Saladin: The Politics of the Holy War 0521317398, 9780521317399

Table of contents :
Contents
Foreword
1 Early Adventures
2 Vizier of Egypt
3 Lord of Egypt
4 The Shadow of Syria
5 Independence
6 From Egypt to Syria
7 War and Diplomacy
8 Egyptian Interlude
9 Defeat and Difficulties
10 Consolidation and Expansion
11 Opportunities
12 The Capture of Aleppo
13 Empire-Building and the Holy War
14 The End of Empire
15 Preparations
16 Hattin
17 The Capture of Jerusalem
18 Success and Failure
19 Crusaders At Acre
20 The Fall of Acre
21 Stalemate
22 Conclusion
Notes
1 Early adventures
2 Vizier of Egypt
3 Lord of Egypt
4 The shadow of Syria
5 Independence
6 From Egypt to Syria
7 War and diplomacy
8 Egyptian interlude
9 Defeat and difficulties
10 Consolidation and expansion
11 Opportunities
12 The capture of Aleppo
13 Empire-building and the Holy War
14 The end of empire
15 Preparations
16 Battfti
17 The capture of Jerusalem
18 Success and failure
19 Crusaders at Acre
20 The fall of Acre
21 Stalemate
22 Conclusion
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

University of Cambridge Oriental Publications No. 30

Saladin

University of Cambridge Oriental Publications published for the Faculty of Oriental Studies See page 457 for a list of books in the series.

Saladin T H E P O L IT IC S O F T H E H O L Y W A R

MALCOLM CAMERON LYONS and D. E. P. JACKSON

PH CAMBRIDGE W W UNIVERSITY PRESS

Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1RP 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211 USA 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia © Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Cambridge 1982 First published 1982 First paperback edition 1984 Reprinted 1995 Printed in Great Britain by Athenaeum Press Ltd, Gateshead, Tyne & Wear Library o f Congress cataloguing in publication data

Lyons, Malcolm Cameron. Saladin: the politics of the holy war. (University of Cambridge oriental publications; no. 30) Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Saladin, Sultan of Eygpt and Syria, 1137-1193 2. Islamic Empire - History -750-1258. 3. Eygpt - Kings and rulers - Biography. 4. Syria - Kings and rulers - Biography. I. Jackson, David Edward Pritchett, joint author. II. Title. III. Series: Cambridge University. Oriental publications; no. 30. DS38.4.S2L93 956'.01'0924 79-13078 ISBN 0 521 31739 8 paperback

CONTENTS

Foreword 1 Early adventures 2 Vizier of Egypt 3 Lord of Egypt 4 The shadow of Syria 5 Independence 6 From Egypt to Syria 7 War and diplomacy 8 Egyptian interlude 9 Defeat and difficulties 10 Consolidation and expansion 11 Opportunities 12 The capture of Aleppo 13 Empire-building and the Holy War 14 The end of empire 15 Preparations 16 HattTn 17 The capture of Jerusalem 18 Success and failure 19 Crusaders at Acre 20 The fall of Acre 21 Stalemate 22 Conclusion Plan o f Cairo Maps Notes Bibliography Index

vii 1 31 47 59 71 81 97 111 121 135 155 173 201 221 243 255 267 279 295 309 331 365 375 376 384 435 445

FOREWORD

The object of this work is to re-examine and, where possible, to add to evidence for the career of Saladin in order to strengthen the frame of reference into which the judgements and conclusions of his modern biographers can be fitted. For this purpose, attention is concentrated on contemporary sources, and in particular on the extant correspondence, diplomatic and private, of the period. This adds little to our knowledge of Saladin’s rise to power in Egypt orto the history of the Third Crusade, but it is of particular value for the central period of his career. The sources are, primarily, concerned with Saladin’s own actions and their interpretation, but these, in turn, reflect the wider pattern of forces at work in his age. It is hoped that this work may be of service to non-Arabists. In view of this, personal names have been arbitrarily distinguished for ease of identification. For instance, Saladin’s brother al-Malik al‘Ädil Saif al-Dln Abo Bakr Ahmad ibn Ayyob is referred to throughout as al-‘Ädil, while another brother, al-Malik alMu‘a??am Shams al-Daula Toran-Shah ibn Ayyob is called ToranShah. Extended forms, together with cross-references, are given in the Index. Place names are divided into three categories: (a) those which have common European forms, such as Acre and Jerusalem, which are retained; (b) less common names, transliterated from the Arabic sources; (c) names used for identification and derived not from the Arabic sources but from modern maps, etc., the forms of which have been left unaltered. In both personal and place names there are a number of variants of form and spelling. In some cases spellings have been taken from vocalised manuscripts but in general forms and transcriptions are based on a modification of the system used in the Manuel de Généalogie et de Chronologie pour VHistoire de l'Islam of E. de Zambaur. There are a number of problems of dating, including textual difficulties and variants in the identification of the first day of the

viii lunar month. It is possible, however, in spite of mistakes made by individual authorities, to construct a calendar of events during Saladin’s lifetime based on dates and days of the week that can be confirmed from eastern and western sources which shows an average discrepancy of no more than one day over a period of twenty years. As a result, the margin of error to be allowed for in the establishment of any individual date is generally small. We owe many debts of thanks, principally to the Publications Committee of the Oriental Faculty of Cambridge University for their help in arranging for the publication of this book. We wish to acknowledge with thanks the generous grant from the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland. For both advice and encouragement we are deeply grateful to Professor Jonathan RileySmith. Mrs Ursula Lyons, of Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge, has helped at all stages of the writing of the book through her valuable work on both Arabic and European sources. We must also acknowledge with gratitude the kindness and help of M r J. Sullivan and Dr Hugh Kennedy, both of St Andrews University, as well as that of the staff of the Cambridge University Press. May 1977

1

EARLY ADVENTURES

The history of mediaeval Islam and its civilisation provides a series of problems of definition and interpretation, but, in general, the materials necessary for their analysis are inadequate. In such a context, the career of Salad in is perhaps unique because of the volume of contemporary evidence. Here, the narratives are, in the main, well-known.1 Of Saladin’s contemporary biographers, I bn Shaddad’s work has survived intact. Most o f ‘Imad al-Din al-I$fahanfs huge Kitab al-Barq al-Shaml has been lost, but its abridgement by al-Bundari has recently been edited in part.2The manuscript on which this edition is based ends with the close of the year 583 A.H., where it overlaps with the start of the Kitab al-Faih al~Qus$ift l-Fath al-Qudsl and so provides a complete cover by ‘I mad al-Drn of Saladin’s career. A less partisan view is given by another contemporary, Ibn al-Athir,3 and facts and attitudes can be checked by reference to William of Tyre and other western writers. The Kitab aURaudatain, with its quotations from the lost work of Ibn Abl Jayy, is of particular value and local histories, such as the Zubdat al-halab min tankh Halab by Ibn al-‘Adlm, also have their points of interest. With the principal exception of al-Bundarl*s abridgement, these sources have been covered by recent writers, whereas a valuable collection of contemporary letters has not yet received its proper share of attention. In the main, these are attributed to Saladin’s administrator, the Qao " 12 >3 14 >3 16 >7 » 20 21 22

23 24 25 2o 27 28

Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.137. I.S. 98. I.A. 12.27. Ibid. TC. 34. Continuation 110. I.S. 98. 7465.52. I.A. 12.29. Fath 182. Ibid. I.S. 100. Ibid. 101. Fath 180. I.S. 103. Continuation 113. Ibid. Cf. Fath 186; I.S. 104. Fath 188. I.S. 103. I.S. (104) explained the detour on the grounds that this road was the only one which could accommodate the army. Continuation 114. Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.143. I.S. 105. 7465.80; Mosul 46. 7465.90; Mosul 3. imäd al-DIn, cit. A.S. Ra. 2.143. Ibid. cit. A.S. Ra. 2.144.

426

Notes to pp. 301-309 29

» 3« « 33 34 33 3« 32 38 39 40

41 42 43 44 43 * 47 48 49 30 3« 52 33 54 33 3o 57 58 39 oo 61

F ath 191; *Imad al-DIn is glossing over a genuine difficulty (cf. also p. 169). The earlier an action begins, particularly in hot weather, the more likely it is that a second watering will be needed; cf. F ield S ervice P ocket B o o k , pt 2, India: Manimals do not drink well in the early morning... Opportunities to feed, water, and rest men and horses should be found even during the progress of battle” (15). I.S. 106. Ibid. 107. 7465.90; Mosul 3. Nur. 19. 7465.96. Cf. Fath 200. I.S. Ill; Fath 198. F a th m . Ambroise, L 'E stoire, 1.2997 sq. I.S. 111. Ibid. 112. Fath 207. I.S. 113. Cf. Fath 201 sq. 7465.100. 7465.85. Cf. I.S. 114; Fath 209. A.S. Ra. 2.146. Fath 210. Ibid. 211. Ibid. 212. Ibid.

Fath 216. 216 sq. 219.

Ibid. Ibid. Ibid.

I.S. 115. Cf. Fath22\. Cf. 7465.87. 7465.94. Fath 214. Ibid. 230.

20 The fall of Acre 1 Fath 234. 2 Ibid. 233.

Notes to p p . 310-315

427

Ibid. 239. a . 25757.36. 3 Bundän 236; these figures coincide well enough, providing a daily total of some 13 dinars. They do not refer to purely personal expenditure, but to the general expenses of a body of servants. The same average would translate Saladin*s 20,000 dinars into a force of just over 1500, which would then have to be multiplied by the number of their own followers. This would represent only one division of the Muslim army (Saladin’s halqa)y as other commanders would be responsible for the pay of their own troops. 6 Fath 243. 7 Cf. B.A., year 586 a .h . 8 I. A. 12.45. 9 I.S. 120. 10 Continuation 120. 11 Fath 243. 12 Cf. Fath 247; A.S. Ra. 2.154. 13 Cf. 7307.58; 25756.68. 14 Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.151. 13 Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.157. 16 Cit. A.S. loc. cit. 17 Munich 4; Paris 87; cit. A.S. Ra. 2.157. 18 I. A. 12.50. 19 Continuation 123. 20 Fath 267. 21 Ibid. 263. 22 Ibid. 262. 23 7465.101 ; this is not to be taken as a scribal error for AlmSn, as alFatfil plays on the root amina (cf. p. 316). 24 Continuation 125. 23 A.S. Ra. 2.154. 26 Continuation 125. 27 Fath 257. 28 7465.101; 25756.80. 29 Itinerary 120. 30 Correctly given here in the Latin Continuation as nephew (126). 31 Fath 212. 32 Ibid. 274. 33 7465.113. 34 TC. 135. 33 Fath 279. 36 Ibid. 265. 37 Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.157; I.S. 127. 38 Cit. Fath 266. 3

4

428

Notes to pp. 316-325 C on tin u ation 128. «o I.S. 137. «' Fatb 287. 42 7465.106. 43 I.S. 135. 44 Ibid. 138. * Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.166. 46 Munich 81. 47 Fath 290. 48 Ibid. 292. 49 Ibid. 287. » Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.176. 51 Cf. Munich 29. 52 A.S. Ra. 2.171;cf.alsoQ.6.526.;Gaudefroy-Demombynes,“Une Lettre de Saladin au calife Almohade”, 289 sq. 53 I.S. 144. J4 Fatb 298. 55 Ibid. * I.A. 12.56. 52 Œ I.S. 145; I.A. 12.60 sq. 5« I.S. 145. » LA. 12.61. Ibid. 12.62. I.S. 146. « Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.167. 63 L ’E stoire 1.4001. “ I.S. 147. « Ibid. 148. 66 Ambroise L 'E stoire , 1.4023. 87 I.S. 149. 68 L 'E stoire 4070. 89 I.S. 149. 70 Ibid. 150. 71 Ibid. 147. 72 Ibid. 151. 73 Ibid. 153. 74 Fath 212 sq. 75 Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.166. 78 7465.92; Mosul 4. 77 Munich 104. 78 Nur. 23. 79 The Arabie gives “Antioch**; for this confusion, cf. p. 342, note 54. 88 a . I.S. 220. 81 7465.107; cf. A.S. Ra. 2.185. 82 I.A. 12.61. 39

Notes to pp. 325-332

429

83 I.S. 156. 84

Ibid.

I.S. 158. Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.183. Cf. Fath 329. Cf. A.S. Ra. 2.178. I.S. 157. I.A. 12.65. I.S. 161. Fath 337. I.S. 164. Fath M2. I.S. 199. Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.196. Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.186. Cit. Fath 346. Cit. Fath 349. Fath 348. 101 I.S. 166. 102 C on tin u a tio n 140. «°3 I.S. 166. 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 97 93 94 93 94 97 98 99

»w Ibid. 168. «o3 Ibid; F ath 352. 106 *¡22 al-Dln Arsal; cf. C on tin u ation 140, “Essenditi”, wrongly

identified by the editor as ‘Izz al-Dln JOrdlk. «°7 Fath 353.

I.S.

168.

109 Maqrîzi, Sulitk 94.

«io A.S. Ra. 2.187. 111 I.S. 170; Ambroise (L E s to ir e 1.5204) gives this as 2000 nobles

and 500 men of inferior rank, and the C on tin u ation ( 141) as 200 knights, 1000 men of lesser rank and the 500 Franks held in Acre itself. i«2 This is contradicted by Ambroise ( L E sto ir e 1.5207), who says that the terms did not cover property. " 3 I.S. 171. "4

Ibid.

" 5 Fath 358.

21 Stalemate « Ibn Abfl-Haijr 201. 2 Fath 358. 3 Cf. Fath 368.

Notes to pp. 332-336 4 5

ib id . C on tin u ation

142.

• Fath 359. 7

« • 'o " '2 •3

C on tin u ation Fath 359.

141.

I.S. 173. Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.189. I.S. 173. I.A. 12.68. I.S. 173; Fath 371. 14 C on tin u ation 142. '5 I.S. 174.

16

Ibid.

17 I.S. 175 - this was the reason given for Napoleon’s massacre of his prisoners at Jaffa. Grousset’s remark ( H istoire des C roisades 2.61), “cet acte de barbarisme inouie...produisit dans tout l’Islam un effet désastreux**, is ill-founded. There appears to have been no significant reaction. 18 There are a number of familiar problems and inconsistencies in the accounts of this march, to which nothing new can be added here. In part these may be due to the fact that the Franks do not always appear to have moved as a single unit. The Itinerary o f R ich ard I (230) notes that the army advanced to M a town called Merla” (al-Malläha) “where the king had spent one of the previous nights’*. This suggests that where circumstances allowed, the advance guard was detached. Difficulties of dating derive from the fact that, although Arabic and western sources agree on the days of the week, the Arab writers take Sunday 25 August to be I Sha4ban, whereas it should be 2 Sha’bän (for this difficulty cf. Stevenson, The C rusaders in th e E ast , 356.361). Ibn Shaddäd’s account is, in general, the clearest and should be preferred. »• I.S. 175. 20 Fath 376. 2' I.S. 175. 22 Ibid. 178. « Cit. Fath 378. 24 I.S. 179. 23 Ibid. 180. 20 Fath 380. 27 U E sto ire 1.6025; the Itin erary o f R ich a rd I (231 ) dates his death to the previous day’s march. 2* Fath 381. 29 Cit. Fath 386; cf. A.S. Ra. 2.191, where this is referred to as the battle of “Monday 9 Sha’ban when the enemy left Caesarea**.

Notes to pp. 336-344 30 31

32 33 34 33

36 37 38 39

40 41 42 43 44 43 46 47

431

IS. 182. Ibid. 184; Ibn Shaddäd*s account of the battle is given on pp. 183-5. L 'E stoire 6137 sq. Ib id . 6212. Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.191. Grousset ( H istoire des C roisades 2.78) underestimates the difficulties by writing of Richard: Uau lendemain de la victoire d*Arsuf, il aurait pu sans doute marcher droit sur la Ville Sainte, alors sans défense, et remporter de haute lutte**. L 'E stoire 6898. Ibid. 6871. 1.5. 185. Ibid.; it is, of course, impossible to determine with exactitude the course of the river at this period. Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.193. Fath 385. Ibid. 389. 1.5. 186. Ibid. Fath

390. 1.5. 187. Itin era ry o f R ich a rd 1 247.

I. A. 12.71. 1.5. 188. 30 L 'E stoire 1.7097. 31 1.5. 190; Fath 391. 32 Cit. K h i m 2.24. 53 F ath 392. 34 1.5. 191; the text states that Philip died of illness at Antioch perhaps another instance of confusion between Antioch and Italy or Antaliya (cf. p. 324, note 79). 55 1.5. 194. 36 Ibid. 195. 57 Ibid, for inter-marriages in the eleventh century between Christian princesses and Muslim rulers, cf. Lévi-Provençal, H isto ire d e l'Espagne M usulm ane , 2.241-2. 58 Fath 394. 59 1.5. 196. 60 Ibid. 197.

48

49

61

Ibid.

62

1.5. 202. The omission of Beirut from the text of l.S. (203) may represent a scribal error. L 'E stoire 1.8700.

63

64

Notes to pp. 344-351 42 LS. 202-3. « Fath 398. 47 ¡bid. 413. 68 U E sto ire 1.7631. 49 Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.194. *> Fath 231. 71 Cf. C on tin u ation 82. 72 Cf. Ambroise, U E sto ire , 1.7691; C on tin u ation 146. 72 LA. 12.75. 74 U E sto ire 1.7933. 75 itin era ry o f R ich a rd / 261. 76 1.180; cf. MaqrîzT, Sw/ö*, 111. 77 Fath 399. 78 U M 401.

79 I.S. 205. » /bi¿. 206. 207. 82 ¡bid 206. 82 7bi¿. 207. 84 Cf. Ambroise, « I.A. 12.78. 84

U E sto ire ,

1.8885.

Fath 422.

87 Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.178; cf. ¿version of the C on tin u ation of William of Tyre; “apres ce que le rei Guy ot paie les. 1x.m. besants au rei d’Engleterre, il ala en Chypre, et mena partie des chevaliers qui estoient deserites dou reiaume. Ensi corne il fu saissi de Tisle, il manda ses messages a Salahadin requérant lui de conseill" (MS. Lyon. bibl. mun. 828, f. 330a). For this reference we are indebted to the kindness of Dr Ruth Morgan. 88 w

Itin erary o f R ich a rd 1 301. Fath 423.

» I.S.21L o'

Ibid.

«

I.S. 212.

92

Ibid.

94 92 94 97 98 99

L’Estoire 1.9817. Fath 424. I.S. 213. U E sto ire 1.10269. Fath 425. Wavell {T h e P alestine C am paign s 131-2) described Tell alKhuwailifa as “a dominating height some ten miles north of Beersheba...which not only gave observation over all the surrounding country but commanded the best supplies óf water in the neighbourhood“.

Notes to pp. 351-367

433

'«o F ath 425. •o' I.S. 215. *02 Ibid. 214. «03 U E sto ire 1.10340 sq. •w I.A. 12.82. «o« I.S. 214. 106 al~ishärät 3. «o? I.S. 215. «« Cf. A.S. Ra. 2.137. «o* Cf. I.S. 218. '»o I.S. 215.

»»' '«2 »3 114 113 116

Ibid.

216. A.S. Ra. 2.199. U E sto ire 1.10208. Details of these negotiations are quoted from I.S. 218 sq. For Ibn ShaddSd’s account of the fighting at Jaffa, see I.S. 222 sq. The text of I.S. (223) gives y a d %the correct reading, y a za k , is found in Ibn Abfl-Haij&’ (204). »7 I.S. 12.84 *'*

U E sto ire 1.11111.

>'* I.S. 227. *20 Ibid. 228. «2« Ibid. 229. «22 Ibid. 30. «23 Fath 435. *24 I.S. 232. «23 Ibid. 234. «2* Ibid. 235. «27 Ibid. 236. *2® Itin era ry o f R ich a rd 1 331.

*2o I.S. 236. *30

Ibid. 111.

Cit .A.S. Ra. 2.205. *32 Mosul 68. *33 I.S. 238. *34 Ibid. 242. 133 Details of Saladin's last illness are quoted from I.S. 243 sq. *3*

22 Conclusion ' G uerre d O r ie n t 82. 2 Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.138. 3 7307.21.

Notes to p p . 367-374 4 5 6 7 8 »

Bundârî 287. 306. 352. Munich 113. Abu $älih 204. Wahrânï 182.

Ibid. I b id

10 Cf. I.S. 239.

11 12 13 14 '5 i* ■7 18 i’ »

See p. 88. Bundârî 322. Cit. Bundârî 298. Cit. Bundârî 279. TC. 75. Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.177. TC. 147. See p. 361. 7465.137. Seep. 83.

21

Travels 71.

22 Seep. 236. 23 Cf. similiarities in detail and tone between the account of negotiations between Taqî al-Dïn’s Turks and the inhabitants of Libyan Tripoli (A.S. Ra. 2.38) and Nicetas’ description (397) of the capture of Thessalonica by the Latins. 24 7307.98. 23 7465.238. 28 7465.222. 27 Bourienne, M em o irs o f N apoleon B on aparte , 85. 28 I.S. 22. » Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.148. * Cit. A.S. Ra. 2.210. 31 The author is Kamâl al-DTn al-Shahrazürï (cf. Sana 398) and the line is based on one by al-Misjâh b. Sibâ* cit. Abü Tammâm, Harnasa , 1.417. 32 7465.81. 33 Ambroise, V Est oiré, 5069. 34 I.S. 246.

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B E O = Bulletin d*É tudes O rientales BFA = Bulletin o f th e F aculty o f A rts, Cairo U niversity JA O S = J o u rn al o f th e A m erican O riental S o ciety J E S H O = Jo u rn a l o f th e E conom ic a n d S ocial H isto ry o f th e O rient J R A S = J o u rn a l o f th e R o y a l A sia tic S o ciety M M /A = M ajallot al-m a jm a ‘ al-'ilm l a l-a r a b i M M H = M ajallat a l m ajm a fal-'ilm l a l- ir ä q i

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