Smart Building Design: Conception, Planning, Realization, and Operation [English edition] 9783035616330, 9783035616293

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Smart Building Design

Maad Bali Dietmar A. Half Dieter Polle Jürgen Spitz

Smart Building Design Conception, Planning, Realization, and Operation

Birkhäuser Basel

acknowledgements This publication is the result of many years of research into key issues relating to the digitalization of architecture at DIAL. First and foremost, our thanks go to Trägergesellschaft DIAL. e. V., which has so generously supported this book

project from the very beginning. Special thanks also go to our colleagues who helped us create the graphics. Peter Roth, Christin Kürten, Philipp Gerhardt, and Marius Bräunlich were of enormous help. But in this context we would also like to thank our external supporters, in particular Stephanie Salewski and Daniel Kloster. We also thank the clients, architects/designers, and manufacturers who helped us with the practical examples. Last but not least, our special thanks go to Katharina Kulke and Alexander Felix of Birkhäuser Publishers, who have supported this book project in such an uncomplicated and beneficial way. The authors Maad Bali, Dietmar A. Half, Dieter Polle, and Jürgen Spitz.

Authors Part 1: Smart Building Design: Dietmar A. Half Evolution of culture: Jürgen Spitz (pp. 20 – 23) Design tools: Dieter Polle (pp. 46 – 57) Part 2: Smart Building Technology: Maad Bali

Introduction 6

Smart Building Design 10 Aesthetics 11 Function and form  23 Design 35 Implementation 56 Operation 64

Smart Building Technology 68 Technical components  70 Data transfer processes  75 system architeCturE  78 Communication systems  82

Projects 89 Inout house, San JosÉ  90 Residence m, merano  96 Basilica in Waldsassen  102 DIAL corporate building, Lüdenscheid  110 ICE Q, Sölden  120 The elbphilharmonie, hamburg  128 Appendix 138

Introduction

The widespread use of the term intelligent (or smart) in the context of information technology suggests an analogy with nature, which, through a process called phylogeny, has created a wide spectrum of plants, single-celled organisms, invertebrates, and higher life-forms. It must be conceded that significant controversy exists as to whether plants, single-celled organisms, and invertebrates such as insects and worms can really be called intelligent. Nevertheless, they undoubtedly have at least the basic characteristics of intelligence found in higher life-forms. We may consider the smallest common denominator to be sense organs, which collect information that in simple life-forms is processed within the cell, and in higher sentient beings is processed via a complex central nervous system.  >  01  Images of living nature have always been a source of inspiration, particularly for artists, architects, designers, and engineers. Like the development that happens in nature, we can observe a kind of technical phylogeny toward ever more complex cybernetic systems, which ultimately leads to the issue of artificial intelligence with the integrated deployment of computer technology. The current situation within the building industry is somewhat different, however. Here, the main focus was, and continues to be, on the construction of buildings and towns that serve as static homes for people and their special forms of life. The idea of considering a building in its sculptural aspect as a (static) architectural system is not new to us; many of the greatest master builders in human cultural history were sculptors. By contrast, the idea of viewing a building as a (cybernetic) architectural system in terms of its sculptural appearance may, at first glance, seem unfamiliar and even a bit strange to us. For this reason, our focus in this book will be on a systematic approach to (1) how intelligent technologies in buildings can take meaningful shape, and (2) what modifications are required to achieve this in practical contemporary construction. The intention is to sketch out a design theory of intelligent buildings without making a claim to scientific validity, particularly inasmuch as architecture and design have always touched on the sphere of fine art and,

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for this very reason, cannot and should not be exclusively described in scientific terms.

 >  01  The human system.

Brain

Spinal cord

The following approach would appear to serve our purpose: In the first part, Smart Building Design, our emphasis will be on demonstrating why and how it makes sense to open new design opportunities for the design, implementation, and operation of buildings in order to advance, ultimately, to completely new dimensions of building. In the second part, Smart Building Technology, we will sketch out intelligent technologies in their typical technical structure within a building in order to demonstrate on what basis we can achieve new functional possibilities through the deployment of intelligent technologies. Finally, in the third part, we show the application of intelligent technology using actual project examples. Our discourse is aimed more at the breadth of the application of intelligent technologies than at the almost unfathomable depth of special technological issues, which at times seem to badly eclipse any consideration of the meaningful whole.

Introduction

central nervous

Smart Building Design

Aesthetics 11 Origins 11 Classical approaches  13 Integrated design  14 Evolution of nature ­— 15 / Evolution of culture ­— 18 Function and form  23 Application-based functions  24 Safety and security functions ­— 24 / Energy-efficiency functions ­— 25 / Comfort functions (ergonomics of the building) — ­ 29 Higher-level management functions  30 Display and operating functions (user interface)  32 Scope for design  33 Design 35 Architect/building designer  36 Integrated organization of the design of intelligent buildings ­— 37 Specialist engineer for building automation  40 Design tools  44  Necessity of interdisciplinary cooperation — ­ 44 / New forms of organization of virtual building ­— 45 / Virtual design with concrete products ­— 47 / Building Information Modeling (BIM) ­— 48 / Specialist design of building auto­ mation ­— 50 / Computer simulation of building automation ­— 52 / Building automation and BIM ­— 54 Implementation 56 Supervision by the architect / specialist engineer  56 Integrated organization of the supervision of intelligent buildings — ­ 57 / Scheduling/time management ­— 58 Building contractor/systems integrator  59 Systems integrator ­— 60 / Methodical commissioning ­— 61 Acceptance/handover 62 Documentation — ­ 63 Operation 64 Intelligent technical building management  64 Periodical audit  66

Smart Building Design “Spaceship Earth does not have any emergency exits, either for emergencies or for normal scenarios.” With this statement, Peter Sloterdijk in his oftquoted speech “How Big Is ‘Big’?” at the UN Climate Conference in Copenhagen in 2009 referred to R. Buckminster Fuller as one of the most influential design and architecture theoreticians of the twentieth century (Sloterdijk 2011, 95). In the famous Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth of 1969, Fuller sketches the earth as an object that no longer has to be understood as a natural given, but rather as an object forged by human design. As a gigantic construct, this object primarily falls under the responsibility of “planners, architects, and engineers” (Fuller 2010, 119–20).1 Fuller is seen as working naturally in an interdisciplinary manner to find constructive answers to the question of how Spaceship Earth “must be understood and operated as a whole so that it can maintain its ability to perform over the long term” (Fuller 2010, 48), so that ultimately the self-preservation mechanisms of all living beings can be mainained in a sustainable manner. There is no doubt that this notion of global interdependence of the humandesigned environment is a given today. Moreover—with the global networking of all spheres of life via intelligent technologies—the idea of a globally functioning structure has already become reality. If we intend to place the construction aspect of this structure in the sphere of responsibility of architects and engineers, we can—at this point—assume the usual division of labor, which has been established in the process of working on all essential design issues. In this scenario, architects are responsible for designing the form and content of a building; and engineers, for the technology and its application, which—as far as possible—should rest on an established scientific footing. If we ask ourselves in this section, with renewed vigor, how intelligent technologies in buildings can take meaningful shape, we cannot confine ourselves to focusing on issues of form and content. We also need to define new possibilities for how the concept, design, implementation, and operation of intelligent buildings should be organized in order to apply the scientifically based state-of-the-art technology to the greatest extent possible. Initially,

10

however, we will pursue issues of form and content, and look for a possible answer in the field of philosophical aesthetics.

Aesthetics The origin of philosophy is often summarized by the influential phrase “from mythos to logos”; it went hand in hand with the enlightened development of thought that increasingly emancipated itself from an ancient image of the world as the realm of gods and instead wanted to recognize reality in its true origin (archê) on the strength of scientific thought. In this context, the term aesthetics has its ancient origin in sensory perception. However, many ancient thinkers did not recognize any particular cognitive faculty in sensory perception. Quite the opposite: while our thoughts can penetrate to the very core of reality, they said, our sensory perception is concerned with changing appearances at the outer edge of reality, and again and again it falls victim to deception and misconception. This negating and skeptical attitude toward sensory awareness was subsequently reinforced in the Middle Ages by the dominant worldview, and remained in place well into the modern era. In the seventeenth century, René Descartes (1596–1650) assigned primary qualities to parameters, such as shape and size, according to their suitability to convey understanding, rather than to sense qualities, such as color and sound, thereby clearly assigning a lesser value to sense qualities, which he refers to as being confused and secondary. It was not until after Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) and Christian Wolff (1679–1754) that a momentous modification of this position occurred under Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten (1714–1762), who clearly and succinctly reestablished the value of sensory perception by assigning it its own cognitive value, thereby developing aesthetics as an independent discipline within the system of philosophy.

his Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth with an appeal to all designers: “Therefore, designers, architects,

Origins

and engineers—grab the initiative.

Baumgarten initially understands aesthetics as a theory of

Set to work and, above all, work

sensory cognizance in general, which, in logic, he likes to

together and do not withhold things

consider as having equal standing with, and puts side by side

from each other, and do not try to profit at the expense of the others.

with, a theory of cognitive understanding. This increase in

Any success of this kind will increas­

the value accorded sensory awareness goes hand in hand

ingly be short-lived. These are the

with the great successes of the impending scientific revolu-

synergetic laws by which evolution progresses, and which it tries to

tion of the seventeenth century, with its groundbreaking new

explain to us. These are not laws

empirical methods (observations in the field using tele-

made by man. These are the im­

scopes, microscopes, etc.). This revolution seems to clearly

mensely generous laws of intel­ lectual integrity that govern the

underline Baumgarten’s ideas: if he succeeds (1) in proving

universe.” (Fuller 2010, 119–20)

the cognitive ability of the senses in general, then it seems

smart building design — Aesthetics

1 With his eye on this task, Fuller ends

that (2) the path has been cleared to further define that specific sensory cognition that is reserved for Schöngeist, the sense of judgment inherent in the aesthete’s nature (“ingenium venustum et elegans connatum”; see Ästhetik, sections 28–46). It follows that the issue of the cognitive ability of the senses is embedded within an extensive debate, particularly between rationalism and empiricism: while rationalism posits that reason governs the cognition of reality, empiricism emphasizes experience, and hence sense perception, as being of notable importance. This debate was initially put to rest by the groundbreaking Critique of Pure Reason (KrV) of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), in which he states: “Thoughts without content are empty, intuitions without concepts are blind” (KrV B75). While up to that date the assumption had been that “all our cognition must conform to objects,” Kant posits, in a kind of Copernican Revolution of thought, that “the objects must conform to our cognition” (KrV BXVI). With this statement, Kant is saying that the (transcendental) principles constituting our cognition are inherent within ourselves—in the perceiving subject—rather than in the perceived object. Although we cannot say anything objective about the “thing in itself” (KrV B236), it is possible to analyze the subject’s conditions of knowledge. Kant makes a distinction between (1) transcendental aesthetics as a theory/science of perception in space and time and (2) transcendental logic as a theory/science of thinking in logical forms (that is to say, categories such as quantity, quality, relation, and modality).  >  02  Having said all of the above, Kant then expresses doubt as to whether the concept of transcendental aesthetics as “a science of all principles of sensuality a priori” is really possible. In a footnote (!) of the KrV, Kant concludes as follows: “The Germans are the only ones who now use the word ‘aesthetics’ to designate that which others call the critique of taste. The ground for this is a failed hope, held by the excellent analyst Baumgarten, of bringing the critical estimation of the beautiful under principles of reason.” (KrV B35) In spite of these reservations, Kant later attempted exactly this in his Critique of Judgment (KU), even though “the investigation of the appreciation of taste as aesthetic judgement […] is only undertaken with a view to the transcendental implications” (KU BIX). In this third Critique, Kant aims to mediate between nature (as object of pure reason) and freedom (as object of practical reason). The focus is on the feelings of pleasure and displeasure, for which the power of judgment enables the transition from the domain of nature to that of freedom. For Kant, the transcendental principle of the power of judgment is the idea of purposiveness, of finding nature ordered rather than chaotic. While for Kant, (1) the aesthetic idea of purposiveness is directed at beauty in art, (2) the logical idea of purposiveness is aimed at a teleology (from the Greek telos, “aim”) of organic nature (i.e., of biology), a notion we will come back to. Notwithstanding his original reservations, Kant now unfolds an idea of transcendental aesthetics and analyzes the judgment of perception in the context of its logical forms (that is to say, categories such as quantity, quality,

12

relation, and modality). He draws the following conclusion: we judge an object as being beautiful when it attracts our disinterested pleasure. It fol-

 >  02  Kant’s system

Transcendental

of cognition.

doctrine of elements

General theory of cognition

Transcendental aesthetics

Theory of perception

Transcendental logic

Theory of thought

lows that this specific feeling of pleasure associated with a beautiful object is not guided by a purpose detected in that object, but rather arises from the object’s beautiful form and its pure purposiveness as such: art is autonomous. In the wake of Baumgarten, Kant provides the essential principles of modern aesthetics, including its inherent controversies.

Classical approaches Today, the three best-known approaches to aesthetics define it as a theory (1) of sensory perception, (2) of art, or (3) of beauty. It must be said, however, that each of these definitions has certain shortcomings. For example, aesthetics as a theory of sensory cognition goes far beyond aesthetic experience, because sensory perception of aesthetic qualities appears to be a special case of sensory cognition, which may simply enable us to distinguish, for instance, a button mushroom from a chanterelle. Furthermore, not every aesthetic experience can be reduced to sensory perception unless one wants to subordinate our complex feelings when reading literature to visual perception. On the other hand, aesthetics as a theory of art seems too limited, in that aesthetic experience cannot be confined to the realm of art objects; we can also have such an experience, and powerfully so, in nature. While aesthetics principle possibilities of aesthetic experience should be subsumed under the term beauty. In his Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime (GSE) of 1764, Kant already describes two opposite poles of aesthetic experience when he states: “The sublime touches, the beautiful charms” (GSE, Section 1). Quite possibly, these two opposite poles have their origin in the linguistic double meaning of the term beautiful, and can be reduced in terms of content as well as form. Is it not true that good content rather than only beautiful form may create an aesthetic experience in us when we look, for example, at Francisco de Goya’s picture The Executions of the 3rd of May, in which he decries this inhuman shooting of his countrymen in Madrid in 1808 in an act of contemporary social criticism? So it seems fair to say, at this point, that all three classical definitions of aesthetics prove to be inadequate.

smart building design — Aesthetics

as a theory of beauty avoids this problem, there is a question as to which

Integrated design It seems that some of the inadequacies deriving from the classical positioning of aesthetics spring from its first definition by Baumgarten. It is worth taking another, closer look at what happened during the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century. While Leibniz and Wolff, for example, still largely follow the Cartesian demarcation line between primary and secondary qualities by making a distinction between mind as a higher cognitive faculty and sensory perception as a lower cognitive faculty, Baumgarten, after Leibniz and Wolff, significantly modifies this position by developing, for the first time, the notion of aesthetics as an independent discipline within the system of philosophy, hence paving the way for the modern separation of science from art.  >  03  Art has now become a special case that has been allocated to its own realm of cognition, as much as possible free from any practical application, and, primarily in the world of art academies and museums, is aimed at conveying beautiful form and/or good content. On the other hand, science emancipates itself from all implications of form and content, and then wants to dissect the laws of nature, and later also the laws of culture, into a world of objective facts and describe these accordingly. As a central source of inspiration for the later Vienna Circle, Ernst Mach (1838–1916), after whom the name of the association was registered (Verein Ernst Mach), transfers the evolutionist term adaptation to science. Its primary objective is “to adapt thoughts to the facts rather than the other way around” (Mach 1980, 164–65). Today, art and science reveal themselves to us in their truest form as two application-free poles of sensual and mental cognition, which seem to be diametrically opposed. If, however, the direction of cognition of both poles moves from pure cognition toward a center of action that, although guided by cognition, is nevertheless oriented toward application, the result of this action is the design of nature transformed by humankind.  >  04  In this modified perspective, art and science prove to be two indispensable parts of a design theory of nature/art as a whole, in the form of a living environment designed by humans. Of course, this presupposes, in principle, that we “will get closer to an account of being human that does justice to the kinds of consciousness and self-consciousness distinctive of us as cultural and not merely natural creatures” (Brandom 2000, 35). If it is intended to position design as a point of ingression (a nucleus) for an integrated theory of cognition and action in art and science, we have to ask first of all how art and science could be integrated in such a design theory.2

14



 >  03  Cognition in art (aesthetics) and science (logic). Art

Science

purely sensual

purely mental

cognition

cognition

 >  04  Design as point

Design ______

of ingression (nucleus) for an integrated theory of cognition and action. Art

Science

purely sensual cognition

purely mental Content

cognition

For the intention to act in an

application-oriented way

Evolution of nature This question invariably leads to controversial debates about the capability of contemporary science, which is currently discussing its authority to interpret nature as a whole and the role of the human species in this natural order (if such an order exists). On one side, the established program of reductionism claims authority of interpretation, as if this was an continuous self-correction and must continue to develop if it does not want to solidify in an orthodox mold. In this reductionist interpretation of the world, it is held that everything extant can be reduced to the mathematically describable laws of elementary particle physics, not only in terms of constitution but also in terms of history. History begins with the big bang. This big bang causes a huge cosmic genesis that spawns two types of development. First, there is a quantitative development, which is primarily characterized by the 2 The combination of art and science was already a key issue

expansion of the universe and its galaxies, stars, and planets.

at the Ulm School of Design

On at least one of these planets—our earth—there is, at the

(1953–1968, www.hfg-archiv.ulm.de).

same time, a twofold qualitative development taking place,

smart building design — Aesthetics

issue of ultimate truth rather than a science that is subject to

in which (a) the first primitive forms of life evolve from lifeless matter and, in accordance with the laws of evolution, develop into ever more complex living beings; and (b) each of these living beings itself undergoes a genesis that begins with birth and ends with death.  >  05  The first salient point in this history is the principle of randomness, which is meant to explain the qualitative development of the universe. This starts with the origin of life, where, accidentally, not only the essential proto-biological molecules must have formed but also an original cell capable of replication, from which, accidentally, the first life-forms then developed. History continues with the unfolding of an enormous range of life-forms caused by accidental mutations of the genetic code and/or the selection of ever-newer phenotypes. Consequently, at the end of this history, human consciousness is nothing more than a special accident of nature, which is primarily associated with the special configuration of the human central nervous system/brain. The second salient point in the reductionist history is the hope that human consciousness can be reduced not only biologically but also chemically and, in the end, even physically. Although this reductionism still enjoys a broad consensus within the orthodox scientific community, it has also been the subject of criticism in recent years by protagonists whose doubts we will now take a closer look at, focusing on the American philosopher Thomas Nagel as one of the most relevant critics. We will concentrate on a line of argument he last rolled out in Mind and Cosmos (Nagel 2012). The first doubt relates to the likelihood of the principle of randomness in the development of life and the creation of a wide range of types and concrete life-forms, including their regenerative capabilities. Even though Nagel, as a philosopher, is not inclined to share religious models of explanation, he nevertheless regards as “open” how life in all its diversity, and ultimately also the human mind, is supposed to have developed from dead matter. While Nagel declares both causal and intentional explanation models unsuitable for answering these key questions satisfactorily, he favors the ground between the two positions and suspects that a uniform type of explanation would contain “teleological elements” (Nagel 2012, 33). Essentially, Nagel posits “a […] constitutive account of how certain complex physical systems are also mental, and a historical account of how such systems arose in the universe from its beginnings” (Nagel 2012, 54). The second area of doubt centers around the question of whether the consciousness of living beings in general or the human mind in particular can be scientifically reduced. To date, this remains a more or less open fundamental philosophical problem—the so-called mind–body problem, focusing on how these two worlds interact with each other (dualism) or whether one of these could be reduced to the respective other reality (monism). More recently, there has been a reductionist attempt to describe mental proc­esses using the methods of physical science and, in particular, to try to understand these, even though the success of these methods appears to be based primarily on the fact that, from their origin, mental processes program-

16

matically play only a small role. Such an attempt would not only have to (1) describe and plausibly explain objectifiable mental entities of the human

 >  05 Evolution of model).

Quantitative development

Earth

Big Bang

Qualitative development

species in general but (2), if it wants to be considered successful, also subjective mental entities of an individual human in particular. The hope of taking this project to a successful completion lies in the now-undisputed fact that mental processes are strongly connected with neural events in the central nervous system and/or the brain. Neuroscience, and cognitive sciences in particular, pursue the reductionist project possibly “to full closure by swallowing up the mind in the objective physical reality from which it was initially excluded” (Nagel 2012, 37). Since the second half of the twentieth century, the so-called philosophy of mind has fallen into the context of this modern form of the philosophical mind–body problem. Its proponents occupy themselves essentially with the nature of mental states and their causes and effects, and, with both reductionist and antireductionist ideas, hold opposing positions. With the essay “What Is It Like to Be a Bat?” published in 1974, Nagel importantly initiated a vigorous debate on the status of so-called qualia as the subjective-experience content of mental states (such as the taste of red wine or the sound of a violin). The protagonists of antireductionist positions, like Nagel, believe that qualia present the “most conspicuous obstacle to a comprehensive naturalism that relies only on the resources of physical science” (Nagel 2012, 35). But it is not only this contentious point that appears to present a serious obstacle for reductionist positions within the philosophy of mind; there is “the coming into existence of subjective individual points of view—a type of existence logically distinct from anything describable by the physical sciences alone” (Nagel 2012, 44). Intentional states of consciousness, such as convictions, intentions, and wishes, seem to be even less likely to find a place in the physical universe when they are based on values, judgments, purposes, and goals. Finally, there seems to be virtually no chance of success for the reductionist attempt to describe and explain the features of the human living environment with the methods of physical science even though the human actions required for this clearly appear to be of a teleological nature, whereas reductionist naturalism postulates a universe with an exclusively causal nature.

smart building design — Aesthetics

nature (causal

Given that art and science, as two different forms of intelligence, represent the human species in a special way, a coherent theory must be able to describe and explain both these forms of intelligibility.  >  06  But explanation models of the natural sciences in particular appear to be just as unsuitable for this purpose as the attempt to describe and explain the contextual design of a building using the vocabulary of physics, chemistry, and biology. These explanations are either inappropriate or incomplete. One cannot assume that causal and teleological ideas complement each other unless one concedes that form-building principles are immanent in the natural order.  >  07  In this modified, secular perspective, the universe has had an inherent intelligence from its beginning, and on at least one of its planets exist not only a multitude of intelligent forms of life with different levels of complexity but also at least one intelligent species that is potentially able not only to describe and understand the intelligibility of the universe with the help of science but also to intelligently design its living environment with the help of art. Neither the architect as applied artist nor the engineer as applied physicist singlehandedly fulfills this dual role, but, in their current occupational profile, they still more or less clearly embody the open challenge of overcoming the historically grown chasm between the art (of building) and the science (of engineering): the aim is an integrated design of nature/art as a whole in the form of the living environment designed by humankind.  >  08  In this view of things, the evolution of culture and its state of the art is not irreconcilable with the evolution of nature toward ever more complex forms; indeed, culture is successively developing to become an integral part of nature. From this viewpoint, intelligent functions and automated processes are not unnatural but instead correspond to natural processes. By contrast, the current state of the art in building is often still paradigmatic (manual) and will not fulfill its true purpose until intelligent technologies are deployed. To put it another way: technology fulfills its true purpose only when it is applied in automated form.

Evolution of culture The term culture (from Lat. colere, “to cultivate, to care for, to venerate”) has many different meanings; what they all have in common, though, is a reference to something created or influenced by humankind. The positions taken up by culture and nature are diametrically opposed to each other. The terms are largely mutually exclusive; even when humans intervene in accordance with the principles of nature, a primeval forest becomes a cultivated forest. Human history is also cultural history. It goes back several million years but has only been archaeologically documented with sufficient accuracy from about 600,000 years ago (Old Stone Age, Paleolithic). The first signs of cultural activity were the use of tools and fire. House building, the domestica-

18

tion of animals, and agriculture did not start until the Neolithic period (about 10000–2000 BC). Here are some highlights of cultural history in rapid time

 >  06 Music from the perspective of art and science. 1

1/2

1/4

1/8

1/16

1/32

1/64

y (t) Vibration period Amplitude ______ Time (t)

 >  07  Evolution of nature (teleo­-

Quantitative development

lo­gical model).

Earth

Big Bang

Qualitative development Design ______

 >  08  Integrated

Architect

Design ______

Engineer

design.

arts

(Engineering) science

lapse: bronze casting, the working of iron, the calendar, geodesy, the formation of states, writing, monetary economy, natural science, industrialization. An important aspect of cultural evolution is technical development. Even though the term culture includes the notion of technology, we want to consider technology (from the Greek technê, “handicraft, art”) explicitly in the sense of objects created by man, in particular plant, machinery, and equipment. In this publication the focus is on technology in terms of services installations in buildings designed to be used and inhabited by people. Until the widespread use of electricity in the nineteenth century and, even more significantly, semiconductor technology in the twentieth century, the devel-

smart building design — Aesthetics

(Fine)

opment of services installations mainly involved mechanics. Although it is possible to construct purely mechanically functioning forms of “automation” or, better, “automatons” (from the Latin automatus, “self-moving”), the technical effort is much greater compared with electromechanically or electronically functioning systems, and the number of functions is significantly more limited. The real history of automation did not begin until the development of semiconductor and digital technology, partly because it enabled a simple form of data transfer and the formation of transfer networks, and partly because of the ability to process information in highly condensed electronic circuits—the processors.  >  09 

Nervous Systems for Buildings The structure of many buildings is based on skeleton construction. The analogy with the supporting structure of the body of vertebrates (and many others) invites us to search for the corresponding morphological term for other elements of the building. Automation would surely find its analogous term in nervous system. One characteristic of the nervous system of highly developed vertebrates is an interconnected network of several billion neurons. This is controlled centrally in the brain and spinal cord. In this context, a notable feature is the functional division into the vegetative and somatic nervous systems. Whereas the vegetative nervous system primarily controls body functions that happen unconsciously, quasi-automatically, the somatic nervous system processes external sensory stimuli and handles the conscious control of body functions. In particular, the nervous system includes the organs of sense perception: the receptors. Transferred to a technical object, the receptors are the sensors, whereas the actuators can be compared to the musculature. In a building, it would make sense, in response to certain events, to always carry out particular actions— comparable to a bodily reflex. This is certainly the case when we are dealing with functions designed to protect people. For example, an automatic closing mechanism for a door or gate should not be triggered while persons are within range of the closing door or gate. If we follow the example of nature, this protective function would have to be firmly stored in the technical system as a “reflex”; in the language of software, this is called hard-coded. On the other hand, it would appear to make more sense to react to other events in a highly dynamic way, i.e., after evaluating numerous sensory data, and comparing it with stored data gained from experience and/or a probability model that describes the user’s expectation. Automation is by no means a facet of technical processes developed by humans, but a given part of nature and a characteristic of numerous natural organisms and life-forms.

20

 >  09  development

Pleistocene Old Stone

Age Paleolithic

of technical inventions.

1.5 million 600,000 to 300,000 years ago

years ago

New Stone

Age Neolithic

10,000

years ago

Antiquity

4,000

Middle Ages 2,000

500

years ago years ago years ago

Modern Age

today semiconductor technology, digital technology, automation, electronics, processorst

mechanics, electricity, industrialization plant, machinery, equipment, physics

geodesy printing

money economy ironworking formation of states

cuneiform script calendar bronze casting

agriculture

animal husbandry

housebuilding

biface

tips, knives

biface

tools

Internet of Things It is possible that a sufficiently mature technical system approaches the quality of its natural template—but in one respect it can do much more: whereas in nature the neural network is limited to a single individual, digital networking enables the exchange of information between almost any number of things. In the Internet of Things (IoT), each “thing” has at its disposal not only the information in its own closed system but also that from innumerable other sources. This in itself has the potential to lift a technical individual to a higher level of development than would ever be possible in an evolutionary process. The consequences of this hypothesis can be illustrated using the example of a plant. We know that, in plants too, physiological processes take place that show parallels with neural systems. For each individual plant, current and historic information on the weather, climate, fires, pests, parasites, the soil, competitors, nutrients, predators, and many other factors would be of immense value for optimizing its own growth and survival strategy. For example, if the weather forecast for the next three days announces a risk of frost, the plant could delay flowering. Without this external information, the plant has no option but to react heuristically, i.e., using its own “sensing devices” to discover the environmental conditions—possibly too late. That said, this independence does bring one invaluable advantage: the system is completely independent of external data. There is no risk from an unstable or inter-

smart building design — Aesthetics

History of the

rupted connection, from wrong information or incompatibility of data, from viruses and other virtual attacks. Overall, however, it is likely that the networked system has considerably more advantages than disadvantages.

Artificial Intelligence In view of the fact that the permanent processing and evaluation of large quantities of data (big data) far exceeds the cognitive ability of even the most highly developed species of mammal, this too requires an automation technology, which today is often referred to as “AI”—artificial intelligence. When we consider buildings, we notice that the networking across different building trades that is possible today already provides numerous advantages, which can be grouped under the three headings of energy efficiency, safety, and comfort. In a future intelligent building, it is likely that all components and products of building construction and technical services installations that involve movement or change in some form or other (windows, doors, glazed areas, thermal insulation, lighting, ventilation, heating, cooling, etc.) will be included in the automation concept. Furthermore, it is likely that such a building will be comprehensively equipped with sensors and cameras, and will therefore permanently produce large quantities of data that are processed, analyzed, sold, or used in the context of business models of service companies in the digital economy. This will offer building users numerous options for added value, which will quite likely exceed anything we can imagine today. In view of the fact that most people in industrial societies spend the largest part of their—increasingly digitally supported—lives in buildings, these buildings and/or their close environments play a key role in terms of human-centered assistance, interaction, and communication systems. Obviously, it follows that this field is of great commercial interest to many market participants. We already observe that some people are freed from routine activities that may be boring, monotonous, or even unhealthy. Vacuum cleaners and lawnmower robots, albeit not as integral parts of a building but in stand-alone operation, are already very popular. It is quite likely that, in future, maintenance work such as window and floor cleaning will be carried out manually only in exceptional cases. Utility supplies into, and waste disposal out of, the building will be analyzed and continuously optimized. This will include the purchase of energy, primarily in the form of electricity, as well as the sale of it, but also the procurement of foodstuffs and other consumables. In addition, buildings will increasingly be given assistance tasks, and will motivate people to adopt a healthy lifestyle by providing incentives and rewards. Likewise, people with physical disabilities, either temporary or permanent, will have the benefit of completely new options. There are concerns associated with technically highly equipped buildings, which may not be entirely unjustified. For example, there is the possibility of malfunction, lack of operability, or monitoring by cloud services. However, these have to be weighed against numerous services and functions

22

that can give people a different, more self-determined lifestyle, and leave them more time for the things they like to do.

Function and form Irrespective of how an intelligent building (smart building) will be technically implemented today or in the future, one key question needs to be answered: what new practical use can we make of intelligent technologies and systems that would justify their deployment in the most convincing fashion? When answering this question, we are not concerned with the more limited functional scope of simple entertainment electronics in the form of smart gadgets from the Far East, even though this market generates billions in sales. Instead, we are concerned with pointing out new functional applications for buildings that give an initial idea of what could be achieved with the often-used networking of trades. But does this say everything that is important? The most influential design doctrine of the recent past—form follows function by Louis Sullivan (1856–1924)—is often misunderstood. When we look at his statement more closely, it becomes clear that Sullivan is talking about something much deeper: “Whether it be the sweeping eagle in his flight or the open apple blossom, the toiling work horse, the blithe swan, the branching oak, the winding stream at its base, the drifting clouds—above all the coursing sun, form ever follows function, and this is the law. Where function does not change, form does not change.” (Sullivan 1896, 408) Sullivan’s respectful observation is taken from nature, in which beauty and purposiveness enter into a near-perfect symbiosis, producing a breathtaking variety of intelligent forms on earth. If we continue in this vein, the function of an individual form (for instance, the function and form of an apple blossom) is not just inherent in itself, but results from a complex networking with the natural environment, the architecture of which has, to date, not remotely been deciphered by the natural sciences. In the fourth century BC, the linguistic meaning of the term architecture was synonymous with the (forward-)thinking, designing, and ultimately planning ings, towns, the economy, the state, and so on). Aristotle made the wellknown statement that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. It is safe to say that, in a building especially, the individual room or the (spatial) networking (organization) of all rooms plays a key role, because it is this that constitutes the elementary function of every building per se. It follows that the main incentive for intelligent functions lies in the answer to the question: to what extent can the direct experience of a benefit be found in a spatial ensemble? At the same time, it is also in this particular context that we encounter limits as to the final categorization of the functional scope of intelligent technologies. It is just the same as the attempt to conclusively describe the functions of buildings. On the one hand, standard literature is available that deals with building typologies in a lexical manner and thereby supplies a basic design repertoire for organizing the typical rooms of a certain building type as functionally as possible. On the other hand, the limits of such reference works

smart building design — Function and form

strength of humankind (for example, with a view to the architecture of build-

become apparent as soon as one has to deal with a more complex building design in a realistic scenario. And even though such well-known building design manuals as that by Ernst Neufert may still occupy a deserved place in the library of many architects, the complexity of daily work and design solutions is immeasurably more extensive, and always new and different. No professional designer would entertain the erroneous idea that the networking of trades—classically referred to as “architecture”—could be completely standardized by defining functional scenarios for all cases. Automated processes make life easier for people, widen their range of action, and open up new opportunities. With that in mind, the discourse below only provides an introductory description of typical functions which, in a real project, are so much more complex and always have to find their new and unique form.

Application-based functions In contrast to the elementary functions of automatic processes, such as switching, positioning, indication, counting, and measuring, the use of application-oriented intelligent functions primarily concerns the software-based interaction of electronic components. The advantage of automated systems is that sensors and actuators can exchange data via a suitable transfer medium. This simple principle can be transferred to various building systems. For example, a sensor may detect the presence of a person, and the light will come on automatically. Or a sensor determines that the air quality is poor, and the volume flow increases automatically via the ventilation system. In this sense, the interaction of sensors and actuators seems to be a kind of subfunction that produces its effect within a single system. Such subfunctions form the base for entire clusters of application functions, which in turn connect different building systems in a network.  >  10  In this scenario, the individual systems are no longer considered in isolation from one another but, with the help of building automation and control system (BACS), are linked in a network. Building automation and control systems (BACS) are primarily used for transferring information and, like the human nervous system, do not generate an appreciable benefit in and of themselves. However, in the context of the automatic interaction of different technical systems, the objective of each of them is optimized. Particularly popular are clusters of application functions that aim to achieve greater safety/security, energy efficiency, and comfort; examples will be given below.

Safety and security functions All automatic safety and security functions in buildings are primarily con-

24

cerned with reporting fires, break-ins, and instances of assault. The functions of these so-called hazard alert systems (HAS) include:

System structure

Cluster

Comfort ______ Efficiency Safety/security ...

Subfunctions

Temperature ...

Basic functions

Switching Positioning Indication Counting Measuring

of automatic functions.

Functional characteristics, e.g.

______

Temperature

Switching

Air

Light

Positioning Indication Counting Measuring

—— self-monitoring of the system’s own readiness for operation; —— issuing alarms in the case of danger (locally and to rescue agencies); and —— triggering automatic processes for damage limitation. In most cases, hazard alert systems are stipulated by the respective building control authority and/or the property insurer, and must be designed, installed, and operated with certified plant components in accordance with strictly defined rules. Hazard alert systems usually function as autonomous systems, and for this reason are normally installed independently of the communication protocol of the building automation and control system (BACS). Exceptions include smaller systems that do not require official approval, such as networked smoke detectors. Nevertheless, hazard alert systems often feature suitable interfaces that make it possible to send relevant information to the building automation and control system (BACS). For example, the triggering of a fire alarm results in a whole host of automatic events that have initially been specified in the fire protection concept and, in the case of a fire, are coordinated by a fire control system. This affects all building systems that are relevant for fire control.

Energy-efficiency functions Every natural organism, and the entire natural world taken as a system, is organized efficiently. In the case of higher animate beings, and above all of humans, the issue of dealing efficiently with the life energy absorbed from outside in the form of nutrition is handled by more or less unconscious metabolic processes that are primarily based on functions of the vegetative nervous system. However, taking into account that, according to our current knowledge, the whole of humankind is not efficiently organized—even though it is itself part of living nature, it evidently supports itself at the expense of the natural world—the efficient handling of energy has, for several decades, been a key design objective of investors, architects/designers, manufacturers, and craftsmen in the building sector, and is subject to statutory regulation as well as the interests of market forces.

smart building design — Function and form

 >  10

It must be said, though, that the main focus is usually on conventional building construction and plant engineering, which is an unsatisfactory approach from an energy-efficiency perspective, because even the most efficient building construction and plant engineering have virtually no influence on how users behave. For instance, when an individual leaves a room for a long period of time, does the person switch the light off, or is it left burning? This small example indicates the serious shortcomings of the conventional, static strategies for the design of energy-efficient buildings. Many technical devices will not be energy-efficient per se unless they are operated efficiently. In this context, it is crucial that the provision of energy in the form of heating and cooling, domestic hot water, fresh air, and artificial light be linked to demand. The idea is to provide only the amount of energy that is really needed in the room. This would mean that unnecessary energy losses are avoided with the help of automatic systems. The main focus is on  >  11  —— problematic user behavior (from the point of view of energy efficiency); —— the presence and absence of persons in a room; and —— predefined time windows in which energy input is needed. For this reason, for the first time in Germany, such considerations are covered in Part 11 Building Automation of the current version of DIN V 18599 Energy Efficiency of Buildings; the respective provisions have, for the first time, come into force with the amendment of the Energy Conservation Regulations (EnEV). Structurally, the automation grades A to D listed here correspond to the BAC efficiency classes A to D of the standard EN 15232 Energy Performance of Buildings— Impact of Building Automation, Controls and Building Management, whereby efficiency class A covers the most efficient automation systems and efficiency class D is more or less considered a building requiring refurbishment.  >  12  The standard EN 15232 primarily contains a specification of methods for assessing the influence of building automation and intelligent technical building management (TBM) on the energy efficiency of buildings. This specification includes: 1. a structured list of functions of building automation/intelligent technical building management that influence the energy efficiency of buildings; 2. a simplified and detailed method for assessing the influence of these functions on the energy efficiency of a building. With EN 15232 it is possible to express the benefit of building automation and intelligent technical building management both qualitatively and quantitatively on the basis of the above list of functions. These functions are grouped into the so-called BAC efficiency classes (A, B, C, D) and refer to the control of —— heating; —— domestic hot-water heating; —— cooling; —— ventilation and air-conditioning;

26

—— lighting; —— movable solar screening devices;

 >  11 Efficiency factors of plant techno­l­ ogy.

Renewable Solar energy energy Bio energy Environmental energy Wind power Water power

System limit

Avoiding losses

Generation Storage Distribution Transfer

Operating method of plant engineering

______

______

 >  12  Energy assessment of BACS (EU and

Guideline Act

Germany).

EU

Germany

EPBD

EnEG

buildings

of energy in buildings

Energy-efficient

Regulation

Act on the conservation

EnEV

Energy conservation directive

Normative

Standard

references ______ EN 15232

DIN V 18599 Part 11 ______

Calculation methods

assessment

assessment

effect of measures on

of BACS

 >  13 BA efficiency classes in accordance with EN 15232.

Energy

of BACS

Class A ______

high-energy performance BAC and TBM functions

Class B

advanced BAC and some specific TBM functions

Class C

standard BAC functions (reference case)

Class D

non-energy-efficient BAC functions.

for determining the energy efficiency

Building with such systems shall be retrofitted.

New buildings shall not be built with such systems.

as well as the use of an intelligent technical building management system. The following building automation and control systems (BACS) are assigned to the four BA efficiency classes for residential and nonresidential buildings.  >  13  EN 15232 contains both a detailed method and a factor-based method for calculating the effect of the functions in a BAC efficiency class on the energy efficiency of the building. The factor-based method is used for simple calculations using so-called BACS factors. The BACS factors included in EN 15232

smart building design — Function and form

Energy

are calculated with the help of dynamic simulation and are used for a rough quantitative assessment of the effects of BACS and TBM functions on the building’s demand for final thermal and electrical energy in accordance with the BAC efficiency classes. For example, in an office building equipped with a class A building automation and control system (BACS), 1. the required demand for final thermal energy (heating, domestic hotwater heating, and cooling) may be reduced by up to 30 percent; and 2. the required demand for final electrical energy (lighting and auxiliary energy) by up to 13 percent. In this scenario, the source of the energy demand is considered to be primarily in the rooms. The key task of the above technical equipment is to ensure a comfortable room climate for users that meets their needs. If thermal and electrical energy is provided on this basis, it is possible, to a large extent, to reduce potential losses in distribution, storage, and generation.  >  14  However, the BACS factors for the reduction of final thermal and electrical energy consumption in common building types listed in EN 15232 are currently not adequately represented in either national legislation or leading internationally established building certification systems, such as BREEAM, LEED, or DGNB. In order to close the gap in these statutory regulations, the European Building Automation Controls Association (eu.bac) introduced a new auditing method for building automation and control systems (BACS) and has started its rollout throughout Europe. The eu.bac system is independent of manufacturers and products and is based on the same application functions as EN 15232. However, in contrast to EN 15232, the eu.bac system is based on a weighted procedure: the energy efficiency classification is not carried out uniformly for the whole building automation and control systems (BACS), but for individual rooms and zones. This means that audits are much closer to practical scenarios because, to give an example, the air-conditioning and automation in a corridor normally differ from those in an office. In order to place the assessment system on a secure footing, the underlying processes and weighting factors have been verified and confirmed by a German University. The system’s automation efficiency classes range from E to AA, and are evaluated on a scale from 0 to 100 points. In spite of the eu.bac system’s practical value and advantages, it is not yet firmly established in the market. Reasons for this may include the following: 1.

Integration in the building sector

 The eu.bac system is based on EN 15232 as the technical regulatory instrument in Europe. At the same time, for example in Germany, EN 15232 serves as a structural basis for DIN V 18599 Part 11, the current calculation standard for the Energy Conservation Regulations (EnEV). Whereas EN 15232 differentiates between the BAC efficiency classes A to D, the classes in the eu.bac system range from AA to E. It seems that a harmonization of the two systems is urgently required.

28

 >  14 TBM

Demand-oriented building operating philosophy.

System

PA (generation) _______ Demand

Energy

RA (use)

RA (use)

RA (use)

RA (use)

RA (use)

(TBM) Technical building management (PA) Plant automation

(RA) Room automation

2.

Ability to check the relevance of the system for energy efficiency

EN  15232 and the eu.bac system are mostly based on theoretical calculations, and their impact on energy efficiency has not yet been adequately empirically documented. What is needed are suitable research projects—lasting for periods of at least two years—that would provide more in-depth evidence of the relevance of BACS/TBM systems to energy efficiency in accordance with EN 15232 and the eu.bac system, and thereby prepare the ground for wider acceptance within the building sector. 3.

Design tools (networking of building systems)

An essential statement of the eu.bac system says: “The key task of a monitoring of heating, cooling, and air-conditioning systems, as well as lighting and shading devices” (system audit flyer, 2015). This means that the eu.bac system advocates an integrated design approach at the interface between architects and engineers. It is therefore confronted with the challenge of participating in the commonly used organizational forms of inte­grated design using common design tools.

Comfort functions (ergonomics of the building) Some of the automation systems described above make sense not only in the context of efficiency but also in the context of comfort. For example, it is as efficient as it is comfortable to automatically switch off the light when a person leaves a room, or to modify the flow of air to achieve the right air quality. In this context, we use the word comfort not in terms of application functions

smart building design — Function and form

building automation and control system (BACS) is the control and

that are an expendable luxury found in a minority of existing buildings, but rather in terms of automatic application functions that enable an ergonomic and therefore comfortable use of a great number of possible buildings. An example is VDI Guideline 3812 Assistance Functions in Housing, in which an attempt is made to standardize, via a design matrix, the comfort options of intelligent functions, among others. For example, the light in a room is no longer switched on and off using a simple switch; instead, various lighting scenarios can be chosen (see assistance function 13 in VDI Guideline 3812). It must be said, though, that compared with the enormous range of standardized assistance functions in a modern medium-sized car, these examples are not more than initial but promising attempts to establish the scope of functions beyond safety/security and efficiency. If, on the other hand, the functions relating solely to mobility in the design of vehicles are taken out of the equation, the functions of the typical one-room situation in the automotive industry seem limited compared with the typical multiroom situation in the building industry, with its wide range of functions. At this point, we can make a distinction in the wide and complex scope of application between general and special application areas. On the one hand, the former refers to applications that would make sense as part of the technical services installations of any possible room in general. These application areas primarily pertain to making a building easier to use, such as automatic windows, doors, walls, staircases, or furniture. In addition, all rooms need a comfortable room climate, which can be achieved with automatic heating, cooling, ventilation, and air-conditioning. Furthermore, it is necessary to design a good lighting system using automatic lighting scenarios and dynamic lighting strategies. And last but not least, there are also general application areas, such as sanitary applications, that are not used in every room but are needed in every building. On the other hand, special applications are exclusively used in rooms dedi­ cated to certain functions; the design of these automated applications can vary a great deal and can cover a wide range of solutions. Examples are hotel rooms, catering facilities, exhibition venues, sales premises, or sacred spaces. It must be noted that all general and special applications will produce a tangible benefit only when all essential prerequisites for the deployment of intelligent systems linking the different building systems are in place. It is essential that building systems (e.g., heating, cooling, ventilation, and lighting) be appropriately designed with a view to enabling automated processes; otherwise such automation cannot be properly carried out.  >  15 

Higher-level management functions In nature, higher animate beings process nearly all sensory impressions via a complex central nervous system in order to be able to act in accordance with the situation they find themselves in. In these higher animate beings, the

30

brain is the central processor of a great many signals relating to the organization of the various functional areas in the body. The situation is not much

 >  15 Specialist engineering design

Climate Design

...

Lighting design

...

Light

...

and intelligent application

_______ User interface/automatisms

functions.

Data points ...

Temperature

Air

 >  16

_______ Controlling

_______ TBM

Objectives of

Visualization of

technical building

operating status

management.

Parameterizing of technical plant

Historiography of operating data

Analysis of operating

_______ System

data

PA (generation) Demand

Energy

RA (Use)

RA (Use)

RA (Use)

RA (Use)

RA (Use)

(TBM) Technical building management (PA) Plant automation

different with intelligent systems in buildings. Here, all data in the building is processed by central management and operating devices. All project-specific functions are monitored and, if necessary, modified in order to optimize overall functionality. These devices must be capable of displaying, operating, recording, and evaluating the conditions in the building from a central location. This information is then used in a number of ways, for example for the management of target values, operating periods, system faults, and energy demand.  >  16  Should the whole system of functions in an intelligent building not be adequately organized, the system is likely to break down sooner or later, both in the form of malfunctions and a loss of comfort quality and as a result of increasing operating, maintenance, and repair costs. Intelligent technical building management should be able, via suitable key indicators, to continuously improve and adapt the operation to meet the actual demands of users.

smart building design — Function and form

(RA) Room automation

The extent to which these changes can be optimized in the future via self-learning systems ultimately also depends on the degree to which human user profiles can be standardized. This is likely to be limited, because intelligent technologies do not generate any appreciable benefit per se. The function of each technical system will only be optimized as part of the interaction of different building systems— with people at the center of all considerations. This means that it must be possible—for intelligent buildings to be accepted—to respond to the individual patterns of behavior of the users in various situations, irrespective of the automated functions specified at the outset.  >  17 

Display and operating functions (user interface) If intelligent technologies are to work and be accepted, it is important not only that automated applications cover all relevant building systems, but also that the design of their display and operating functions meets the relevant requirements. These requirements involve the design of interactive user interfaces for (1) central display and operating functions of the intelligent technical building management, and (2) decentralized display and operating functions for use in all rooms. The user interfaces enable users to individually control their environment and also to make adjustments to the overall operating philosophy. The kinds of display and operating functions and equipment required in a building project have to be established with input from a range of disciplines. Equipment/systems may include: —— operating devices (e.g., touch panels), —— apps for computers, smartphones, tablets, and wearables, —— interactive projections or holograms, and —— gesture and speech recognition, because the design of all automated functions in the building and their operation via suitable user interfaces needs to be compatible with the actual design of the different building systems and, not least, needs to take into account user experience.  >  18  In nearly all other industries, the usability of interactive user interfaces is a major focus of the interdisciplinary design work of designers, IT professionals, and engineers. By contrast, the building industry often leaves this particular task to technical agencies with no knowledge of the specific design requirements of the industry—with the unsurprising result that intelligent technologies are not accepted.

32

 >  17 Operating cycle of an intelligent building.

General specification of functionality

Commissioning

Individual adaptation for functionality ______

______

Continuous improvement

______

Analysis monitoring

 >  18 Typical user Hologram

Movement detection

Speech recognition

Smartphone

Wearable Touch panel

Scope for design At this point, it may seem as if the functionality of an intelligent building consists of an ascending sequence of (a) elementary functions of automatic proc­ esses, such as switching, actuating, reporting, counting, and measuring; (b) subfunctions within a building system, i.e., the automatic interaction of sensors and actuators, for instance to measure the air quality of a room and automatically adjust the airflow via a ventilation system; and (c) clusters of application functions covering several building systems, for example in order to achieve increased security, better energy efficiency, and greater comfort. However, this outline does not describe all the functions of an intelligent building. While the function of a building equipped with intelligent technologies relies on standardized application functions, it appears doubtful whether this endeavor could succeed without nonstandard elements. The following arguments speak against this possibility: 1. In contrast to many other industries, the building industry has still not developed any serial products that are built by robots and sold in high numbers. Almost every building project consists of a kind of prototype that is built in a more or less complex urban context. And there are no signs that this will change in the foreseeable future. Future construction

smart building design — Function and form

interfaces.

activities will not take place on greenfield sites but on brownfield sites in cities and in existing buildings. This leads to the second argument: 2. Postmodern societies engender a high degree of indi­vidualization, which is reflected in a trend toward a functional and formal pluralism in architecture. We can safely say that nobody wants to go back to the standardized building culture of the 1970s, the products of which are now being demolished in many places and replaced by new developments. The pluralism of form in architecture is matched by pluralism in function in intelligent technologies. 3. Many market researchers assume that, in the very near future, there could be billions of networked smart devices on the market which, as part of the “Internet of Things,” will open up limitless application opportunities. However, some of these sketched scenarios provide fodder for those prejudiced attitudes that consider smart buildings an expendable luxury. All of this suggests that, in addition to standardized application functions, there is also scope for tailor-made, project-specific, and complex solutions. These have to be based on a specific project analysis and embedded within an overall technical concept as integrated components of the design of an intelligent building. We can therefore conclude that in order to produce intelligent buildings with a sound structure and form, and various useful functions (= content), a high degree of architectural and engineering intelligence is needed that precedes the know-how with a “know-what,” rather than a curtailed understanding of intelligent technology in the form of know-how as part of craftsmanship.3 Earlier, we compared intelligent systems to the central nervous system. However, this anatomical analogy tells us very little about the cross-connections that exist throughout the body. Furthermore, if we want to learn more about the functions of the human body, the Sobotta Atlas of Human Anatomy (Paulsen and Waschke 2010) is a good first port of call, but if we want to know how people live, we would be better advised to abandon the scientific approach in favor of an artistic exploration that provides answers in the form of literature, film, theater, and so on. It is one thing to scientifically describe the philosophical, economic, sociological, and psychological attributes of the upper-middle classes of the nineteenth century; it is quite another thing when Thomas Mann (1875–1955) exquisitely tells the story of four generations of the Buddenbrooks, the Hanseatic merchant family.

34

Design Assuming, then, that the design of intelligent buildings is a task that can only be accomplished with an interdisciplinary design approach involving architects and engineers, we are, in this section, going to take a closer look at how the design of intelligent buildings should be organized. The aim is not only to design the architectural form in an artistically pleasing way, but also to apply, as far as possible, scientifically proven technology within this architectural form. With this in mind, we will start by considering the term architecture, which derives from two Old Greek words: —— archê: beginning, dominion, origin (Mittelstraß 2004, 1:154) —— technê: ability, art, knowledge, skill (Mittelstraß 2004, 4:214) The first term, archê, in its original meaning refers to the philosophical search for a first principle, with the help of which it is possible to explain all that exists based on reason (i.e., scientifically) rather than mythology. One of the most influential explanations of a first principle is that of Aristotle (384–322 BC). In his book Physics 4 he refers to four causes of all that exists, based on his key distinction between form and matter. He goes on to unfold his own definition of nature; the focus of his deliberations is not nature as the totality of all natural things but the unique nature inherent in each individual thing. This nature is “a sort of starting-point and cause of moving and being at rest in that to which it belongs [...] intrinsically” (Physics 2.1.192b). This leads Aristotle to develop an approach aimed at explaining both natural objects and artificially created objects. In this approach, he names four causes, which he explains in greater detail using the example of a statue by Polykleitos (see Physics 2.3):

(2) the final cause (causa finalis) (3) the efficient/moving cause (causa efficiens) (4) the material cause (causa materialis) A sculptor (3) masters the art (technê) to give material (4) form (1) and to assign the work to its real purpose (2). 3 See also Half 2015.

What may well be deemed pertinent to the design of artifi-

4 According to Ingemar Düring,

cial objects appears, however, problematic when describing

Aristotle most probably wrote

natural objects. What are moving or causing effects in nature?

this work during his time at the Academy (with Plato) between 355

What is the inherent quality of nature? Does nature have a

and 347 BC (see Flashar 2004, 172).

purpose? Does nature have form? It was not until the scientific

smart building design — Design

(1) the formal cause (causa formalis)

revolution of the seventeenth century that modern physics slowly moved away from the ancient physics of Aristotle (modified in the Middle Ages), with all of the resulting profound and long-lasting implications. In the modern physics of the twentieth century, Aristotle’s four causes were finally reduced to one: the efficient/moving cause (causa efficiens) in the form of the modern understanding of energy. In the wake of these developments, modern engineering sciences emerged with their scientifically trained focus on mechanical, thermodynamic, and electrodynamic processes.  >  19  Ernst Mach seemed already to be anticipating all of this at the end of the nineteenth century when he said that “in spite of its important development, physics is still only part of a larger, overall knowledge and, with its one-sided intellectual means that have been created for one-sided purposes, is not able to fully exhaust this matter” (the analysis of perception, author’s note) (Mach 1991, 1). If we stay a while longer with the example of the sculptor, it becomes clear how the second term, technê, is to be understood in the context of the combined term architecture: the sculptor masters the art (technê) of creating a statue. Or the physician masters the art (technê) of healing a sick person. Or the soldier masters the art (technê) of defeating his adversary. The sum of all art (technê) of human action is organized into primary and secondary objectives. At the top is the ultimate goal, that is, the happy life of the individual in the whole of the polis (city-state). It follows that the classic meaning of architecture comes down to issues of form and content, which determine the ultimate design of buildings and/ or cities with the help of technology. To the extent that buildings and/or cities nowadays are part of (global) networks based on intelligent technologies, this is a task that can only be tackled jointly by architects and engineers. In the sections below, we will look at how this interaction could be organized in an ideal way, and the role of design tools in this context.

5 In Germany, the duties of the author of the design are described in Section 54 of the Model Building Code. This person not only “has to be suitable for preparing the respective building project in terms of knowledge and experience,” but “he is also responsible for the completeness and the usability of the design.“ Furthermore, the individual Federal States have determined

Architect/building designer The basic prerequisite for completing a building project is the design, the production of which is the key activity of all designers and engineers. The design of the building is the key document on the basis of which the new or significantly converted building emerges. As a rule, the architect is con-

36

sidered to be in charge of the building’s design. The prerequisites for the professional qualification of a building designer

precisely what professional prerequisites are required for persons intend­ ing to submit to the authorities designs that require approval. Each Federal State has its own legislation stating the professional qualifications of designers authorized to submit projects. On the basis of these laws, the respective architects‘ associa­ tions manage lists in which persons with the authority to submit projects have to be listed.

 >  19 of the integrated

Architect (fine arts)

requirements

Structural engineer

relating to the art (of building) and

Mechanical engineer

(engineering) science.

Electrical engineer 15th cent.

16th cent.

17th cent.

18th cent.

19th cent.

20th cent.

21st cent.

Knowledge revolution Mechanics Thermodynamics Electrodynamics

are more precisely specified and defined by law in many countries. 5 The architect’s key task is normally the design of buildings as functional, structural, and formal units. A distinction is made between the building itself and its technical installations, such as heating, cooling, ventilation and air-conditioning, lighting, etc. This gives rise, at this point, to the following question: If the whole building forms a functional, structural, and formal unit, to what extent is this distinction between the building and its technical installations justified? In view of the fact that nowadays buildings increasingly have to be designed by architects and engineers working together, this delimitation becomes blurred. And when almost every part of a building is intelligently networked via automatic systems, the delimitation becomes obsolete. In Germany, Section 54 of the Model Building Code has reflected the increasing demands made of contemporary architectural design for some time, stating “if the creator of the design is not adequately conversant or experienced in certain specialist areas, suitable specialists should be called upon.” Nevertheless, the creator of the design remains “responsible for ensuring that all specialist design input fulfills its proper function in the building.”

Integrated organization of the design of intelligent buildings In building design, the responsibilities of architects and engineers can be clearly distinguished. The architect provides the design of the building, whereas the specialist engineers are involved, on the one hand, in the structural design and, on the other hand, in the design of the technical services. The latter comprise a number of subspecialisms, such as those required for

smart building design — Design

Development

sanitary facilities, heating and cooling installations, ventilation and air-conditioning systems, power plants, and communication and IT systems. An integrated design approach is needed to organize effective cooperation between building designers and specialist engineers. Within this scheme, architects, interior designers, and landscape architects work to establish the building design, while specialist engineers are responsible for the structural design and usually also the technical services installations. In addition, input from various other sources is required, such as an analysis of thermal building physics. The organization of an integrated design approach essentially includes the design, the tender process, and the execution of the construction work. As a rule, a distinction is made between the following systems: —— structure system —— envelope systems —— interior systems —— mechanical systems (sanitary, heating,

air-conditioning, ventilation (HVAC)), and

—— electrical systems.

 >  20  We stated above that if the notion of an intelligent building is to be accepted, it is important that individual user behavior patterns be accommodated by an appropriate interactive user interface, something that goes beyond all previously specified automatic processes. But who is responsible for the design of automatic processes and the user interface? From our current perspective, it cannot be the architect or a classically trained engineer. While the classically trained architect lacks an understanding of the scientific basis of intelligent technologies, the classically trained engineer lacks sufficient understanding of the artistic aspect of intelligent buildings. While it is true that in nearly all other industries the issue of the user-friendliness of interactive interfaces is the focus of integrated design work by designers and engineers, in the building sector we must surely look for a solution that lies somewhere in between. To reflect this, we would deliberately call the designer responsible for the building design a “general system designer” and trust that the evolution of building

6 Although in Germany, in principle,

in the future will undergo a similar paradigm shift as that

this service can be rendered under

brought about by the disruptive change from the artisan’s

38

the Fee Structure for Architects and Engineers (HOAI 4–2 Technical

craftsmanship of the nineteenth century to the industrial

installations: plant group 8—buil-

design of the twentieth.  >  21 

ding automation), it does not fully

Would this cover everything? Let’s assume that the respective building designer (as general system designer) has ade-

cover the additional work involved in managing several plant groups. This may require adjustment.

 >  20 Responsibilities in integrated design. Architect / building designer

Structural engineer

Structure systems

Technical services engineers

Envelope systems

Interior systems

Mechanical systems

Electrical systems

 >  21 Responsibilities for the design of user interfaces

_ _ _ __ _ General system_ designer (architect/building designer)

and automatic functions on the part of the building designer. Structural engineer

Technical services engineers

User interface/automatisms Data points Envelope systems

Interior systems

Mechanical systems

Electrical systems

quately produced a design for all required automatic processes and user interfaces in an intelligent building; this still leaves open the issue of adequate design of the structure and the services installations. Classically trained structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers are highly specialized, which means that their skills do not extend to the respective other trades. However, if our focus is on professional qualification, it would appear that the electrical engineer is predestined for this work. In the context of the adequate specialist design of building automation,6 electrical engineeers may well fit the bill.

smart building design — Design

Structure systems

However, considerable doubt exists in contemporary construction practice as to whether the electrical engineer has sufficient mandate as a specialized (sub-)designer of building automation to assert authority over several trades.  >  22  In order to ensure the sensible integration of building systems in the overall design process, it is surely advisable for the person responsible for the building design to assign a superior role to the specialist engineer for the design of building automation. But how, precisely, are we to understand specialist design of building automation? The inte­ grated cooperation between architect/building designer and specialist engineers is preceded by an outline design by the former. This shows the building in two- or three-dimensional drawings with an initial indicative structure and/or form. But a 2-D or 3-D illustration of the building says very little about the way the technical services installations function. This can be better illustrated with the help of functional schemes or schematic circuit diagrams (plant diagrams) in which technical equipment is represented by symbols as a first way of illustrating its structure or form. But even a complete methodical description of all of the building’s systems using suitable 2-D or 3-D illustrations and functional schemes or schematic circuit diagrams (plant diagrams) is only just the basic, albeit essential, prerequisite for the adequate specialist design of intelligent functions and/or automatic processes in the building.

Specialist engineer for building automation The specialist engineering design of intelligent functions and/or automatic processes involves several strands of action that have to be successively defined in greater detail and developed. The process starts with the production of a user

7 The interaction of room automation,

requirement specification, which describes all requirements

plant automation, and technical

for the intelligent technical building management (TBM),

based on VDI guidelines 3813 and

plant automation (PA), and room automation (RA). In this

3814. These two guidelines are

context, room automation plays a critical role: it is here—

currently not yet harmonized and

rather than in the plant room, with all its automation equip-

are dealt with separately, which is disadvantageous. For this reason,

ment—that the building systems overlap and interact

the interaction of room automation,

(heating, cooling, ventilation and air-conditioning, shading,

plant automation, and technical

lighting, and so on). But it is also here that all the diverging

40

building management is currently

building management will, in the near future, be included in a new

interests of the trades (e.g., HVAC and electrical), the design-

VDI guideline 3814 Building Auto­

ers (e.g., air-conditioning and electrical engineers), and

mation in an extended version of

industry (in Germany, e.g., VDMA and ZVEI) come face to face.7  >  23 

standard DIN EN ISO 16484 building automation and control systems (BACS).

 >  22 Responsibilities for the design of user interfaces

General system designer (architect/building designer)

and automatic functions on the part of the specialist engineer for building automation.

Structural engineer

Technical services engineers

_______ User interface/automatisms Data points Structure systems

Envelope systems

Interior systems

Mechanical systems

Electrical systems

BACS engineer

 > 23 Historically and responsibilities in building automation.

Electrical engineering

Mechanical engineering

Electrical engineer

HVAC engineer

ZVEI industrial association

VDMA industrial association

Leading Light & Building exhibition

Leading ISH exhibition

Room automation, TBM

System automation, TBM

VDI 3813

VDI 3814

KNX

BACnet

Decentralized logic

Centralized logic

For the purpose of establishing a user requirement specification, it is therefore important to produce room data sheets that include detailed information on the technical systems and their automatic functions to be linked, as well as their respective user interfaces for each individual room. Thereafter, installation diagrams are produced, and the type and number of data points necessary for the automated processes are assigned via suitable automation diagrams of all technical systems, for both the rooms (RA) and the plant systems (PA). On the basis of these automation diagrams, so-called BACS function lists are produced for room automation and plant automation (RA/PA). These describe the required functions of the data points in accordance with the user requirement specification. As a rule, technical installations go through typical states that, through certain sequences, are characterized by many different actions. It is possible to

smart building design — Design

grown structures

 >  24

Specialist design of room automation (connection of RA automation schemes, RA function list, RA program flowchart).

3 Wind speed

Room automation scheme (section)

2 External temperature

1 Precipitation

4 Multisensor

5 Window contact

6 External blind

Flow chart

2 Ext. temperature

G Roof

AE

3 Wind speed

G Roof

AE

4 Multisensor

G Roof

Bus 1

3

6

7

8

Actuator control

5

Solar screen actuation

4

Light actuation

2

precipitation detection

1

DE

Wind speed measuring

Window monitoring

3

Air quality measuring

Movement detection

2

G Roof

Brightness measuring

Method of connection

Data points 1 Precipitation

Air temp. measuring

Point of connection

1

RA function list

M

Dew point monitoring

Allocation

M

1

2

3

1 1 1 1

SM Wind alarm

Start

yes

1

1

=1

SM Frost alarm

no

yes

=1 no

or

End

Protection function

use program flowcharts as well as other tools to describe these complex and interrelated functions. This process is used to determine in detail in which sequence a technical system is meant to change from one state to another, and what concrete actions are required to achieve this.  >  24 and 25  Automation diagrams, BACS function lists, and flowcharts are primarily used to produce a functional description of building automation. By contrast, the topology of the entire system architecture/the required technical components (sensors, actuators, controllers, etc.) and the deployment of the selected com-

42

munication protocols (BACnet, KNX, DALI, etc.) can be successively described using three-layer models with their field, automation, and management layers.

Specialist design of plant automation (connection of PA automation schemes, PA function list, PA program flowchart).

Plant automation scheme (section)

M

M

M 3 5

4 Ventilation

23

Ventilation system

Data points

1

2 3 4 5 1

3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 1

1

2 External temperature values 3 Intake air flap actuation command

1

1

4 Intake air flap malfunction

1 1

1

23 Intake air fan actuation command

Flow chart

2

1

1 Plant switches

1

1

1

Normal operation

Start

Nighttime cooling operation

=1

no

yes no

=1

Flap fault

yes

no or

=1 yes

smart building design — Design

PA function list, example of a ventilation system

22

6

Binary output switching/ actuating Analog output actuating Binary input reporting Binary input counting Analog input measuring Binary output value switching Analog output value switching Binary input value status Movement detection Analog input value measuring Limit value, fixed Limit value, varying Operating hours recording Event counting measuring Command execution control Message processing 4) Plant control Motor control Switchover Sequence control Security frost protection control

 >  25

Design tools As we saw above, there is no way to avoid the interaction of (building) art and (engineering) science. A holistic design is needed for the modern generation of architecture, which is dynamic and includes completely new, never-before-featured qualities of use. In contrast to other things that surround us on a daily basis, technical progress and automation have not taken hold or been further developed in the building industry; in our built environment of all things, we forgo the comfort of technology. The reason for this essentially lies in its inadequate implementation. There has never yet been a systematic analysis of the technology of building automation. Instead, a great many engineers with excellent training in their special discipline are involved in integrating more and more functions and so-called intelligence in the components of building automation. It is not uncommon for a manual describing the technical possibilities of a light switch to grow to more than a hundred pages. In spite of that, to date no user of such a device has been particularly enthralled by its operation. At best, users are pleased with its looks, and these may even have earned it a Red Dot Award. What is the reason for users’ indifference? The answer is clear and simple: this highly sophisticated high-tech instrument is used solely for switching the light on and off, an outcome that is also perfectly possible without the integrated intelligence. Not one of these highly specialized engineers joins an interdisciplinary team to jointly design a well-functioning building. Perhaps this would require a highly sophisticated light switch with five thousand different functions. But the product would follow the requirements. As Sullivan said, “Form (and usability) follows function.”

Necessity of interdisciplinary cooperation The construction of modern buildings requires the cooperation of numerous specialists. In order to ensure that the output of specialist engineers and architects is complementary, drawings have been used, with considerable success. Nowadays, it is more and more common to produce drawings digitally and in 3-D, which carries a number of benefits. A three-dimensional illustration of the building to be constructed makes it possible to identify potential collisions and any functional and technical limits inherent in the available space. Overall, digital three-dimensional design helps to avoid mistakes that could lead to unnecessary delays in the later implementation.  >  26  Technically, that has been possible for generations. Good and powerful 3-D architectural and services installations programs have been on the market for a long time. But their acceptance has been rather sluggish. And in truth, the availability of good software tools is only one prerequisite for successful cooperation in construction. Genuine cooperation seems to depend mostly on the process. Likewise, there is the issue of who takes responsibility when

44

the designs for the different building systems are entered into a shared database or file. Who is responsible for the different elements and who for the

 >  26 Check for collisions between different building systems.

_______ Collision

whole project? Who has the authority to make changes, and who determines the decision-making and solution-finding processes? The answer to this question appears to be whoever will most benefit from the improved cooperation. Surely this is the later owner, but is the owner in a position to really benefit from this advantage, and is he or she willing to pay the higher costs involved? Even without building automation or modern building technology, the tasks involved in construction are becoming ever more complex. Just in terms of mechanical interfaces, the tasks and requirements are extremely demanding, so it is almost a miracle that buildings are completed at all, with operatives who may not be adequately trained and even the presence of adverse weather conditions. It is not really surprising, then, that the construction process is always beset by disputes and errors. It is quite likely that most errors are never discovered, or only come to light in a later crisis. Partly for this reason, some professionals have specialized in identifying defects during the construction phase and use these to negotiate price reductions for the client. Often, the cause of errors is a design that provides insufficient detail, or the fact that design information is not shown in the design documents. Errors are also likely to occur when specialist engineers work on the basis of different stages of the design process. The only solution that is likely to yield results, ing before it is actually erected. This procedure has long been used as a matter of course in industries with industrial production, and needs to be swiftly established in the construction industry.

New forms of organization of virtual building A virtual design approach requires new design arrangements and processes, in the context of which architects and specialist engineers jointly design the virtual building. The architect begins with a rough design that is presented to all specialist engineers and the client in a three-dimensional form. This gives

smart building design — Design

and which is long overdue, is the complete virtual construction of the build-

the client a significantly improved basis for making decisions. He or she no longer has to rely on the architect’s ability to visualize space, but instead can “enter” the three-dimensional virtual architecture and obtain a photographic impression. This also means that architects face the possibility of their hitherto unlimited authority of interpretation becoming more restricted. They have to discuss things with the client; they must enter into a conversation with the client at a point when everything can still be changed. In the dialogue between client, architect, and specialist engineers, an overall integrated technical concept is created. On that basis, the specialist engineers can continue their detailed designs that flow into the integrated design and are illustrated in a three-dimensional model. The model is then refined step by step; for this purpose it is possible to use processes and experience from software development, such as the Scrum project management method. With Scrum, designers and the client—in the Scrum paradigm referred to as “product owner”—meet regularly at short intervals in order to modify and refine the design and user requirements.  >  27  The results of this design process lead to various insights and understandings that can modify the basis of the design; costs may change, and on that basis it may be necessary to adjust the strategy, and original ideas may have to give way to others that are closer to reality. The client remains involved in the entire project process; he or she makes decisions and will not be surprised by the result. “The client ends up obtaining not what he imagined at the time of commissioning, but what he really needs.” In such a process, cost–benefit considerations are continually discussed with the client. Because it is possible to virtually check the status of the design at any time, the process is fully transparent. This makes it easier to identify and communicate errors. Nobody works behind closed doors. Errors can trigger improvements from everybody. The building industry is badly in need of change. As explained above, the aim must be more teamwork and collaboration. We want to postulate here that it is time for architects to be freed from the burden of overall responsibility for projects. All stakeholders in the project share the responsibility for producing a good building. This understanding has already been widely accepted in the software industry and many industrial sectors. Complex software packages, such as a CAD program, cannot be developed by a single person; they cannot even be wholly understood by a single person. A good project can only be created with the constructive and therefore successful cooperation of many people with different competencies. It is high time that this principle was accepted in the building industry. The architect must climb down from the elevated position of an all-knowing building master, and the burden of the architect’s role must be lightened. Then the architect will become part of a team that is able to build better buildings. The shared image is the virtual reality; the shared language is the constructive, regular dialogue.

46

 >  27 Agile design with Scrum. Daily standup

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

Specification Requirements

Sprint Design Specification Tasks/Sprint

Iteration

Virtual design with concrete products In the course of the step-by-step refinement of the shared design, abstract building components become concrete products. The specifications are produced on the basis of the evolving virtual building model. The products offered are virtually installed and visually assessed. A purchase decision is made and the contract is awarded on a more solid basis than is usually the case in current building practice. Specialist companies no longer have to submit their accounts on the basis of measured quantities, but can determine the exact quantities beforehand. In this process there is no longer a difference between the offer price and the final account. There is greater consistency in the performance and costs, and supplementary contracts become a thing of the past. When the virtual building has been created, the construction phase begins. Every detail has been determined. If, in spite of this, there is still a discrepancy between design and buildable reality, the design is changed before construction takes place. At all times, an updated virtual model is available. Building on the basis of a virtual model opens up many opportunities. Everydetails. There are already a few examples where a computer and video projector have been installed at a suitable place on a building site; these can be used by anybody at any time to view details at any required scale and from an individually selectable perspective, or from all necessary sides, and thereby to understand what exactly has been designed and is to be implemented. It is also conceivable for plotters to be used on-site; these can print out relevant details in the latest version and at the required scale so that they are available where they are needed, that is to say, on-site. It is likely that plotting on paper will soon be replaced by more effective output media. For example, a tablet that is available to all construction workers or tradespeople would be much more versatile. It is conceivable that this

smart building design — Design

body involved can be fully informed at all times, including about execution

would be followed up by electronic comments, which could then be seen in the virtual drawings by all project participants. Alternatively, the operative might initiate queries that can be addressed by the respective specialist engineer or designer, irrespective of time and place. It is almost certain that tradespeople will soon wear spectacles that enable them to see the required information in augmented reality at the place they actually need it, without having to use their hands.  >  28  Such a procedure can hardly be implemented under conventional forms of organization; instead, adaptation will be required to achieve more agile teamwork. In addition, the input of time and money shifts to other phases: the essential input has to take place at a very early stage, during the shared creation of the virtual model. In theory, the building is finished once the virtual model has been completed, even though, in practice, not a single digger shovel has been in action and no work has started on-site. The design is adjusted as construction proceeds, although adjustments could be cut to a minimum if the virtual work has been carried out carefully. The benefit of creating a virtual model goes beyond the construction phase, because it is also the basis for efficient facilities management. It contains the article number of each building component and the designation of cables and their location. The task of the facilities manager is to continue updating the building model in order to benefit from the information throughout the service life of the building. And finally, surprises are avoided in the event of refurbishment or demolition; here, too, the cost certainty is much improved.

Building Information Modeling (BIM) The necessity of making information on buildings and construction processes available to all those involved led to the formation, in 1995, of the International Alliance for Interoperability (IAI), which later changed its name to Building Smart. The objective of the organization is to make the handling of information required for building easier and more efficient, through Building Information Modeling (BIM). The core remit was to define and continually develop a data exchange format for CAD programs—the so-called Industry Foundation Classes (IFC). Files that are interoperable between different software producers end with the *.ifc suffix. This format is now available on the market in version 4.0.  >  29  However, market penetration of BIM processes still leaves much to be desired. For years, software producers and interested professional bodies discussed the potential opportunities. But in the past, only a few projects were implemented in which the designers and engineers cooperated in the manner described above. Nevertheless, Building Information Modeling (BIM) has, in recent years, gained ground throughout the world, albeit in different national versions. Professional bodies are largely in agreement that design will increasingly be carried out in 3-D and that the IFC format will increasingly be estab-

48

lished. In this context we have to assume that the processes and accounting models will also have to change, which will benefit all those involved.

 >  28 Augmented Reality in the building industry.

_______ Specifi_______ cation

 >  29 Information exchange in

Property model

the course of a

IFC Data

BIM/IFC project.

Structural model

Air conditioning model

IFC Data

IFC Data

Model ______

Etc.

Electrics model

IFC Data

IFC Data

Light model

smart building design — Design

IFC Data

We see two possible development trends. In the first, the entire design of a project is carried out with the software of a single producer. This is referred to as Closed BIM, and it massively improves the market position of that software producer. By contrast, many software producers promote the idea of Open BIM, which means that programs of different producers speak a shared language and can exchange data.  >  30  The latter option is that propagated by Building Smart, and is the way forward prescribed by lawmakers in order to counteract dependency on a few big players. Nevertheless, there is a tendency in the software industry to create monopolies, which means that this possibility cannot be excluded.

Specialist design of building automation Let’s now turn to building automation, in which we find a situation similar to that of conventional construction technology and where there is an even greater need for computer simulation. As mentioned at the beginning, no holistic design for “intelligent building” systems is in place. A higher degree of automation rarely functions without problems, is frequently expensive, and does not always result in genuine added value. In addition, such installations require a great deal of maintenance, are not understood by the client, and lead to many questions and much dissatisfaction. It is advisable for specialist engineers of technical installations to hand over the complete responsibility for control and function to the manufacturer of, for example, a heating system, so that it has its own sensors, its own actuators, and its own cables functioning completely independently of the rest of the other building systems. Clients are often highly skeptical of a higher degree of building automation. As a result, no lobby exists except for the industry that markets products for building automation in the hope of winning bigger margins. There are not enough reasons for the deployment of building automation and processes that, in the sense of a holistic design, could create a functioning and fully automatic building that feels natural, that users like to spend time in, and that—almost incidentally—is also highly energy-efficient. Currently, smartphones are omnipresent in our lives, and they might well be helpful in combination with an app control system in a so-called smart home. The manufacturers of entertainment electronics and building components, energy suppliers and telecommunication companies, as well as software corporations, see opportunities in the IoT (Internet of Things) and offer householders simple options for automating individual functions, i.e., for controlling them remotely via smartphone or for setting simple rules for time-controlled functions. The recipe for success lies in simplicity; users must be able to understand and manipulate the system. Software corporations have long understood that the success of a technology largely depends on usability, meaning how well a user is able to handle and control it. The experience a user has when operating building functions goes one step

50

further. Good user experience is the decisive factor in whether a technology succeeds or fails. The bus technology used exclusively by electrical installa-

 >  30 Information exchange in the

Software, property

Open BIM/IFC.

IFC Data

Software, structure

Software, air-conditioning

IFC Data

IFC Data

Open BIM ______

Software, ...

Software, electrics

IFC Data

IFC Data

Software, light IFC Data

tion companies does not fulfill this criterion. Quite the contrary: as a rule it is best managed by an experienced professional. Furthermore, the systems are so complex, even for the professional, that maintenance is difficult and many functions can only be implemented with considerable effort and expense, which is usually not acceptable to the customer. The systems integrators are confronted with products that were designed in accordance with the principles of technical possibilities rather than in relation to the respective application. They were not systematically designed with the objective of creating a complete, well-functioning, cybernetic system, a fully automatic building. However, the openness of building owners toward “smart home solutions” provides an unprecedented opportunity to create practical building automation. Customers have started to listen again, and are inclined to try things see automated buildings that function, have good usability, and are fun, providing users with a satisfactory experience. In building automation in particular, it is now necessary to deploy suitable software tools, which, however, are not yet available in the complexity described below.

smart building design — Design

out. But building automation will only proceed successfully if, in the end, we

Computer simulation of building automation In the first instance, it is necessary that a design, including that of the technical installations, be understood. The client should be able to make a conscious and informed decision on automatic functions in the building; the architect should ensure that the conceptual design, the form, does not suffer, but rather is enhanced. Everybody understands when a car salesman offers an ABS or central locking system. It may be possible to explain a central locking device for a house using this analogy, but when it comes to more extensive automation functions, the complexity increases rapidly. Descriptive texts are not very effective, and have only limited use for promoting investment in an automated solution. In the best-case scenario, this can be achieved via extensive discussion and convincing conversations. Nevertheless, uncertainty remains for the designer and user of the building about whether it will be fun to use the automated system, or whether the system will be perceived as technical domination or even as an imposition. In this respect, building owners have a deep-seated skepticism, which is justified when one considers the great number of poor examples. The ideal solution would be a software tool that makes it possible to virtually experience the respective automatic function. With the help of such a tool, the designer, together with the building owner, could roam through the virtual architecture and try out the functions virtually. Of course, many sensory aspects could not be experienced, or only to a limited extent, but the advantage over illustrations in written or table form is clear. No doubt the greatest benefit of a fully automated environment that feels natural lies in its use, but of course there are also energy conservation benefits that can be calculated.  >  31  For example, how does the control of blinds affect the demand for heating? The design of the heating system and energy consumption could depend on the effectiveness and application rules of the shading system. The design of a certain lighting-scene control strategy could also be assessed with a view to its effect on energy consumption. An automation strategy will always be a compromise between investment costs, operating costs, and comfort. Simulation could be used to assess all three aspects more or less realistically and thereby provide a qualified basis for commercial decisions. Today, designers can—at best—cite energy efficiency of a building automation system as an argument. We have already mentioned many reasons for this. Often the designer lacks the vision. But even given a clear idea of a convincing building automation system on the part of the engineer, it is likely to be difficult to persuade building owners and architects of its benefits. The key would be computer simulation, which identifies the benefits and, in an ideal case, makes them something that can be experienced. The functions in an automated building soon become very complex. The documents that illustrate different building states grow to an enormous size and tables become multidimensional, because it is necessary to represent variations over time and space. It is not inconceivable that even the engineer

52

is no longer sure that everything has been thought of, or that all the building states make sense and are functional. In addition, parameters have to be

 >  31 Simulation of energy demand.

Output/current

Energy consumption ______

Time

 >  32 Simulation of functions (here: lighting scenarios).

______ Scenario 1

Scenario 2

determined, such as temperature limits and the limit values for illumination relative to the time of day and cloudiness. Today, the engineer has to rely on decided during commissioning on-site, at which point the engineer may not even be present. The functional states are not easy to comprehend, nor are they comprehensively documented, so that the result becomes fraught with defects for several reasons: the systems integrator does not understand the engineering specification, the documentation is overly complex or has gaps, and some parameters are based on wrong assumptions. It is likely that these problems cannot fully be resolved with the help of computer simulation, because there will always be a discrepancy between the virtual experience and reality. But the engineering design can move closer to reality, and it is possible to define design parameters more precisely, and even, perhaps, to transfer these electronically to the commissioning process.  >  32 

smart building design — Design

experience and hypotheses. And last but not least, many items have to be

For the operation of the building, it is very important that the expected performance be comprehensively documented. On the basis of a functional description it is also possible to answer warranty questions, for example what performance is expected from the specialist engineer, or the systems integrator, or the installer. Simulation could be used to find faults during the commissioning process. In this case, functional changes would first be simulated, discussed with the user, and then carried out in the live system. An operator could view the status of automation at any point in time. Facilities managers could use the monitoring function to compare the expected behavior, i.e., that of the simulation, with the actual behavior. This would also provide a key to warranty questions. Up to now, the concept of Building Information Modeling (BIM) described above has been limited to the exchange of static physical properties of building components. Computer simulation of building automation is a necessity and the logical next step for the building industry. Without computer simulation, complex systems can be designed holistically only in exceptional cases. Without the tool of computer simulation, it will be well nigh impossible to design architecture that is easy to use, that makes sense, and that offers all the benefits of technology that feels natural.

Building automation and BIM The buildings of the future will be cybernetic systems. The simulation tools required in this scenario must be capable of creating a virtual building model, of simulating the physical properties and the dynamic behavior, and of documenting the underlying algorithms and parameters and communicating them to the building in its built state. To this end, the IFC file format and the Open BIM method will have to be extended in order to enable holistic design that is as free as possible from technical barriers in the spirit of fluid cooperation.  >  33  In future, design processes that place the user and his or her benefit at the center of things will have to be agile and produce the buildings of the future in close cooperation with all necessary experts. As with all the products that surround us, the value of a building will increasingly be determined by its inherent software rather than by the hardware from which it has been built. This underscores the need for us to spend more time engaging with the methods of software development in order to create good buildings. This can only be achieved jointly by art (of building) and (engineering) science. Everything that is needed is available—it just needs to be done. We must finally cooperate.

54

 >  33 Model elements and their proper-

Hologram

Element data ______

ties (here: door Client

with motor drive).

Entrance door FF Element designer

W/H 1.010/2.260 metal door, RAL 9006, … Manufacturer

Frame, door leaf, fittings, motorized lock HVAC engineer

U-value 1.0 W/m2K, …. BACS engineer

Data point, communication protocol, …

smart building design — Design

M

Implementation The implementation process discussed in this section describes a more or less craft-based execution on the construction site. However, it is currently uncertain whether in future there will be more assembly workers or even robots fitting and commissioning industrially prefabricated building components based on Building Information Modeling (BIM). At this point in time, this is at least an imaginable possibility. But even though industrial prefabrication of building components in the construction sector has been growing for more than a hundred years, the implementation of a building still largely falls into the remit of the appointed building contractors and their tradespeople, and this is probably not going to change in the near future. A contract for the work required to carry out a building project is based on the design and specifications. Once the placing of the order has been successfully negotiated, the transition to the actual implementation of the building work begins. At this stage, supervision is required to monitor the execution of the work by the building contractors and their tradespeople for compliance with the building approval, the detailed design, the specifications, and the recognized rules of technology, and the site manager/specialist site manager is responsible for organizing the best possible interaction of the different trades in accordance with the schedule. Here, too, intelligent technologies have an influence, because they are specifically designed for networking of the building systems, and therefore the different systems will have to be coordinated.

Supervision by the architect/ specialist engineer Today, as in the design process, architects or structural engineers involved in site supervision are usually no longer in a position to bring the appropriate specialist qualification for all building systems to the table. For this reason, it is com-

struction supervisor are described in

mon to involve specialist engineers for supervision.8 The exe-

Section 56 of the Model Building

cution of the building by the various contractors is

Code. Among other things, “he must

coordinated by the appointed site manager or specialist site

56

8 In Germany, the duties of the con-

have the knowledge and experience required for his task.” In addition,

manager. Designers and specialist engineers who not only

“suitable specialist super­visors must

provide the design but also carry out supervision have a bet-

be called upon.” Nevertheless, it is

ter chance of implementing their ideas. That said, the building industry is also experiencing increasing division of labor:

the construction supervisor’s task “to coordinate his work and that of the specialist supervisors.”

 >  34 Integrated building

construction officer

supervision.

Supervision by structural engineer

Structure systems

Technical services engineers

Envelope systems

Interior systems

Mechanical systems

Electrical systems

quite a few architectural and engineering practices have by now specialized either in design or in site supervision. If for whatever reason another practice is commissioned to carry out site supervision for a completed design, it is necessary to define exact interfaces in order to ensure problem-free continuation of the project. In any case, successful site supervision can only be achieved if complete and fault-free design documents are available. As shown in the section above, Building Information Modeling (BIM) may make a strong contribution up front to securing the quality, cost, and deadlines. In construction projects where the design is not reliable enough and there is insufficient time for the construction process, experience has shown it is inevitable that the budget and the allocated time will be exceeded due to justified additional demands by the

Integrated organization of the supervision of intelligent buildings As with the organization of the design process, the typical organization of work today—with a division between general supervision and specialist supervision—assumes that specialist supervising engineers can be clearly assigned to specific building systems. For example, a specialist engineer (e.g., structural engineer) will take on the supervision of the execution of the load-bearing structure; another specialist engineer, the monitoring of the execution of the technical services installations; and usually at least one additional specialist engineer, the supervision of the electrical installation.  >  34  When it comes to the construction of intelligent buildings, this form of organization has its distinct limits, because a functioning intelligent system surely needs the proper installation and proper networking of electric components

smart building design — Implementation

executing companies.

—— in shell construction (e.g., earth probes, thermoactive building components); —— in facade construction (e.g., motorized windows and facade components); —— in interior fit-out (e.g., motorized doors, walls, stair­cases, elevators); —— in services installations (e.g., sanitary, heating, air-conditioning, ventilation); and —— in electrical engineering (e.g., power systems, lighting systems). The technical supervision of an intelligent system required for the above therefore has to be organized such that it covers all affected building systems, and requires significant specialist knowledge in particular at the interfaces between the systems. This specialist knowledge must be provided either (1) on the part of the supervising architects and engineers, or (2) on the part of the specialist engineers supervising technical services installations. In case (2), which would appear a more realistic scenario, the most likely candidate is an electrical engineer specializing in building automation. However, in order to ensure that all trades work together not only in the context of the design but also in the implementation, it would appear advisable to assign this task of supervising several trades to the supervising architect or engineer in their preestablished role.9  >  35  9 Although in Germany in principle this service can be rendered under the Fee Structure for Architects and

Scheduling/time management

installations: plant group

The schedule of deadlines forms the basis for the coordina-

8—building automation), it does

tion of the executing contractors by the supervisor or the

not fully cover the additional work

specialist supervising engineers. The client normally sets the main deadlines (e.g., the point at which the building is to be occupied). The supervisor and the respective specialist supervising engineers will use the construction (time) sched-

involved in management that involves several plant groups. This may need to be adjusted. 10 In Germany the duties of the build­ ing contractor are described in Section 55 of the Model Building

ule to determine binding deadlines for the executing compa-

Code: the contractor is not only

nies, which are written into the building contract. In contrast

jointly responsible “for the proper

to conventional projects, the commissioning of networked

58

Engineers (HOAI 4–2 Technical

mobilization and operation of the construction site” but “he also has

technical installations must always be allocated enough time

to supply the required evidence

to ensure the proper functioning prior to handover and the

regarding the suitability of the

occupation of the building. The construction (time) schedule is used to measure progress on the construction site. If delays



building products and methods used and keep these available on the construction site.”

 >  35 Responsibilities for the design

_______ Construction officer

of user interfaces and automatic functions on the part of the building super­ visor and specialist supervisor for building auto­

Supervision by structural engineer

Technical services engineers

mation. User interface/automatisms Data points Structure systems

Envelope systems

Interior systems

Mechanical systems

Electrical systems

Supervision by BACS engineer

or faults are detected in a certain building system that could endanger the planned commissioning, it is essential to clarify with the executing company how the detected problems can be solved. In the ideal case, a solution to the problems is not found ad hoc on-site but in a planned fashion using Building Information Modeling (BIM).

Building contractor/systems integrator struction site by the appointed building contractors. 10 Traditionally, most building work is subdivided into what are commonly referred to as trades. In construction, the term trade is generally used for work associated with a manual craft. Craft workers joined associations for the purpose of safeguarding shared interests, a practice that goes back to the guilds of the Middle Ages and, in most countries, lasted up until the nineteenth century, when, in the context of freedom of trade, every citizen was granted the right to exercise a trade of his or her choice. In Germany today, craft enterprises are active in the following businesses: (1) enterprises liable to registration (master craftsman’s diploma); (2) enterprises not liable to registration; or (3) enterprises that are craft-like.

smart building design — Implementation

The building designs and specialist designs are implemented on the con-

In the construction sector, category (1) covers, among others, bricklayers, concrete workers, carpenters, roofers, metal constructors, plasterers, painters and decorators, plumbers and heating engineers, refrigeration plant engineers, electricians, and joiners. The networking of building systems by means of intelligent components affects, in particular, —— metal constructors (moving building components); —— plumbers and heating engineers, refrigeration plant engineers, and —— electricians, a nd it is master electricians who would appear parti­c ularly professionally suited to install intelligent components.

Systems integrator In the context of networking building systems, the term systems integrator is often used. However, the meaning of this term appears extremely fuzzy in the building industry. The term covers everything from specialists with knowledge in the design and commissioning of building systems technology to large companies specializing in building automation and building management solutions. Ultimately, the task is the programming and commissioning of networked intelligent components. The variants shown are common in the market.  >  36  The following arrangements reflect how designers and contractors interact in nearly all building systems: Version B: Building automation in larger projects 1. Specialist engineering design/specialist supervision/ acceptance by a design practice 2. Design, installation, and system integration by a building contractor Version D: Building automation in smaller projects 1.

Does not apply

2. Design, installation, and system integration by a building contractor

11 In Germany the interaction of design and implementation could be integrated in the master training for electricians to a far greater extent

If we focus on the professional qualification for point 2 of both versions, again the master electrician is predestined for

60

than is customary today. Even better would be to establish an additional qualification as System Integrator

this work. 11 However in order to ensure proper system inte-

under the Handicrafts Regulation

gration, it would appear advisable for the supervising archi-

Act, similar to the additional quali-

tect or engineer to allocate a superior role to the systems integrator.  >  37 

fications as Energy Adviser or Business Economist established under the same act.

 >  36 Optional respon-

_______ Programming

sibilities of building auto­ mation

A

Specialist design

Construction

System integration

B

Specialist design

Construction

System integration

C

Specialist design

Construction

System integration

D

Specialist design

Construction

System integration

System integration by specialized company (A), system integration by executing company (B), system integration by design company (C), system integration by design company and executing company (D).

 >  37 Responsibility _______ System integrator

for system integration on the part of the company appointed for

User interface/automatisms

this purpose.

Data points Structure systems

Envelope systems

Interior systems

Mechanical systems

Electrical systems

Methodical commissioning As already touched on, it is not only necessary to allocate sufficient time for system integration and commissioning of networked technical installations within the construction process prior to acceptance and occupation, but also to carry out this work in a methodical way. No doubt this methodical way largely depends on the degree of technical sophistication in a particular building project. However, ATV DIN 18386 Building Automation specifies the following minimum requirements: —— All parts of the system must be set to ensure that the required functions and performance, and statutory regulations, can be fulfilled. This means that all physical inputs and outputs must be individually tested,

smart building design — Implementation

Supervision by BACS engineer

the specified parameters set, and the specified input and output, as well as processing functions, ensured. —— The commissioning and fine-tuning of the system and system parts must, inasmuch as is necessary, be carried out jointly with a person responsible for the respective system. Both commissioning and fine-tuning must be documented with reports containing measurements and set values. —— The personnel operating the system must be instructed once by the contractor. This instruction must be documented.

Acceptance/handover The acceptance/handover of building work is the key element and most important component of a building contract owing to its many effects. It is more than questionable to carry out an acceptance/handover procedure before proper commissioning has been carried out and before the complete documentation has been provided. A distinction is made between the legally binding acceptance/handover procedure and the technical acceptance of building automation. The technical acceptance is normally carried out by the supervisor/specialist supervising engineer. This procedure is carried out in order to establish the technical condition of the work. The technical acceptance is carried out in preparation for the legally binding acceptance/hand­ over procedure; based on the technical findings, it is up to the building owner to decide whether or not to accept the works. ATV DIN 18386 Building Automation stipulates an acceptance test that consists of a test for completeness and a test for function. The functional test comprises the following: —— Review of the commissioning and fine-tuning reports —— Sample testing of automated functions, e.g., control, safety, optimization, and communication functions —— Individual sample testing of messages, switch commands, measured values, actuating commands, meter values, deduced and calculated values —— Testing of the system’s reaction times —— Testing of the system’s self-monitoring —— Testing system behavior after power failure and reconnection The supervisor/specialist supervising engineer has a duty not only to report any deviations to the building owner but also to specify measures for eliminating them. Any additional costs or potential implications for the agreed deadlines must be assessed and explained to the building owner.

62

Documentation It is an open secret: the pressure of costs and deadlines, and sometimes even a lack of professional qualification, can tempt all stakeholders (building owner, designer, supervisor, building contractor) to take the subject of documentation of the intelligent systems and operating instructions all too lightly, perhaps following the motto “the best documentation is the source code itself.” When it comes to the ongoing operation of an intelligent building, this statement is false. In fact, the opposite is the case: should the source code and hence the operating logic of the building be anchored in only one or a few heads, there is a danger of a dependency, which may lead to serious consequences. For example, if a systems integrator with responsibility for the building leaves the company or, worse still, the company becomes insolvent, other specialists have to laboriously familiarize themselves with the source code in order to understand the intelligence of the intelligent building as comprehensively as possible. This familiarization can take several weeks, perhaps even months. This is especially the case when no open and commonly available communication protocols are used. Sometimes it is even necessary to carry out a complete reengineering; this is not an isolated case in the industry, even after an operating period of just a few years. In accordance with ATV DIN 18386 Building Automation, the contractor must produce quite a number of documents, which have to be handed over in updated and ordered form to the client not later than at handover. The intelligence of an intelligent building is brought to life by highly qualified specialists using suitable software. If one wants to make this intelligence accessible to other specialists in as barrier-free a manner as possible, extensive docu-

smart building design — Implementation

mentation of the operating logic is mandatory.

Operation Once the completed building has been occupied by the owner, the process of construction has come to an end. This marks the beginning of the building’s operating phase. While the focus of project management is on the organization of design, tender procedure, and execution through to completion, property management involves long-term support during the use phase of the building, including any necessary measures of adaptation when conditions change. Project management plays a decisive role in the later operating stage. This is when decisions are made that affect the entire life cycle of the property.  >  38 

Intelligent technical building management As an important component of the overall property management, intelligent technical building management plays a key role in the operating phase of intelligent buildings. The task of intelligent technical building management is primarily the automatic monitoring of technical systems such as heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, and shading using suitable building automation and control systems (BACS). Ideally, a system should largely monitor itself and report operating errors at an early stage. This makes it possible to preclude any increased maintenance risk due to malfunction in the building’s technical systems; as well, defects relating to security, energy efficiency, and comfort will be detected early on and corrected. Continuous automated evaluation of suitable key performance indicators (KPIs) in particular ensures failure-free operation. These are primarily based on the applicable operating data (big data) from the building automation and control system (BACS), and evaluate not only the performance of the control system but also user behavior in the building.  >  39 

64

 >  38 Life cycle of a building.

_______ Cost optimization potential

nt me ign lop des e v y de inar n ct g m o j e re l i D e s i r P P

Construction

Operation

Demolition

Cost curve / effect resulting from design decisions

Possibility of influencing costs

time

 >  39 Key Performance _______ TBM

Indicators (KPIs) of a BACS.

Commissioning

Continuous improvement _______ KPIs

_______ Big Data Analysis/ monitoring

_______ System

PA (generation) Demand

RA (use)

RA (use)

RA (use)

(TBM) Technical building management (PA) Plant automation

(RA) Room automation

RA (use)

RA (use)

smart building design — Operation

Energy

Periodical audit Let’s return to the example of the automotive industry. The guarantee for a new car is valid only if the car is regularly maintained. To this end, the vehicle needs to be taken to the workshop, where it will be analyzed and serviced with the use of appropriate diagnostic equipment. In this scenario, the screwdriver and the laptop work together as a matter of course, and without competition. In the construction sector too, maintenance contracts give rise to guarantee claims in many trades. A roofing contractor will not give a guarantee for a flat roof unless the roof is serviced at least once a year. What applies to a rather straightforward part of the building—from the technological point of view—is all the more relevant and essential when it comes to maintaining and adjusting the operating logic of an intelligent building. Generally speaking, there are two options: (1) In the context of property management, this task needs to be carried out by a highly qualified employee, who will be as comparable to a traditional caretaker as a computer is to a pocket calculator. The management involves checking, and adjusting if necessary, the operating logic of the building automation at room level. In addition, it in­volves a professional discussion of the control of central systems with internal and external specialists through to the level of the source code, and operation of the systems in a responsible manner. (2) Not every operator is in the advantageous position of having personnel on staff who are qualified for these tasks. In smaller properties, this is not even desirable or possible. In any case, though, continuous atten­tion to and servicing of the operating logic by an external service provider is mandatory, and should be secured with the help of maintenance contracts. For both options, professional intelligent technical building management is indispensable. In case (2), additional periodic audits should be carried out every twelve to thirty-six months, depending on the complexity of the technical installations.  >  40 

66

 >  40 Performance

Performance

of an intelligent building (smart

100

_______ Audited BACS system

building). 90 80 70 60

time (a)

smart building design — Operation

50

Smart Building Technology

Technical components  71 Sensors and actuators  71 Automation equipment  72 Management and operating equipment  72 Data interface units  73 Data transfer processes  75 Data transfer via cable  75  Two-wire technology — 75 / Powerline — 76 / LAN — 76 / Fiber optics — 76 Wireless transfer  77 System architecture  78 Centralized automation  78 Decentralized automation  78 Hybrid automation  80 Influence of the IoT on system architecture  80 Communication systems  82 BACnet 82 KNX 83 DALI 83

Smart Building Technology

Essentially, intelligent systems ensure that all systems in a building interact automatically in a sensible way. The all-important foundation of this interaction is building automation, which consists of three parts: Technical Building Management (TBM), Room Automation (RA), and Plant Automation (PA). Technical building management is used for the monitoring, operation, historization, and visualization of all the automation processes in a building. Room automation is concerned with the automation of, for example, sunshading, lighting, and air-conditioning in the room. The monitoring, control, regulation, and optimization of a building’s primary systems (e.g., heating, cooling, ventilation, air-conditioning) is referred to as plant automation. Room automation and plant automation should not be considered separately, because the link between the two is necessary in order to implement demand controlled automation concepts. Building automation is functionally subdivided into three levels. The five basic functions of building automation (switching, positioning, indication, counting, and measuring) are carried out at field level. Regulation, control, and optimization of the plants/rooms to be automated takes place at the automation level. Central operation, visualization, data historization, and network management are typically allocated to the management level. Within a building automation and control system (BACS), these functions are performed by appropriate technical components. A clear allocation of the technical components to the three levels is difficult nowadays because of the shift of intelligence. For example, automation devices are available that perform system automation and also include a display for visu-

70

alization. For this reason, it is suggested that the three-level model of building automation should be looked at independently of hardware.

Technical components Both in room automation and in plant automation, different types of components can be deployed. These include field devices such as sensors and actuators, as well as automation devices, management and operating devices, and data interface units. Each of these technical components carries out certain functions in a building automation system building automation and control system (BACS). The basic functions/tasks of these technical components are described below.

Sensors and actuators Sensors and actuators are responsible for performing the five basic functions of building automation (switching, positioning, indication, counting, and measuring). Sensors convert physical variables (temperature, luminosity, relative humidity, etc.) into electrical signals. These can then be used by actuators or automation devices to perform various functions. A distinction is made between analog and binary sensors. Whereas binary sensors can record only two conditions (e.g., window contact: OPEN/CLOSED), analog sensors (e.g., temperature sensors) can record several values within a range of measurables. By contrast, actuators convert electrical signals to physical variables. A distinction is also made between analog and binary actuators. Whereas binary actuators receive switch commands (e.g., activation of circulation pumps in a heating system), analog actuators respond to actuating commands (e.g., placing sunshading into a certain position). A general distinction is made between conventional and intelligent sensors ware side whereas that of conventional components is made on the physical side.  >  41 

 >  41 Interaction of sensors and actuators using the example of lighting.

Communication systems

Sensor

Sensor Actuator

Presence indication Switching Actuator light Logical linking via software

smart building Technology — Technical components

and actuators. The allocation of intelligent components is made on the soft-

Automation equipment Automation equipment is responsible for processing functions (monitoring, controlling, regulating, and optimizing). In room automation, automation equipment takes care of the automation of the different building systems (lighting, sunshading, and air-conditioning). Such automation equipment is also called a “room controller.” In plant automation, automation equipment is responsible for automating the primary systems (e.g., the ventilation system). These are typically called automation stations or controllers. A general distinction is made between application-specific and freely programmable automation equipment. Whereas in application-specific automation equipment the application functions are set by the manufacturer, freely programmable automation equipment can be used for different application purposes depending on the project requirements. Another distinction is made in accordance with the physical structure of the automation equipment. Automation equipment available on the market includes equipment with a fixed number of inputs and outputs as well as equipment that can be extended to suit different purposes. Generally speaking, automation equipment consists of a processing unit, a communication interface, the inputs and outputs, and a power supply.  >  42 

Management and operating equipment The management and operating equipment is responsible for the operating and management functions. For example, this equipment is used for the visualization of the automation processes of a building automation and control system (BACS). In addition, to visualization and the modification of process parameters, the management of alarms and events is also performed by this equipment. In addition, the equipment will store the data history and evaluate process data from the building automation and control system (BACS). Furthermore, the equipment is used to manage devices and the network. This includes, for examble, the automatic identification and the periodic data backup of the automation equipments in the building automation and control system (BACS). Both Web-based and desktop-based systems are possible and available. In the Web-based version, the software is typically installed on a server system and, in contrast to desktop-based management and operating equipment, access to the data is not exclusively local but decentralized via any Web browser.  >  43 

72

 >  42 Typical structure of an automation device.

PS

COM CPU

AI

AO BI

BO

I/O modules

 >  43 Management and operating

TBM

equipment.

Management and operating device

 >  44 gateway BACnet to KNX and KNX to DALI.

Gateway

Gateway

BACnet

KNX

KNX

DALI

Data interface units Two commonly used data interface units in a building automation and control system (BACS) are gateways and routers. These are often wrongly considered to be the same thing, but they actually have different functions. In all situations where two or more networks based on different communication systems have to be connected to each other (e.g., BACnet and KNX), gateways are needed. These function as interpreters (protocol converters) and translate one communication system into the other. It is important to note that such protocol conversion is inevitably accompanied by a loss of information. The reason for this is that, like languages, the available communication systems have different structures.  >  44 

smart building Technology — Technical components

example—

 >  45 router example— Router

Router

KNX IP

BACnet IP

KNX TP

BACnet MS/TP

In contrast to gateways, routers connect two or more networks based on the same communication system. For example, this is the case when a BACnet/IP network is to be connected with a BACnet MS/TP network (BACnet Master Slave Token Passing) or a KNX IP network with a KNX TP network (KNX Twisted Pair). Even though the networked devices communicate via the same system, they usually use different transfer media for the transfer of data. This means no protocol conversion takes place, but only the passing on or routing of the information from one network to the other.  >  45 

74

KNX IP to KNX TP and BACnet/IP to BACnet MS/TP.

Data transfer processes Different processes are available for the transfer of digital data between technical components. Data can be transferred via cable or wireless. What follows is a description of the characteristic properties of some transfer proc­ esses.  >  46 

Data transfer via cable In data transfer via cable, it is possible to use two-wire, powerline, LAN, or fiber-optic transfer technologies.

Two-wire technology A data transfer process that is economical and widely used in building automation is the two-wire technology that is supported by many communication systems. It consists of a copper conductor with twisted pairs of strands (twisted-pair conductor), and is often installed in new buildings in addition to the electrical wiring. When such a network is installed, it is necessary to take into account the topology of the respective communication system that describes the physical structure of the network required for the data transfer. Likewise, it is important to take into account the maximum permitted length of wiring and the maximum number of components to be networked. While two-wire technology provides a stable communication connection, it is considered inflexible when it comes to extensions of the building automation system. low, they are adequate for the low volume of data to be transferred.

Powerline In contrast to two-wire technology, the additional infrastructure for data transfer is not needed with powerline. In this data transfer process it is possible to use the existing electricity network for the data transfer. It is therefore a technology that can also be used for upgrading existing buildings. Owing to some weaknesses, however, such as a higher susceptibility to faults caused by other equipment connected to the network, this technology is less used today than two-wire technology.

smart building Technology — Data transfer processes

Even though the data rates achievable with two-wire technology are rather

LAN With LAN (Local Area Network) technology, it is possible to use the existing IT infrastructure (e.g., a company network) for the transfer of data. In this case, the separation between the IT network and the BAC network can by carried out at the physical or the logical level. The logical separation can be achieved using a so-called VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network). In this case, the automation devices are physically connected with the components of the IT network but are logically separated from them. This version saves costs, because no additional IT infrastructure is needed for building automation. However, it needs to make the necessary arrangements with the IT administration. This technology achieves significantly higher transfer rates compared with the two data transfer processes described above, which is why this version is suitable for the transfer of large quantities of data. For example, large quantities of data can be transferred between the management level and the automation level.

Fiber optics Whereas the data of the data transfer processes described above is transferred via electrical or high-frequency signals, data in fiber-optic technology is transferred by light impulses. Fiber optics is usually used when the installations to be networked are physically very distant from each other, for example when transferring data between different floor levels or buildings. In addition, fiber-optic cables are resistant to electromagnetic interference and, compared with copper conductors, achieve significantly higher transfer rates. A disadvantage of the system is the complex and therefore costly installation.

76

Wireless transfer In wireless transfer, the transfer medium is not copper conductor or fiber optics, but air. Different wireless data transfer processes exist; in building automation the most common system is radio transfer, in which data is transferred via radio waves. A range of different radio systems is available on the market, all of which have advantages and disadvantages. Whereas in residential buildings radio systems are widely used, in nonresidential buildings these systems are more commonly used for extending wire-based transfer systems. Radio technology lends itself to the implementation of a flexible automation concept. For example, sensors and operating devices can be positioned anywhere (on a glass wall, for instance) and likewise a subsequent extension of mobile components (e.g., of a remote control device) is possible at little expense. It also makes sense to use radio technology in places where it is not possible to install conductors (e.g., as part of the refurbishment of buildings listed as historic monuments). A weak point of radio technology is its susceptibility to interference. For example, interference can occur due to the presence of other radio-based devices. Another aspect is that the security risk of a radio system should not be underestimated, because in systems without a secure encryption procedure it is possible for unauthorized persons to gain access to the building automation and control system (BACS)—also without

 >  46 Wire-based and wireless data transfer.

smart building Technology — Data transfer processes

involving physical means.

System architecture The increasing complexity of building automation calls for increasingly complex automation strategies. The selection of an automation concept plays an important role in the design of a system architecture that is suitable for building automation. Whether a centralized or decentralized automation concept, or a mixture of the two, is more suitable depends on the project-specific requirements and an assessment of the respective possibilities and limits.

Centralized automation In centralized automation, the automation tasks are performed by one or several automation devices within the building automation and control system (BACS). This means that, in this automation strategy, the intelligence is centrally located. The automation devices have inputs and outputs to which the conventional sensors and actuators are connected. The connection between the sensors and actuators is carried out using conventional wiring. In this scenario, the communication with the management and operating equipment is usually via an IP-based communication system. Whereas a failure of the management and operating equipment does not affect the automation process in the building, a failure of the centralized automation equipment affects the whole system. In addition, the wiring installation is comparatively complex, because each sensor and actuator requires its own physical conductor.  >  47 

Decentralized automation In contrast to centralized automation, in decentralized automation the intelligence is distributed to various components. This means that no centralized automation equipment is needed at all. Usually, the communication with the management level takes place via data interface units, depending on the communication system used. An advantage of this automation concept is its greater reliability; should one component fail, this does not typically lead to failure of the whole system. Another advantage is the low complexity of the wiring installation, because all components communicate via a shared transfer medium. However, the system requires intelligent components with their own microcontroller and a communication interface. In addition, carrying out a fault analysis for a distributed intelligence is more expensive than for a centralized automation system.  >  48 

78

 >  47 System architecture of a centralized automation system.

Management level

Management and operating device

TBM

Display

Operate

Communication protocol

Record

Evaluate

e.g., BACnet/IP, etc.

Automation level

Automation stations (AS)

Controlling

Communication

Optimizing

Microprocessor (CPU)

Monitoring

Power supply

Regulating

interface

Analog and binary

input/output modules AI, AO, BI, BO AS

AS

AS

Communication protocol

e.g., KNX TP, etc. I/O modules Field level

Switching

Field devices

Positioning

Sensors and actuators _______ intelligence without

Indication Counting

Measuring

 >  48 ture of a decentralized automation system.

Management and operating device

Management level

Display

Operate

Record

Evaluate

TBM

Communication protocol e.g., BACnet/IP, KNX IP, etc.

Automation level Monitoring

Controlling

These functions are moved to the equipment below

Regulating

Optimizing

Field level

Switching

Positioning Indication Counting

Measuring Display

Operation

Field equipment

Sensors and actuators _______ with intelligence Communication protocol

e.g., KNX TP, etc.

smart building Technology — System architecture

System architec-

Hybrid automation Hybrid automation combines elements of centralized and decentralized automation. In this version, automation devices are used which, in addition to the conventional input and output modules, also offer modules that are then used as interfaces for different communication systems. Such interfaces are frequently referred to as bus-capable modules or bus terminals. Bus terminals for a large number of different communication systems, such as KNX and DALI, are available on the market, as are bus terminals for connecting radiobased sensors and actuators. In this scenario, the modular automation de­vices can be freely programmed. This means that part of the intelligence can be shifted to the automation device (higher-level functions) and another part to the sensors and actuators. Such automation devices can frequently perform the functions of data interface units and thus replace routers and gateways, which, in practice, can be additional sources of malfunction. This version is particularly suitable when the focus is on flexibility and scalability.  >  49 

Influence of the IoT on system architecture Currently, the Internet of Things (IoT) is on everyone’s lips. But what characterizes the Internet of Things, and what will be its influence on building automation? The IoT is based on Internet protocol, or IP. In an IoT environment, every component is clearly accessible via an address from the outside, that is, directly via the Internet and without additional protocol conversion. This means that every component to be networked must have an IP address. In view of the fact that, for several years, the address space of the first version of the Internet protocol (IPv4) has not been big enough due to the increasing connection of devices to the Internet, the IPv6 Internet protocol was developed based on the previous protocol. Whereas the IPv4 can theoretically provide a little more than 4 billion IP addresses, the IPv6 theoretically provides approximately 3.4 × 1038 IP addresses. The IoT environment is based on the idea that each individual “thing” is able to comply with the Internet protocol. When applied to building automation, this means that each component in a building automation and control system (BACS) (such as a window contact or a presence sensor) is IP-capable without any additional device. Whereas the majority of automation equipment at the automation level is already IP-capable, the IP capability of sensors and actuators is still achieved via routers or gateways. In the context of the IoT, it is possible that Power over Ethernet (PoE) will also play an important role. PoE enables both data transfer and power supply via the LAN or a computer network. The IoT not only involves IP capability but is also associated with smart, i.e., intelligent, components that are networked with each other. This could significantly change the classical BAC system architecture. Based on the Internet of

80

Things, the BAC system architecture could take the form of a completely IP-based and decentralized automation system. Furthermore, in future, data

 >  49 ture of a hybrid automation system.

Management and operating device

Management level

Display

Operate

Communication protocol

Record

Evaluate

TBM

e.g., BACnet/IP, KNX IP, etc.

Automation level

Automation stations (AS)

Monitoring

Power supply

Controlling

Communication

Regulating

technology

Optimizing

Microprocessor (CPU) Analog and binary

input/output modules AS

AS

Inter_______ _______ face

AS

AE, AA, BE, BA

Communication protocol

e.g., KNX TP, etc. I/O modules

Field level

Switching

Field devices

Sensors and actuators _______ with/without intelligence

Positioning Indication Counting

Communication protocol

Measuring

e.g., KNX TP, Dali, etc.

Display

Wireless

Wired

Operation

historization could increasingly be carried out via cloud-based solutions rather than locally. The response to the IoT from the established communication standards, such as BACnet and KNX, is, in addition to the specification of IPv6, the support of so-called Web services. Web services make it possible to connect the BAC world with the IT world, a scenario in which the BA components communicate directly with the IT components, and vice versa (machineto-machine communication, M2M). This opens up completely new possibilities, which hitherto could only be realized at considerable expense.

smart building Technology — System architecture

System architec-

Communication systems The prerequisite for comprehensive networking of all building systems is a communication system. Without communication systems, smart buildings are not even conceivable. A large number of different communication systems are available on the market, including an enormous number of manufacturer-specific as well as manufacturer-neutral communication systems. One advantage of manufacturer-neutral communication systems is that, as their name would suggest, they are independent of a single manufacturer. For this reason, we limit ourselves at this point to the description of a small selection of relevant manufacturer-neutral communication systems as examples: BACnet and KNX as cross-components communication systems, and DALI as a manufacturer-neutral system designed for individual building systems.

BACnet BACnet (Building Automation and Control Network) is a worldwide standardized communication system that was developed with a focus on interoperability especially to fulfill the needs of building automation. The development started as early as 1987 by ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers). BACnet is independent of any specific hardware or software; it is being continually developed, and is available license-free. BACnet was primarily designed for use in medium to large projects, and is particularly strong at management level. BACnet provides numerous functions for the management of complex alarm situations, time schedules, and trend recordings. Even though BACnet was originally created in the context of heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning, the continuing development has meant that the standard now covers all systems in a building. In addition to its deployment in technical building management, BACnet is also used at the automation level in the area of plant automation. The automation devices communicate primarily via BACnet/IP, and are responsible for the monitoring, control, regulating, and optimization of primary systems. When it comes to room automation, BACnet very soon reaches its limits and relies on other communication systems, such as KNX. BACnet is based on existing transfer technologies, and is therefore flexible in use. The transfer technology still most widely used is the transfer of BACnet messages via Internet protocol, i.e., BACnet/IP. The transfer technology called BACnet MS/TP, on the other hand, is a field bus system that is increasingly gaining ground. In this system, the amount of wiring is kept modest by connecting the various field devices with the automation equipment not via separate conductors but via a bus cabel. Furthermore, in the case of bus-capable field devices, more information is available for further processing.

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Numerous gateway solutions are available for connecting a BACnet system with other communication systems. Also, data mapping between BACnet

and KNX has become a firm component of the BACnet standard. Owing to international standardization and the similar data structures, KNX and BACnet can be optimally combined. Based on the standardized documentation, manufacturers are able to develop standardized and economical data interface units. In order to ensure interoperability, manufacturers can have their BACnet products tested in an independent laboratory for conformity with the standard. These conformity tests are not mandatory for manufacturers, but certification/listing increases the marketability of their products.

KNX KNX is also a worldwide standardized communication system and was developed especially for intelligent networking of building technology. The objective was to launch a communication system that can be uniformly planned, installed, and operated. This is primarily made possible with the help of the cross-manufacturer commissioning tool ETS (Engineering Tool Software). This commissioning tool is made available by the umbrella organization, the KNX Association. In contrast to BACnet, KNX is a decentralized technology. This means that the intelligence is distributed to the various KNX components and there is normally no need for a centralized unit. Even though each KNX component only performs partial functions, the components together nevertheless achieve the overall functionality stipulated by building owners. KNX-capable components are primarily used for room automation functions. KNX is used in residential as well as nonresidential buildings. In residential buildings, it makes sense to opt for all-embracing automation from the field level through to the automation and management levels. In large nonresiautomation as part of building automation. KNX can be used for all room automation functions for all building systems. There are several options for transferring KNX telegrams between different components. The classic and most widely used technology is KNX TP. In this system, the components are interlinked by means of a two-strand conductor. By specifying KNX IP, it is possible to make a classic KNX installation IP-capable. This means that the building can be accessed for the purpose of visualization via the existing IT network, but also from the Internet for remote access. Numerous gateway solutions are available for linking a KNX system with other communication systems. In contrast to manufacturers of BACnet-capable products, KNX manufacturers are obliged to have their products tested by an independent laboratory. If that test is passed successfully, the KNX Association will issue a certificate.

smart building Technology — Communication systems

dential buildings, however, KNX is frequently used for the purpose of room

DALI DALI (Digital Addressable Lighting Interface) is a standardized digital interface that was specially developed for lighting technology. This means that it is a communication system that is manufacturer-neutral and related to one particular building system. Compared with conventional technology, this brings with it a number of advantages (e.g. logical group assignment and individual control). DALI can be installed either as an independent system or as a subsystem within a building automation scenario. When it is used as an independent system without connection to a higher-level system, all functions, including commissioning and maintenance, are carried out locally. However, if DALI is used as a subsystem, it needs a gateway that takes care of the protocol conversion between DALI and the communication system to be connected to, such as KNX or BACnet. When it is used as a subsystem, it is possible to use components from the higher-level system, such as a KNX-capable presence sensor for the control of a DALI-capable luminaire. In contrast to BACnet and KNX, DALI is not based on Safety Extra Low Voltage (SELV). This means that it is possible to use a conventional five-strand cable both for data transfer and for the power supply. Provided manufacturers of DALI-capable components are in possession of their own test equipment, they can carry out the DALI tests themselves. On the other hand, manufacturers can also have their DALI-capable products tested by an independent laboratory. If these tests have been passed, the DALI logo may be used exclusively on the products of members of the DiiA (Digital Illumination Interface Alliance).

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Projects

Inout house, San JosÉ  90 Residence m, meran0  96 Basilica in Waldsassen  102 DIAL corporate building, Lüdenscheid  110 ICE Q, Sölden  120 The elbphilharmonie, hamburg  128 Appendix 138

90

Inout house, San JosÉ Client Private

Location  San José, Costa Rica

Architecture  PAAS. Puigcorbé Arquitectes Associats (Ripoll, Spain) Intelligent systems

Specialist engineering / system integration  Tecno CR Systems  JUNG KNX System / www.jung.de

Developed under the label “Costa Rica Natural Design,” a company in Costa Rica builds and sells houses that, although all follow the same basic idea, are individually designed. The INOUT house (Casa Valle L70) was designed by the Spanish architect Joan Puigcorbé and is notable in particular for the relationship between its architecture and the surrounding landscape. Bedrooms, bathrooms, and ancillary rooms are arranged as enclosed volumes on the sides of the building. In between, there is transparent space for various social activities, including the cooking/eating area, living room, swimming pool, veranda, and barbecue area. The large glazed walls have the effect of blurring the boundaries between exterior and interior. In addition, existing trees were integrated into the concept in order to reinforce this impression. The pool also follows this concept, and links the garden with the living areas. In this way, the architecture of the house is adapted to the surroundings and thus conveys a sense of “living in the open.” The floor and the walls are made of timber and create a warm atmosphere. The same material has been used for the interior and exterior of the house, again reinforcing the link between inside and outside. The INOUT house has been fitted with a KNX system, which controls the lighting, among other things. The operating elements feature a classic design and have suitable interfaces, ensuring KNX Sources: PAAS / Jung

Projects — Inout house, San JosÉ

compatibility. 

7

9

6

7

7

10

3

2

2 4

1

8

0

First floor 1 Garage 2 Garden 3 Corridor 4 Kitchen 5

Living room

6 Bathroom 7 Bedroom 8

Guest room

9

Utility room

10 Pool

92

5

6

5

10

7

Projects — Inout house, San JosÉ

A special feature of the INOUT house is the relationship between the interior and the exterior, which interconnect

94

in many different ways. This impression is also maintained and reinforced at night by the lighting, which is controlled via a KNX system.

Projects — Inout house, San JosÉ

96

Residence M, Merano Client Private

Location  Merano, Italy

Architecture  monovolume architecture + design (Bozen, Italy) Intelligent systems

Specialist engineering / system integration  Elektro Pföstl Daniel Systems  GIRA KNX System / www.gira.de

Not far from Bolzano, the capital of South Tyrol, the architectural practice monovolume designed a residence in Merano that is particularly notable for its interplay of solid and transparent components allowing a great variety of views in and out. The dominating color of the building’s interior and exterior is white. In order to achieve a maximum of open space on the site, the building comprises a compact volume with two stories and a basement. So as to reduce the solid appearance of the building in spite of its straightforward form language, the architects introduced cantilevering elements in combination with large glazed areas offset to the inside. Thanks to the compact form of the building in combination with high-performance insulation and insulating glazing, the building is particularly energy-efficient. The rooms are heated via underfloor heating and cooled via suspended ceilings. A ventilation system with heat recovery ensures controlled air change in the rooms. The residence is fitted with a KNX system into which heating, cooling, ventilation, and lighting are integrated. The concept also includes an audio system, which the residents can use to access the same audio files throughout the house. The core of the KNX system is a central server, to which all relevant information is directed. In the rooms, the system is operated via touch sensors in aluminum, which, with their classic design, are fitted nearly flush panels on the wall or an app on mobile devices. 

Sources: monovolume / GIRA

Projects — Residence M, Merano

with the wall. Alternatively, the system can be controlled via central touch

4 7 6

1

2 9

3

0

First floor 1 Entrance 2 Kitchen 3

Living room

4 Bedroom 5 WC 6

Store room

7 Cloakroom 8

Utility room

9 Pool

98

5

10

5

8

Projects — Residence M, Merano

The heating, cooling, ventilation, and lighting of the villa are integrated in a KNX system. Furthermore, the residents can access the same audio files wherever they are in the house. The core of the KNX system is a central server, to where all relevant information is directed.

100

Projects — Residence M, Merano

102

Basilica in Waldsassen Client  Free State of Bavaria, State Ministry for Education and Culture, Science, and Art, Catholic Church Foundation, Waldsassen, Parish Priest Thomas Vogl location  Waldsassen, Germany

Architecture (project management of overhaul):  State Building Department of Amberg-Sulzbach Director of Architectural Services Elizabeth Bücherl-Beer Intelligent systems

Specialist engineering design  Ingenieurbüro für Elektrotechnik Zeitler System integration  Höllerer Elektrotechnik

Systems  Busch-Jaeger KNX-System / www.busch-jaeger.de

The Waldsassen basilica is considered one of the most important Baroque churches in the German-speaking countries and was originally built by Cistercians in the late seventeenth century as the abbey church. Following the secularization of the abbey by the Bavarian state in 1803, the church remained the parish church of the town of Waldsassen. The historically important monument was designed by well-known master builders and artists, including, in particular, the architects Abraham Leuthner, Georg and Christoph Dientzenhofer, and Bernhard Schießer, the stucco plasterer Giovanni Battista Carlone, the sculptor Karl Stilp, and the painter Johann Jakob Steinfels, among many others. The building was designed in the style of a basilica and is accessed via a two-tower facade. The nave features three bays and is flanked by altar chap­ els. While the transept does not project outward, the choir is unusually long and has a square end. The square intersection is topped by a semispherical and decoration. A comprehensive redesign and refurbishment of the interior was carried out in the late 1950s. As part of this work, the existing color scheme of the stucco on the building’s peripheral walls was replaced by differentiated shades of white. The refurbishment also included a new and extensive lighting scheme for the interior, designed by the architect R. Göschel and the engineer W. Ott. In addition to pendant luminaires, which are still in use today, concealed reflector luminaires were fitted among others, and the altars were highlighted by downlights (see also Special Issue 1 of Deutsche Kunst- und Denkmalpflege 1958, pp. 4–22). Owing to serious damage caused by the transfer of structural movement from the roof structure to the vaults and the masonry, the external walls, the crypt, and the entire interior shell were substantially overhauled in

Projects — Basilica in Waldsassen

cupola. The entire interior is notable for the strong interlacing of architecture

the period from 2013 to 2017. This also included a reconstruction of the original color scheme of the interior to replace the shades of white dating from the 1950s. As part of the extensive building work between 2013 and 2017, the electrical installations were also comprehensively renewed. They no longer complied with current regulations, and in some areas the electrical installations had to be completely replaced in order to comply with fire regulations. The new installations included electrical, network, and media connections, as well as electrical drives to the entrance doors in order to facilitate barrier-free access. Automatic hazard alert systems were fitted as preventive measures against fire and burglary. The lighting systems were not only modified to allow for the new arrangement of fittings (e.g., the altar) but also renewed to reflect more demanding requirements with respect to interior effects, for example in the choir area. In view of the fact that the basilica is used for many concerts as well as for the Mass, the lighting scheme includes provision for large events. Most of the lamps used in the lighting scheme are light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and many of the luminaires are dimmable. The existing lighting control system was completely replaced by a KNX system, which facilitates numerous fully automated functions as well as central operation of the lighting systems via a touch panel. The lighting control is both wire-based (KNX TP) and wireless (KNX RF). This makes it possible to switch every single luminaire on and off at the panel and also to activate and deactivate larger areas such as those lighting the nave, the altar, the organ, or side altars. In addition, numerous lighting scenarios and lighting sequences are saved in the panel. So, a certain lighting scenario can be selected depending on, for example, the day of the week (workday, Sunday, etc.). Furthermore, liturgical requirements (Advent, Christmas, Lent, or Easter, etc.) can be catered to with different lighting moods. While these lighting scenarios are mostly static, it is also possible to use lighting sequences to unfold a dynamic drama, as in a film. In addition to the lighting, other functions such as media technology are integrated into the KNX system, which can also be operated via the central panel. For the purpose of guided tours or maintenance, it is possible to operate all functions of the central touch panel via WLAN using a mobile tablet. Source: Catholic Church Foundation Waldsassen, 2017

104

1

2

Site plan 1 Basilica 2 Cloister

3

Floor plan 1 Choir 2 Nave 3

Side altar

1

0

5

10

Projects — Basilica in Waldsassen

2

The Waldsassen basilica is considered one of the most important Baroque churches in the German-speaking countries and was last substantially overhauled in a process that took several years. This also included an extensive reconstruction of the original colorful wall and ceiling paintings.

106

Projects — Basilica in Waldsassen

Part of the building work involved the replacement of the electrical installations. The old lighting control system was completely replaced by a KNX system. This makes it possible to select certain lighting scenarios to suit liturgical requirements, thereby enhancing the effect with dynamic light sequences.

108

Projects — Basilica in Waldsassen

110

DIAL corporate building, Lüdenscheid client  DIAL / www.dial.de location 

Lüdenscheid, Germany

Architecture DIAL Intelligent systems

Specialist engineering design DIAL System integration DIAL Systems  Various systems

DIAL was founded in 1989 and is focused on lighting and intelligent buildings. The company’s remit is that of a manufacturer-independent conveyor of knowledge, service provider, and software engineer, and it currently has a workforce of more than ninety employees. The new corporate building embodies a basic idea of the company, namely that the future lies in intelligent, fully automated buildings that are oriented toward their users’ needs. The architectural and overall technical concepts were designed in-house and managed by DIAL in a lead capacity through to occupation of the building in 2013. The software-controlled building has ning, the focus of the design was on people and their needs and comfort in the building, in accordance with the philosophy that the user does not have to operate anything; instead, the intelligent building serves the user. The integrated design of architecture and technology follows a holistic concept. Even the reduced color scheme of the building is continued through to the digital user interfaces. On the building’s three floors, nearly 2,900 square meters of usable floor area are available. The complex room program comprises the following, among others: —— Central foyer/atrium/bistro/catering zone —— Office and conference rooms (single, double, and group offices) —— Light experiment laboratory (white laboratory) —— Measuring laboratory for lighting technology (black laboratory) —— Automation laboratories —— Additional seminar and experimental rooms The successful implementation of intelligent systems in this project was largely achieved with the help of an integrated design process in which,

Projects — DIAL corporate building, Lüdenscheid

been undergoing continuous development ever since. From the very begin-

based on a detailed project analysis, all important characteristics of the building’s operating philosophy were designed at an early stage of the architectural design. The comprehensive technical systems were designed in relation to each other and function in complex interaction. All component groups are networked with each other, that is to say, no system functions autonomously. Based on the available information, operating software controls the building’s functions. In order to achieve a high level of energy efficiency and comfort in the building, it is necessary to implement operating strategies with the help of building automation. The energy and climate concept is based on comprehensive thermal simulation, and includes solid reinforced concrete slabs and external walls as thermal storage media. Other features include the automatic functions of ventilation systems, such as free cooling or cooling at night. In order for the mass storage of the building to be used as effectively as possible, it must be freely accessible. For this reason, the technical services installations were mostly placed in the void of a raised floor. This void is also used to conduct the intake air to the room, and to extract waste air from it. In view of the fact that this arrangement deviates from the standard textbook solution, a simulation of the airflow was carried out beforehand. In order to balance daylight and artificial light as efficiently and ergonomically as possible, dynamic management of solar screening (external) and lighting is required. As a matter of principle, all application functions have been automated to suit demand. Nevertheless, the design places great emphasis on affording users individual means of controlling their environment. Most rooms do not feature conventional switches. The operation of the building is mainly carried out using PC apps, which employees can use to control air, temperature, and light quality, just a few clicks being necessary to adjust conditions at their workplace to their needs. The successful operation of the intelligent building depends to a large extent on the use of software-based technical building management. On the one hand, this is used to operate the building’s technical systems and to display their operating status at a central location; on the other hand, operating data is recorded and continually evaluated with the aim of maintaining and optimizing the building’s performance. The entire building features hybrid automation based on KNX IP. At field level, DALI (lighting) is used, among others, as well as KNX.

112

4 2

Site plan of science park, 415 m above sea level 1 DIAL 2

South Westphalia University of Applied Sciences

3

Phänomenta Lüdenscheid

4

Foucault’s pendulum

1

Projects — DIAL corporate building, Lüdenscheid

3

First floor

2

5

1 Atrium/foyer 2 Reception

1

3 Bistro

4

6 3

7

4

Light experiment laboratory



with lift ceiling for practical

applications 5

Measuring laboratory—



lighting technology

6 Storage 7

2

4

3

3

Second floor

7

1

Plant room

1 Atrium 2 Office 3 Seminar room 4 Automation laboratory

6

5 Test laboratory

5

6 Video studio 7 Plant room

2

4

1 3

3

Third floor 1 Atrium 2 Office 3

Meeting room

4

Plant room

5

114

10

Visualization, floor plan (2nd floor)

Projects — DIAL corporate building, Lüdenscheid

APP

One of the two focal points of DIAL’s business is intelligent buildings; as a manufacturer-neutral company, we provide knowledge, services, and produce software. The company primarily employs IT professionals, engineers, interior

116

designers, architects, and designers.

Projects — DIAL corporate building, Lüdenscheid

118

of usable floor area are available. The integrated design of the software-controlled building was conceived of in a holistic way. Even the basic black/white color concept of the building continues through to the digital user interfaces.

Projects — DIAL corporate building, Lüdenscheid

On the three floors of the building, nearly 2,900 square meters

120

ice Q, Sölden client  Jakob Falkner, Ötztaler Gletscherbahn location  Sölden, Austria

Architecture  obermoser arch.omo Intelligent systems

Specialist engineering design  Johannes Hasenauer Technisches Büro System integration Sauter

Systems  Sauter / www.sauter-controls.com

The peak of the 3,051-meter-high Gaislachkogel offers visitors a spectacular panoramic view across three countries: Italy (Dolomites), Germany (Zug­ spitze), and several glacier regions of the Tyrol in Austria (Pitztal, Ötztal, Stubaital, Zillertal). Directly beneath the peak, the architect Johannes Obermoser designed a mountain restaurant that looks like a sculpture made of stacked ice blocks. The location offers far-reaching views and panoramas to the impressive glacial and mountain backdrop. The gourmet restaurant is accessed via a tunnel from the top station of the cableway, and features a south-facing sun terrace in front of the building. The floor above accommodates a lounge bar that has its own terrace, which can also be used as a seminar room. The roof of ice Q is accessible from the outside, and is connected with the Gaislachkogel via a bridge. The interior design features mostly local materials. Overall, the restaurant can accommodate one hundred guests, and the lounge forty. The building sits on three individual foundations that are hydraulically adjustable in order to make it possible to adapt to changes in the permafrost ground. The plinth, which accommodates the plant room, has been built in solid reinforced concrete, whereas the structure of the upper stories consists of steel framing with glulam beams in the ceilings. The glass facades are fitted with triple glazing. The floors are raised, with the void providing a high In order to be able to react as quickly as possible to the constantly changing weather conditions, the building is heated and cooled via air-conditioning with heat recovery. Background heating, however, is provided by underfloor heating. The conditioned intake air is conducted into the building via convector outlets at the base of the facades. During extremely low external temperatures, which can drop to -30°C in winter, this concept has the advantage of achieving a high level of comfort by the combination of reduced radiant heat and the warm air curtain in front of the glass facade. The solar heat gain through the glass facades and the waste heat from the cooling aggregates

Projects — ICE Q, Sölden

degree of flexibility for the technical installations.

are stored in water storage devices and utilized for heating. All heating, cooling, and ventilation systems are networked with each other via an automation system to ensure that comfortable room conditions prevail during any kind of weather while also ensuring that the temperature of the exhaust air is never higher than 5°C, in order to avoid any risk to the permafrost ground. All data is transferred to the central management software using BACnet/IP. The ice Q has attracted international attention, not least as a spectacular stage set for the James Bond film Spectre. 

source: obermoser I architektur / Sauter

Site plan

2

1 ice Q 2 Gaislachkogl top station 3 Bond installation

(under construction)

1

3

122

0

5

10

Floor plan, level 2 1 Restaurant 2 Bar 3 Kitchen 4 Terrace

2

3

1

4

0

5

10

Floor plan, level 3 1

Lounge bar

2 Terrace

2

Projects — ICE Q, Sölden

1

Directly beneath the peak of the 3,051-meter-high Gaislachkogel mountain, the new ice Q mountain restaurant offers extensive vistas and all-round views to the impressive backdrop of glaciers and mountains of three countries: the Dolomites in Italy, the Zugspitze in Germany, and several glacier regions in Tyrol.

124

Projects — ICE Q, Sölden

All services installations are interlinked and designed to ensure that the fully glazed interior is comfortable even in extreme weather conditions and at temperatures down to -30°C. All data are evaluated and processed via BACnet.

126

Projects — ICE Q, Sölden

128

The Elbphilharmonie, Hamburg client  Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg location  Hamburg, Germany

Architecture  Herzog & de Meuron (Basel, Switzerland) Intelligent systems

(large concert hall > air-conditioning) Specialist engineering design 

Hochtief Solutions / M&P Group (detailed design) System integration GFR Systems GFR

The Elbphilharmonie concert hall is the new landmark of the city of Hamburg, and is a new center of social interaction for all citizens as well as visitors from all over the world. Designed by the renowned Swiss architectural practice Herzog & de Meuron, the glass concert hall on top of the Kaispeicher A warehouse is visible from all over the city and is surrounded on three sides by the water of the river Elbe. The Elbphilharmonie lies at the tip of the new Hamburg HafenCity, and thus in the direct vicinity of the Speicherstadt and Kontorhaus District, a World Heritage cultural site, the latter neighborhood including the renowned Chilehaus. The distinctive roof of the new concert hall rises up in mighty curves to 110 meters above its western point. The glass facades with their mixture of curved and partially opened glass panels reflect the changing ambient features of sky, water, and the city, and thereby transform the glazed building into a type of crystal with an ever-changing appearance. In this way, the glazed volume forms a stark contrast to the ance, which was designed in the 1960s by the well-known architect Werner Kallmorgen. The two building volumes are separated by a type of joint. Access to the Elbphilharmonie is from the eastern side of the Kaispeicher warehouse. From here, an extended escalator leads to the roof of the former warehouse and a publicly accessible plaza with a unique view across Hamburg and its world-famous port. From the plaza, one has access to the foyers of the concert hall, as well as to restaurants and other facilities, and a hotel lobby. The broad mix of different urban functions, including culture, gastronomy, hotel accommodation, housing, and parking, is condensed to form a new public space as a city within a city, which makes the Elbphilharmonie not just a haven for a privileged few but a meeting place for everyone. In addition to Kaistudio 1, a music venue for an audience of about 150, and the small hall, with a capacity of up to 550, the large concert hall with its 2,100 seats forms the heart of the Elbphilharmonie. Both the orchestra and

Projects — the Elbphilharmonie, Hamburg

brick-built Kaispeicher A warehouse building, with its solid and heavy appear-

conductor are located in the midst of a complex spatial structure, the balconies of which extend high into the overall space, forming an organic unit with walls and ceilings. This means that the space is determined by people in a particular way, and that the public is very close to the musicians. The large concert hall form-giving inner structure that imposes its shape on the exterior of the Elbphilharmonie, which is visible from afar. In terms of its room climate, the large concert hall also meets the most exacting requirements relating to the operation of ventilation systems. The total air volume changed is 130,000 cubic meters per hour. For this purpose, two central air-conditioning systems have been fitted with heating, cooling, humidification, and dehumidification functions. Both plants are fitted with heat recovery using a combined circulation system, and are capable of recovering energy for heating and cooling from the exhaust air using appropriate equipment. For the purpose of air-conditioning the large hall, a sound-insulated air duct network was installed at the outer shell of the hall building. The conditioned intake air is conducted into the hall via sixteen variable-flow controllers and suitable outlets beneath the rows of seating. In order to keep the room climate both comfortable and stable, different parameters such as temperature, air quality (CO2  ), and relative humidity are measured via numerous sensors. All data is processed in automation stations on the basis of various user scenarios with their corresponding operating variants, thereby ensuring that the conditioned air meets users’ requirements. This makes it possible to operate the large concert hall efficiently and to provide good comfort levels both when it is fully occupied and during rehearsals. Once the measured data for the large concert hall has been proc­ essed in the automation stations, the requirements are transmitted to the central air-conditioning equipment, where the conditions of the intake air are determined and from where the required air is provided. As a rule, both plants are operated synchronously, one plant working in master mode and the other in slave mode. The plants are fitted with frequency converters and can be modulated in their output. The automation and communication of the air-conditioning systems of the large concert hall primarily takes place via BACnet. In total, more than a hun­d­red air-conditioning devices are operated in the Elbphilharmonie, and these are integrated in one overriding management system. All necessary key data sources are separate from each other in order to allow for the separate operation of the different functional areas, such as the concert hall, restaurants, the hotel, and so on. The higher-level BACnet/IP networks of the building automation system were designed to be particularly failure-proof.  Elbphilharmonie / Herzog & de Meuron / See also: Schäfers Disse2017

130

Sources:

3 Site plan 1 Elbphilharmonie 2 HafenCity

2

1

3 Speicherstadt

4

4

3

3

2

5

4

1

4

6 3

3

0

5

10

15 Upper floor 1

Large hall

2 Organ 3 Foyer 4 Residential 5 Hotel 6

Void, hotel

Projects — the Elbphilharmonie, Hamburg

5

19

18

15

14 17

11

13

16

12 11 11 8

9

10

8

5

7 6 3

4

0

5

10

1

1 Main entrance

8 Plaza

15 Void (construction)

2 Escalators

9 Void, plaza

16 Hotel

3 Parking

10 Small hall

17 Void, hotel

4 Quay studio

11 Foyer

18 Residential

5 Conference area

12 Large hall

19 Void, residential

6 Restaurant

13 Reflector

7 Viewing area

14 Air extraction structure

The Elbphilharmonie lies at the tip of the new Hamburg HafenCity, and thus in the direct vicinity of the Speicherstadt,

132

2

the World Heritage cultural site. The glazed concert hall on the former Kaispeicher A can be seen from far away in the city and is surrounded on three sides by the water of the River Elbe.

Projects — the Elbphilharmonie, Hamburg

134

With its 2,100 seats, the grand concert hall forms the heart of the Elbphilharmonie. This central space fulfills very exacting requirements regarding the operation of ventilation systems and the room climate, which are primarily linked and operated

Projects — the Elbphilharmonie, Hamburg

via the BACnet system.

Appendix Acts Energy Performance of

DIN ATV 18299: VOB German con­

VDI 3814-3.1: Building automation

Buildings Directive (EPBD)

struction contract procedures—Part

and control systems (BACS)—BACS

C: General technical specifications in

functions—Basic functions

Energy Conservation

construction contracts (ATV)—

Act (EnEG)

General rules applying to all types of

VDI 3814-3.2: Gebäudeautomation

construction work. Berlin: Beuth.

(GA)—Funktionskatalog—Makro-

Energy Conservation Regulations (EnEV)

Standards and guidelines DIN EN ISO 16484-1: Building auto­

funktionen. DIN ATV 18386: VOB German con­ struction contract procedures—Part

VDI 3814-4.1: Building automation and

C: General technical specifications in

control systems (BACS)—Methods and

construction contracts (ATV)—building

tools for planning, building and accep­

automation. Berlin: Beuth.

tance tests—Identification, addressing and lists

mation and control systems (BACS)—

VDI 3812: Home automation techno­

Part 1: Project specification and

l­ogies—Requirements for electrical

VDI 3814-4.2: Gebäudeautomation

implementation. Berlin: Beuth.

installations and building automation

(GA)—Methoden und Arbeitsmittel für

and control systems. Berlin: Beuth.

Planung, Ausführung und Übergabe;

DIN EN ISO 16484-2: Building auto­

Bedarfsplanung, Planungsprozess und

mation and control systems (BACS)—

VDI 3813-1: Building automation and

Part 2: Hardware. Berlin: Beuth.

control systems (BACS)—Fundamentals for room control. Berlin: Beuth.

DIN EN ISO 16484-2 Draft: Building

Systemintegration. VDI 3814-4.3: Gebäudeautomation (GA)—Arbeitsmittel und Methoden für

automation and control systems

VDI 3813-2: Building automation

Planung, Ausführung und Übergabe;

(BACS)—Part 2: Hardware. Berlin:

and control systems (BACS)—Room

Automationsschema, Funktionsliste,

Beuth.

automation functions (RA functions).

Zustandsgraph.

Berlin: Beuth. DIN EN ISO 16484-3: Building auto­ mation and control systems (BACS)—

VDI 3813-3: Building automation and

Part 3: Functions. Berlin: Beuth.

control systems (BACS)—Application

(GA)—Energieeffizienz.

examples for room types and function

VDI 3814-6: Gebäudeautomation

DIN EN ISO 16484-5: Building auto­

macros of room automation and

(GA)—Qualifizierung.

mation and control systems (BACS)—

control. Berlin: Beuth.

Part 5: Data communication protocol. Berlin: Beuth.

The VDI 3814 guideline series currently in force will, in future, be consolidated

DIN EN ISO 16484-6: Building auto­

in a new guideline series:

mation and control systems (BACS)— Part 6: Data communication confor­

VDI 3814-1: Building automation and

mance testing. Berlin: Beuth.

control systems (BACS)—Fundamentals

DIN EN 15232-1: Energy performance

VDI 3814-2.1: Building automation

of buildings—Part 1: Impact of

and control systems (BACS)—Plan­

building automation, controls and buil­

ning—Requirements planning, concept

ding management. Berlin: Beuth.

of operation, and specifications sheet

DIN V 18599-11: Energy efficiency of

VDI 3814-2.2: Building automation and

buildings—Calculation of the net,

control systems (BACS)—Planning—

final and primary energy demand for

Planning content, system Integration,

heating, cooling, ventilation, domestic

and interfaces

hot water and lighting—Part-11 Building automation. Berlin: Beuth.

VDI 3814-2.3: Building automation and control systems (BACS)—Plan­ ning—Concept of operation and user interfaces

138

VDI 3814-5: Gebäudeautomation

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Steffen Schulte-Lippern, Thomas Bach, Residence M, Merano, Italy 

Alexander Ring

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Appendix

Hamburg, Germany

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