Soils and Archaeology: Papers of the 1st International Conference on Soils and Archaeology, Százhalombatta, Hungary, 30 May – 3 June 2001 9781841715315, 9781407325682

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOILS - ANTHROPOGENIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
TEMPORAL VALUES IN A UNIVERSE OF TURBATIONS Application of the OCR Carbon Dating Procedure in Archaeological Site Formational Analyses and Pedogenic Evaluations
A METHOD FOR MEASURING THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SOFT TISSUE DECOMPOSITION IN SOIL
DETERIORATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIAL IN SOIL (BRONZE, IRON AND BONE)
THE FORMATION OF PODZOLIC SOILS IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL LANDSCAPES IN WESTERN SIBERIA
LATE NEOLITHIC FARMERS AND SOILSCAPE IN NORTHERN SARDINIA (ITALY)
AN OVERVIEW OF THE SPATIAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE GEELBEK DUNES, WESTERN CAPE, SOUTH AFRICA
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CALCRETES AND PALEOSOLS ON ANCIENT DUNES OF THE WESTERN CAPE, SOUTH AFRICA, AS STRATIGRAPHIC MARKERS AND PALEOENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS
USE OF PREHISTORIC HUMAN CONSTRUCTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF PEDOGENESIS
INVESTIGATION OF AN ENEOLITHIC CHAMER-GROUP DITCHSYSTEM NEAR RIEKOFEN (BAVARIA) WITH ARCHAEOLOGICAL, GEOPHYSICAL AND PEDOLOGICAL METHODS
REMAINS OF THE MEDIEVAL CANAL SYSTEMS IN CARPATHIAN BASIN
SOILS AND ENVIRONMENT OF THE BRONZE AGE TELL IN SZÁZHALOMBATTA
SLOPE TERRACING AS AN EXAMPLE OF EARLY MEDIEVAL LANDSCAPE EXPLOITATION AND TRANSFORMATION IN PIEDMONTS OF THE NORTH CAUCASUS

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BAR S1163 2003

Soils and Archaeology

FÜLEKY (Ed.)

Papers of the 1st International Conference on Soils and Archaeology, Százhalombatta, Hungary, 30 May – 3 June 2001

SOILS AND ARCHAEOLOGY

Edited by

György Füleky

BAR International Series 1163 B A R

2003

ISBN 9781841715315 paperback ISBN 9781407325682 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841715315 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

TABLE OF CONTENTS Magnetic properties of soils - anthropogenic and environmental aspects Aleš Kapička and Eduard Petrovský ........................................................................ 1 Temporal values in a universe of turbations application of the OCR Carbon dating procedure in archaeological site formational analyses and pedogenic evaluations Douglas S. Frink ...................................................................................................... 5 A method fot measuring the effect of temperature on soft tissue decomposition in soil David Carter and Mark Tibbett ................................................................................ 13 Deterioration of archaeological material in soil (bronze, iron and bone) Anders G. Nord and Kate Tronner .......................................................................... 17 The formation of podzolic soils in archaeological landscapes in Western Siberia Irina Korkina and Galina Makhonina ....................................................................... 23 Late Neolithic farmers and soilscape in Northern Sardinia (Italy) Giovanni Boschian ................................................................................................. 29 An overview of the spatial archaeology of the Geelbek Dunes, Western Cape, South Africa Andrew W. Kandel, Peter Felix-Henningsen and Nicholas J. Conard ....................... 37 The Significance of Calcretes and Paleosols on Ancient Dunes of the Western Cape, South Africa, as Stratigraphic Markers and Paleoenvironmental Indicators Peter Felix-Henningsen, Andrew W. Kandel and Nicholas J. Conard ...................... 45 Use of prehistoric human constructions fot the study of pedogenesis Loit Reintam ........................................................................................................... 53 Investigation of an Eneolithic Chamer-group ditchsystem near Riekofen (Bavaria) with archaeological, geophysical and pedological methods N. Schleifer, J.W.E. Fassbinder, W.E. Irlinger and H. Stanjek ................................. 59 Remains of the medieval canal systems in Carpathian Basin K. Takács – Gy. Füleky .......................................................................................... 65 Soils and environment of the Bronze Age tell in Százhalombatta György Füleky ....................................................................................................... 79 Slope terracing as an example of early medieval landscape exploitation and transformation in piedmonts of the North Caucasus I.V. Turova, M.A. Bronnikova and O.A. Chichagova ................................................. 95 i

ii

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF SOILS - ANTHROPOGENIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS Aleš KAPIČKA and Eduard PETROVSKÝ

Abstract: Magnetic properties of soils are controlled by presence of ferrimagnetic minerals. Basic magnetic properties of soil minerals are presented and possible mechanisms of magnetic enhancement of soils due to increased concentrations of secondary ferimagnetic minerals are discussed. Effect of atmospherically deposited anthropogenic particles is demonstrated on soil profiles. Key words: soil magnetism, anthropogenic ferrimagnetics.

INTRODUCTION

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Magnetic properties of soils reflect the complex magnetic behavior of different soil minerals present. The diamagnetic components of the soil include e.g. quarz, orthoclase, calcium carbonate, organic matter and water. Many of soil minerals are paramagnetic (olivine, pyroxene, garnet, biotite and iron carbonate ). The main magnetic minerals in soil we are dealing with are ferrimagnetic and imperfect antiferrimagnetic. Magnetic properties of soils depend largely on these minerals in spite of the fact that they make up only a few percent of volume of soils. These minerals include Fe-oxides, Fesulphides, and oxyhydroxides. In practice it is necessary to distinguish between primary and secondary ferrimagnetic minerals in soils. As primary are considered those present in parent material, which are not affected by weathering and pedogenesis. The secondary ferrimagnetic minerals, formed in the soil horizons, differ in crystal form and size (fine and ultrafine grain assemblages) from the primary magnetic oxides present in the underlying substrate.

a) The most important magnetic minerals in soils Many minerals (e.g.olivines, pyroxenes) are paramagnetic and in soils which are iron rich but poor in ferrimagnetic minerals, paramagnetism will contribute major part of the to total soil magnetic parameters. Several canted antiferomagnetic minerals are present in the soil. Of these goethite (a-FeOOH) is the most abundant in well drained soils formed under temperature conditions and hematite (aFe2O3) is predominant in relatively drier and more highly oxidised situations. Lepidocrocite (c-FeOOH) is more restricted in its occurence and is largely confined to gleyed soils (Thompson, Oldfield, 1986). Regarding magnetic properties, ferrimagnetic soil minerals are the most important. Besides an iron sulphides such as pyrrhotite, these are iron oxides. Magnetite (Fe3O4) will occur both as a primary mineral, derived from igneous rocks and as secondary mineral formed within the soil by the different mechanisms. Maghemite (c-Fe2O3) is a secondary soil mineral formed in similar way. Table 1 lists magnetic susceptibility of some common soil minerals.

An additional important amount of strongly magnetic (secondary) particles are also formed through the high temperature combustion of fossil fuel and industrial processes. Magnetic pollutants are released into the atmosphere and accumulated in soils, contributing significantly to their magnetic properties. Present instruments and methods enable very sensitive determination of concentrations of strong ferrimagnetics in soils in the order of ppm. Therefore, simple and fast magnetic measuremens (in situ mapping) of topsoil magnetic susceptibility can be used as a proxy to determine the spatial distribution of the pollution.

b) Fe-oxides formation in soils and magnetic enhancement models Pedosphere is formed by long-lasting interaction between atmosphere, biosphere and hydrosphere on one hand and litosphere on the other. Almost all rocks contain bivalent Fe (Fe 2+) (e.g. biotite, pyroxene, amfibolite, olivine, pyrite).

Tab.1. Magnetic susceptibility (j) of various soil minerals.

olivines (Mg,Fe)2 SiO4

-8 3 -1 κ (10 m kg ) 1-130

maghemite (γ -Fe2O3)

-8 3 -1 κ (10 m kg ) 26000

pyroxenes (Mg,Fe)2Si2O6

5 - 100

lepidocrocite (γ -FeOOH)

70

hematite (α-Fe2O3)

40

magnetite (Fe3O4)

56500

goethite (α-FeOOH)

70

ferrihydrite (5Fe2O3.9H2O)

40

Mineral

Mineral

1

Soils and Archaeology Tab.2. Mechanisms for increased pedogenic magnetic content in top soil layers. Mechanism

Remarks

A) Fermentation Poorly crystalline Fe oxides→ (reduction /oxidation) → Fe3O4 / γ-Fe2O3

Probably the most important pathway mediated 2+ 3+ by Fe production by Fe reducting bacteria. Produces ultrafine magnetite/maghemite (1040nm)

B) Biogenic contribution Bacterial Fe3O4 in magnetotactic bacteria

Bacterial magnetosomes present in many soils but probably significance of contribution minor compared to (A) High temperature effect, degree of enhancement varying with Fe content, organic matter, temperature of burn, etc.

C) Burning α- Fe2O3 (α- FeOOH) → (reduction)→ Fe3O4 → (oxidation) → γ-Fe2O3 ( weathering end product) Dehydration of lepidocrocite γ- FeOOH → Fe3O4

o

At elevated temperatures only (> 200 C), also related to burning process

less significant comparing to the first one. 3) fire-induced magnetic oxides formed within the soils. Under higher temperature and under action of reducting gases such as carbon monoxide produced by the combustion of organic matter, finely divided Fe- oxides and hydroxides are reduced to magnetite and may subsequently be oxidized to maghemite on cooling when air enters the soil. This mechanism is point specific, but may be of considerable importance since most soils have been subject to natural or man-made fires. 4) Dehydration of lepidocrocite to maghemite. This takes place at elevated temperatures (> 200oC) and, since lepidocrocite is limited to poorly drained soils, the mechanism is likely to be restricted to local situations in which gleyed soils are subject to high temperatures.

During weathering Fe 2+ is released from these rocks (minerals) and secondary iron minerals are formed. The most important are Fe- containing clay silicates, Fe-oxides, Fe carbonates and sulphides. New Fe-oxides depends on soil forming conditions (T, moisture, pH, time) and very often precipitate on the surfaces of other minerals. During the soil development, more and more of original Fe- bearing minerals decompose and Fe is precipitated in form of pedogenic Feoxides. This process can be quantified analytically through the ratio of Fe in the oxides, commonly extracted with strong reductant sodium dithionate (Fed), to the total amount of Fe (Fet). With the age the ratio Fed/Fet gradually approaches 1 and can serve as an indicator of the maturity of a soil. In general, the highest ratio within a particular soil profile is usually found in the topsoil, reflecting the effect of organics in impeding the crystallization of Fe oxides. Iron oxides in soil have common that they are of extremely small size and/or of low crystal order. This, in combination with their low concentration, explains why they are sometimes difficult to identify.

c) Anthropogenic effect on soil magnetic properties Besides pedogenic processes surface soils may have higher susceptibility as a result of fallout from the atmosphere. Magnetite, maghemite or hematite are the iron oxides that are found in industrial fly ashes. Power plant fly-ashes have high magnetic susceptibility (j ~ 1150 x10-8 m3 kg-1) and contain some 9% of ferrimagnetic particles (Kapicka et al, 1999). Most of the magnetic fraction is present in the grain size fraction of 2-50 lm (Strzyszcz et al. 1996). This anthropogenic magnetite has a very typical morphology, mostly occuring in spherules , and their magnetic properties are quite distinct from those found in pedogenic magnetite (Fig.1). Beside combustion of fossil fuel other sources such as iron and steel works, public boilers and road traffic contribute to soil contamination by anthropogenic ferrimagnetics (Petrovský and Ellwood, 1999, Petrovský et al., 2000).

It was found in many soil profiles that magnetic susceptibility of the topsoil was generally greater than that of subsoil and of the underlying parent material. Major contribution to susceptibility comes from the clay-size fraction of the soil. Several mechanisms of magnetic enhancement of soils (summarised in Tab.2) due to increased concentration of ferrimagnetic minerals were identified (e.g. Mullins 1977, Maher and Taylor 1988, Fassbinder et al. 1990): 1) Magnetic enhancement due to in situ conversion of the weakly magnetic forms of iron oxide and hydrooxide in the soil to a strongly magnetic ultrafine magnetite or maghemite via the reduction-oxiadation cycles under pedogenic conditions. Organic matter and microbial activity is necessary in order to produce sufficiently reducting conditions for the solution of some iron. 2) biogenic contribution due to intracellular magnetite production by magnetotactic bacteria. Bacteria form distinctive chains of ultrafine magnetite crystals which are found in many soils but this mechanism is probably

Top soil layers represent natural sinks of atmospherically deposited anthropogenic contaminants. Magnetic susceptibility in soils was found to be the highest in the litter layer and in the fermentation (Of) and humic (Oh) horizons (Kapička et al., 2001).Significant increase of magnetic 2

A. Kapička and E. Petrovský: Magnetic Properties of Soils - Anthropogenic and Environmental Aspects

k (x10-5 SI) 0

10

20

30

40

0

L-F 5 10

Ah

15

depth (cm)

E 20 25

Bh 30 35 40

Bs

45 50

Fig.1. Anthropogenic ferrimagnetic particle isolated from top soil layer.

Fig.2. Enhanced top soil magnetic susceptibility due to anthropogenic input.

References

susceptibility was observed in depths between 4-6 cm under the surface. In deeper layers, in particular in B and C horizons, magnetic susceptibility was considerably lower (Fig.2). Further laboratory investigations of soil samples confirm that top soil horizons are dominated by coarse-grained magnetically soft magnetite-like phase (Kapička et al., 2001).

Fassbinder, J.W.E., Stanjek, H., Vali, H. 1990. Occurence of magnetic bacteria in soil. Nature, 343, 161-163. Kapička, A., Petrovský, E., Ustjak, S., Macháčková, K. 1999. J.Geochem. Explor. 66, 291-297. Kapička, A., Petrovský, E., Jordanova, N., Podrázský, V. 2001. Magnetic parameters of forest top soils in Krkonose Mountains. Phys.Chem.Earth , 26, No11-12, 917-922.

CONCLUSION

Maher, B.A., Taylor, R.M. 1988. Formation of ultrafine- grained magnetite in soils. Nature, 336, 368-370.

Both as a descriptive tool in routine survey and soil profile description, and as an analytical technique in studies of soilforming processes, magnetic measurements are able to complement and precede standard geochemical methods. They are capable of detecting changes in magnetomineralogy and grain size at concentrations below the detection limits of conventional methods. The conservation of magnetic properties and their diagnostic value also makes them of great interest in fossil soils and archaelogical studies. Magnetic analysis of modern soils can be used as a reletively simple method for mapping the degree of anthropogenic pollution.

Mullins, C.E. 1977. Magnetic susceptibility of the soil and its significance in soil science – a review. Journal of Soil Sci., 28, 223-246. Petrovský, E., Ellwood, B.B. 1999. Magnetic monitoring of airland and water-pollution. In:Quaternary Climates, Environments and Magnetism (B.A.Maher, R.Thompson Eds.), Cambridge Univ.Press. Petrovský, E., Kapička, A., Jordanova, N., Knab, M. and Hoffmann, V. 2000. Low-field magnetic susceptibility: a proxy method of estimating increased pollution of different environmental systems, Environmental. Geology, 39, (3-4), 312- 318, Thompson, R.,Oldfield, F.1986. Environmental magnetism, Allen & Unwin London Strzyszcz, Z., Magiera, T., Heller, F. 1996. The influence of industrial imissions on the magnetic susceptibility of soils in Upper Silesia. Stud.Geoph. Geod., 40, 276-286.

Acknowledgements This study was supported by Grant Agency of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic through grant No. A3012905/1999 and Grant Agency of the Czech Republic through grant No. 205/00/1349. Geophysical Institute Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic 141 31 Prague 4 Czech Republic Tel: +420-2-67103 341, E- mail: [email protected] 3

Soils and Archaeology

4

TEMPORAL VALUES IN A UNIVERSE OF TURBATIONS Application of the OCR Carbon Dating Procedure in Archaeological Site Formational Analyses and Pedogenic Evaluations Douglas S. FRINK

Abstract: Soils, and the archaeological sites contained within them, are not static receptacles of artifacts and information from the past. Instead, they are the products of human and natural processes that have evolved beyond the event of origin into the present observed phenomenon. Understanding this evolution into the present is critical for contextualizing pedologic data for archaeological interpretations. The recently developed Oxidizable Carbon Ratio (OCR) procedure provides accurate and precise age estimates for organic carbon within aerobic soil contexts. The OCR procedure calculates age estimates based on the biochemical changes of organic carbon within pointspecific spatial and environmental contexts. Analyses of large-scale cultural turbations, such as mounds and other monumental earthworks, provide pedogenic ages for the commencement, intermediate stages, and termination of construction. Furthermore, data obtained from the OCR procedure reveals the autopoietic nature of soils as complex, dynamic systems providing for a physiological, rather than anatomical, description of pedogenic processes. Keywords: Autopoiesis, Pedogenesis, Oxidizable Carbon Ratio (OCR), Soil Physiology

Soils and the archaeological sites contained within them are not static receptacles of artifacts and information from the past. Instead, they are the product of human behavior and natural processes that have evolved beyond the event of origin into the present observed phenomenon. Cultural and natural turbations affect definable patterns of pedogenesis and the associations of artifacts signifying past human behavior (Butzer and Hansen 1968; Shlemon 1978). Soil is an evolving system, open relative to energy, but closed organizationally. It is constantly undergoing chemical and physical changes (Johnson and Hole 1994; Johnson et al. 1990; Johnson and Watson-Stegner 1987, 1990), unique to each soil body, and dependent on its interaction with its specific environment. An understanding of the processes of soil growth and evolution allows for the interpretation of the physical and temporal context of the archaeological deposits.

of mineral soils into clays (Malla and Komarneni 1989; Mulder and van Veen 1968), and the eluviation of these clays from the A and E horizons (zones of eluviation) into the B horizon (zone of illuviation) (Birkeland 1984). Stone lines are described as resulting from biomechanical, or bioturbational, events (Johnson 1992). Argillic and stoneline horizons will develop within the lower reaches of the B horizon; the boundary of both the biochemically and biomechanically active soils, and effectively describe the lower spatial limit on the domain of pedogenic processes (Birkeland 1984; Cremaschi and Busacca 1994). Surface vegetation (biosphere) may be thought of as providing the upper limit of this domain (Krumbein and Dyer 1985). In areas of extreme temperatures (both hot and cold) and limited rainfall, the soil body is challenged to produce, or maintain, this upper vegetative boundary (Dixon 1986; Dixon et al. 1984; Rundel 1978). In these areas, coarse material and/or clays are transferred upward in the profile, forming surface stonelines (patterned ground and desert pavement) and/or surface clay levels (calcrete and varnishes) (Amit et al. 1993; Chitale 1986; Dixon 1994; Dorn 1998; Mabbutt 1979; Verheye 1986; Washburn 1969).

Traditionally, soil development, or pedogenesis, has been described as the passive result of the interdependent dynamics of climate, relief, time, parent material, and biota (Dokuchaev 1967 [1898], Jenny 1941). Within this model, soil developmental processes are described according to two opposing processes: horizonation, the tendency to differentiate into separate horizons; and haploidization, the tendency of turbations to homogenize the soil (Buol et al. 1980). This bifurcation of soil processes into biochemical and biomechanical processes is more the result of competing philosophies than an inherent characteristic of the soil’s organizational design (Johnson et al. 1987; Johnson and Hole 1994, Johnson 1993). As both processes are evident in all soils, it is more productive to view them as manifestations of the inter-independent subprocesses of the soil’s organization. Particle size differentiation, culminating in the development of argillic horizons and stone lines, is one such subprocess of organization found in soils. The genesis of the argillic (clay) horizon follows a process of biochemical weathering

The concurrent development of both biochemical and biomechanical soil horizons that effectively set limits on the domain of pedogenic processes indicates an actively autopoietic, or self-organizing, system (Phillips 1995). Autopoiesis defines a living system as a network of production processes in which the function of each component is to participate in the production or transformation of other components in the network (Maturana and Varela 1980). Pedogenic processes, in addition to the example of textural differentiation occuring within this defined domain, include the oxidation of organic carbon, 5

Soils and Archaeology

evolution of soil. The OCRDATE is determined through a systems formula that empirically adjusts for biological influences resulting from oxygen, moisture, temperature, carbon concentration, texture, and the soil reactivity (Frink 1994). Residual influences on this system are included through a statistically derived constant. Dorn et al. (2001) independently verified the general OCR procedure of Frink (1992, 1994).

development of structure, weathering of clays and sesquioxides from mineral sediments, occlusion and fixation of phosphates and nitrates and other organic derived material, expulsion of wastes such as CO2, NH4, and various salts and metals (either as evolved gases or as leachates), and many others, which together define and create the soil. These various process are essentially metabolic, describing the production and transformation components of the soil network. The objects of study in archaeology are coarse particles (artifacts), which are being affected by the metabolic processes of the soil.

In summary, the OCR Carbon Dating procedure describes physiological processes of the soil bodies and their effect on taphonomy of artifacts and occluded ecofacts. Variables in the OCR formula describe related production processes in soil networks that participate in the autopoietic production or transformation of soil bodies. Close interval sampling along a vertical soil column helps define the archaeological and temporal contexts of artifacts and associated features. A comparison between samples in a soil column reveals certain individual processes and their relation to, and participation with, other pedogenic processes. Comparison of soil textures between samples shows evolving stone lines (coarse particles) and incipient argillic horizons (fine particles). Soil reactivity (pH), total organic carbon and the OCR RATIO describe consumption, digestion, and waste elimination processes.

OCR CARBON DATING: A PROCEDURE FOR CHARACTERIZING THE AUTOPOIETIC PHYSIOLOGY OF SOIL The OCR Carbon Dating procedure is an experimental approach that measures site-specific rates of biodegredation of organic carbon, either as soil humic material or as charcoal (Frink 1992, 1994). The effect of biochemical degradation is measured by the OCRRATIO, a ratio of the total organic carbon to the readily oxidizable carbon in the soil. Put another way, the pool of readily oxidizable carbon decreases at a greater rate than the total organic carbon through time. The OCR procedure assumes that carbon compounds change and evolve through a set of processes usually called organic matter diagenesis. The foundation of the OCR procedure rests on differential rates of biochemical degradation — varying within specific physical and environmental contexts of soil samples. For example, Lichtfouse et al. (1995) found distinct pools of soil carbon with humic acids having a faster turnover rate than bulk organic carbon, which in turn have a faster turnover rate than humin. Some organic substances in soils and sediments are lost rapidly, while others undergo such a longterm turnover that they become “molecular fossils” (Lichtfouse 2000).

Human occupation alters the pedogenic processes of a soil through the introduction of additional organic matter (middens), pH change due to excessive acid or base loading, coarse particles (artifacts), and activities (both physical and chemical) that increase the weathering of clays from the surface or near surface mineral soils through physical abrasion and removal of the protective vegetative boundary. Immediately after deposition, these materials leave the cultural sphere and enter the pedological sphere, where they are further altered (both chemically and physically) by the soil’s metabolic processes. Such turbational events remain evident in the soil profile as incipient evolving stone lines, argillic horizons, and uncharacteristic (when compared to the normal trend of the simple soil profile described above) values for pH and total organic carbon.

The OCR Carbon Dating procedure differs epistemologically from radiometric carbon dating procedures. Radiometric carbon dating relies on a closed system. The dating procedure measures the radioactive decay of carbon-14 atoms through a purely physical process — entropy. The OCR procedure relies on an open system, where some organic carbon is lost rapidly through a fast turnover rate while other types of organic carbon have much slower turnover rates. Thus, the OCRDATE is not a direct measure of an intrinsic characteristic of the soil organic carbon. Rather, the procedure offers a way to model the dynamic and nonlinear soil system (an open system) through time, and the relative reactivity of soil organic carbon within that system. Dynamic systems resist entropy by organizing and maintaining themselves at a distance far from equilibrium. The OCR procedure describes an evolving pedogenic system.

Human occupation may further disrupt the pedogenic processes of a soil through the construction of monumental earthen architecture such as mounds, ramparts, and platforms. In these cases, soil is removed from its original pedogenic context and piled up in a chaotic fashion as sediments (fill), which immediately resume the process of pedogenesis as a new soil body, beginning at its interface with the atmosphere and subsequent biosphere. Beneath this new soil lies the now buried original soil, which being deprived of fresh organic carbon and oxygen, ceases its metabolic processes. The buried soil will remain dormant (pedogenically static) until the evolving pedogenic front from the overlying surface soil reaches it. At that time, the overlying soil body’s metabolic processes incorporate the buried soil, thus reorganizing it according to the new soil’s physiology (Frink and Dorn, n.d., Frink and Perttula, 2001)

The OCR procedure takes an empirical approach to measuring the flow and stabilization of soil carbon by accounting for known and measurable variables influencing pedogenic

The OCR procedure is used to describe and interpret the construction, development and age of several types of turbational features common to archaeological sites. Data 6

D.S. Frink: Temporal Values in a Universe of Turbations

from studies in Western Australia (Harrison and Frink, 2000), Southern (Saunders, et al. 1997) and Northern (Frink and Fahy, 1997) USA, and the Eastern Czech Republic (Frink, et al., in prep.) are presented, demonstrating the autopoietic nature and physiology of soils, and the utility of the OCR procedure for interpreting soils at archaeological sites.

Table 2 presents the raw data from the OCR analyses of the soil colum. The location of the four midden features from which the 14C and OCR samples were obtained half-tone highlighted. The OCR dates show a consistent depth-age sequence. The pedogenic metabolization processes are revealed by the fully highlighted cells of related % Organic Carbon, pH and texture values. The stratigraphic location of the midden soils within aggrading — non pedogenic — deposits suggest occupation only during wet climatic extreme periods. Ethnographic accounts support this pattern for rock shelter occupations only during the wet season.

Wilinyjibari, Western Australia The Wilinyjibari Rock Shelter is a low granite overhang located approximately 90 km southeast of Halls Creek in Western Australia. The site is located within the floodplain of a small, seasonally active water course. Blind-test comparisons between 14C and OCR analyses were conducted in 1999 on midden features within the alluvial deposits. Although one of the 14C dates (Wk 7464) yeilded results which could only be interpreted as modern, in a strong correlation is demonstrated between the results obtained through the two procedures (Table 1).

Mounds An examination of OCR data on soils from Mound B from the Watsons Brake site in Louisiana demonstrate mound physiology and its implications for taphonomic assessments. Blind-test comparisons between 14C, Thermoluminescence,

Table 1: Comparison between 14C and OCR Dates (Harrison and Frink 2000). 14

C Lab Code

Wk 6644 WK 7464 Wk 6645 Wk 6646

YBP 1950 14C Date 230 + 80 Modern 2100 + 140 2420 + 170

Calibrated BP Maximum 470 300 2400 2850

Calibrated BP Minimum -10 0 1700 2000

OCRDATE Lab Code ACT 3610 ACT 3615 ACT 3625 ACT 3629

YBP 1950 OCRDATE 215 + 6 417 + 12 2190 + 65 2797 + 83

Table 2: Raw OCR data shoing the four position of four primary middens (half-tone), and the related variables indicating pedogenic events in active stable soils (full-tone). Soil pH Depth 1 3.25 4.25 5 5 5.25 7.25 7.5 7.5 7.75 10.5 12 13.5 14 16.5 22 30.25 33 35 40.5 41.75 43 46.75 48.5 51 56.5 64.5 69

6.4 6.9 6.7 6.9 7.3 7.2 7.1 7.4 7 7.1 7.4 7 6.9 7.2 7.3 7.3 7.3 6.4 4.9 6.1 4.9 5.4 5.7 4.7 5.8 5.3 4.4 4.4

% Organic Carbon (LOI) 0.658 0.71 0.66 0.745 0.766 1.091 2.423 1.083 0.789 1.069 0.935 1.328 2.365 0.933 1.244 1.443 1.1 1.075 0.726 0.847 0.791 0.738 0.686 0.543 0.754 0.66 0.673 0.609

Ocr Very Coarse Medium Fine Date Coarse 113 171 167 184 189 198 215 253 284 223 367 384 417 445 573 598 868 956 1088 1398 1638 1674 1964 2190 2289 2797 3561 3990

3.53 3.43 5.77 4.21 2.79 2.11 3.12 4.66 4.79 4.55 4.09 7.34 5.20 5.53 3.41 3.50 4.43 6.63 8.87 5.88 5.05 9.86 5.98 7.51 6.51 4.93 10.74 13.11

19.81 19.77 27.17 23.63 16.51 11.89 13.19 17.10 24.92 21.59 17.33 35.21 24.08 18.12 16.56 14.17 13.94 18.45 23.00 16.34 18.62 20.50 23.07 23.97 19.92 19.63 18.43 27.10

28.69 24.86 28.08 25.97 24.40 21.86 19.04 22.96 27.95 24.58 24.01 28.07 26.43 24.08 21.75 20.82 19.61 19.85 21.00 19.33 20.80 19.54 20.30 21.74 20.32 21.84 20.034 20.09

18.89 19.47 16.35 19.01 21.65 24.14 22.15 21.70 18.35 18.92 21.43 13.03 17.41 21.33 21.82 21.46 20.83 18.89 18.54 21.37 20.92 18.36 19.94 18.83 21.83 20.77 20.38 16.14

7

Very Fine 14.03 15.25 11.15 13.64 17.06 21.31 20.09 16.78 12.86 14.15 17.23 7.32 12.06 16.86 19.14 17.83 19.29 17.15 15.00 19.96 17.98 16.14 16.25 14.98 16.06 17.65 16.21 11.60

% Coarse Fine Sample Oxidizable OCR Silt Silt Id Carbon Ratio (WB) 8.64 6.40 3604 0.11 5.98 8.26 8.98 3606 0.27 2.63 5.95 5.54 3609 0.37 1.78 6.63 6.91 3607 0.51 1.46 8.74 8.84 3608 0.495 1.55 9.99 8.70 3605 0.63 1.73 9.77 12.65 3610 1.105 2.19 7.69 9.12 3611 0.53 2.04 6.21 4.93 3612 0.33 2.39 7.38 8.83 3626 0.74 1.44 7.49 8.43 3613 0.49 1.91 3.61 5.41 3614 0.68 1.95 6.11 8.71 3615 1.08 2.19 7.82 6.26 3616 0.605 1.54 9.09 8.23 3617 0.59 2.11 9.20 13.01 3618 1.15 1.25 9.93 11.97 3619 0.61 1.80 9.80 9.24 3620 0.475 2.26 7.90 5.69 3622 0.23 3.16 10.23 6.89 3621 0.33 2.57 9.35 7.28 3623 0.26 3.04 8.57 7.04 3624 0.3 2.46 8.77 5.69 3627 0.255 2.69 7.69 5.28 3625 0.25 2.17 8.51 6.85 3628 0.23 3.28 8.92 6.26 3629 0.22 3.00 8.60 5.61 3630 0.21 3.20 6.47 5.49 3631 0.18 3.38

Midden level

Midden

Midden

Midden Midden

Soils and Archaeology

and OCR dating procedures were also conducted in 1997 (Table 3).

Table 4 displays the pedogenic metabolization processes as demonstrated by the highlighted related % Organic Carbon,

Table 3: Comparison between 14C, OSL, and OCR Dates (Saunders, et al., 1997). 14

Stage 1 Mound

C Lab Code

YBP 1950 14 C Date

Calibrated BP Maximum

Calibrated BP Minimum

YBP 1950 OSL Date

OCRDATE Lab Coade

YBP 1950 OCRDATE

B 80792

4660 + 110

5606

5034

5538 + 936

ACT 1570

5236 + 157

Table 4: Raw OCR data with related variables indicating pedogenic events in active stable soils (highlighted). % Soil Organic pH Depth Carbon (LOI) 10 4.5 1.391 15 4.3 0.837 20 4.3 0.79 25 4.3 0.643 30 4.3 0.521 35 4.2 0.454 40 4.3 0.367 45 4.2 0.37 50 4.2 0.784 55 3.9 0.829 60 3.9 0.792 65 4.2 0.893 70 4.1 0.532 75 4.2 0.399 80 4.4 0.495 85 4.5 1.109 90 4.4 1.009 95 4.3 1.117 100 4.2 1.395 105 4.1 1.628 110 4.3 1.388 115 4.5 1.633 120 4.6 0.954 125 4.3 1.51 130 4.4 1.709 135 4.5 1.693 140 4.6 1.91 145 4.7 2.021 150 4.7 2.413 155 4.7 1.819 160 4.8 0.919 165 4.9 0.753 170 5 0.624 175 5 1.06 180 5.1 1.132 185 5.2 1.459 190 5.3 1.708 195 5.4 1.737 200 5.6 1.827 205 5.9 1.618 210 5.9 1.562 215 5.9 1.519 220 5.9 1.439 225 5.9 1.956 230 6 1.52 235 6.3 1.796 240 6.4 1.649 245 7 2.021 250 7 2.421

Ocr Very Coarse Medium Fine Date Coarse

Very Coarse Fine Fine Silt Silt

1554 2658 3959 4313 4700 5236 5936 5855 5889 5706 5685 5658 5577 5765 5780 6282 6290 5736 5567 5568 5458 5524 5502 5537 5479 5460 5439 5402 5468 5479 5643 5590 5736 5441 5414 5359 5377 5364 5362 5349 5351 5358 5332 5325 5321 5363 5364 5284 5723

40.77 40.67 39.82 41.64 45.84 44.84 47.87 49.99 49.03 46.48 37.74 32.89 31.69 35.67 42.22 53.91 54.60 54.04 46.67 49.81 50.31 45.78 51.80 48.92 42.73 40.23 39.51 37.13 39.45 44.16 54.37 56.86 60.60 56.88 56.78 50.50 52.02 48.94 53.30 51.82 52.38 52.82 53.45 53.02 51.98 50.39 56.36 38.35 37.21

2.96 5.00 1.57 .82 1.10 1.94 4.75 1.17 .20 .90 2.86 3.19 6.78 3.84 2.86 .54 . .31 .72 .53 4.03 1.08 .74 2.14 .75 1.17 .57 .89 4.02 .33 .672 .30 .24 1.40 .84 3.86 1.01 2.68 .85 2.25 4.32 1.94 7.49 2.81 1.61 1.95 .42 2.20 6.51

.92 .97 .82 .84 .72 .85 .90 1.06 .92 1.12 1.38 2.75 2.48 3.24 1.62 .53 .28 .31 .70 .53 .48 .40 .52 .61 .60 .52 .57 .42 .32 .33 .17 .21 .24 .42 .37 .39 .36 .32 .54 1.98 2.18 1.91 1.62 1.94 1.36 1.88 1.27 2.44 2.13

4.70 4.31 4.32 4.57 4.44 4.59 3.73 4.17 4.02 4.99 6.17 11.76 12.08 14.33 8.67 3.74 1.68 2.15 2.79 1.68 1.63 1.58 1.84 1.45 1.66 1.33 1.24 1.53 1.23 1.64 2.12 2.36 3.11 2.78 2.14 1.75 1.46 2.22 2.28 3.49 4.16 4.08 3.56 4.02 3.66 3.21 3.36 7.45 7.64

13.75 13.53 13.75 14.19 14.49 14.52 13.57 15.08 14.01 15.93 19.37 33.73 31.24 28.32 22.92 16.55 13.22 13.65 13.53 9.71 9.43 7.35 7.60 6.81 6.45 6.09 5.38 5.52 5.62 6.90 10.21 10.77 14.38 11.55 10.82 6.91 7.87 7.17 7.99 12.63 11.25 10.77 11.23 9.55 10.35 9.82 11.11 17.16 14.20

8

10.41 10.48 12.15 11.50 10.26 11.19 11.40 10.89 13.32 14.48 15.38 9.29 9.96 7.75 14.75 14.03 16.52 18.46 17.11 17.94 15.90 20.75 15.43 16.37 16.27 13.99 12.59 13.93 12.44 15.29 14.39 13.77 10.89 12.35 13.22 13.38 14.07 14.44 13.21 12.09 13.15 14.80 11.51 17.09 14.47 14.22 14.21 10.65 10.19

26.48 25.04 27.57 26.45 23.15 22.07 17.77 17.63 18.49 16.11 17.10 6.38 5.75 6.86 6.96 10.71 13.70 11.08 18.48 19.80 18.21 23.06 22.07 23.70 31.54 36.67 40.13 40.57 36.92 31.36 18.07 15.73 10.55 14.61 15.83 23.21 23.22 24.23 21.83 15.75 12.56 13.68 11.15 11.57 16.57 18.54 13.26 21.75 22.12

% Sample Oxidizable OCR Id Carbon Ratio (WB) 1575 0.56 2.48 1574 0.3 2.79 1573 0.26 3.04 1572 0.16 4.02 1571 0.13 4.01 1570 0.09 5.04 1569 0.06 6.12 1568 0.07 5.29 1567 0.1 7.84 1566 0.14 5.92 1565 0.14 5.66 1564 0.13 6.87 1563 0.12 4.43 1562 0.07 5.70 1561 0.08 6.19 1560 0.07 15.84 1559 0.07 14.41 1558 0.15 7.45 1557 0.25 5.58 1556 0.28 5.81 1555 0.34 4.08 1554 0.31 5.27 1553 0.25 3.82 1552 0.29 5.21 1551 0.39 4.38 1550 0.42 4.03 1549 0.495 3.86 1548 0.59 3.43 1547 0.46 5.25 1546 0.39 4.66 1545 0.16 5.74 1544 0.16 4.71 1543 0.1 6.24 1542 0.29 3.66 1541 0.34 3.33 1540 0.52 2.81 1539 0.52 3.28 1538 0.55 3.16 1537 0.56 3.26 1536 0.51 3.17 1535 0.48 3.25 1534 0.47 3.23 1533 0.49 2.94 1532 0.65 3.01 1531 0.61 2.49 1530 0.49 3.67 1529 0.465 3.55 1528 0.85 2.38 1527 0.76 3.19

D.S. Frink: Temporal Values in a Universe of Turbations

that were created prior to bedrock quarrying,. Quarry spoil piles are essentially mounds, and the pedogenic physiology is the same.

pH and texture values. Postabandonment biochemical pedogenesis, or soil growth, in the upper portions of the mound extends into the upper regions of the concurrently developing B horizon. OCRDATEs obtained from the B horizon reflect the maximum depth of biochemical degradation as defined by the concurrent boundary formations exhibited by incipient argillic and stoneline formation.

The relationships in the raw data (Table 5) used in the OCR analyses suggest four pedogenic events, the upper three event signatures can be correlated with 1. European settlement of the area with associated land clearing and pasture use.

The age of organic carbon within nonpedogenic mound fill is expected to be older than OCRDATEs obtained from the upper B horizon, and older than, or contemporaneous with, the age of the buried original soil surface. The maximum age of fill soil will depend on depth and location of the borrow excavations.

2. And two multi-decadal drought periods documented by tree ring width in the Northeastern United States. The next lower event signature marks the maximum age of pedogenesis for the spoil mound, and the opening of the quarry. Note that this maximum age of 5533 +/-166 calendrical years BP, is statistically the same as the age of the paleosol buried by the spoil mound — 5452 +/- 164 calendrical years BP.

Note the faint indication of cultural turbation in the upper portions of the upper most pedon. The data suggest a mild turbational event at about 2656 calendrical years before present. A small scatter of Poverty Point ceramics (2500 to 3500 ybp) were recovered from the surface and upper 10 cm during excavations.

Aggraded Living Surfaces, Rmiz, Czech Republic An examination of OCR data (Table 6) on soils from Rmiz, a Late Neolithic enclosed hill-top site, located in the Moravian Valley, Czech Republic, demonstrate aggraded living surface physiology and its implications for taphonomic assessments.

Cedar Ridge Quarry, Vermont The Cedar Ridge Quarry is an aboriginal dolomite and chert quarry located in the Champlain Valley of Northern Vermont, USA. Studies were conducted under CRM evaluation of the project in 1997. To obtain an age when the quarry was first opened, OCR samples were taken from the earthen spoil piles

Nucleated habitation within earthen enclosures create a depositional environment. Organic matter in the form of food, clothing, and building material, mineral sediments in the form of clay for pottery making and daub, and stone for architectural

Table 5: Raw OCR data with related variables indicating pedogenic events in active stable soils (highlighted). % Soil Organic pH Depth Carbon (LOI) 5 3.8 3.951 10 4.1 3.682 15 4.4 3.406 20 4.4 3.385 25 4.5 2.069 30 4.4 1.615 35 4.4 1.813 40 4.4 1.663 45 4.5 1.08 50 4.5 0.901 55 4.6 0.999 60 4.4 0.905 65 4.4 0.921 70 4.3 0.801 75 4.5 0.509 80 4.4 0.473 85 4.2 0.435 90 4.4 0.356 95 4.4 0.337 100 4.8 0.616 105 5.1 0.993 110 5.6 1.379 115 6 1.407 120 6.4 3.043

Ocr Very Coarse Medium Fine Date Coarse 214 591 891 1384 2109 2890 3652 4637 5189 5588 5533 5595 5618 5611 5740 5779 5713 5598 5658 5798 5870 5598 5506 5452

.41 .45 .20 .85 .01 1.26 . . . . . . . . .03 .07 .31 5.84 6.22 4.35 2.00 .03 2.88 6.47

.31 .27 .15 .27 .19 .17 .12 .10 .03 .03 .04 .02 .03 .06 .19 .51 .89 3.01 2.45 2.02 .95 .14 2.74 7.93

.50 .57 .49 .68 .49 .33 .26 .22 .25 .22 .18 .21 .29 .25 .83 1.98 2.84 5.37 6.33 4.83 1.56 .53 1.50 6.76

7.52 7.42 7.13 7.81 7.44 6.83 7.25 6.49 7.22 7.30 6.78 7.25 7.35 7.39 8.41 10.92 12.99 13.57 17.17 21.50 4.73 1.25 3.95 20.96

9

Very Coarse Fine Fine Silt Silt 41.67 37.65 38.30 39.21 39.70 40.91 41.31 41.71 43.73 44.11 42.81 43.46 43.41 45.23 40.83 34.73 31.79 23.83 22.31 24.11 13.22 15.37 24.86 39.32

30.69 34.10 34.94 32.92 35.04 34.73 35.85 36.87 35.35 34.94 34.71 34.56 34.21 33.95 33.62 30.37 27.84 33.85 29.47 36.78 53.70 71.05 50.44 12.23

18.91 19.59 18.78 18.26 17.13 15.78 15.21 14.61 13.42 13.40 15.49 14.50 14.72 13.11 16.10 21.42 23.34 14.54 16.05 6.41 23.84 11.62 13.65 6.33

% Sample Oxidizable OCR Id Carbon Ratio (WB) 2361 1.55 2.55 2362 1.2 3.07 2363 1.14 2.99 2364 0.97 3.49 2365 0.63 3.28 2366 0.3 5.38 2367 0.33 5.49 2368 0.29 5.73 2369 0.25 4.32 2370 0.22 4.10 2371 0.27 3.70 2372 0.22 4.11 2373 0.21 4.39 2374 0.2 4.00 2375 0.12 4.24 2376 0.11 4.30 2377 0.12 3.63 2378 0.12 2.97 2379 0.1 3.37 2380 0.1 6.16 2381 0.14 7.09 2382 0.27 5.11 2383 0.23 6.12 2384 0.37 8.22

Soils and Archaeology Table 6: Raw OCR data with related variables indicating pedogenic events in active stable soils (highlighted). % Soil Organic pH Depth Carbon (LOI) 5 3.1 3.591 10 3.2 2.959 15 3.1 2.404 20 3.1 1.946 25 3.3 2.065 30 3.5 2.419 35 3.6 2.472 40 3.9 2.724 45 4 2.409 50 4.1 2.854 55 4.2 2.893 60 4.3 2.752 65 3.9 3.131 70 4.1 2.669 75 4.5 2.967 80 5.1 3.72 85 6.4 3.837 90 7 4.662 95 7.1 2.052

Ocr Very Very Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine Date Coarse Fine Silt Silt 444 1097 1764 1887 2892 3483 3872 4918 5072 5227 5385 5568 5708 5795 5951 6007 6077 6476 7374

3.61 3.71 10.12 11.90 25.92 34.30 38.94 26.94 27.88 29.26 20.52 20.54 21.45 21.11 10.18 26.95 13.52 21.13 22.35

.78 .93 1.65 2.67 3.82 4.02 3.63 3.96 3.25 2.59 3.60 2.2 4.28 3.33 3.27 3.72 1.83 4.72 4.36

.72 .93 .92 1.00 .97 .84 .84 1.02 1.25 1.31 1.52 .97 1.45 1.50 1.60 1.96 .99 4.72 3.08

.58 .66 .64 .67 .63 .57 .73 .95 1.13 1.16 .80 .83 .93 .99 .97 2.04 .87 5.56 2.28

.81 .91 .86 .76 .68 .65 .67 1.36 .98 2.25 1.02 1.47 3.00 1.12 1.90 5.37 1.55 3.70 1.64

elements and artifacts are all translocated into the enclosure. Also, the various structures within the enclosure accumulate windborn sediments as well as colluvial deposits from eroding earthworks. Over time, this aggraded landscape is evident in the stacked house floors and living surfaces.

5.68 5.97 6.31 6.10 4.58 3.48 3.69 4.69 5.10 5.02 7.04 5.92 6.04 5.12 5.19 6.95 5.74 5.29 4.30

87.81 86.89 79.50 76.90 63.39 56.15 51.50 61.08 60.41 58.42 65.51 68.03 62.85 66.84 76.89 52.99 75.51 54.86 61.98

% Sample Oxidizable OCR Id Carbon Ratio (WB) 4155 1.3 2.76 4156 0.99 2.99 4157 0.73 3.29 4158 0.76 2.56 4159 0.55 3.75 4171 0.42 5.76 4172 0.49 5.04 4173 0.54 5.04 4174 0.54 4.46 4175 0.57 5.01 4176 0.63 4.59 4177 0.56 4.91 4178 0.725 4.32 4179 0.93 2.87 4180 0.76 3.90 4181 1.12 3.32 4182 1.21 3.17 4183 1.29 3.61 4184 0.59 3.48

Mn 11.82 24.08 17.27 14.78 24.4 32.64 35.73 33.42 30.43 31.96 24.82 25.66 23.22 23.83 15.5 23.74 4.73 7.69 38.13

Mn Ratio 0.30 0.12 0.14 0.13 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.11 0.13 0.11 0.19 0.16 0.81 0.61 0.05

Catastrophic turbations, such as construction of monumental earthen architecture, and erosion and deposition events, result in complete structural change of the dynamic pedogenic system, and subsequent to such events, a new soil is created. Such levels of turbation are evident from an anatomical perspective.

Episodes of site abandonment and/or environmental degradation of the landscape are evidenced by rapid colluvial sediment accumulation seperating pedogenically affected living surfaces. This data, from Area 3/99, is from a habitation area within enclosure 3.

On the other hand, less sever turbations, such as human land use changes and small scale settlements, and environmental events like decadal scale droughts, are anatomically invisible, as the soil body adapts to the turbation conserving its unique organizational structure. However, the effect of these turbations remain physiologically evident in the soils. Application of procedures sensitive to open system dynamics allow for such physiological analysis of the dynamic processes of pedogenics including the taphonomy of the soil itself, and the cultural material contained within the soil.

CONCLUSION Archaeologists need to consider the context of cultural material — the soil. Traditional descriptive approaches in pedology provide useful information on physical contexts of non-pedogenically active sediments, but lack the ability to provide meaningful spatio-temporal contexts in pedogenically active soils. Soil classification systems that take an anatomical approach, describe soils according to specific key horizons perceived to be the resultant of environmental factors over time. A physiological approach to soil analysis enables a dynamic perception of the interactive processes in soil development within a spatio-temporal context, and how these processes have affected the physical context of cultural material.

The soil is alive. By this I do not mean that each grain of sand has sentience; only that the soil behaves as a self regulating, autopoietic system. Artifacts recovered from the soil do not have a cultural association at the first order. Instead, artifacts have a context within the physiology of the soil itself. A failure to recognize this can easily lead to unsubstantiated conclusions. On the other hand, an understanding of the soil’s physiology can provide a direct measure of the history and age of archaeological landscape as well as the pedological context of the material remains of past cultures.

Soils may be viewed as autopoietic, self organizing, systems; open to energy but closed organizationally. An understanding these processes are necessary precursors to the development of quantitative comparisons between and among archaeological deposits. Soils are themselves artifacts of cultural and environmental events — not simply as resultants, but as affected living systems that resist, adjust, and reorganize.

OCR Carbon Dating, Inc. 57 River Road, Suite 1020 Essex Junction, Vermont, 05452 USA [email protected] 10

D.S. Frink: Temporal Values in a Universe of Turbations

References

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Amit, R., R. Gerson, and D. H. Yaalon, 1993, Stages and rate of the gravel shattering process by salts in desert Reg soils. Geoderma 57:295-324. Birkeland, P. W., 1984, Soils and Geomorphology. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Johnson, D.L., 1993, Dynamic denudation evolution of tropical, subtropical and temperate landscapes with three-tiered soils: Toward a general theory of landscape evolution. Quaternary International 17:67-78.

Buol, W., F.D. Hole, and R.J. McCracken, 1980 , Soil Genesis and Classification. 2nd ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames. Butzer, K. W., and C. L. Hansen, 1968, Desert and river in Nubia. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.

Johnson, D. L., and F. D. Hole, 1994, Soil formation theory: A summary of its principal impacts on geography, geomorphology, soil-geomorphology, Quaternary geology and paleopedology. In Factors of Soil-Formation. A fiftieth anniversary retrospective, edited by R. Amundson, pp. 111-123. Soil Science Society of America, Madison.

Chitale, J. D., 1986, Study of Petrography and Internal Structures in Calcretes of West Texas and New Mexico (Microtextures, Caliche). Thesis, Texas Tech University, Lubbock. Cremaschi, M. and A. Busacca, 1994, Deep soils on stable or slowly aggrading surfaces: Time versus climate as soil-forming factors. Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quaternaria 17:19-28.

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Johnson, D. L. and D. Watson-Stegner, 1990, The soil-evolution model as a framework for evaluating pedoturbation in archaeological site formation. In Archaeological geology of North America, edited by N. P. Lasca and J. Donahue, pp. 541-560. Geological Society of America Centennial Special Volume 4. Geological Society of America, Boulder.

Dixon, J. C., 1994, Duricrusts. In Geomorphology of desert environments, edited by A. Abrahams and A. Parsons, pp. 82105. Chapman and Hall, London. Dixon, J. C., C. E. Thorn, and R. G. Darmody, 1984, Chemical weathering processes on the Vantage Peak Nunatak, Juneau Icefield, southern Alaska. Physical Geography 5:111-131.

Johnson, D. L., E. A. Keller, and T. K. Rockwell, 1990, Dynamic pedogenesis: New views on some key soil concepts, and a model for interpreting Quaternary Soils. Quaternary Research 33:306319.

Dokuchaev, V.V., 1967 [1898] Russian Chernozem (Russkii Chernozem). In Collected Writings (Sochineniya) Vol. 3. Translated by N. Kaner. Isreal Program for Science Translations, Jerusalem. Copies available from U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, VA.

Johnson, D. L., D. Watson-Stegner, D. Johnson, and R. Schaetzl, 1987, Proisotropic and proanisotropic processes of pedoturbation. Soil Science 143:278-292.

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12

A METHOD FOR MEASURING THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SOFT TISSUE DECOMPOSITION IN SOIL David CARTER and Mark TIBBETT

INTRODUCTION

Normality was determined using Kolmogorav-Smirnov. Parametric data was analysed using independent samples Ttest and ANOVA. Nonparametric data was analysed using Mann-Whitney U and Kruskall-Wallis tests. Confidence levels were set at 95%.

Temperature is recognised as having an influence on the decomposition of soft tissue buried in soil (Rodriguez and Bass 1985, Mant 1987, Mann et al. 1990). While it is understood that temperature has an effect on soft tissue decomposition, this has never been quantified under controlled experimental conditions. The effect of temperature on soil microbial activity has been determined through the estimation of microbial respiration (Clark and Gilmour 1983, Insam et al. 1989). The purpose of this paper is to present the methods to assess aerobic tissue decomposition over time through the measurement of mass loss and microbial CO2 respiration.

RESULTS Tissue mass loss was significantly different (p0.05). Samples incubated at 22°C produced the greatest levels of CO2 while those at 2°C produced the least. In tissue-amended samples incubated at 12°C and 22°C microbial respiration peaked after 48 hours. Respiration did not peak at 2°C until after 17 days (Figure 2).

MATERIALS AND METHODS A sandy loam soil was collected from East Lulworth, Dorset, England and sieved to 5.6mm. The soil was stored in the dark for 14 days at 22°C prior to incubation. Organic Texel + Suffolk lamb (Ovis aries) was used as the human muscle tissue analogue. Tissue was taken from skeletal muscle tissue and frozen 24 hours after slaughter; it remained frozen for 7 days prior to incubation.

Each incubation temperature produced significantly different (p