N 4

• • • , •

' C U ) ‚ C — N U ) 0 ' r nC -L i )U ) — .N i n U )L OU ) CU )N U ) U )F ) U )0 U ) C UNO 'C F ) 0.F - c iU )F ' S .

S

N h - r - I ' -F ' -F -F - F - F - F -N

F ) F ) F ) F ) F )F ) F )F ) F ) F )F ) F ) t oF ) F ) F )F )F )F ) N N ( L iN N N N N N ( L i N ( \ j ( \ j

( \ 1

N C L iN ( L iN F )F )F )F ) i nF ) F )F )F )F ) F )

i nf 9i n

I nF )F )F ) f ' )F )F )F )F ) F )F )

U " OF ' - U ) a 'c - -c ' Jr ) ' i t1 i )cF F - N F -

N

N F ' - f - P , N? ' - N F - N?- F ' - F - P 'F- N F ' -? ' - N P ' N F - F - F -F - F - NP- F - F - N

2 28

F -F ' -

c m r )

N

I C N U ) 4 m

co

O 0F ) ' 0 0C ' J0

r c na 4 - F ) F ) U ) — C U ) F ) . r jU ) F ) U )U ) U ) QO U )O O U )Q C

ON

a ac - c C C F )

U P .

a — a a a- o a

N N

.

—

N N N

—

C 'IN N N N N N N

—

N \ )N N N

N N N N N

-

N N N

—

—

- N N N N C \ IN

—

N N N

N N N N

—

N N N N N N N N

—

N N N N N N C 'IN

—

4 -f-

-4

I X )C U ) O C OW ; Cc O N 0 C1 4 ) F )

U )

i t ) 0 00 D 0 N J 0( J

r

F V) f l F )r F )r

r )f )r

C

0 '

( 7 1

oc -u 'a 'a 0U '

• .

• •

.

.

.

.

.

‚

) U U ) 4 - 4 - U ) 4 -

.

•

.

a

.

O r

0

•

s

.

—

'

.

U ) .

.

.

.

.

.

U )

f f )

r .C 0 'O o r .Qa 0 '0 C

00 '0 'C r,V O N

U ) U )

• .

S

-

.

C U )( ‚ 4( ‚ 4 • .

.

•

—

•

.

.

.

.

S .

.

- .

—

N

—

U )O Q Q ' N N N N

—

—

—

N ( ' 4( ' 4( ‚ 4N ( ' 4 -

a 'aø o '

U ) P .

•

.

•

.

—

—

r

F )r

0 0 '

0 0 0 0 C CU ) O C O U ) (n

r )r )r

.

O a

q . a 0 '

a 'o0 1a

o o 'oo o ' a

0 0 F ) P .U )U )F )1 4 )0 ' U )0 4 F : N U ) P . - - U ) - U ) •c o - c N ) '. O .

.

•

.

.

_

CU ) U )r o U ) U ) •

U )

.

—

C U ) U )' U ) P . N OC 4 -0 00 ' -

c

O 4 - U ) U ) P .u ) U ) U ) 4 U )F .

Q U )

)r I V )r )r )r,r I F )r ) F )f f )

C

0

F ) U ) O4

c ,

00 0 0 0C 0 0 0 U )U ) c. t ' U

r )r r )r r

0

C P .r a 0 C 4 - U )P . U )

C U ) O% L 0 N

N P . -( \ ,N C o

N O U )

‚

‚

• •

.

•

U ) N N •

•

.

•

.

• •

.

.

.

r ;0 .

I ' , — N .

.

4 F )r ' i 4 .

.

.

.

0

r )1 4 )U ) U ) OF )U ) ( ) C N — C 0U ) U ) U ) U ) F ) 4 1 4 )1 4 ) I C ' — U) 0 ' - U ) P . C o JU ) ca i nU ) 4 U ) 00 ' 0 ' 4 U )N U )( ‚ 4 Q 0 '0 0 0 0 0 a.0 0 0 U ) ( I NQ 'a a U ) U )o 0 ' 0 U )O 'O 0 '0 C - 00 ' 0 U ) C a 00 0 Q ' • S S • S • • S • • • • 5 • • 5 5 5 • S S S • • S S • S S S S 5 . 4 5 S S S S S S S S S S S

• S

.

• •

.

.

.

.

S

.

.

S

.

.

.

.

.

•

•

.

•

.

•

.

.

.

,

.

.

S

•

.

I

S

.

.

.

.

.

.

S

. .

.

N U )( ‚ 4F )U )U ) ( ‚ 4 —F ) - - D- U ) - 4 4( C C o U ) U ) 0 '- N 0 'F )P .0 '- Z — U ) oF )F )N I . U ) P . -N P . 4F > ( ' J O ( ' 4N ( ‚ 4N N - ( ‚ 4N N ( ' 4( ‚ 4( ‚ 4N - ( ' 4 N ( ' 4( \ J— ( ‚ 4 N —( ' 4 N —(‚ 4 '( ' 4( ‚ 4N ( ‚ 4F )F )( ‚ 4( ' 4( ‚ 4( ‚ 4'( ‚ 4- ( ‚ 4( ‚ 4 ( ‚ 4( ‚ 4 0 0 0 0 0 0c i0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C O OO O CC oC a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c a C oc c o o •. • • • . . . . S • • e S . S . • S . . • . . . S . S . . . • . S s .. S• . • . •a • U ) U ) U ) U ) P .

' 4tf l4 - 4

N 4 - U ) U )P . F ) U ) U )r 4 - U ) N 4r) r )4 U ) 4 -P . .4

' 0

C ) U 0r U ) oC U ) o

S .

.

•

• S

) P U .

) U

.

.

.

S

NU ) U ) U ) 0 4 U ) S

.

.

P . Q ) U U )

S

.

•

.

.

U )) U P .

.

.

U ) .

.

U ) U )

.

U )

Q ,

.

.

cj F )U ) U )Q F )C 'r iU )C N P . N — U ) GIf lr ) •

.

S

S

U ) U )( C U )

.

S

.

i n

• •

— •

I f )F )0 0F ) S

S

S

S

.

. '

S

.

.

S

O OP . .4

.s

-

F )( 4 )C U )F )t o F )U ) U )U ) U )P . C UC O C o0 C o 0s 44 P . 0 C ; F )— ( 9 0 S

S

.

S

.

s

e

.

.

.

.

.

,

.

S

P .

• .

.

•

j

.

.

•

C U )

—

r >U )

r > U ) U ) 01 4 ) — I f )

. -

4

— U )U ) C O— U ) 1 4 ) 0 0F ) C O F )U )U ) F )0 C - - ( ‚ 4F ) N C U )( ' J. . F )U )0 U ) F )F )F - C O . t o C O ( 1 ) 0 C O OF )C ( ‚ 4I f ) S. S . s . . . . . . . e . , . . , •• • • • s . . . . . . , . . . • . . . . • • s s . . P . N .4

—

0 'Q 'Q "C 0 0 r I l i1 9f t )

F ) ( 91" >I " )F )7 ' )( 9 ( 97 ' )7 ' )( 97 ' ) F )

7 V )

)7 V) 7 V )

F ) 1 ' )1 9 F ) F )7 V )F )7 ' )

U ) 0 % 0 — NC ' ) 4 I f )' C P . C O 0 "C ' N7 ' ) 4 - U )‚ C P . - U )

0 "C

7 V )

7 V )

7 V )F )7 V )7 V >7 V ) F , F )C " )F ) F )F )F ' )F ' )F )

- ( ‚ i F ) 41 4 ) 0P - U ) 0 '0

f l -C - P .

2 29

N7 ' ) 4 1 4 ' )' 0 C - C O 0 'C - - N

4 0 4 0 O J 4 o a ) 0

F ) N 0 ' M ) CC> K )cr . 0 ' C N 0 ' 0 N 40 ' ( 7 '1 )0 ) 4 ' . 0 4 0 0 CC . 0 a Q, a c r .r 0 ' NO '« iO 0 'C ra .c jç . C N L O L n V ) 4 4 C 't1 )O C N C ' . J' .D N e t o r i ' . C' .Q 4 i' .Ct1 )Q ' . 04 N N 0 a ).- 0 ' C C ,oP a ) 0 ' C O O N -C ' JC ' j. - -C ' . J N

—

4

C ' )

—

. .

d

N C

—

- - N

.4

-0 )

' 4.

0 )C ' . )N N 0 '. 0 )C ' . )C ' . )C ' . )0 )C ' )- C ' . )C ' . )C ' . )C ' . )C ' )C ' . )C . )I NC ' )0 ) C ' . )C ' . )C ' . )- - C ' )C ' )

- - -

)( 7 ' a

N N

N 0 ' .0 )0 )

4 0 N

o 0 C o

-.

- - C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )

F )C a ) 4' .C 4 ' a )N C 4 -C ' )

( ' . )

4 4 -O a ) Q C ,. . 4 ' . ' 0 . . .j ) (\ ) 4. . - - - N.f ' )f r ,c ' ) F ) C O U ) O c c U )t p o w Q QC C Ø C C C U ) o o U ) o cc ot o N' . N C'j 4 a ) N N N. . .' . L ) 4 4p - NCU U )r )' . j- ac ' . a

O Q r d C Q O u m O N N C . a )' .O U ) P r )F )Q ' ' . 00 'Q '. ..Q C '

' . C ' ) C .

F )N ( r )F ) F ) I " N N F )N F )F ) F )F ) F )F ) r F ' .F ) F ) N F ) F ) I )F " .F )F ) F )F ) F )F )F ) t o F ' .F ) F )F ) F )N N N F )( f )F )I n 0

0 'C ' 0 a C, 0 G .C

0 'O '

C

0 ' 0 '

0 '

,

0 C l0 ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 0 IO N 00 ' 00 ' 0 " ( 7 0 ' 00 0 ' 0 ' 0 '0 ' 0 '0 ' 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 ' 0 0 0 0 00 ' 0 0 0(7,0 0 0 0 I C )F - U )a ) C M . '0 ) -. C F )0 0C O C N 14 0F - F ) - -4 C ' )F - F ' .F ) - 4 U )0 '1 ' )C 0 )F ) C ' . )C ' )C ' . )C ' N ' C N C ' )0 C ' . C OF ' ) 0 ) ( r )C ' . )F ' .C ' ) .4 C ' )- ( ' ) .. . . . . . . a . .. . • e . . . . . • • ø S I • ø • I S C ' ) F )C ' ) N F ) 4 C ' ) 4 0 ) 0 )0 )4 ' . 00 ) F ) I t )4 F ' .F ) 41 ) •

.

.

.

.

.

s

.

.

.

S

.

.

.

.

F " .

.

4 •

4 4 0 I C )- C - C ' )' . 0F )I C )N F )C ' ) ‚ —. C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' - - C' ) c ' . eC ' . )C ' )U ) .

.

ø

ø

ø

.

.

eF ) 4 N ( f ) 4 04 4 4 U ) U • )U ) F ) 4 N I t )C ' )

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

( ' )I nF ) 4 'F )

0- C 0 4 1 ) t o0 ) - -( \ k 01 )C . .i U ) U ' ) F ) F )L t ) 0 )C . ' O 0 ' U )F e U )0 'U ) C 4 U ) ' O C C U ) W 4 . 0If l . C. . . 00 )0 0 0 ' NQ ' .Q 'OO 'Q -O 0 0 O 0 U )0 )C D O D rO a )0 'Q ' c,0 ) Qa )0 c r.cC o0 0000 ço ' .a ' . •

0 0 0 0 0

'

S

•

0 0 0 0 r 0 00 0 00 0

•

e

•

•

•

S

•

•

•

•

S

•

•

•

•

•

S

.

.

S

.

s

.

.

S

.

0 00 C 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0

01 1 ) I f lC ' )' -' .D 0 '0 0 )F . C \ J0 )U ) N -1n 41 1 ) 0 )r ) U )' .c a )F ' .U )' .0 U ) o o Nc a ) 40 ' 4 40 ' «c. )' .o C ' )0 ) C ' )N C ' )C ' )C )C ' )( M NC ' . )N C ' ) C ' )C ' . )0 )- C ' )C ' )C M- C MC ' )F )F )- N - C ' )C ' . )( ' . )C ' ) - C M C ' . )F )C ' . )C ' )C M C 0 C .. . oI C )U ) 00 ) N 4' . C ' -

C C . . 0 I t ) OVU )

0 0 . . I )0 N U ) 4F )

0C . . C 0 01C ) 4 F )

OC 0 . S . 0 0 0 0IC )0 ' . N' .O Q

0 0 0 0 0 0 0C Cr , 0 00 0 0C O0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C C0 C C .

.

.

.

•

S

•

I

•

•

,

S

e

ø

.

-4

4

,

•

,

.

•

5

•

.

.

.

,

,

•

•

•

•

.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C l ) 0 0C CC C OU ) 01 1 ' .0 0C C .I t ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 CC . ctn 0 01 1 )10 * ? - 0 C Y 0h - . O' .o I f )O ' .f l - tn —i C C o l Oin c m 0C ec, C ' 0 0 ) CU ) 0 )P - U ) ' O U ) 4 N C F )# 4 1 0 4 N U )F )U 4 4 C MN F )L ) 4' .' .F , 1 0 O4 F -4

-4 -4

UU S DP ' . -If lr ) 4 U ) 41 ) 4' .O N N ' O' .D N NF- 1 0U )' .o N 4 U ) 1 00 ' 0 ) 4' .jU )' .C Np - ' O 4' .OU)' .oIC ) U ) U )Q ' .C ' - ' . 01 ) ' . 0 N 00 ' .C I t ) .. iI C )C ' - 4 F ) 00 )1 1 ) 0 ) 01 1 )U ).N N ' . 0-4 ( ' JO ' C ' -F ) ' . 01 ) 1 0U )I t ) N 0 ) 0 ) 0 )' . 0N N N ' 0

( 7 '

U ) 0 '0 )4 0 0' 0 00 ) 1 0F )0

U ) 0 )1 ) -4

-4

1 0IU 0 U )1"..l ' - 0 ' U ) 0 N U ), . . U ) F ) 0' .c C c - 0 0 ' 0 ) 011 )0 ' . . 0. . N N F ) O ' 0 U ) U )N N F )I f ) 011 ) 0 )N C I L I S

.

•

e

I

•

I

,

S

•

.

.

•

S

S

I

S

•

•

•

•

•

S

‚ 0 0 0

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

' .o 0 ) U ) 0 )F -

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) 0 ) U ) 0 ) U ) 0 ) a ) - ' 0' .0 I t ) -' .C' .o i f ) . . F ) a )4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 )0 )(\ I 0 ) N N N NO ' . N ( M N N N N 0 ) 0 )N N 0 )C ' ) C MC ' )C ' )N ( M N C ' . )C ' . ' .( \ j N( ' . ) F )F )F )F )F )F )C OF ) F )F ) r nF ) F 'F ) F )F ) F )F ) F )F ) F )C O F 'F )F )F )C O F )F eF )i n

F )

f )F )F )F )F )C O F ' )C OF ) F )F )F )F )

F ) 4 '1 )' CC ' - 0 ) 0c -C ' 4t O 41 1 )' . 0N 0 ) 0 0 C' )F ) 4 U )' . 0N C D0 'C >4CM F ' ). 4 'I t ) ' . C )N 0 )0 0 - NC l 4 '1 )" 0C ' F -F - N C ' )F )F ' )F ' F ) F ' )F ' ) 4 4 4 4 * 4 4 4 4 41 ) U )U ) I t )U ) U ) U )U )U ) I C ) O ' .O ' 00 0 ' O

2 30

c l

( ‚ 1

O

—

—

o cr

c

u '

NO O

C r c

o

F ) c

4.

a

o

u

c

U) Q

o q a ' o

r) c a

o c a c

C C 4 Q N C F )N N N U ) C C U ) N . 0C C 4 - e U - C r C r C C O c U ) Cc 'o \p C - C O NC 04CC C '

4 o

C «

C

c

c r .

- FJ N F )f r , N C . F ) U ) 0 U )C ' C ' U )a a 'o o 0 U )

N U ) O « a o '

( \ 1- N

N

(1

1

0 4 NN ( \ j

c ' J C F ) N

JN N N( ' J N N C C C F )U ) 4 U ) N — F ) ( ‚ UF )F ) N

.'

( ' 4N N ( ‚ 4N N ( ‚ U( ‚ U( ‚ U( ‚ UN N N N N N ( ‚ U( ‚ 4( ‚ UN C U N C ' ;( ' 4( ' J N C J C U a '

—

c o a 0 4 Q ' O 4f ( C4 - NF 1 ' ) -r

—

N

—s

—

F )

C U

—

N

U )O \. . . . U )N v % c 0, e N U ) -C N. . « C ' ir ) -

00 0 0 C L 1 C oU • ) C 0 o U )C C I nC 0 0 U )C i n0 C .c I ! )C U )0 I nC C rI t )U ) 0 0 010 C C U ) I n U ) U ) 0 U ' )C C \ JU ) U ) NC ' J( ' J F )F ) U ) F )F )F ) a' c

a'

M r '

C 'Q Q0 ' CQ '

C a 'C ' C r 0 ' C c ,a ' 00

( 7 '( ' U4 C ; - CC C( ‚ U •

•

0

I

F )F

)

I ' )

n

F )

V )r )

00 0 'a ' 0 a ' C a 'a ' 0 ' C 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 '0 ' 0 ' C r.0 '0 ' 0 '

•

.

•

—

F ' )

C "o 'C G O «O 0 '

Q

Q 'Q ' a '

O '0 '0 ' CC ) Q ( 7 ' CQ ' a «a a

4 '4 N F ) U ) — U • ) a C4 4 U )I N U )U ) 4 N U ) 4 - N - U )U ) -r ' ) NcU N -p - Nr ' ) - -(rt t ) C . F )' 0N C - O N C '( ' U . ' " '4 ( ‚ 4 0 C N Nr 44 .( ' C N sc '. . .c' U c oc' 4c " 0 0

0

0

0

1

.

0

0

.

0

0

1

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

0

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

‚ .4

I t )U ) 4 t O U ) U ) F ) U ) t o 44 U ) F )F ) 41 ' ) 4 4 U ) 4 U ) I S )F ) U ) U )I S )F ) 4 " 0

F ' )4 U )U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U )U ) ( ‚ 4U ) ' 0 0 0 'N 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

.

f C O, . C C ' c C OC C J N( ' 4N ( ' 4N N C JN

0

i t1 0 1 0I S )44 F ) 4 4N F ) 4 U )

U ) I t )t o CC F ) 0 ' C -0 " . s 4 C ( ' . 4U )M . sI t )N 0 U ' ) Q% I .4 0 ' U )a ' 0 'c j U )ç C C ' 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 . • 0 S • 0 0 0 • • •• 0 e 0 • • •

0

0r c

O'' C C )C CC

Coec

0 0 0 0 0 0

4

0

4 U )

4 I f I t )I t )0 ' - C N Q 'C C Q "O 0 0 ' I

S

0

0

0

.

.

0 0 0 0 C c 0 0 0 C ' O oc . O

U ) ( ‚ 4( " 4 44 U ) C OC U ) ( ' . 40 ' ( " 4 U ) N U )0 " 4 ' . 0 4 " C M 4 C N -' I t ) 4 t oI t )0 4 0 4 -( ‚ 4F , 4 N N ( " 4 0 4( ' 4( ' 4N 4( ‚ ' 4 0 4( ' 40 4 ( ' 4 ( 4( ‚ ‚ 4( ' 4N ( ' 4( ' 4N ( ‚ 4( " 4( ‚ 4C Y ( ' 4N ( ‚ 4( ‚ 4 .

„

-

0 C Qc 0 C 0 0 0 ö O c

o

C o c o 0c . 0c ' c 0 0 0 0 c o oc C C 0 0 0 0 0C . 0 0 0 0C C

O 0 0 0 0 0C o oI S )I t )C . C 0 C,01 5) 01 5 )U )C . C 01 5 ) 0 01 5 ' ) 0 10 ,U )C C0 0 0 0 0 0 0U ' )I t )8 0 0 0 U )1f l 010 c 0 G U ) 0 0 41- U )10 0U ) C ' N c C U N U ) u ' ) U )N r ' 411 )( % J OLf l' C1S )P . . 0 0 L t )' . S J m t o NC ' J 0 U ) O O I t )

N U )4 -I t )c U ) F ) U ) 0

0

P -N

0

•

U )

0

0

0

' . CU )

1

N N U ) 4, . . U ). . . O 0 ' U ). 0 F ) N, . . C N N 4 U ) 4 F ).4 C U )N 0 4 U )4 r , 0O " U ) U ) U )N oC 0

0

0

0

l

U ) U ) U )

1

•

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

.

.

0

0

0

Ø

S

.

sC O F ) ( ' . 4N ( ' . 4 0U ) 4 N C U ) O N N r N N O 01 )

.‚

C

0 4 N - U )N U ) U ) U ) U ),0 U ) U )U )N

•

I

0

0

0

I

I

0

0

a

0

0

*

—4

or 4F )C ' C U )C o- F )N

`

•

U )

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

1 0 I t ) •

0

0 sU )F ) ( ‚ 4 .

I S

•

.

N U )0 .

.

.

.

I

I

.

0

0

5

0

.

0

0

0

.

5

.

.

0

0

0

•

•

0

.

.

0

U ) U ) U ) U ) U )N U ) U ) U ) U )0 ' OU )N N N U ) U ) 0 N' .o U ) U )p . N U )' .0 N U )N U )N U ) ' U ) U ) U )N U ) U ) U )U ) U )N .4 —4

N N N N 0 4 N 4 4 F ) F )F ) F ) F ) F )L OU ) U ) U ) P -N - N N F )F ) F )I n c .0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 C C C C, ( ' 4( ‚ 4( ' . 4( ‚ U(m ( ‚ J ( ' . 4( ' 4( ' . 4N N ( ' . 4( " . J( ' 4F )C ' )F ) F )F ) F )C " )F ) C ' )F ) F ) F ) F ) F ) F )C ' )F ) F ' .1 ) C ' ) F ) F )F ) F )F ) F ) F )F )F ) F ) F ) F )F )( f )F )F ) F ) F )F )F ) I n F )F ) F )F ) F )F ' )F )F ) C ' )F ) F ' )F ) r .F )F ) F )F ' )F ) F )F ) F ) I V )F ) F )F ) C )0 'C F )4 U )U ) N U ) C ' C. .« S J F ) 4L0' . N U ) 0 ' O -4 0 4F ) 4 U ) U ) N U ) 0 ' 0. . 4 N F ) 4 U )U )N U )C "C ' .' N N NU ' ) U )U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) U )( I DU )C F ' 0 ' 0 ' C '0 ' . 00 0 CC 0 0 0 0 C . 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 '0 '0 ' a 'o ' .a 'Q '

2 31

C C ‚C CD C U ) N U ) C o r,‚ CU ) C U ) 0 ' Q0 ' U ) N — N r C ' ‚ C ‚ C C F ) ‚ CN C ' N U ) C ' C ‚ C C "0 F ) N I n oi tr o — oC o U : C ' O D c ' O h C Q 01 U :O O '. .0 0 ' 0 oQ C C C 0) 4 4 U ) 0 C 4( ' J 0 C U C C F ) ) C t r .V D .N — . U )i t 0 ' C Ø U ) NQ ' C ' JN N G C ' g 0 .7 O ' U :C C ' U :O 'C — a C ' CO I L —. U : o . .. 0 0 0a ra C ' o o

—

N N

N N N N N N N N N N

—

F ) F )4 . 'C 0 'C ' N N — N — C U.

( ' UN N

—

0 4 4 N C ' N NC U ) — F ) 4 — ( \ jC ' J

—

( ‚ U( ‚ U( ' )

' Q ' 4 U : U )C U IC

r iF )

F ) F )F ) F )F ) F ) P .F ) F ) r i

rF .F )

o 'o C r o C '0 O ' C ' Q 'o '

OO ' C l .O 0 O 'C 'O 'O 'Q 'O O 'C 'O ' C '0 'O

U IC 0 0 0C ' CU ) U )t l ) OU ) OU )C 0C ‚ CC N U )?-P ( C m F )F )

r MM M M

M F )F F )

F )

U C 'O '0 'C i 0

C 'c U ) .

( )N N N N N

O U )U) O C U ) O CU ) U : N N N CF ) N ‚ C C 4

00 0

•

—

-.

N.‚ C F ) F )

N N

C ' r iJN' C

•

r •

.

.

.

oaNr •

.

•

•

•

.

.

0

.

•

•

•

.

•

•

•

•

a

.

.

.

0 — .

.

•

.

•

.

.

.

•

.

.

•

.

.

•

.

.

4 4 4 4U ) 4 4 t o U ) 4 U )4 4 F ) U ) 4 4 4 4 4 4 F U ) 44 W . U )U )( ‚ UU ) 4 4 i n I t F )U ) 4 * U ) ,t t o U ) U ) a • ø . . . ø .. • . . . . s • . s •• • a. . • e . • . • . • s • • • . . • . . . ø . . 4 ( ' J' C ) C 0 C ' U : U : •

•

a

0 e C 0 ' U )

C O Ø

U ) 4 N 0 0 .• O O U ) 0 ) 4 0

t o

-

F ) U ) —CU F ) — O N U ) 0 - ( ‚ U — 4 — . N - cc C F ) C ' 4— ct o NO ' 0 C C 4 C UC a U )U )C U ) — 0 ' 0 )0 ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' CC« ) U : 0 'C ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 C ' C C G ; 0 ' 0 ' CC 'U :0 ' 0 ' U )C C ' U :C 'C ' 0 ' 0 '0 ' 0 CC 0 ' a

•

.

a

U ) C( U N U ) U ) 4 U I 0 '

—‚

0 0 0 •

.

*

C OC . I

.

.

.

•

a

I

•

s

.

a

a

.

.

.

I

.

I

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

. .4 F ) C F ) ( ' 4 N U ) C ' ‚ C N N —* ; ; 4 U ) N N C ‚ C U )N

•

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

F ) .0 -0 F ) ; 4

C O 0 0 C C C O 0 0 Cc .0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 S

.

•

a

•

ø

a

•

ø

s

I

I

s

a

•

a

.

a

a

ø

s

ø

s

.

s

.

.

.

.

O C oC CU ) 0 0 0 0 0C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C U )U ) 0 0 0 0 0 C C CU ) U ) C O O CU )0 0 0 0'O ' 0 - 0 o I )0 c Ot t )C . w e O L I )C C U )U )C UN -4 0 1 00 0 a U )— N C U.4 r - c i n N F ) 011 F ) 4 N C ) ' Cl ' N 4 U ) 4 U ) U ) 4 ‚ C 4 *II ) F ) U ) 4 N 4 F 4Lt )N F )0 'f ' J.L J' .0 4 0 j r , * ' C ‚ CU ) '

—4 0 •

O D U ) a

.

0 •

( U N — 4 •

.

e

.

.

.

•

O NC O e

•

•

•

ro c a . . .r i* ' . oN - oN a

.

.

•

.

e

•

a

e

a

( ‚ 4 -0 ' ( ' Je N — e

a

.

s

.

e

.

u .

.

U ) ‚ CF ), '- C O .

.

s

.

.

a

r )4 .

.

N 4C ? .

.

.

L I ) F ) 0 F ) N ( C U )F ) — 0 0 4 aU ) I t ) O-

—

U ) ‚ C U )U ) N OC O F )U ) C ' C ar )F )

a

F )i f ,N - N F )F )F )U ) a C ‚ C( C )

9t .4 1U )‚ C ‚ C ‚ C )N N - ‚ C N U ) U ) N U ) U : ' . 0U ) ' . 0‚ C‚ CN U ) ‚ C U ) C ‚ . 0N -‚ CU ) ‚ C‚ CN ‚ C ‚ C' C ) U : Ott )N C C UU )O NF )0 ' U ) ' . 0C U N U )N U ) ‚ C N - ( ' 4 L I )O N ' . 0F )U )( ‚ U‚ C 40U )U )F ) ( ' IU ) 0 F )( ‚ 4 4 C OF ) U ) •

.

.

.

.

.

a

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

•

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

ø

.

•

•

.

‚ C U )N ' C U ) U )'Or - U ) U : N U ) U )N N ' ON N ' C N' .C' .O N U ) U ) ' C U )N ' CN U :

•

•

.

•

•

•

•

.

.

.

•

•

.

— •

Oo ' C U )U )N C ' NN U )N ' CN a

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 F ) F )F )F )F )M V j F )r . I ' )F )F ) F ) F )

aC 'O N

( ' 4F ) F )F ) 0 '0 ' 0 'C C 'C '

F )F ) F )F ) F ) F )P ) P ) F )F ) F ) F ) M f r if nr n M , F )F )F ) F )F ) F )F )

0 0

F )f r )F ) F )F ) F )F )F )

M ,* 1 4 )' . 0N U ) C 0 -C UF ) 4 1 0 0 N0 0 C ' 0- C ' J F ) 4 U ) ' C N U ) C ' 0'C ' J F ) 4tf l' C? - U : 0 ' C 'C ' 0 0 ' 0 ' 01 0 0 C ' C ' 0 ' 0 00 0 'a ' C '0 ' 0 '0 '0 '0 ' O N0 ' 0 0 '0 ' O N O NC '0 ' 0 '0 '

2 32

4 1 0 , M) . 00 ) F )U ) ' — O DF -0O ' O DN Q 'C C F . - O C ' 0O C F )C CO F - C 0 ) 0 '— 0 " C

L I ) r - C N 4 0 ' — C F ) F )U ) O D O D C' . 0U ) F . -r , F )F C O D O D O D O D C c j L 0 ) o r , O D0 ) C C ' M C U ) 0 )O ' C C C F - C i t) C O C . cc I— c . C F -U ' )tI ) C ' C ( 1 )C ' C ' — c 0,0 )0 ' 0 0 ) — C c o C N - C ' O D C

F -, i r ,0 ) - 0 ' 0 ) CU ) 0 ' 0 ' L I U ' )F CQ C O Dr - C ' 0 'C F -N C ' 0F . - 4 C 0tf l ' C0 J r . C C O D F - U ) 'C " — — U ) 0 '0 " 0 )

N ( ' 1 NN N N N N N N

—

N N N N N

—

C ' )

—

N ( " 4 —N C " )C ' )N C ' )

—

4 o r .N U ) c r j j r ,' CCJC ' I F - U ) U ' )F -

c ' J

N N C ' )C ' )N

—

C ' )N C ' )C " )N C ' )( " . 4

' C 0 " 4 c -O ' CU ' )Q c ' 0 4 CC F )C ' J U ) O NO N N -F -U )C ' J —F )Q " C NN C — — —.C ' J —C ' J N -i — F ) C ' J NC' )

—

4 N O 0 ) NU ' )C ' JC \ JI t )

N t J

—

O D o r 'U ' ) -

—

C U ) cL t ) O C 0 0 C C C C 0 0C OU ) C OC U ) CU C C C U )U ' )U ) O C C C U ) OC ' U )U ) U ' ) O OC U ) Cc N 0 ) 0 ) 4 U ) N 4 U )P . - N 4 N .-s U )F . '- ' C C ' J ‚ t ' - 4 "0

rI 'l r ) r e )r )r )r )r )r ,r )F )F )F )r ,F )r)r)r )r )r )r )r )r)rr )r ,F Y )F )r ' )r )r ). .. CC ' CC C O O C C C ' C 0 'C C C C C C Ca 'c 'O O C C C0 0 0 0 ' 0 C C 0 ' 0 ' CO 0 "0 ' 0 0 0 ' 0 ' U 'C ' C C 0 " 0 ' 0 ' 0 " 00 ' C C C ' C ' 0 " C ) CC C C 0 ' C C Q . C C 0 ' CC ' 0 " 0 ' N

4 -i —

. •

.

.

C ' ) 4 N .

. .

— .

— •

.

— .

0 O D c r C' )' 0 ) ' C 4 N C U ) NO 'F . - ‚ 0 —U ' )N F ) ' C F )F . - O DU ) 0 Q O D 4 NOD — U )C' ) F )— NC r U )C ' )N . ' 4 ( N C . F ) 0 0 0 —C ' JF ) O- — — iC - 4 F ) — F - ( " 4 .

• •

.

.

.

. •

.

•

.

S

S

S

U ) 44 L O r 4 4 L O 4 t4 4 4 4 4 U ) • •

.

.

.

.

.

S .

.

U ) O D C U ) O D0 ' CC 0 • S

•

S

S

S

*

S

•

.

.

—

C ' )C " )

—

• Ø I t )

S

•

S

ø

•

0 0 . . 0 U ) oI ' U )U ' )

.

•

• C

0 0 . . U ' )I t ) NP 4 F )

S

•

' i •

S

S

•

— i

.

.

•

—,

•

•

a

4 4 4 4 4 NO " O D 0 ' F ) F ) N •

S

*

Ø

S

S

I

.

‚ C

S

.

•

e

o c

C ' )C ' )C " )C ' )0 4C ' )N C ' )

c 0 O c 0 0 0 S • • S • •. C 0 C 'U )0 0 I t ) 0 ' O C - -Lt ) N F )F )F )U ' )F )L I ) 4

•

• I

CO DC 'O "C 'U )O DU )O Do "O DC 'C 'C 'O DO DC(0O "C

0 C oc o C C 00 0 —

• •

.

C o . . C C i e1I ) 0 4F )

S

S

—

•

.

S

.

e

s

c

o

s

.

ø

•

oc 0 0 . . . . CU )C O OC \ Jtf lU ) 4C " )I f ) 4

I

•

.

.

.

.

S

.

.

S

•

.

in 14-

•

I

to

Ø

O D ' C O DC " ) 4 4 4 N •

S

•

a

S

e

•

S

.

•

.

S

.

S

.

—

e . C U ) F )

O . U ) N 4

c S 0 U ) C ' )

o . 0 U ) 4

c . 0 C 4

o S 0 G e

S

.

S

S

S

I

•

O 0 0 0 0 S . . I . 0 CC U )C . U ) 0 0 4 U ) F ) F - 0 F ' -

•

S

ø

•

S

• ,

.

•

0 . U ' ) N F )

S

0 c S . 0 0 t o w 0 10

s

•

S

.

.

.

.

C 0 e Cr '

C ' ) C ' )N C " )F )F )C " )( ' 4 F )I nF )C ' )F )F )C " ' )C " ) N N

0 . C U ) F )

S

C I O, O D 0 )C C CC ' C C O D O D C ' 0 O D

CC " ' OC ' , O 0 0 Cc O C ) C 0 0 0

C " )- — C ' )( ' 4( ' 4( U N

c o S e C C U ) C N ' 0

•

•

0 0 0 0c c o cc , oc . S . S . . . . . . . . 0 0C O0 0 0 C C0 0 U ) 0 0 U ) O — U ) CU )I I ) F ) F )F - 0 ‚ 0 U )C ' )N C ' )

S

•

S

S

4 U )i 0 U ) U ) U ' )‚ 0 ' 0 U ) U ) ‚ C U ) 4 F - U )F ) ' 0U )I t )U ) L I )I t ) ' 0U )i f )U ) F - F ' - U ) CU ) U ) ‚ 00 '0 )F -

e

•

S

S

I

.

•

F .F ' -I f )F )4 4 U )

-4

F ) ‚ CK iU )U )L I )F . - F . -C ' ). 4 0N N U )C ' )N U )C ' )‚ Cr 0 • S

S

S

S

.

S

.

S

.

.

Ø

S

.

e

S

.

.

.

S

S

i L i S

U ) C oi 0 0(0 F )F -F . S

.

S

5

S

S

S

S

' CF ) S

a

0 F ) 4 0 0(L,‚ 0 4 r l ii t )F )C 5

.

S

S

S

I

S

e

I

S

S

— .

‚ 0 ' 0U ) ' D U )F - ' 0 ‚ 0E - ‚ C ‚ C U ) ' 0 U )F . -‚ 0 U )F - s 0'O ‚ C ‚ CI t ) ' 0 ‚ 0 ' 0 C ' 0 " F . - O DC C ' C O DC ) "C U ) ' . 0F . -F -F ' - 4 4 I t )I t ) '

S

.

.

.

.

.

• .

•

e

S

. .

.

.

.

S

S

.

.

,

.

.

.

O Di0' -O C' .0 0F . - F . -Lt )O DF . - O

• .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

•

.

.

.

S

O U )F - O F -C " — i O DO ' C C. . .O " O O O D O DF -N - O D'CU )C N

0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 F ) F )( f )t oF )F ) F ) F )F )F )F ) F ' )F )F ) F ) F F ' )F ) F " )F " ' )I ' )F ) F )F )F )F ) F )F ) F ) F ) ,( i) F )F ) F ) F )F ) F )F ) F ) F ) F )F )F ) F ) F )F ) F ) F )F )F )F )F )F " )F )F )F )F ) F )F )F )F )F ' )F )F ) F ) F )F ) F ) F

F)

F )F ) F )F )F ) F ) F ) F ) F )F )F )F )F ) F )F ) F )F )l f lF ) F )

-C ' J F ) 4 U )' .C N U )C ' C'C ' i F ) 4 U ) ' 0F ' - U )Q " 0 4C ' JF ) ‚ CF -P -F - F - F - FC CO 'Q ' C CO ' Q 'O ' O ø C O O O O O O O' '' '0 'C O '0 " 01 01 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 01 ( > 01 0 01 0401 o ' C O3 01 0 ' 0 ' 9 1O i 01 C 0

2 33

f)toa oc N r)Nc % Ju ,o c \ lNr -

4 N - 4c ,

-

N C o . i j

o c .

J r r al lcc

U a

4 U ) -Nr a

cl 00

-

Q NQ 'r ) C £ - OU )

N U ) C O P - U )

0 A tr o

O '

N —

N

-

r

N

N N & n e u

N N N N N 0 N -

- - -

C .C C C C C U )C 0 0 0 U )c 0

F ' -

N

r )

r

•

I

.

.

'a 'o

(7 4 C a ' N Pr) Cc r .

.

.

e

i

u a C ' J -

N N N - N N N

i

•

•

oC •

•

Ir l •

•

V II ooaO 'oa 'o o 'a 'o 'c i a ' o 'ao

Q 'C a O

•

i

i

e

i

i

s

i

i

e

i

e

i

.

.

.

i

.

c .

S

•

•

ø

S

S

i

ø

Cc

0

0

f l, J' C cQ e u 4 4 f) N .

,

.

i

e

s

S

•

o C c 0r

•

S

i

•

.

c .r c o

.

.

C

.

Nr ) N

.

.

‚ C U ) F )U F ' - ( ' JO ' U ) U )O ' - 0 4F ' i

c c

4 4 -0C F )U ) C

1 a O ' -i x

4, . 0 If l4 0 ' C Nr .ti aI s ,c .

,

.

e

.

,

.

.

.

N 4r) 4

r ) 4

•

U )- U 0 U )U ) -U ) - OC N F ) S

u 0 0

N

e u e u(V 4r ' ) c r 4e 4 F ) 4 4CJ 4 4 4 NIf l( \ JU ) 4.'. •

c

a '

N 4 4 N

-

0

O Q ' Qa 'oo 'o 'o 'a '

0

-4 U ). N 0.. Cr) O U )Q U )o r )u N - rr e u U ) c 4e J F )e J N in r t) ' C J

e

N N N N - N - - N N

g O ' % 0 c r ,- 4 U ) F c N O ' U ) 4 t - C - ' C 4 a ' - - - N N - - N - i -

C

C , 0 CU 0 0 0 0 C C 0 C U ) cC 0 U ) 0 U )

C

c oo 'a U .a u

N - N N - - Ne u N N

-F ' -F ' -r -

CO 'C 'Q a

4 Ct- 'I e u

-

a C 4 -

‚C ‚C

•

•

•

•

•

.

S

S

ø

.

i

.

.

i

Q cU ) .

cc 'c o c o oc o cc c e c U ) U )

;

N

o i4 O

m

l

N

Ui

N

.i

N

S

.

.

i

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

c o oc C o c 0 " e o C c 4 4

a ' 0 ' N C U ) I l )' . 0

N

N.

0 0 0 C C c oj r- o o c o c C O C O C c e 0 0 0 0C C C C C ' C J r _ O O O C O O C C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 is . . . . . . • • • • • s • • S • • • • s • • • s • s s • • • • • s . i • . • • • • . . • 0 C -C ( J rC C O U ) U ) L I )C C CU ) C 0 0C OC 'C U )C 0 0 CC 'U )C U )0 0 0C eU )C CC U )C 0 0U )C C

NF )N. .— r e uN Q U ) N - c •

e

s

I

NNNe uNF )

i

a

( M U )

‚C

•

5

r - U ) *

S

i

s

i

4NU )

N. -NN d. ( J

O U )C ‚ C O i

e

S

S

e

0 0 'N U )F ' -

‚C

.

5

s

e

5

F ' -C -C 'N O

Fl

-r ,C .

•

S

C OF )

‚C

.

•

t I )l $ ) NF )Lf l N 4.- U )

Cr ,J U )c ' JF ' -( \ j - o c oa J 4 .

.

.

C )F ) F ) F -

F)

.

S

S

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

4 F -

‚C

U ,

‚C

•

•

•

•

‚C

•

•

‚

4 F ) 4 I l )

‚C

0 ' OU ) .

‚

•

L V)

•

F )r ) 4 L I ) •

.

‚

•

ri .

.

•

e

•

r 4 F ' )U ) ' . 0U ) CU ) U ) U ) U ) 4

‚C

•

•

•

•

' . 0 4

‚C

L I )

•

•

‚C ‚C

.

e

e

s

.

4 L V ) 44

.

.

0 )U )

•

.

•

•

.

I

.

S

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

S

S

*

I

S

S

I

I

.

i

.

.

e

.

S

C N ' . 00 ' - C O- ( \ j U )F )U ) .

.

.

.

F ) c f lF ) r '-' -L V )r 1 ' . ' )F ) F )r I F

F

F ) F )F ) F )F )F "F )L V )r )r r F ) F ) r ) 1 ' )L V )L V )( f )F )F l F ) F IF )

1 ) ,c )F - U ) C ' 0. NL V ) 410' .C N U ) 0 ' 0

r

L V

r IF F

. i

.

i

•

ø

i -

0 0 04 U )' C . - otI ) OU )' C .

•

.

.

•

.

'4 L V)

.

U )

I CC U ) F ' -' . 0P )t ; , C O F ' )( 7 ' U )CC ' ' C N U ) OF ) NF ' - F ) 0 ) -' .Q F ' - CII )( ' il l ) U ) L I )C . I

s

F )

r e )r c F )L V )r . ' F f)I V) r

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

t o Q F )L V )F )I n F ) F ) F Ir

« ' J F l 4 I C ' CF ' U ) O '0 4 'C ' 4 J4 r 4 4 U )' .4 OF ' . 4 4 U )0 ' . O - N r 4to c Cr- 0 ) 0

C CC o C • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0c 0 0 0 0 0 CC 0c 0 0 0 0C C 0 0 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0

2 34

N C ' C . .a -

r

tf . .U )' CQ

F

. 4( ' jt - U

U )Q C 'Q ‚C

C

% 4 )r I ,-

—

-

C CO 0 C ) U )U ) 4 -( 7 4 - C O NL)I- 4 4 ' C C ) N CLf lP - 4 - or )

‚ CO

r - a C N - 1 1 U ) 0 M U ) U ) C C C U ) ? - a . 00 U ) U ) um N - . 0 N - N - N - N - 0 0 '

( ' 4N N N N N N N N 1 \ 1N — — N — ( " 4( ' 4N — ( ‚ 4N N ( ‚ 4N ( \ J.( ' J( ' 4- — ( ‚ J N N

—

NU )I f )N4U )—r

— —

—

( 4

N

—o( ' uc

( ‚ J N —

u )r ) c

—

0 c t o oC U ) O U )U ) CU ) OC C O 4 - No .0 'r 4 - a . . 0o 4 44 -. r 0 - -o Jc ' 4N -r -r ' - ( ' 4( ' J N U ) - -N . N

e

•

•

a

.

•

.

.

NN - CC r — .r

( ‚ 4 - -

e

.. ..

- - - N -P - -4t ' - N - N -p

N ( ‚ ' 4N O N — N ( ‚ 4 —(‚ 4N — N ( ' 4( " 4

( ) "C . U )0 '0 N c C u U )C Q ' N N or •

-.

4 -U )U )o ' C4 -c . —

-

( ‚ ' I

N —c' 4 NN -N -

N ( ‚ 4( ‚ ' 4 4—

'( " 4

I

•

s

•

.

ø

•

e

.

•

•

s

a

.

s

.

.

ø

.

.

.

•

.

N - N -N -

‚

•

N C ‚C ‚C

e

( 4

C ' )( ‚ 40 " 4 - N U ) 4 - 4 - N ( ' 4 . 0F ) F )U ) c o i t .

s

Ø

Ø

e

•

•

•

4 .

•

e

.

.

.

e

.

.

*

.

•

s

ø

.

4 -N - ' C -( ‚ 4 — -

U ) U )C 'U ) U ) ,n, . ' 4 -N -pr -

-

- -F ) — — C ' J NN

NF ) CLO U ) U ). a 4 - ‚ CN - N --C 4 -r ) c N( ' J r )O 'N Nc r ) •

4 --

.4

( ' 4 .

N — — - C \ 4 NN ( " 4N ( ' 4(4

O C O O C O C C C C O 0 CU D C O 0 tr ( 7r N N - 4( ' I. . N N n U ) Nu

un

N N — — N.N N ( ‚ 4—

—

-

.' - .

U ) N - N - O N' 0

.

U )4a N - C,d r 4 00

.

.

.

-i .. . .

N

.

.

.

.

( ‚ 4

( ' J

— N

U )0 N 4 - L f l* .

,

s

( ' 4

. .

F )

4 1

.

.

4 . 0 .

.

.

.

.

.

e

.

.

.

.

U ) — U )0 ' U ). . .0 . -.4 0 ' 0 0.C U ) N C I V )N U ) O 4 - 0F N -U ) ' C C OU ) U ) C ' N - U ) U ) C ON - C O a,N - W . U ) U ) 0 " U ) G o N - N -U ) 0-U ) U ) U ) a . U ) N - . 0 N - N -N - ‚ C N N- N - ‚C U )U

•

.

S

.

•

.

•

•

•

.

S

.

e

•

e

.

S

.

•

•

•

S

•

•

•

e

•

S

•

ø

•

•

.

•

.

4 - 4

‚C

•

S

I

•

•

‚C •

a

•

.

•

e

•

U ) 4 4 - U ) •

s

.

.

•

•

•

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

•

.

.

,

.

.

S

.

S

S

S

S

‚ 0 N4 " 0 . 0 . 0 U )' C )F .

a

•

.

I

.

.

S

.

‚ C C N NO ' - U ) N NN - a . . o N a .c U ) . ON - U ' ).o r ) 0 ' N N N . 0 U ) —F ) N U ) 4 4. 'i .' ( ' 4( 4 ( \ 4 -. N -- .- — -' N ( ‚ 4

.

.

.

4 -

•

•

C 0 ' . U ) N - 0 «r r ) N o 4 $

O C '0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0C OC 0 0 0 0 0C 0 0 0 0C i0 0 0 0c - 010 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 S

.

.

.

•

( ' JN - U ) M U ) —

.

.

ø

.

ø

.

S

S

S

S

S

.

•

•

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

e

.

.

.

•

I

.

.

•

•

.

•

.

•

.

.

•

.

e

O 0N -tPtI ) U ) U )Lf lN - 0 U ) U )U ' )N -C ' JtS ) Ntf l( " J NC ' JU ' ) 0 0N - NLf lC % 410 L e )N - O N O . . NN N —F j a . - N?n N N . N N.o d -e — .4

0r •

.

U ) *

.

.

— o. .

.

4 - N 4 N. .1) U ) '•

U ) N S

S

s

•

.

.

f l-

4 - Nu .

S

,

.

4 - 4 4 -t

S

.

S

.

.

s

,

.

.

.

4 - ' CI0 N r e ) 4 4 -

O(0 U )U ) U ) ø

-4 it .

.

.

e

.

.

,

.

.

.

.

.

ø

.

.

.

•

•

.

ø

•

.

•

•

•

4 -4 4 - N Nr 4 -r )N - i nr nwU )NN N N. . .4 -4 -r 4 - Nr )N

U )'CJ O 4 U ) 0 ' U )ti 4 - F ) U ) —r )r ' ) U ) t ne 0 U ) U ) U ) ' 0 U ) ' C 4 - U ) U )'0N -U' ) . 0 S

S

S

.

.

S

S

,

e

ø

S

S

.

.

S

.

S

I

S

S

•

S

•

e

S

S

.

S

.

e

S

*

L f lr ' )a - 4 -r 4 oN ‚ 0U ' ) ' CLI )4 ‚ CN - U ' )4 - 4U ' )L t ) 4U ' ) 4 - r 4 4 ( 04 - U ) -4

( ‚ 4N ' -' 0 0N 0 ( ‚ 1( 1 4U )( ‚ 4F )4 - U )C ' 4N F )C . .0 - N 4 4 - ( ‚ j U ) 01c L I )4 - U ) U )U ) 4 -U )N C 'C O U ) 0 ' C O — ‚ C a - N C — •

5

•

S

.

.

.

.

N N F )N F ) F )N F )

.

F )

.

.

S

S

S

.

S

.

.

.

.

.

I

.

I

•

F )F )F ' )F ' )N N F )F )F )r )F ' )F ) F )F ) F )( )

•

F )

•

i n

.

S

S

.

S

.

.

.

S

•

F ' )N F )F ' ) F )i nN F )F )

in

S

•

•

S

S

•

S

N F ' )F )N F )F ) F )F ' )

4 4 4 * 4 4 4 4 - 4 - 4 - 4 - 4 4 - 4 4 4 - 4 4 - 4 -4 - 44 - 4 - 4 - 4 4 - 4 - 4 - 4 - 4 - 4 4 4 - 4 4 - 4 - 4 4 - 4 4 - * 4 - 4 - 4 4 4

U ' )

‚ C I ' - C O

0 'C

-

( MF ) 410 ‚ C N - U ) 0 - 0 -( ‚ 4F ' )4 -10 . 0N - U )

a 'a

. .( ‚ 4M 4 - I t ' )" 0N - C O0 -C

0 0 0 0 0C O O0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C O G 0 0C O Oc o oe 0 0 0 0C O0 0 00 0 0

2 35

-

N

F )

4 -

C . F ) F : C r 01U ) 9 - C ø O DN O c 9 N O y c O NC P 'C O . Na j O C « 'c a :0 C D —tn c a : a : 0 0 C . r C ) C ) —0 F ) N C F ' U ) U )4 C ) Q F )C C )0 0 'N ON — C )— C C )— — C O ( D '— t n O D0 U ' ) 40 ' F ) F )U ) —' N O D 0 ' C o C ) 0 ' 0 U T 0 ' 0 0 ' U )C ) O D C ) 0 ' 0 ' C ) — N C ' 0 N N O D 0 0 '0 ' C ) — N O D C oNO ' O D O D C )N C rC ) 0 ' C N

C : — a D m % o ' o o c C r 0. N U ) U )

N

( ' J

N N N N Q '

N N N N N N N

-.

N N N N N — N N — N N N ( ' 1.N N —

N

-.

N - — — — N N N N . , 4-

—'

N

0 ' O F ) N U )0 ' —G P,4 U ) N C CU " ) U D O M C C ,( \ JI W IC \ JC U )4

—4 —4 — — — ( VN o C 0 0 U ' )U ) U ' )C U ) C U ' )C C ' C OC U ' )U ' )C I nc U ) C C C U ' )U ' )U ' )C C U ' )U " )U ' )t iU ) C O C ( 0 c U ) U )i n cc .C U )U ' ) t ( : N — .-. N 9 U ) 49 F ) 4 9-9 0 ' N U ) - - 9 U )0 9 0 O D N jQ ' 'C NO " —4

-

—

N N N N N N

9

t r y

-

—

- -4

—

( \ jN

F Y )9 F ) 4 9 -F

—

N N C

.

4 N 4 U )c

C ) 0 )N i t ' C 0 ' C ) N r j C )r ' )P ' - e Or )r ' - C 9 1 OC)UIV)t ) C' 9U D - 04 ' C ) 4 NC r ' C ' J NCJ F ) U ) 0 9 -F ) N —

—

M I f 4 4 9 - U )

-‚

U ) 9 -‚ C oC U ) N U )C 9 -C . N I t ' )C C OC O F )F ) I t ) 0 ' U )F )r ,F ) eU ' )N U ) 9 U ) — F )F D0 — N U )F )

9 - U )N U ' )F ) I f )F )I f )F ' )4 U )

F )F ' )O DU ) 9 - 4 I t ) U ) U ) F )F ) F ' )F )0 '

C F ) 0 C N ' 9 -0 ' A t F ) N N O D C ' Jo r Q ' 0 'C N F ) — N N N C NN - F ) O D— N 4 N U ) I f )0 ' N O D ( ' 4— U ) C ) ( ‚ 4O DU ) O D C )P ' U )N -O ' - U ) N N N OD U ) U DI x.C ) O DQ ' . C )0 ' O D Q O N f l -NC C )N O DC )O DQ ' N U D Nr - U DN- o j O DC r io O D ON - N Se I S I S . . . 5 . 5 5 . Ø S • • S I S S S I ü S I • • • • I I • S S • S • I * I S C ( ' J O U ) 9 O D N C U ) O D( ‚ J O DF ' )U )0 ) 0 )0 ) U ) O DU ) 9 C

CC )U ) 90 1 4 % 0 9 ' b' C 4 C )4 '

0 ) 0 U ) F )C 9 U ) N NO " ( ' 4F ) O D N U ' )C F )

‚ )9 - CI NN U )c o N -0 ' 0 'C ) Co

( ' 4

O C 0 0 0 C C C CC 0 0 0 0 C C C '0 0 0 0 C C C 0 C C C0 0 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 CC I f )&o 4 9 U )o C 0C - U ) 9 9 4 o N C )4 4 O D 9 - C U N 4 N O D F ) — O D C ) - C )9 - c N U ) F )r ' )C )' -c f ( ‚ i N U )U )N - C C ) I f )C 'N - U )U )I L ' ) 0 - 4 44 00 'U )C ) P le t N ' ( % jF ' ) C. .n i tN - 9 - U )( ‚ 4( ‚ 49 - O NU )t oU ' ) CU ) ( ‚ 4 N o —4

U ) C ) U ' )c a :

9 - I t )C )N F )C )( ' 4 -OD ( ‚ 49 C ) C O

.-

C ) F )C U ) - 1 $ )I ' ,0 ' 44O D C 4

9 -4

N - C U O D( ‚ 4C )( ' JO D C 'C

4 i t )F )U ' )4 w U ) d 4 44 U )U ) U )I f ) 4 'U ' ) U )

C ) C JC C C 9 ' C )‚ (49 - C )C )- C O — 9 - N U ) C O U ' ) 4 ' U )0 ) 0 ' -I f )U )— 0 O NN C UF ) C U .5

•

.

.

N

.

.

.

.

.

.

S

.

S

•

.

I

S

.

.

.

S

S

S

.

I

I

U ) C 'O ' U ) N0 U )4 U ) F )U ) N N NU' ) U )N O DN U ) 4

4' ) O D d U ) O d C C - -p r ) •

.

S

S

I

I

•

Ø

S

S

S

ø

I

.

ø

S

.

ø

e

.

.

9 -F ) 4U )9 - N C )U )C ) .

S

S

S

S

.

.

e

*

O DU )N -N- U ) O.C U ) O D NN - U ) U ) U )U ) 9 F ) U )

F ) N - O 0 U ) O D 0 C * C UU ) F ) F ) C UO DN N O ' N O C )U ) F ) N U )C O O DU ) 0F )d S

.

•

•

S

I

•

•

S

•

•

S

5

I

•

I

I

e

S

S

•

•

S

•

S

S

•

S

I

S

S

•

O D C ) — 0 ' -4

—4

F )i nF ' )F )F )F ) i nF )F )F )F )F )t r F )F )F ) F )I n F ' )N ' )F )N f lr « N f lF ) F ' )F )F ' )i )F ' )F ) a l t U ' )0 N -C o0 0 0 0 0 0 0

F ) M M i ' ) r I

' O'C F )F ' )i n1 ' )F )

9 * 9 4 9 9 4 * 9 4 4 4 4 4 * 4 4 9 - 4 4 4 * 4 9 - 4 *

NF ' )9 -If )' 0N - C ) 0 ' C NN 9 - I f )0 N C o0 ' C - ( ' . 4! " ) 9 -I t )' C N U )O ' O N F ) 9 -U ' )U ) N ' C ) 0 ' N N N( ' J( ' J N C U N N NF ) N F )F )F ) F ) N F )N F ) 9 9 - 9 - 4 9 - 9 -* 9 -4 9 -

2 36

U ) O

N — a :Q f l 01 a :

4

-

I r

c

Q' a: '

r) L n

C -

U )

C O C o 'a a : C C. . .P . . G JP c7'

—

o\ o a : o a : NO O« , 0 4 — 4U )N e tr — t na . 4r 4 — U ) U ) o o o a : C o a )C .a 1 O Na N a )o o,o c 1r a ) Ø - O ' N - N N N N NCJ 4 4 N N 4 N N 4 J JC ' J c

a:

a :

- cj

-. r-

-4

N —

—

—

N

-

N N

N C C C

—

N - N

—

—

N

N

r i o N O ' 0 c . N QC C C C ,c c . — cc

—

r —

o c c o c ccc .0 0o o C .o c c occ

CC o C C O C o oQ ' QC U ) o c C Oc c c .c o c o o c . 0 0 cc o C CC U O U ) C C C OC C O C 0 0 0 0 c 'Q ' Oc ) N 0 0 0 0C C CC 0 0 0 0C . 0 0 C 0 00 4N —

.'

N N N N N

—

N ( ' 40 4N a ) a )

a:

a: a: a: a:

a : a : a : a :

a :a : a : a :a : a :a : a :a : a : a : a : a : M M a :a :a :

N N. - N. 4 N N N NC C ( ' jC c, o Ø C o C — 0 C ' N OC C O C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N

OC 4 C C O 0 0 0C . Cc F ) 0 0 0 0 c C C C C C c oc ; c oo c c c

o r ,I 4 . - TI) C \ J ( ‚ JC' 4d . - NC ' J U ) ( ' 4( ' 40 U ) 04 N . .

.

.

• •

•

•

•

•

e

a : k L 4 44 4 C 4 4 •

q o

• ø

• •

4 --r

•

i

•

.

.

.

a ) U ) 4 . N U ) N U ) U )

a:

•

.

.

. .

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

r U )U 4 04T i - ( ' 4 a .

.

0 U ) ' C N 4 0 'U ) C a ) U )N U )U ) N Oa ) U ' )N

a:

•

.

. S

•

. .

a

a

r ) a ) CC 0 0U U ) f lr ( ) Nr N U ' )( ‚ 44 N - - 4 — U ) I r iqt N ' C —4 . C .

• a

.

—

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

. ‚

.

.

.

.

.

U ' )U ) P,‚ C 0 ' .

•

.

.

.

a :a

O — o c .a ) Q DO 'r- r 4.- a :c . Ø NC N a ) a ) ' C N U ) U )' C 4 C C N 4 Cri N o ' a )c a : a :q a )a ) a )CO ' a )O a ) a ) a ) a )Co 'C a ' a )a '1- a :00 U ) . 0 ' 0 ,a )0 ' N N a: a: a) c ' N Q' I e • • •ø s a . s S e . . . • . • I • a • ø • I . • S • • • • a • • • • • • • • Ø • • ,

c a : c '

a : c ' c ' c oC O .

. o' o o

4 c

a : tU ) C ' i

i( ' 4

c ' . i ' ia '% r ,

'

0

a : 0 ia : a :

a ) N ‚ Cro a :

a ) — a ' O U )c \ 4 N dr ' )r ) 4 U ) N r )r- c CC J — o o 0 ' N 0 00 ' J a : o N. - c '0 0 0 a 'U ) a :o . 0 U ) - C ' J i( i —c ' J N N N N N NC ' J. s -C ' J N N N NC ' J N N N - N — N - N. - . N N N — N( N J ( ‚ 4 C O C O C4 . . 0 0 0 0C . Oc C CC 0 0C . 0 0C 0 0 C 00 0 0 • I

•

S

ø

• .

.

.

.

.

.

ø

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

)

•

s

• .

I

.

.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0C 0 S

ø

.

.

.

.

.

.

S

.

CC C C .

.

.

.

.

a ) r O U )o N d d N d O o c U ). , . U ) o C cu ' ) U ) oU ) o o c oc U ) O oc o c c U ) c o o U ) N a )C oN 0 -U )0 4 N 0 'C OL I )O N % i nN U ) U ) 4N N L I )N 0 0f l 4 .L O( ‚ J(7 ' ‚ CC — I )4 . ( ‚ 4 - a ) N a :Lf ld a : N U ) ON U )U )N a ) 4 . Nr)Lf l a )O ' 4 . U ) ' 4 U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) 4 U ) 4 4 . ' C U ) U ) N4 r )r ' ,N -4

-4

a )C .

.- i \L,

r - L O a s

N ' C U )

' 4 U ) N a ) a ) T i o •

a 'C o

.

— a : o.. or, c ; U ) a )a ) U ) U )

4 4 . U )U ) U ) N

U ) U ) ' C U ) U )

U ) ' C U )4 .

—U ) ' q tT i ' C 4

U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) 4 . 4 ' C 4 . N

O r,( ‚ 4 —c U ) 0 4 . C O— a ) a )0 ' 0 a : N U ) U ) a : 40 . a ) N I )0 I t r' 4 01 — U )( ‚ 4L I )a :U ) a : 0 ' - a ) N a ) L I ) •I . . e s . . e s . , . . . . . . . . e . . . . . . s . . . . . . . , . . • . s s

U ) •

a :. . . C r ,a : 0 C O U Z CL

U )r '

•

5

•

e

•

Ø

s

o 0

S

3U ) f r ) a ) N 4 . U )c o a : C,f l a

•

a

•

•

5

.

.

.

.

e

U ) U

.

.

f l .

.

.

U ' )a :a )c ' 4Q ' Ca )r o 'I r .

.

•

.

.

,

.

.

.

.

.

dn ,

.

•

-4

U )U ) C C' 0 ' 0 U ) 0 ‚ 0 ‚ C U ) ‚ C U ) a :a : .a : a :a : a : r a :a :f c ; M M r T i a : a : a: c i c iI n a :a :c i c i a : c i a :a : a :a : a :c i a :c ' c ic ii nc ia :a : i n c ia :a : nc i i nc ia :c i c ir iT ii ni ni n r )i ni na :i ni na : i nc ic ii n 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 U ' )U ' )U ) U ) U ' )U ' )L I )U ) U ' )U )t o U )I t )I S )U )L I )I t )I t )I )U )I t )I t ) U ) U ' )t oU ' ) U ) U )L I )U ' ) 0 - ( ' JF ) 4U ) U ) N c o a ' - ( ‚ iF ) 4 . 1 $ )U ) N w C o - N id I t )U )N a ) 0 '0 - Nc i 4 I t )‚ C N a ) 0 ' - C U T i U ' )U ) L r,U ) U ' )L O U ' )U ) U ' )I t )U ) U ) U ) 00 U ) 0U )U ) U ) N N N N N N N N N N c oa ) c oa )t o C S )c o a: a: to a ' a 'a ' a '

2 37

N C 0P 0 F ) t i C c C O 0 u F )F ) 4« F ) 4 0 U )C ' J U ) — N N N F ) N 0 U ) C \ « ) f t« a 4 1 t« F ) 4 C X )0 — a i I r N - F ) « C Q «C « N0 ' «0 ' « « N 0 00 « ) 0 00 0 'Q NU - « Q '« C c0 «« N -«q - « — C 0

oar - ac o «a

0

_c \ j ' Je ' )

N

m N N NC ' J J N

J

J

a . oJC

Je ' J..e 'e ' J

6 ) N, —0 )

-

C ' )

( ' Je ' )

C ' ) oc c c — c e c

« i N c o c c o c o c c o o c o c c c c oc J c c oc c c c o c c o c c o

0 00 04 C CC 0 0C O C C OO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 G O Q o 0 0c U )0 0 0C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C O 0 0 0 0 N 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 N C O O C 00 0 0 0 0 0 c C C « i «(r , « i - « i « C c C 0 « i « i C O C OM C c n M O C « i 0 C C O « i « i U i U i « U i ' —U i U i U iU i U iU i c o c o o D « ia . « « iC c .

0 C 0 0 F ) 0 C C C )C C 0 0 0 0 C 0 C C . C C C OC i0 0 0 CC U ) 4C -0 0C 0 C C C C C CC C C e ' i — . •

— c re ' itt •

•

.

.

•

•

N N N rr i o •

.

•

•

•

•

0

•

ry io F ) C r. '- C 4 r — o • •• • • • •• • • • • • 0

•

40 U ) . c o U ) U i c o t oU )U ) F )U )U ) i n4 I t U ) N 4 •

e

.

•

0

•

•

.

0

0

0

0

•

0

0

0

0

0

•

F ) •

.- j I

•

•

s

s

0

.

.

0

0

e

U ) F ) A t c o 4 c t U ) t o t oU ) N U ) U ) U ) F )C t o 0 U ) U )t o U )U )U ) U ) 0

S

I

0

I

I

0

S

0

0

ø

S

0

•

•

S

•

I

•

•

•

C ' ) C o 4 4 4 N o 0 ) « iC ( C —0 U i U )C ' ) 4 U ) F ) I t )U ) 0 U i C U ) 4 N M - N C oU ) 40 '0 '4 - 40 'C ' )I t )4 0 ' C o C o Q ' 0 ' C o C o I t )N O C o OC X ) NC ' 0 C ' 0 )0 NO ' C o 0 )0 0 U ) C o c a a C oo ' F - 0 )0 ' 0 ' N C ' C X )0 ' C X )0 ) 00 •

S

•

.

•

Ø

•

C0 ) 5

5

•

Ø

5

0

0

0

0

I

0

4

0

•

S

0

l

o

s

s

.

.

% C 0 ) ' 00 ) 0 )U ) U ) 0 ) 4 0 0 ) ' 0 ‚ 0 4 0 ( ' 4 ' 0 4 4U ) ' 0 0 )0 ) ‚ 0e 4 - 0(m U ' Uc U ) 0 ) 4 ‚ 0 i t ) O4 -‚ 0 0 ) 0

•

S

s

.

.

.

•

5

1

0

0

S

S

•

0

5

•

5

5

0

•

S

- C ' . )C ' )C ' )( ‚ 4 0 )C ' . )— C ' )C ' )N C ' . )- - N ( ‚ 4 — C ' J— N N - - C ' )C U —

—'

.

0

.

S

I

.

.

.

0

N - C ' )( ' UN - - ' N

.

—

.

.

.

0

.

I

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

I

•

•

5

•

)

.

s

.

.

5

0

0

.

I

•

I

.

0

5

0

.

.

.

( ' . JC ' )C ' ).C ' . )( M N-

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C . . 0 00 O O C . 00C . 0 0 C 0 00 OC 0 00 0 O Ø o 0C CC C Ø ‚

1

S

s

.

O I

S

o« O

,

.

0 0C OC U )0 U )0 1 ) U )C 0 0 0 0 0 I t )U ) 0 c t o o t i 0 0 0 0u ) U ) I t )0 U )0 0U ) C U ) U )C U )U ) I n.- . .u) — N - U i N O C ' i0 'F - 0tn 0 0 0 &f l C ¼ j N — .10 0 ' C c o s O U )F - ( 7 '' OF )( X ) 0 'N - I t 4 4 N I t ) U ) 4 - U )U ) F )F ) 4 - N C ' )I t ;U ) C ' )C X ) ‚ 0 4 F )F )C 4 U ) I t )s O 4 - U ) U ) 4-

•

S

0

0

S

0

•

I

I

I

I

l

I

I

l

S

5

•

5

1 0 N 4 U ) N - U ) U ) 4 ' 0s & N - U ) U ) U )U )N L OIt )U U ) U ) . — U ) U ) O c r i 4 •

S

I

S

S

•

.

S

U O 4 0 0 4 N - 0 )F I

S

*

I

5

•

l

S

S

Ø

,

S

.

,

I

S

,

.

I

.

5

s O F ) 0 0 ' 0 0U ) 4 - F ) 0 ' r U ) F ) —( I N 4 0 4 N o e F ) s O 0 ' C oC o F •

•

S

I

•

•

S

•

I

S

0

•

I

I

S

5

I

5

5

•

U ) C 0 )0 ' 0 ) 0 ) U i U )4 S

ON N - Nt- U is0If lN U i U )st )F - ‚ 0U )F - U ) N U ) U )N - U ) U )st )I' U

I. .

l

S

.

5

.

.

,

.

,

5

.

5

I

.

.

4IÜst )F - 4U )(O 4F - U ) U )t j )4 U )F -I I ) U )If lIt ) U ) U ) U )U ) U )

I

S

S

I

I

S

•

S

— 5

0

‚ 0(0 N a e ' J U ) U ) 4r ) 0 )4 X )c' J Ø

5

S

0

I

.

5

.

5

,

5

.

l

I

.

.

.

N U )U i N -U ) U ) U )U ) U ) U )N ' 0 N - U )sQ F -SOSQ I t )L t0 F ) C ' . )U ) I t )F )4 -I t )C i CU ) U )Od i t )U ) 5

0

0

5

5

5

*

5

S

•

•

C o 5

5

0

5

•

•

F ) F ) F ) F )f y iF )F ) f y iF ) F ) F ) F y iM F )F ) F ) F ) F ) F )F ) F ) F )F ) F ) F ) F ) F )F )F y iF )F ) F )F )F )I ' )F ) F )F )F )F )F )F )F ) F ) r i f ) F )F ) F )F ) F )F ) F ) F f kF )F ) F )F ) F )F ) F ) F )F ) F ) F )F ) F )F )I ' F )F )F ) F )F )F ) F )F )F )F )F ) i nF ) F )F )F )F )F )F ) t )U ) i n I t ) U )U ) U )I t ) U ) U ) I ntO 1 01 )I ) I t ) U ) I 4 U s )F ) 4-U ) )' C N U i 0 '0 — NF )4 U )U ) N 0 ) 0 0- C ' 0 ' 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 C O O0 0 0'0 0 ) 0 ) 0 ) 0 )C MC ' )( ‚ 4C ' )C ' JC' )( 1 s )

1 011 )1 )1 1 )t p t oU ) U ) 1 0 U ) U ) U )I1 )LOI S )U)U ) C O a c N F )4 -U )s O N - U iO No - C ' )F ) 4 I O U )N - U i 0 ) 0 )0 )C ' )( M NN C ' )C ' )( k iF ) F )F ) F ) F )F )F )F )F )

2 38

o a .a

N i C U ) U ) o a U ) Q '— C U ) C NC U )aQ . C CU O a —a c r ,O N a . U

c

C ' J( \ J N

C ' i N N-

r

J

p - F ) —r C c ' U ) —

4 U )CO

J N-

—.

F

( Ni

.- 4

C U ) C r c 4 a ) o U ) 41-r - o— r . -— N aO O o c N - CO N F O f )U ) C P U ) O. ØN N C NO U ) a ) a )a ao

N -

U )

j CJ Ncj(J

J NC

J

J N NCJ

J N

J N J( I j

-4

C l. C - 0C C OC O OC C C C C )C C C )C 0 0C Q C C C )0 C C C C C C CC C OC 0 0C C C 'C C CC U ) 0 0 0 0 0C 0 0 0 0 0 0 O C 0 C C C C ' 0C C C C C C C C C O C C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C C C 4 0C C C C 0 0 0 0C C C CC O C C C C 0 C 0 0 0 00 C CC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C C C C

c

U )C C r ,U ) U ) U )a

C O

'

O D

.

M

U ) C O U ) C O C O U ) U ) U ) C O U ) c o U ) U ) c o a )U ) U ) ;U ) U )

C C C N 0 CC C )C C OC C C )C C C C CC 0 0

C C C C C C OC C C C C C ) C 0 0 0 0c C C C

C C C F )C C 0 0C ) . C 0 C C CC C 0 C 0 0 C OC 0 C C 0 C C 0 C C C C 0 C C 0 C 0 0C C 0 0 U ) U ) U ) 0 C OC ) F ) F ) — U ) U ) 4e i U ) n N N o N —r u —

N - C U ) U ) 4 U ) C O F )N C U ) — c a 4 4 U )N N - N F ) N r 4N o c U ) F ; U ) F — i n 4 rr) J r , —c F ) - - U ) NU ) CrC \ J - - -c

-

. .

.

. .

I .

.

.

.

• •

a

•

•

.

.

•

e

•

S

a

ø

•

•

C •U ' )4 I C U ) i nU ) U ) Q ' Q ' ( 710 )0 U ) U ) O N 0 ' C ) U ) U ) 0 F ' )U ' )U ) s O . .

.

.

.

.

s

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

c ' uU ) U ) o ' 4 - r — U )C 0 ) U )a U )a C ) U ) a 0 ' 0 ' 0 )a U ) 0 )0 ) —

I S

I

I

S

•

•

•

.

•

• S

' CN 4 4 N ' 0 ‚ C 0 ) N 0 ) N • •

- 0

• F )

•

•

•

N U )

•

•

•

C O

•

•

‚ C s O

• C r .

.

. — .

.

• o

,

e

•

N - F ) C 4P )N F ) U ) U ) s

s

.

. .

.

F ) 0(7 f - c r iU ) ' I ts ON a )N - I C0 4 4 N N - N

—

0 . I C N s o

0 0 e. U ) o f l -U ) s O N

0 . U ) N N

C . U ) N F )

ø

I t )C U ) 4 U ) N • .

‚

.

.

.

S

— .

5

•

s

•

ø

g

—

.

e

.

.

e

U ) U ) U ) F )4 s O U ) U ) U )0 )

— •

.

.

s

e

.

•

I

s

.

s

s

s

e

e

.

,

•

,

e

s

.

.

.

s

S

ø

e

a

.

•

r s O C U )U ) — C "U ' )U ) U )C U )N N 4 N N U ' ) N-c . o s c c i o c 0 F ) N - 0 ) U ) 0 ' 0 'Q U )N - aN O 0 ) C,o a C ) a

• .

.

I

o rC .

C l

ø

‚ C

.

4 t

• e

NO ' 0 ' N -0 '

—

ø

I

• •

•

•

•

•

•

N I f 'S O ‚ 44 0 ) s O N CC C O U ) 0 s

.

.

s

.

.

s

.

•

•

s

•

.

U ) N - s O U )s O 0 s O F )0 4 F )-

s e

e

s

. .

.

.

.

I

.

.

I

.

.

S

.

5

5

. e

S

U )C C O C ' C OU ) U ) 0 C 0 C C 0 U ) O O C C 0 U ) NC O ' U ) U )L C )O N N O 0 'C ' OU ) U )U ' )L C ) CC \ J U ) U ) U ) 4 4 U ' )U ) 4 s O F ) N ,4 F ) N F ; F )N c U ) C OU ' ) r

—

S

e

e

5

S

S

•

S

ø

( \ j

I

s O C O I t )C O C OU ) r F )C O N C i t U ) r - ( 1 00 ' 0 ' •

ø

C CC C C 0 0 CC CC 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0C C

0 'U ) N L JU )U ' ) 0 a )F ) U ) F )N C L C C o U )F )C o U ) C )U ) 4F )0 ' U ) ø

*

• .

N

i

-

• .

U ) U )s O C r U ) 4 N - U )F ) 0 ' U )N - 4N - F ) I C U ) 4 4

.

U ) N U ) U ) 4 ( Z‚ C U ) 0 ) ' 0 0 ) N N 0 )

a

e

e

U )

I .

•

C O C C O 00 0 0 0 00 0 O C O CC • . . ‚ . • • • • . • . . • . . •a C OC ' O OC . U ) U ) C U ) U ) U )C CC U ) U )C i nU )st C U ) U ) N N U ) N - Nr C 0 C N N U ) N - 4 ' N - 10 I t )- U ) 4F ;F ) U ) O — i t— —

•

Ø

. .

.

.

.

.

.

.

• ø

•

.

U )

C O

5

S

F )U ) F )C o c r iF ; •

e

5

egt 0 '0 ) 0 ' •

•

N s O N .

I

• ø

5

— ø

5

ø

' C U ' )N - 4 F ) 4 O N‚ 4 -0 ' 5

e

S

I

I

S

S

C O C o % L ,s O 0 ' A tC o 4 C

•

U ) ' 0r - N Os O U ) U ) U )

•

•

•

i nU ' )i n‚ C

5

ø I

5

I

U )' 4 N C o 4 •

•

I t ) 4s O M N - N -

-4 - C • .

ø

•

ø

•

I

.

ø

a

e

ø

I C F ;O N U ) ø

C

5 5

0 'N - U ) N -C ' 0 )N N - N - s O s O a ) C 0 ' U ' )U ) ott ) -4

o4 tN 5

5

N C F ) r ' U ) U ) C O 0 ) 4 4 C O 0 U ) 5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

. .

— ‚

U ) 0 'N - ( 71 4 4 tN U ) N U ) .

‚

a

.

ø

.

s

.

e

•

0 ' 0 )P ' -N - C O N - 0 '0 ' N U ) U )N - I ' s O U ' )N - N - U )N - s Os O I CN - U ) U ) N

—4

F )F ) F ) F ' )F ) F )F l F )F )I n F )F ) F ' )F ) F )F ) F ,F ) F ; F ) F ) F )F )F )( r ) F ) I r iF )F )F ' )F )F )F ; F ,F )F ' )F )F )F ;F )F ' )F ) F )F ) F ) F )F )F ) i n( f ) F )i n F ) F ) F ) F )F ) F )F ) F )F )F )F ) r F ) F ) F )F ) F ) F ) F )F ' ) F )F )F )F )F )F ) F )F ) F " ) F )F ) F )F )F )f r iF ) F )F )

4 4 4 4 4 4 44* U ) 0U ) U )U ) U ) U ) I C U ) U ) U )0 U ) U )U ) s O s O s Osø N - I ' -N - N - N - N - N -N -N - N U ) U ) U ) U ) N N N N N N N N N N N C ' )N C ' )C ' )C ' )N N N N ( 5 ) NC ' )C ' )N C ' ) ( 5 )N ( 5 4C J ( s ) N C ' )NC ' ) NC ' ) ( 5 )( 5 )C ' )C ' )N C ' )C ' )

2 39

N C Q N1 t- F ) U )tC U O Q N C. c a ; a ; a ;o a ; a ;o ' a ; — C C O O DN - N ‚ C N U ) C 4 ‚ C Q N ‚ C

N C 1 4 C I ' ) U )C 0 4 d U )U . N N oc a C 'a ;o a ; — a ; a ; C C O o.or C ) t r ,c N 0 4 0 a 4 Q .C N a ) — C ' - C -. e ' J 01 N N U ) - 0C ‚ C 4 4 Ua )o. . - -U a ) a «a — ara ;a ;a ;oNa )o 'o ' a )a )oo 'o a o a -4 I CJ N . - NC \ CJ N N N C J N N N N NC ' J NC ' J N C "( \ j N N N N N N N N N N N N C C c c ot - C c,C 0 C , 0 O 0 0 0 CcC C G CC C OC C 0 0 O O O N At ' C t $ -

U ) NO ' a ) C 0 ‚ C 4 ‚ C — a- O a ;

N — —

--

N N N N 4

4

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 U ) 0 0 0c '0 00 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C CC C C 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 C iC ‚ CC O OC OC C CC G O U )0 0 0 0 0 0U )C C U )CC U ) ( 1 ) U ) a ) 'O D a ; a ; a ) a ; a ; a ; a ; a ; a ; a ; ( L 0 0 0 00 00 0 0c 'C 0

iC i N ( ' iN ( \ jC lN N C C N CC CC 0 00 0 CC C.0 0 0 C

O OC

)0 0 0C 0 0 0 0C 0 O N C 0 0 U ) I l )U ) '‚ C ‚ C 4U ) 4 4 C OO CC 0 00 ' CL ) C N40 C F

0 0 C 0

a .

F ) N N N N N .

•

.

N -‚ CU ) U ) S

I

.

.

a

.

.

•

1F ) — 4' N — N F ) - NC ' 4 N N — — N N O - -— F

O .

•

S

.

•

•

S

I l )a ; d -4 C F )

‚ C

S

0 ' C tr - 0 0 ' N 4 U ),Ct1 •. s ø • a S . . . . S

U ) U )N ‚ C ' Cu ) ' C 4 f r )N - ‚ C4 i rr - c- d -L c )1n r ) 4r- C rU )U )4 I

.

S

I

S

e

•

.

.

.

•

•

.

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

.

S

•

•

•

•

•

•

‚ C j r , . -. ( \ jN U )U ) U )0 ' ( ' 4a ) 0 '( ' 4 0 C i U ) U )N C ( ' 4' . 0N ( ‚ 4‚ C I ' )( ' I N4 a ) ( ‚ IU ) N .-. Q %- t o0 N - N 0 ' F )a ) r ' a ; c 'u c o c r - a ;o o 0 'C c,a ; 0 ' a )o U )o c . 0' Q 'O c a ; a )U ) ' 0 "N U ) a ) a ;0 ' a )C l a ) 0 'U )0 ' U ) •

a

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

I

.

.

.

.

S

I

S

,

S

•

S

.

.

.

.

S

a

l

•

I

a

S

•

I

I

S

•

•

S

S

0

0

0

I

0

I

*

0

I

9

0

0

5

.

•

.

.

.

0

I

0

0

5

.

0

•

5

.

5

.

1

ø

1

.

5

S

•

I

a

•

5

— F ) F ) 4 t o C o a a0 'C i 1 ' )N - ' -4 F ) F ) U ) Cr, ( ‚ 4 - F ) ( ‚ 40 "ON N -0 " a ;C O 0 ' F ) — N -C " N a N CO 0 'N - F ) r - ( ‚ I( ‚ IN — ( ' 4( ‚ 4C i( ' . 1 — N ( ‚ 4 — ( ‚ 4C i C l . - -( ‚ I( ‚ IN a N — c ' i - -- -N ( ‚ 4 ( ‚ I N N— ( ‚ INF )F ) 0 0 0 CC C C O C 0 0 0 0 0 0C C C C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C 0 O o 0 0 0 I

•

•

•

I

I

S

•

l

•

I

.

.

.

S

0

.

S

S

I

S

S

S

•

•

ø

s

l

•

•

I

•

•

•

I

•

l

N - 0 I l ' )N - C( 7 0 U )C N N ( ‚ J a )C ‚ C 0 " C lC l4 4 0 N 4 U ' )( ‚ 1 0( ‚ 4 0U ) ‚ CU )C l( ‚ IC lN - N -‚ C N -1 N NLn 4 4o N N ' C ' C a )r ) 4N U ) 4 ' Cr ) U )4r )U ) 4 4 4r ) 4C 'r ) U )F

' 04 a

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

•

•

s

4 NC ' C G N

.

.

•

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

ø

,

.

S

S

.

I

S

ø

.

S

.

S

I

I

I

I

S

S

.

.

a

•

•

S

S

.

•

•

•

•

S

.

.

.

I

.

S

.

S

S

I

I

S

I

S

S

S

Ø

S

I

F ) ‚ C 1 )‚ 0 4 ‚ C U )‚ C‚ C U ) . 0 I

.

•

e

.

•

.

.

.

.

• —4

..0 •

•

0 4 4 C O 4F ) U ) 1 0 t o C 4 U ) N - C O C l t'4 C O 4 4F ) N C l 0 " .

S

S

a

ø

S

l

l

.

.

a

.

•

.

•

S

.

I

.

.

•

•

•

•

.'

•

•

40 ' 0 " U ) 1 00 " U ) N -' . 0' . 00 ' 0 ' )‚ 0 U ) N - a ) N N 0 "N -N - 4U )

F, F )I n F ) F ) F )F ) F )I nF )F ) I n F )F ) r F ) F )

F )

i

F )F )F ' )F )F ) F )F ) F )

C C F )a

F )

•

•

•

4 C OF )0 " U ) 0 U )C 0 F ) .

•

.

•

.

.

-4

4

4

4 44 4 4 4 4 4 F )F ' )F )F )I nF )F )M F ) i ni n F ) F )

U ' )U ) U ) U ) U ) U )i n U ) U )U ) U ) U )U ' )( CU ) t o I t )U )( C U ) f )U )U ) U )I t )U )U ) U )U ) U ) U )I t )I C U )U )' 0 ' 0‚ C‚ C ' . 0‚ C0 ‚ 0‚ C 4 U )' 0 N U ) 0 'c — ( ' 4F ) 4U ) 0 N C 0 ' C ( " 4F ) 4 I t ) ' . 0F l .U ) 0 'C — F ) 4 U ' )‚ C N 0 '0 -( ' . 4F ) 4U ) 0 0 )00 U )00 U ) U )C Q 0 ' 0 'C ' .0 ' .O ' . 0 ' 0 '0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 N NC ' . J N N N N N C i N N Nc ' . J N N N N N N N N N N( % J F ) F ) F )F ) F )F )F )F )'f lF ) F ) F )F ) F )F ) F ) F ) i n F )f )F )rl r )F ' ) r f lr )r ) F ,

2 40

a :

c

c U )C 440 ' « ) C U )C ' 0 ' ' C N ‚C Ur « ) ‚ C -O U ) -0 ' U ) « )« a :a :0 ' o N Q or ,0 ' U )

t rc

N

0 '

(c C —

‚C

c C rc a : 'a : I f ) -0 ' 4 4 U )C ' u ' CU ) C ' -r - -

N N 0 ' I X ) F ) U ) 4 e . j U ) c,

C I f ) C N 4 N ‚C 4 0 0 - U ) N 4 N ' 04 0 '0 ' N 4 C J 0 ' r i 0 N N N U ) I f )0 N U )0 N 40 4 N 0 0 ' N ( ' 4I ,0 -0 0 '0 '0 ' C 'O '0 ' U )0 'c y O U ) ) U0 -0 'C 0 'U o U )o « ) 0 'u a :o N o N U )t- f l DO U )N

N

N

( ' 4

P F )Q . F )I , ( ' c Nr )Q 4 c N F ) F ) 4N U ) r -'N N C U ) O OU )C N' 0N ( ‚ 4N N

Lr —

)C C O C C U C N ( ' 4( ‚ 4 4 ( ' 4N - - - 4 - N ( U

. '

( ‚ 4

—

N

C O ( r .( ‚ 4F ) F ' )F )

' 40 '

I f )

I f )N N

( \ Jr )r ' )c ' . 4c ' . j

—

•

S

S

S

•

S

5

5

•

.

.

.

5

5

5

5

5

0

—

) U ) 0 U ) ( VF ) N

—

( 1 )

0

U ' )t o 411 ; A t U ) ‚ C ( 0 U ) ' . C )U ) U )( 0 I C )( 0 U ) I tI f . I f )U ) ( ' 4F ) ' C ‚ C ‚ 04 ( ' 4F )' 1c r ) N C - N 4 - 4 C O N N 4F

—

c

‚ C U )U )

4 U )U ) " N ' C N4 1 0 4 4r 4 5

5

S

s

•

•

•

•

S

S

•

S

•

•

.

4 ) U )I t )( 0 I f ) ‚ 0 0 ' ' C "C U ) ' . 0(0 ' . 0' . 04 U ) ( C )' . 010 C o U ) U ) . 4 ( 0 4 4 ' 0 U ) U ) U ) U ) ' . 00 ' ' . 0‚ CU ) 4 4 I t ) ( ' 44 ( OF ) . 4 I ) •

•

S

•

•

•

•

S

S

S

.

.

.

e

•

.

•

•

.

.

a

•

•

s

•

•

S

S

•

ø

S

S

S

•

5

1

5

0

5

.

5

.

.

C I t )C ( 04 U ) ( ‚ 40 ' ( ' 4N ( C )I t )C ( 11 U )I f )F )I X ) U )C F ) . 4 ( ' 40 ' - 4 F ) ( ' 4« ) — C N F ) . 40 0 '0 C o ( ' 40 1 C — ( C ) « )0 '( U c 0 ' 0O C ' U )0 0 '0 ' « )« )0 ' U ) U )0 'o 'C U )C U ) 0 ' 0 ' N U ) 0 1a N 0 ' N « )N« 0 u 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0 0 0 0C CC ' C O O C O .

.

.

•

e

.

•

.

•

•

•

.

0

0

0

5

0

0

0

0

C OC C C 'C o .

.

.

.

.

.

•

•

9

j r •

0

e

ø

•

S

I

•

•

0 O

c OC •

•

•

•

•

S

ø

5

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

0

5

0

*

5

0

C C C O ' O O C C OC .c 'C 'C O O O O •

•

.

.

s

.

.

S

,

e

.

.

.

.

,

.

.

.

-0 ' . 4 N 4 ) N C U )U )I t )N N F ' )F )U ' )C N ‚ 0 U ) N N U ) N N OC ( ‚ 4 0 ' ' 0 0 0I t )i n ( 7 .- F ) ( C U ) ‚ C N U ) -( 7 'F ) F )F ) ( ' 4( ‚ 4( ' 4F ' ) F ) ( \ j( f )C jr ) ( ‚ 4N F ' )( ‚ . 1N ( ‚ 4 ( - -(‚ 4F ' )F )F ' )( ‚ 4( ' 4 F ' )( ' 4F ' F ' )( ' 4N N . 4( \ J N( ‚ 4( ' 4( ' 4( ' 4F ' )N ( ' 4

r

O 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 C C 0 C 0 00 0 0 0 0 O 0 0C . 0 O C C OC Q 0 O 0 O 0 O 0 0 OC 0 0 0 0 •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

.

.

5

.

.

s

S

.

•

*

5

S

0 0

.

•

S

a .o - ø ( ‚ 4N U )O N 4 I f )r ' . N Ot o‚ CC .a ' I t )0 ' N ( C )0 ', r ' )0 4 4 a ' . 4 ‚ n- . -. N N N 4 0 0 N 0 a .N . 4N ON U ) N ' C U ) 0 ' F ) N 0 '0 'r o U ) -« )« ( C )'O 'C 1 ) f' ) O N NP ‚ C N 4 NIC N 0 ' N U ) U )0 ' . -0 ' « )' .or )' .O — N e(‚ 4 .' -( ‚ 4 - - - ( " 4 ( ‚ 4 .4 — .‚ - ‚ 0 0 ' ( ‚ 4 - 4 r ict C OU ) •

•

•

‚ 0 - 0 '' C

. . e

•

•

.

•

.

.

.

.

‚

•

•

•

C O ui n , & )U ) C O N 4 L r i - o r ' •

0

5

'

a

a

.

S

( % j U ) 4 F ' )F )I f ) m 0 N .

.

.

0

•

I

.

• S

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

U ) W i ‚ 0 - U ) I

.

.

.

.

•

0 4 iF ) 0 ' - 4 0

5

.

S

5

l

.

l

i ' ,N N ' 0F ' ,r i e

.

5

5

.

.

S

0 ' .C oC C oC U ) L D0 ' C o 0 ' I ) C o U ) F ) U ) ( ‚ 4(0 - 0 4 0 - C o r I t ). 4F ' )F )F ) 0

l

S

5

5

.

5

0

•

5

.

S

.

.

O ' NP . -N U )0 ' 0 'U ) U ), , U )-. NP . - N O,U ) N 0 ' N ' . CO U ) O0 '0 'N O ' C U )O '

•

•

.

.

.

•

S

S

•

•

S

5

•

5

5

•

0 ' U )Q ' NU ) U )t ' - C U ) U ) O Q"Ø

5 • 5 S • . l S 0 • 5 5 0 S . S 5 • S 5 . 5 • .. • • • . . . • . .. • • . . . . . . . ( ' 4U ) C o U ) O N 0 C o0 ' . 4 U ) - NC U )C C '0 ' 0 " U ) ‚ 0P - U ) 'F ) 0 '. . e C C ( ' 4— ( ‚ 4 N O. ' C ' 40 ' . 0 " C . e 00 ' 0 -U )

. 4 d ed e 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 . 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 F )F ' )F ) F )( 9f ' ) F ) F ) F ' )F ' )F ' F ' ) F )F )F ' )F ' )F ' )F ) F )F ' )F ' )F ) F ) F ' ) F )F ' )F ' ) F )F ' )F ' )F ' )F ' )F ' )F ' )F )F ' )F ' )F ' )F ) F ) F )F ' )F ' )F ' )F ' )

U )0 ' C

N F ) 4 U ) ' 0f l - U )o o - N F ) 4 U )' .C N U )O ' o - N F )4 U )' .0 N U ) 0 ' C -( ' J F ) 4U )' .c N « )0 ' O - N 4 4

2 41

rr a ' a :a a :r 4r N

a ) Oc

0 a :gc 'o N O N 4 4 a a : c r o a :o ' a : c o c N a N C N. . .Q a •a :r- ar r

a

c a r o c 44 N O a : a : 0 1 Nc . cc N W N c o l a : •

U

N

CU a : a a :

a : a

.

C ( ' 4C C cr -

r ,' 4j r,r r

cc a c r *, a

a ' a '

( 7 1

a : a : N - N

( ' 4 ( " 4

( ' J ( ‚ 4

— — ( ‚ 4CM C J( ' U C M — ( ' 4 — N -( ' J — C M C MN ( M( " J — C " . J( ' J ( ' J( M C M. . C M

r ' - a :

—

0 ' pc 0 3 I t )— .- .. ( ' 4 .—

C

r

c o. o c c o U ) cU )U c F ) ( ' i«C ( " 4O j F , F )N - 4 tM N — L .4

U ) - 0 4rr

— N

( \ !

( ‚ U NC M ( ( ‚ ' 4( ‚ 4C M ( ' 4C ' J( ' U

• •

S

( ‚ 4

•

ø

S

S

r :

. .

-

( ' J( NJ

L c u ' O

U ) u F u ) 4tt )r I ' - U ) i f ,N F ) 0 " — c o

4C Mr

U )

-

•

t f L

C

S

S

S

r ) c ' 4 ( 1 )-rr)cc S

•

S

S

S

S

•

S

i )' OF )c

0

S

S

S

S

— f l 4 N • • • 5 S

I t "4 U ) U ) 4 U ) I n 4 F " ' O I t )( ) C M U ' )U ) 4 ' 0 4 4 U ) F ) e U ) 4 t o U )« C 000t o 4 U ) U ) ' CI t )4 i n U ) U ' )4 F ) t o •

.

.

.

S

.

.

.

.

.

S

.

.

.

•

.

S

.

.

.

.

•

5

.

•

•

•

S

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

S

.

.

.

.

‚ C .

.

C ), r i C O C U ) N - a ) I t )N 0 ' i f I t )- U ) C MC MF ) , C MC C M ( ‚ 4c mc mI t )( ‚ 4U ) ( ' UC oC ' JC o N ‚C U ) ( « U JN - F )C ) C M — U ) - N - c U ) N a : a : C O N - C r C o U ) N - a : a : a : c i 'a : N - a : a ' .a a : N - C oa : c i a ) NO «a 'C o C O N C O N - N - a ' Q . U ) U ) C o N r -N N - •

I

S

.

.

.

.

e

.

.

5

.

5

5

•

S

•

ø

•

S

•

5

•

S

S

S

.

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

I

•

,

c •

•

d r,

,

cc C o oc o c l Qc C o o c . oC c •s • . . • . ) C ) U U I n C O c O O I n O U ) O o U ) O I no 0 0 0 N U ) ô — C ) U )d ' c a : F ) c..tüN U )F U ) —r ' ) I n4 Q U ) U ) N .. . . S . . . . S •

o . 0 I t ) 4

c . 0 a '

*

•

O U ) U ) N 0 ' I n — a ) C M •

•

•

S

S

•

•

S

S

c o c oc c oc c c . • •. S , e e . • 0 0 c O C U ) O. , O O 40 "C CC ( M U ) ZC U ) CM C MI

c o . , C O I t )0 F )ç4

•

0 o r ' t

4 ' C )' d 4.' QN N ON - 4 N I t )0 "C F ) a ON - 0 ) N U )N F )a c U ) — C o a : o— ( ‚ 4( ' . 4( ' 4F ' )( ' 4C MC M F ) F ) ( r )( ' . 4( ' . 4( " . 4( " . 4CM ( ' . 4CM N ( ‚ 4C' 4C M - N ( ' . 4CM N - ( U -— t re i c , cC .0

•

c '

•

S

S

ø

S

•

•

•

.

.

S

.

S

.

.

Ø

•

.

•

c 0 0 0 0 , . , e• O I nU ) c 0‚ C P ' -? ' - O 4 4

.

.

.

.

.

Z, c .

•

— — I t )( 1 )4C 'N F ) r N — — C M —

0 ' -' .. C )U )C ' o4 r I Ä J N — c ar ) U ) •

c oC 5

S

0c • • oc 0( 1 )

c • c 0 '

c • t n N -

, • o C . e r

0 'U )U 'r-* % k , .

.

.

.

.

.

4 C U ) U ) O — C ot- . , .U ) N 4. . . ( M. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . S • • a • .

I t )‚ C0 ' O NC 'C ' . o0 c o U ) ( ‚ 4 - — —

t (

—

U ) C U )4

c u to

-' C S

O4 4CU ) O U ) — N* 0 ' a ) U ) nr )' .Q • • S • • . e• S • • • • • • • • a • • . • •

a ' N - ( 0C cI t )U ) 0 't o' . Q0 'F )F ' ) 0 ' . ot o0 ' U ) w ‚ C

I t )( ' . J0 0 ' S

— — — — -

—

-

— — —

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 d 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4.4 ' 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4.4 ' 4 44 ' 4 * 4 4 F )F )F ) F )F )i nF ) F ) F ) F ) F )F )F )F ) F ' )F )I ' )F )F )F ) F )F ' )F ' )F ' )F )F ' )i nF )F ' )F )F )F ' )F )F ' )F )F )F ' )F ) i nF )F ) N F )F ) F )

F )4 'u ' ).O N 0 O ' 0. I N F )4 U ) 0 N a : 0 '

. .

F ) 4( 4 ' ) ' Cp - U ) C ' C - NF ) 4 U ) ' C N a :0 ' o. . .c ' . J F ) 4 U )' Cp -

2 42

F ) a r‚ CC NQ N

al

0 C 't r - O N C' C N ‚C C N C N NN Q N F )C - ( ' 4 NL I , N a :aQ aN a c r. - U )

‚C

C

U )Q ' U )r - F) c N c ' C 4- N o c 4- U ) 4 C C; N r- r 0 r ' c U O U ) - N oO U ) ' CN 0 N ' C 0 4 U )N ' CO 0 N 0 'N U )

N ( ‚ 4 -N ( ‚ 4 - N

t r

F ) I f )N U ) 4 F )N N I n‚C .. - U C I C 4 C r,a U )N a :Q a :a aQ

cr N 4 o a ' C - U ) o a Or r - c c 'C, C U 0 C O " C N O N NP .C N

N

( ‚ .N N N ( ‚ 4 N N N N N N ( ‚ 4( ‚ 4( ‚ 4N ( ‚ 4 N N ( ' J N N ( ‚ 4( ' i NN ( ' J N N N- - - ( ‚ 4( ‚ 1( ‚ 4N - N

-

‚ C(M ' U )C L n - NN N C - N ' U )N r ) C M ' CN ' C U ). -"O N N 0U ) 0 U )O D'0 . Q ' r( ' JQ 'N ' Olc U ) -( N -( ' i N - - N N F ) - N N N - -i - NF ) - N - N NC ' 4-- N(q N N -c ' J N U )C '0 0 I C U ) U )C 0 U ) C U ) U ) U )0 I n U )c c U )C U ) 0 C I n0 c 0 C U ) ( 1 )C OO 0 0 C U ) C )C C U )c I n c . r )r r ' . - -d - 6cL N . N' N - N F )f ) - N0 r ) N NP f l )r ) N - -f r )c J F )4 -a - 'rf l -r U ) NU ) ii

N ( ‚ UV . ,' 0( ' 4

‚C

- - - N - -

( ‚ 4- - - ( ‚ I( ‚ 4( ‚ 4 ' 0 -

-

( ' JN

—

-

-

'

- t O - - ( ' 4

— (' 4

-

-

-

N - i ni n i n U ) ( ‚ 46 ‚ O N ( ' 4 0( ' 4C r ;6 C ( ‚ 4 I C ( ‚ i NU ) C ( ' IF ) I ' )0 4 0 N U ) ‚C C N r1 1(U ( ‚ 4F )I f )t O C ' ( 0 C -0 ' U )i n U )O d C N C ( ‚ 44 F ) L I )N N F ) ( ‚ 4C N N 6 F )C F ) - - i n - ( ' 4 U ) C —' f,- - F )' C 4 F ) F ) - U )F )( ' I- N •• • . • . • • • . •a . . . e . . s s . . . . . . . s . a ø a a .. . . . . . •. a . , U ) 4 6 U ) U ) F ) 4 U )( I )L I )I n F ) U ) U )F ) t o I ' DF )t O 6 I )' 0 L I )I t )U ) k c F - 1 $ )U ) U ) 46 t o I n 4 L I )t C )U )U ) 44 U ) N 4 .• •. . . . . . a e. • • . • • . • . . a . • • • . • • .. • . . • . . • • . a. , , . U ' )U ) U )1 ' - - 4 N - -‚ C - ( ‚ i 6C . . F ) 4 U ) N N - 0 D4 4 U ) 6 C o0 ' 4 U ) 4 U ) U ) — U ) C ) 't o- U ) - N C O( \ . ! ( ‚ 4N C ) U ) ( 7 N N 0 ' U ) N U ) q U ) N U ) t O U ) a N a 'C ' F a : a : U )C o N C ' 0 'N 0 ' 0 ' N N N C P L N O 'F - N U ) N •a a . •e e . . . . . a . . e . ø . . . . . a .. . . . . a • . . • . . • . . . . • • • oe' o o c c c c o c ' c oc •

‚

a

•

I

.

•

.

S

•

.

Ø

o

.

•

coer

e 0 I

•

•

ø

ø

S

s

oc ' cc c c o c 0 c ' 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C 0 c 0 0 a

•

S

I

•

ø

•

ø

•

a

S

S

a

S

•

•

•

ø

S

I

S

•

( 7 N to N ( ' 4N U ) . to 0 ' 6 F ) C ' C ' C o N ‚ 0 4 to U ) N 60 '. . ' 0O N N I ' )0 0 0 ' 0F )F )N ( ‚ 4 ‚C F ) - U )F )F )0 L NI ' ) 4 N ( ‚ I( ‚ I (‚4 4 N - N - ( ‚ 4 - - ( ‚ 4 NN N ( 1 4N ( ‚ iN F N - ( ‚ 4c ' J F )i n F )F )i n F )i n F ) - - N' N N N ( ' 4 ‚C

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C O C 0 0 0 0 0 0 C C 0 0 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 CC 0 0 0 0 •

e

.

.

•

.

•

•

.

•

.

•

•

.

•

•

.

a

•

•

•

•

•

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

e

.

a

•

•

ø

.

6 0 U )t o0N r ,o c F - N - U )L I )N - N N - 0 6F - O N ( ‚ 4( 7 ' U ) U ' )C I ' -F - U) U' ) 4. 0N U )C N I t ) . N - N f l -U )u mC U ) 4C 40 ' 41' D N 4 F - U ) 0C UC ,C N N - U ) P r )4 t ( ' I N ( ‚ 4 NC ' J N

• ø

.

•

S

.

•

I

a

•

•

S

ø

•

•

ø

*

•

S

•

•

•

ø

•

a

•

a

•

S

a

S

•

•

S

I

a

•

•

I

•

‚C

ø

.

•

I n' C

•

•

-4

•

‚

• • •

‚

‚C F ) N - 0 6 t L N - 6 C o 0 ' 0 'C O N - C - U ) C 0 ' N L I )L I )N U )C O U )U ) 4 ' 0 4 F )I ' )0 • a • • • • • • a • • • a • • • • • ‚ ‚ • • .. . . • . • a • • • a a a e • a a 0 )0 ' I f )F ' -F —4

C O ,0 0

4

4

0 ' - t O U ) I t )t O Lo 0 C O - N ' NF - a n C O U ) C ' A t C - - U )C 0 S • S a .. . ' ' a ' * • ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 0 ' F ) ' CN U ) ' 0 _ U )0 ' N _ U ) U ) U )N O 40 '0 ' _ 0 ' O '0 ' 0 ' 40 ' f l -U ) 0 '. - 4. -4N . -4 6 F ) F ) I n I n1 ' N - C(7 N - C .

.

a

• -4 -4

‚C

a

6 F - C )' 0 0 i f,U ) 0 '

4

a

.

S

_4

a

*

a

a

—4

S

-

.

0 O D 4 t t O N a

a

ø

a

-4

4

a

ø

—4

—4

-4

-4

4 6 4 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 64t 4 d 4 6 4 *'i 4 4 4 6 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 # 4 4 6 6 6 4 I ' )F )I nF )I ' )i n F ) i nF ) F )F )i n r j F )i nF )F )F ) F )r f lF ) I n i ' DF ) i n F ) F ) F )F ) F )i nF )I ' ) F )F )F )F )F )F ) F ' )I ' )F ' )F )I ' )F )

U )

- N F ) 4 I f )t Q N U )0 '0 NF ) 4 U ) ' 0N - U )C ' 0' ( 1 4f n 6 U )' C N - ( D O NC - ( ' 4F ) 4 U ' )' 01' 0 )0 ' 0 ( ‚ 4 ( ‚ i N N ( ‚ I N N( ‚ 4( ‚ 4( ' 4( ‚ 4F ) F )F ' )I ' )F ) I ' ) F )I ' )F )F ) # 6 6 4 6 4 4 4 6 6I f )U )i t )I n I t )I f )I t )I t )U ' ) U )t O ' C t O 6 * 6 6 6 4 4 6 4 6 4 4 4 4 6 4 4 6 6 4 4 6 6 6 * 6 6 6 4 4 4 6 4 64 # 4 4 4 4 4 4 * 6 4 a

C

243

C . C O

Qa p

OU )

N F ) C U ' —

C N

4O r - ar

a

C ' C ' N

7Q

N 0 N U ' r i n N ‚ C N N ' C —4 N N — F )N 0 ' 4 N CF ) N i n c ' N r , C O -. rIi n r , O i 0 ' — 4 v j c o o r,c ( Y . c o a o r ( 710 0 t a '0 ' 1 1 c c a ' N O U O O aa a NO a '

c

i n (n Q W - i n C OC )

ar ' C Nc

— a ' a ' — ' CC a '

C ) c,

N

a ' a 'N

c I N N I N I r l4 t N 0 4U

I f )

Cc N M 0 0F )C N ' dI - k c CN C \ , J 4. . . a. .

. .

f lo c cu 0 ' Nrf l' C — N — a — ( ‚

‚ C- —

N r

N

‚4

C i n c i n C O 0 i n GU ' OU N a 4 I CN N 4 —

- ' C — — - — ' 0 - - — - ' C — —

N r ' )U-)

r j uin ' 0

i

4 4C\ 4 e q tC UF Ln ‚ CC

.

.

•

•

' 0

N i n N - c ' .— —

S

S

•

•

S

S

.

•

.

S

•

•

•

.

.

•

S

C ' jC '

( A ‚ C 4 F ) 4 i t o r ' - W , 4 NU a

DC N C U •

— ‚ 0 — — — —

— a

,4 3

.

S

c ' , j

I t )c ' J a. ,

U ' C c 0c . c c c 0c i n o. . . i f )o c o U 'U ) NP 4 r c o , N _4 J. .f l) ç — a '

J N a

c a 'ioc . C o F .C U 4- 4 C ' J ( \ ä4 ' 00 ' 4 C O U ) 4 — U ' 4 eF ) N S

—.

a' CN c 'G ' C4 — ( \ J. . ., .4

5

4 L I

' ( ' I

4 f r,

r

r 4 a ' N U )4N C o 01 1 ( )a ' 4 Nr ) F ) F ) C — J Y ,‚ 0 N r — - C F ) F )— U ) - ( f ) 5

•

5

a

l

s

.

•

•

.

•

•

S

S

I

S

S

S

S

4 F ) 4 U ' F ) 4 U ) U ' 4 44 U ' 4 4 4 U ) o0 U ) 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 U ) 44 F ) 4 U ) 4 4F ,U ' • • a S . • • 5 • . 5 5 • . .e . . . . . . . . . • e s S • 5 • I a 5 S S s ø

S

•

•

ø

N ' c •

5

U ) a '6 C I n U ' a 'r 1 —c ' JO 4 0 '40 U ' NN N C r c O N N a ' ur -r N NQ N N w i r - g or 5

•

•

•

5

•

.

5

•

5

0

.

5

.

5

5

•

.

•

•

.

0

a ' 0

•

0 4 0 ' 01 N N a 'N a 'O 0 'U S

a

.

0

0

0

0

C OC 7 C DQ Q C U4 ( me Q 4 N N 0 ' a ' a ' a 'O e c o 0

0

.

0

0

0

5

0

.

0

.

,

0

a

c o c c o'' 0 0 0 c o c c c c 0 c 0 0 0 c C4 , : o c o c 0C 0 0 0 c e c o C o O 0 0 0C c o c •

.

•

•

•

•

4 c o o .

.

.

.

.

t f l

•

•

O

•

.

•

•

.

S

•

•

•

•

•

S

NO ' — F )C F ) O N 4N - ‚ C

•

•

•

.

S

0

c 4C

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

4

0

5

0

4

‚ 0P- 0 ' c ju F )r )r U ' NC ' N U )'0 4 N c

o o c o c o o c c o c o c o O c 0 o c 0 c c 0 O c 0 c O o c o O o O C OC ' o O o c Ø

,

.

,

S

G

.

0

.

5

5

5

0

5

0

0

5

a

5

5

0

•

•

•

•

ø

a

S

•

a

S

a

a

5

5

a

0

0

I

5

O U ' U ' o C O U ' U ' O U ' c c c Oc ' U ' O o O OC C U 'C 0 0 0 U 'c .tn o C U ' cC 0O U ' Cc C 0 N C 'U )I ' , N O G U ' N N OCU O i f ) U ' C U U ' U ' CU )N ‚ CI f l 4 - N 4 N 0 r CJ c c O O C U U 'C . O U ' U ' N OC F ,N F )I " )4 F ) F ) U )U ) 4 ' C ‚ 0N 0 ' 0 ' -ir N C )U ) ‚ C C ) C U0 4 U 'F ) ‚ C‚ CU 'N t - U ) N F )- N C U F ) — ( • j — .4 . .d C J N C ' J N 4 a 4U 0 '4 U ) O C U 0 ' C U )P

C c uQ 4 0 C o F 0F)r

N U " 0 C o U 'C .4

2 ‚ C •

f l ). .

.

C Utf l U ' S

.

S

.

•

.

S

L C )NUF S

I

a

•

.

.

.

U ' e

N U ' N ' 0N N U " C N N.C N

.

'F Q ' iC U ' f ) — 4 U "0 0 N U 'a a 'Q 'U ' a ' U )4 .

.

.

.

•

.

.

.

.

•

•

.

.

.

.

« ) a ' O O O N N N N 0U )U ) ON ‚ 0

.

•

•

.

•

.

.

.

a J .

.

.

N ‚ C F ) -'0 0 0 C 4U )'0

F ,4 O - N DU . .

.

0

.

.

.

.

.

•

.

0

•

.

S

S

a

0 ' 00 a ' C c 4

N F ) C

.

O

S

•

5

.

5

S

•

•

CC0 ' . 0 0 a '0 ' N

a

•

0 '

•

U '

S

a

S

•

•

S

S

S

% C c ) O% F ) F O )F ok ) F o )lc C )F ) M M F ) F )F )F )F ) F ) 0 F )F 0 ,F , 0F , 0 F 0 ,F , 0F 0 )F 0 ,C % ) F % c )F % 0 ) F k i ) dF )F )F )C ) F ) F )F )F )C )

P I ) 4 Jr ,

0 ' O 4C \ I F , 4 U '

'

00

0 ' O4C ' J f r ) 4U ) ' CN U 0 ' O

.

.

.

.

.

.

a

.

0 '0 'N ' 0 F ) N" NC ‚ 0U ) N

C )

F ,F )F )F )i nF )

F

N F ) 4t € ) 0N M 0 ' O' N F ) 4U ) ' CP -

4 - 4 4 4 4 4 -4 4 4 4 - 4 4 4 4 4 4 44* 4 4 - 4 4 4 4 44 4 - 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 U )i ni n t o I )U 'U )i n

2 44

C or )o i n0 —

U )

c N U ) 0 —o 'c

i nr )r-. r 'p - — 4 o ar . -a

oc j . r , )

Wc

C c : -N i n 4

—N - N i n OIr d

C 0 4 N N F )I f )i n N 4 0C 0 I n 0 — i nU ) C O NU ) — N N c j Q —a o r N i n i nC U ) N r i n — N c i n 0 Oct N - N uo c c ) . -( ) o,a U )o P - C 'N ON U )'Q O o o U )NN o U ' U ' U )P . U )N U DC ' C ' U '

N

A t N 0"d - c ' J

C 0 4 4 0 'U ) 4 ( V

— w

U )L I )0 - 4 0 ' Q 40 U )0 F ) 40 c - or - - U )N 0 4 0 — C I f )% F ,Q 0 4N - — i ni na i n j - _4 — _4 N — — — - N . .— — —

U )c i n I S )i nc W . 1c i ni n i ni n t oU ) 0 U ) oU )C I f )U ) Co o i n I f )C L I D C i n ø C j r ,L I )i n I Ccc i nc o i n oLf ltr U ) N i n N — 0 4 - 4 — F )r - 4 F )I 4 D. .P N -LI ) 0 4p r) . . . . — U )c \ jC ' C O ' uI rc ' —I —

—

4—

—

N

. —

—

0 4F )

—

N

U ) L I )4 i nV . i n 4 4 I ' )U )i n F ) L I )4F ) i n L I ) 4 k G L I )i n L U 4 F ) i n U )U ) 4 F ) 4 I n L I )I n i n dU D L I )i n U ) 44 - U ) 0 4 U ) - •

ø

a

.

—0 ' U ) N ,.N — i nF )d - 0 4 0 4 t 0 4 cL ( ) i ncJ r I V, p .

.

.

ø

.

.

.

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

.

.

4 C .

.

.

c )o r )r v ) N N C )i n .

.

.

s

.

.

•

e

.

N

—

N

-

-

-

F ) i n - i n

. . .Q c N - CO N 0 - - N •

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

4 U ) F ) M i n 4 44 4i n U ) F ) 4 M .U ) F )F )U ) U ) I S ) D4 4 I S )0 4i n 4 41 1 ) 4 4 F ) 4 ' 01 1 )4 U )U ) I t )U )i t 0 ' 0 ' * N - i .

.

.

s

.

.

.

,

,

•

•

,

.

.

a

.

•

.

.

.

L 1 ) C o i no ' 0N -r a U ) 4I C N 0 ' i n O - 4 4 0 4 — Q 'U ) 4N - i nl i )C ' N NN C D C C NO ' U ) O D NO ' N - N - a DU ) U ) N O ' N U ) c C ' 0 ' 0 ' 0 ' U ) c oN - U ) U ) ( 7 'U ) N N U ' 0 ( 7 'U ) c o N - U ) U ) U )U ) U )c o0 C ) I T,U ) U ) .

.

C 'C'( . 0 " C C C C 0'' C ' 0C 0 C C C 0 0 0 0 0 0 c o Ce 0 0 0 0 c 0 0 c 0 0 40 0 e 0 0 c i nF ) i nF ) N - i n 1 )N -4 U ) N i nU )— C U ) 0 ' - 0 4 0 4 0 4N N F ). 40 4F )0 4 0 4

.

U ) 4 N - i n U ) N -F ) 0 '0 U )C F )i n U )P - 0 F )U )N - C o0 0*C O 0 N d 0 1 — N0 4 ( ' 1( ' 40 4 — N —0 4 0 4F )0 4 -. .- N

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C OC 0 C 0 0C .0 C C C C 0 0 0 0 0C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0C 0 0C CC .0 0 0 •

•

‚

C )U )C

•

s

.

Oc U D OU ) U )C I t ) 0 0 0 011 ) 0 CC . 0 C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 U )C ' OIS )© 0 0U )0 00 I t )C O OC 1 )1- U )4 C N i n N N U D0 j I r ,L f l oN - i n i n i n i n ) .n 0 U )c ' J 4 oIn c , c N o4 N - 0 ' 4 O NIf l Ö U D N i n i n QLn - -r — N F )i nNr ) i n i n f )4 F ) U )r ) 0 4.( N J N F ) -4 4 i t U ) N 4 )IÜ 4 0 4o j ' 0 QcJ r ) 4 o, . . — * — — _4 —

U )Q ' 0 4 i n U )«

0

CC ' JU )V. .0 4 Q.

O' NN -F ) U )(\ Q ' U )

F ) i n 41 9 F )F ) 4 4 I )i n N - U ) 0 ' 44 U )N - U ) F ) 44

i f ,

CU )

I f )i n i np) 4 0 44 i n i f )l S ). iF U )4 I nI ( DN -

F )F )4 - F )i n 4 4 4- i nN - U )0 ' U ) U ) I t )N U ) U )i n

—

U )L Ui U 4

U ) - NC CL I )It )r ) d U ) 0U ) *i n U ) 0.-II ) F ) U ) 0 1F l i n i n N 0 4 0i n i n i n U ) F ) N i n ON I f )i n N i nLO F )N -0 ' •' . , . • . • • . • . sø * • , e , . a . . , , . , . , . . , . . . . . , . . . . . . , . U )i n0 ' U ) 0 F ) I t ) 4 -U ) I t )' 0 U )d i n. 0 u i n F ' -N - U )0 ' I t )N - i n 0 ' U )U ) U ) I t )i n U ) 4 -4

C " U ) U ) 4 C O ( ‚ 4 — 4 -. F )Cd - U )i n 0 '. . 0 .U ) i n C ' 4 0 ' . . 0i n ‚ 0 0C "N -

C

C C C ' 0 ' 0 4.0 ). F )*0 I )C . N - t o

‚ 0 U ) U ) U ) ' 0 4 N N N C '. . 4O ' CN - ' 0 — U ) O F ) U ) I n ' 0 ' 0 N - N 4N - U )N- i nN -U 3

. 1— N UD N C - - 0 N - i n NO ' U )

4 * 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 44 4 44 44 4 4 4 F )F ) F )F )F ) F )F ) F )F )F )F )F )F )F ) F )F )F ) F ) t oF ) F ) F )F ) f ' )F )f ' )F )F ) I ' )F )I ' )F ) i nF )( )F )F )F ) F )F ) 1 ' )F ) F )

o0

C oC ' C —0 4F ) ,0 L f )' 0 N - C o0 0 N F ) 4 U ) ' 0 N - U ) 0 '0 - 0 4 ( 1 )' 0N - U '0 '0 0 4F ) ( ' 4 0 40 40 4 ( ‚ J0 40 4 0 40 4N F ) F )F )F ) N " ) )F ) F )F )F )4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 i nU )U ) I f )

2 45

— d Na N

C C

N cN — Q UN N«U O

C

L

a ' oc rN d a ) Nø C 0 oc .

rc a 'r

r .a '

0

• O a )0 C

—

N r c ia C ' a )C No N

- -(‚ 4( ‚ 4( - ( ' i( ' i— — N — N N N N N N N N

( \ ( ‚ U N

)C \ iq

( \

—

-.

N

'C 4 4 0

oo

N a '

L— N c r ,% Q C ' JN U ) U )U ) C N C C O \U ) O N C 0 Na C N a

o

—(‚ 4N N

( ‚ U( ‚ U N - — N ( ‚ 4 —- — — ( ‚ 4 —

N — N -( ‚ 4( ' UN - N N ( ‚ U— ( ‚ U N

-

N a'N N

( U

N a ) c U )' N CO C 0 — N N NN c tt o t w, C C r O U , N r ) er , C L )N U ,u )U a ) C CCC .4 .- . . ( ' 4 ( ‚ U- ( ' 4. ( ' 4( ‚ 4- C ' . i( ‚ U ( ‚ 4N ( ‚ U . — .4 • ‚ .1 .* - ( U — . — 00 C C C OO C CC U )U C 0 C4 : . O C(O OU ) 0 0 0 0 0 0t t ) 00 0 U ) C U )U ) O U , O CU ) O C Ot t )C N C r , -a ' . l e rr

. —

t gc

O NC' 4 . U ) CN ( ‚ U 0 F ) ( ‚ 4 .

.

.

a

•

C O .

4 N N

‚ C ‚ C U ) • • e • . .

O N le c Jc c r u r k N ( ' — r )( ‚ U •a ø • • • • S . . . . . .

c

‚ C

•

S

F ) L I )a ' .

.

( ‚ 4 . 4 . 4 .

.

S

4

r )

( M N n r t o( ‚ 4 N oc .

.

.

.

.

ø

•

.

.

. N U ' . F ) ( ‚ U‚ C a )N ON F ) . . . . . . . . • . . •

N 4 F ) N M N r F ) 4 k o 0 i n F )4 ( ' 4F )U )F ) 4 4 F )( ‚ 4C j ‚ C N N 4 4a r . F )

.

i

•

•

S

a

•

S

.

•

1

U ) C-c F )C U a )C ' U- Q t r l 0 a 0,0 a ) 4 N. N 4 N 0 0 a ) N a ) o a ) a ' a 'c r .C c a a )0 a ) O 0 01C, c a )N a )N N o 'c •

5

‚

C C C

1

C

0

•

5

5

5

r oc 44

5

a

5

5

5

.

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

•

•

S

N F ) N N N '

• 0 0

3

S

5

5

5

C a ) O a )a ) •

•

•

5

C C C C C C C 0 C 0 00 0 0C 0 0C 0 c 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0C C C c C C C

‚ Ca ) 0 ' 0 ' 1 )F )‚ C ( ‚ UN 4 N U ) 0 ' ( ' 4c ' 4r ) ( ‚ U N F ) ( ‚ U( 4 ..' . - ( ‚ U N N ( ' 4( ‚ U NN ( 4— a

U ,

( 7 F )a ) — 00 0 ‚ C F ) 4 U , U ) 0 ' — a( ‚ U4 0‚ CC — N —N ( ' 4 - .4 .-. ( ' 4. .( ' J( ‚ U— N ( ‚ U( ' 4( ‚ U( ‚ U( ‚ U

O 0 0 ø C C O 0 0 0 C 0 C C 0 C 0() C OC .0 0 0 C Q 0 0 0 O C O 0C C 0 0 0 0 O C O C C •

.

.

.

.

.

S

.

.

.

.

•

•

•

.

.

. .

( ' U

S

S

F ) p ). 4) ( ' 4 0 .

.

S

•

e

.

•

.

•

•

Ø

5

•

5

1

q j

•

•

‚ C - U ) — N ‚

S

.

L I ) 4— a N r‚ C o a )N O a )a ) U ) 4 ' C -4

.

•

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

,

.

U ,

,

.

.

c .

.

•

•

ø

•

.

•

•

S

o

a

r r. . e — 4 F )N N ' C O N U , N 4 Nr- F )

0 4 0L I )U )U , F )4 C . U U )N F )0 U )r ‚ CQ ja ' N 1 4 . 4 S

.

.

.

h

S

.

5

.

1

5

0

5

5

5

1

1

5

N U , N U , ' C U ,U , U ,LI ) N U ) N.O'4 NP - L I )L f l U , U )Lf l ' OL ( )

—4

o 0 ., . .

.

r oN N ( ‚ U C )( ‚ 4a ) oo ' CF ) 4 NU )N U ) Z 1 0 M Ni ' U )4 F )

a

.

•

a )N a ' .

s •

•

‚ O O U ,( ' JF ) O. ,N

• .

•

. •

U ,N 4 C ON 4 4 N N N U )0 'N 0 ' r )P- N N O F ) -C

. . • . . . I . . . , . • I . . . • . • • • • . . • . . . • •

.

a )• ‚ C ' 0 a )? - N N N N ‚ C a )U , a ) ( ‚ 4U ) F ) CO ' .

I

I

.

I

‚ C F ) U , a ' C ' F ) C ' a ) ‚ C U )N S

S

S

•

S

•

.

S

S

I

‚ O N F )

' C ‚ CF )

—

c ‚ C

N

4 F ) 0 ' O 4F ) 4 N . 0 N 00 ' O r )‚ C U )U )

S

4 4 U , U ) U ) U ) I )U ) U ) U , I )U ) t o U )U ) U ) I t ) U )U ) U ) U )L I )U ) U ) U ) L I )U ) U ) U, U )U ) U )U ) L I )U ) I t )L I )U ) U )U ) L I )U ) U )L I ) F )r F )F ) F ) F ) F ,F ) F )F ) F )F )F ) F )F )l )F ) 1V) F ) I f lF ) F )F )F ) i ' )F )F ) F )I nF )r F )F )F )r i ni n i ni n

W ) U , 1 % )U )

i n

U ) ‚ C' 0 ‚ C ‚ C OO ' C ‚ C‚ C 0N N N N - N - N N N N N . c o U ) C o U )U ) U )U ) O N 0 '0 ' 0 '0 ' 0 ' 0 '0 ' t oV ) U ) L I )I )LI )I I ) U' )L O U )LI )U )I ( ) U )U )I I ) L I )LI )U ) U )U )L t ) U ) L f lU ) L f lU )U ) U ,II )U ) L I )%I )LI )U ) U ) 1) 1 1 )

2 46

C ) a a )L i; 0 a )

or ( ' JO N N ( r)t - N V ) C N e NO ' C O ' a )O OQ a )

0 .

r aQ ' a )c

— C F ,ac rc r ,ca ) 0 o -

(‚ 4 -4

( ' I( ‚ 4 N N - - -

- -(‚ 4N - N N

-i . '

c \ J Cc ' 4 r c 'c a N - N C 0 0 V ) 0c j c O C c i .oa P � f j

SC

-

-

r

o

u. -r

c o

oa .o 1,aa0 00 aca

c -

( '

c )4r - c 4C L ) Q . cr .O 'c

V ) Nc ( J O 'Q

( ‚ 4

N N.N ( ‚ 4N N N ( ‚ 4 .( ' 4 ( ‚ 4C ' J ( ' 4N

o V ) o N 0 O V ) c 44 d Q

-

- - - cr ( ‚ 4 ( ' J(j .

4

( ' J NN N

f v ;Q 'N

( ' 4 4 C C o Cc ' JC' 4N 4 -( ' J. N C O O C i f ) ç0 C 0 0 V ) 0 0 0 V )L( ; V ) 0 0 0C V ) CIU C r c , 4P 4 0 r ) P , U;

- C )i r % C

( ‚ 4

L O

- ' C 1 )‚ C c‚ C ‚ C k LV ) L o L I )‚ C L I ) 0

V ) Cr V ) ' C4

' C C V )

U JL I

(' 4 -U D *U

•• . . . . . . .

•• . • . . . . .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

5

*

U) -; t4 ( ‚ 4 0 'a )Q 0( 7 a ) •

s

.

S

a

5

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

S

e

•

.

e

ø

e

oC •

I

e

.

.

.

‚ C c o O N C O ( ‚ 4 4 a ) C .' 4 4 C -c • • •. •‚ .. .

•. •

C 0 - N NIf l N ' Cf ' 4 CL I ) ' N ' C 4 U ir j N er o a 0 ' U )O O a )c 0O a )o a U ) ao 5 5 , 5 •• • • * 5 S . • • e ' ø ø . .

S

5

S

.

.

.

a

.

.

.

•

.

e

.

c 'c .

C o

.

o

S

•

c

.

•

c c ec ' r 0 0 0( ' 0 5

e

U ) N N

a

•

•

.

•

.

S

e

a

•

•

.

S

•

.

.

- f

V ) NP O N o .

t )l

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Ø

•

•

( ‚ 4

-4 (‚ 4

4

4

S

•

.

•

.

I

.

.

.

.

.

5

5

.

.

.

( ‚ 4

—4 —4

N N •

•

S

I

.

.

•

S

e

•

.

.

.

.

.

OI I ) U ) 0 'Q 4 Q % Cv , V )( \ J V )O ' N0 V )0

•

•

5

1

5

5

O 0 ' 0 ' 00 '

I nr 9

.

0 ' U ) N c .r ). . . a ) M m ( ‚ 4& ‚ 0 a ) 4 0 C )N ( ‚ 4 -L I )

.

.

.

.

c 4L I

e

.

S

S

S

•

5

c

•

cc' 4 5

Ott )- U ) ‚ 0 ' C1 C o 0, C S

.

O ' .N L I )‚ 0 4 N e n

0 0o C C C 0 0 0 CC 0 0C C 0 0 0C C OC . 0 C C OC C 0 0 C

.s

•

•

.

V )4a 'Q nC-No '4o4 oV )u 4 L ) U ) 44 N U )- a )L I )- 0. -ø .. OO N ‚ 0 40 'N

•

•

•

N a )‚ C 4 C . ' 0 a ) 4 ‚ 0 - 011 0 0 ' N U ) e U )1 1

.

S

S

.

.

•

o r )&nu

•

C C C 0 C C r C 0.' 0 0 e c e c c 'c •

.•

( ' J N Nc

k t)i t Lc c

- ‚ Ca ) ‚ C 4 4 ( ‚ 4( ' 4U ) N U ) 00 e‚ C- ‚ C a ( ' 40 ( ' 4r U ) 0

.

o 'a C um c

•

.

•

.

.

.

4 C 4

.

S

•

N -

Ø

•

5

•

•

0 '

•

*

.

0 ' a )

S

.

.

•

.

5

.

4 N - U )Q a )

r i

U ) 0C 4 ( ‚ 4 1 4 V )‚ 0 F - U ) 0 '0 - N 1 4 V )' C N U ) 0 ' 0 - N 1 4 V ) ' 0N U )0 ' 0 0Q ' c 0 0 0 0c o cc o

247

A ppendix

I V:

D ATA S ET F OR Z AMBIAN A ND Z IMBABWEAN E ARLY A ND M IDDLE S TONE A GE A SSEMBLAGES

2 48

L i z C ( 1 ) z 0 4 0 >c i . L i

C L u a

L i U

I -

$ -

1 O

1 C

b .

c a

• .

. .

c x .

es es

C

L i

C

a c e

.4

c

G R A M S

L l I U ' )

L I U ) U ) 4

4

C D

L i

—

•.

Z

I -

O

W

t i

I -

U

I I

0

0

C i

I x . ( I ) L i

0

U

L i Z

U

L i

NU ) \U ) i -t i ,,a . . Z Z

U ) L i t ' 7

U , L I Q z

D Z j( / ) Ot .D L .

2 :

( f ) L I t 2 :

4

4

a .

4

L

4

L i

( I ) L I Z I 4 J L i

U ) L i 0

a

-

e s e sc

a

) U •-

I i I a U ' )

e s LX .

C a . L i

'-

-

249

es .

C l a I x .

0 7 D C 0 .

U .

V A R I A B L E

L i L I 0 . ( I )

L i Z

I ( Z L i

L i U . i

R A N G E S F R O M

I N C E N T I P 4 F T E p c ;

I N

C E N T I M E T I N

I N C E N T I M E T : p $

S E T F O P M I D L E

Q )

-

‚

T V : A P E N D I X

4

L L

C i

•

L i L i z t u

r )o -

P E R C E N T A G E

S

-

‚

L i Z L i

•

0

E R

A N D / O R

•

I -

I I -L

J

M A T E R I A L

U N I T S S T O N E

C o

D I R E C T I O N S

M F A S U R F O A G E A S E M B L A G E S

L i

0

e s

U ) 4 t U i

4

o 0

a

U ) d r L i

U )

C Z I

C a

1 -o a F

o

ca

C -c ' JdNoa

a

U )

N

a

N

N

-

—

N

('j

C a

N

a

c 'r - C — Qa U )r N C r- - C D u N -4 N N C C U ) U ) C C, U )C

S )U )U )i

J r ,

U )o N

a oa . .

—

C t

L p t r L o c U ) o oc

0c

Z

_

jF ) •

.

_) •

4

.

4 I

4 0C S

.

c ' ic oo N F ) N r N

•

.

.

S

•

•

—

r )

S

a

.

.

e

.

.

I

.

•

.

U )

—

.

.

.

•

N C F ) Q •

ø

ø

—

0

c r 4 N O N CN N

4444%0( ( - 0p _ 1 . r u-oN

4 U )— 4 N ø

—

.

C ' U )0 4

4 4 4 QQ U ) t o0 ' 0 ' N

i s

C OO 0 0 0 0 0C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c 0 0 C C c c o ç 0 0

( 2 ) B A T P E C

( 2 ) P E S F N T

I

•

•

S

•

•

5

•

i

4 r 4U )

•

s

i

i

•

•

i

CO O N N — N N

•

—

e

I

—

S

—

I

( ' J

I

—

•

N

C 0 0 0 0C C O C C o 0 . 0C ø C 0 o 0 0 O

o

L i

0 •C

C O 0 0 •

S

S

r S

ø

00

( 1 ) U U )

C U t A I ' -L & l

U .

C J u .

—

5-

-

0

CU ) a

C L o —

z 0 —

• U i U ) U )

—

L Y

< Z

I < 0O

5

•

i

•

.

•

Nc jN N N

0 0 0

0 00 U )

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

0

*

0

6

5

0

0 i

5

5

4 L I )

i C ,

F - N

C U tø u

•

•

•

•

S

i

i

•

U ) 4 U ) F ) L I ) 4 U )U ) F )U ) U ) F - U )

S

.

r.O N

•

)i)

.

j

ø

:

.

ø

i s

oF -F -

i)

.

.

.

.

' ON U )N

C ) I - C -

vnV ) < L U LX

z

F < c i

I I FL C Z U ) x j

V. I UI- O Is -

5—

5—

— 5

U

-

-

S

S

O 4 o ,r J r) U ) U ). . .r,( % J 0 'U )4 S

Q U )c ø

W

I

0 oC C OC

4 N 4 N 4 N 4 im e F ) U ) L I )( 1 ) . D 4 4 L I )U ) F . -U )F -

b i

I

a

•S S a i

•

i

S

ç

‚

(

—

2 50

•

•

S

S

•

I

.

•

ø

S

i

S

.

.

.

I

.

.

.

.

O t )

CU )C 0 —

0

i t

u

0

t rr r

o 'CU '—

U )' U )

N

—

0

c

U JN O ' O ' -

0

0 U )a DO ' U ) N

.4

N N

N

. -

N

—

N N N N N

C C r M 4 t ( JO ' U ' ( 7 '— ‚ C C \ j .- — . ‚ — — ( ' J—

—

—

N

—

N

-

—

—

U ) ‚ C 1 00c r f )0 ' C O ) 4 U )

-'

-

N

—

—

U )

—

-

—

N

-

U ) U ) U ) c oC

r ;

—

c j

N N

-

-

—

—

—

C ' iN N

-'

4-

—

—

-0 ' N N N d )N C 0 ' C d N jN — N —

—

. . —

-. -.

N N N C ' N

-

U )

-4

t OU ) C oIf l O Q C CU )tOU )C 0 'i f ) cC 0c e 0 U ) oc T o c 01 t o c cU 'utn0c eoU )U ) tt )u — N d C O U ) U ) U )Q N 0 ' — o o - Ol - N — N N ' N' C ' CN N ' N N — N N N N N N N- . - — N N U )N N N - N — N — NO '0 Q ' 01-

4 U ) U )U ' ) 4 N U ) N I t )4 4 4 N ' C

—

—

—

5

•

•

. '4 -

4

-

-

( \ j

—

N

-4

'0

N U ) U ' )4 0

U )U ) 4 U ) N 4 N 4 t L n e

•

' C ‚ 00 ' U ) 0 ' 4 O D 0 0 ) 00 ' U ) U ) N 0 ' ‚ CU ) ‚ C ‚ C U ) t o N t o ( 7 N f ) ' 0 0 O r ) 4 4 4 0 )N U )

% C,

0 e

s

•

e s

•

•

s

•

•

s

.

5

.

s

40 )0 ' U ) Ot ) ' C •

• •

•

•

•

•

.

.

ø

.

l

.

e

cU ) 0 ' .

•

.

e

.

s

.

.

.

s

•

s

.

•

.

Ø

•

5

.

•

•

•

.

S

S

0

e

s

6

.

S

5

•

0

0

5

0

1

0 'N ‚ 0 0 )0 P . -C 4 4‚ 0 4 — O N 1 ' )U ' ) CC

•

•

Ø

5

5

5

•

•

s

•

•

5

S

5

•

5

5

6

5

'

0

5

•

•

5

1

N

—

* Ø

. ' r )

S

F ' -

S —

•

5

5

5

•

•

•

•

i

S

5

S

C

C

5

•

N CI t ) N N — 00 ' 0 'F ' -F ' -U ) C N C 'N

S —

5

S

S

S

•

Ø

•

S

.

•

•

S

s

S

.

•

•

•

•

0 ' 0 '0 ' 0 ' 0 ' e

•

s

e

•

0 ' U ) 4 N O 0 ' 0 ) N P . -N 0 ' ‚ CI" 5

,

O C C O C O O C C Oe O C C O C O O C C C C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C .0 0 C U ) U )

—

.

•

•

—

‚ Cd 4 ‚ C — NO 'C 'N N — C ON - 4N C .‚ C 4 — N N N U ) N U ) U ' )C O N O ' U ) I )N U ) O N ‚ C ' CN N C N C0 N ‚ C N 4 C — C O N 1 " )N N — O Ni n * — N — 0 0 4 04 N - — - N -' U ) — cc — •

.4 •

-

5

,

.

s

.

•

S

•

oøcoc o

,

C

•

5

ø

e

•

•

•

5

coc c s

C

•

e

N 4 0 N U ) N 4 F ' -U ) N 4 U ) 4 0N

C c cC C C 0 0 0 0 CC C C0 C 0 0 C CC C 0 C C 0 0 0 0 0 0C c o0 0 0 0 0 0C 0 0 0 O

•

•

5

‚

5

.

C

.

5

5

5

e

0 ) N dN dN ‚ C N — 4 N 4 0 U ) U ) er- F ' -N OC C o C ' U ) " 0 'N - I t ) 0 C a 4(M 0 )4 4 0 0 U ) ‚ C P - C N ' 0 4 U )(\ I r9 e N ' C ' C 4 4 NF ' ) N N N N N r ) M U ) 4 4 U ) r ) N U ) ' C 0 ' C ' 0 ' 0 N 4 4 U ) ' 0 N U ) r )N 4 •

_4 —4

•

5

*

•

S

•

U ) 4 N 9 4U ' ) •

•

•

•

5

5

Ø

— U

s

s

s

•

•

•

•

•

I

•

( C )ON C O ( I D Ø

S

S

S

S

,

•

rt )

4 Ntn

— I

•

•

ø

I

•

•

‚ C ‚ C ‚ C Ø

.

oc

C '

•

5

5

5

5

•

•

.

•

•

S

•

•

N r ) - 4 0 ) 4 N N

S

.

s

C

I

5

.

.

.

0 ' " 0 5

5

ø

.

C CC 0 C 0( 7 , 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 'C 4 Nr )4 U ) ' CN U ) 0 0

S

•

5

« 0 0 )U ' )4

.

•

5

5

Ø

5

5

Ø

5

5

0

.

.

.

.

U )% 0 C , N U ) ' 0 0C o .

0

•

.

.

s

.

ø

.

0 ) .

.

.

.

.

•

j r ) ( ) —9 L I ) .

9

.

5

.

N U ) U ) L ( )C r ' —0 M r ) i t‚ C C LI ) N .0 C N 0 ) ' C N NN ' 0 5

•

S

S

C

S

C

S

S

.

.

.

5

S

.

s

.

.

.

S

S

•

—

-

0 0 0 0 C C O C C O Q O O C Oc C o

•

0 O C C Ci

O 0 O O C O 0 C . c O Cc , oc o . c o oc

0C C OC C C 0 C ' 0 0 0Q "0 0 ' 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

N N 4 U ) ' CN U )0 'C 4 N N 4t NO N U )C ' 0. .4 N r )d U )' 0t ' . 0 ) 0 0 — N L I )I f ) U )( I )U ) L I )U ' L U ' 0 v i e ' C ' 0 ' 0 ' C c o‚ Ct- F ' -F " -

2 51

C C O N — o a D

ON ( ' J -' 00 0 '

( ' 4 U )

Q U ) U )O

C 4 4 C

0

C o c 01 4t r )a '«o

—4

( . ‚ J( ' J

V \ J. . . 4.

.

( ' A N N — NCJCJ

( ' 4

—4

-$..

N

-

-4('J C'.j

( ' %J

C ' J

N

C J(JC \ l( % J N N(J(J ( ' J(J ( ' J( ' J( ' . J( ' J(

-( \ J

J.

N

N N

—

j

C

( ' 4 — ' — ' O N L C ) C N NI5 N d U )' .0 0 0 0rin c i' . m . C — — -‚ N . . s ( " 4 - F ) -‚ ( ' . 4 ( ‚ . 4 N 0 0 0 L I ) 0 0 C c c U ' ) CU ) c c t ) tf l — OU ' )Q « O c c O ' . C Oc c O U )O C C U ) O) U ) O Oif ltf l .j O CU f l c U )U ' ) O "' U ) 'C ' . J N( ' J ( ' Jc ' . 4Q 't '- 4 '( ' ) Q ' .c' .

.4 —

-

—

-4

( ' U N —4

CC' A O N NC' A ( ' 4 0 4 OtI )u ' )I f )

N N o N N N 0 N c Q( \ j N N N Nc ' . Jc' A U ) 4

U) O N

OC % JO O U )

F )0 U ) U ) I t )0 U )c — r - F )N 0 " 4 04 0 ' C( ' . JC ' . J •4 Nr ) - 0 —O ' .c • • • • • • • 4 • I I l • •

0' .0 ' •

S

1 4 -

o' ..

I

•

tn .

•

0 U ) S

' 4 I

U )

c ' . j O( ' . J U )( ' J( ' . J( s jr )

F )

0, . .

U ) U ) ' 0 - I

l

1

1

1

1

I

S

I

S

U )

.

,

.

.

•

•

I

0

5

l

O

s

•

l

0

U )

S

0

0 ' . 0

S

S

•

•

0 . •

N .Q ' U )t0 U J0 'O ' .N •

•

.

s

I

I

I

.

1

0

.

C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 •0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c 0 • S S I I • U ) • ‚ • S • • S . OC ' J — ' O 4 N O NC ' . J - N N I( ' . ! N N 4 N N C i o c o o c cc •o oc o c O O C . 0 • • 0 • • • .0 • • S • • • S • U )t- N 4 F ) c u 4

00 0 00 0 0 0 0 cc oc 0 0 O 0 C o Q S

0

0

U ) N N

.

o

l

o

l

l

s

l

o

l

•

5

•

•

•

•

C Oc 0 Q o o •

•

1

1

1

N. . . S N O N O N N N N N N N N N _ N N N N N N. .

5

5

1

O. P - U ) _. . ., ,

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c o o c oc 0 0 • • • • • . • ‚ . . . 1 • .

4 F )U ' )U ) F ) F ' )F ' )U ) N U ) U )4 0 C

-

N .U ' )F ) 4 ' . 0U ) 4 i nU ' )F ) 4

M ,* F ' )0

N

-‚

( ‚ AN 4 U ' )4 ( ‚ 4 -

-4

O

S

.

N . 4

— 1 1)U ) 5 5 5

U )

' 0 U )

‚

0

' . 0 1 5 ' ) .

0

— ,

— 4 4 1

—

c o . o ' . oM

C I0

F ' )0 U ) U )' . 00 F )F )C : O N 4t I n L O O

U ) U ) U ) U ) N U )N U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) N U )

U )

C oU )4

—

4 U ) 0

-

u ' )' .oF ' U )U ) U ) U )

U )I r ) 4

—4

•

N . ' . 0 ‚ 0 0

U ) ' 0 U )

' . tU )U ) U )U ) P - or )U ) ( 7 ' 4 0 )40 4 0 ) N F ' )U ) U ) 5

s

1

.

.

c C U

0

1

'

U ) U )

•

•

.

— •

' . 0.4 0 )I l )( " . 4 ' 0U )U ' )0 ' .0 ) 0 ) 1 ) Np- U )U ) U ) 4 F ) •

U )o 'O ' . U )r- U )0 ' U ) N

•

•

•

•

.

•

.

5

,

U )

0, c o. U )C ' ( 7' ' . 00 ' F )U ) " 0 0 ) 0 04 ( ' . 4 —' . 0 0 ) U ) 4 ' . 00' AN O4 — CU ) U )C O rN 4 •

•

•

5

.

0

5

5

I

.

5

.

.

U ) U ) U )' . L J U )Lf l U ) 4

' 0 4 U ) U ' )4 U ) U ) F ' ) U )

•

c*

C O' .

0 0 0 0 0 0C C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 0

0 "o " q 0 ' O N 0 0 ' a a c U ) U ) 0 ) 0 ) U ) c r.Q ' .Q ' 0 'Q " 0 '

0 '

0 '0 '

'

7 'c 7 'Q ' .

F ) 4U U ) N 0 )Q ' . 0' N F ) 4U ) ' 0P-(0 C 0 — N r ) 4U ) U ) N U ) 0 ' O'c « j r ) 4 U )' 0 p - U ) 0 'c .. .c ' . j r ) 4U) U ) p P -P -C - N Nr- N U ) U ) U ) U ) U ) C oco 0 ) U ) • Q "O "0 " 0 '0 ' 0 'o C 'O " o oC c ' cc o c o o

2 52

0 04- t n 4 i nU ) N 0 U ) 4 — . ' oi r n U )C t .,N 0 ' 0 .-. c 0 '0 N ' U ) C ( 1 U 4 )N Q 0 N ' N 01 N C0 N ' - 0

C o NO ' 0 ' 0 ' U ) 0 ' C oQ ' c . 0 ' 0 ' 01 01 0 ' C oN a ) 0 ' C o0 ' U ) 0 ' -

—

N a '

C o

0 '

U e )eN —

'

o'

N - a ) cc

_ ‚

N N N

-

'

N

—

N

-

N

—

N

—

— N N N —N N ( \ JN

—

( ' 4 N U ) 4' CU )C a ) — N 4 N N 4C ' JN

N

C C 0 •0 00 U )U ) C 0 0! )0 U )C U )C 0 0U ) t o I S )I t )( > U )c c 0 C U )C ' 4 N i n -4

N -

—c N N NC '

a N

0 0 CC ,. . C O OC O U )

U )

N

—

O C O

-

-.

C \ i N N. —0 0 0 0 - . N O0 0 ( ' J oG O

' - 0 0.

.

e

_

—

C

—

U ) I t ) 5 U ) O N Ne F ) • 0 C — e a ) e C . U ) . I t ) . U ) . U ) . N . N . I ' ) . r )N N I ' )1 - 0e 'U )

a

.

0 c l \

U )

S

.

•

5

S

S

o •

‚

e

0

0

0

0

d b

0

0

0

5

1

5

5

*

0

0

0

e

0

0

e

0

0

0

0

.

4

a ) m •

•

•

C O ' .

. .

C C

0 0

I

.

.

.

O C O

0

.

.

e

.

— A j

0 I

C .

N N N

G O •

e

•

-

s

a

.

S

•

.

N N N N

—

•

—

a

—

.

e

A lN

s

—

.

O C OO Q 0 . •e e s • . 0 0 N

—

I ' )( ' S( M ( ‚ IC ' ( ' 4

—

© 0 C 0 0 0 OC O 0C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 S

• '

C

*

O

.

•

4

N

.

•

•

S

N a U )N

S

e

•

•

•

•

i

S

a

0

0

O U ).. ' 0 er ) 0 '. .4 0 ' 0c

N NIf l 0 4 N NçJ

0

*

*

0

. . . i no 4 C

0t ne i n N N i n i n

U )

I n

-

•

.

.

C O

i nU) O U ).C N O

1 )4

U ) Cv •

( ‚ 4 CO O

5

C C

•

•

.

•

.

•

•

s

• .

e

.

s

•

.

,

i n c ( $ )

:

•

•

.

n N

4

4 U )

) ' U C

•

.

' CN

•

U )N N

U ) U ) U ) U ) N

4 U )

Ø N

U ) N-

N

1 f l0 ' C a .

NP - ,

5

.

5

0

0

0

5

*

5

5

•

•

•

5

•

•

•

•

•

•

.

•

' C ) U0' N N U ).C C ' N N N N N N N N U )J N U )NU ) N —

C o o

a

U )0 ' O — Nr ) 4u).O N ' —

_

N a

2 53

,, —

—

C AMBRIDGE M ONOGRAPHS I N A FRICAN A RCHAEOLOGY G eneral E ditor J ohn A lexander, M .A ., P h.D ., F .S.A . D ept. A rchaeology, D owning S treet C ambridge C B2 3 DZ, E ngland M anuscripts s hould b e s ubmitted t o D r. A lexander i n t he f irst i nstance. T itles a lready p ublished: 1 .

2 .

' The N iger D elta : A spects N wanna N zewunwa. B AR-575.

o f

i ts

C ulture ' b y

' Prehistoric I nvestigations i n t he R egion o f J enne , M ali ' b y S usan K eech M cIntosh a nd R oderick J . M cIntosh .

3 .

P rehistoric E conomy a nd

B AR-S89.

' Off-Site A rchaeology a nd H uman A daptation i n E astern A frica: A nalysis o f R egional A rtefact D ensity i n t he A mboseli , b y R obert F oley . B AR-597.

A n

S outhern K enya '

4 .

' Later P leistocene C ultural A daptations i n S udanese N ubia ' b y Y ousif M ukhtar e l A min . B AR-5114.

5 .

' Settlement

P atterns

i n t he

I nterpretation ' b y M artin H all.

I ron A ge o f

Z ululand:

A n E cological

B AR-S119.

6 .

' The N eolithic P eriod i n t he S udan , M ohammed- Mi • B AR-S139.

c . 6 000

7 .

' H istory a nd E thnoarchaeology i n E astern N igeria :

2 500 B .C . ' b y A bbas S .

-

A S tudy o f I gbo-Igala

r elations w ith s pecial r eference t o t he A nambra V alley ' b y P hilip A digwe O guagha a nd A lex I kechukwu O kpoko. B AR-S195. 8 .

' Meroitic S ettlement i n t he C entral S udan : N ile V alley a nd S 197.

9 .

' Economy a nd

1 0.

' Frontiers :

i n

t he

L ate

S tone

A ge

S outhern A frican A rchaeology T oday '

' The L atest

S outhern N atal ' b y

e d . M . H all ,

S tone A ge o f

G . A very ,

B AR-S207 .

' Archaeology a nd H istory i n S outhern N igeria: e arthworks o f B enin a nd I shan ' b y P .J . D arling .

1 2.

o f

B AR-

B AR-S201.

D .M . A very , M .L . W ilson a nd A .J .B . H umphreys . 1.

S ites i n t he

t he W estern B utana ' b y K hidir A bdelkarim A hmed .

T echnology

C harles C able.

A n A nalysis o f

T he a ncient l inear

B AR-S215 .

S outhernmost A frica ' b y J anette D eacon .

B AR-

S 213. 1 3 .

' F isher-Hunters

a nd N eolithic P astoralists

J ohn W ebster B arthelme.

B AR-S254.

i n E ast T urkana ,

K enya ' b y

1 4.

' The A rchaeology o f C entral D arfur ( Sudan ) i n t he i st M illennium A .D . ' b y I brahim M usa M ohammed . B AR-S285 .

1 5.

' S table C arbon I sotopes a nd P rehistoric D iets i n t he S outh-Western C ape P rovince, S outh A frica' b y J udith S ealy . B AR-S293.

1 6.

' L 'art r upestre p réhistorique d es m assifs c entraux s ahariens ' b y A lfred M uzzolini . B AR-S318 .

1 7.

' Spheroids

a nd

B attered

S tones

A ge' b y P amela R . W illoughby .

i n t he A frican E arly a nd M iddle S tone B AR-S321.