Rishon Le-Zion. Volume I: The Middle Bronze Age II Cemeteries (Volume I/1: The Excavations + Volume I/2: Finds and Conclusions) (Agypten Und Altes Testament) 9783963270260, 3963270268

Table of contents :
Cover
Volume I/1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF POTTERY PLATES
LIST OF COLOR PLATES
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION (Yosi Levy)
CHAPTER 2 AREA B (Yosi Levy and Raz Kletter)
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TOMBS OF THE 1996 SEASON
2.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE TOMBS OF THE 1997–1998 SEASON
CHAPTER 3 AREA F (Raz Kletter, Eriola Jakoel, and Yosi Levy)
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TOMBS
CHAPTER 4 AREA A (Yosi Levy, Eriola Jakoel, and Raz Kletter)
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TOMBS
CHAPTER 5 AREAS C AND E2 (Raz Kletter and Yosi Levy)
5.1 AREA C––INTRODUCTION
5.2 AREA C––DESCRIPTION OF THE TOMBS
5.3 AREA C––OTHER LOCI
5.4 AREA C––CONCLUSION
5.5 AREA E2––INTRODCUTION
5.6 AREA E2–– DESCRIPTION OF THE TOMBS
Volume I/2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 6 THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE (Joe Uziel and Itzhaq Shai)
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 TYPOLOGY
6.3 DATING THE TOMBS
6.4 DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 7 METAL FINDS (Tal Kan-Cipor – Meron and Sariel Shalev)
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 JEWELRY
7.3 WEAPONS
7.4 DISCUSSION
7.5 METALLURGICAL EXAMINATIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 8 METAL BELTS (Irit Ziffer)
8.1 BELTS AND BELT PARTS AT RISHON LE-ZION
8.2 COMPARISONS
8.3 CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 9 DENDROARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH (Nili Liphschitz)
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 MATERIALS AND METHOD
9.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
REFERENCE
CHAPTER 10 SCARABS (Daphna Ben-Tor)
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 AREA A
10.3 AREA C
10.4 AREA F
10.5 CONCLUDING DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 11 BEADS AND PENDANTS (Amir Golani and Eriola Jakoel)
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.2 METHODOLOGY
11.3 THE BEADS
11.4 DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 12 Organic Material from Middle Bronze Age Tombs (Naama Sukenik and Orit Shamir)
12.1 INTRODUCTION
12.2 THE TEXILES
12.3 THE THREADS
12.4 PLANT FIBERS
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 13 SUMMARY OF HUMAN REMAINS (Yossi Nagar and Vered Eshed)
13.1 ESTIMATION OF AGE OF DEATH
13.2 ESTIMATION OF SEX
13.3 PALEODEMOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
13.4 COMPARISONS TO OTHER SITES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 14 FAIENCE SEAL (Irit Ziffer)
14.1 CONTEXT AND DESCRIPTION
14.2 DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 15 DECORATED DAGGER (Irit Ziffer)
15.1 INTRODUCTION
15.2 DECORATED WEAPONS (NEOLITHIC TO MIDDLE BRONZE AGE)
15.3 ICONOGRAPHY
15.4 WHOSE DAGGER?
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 16 CONCLUSIONS (Raz Kletter and Yosi Levy)
16.1 INTRODUCTION
16.2 HOW MANY TOMBS AT RISHON LE-ZION?
16.3 NUMBERS AND NATURE OF BURIALS
16.4 SHEEP/GOAT REMAINS
16.5 EQUID BURIALS
16.6 ADDITIONAL FINDS
16.7 THE SO-CALLED “BURIAL KIT”
16.8 LOCATION OF FINDS
16.9 “WARRIOR” GRAVES?
16.10 MULTIPLE SIMULTANEOUS BURIALS
16.11 A CENTRAL CEMETERY?
REFERENCES
APPENDIX 1 LOCUS LISTS
INDEX 1: PERSONAL NAMES
INDEX 2: PLACE NAMES
COLOR PLATES

Citation preview

Ägypten und altes TestamenT 88 ÄAT 88

Rishon le-Zion Volume I

Levy / Kletter • Rishon le-Zion I

The Middle Bronze Age II Cemeteries. Vol. I / 1: The Excavations

The Middle Bronze Age II Cemeteries Volume I/1: The Excavations Yosi Levy and Raz Kletter With Contributions by Daphna Ben-Tor, Vered Eshed, Amir Golani, Eriola Jakoel, Tal Kan-Cipor – Meron, Nili Liphschitz, Yossi Nagar, Itzhaq Shai, Sariel Shalev, Orit Shamir, Naama Sukenik, Joe Uziel, and Irit Ziffer

www.zaphon.de

Zaphon

Rishon le-Zion Volume I

The Middle Bronze Age II Cemeteries Volume I / 1: The Excavations Yosi Levy and Raz Kletter With Contributions by Daphna Ben-Tor, Vered Eshed, Amir Golani, Eriola Jakoel, Tal Kan-Cipor – Meron, Nili Liphschitz, Yossi Nagar, Itzhaq Shai, Sariel Shalev, Orit Shamir, Naama Sukenik, Joe Uziel, and Irit Ziffer

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

ÄGYPTEN UND ALTES TESTAMENT Studien zu Geschichte, Kultur und Religion Ägyptens und des Alten Testaments

Band 88

Gegründet von Manfred Görg Herausgegeben von Stefan Jakob Wimmer und Wolfgang Zwickel

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

Rishon le-Zion Volume I

The Middle Bronze Age II Cemeteries Volume I / 1: The Excavations Yosi Levy and Raz Kletter With Contributions by Daphna Ben-Tor, Vered Eshed, Amir Golani, Eriola Jakoel, Tal Kan-Cipor – Meron, Nili Liphschitz, Yossi Nagar, Itzhaq Shai, Sariel Shalev, Orit Shamir, Naama Sukenik, Joe Uziel, and Irit Ziffer

Zaphon Münster 2018

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

Photographie auf dem Einband: Tomb F7, L739, Copyright: Tsila Sagiv (cf. S. 212)

Ägypten und Altes Testament, Band 88 Yosi Levy / Raz Kletter (With Contributions by Daphna Ben-Tor, Vered Eshed, Amir Golani, Eriola Jakoel, Tal Kan-Cipor – Meron, Nili Liphschitz, Yossi Nagar, Itzhaq Shai, Sariel Shalev, Orit Shamir, Naama Sukenik, Joe Uziel, and Irit Ziffer): Rishon le-Zion. Volume I: The Middle Bronze Age II Cemeteries. Volume I/1: The Excavations

© 2018 Zaphon, Münster (www.zaphon.de) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo-copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. Printed in Germany Printed on acid-free paper ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 ISSN 0720-9061

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

TABLE OF CONTENTS Volume I/1 List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... ix List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... xxiii List of Pottery Plates ............................................................................................................................. xxv List of Color Plates .............................................................................................................................. xxvii Chapter 1: Introduction (Yosi Levy) ..................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Area B (Yosi Levy and Raz Kletter) ................................................................................... 5 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Description of the Tombs of the 1996 Season ..................................................................................... 7 2.3 Description of the Tombs of the 1997–1998 Season ......................................................................... 12 Chapter 3: Area F (Raz Kletter, Eriola Jakoel, and Yosi Levy) ...................................................... 169 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 169 3.2 Description of the Tombs................................................................................................................. 171 Chapter 4: Area A (Yosi Levy, Eriola Jakoel, and Raz Kletter) ..................................................... 279 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 279 4.2 Description of the Tombs................................................................................................................. 281 Chapter 5: Areas C and E2 (Raz Kletter and Yosi Levy) ................................................................ 367 5.1 Area C––Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 367 5.2 Area C––Description of the Tombs ................................................................................................. 368 5.3 Area C––Other Loci......................................................................................................................... 376 5.4 Area C––Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 377 5.5 Area E2––Introduction..................................................................................................................... 378 5.6 Area E2––Description of the Tombs ............................................................................................... 378 Volume I/2 Chapter 6: The Pottery Assemblage (Joe Uziel and Itzhaq Shai).................................................... 387 6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 387 6.2 Typology .......................................................................................................................................... 387 6.3 Dating the Tombs............................................................................................................................. 397 6.4 Discussion ........................................................................................................................................ 403 References.............................................................................................................................................. 405 Chapter 7: Metal Finds (Tal Kan-Cipor – Meron and Sariel Shalev) ............................................ 493 7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 493 7.2 Jewelry ............................................................................................................................................. 493 7.3 Weapons........................................................................................................................................... 504 7.4 Discussion ........................................................................................................................................ 532 7.5 Metallurgical Examinations ............................................................................................................. 533 Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................. 539 References.............................................................................................................................................. 539

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 8: Metal Belts (Irit Ziffer) .................................................................................................... 543 8.1 Belts and Belt Parts at Rishon le-Zion ............................................................................................. 543 8.2 Comparisons .................................................................................................................................... 545 8.3 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 550 References.............................................................................................................................................. 550 Chapter 9: Dendroarchaeological Research (Nili Liphschitz) ......................................................... 553 9.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 553 9.2 Materials and Methods..................................................................................................................... 553 9.3 Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................... 553 Reference ............................................................................................................................................... 555 Chapter 10: Scarabs (Daphna Ben-Tor) ............................................................................................ 557 10.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 557 10.2 Area A ............................................................................................................................................ 557 10.3 Area C ............................................................................................................................................ 595 10.4 Area F ............................................................................................................................................ 595 10.5 Concluding Discussion .................................................................................................................. 618 References.............................................................................................................................................. 619 Chapter 11: Beads and Pendants (Amir Golani and Eriola Jakoel) ............................................... 621 11.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 621 11.2 Methodology .................................................................................................................................. 621 11.3 The Beads ...................................................................................................................................... 622 11.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................................................... 631 References.............................................................................................................................................. 631 Chapter 12: Organic Material from Middle Bronze Age Tombs (Naama Sukenik and Orit Shamir) .................................................................................................... 633 12.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 633 12.2 The Textiles ................................................................................................................................... 633 12.3 The Threads ................................................................................................................................... 635 12.4 Plant Fibres .................................................................................................................................... 636 References.............................................................................................................................................. 637 Chapter 13: Summary of Human Remains (Yossi Nagar and Vered Eshed) ................................. 639 13.1 Estimation of Age of Death ........................................................................................................... 639 13.2 Estimation of Sex ........................................................................................................................... 639 13.3 Paleodemographic Analysis ........................................................................................................... 640 13.4 Comparisons to Other Sites ........................................................................................................... 642 References.............................................................................................................................................. 643 Chapter 14: Faience Seal (Irit Ziffer) ................................................................................................ 645 14.1 Context and Description ................................................................................................................ 645 14.2 Discussion ...................................................................................................................................... 645 References.............................................................................................................................................. 646 Chapter 15: Decorated Dagger (Irit Ziffer) ....................................................................................... 647 15.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 647 15.2 Decorated Weapons (Neolithic to Middle Bronze Age) ................................................................ 647 15.3 Iconography ................................................................................................................................... 649 15.4 Whose Dagger? .............................................................................................................................. 650 References.............................................................................................................................................. 650

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

vii

Chapter 16: Conclusions (Raz Kletter and Yosi Levy)..................................................................... 653 16.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 653 16.2 How Many Tombs at Rishon le-Zion? ........................................................................................... 653 16.3 Numbers and Nature of Burials ..................................................................................................... 654 16.4 Sheep/Goat Remains ...................................................................................................................... 655 16.5 Equid Burials ................................................................................................................................. 656 16.6 Additional Finds ............................................................................................................................ 658 16.7 The So-Called “Burial Kit” ............................................................................................................ 661 16.8 Location of Finds ........................................................................................................................... 670 16.9 “Warrior Graves”? ......................................................................................................................... 677 16.10 Multiple Simultaneous Burials..................................................................................................... 683 16.11 A Central Cemetery?.................................................................................................................... 694 References.............................................................................................................................................. 699 Appendix 1: Locus Lists (Raz Kletter) ............................................................................................... 709 Area B .................................................................................................................................................... 709 Area F .................................................................................................................................................... 716 Area A .................................................................................................................................................... 719 Area C .................................................................................................................................................... 722 Area E .................................................................................................................................................... 723 Index 1: Personal Names (Raz Kletter).............................................................................................. 725 Index 2: Place Names (Raz Kletter) ................................................................................................... 731 Color Plates .......................................................................................................................................... 735

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 2.1: Tomb B1, L500 looking north. Skeleton B5023+B5034 (right); skeleton B5017 (top). Fig. 2.2: Tomb B2, L501 looking north. Skull B5075 and legs B5070 (right); bones B5071+ B5073 (left). Fig. 2.3: Tomb B5, L507 looking north. Skeleton B5102 with jar B5055+B5097 (center); jar B5054+B5099 (left). Fig. 2.4: Tomb B6, L506 looking north. Skeleton B5109 with dagger B5094; jar B5111 at the left. Fig. 2.5: Tomb B7, L509 looking east. Bowl B5092 (center); bowl B5091 (left); edge of B5093 (back). Fig. 2.6 (left): Tomb B9, L511 looking north. Bones B5102 (top); dagger B5086 already removed. Fig. 2.7 (right): Tomb B13, L600 looking northeast. Skeleton B6000 with jars B6009, B6010. Fig. 2.8: Tomb B14, L601 looking north. Jar B6029 at the left; excavation already below the level of finds3 Fig. 2.9: Tomb B15, L602 looking south. Animal bones B6012 (with the head at top center). Fig. 2.10: Tomb B16, L615 looking northeast. Skull and bones B6035; jar B6097 of Tomb B19 at the top right. Fig. 2.11: Tomb B17, L605 looking north. Burial B6033 with juglets B6038 and B6039; larger vessels removed. Fig. 2.12: Tomb B18 (not B13), L603 looking north. Skeleton B6016 and jar B6015 (left); jar B6013 above bowl B6014 (right); brick wall W-E41 at top center. Fig. 2.13: The edge of Tomb B19 (at right), looking south. Jars B6109 and B6108; skeleton B6110 of Tomb B35 (at center). Fig. 2:14: Tomb B20, L610 looking east. Jars B6042 and B6043 (right); skeleton B6068 (center). Fig. 2.15: Tomb B20, L610 looking south. Jars B6042 and B6043 (right); skeleton B6086 not yet exposed at this stage of excavation. Fig. 2:16: Tomb B22, L606 looking east. Bowls B6199 above B6220 (center); dagger B6161 (right); the edge of W-G74 (top right). Fig. 2:17: Tomb B22, L606 looking south (from right to left): bowls B6020, B6026, and B6199; jars B6023 and B6201; broken pithos B6188; and juglet B6187; W-G74 above the sign. Fig. 2.18: Tomb B24, L607 looking north. Remains of jars B6061 and B6062 (at left); note the bulldozer’s marks (top right). Fig. 2.19: Tomb B24, L607 looking north. Dagger B6084 (left of sign); bowl B6079 (at center right); jars B6061 and B6062; and W-G71 (north of the jars). Fig. 2.20: Tomb B25, L624 looking west. Jar B6100 and part of jar B6090 (left); W-E51 (center); Tomb B20 with jars B6042, B6043 (at upper right). Skeleton B6105 not yet visible. Fig. 2.21 (top left): Tomb B25, L624 looking east. Jar B6100 above skeleton B6015; B6092 farther left. Fig. 2.22 (bottom left): Tomb B26, L613 looking east. Rear part of horse B6086. Fig. 2.23: (right): Tomb B27, L619 looking east. Bones B6089. Fig. 2.24: Tomb B28, L617 (left) looking east with the top of B6075. Wall E52 (at center); the sign is placed on B29, L625, an oval ‘patch’ of silt. Fig. 2.25 (left): Tomb B28, L617 looking east. Wall E52 at right; Tomb B20 above the sign. Fig. 2.26 (right): Tomb B30, L626 looking east. Skeleton B6137. Fig. 2.27 (left): Tomb B31, L623 looking east. Skeleton 6115 and W-G72 (at center), jar B6112 (at bottom right). Fig. 2.28 (right): Tomb B32, L627 looking east. Bowls B6274, B6275, and B6278 (at bottom center); vessels B6226, B6227 (left of the skeleton); B6282 and B6276 (right of the skeleton). Fig. 2.29: Tomb B33, L608 looking south. Jar B6173 (right); bowl B6174 (left). Fig. 2.30: Tomb B34, L628 looking north. Vessels B6150–B6152 and juglet B6154 near the skull; B6147, B6148 near the feet; W-H71 at bottom right.

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8 8 9 9 11 12 12 13 14 14 15 15 16 17 17 19 19 20 20 21 22 22 22 22 23 23 24 24 25 25

x

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 2.31 (left): Tomb B37, L637 looking east. Fig. 2.32 (top right): Tomb B39, L640 looking south. Wall G41 (bottom right); jars B6244, B6243; skeleton B6290 (left). The white round object is the pommel of dagger B6214. Fig. 2.33 (bottom right): Tomb B40, L632 looking south. B6098, B61102, B6099 (at center); Wall D52 is not yet seen at this stage of excavation. Fig. 2.34: Tomb B40, L632 looking east. Skeleton on W-D52 with juglet B6134 near the skull. Fig. 2.35: Tomb B42, L642 looking northeast. Skeleton B6285; jar B6272 (left) and other small vessels. Fig. 2.36: Tomb B48, L638 looking east. Burial B6263 east of adult B6283. Bowl B6245 with bones B6246 at the feet of skeleton B6283; B6255 and W-G81 at the top. Fig. 2.37: Tomb B48, L638 looking northeast. Wall G81 (at bottom); notice the close proximity of the two skeletons, child B6263 and adult B6264. Fig. 2.39: B50, L650 looking west. Wall B151 (left, rounded shape), bowl B6376 (at center top) and jar B6378 (at bottom). Skeleton B6377 with jug B6356. Fig. 2.40: B51, L651 looking south. Wall F132 (at top center); jar B6403 (standing, at the center); and bowl B6405 (at the left). Fig. 2.41: B55, L655 looking south. Jars B6386, B6384 (right); W-D91 (upper left); B6395 (between the wall and skeleton B6368). Fig. 2.42 (left): Tomb B56, L656 looking northeast. Axe B6418 left of skull; bones B6437 above B6438 (left). Fig. 2.43 (right): Tomb B57, L657 looking northeast. Skeleton B6346 (right), skeleton B6345 (center). Fig. 2.44: Tomb B59, L659 looking north. Skeleton B6337 (bottom), jars B6366 and B6367 (left); W-E131 (between the jars and the sign). Fig. 2.45: Tomb B66, L667 looking south. Jars B6317, B6318 (right); W-E121 (at the back), bowls B6527 and B6528 (center). The skeletons have already been removed. Fig. 2.46: Tomb B68, L664 looking south. Skeleton B6326 with bowls B6325 and B6327 (right); W-B131 (top center). Fig. 2.47: Tomb B70, L672 looking south. Skeleton B6286 with fragmented jar B6287 (top). Fig. 2.48: Tomb B71 (at bottom), looking east. B6224, B6225 left of the skeleton; B6299–B6301 right of it. Tomb B73 upper right; Tomb B72 upper left; Tomb B75 between Tombs B71 and B72. Fig. 2.49: Tombs B71 (right), B72 (bottom left), B73 (top center) and B75 (center); looking south. Fig. 2.50 (left): Tomb B72, L674 looking south. Skeleton B6294 with B6298 and B6311 near the skull. Large bowl B6295 on the body; B6303, B6304 and B6293 around it. Fig. 2.51 (right): Tomb B73, L675 looking southeast. Skeleton B6292. Fig. 2.52: Tomb B74, L670 looking east. B6121 and B6640 at center. Fig. 2.53: Tomb B77, L678 looking north. Skeleton B6332 with jar B6314 and bowl B6322 near the skull. W-B133 at top center; jar B6348 at the left. Fig. 2.54 (left): Tomb B79, L679 view from above. Jar B6424; skull at center; bones B6422 near the sign. Fig. 2.55 (right): Tomb B81, L681 looking east. The skeletons (B6179 at right) with jar B6182 (near the sign). Fig. 2.56: Tomb B82, L682 looking south. Skeleton B6289 with legs cut by a recent trench. Fig. 2.57: Tomb B85, L685 looking east. Jar B6248 (at bottom); W-F131 (right); bowls B6251 and B6252 (top). Vessels B6249, B6250 left of the bowls. Fig. 2.58: Tomb B86, L686 looking south. Jars B6427 and B6431 (right); bowls B6428 and B6429 (center); the skeletons with dagger B6419 (left). Fig. 2.59 (left): Tomb B87 (at bottom), L687 looking north. Tomb B89, L689 (at the top). Fig. 2.60 (right): Tomb B89, L689 looking north. Bowl B6480 and juglet B6481 near the feet. Fig. 2.61: Tomb B91, L691 looking east. Jars B6476, B6523 (bottom right); skeleton B6477 (center); and skeleton B6635 (left). Wall C11 between the skeletons and the sign. Fig. 2.62 (left): Tomb B94, L694 looking east. Skeleton B6457 with B6790 (top); bowl B6543 at the feet; Jars B6469, B64670 (bottom). Dagger B6477 with bones B6471 at center. Fig. 2.63 (right): Tomb B95, L695 looking east. Skeleton B6511 (left); large bowl B6500 with animal bones B6501 (right); bones B6506 near the sign.

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26 26 26 28 28 30 30 31 32 32 34 34 34 36 36 37 38 38 39 39 39 40 41 41 42 43 44 44 44 45 47 47

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 2.64: Tomb B97, L697 looking south. Skeleton B6534 (bottom); bowl B6516 above bowl B6517 (left). Fig. 2.65 (left): B99, L699 looking north. Juglet B6569 near the skull; WF101 right; B6565, B65656 at bottom. Fig. 2.66 (right): B100, L550 looking northeast. Skeletons B6561 (top) and B6560 (bottom); bowl B6555 and jar B6557 (at the left). Fig. 2.67: Tomb B101, L1101 looking north. Skeleton B6631 (bottom); bowl B6593 above bowl B6594 (center); dagger B6598. At the back, vessels B6625 (left) to B6619 (right). Fig. 2.68: Tomb B101, L1101 looking north. Dagger B6598, bowls B6593 and B6594, B6626 above the bowls. Notice the poor state of preservation of the bones and pottery finds. Fig. 2.69 (left): Tomb B104, L554 looking east. Skeletons B6576 (left), B6577 (bottom), and B6574 (right). Large bowl B6593 at the bottom. Fig. 2.70 (right): Tomb B104, L554 looking west. Jars B6578, B6581 (bottom); skeletons B6574 (bottom); B6577 (middle left); and B6576 (top). Fig. 2.71: Tomb B109, L1009 looking south. Bowl B6661 with animal bones B6662 (center); jars B6668 and B6663 (right). Fig. 2.72: Tomb B110, L1010 looking northeast. Skeletons B6677 (right) and B6676 (left). Fig. 2.73: B117, L1017 looking south. Eight daggers (at the right); the vessels above the sign are (right to left) B6932, B6903 and B6884. Fig. 2.74: B117, L1017 looking east. Rows of jars and smaller vessels. Fig. 2.75: B121, L1021 looking north. Skeletons B6716 (upper) and B6775 (closer to the sign); juglet B6759 at center. Wall L101 not clearly visible. Fig. 2.76 (left): Tomb B122, L1022 looking east. Wall K91 at left; skeleton B6814 at right; bowl B6809 at bottom. Fig. 2.77 (right): Tomb B123, L1023 looking south. Skeleton B6785 at right, bowl B7656 at center. Fig. 2.78: Tomb B128, L1028 looking north. Jar B6770 at center. Fig. 2.79: Tomb B129, L1029 looking northeast. Bowls B6762 and B6763 at the bottom. Fig. 2.80: Tomb B130, L1030 looking south. Wall G131 right of the sign; jar B6749 and jug B6755 in the pit (above the sign); bowl B6753 farther to the right. Fig. 2.81: Tomb B131, L1031 looking south. B131a with dagger B6811 (right); B131b with bowls B6820, B6821 (left), skeleton B6822 (top left), and jar B6827 (center). Fig. 2.82 (top): Tomb B133, L1033 looking northwest. Skeleton B9032; jar B6836 far left. Fig. 2.83: Tomb B133, L1033 looking south. The skeletons not yet fully exposed; jar B6836. Fig. 2.84: Tomb B135, L1035 looking east. Skeletons B9516 (left) and B9517 (right). Fig. 2.85 (left): Tomb B136, L1036 looking east. Wall L91 high above the burial (left); skeleton B9092 (right); animal bones B9515 (left of the skeleton). Fig. 2.86 (right): Tomb B137, L1037 looking east. Jars B6897 and B6871 (at bottom, with juglet B6384 inside jar B6871). Bowl B6859 at bottom right; jar B6898 at top left. Fig. 2.87: Tomb B138, L1038 looking northeast. Skeleton B9030 with bowl B6879 near the skull; vessel B6876 near the feet; W-HI101 at the back. Fig. 2.88: Tomb B142, L1042 looking east. Skeleton B9511 above skeleton B9510. Fig. 2.89 (left): Tomb B143, L1043 looking east. Large bowl B6910 and bones B9039 (at center), above skeleton B9034. Fig. 2.90 (right): Tomb B147, L1047 looking east. Skeleton B6998 at center, jar B6968 at top right. Fig. 2.91: Tomb B149, L1049 looking east. Skeletons B9472=B6972 (left) and B6973 (right, with dagger B6955). At this stage the skulls and upper bodies are not yet visible. Fig. 2.92 (right): Tomb B149, L1049 looking northeast with B9472 (left) and B6973 (right). Fig. 2.93 (left): Tomb B150, L1050 looking east. Jars B6990, B6994 (bottom); bowl B6971 above bowl B6970 (near the feet); dagger B6489 at the hip. Fig. 2.94 (top right): Tomb B151, L1051 looking northeast. Large bowl B6980 (left); dagger B6974 (right); jars B6985, B6986 (top). Fig. 2.95 (bottom right): Tomb B151, L1051 looking south. The two jars (B6985, B6986) and bowl B6977 at the bottom. Fig. 2.96: Tomb B153, L1053 looking south. Jar B9003 surrounded by jugs B9001, B9002 and bowls B9005–B9007.

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 2.97 (right): Tomb B159, L1059 looking east. Jar B9060 and W-A131 (left); skeletons B9078 (center) and B9079 (right). Fig. 2.98: Tomb B160, L1060 looking east. Skeleton B9504 with three juglet on it (left); large bowl B9052 (center); bowl B9049 (right); and juglet B9053 between the bowls. Fig. 2.99 (top left): Tomb B161, L1061, looking north. Skeleton B9070; jars B9066, B9067 left. Fig. 2.100 (right): Tomb B162, L1062 looking east. Skeleton B9519. The large bowl under the sign is B9155. Fig. 2.101 (bottom left): Tomb B162, L1062 looking east. Upper body of B9519 with carinated bowl B9144 left of it. Fig. 2.102 (top left): Tomb B165, L1065 looking east. Jars B9115, B9116 (bottom); above them bowls B9120, B9121. Fig. 2.103 (top right): Tomb B168, L1068 looking north. Three skeletons: B9177 (top); B9188 (bottom); B9199 (left). Fig. 2.104 (middle right): Tomb B169, L1069 looking north. Skeleton B9481 with juglets on it; jar B9175 (right). The edge of Tomb B162 at the left, with bowls B9154 and B9156. Broken jar B9157 barely visible. Bowl B9477 is between this jar and the skeleton. Fig. 2.105 (bottom left): Tomb B170, L1070 looking east. Bowl with handles B9141 and large bowl B9139. Fig. 2.106 (bottom right): Tomb B174, L1074 looking east. Jars B9217, B92188 (right); skeleton B9216 (center). Fig. 2.107 (left): Tomb B175, L1075 looking northeast. Jars B9210, B9207 at center. Fig. 2.108 (below): B176, L1076 looking south. Jars B9282, B9285 (right); animal bones B9277, B9278 (left); leg of B9466 (center). Fig. 2.109 (top right): Tomb B176, L1076 looking south. Skull B9466 with silver pieces B9281. Fig. 2.110 (middle right): Tomb B176, L1076 looking south. Skeleton B9466 with dagger B9279. Fig. 2.111 (left): Tomb B181, L1091 looking north. B9236 on the ‘island’ at center. Fig. 2.112 (right): Tomb B182, L1082 looking south. Carinated bowl B9228 at center. Fig. 2.113 (left): Tomb B184, L1084 looking east. Dagger B9267 (bottom); skull B9276 (center); jar B9268 (left); spear parts B9265, B9266 between the jar and the sign. Fig. 2.114 (right): Tomb B186, L1086 looking east. Jars B9298–B9300. Fig. 2.115: Tomb B190, L1090 looking west. Juglets B9296, B9307 and bowl B9309 (center); jar B9308 (top); and W-J671 (right). Juglet B9295 is at center (left of the other vessels). Fig. 2.116: Tomb B194, L1094 looking east. Skeleton B9552; jar B9319 (left of skull); WT91 (left). Fig. 2.117: B199 L685, looking east. Bowl B9334 top; jug B9333 bottom. Fig. 2.118 (left): Tomb B202, L1102 looking east. Jar B9359 at bottom, bowls B9339, B9340 at the top. Fig. 2.119 (right): Tomb B203, L1103 looking east. Skeleton B9366 and the edge of B9365 at bottom right. Fig. 2.120: Tomb B208, L1108 looking north. Skeleton B9475 with dagger B9409. Fig. 2.121 (left): Tomb B211, L1111 looking east. Jar B9379 bottom (left); W-RS71 (right); skeleton B9396 (top). Fig. 2.122 (right): Tomb B212, L1112 looking east. Jars B9410, B9411 (bottom right); W-N101 (right); skeleton B9413 (top left). Fig. 2.123 (right): Tomb B215, L1115 looking east. Skeleton B9400 (center) and jar B9401 (top right). Fig. 2.124 (below): Tomb B214+B216, L1114 looking northeast. Skeleton B9426 (center), bowl B9425 and jug B9423 (bottom); and W-T81 (left). Fig. 2.125 (left): Tomb B218, L1118 looking east. Belt B9434 with dagger B9419 on the right. Notice the poor state of preservation of the bones (bottom right). Fig. 2.126 (below): Tomb B218, L1118 looking northeast. Bases of jars B9429, B9430 (left); bowls B9417, B9416 (center); metal belt B9434 and skeleton B9422 (right). Fig. 3.1: Tomb F1, L701 looking west. Top of W-AB70; behind it, jars B7242, B7245 of L714. Fig. 3.2 (left): Tomb F1, L714 looking west. Wall A70 at bottom. Fig. 3.3 (right): Tomb F1, L714 looking south. Edge of W-A70 left top; bones B8180 (upper phase) left center. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 3.4: Tomb F1, L714, looking south. Wall A70 left; jars B7242, B7244, and B7245; bowl B7239 between B7244 and 7245. Fig. 3.5: Tomb F1, L714, looking southwest. Wall A70 at center, L717 left; L714 right with Jar B7245 above B7439. Right of them B7400, juglet B7401, and skull B Fig. 3.6: Tomb F1, L764 looking northeast. Phase 1, burials B8086 (left); B8087 (center) and B8088 (right, with dagger B8077). At bottom bowl B8083 with animal bones B8081. Fig. 3.7: Tomb F1, L764, looking northeast. Phase 2, skeletons B7294 (bottom) and B7295 (above it). Secondary bones at the back. Fig. 3.8 (left): Tomb F1, L764 looking east. Phase 2, skeletons B7294 (left) and B7295 (center). Bones C below; secondary bones and skull B7926 right; skull E barely visible near skull B7295. Fig. 3.9 (right): Tomb F1, L717 looking south. Phase 3, W-A70 right; juglets B7098 and B7100 below the meter; stones A behind. Fig. 3.10: Tomb F1, L717, looking south. Phase 3, start of excavation: stones A right, B left; jar B7573 center. Parts of bones (point D) visible; skull A right of the jar. Fig. 3.11: Tomb F2, L702 looking northeast. Early stage of excavation. L702 top, L734 right. Fig. 3.12: Tomb F2, L702, looking south. Legs of B7174 (bottom); jar B7173 (center right); burial B7175 (upper right). At the top: a hole (where B7047 was); large bowl B7197 (seen as a contour below skull B7176) and vessels B7143, B7172 (top right). Fig. 3.13 (left): Tomb F2, L742 looking east, later phase. Burial B7348, dagger B7304, carinated bowl B7306 above bowl B7328 at top right. Fig. 3.14 (right): Tomb F2, L742 looking northwest, later phase. At bottom left, bowl B7353 with animal bones B7374 and large bowl B7328. To the right, jar B7344. Skull B7348 partially seen behind it. Fig. 3.15 (left): Tomb F2, L742 looking east, later phase. The upper body of B7348 and jar B7344. The half bowl B7345 on it is not clearly seen. Fig. 3.16 (right): Tomb F2, L727 looking southwest at the start of excavation. Jar B7126 center top; L734 top left; L702 with legs of B7174 lower left. Jar B7217, skull B7320 and bowl B7203 above the sign. Fig. 3.17 (left): Tomb F2, L713 looking north. L702 top center, L734 lower right; Jar B7217 and B7046 left. Fig. 3.18 (right): Tomb F2, L713 looking north. The large bones at right are bones A (B7299) in L734. Rectangular item (B7162?) left of sign; bird item B7158 far left. Fig. 3.19: Tomb F2, L713, looking north. Bird item B7158 top right; B7162 left; dark pendant B7159; rectangular pieces 1 and 2. Fig. 3.20: Tomb F2, L713 looking south. At left, skeleton B7320 (its pottery vessels removed). At center, L741 jug B7290 and bowl B7289. Fig. 3.21: Tomb F2, L741 looking northeast. At center bowls B7288 and B7289 and jug B7290. At left is L727. Fig. 3.22: Tomb F2, L741 looking northeast. Skeleton B7322 fully exposed. Fig. 3.23 (left): Tomb F2, L734 looking northeast. Start of excavation; round depressions above and left of sign are jars B7118, B7206. The worker is in L702. Fig. 3.24 (right): Tomb F2, L734 looking northeast. Burial B7299. Fig. 3.25: Tomb F2, L750 looking northeast. Jar B7389 with juglet B7390 (left); juglet B7391, bowl B7393, jug B7394 (center). Legs of B8164 (bottom right). Fig. 3.26: Tomb F3, L703 looking southwest. Jar B7201. Fig. 3.27(left): Tomb F3, L755 looking south. Bowl B7714 right; Jars B7745 and B7739 left, broken Jar B7720 near the sign. Fig. 3.28 (right): Tomb F3, L755 looking south. Jars B7745, B7739 and B7720 (top); bowl B7714 lower right. Bones B7864 in between; edges of two daggers near bones (B7727, B7729). Fig. 3.29: Tomb F3, L755 looking south at the end of the excavation. Fig. 3.30: Tomb F3, L721, looking east. Part of burial B7499 with jars B7313 and B7314 behind. Fig. 3.31: Tomb F3, L721 looking south. Skeleton B7499 with bowl B7486. Notice kurkar layer and jars B7757, B7748 in L758 (top). Bones 1+2 at the feet of B7499, left of jar B7757. Fig. 3.32: Tomb F3, L721 looking south. The hand of B7499 with scarab B7264. Fig. 3.33: Tomb F3, L758 looking south. Bowl B7765 with bones B7800 left; skull B7801 near the bowl, under the sign; standing jars B7757 and B7748 right. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 3.34 (below): Tomb F4, looking south. Start of excavation in rectangular areas. Fig. 3.35 (right): Tomb F4, looking north. The larger southern area. Fig. 3.36 (left): Tomb F4, L718 looking northeast. Bone and skull B8177; standing jar B7269 (left, under the rock). Fig. 3.37 (right): Tomb F4, L718 looking southeast. Bowls B7210 and B7213 and half bowl 7 (right); jar B7269 (left). The broken vessel between them is probably jar B7241. Fig. 3.38 (left): Tomb F4, L718 looking south. Skeleton B8025 (bottom), vessels B8010, B8011 and part of B8012 (left of B8025). At right center a dagger (B7227?). Below it, edge of B7269 with B8005 and B8007; juglets B8008 and B8009 between B7269 and head B8025. Burial B7931 center left, with skull 3 left of it; above it skeleton and large skull B7932. Fig. 3.39 (right): Tomb F4, L768 looking south. Skeletons B7931 (left) and B7932 (center); bones 5 and juglet 8 at the top; skull B7930 at the feet of B7932. Fig. 3.40: Tomb F4, L768 looking west. Burial B8025 with its vessels; dagger B8004 with white pommel at center right. Fig. 3.41: Tomb F4, L767 Phase 1, looking northeast. Leg bones B8098 with bowl B8039. At right, rock I (below) and II (above). Fig. 3.42 (left): Tomb F4, L767 looking south. Phase 2, rock II and burial B7967 below; jars B7954 and B7955 center, rock I upper left. Bones 2 between and beyond the jars. Fig. 3.43 (right): Tomb F4, L767 looking north. Phase 2, rock II (center), rock I (left); jars B7954 and B7955 near rock I. Burial B7967 with bowl B7975 left of rock II. Top left whitish bones 1. Right of rock II, the skull of B7967; juglets B7950–B7953; and another skull (B8097 of Phase 1?). Fig. 3.44: Tomb F4, L735 looking northeast. Phase 3, rock I bottom center, rock II right; between them burial B7686. Jars B7454 and B7455 at center. Fig. 3.45: Tomb F4, L735 looking southeast. Phase 4, W-D71 top center; bowl B7332 and skull B7321 right; bowl B7432 (partly covered by sherd) at the feet of W-D71. Fig. 3.46: Tomb F4, L735 looking northeast. Phase 5, burial B7298 (left); broken jar B7102 (center); W-D71 (right). Fig. 3.47 (top): Tomb F4, L769 looking northeast. Burial B8155 with belt B8132 and dagger B8133. Above right is large bowl B8127 with pommel B8121 on it. Dagger B8130 bottom right. Fig. 3.48 (left): Tomb F4, L769 looking east. Belt B8132 with daggers; notice pommel B8121. Top left is part of B8125. Top right is axe B8131. Fig. 3.49: Tomb F4, L765 looking northeast. Jars B7978, B7972 left; bowl B7995 (with animal bones B7994) below the jars; legs of B8154 top right. Fig 3.50: Tomb F4, L765 looking west. Bowls B7973, B9777 left of skeleton B8154. On B8154 two juglets (B7998 and B7999). Jars B7972 and B7978 (top); lower and right of them earlier jars B7832, B8138, B8031. Head of jar B8111 is visible left of jar B7972 (above bowl B7995). Fig. 3.51: Tomb F5, L711 looking north. Wall D60 top left; W-D61 bottom left; vessels A and B under W-D60. Fig. 3.52: Tomb F5, L720 looking northeast. Phase 1, from right to left: Skulls B7422 above B7423, B7426, B7427; Skull B7425, bone B7436, bones and skull B7437. Fig. 3.53 (top): Tomb F5, L720 looking south after removal of W-D60. Start of Phase 2 with jar B7385 and a bone of burial B7365 at bottom right. Fig. 3.54 (bottom): Tomb F5, L720 looking north. Phase 2; two primary burials B7364 and B7365. Jar B7385 on the left. Fig. 3.55: Tomb F5, L752 looking east. Primary burial B7963 top; bowl B7957 left center; secondary bones with bowl B7941 at bottom. Fig. 3.56: Tomb F5, L752 looking south. W-D61 at bottom. Burial B7605 (Plan 3.33). Jars B7657, B7655. Juglet B7658 above jars. Fig. 3.57: Tomb F5, L752 looking south. The arm of burial B7605 with decorated bones B7572. Fig. 3.58: Tomb F6, L706 looking northeast. Pithos B7041. Fig. 3.59: Tomb F6, L719 looking north. Skeleton B7441; jar B7492 of L756 at the left. Fig. 3.61 (left): Tomb F7, L707 looking north. Jars B7083 (left); B7064 (middle), and B7082 (right).

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 3.61 (left): Tomb F7, L707 looking north. Jars B7083 (left); B7064 (middle) and B7082 (right). Fig. 3.62 (right): Tomb F7, L707 looking north. The sign is in L707; at top behind the finds is L725. At center, bones B7274 and left of them skull fragment B7204. At right is top of jar B7507 (L739) and at left is L739 with jar B7513 and other vessels. Fig. 3.63: Tomb F7, L739, looking north. Jar B7507 right; children B7509 and B7510 behind; leg bones B and C at center. Jar B7513 left with bowls B7544 (larger) and B7673 behind. Note kurkar layer above. Fig. 3.64: Tomb F7, L739 looking west. Jar B7507 bottom left, bones B and C at center, jar B7513 top. Fig. 3.65 (above): Tomb F7, L739, looking west. Jar B7507 (bottom); bowl B7449 (right center); Heap of vessels at top––its lower row is B7453 (right); B7442 (middle) and B7444 (left). Fig. 3.66 (below): Tomb F7, L746 looking northeast. Bowl B7586 upper left; carinated bowl B7954 lower left; jar B7579 right, at center bottom is skull B7519. Fig. 3.67: Tomb F7, L746 looking southwest. Bowl B7586 bottom right; skull B7519 top right. Fig. 3.68 (left): Tomb F8, L708 looking south. Burial B7088 surrounded by jar bases B7026 and B7074 (right); three bowls (B7075, unknown basket, B7056 top); and two juglets (“A” and B7085, left). Fig. 3.69 (right): Tomb F9, L745 looking west. Start of excavation, jars B7524, B7502 and bowl B7504. At center, near the small white bone, were scaraboid B7417, ring B7370, and slightly lower, pin B7371. Fig. 3.70 (below): Tomb F9, L745 looking north. Burial B7565 and jars B7524 and B7502 (bottom). Left of them, skull B7563 and animal jaw B7560. Skeletons B7541 (right) and B7684 (partially exposed, left). Top right are bowls B7553 above B7554 above B7555. Skull B7561 top left corner. Fig. 3.71 (left): Tomb F9, L745 looking northeast. Skeleton B7684 fully exposed; skull B7563 above its feet. Fig. 3.72 (right): Tomb F9, L745 looking northeast. Lower group of juglets and bones B7562. Skull B=B7561 at upper left corner (?). Fig 3.73 (top left): Tomb F9, L716 looking east. Skeleton B7265; jar B7193 right; part of B7477 (L763) left. Fig. 3.74 (right): Tomb F9, L716 looking northeast. Skeleton B7265; Point B at edge of right leg; juglet B7266 and bowl B7226 right of left arm. Below are secondary bones with B7272. Fig. 3.75 (left): 3.75: Tomb F9, L716, looking north. Burial B7730. Fig. 3.76 (below): Tomb F9, L716 looking northeast. Burial B7730 fully exposed; B7731 below. Fig. 3.77: Tomb F9, L763 looking southwest. Jar B7909 above burial B7867; burial B7868 left; jar base B7787 at the top. Bones A on the left leg of B7867. Fig. 3.78: Tomb F9, L754 looking west. Later phase, burial B7685; jars B7721 and B7786 top; bowl B7696 bottom. Fig. 3.79: Tomb F10, L759 looking north. Lower phase, W-B72 at bottom; burial B7986 behind it and burial B7985 (top). Left are bases of jars B7766 and B7767. Fig. 3.80: Tomb F10, L759 looking north. Upper phase jars B7766 and B7767. Fig. 3.81 (left): Tomb F10, L766 looking south. Leg bones B8027; bowl B7945 center; bowls B7947 above B7948 right. Fig. 3.82 (below): Tomb F10, L731 looking south. Jar B7531 left; jar B7498 right with bowl B7494 atop it. Fig. 3.83 (right): Tomb F10, L731 looking southeast. Burial B7797 (front); B7798 (back). Secondary bones B7799 with juglet B7770 right. Fig. 3.84: Tomb F11 (not F12), L729 looking north. Burial B7632; skull B7833 back; B7833 left. Fig. 3.85 (top left): Tomb F11, L729, looking north. Jars B7405 (right) and B7406 (left). Fig. 3.86 (right): Tomb F11, L729 looking west. Pile B7343 at bottom; pile B7339–B73341 top; W-A80 left; jar B7463 and bowl B7585 of L728 top left. Fig. 3.87 (bottom left): Tomb F11, L729 looking southwest. W-A80 left, jars B7463, B7585 of L728 top center. Start of secondary bones B7343 at bottom.

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 3.88: Tomb F11, L728 looking west. Phase 1, bowl B7683 left; burial B7664 back, animal bones B7665 front. Fig. 3.89: Tomb F11, L728 looking east. Phase 2, jar B7585 topped by bowl B7584 (right); bones B7530 left of it. At center, juglets B7610, B7611, B7617, B7618 with skull A=B7529. At left, bones B7525 with partly visible bowl B7549. Behind in the section are skulls B7526 above B7527. Fig. 3.90 (top left): Tomb F11, L728 looking south. Phase 3, W-A80 at bottom; burial B7356, burial B7357 (left with large skull), behind it B7358 and B7359. Fig. 3.91 (top right): Tomb F11, L728 looking south. Phase 3, W-A80 at center, bones B7343 of L729 far left. Bowl B7388 and part of skull B7355 at top; burials B7356, B7357 at right. Fig. 3.92 (bottom left): Tomb F11, L728 looking south. Wall A80 with burial B7281; skull A above the sign. Fig. 3.93 (bottom right): Tomb F11, L728 looking south. Wall A80 bottom. Burial B7281 removed, skull “A” remains at the back. Jars B7253, B7268 with bowl B7252 center. At right jar B7463 and bowl B7585. Fig. 3.94: Tomb F12, L761 looking south. Burial B7887 front right and B7890 behind. Jars B7775–B7778 left; bowl B7900, and skulls B7888–B7889 behind. Fig. 3.95 (left): Tomb F12, L761 looking west. Jars B7775 (left), B7776 (behind); B7713 (front) and B7778 (right). At the right edge are juglet B7779, bowl B7772, and the upper parts of skulls B7888-9. Fig. 3.96 (right): Tomb F12, L761 looking north. The end of the excavation, the kurkar roof above. Fig. 3.97: Tomb F12, L736 looking northeast. Wall A81 bottom. Jar B7479 (left); bowl B7416 (right); burial B7450 behind them. The area at right bottom is L737. Fig. 3.98: Tomb F12, L736 looking south. Burial B7450 (bottom); jar B7479 (right); bowl B7416 (left). Fig. 3.99: Tomb F12, L753 looking southwest. Jars B7773, B7677 (with bowl B7676 on it) right. Burial B7654 and bowls B7662, B7663 at center; skull B7653 (back) and juglet B7674. Fig. 3.100 (top left): Tomb F14, L772 looking north. Bowls B8202-3 center front; burial B8197 with four juglets B8198-8201 and bowl B8205; secondary group B above right. The ‘hill’ at left is jar B8204. Fig. 3.101 (right): Tomb F14, L772 looking north. Secondary group with skull B8192 center, B8210 below it, bones B8192 top; jar B8204 already removed. Fig. 3.102 (bottom left): Tomb F15, L771 looking northeast. Fig. 4.1 (left): Tomb A1 L119, Level IV, looking south. Jar B1272 on the left. Probably skull B1291 at center. Fig. 4.2 (right): Tomb A1 L201, Level IV, looking south. Skeleton B2966+B3234; at left is juglet B2694. Fig. 4.3: Tomb A1 L201, Level IV, looking south. Three skeletons (left, skulls from front to back B2821, B2873, B2908); jug B2978 near B2908. Skeleton B2966+skull B3234 at center. Fig. 4.4: Tomb A1, L204 and L241, Levels IV–III, looking south. Skeleton B2966+B3234; at right, jar B2871, and behind it jar B2872 above jar B3214. Fig. 4.5: Tomb A1, L227 Level III, looking north. Vertical bowl B2473 (right); the two whitish round objects are skulls (probably B2782, B2875 of Level II). Fig. 4.6 (top): Tomb A1, L227 Levels III–II, looking north. At left, bowl B2361 (Level III). Skeleton B2783 with skull B2782; behind B2876 with skull B2875. Bowls B2938 and B2941 upper right. Fig. 4.7 (bottom left): Tomb A1, L241 Level III, looking south. Carinated bowl B2974 at center; juglets B2970 and B2968 behind it. The legs (upper right) are from the unregistered skeleton of Level II. Fig. 4.8 (bottom right): Tomb A1, L227, Level II, looking north. Legs of B2783 and B2876; behind is jar B3162. Fig. 4.9: Tomb A2, L102, Level VI, looking north. The shaft. Fig. 4.10: Tomb A2, L247, Level VI, looking north. Partial skeleton with two skulls and vessels B2637, B2638. Fig. 4.11: Tomb A2, L122, Level V, looking north. Jar B1398 with bowl B1505 inside it (left); jar B1399 (right). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

227 228

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 4.12: Tomb A2, L248, Level V, looking southeast. Jar B2586 (front), jar B2589 under bowl B2585 (back). Behind is B2622 under lamp B2623 and two skulls (B2838, B2481). Fig. 4.13: Tomb A2, L248, Level IV, looking south. Jar B2919 left; skulls B2841, B2838 behind, skull B2920 barely seen left of the sign. Bones and skull B2939 at the right. Fig. 4.14: Tomb A2, L260, Level III, looking north. Upturned bowl B3184 at center; skull B3181 left. Fig. 4.15: Tomb A2, L268, Levels II–I, looking south. Jar B3236 with juglet B3247 left, jar B3237 right. At top right, part of unregistered skeleton of Level I. Fig. 4.16: Tomb A3, Level VI. The shaft; L103, L114 marked on the side. Below is the start of L115 (Level V). Fig. 4.17 (left): Tomb A3, L114, Level V looking north. Jars B1454, B1455 at right, behind them bowls B1459 and B1516. At the left side, part of a vessel is seen behind the wall, probably B1540. Fig. 4.18 (right): Tomb A3, L114, Level V looking north. Jar B1455 at right; the bones between it and the sign are of Level II. At the back, bowl B1516 and axe B1515. Fig. 4.19: Tomb A3, L115, Level V, looking south. Pithos and jar B1522 left; juglet B1458 between them; small vessels (from left to right, behind sign) B1545, B1521, B1544, and B1525. Fig. 4.20: Tomb A3, L259, Level III, looking north. Burial B3047+3048 with bowl B2829 at center. Bowl B2833 top center. Probably jar B1522, Level V (left); base of jar B2834 (right) with skull B3105, Level II behind it. Fig. 4.21: Tomb A3, level I, L269, looking northeast, gold item B3229 beyond the meter; animal jaw B and vessel B3285 slightly back and to the left of it; skulls farther back. Fig. 4.22: Tomb A4, Level IV, L113, looking south. Burial B2878 (back); bones B1557 (front); pithos B2095 at left, jar B2096 at right. Fig. 4.23: Tomb A4, Levels III–II, L204, looking south. L204 below sign is with skull 2=B left and bones B3049 at center. Behind is L267 with skull A (left), another at center, and skulls 1–3 (top right). Fig. 4.24: Tomb A5, Level VI, L110, looking south. The shaft area. Fig. 4.25: Tomb A5, Level VI, L121 looking south. Skull 1520 is in front of the sign, with pin B1511. Behind the sign and higher is bowl B2034. Lower part of pithos B1553+1561 at right, under jar 1 (=B2071). Top center is probably fallen jar B1531. Fig. 4.26: Tomb A5, Level IV, L251, looking southwest. Layer of stones, jar 2071 at right; B2665 at the left front. Fig. 4.27: Tomb A5, Level IV, L251 (not L249), looking south after removal of stones. Jar B2071 above bowl B2662 (right); Jars B2660, 2661, B2983 (left); behind them B2665, B2984. The hole at the back connects to Tomb A6. Fig. 4.28: Tomb A5, Levels IV–III, L251 looking south. Jar B2071 right; sherd of jar B2660 behind sign; jars B2661, B2983 (Level III, at left); part of B2984 at the back. Bowl B2890 and juglet B2889 top center. Fig. 4.29 (left): Tomb A6, Level V, L106 looking south. The shaft. Fig. 4.30 (right): Tomb A6, Level V, L127 looking southwest. Jar 1 at right, skull B1470 behind it. Fig. 4.31 (left): Tomb A6, Level V, L127 looking southwest. Part of skeleton B2398 with skull B1470. Jar 1 taken out; between it and the skull is part of B1478. Fig. 4.32 (right): Tomb A6, Levels IV–IVb, L265 looking south. Skeleton, Level IV (back); vessels, Level IVb (front, from right): jars B3017, B3239, B3235, B3238, and bowl B3240 nearest to the sign. Fig. 4.33 (top): Tomb A6, Level III, L249 looking south. The Level V skeletons were on the ledge above, with the feet of B1470+B2398 passing near the stone at left (Plan 4.29; stone seen also in Plan 4.30, 38.82 m). Below right, ‘Egyptian’ jar B3013 and jar B3017 Level II. Fig. 4.34 (left): Tomb A6, Level II, L224 looking northwest, skeletons B2981+ B2982 right; B3002+ B3003 in the middle; legs B2988 behind. Fig. 4.35 (right): Tomb A6, Level II, L224 looking north. Legs of B2982 behind sign; legs B3002+B3003 in the middle; B2988 at the back. Fig. 4.36 (left): Tomb A7, Level V, L207 looking north. Base of pithos B2278 left, with juglet B2171 and bowl B2280. Behind the sign is base of jar B2089. Above it is B2356. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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287 288 288 289 290 291 291 291 292 293 295 295 296 297 298 299 299 302 302 302 302 304

304 304 306

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 4.37 (right): Tomb A7, Level V, L207 looking north. Jar B2087 right, skulls B2358, B2381 center. Fig. 4.38: Tomb A7, Levels III–II, L240, looking north. Part of bowl B3008 and juglet B2795, Level II (left). Above the sign B2576; above it L207, Level III, from left: bowls B2903, B2837, jar B2540, bowls B2934, B2935. Skull B2798 behind jar B2540. Edge of jar B2087, Level V at right. Fig. 4.39: Tomb A7, L240 looking north. Vertical bowl B2837, Level IV (left); lower edge of B2087, Level V (far right). Above the sign skeleton B3138, Level III, with juglet B3042. Bowls B2934, B2935; Level IV at the back. Fig. 4.40: Tomb A7, Levels II–I, L274–L275 looking north. Bone heap, Level II (left). East of it bowl B3222, carinated bowl B3223, and leg bones of Level I (L275). Center top is skeleton, Level II (skull B3203?) with juglet B3228. Behind is a second, unregistered skeleton (not drawn in plans). Fig. 4.41: Tomb A7, Level II, L274 looking southeast. Secondary burial with juglets B3246, B3289 at bottom; B3245 at their right. Fig. 4.42: Tomb A8, Level IV, L120, looking north. The shaft, with bones B1289 left, bones B1288 with juglet B1290 at right. Fig. 4.43: Tomb A8, Levels IV–III, L213, looking north. The skeleton is B2617, Level III, but the skull is Skull A in Plan 4.41. Fig. 4.44: Tomb A8, L213 looking northeast, Level II. Skull 2 above the sign; juglet B2882 and bowl B2881 right of the sign. Fig. 4.45 (left): Tomb A9, Level III, L112 looking south. Jar B1285 center top, bones B1483 at left. Fig. 4.46 (right): Tomb A9, Level III, L112 looking south. Jar B1436+1449 at center; bowl B1507 above and behind it. Part of bones B1495 to the right of B1507. Right of the meter is section E6. Bones B1483 still partially visible at bottom left. Fig. 4.47: Tomb A9, Level II, L209 looking south. Secondary burials; the ‘island’ is L261 with juglets B2855, B2856. Fig. 4.48: Tomb A10, Level V, L116 looking south. Burial B1397 on the ‘island’; bowls B1543 and B1641 in the section behind; edges of B2205 and B2204 in the left section. Fig. 4.49 (top): Tomb A10, Level IV, L210 looking north. Bowl B2592 and juglet B2591 upper right; juglet B2597 and skull B2611 at left. Fig. 4.50 (middle): Tomb A10, Level III L233 looking from above (from the west). Bowl D, bowl B2466, part of jar B2204 (top); two unidentified juglets. Fig. 4.51 (right): Tomb A10, Level IV, L239 looking east. Bowl A right; juglet B2669 inside jar B2670 left; in between, badly preserved B2587, B2588; right of them, rim juglet B2794. Fig. 4.52 (left): Tomb A10, Level IV, L245 looking east. Bones with carinated bowl B2604 and skull B2610 at center. Top center is L220 with B2592 and juglet B2591. Fig. 4.53 (right): Tomb A10, Level IV–II, L255 looking north. Fig. 4.54 (top left): Tomb A10, Level II looking north. L255+L256 left with two bowls (B2653 above B2652); skulls B2657 and B2656 and bowl B2658. Bottom right is bowl B2636 in L220. Fig. 4.55 (bottom left): Tomb A10, Levels II–I, L256 looking north. B2562 and B2563, Level II (left). Skeleton B2961 shown in Level I as the upper skeleton; skull B2959 right. The ‘island’ is L255, Level II. At back corner is L215, Tomb A9. Fig. 4.56 (right): Tomb A10, L262, Level I looking east. Skeleton B2994 with skull B2993; juglets B2973, B3001 in fold of left arm. Fig. 4.57: Tomb A11, Level II, L117 looking south. Jars B1276, B12767 right; bowls B1532, 1524 above the sign. Barely seen farther left are juglet B1533 and skull B1552. Fig. 4.58: Tomb A11, Level II, L230 looking south. Double-handled jug B2340, surrounded by (clockwise from top) bowl B2337; jug B2338; bowl B2339; juglet B2336; bowl B2343; and bowl B2342. Fig. 4.59: Tomb A12, Level III, L109, looking south. The shaft area. Fig. 4.60: Tomb A12, Level II, L216, looking north. Skeletons B2892 with skull B2807; behind it B2909 and skull B3921. At right, probably skull B2819. Fig. 4.61: Tomb A12, Level II, L228 looking south. Round vessel (lamp B2913?) center; skulls B2824, B2839 (left); skull B3015 (right).

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

306 307

308 308

309 310 310 312 313 313 314 316 317 317 317 318 318 320 320 320 321 321 322 324 324

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 4.62 (left): Tomb A13–14, Level III+II, L124 looking north (not east). B1301 top center, surrounded by four jars (B1299 bottom right with sherds in neck; B1302 left; B1297, B1300). Fig. 4.63 (right): Tomb A13–14, Level III+II, L129 looking northeast. Jar B1526 left; jar B1556 right; edge of bowl B1558 near B1556 and vessels B1554, B1559. Fig. 4.64: Tomb A13–14, Level I, L231, looking south. Baulk with jar B2371 and juglet B2329 inside it.

xix

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Fig. 5.1: Tomb C1, L25 during excavation, looking north. Jar or pithos (B186+B251) at center; burial B509 between the seated girls.

369

Fig. 5.2: Tomb C2 L43 looking south. Bowls B320 (?) and B298+B334 at left; bones B355 at center.

370 370

Fig. 5.3: Tomb C2, L43 later stage, looking south. Bones B355 at left, juglet B380 inside B379 at right. Fig. 5.4: Tomb C5, L30 looking west. Group of vessels with B261, B191 at left. Fig. 5.5: Tomb C14, L29 looking east. Jar B265+B454 on the right. Fig. 5.6: Area E2, L977 looking south. Bowl B5418 above bowl B5419 (left); skeleton B5424 with juglets; jar B5416 top right; and jug B5413 left of it. Fig. 5.7: Area E2, L977 looking southwest. Bowls B5418 and B5419 at bottom, jug B5413 at center left, three juglets (B5420–B5422) near the hip of skeleton B5424. Fig. 5.8: Area E2, L969 looking east. Jar B5389 top center; ‘Egyptian’ jug B5385 between it and the sign; jar B5386 covered by fragment B5387 at bottom right. The upper part of the jug at the left, above the sign, is B5413 of L977. Fig. 5.9: Area E2, L969 and L977 looking east: jug B5385 and jar B5386 of L969 (right); jugs B5413–B5414 and jar B5416 of L977 (left). Fig. 6.a: Area A: Typological Distributions Fig. 6.b: Area B––Typological Distribution Fig. 6.c: Tomb F4: Typological Distribution Fig. 6.1: Bowls––Type BL1.1 Fig. 6.2: Bowls––Type BL1.1 Fig. 6.3: Bowls––Type BL1.2 Fig. 6.4: Bowls––Type BL1.3 Fig. 6.5: Bowl––Type BL1.3 (B8129, Pl. 6.30.8) Fig. 6.6: Bowls––Type BL1.4 (top: B7733, Pl. 6.30:4; bottom: B8017, Pl. 6.30:9 Fig. 6.7: Bowls––Type BL1.5 (left: B8140, Pl. 6.30:10; right: B8141, Pl. 6.31:1) Fig. 6.8: Bowls––Type BL1.6 Fig. 6.9: Bowls––Types BL1.7 (Nos. 1–2) and BL1.8 (Nos. 3–4) Fig. 6.10: Bowls––Type BL3 (left: B7252, Pl. 6.25:1; right: B7977, Pl. 6.32:3) Fig. 6.11: Bowl––Type BL4 (B9144, Pl. 6.19:1) Fig. 6.12: Bowls––Type BL4 Fig. 6.13: Bowl––Type BL5.3 (B8039, Pl. 6.32:11) Fig. 6.14: Bowl––Type BL5.4 (B7961, Pl. 6.32:12) Fig. 6.15: Lamp (F4, L767, B7982) Fig. 6.16: Storage Jar––Type SJ1 (left: B6749, Pl. 6.17:4; right: B6835, Pl. 6.17:5) Fig. 6.17: Storage Jar––Type SJ2 (B7833, Pl. 6.32:15) Fig. 6.18: Storage Jar––Type SJ4.1 (B7217, Pl. 6.27:13) Fig. 6.19: Storage Jar––Type SJ4.2 (B7954, Pl. 6.33:1) Fig. 6.20: Storage Jars––Type SJ5.1 Fig. 6.21: Storage Jars––Type SJ5.2 (B8032, Pl. 6.33.6) Fig. 6.22: Dipper Juglets––Type DP1 Fig. 6.23: Dipper Juglets––Type DP2 Fig. 6.24: Jug––Type J2 (B7290, Pl. 6.25:5) Fig. 6.25: Jug––Type J3 (B6133, Pl. 6.17:8) Fig. 6.26: Jugs––Type J4 Fig. 6.27 (left): Jug––Type J5 (B8068, Pl. 6.28:2) Fig. 6.28 (right): Jug––Type J6 (B6343, Pl. 6.17:9) Fig. 6.29: Juglet––Type JL1 (B8041, Pl. 6.35:1) Fig. 6.30: Juglets––Type JL3.1 (B8021, Pl. 6.35:2) © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

372 375 378 379 380 380 398 400 402 478 479 480 480 481 481 482 482 483 483 483 484 484 485 485 485 486 486 486 487 488 488 489 489 489 490 490 490 491 491

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 6.31: Juglets––Type JL3.1 (left: B7819, Pl. 6.35:5; center: B8045, Pl. 6.35:7; right: B7225, Pl. 6.35:11) Fig. 6.32: Juglets––Type JL3.2 (left: B8019, Pl. 6.35:14; right: B8022, Pl. 6.35:15) Fig. 6.33: Juglet––Type JL3.4 (B7979, Pl. 6.35:16) Fig. 6.34: Juglets––Type JL8 (B7949, Pl. 6.34:3) Fig. 6.35: Juglets––Type TEY

491 492 492 492

Fig. 7.1. Toggle Pins––Type 1 Fig. 7.2: Toggle Pins––Type 2 Fig. 7.3: Toggle Pins––Type 2 Fig. 7.4: Toggle Pins––Type 2 Fig. 7.5: Toggle Pins––Type 3 Fig. 7.6: Toggle Pins––Type 4 Fig. 7.7: Tweezers B2979 Fig. 7.8: Rings Fig. 7.9: Silver rings, B6518 Fig. 7.10: Duckbill axe B7327 Fig. 7.11: Narrow bladed axe B5077 Fig. 7.12: Narrow bladed axe B6362 Fig. 7.13: Narrow bladed axe B6418 Fig. 7.14: Narrow bladed axes Fig. 7.15: Narrow bladed axe B8131––Type 2 Fig. 7.16: Narrow-Bladed Axes B7849––Type 3 Fig. 7.17: Spear B6215 Fig. 7.18: Spear B6689 Fig. 7.19: Spears Fig. 7.20: Daggers––Type 1 Fig. 7.21: Daggers––Type 1 Fig. 7.22: Daggers––Type 1 Fig. 7.23: Daggers––Type 1 Fig. 7.24: Daggers––Type 1 Fig. 7.25: Daggers––Type 2 Fig. 7.26: Dagger B184––Type 3 Fig. 7.27: Daggers––Type 3 Fig. 7.28: Daggers––Type 3 Fig. 7.29: Decorated dagger B7324 (Type 4)––both sides Fig. 7.30: Daggers––Type 5 Fig. 7.31: Dagger B6598––Type 6 Fig. 7.32: Dagger B9239––Type 6 Fig. 7.33: Daggers––Type 7 Fig. 7.34: Dagger B5094––Type 8 Fig. 7.35: Daggers––Type 8 Fig. 7.36: Daggers––Type 9 and Unclassified Fig. 7.37: Knife B2962 Fig. 7.38: Knifes Fig. 7.39 (top left): Metallographic picture of ribbed dagger B6084. Fig. 7.40 (top right): Metallographic picture of curved knife B6146. Fig. 7.41 (right): Metallographic picture of globular, grooved-head toggle pin B2026.

497 497 498 499 500 500 503 503 503 505 506 506 506 507 508 509 510 510 511 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 525 526 526 528 528 529 530 530 531 538 538 538

Fig. 8.1: Belt B6830, buckles Fig. 8.2: Belt B390, Tomb C4 Fig. 8.3: Belt B8132, general view (front) Fig. 8.4: Belt B8132, general view (back) Fig. 8.5: Belt B8132, detail––part A Fig. 8.6: Belt B8132, detail––buckle part C Fig. 8.7: Belt B8132, detail––buckle in part E Fig. 8.8: Belt B8132, Parts B and D (front) Fig. 8.9: Belt B8132, Parts E and F (front)

543 544 545 545 545 546 546 546 547

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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LIST OF FIGURES

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Fig. 8.10: Belt B8132, Parts E and F (back) Fig. 8.11: Belt B8132, Part G (front) Fig. 8.12: Dagger attached to belt B8132 Fig. 8.13 (left): Detail of dagger from B8132 Fig. 8.14 (right): Pommel B8121 Fig. 8.15: Dagger B8133

547 547 548 548 548 548

Fig. 10.1: Scarab 1, B1064 Fig. 10.2: Scarabs 1, 2, 4 Fig. 10.3: Scarabs 6–9 Fig. 10.4: Scarabs 10–12 Fig. 10.5: Scarabs 13–15 Fig. 10.6: Scarabs 16–20 Fig. 10.7: Scarab 24, B2626 Fig. 10.8: Scarabs 21–24 Fig. 10.9: Scarabs 25–28 Fig. 10.10: Scarabs 29–32 Fig. 10.11: Scarabs 33–36 Fig. 10.12: Scarabs 37, 39–41 Fig. 10.13: Scarabs 42–45 Fig. 10.14: Scarabs 47–50 Fig. 10.15: Scarabs 51–54 Fig. 10.16: Scarab 55, B3258 Fig. 10.17: Scarabs 56–59 Fig. 10.18. Scarab 60, B2854, with remains of its ring Fig. 10.19: Scarabs 61–65 Fig. 10.20: Scarabs 66–69 Fig. 10.21: Scarabs 70–73 Fig. 10.22: Scarab 74, B2534 Fig. 10.23: Scarabs 75–79 Fig. 10.24: Scarab 80, B. 2659 Fig. 10.25: Scarabs 82–86 Fig. 10.26: Scarabs 87–90 Fig. 10.27: Scarabs 91–95 Fig. 10.28: Scarabs 96–99 Fig. 10.29: Scarabs 100–105 Fig. 10.30: Scarab 106, B7349 Fig. 10.31: Scarab 107, B7264 Fig. 10.32: Scarabs 108–113 Fig. 10.33: Scarabs 114–117 Fig. 10.34: Scarab 118, B7375 Fig. 10.35: Scarabs 119–123 Fig. 10.36: Scarabs 124–127 Fig. 10.37: Scarabs 130–134 Fig. 10.38: Scarab 135, B7699 Fig. 10.39: Scarab 136, B7700 Fig. 10.40: Scarabs 137–140 Fig. 10.41: Scarabs 141, 143–146 Fig. 10.42: Scarab 147, B7285 Fig. 10.43: Scarabs 148–153 Fig. 10.44: Scarab 153, B8193 Fig. 10.45: scarab 154, B8208

558 559 560 562 563 565 566 567 569 570 571 574 575 577 578 580 581 582 583 585 586 587 588 589 590 593 594 597 598 599 600 601 602 604 605 607 609 610 611 613 614 615 616 617 618

Fig. 11.1: Beads Type II Fig. 11.2: Beads Types II–III Fig. 11.3: Beads Types II.1, Horos Eye, VII Fig. 11.4 (left): B7160, Tomb F2, L713 Fig. 11.5 (top right): B3160, Tomb A7, L240

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© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 11.6 (bottom right): B1237, L100 Fig. 11.7: B7817, L735 Fig. 11.8: B7683, L735 Fig 11.9: B6186, Tomb B62 Fig. 11.10: B9173, Tomb B172 Fig. 11.11: B1563, L117, Tomb A11

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Fig. 12.1: Linen textile and threads Fig. 12.2: part of the linen textile (photo Dino Lite X 60) Fig. 12.3: Part of the bundle of threads (Phot by Dino Lite X 65) Fig. 12.4: Fragment of belt with vegetable fiber Fig. 12.5: vegetable that were collected from the excavation (IAA Reg. 1996–9305) Fig. 12.6: Fragment of belt with plant material (F4, L769) Fig. 12.7: Plant material from Tomb C4, IAA 1996–9305

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Fig. 13.1: Mortality Curves Fig. 13.2: Survivorship Curves

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Figs. 14.1–4 (left to right): 1. Animal 2. Tail and line 3. Human figure 4. Object? Fig. 14.5: Modern impression of seal

645 646

Fig. 16.1: Equid burials from Tell el-‘Ajjul (after Petrie 1931: Pl. 9) Fig. 16.2: Gold armband, B3229 Fig. 16.3: Pumice stone, B1224 Fig. 16.4: Alabasteron B1159 Fig. 16.5: Alabasteron B1002 Fig. 16.6: Bone inlay fragments, B7572 Fig. 16.7: Bone inlay fragments, B7065 Fig. 16.8: Bone inlay fragments B7162 Fig. 16.9: “Warrior Tomb” 13 at Gesher, after Garfinkel and Cohen 2007: Fig. 3.54. Courtesy Susan Cohen. Fig. 16.10: Jericho, Tomb H6. The two adult skeletons on the right were possibly placed simultaneously (after Kenyon 1960:454, Fig. 193) Fig. 16.11: Jericho, Tomb P23 with simultaneous burials C–D (after Kenyon 1965:287, Fig. 138) Fig. 16.12: Jericho, Tomb P17 (after Kenyon 1965:358, Fig. 175) Fig. 16.13: Jericho, Tomb P19 (after Kenyon 1965:389, Fig. 195) Fig. 16.14: Dhahrat el Humraiya, tombs 51+52 (Ory 1948: Pl. 30:2) Fig. 16.15: Map of Sites with simultaneous burials Fig. 16.16: Six MB polities in the central coastal plain (after Uziel 2008: Fig 87). Rishon le-Zion is marked as the largest site (rank 7), and hence, the center of a polity. Fig. 16.17: Two MB polities in the central coastal plain (after Uziel 2008: Fig 88). Each polity is ruled by a pair of central sites (Jaffa and Aphek; Yavneh-Yam and Miqne/Ekron). Fig. 16.18: A pyramid-like museum will be built above the MB tombs (after Dan Laufer, Haaretz Newspaper, September 6, 1993)

657 659 659 659 659 660 660 661 678

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685 685 686 686 692 692 696 697 699

LIST OF TABLES Table 6.1: Chronological Distribution of Types Table 6.2: Illustrated Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware Table 6.3: Illustrated Cypriot Pottery Table 6.4: Periodization of Tombs

388 395 396 398

Table 7.1: Toggle Pins Type 1 (Globular Grooved Heads) Table 7.2: Toggle Pins Type 2 (Wedge-Shaped) Table 7.3: Toggle Pins Type 3 (Thick) Table 7.4: Toggle Pin Type 4 (Twisted Shafts) Table 7.5: Other Jewelry––Rings and Earrings Table 7.6: Axes Table 7.7: Spears Table 7.8: Ribbed Daggers (Type 1) Table 7.9: Daggers with Wide, Thick Midrib (Type 2) Table 7.10: Flat-Tanged Daggers (Type 3) Table 7.11: Undecorated, Wide-Bladed Daggers (Types 4–6) Table 7.12: Daggers with Flat, Narrow Blades (Type 7) Table 7.13: Daggers with Simple, Flat Blades (Type 8) Table 7.14: Daggers with Flanged Hilts (Type 9) and Unclassified Daggers Table 7.15: Knives Table 7.16: List of Samples and Micro-Hardness Results Table 7.17: Scanning Microscope Analysis Table 7.17 (Continued): Scanning Microscope Analysis Table 7.18: Atomic Absorption Spectometry

494 494 501 501 502 504 510 513 513 524 524 527 527 529 531 534 535 536 537

Table 9.1: Tree Species from Middle Bronze Age Tomb at Rishon le-Zion Table 9.2: Wood Remains from Middle Bronze Age Tombs at Rishon le-Zion Table 9.3: Seeds from the Middle Bronze Age Tombs at Rishon le-Zion

554 554 554

Table 11.1: Catalogue of Beads

629

Table 13.1: Age at Death Estimations at Rishon le-Zion (Raw Data) Table 13.2: Estimation of Sex of the Rishon le-Zion Skeletal Remains Table 13.3: Life Table, Rishon le-Zion Area B Table 13.4: Life Table, Rishon-le-Zion Area F Table 13.5: Life Expectancies of Bronze Age Populations in Israel

639 640 640 642 642

Table 16.1: Tombs with Single Primary Burials, Area B Table 16.2: Tombs with Two to Four Primary Burials, Area B Table 16.3: Tombs from Area F Table 16.4: Location of Pottery Finds––Area B, Single Tombs Table 16.5: Simultaneous Burials at Jericho Table 16.6: Multiple Primary Burials in Shaft Tombs (Areas A, F) Table 16.7: Multiple Primary Pit Burials (Area B) Table 16.8: Possible Simultaneous Burials––Area B

664 667 668 675 688 688 691 691

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LIST OF POTTERY PLATES Pl. 6.1: Tomb A1 Pl. 6.2: Tomb A1 Pl. 6.3: Tomb A2 Pl. 6.4: Tomb A3 Pl. 6.5: Tombs A4 and A6 Pl. 6.6: Tomb A5 Pl. 6.7: Tomb A5 Pl. 6.8: Tomb A7 Pl. 6.9: Tomb A8 Pl. 6.10: Tomb A9 Pl. 6.11: Tomb A10 Pl. 6.12: Tomb A11 Pl. 6.13: Tomb A11 Pl. 6.14: Tomb A12 Pl. 6.15: Tombs A13 and A14 Pl. 6.16: Various Tombs in Area B Pl. 6.17: Various Tombs in Area B Pl. 6.18: Tomb B97 Pl. 6.19: Tomb B162 Pl. 6.20: Tomb C4 Pl. 6.21: Tombs C5 and C7 Pl. 6.22: Tombs C11 and C14 Pl. 6.23: Tomb C12 Pl. 6.24: Tomb C16 Pl. 6.25: Various Tombs in Area F Pl. 6.26: Various Tombs in Area F Pl. 6.27: Tomb F2 Pl. 6.28: Tomb F2 Pl. 6.29: Tomb F4 Pl. 6.30: Tomb F4 Pl. 6.31: Tomb F4 Pl. 6.32: Tomb F4 Pl. 6.33: Tomb F4 Pl. 6.34: Tomb F4 Pl. 6.35: Tomb F4

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409 411 413 415 417 419 421 423 425 427 429 431 433 435 437 439 441 443 445 447 449 451 453 455 457 459 461 463 465 467 469 471 473 475 477

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LIST OF COLOR PLATES Pl. 1.1: Tomb A3, L259, Level III, looking north. Burial B3047+B3048 with bowl B2829 at center. Bowl B2833 top center. Pl. 1.2: Tomb A7, L240 looking north. Vertical bowl B2837, Level IV (left); lower edge of B2087, Level V (far right). Above the sign skeleton B3138, Level III, with juglet B3042. Pl. 2.1: Tomb A9, Level II, L209 looking south. Secondary burials; the ‘island’ at the back is L261 with juglets B2855, B2856. Pl. 2.2: Area E, L977 looking south. Bowls B5418 above B5419 (left); skeleton B5419; jar B5416 top right. Pl. 2.3: Tomb A10, Levels II–I, L256 looking north. Bowls B2562–B2563, Level II (left). Skeleton B2961, Level I (above the sign). Secondary burials L255, Level II (the ‘island’ at center). At the back is L215, Tomb A9. Pl. 3.1: Tomb B7, L509, looking east. Bowl B5092 (center); bowl B5091 (left). Pl. 3.2: Tomb B218, L1118 looking east. Belt B9434 with dagger B9419 on the right. Pl. 4.1: Bowl B7995 Pl. 4.2: Bowls B7973 Pl. 4.3: Bowl B8039 Pl. 5.1: Jar B6749 Pl. 5.2: Jar B7833 Pl. 5.3: Jar B9157 Pl. 5.4: Dipper Juglet B7477 Pl. 6.1: Jug B6098 Pl. 6.2: TEY Juglet B7956 Pl. 6.3: Silver pin B6518 Pl. 6.4: Silver rings B6518 Pl. 7.1: Dagger B5085––Type 1 Pl. 7.2: Dagger B6084––Type 1 Pl. 7.3: Dagger B9409––Type 1 Pl. 8.1: Dagger B6806––Type 2 Pl. 8.2: Dagger B7729––Type 2 Pl. 8.3: Dagger B2818––Type 3 Pl. 8.4: Dagger B7727––Type 3 Pl. 9.1: Dagger B7324––Type 4 (side A) Pl. 9.2: Dagger B7324––Type 4 (detail, side B) Pl. 9.3: Dagger B7304––Type 7 Pl. 9.4: Dagger B9165––Type 9 Pl. 10.1: Knifes B6146 (top) and B7471 (bottom) Pl. 10.2: Duckbill axe B7327 Pl. 10.3. Axe B9293 Pl. 10.4: Axe B8131 Pl. 10.5: Axe B7849 Pl. 11.1: Belt B8132, Parts E and F (back side) Pl. 11.2: Scarab 17 Pl. 11.3: Scarab 24 Pl. 11.4: Scarab 34 Pl. 11.5: Scarab 41 Pl. 12.1: Scarab 67 Pl. 12.2: Scarab 71 © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

735 735

736 736 736

737 737 738 738 738 739 739 739 739 740 740 740 740 741 741 741 742 742 742 742 743 743 743 743 744 744 744 744 744 745 745 745 745 745 746 746

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LIST OF COLOR PLATES

Pl. 12.3: Scarab 77 Pl. 12:4: Scarab 88 Pl. 12.5: Scarab 101 Pl. 12.6: Scarab 122 Pl. 12.7: Scarab 131 Pl. 12:8: Scarab 138 Pl. 13.1: Scarab 144 Pl. 13.2: Scarab 146 Pl. 13.3: Scarab 147 Pl. 13.4: Scarab 148 Pl. 13.5. Beads B7460, Tomb F7, L746 Pl. 14: Beads B7297, Tomb F1, L714 Pl. 15: Beads B7297, Tomb F1, L714 Pl. 16.1: Beads B9399, Tomb B211 Pl. 16.2: Beads B7160, Tomb F2, L713 Pl. 16.3: Seal B6999; showing a human figure (left) and an animal (right)

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746 746 746 746 746 746 746 747 747 747 747 748 749 750 750 750

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Yosi Levy Israel Antiquities Authority The Rishon le-Zion Middle Bronze Age cemetery was discovered at the beginning of 1991 in the area known as the Rishon le-Zion Sand Dunes, during inspection of preparatory work for the building of new residential neighborhoods. The site is located in the central coastal plain of Israel, about 20 km south of Tel Aviv. The coastal plain is divided into three different geographic units. Along the coast there is a stretch of dunes of varying width, whose sand originated in Egypt’s Nile Delta. The central zone of the coastal plain is mostly covered by red hamra (sandy loam) soil, while the eastern stretch is a valley of dark alluvial soil (terra rosa) that originated in the central mountains to the east (Singer 2007: 21–43). Three kurkar (calcareous sandstone) ridges, formed from the dunes, cross the western part of the coastal plain. The westernmost ridge is now partially submerged west of the present coastline and the central ridge runs along the coastline. The Rishon le-Zion cemetery is located on the third, easternmost kurkar ridge, which reaches a maximal height of 83 m above sea level (but is usually much lower). The cemetery was found at a depth of 3–5 m under the sandy surface. The large-scale development projects of the 1990s led to many surveys and excavations in this area, which have contributed significantly to our knowledge of its history (for the Middle Bronze Age, see Ajami and ‘Ad 2015; Gophna and Portugali 1988; Uziel 2008; for other periods see Fischer and Taxel 2007; Gorzalczany 2006; 2016; forthcoming; Gorzalczany et al. 2010; Taxel 2013). It is unclear to which city the Rishon le-Zion cemetery belonged, as no MB II urban site is known so far in the vicinity. Various ideas about the function of the cemetery as a ‘central site’ and MB II settlement patterns are discussed in detail in the concluding chapter (Chapter 16, in volume I/2). The excavations at the site from 1991 to 1998 were all salvage excavations directed by the present writer on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA). They were funded by the Rishon le-Zion Economic Company. The method of excavation and the registration of the finds followed the common procedures and forms current in the IAA at the time. Since the excavation was limited to areas facing immediate development, it was impossible to excavate the entire cemetery. However, the cemetery may have extended to unexcavated areas located between the areas we excavated. If so, this would be one of the largest ancient cemeteries known in Israel, extending over c. 150 dunams (c. 15 hectares). Excavated tombs (excluding loci which were probably tombs, but were too damaged to be securely defined) included at least 23 shaft tombs and 178 pit tombs. Seven major areas were excavated (see General Map, Plan 1.1); six of them included Middle Bronze Age tombs, as follows: Area A—an area of shaft tombs (12 excavated, possible several more damaged/partly excavated). Area B—an area of shallow pit tombs (at least 163 tombs). Area C—an area of shallow pit tombs (at least 13, possible 18 additional damaged/partially excavated). Area E—one pit tomb and two possible pit tombs found under the late Iron Age fortress. Area F—an area of shaft tombs (at least 11) and a few other tombs. Area G—an area with Middle Bronze Age jars which presumably served as jar-burials. However, none of them was excavated due to change in the development plans, so this area was left untouched. It is a pleasure to thank all those who took part in the excavations, which were often very demanding due to their large scale and long duration, and in work on finds afterwards: Amir Feldstein, Anat Beck, Sigal Golan, Keren Nahmias, Ilana Ben David, and Ephrat Manor (area supervisors); Harry Elnekave (administrator); Tsila Sagiv, Sando Mandrea, Clara Amit and Yael Yolovitch (photography); Vered Eshed and Yossi Nagar (anthropology); Har’ela Zarfati and Roni Gat (pottery restoration); Anat Ginzburg (registration); Rachel Graph and Yosef Kapelian (surveying); Dov Porotzky (plans); Marina Shuiskaya and Alona Ruban (drawings); Moshe Sadeh (archaeozoology); Aharon Horowitz (pollen sampling);

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Carmen Hersch (pottery plates); Yehushua Dray (metal detection); Patricia Smith, Rotem Arieli, and Joanna R. Sofaer (physical anthropology, area A); Alegre Savariego (locating finds at the IAA National Treasures Department, Beth Shemesh); and Yael Barshak (retrieving and scanning of negatives). Workers in the excavation included hired laborers and students from Tel Aviv University.

Plan 1.1: General Location Map

I am greatly indebted to all those who took part in the preparation and writing of this final report, namely, Daphna Ben-Tor (scarabs); Joe Uziel and Itzhaq Shai (pottery); Eriola Jakoel and Amir Golani (beads); Irit Ziffer (belts, seal); Tal Kan-Cipor – Meron and Sariel Shalev (metal finds and metallurgy); Vered Eshed and Yossi Nagar (physical anthropology); Nili Liphschitz (dendroarchaeology); Orit Shamir and Naama Sukenik (textiles); Miriam Feinberg Vamosh (English text editor); and last but not least, Raz Kletter (final area reports, conclusions, and editing). I also thank Wolfgang Zwickel and Stefan Wimmer as editors of the series Ägypten und Altes Testament, and especially Kai Metzler as publisher of Zaphon for editing and preparing the manuscript for publishing. Many years have passed since the first season of excavation, and as with every large-scale and complex archaeological project, some data was not fully documented, or could not be retrieved for the final report. A few studies that we had hoped to perform (for example, genetic studies on bones) did not materialize or could not be included in the present report for practical reasons. Naturally, not all the pottery from the tombs was fully restored, but we present a large and reliable selection (restoring all the pottery is unnecessary, since types repeat themselves; in addition, much of the pottery was extremely fragmented and poorly preserved). Our goal in this report is to give as full as possible and accurate description and interpretation of the remains, and hence, we openly discuss the excavation and its limitations, and also critically assess observations and stratigraphic conclusions expressed by area supervisors and those who

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worked on the finds soon after the field seasons. The many years of labor have finally borne fruit, and we now present one of the largest MB II cemeteries ever found in the southern Levant. Despite a far from ideal state of preservation as well as excavation conditions, we have documented more than 200 tombs with approximately 600 burials, accompanied by a very rich assemblage of finds––thousands of pottery vessels, hundreds of metal weapons and personal objects, more than 150 scarabs, and other finds. In addition to the publication of all these finds, we offer in the concluding chapter detailed discussion with statistical analysis about burial customs, positions of various finds in the tombs, their relation to the skeletons and their various levels of meanings. A unique window is now opened not just about death and burial customs, but about ancient life along the coast of Israel nearly 4,000 years ago. REFERENCES Ajami, M. and ‘Ad, U. 2015. Yavneh-Yam (North): An Agricultural Area and Cemeteries from the Middle and Late Bronze Ages and the Persian, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine Periods. ‘Atiqot 81:1–29 (Hebrew with English Summary pp. 113*–119*). Fischer, M. and Taxel, I. 2007. Ancient Yavneh: Its History and Archaeology. Tel Aviv 34: 204–284. Gophna, R. and Portugali, J. 1988. Settlement and Demographic Processes in Israel's Coastal Plain from the Chalcolithic to the Middle Bronze Age. BASOR 269: 11–28. Gorzalczany, A. 2006. A Cemetery from the Chalcolithic Period at Palmaḥim-North. Qadmoniyot 132: 87–94 (Hebrew). Gorzalczany, A., Barcan D. and Ichie, L. 2010. A Site from the Persian, Hellenistic and Early Islamic Periods at Holot Yavneh. ʽAtiqot 62: 21*–46* (Hebrew, with English summary pp. 171–172). Gorzalczany, A. 2016. A Mamluk-Period Settlement and Cemetery at Geʼalya, near Yavneh. ʽAtiqot 86: 69–110. Gorzalczany, A. Forthcoming. Final Report of the 2005 Salvage Excavations of the Chalcolithic Cemetery at Palmahim (North): New Evidence of Chalcolithic Burial Patterns from the Central Coastal Plain of Israel. ‘Atiqot. Singer, A. 2007. The Soils of Israel. New York: Springer. Taxel, I. 2013. Rural Settlement Processes in Central Palestine, ca. 640–800 CE: The Ramla–Yavneh Region as a Case Study. BASOR 269: 157–199. Uziel, J. 2008. The Southern Coastal Plain of Canaan during the Middle Bronze Age. PhD Thesis, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan.

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This book is dedicated to the memory of NICOLAS LEVY (1986-2007) Served and fell in the IDF missile boat Kidon

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CHAPTER 2 AREA B

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Yosi Levy1 and Raz Kletter2 Israel Antiquities Authority and 2University of Helsinki 2.1 INTRODUCTION

Area B was the northernmost area of the Rishon le-Zion cemetery; it was located along Rabin Road leading to the Nobel Prize Winners neighborhood, northwest of Areas B and D (southwestern corner of area, Old Israel Grid 1276/1537; New Israel Grid 1776/5537; see Chapter 1, Plan 1.1). A large, cemetery of pit tombs, rich in finds, was discovered in this area. Unlike the shaft tombs of Areas A and F, the Area B pit tombs were much smaller and shallower. As a rule, each tomb was defined as one locus with one stratigraphic horizon. However, a few later tombs cut into earlier ones, and we may also speak about the order of placement of certain burials or vessels within a tomb. The area was excavated during two seasons, 1996 and 1997–1998. The 1996 season (excavation permit A2502) was carried out after work on Rabin Road had exposed burials. Excavation took place in July–August 1996, headed by Y. Levy with K. Nahmias and I. Ben David (area supervisors); V. Eshed and Y. Nagar (anthropology); R. Graf (surveyor); D. Porotsky (tomb plans, 1997–8 season); and M. Shuiskaya (pottery drawing). The excavation was financed by the Rishon le-Zion Economic Corporation. The loci of Area B season 1996 were numbered from L500 to L514 and baskets were numbered from B5000 to B5125. Tombs were labeled (after the excavation) as B1–B11. Like Areas A and C (Chapters 4–5, in this volume), some vessels were registered under more than one basket. In such cases we mention the various baskets (for example, B5055+B5097). The documentation of the 1996 season in Area B was adequate in general, with full loci cards and textual summaries of tombs (written later). Only the daily graphic illustrations are schematic, so in several cases it was difficult to identify the finds. The 1997–1998 season in Area B (excavation permit A2731) was headed by Sigal Golan (area supervisor). In this season, loci were at first numbered from L600 to L699 and baskets from B6000 to B6999. Since the L700 and B7000 series had already been used in Area F, the next loci of Area B were numbered L1000 to L1122 and the baskets––B9000 to B9554. Tomb labels (B12–B222) were also used. Starting from B79, the excavators matched the tomb and locus numbers, so that, for example, L685 designated Tomb B85; L686 Tomb B86, etc. This system was continued in the L1000 series (L1000 marks Tomb B100; L1001 Tomb B101, and so on). Accordingly, L1100–1122 denote Tombs B200–B222. Documentation of the 1997–1998 season in Area B includes loci cards and graphic illustrations for most of the tombs, as well as professional field plans. The pace of the excavation was hastened toward the end of the season, and locus cards of some tombs from that time lack textual description. (Nevertheless, some brief descriptions can be found in summary pages prepared at a later date.) Not all the tomb labels (B1–B212) designate real tombs. Sometimes a locus was opened when a vessel, or a patch of dark earth, was noticed on the surface, but further excavation did not discover a burial. For minor loci, which did not develop into real tombs, neither loci cards nor summary pages were prepared. Though they may appear in various plans, we could not clarify their nature, but presumably they did not have important finds. The following loci lack descriptions, and almost no finds were registered from them: L604 (one vessel, Square F5); L616 (a rectangular contour in Square F4); L618, L622 (Square E4?); L630, L631, L633 (Square E5); L634 (Square E6); L635 (Square E8); L639, L643, L644, L648, L649, L652 (Square D12); L653 (Square C9–10, two broken vessels); L666, L677 (probably B76; it appears in the plans as a line in Square B11); L688 (B88); L1006 (B106); L1024 (B124); L1054 (B154); L1057 (B157, Square H9); L1058 (B158, Square H10); L1063 (B163, Square D11); L1071 (B171, a rounded contour––probably one vessel in Square C11); L1080 (B180); L1088 (B188); L1092 (B192); L1101 (B201); and L1119 (B219). We also lack data about tomb labels B38, B52 (=L652?), and B78. In these three cases, loci numbers did not directly match tomb labels, so we could not go back from the label to the locus. We can safely © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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assume that the lack of documentation is not a serious fault, but a result of the fact that all the abovementioned labels were minor loci. They have no skeletons and/or vessels that would have generated documentation (registered baskets, photographs and plans, mention in anthropomorphic reports, etc.). When the presence of a burial was uncertain, we do not describe the remains as a “tomb”, but rather only under the label or locus number (B4, L604, etc.). In two cases, separate loci were united into one tomb: loci 1008 and 1001 (Tomb B101); and loci 114 and 116 (Tomb B214+B216). For both cases, we have unified loci cards, indicating that the unification was made at an early stage, before the filling of the loci cards. In another case, B19 was equated with B23––this explains why we lacked records about Tomb B23. Finally, B26 and B27 possibly form parts of one complex, but this remains tentative. Detailed anthropological reports for the 1997–1998 season in Area B were produced. In rare cases the data does not match that written in the locus card. In such cases we follow the anthropological reports. The age of the deceased was usually based on dental age. Archaeozoological analysis was performed by Moshe Sadeh. Unfortunately, the observations could not be made in the field. The bones were usually very fragmentary, and articulation was lost during their retrieval. Not all the animal bones could be retrieved. The excavation records of the 1997–1998 season in Area B often use the term “open bowls” for large, shallow bowls; and “kraters” for similar bowls that have small knob handles. When possible, we specify the existence of such handles. Otherwise, we call both types of vessels “bowls”. The records employ the term pithoi for large jars, with or without handles. Given the pressures of excavating, the terms could not be based on specific measurements. The pottery of some tombs was restored soon after the excavation, and some vessels were found intact. In 2008 we chose a selection of additional tombs for pottery restoration. It included pottery from 21 tombs from Area B: B22, B32, B34, B48, B49, B56, B57, B85, B95, B97, B107, B115, B116, B133, B142, B148, B162, B165, B167, B176, and B218. A good many samples were collected from pelvis bones of the more complete skeletons for DNA analyses (which did not materialize). We left the basket numbers of such samples in the plans. Many plans show the tombs surrounded by dotted lines, suggesting contours (Plans 2.3, 2.5, 2.13, 2.24, etc.). However, these lines were neither boundaries of the tombs (as observed during excavation), nor limits of excavated areas. They were an arbitrary reconstruction added after the excavation, roughly encircling the finds and skeletons. For example, in Tomb B85 an oval contour is described and shown in the locus card, but an original plan drawn in the field lacks the contour. Excavation files often state that the limits of the tombs could not be defined, since the soil inside and outside was identical in colors/textures. Certainly this could often be the case; but quite a few tombs were described as composed of dark silt, visible as ‘patches’ in the surrounding lighter soils. For example, Tomb B39 was described as dug into silt and covered by hamra (red soil), so its contour should have been visible, yet none was drawn (Plan 2.27). The summary page for the tomb, written at a later stage, suggested that the hamra cover did not survive, since the tomb was close to the surface, and hence, its contour could not be determined. If the cover did not survive, why assume a hamra cover? In another case, Tomb B199 was described as dug into sand and of unknown contour. Yet a plan of this tomb carries a handwritten note: “the tomb is surrounded by silty soil”. The contour was probably not documented. The excavated areas sometimes exceeded the later-added ‘contours’, and areas were excavated as arbitrary rectangles or squares, and not by tomb contours (for example, Figs. 2.85, 90, 117; Tombs B136, B147, B199, respectively). The locus card for Tomb B98 states that the contour was “probably oval”––this is likely, but it is based on the position of the finds and not on a contour observed in the field (the plan shows no contour line). For B40 a contour line was restored where no tomb had been. Even when a tomb was noticed as a dark ‘patch’ of silt, it probably had to be exposed before its contents could be drawn or photographed. If the excavation followed the ‘patch’, by the time the skeletons and finds were exposed, the dark silt had been removed (except perhaps leftovers near bones/vessels). The finds and skeletons were recorded accurately in the plans, but not the tomb contours (since, by this stage, they were inconspicuous––the edges of the shallow depression created by the excavation of the silt). Thus, the contour lines in the plans are arbitrary. This means that when tombs were in proximity to or cut each other, it is difficult to establish the relations and attribute the finds accurately. However, such cases were rare. We also lack more detailed descriptions of skeletons and their relations to other skeletons and finds from the same tombs. There are adequate professional field plans, but they document a certain stage of the excavation and not its entire process. Which bones were above/below other bones? Coloring skeletons in order to separate them, or writing comments on the plans soon after they were made would have © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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clarified the relations (e.g., for Tombs B24, B49, and B86). We added such details (by raster) to many plans, but they are based on our interpretation, and not on accurate observation in the field. Photographs sometimes add data, but many photographs could not be identified, since they lack descriptions of content (at the time, such descriptions were written on IAA forms, before digital photography). A schematic map showing the location of the Area B burials is given in Plan 2.1. In the text we refer to squares by letters and numbers (B5, C3, etc.). Note that the original grid A to Z was extended using similar letters (A, B, etc.). We added to one column (Plan 2.1) the letter Z (hence, ZZ) to prevent confusion. References to more than one square are given as B5–6, AC5–6, etc. Wall designations (employed only in the 1997–1998 season) are marked by initial letter “W-”, followed by squares and a running number. For the sake of simplicity, we use a shorter format combining the square and running wall number (For example, W-H61 would mean wall 1 in Square H6; W-HI122 would mean Wall 2 in squares H and I). All heights are above sea level unless otherwise noted.

2.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TOMBS OF THE 1996 SEASON Tombs B1–B11 were excavated in this season (see Plan 2.1). The area was measured by a grid of 5 × 5 squares, and the tombs were located in Squares BD4–8. (In later plans of Area B they are marked in Squares GI4–8, but we follow the original plans of the 1996 season.) Tomb B1 Loci 500, 505; Square D4; Plan 2.2; Fig. 2.1 A pit dug into hamra soil. The burials and the vessels were covered by silt. The grave included two individuals in primary burial. Both were placed on their right side with folded legs turned to the north and hands folded roughly on the hips. The northern skeleton belonged to a male adult (B5017; estimated height 1.69 m, age unknown). The southern skeleton (B5023+B5034) belonged to a youngster or a female (15 years old or older, estimated height 1.49 m). Theoretically, the two skeletons could denote two separate tombs, but in view of their proximity and matching positions (as well as the scarcity of finds near skeleton B5023+5034), it seems that they belonged to one tomb. Between the skeletons there was a large bowl with red-burnished rim (B5000+5026) partially placed above the leg of skeleton B5017, as well as a jar (B5001) with a dipper juglet (B5000) inside; a base of a bowl or jar (B5002); and a bowl (B5014). North of the feet of skeleton B5017 a carinated bowl (B5004) was found, along with another small bowl (B5005). A small bowl was placed in the hand of B5017 (B5013+5037). Yet another small bowl (B5012––resembling a skull in Plan 2.1, but this is accidental) and a carinated bowl (B5006) were found nearby. Some of the vessels (B5000, B5013+5037) were placed above the bones of B5017, indicating that the body was placed first. A small probe (L505) was excavated under and east of L500. Natural layers of silt, hamra and sand were found. In the southeastern part of L505 a brick wall with five courses was noticed. The sun-dried bricks were made of hamra (9 × 40 cm). The records suggest that the bricks were a supporting wall for another tomb, which was located northeast of Square D4 (not excavated). The feet of the two skeletons seem complete, but they have no skulls; bowl B5014 is also half missing. The excavation files do not note this, but a possible explanation is that the northeastern edge of the tomb had been removed by the roadwork prior to the excavation. Tomb B2 Locus 501; Square D6; Plan 2.3; Fig. 2.2 A pit tomb dug into hamra. The deceased and the vessels were covered by silt. The bones were very badly preserved, representing four individuals. One individual was in primary burial, but not all the skeleton was found (B5021+B5070; skull B5075; and a tooth B5067). It was reported as lying supine with folded legs and hands on the hips. According to the locus card, the age was 4–6 years, but the anthropological report by Y. Nagar gives an estimation of 7–15 years, based on tooth B5067. The other three individuals were probably identified from remains of secondary burials. Postcranial bones of an adult (B5038?) were reported in a bowl (B5009) and a human tooth (B5042) in another bowl (B5010). A third individual (B5016) was represented by a skull and fragments of postcranial bones, too damaged to determine sex/age. A fourth individual was represented by a skull (B5072, not shown on the plan) found near the southwestern edge of B8 with some other bones (B5071, B5073). Vessels from Tomb B2 included a jar (B5007) with a dipper juglet (B5008) inside it, as well as two bowls (B5009; B5010). Near the folded legs of B5070 there was another bowl (B5011) and a juglet

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(B5076) near the skull. Another jar is listed (B5025), perhaps shown as a rounded fragment on the western side of the tomb; but this is conjecture. For the association with B7, see Tomb B7 (below).

Fig. 2.1: Tomb B1, L500 looking north. Skeleton B5023+B5034 (right); skeleton B5017 (top).

Fig. 2.2: Tomb B2, L501 looking north. Skull B5075 and legs B5070 (right); bones B5071+B5073 (left).

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Fig. 2.3: Tomb B5, L507 looking north. Skeleton B5102 with jar B5055+B5097 (center); jar B5054+ B5099 (left).

Fig. 2.4: Tomb B6, L506 looking north. Skeleton B5109 with dagger B5094; jar B5111 at the left.

Tomb B3 Locus 502; Square D7; Plan 2.6 A pit tomb dug into hamra (Square D7). The tomb was badly damaged by the roadwork. Only fragments © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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of a skull (B5019) and one tooth (B5020) survived, representing an adult age 25–35 years. A bowl (B5022) was placed on the skull, but it was crumbling and could not be saved. A probe under the tomb (L512) revealed only natural layers of alluvial soil. B4 Loci 503–504; Square C4; Plan 2.4 The nature of B4 is not clear. Three unbaked bricks (40 × 60 cm) of hamra earth in L503 were explained as remains of a burial aligned east–west. A badly preserved bowl or jar (B5024) was found on the surface, southeast of the bricks. However, no human remains were found. A probe (L504) was made, reaching the natural sand 1.5 m below the start of the excavation. It showed that there was only one course of (slightly slanted) bricks. No bones or vessels were discovered in this probe. Tomb B5 Locus 507; Square BC4; Plan 2.5; Fig. 2.3 A pit tomb dug into hamra soil. The deceased and the vessels were covered by dark silt. However, the plan shows a ‘contour’ only around the bones (as noted above, this contour is an arbitrary line). One human skeleton was discovered in primary burial (B5102), supine with the legs folded northward and the hands placed along the body. The bones were badly broken and not completely in situ due to movement of the ground, perhaps from the recent roadwork. Based on teeth, the deceased was c. 12 years old (sex unknown). Vessels included a jar (B5054+B5099) near the legs and a bowl near the head (B5055+B5097). A probe (L510) was made under L507, but it revealed only natural layers. Tomb B6 Locus 506; Square D7; Plans 2.6–7; Fig. 2.4 A pit tomb dug into hamra and silt. The deceased and the vessels were covered by dark silt. The tomb included one primary burial of an adult female, c. 20 years old (B5109). She was described as resting on the right side in an east–west direction; the head turned northward, the legs folded, and the arms on the hips. A distal fragment from the femur of a second individual was found east of B5109; neither age nor sex could be determined. Finds from Tomb B6 included a fragmented jar (B5111) near the legs of the deceased with a juglet (B5125) inside it. A bronze axe (B5077) and a bronze dagger (B5094) with a pommel (B5095) were found northeast of the woman’s skull. The pommel was in situ (the dagger was placed intact in the tomb, only the wooden handle did not survive). Perhaps neither weapon belonged to the woman (since such weapons are rarely associated with female burials at Rishon le-Zion), but to another primary burial that did not survive, whose bones seem to be in partial articulation north of the woman’s body (Plan 2.6, marked A, and east of dagger B5095). Northeast of the bones a slanted brick wall, consisting of five courses (Plan 2.7, size of bricks 50 ×40 × 9 cm, made of hamra and silt), may have demarcated a burial located south of Tomb B6. Other than the bricks, the section shows only jar B5111; the exact location of the bones and other finds was unclear. Tomb B7 Locus 509; Square D6; Plans 2.3; 2.8; Fig. 2.5; Color Pl. 3.1. A pit tomb dug into silt, hamra and sand, partially under Tomb B2. A 1.8-m-long brick wall, four courses high, was found south of the burial (hamra bricks, 10 × 40 cm). It was found slanted; the excavators suggested that its aim was to prevent collapse of sand into the tomb. The bones and the vessels were covered by dark silt. The tomb included remains of three individuals. An entire skeleton in primary burial (B5080) of a female (c. 20 years old, 1.75 m high) was found supine, on a general east–west axis. The head faced upward and the legs were folded on one side. One arm was extended along the body, the other folded on the chest. The bones were not found all in situ, though. Another burial (B5079, see Plan 2.8) was found northwest of the first one. It included fragments of postcranial bones and teeth. A pelvis bone (B5090) rested on some leg bones, and a lower jaw (B5083) was found upside down. Two femurs (leg bones) and a humerus (arm) were found nearby. A few more teeth from an upper jaw were also found. All this suggests a secondary burial. Based on teeth, the individual represented by these bones was 12–15 years old (sex unknown). A few bones from another burial (B5089) were found above and near bowls B5092– B5093, but the poor state of preservation did not allow estimation of sex/age. The excavators suggested that B5080 was placed first, then B5079, the vessels, and finally burial © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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B5089. According to this scenario, B5079 and B5089 were not pushed aside in order to make room for B5080, but buried elsewhere and added only later as secondary burials to a tomb that already included B5080. The argument for this reconstruction was based on the observation that the silt soil becomes very hard when it dries, so bones could not be removed from it intact (without modern methods of excavation). However, following this logic, adding secondary burials would have destroyed the bones of B5080. Perhaps the hardness was due to the heavy machinery that scraped the surface prior to the excavation. If so, earlier secondary burials (B5090, B5079) may possibly have been pushed aside when B5080 was added. Bowls B5092–3 were then placed above B5080. A difficulty is B5089, the bones found above bowls B5092+3. There were hardly any other graves in Area B with secondary burials; and MB II burials in the Levant in general have sheep/goat bones––not human bones––inside bowls. One must keep in mind that the bone baskets of the assumed secondary burials all come from the disturbed area on the border between B2 and B7, which was not well documented. Finds from Tomb B7 included three bowls placed near the legs of B5080. The lowest bowl has a redcross design (B5091), and the other two were above it (B5092; B5093). Another group of vessels near the head of B5080 was badly preserved; it included a jar (B5107) with a juglet inside it (B5122); sherds from another jar (B5096+B5113); a juglet (shown in the plan south of the head, probably B5123); and a carinated bowl (B5121; location not clear). Finally, some fragments are shown in the plan on the hip near bowl B5093; it is not clear whether they formed a separate vessel. What was the relation between Tomb B2 and Tomb B7? The heights noted indicate that B7 was roughly 1 m lower than B2 and hence, earlier. However, a mistake of 1 m in registration of heights is not unheard of. Still, juglet B5076 and skull B5075 of the primary burial of B2 were placed above bones (B5079, B5090) ascribed to Tomb B7. Hence, B2 was later than B7. The same is suggested by the edge of bowl B5092 (B7), which seems to have been damaged and under juglet B5076 of B2.

Fig. 2.5: Tomb B7, L509 looking east. Bowl B5092 (center); bowl B5091 (left); edge of B5093 (back).

B8 Locus 513; Square D6; Plan 2.3 This locus marks a layer of dark silt that may have sealed a tomb, but the area was not excavated further. The only feature attributed to B8 was one brick at the joint of B2 and B8.

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Fig. 2.6 (left): Tomb B9, L511 looking north. Bones B5102 (top); dagger B5086 already removed. Fig. 2.7 (right): Tomb B13, L600 looking northeast. Skeleton B6000 with jars B6009, B6010.

Tomb B9 Locus 511; Square BC4; Plan 2.5; Fig. 2.6 A pit tomb dug into hamra and sand. The finds were covered by silt. The tomb was bounded by a brick wall at the northwest. The wall, which was sharply slanted, has seven courses of hamra bricks (9 × 40 cm) and may have been built to prevent collapse of sand into the tomb. One skeleton (B5104+B5105) was found at the bottom of the pit in primary burial, resting on the right side with folded legs and the head facing west. The right arm was folded to the face and the left arm was on the hip. The deceased was c. 40 years old and 1.5 m tall (sex unknown). Vessels from the tomb included only a bronze dagger (B5085) with an alabaster pommel (B5086) in situ near the waist. B10 Locus 508; Square D5 The locus was opened after sherds of bowls (not restorable) were seen on the surface in Square D5. The excavators thought that the bowls were markers of a grave. Excavation proved that the southern part of the square was composed of hamra mixed with fine-grained sand, while the northern part was made of silt. Tiny fragments of bones were found at a depth of 40 cm, but nothing more. B11 Locus 514; Square B4; Plan 2.5 A feature of dark silt (L514), cutting into hamra soil, was discerned in the western section of Square B4, near Tomb B9. However, it was not excavated and its nature remains unclear.

2.3 DESCRIPTION OF THE TOMBS OF THE 1997–1998 SEASON Locus 604 Square F5 A jar (B6120) was found on the surface in this locus, with no other finds. Tomb B12 Locus 620; Square H9 © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Only meager remains were defined as B12: a ‘patch’ of silt of unknown contour. The sole find was partial traces of one individual (B6004; based on teeth, 15–17 years old) in primary burial. Enough remained to indicate that the deceased was laid in an east–west direction with folded legs; the head was in the east with the face turned to the south. Tomb B13 Locus 600; Square DE4–5; Plan 2.9; Fig. 2.7 The tomb was excavated into silt and covered by hamra. The contour was reported as oval. The deceased (B6000) rested supine in a primary burial aligned northeast–southwest. The head was in the northeast and the face was turned to the northwest. The right leg was extended, the left one slightly folded. The arms were extended along the body with hands near the pelvis. Based on teeth and the size of the humerus, the deceased was a male, c. 20 years old. There were two jars (B6009, B6010) near the legs. Jar B6010 included a juglet (B6011). This tomb was lower and earlier than Tomb B28. Tomb B14 Locus 601; Square E5; Plan 2.10; Fig. 2.8 The tomb was dug into silt and covered by hamra. The contour was reported as rounded. The deceased (B6022, sex unknown; 6–7 years old) was placed in primary burial on the right side, on a northeast–southwest axis, with the head in the northeast and the face to the southeast. The arms were folded on the chest. A bronze ring (B6001) was found on a finger of the left hand. A juglet (B6025) was placed near the head and three jars at the edge of the burial (B6026–B6028). Another large jar (B6029) was placed about 50 cm outside the assumed contour of the burial. However, it likely belongs to B14, since it does not fit any other tomb and the skeleton in B14 was incomplete. If the legs were extended, they would have reached close to jar B6029.

Fig. 2.8: Tomb B14, L601 looking north. Jar B6029 at the left; excavation already below the level of finds.

B15 Locus 602; Square G5; Plan 2.11; Fig. 2.9 An irregular pit dug into silt and covered by hamra. Bricks are marked on the plan in the south part of the locus, at the same height as the bones, but they were not mentioned in the excavation records. In the pit there was a primary (partial) burial of a horse. Only the head, neck, parts of the front legs, and a small part of the body were found. The head was facing east and the legs were folded toward the belly. Seven molar fragments of Equus caballus were registered (B6012). According to the anthropological report, L602 also included human bones in a very poor state of preservation (sex/age unknown). Under the horse bones there were remains of charcoal. Continued excavation below, to a depth of 2.8 m below the surface, revealed burial B54, which was defined as an earlier burial (but was not directly under B15).

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Fig. 2.9: Tomb B15, L602 looking south. Animal bones B6012 (with the head at top center).

Fig. 2.10: Tomb B16, L615 looking northeast. Skull and bones B6035; jar B6097 of Tomb B19 at the top right.

Tomb B16 Locus 615; Square H3; Plan 2.12 left; Fig. 2.10 The tomb was dug into hamra and probably covered by silt; the contour is unknown. The bones of the deceased (B6035) were badly preserved––only one leg and few other bones survived. They represent a primary burial of an adult, aligned northwest–southeast, placed on the right side with folded legs (the head was in the east, but the skull was not found and is restored in the plan). The sex and age are unknown. Vessels from this tomb included a bowl (B6008) and a juglet (B6036) near the knees, and one flint item (B6006). Tomb B17 Locus 605; Square F6; Plan 2.13; Fig. 2.11 The tomb was dug into silt and covered by silt; its contour is unknown. The finds were badly preserved (mainly due to the roadwork).

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Fig. 2.11: Tomb B17, L605 looking north. Burial B6033 with juglets B6038 and B6039; larger vessels removed.

Fig. 2.12: Tomb B18 (not B13), L603 looking north. Skeleton B6016 and jar B6015 (left); jar B6013 above bowl B6014 (right); brick wall W-E41 at top center.

The tomb included two primary burials on a northeast–southwest axis. The southern burial (B6033) was placed supine with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The right arm was placed on the chest (the left did not survive). The age was 40–50 years. The northern burial (B6020) was of a child, 9– 10 years old; the legs were folded (badly preserved) and only parts of the arms survived. Almost all the vessels were placed near the adult (southern) burial B6033. Near the feet there was a jar (B6018) with a juglet beneath it (B6037). A jar (B6007) was found above the pelvis bones with juglet B6034 inside it. When originally set in place, this jar probably stood upright near the body. South of this jar there was a third jar (B6019). Three juglets were placed near the skull: two were ‘hugged’ by the right arm (B6038, B6039) and one was found on the chest/neck area (B6041). Another small vessel (B6024, listed as a juglet, but drawn as a bowl in the plan) was found south of the deceased near the shoulder. A large bowl (B6023) with goat/sheep bones (B6031) was placed north of the skull and partly above it. Sheep/goat bones were also found near bowl B6023, probably registered as B6056. Farther north there

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was a juglet or bowl (B6032) and another bowl (B6021). More goat/sheep bones, including a jaw, were found near/above the elbow of B6033 and east of jar B6019 (B6030). The northern burial (B6020) was accompanied only by one juglet (B6040). A flint item (6005) was also registered from this tomb (not marked in the plan). Tomb B18 Locus 603; Square E4; Plan 2.14; Fig. 2.12 The tomb was dug into silt and covered by hamra. The contour was reported as semi-circular. On the northern side there was a brick wall (W-E41), composed of two bricks (c. 40 × 50 cm). The deceased (B6016, 25–35 years old) was placed supine in a primary burial aligned northeast– southwest. The head was in the northeast with the face to the northwest. The legs were folded. The left arm was extended along the body with the hand near the hip, and the right arm was folded with the hand in front of the face. The right hand was placed below bowl (B6014). A jar (B6013) stood between this bowl and the brick wall, which had partially collapsed above the vessels. A jar that stood at the other end of the wall (B6015) had fallen on top of the leg bones. The pottery and the bones were badly preserved. The position of the skeleton and the jars proves that W-E41 was related to this tomb; first it was constructed, then the body was placed and finally bowl B6014 was added. The two jars were probably set in place before the skeleton. Tomb B19 Locus 614; Square H3; Plan 2.12 center; Fig. 2.13 The tomb was cut into hamra and probably covered by hamra; the contour is unknown. On the southern side there was a wall (W-H31) made of uneven bricks (or perhaps broken pieces of bricks). Its width was roughly 40 cm. The deceased (B6111, 30–40 years old) was placed on the left side in primary burial, lying in an east– west direction, with folded legs, the head in the east and the face to the south. Pottery included a jar at the feet (B6097) with a juglet inside it (B6107). There was a second juglet (B6124) at the corner of W-H31, south of jar B6097. The demarcation line between B19 and B35 was not clear. East of and near the head of the B19 burial there was a jar (B6108), which was also close to the feet of the B35 burial. The height documented for the shoulder of jar B6108 indicates that it belonged to B19 (it does not fit the burial in B35, which was much higher than that of B19). Another jar (B6109) was found resting at the southern end of W-H31 (top 31.00 m, base 30.80). This jar probably belonged to B35, which was later than B19. However, this could not be proven beyond doubt.

Fig. 2.13: The edge of Tomb B19 (at right), looking south. Jars B6109 and B6108; skeleton B6110 of Tomb B35 (at center).

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Fig. 2:14: Tomb B20, L610 looking east. Jars B6042 and B6043 (right); skeleton B6068 (center).

Fig. 2.15: Tomb B20, L610 looking south. Jars B6042 and B6043 (right); skeleton B6086 not yet exposed at this stage of excavation.

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Tomb B20 Locus 610; Square E5; Plan 2.15; Figs. 2.14–15 The tomb was cut into hamra and covered by silt. Its contour was described in the records as oval. A brick wall, W-E51 (unknown height), was found above jug B6087 of B20. The wall was therefore ascribed to B25, although it was not very close to the burial of B25. The deceased (B6078, 40–50 years old) was placed in a primary burial aligned east–west. It is not clear if the body was placed on the right side or supine. The head was in the east with the face to the north. The legs were folded. The right arm was folded up and the left arm extended along the body to the pelvis area. A black juglet (B6073) was placed near the left elbow. Farther south a juglet (B6057), a jug (B6087), and a jar (B6058) were found. Two jars (B6042, B6043) were located to the southwest, quite some distance from the skeleton. Goat/sheep bones including ribs, pelvis and one shoulder bone, found above and to the east of the deceased (B6068). This indicates interment of at least a large body part of the animal, probably in articulation. B21 Locus 609; Square G6; Plan 2.16 A pit was found, cutting into silt and covered by hamra. The contour was described as oval. The pit contained partial remains of a donkey (Equus asinus) in articulation. The bones (B6017) were found at different heights. Identified bones included two metapods, one costa, one astragal (?), and one phalanx I disk. The archaeozoological report has a second entry for L609, B6012, with two metapods of Equus asinus––probably additional bones of the same animal. Bones from the pelvis, vertebrae, and ribs were found nearby and at almost the same height. Few bones of a front foot were found far to the north at the height of 31.72 m. The records mention a jaw, but the plan shows a more complete head (B6358), which was found much lower than the other bones. Identified bones from B6358 included teeth (7 molars, 6 incisors) of Equus caballus (horse––perhaps a slight of hand, since all the other bones from B21 were of a donkey); and of Equus asinus (donkey––three premolars left, three premolars right, and two molars right). Among the bones there were scattered remains of charcoal. It is not clear if the donkey was dismembered before burial and thrown into the pit in parts, or thrown in one piece and disturbed later. According to the anthropological report, there were also poorly preserved human bones in L609, of unknown nature and probably few. Tomb B22 Locus 606; Square FG7; Plan 2.17; Fig. 2.16–17 The tomb was cut into hamra and covered by hamra; its contour was reported as not found. However, the records also mention a rectangular contour. Indeed, the tomb was demarcated by two brick walls at the longer sides, W-G63 and W-G74, forming a rectangular shape. One more brick wall (W-G75) served as an eastern boundary and bedding for the head of the deceased. The deceased (B6209, male, 40–50 years old) was placed supine in a primary burial aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The right arm was folded with the hand near the shoulder and the left arm was extended along the body. Pottery vessels were placed mostly between the deceased and W-G73 to the north. They included, from west to east, four bowls set one inside the other (from bottom: B6220; B6219; B6207; B6199); a jug (B6203); a jar (B6201); and a pithos (B6188, fallen on the skeleton, but originally probably standing near the wall). In it there was a juglet (B6197). The two upper bowls in the pile of four bowls included goat/sheep bones. In the upper bowl (B6199) the records mention a jaw (B6193). The archaeozoological report for this basket identifies teeth, crania, and astragali of sheep/goat; but also seven horse bones (four molars, two premolars, one metapod). More sheep/goat bones were found in B6206 (inside bowl B6207). A bronze knife (B6164) was found among more goat/sheep bones, above the leg of the deceased. Near the head of the deceased there were five juglets: two next to the head (B6189, B6187 with a double handle) and three farther away (B6192, B6190, and B6191). A bronze dagger (B6161) was discovered near the pelvis, most likely originally carried on the hip with the help of a (leather) belt. One flint item (B6144) was also found in the tomb (not marked on the plan). The data suggests the following reconstruction: The tomb was prepared by digging and by building the brick construction. The deceased was laid with the head on a brick. The large vessels (jar, pithos) may have been set in place prior to the burial. A goat/sheep was slaughtered, perhaps with bronze knife B6164, © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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and added to the grave. Unfortunately, no data exists about the exact location of all the animal bones, but some parts (like the head) were placed in bowls. Outside and north of the tomb, partially above W-G73, there was a group of pottery items: a jug (B6065), a juglet (B6064), and a bowl (B6063). However, there is no proof that they belonged to Tomb B22. (B23 see Tomb B19) Tomb B24 Locus 607; Square G7; Plan 2.18; Figs. 2.18–19 The tomb was cut into and covered by silt. The contour was not found. The tomb was bounded on the north by W-G71, made of two hamra and silt bricks (40 × 44 cm, 40 × 54 cm). The tomb included three primary burials aligned roughly east–west with heads in the east. All the deceased were placed supine with extended legs. The face of the northern burial (B6067, 18–25 years old) was turned upward (the head a bit tilted) and the legs were extended; the arms were folded with both hands probably on the chest. Fig. 2:16: Tomb B22, L606 looking east. Bowls B6199 above B6220 (center); dagger B6161 (right); the edge of W-G74 (top right).

Fig. 2:17: Tomb B22, L606 looking south (from right to left): bowls B6020, B6026, and B6199; jars B6023 and B6201; broken pithos B6188; and juglet B6187; W-G74 above the sign.

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Fig. 2.18: Tomb B24, L607 looking north. Remains of jars B6061 and B6062 (at left); note the bulldozer’s marks (top right).

Fig. 2.19: Tomb B24, L607 looking north. Dagger B6084 (left of sign); bowl B6079 (at center right); jars B6061 and B6062; and W-G71 (north of the jars).

The head of the central burial (B6066, 40–50 years old) was placed on the shoulder of the northern one, with the face turned to the north. The arms were folded, with the right hand at the pelvis and the left arm folded and placed near the pelvis of B6067. The southern burial (B6081, 20–40 years old) had an upturned face and hands on the pelvis. A bronze dagger (B6084) was found on the pelvis, under the left arm. The larger vessels in this tomb were placed alongside W-G71, northeast of the head of burial B6067. They included (from west to east) a jar (B6062) with two vessels inside it––a dipper juglet (B6094) and a goblet (B6093); a second jar (B6061); and a third jar (B6060). Northeast of the head of burial B6067 there was a jar (B6059) and a bowl (B6096). In another bowl (B6079) goat/sheep bones were found (B6080, including tibia, astragalus, ulna, femur, and vertebrae). Bowl B6096 was probably placed below jar B6059; the latter had fallen from its original position. Between the two bowls and heads of B6067 and B6066 there were two carinated bowls (B6095, B6077). A juglet (B6082) was found near the head of the southern burial (B6081). Bones of goat/sheep were also found near the feet of the deceased (not shown in the plan, probably B6128; a pelvis and two metapods were identified).

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The data suggests that all the burials were made at the same time. Nothing indicates later additions, which would have caused disturbances to earlier burials. While the head of the central burial was placed above the shoulder of the northern one, the leg seems to be below the leg of the latter, indicating contemporaneous placement. Hence, the large vessels (jars, large bowl) were ‘shared’ by all the deceased, while the dagger (B6084) was a personal weapon. Another interesting pattern that emerges is that each of the deceased received one small vessel placed near the head, whether a carinated bowl (B6077, B6095) or a juglet (B6082). Tomb B25 Locus 624; Square E5; Plan 2.19; Figs. 2.20–21 The tomb was cut into silt and covered by silt; the contour was not found. The northern side was bounded by W-E51, made of two silt bricks (40 × 58 cm). The deceased (B6105; 8–10 years old) was placed supine in primary burial, aligned east–west, the head in the east with the face turned backward. The legs were folded; the left arm extended below the legs and the right arm folded with the hand on the shoulder. A large jar (B6100), probably standing in situ, had fallen onto the upper body. The rim of the jar was not drawn; perhaps it crumbled inside. There was a juglet (B6091) in the jar and a jug (B6090) near it. Between the skeleton and W-E51 there was a (primary?) burial of a sheep/goat (B6092).

Fig. 2.20: Tomb B25, L624 looking west. Jar B6100 and part of jar B6090 (left); WE51 (center); Tomb B20 with jars B6042, B6043 (at upper right). Skeleton B6105 not yet visible.

B26 Locus 613; Square E5; Fig. 2.22 A pit dug into silt and filled with hamra, with an irregular contour. In it were found remains of a leg and a few teeth of a horse (B6086). See also B27 (below). B27 Locus 619; Square E6; Plan 2.20; Fig. 2.23 A pit dug into silt and filled with hamra, described as having an oval contour. Bones of an animal in primary burial (B6089) were discovered in the pit. The animal was larger than a goat/sheep, but due to the poor state of preservation, it could not be identified. The remains included two front legs, one hind leg, vertebrae, and parts of ribs and neck, perhaps also some skull remains. Based on the plan the bones were at least partially articulated. According to the anthropological report, there were also very poorly preserved human bones in the pit (age/sex unknown). There is no separate plan of B26, so its shape and exact location are unclear. Possibly B26 and B27 formed parts of one pit (perhaps separated according to the squares), and the animal bones in both loci belonged to the same animal.

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Fig. 2.21 (top left): Tomb B25, L624 looking east. Jar B6100 above skeleton B6015; B6092 farther left. Fig. 2.22 (bottom left): Tomb B26, L613 looking east. Rear part of horse B6086. Fig. 2.23: (right): Tomb B27, L619 looking east. Bones B6089.

Fig. 2.24: Tomb B28, L.617 (left) looking east with the top of B6075. Wall E52 (at center); the sign is placed on B29, L625, an oval ‘patch’ of silt. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Tomb B28 Locus 617, Square E4–5; Plan 2.21; Fig. 2.24–25 The tomb was dug into silt and filled by hamra; the contour was oval. The tomb was bounded on the south by W-E52, made of silt bricks (width 36 cm, length 128 cm)––but the skeleton rests quite a distance from the wall. The deceased (B6088; c. 5 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were perhaps folded (lower legs not found). The position of the arms was unclear, perhaps folded. Finds included a jar near the wall (B6075), two bowls close to each other (B6069, B6070), a jug near the legs (B6072), a cylindrical juglet at the deceased’s mouth (B6071), and a bowl east of the head (B6074). Remains of sheep/goat were found near the feet (B9554). B29 Locus 625; Square E5, Plan 2.21, Fig. 2.24 This oval ‘patch’ of silt, between Tombs B28 and B30, included only remains of bricks. Tomb B30 Locus 626; Square E5; Plan 2.21; Fig. 2.26 An oval hamra ‘patch’ dug into silt was excavated south of B29, but found empty (like L29). Later, while extending this area southward, a burial was found. According to a summary text, the contour of the tomb could not be seen because it was dug into and also filled with silt. This seems to be a hindsight observation, but the fact remains that the contour in unclear. The deceased (B6137, 30–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face turned southward. The right leg was extended, the left one folded. The right arm was folded and placed on the chest; the left arm was found extended with the hand at the pelvis. A jug (B6129) and a juglet (B6135) were found near the head. A jar (B6131) and a bowl with handles (6130) were placed near and above the feet of the deceased. One bone was found inside bowl B6130, probably of an animal (goat/sheep?).

Fig. 2.25 (left): Tomb B28, L617 looking east. Wall E52 at right; Tomb B20 above the sign. Fig. 2.26 (right): Tomb B30, L626 looking east. Skeleton B6137.

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Fig. 2.27 (left): Tomb B31, L623 looking east. Skeleton 6115 and W-G72 (at center), jar B6112 (at bottom right). Fig. 2.28 (right): Tomb B32, L627 looking east. Bowls B6274, B6275, and B6278 (at bottom center); vessels B6226, B6227 (left of the skeleton); B6282 and B6276 (right of the skeleton).

Tomb B31 Locus 623; Square G7; Plan 2.22; Fig. 2.27 A tomb dug into silt with unknown contour. On the south it was bounded by W-G72, composed of two bricks (36 × 52 cm). The deceased (B6115, female, 40–50 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east– west, the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were extended, the left arm straight with the hand on the pelvis and the right arm slightly folded with the hand on the hip. Near the feet there was a jar (B6112); near the head a carinated bowl (B6113) and a juglet (B6114). A bead (B6116) was found on a finger of the left hand, probably carried with a string in origin. A flint item was also found in the tomb (B6067, not shown on the plan). The finds and the bones were badly preserved. Tomb B32 Locus 627; Square G6; Plan 2.23; Fig. 2.28 The tomb was cut into silt and filled with hamra. The hamra had an irregular contour, which surrounded W-G61. This irregular wall was built of hamra and silt bricks of varying sizes. The burial was found north of the wall, when the excavated area was enlarged. The contour was either not found or not documented. The deceased (B9553, 30–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west, the head in the east and the face slightly turned to the south. The legs were slightly folded, both arms extended along the body with hands on the ground near the pelvis. Most of the vessels were placed between the burial and W-G61. A large group of pottery objects between the wall and the legs included a bowl with handles (B6274) resting partially above two smaller bowls (B6275, B6278), and a double-handled jug (B6277). A jar or large jug (B6281) that had probably originally stood near the wall was found toppled over a jug (B6279). Slightly to the east a jug was found (B6230) amid bones of goat/sheep (B6229). A second jar (B6282) with a juglet (B6291) inside and a carinated bowl nearby (B6276) were found in the northeast corner of the wall. North of the skeleton there were two more jugs (B6226, B6227). Tomb B33 Locus 608; Square F8; Plan 2.24; Fig. 2.29 The tomb was dug into silt and filled with hamra; the contour was described as oval. The tomb was bounded on the south side by a brick wall, W-F81 (1.4 m long, width c. 40 cm).

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The deceased (B6177, 30–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial, aligned northeast– southwest with the head in the northeast and the face turned to the northwest. The legs were extended, the arms slightly folded with the hands on the hips. The bones were badly preserved. At the feet and the corner of the wall stood one jar (B6173). Between the head and the wall there were goat/sheep bones (B6175; the archaeozoological report also mentions five sheep/goat metapods burnt by fire from this locus. The basket number is not mentioned, but there was only one basket of animal bones from L608). South of the head, partially on the shoulder, a large bowl (B6174) was found under another carinated bowl (B6176), as well as a jar (B6171) with a dipper juglet (B6172) inside.

Fig. 2.29: Tomb B33, L608 looking south. Jar B6173 (right); bowl B6174 (left).

Fig. 2.30: Tomb B34, L628 looking north. Vessels B6150–B6152 and juglet B6154 near the skull; B6147 and B6148 near the feet; W-H71 at bottom right. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Tomb B34 Locus 628; Square GH7; Plan 2.25; Fig. 2.30 The tomb was dug into silt and filled with hamra. The contour was described as oval. A brick was found, perhaps from a wall that bounded the tomb on the south (W-H71). The deceased (B6155, male, 30–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face slightly turned to the south. The right leg was extended, the left slightly folded. The arms were folded with both hands on the hips. A jar (B6147) with a dipper juglet (B6149) inside and a small jar or a base of a jar (B6148) were discovered near the feet. Between W-H71 and the skeleton three bowls were found: B6150, B6153 with goat/sheep bones inside, and B6152 (a carinated bowl). A juglet (B6154) was found north of the head. A flint item (B6143) was found on the skeleton, but its location was not marked on the plan. More bones of goat/sheep were found near the head (B6157). Tomb B35 Locus 629; Square H3; Plan 2.12 The tomb was dug into and filled with hamra. The contour is unknown. The excavators suggested that a brick wall, W-H32 (width 42, length 110 cm) belonged to Tomb B35, though they remarked that the direction of the wall does not fit this tomb. The deceased (B6110, 50–60 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west with the head in the east. The skull (disturbed by the roadwork?) was found with the face tilted sharply northward. The legs and left arm were extended. The right arm was folded with the hand on the chest. The excavators ascribed jar B6109, found on the southern side of W-H31, to Tomb B35. Based on this they suggested that Tomb B35 post-dated Tomb B19. However, there is no proof that jar B6109 belonged to Tomb B35; it was quite some distance from this tomb. Jar B6108 was found at the feet of burial B35 and near the skull of burial B19; it was ascribed to B19. This is plausible, based on the heights above sea level, but because the contours of both burials are unknown we lacked definite proof.

Fig. 2.31 (left): Tomb B37, L637 looking east. Fig. 2.32 (top right): Tomb B39, L640 looking south. Wall G41 (bottom right); jars B6244, B6243; skeleton B6290 (left). The white round object is the pommel of dagger B6214. Fig. 2.33 (bottom right): Tomb B40, L632 looking south. B6098, B61102, B6099 (at center); Wall D52 is not yet seen at this stage of excavation.

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B36 Locus 611; Square D6 This locus appears only as an irregular contour, apparently a ‘patch’ of silt in the local kurkar layer (c. 31.50 m). Tomb B37 Locus 637; Square HG5; Plan 2.26; Fig. 2.31 The tomb was dug into silt and filled with silt. The contour was not documented. Remains of a brick wall, W-G51 were found south of the tomb, but very little of it has survived. The deceased (B6313, 30–40 years old) was placed in a primary burial aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were folded. The arms were probably originally placed on the pelvis area. Two jars (B6306, B6307) were found near W-G51, quite some distance from the skeleton; a dipper juglet (B6308) was found inside jar B6306. Goat/sheep bones (B6315) were found between the jars and the legs. More goat/sheep bones, registered under the same basket, were found south of the skeleton. A flint item (B6314) was also mentioned, but its position is unknown. Tomb B39 Locus 640; Square GH4; Plan 2.27; Fig. 2.32 We could not find the locus card of this tomb. It was dug into silt and covered by hamra, demonstrating the ‘contour problem’ (see introduction, above). The burial was placed about 0.5 m south of an irregular a brick wall, W-G41; another wall (W-G42, two bricks, each 42 × 48 cm) bounded the tomb on the east. A piece of a brick was placed on the west side of W-G42, serving as support for the head of the deceased. The deceased (B6290, 30–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial, aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face slightly turned upward. The lower jaw had fallen out of place. The legs were folded and the arms slightly folded with hands on the hips/pelvis. Between the legs and W-G41 stood two jars (B6243 and B6244). Farther to the south a bronze spearhead (B6215) was unearthed above a few animal bones (B6223). Near the legs, but much higher than the bones, a juglet (B6145) was discovered. The deceased carried a bronze dagger with a stone pommel on the hip (B6214). Animal bones were also found near the head, apparently above W-G42 (not registered as a separate basket). Tomb B40 Locus 632; Square D5; Plan 2.28; Fig. 2.33–34 The tomb was dug into hamra; its contour is unknown. Remains of silt suggested that the finds were covered by silt. Wall D52, made of two bricks (each 44 × 50 cm), was built above the burial, interpreted as a cover for it. However, bricks did not serve such function in any other tomb in Area B. Wall D52 was 31.35–31.11 m (the original plan gave the bottom as 30.11 m; however, this was a mistake, because the wall had only one course). The deceased (B6158, 4–5 years old) was placed in primary burial aligned northeast–southwest, the head in the northeast and the face probably turned upward. In one place the deceased was described as lying on the right side, but the anthropological report noted that it was supine. Indeed, it appears supine on the plan. The legs were folded and the arms placed along the body, slightly folded with hands (not found) in the pelvis area. The lower jaw was found upside down with the teeth scattered nearby. This must have occurred postburial, but before the bricks had covered the tomb. Apparently the jaw, being the highest part of the skeleton, was damaged by the placing of W-D52. Burial B6158 was accompanied by a jug (B6133), a carinated bowl (B6134) near the head, and another jug near the knees (B6101). Outside W-D52, but at the same level, more vessels were found: two jugs (B6102, B6098), a juglet (B6099), and unidentified bones (B6103). The rectangular contour in Plan 2.28 was probably based on the assumption that W-D52 marked the side of a tomb (as elsewhere in Area B, for example, B18, B31, B33, and B48). However, burials were usually placed along and not perpendicular to such walls (although there were a few exceptions). There was no evidence for another burial here: the contour was empty. The standing jugs (B6102, 6098) protrude above the top of W-D52, they conform to it and to the level of burial B6158. In sum, all the vessels belong to burial B6158, whether found under or outside the wall, and the wall was indeed a cover for the burial, not a later wall of another tomb. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 2.34: Tomb B40, L632 looking east. Skeleton on W-D52 with juglet B6134 near the skull. Fig. 2.35: Tomb B42, L642 looking northeast. Skeleton B6285; jar B6272 (left) and other small vessels.

Tomb B41 Locus 612; Square D5; Plan 2.29 An irregular area of silt, marked by a dotted line in the plan, was noticed in the hamra soil and excavated. A wall was found (W-D51; 44 cm wide and at least 1.44 m long). If its base was indeed set at 30.60 m, it must have included several courses, but this was not stated. The area north of the wall was devoid of finds, but a tomb was found south of it. The deceased (B6126, an adult male) was placed supine in primary burial aligned northeast–southwest, the head in the east with the face turned to the south. The legs were folded, both arms were also folded and the hands were placed on the upper chest. A double-handled jug (B6125) and a large bowl (B6123) were discovered near the legs. Near the head there was a jug with a pinched rim (B6122). Sheep/goat bones were found above the leg (one bone) and south of the pelvis (B6127). A flint item (B6118) and charcoal (B6118) were also registered from L612, but their location was not specified. Tomb B42 Locus 642; Square G8; Plan 2.30; Fig. 2.35 This tomb was dug into silt and covered by silt; the contour is unknown. A brick wall, W-G82, found west of the burial and at the same height, was probably related with it. The deceased (B6285, 3 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned northeast–southwest, the head in the northeast with the face turned to the south. The arms were extended along the body. The southwestern part of the grave was destroyed, so the legs did not survive. A juglet (B6271), two jugs with trefoil rims (B6272; B6284), and another jug (B6273) were found north of the head. Tomb B43 Locus 621; Square H8; Plan 2.31 This tomb was dug into silt and covered by silt. The tomb was partially destroyed by the bulldozers before excavation. The contour is unknown.

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The tomb included two primary burials (B6159, B6160) in supine position, aligned northeast– southwest. The legs were extended while the heads did not survive. Burial B6160 (age 3–4 years) had extended arms. Burial B6159 (age 4–5 years) lacked the arms. A few teeth were found in the grave (B6002), probably belonging to these two burials. The finds at the feet included a large bowl (B6138), two juglets (B6139, B6141), and a jug (B6140). The vessels were placed on the legs. B44 Locus 636; Square H6 A patch of hamra was found in silt; the contour was not described. In it there were a flint item (B6169) and donkey bones (B6168), including metapods, vertebrae, and some long bones in secondary burial. The remains of B44 were located close to Tomb B92. Tomb B45 Locus 645; Square C12 This tomb appears in graphic diaries and in the general plan, with a skeleton and three vessels––a large bowl in the west (B6373), a bowl in the northeast (B6374), and a juglet in the southeast (B6375). It has no locus card or plan and was not mentioned in the anthropological reports. B46 Locus 646; Square G7 This tomb appears in the daily graphic diary as “human bones”; there was no locus card or plan. The anthropological report mentions human bones (age/sex unknown) from L646, damaged by a bulldozer. Tomb B47 Locus 647; Square G6; Plan 2.32 This tomb was dug into silt and filled with hamra. It was bounded in the west by W-G62 (width 0.5, length 1.7 m) The deceased (B6391, age/sex unknown) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west; the head, which was not found, would have been to the east. The legs were folded as well as the arms (position of hands not clear). The bones were in a poor state of preservation. The deceased carried a bronze dagger with a pommel on the hip (B6310). Two jars were placed along the wall, at the edges of the tomb (B6390, B6416). They were probably originally both standing, but jar B6390 had fallen on its side. A dipper juglet (B6417) was found inside jar B6416. Numerous sheep/goat bones––apparently primary burial of at least most of the animal––were discovered near the legs (B6392 and the bones marked by heights 30.63 m, 30.68 m in the plan). However, only a few sheep/goat bones from another basket were examined (B6410, not on plan, including a metapod and an astragalus). Tomb B48 Locus 638; Square G8; Plan 2.33; Fig. 2.36–37 This tomb was dug into silt and covered by silt. The contour is unknown. The tomb was bounded on the east by W-G81 (width 42 cm, length 1.34 m). Two primary burials were found in the tomb, aligned roughly east–west with heads in the east. The northern burial (B6264, 18–25 years old, c. 1.53 m tall based on the humerus) was placed supine with slightly folded legs. The arms were folded with the left hand on the chest and the right hand on the right shoulder. The southern burial (B6263, 4 years old) was also placed supine with extended legs; the arms were extended along the body. The faces of the deceased were turned toward each other. Two juglets were placed near the heads: B6262 near burial B6263 and B6261 between the heads. All the other vessels were located near the feet, from south to north: a jug or a jar (B6265); a carinated bowl (B6269); a large bowl (B6245) with a dipper juglet (B6246) inside; and three juglets (B6247; B6259; and B6260). Tomb B49 Locus 641; Square H9; Plan 2.34; Fig. 2.38 This tomb was dug into silt and covered by silt. The contour is unknown. Wall H91 demarcates the western side of the tomb (length 1.3 m).

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Fig. 2.36: Tomb B48, L638 looking east. Burial B6263 east of adult B6283. Bowl B6245 with bones B6246 at the feet of skeleton B6283; B6255 and W-G81 at the top.

Fig. 2.37: Tomb B48, L638 looking northeast. Wall G81 (at bottom); notice the close proximity of the two skeletons, child B6263 and adult B6264.

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The tomb included two primary burials, supine and aligned northeast–southwest, with the heads in the northeast and the faces to the south. The eastern burial (B6240, 15–18 years old) had folded legs and arms; the hands were placed in the belly area, above the pelvis. The western burial (B6239, 35–45 years old) had folded legs in the opposite direction from the other burial; the arms were extended along the body. Near the skulls there were a carinated bowl (B6236), a juglet (B6424), and another carinated bowl (B6235) at the shoulder of burial B6240. One bowl (B6237) was placed on the left hand of burial B6239; another bowl (B6238) on the feet of both skeletons. Three jars (B6232–6234) stood between burial B6240 and W-H91. A dipper juglet (B6241) was found inside jar B6232. Two flint items were also recorded (B6205, B6608). Finally, a bronze dagger (B6202) was found near the pelvis of burial B6240. Tomb B50 Locus 650, Square B14–15; Plan 2.35; Fig. 2.39 This tomb was dug into sand and covered by hamra. The contour was reported as oval and it included WB151, made of silt soil bricks. There were more bricks south of the wall, and the position of the bricks in the wall varied. The wall was possibly higher than the burial (bottom level not recorded, but likely above bowl B6376). It could not serve as a cover, because it leaves the burial uncovered. A brick (or a brick piece) above jar B5378 was aligned with the wall. Though structurally later than the burial, W-B151 apparently belonged to it, since there was no other tomb nearby and the direction of wall conforms to the burial. It was best interpreted as a marker for the tomb, rather than a supporting wall. The deceased (B6377, 7–8 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were folded; the arms were aligned along the body. A large bowl (B6376) and a jar (B6378) with a juglet (B6379) inside were found south of the deceased and under the bricks. Another juglet was placed near the right arm (B6356). Some bones in the plan are marked as B6380, possibly sheep/goat bones (missing in the original basket list).

Fig. 2.39: B50, L650 looking west. Wall B151 (left, rounded shape), bowl B6376 (at center top) and jar B6378 (at bottom). Skeleton B6377 with jug B6356.

Tomb B51 Locus 651; Square F12–13; Plan 2.36; Fig. 2.40

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Fig. 2.40: B51, L651 looking south. Wall F132 (at top center); jar B6403 (standing, at the center); and bowl B6405 (at the left).

Fig. 2.41: B55 L655 looking south. Jars B6386, B6384 (right); W-D91 (upper left); B6395 (between the wall and skeleton B6368).

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An oval shallow pit was noticed, dug into sand and filled with silt (Plan 2.36: Pit A). Several bricks (WF132, brick size 16 × 42 cm) were discovered on the northern side of this pit, forming a poorly built line. Heights were not registered, except 32.37 m (probably top of wall). The burial, dug into sand and covered by sand and kurkar, was located north of the bricks and outside Pit A. The deceased (B6406, female, 20–30 years old) was placed on the left side in primary burial aligned east–west with the head in the west and the face turned to the south. The legs were slightly folded; the right arm was folded with the hand on the hip and the left arm extended with the hand near the pelvis. The vessels in this tomb were placed between the burial and the bricks. They included a juglet near the left shoulder (B6402) and a large bowl (B6405). Near the feet a carinated bowl (B6357) and a jar (B6403) with a dipper juglet (B6404) were documented. Bones of sheep/goat (B6407) were found near the head, suggesting that a good portion of meat was placed in the tomb. Tomb B54 Locus 654; Square G5; Plan 2.37 An oval area of silt was dug into the sand (Plan 2.37: A). A poorly constructed wall (W-G52) was revealed inside, constructed from bricks of various sizes. The burial was located south of this wall, outside the oval area. The excavators reported that it was dug into sand and filled by sand; hence, the contour was not found. If this was true the silt contour and the wall had no clear relation with the tomb. The deceased (B6409, 30–40 years old) was placed on the right side in primary burial aligned roughly east–west with the head in the east. The legs were folded. The left arm was folded with the hand holding a dagger (B6394) on the hip. The position of the other arm was not clear. The deceased carried a bronze dagger on the hip (B6394, including pommel). A bronze axe (B6362) was found north of the skeleton (perhaps held in the second hand, but the bones did not survive). There were sheep/goat bones near the feet (B6411) and probably more vessels, of which only fragments remained (B6448). Tomb B55 Locus 655; Square D9; Plan 2.38; Fig. 2.41 The tomb was dug into silt and fill by silt; the contour was unknown. A few pieces of brick, probably of a wall (W-D91), were discovered in the southern side, at a slightly higher level and partly above bowl B6396. The deceased (B6365, 40–50 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face to the south. The legs were folded and the arms probably extended along the body. Two jars (B6386, B6384) stood near the feet. Inside jar B6384 there was a juglet (B6385) and near the jar was a carinated bowl (B6387). More finds were arranged near the head: a carinated bowl (B6395), a large bowl (B6396), three juglets (B6381–B6383), and a bowl (B6364). Tomb B56 Locus 656; Square E9; Plan 2.39; Fig. 2.42 The tomb was dug into silt and covered by silt. The contour is unknown. The deceased (B6426, 30–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face to the north. The legs were extended; the right arm was extended along the body and the left arm slightly folded with the hand on the hip, apparently holding a bronze dagger (B6393, with in situ pommel). Two black juglets (B6441, B6442) were found near the skull. An axe (B6418) was placed north of the skull. Farther north a group of pottery was uncovered: three bowls, one (B6438) containing animal bones (B6437); a second bowl with, four-handles (B6436) set partially above B6438; and a carinated bowl (B6439). A juglet was found near the left knee (B6440). A bowl (B6400), a jug (B6401), and two jars (B6397, B6398) were located near the feet. Inside jar B6397 a dipper juglet (B6399) was found. Another small bowl (B6408) was discovered north of the jars. Tomb B57 Locus 657; Square Y12–13; Plan 2.40; Fig. 2.43 The tomb was found in a trench of unclear nature (perhaps a probe made prior to the excavation, or part of the recent development work). The tomb was dug into silt and filled with hamra. The contour is unknown. Some remains of bricks were found north of the tomb (W-Y121), but they could not have supported it, being higher and partially above the burial. They may have formed part of the fill of the © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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tomb or markers for it. The tomb included two primary burials aligned east–west with both heads in the east. The western burial (B6346, probably an adult, age unknown) was placed supine with extended legs; the left am was folded toward the left shoulder; the position of the right arm is unknown. The face turned upward. The southern burial (B6345, female, 35–45 years old) showed slightly folded legs and arms that may have extended along the body. The face was turned toward the other burial. The excavators stated that this burial was supine. However, the plan indicates it was on its side. A jug with cut-away rim was placed near the head of the female (B6343), perhaps falling onto her body. Near her feet another jug (B6344) was documented. A bowl (B6342) was found near the legs of the northern burial. All the remains may not have been documented since the excavation area was limited.

Fig. 2.42 (left): Tomb B56, L656 looking northeast. Axe B6418 left of skull; bones B6437 above B6438 (left). Fig. 2.43 (right): Tomb B57, L657 looking northeast. Skeleton B6346 (right), skeleton B6345 (center).

Tomb B58 Locus 658; Square C12–13; Plan 2.41 The tomb was dug into silt and filled with hamra. The contour was registered as oval in the locus card, which was written after the season. The oval dotted line in the plan encircles the finds, but not W-C132. The latter ‘wall’ was composed of fragments of bricks that conform to the direction of the burial and may have been a marker for it. One small piece of brick was also found near the skull. The deceased (B6368, 11–12 years old) was placed on the right side (or supine?) in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The legs were folded, the right arm extended along the body, and the left arm slightly folded, following the contour of the body. The deceased carried a bead (B6370, probably worn with a string) on a finger of the left hand. A jar (B6371) and a jug (B6372) were placed at the feet, near the bricks. A large bowl (B6388) held sheep/goat bones, and more bones were found farther south, near jar B6371 (B6389; including one metapod and ten costa; the bones from the bowl were not registered separately). Tomb B59 Locus 659; Square C13; Plan 2.42; Fig. 2.44 The tomb was dug into silt and filled with silt. The contour is unknown. Wall C131 to the north of the burial was composed of bricks of various sizes or brick fragments (width 34 cm). The deceased (B6337, male, 50 years or older) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east– west, with the head in the east and the face tilted to the south. The legs were extended (the left one slightly folded). The right arm was folded with the hand on the right shoulder, and the left arm extended with the hand directed toward the pelvis. Fig. 2.44: Tomb B59, L659 looking north. Skeleton B6337 (bottom), jars B6366 and B6367 (left); W-E131 (between the jars and the sign). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Finds had been placed near the head: a juglet with a flat base (B6340), a bowl (B6341), and a carinated bowl (B6339). Some animal bones were marked in the plan, but were not given a separate basket number. A jar (B6367) and a jug (B6366) stood between the feet and the wall. B60 Locus 660; Square D11 A jug (B6162) and a jug or juglet (B9534) were found resting on their sides, close to each other. They were very poorly preserved and discarded. B61 Locus 661; Square C11 Remains of probably one vessel, found next to B119 and B91. There was no locus card or summary for this feature. B62 Locus 662; Square C12 A vessel and perhaps a few bones northwest of B98, were found with some beads (B6186). There was no locus card or summary. B63 Locus 663; Square CB12 One jar (B6213), was found lying on its side southwest of Tomb B87 (see Plan 2.53), with two juglets (B6211–B6212) near its base. There was no locus card or summary. B64 Locus 665, Square D12 There was no data about this locus. B65 Locus 668, Square D13 Two jars (B6178, B9543) and a juglet found near them (B9544) were the only remains of B65. They were discovered in silt, resting on their sides in a very poor state of preservation (discarded). Tomb B66 Locus 667; Square E13; Plan 2.43; Fig. 2.45 An irregular ‘patch’ of hamra (?) was found in an area of silt at the height of 31.66 m. It was excavated to a depth of 1 m, but nothing was discovered except the edge of a wall (W-E121) and some kurkar rocks (a sample was taken from the kurkar, B6228). The wall had three well-built courses (top 31.35 m, bottom 30.8 m) of uneven silt bricks (or parts of bricks). It was slanted, and its base conformed to the level of the finds, which were located north (and outside) of the hamra ‘patch’. Tomb B66 was described as dug into silt and covered by silt. The contour is unknown. The finds were placed c. 40–50 cm below B81 (a row of three skeletons B6179–6181); thus B66 predates B81. The absence of most of the bones in Tomb B66, as well a lack of small finds (often discovered near heads), suggests that B66 was damaged. In the plan, Tomb B66 (B6256) is shown on the southern side of Tomb B81, very far away from the hamra ‘patch’ of L667. One sees only two long (leg?) bones. According to a summary (written after the excavation), the bones represented a primary burial with the head in the east. Either this was a mistake, or more of the skeleton was exposed after the plan was drawn. The finds ascribed to B66 included two jars (B6317, B6318) and three large bowls (from west to east: B6316, B6258, and B6257). A carinated bowl (B6319) was found about 80 cm southeast of bowl B6257. Sheep/goat bones (B6255) were discovered near bowls B6257–6258, in a pattern that suggests articulated part/s of the animal. The running order of the baskets seems to indicate that Tomb B81 (B6179–6181, B6182, etc.) was excavated first––it was also higher. Tomb B66 was found next (burial B6256, bowls B6256–6258), and some vessels even later (B6316–B6318). One skull from the upper burial (B81) has a much higher number (B6638), but it may have been registered later, in a lab. Apparently B61 and B88 were excavated on different dates, and there was no apparent relation between B66 and the elements far to the south (WE121 and the ‘patch’ with stones B6228). A more pressing issue is the stratigraphic relationship between © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Tombs B66 and B81. If Tomb B81 were later, why was it arranged in a way that seems to conform to the finds of B66? The long row of vessels ascribed to B66 does not create a logical pattern near or around the bones from B6256. Unfortunately, we lacked more detailed documentation, and could not offer definite answers to these issues.

Fig. 2.45: Tomb B66, L667 looking south. Jars B6317, B6318 (right); W-E121 (at the back), bowls B6527 and B6528 (center). The skeletons have already been removed.

Fig. 2.46: Tomb B68, L664 looking south. Skeleton B6326 with bowls B6325 and B6327 (right); W-B131 (top center).

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B67 Locus 669; Square C13 Two small vessels (juglets?) were found in this locus. There was no locus card or summary. Tomb B68 Locus 664; Square B13; Plan 2.44; Fig. 2.46 The tomb was dug into silt and filled with silt. The contour is unknown. The tomb was bounded at the south side by a brick wall, W-B131 (width 42 cm, exposed length 1.2 m; B6335 was a sample from this wall). The deceased (B6326, probably female, 20–30 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face turned south. The legs were extended, the arms folded with hands on the pelvis. A juglet (B6329) was placed near the skull and slightly south of it, and a carinated bowl (B6324) and a jug (B6323) were set against the wall. A second group of pottery at the western edge of WB131, near the legs, included a jar (B6328) with a juglet (B6639) inside it, and two large bowls (B6325, B6327). B69 Locus 671, Square B14 Two fragmented juglets (B6169, B6204) were discovered in L671. There were no other finds in this locus. Tomb B70 Locus 672; Square B14; Fig. 2.47 The tomb was dug into silt and badly damaged by the roadwork prior to the excavation. The contour is unknown. The deceased (B6286, an adult) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west with the head (missing) in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were extended; the arms slightly folded with hands on the pelvis (one below the other). The only finds were fragmented: one juglet (B6288) near the left elbow and one jar (B6287) near the right shoulder (both discarded).

Fig. 2.47: Tomb B70, L672 looking south. Skeleton B6286 with fragmented jar B6287 (top).

Tomb B71 Locus 673; Square B15; Plan 2.45; Figs. 2.48–49 The tomb was dug into silt and covered by silt; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B6297, female, 35–45 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned northwest–southeast with the head in the northwest and the face turned to the east. The right leg was folded (the other did not survive fully). The right arm was folded on the hip; the left one extended (under bowl B6224). A black juglet was found at the left shoulder (B6225) and another one at the right shoulder (B6300). A jar (B6299) and a carinated bowl (B6301) were found near the latter. A large bowl was placed on the left hand (B6224).

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Fig. 2.48: Tomb B71 (at bottom), looking east. B6224 and B6225 left of the skeleton; B6299–B6301 right of it. Tomb B73 upper right; Tomb B72 upper left; Tomb B75 between Tombs B71 and B72.

Fig. 2.49: Tombs B71 (right), B72 (bottom left), B73 (top center) and B75 (center); looking south.

Tomb B71 was located at the same height as Tomb B75 and very close to it; the legs of B75 were sharply folded and alongside those of B71. One bone shown in the plan of B75 (Plan 2.46: 1) may belong to B71. These tombs could be very close chronologically speaking, or even parts of the same tomb, since the skeletons were placed so that they did not disturb one another.

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Fig. 2.50 (left): Tomb B72, L674 looking south. Skeleton B6294 with B6298 and B6311 near the skull. Large bowl B6295 on the body; B6303, B6304 and B6293 around it.

Fig. 2.51 (right): Tomb B73, L675 looking southeast. Skeleton B6292.

Fig. 2.52: Tomb B74, L670 looking east. B6121 and B6640 at center.

Tomb B72 Locus 674; Square B15; Plan 2.46; Figs. 2.48, 50 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B6294, 15 years old or less) was placed supine in a primary burial aligned southeast– northwest with the head in the southeast and the face turned slightly to the northeast. The partially surviving legs were folded and the right arm extended along the body. A bronze earring (B6132) was found on the left side of the skull. Two juglets (B6311, B6298) were placed near the head. A large bowl was found on the pelvis area (B6295) and a carinated bowl on the right hand (B6293). Two jugs were set near the feet (B6303, B6304).

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Tomb B73 Locus 675, Square B15; Plan 2.46; Fig. 2.51 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B6292, 40 years old or more) was placed supine in a primary burial aligned southeast– northwest with the head in the southeast and the face turned to the southwest. The legs were folded; the arms were folded with the left hand on the pelvis and right hand on the hip above the left. No vessels were found with this burial, and the bones were in a poor state of preservation. Tomb B74 Locus 670; Square F13; Plan 2.47; Fig. 2.52 The Locus card lacks textual description; the contour of the tomb is unknown and it was described in a later summary as close to surface and badly preserved. Two bricks (W-F131, 46 × 56 cm) were treated as a wall that bounds B85, a tomb below B74. The burial (B6185, age/sex unknown) included remains of only leg and pelvis bones, described as a primary burial. However, nothing was clear in the plan and according to the anthropological report, the bones were found scattered and not at the same height. A bowl (B6789) was found above the leg bones of B74. A jar (B6166) with a juglet (B6166) inside was placed farther to the west. A second jar or jug (B6164) and another double-handled jug (B6163) were found north of the bowl. A carinated bowl (B6121) and a jug (B6640) were found near and east of W-F131, reputedly at a higher level than W-F131 and all the other finds of B74. If the heights were off by 1 m, these two vessels could belong to Tomb B85. Tomb B75 Locus 676, Square B15; Plan 2.46; Figs. 2.48–49 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B6296, 5–6 years old) was placed on the right side in primary burial, aligned roughly east–west with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The legs and the arms were folded. The remains of B75 were badly preserved. A jar (B6302) was found near the back of the deceased. Tombs B75 and B71 were probably contemporaneous (see Tomb B71, above).

Fig. 2.53: Tomb B77, L678 looking north. Skeleton B6332 with jar B6314 and bowl B6322 near the skull. W-B133 at top center; jar B6348 at the left.

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Tomb B77 Locus 678; Square B13–14; Plan 2.48; Fig. 2.53 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A few brick pieces were found in a line north of the burial (W-B133), perhaps marking the tomb. The bricks were made of either hamra (sample B6330) or silt (sample B6331). The deceased (B6332, probably female, 30–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned northeast–southwest, with the head in the northeast and the face turned to the north. The legs were folded; the arms extended along the body with the left arm on the pelvis. Pottery vessels were placed between the skeleton and the wall. They included a jar (B6348) and a juglet (B6347) near the feet; and a jug (B6334) and a carinated bowl (B6322) near the head. A great deal of burnt material or charcoal was discovered above the feet of the deceased (B6221).

Fig. 2.54 (left): Tomb B79, L679 view from above. Jar B6424; skull at center; bones B6422 near the sign. Fig. 2.55 (right): Tomb B81, L681 looking east. The skeletons (B6179 at right) with jar B6182 (near the sign).

Tomb B79 Locus 679; Square CD13–14; Plan 2.49; Fig. 2.54 The Locus card lacks textual description. The tomb was dug into hamra and filled with silt; the contour was described as round. A wall bounded the burial on the north (W-C133), but it consisted of only a few bricks or brick pieces and its width and direction are not clear. Only fragmentary remains were left from the burial (B6422, 4–5 years old), but they seem to indicate a primary burial aligned roughly southeast–northwest with the head in the southeast. The legs were folded; the middle body was mostly missing. A jar (B6424) was placed near the head with a dipper juglet (B6425) inside it. Between the jar and the skull there was a tripartite black juglet (B6413). A goblet (B6415) and a large bowl (B6414) were placed at the feet. Tomb B80 Locus 680, Square F11 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The finds were badly preserved––they were on the surface after the development work. The deceased (B6312, 4–5 years old) was placed in primary burial, but only part of it survived. It was probably placed supine with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The pelvis and legs did not survive. Finds included a bronze ring (B6195) on the chest area; probably indicating that at least one hand had been placed on the chest. There were also pottery sherds of at least one vessel (B6637, discarded).

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Fig. 2.56: Tomb B82, L682 looking south. Skeleton B6289 with legs cut by a recent trench.

Tomb B81 Locus 681; Square E12; Plan 2.43; Fig. 2.55 The tomb was located c. 50 cm above Tomb B66 and was later than it (if the heights are correct, see Tomb B66 above). It was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The tomb included three primary burials of children, all supine and roughly aligned east–west with heads in the east. The southern burial (B6179, 3–4 years old) had slightly folded legs and arms extended along the body. The head was turned to the north. The middle burial (B6180, c. 4 years old) had one leg extended and one slightly folded and arms extended along the body. The northern burial (B6181) was also primary but poorly preserved. The head was perhaps turned to the north. No teeth were found, but based on long bones the age was 5–15 years. Pottery vessels were placed near the heads––three jugs (B6182, 6309, 6184) and two black juglets (B6183, B6638). A bronze necklace (B6167) was found on the neck of the southern (B6179) burial, and a bead made of transparent stone was found on a finger of the middle burial (B6170). Tomb B82 Locus 682; Square B15; Fig. 2.56 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B6289, 20–40 years old) was placed supine in a primary burial oriented east–west with the head in the east and the face turned south. The skull was slightly detached, probably disturbed. The legs were perhaps folded and the arms extended straight along the body. No other finds were associated with this burial, which was close to the surface (after the roadwork). The legs were cut by a trench (not mentioned by the excavators). Tomb B83 Locus 683; Square E12; Plan 2.50 The tomb was dug into silt and covered by hamra; the contour was described as oval. The bones (B6796, an adult) were badly preserved, but seem to represent one primary burial aligned east–west. The head (not found) would have been in the east, and the legs were folded. Based on the plan, the grave had suffered some destruction before excavation. The finds were flooded several times by winter rains and were mostly discarded.

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Near the legs a large bowl (B6349) was found, as well as a jar (6350) with a dipper juglet inside it (B6351, the only vessel kept from this tomb); and another black juglet (B6355). Animal bones, perhaps of sheep/goat (B6797), were found inside bowl B6349. Two carinated bowls (B6352, B6353) and a black juglet (B6354) were found near the upper body. B84 Locus 684, Square F12 An almost rectangular contour in kurkar. No finds from this feature were registered or mentioned. Tomb B85 Locus 685; Square F13; Plan 2.51; Fig. 2.57 The tomb was dug into sand and filled by hamra and kurkar (kurkar covered some of the finds, and hence post-dated the burial; B6231 was a kurkar sample). It was located under Tomb B74 (finds of B74 are colored gray in Plan 2.51). The original plan made during the excavation lacks a contour. The contour described as oval in the locus card and shown in Plan 2.51 was added after the excavation––an arbitrary line that merely encircles all the finds, leaving out WF131. This one-course wall, marking the southern side of the tomb, was composed of two silt bricks (each 46 × 56 cm); it may belong to Tomb B85 since its base was roughly at the same height as the burial. The excavators suggested that it was also used with Tomb B74. The deceased (B6254, male, 30–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial, aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The legs were folded. The arms were folded with the hands at the pelvis area. Finds included a jar that had probably originally stood near the corner of WF131 (B6248), but had fallen onto the legs. Pelvis and shoulder bones of sheep/goat (B6321) were found near the human Fig. 2.57: Tomb B85, L685 looking east. Jar B6248 (at bottom); pelvis. Two bowls (B6251 above B6252), W-F131 (right); bowls B6251 and B6252 (top). Vessels B6249, two juglets (B6250, 6249), and a jug B6250 left of the bowls. (B6253) were placed near the head. Tomb B86 Locus 686; Square C14; Plan 2.52; Fig. 2.58 The tomb was dug into sand and covered by sand and kurkar; the contour is unknown. One piece of brick north of the tomb (W-C14), higher than the skeletons, may have been a marker. Two primary burials were found in this tomb, both supine and aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face to the south. Both had folded legs. The northern burial (B6434, 20–30 years old) had the arms along the body. The southern burial (B6433, 25–35 years old) had the left arm folded with the hand holding a bronze dagger on the hip (B6419); the position of the right arm was unclear––perhaps folded on the chest. The legs of the two skeletons were folded toward each other. Pottery from the tomb was found only near the legs: two large bowls (B6428, B6429) and three jars (B6439, B6427, and B6431). A juglet (B6432) was found inside jar B6431.

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Fig. 2.58: Tomb B86, L686 looking south. Jars B6427 and B6431 (right); bowls B6428 and B6429 (center); the skeletons with dagger B6419 (left).

Fig. 2.59 (left): Tomb B87 (at bottom), L687 looking north. Tomb B89, L689 (at the top). Fig. 2.60 (right): Tomb B89, L689 looking north. Bowl B6480 and juglet B6481 near the feet.

Tomb B87 Locus 687; Square C12; Plan 2.53; Fig. 2.59 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B6467, 7–8 years old) was placed supine in primary burial in a north–south direction (a rare alignment at Rishon le-Zion), with the head in the north and the face to the west. The legs were folded; the right arm was extended with the hand near the knee and the left arm folded with the hand on the hip. No vessels or other finds were associated with this burial. Tomb B89 Locus 689; Square B13; Plan 2.54; Fig. 2.60 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown.

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The tomb included two primary burials, placed supine, aligned east–west with the heads in the east. The heads were facing each other. The northern burial of a child (B6464, 5–6 years old) had an extended right leg and a folded left leg. The hands were probably folded on the chest/shoulders. The southern burial (B6465) belonged to a 35- to 45-year-old female. The two burials were placed very close to each other, and were from the same time period, otherwise the addition of one would have disturbed the other. However, the tomb did incur some damage, perhaps by the development work (the upper parts of the two skulls were missing). A black juglet (B6479) was placed between the two heads. A carinated bowl (B6480), a juglet (B6481), and a jug (B6482) were found at the feet of the woman. Tomb B90 Locus 690; Square D11; Plan 2.55 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B6435, 12–15 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east– west, with the head in the east and the face to the north. One leg was folded, the other perhaps extended but badly preserved. The right arm was extended along the body, the left arm folded toward the pelvis. A jug (B6443) was found near the feet and a flat-based (cylindrical?) juglet (B6444) near the head. There may have been more items that did not survive, since the grave was found on the surface following the development work. Tomb B91 Locus 691; Square C11; Plan 2.56; Fig. 2.61 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. Excavation started at an oval pit of hamra dug into silt (Plan 2.56: A, 1 × 1.5 m, depth 0.46 m). It was empty of finds. Tomb B91 was discovered farther to the north, separated from the hamra pit by two hamra bricks (W-C111, one brick 26 × 42 cm, the second only a fragment). Small, fragmented vessel/s were perhaps situated on top of the complete brick, but they are not discussed in the files. WC11 was perhaps not a wall but a marker for the tomb, as it was slightly higher than the burial. The tomb included two primary burials, placed supine and aligned roughly east–west with the heads in the east. Burial B6477 (30–40 years old) in the south had the face to the south, both legs slightly folded outside, and arms extended with the hands near the thighs. Burial B6635 (18 months old) in the south had the face to the north, the legs slightly folded (similar to B6477), the right arm extended along the body, and the left arm folded with the hand Fig. 2.61: Tomb B91, L691 looking east. Jars B6476, B6523 toward the face. The two skeletons seem combined (bottom right); skeleton B6477 (center); and skeleton B6635 (left). together––the right arm of the adult Wall C11 between the skeletons and the sign. (B6478) seems to be have been placed above the upper body of child B6635, but under his/her knee. There is no doubt that the two individuals were buried at the same time, one immediately after the other. Finds from the tomb included sheep/goat bones near the head of the adult (B6636) and pottery vessels near his/her legs: a jar (B6476, partially covered by a piece of brick); a second jar (B6523) with a dipper juglet (B6641) inside; and a juglet (B6522).

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Tomb B92 Locus 692; Square H6; Plan 2.57 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. Remains of brick were found to the south (W-H61, W-H62; no heights were cited and the bricks did not form a clear wall). The whole area was disturbed and its interpretation is difficult. The locus card had little text, but bore the heading “B92+B44”. B44 (L636, Plan 2.57: A, gray color) included only a few donkey bones (B6168) and one flint item (B6169). These finds were situated some 50 cm above B92, and were therefore later. According to the textual summary, Tomb B92 included two primary burials, both supine and aligned northeast–southwest; however, these are not clear in the plan. One individual in the south is represented by a skull (B6633), one femur (marked 6633b in the plan), bones of one hand (location not described, but it must be the hand with silver ring B6496, west of the skull), and other, unspecified bones. The deceased was defined as an adult, 20–30 years old, (based on the skull and teeth). The skull (B6633) seems to be upside down. Red pigment (B6499) was found near skull B6633. A bronze dagger (B6420) was discovered near the femur of burial B6633. The entire burials seems to have been disturbed. The poorly preserved second individual (B6571, age/sex unknown), north of the first one, was represented by leg bones and other, unidentified bones. Traces of silver were found in the same area along with a large number of silver, gold and stone beads (B6570). The beads were not drawn in detail and there are two plans showing their distribution, probably both approximate rather than accurate. Four silver rings and a silver pin (all registered together as B6518) were also ascribed to burial B6571; the rings were found around a long bone (presumably an arm, therefore they are identified as bracelets). The expected location of a pin is on the chest, not near an arm bone. Red pigment was found with the northern bones (B6498). Two objects (bones?) in the area of the northern burial (Plan 2.57: B1–B2; B1 was included in B6571) have peculiar rectangular shapes at the edges, as if they had been worked; but no mention of these objects exists in the files. The position of the hand with the ring (B6496) indicates that it does not belong to skull B6633 (if the arm were folded, the fingers would have pointed at the opposite direction); but it also seems too far away from the northern burial. Pottery from Tomb B92 included three very fragmented jars: B6606, B6607, and B6573. A dipper juglet (B6574) was found inside jar B6573, and it alone was marked for keeping. Finally, a flint item was also registered from this tomb (B6421). Red pigment and silver jewels are rare features for the Rishon le-Zion tombs, and here they appear on two nearby burials, unfortunately very poorly preserved. It also seems that the finds were badly damaged and moved. B93 Locus 693, Square G12; Plan 2.58 The remains designated B93 included a 1.3-m-long wall (W-G121) of hamra bricks, aligned roughly north–south. A jar (B6601) was found resting on its side c. 80 cm west of this wall. Next to it there were two juglets (B6602; B6603; in the plan, the latter looks like a carinated bowl). These vessels were discarded. Tomb B94 Locus 694; Square D8; Plan 2.59; Fig. 2.62 Three oval areas were dug into the hamra and filled with silt; two were found empty, but burial B94 was discovered in the southern of the three areas. Remains of a ‘wall’ made of hamra bricks were found south of the burial (W-D81, top 33.42 m). The deceased (B6457, male, 40 years old or more) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east– west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were extended and both hands were folded (the right hand perhaps on the right shoulder). Two painted Cypriot juglets (B6450, B6451) were found on the right arm. A pithos (B6790) with a juglet (B6454) inside was placed near the head. The pithos was embedded more deeply than the other finds. A juglet (B6455) was found nearby. A two-handled bowl (B6453) was found at the other side of the burial, and near the bowl stood a second pithos (B6469) and a jar (B6470) with a carinated bowl (B6490). The bowl seemed too large to fit into the jar, so either it was found underneath or placed on top of it as a cover. Sheep/goat bones unearthed north of the deceased (B6471) apparently represent a head or part of a head. A bronze dagger (B6447) was also found among the bones, as well as a flint item (B6449).

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Fig. 2.62 (left): Tomb B94, L694 looking east. Skeleton B6457 with B6790 (top); bowl B6543 at the feet; Jars B6469 and B6470 (bottom). Dagger B6477 with bones B6471 at center. Fig. 2.63 (right): Tomb B95, L695 looking east. Skeleton B6511 (left); large bowl B6500 with animal bones B6501 (right); bones B6506 near the sign.

Fig. 2.64: Tomb B97, L697 looking south. Skeleton B6534 (bottom); bowl B6516 above bowl B6517 (left).

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Tomb B95 Locus 695; Square CD7; Plan 2.60; Fig. 2.63 The locus card lacks textual description. Based on the later textual summary, the tomb was dug into silt, covered by hamra, and was oval in shape. The partial contour in the plan was apparently arbitrary. Remains of bricks (W-C71) were found south of the burial, set in various directions. The placement of the large bowls of Tomb B95 (B6501, B6502) shows that W-C71 was contemporaneous with B95. The deceased (B6511, male, 35–45 years old) was placed supine in primary burial oriented roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The area of the legs may not have been excavated (since the tomb was deep below the surface); alternatively, it may have been disturbed by Tomb B109. The arms were folded with both hands on the pelvis. The tomb was rich in finds; there may have been more at the feet. However, not all the finds were in a good state of preservation. A bronze pin (B6456) was found on the chest. A juglet (B6600) was placed under the left arm. A bowl (B9512) was found just east of the head. All the other finds appear in a sort of a curve from the head to W-C71. They included, from north to south: a juglet (B6504); a small item or vessel (B9513); a jaw and other sheep/goat bones (B6506); and three bowls set partially one above the other, each with sheep/goat bones inside. Bowl B6512 was at the bottom, with bones B6513 (five costa, one metapod, two phalanx I). Bowl B6502 was in the middle, with bones B6503 (skull bones). Bowl B6500, at the top, held many ribs bones (12 costa), as well as teeth and metapods. Finally, two juglets (B6507, B6508) were placed north of bowl B6500, with a jug (B6510) above them. Tombs B95 and B109 were roughly at the same level. In the plan, the arm bones of B95 seem to be cut by the contour of B109, suggesting that B109 post-dated B95. However, the contour line on the plan was a later addition and B109 was also damaged in the same area of the B95 arm bones. The textual summary suggests that the missing areas of both B95 and B109 were ruined due to the development work. Apparently, a trench was cut just between the two tombs. Hence, we could not establish the temporal relations between them. Tomb B96 Locus 696; Square F9; Plan 2.61 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B6458, 6–8 years old) was placed supine in primary burial in an east–west direction, with the head in the east and the face to the west. The legs were slightly folded toward each other. The right arm was folded toward the pelvis; the left arm was missing. A juglet (B6492) was placed near the head, surrounded by sheep/goat bones (b6493). Two jars were found at the feet (B6472, B6473). Tomb B97 Locus 697; Square E7; Plan 2.62; Fig. 2.64 The tomb was dug into silt and filled with hamra. The contour was described as oval; however, the excavation did not follow this contour (Fig. 2.80), which was probably added later as a guess, encircling the finds. A brick construction (W-E71) running roughly north–south was identified at the western part of the tomb, shown below the feet of the B97 burial. If so, the wall was built before B97. The plan does not show a real wall, and it could not have continued much to the south, where large vessels were found standing. The deceased (B6534, 60 years old or more) was placed supine in primary burial in an east–west direction, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The right arm was extended along the body and the left arm was folded with the hand on the pelvis. What happened to the legs, which seemed folded inside, and where were the feet? Why were the legs c. 20 cm higher than the rest of the skeleton? They were higher than the shoulders of jar B6552+6553 and could not have been inserted in the jar. The files do not refer to these questions. However, two measurements of the pelvis of B6534 were documented: 30.24 m and 30.41 m. Thus, the pelvis must have been tilted upward. Apparently, the deceased was placed unevenly, with the pelvis propped against W-E71 and the legs above it. The wall predates burial B97 (so possibly, do vessels B6552+6553, B6547, and B6550). The legs could have been propped up above or over jar B6552+6553, but if so, how could they have fallen to their present position? One alternative is that the legs were broken on purpose at the time of burial to fit the body into the limited space of the jar. This is a problematic assumption, since the jar could have been cut to avoid such harsh action. Perhaps the legs were folded with the knees in the air and the feet on the wall and they did not fall aside for lack of space; however, remains of feet were not documented on the wall. With the little data © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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available, such questions have no clear-cut answers. A row of at least four small kurkar stones was found south of the skeleton. The westernmost stone was above B6551; the easternmost was above B6526 and B6525. The tomb revealed abundant finds, south and west of the skeleton, in two main groups (south of the head and at the feet). Some silver jewelry was found at the elbow of the right arm, but only traces of it remained (B6536). On the chest was a complete head of a sheep/goat, and another sheep/goat head was placed immediately south of the skull. Both were registered as B6533 (in the lab, the jaws were identified separately, each with only a few teeth still in place). A set of two bowls, one (B6516) above the other (B6517), was placed near the skull and partially above one of the animal heads. Two more animal bones (B6530) were found in and near bowl B6517. A juglet (B6515) was discovered above B6517. Farther south there was a group of small closed vessels around a jug (B6526): a Cypriot juglet (B6525); an askos (B6466); a shell (B6514, above jug B6526); two juglets one (B6528) above the other (B6527); and another juglet (B6634) placed near the center of the tomb, under a kurkar stone. The large group of finds near the feet included a standing pithos (B6552+6553) and two jars (B6548+6549; B6546). Each jars held a dipper juglet: Juglet B6547 was inside jar B6546 and juglet B6547 was inside B6548+6549. A jug (B6551) was placed under a kurkar stone. Another large jug (B6537) had some unidentified bones on or in it. Finally, two juglets were placed east of jug B6537: B6524 (Cypriot juglet) and B6529. Tomb B98 Locus 698; Square C12; Plan 2.53 The tomb was dug into silt, its contour unknown. The locus card specified that the contour was probably oval, based on the position of the finds. The tomb included two burials oriented roughly east–west. Both were described as primary burials, supine, with the heads in the east. The northern burial (B6459, female, 40–50 years old) was no doubt primary, with extended legs, arms along the body, and the face turned to the south. The southern burial (B6460) was much less clear. It was described as having arms extended along the body and legs folded southward. This description may refer to B6467 of B87 (Plan 2.53), but does not fit B98. Barely any bones remained except for a skull that seems to have been upside down. The anthropological report also defined burial B6460 as a skull only, of an approximately 6-year-old child. Theoretically, it could have been part of an earlier burial disturbed by B6459, but this does not seem likely. First, it was stated as primary in the records and the plan seems to show a few more upper body bones, not just a skull. Second, the pattern of two primary burials side by side, one adult and the other a child, is known at Rishon leZion. Third, the direction of the skull of B6549 and its proximity to that of B6460 suggest two primary burials made at the same time. Why one of them did not survive is unclear. Pottery related to the adult burial includes a black juglet near the head (B6463), two bowls with red cross placed partially on the right leg (B6461 and B6462), and a jar near the left leg (B6483). A jug (B6484) and a dipper juglet (B6491) were found near skull B6460. Tomb B99 Locus 699; Square F10–11; Plan 2.63; Fig. 2.65 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A brick wall (W-F101) was found southeast of the skeleton, but it seems that very few remains of it exist (near B6564). It was restored with three awkward lines; the basis for this is unclear. The deceased (B6568, 35–45 years old) was placed supine in a primary burial aligned roughly north– south, with the head in the north and the face turned to the south. The legs were folded, as were the arms, with the hands on the shoulders. A juglet (B6569) was placed near the head and two jugs (B6565, B6566) near the right foot. Farther to the northeast two badly preserved jars were found (B6564 and B6605, both discarded). The plan suggests the existence of a small vessel inside jar B6564, but this could not be ascertained. Many sheep/goat bones (B6604) were found, probably in partial articulation, above and nearby B6605. Tomb B100 Locus 1000; Square FG9–10; Plan 2.64; Fig. 2.66 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. Scant traces of a brick construction (W-F91) were found north of the skeletons. The tomb included two primary burials placed supine in an east–west direction with the heads in the east. Both had extended legs. The face of the northern individual (B6561, 30–40 years old) was turned to © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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the south and the left arm folded toward the hip. The face of the southern individual (B6560, 15–20 years old) was turned upward, the left arm slightly folded with the hand on the hip and the right arm extended along the body with the hand probably also on the hip. Finds in this tomb were few: a juglet (B6558) near the skull of B6561 and a bowl on the feet (B65555). Inside the bowl was one animal bone (B6556). Nearby a jar was found (B6557), inside which was a juglet (B6559). Another large bowl (B6791) was placed north of the shoulder of B6558. No vessels were found in direct association with burial B6560.

Fig. 2.65 (left): B99, L699 looking north. Juglet B6569 near the skull; W-F101 right; B6565and B6566 at bottom.

Fig. 2.66 (right): B100, L550 looking northeast. Skeletons B6561 (top) and B6560 (bottom); bowl B6555 and jar B6557 (at the left).

Tomb B101 and B108 Loci 1001, 1008; Square D10, Plan 2.65; Figs. 2.67–68 There was no locus card for L1008 and the card of L1001 lacks textual description. There are two plans of L1001, marked I and II. Combining them (Plan 2.65) suggests that L1001 included most of Tomb B101, while L1008 included a few remains at the southern edge of the area––vessels B6679 and B6680, a skull (B6666), and some bones. The photographs (Figs. 2.83–85) support this conclusion. It is now unclear why the two loci were originally documented separately, but the finds can be described together as one tomb. The tomb suffered badly due to the development work; only the central, lower remains survived; while all the jars in the north were discarded, since their upper halves were grazed off by the bulldozers. The tomb included two primary burials, aligned east–west. Both were placed on their right side with the heads in the east facing north. The northern individual (B6631, male, 35–45 years old) had slightly folded legs, an extended right arm and a slightly folded left arm. The southern individual (B6666, 30–40 years old, originally L1008) was found in a similar position, but very badly preserved. The tomb was rich with finds, concentrated mainly north of the skeletons. A row of seven jars stood along the north edge of the tomb (these are, from east to west, B6619 to B6625). A juglet (B6599) was found inside jar B6621. Between the jars and skeleton B6631 there were smaller finds, from east to west: two carinated bowls (B6597 above B6627); a unique vessel (B6596, a goblet?) above B6597; a bowl placed above the bones of B6631 (B6594); a large bowl (B6593) above B6594; a carinated bowl (B6626) inside B6593; a black juglet (B6595); a bronze dagger (B6598); and sheep/goat bones (not registered). South of the skeletons and close to burial B6666 two large bowls (B6679-B6680) and a juglet (B6628) were unearthed. Another juglet (B6629) and a jug (B6630) were found between the bones. The two burials of Tomb B101 seem contemporaneous, or at least very close in date; the damage to the tomb was the result of the much later development work.

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Fig. 2.67: Tomb B101, L1101 looking north. Skeleton B6631 (bottom); bowl B6593 above bowl B6594 (center); dagger B6598. At the back, vessels B6625 (left) to B6619 (right).

Fig. 2.68: Tomb B101, L1101 looking north. Dagger B6598, bowls B6593 and B6594, B6626 above the bowls. Notice the poor state of preservation of the bones and pottery finds.

Tomb B102 Locus 1002, originally marked as L552; Square D11 This tomb appears in the general map, in graphic plans and in the anthropological report; but lacks a locus card and summary page. Hence, we could not identify its baskets. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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The deceased (30–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial on an east–west axis, with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The arms were folded on the pelvis/hip. The legs were folded and crossed. The anthropological report mentions another individual, c. 8 years old based on teeth. There was a jar south of the feet, and a large bowl north of the knees. On the right shoulder was found a large bowl. Near the head there were a jug and a few (two?) juglets, and another vessel of unclear type (maybe a jug). Tomb B103 Locus 1003, Square E10–11, Plan 2.66 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A brick construction (W-E101; width 60 cm) was found north of the burial. The deceased (B6611, 17–20 years old) was placed on the side in primary burial aligned roughly east– west, with the head in the east. The legs seem to be extended; the feet and the arms were not seen in the plan and probably did not survived. Two groups of pottery finds were discovered in the tomb: one near the head, the other at the feet. Near the skull there was a juglet (B6610) and a jar (B6588) with a juglet inside (B6587). At the feet there were two bowls, one above the other (B6585 above B6586), and a jar (B6609). A bronze dagger was found on the hip of the deceased (B6554).

Fig. 2.69 (left): Tomb B104, L554 looking east. Skeletons B6576 (left), B6577 (bottom), and B6574 (right). Large bowl B6593 at the bottom. Fig. 2.70 (right): Tomb B104, L554 looking west. Jars B6578, B6581 (bottom); skeletons B6574 (bottom); B6577 (middle left); and B6576 (top).

Tomb B104 Locus 1004; Square F10, Plan 2.67; Figs. 2.69–70 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The tomb included four primary burials, all supine. The northern burial (B6576, 18–25 years old) was aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face to the north. The legs were extended and the arms were folded on the hip/pelvis (in the plan, only parts of the arms were seen). The southern burial (30–40 years old) was arranged in a similar position; it was marked as B6574 in the plan (although the number appears as a juglet in Tomb B92). The third burial was of a child, placed between the legs of the first two burials (Plan 2.67: gray colored; c. 1 year old). It was registered in the locus card and in the plan as B6617 (however, the same basket was also listed as a flint item in B93). The head was in the east, the legs extended; the position of the arms was not clear. The fourth burial (B6577, 7–8 years old) was found west of the other three, carefully closing the space near the legs of the others. It was aligned north–south with the head in the north; the legs were folded sharply to ‘meet’ those of B6574. The arms were folded on the chest and the face turned slightly eastward. We lack further details about the relationships between the skeletons; for example, does the skull of B6577 (the western burial) rest above the feet of B6576, or were the latter missing? Were there remains of the feet of B6577 and B6574, and if not, why not? Still, we suggest that all the burials were primary © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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and contemporaneous. This was supported by several observations about the spatial organization of the skeletons. The child (B6617) was put between the two adults and not disturbed by either of them. They seem to ‘leave space’ for the child in between. The western burial (B6577) carefully follows the shape of the child’s legs. There was no evidence for disturbance of one burial by another. None of them was pushed aside to make room for a new burial. If the tomb were closed––that is, filled with soil––one could not open it and dig down without causing damage to existing burials. It could not be known in advance, before digging, where exactly each skeleton was, and the ancients did not have modern archaeological methods of careful excavation. For example, if B6577 were added at a later date, it would not have ‘recognized’ the others and would have damaged some of their bones. The limited damage noticed in B104 resulted from deterioration of bones in humid/acidic surroundings, or some damage caused by the excavation or the recent development work. It is also possible that a few bones were not exposed at the time of drawing, and therefore are missing from the plan. It seems that each burial was supplied with vessels, though we could not ascribe each vessel to a specific burial. Juglets were placed near the heads of B6576 (B6614), B6576 (B6632), and B6577 (B6584). There was no juglet near the child’s head, but one (B6615) was placed near his/her pelvis. Two jugs were placed south of B6574 (B6612–3). A bowl (B6616) was put between the legs of B6576 and a jug (B6582) between those of B6577. At the southwestern part of the tomb there were two jars (B6578, B6581) with a jug between them (B6580). A juglet (B6579) was found in jar B6578. One bowl (B6583) was not clear in the plan, perhaps it was the unclear shape west of jar B6578. Tombs B105a and B105b Locus 1005; Square B11–12, Plan 2.68 The tombs were dug into silt; the contours are unknown. The locus card lacks textual description. Tomb B105 actually consists of two separate complexes, which we label here 105a and 105b. The excavators suggested that 105b was disturbed by 105a, thus the upper skeletons of 105b were lacking. This is plausible, though both graves could have been disturbed further by the development works. Notice that the lower legs and feet were missing in Tomb 105a as well. One large bone in between the two burials (Plan 2.68: between B9095 and B9538) is not in situ. Unfortunately, the contours of each tomb are unknown and there is no physical associations between finds from 105a and 105b, making it difficult to assess the relations between the two tombs. Tomb 105a was better preserved than 105b. A few pieces of brick (W-B111) were placed higher and partially above the burial. There was no clear line and the pieces could not have been a support wall for the tomb. The tomb includes two burials directed north–south with the heads in the north and the faces turned upward. The western skeleton of a child (B9537, c. 3 years old) was supine, with legs probably extended (feet and lower legs missing). The arms were placed along the body, but lower arms and hands were not seen. From the eastern burial (B9536, 15–25 years old, based on one tooth) only a skull is seen in the plan, yet it was described by the excavators as a primary burial. If so, we have here remains of two primary burials side by side, comparable to other Area B tombs. One small vessel was placed near each head: a carinated bowl (B9077) near B9573 and a juglet (B9545) near B9536. A group of pottery vessels was found near the feet of B9537: two jugs (B9075, B9076), a large bowl below one jug (B9540), another jug (B9541), and a jug or juglet (B9542, under bowl B9540). Farther to the west there was a base of a jug (B9095) and animal bones (B9546) Tomb 105b was badly damaged. It included at least two primary burials (B9538, B9535). One adult (to judge by the length of the bones, since no report exists) was placed in an east–west direction with the head (missing) in the east (B9538). The legs were slightly folded outside with the feet touching each other. The second burial was probably of a child (B9535), of which only some vertebrae, the pelvis, and leg bones survived. It seems that this burial was aligned roughly north–south, with the head in the north. Finds related to skeleton B9538 included two bowls above the feet (B9093 above B9094) and a juglet nearby (B9359). A jar (B9073) and a large bowl (B9072) were placed near the pelvis. A carinated bowl (B9074) was found above bowl B9072 and a two-handled amphora (B9071) was tucked between the bowl and the jar. Tomb B107 Locus 1007; Square E10, Plan 2.69 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour was unknown. The tomb was close to the surface (after the roadwork). Two primary burials were found in the tomb, placed supine in an east–west direction with the heads © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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in the east and the legs extended. The face of the northern burial (B6667, 30–40 years old) was turned to the south; the arms were folded and placed on the chest. The face of the southern burial (B6665, a male 20–30 years old) was turned upward, and the left arm folded with the hand on the hip (probably holding his dagger). The right arm was extended along the body. This description is an interpretation of the available records (locus card/page, anthropological report), which had some differences regarding certain details. The two burials were contemporaneous; this was proven by their intimate proximity and fitting positions, and also by the fact that their arms seem to be intertwined (probably the arm of B6667 above that of B6665; if so, the northern burial was added immediately after the southern one). The southern (male) burial had a dagger with a pommel on the hip (B6642), while a juglet (B6651) was placed near the skull of the northern burial. All the other finds were arranged in a row north of the northern burial, from east to west: two jars (B6650, B6649); a carinated bowl (B6648); sheep/goat bones (B6868); a large bowl (B6645); a jar (B6646) with a dipper juglet (B6647) inside; and another large bowl (B6644). B108 See discussion together with B101 (above). Tomb B109 Locus 1009; Square C7, Plan 2.60; Fig. 2.71 The tomb was dug into hamra and filled with silt; the contour was defined as oval, but the excavation was not made according to the contour marked in the plan. The deceased (B6678, age/sex unknown, probably adult) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly north–south. The upper body did not survive. The legs were extended; the right arm was extended along the body and the left arm folded on the hip. A bowl (B6661) with sheep/goat ribs (B6662) was placed near the pelvis. More sheep/goat bones, including a skull (B6660), were found south of the feet. Two pithoi stood farther to the south (B6668, B6663) with a dipper juglet between them (B6659). A flint item was also listed (B6671, not marked on the plan) and “Cypriot sherds” (B6670) in the assumed skull area––perhaps from a juglet or jug. As mentioned (Tomb B95, above), Tombs B95 and B109 were damaged by development work–– apparently a trench was cut between them, removing parts of each tomb.

Fig. 2.71: Tomb B109, L1009 looking south. Bowl B6661 with animal bones B6662 (center); jars B6668 and B6663 (right). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Tomb B110 Locus 1010; Square G11, Plan 2.70; Fig. 2.72 The tomb was dug into hamra and filled with silt; the contour was defined as oval, but the excavation was not made according to the contour marked on the plan. To the northwest was a brick construction (W-G111), composed of uneven bricks of hamra and silt. Its top (32.48 m) was higher than the burials and finds, and if it had only one course (no data was given), it could have been a marker rather than a supporting wall. The tomb included two primary burials aligned east–west; both were placed supine with heads in the east and faces to the north. The northern burial (B6676, 8–9 years old) had extended legs; the right arm was extended along the body and the left slightly folded with the hand on the pelvis. The badly preserved southern burial (B6677, 30 years old or more) was in a similar position, but with both arms folded on the hips, one under the other. The two burials were made at the same time, Fig. 2.72: Tomb B110, L1010 looking northeast. Skeletons as proven by the fact that the right feet of B6677 B6677 (right) and B6676 (left). was placed under the left feet of B6676, without any sign of damage. This was also indicated by the close proximity of the two bodies, one next to the other. A jug (B6682) was found near the heads of the deceased. Two jars were placed near the feet (B6675, B6673), with a juglet (B6674) inside jar B6673. A carinated bowl was discovered between the two jars (B6683) and a large bowl (B6672) was found near the left foot of B6677. B111 Locus 1011; Square C10; Plan 2.71 No traces of human remains were found in this locus, but only a group of vessels. Described from east to west they are: a jug (B6658); a jar (B6656) with a juglet (B6685) inside; a bowl (B6655); a large bowl with four knob handles (B6654); and two juglets (B6657, B6684). Tomb B112 Locus 1012, Square J12, Plan 2.72 The tomb was dug into sand and filled with silt; the contour was described as rectangular. A brick construction on the northern side (W-J121) was composed of hamra and silt bricks and brick pieces of various sizes. The wall was higher than the burial and finds, perhaps serving as a marker for the tomb. The tomb included two burials. Child burial B6736 (c. 3 years old, based on teeth) at the southeastern corner was a primary burial aligned roughly east–west with the head in the east. The skull seems tilted with the face to the west. The arms start down along the body and the ribs were clearly seen, but the lower body was missing or hidden, except a few bones. The second burial (B6735, c. 20 years old) was defined as primary. In the plan only a skull is visible, perhaps some rib bones and two long bones. The skull of this burial also seems tilted and not in a natural position. Estimation of age for this burial varied slightly in the records; we follow the anthropological report here. The excavators suggested that the deceased were placed first and the finds later. Indeed, some finds at Rishon le-Zion were placed above bones, mainly bowls on feet/legs, sometimes on pelvises, but this was not the case with the present tomb. The records imply two primary burials; but the burials in the tomb were not complete, and there is no way of restoring a complete skeleton that could conform to the position of skull B673. The tomb seems disturbed, with finds/bones moved from their original positions. Finds from B112 included a flat-based juglet (B6738) at the mouth of B6736 and a handled bowl north of it (B6743). The western part of the grave was full of pottery vessels, from north to south: a jug (B6691); a large jar (B6694); a juglet (B6740); a jug (B6693); another jug (B6741); and a large bowl (B6692) found above B6693 and the bones of B6736.

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Tomb B113 Locus 1013; Square ZA15, Plan 2.73 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B6715, 8–10 years old, based on one tooth) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east. The legs were extended; the arms folded with hands on the chest/shoulders. A group of two jugs (B6714, B6716) and a carinated bowl (B6711) were placed north of the burial. Human teeth (B6713), of a child 7–8 years old, were found inside jug B6714. It was not certain if they belonged to B6715 or to a second individual. Tomb B114 Locus 1014; Square A13–14, Plan 2.74 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B6742, 12–15 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east– west, with the head in the east. The legs were extended but slightly curving, to the northwest; the arms were extended along the body. Near the head a jug (B6776) was found and at the feet, a jar (B6717+6718) and a juglet (B9499). Tomb B115 Locus 1015; Square B14; Plan 2.75 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. Brick construction marks the northern side of the tomb (W-B141; width 38 cm; top 31.35 m). The tomb included three primary burials, all aligned east–west, supine, with heads in the east. The northern burial (B6731, 35–45 years old) had the left arm folded with the hand on the chest (the other arm did not survive?). The legs were extended and the face turned to the north. The central burial (B6730, 6– 7 years old) had the left arm folded with the hand on the chest and the right arm extended with the hand on the pelvis. The face was turned upward. The southern burial (B6733, 15–18 years old) had both arms extended along the body. The deceased were placed in the graves at the same time. This was indicated by their state of preservation, their arrangement in close proximity without any damage, and by the fact that they were intertwined: the right arm of the southern burial (B6733) was placed above the arm, chest and pelvis of the central burial (B6730). The right leg of B6733 was placed above the legs of B6730 and B6731. The right arm of B6730 (central) was placed above the hand of B6731 (northern). The order of placement was probably B6731 (northern) first, B6730 (central) second, and finally B6733 (southern). It seems that one vessel was placed near the head of each adult (carinated bowl B6792 near head B6731; unidentified small vessel B6793 near head B6733). The southern burial (B6733) featured a dagger (B6687) and had two black juglets near/on the right arm (B6737, B6739). A jug (B6701) and three jars (B6795, B6703, and B6794) were placed at the western side of the grave. A juglet (B6729) was found inside jar B6794. Tomb B116 Locus 1016; Square AB13; Plan 2.76 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour was unknown. The locus card lacks textual description. To the south a brick construction was identified (W-B132; width 38 cm). It slightly covered the pelvis of the deceased, and may have been a marker rather than a support wall. The tomb included three primary burials, all placed supine in an east–west direction with the heads in the east and the legs extended. The excavators wrote that all have folded arms. The northern burial (B6732, 30–40 years old) had the face turned to the south. The face of the middle burial (B6734; 12–15 years old) was turned upward and that of the southern burial (B9494, 18–25 years old) turned to the north. It was difficult to assign the arm bones to each specific skeleton, and to explain the two long bones between the middle and northern burials (Plan 2.76: A). It seems that the middle burial has two folded arms, which reached toward the skulls of the northern and southern burials. The left arm of the southern burial was also visible, folded toward the shoulder (with the hand under bowl B6710). The bones marked “A” may have belonged to the northern burial. If so, perhaps the outer burials (B6732 and B6705) had one extended arm and one folded arm, and the arrangement in the tomb was completely symmetrical. We lack detailed observations about the skeletons and could not determine the order of placement in the tomb. However, we can say that the burials were interred one immediately after the other in the same ‘event’. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 2.73: B117, L1017 looking south. Eight daggers (at the right); the vessels above the sign are (right to left) B6932, B6903 and B6884.

Finds from B116 enhance the symmetrical picture: each of the two adults on the sides had a bowl near the head (B6710 and B6701). A carinated bowl (B6709) was placed near head B6705, but it may have been held in the hand of the younger, central burial, so each individual was given one bowl. At the feet of the southern burial a group of vessels was discovered, presumably shared by all the deceased in the tomb: a large handled bowl (B6719); two smaller bowls (B9495 above B9496); two jugs (B6708, B9497); and a fragmented unidentified vessel (B9498). B117 Locus 1017; Square CD10–11, Plans 2.77a–b; Figs. 2.73–74 B117 was a very large assemblage of vessels and weapons, devoid of human bones. The lack of human remains was not related to a poor state of preservation; the pottery was quite well preserved. It was also noted that the number of vessels exceeded that of any other tomb in Area B––35 items were registered on the locus card. Another aspect of the finds was they were not typical for a single tomb. They included many weapons––the front and back of one spear (B6689+B6690) and eight daggers (B6803–B6807, B6828, and B6829; five daggers have in situ pommels, and remains of wood from a handle were found on dagger B6853). Pottery vessels included 13 jars (B6860, B6884, B6886, B6888, B6903, B6908, B6909, B6932, B6932–B6934, B6936, B6938, B6942); four bowls (B6865, B6901, B6937, B6943); two carinated bowls (B6866, B6900); two bowls with handles (B68618, B6902); and four juglets (B6867; B6885; B6887; B6935). There were also animal bones, probably of sheep/goat (not registered, but Fig. 2.74: B117, L1017 looking east. Rows of jars and smaller vessels. shown in the plan).

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Unfortunately, the plans do not include the basket numbers of all the vessels, and not all of them can be identified. There are several plans with minor differences, showing superimposition of several vessels, but no clear phasing can be detected. Tomb B118 Locus 1018; Square B9–10, Plan 2.78 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The remains were few and poorly preserved. The deceased (B9500, probably adult, sex/age unknown) was placed in primary burial aligned roughly east–west. Only parts of the spine, ribs and arms have been found. Near the bones traces were found of at least four fragmented vessels (B9500–B9504). All were discarded. B119 Locus 1019; Square C11 B119 included bones of sheep/goat (B9548, ribs and vertebrae?) and traces of one pottery vessel (B9549, discarded). Human bones were not found. Tomb B120 Locus 1020; Square J10, Plan 2.79 The tomb was dug into silt and filled with hamra; the contour was described as oval, but is shown on the plan as partial and irregular. The excavators noticed that the tomb was very close to the surface and damaged. The remains were poorly preserved. A few unidentified bones were found (B9530), as well as a jar (B9524), four juglets (B9525–B9527, B9529), and a bowl (B9528). All the pottery from this tomb was discarded. Tomb B121 Locus 1021; Square L10, Plan 2.80; Fig. 2.75 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The photographs show that the excavation was made as a deep rectangle. A stone wall (W-L101) was found north of the burial, made of hamra bricks or pieces of bricks (length 1.22 m). The deceased (B6775, 4 years old) was placed on the left side in primary burial aligned roughly east– west, with the head in the east and the face to the southwest. The legs were folded, one arm extended toward the pelvis and the other folded toward the hip. North of the burial a jug or juglet (B6759) was found, along with many animal bones (presumably sheep/goat, B6761).

Fig. 2.75: B121, L1021 looking north. Skeletons B6716 (upper) and B6775 (closer to the sign); juglet B6759 at center. Wall L101 not clearly visible. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 2.76 (left): Tomb B122, L1022 looking east. Wall K91 at left; skeleton B6814 at right; bowl B6809 at bottom. Fig. 2.77 (right): Tomb B123, L1023 looking south. Skeleton B6785 at right, bowl B7656 at center.

Tomb B122 Locus 1022; Square K9–10, Plan 2.81; Figs. 2.76–77 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. Wall K91 limited the tomb on the northern side. It had three or four irregularly laid courses (top 33.13 m, bottom 32.38 m). The area north of the wall was excavated, but revealed only a few brick fragments. The deceased (B6814, male, 20–30 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were extended (one foot on top of the other), the right arm probably extended along the body and the left arm folded with the hand on the chest. All the vessels in the tomb were placed between the burial and the wall, from west to east: a large bowl (B6809); animal bones (B9547, on both sides of bowl B6809 and elsewhere, possibly also under B6812); a bronze dagger (B6833); a bowl (B6812) with a juglet (B6815) above it; a jar (B6813) with a carinated bowl inside (B6817, originally at the mouth of the jar); and a double-handled juglet (B6816, near jar B6813). Tomb B123 Locus 1023; Square H10, Plan 2.82 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour was unknown. Remains of a brick wall were found on the southern side (W-H101). The tomb included three primary child burials, all aligned roughly east–west with the heads in the east. The northeastern burial (B6787, 9–10 years old) had the feet slightly folded to the north, the face turned upward, the right arm folded toward the face and the left arm folded on the chest. The southeastern burial (B6786, 2–3 years old) was placed alongside, with the legs slightly folded to the south and the face turned upward. The third, western burial (B6785, 2–3 years old) had sharply folded legs, the contour of the right leg fitting the right leg of B6787. The head was probably placed on the feet of B6760. The face was turned to the south, the left arm folded toward the head and the right arm perhaps folded toward the chest. It seems that the order of burial was B6786 first, B6787 second and finally, B6785. The northeastern burial (B6787) had a bronze pin on the right shoulder (B6766) and two bronze rings on fingers of the left hand (B6767). Near the right shoulder there was a juglet (B6782) and on the pelvis, a large bowl (B6756). The southeastern burial (B6786) had a small bowl near the head (B6760), and a bowl (B6757) with a juglet (B6758) inside it near the right shoulder. Between the feet of the western burial B6785 and WH101 there were three jugs (B6777, B6779, and B6780), and a juglet (B6778). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Tomb B125 Locus 1025; Square H12, Plan 2.83 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour was unknown. The finds were partially covered by kurkar. A brick wall was found on the northern side of the tomb (W-H121, length 1.82 m, width 40 cm). The deceased (B6726, 20–30 years old) was described as placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head (mostly missing) in the east, the face turned upward, the arms along the body and the legs extended. However, only long bones and part of the skull remained. The arms may also have been folded, holding weapons (see below). Although not much remained, the location of the preserved bones in correct articulation proves that the burial was primary. The deceased (B6726) carried a dagger with a pommel (B6724); a bronze axe (B6727) and a carinated bowl (B6728) were found near the head. A jar was placed near the feet (B6722) with a juglet (B6723) inside it. South of this jar there was a bowl (B6721) and a large jar (B6720). Sheep/goat bones were found near the feet (B6725). The position of animal bones at the feet was somewhat peculiar, as was the placement of the vessels, quite some distance from the skeleton and from W-H121. Tomb B126 Locus 1026; Square I13, Plan 2.84 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour is unknown. A brick wall was found north of the burial (WI131), made of bricks of various sizes (38 × 46, 42 × 48, 40 × 56 cm; top 33.86 m). The deceased (B6788, 20–30 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east– west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The arms seem to have been extended along the body; the pelvis and legs were mostly missing. Near the head stood a jar (B6774, partly fallen onto the skull) with a juglet (B6772) inside it. A cylindrical juglet (B6773) was placed near the left shoulder. Another juglet (B9532) was found nearby. A large bowl (B6751) was discovered farther to the west, near WI131, with sheep/goat bones inside and near it (B6771, including three rib bones). A jar (B6750) was found west of the bowl. Tomb B127 Locus 1027; Square H13, Plan 2.85 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour is unknown. Kurkar partially covered the tomb. A brick wall was found north of the burial (W-H132, width 40 cm). The tomb included a few human bones (B6745) that represent one individual; the exact position and age/sex are unknown (perhaps primary burial aligned east–west with the head in the east, but this is merely conjecture). Finds included, from west to east: a jug (B6748); a jar (B6746) with a juglet (B6747) inside; a goblet (B6744); and another bowl (B6752). Tomb B128 Locus 1028; Square I9, Plan 2.86; Fig. 2.78 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The tomb included remains of two individuals. One (B6783, 18–25 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned slightly to the south. The arms were folded with both hands crossed on the belly, and the legs slightly folded. The second individual (B6784, c. 6 years old) was represented by a skull, found south of the pelvis of the primary burial. It was not clear if this was a Fig. 2.78: Tomb B128, L1028 looking north. Jar B6770 at center. secondary or primary burial. Finds from the tomb included a jar (B6770) north of the pelvis of B6783, and a bowl (B6764) farther to the north. The excavators suggested that the tomb was disturbed, although skeleton B6783 was nearly complete.

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Tomb B129 Locus 1029; Square I11–12, Plan 2.87; Fig. 2.79 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour is unknown. It was covered by sand and kurkar. A brick construction (W-I111) was identified, made of various pieces of brick; its connection to the burial is not clear. Almost nothing remained of the deceased (B9531); however, the burial was primary and on a roughly east–west axis. Remains of a left arm and a few other bones were found north of the vessels. A bronze ring (B6765) was found on the left hand. There were two large bowls nearby (B6763, B6762). In the west, a jar (B6921) stood near W-I111 and another was discovered southeast of the bowls (B6920), with a carinated bowl (B6923) on its rim. A pithos (B6918) and a juglet (B6922) were Fig. 2.79: Tomb B129, L1029 looking northeast. Bowls B6762 found next to it. and B6763 at the bottom. Tomb B130 Locus 1030 Square G13, Plan 2.88; Fig. 2.80 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour is unknown. A brick construction (W-G131) was identified north of the tomb, made of various bricks or brick pieces. A few human bones were found, not indicative of position, age or sex. Finds from Tomb B130 included a large-handled bowl (B6753), two jugs (B6754, B6749), and a juglet (B6755).

Fig. 2.80: Tomb B130, L1030 looking south. Wall G131 right of the sign; jar B6749 and jug B6755 in the pit (above the sign); bowl B6753 farther to the right.

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Fig. 2.81: Tomb B131, L1031 looking south. Tomb B131a with dagger B6811 (right); Tomb B131b with bowls B6820 and B6821 (left), skeleton B6822 (top left), and jar B6827 (center).

Tombs B131a–b Locus 1031; Square IJ7–8, Plan 2.89; Fig. 2.81 Tomb B131 was dug into silt; the contour was unknown and the heights of the bones/finds were missing. The excavators suggested that this was one tomb with two burials, and that burial B6822 was added later, damaging burial B6846. However, these two burials did not follow the pattern seen in other tombs with two closely placed individuals. The skeletons here were placed far from each other and were not laid along the same axis. We interpret B131 as the remains of two separate tombs, each with one primary burial: B131a in the north and B131b in the south. Tomb B131a included one primary burial (B6846, an adult, most probably male), placed roughly in an east–west direction, but only the folded legs and part of the pelvis and right arm survived. The upper body is completely missing. The excavators suggested that a single piece of brick (W-J8) served as support for the head of this burial. A brick construction (W-J81) was identified north of the skeleton, made of various pieces of hamra and silt bricks/brick. The deceased carried a bronze dagger (B6811). A jar (B6842) with a juglet inside (B6843) also belong to this burial. The plan shows small bones strewn near the feet, but their nature is unknown. Juglet B6844 was found in the area between B131a and B131b. Since small, closed vessels are more often found on upper bodies than on feet, we assume it belongs to B131a. Tomb B131b included one primary burial (B6822, 12–15 years old), placed supine, aligned east–west, with the head in the east and the face to the north. The legs were extended and the right arm slightly folded toward the pelvis. Except for one juglet placed near the head (B6818), all the finds were arranged in a row north of the body and matching its contours (from east to west): a large bowl (B6820) with sheep/goat bones inside (B6823); a dagger found inside the large bowl (B6824––perhaps used to slaughter the animal); another large bowl (B6821); a carinated bowl (B6819); and a jar (B6827) with a juglet inside (B6825). Tomb B132 Locus 1032; Square G11, Plan 2.90 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The finds and the bones were very poorly preserved. The deceased (B6801, c. 9 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The position of the arms was not clear; the legs were probably folded. A bowl (B6800) was found on the pelvis and a jug or carinated bowl (base only, B6799) west of the bowl. Near the head there was another bowl (B6798). Pottery fragments from another vessel (B6802) were found south of the bones. All the finds were discarded.

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Fig. 2.82 (top): Tomb B133, L1033 looking northwest. Skeleton B9032; jar B6836 far left. Fig. 2.83: Tomb B133, L1033 looking south. The skeletons not yet fully exposed; jar B6836.

Tomb B133 Locus 1033; Square H11, Plan 2.91; Figs. 2.82–83 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A brick construction (W-H111) was described as bounding the tomb on the western side, but only a few pieces of bricks were found. The deceased (B9032, 35–45 years old, defined as a male in the locus card) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The arms were extended along the body, with the hands pointing toward the upper legs; the legs were extended. The deceased carried a bronze belt (B6830) with two strings around the hips and two crescent-shaped items, apparently buckles (one part was found at the center and the other at the side of the body). A bronze dagger (registered under the same basket) was attached to the belt on the hip. The tomb was rich in finds. Several small finds were located near the right shoulder: a carinated bowl (B6849) and three juglets (B6832, 6850, 6851). Bones above and west of the bowl were probably of sheep/goat, but they were not registered separately. A heap of finds was discovered between the right leg and W-H111: two jars (B6836, B6837); a juglet (B6838) inside B6837; a jug (B6840); a carinated bowl above the jug (B6839); a juglet (B6845); a jug (B6835); and a large bowl (B6831) with sheep/goat bones inside. More sheep/goat bones (registered under the same basket, B6847) were found nearby in articulation (probably a rib portion). Tomb B134 Locus 1034; Square HI6, Plan 2.92 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A brick wall (W-HI161) was found south of the tomb, made of hamra bricks or pieces of bricks in various sizes. The wall was c. 50 cm high, the number of courses was not specified. The deceased (B9033, age unknown, male according to the locus page) was placed on the left side in a primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the southwest. The position of the arms was not clear; the legs were sharply folded. A jar (B6881) stood south of the head with a juglet inside (B6682). A bowl (B6856) was found near the feet and west of the bowl, sheep/goat bones (B6883) were unearthed. Tomb B135 Locus 1035; Square FH8–9, Plan 2.93; Fig. 2.84 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. Two burials were found in this tomb, both supine in Fig. 2.84: Tomb B135, L1035 looking east. primary burials aligned east–west with the heads in the east Skeletons B9516 (left) and B9517 (right). and the legs extended. The northern burial (B9516, 30–40 years old) had the face turned to the north and the arms along the body, with the hands probably toward

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the pelvis. The southern burial (B9517, 4–5 years old) had the face turned upward and to the west and the arms along the body. Two bronze earrings (B6857=B9857) were found near the right ear of burial B9517. There was a juglet (B9515) on the right shoulder. Three jugs were placed north of the burial B9516: two near the arm (B6863, B6863), and the third near the legs (B6864). Tomb B136 Locus 1036; Square L9, Plan 2.94; Fig. 2.85 The tomb was dug into hamra and covered by silt. The contour was described as oval, but the excavated area was rectangular and did not follow an oval shape. A brick construction (W-L91; made of hamra, top 33.47 m) was described as bounding the tomb on the northern side. It can be seen that the oval contour does not reach this wall. The level of the basis of the wall was missing. The contour was likely a postseason addition. The deceased (B9029, 30–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east– west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The arms were folded with the left arm on the hip (the position of the right arm was not clear, perhaps similar). The legs were folded. The tomb included only a few finds: a dagger (B6924) found on the hip and an animal part or parts in partial articulation (probably sheep/goat, B9518) north of the deceased. Nothing was found in the space between W-L91 and the skeleton. Tomb B137 Locus 1037; Square IJ12, Plan 2.95; Fig. 2.86 The tomb was dug into silt and covered by sand; the contour is unknown. The excavators noticed that kurkar rock had formed above the tomb at a later date. A wall (W-IJ111) was found north of the tomb, made of hamra bricks (42 × 44 cm). It was c. 70 cm high (31.79–31.09 m; number of courses not specified). Very little survived from the skeleton (B9031, age/sex unknown). The burial was defined as primary on an east–west axis, but almost nothing is visible in the plan. Near the bones there was a bronze dagger with a pommel in situ (B6872) and an axe (B6854); farther to the north there was a pithos (B6898) and two carinated bowls (B6892, B6875). Two more carinated bowls (B6869 and B6870) were found 1.2 m southwest of the dagger, and farther to the west there was a group of finds: a bronze knife (B6855); a juglet (B6858); a jar (B6871) with a juglet inside (B6834); a pithos (B6897) with a jug (B6899) on its rim; and a bowl (B6859). The basket list also documents four flint items (B6893–6).

Fig. 2.85 (left): Tomb B136, L1036 looking east. Wall L91 high above the burial (left); skeleton B9092 (right); animal bones B9515 (left of the skeleton). Fig. 2.86 (right): Tomb B137, L1037 looking east. Jars B6897 and B6871 (at bottom, with juglet B6384 inside jar B6871). Bowl B6859 at bottom right; jar B6898 at top left.

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If the dagger (B6872) represents the hip area, the legs would have been far away from the pottery finds in the west. The nature of Tomb B137 remains uncertain. Tomb B138 Locus 1038; Square HI10, Plan 2.96; Fig. 2.87 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A brick wall (W-HI101, 30 cm width) was found north of the burial, with two courses of various bricks (hamra, silt, hamra mixed with small stones). The deceased (B9030, 15–18 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. Both arms were folded, the right toward the hip and the left on the left shoulder. The legs were sharply folded. Fig. 2.87: Tomb B138, L1038 looking northeast. Skeleton B9030 There was a large bowl (B6879) near the with bowl B6879 near the skull; vessel B6876 near the feet; Whead with sheep/goat bones (B6880) on it HI101 at the back. and also nearby. A juglet (B6878) was placed near the right arm and a trefoil-rim jug (B6874) north of the pelvis. A jar stood near the feet and the wall (B6876), with a juglet (B6877) inside it. Another juglet (B6873) was found west of this jar. A few sheep/goat bones were also found west of jar B6876 (not registered separately). B139 Locus 1039; Square I12, Plan 2.97 A brick wall (W-I121) was exposed in this locus, of which only a few traces have survived. A jar (B6906, with juglet B6907 inside it) was found near the wall. Human bones were not discovered in B139. B140 Locus 1040; Square I12, Plan 2.97 The skull of a horse was found in silt (B6905; 10 molars and 14 premolars have been identified). No contour was traced and no other finds were discovered. The skull was half a meter higher than the pottery of B139 and W-I121, having no clear association to them. B141 Locus 1041; Square H12; Plan 2.98 The area was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The remains were close to the surface and damaged by bulldozers. A brick wall (W-H122) was found southeast of the other finds, made of hamra and silt bricks (26 × 36 cm, at least three courses). Since its top was about 1 m higher than the rims of the pottery vessels of B141, it was probably not related with them. Human bones were not found in B141, but a row of three jars (B6890, B6891, and B6889) was discovered. Tomb B142 Locus 1042; Square BC7, Plan 2.99; Fig. 2.88 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. We call B142 “the lovers’ tomb”––not because of the vessels, but because of the position of the two primary burials, one on top of the other. Unfortunately, the documentation is laconic and there were only a few photographs of this tomb. The skeletons were not registered and were kept separately when removed. The locus card lacks text, and we are left with a later, brief summary page. Both burials were supine, aligned east–west with the Fig. 2.88: Tomb B142, L1042 looking east. heads in the east and the legs extended. According to the Skeleton B9511 above skeleton B9510. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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records, the face of the lower burial (B9510, 40–50 years old) turned forward (westward) and the arms extended along the body. The face of the upper burial (B9511, marked in gray in the plan, age/sex unknown) was turned to the north and the arms were folded on the pelvis. The relative positions of the skulls must conform to the location of the rest of the skeletal remains; hence the legs with feet farther to the west belong to the upper skeleton B9511. This also fits the measured heights (except for one height notation, 29.52 m, which might have been a mistake). Moreover, the left femur of the upper burial rests above that of the lower burial (Plan 2.99: A). One bone, which lies diagonally above the left leg of B9510, was probably not in situ (Plan 2.99: B). We notice that the legs of the lower burial (B9510) were better preserved than those of the upper burial (B9511). The left arm of the lower burial (B9510) was directed to the pelvis area (not extended as the excavators thought). The left arm of the upper burial (B9511) had a similar position. This arm seems to pass above the arm of B9510 (Plan 2.99: C). The bone just between juglets B9445 and B9446 was too high to fit the lower burial, and must be part of the right arm of the upper burial (B9511), which therefore would have been extended. The right arm of the lower burial, B9510, certainly must have been folded, with the hand on the chest. It was probably indicated by the bone marked D in the plan. One cannot not be completely certain, because there were no close-up photographs and not enough measurements of the bones, but it is very likely. In any case, the arms and upper body of the lower burial were better preserved than those of the upper burial. In the plan, we clearly see the pelvis of the lower burial (B9510; point E). Above it we see some ribs– –and possibly vertebrae––of the upper body (B9511, around juglet B6914). However, almost nothing remained from the pelvis of the upper burial. We conclude that the two individuals were interred one immediately after the other. The upper one could not have been added much later, because it caused no apparent damage to the lower skeleton. The ancients could not have made a delicate, forensic excavation to gain exact knowledge about an already buried skeleton. The damage to the upper skeleton was post-depositional, most likely from the development work (in other words, the upper skeleton protected the lower one). The tomb was rich in finds. A large group of vessels was placed near the legs, perhaps to be seen as shared by the two deceased. It included two large bowls, one (B6927) above the other (B6928); a jug (B6925, registered as jar in the basket list); and two jars: one (B9624b) with a jug (B6930) above it and the other (B6926) with a juglet (B6926) inside. Small vessels were placed around the burials. South of the burials we see a juglet (B9444); a carinated bowl (B9449); and the complete head of a sheep/goat (B9616). There were two items north of the burials: a juglet (B9445) near or on the arm, and a large juglet (B9446) near the right thigh of B9511. Two more juglets were found among the bones: one in the chest area of B9511 (B6914); the other (B9447) north of the pelvis of B9510. Finally, a bronze pin (B6917) was found on the shoulder of B9510. It was difficult to ascribe the items to one specific burial (except B6914, which belongs to the upper burial). The placement of one skeleton above the other is rare but not unheard of at Rishon le-Zion. It seems to reflect an intimacy that suggests acquaintance in life. This was not a burial of mutilated remains of soldiers or despised enemies, thrown carelessly into the same mass grave, but most likely a family tomb, even if the exact relation between the two individuals remains unknown. Tomb B143 Locus 1043; Square BC8, Plan 2.100; Fig. 2.89 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B9034, male, 40 years old or older) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The left arm was folded with the hand on the left shoulder; the right arm was folded toward the hip. The legs were folded. A carinated bowl (B6911), a bowl (B6912), another carinated bowl (B9038), and two juglets (B9037, B6913) were found north of the head. The complete head of a sheep/goat was placed above the pelvis (B9039; a few more bones nearby were perhaps from the same animal), together with a bronze knife (B6915) that may have been used to slaughter the animal. A large bowl (B6910) was found above the legs. A juglet (B9036) and a jar (B9035) were found farther to the north. The location of the more damaged vessels (B9035-B9038, discarded) suggests that the northern side of the tomb was disturbed. Tomb B144 Locus 1044, Square I9, Plan 2.101 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 2.89 (left): Tomb B143, L1043 looking east. Large bowl B6910 and bones B9039 (at center), above skeleton B9034. Fig. 2.90 (right): Tomb B147, L1047 looking east. Skeleton B6998 at center, jar B6968 at top right.

The deceased (B9508, 9–10 years old) was placed in primary burial aligned roughly north–south, with the head in the north. The skull was found resting on a piece of brick and covered by another piece, but it may have been tilted/disturbed after burial. The legs were folded. The middle body and the arms did not survive well. Bones of sheep/goat were found west of the head (B9509, probably ribs). B145 Locus 1045; Square I8, Plan 2.102 A brick wall (W-I81) was found, composed of pieces of hamra and silt bricks in various sizes. It was more than 1 m high; the number of courses was not mentioned. According to the excavators, no bones or vessels were found in relation to this wall; however, B9020 was listed from this locus, with sheep/goat bones (identified bones included astragalus, vertebrae, pelvis, humerus, radius, and metapods). Tomb B146 Locus 1046; Square J9, Plan 2.103 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A brick wall (W-J91) was found north of the burial, made of hamra and silt bricks. Only a few fragments of human leg bones were found in B146 (location not specified). Two jars were discovered immediately south of WJ–91 (B6959, B6960), with a juglet (B6961) inside jar B6960. Sheep/goat bones (B9040) were found c. 40 cm south of the jars, in a pattern that suggests primary burial of at least a large part of the animal. If a human burial was once placed between B9040 and the jars, nothing of it has survived. Tomb B147 Locus 1047; Square B10, Plan 2.104; Fig. 2.90 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A brick wall (W-B101) was found south of the burial, with bricks made of hamra and silt. The deceased (B6998, male, 20–30 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The right arm was folded on the chest; the left arm was extended with the hand on the pelvis. The lower body did not survive. Few vessels were found, mainly near the head: a jar (B6968), a bowl (B6964) with a few sheep/goat bones (B6965) inside, and a juglet (B6966) placed on the neck.

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Tomb B148 Locus 1048; Square E12, Plan 2.105 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A wall (W-E122, width c. 40 cm) bounded the burial on the northern side, composed of silt bricks. The deceased (B9507, male, age unknown) was placed in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head (missing) in the east. The right arm was extended and slightly folded toward the pelvis. The legs were extended. The upper body and left arm bones were missing. A large bowl (B6950) was found south of the legs and a bronze dagger with a pommel (B6945) in situ on the hip. A dipper juglet (B6951) was found farther to the east, apparently near the shoulder. A row of finds was placed north of the burial, near the wall (from east to west): a jar (B6953) with a juglet (B6954) inside; a carinated bowl (B6946); a large bowl (B6944) with sheep/goat bones inside (B6949); a black juglet (B6948) above bowl B6944; and a carinated bowl (B6947). Tomb B149 Locus 1049; Square H9, Plan 2.106; Figs. 2.91–92 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A wall (W-H92, width 40 cm) was found north of the tomb, made of hamra and silt bricks. The tomb included two supine primary burials, aligned east–west with the heads in the east and extended legs. The northern burial (B6972=9472, 6–7 years old)1 had the face slightly turned to the south and the arms placed on the pelvis. The arms of the southern burial (B6973=9473, of a male, 18-25 years old) were extended along the body; the head was turned upward. The adult (B9473) had a bronze dagger with a pommel on the hip (B6955). A juglet was placed near his left shoulder (B6958). A jar (B6956) and a carinated bowl (B6957) were placed west of the child’s feet. A row of finds north of the heads included two large bowls (B9023, B9026), a jug (B9024), and a jar (B9025) with a juglet inside (B9028). Many sheep/goat bones were found on and near the two bowls (B9027).

Fig. 2.91 (left): Tomb B149, L1049 looking east. Skeletons B9472=B6972 (left), B6973 (right, with dagger B6955). At this stage the upper bodies are not yet visible. Fig. 2.92 (right): Tomb B149, L1049 looking northeast with B9472 (left) and B6973 (right).

Tomb B150 Locus 1050; Square C11, Plan 2.107; Fig. 2.93 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A wall (W-C111) was found north of the burial, composed of hamra and silt bricks. 1

Some finds from Area B appear with two basket numbers with a difference of 3000 places. For example, the northern skeleton of B149 appears sometimes as B6972 and other times as B9472 (There is yet another B6972 in B150, unrelated to the present skeleton). The logic behind the use of the 9000 series is not clear. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 2.93 (left): Tomb B150, L1050 looking east. Jars B6990, B6994 (bottom); bowl B6971 above bowl B6970 (near the feet); dagger B6489 at the hip.

Fig. 2.94 (top right): Tomb B151, L1051 looking northeast. Large bowl B6980 (left); dagger B6974 (right); jars B6985, B6986 (top). Fig. 2.95 (bottom right): Tomb B151, L1051 looking south. The two jars (B6985, B6986) and bowl B6977 at the bottom.

The deceased (B6997, male, 20–30 years old) was placed in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to south. The right arm was extended, perhaps with the hand toward the pelvis. The legs were perhaps folded, but almost nothing of them survived. The deceased carried a bronze dagger with a pommel on the hip (B6969). Pottery vessels were lined north of the burial, near W-C111, from east to west: a goblet (B6995); a carinated bowl (B6989) and a juglet (B6996); a bowl (B6972, near the shoulder?); two bowls, one (B6970) below the other (B6971); a jar (B6990) with a dipper juglet (B6993) inside; and another jar (B6994). Tomb B151 Locus 1051; Square G12, Plan 2.108; Figs. 2.94–95 The tomb was dug into silt and filled with sand and kurkar (the kurkar forming after burial?). The contour was stated as oval, but the excavation was made in a rectangle; apparently the contour was added to the plan later, as a conjecture. Carinated bowl B6977 was found sharply slanting––it was supported by the ground at the edge of the tomb. Hence, the tomb contour was much closer to the vessels (Plan 2.108: suggested by the inner dotted line). The deceased (B6992, male, 25–35 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The left arm was probably extended, perhaps with the hand on a bronze dagger (B6974). The right arm was folded on the chest. The legs were extended. The deceased carried a bronze dagger (B6974) on the hip. All the other finds were placed north of the burial, including a large bowl (B6980) near the feet and many sheep/goat bones (B6979) near the thigh, in partial articulation. A jug (B6981) and a black juglet (B6976) were found near the pelvis. A row of vessels stood north of the upper body: two jugs (B6982, B6978), a small black juglet (B6991), two pithoi (B6986, B6985), and two carinated bowls (B6984, B6977). Two dipper juglets (B6987, B6988) were found inside pithos B6986.

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Tomb B152 Locus 1052; Square F12, Plan 2.109 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B9492, 30–40 years old) was placed (supine or on the side?) in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned southward. The legs were folded. The right arm was probably folded on the hip/chest, although its position is not clear. All the vessels in the tomb were found north of the skeleton. A row of finds included, from east to west: a jar (B9488), a carinated bowl (B9489), a juglet (B9487), a bowl (B9486) with a jug (B9485) above it, and another bowl (B9490). Animal bones (B9491) were found in and near bowls B9490 and B9486. Farther to the north stood a large jar (B9482) with a juglet (B9484) inside it and a jug near its shoulder (B9483). Tomb B153 Locus 1053; Square G11, Plan 2.110; Fig. 2.96 The tomb was probably dug into silt and covered with hamra. The contour was described as oval (however, the excavation area was rectangular). Scant traces of a brick construction (W-G112) were found in the east, higher than the burial (the top of W-G112, 30.92 m, was also recorded as surface height prior to the excavation). The relation of W-G112 and Tomb 153 is not clear. The deceased (B9018, probably male, 25–35 years old) was placed in primary burial aligned roughly Fig. 2.96: Tomb B153, L1053 looking south. Jar B9003 surrounded by jugs east–west, with the head in the B9001, B9002 and bowls B9005–B9007. east. The skull was not found, but only the lower jaw. The legs were slightly folded. The arms were described as placed on the pelvis, but this is not visible in the plan. A cylindrical seal of faience (B6999; see Chapter 14, in this volume) and a bronze dagger (B9000) were found in the pelvis area. One juglet (B9010) was found south of the skeleton. Many pottery vessels were placed north of the burial: a large bowl with handles (B9005); a pithos (B9003) with a juglet (B9004) inside; a carinated bowl (B9008); a medium-size bowl (B9006, under B9005); two jugs (B9001, B9002); a carinated bowl (B9011); a large juglet (B9019, under pithos 9003); a medium-size bowl (B9007); and two more carinated bowls (B9009; B9022). Tomb B155 Locus 1055; Square J–K10, Plan 2.111 The tomb was dug into hamra; the contour is unknown. A wall (W-JK101) was found north of the burial, made of hamra and silt bricks; its height (31.27-31.57 m) fits the burial The deceased (B9017, 25–35 years old) was placed in primary burial, probably supine, aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face probably turned upward. The legs were extended. The arms did not survive. It is not clear whether the deceased was placed on the left side or supine. The deceased carried a bronze dagger with a pommel (B9012) on the right hip. North of the head (but not close to it) there was a juglet (B9013). Two jars (B9016, B9015 with juglet B9021 inside) and a fourhandled bowl (B9014) were found near the feet. B156 Locus 1056, Square D7 This brick construction (W-D71; top 28.88 m) was aligned roughly east–west, made of two bricks (each 44 × 58 cm). No other finds were discovered near the bricks; the excavators noticed that the area was very disturbed by the bulldozers.

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Tomb B159 Locus 1059; Square A13, Plan 2.112; Fig. 2.97 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A long brick wall (W-A131, bricks 42 × 58 cm, top 31.08 m) was found north of the burial. It seems to pass above bowl B9064 and may have been a marker for the tomb. Two primary burials were found in the tomb, both aligned east–west with the heads in the east and the face turned to the south. The northern individual (B9078, male, 30–40 years old) was placed supine with extended legs and arms folded on the hips. The southern individual (B9079, 9–10 years old) was placed on its right side, the legs slightly folded. The right arm was folded on the hip, the left arm extended along the body. The adult (B9078) carried a bronze dagger with a pommel (B9045) on the hip. A juglet (B9043) was placed near his head. A juglet (B9042) was also placed near the youngster’s (B9079) head. A carinated bowl (B9041) was found near the left arm of B9078, not far from the youngster’s head. Large vessels were placed between the wall and the adult’s body: a jar (B9063) stood near the shoulder, with Fig. 2.97 (right): Tomb B159, L1059 looking east. a juglet (B9080) inside it. A jar (B9060) and a large Jar B9060 and W-A131 (left); skeletons B9078 bowl (B9064) rested at the feet, with a jug (B9061) and (center) and B9079 (right). a juglet (B9062) between them and partially above the bowl. Sheep/goat bones (B9044) were found in and near bowl B9064.

Fig. 2.98: Tomb B160, L1060 looking east. Skeleton B9504 with three juglet on it (left); large bowl B9052 (center); bowl B9049 (right); and juglet B9053 between the bowls.

Tomb B160 Locus 1060, Square D11; Plan 2.113; Fig. 2.98 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A brick wall (W-D111, width 42 cm) was found at the eastern side of the tomb (height of wall not registered).

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The deceased (B9504, female, 35–45 years old) was placed supine in a primary burial aligned roughly east–west with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The legs were folded. Both arms were folded with the hands on the chest/shoulders. Two juglets were found on the chest (B9050, B9051) and a third nearby (B9053, partially above bowl 9052). Attached to the head was a large bowl (B9052), with a smaller one (B9049) slightly below it. A carinated bowl (B9054) was placed south of the pelvis. A jar (B9505) was found standing near the feet, besides bones of sheep/goat (B9506). Tomb B161 Locus 1061; Square C9, Plan 2.114; Fig. 2.99 The tomb was dug into silt and covered by hamra; the contour was described as rectangular. However, it was noted that most of the finds were discovered east of this contour. Indeed, such a rectangular contour is shown in the plan. The southern side of this contour was interpreted as a wall in the plan, with a height marked as 29.27 m (see Plan 2.114: A). However, there was no wall here and none was mentioned in the textual records. The deceased (B9070, female, more than 30 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly northwest–southeast, with the head in the southeast and the face turned to the southwest. The legs were extended; both arms were slightly folded with hands on the pelvis. A large bowl (B9059) was placed south of the head and four juglets (B9096–9099) near the right shoulder (north of the head). Seven more juglets (B9056–9058, B9100–9103) were found along the right arm, until the pelvis. The proximity of the handles suggests that the juglets were tied by rope, an observation made at the time by the area supervisor. A jar (B9067) and a pithos (B9066) were found near the feet. The pithos had a juglet (B9068) inside. Animal bones (B9069; probably sheep/goat) were also discovered south of the legs.

Fig. 2.99 (top left): Tomb B161, L1061, looking north. Skeleton B9070; jars B9066 and B9067 left. Fig. 2.100 (right): Tomb B162, L1062 looking east. Skeleton B9519. The large bowl under the sign is B9155. Fig. 2.101 (bottom left): Tomb B162, L1062 looking east. Upper body of B9519 with carinated bowl B9144 left of it.

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Tomb B162 Locus 1062; Square BC9, Plan 2.115; Figs. 2.100–101 The tomb was dug into hamra; the contour is unknown. North of the tomb there was a patch of silty soil in the hamra ground, which was devoid of finds. According to the excavators, Tomb B162 was bounded by two brick walls: W-BC92 in the east (width 42 cm) and W-BC91 in the south (same width). Wall BC91 continued along 4.5 m and was described as the northern boundary of Tomb B169. At the time, the excavators thought that the walls had an architectural function. Wall BC92 was mostly restored and had no connection with W-BC91. The heights of W-BC92 are unknown. The heights of W-BC91 were registered only once (26.63–29.23 m). This wall passes above finds from B169 (bowls B9477, B9170, juglet B9778, etc.),2 so it must have postdated B169. It must have passed well above these vessels (marked as c. 29.5 m), since it did not damage them. Wall BC92 could not connect with W-BC91, unless it was higher than jar B9157. Wall BC91 seems to pass above part of jar B9160, (ascribed to B162), but the height of the jar did not correspond well to the wall. With the meager data at hand, once can only raise questions. The walls might postdate the tombs, or have been markers for them; they did not look like supporting walls. The deceased (B9519, 20–30 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east– west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The legs were extended and the arms sharply folded, with the hands possibly on the shoulders. What was the relation between tombs B162 and B169? The excavators ascribed bowls B9477 and B9170 to B169; but jar B9157 (with juglet B9158) and carinated bowls B9150–B9151 were ascribed to B162, as if the demarcation line is the northern face of W-BC91. The burials in the two tombs were on the same level, so absolute heights do not indicate which is earlier. However, the carinated bowls B9150– B9151 are shown slanted, as if resting on the side. We suggest that the edge of Tomb B169 (Plan 2.115: half-oval dotted line) passed here. The bowls could have belonged to either tomb, but following our reconstruction, they and jar B9157 were ascribed to B169. Hence, the finds ascribed to Tomb B162 include a pile of three large bowls near the head (B9155 at the top with handles; B9154; B9156 at the bottom); animal bones (not further specified); and a juglet (B9152). Inside B9155 there were sheep/goat bones (B9153). More sheep/goat bones, including a skull, were discovered southwest of the pile of bowls (B9148). A bronze knife was found above these bones, perhaps used to slaughter the animal (B9159, not visible in the plan). One bone from B9148 was identified as the leg bone of a pig (Sus scrofa). A carinated bowl was located north of the head (B9144). Small vessels were found on the southern side of the body, from east to west: juglet B9145; Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet B9149; carinated bowl B9520; juglet B9146; and juglet B9522 above juglet B9521. Another juglet (B9147) was found above the chest. Finally, a group of three jars (B9160–B9162) was found near WBC91, south of the legs. A dipper juglet (B9163) was found inside jar B9161, as well as several sheep/goat teeth (B9164). Tomb B164 Locus 1064; Square I11, Plan 2.116 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B9092, 12–15 years old) was placed in primary burial, the body bent and possibly placed on the right side; the head in the east with the face to the south. The legs were described as slightly folded. The skeleton was only partially preserved, and the position of the arms is unknown. The deceased carried a bronze dagger with a pommel (B9081) on the left hip. One group of pottery vessels was placed near the body: a large bowl (B9086); a smaller bowl (B9088) under a carinated bowl (B9091); a juglet (B9089); and another carinated bowl (B9090). Some 60 cm farther to the west there was a row of four jars (B9085, B9082, B9083, and B9084). A juglet (B9087) was found inside jar B9084. Tomb B165 Locus 1065; Square I5, Plan 2.117; Fig. 2.102 The tomb was dug into sand and covered with hamra; the contour was described as oval. However, the contour in the plan was incomplete, while photographs (Fig. 2.165) show that the excavation followed straight lines, not an oval contour. The deceased (B9123, 40–50 years old) was placed supine in primary burial, the head in the east with the face turned upward. The legs were folded. The arms were probably placed on the chest. 2

Here only the edge of B169 is shown; for a full plan see Tomb B169 (below). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 2.102 (top left): Tomb B165, L1065 looking east. Jars B9115, B9116 (bottom); above them bowls B9120, B9121. Fig. 2.103 (top right): Tomb B168, L1068 looking north. Three skeletons: B9177 (top); B9188 (bottom); B9199 (left). Fig. 2.104 (middle right): Tomb B169, L1069 looking north. Skeleton B9481 with juglets on it; jar B9175 (right). The edge of Tomb B162 at the left, with bowls B9154 and B9156. Broken jar B9157 barely visible. Bowl B9477 is between this jar and the skeleton. Fig. 2.105 (bottom left): Tomb B170, L1070 looking east. Bowl with handles B9141 and large bowl B9139. Fig. 2.106 (bottom right): Tomb B174, L1074 looking east. Jars B9217, B92188 (right); skeleton B9216 (center).

The deceased carried a bronze dagger with a pommel (B9114) on the left hip. Pottery vessels were found north of the body. They include two jars near the legs (B9116, B9115); a carinated bowl between the jars (B9117; note the position, suggesting the edge of the pit here); and a juglet (B9118) inside jar B9115. Found close to the upper body were a large bowl (B9120); a slightly smaller bowl (B9121); and a crater (B9122, sometimes listed as a cooking pot). Sheep/goat bones (B9119) were found inside and near bowls B9120 and B9121. B166 Locus 1066; Square D11; Plan 2.113 This locus appears in the plan as a sole vessel (B9113) near Tomb B160.

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Tomb B167 Locus 1067; Square A12, Plan 2.118 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A wall (W-A121) south of the burial, built of loosely placed bricks, passed above the edge of the skeleton and extended as far as two jars (B9126, B9132). It may have been a marker for the tomb. The tomb included two primary burials placed supine, aligned roughly east–west, with the heads in the east, the face turned to the north and the legs slightly folded. The northern burial (B9124, 30–40 years old) had both arms folded on the hips. The southern burial (B9125, 18–25 years old) had an extended right arm and a slightly folded left arm, with the left hand on the pelvis. Both burials were placed side by side at the same height and in close proximity, without disturbing each other. This suggests that they were interred together at the same time. Three jars were placed in the tomb, one (B9126) near the head of B9125 and two (B9121, B9132) at the feet. A juglet (B9136) was found inside jar B9132. A large carinated bowl (B9127) was discovered near the knee of B9124. East of the head of B9125 one juglet (B9130) was found; a carinated bowl (B9129) was located near the head of B9124. Sheep/goat bones (not registered) were unearthed between the juglet and the bowl, as well as near the feet of burial B9124. One more juglet (B9128) was placed at the shoulder of B9124. Tomb B168 Locus 1068; Square ZA14, Plan 2.119; Fig. 2.103 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. It included three primary burials on a north–south direction: 1. Burial B9197 (the easternmost, 20–30 years old) was supine, the head in the south with the face to the north. The skull seems dislocated, resting on its base. The legs were slightly folded, the right arm folded on the chest, and the left arm extended. 2. Burial B9198 (middle, 20–25 years old) was probably supine, but with the face turned upward. The left arm was folded on the pelvis, the right extended along the body. The legs were extended. 3. Burial B9199 (westernmost, 9–10 years old) was perhaps placed on the side, with the head in the north. The face was described as turned to the east, but the skull seems dislocated, some distance from chest. The legs were folded and the arms folded on the hips. The body of B9199 was placed partially above B9198. The only contact between B9198 and B9197 was the arms, but their exact relations were not recorded. It was impossible to judge at present which of the two was interred first. It is rare at Rishon le-Zion, for the age of each burial in a multi-burial tomb to be known. This could be a family tomb of two parents and a child, although we could not prove this. A large group of pottery was placed near the heads of B9197 and B9198: a jar (B9187) with a juglet (B9188) inside it; a jug (B9189); two carinated bowls (B9190, B9191); and two black juglets (B9192, B9193). More vessels were found west of burial B9199: a medium-size bowl (B9192); a jar (B9196); a carinated bowl (B9183); and a jug (B9195). Another jar (B9194) was placed probably above the legs of B9199. The same individual also carried a bronze ring (B9172) on one hand. Since the contour is unknown, it is difficult to prove that all the vessels were part of this tomb, but there is no data to suggest otherwise. Tomb B169 Locus 1069; Square BC9, Plan 2.120; Fig. 2.104 The tomb was dug into hamra; the contour is unknown. North of the burial, passing immediately above part of it, was W-BC91, which postdates the burial. We have already discussed the relation between B162 and B169 (see Tomb B162 above). The deceased (B9481, 20–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The legs were extended; the arms probably folded on the shoulders. The plan shows a poor state of preservation, though the excavators did not note this. Five juglets were placed immediately near/on the pelvis area: B9166–B9169 and B9480 (the last is not shown in the plan). Two of these vessels are Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglets (B9168, B9169?). Other finds were found in a row north of the body, from east to west: a jar (B9175); two juglets (B9176–B9177); a large bowl (B9479); sheep/goat bones including a jaw (near the pelvis, not registered separately); and bronze knife (B9165) above the sheep/goat bones. Two bowls, one medium-size (B9170) and one large (B9477) were discovered north of the legs; above bowl B9170 there was a juglet (B9478). We ascribe jar

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B9157 and the juglet inside it (B9158) to Tomb B169 (not Tomb B162, as the excavators thought), as well as the two carinated bowls found nearby, one inside the other (B9150, B9151). Tomb B170 Locus 1070, Square C10, Plan 2.121; Fig. 2.105 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A poorly built brick construction, northwest of the burial (W-C101), was described as a wall bounding the tomb. The wall conforms to the vessels near the legs, but not to the skull, if it were from the same time. It may have been a marker for the tomb, and not a long wall that continued above the skull. The deceased (B9327, 10–11 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east. The legs were extended; the arms were described as folded (only traces of the left arm are seen in the plan). Two juglets (B9324, B9325) were placed south of the body. A double-handled jug (B9138); a large bowl (B9139); a two-handled bowl (B9141); and another, smaller bowl (B9137) were found north of the legs, arranged alongside WC101. A carinated bowl (B9140) was placed inside bowl B9141 and animal bones (B9533) were placed in bowl B9139. A jar (B9143), a juglet (B9326), and a jug (B9142) were discovered north of the skull. Tomb B172 Locus 1072; Square N9, Plan 2.122 The tomb was dug into hamra and covered by silt; the contour was defined as oval. The deceased (B9180, 20–30 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were folded with the right leg over the left one. The right arm was folded with the hand on the left shoulder; the left arm was slightly folded with the hand on the pelvis. The deceased bore a bracelet of beads (B9173) on the right arm, probably originally strung on a thread. On the same hand he/she also had two bronze rings (B9174). Sheep/goat bones were found north of the legs (B9181) and apparently also to the west of the legs. At the western edge of the tomb a jar (B9178) with a juglet (B9179) inside it were discovered. B173 Locus 1073, Square O6 Three jars were found in L1073 (B9200–B9202), but no traces of burial. Tomb B174 Locus 1074; Square KL8, Plan 2.123; Fig. 2.106 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A few pieces of hamra brick (W-KL81) were found north of the burial and at the same height. The deceased (B9216, 30–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The legs were folded and the left arm folded with the hand on the pelvis (the position of the right arm was perhaps similar). Two jars (B9217, B9218) and animal bones (probably sheep/goat, B9220), were found near the legs. Above the animal bones there was a bronze knife (B9203). Perhaps the animal was slaughtered with this knife. A juglet (B9219) was found north of the right arm. South of the head, near the left shoulder, the bronze head (B9204) and rear part (B9205) of a spear were found. The spear was presumably broken as part of the funerary ritual; the two halves were placed side by side, and the wooden parts did not survive. Tomb B175 Locus 1075; Square N11, Plan 2.124; Fig. 2.107 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A brick wall (W-N111) was found north of the burial (heights unknown). The deceased (B9209, 18–25 years old) was placed in primary burial, probably supine, aligned east– west with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The legs were folded; the position of the arms was not clear. The body was incomplete and poorly preserved. The deceased carried a bronze dagger, found roughly on the hip (B9206). All the pottery finds from the tomb were discovered in a row north of the skeleton, from east to west: a large bowl (B9208); a jug (B9207); a jar (B9210); another jug (B9215); a medium-size bowl (B9214); two more jars (B9211, B9212); and a jug (B9213). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 2.107 (left): Tomb B175, L1075 looking northeast. Jars B9210, B9207 at center. Fig. 2.108 (below): Tomb B176, L1076 looking south. Jars B9282, B9285 (right); animal bones B9277, B9278 (left); leg of B9466 (center). Fig. 2.109 (top right): Tomb B176, L1076 looking south. Skull B9466 with silver pieces B9281. Fig. 2.110 (middle right): Tomb B176, L1076 looking south. Skeleton B9466 with dagger B9279.

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Tomb B176 Locus 1076; Square N9, Plan 2.125; Figs. 2.108–110 The tomb was dug into silt and filled with hamra. The contour was described as oval. The excavation, however, followed straight lines and not the contour shown in the plan. A brick wall (W-N91) was found north of the burial; the excavators noted that a few whole bricks were found (14 × 40 cm). There was no data about the number of courses. The deceased (B9209, male, 35–45 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned northwest– southeast, with the head in the southeast and the face turned upward. The legs were extended (the right leg slightly bent); both arms were folded with the hands on the pelvis. The deceased carried a bronze dagger with a pommel (B9279) on the hip and a bronze axe (B9280) was found near his right shoulder. His head was decorated with silver pieces (B9281). There was no description of this find; but the plan and Fig. 2.109 suggest a row of rectangular pieces on the forehead, perhaps part of a diadem or the decorated edge of a cap. The primary burial of a sheep/goat (B9277+B9278) was found north of the upper body.3 The plan shows that these baskets included most of the skeletal remains in articulation. Farther to the northwest were scattered bones, collected separately as B9287. Among them was a second bronze dagger (B9239, perhaps used to kill the animal). Pottery vessels from the tomb included a trefoil-rim jug (B9286) found near the scattered sheep/goat bones. Four pithoi with a ridge under the rim stood near the feet (B9282–B9285). A juglet (B9292) was found inside B9284. B177 Locus 1077; Square L4, Plan 2.126 A brick wall (W-L41) was found in the sand, with several courses (number unknown; height of wall 1.5 m––it may be the height of the entire locus, not just of the wall). The bricks (fragments rather than whole bricks) were made of hamra and silt. The anthropological report states that human teeth of one 30– 40-year-old individual were found in L1077. There were no burials north of this wall, and the excavators suggested that it was a general boundary wall for the cemetery. Tomb B178 Locus 1078; Square N4–5, Plan 2.127 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour is unknown. A brick construction (W-N451) surrounded the burial (bricks 30 × 50 cm as well as other sizes). A section (captioned “western view”) was drawn from this locus; however, it does not show the burial or finds, but rather only a few bricks that seem to be strewn at the bottom, below slanting layers of sand and silt. Some finds were found resting on bricks, so at least part of W-N451 predates B178. No complete skeleton was found in B178, but rather only a badly preserved and incomplete skull (B9468) (age/sex unknown). A bowl (B9467); a jug or jar (B9469); a carinated bowl (B9259); and a juglet (B9260) were found near the skull. B9469 was listed as a jug, but a dipper juglet (B9470) was found inside it, suggesting that it was a jar. The vessels seem to be heaped one above the other, not a typical tomb layout. It could be a secondary burial, or a badly damaged tomb. Tomb B179 Locus 1079; Square I4, Plan 2.128 The tomb was dug into silt and filled with hamra. The contour was defined as oval. Remains of bricks north of the burial were defined as a wall (W-I41), but to judge from the plan, little survived from this construction and we lacked more data about it. The deceased (B9223, 50–60 years old) was placed in primary burial, probably supine, aligned east– west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were folded sharply. According to the plan, the skeleton was poorly preserved. A juglet (B9225) and a carinated bowl (B9224) were placed north of the head, and two jars stood near the feet (B9221, B9222). 3

Thirty-seven sheep/goat bones were counted from B9278, and six were identified: one pelvis right, one costa, two metapods, one tibia, and one astragalus. Twenty-six bones were identified from B9277: one scapula left, one scapula right, two lumbar vertebrae, one femur, and twenty-one costa. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 2.111 (left): Tomb B181, L1091 looking north. B9236 on the ‘island’ at center. Fig. 2.112 (right): Tomb B182, L1082 looking south. Carinated bowl B9228 at center.

Tomb B181 Locus 1081; Square L12, Plan 2.129; Fig. 2.111 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A brick wall (W-L121, bricks 20 × 44 cm) was found northwest of the burial; its top was much higher than the height of the tomb (bottom height of wall unknown). The deceased (B9235, male, 30–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned southwest– northeast, with the head in the northeast and the face turned to the south. The right arm was folded toward the hip; the position of the left arm was not clear, but may have rested similarly. Only parts of the legs, probably extended, were found. The deceased carried a bronze dagger (B9233) near the left hip, but the blade was pointing–– unusually––toward the body and the pommel was not found. This may indicate that the tomb has been disturbed after burial. All the other finds from this tomb were placed in a row between the body and W-L121, from east to west: a bronze axe (near the skull, B9232); a jug (B9234); two large bowls (B9237; B9238); animal bones found above as well as near bowl B9237 (B9236, probably sheep/goat, including ribs and two portions with articulation); and three jars (B9244, B9242, B9243; the last two termed pithoi). A juglet (B9245) was found inside B9242. Tomb B182 Locus 1082; Square L11–12, Plan 2.130; Fig. 2.112 The details of soil and fill were missing; the contour was defined as oval, but only a partial contour was drawn in the plan, at some distance from the skeleton. We did not include it in Plan 2.130. The deceased (B99229, 60 years old or more) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The right arm was extended along the body and the left arm folded upward. The pelvis and most of the leg bones were missing (the legs were probably folded). A carinated bowl (B9228) was found above the chest, tilted on its side. A black juglet (B9227) was tucked under the left arm. A bronze pin (B9226) was discovered on the neck near the skull. Bones of sheep/goat were found south of the deceased (B9230) and farther south a pithos (B9231) was discovered. Tomb B183 Locus 1083; Square O8, Plan 2.131 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A brick wall (W-O81) was found south of the burial (width 42 cm), conforming to the direction of the tomb. The deceased (B9253, probably female, 50–60 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The right arm was folded toward the hip; the position of the left arm was not clear from the plan, but according to the files it was folded on the pelvis. The legs were also folded. The vessels from the tombs were placed south of the burial, along the (restored) wall, from east to west: a jar (B9248); a large bowl (B9249); a carinated bowl (B9250); and two juglets (B9252, B9251). A large bowl (B9364) was found some distance from there. The plan shows one bone near this bowl, the significance of which is unclear. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Tomb B184 Locus 1084; Square N8, Plan 2.132; Fig. 2.113 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The remains of the deceased (B9276, 25–35 years old) were very badly preserved. The plan shows just a skull and a few long bones. However, the excavators rightly described it as a primary burial, supine, in an east–west direction with the head in the east and the legs folded. Proof comes from the location of a bronze dagger with an in situ pommel (B9267), marking the area of the hip. Other than the dagger, one jar (B9268) and the bronze head (B9265) and rear parts (B9266) of a spear were found. The position of the two metal parts next to each other suggests that the spear was a personal object belonging to the deceased that had been purposely broken in a symbolic funerary act. Tomb B185 Locus 1085; Square L11, Plan 2.133 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B9257, 30–40 years old, male according to the locus card) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The skull was badly preserved. The right arm was slightly folded toward the pelvis; the excavators defined the position of the left arm as similar (but it is not visible in the plan). The legs were folded. The deceased carried a bronze dagger with a pommel (B9246) on the left hip. A bronze axe was placed near the left shoulder (B9247) and a bowl (B9256) north of the body. A group of four pithoi was discovered west of the legs (B9255; B9262–64). Juglets were found in two of the pithoi (B9261 inside B9262 and B9258 inside B9255). One pithos (B9262) was three-legged. Tomb B186 Locus 1086; Square N6, Plan 2.134; Fig. 2.186 The tomb was dug into sand and filled with hamra; the contour was defined as oval. A brick wall (WN61) was found north of the burial (bricks 36 × 46 cm; height 31.26–30.69 m, two courses). The deceased (B9323, 20–30 years old) was placed in primary burial (probably supine), directed roughly east–west with the head in the east and the face probably turned upward. The arms were described as folded on the pelvis, but only the left is visible in Plan 2.134, with the hand on the hip. The legs were sharply folded. The deceased carried a bronze dagger (B9294) on the left hip. A second bronze dagger (B9303) was found above the leg bones. North of the head a bronze axe (B9293) were found. A jar (B9301) and a juglet (B9302) were discovered west of the body; the jar probably once stood with the juglet on it. Much farther to the west a group of three pithoi (B9298–B9300) was discovered; a juglet (B9297) was found inside B9298.

Fig. 2.113 (left): Tomb B184, L1084 looking east. Dagger B9267 (bottom); skull B9276 (center); jar B9268 (left); spear parts B9265, B9266 between the jar and the sign. Fig. 2.114 (right): Tomb B186, L1086 looking east. Jars B9298– B9300. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Tomb B187 Locus 1087; Square T12 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour is unknown. Only scant, poorly preserved remains of the skeleton (B9305, 20–30 years old) survived––according to the locus card, the top of the skull and traces of one leg. The burial was probably primary, aligned roughly east–west with the head in the east. A jug (B9304) was found south of the skull. Tomb B189 Locus 1089; Square A10, Plan 2.135 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. The deceased (B9272, 20–30 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned roughly east– west, with the head in the east and the face probably turned to the north (the skull was badly preserved). The right arm was folded on the hip (the hand pointing down toward the pelvis), and the left arm sharply folded with the hand on the left shoulder. A jug (B9275) was placed near the head and a carinated bowl (B9274) south of the right shoulder. Two juglets rested on the body (B9270 above the pelvis and B9269, a Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet, near the right thigh). Tomb B190 Locus 1090; Square J6-7, Plan 2.136; Fig. 2.115 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour is unknown. A one course brick wall (W-J671) was found north of the burial (size of bricks 40 × 40 × 18 cm). Only scant remains of burial were found (B9310, sex/age unknown), described as primary and roughly oriented east–west. The deceased carried a bronze dagger (B9295) on/near the pelvis. Between the burial and the wall a carinated bowl (B9296) was found, as well as a juglet (B9307); a bowl Fig. 2.115: Tomb B190, L1090 looking west. Juglets B9296, B9307 and with four knob handles (B9309); a bowl B9309 (center); jar B9308 (top); and W-J671 (right). Juglet B9295 pithos (B9308); and a juglet (B9306, is at center (left of the other vessels). at the rim of B9308). B191 Locus 1091; Square Z12 Only fragments of one jar (height 30.01 m) were found in this locus. The basket number was not registered in the locus lard or textual summary. Tomb B193 Locus 1093; Square S10, Plan 2.137 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour is unknown. A wall made of hamra and silt bricks was found north of the burial (W-S101; width 34 cm). The deceased (B9289, 9–10 years old) was found lying on the right side in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The arms were described as folded toward the head. The legs were sharply folded. A long-necked jug (B9291) was found near the legs, resting on two fragments of brick. The plan also shows scattered bones between the wall and B9289, perhaps of sheep/goat. Tomb B194 Locus 1094; Square T9, Plan 2.138; Fig. 2.116 The tomb was dug into silt and filled with hamra; the contour was defined as oval. An oval contour is marked in the plan, but the photographs show that the excavated area did not follow this contour. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Apparently, excavation started in a rectangle and was enlarged once the burial was noticed, in order to fully expose it. A brick wall (W-T91) was found north of the burial (size of bricks 38 × 38 cm; the plan shows one complete brick and a few more pieces). The deceased (B9552, male, 40–50 years old) was placed on the right side in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. Both arms were probably sharply folded toward the head. The legs were also sharply folded. The only finds associated with this burial were a Fig. 2.116: Tomb B194, L1094 looking east. Skeleton fallen jar (B9319), a juglet found near the face B9552; jar B9319 (left of skull); WT91 (left). (B9320), and few remains of sheep/goat (B9321). B195 Locus 1095, Square R16–17 No details were recorded regarding the shape and soil of this locus. Only scant and scattered human bones were found in it (B9315, age/sex unknown). There were also two small bowls, one inside the other (B9312 inside B9313), and a jug (B9314) found on the upper bowl. Sheep/goat bones (B9315) were also discovered. The pottery was very fragmented. B195 was probably a tomb, but too little of it survived to define its nature. B196 Locus 1096; Square U18 Only one jar (B9311a) with a juglet inside (B9311b) were found in this locus, and both were badly preserved. B197 Locus 1097; Square W16, Plan 2.139 According to the excavators’ summary, this was a large round ‘patch’ of burned hamra (3.5 m in diameter). In it there was a large number of animal bones (B9335–B9336). Two metapods of sheep/goat were identified in B9335, and one phalanx I of a donkey (Equus asinus) in B9336. There was also a great deal of charcoal (B9328–B9330) in the locus, but only a few pottery sherds (B9337). Plan 2.139 shows the irregular contour of B197, with the locations of the bones and charcoal fragments. B198 Locus 1098; Square ZZ15 This locus was opened after a jar and other pottery fragments were found (baskets unclear, perhaps not registered). Except for a few unidentified bones, nothing else was discovered. The area was reported as having been destroyed by bulldozers before the excavation. Tomb B199 Locus 1099; Square S11–12, Plan 2.140; Fig. 2.117 According to the textual summary, the tomb was dug into sand and the contour is unknown. However, a note on the plan states that the tomb was surrounded by silt. The excavated area was rectangular (Fig. 2.117) and the contour was probably not documented. A construction (W-S111, 15–21 years old) of hamra bricks was exposed along 1.32 m north of the tomb. It conformed to the tomb in direction and levels, and a supporting wall or a Fig. 2.117: B199 L685, looking east. Bowl B9334 top; jug B9333 bottom. marker. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 2.118 (left): Tomb B202, L1102 looking east. Jar B9359 at bottom, bowls B9339 and B9340 at the top. Fig. 2.119 (right): Tomb B203, L1103 looking east. Skeleton B9366 and the edge of B9365 at bottom right.

The deceased (B9465) was placed probably supine in primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head in the east. The skeleton was very badly preserved. The legs were folded, the left ram placed on the chest. The deceased bore a bronze ring (B9332) on the left hand. A bowl (B9334) and a jug (B9331) were found north of the upper body. Another jug (B9333) was placed north of the legs. B200 Locus 1100; Square M7 This locus appears in the graphic plan of 17.6.1998 as a rectangular contour, probably of dark silt surrounded with kurkar. No baskets were listed from this burial and there was no locus card or summary. Tomb B202 Locus 1102; Square K4–5, Plan 2.141; Fig. 2.118 The tomb was dug into sand and filled with silt; the contour was defined as oval. An oval contour was marked in the plan; however, the excavation did not follow this contour, which was added later, after the season. A brick construction (W-K451) was found south of the burial; but it does not appear in the plan and no further data about it exists in the records. The deceased (B9367, 12–15 years old) was placed in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east. According to the plan the skeleton was poorly preserved. The legs were folded, but the arms are not visible in the plan. Finds from this tomb were discovered north of the deceased. They include two large bowls (B9339, B9340) with four handles each. A large jug (B9341), a carinated bowl (B9342, found in a slanting position), and a jar (B9359) with a juglet (B9360) inside were placed near the legs. One flint item (B9361, not marked in the plan) was also discovered. Tomb B203 Locus 1103; Square U11–12, Plan 2.142; Fig. 2.119 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour is unknown. A brick construction (W-U121) was found south of the burial; apparently consisting of several courses. The deceased (B9366, c. 8 years old) was placed in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east and the face probably turned upward (the skull was badly preserved). The legs were folded and the arms were extended along the body, with the hands on/near the pelvis. A single find was associated with this burial: a jug (B9365), found near the feet.

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Tomb B204 Locus 1104, Square P11, Plan 2.143 The tomb was dug into hamra. Traces of silt were reported above and around the finds, but the contour was not documented (the contour in the plan is partial, enclosing the southern side). A brick construction (W-P111) was found south of the burial. Its nature is not clear. The deceased (B9368, 30–40 years old) was placed in primary burial on the right side, oriented east– west, with the head in the east and the face probably turned north. The skull was probably damaged or tilted. The legs were probably folded and the right arm folded on the chest. Four jars stood west of the burial––three in a row (B9355–B9357) and the fourth near the body (B9358). Sheep/goat bones were found west of the legs (B9349) and between the pelvis and jar B9358 (B9350). A flint item (B9347) was also registered. Tomb B205 Locus 1105; Square J5, Plan 2.144 The tomb was dug into sand and filled by sand; yet the contour was reported as round and indeed, the excavation followed a round contour. A brick wall (W-J51; bricks 44 × 72 cm) was found south of the burial. The deceased (B9354, 18–25 years old, and according to the locus page, a female) was placed in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were folded. The position of the arms is unknown. A juglet (B9344) was placed south of the head and a second juglet (B9345) on the chest. Near the legs a large, two-handled bowl (B9343) was found along with two jars (B9351, B9352). A juglet (B9353) was found inside jar B9351. B206 Locus 1106, Square G14 A large bowl (B9362) and one unidentified vessel (B9523) were the only remains from this locus. Both were badly preserved. Tomb B207 Locus 1107, Square K11, Plan 2.145 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour is unknown. A wall with one course of five silt bricks was found north of the burial (W-K111, bricks 48 × 60 cm). A few pieces of bricks were found under the head of the deceased (W-K114). More bricks farther to the north were termed W-K113 (see Tomb B208 below). There were also some kurkar or brick pieces in the middle of the tomb. The deceased (B9371, 40–50 years old) was placed in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east. The excavators wrote that the face was turned to the south. The legs were folded. The skeleton was badly preserved (most of the feet, arms and middle body are not visible in the plan). The deceased was probably placed on the left side. A bronze axe (B9370) was found under the head of the deceased and a bronze pin (B9369) north of it; these are not typical locations for such items at Rishon le-Zion. A three-legged pithos (B9380), sheep/goat bones (B9391), and three more pithoi (B9384, B9392, B9394) were between the deceased and W-K111. One juglet (B9385) was found inside B9384 and another (B9393) inside B9392. Tomb B208 Locus 1108; Square K11, Plan 2.146; Fig. 2.120 The tomb was dug into sand and filled with a thin layer of hamra. The contour was defined as rounded. The plan shows a partial round contour, but it is rather schematic and some distance from the finds. A brick construction (W-K112) was found north of the burial; it was poorly built and has probably two courses (levels unknown; the bricks vary in size). W-K112 touches another construction (W-K113), which was similar in direction and Fig. 2.120: Tomb B208, L1108 looking nature, but slightly more orderly. According to the plan, W- north. Skeleton B9475 with dagger B9409. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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K112 was higher (later) than W-K113, but heights were not registered. The deceased (B9475, 20–30 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The right arm was sharply folded with the hand perhaps placed on the right shoulder; the left arm (not shown in the plan) was reported as folded too. The legs were folded outward. The feet were missing. The deceased carried a bronze dagger with a pommel (B9409) on the left (?) hip. Two juglets (B9387, B9386) were found north of the head. A group of vessels was discovered north of the upper body, around a large bowl (B9381) with animal bones inside (not registered). They included two jugs (B9376, B9379) and a carinated bowl (B9378). A pithos (B9389) with a juglet inside (B9390) was found between the legs and W-K112. Tomb B209 Locus 1109, Square K11, Plan 2.147 The tomb was dug into sand; the contour is unknown. The excavation probably by following an oval shaped, shallow fill of hamra seen in the sand near W-K113 (Plan 2.147, dotted line). However, it was devoid of finds, and Tomb B209 was situated farther to the north, some distance from W-K113. The skeleton (B9476, age/sex unknown) was badly preserved––only parts of the legs remained, probably indicating a primary burial aligned roughly east–west, with the head (not found) in the east. The legs were folded. West of the bones there were a large bowl (B9402), a jar (B9403) with a juglet (B9404) inside, and a jug (B9406). Another juglet (B9405) was found north of the legs. Tomb B210 Locus 1110; Square S8, Plan 2.148 The tomb was dug into hamra; the contour is unknown. Remains of bricks (W-S81) south of the burial were defined as a one-course wall. The plan shows only one brick fragment. The deceased (B9374, male, 18–25 years old) was placed in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. According to the records the burial was supine, but this is not certain (the plan suggests a position on the left side). The right arm was folded with the hand in front of the face and the left arm extended along the body. The legs were folded. The deceased carried a necklace of beads (B9382). Sheep/goat bones surrounded the head (B9373), three pieces probably still retained some anatomic articulation. Tomb B211 Locus 1111; Square R-S7, Plan 2.149; Fig. 2.121 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A brick construction (W-RS71) was found south of the burial. The plan shows scant remains of bricks and an irregular (reconstructed?) wall. The deceased (B9396, 18–25 years old, and according to the locus card, a female) was placed on the left side in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were folded. According to the records, the arms were placed on the face. Only two long bones (presumably) from the right arm were visible, and they were not in situ; either the arm bones were moved after the burial, or these were not arm bones. Some small bones in front of the face were animal bones (B9438), probably of sheep/goat. The two longer bones in front of the face were probably remains of the left arm, folded toward the face (compare Tomb B210, above). The deceased carried a necklace (B9399). The only pottery vessel found in the tomb was a jar (B9397), found standing west of the skeleton. Tomb B212 Locus 1112; Square N10, Plan 2.150; Fig. 2.122 The tomb was dug into silt and filled with hamra; the contour was reported as oval. A (partially) oval contour was drawn in the plan, however, excavation followed a rectangular area. A brick wall (W-N101) was found c. 80 cm south of the burial. It was composed of various brick pieces, well placed and with a straight face to the north, but obviously not intended to carry the structural load of a real building. The deceased (B9413, female, 20–40 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east– west, with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The left arm was extended along the body with the hand near the pelvis; the right arm was folded over the chest, reaching the elbow of the left arm. The lower legs and feet were missing. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 2.121 (left): Tomb B211, L1111 looking east. Jar B9379 bottom (left); W-RS71 (right); skeleton B9396 (top). Fig. 2.122 (right): Tomb B212, L1112 looking east. Jars B9410, B9411 (bottom right); W-N101 (right); skeleton B9413 (top left).

Beads were found near the left arm (B9408). The plan suggests that the woman had held them on a string rather than wearing them on the arm. She also had a necklace consisting of numerous beads (B9407), found in two clusters. One cluster (Plan 2.150: A) shows five small beads and one large bead on the shoulder. The second cluster (Plan 2.150: B) was found between the skull and the right shoulder and included many small beads and, once more, one large bead. The records mentions that the beads where arranged by alternating colors of white and pink (not specifying where exactly). One could not tell if the beads belonged to one or more items, and whether they represent personal items of the deceased or gifts offered by mourners. Two jars (B9411, B9410) stood north of the wall, perhaps close to the feet of the skeleton. Sheep/goat bones (B9414, including five metapods) were found south of the deceased, in a pattern suggesting some articulated parts. B213 Locus 1113, Square PR7 A jar (B9398) was found resting on the side in the sand, in a poor state of preservation. Tomb B214 Locus 1114; Fig. 2.123––see Tomb B216 (below). Tomb B215 Locus 1115; Square T11–12, Plan 2.151; Fig. 2.123 The tomb was dug into hamra and filled with silt; the contour was reported as oval. However, the excavated areas did not follow an oval contour. The deceased (B9400, 20–25 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The right arm was folded with the hand on the right shoulder; the left arm was probably also folded, as were the legs. A jug (B9401) and animal bones (B9439) were discovered south of the deceased. Tomb B216 and B214 Loci 1114, 1116; Square T7–8, Plan 2.152; Fig. 2.124 Locus 1114 (B214) was joined with L1116 (B216), perhaps during the season itself, so there was no separate locus card or plan for B214 (L1114). Tomb B216 was dug into silt and filled with hamra; its contour was reported as oval. However, the excavated area did not follow such a contour and the plan does not show an oval contour. A brick construction (W-T81) was found north of the burial (the bricks measured 18 × 30 and 30 × 58 cm). The anthropological record has no entry for B216 (L1116), but it reports that a human skeleton was found in B214 (basket not given; 20–40 years old, based on one tooth). This was burial B216, since the details exactly match those given for L1116 (B9426, male, more than 10 years old). It was a primary burial aligned east–west, supine, with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The arms were folded on the pelvis and the legs were folded too. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 2.123 (right): Tomb B215, L1115 looking east. Skeleton B9400 (center) and jar B9401 (top right).

Fig. 2.124 (below): Tomb B214+ B216, L1114 looking northeast. Skeleton B9426 (center), bowl B9425 and jug B9423 (bottom); and W-T81 (left).

A jug (B9415) stood north of the head, but not close to it. Another jug (B9423) and a bowl (B9425) were placed near the legs. A juglet (B9428) was found inside B9423. A few sheep/goat bones (B9424) were found in the tomb, west of the legs and north of the head. Tomb B217 Locus 1117; Square S11 The tomb was dug into silt; the contour is unknown. A few human bones were found (B9550), representing one individual; the nature and the position of the burial are unknown. The bones were found east of two bricks (W-S112, size 18 × 30 cm). One jar was found north of the bricks (B9551). Tomb B218 Locus 1118; Square I–J5, Plan 2.153; Figs. 2.125–126; Color Pl. 3.2 The tomb was dug into sand and filled with sand and kurkar; the contour is unknown. Apparently the finds were close to the surface at the time of excavation (Figs. 2.125–126). The deceased (B9422, 20–25 years old) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east and the face slightly turned to the south. The skeleton (to judge by the plan) was badly preserved. The excavators reported that the arms were folded on the chest (none is seen in the plan). The legs were folded.

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The deceased carried a bronze belt (B9434+B9435+B9436), to which a bronze dagger (B9419) with a pommel was attached. The reports were brief, but the plan shows that the dagger was placed on the left hip. It is unclear how if or how it was tied to the belt. The excavators noted the remains of wood (B9433) and textile under the belt (for the textile remains see O. Shamir and N. Sukenik, in Chapter 12). South of and under the skull a bronze axe (B9418) was found. Two juglets were unearthed south of the deceased, near the right arm or shoulder (B9420–B9421). A large bowl (B9474) was discovered north of the body. Animal bones (not registered separately) were found inside the bowl). More animal bones, probably of sheep/goat (B9437), were found north of the head. Two large bowls (B9416 with four handles, and B9417) and two pithoi (B9429–B9430) were placed west of the legs. Each pithos had a juglet inside (B9432 inside B9429; B9431 inside B9430). Fig. 2.125 (left): Tomb B218, L1118 looking east. Belt B9434 with dagger B9419 on the right. Notice the poor state of preservation of the bones (bottom right).

Fig. 2.126 (below): Tomb B218, L1118 looking northeast. Bases of jars B9429, B9430 (left); bowls B9417, B9416 (center); metal belt B9434 and skeleton B9422 (right).

Tomb B220 Locus 1120; Square T6–7 The tomb was dug into sand and filled with silt; the contour was reported as round. Only a few bones (B9463) were found, probably from a burial, but its nature and position could be determined. Near the bones there was a jar (B9453) with a juglet (B9454) inside it. It seems that the remains indicate the presence of a tomb, which was almost completely destroyed before the excavation. Tomb B221 Locus 1121, Square TU10, Plan 2.154 The tomb was dug into hamra and filled with silt; the contour was reported as oval. The plan, however, does not show any contour. North of the burial there was a brick construction (W-T101; 1.4 m long), made of pieces that vary in size. There was no straight face and the number of courses was not reported.

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The deceased (B9462, 70 years old or more) was placed probably supine in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The right arm was probably folded with the hand on the shoulder. The left arm was missing in the plan and it seems that the entire left side of the skeleton was badly preserved. The legs were folded sharply outside––a very rare position. It does not seem that the reason for employing such a position in this case was lack of space. A juglet (B9456) was found near the head and a jug (B9455) stood west of the feet. Northwest of the jug there were bones, probably of an animal (not registered separately). A jar (B9452) with a juglet (B9459) inside was found near the western edge of W-T101. Tomb B222 Locus 1122; Square T9–10, Plan 2.155 The tomb was dug into sand and filled with silt; the contour was reported as round. However, the plan does not show any contour. A poorly constructed brick wall (W-T102; 1.4m long) was located south of the burial, fitting it in direction and level. The deceased (B9461) was placed supine in primary burial aligned east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The legs were folded. The skeleton was very badly preserved and the position of the arms is unknown. South of the area of the (assumed) pelvis there was a juglet (B9464). A bowl was found west of the legs (B9458) and a jar (B9457) west of W-T102. A flint item (B9460) was found near W-T102.

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Plan 2.1: General Map of Area B.

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.2: Tomb B1

Plan 2.3: Tombs B2 and B7, Feature B8

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Plan 2.4: Tombs B3, B6

Plan 2.5: B4

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.6: Tombs B5 and B9, Feature B11

Plan 2.7: Tomb B6 (section, looking south)

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Plan 2.8: Tomb B7 and Feature B8

Plan 2.9: Tomb B13

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.10: Tomb B14

Plan 2.11: B15

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Plan 2.12: Tombs B16, B19, B35

Plan 2.13: Tomb B17

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.14: Tomb B18

Plan 2.15: Tomb B20

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Plan 2.16: B21

Plan 2.17: Tomb B22

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.18: Tomb B24

Plan 2.19: Tomb B25

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Plan 2.20: B27

Plan 2.21: Tombs B28, B30; Feature B29

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.22: Tomb B31

Plan 2.23: Tomb B32

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Plan 2.24: Tomb B33

Plan 2.25: Tomb B34

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.26: Tomb B37

Plan 2.27: Tomb B39

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Plan 2.28: Tomb B40

Plan 2.29: Tomb B41

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.30: Tomb B42

105

Plan 2.31: Tomb B43

Plan 2.32: Tomb B47

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Plan 2.33: Tomb B48

Plan 2.34: Tomb B49

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.35: Tomb B50

Plan 2.36: Tomb B51

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Plan 2.37: Tomb B54

Plan 2.38: Tomb B55

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.39: Tomb B56

Plan 2.40: Tomb B57

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Plan 2.41: Tomb B58

Plan 2.42: Tomb B59

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.43: Tomb B66

Plan 2.44: Tomb B68

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Plan 2.45: Tomb B71

Plan 2.46: Tombs B71, B72, B73, B75

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.47: Tomb B74

Plan 2.48: Tomb B77

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Plan 2.49: Tomb B79

Plan 2.50: Tomb B83

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.51: Tomb B85

Plan 2.52: Tomb B86

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Plan 2.53: Tomb B87, B98, and Feature B63

Plan 2.54: Tomb B89

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.55: Tomb B90

Plan 2.56: Tomb B91

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Plan 2.57: Tomb B92

Plan 2.58: B93

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Plan 2.59: Tomb B94

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Plan 2.60: Tombs B95, B109

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.61: Tomb B96

Plan 2.62: Tomb B97

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Plan 2.63: Tomb B99

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.64: Tomb B100

Plan 2.65: Tombs B101, B108

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Plan 2.66: Tomb B103

Plan 2.67: Tomb B104

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Plan 2.68: Tomb B105

Plan 2.69: Tomb B107

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Plan 2.70: Tomb B110

Plan 2.71: B111

Plan 2.72: Tomb B112

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Plan 2.73: Tomb B113

127

Plan 2.74: Tomb B114

Plan 2.75: Tomb B115

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Plan 2.76: Tomb B116

Plan 2.77a: B117

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Plan 2.77b: B117

Plan 2.78: Tomb B118

Plan 2.79: Tomb B120

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Plan 2.80: Tomb B121

Plan 2.81: Tomb B122

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Plan 2.82: Tomb B123

Plan 2.83: Tomb B125

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Plan 2.84: Tomb B126

Plan 2.85: Tomb B127

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Plan 2.86: Tomb B128

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Plan 2.88: Tomb B130

Plan 2.90: Tomb B132

Plan 2.89: Tombs B131a, B131b

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.91: Tomb B133

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Plan 2.92: Tomb B134

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.93: Tomb B135

Plan 2.94: Tomb B136

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Plan 2.95(above): Tomb B137

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.97: B139 and B140

Plan 2.98: B141

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Plan 2.99: Tomb B142

Plan 2.100: Tomb B143

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.101: Tomb B144

Plan 2.102: B145

Plan 2.103: Tomb B146

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Plan 2.104: Tomb B147

Plan 2.105: Tomb B148

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Plan 2.106: Tomb B149

Plan 2.107: Tomb B150

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Plan 2.108: Tomb B151

Plan 2.109: Tomb B152

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.110: Tomb B53

Plan 2.111: Tomb B155

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Plan 2.112: Tomb B159

Plan 2.113: Tomb B160

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Plan 2.114: Tomb B161

Plan 2.115: Tomb B162

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Plan 2.116: Tomb B164

Plan 2.117: Tomb B165

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Plan 2.118: Tomb B167

Plan 2.119: Tomb B168

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Plan 2.120: Tomb B169

Plan 2.121: Tomb B170

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Plan 2.122: Tomb B172

Plan 2.123: Tomb B174

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Plan 2.124: Tomb B175

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Plan 2.126: B177

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Plan 2.127: Tomb B178

Plan 2.128: Tomb B179

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Plan 2.129: Tomb B181

Plan 2.130: Tomb B182

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Plan 2.131: Tomb B183

Plan 2.132: Tomb B184

Plan 2.133: Tomb B185

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Plan 2.134: Tomb B186

Plan 2.135: Tomb B189

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Plan 2.136: Tomb B190

Plan 2.137: Tomb B193

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Plan 2.138: Tomb B194

Plan 2.139: B197

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Plan 2.140: Tomb B199

Plan 2.141: Tomb B202

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Plan 2.142: Tomb B203

Plan 2.143: Tomb B204

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Plan 2.144: Tomb B205

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CHAPTER 2. AREA B

Plan 2.145: Tomb B207

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Plan 2.146: Tomb B208

Plan 2.147: Tomb B209

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Plan 2.148: Tomb B210

Plan 2.149: Tomb B211

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Plan 2.150: Tomb B212

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Plan 2.152: Tomb B216

Plan 2.153: Tomb B218

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Plan 2.154: Tomb B221

Plan 2.155: Tomb B222

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CHAPTER 3 AREA F Raz Kletter1, Eriola Jakoel2, and Yosi Levy2 1 University of Helsinki and 2Israel Antiquities Authority 3.1 INTRODUCTION Area F is an important area of Middle Bronze II shaft tombs, located c. 150 m southeast of the late Iron Age fortress (Area D) and c. 400 m northeast of Area A (center point, Old Israel Grid 12786/15351, New Israel Grid 17786/55351; for a general location map see Chapter 1, Plan 1.1). The shaft burials cut through kurkar rock and expand in the hamra layer below it. The overlying kurkar layer was mostly removed before the excavation by mechanical tools. Hence, some shafts did not survive and are assumed rather than documented. In the underlying hamra soil, the builders of the tombs cut sideways from the shaft, creating up to three burial zones for each tomb. These were usually semicircular areas, carved in the form of niches and sometimes separated from the shaft by crude stone constructions. Evidence for the closure of the shafts, which is sometimes documented in other sites, has not survived. The tombs may have been covered by kurkar slabs and/or filled with earth. The excavation of this area was headed by Anat Beck (field supervisor) with the help of Vered Eshed (anthropological remains); Moshe Sadeh (archaeozoology); Marina Shuiskaya (pottery drawing); and Dov Porotzky (drawing of tomb plans). Excavation started on September 9, 1997 under permit A2731. The registration of the baskets started with B7000 and of the loci with L700. The last locus was L772. Basket B7716 was issued on the last day of 1997, but the excavation continued until February 12th, 1998 (baskets B7717–B8152). Excavation was briefly renewed in June 1998 (June 1–8), when Tombs F14– F15 were excavated (loci 771–772; baskets B8190–B8215). The area was divided into a grid of 5 x 5 m squares, marked from A1 in the northwest to E10 in the southeast (Plan 3.1). The three last pages of the basket list of Area F register items from dates later than the excavation period of the loci in question. Many of these baskets contained anthropological remains from secondary burials (B8154–B8160 registered on October 22, 1998; B8177, B8178 on May 6, 1998; B8179–B8188 of 8.6.98; and B8163 of unclear date). Possibly, these baskets were defined during examination by the anthropologists in the lab, of remains of individuals who had not been previously analyzed. Also, new basket numbers were given to finds discovered inside earlier-registered finds. For example, a juglet (B8161) was found inside jar B7314, and a bowl (B8162) within bowl B7709. In the case of B8164– B8176 (registered on May 6, 1998), B8189, and B8216 (registered on June 8, 1998), the relevant loci were not excavated on those days, and the reason for the late registration is unclear. As far as possible, we kept the labels given by the excavators for various burial zones within tombs (northern, southern, etc.). In a few cases, when the use of these labels might cause confusion, we coined new ones (taking care to mention also the original labels). Thus, scholars will have no difficulty of correlating the original excavation files with the present final report. Documentation of Area F includes basket and loci lists, loci cards, and (textual) summary pages for each locus. Often, there are two or three summaries for the same locus (undated). Since some loci cards lack textual description, the summary pages offer valuable insights into the interpretation of the tombs by the excavators. The tombs were labeled quite early as F1 to F15, and all the records were already arranged by these labels. Some original field notebooks from Area F have survived, but they include mainly registration of heights and administrative details. An effort was made to computerize the data with the IAA Excavator program. It was never finished and is by now obsolete. However, as part of the publication project we have computerized the excavation baskets (more than 5000) using Microsoft Access. In some of the Area F tombs, one locus includes more than one burial side by side, or a mixture of primary and secondary burials. In the plans of such loci, the skeletons and the bones were not differentiated (e.g. by color), and the textual summaries are usually brief. Therefore, the exact positioning

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of the bones and the relationship between various skeletons is not always clear. With primary burials, the skull often defined the whole burial, and its basket number (marked in the plans near the skull) designated the entire skeleton. Often, textual summaries describe the bones in terms that fit complete skeletons, while plans show only fragmentary remains. We tried to interpret all the available data and identify all the baskets marked in the preliminary maps as far as possible. Contours in the general map of Area F suggest rounded shafts for many tombs (Plan 3.1); but none of these contours appears in the preliminary plans that were made during the excavation. The records often mentioned that it was easy to see the dark silt ‘patches’ in the kurkar surface at the start of the excavation. Some contours of shafts drawn in the map (Fig. 3.1) do not quite fit the tombs. For example, the contour plotted for the shaft of F3 exceeds the limits of its silt ‘cover’ (above L721), which was marked in preliminary plans during the excavation. Thus, part of the suggested shaft is located outside the silt, in an area of kurkar rock. Plans and photographs made during the early days of the excavation show that it followed rectangular areas (probably related to the grid system established at the beginning of the excavation), and not the silt ‘patches’ or the allegedly rounded shafts. It seems that the contour lines in Plan 3.1 were added after the excavation. This does not mean that the contours are wrong: most of the tombs had a centrally located shaft. In hilly areas of the Southern Levant, MB II tombs have narrow shafts, to save hewing through hard rock and perhaps also to ensure the stability of the burials below. Such shafts permit the passage of one person at a time. In the coastal plain, with its softer, easier-to-cut kurkar rock, larger shafts could be hewn. The Rishon le-Zion tombs are sorts of ‘half caves’ rather than deep, narrow shaft burials as in the hilly areas. The contours drawn in the general plan (Plan. 3.1) should be seen as an approximation. The burial zones inside each tomb also lack contours in the plans. Usually, the excavation had to proceed piecemeal, gradually enlarging the areas excavated in each zone outward (away from the shaft). Sometimes the entire burial zone was defined as one locus, but more often each ‘bite’ outward was properly registered as a new locus. One could not be certain that the entire burial zone had already been excavated. Arbitrary limits of excavation of each stage or ‘bite’ were not marked in the plans, since they formed pieces that would eventually join into complete burial zones. Unfortunately, they were not marked in daily graphic pages either. Presumably, the spread of the finds roughly indicates the limits of the burial zone/excavated area. Secondary burials were often pushed to the sides and back of the burial zone, to make room for new burials. When found, they can indicate the edge of the burial zone. Yet we should keep in mind that there could be more outlying burials, which have not been excavated. Because of this gradual process of excavation, finds and burials nearer to the shaft were often excavated earlier than those farther outside, even if both were at the same level and from the same ‘horizon’. This could not be avoided, since the extent of the burial zone could not be guessed in advance. Therefore, the same burial zone was often excavated in stages, with intervals of up to several months in between. This complicates the restoration of the burial phases. The professional plans drawn in the field are excellent. For a major burial zone with several phases, we usually have 4–5 plans. The plans cannot convey the detailed, daily progress of the excavation. Unfortunately, the daily graphic plans are extremely schematic. A selection of pottery from Area F has been restored. The very fragmentary state of many vessels meant that restoring a single vessel took much longer than usual. Complete restoration was performed only for Tombs F2 and F4.1 The tombs of Area F are complex and interesting. For each tomb, we begin with a general description of loci and the stratigraphy as reflected in the excavation files. Then, we treat each locus and burial zone in detail, starting with the shaft area. In discussing each burial zone/locus, we proceed from the earliest (lowest) to the latest (uppermost) phase. We suggest modifications to the stratigraphy/phasing of the tomb when necessary, but are aware that sometimes more than one reconstruction is possible. In the text we refer to squares by letters and numbers (B5, C3, etc.). References to more than one square are given as B7–8, CD5–6, etc. Walls are marked by the initial letter “W”, followed by squares and a running number. For the sake of simplicity, we combine the square and running number (for example, W-D71 means Wall 1 in Square D7). All heights noted in the text are above sea level unless otherwise stated. Arrows in photos are not always correct, but the captions give correct directions. A total of 15 tombs were defined in Area F (F1–15; Plan 3.1).

1 The study of the pottery also discusses complete vessels from other tombs in Area F (see Uziel and Shai, Chapter 6, in volume I/2).

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3.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TOMBS Tomb F1 Loci 701, 714, 717, 764; Squares AB–7 A shaft tomb hewn through the local kurkar rock. The stratigraphy, as presented in the records, is as follows: a shaft area (L701) with two zones of burials underneath, separated by stone wall AB70. The northern zone consists of L714; the southern zone is farther divided into an upper (L717) and a lower phase (L764). TOMB F1, SHAFT: L701 (Plan 3.2; Fig. 3.1) Locus 701 is the fill of the area defined as the shaft of the tomb, an irregular fill of silt inside the kurkar. The fill contained only a few pottery sherds (B7002, B7006, B7015, and B7028). At first, only part of L701 was excavated, but the area was enlarged following the discovery of some vessels in L714. During the excavation, L701 had not yet been defined as a shaft and its nature was not discussed. The irregular contour in Plan 3.2 represents the excavated area, rather than the actual shaft. The contour in the general map (Plan 3.1) is rounded. Wall AB70 divides the assumed shaft and cannot be a support wall for it, as was assumed at first (shafts of Middle Bronze Age II tombs are open, unless filled or covered by stones. It seems more likely that W-AB70 was built to mark or support the L714 burial zone, while the shaft was smaller and not directly above L714. After W-AB70 was exposed, L701 was closed and its area separated into L714 and L717 (Fig. 3.1).

Fig. 3.1: Tomb F1, L701 looking west. Top of W-AB70; behind it, jars B7242, B7245 of L714.

TOMB F1, NORTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L714 (Plans 3.2–3; Figs. 3.2–5) There is no covering of kurkar rock above L714; the burials in this locus were dug into hamra and covered with silt. Locus 714 was divided into two phases. The earlier, lower phase (Plan 3.2) included a pile of bones in secondary burial that represented at least three individuals (age estimated by teeth): 1. B7413 (adult, 20–30 years old): part of a skull with a lower jaw and scattered other bones. 2. B7414 (c. 6 years old): only a few teeth of a child. 3. B7415 (9–10 years old): skull bones, lower jaw and other scattered bones.

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Fig. 3.2 (left): Tomb F1, L714 looking west. Wall A70 at bottom. Fig. 3.3 (right): Tomb F1, L714 looking south. Edge of W-A70 left top; bones B8180 (upper phase) left center.

Fig. 3.4: Tomb F1, L714, looking south. Wall A70 left; jars B7242, B7244, and B7245; bowl B7239 between B7244 and 7245.

Fig. 3.5: Tomb F1, L714, looking southwest. Wall A70 at center, L717 left; L714 right with Jar B7245 above B7439. Right of them B7400, juglet B7401, and skull B. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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The bones were found together and the separation into individuals was not marked in the plans. It is likely that the three baskets were defined during the excavation and not later in the lab, since they are called in some records northern, middle and southern (although their heights are identical). A bronze ring (B7410) and a bronze pin (B7448) were also ascribed to this phase, as well as the base of a jar (B7439). It is unclear whether W-AB70 already existed in this phase. The records of the upper, or second, phase of L714 are difficult to interpret, as there are considerable changes between various descriptions (Plan 3.3; Figs. 3.2–5). According to the locus card and earlier summaries, this phase included bones of one burial (B7259), which were scattered all over the locus. In later records, four secondary burials (B7259, B8179–B8181) were attributed to this phase: 1. B7259 (child, c. 7-year-old): parts of skull and lower jaw. 2. B8180 (child, c. 4-year-old): parts of skull and lower jaw and other bones (Fig. 3.3). 3. B8179 (child, c. 10–11-year-old): lower jaw and postcranial bones. 4. B8181 (sex/age unknown): skull and postcranial bones. Three of these baskets (B7259, B8179, and B8180) are marked in separate places and with different heights in Plan 3.3; but the 8000s baskets were defined later than the rest of the finds of L714. Though skulls or skull-parts were found from all the four individuals, only two skulls are seen (Plan 3.3: A–B; Fig. 3.4) and probably parts of another (maybe a jaw, Plan 3.3: C). They are not marked by basket numbers. It is possible that the bones defined as a “skeleton” (B7259), though “scattered all over the “locus”, were later analyzed as four distinct individuals (MNI); in that case three additional baskets were allocated to register them. If so, baskets B8179 and B8180 were added to the plan after the excavation and they do not mark exact locations. Most of the L714 finds were ascribed to the upper phase. They include three jars west of the southern edge of the wall (B7245 above base B7439, B7244, and B7424) (Fig. 3.4–5). Between jars B7245 and B7239, a carinated bowl (B7239) was found on their shoulders. Immediately above bones B7413–B7415 of the lower phase, but underneath other vessels, a cylindrical juglet (B7401) and a carinated bowl (B7400) were found. A bronze pin (B7246) and two scarabs (B7211, B7212) were discovered among the bones north of the jars. At the other side of the locus were beads (registered in two baskets, B7297, B7283); a bronze ring (B7292; another ring or perhaps part of the same ring as B7372, not marked in the plan), and a juglet (B7258). It seems that all the finds from L714 belong to one phase of secondary burials, rather than two phases. First, nothing was found under W-AB70 (see Plan 3.2, showing the contour of the wall), so there is no proof that the wall was a later addition. It is slightly higher––but that is not unusual for similar walls at Rishon le-Zion. Second, the separation into two phases creates an early phase with bones that are almost devoid of objects. Third, the entire depth of L714 is about 50 cm. The pottery vessels at the western edge of the wall were found set in a pile, immediately above and beside bones B7413–B7415 (allegedly bones of an earlier phase). One carinated bowl was placed above the shoulders of the jars, and another on the ground at their base; but that does not prove two phases. The sole evidence that may suggest phases is jar B7245, placed above and probably cutting into an earlier jar (B7499). Fourth, B8179 appears in the plans of both phases; and though B8180 is described as above B8179, both were ascribed to the same phase. In the locus card bead basket B7297 with its nearby bones appears with the lower phase, but it is marked in Plan 3.3 as part of the upper phase. The latest L714 summary states that “a bedding of chopped kurkar and hamra sealed this assemblage” (meaning the lower phase). This sentence is missing from all earlier records and there is no such layer appears in any photos or plans. Moreover, the recorded heights leave no place for such a sealing layer. To summarize, L714 seems to represent one continuous phase of secondary burials. Are these remains of earlier, primary burials in L714, which were pushed aside or damaged? Or were the bones brought from elsewhere, and placed here already as secondary burials? It is difficult to answer these questions. The fact that the burials include pottery vessels, parts of vessels, as well as small finds speaks against an origin at some distant site. However, the finds could have been relocated from another locus in the same tomb, or represent remains of once primary burials in L714. TOMB F1, SOUTHERN BURIAL ZONE, PHASE 1: L764 (Plan 3.4; Fig. 3.6) The southern burial zone of Tomb F1 included two superimposed loci: L717 above L764. The earlier locus, L764, was further divided by the excavators into two phases. We call these phases here Phase 1 and Phase 2. L764 Phase 1 included six burials, of which four were described as primary: © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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1. B8087 (30–40 years old) (Plan 3.4: gray): the best preserved burial in this phase, probably placed supine with the legs slightly bent. The head was in the east with the face turned to the north. The position of the arms is not clear––the right arm was perhaps folded on the chest. 2. B8088 (20–30 years old): east of B8078, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The upper body and pelvis are missing or not shown in the plan; the right leg was placed under the left leg of B8087. 3. B8086 (c. 6 years old): west of B8078, on the same axis as B8078 and B8088, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The plan shows only an upper body and a small fragment of the skull with a lower jaw. 4. B8089 (age/sex unknown): mentioned in the anthropological report as remains of a skull and lower legs, probably in primary burial. In the plan, however, B8089 is marked as part of the skeleton of B8088 and there is no additional primary burial. 5. B8090 (5–6-year-old): jaw bone, described as a secondary burial at the foot of the primary ones. 6. B8091 (40 years old or more): badly preserved teeth and postcranial bones, described as a secondary burial at the foot of the primary ones. The two secondary burials (B8090–B8091) were not marked in the plans, so their exact location is unclear.

Fig. 3.6: Tomb F1, L764 looking northeast. Phase 1, burials B8086 (left); B8087 (center) and B8088 (right, with dagger B8077). At bottom bowl B8083 with animal bones B8081.

The excavators associated many finds with this phase, but most of them have no secure relation to any specific burial. One group of objects was found south of the legs of B8087: a bowl (B8081) with animal bones inside (B8083; some bones found also near the bowl); a larger bowl (B8119) with a juglet (B8134) above it; another juglet (8137); a carinated bowl (B8135); and a scarab (B8103; the height seems mistaken and the exact location is unclear). Near the knee of B8088 there was a jug (B8082). A bronze dagger with a pommel (B8077) was found in the assumed left hip area of B8088, while animal bones (B8075) and perhaps a juglet (B8107) and a silver ring (B8105) were discovered near the head of B8087 (B8107 and B8105 could also belong to the later Phase 2). Two juglets (B8109, B8108) were located between the head of B8088 and the chest of B8087; and a flint item (B8073) between the legs of B8088. The excavators suggested that Phase 1 was covered by silt, separating it from the later Phase 2. However, Phase 2 was placed directly on Phase 1 (compare Fig. 3.6 and 3.8). The silt was immediately on and around the burials of Phase 1, and not a purposely-placed layer of separation. TOMB F1, SOUTHERN BURIAL ZONE, PHASE 2: L764 (Plan 3.5; Figs. 3.7–8) The records describe two primary burials in this phase (B7924, B7925). Both were placed supine with heads in the east, the faces turned to the north and the legs extended. 1. B7924 (50 years old or more, female): primary burial. The right arm was perhaps placed on the pelvis. 2. B7925 (40 years old; sex unknown): primary burial. The position of the arms is unclear. Comparison of the plans hints that the body of B7924, Phase 2 (Fig. 3.5: gray) is a continuation of B8086, Phase 1 (Plan 3.4). The bones complement each other, but not the skulls (and the ages are estimated differently, based on teeth). Part of a skull (B8086) is certainly located under the skull of B7924; but it may have been remains from a secondary burial, while the body bones all belong to Phase 2, burial B7924. There is no certainty, but if this is correct, there were two primary burials in each phase. Secondary burials in Phase 2 included the following: 3. B7926 (at least 50 years old, probably male): skull with lower jaw. 4. B7929 (age/sex unknown): skull and lower jaw. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 3.7: Tomb F1, L764, looking northeast. Phase 2, skeletons B7294 (bottom) and B7295 (above it). Secondary bones at the back.

Fig. 3.8 (left): Tomb F1, L764 looking east. Phase 2, skeletons B7294 (left) and B7295 (center). Bones C below; secondary bones and skull B7926 right; skull E barely visible near skull B7295. Fig. 3.9 (right): Tomb F1, L717 looking south. Phase 3, W-A70 right; juglets B7098 and B7100 below the meter; stones A behind.

Fig. 3.10: Tomb F1, L717, looking south. Phase 3, start of excavation: stones A right, B left; jar B7573 center. Parts of bones (point D) visible; skull A right of the jar. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Many more bones are shown in the plan, especially at what is probably the edge of the burial zone, near the two secondary skulls. The finds attributed to Phase 2 include a carinated bowl (B7943) on the chest of B7925, and another bowl (B7924) farther to the north. The plan shows two more juglets: one (Plan 3.5: A) is actually B7820 of Phase 3 (see below, and Plan 3.6); the basket of the other (Plan 3.5: B) is unclear. Our reconstruction for L764 acknowledges two phases of burial, each including two pairs of primary burials. The primary burials were the latest in each phase. All the other burials––of at least five individuals (based on skulls)––are secondary burials found at the edge of the tomb. B8086 of Phase 1 may also belong to this group. These were earlier burials, relocated or pushed to the sides when later burials were added. Although a few small artifacts can be associated with one phase, or even a specific skeleton (e.g., dagger B8077 and bowl B7943, based on their locations), most of the finds cannot be attributed to specific burials. There is no separating layer between the two phases; the remains of L717 (below) seem to rest directly above Phase 2 of L764, to judge by the relevant heights. TOMB F1, SOUTHERN BURIAL ZONE, PHASE 3: L717 (Plan 3.6; Figs. 3.9–10) Locus 717 is located immediately above L764; hence we define its remains as Phase 3. The excavators thought that L717 included two phases of burial––the primary burials at the center of the locus were later than the secondary burials at the edges. However, there is no clear separation of phases in the sense of distinct, superimposed layers, only a continuing process of burials pushed aside and added. Locus 717 was supposedly supported by two large kurkar constructions or ‘pillars’ (Plan 3.6: A–B, Fig. 3.10), with the entrance from the north in between them. Hence, L717 was a sort of niche or cavity extending from the shaft outside, under the kurkar rock. Three burials of L717 were defined as primary (“complete anatomic articulation”, B7627–B7629): 1. B6727 (child, 7–8 years old): only the skull and arm bones were found, and the anthropologists were not certain that they were in anatomical articulation. Indeed, the lack of other bones (and room for them) suggests that this was a secondary burial. 2. B7628 (25–35 years old): this burial was oriented roughly east–west with the head in the east, just like most of the primary burials in L764 below it. It was defined as skull and some other bones; the plan shows chest bones with some articulation; this is therefore a primary burial (or what remained of it, Plan 3.6: gray). Resting on the chest there were two scarabs (B7440, B7431) and a bronze pin (B7669; both the scarabs and the pin were wrongly attributed to B7627––but no chest bones were present). 3. B7629 (30–40 years old): this burial was placed in an opposite direction to the others, with the head in the west. The folded legs (Plan 3.6: on both sides of point D) belong to this skeleton, with the betterpreserved leg reaching near B7573 (Plan 3.6; Fig. 3.10). 1. 2. 3. 4.

Secondary burials in L717 included at least four individuals, based on skulls/teeth: B7626 (child, c. 5–6 years old): jaw. B7928 (age/sex unknown): badly preserved skull. B7929 (40 years old or more): skull, lower jaw, teeth and mainly lower leg bones. B7630 (30–40 years old): scattered fragments of the skull, teeth, and other bones.

The records attribute finds to specific burials, based on location and levels; but this is doubtful (except the abovementioned two scarabs and pin on burial B7628). Jars B7631 and B7619 may fit B7629, but they rested on bones of B7630. Inside jar B7619 there was a dipper juglet (B7620). A carinated bowl (B7621) was placed on jar B7619. A juglet (B7750) was found in the hip area of B7629. Near kurkar support B there was a jar (B7573, perhaps added with burial B7629), with a juglet found inside it (B7574). A juglet (B7820), beads (B7829, B7705), a bronze pin (B7828), and a scarab (B7730) were found nearby, described as placed in disarray around a child’s jaw B7626 (obviously they are all in secondary context). In the same area there were two more scarabs (B7693, B7834), a scaraboid (B7703), and a carinated bowl (B7749). Another carinated bowl appears on the plan, but its basket number is unclear (Plan 3.6: C). North of these finds and closer to W-AB70 two juglets (B7098, B7100; Fig. 3.9) were found, as well as a scarab (B7139), an object described as a weight (B7254), and a bead (B7255). The bead was reported as originating from the section, that is, a part of B717 not yet excavated at the time, Fig. 3.10). One metal pin (B7138) was actually found closer to the finds of L714 than to those of L717. Comparing the plans, we note several difficulties with the picture of two well-separated loci (L764 and L717). Burial B7629 can be placed in Phase 2 L764 (only one leg bone seems to be above a leg of © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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B7925, Plan 3.6: D); and some leg bones seem to fit individuals B7924 and B7925 of L764. Also, B7268 is outside (though close to) the area of the primary burials of L764. The difference in heights between the burials of Phases 2 and 3 is slight. The group of southern vessels (B8083, B8119, B8135, and B8137) of Phase 1 (L764) can join perfectly jars B7631 and B7619 of Phase 3 (L717). Together, they form a row that surrounds burial B7629, indicating one phase, not two. It is difficult to know exactly how many secondary burials there were in L717 and L764. One object that looks like a skull (basket unidentified) appears in the plans of both Phase 2 and Phase 3 (Plan 3.5: E; Plan 3.6: E). Skull B7928 of L717 (sex/age unknown) rests just above skull B7926 of L764 (male, age 50 or more). Skull B7929 of L717 (adult, age 40 or more) rests just above skull B7927 of L764 (age/sex unknown). The baskets are nearly identical, although one pair of skulls supposedly comes from an upper phase, and the second from a lower phase (the smaller basket numbers belong to the higher pair of skulls). Are these really two separate pairs of skulls, one above the other, or the same pair ‘duplicated’ by some process? Perhaps in the chaos of many bones and finds, under the pressures of salvage excavation, a skull was removed, but a small part of it remained; it was later registered separately as a new individual (of unknown age/sex) from a lower phase. The records mention that a layer of crushed kurkar, hamra and silt separated L764 and L717, but there are no section drawings and the existing photos show no such layer. In a general summary on Area F, written close to the time of excavation, silt is mentioned as separating the phases––the same type of soil that surrounds all the burials in F1, not a specific separating layer. This summary states also that there is “a clear continuity between the phases, and they are not completely separated.” To conclude, though it cannot be proven beyond doubt, L764 and L717 form one continuous burial complex. The most likely scenario is that the secondary burials, mostly at the edges, are earlier burials pushed aside with the addition of new ones. As a result, remains at the edges are heaped up, one above the other. Some finds there are higher than the finds at the center of the loci, but do not post-date them. There is no stratigraphy in the common archaeological sense of layers one above the other, except for the primary burials. These do indicate two superimposed phases, each with two or three bodies placed side by side. Some finds––especially small ones––were pushed aside from the center; other finds could have rolled back from a secondary heap. Therefore, with very few exceptions, it is impossible to attribute finds to specific burials. Tomb F2 Loci 702, 713, 727, 734, 741, 742, 750, 770; Squares BC–6 Tomb F2 was defined not as a shaft tomb, but as a pit (or cist) tomb, or rather, several separate pit tombs. Its burials were described as shallow, dug into hamra and filled with silt. Apparently, the tomb lacked the kurkar layer on top, but the reasons for this are not very clear. The definition of Tomb F2 led to general conclusions mentioned in various files and preliminary reports, for example, concerning chronological differences between the pit and shaft tombs at Rishon le-Zion. Whereas a shaft tomb may include many burials, arranged in ‘niches’ beside a central shaft, pit tombs are dug individually and include only one burial or a few burials. In MB II pit burials, usually no more than three burials are found in each tomb and many tombs have only one. Since the contours of each burial area were not documented for Tomb F2, nor are there clear contours of a central shaft, it is difficult to judge whether what we have here is one shaft tomb or several closely dug pit tombs. Differences of levels do not reveal much, since such differences may exist between different burial zones in one shaft tomb, or between different yet closely located pit tombs. Several observations suggest that Tomb F2 was not a collection of separate pit burials, but the remains of one shaft tomb with several burial zones. First, Tomb F2 is located in close proximity to and at the same level as other shaft tombs of Area F. Second, the shafts in Area F did not survive well (they are more assumed than found). Thus, the lack of shaft for Tomb F2 does not prove that it did not exist. Third, the distribution of burials and finds in a sort of semi-circular pattern fits a shaft tomb rather than individual pit burials. If we assume that each locus of Tomb F2 is a separate pit burial, and mark their assumed contours (based on maximal distribution of finds, Plan 3.7: dotted lines), we find that each of the assumed pit burials has a different shape and direction. Even more crucially, it is extremely unlikely that five pit tombs would be dug in such close proximity to each other and in such a peculiar semi-circular pattern. Compare Areas B and C (in this volume): Most of the pit tombs there roughly follow the same direction. In continuing to use the cemetery, people would have tried to steer clear of existing tombs, © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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probably with the aid of tomb markers, and to follow the same direction in order to save space and prevent cutting into earlier burials. If, however, Tomb F2 was a shaft tomb, it could have had a central shaft with niches or zones of burials extending beyond it (Plan 3.7, dotted lines). We do not know the exact shape, but the finds conform to such an interpretation. Fourth, the mixture of primary and secondary burials of Tomb F2 is similar to other shaft tombs in Area F, but different from the pit tombs of Area B, which lack heaps of secondary burials. Fifth, the repertoire of finds from Tomb F2 is typical of shaft tombs in Area F and different from that of pit tombs in Area B; one clear example is the appearance of scarabs. Sixth, a few kurkar stones were found in and around the burials of F2, and loci cards suggest that these stones “give the shape of a shaft tomb” to the alleged pit burials. How could one give “the shape of a shaft tomb” to pit burials, which are each dug at a different time, without reference to each other? Rather, what is meant here is that there is a similarity to shaft tombs. Indeed, such kurkar stones are perhaps remnants of a kurkar covering layer, or of supporting ‘pillars’ below such a layer (see the stones in L770, Plan 3.7: top right; also compare to stones A–B of Tomb F1). Shaft tombs were cut through a layer of kurkar, but pit burials were not. Seventh, and perhaps the most convincing observation is that we see that some of the burial areas of F2 exhibit more than one phase of burial, one on top of the other, with some continuity between the phases. This pattern exactly fits the nature of the Area F shaft tombs, and has no parallels among the Area B pit burials. True, there is one exception––a pit burial with two superimposed skeletons (Chapter 2: Tomb B142). It is unique, and does not indicate two phases, so the exception only serves to prove the rule. It is also clear from some records that Tomb F2 reached the hamra layer, for example, burial B7408 is described as placed on hamra (similar to the finding in L750). We thus suggest that F2 was a shaft tomb like the other Area F tombs. Apparently its covering kurkar layer was completely removed prior to the excavation. The shaft would have been located somewhere in the center, in the area devoid of burials (Plan 3.7). We will describe the burials starting from the northeast (L770) and going counterclockwise. TOMB F2: L770 (Plan 3.8) Locus 770 is bounded in the west by two kurkar stones, perhaps supporting a roof that did not survive (the excavators interpreted these stones as a boundary or marker for L702, assuming that it was a pit tomb). Only a few human long bones were found (position of burial and age/sex unknown). A jar (B8113) and a dipper juglet (B8110) were placed nearby. The excavators assumed that L770 was damaged due to proximity to the surface, hence little remained of what had been the original primary burial. However, the proximity to the (excavation-period) surface is due mainly to the development work. Jar B8113 is quite intact, standing with parts of its rim surviving, although it is higher than the bones. Therefore, the bones could belong to a secondary burial, which was pushed to this corner from a more central place in the tomb. TOMB F2: L702 (Plans 3.9–10, Figs. 3.11–12) The plan of L702 at the start of the excavation (Plan 3.9) is interesting: It shows an irregular dotted line inside and separated ‘patches’ with finds. The outer dotted line is our addition, tentatively marking the outer edges of Tomb F2. Locus 702 included two burials. One of them (B7175) is seen on Plan 3.9; the other (B7174) appears on Plan 3.10. 1. B7174 (adult, age/sex unknown) (Plan 3.10): the northern of the two burials included a large part of the skeleton placed supine, lying roughly east–west with the head (not found) in the east. The legs were extended. The left arm was folded toward the chest; the other arm did not survive. 2. B7175 (see details below) (Plan 3.9): the southern burial included fewer bones, found at a slightly higher level. The legs were folded sharply with the knee of one leg placed next to the pelvis of burial B7174. Some rib bones were attributed in the files to B7175, and part of a skull with some teeth (B7176) was seen as the skull of B7175; it belonged to an adult, 30–40 years old. The plan shows long bones extending from the skull toward the chest of B7174, perhaps an arm of B7175. Skull B7176 was found in the middle of a pithos (B7179), whose upper part was missing. The pithos included also a juglet (B7198). The plan does not show a juglet, but rather a bowl, identified as B7171. Perhaps the pithos belongs to an earlier phase; however, this does not fit the lower burials of L742 (see below). It seems that L702 had two primary but not simultaneous burials: one earlier burial, B7174 with pithos B7197 and a second later burial with B7174. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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The vessels in L702 include, in addition to the incomplete pithos (B7197), a jar (B7047, next to the pithos and from the same time; it was erased from the locus card after having been attributed to L742, see more below); a carinated bowl (B7171) with a bronze pin (B7170), both found near skull B7176; another bowl (B7172); and two jars (B7173 probably related to burial B7175; B7046 probably related to B7174). A scarab (B7027) was found near the rib bones attributed to B7175. The parts of vessels seen in Plan 3.9 north of Fig. 3.11: Tomb F2, L702 looking northeast. Early stage of B7047, without basket numbers, are B7435– excavation. L702 top, L734 right. B7344 from L742 (see below).

Fig. 3.12: Tomb F2, L702, looking south. Legs of B7174 (bottom); jar B7173 (center right); burial B7175 (upper right). At the top: a hole (where B7047 was); large bowl B7197 (seen as a contour below skull B7176) and vessels B7143, B7172 (top right).

TOMB F2, UPPER PHASE: L742 (Plan 3.11, Figs 3.13–15) Locus 742 is located right below L702; there is no separation layer. It was divided into two phases, which we call upper and lower. The upper stage in L742 (Plan 3.11, Figs 3.13–15) includes the primary burial of an adult (B7348), placed supine, lying in an east–west direction with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The legs were extended; the arms folded on the hip and pelvis. The deceased carried a scarab (B7349) on a finger of the left hand (ring not found). A juglet (B7307) was placed in the middle of the pelvis. Near or under the right arm there was a bronze dagger with an in situ pommel (B7304). Next to the skull stood a jar (B7344) with a carinated bowl (B7345) on its shoulder. Plan 3.11 shows that bowl B7345 was cut almost in half. It must have been damaged by jar B7047, meaning that bowl B7345 and jar B7344 are earlier than B7047. We suggest that the vessels related to burial B7348 were disturbed by the later addition of the vessels of L702 (B7174, B7175). Other vessels that relate to burial B7348 are located east of the body, partly under the vessels of L702: juglet B7350; bronze pin B7351 near the left shoulder; large bowl B7328; carinated juglet B7306; small

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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bowl B7346 (barely seen in the plan); bowl B7347; sheep/goat bones (B7347) found inside and also near B7347; and bowl B7352. The last probably also carried animal bones (not registered). The plan shows the arm of B7348 resting above bowl B7352 (a plan from an earlier date seems to imply that the arm is under the bowl). Some later jars of L702 stood above the bowls of L742, so an exact attribution of vessels to phases is difficult (e.g., bowl B7306 is tilted, perhaps resting at an edge of the later L702 burial, under jar B7197). We stress that the primary burials (B7348, B7174, and B7175) all lay the same direction, and the best interpretation is of burials added gradually next to each other, at a slightly higher level perhaps, but without distinct layers. Near the feet of B7348 (but found much later) there was a group of three jars (B8070; B8071; B8069) and another vessel, called a jar but probably a handless jug (B8068). South of these jars there were a few human bones (B8178; sex/age unknown). The bones included parts of the pelvis, leg (fibula) and other postcranial bones. They were interpreted as a secondary burial from the same phase as L742, B7348. Until scarab B7349 was found, the excavators dated all the Rishon le-Zion pit graves to a MB II phase before the scarabs became common. Scarabs were not found in the Area B pit tombs, but there were many in the Area F shaft tombs. Scarab B7349 posed a problem, because it was related to B7348––an early burial in Tomb F2, which was interpreted as a pit tomb. Once we interpret Tomb F2 as a shaft tomb, the finding of this scarab ceases to be a problem. TOMB F2, LOWER PHASE: L742 (Plan 3.12) Remains of a toddler’s skeleton were found (B7408, 2.5–3.5 years old): found in the lower phase of L742. It was placed supine on hamra soil and covered with silt. The lower body was not found. The plan of this phase shows also one bowl (B7378). The toddler’s remains are located next to the upper phase of burial B7348 (assumed to be later). It is possible that these two burials were placed side by side immediately one after the other, and not in different temporal phases. We also note that there were more bones west of the toddler’s remains that do not seem related to it.

Fig. 3.13 (left): Tomb F2, L742 looking east, later phase. Burial B7348, dagger B7304, carinated bowl B7306 above bowl B7328 at top right.

Fig. 3.14 (right): Tomb F2, L742 looking northwest, later phase. At bottom left, bowl B7353 with animal bones B7374 and large bowl B7328. To the right, jar B7344. Skull B7348 partially seen behind it. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 3.15 (left): Tomb F2, L742 looking east, later phase. The upper body of B7348 and jar B7344. The half bowl B7345 on it is not clearly seen. Fig. 3.16 (right): Tomb F2, L727 looking southwest at the start of excavation. Jar B7126 center top; L734 top left; L702 with legs of B7174 lower left. Jar B7217, skull B7320, and bowl B7203 above the sign.

TOMB F2: L727 (Plan 3.13; Fig. 3.16). Locus 727 included one adult burial (B7320, age/sex unknown). The contour is unknown; the dotted line in the plan is added to give a general idea. The deceased was placed supine, lying roughly north–south with the head in the north and the face turned upward. The legs were extended and the left arm was folded on the chest (the right arm did not survive). The kurkar stones in this locus were interpreted as a boundary or marker for the burial. Finds related to burial B7320 include a carinated bowl (B7203) and large jar (B7217) with a juglet inside (B7215). Two bowls (B7235, B7234) were placed west of the body, with a juglet (B7234) above bowl B7236. Jar B7216 (Plan 3.13: bottom) was also attributed to burial B7320, though it was first registered under L713. Its level is similar to that of other vessels related to burial B7320. TOMB F2: L713 (Plan 3.14; Figs. 3.17–19). This locus is situated between L727 and L734; beneath it is L741. The remains in L713 are damaged and because we lack good plans, they are difficult to interpret. Scattered, disarticulated human bones were found––a lower jaw, leg bones, ribs, vertebrae and fingers (B7293). Based on teeth, they belonged to an adult, 20–25 years old, probably female. In the plan the heights above sea level given for these bones vary, but most are around 46.28–46.31 m. Pelvis bones and a rib or two are clearly visible. Slightly lower are leg bones, which seem to be articulated––folded (Plan 3.14: center, in black; height given as 46.25– 22 m). These leg bones are in situ, perhaps once a primary burial that had been disturbed. The leg bones farther to the east (Plan 3.14: A, in gray) do not belong to L713, but to L734 (see below). According to the excavation records, all the bones in L713 represent one individual. The fact that some bones are in articulation, and that groups of beads also remained together (below) indicates an originally primary burial, which was probably moved aside shortly after burial, so some bones (and the beads) maintained their articulation. The bones of L713 are above the burials of L741 and unrelated to them. Some interesting small finds came from the area of this badly preserved burial: beads (B7160) in two groups––faience and turquoise (B7161; only the faience group was marked on the plan); some pendants (B7159); two bird-shaped bone inlays (B7158, see Fig. 3.19; B7201); a bone decorated with lines and circles (B7162, not marked on the plan); and more beads marked on the plan north of B7201 (basket unknown).

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Fig. 3.17 (left): Tomb F2, L713 looking north. L702 top center, L734 lower right; Jar B7217 and B7046 left. Fig. 3.18 (right): Tomb F2, L713 looking north. The large bones at right are bones A (B7299) in L734. Rectangular item (B7162?) left of sign; bird item B7158 far left.

Fig. 3.19: Tomb F2, L713, looking north. Bird item B7158 top right; B7162 left; dark pendant B7159; rectangular pieces 1 and 2.

Fig. 3.20: Tomb F2, L713 looking south. At left, skeleton B7320 (its pottery vessels removed). At center, L741 jug B7290 and bowl B7289.

A dipper juglet (B7222) was found south of the bones and some 30 cm higher. A jar (B7216) south of the pelvis bones was attributed to L727 (see above); but could have also belonged to L713. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 3.21: Tomb F2, L741 looking northeast. At center bowls B7288 and B7289 and jug B7290. At left is L727.

TOMB F2: L741 (Plan 3.15; Figs. 3.20–22) A primary burial (B7322) was discovered in L741, right under L713. The deceased rested on the left side, in a roughly north–south direction with the head in the south. Although described as having both arms folded along the body, the right arm seems extended while the left is folded on the chest. This fits the location of a scarab (B7318, adult, age/sex unknown) found near the chest, originally worn on the left hand. The legs were slightly folded. The skull was very badly preserved and no teeth were found. The following vessels north of the body, aligning it, from north to south: a jug (B7290); a bowl (B7289) placed partially above a second, larger bowl (B7288); a carinated bowl (B7323) under the shoulder of the deceased; and a bronze pin (B7286, found near the skull, perhaps having fallen from the right shoulder). West of the skeleton there was a dipper Fig. 3.22: Tomb F2, L741 looking northeast. Skeleton B7322 fully juglet (B7291). It was found under jar B716, which was attributed either to L713 exposed. or to L727. Three bronze pins (B7287) were found in the area of the left chest. There seems to be one more part of another small vessel (juglet?) tucked between the skull and bowl B7323 (Plan 3.15: 1, basket number unclear). Carinated bowl B7323 was placed partially above a half jar (B7389) from L750. Hence, the burial in L741 post-dates the burial in L750 and can be of the same chronological horizon as that of L734. TOMB F2: L734 (Plan 3.16; Figs. 3.23–24) Locus 734 is situated between L713/L741 and L750. It included one primary and one secondary burial: 1. B7299 (20–30 years old, sex unknown): primary burial, supine, in a roughly east–west direction with the head in the east. The arms were folded on the pelvis and the legs sharply folded. The bones were badly preserved. 2. B7362 (age/sex unknown): secondary burial, discovered west of burial B7299 and slightly higher. It included only long bones.

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Secondary burial B7362 lacked finds, while primary burial B7299 was accompanied by items placed on and west of the skeleton: a juglet on the chest/pelvis area (B7301); a large jar (B7118); a bronze pin (B7202) inside or under jar B7118; another jar (B7206) with a juglet (B7208) inside; and a carinated bowl (B7205). One flint blade was also registered from L734 (B7207), but not appearing on the plan. The secondary burial B7362 is later than L750, as it is located above the half-cut jar B7389 of L750. It also sits above vessels attributed to L750, which are considerably (30–40 cm) lower. The large vessels of L734 rest above the remains of L750. The relationship between secondary burial B7362 and primary burial B7299, both of L734, cannot be defined.

Fig. 3.23 (left): Tomb F2, L734 looking northeast. Start of excavation; round depressions above and left of sign are jars B7118, B7206. The worker is in L702. Fig. 3.24 (right): Tomb F2, L734 looking northeast. Burial B7299.

TOMB F2: L750 (Plan 3.17; Fig. 3.25) This locus is located partially under L734 and pre-dates it. The finds were dug into hamra and covered with silt. There was one primary burial here (B8164, 3–4 years old): placed supine, lying roughly east– west, with the head in the east (resting on the edge of bowl B8176) and the face turned upward. Both arms were folded on the chest and the legs were extended. The deceased had a necklace of beads around the neck (B8166). A bowl (B8176) with animal bones (B8165) inside it as well as near it was placed near the head. Farther to the north there were two carinated bowls (B8173, B8175). A red-slipped juglet (B8174, doublehandled) and a dipper juglet, also redslipped (B8172), were found south of the head. Near the legs there was a jar (B7389), whose upper part was removed. Inside it there was a dipper juglet (B7390). Between the jar and the legs were a juglet (B7391); a bowl (B7393); a carinated bowl above it (B7392); and a jug or juglet Fig. 3.25: Tomb F2, L750 looking northeast. Jar B7389 with juglet (B7394). Jar B7389 may pre-date burial B7390 (left); juglet B7391, bowl B7393, jug B7394 (center). Legs B8164. The excavators assumed that the of B8164 (bottom right). vessels of L750 date to the MB IIA, because of their red slip. However, this is not an absolute criterion and the study of the pottery (Uziel and Shai, Chapter 6) indicates that Tomb F2 is dated to the MB IIB.

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Tomb F3 Loci 703, 721(=738), 755, 758; Squares C5–6 Tomb F3 was defined as a shaft tomb. The shaft (L703) cuts through the kurkar into two burial zones dug into the hamra beneath it: a northern burial zone (L755) and a southern one. The southern zone was further divided into upper (L721) and lower (L758) phases. The burials were all found in dark silt. TOMB F3, SHAFT AREA: L703 (Plan 3.18; Fig. 3.26) This is the shaft area of Tomb F3. The plans show an irregular contour, which was found filled with silt. Locus 703 also included pottery sherds and one juglet (B7019), as well as one jar, noticed right from the start of the excavation (B7021). The jar was ascribed to L755, but is, in fact, not in close proximity to that locus. Although L703 was defined as the sealing material of the entire tomb, and hence above L721 and the other loci, it is actually located beside L721, not above it. The locus card of L703 mentioned that silt was found only here, while the area of L721 was in the hamra layer. The plan also shows the rim of jar B7313 of L721 (barely 10 cm lower than the top of L703). In fact, the whole tomb is less than 1 m deep from the top of L703 to the bottom of the lowest finds in L758. Fig. 3.26: Tomb F3, L703 looking southwest. Jar B7201. TOMB F3, NORTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L755 (Plan 3.18; Figs. 3.27–29) The northern burial zone of F3 shows only one phase. Unfortunately, the locus card lacks textual description. A summary page states that the burials of L755 were placed on the hamra, filled with silt and sealed by a dense layer of crushed kurkar and hamra soil. Since there is no upper phase above L755, and the level of the top of the jars from L755 is only c. 30 cm lower than the top of L703, it seems that this was not an intentional fill, but rather a natural accumulation (perhaps from the collapse of the kurkar roof above, and/or compacting due to the development work prior to the excavation).

Fig. 3.27(left): Tomb F3, L755 looking south. Bowl B7714 right; Jars B7745 and B7739 left; broken Jar B7720 near the sign. Fig. 3.28 (right): Tomb F3, L755 looking south. Jars B7745, B7739 and B7720 (top); bowl B7714 lower right. Bones B7864 in between; edges of two daggers near bones (B7727, B7729).

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L755 included two primary burials: 1. B7865 (40 years old or more): the burial was defined as placed on the right side, with extended legs, the head in the east and the face turned north. Little of the body is seen in the plan and the skull is shown turned upward, so perhaps the burial was supine. It is not clear whether the large bones under B7714 are part of the legs of B7865 (they could also belong to the secondary burial B7864). 2. B7866 (c. 2 year-old toddler): this burial, east of B7865, included a skull and some chest bones. It was Fig. 3.29: Tomb F3, L755 looking south at the end of the excavation. defined as primary, supine and in the same direction as B7865, with the head, in the east, placed on a carinated bowl (B7858). We ascribe many finds to burial B7865: a large bowl near the leg (perhaps slightly displaced, B7714); a carinated bowl on the upper right leg (B7707); three juglets on the upper body (B7852–B7854); a vessel near the right side of the body (B7857, described as a jar, but more likely a jug or amphoriskos); and a juglet west of the pelvis (B7581). A bronze axe (B7849) was found in the hip area of the deceased. In addition to the carinated bowl (B7858), the following items can be associated with burial B7866: a jaw of sheep/goat (B7862) and a bronze pin in the area of the left shoulder (B7715). It could be a burial offering or part of a dress. A necklace of beads was found on the neck (B7856). South of B7865 bones from another, secondary burial (B7864, age/sex unknown) were found, including a skull and postcranial bones (the records mention that many bones were found, though most of them, and a skull, are not seen in Plan 3.18). A heap of vessels was found with these bones: four jars (B7739, B7745, B7724, B7720); three juglets (B7741, B7742 [from jar B7739], B7719); three jugs (B7723, B7717, and an imported Cypriot white-painted jug B7726); a carinated bowl (B7718); and two daggers (B7727, B7729). TOMB F3, SOUTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L721 (=L738), L758 (Plan 3.19; Figs. 3.30–33) The relationship between L721 and L758 must be clarified before each can be described in detail. Locus 721 was interpreted in the excavation records as an upper phase of burial, later than L758. According to a later summary page, the burials of L721 were placed over a layer of crushed kurkar and hamra; they were covered with silt and sealed by another layer of crushed kurkar and hamra. If this is correct, L721 was completely separated from L755. However, the locus card of L721 stated rather laconically that the burials lay in hamra, not over a layer of crushed kurkar and hamra. The summary also added that the jars of L755, although lower, had already been noticed during the excavation of L721. No mention is made in the locus card of an intermediate layer between L755 and L721. The Fig. 3.30: Tomb F3, L721, looking east. Part of burial B7499 with jars division of late and early phases was also influenced by the view B7313 and B7314 behind. that L755 represented the MB IIB, while the supposedly earlier L758 belonged to the MB IIA. This view was probably based on the appearance of scarabs in L721, as against their absence in L758.

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Fig. 3.31: Tomb F3, L721 looking south. Skeleton B7499 with bowl B7486. Notice kurkar layer and jars B7757, B7748 in L758 (top). Bones 1+2 at the feet of B7499, left of jar B7757.

Fig. 3.32: Tomb F3, L721 looking south. The hand of B7499 with scarab B7264.

The layers above L758 and L721 are probably remains of the cover above the tomb, and the burials in both loci were placed in hamra: L758 is not below L721, but beside it. The bones in L721 are between 45.87 m (top of skull) and 45.64 m (leg). Those of L758 are from 45.63 m (top of skull) to 45.51 m. Thus, there is no room for a separating layer. The jars of L758 protruded upward (as marked in the records). The two loci fit perfectly when placed on the same plan (Plan 3.19). Perhaps the edge of bowl B7780 (L758) is below the leg of B7499 (L721)––but that should come as no surprise, since L758 possibly represents remains of secondary burials moved aside when B7499, a primary burial, was added. This addition does not mean the presence of a distinctive upper layer, but part of a continuous process of burials in the same burial zone.

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Further evidence comes from the fact that some bones of B7802 (L758) appear already in the plan of the “upper phase” L721 (Plan 3.19: marked 1–3). If there were a separating layer in between two superimposed phases, the ‘lower phase’ bones would not have appeared through it and would not have been drawn before the ‘lower’ phase was reached. Also, the bronze knife attributed to L721 (B7458) is far from any other remains of this locus, and fits well with the animal bones (B7800) of L758. It must be noted that the ground around the burials was not completely leveled. It slants from north (where it is higher) to the south (see the heights of skeleton B7499). The finds in L721 are somewhat higher, but are not later. Knife Fig. 3.33: Tomb F3, L758 looking south. Bowl B7765 with bones B7458 belongs with bones B7800, even B7800 left; skull B7801 near the bowl, under the sign; standing jars if it is a few centimeters higher; it is not B7757 and B7748 right. part of an upper, distinct layer. The vessels west of skeleton B7499, including the large bowl B7765, were registered as part of L758 and attributed by the excavators to the secondary burial B7801. This is unlikely, since animal bones (B7800) were found in and around bowl B7765. These bones, both inside and outside the bowl, are in partial articulation (a portion of ribs was probably located west of the bowl). This indicates that the bowl and the bones are in situ. In our opinion they formed part of the only primary burial in both loci L758 and L721, that is, B7499. Thus, L721 and L758 represent one assemblage and one phase. We can now describe in detail the finds of these two loci, which included one primary burial at center (B7499) and remains of four individuals in secondary burials on the sides: B7599 and B7600 (east of L721); B7801 and 7802 (west of L758): 1. B7499 (probably female, 30–40 years old): primary burial placed supine, in a north–south direction with the head in the north and the face turned to the south. (The skull is not in a natural position, but rather, is tilted. Perhaps it fell, or was disturbed post-burial). Both arms were folded toward the pelvis and the legs were extended. The deceased carried a scarab on the left hand (B7264). The four secondary burials are barely visible in the plan: 2. B7500 (a child, 3–4 years old), east of B7499: skull parts, lower jaw, teeth, and postcranial bones. 3. B7600 (20–30 years old), east of B7499: skull and postcranial bones of an adult. 4. B7801 (50 years old or more), west of B7499: skull with teeth. 5. B7802 (age/sex unknown), west of B7499: skull and long leg bones (one tibia and one femur). Numerous finds can be ascribed to primary burial B7499: the abovementioned scarab (B7264); three juglets placed on the chest (B7466, B7467, B7468); a large bowl (B7846) and two vessels placed partially above the left arm (B7313, B7314, registered as jars, but probably jugs); and a juglet (B8161 inside 7314). The vessels west of the body also belong to B7499 (and not to the secondary burial B7801)––a carinated bowl (B7780), a large bowl (B7765) with animal bones (B7800) inside and near it, and a bronze knife (B7458). Other finds that we tend to ascribe to the same burial are a juglet near the head (B7315, above juglet B7501 and thus not visible in the plan); probably bronze pin B7316 slightly north of the left shoulder; and perhaps broken ring B7267, which could be an earring. There is also one carinated bowl (B7312) placed between jars B7312 and B7313, which seems broken in half. Finds related to secondary burials B7599 and B7600 include three bronze pins (B7381, B7500, B7532); a scarab (B7374); part of a scarab (B7601); a scaraboid (B7538); an amphoriskos (B7501, found under juglet B7315); and two Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglets (B7552, B7576). The group of pottery at the feet of burial B7499 could belong to the two secondary burials B7801 and B7802, though the three jars (B7746, B7748, B7757), with more finds inside and on them, more likely belonged to B7499. A juglet (B7791) was found inside jar B7757, and on its shoulder there was another © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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juglet (B7827). Outside the jars there were a two juglets (B7763, B7763) and a carinated bowl (B7764). The tilted position of some of the small vessels in this group is due to their location at the edge of the tomb; other finds placed on the jars may have been embedded between them and the kurkar covering layer. In sum, the burials of Tomb F3 are relatively well defined and offer a good example of burial customs in MB II Rishon le-Zion. In L755 an adult (B7865) and a toddler (B7866) were placed side by side, after an earlier burial with its vessels was set aside in a heap (B7864). In L721+L758 there were several secondary and one primary burial. The primary burial (B7499) is later than the secondary ones, but together they form a continuous process of burial in the same area. Many vessels in this tomb were found in situ and could be ascribed to specific burials. Tomb F4 Loci 704, 735+733+715, 718, 748, 733, 726+767, 769; Squares CD6–7 Tomb F4 is one of the largest, richest and most complex tombs of Area F. The general plan and the position of the loci are presented in Plan 3.20. The tomb seems to have had several phases of burials on top of and beside each other; it is quite difficult to interpret them, partly because of the piecemeal mode of excavation. This was not the fault of the excavators, but something dictated by conditions in the field. One burial zone was usually divided arbitrarily into several loci, which were excavated at different times. Some finds were excavated months after others from the immediate surroundings. The excavators suggested the following stratification for Tomb F4: a shaft and sealing material (L704) above three burial zones: northern, southwestern (henceforth, southern) and southeastern (henceforth, eastern). The last two zones were separated from the first by W-D71 (actually, this wall bounds only the northern zone). The northern burial zone included two phases: upper (L735+L733+L715) and lower (L767=L726). The southern burial zone included also two phases, upper (L765) and lower (L769). The eastern burial zone included three phases: upper (L748), middle (L718), and lower (L768). However, some loci were further divided into sub-phases. In our view some of the loci or phases are beside and contemporary to each other, not above and later. TOMB F4: L704 (Plan 3.20; Figs. 3.34–35) Locus 704 was defined as the sealing material––silt––of the entire tomb. When excavated, W-D71 was already visible, and the two burial zones farther to the south were divided from the northern zone. At first, the excavation followed the arbitrary grid of squares, leaving a sort of a narrow ‘baulk’ of c. 30 cm (east of the line of squares CD–7). Then an irregular area was excavated (Plan 3.20: delicate dotted line; cf. Fig. 3.34). Other irregular contours shown in the same plan most likely denote patches of silt and kurkar stones visible on the surface. The location of the shaft is not very clear, perhaps because the kurkar layer had already been removed at the start of the excavation. It was probably located at center, south of W-D71 (Plan 3.20, at the place of the labels F4 and L704). Fig. 3.34 (below): Tomb F4, looking south. Start of excavation in rectangular areas. Fig. 3.35 (right): Tomb F4, looking north. The larger southern area.

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We start by describing the complex eastern burial zone (L718, L748, L768). Unfortunately, some of the finds retrieved from it were not documented properly during the excavation, for lack of time. TOMB F4, EASTERN BURIAL ZONE, UPPER PHASE: L748 (Plan 3.21) The term “upper phase” for this locus appears in the excavation records. This very humble locus included a secondary burial representing two individuals: 1. B7813 (12–15 years old): skull. 2. B7812 (18–25 years old): skull. These remains are placed alongside, not above, L718; but if the registered levels are correct, there is no continuity with L718. The remains were surrounded with silt; they were described as resting on a layer of crushed kurkar and hamra and sealed by another, similar layer from above. Finds other than bones included a cylindrical (?) juglet (B7737) and two bronze pins (B7738, B7814; the pins are not marked on the plan, but were apparently found near B7737). Other finds registered from this locus (juglet B7396; shallow bowl B7397; jar B7743), are not visible in the plans. It was mentioned that some part of this locus was excavated at a later time and not documented, especially finds at the entrance area. There is no plan showing these finds and no photographs of L748. TOMB F4, EASTERN BURIAL ZONE, MIDDLE PHASE: L718 (Plan 3.22; Figs. 3.36–39) The finds of L718 are disturbed and difficult to interpret. The locus included three primary burials, but they are far from complete: 1. B7930 (40 years old or more) was described as resting supine in a roughly east–west direction, the head in the east with the face turned upward. The head rested on a carinated bowl (B7920). This is not at all clear from the plan, according to which skull B7930 seems to be an isolated skull below bowl B7920. If the head were in the east, we would expect to see a skeleton west of it, but there is none. If a skeleton lay in that direction, it could not have belonged to the same phase as the other primary burials (B7931, B7932) that are in a roughly north–south direction. Might skull B9930 have been a secondary burial? 2–3. Burials B7931 and B7932 rest side by side in a roughly north–south direction and are of the same phase (to clarify the separation between B7931 and B7922, we tried to mark in gray the bones that can fit B7932––see Plan 3.22, center; however, this is barely a guess). Burial B7931 was reported as a 5– 6-year-old child, “based on teeth”, but in another file it was defined as remains of arm bones in articulation, without a skull. Hence, it is not clear where exactly the teeth came from. B7392 included a skull (probably without teeth, since the age/sex could not be defined) and arm bones of an adult; but the skull seems tilted.

Fig. 3.36 (left): Tomb F4, L718 looking northeast. Bone and skull B8177; standing jar B7269 (left, under the rock). Fig. 3.37 (right): Tomb F4, L718 looking southeast. Bowls B7210 and B7213 and half bowl 7 (right); jar B7269 (left). The broken vessel between them is probably jar B7241.

The lack of lower bodies for B7931 and B7932 was noticed by the excavators, and they suggested that these burials might be secondary; that is, the bodies were removed before they were decomposed. This is possible, but it does not solve all the problems: Why would the lower bodies be missing? Legs do not lose articulation any faster than upper body parts. Also, one skull is missing. It thus seems that these are primary burials, and that the lack of lower bodies (and skull) is due to post-burial disturbance. Some long © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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bones (Plan 3.22: points 1 and 2) in an east–west direction are located in the area of the missing lower bodies of B7931 and B7932 and seem partially in articulation; but the area seems disturbed. The plan shows scant remains that look like a skull (Plan 3.22: point 3), which can fit the body of B7931. However, this is skull B8026, which was ascribed to the lower phase of L768. It is of an adult and its direction does not fit B7931. One should add that skull B7932 also does not seem to fit its assumed body. There are more bones west of it, but their relation to it is unclear (Plan 3.22: point 4). In the western part of L718 there was a part of a skull cap and one long bone of an adult (B8177), obviously in secondary burial (shown in Plan 3.21: gray, not far from skull B7930 and under bones 1 and 2 of Plan 3.22).

Fig. 3.38 (left): Tomb F4, L718 looking south. Skeleton B8025 (bottom), vessels B8010, B8011 and part of B8012 (left of B8025). At right center a dagger (B7227?). Below it, edge of B7269 with B8005 and B8007; juglets B8008 and B8009 between B7269 and head B8025. Burial B7931 center left, with skull 3 left of it; above it skeleton and large skull B7932. Fig. 3.39 (right): Tomb F4, L768 looking south. Skeletons B7931 (left) and B7932 (center); bones 5 and juglet 8 at the top; skull B7930 at the feet of B7932.

More finds raise more questions. Under skull B7932 there was a pommel of a dagger (B7921), which could belong to the later L768. There were many vessels along the west part of the locus: two shallow bowls (B7210, B7213, said to be above burial B8177); a carinated bowl (B7209, found on its side); an upturned jar (B7241, found above the former finds and shown on the side in the plan); and a dagger near the jar’s rim (B7227). Farther to the north there were two jars (B7269, B8037), with a dipper juglet (B8038) inside B8037. Kurkar rock is said to have been solidified above the jars, but maybe this means remains of the overlying rock layer. Jars B7269 and B8037 are quite far from the primary burials in L718. Below the jars there were smaller vessels (ascribed to L768: B8005, B8007–B8009), but the jars are too high and do not fit L768. Two small vessels (juglets?) near the south end of the bones of B8177 (Plan 3.21: A–B), lack basket numbers. Their edge appears to rest on what looks like a large bowl cut in two, with a smaller vessel nearby (Plan 3.22: points 5–6). The half bowl can be B7919, which is registered as sherds (being incomplete). The smaller vessel was marked as B7923, but this is a mistake, since this is a basket of animal bones.

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The vessels shown in Plan 3.21 (L748) include half a carinated bowl (Plan 3.21: point C), whose basket is unknown too (probably registered as one of the upper, general baskets of sherds, such as B7095, B7112, B7135, or B7141). Another small rounded object, whether a bone or a vessel (Plan 3.22: point 7), remains unclear. The locus include also one jar marked for restoration, whose nature and exact location are unclear (B7119). The many vessels attributed to L718 at the west cannot belong all to one burial/phase. Perhaps they are earlier vessels that were damaged when the primary burials of L718 were placed; but this would be awkward if the entrance to this zone of burial was from the west. Since L748 is not directly above L718, the kurkar layer that allegedly sealed L718 (and L748) is probably part of the natural kurkar rock above the tomb. TOMB F4, EASTERN BURIAL ZONE, LOWER PHASE: L768 (Plan 3:23; Fig. 3.40) This locus is lower in height and better preserved, but also not easy to interpret. The locus card lacks text; the summary page dates it to the MB IIA period, because of the lack of scarabs and the appearance of a red-slipped bowl––but both not indicative for exact dating. L768 included one primary burial (B8025) and one secondary burial (B8026): 1. B8025 (male, 18–25 years old): primary burial placed supine, oriented roughly east–west with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The arms were folded towards the hip/pelvis. The lower body and the legs were not found. 2. B8026 (35–45 years old): secondary burial, which included only a skull.

Fig. 3.40: Tomb F4, L768 looking west. Burial B8025 with its vessels; dagger B8004 with white pommel at center right.

The finds from L768 were interpreted as related to B8025. Some finds seem indeed to be part of this burial: the right arm is placed over a carinated bowl (B8023) and a juglet is located nearby on the chest (B8024). The left arm is placed over a shallow bowl (B8014), probably holding a bronze dagger with an in situ pommel (B8029, above the bowl); and another juglet is seen nearby (B8216). Another bronze dagger with a pommel in situ (B8028) is seen under the right shoulder of B8025; the relation to B8028 is unclear. A carinated bowl (B8015) is found below bowl B8014, but with a bone that does not seem to belong to B8025. The group of finds east of B8025 could belong to it (juglets B8010 and B8011; carinated bowl B8012; bronze dagger with in situ pommel B8003; juglet B8013), but also to some other, secondary burial. A group of finds west of B8025 and at the same level includes two juglets (B8008, B8009) and three carinated bowls (B8005–B8007) under jar B7629 (of L718). Yet another bronze dagger was found slightly to the south (B8004). The relationship of these vessels and burial B8025 is not clear. The large group of vessels farther to the south probably does not belong to burial B8025, being located in the place of its missing lower part. They include two juglets (B8021 and B8022); a large jug (B8020); a large bowl (B8017); a bronze dagger with an in situ pommel (B8030); another juglet (B8019); and three

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carinated bowls (B8016, B8018, B8034). If these finds do not belong to B8025, they could have belonged to secondary burials. Altogether five bronze daggers were found in L768, all with pommels (if they were moved, it was before the wooden handles deteriorated). If these were personal weapons, it is unlikely that one person owed so many; but they could also be status markers. According to the records, L768 is separated from L718 by an intentionally placed layer of crushed kurkar and hamra. However, skull B8026 appears in the plans of both loci, so it was seen already when L718 was drawn (Plan 3.22). Bowls B8005–B8007 were found right below jar B7629, so here too there was no intermediate layer. The group of finds B8020, B8016, B8022, B8017, and B8018 is located below finds of L718. Here the top of jug B8020 (45.45 m) is only 4 cm lower than the bones in L718. A bone interpreted as a lower arm bone of B8025 (Plan 3.23: A) was already drawn in L718 (Plan 3.22: A). The drawings are not identical, proving that it is not the same detail copied from plan to plan (if it is actually the same bone, or perhaps another from the same arm, is immaterial). Therefore, we do not have two distinct phases here separated by a sterile layer. It is reasonable that a layer of crushed kurkar had accumulated above the skeleton B8025 and the finds east of it, since this area was not disturbed later and did not have later burials above it. However, in other places the heights of the finds leave no place for any intermediate layer between L768 and L718. Still, one cannot escape the conclusion that the finds, however badly preserved and difficult to interpret, testify to several phases of burials, probably as part of a continuum of adding primary burials and shifting earlier burials into secondary heaps. TOMB F4, NORTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L735, L767 The loci of the northern burial zone were formed by merging several original loci: L735 with L733 and L715; L676 with L726. Originally, L733 was east of L735 and L715 was west of it. Locus 765 was defined as a lower phase and L767 an upper phase, but each was further divided into sub-phases. To clarify the sequence, we define the sub-phases by numbers, from 1 (earliest) to 5 (latest). Phase 1: Northern Burial Zone, L767 (Plan 3.24; Fig. 3.41) Remains of two primary burials and one secondary burial concerning this phase: 1. B8098 in the south side of the locus (age/sex unknown): primary burial. Only the feet and the lower leg bones survived. They seem to indicate a burial oriented east– west with the (missing) upper body and head in the east. Possibly the body was placed on the left side. To this burial were ascribed a carinated bowl (B8039) and a dagger (B8002) near the feet, and five juglets placed in the assumed (but missing) pelvis area: B8042, B8041, B8046, B8045, and B8049. There are a few small bones east of the juglets, but their nature is not clear. 2. B8097 (40 years old or more): primary burial. It was placed on the left side in a similar east–west direction with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were folded; the (right?) arm folded with the hand towards the face. Teeth were not found, but the lower jaw proved that they had fallen out before death, hence the estimation of an advanced age. To this burial we ascribe two juglets found on the pelvis area (B8047, B8048). 3. B7196 (30–50 years old): secondary burial east of B8097. Among the bones there was a scarab (B7157). This secondary burial, as well as the scarab are not evident in the plan of Phase 1 (Plan 3.24) and their location is unclear.

were mentioned in the excavation records

Fig. 3.41: Tomb F4, L767 Phase 1, looking northeast. Leg bones B8098 with bowl B8039. At right, rock I (below) and II (above).

There is no explanation for the missing parts of the assumed primary burials, and it is unclear if these are indeed remains of primary burials, or of secondary burials that were moved before losing completely their anatomical articulation. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 3.42 (left): Tomb F4, L767 looking south. Phase 2, rock II and burial B7967 below; jars B7954 and B7955 center, rock I upper left. Bones 2 between and beyond the jars. Fig. 3.43 (right): Tomb F4, L767 looking north. Phase 2, rock II (center), rock I (left); jars B7954 and B7955 near rock I. Burial B7967 with bowl B7975 left of rock II. Top left whitish bones 1. Right of rock II, the skull of B7967; juglets B7950–B7953; and another skull (B8097 of Phase 1?).

Phase 2: Northern Burial Zone, L767 (Plan 3.25; Figs. 3.42–43) The second phase of burial is relatively well preserved, with one almost complete primary burial in the center of the locus and one secondary burial north of it: 1. B7967 (male, 50 years old or more) (Plan 2.25: black): primary burial. It was supine and oriented roughly east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned upward. Both arms were folded towards the pelvis and the legs were extended. The direction of the burial and its position was probably dictated by the narrow space available for burial. 2. B7968 (age/sex unclear): secondary burial, found north of B7967. It included a skull and some long bones. According to the plan, the skull was poorly preserved. Finds that relate to the primary burial B7967 include a Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet on the left shoulder (B7956) and a scarab on the left hand (B7871). North of the pelvis of B7967 there was a juglet (B7984) and a small bowl (B7975), which seem to fit this burial. Five juglets were found north of the head (B7479, B7950–B7953), together with a scaraboid (B7916, not shown in the plan). These finds were placed directly above skull B8097 of Phase 1, which is visible also in the plan of Phase 2 (Plan 3.25: gray). Thus, B7967 (Phase 2) was placed directly above Phase 1, with not more than 10 cm difference in level; but without disturbing the earlier remains. Lacking further data, one cannot tell if the juglets belonged with B8079 or to B7967. A group of finds at the feet of B7967 cannot be ascribed to any specific burial. They include a large bowl (B7983) under the feet of B7967, which might also belong to burial B8097 of Phase 1; the same is true for the two jars B7955 and B7954 (and juglet B7959, found inside B7955). The base of the jars may fit either phase and their tops (at 45.93–45.94 m) were cut to enable later burials (see below). The jars protruded from L767 into L735, and were not separated from the latter by any kurkar/hamra layer. Farther to the south there were many small vessels, from west to east: a lamp (B7982); a jug (B7991); another jug (or a cylindrical juglet, B7980); and two bowls (carinated B7961; B7981 of unclear nature). Next to jar B7955 there was a bronze pin (B7962). The plan also shows a group of secondary bones north of bowl B7983, which are not discussed in the files (Plan 3.25: point 1). Even more interesting are a few bones that form part of a primary burial with a lower leg, higher and perhaps from a later phase than L767 (Plan 3.25: point 2). Perhaps they indicate another badly preserved primary burial, but alternatively, they could be part of a secondary burial (the bones moved after a short while, still maintaining partial articulation).

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Phase 3: Northern Burial Zone, L735 (Plan 3.26; Fig. 3.44) In this phase W-D71 did not yet exist. Three primary burials and secondary burials of five individuals at least were ascribed to this phase. As usual, the burials were covered with silt. The three primary burials were placed supine and were all described as lacking the lower body (legs and pelvis bones): 1. B7686 (12–15 years old): on the south edge of the locus, oriented east–west with the head in the east. The left arm was folded to the chest and the right arm was not found. Wall D71 was later built above this burial. A bronze pin (B7651) was found on the left shoulder. 2. B7687 (2–3 years old): in the northern part of the locus, placed supine, oriented east–west with the head in the east. The right arm was extended. There were traces of a silver band on the forehead (basket unknown). A bead with gold-foil edges was found in the middle body area (B7682). 3. B7688 (4.5–5.5 years old): in the northern part of the locus, placed side by side with B7687. It had the same position and direction as B7687. It seems that part of the pelvises survived, as well as an upper leg bone of B7687. On the left shoulder of B7688 there was a juglet (B7819), and on the ribs, a shallow bowl (B7805). A red stone bead (B7817) and a scarab set in gold frame (B7816) were found inside the bowl. A bronze pin was found under this bowl (B7823).

Fig. 3.44: Tomb F4, L735 looking northeast. Phase 3, rock I bottom center, rock II right; between them burial B7686. Jars B7454 and B7455 at center.

Another, smaller bowl (B7804) was placed just next to bowl B7805. This bowl appears cut in half, surely related to the lack of the lower bodies of all three primary burials in L735: the area south of the pelvises had been cleared to make room for later burials. Theoretically, Phase 3 could include the two jars B7945–B7955. However, this is unlikely, if the place was cleared later for burial (because the jars were not cleared away). It is unlikely that the narrow space between the jars and the three primary burials of L735 would have been cleared, since it does not suffice for a new burial. We believe that jars B9754 and B9755 are later. North of the primary burials, extending to the west, there was a pile of secondary burials (Plan 3.26). The list of individuals is based on MNI counts––mainly by skulls: 1. B7689 (30–40 years old): skull and postcranial bones of an adult. 2. B7690 (child, unknown age): jaw and probably part of a skull. 3. B7691 (adult): jaw, one arm bone, and leg bones (not seen clearly in the plan). Among the bones there was a juglet (B7806) and an ostrich egg (B7807). 4. B8101 (sex/age unknown; not drawn in the plan): far to the southwest, a fragmentary skull and some long bones, which were ascribed to Phase 3.

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5. B8102 near B8101 (age/sex unknown): probably remains of a skull. Sheep/goat bones (B7815) were found near B8101and B8102 (the round bone marked as part of B7815 is perhaps one of the B8101 and B8102 skulls). It seems that the attribution of B7815 to Phase 3 was based solely on their level, which is not decisive evidence. A row of finds extending about 1.4 m eastward of B7818 was also defined as part of Phase 3, again most likely due to the levels. The vessels include, from west to east, a bowl (B7821); a larger bowl partially below it (B7848); a juglet (B7736); a large bowl (B7735, upside down?); a large bowl (B7731, partially beneath B7735); a juglet (B7225); a bowl (B7732, partially above B7731); a large bowl (B7734, below B7731); and one more bowl (B7733). The plan suggests the existence of more fragmentary vessels, perhaps not fully exposed or not retrieved. We also notice that the westernmost bowl (B7821) is higher than the level of burial B7819, which has two bowls of its own (B7804, B7805). It is also interesting that there are no bones among this long row of vessels. Throughout Phases 1–3, the burials were approached from an opening supported by large upright kurkar rocks, marked I–II in the plans. Phase 4: Northern Burial Zone, L735 (Plan 3.27; Fig. 3.45) The records suggest that kurkar W-D71 was built in this phase, above burial B7686 of Phase 3, although it did not damage the latter. The damage to the lower bodies in Phase 3 must have been made after that phase, but before the wall was built. If the records are right, the wall was built at the start of Phase 4, at the same time when part of Phase 3 was cleared.

Fig. 3.45: Tomb F4, L735 looking southeast. Phase 4, W-D71 top center; bowl B7332 and skull B7321 right; bowl B7432 (partly covered by sherd) at the feet of W-D71.

Phase 4 is poor in finds. One burial (B7438, 40 years old or more) was defined as primary and oriented east–west. It included bones from the top and bottom of the body, that is, skull cap, shoulder and upper parts of arms, as well as the legs from the knees down. However, little of this is seen in the plan, and what exists does not fit the description of two body parts that belong to one individual. The missing middle body area seems ‘hidden’ by the later burial B7298 of Phase 5 (see below). Was there a complete skeleton, which had been partially removed together with the upper Phase 5 skeleton (B7298), leaving an empty space in Phase 4? Alternatively, B7438 could be a partially articulated burial of Phase 4, which was pushed aside when B7298 was added. Another possible interpretation is that B7438 was part of the

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secondary burials of Phase 3 in this area. There is no clear answer. Two juglets near the head (B7429, B7430) were ascribed to burial B7438. Secondary burials of two individuals in the southwestern part of this locus were also defined as part of Phase 4. In fact, their bones were found one above the other: 1. B8182 (18–25 years old): skull, teeth and fragments of long bones, found under B7321 (the skull not visible in the plan). To this burial were ascribed, mainly by their levels, four juglets (B7447, B7476, B7474, B7475) and a base of a jar (B7435, not shown on the plan). 2. B7321 (40 years old or more male): skull, parts of pelvis, ribs and few long bones (tibia, fibula, and femur). To B7321 were ascribed two carinated bowls (B7332, B7432; the latter were found close to the four juglets attributed to B8182). It is plausible that B8182 and B7321 form one heap of secondary burials; if so, they probably represent the same phase. Phase 5: Northern Burial Zone, L735 (Plan 3.28; Fig. 3.46) This phase includes an almost complete and relatively well-preserved primary burial, B7298 (30–50 years old). The deceased was placed supine, oriented roughly northeast–southwest with the head in the northeast and the face turned to the south. The arms were folded and crossed over the pelvis, and the legs folded inward (probably for lack of space). The deceased had two bronze pins on the left shoulder (B7238). Near the feet there were two jars (B7101, B7102). A juglet (B7145) was found inside jar B7102. There was a lamp (B7231) south of the body, and two bowls set one above the other (B7256 above B7257). The plans also show one juglet immediately south of the head (basket unclear). According to the records, only silt separated Phases 4, 5 and 6; but it was also the usual earth surrounding the Area F burials. Thus, it does not mean intentional layers that separated each phase from another. We suggest the following scenario for the northern zone of F4 during Phases 4–6 (of course, it is not the only possible one). Following Phase 3, part of the burial zone was cleared, and two jars (B7944, B7945) were inserted together with burial B7348 of Phase 4. Then, in Phase 5, the two jars were cut and burial B7348 was mostly removed in order to Fig. 3.46: Tomb F4, L735 looking northeast. Phase 5, burial make place for B7298. The clearance was B7298 (left); broken jar B7102 (center); W-D71 (right). made not just in the immediate place of the actual burial, but also in front of it, since this was the only way to reach the western side of the burial zone. Wall D71 was built later than burial B7298, and it blocked the entrance. Thus B7298 is the last burial in the northern zone. The wall could also have been built piecemeal, adding courses during more than one phase. In general, the stratification presented in the files for the northern burial zone of F4 was accurate, only its interpretation required modification. We note that many burials were placed here, over and over in the same limited space. TOMB F4, SOUTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L765, L769 The stratigraphy of this zone of burial is simple on paper, with two phases, lower and upper, represented each by one locus (L765 lower, L769 upper). However, secondary burial heaps show a less orderly stratigraphy, with vessels above other vessels. Southern Burial Zone, Lower Phase: L769 (Plans 3.29–30; Figs. 3.47–48) The earliest vessels in L769 (Plan 3.29) are a crushed jar (B8170) and two shallow bowls (B8167, B8168), found with animal bones (B8169) in and near them. Bones of a secondary burial (B8183, age/sex unknown) were found on (sic) these vessels (but shown also outside the vessels in the plan). They included fragments of a pelvis, lower leg and teeth bones. Burial B8183 is no mentioned in the locus card and the plans do not clarify its nature. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 3.47 (top): Tomb F4, L769 looking northeast. Burial B8155 with belt B8132 and dagger B8133. Above right is large bowl B8127 with pommel B8121 on it. Dagger B8130 bottom right. Fig. 3.48 (left): Tomb F4, L769 looking east. Belt B8132 with daggers; notice pommel B8121. Top left is part of B8125. Top right is axe B8131.

These finds were discovered in May 1998, after all the other finds were already removed. Their exact location is a matter of doubt; according to the summary page, they were located roughly under bowl B8143 (see below). The main burial in L769 is primary burial B8155 (age/sex unknown) (Plan 3.30), almost surrounded by heaps of finds and secondary burials. It was placed on hamra and covered with silt. The position was described as on the side (in the anthropological report, supine), oriented east–west with the head in the east resting on a bowl (B8129), and the face turned to the north. The skeleton seems to be badly preserved; in the plan one sees only one folded leg and the head. A few bones to the south (Plan 3.30: A) could form part of a folded arm, but not if the skeleton had been placed on the side. This arm could also belong to a secondary burial with more finds farther to the south. The deceased carried a bronze belt to which one dagger was still attached to the northern side of the belt (B8132). A second dagger (B8133) had been attached to the belt originally, but had broken off and was found between the center of the belt and the surviving leg bone. Based on the available data, it is not clear whether the daggers had been placed at the sides of the hips or nearer to the center, and if the belt was opened or closed during the funeral. The pommel (B8121) found on bowl B8127 can safely be ascribed to the first dagger (the one still attached to B8132). This shows that bowl B8127, with its related finds, is part of the vessels of burial B8155. A scarab (B8104, not marked in the plan) was described as found on the fingers of the hand of the deceased. There were also animal bones (B8122) above bowl B8127, and smaller finds surrounding it: a jug (B8124), three small bowls (B8125, 8126, 8128), a bowl below the head of B8155 (B8129), and a

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juglet (B8123, found inside bowl B8125). Farther to the east there was a row of finds that was discovered at a later date and thus their exact position is not secure (Plan 3.30). Two crescent-like shapes are interpreted by us (and restored accordingly) as edges of bowls B8149 (Plan 3.30: B) and B8143 (Plan 3.30: C). If this is correct, then a stack of four bowls, from top to bottom, B8140, B8141, B8149, and B8150, belongs to the same phase as burial B8155. Inside these bowls there were animal bones (B8142). There were no human bones in this stack, nor in bowl B8127 and its surrounding vessels. All these vessels can be attributed to the primary burial B8155. Later, they were covered by the burial of L765 (below). Another ‘crescent’, perhaps an edge of a bowl, is marked in the plan (Plan 3.30: D); but it remains unidentified. Farther to the south there were more finds, which probably form a group that was related to secondary burials. They include, from north to south, bones of unclear nature; the jaw of an animal; a spear head (B8146); part of a jar (B8147); a carinated bowl (B8148); a shallow bowl (B8143) with animal bones (B8145) inside; a scarab (B8151); and another carinated bowl (B8144). If our positioning is correct, a bronze dagger without a pommel (B8130) was found above bowl B8143, but at a slightly higher level. Near to it there was an axe (B8131). Father to the south there were two skulls (B8160, B8159; age/sex unknown) and also some long bones. At the south edge of the burial zone a jar, a bowl (Plan 3.29: E–F), and a juglet were found (the juglet is not shown in the plan; it did not survive due to its very poor state of preservation, and hence it lacks a basket number). The nature of all these finds (skulls, dagger without pommel, broken jar) and their distribution may indicate that they were part of a heap of secondary burial, rather than funerary gifts for primary burial B8155. On the western side of L769 there was a large group of secondary burials and vessels (mainly jars). The records stated that the vessels protruded from the lower phase (L769) into the upper one (L765) without any separating layer. In other words, they rested one directly above the without forming stratigraphic layers. The lower vessels (attributed to L769) included six jars: B8111, B8033 (with juglet B8072 inside), B8032, B7833, B8031 (with juglet B8064 inside), and the small jar B8058. An undefined metal item (B8066, not shown in the plan) was found near or in B8031. West of the jars there were bones in secondary burial––two badly preserved skulls (B8156, B8157; age/sex unknown) and animal bones including large jaw parts (B8065). A bronze pin (B8106) was found east of jar B8111. It is unlikely that all the six jars were part of burial B8155, but the differences in levels are not enough to tell. We will return to this group of jars later. More vessels were placed above bowl B8127 and its surrounding vessels (Plan 3.30). They included two large bowls (B8116 and B8117, the last slightly damaged, shown in contour in Plan 3.31). A juglet (B8155) was found on bowl B8116 and animal bones (B8114) mainly in bowl B8117. Two carinated bowls (B8118, 8120, not in the plans) were stuck east of bowl B8117, with a slant that suggests the edge of the burial zone at this stage. It is difficult to know if all these vessels were related to burial B8155 of the lower phase, or to a later burial that did not survive. They are still earlier than burial B8154 of the upper phase (L765). There was an imposition of vessels here, but this does not necessarily imply distinct temporal phases. The records of L765 and L769 state that there is a separation between the two loci, created by a thick layer (c. 30 cm) of hamra and crushed kurkar. However, the locus cards of both L769 and L765 lack textual descriptions. A drawn section exists for W-D73 in L765, but it does not document the area of the burials. Yet, in this case there was indeed an intermediate layer, since the differences between the highest finds of burial B8155 and the lowest finds of burial B8154 is 15–20 cm. We do not know if this fill was an intentional covering of burial B8155, soon after interment, or a later fill made by those who carried out burial B8154. It was not a natural collapse of the kurkar ceiling, since the finds were not crushed or badly fragmented. Southern Burial Zone, Upper Phase: L765 (Plan 3.31; Figs. 3.49–50) There was only one primary burial in L765 (B8154, 40 years old or more), resting supine, oriented southwest–northeast with the head in the northeast and the face turned to the south. The right arm was extended, the left arm folded on the pelvis, and the legs were extended. Finds that certainly belong to this burial are a bronze pin on the left shoulder (B7976), two juglets in the pelvis area (B7998, B7999), and possibly a second bronze pin on the right leg (B7901). South of the deceased there was a bowl (B7973) with animal bones (B7974), and a carinated bowl (B9777). Other finds are probably related to secondary burial/s that preceded burial B8154. A skull was found in the section at the southern side of the locus (B8158, age 20 years old or younger), and its relation to the present phase is not clear. There were two juglets nearby (B8000, B8001). Two jars (B7972, B7978) were added west of burial B8154, among the former heap of six jars of © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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L769. Most likely the new jars relate to burial B8154. South of the jars there were a bowl (B7995) with animal bones inside it (B7994), a smaller bowl (B7993), a carinated bowl (B7966), a juglet (B7979), and a jug (B7992). They rested above the jars of L769, and it is impossible to know if they belonged to B8154 or to relocated, earlier secondary burials. The incomplete Jar B8032 (L769, Plan 3.30) was probably damaged after being deposited, missing one part and without mark of the rim. The same is true for jar B7832 (L765, Plan 3.31): it had fallen and Fig. 3.49: Tomb F4, L765 looking northeast. Jars B7978, B7972 the restoration of the upper body and rim left; bowl B7995 (with animal bones B7994) below the jars; legs of shown in Plan 3.31 is impossible, because B8154 top right. if the jar was complete no place is left for the feet of burial B8154 of the upper phase. The only possible explanation is that those who placed burial B8154 had cut these two jars in order to make room for the feet. They did not extract jar B7832 and moved it elsewhere, because the jar was already fallen, and likely partially covered by earth. These two jars were therefore earlier, and not related to the phase of burial B8154. A carinated bowl (B7831) ‘joins’ jars B8138 and B8138, but we cannot know if it was there from the time of L769, or was added later. If these observations are correct, those who interred burial B8154 were not responsible for adding the layer of crushed kurkar and hamra. Rather, when they arrived the ground level was already higher than burial B8155 of L769 and the earlier burials and finds were (at least partially) hidden from view. The ‘newcomers’ excavated down and cut the jars in order to make room for the legs of burial B8154. According to the records, a layer of crushed kurkar and hamra also covered the later L765 finds, though there was no later burial phase above them. As suggested earlier, this could be a natural layer forming from the kurkar roof Fig 3.50: Tomb F4, L765 looking west. Bowls B7973, B9777 left of skeleton above, or an accumulation of B8154. On B8154 two juglets (B7998 and B7999). Jars B7972 and B7978 (top); certain water- and wind- swept lower and right of them earlier jars B7832, B8138, B8031. Head of jar B8111 materials. is visible left of jar B7972 (above bowl B7995).

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Wall D73 with its three courses blocked the entrance to the tomb. There is only a schematic drawing and a section of this wall and its exact position is estimated (Plan 3.31). Some surprise was expressed in the records as to why the loci in the northern burial zone ‘shrank’ with time, with later burials being confined to a smaller space than the early ones. The same phenomenon, however, is found in the southern zone with B8154, which was added to a space mostly filled up by earlier burials and finds. The edges of the burial zones had probably curved upward in a bell-shape. Hence, the area for burial was larger at the bottom. The higher the burials, the less space was available for them. This phenomenon might also explain why walls were required at the entrances, between the burial zones and the shaft. The walls were not markers for the burials or to separate different areas in the grave, but mainly support walls to protect against collapse down into the shaft area of the burial zones, which had grown higher. Tomb F5 Loci 700, 705, 711, 720, 752, 757; Squares D6–7 There are two versions in the excavation files regarding the stratigraphy of tomb F5. Both versions agree that the tomb has a sealing material (L700) and two burial zones––northern and southern. The first version defines two phases in each burial zone. In the southern zone the upper phase is L705 and L711; while the lower is L752. In the northern zone the upper phase is L720 and the lower is L757, and they are separated by a wall. The second (probably later) version defines only one phase for the southern burial zone (L752), since L705 and L711 are interpreted as part of the shaft area above the burial zones. TOMB F5, SHAFT: L700 (Plan 3.32). This locus is defined as sealing material, composed of silt and devoid of archaeological finds. The locus was closed (at 46.07 m) when bones were discovered. By this stage, two walls were already visible at the sides of the entrance, one on the south and one on the north (W-D60, W-D61). There is some confusion about the marking of these walls in texts and plans; we follow the marking of W-D61 in the south and WD60 in the north. TOMB F5: L705 (Plan 3.32) This locus is directly under L700. Scattered, disarticulated human bones were found (B7090; their nature is unknown and they are not shown in the plan). A bronze dagger (B7016) was also found in the silt. There were also some sherds and a wild boar’s jaw (B7004, much higher and not related to the human bones). Although interpreted as a burial layer above the burial zones of F5, the finds here are actually at the same height and alongside, not above, L720. They are not necessarily later and their humble nature does not indicate a significant burial phase. TOMB F5: L711 (Plan 3.32; Fig. 3.51) Located under L705 and below W-D60 and W-D61, this locus included more sherds. One nearly complete (carinated?) bowl, lacking the rim, was found at the center (Plan 3.32: A). A second bowl is partly seen below W-D60 Fig. 3.51: Tomb F5, L711 looking north. Wall D60 top left; W-D61 bottom (Plan 3.32: B). These bowls did left; vessels A and B under W-D60. not receive individual basket numbers, but were joined to general baskets of sherds. A young sheep/goat was found at the bottom of L711 (B8078). The head was in the west and the legs in the east, but the jaw was farther to the north with one more leg bone (Plan 3.32, between the label F5 and point A). These finds from L711 are not above the burial zones (L720, L752, L757), but beside them. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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According to the records, L711 was separated from L705 by a layer of hamra. This was first added as a remark on the locus card, and later specified further in the summary page as a half-meter thick layer of crushed kurkar and hamra. However, L711 spans the levels from c. 45.09 m at the bottom (animal bones B8078), to 45.64 m at the top. A half-meter- thick hamra layer above L705 does not accord with levels attributed to L705 (for example, dagger B5016 at 45.66 m). Moreover, the records state that the finds from both L711 and L705 were found in silt. Either the layer in between was not so thick, or it was irregular. TOMB F5, NORTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L720, L757 This burial zone was divided into two loci (L757 and L720), but since the phasing does not fully correspond with either locus, we will define the phases here as Phases 1–2. Phase 1, Northern Burial Zone: L720, L757 (Plan 3.33; Fig. 3.52) This burial phase, the earlier in the northern zone, is composed of the finds of L757 and an earlier part of L720. Locus 757 is lower in level, but it occupies only part of the entire southern zone, namely, its northern and central areas. The finds of L757 that we attribute to Phase 1 are located at the southwestern part of the burial zone. Together, the Phase 1 finds were spread in a crescent-like shape along the outside edge of the burial zone (we added an estimated contour in Plan 3.33: rounded dotted line). However, Phase 1 has only secondary burials, and the superimposition of a few bones one above the other is part of the nature of such burials, not proof of distinct layers. For example, there were two skulls one under the other (B7423 below B7422) in L757, but even the excavators agree that both belong to the same phase. The possibility that L757 formed a continuation of ‘early’ L720 was mentioned in the records, but not followed. Circumstances dictated that L720 was excavated first; only later the area was extended to L757. Perhaps the burial ground was not completely even, but slanted slightly to the southwest, so that the L757 finds were higher than those of ‘early’ L720. This is not certain––we do not have sufficient measurements along skeletons to verify a slanting of the ground. The measures of scattered bones may reflect differences of levels within secondary heaps, rather than the shape of the ground. The remains of at least four individuals were found in secondary burial in Phase 1, L757: 1. B7520 (at the center, c. 3 years old): skull and some scattered bones of a child. 2. B7521 (west of B7520, c. 4 years old): skull, lower jaw, ribs, and hand bones of a child (the skull was found above the ribs). 3. B7522 (30–40 years old): jaw, foot bones, and an arm bone (humerus) of an adult. 4. B7523 (age/sex unknown): only postcranial bones (two tibia Fig. 3.52: Tomb F5, L720 looking northeast. Phase 1, from right to left: Skulls and one radius) of another B7422 above B7423, B7426, B7427; Skull B7425, bone B7436, bones and individual. skull B7437.

Small finds were discovered with these secondary bones: a carinated bowl (B7606); two scarabs (B7608, B7462); a juglet (B7679, broken?); two bronze pins found together (B7680) under the juglet; and another juglet (B7678). Six more individuals in secondary burial were found in the part of L720 that we attribute to Phase 1: 1–2. B7422 (40–50 years old, based on teeth) above B7423 (sex/age unknown): two skulls found one above the other. 3. B7424 (not clear in the plan, 10 years old or younger): skull and few postcranial bones. 4. B7425 (male, 20–25 years old): skull with a jaw. 5. B7436 (5–15 years old): skull. 6. B7437 (probably male, 20–30 years old): skull resting on its jaw. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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The finds discovered with and among these six individuals included two carinated bowls (B7426, B7427), and one probably broken juglet (B7428). Phase 2, Northern Burial Zone: L720 (Plan 3.34; Figs. 3.53–54) This phase includes later remains in L720. Two primary burials were found, both oriented east–west with the head in the east. 1. B7364 (30 years old or more) (Plan 3.34: gray): primary burial. The left leg was extended and the right leg slightly folded. The upper body seems to be badly preserved and the coloring in the plan is tentative. The head is not securely identified in the plan. B7364 was described as having both arms on the pelvis, but the right arm may have been on the chest. 2. B7365 (15–18 years old) (Plan 3.34: right of B7364): primary burial. Both legs were slightly folded, with the knee of the right leg above the leg of B7364. The face of B7365 was turned to the south and the right arm placed on the pelvis.

Fig. 3.53 (top): Tomb F5, L720 looking south after removal of W-D60. Start of Phase 2 with jar B7385 and a bone of burial B7365 at bottom right. Fig. 3.54 (bottom): Tomb F5, L720 looking north. Phase 2; two primary burials B7364 and B7365. Jar B7385 on the left.

It is difficult to interpret the two lower arm bones (?) that seem to ‘connect’ the two skeletons. If they belong to B7365, the position on the chest of B7364 is peculiar. Maybe they belong to B7365, and then the left arm of B7365 was placed on the pelvis.

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A flask (B7403) and a juglet (B7380) can be ascribed to burial B7364. The flask (B7403) was marked and mentioned as the round vessel under the right leg. However, a broken unnumbered vessel between the legs looks like a flask (Plan 3.34:1) while the round vessel under the leg looks like a shallow bowl. Perhaps the much broken vessel was collected as one basket with the bowl. Two round basalt items found on the lower chest (B7404) belong to burial B7365, and a scarab (B7375, only half survived) perhaps from the left hand, though the hand is not clear in the plan. The small bones under the feet of both burials, south of the pottery vessels (Plan 3.34: point 2), belong to the earlier Phase 1. A tiny bone fragment, shown in the plan of Phase 1 (Plan 3.33: A), is probably a piece of the leg of burial B7365 of Phase 2. The bronze pin marked in the plan near this bone is probably B7243. The scarab (B7308) found between the legs of B7364 and B7365 and attributed to B7365 is not part of Phase 2, but of the secondary burials of Phase 1 beneath it. A row of three jars was discovered near the feet of B7365 (B7385–B7387). Below the shoulder of jar B7385 there was a carinated bowl (B7247). It is impossible to know to which burial each jar belonged. A secondary burial was found at the southwestern edge of the locus (B7407, 35–45 years old). It included a skull, lower jaw with teeth, arm bones, and leg bones. The plan (Plan 3.34: point 3) shows also skull B7437 of Phase 1. The fact that finds and bones of the lower phase appear already in plans made of the upper phase indicates that there was no separation between the phases. One more burial (B7363) was marked in the locus card and identified as a primary burial; but it is not evident in the plan and was later erased from the card. The basket is that of a juglet registered from L720, but not identified in the plan. TOMB F5, SOUTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L752 Although defined as one locus, the records noted three burial phases (1–3) that could not be separated into real layers. The locus card lacks text, and we have to rely mainly on the later summary page. Phase 1, Southern Burial Zone: L752 (Plan 3.35) In this earliest phase, part of a primary burial was found (B8094, 30–40 years old male). It was oriented roughly east–west with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The right arm was folded on the chest. The left arm, the pelvis and the legs are completely missing. The deceased was described as resting on the right side, but this is not certain. To this burial belonged a juglet (B8044) found on the left shoulder. Secondary burials representing at least four individuals were defined as part of this phase. Two of them were found in the western edge of the locus: 1. B8095 (30–40 years old): skull. 2. B8096 (30 years or more): skull. With skulls 1 and 2 there were animal bones (B8050), a juglet (B8043) and a bronze pin (B8054). The plan shows quite a lot of bones (Plan 3.35: A) near these skulls, including a shoulder bone, a lower leg bone and pelvis parts. The two other individuals (B8092, B8093) are represented in the plan by a thin crescent-like line of very small bones (Plan 3.35: B): 3. B8092 (child, 10–11 years old): skull and long bones. 4. B8093 (adult, 40 years old or more): a lower jaw. A bowl (B7957) and a juglet at the entrance to the burial zone (B7960, not clear in the plan) were also attributed to Phase 1, largely due to their levels. Phase 2, Southern Burial Zone: L752 (Plan 3.36; Fig. 3.55) One primary burial and four secondary burials were found in this phase, added directly on top of the former burials without any separation: 1. B7963 (18–25 years old): primary burial, placed supine, oriented southwest–northeast with the head in the northeast and the face turned to the west. The right leg was extended, the left leg folded and the feet placed under the other leg. The arms were folded on the pelvis. 2. B8080 (20–30 years old): secondary burial; a skull and postcranial fragments of an adult. 3. B7964 (age unknown): secondary burial; a skull and long bones of a child 3. B8184 (20–30 years old): secondary burial; a lower jaw of an adult. The location is not clear; the mark in the plan might be an approximation. 4. B7965 (20–30 years old): secondary burial; a skull of an adult. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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The anthropological report noted that part of the bones of the secondary burials in this phase were still in articulation. Hence, it seems that they once belonged to primary burials, which were interred in the same locus and pushed aside to make room for more burials. They are not bones collected from another place outside this tomb. The excavators tried to allocate the finds to the various burials, but this is almost impossible. To the primary burial one can probably ascribe the two juglets closest to the head (B7969 with its edge under the head, and piriform juglet B8057). The other small vessels near the head may be related to it or to the secondary burials: three juglets (B8062, B8085, B8060); two carinated bowls (B8059, B8063); and a unique juglet with trefoil rim and crescent-shaped body (B8061, an askos?). Other finds were found farther away and were probably related to the secondary burials: part of a bowl (B7941) and three juglets (B9744 near skull B7965, B7393, and B7938). Comparison of the plans of Phases 1–2 (Plans 3.35–36) raises a difficulty. A long bone of Phase 1 (Plan 3.35: C) seems to fit to a Fig. 3.55: Tomb F5, L752 looking east. Primary burial B7963 top; bowl pelvis of Phase 2 (Plan 3.36: C) seen B7957 left center; secondary bones with bowl B7941 at bottom. among a group of bones, which included animal bones (B7966) as well as human bones (B8184). Can these bones be the pelvis and leg bones of the primary burial B8054 of Phase 1? More complicated is the fact that some small human bones shown in Phase 1 (Plan 3.35: B) reappear in Phase 2 (Plan 3.36), only moved c. 20–25 cm to the north (the bones are precisely the same in the original two drawings, even if they appear slightly different in the final ones). The records state that these bones represent two individuals in the earlier Phase 1, and these individuals were given basket numbers (B8092, B8093). Thus, they should belong with Phase 1. The identical drawing suggests that they were not drawn twice in two separate phases, but ‘duplicated’ in the drawings; however, this could have been a means of timesaving by the draftsperson (who could use the Phase 2 drawing as basis for that of Phase 1). Yet the bones also fit Phase 2 and were already exposed in this phase. This we deduce from the angle of the body of B7963. The upper body curves, because there was no place to put it straight, since the secondary heaps with these bones occupied the area. Thus, we conclude the bones existed and were already exposed in Phase 2, and remained after its removal, being finally ascribed to Phase 1. We do not know how to explain the shift of c. 20–25 cm between the drawings of the two phases (Plans 3.35–36). However, if we shift the finds of Phase 1 20–25 cm south, so that the arch of small bones in Phase 2 would fit the same bones as drawn in Phase 1 (Plan 3.35: B), than burial B8094 of Phase 1 is no longer situated under burial B7963, but alongside it. This seems much more logical: rather than assuming two distinct, unrelated phases, with one burial placed directly on another (B7963 on B8094), we have here a process of moving earlier burials aside and adding a primary burial next to them. Possibly, the bones of the lower body of B8094 were removed to make room for B7963.

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Phases 3–4, Southern Burial Zone: L752 (Figs. 3.56–57) The anthropological report adds two later phases of burials to L752, which are not discussed by the excavators. The bone baskets mentioned in the anthropological report do appear in the basket list as originating from L752, and with levels that are similar to those of bones in Phases 1 and 2. Most of these baskets (but not all) are mentioned in the basket list as originating from “a section” or from “section B”. None is mapped (except B8184, which appears in Plan 3.36). Some photos exist of the Phase 4 remains, proving that they are quite substantial. Yet without more data one cannot offer a reconstruction, but only cite the anthropological report. In Phase 3, the bones of at least five individuals were identified as “above” the bones of Phase 2: 1. B7882 (18–25 years old): primary burial, a lower leg in articulation, and a skull. The rest of the skeleton was allegedly disturbed by secondary burials 2–5. 2. B7964: secondary burial, a skull. 3. B8080: secondary burial, a skull. 4. B7965: secondary burial, a skull. 5. B8184: secondary burial, a skull. The four secondary burial were described as placed in a circle close to each other, with postcranial bones in between them. Three more secondary burials each included a skull and postcranial bones. Their ages were estimated as 30 years old or more (B7881); 18–25 years old (B7883); and 20 years old or more (B7884). Another skull was of unknown age (B7885). Phase 4 (Figs. 3.56–57) included one primary burial (B7605); one possibly primary burial (B7809); and two secondary burials (B7810 east of B7605, B7811 probably west of it): 1. B7605 (30–40 years old): primary burial placed on the left side, oriented east–west with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The legs were slightly folded. There were a few more human bones nearby, which were not related with this burial. 2. B7809 (age/sex unknown): possibly primary burial, which included articulated arm bones, possibly articulated leg bones, and some ribs. They were badly preserved. 3. B7810 (c. 3 years old). Secondary burial; a child’s skull east of B7605. 4. Unknown basket (18–25 years old): secondary burial; an upper jaw and postcranial bones of an adult. The anthropological report also mentions a heap of postcranial bones including two femur bones, one radius, one ulna, etc., at the northeastern part of the locus.

Fig. 3.56: Tomb F5, L752 looking south. W-D61 at bottom. Burial B7605 (Plan 3.33). Jars B7657, B7655. Juglet B7658 above jars.

Finds related to burial B7605 included parts of bone inlay (B7572), which were (according to photos) found in a rectangular pattern near the elbow, suggesting a small box (Fig. 3.57). Two jars near the head (B7655–B7657) may have also belonged to this burial, as well as a bowl on the shoulder area (B7652) and a dipper juglet (B7658). Five scarabs were also registered from L752 (B7421 from a section, B7704, B7822, B7850, B7915); but they were not marked on maps and cannot be ascribed to particular phases/burials. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 3.57: Tomb F5, L752 looking south. The arm of burial B7605 with decorated bones B7572.

Tomb F6 Loci 706, 719, 756; Squares DE/5–6 According to the records, Tomb 6 consists of only two burials zones: a northern zone with two phases (upper L706, lower L719) and a southern one with one phase (L756). However, a second version presents L706 as the sealing material of F6, with L719 and L756 as the burial zones located beneath it. This is indeed a more accurate description of F6. TOMB F6: L706 (Plan 3.37, Fig. 3.58) This is the upper locus in Tomb F6. It is a relatively small oval contour of silt surrounded by kurkar, which probably marks the shaft area. A pithos was found here, lying on the side and broken (B7041). Two juglets (B7184, B7191) and a carinated bowl (B7192) were exposed north of it. The locus also included numerous pottery sherds. The records also mention poorly preserved human bones, including a few teeth of a 15–20-year-old individual; but no basket of human bones was Fig. 3.58: Tomb F6, L706 looking northeast. Pithos B7041. registered from L706. TOMB F6, NORTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L719 (Plan 3.38; Fig. 3.59) Locus 719 is lower and earlier than L706, but mostly besides it. The finds in this locus were found set in the hamra. There is only one burial phase with one primary burial (B7441, 18–25-year-old male). The deceased was placed supine, oriented east–west with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The arms were probably placed on the pelvis and the legs were extended. The finds associated with this burial include a juglet on the right arm (B7452), a juglet on the chest (B7453), and three bowls south of the body (B7379, B7302, and carinated bowl B7303). A scarab (B7433) was found near the legs. More human bones were found in L719 (B7218), mentioned in the locus card as “a second burial phase”. They included only one toe of an adult and two neck vertebrae. These bones may be shown east of jars B7483, B7485 (Plan 3.38: 1).

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Fig. 3.59: Tomb F6, L719 looking north. Skeleton B7441; jar B7492 of L756 at the left.

Two jars (B7483, B7485) with a juglet (B7484, inside B7483) stood west of skeleton B7441 and not close to it. Another juglet (B7149) is not marked in the plan; it was found at higher level than the burial with other pottery sherds (B7053, B7062, B7071, B7092, B7103, B7114, and B7142). TOMB F6, SOUTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L756 (Plan 3.39; Fig. 3.60). The southern burial zone of F6 included only secondary burials with many finds in a heap that had no distinct phases, but only an accumulation of vessels. The lowest finds (Plan 3.39a) included one juglet in the east (B7873) and a heap of bones and finds in the west. The bones represented at least four individuals in secondary burial: 1. B8099 (age/sex unknown; not seen in the plan): a skull. 2. B7701 (20–30 years old): a skull. 3. B7702 (30–40 years old): a skull. 4. B8100 (age/sex unknown): parts of a skull, pelvis, arm, thigh, and other bones. Finds among and above the bones included a bowl (B7708); a juglet (B7878); a second bowl (B7872); and a bronze pin (B7879). Above these finds there was another bowl (B7709; slanted on its side). The anthropological report assumes that B8099 and B8100 belong to an earlier phase in relation to B7701 and B7702. B8099 and B8100 are described as found in a pile of bones, together with remains of two more individuals, which are missing from the locus card and summary pages: Fig. 3.60: Tomb F6, L756 looking south. Jar B7487 left, 5. B7613 (female, 20–30 years old): skull and B7488 middle, B7490+7492 right.

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long bones 6. B7614 (male, 18 years old or younger): skull and long bones. More finds were placed on top of the former remains (Plan 3.39b). They included three shallow bowls (B7662, B7568, B7569, placed upside down above skulls B7701 and B7702); a carinated bowl placed above these bowls (B7557); a jar (B7616); and a shallow bowl (B7710, partially above jar B7616). Two other smaller items are marked in the plan (Plan 3.39b: 1), but have no basket numbers, so their nature is unclear. Animal bones (B7666) were also found. Three jars were also found (B7487, B7488, and B7490) (Plan 3.39c; Fig. 3.60). Their bases are set quite low, so they form part of the assemblage of bones and small finds of Plans 3.39a–b, rather than to a later phase. A juglet (B7492) was found in jar B7490. Farther to the east there was another juglet (B7491) and a crumbling jar (B7497). Tomb F7 Loci 725=707=723, 739, 746; Square E5 Tomb F7 is a small shaft tomb. Its stratigraphy was summarized in the records as sealing material in the shaft (L725) and two burial zones underneath––a northern zone (L739) and southern zone (L746). TOMB F7, SHAFT AREA: L725=L707=L723 (Plan 3.40; Figs. 3.61–62) Since L725 was equated at an early stage with loci 707 and 723, there are no separate loci cards for L707 and L723. Based on the basket list, L707 included only pottery sherds (c. 12 baskets) and was apparently located above and alongside L725 and L723. L723 was at the center of the area (with three jars, B7082– B7084); and L723 was farther north (with small vessels). The excavators described a rectangular patch of silt (which is the contour of L723). Remains of human bones representing one individual were found in secondary burial: a lower jaw, right thigh (femur) fragment, one tibia and fragments of the skull cap of an adult male (B7274, 17–20 years old).

Fig. 3.61 (left): Tomb F7, L707 looking north. Jars B7083 (left); B7064 (middle), and B7082 (right). Fig. 3.62 (right): Tomb F7, L707 looking north. The sign is in L707; at top behind the finds is L725. At center, bones B7274 and left of them skull fragment B7204. At right is top of jar B7507 (L739) and at left is L739 with jar B7513 and other vessels.

These bones were found at the foot of jar B7082. This is the eastern and earliest jar in a row of three jars (B7082, B7064, B7083). B7064 in the middle is set higher and seems to have damaged B7082. Jars B7064 and B7083 lack rims (these may have been cut off by the development work prior to the excavation). A juglet (B7084) was found south of jar B7082, but at a much higher level. North of the jars there were a juglet (B7204) and carinated bowl (B7224). Fragments of two more juglets (B7249 and B7250, not drawn in the plans) were probably found near B7724 and B7204, at the bottom of the shaft (not as they appear on the locus card). The records presented these remains as a last phase of burial, which was later than L739 and L764. It was placed in the shaft, thus blocking it. However, at least the smaller finds at the bottom continue the finds of L739. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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TOMB F7, NORTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L739 (Plan 3.41; Figs. 3.63–65) Locus 739 includes two primary burials of children in the east (B7509, B7510) and a large heap of vessels with secondary burials of a child and an adult (B7511, B7512) in the west. There is only one phase in this locus. 1. B7509 (2.5–3.5 years old): primary burial, placed supine, oriented east–west with the head in the east and the face turned upward and slightly to the north. The left arm was placed along the body, and the right arm probably in a similar position. The legs were folded toward one another. 2. B7510 (sex/age unknown, Plan 3.41: gray): primary burial, found next to B7509. The direction was also east–west, but only the skull, lower jaw and upper body were found. The jaw was interpreted as resting in situ, while the skull had been removed for some reason to the north. The jaw was described as in the west, but the plan may show it in the east (Plan 3.41: A). This also fits the direction of the body parts, as shown in the plan. Anyway, B7510 was disturbed, probably by B7509, whose right leg was placed above the ribs of B7510. We ascribe the juglet near the left shoulder (B7377) to B7509, and probably also jar B7505 with a juglet inside it (B7508), and juglet B7507 and bowl B7506 outside it. Of course, the jar could also have belonged to burial B7510. One juglet near the head may also belong to B7510 (juglet B7455, perhaps not in its original position) and another on the chest (B7457). Four other juglets could belong to either burial (B7533–B7535, B7543). A large bowl (B7449) was found west of the feet of B7509 and above skull B7511 (shown as a contour in Plan 4.41, and fully in Plan 3.42); one cannot say to which specific burial it belonged. A large heap of secondary burials and vessels was found on the western side of the locus. The secondary burials were found at the bottom, below the vessels: 1. B7511 (child, 2–3 years old): skull and upper jaw. The records state that nearby to the east, articulated leg bones were found leg bones, oriented west–east, probably belonging to it. The leg bones are seen in the plan (Plan 3.41: B) with the skull immediately east of them. 2. B7512 (adult, age/sex unknown): skull and lower jaw. It was identified on the plan with a few bones west of B7511. It is doubtful whether the positions of B7511 and B7512 on the plan are accurate; we left them as marked in the original plans.

Fig. 3.63: Tomb F7, L739, looking north. Jar B7507 right; children B7509 and B7510 behind; leg bones B and C at center. Jar B7513 left with bowls B7544 (larger) and B7673 behind. Note kurkar layer above.

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The folded leg bones attributed to B7511 included, it seems, also part of another lower leg (Plan 3.41: C); which may indicate a primary burial oriented east–west with the head in the east, in the place occupied later by the children. With the secondary burials there were several finds: a bowl (B7536); a larger bowl (B7636); a fragment of another bowl (B7672); a small bowl (B7671); and a juglet (B7670). Another juglet was probably found nearby, to judge by levels (B7493, not shown in the plan; probably hidden beneath other vessels). There were also animal bones (B7567), marked mainly above bowl B7536, but found also above bowl B7673. Many more vessels were placed above the former remains (Plan 3.42). Proceeding clockwise from jar B7513 and bowl B7544, we see a small jar (B7456); a jar (B7453); a small jar or jug (B7446) with a juglet (B7443) at its mouth; a jar (B7444); a bowl (B7447); a jar (B7464) with a juglet (B7480) inside; and a bronze knife (B7471). More vessels inside the heap, partly above the vessels outside, include a jar (B7469), and an unclear vessel (B7445, jug/jar?). Fig. 3.64: Tomb F7, L739 looking west. Jar B7507 bottom left, bones B The identification of two more items (a jar and a juglet: B7465, B7472) is and C at center, jar B7513 top. not completely certain. In the plan there is also a large bowl (B7454); south of it a large jug lying on the side (B7465); and a small piece of a juglet (B7472). West of B7472 and B7465 there is a fragmented vessel between the two jars B7464 and B7513 (Plan 3.42: 2, basket not identified). A possible reconstruction for L739 would be as follows: This was a primary adult burial (leg bones, Plan 3.41: B), to which some of the lower vessels in the west probably belonged, such as jar B7513 and bowl B7536 (and perhaps also B7673). It was then partially removed and the two children (first B7510, then B7509) were buried. Locus 739 includes more pottery vessels than the apparent average for Area F shaft burials. There were 37 items here, not counting the human bones; that is, an average of c. 9 items per burial, if we interpret the leg bones as related to skull B7712 (and not another, fifth individual). According to the locus card, L739 included the largest number of vessels in one burial zone at Rishon le-Zion, and the children were interpreted as the reason for it. However, adults usually received more burial gifts than children in the MB II. Moreover, adults as well as children were buried in L739. This is in fact not the highest rate of finds per burial at Rishon le-Zion––actually L746 in the same tomb holds that record (below). TOMB F7, SOUTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L746 (Plan 3.43; Figs. 3.66–67) The finds of L746, especially in its central part, are badly preserved, to the extent that it is difficult even to determine whether some of the burials are primary or secondary. The finds were placed on the hamra, covered with silt and topped by a thick layer of crushed kurkar and hamra. Kurkar rock was found above this layer. Relatively few bones are seen in the plan, but the records specify four individuals based mainly on skulls (more precisely, parts of skulls), all found in the eastern part of the locus, as follows: 1. B7516 (age/sex unknown): skull and long bones.

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Fig. 3.65 (above): Tomb F7, L739, looking west. Jar B7507 (bottom); bowl B7449 (right center); Heap of vessels at top––its lower row is B7453 (right); B7442 (middle) and B7444 (left). Fig. 3.66 (below): Tomb F7, L746 looking northeast. Bowl B7586 upper left; carinated bowl B7954 lower left; jar B7579 right, at center bottom is skull B7519.

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Fig. 3.67: Tomb F7, L746 looking southwest. Bowl B7586 bottom right; skull B7519 top right.

2. B7517 (age/sex unknown): close to and east of the former, a skull and long bones (the skull is not seen in Plan 3.43). 3. B7518 (25–35 years old): teeth and fragments of postcranial bones. 4. B7519 (18 years old or younger): skull and teeth. These remains are obviously secondary burials, especially B7516 and B7517 on a small heap of bones and vessels. B7460 in the southwestern part of the locus was registered as a bead, but the plan shows quite a few beads; probably moved from a primary burial when still on a thread. It is impossible to relate any find to a specific skull, and we will list the finds clockwise from the northeastern part. Together with B7516 and B7517, in what looks like a small heap of secondary burial, a juglet (B7595) was found, along with a bowl (B7583); a small jar (B7579); three juglets near the jar (B7579, B7582, B7560); a silver ring (B7596); and six small juglets (B7596, B7597, B7434, and at lower levels B7645, B7648, B7649). A carinated bowl (B7758) and a juglet (B7759) were found slightly to the east of the latter juglets. Two juglets (B7590, B7589) were also found west of jar B7579. More juglets (B7598, B7591, B7592, B7593) were discovered Farther south and near bones B7518 and B7519. At the southwest edge of the locus there were beads (B7460) and a carinated bowl (B7594). Farther to the north a bronze pin (B7755) and a large bowl (B586, partly damaged) were found. A juglet (B7587); a Tell elYahudiyeh juglet (B7706); a bronze pin (B7754); a large bowl (B7760); a juglet (B7753); two carinated bowls (B7761, B7762); a scarab (B7681); and a bronze pin (or pins, B7716; exact location not certain) were placed along the northwestern edge of the locus. One more juglet (B7580) was not identified in the plan. The locus shows only few large vessels (only one rather small jar and two bowls), but plenty of small ones (mainly juglets). This is very different from L739 in the same tomb, where there are many large vessels (and a similar numbers of burials). Since there is no second phase in either the southern or northern burial zones of F7, the thick layers of crushed kurkar and hamra above the burials are not an intentional layer separating phases of burial. Rather, they are probably a natural accumulation.

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Tomb F8 Locus 708; Square E1 Tomb F8 (Plan 3.44; Fig. 3.68) is a pit tomb, the only one in this area of shaft tombs. In fact, it is located quite some distance from them. It was dug into the hamra and filled with silt. The contour is described as elliptical with stones around it, interpreted as markers or traces of a wall that prevented collapse into the grave. Similar stones were also found inside the tomb, and were more likely remains of the higher kurkar layer near the tomb, which was removed by the bulldozers prior to the excavation. The deceased (B7089, 15–20 years old) was placed on the right side, oriented roughly east–west with the head in the east. The hands are described as placed near the head, but this is not evident from the plan. The legs were sharply folded. The skull was very badly preserved. Finds in Tomb F8 include a juglet near the head (B7085); possibly another juglet near the first one (Plan 3.44: A, not registered, probably discarded); a small bowl on the feet (B7056); a larger bowl west of it (Plan 3.44: B, probably discarded); another large bowl (B7075, damaged); and two jars (only the bases survived, B7074, B7026). The entire tomb was damaged prior to the excavation. The excavators suggested dating Tomb F8 to the MB IIA, though the reasons for this dating were not stated. The tomb was compared to the Area B tombs and also to the “MB IIA pit tombs in Area F”–– meaning Tomb F2 (which is presently interpreted as a shaft tomb, and dated to the MB IIB period). The excavators suggested that there was no kurkar layer in this area; therefore, it was impossible to create a shaft tomb and F8 was dug right into the hamra. Yet, the shape and height of the original surface near F8 are unknown, and the kurkar stones found in F8 hint that there was once a covering kurkar layer. Tomb F9 Loci 709, 716, 745, 763; Squares CD–5 Tomb F9 included two burial zones, each with two phases: a southern zone (lower phase L745, upper phase L716), and a northern zone (lower phase L763, upper phase L754). The shaft area between the two zones (L709) was interpreted as a sealing for both of them. TOMB F9, SHAFT AREA: L709 (Plan 3:45) This locus was a patch of silt in the kurkar, whose contour was described as unclear. The excavation area was enlarged into a roughly rectangular shape. The rim of a pithos was found in the southwest edge of L709, registered as part of L763 (B7747). Another small vessel (B7055), shown in the plans of L709, is part of the L716 assemblage (and is registered as L716 in the basket list). Directly related to L709 were only a few pottery sherds. TOMB F9, NORTHERN BURIAL ZONE, LOWER PHASE: L745 (Plan 3.45; Figs. 3.69–72) The burials and finds of L745 were placed on the hamra and surrounded with silt. According to the records, the burials were sealed with a thick layer of crushed kurkar and hamra that separated them from the later phase of L716. The first finds in L745 (Fig. 3.69) were two jars (B7502, B7524), which, like pithos B7747 in L709, crossed all the ‘phases’ of the burial zone. Two primary burials were found in L745, one besides the other (B7541, B7684). Both were placed supine in an east–west direction with the heads in the east and the legs extended. 1. B7541 (male, 40 years old or more) (Fig. 3.70): southern burial. The left arm was folded on the pelvis, and the right arm folded on the right shoulder. The face was turned upward. 2. B7684 (male, 35–45 years old) (Fig. 3.71): northern burial. The arms were extended with the hands on the pelvis; the face was probably turned upward, but the skull had shifted slightly after burial. It seems that each of the deceased wore a scarab. The scarab of B7684 was found near the pelvis, without a ring (B7700), which may have fallen from his left hand. That of B7541 was found east of the pelvis (B7478), also without a ring; probably it too had fallen from his left hand. To B7541 belonged two juglets found near the right elbow (B7570, B7571). Near the knees of B7684 there were three juglets: B7577, B7578, and one double-handled juglet lacking a basket number (Plan 3.45: A). There were bones in secondary burial nearby, so all of these juglets do not necessarily relate to B7684. Heaps of finds and secondary burials were found mainly south of the bodies, one group stretching from the feet to the south, another south of the upper body of B7541. Some finds at the bottom of these heaps are shown on a separate plan (Plan 3.46; Fig. 3.72), but they belong to the same phase. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 3.68 (left): Tomb F8, L708 looking south. Burial B7088 surrounded by jar bases B7026 and B7074 (right); three bowls (B7075, unknown basket, B7056 top); and two juglets (“A” and B7085, left). Fig. 3.69 (right): Tomb F9, L745 looking west. Start of excavation, jars B7524, B7502 and bowl B7504. At center, near the small white bone, were scaraboid B7417, ring B7370, and slightly lower, pin B7371. Fig. 3.70 (below): Tomb F9, L745 looking north. Burial B7565 and jars B7524 and B7502 (bottom). Left of them, skull B7563 and animal jaw B7560. Skeletons B7541 (right) and B7684 (partially exposed, left). Top right are bowls B7553 above B7554 above B7555. Skull B7561 top left corner.

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Fig. 3.71 (left): Tomb F9, L745 looking northeast. Skeleton B7684 fully exposed; skull B7563 above its feet. Fig. 3.72 (right): Tomb F9, L745 looking northeast. Lower group of juglets and bones B7562. Skull B=B7561 at upper left corner (?).

The following burials were secondary: 3. B7561 (40 years old or more): skull and long bones discovered in the area east and south of the upper body of B7541 (these bones are shown in Plan 3.45, as well as in Plan 3.46: B). South of B7561 there were animal bones (B7540). 4. B7562 (20–30 years old): a fragmented skull cap, teeth, and a few postcranial bones (Plan 3.46), found at the bottom of a heap of finds south of B7561. Below the skull of B7562 there was one juglet (B7795, not seen in the plan). Immediately to the south there were seven juglets (clockwise: B7642, B7639, B7636, B7643, B7640, B7644) and a carinated bowl (B7641). Several bowls were placed on top of these finds (Plan 3.45)––one row of three upside-down carinated bowls (B7553–B7555) and two larger, shallow bowls (B7558, B7559). A second ‘heap’ of secondary burials near the feet of B7541 and B7684 is less easy to decipher, since it seems that some items are wrongly identified in the plans (the textual summaries, made at a later date, are already based on these identifications). At first, based on the locus cards and earlier summaries, only three individuals were identified here (B7563–B7565): 5. B7563 (age/sex unknown): skull and postcranial bones (mainly hand and finger bones), identified in Plan 3.45 with a skull between the right leg of B7541 and the left leg of B7648. 6. B7565 (age/sex unknown): skull and postcranial bones, identified with a small heap of bones at the southeastern area of L745, near jar B7524. However, no skull is visible there in the plan. 7. B7564 (age/sex unknown): skull, identified with a small rounded feature southwest of the feet of B7648 (Plan 3.46). At a later stage, one more burial was added: 8. B8186 (5–10 years old): fragmented long bones, one radius, and one vertebra. However, it is not identified in any of the plans. At present, we cannot be certain that the identification of each skull in the plans is exact. Two skulls are visible in Plan 3.46: C–D. Skull C is probably B7563. We assume that skull D is B7565, resting below other bones and thus not yet visible in Plan 3.45. Skull B7563 (Plan 3.46: C) was found above the feet of primary burial B7684, though it belongs to a secondary burial, probably dating earlier than B7684. Perhaps the skull was placed on the feet for some reason; but it could also roll down from a nearby secondary heap. Whatever the exact scenario, it should serve as warning concerning tomb stratigraphy. An earlier item can be higher in level than a later one.

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The small finds in the heap with secondary individuals 5–8 included animal bones (B7560), a juglet (B7790), a scarab (B7514), and two bronze pins (B7515, B7830). All these finds are close to the feet of the primary burials (1 and 2 above). Near/on the bones of B7565 there were four juglets (B7547, B7545, B7542, B7537), two bronze pins (B7546, B7646), and a scarab (B7647). These small finds are roughly at the same level of the primary burials, with juglet B7790 slightly higher, presumably on top of the heap at the edge of the burial zone. Two jars were standing near this heap (B7502, B7524; with juglet B7503 in jar B7502); they could be related to it, to the primary burials, or to both. One should stress that these jars cross the entire span of L745 (top c. 45.40 m). Between them there was a carinated bowl (B7504). Three more small finds were discovered in the area interpreted as the entrance to L745, east of the jars B7502 and B7542: part of a bronze ring (B7370), a bronze pin (B7371), and a scaraboid (B7417). In a later summary page these finds were reported as found above the crushed kurkar and hamra layer that sealed L745. We will discuss this layer after presenting L716. TOMB F9, NORTHERN BURIAL ZONE, UPPER PHASE: L716 (Plan 3.47; Figs. 3.73–76) Like L745, Locus 716 also included a pair of primary burials side by side (B7330, B7265). According to registered levels of bones, both these burials were placed on the same, even level (c. 45.45 m). They were supine, in the same east–west direction, with the heads in the east. 1. B7330 (30–40-year-old male, based on the size of the femur): northern burial. The skull seems damaged, with the upper jaw missing. The left arm was folded on the chest and the right arm probably folded on the shoulder. The legs were extended. 2. B7265 (20–30-year-old female): southern burial. The position was identical to that of B7330, only the left hand was extended along the body and the legs were more spread. To burial B7330 we ascribe a juglet found at the left arm (B7329, not very clear in the plan, perhaps broken). Another feature near the pelvis is perhaps a kurkar stone or bones (Plan 3.47: A). The deceased carried a scarab on a finger of his left hand (B7284). To burial B7265 we ascribe the vessels found along the south side of the body: a jar (B7193; the registered levels are wrong, since it was much higher, see Fig. 3.73); a juglet (B7126); a shallow bowl above the elbow (B7226); and another juglet (B7266). South of skeleton B7330 there were two scarabamulets (B7271). At the feet of the two primary burials there were heaps of vessels and secondary burials: 3. B7331 (adult, 20–25-year-old; missing from the anthropological report): found in a heap with a bronze pin (B7330), southwest of the feet of B7330. 4. B7272 (adult, 20–30 years old): fragments of skull, teeth, and a few postcranial bones. With these bones there were two juglets (B7270, B7273); and––at the top of the heap––a carinated bowl (B7117) and a jug (B7116). The plan shows several similar features, so the identification of B7270, B7272, B7273 are not secure. Vessel B7055 (registered under L709, but at the same level as the former finds) was found slightly to the south. What happened to the lower legs of the primary burial B7265? This is somewhat of a mystery. They did not corrode due to humidity or acidity, because the other parts of the same skeleton survived, as also the nearby legs of B7330. The original plan suggested the start of one lower leg bone for B7265 (a small fragment, not visible in the final plan, in the location of Plan 3.47: B; compare Fig. 3.74). If entrance to the burial zone was from L709, burial B7330 was placed before burial B7265, which was the last burial in this burial zone. Thus, it is unlikely that the lower legs of B7265 were removed to make room for later burials (only the secondary heap with B7116 and B7117, and B7272 occupies some of this area, but it is very likely earlier than B7265). It seems that another part of the leg bones of B7265 survived under bowl B7117, and is visible in Fig. 3.74). Probably the missing bones were not drawn before B7265 had been removed––this happened before B7330 was fully exposed (Figs. 3.75–76). What is the relation between L745 and L716? The three small finds B7330, B7371, and B7417 (L745) were reported as later than the layer of crushed kurkar and hamra soil between the two loci. However, this is impossible, since these finds were discovered at a level of 45.27–45.20 m, roughly the same height as the top of the skulls of the primary burial in L745 and c. 20 cm lower that the top of jars B7502 and B7524. There are no later remains above burial B7684 of L745 (perhaps since the burial zone became too limited in area at this level). Burial B7330 of L716 was placed above burial B7541, and burial B7265 above the vessels of the heap east of B7451 (B7558, B7559, etc.). In this area there must have been a layer c. 20 cm thick between the skeletons and finds of L745, and those of L716. This layer was formed © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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probably soon after the primary burials of L745. An argument in favor of this interpretation is that those who placed the primary burials of L716 no longer saw the earlier burials, otherwise they would have pushed them aside, rather than add burials above them. The intermediate layer was not a roof collapse, since no severe damage was caused to the skeletons and vessels beneath it. It could not also be much later than the L745 burials, for if poured when the bones of L745 were already disarticulated, the skeletons would have been damaged. Therefore, it seems that the intermediate layer between L745 and L716 was an intentional fill, by those who buried the L716 burials, in order to protect them not from robbery or animals, but probably from damage by later burials.

Fig 3.73 (top left): Tomb F9, L716 looking east. Skeleton B7265; jar B7193 right; part of B7477 (L763) left. Fig. 3.74 (right): Tomb F9, L716 looking northeast. Skeleton B7265; Point B at edge of right leg; juglet B7266 and bowl B7226 right of left arm. Below are secondary bones with B7272. Fig. 3.75 (left): 3.75: Tomb F9, L716, looking north. Burial B7730. Fig. 3.76 (below): Tomb F9, L716 looking northeast. Burial B7730 fully exposed; B7731 below.

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TOMB F9, SOUTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L763, L754 Three primary burials were found in the southern burial zone. Unfortunately, the loci cards for both L763 and L754 lack textual description. Southern Burial Zone, Lower Phase: L763 (Plan 3.48; Fig. 3.77) The bodies and vessels of this phase were placed on the hamra and covered with silt, topped by a layer of crushed kurkar and hamra. Two primary burials (B7868, B7867) were found side by side, both supine and oriented east–west with the heads in the east and the legs extended. 1. B7868 (50 years old or more): southern burial. It was a male skeleton––following the anthropological report, not the locus card. The head was turned upward, the left arm folded on the hip and the right arm folded on the right shoulder. 2. B7867 (c. 8 years old): northern burial. The head was turned to the north and the left arm folded on the hip. The right arm was described as placed on the hip too (but is hidden by a jar in the plan). It seems that burial B7868 is the earlier of the two, since it is farther from the shaft. It was placed with a juglet on the chest (B7844) and a carinated bowl (B7845) near the right shoulder. Near the left knee there was a bronze dagger (B7847), perhaps broken since it is not shown in detail in the plan. To burial B7867 we ascribe a juglet south of the head (B7906). The two juglets (B7908, B7907) between the two skeletons could belonged to either B7867 or B7868. The two large bowls (B7903, B7904) at the feet were probably part of the earlier burial B7868. Bowl B7903 is shown as the upper one, but the level do not fit; either they are mistaken, or bowl B7904 Fig. 3.77: Tomb F9, L763 looking southwest. Jar B7909 above burial was the upper one. We think that B7867; burial B7868 left; jar base B7787 at the top. Bones A on the left bowl B7903 belongs to B7868, and leg of B7867. bowl B7904 belongs to B7867. The two jars farther to the west (B7787 and the larger B7786, in which two juglets were found, B7922 and B8052) fit burial B7868. This, because the later burial (B7867) has its own jars north of the upper body (B7909 and B7788; with juglet B7789 inside B7788). A carinated bowl (B7846), discovered on its narrow side, was tucked under jar B7788; it belonged to burial B7867. The small bowl (B7905) with animal bones on and near it (B7918) can fit the more northerly burial B7867. Some bones (Plan 3.48: A) near the right foot of B7867 are not part of it, and may have been animal bones. The arrangements of the skeletons and vessels, and their relatively good preservation, enable us to attribute many of them to a specific burial. It seems that each of the deceased received a fairly similar ‘set’ of funerary gifts––two jars, one carinated bowl, probably two juglets, and one or two bowls.

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Pithos B7747 in the area of L709 does not appear in the locus card or textual summaries of L763. It is actually registered in the basket list as part of L745 (the northern burial zone of F9). It is closer, however, to L763. It is impossible to know to which burial or phase it belongs; since it crosses the entire height of L763 and L754 (as a result, it was kept in place for a longer time than shallow vessels and was measured on more than one occasion, with minor variations in levels). It did not block the entrance to the burial zones. Southern Burial Zone, Upper Phase: L754 (Plan 3.49; Fig. 3.78) One primary burial was added in this phase (B7685). It survived well and the data enables us to interpret the stratigraphy. This burial was situated not above the former ones, but north of them (by the time it was added, the burial zone was more limited; the same phenomenon is seen elsewhere, for example in F9 L716). 1. B7685 (20 years old or more, but not much more, based on teeth): primary burial. The deceased was placed supine, oriented east–west with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were folded and the left arm folded on the hip. According to the records the second arm was also folded on the pelvis. The head of B7685 was placed on a bowl (B7696). A bronze pin was found east of the head (B7695). A smaller bowl was placed south of the lower chest (B7697); a scarab (B7699) was found under this bowl. On and near the pelvis and the upper leg there was a large bowl (B7698). The feet rested on top of jar B7786 (of former L763), whose upper part was ‘chopped’ off to allow for place. There was a jar (B7721) north of the feet, with a juglet (B7722) inside. South of the feet there was a jug (Plan 3.49), identified as B7787 in some records. However, B7787 is listed (as a jar) in the earlier L763 (Plan 3.48), and is not listed in the locus card or basket list of L754. Burial B7685 was placed at a level of roughly 45.26– 45.35 m, that is, some 20–30 cm above the top of the finds of L763. Thus, the excavators’ observations about an intermediate layer are correct. In this case we can deduce when this layer was placed. Jar B7786 was cut. Its shoulder (?) is marked as 45.42 m (Plan 3.49; the level 45.77 m in Plan 4.48 is perhaps that of the rim). The feet of the later burial B7685 resting on it are marked as 45.26 m. There is no reason to doubt this measure, since the knees are measured as 45.35 m. The jar was only partly ‘chopped’ away to enable the placement of the feet, while part of it remained higher. Plans 3.48 and 3.49 show where jar B7786 is broken in the form of a thin line––and the feet are placed precisely inside this missing part (see Fig. 3.78: top). These observations lead to the conclusion that those who interred primary burial B7685 had to chop part of jar B7786, in order to make room for Fig. 3.78: Tomb F9, L754 looking west. Later the feet. This proves at the time of adding B7685, the phase, burial B7685; jars B7721 and B7786 top; ground level was already higher, covering the earlier bowl B7696 bottom. phase. Jar B7786 was partly buried and they “excavated” into it or broken part of it out, and then placed there the feet of B7685. Therefore, the intermediate layer was placed before the start of the later phase L745. It was probably an intentional fill, placed in order to protect the burials of L765. Above the burial of L754 there were some kurkar stones with hamra soil (level measured as 45.69– 46.13 m). This could be the natural kurkar cover, damaged by the roadwork before the excavation. We suggest the following reconstruction for the southern burial zone of F9: the first burial phase included two burials, placed one after the other, probably with only a short interval between them (first B7868, then B7867). To protect the burials and perhaps also to enable more burials above them, a fill was placed over the bodies. Perhaps some taller vessels (jars) protruded out of this fill. Later, another burial was added (B7685 from L754). At that time, the burial zone was higher and therefore more limited (the walls curved inside). To free place for the feet of B7685, part of jar B7786 had to be ‘chopped’. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Tomb F10 Loci 710, 731, 759, 766; Squares BC7–8 The stratigraphy of Tomb F10, as presented in the excavation records, is as follows: sealing material in the shaft (L710) above two burial zones: a northern zone with one phase (L769) and a southern zone with two phases (upper phase L731, lower phase L766). TOMB F10, SHAFT: L710 (Plan 3.50) The area identified as the shaft of F10 was filled with silt. There were many sherds in this fill (17 registered baskets), as well as scattered animal bones. The contour of the shaft in the plans is roughly oval. The locus was changed when a jar and human bones were found. TOMB F10, NORTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L759 Although only one locus exists for this burial zone, it is divided into two phases––upper and lower. Northern Burial Zone, Lower Phase: L759 (Plan 3.50) The burials of this phase were placed in hamra and covered with silt. They were separated from the shaft by a wall of kurkar stones (W-B72). This wall is not described in detail in the files and it may have been a support wall for the northern burial zone, with the more orderly side facing the shaft (like a terrace wall). Two primary burials were defined, B8078 and B8709. They were described as supine, oriented east–west with the head in the east and the face turned upward: 1. B8078 (35–45-year-old male): northern burial. 2. B8088 (35–45-year-old male): southern burial. This description does not conform well to the plan, which shows––instead of two fairly complete skeletons––a chaos of bones without skulls. The clearest component is the well-preserved lower legs of a primary burial (Plan 3.50: A). The legs are extended and the head was presumably in the east (but missing). Perhaps part of the thigh with half a pelvis (Plan 3.50: B) is also from this burial, only slightly dislocated. Above these bones there were two long (leg?) bones in a slightly different orientation (Plan 3.50: C1–2). This was marked as B8079, the southern burial. In the same direction––but not in anatomic articulation with the C bones––is a pelvis and part of a spine (Plan 3.50: D, gray). To this burial belonged perhaps also some rib bones around D. The northern burial B8087 was marked farther to the northeast, near bones of unclear nature (an arm?––Plan 3.50: E). Near W-B72 there is a heap of more bones without any apparent articulation (Plan 3.50: F), and at least partly broken: notice the dislocated femur east of C2. Another individual was represented by a secondary burial: 3. B8163 (child, c. 6 years old): described as placed near the feet of the primary burials. The anthropological report states that B8163 is a heap of secondary bones removed in order to make place for another burial; they included long bones and teeth. According to the record burial B8163 was found together with animal bones (B8076)––which are not marked in the plan––and a silver ring (B8112). Basket B8163 was added to the plan in the shape of a schematic circle (Plan 3.50: A; the rendering as a broken vessel is a mistake). It is not close to the feet and such a heap of bones is not visible in the photos of Tomb F10. The silver ring was sometimes marked in the middle of W-B72 (Plan 3.50, near the level 45.85 m); and sometimes inside the circle of B8163. The plan also shows a juglet (Plan 3.50: G, basket unclear). The locus card registers a metal item (B8152) whose location is unclear. Three large jars are located at the west (B7766–B7768), with a carinated bowl (B8074). The bowl was probably found tucked under W-B72 and its location in the map is approximated). Probably the remains of this phase were disturbed after burial, perhaps by later burials. However, lacking more data we cannot clarify the nature of these remains. Northern Burial Zone, Upper Phase: L759 (Plan 3:51; Figs. 3.79–80) Directly above the first phase there were more remains without any intermediate layer. A few small bones shown in several places in the plan of the upper phase (Plan 3:51: C, colored gray) seem to be remnants shown already in the lower phase (Plan 3:50). The stratigraphy as presented in the records is correct: two primary burials of the upper phase were placed above the remnants of burials of the lower phase. These two primary burials (B7985, B7986) were placed in an east–west direction with the head in the east and the legs folded to the north. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 3.79: Tomb F10, L759 looking north. Lower phase, W-B72 at bottom; burial B7986 behind it and burial B7985 (top). Left are bases of jars B7766 and B7767.

1. B7895 (northern burial, 20–30 years old): the face was turned to the north. The left arm was folded on the hip (the right arm is missing). 2. B7896 (southern burial, age/sex unknown): this burial was added after B7895––the legs were placed above those of B7895. The skull seems much damaged. The body was probably placed on the right side, with the left arm folded towards the pelvis. Three other individuals were represented in secondary burials attributed to this phase: 3. B8188 (child, c. 4 years old): lower jaw. It appears only in the plan drawn in the locus card, on the other side of W-B72, east of skeleton B7968 (Plan 3:51: B). This location is supported by the anthropological report. 4. B7788 (40 years old or more): skull, found near the feet of the two primary burials. 5. B7988 (age/sex unclear): skull, found near B7788. Skulls B7788 and B7988 are not visible in the plan, where these two baskets are identified with small bones near and under jar B7768. A bronze pin (Plan 3:51: A; basket not clear) was found on the right shoulder of burial B7985. The two broken juglets (B8055, B8056) found east of the heads of the primary Fig. 3.80: Tomb F10, L759 looking north. Upper phase jars burials could belong to the heap of bones of the B7766 and B7767. lower phase.

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Three jars stood in a row at the west edge of the burial zone (B7766, B7767, B7768; partly seen in Fig. 3.80). The position of the legs and feet of burials B7985 and B7986 suggests that jars B7767 and B7768 were inserted before the burials, so the legs were positioned to fit the jar bases. Jars B7766 and B7767 could have been present during the entire period of the burial zone; they are shown since the lower phase (Plan 3.50). Jar B7768 may have been added in the upper phase. Two juglets were found near the jars (B7769, B8036). The locus card lacks text and the written summaries do not clarify the nature of the layer above the upper phase. A sealing layer of kurkar stones and hamra is mentioned once; references to a sealing of hard silt refer to the fill in L710, not in L759. TOMB F10, SOUTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L731, L766 Like the northern burial zone, the southern zone was also divided into two phases: a lower phase (L766) and an upper phase (L731). Southern Burial Zone, Lower Phase: L766 (Plan 3.52; Fig. 3.81) The earlier phase in L766 (not dissimilar to the lower phase of the northern burial zone) included only legs of one (partial) primary burial (B8027). They are oriented east–west, so the missing upper body and the head were in the east. The feet are also missing. Four bowls were placed north of the legs: B7495 and three bowls one inside the other (B7948 bottom, B7947 middle, B7946 top). Plan 3.52 also shows two small heaps of secondary bones at the east, which lack basket numbers. Southern Burial Zone, Upper Phase: L731 (Plan 3.53+54;2 Figs. 3.82–83) This phase included two primary burials (B7797, B7798) and two secondary burials (B7799, B8187): 1. B7798 (southern burial, 40–50 years old): primary, supine burial, oriented roughly east–west with the head in the east. Both arms were probably folded on the hip/pelvis (the hands did not survive). The face was turned to the south. The legs were sharply folded to the south, one above the other. 2. B7797 (northern burial, c. 7 years old): this primary burial was added after B7798. It too was supine, oriented roughly east–west with the head in the east. The head was turned upward and the position of the arms is not clear. 3. B7799 (30–40 years old): secondary burial, found west of the primary burials and near their feet. It was a heap of bones that included part of a skull, a lower jaw, pelvis bones and fragments of long bones. 4. B8187 (20 years old or younger): secondary burial, found east of the primary burials. It included teeth, pelvis parts and fragments of long bones. The bones appear similar to bones from the lower phase, which lack a basket number (Plan 3.52: A), but the location is different and the drawings are not identical. We have no data to determine whether they are the same bones. The primary burials superimpose the bones of L766 and are thus later. The legs of both primary burials were placed in a squatting position, probably because the space for burial was limited. This indicates that jar B7948 (west of the feet) was placed first, preventing a more relaxed position for the feet. A juglet (B7772) south of the head of B7797 probably belonged to it. A scarab (B7692) and a bronze pin (B7771) were found between this juglet and the head of B7797, and since there are no earlier remains there, they too probably relate to burial B7797. Two jars were probably added in the upper phase (Plan 3.54; Fig. 3.82). Jar B7531 (with a scarab inside, B7539) was found above the chest of B7797 and the shoulder/edge of head of B7798. Jar B7948 (with juglet B7495 inside) was placed on the western side of the locus. Above jar B7498 there was a carinated bowl (B7494). A juglet was found south of this jar (B7770), above animal bones B7796 and secondary burial B7799. Animal bones (B7796) were mingled with the bones of secondary burial 3 (B7799) and probably a bronze pin (B7202). Two scarabs (B7792, B7793) were discovered on the edges of one of the long bones of secondary burial 4 (B8187). Another scarab (B7870) was found lower, between the former two scarabs; it may have fallen from the same bone. According to the records, L731 is the only place with more scarabs (five) than remains of burials (four). However, only one scarab (B7692) was likely to be associated with a primary burial; all the rest were found in secondary contexts. 2

Plan 3.53+54 was composed of two original plans, which were rendered separately at first. In order to avoid renumbering all the following plans, we label it as plan “53+54”. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 3.81 (left): Tomb F10, L766 looking south. Leg bones B8027; bowl B7945 center; bowls B7947 above B7948 right. Fig. 3.82 (below): Tomb F10, L731 looking south. Jar B7531 left; jar B7498 right with bowl B7494 atop it. Fig. 3.83 (right): Tomb F10, L731 looking southeast. Burial B7797 (front); B7798 (back). Secondary bones B7799 with juglet B7770 right.

The lower-phase burial (L766 B8027) was placed on the hamra and covered with silt. According to the summary pages (since the loci cards lack textual descriptions), there was an intermediate layer of crushed kurkar and hamra between L766 and the upper phase L731. However, this created a problem, as noted in the summary pages: In most cases where such a layer exists, the finds below it are well preserved. However, this is not the case here. The excavators suggested that the upper phase damaged the lower one. This is impossible, if there was an intermediate layer that sealed the first phase. If the levels are correct, there is little space for any such layer: The difference between the bottom of the head or pelvis of B7798 (upper phase) and the top of the lower-phase remains is only 5–15 cm. We also note that burial B7798 (L731) is above B8027 (L766), but not above the area of the missing bones of the last. Would someone remove part of a skeleton, then fill the entire area with a kurkar and hamra fill, and finally, place a new burial exactly above the (by now hidden from view) skeleton part of B8027 that remained in situ? It seems more plausible that the first phase was covered only by a thin layer of silt and that it was damaged or ruined before the interment of the L731 burials. When those burials were added, the earlier

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remains of L766 were not visible. Notice also that the heights of the later burials vary: they are higher at some points and lower at others. Also, there are no jars that cross the two phases––the jars of L731 were placed much higher than the finds of the lower phase, since they were added in the upper phase. Thus, the picture is similar to the northern burial zone of F10. Tomb F11 Loci 712, 722, 728, 729; Squares AB7–8 The excavators presented the following stratigraphy for Tomb F11: the shaft with its sealing material (L712) was situated above an upper burial phase (L722, still in the shaft). Below and on the sides of the shaft there were two burial zones separated by W-A80: a southern zone (L728) and a northern one (L729). The southern burial zone included several phases, which are difficult to interpret. TOMB F11, SHAFT: L712, L722 (Plan 3.55) The entrance to Tomb F11 was through a shaft in the kurkar rock, filled with silt (L712), sealing the finds below. The contour of L712 in the plan is at first rectangular and then triangular, but it is described in the locus card as rounded. In the summary of L729 it was suggested that the shaft was located in the southern part of L729, an area lacking kurkar cover. This is still part of the area of L712–L722, but north of WA80 (discovered only later, see below). This seems more likely, in that the wall was not at the bottom of the shaft, but at the entrance to L728 in the south. The exact shape and nature of the shaft remain unclear. The silt in L712 included only sherds. Outside the area excavated at first, near the southwestern side of L712 and close to the surface (at the start of excavation) there were several finds: a donkey’s jaw (B7185), a juglet (B7168) and a bronze pin (B7725, some 20 cm below the other finds). The locus was changed to L722 with the discovery of human bones and other small finds, interpreted as a burial phase. At least two individuals were identified by scattered bones in L722: 1. B7131: (child, 0.5–2 years old): one leg bone (humerus). 2. B7131 (same basket; adult, leg age >16; teeth age >20): some other bones, not necessarily from one individual. The anthropological report refers to some scattered human bones already in L712––hand, leg, and ribs are mentioned. The data is identical to that of the second individual of B7313 L722 (one leg bone, age >16; one tooth, age >20). Apparently they are the same and not different baskets. Small finds associated with these bones included a bronze pin (B7120), a scarab (B7135), a ring (B7086), and a decorated bone (B7065). These remains were regarded as a burial layer in L722, which is later than the burials in L728 and L729. However, these finds seem to be part of the L729 burials (see below). To facilitate the comparison between L722 and L729, we added the location of scarab B7183 from L729 to the map of L712 and L722 (Plan 3.55). TOMB F11, NORTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L729 (Plan 3.56; Figs. 3.84–87) Locus 729 includes only one phase of both primary and secondary burials. 1. B7632 (40 years old or more, female): primary burial, discovered at the northern edge of the L729 (Fig. 3.84). The deceased was placed supine, oriented east–west with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The right arm was folded on the chest (the left arm did not survive) and the legs were folded. To this burial we ascribe two jars south of the feet (B7405, B7406; Fig. 3.85) and a juglet (B7470) found inside B7406. The bases of the jars fit the level of burial B7632 and jar B7406 was placed above some bones (described below) in secondary burial heaps. Thus, we conclude that burial B7632 and the two jars were set in place after earlier skeletons were moved into secondary heaps. Three secondary heaps were found in L729, with at least six individuals in secondary burial: 2. B7633 (adult, sex/age unknown): skull, found in a heap of bones at and below the feet of B7632. 3. B7634 (child, c. 4–5 years old): skull and long bones, found in the same heap with B7633. The anthropological report defines B7634 as a primary burial, removed to enable more burials (that is, it was not brought from some other place to Tomb F11). 4. B7343 (20–30 years old): teeth and postcranial bones, identified in a second heap in the southeastern part of the locus (Figs. 3.86–87). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 3.84: Tomb F11 (not F12), L729 looking north. Burial B7632; skull B7833 back; B7833 left.

Fig. 3.85 (top left): Tomb F11, L729, looking north. Jars B7405 (right) and B7406 (left). Fig. 3.86 (right): Tomb F11, L729 looking west. Pile B7343 at bottom; pile B7339–B73341 top; W-A80 left; jar B7463 and bowl B7585 of L728 top left. Fig. 3.87 (bottom left): Tomb F11, L729 looking southwest. W-A80 left, jars B7463, B7585 of L728 top center. Start of secondary bones B7343 at bottom. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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5. B7339 (male, 30–40 years old): skull found in a third heap, at the southwestern part of L729. 6. B7340 (child, c. 7 years old): skull and long bones, found in the same heap with B7339. 7. B7341 (child, c. 6–7 years old): skull and long bones, found in the same heap with B7339. In the plan, only one skull and part of another are visible from burials B7339–B7341, so the marking of these baskets is approximated (Plan 3.56; Figs. 3.86–87). Small finds were retrieved only from the third heap: animal bones (B7338, probably sheep/goat), a scaraboid (B7285), and a bronze ring (B7317). Since W-A80 (Fig. 3.87) was higher than most of the finds of L729, the excavators assumed that it was added at the end of the phase, or even later than L729. However, the wall seems connected more with L728 than L729, and the level does not necessarily indicate a date later than L729. Between the second and third heaps there was one scarab (B7183). When we compare the plan of L729 (Plan 3.56) and L722 (Plan 3.55), we can see that the L722 finds fit in the space between the second and third heaps of L729. The locus card already included a hint, which was ignored in later documents, namely, that the finds of L722 are of exactly the same nature as the secondary heaps of L729, except that they are c. 20 cm higher. We cannot reconstruct a precise ‘history’ for L729 and L722. The secondary burials of L729 were probably removed in order to make room for primary burial B7632, with its two jars. If the entrance to L729 was from L722/L712, north of W-A80, then after all these remains were in place, the finds of L722 could be added in the middle. However, the secondary finds of L722 could hardly be the latest remain in the burial zone. They could not also wash down from the area of L729, because they are higher (roughly at the same height as the top of jars B7405 and B7406, while the bones in the heap of B7633 and B7634 are much lower than the jars). TOMB F11, SOUTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L728 The excavators mention that it is impossible to separate the phases of burial in this zone, but nevertheless, three phases were presented, which we number here as Phases 1–3. Phase 1, Southern Burial Zone: L728 (Plan 3.57; Fig. 3.88) This is the earliest phase of L728 and it shows only a few remains. One primary burial was found, but only the legs survived (B7664; adult, exact age unknown). It was oriented roughly east–west, with the skull (missing) in the east. The excavators suggested that the other parts of the body had been damaged or removed in Phase 2; however, there is nothing in this area in Phase 2 (or even in Phase 3). Near the bones there were animal bones (B7665), perhaps in partial anatomical articulation; and a bowl (B7683). Only half of the bowl appears in the plan, and it is not clear if the rest was hidden by W-A80, or has not Fig. 3.88: Tomb F11, L728 looking west. Phase 1, bowl survived. These finds were in silt, while those of Phase 2 were placed directly above them. B7683 left; burial B7664 back, animal bones B7665 front. Phase 2, Southern Burial Zone: L728 (Plan 3.58; Fig. 3.89) Only secondary burials were found in this phase. In the area of the leg bones of B7064 (Phase 1) we find more long bones in the same direction and shape. Most of them seem to be the same bones as those of Phase 1 (Plan 3.57:1). There is also one juglet (B7399) between these long bones. Thus, in this area at least, Phase 1 and Phase 2 seem to merge. Elsewhere in Phase 2, L728 is strewn with bones of secondary burials. At least six individuals were counted; we will describe them starting in the south: 1. B7350 (age/sex unclear): skull and long bones of a young individual, found on the southwestern edge of the locus. With these bones a juglet (B7609), a carinated bowl (B7588), and a bronze dagger with a pommel (B7603) were found. The excavators also attributed to Phase 2 two jars (B7463, B7585) near these bones. Two juglets (B7602, B7604) were found in jar B7585, along with an upturned carinated bowl (B7584) on its rim.

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Fig. 3.89: Tomb F11, L728 looking east. Phase 2, jar B7585 topped by bowl B7584 (right); bones B7530 left of it. At center, juglets B7610, B7611, B7617, B7618 with skull A=B7529. At left, bones B7525 with partly visible bowl B7549. Behind in the section are skulls B7526 above B7527.

2. B7529 (less than 20 years old): long bones and a skull. The skull is probably on Plan 3.57: A (and not the smaller, round feature marked as B7529, slightly more to the north). A row of four juglets was arranged along the bones (B7610, B7611, B7617, and B7618). A bronze pin (B7623) and two scarabs (B7402, B7420) were also found here. 3. B7525 (4–5 years old): skull, lower jaw (found upside down), and postcranial bones, found among many bones west of the large juglet B7399. The skull is not visible in the plan. A juglet (B7548), a carinated bowl (B7549), and a bronze pin (B7550) were found among and under the bones. There were some other small finds nearby (Plan 3.57: B), which were not identified by basket numbers. 4. B7526 (18–25 years old): a (broken) skull discovered in the northeastern part of the locus. A bronze pin (B7551) was found inside the skull. 5. B7527 (age/sex unknown): skull of an adult, found next to B7526. 6. B7528 (18–25 years old): skull and long bones. The long bones were already marked in the plan of Phase 1 (Plan 57: 1). A bronze pin (B7581) was found inside the skull and a scarab (B7556) north of it. The juglet (B7399) found with these bones is the one that we relate to burial B7664 of Phase 1. The remains of Phase 2 were also covered with silt, and those of Phase 3 were located directly above them. Phase 3, Southern Burial Zone: L728 (Plan 3.59; Figs. 3.90–93) In this phase, eight individuals were identified, of which some were primary burials. All the burials of this phase were treated by the excavators as primary burials; however, the anthropological report clarified that they include primary burials that had been moved to allow space for new burials. Since the files lack sufficient details, it is difficult to precisely identify all these burials in the plan. Five burials seem to be in articulation or at least in partial articulation, perhaps supine, oriented east– west with the head in the west. The skeletons are not well preserved or complete. They include, from south to north: 1. B7359 (precise age/sex unknown): skull near long bones, representing an adult. 2. B7358 (precise age/sex unknown; Plan 3.59: gray): skull and long bones of an adult. 3. B7357: (25–35 years old): skull, lower jaw, teeth, arm and leg bones of an adult; the face probably turned slightly to the south. This burial was defined as primary in the anthropological report. 4. B7356 (female, 25–35 years old) (Plan 3.59: gray): a large part of the skeleton. The head was described as turned upward, and the right arm folded on the pelvis (the left arm did not survive). The legs were extended (but only one survived). This burial was also defined as primary in the anthropological report. 5. B7281 (probably female, 50–60 years old): This is the best preserved and probably the latest burial in the entire locus. The deceased was placed supine along W-A80, oriented east–west with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The arms were extended along the body with the hands on the pelvis; the legs were extended too. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 3.90 (top left): Tomb F11, L728 looking south. Phase 3, W-A80 at bottom; burial B7356, burial B7357 (left with large skull), behind it B7358 and B7359. Fig. 3.91 (top right): Tomb F11, L728 looking south. Phase 3, W-A80 at center, bones B7343 of L729 far left. Bowl B7388 and part of skull B7355 at top; burials B7356, B7357 at right. Fig. 3.92 (bottom left): Tomb F11, L728 looking south. Wall A80 with burial B7281; skull A above the sign. Fig. 3.93 (bottom right): Tomb F11, L728 looking south. Wall A80 bottom. Burial B7281 removed, skull “A” remains at the back. Jars B7253, B7268 with bowl B7252 center. At right jar B7463 and bowl B7585.

A bronze pin (B7240) on the right chest belonged to burial 5 (B7281), as did a bowl (B7388) placed near the wall, north of the head. A scarab (B7182) was discovered near the left foot, most likely also part of this burial. Another scarab (B7186) was discovered near the head (in many plans, scarab B7186 is wrongly identified as the one near the foot). Near the head there was also a jar (B8187), but it was not drawn in any plan and its exact location is unknown. At the feet of B7281, ascribed to it in the records, there were two jars (B7268, B7253), with a carinated bowl embedded between their shoulders (B7252). Looking at the row of these five burials, we observe that they are all laid not just close to each other, but partially on each other. An exception is the best preserved skeleton B7281, which is also the latest (no. 5). Apparently, each burial started as a full primary burial in the same locus; they were probably slightly pushed back towards the edge of the burial zone, partially ‘squeezed’ against each other, in order to save room. The intervals between each burial were short, so all the skeletons maintained their anatomical articulation. Possibly (though this cannot be proven) all the burials were part of the same ‘event’, interred one immediately after the other (perhaps within a day), and not as separate, individual burials each on a different date. Three more individuals were defined as follows: 6. B7355 (more than 40 years old): skull, found east of the head of B7281 and north of the head of B7356. The plan shows only a fragment. It could be a remnant from another primary burial in the row of burials 1–4 (above), removed when B7281 was added. 7. B8185 (child, c. 7-year-old): jaw and other bones, not marked on the original plans, but added later below the shoulder of B7281 (this might be an approximated location). 8. B7360 (adult, precise age/sex unknown): following the anthropological report, a skull with fragments of long bones was discovered west of burial B7359. The excavators described it as a primary burial with the head in the west, opposite to all the other primary burials. It could be also a secondary burial.

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A few more bones (vertebrae?) appear very close to the left shoulder of B7281 (Plan 3.48: C). They may be part of the third heap of secondary bones of the earlier Phase 2. Two features (Plan 3.59: A–B), which appear in different preliminary plans of L728, were marked by us in the same plan. The small, round feature A looks like a small vessel, and is allegedly located above the lower leg of individual B7356. Perhaps it is juglet B7282, mentioned in the basket list “east of B7218”. The small, round feature B closely resembles feature A, and is in the same location of the feature identified as individual B7529 of Phase 2 (Plan 3:58). Yet, the skull of B7529 is probably located slightly south of this feature, and in fact does not look like a skull. Perhaps all these features are somehow duplicated, and originally represent one fragmented juglet (B7282), found with the other juglets on a secondary burial heap (group B7618, B7617, B7611, B7610; Plan 3:58). Phase 3 included a piece of a bronze pin (B7661), another bronze pin (B7199), and a base of a vessel (B7624), perhaps belonging to Phases 1 or 2 (to judge by the levels); but not shown in any plan. Jars B7268 and B7253 fit the last burial B7281 (Phase 3). Jars B7463 and B7585 are set lower than the former jars, with part of W-A80 above. Yet, they cross the entire height of the locus, and it is impossible to define their exact phase/s. The general picture of L728 is one of continuous burial. Phases 1–2 show mainly secondary burials and remnants of primary burials; while Phase 3 presents mainly primary (or partially primary) burials. With the addition of a primary burial, former burials were pushed aside; time intervals between the burials were probably short. The last burial was B7281 of Phase 3. As in other tombs, the burial zone became more limited with the rising level, and thus the Phase 3 burials occupied less space than those of earlier phases. Tomb F12 Loci 724, 736, 737, 753, 761; Square E7 According to the excavators, Tomb F12 has a shaft with sealing material (L724), above two burial zones. The northern burial zone has an upper (L736) and a lower (L761) phase; the southern burial zone has only one phase (L753). However, the shaft also included a second locus, L737, defined as below L724. Except L724 and L737, the other loci cards from F12 lack textual descriptions. TOMB F12, SHAFT: L724, L736, L737 (Plan 3.60) The excavators described L724 as the center of the shaft of Tomb F12. The soil included only pottery sherds. The contour in the plans is pear-shaped, and the locus card notes that the locus was mainly composed of silt. Locus 724 was changed to L737 when W-A81 was discovered. The wall has three courses of mediumsized kurkar stones. Locus 737 was also filled with silt that included many sherds (nine baskets were registered). At the bottom, there was one bronze pin (B7409). It was marked on a plan of L724, but the correct location is shown in the plans of L737 (Plan 3.60: eastern side, A). As in other burials, W-A81 is most likely a support wall for the northern burial zone. Its main function was to prevent collapse of the burials and vessels into the shaft area, since the level of the burial zone rose with each successive burial. TOMB F12, NORTHERN BURIAL ZONE, EARLY PHASE: L761 (Plan 3.61; Figs. 3.94–96) The excavators divided the finds of L761 into two sub-phases: early and late. The supposed “early sub-phase” included only animal bones in secondary burial (B8035), not far from W-A81. There is nothing above these bones in the so-called “late sub-phase” of L761. These bones are lower, but not necessarily earlier, than the other finds of L761. A similar phenomenon of some bones found at a lower level is common elsewhere and even in the same locus. A pile of small bones is located at the northern edge of L761, below juglets B7912 and B7913 (Plan 3.61). Also, a juglet (B7937) was found farther to the south, under W-A81; and another one (B7935) was found under the pile of jars in the northwest (possibly being part of the secondary heap of B7888, B7889, B7912–B7914). Therefore, in our view L761 includes only one phase of burial, which is called here the “early phase” (in the northern burial zone). This phase is composed of secondary burial heaps and primary burials. We assume that the primary burials are later. The lower bones are part of the secondary heaps of this phase, and not an earlier, separate sub-phase. Earlier versions of the written summaries for L761 did not specify any separating layer between the © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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assumed first and second sub-phases of L761. Yet, a later version adds that the animal bones of the lower sub-phase were covered by silt and hamra. Apparently this is a mistake, since no such layer exists in L761.

Fig. 3.94: Tomb F12, L761 looking south. Burial B7887 front right and B7890 behind. Jars B7775–B7778 left; bowl B7900, and skulls B7888–B7889 behind.

Fig. 3.95 (left): Tomb F12, L761 looking west. Jars B7775 (left), B7776 (behind); B7713 (front) and B7778 (right). At the right edge are juglet B7779, bowl B7772, and the upper parts of skulls B7888-9. Fig. 3.96 (right): Tomb F12, L761 looking north. The end of the excavation, the kurkar roof above.

There were two primary burials (B7890, B7887) in the early phase of L761 (which includes the excavators’ two sub phases). Both were placed supine in an east–west direction with the heads in the east. 1. Southern burial B7887 (age/sex unknown): this primary burial is probably the latest burial in this phase. The face was turned upward; the right arm was extended along the body and the left arm (not seen in the plan) was described as placed on the pelvis. The legs were extended. 2. Northern burial B7890 (more than 50 years old): primary burial, not as complete as B7887. The bones included a skull (not visible in the plan) and one lower leg in articulation. The upper body hardly survived. The plan shows one complete leg, slightly folded, with the well-preserved foot resting above the edge of a secondary heap of finds. Long bones of the other leg appear to be crossing it. The pelvis is completely missing; there are only a few of the ribs and perhaps parts of an arm are present. This skeleton was disturbed. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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A few small finds can be related to these burials. To B7887 we ascribe a bronze pin (B7836) on the left shoulder. Many juglets were found, mainly under the body. Some of them seem broken and are probably remnants of earlier burials, which were mostly moved away (B7837, B7893, B7839, B7894, B7895, B7896). Near and on the ribs of B7890 there were two juglets (B7892, B7835) and an amphoriskos (B7840). A large pile of secondary bones and small vessels was found on the northwest edge of the locus, below and near the foot of B7890. Two individuals were identified here: 3. B7888 (age/sex unknown): skull of an adult in secondary burial. 4. B7889 (30–40 years old): skull and lower jaw of another adult in secondary burial. The skull was placed next to B7888. In the heap of bones of B7888 and B7889 there were also two juglets (B7897, B7898); a scarab (B7934); and pommel (B7914). This pile may have extended as far as jars farther to the west, as juglet B7935 may indicate. A heap of jars and other vessels on the northwest edge of the locus includes four jars (B7775–B7778), whose bases were set at a level of c. 44.50–44.73 m and their rims at 45.17 m or less. They are much lower that primary burials B7887 and B7890, although it does not seem so in the photographs. Above the jars there was part of a bowl (B7783) with animal bones (probably sheep/goat, basket unknown) and two knives (B7781, B7784). The shallow bowl B7900 next to the jars appears at their foot––it is drawn with the edge seemingly under jar B7778, and is described in the records as being at the foot of the jars. However, its level (rim 45.10 m) and the level of the juglet found above it (B7779) indicate a location at the top of the jars. Apparently the jars were found earlier and only after their removal was the locus extended and the burials found. The jars could not be much higher, since there are finds from the upper phase above them (L736, B7481, base 45.41 m, see below). A possible explanation for this situation is that the jars belonged to earlier burials, which were later removed, forming secondary heaps in L761. By the time burials B7890 and B7887 were added, the ground level was at the top of the jars and bowl B7900 and juglet B7779 were placed close or next to their rims. A few finds are listed in this locus, but not identified in plans, so their location is not clear. They include a carinated bowl (B7838) and animal bones (B7886). B7886 may be the bones below the heap of B7912–B7914, but this is not certain. The summary pages for L761 and L736 mention a layer of crushed kurkar and hamra between them (in one earlier version for L736, medium-sized kurkar stones are mentioned, instead of crushed kurkar). There is indeed a separating layer of some 20–40 cm between the top of the finds in L761 and the lower finds of L736. There is no reason to doubt the description in this case. It is impossible to prove, however, that this layer was intentional fill, whose purpose was to cover and protect the burials of the early phase, although this is plausible. TOMB F12, NORTHERN BURIAL ZONE, UPPER PHASE: L736 (Plan 3.60; Figs. 3.97–98) Locus 736 is mostly on the side, and not below L737 and L724. The finds here were described as found in silt and covered by a layer of crushed kurkar and hamra (this may have been natural accumulation, since there is no later phase above L736). The finds are situated above the earlier burials and finds of L761, and constitute a separate phase. Locus 736 included one primary burial (B7450; 20–30 years old, possibly male) (Plan 3.60), placed supine in an east–west direction with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The arms were folded on the pelvis; the right leg was folded toward the left leg, which may have been extended (it was found incomplete, or perhaps not fully drawn). A bronze pin (B7395) was found on the left chest of the skeleton. Two jars stood south of the legs, one probably fell after burial (B7479) and one remained erect (B7481). A fragment of a carinated bowl (B7473) was found nearby, which may have originally rested on top of jar B7481. Parts of a large bowl (B7416) were found near the left shoulder. TOMB F12, SOUTHERN BURIAL ZONE: L753 (Plan 3.62; Fig. 3.99) The finds of L753 were described as placed on hamra, surrounded by silt, and covered from above by a layer of medium-sized kurkar stones and hamra. This locus revealed one primary burial (B7654) and one secondary burial (B7653). 1. B7654 (20–40-year-old male): primary burial, placed supine, oriented east–west with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The left arm was folded on the pelvis; the right arm was folded with the hand on the right shoulder (the hand itself did not survive). The legs were slightly folded. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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2. B7653 (20–30 years old): secondary burial, skull, and (above it) long bones, found east of primary burial B7654. The primary burial carried a scarab (B7660) on a left finger. At the feet there were two jars (B7673 with juglet B7774 inside; B7677). Between the jars, resting on their shoulders, there was a carinated bowl (B7676). Two large bowls (B7663, B7662) were found north of the upper body and partly on the arm. A piriform juglet was located south of the skull (B7675). North of the secondary burial B7653 there was a juglet (B7674); a second juglet Fig. 3.97: Tomb F12, L736 looking northeast. Wall A81 bottom. (B6667, called ‘Egyptian-shaped’); and a Jar B7479 (left); bowl B7416 (right); burial B7450 behind them. bronze pin (B7668). The area at right bottom is L737.

Fig. 3.98: Tomb F12, L736 looking south. Burial B7450 (bottom); jar B7479 (right); bowl B7416 (left).

Tomb F13 Locus 743; Square C3 (Plan 3.63) F13 was dug into hamra. The finds were surrounded with silt. The contour of F13 is unknown. Though probably a pit tomb, there were no bones in L743; however, there were three finds: an incomplete jar (B7354), a duckbill axe (B7327) and a dagger without a pommel (B7324). Based on the shape of the handless jar, as well as the duckbill axe and broad-blade dagger (see Kan-Cipor – Fig. 3.99: Tomb F12, L753 looking southwest. Jars B7773, B7677 Meron and Shalev, in volume I/2), we (with bowl B7676 on it) right. Burial B7654 and bowls B7662, B6623 date F13 to the MB IIA period. at center; skull B7653 (back) and juglet B7674.

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Tomb F14 Locus 772; Square F6 (Plan 3.64; Figs. 3.100–101) There is no contour for tomb F14 in the plans (Plan 3.64), and the shape of the tomb is not discussed in the records, which contain only vague references to this tomb. It was stated that the finds of Tomb F14 were placed on a bedding of medium-sized kurkar stones and hamra, covered with silt and sealed by a compact layer of hamra and small kurkar stones. This contradicts other statements. In one version, the finds of F14 were first noticed as a patch of silt in the kurkar (hence, lacking a kurkar and hamra sealing layer). The tomb was also close to the surface at the start of the excavation, as proven by photos (Figs. 3.100–101). The kurkar rock in this area was allegedly well preserved. It was suggested that F14 was a shaft tomb, whose hewing was not completed: “those who made this tomb did not cut through the kurkar layer to reach the hamra”, unlike the other shaft tombs of Area F. If the tomb did not even reach the hamra, where did the (above mentioned) bedding layer of kurkar and hamra come from? Unfortunately, the texts, written at a later time, are not ‘real-time’ observations. We do not have data about the surface prior to the development work or about the layers cut by the tomb. The nature of the finds (secondary and primary burials together) and their wide extent they cover (not confined to the usual narrow, elongated form of pit tombs) indicate that Tomb F14 is probably a shaft tomb rather than a pit burial or an unfinished tomb. Apparently, the covering kurkar layer and the shaft were removed before the excavation. The MB IIB date of the finds fit the date of other Area F shaft tombs. Tomb F14 included one primary burial (B8179) and secondary ‘heaps’ representing at least four individuals (B8192, B8213–B8215). 1. B8179 (over 35 years of age, probably male) (Fig. 3.100): primary burial, placed supine, oriented east– west with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The left arm was folded on the hip and the right arm extended with the hand on the pelvis. The legs were extended (the left leg was slightly bent). 2. B8192 (35–45 years old): secondary burial, skull (evident in the plan) and postcranial bones, discovered in a heap in the western side of L772 (Fig. 3.101). 3. B8213 (age/sex unknown): secondary burial, skull and postcranial bones, found in a heap located in the eastern side of L772.

Fig. 3.100 (top left): Tomb F14, L772 looking north. Bowls B8202-3 center front; burial B8197 with four juglets B8198-8201 and bowl B8205; secondary group B above right. The ‘hill’ at left is jar B8204. Fig. 3.101 (right): Tomb F14, L772 looking north. Secondary group with skull B8192 center, B8210 below it, bones B8192 top; jar B8204 already removed. Fig. 3.102 (bottom left): Tomb F15, L771 looking northeast.

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5. B8215 (age/sex unknown): secondary burial, skull, and postcranial bones, found together with B8213. 4. B8214 (age/sex unknown): secondary burial, skull, and postcranial bones, found together with B8213. Finds associated with primary burial B8179 included a scarab (B8208) that probably fell from a finger of the left hand; two bowls placed along the left leg (B8202, B8203); four juglets placed on the left chest and arm (Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglets B8198 and B8201; other juglets B8199 and B8200); and a carinated bowl above the left arm (B8205). There seems to have been another small bowl (?) north of the pelvis (Plan 3.64: A), perhaps a fragment collected into a sherd basket (e.g., B8207). Among and near the bones of secondary burial 2 (B8192) there were two bronze pins (B8194, B8211), a scarab (B8193) and a juglet (B8210). Jar B8204 (with juglet B8212 inside of it) stood at the southern edge of this heap; the top of this jar was destroyed by bulldozers before the excavation. Of course, the jar could belong also to primary burial B8197. Finds from or near the heap of bones B8213–B8215 include a bronze pin (B8195); a bowl (B8191); and two fragmented jars fallen on the side (B8190, and a second jar not registered separately, Plan 3.64: B). Nearby there was another bronze pin (B8196). The two jars were probably damaged by the roadwork prior to the excavation, and they and bowl B8191 could belong to the primary burial (B8197), or to the secondary, earlier burials. F15 Locus 771; Square B10 (Fig. 3.102) Locus 771 has a round contour in plan. It was indeed described as a round patch of silt in the kurkar rock. The excavation, which followed an area of square contours (Fig. 3.102), went to a depth of c. 50 cm. The only finds were a few sherds (B8206).

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Plan 3.1: General Map of Area F

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Plan 3.2: Tomb F1, L714, Lower Phase

Plan 3.3: Tomb F1, L714, Upper Phase

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Plan 3.4: Tomb F1, L764, Phase 1

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Plan 3.5: Tomb F1, L764, Phase 2

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Plan 3.6: Tomb F1, L717

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Plan 3.7: Tomb F2, General Plan

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Plan 3.8: Tomb F2, L770

Plan 3.9: Tomb F2, L702

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Plan 3.10: Tomb F2, L702

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Plan 3.11: Tomb F2, L742, later stage

Plan 3.12: Tomb F2, L742, early stage

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Plan 3.13: Tomb F2, L727

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Plan 3.14: Tomb F2, L713

Plan 3.15: Tomb F2, L741

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Plan 3.16: Tomb F2 L734

Plan 3.17: Tomb F2, L750

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Plan 3.18: Tomb F3, L703 and L755

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Plan 3.19: Tomb F3, L721 (=L738) and L758

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Plan 3.20: Tomb F4, General Map and L704

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Plan 3.21: Tomb F4, L748

Plan 3.22: Tomb F4, L718

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Plan 3.23: Tomb F4, L768

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Plan 3.24: Tomb F4, L767, Phase 1

Plan 3.25: Tomb F4, L767, Phase 2

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Plan 3.26: Tomb F4, L735, Phase 3

Plan 3.27: Tomb F4, L735, Phase 4

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Plan 3.28: Tomb F4, L735, Phase 5

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Plan 3.30: Tomb F4, L769 with later vessels

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Plan 3.31: Tomb F4, L765

Plan 3.32: Tomb F5, loci 700, 705, 711

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Plan 3.33: Tomb F5, L757 and L720, Phase 1

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Plan 3.34: Tomb F5, L720, Phase 2

Plan 3.35: Tomb F5, L752, Phase 1

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Plan 3.36: Tomb F5, L752, Phase 2

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Plan 3.37: Tomb F6, L706

Plan 3.38: Tomb F6, L719

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Plan 3.39: Tomb F6, L756

Plan 3.40: Tomb F7, L707, L725 and L723

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Plan 3.41: Tomb F7, L739

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3.42: Tomb F7, L739 with upper vessels

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Plan 3.43: Tomb F7, L746

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Plan 3.45: Tomb F9, L709 and L745

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Plan 3.46: Tomb F9, L745 with lower finds

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Plan 3.47: Tomb F9, L716

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Plan 3.49: Tomb F9, L754

Plan 3.50: Tomb F10, L710 and L759, lower phase

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Plan 3.51: Tomb F10, L759, upper phase

Plan 3.52: Tomb F10, L766

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Plan 3.53+54: Tomb F10, L731

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Plan 3.56: Tomb F11, L729

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Plan 3.57: Tomb F11, L728, Phase 1

Plan 3.58: Tomb F11, L728, Phase 2

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Plan 3.59: Tomb F11, L728, Phase 3

Plan 3.60: Tomb F12, L724, L737, and L736

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Plan 3.61: Tomb F12, L761

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Plan 3.62: Tomb F12, L753

Plan 3.63: Tomb F13, L743

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Plan 3.64: Tomb F14, L772

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CHAPTER 4 AREA A Yosi Levy1, Eriola Jakoel1, and Raz Kletter2 1 Israel Antiquities Authority and 2Helsinki University 4.1 INTRODUCTION Area A (Plan 4.1; Location map Chapter 1, Plan 1.1), located on the slope of a hill, was excavated during two seasons in 1991–1992. The excavation of Area A was headed by Amir Feldstein (area supervisor) with the help of Anat Ginzburg (registration); Y. Fish, Rotem Arieli, Patricia Smith, and Joanna R. Sofaer (anthropology), Yosef Kapelian and Dov Porotzky (plans); Yehoshua Dray (metal detection), and Sando Mandrea (photographs). The first season in Area A (“season II” in the files, referring to the general seasons in the site) was carried out from November 17th to December 30th, 1991; excavation license G94/1991). During this season, ten graves were found (later labeled A1–A10). They included mainly shaft burials––multiple burials in caves, which usually have several burial zones and different phases of burial in each tomb. The loci of the 1991 season in Area A start with L100 and end with L133. Baskets start with B1000 and end with B1569, a total of 567 baskets (two baskets numbers were not used). Locus 100 was defined as surface locus, with only one pottery basket (B1000––a bowl base). However, on November 24, 1991 a bronze dagger and a pin (B1038, B1039) were registered from L100. These were described as found on the surface east of Area A (B1038), and in “debris from the excavation” (B1039); both were registered as coming from Area B (=final Area C?). More bronze items were found on December 8, 1991 from L100 (B1194–B1204), from an area northeast of Area A, called Area B. Another group of finds from L100 on December 18, 1991 (B1241–B1248, B1250–B1254) is mentioned as belonging to Area B (=final Area C?). In sum, a total of 32 items (mostly of bronze) were registered from L100. They were all surface finds. The only other area of excavation that is located close to, and approximately east of Area A, is Area C (called area B at first). However, Area C is quite poor in metal finds (see Chapter 5, below). These finds cannot also be ascribed to particular graves. Excluding L100, the 1991 season of excavation in Area A yielded 536 baskets. Most of them were pottery sherds and human bones. Whole or restorable pottery vessels include 33 bowls, 11 jugs, 36 juglets, 34 jars, one pithos, and one amphoriskos. Nine bronze items were registered, as well as one earring (B1535), some beads (B1327), and two scarabs (B1064, B1498). The reason for the relatively small numbers of complete and restorable finds is not their scarcity in Area A, but the circumstances of excavation. The 1991 season in this area was limited. Tombs with finds in situ were noticed, but not fully excavated. This was achieved only in 1992, when a second season of excavation took place in Area A. This much more extensive season (sometimes called “season II”, referring to Area A, and other times as “season III”, referring to the site in general) was carried out under permit G9/1992. Excavation lasted from May 4 to August 20, 1992. Even at the end of this season, some burials were left unexcavated, with the hope of preserving them and perhaps exhibiting them at the site in the future. Loci of season 1992 in Area A run from L200 to L277 and baskets from B2000 to B3292––a total of 1209 baskets (some numbers have not been used, and in rare cases the same basket number designated more than one find. For example, four scarabs (B2573/2, B2573/3a–c) found during examination of bones were numbered under the same basket, together with the bones––B2573. The brick remains/walls in Area A were described briefly, and plotted on plans, but did not receive wall numbers. Area A was measured by 5 x 5 m squares, with the graves found in Squares EF5-10 (see Plan 4.1). The excavation started according to the squares (and remained so for burials A11, A13–A14, which did not develop into ‘classical’ shaft burials), and finds were noticed on the surface. However, once a tomb was defined, the excavation did not proceed as rigidly as in Area C (Chapter 5, below), but following the

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shape of each tomb, usually by extending the excavation from the area of the shaft to the sides. Due to the nature of the documentation, the publication of Area A cannot be as complete as that of the areas discussed in the previous chapters. This is unfortunate, because the finds from this area are very rich. They include (in both seasons) 1745 baskets––c. 34% of all the 5,097 baskets from the Middle Bronze Age cemeteries of Rishon le-Zion. The main issues with the documentation are as follows: 1. There is a very brief, preliminary textual summary on the 1991 season in Area A, but no textual description of the much longer 1992 season. The 1991 report very briefly describes Tombs A1–A9. An updated version of this report adds the 1992 season, but only for Tomb A1. 2. Locus cards for Area A are unfinished; they have only the data already found in the basket lists. They lack graphic illustrations and textual descriptions. Hence, we cannot determine why a certain locus was opened or closed, how its borders were defined, and what its relation was to other loci. We also lack a detailed description of the finds discovered in each locus, their exact locations, and relations with each other. 3. Daily graphic diaries leave much to be desired (see Plan 4.2). For the 1991 season, there are no daily graphic diaries for baskets B1449–B1569, which include many whole and restorable vessels, apparently because these finds had to be retrieved under time pressure, during the last two days of the season. Even when daily graphic illustrations exist, they are extremely schematic. They do not show exact shapes of tombs or excavation areas; not all the loci and baskets are marked; and there is no rendering of skeletons, so the shape and nature of burial cannot be determined. Finds were marked by small “x” marks, often in approximated locations. One cannot see the shape of the finds and their relationship to nearby finds (for example, whether a certain bowl was placed above or below a skeleton, or were there animal bones inside a bowl). 4. Professional plans were made in the field, usually toward the end of the excavation of a certain burial or locus. They cannot restore the process of the excavation. Since baskets, loci, levels, etc., were not fully registered on the plans, it is often impossible at present to identify them (e.g., we see a drawing of a bowl, but cannot identify its basket, because there are several bowls from the same burial/locus). We have done our best to identify the finds in the plans, using every piece of information that exists. This is not always feasible, and our identifications are sometimes tentative. 5. At a later date than the excavation, plans were prepared for Area A that define various phases/levels for each tomb. Some earlier versions of these plans have been kept, with handwritten notes. They show considerable changes in the stratigraphy. Certain finds and burials were ‘moved’ between phases, but we do not know why. Quite often, the later plans divide the finds from a certain locus into several levels/phases. It seems that superimposed finds were grasped as evidence for different temporal phases. Heights (above sea level) alone are inadequate to define phases, and without a textual description it is often hard to judge the levels as presented. What we have is ‘tomb stratigraphy’–– closely related finds rather than distinct chronological layers. We often suggest alternative phases, and have fixed the plans accordingly. The plans of Area A show contours in full and dotted lines. There is no registration of loci limits and the areas bounded by the lines represent only general areas, not exact limits of particular loci. For tombs A9–A11, A13–A14, the plans show rectangular and square areas in dotted lines. These are arbitrary areas, roughly delineating excavation areas or a frame of reference for comparison between levels. In these areas there were no clear shafts. Prof. Nili Liphschitz of Tel Aviv University prepared a report on the archaeozoological remains of the 1991 season (see Chapter 9, in volume I/2). Prof. A. Horowitz of Tel Aviv University wrote a short preliminary report on the geology (relating to Areas A and C). Rotem Arieli composed a brief report about the human remains of the 1991 season, which includes tombs A1 to A11. This report was later expanded by Arieli and Prof. Patricia Smith of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Unfortunately, both reports were arranged by loci and did not refer to basket numbers. The latter report gave data about sex and age. The age was defined by certain ranges (for example, 3 meant 3–4 years old, 25 meant 25–30 years old, 30 meant 30–35 years old, etc.). Since the bones are no longer available for research, it seems better to cite this data, rather than ignore it. Joanna Sofaer, working together with Prof. Smith, prepared reports that discuss skeletal remains, dental remains, and burial practices. These reports treated Areas A and C together, but they too did not refer to basket numbers. We have not made use of these reports. The inadequate documentation means that it is often difficult to restore the phases within the tombs. The plans of the levels/phases usually combine various loci into a certain phase/level. Since we lack locus cards and detailed daily graphic diaries, we cannot recreate the process of the excavation. Yet any discussion must be based on the level/phase plans, which form almost the sole testimony of the views of the excavators concerning the tombs of Area A. We suggest amendments and offer other possible © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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reconstructions of phases/levels when necessary. All heights are above sea level unless otherwise noted. One must always remember that we do not have stratigraphy in the common sense, namely, distinct layers one above the other. We have only ‘phases’ of burial in tombs that were often used continuously. Burials have been added, disturbing earlier burials. Therefore, finds were pushed and mixed, and earlier finds may be found higher up, on top of a secondary burial, in a heap of bones and finds. Only some finds can be ascribed with certainty to specific burials, and a standing jar may ‘cross’ the entire stratigraphy of a locus, or even of a tomb.

4.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE TOMBS In total, 14 tombs were found in Area A (labeled A1–A14; see general map, Plan 4.1). Tombs A11, A13, and A14 were not clearly defined. At some point the excavators began to label them as F5 and F6, after their respective squares. To prevent confusion with the Area F burials (Chapter 2, above), we use here only the labels A11, A13, and A14. The excavators defined several levels in each tomb, labeled by Roman numerals; the earliest level was marked as “I”. In the general map (Plan 4.1), gray areas mark the shafts. The contours of each tomb varied; as more areas were excavated, the tombs ‘grew’ in area. The general map gives an idea about the location of the tombs, and does not portray the exact maximal contours of each tomb. The loci are sometimes marked as an approximation (data about the location of some loci is not consistent). With each tomb, we first list the location and all the loci, followed by an anthropological summary. We proceed with a detailed description; in shaft tombs we describe first the shaft area and then the various burials zones phase by phase. Tomb A1 Loci 101, 108, 118, 119, 123, 125, 201, 222, 227, 234, 241, 271; Square F8 Anthropological summary: 19 individuals. Eleven of them are primary burials; three secondary burials; and five unclear burials. They include three females and five individuals are under 18 years old. TOMB A1, SHAFT AREA AND LEVEL IV (Plan 4.3; Figs. 4.1–4) Loci: north––loci 108, 118, 125; south––loci 119, 201 The excavators started work in L101, defined as the shaft of Tomb A1, filled with dark gray earth. Finds from L101 included only some pottery sherds, bones, a great deal of charcoal, as well as shells and snails. A fragment of an alabasteron was found in L101 (B1002; another fragment was found in L119, B1059). Locus 234 was defined as continuation of the shaft material. A probe (L123, exact location unclear) made “under the burial layer” reached sterile earth. Another locus (L222) was a straightening of a section damaged by winter rains, which had caused partial collapse. Apart of one basket of sherds (B2149), no finds were registered from this locus. Burials were found at the sides of the shaft. The uppermost level of burial included L108 and L125 in the northern side of the tomb. In this area there was a heap of leg and arm bones in secondary burial (B1233, B1256). Three skulls were found here (B1415–B1417), as well as one jar (B1275) and a juglet east of it (probably fragmented, lacking unique basket). Among the bones, not shown in the plan, there was a scarab with a bronze ring (B1064) and two pins (B1206; the second pin was lost during the season). Locus 118 was described as a lower phase under L108, but the excavators also suggested that it should be unified with L125 (of Level IV). According to the anthropological report, the bones from L118 represented five adult individuals. Locus 118 is not represented in the plans, since it included mainly sherds (B1141, B1161, B1182, B1377), charcoal (B1143, B1181), fragmented bones (B1142), and one bronze pin (B1206; it too was lost during the excavation). Loci 119 and 201 represented the uppermost level in the south area of the tomb. The finds of L119 were separated from the north by a wall of kurkar stones, yet the plan shows only several small stones that may have marked the southern burial zone. Locus 119 included the area surrounded by dotted line in Plan 4.3, whereas L201 was an extension to the south. Three skeletons in articulation were discovered in L119, but only parts of two of them were registered under L119 (skulls B1291, B1292). They form one area of burial, joining with the L201 burials (the burials are all listed below). Finds from L119 include three jars at the eastern edge of the locus, north of the burials (B1272–B1274). A juglet (B1486) was found inside jar B1273, and a carinated bowl (B1504) north of B1273.

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Fig. 4.1 (left): Tomb A1 L119, Level IV, looking south. Jar B1272 on the left. Probably skull B1291 at center. Fig. 4.2 (right): Tomb A1 L201, Level IV, looking south. Skeleton B2966+B3234; at left is juglet B2694.

Fig. 4.3: Tomb A1 L201, Level IV, looking south. Three skeletons (left, skulls from front to back B2821, B2873, B2908); jug B2978 near B2908. Skeleton B2966+skull B3234 at center.

Fig. 4.4: Tomb A1, L204 and L241, Levels IV–III, looking south. Skeleton B2966+B3234; at right, jar B2871, and behind it jar B2872 above jar B3214.

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Jar B1274 appears on its side above jar B1273. A bowl (B1457) and a juglet (B1499) were found inside it. Jar B1274 also held bones, but their nature is not clear. It could have been a jar burial, but there is no data to corroborate this interpretation and no other clear jar burials have been identified in Area A. The excavators and the anthropologists reported six articulated burials in L201, which was an extension of L119 toward the south. This number already includes the primary burials of L119. The deceased are all arranged on an east–west axis with the heads in the east. They were very close to each other and sometimes placed with legs/arms above neighboring bodies. The faces were usually turned to the south. Various ages were identified (4, 7, 20, 45, and two females aged 14 and 40). There were sediments indicating flooding by water at the sides and above the burials. The skeletons were numbered 1 to 6, as follows: 1. Skeleton B2402, skull B1291 (L119). A crushed scarab was found in the pelvis area of this skeleton (B2032). 2. Skeleton B2461, skull B1292 (L119). A bronze pin (B2502) was found on the chest area of this skeleton. 3. Skeleton B2870, skull B2821 (L201). Two red burnished dipper juglets (B2269, B2320) were found north of the skull. 4. Skeleton B2873, skull B2874 (L201). There was a bronze pin near the neck (B2879). Two scarabs were found inside the skull during anthropological examination: one made of amethyst (B2874/1), and the other with a bronze ring (scarab B2874/2, ring B2874/3). 5. Skeleton B3069, skull B2908 (L201). A cylindrical juglet (B2649) was found south of the knee of this skeleton, and a jug (B2978) south of the skull. 6. Skeleton B3234, skull B2966 (L201) (Fig. 4.2). Near skull B2966 a scarab with a ring (B2615) was found. A bronze pin (B2614) was discovered on the chest of the skeleton. A scarab (B2924) was found south of the legs, but it is not clear to which burial it belonged. A bowl with a disk base (B3062) and a dipper juglet (B3061) were found in the area west of the skeletons. Other finds cannot be mapped exactly, including three additional scarabs (B2537, B2568, B2569) and a bronze pin (B2444). One scarab is marked at the pelvis of skeleton B2870 (likely B2569); but all the three have the same heights and lack data about their location. Judging by the positioning, skeleton 6 was the earliest, followed by skeletons 5, 4, and 3. Skeleton 2 could have been added at any time before or even after skeletons 3–5; it was placed squatted with legs sharply folded, apparently for lack of space, separated from skeleton 6 by a few kurkar stones. The final burial was of skeleton 1. It is notable that the burials do not damage one another (skeleton 2 seems somewhat damaged, but probably not by any later burials). Skeletons 4 and 5 seem to be intertwined–– with overcrossing legs, suggesting contemporaneous burial. However, we are not completely sure that the plan renders accurately the relations between these skeletons. TOMB A1, LEVEL III (Plan 4.4; Figs. 4.4–7) Loci: north––part of L227; west––L271; south––finds from L241. The excavators ascribed to Level III part of L227 in the north side of the tomb. In fact, L227 is divided between three levels (I–III). The excavators ascribed some higher finds to Level III, while the skeletons of L127 were defined as part of Level II. We will first list the finds associated with Level III, and discuss their relation to the burials only later (after discussing the burials, see Level II below). Level III finds included, from east to west, a carinated bowl (B2377), a large bowl standing on its side (B2473), two bowls, superimposed (B2321 [with vertical burnishing] above B2322), and another bowl (B2375). South of these vessels there were four small juglets, from east to west: piriform white juglet B2390; piriform B2219; red-burnished B2391; and piriform B2392. A scarab (B2395) was found between B2391 and B2392. On the western side of L227, separated by a few pieces of kurkar, a jug (B2267), a bowl (B2361), and a dipper juglet (B2373) were found. Note that part of a skull is marked on the plan of Level III near bowl B2375––either B2875 or another skull attributed to Level II. In the west (L271) stood a jar (B3155) with a juglet inside it (B3154). Ostrich eggs (B3179) were also found in L271. While L271 was described as situated under L227, in fact it formed a continuation L227 to the west. In the south too, the vessels of L241 were allocated to Level III and a skeleton to Level II. This, however, is most probably an arbitrary separation. All the L241 finds will be discussed together in Level II (below). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 4.5: Tomb A1, L227 Level III, looking north. Vertical bowl B2473 (right); the two whitish round objects are skulls (probably B2782, B2875 of Level II).

Fig. 4.6 (top): Tomb A1, L227 Levels III–II, looking north. At left, bowl B2361 (Level III). Skeleton B2783 with skull B2782; behind B2876 with skull B2875. Bowls B2938 and B2941 upper right. Fig. 4.7 (bottom left): Tomb A1, L241 Level III, looking south. Carinated bowl B2974 at center; juglets B2970 and B2968 behind it. The legs (upper right) are from the unregistered skeleton of Level II. Fig. 4.8 (bottom right): Tomb A1, L227, Level II, looking north. Legs of B2783 and B2876; behind is jar B3162.

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TOMB A1, LEVEL II (Plan 4.5; Fig. 4.8) Loci: north and west––part of L227; south––L241. The burials of L227 were ascribed to this level. They included four articulated (primary) burials, placed above and in silt earth. The burials are as follows: 1. Southern skeleton: B2783, skull B2782. 2. Northern skeleton: B2876, skull B2785; identified as 25 years old. 3. Eastern, partly preserved skeleton: skull B2486. Detached teeth were found west of skull B2486 (not attributed with certainty to that skull), as well as bones of a folded arm (B2601). 4. Skull B2530 and at least the upper skeleton of a young individual, placed above skeleton 2, west of skull B2875. Although B2530 seems large in the plan, the anthropological report indicates that it belonged to a 3-year-old child. According to the anthropological report, Burials 1 and 3 belonged to a 20-year-old female and a 30year-old adult (it is unclear which is which); another 30-year-old individual was represented by bones of a secondary burial in L227. There is no further data on this burial. The L227 finds attributed to Level II included a bowl (B2469, northwest of skull B2486) with animal bones (B2463) in and around it; a vessel drawn as a jar (B2936), but according to the basket list a redburnished bowl; a deep bowl with disc base (B2938); and a carinated bowl (B2941). In the west, three jars (B3162, B3169/1, and B2969); a dipper juglet (B3165); a carinated bowl (B3166); and a Cypriot juglet (B3167) were discovered. Other finds without clear location were a bronze fragment (B2250) and a scarab (B2395, possibly of Level III, see above). One more carinated bowl (B2362) was found inside a jar in the west area (not in the plan). Sediments indicating running water were interpreted as evidence that the tomb had been left open after the L227 burials were interred (the shaft was not filled), perhaps flooding the remains. It is hard to accept the suggested separation between the bones and the vessels, as if they constituted distinct phases. Why were the burials lacking funerary objects, and why would people put objects at a later date inside a tomb, if they did not participate in a funeral? The row of four small juglets of Level II (B2390, B2219, B2391, B2392) conforms well to the heads of the southern and eastern burials of Level III. The entire group of finds B2377, B2473, B2322, B2321, and B2375 of Level III fit well among and sometimes on the vessels of Level II. While there are clearly some phases in the tomb, the mere superimposition of vessels one above the other is not proof of separate, distinct layers. In the southern part of the tomb, the plan of Level II (Plan 4.5) shows a skeleton in L241, in a primary burial on an east–west axis with the head in the east. There is no registration of human bones from L241 in the basket list, only animal teeth (B3073). The anthropological report mentioned this burial, which was probably not retrieved, but rather was left in the field. As mentioned above, the finds of L241 were arbitrarily defined as Level III; we present them here together with the bones of Level II. They include (Plan 4.4) an alabaster vessel (B2986); a white painted Cypriot jug (B2968); two Cypriot juglets (B2970, B2971); an animal jaw (B3073); and three jars. One of the jars was partially broken and lying on its side (B2871), a second jar, missing the upper part (B3214), was found below a third, standing jar (B2872). The jar group could have belonged to Level IV (with bowl B3062 and juglet B3061), but also to earlier levels. TOMB A1, LEVEL I (Plan 4.6) Locus: north––L271? The plan of Level I, the earliest level, shows one primary burial on a roughly east–west axis with extended legs (one slightly folded out) and one folded arm. The skeleton is disturbed: a jaw appears in the place of the skull, which is moved to the north (Plan 4.6: A). A small juglet or jug (Plan 4.6: B) can also be seen near another skull (Plan 4.6: C). The excavators probably had no time to take out the bones and the finds, and hence they did not receive basket numbers. Although the locus is marked in one original plan as L271, the finds of L271 are located in the western part of the tomb and ascribed to Level III (see above). Tomb A2 Loci 102, 122, 202, 217, 237, 247, 248, 260, 268; Square F10 Anthropological summary: 13 individuals. Three are primary burials and seven are secondary (the type of burial of three more individuals is unclear). They include five males, two females, and four children/youth.

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TOMB A2, SHAFT AREA AND LEVEL VI (Plan 4.7; Figs. 4.9–10) Loci: shaft––L102, north––L247 The excavators distinguished six levels in this tomb. The shaft area was defined as L102, where dark gray earth was found with a few sherds, bones, pieces of charcoal, snails, and shells. A group of bones with two skulls was ascribed to Level VI, the latest in Tomb A2 (L247). This is probably the burial referred to in the anthropological report under L247, as “partially articulated burial without legs”. No burials were registered in the basket list for L247; but another document explicitly mentioned two burials in L247 (the other burial is from Level II, see below). There is no complete skeleton, though some bones seem to be in articulation. The general axis is east–west with the head (height 38.14 m) in the east. A large (leg?) bone extends from the eastern skull to the south. Near the skull there were three small vessels: a cylindrical juglet (B2637), a piriform juglet (B24638), and another juglet (basket unknown). A second skull rested on the bones. A scarab (B2792) was found farther to the west (the mark for this scarab appears also on the plan of Level V). A Fig. 4.9: Tomb A2, L102, Level VI, looking north. The shaft. bronze pin is marked in the plan west of the second skull (B2634), but it belongs to L202 (see below, Plan 4.8). It seems that there is no reason to separate these remains as a distinct level. They join well the “earlier” Level V (below). The folded legs of burial B2503+B2496 of Level V fit between the bones of Level VI. Only two skulls seem to be placed one partially on top of the other. This explains also why some finds appear in the plans of both levels (such as pin B2634). There are no two distinct layers here. Furthermore, the other part of L247 includes remains defined as Level II (below). The separation of L247 into two levels that are not consecutive (V and II) is arbitrary. The L247 burial presented in the plan of Level VI cannot be the latest burial in the northern part of Tomb A2. The lack of baskets for the skulls and bones of L247 of Level VI indicates that the anthropological remains were left in the ground. They are probably one of the earlier, if not earliest burials in Tomb A2. This is also indicated by the few heights registered in Plan 4.7. If so, the primary burial (Level V) disturbed earlier––probably secondary burials (Level VI), forming one continuum. All the “levels” in the northern part of Tomb A2 fit together as one assemblage, with secondary burials (mostly pushed to the sides) and a primary burial (attributed to Level V). We do not have here six separated levels with considerable intervals between them, but one continuous period of burial.

Fig. 4.10: Tomb A2, L247, Level VI, looking north. Partial skeleton with two skulls and vessels B2637, B2638.

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Fig. 4.11: Tomb A2, L122, Level V, looking north. Jar B1398 with bowl B1505 inside it (left); jar B1399 (right).

TOMB A2, LEVEL V (Plan 4.8; Figs. 4.11–12) Loci: north––Loci 122, 202; south––L248 The plan shows one complete primary burial in the north. It was seen already in 1991 but excavated only in 1992, as part of L202. The deceased (skeleton B2503; skull B2496) was a 40-year-old male, placed on an east–west axis with the head in the east and the legs folded to the north. The legs were folded to the north and the arms probably placed on the abdomen. A pin (B2634) was found near the pelvis (but it may have belonged to the Level VI secondary remains). The pottery vessels farther to the south (in L122) were found under roof collapse that caused considerable damage. They could have belonged to several burials; probably some vessels are connected to the latest primary burial (Level V), and others to the earlier and mostly secondary burials (Levels VI, III–I). The pottery included two groups of jars: in the west there was a large jar or pithos (B1398) with a juglet (B1444) and fragments of a bowl (B1505) inside it. In the east there was a jar (B1399) with more vessels north of it: a jug (B1480) and a small bowl (B1538) inside a large bowl (B1481). Another juglet (B1539) was found under jug B1480. The anthropological report mentions one adult in secondary burial in L122, represented by few bones (age/sex unknown). In Plan 4.8 we also see remains of two secondary burials Fig. 4.12: Tomb A2, L248, Level V, looking southeast. Jar in L202: one in the east (B2385) with a bronze B2586 (front), jar B2589 under bowl B2585 (back). Behind is pin (B2430?); the second in the west (B2465+ B2622 under lamp B2623 and two skulls (B2838, B2481). B2648). The best explanation for the remains is that the secondary burials are earlier. They were pushed aside, probably when the primary burial (B2496+B2503) was added. The jars (B1399, B1398) and the nearby smaller vessels can relate to any of these burials––one cannot relate the vessels to specific burials. In the south, L248 was divided between Levels V–IV. The anthropological report, treating the entire L248 together, identified five individuals in both primary and secondary burials. The ages were 3, 14, 35 (female), 40 (female), and one undefined youth. The Level V plan shows only two skulls (B2481, B2838?) and few dispersed bones. The primary burials are ascribed to Level IV.

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Finds identified for Level V in L248 include two jars (B2589 on the right; B2586 on the left); a carinated bowl (B2585, above jar B2589); a bowl (B2622 south of the jars) with a lamp (B2623) on it; a carinated bowl (B2482, south of bowl B2622); and a juglet (B2852). TOMB A2, LEVEL IV (Plan 4.9; Fig. 4.13) Locus: south––L248. Level IV included remains of partially articulated, but very badly preserved burials in L248, in the southern part of the tomb. They were identified as a 3-year-old child (B2838, skeleton B2883), placed above an adult (skull B2841, skeleton B2884) at the south edge of the locus. Skeletons are not clearly visible in the plan, but only small bones near these two skulls. Though the skulls are drawn differently in the plans, they are the same items shown already in the Level V plan (see Plan 4.8), with juglet B2852 south of the skulls and jar B2589 north of them. Thus, Level IV forms a continuation with Level V rather than a separate level. Secondary burials west of these finds included three skulls (B2920, B2939, and another skull [basket unclear; Plan 4.8: A]). Among the bones there were two bronze pins (B2830, B2831).

Fig. 4.13: Tomb A2, L248, Level IV, looking south. Jar B2919 left; skulls B2841, B2838 behind, skull B2920 barely seen left of the sign. Bones and skull B2939 at the right.

TOMB A2, LEVEL III (Plan 4.10; Fig. 4.14) Locus: north––L260 In the north, L260 was defined as Level III. It shows a secondary burial with two individuals, one of them identified as a 40 year-old male (bones B3187+B3278; skull B3181). There is no data about the second individual. From the same heap came a bronze pin (B3185), a juglet (B3163), and a carinated bowl (B3184). Another juglet (B3186, not shown in plan) was found under bowl B3184.

Fig. 4.14: Tomb A2, L260, Level III, looking north. Upturned bowl B3184 at center; skull B3181 left. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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This secondary burial heap does not form a separate level. It is located alongside the burials of Level V–VI, not underneath them. The remains are lower, and possibly earlier; they are probably remains of once primary burials which have been pushed to the sides. In the south, a layer of kurkar stones that perhaps collapsed from the floor seals the remains of Levels II–I below, creating clear stratified layers in this case. Through the collapse, the mouth of jar B3236 of L268 (Level II) is already visible. TOMB A2, LEVEL II (Plan 4.11) Loci: north––L247; south––L268 The heap of secondary burial shown in the north is part of L247. It included one skull (basket unknown) and one scarab (B3170). In the middle of the tomb a bowl is shown in the plan (B2401), but it belongs to Level V, to burial B2496+B2503. In the south, two jars of L268 are visible: B3237 in the west and the larger B3236 in the east (with juglet B3247 inside B3236). These two jars fit into the plan of Level I (Plan 4.12 below). The rims of the jars already protrude, because they are higher; but their bases are set on the same level of the bones and small finds of Level I. In this case therefore, the separation of L268 into two levels is arbitrary. There are no distinct layers here and Level II should be amalgamated with Level I. TOMB A2, LEVEL I (Plan 4.12; Fig. 4.15) Loci: north––L202; south––L268 The plan shows two heaps of secondary burial in the north (L202), mainly skulls and long bones. At the center there are three skulls (B2415, B2431, and the third skull lacking number, Plan 4.12: A); one bronze pin (B2430); and a small, unclear item (Plan 4.12: B, height 38.01). Another secondary burial in the west side (bones B2465+B2648) has two skulls (B2416, B2471). Near them there is a fragmented bowl (B2401)––the bowl already shown in the plan of Level II (above). There is no justification for dividing L202 across five levels. The skull of the western secondary heap (B2416) is already visible in Level V, at the feet of primary burial B2496+B2503. Apparently, the same is true for skull B2431, pin B2430, and the bones nearby; only their location slightly varies between the plans (probably by mistake). The secondary burial groups of Level I fit at the sides of the primary burial of Level V, forming one continuous phase. In the south, Levels II–I should be combined (and L268 re-united). According to the anthropological report, there was one primary burial here, directed east–west, with the head in east (not registered, Plan 4.12: C; probably it was not removed). However, more bones from secondary burials exist at the west side of the locus. North of the primary burial there were several finds, from west to east: a juglet (B3257), a small juglet (Plan 4.12: D), and a carinated bowl (B3274), which is located between the two jars (B3236 and B3237) shown in Level II. A piriform juglet (B3248) and a bronze pin (B3250) were found near the skull of the primary burial, as Fig. 4.15: Tomb A2, L268, Levels II–I, looking south. Jar B3236 with juglet B3247 well as wooden remains left, jar B3237 right. At top right, part of unregistered skeleton of Level I. from a handle (B3251). A row of small finds was discovered south of the skeleton, from west to east: a bronze pin (B3273), a bowl (B3262), a juglet (B3276), another juglet (B3261), a bronze dagger with a wooden handle (B3249+ B3251); and four bowls (B3254, B3255, B3275, and B3256). Some finds belonged perhaps to the primary burial (B2496+B2503), others to the earlier, secondary burials in this locus. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Tomb A3 Loci 103, 114, 115, 132, 203, 226, 236, 259, 269; Square F9 Anthropological summary: 25 individuals. Eight are primary and 15 are secondary (the type of burial of two is unclear). They include four males, one female, and 10 children/youths. TOMB A3, SHAFT AREA AND LEVEL VI (Plan 4.13; Fig. 4.16) Loci: shaft B323––L103; north––loci 114, L203 The excavators defined six levels in this tomb. The shaft was defined as L103. Here were found a few pottery sherds, charcoals, teeth, and bones. Fragments of a handmade cooking pot with rope decoration and holes were found as well (B1031). This perhaps suggests some activities outside the tomb, since cooking pots are not found inside the MB tombs of Rishon le-Zion (one exception is perhaps B2232 of A10, L220, but it is not shown in any plan). The plan of Level VI (Plan 4.13) shows a heap of bones in secondary burial on the north side of the tomb (B1560––leg and arm bones, part of a pelvis), with one jar in the west (B2153) and a second jar in the east (B1455+B2001+B2027, with a juglet inside it, B2004).1 Based on a written summary of the 1991 season, the earliest remains in Tomb A1 (at the time of writing) were one jar (B1540) and a bead, registered as L114. Jar B1540 was apparently retrieved only later, in the 1992 season, when it received the basket number B2153. This jar (B1540=B2153) was not shown in the plans of Levels VI–V, but in that of Level II (Plan 4.17 below; we added it to Plan 4.13 of Level VI; and in dotted lines to Plan 4.14 of Level V). The second jar, B1455, was also renumbered as B2001+B2027 in the 1992 season. This jar already appears in the plan of Level V (Plan 4.14). Fig. 4.16: Tomb A3, Level VI. The shaft; L103, L114 marked It is difficult to see two separate phases on the side. Below is the start of L115 (Level V). (Levels VI–V) in this area of Tomb A3. Rather, the two jars and bones of Level VI can be combined with the remains of Level V. The bones of Level VI are not above the brick wall of Level V, but beside it. TOMB A3, LEVEL V (Plan 4.14; Figs. 4.17–19) Loci: north––L114 (+L203); south––loci 115, 226 The excavators attributed to Level V the finds of the upper phase of L114, found north of a brick wall. Next to the wall there were a few bones and two jars (B1454––upper part damaged; and the already mentioned B1455). Farther to the north there were some bones (a few leg bones, perhaps in articulation); a bowl (B1459); another bowl (B1516) with animal bones inside it; an axe (B1515); and an olive pit (B1134). According to the anthropological report, the bones in L114 represented three individuals in secondary burials, aged 7, 20 (female), and 30 (male). The area south of the brick wall was defined as L115. A complete primary burial was found farther to the south, excavated as L226 (skeleton B2360, skull B3007). The deceased was placed supine, on an east– west axis, with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. It was identified as a 40 year-old male. The legs were extended and the arms positioned on the abdomen. Next to the head there was a juglet (B2359). According to the anthropological report, traces of a piece of silver jewelry were found on the right radius (arm bone). Compare B6536 on the arm of burial B6534 in Tomb B97, Area B (Chapter 2, above). A few (animal?) bones of unclear nature were found north of the burial. According to the anthropological report, three individuals (two under 18 and one c. 35 year old) were found in secondary burials in L115. There are nine bone baskets from L115, so obviously many bones have been found there. However, the secondary burials are not visible in the plan.

1

Often, juglets found inside jars at Rishon le-Zion carry much higher basket numbers than the jars. This is because the jars were retrieved full of earth, and the juglets were registered days or weeks later, when the jars were cleaned. Examples from Area A are juglet B2919 inside jar B2589 (Plan 4.9), and juglet B2276 inside jar B2170 (Plan 4.40). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 4.17 (left): Tomb A3, L114, Level V looking north. Jars B1454, B1455 at right, behind them bowls B1459 and B1516. At the left side, part of a vessel is seen behind the wall, probably B1540. Fig. 4.18 (right): Tomb A3, L114, Level V looking north. Jar B1455 at right; the bones between it and the sign are of Level II. At the back, bowl B1516 and axe B1515.

Fig. 4.19: Tomb A3, L115, Level V, looking south. Pithos and jar B1522 left; juglet B1458 between them; small vessels (from left to right, behind sign) B1545, B1521, B1544 and B1525.

The area of L115 north of the L226 burial, but not close to the brick wall, was full of finds. They possibly relate to the L226 burial, but this cannot be proven. The finds include, starting in the east, a jar (B1522) and a pithos with a juglet inside it (Plan 4.14: A). As the pithos was not removed, it and the juglets inside it did not receive basket numbers. Between them there was another juglet (B1548). More finds west of the jars included a carinated bowl (B1545) and three juglets (B1521, B1544, and the very fragmented B1525). North of these vessels there were fragmented remains of a jug (B1348), a bowl (B1349), and two incomplete Tell el-Yahudiyeh vessels––a one-handled flask (B1158) and a juglet (B1163+B1179; the identification in Plan 4.14 is not certain). The excavators thought that the more northern small finds belonged to a later stage. A dagger (B1400) and some animal bones (B1413?) were found in the center, between all these finds. Locus 132 was excavated under the brick wall separating L114 and L115, but it has no restorable or complete finds. Teeth were found in this locus representing a baby, 1.5 years old (B1437). Perhaps these remains join the secondary bones B1560 of Level VI.

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TOMB A3, LEVEL IV (Plan 4.15) Locus: north––L203 This level shows one primary burial in L203 (skeleton B2476, skull B2472; 15 years old). It is supine, lying in an east–west direction with the head in the east and the face probably turned to the north. The legs are extended and the arms probably folded on the chest. Seven others individuals in secondary burials were also found, aged 3, 3, 7, 15 (male), 40, and two more adults. Five skulls were registered from this locus (B2442 [not visible in the plan], B2460, B2528 [with tooth B2529 nearby], B2621, and B2632). Finds attributed to Level IV include a scarab registered as on the finger of a skeleton (B2031––but one does not see a skeleton, so perhaps the position is inaccurate; the ring of this scarab was found in two halves, B2152+B2447); a broken jar (B2153, already discussed in Level V above); a bead (B2216); and an “MB IIA amphora north of jar B1455” (B2193, only a fragment was taken out; the dating is doubtful, since Tomb A3 belongs to the MB IIB period). A bronze pin (B2635) was discovered at the shoulder of B2472+B2476. Other finds (not in the plan) are a scarab (B2558) with a bronze ring (B2544). What is the relation between Levels V and IV in the northern part of Tomb A3? The fact that jar B2153 continues as B2674 shows that its base is relatively low, and must have belonged to Level IV (L203 is not divided between levels, except for this sole jar). The finds of L114 (Level V) fit well with those of L203 (Level IV) farther to the north, with only one exception: The extended Level V leg bones between bowl B1459 and jar B2153 (Plan 4.14) seem to be in the same place as the legs of skeleton B2476 shown in Level IV (Plan 4.15). The drawings are not identical, though. Given that L115 (V) and L203 (IV) were excavated in two different seasons, the legs shown in Level V might have been the same as those of B2476 in Level IV. If this is correct, Levels V and IV form one phase. This phase included one primary burial B2476+B2472 (to which we tend to ascribe bowls B1459 and B1519), surrounded by remains of secondary burials, with jars standing at both sides of the ‘entrance’ to the burial zone from the shaft. TOMB A3, LEVEL III (Plan 4.16; Fig. 4.20; Color Pl. 1.1) Locus: north––L259 On the north side of the tomb (L259), a primary burial of a 35-year-old adult was found (skeleton B3048, skull B3047). The body was placed supine on an east–west axis, the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The legs were folded to the north. One hand was extended along the body, the other folded on the shoulder. This burial was placed right under burial B2476+B2471 of Level IV and above burial B3136+B3105 of Level II. Notice that part of skull B3105 of Level II (Plan 4.17) already appears in Level III east of skull B3047––Plan 4.16, the contour under the label 2836). The separation of phases here (Levels IV–II) is justified; though the bones and finds are superimposed directly one on top of the other without any intermediate layers.

Fig. 4.20: Tomb A3, L259, Level III, looking north. Burial B3047+B3048 with bowl B2829 at center. Bowl B2833 top center. Probably jar B1522, Level V (left); base of jar B2834 (right) with skull B3105, Level II behind it. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Finds attributed to Level III included a dagger near the feet (B3039); a bowl (B2829, probably below the skeleton); another red-slipped bowl north of it (B2833); and a bead south of the hip (B3169). A group of finds south of the left arm of B3048+B3047 included two carinated bowls, one above the other (B2832 above B2827), two dipper juglets (B2825, B2826), another juglet (B2828), and a cylindrical juglet (B2836, not shown in the original plan, graphically restored by us). Attributing finds to specific burials is fraught with problems. We tentatively suggest that the small juglets and bowls belonged to the primary burial B3048+B3047. The burial of Level II probably contained a similar set of small finds (see below). TOMB A3, LEVEL II (Plan 4.17) Loci: north––loci 203, 259 Level II is limited to the northern side of Tomb A3 (mainly L269). There is one primary burial in this level, of an adult (skeleton B3136, skull B3105). The body rested on the right side, oriented east–west with the head in the east and the hand folded on the abdomen. The face was turned to the north and the legs were folded. This burial is quite rich in finds. A dagger was discovered on the pelvis (B3099) and four scarabs (B3114–B3117) on the hand (left hand according to the reports); presumably all were worn on the fingers. Near the hand there was a large group of brown beads (43 intact beads and ten fragments; B3137). A bronze pin was found on the chest (B3097). The skull rested on the rim of a bowl (B3089) with a jar fragment (B2834, L259) above it. Other small finds, possibly related to this burial, were attributed to Level I (below). A small Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet was also found (fragmented, B3130; graphically restored in Plan 4.17, the exact shape is not certain). One secondary burial, of an adult, is also reported from Level II, but we cannot identify it (perhaps B3080 at the west, in L267). The plan of Level II also shows three jars. One of them is B2153 of Levels VI–V. The smaller jar nearby has no number. Slightly to the north there are fragments of a bowl (B3138) and two animal jaws (B3139, B3140). On the other side there was another jar (B2834). TOMB A3, LEVEL I (Plan 4.18; Fig. 4.21) Locus: north––L269 The finds attributed to Level I are also limited to the northern side of the tomb (L269). The anthropological report mentioned four primary burials (of unknown age/sex), which the excavators defined as secondary. Apparently there are no complete skeletons, and the definition as “primary” could relate to partial skeletons which preserved the articulation, but were found in secondary contexts. Four skulls are visible in Plan 4.18: one together with a few bones in a secondary burial at the west, and three Fig. 4.21: Tomb A3, level I, L269, looking northeast, gold item close to each other at the north. The plan B3229 beyond the meter; animal jaw B and vessel B3285 slightly suggests that these are secondary burials, back and to the left of it; skulls farther back. with small parts that seem still in articulation, such as part of a spinal cord at the center. The area was not thoroughly cleaned before the burials of the later levels were added. The easternmost skull (B3283) had traces of silver with it, indicating jewelry worn on the head. Another silver fragment was found nearby (B3282). Slightly to the west there was a gold bracelet (B3229); a juglet (B3285); a bronze pin (B3284); and a scarab (B3281). On the south, a row of small finds included, from west to east, three small juglets (B3130–B3132); a dipper juglet (B3133); and a Cypriot jug (B3134). Farther to the east was a scarab/bead (basket number unknown). Juglet and jug B3133 and B3134 of Level I seem to ‘collide’ with bowl B3089 of Level III, but if the measurement was slightly inaccurate, it is possible that the small juglets of Level I are part of the assemblage related with the primary burial (B3105+B3136) of Level II. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Tomb A4 Loci 104, 113. 204, 218, 235, 242, 254, 267; Square E9 Anthropological summary: 21 individuals. One in primary burial, the rest in secondary burials. Three are males and one female; 11 are under 18 years old. The excavators defined three levels in Tomb A4, but it is difficult to understand them and the plans associated with them. There is no clear shaft in any of the plans, and we have no data about its shape and depth. The remains are concentrated in one area, and the designations “south” and “north” are only technical. The plans of Tomb A4 lack contours of excavated areas or any grid reference, so the only way to locate one plan in relation to another is by vessels or bones that reoccur in more than one plan (this is quite rare in Tomb A4). TOMB A4, SHAFT AREA AND LEVEL IV (Plan 4.19; Fig. 4.22) Loci: shaft––L104; south––loci 113, 204, 254; north––L242. The shaft or sealing material of this tomb was defined as L104, with dark gray earth as well as pockets of white sand. On the surface there was also a layer of sherds. The loci that compose Level IV included several burials attributed to it. 1. L113, B1557. In the south side of the tomb, remains of a burial in articulation. The body was defined as placed in an east–west direction, with the head in the east. This burial is not very clear in the plan, though, where it appears as some long bones and a skull. 2–3. L113, baskets not clear. According to one file there were two secondary, disarticulated burials in L113, represented only by long leg bones. The anthropological report for L113 mentions three individuals in secondary burials, ages 15, 30, and an adult. Bones found in the 1991 season (L113) were not taken out until 1992, so perhaps the burials found in 1991 were allocated new numbers (and recounted?) in 1992. 4. L204, Primary burial of an adult (skeleton B2878, skull B2915) (Plan 4.19, gray). The body was supine, on an east–west axis with the head in the east. The legs were extended with one foot above the other. 5–11. L254, secondary burials, L254 was originally considered a lower level, but in the plan it is shown together with L204 in Level IV. According to the anthropological report there were seven individuals in secondary burials in L254, aged 6, 9, 14, 20, and 40. Two more were adult, but the precise age is unclear. One of them was female. In the plan three of these individuals appear as skulls B2627–B2629. More skulls appear in the plan but cannot be identified with basket numbers. More bones and skulls are partially seen in Level IV (Plan 4.19: 1, 2, 4, at bottom). They are described as part of the remains of Level II (below). Various finds were discovered together or near the burials. Inside skull B2629 there was a scarab (B2629/1), found during cleaning. Another scarab was found north of burial B2915+B2878 (B2626). A jar (B2096) was found on the western side of the burial zone and immediately west of skull B2915 there were two bowls, one (B2677) inside the other (B2677). A cylindrical juglet (B2678) was found near the hip of burial B2915+B2878. North of skull B2915, the excavation unearthed a bronze pin (B2916), part of a pithos (B2095) with a dipper juglet (B2298) inside, another dipper juglet (B2097), and a scarab (B2905) that was probably located on the shoulder of B2915+B2878. On the northeast, remains from L242 were ascribed to Level IV, including a secondary burial heap (bones B2652) with remains of at least two individuals, aged 5 and 14 (male), identified by skulls B2560, B2561. Beads were found near B2561 (from cleaning of the bones, not listed in the basket list). North of the skulls there was a scarab (B2593) and a bronze pin (B2594). TOMB A4, LEVEL III (Plan 4.20; Fig. 4.23) Locus 254 The plan shows the continuation of secondary burials north of burial B2878+B2915 of Level IV. There is no justification to see these small bones as a separate level. The only L254 bone basket that fits the height of this level is B3049, with a scarab (B3049/1) found during the cleaning of the bones after excavation. The skull found on the eastern side of bones B3049 was marked in plans as B3105, but this must be a mistake (since B3105 belongs to Tomb A3). This skull and the round contour west of it appear also in the Level IV plan, north of burial B2878+B2915 (Plan 4.19: 2; the final rendering of each skull seems different in the final plans, but this is only due to an effort to clarify each item, since the original plans are too schematic). In the south, some finds can be seen (Plan 4.20: 1, 2, and 4) that are attributed to Level II.

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Fig. 4.22: Tomb A4, Level IV, L113, looking south. Burial B2878 (back); bones B1557 (front); pithos B2095 at left, jar B2096 at right.

Fig. 4.23: Tomb A4, Levels III–II, L204, looking south. L204 below sign is with skull 2=B left and bones B3049 at center. Behind is L267 with skull A (left), another at center, and skulls 1–3 (top right).

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TOMB A4, LEVEL II (Plan 4.21) Locus 267 The skulls marked A–B on the plan of Level II are from Level I, and are given here only for positioning. The position of Level II in regard to Level III is less clear, but the heights suggest that the remains labeled as Level II are located beside those of Level IV and are later, rather than earlier, than Level III. The finds that can be identified in Plan 4.21 include, from east to west, a bronze pin (B3066, registered as L204) and two more bronze pins (both B3071) near a skull (Plan 4.21: 4), which also appears in the plans of Levels IV–III (Plans 4.19–20, above). The features marked as 1, 2, and 3 are not bowls, but almost certainly a group of three skulls (B3080–B3082, L267) in secondary burial. A scarab was found (B3082/1) when one of these skulls was examined in the laboratory. According to the anthropological report, eight individuals in secondary burials were found in L267, aged 4, 8, 12, 17, 18, 30, 35 (male), and 40 years. Only three of them are represented in the plan, by skulls B3080–B30082. TOMB A4 LEVEL I (Plan 4.21) Locus 254 The plan of this level shows three skulls in secondary burial with small bones nearby (Plan 4.22: skulls A–C; skull C is partially hidden). One of them, skull B, was marked B3105 by mistake. However, we cannot identify these skulls with basket numbers and perhaps the bones were not exhumed. The vessels near the skulls are registered under L254. North of the skulls there were a scarab (B3272), a juglet (B3100), part of a bowl (B3101), a carinated bowl (B3271), and another juglet (B3119). West of skull B there were two bronze pins (B3103, B3102), a handle of a juglet (B3188), a scarab (B3127), a large bowl with knob handles (B3120), and the rim of a carinated bowl (Plan 4.21: D). In sum, the data available at present does not permit an exact reconstruction of the history of Tomb A4. In general, it seems that there are fewer levels (or better to say phases) than those presented by the excavators. Levels II–I and probably also Level III can be amalgamated into one phase; leaving the tomb with only two phases that form one continued period of burial. That is, earlier burials were pushed into secondary heaps (Levels III–I and parts of Level IV in the northeast) when the later, primary burials were added (Level IV). Tomb A5 Loci 105, 110, 121, 205, 243, 251, 253, 263, 270, 273; Square E8 Anthropological summary: five individuals, all in primary burials. They include two adults (one of them male) and three children/youth under 18 years old. Note: this summary excludes L121, but the L121 burial is most likely identical to (and not an addition to) the burial of L205. As with Tomb A4, the plans of Tomb A5 do not show the exact location or shape of the shaft, and only the plans of Levels III–I have contours that facilitate comparison between different plans. TOMB A5, SHAFT AREA AND LEVELS VI–V (Plans 4.23–24; Figs. 4.24–25) Loci: shaft––L105, L110; north––L263; south––loci 121, 205. The entrance or shaft area is L105, where only a few pottery sherds have been found. A different gray-colored earth appeared farther down, so the locus was replaced by L110. During the 1991 season, an articulated burial was found on the southern side of the tomb (L121). 1. Primary burial (skull B1520=B2399, skeleton B2459). The burial was oriented east–west with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. The legs were folded and one arm was folded on the abdomen (other arm not clearly visible). The Fig. 4.24: Tomb A5, Level VI, L110, looking south. The shaft plan shows the upper body and the skull. area. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 4.25: Tomb A5, Level VI, L121 looking south. Skull 1520 is in front of the sign, with pin B1511. Behind the sign and higher is bowl B2034. Lower part of pithos B1553+1561 at right, under jar 1 (=B2071). Top center is probably fallen jar B1531.

The bones and some of its related finds were not removed in 1991, but only in the next season, in 1992, as part of L205, when they also received new basket numbers. Thus, the burial is shown more fully in the plan of L205 Level V (Plan 4.24). The skull (B2399) has the same height, but is better drawn now, and we think it is identical with B1520. The skeleton (B2459) now appears fully with the legs folded to the south. It is identified as an adult (20 years old). We conclude that Levels V and VI form one phase, with only one primary burial. As there are no other burials, all the following finds can be safely related to burial B1520+B2459. They include a bronze pin (B1511) found near skull B1520 and a jar found on the legs, which probably originally stood near the feet (B1531+B2119, fallen on the side). A large vessel north of the pelvis looks like a bowl, but appears in the basket list as a jar (B1553+B1561). West of it stood a two-handled jar (Plan 4.23: 1, basket unknown), with a carinated bowl tucked on the side (we identify it as B2072). South of jar 1, there were two large bowls (B2034, B2035, both L205) and one carinated bowl (B2334). The plan of Level V (Plan 4.24, made in 1992) shows in the same place a jar fallen on its side B2071, height 38.99–38.38), with a carinated bowl under it (B2072). The bowl cannot be inside the jar, because it is too large to have passed its neck. The excavators suggested the existence of two jars here, one above the other: our unidentified jar 1 above jar B2071. This was presumably the sole reason for separating Levels VI from Level V. However, the heights leave no place for such superposition of two jars; the repetition of the primary burial in the two plans suggests that there is only one level here (VI+V). In addition, in both Levels VI and V we find a carinated bowl near the jar, only in slightly different places. We believe that the jar is the same jar and the bowl is the same bowl. The jar, which was standing when it was exposed in 1991, had fallen on its side, and was renamed jar B2071 in 1992. The bowl had slipped down underneath it. Resolving this misunderstanding enables us to equate Level VI and Level V. In the northern part of Tomb A5, L263 (attributed to Level VI) did not include any burials, but only pottery vessels. From west to east these were: part of a large bowl (B2975); a jug (B3006); a jar (B3035); a carinated bowl (B2989); a small bowl (B3033 north of the jar); and a pithos (B3005) with a juglet inside it (B3034). South of these vessels there were a few kurkar stones, perhaps separating the burial area from the shaft. In the same area, one primary burial (according to the anthropological report) was found in L270, attributed to Level V: © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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2. Primary burial (lacking basket numbers, since the bones were left in the ground) of a male, placed supine on an east–west axis, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The legs were extended and the arms probably folded, one on the shoulder and the second touching the skeleton farther to the north. The plan shows more bones and a skull north of this burial. They too received no basket numbers. Several finds are associated with these remains, though the identification of the baskets is tentative. A juglet (B3078, termed “votive”)2 was found on the pelvis of primary burial 1 and on the chest area, fragments were found of a piriform juglet (B3083, discarded). Two piriform juglets (drawn as round vessels, B3197, B3199) were discovered among the bones farther to the north. A bowl with knob handles (B3084) was placed near the legs of burial 2. Another bowl (B3243, shown in Level IV, Plan 4.25) is ‘cut’ by the bones of the Level V burial and is presumably earlier (we added its contour in Plan 4.24 just for comparison). All the vessels attributed to Level VI in the north zone of Tomb A5 could form part of the burial assemblages of Level V; Jar B3035 and pithos B3005 surely stood erect in origin, so the pithos covered part of the burials labeled as Level V (L270) only after it had fallen on its side. Finally, a small vessel is shown east of pithos B3005 in Level VI (Plan 4.23: A). It is identical to a vessel shown in Level IV (L270, B3244; Plan 4.25). One can combine the three levels, VI–IV, in the northern part of Tomb A5 into one phase, probably with the sole exception of the damaged bowl B3243, which is earlier than burial 2. TOMB A5, LEVEL IV (Plan 4.25; Figs. 4.26–28) Loci: north––L270; south––L251 In the north of the tomb, two vessels from L270 are shown: part of a bowl with handles (B3243) and a carinated bowl (B3244). We have already seen that bowl B3244 appears in the plan of Level VI; so is bowl B3243, identical to B2975 of Level VI (and “cut” by the bones of the burial of level V). It adds to the assumption that all the remains shown in Levels VI–IV in the north belong to one phase. In the southern part of the tomb, a layer of kurkar (?) pieces seals the lower Levels I–III. Jar B2071 (of Levels VI–V) is shown on it again. Other finds, from west to east, are: a jar (B2663), another jar (B2660), a damaged jar (B2661), part of a bowl (B2664), and probably an amphoriskos (B2665). Bowl B2664 is located under the head of burial B2459+B2399 of Level V. However, it and the other finds are much lower than the burial of Levels IV–V. Fig. 4.26: Tomb A5, Level IV, L251, looking southwest. Layer Presumably, they are part of Level III. of stones, jar 2071 at right; B2665 at the left front. TOMB A5, LEVEL III (Plan 4.26; Fig. 4.28) Locus: south––L251 Only finds from the south part of the tomb were ascribed to Level III (L251; this locus was divided between Levels III and II). The plan shows several vessels, two of them already shown in Level IV: amphoriskos B2665 at center and bowl B2662 north of it. The other vessels included, from west to east: a juglet (B2912), three juglets (piriform B2889, B2890, and Tell el Yahudiyeh B2898––in one photo [not published, IAA No. 311518], one of these vessels looks like an open lamp, not a juglet), part of a carinated bowl (B2914), and two jars (B2983, B2984). The basket list has also three bronze pins and a scarab from this locus (marked as sub-baskets: B2898/1–3 and B2898/5). They are not plotted on the Level III plan and we assume that they belonged with the Level II burials, discussed below. 2

The term “votive” in the excavation files should be read as ‘miniature’. Miniature vessels, almost always juglets, were rare in the Rishon le-Zion tombs. Three more such juglets were found in Area A: B3195 from Tomb A5, Level I; B3191 from Tomb A6, Level II; and B1424 from Tomb A13–14, Levels II–III. A cache of miniatures was found in Tomb C4. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 4.27: Tomb A5, Level IV, L251 (not L249), looking south after removal of stones. Jar B2071 above bowl B2662 (right); Jars B2660, 2661, B2983 (left); behind them B2665, B2984. The hole at the back connects to Tomb A6.

The heights of some of these vessels do not fit those given to items of Level IV. As we have seen there, there was a layer of stones in Level IV that almost sealed the locus, at a height of c. 38.36–38.30 m. If Level III were earlier, the finds should have been lower than this layer; but some appear higher. Jar B2983 spans the entire height of several levels, and juglet B2912 ‘clashes’ with jar B2663 of Level IV (it was not found inside it). The drawing of jar B2983 (Level III), which seems broken at the top, fits exactly that of bowl B2664 (Level IV). The basket list lacks heights for some vessels, and the heights marked in the plans might be fixed, to fit the picture of the levels. Excluding the Fig. 4.28: Tomb A5, Levels IV–III, L251 looking south. Jar B2071 problem of the heights, there is no right; sherd of jar B2660 behind sign; jars B2661, B2983 (Level III, at reason for separating this group of left); part of B2984 at the back. Bowl B2890 and juglet B2889 top vessels from Level IV, since most of center. the vessels from both levels (III–IV) fit together (for example, jar B2984 and the small vessels B2889, B2890, and B2898 from Level III, fit among B2660 and B2661 of Level IV). TOMB A5, LEVEL II (Plan 4.27) There were no burials in the north of the tomb in Level II; all the finds of L270 belonged to Levels V–IV and there were no excavated loci under L270. Level II is limited to the south zone of Tomb A5. The anthropological report mentions three primary burials of young individuals in L251, which appear in the Level II plan. They are all supine, on an east–west axis, with the head in the east. One of them was a 9-year-old child:

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1. Northern primary burial, skeleton B3110, skull B3109. The legs are extended, the position of the arms is unclear. 2. Middle primary burial B3118 (skull and skeleton) (Plan 4.27: gray). The legs are extended, the right arm placed on the belly. The skeleton seems to be smaller than the others, and can be that of the child, but this is not certain. 3. Southern primary burial (not registered, since it was not removed). The legs are slightly bend to the north, the face turned to the south, and the hands are probably placed on the belly/hip area. The skeletons, as far as can be judged, rest immediately one next to the other and must have been placed at the same time, or within a very short interval of time. According to the excavation files, a leg of a primary burial (basket not mentioned) from the north edge of Tomb A6 Level I (L272) was located right under the skull of a primary burial from Tomb A5. Based on the relative location of the two tombs, the Tomb 5 skull is the unregistered skull of burial 3 of Level II, which is the most southerly in the tomb; while the leg from Tomb A6 belongs to burial B2981 of Level I (see Plan 4.34). Apparently, one tomb penetrated the burial area of the other by mistake. We may conclude that Tomb V Level II is later than Tomb VI Level I. These are two quite early levels, and both tombs continued to serve for burial later. So one cannot say that one tomb is later or earlier than the other; rather they belong more or less to the same period. A rich assortment of finds accompanied the three primary burials of Tomb A5 Level II. To the middle burial B3118 belonged a scarab (Plan 4.27: B) and beads (Plan 4.27: C). Perhaps the three pins (B2898/1– 3) and the scarab (B2898/5) ascribed to Level IV belonged to the northern burial B3109+B3110, but this is not certain. To the southern burial belonged two juglets at the pelvis, B3252 and B3024 (the latter is a badly preserved piriform juglet). Other finds cannot be ascribed with certainty to specific burials. A bowl (B3074) and a dipper juglet (B3030) were found next to the skull of burial 3. A carinated bowl was located slightly to the east (B3023). A large group of vessels was concentrated at the west side of the burial zone. Between the legs of the northern burial there was a piriform juglet (B3026), and near the feet of the southern burial another one (B3121). More vessels, from south to north, included: a large handled bowl with red cross design (B3079); a piriform juglet (B3150, graphically restored in the plan); a group of small bowls tucked together (carinated bowl B3025 below B3077, which is below B3075; B3076 under B3075; B3031 above B3075, B3076; and deep red-slipped bowl B3036 under B3031); and jar B2663, which appeared already in ‘upper’ levels. According to the files, a dipper juglet (B3072) was found near bowl B3036; perhaps the vessel Plan 4.27: A. TOMB A5, LEVEL I (Plan 4.28) Locus 273 The plan shows vessels in L273, ascribed to Level I. In the west there were a jar (B3180) and a jug (B3182). In the east were found two bowls with knob handles (B3174, B3178), a pinched rim juglet north of the bowls (B3171), a carinated bowl (B3175), and two juglets (black burnished B3172, broken dipper juglet B3196). Slightly farther to the east there was a miniature (“votive”) juglet (B3195). The vessels were perhaps slightly lower than those of ‘later’ levels. Yet, they were located farther south, and could possibly belonged to the same phase of burial of Level V. In sum, we suggest only two phases for the entire southern part of Tomb A5. Levels III–I form one phase, with three primary burials (Level II) accompanied by many finds: small finds near the skulls and on the body, or next to the hips; a large group of vessels at the feet; and a row of jars (and also small vessels) north of the burials. This phase was preserved by a layer of kurkar (Level IV), apparently placed carefully on purpose (not a collapse from the ceiling, to judge by the completeness of the skeletons and finds underneath). This layer separated the early phase from a second, later phase (Levels V–IV), with one primary burial (B1520 = B2399+B2459). In the north zone of Tomb A5 there was only phase of burial, Level V, with one primary and one possibly primary burial (L270). The finds of Level VI belong to the same horizon. Perhaps one or two vessels (bowl B3243) were earlier, but this area was empty during the time of Levels II–I. Tomb A6 Loci 106, 127, 206, 224, 249=265, 252, 266, 272, 276; Square E7 Anthropological summary: 15 individuals. They include ten primary and five secondary burials. Three are males, two are females, and the rest are of unknown sex. Four are under 18 years old.

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TOMB A6, SHAFT AREA AND LEVEL V (Plan 4.29; Figs. 4.29–31) Loci: shaft––loci 106, 127; south––L127; north––loci 127, 224 The shaft area of Tomb A6 (Fig. 4.30) was filled with dark earth and crushed (un-restorable) pottery vessels (L106). The excavators thought that the vessels were placed as sealing for the tomb. The shaft included also olive pits and bones. In the northern side of the shaft area, the 1991 report notes only collapse fallen from the cave’s roof, shown in the plan of Level V. All the other areas of the tomb (south, east and northeast) in Level V were excavated as L127. The group of finds in the northeast side of the tomb was excavated as part of both L127 and L224. It included, in L204, bones of two individuals in secondary burial, defined as a 3- and a 40-year-old (skulls B2489, B2492). A lower body of a jar (B1536), an earring (B1535), and a double-handled juglet (B1535=B2491) were found near these bones. The anthropological report lists also one secondary burial in L127, age 30–35. Its location and basket number are not clear, but we can deduce that it was found in the northeast area of the tomb, since the burials in the south were not part of L127. Apparently the bones of this burial are shown in Plan 4.29 just south and west of jar L1536. Farther south, a second group of vessels was found: a jar apparently damaged or lacking the upper part (B1501) with a juglet inside (B1519); a second jar fallen on the side (B1433); and a carinated bowl tucked on the side (B1548, incomplete). This group probably relates to the burials in the south side of the tomb. The southern zone of burial is separated from the shaft by two well-placed bricks (height not registered), which either served as markers for the burials (thus the excavators), or as a support wall to protect the area of burial. In this area, part of one primary burial was already found in L127, and its skull was registered as B1470; but it was not fully excavated until 1992 (as part of L206). The anthropological report lists four primary burials for L206, ages 3, 10, 20 (female), and 35 (male). The 3-year-old was interred first; then the 10-year-old; then the two adults together or one after the other. Based on the anthropological report and the plan, we suggest the following identifications of the four burials (Plan 4.29: 1–4):3 1. Primary burial skeleton B2398+skull B1470 (20-year-old female) (Fig. 4.30–31). This burial was documented over two season (L127 and L206). The deceased was supine, on a roughly east–west axis with the head in the west and the face turned upward. The legs were extended, the left arm extended along the body and the right arm perhaps folded on the belly. 2. Primary burial B2458+B2422 (10-year-old male). The body is tucked between those of burials 1 to the north and 3 to the south. It was probably supine, directed east–west with the head in the west and the face turned to the south. Part of the left arm is visible in the plan, but the other arm is missing and the position of the hands is unclear. 3. Primary burial (skull) B2386 (35-year-old male). The deceased was placed supine, directed east–west with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The legs were extended and the left arm folded on the pelvis (the second arm is not clearly visible in the plan––but perhaps folded sharply toward the shoulder). 4. Primary burial (skull) B2382 (3-year-old child). According to the anthropological report, the child was placed near the adult male (burial 3, B2386) on the left side, with the head in the east and the legs folded to the south. In the plan, the skull is visible, probably with the face turned to the north; but the rest of the skeleton is not clear. The body was probably covered by that of burial 3 and therefore not drawn in Plan 4.29. We can guess the exact order of the burials. The child (burial 4) was the first burial of the four, and the adult male (burial 3, B2386) was interred next, partially placed above the child. Presumably, burial 2 (B2458+B2422) came next. Burial 1 (B1470+B2398) is the latest of the four, based on its location and the nearly complete skeleton. Burials 1-3 are neatly arranged without damaging each other, perhaps added with short intervals of time. The only exception is burial 4, but as we cannot see it clearly in the plan and have no photos of it, we cannot tell why. Burial 1 (B2398+B1470) had a bronze pin on the right hip (B1469), a scarab on the right hand (B2029), and another scarab found on the pelvis, probably from the other hand (B2404). Near the head there was a carinated bowl (B1478) and a large jar north of its shoulder (basket not clear, Plan 4.29: A). No finds were attributed to the other L206 burials, except one bronze pin (B2383), which we relate to burial 2.

3

The directions mentioned for the burials are also confused between the various files (sometimes east–west, other times north–south). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 4.29 (left): Tomb A6, Level V, L106 looking south. The shaft. Fig. 4.30 (right): Tomb A6, Level V, L127 looking southwest. Jar 1 at right, skull B1470 behind it.

Fig. 4.31 (left): Tomb A6, Level V, L127 looking southwest. Part of skeleton B2398 with skull B1470. Jar 1 taken out; between it and the skull is part of B1478. Fig. 4.32 (right): Tomb A6, Levels IV–IVb, L265 looking south. Skeleton, Level IV (back); vessels, Level IVb (front, from right): jars B3017, B3239, B3235, B3238, and bowl B3240 nearest to the sign.

TOMB A6, LEVELS IV AND IVb (Plans 4.30–31; Fig. 4.32) Loci: south––loci 265, 266, 276 The north side of the tomb is shown empty in this stage. In the south, a primary burial was found in L265,

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Level IV (Plan 4.30).4 5. Primary burial (female, age unknown). The bones were likely left in the ground, and therefore not registered. The burial is supine and directed east–west with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The legs were probably folded to the south and the hands folded on the abdomen. Signs of silver on the forehead suggest a jewel, such as a diadem. A bronze pin (B3054) was discovered on the left area of the chest, and a scarab (B3176, with a silver ring B3177) on a finger of the left hand. Under the skull there were animal bones. Many small finds were attributed to this level in relation to burial 5. From east to west: an amphora (B3004); a carinated bowl (B3040); an animal head (probably not taken out); two juglets (B3016 [registered first under L250] and B3032; both defined as piriform but shown as globular in the plan); two badly preserved piriform juglets (B3027, B3028); and a dipper juglet (B3012). To this level were attributed also some finds of L266, farther to the west: a fallen jar (B3149) and a carinated bowl under it (B3151); a second large jar (B3148) with a juglet inside (B3147); two bronze pins (B3153, B3198); a piriform juglet (B3152); a carinated bowl (B3286); and two beads (B3288). The burials found in L266 were ascribed to Level II (see more below). Another jar (shown in Level II, B3128, with juglet B3129 inside) should be added to this level, between jar B3149 and jar B3148. Level IVb (Plan 4.31) shows more vessels in L265 and L276, from east to west: a painted bowl (B3240); a juglet (B3238); a jug with a triple handle (B3235); and a bowl with a burnished cross pattern (B3239). The much broken jar shown west of bowl B3239 (Plan 4.31) is identical to jar B3017, attributed to Level III but shown there in a different location (Plan 4.32, see more below). We think that the vessels of Level IVb should be joined together with Level IV as one phase. There was one more round vessel in Level IVb (Plan 4.31: A, lacking basket numbers), whose nature is unclear. Can it be the jar that appeared in Level V in the same place (Plan 4.29: 1)? If so, the jar ‘traverses’ the phases (but it is hard to tell, since there are also no recorded heights for this vessel). TOMB A6, LEVEL III (Plan 4.32; Fig. 4.33) Loci 265, 266 The plan of this level is very ephemeral, showing only a few vessels: a jar (B3107, shown also in Level IVb) and an “Egyptian jug” (B3013); both registered as L265. The second jar (B3129) with the juglet inside (B3128) belonged to Level IV, not to Level III. The two vessels can hardly make a layer. In addition, their location is doubtful. Other preliminary plans place the same vessels more to the south. The present plan shows them north of the brick wall of Level V, together with two small pieces of bricks or kurkar, which are shown in Level IV (compare Plan 4.30). However, the shaft area was excavated until a depth of 38.25 m (Plan 4.30), which is also the level of the two pieces. Locus 265 was not excavated under the shaft, but outside it. The two large bricks at the south of the shaft were already excavated in 1991 (Plan 4.29), and no jars were reported north of them, though according to the registered heights for vessel B3013, its upper part was much higher that the level of the bottom of the pit (28.25 m). We suggest that the location of B3107 and B3013 in Plan 4.32 is mistaken, and that they were located more to the south. They were found when a ‘slice’ was excavated south of the former shaft area, (as is proven from photo Fig. 4.34), and belong with the later-found Level IV vessels. Jar B3017 was indeed part of Level IV (Plan 4.31), and vessel B3013 was tucked with the other vessels east of B3017. The heights are just the same as other vessels in this group (the plans show the vessels graphically restored to some extent and from an angle, so they seem bigger; but the vessels discussed above could fit the same level; see Fig. 4.32). If this is accepted, not only is Level III joined with Level IVb, but Level III+IVb (Plans 4.31–32) seems to fit nicely between the remains of Level IV (Plan 4.30). We believe that they all formed one phase (Levels III+IVB+IV). TOMB A6, LEVEL II (Plan 4.33; Figs. 4.34–35) Loci: north––loci 224, 266. According to the plans, as the south side of Tomb A6 ceased to function, the northern side came into life for the first time in Level II. Here were all the finds of L224 and the major part of those of L266. Four primary burials were identified in L244, all on an east–west axis: 4

We label it “burial 5” to separate this burial from the former four burials of Level V; also because it has no basket numbers. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 4.33 (top): Tomb A6, Level III, L249 looking south. The Level V skeletons were on the ledge above, with the feet of B1470+B2398 passing near the stone at left (Plan 4.29; stone seen also in Plan 4.30, 38.82 m). Below right, ‘Egyptian’ jar B3013 and jar B3017 Level II. Fig. 4.34 (left): Tomb A6, Level II, L224 looking northwest, skeletons B2981+ B2982 right; B3002+ B3003 in the middle; legs B2988 behind. Fig. 4.35 (right): Tomb A6, Level II, L224 looking north. Legs of B2982 behind sign; legs B3002+B3003 in the middle; B2988 at the back. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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1. Northern primary burial, skeleton B2988 (male, age unknown). The deceased was placed supine with the head in the west and the face turned upward and slightly to the south. The legs were extended and the arms folded on the belly. The deceased carried two scarabs on the neck (B3143–B3144). 2. Primary burial, south of no. 1, skeleton B2985, upper body and skull not removed (female). The deceased was placed supine with her head in the west and her face turned to the south. The arms were placed on the pelvis (though it is not visible in the plan) and the legs were extended. 3. Primary burial, between burials 1 and 4, skeleton B3002, skull B3003 (a child). The deceased was probably placed on the side with the head in the east and the face turned north. The legs were folded to the north and the arms were folded on the belly. The body was partially placed above burial 4. 4. Southern primary burial, skeleton B2982, skull B2981 (male, 45 years old; upper body not taken out). The deceased was placed supine with the head in the east and the face turned upward. The arms were folded one on the chest and the other on the belly, and the legs were extended. To burial 1 (B2988) we ascribe two bowls (lacking baskets) near the head, a bronze pin (B3142) on the neck (not on the chest as shown), and two scarabs (B3143, B3144) on the right shoulder. With the woman’s burial (no. 2) were related a bronze pin on the left shoulder (B3141) and a scarab on the left hand (on the pelvis, B2666). The head of the woman rested on a tilted jar (B3087), which must have been placed earlier than the woman’s body. A bronze pin (probably B3142) and a scarab (B2987) were found south of the child’s (no. 3) skull, but they cannot be ascribed with certainty to one specific burial. More human bones were found in L265, at the west side of the grave. According to the anthropological report they represent several individuals in secondary burial: 5. One individual is represented by skull B3104. 6. Another individual is represented by bones and a skull without a basket number (Plan 4.33: A). Three small vessels were found with these secondary bones: a miniature juglet (B3191) and two piriform juglets (B3192, B3194). Why was the first burial phase in the north labeled as Level II, leaving this area empty in the plans of Levels IV–III? There was actually no gap in this area, since the remains shown in Level II were found immediately under the collapse (shown in Level V). One reason is the division of L266: its southern part was defined as Level IV, but its northern part as Level II. This was also related to the separation of Levels IVb–III in the south area of the tomb. However, we have united these levels (see above). There is also no reason for separating L266; re-uniting this locus means that the remains of Level II in the north are placed in the same horizon as the remains of Level IV in the south. Both sides of Tomb A6 could have been in use at roughly the same time, and the entire tomb accommodated fewer phases than those suggested by the excavators. TOMB A6, LEVEL I (Plan 4.34) Loci: part of loci 224, 272 To this level belongs one primary burial (skull B2981, skeleton lacking basket number; the bones were probably left in the ground.). Skull B2981 seems slightly displaced. The skeleton and skull were added at some time to the plan, and were perhaps not drawn in the field. They were added quite schematically, and improved in the final plan. The burial was supine, oriented east–west with the head in the east and the face probably turned upward (age/sex unknown). The position of the arms is not clear. The legs were bent to the north, reaching under skull of burial 3, Level II, Tomb A5 (see Plan 4.27). The excavators suggested that the two tombs were connected at one stage. However, we believe that those using Tomb A5 penetrated Tomb A6 by mistake. Finds associated with burial B2981 include a cylindrical juglet (B3193; and three piriform juglets registered in L224: two are red-burnished (B3200, B3202), one is not (B3201). In sum, Tomb A6 has two burial zones with two phases in each. In the south there is a phase of primary burials (Level V) and an earlier phase of one primary burial and several secondary ones (Levels IV-IVbIII). In the north there is one phase with both primary and secondary burials (Level II); and an earlier phase with one primary level (Level I). There are no sections that can synchronize the southern and northern areas, and the heights are not indicative (each area could be on a different level). Tomb A7 Loci 107, 131, 207, 238, 240, 264, 274, 275; Squares F8–9 Anthropological summary: ten individuals. Four are in primary burials and five in secondary burials (the type of one burial is unknown). Two are males; four are under 18 years old. Only the northern side of this tomb was excavated and five levels were distinguished.

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TOMB A7, SHAFT AREA AND LEVEL V (Plan 4.35; Figs. 4.36–37) Loci: shaft––loci 107, 238; north––loci 131, 207, 264 The area identified as the shaft (L107) included only a few sherds and bones (representing one burial of an adult, 30 years old). The area suffered from flooding by rain during the 1991 season. In 1992 the shaft was further excavated under L238. Quite a few baskets of sherds were found, as well as one bronze pin (B2504). A brick wall separated the burials from the shaft area (it runs on the northern side of the shaft). Excavation started in the burial area in 1991 (L131), but the finds were not taken out until 1992, as part of L207 and later loci. Most of the finds of L207 and L264 belong to Level V (the rest of the finds from these loci were attributed to Level IV). According to the anthropological report, three individuals in secondary burials were found in L207: Two of age 3 and one of age 8. Two of them are seen in the plan of Level V, as skulls B2358 and B2381. The drawing of B2381 is added to the plan and is schematic (graphically restored in the final plan). The third individual appeared in the plan of Level IV (see below). A few bones west of skull B2358 could belong to a skeleton on an east–west axis that did not survive well. It could be related to skull B2358, but this is not certain. Many finds were discovered in Level V. Jars dominate the western area (part of L207). A pair of jars stand together (B2089+B2141, B2088). Jar B2088 is described as standing above a pithos (B2278). In the pithos there was a juglet, above a carinated bowl (B2279 above B2280; they are shown schematically). Three more jars were found fallen on the side: B2356, B2379, and B2488. Between them there was a fragmented juglet (B2013), and underneath B2379 a carinated bowl (B2091). Farther to the north there was another, broken bowl (B2378). Some vessels were found under the jars and ascribed to Level II (L240). This, however, is a stratigraphy of vessels upon vessels. The separation as different layers by the excavators is arbitrary, since there are no distinct layers, only continuous accumulation. At the east part of the area, many finds were found around skull B2358. Clockwise from the north there were: a juglet (B2271); a piriform red-slipped juglet (B2092); two earrings (B2264, B2265); a skull (B2381); a bronze pin (B2429); a carinated bowl (B2090); two fragmented or not fully exposed bowls (?) (Plan 4.35: A–B, lacking basket numbers and heights); a jug made of Nilotic clay (B2901); a jar (B2087, shoulder height 39.85); and a dipper juglet (B2904). A bead (B3902/3) was found south of skull B2358.

Fig. 4.36 (left): Tomb A7, Level V, L207 looking north. Base of pithos B2278 left, with juglet B2171 and bowl B2280. Behind the sign is base of jar B2089. Above it is B2356. Fig. 4.37 (right): Tomb A7, Level V, L207 looking north. Jar B2087 right, skulls B2358, B2381 center.

TOMB A7, LEVEL IV (Plan 4.36) Loci: north––loci 207, 240, 264 This level is composed by the remaining finds of L207 and L264, with some finds of L240. The anthropological report has no entry for L264. One secondary burial is represented in L207 by a skull (B2798). The articulated leg bones seen in L207 (Plan 4.36: north of the label L207) are part of the Level III burials (Plan 4.37), together with bowl B2903. The final plan shows a second skull (without basket number, height 39.04 m), which is completely graphically restored––the original plan shows only a

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schematic, much smaller and rounded contour. It is the top of skull B3108 of Level III, and the rib bones (Plan 4.36 above the label 2934) belong to it and together form the primary burial no. 2 of Level III. So Level IV is not a distinct layer above Level III, but a continuous accumulation of bones and finds. Above the Level III leg bones there was half a bowl (B2837) and a jar placed on its side (B2540). East of the jar there was another half bowl with holes for fixing (B2934), a bowl (B2935), and a carinated bowl (B2539). To the south is a rounded (broken) bowl (B2931). Farther to the east there was a jar (B2963) and probably a bowl (maybe B2937, which was marked farther south, but was not drawn in the plan). A carinated bowl was found near the jar (B2980). Two juglets (B3125, B3126) were found on/near the bowl (B2979) north of the jar, as well as a bronze pin (B2976). Finally, bowl B2931 is maybe the second part of a bowl shown partially in Level V (Plan 4.35: A): the location is exactly the same, though the size seems slightly different. Level V and IV also seem to fit together quite well. The fallen vessel B2488 (V) could nestle against bowl B2837 (IV), and Bowl B2091 (V) was perhaps placed right above bowl B2903 (IV).5 Otherwise, the remains of Level V are located in places where no remains appear in Level IV, meaning that the two levels are continuous. TOMB A7, LEVEL III (Plan 4.37; Fig. 4.38–39; Color Pl. 1.2) Locus: L240 According to the anthropological report, there were three primary burials in L240, age 40 (male), and unknown (one young, one adult). One more burial was secondary (age/sex unknown). Combining the data in the report and the plan, we identify the following three primary burials, all on an east–west axis with the head in the east: 1. Southern primary burial (skeleton B3183, skull B3106). The burial was supine, and the face turned to the south. The legs were extended and the left arm folded near the shoulder, holding a juglet (B3011). Another juglet was placed under the knee (B3042) 2. Middle primary burial, skull B3108 (skeleton not registered separately). The burial was supine, and to judge from the skull probably belonged to a young individual. The body is not clearly visible in the plan. 3. Northern primary burial (not registered; the bones may have been left in the ground). The burial was placed on the right side with the face turned to the north. One arm was extended along the body. The legs were extended. North of the skull of no. 3 there was a piriform juglet (B3227). The anthropological report mentioned a bowl found between burials 2 and 3 as a support for skeleton 3. However, the Level III plan shows no such bowl. It cannot be bowl B2903, which did not support anything. It is rather bowl B2934 of Level IV, which is seen embedded between the two skeletons of Level III in Fig. 4.39. In addition, one bone shown in Level III (Plan 4.37: A, gray color) belongs to the earlier primary burial of Level II Fig. 4.38: Tomb A7, Levels III–II, L240, looking north. Part of bowl (Plan 4.38). B3008 and juglet B2795, Level II (left). Above the sign B2576; above it Finds other than those already L207, Level III, from left: bowls B2903, B2837, jar B2540, bowls described above included an open B2934, B2935. Skull B2798 behind jar B2540. Edge of jar B2087, Level bowl with two handles (B3010), with V at right. a carinated bowl inside it (B3009). While in Levels V–IV there were few burials and many vessels, in Level III the ratio was quite opposite. The reason is only the arbitrarily separation of levels, which cut a continuous phase of burial. 5

There is some mistake in the measured heights of bowl B2091 (Plan 4.35): this open bowl cannot be 30 cm high, so it may have been lower and closer to B2093. The very close basket numbers suggest that the two bowls were found at the same time and roughly at the same level. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 4.39: Tomb A7, L240 looking north. Vertical bowl B2837, Level IV (left); lower edge of B2087, Level V (far right). Above the sign skeleton B3138, Level III, with juglet B3042. Bowls B2934, B2935; Level IV at the back.

Fig. 4.40: Tomb A7, Levels II–I, L274–L275 looking north. Bone heap, Level II (left). East of it bowl B3222, carinated bowl B3223, and leg bones of Level I (L275). Center top is skeleton, Level II (skull B3203?) with juglet B3228. Behind is a second, unregistered skeleton (not drawn in plans).

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TOMB A7, LEVEL II (Plan 4.38; Fig. 4.40–41) Loci 240, 274 Level II included one primary burial in L274, below the burials of Level III and therefore earlier. The body (B3213, male, lacking skull) was placed on an east–west axis with the feet in the west and the upper body in the east. The legs were extended; the arms did not survive. The primary burial (in L274) was accompanied by two scarabs (B3157, B3158; registered as L240); a juglet in the chest area (B3228), and part of a vessel on the pelvis (unidentified). Another juglet (B3203) was found in the shoulder area. Several secondary burials were also documented from Level II. The anthropological report counted the remains by loci, but the loci were often divided between the levels (and in addition, some human remains were not registered/collected). Hence, it is difficult to define exactly the burials of each level. One individual is represented by skull B3213 (L274) and another skull is shown farther to the south in the same secondary heap of finds (basket not registered). More bones and finds in the west (L240) are also secondary remains. In the heap of secondary burial on the east finds (from north to south) included a piriform juglet (B3228); another juglet (which was “moved from Level III”?); a bead (B3160, L240); and a bronze pin (B3159). Near the southern skull there were three juglets (piriform juglets B3246 and B3289; and B3245, which seems to be larger, perhaps a Fig. 4.41: Tomb A7, Level II, L274 looking southeast. jug). A few more vessels cannot be identified. Secondary burial with juglets B3246, B3289 at bottom; The heap of bones and finds in the west B3245 at their right. included an open bowl (B3008); fragments of a jar (L207 B2173);6 a carinated bowl (B2541); a bowl (B2364) below another carinated bowl (B2365); a bowl (B2933); a dipper juglet (B2795); a juglet (B2576); and a black juglet (B2532). TOMB A7, LEVEL I (Plan 4.39) Locus 275 Locus 275 included remains of two primary burials, which were not fully exposed or retrieved (hence they were not registered). The only registered finds were a bowl with a red-painted cross pattern (B3222) and a carinated bowl (B3223). The plan shows only one pair of folded legs, and a few other bones. The legs indicate a burial on an east–west axis, with the head (missing) in the west. Tomb A8 Loci 111, 120, 208, 213, 221, 250, 277; Squares EF/7 Anthropological summary (excluding L221): 16 individuals. Ten are primary burials and six are secondary. Two are males, one female, and 13 of unknown sex. Six are under 18 years old. The excavators distinguished four levels in Tomb A8; but the stratigraphy is fraught with problems. TOMB A8, SHAFT AND LEVEL IV (Plan 4.40; Fig. 4.42–43) Loci: shaft––loci 111, 120; north––L213; south––L221

6

This jar was once listed as related to B2165, which continued B1273––but this seems impossible, since B1273 is part of Tomb A1. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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The dark shaft earth of Tomb A8 (L111) included only a few sherds. Two small groups of secondary burials were found in L120, in the south side of the shaft. In the east, bones of an animal (B1288) were found, topped by a juglet (B1290). In the west, leg and arm bones, part of a pelvis and a crushed skull with teeth on top of the other bones represented one 50-year-old individual (B1289+ B1359+B1445). A pin (B1460) was found among these bones. Burials are seldom found inside the shaft area at Rishon le-Zion. In the north area of the shaft, a concentration of finds was discovered in L120. Some of them were taken out later (under L213), explaining their double numbers. They included, from left to right, a jar (B1287) with a juglet inside it (B2122); a bowl (B2175); and a second jar (B1286=B2094). A piriform juglet (B1558= Fig. 4.42: Tomb A8, Level IV, L120, looking north. The B2226) was found farther to the east. A third jar shaft, with bones B1289 left, bones B1288 with juglet (B1350) and a juglet (B1513) were found at the B1290 at right. eastern edge of L120. The juglet is shown lying above the jar, but this might be an approximated rendering, since it was probably found south of the jar. Finally, another juglet was found farther to the south (B1347). The anthropological report identified seven individuals in L213, which formed an extension northward and eastward of L120. Two were in primary burials (a male 35 years old with the head in the east, and one of unknown age). The other five were in secondary burials, two of age 4, one of age 6, one of age 35, and one of unknown age. However, L213 is divided between the levels and it is hard to know which burials in the report belongs to which level. The following burials are plotted on the Level IV plan: 1. Primary burial B2400, oriented east–west with the upper body in the east and the legs extended. The left arm is folded on the abdomen, the right one probably extended along the body (based on original plans). The skull shown in the plan (Plan 4.40: A) is out of place in relation to skeleton B2400. An original drawing of L213 shows skeleton B2400 (Level IV) without a skull, while another, detached skull (different from skull A in the final plan) appears slightly farther to the south. That detached skull was placed in the final plan of Level III (Plan 4.41: B, B2536), as if it belonged to skeleton B2617; while skull A (=B3046?), which belonged to skeleton B2617 of Level III (connected with the neck vertebrae of that skeleton) was moved to the plan of Level IV, as if it fits B2400. The changing of skulls also forced a change in the heights––skull A was ‘raised’ from 39.22 m to 39.40 m. The semicircular bone in Plan 4.40: C, just south of skeleton B2400, is part of skeleton B2617 of Level IV (Plan 4.41: C). Fig. 4.43: Tomb A8, Levels IV–III, L213, looking north. Following the original drawings (rather than The skeleton is B2617, Level III, but the skull is Skull A in the level drawings), skeleton B2400 did not have Plan 4.41. an in situ skull, while skull A (B3046) belonged to Level III skeleton 2400. Skull B (B2536) probably belonged to Level III too, based on its height; it is a secondary burial. Levels IV–III, at least in the north burial zone of the tomb, are ‘mixed’ assemblages of items upon items, not well-defined, clear layers. On the chest of skeleton B2400 a bronze pin was found (possibly B2394––but the same number was also marked on the hip of skeleton B2617 of Level III). The secondary burials in L213 included (apart of skull B2536 of Level III) bone basket B2573 (height 39.37–39.20, filling three cardboard boxes). We cannot identify these bones with certainty in the plans. This is a pity, since three scarabs were found during the cleaning of these bones (registered as B2573/2, B2573/3a, and B2573/3c). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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A ‘jungle of finds’ in shown in the northeast part of Level IV; mostly from L213, but over and among finds of L250 (of Level II). One heap of finds surrounds jar B1350: a jar (B2272), a bowl (B2294), a piriform juglet (B2296), a dipper juglet (basket not clear), a carinated bowl (B2098), and a scarab (B2099). Part of juglet B1513 is seen under bowl B2098. Immediately south of this group is bowl B2881, which also appears in Level II, and a juglet (B2197). An eastern ‘row’ of finds includes, from north to south, an upper part of a juglet; a skull (B2965) with a Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet nearby (B2295, not drawn; described also as behind bowl B2294); a red-burnished, crushed juglet (B2509); a carinated bowl (B2955); another carinated bowl (B2891); a badly-preserved piriform juglet (B2888); a dipper juglet (B2887); and one more juglet (B2270). Some of the finds of L213 are also shown in Level II, but in slightly shifted locations (graphically restored in slightly different ways). It is impossible to sort out clear layers and the impression is that the finds are among and on top of each other, forming ‘heaps’ of secondary assemblages. In the south, L221 was divided between Levels IV and III. The finds shown in the plan of Level IV include, from west to east, a broken jar (B2170) with a dipper juglet and some other sherds (B2276) inside; a small deep bowl on the shoulder of the jar (B2263); two dipper juglets (B2275, unknown basket); and a second large jar on the side (B2177+B2245). A few kurkar slabs separate this group from a piriform juglet (B2268), a bronze pin (B2186), and an upper part of a juglet (B2266). TOMB A8, LEVEL III (Plan 4.41; Fig. 4.43) Loci: north––L213, L250; south––L221 In the north, one primary burial is ascribed to this level (L213): 1. Primary burial skeleton B2167, skull on Plan 4.40: A (basket not clear).7 The deceased was supine, lying on an east–west axis with the head in the east. The arms were folded on the belly (based on an original drawing). The skull is tilted, not in a natural position; perhaps some damage occurred after burial. One bone (B2456) which did not belong to this skeleton, is shown near the knee, but its nature is not clear. The basket list suggests that there was another primary burial in L213, B2799+B2800, perhaps the leg bones seen in Level III north of skull B2536. Yet, this is a partial body part––still in articulation, but probably pushed aside, and hence part of a secondary heap. The anthropological report identifies one primary and seven secondary burials in L250, of ages 1, 4, 9, 25, 35, 40 (male), and one of unknown age. However, this locus was separated into two levels (III–II). The primary burial is ascribed to Level II (see below), and probably some of the secondary burials belong there as well, but we cannot identify them in the plan. Finds attributed to Level III included many small finds (from both L213 and L250), found under skeleton B2400 of Level IV, north of the pelvis of skeleton B2617: a cylindrical juglet (B2510); a rounded bowl (B2520); a second rounded bowl (B2521, barely seen); and two upturned bowls one on top of the other (B2525, B2526). A scarab (B2618) was found between the legs of B2617 (but lower and perhaps related to Level II), and a bronze pin (B2394) on a lower rib. Unrelated to the primary burial, farther to the east, a juglet (Plan 4.41: D, basket unclear) was found, along with a piriform juglet (B2557), and a dipper juglet (B2563). In the south, the rest of L221 included bone baskets B2411 and B2421 (a third bone basket from L221, B2387, was not marked on the plan). The burials here were secondary. Finds included a bowl (B2354) under another bowl (B2371); a carinated bowl (B2349); a bowl (B2370); a juglet (B2268––the same one already shown in Level IV); and a group of juglets and juglet parts (B2367; upper part B2410; base B2432; fragments B2433 above bones B2421; and B2411). Another unclear vessel is located more to the south (Plan 4.41: E). TOMB A8, LEVEL II (Plan 4.42) Locus: north––L250 In this level the anthropological report defined one primary burial, skull B3046, skeleton B3088 (female; skull B3046 was located beside, not below juglet B3059 as in the final plan). The deceased was probably supine, on an east–west axis, with the head in the east. The legs were extended. The skeleton is incomplete––nothing survived of the pelvis and the upper body is very disturbed or damaged, with only parts of what seems to be folded arms. 7

The skeleton is identified in some preliminary plans as B2799, B2800 or B3088; but they do not belong there; the correct basket is B2617. At one time we thought that skull A is B3046, but this skull is related to the Level II skeleton B3088. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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According to the anthropological report, part of a knife was found in the right hand, between the ulna and radius bones; as well as two pins and a scarab. The only (part) knife registered from L250 (B2886) was found on a bowl (B2880) south of the skeleton. However, a scarab (B3092) and two pins (B3093, B3094) were indeed found in the chest area, together with some pottery fragments. Quite a few secondary burials in L250 belong to Level II; four skulls are visible in the plan (Plan 4.42: 1–4; B3051, B2965, B2956, B3122; not all of these baskets can be identified with certainty on the plan; skull 3 was marked in one plan as B3051, not B2956). Another badly preserved skull is B3070; scarab B3070/1 was found during cleaning of this skull. Finds attributed to Level II include some small finds in a heap of bones (B2943) in the west: a bronze pin (B2940), a scarab (B2906), and beads (B2522––the only bead basket in L250). Finds in the area of burial B3046+B3088 included a dipper juglet (B3059); a piriform juglet (B3055); an animal jaw (B3098); a fragmented juglet (B3123); and a small bowl (basket unclear). South of the burial there was a row of three bowls: carinated (B2881); medium (B2944, with juglet B2882 and animal bones B2957 inside); and large (B2880, with animal bone B2885 and part of knife B2886 inside); as well as a metal tweezers (B2797). At the east edge of the locus, there was a ‘row’ of small finds (some of them already shown in the plan of Level IV). They included, from north to south, dipper juglet B3063; Cypriot red-painted piriform juglet B3064; a piriform juglet (B2967); a juglet (B2964); a badly preserved piriform juglet (B3067); a small juglet (B3068, north of skull 3); and a bowl (B2955). Farther south a carinated bowl was found (B2891) along with a poorly preserved piriform juglet (B2888) and a dipper juglet (B2887). A few more vessels are not visible in the final plan: piriform juglet B3065 (near B3064); a red piriform juglet (B3038) near skull 3; a black piriform juglet (B3037, near B3068); a dipper juglet (B3124) on top of skull 3; a carinated bowl (B3045); and a black piriform juglet (B3041). There were two preliminary plans showing this area (combined in the final plan). Some vessels seem to be similar and appear in the same places in both plans, but they have different baskets, so they must be additional vessels. TOMB A8, LEVEL I (Plan 4.43; Fig. 4.44) Locus: L277 This level is defined as L277, with one primary burial. Age/sex unknown; not registered, except for teeth B3267; the bones were not removed). The deceased was placed supine on an east–west axis, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The right arm was folded north of the body, the left arm folded on the belly. The legs were extended. Finds from this burial included a knife (B3259) and a broken pin (B3260) on the upper chest; a scarab north of the skull (B3258); and three juglets south of the bones, not entirely retrieved (piriform B3265, piriform B3263, and B3264).

Fig. 4.44: Tomb A8, L213 looking northeast, Level II. Skull 2 above the sign; juglet B2882 and bowl B2881 right of the sign.

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Tomb A9 Loci 112, 209, 215, 261; Square E6 Anthropological summary: 22 individuals. Four are in primary burials and 18 in secondary burials. One is male, two are females; 14 are under 18 years old. TOMB A9, SHAFT AREA AND LEVEL III (Plan 4.44; Figs. 4.45–46) Loci: shaft and south––L112; north––L215. The excavators defined three levels in Tomb A9. The shaft area of Tomb A9 is described as cut into the kurkar and forming part of the burial area (L112). The excavators noted that the shaft is shallow, but there is no data about its exact shape and size. In fact, the entire grave is shallow, although the nature of the burials, especially in the north (L215), indicates that this is another shaft burial of the type common in Area A. The likely explanation is that the bulldozers removed the kurkar cover before the start of the excavation. The finds of the 1991 season (L112) included secondary heaps of bones and vessels.8 In all, four individuals were identified, ages 3, 13, 30, and 35. In the western part of the locus leg bones topped by a skull were found; in the east (B1296, B1483) a thigh bone, pelvis fragments and a lower jaw of another individual. Three jars were found together with these bones, from west to east, a jar fallen on its side (B1436+B1449+B1441) with a dipper juglet inside (B1490); a second, damaged jar (B1285) resting on the first one; and a third jar found on its side (B1530). West of jar B1436 there was an animal bone (B1446); south of it a carinated bowl (B1507) was found. A bronze pin (B1447) was discovered to the northeast. Two white beads (B1492, B1529) were also found, but not plotted on the plan. Remains in the north are from season 1992 (L215). This locus was divided into three levels (III–I). The four primary burials from this locus are all part of Level II (see Plan 4.45). Three more secondary burials were of individuals 2, 12, and 35 years old; they are probably part of Level I. The plan of Level III shows two skulls (B2803, B2848), a pair of folded arms, and some leg bones. However, the two skulls and the upper body part that is in articulation west of skull B284 are also shown in Level II, where they form part of primary burials. There is no gap between Levels III and II; they form one accumulation of finds, mostly one beside the other and not one above the other. Vessels attributed to Level II could belong to the burials of Level III. The excavators ascribed a few small finds to Level III. A scarab (B2351) and a bronze pin (B2352) were related to skull B2848. A cylindrical juglet (B2802) was found adhering to skull B2803. Two more juglets were found (B2314, B2313) farther south, as well as a carinated bowl (B2316) and a jar (B2225). On the western side of the locus another large jar (B2318) was discovered. In the middle between the jars there was a badly broken bowl with handles and holes to repair it (B2257).

Fig. 4.45 (left): Tomb A9, Level III, L112 looking south. Jar B1285 center top, bones B1483 at left. Fig. 4.46 (right): Tomb A9, Level III, L112 looking south. Jar B1436+1449 at center; bowl B1507 above and behind it. Part of bones B1495 to the right of B1507. Right of the meter is section E6. Bones B1483 still partially visible at bottom left.

8

The long, irregular curving feature in L112 is a natural kurkar form. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 4.47: Tomb A9, Level II, L209 looking south. Secondary burials; the ‘island’ is L261 with juglets B2855, B2856.

The small finds on/near the skulls probably belong to the Level II primary burials. Two jars stood beside these burials, not above them. They only seem to be above the bones, because they are restored, that is, drawn from an angle (looking northward), while the skeletons of Level II are drawn from above. This means that there is no justification for separating Levels III and II in the north area of the tomb. We do not have here two distinct levels but one continuous phase of burial. The same holds true for the southern part of the tomb: There, the remains of L112 (Level III) are located beside those of L209 (Level II), not above them. The Level III plan also shows some small bones of a secondary burial west of L112, titled “E6 south” (no baskets are marked and so the nature of these remains cannot be identified). E6 means Square E6, but most of Tomb A9 is located in E5. Actually, we lack data about the general shape of Tomb A9 and the location of its various remains. The location of the shaft is not clear from the plans, and we do not know the meaning of the square contour in what we called the north area (Plans 4.44–46, c. 1.2 x 1.2 m). TOMB A9, LEVEL II (Plan 4.45; Fig. 4.47; Color Pl. 2.1) Loci: north––L215; south––loci 209, 261 According to the anthropological report, four primary burials were found together in L215, ages 12, 16, 16, and 35 years. Three were found side by side and the fourth was found underneath them. The three side-by-side burials belong to Level II (the fourth is from Level I). All the burials were placed on an east– west axis with the head in the east. We join to them the related human remains attributed to Level III, and describe them from south to north: 1. Southern primary burial, skeleton B2804, skull B2803. Probably the latest burial of the four. The legs were extended; the face turning slightly to the north; the arms were probably folded on the belly. A bronze pin (B3022) was placed on the hip near the left arm. The shoulder rested on a barely visible skull (Plan 4.45: A), probably of an earlier, secondary burial. North of the skull there was a cylindrical juglet (B2802). Perhaps items such as B2314, B2316, and B2313 of Level III were related with this burial too. 2. Middle primary burial, skeleton B2995, skull B2848 (Plan 4.45: gray). The legs were extended, the face turned to the south, and the arms folded on the belly. The right elbow is placed above the arm of the northern skeleton 3. The arm between skeletons 1 and 2 could belong to either (we colored it as if

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it belongs to skeleton 2). A scarab (B3019) was found between the legs near the pelvis, but it was lower and possibly from an earlier burial. Another scarab (Plan 4.45: 1, unknown basket) was found at the joint of the pelvis and the right leg. 3. Northern primary burial, skeleton B2866, skull B2996. The face was turned to the south and the arms were folded on the belly. The left leg was extended while the right one was folded to the north. The deceased may have been placed with the knee raised in the air, and the leg collapsed to the side after burial. A bronze pin securely associated with this burial was found on the left hip (B3021). A scarab (B3018) was found at the location of the left hand, probably worn on a finger. Another scarab (B2853) was found at the neck. Near the right shoulder there was a cylindrical juglet (B2408). Another bronze pin was found on the right shoulder (B2353). Probably one should add to this burial the bronze pin (B2352) and scarab (B2351) marked in Level II. More scarabs were found near the feet (B3020) and under the pelvis (B3017), but they may have belonged to other, earlier burials. Between the legs of the skeleton 2 (B2995) one already sees legs of an earlier burial of Level I (Plan 4.45: B). So there is no intermediate level or fill between Levels II and I. In the south, disturbed remains were found of many secondary burials and small finds from L209 and L261, spread over quite a large area (far from L215 in the north). According to the anthropological report, 11 individuals were interred in L215, but this includes Level I. The estimated ages are two age 3, two age 14, two age 25, and one each of age 4, 8, 11, 30, and 35. Unfortunately we cannot identify them, since the baskets were not listed in the report. The excavators noted that one individual was in partial primary burial. This was skull (B2844), which was related to an upper body (not registered separately). The body was placed on an east–west axis with the head in the east and the arms folded on the belly. A scarab (B2849) and a cylindrical juglet (B2846) may probably be ascribed to this burial. Other skulls shown in the plan are B2845, B2843, B2917 (L261), and a few more without basket numbers. The other finds attributed to this level include in L209 a dagger (B2818), three juglets (B2822, piriform juglet B2835, B2823), and a bronze pin (B2867). Farther to the south, in L261, the finds included a juglet (B2856), a dipper juglet (B2855), and a bronze pin (B2816). The scarab marked in the plan must be B2679. TOMB A9, LEVEL I (Plan 4.46) Loci: north––L215; south––loci 209, 261 This level revealed few remains in its northern part (L215). According to the files there was one primary burial, with only a lower body from the pelvis down. Yet it is not clearly seen in the plan. At least five secondary burials were represented by skulls in Level I, L215, most of them alongside and not below the primary burials of Level II (Plan 4.46: 1–5). In addition, skull A of Level II should be seen as another secondary burial of Level I. A few small finds were found in this level. Clockwise from the east are a scarab (B3156); an animal jaw (?); a bronze pin (B3145); a second scarab (B3019; we added it to Level I due to its height); a bronze pin (B3269); a third scarab (B3173); a fourth scarab (B3146); and pottery sherds (B3164). In the south, many small finds and bones in secondary burials from L203, L209 and L261 were attributed to Level I. While some finds of Level I were situated below finds of Level II, these were not separated, even layers, but continuous accumulation. Skulls identified in the plan include B2991, B2953, probably B2952 in L209, and skull B2868 in L261. Small finds in the area of L209 included a carinated bowl (B2945), a rim of a juglet (B2497) under another juglet (B2996), and possibly an animal jaw (B2907?). More small finds were found in the area of L203 (some of the following are tentative identifications): fragment of a Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet (B2925?); a scarab (B2862); a bronze pin (unclear basket); another bronze pin (B2861); a bead (B2864); two more beads (B2897); and another bead (B2865). In the east, a large group of items included a redrim bowl (B2902); a cylindrical juglet (B2847); a carinated bowl (B2930); and three dipper juglets (B2927, B2928, and B2929). In the far south (in L261), a bronze pin (B2900) and a scarab (probably B2860) were found. In sum, there are no orderly, separated layers in Tomb A9, but only accumulation of grave finds during a continuous period of use. In the north, primary burials (Levels III+II) were added to a space, which was cleared of earlier burials: they were pushed aside into secondary contexts (Level I). In the south, the remains of Levels III+II are situated side by side, forming one horizon. Those of Level I are technically under Level II, but are part of the same secondary heaps.

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Tomb A10 Loci 116, 210, 220, 233, 239, 245, 255, 256, 257, 262; Square E6 Anthropological summary: 19 individuals. Four (corrected from three) are in primary burial and 13 in secondary burial; the type of burial of the rest is unclear. One is male, two are females. Five are under 18 years old. Tombs A9 and A10 are connected. A preliminary plan shows the remains of Level II in the south of A9 continuing into L261 (which in some files appears as A9 and in others as A10), and combining with the skeletons in primary burial of A10 Level I (L262). The excavators distinguished five levels (I–V) in Tomb A10; however, the preliminary plans show considerable shifts between different versions, with lack of certainty about the position of vessels, their basket numbers, and their heights. The plans of Tomb A10 show two dotted areas: a square in the north and a rectangle in the south. To prevent confusion, we will call the areas by form (square/rectangle), rather than by direction (north/south). The rectangle is empty in Levels I–III, while the square is empty in Level IV. If the empty phases are removed, three and not five levels remain. A preliminary plan shows that the remains of Level V in the rectangle (L220) are located north of the remains of the same level in the square (L116, L210). A version of the schematic area plan shows L220 north of L210 (unlike the final Plan 4.1). So perhaps the final plans do not show the correct positions of the two contours; but we have no data to verify which position is correct. TOMB A10, LEVEL V (Plan 4.47; Fig. 4.48) Loci: square––loci 116, 210; rectangle––L220 In the square area (L116), one primary burial was found in partial articulation (B1397, 45 years old). The bones were crumbling but the skull and the jaw were clear. The deceased was probably placed on the side, oriented east–west, with the head in the east and the face turned to the south. One juglet (B1373) was found near the hip. South of this burial but far from it there were several vessels: a bowl with knob handles (B1543); a carinated bowl (B1541); a juglet (B1542); and a jar (B1512). Some of the finds of L210, which formed an extension of L116, were also ascribed to Level V. They included a juglet in the southeastern part of the square (B2065), above part of a red-burnished flask (B2067). A bronze pin was found farther north (B2066). At the northeast corner of the square there was a jar (B2205), described accurately as resting “diagonally in the eastern section [of L116]”. A second jar (B2204) was found father to the south, and a carinated bowl (under jar B2205) and a juglet were located nearby (baskets unclear).

Fig. 4.48: Tomb A10, Level V, L116 looking south. Burial B1397 on the ‘island’; bowls B1543 and B1641 in the section behind; edges of B2205 and B2204 in the left section.

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Fig. 4.49 (top): Tomb A10, Level IV, L210 looking north. Bowl B2592 and juglet B2591 upper right; juglet B2597 and skull B2611 at left. Fig. 4.50 (middle): Tomb A10, Level III L233 looking from above (from the west). Bowl D, bowl B2466, part of jar B2204 (top); two unidentified juglets. Fig. 4.51 (right): Tomb A10, Level IV, L239 looking east. Bowl A right; juglet B2669 inside jar B2670 left; in between, badly preserved B2587, B2588; right of them, rim juglet B2794.

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The location of the finds shown in the rectangle (part of L220) is doubtful. They may have belonged in the north side of the square, north of burial B1397 and may have been related to it. They include a large jar (B2242) with two juglets inside (B2319, B2331). West of this jar there was part of another jar (B2327) and north of it a cylindrical juglet (B2330), a deep bowl (B2315), and one skull in secondary burial (almost certainly B2388). TOMB A10, LEVEL IV AND III (Plans 4.48–49; Figs. 4.49–53) Loci: square––loci 210, 255 (+L233); rectangle––loci 210, 220, 233, 239 Levels IV and III probably included remains from loci 210, 220, 233, 239, 245 as well as from L255. The various plans, dividing the loci between levels and groups of finds, have been rearranged more than once, and some of the basket identifications seem mistaken. Thus it is impossible to describe the remains coherently. According to the anthropological report, there was one individual, age 13, represented by the bones in L210 (type of burial unknown). The bones from L220 represented seven secondary burials (and one more burial of unknown type); ages are estimated as 4, 11, 15, 20, and three adults without specific ages. In L245 “in the west” (explained as the same area of L255) there were three secondary burials, ages 20, 25, and 25; but the report also has a separate entry for L255 with three individuals in secondary burial, ages 3, 25, and 45. Metal (B2575, a jewel?) was found on one of the L220 skulls near the ridge of the left eye. However, most of the skulls of L220 are not identified by basket numbers in the plans, and we cannot identify this specific skull either. The plan of Level IV shows four skulls (B2606–B2609, L220) in the square. Northwest of them there were parts of a bowl (B2640), a scarab ring (probably B2616), an unspecified skull, and a rim of a bowl (identified as B2791, which is registered as L255 in the basket list). Farther south a bowl (B2592) and a juglet (B2591) were discovered from L210, as well as a few bones (identified as B2598, but more likely B2578 L210, since B2598 is from L256). A secondary burial was found west of the square (L245), with two skulls (B2610–B2611), a carinated bowl (B2604), and a juglet (B2597). A lone bowl (B2633) was located far to the east (L233).

Fig. 4.52 (left): Tomb A10, Level IV, L245 looking east. Bones with carinated bowl B2604 and skull B2610 at center. Top center is L220 with B2592 and juglet B2591. Fig. 4.53 (right): Tomb A10, Level IV–II, L255 looking north.

The rectangle was empty, except for some finds from L239 to the south. These included a jar (B2670) with a juglet (B2669) inside, another juglet (B2588+B2793), a bowl (B2578), and a badly preserved cylindrical juglet (B2794). An item south of jar B2670 was identified as the base of a jar B2639 (although it is registered as L233, which appeared much farther to the north on the same plan). Another item was perhaps a bowl (Plan 4.48: A). There were no finds from Level III (Plan 4.49) in the square, therefore it can be joined with Level IV. The plan shows partly articulated burials on the northern side of the rectangle (L220) with three skulls (Plan 4.49: A–C, only two are drawn), a bronze pin (B2572), and a scarab (B2571) with a silver ring (B2570). This scarab was found under skull B2388 of Level V. The bones south of it may have been B2598 (L256). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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In the southeast, jars B2205 and B2204 of L210 already partially appeared in Level V, at the northeastern corner of the square (Plan 4.47). The drawings are not identical, because the jars are depicted differently (originally they were less complete). Juglet B2468 was found in jar B2204, but registered under L233 (apparently, it was registered much later than the jar). Nearby we could identify a carinated bowl (B2477) and a juglet (B2467, L233). We could not clearly identify the other items in the plan. TOMB A10, LEVEL II (Plan 4.50; Fig. 4.54–55; Color Pl. 2.3) Loci: rectangle––loci 210, 255, 256 In the west, the Level II remains included secondary heaps with three skulls at least (B2655–B2657). A scarab (B2659), a bead (B2654), two bowls one on top of the other (B2653 on top of B2652), and another small bowl (B2658) were found with these bones. A broken juglet (B2675), a piriform juglet (B2787), and yet another juglet (Plan 4.50: A) were found more to the north. Near juglet B2787 another skull was discovered in secondary burial. Two more skulls were discovered farther to the east, together with an alabaster bead (B2786), a bronze pin (B2785), and a scarab (B2784). A carinated bowl (B2636 of L210) was located in the middle of the rectangle. TOMB A10 LEVEL I (Plan 4.51, Figs. 4.55–56) Loci 256, 257, 262 At least two primary burials (placed one on top of the other and separated by a layer of gray silt) and one secondary burial can be ascribed to Level I. The following description is based on the anthropological record for L256: 1. Primary burial, L256, 30-year-old male. The deceased was placed supine, oriented east–west with the head in the east. 2. Primary burial, L256, female (age unknown). The deceased was placed supine, oriented east–west with the head in the east. A pottery fragment was found between the ulna and radius of the female’s right hand. Unfortunately, the anthropological report failed to specify the baskets or whether the female was above the male, or vice versa. A note added to the anthropological report explains that the lower individual was B2993+B2994, L262, Level I. Indeed, the anthropological report has an entry for L262, with a primary burial of a 20-year-old adult, together with a knife. There was only one knife among the baskets from L262––it was B2962, described as found on a skeleton. Knife B2962 is identified under a leg bone of the upper burial (Plan 4.51), and thus, it would have been likely ascribed to the lower skeleton. Was the L262 individual the same as the one from L256, despite the different age estimation? We tend to think so, because there was no knife in either L255 or L256, and because the term “lower” is attached to the L262 individual. In addition, an item (probably the pottery fragment) is indeed shown in an original drawing, tucked between the ulna and radius of the right arm of skeleton B2993+B2994 (not drawn in the final plan). We assess the burials based on this assumption, and photos Figs. 4.55–56, as follows: 1. Upper primary burial, L256, skeleton B2961, lacking a skull (female, age unknown). The deceased was placed supine, oriented east–west with the (missing) head in the east. The position of the arms is unclear; the right arm was placed above the skull of the lower burial.9 2. Lower primary burial, L262, skeleton B2994, skull B2993 (20–30-year-old male) (Plan 4.51: gray; Fig. 4.55). The deceased was placed supine, oriented east–west with the head in the east. Both arms were sharply folded with the hands placed on the shoulders and the legs were extended. The plan of Level I shows another skull and a few bones east of the two skeletons (skull B2959, on which a scarab was found, B2958). Skull B2959 may have belonged to the upper (female) burial, but this is not certain, and this skull is likely the secondary burial referred to in the anthropological report. Finds of Level I were few. To the lower, male burial we ascribe two juglets (B2857, B2858) found near the northern hip. This burial also had two juglets (B2973, B3001) on the chest/shoulder, between the arm bones (ulna and radius). They were, of course, too large to fit this position for a living person–– apparently they were tucked under the lower arm, and the bones (ulna and radius) fell on the sides of the juglets after death. To which burial the knife belonged is hard to say (B2962). Another item identified in 9

Plan 4.51 is not accurate with regard to the upper skeleton. The upper body of B2961 was graphically restored and the location of the two juglets B2973, B3001 is not accurate, giving the wrong impression that they belong to B2961. There are no originals that depict the upper skeleton more accurately. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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the original drawing (not in the final plan) is an animal jaw, located near the knife and under the leg bone of the upper burial (basket unknown).

Fig. 4.54 (top left): Tomb A10, Level II looking north. L255+L256 left with two bowls (B2653 above B2652); skulls B2657 and B2656 and bowl B2658. Bottom right is bowl B2636 in L220. Fig. 4.55 (bottom left): Tomb A10, Levels II–I, L256 looking north. B2562 and B2563, Level II (left). Skeleton B2961 shown in Level I as the upper skeleton; skull B2959 right. The ‘island’ is L255, Level II. At back corner is L215, Tomb A9. Fig. 4.56 (right): Tomb A10, L262, Level I looking east. Skeleton B2994 with skull B2993; juglets B2973, B3001 in fold of left arm.

Tomb A11 Loci 117, 130, 211, 219, 225, 230; Square F6 Anthropological summary: three individuals––two in primary and one in secondary burial. The excavators defined two levels in Tomb A11 (I–II). However, it is difficult to reconstruct a clear stratigraphy. There is no description of a shaft and the plans show an arbitrary, rectangular area (size c. 2 x 2 m)––but remains also appear east of this area. TOMB A11, LEVEL II (Plan 4.52; Figs. 4.57–58) Loci 117, 130, 211, 230 The anthropological reports mention two secondary, disarticulated individuals in L117:

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1. Upper phase secondary burial (B1451, Level II): skull of a 20-year-old adult, and some crumbling long bones. The skull was probably found upside down. Skull B1451 is shown in the Level II plan without other bones. 2. Lower phase secondary burial (B1552, Level I, see below), skull of a baby. This skull is also seen in the Plan of Level II (only slightly differently drawn/restored). However, part of an articulated burial seems also to have been found: 3. Primary burial, incomplete: folded legs (B1295), ribs, folded right arm (B1294) and parts of the other arm, as well as some vertebrae. They suggest burial on an east–west axis, with the head in the east and the body placed on the side. The baby skull B1552 (Level I, top 39.59 m) is tucked between the bones of this burial. The more complete and perhaps later burial (B1294+B1295) seems to rest against a small stone, surrounded by finds. These included, from west to east, a much broken jar (B1277) with a juglet (B1546) inside, and fragments of a second, much broken jar (B1276) with a cylindrical juglet (B1466) inside. A bowl (B1532) south of the bones was partially overlaid by another bowl (B1524); a jug (B2010, L211) was tucked under bowl B1524. On the bones in the assumed hip area there was a jug (B1533) and nearby a juglet (B1217+B1282). A carinated bowl was found at the shoulder (B1479). Northeast of the bones there were more dispersed finds, not in apparent connection to burial B1294+B1295: a broken jar fallen on its side (B1278); part of a carinated bowl (B1279); a complete carinated bowl (B1562); and fragments of three juglets (B1279–B1281). Much farther to the north there were two more Fig. 4.57: Tomb A11, Level II, L117 looking south. Jars B1276, B12767 right; bowls B1532, 1524 above the sign. vessels: a jar (broken, B1284) and a bowl Barely seen farther left are juglet B1533 and skull B1552. (B1283). In the southeast, we identify one juglet as B2011, L211 (but see also Level I below). Other vessels here are identified as bowl B2667 and juglet B2668 of L257––though this locus appears as part of A10 and not A11. Two scarabs were retrieved in L117: B1498 and B1498a. Unfortunately, they are not marked on the plan and their origin is unclear. If the anthropological report is accurate, they were related to skull B1552. But since the area is quite damaged and there were bones from another burial above or around B1552, the exact location remains in doubt. Another group of finds was discovered more to the east, in L130. They were found damaged in a heap, suggesting that they formed part of a secondary burial: a carinated bowl (B1442); another bowl (B1523, only the edge seen in the plan); two broken juglets (B1517–B1518); a jug (B1443); a juglet (B1476); a cylindrical juglet Fig. 4.58: Tomb A11, Level II, L230 looking south. (crushed, B1475); and a complete jug (B1467). Double-handled jug B2340, surrounded by (clockwise One more bowl is registered (B1468) in the from top) bowl B2337; jug B2338; bowl B2339; juglet basket lists, but not visible in the plan. B2336; bowl B2343; and bowl B2342. Locus 230 formed an extension of L117 (Plan 4.52). A brick wall was found running east–west under jar B1482. Southeast of it there was a group of finds around an upper part of a jug with a pinched rim and double handle (B2340). The finds included, clockwise, a juglet (B2336); a carinated bowl (B2339); a red-burnished jug (B2338); a large bowl (B2337); a carinated bowl (B2342); and another large bowl (B2343). The nature of this group fits a secondary burial, but no bones are apparent in the plan. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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TOMB A11, LEVEL I (Plan 4.53) Loci 211, 215, 219 Ascribed to Level I is the secondary burial of the baby already mentioned in Level II (above). It includes a skull (B1552) found on its base with the faced turned to the west (Plan 4.53: box). The upper part of the cranium was broken off. Some 16 black and white beads (B1563) were just next to the skull, arranged in an alternating pattern. They certainly originated from a necklace on the neck of B1552, and could not have been moved long after burial, or else they would have scattered. In the center, L211 also included a few long bones (B2991; probably under the kurkar stone marked in dotted lines). These bones represent a primary burial of a youngster under 18 years old, in a poor state of preservation. They were not associated with the baby skull, but they may have formed part of the L117 burial B1294+B1295. This, however, it only a tentative suggestion. The plan of Level I shows finds from L219 in the east: a juglet (B2059+B2124); a piriform red-slipped juglet (B2060+B2125, IAA No. 1997–2535); a Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet (B2079); a decorated jug (B2123); and a dipper juglet (B2142) inside a jar (B2143+B2151). A juglet (B2011), a jug (B2010, partially below a second kurkar stone), and the edge of a vessel (jar?) were also found south of the baby skull. The same jug (B2010), juglet (B2011, in a slightly different position), and the second kurkar stone (shaped slightly differently, since drawings were made over several days) already appeared in the plan of Level II (Plan 4.54). Comparing the two plans shows that there is no good reason to separate two levels. There is, rather, one continuous phase with some items (vessels/bones) accumulating one above the other. Other loci attributed to Tomb A11 are L219 and L225. They are extensions eastward of L211. The only significant find in L225 was a fragment of a deep bowl (B2203, location not clear). Locus 231, between A11 and A13, appears in the plans of A13 and will be described there. In conclusion, the remains designated as A11 do not show a clear pattern of a shaft with burials below and to its sides. There was only one phase, though there was possibly an accumulation of finds and bones. Finds at higher elevations (in L117) are often fragmented and with upper parts missing, suggesting that recent development works damaged the area prior to the excavation. Perhaps the remains belong to the bottom part of a shaft tomb, whose upper remains have been removed before the excavation. Tomb A12 Loci 109, 212, 216, 228, 246; Squares DE/6–7 Anthropological summary: 15 individuals. Three are in primary burial and nine in secondary (the type of burial of the rest is unknown). They include one male and seven individuals under 18 years old. During the 1991 season, this tomb was noticed and marked as L109, in which only some pottery sherds were found; this was the shaft area. We have no written data about the shape, size, or depth of the shaft, but a photo (Fig. 4.59) shows clearly the shaft, which cuts through the covering kurkar layer. It is located in the middle of the contour shown in Plans 4.54–55, in the area empty of finds (where the label “A12” is marked). Hence, the tomb had two burial zones, a northern and Fig. 4.59: Tomb A12, Level III, L109, looking south. The shaft a southern one. area. TOMB A12, LEVEL III (Plan 4.54) Loci: north––L216; south––L228 The remains attributed to Level III did not include burials, but rather two isolated groups of finds. In the north, a few finds of L216 included a jar (B2281) surrounded by two smaller vessels: an amphoriskos (B2376) and a cylindrical juglet (B2209).10 In the south, the sole find was one jar (L228, B2306). 10

Vessel B2376 was graphically restored in the plan and is not an accurate drawing of the vessel as found.

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If the northern (L216) group was correctly plotted, jar B2281 (height 39.14–38.60) leaves no room for a stone marked in Level II underneath (Plan 4.55: the stone with the height 38.73 m, which is shown partially above skull B2921). Was there a mistake in some of the heights? Or, were jar B2281 and its associated vessels misplaced in relation to the Level II remains? We suggest that the explanation is much simpler. The primary burials of Level II are located between 38.21–38.17 m (top of skulls) to 38.08 m (leg bones), some 60–70 cm below the small pieces of stones. The pottery vessels (whether attributed to Level I or to Level II), as well as one skull (B2819), were placed at roughly the same height of the small stones. Thus, the levels were not plotted correctly. All the small stones and (almost all) the pottery should all be seen as part of Level I. The base of jar B2281 was much smaller than its shoulders, and fits beside the little stone––still high above any of the Level II bones. If more proof is needed, it comes from jar B3267. This jar could not have existed on the same level as burial B2892+B2807, because it did not leave space for the lower legs/feet. The jar had no relation to this burial, because it was located much higher above the legs.11 Following this conclusion, three pottery vessels, which were ascribed to Level II, are now ascribed to Level I––jar B3276 in the west and juglets B2820 and B2813 in the east.12 The pottery was most likely a secondary group, found together with skull B2819. TOMB A12, LEVEL II (Plan 4.55, Fig. 4.60–61) Loci: north––L216; south––L228 Two primary burials have been mentioned in the anthropology record for L216, identified L216 in Level II: 1. Northern primary burial, skeleton B2909, skull B2921 (an adult). The deceased was placed on the side (?) on an east–west axis, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. One arm was folded on the belly. The legs were extended 2. Southern primary burial, skeleton B2892, skull 2807 (a youngster). The deceased was placed supine on an east–west axis, with the head in the east. The left arm was extended along the body and the right arm probably folded on the abdomen. The legs were extended. Two more individuals were identified in the anthropological record as secondary burials in L216, ages 16 and 30. One secondary burial was skull B2819, already discussed earlier (shown in Level II, but in our view, part of Level I). After moving the pottery to Level III, the only find relating to the primary burials is a lamp between the legs of the northern skeleton (B2913). Finally, what happened to the lower legs and feet of the two primary burials of Level II? Based on an original drawing, the area of the lower legs/feet was not excavated. It was excavated only to the height of Level I (this is why we had jar B3267 there). The area excavated in Level II was more limited and hence, the two skeletons were not fully exposed. The south zone of Tomb A12 Level II (L228) included one primary and one partially primary burial: 3. Northern primary burial, skeleton B2893, skull B2824 (20-year-old male). The deceased was placed supine on an east–west axis, with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The right arm was extended along the body. The feet were folded to the north.13 4. Southern, partially primary burial, skeleton B2911, skull 2839 (a child?). Much less is visible of this burial, which was in the same direction as no. 1, with the head in the east (direction of face not clear). There is part of a spinal cord, but the legs are not clear (perhaps folded to the south?). The area is part of a large heap of bones, so one cannot separate in the plan this burial and earlier, secondary burials.

11 Perhaps jar B3267 was located further to the west, as suggested in an earlier version of the Level II (at the time, Level III). However, this does not change the conclusion that the jar was much higher and unrelated to the Level II burials. 12 The height of juglet B2813 is given in the basket list as 38.82 m. The position of this juglet seems to conform nicely to Level II, but if the height was accurate (there is no evidence to the contrary), the juglet belonged with Level III. 13 As in the north, the excavation left a certain area unexcavated in the south too, though it included a much smaller part of the primary burials than in the north. The area was extended later (see Level I) but the details of the burials of Level II, which were by now already removed, could not be added to the drawings. The missing part is only slightly restored in the final plan.

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Fig. 4.60: Tomb A12, Level II, L216, looking north. Skeletons B2892 with skull B2807; behind it B2909 and skull B3921. At right, probably skull B2819.

It seems that the adult burial (B2824+B2839) was placed later, and partly above the child burial. Both rested on and beside earlier secondary burials. Some of these secondary burials are shown in the plan of Level II (bones B3014 and skull B3015). The small bones (B2812) north of the skull of the adult burial (B2824+B2839) are also secondary. Finds in the south that may have related to primary burial B2824+B2839 include a bronze pin (B2533) and bowl B2148. Finds that may relate to the child and/or to earlier, secondary burials include (from east to west): a bronze pin (B2840); three scarabs (B2997–B2999), a second bronze pin Fig. 4.61: Tomb A12, Level II, L228 looking south. (B3009); an unidentified round vessel (probably Round vessel (lamp B2913?) center; skulls B2824, lamp B2913, Plan 4.55: A); and a juglet (B3029). B2839 (left); skull B3015 (right). TOMB A12, LEVEL I (Plan 4.56) Locus: south––L228 The remains attributed to Level I are located only in the south zone. They consist of a large heap of secondary burials with four skulls in the west (all registered as B3161, Plan 4.56: 1–4). More skulls and bones were spread along the south edge of the burial zone. Three skulls are shown in the plan (one is B3085, baskets of the other two are unknown). The bones in the middle, B3044, may have preserved partial articulation of legs. The finds attributed to Level I were placed in and around the bones, at the edge of the tomb. Proceeding from northeast to southeast, we identify in the plan three bronze pins (B3207–B3209); a scarab (B3206); a juglet (B3205); another juglet (B3212); and two superimposed bowls (carinated bowl B3043 above bowl with handles B3211). Discovered southeast of the bowls were a bronze pin (B3225); a juglet (B3224); another juglet (B3241); a pin (B3225, between B3241 and B3224); a bowl with a disc base (B3226); fragments of a piriform juglet (B3242); two bowls (B3231, B3232); a scarab (B3210, immediately east of bowl B3231); a bronze pin (B3216); and a bowl (B3230). Small finds near the skulls in the east included a bronze pin (B3215); part of a juglet (B3217); fragments of a piriform juglet (B3218); and a Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet (B3050). In sum, Tomb A11 in the north included an upper phase with a few pottery vessels (Level III) and a lower phase with burials (Level II). In the south, Levels I–III can be joined together into a continuum: Earlier secondary heaps in the west and along the southern edges (Level I and II) were once primary burials, now pushed aside. New, later primary burials were added (Level II). Jar B2306 (Level III) could have ‘served’ the burials in both Level II and I. There were no separated layers, but an ongoing accumulation, and most of the finds could be attributed clearly to one specific burial.

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Tombs A13–14 A13 = Loci 124, 129, 219(?), 229, 231; Square F5 A14 = Loci 128, 214, 223, 232= south of 229; Square F5 Anthropological summary: No data exists for Tombs A13–14 and no bones are seen in the plans. The labels A13–14 were given during the 1991 season of excavation, when a few groups of finds were discovered on the surface. At the time, it was not clear to how many tombs these vessels belonged. Later, the same groups were designated by squares (F5 and F6). To prevent confusion with the Area F tombs (Tombs F5–F6), we will use the former labels, A13–14. The groups of finds were located close to each another. There were no textual descriptions of this area and even the location of the loci was not very clear. The excavators separated three levels (I–III), but all the finds can be accommodated into one phase, and there was no stratigraphy in the common sense, only accumulations of items. For the sake of convenience, we maintained two separate plans of ‘levels’ (Level I, Level II+III). TOMBS A13–14, LEVELS III-II (Plan 4.57; Figs. 4.62–63) Loci 124, 129 and 133 of season 1991 were ascribed to Tomb A13. The finds of L124 included four jars (B1257, B1298-B1300) standing close to each other; with a shallow bowl (B1301 drawn as if above the shoulder of jar B1298); a carinated bowl (B1509, at the feet of jar B1299); a juglet (B1508 near jar B1299); and another juglet (B1302, near jar B1300). Part of another carinated bowl (B1510) was found south of jar B1300. The finds labeled L129 were located c 3 m to the north and west of L124, close to L133. Discovered here (from east to west) were a jug (B1488), a second jug (B1556, IAA No. 1997–2530) above two bowls (rim B1555; bowl B1559, IAA No. 1997–2519), and a bowl with knob handles (B1568). Immediately south of B1559 there was another juglet (B1554) and a carinated bowl (Plan 4.57: A). Slightly farther to the southwest was a jug (B1526) was found.

Fig. 4.62 (left): Tomb A13–14, Level III+II, L124 looking north (not east). B1301 top center, surrounded by four jars (B1299 bottom right with sherds in neck; B1302 left; B1297, B1300). Fig. 4.63 (right): Tomb A13–14, Level III+II, L129 looking northeast. Jar B1526 left; jar B1556 right; edge of bowl B1558 near B1556 and vessels B1554, B1559.

A group of vessels farther to the north lacks basket numbers (Plan 4.57: B–D). One original plan identified B–C as jug B1566 and carinated bowl B1567 (IAA No. 1997–2531). If this is correct, the jug (not jar) marked D is perhaps B1489.14 14

The vessels in Plan 4.57 were graphically restored, and do not necessarily reflect their actual shapes. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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The finds of L133 were located east of L129 and included a carinated bowl (B1422), a juglet (B1423), and a miniature/votive juglet (B1424). Locus 128, between L124 and L133, was labeled as Tomb A14. Finds here included, from north to south, a jar (B1464) fallen on its side, a large bowl (B1463), a small bowl (B1374, found inside bowl B1463), and a jug (B1375). A fragment of a second jar (not in the plan) was found south of B1375 (B1439). TOMBS A13–14, LEVEL I (Plan 4.58; Fig. 4.64) Few finds were attributed to Level I and there are conflicting identifications of the baskets; we present one likely possibility. In the north, L231 was a baulk between L211 (A11) and L229. It yielded one jar (B2317) with a juglet inside (B2329). Farther to the south was L229 with a fragmented vessel of unclear type (B2292+B2234) and a carinated bowl (B2227+B2293). Nearby there was a bronze knife (B2231). Locus 232 is located in the east on this plan with a large jar (B2357, with juglet B2374 inside). Another juglet, more to the north, is probably B2192 of L223. West of the jar a jug (B2384) was found. If the location of the plotted rectangle is the same in both levels, none of the Level I items was below a Level II find. The levels were beside, not under each other. There is no reason to separate here levels at all.

Fig. 4.64: Tomb A13–14, Level I, L231, looking south. Baulk with jar B2371 and juglet B2329 inside it.

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Plan 4.1: General Plan of Area A

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Plan 4.2: Page from graphic diary, December 19, 1991 (tomb labels added)

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Plan 4.3: Tomb A1, Level IV and Section

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Plan 4.4: Tomb A1, Level III

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Plan 4.5: Tomb A1, Level II

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Plan 4.6: Tomb A1, Level I

Plan 4.7: Tomb A2, Level VI

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Plan 4.8: Tomb A2, Level V

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Plan 4.9: Tomb A2, Level IV

Plan 4.10: Tomb A2, Level III

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Plan 4.11: Tomb A2, Level II

Plan 4.13: Tomb A3, Level VI (Plan 4.12 is on the following page)

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Plan 4.12: Tomb A2, Level I (Plan 4.13 is on the former page)

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Plan 4.14: Tomb A3, Level V

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Plan 4.15: Tomb A3, Level IV

Plan 4.16: Tomb A3, Level III

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Plan 4.17: Tomb A3, Level II

Plan 4.18: Tomb A3, Level I

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Plan 4.19: Tomb A4, Level IV

Plan 4.20: Tomb A4, Level III

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Plan 4.21: Tomb A4, Level II

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Plan 4.22: Tomb A4, Level I

Plan 4.23: Tomb A5, Level VI

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Plan 4.24: Tomb A5, Level V

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CHAPTER 4. AREA A

Plan 4.25: Tomb A5, Level IV

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Plan 4.26: Tomb A5, Level III

Plan 4.27: Tomb A5, Level II

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CHAPTER 4. AREA A

Plan 4.28: Tomb A5, Level I

Plan 4.29: Tomb A6, Level I

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Plan 4.30: Tomb A6, Level V

Plan 4.31: Tomb A6, Level IV

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Plan 4.32: Tomb A6, Level III

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Plan 4.34: Tomb A6, Level I

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CHAPTER 4. AREA A

Plan 4.35: Tomb A7, Level V

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Plan 4.36: Tomb A7, Level IV

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CHAPTER 4. AREA A

Plan 4.38: Tomb A7, Level II

Plan 4.39: Tomb A7, Level I

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Plan 4.40: Tomb A8, Level IV

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Plan 4.41: Tomb A8, Level III

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Plan 4.42: Tomb A8, Level II

Plan 4.43: Tomb A8, Level I

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CHAPTER 4. AREA A

Plan 4.44: Tomb A9, Level III

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Plan 4.45: Tomb A9, Level II

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Plan 4.46: Tomb A9, Level I

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Plan 4.47: Tomb A10, Level V

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Plan 4.48: Tomb A10, Level IV

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Plan 4.49: Tomb A10, Level III

Plan 4.50: Tomb A10, Level II

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Plan 4.51: Tomb A10, Level I

Plan 4.52: Tomb A11, Level II

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Plan 4.53: Tomb A11, Level I

Plan 4.54:.Tomb A12, Level III

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Plan 4.55: Tomb A12, Level II

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Plan 4.56: Tomb A12, Level I

Plan 4.57: Tomb A13–14, Level III+II

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Plan 4.58: Tomb A13–14, Level I

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CHAPTER 5 AREAS C AND E2 Raz Kletter1 and Yosi Levy2 1 University of Helsinki and 2Israel Antiquities Authority 5.1 AREA C––INTRODUCTION Area C is an area of Middle Bronze Age II burials located at the top of a hill (for the location map see Chapter 1, Plan 1.1). The excavators reported that the tombs of Area C were dug into a sand dune. The large sand dunes presently covering Israel’s coast are mostly later than the MB II (and are no longer growing now, on account of the Aswan Dam). Following other descriptions in the records, the burials formed dark patches of soil, dug into a sandy or ḥamra soil. The excavation of Area C lasted from July to August 1991 (defined as Season I), under permit G94/1991. It was directed by Amir Feldstein (area supervisor). Other participants mentioned in the files are Y. Fish and Y. Dray (metal-detecting). The workers included students from Tel Aviv University. Area C was originally labeled Area B. In fact, Area C was the first area excavated at the site. Another area of Middle Bronze Age shaft tombs was labeled Area A, though excavation of it started slightly later than that of Area C. After the 1991 season, Area B was renamed Area C. The change appears in documents from 1993 at the latest. The reason for the change is not clear. Some excavation files use the term Area B1, to differentiate this area from the later Area B. The Iron Age Fortress at Rishon le-Zion, excavated from 1996, also includes areas marked A–E, but these are not part of the present publication, with the exception of two MB II tombs in Area E2 that are discussed below. The registration in the excavation files and on boxes of finds was not changed accordingly––boxes of finds from Area C still bear the original label “Area B”. Years later, some of the boxes were erroneously identified as belonging to Area B of the 1996–1998 seasons (for this area see Chapter 2, in this volume). For example, a box from Area C was originally marked L43, but later re-marked as B43. The original label pertains to L43 of the 1991 season in Area B––what was later (and also in this report) called Area C. It bears no relation to Tomb B43 of Area B, Seasons 1997–1998. Changing labels again will only add to the confusion, and hence, we use the label Area C. Unfortunately, the documentation of Area C is inadequate. The main problem is the lack of textual descriptions from the time of the excavation. Loci cards of Area C include only a registration of baskets (that we already have as basket lists, with the same data). We have two textual summaries on Area C, but both are brief––a few sentences for each tomb, mostly a ‘shopping list’ of finds. The summaries are dated to August 7, 1991 and September 2, 1992, that is, soon after the excavation and about one year later. Diaries or lists of heights have not been preserved. The daily graphic diaries are very schematic. Finds are marked by small “x” marks without basket numbers. Some basket numbers were added to the diaries at a later date. A general plan of Area C was prepared (in two versions), but the baskets and loci were not marked on it. Two copies of the basket list have survived from Area C––both written by the same hand, but one is slightly updated, including an additional page with baskets B489–B518, and a few other amendments. Many baskets lack registration of heights. By analysis of all the available data, we have managed to identify many baskets. However, some cannot be identified with certainty. Concerning the method of excavation of Area C, it was divided into 5 x 5 m squares (A–E from west to east and 1–6 from north to south). Rather than use the grid for documentation and excavate each tomb as a unit, the excavation proceeded according to squares (or parts of squares), leaving temporary baulks in between. Some finds were defined as found “in the section”––meaning baulks––created by the squares. As a result, tombs that cut square limits were excavated under different loci at different times. Finds from one locus had already been removed by the time another (from the same tomb) was excavated. Many vessels were registered under more than one basket. Apparently, vessels were taken out of the area in parts, at different dates. Perhaps some large vessels, such as jars, crumbled and had to be collected © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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in parts while the excavation proceeded. Yet, even in such cases it is normally preferable to keep the same basket number. In Area C even small and shallow vessels, such as juglets or bowls, were often registered under several baskets. To prevent confusion, we usually labeled such finds by their combined numbers (for example, jug B194+B261 from Tomb C5). In the plans, though, we sometimes registered the vessels under one basket number, to save space. The ‘patches’ of dark soil of the tombs were marked in the general plan, first as thin lines and (in the updated version) as dotted lines (see Plan 5.1). However, these lines do not create a clear pattern: Finds appear both inside and outside them, ‘breaking’ their borders. The lines ill-match various tombs and some lines around the tombs were left half open. These lines probably represent partly the patches of dark earth, and partly an effort to define tomb limits, based on the distribution of finds. The excavators suggested that Area C included remains of 17 tombs, labeled C1–C17. Seven tombs were described as fully excavated (C1–C7) and 10 as partially documented (C8–C17). The tomb designations (C1–C17) were a post-excavation label. During the excavation, only loci numbers were used and as we have noted, loci were often excavated by squares, not by tombs. Often, the arrangement of the loci into tombs is questionable. For example, three loci (loci 22, 40, and 44) are designated as Tomb C7, but only one of them (L44) actually lies in the ‘patch’ marked as C7 (Plan 5.1). There is no evidence that the groups of finds of the other two loci belong to the same tomb. Nevertheless, since the documentation is scant, we will use the tomb labels C1–C17 when describing the remains, while commenting and suggesting other possible relations between loci and tombs. Apart of the loci designated as C1–C17, other loci with groups of finds will be described here. Such loci have not been included in the textual summaries, and the available data about them is limited. One significant group, composed of L38 and L42, creates a ‘new’ tomb, which we label C18. Loci of Area C started with 1 and reached 55. The first baskets were registered as B1–B21 (sic). They were ascribed mainly to L3–L6. Locus 5 was later divided into L10–L13. For baskets B1–B21, the basket list specifies a basket and a locus, but the same numbers or baskets were repeated. It is often difficult to understand what each of these basket numbers represents. These early baskets were collected before the network of squares was established, and their relations to later loci are unclear. The following baskets (B22, B23, etc.) were renumbered at some time as B121–B518. The first baskets (B1–B21) were not renumbered (into B100, B101, etc.). To prevent confusion, we maintain the original basket numbers (B1– 21, B121–B518). The excavators suggested that some tombs had two phases. An allegedly early phase consisted of the burial at the bottom of the dark soil, which was described as “sealing” this phase. A later phase of finds (“offerings”), but seldom also of burials, was placed higher up, usually on top of the dark soil. In most cases, it seems that this separation was technical. Some vessels were perhaps placed one above the other, but this is an accumulation of finds, not a mark of distinct layers. Certain vessels (such as jars and pithoi) ‘cut’ the entire height of a tomb. Some of the finds are disturbed and not in situ. A few burials could also have been located one above the other. It is possible that some vessels were placed as ‘markers’ or are remains of rituals after burial, and hence, higher than the actual burials. Yet in general we do not see good evidence for two chronological phases in the same tombs. Following is a description of each tomb, reconstructed from all the available data. Heights are above sea level unless otherwise noted.

5.2 AREA C––DESCRIPTION OF THE TOMBS Tomb C1 Locus 25; Square D4 (Plan 5.2; Fig. 5.1) The tomb was dug into the sand. The excavators specified two phases (Hebrew: miflas) for this tomb: a lower phase on the sand with the skeleton surrounded by offerings; and an upper phase of brown-reddish soil sealed by black earth with a few vessels (bowls and a juglet). These are just technical parts of the same tomb––the ‘upper phase’ vessels are placed c. 30–40 cm higher, on top of jars attributed to the ‘lower phase’. Only part of the skeleton was found. The deceased (B509, skull, probably B173) was placed supine with the head in the east. The legs were extended. The arms did not survive.

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A carinated bowl (B341) and a deep, rounded bowl (B345) were placed near and north of the head. A shallow bowl (B187+313+340) and a badly preserved dipper juglet (B344)1 were placed south of the head (on the skeleton, according to the plan). A pithos (B181+ B251+B349+B359) and a jar (B182+B481) were located at the feet. A dipper juglet (B356) was found inside pithos B181. Another jar (B482) was found at the feet, under a bowl ascribed to the ‘upper phase’ (B183+B347). Jar B482 is not clearly visible in the plan; its suggested identification is tentative. Inside bowl B183+ B347 there were animal bones (most likely of sheep/goat, B364), as well as a bronze dagger (B184), and another, smaller bowl (B186). More sheep bones (B483) are mentioned near jar B482, and a juglet above the jars (basket not clear, perhaps shown in Plan Fig. 5.1: Tomb C1, L25 during excavation, looking north. Jar or pithos 5.2 inside B183). (B186+B251) at center; burial B509 between the seated girls. The basket list registers more finds from L25, but their location remains unclear: bones (B300); a bowl (B185+B488); and a jug near bowl B183 (B373). A group of three jars (B478–B480) and a dipper juglet (B487, lacking the rim, inside B479) was found farther to the north, in Square D3. Such vessels are not identified in the plans, and the only pottery that matches the location is that of L1 (see below), but it did not include three jars. Tomb C2 Loci 16, 43; Square E4 (Plan 5.3; Figs. 5.2–3) The shallow tomb called C2 is composed of one tomb with two burials (both L43) placed on the sand. The excavators ascribed many additional finds to the same tomb, registered as L16, farther to the south of L43. Early on, L16 was amalgamated into L43. The tomb was described as a shallow depression or pit cut into the sand. 1. The southern burial (B355+B358) included a nearly complete skeleton, oriented east–west, lying on the side with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The leg were sharply folded to the north and the arms were also probably folded. 2. From the northern burial (no basket number) only the lower leg bones were preserved, articulated and folded southward. They suggest a burial placed on the side, oriented east–west with the (missing) head in the east. A large rounded bowl (B320, registered under L16) and a cylindrical juglet (B321) found near the head can be ascribed to the southern burial. The row of objects farther to the north possibly relates to the northern burial––a bowl (B298+B334) with bones under it (B370), and two closed vessels lying on the sides (B297+B346, a single-handled jug; and B296+B306, a two-handled amphoriskos or small jar, decorated with white paint). The pottery near the feet cannot be ascribed specifically to a certain burial. It included a jar (B220+B273+B387) with a dipper juglet inside (B270, equal to B388, unless if the jar held two juglets). Farther west there was another jar (B379) with a dipper juglet inside (B380). A third jar (B212) is shown in the plan north of the other two. The upper parts of all the three jars were cut by the bulldozers before the excavation. North of the jars there was a carinated bowl (B389). Three more vessels were found in L43––a shallow rounded bowl (B431), an S-shaped bowl (B432), and a double-handled, oval and long-necked juglet (B414); their location in the plan is unclear.

1

In the plan, the vessel identified as B344 seems to be a jug, according to size. Perhaps it was confused with B373, the only jug from this locus. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 5.2: Tomb C2 L43 looking south. Bowls B320 (?) and B298+B334 at left; bones B355 at center.

Fig. 5.3: Tomb C2, L43 later stage, looking south. Bones B355 at left, juglet B380 inside B379 at right.

Locus 16 was interpreted as a second phase of Tomb C2. However, the burials of L43 were at a level of c. 42.9 m, and the dark earth was only c. 20 cm deep. There is no evidence for two chronological phases, and L16 is probably alongside rather than strictly above L43. The only finds from L16 were two juglets (B192 and B295 “from debris”) and a bowl that was already mentioned above (B320, registered as L43). Heights are missing, and the vessels are not identified in the plans.

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Tomb C3 Loci 17, 35; Squares DE/4 (Plans 5.2–3) This tomb was created by joining two loci––L17 in the west (square D4) and L35 in the east (square E4). As in other tombs, the files mentioned that the burial was placed on the sand, covered by reddish-brown sand with a ‘sealing’ of darker earth mixed with kurkar stones and sand that had begun to transform into kurkar. Only two bones were plotted in L17 (Plan 5.2), interpreted as a leg or an arm (B274+B275) of a young individual or child. However, there is no anthropological report. According to the size seems the bones are more likely arm bones; nothing more can be deduced. Finds from L17 included only two jars (B221+B276, handless; B137+B260).2 A dipper juglet (B269) was found inside jar B137+260. Some finds from L17 were amalgamated into L43 (Tomb C2). Yet other finds included a carinated bowl (B321?––but that basket number was already allocated to a juglet in Tomb C2); another carinated bowl “in the section” farther to the east (B322); and a large bowl (B139+B227). Perhaps these vessels, or some of them, are shown in Plan 5.3 between the pottery of L35 in the south and that of L16+L43 in the north; but none can be securely identified. Locus 35 is located farther to the east and higher than L17. A skull was found here (B449, of a male youth?), probably in secondary burial. It was found together with the following vessels: a shallow bowl (B223), a carinated bowl (B222), and three juglets (B450, B451 and B224). The records suggest that Tomb C3 was poor in finds, yet the reason for this statement is not explained. Most of the finds were interpreted as not in situ, perhaps since the tomb was robbed in antiquity. A “robber trench” was even seen in one section. Lack of more data prevents definite assessment, but the trench is more likely due to the recent development than to ancient robbery. The assemblage defined as Tomb C3 may have included remains of more than one burial or even more than one tomb. The vessels and secondary burial of a skull in L35 is one burial/tomb, which had no direct connection with the partly articulated burial/tomb in L17. Tomb C4 Loci 4, 8, 32, 47; Squares CD4–5 (Plan 5.2) The tomb was dug into sand and surrounded on both sides by brick walls, interpreted as defense against collapse of the sides of the tomb. No such walls are shown in the plan. The excavators divided this tomb into two phases: The lower and allegedly earlier phase of burial (L47+L32) was placed immediately on the sand. From the deceased (in L47) only bones of the left arm have survived (basket and location not clear, only a few small bones are shown near B390 on the plan). Locus 47 was rich in finds. Most notable is part of a bronze belt (B390). If in situ, it indicates a burial directed east–west with the skull probably somewhere in the east, in the area of L32. Other finds included a bronze knife (B352); eight miniature/votive juglets (B385/1–8); a jar (B307+B383) with a dipper juglet inside (B384); a pinched jug (B360); a shallow bowl (B342); and a deep bowl (B361, near knife B352). Another miniature juglet (B343) was found between B307 and B342. Not all these vessels are visible or identified in the plan. Two juglets (B195+B429, B430); a small squat red-slipped jug/juglet (B209+B316+B428); a bowl (B203+B372); and a neck of a juglet (B201) were all found in reddish-brown soil in L32.3 The ‘later phase’ included finds from L8 (mostly in square D4) and also L4 (in Square D5). These finds were close to the surface at the start of the excavation, badly damaged and also badly documented. They included two shallow bowls (one with a red-cross pattern inside, B22; the other with two handles, B8+319); a carinated red-slipped bowl (B23); a small piriform juglet (B124); and a dipper juglet (B21). There were also two jars (B6b, B7), one of which held a red-slipped dipper juglet (B19 inside B6b). A few of the L4 and L8 finds can be tentatively identified in the plan. In sum, the finds belong to quite rich burials, but are poorly preserved and documented, thus the nature of the burial/s remains unclear.

2

In Plan 5.2 we identified jar B221 with a broken vessel at the border between Tombs C2 and C3. However, it may also be the vessel with the inner round rim shown farther to the south, without basket number. 3 In the plan, only juglet B195+B429, bowl B203+B372, and juglet B201 were identified. We are not sure about B201, since it was only a fragment. Perhaps it was mistaken for juglet B209 (+B316+B428). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Tomb C5 Loci 30, 45; Square C4 (Plan 5.2; Fig. 5.4) The tomb was dug into the sand northwest of Tomb C4. According to the files it was partly sealed by kurkar stones and cut into Tomb C12, but this seems unlikely in view of the distance from the latter. No bones were discovered in Tomb C5. Pottery vessels were discovered on the sand at the bottom of the patch of red-brown earth. They included in the eastern part (L30) a jar (B191+B262); a red-slipped jug (B194+B260); a decorated jug (B261); a double-handled juglet (B210); and a carinated bowl (B202+ B259). The western part of Tomb C5 (L45) included only one jar (B303+B409) and one shallow bowl (B410). It is unclear if the two loci indeed belong to one tomb.

Fig. 5.4: Tomb C5, L30 looking west. Group of vessels with B261, B191 at left.

Tomb C6 Loci 14, 20, 36; Squares CD4 (Plan 5.4) The tomb was dug into sand, according to the records cutting the kurkar sealing of Tomb C12, which is located to its south. Supposedly, those who dug C6 supported it against collapse of the sealing of Tomb C12 by a wall of dark-soil bricks (not mapped). If so, Tomb C6 is later than Tomb C12. There is little data to prove (or refute) this reconstruction. The tomb included only scant remains of one primary adult burial in L20, but the bones (B504–B507) were very poorly preserved. They suggest an east–west burial with the legs in the west and part of one arm extended along the body. Some of the bones seen in the plan are animal bones; we have no way of separating the human from the animal remains (except for parts such as the sheep/goat head seen in the middle of the bones). Finds associated with this burial included a red-burnished, rounded bowl in the west (B133+200, L14) with animal (sheep/goat?) bones inside it; apparently more bones of sheep/goat were found nearby (B284+B299?); between the ribs of the animal there was a knife (B486, L20). In the east there was a large bowl (B150+B485) and a piriform juglet (B484). A dipper juglet (508) was listed from L20, but also as originating from jar B481 (in L25). Yet no juglet is mentioned for this jar, so we assume that the true location was in L20. Dark alluvial material covered the finds. According to the records, L36 farther to the north and higher up was interpreted as a second, disturbed phase. A neck of a jar was found here upside down (B249+B351), and a shallow bowl (B254). Farther to the west there were four jars (B425, B404, B245, B226+B353, with dipper juglet B362 inside jar B226). A jug (B424), two carinated bowls (B429, B405), and two open bowls (B443––actually also carinated; and B258) were also found. Only some of these vessels are shown on the plan. The records suggested that

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the northern side of Tomb C6 was damaged by trenches, cutting the dark earth, perhaps by robbers. This seems unlikely.4 The finds were probably disturbed by the recent development work. There is also no compelling evidence to connect L36 and L20. If L36 is indeed higher, it may have been part of a second tomb, which was unrelated to L20. Tomb C7 Loci 22, 40, 44; Square C4 (Plan 5.4) According to the records, the southern part of Tomb C7 was dug into the sand, and its northern part into ḥamra. A brick wall was found on one side (not clear which) of the tomb (it is not visible in any plan). The excavators noticed the irregular shape of the dark earth of Tomb C7, suggesting that it indicated collapses, whose re-occurrence the brick wall intended to prevent. How a wall on one side of a tomb could prevent such collapses is not clear. Irregular patches of dark earth seem to be typical of Area C. At the bottom of L44 there was a single primary burial (B477) in an extended position, on an east– west axis with the head in the east. Only the head and the upper body are drawn. If this was a complete primary burial of an adult with extended legs, a large space inside the assumed patch of Tomb C7 was left empty between this burial and the vessels of L22 in the south. A bronze pin was found in situ on the left shoulder of the L44 burial (B439), indicating that the deceased was buried clothed. North of the head there were two shallow bowls (B408, B376+B407); one deep bowl, red-slipped on the outside (B292+B406); and a double-handled, red-slipped piriform juglet (B427). More finds were discovered in L22 south of L44, mostly outside the patch marked as Tomb C7. They included two shallow bowls (B165+B242, west of B164+B243); a jar (B151) with a red-slipped dipper juglet inside (B178); a carinated bowl with a trumpet base, burnished and decorated by a triangular pattern of punctures (B158); and a piriform double handled juglet (B163). Bones of an animal (sheep/goat?) were also found (not shown in the plan). A bronze dagger with a pommel (B155) was found with the animal’s ribs. In L40, northwest of L44, a tear-shaped one-handled jug (B246) and two jars (B286, B287) were found. Jar B286 included a dipper juglet (B363). The records suggested that jar B286 and jug B246, found touching each other, belonged to Tomb C7 since they were found in the ‘patch’ attributed to it. Yet the plan shows them outside the C7 ‘patch’.5 Jar B287 was described as located beneath the alluvial earth covering C8 (north of C6), which is indeed corroborated by the plan. The finds of L22 and L40 are separated by a large empty space, and there is no evidence that they form part of the same tomb. Tombs C8–C17 were partially excavated, or documented without excavation. C8 Locus 53; Squares C3–4 (Plan 5.4) The northern part of Tomb C8 was not excavated, while according to the records its southern part was robbed in antiquity. It is not clear if a locus was opened for Tomb C8 at all. The only relevant locus shown in the plan is L53, from which only one basket of sherds is registered (B378). Jar B287, although found in the patch designated C8, was registered under L44 of Tomb C6. The pottery found on the western contour of Tomb C8 was defined as C15 (below). With just the presence of a ‘patch’ of dark earth, and no restorable vessels or anthropological remains, we cannot be certain that C8 is a tomb. C9 Loci 50, L52; Square D3 Only the southwestern part of Tomb C9 was excavated, due to lack of time. Finds included two jars (B315, B382), a dipper juglet (B375 inside jar B315), and a shallow bowl (B386). Nearby (in L52) there was one juglet (B331). No bones were documented from Tomb C9.

4

Robber trenches were often made for retrieving stones of walls for re-building. Yet in the case of shallow pit tombs, robbers would hardly dig trenches. If the trench was for robbery, why was it not enlarged to retrieve the other vessels from the tomb? 5 This is another indication that the contours in the plans are a later addition and not accurate tomb or ‘patch’ borders. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Tomb C10 Locus 31; Square E4 (Plan 5.3) Only the southwestern part of this tomb was excavated. It revealed folded leg bones of a single burial in articulation, placed on the side with the (unexcavated) head in the east (many bones basket were registered from this locus, B335–B339, the reason is not clear). West of the feet there was a row of finds that included a jar in the middle (B301) with a dipper juglet inside (B193), a double-handled, rounded jug (B211), and a shallow bowl (B302) with animal bones on it (B332). There was also one shell in Locus 31 (B197, not in the plan). Tomb C11 Locus 41; Square E4 (Plan 5.3) Only the western part of this tomb was excavated. It seems that it was also oriented east–west. Finds included one trefoil-rim jug (B285) and one jar (B255). Inside jar B255 there was a dipper juglet (B255/1, not in the original basket list––probably registered at a later stage). Tomb C12 Loci 15, 18, 34, 55; Squares CD4–5 (Plan 5.5) Tomb C12 was divided by four different squares and was therefore excavated under four loci. Only its northern and eastern parts were excavated. According to the records Tomb C12 had two phases. However, the excavators were not certain how to divide the finds between the phases, since L15 collapsed during the excavation, and the finds had to be taken out without much time for observation of phases. It was assumed that L15 included finds from both phases, while L18 was interpreted as a lower phase. It seems preferable to consider the phases as technical in nature. Both L15 and L18 are barely plotted on the plans. Loci 34 and 55 are better represented, although their relation to L15 and L18 remains open for various interpretations. C12 was dug into sand. Two jars (B140, B166) and crumbling human bones were found at the bottom (L18 and possibly part of L15). The jars are the sole baskets from L18. However, a red-slipped dipper juglet (B267, registered under L15) was found inside jar B140. The excavators suggested that another jar, B240 (L15), with a larger red-slipped dipper juglet inside (B241) also belonged to this burial. This phase was described as sealed by kurkar material. According to the textual report, the “late phase” in L15 included a burial found in dark earth at the south side of the tomb. Unfortunately, the bones did not receive basket numbers. Only lower leg bones were found, in articulation, suggesting an east-west burial. A skull seen on the map farther to the east seems to be part of the L34 assemblage (for which see below). More finds from L15 included two jars (B134, B135, both “in the northwest” of L15, tentatively identified in the plan) and a bronze pin (B247). A red-slipped amphoriskos was listed in the basket list as B136. After L15 collapsed, seven boxes of pottery were registered under B238, and they included two bowls (B238/1–2), a large handless jar (B238/3), and a rim of a jar (B238/4). There are no heights for the L18 finds. The graphic diaries indicate clearly that L15 is located south of L18, and the leg bones are part of L15; yet this does not consist evidence that they belong to a later phase than L34 and L35 (and part of L18). In addition, burials elsewhere in Area C were described as part of an “early phase”, not a later one. L34 included a dense concentration of pottery vessels, located east of the burial of L15. A skull appears on the map but has no basket number; it is shown resting with the scalp upward, hence not in situ and probably in secondary context. The relation to the legs of L15 is not clear. More bones (perhaps B381) of an unclear nature are seen at the northern end of the locus. Finds from L34––not all identified with certainty in the plan––included a jar (B213+B456) with a redslipped dipper juglet inside (B214); a one-handled large jug/jar (B237); two jugs (B327+B459 and B461 under B213); several juglets (B236, B329+B368+B457, B394, B328); two bowls (B215+B369+B455, B330); and a bead (B312). East of L34 there was a group of vessels excavated as L55. Actually no baskets were registered from L55––finds from that locus were registered under L28 (of C16). Locus 55 (and hence also L34) was seen as a sub-phase within the later phase of Tomb C12; but we suggest that there is no evidence for phasing in Tomb C12. The finds in L55 included a double-handled squat jug (B179+B391) and a large bowl with two handles (B392).

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C13 Locus 1; Square D3 C13 was damaged by bulldozers, and the finds exposed on the surface were collected; the area was not excavated further. Finds included a jar lacking its rim (B1), an open bowl (B3), a carinated bowl (B6a–– to differentiate from B6b of L8), and a juglet (B2). No bones are documented and the nature of Tomb C13 remains unclear. Tomb C14 Locus 29; Squares CD5 Plan 5.5; Fig. 5.5) The excavators stated that only the eastern edge of this tomb was exposed. Yet in the plan, Tomb C14 appears outside any ‘patch’, surrounded by C16, C12 and C18. It is actually a dense group of finds in dark earth, belonging to secondary burials. Two skulls were found (B263, B264) resting side by side on redbrown soil; another skull with the face upward was discovered slightly to the northeast (Plan 5.5: A). The skulls were surrounded by vessels: a two-handled jar (B265+B454); two juglets (red-slipped B190, B189); a miniature/votive juglet (B266); a Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet (B180); and a carinated, partially red-slipped bowl (B188). Farther to the west a shallow bowl with a red-slipped rim was discovered (B208).

Fig. 5.5: Tomb C14, L29 looking east. Jar B265+B454 on the right.

C15 Locus 39; Squares C3–4 (Plan 5.4) According to the files, only the southern edge of Tomb C15 was excavated. The plan does not show a contour for C15 and it is shown situated on the border of Tomb C8, though not ascribed to the latter. The finds retrieved from C15 included three shallow bowls (B288, B289, B426); one carinated bowl (B290); a jug (B291); and a juglet (B423). No bones are recorded and thus the nature of Tomb C15 cannot be verified, though it is likely part of a tomb. Tomb C16 Loci 24, 26, 28; Square D5 (Plan 5.5) Though the tomb was described as only partially excavated, the excavators separated it into two phases: The first phase was L28––a few poorly preserved bones resting on the sand, surrounded by finds covered with red-brown soil: two jars, each with a red-slipped dipper juglet inside (B422 inside B204+B294 and B446 inside B206+B416); a red-slipped juglet (B444) found between two shallow bowls (B205+B433, B435); and a mushroom-shaped jug (B447). Inside bowl B435 there was a piriform juglet with a button © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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base, lacking the rim (B436). One can hardly identify any of these vessels in the plan. The second phase, L26, was interpreted as a later phase of finds on and inside dark earth that sealed the earlier L28 finds. A jar burial was identified, composed of two jars with diagonally cut necks placed opposite each other (both registered as B216, hence B216a and B216b). A bronze pin (B170) was found near the joint of the jars. Other finds from the same earth were registered under L24 and L26: two jars (B217+B417, B225); an amphoriskos with painted lines on its neck (B271); a Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet (B279) found alongside B271; carinated bowls (B218, B277); and a jug (B419). Jars 216a–b were taken out whole, but there is no data about their contents. The interpretation as a jar burial is possible, but the plan seems to indicate that the northern jar was not cut as part of the original shape, but rather broken. The exact nature of Tomb C16 remains elusive. Tomb C17 Locus 27; Square D5 (Pl. 5.5) C17 is located southeast of C16. According to the files only the western part of C17 was excavated. The finds were discovered under dark earth, probably above ḥamra soil. They included a shallow bowl (B367), a jar (B366), and a trefoil-rim juglet (B176). A jug (B175) was found nearby. Another shallow bowl is listed as B172 (location suggested in the plan, but not certain). Tomb C18 Loci 38, 42; Squares CD5 (Plan 5.5) The label C18 is given here for two loci, L42 in square D5 and L38 in square C5, which were not described in the excavation files. Locus 42 includes a preliminary, nearly complete primary burial (B440; many other bone baskets were registered, possibly from the same skeleton, B510–B514). It was oriented east–west with the head in the east and the face turned to the north. The legs were folded and the arms probably extended with the hands (not preserved) on the abdomen. North of the head there was a jar (B257+B280+B403) with a juglet inside (B421). Near the feet a large bowl (B232, originally registered as L38) was found. Another deep, redslipped bowl with four knob handles is perhaps shown south of the body (B293). West of L42, in L38, there was a large group of vessels surrounding some small bones (B441), with beads above the bones (B442), and a nearby skull (B283). Two scarabs (western––B308, eastern––B314) were found here––the only scarabs from Area C––as well as a bronze pin (B309). Surrounding the small bones there were (clockwise) a jar (B234) with a juglet inside (B235); a red-slipped bowl (B281); a juglet (B282); a large jar (B248); a jug (B233); another jar (B239) with a juglet inside (B207); and a carinated (?) bowl (B420, south of B239). The nature and location of the finds suggest that L38 is a heap of a secondary burial, perhaps pushed aside when L42 was buried.

5.3 AREA C––OTHER LOCI The following loci are distributed in Area C without clear connection to specific burials: L1 (Square D3). The basket list cites four finds from this locus: a jar lacking its upper part (B1); a pinched rim juglet (B2); a small bowl found on its side (B3); and a carinated bowl (B6). Three vessels plotted in Plan 5.1 inside the contour of Tomb C1, possibly depicting L1, not the later three jars (B478– B480) registered under L25 (Tomb C1). We are not sure which vessel is which in the plan. L5, L10–L13 (Square C6; Plan 5.6). There were several loci with small groups of vessels, which were excavated at the beginning of the season and poorly documented. The finds in L10 included a skull (B17), ‘framed’ by a jar (B15+B128), and an unidentified vessel (B18). Slightly to the north, L11 included a bowl (B13) with a juglet (dipper juglet B500?) inside, and an upturned neck of a jar (B14). At the north of Square C6, L13 exhibited a red-slipped bowl (B126), a jug lacking the rim (B125), and a jar (B12). Slightly to the west (L12) a bowl (B130), some bones, and probably a body of a jar (B5) whose rim was cut by the bulldozer were found. South of L13 (attributed to L11) there were two jars (B9+B129, B10) and a juglet (B11). A skull (B12) was found in L12, wrongly attributed to L10 in the basket list. L19, L21, L23 (Square B2). Many finds were discovered in the southern part of Square B2, but there is no final plan. The loci are, from left to right, L19, L21 and L23. Remains of burials were documented only in L21. Locus 19 included a large jar in the north (B141+B468); a juglet found inside the jar (B475); a jug southeast of it (B142+B471); a small bowl within this jug (B472); bones (B143, B152); a bowl (B148+B169+B470); and one jar “in the middle” (B464+B469). Locus 21 included a burial with quite a

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few finds, not clearly mapped: a small bowl (B153); a piriform (Tell el-Yahudiyeh?) juglet lacking its upper part (B160); a two-handled bowl (B147); a shallow, handless bowl (B465); the body of a rounded Cypriot jug (B476); and a round, double-handled juglet (B159; another handle of a cylindrical juglet is listed as B154). A bowl (B467), a rim of a juglet (B162), and two carinated bowls (B161, B466) were found in L23 east of L19. L33 (Square A5). A jar (B199) with a juglet inside (B207); another jar (B198+B371); and a shallow bowl (B203+B372) were found in this locus. L37 (Square D5). This locus, north of L27, revealed a row of finds (from east to west): a base of a jar (B228); a jar (B229); an unidentified vessel (B230); and a bowl (B231). Their identification on the plan is tentative. L46 (Square B5). A skull was found near a partially preserved jar (B305+B462). L54 (Square B5). A complete jar (B463) was found resting on the side.

5.4 AREA C––CONCLUSION Area C is an MB II cemetery with several preliminary burials and probably some (not well-documented) secondary burials. The scant documentation, circumstances of excavation and the shape of the remains in the plans suggest that Area C was badly damaged prior to the excavation by the development work. As described by the excavators, when first seen, vessels were strewn on the surface or in trenches, often damaged by the bulldozers. So the first baskets were of vessels collected from the surface/trenches. The bulldozers probably grazed the area, flattening the graves. Therefore, the loci that were lower usually preserved the remains better. All the preliminary burials of Area C were set roughly on an east–west axis, with the heads in the east. Their legs were folded (except Tomb C1). An anthropological report states that the bones were very poorly preserved. Nine individuals were identified; their estimated ages are given as follows: C6 L20 (adult); C7 L44 (40–45 years old); C12 L34 (20–25 years old); C14 L29 (three individuals: 3, 35, 45 years old); C18 L42 (adult); L10 (12 years old); and L12 (13 years old). Sex could not be identified at all. It seems that the tombs were pit tombs with single burials. One tomb was probably a double burial (C2). The excavators described the tombs as pits excavated into the sand, also mentioning some support walls made of bricks (although none were drawn in the plan). The dark soil surrounding the burials contained a great deal of organic material (“burnt plants and shells”). The excavators explained it as covering for the burials, perhaps brought from a nearby valley floor (between the kurkar ridges). However, this dark soil may also have been created by the decay of the organic materials in the tombs. According to the excavation records, skeletons inside the dark soil were better preserved than those found in the sand. Yet, it seems that the general state of preservation of the skeletons was poor. There was no detailed report about the positions and preservation of the human bones, and the animal bones were not analyzed. As in other MB II burial areas at Rishon le-Zion, some pottery vessels (especially shallow bowls and juglets) were placed on the deceased, usually above the feet and on the chest area (C1 B334; C2 B389; C6 B485; C10 B302). However, most of the vessels were probably placed beside the burials. Based on a cautious estimate, Area C includes seven documented tombs with primary burials (L18, L20, L25, L31, L42, L43, and L44) and several loci with secondary burials (L29, L35, and L38; possibly also L26 and L34). The possible (not proven) double jar-burial of L26 is an exception. The lack of phases, remains of shafts or arrangement of burial zones indicates that the Area C remains did not belong to shaft tombs, but to shallow pit tombs similar to those of Area B. The excavators suggested that the pottery from Area C indicates an early phase within the MB IIA, roughly equivalent to the palace phase at Aphek-Antipatris. It includes “red burnished vessels, carinated bowls with gutter rims, piriform juglets, and open bowls with pattern burnish”. However, the files also mentioned later (MB IIB) forms. The Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet from C14 and two scarabs from L38 (C18) also suggest a later date. Only a limited number of more complete vessels could be studied; these indicate that burial in Area C began in the MB IIA (C4, C5, C11), but continued to the MB IIA–MB IIB transitional phase and into the MB IIB as well (Tombs C7, C14, and C16; see Uziel and Shai, Chapter 6).

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5.5 AREA E2––INTRODCUTION Area E2 is part of the Iron Age fortress in Area E, located about 250 m east of the MB II burials in Area B and roughly the same distance northeast of Area F. The area was excavated in 1995 as part of permit A2274. It will be published separately by Y. Levy, M. Peilstöcker and L. Singer-Avitz. We thank Orit Segal for her help in tracing data about the MB II graves in Area E2. Two MB II tombs were found in Area E2, below the later remains of the fortress. They were dug into natural Kurkar and covered by a 30 cm layer of ḥamra soil, almost devoid of finds. The tombs were sealed by silt and medium sized kurkar stones. There is good documentation of the area with locus cards, basket lists, final plans and photographs.

5.6 AREA E2–– DESCRIPTION OF THE TOMBS Locus 977 Square G9 (Plan 5.7; Figs. 5.6–7; Color Pl. 2.4) An MB II tomb was found in dark silt earth. The deceased (B5424, 7–9 years old, age based on teeth) was discovered in primary burial, placed supine with the head in the northwest and the face turned to the north. The right arm was folded on the chest and the left arm folded on the belly. The legs were folded to the south (apparently the lower legs were placed one above the other, not fully visible in the plan). The burial included quite a few finds. A large jar stood south of the skull (B5416), with a partially preserved (carinated?) bowl placed on its shoulder (B5417). Next to the jar there were two Cypriot jugs (B5413, B5414). A dipper juglet (B5415) was found tucked between jar B5416 and jug B5414. A group of three juglets (B5420–B5422) was placed on and near the pelvis. Two shallow bowls were discovered at the legs, covering the feet, one on top of the other (B5418 above B5419). Two medium-size stones were found at the top of the dark earth (shown in the plan near jar B5416). The excavators thought that they may have served as a marker for the tomb.

Fig. 5.6: Area E2, L977 looking south. Bowl B5418 above bowl B5419 (left); skeleton B5424 with juglets; jar B5416 top right; and jug B5413 left of it.

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Fig. 5.7: Area E2, L977 looking southwest. Bowls B5418 and B5419 at bottom, jug B5413 at center left, three juglets (B5420–B5422) near the hip of skeleton B5424.

Locus 969 Square G9 (Plan 5.7; Figs. 5.7–8) Patches of dark earth were noticed in the red ḥamra soil. Two groups of pottery were found in the earth. A row of three stones separated the two groups at the upper level of the black earth, interpreted as a tomb marker. However, the stones could also have denoted a support wall at the edge of a tomb. At the southwestern corner of the square a two-handled jar (B5387) was found fallen on its side, lacking the upper part. Broken sherds near the upper part of jar B5387 belonged to another jar (?) with part of the rim surviving (B5386). Near jar B5387 a juglet (B5388) and a small vessel of unclear nature (B5391) were found. The latter was partially covered by jar B5387, so it seems that the jar had originally been placed standing. The jar probably fell some time later; this must have happened before the fortress was built (perhaps during its construction). A second group of pottery, north of the three stones, included a two-handled jar whose upper part was cut away (B5389; one handle was found on top of the existing jar). Nearby there were a drop-shaped jug with a wide rim (B5385) and a large pottery fragment. A few small stones were also found here. According to the excavators, the black earth continued between the two groups of vessels, which were interpreted as one grave. This does not conform well to the location of the ‘marker’ stones in the middle nor to the idea (expressed by the excavators) that jar B5386 was a burial jar. There is no evidence for human bones in jar B5386, or elsewhere in L969. The evidence suggests that the area was disturbed, perhaps by the builders of the later fortress. Hence, it is likely that the jars had originally stood and that the two groups were related to two separate pit tombs of the type common in Areas B–C. However, only one burial was documented. The graves lack metal and luxury finds. The pottery from these graves was not checked (and was not included in the sample analyzed in the present report). Hence, we cannot define the exact phase within the MB II.

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Fig. 5.8: Area E2, L969 looking east. Jar B5389 top center; ‘Egyptian’ jug B5385 between it and the sign; jar B5386 covered by fragment B5387 at bottom right. The upper part of the jug at the left, above the sign, is B5413 of L977.

Fig. 5.9: Area E2, L969 and L977 looking east: jug B5385 and jar B5386 of L969 (right); jugs B5413–B5414 and jar B5416 of L977 (left).

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CHAPTER 5. AREAS C AND E2

Plan 5.1: General Plan of Area C

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Plan 5.2: Tombs C1, C3–C5

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CHAPTER 5. AREAS C AND E2

Plan 5.3: Tombs C2, C10, C11

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Plan 5.4: Tombs C6–C8, C15

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CHAPTER 5. AREAS C AND E2

Plan 5.5: Tombs C12, C14, C16–C18

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Plan 5.6: Square C6 (L10–L13)

Plan 5.7: Area E2, L969 and L977

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Ägypten und altes TestamenT 88 ÄAT 88

Rishon le-Zion Volume I

Levy / Kletter • Rishon le-Zion I

The Middle Bronze Age II Cemeteries. Vol. I / 2: Finds and Conclusions

The Middle Bronze Age II Cemeteries Volume I/2: Finds and Conclusions Yosi Levy and Raz Kletter With Contributions by Daphna Ben-Tor, Vered Eshed, Amir Golani, Eriola Jakoel, Tal Kan-Cipor – Meron, Nili Liphschitz, Yossi Nagar, Itzhaq Shai, Sariel Shalev, Orit Shamir, Naama Sukenik, Joe Uziel, and Irit Ziffer

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Rishon le-Zion Volume I

The Middle Bronze Age II Cemeteries Volume I / 2: Finds and Conclusions Yosi Levy and Raz Kletter With Contributions by Daphna Ben-Tor, Vered Eshed, Amir Golani, Eriola Jakoel, Tal Kan-Cipor – Meron, Nili Liphschitz, Yossi Nagar, Itzhaq Shai, Sariel Shalev, Orit Shamir, Naama Sukenik, Joe Uziel, and Irit Ziffer

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ÄGYPTEN UND ALTES TESTAMENT Studien zu Geschichte, Kultur und Religion Ägyptens und des Alten Testaments

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Rishon le-Zion Volume I

The Middle Bronze Age II Cemeteries Volume I / 2: Finds and Conclusions Yosi Levy and Raz Kletter With Contributions by Daphna Ben-Tor, Vered Eshed, Amir Golani, Eriola Jakoel, Tal Kan-Cipor – Meron, Nili Liphschitz, Yossi Nagar, Itzhaq Shai, Sariel Shalev, Orit Shamir, Naama Sukenik, Joe Uziel, and Irit Ziffer

Zaphon Münster 2018

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Photographie auf dem Einband: Scarab 5, B2568, Copyright: Clara Amit (cf. S. 558)

Ägypten und Altes Testament, Band 88 Yosi Levy / Raz Kletter (With Contributions by Daphna Ben-Tor, Vered Eshed, Amir Golani, Eriola Jakoel, Tal Kan-Cipor – Meron, Nili Liphschitz, Yossi Nagar, Itzhaq Shai, Sariel Shalev, Orit Shamir, Naama Sukenik, Joe Uziel, and Irit Ziffer): Rishon le-Zion. Volume I: The Middle Bronze Age II Cemeteries. Volume I/2: Finds and Conclusions

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Volume I/1 List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... ix List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... xxiii List of Pottery Plates ............................................................................................................................. xxv List of Color Plates .............................................................................................................................. xxvii Chapter 1: Introduction (Yosi Levy) ..................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Area B (Yosi Levy and Raz Kletter) ................................................................................... 5 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Description of the Tombs of the 1996 Season ..................................................................................... 7 2.3 Description of the Tombs of the 1997–1998 Season ......................................................................... 12 Chapter 3: Area F (Raz Kletter, Eriola Jakoel, and Yosi Levy) ...................................................... 169 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 169 3.2 Description of the Tombs................................................................................................................. 171 Chapter 4: Area A (Yosi Levy, Eriola Jakoel, and Raz Kletter) ..................................................... 279 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 279 4.2 Description of the Tombs................................................................................................................. 281 Chapter 5: Areas C and E2 (Raz Kletter and Yosi Levy) ................................................................ 367 5.1 Area C––Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 367 5.2 Area C––Description of the Tombs ................................................................................................. 368 5.3 Area C––Other Loci......................................................................................................................... 376 5.4 Area C––Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 377 5.5 Area E2––Introduction..................................................................................................................... 378 5.6 Area E2––Description of the Tombs ............................................................................................... 378 Volume I/2 Chapter 6: The Pottery Assemblage (Joe Uziel and Itzhaq Shai).................................................... 387 6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 387 6.2 Typology .......................................................................................................................................... 387 6.3 Dating the Tombs............................................................................................................................. 397 6.4 Discussion ........................................................................................................................................ 403 References.............................................................................................................................................. 405 Chapter 7: Metal Finds (Tal Kan-Cipor – Meron and Sariel Shalev) ............................................ 493 7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 493 7.2 Jewelry ............................................................................................................................................. 493 7.3 Weapons........................................................................................................................................... 504 7.4 Discussion ........................................................................................................................................ 532 7.5 Metallurgical examinations .............................................................................................................. 533 Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................. 539 References.............................................................................................................................................. 539

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Chapter 8: Metal Belts (Irit Ziffer) .................................................................................................... 543 8.1 Belts and Belt Parts at Rishon le-Zion ............................................................................................. 543 8.2 Comparisons .................................................................................................................................... 545 8.3 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 550 References.............................................................................................................................................. 550 Chapter 9: Dendroarchaeological Research (Nili Liphschitz) ......................................................... 553 9.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 553 9.2 Materials and Methods..................................................................................................................... 553 9.3 Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................... 553 Reference ............................................................................................................................................... 555 Chapter 10: Scarabs (Daphna Ben-Tor) ............................................................................................ 557 10.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 557 10.2 Area A ............................................................................................................................................ 557 10.3 Area C ............................................................................................................................................ 595 10.4 Area F ............................................................................................................................................ 595 10.5 Concluding Discussion .................................................................................................................. 618 References.............................................................................................................................................. 619 Chapter 11: Beads and Pendants (Amir Golani and Eriola Jakoel) ............................................... 621 11.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 621 11.2 Methodology .................................................................................................................................. 621 11.3 The Beads ...................................................................................................................................... 622 11.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................................................... 631 References.............................................................................................................................................. 631 Chapter 12: Organic Material from Middle Bronze Age Tombs (Naama Sukenik and Orit Shamir) .................................................................................................... 633 12.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 633 12.2 The Textiles ................................................................................................................................... 633 12.3 The Threads ................................................................................................................................... 635 12.4 Plant Fibres .................................................................................................................................... 636 References.............................................................................................................................................. 637 Chapter 13: Summary of Human Remains (Yossi Nagar and Vered Eshed) ................................. 639 13.1 Estimation of Age of Death ........................................................................................................... 639 13.2 Estimation of Sex ........................................................................................................................... 639 13.3 Paleodemographic Analysis ........................................................................................................... 640 13.4 Comparisons to Other Sites ........................................................................................................... 642 References.............................................................................................................................................. 643 Chapter 14: Faience Seal (Irit Ziffer) ................................................................................................ 645 14.1 Context and Description ................................................................................................................ 645 14.2 Discussion ...................................................................................................................................... 645 References.............................................................................................................................................. 646 Chapter 15: Decorated Dagger (Irit Ziffer) ....................................................................................... 647 15.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 647 15.2 Decorated Weapons (Neolithic to Middle Bronze Age) ................................................................ 647 15.3 Iconography ................................................................................................................................... 649 15.4 Whose Dagger? .............................................................................................................................. 650 References.............................................................................................................................................. 650

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Chapter 16: Conclusions (Raz Kletter and Yosi Levy)..................................................................... 653 16.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 653 16.2 How Many Tombs at Rishon le-Zion? ........................................................................................... 653 16.3 Numbers and Nature of Burials ..................................................................................................... 654 16.4 Sheep/Goat Remains ...................................................................................................................... 655 16.5 Equid Burials ................................................................................................................................. 656 16.6 Additional Finds ............................................................................................................................ 658 16.7 The So-Called “Burial Kit” ............................................................................................................ 661 16.8 Location of Finds ........................................................................................................................... 670 16.9 “Warrior Graves”? ......................................................................................................................... 677 16.10 Multiple Simultaneous Burials..................................................................................................... 683 16.11 A Central Cemetery?.................................................................................................................... 694 References.............................................................................................................................................. 699 Appendix 1: Locus Lists (Raz Kletter) ............................................................................................... 709 Area B .................................................................................................................................................... 709 Area F .................................................................................................................................................... 716 Area A .................................................................................................................................................... 719 Area C .................................................................................................................................................... 722 Area E .................................................................................................................................................... 723 Index 1: Personal Names (Raz Kletter).............................................................................................. 725 Index 2: Place Names (Raz Kletter) ................................................................................................... 731 Color Plates .......................................................................................................................................... 735

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© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

CHAPTER 6 THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE Joe Uziel1 and Itzhaq Shai2 1 Israel Antiquities Authority and 2Ariel University 6.1 INTRODUCTION The present discussion of the pottery assemblage of the Rishon le-Zion tombs is based on 881 vessels that were catalogued and analyzed by the authors. About 2,330 baskets of pottery vessels (excluding sherds) were recorded during the excavation (see Chapter 16.8.8, in this volume). However, many vessels crumbled and could not be retrieved from the tombs (a similar phenomenon of disintegration of vessels due deposition conditions was noted at Ashkelon, Gershuny 2002:185). Some deteriorating vessels were drawn in situ during the excavation, but we chose to study vessels that could be seen. Pottery assemblages of other tombs were not restored, or only partially restored. This analysis is based on the sample of 881 vessels since we could not be certain of the typological designations of the vessels registered in the field notes (which usually defined only general categories, such as “jar” or “juglet”, not specific types). The plates that follow the text are arranged by tombs (enabling presentation of the variety of types for each tomb), while the discussion is ordered by types. Photos (marked as “figures”) are placed after the plates and arranged by types (they show scales of 2 cm, unless otherwise noted). While it was not possible to completely restore the entire assemblage from all of the tombs, a sample that was considered representative, both typologically and chronologically, was restored in 2009–2010 from Areas A and F, in addition to earlier restoration conducted on other tombs (tombs restored fully include F2, F4, B22, B32, B40, B56, B57, B85, B97, B116, B133, B148, B162, B165, and B218). In addition, 19 selected vessels were drawn from other tombs (A1, A5, A7, A9, A13, B112, B179, B189, B199, F3, F5, F7, and F12). We have also included complete or restored vessels from other tombs (especially from Area A), which were partially or fully restored earlier. The 881 vessels provide a sufficient sample of the burial customs involving ceramic vessels practiced at the Rishon le-Zion cemetery. It is important to note that only complete or almost complete vessels were included in this sample, sufficient for painting a clear picture of the tomb assemblages. Sherd counting was not undertaken, as the use of such statistics can be quite problematic (for the use of sherd counts as opposed to using complete vessels when a large repertoire is present see Shai and Maeir 2012). The pottery indicates that the cemetery was in use from the Middle Bronze Age IIA until the final stages of the Middle Bronze Age IIB–C (Table 6.1). The assemblage was analyzed in its entirety, in order to create a complete typology. Each type was then assigned chronologically, to help date the various areas/tombs. Quantitative analysis of the entire assemblage was undertaken, as well as of specific tombs.

6.2 TYPOLOGY The typology presented here was developed from a very large sample of 881 complete or almost complete vessels, which were counted and assigned typologically. Sherds were not counted unless it was certain that they belonged to a single vessel, and that the profile of the vessel could be formed and assigned to one of the types defined here. Types were divided according to basic functional form (e.g., bowl, storage jar, juglet). These forms were further divided according to body shape (e.g., open bowl, carinated bowl). These types were further defined by rim morphology or special features (such as handles). Special types, such as imported Cypriot pottery and Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware are discussed separately. The division of types is as follows: bowls (BL)––425 items (48%); dipper jugs and juglets (DP)––149 items (17%); jugs (J)––43 items (5%); juglets (JL)––133 items (15%); lamps (L)––three items (0.3%); storage jars (SJ)––9%; (82 items); Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware (abbreviated in tables as TEY)––23 items (3%); Other vessels––3%. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Table 6.1 Chronological Distribution of Types Type

Appearance in Pottery Plates

BL 1.1

6.1:1; 6.3:1–2; 6.4:1–2; 6.6:1–6; 6.8:1–5; 6.9:1; 6.14:1; 6.15:1; 6.16:1; 6.21:1; 6.22:4; 6.23:1; 6.24:1–2; 6.27:1–3; 6.29:1–15; 6.30:1 6.12:1; 6.23:2; 6.27:5; 6.30:2–4 6.8:6; 6.10:1; 6.11:1; 6.12:2; 6.20:1; 6.21:6; 6.27:4; 6.30:5–8 6.5:6; 6.8:7; 6.12:3; 6.21:7; 6.30:9 6.5:7; 6.11:2; 6.21:8; 6.30:10; 6.31:1 6.5:1–2; 6.8:8; 6.10:2; 6.11:3; 6.12:4; 6.14:2; 6.20:2; 6.23:3; 6.31:2–6 6.6:7, 6.8:9; 6.11:4; 6.14:2; 6.16:2–5; 6.32:1 6.23:4; 6.27:6; 6.32:2 6.17:1 6.3:3–4; 6.15:7 6.6:8; 6.21:9; 6.24:3 6.12:5–6; 6.25:1; 6.32:3 6.1:2; 6.6:10–12; 6.8:9; 6.10:3; 6.12:7; 6.15:3–4; 6.19:1; 6.20:4; 6.21:2; 6.22:5; 6.25:2; 6.27:8–10; 6.32:4–9 6.4:3; 6.9:2; 6.27:11–12 6.6:13; 6.8:10 6.3:5–7; 6.4:4; 6.5:3–4; 6.8:11; 6.9:3–6; 6.10:4; 6.11:5–6; 6.12:8; 6.19:2; 6.24:4–5; 6.25:3; 6.32:10–11, 13 6.3:8; 6.4:5; 6.5:8; 6.6:14–15; 6.20:4; 6.32:12 6.14:3 6.3:10; 6.6:16 6.1:3; 6.15:8; 6.17:4–5; 6.22:1 6.1:4; 6.14:2; 6.32:14–15 6.1:5; 6.3:11; 6.5:9; 6.7:1; 6.12:9; 6.20:5; 6.22:6; 6.24:6 6.4:6; 6.7:2–3; 6.14:4; 6.15:5; 6.19:3; 6.27:13–14 6.3:12; 6.7:4; 6.33:1 6.1:6–7; 6.3:13; 6.5:10; 6.19:46; 6.23:5; 6.24:7; 6.33:2–5 6.33:6 6.19:5 6.25:4 6.5:11; 6.9:9–10; 6.11:8; 6.17:11; 6.28:3–5; 6.34:9–10 6.2:4–7; 6.3:14–17; 6.5:5, 12; 6.7:6–8; 6.9:11–14; 6.10:5–8; 6.13:4–8; 6.14:7–8; 6.15:6; 6.19:6; 6.20:7–8; 6.21:11; 6.22:3; 6.23:8–10; 6.24:9–11; 6.25:7–12; 6.28:6–7; 6.34:4–8; 11–15 6.20:6; 6.22:2; 6.23:6 6.2:2; 6.13:1; 6.17:6; 6.25:5; 6.34:1 6.17:7–8; 6.21:3; 6.24:8 6.13:2; 6.23:7; 6.25:6; 6.28:1; 6.34:2 6.28:2 6.17:9 6.2:1; 6.7:5; 6.11:7 6.17:10 6.17:12; 6.20:9; 6.26:3; 6.28:8; 6.35:1 6.8:13; 6.17:13–14 6.3:18–19; 6.4:9; 6.7:9–12; 6.8:14–16; 6.9:15–19; 6.13:9; 6.14:9; 6.21:12; 6.23:11; 6.26:4; 6.35:2–13 6.5:13; 6.11:9–10; 6.20:10; 6.22:7; 6.35:14–15 6.21:13 6.4:8; 6.7:13; 6.8:17; 6.35:16 6.26:2 6.21:4

BL 1.2 BL 1.3 BL 1.4 BL 1.5 BL 1.6 BL 1.7 BL 1.8 BL 1.9 BL 2.1 BL 2.2 BL 3 BL 4 BL 5.1 BL 5.2 BL 5.3 BL 5.4 BL 5.5 L SJ 1 SJ 2 SJ 3 SJ 4.1 SJ 4.2 SJ 5.1 SJ 5.2 SJ 5.3 SJ 6 DP 1 DP 2 J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 J7 J8 JL 1 JL 2 JL 3.1 JL 3.2 JL 3.3 JL 3.4 JL 4.1 JL 4.2

MB IIA +

Trans. IIA–B +

MB IIB +

MB IIC +

+ + + + +

+ + + + +

+ + +

+ + +

+

+

+ + + + + + +

+ + + + +

+ + +

+ + +

+

+

+

+ + +

+ + +

+ +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

+ + + + +

+ + + + +

+

+

+ + + + + + + + + +

+ + + + + +

+ +

+ +

+ +

+

+

+ + + +

+ + + + + + + +

+ + + + +

+ + + + +

© 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

+ +

+

+

+

+ +

CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

389

Table 6.1 Chronological Distribution of Types (Continued) Type

Appearance in Pottery Plates

JL 4.3 JL 5 JL 6 JL 7 JL 8

6.5:14; 6.7:14 6.9:20–21 6.2:8; 6.10:9; 6.26:1 6.8:18; 6.9:22; 6.11:11; 6.26:5–6 6.7:15; 6.8:19; 6.26:7; 6.34:3

MB IIA + + + + +

Trans. IIA–B + + + + +

MB IIB +

MB IIC +

+

6.2.1 Bowls Bowls comprise 48% of the entire sample of 881 vessels. They were divided into five major types according to form and function (see below): open bowls, rounded bowls, globular bowls, closed carinated bowls, and open carinated bowls (BL1–5). These types were then further divided according to slight changes in morphology (e.g., rim type, BL1.1, etc.). Of the 425 bowls included in the analysis, open bowls were the most common (272 items), making up 64% of all bowls. BL1––OPEN BOWLS This category includes 272 bowls with straight-sided walls and a wide opening. The bowls vary greatly in size, reaching very large proportions, particularly in the MB II–III. The vessels continue into the Late Bronze Age with only slight changes. While chronologically the open bowl is not the most telling of vessels, its importance is felt in the quantity of such items found in the tombs––the most common of all vessels. It is likely that the open bowl’s popularity in the tomb was a result vessel’s function as a food dish, whether used during a ceremony or containing food for the deceased (see discussion below). BL1.1 (n=126)––simple rim (e.g., Pls. 6.1:1, 6.3:12). Open bowls with simple rims are quite common in the Middle Bronze Age and Late Bronze Age. The vessel form is common throughout the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze, with no change in form (e.g., Aphek––Beck 2000: Fig. 10.20:8; Lachish– –Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.4:2–6; Gezer––Dever et al. 1974: Plate 14:14). Several of these bowls were decorated with a red cross on the interior (Pl. 6.30:1), or a red band around the rim (Pl. 6.29:11). The red-cross decoration is typical of the MB IIA–IIB transition (Ilan and Marcus forthcoming), however it does appear in later stages of the Middle Bronze Age as well (e.g., Baker 2006:11). It has been suggested that this decorative pattern may be of Anatolian origin (Gerstenblith 1983:68–69). BL1.2 (n=11)––everted rim (e.g., Pls. 6.12:1; 6.23:2).While open bowls with an everted rim begin to appear in the MB IIA, the type found at Rishon le-Zion is of a later form, found in the MB IIB– IIC contexts (e.g., Lachish––Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.33:1; Gezer––Panitz-Cohen and Maeir 2004: Plate 1:15; Tell el-Dab‘a Str. F–E3––Aston 2004: Pl. 70:228). BL1.3 (n=32)––thickened rim (e.g., Pl. 6.8:6). Open bowls with a thickened rim begin to appear in the MB II and continue throughout the Late Bronze Age, once again with no significant changes in form (e.g., Lachish––Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.28:1; Gezer––Dever et al. 1974: Plate 17:20). BL1.4 (n=32)––inverted rim (e.g., Pls. 6.8:7; 6.12:3). The inverted rim on open bowls is a common feature in the Middle Bronze Age for open bowls (e.g., Lachish––Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.4:7–9; Shechem––Cole 1984: Plate 2:i–j; Gezer––Dever et al. 1974: Plate 17:21; Yavne-Yam––Uziel 2008: Fig. 17:11; Tell el-Dab‘a––Aston 2004: Pl. 70:230). BL1.5 (n=4)––open bowl with folded-out rim (e.g., Pls. 6.5:7, 6.12:2). This type is typical of the MB IIA in all its phases, although it seems to become less common in the final stages of the period (Ilan and Marcus forthcoming). Similar bowls were found at Aphek (Beck 2000: Fig. 10.18:3), where they were dated to the pre-palace and palace phases. They were also found at Lachish, Level P3 (Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.28:1). BL1.6 (n=30)––open bowl with loop handles (e.g., Pl. 6.5:1–2). This type has two strap handles connected from the rim to the wall of the vessel. It is typical in Middle Bronze Age assemblages (e.g., Aphek– –Beck 2000: Fig. 10.16:10; Lachish––Singer-Avitz 2004b: Fig. 17.8:6; Ashkelon––Baker 2006: Fig. 12). Several of these bowls were also decorated with a red cross on the interior (e.g., Pl. 6.31:5– 6), or a red band around the rim (e.g., Pl. 6.10:2). BL1.7 (n=25)––open bowl with knob handles (e.g., Pl. 6.16:2–5). These bowls are found in MBIIA contexts, such as at Aphek (Beck 2000: Fig. 10.4:1), Tel Kabri Tomb 503 (Kempinski, Gershuny

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and Scheftelowitz 2002: Fig. 5.21:5), and Gesher (Garfinkel and Cohen 2007: Fig. 3.59:1). The knobs seem to be mostly replaced by the loop handles (BL1.6) in the MB IIB (Ilan and Marcus forthcoming). BL1.8 (n=10)––open bowl with bar handle (e.g., Pls. 6.27:6, 6.32:2). As is the case with knob handles, the addition of bar handles is more typical of the MB IIA, replaced later in the Middle Bronze Age IIB by the loop handle. Similar vessels were found at Aphek (e.g., Beck 2000: Fig. 10.1:3) and Tel Kabri (Kempinski, Gershuny and Scheftelowitz 2002: Fig. 5.31:16). BL1.9 (n=2)––open bowl with tripod base. One such vessel is shown in the plates (Pl. 6.17:1). Tripod bases are well-known throughout the Middle Bronze Age (Maeir 1997: 139; Bonfil forthcoming; Ilan and Marcus forthcoming), found on a variety of vessels, such as bowls (e.g., Beth Shean–– Maeir 2008: Pl. 2:22; Ara cemetery––Gadot, Ilan and Uziel 2014), goblets (e.g., Beth Shean–– Maeir 2008: Pl. 23:17–18), and kraters (Megiddo Tomb 5234––Loud 1948: Pl. 34:5). BL2––ROUNDED BOWLS (N=10) Rounded bowls include vessels with curved walls, slightly deeper than the open bowl. The chronological value of these vessels is minimal, as they mostly continue into the Late Bronze Age. The rounded bowls are much less common than the open or carinated bowls. Rim morphology varies very slightly, with no chronological or functional significance. The vessels were divided according to shallow rounded bowls (BL2.1, e.g., Pl. 6.3:3–4) and deep rounded bowls (BL2.2, e.g., Pl. 6.21:9). One example of the latter has knob handles (Pl. 6.24:3), with parallels found at Aphek (Beck 2000: Fig. 10.14:4) and Megiddo, Str. XIII (Loud 1948: Pl. 22:6). Rounded bowls in general can be found at many sites in the region (e.g., Lachish– –Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.9:5–6; Aphek––Beck 2000: Fig. 10.4:8–9; Yavne-Yam––Uziel 2008: Figure 18; Tel Nagila––Uziel 2008: Fig. 53:7–9; Tel Batash––Panitz-Cohen 2006: Pl. 38:3). BL3––GLOBULAR BOWLS (N=7) The globular bowl (e.g., Pls. 6.12:5; 6.25:1) is very similar to the closed carinated bowl, yet the body is much less angular. Some examples have gutter rims. The globular bowl, particularly with a gutter rim, is more typical of MB IIA assemblages (e.g., Aphek––Beck 2000: Fig. 10.10:3). BL4––CLOSED CARINATED BOWLS (N=69) These bowls (e.g., Pls. 6.1:2; 6.6:10–12), which begin in the MB IIA, are more common in MB IIB–IIC assemblages. Some of the examples from the tombs have gutter rims (e.g., Pl. 6.15:4), typical of earlier assemblages (Ilan and Marcus forthcoming). This type has been found at nearby sites (Tel Batash–– Panitz-Cohen 2006: Pl. 6:20; Aphek––Beck 2000: Fig. 10.12:4; Gezer––Dever et al. 1974: Plate 14:12; Tell el-Dab‘a––Aston 2004: Pl. 93: 284–286). BL5––CARINATED BOWLS (N=65) Carinated bowls, a hallmark of the Middle Bronze Age, are very common in the tombs. The carinated bowls at the site include all the variations typical of the MB IIB–IIC. BL5.1 (n=8)––open bowls with pronounced carination, simple rim (e.g., Pl. 6.27:11–12). As mentioned above, this is a classic MB IIB–IIC form. The simple rim on this type of bowl is found at many sites in the region (e.g., Lachish––Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.11:6; Gezer––Panitz-Cohen and Maeir 2004: Plate 3:1; Shechem––Cole 1984: Plate 18:f; Tel Nagila––Uziel 2008: Fig. 54:1). BL5.2 (n=3)––open bowls with vestigial carination, simple rim (e.g., Pl. 6.6:13). These bowls are more typical of late Middle Bronze Age assemblages (e.g., Lachish––Singer-Avitz 2004c: Fig. 18.6:2; Yavne-Yam––Uziel 2008: Fig. 19:7–10; Tell el-Dab‘a––Aston 2004: Pl. 208: 812–13), when the carination loses its distinct form. BL5.3 (n=50)––open bowls with straight wall above carination and everted rim (e.g., Pls. 6.24:4–5, 6.32:10–11). These bowls are typical of the terminal stages of the Middle Bronze Age and the very early stages of the Late Bronze Age (e.g., Gezer––Panitz-Cohen and Maeir 2004: Pl. 3:5; Lachish– –Singer-Avitz 2004c: Fig. 18.6:3; Tel Nagila––Uziel 2008: Fig. 54:5). BL5.4 (n=3)––S-shaped rim (e.g., Pl. 6.20:4). This type of bowl is a derivative of the carinated bowl. Whereas the carination of the former types was located on the lower part of the bowl, here it is located below the rim. Furthermore, the carination on s-shaped bowls is less sharp and more rounded. Examples are known from Lachish (Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.33:2) and Ashkelon (Phase I, Baker 2006: Fig. 6–7). BL5.5 (n=1, Pl. 6.14:3)––bowl (or goblet) with trumpet base, sharp carination, and a very fine, thin, cream-colored ware, typically termed eggshell ware. Both the form and ware date to the late MB © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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IIB. Similar vessels are more common in the north (e.g., Megiddo Tomb 3048––Loud 1948, Pl. 44:27; Kenyon 1969, Fig. 14:10; Shechem––Cole 1984, Fig. 13; Beth-Shean Tomb 303––Oren 1973, Fig. 25:6; Beth Shean Stratum R4––Maeir 2007:Pl. 3:12). 6.2.2 Lamps Only three lamps were found within the sample of 881 vessels at Rishon le-Zion (Pls. 6.3:10; 6.6:16; Fig. 6.15). All had a softly pinched nozzle. This type is typical of the Middle Bronze Age (e.g., Lachish–– Singer-Avitz 2004b: Fig. 17.12:9; Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.22:11–12; Gezer––Panitz-Cohen and Maeir 2004: Plate 4:1; Tel Nagila––Uziel 2008: Fig. 56:1), and represents the first stage in the development of the pinched lamps that were to become so common in the Bronze and Iron Ages (Amiran 1969:230). 6.2.3 Storage Jars Eighty-two complete or almost complete storage jars were counted. This makes up 9% of the total sample. However, considering their size, it is likely that jars made up a larger portion of the assemblage and are under-represented in comparison with smaller vessels (indeed, when vessels registered in the field notes are counted, jars and pithoi make up c. 21% of the assemblage). This situation is most likely accentuated by the poor preservation at the site, making restoration of such large vessels nearly impossible. That said, this is still a large percentage of the assemblage. For example, at Ashkelon (located in a similar environment), jars make up only 5% of the entire assemblage (Baker 2006: Fig. 2); and at Tel Nagila Tomb DT2 only 6% (Tsafrir and Uziel, forthcoming). Six types of storage jars were defined, based on rim morphology, the absence/presence of handles and their size. SJ1––OVOID STORAGE JAR WITH NO HANDLES (N=6) The handless storage jar (e.g., Pl. 6.17:4–5) is more common in the early stages of the Middle Bronze Age (e.g., Aphek––Beck 2000: Fig. 10.8:8; Tell el-Dab‘a––Aston 2004: Pl. 103:332), although it does continue to appear. It is most common in the MB IIA, and disappears early on in the MB IIB. SJ2––OVOID STORAGE JAR WITH TWO HANDLES AND A LONG NECK (N=7) These vessels have two handles at the middle of the jar’s body (e.g., Pl. 6.32:14–15). This is common throughout the Middle Bronze Age (e.g., Aphek––Beck 2000: Fig. 10.14:5; Lachish––Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.10:1; Yavne-Yam––Uziel 2008: Figure 23:1). SJ3––OVOID STORAGE JAR WITH TWO HANDLES AND A SHORT NECK (N=16) Such jars (e.g., Pl. 6.24:6) are found throughout the region and are typical of the MB IIB. Parallels can be found at Tel Batash Str. XII and XI (Panitz Cohen 2006:76, Fig. 5) and Lachish Level P4 (Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16–17:5). SJ4––PIRIFORM STORAGE JAR (N=29) The piriform storage jar is common in both Middle Bronze and Late Bronze assemblages. These jars however develop a sharper carination and a narrower base in the Late Bronze. Two variants of this type were defined. The first has an everted rim (SJ4.1, e.g., Pl. 6.7:2–3) while the second has a gutter rim (SJ4.2, e.g., Pl. 6.7:4). These Jars are very common in the MB IIB, with parallels from Lachish (SingerAvitz 2004: Fig. 16.14), Tel Batash (Panitz-Cohen 2006: Pl. 12:2), Tel Nagila (Uziel 2008: Fig. 60:3), and Tell el-Dab‘a (Aston 2004: Pl. 174:639). SJ5––PITHOS (N=20) These very large vessels are common in the Middle Bronze Age, as opposed to the subsequent period, where Pithoi become less common (e.g., Panitz-Cohen 2006:88). These vessels appear from the early MB IIA, however, become more common and larger in size in the MB IIB (Bonfil, forthcoming). Rim forms are similar to those of storage jars: profiled rim with triangular section (SJ5.1, e.g., Pl. 6.33:2–5); simple rim (SJ5.2, e.g., Pl. 6.33:6); and everted rim (SJ5.3, e.g., Pl. 6.19:5). All of the examples found here lack decorative elements, sometimes found on such vessels (e.g., rope decoration). Parallels can be found at Lachish Level P4 (Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.14), Tel Batash Stratum X (Panitz-Cohen 2006: 88, Fig. 6), Tel Dan (Ilan 1996: Figs. 4.94:1; 4.97:6), and Beth Shean (Maeir 2010: Fig. 35:9).

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SJ6––ONE-HANDLED JAR (N=2) This type of jar (e.g., Pl. 6.25:4) has a shoulder to shoulder handle and is typical of the Middle Bronze Age (e.g., Lachish––Singer-Avitz 2004b: Fig. 17.12:7; Megiddo––Loud 1948: Pl. 17:25; Yavne-Yam–– Uziel 2008: Figure 24:8). This type is sometimes also referred to as a jug (e.g., Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 17.12:7; Uziel 2008:146). The definition here follows that used in Beth Shean (Maeir 2008:265) and Tel Dan (Ilan 1996: Fig. 4.91:3). 6.2.4 Dipper Jugs and Juglets Dipper jugs (DP1) and juglets (DP2) are very common in the Rishon le-Zion cemetery, with 149 examples, or 17% of the entire sample. Such vessels––although more particularly the juglet––are commonly found as grave gifts, many times near storage jars (e.g., Ilan and Marcus forthcoming). While there are similarities in the shape of the vessel from the Middle Bronze Age through to the Late Bronze Age, a few distinctive characteristics can be pointed out. The earlier versions of these vessels are often red-slipped and burnished (e.g., Pls. 6.2:4–5; 6.20:7–8; 6.23:9–10). The jug form (DP1, e.g., Pl. 6.28:3– 5) is typical of the MB IIB and does not continue into the Late Bronze Age. The juglet form is more common and usually appears here with a long neck, thin body and shoulder to rim handle, typical of the MB IIB (e.g., Pl. 6.34:6–15; for a detailed discussion of the development of Middle Bronze Age dipper juglets, see Kopetsky 2002). Similar vessels are found at Tell el-Dab‘a Str. E/2–E/3 (Kopetzky 2002:231–4), Lachish (Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.32:5), Ashdod (Dothan and Porath 1993: Fig. 1:21), Shechem (Cole 1984: Plate 27:c), Gezer (Dever et al. 1974: Plate 14:31; Panitz-Cohen and Maeir 2004: Plates 5:3; 12:5), Yavne-Yam (Uziel 2008: Fig. 24:1), and Tel Nagila (Uziel 2008: Fig. 61:1). 6.2.5 Jugs Forty-three local jugs were catalogued, consisting of 5% of the entire sample. The Middle Bronze Age is witness to a wide variety in jug form. The number of jugs is not surprising, as these vessels are often found in Middle Bronze Age tombs. It is likely that jugs were even more popular in the tombs, although as jars, due to their size and the difficult conditions of the tombs, they are less represented (if we count vessels from filed notes, jugs formed 7.3% of the entire assemblage). Eight types of jugs were defined. J1––PIRIFORM JUG WITH A HANDLE EXTENDING FROM THE SHOULDER TO THE RIM (N=9) This is the most common jug in the assemblage (e.g., Pl. 6.23:6). It is a typical Middle Bronze Age vessel (e.g., Lachish––Singer-Avitz 2004b: Fig. 17.12:7; Megiddo––Loud 1948: Plate 17:25; Yavne-Yam–– Uziel 2008: Fig. 24:8). J2––GLOBULAR JUG (N=6) The globular jug (e.g., Pl. 6.25:5) is also a common Middle Bronze Age form, usually with a shoulder to shoulder handle, although some have a shoulder to rim handle (J2.1, e.g., Pl. 6.2:2). This type is known from both MB IIA and MB IIB contexts (e.g., Lachish––Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.27:1; Bonfil forthcoming: Fig. 8.19:4; Tel Nagila––Uziel 2008: Fig. 62:3). J3––BOTTLE (N=3) These vessels (e.g., Pl. 6.24:8) have a globular body, long neck and no handles. The latter feature (or lack thereof) has led some scholars to exclude them from the category of jugs, as jugs must have a handle. That said, functionally and size wise, bottles are similar to jugs, and used for pouring liquids too. The form is typical of MB IIA tomb assemblages, continuing Intermediate Bronze Age forms and possibly being of Syrian stylistic influence (Ilan and Marcus, forthcoming). Bottles were found at Efrata (Gonen 2001: Fig. 24:13), although more elongated there. J4––BICONICAL JUG (N=5) This type of jug (e.g., Pl. 6.25:6) is characterized by its body shape, seemingly of two cones placed on one another. The handle varies, with some of the examples having a shoulder-to-shoulder handle, while others have a shoulder to rim handle. Two of the examples are red-slipped. The form is known in Middle Bronze Age assemblages (e.g., Aphek––Beck 2000: Fig. 10.14:8; Lachish––Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 6.27:2; Tel Nagila–– Uziel 2008: Fig. 62:5). J5––BAG-SHAPED JUG (N=5) This jug (e.g., Pl. 6.28:2) has a wide lower body, and thins out towards the top. Similar vessels have been © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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found in other Middle Bronze Age assemblages (e.g., Lachish––Singer-Avitz 2004b: Fig. 17.8:7, 8; Tell el-‘Ajjul––Tufnell 1962: Fig. 11:32; Tel Nagila––Uziel 2008: Fig. 62:6). J6––JUG WITH ANATOLIAN CUT-RIM (N=1) One example of this type of jug was found at Rishon le-Zion (Pl. 6.17:9). The type is characterized by the cut-away rim, although it also has a very long neck and sharp carination at the shoulder. These vessels are more common in the later stages of the MB IIA and earlier phases of MB IIB and are found in other tombs and strata in Israel (e.g., Megiddo Tomb 5252––Gerstenblith 1983: Fig. 15:13, cf. p. 28 and Fig. 33; Aphek––Beck 2000: Fig. 10.16:17; Tel Kabri––Kempinski, Gershuny and Scheftelowitz 2002: Fig. 5.21:13, 15). J7––SQUAT JUG WITH TREFOIL MOUTH (N=3) The trefoil mouth that appears on this jug (e.g., Pl. 6.11:7) is a common Middle Bronze feature, as is the ring base. Some of the examples are red-slipped. Similar jugs were found at nearby sites (e.g., Lachish–– Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.29:2; Tel Nagila––Uziel 2008: Fig. 63:3; Megiddo––Gerstenblith 1983: Fig. 31:7–12). J8––GLOBULAR JUG WITH WIDE MOUTH, SHORT NECK AND LOOP HANDLE (N=1) One such jug was found at Rishon le-Zion (Pl. 6.17:10). It is defined as a jug due to the single loop handle, which extends from the shoulder to the rim. Exact parallels for this vessel were not found, however, this form seems to fall somewhere between closed globular bowls and a jug. 6.2.6 Juglets Juglets comprise 15% (n=133) of the entire sample. Like jugs, juglets were also common in Middle Bronze Age tombs. A large variety of types were defined in the assemblage, chronologically belonging to both the MB IIA and MB IIB. Nine types of juglets were defined. JL1––BICONICAL JUGLET (N=10) This type of juglet (e.g., Pl. 6.28:8) is defined by its sharp carination at the center of the body, which is topped by a long neck. In some cases it was red-slipped and had a bi-strand handle (for example Pl. 6.20:9). This form is common in the late MB IIA (Aphek––Figs. 10.14:8; 10.29:2; Tel Dan––Ilan 1996:225, Figs. 4.95:14, 4.100:8; Gezer––Maeir 2004: Pl. 6:15). JL2––CYLINDRICAL JUGLET (N=14) This type of juglet (e.g., Pl. 6.8:13) appears almost exclusively in the Middle Bronze Age (e.g., Lachish– –Singer-Avitz 2004: Fig. 16.22:10; Shechem––Cole 1984: Plate 28u; Yavne-Yam––Uziel 2008: Fig. 24:4; Tel Nagila––Uziel 2008: Fig. 61:2; Tell el-Dab‘a–– Aston 2004: Pl. 145:573). Some of the examples have a two-strand handle, a typical feature on Middle Bronze Age juglets. While the cylindrical juglet is more common in MB IIB assemblages, certain features indicate that some of them date to the MB IIA: red-slip, small size (e.g., Beck 2000:181), and the candlestick rim of one item (JL2.1, Pl. 6.17:14). JL3––PIRIFORM JUGLET (N=81) This type is the most common juglet in the assemblage, and it is a typical Middle Bronze Age form, which also appears almost exclusively in the Middle Bronze Age (e.g., Lachish ––Singer-Avitz 2004b: Fig. 17.8:10; Shechem––Cole 1984: Plate 28:h–k; Yavne-Yam––Fig. 24:3; Tel Nagila––Uziel 2008: Fig. 61:3–4). Five subtypes were defined (the first two based on the body shape, the last three according to rim form): JL3.1––piriform with wide shoulder (e.g., Pl. 6.3:18–19); JL3.2––elongated piriform (e.g., Pl. 6.5:13); JL3.3––candlestick rim (collarette juglet, e.g., Pl. 6.21:13): the collarette rim is considered a hallmark of the MB IIA (e.g., Beck 2000:209–210). Similar juglets have been found at Aphek (Beck 2000: Fig. 10.6:2) and Tell el-Dab‘a (Aston 2004: Pl. 111:361–2); JL3.4––stepped rim (e.g., Pl. 6.8:17): it has been suggested that the stepped-rim juglet is the successor of the collarette juglet (e.g., Epstein 1974:2*). The juglets were found in the post-palace phase at Aphek (Beck 2000: Fig. 10.21:10) and Tell el-Dab‘a (Aston 2004: Pl. 114:374). This type of rim is very indicative of the later stages of the MB IIA and early stages of the MB IIB (Ilan 1991; Maeir 1997b; Beck 2000:215); and JL3.5––gutter rim. JL4––GLOBULAR JUGLET (N=4) This juglet has a very round body and a shoulder to neck or shoulder to rim handle. It is found in Middle Bronze Age assemblages (e.g., Gezer––Dever et al. 1974: Pl. 18:25; Tel Nagila––Uziel 2008: Fig. 61:5). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Three subtypes were defined: JL4.1––Wide Necked Juglet (e.g., Pl. 6.26:2); JL4.2––Thin-necked with simple rim (e.g., Pl. 6.21:4); and JL4.3––Thin-necked with an out-turned rim (e.g., Pl. 6.7:14). JL5––SQUAT JUGLET (N=2) Only two examples were found in Rishon le-Zion (Pl. 6.9:20–21), both in Tomb A8. It is very similar to biconical juglets (JL1), yet smaller, has a button base and the carination is not as sharp. Comparisons appear in other MB II assemblages (e.g., Tel Kabri––Kempinski, Gershuny and Scheftelowitz 2002: Fig. 5.29:16; Dan––Ilan 1996: Fig. 4.95:9; Megiddo––Loud 1948: Pl. 17:3). JL6––DROP-SHAPED JUGLET (N=3) Two such juglets (e.g., Pl. 6.2:8) were found at Rishon le-Zion, both missing the upper part. They are small, with a wide, rounded shoulder and pointy base. Both are black-burnished. Similar vessels were found in MB IIA Aphek (Beck 2000: Fig. 8.13:4, but unslipped). JL7––LEVANTINE PAINTED WARE (N=5) Only five juglets decorated in this style were found at the Rishon le-Zion cemetery, three in Area A (Pls. 6.8:18; 6.9:22; 6.1:11) and two in Area F (Pl. 6.26:5–6). These vessels are a chronological marker of the MB IIA (Tubb 1983; Bagh 2002; 2003), later replaced by other decorative styles, such as Red, White, and Blue Ware (Maeir 2002; Ilan and Marcus forthcoming). The juglets are decorated with various red and black geometrical motifs. The example from Tomb A7 (Pl. 6.8:18) is decorated with spirals delineated with horizontal bands on the shoulder and near the base of the vessel. Similarly decorated juglets were found at Tell Ifshar (Paley and Porath 1997: Fig. 13.5:2) and Megadim (Bagh 2003: Fig. 5:e). The examples from Tombs A8 (Pl. 6.9:22) and A10 (Pl. 6.11:11) are decorated with wavy lines delineated by horizontal bands over the entire vessel. The two examples from Area F (Pl. 6.26:5–6) are decorated by a series of horizontal bands and seem to be late in the sequence. JL8––BAG-SHAPED JUGLET (N=3) This juglet (e.g., Pl. 6.8:19) has a handle from shoulder to rim and a bag- (or sack-) shaped body, with its widest point in the lower body of the vessel. These vessels are known from the MB IIA onward (e.g., Lachish––Figs. 16.11:7; 17.8:8). A subtype of this juglet has a basket handle (Fig. 6.33:19), with a close parallel at Aphek (Beck 2000: Fig. 10.14:10). 6.2.7 Cypriot Imported Pottery Twenty-eight complete or almost complete Cypriot imported vessels were included in the sample. Cypriot imported pottery is well-known in the Middle Bronze Age, becoming more common over time, reaching a peak in the Late Bronze Age. The imports are limited to jugs (12) and juglets (16), with only one example of a bowl (Pl. 6.27:7). Two distinct families of Cypriot pottery were found––White-Painted and Red-on-Black, the latter being much rarer at Rishon le-Zion, with only two juglets and one bowl.1 White-Painted jugs and juglets include WPII–VI Cross-Line and Pendant-Line style (Table 6.3). This type of pottery has been well documented at many sites (Johnson 1982, with references), including recently at Tell ed-Dab‘a, where it is most common in Str. E and D. Traditionally this pottery was dated to the MB IIB, but recent studies have shown that it also appears in earlier assemblages, such as the Megadim tombs (Wolff and Bergoffen 2012). While early studies suggested chronological differences in the different styles (Astrom 1972), recent studies call these into question (e.g., Maguire 2009). 6.2.8 Surface Treatment A significant number of the vessels from Rishon le-Zion had some sort of surface treatment. Other than the unique wares discussed above (Tell el-Yahudiyeh, Levantine Painted Ware, imported wares), surface treatment usually consisted of slip, burnish or painted bands, either along the rim, or in the form of a cross on the interior of bowls. 238 vessels (27% of the sample) displayed at least one of these elements. The most common feature is red slip, which is quite typical of the MB IIA, becoming less common in the MB IIB. A total of 166 vessels––bowls, jugs and juglets––were red-slipped, 66 of which were also burnished. An additional 22 vessels were only burnished. 1

We would like to thank Matthew Spigelman for help with identifying the Red–on-Black Ware juglets and references to parallels. The two juglets were sampled for INAA by Spigelman (forthcoming) as part of a study on the appearance of this ware in the Southern Levant. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Table 6.2 Illustrated Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware # 1

2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15

16

Basket Locus Plate B9149 1062 6.19:7 B3050 L228 6.18:5 B2079 L219 6.13:10 B9769 L1089 6.17:15 B2898 L251 6.7:16 B1179 L115 6.4:11 B1158 L115 6.4:12 B7956 L767 6.35:17 B2175 L213 6.9:23 B2925 A L209 6.10:10 B2925B L209 6.10:11 B2925B L209 6.10:12 B3050 L228 6.14:10 B158 L22 6.21:10 B180 L29 6.22:8 B279 L24 6.24:13

Description Bi-strand handle, alternating triangles with pierced holes filling every other triangle. Upper triangles standing, lower hanging. Empty band separates the two sets. Duck-shaped vessel with no facial features, body shaped like a duck/swan. Dark gray burnish. Strap handle, pointed base, two horizontal panels decorated with diagonal lines. Same as no. 1 Strap handle, disc base. Two horizontal bands of punctured decoration on shoulder. Upper with diagonal lines, lower with herringbone design. Only body. Vertical alternating triangles, with undecorated and herringbone incised decoration. Vertical gores with alternating undecorated and punctured design. Form similar to a flask, but with a single handle. Same as no. 1. Color Pl. 6.2. Cylindrical juglet with alternating hanging and standing triangles, filled with pierced decoration. Triangles are separated by an undecorated band. Same as no. 1. Only bottom half remains. Alternating triangles with pierced holes filling every other triangle. Lower triangles are hanging. Alternating triangles along shoulder with pierced holes filling every other triangle. Triangles are standing. Squat with button base. Alternating filled and unfilled panels, split between upper half and lower half. Carinated goblet with trumpet base. Two horizontal bands of hanging triangles separated by an undecorated band. Bi-strand handle, disc base. Three horizontal panels separated by undecorated bands (upper standing triangles; middle alternating metopes; lower hanging triangles). Round handle, disc base. Vertical gores decorated with wavy lines, separated by undecorated vertical bands.

Type and parallel according to: Bietak Kaplan CohenWeinberger Pir 1 Pir 1c Pir 1c Fig.33a, Pl. 3.9:2 Levantine 35b -Egyptian Megiddo Fig. 123:b Fig. 113c-d

Date MB IIA–B

Ovoid 5 Pl. 3.3:3

Ovoid 2

IIA

Pir 1 Fig. 33a, 35b Pir 3 Fig. 68b, not exact

Pir 1c Pl. 3.9:2

Pir 1c Early Palest. Pir 3

IIA–B

Pir 2 Fig. 47b

Pir 2 Pl. 3.13:1

Pir 2 Egyptian

IIB

Glo Fig. 16a

Glo

Glo

IIB

Pir 1 Fig. 38a

Bic 1 Pl. 3.16:1

Bic 1

IIB

Cyl 1 Fig. 8b

Cyl 1

Cyl

IIB

Pir 1 Fig. 38a

Bic 1 Pl. 3.16:1

Bic 1 Egyptian

IIB

Pir 1 Fig. 38a

Bic 1 Pl. 3.16:1

Bic 1 Egyptian

IIB

Pir 1 Fig. 38a

Bic 1 Pl. 3.16:1

Bic 1 Egyptian

IIB

Bic 2 Fig. 104c

Bic 5

--

IIB

–

–

–

IB

Pir 1 Fig. 26b

Pir1b Fig. 3.6:2

Pir 1b Levantine -Egyptian

IIB

Pir 2 Fig. 48d, 50d

Pir 2 Pl. 3.13:4

Pir 2 Egyptian

IIB

Pir 3 Pl. 3.14:18

IIA–B

Legend: Bic = biconical; Cyl = cylindrical; Glo = globular; Pir = piriform. All the vessels are juglets except no. 2 (zoomorphic vessel) and no. 14 (goblet). IIA–B means transitional IIA–IIB.

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Table 6.2 Illustrated Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware (Continued) # 17 18 19 20

Basket Locus Plate B7552 721 6.26:8 B7706 L746 6.26:9 B7937 761 6.26:10 B7576 721 6.26:11

Description Vertical gores, with alternating undecorated and punctured. Design. Disc base and strap handle. Same as no. 1. Button base, bi-strand handle, pierced decoration on lower body, with no distinct shape or border. Only shoulder and neck. Two horizontal strips decorated with wavy lines along shoulder.

Type and parallel according to: Bietak Kaplan CohenWeinberger Pir 2 Pir 2 Pir 2 Fig. 47b Pl. 3.12:1, Egypt 4 Pir 1 Bic 1 Bic 1 Fig. 38a Pl. 3.16:1 Egypt

Date MB

Bic 1

Bic 3c Pl. 3.16:16

Bic 4

IIB

Pir 3 Fig. 67a

Pir variants Pl. 3.10:2

Pir 4 Late Palest.

IIB

IIB IIB

Legend: Bic = biconical; Cyl = cylindrical; Glo = globular; Pir = piriform. Vessels 17–20 are all juglets.

Table 6.3 Illustrated Cypriot Pottery #

Type

Tomb

Plate

Basket Locus 2970 L241 3167 L227

1.

Juglet

A1

6.2:10

2.

Jug

A1

6.2:3

3.

Juglet

A1

6.2:9

2968 L241

4.

Jug

A11

6.13:3

5.

Juglet

A3

6.4:10

6.

Juglet

A8

6.9:24

2123 L219 2828 L259 3064 L250

7.

Juglet

B94

6.17:16

6450 L694

8.

Juglet

B97

6.18:2

6525 L697

9.

Jug

B97

6.18:3

6524 L697

10.

Juglet

B97

6.18:4

11.

Jug

C5

6.21:5

12.

Jug

F3

6.26:13

6529 L697 261 L30 7726 L755

13.

Juglet

F4

6.35:18

Style and Parallels WPIV–VI Cross-Line style Johnson 1982: Fig. 3:N8–N10, J6. WP III–IV Pendant-Line style Johnson 1982: Fig. 2:N4; Tell el-Dab‘a Str. E/1, Maguire 2009: Fig. 26:1 WP III–IV Pendant-Line style Johnson 1982: Fig. 1:H14; Tell el-Dab‘a Str. E/1, Maguire 2009: Fig. 26:9 WPIV–VI Cross-Line style Johnson 1982: Fig. 3:J3 WPIV–VI Cross-Line style Johnson 1982: Fig. 3:N8–N10, J6. WP III–IV Pendant-Line style Johnson 1982: Fig. 1:H19, Fig. 2:H17; Tell el-Dab‘a Str. D/3, Maguire 2009: Fig. 26:17 WP III–IV Pendant-Line style Johnson 1982: Fig. 1:H19, Fig. 2:H17; Tell el-Dab‘a D/3, Maguire 2009: Fig. 26:17 WP III–IV Pendant-Line style Johnson 1982: Fig. 1:H19, Fig. 2:H17; Tell el-Dab‘a D/3, Maguire 2009: Fig. 26:17 WP III–IV Pendant-Line style Johnson 1982: Fig. 1:H19, Fig. 2:H17; Tell el-Dab‘a D/3, Maguire 2009: Fig. 26:17 Galinoporni, Astrom 1960: Fig. 3:2; Maguire 2009: 154 WPIV–VI Cross-Line style Johnson 1982: Fig. 3:J3 WP III–IV Pendant-Line style Johnson 1982: Fig. 1:H19, Fig. 2:H17; Tell el-Dab‘a Str. D/3, Maguire 2009: Fig. 26:17 Galinoporni, Astrom 1960: Fig. 3:2; Maguire 2009: 154

8042 L767 14. Bowl F2 6.27:7 7352 Johnson 1982: Fig. 6:C7 L742 Note: Vessels 1–9, 11–12 are Cypriot White-Painted (WP); vessels 10, 13–14 are Cypriot Red-on-black.

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Forty-two of the bowls had a red band along the rim, while 16 were decorated with a red cross in the middle. The red cross is typical of the late MB IIA and MB IIA–IIB transition, while the common appearance of red slip and burnish is more typical of the MB IIA (seen for example in the Palace and Post-Palace phases at Aphek, Beck 2000) than the MB IIB. It has been suggested that this reflects the technology used to form the pots, as once wheel-thrown pottery began to appear, the clay became more elastic, and was undecorated (Franken and London 1995). The use of the fast wheel has been contested, with certain scholars claiming that this method was not used in the MB II, but rather wheel coiling and finishing (Courty and Roux 1995; Roux 2003; Roux and de Miroschedji 2009; but see Duistermaat 2008:375–378 for the suggested use of the “stick wheel”). The recent study of pottery from three sites in the Shephelah––Tel Nagila, Tel es-Safi/Gath and Tel Burna––has shown that while some vessels were certainly wheel-coiled, others were possibly not (Uziel et al. 2009). That said, it is interesting to consider the reasons behind the decline in surface treatment in later Middle Bronze Age stages. While no definitive answer can be offered here, it is clear that this does not reflect the quality of the pottery, as local pots reached very high quality in this period (e.g., Dever 1987:161). All in all, the large percentage of slipped pottery, alongside decorative elements (like the red cross) suggests that the Rishon le-Zion cemetery was in use from the MB IIA onward.

6.3 DATING THE TOMBS The tombs at Rishon le-Zion cover a long time span, beginning in the middle stages of the MB IIA (close to the Palace Phase at Aphek, Beck 2000) and continuing to the terminal stages of the MB II, as indicated by the presence of features such as Eggshell Ware. It appears that the tombs in Area A, B and C predate those in Area F, where burial began start in the MB IIA–IIB transition at the earliest (Table 6.4, below). However, the most expansive use of the cemetery is in the MB IIB, when all burial areas were in use, with most of the tombs showing activity at that time. We must remember that our discussion of the date of tombs is based on the sample of finds that was studied. The assemblages mentioned below refer to this sample, not to other vessels that were retrieved or documented during the excavation. 6.3.1 Area A The Area A tombs display a wide chronological range on a whole, with certain elements clearly indicating an MB IIA presence, yet even the latest stages of the MB IIB are represented. Several tombs seem to have been in use over a long period of time, as they contain both MB IIA and MB IIB elements. TOMB A1 (PLS. 6.1–2) Tomb A1 is quite diverse in its ceramic repertoire (a total of 26 items): five open bowls (19% of the assemblage), three carinated bowls (12%), six dipper juglets (23%), two jugs (8%), five juglets (19%), and five storage jars (19%). In addition, three Cypriot vessels were found. The assemblage contains elements that are more common in the MB IIA, such as slip (on at least 5 vessels) and the handless storage jar (SJ1); yet at the same time displays MB IIB vessels, such as the pithos (SJ5) and the large open bowl (BL1). It is possible that the tomb dates to the transitional MB IIA–IIB phase, or that it was in use over a long period of time. TOMB A2 (PL. 6.3) The pottery in this tomb consists of bowls, storage jars, dipper juglets, piriform juglets, a lamp, and a pithos. The assemblage seems to belong to the MB IIB, as notable from the pithos (SJ5), lamp (L), carinated bowls (BL5), and elongated dipper juglets (DP2). TOMB A3 (PL. 6.4) The finds in this tomb include bowls, one storage jar and juglets. The very large open bowls (BL1), the carinated bowls (BL5), and types of Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglets date this tomb to the MB IIB. TOMB A4 (PL. 6.5) This tomb should be dated to the MB IIB, as indicated by the presence of types like BL1.6, BL5.3, and the lack of slipped vessels.

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Table 6.4 Periodization of Tombs Tomb

MB IIA

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 B97 B162 Other B Tombs C4 C5 C7 C11 C12 C14 C16 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F9 F10 F11 F12 F14

Transitional IIA–IIB X

X X X

X X

X X

X X

MB IIB X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X

X X X X

X X

X

X

X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X

30 25 20 15 10 5 BL 1.1

BL 1.3

BL 1.5

BL 2.1

BL 4

BL 5.3

DP 2

J WP

JL 2

JL 7

JL 3.1

L

SJ 2

SJ 4

SJ 4.2

SJ 5.1

Votive

0

Fig. 6.a Area A: Typological Distributions (n=135)

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TOMB A5 (Pls. 6.6–7) The assemblage in Tomb A5 is quite rich and diverse, with 26 vessels represented in the sample. Their distribution is as follows: seven open bowls (27%), five carinated bowls (19%), five dipper juglets (19%), two juglets (8%), and seven storage jars (27%). One lamp was recorded from the tomb. These vessels seem to indicate that Tomb A5 was in use from the late MB IIA through MB IIB. The stepped rim juglet (JL3.4) is a good indication for the early dating along with slipped vessels and Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglets. MB IIB types include the elongated dipper juglet (DP2), the lamp (L), and the open carinated bowl (BL5). TOMB A6 (Pl. 6.5) The assemblage from Tomb A6 consists of bowls, storage jars, dipper vessels, and juglets. The dipper jug (DP1), the pithos (SJ5), and the lack of slip on the juglets suggest an MB IIB date. TOMB A7 (Pl. 6.8) The assemblage from this tomb (total 28 vessels) consists of seven open bowls (28%), six carinated bowls (24%), three dipper juglets (12%), one jug (4%), four juglets (16%), three storage jars (12%), and one votive bowl (4%). Similarly to Tomb A5, the pottery here reflects a long period of use. The Levantine Painted Ware (JL7), stepped rim juglets (JL3.4), red-cross decoration on bowls, and common use of red slip indicate the early use of this tomb; however, the open carinated bowl (BL5) can only be attributed to the MB IIB. TOMB A8 (Pl. 6.9) This tomb yielded 23 vessels: four open bowls (18%), five carinated bowls (22%), six dipper juglets (26%), one jug (4%), six juglets (26%), and one storage jar (4%). Most of these vessels can be securely dated to the MB IIB, including elongated dipper jugs (DP1) and juglets (DP2), and open carinated bowls (BL5). The Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet also seems to date to the MB IIB. However, some of the juglets, including one Levantine Painted Ware (JL7) and the drop-shaped juglet (JL6), hint at an earlier date. Two votive bowls found in this tomb are of interest as well (see Tomb C4 below). TOMB A9 (Pl. 6.10) The assemblage in this tomb, which consists of bowls and juglets, can be dated to the late MB IIA and MB IIB. Three Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglets date to the MB IIB, as can the large bowl with loop handles (BL1.6) and the elongated dipper juglet. Since there is no clear MB IIA anchor, it seems that the tomb dates to the MB IIB period. TOMB A10 (Pl. 6.1) The pottery in this tomb includes bowls, jugs, and juglets. Some vessels can be securely dated to the MB IIA, for example bowls with red-cross pattern, slipped vessels, bowl with knob handle (BL1.7), and Levantine Painted Ware juglet (JL7). However, the open bowl with the loop handles (BL1.6) seems later and may indicate that the tomb continued to be in use in the transitional MB IIA–IIB period. TOMB A11 (Pl. 6.12–13) The assemblage in Tomb A11 consists of bowls, jars, jugs and juglets, as well as dipper vessels. On a whole it seems that there is strong evidence to place this tomb in the MB IIA, including the use of red slip, the presence of globular bowls (BL3), red-cross decoration, and the two jugs (J2 and J4), which seem to belong to this period. The open bowl with loop handles (BL1.6) and the pithos (SJ5) indicate that the tomb continued to be in use in the transitional MB IIA–IIB period. TOMB A12 (Pl. 6.14) The assemblage of Tomb A12 is made up of bowls, storage jars, and juglets, and clearly dates to the MB IIB. It seems that this was one of the latest tombs in Rishon le-Zion, as indicated by the “eggshell” ware carinated bowl (or goblet) with trumpet base (BL5.5). The Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet also seems to date to the MB IIB. TOMB A13 (Pl. 6.15) Tomb A13 did not yield many vessels for the sample, and none can be used for secure dating. That said, the use of red slip and the knob handles (BL1.8) suggest an early date, perhaps in the MB IIA–IIB transition.

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TOMB A14 (Pl. 6.15) Only two vessels are presented from Tomb A14––a deep rounded bowl (BL2.2) and a handless storage jar (SJ1), both of which can be placed in the MB IIA, although it is difficult to be conclusive. 6.3.2 Area B Vessels categorized here were restricted to the following Area B tombs: 116, 56, 32, 155, 165, 97, 162, 207, 179, 127, 130, 133, 85, 22, 40, 57, 199, 20, 112, 28, 189, and 94. Other than Tomb B162, the Area B tombs yielded many MB IIA forms (Pls. 6.16–17), such as the Anatolian cut-rim jug (J6), candlestick rim (JL3.3), handless jars (SJ1), red-cross decoration, bar handles (BL1.8), bottles (J3), mug, and extended use of red slip. The few Tell el-Yahudiyeh vessels found in Area B (Pl. 6.18) seem to fit the late end of this sequence, dating to the transitional MB IIA–IIB. Also no scarabs were found in Area B, fitting an early date. 35 30 25 20 15 10 5

BL 1.1

BL 1.3

BL 1.5

BL 1.7

BL 1.9

BL 3

BL 5.3

DP 2

J2

J4

J8

JL 1

JL 3

JL 3.2

JL 4.3

JL WP

SJ 2

SJ 4

SJ 5

TEY

0

Fig. 6.b Area B––Typological Distribution (n=194)

TOMB B97 (Pl. 6.18) This tomb yielded a small yet very unique assemblage, including three imported juglets (two WhitePainted and one Red-on-Black) and a Tell el-Yahudiyeh bird-shaped vessel. This may indicate the wealth of the interred, although this is difficult to determine on the basis of pottery alone. The dating of this tomb is not completely clear, as a recent study indicates that Red-on-Black Ware is also present in the MB IIA (Maguire 2009; Bietak et al. 2008:49–60). It is possible therefore that this tomb was first used in the MB IIA–IIB transition, and continued to be in use during the MB IIB. TOMB B162 (Pl. 6.19) Tomb B162, containing pithoi (SJ5), a dipper jug (DP1), and a late form of carinated bowl (BL5), seems to date to the MB IIB; although the Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet indicates the earliest use of the tomb in the transitional MB IIA–IIB phase. 6.3.3 Area C The Area C tombs seem to have an early stage of use in the MB IIA, continuing into the MB IIA–IIB and MB IIB periods. TOMB C4 (Pl. 6.20) The assemblage in Tomb C4 consists of bowls, storage jars, dipper juglets, jugs, and juglets. The presence of red-cross decoration and red slip on dipper juglets (DP2) and closed carinated bowls (BL4) suggests an early date. Particularly interesting is the cache of miniature juglets. Miniature vessels were discovered only in two tombs (C4 and A8). Their presence here suggests a unique status of the interred. Miniature vessels are usually interpreted as votive. However, a recent study suggests that they are often linked with

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children (Uziel and Avissar 2013). Perhaps Tomb C4 belonged to a child, although this cannot be confirmed as no anthropological data is available for this tomb. Furthermore, the presence of a belt in the tomb may suggest an adult’s presence as well. TOMB C5 (Pl. 6.21) Tomb C5 seems to date to the MB IIA, as seen in the red-slipped vessels, the bottle (J3), and the closed carinated bowl (BL4). The presence of a White-Painted IV–VI Cross-Line jug does not necessarily suggest a later date, as noted at Megadim (Wolff and Bergoffen 2012). TOMB C7 (PL. 6.21) Tomb C7 yielded an MB IIA assemblage (Fig. 6.21:6–13), including elements such as red slip and a candlestick rim (JL3.3). The unique carinated goblet or bowl on a trumpet base, decorated in Tell elYahudiyeh style, seems to be of a later date. TOMB C11 (PL. 6.22) Only three vessels from Tomb C11 were included in the sample. The handless storage jar (SJ1) and redslipped small dipper juglet indicate that the tomb was in use in the MB IIA. TOMB C12 (PL. 6.23) Tomb C12 seem to date to the Transitional MB IIA–IIB period, as indicated by elements that seem earlier (e.g., red slip) alongside later elements (pithos SJ5; loop handles on open bowl BL1.6). TOMB C14 (PL. 6.22) While the red slip on several vessels seems to point towards an MB IIA date, the Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet indicates an MB IIB date. Possibly the original use of the tomb was in the transitional MB IIA–IIB period. TOMB C16 (PL. 6.24) It appears that this tomb started in the MB IIA–IIB phase, but continued to be in use in the MB IIB. The pithos (SJ5) and Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet indicate an MB IIB date, yet the bottle (J3) and the use of redslip indicate an earlier date. 6.3.4 Area F In general, it seems that the Area F tombs begin later than the other areas (Figs. 6.25–6.26). Other than two Levantine Painted Ware juglets (JL7; Tombs F3 and F5, Fig. 6.39:17–18) and the finds of F13, there is no evidence of anything prior to the MB IIA–IIB transition (e.g., red-cross, a few slipped vessels). Furthermore, the two juglets are late in the sequence and most likely also date to the MB IIA–IIB. Notable are the infrequent use of red slip, the presence of large dipper jugs and juglets, the Tell el-Yahudiyeh MB IIB juglets, and the open carinated bowls (BL5). TOMB F2 (PL. 6.27–28) The 26 vessels catalogued from Tomb F2 consist of eight open bowls (31%), seven carinated bowls (27%), five dipper juglets (19%), two jugs (7%), two juglets (8%), and two storage jars (8%). The presence of carinated bowls, dipper jugs (DP1), and elongated dipper juglets (DP2), as well as the absence of red slip and definitive MB IIA forms, indicates that this tomb was used in the MB IIB. Bowls dominate the assemblage (almost 60%), with an almost equal division of open and carinated bowls. TOMB F3 (PL. 6.26:4–5, 8, 11, 13) The assemblage from this tomb is not very large, with only 11 vessels catalogued. The presence of a late form of Levantine Painted Ware juglet (JL7) and red-slipped closed carinated bowls (BL4) indicate that the tomb was initially used in the MB IIA–IIB transition, unless these items were heirlooms. There is no doubt, however, that the tomb was primarily used in the MB IIB, according to open carinated bowls (BL5) and a large open bowl with loop handles (BL1.6). TOMB F4 (PL. 6.29–35) Eighty-nine vessels were counted from Tomb F4, the largest assemblage at Rishon le-Zion. They include 28 open bowls (32%), 16 carinated bowls (18%), 14 dipper juglets (16%), nine storage jars (10%), 19 juglets (21%), two jugs (2%), and one lamp (1%). Most of the vessels date to the MB IIB: large open bowls (BL1), bowls with loop handles (BL1.6), open carinated bowls (BL5), pithoi (SJ5), dipper jugs © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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(DP1), and elongated dipper juglets (DP2). Furthermore, the Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet is of an MB IIB type. Certain features (such as the use of the red-cross decoration in open bowls) may indicate that the tomb’s initial use was in the MB IIA–IIB transition. Bowls make up half of the assemblage. While these numbers may be partially skewed by the size of the vessels, allowing for their higher percentage of survival and restoration, this trend is still most likely correct. Open bowls are more common than carinated bowls. Interestingly, juglets are slightly more common than dippers. Storage jars make up 10% of the assemblage. This is quite surprising as the large size makes storage jars less common in most of the tombs. The most likely reason is the good preservation of Tomb F4, which may indicate that this percentage is more representative of the reality of MB II tomb assemblages.

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 TEY SJ SJ 4 5.1

L

JL 8 JL JL 1 J 2 3.2

DP 2 BL 5.4

BL 3 BL BL BL BL 1.7 1.5 1.3 1.1

Fig. 6.c: Tomb F4: Typological Distribution (n=89)

TOMB F5 Twenty-seven vessels attributed to this tomb were catalogued: five open bowls (18%), seven carinated bowls (26%), four dipper juglets (15%), ten juglets (37%), and one storage jar (4%). As is Tomb F3, the presence of a late form of Levantine Painted Ware juglet (JL7), red-slipped closed carinated bowls (BL4), and an open bowl with red-cross decoration indicate that the tomb was initially used in the MB IIA–IIB transition. However it continued into the MB IIB. In fact, it must have been in use until the terminal stages of the Middle Bronze Age, according to two Eggshell Ware juglets (Fig. 6.26:12). While bowls are still the most predominant vessel in the tomb, juglets are almost as common. Storage jars make up a small part of the assemblage, although this may be an issue of preservation due to size. TOMB F6 Thirteen bowls and three dippers originated from Tomb F6. The rare use of red slip, open carinated bowls (BL5), elongated dipper juglets (DP2), and jugs (DP1) suggest an exclusive MB IIB date. TOMB F7 The 24 vessels catalogued from Tomb F7 are quite diverse: five open bowls (21%), four carinated bowls (4%), four dipper juglets (17%), one jug (4%), nine juglets (37%), and one storage jar (4%). Imported Cypriot vessels are quite common, including three juglets and one White-Painted Ware jug. The presence of elongated and large dippers (DP1), the significant amounts of imported vessels, and the open carinated bowls (BL5), all restrict the date to the MB IIB.

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TOMB F9 Tomb F9 yielded 27 vessels: one open bowl (41%), three carinated bowls (11%), three dipper juglets (1%), nine juglets (33%), and one storage jar (4%). As in Tombs F3 and F5, the vessels indicate an initial use in the MB IIA–IIB transition (red-cross decoration, red-slipped bowls BL4); with continuation into the MB IIB. Open bowls (BL1) are predominant, with only a small quantity of carinated bowls (BL5). TOMB F10 Only five vessels from this tomb were included in our sample, making it and Tomb F14 (below) the smallest assemblages from Area F. The four bowls and one dipper jug (DP1) indicate an MB IIB date for Tomb F10. TOMB F11 Thirteen vessels from this tomb were catalogued, including dipper juglets (DP2), bowls, one jug, and one juglet. The rare use of red slip and other features (e.g., bowl with loop handles BL1.6) suggest an MB IIB date. TOMB F12 Sixteen vessels dating to the MB IIB were catalogued from this tomb, including Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglets, large and elongated dippers (DP1 and 2), and open carinated bowls (BL5). TOMB F14 Only five vessels were attributed to this tomb (compare F10 above): two bowls, one juglet, and two Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglets. They all indicate an MB IIB date.

6.4 DISCUSSION A detailed analysis of the pottery assemblage of the Rishon le-Zion Cemetery indicates that it was first use in the mid-MB IIA period––probably falling somewhere in the “Palace Phase” at Aphek (Beck 2000). The earliest stages of the MB IIA do not seem to be present, as most of the MB IIA forms are slipped, a feature more common to the Aphek Palace phase. Furthermore, these MB IIA forms seem to be more developed. For example, closed carinated bowls have sharper carination, and disc bases are more common than flat bases. It seems that the Rishon le-Zion cemetery served until the end of the MB IIB period, as noted by the Eggshell Ware vessel. It seems that Areas A, B and C begin prior to Area F, which starts in the transitional MB IIA–IIB period, or even later. Certain tombs seem to span a long time, indicating continued use. The lack of certain wares stands out. Not surprisingly, no cooking vessels were found in the assemblage, including baking trays, carinated cooking pots, and straight-sided handmade cooking pots. This absence is typical of burial assemblages, where table and storage wares, as well as luxury items, are most common (see Hallotte 1995). It has been suggested that the absence of cooking pots indicates that the meals brought to the graves were prepared in advance (Baker 2006:5). More surprising is the rarity of lamps (only three examples). Lamps were commonly found in MB IIB contexts onward. For example, ten lamps were found at Efrata (1.5% of the MB IIA–IIB assemblage, Gonen 2001:81, Table 4.15) and almost 100 in Wadi Ara (Gadot, Ilan and Uziel 2014). At Ashkelon, each “funeral kit” included one lamp or a bowl reused as a lamp (Baker 2006:8). However, at other sites lamps are absent in Middle Bronze Age tombs (for example, Lachish yielded only a single lamp, Singer-Avitz 2004:998; cf. Tel Qasile, Kletter 2006:91). The issue as to whether the function of lamps in Middle Bronze Age tombs was to light the way (symbolically or practically) to the dead, or to light the way to living community members who buried the dead or performed funerary rituals, remains open. However, the lack of lamps at Rishon le-Zion indicates that this vessel was not part of a “burial kit” in this cemetery. Typical Middle Bronze Age wares missing in Rishon le-Zion include Red, White, and Blue Ware, Chocolate-on-White Ware, and Bichrome Ware. The two latter wares may be explained chronologically or regionally (e.g., Fischer 1999), since they appear toward the end of the Middle Bronze Age (although Eggshell Ware from the end of the MB IIB does appear at Rishon le-Zion). However, Red, White, and Blue Ware appears throughout the MB IIA and MB IIB in the south of Israel (Maeir 2002). Perhaps this decoration style–– usually found on jars––did not survive at Rishon le-Zion, or this type of ware was not used for burials. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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No definitive ceramic ‘kit’ could be defined at Rishon le-Zion. In general, bowls are the most common vessel, with 282 open and rounded bowls (33%), and 142 carinated bowls (16%). The second most common type is juglets, with 164 juglets (19%) and 120 dipper juglets (17%). Dipper jugs are less common than the smaller dipper juglets (29 items–3%), although functionally they likely served a similar purpose. Jugs (47 items, 5%) and storage jars (82 items, 10%) are much less common. If one considers the size of the vessels and therefore their preservation and inclusion in the statistical analysis, it is likely that percentage of large vessels was even greater (compare Chapter 16.8, in this volume: storage jars/pithoi constitute 23% of the pottery vessels identified in basket lists). Storage jars likely held provisions for the deceased and were not part of the ‘banquets’ often envisioned (Parker-Pearson 2000:10–11). Juglets, likely to have held provisions of higher commodities, such as perfumes and oils, constitute a very large percentage of the assemblage, while jugs are not so common, although present. If one considers the entire assemblage as studied, there is no doubt that certain vessels seem to indicate the placement of goods alongside the deceased as provisions for the next world. However, the absence of lamps is surprising, as they should have provided light in the passage between realms.

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REFERENCES Amiran, R. 1969. Ancient Pottery of the Holy Land. Jerusalem: Bialik. Aston, D.A. 2004. Tell el-Dab‘a XII: A Corpus of Late Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period Pottery. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Astrom, P. 1960. A Middle Cypriot Tomb from Galinoporni. Opuscula Atheniensia 3: 123–133. Astrom, P. 1972. The Swedish Cyprus Expedition, Volume IV:1B. The Middle Cypriot Bronze Age. The Swedish Cyprus Expedition: Lund. Bagh, T. 2002. Painted Pottery at the Beginning of the Middle Bronze Age: Levantine Painted Ware. In M. Bietak (ed.), The Middle Bronze Age in the Levant: Proceedings of an International Conference on MB IIA Ceramic Material, Vienna, 24th–26th of January 2001. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: 89–102. Bagh, T. 2003. The Relationship between Levantine Painted Ware, Syro/Cilician Ware, and Khabur Ware, and Their Chronological Implications. In M. Bietak (ed.), The Synchronisation of Civilizations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C. (Proceedings of an international Symposium at Schloß Haindorf, 1st–5th of May, 2001). Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akadamie der Wissenschaften: 219–37. Baker, J.L. 2006. The Funeral Kit: A Newly Defined Canaanite Mortuary Practice Based on the Middle and Late Bronze Age Tomb Complex at Ashkelon. Levant 38: 1–31. Beck, P. 2000. Area A: Middle Bronze Age IIA Pottery. In M. Kochavi, P. Beck, and E. Yadin (eds.), Aphek-Antipatris I: Excavations of Areas A and B – The 1972–1976 Seasons. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University: 173–238. Bietak, M. 1988. Archäologischer Befund und Historische Interpretation am Beispiel der Tell elYahudiya Ware. In Schoske, S. (ed.), Akten des Vierten Internationalen Ägyptologen-Kongresses München 1985, Humburg: 7–34. Bietak, M. 2002. Relative and Absolute Chronology of the Middle Bronze Age: Comments on the Present State of Research. In M. Bietak (ed.), The Middle Bronze Age in the Levant: Proceedings of an International Conference on MB IIA Ceramic Material, Vienna, 24th–26th of January 2001. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: 29–42. Bonfil, R. Forthcoming. Pottery of the Middle Bronze Age IIB–C. In S. Gitin (ed.), The Ancient Pottery of Israel and its Neighbours from the Neolithic through the Hellenistic Period. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. Cohen-Weinberger, A. 2007. Petrography of Middle Bronze 2 Age Pottery: Implications to Understanding Egypto-Cananite Relations. PhD Thesis: Tel Aviv University. Cole, D.P. 1984. Shechem I: The Middle Bronze IIB Pottery. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. Courty, M.A. and Roux, V. 1995. Identification of Wheel Throwing on the Basis of Ceramic Surface Features and Microfabrics, Journal of Archaeological Science 22: 17–50. Dever, W.G. 1987. The Middle Bronze Age: The Zenith of the Urban Canaanite Era. Biblical Archaeologist 50: 149–177. Dever, W.G., Lance, H.D., Bullard, R.G., Cole, D.P. and Seger, J.D. 1974. Gezer II: Report of the 1967– 1970 Seasons in Fields I and II. Jerusalem: Hebrew Union College. Dothan, M. and Porath, Y. 1993. Ashdod V: Excavations of Area G. ‘Atiqot 23. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. Duistermaat, K. 2008. The Pots and Potters of Assyria: Technology and Organization of Production, Ceramic Sequence and Vessel Function at Late Bronze Age Tell Safi Abyad, Syria. Turnhout: Brepols. Epstein, C. 1974. Middle Bronze Age Tombs at Kefar Szold and Ginosar. ‘Atiqot 7: 13–39. Fischer, P.M. 1999. Chocolate-on-White ware: Typology, chronology and provenance: The evidence from Tell Abu-Kharaz, Jordan Valley. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 313: 1–29. Franken, H.J. and London, G. 1995. Why Painted Pottery Disappeared at the End of the Second Millennium BCE. Biblical Archaeologist 58(4): 214–222. Gadot, Y., Ilan, D., and Uziel, J. 2014. Local Pottery of the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. In Y. Gadot, D. Ilan, Y. Tepper, and E. Yannai (eds.), The Bronze Age Cemetery at Ara. Salvage Excavation Reports. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University: 35-128. Garfinkel, Y. and Cohen, S. 2007. The Middle Bronze IIA Cemetery at Gesher: Final Report. Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research 62. Boston: ASOR. Gershuny, L. 2002. A Middle Bronze Age Cemetery in Ashqelon. In M. Bietak (ed.), The Middle Bronze

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Age in the Levant: Proceedings of an International Conference on MB IIA Ceramic Material Vienna, 24th–26th of January 2001. Vienna: Verlag der Österreicheischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: 185–88. Gerstenblith, P. 1983. The Levant at the Beginning of the Middle Bronze Age. American Schools of Oriental Research Dissertation Series 5. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. Gonen, R. 2001. Excavations at Efrata: A Burial Ground from the Intermediate and Middle Bronze Ages. IAA Reports 12. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. Hallotte, R. 1995. Mortuary Archaeology and the Middle Bronze Age Southern Levant. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 8/1: 93–122. Ilan, D. 1991. “Stepped-rim” Juglets from Tel Dan and the MB I–II (MB IIA–IIB) Transitional Period. Israel Exploration Journal 41/4: 229–238. Ilan, D. 1995. The Dawn of Internationalism: The Middle Bronze Age. In T.E. Levy (ed.), The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land. London: Leicester University: 297–319. Ilan, D. 1996. The Middle Bronze Age Tombs. In A. Biran, D. Ilan, and R. Greenberg (eds.), Dan I: A Chronicle of the Excavations, the Pottery Neolithic, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age Tombs. Jerusalem: Hebrew Union College: 163–329. Ilan, D. and Marcus, E. Forthcoming. Pottery of the Middle Bronze Age IIA. In S. Gitin (ed.), The Ancient Pottery of Israel and its Neighbours from the Neolithic through the Hellenistic Period. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. Johnson, P. 1982. The Middle Cypriot Pottery Found in Palestine. Opuscula Atheniensia 14: 49–72. Kaplan, M.F. 1980. The Origin and Distribution of Tell el Yahudieh Ware. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 72. Goteborg: P. Astrom. Kempinski, A., Gershuny, L., and Scheftelowitz, N. 2002. Pottery: Middle Bronze Age. In: Kempinski, A. (ed.), Tel Kabri. The 1986–1992 Excavation Seasons. Tel-Aviv: 109–175. Kenyon, K.M. 1969. The Middle and Late Bronze Age strata at Megiddo. Levant 1:25–60. Kopetsky, K. 2002. The Dipper Juglets of Tell el-Dab`a. A Typological and Chronological Approach. In M. Bietak (ed.), The Middle Bronze Age in the Levant: Proceedings of an International Conference on MB IIA Ceramic Material, Vienna, 24th–26th of January 2001. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: 227–44. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II. Chicago. Maeir, A.M. 1997. The Material Culture of the Central Jordan Valley during the Middle Bronze II Period: Pottery and Settlement Pattern. PhD Thesis: The Hebrew University, Jerusalem. Maeir, A.M. 1997b. Tomb 1181: A Multiple-Interment Burial Cave of the Transitional Middle Bronze Age IIA–B. In A. Ben-Tor (ed.), Hazor V. Jerusalem: Magnes: 295-340. Maeir, A.M. 2002. Red White and Blue Ware: A Little-Known Group of Painted Pottery of the Middle Bronze II Period. In E. Oren and S. Ahituv (eds.), Aharon Kempinski Memorial Volume: Studies in Archaeology and Related Disciplines. Beer-Sheva XV. Beer-Sheva: Ben Gurion University: 29– 55. Maeir, A.M. 2008. The Middle Bronze Age II Pottery. In A. Mazar and R.A. Mullins (eds.), Excavations at Tell Beth Shean 1989–1996: The Middle and Late Bronze Age Strata in Area R. Volume II. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society: 242–389. Maeir, A.M. 2010. In the Midst of the Jordan: The Jordan Valley during the Middle Bronze Age (circa 2000–1500 BCE). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Maguire, L.C. 2009. Tell el-Dab‘a XXI: The Cypriot Pottery and Its Circulation in the Levant. Untersuchungen der Zweigstelle Kairo des Österreichischen Archäologischen Instituts 33, Vienna. Oren, E. 1973. The Northern Cemetery of Beth Shan. Leiden: Brill. Paley, S.M. and Porath, Y. 1997. Early Middle Bronze IIA Remains at Tell el Ifshar, Israel: A Preliminary Report. In E. Oren (ed.), The Hyksos: New Historical and Archaelogical Perspectives. Philadelphia: University Museum: 369–378. Panitz-Cohen, N. and Maeir, A. M. 2004. The Pottery Assemblage. In A.M. Maeir (ed.), Bronze and Iron Age Tombs at Tel Gezer, Israel: Finds from the Raymond-Charles Weill’s Excavations in 1914 and 1921. BAR International Series 1206. Oxford: Archaeopress: 9–41. Panitz-Cohen, N. and Mazar, A. 2006. Timnah (Tel Batash) III: The Finds from the Second Millenium BCE. Qedem 45. Jerusalem. Parker-Pearson, M. 2000. The Archaeology of Death and Burial. Texas: Texas A&M. Roux, V. 2003. A Dynamic Systems Framework for Studying Technological Change: Application to the Emergence of the Potter’s Wheel in the Southern Levant. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 10/1: 1–30l. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Roux, V., and de Miroschedji, P.2009. Revisiting the History of the Potter’s Wheel in the Southern Levant. Levant 41: 155–173. Shai, I. and Maeir, A.M. 2012. The Late Iron Age IIA Pottery Assemblage from Stratum A3. In A. Maeir (ed.), Tell es-Safi/Gath I: Report on the 1996–2005 Seasons. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz: 313–364. Singer-Avitz L. 2004. The Middle Bronze Age Pottery from Areas D and P. In D. Ussishkin (ed.), The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachich (1973–1994). Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University: 900–65. Singer-Avitz, L. 2004b. The Middle Bronze Age Cemetery. In D. Ussishkin (ed.), The Renewed Archaeological Excavations at Lachich (1973–1994). Tel Aviv. Tel Aviv University, Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology, Monograph Series 22: 971–1011. Tsafrir, Y. and Uziel, J. Forthcoming. Tomb DT2. In J. Uziel, D. Ilan, and A.M. Maeir (eds.), Tel Nagila: Report on the Amiran-Eitan Excavations. Tubb, J. N. 1983. The MBIIA Period in Palestine: its Relationship with Syria and Its Origin. Levant 15: 49–62. Tufnell, O. 1962. The Courtyard Cemetery at Tell el-‘Ajjul, Palestine. Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology London 3: 1–37. Uziel, J. 2008. The Southern Coastal Plain of Canaan during the Middle Bronze Age. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Bar Ilan University: Ramat Gan. Uziel, J. and Avissar-Lewis, R.S. 2013. The Tel Nagila Middle Bronze Age Homes – Studying Household Activities and Identifying Children in the Archaeological Record. Palestine Exploration Quarterly 145/4: 268-293. Uziel, J., Ben-Shlomo, D., Ilan, D., Shai, I. and Maeir, A.M. 2009. Middle Bronze Age II Pottery Production in the Western Shephelah: Comparing Methods from Tel Nagila, Tell es-Safi/Gath and Tel Burna. Leiden Journal of Pottery Studies 25: 141–162 Wolff, S.R. and Bergoffen, C.J. 2012. Cypriot Pottery from MB IIA Loci at Tel Megadim. In M. Gruber, S. Ahituv, G. Lehmann, and Z. Talshir (eds.), All the Wisdom of the East: Studies in Near Eastern Archaeology and History in Honor of Eliezer D. Oren (OBO 255). Fribourg: Akademic Press: 419– 430.

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Pl. 6.1: Tomb A1 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Basket 2644 3166 3162/1 1272 3155 3162/2 1273

Locus 227 227 227 119 271 227 119

Type BL1.1 BL4 SJ1 SJ2 SJ3 SJ5.1 SJ5.1

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Pl. 6.2: Tomb A1 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Basket 2978 2267 3167 3154 2320 1499 1486/3 1486/2 2962 2970/1

Locus 201 227 227 271 201 119 119 119 241 241

Type J7 J2.1 J DP2 DP2 DP2 DP2 JL6 JL JL

Comments Vertical burnishing Cypriot White-Painted Red-slipped Red-slipped From SJ1273 Cypriot White-Painted Cypriot White-Painted

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Pl. 6.3: Tomb A2 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Basket 3256 2622 1538 1481 3274 3262 1505 3184 2842 2623 1399 2589 3236 1444 3217 3163 2919 2638 3248

Locus 268 248 122 122 268 268 122 260 248 248 122 248 268 122 268 260 248 247 268

Type BL1.1 BL1.1 BL2.1 BL2.1 BL5.3 BL5.3 BL5.3 BL5.4 BL L SJ3 SJ4.2 SJ5.1 DP2 DP2 DP2 DP2 JL3.1 JL3.1

Comments

Red-slipped From SJ1398 Votive with spout

Bi-strand handle

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Pl. 6.4: Tomb A3 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Basket 2833 2829 2832 1545 1458 2193 3134 3131 3130 2828 1179 1158

Locus 259 259 259 115 115 203 269 269 269 259 115 115

Type BL1.1 BL1.1 BL5.1 BL5.3 BL5.4 SJ4.1 JL JL3.4 JL3.1 JL Flask

Comments

Votive TEY Bi-strand handle Cypriot White-Painted TEY TEY

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Pl. 6.5: Tombs A4 and A6 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Basket 3101 1463 2348 3271 3119 3239 3240 1478 3149 3148 3128 1519 3152 3191

Locus 254 128 204 254 254 276 276 127 266 266 266 127 266 266

Tomb A4 A4 A4 A4 A4 A6 A6 A6 A6 A6 A6 A6 A6 A6

Type BL1.6 BL1.6 BL5.3 BL5.3 DP2 BL1.4 BL1.5 BL5.4 SJ3 SJ5.1 DP1 DP2 JL3.2 JL4.3

Comments

Lipstick

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Pl. 6.6: Tomb A5 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Basket 2335 3075 3076 3077 3084 3031 3178 3036 3174 3175 3074 2914 2662 2989 3025 2912/1

Locus 205 251 251 251 270 251 273 251 273 273 251 251 251 263 251 216

Type BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.7 BL2.2 BL1.7 BL4 BL4 BL4 BL5.2 BL5.4 BL5.4 L

Comments

Lipstick Red-slipped

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Pl. 6.7: Tomb A5 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Basket 2984 2660 1531 2661 3171 3034 2912 3072 3199 1070 3078 3197 3172 3195 3006 2898

Locus 251 251 126 251 273 263 251 251 270 110 270 270 273 273 263 251

Type SJ3 SJ4.1 SJ4.1 SJ4.2 J7 DP2 DP2 DP2 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3.4 JL4.3 JL8 JL

Comments

Red-slipped Red-slipped and burnished Red-slipped Red-slipped Red-slipped TEY with white decoration

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Pl. 6.8: Tomb A7 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Basket 2903 2931 2935 2933 3008 2932 3322 3010 2365 2980 3009 2013 3193 2576 2532 3246 3042 3289 2901

Locus 240 240 240 240 240 240 275 240 240 264 240 207 272 240 240 274 240 274 264

Type BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.3 BL1.4 BL1.6 BL4 BL5.2 BL5.3 JL2 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3.4 JL7 JL8

Comments

Lipstick Red-cross decoration

Red-slipped Votive bowl, ompholos Red-slipped Red-slipped Polished Red-slipped Levantine Painted Ware

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Pl. 6.9: Tomb A8 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Basket 2371 2525 2098 2175 2881 2891 2521 2520 3063 2270 2276/1 1347 2276/2 2887 1513 2268 3037 3038 3041 2509 2295 2557 2175 3064

Locus 221 250 243 213 250 213 250 250 250 213 221 120 221 213 120 221 250 250 250 213 213 213 213 250

Type BL1.1 BL5.1 BL5.3 BL5.3 BL5.3 BL5.3 BL BL DP1 DP1 DP2 DP2 DP2 DP2 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL5 JL5 JL7 JL JL

Comments

Votive Votive

Red slipped Bi-strand handle Red-slipped and burnished TEY Cypriot White-Painted

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Pl. 6.10: Tomb A9 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Basket 2902 2257 2930 1507 2313 1447 2314 2823 2946 2925/2 2925/8 2925/1

Locus 209 215 209 112 215 112 215 209 209 209 209 209

Type BL1.3 BL1.6 BL4 BL5.3 DP2 DP2 DP2 DP2 JL6 JL JL JL

Comments Lipstick Lipstick Red-slipped

Red-slipped Black juglet TEY TEY TEY

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Pl. 6.11: Tomb A10 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Basket 2667 2653 1543 2652 2604 1541 2067 2795 2973 2564 2065

Locus 257 256 116 256 245 116 210 240 262 233 210

Type BL1.3 BL1.5 BL1.6 BL1.7 BL5.3 BL5.3 J7 DP1 JL3.2 JL3.2 JL7

Comments Red-cross decoration Red-cross decoration Red-cross decoration Red-slipped Red-slipped Red-slipped Red-slipped Votive juglet Very small

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Pl. 6.12: Tomb A11 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Basket 1532 2343 2337 1524 2342 1479 2339

Locus 117 230 230 117 230 117 230

Type BL1.2 BL1.3 BL1.4 BL1.6 BL3 BL3 BL4

8 9 10

2203 2317/1 2317/2

225 231 231

BL5.3 SJ3 SJ5

Comments Red-slipped Lipstick Red-cross decoration Lipstick Red-slipped and burnished Red-slipped and burnished Slipped and burnished upper exterior Red-slipped Votive

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Pl. 6.13: Tomb A11 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Basket 2010 2340 2123 1546 2011 2336 2124 2142 2060 2079

Locus 211 230 219 117 211 230 219 219 219 219

Type J2 J4 J DP2 DP2 DP2 DP2 DP2 JL3.1 JL

Comments Red-slipped and burnished Red-slipped and burnished bi-strand handle Cypriot White-Painted Red-slipped and burnished Red-slipped Red-slipped TEY

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Pl. 6.14: Tomb A12 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Basket 3231 3211 3204 2281 2306 2376 3029 2325 3212 3050

Locus 228 228 228 216 228 216 228 259 228 228

Type BL1.1 BL1.6 BL5.5 SJ4.1 SJ2 SJ DP2 DP2 JL3.1 JL

Comments

TEY

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Pl. 6.15: Tombs A13 and A14 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Basket 2069 1559 1510 1422 1297 2374 1374 1464

Locus 214 214 124 124 124 232 124 128

Tomb A13 A13 A13 A13 A13 A13 A14 A14

Type BL1.1 BL1.7 BL4 BL4 SJ4.1 DP2 BL2.2 SJ1

Comments Lipstick Red-slipped and burnished Red-slipped and burnished

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Pl. 6.16: Various Tombs in Area B No. 1 2 3 4 5

Basket 6710 6435 6274 9014 9120

Locus 1016 656 627 1055 1065

Tomb B116 B56 B32 B155 B165

Type BL1.1 BL1.7 BL1.7 BL1.7 BL1.7

Comments Fig. 6.1:1 Fig. 6.9:1 Red-slipped and burnished Red-cross decoration Fig. 6.9:2

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Pl. 6.17: Various Tombs in Area B No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Basket 9380 9224 6744 6749 6835 6253 6203 6133 6343 9331 6098 6057 6738 6071 9769 6450

Locus 1107 179 1027 1030 1033 685 606 632 657 1099 652 181 1012 617 1089 694

Tomb B207 B179 B127 B130 B133 B85 B22 B40 B57 B199 B20 B112 B28 B189 B94

Type BL1.9 BL Misc. SJ1 SJ1 J2 J3 J3 J6 J8 DP1 JL1 JL2 JL2.1 JL JL

Comments

Fig. 6.16: left; Color Pl. 5.1 Fig. 6.16: right Fig. 6.25 Fig. 28: right Red-slipped Bi-strand handle Red-slipped and burnished Red-slipped and burnished TEY Cypriot White-Painted

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Pl. 6.18: Tomb B97 No. 1 2 3 4 5

Basket 6515 6525 6524 6529 6466

Locus 697 697 697 697 697

Type J JL JL JL Misc.

Comments Cypriot White-Painted Cypriot White-Painted Cypriot Red-on-Black Duck-shaped vessel

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Pl. 6.19: Tomb B162 No. 1 2 3 4

Basket 9144 3150 9160 9157

Locus 1062 1062 1062 1062

Type BL4 BL5.3 SJ4.1 SJ5.1

5 6 7

9164 9158 9149

1062 1062 1062

SJ5.3 DP2 JL

Comments Red-slipped; Fig. 6.11 Fig. 6.20:1 Color Pl. 5.3 TEY; Fig. 7.35:1

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445

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Pl. 6.20: Tomb C4 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Basket 342 122 326 319 307 360 384 19 316 430 343 385/10 385/6 385/3 385/1 385/4 385/2 385/5 385/7

Locus 47 8 8 8 47 47 47 8 32 32 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 47 8

Type BL1.3 BL1.6 BL4 BL5.4 SJ3 J1 DP2 DP2 JL1 JL3.2 VT VT VT VT VT VT VT VT VT

Comments Lipstick Red-cross decoration Red-slipped

Red-slipped and burnished Red-slipped Red-slipped Bi-strand handle, vertical burnishing Votive juglet

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Pl. 6.21: Tombs C5 and C7 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Basket 410 202 194 202/1 261 243 376 242 292 158 178 427 163

Locus 45 30 30 30 30 22 44 22 44 22 22 44 22

Tomb C5 C5 C5 C5 C5 C7 C7 C7 C7 C7 C7 C7 C7

Type BL1.1 BL4 J3 JL4.2 JL BL1.3 BL1.4 BL1.5 BL2.2 TEY DP2 JL3.1 JL3.3

Comments Red-slipped Red-slipped and burnished Red-slipped and burnished Bi-strand handle, red-slipped Cypriot White-Painted

Red-slipped and burnished Goblet Red-slipped and burnished Bi-strand handle, red-slipped Bi-strand handle, red-slipped

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Pl. 6.22: Tombs C11 and C14 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Basket 255 285 255/1 208 188 454 190 180

Locus 41 41 41 29 29 29 29 29

Tomb C11 C11 C11 C14 C14 C14 C14 C14

Type SJ1 J1 DP2 BL1.1 BL4 SJ3 JL3.2 JL

Comments Red-slipped and burnished Lipstick Red-slipped Bi-strand handle, red-slipped TEY

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Pl. 6.23: Tomb C12 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Basket 136 238/1 392 238/2 238/4 327/1 179 241 214 267 329

Locus 15 15 28=55 15 15 34 28=55 15 34 15 34

Type BL1.1 BL1.2 BL1.6 BL1.8 SJ5.1 J1 J4 DP2 DP2 DP2 JL3.1

Comments

Bi-strand handle Red-slipped Red-slipped, vertical burnishing Red-slipped and burnishing Bi-strand handle, red-slipped

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Pl. 6.24: Tomb C16 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Basket 205 435 293 277 415 204 416 447 446 217 422 271 279

Locus 28 28 42 24 26 28 28 28 28 24 28 24 24

Type BL1.1 BL1.1 BL2.2 BL5.3 BL5.3 SJ3 SJ5.1 J3 DP2 DP2 DP2 Misc. JL

Comments Red-slipped Red-slipped

Red-slipped Red-slipped Red-slipped and burnished TEY

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Pl. 6.25: Various Tombs in Area F No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Basket 7252 7538 7527 7453 7290 8082 7970 7126 7215 7248 7369 7098

Locus 728 751 751 739 241 764 711 716 727 714 746 717

Tomb F11 F12 F12 F7 F11 F1 F11 F9 F2 F1 F7 F1

Type BL3 BL4 BL5.3 SJ6 J2 J4 DP2 DP2 DP2 DP2 DP2 DP2

Comments Fig. 6.10: left Red-slipped Fig. 6.24 Bi-strand handle, red-slipped

Votive juglet Juglet

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Pl. 6.26: Various Tombs in Area F No.

Basket

Locus

Tomb

Type

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

7577 7116 7678 7744 7854 7944 7667 7552 7706 7937 7576 8061 7726

745 709 757 758 755 752 753 721 746 761 721 752 755

F9 F9 F5 F3 F3 F5 F13 F3 F7 F12 F3 F5 F3

JL6 JL4.1 JL1 JL3.1 JL7 JL7 JL8 JL JL JL JL MISC

Comments

Bi-strand handle LPW LPW Basket handle TEY TEY TEY TEY Cypriot White-Painted

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CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

Pl. 6.27: Tomb F2 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Basket 7378 7236 8176 7235 7393 7328 7352 8173 7346 8175/1 8175/2 7392 7217 8113

Locus 742 727 750 727 750 742 742 750 742 750 750 750 727 742

Type BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.3 BL1.2 BL1.8 BL BL4 BL4 BL4 BL5.1 BL5.1 SJ4.1 SJ4.1

Comments Fig. 6.1:2 Fig. 6.1:3 Lipstick Fig.6.4:1 Fig. 6.3:1 Fig. 6.9:3 Cypriot Red-on-Black Fig. 6.12:1 Red-slipped Fig. 6.18

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CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

Pl. 6.28: Tomb F2 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Basket 7394 8068 7391 7291 7198 7208 7222 7394 7234

Locus 750 742 750 741 702 743 713 750 727

Type J4 J5 DP1 DP1 DP1 DP2 DP2 JL1 DP2

Comments Fig. 6.26:1 Fig. 6.27 Fig. 6.22:1

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Pl. 6.29: Tomb F4 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Basket 7875 7210 7842 7213 7805 7397 7981/1 8167 8125 8128 8149

Locus 767 718 735 718 735 748 767 769 769 769 769

Type BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1

12 13 14

7981/2 7821 7995

767 735 705

BL1.1 BL1.1 BL1.1

15

8016

768

BL1.1

Comments Fig.6.1:4 Lipstick Fig. 6.1:5 Fig. 6.1:6 Lipstick Fig. 6.2:1 Fig. 6.2:2 Lipstick Fig. 6.2:3 Fig. 6.2:4 Color Pl. 4.1

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CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

Pl. 6.30: Tomb F4 No.

Basket

Locus

Type

Comments

1

8168

769

BL1.1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

7735 7731 7733 7093 8145 7483 8129

733 733 738 765 769 767 769

BL1.2 BL1.2 BL1.2 BL1.3 BL1.3 BL1.3 BL1.3

Red-cross decoration Fig. 6.2:5 Fig. 6.3:2 Fig. 6.3:3 Fig. 6.6: left

9 10

8017 8140

768 769

BL1.4 BL1.5

Fig. 6.4:2 Red-cross decoration Fig. 6.5 Fig. 6.6: right Fig. 6.7: left

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CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

Pl. 6.31: Tomb F4 No. 1 2 3 4

Basket 8141 7734 8143 8117

Locus 769 733 769 769

Type BL1.5 BL1.6 BL1.6 BL1.6

5 6

9156 7973

1062 765

BL1.6 BL1.6

Comments Fig. 6.7: right Fig. 6.8:2 Fig. 6.8:1 Radial burnishing Fig. 6.8:4 Red-cross decoration Red-cross decoration Fig. 6.8:5; Color Pl. 4.2

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Pl. 6.32: Tomb F4 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Basket 8150 8127 7977 8023 8015 7992 8034 8012 8144 7831 8039

Locus 769 769 765 768 768 765 768 768 769 765 767

Type BL1.7 BL1.8 BL3 BL4 BL4 BL4 BL4 BL4 BL4 BL5.3 BL5.3

12 13 14 15

7961 7206 8053 7833

767 795 769 769

BL5.4 BL5.3 SJ2 SJ2

Comments Fig. 6.9:4 Fig. 6.10: right Fig. 6.12:2 Fig. 6.12:3 Fig. 6.12:4 Fig. 6.12:5 Color Pl. 4.3 Fig. 6.14 Fig. 6.17 Color Pl. 5.2

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CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

Pl. 6.33: Tomb F4 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Basket 7954 7978 7832 8033 8111 8032

Locus 767 765 765 769 769 769

Type SJ4.2 SJ5.1 SJ5.1 SJ5.1 SJ5.1 SJ5.2

Comments Fig. 6.19 Fig. 6.20:2 Fig. 6.20:3 Fig. 6.20:4 Fig. 6.21

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CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

Pl. 6.34: Tomb F4 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Basket 7991 8124 7949 8001 7425 7474 7476 8072 8064 7959 7145 7997 7429 7970 7427

Locus 767 769 767 765 735 735 735 769 765 767 735 765 735 765 735

Type J2 J4 JL8 DP2 DP2 DP2 DP2 DP2 DP1 DP1 DP2 DP DP2 DP2 DP

Comments Fig. 6.26:2 Fig. 7.34 Fig. 6.23:1 Fig. 6.23:2 Fig. 6.22:2 Fig. 6.22:3

Fig. 6.23:3

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CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

Pl. 6.35: Tomb F4 No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Basket 8041 8021 8024 8000 7819 7819 8045 7386 8116 7950 7225 8047 8072 8019 8022 7979 7956

Locus 767 768 768 765 735 735 767 748 769 767 733 767 767 768 768 743 767

Type JL1 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3.1 JL3.2 JL3.2 JL3.4 JL

18

8042

767

JL

Comments Fig. 6.29 Fig. 6.30 Fig. 6.31: left Fig. 6.31: center

Fig. 6.31: right Fig. 7.32: left Fig. 7.32: right Fig. 7.33 TEY; Fig. 7.35:2 Color Pl. 6.2 Cypriot Red-on-Black

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CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

1. B6710, Pl. 6.16.1

2. B7378, Pl. 6.27:1

3. B7236, Pl. 6.27:2

4. B7210, Pl.6.29:2

5. B7805, Pl. 6.29:5

6. B7981, Pl. 6.29:7 Fig. 6.1: Bowls––Type BL1.1

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1. B8125, Pl. 6.29:9

2. B8128, Pl. 6.29:10

3. B8149, Pl. 6.29:11

4. B7995, Pl. 6.19:14

5. B8168, Pl. 6.30:1 Fig. 6.2: Bowls––Type BL1.1

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CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

1. B7393, Pl. 6.27:5

2. B7735, Pl. 6.30:2

3. B7731, Pl. 6.30:3 Fig. 6.3: Bowls––Type BL1.2

1. B7235, Pl. 6.27:4

2. B7483, Pl. 6.30:7 Fig. 6.4: Bowls––Type BL1.3

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Fig. 6.5: Bowl––Type BL1.3 (B8129, Pl. 6.30.8)

Fig. 6.6: Bowls––Type BL1.4 (top: B7733, Pl. 6.30:4; bottom: B8017, Pl. 6.30:9

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Fig. 6.7: Bowls––Type BL1.5 (left: B8140, Pl. 6.30:10; right: B8141, Pl. 6.31:1)

1. B8143, Pl. 6.31:3

2. B7734, Pl. 6.31:2

3. B8117, Pl. 6.31:4,

4. B7973, Pl. 3.31:6 Fig. 6.8: Bowls––Type BL1.6

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1. B6247, Pl. 6:16:3

2. B9120, Pl. 6.16:5

3. B7328, Pl. 6:27:6 4. B8127, Pl. 6.32:2) Fig. 6.9: Bowls––Types BL1.7 (Nos. 1–2) and BL1.8 (Nos. 3–4)

Fig. 6.10: Bowls––Type BL3 (left: B7252, Pl. 6.25:1; right: B7977, Pl. 6.32:3

Fig. 6.11: Bowls––Type BL4 (B9144, Pl. 6.19:1)

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CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

1. B8175, Pl. 6.27:10

2. B8015, Pl. 6.32:5

3. B8034, Pl. 6.32:7

4. B8012, Pl. 6.32:8 Fig. 6.12: Bowls––Type BL4

Fig. 6.13: Bowls––Type BL5.3 (B8039, Pl. 6.32:11)

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Fig. 6.14: Bowls––Type BL5.4 (B7961, Pl. 6.32:12)

Fig. 6.15: Lamp (F4, L767, B7982)

Fig. 6.16: Storage Jars––Type SJ1 (left: B6749, Pl. 6.17:4; right: B6835, Pl. 6.17:5)

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Fig. 6.17: Storage Jars––Type SJ2 (B7833, Pl. 6.32:15)

Fig. 6.18: Storage Jars––Type SJ4.1 (B7217, Pl. 6.27:13)

Fig. 6.19: Storage Jars––Type SJ4.2 (B7954, Pl. 6.33:1) © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

1. B9157, Pl. 6.19:4;

2. B7978, Pl. 6.33:2

3. B7832, Pl. 6.33:3;

4. B8033, Pl. 6.33:4

Fig. 6.20: Storage Jars––Type SJ5.1) © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

Fig. 6.21: Storage Jars––Type SJ5.2 (B8032, Pl. 6.33.6)

1. B7391, Pl. 6.28:3;

2. B8064, Pl. 6.34:9 Fig. 6.22: Dipper Juglets––Type DP1

3. B7959, Pl. 6.34:10

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1. B7474, Pl. 6.34:6;

2. B7476, Pl. 6.34:7

489

3. B7970, Pl. 6.34:14

Fig. 6.23: Dipper Juglets––Type DP2

Fig. 6.24: Jugs––Type J2 (B7290, Pl. 6.25:5)

Fig. 6.25: Jugs––Type J3 (B6133, Pl. 6.17:8)

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CHAPTER 6. THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE

1. B7395, Pl. 6.28:1

2. B8124, Pl. 6.34:2 Fig. 6.26: Jugs––Type J4

Fig. 6.27 (left): Jugs––Type J5 (B8068, Pl. 6.28:2) Fig. 6.28 (right): Jugs––Type J6 (B6343, Pl. 6.17:9)

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Fig. 6.29: Juglets––Type JL1 (B8041, Pl. 6.35:1)

491

Fig. 6.30: Juglets––Type JL3.1 (B8021, Pl. 6.35:2)

Fig. 6.31: Juglets––Type JL3.1 (left: B7819, Pl. 6.35:5; center: B8045, Pl. 6.35:7; right: B7225, Pl. 6.35:11)

Fig. 6.32: Juglets––Type JL3.2 (left: B8019, Pl. 6.35:14; right: B8022, Pl. 6.35:15)

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Fig. 6.33: Juglets––Type JL3.4 (B7979, Pl. 6.35:16)

Fig. 6.34: Juglets––Type JL8 (B7949, Pl. 6.34:3)

1. B9149, Pl. 6.19:7

2. B7956, Pl. 6.35:17 Fig. 6.35: Juglets––Type TEY

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CHAPTER 7 METAL FINDS Tal Kan-Cipor – Meron and Sariel Shalev Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa 7.1 INTRODUCTION In this chapter we discuss the many metal items found in the Middle Bronze II cemeteries of Rishon leZion. A wide variety of metal weapons and jewelry were found in the tombs. In order to discuss the roles of the metal items and any possible relations to other cultures in the MB II, we will review the various types of metal items and their parallels in the eastern Mediterranean. We will analyze the archaeological contexts of the items (as far as possible) and their relationship to the deceased. We have also made various metallurgical and metallographic examinations in order to understand the ways the tools were manufactured, their distribution, and the composition of their materials. Using all this data, we will try to understand the socioeconomic aspects of the metal objects and their roles in the burial customs at Rishon le-Zion, through comparisons to other sites and cultures of the Middle Bronze Age II in the eastern Mediterranean.1 The Rishon le-Zion metal items include two major groups: jewelry and weapons. The metal items found in the tombs were personal items belonging to the deceased, placed there at the time of burial. To understand the socioeconomic implications of these items, we shall first describe the types of metal objects found at Rishon le-Zion, noting parallels from other sites that offer dating.

7.2 JEWELRY The main types of jewelry found were toggle pins and rings/earrings. 7.2.1 Toggle Pins Around 180 toggle pins were found in the Rishon le-Zion tombs. Toggle pins were a very common type of MB II jewelry. They were used for fastening a garment below the shoulder, with the tip of the pin pointing downward, as an ivory inlay found in Mari demonstrates (Kempinski 1989:78, Fig. 49). Toggle pins probably first came into use in the first half of the third millennium BCE in Mesopotamia. With time, the pin was fitted with an eyelet––a small hole through which a chain or cord was tied. Sometimes, a seal was placed at the edge of the chain or cord. The eyelet was made in a thickened part of the pin and was used for fastening the pin to the garment by the cord, which ensured that the pin would not fall off the garment (Ziffer 1990:59–61; Figs. 31, 34). Several toggle pins from Rishon le-Zion show remains of the cord coiled around them (e.g., B3159 L240; B7546 L745). Toggle pins of the MB II period have eyelet at the center of the pin. The earlier pins dated to this period have a wide head, of a Syrian-Anatolian origin. During the eighteenth century BCE the toggle pin became a fashionable item. At that time the most common form was wedge-shaped and plain, with an incised decoration on the upper part above the eyelet. The incision was possibly intended to facilitate the coiling of the cord. Toward the end of the MB II period, the upper part of the pin was twisted, or featured beads (Ziffer 1990:59–60). The pins were found near the deceased, who were probably placed in the tomb wearing clothes or shrouds (cf. Jericho, Khalil 1985), with the pins fastening these textiles dresses or shrouds. Scarabs and seals were found in some of the tombs near the pins, but there is no clear evidence that these were fastened to pins (the custom of fastening seals to toggle pins is probably Mesopotamian in origin, Kempinski 1989:78). Four types of toggle pins were identified at Rishon le-Zion (disregarding fragments, which cannot be exactly classified). 1

Measures of items are noted in the tables and figures show a scale of 1 cm, unless otherwise noted. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

494

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

TYPE 1––WITH GLOBOLUR GROOVED HEADS (Table 7.1; Fig. 7.1; Color Pl. 6:3) Five complete or nearly complete toggle pins of this type were found at Rishon le-Zion. They have an eyelet and often also incisions above the eyelet; the opposite edge is pointed. The length varies from 5.8 to 12.5 cm. This type of pin is dated to the transition phase between the MB IIA and MB IIB periods (eighteenth–seventeenth centuries BCE). They are known from sites such as Safed, Fassuta, Jericho, and sites in Syria (Damati and Stepansky 1996:15, Fig. 18:1–6; Khalil 1980: Pls. 56–57; Shalev 2010:47, Kenyon 1960: Fig 128:12; Birmingham 1977:117, Fig 1:A4; Thrane 1978, Fig. 32:69–70; Tufnell 1958: Pl. 24: 17; Gershuny and Aviam 2010:35, Fig. 13:5). Table 7.1 Toggle Pins Type 1 (Globular Grooved Heads) No. 1 1 2 3 5

Basket 439 2026 6518b 7351 7695

Locus 44 211 692 742 754

Tomb C7 A11 B92 F2 F9

Length 8.4 5.8/4 13 12.5 9.5

D-Thick 0.4 0.3

D-Hole 0.55 0.5

Weight 8 5.28

0.25

0.45

2.83

Figure 7.1:1 7.1:2 7.1:3

Note: Pin 6518b is made of silver.

TYPE 2––NAIL-SHAPED (Table 7.2; Fig. 7.2) This type of toggle pin is very common at Rishon le-Zion, with 112 complete or nearly complete items. The pins are long, pointed at the tip and have eyelets at the center. The length varies from 6.3 to 18.5 cm and in weight, from 2.0 to10.7 g. The heads are rounded or slightly thickened and nail-like. Sometimes, incisions were made on the pin near the eyelet, for coiling the cord. This type of pin is dated to the end of the MB IIA and early MB IIB periods (Shalev 1989:42–45, Fig. 13:3–4; Kempinski 1989:78). Many comparisons are known from the southern Levant (Birmingham 1977:117 Fig 1:A3; Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl.136: 25; Pl. 103:18–22; Pritchard 1963: Fig 48:12–13; Damati and Stepansky 1996: Fig. 19:6– 7; Bunimovitz 2000:275–276, Figs. 13.8:1, 4; 13.9:1, 4; Shalev 2000:284–285; Shalev 2002:312; 316; Fig 8.3:4; Tufnell 1958: Pl. 24:4, 10; Kletter 2006:79, Figs. 18:10; 19:12–13; 20:10).

No. Basket 1 170 2 247 3 309 4 517 5 1039 6 1086 7 1460 8 1469 9 1487 10 1511 11 2000 12 2066 13 2186 14 2353 15 2414 16 2429 17 2430 18 2444 19 2504 20 2508 21 2545 22 2546 23 2583

Table 7.2: Toggle Pins Type 2 (Wedge-Shaped) Locus Tomb Length D-Thick D-Hole Weight 26 C16 0.35 0.6 6.8 C12 15 13.2 0.4 38 C18 12.4 0.3 0.5 3.6 Surface 100 14.3 0.3 0.55 5.6 100 Surface 11.95 0.3 0.4 4.13 107 A7 120 A8 10.6 0.3 0.5 4.6 A6 127 10.9 0.35 0.6 5.7 112 A9 0.3 2.9 121 A5 12.1 0.25 0.45 4.3 200 Surface 13.4 0.3 0.5 5 210 A10 13.8 0.35 0.6 7.8 221 A9 12.8 0.4 0.6 6.8 215 A9 12.7 0.25 0.45 3.3 A10 220 12.5 0.3 0.6 6 207 A7 0.35 0.6 7.8 A2 202 11.8 0.35 0.5 5 A1 201 10.7 0.3 0.55 4 A7 238 10.9 0.3 0.5 5 A8 213 12.3 0.3 0.6 7.7 A10 239 14.1 0.3 0.5 A10 210/245 6.4 0.35 0.65 4.8 A8 213 13 0.3 0.6 5.8

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Figure 7.2:1 7.2:2 7.2:3

7.2:4 7.3:1 7.3:2 7.3:3 7.3:4 7.3:5

7.3:6

7.3:7

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

Table 7.2 (Continued) Toggle Pins Type 2 (Wedge-Shaped) No. Basket Locus Tomb Length D-Thick D-Hole Weight 24 2634 202 A2 12.7 0.4 0.6 25 A9 2816 261 9.7 0.5 3.3 26 A9 2817 209 0.4 0.6 6.7 27 A12 2840 228 7.45 0.2 1.5 28 2859 261 A9 11.3 0.3 0.5 4.5 29 2879 201 A1 8.7/2.7 0.3 0.5 4.2 30 2900 261 A9 9.7 0.3 0.6 5.35 31 A4 2916 204 12.5 0.3 0.6 6.2 32 2940 250 A8 0.3 0.4 2.7 33 2949 250 A8 9.8 0.35 0.7 6.29 34 2976 207 A7 6.8 0.35 0.5 2 35 3000 228 A12 11 0.3 0.5 4.4 36 A9 3022 215 0.3 3.3 37 A6 3054 265 12.3 0.3 0.6 38 A4 3066 204 11 0.3 0.5 39 A4 3071 267 14.3 0.35 0.7 40 A8 3094 250 10.6 0.6 41 A3 3097 269 9.3 0.3 0.7 42 A4 3103 254 10.3 0.3 0.5 43 3141 224 A6 5.6 44 3145 215 A9 11.3 0.3 0.5 5.1 45 3153 266 A6 12 0.4 0.6 46 A2 0.5 7.5 3185 260 12.2 0.4 47 3198 266 A6 15.4 0.45 0.6 12.8 48 3207 228 A12 14.9 0.4 0.7 49 3208 228 A12 10.4 0.3 0.5 50 3209 228 A12 10.8 0.2 0.5 51 3215 228 A12 11.9 0.3 0.5 4.1 52 3216 228 A12 11.8 0.3 0.55 5.5 A12 53 3225 228 12.4 0.3 0.55 6.2 A2 54 3250 268 12.7 0.3 0.6 A9 55 3269 215 12 0.4 0.7 A2 56 3273 268 14 0.3 0.55 A6 57 3287 266 13.6 0.3 0.5 B95 58 6456 695 B123 59 6766 1023 B142 60 6917 1042 11.25 0.25 F4 61 7137 715 10.4 F2 62 7202 734 17 F4 63 7238 735 F11 64 7240 728 11.7 0.4 0.6 8.6 F1 65 7246 714 7 F2 66 7286 741 11.8 F2 67 7287/1-3 741 F10 0.5 4 68 7325 731 14 0.3 F9 69 7371 745 721 F3 70 7381 12.7 721 F3 70 7381 12.7 737 F12 0.5 5 71 7409 0.3 714 F1 72 7448 10

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495

Figure 7.3:8

7.3:9 7.3:10 7.2:11

7.3:12

7.3:13 7.3:14

7.3:15

7.4:1

7.4:2 7.4:3 7.4:4

7.4:5 7.4:6

7.4:7

496

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

No. 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110

Basket 7456 7500 7515 7546 7550 7623 7646 7651 7668 7669 7680/A 7680/B 7715 7716/A 7716/B 7725 7738/A 7738/B 7752 7754 7771 7785 7814 7823 7828 7830 7836 7841 7901 7902a 7902b 7976 8040 8152 8194 8195 8196 9226

Table 7.2 (Continued) Toggle Pins Type 2 (Wedge-Shaped) Locus Tomb Length D-Thick D-Hole Weight 745 721 F9 745 13.9 0.4 0.6 7.6 F9 745 0.35 0.5 6.7 F11 728 18.5 0.2 0.5 3.5 F11 728 8.5 0.3 0.6 3.2 F7 745 11.3 0.35 0.7 6.41 F4 735 F13 753 4.5 F1 717 8.75 F5 757 10.3 0.4 0.6 8 F5 757 13.4 0.35 0.5 7.6 F3 755 11.2 F7 746 12.6 0.4 0.7 7.1 F7 746 10.9 0.3 0.5 6.1 F11 712 0.4 0.6 10 F4 748 F4 748 F4 733 14.4 F7 746 14 F10 731 0.3 0.4 3.3 F5 752 15.7 0.4 0.6 F4 748 9.3 F4 735 F1 717 F9 745 10.2 0.2 0.5 3.37 F12 761 14.5 0.4 0.6 10.7 F5 752 F4 765 12 F5 752 10.3 0.3 0.4 4.1 F5 752 8.6 0.2 0.4 2.3 F4 765 11 F4 767 9.5 769 772 F14 15.7 F14 12.1 772 772 F14 12.5 B182 6.3 0.3 1082

Figure

7.4:8

7.4:9

7.4:10

7.4:11

7.4:12

7.4:13

7.4:14

7.4:15

Note: B7287 included three pins, so the total number of Type 2 pins is 112.

TYPE 3––THICK (Table 7.3; Fig. 7.5) These pins are relatively thick, have large eyelets and are ribbed with an intermittent wide and narrow ribs. Some of them have pomegranate-shaped heads. Fourteen such pins were discovered at Rishon leZion. They vary in length from 4.0 to 12.5 cm and in weight from 2.83 to 8.00 g. Similar pins were found in the southern Levant in the MB IIB period (see Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl.136:21; Tufnell 1958: Pl. 24:15; Shalev 1989: Fig. 13:1–2; Damati and Stepansky 1996: Fig. 19:8–9; and Oren 1973: Fig 34:9a–f).

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CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

1. B2026

2. B6518b Fig. 7.1. Toggle Pins––Type 1

1. B170

2. B247 3. B309 Fig. 7.2: Toggle Pins––Type 2

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497

3. B7351

4. B1086

498

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

1. B1469

2. B1511

3. B2066

4. B2186

5. B2414

6. B2504

7. B2583

8. B2816

9. B2949

10. B3000

11. B3054

12. B3145

13. B3207 14. B3209 Fig. 7.3: Toggle Pins––Type 2

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15. B3225

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

499

1. B3287

2. B6917

3. B7202

4. B7240

5. B7325

6. B7371

7. B7409

8. B7515

9. B7623

10. B7688

11. B7715

12. B7725

13. B7752 Fig. 7.4: Toggle Pins––Type 2

14. B7785

15. B8040

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500

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

1. B2183

1. B2383

2. B2352

3. B2413 4. B7210 Fig. 7.5: Toggle Pins––Type 3

5. B3284

2. B2830 Fig. 7.6: Toggle Pins––Type 4

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6. B8211

3. B7170

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

Table 7.3 Toggle Pins Type 3 (Thick) Locus Tomb Length D-Thick D-Hole Weight 209 A9 10.3 0.3 0.45 3.5 215 A9 6.4 0.3 0.6 2.1 220 A10 10.1 0.3 0.6 209 A9 10.8 0.4 0.8 A5 251 11 A5 251 10.9 251 A5

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Basket 2183 2352 2413 2861 2898/1 2898/2 2898/3

8 9 10 11

3093 3102 3284 7120

250 254 269 722

A8 A4 A3 F11

5.8 9 10.1

0.4 0.25 0.25

0.5 0.4 0.5

12 13 14

7962 7962 8211

767 767 722

F4 F4 F14

6.6 8 12.5

0.3 0.3

0.6 0.6

501

Description Figure 7.5:1 Long, pom. 7.5:2 Pom. decoration 7.5:3 Pom. head Thick, nail head Thick, decorated Thick, decorated Thick, decorated, broken Thick, short Short, decorated 7.5:4 Pom. head Short, thick, nail 7.5:5 head Short, thick, 2 fr. Short, thick, 2 fr. 7.5:6 Long, pom.

Notes: pom. = pomegranate; fr. = fragments. B2898 is a juglet, and the pins were probably found inside it. We renumbered them as B2898/1–3.

TYPE 4––WITH TWISTED SHANKS (Table. 7.4; Fig. 7.6) These pins are relatively narrow, pointed, and with an eyelet. They are 8.35–12.00 cm long. The distinctive feature of this type is that it is twisted on itself from the eyelet to the edge of the head. This may have been another method for coiling the cord that fastened the pin to the garment or shroud; or it may simply have been decorative. This type of pin is usually dated to the MB IIB period (Kempinski 1989:78). Seven pins of this type were found at Rishon le-Zion. Parallels have been found at other sites in the southern Levant (Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl. 107:11; Tufnell 1958: Pl. 24:12; 14; Kenyon 1965: Pls. 114:14; Pritchard 1963: Fig. 24:95, 98; and Sussman and Gophna 1969: Fig 9: 3–7).

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Basket 2383 2594 2614 2785 2830 2831 7170

Table 7.4 Toggle Pin Type 4 (Twisted Shanks) Locus Tomb Length D-Thick D-Hole Weight Description A6 206 8.55 0.4 0.25 2 Short A4 242 10.3 0.55 0.25 4.08 Short 201 A1 2 Fragments A10 256 3.3 0.3 Fragment A2 Short 248 8.35 0.4 0.2 A2 248 3.6 0.4 0.15 Short fragment F2 702 9.8

Figure 7.6:1

7.6:2 7.6:3

7.2.2 Scarab Rings Many scarabs were found at Rishon le-Zion, often having metal rings (Table 7.5). When only part of the ring survives, it is not always clear if it belongs to a scarab. The scarabs are published by D. Ben-Tor (Chapter 10, in this volume). The list of scarab rings in Table 7.5 is not comprehensive. 7.2.3 Other Jewelry Many simple rings or possibly earrings, made of metal coil, were found at Rishon le-Zion (Table 7.5; Figs. 7.7–9; Color Pl. 6:4). Most of them are not closed. Several rounded bands of metal, also not closed, were probably bracelets. One band with twisted edges that could have possibly been worn around the neck was also found on the neck of a burial in Tomb B81 (B6167). Most of these items are simple and lack decoration. They can be dated only generally to sometime in the MB II (see Tufnell 1958: Pl. 25:50; Khalil 1980: Fig 23:81–82; Bunimovitz 2000:277, Fig 13.9: 4–5; Gershuny and Aviam 2010:37, Fig 13:6; and Shalev 2010:35).

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502

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

Table 7.5: Other Jewelry, Varia Basket 177 2093 2152 2264 2447 2512 2544 2570 2615 2616 2626 2797 2850 2997 2998 3115 6001 6132 6167 6195 6496 6518a 6536 6765 6767 6857 7086 7133 7221 7267 7284 7317 7607 7728 8105 8112 8136 9172 9174 9281 9332

Locus 100 207 203 207 203 213 203 220 201 220 254 213 209 228 228 269 601 674 681 680 692 692 697 1029 1023 1035 722 722 735 738 716 729 746 709 764 759 769 1068 1072 1076 1099

Tomb D-Thick surface 0.2 A7 0.2 A3 0.3 A7 0.1 A3 A8 A3 A10 A1 0.4 A10 0.25 A4 0.2 A8 A9 0.15 A12 0.3 A12 0.2 A3 0.2 B14 1.5 B72 B81 8.5 B80 B92 1.8 B92 5 B97 B129 1.6 B123 B135 1.8-2.1 F11 F11 F4 0.1 F3 F9 1.5 F11 2 F7 F9 F1 F10 F4 B168 1.7 B172 1.5 B176 B199

Width

Length

1.7

1.5

1.7

2

0.3

Description Ring Ring, simple Ring of scarab B2031 Ring/earring, simple Ring of scarab B2152 Ring part scarab B2500? Ring of scarab, half Silver ring scarab B2571 Ring of scarab B2615 Ring of scarab B2616 Ring of scarab B2626 Tweezers Earring? Ring of scarab B2997 Ring of scarab B2998 Ring of scarab B3115 Ring/earring, simple Earring, found on skull Necklace? Ring/earring, on ribs Silver ring, simple Silver bracelet?, 5 rings Silver pieces Ring, simple 2 rings/earrings 2 earrings, on skull Ring (of scarab?) Ring of scarab B7133 Earring/ring? Part of ring (of scarab?) Ring (of scarab?) Ring and a bead Ring, simple Ring, broken Silver ring (of scarab?) Silver ring Metal pieces from section Ring/earring, thin 2 rings, simple Jewel on brow, silver Ring, simple

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Figure

7.7

7.8:1 7.8:2 7.9 7.8:3 7.8:4 7.8:5

7.8:6 7.8:7 7.8:8

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

503

Fig. 7.7: Tweezers B2979

1. B6132

5. B6857

2. B6195

6. B9172

3. B6765

7. B9174 Fig. 7.8: Rings

Fig. 7.9: Silver rings, B6518 © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

4. B6767

8. B9332

504

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

7.3 WEAPONS The large number and wide variety of weapons from the Rishon le-Zion tombs are impressive. Most of them were found on or next to the deceased. The weapons include battle axes, spears, daggers, knives, and metal belts. We arranged the finds by groups and types. The distribution, comparisons, and dating are discussed for each type. 7.3.1 Axes (Figs. 7.10–16; Table 7.6) Several types of axes were discovered at Rishon le-Zion. They were probably used in battle for penetration and for piercing (Burke 2008:43; Ziffer 1990:68). The axe blades were attached to handles through sockets. Altogether, 14 axes were found. Table 7.6 Axes No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Basket 7327 5077 6362 6418 6727 6854 9232 9247 9280 9293 9370 9418 8131 7849

Locus 743 506 654 656 1025 1037 1081 1085 1076 1086 1107 1118 769 755

Tomb F13 B6 B54 B56 B125 B137 B181 B185 B176 B186 B207 B218 F4 F3

Type Duckbill Socket 1 Socket 1 Socket 1 Socket 1 Socket 1 Socket 1 Socket 1 Socket 1 Socket 1 Socket 1 Socket 1 Socket 2 Socket 3

Weight 104.41 124

92.34 103.01

148.87 152.94

Width 4.2 1.7 1.9 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.3 3.5 3

Length 9.5 12.3 13 9 10.3 10.75 10.3 10 11.5 11.3 10.3 11 15.5 16.5

Figure 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14:1 7.14:2 7.14:3 7.14:4 7.14:5 7.14:6 7.14:7 7.14:8 7.15 7.16

FENESTRATED DUCKBILL AXE (Fig. 7.10; Color Pl. 10:2) The duckbill axe is a development of the fenestrated axe of an earlier period, probably devised by Syrian smiths from Byblos and Ugarit in the early MB IIA period to penetrate body armor (Bunimovitz 2000:267; Caspi et al. 2008:2). Description: Only one such axe was found, in Area F (L743 B7327; F13––not a shaft tomb). It has a socket and a semi-elliptical blade with two elliptic openings or ‘eyes’. The edge of the blade has incised decorations. A nail survived in the socket. Manufacturing: Most of the examples of duckbill axes are known from Byblos and Ugarit. Molds for these types of axes have been found at these two sites, supporting the idea that such axes originated in Byblos and Ugarit. This type of axe was made in double molds of stone, probably with clay cores to shape the sockets or by the lost-wax technique creating a clay mold (Philip 1989:49–51; 2006:138). After casting, the axe blade was hammered and annealed to strengthen it. Then the handle was inserted into the blade socket and secured with a nail (Shalev 2002:310, 2007a:111–112, 2009:70; El-Morr and Mödlinger 2014:32). Distribution and dating: Duckbill axes appear in MB IIA tombs in Levantine sites, dated between 1900 and 1750 BCE. Examples are those found in graves at Aphek and Gesher. They appear in northern Israel, Lebanon, coastal Syria, Anatolia, Cyprus, and Tell el-Dab‘a, and can indicate contacts between these areas. In the Levant, these axes are dated to the early MB IIA period. Duckbill axes went out of use by the middle of the eighteenth century BCE (Maxwell-Hyslop 1949:119, Type B4; Oren 1971: Fig: 2:4; 1973: Figs 24:15, 76:12; Yogev 1985: Fig 4:3; Philip 1989:49–51, Fig. 6; Ziffer 1990:68–70, Fig 36; Miron 1992:58–71; Damati and Stepansky 1996: Fig. 10:1; Birmingham 1977:117 Fig 1:A2; Bunimovitz 2000:267–268, Fig. 13.2:1–2; Shalev 2000:281; Shalev 2002:307–319, Fig 8.1; Doumet-Serhal 2003:40– 41:4; Philip 2006:32–33, 138–139; Shalev 2007a:109–112; Garfinkel and Cohen 2007:101–102).

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CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

505

Fig. 7.10: Duckbill axe B7327

NARROW-BLADED AXES (Table 7.6:2-14; Figs. 7.11–14) The narrow-bladed, elongated axe with a socket replaced the duckbill axe within the MB IIA period. The change probably reveals a need for a more efficient weapon (Ziffer 1990:71–72, Philip 2006:139). During the transition from the MB IIA to the MB IIB period, the axe changed slightly, with hooks now appearing near the socket. A greater change followed when the axe was shaped in the form of fingers. This form possibly originated in southern Anatolia (Philip 2006:134–141). Thirteen narrow-bladed axes with sockets were found at Rishon le-Zion. They are divided into subtypes according to Miron’s typology (1992:71–79): Narrow-Bladed Axe––Type 1 (Figs. 7.11–14; Color Pl. 10:3) Description: Narrow-bladed axe with notched shaft hole. This sub-type is common, with 11 examples. They all have narrow, elongated blades and a lower, cast depression near the socket for tying the axe to the handle behind the blade, between it and the socket. Manufacturing: The axes are 9.0–12.3 cm long and 1.3–1.9 cm wide. The blades were probably made in a stone or steatite mold; such molds are known from Megiddo, Byblos, and Tell el-Dab‘a (Shalev 2007a:112). After molding, the axe was taken out of the mold; its surface was polished and then heated and hammered, especially in the area of the blade, to achieve a greater degree of hardness. A wooden stick for the handle was inserted into the axe socket after manufacturing was completed (Shalev 2010:45; Shalev et al. 2014; Philip 2006:35). Distribution and dating: This type of axe is widely distributed in the Levant, from Tell Sukas in Syria to Tell el-Dab‘a in the Nile Delta of Egypt. Many comparisons are known from sites in Israel and the Lebanese coast (Miron 1992:71–74; 76, Pls. 16–17:258–288; Philip 1989:266, Fig. 1). This type is dated to the end of MB IIA and transition to the MB IIB period. Stone molds found in Megiddo and Tell elDab‘a indicate a distribution area matching the manufacturing area (Philip 2006:139).

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Fig. 7.11: Narrow-bladed axe B5077

Fig. 7.12: Narrow-bladed axe B6362

Fig. 7.13: Narrow-bladed axe B6418

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CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

507

1. B7627

2. B76854

3. B9232

4. B9247

5. B9280.

6. B9293

7. B9370

8. B9418

Fig. 7.14: Narrow-bladed axes

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For comparisons see Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl. 118, Fig. 3; Maxwell-Hyslop 1949:116, Type 24; Pritchard 1963:98, 20; Dever 1975: Fig. 1:7, Saidah 1993–1994: Pl. 2; Birmingham 1977:117 Fig 1:A1; Damati and Stepansky 1996: Fig. 11:3–5; Shalev 2000:281–282; Doumet-Serhal 2003:42; Philip 2006: 33–35; Garfinkel and Cohen 2007:101–109; Shalev 2007a:111–113; Shalev 2010:43–46. Narrow-Bladed Axe––Type 2 (Table 7.6:13; Fig. 7:15; Color Pl. 10:4) Description: Narrow-bladed, lugged chisel axe. One axe of this type was found in shaft Tomb F4 (B8131). It has four hooks for strengthening before and after the socket and a nail to strengthen the attachment of the handle to the socket. The blade widens toward the tip and is rounded at the tip. The axe measures 15.5x3.5 cm and weighs 148.87g. Manufacturing: The axes are very similar to Type 1 axes and were similarly manufactured, as can be seen in the molds found at Tell el-Dab‘a (Philip 2006: 193–194, Fig. 77, no. 300 and 7413). According to the curving signs seen on the mold it seems that it was used repeatedly. These axes went through hammering and annealing cycles after casting (Shalev et al. 2014). Distribution and dating: This type of axe replaced the former socket axe Type 1 in the middle of the eighteenth century BCE; that is, the MB IIA–MB IIB transition period. It was used in the first half of the seventeenth century (Ziffer 1990:71–72). Such axes are not as widely distributed as Type 1; they have been found from northern Israel to the Nile Delta (Philip 1989:40, 271, Fig. 2; 2006:140; Miron 1992:77). The Type 2 axe was in use until the end of the MB II period. For comparisons see Maxwell-Hyslop 1949:114, Type 23; Smith 1962: Pl. 17:40; Philip 1989:40; Pritchard 1963: Fig. 98:19; Miron 1992:71–72, 77–78, Pl. 18:289–302; Bunimovitz 2000:267–269; Figs. 13.2:3; Philip 2006:35–40, 138–141; Kenyon 1965: Fig. 111:15.

Fig. 7.15: Narrow-bladed axe B8131––Type 2

Narrow-Bladed Axes––Type 3 (Table 7.6:14; Fig. 7:16; Color Pl. 10:5) Description: Narrow bladed axe with concave socket and a hook. Only one such axe was found at Rishon le-Zion. The edges of the blade show incisions. Manufacturing: As the other types, this axe was made in a double mold made of stone and after casting the blade went through hammering and annealing cycles (Shalev et al. 2014). Distribution and dating: This rare type of axe was used from the middle of the eighteenth to the end of the seventeenth centuries BCE (Ziffer 1990:71–72), together with Type 2 (Philip 2006:140). Such axes have been found on the Levantine coast and in the Nile Delta. Comparisons: Philip 1989:65, 275; Fig. 3; Miron 1992:78–80, Pls. 18:304; 19:305–308; Philip 2006:40–41; 139–141.

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CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

509

Fig. 7.16: Narrow-bladed axes B7849––Type 3

To sum up, one duckbill axe (a type common in northern Israel and Lebanon) and 13 narrow-bladed axes have been found at Rishon le-Zion. Eleven of the 13 narrow-bladed shaft-hole axes are of Type 1, which is dated to the MB IIA and the transfer period of MB IIA–B. This is the largest concentration of this type found in Israel (Miron 1986–7:72–75; Shalev 2000:281–282). The sole examples of Types 2–3 should be dated to the MB IIB period (Philip 2006:138–141). The narrow-bladed axe with a socket seems to be a local development of the Levant. Similar axes appear in Mari and Alalakh, but they are rare in inland Syria and are mostly found in the coastal Levant (Philip 1989:43–44). According to the shape, it seems that such axes also had symbolic roles in the southern Levant (Philip 2006:140). 7.3.2 Socketed Spears (Table 7.7; Figs. 7.17–19) The spear was a weapon thrown at near to middle range. It was composed of a long wooden rod and a metal head. The typical MB IIA spearhead in the Levant found mainly in graves and had a central rib and a socketed shaft attached to a wooden handle (Yadin 1963:21; Ziffer 1990:75; Cohen 2005: 135–136). Description: Eight items related to spears were found at Rishon le-Zion. They are 6.5–14.1 cm long and are fairly similar to each other. During the MB II period, the relations between the lengths of the sockets and blades change––spearheads with short blades and long sockets appear side by side with spearheads with long blades and short sockets (Ziffer 1990:75). Perhaps they were used for different purposes, but no clear evidence for this was found (Cohen 2005:141). Manufacturing: A mold for spearheads from Tell el-Dab‘a (Philip, 2006: 171,176, fig 64: 3110 indicates that only the blade and part of the socket were cast in a mold, around a wax model or other flammable material. A second part was cast separately as a flat leaf of metal, later rolled around the wooden handle. Often, the spearhead was secured to the handle by a nail or an inner peg through the socket (Shalev 1997:349; 2010:46). Sometimes the edge of the socket was secured to the handle by twine bindings, or by using a metal strap (Philip 1989:88; 2006:176). Spearheads with fairly pointed tips (e.g., B8146) have almost equal length of socket and blade; the blade tapers towards the tip. The back part of the socket is thickened, probably to give extra strength. The three spearheads with blunt tips (e.g., B6215) have shorter blades and longer sockets. The blade’s shoulders are rounded as well as the blade’s sides. All the Rishon le-Zion examples are small (Philip 1989:93–94, Types 7–8). They were cast into molds that probably also had cores for creating part of the socket. The blades underwent cycles of hammering and annealing for strengthening, similar to spearheads from Fassuta and Gesher (Shalev 2007a:113; Shalev 2010:46). Distribution and dating: Most comparisons for such spearheads are from sites in Israel, the SyrianLebanese coast, and north Syria, dated to the MBIIA and early MBIIB (Dever 1975:23; Gerstenblith 1983:91; Tubb 1985:189; Shalev 1997:349; Cohen 2005:129–142). A few similar examples have been found in graves in Mesopotamia and Anatolia. Similar spearheads (with short blades) are seen in the hands of ‘Asians’ in Egyptian reliefs of the Twelfth Dynasty (twentieth–nineteenth centuries BCE).

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Later, larger spearheads appear. It seems that the spearheads in graves were part of an ensemble of warriors’ tools, which also included axes and daggers, perhaps signifying high status of warriors in the society (Philip 1989:99–100). For comparisons see: Guy and Engberg 1938: Pl. 118:8; Gerstenblith 1983: Fig 38:14, 17; Kenyon 1965: Fig. 111:16; Pritchard 1963: 161, Fig. 98:21; Oren 1971; Dever 1975: Fig 1:2 ; Yogev 1985: Fig 4:4–5; Philip 1989: Type 7, Fig 24:293; Damati and Stepansky 1996: Fig 13; Shalev 1997:348–349; Photo IV.C.1; Bunimovitz 2000:269–274, Figs. 13.6:1–3; 13.7:1–3; Gershuny and Aviam 2010:35; Philip 2006:60–69, 147–148; Saidah 1993–4: Pl. 14:3; Shalev 2000:278–287; Doumet-Serhal 2003:40–43; Shalev 2007a:113; Garfinkel and Cohen 2007:101–109; Shalev 2010:46. Table 7.7: Spears No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Basket 6215 6689 6690 8146 9204 9205 9265 9266

Locus 640 1017 1017 769 1074 1074 1084 1084

Tomb B39 B117 B117 F4 B174 B174 B184 B184

Length 10.7 14.1 6.5 11

Width 2.1 4 1.5 1.2

8 11 12.7

1.6 1.9 2.5

D/thick Weight 1.4 20.55 1.6 54.27 1.2 1.5 30.86 1.15 1.6 1.3

33.61 33.56

Figure 7.17 7.18 7.19:1

7.19:2 7.19:3 7.19:4

Note: B9265/1 is a 4-cm-long wood fragment, which may have been part of the rod of B9265.

Fig. 7.17: Spear B6215

Fig. 7.18: Spear B6689

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CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

1. B6690

2. B9205

3. B9265

4. B9266 Fig. 7.19: Spears

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511

512

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

7.3.4 Daggers (Tables 7.8–11; Figs. 7.20–36) Daggers were personal weapons used for stabbing and cutting at close range (Yadin 1963:93; Ziffer 1990:72–73; Burke 2008:43). They were composed of a metal blade and a hilt made most likely of organic material that was not preserved. Structural traces, mainly of wood, could sometimes be observed in the corroded surface of some of the blades’ shoulders. In some cases, near the presumed end of the original organic-based hilt, which did not survive, a stone pommel was found, as well as the metal rivets that originally secured the dagger’s metal blade to its organic (mainly wooden) hilt. The 77 daggers found at the Rishon le-Zion cemetery comprise the largest group from a single site available for study. These daggers can be classified into two main groups with eight types according to their shapes, sizes, and way of manufacture. Group A (Types 1 and 2) includes the decorated blades as determined by Philip (1989:117–122,435–436, Fig. 37, Type 13; 2006:42–47), while Group B (Types 3– 8) consists of flat, undecorated blades. All have parallels in Middle Bronze Age II burial sites in the southern Levant (Kan-Cipor – Meron et al. forthcoming). The two Type 9 daggers are different and have Late Bronze Age parallels. TYPE 1––DECORATED RIBBED DAGGERS (Table 7.8; Figs. 7.20–24; Color Pl. 7) There are 36 daggers with 3–5 ribs at Rishon le-Zion. Description: The ribs form protruding lines on the surface of the blade, joining into one point toward the tip. The dagger is leaf-shaped––the blade is curved at the sides and has a pointed tip. To strengthen the dagger, the center of the blade is thicker than the sides. The central midrib is doubled with a channel between the two ribs; the two central ribs develop into 3–5 ribs (Ziffer 1990:72–73). The ribs taper into the point and usually protrude above the surface. Their length varies from 15.5 to 25 cm and their width is 3.7–5.0 cm. Manufacturing: The ribbed daggers were probably cast in a double stone mold as has been found in Tell el-Dab‘a (Philip, 2006: 195, Fig 78:1, 4804). The daggers’ tangs varied in shape as a result of hammering and annealing. The tang has 1–3 holes for nails by which to attach it to the wooden handle. The nails often survive. After casting, the edges of the blades were also hammered and annealed, harden them. According to hardness analyses, the blades were hardened to 208 Hv on their edges (compared to 149 Hv on the center, Kan-Cipor – Meron et al. forthcoming). These daggers had a wooden or metal hilt with a spherical stone pommel. Distribution and dating: These daggers, which belong to the group with shaped blades (Philip 1989:117–122; 435–436, Fig. 37, Type 13; Philip 2006:42–47), were common all over the Levant in the MB IIA (Ziffer 1990:72–73). They are known from many sites at Byblos, Lebanon, Israel, and the Nile Delta. Most examples come from Israel and seem to be of a local, southern Levantine manufacture. Based on tombs from Tell el-‘Ajjul and other sites, these daggers should be dated to the end of the MB IIA and the early MB IIB (Philip 1989:117–118; Philip 2006:42–47, 142). One such dagger from Rishon le-Zion has three ribs, separated by a fishbone pattern of incised decoration (B9419, L1118; Fig. 7.24.5). A similar decorated dagger is known from Tell el-Dab‘a, although the decoration there is different (Philip 2006:45, Fig. 13). For comparisons see Guy and Engberg 1938: Pls. 118:5; 122:9; Maxwell-Hyslop 1946:25–26, Types 24–25; Pritchard 1963: Pl. 34:2; Fig 98:24; Dever 1975: Figs 1:1; 3:1; Gerstenblith 1983: Fig 40:1–7; Philip 1989: Fig 37:538; Damati and Stepansky 1996: Fig. 14:1–2; Bunimovitz 2000:269–272, Figs. 13.4:1–2; 13.5:1–2; Shalev 2000:278–287; Philip 2006:42–47, 142. TYPE 2––DECORATED DAGGERS WITH WIDE, THICK MIDRIBS (Table 7.9; Fig. 7.25; Color Pl. 8:1–2) Five daggers of this type were found at Rishon le-Zion. Description: In addition to their wide, thick midrib, all of these daggers have an elongated, pointed tip, angular shoulders, and a short rectangular tang with nailing holes. An incised line crosses the dagger slightly below the joint between the tang and the shoulders of the blade. This indicates the point of attachment of the handle. This type of dagger represents a continuation of ribbed daggers, albeit with one wide, shallow central midrib instead of the several ribs, as was the case in earlier such daggers. The blades were longer; but the use of stone pommels continued (Bunimovitz 2000:273). Manufacturing: The blades were probably cast in a double stone mold, similar to the molds found at Tell el-Dab‘a (Philip 2006:11, 185: Fig. 72), and then strengthened by cycles of hammering and annealing to the final shape. The blade was fastened to the hilt using a hammered tang with nails (Philip 2006:50, 141, 187; Kan-Cipor – Meron et al. forthcoming). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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513

Table 7.8: Ribbed Daggers (Type 1) No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Basket 155 5085 6084 6161 6194 6214 6310 6393 6394 6419 6554 6687 6724 6811 6828 6872 6924 6945 6955 6969 6974 7227 7603 8004 8077 9012 9045 9081 9114 9233 9246 9294 9383 9409 9419 6804

Locus 22 511 607 606

Tomb C7 B9 B24 B22

640 647 656 654 686 553 1015 1025 1031 1017 1037 1036 1048 1049 1050 1051 718 728 768 764 1055 1059 1064 1065 1081 1085 1086

B39 B47 B56 B54 B86 B103 B115 B125 B131 B117 B137 B136 B148 B149 B150 B151 F4 F11 F4 F1 B155 B159 B164 B165 B181 B185 B186

1108 1118 1017

B208 B218 B117

Weight 76.1 79.5 88.55 107.38

83

77.89

79.22

D/thick Width 0.5 3.7 0.5 4.5 0.7 4.8 0.8 4.1 4.5 4.2 0.7 4.3 4.5 4.5 4 4.4 4.5 4.5 5 4.5 4.4 4.2 4 4 4.2 4.4 4 3.8 4.1 4.3 3.4 4.3 4.2 4 4.1 0.5 4.5 4.7 5 4

Length 16.9 19.1 20 20 20 18.7 18 21.3 19.1 19 25 20.5 20.5 18.7 17.5 17.7 19.8 17.5 19.1 19.5 17 20 15.5 17.5 17.5 16.5 19.5 20 19.5 18.4 21 19.6 21 17.5

Ribs 5 5 5 3 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 5 3 3 3 5 5 3 5 5 3 5 ? 5 Broken 5 3 dec. ?

Figure 7.20:1 7.20:2 7.20:3 7.20:4 7.20:5 7.20:6 7.20:7 7.21:1 7.21:2 7.21:3 7.21:4 7.21:5 7.21:7 7.22:1 7.22:2 7.22:3 7.22:4 7.22:5 7.22:6 7.22:7 7.23:1 7.23:2 7.23:3 7.23:4 7.23:5 7.23:6 7.23:7 7.24:1 7.24:2 7.24:3 7.24:4 7.24:5 7.21:6

Notes: all have pommels except nos. 11, 17, 22, 24, 30, 32, and 33; dec. = decorated.

Table 7.9: Daggers with Wide, Thick Midrib (Type 2) No. 1 2 3 4 5

Basket 138 1086 6806* 7729 8029*

Locus Tomb Weight 100 Surface 85.5 107 A7 1017 B117 755 F3 768 F4

D/thick 0.45

Width 3.7

Length 19.8

Figure 7.25:1

4 3.6 4.6

19.4 24.7 19.5

7.25:2

Note: * found with a pommel.

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7.25:3

514

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

1. B155

2. B5085

3. B6084

4. B6161

5. B6214

6. B6310

7. B6393 Fig. 7.20: Daggers––Type 1

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CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

515

1. B6394

2. B6419

3. B6554

4. B6687

5. B6724

6. B6804

7. B6811 Fig. 7.21: Daggers––Type 1

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CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

1. B6828

2. B6872

3. B6924

4. B6945

6. B6969

7. B6974

5. B6955

Fig. 7.22: Daggers––Type 1

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CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

517

1. B7227

2. B7603

3. B8004

4. B8077

5. B9045

6. B9081

7. B9114 Fig. 7.23: Daggers––Type 1

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CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

1. B9233

2. B9246

3. B9249

4. B9409

5. B9419 Fig. 7.24: Daggers––Type 1

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CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

1. B138

2. B6806

3. B7729

4. B8209 Fig. 7.25: Daggers––Type 2

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520

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

Distribution and dating: Type 2 daggers appear in sites in Israel and in the Nile Delta (Philip 2006:47– 50, 143). The parallels are dated to the end of MB IIA and MB IIB periods. Outside the Levant, such daggers appear in Mesopotamia and Anatolia, but with a different type of hilt. These daggers, which replaced the ribbed daggers, are considered a ‘Hyksos’ type, shaped under a Syrian-Canaanite tradition. They were most likely a Syrian weapon taken to Egypt by the Hyksos (Bunimovitz 2000:272). Such daggers appear side by side with narrow-bladed socketed axes of Types 2–3 (above) in MB IIB graves (Ziffer 1990:72–73). References: Maxwell-Hyslop 1946:27, Type 26; Kenyon 1965: Fig. 111:3, 14; Philip 1989: Fig 39:674; Damati and Stepansky 1996: Fig. 15:1–2; Philip 2006:47–50, 143–145. The daggers of Types 3–8 are mostly undecorated and flat, as a result of their production process. It included casting, mostly in open molds, and then cycling of hammering and annealing in order to strengthen the blade. Their sizes and shape vary due to the thermomechanical treatment to which they were subjected (Kan-Cipor – Meron et al. in press). TYPE 3––FLAT-TANGED DAGGERS (Table 7.10; Figs. 7.26–28; Color Pl. 8:3–4) Eighteen daggers at Rishon le-Zion belong to this type. Description: These rounded point daggers typically have long, narrow tangs without nails. They were joined to the hilts by insertion into channels cut in the hilts. The pressure, perhaps with the addition of glue, held the parts together. The remains of the handles on the shoulders of the blades indicate that the handles covered the entire tang. This method is simpler than nailing, and the blades also appear simpler (Shalev 2002:311; Philip 1989:113–115). Manufacturing: It seems that such daggers were manufactured by casting into open molds, then subjecting them to massive hammering and annealing cycles (Shalev 2002:311; Shalev 2010:46). The blades are thin and undecorated, and have concave edges, probably indicating repeated sharpening and due to slicing usage unlike the former types that had pointed sharp point probably used for stabbing. Distribution and dating: These daggers have been found in various sites in Israel––at Fassuta, Kabri, Aphek, Lachish, Megiddo, Tell el-‘Ajjul, Beth Shean, and Ginnosar, among others––dated to the MB IIB period (Philip 1989:113–114, Type 10). Only a few such daggers are known from Syria. This type, or very similar types, continues into the Late Bronze Age. For comparisons see Maxwell-Hyslop 1946:29, Type 28; Tufnell 1958: Pl. 22:17; Kenyon 1965: Fig. 111:18; Pritchard 1963: Fig. 62:43; Stern 1984: Pl. 45:1; Shalev 1989:49–52; Damati and Stepansky 1996: Fig. 17:1; Shalev 2010:46; Gershuny and Aviam 2010:33–35. Three daggers from Rishon le-Zion (included in the count of the 18 daggers of Type 3) are slightly different: they have narrow, long straight tangs (B184; B6002; B1038). Some scholars define such daggers as a variant of flat-tanged daggers (Philip 1989:115, Type 11). It is hard to know to which exact type these daggers belong. They have narrow, but not very long tangs, and narrower blades. One of them (B1038) has convex rather than concave edges. All have rounded, flat blades. Since they lack signs of holes for nails, it seems that they were attached to the handle by stress. In addition to its appearance in grave near the deceased, this type of dagger found also on ceramic bowls aside with animal bones, indicating the cutting role of these daggers (instead of stabbing) as part of the funeral ceremony tools (Kan-Cipor – Meron et al. forthcoming).

Fig. 7.26: Dagger B184––Type 3

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CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

521

1. B1038

2. B1250

4. B2818

5. B3039

6. B3099

7. B3249

3. B1400

8. B6206 Fig. 7.27: Daggers––Type 3

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522

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

1. B6447

2. B6830

3. B6833

4. B7016

5. B7727

6. B8002

7. B8130

8. B8133

9. B9000 Fig. 7.28: Daggers––Type 3 © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

Fig. 7.29: Decorated dagger B7324 (Type 4)––side A (left) and side B (right)

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TYPE 4––BROAD-BLADED DAGGERS (Table 7.11:5; Fig. 7.29; Color Pl. 9:1–2) Only one dagger of this type was found at Rishon le-Zion (Table 7.11:5, Fig. 7.2; for the decoration of this item see Ziffer, Chapter 15, in this volume) Description: Broad-bladed flat dagger with round point and short wide tang It is a fairly large and wide (22.5 x 3.8 cm) dagger with a trapezoid tang. At its rear end two holes for nails have been preserved. Manufacturing: items of this type from Byblos were manufacture by casting into mold. After casting the blades went through hammering and annealing cycles to strengthen them (El-Morr and Pernot 2011). Distribution and dating: This type of dagger is widely common in MB IIA Israel, with comparisons from Byblos and Megiddo. It seems that its origins lie in third-Millennium BCE Syria. Philip (1989:131– 132, Type 30, Fig. 44; cf. Maxwell-Hyslop 1946:22) dates this type of dagger to the MB IIA and early MB IIB period. Table 7.10: Flat-Tanged Daggers (Type 3) No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Basket 184 1038 1250 1400 2818 3039 3099 3249 6202 6447 6830 6833 7016 7727* 8002 8130* 8133* 9000*

Locus Tomb 25 C1 100 Surface 100 Surface 115 A3 209 A9 259 A3 269 A3 268 A2 641 B49 694 B94 1033 B133 1022 B122 705 F5 755 F3 767 F4 769 F4 769 F4 1053 B153

Weight 22.7 59.09

D/thick 0.2 0.25 0.2

65

46.1

0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3

26.38

0.4

Width 3.4 4 3.9 4.5 5 5.4 4 4.5 3.8 4.8 3.4 4.1 4 4.3 5 4.5 4.5 3.3

Length 13.5 18.7 16.3 16.5 18.1 16.2 13.5 19 18 18.7 16.5 17.2 13.4 19.3 20 19.9 21 14.5

Figure 7.26 7.27:1 7.27:2 7.27:3 7.27:4 7.27:5 7.27:6 7.27:7 7.27:8 7.28:1 7.28:2 7.28:3 7.28:4 7.28:5 7.28:6 7.28:7 7.28:8 7.28:9

Notes: * found with a pommel. B6830 is a dagger attached to a belt.

Table 7.11: Wide-Bladed Daggers (Types 4–6) No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Basket 6420 6598 6803 6829 7324 8003* 8028* 8030* 9206 9239

Locus Tomb 692 B92 1001 B101 1017 B117 1017 B117 743 F13 768 F4 768 F4 768 F4 1075 B175 1076 B176

Weight 46.7 31.18

D/thick

Width 3.9 3.5 4.1

Length 16.5 14 14.5

82

0.3

3.8 3.6 3.7 3.8 4 3.3

22.5 17.5 18.1 15.2 16 15.5

Type 6 6 5? 5 4

Figure 7.31

5 5 5 6

7.30:2

7.30:1 7.29

7.30:3 7.32

Notes: * found with a pommel. More pommels, found without clear relation to daggers, include B7321, B7482, B7914, B7919, B7921 and B8121.

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525

1. B6829

2. B8028

3. B8030

4. B9206 Fig. 7.30: Daggers––Type 5

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TYPE 5–– BROAD-BLADED DAGGERS WITH RECTANGULAR BLADES (Table 7.11:4, 7–9) Six daggers from Rishon le-Zion belong to this type (Fig. 7.30) Description: a dagger with a wide, triangular blade with concave or straight edges. The tip is pointed, the tang is short and wide and riveted by nails to the hilt. The tang is semicircular and has 2–3 nails. The daggers of Type 5 look like a simple imitation of the ribbed dagger Type 1 (Philip 1989:132–133, Type 31; Philip 2006:52–53). Manufacturing: The blade was cast and then the tang, which was not cast as part of the dagger, was attached by hammering and annealing; hence the different shapes and size of tangs. Distribution and dating: Comparisons to this type are mostly found in the southern Levant in the MB IIA and early MB IIB. See Maxwell-Hyslop 1946:22, Types 20–21; Philip 1989:132–133, Type 31; Bunimovitz 2000:270–272, Figs. 13.4:4–5; 13.5:4–5; Shalev 2000:278–287; Philip 2006:52–53. TYPE 6––WITH WIDE, TRIANGULAR BLADES; NO PROTRUDING TANGS (Table 7.11:1–2, 10) Three such daggers have been found at Rishon le-Zion (Figs. 7:31–32). Description: The rear end is concave or straight, the handle was attached to the blade by two nails located at the two sides or ‘shoulders’ of the blade (Shalev1997:349; Philip 1989:134–135; Philip 2006:143). Manufacturing: The blade is very thin and after casting went through hammering and annealing cycles (Shalev 2006:135). Since the point is mostly rounded it seems the blade was not used for stubbing, but for cutting. Distribution and dating: Comparisons to this type are known mainly from MB IIB Israel, from Tell elDab‘a and Tell el- Far‘ah in the south to Safed in the north. See Maxwell-Hyslop 1946:20, Type B17; Damati and Stepansky 1996: Fig. 17:2; Shalev 1997:349, Photo IV.C.2; Bunimovitz 2000:272, Figs. 13.4:6; 13.5:6; Shalev 2000:278–287.

Fig. 7.31: Dagger B6598––Type 6

Fig. 7.32: Dagger B9239––Type 6

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TYPE 7––WITH ELONGATED, FLAT, QUITE NARROW BLADES (Table 7.12; Fig. 7.33; Color Pl. 9:3) Two daggers from Rishon le-Zion belong to this type. Description: These daggers have triangular shape and have long, narrow tangs with a row of holes for nails. The tang was entered into a notch in the hilt and then nailed to it. This method of connection to the hilt is typical for this type (Shalev 1997:349). Manufacturing: These daggers were cast into an open mold and went through cycles of massive hammering and annealing that create their different shapes and sizes (Shalev 1997:349). Distribution and dating: Such daggers appear in Syria in the early MB IIA period. In the southern Levant (Megiddo, Tell el-‘Ajjul) and Egypt (Tell el-Yahudiyeh) they are dated to the MB IIB. See Maxwell-Hyslop 1946:27–28, Type 27; Loud 1948:178, Pl:9; Gerstenblith 1983: Fig 39:5–6; Philip 1989:136–137, 482–484; Type 35, Fig. 52; Bunimovitz 2000:270–272, Figs. 13.4:3; 13.5:3. TYPE 8––SIMPLE, FLAT-BLADED DAGGERS WITH ROUND TROUGH (Table 7.13; Figs. 7.34– 35) Four daggers of this type were found at Rishon le-Zion. Description: daggers with ‘simple’ blades that have straight edges, which taper toward the rounded tip. The shoulders of the blade that join the tang are rounded. There are two holes for nails. The width of the tang varies according to the location of the nailing holes. Often the nails survive, as has one flattened stone pommel (Philip 1989:135–136). Manufacturing: these daggers were cast in an open mold and subjected to massive hammering and annealing that create their different shapes and sizes. Distribution and dating: the distribution of this type is mainly from the northern Levant with some parallels from Cyprus and Ras Shamra/Ugarit, where they are dated by the Cypriot pottery found next to them to the MB IIB. It is not clear if such daggers were made at Ugarit or in Cyprus; but they probably replaced the daggers with the wide, shallow central rib. For comparisons see: Philip 1989:135–136, 474–478, Type 33, Fig. 51; Doumet-Serhal 2003:47:13 ; Getzov and Nagar 2002:12; Fig 10:1; Saidah 1993–1994: Pl.9: 4, 10:1– 2; Bunimovitz 2000:269–270, Fig 13.4:4; Shalev 2000:278, Table 13.1:17. Table 7.12: Daggers with Flat, Narrow Blades (Type 7) No. 1 2 3

Basket 6807 7304 7305

Locus 1017 742 742

Tomb B117 F2 F2

Width

Length

3.7 2.4

22.6 16

State Broken Good Slightly damaged

Figure 7.33:1 7.33:2

Table 7.13: Daggers with Simple, Flat Blades (Type 8) No. 1 2 3 4

Basket 5094* 6805* 6824* 9303

Locus 506 1017 1031 1086

Tomb B6 B117 B131 B186

Weight 0.35

Width 4 3.5 3.2 3

Length 16 16.5 15 17.3

Type 8 8 8 8

Figure 7.34 7.35:1 7.35:2 7.35:3

Note: *found with a pommel.

TYPE 9––DAGGERS WITH FLANGED HILTS (Table 7.14; Fig. 7.36:1–2; Color Pl. 9:4) Two daggers at Rishon le-Zion belong to this rather peculiar-shaped type. Description: the edges of the blades are folded at a 90-degree angle, creating a channel along the dagger for inserting the hilt. This type of dagger may have been used more as a tool than a battle dagger (Philip 1989:122, 449, Type 20, Fig. 41). Distribution and dating: Late Bronze Age (?). Comparisons appear mainly in southern Israel of the MB IIB period, but it seems that the same type continued into the Late Bronze Age (Stewart 1974:56; Price-Williams 1977:151; Shalev 2004:41).

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1. B6087

2. B7304 Fig. 7.33: Daggers––Type 7

Fig. 7.34: Dagger B5094––Type 8

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529

1. B6805

2. B9206

3. B9303 Fig. 7.35: Daggers––Type 8

Table 7.14 Daggers with Flanged Hilts (Type 9) and Unclassified Daggers No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Basket 1515 9165 6642* 6808 9203 9295 9279*

Locus 114 1069 1007 1017 1074 1090 1076

Tomb A3 B169 B107 B117 B174 B190 B176

D/thick 0.2

37.51

Width 4.2 3.2

Length 12.3 14.6

3.8 2.2 4.5 4.5

23 19.7 16 19.5

Type 9 9 Wide blade? Ribs? Broken ? ?

Fig. 7.36:1 7.36:2

++ 7.36:3 7.36:4

Note: *found with a pommel.

7.3.5 Pommels Many stone pommels were found in the tombs near the daggers. They were most likely attached to the handles, which did not survive. The pommels are spherical, flattened on one side, and have a socket and holes for nails. For such pommels see Damati and Stepansky 1996: Fig. 16:1; Sussman 1966: Fig. 3:1; Epstein 1974: Fig. 18:3; Khalil 1980: Fig 13:17, 20–21, 23, 26; Philip 2006:56–59, Fig 21:1–9; Kenyon 1965: Fig. 111:1–5.

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1. B1515

2. B9165

3. B9295

4. B9279 Fig. 7.36: Daggers––Type 9 and Unclassified

7.3.6 Knives (Table 7.15; Figs. 7.37–38; Color Pl. 10:1) Eighteen knives (and a few more possible fragments of knives) were found at Rishon le-Zion. They have curved blades and pointed tips. The rear edges are blunt, trapezoid in shape, and have three holes for nails for securing the handles. In some cases the remains of the handles are visible on the blades, and the nails are at times preserved. Unlike daggers, the knives have only one sharp edge; hence, they were used for cutting and not for stabbing. Knives are fairly common at Rishon le-Zion, and may have been related to burial customs (cutting of meat as burial gifts/sacrifices). Such knives are common in sites in the southern Levant and the Nile Delta. Examples are also known from northern Israel (Damati and Stepansky 1996:15, Fig. 17:3) and Transjordan (Philip 2006:149–150). They are also known in Byblos. The shape of the knives did not change much from the end of the MB IIA until the transition to the Late Bronze Age. Similar knives have been found also in tombs of the Late Bronze Age, probably until the LB II period. Comparisons: Kenyon 1965: Fig. 111:9, 12, 17; Doumet-Serhal 2003:52; Philip 1989: Fig 55:1261, 1269; Pritchard 1963: Pl. 24:93; Stern 1984: Pl. 31:9; Philip 2006:69–77.

Fig. 7.37: Knife B2962

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531

1. B6146

2. B6915

3. B6146

4. B6915 Fig. 7.38: Knifes

Table 7.15: Knives No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Basket 352 486 1195 1196 2231 2886 2962 3259 6146 6855 6915 7458 7471 7661 7781 7784 7847 9159

Locus 47 20 100 100 229 250 262 277 606 1037 1043 721 739 728 761 761 763 1062

Tomb C4 C6 surface surface ? A8 A10 A B22 B137 B143 F3 F7 F11 F12 F12 F9 B162

Weight 6.4 19.5 1.3 0.8 5.8

D/thick 0.15 0.15 0.35 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.15

40.05

0.2

19 0.5 15.6 14.2 4.74

0.05 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.15

Width

Length 12.3

2.3 1.6 0.8 2.3 1.7 2.3 1.8 2.2

2 2.6 11.3 5.8 15.7 5.7 17.5

1.3 1.5 1.1

9.5 12.5 2.1

1.5 1.5

10.7 4.9 11

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Figure

7.37 7.38:1 7.38:2 7.38:3 7.38:4

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CHAPTER 7. METAL FINDS

7.4 DISCUSSION The metal finds discussed here include 341 items made of alloys of copper (copper/arsenic; copper/tinbronze). They include 14 axes, 92 daggers, several parts of belts (some of them still holding daggers), eight spearheads, 19 knives, 171 toggle pins, and 37 other pieces of jewelry (mainly rings and earrings). The variety and preservation of the metal items are impressive. The best data about contexts of metal items comes from Areas B and F, and these areas yielded many metal items. Therefore our conclusions here are based mainly on these two areas. In Area B, metal finds come from 58 pit tombs. There seems to be a separation between tombs that have weapons and tombs that have jewelry. Tombs with weapons are mostly single tombs of adults (aged 15–45). The most typical weapon in Area B is the ribbed dagger (in 27 tombs), usually placed at or near the pelvis of the deceased. In nine cases a narrow-bladed axe (type 1) was also found near the head of the deceased. The wooden handles of the axes were probably placed along the body, but they did not survive. These weapons are dated by comparisons to the end of the MB IIA and the early MB IIB (Philip 1989:117–118) and may indicate the general date of the Area B pit tombs (Levy 2005). In some tombs in Area B other types of daggers or small spearheads were also found. The spearheads were always found in tombs that also had daggers. Knives were often found in tombs that had daggers, but usually near animal remains, perhaps indicating that the knives had been used to slice animal offerings. In five tombs there were five flat-tanged daggers (one per tomb). In some of these tombs no other weapons were found. These daggers were placed at/near the pelvis of the deceased or near animal remains. These daggers date mostly to the MB IIB (Philip 1989:113–115). In addition, it is interesting to note that no human bones were found in Locus 117 (Area B), though this locus revealed numerous pottery finds along with many metal tools: eight daggers of various types, one narrow-bladed axe (Type 1), and a spearhead. These finds might imply the presence of a storage pit for funeral artifacts, which could have had various functions. In the Area B tombs only six toggle pins were found (in six tombs); four of them wedge-shaped, one with a globular, incised head, and one an unclassified fragment. The pins were located near the chest or shoulder of the deceased, indicating their role in closing clothes or shrouds. In four out of the six tombs that had a toggle pin, there were no weapons. Various tombs in Area B revealed jewelry––rings, necklaces, earrings, etc., usually found on remains identified as children (up to 12 years of age). The children were placed in similar positions to adults and with similar finds of pottery and animal remains, but with jewelry rather than with weapons. All the weapons––axes, daggers and spearheads––were found in a consistent pattern near or on the skeletons. A similar phenomenon has been noted in numerous graves throughout the Levant with adult burials that are considered ‘warrior burials’, and attributed to a social class, or an aristocratic (?) status group within Middle Bronze Age society (Garfinkel 2001:143,157; Philip 1989; 1995; 2006; Hallote 1995; 2001; Shalev 2009; however, see Kletter and Levy 2016; and Chapter 16.8, in this volume). In Area F, mostly an area of shaft tombs, metal finds were found in practically every tomb. They included c. 70 toggle pins (some fragmented), placed on bodies or in secondary heaps that were pushed aside when new burials were added. Most of the pins (52) are elongated and nail-shaped; only two have twisted shanks and five are thick or have globular heads. The toggle pins in area F were found with burials of both adults and children. Area F also revealed burials with weapons, including 17 daggers of various types found with at least 10 adult burials (in some cases the age of the deceased is unknown). In three cases the weapons were found with other objects and not near/on the bodies. In Area F, a burial that was found with a ribbed dagger had no other weapon. Adult burials with other types of daggers were often also accompanied by toggle pins, axes, etc. Sixty-one scarabs were found in Area F, dating the burials mainly to the early MB IIB with a few later MB IIB items (see Ben-Tor, in this volume). It is probable that the shaft burials of Area F are family burials. The shaft tombs are dated to a range from the end of the late MB IIA into the MB IIB (Levy 2005, cf. Chapter 6, in this volume). Such a date fits in general the date of the metal finds––as most of the toggle pins from this area fit the MB IIB period. There are also very few ribbed daggers and Type 1 axes in Area F, while other weapons typical of the MB IIB period appear. Thus it would seem that the Area B pit burials, with their many ‘warrior’ tombs, are earlier than the Area F shaft burials (‘warrior’ tombs are mainly an MB IIA phenomenon, decreasing in the MB IIB period; Philip 1989:151; Philip 1995b). The tradition of ‘warrior’ burials with daggers, axes and belts was a common one, which appeared over wide areas and cultures (Philip 1989:163). The Beni Hasan tomb in Egypt shows a warrior holding a spear in one hand, an axe in the other and wearing a belt on his hips with a dagger in it. This was probably a set of personal weapons, which accompanied the warrior in death as they had in life.

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The metal items from Rishon le-Zion have comparisons mainly in the southern Levant, but also from inland and coastal Syria and Cyprus (Philip 1989:198–216; Kassiandou and Knapp 2005; Keswani 2005).

7.5 METALLURGICAL EXAMINATIONS During the MB II, both copper based arsenic alloyed and tin-bronze were used for metal items. The composition of the alloy can indicate various functions and meanings of the items. Copper, used from earlier times for manufacture of weapons, was too soft; therefore, an alloy was needed for additional strength during the hammering and annealing of the tools after casting (Renfrew and Bahn 1991:299). Arsenic copper hardened the tools but created some problems, which were solved with the use of tincopper, that is, tin-bronze. At best, the addition of 10–14% tin to the copper lowered the melting temperature below 1000 degrees Celsius, improved the pouring of the metal into the molds and resulted in a hard metal even without hammering and annealing. Thus, the use of tin-bronze eased production and led to a rise in quality and quantity of finds. Nevertheless, tin-bronze appears side by side with arseniccopper (Shalev 2007b:135; 2008b:53; 2009; Marcus 1998; Raymond 1986:10–30). It is possible that various tools were produced from various alloys, according to their desired functions (practical functions or status-related). Their use may also hint at economic status. The composition and the production of the tools affected their shapes and functions, as part of a complex set of societal messages about the significance and status of those who were buried with them (Philip 1989:152; Shalev 1997; 2000; 2008). Earlier studies did not find a clear correlation between the type of alloy (arsenic copper or tin-bronze, sometimes with addition of lead) and the various vessel/tool types, chronology, and specific geographic regions (Shalev 2007b:135). 7.5.1 Methodology To analyze the chemical composition and manufacturing modes of the metal items from Rishon le-Zion, several laboratory examinations were carried out by Sariel Shalev, partly at Weizmann Institute and partly at Oxford University. Further analyses were made by various scholars, discussed below (Shalev, Shilstein and Levy 2008; Caspi et al. 2008; Shalev et al. 2014). METALLOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS (Table 7.16) Metallographic analysis was conducted on 31 samples from 23 items from Rishon le-Zion, which represent most of the types of the metal items. The samples were taken by cutting a minute solid metal sample close to the surface by hand with the aid of a jewel’s saw. The mode of sampling was chosen according to size and preservation condition of the finds in order to minimize visible damage to the artifact. The samples were hot-mounted in acrylic mixed with copper powder, then ground and polished to 1 micron. The surface of the polished samples was then etched for metallographic examination with ammoniac hydrogen peroxide or ferric chloride and hydrochloric acid diluted in water or ethanol. An optical metallographic microscope with magnification of up to 1000 X was employed in order to examine the microstructure of the metal preserving the cast properties as well as any further thermal treatment of the object (Shalev 2007a:109–111). The sampling was performed at the Weizmann Institute. METALLURGICAL ANALYSIS (Tables 7.17–18) The chemical analysis of the artifacts was conducted with the CAMEBAX electron probe micro analyzer (EMPA) at the Department of Materials, Oxford University (Table 7.17). Independently, the excavators sent a few items for Atomic Absorption Spectometry (AAS) to measure the relative quantity of each element in the metal component (Table 7.18). These examinations were made by Neta Halperin of the Tel Aviv University Institute of Archaeology, and compared with ours. As we will explain (below), the results indicated corrosion in all the samples (for the method cf. Shalev 2000:278). Hardness testing of the material was made by using a Vickers diamond pyramid-shaped tester at the Weizmann Institute (results presented in Table 7.16). Some metallographic analysis of metal items from Rishon le-Zion were made earlier by Eli Hadad of the Israel Antiquities Authority under the guidance of Shalev as part of his MA studies. The results are included in the present chapter. Other analyses of these objects tested by ED-XRF can be found in Shalev, Shilstein and Levy 2008; Caspi et al. 2010; Shalev 2014; Kan-Cipor – Meron et al. in press.

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Table 7.16: List of Samples and Micro-Hardness Results Sample RL1 RL2 RL3 RL4 RL5 RL6 RL7 RL8 RL9 RL10 RL11 RL12 RL13 RL14 RL15 RL16 RL17 RL18 RL19 RL20 RL21 RL22 RL23 RL24 RL25

Basket 6146 6146 6084 6084 7016 7016 6161 6161 9246 9246 7847 6215 2949 517 1039 2900 7646 7830 2816 7695 2830 2594 7917 7902 2026

Type Knife Knife Dagger Dagger Dagger Dagger Dagger Dagger Dagger Dagger Knife Spear Toggle pin Toggle pin Toggle pin Toggle pin Toggle pin Toggle pin Toggle pin Toggle pin Toggle pin Toggle pin Toggle pin Toggle pin Toggle pin

Sample + location Tip of whole knife Rear of whole knife Point Shoulder edge Tip of tang Tip of fragment Point Shoulder edge Point Joint of blade to tang Rear edge Rear blade Tip Tip Edge of fragment Edge of fragment Edge of fragment Edge of fragment Edge of broken tip Edge of broken tip Broken tip Broken tip Broken front edge Broken front edge Broken front edge

Hardness 1 169

Hardness 2 192

Hardness 3 167

201 155

204 171

219 121

91

104

94.9

113 149 134 110

119 163 148 124

150 173 153 122

133 214

116 140

141 166

144 195 90.5

162 154 78

185 196 123

188

108

125

7.5.2 Results Nineteen out of the 31 samples tested with electrons and optical microscopes gave metallurgical results; the rest were defined as corrosive. These 19 samples came from 16 items. The results are as follows: Ribbed daggers (RL3–10) are made of tin-bronze with various levels of tin, usually 5.10–13.26%. They have less arsenic (1.3%). Sometimes a small quantity of lead was found, along with impurities. The tip of these daggers was fully homogenized after cycles of hammering and annealing, and it was hammered in the last stage (Fig. 7.39). A comparable tin-bronze alloy in such daggers was found at Aphek-Antipatris (Shalev 2000:278–287). Further analysis by XRF of ribbed daggers from Rishon leZion indicate that 13 daggers were made of tin-bronze, while five were made of arsenic copper. Another large group of 14 daggers are of mixed alloys (Shalev, Shilstein and Levy 2008:53). Hence, ribbed daggers are not homogeneous––the shape of the dagger was more important than the exact composition of its metal. This strengthens the view that such ribbed daggers were used more as signs of high status than as actual weapons. A tanged dagger (RL27–28) shows a varying degree of tin (if any) (0–13.2%); and a varying degree of arsenic (0.6–2.0%). These samples showed equiaxed grains, some of them elongated toward the surface and slightly twisted; twinning and slip traces are visible as well. They indicate that the dagger had been subjected to homogenization, heating and annealing, and that these processes took place in the final stage hammering. AAS analysis of such daggers shows also lack of uniformity––the tin varies between 0 and 2.96% and the arsenic 0.6–2.4%. Such tanged daggers were used for slicing rather than for stabbing, and therefore perhaps their composition may not have been highly important, and they may have been made from recycling of older metals. This can be seen in a dagger from Fassuta, which has a lead content of 2.7%. It has many comparisons from Kabri, Aphek, Lachish, and Tell el-Ajjul. These daggers were made in open molds and underwent cycles of hammering and annealing (Shalev 2010:46). The chemical composition supports the assumption that they were used as knives for slicing, and not as objects manifesting social status.

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Table 7.17: Scanning Microscope Analysis Sample+ location RL1 knife tip RL2 knife rear RL3 dagger tip RL3 dagger tip RL4 dagger shoulder RL4 dagger shoulder RL5 dagger shoulder RL6 dagger tang RL7 dagger tip RL8 dagger shoulder RL9 dagger tip RL10 dagger joint RL11 knife rear RL12 spear wing RL13 pin tip RL15 pin fragment RL16 pin fragment RL17 pin fragment RL18 pin fragment RL19 pin fragment tip RL20 pin fragment tip RL21 pin fragment RL22 pin fragment RL24 pin fragment RL25 pin fragment RL26 pin ring RL28 dagger shoulder RL29 belt coil RL30 belt ring RL31 belt ring

No.* 4 1 3 2 3 1 4 2* 2* 5 1* 5 5 4 5 5 5 2* 2* 4 5* 5 2* 4* 5 2* 5 5 2* 2*

Fe 0.09025 0.044 0.336 0.056 0.056 0.049 0.302 0.0065 0.026 0.0206 0.014 0.1568 0.0084 0.09375 0.3034 1.9138 0.1132 0.6615 3.911 0.17975 0.0622 0.2046 0.361 0.0876 0.183 0.3418 0.0558 0.041 0.0175

Co 0.01825 0.021 0.0173 0.0075 0.0073 0.025 0.0053 0.0125 0.0035 0.0104 0 0.0124 0.0002 0.0105 0.0242 0.009 0.0104 0 0.012 0.02525 0.0168 0.0078 0.0155 0.01525 0.013 0.013 0.0084 0.013 0 0.007

Ni 0.05125 0.009 0.056 0.0275 0.0516 0.083 0.0305 0.005 0.024 0.0256 0 0.0124 0.032 0.09025 0.0986 0.0252 0.044 0.018 0.064 0.1555 0.0668 0.0406 0.0025 0.03625 0.0368 0.013 0.0296 0.018 0 0.0095

Cu 92.784 98.678 91.185 88.59 91.805 85.718 91.744 99.611 85.0015 91.5102 97.596 88.6008 88.1172 89 95.7514 94.362 91.3028 86.0135 81.627 94.592 89.195 96.3164 82.69 82.435 92.439 82.706 96.961 90.1734 99.629 96.514

Zn 0.0725 0 0.06 0 0.015 0 0.0705 0.0165 0 0.0098 0 0.0056 0.0032 0.012 0.0144 0 0.042 0.16 0.096 0.06 0.009 0 0.008 0.0175 0.005 0.016 0.0036 0.0136 0 0.0115

As 0.50475 0.021 0.202 0.222 0.1663 0.293 2.099 0.029 0.014 0.0172 0.002 0.111 0.3508 0.19775 3.0682 2.4402 0.5148 1.3465 5.5795 0.73475 0.0486 3.1476 0.1915 0.42975 0.199 1.026 1.9886 0.4728 0.001 0.08

Note: No* = number of samples taken from the item.

The one spearhead that was examined (RL-12) was made of good-quality tin-bronze (11% tin, 0.2% arsenic and some lead). The material underwent hammering and annealing at relatively high temperatures for a long time. This resulted in equiaxed grains and large amorphic grains. Near the blade, distortedshaped grains are visible with slip traces, evidence of final cold-worked area. The composition of the metal may indicate that the spearhead was used as a weapon. Similar composition of tin-bronze, though not as good, was found in spearheads from Fassuta, Megiddo, and Aphek (6.7–7.7% tin without lead, but with some impurities and arsenic). All of these spearheads, as well as the one from Rishon le-Zion, were made in a closed mold, then hammered and annealed to thin and harden the blades (Shalev 2010:46; 2000:278–287). The use of tin-bronze for spearheads may relate to their function in war, which necessitated strong metal if they were to be used several times for throwing/stabbing. Curved knifes (RL1–2, 12) were made of tin-bronze (0.43–11.3% tin, 0–2% arsenic), sometimes with a little lead––the tip of the knife was fully homogenized (by heating), and was then subjected to consecutive cycles of hammering and annealing. Final cold work was performed only in the blade area (Fig. 7.40). The analysis of the knives indicates lack of homogeneous composition; perhaps it was not important for the functions of this type of tool. The composition of wedge-shaped toggle pins varies. One sample (RL13) shows 3.06% arsenic without tin. The material was not fully homogenized, but did undergo extensive hammering and annealing under high temperatures, creating relatively large amorphic grains. There are no signs of final cold work. A fragment of another wedge-shaped toggle pin (RL15) shows 2.44% arsenic and 0.105% tin, some lead, and 2% iron and copper sulphides. This pin underwent homogenization, hammering and annealing; there are no traces of final cold work. It was not heated much, and crystals did not fuse together.

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Table 7.17 (Continued): Scanning Microscope Analysis Sample+ location RL1 knife tip RL2 knife rear RL3 dagger tip RL3 dagger tip RL4 dagger shoulder RL4 dagger shoulder RL5 dagger shoulder RL6 dagger tang RL7 dagger tip RL8 dagger shoulder RL9 dagger tip RL10 dagger joint RL11 knife rear RL12 spear wing RL13 pin tip RL15 pin fragment RL16 pin fragment RL17 pin fragment RL18 pin fragment RL19 pin fragment tip RL20 pin fragment tip RL21 pin fragment RL22 pin fragment RL24 pin fragment RL25 pin fragment RL26 pin ring RL28 dagger shoulder RL29 belt coil RL30 belt ring RL31 belt ring

Sb 0.007 0 0/015 0.007 0.006 0.003 0.0382 0.0145 0 0 0.013 0.0096 0.0028 0.203 0.0588 0.0252 0.0555 0.2995 0.0475 0 0.071 0.145 0.013 0.0042 0.002 0.1304 0.0118 0.027 0.005

Sn 6.02375 1.157 8.385 10.419 7.819 12.268 5.164 0.007 13.261 7.934 1.288 10.2004 11.3062 11 0.1186 0.105 7.2502 11.443 0.114 4.00525 9.5052 0.022 15.9325 15.429 7.0656 15.678 0.3788 8.9184 0.265 0.0025

Ag 0.049 0 0 0 0 0 0.0115 0.0005 0 0.008 0.017 0 0 0 0.0268 0.019 0.0032 0 0.054 0.0065 0.0052 0.0576 0 0 0.0172 0 0.0248 0 0 0

Bi 0.012 0 0.0146 0.063 0.0186 0.049 0.0187 0 0.0155 0.0278 0 0.0378 0.0458 0.0135 0.029 0.0302 0.0102 0.039 0 0.029 0.0128 0.0014 0.0265 0.00975 0.0028 0.2705 0.027 0.0158 0.008 0.055

Pb 0.075 0.059 0.0413 0.5525 0.03 1.371 0.5112 0.1655 1.5265 0.3716 1.055 0.7874 0.078 0.284 0.2362 0.6576 0.6178 0.2025 0.0765 0.11525 1.0444 0.081 0.6445 1.30225 0.084 0.0465 0.0474 0.1826 0 3.261

Au S 0.09175 0.04525 0 0.012 0.067 0.009 0.008 0.0475 0.0236 0 0 0.14 0.04 0.0132 0.054 0.017 0.057 0.0715 0.0566 0.009 0 0.014 0.0366 0.0204 0.0356 0.027 0.03825 0.017 0.1092 0 0.379 0.0542 0.0596 0 0.06 0 8.166 0.025 0.07825 0.0212 0.0118 0.022 0.0288 0.0725 0.0415 0.00775 0.3082 0.0178 0.0344 0.0465 0.0465 0.0158 0.0456 0.0324 0.0922 0.0095 0.013 0.0155 0.0225

Note: No* = number of samples taken from the item.

Another wedge-shaped pin (RL16) contains 7.2% tin, 0.51% arsenic and impurities of iron, lead, and sulphur. This sample shows intergranular corrosion, eqwiaxed grains, twinning, and toward the surface area a slight distortion of the grains including some slip traces. This object was hammered and annealed. The final annealing turned some of the grains amorphic due to high temperatures over a long period of time; the inner part does not show any hammering. The tip of another wedge-shaped pin (RL19) included 4% tin, 0.7% arsenic, and impurities of Iron, Nickel, Lead and sulphur. Surface and interdendritic corrosion was observed, along with equiaxed grain-twinning. No slip traces were visible and no distortion in the grains is detected. In the inner part, large amorphic grains were visible showing over heating during the annealing process. There are no signs of final cold work. AAS analysis of other wedge-shaped toggle pins also shows lack of uniform composition. The conclusion is that since toggle pins were not used as weapons, their hardness was not crucial, and therefore, their composition did not have to be uniform. The shape was the important aspect for this clothing accessory, and enough hardness was probably achieved by cycles of hammering and annealing. The wide distribution of pins in the tombs indicates that they were used by the entire population. A similar picture is seen in pins from Kabri (Shalev 1989:43–45), which also lack uniformity in the amount of tin. Pins were probably made from recycling older fragments of various items––the same is true for pins from Jericho and Aphek-Antipatris (Shalev 1989:43–45; Shalev 2002:314–316; Shalev 2000:278–287). The same picture emerges with regard to toggle pins with twisted shanks. A sample of such a pin (RL21) shows 3% arsenic and no tin. The sample shows deep surface corrosion. Another sample was also corrosive, but with 15.93% tin and 0.19% arsenic (RL22). Thus, this type of toggle pin is also not uniform in composition.

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Table 7.18: Atomic Absorption Spectometry B 1511 1250 1086 1515 1460 1467 1487 1039 1206 1400 1038 352 177 517 184 439 309 486 138 155 390 390 2066 2383 2152 2265 2194 2000 2093 2250 2264 2055 2009 2231 2186 2026 2186 3039 2818 2508 2817 2816 2444 3249 3198 3225 3216 3145 3022 3215 3142 3185 3000 3159 3141

Item Pin Dagger Pin Dagger Pin Pin Pin Pin Pin Dagger Dagger Knife Ring Pin Dagger Pin Pin Knife Dagger Dagger Belt Buckle Pin Pin Ring Earring Pin Pin Ring Frg. Ring Frg. Pin Knife Pin Pin Pin Dagger Dagger Pin Pin Pin Pin Dagger Pin Pin Pin Pin Pin Pin Pin Pin Pin Pin Pin

Cu 62.5 72.4 62.5 64.8 54.3 68 61.64 62.5 65.5 50 75 57.87 77.6 59.52 76.53 78.12 57.7 60 65.22 71.43 56.25 71.43 57.87 65.22 50 56.45 66.17 40 76.92 67.3 90.9 69.44 62.5 68.63 69.44 72.91 65.22 73.86 56.25 82.72 67.2 79.22 61.3 90.9 64.3 79.22 62.5 61.47 54.35 69.44 62.5 62.5 68.5 48.07 58.41

Sn nd 2.96 3.3 0.41 nd 5.8 6.46 0.25 4 1.46 0.6 7.75 nd nd 2.1 4.24 10.2 3.82 7.2 5.1 6.17 8 3.2 nd 7.34 0.31 10.3 6.8 nd 4.13 0.41 4.2 8.1 0.43 1.43 8.96 nd 0.21 0.46 nd nd 5.1 7.84 nd 0.6 0.95 nd 5.9 11.3 nd 8 0.25 8.73 8.97 7.24

Zn 0.13 0.05 0.08 nd 0.12 0.04 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.076 0.05 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.03 0.11 0.1 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.08 0.13 0.07 0.076 0.05 0.06 0.23 0.073 0.14 0.15 0.04 traces traces 0.18 0.087 0.09 nd nd nd 0.07 0.095 nd nd 0.06 nd nd 0.086 nd 0.08 0.12 nd 0.07 0.05 nd

Fe 1.8 0.37 0.3 1.13 1.9 0.4 0.2 6.46 0.26 0.68 0.53 0.2 0.36 1.55 0.4 0.31 0.2 1.4 0.06 0.4 0.15 0.19 0.17 2.06 0.24 0.63 0.15 0.68 0.67 0.63 0.65 0.046 0.37 0.63 0.32 0.25 1.7 0.25 3.4 0.83 1.6 0.4 0.42 1.5 0.51 0.91 5.21 0.7 0.6 0.34 0.17 1.16 0.24 0.42 0.37

Fb 0.8 0.37 0.12 0.17 0.7 0.07 0.02 1.42 1.26 0.32 0.1 0.35 0.1 0.06 0.23 0.31 0.14 2.42 1.1 0.7 0.106 0.57 0.23 Nd 0.126 0.2 0.7 0.52 1.25 0.4 0.2 0.25 0.1 0.84 0.25 0.13 0.46 0.65 0.06 0.61 0.13 0.27 0.45 0.37 0.25 0.5 0.11 1.5 0.57 0.32 0.15 0.33 0.6 0.04 0.23

Ag 0.03 0.018 0.17 0.017 0.02 0.01 0.014 0.017 0.03 0.04 0.03 nd 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.2 nd 0.02 0.04 0.013 0.018 0.005 0.04 0.02 0.07 0.06 0.02 0.06 0.012 0.04 0.023 0.02 0.03 0.26 0.017 nd nd 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.21 0.04 0.08 0.02 0.013 0.04

As 2.5 1.1 2 1.7 2.1 1.13 0.9 1.4 0.62 0.6 0.8 1.57 1 0.86 1.58 2 0.71 2.13 1.5 1.3 0.675 0.67 1.5 1.13 2 1.13 0.6 1.76 2 1.88 1.36 2.3 1.9 2 1.85 1.9 3.5 1.2 0.9 1 1.9 1.05 0.64 2.4 1.97 1.9 1.7 1.47 3.4 2 2.2 1.28 1.42 1.8 1.9

Sb 0.32 0.06 0.06 0.2 0.22 0.06 0.08 0.17 0.07 0.14 0.14 nd 0.07 0.09 0.09 nd 0.11 0.18 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.17 0.18 0.06 0.13 0.13 0.07 0.15 0.86 0.12 0.09 0.21 0.15 0.21 0.14 0.06 0.11 0.32 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.09 nd 0.33 0.1 0.23 0.07 nd 0.19 0.37 nd 0.06 0.09 nd 0.06

Ni 0.41 0.03 nd 0.055 0.11 0.11 0.07 0.03 0.11 0.06 0.02 nd 0.07 0.05 0.009 0.018 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.012 0.04 0.35 0.015 0.02 0.08 0.02 0.046 nd 0.015 0.15 0.04 nd 0.017 0.03 0.017 0.063 0.014 0.012 0.08 nd 0.095 0.04 0.09 0.03 0.06 nd 0.06 0.05 nd nd 0.02 0.06 0.022 0.035

Co 0.05 nd nd 0.02 nd nd nd nd 0.02 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd trc nd nd nd nd trc nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd 0.017 nd nd nd nd nd 0.017 nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd

Total Remarks 68.54 Bc+cr 77.358 Bc+cr 68.53 Bc+cr 68.502 Bc+cr 59.47 Bc+cr 75.62 Bc+cr 69.464 Bc+cr 72.327 Bc+cr 71.96 Bc+cr 53.376 Bc+cr 77.27 Bc+cr 67.82 cr 79.3 cr 62.2 cr 81.039 cr 85.128 cr 69.25 cr 70.02 cr 75.24 cr 79.26 cr 63.443 cr 81.17 cr 63.67 Bc+cr 68.568 Bc+cr 59.95 Bc+cr 58.985 Bc+cr 78.11 Bc+cr 50.206 Bc+cr 81.843 Bc+cr 74.675 Bc+cr 93.93 Bc+cr 76.586 Bc+cr 73.132 Bc+cr 72.797 Bc+cr 73.663 Bc+cr 84.334 Bc+cr 71.173 Bc+cr 76.764 Bc+cr 61.139 Bc+cr 85.307 Bc+cr Bc+cr 70.94 Bc+cr 86.41 Bc+cr 70.71 Bc+cr 95.62 Bc+cr 67.87 83.837 Bc+cr Bc+cr 69.62 71.216 Bc+cr Bc+cr 70.51 Bc+cr 72.76 Bc+cr 73.18 Bc+cr 65.68 Bc+cr 79.73 59.385 Bc+cr 68.285 Bc+cr

Notes: B = Basket; bc = before cleaning; cr = corrosion; nd = not detected; trc = traces. Bi and Au results were all nondescript except Au 0.02 for dagger B184.

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Fig. 7.39 (top left): Metallographic picture of ribbed dagger B6084. Fig. 7.40 (top right): Metallographic picture of curved knife B6146. Fig. 7.41 (right): Metallographic picture of globular, groovedhead toggle pin B2026.

The sample of one thick-headed pin (RL20) shows 9.5% tin and some lead. The object shows eqwiaxed grains, twinning, some slip traces, slight distortion in the grains’ ages, and elongated inclusions of lead. The total metal reduction of 70% shows that the item was subjected to hammering and annealing with a little final cold work on the surface. A fragment of a similar pin (RL25) has 7.5% tin, 0.2% arsenic, 0.1% iron, and some lead. It shows grain boundaries, equiaxed grains, twins, little or no slip traces, and some amorphic grains from overheating during the annealing process. Some slip traces are visible (Fig. 7.41). A ring of a short, thick toggle pin with incised globular head (RL26) shows corrosion with more than 15% tin and 1.4% arsenic. The corrosion reveals metal drops and slight evidence of equiaxed grains, twins, and slip within the corrosion. AAS analysis show 8.96% tin and 1.9% arsenic for pin L221 B2186; and 4.24% tin and 2% arsenic for pin L439 B44. Thus, this type of toggle pin seems quite similar in its composition of tin-bronze. Perhaps this type of pin was more important or special. In a similar toggle pin analyzed from Jericho, the head was cast separately and joined to the pin by hammering (Khalil 1980: Pls. 56–57; Shalev 2010:47). The simple rings and jewelry are not homogeneous in composition. The tin varies from 0 to 7.34%, while the arsenic is more stable at c. 1–2%. This may indicate recycling of metals, as well as the fact that the function of such items was decorative. Hence, color and shape were more important than a particular composition of metal. The handles of one metal belt were also examined (B390, RL29–31). They were made of relatively good tin-bronze (up to 8.9% tin), but with varying arsenic content (0–0.67%). The surface was quite corroded showing inter-granular corrosion with equiaxed grains, twins, and no visible slip traces. The object had been subjected to cycles of hammering and annealing. No cold work was detected, but overheating during the final cycle created large, amorphic grains. In general, most of the items underwent cycles of hammering and annealing after casting, often with final cold work. The hardness analysis shows that items subjected to more such cycles became harder. The degree of treatment and of hardening conforms to the functions of the various parts (tips, shoulders, etc.). The AAS results are generally similar to the results of the metallurgical analysis. In some cases they show a higher uniformity of arsenic in certain tools, such as toggle pins. However, since the AAS examinations are corrosive, the reference is not quantitative, but qualitative. AAS analysis of rings and earrings revealed lack of uniformity in levels of tin, but quite a uniform level of arsenic. A dagger of Type 20 also revealed a higher level of arsenic than of tin. In wedged-shaped toggle pins there was no uniformity, and amounts of arsenic and tin vary. However, where some lead was present, there was more arsenic and vice versa.

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In conclusion, a connection between the type of item and its treatment after casting can be seen. The blades of ribbed daggers, tanged daggers, knives, and the spearhead were strengthened by hammering and annealing, as well as final cold work on the blade. However, toggle pins were not all treated in this manner, probably because their function did not demand much strength. In general, there is no uniformity of composition of metal: copper with arsenic appears along with tin-bronze in various types and often in the same type or even in the same object. Lead is sometimes seen. Use of tin-bronze seems to be limited to metal belt handles, toggle pins with thickened heads, and the one spearhead. However, the sample is too small for general conclusions. Lack of uniformity and appearance of both tin and arsenic copper is documented from other MB II sites, and for both MB IIA and MB IIB assemblages all over the Eastern Mediterranean. It is also unclear how many production centers existed and exactly where (Shalev 2007b:135). This period constitutes a transition between the earlier use of arsenic copper in the Early Bronze Age and the use of only tin-bronze in the Late Bronze Age. The use of several copper alloys at one site in this period can be related to the fact that earlier items were re-used together with the new tinbronze alloy, which was perhaps not yet fully available in each site. In summary, the Rishon le-Zion tombs are rich in metal items. The number of metal finds is impressive, forming one of the largest assemblages of such objects from the Eastern Mediterranean. The items include weapons (axes, daggers, spearheads, metal belts, and knives) and jewelry (toggle pins, rings, earrings, and other items). The types of objects are known mainly from sites in the southern Levant, but comparisons appear also in inland and coastal Syria-Lebanon, Cyprus, and the Nile Delta. Presumably a network of exchange and trade in such items existed, while some types evolved locally. The tools are made of tin-bronze and arsenic copper, which had improved in relation to the earlier copper tools in terms of hardening, temperature of melting, and ease of casting (Raymond 1986:25–30). The use of the two alloys at the same time is known from numerous sites during the MB II period (Shalev 2007b:135). It also indicates that the shape of many of these objects was more crucial than their exact composition. The metal weapons in Area B belong in part to ‘warrior’ burials dating to the end of the MB IIA and early MB IIB periods. The typical set of weapons in a ‘warrior’ burial included a socket axe, a ribbed dagger and often other weapons, and these were found with adult burials. This phenomenon could reflect an elite class of warriors, each of whom possessed personal weapons (cf. Philip 1989:163; 1995; 2006; Garfinkel 2001; Caspi et al. 2008). This elite existed all over the Levant, crossing political and cultural borders. This phenomenon declines by the time of the Area F burials dated to the MB IIB (however, see also Kletter and Levy, Chapter16, in this volume). The uniformity of the metal types items––as against to the lack of uniformity of alloys––is an important observation about MB II society. During the MB II period, the need for mass production of uniform metal tools grew, and continued in the Late Bronze Age. For lack of resources, perhaps due to a network of exchanges that was not fully developed at that time, or lack of unified political rule in the southern Levant, various alloys were still used during the MB II period. Import of tin was probably left to the capabilities of each city. The rise of connections and exchanges probably led to demand for uniformity. Rishon le-Zion was probably an end site for metal trade (Philip 1989; Balthazar 1990; Artzy and Marcus 1992; Philip 1995b; Ilan 1995; Artzy 1995; Garfinkel 2001; Doumet-Serhal 2003; Philip 2006; Garfinkel and Cohen 2007; Marcus 2007; Shalev 2007a). Extensive trade by land and sea routes (Marcus 1998:208–210) is apparent in the variety of metal items, as well as the transfer from northern influences in the early part of the period to southern influences toward its later part (Philip 1989:160; Na’aman 1988:131–134; Cohen 2002:99–129; Kassiandou and Knapp 2005).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We wish to thank Yuval Meron for his help in the laboratory work, Yael Meron for the microstructure pictures and Evan Kanciper for his help.

REFERENCES Artzy, M. 1995. Nami: a Second Millennium International Maritime Trading Center in the Mediterranean. In: S. Gitin (ed), Recent Excavations in Israel – a View to the West. American Institute of Archaeology Colloquia and Conference Papers 1. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt: 17–40. Artzy, M. and Marcus, E. 1992. Stratified Cypriote Pottery in MBIIa Context at Tel Nami. In: G. Ioannides (ed.), Studies in Honor of Vassos Karageorghis. Nicosia: Society of Cypriot Studies: 17– 40. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Balthazar, J.W. 1990. Copper and Bronze Working in Early through Middle Bronze Age Cyprus. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology and Literature. Jonsered: Paul Åström. Birmingham, J. 1977. Spectrographic Analyses of Some Middle Bronze Age Metal Objects. Levant 9: 115–120. Bunimovitz, S. 2000. Metal Artefacts – Typological Discussion. In: M. Kochavi, P. Beck, and E. Yadin (eds.), Aphek-Antipatris I. Tel Aviv: Tel-Aviv University: 265–277. Burke, A.A. 2008. Walled up to Heaven: The Evolution of Middle Bronze Fortifications Strategies in the Levant. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. Caspi, E.N., Rivin, O., Ettedgui, H., Peilstöcker, M., Shilstein, S., and Shalev, S. 2008. Non-Destructive Neutron Diffraction Study of Internal Structure of Archaeological Metal Artifacts from Israel. Art 2008, 9th International Conference on NDT of Art, Jerusalem, 25-30 May 2008. Jerusalem: 1–8. Caspi, E.N., Shalev, S., Shilstein, S., Paradowska, A.M., and Levy, Y. 2010. Neutron diffraction Study of Levantine Middle Bronze Age cast Axes. Physica Conference Series 251 (article 012047): 1–5. Cohen, L.S. 2002b. Canaanites, Chronologies, and Connections: The Relationship of Middle Bronze Age IIA Canaan Middle Kingdom Egypt. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns. Cohen, L.S. 2005. The Spearheads from the 2002-2004 Excavations at Gesher. Israel Exploration Journal 55/2: 129–142 Damati, E. and Stepansky, Y. 1996. A Middle Bronze age II Burial Cave on Mt. Canaan, Zefat (Wadi Hamra). ‘Atiqot 29: 1–29 (Hebrew; English summary 107–108). Dever, W.G. 1975. Middle Bronze IIA Cemeteries at ‘Ain Samiyêh and Sinjil. Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research 217: 23–36. Doumet Serhal, C. 2003. Weapons from the Middle Bronze Age Burials at Sidon. Archaeology and History in Lebanon 18: 38–57. El-Morr, Z. and Mödlinger, M. 2014. Middle Bronze Age Metal Artefacts and Metallurgical Practices at the Sites of Tell Arqa, Mougharet el Hourryieh, Yanouh and Khariji in Lebanon. Levant 46/1: 27–42. El-Morr, Z. and Pernot, M. 2011. Middle Bronze Age Metallurgy in the Levant: Evidence from the Weapons of Byblos. Journal of Archaeological Science 38: 2613–2624. Epstein, C. 1974. Graves from the Middle Bronze Age at Kfar Sold. ‘Atiqot 11: 7–18 (Hebrew). Garfinkel, Y. 2001. Warrior Burial Customs in the Levant during the Early Second Millennium B.C. in S.R. Wolff (ed.), Studies in the Archaeology of Israel and Neighboring Lands (AASOR 5). Atlanta, Georgia: American School of Oriental Research: 143–161. Garfinkel, Y. and Cohen, S. 2007. (eds.), The Middle Bronze Age IIA Cemetery at Gesher: Final Report. Boston: Annual of the American School of Oriental Research 62. Gershuny, L. and Aviam, M. 2010. Middle Bronze Age Tombs at Fassuta. Atiqot 62: 17–42. Gerstenblith, P. 1983. The Levant at the Beginning of the Middle Bronze Age (American School of Oriental Research, Dissertation Series 5). Winona Lake, Indiana. Getzov, N. and Nagar, Y. 2002. Graves from the Middle Bronze Age II. In Z. Gal (ed.), Eretz Hazaphon. Jerusalem: Israeli Antiquities Authority: 1–49 (Hebrew). Guy, P.L.O. and Engberg, R.M. 1938. Megiddo Tombs (Oriental Institute Publications 33). Chicago: University of Chicago. Hallote, R.S. 1995. Mortuary Archaeology and the Middle Bronze Age Southern Levant. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 8/1: 93–122. Hallote, R.S. 2001. Tombs, Cult and Chronology: A Reexamination of the Middle Bronze Age Strata of Megiddo. In R. Chapman et al. (eds.), Studies in the Archaeology of Israel and the Neighboring Lands. Chicago: Oriental Institute: 199–214. Ilan, D. 1995. Mortuary Practices at Tel Dan in the Middle Bronze Age: a Reflection of Canaanite Society and Ideology. In: S. Campbell and A. Green (eds.), The Archaeology of Death in the Ancient Near East. Oxford: Oxbow Books: 117–139. Kan-Cipor – Meron, T., Shilstein, S., Levi, Y., and Shalev, S. In Press. A Comparison Study of Middle Bronze Age II Daggers and their Rivets as Tools for Better Understanding Their Production. Archaeometry 1–19 (Doi10.1111/arcm.12326). Kan-Cipor – Miron, T., Shilstein, S., Levi, Y., and Shalev, S. Forthcoming. Middle Bronze Age II Daggers from Rishon LeZion, Israel: The Production Methods and the Copper Alloys used in their manufacturing process. Metalla. Journal of the Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum. Kassianidou, V. and Knapp, B.A. 2005. Archaeometallurgy in the Mediterranean: The Social Context of Mining, Technology, and Trade. In A. Blake and A.B. Knapp (eds.), The Archaeology of Mediterranean Prehistory. Oxfod: Blakwell: 215–251.

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Kempinski, A. 1989. The Archaeology of Ancient Israel in the Biblical Period: Unit 6: Middle Bronze Age. Tel Aviv: The Open University (Hebrew). Kenyon, M.K. 1960. Excavations at Jericho I. London: British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem. Kenyon, M.K. 1965. Excavations at Jericho II. The Tombs Excavated in 1955–8. London: British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem. Keswani, P.S. 2005. Death, Prestige and Copper in Bronze Age Cyprus. American Journal of Archaeology 109: 341–401. Khalil, L. 1984. Metallurgical Analyses of Some Weapons from Tell el-‘Ajjul. Levant 15: 167–170. Khalil, L. 1985. Copper Metallurgy from Jericho. In K.M. Kenyon and T.A. Holland (eds.), Excavations at Jericho V: The Pottery Phases of the Tell and Other Finds. Oxford: Oxford University: 778–780. Kletter, R. 2006. A Middle Bronze Age II Site West of Tell Qasile. ‘Atiqot 53: 65–128. Kletter, R., and Levy, Y. 2016. Middle Bronze Age Burials in the Southern Levant: Spartan Warriors or Ordinary People? Oxford Journal of Archaeology 35/1: 5–27. Levy, Y. 2005. The Necropolis of the Middle Bronze IIA-B Period from the Area of the Rishon LeZion Sands. In: Fisher, M. (ed.), Yavne, Yavneh Yam and their Neighborhood I. Tel Aviv: Eretz – Geographic Research and Publications and Tel-Aviv University: 59–68 (Hebrew). Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II: Seasons of 1935–1939 (OIP 62). Chicago: University of Chicago. Marcus, E.S. 1998. Maritime Trade in the Southern Levant from Earliest Times through the Middle Bronze IIA Period. Ph.D Thesis: Oxford University. Marcus, S.E. 2007. Amenemhet II and the Sea: Maritime Aspects of the MIT RAHINA (Memphis) Inscription. Egypt and the Levant XVII: 137–190. Maxwell-Hyslop, R. 1946. Daggers and Swords in Asia. Iraq VIII: 1–65. Maxwell-Hyslop, R. 1949. Western Asiatic Shaft-Hole Axes. Iraq XI: 90–129. Miron, E. 1986–1987. Narrow Type Canaanite Battle Axes of Middle Bronze Age. Eretz – People and Land 4/22: 65–76 (Hebrew). Miron, E. 1992. Axes and Adzes from Canaan. Prähistorische bronzefunde. Stutgart: Steiner. Na’aman, N. 1988. The Middle Bronze Age Period. In I. Eph’al (ed.), The History of Eretz Israel: Introductions – The Early Periods. Jerusalem: Keter: 129–133 (Hebrew). Oren, E.D. 1971. A Middle Bronze Age I Warrior Tomb at Beth-Shan. Zeitschrift des Deutsches Palästina Vereins 87: 109–139. Oren, E.D. 1973. The Northern Cemetery of Beth Shean. Leiden: Brill. Philip, G. 1989. Metal Weapons of the Early and Middle Bronze Ages in Syria-Palestine. Oxford: BAR International Series 526. Philip, G. 1995a. The Same but Different: A Comparison of Middle Bronze Age Metalwork from Jericho and Tall ad-Dab’a. In: A. Hadidi (ed.), Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan V. Amman: Department of Antiquities of Jordan: 523–530. Philip, G. 1995b. Warrior Burials in the Ancient Near–Eastern Bronze Age: The Evidence from Mesopotamia, Western Iran and Syria-Palestine. In S. Campbell and A. Green (eds.), The Archaeology of Death in the Ancient Near East. Exeter: 140–154. Phillip, G. 2006. Tell El-Dab‘a XV: Metalwork and Metalworking Evidence of the Late Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period. Wien. Price-Williams, D. 1977. The Tombs of Middle Bronze Age IIA Period from the ‘500’ Cemetery at Tell el-Far'a (South). London: Institute of Archaeology. Pritchard, J.B. 1963. The Bronze Age Cemetery at Gibeon. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. Raymond, R. 1986. Out of the Fiery Furnace. The Impact of Metals on the History of Mankind. London: The Pennsylvania State University Press. Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P. 1991: Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice. London: Thames and Hudson. Saidah, R. 1993–4. Beirut in the Bronze Age: The Kharji Tombs. Berytus. XLI: 137–209. Schaeffer, C.F.A. 1938. Les fouilles de Ras Shamra – Ugarit neuvi’eme campagne. Syria XIX: 193–255. Shalev, S. 1989. Middle Bronze Age Toggle Pins from Kabri. In A. Kempinski (ed.), Excavation at Kabri. Preliminary Reports of the 1988 Season. Tel Aviv: 42–54 (Hebrew). Shalev, S. 1997. Metal Objects from Hazor. In: A. Ben-Tor and R. Bonfil (eds.), Hazor V: An Account of the Fifth Season of Excavations, 1968. Jerusalem: IES: 348–352. Shalev, S. 2000. Metal Artifacts: Archaeometallurgy. In M., Kochavi, P. Beck, and E. Yadin (eds.), Aphek – Antipatris I. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University: 278–287. Shalev, S. 2002. Metal Artifacts. In A. Kempinski (ed.), Tel Kabri – The 1986–1993 Excavation Seasons. Tel Aviv: Tel-Aviv University, Institute of Archaeology, Monograph Series 20: 307–318. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Shalev, S. 2004. Swords and Daggers in Late Bronze Age Canaan (Praehistorische Bronzefunde IV/13). Mainz: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur. Shalev, S. 2007a. Metallurgical Analysis. In Y. Garfinkel and S. Cohen (eds.), The Middle Bronze Age IIA Cemetery at Gesher: Final Report. Boston: 109–114. Shalev, S. 2007b. A Brief Outline Summary on Nonferrous Archaeometallurgy in Israel. Israel Journal of Earth Science 2–4, 156: 133–138. Shalev, S. 2008. Southern Levant, Bronze Age Metal Production and Utilization. In S.M. Praesall (ed.), Encyclopedia of Archaeology Vol 1. New York: Academic Press: 898–899. Shalev, S. 2009. Metals and Society: Production and Distribution of Metal Weapons in the Levant during the Middle Bronze Age II. In S.A. Rosen and V. Roux (eds.), Techniques and People. Paris: De Boccard: 69–80. Shalev, S. 2010. The Metal Objects from Fassuta. Atiqot 62: 43–49. Shalev, S., Caspi, E.N., Shilstein, S., Paradowska, A.M,, Kockelmann, W., Kan-Cipor – Meron, T. and Levy, Y. 2014. Middle Bronze Age II Battleaxes from Rishon Le-Zion, Israel: Archaeology and Metallurgy. Archaeometry 56/2: 279–295. Shalev, S., Shilstein Y. and Levy Y., 2008. XRF Analysis of Ribbed Daggers from the MBII ‘Warrior’ Tombs in the Cemetery of Rishon Le-Zion, Israel. Art 2008, 9th International Conference, Book of Abstracts and CD of Proceedings, Jerusalem: ISAS International Seminars: 53. Smith, R.H. 1962. Excavations in the Cemetery at Khirbet Kufin, Palestine (Colt Archaeological Institute Monograph Series 1). London: Bernard Quaritch. Stern, E. (ed.), 1984. Excavations at Tel Mevorakh (1973–1976): The Bronze Age. Qedem 18. Jerusalem. Sussman, V. 1966. Middle Bronze Age Burial at Moza. ‘Atiqot 3: 40–43 (Hebrew). Sussman, V. and Gophna, R. 1969. A Middle Bronze Age Tomb at Barkai. ‘Atiqot 5: 1–13 (Hebrew). Stweart, J.R. and Kassis, H.E. 1974. Tell El ‘Ajjul. The Middle Bronze Age Remains (SIMA XXXVIII). Göteborg: P. Åström. Thrane, H. 1978. Sukas IV. A Middle Bronze Age Collective Grave on Tall Sukas. Copenhagen: Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters. Tubb, J.N. 1985. Some Observations of Spearheads in Palestine in the Middle Bronze and Late Bronze Ages. In J.N. Tubb (ed.), Palestine in the Bronze and Iron Ages: Papers in Honor of Olga Tufnell. London: Institute of Archaeology, London University: 189–196. Tufnell, O. 1958. Lachish IV. The Bronze Age. London: Oxford University. Yadin, Y. 1963. The Art of Warfare in biblical Lands in the Light of archaeological Study (Vol. 1). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. Yogev, O. 1985. A Middle Bronze Age Cemetery South of Tel Rehov. Atiqot 17: 90–113. Ziffer, I. 1990. At That Time the Canaanites were in the Land: Daily Life in Canaan in the Middle Bronze Age 2, 2000–1550 B.C.E. Tel Aviv: Eretz-Israel Museum.

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CHAPTER 8 METAL BELTS Irit Ziffer MUSA Eretz Israel Museum, Tel Aviv 8.1 BELTS AND BELT PARTS AT RISHON LE-ZION Remains from at least four belts were found in the tombs of Rishon le-Zion. By the time we examined their remains in 2008–2010 they were much disintegrated. The items are as follows: 8.1.1 B6830 Area B, Tomb B133, L1033 (Fig. 8.1) Remains of bow-type buckles from a belt were found in Tomb B133. They measure c. 76 mm between the existing edges. They end in thin coils that continued into loops (now broken), which enabled the attachment of the buckles to the rest of the belt. However, it seems that there was no continuous sheet for a belt here (no fragments were documented). Instead, there were two bronze wires that encircled the body. If so, this was a much simpler or improvised kind of belt.

Fig. 8.1: Belt B6830, buckles

8.1.2 B9434–B9436 Area B, Tomb B218, L1118 Bronze belt B9434–B9436 was found with burial B9422. When found, the belt was more complete (See Chapter 2, in volume I/1: Figs. 2.125–126), and was found together with a decorated bronze dagger (B9419, see Chapter 7, in this volume; Fig. 7.24:5). The remains that survive include parts of two bowtype buckles ending in coils (maximum length measured between the edges 62 mm, width 6 mm. A small part from the sheet of the belt is still attached to one buckle. In addition, tiny fragments of the belt (sheet) survived; some are from the edges and have small round holes, perhaps to enable attachment of cloth.

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8.1.3 B390 Area C, Tomb C4 L47 (Fig. 8.2) A buckle from a belt was found in Tomb C4 (see Chapter 5, in volume I/1). This find was analyzed by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy and found to be composed of quite goodquality tin-bronze, with up to 8.9% tin (see Chapter 7, in this volume). The finds are similar to those of belt no. 2 above: two round parts of buckle/s ending in coils, slightly larger (size measured between their edged 86 mm; width of rounded part 4.5 mm). One edge still has a closed loop (inner diameter 9 mm) extending from the coil, used to attach it to the belt surface. Here too, only small fragments survived from the sheet of the belt itself (only part Fig. 8.2: Belt B390, Tomb C4 of it was found in the excavation). 8.1.4 B8132 Area F, Tomb F4, L769 (Figs. 8.3–15; Color Pl. 11:1) Our discussion focuses on this more complete belt, which survived in a fairly good state of preservation (B8132; for the entire belt see Figs. 8.3–4; for details Figs. 8.5–10). Tomb F4 L769 contained a single, badly preserved primary burial (B8155; see Chapter 3, in volume I/1: Figs. 3.47–48, Plan 3.30). The individual was laid on the back or on the side, with the head turned to the north over a large bowl. The individual was wearing the belt around the waist, to which two daggers were originally affixed. One of the daggers was still attached to the belt (Figs. 8.12–13): It had a stone pommel (B8121, Fig. 7.14) found in situ above the large bowl. The second dagger was found detached (B8133, Fig. 8.15).1 At the height of the left shoulder there was a lugged chisel axe (B8131, see Chapter 7, in this volume, Fig. 7.15). The position of the axe indicates that it was shouldered. The wooden handle did not survive. The belt is made of beaten sheet copper, perforated along its border at close intervals along the rounded ends, for sewing onto a textile lining. Remains of the lining can still be seen on the back side of the belt sheet and on one side of the dagger. The buckles are attached through holes on the border, some 10 cm from the rounded tip. The buckles are of the bow type, made of square-sectioned, thick wire, around which a thin wire was wound for fastening to the metal belt. At one end there are holes with applied ring rims on the outer side of the belt, recalling the decoration of the belt from a rich burial at Tell el-Dab‘a (Area A, L486, Stratum F, see more below). No decorative arrangement of these holes can be discerned. The belt served for the attachment of weapons not carried by hand. The warrior tucked a dagger and sometimes also a battle axe into his belt. In undisturbed burials, daggers were mostly found on the left side of the deceased (Kenyon 1960:308, 312; Forstner-Müller 2008:52). Significantly, when the dagger is shown in metal statuettes, it is tucked into the belt on the left side of the body (Negbi 1976: Pl. 8:49, 51, 52; Figs. 42, 49). Metal belts were commonly backed with a soft lining of leather or fabric.2 The belts were perforated at intervals along their borders to facilitate the sewing of lining. There must also have been leather or woven belts, which usually do not survive. However, the actual finds of skeletons with weapons lying on their pelvises3 indicate the existence of leather or textile belts.

1 The pommel (B8121) does not belong to the detached dagger, B8133, but to the dagger still attached to the belt. This dagger is part of belt B8132 and does not have a separate basket number. 2 Two belts were found in the Early Dynastic graves at Ur. In PG/580, lay what had been a belt or baldric of leather plated with silver, 1.05 m long and 0.05 m wide, with a rectangular buckle-piece. Attached to it was a mounted cylinder seal and a dagger with electrum blade and lapis lazuli handle studded with gold, in an elaborate gold sheath, as well as a reticule containing “toilet implements” (Woolley 1934:51, pl. 13b). In grave PG/755 the deceased, who held a gold bowl inscribed with the name “Meskalamdug”, was wearing a silver belt from which was suspended a gold dagger in a silver sheath, a cylinder seal and a lapis lazuli whetstone with a gold ring and perhaps a silver toilet reticule (Woolley 1934:156, Fig. 35; Moorey 1967:83; Zettler 1998:16, 25). 3 For example, Tell el-Dab‘a A/II–l/12 Tomb 5 Stratum F (MB IIB, early Hyksos) is an intact warrior tomb with 5 equids, two young humans and a bull in the pit dug at the southern end of the tomb. A dagger was found on the pelvis. A chisel axe was found above the warrior’s head––indicating that it was shouldered; the perishable wooden handle was not preserved (Bietak 1968:90–92).

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Fig. 8.3: Belt B8132, general view (front)

Fig. 8.4: Belt B8132, general view (back)

Fig. 8.5: Belt B8132, detail––part A

At Jericho Tomb H6, pieces of leather were found around the waist of an individual placed on a mudbrick platform covered with a rush mat, suggesting a leather belt (Kenyon 1960:454; compare 2 Kings 1:8 for a leather belt, and Jeremiah 13:1 for a linen belt).

8.2 COMPARISONS To date, five metal belts have been published from the Land of Israel, all dating from the MB IIB: 1. Jericho Tomb J3. The warrior interred in this tomb, dating to the early MB IIB, had a metal belt, damaged and mended before it was placed in the tomb by the left side of the deceased. The belt is decorated with alternating large circles and pairs of concentric circles. Each large circle is bordered by a triplet of tiny circles and has bow-type buckles. A lugged axe and dagger with pommel were tucked in on the left side. Moreover, in the tomb two spare daggers with pommels were found as well as two additional axes. Three equids were buried in the shaft of the tomb (Kenyon 1960:306–314). The three sets of weapons, the three equids, and the rich funerary gifts indicate the high rank of the deceased (perhaps the Canaanite ruler of Jericho, Beck 2002:86, 89).

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Fig. 8.6: Belt B8132, detail––buckle part C

Fig. 8.7: Belt B8132, detail––buckle in part E

Fig. 8.8: Belt B8132, Parts B and D (front)

The gifts included a ceremonial drinking set (ram-headed cup, strainer, and pouring situla, see Zevulun and Ziffer 2007:17–21), remains of three domesticated donkeys and of ritual slaughter in the entrance shaft, a cylinder seal, and a scarab. 2. Tell el-Far‘ah (N). The deceased from Tomb A4 (de Vaux and Stève 1947: Pl. 20) wore an undecorated belt with a triangular4 buckle, in which a dagger of mid-rib type with pommel was tucked. A lugged chisel axe completed the Tell el-Far‘ah warrior’s kit. 4

The triangular buckle was made of an arched wire and two wires joined together to pass through a pierced hole at the mid-width of the belt; the excess wires emerging on the back through holes at the shanks of the bow, and wound around the buckle. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 8.9: Belt B8132, Parts E and F (front)

Fig. 8.10: Belt B8132, Parts E and F (back)

Fig. 8.11: Belt B8132, Part G (front) © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 8.12: Dagger attached to belt B8132

Fig. 8.13 (left): Detail of dagger from belt B8132 Fig. 8.14 (right): Pommel B8121

Fig. 8.15: Dagger B8133

3. Fassuta. A fragmentary, undecorated belt with triangular buckles was recovered from a disturbed tomb at Fassuta in the Upper Galilee, together with a notched axe and a long-tanged dagger (Gershuny and Aviam 2010:17, 35–37). No stitching holes are visible. 4. Kibbutz Sasa. Two bow-type buckles, probably from the same belt, were found in an MB IIB burial (“mixed group”) at Kibbutz Sasa, together with a lugged chisel axe and daggers of mid-rib type (BenArieh 2004:18*,17*, Figs. 7:2, 14:8).

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5. Jerusalem. A plain belt with a bow-type buckle, with remains of a linen coil for fastening, was recovered from a warrior’s tomb in Jerusalem. It was found near the head of the deceased along with a lugged chisel axe and a dagger with a central mid-rib, complete with its pommel (Milevski et al. 2010: Fig. 7:1,3–5; Greenhut et al. 2011:24, 26). An undecorated belt with a bow-type buckle was included in the equipment found in Tomb LVI at Ugarit, along with flat daggers and chisel axes with hooks (Schaeffer 1938: Fig. 32). This seems to be the latest example in the Canaanite repertoire of belts, which spanned the entire Middle Bronze Age––as can be seen from the weapon types and pottery found in the burials. Fragments of a belt with concentric circles and a bow-type buckle was found in a jar burial at Kültepe Level Ib, roughly from the late nineteenth–eighteenth centuries BCE (Emre 1971:144, Pl. 16, Fig. 39). The decoration is that of a single concentric circle near the buckle, followed by four pairs of smaller concentric circles, and another large circle followed by pairs of circles. At Sidon, Burial 42 contained belt fragments with bow-type buckles. It was decorated with discs in repoussé concentric circles, which showed traces of white powder on the reverse side, probably remains of some adhesive material used to hold the discs in place (Doumer-Serhal 2007–2008:197–201).5 The discs are similar to those found at Byblos (Dunand 1950: Pls. 29, 57), which are perforated in the center like a button for sewing onto the leather or fabric material. Tell el-Dab‘a is the only site that offers a chronological seriation of belts in the MB IIA and early MB IIB periods, since the five examples recovered so far from tombs come from strata d/2=H–G–F (preHyksos), occurring with various grave goods of foreign warrior tombs. Even so, a stylistic reconstruction of the development of the belts is difficult. The triangular buckle occurs both in the earliest (d/2=H) and later (Stratum b=F) examples. The decoration of concentric circles seems to span the entire period. The earliest (MB IIA) belt from Tell el-Dab‘a has a triangular-type buckle with a pattern of a pair of small circles (flanking the buckle), and a large circle, though without perforations for sewing along the borders. It was found in a bowl in a plundered Tomb F/I–o/19–Tomb 8 from Stratum d/2 (=H, post Amenemhat, end of the Twelfth Dynasty/early Thirteenth Dynasty), together with an equid burial and duckbill axe (Bietak 1991a:49, 34; 1991b:56–58, Pl. 4; Schiestl 2002:332; 2009:116–117, 271–272). A family tomb within the Late Middle Kingdom settlement of Tell el-Dab‘a, Stratum G, was found in a pit in front of a house door (Tomb A/–m/15 no. 9). It contained an adult male equipped with distinct Syro-Palestinian weapons: a metal belt with bow buckle decorated with concentric circles of uniform size in an alternating pattern of a single circle and a pair, and what looks like a rilled dagger with its pommel tucked in on the left side (Bietak 1979:240–241; Forstner-Müller 2008:130–133).6 The surviving ornamentation is of small concentric circles, arranged in an alternating pattern of a pair and a single circle. An identical arrangement of circles is found on a belt found around the pelvis of the deceased interred (with a child) in Tomb A/II–l/16 no. 4, Stratum G. A rilled dagger was tucked on the left side (ForstnerMüller 2008:148–177). Another belt was found in F/I–d/23 Tomb 1 (Stratum b=F), from the transitional MB IIA–B period, together with a notched axe and a dagger with a thickened mid-rib. The form of this belt is different in that it tapers––the middle part is wider than the rounded ends. The buckles are of the triangular type. The belt is embossed with concentric circles in an arrangement beginning with large single circles near the ends, that is, decorating the wearer’s front, followed by alternating large and slightly smaller pairs of concentric circles, which would have decorated the wearer’s back (Bietak 1985:342–343; Doumet Serhal and Kopetzky 2011:33). A rich burial was discovered in Tell el-Dab‘a Tomb A/II–p14–18, L468 (Stratum F). The owner of this intact tomb was a tall young adult interred with an equid, holding a scimitar in his arms and wearing a rilled dagger tucked in his belt on his left side. The belt has bow-type buckles and is ornamented with holes in an alternating order of a single large hole and a pair of smaller holes. Originally, all the holes were rimmed with applied rings, some of which have survived (Forstner-Müller 2002:166, 172–174; Forstner-Müller 2008:177–181). Finally, Baruch Brandl suggested that the crescent-shaped bronze object found in an Iron Age I context at Tel Dan could be a belt buckle (of the bow type) (Ilan 2014:138, 148).

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Doumet Serhal (2007–2008) believes that the discs were separate from the belt and were affixed to it. A child was buried beneath the male. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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8.3 CONCLUSIONS Metal belts were costly, and were not standard burial goods in tombs of the Middle Bronze Age II. Their distribution in the cultural horizon of the Levant seems to argue for local production. Belts were worn by armed males, as can be seen in classical Syrian cylinder seals. Represented in the smiting posture, these armed figures wear a belt that holds a dagger7 (Collon 1972:131; Amiet 1992:27–28, 30–31: nos. 38, 39, 42; Teissier 1996:27: no. 184; 51: no. 9; 64: no. 70; 81: no. 141). Some seals show the characteristic features of the metal belt, with its rounded ends and even the tying laces (Williams-Forte 1983: Figs. 9– 10; Teissier 1996:115, no. 241) in representations of the weather god, particularly in victory scenes, where he is portrayed striding on mountains stabbing his foe the serpent with his branch spear. The victorious weather god with belt and branch spear survived into the Late Bronze Age, as depicted on the “Ba‘al au foudre” stele from Ugarit (serpent omitted) and in the abbreviated form of the Levantine metal figurines of the smiting gods (Negbi 1976: Figs. 47, 50; Pls. 25; 26:1388; Seeden 1980: Nos. 79, 80, 107, 110 [with dagger tucked in the belt], 112). There, the god alone in smiting posture was enough to convey the impression of power (Collon 1972:130). Based on smiting figurines from Anatolia, Collon dubbed the belt “Anatolian type of belt” (1972:117, Figs. 3:21–22; 120, Figs. 5:1–2). Indeed, Anatolian lead figurines (and their molds) from the Assyrian Colonies period show a frontal, standing (not smiting) god, with weapons (duckbill axe, curved sword, mace), wearing a belt with rounded ends, sometimes including the laces over a kilt or a long skirt, alone or with the goddess holding her breasts or a child (Emre 1971: Pls. V:6–7, VI, VII: ia–ib, XI:3), or standing on a dais (Emre 1971: Pl. XV: ia–b). Like the belt mentioned above, the lead figurines and their casting molds come from Kültepe Level Ib, and are contemporaneous with the classical Syrian seals that show a link with the later Twelfth Dynasty (Collon 1996:6, 12–13).8 The standard arms kit of the Canaanite warrior included a battle axe, dagger (sword) and spears. Of these, the dagger was not hand-carried but tucked into the belt, very much like the description of the armed hero in the Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet VIII, col. II, lines 5–6: “As for the axe at my side, spur to my arm, the sword in my belt, the shield for my front” (Dalley 1989:92). For the funeral of the minister Arrukum, the palace of Ebla issued five “clothes,” two kilts, one ingot of gold weighing 60 shekels, and a dagger with a belt decorated with a further 60 shekels of gold (Archi 2002:181). Undoubtedly, belts were prestige objects and were costly. The arms inventory of Gilgamesh and Enkidu in Tablet II col. VI, lines 22–23, specifies the weight of a belt as 1 talent of [bronze], equal to the weight of a single sword (Dalley 1989:62). In conjunction with the martial equipment of Gilgamesh, I would like to mention a horse appliqué of sheet electrum and silver attributed to the ‘Schatzhaus’ of Kāmid el-Lōz. This Levantine artwork depicts a horned demon attacked by two heroes armed with sickleswords, a motif associated with the slaying of Humbaba (Hansen 1994). The demon bears no weapons, other than a wide belt with rounded ends and a ridged border. Indeed, when King Ahab of Israel replied to the provocative threats of Ben-hadad, King of Aram, he employed in his speech the iconic image of the well-equipped ancient warrior: “Tell him: let not him who girds on his sword boast like him who ungirds it!” (1 Kings 20:11).

REFERENCES Amiet, P. 1992. Sceaux-cylindres en hematite et pierres diverses (RSO IX). Paris. Archi, A. 2002. Jewels for the Ladies of Ebla. ZA 92: 161–199. Ben-Arieh, S. 2004. Middle Bronze Age II Tombs at Kibbutz Sasa, Upper Galilee. cAtiqot 46:11*–22*. Beck, P. 2002. The Figure of the Ruler and Related Problems in Middle Bronze Age Art. Imagery and Representation. Studies in the Art and Iconography of Ancient Palestine: Collected Essays (Tel Aviv University, Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology, Occasional Publications 3). Tel Aviv: 58–93.

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Even in cases where the belt is absent, the dagger, hanging from the waist, hints at the belt. The Tell Judeideh group of figurines show nude males with clenched fists to hold weapons, now lost, wearing belts that were made of fabric or leather (Negbi 1976:108–109; Pl. 10). 8 In the Anatolian group of metal figurines beginning in the Old Kingdom period, the belt is worn by standing figures (Seeden 1980: nos. 1825–1827) as well as by striding figures (Seeden 1980: nos. 1739–1740). The deity from the King’s gate at Boghazköy (thirteenth century BCE) wears a metal belt with rounded ends and a dagger tucked into it (Seeher 2002:76–81), as does the ivory figurine of a dancing warrior-god (Haas 2002:110–111, Fig. 15;. no. 114; 344–345). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Bietak, M. 1968. Vorläufiger Bericht über die erste und zweite Kampagne der österreichischen Ausgrabungen auf Tell el-Dab‘a im Ostdelta Ägyptens (1966, 1967). MDAIK 23: 80–114. Bietak, M. 1979. Avaris and Pirameses: Archaeological Exploration in the Eastern Nile Delta (Mortimer Wheeler Archaeological Lecture Vol. 65). Oxford. Bietak, M. 1985. Eine Palastanlage aus der Zeit des späten Mittleren Reichs und andere Forschungensergebnisse aus dem östlichen Nildelta (Tell el-Dabca 1979–1984). Vienna. Bietak, M. 1991a. Egypt and Canaan during the Middle Bronze Age. BASOR 281: 27–72. Bietak, M. 1991b. Der Friedhoff in einem Palastgarten aus der Zeit des späten mittleren Reiches unde andere Forschungsergebnisse aus dem östlichen Nildelta. Ä&L 2: 47–110. Collon, D. 1972. The Smiting God. A Study of a Bronze in the Pomerance Collection in New York. Levant 4: 11–134. Dalley, S. 1989. Myths from Mesopotamia. Oxford & New York. de Vaux, R. and Stève, A.M. 1947. Les fouilles de Tell el-Far'ah, prés Naplouse. La 1ére campagne, Revue Biblique 54: 573–589. Doumet Serhal, C. 2007–2008. Bronze Artifacts from Burial 42 at Sidon. AHL 26–27: 194–203. Doumet Serhal, C. and Kopetzky, K. 2011–2012. Sidon and Tell el-Dab‘a: Two Cities, One Story. A Highlight on the Metal Artefacts from the Middle Bronze Age Graves. In: Doumet Serhal, C., Rabate, A. and Resek, A., eds. And Canaan begat Sidon his firstborn… A tribute to Dr. John Curtis on his 65th birthday (AHL 34–35): 9–52. Dunand, M. 1950. Fouilles de Byblos II (1933–1938). Paris: Atlas. Emre, K, 1971. Anatolian Lead Figurines and their Stone Moulds. Ankara. Forstner-Müller, I. 2002. Tombs and Burial Customs at Tell el-Dabca in Area A/II at the End of the MB IIA Period (Stratum F). In: Bietak, M., ed. The Middle Bronze Age in the Levant (Proceedings of an International Conference on MBIIA Ceramic Material Vienna January 2001). Vienna: 163–184. Forstner-Müller, I. 2008. Tell el-Dabca 16. Die Gräbern des Areals A/II von Tell el-Dabca. Vienna. Gershuny, L. and Aviam, M. 2010. Middle Bronze Age Tombs at Fassuta. cAtiqot 62: 17–42. Greenhut, Z., Milevski, I., Aga, N, and cAd, U. 2011. Chalcolithic Period remains and a Bronze Age Graveyard Found at the Holyland Complex, Jerusalem. Qadmoniyot 44: 21–28 (Hebrew). Haas, V. 2002. Die hethitische Religion. In: Willinghöfer, H., Hasekamp, U. and Baykal-Seeher, A. eds. Die Hethiter und Ihr Reich. Das Volk der 1000 Götter. Bonn: 102–111. Hansen, D. 1994. Comments on an Electrum and Silver Appliqué Attributed to the ‘Schatzhaus’ of Kāmid el-Lōz. In: Adler, W. ed. Kāmid el-Lōz 11. Das ‘Schatzhaus’ im Palastbereich. Die Befunde des Königsgrabes (Saarbrücker Beiträge zur Altertumskunde 47). Bonn: 221–230. Ilan, D. 2014. The Crescent-Lunate Motif in the Jewelery of the Bronze and Iron Ages in the Ancient Near East. Proceedings of 9th ICAANE, Basel, Vol. 1. Wiesbaden: 137–150 Kenyon, K. 1960. Excavations at Jericho I: The Tombs excavated in 1952–4. London (British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem). Milevski, I., Greenhut, Z. and Agha, N. 2010. Excavations at the Holyland Compound: A Bronze Age Cemetery in the Rephaim Valley, Western Jerusalem. Proceedings of the 6th ICAANE, Rome, Vol. 2. Wiesbaden: 397–415. Moorey, P.R.S. 1967. Some Ancient Metal Belts: Their Antecedents and Relatives. Iran 5: 83–98. Negbi, O. 1976. Canaanite Gods in Metal. An Archaeological Study of Ancient Syro-Palestinian Figurines. Tel Aviv. Schaeffer, C.F.A. 1938. Les fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Syria 19: 193–255. Schiestl, R. 2002. Some Links between a Late Middle Kingdom Cemetery at Tell el-Dabca and SyriaPalestine: The Necropolis of F/I, Strata d/2 and d/1 (=H and G/4). In: Bietak, M., ed. The Middle Bronze Age in the Levant. Proceedings of an International Conference on MBIIA Ceramic Material Vienna January 2001. Vienna: 329–352. Schiestl, R. 2009. Tell el-Dabca 18. Die Palastnekropole von Tell el-Dabca. Die Gräber von Areals F/I der Straten d/2 und d/1. Vienna. Seeden, H. 1980. The Standing Armed Figurines in the Levant (Prähistorische Bronzefunde; Abt. 01. Bd. 01). Munich. Seeher, J. 2002. Hattuscha Führer. Istanbul Teissier, B. 1996. Egyptian Iconography on Syro-Palestinian Cylinder Seals of the Middle Bronze Age (OBO SA 11). Fribourg and Göttingen. Williams-Forte, E. The Snake and the Tree in the Iconogrphy and Texts of Syria during the Bronze Age. In: Gorelick, L. and Williams-Forte, E., eds. Ancient Seals and the Bible. Malibu: 18–43. Woolley, C.L. 1934. The Royal Cemetery, Ur Excavations, Vol. II. London. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Zettler, R.L. 1998. Ur of the Chaldees. The Royal Cemetery of Ur. In: Zettler, R.L. and Horne, L., eds. Treasures from the Royal Tombs of Ur (Traveling Exhibition Catalogue). Philadelphia: 8–32. Zevulun, U. and Ziffer I. 2007. A Human Face from Tel Haror and the Beginning of Canaanite headshaped Cups. In: Bickel, S., Schroer, S., Schurte, R. and Uehlinger, C., eds. Images as Sources. Studies on Ancient Near eastern Artefacts and the Bible Inspired by the Work of Othmar Keel (OBO Special Volume). Fribourg and Göttingen: 9–44.

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CHAPTER 9 DENDROARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH Nili Liphschitz Institute of Archaeology––The Botanical Laboratories, Tel Aviv University 9.1 INTRODUCTION Rishon le-Zion is located on the coast of Israel in a typical Mediterranean climate, enjoying a relatively high amount of annual precipitation of more than 600 mm, characterized by the dominant native climax association of Quercus calliprinos––Pistacia palaestina. The present report relates to the excavation of Area A, seasons 1992–1993 at Rishon le-Zion, where tombs dated to the Middle Bronze Age were exposed.

9.2 MATERIALS AND METHOD During the 1992 excavation season charred wood remains and carbonized seeds were retrieved from six tombs (A1–A6). During the 1993 season charred wood remains and carbonized seeds were gathered from seven tombs (A1, A2, A4, A6, A9, A10, and A12). Samples of 0.5–1.5 cu cm were taken for botanical identification. Samples were aspirated in absolute ethyl alcohol, transferred to celloidin-clove oil solution for 24 hours, rinsed in absolute ethyl alcohol and transferred to 50–55 degrees Celsius paraffin in the oven for four weeks. Blocks were made in paraffin. Cross-sections and longitudinal, tangential as well as radial sections of 12-micron thickness were made for each of the samples with a rotary microtome. Identification of the wood up to the tree species level, based on the three-dimensional structure of the wood, was made microscopically from these sections. Comparison was by means of reference sections prepared from systematically identified recent trees and shrubs and with anatomical atlases.

9.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION As can be seen from the results (Table 9.1, below) the wood samples gathered during 1992 and 1993 originated from five tree species: Quercus calliprinos (Kermes oak), Pistacia palaestina (terebinth), Olea europaea (olive), Ceratonia siliqua (carob), and Tamarix (X5)––probably Tamarix nilotica (tamarisk). The majority of the samples were of Olea europaea (22 out of 34 samples; 46.6%). Quercus calliprinos (6 out of 34 samples; 17.6%) and Pistacia palaestina (4 out of 34 samples; 11.8%) constituted together 96.0% of the wood assemblage. Only a single wood sample was found of Ceratonia siliqua and a single wood sample was of Tamarix (X5) (Table 9.2). All five of those species are native to the region. All the remains of seeds, except one Vitis vinifera (grape wine) seed, were Olea europaea (olive) stones. One carbonized axis of a Gramineae member (wheat or barley) was also found (Table 9.3). The dendroarchaeological investigations carried out in the Mediterranean region of Israel over the past three decades (Liphschitz 2007) show that the native dominant arboreal climax association of the Mediterranean region of the country prior to human interference with the environment was of Quercus calliprinos and Pistacia paleastina. At the same time, Olea europaea was part of this native arboreal climax vegetation, but constituted only a small percentage of it. Since its domestication during the EB IA, the share of Olea europaea in the arboreal cover greatly increased and became a dominant component of the landscape (Liphschitz 2007). During the Middle Bronze Age, olive orchards covered cultivated lands in the environs of Rishon le-Zion and the percentages of olive timber as construction timber or as fuel greatly increased.

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Table 9.1 Tree Species from Middle Bronze Age Tomb at Rishon le-Zion Tomb A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A2 A3 A4 A4 A5 A6 A9 A12 A12

Locus 101 101 108 118 118 119 201 201 122 114 113 204 110 127 215 216 216

Basket 1013 1035 1379 1143 1181 1145 2021 2037 1421 1225 1138 2309 1133 1404 2258 2117 2080

Tree species Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea

Tomb A12 A12 A12 A12 A12 A1 A2 A2 A3 A12 A12 A1 A3 A9 A10 A1 A12

Locus 216 216 216 246 246 201 237 268 115 216 228 227 114 215 210 108 216

Basket 2288 2105 2167 2580 2567 2016 2517 3251 1308 2132 2222 2260 1269 2215 2008 1129 2260

Tree species Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Olea europaea Quercus calliprinos Quercus calliprinos Quercus calliprinos Quercus calliprinos Quercus calliprinos Quercus calliprinos Pistacia palaestina Pistacia palaestina Pistacia palaestina Pistacia palaestina Ceratonia siliqua Tamarix (X5), probably Tamarix nilotica

Notes: B2288 (A12 L216) was found in amphora B3281; B3251 (A2 L268) is wood from a handle.

Table 9.2 Wood Remains from Middle Bronze Age Tombs at Rishon le-Zion Tree species Olea europaea Quercus calliprinos Pistacia palaestina Ceratonia siliqua Tamarix (X5)

No. of samples 22 6 4 1 1

Percentage 46.6 17.6 11.8 2.0 2.0

Table 9.3 Seeds from the Middle Bronze Age Tombs at Rishon le-Zion Tomb Locus Basket Identification A1 118 1143 1/2 olive stone A1 201 2016 2 olive stones A1 201 2020 1/2 olive stone A1 201 2037 1 olive stone A1 201 2057 1 olive stone A1 201 2065 (?) 1 olive stone A1 201 2069 6 olive stones A1 201 2185 2 olive stones A1 227 2260 Broken olive stone A3 114 1134 1 olive stone A4 254 2809 1 olive stone A6 106 1016 1 olive stone A6 206 2039 Broken olive stone A6 206 2201 1 olive stone A9 215 2258 3 olive stones A9 215 2290 1 olive stone A12 216 2132 2 olive stones A12 216 2288 1/2 olive stone A12 216 2559 1/2 olive stone A8 213 2449 1 grape vine seed A2 122 1240 Axis of Gramineae (barley or wheat)

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The earliest wood remains discovered in the Coastal Plain dated to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B. They included Quercus calliprinos (about 1/3 of the samples), Pistacia palaestina, Olea europaea, Tamarix (X5), and few other species. In the Pottery Neolithic period, 40% of the wood remains were of Quercus calliprinos and only 16% were of Olea europaea. The Early Bronze Age is characterized by a majority of wood remains of Olea europaea, which constituted more than 49%. This is the period when cultivation of olives had already started. The remains were collected from five sites: Shoham, Tel Aphek, Afridar, Tel Dalit, and Newe Yaraq. Middle and Late Bronze Age wood remains were gathered at nine sites: Accho, Jaffa, Tel Gerisa, Tel Michal, Rishon le-Zion, Tel Aphek, Tel Hefer, Tel ‘Ashir, and Tel Zurikiyeh. Olea europaea constituted 35%, Quercus calliprinos 29%, and Pistacia palaestina c. 10% of the wood assemblage. From the Iron Age, wood remains were collected at nine sites: Tel Gerisa, Tel Michal, Tell Qasile, Ashdod, Tel Aphek, Tel Zeror, ‘Izbet Sarta, Yavne Yam, and ‘Akko. In this period Olea europaea constituted 20%, whereas Quercus calliprinos constituted c. 30% and Pistacia palaestina c. 11%. Wood samples dated to the Persian, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Early Islamic, and Crusader periods show a similar phenomenon, i.e., the olive wood constituted about 25% (Liphschitz 2007). The finds from Rishon le-Zion excavations show a similar picture. One must remember that today the area of Rishon le-Zion is characterized by a secondary plant cover, resulting from severe human interference in the landscape. It can be assumed quite safely that the inhabitants of Rishon le-Zion during the Middle Bronze Age cleared the native arboreal cover of Quercus calliprinos and Pistcia palaestina and grew olive orchards as part of their economy. The fact that almost all seed remains were olive stones further support this assumption.

REFERENCE Liphschitz, N., 2007. Timber in Ancient Israel: Dendroarchaeology and Dendrochronology. Monograph Series No. 26. Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University.

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CHAPTER 10 SCARABS Daphna Ben-Tor The Israel Museum, Jerusalem 10.1 INTRODUCTION One hundred and fifty-four scarabs were found in the Rishon le-Zion cemetery. Four of these scarabs could not be traced (B2395, B3052, B3272 and B7107), and two were found broken into small pieces, leaving 146 scarabs which are discussed below. The great majority of these scarabs display distinctive characteristics of Canaanite scarabs of the early Palestinian series, which represent the beginning of scarab production in the southern Levant in the early phases of the Middle Bronze Age IIB, c. 1700–1600 BCE (Ben-Tor 1997:185–187; 2007:117–121). The Rishon le-Zion scarabs comprise in fact one of the largest excavated groups of the early Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007:118–121).1 The pottery associated with the tombs that yielded the Rishon le-Zion scarabs was assigned mainly to the early phases of the MB IIB period, with some tombs beginning in the transitional MB IIA–B. This is in complete agreement with all other groups assigned to the early Palestinian series, where the bulk of the material is associated with early MB IIB pottery (Ben-Tor 2007:117–21, with bibliography). As discussed in detail elsewhere (Ben-Tor 1997; 2007:122–150; 2009), most scarabs of the early Palestinian series display imitations of Egyptian Middle Kingdom prototypes depicting symmetric designs of good-luck hieroglyphs. The Canaanite imitations, however, often display incorrect signs and pseudo-hieroglyphs, suggesting that the artisans who produced them were not always informed of the original meaning of these signs. Moreover the early stages of Canaanite scarab production, already display independent developments, as well as influences from the Levantine cultural sphere (Keel 1989; 1995a:106–121; 2004:78–81; Ben-Tor 1997:181–185; 2007:126–127, 133–136, 146–150). The sequence of the scarabs discussed below is described according to the tombs in which they were found, beginning with the tombs of Area A through Areas C and F. The descriptions of the scarabs’ designs, heads and sides follow the typology of Tufnell (1984:28–38) and Ward and Dever (1994:162– 69); the scarabs’ backs are described only as plain or lined. Descriptions of distinctive characteristics of the early Palestinian series refer to Keel (2004) and Ben-Tor (2007:122–153), and the hieroglyphic signs are described with numbers referring to Gardiner’s sign list (Gardiner 1957:442–548). Most parallels for the Rishon le-Zion scarabs are from Ben-Tor (2007), which includes a comprehensive typology of excavated scarabs of the first half of the second millennium BCE from Egypt and Palestine. Some of the scarabs from Area A were published by this author in earlier studies (Ben-Tor 1997; 2007; 2009). References to these publications are included in the individual discussions of the scarabs. Size of all scarabs is given in millimeters.2

10.2 AREA A 10.2.1 Tomb A1 A total of 10 scarabs was found in Tomb A1. 1

The only other early Canaanite group of similar scope was found in tombs assigned to Kenyon’s Groups I–II at Jericho (Ben-Tor 2007:117–221 with bibliography). 2 I thank Yosef Levy, the excavator of the Rishon le-Zion cemetery, for entrusting me with the publication of this important group. It was my initial work on the Area A scarabs in 1993 that generated long-term research of the Palestinian scarab series that contributed to our understanding of Egyptian-Levantine relations in the Middle Bronze Age. I am also very grateful to Raz Kletter for his assistance and for providing me with the information concerning the tombs, and to Vanessa Boschloos for reading the manuscript and for her helpful comments. Since the measurements (in millimeters) of each scarab were detailed in the text, we did not mark the scale in the figures. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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1. SCARAB B1064 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, found with a broken ring, plain back, D2 head, d6 side, design class 6B3. Size: length 21.49; width 14.05; height 6.01. The base design displays an elaborate woven pattern with decorated ovals at both ends. This design appears on late Middle Kingdom scarabs (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 14:43–49) and is imitated on Canaanite scarabs of the early and late series (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 60:23–27; Pl. 89:7–14). The scarab’s naturalistic features and the particular pattern of the design argue for its Canaanite origin and for assigning it to the early Palestinian series. Fig. 10.1: Scarab 1, B1064 Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 60:23. Context: Tomb A1, L108, Level IV, secondary burial heap of at least three individuals. 2. SCARAB B2032 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, the back and the top part of the base are broken, d5 side, design class 7+8. Size: length 18.89; width 12.81; height 16.26. The base design displays a combination of a paired scroll and rope borders enclosing a column of signs: the top one is broken, nb (V30), scarab (L1), small nb (V30), with nfr (F35) and ënã (S34) at the bottom. The combination of scroll and rope border indicates the Canaanite origin of the scarab (Ben-Tor 2007:145–146), but as such designs occur in both the early and late series it is not possible to assign this scarab to either group. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 62:3, Pl. 93:29. Context: Tomb A1, L201, Level IV, the pelvis area of preliminary burial B1291+B2402. 3. SCARAB B2395 Listed from Tomb A1, L227; the scarab is missing. 4. SCARAB B2537 Context: Tomb A1, L201, B2537, Level IV, exact find spot unknown. Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 20.20; width 13.47; height 7.86. Egyptian Middle Kingdom. 5. SCARAB B2568 Context: Tomb A1, L201, B2568, Level IV, exact find spot unknown. Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, only the central part of the scarab survived, probably A head, design class 3D3. Size: length 17.26; width 5.22; height 4.55. The remaining fragment displays characteristics that clearly indicate the scarab’s Canaanite production, and assign it to the A-head group, one of the three earliest groups of Canaanite scarabs, dated c. 1700–1600 BCE (Keel 2004:96–98; Ben-Tor 2007:152, Pls. 70–72). The remains of the base design show a square frame enclosing nfr (F35), with a winged sun disk above, and ãæst (N25) and two nfr (F35) signs below. Square frames of this type are absent in the Egyptian Middle Kingdom series but they are found on Canaanite scarabs of both the early and late Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007: Pls. 57:18, 86:9). As stated above, the surviving features of the scarab’s back argue for assigning it to the A-head group. 6. SCARAB B2569 The scarab is too fragmentary to discern features or design. Size: length 6.09; width 4.73; height 2.76. Context: Tomb A1, L201, Level IV, near pelvis of skeleton B2870+2821. 7. SCARAB B2615 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, found with a broken ring, plain back, D head, d6 side, design class 3B1b. Size: length 22.34; width 15.69; height 11.10. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Scarab 1, B1064

Scarab 2, B2032

Scarab 4, B2537

Fig. 10.2: Scarabs 1, 2, 4

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Scarab 5, B2568

Scarab 6, B2569

Scarab 7, B2615

Scarab 8, B2874

Scarab 9, B2874/2

Fig. 10.3: Scarabs 6–9

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The base design displays addorsed and linked uraei enclosing ënã (S34) and t (X1), and above them a loop enclosing a gold sign (S12) and nb (V30). The design and features of the scarab argue for its Canaanite origin and assign it to the early Palestinian series. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 50:28, Pl. 53:4, 13. Context: Tomb A1, L201, Level IV, near skull B2966, a preliminary burial. 8. SCARAB B2874 Material and design: plain scarab, unidentified stone. Size: length 16.75; width 12.85; height 7.66. Context: Tomb A1, L201, Level IV, probably associated with primary burial B2873+B2874. 9. SCARAB B2874/2 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, inserted in a ring, plain back, D7 head, e2 side, design class 10A. Size: length 20.48; width 15.34; height 9.00. The base design displays a male figure wearing an Egyptian-style kilt, standing above nb (V30) and holding a uraeus, with a pseudo-hieroglyph below his raised arm. The design and features of the scarab argue for assigning it to the late Palestinian series. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 102:5, 8–9, 21, 24. Published: Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 10:10. Context: Tomb A1, L201, Level IV, probably associated with primary burial B2873+2874. 10. SCARAB B2924 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab, found with a broken silver ring. Size: length 15.78; width 10.55; height 7.27. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb A1, L201, Level IV, no association with a particular burial. 10.2,2 Tomb A2 MB IIB pottery; three scarabs were found in Tomb A2. 11. SCARAB B2792 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d6 side, combination of design classes 3C and 7B2. Size: length 16.05; width 10.80; height 6.44. The base design displays a two-paired scroll border enclosing a variation of the ënrë formula with a winged sun disk at the bottom. For the Canaanite origin of the ënrë formula and for its popularity in the early and late Palestinian series see Ben-Tor 2007: 133–134, 165-166. The scarab’s naturalistic features argue for assigning it to the early Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 72:8–16). Published: Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 3:13; 2007: Pl. 56:25, Pl. 61:23. Context: Tomb A2, L247, early Level I, near legs of partial preliminary burial B2496+2503. 12. SCARAB B2838/1 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e side. Size: length 23.22; width 18.15; height 9.95. The base surface is in a poor state of preservation, and the design is unclear, possibly displaying a human figure (?). The scarab’s features argue for a Canaanite origin. Context: Tomb A2, L248, Level V, near child skull B2838. 13. SCARAB B3170 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, B2 head, e9 side, design class 6B2. Size: length 17.24; width 12.30; height 8.65. The base design displays a coiled and woven design of a form indicating its Canaanite origin. The scarab’s features assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series, dating c. 1700–1640 BCE (Keel 2004:81–93; Ben-Tor 2007:151, Pls. 64–67). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 60:21. Context: Tomb A2, L247, Level II, heap of secondary burials. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Scarab 10, B2924

Scarab 11, B2792

Scarab 12, B2838/1

Fig. 10.4: Scarabs 10–12

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Scarab 13, B3170

Scarab 14, B2031

Scarab 15, B2558

Fig. 10.5: Scarabs 13–15

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10.2.3 Tomb A3 MB IIB pottery; seven scarabs were found in Tomb A3. 14. SCARAB B2031 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e side, design class 3A3. Size: length 17.55; width 13.17; height 7.45. The base design displays a crowned uraeus flanked by two swt (M23) plants and three pseudohieroglyphs. The design and features of the scarab indicate its Canaanite origin and assign it to the early Palestinian series. Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:23. Context: Tomb A3, L203, Level IV, from finger (with broken ring B2447+B2152) of a primary burial, 15 years old, sex unknown. 15. SCARAB B2558 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d5 side, design class 3A4. Size: length 19.65; width 13.66; height 8.34. The base design displays a variation of the falcon and 90° angle with an owl replacing the falcon. It is depicted together with a variation of the ënrë formula, enclosed in a semi-circle flanked by crowned uraei surmounted by mæët (H6) feathers. The design and naturalistic features of the scarab (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 72:8–16) assign it to the early Palestinian series. Published: Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 3:5, Fig. 8:1; 2007: Pl. 52:24; 2009: Fig. 8:17.3 Context: Tomb A3, L203, Level IV, with bronze ring B2554, location in locus unclear. 16. SCARAB B3114/2 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d13 side, design class 5. Size: length 18.89; width 12.61; height 8.44. The base design displays a cross pattern with lotus flowers and spirals, and nfr (F35) signs between the spirals. Published: Ben-Tor (2007: Pl. 59:41), as a Canaanite early series scarab; but the particular design and side type of the scarab suggest a more likely late Middle Kingdom origin. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 12:37, 49. Context: Tomb A3, L269, B3114, Level II, north side, rich primary adult burial B3136, found together with scarabs B3115, B3116 and B3117 (below) on the left hand, probably worn on the fingers. 17. SCARAB B3115 (COLOR PL. 11:2) Material and design: black stone, inserted in a ring, plain back, B2 head, e side, design class 6B2. Size: length 21.70; width 15.29; height 8.65. The base design displays a poorly executed coiled and woven design with schematic uraei at both ends. The material and design argue for the Canaanite origin of the scarab. Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 60:12. Context: Tomb A3, L269, B3115, Level II, found with scarab 3114/2 above. 18. SCARAB B3116 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lines back, B2 head, e9 side; design class 3A3. Size: length 16.18; width 11.85; height 6.97. The base design displays a group of pseudo-hieroglyphs: the sign simulating a sun disk between uraei (Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 3:1–4; 2009: Fig. 4), a sign that was interpreted as a sun disk (Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 3:5–8; 2009: Fig. 4), t (X1), kæ (D28) between two mæët (H6) feathers, and nb (V30) at the bottom. The scarab’s features assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, above). Published: Ben-Tor 1997: Figs. 2:16, 3:3; 2007: Pl. 51:24; 2009: Fig. 1, bottom row first on the left, Fig. 4, top row second from the left. Context: Tomb A3, L269, B3116, Level II, found with scarab 3114/2 above. 19. SCARAB B3117 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e9 side, unusual design of lion foreparts. 3

The drawings in Ben-Tor 1997 are incorrectly displayed in the opposite direction. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Scarab 16, B3114/2

Scarab 17, B3115

Scarab 18, B3116

Scarab 20, B3281

Scarab 19, B3117

Fig. 10.6: Scarabs 16–20

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Size: length 18.44; width 12.33; height 8.15. The base design displays in longitudinal setting two addorsed lion foreparts attached at the back, with an unclear sign between their heads, nfr (F35) displayed horizontally below them, and lozenge-like motifs on either side. The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series, one of the three earliest groups of Canaanite scarabs, which was dated c. 1700–1600 BCE (Keel 2004:93–98; Ben-Tor 2007:151–152, Pls. 67–70). The design is unique with no parallel in Egypt or Palestine and its source of inspiration is unclear. Context: Tomb A3, L269, B3117, Level II, found with scarab 3114/2 above. 20. SCARAB B3281 Material and design: steatite, probably unglazed, plain, unfinished (?). Size: length 12.75; width 8.97; height 6.98. Most probably of Canaanite production. Context: Tomb A3, L269, B3281, Level I, west of skull B3283, no association with a specific burial. 10.2.4 Tomb A4 MB IIB pottery; a total of 10 scarabs was found in Tomb A4. 21. SCARAB B2184 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, one corner of the base surface is broken, plain back, B2 head, e9 side, design class 3A3. Size: length 13.85; width 9.03; height 5.09. The base displays kæ (D28) flanked by two stylized sæ (V18) signs4 at the center, with a Canaanite motif possibly simulating a podium (Ben-Tor 1997:181–185, and Fig. 12) above, and nb (V30) below. The design and features of the scarab assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:25. Context: Tomb A4, L204, B2184, Level IV–III, exact find spot unclear. 22. SCARAB B2593 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 11.33; width 8.27; height 5.59. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb A4, L242, B2593, Level IV, north of area with two skulls in secondary burial. 23. SCARAB B2595 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 4. Size: length 12.24; width 8.50; height 5.25. The base design displays a vertical row of three concentric circles flanked by branches. The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 58:48. Context: Tomb A4, L242, B2595, find spot unknown. 24. SCARAB B2626 (COLOR PL. 11:3) Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, found with a broken ring, plain decorated back, D head, e9 side, combination of design classes 3C and 7A. Size: length 19.38; width 13.18; height 7.36. The base design displays a variation of the ënrë formula enclosed in a continuous scroll border, a distinctive Canaanite design appearing in Fig. 10.7: Scarab 24, B2626 both the early and late series (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 61:7, 8, 10, 12–14, Pl. 91:4, 9, 13, 14, 17, 20, 21). The features of the scarab assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). Published: Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 2:12, Fig. 5:5; 2007: Pl. 56:28, Pl. 61:7. Context: Tomb A4, L254, B2626, Level IV, no clear relation to a specific burial. 4

For the possible interpretation of the sign as a stylized sæ see Keel 1995:168, §445; Ben-Tor 2007:126. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Scarab 21, B2184

Scarab 22, B2593

Scarab 23, B2595

Scarab 24, B2626

Fig. 10.8: Scarabs 21–24

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25. SCARAB B2629 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 12.99; width 8.70; height 5.81. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb A4, L254, B2629, Level IV, secondary burial, found when cleaning skull B2629. 26. SCARAB B2905 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain decorated back, D head, e9 side, combination of design classes 3C, 3D and 7A. Size: length 18.42; width 12.04; height 8.54. The base displays a continuous scroll border around an oval ring enclosing œtp-n-rë variation of the ënrë formula (Ben-Tor 1997:175). The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above) Published: Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 6:1; 2007: Pl. 57:11, Pl. 61:8. Context: Tomb A4, L254, B2905, Level IV, probably from the neck area of adult primary burial B2878+B2915. 27. SCARAB B3127 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, was complete and is now broken, plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 3A3. Size: length 13.30; width 9.33; height 4.90. The base design displays a crowned falcon and mæët (H6) feather, with a reversed nb (V30) at the top. The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19 above) Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51: 26. Context: Tomb A4, L254, B3127, Level I, area with secondary burials of at least three individuals. 28. SCARAB B3082/1 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, broken and in poor state of preservation, probably plain back and e9 side, design class 10A. Size: length 17.70; width 12.27; height 7.39. The base design displays a unique variation of the so-called “toga wearer” (Tufnell 1984:136; Keel 1995:206–207, §568; Ben-Tor 2007:179), indicating the Canaanite origin of the scarab. The figure stands beside a column of hieroglyphs of which only a sun disk (N5) and nfr (F35) are clear. The column is bordered on the other side by a panel ending with a lotus flower and a red crown (S3). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 102:10, 13, Pl. 103:19–21. Context: Tomb A4, L267, B3082, Level II, in a skull from a secondary burial. 29. SCARAB B3049 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 19.25; width 13.12; height 8.28. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb A4, L254, B3049, Level III, secondary burial, found when cleaning skull B3049. 30. SCARAB B3272 Listed in Tomb A4, L254 (same area as scarab B3127 above); the scarab is missing. 10.2.5 Tomb A5 MB IIA–B and MB IIB pottery; only two scarabs were found in Tomb A5. 31. SCARAB B2898/5 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, broken, only half the scarab survived and most of the base surface is lost. Unclear features, possibly a B2 head suggesting a Canaanite origin for the scarab. Size: length 10.27; width 5.38; height 2.90. The only sign visible on the base is the sign possibly representing a stylized sæ (V18). Context: Tomb A5, L251, B2898, Level III, inside a Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglet B2898.

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Scarab 25, B2629

Scarab 26, 2905

Scarab 27, B3127

Scarab 28, B3082/1

Fig. 10.9: Scarabs 25–28

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Scarab 29, B3049

Scarab 31, B2898/5

Scarab 32, L251

Fig. 10.10: Scarabs 29–32

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Scarab 33, B2029

Scarab 34, 2404

Scarab 35, B2448

Scarab 36, B2666

Fig. 10.11: Scarabs 33–36

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32. SCARAB L251 No basket number. Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined back, D head, e9 side; design class 3C. Size: length 1.36; width 7.64; height 4.89. The base design displays a uraeus next to three signs comprising a variation of the ënrë formula and wÿæt (D10) eye below. The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). For a close parallel see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 56:22. Context: Tomb A5, L251, Level II, from burial B3188 (see Plan 4.27: B). 10.2.6 Tomb A6 MB IIB pottery; a total of nine scarabs was found in Tomb A6. 33. SCARAB B2029 Material and design: plain scarab of unidentified stone. Size: length 15.49; width 10.01; height 6.03. Context: Tomb A6, L206, B2029, Level V, right hand of primary adult burial B2398. 34. SCARAB B2404 (COLOR PL. 11:4) Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined back, D head, e9 side; design class 3A4. Size: length 16.09; width 1.30; height 6.35. The base design displays a variation of the falcon and 90° angle with t (X1) signs as space fillers above and below, all enclosed in a continuous scroll border. The scarab’s features display a combination of the D-head and A-head groups of the early Palestinian series (Keel 2004:93–98; Ben-Tor 2007:151–152). The early-series origin of the scarab is confirmed by the base design. Published: Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 2:17, Fig. 8:7; 2007: Pl. 52:25. Context: Tomb A6, L206, B2404, Level V, burial B2398 (cf. scarab B2029 above), near the pelvis. 35. SCARAB B2448 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 14.12; width 10.63; height 7.15. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb A6, L206, B2448, no association with specific burial. 36. SCARAB B2666 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 13.77; width 10.19; height 6.50. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb A6, L224, B2666, Level II, left hand of primary female burial B2985. 37. SCARAB B2987 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain schematic features, plain back, B2 head, d5 side, design class 9B. Size: length 15.02; width 11.05; height 7.97. The base design displays a horned caprid and a crocodile above it. Designs displaying caprids are distinctive of Canaanite scarabs of the late Palestinian series, dating c. 1650–1500 BCE (Ben-Tor 2007:175). Caprids are occasionally depicted with crocodiles (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 96:32, 39). The design assigns the scarab to the late Palestinian series. Context: Tomb A6, L224, B2987, Level II; found near the neck of primary child burial B3002+B3003, but may belong to the adjacent adult burial B2981+B2982. 38. SCARAB B3052 Listed in Tomb A6, L265; the scarab is missing. 39. SCARAB B3143 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 19.15; width 13.40; height 7.21. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb A6, L224, B3143, Level II, with scarab 3144 (below) on the neck of primary burial 2988. 40. SCARAB B3144 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d13 side, design class 2A Size: length 15.71; width 10.73; height 7.35. The base design displays linked C-scrolls flanked by a scarab on either side. Designs displaying the same pattern of linked C-scrolls with hieroglyphs are found on late Middle Kingdom scarabs, but they are not attested on Canaanite scarabs, thus arguing for a late Middle Kingdom origin of the scarab. For a close parallel with wÿæt (D10) eyes see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 4:8. Context: Tomb A6, L224, B3144, Level II, with scarab 39 (above), on the neck of burial B2988. 41. SCARAB B3176 (COLOR PL. 11:5) Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined decorated back, A head, e9 side, combination of design classes 3B1d, 3C, 3E5. Size: length 18.00; width 12.42; height 7.05. The base design displays a shrine-like element ending with two uraei, enclosing a variation of the ënrë formula, flanked by nfr (F35) on either side, and surmounted by another ënrë variation flanked by mæët (H6) feathers. The design and features of the scarab assign it to the A-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 5, B2568 above). Published: Ben-Tor 1997: Figs. 2:7; 3:7; 2007: Pl. 58:8; 2016: no. 11c. Context: Tomb A6, L265, B3176, Level IV, with silver ring B3177, left-hand finger of a primary female burial. 10.2.7 Tomb A7 MB IIA, MB IIA–B and MB IIB pottery; two scarabs were found in Tomb A7. 42. SCARAB B3157 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, B2 head, e9 side, combination of design classes 2A and 5. Size: length 15.42; width 10.64; height 6.22. The base design displays a cross pattern comprising four spirals, two C-scrolls, a central concentric circle and three misrendered ënã (S34) signs. The scarab’s features assign is to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 59:42. Context: Tomb A7, L240, B3157, Level II, pelvis area of a primary male burial. 43. SCARAB B3158 Listed in Tomb A7, L240; only bits remain, chest area. Context: same as scarab B31157 (above). 10.2.8 Tomb A8 MB IIA, MB IIA–B and mostly MB IIB pottery; a total of 12 scarabs was found in Tomb A8. 44. SCARAB B2099 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, B2 head, e11 side, design class 3A3. Size: length 11.12; width 8.68; height 5.79. The base design displays kæ (D28) and stylized sæ (V18) at the center, with the pseudo-hieroglyph possibly simulating a sun disk between uraei (Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 3:1–4) above, and nb (V30) below. The scarab’s design and features assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:27. Context: Tomb A8, L213, B2099, Level IV, no clear relation to a specific burial. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Scarab 37, B2987

Scarab 39, 3143

Scarab 40, B3144

Scarab 41, B3176

Fig. 10.12: Scarabs 37, 39–41 © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Scarab 42, B3157

Scarab 43, B3158 (line = 2 cm)

Scarab 44, B2099

Scarab 45, B2262

Scarab 46, B2500

Fig. 10.13: Scarabs 42–45

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45. SCARAB B2262 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 13.29; width 9.71; height 7.22. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb A8, L221, B2262, Level IV or III, secondary burial area. 46. SCARAB B2500 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, remains of white patina (?), plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 3A4. Size: length 12.43; width 8.05; height 5.24. The base design displays the falcon and 90° angle next to nfr (F35), with a winged sun disk at the top and two horizontal lines below it. The design and features of the scarab assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 52:2, 14. Context: Tomb A8, L213, B2500, Level III, exact find spot unknown. 47. SCARAB B2573/1 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, broken, plain back, B2 head, e side, design class 3A3. Size: length 9.89; width 6.44; height 5.21. The base design displays three signs: a pseudo-hieroglyph possibly displaying a sun disk between uraei (Ben-Tor 1997:171, and Fig. 3:1–4; Ben-Tor 2009:84) or between mountains = æãt ((N26, see Keel 2004:83–86), kæ (D28), and a pseudo-hieroglyph possibly displaying a reversed wæÿ (M13) or a stylized sæ (V18).5 The pseudo-hieroglyphs appearing on this scarab are typical of Canaanite scarabs of the early Palestinian series, and they are commonly found on examples displaying design class 3A3 (Keel 2004: 83–86; Ben-Tor 2007:126, Pl. 51). The scarab’s features assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:36. Context: Tomb A8, L213, B2573, Level IV, with three additional scarabs (below) in secondary burial heap B2573. 48. SCARAB B2573/2 Material and design: unglazed steatite, lined back, B2 head, e9 side, design class 4. Size: length 12.81; width 8.56; height 5.85. The base design displays four concentric circles with linear decorations between, above, and below them. Designs comprising concentric circles are typical of the early Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007:136– 137, Pls. 58–59). The scarab’s features assign it to the B2-head group (see scarab 13, B3170 above). For examples of the B2-head group displaying design class 4 see Keel 2004: Figs. 40, 49, 50–52; Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 64:5, 11, Pl. 65:12, 17, Pl. 66:2, 4, Pl. 67:6. Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 59:2. Context: Tomb A8, L213, B2573, Level IV, with scarab 47, B2573/1 above. 49. SCARAB B2573/3 Material and design: unglazed steatite, plain back, B2 head, e9 side, design class 4. Size: length 13.99; width 9.41; height 5.88. The base design displays seven concentric circles with a couple of linear decorations. The scarab’s features assign it to the B2-head group (see scarab 13, B3170 above). For a discussion of concentric circles on scarabs of the early Palestinian series see Ben-Tor 2007:136–137. Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 59: 3. Context: Tomb A8, L213, B2573, Level IV, with scarab 47, B2573/1 above.

5

See Ben-Tor 1997:171, Fig. 3:14; 2009:84, Fig. 5:4, 8; Keel 2004:83).

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Scarab 47, B2573/1

Scarab 48, B2573/2

Scarab 49, B2573/3

Scarab 50, B2573/4

Fig. 10.14: Scarabs 47–50

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Scarab 51, B2618

Scarab 52, B2906

Scarab 53, B3070

Scarab 54, B3092

Fig. 10.15: Scarabs 51–54

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50. SCARAB B2573/4 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined back, B2 head, broken side; design class 3A3. Size: length 11.80; width 8.35; height 4.94. The base design displays an L-shaped red crown and the sign possibly simulating sæ (V18). The features of the scarab assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 54:27. Context: Tomb A8n, L213, B2573, Level IV, with scarab 47, B2573/1 above. 51. SCARAB B2618 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d6 side, design class 7+8. Size: length 17.19; width 11.94; height 7.52. The base design displays a scarab, a gold sign (S12), and three pseudo-hieroglyphs enclosed in a combination of continuous scrolls and rope borders, a combination found only on Canaanite scarabs (BenTor 2007:145–146). The Canaanite origin of the scarab is also indicated by the pseudo-hieroglyphs enclosed in the border, which assign it to the early Palestinian series. Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 62:8. Context: Tomb A8, L213, B2618, Level III, between legs of primary burial B2617+B2536, but may have originated from the earlier Level II. 52. SCARAB B2906 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 17.84; width 12.88; height 8.99. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb A8, L250, B2906, Level II, secondary burial area of bones B2943. 53. SCARAB B3070 Material and design: glazed steatite no remains of glaze, e9 (?) side. Size: length 9.39; width 5.30; height 4.43. The scarab is too fragmentary to describe its design and features, except for a small part of the side suggesting e9 type, and a small part of the base design displaying a loop decorated with lines. This sign is found on both Egyptian and Canaanite scarabs (e.g., Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 7:2, 4, 5, 8, 9; Pl. 51:18; Pl. 56:21, 22), however, the surviving part of the e9 side argues for a more likely early-series Canaanite origin of the scarab. Context: Tomb A8n, L250, B3070, Level II, secondary burial, with skull B3070. 54. SCARAB B3092 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined back, B2 head, e9 side; design class 3A4. Size: length 17.70; width 12.27; height 7.39. The base design displays a variation of design class 3A4 depicting the falcon and 90° angle as the main motif, with pseudo-hieroglyphs: the sun disk between uraei (see scarab 13, B3170 above), misrendered mn (Y5), and kæ (D28). The design and features of the scarab assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see Scarab 13, B3170 above) Published: Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 3:15; 2007: Pl. 52:26; 2009: Fig. 8:10. Context: Tomb A8, L250, B3092, Level II, on chest of female B3088+B3046. 55. SCARAB B3258 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze; early Tell el-Dab‘a workshop: Mlinar type IIIA, design class 3A3. Size: length 13.29; width 8.75; height 5.82. The base design displays a crowned falcon and nfr (F35), above nb (V30). Like the early Palestinian series, the early workshop at Tell el-Dab‘a produced imitations of Egyptian Middle Kingdom prototypes and local innovations. The design on this scarab displays a combination that is not found on Middle Kingdom scarabs but similar combinations occur in the early Palestinian series (e.g., Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:4, 6, 15, 46). For Mlinar type IIIA back types see Mlinar 2004:116–120; Ben-Tor 2007:68–70; Pl. 30:9–17, Pl. 31: 1, 3–5, 7–8, 11, 14, 16. Context: Tomb A8, L277, B3258, Level I, near skull of primary burial B3267. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 10.16: Scarab 55, B3258

10.2.9 Tomb A9 MB IIB pottery; a total of 18 scarabs was found in Tomb A9. 56. SCARAB B2351 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e2 side, combination of design classes 6B and 8. Size: length 22.04; width 16.58; height 8.68. The base design displays a rope border enclosing a coiled and woven design. The design and features of the scarab suggest assigning it to the late rather than the early Palestinian series. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 94:21, 31, 35. Context: Tomb A9, L215, B2351, Level III or II, probably related to skull B2848. 57. SCARAB B2679 Material and design: black stone, poorly executed, plain back, schematic features, design class 7B4. Size: length 14.79; width 12.55; height 8.40. The base design displays a four-paired scroll border enclosing an unclear sign and two nfr (F35) signs. The material and poor workmanship of the scarab argue for its Canaanite origin and most likely for an early-series date. Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 62:1. Context: Tomb A9, L261, B2679, Level II, area of second burials, near juglets B2855–B2856. 58. SCARAB B2849 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze. Broken, half of the scarab is missing, plain back, B2 head, e side; design class 4. Size: length 8.03; width 7.22; height 5.26. The base design displays five concentric circles arranged irregularly, but as only about half the base surface survived it is difficult to reconstruct the original design. The remaining features argue for assigning the scarab to the early Palestinian series. Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 58:50. Context: Tomb A9, L209, B2849, Level II, chest of primary burial B2844. 59. SCARAB B2853 Material and design: black stone (steatite?), plain back, D or B2 head, schematic side, unusual variation of design class 9B. Size: length 19.72; width 12.91; height 8.24. The base design displays two horned caprids in a posture of motion, one with the head turned backward, a branch on the left, and an unclear motif between them. Designs displaying horned caprids and branches are common in the late Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 96), but the unique variation of the design on this scarab may suggest an earlier date. Context: Tomb A9, L215, B2853, Level II, neck of primary burial B2866 + skull B2996.

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Scarab 56, B2351

Scarab 57, B2679

Scarab 58, B2849

Scarab 59, B2853

Fig. 10.17: Scarabs 56–59 © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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60. SCARAB B2854 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, found with a broken ring, lined decorated back, A head, d5 side, design class 3A1. Size: length 21.37; width 14.58; height 9.42. The base design displays the sign of union of Upper and Lower Egypt, flanked on either side by a three-stem papyrus motif. The sign of union appears on Egyptian scarabs of the late Middle Kingdom (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 5: 32–63, Pl. 6: 1–19) and on Canaanite scarabs of the early and late Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 50: 16–20, Pl. 76: 16–35). The combination of the sign with a three-stem papyrus indicates its Canaanite origin (See Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 50: 1–7; Pl. 74: 1–32). The decorated A-head back type argues for assigning the scarab to the A-head group of the early Palestinian series (See scarab 5, B2568 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 50:6, 20. Context: Tomb A9, L209, B2854, Level I, secondary burial area.

Fig. 10.18. Scarab 60, B2854, with remains of its ring

61. SCARAB B2860 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, one corner of the scarab is broken, plain back, B2 head, e9 side, design class 3A3. Size: length 15.24; width 10.95; height 6.51. The base design displays a group of misrendered hieroglyphs that seem to simulate a uraeus and mæët (H6) feather at the center with a couple of double lines, and nb (V30) above and below. The design and features of the scarab assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:30. Context: Tomb A9, L261, B2860, Level I (?); find spot uncertain. 62. SCARAB B2862 Material and design: glazed steatite with remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e side, design class 3A3. Size: length 15.05; width 10.29; height 6.86. The base design displays a crowned falcon with nfr (F35) on either side. The design and features of the scarab assign it to the early Palestinian series. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:15, 46. Context: Tomb A9, L209, B2862, Level I, area of secondary burials. 63. SCARAB B2863 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 4. Size: length 16.40; width 1.27; height 7.29. The base design displays a central concentric circle surrounded by eight concentric circles, and attached to four of them by lines. Similar designs are frequently found on scarabs of the early Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007: Pls. 58–59), and the scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group (see scarab 19, B3117 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 58:49. Context: Tomb A9, L209, B2863, Level I, area of secondary burials.

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Scarab 61, B2860

Scarab 62, B2862

Scarab 63, B2863

Scarab 64, B2894

Scarab 65, B2895

Fig. 10.19: Scarabs 61–65

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64. SCARAB B2894 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, was complete and is now broken, found with a broken ring, lined back, D or B2 head, e11 side, design class 3A3. Size: length 14.82; width 8.86; height 5.21. The base design displays the pseudo-hieroglyph simulating a sun disk between uraei (see scarab 47, B2573/1 above), nfr (F35) between two stylized sæ (V18) signs, two t (X1) signs, and nb (V30) at the bottom. The scarab’s design and features assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). Published: Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 2:3; 2007: Pl. 51:28; 2009: Fig. 4, bottom row second from the left. Context: Tomb A9, L209, B2894, exact find spot unclear. 65. SCARAB B2895 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined back, B2 head, e9 side; design class 3A3. Size: length 13.82; width 9.72; height 6.21. The base design displays a central group of three signs: kæ (D28) and two stylized sæ (V18), with a Canaanite motif possibly simulating a podium (Ben-Tor 1997:181–185, and Fig. 12) above, and a double line and nb (V30) below. The scarab’s features assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). Published: Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 12:1; 2007: Pl. 52:29; 2009: Fig. 5:8. Context: Tomb A9, L209, B2895, exact find spot unclear. 66. SCARAB B2896 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 19.20; width 13.45; height 1.66. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb A9, L209, B2896, exact find spot unclear. 67. SCARAB B3017 (COLOR PL. 12:1) Material and design: plain scarab of blue paste, difficult to establish its date and origin. Size: length 13.35; width 9.20; height 7.33. Context: Tomb A9, L215, B3017, Level II, under pelvis of burial B2866. 68. SCARAB B3018 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, broken, most of the base surface is missing, plain back, D head, d6 side, design class 3B2. Size: length 17.20; width 12.67; height 8.39. The remaining parts of the base design display the sedge and the bee symbolizing the royal title nsw bít (M23, L2): King of Upper and Lower Egypt, a wÿæt D10) eye, and wæœ (V29). The sedge and the bee, which are not found on design scarabs of the Middle Kingdom, argue for the Canaanite origin of the scarab (Ben-Tor 2007:18, 79, 129, 162). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 53:27–29. Context: Tomb A9, L215, B3018, Level II, near left hand of burial B2866. 69. SCARAB B3019 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 15.69; width 10.75; height 7.32. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb A9, L215, B3019, Level II, between legs of “middle” primary burial B2995+B2848, but may belong to earlier Level I. 70. SCARAB B3020 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 13.85; width 9.70; height 6.35. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb A9, L215, B3020, Level II, near legs of two primary skeletons B2286+B2296 and B2848+B2995.

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CHAPTER 10. SCARABS

Scarab 66, B2896

Scarab 67, B3017

Scarab 68, B3018

Scarab 69, B3019

Fig. 10.20: Scarabs 66–69

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Scarab 70, B3020

Scarab 71, B3146

Scarab 72, B3156

Scarab 73, B3173

Fig. 10.21: Scarabs 70–73 © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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71. SCARAB B3146 (COLOR PL. 12:2) Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, the top part broken, plain back, d6 side, design class 9C2. Size: length 18.58; width 15.36; height 9.67. The base design displays in longitudinal setting a falcon-headed figure standing and holding a lotus flower with a long stem, with ënã (S34) and a sun disk (N5) behind him. Behind the lotus flower is nb (V30), above which was most probably a uraeus that is now broken. The design assigns the scarab to the late Palestinian series. Published: Ben-Tor 1997 Fig.10:4. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 97:21, 22, 24, 27, 29–31. Context: Tomb A9, L215, B3146, Level I, burial area of one primary and at least five secondary burials. 72. SCARAB B3156 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d5 side, design class 2A. Size: length 17.40; width 12.84; height 7.46. The base design displays a central S-scroll between two-stem papyrus plants. The design and features of the scarab indicate its Canaanite origin and assign it to the late Palestinian series. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 75:7, 10, 11, 26. Context: Tomb A9, L215, B3156, Level I, with scarab B3146 above, and scarab B3173 below. 73. SCARAB B3173 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d13 side, design class 7B3. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 29:2, 13. Size: length 19.13; width 12.86; height 8.16. The base design displays a three-paired scroll border enclosing a column of hieroglyphs: sun disk (N5), scarab (L1), two nfr (F35) signs, and ãë (N28) at the bottom. The scarab’s features and the choice and form of the hieroglyphs suggest most likely a late Middle Kingdom Egyptian origin for the scarab. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 29:12–13. Context: Tomb A9, L215, B3173, Level I, with scarabs B3146 and B3156 above. 10.2.10 Tomb A10 MB IIA–B and MB IIB pottery; 11 scarabs were found in Tomb A10. 74. SCARAB B2534 Material and design: glazed composition, design class 3F (Omega group). Size: length 8.85; width 6.37; height 3.79. The scarab displays distinctive features of the so-called Omega group, a particular group of scarabs first recognized by Keel, which he dubbed the Omega group based on the Ω-shaped motif frequently decorating their base (Keel 1989:40–87; 1995:31, §55; 2004:79–81; Ben-Tor 1997:185–186; 2007:135– 136, Pl. 58.17–29). The Omega group consists of small scarabs of glazed composition decorated by raised relief on the base, and displaying close similarity to a group of seal-shaped amulets from southern Anatolia, which undoubtedly inspired their production. The archaeological contexts of these scarabs are in most cases identical to those of the early Palestinian series and their local Canaanite production is generally accepted (Ben-Tor 1997:185–186; Keel 2004:79–81). The base design displays the customary Omega-like motif. Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 58:17. Context: Tomb A10, L233, B2534, Levels IV–III, find spot unknown.

Fig. 10.22: Scarab 74, B2534

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Scarab 75, B2535

Scarab 76, B2571

Scarab 77, B2616

Scarab 78, B2630

Scarab 79, B2645

Fig. 10.23: Scarabs 75–79 © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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75. SCARAB 2535 Material and design: glazed composition, broken. Design class 3F (Omega group). Size: length 7.39; width 4.76; height 3.40. The scarab is too fragmentary to see the design and features. For the Omega scarabs see scarab 74, B2534 above. Context: Tomb A10, L233, B2535, Levels IV–III, find spot unknown. 76. SCARAB B2571 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 18.15; width 12.71; height 7.47. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb A10, L220, B2571, Levels IV–III, with silver ring B2570, attributed to Level III (uncertain) under skull B2388 of a secondary burial. 77. SCARAB B2616 (COLOR PL. 12:3) Material and design: black stone, found with a broken ring, plain back, schematic features. Size: length 15.49; width 10.23; height 6.05. The base design is an unusual linear design displaying a lotus flower and unclear additional motifs. No parallels are known but the material and poor workmanship of the scarab argue for a Canaanite origin. Context: Tomb A10, L220, B2616, Level IV, exact find spot unknown. 78. SCARAB B2630 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e9 side, combination of design classes 3C and 3D. Size: length 20.35; width 13.84; height 8.47. The base design displays an oval ring enclosing a variation of the ënrë formula, flanked on either side by symmetrically opposed ënã signs flanking a stylized sæ (V18). The scarab’s features assign it to the Dhead group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 56:27, Pl. 57:10. Context: Tomb A10, L245, B2630, Levels IV–III, secondary burials, exact find spot unclear. 79. SCARAB B2645 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, B2 head, e9 side, design class 3A3 Size: length 11.48; width 8.29; height 5.84. The base design displays two misrendered hieroglyphs (see Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 3:5–8) in longitudinal setting flanked by mæët (H6) feathers, with a lozenge-like motif above. The scarab’s design and features assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51: 31. Context: Tomb A10, L233, B2645, Levels IV–III, find spot unknown. 80. SCARAB B2659 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, the back is broken, D head, e9 side, design class 5. Size: length 16.36; width 1.61; height 6.61. The base design displays a cross pattern with four floral petals and four spirals. The design and features of the scarab assign it to the early Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 59: 24, 29–30, 32, 36, 44–45, 47–48, Pl. 72: 8–16). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 59:44. Context: Tomb A10, L255, B2659, Level II, heap of secondary burials.

Fig. 10.24: Scarab 80, B.2659

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Scarab 81, B2673

Scarab 82, B2784

Scarab 83, B2790

Scarab 85, B1498/1

Scarab 84, B2958

Scarab 86, B1498/2

Fig. 10.25: Scarabs 82–86

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81. SCARAB B2673 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, the back has a break at the center, plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 6B. Size: length 19.53; width 12.48; height 8.42. The base design displays a coiled and woven pattern simulating Egyptian Middle Kingdom prototypes, but the scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 60: 22. Context: Tomb A10, L255, B2673, exact find spot unclear. 82. SCARAB B2784 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined back, D head, e9 side; design class 3A3. Size: length 12.06; width 8.09; height 4.90. The base design displays a red crown (S3) and stylized sæ (V18) at the center, with œtp (Y2) above and nb (V30) below. The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:33; 2009: Fig. 6: bottom row first on the right. Context: Tomb A10, L256, B2784, Level II, with two skulls in secondary burial. 83. SCARAB B2790 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, broken, only the top part survived, plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 3A3. Size: length 14; width 1.67; height 7.40. The base surface is divided at the center by a double line: the top part displays a red crown (S3) between two ënã (S34) signs. The lower part, which is partly missing displays kæ (D28) with the typical Canaanite triangle at the center (Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 4), an unclear sign and a misrendered ë (D36).6 The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:32. Context: Tomb A10, L255, B2790, exact find spot unclear. 84. SCARAB B2958 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, the back is slightly broken, plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 3A3 Size: length 15.89; width 10.98; height 7.55. The base design displays a group of four hieroglyphs: uraeus (I12), kæ (D28), ãë (N28), and wÿæt (D10) eye. The features of the scarab assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:34. Context: Tomb A10, L256, B2958, Level I, secondary burial area B2959. 10.2.11 Tomb A11 MB IIA–B pottery; two scarabs were found in Tomb A11. 85. SCARAB B1498/1 Material and design: glazed composition. Design class 3F (Omega group) Size: length 10.25; width 8.25; height 4.59. The scarab displays distinctive features of the Omega group (see scarab 74, B2534 above). The design on the base of this scarab displays a rosette (star?) and crescent, possibly representing an astral symbol, which is also found on other examples of the Omega group (Keel 1989:50–52, nos. 22–23 = Keel 2004: Figs. 12–13). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 58:18. Context: Tomb A11, L117, B1498, perhaps related to baby burial B1552.

6

See Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 3:9–12. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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86. SCARAB B1498/2 Material and design: glazed composition. Design class 3F (Omega group). Size: length 9.57; width 5.96; height 4.49. The material, size and features of the scarab clearly assign it to the Omega group (see scarab 74, B2534 above). The back of the scarab displays two concentric circles. On the front, an unusual feature resembling eyes. The base design is worn, yet the visible elements suggest a floral design, which differs from the floral designs usually found in the Omega group (Keel 1989:52–53, nos. 24–26 = Keel 2004: Figs. 14– 16). Context: Tomb A11, L117, B1498, same as scarab B1498/1 above. 10.2.12 Tomb A12 MB IIB pottery; five scarabs were found in Tomb A12. 87. SCARAB B2997 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, found with a broken ring, plain back, D head, d5 side, design class 2B. Size: length 15.03; width 10.21; height 6.36. The base design displays linked spirals enclosing two nfr (F35) signs, a well-attested combination on late Middle Kingdom scarabs. The design and naturalistic features of the scarab suggest a late Middle Kingdom origin. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 4:7, 9, 10, Pl. 5: 9. Context: Tomb A12, L228, B2997, find spot unknown. 88. SCARAB B2998 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, found with a broken ring, plain back, D head, d13 side, design class 3E5. Size: length 17.27; width 1.40; height 7.73. The base design displays a unique variation of the so-called shrine design: the hieroglyphs comprising the throne name of Senwosret I (ãpr-kæ-rë) enclosed in a shrine-like frame surmounted by red crowns and flanked by four hieroglyphs displayed in symmetric opposition on either side: nfr (F35), ÿd (R11), nb (V30), nfr (F35). The shrine design argues for the Canaanite production of the scarab and assigns it to the early series. Published: Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 9:1; 2007: Pl. 58:9. Context: Tomb A12, L228, B2998, find spot unknown. 89. SCARAB B2999 (COLOR PL. 12:4) Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined, decorated back, B2 head, e9 side. Design class 3C. Size: length 11.25; width 7.76; height 5.17. The base displays the œtp n rë variation of the ënrë formula (Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 6:1–5). The scarab’s features assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 56:31. Context: Tomb A12, L228, B2999, find spot unknown. 90. SCARAB B3206 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined, decorated back, D head, e9 side, design class 3A3. Size: length 16.45; width 12.17; height 7.36. The base design displays a symmetric pattern of hieroglyphs: red crown (S3) between two stylized sæ (V18) and nb (V30) signs, and a loop between two nfr (F35) signs. The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). Published: Ben-Tor 1997: Fig. 3:14; 2007: Pl. 51:35. Context: Tomb A12, L 228, B3206, Level I, area of secondary burials.

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Scarab 87, B2997

Scarab 88, B2998

Scarab 89, B2999

Scarab 90, B3206

Fig. 10.26: Scarabs 87–90 © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Scarab 91, B3210

Scarab 92, B308

Scarab 93, B314

Scarab 94, B7139

Scarab 95, B7211 (scale = 1 cm)

Fig. 10.27: Scarabs 91–95

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91. SCARAB B3210 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, B2 head, e9 side, design class 4. Size: length 9.15; width 6.77; height 3.87. The base design displays two concentric circles and two floral motifs between them. The scarab’s features assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 59:4. Context: Tomb A12, L228, B3210, Level I, area of secondary burials.

10.3 AREA C 10.3.1 Tomb C18 Two scarabs were found in Tomb C18. 92. SCARAB B308 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined back, D head, e9 side, design class 3A3. Size: length 13.77; width 9.51; height 6.01. The base design displays a uraeus and an L-shaped red crown with nb (V30) signs above and below. L-shaped red crowns are typical of Canaanite scarabs of both the early and late series, and unlike the accurate red crowns which usually appear in pairs, they are frequently displayed in patterns depicting a single crown, especially in the early series (Ben-Tor 2007:130, Pl. 54: type d). The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 54:26. Context: Tomb C18, L38, B308, with a few bones and pottery vessels. 93. SCARAB B314 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e9 side, combination of design classes 3B1 and 3D Size: length 17.58; width 11.59; height 6.58. The base design displays an oval ring enclosing pseudo-hieroglyphs, with a winged sun disk and two floral stems above it, and linked uraei enclosing kæ (D28) and a sun disk (N5) below it. The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). Published: Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 53:3, Pl. 57:12. Context: Tomb C18, L38, B314, with a few bones and pottery vessels.

10.4 AREA F 10.4.1 Tomb F1 Mainly MB IIB pottery; 10 scarabs were found in Tomb F1. 94. SCARAB B7139 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back (with a few cracks), D head, e9 side, unusual combination of designs 3B1 and 3B3. Size: length 15.26; width 10.84; height 5.16. The base surface is divided in the center by a winged sun disk; the top field displays linked uraei enclosing nfr (F35), and the bottom field displays confronted red crowns flanking nfr (F35). The scarab’s features argue for assigning it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 54:6, 15. Context: Tomb F1, L717, B7139, phase III, east of WAB70, no relation to specific burial. 95. SCARAB B7211 Listed in Tomb F1, L714, upper phase, area of secondary burials; the scarab is broken into six pieces. 96. SCARAB B7212 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head broken at the end, e2 side; design class 9B. Size: length 19.29; width 14.33; height 8.11. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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The base design displays a lizard above a horned caprid. Designs depicting caprids are typical of Canaanite scarabs of the late series (see scarab 37, B2987 above), which usually display the caprids alone, with branches, with hieroglyphs and pseudo-hieroglyphs, with uraei, with lions, or with crocodiles (BenTor 2007: Pls. 96–97), but the combination of caprid and lizard is unique. For caprids on Canaanite scarabs see also Keel 1995:190–191. Context: Tomb F1, L714, B7212, upper phase, area of secondary burials. 97. SCARAB B7431 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D8 head, e11 side, combination of design classes 2B and 3C. Size: length 12.05; width 8.59; height 6.00. The base design is unusual, depicting two linked spirals ending with a lotus flower at one end and a floral bud on the other, next to a column of three pseudo-hieroglyphs forming a variation of the ënrë formula. No parallels were found but for different combinations of spirals and ënrë see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 82: 11, 44. The D8 head argues for assigning the scarab to the late Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007:183). Context: Tomb F1, L717, B7431, phase III, chest area of primary adult burial B7628. 98. SCARAB B7440 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, slightly broken, plain back, D head, d6 side, design class 3B2 Size: length 13.86; width 10.59; height 6.51. The base design displays the sedge (M23) and the bee (L2): standing for the royal title nsw bít “King of Upper and Lower Egypt”, a scarab between two ënã (S34) signs and nb (V30) below. The design indicates the Canaanite origin of the scarab, and the parallels argue for assigning it to the late rather than the early Palestinian series. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 78:2, 23, 26. Context: Tomb F1, L717, B7440, phase III, chest area of primary adult burial B7628, with scarab 7431 above. 99. SCARAB B7693 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, found with a broken ring, plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 10A Size: length 18.80; width 12.68; height 8.44. The base design displays a standing male figure, with one raised arm and one arm hanging along his body, with pseudo-hieroglyphs filling the space around him. Depictions of male figures surrounded by pseudo-hieroglyphs are typical of early Canaanite scarabs (Keel 2004: Figs. 70, 91, 92; Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 63:7–14). The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 63:8–14. Context: Tomb F1, L717, B7693, phase III, secondary burials. 100. SCARAB B7703 Context: Tomb F1, L717, B7703, phase III, secondary burials. Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 14.88; width 9.91; height 7.34. Egyptian Middle Kingdom 101. SCARAB B7730 (COLOR PL. 12:5) Context: Tomb F1, L717, B7730, phase III, secondary burials. Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, set in a gold funda, plain back, D head, d5 side, design class 7B1. Size: length 14.73; width 10.83; height 6.32. The base design includes a one-pair scroll border enclosing a loop and nfr (F35). The type of scroll border displayed vertically, argues for the late Middle Kingdom origin of the scarab (Ben-Tor 2007:28, 142). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 16:11–12. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Scarab 96, B7212

Scarab 97, B7431

Scarab 98, B7440

Scarab 99, B7693

Fig. 10.28: Scarabs 96–99

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Scarab 100, B7703

Scarab 101, B7730

Scarab 102, B7834

Scarab 103, B8103

Scarab 104, B7027

Scarab 105, B7318

Fig. 10.29: Scarabs 100–105

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Fig. 10.30: Scarab 106, B7349

102. SCARAB B7834 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, slightly broken, plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 7A. Size: length 15.54; width 11.16; height 5.45. The base design displays a continuous scroll border of four oblong scrolls enclosing nfr (F35). The design is heavily inspired by late Middle Kingdom Egyptian prototypes (e.g., Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 15: 55, 59), however, the scarab’s features clearly assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). For a similar design in the early series see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 61:11. Context: Tomb F1, L717, B7834, phase III, secondary burials. 103. SCARAB B8103 Context: Tomb F1, L764, B8103, phase I, near legs of primary burial B8087 but possibly from secondary burials near vessels B8135, B8119. The scarab is too fragmentary to see the design or features. Size: length 10.22; width 7.11; height 4.52. 10.4.2 Tomb F2 MB IIB pottery; three scarabs were found in Tomb F2. 104. SCARAB B7027 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, the base surface is broken at the center, plain back, D head, d6 side, combination of design classes 3A3 and 3B1a. Size: length 19.03; width 13.63; height 8.94. The base design displays a symmetric pattern of hieroglyphs: two loops possibly representing stylized sæ (V18) signs (Keel 2004:83; Ben-Tor 2007:126, and note 599) above nb (V30) signs flanking a red crown (S3). Below them are two uraei flanking a central design that is now lost, and a gold sign (S12) at the bottom. Similar designs suggest a Canaanite origin for the scarab and assign it to the early Palestinian series. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:35, Pl. 53:6, 9, 34. Context: Tomb F2, L702, B7027, near rib bones of primary burial B7175. 105. SCARAB B7318 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, the back and the base surface are slightly broken, plain back, B2 head, e9 side, design class 5. Size: length 15.50; width 10.10; height 5.04. The base design displays a cross pattern comprising four floral petals and four spirals, with nb (V30) and a double line above and below. The scarabs features assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 59:24, 32, 33, 36, 44, 48. Context: Tomb F2, L741, B7318, near the chest of primary adult burial B7322, probably from the left hand.

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106. SCARAB B7349 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined decorated back, A head, e9 side, design class 5. Size: length 16.32; width 10.71; height 6.37. The base design displays a cross pattern with two column-like motifs, four loops, and two kæ (D28) signs filling the space on either side. The scarab’s features assign it to the A-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 5, B2568 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 59:22, 27, 52. Context: Tomb F2, L742, B7349, on left hand fingers of primary adult burial B7348. 10.4.3 Tomb F3 Mostly MB IIB, possibly beginning in the MB IIA–B; four scarabs was found in Tomb F3. 107. SCARAB B7264 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, B2 head, e9 side, design class 3A4 Size: length 14.20; width 9.51; height 5.36. The base surface is divided into three fields by double lines: the top field displays a winged sun disk, the central field displays four stylized sæ (V18) signs, and the bottom field displays a variation of the Horus and 90°-angle design (design class 3A4). The scarab’s design and features assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:17, 22, 50, 53, Pl. 52 30. Context: Tomb F3, L721, B7264, left hand of primary adult female burial B7499.

Fig. 10.31: Scarab 107, B7264

108. SCARAB B7374 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d8 side, unique combination of design classes: 3B7, 3B8, 3D3 and 6A1. Size: length 19.24; width 12.54; height 7.01. The base design displays a winged scarab above a square frame enclosing the three hieroglyphs comprising the name of the god Ptah (p t œ Q3, X1, V28). The frame is flanked by lion foreparts and stylized sæ signs (V18), and there is a single-line thread pattern below. This unique combination of designs: lion foreparts (design class 3B7) the three signs forming the name of the god p t œ (design class 3B8) enclosed in a square frame (design class 3D3) and the single-line thread (design class 6A1) is so far unique. For the Canaanite origin of the Middle Bronze Age scarabs bearing the name of Ptah see Keel (2002:197–200); and Ben-Tor (2007:132–133). The scarab’s features do not display helpful characteristics for assigning it to the early or late Palestinian series, but some elements of the design that show similarity to examples in the early series (e.g., Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 57:18, Pl. 60:2, 6, 7) argue for a more likely early date. Context: Tomb F3, L721, B7374, secondary burial heap B7599+B7600. 109. SCARAB B7538 Material and design: probably unglazed steatite, fragment too small to see design or features. Size of fragment 11. Context: Tomb F3, L721, B7538, secondary burial heap B7599+7600. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

CHAPTER 10. SCARABS

Scarab 108, B7374

Scarab 110, B7601

601

Scarab 109, B7538

Scarab 111, B7157

Scarab 112, B7816

Scarab 113, B7871

Fig. 10.32: Scarabs 108–113

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Scarab 114, B7916

Scarab 115, B8104

Scarab 116, B8151

Scarab 117, B7308

Fig. 10.33: Scarabs 114–117 © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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110. SCARAB B7601 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze. Size of fragment: length 6, width 4. The scarab is too fragmentary to reconstruct its design or features, but the surviving part of the base surface may display part of a winged sun disk and a stylized sæ (V18). Context: Tomb F3, L721, B7601, secondary burial heap B7599+B7600. 10.4.4 Tomb F4 Mostly MB IIB pottery, possibly beginning in the MB IIA–B; a total of six scarabs was found in Tomb F4. 111. SCARAB B7157 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d4 side, unusual combination of design classes 3B4 and 7B3. Size: length 19.17; width 13.82; height 8.40. The base design displays an open three-paired scroll border ending with lotus flowers, enclosing from top to bottom: ãë (N28) above a pair of wÿæt (D10) eyes, nfr (F35) between two wæs (S40) signs, and a gold sign (S12) at the bottom. Between the lotus flowers is a small circle, possibly a sun disk (N5). There is no exact parallel for the particular scroll border on the base of this scarab, yet scroll borders decorated with flowers, albeit of a different style, are found on late Middle Kingdom private-name scarabs (e.g., Martin 1971: Pl. 1:11–15, 19–20, 25). The latter suggest a likely late Middle Kingdom origin for the Rishon le-Zion scarab, which is supported by the form of the hieroglyphs enclosed in the scroll border, and by the poor quality of similar designs on Canaanite scarabs (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 93: 11–12). Context: Tomb F4, L726, B7157, phase I, from area of secondary burial B7196. 112. SCARAB B7816 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, set in a gold funda, plain back, D head, d5 side, design class 3D. Size: length 12.55; width 8.90; height 5.45. The base design displays a winged sun disk above an oval ring enclosing nfr (F35) and ënã (S34) signs, flanked by a stylized sæ (V18) and nfr (F35) on either side. The design and features of the scarab argue for assigning it to the early Palestinian series (see BenTor 2007: Pl. 72:8–16). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 57:1, 7, 9. Context: Tomb F4, L735, B7816, phase III, primary child burial B7688. 113. SCARAB B7871 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined back, D head, e9 side, combination of design classes 3B3 and 3B6. Size: length 14.14; width 9.65; height 5.64. The base design displays a central gold sign (S12) in longitudinal setting with three pseudohieroglyphs (stylized sæ signs?) above, flanked by two red crowns (S3) arranged tête-bêche. The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 34:27, Pl. 35 23, Pl. 54:32, Pl. 55:12. Context: Tomb F4, L767, B7871, phase II, left hand of primary male burial B7967. 114. SCARAB B7916 Material and design: unglazed steatite, plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 3A3. Size: length 15.05; width 9.88; height 6.57. The base design displays nfr (F35) between two stylized sæ (V18) signs, with œtp (Y2) above and nb (V30) below. The scarab's features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see Scarab B3117 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:44, 47. Context: Tomb F4, L767, B7916, phase II, near skull of primary male burial B7967.

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115. SCARAB B8104 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, Tell el-Dab‘a workshop, Mlinar type IIIA, unusual variation of design class 2A. Size: length 11.36; width 8.32; height 5.82. The base design displays a central S spiral surrounded by four unusual geometric patterns. For Mlinar type IIIA see Mlinar 2004:116–120; Ben-Tor 2007:68–69, Pl. 30:9–17, Pl. 31:1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 14, 16. Context: Tomb F4, L769, B8104, lower phase, probably from fingers of skeleton B8155. 116. SCARAB B8151 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined back, D head, d 13 side = typical features of the so-called Sobkhotep Group. Size: length 20.10; width 13.92; height 8.94. Combination of design classes 2A and 3B4. The base design displays a pair of wÿæt (D10) eyes, with a spiral enclosed in an oval ring on either side. Sobkhotep Group features are typical of royal-name, private-name and design scarabs of the 13th Dynasty (Ben-Tor 2007:38–41, and Pls. 21–27), indicating the late Middle Kingdom origin of the scarab. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 2:12, 51, 57, Pl. 9:4, 23, 35, 40. Context: Tomb F4, L769, B8151, lower phase, probably from a secondary burial. 10.4.5 Tomb F5 MB IIA–B pottery continuing until the end of MB IIB; a total of nine scarabs was found in Tomb F5. 117. SCARAB B7308 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d13 side, design class 2B. Size: length 16.23; width 11.09; height 6.75. The base design displays an unusual variation of design 2B: a central spiral ending with lotus flowers enclosed by linked spirals and flanked by loops (stylized sæ?). The design and features of the scarab argue for a late Middle Kingdom origin. For spirals ending with papyrus flowers see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 3:56–64. Context: Tomb F5, L720, B7308, phases I–II, probably between the legs of primary burial B7365. 118. SCARAB B7375 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, broken in half, plain back, D head, unusual side, design class 2A. Size: length 18.47; width 9.20; height 7.15. The remaining part of the base design displays a spiral and a scarab, suggesting that the original design displayed the scarab between two spirals. A similar design on a Canaanite scarab of the late Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 75:23) suggests a most likely Canaanite origin for the scarab. Context: Tomb F5, L720, B7375, phase I, lower chest area of primary burial B7365, perhaps originally from the left hand.

Fig. 10.34: Scarab 118, B7375

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CHAPTER 10. SCARABS

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Scarab 119, B7421

Scarab 120, B7462

Scarab 121, B7608

Scarab 122, B7704

Scarab 123, B7822

Fig. 10.35: Scarabs 119–123 © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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119. SCARAB B7421 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain decorated back, D head, e9 side, combination of design classes 3B3 and 3C. Size: length 15.42; width 10.39; height 6.97. The base design is divided into two fields: the top field displays three rows of hieroglyphs and pseudohieroglyphs, which include variations of the ënrë formula. The bottom field displays two red crowns (S3) flanking nfr (F35). The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 53:38, 41, 43, Pl. 54:3, 5, 10. Context: Tomb F5, L752, B7421, from section, no clear relation to burial. 120. SCARAB B7462 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e9 side, combination of design classes 1E, 3B3 and 3C. Size: length 20.55; width 12.96; height 9.38. The base design displays a central horizontal row of signs: kæ (D28) flanked on either side by a loop (stylized sæ?) and misrendered ë (see Ben-Tor 1997: 171, Fig. 3:9–12; 2009: 84, Fig. 5:103), with a threestem papyrus above, and two red crowns (S3) flanking a variation of the ënrë formula below. The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). For parallels see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 50:3, Pl. 54:3, 5, 12, Pl. 56:7, 21. Context: Tomb F5, L757, B7462, phase I, area of secondary burials B7520–B7523. 121. SCARAB B7608 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d13 side, design class 7B2. Size: length 12.40; width 8.54; height 5.85. The base design displays a two-paired scroll border enclosing three signs: ënã (S34), nb (V30), nfr (F35). The design and features of the scarab argue for an Egyptian late Middle Kingdom origin. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 16:16, Pl. 29:13. Context: Tomb, F5, L757, B7608, phase I, area of secondary burial B7520–B7523. 122. SCARAB B7704 (COLOR PL. 12:6) Material and design: plain carnelian scarab. Size: length 16.45; width 10.96; height 8.84. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb F5, L752, B7704, lower phase, north zone. 123. SCARAB B7822 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d6 side, combination of design classes 3B6 and 3C. Size: length 13.85; width 9.49; height 6.17. The base design displays the gold sign (S12) in longitudinal setting with nfr (F35) on either side, and a variation of the ënrë formula above. Similar designs (e.g., Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 83:10, 29, 44) argue for the Canaanite origin of the scarab and for assigning it to the late Palestinian series. Context: Tomb F5, L752, B7822, lower phase, north zone. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 80:41, Pl. 81:27. 124. SCARAB B7850 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, broken, part of the base surface is broken, plain back, B2 head, e9 side, design class 1E. Size: length 10.80; width 6.94; height 4.34. The remaining part of the base design displays a combination of a central cable with papyrus plants, variations of which are found on Canaanite scarabs, so far only in the late Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 74:39, 45, 46). However, the features of this scarab argue for assigning it to the B2-head group of the early series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). Context: Tomb F5, L752, B7850, lower phase, north zone. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

CHAPTER 10. SCARABS

Scarab 124, B7850

Scarab 125, B7915

Scarab 126, B7433

Scarab 127, B7681

Fig. 10.36: Scarabs 124–127

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125. SCARAB B7915 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined back, D head, e9 side, design class 9. Size: length 15.22; width 10.19; height 6.79. The base design displays a profile image of the goddess Thoeris holding a knife, with a stylized sæ (V18) sign below her arm. The design and features of the scarab indicate a late Middle Kingdom Egyptian origin (see Ben-Tor 2007:31–33). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 19:8–10, 14–16. Context: Tomb F5, L752, B7915, lower phase, secondary burial area. 10.4.6 Tomb F6 MB IIB pottery; only one scarab was found in Tomb F6. 126. SCARAB B7433 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 3A3. Size: length 12.05; width 8.59; height 6.00. The base design displays a crowned falcon flanked by misrendered signs above a red crown (S3) displayed horizontally. The signs flanking the falcon include a stylized sæ (V18) on the right, and a sun disk (N5), ãë (N28), and unclear sign on the left. The design and features of the scarab argue for a Canaanite origin and for assigning it to the early Palestinian series. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:15, 43, 46, Pl. 52:19, 21, 28, 40. Context: Tomb F6, L719, B7433, near legs of primary adult burial B7441. 10.4.7 Tomb F7 MB IIB pottery; one scarabs was found in Tomb F7. 127. SCARAB B7681 Black stone, found with a broken ring, plain back, D head, e11 side, unusual variation of design class 3B. Size: length 18.68; width 13.09; height 9.25. The base design displays two ënã (S34) signs, each flanked by two nfr (F35) signs in symmetric opposition, and nb (V30) signs decorated with crosshatching above and below. The material, unique design, and the scarab’s features suggest a most likely Canaanite origin. No parallels. Context: Tomb F7, L746, B7681, secondary burial area, no relation to a specific burial. 10.4.8 Tomb F9 Mostly MB IIB, but beginning in MB IIA–B; a total of nine scarabs was found in Tomb F9. 128. SCARAB B7271/1 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab, purple. Size: length 12.46; width 8.39; height 5.83. Context: Tomb F9, L716, south of primary burial B7330, probably from secondary burials. 129. SCARAB B7271/2 Material and design: plain quartz/faience (?) scarab, white. Size: length 16.81; width 10.95; height 7.32. Context: Tomb F9, L716, south of primary burial B7330, probably from secondary burials. 130. SCARAB B7284 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, d6 side, design class 3B6. Size: length 17.76; width 12.41; height 7.26. The base design depicts a rope border enclosing a central gold sign (S12) in longitudinal setting, a horizontally displayed scarab (L1) above it, flanked by ënã (S34) enclosed in an oval ring on one side and nfr (F35) on the other side. The design argues for the Canaanite origin of the scarab, and for assigning it to the late Palestinian series. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 80:36, 38, Pl. 81:12. Context: Tomb F9, L716, B7284, on left hand of primary adult male burial B7330.

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Scarab 130, B7284

Scarab 131, B7417

Scarab 132, B7478

Scarab 133, B7514

Scarab 134, B7647

Fig. 10.37: Scarabs 130–134

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131. SCARAB B7417 (COLOR PL. 12:7) Material and design: plain carnelian scarab. Size: length 14.68; width 10.09; height 7.68. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb F9, L745, B7417, probably from the early phase, no relation to a specific burial. 132. SCARAB B7478 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 3A3. Size: length 12.75; width 8.36; height 5.95. The base surface is divided in the middle by a double line, the upper part displaying a falcon next to three pseudo-hieroglyphs, and the lower part displays a misrendered water sign n (N35) above a horizontal line, and nb (V30) at the bottom. The scarab’s features argue for assigning it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). For a similar design see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 51:57. Context: Tomb F9, L745, B7478, lower phase; near pelvis of primary adult male burial B7541, probably fell from a finger. 133. SCARAB B7514 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 4. Size: length 10.84; width 8.00; height 5.20. The base design displays six concentric circles arranged in two vertical rows, each displaying three circles. The particular variation of design 4 is found in both the early and late series, but the scarab’s features argue for assigning it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 58:46, Pl. 59:8, Pl. 87:22. Context: Tomb F9, L745, B7514, secondary burial heap. 134. SCARAB B7647 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d13 side, design class 6C3. Size: length 16.90; width 1.42; height 7.57. The base design displays a central woven cable flanked by columns of hieroglyphs in symmetric opposition: lion foreparts (œæt F4), wÿæt (D10) eyes, nb (V30), loops (stylized sæ?) and red crowns (S3). No exact parallel is known and it is difficult to determine the origin and date of this scarab, as examples of design 6C3 displaying hieroglyphs flanking central cables are found in the Egyptian Middle Kingdom series (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 15:5–6, 10–11), as well as the Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 60:29, Pl. 90:22, 24). Yet, the form of the hieroglyphs suggests a likely late Middle Kingdom origin, which is supported by the scarab’s d13 side. Context: Tomb F9, L745, B7647, secondary burial heap.

Fig. 10.38: Scarab 135, B7699

135. SCARAB B7699 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d13 side, design class 7B4. Size: length 17.99; width 12.33; height 8.39. The base design displays a four-paired scroll border of round scrolls enclosing a column of four signs: sun disk (N5), nfr (F35), ãë (N28), nfr (F35). Although no parallels were found in the Egyptian or the Palestinian series, the form of the hieroglyphs and the scarab’s features argue for an Egyptian late Middle Kingdom origin. Context: Tomb F9, L754, B7699, upper phase, near chest of primary adult burial B7685. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 10.39: Scarab 136, B7700

136. SCARAB B7700 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, base and head broken, crosshatching on the back Size: length 13.27; width 9.29; height 4.82. The base is broken and there are no remains of the design, but the crosshatching decoration on the back is typical of the early series for both the B2-head and the D-head groups (Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 67:4–7, Pl. 70:11–14), assigning the scarab to the early Palestinian series. Context: Tomb F9, L754, B7700, fell from left hand but found near the pelvis of primary adult male burial B7684. 10.4.9 Tomb F10 MB IIB pottery; a total of five scarabs was found in Tomb F10. 137. SCARAB B7539 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, features of the Tell el-Dab ‘a workshop, Mlinar type IIIB, the head is slightly broken. Size: length 13.21; width 9.80; height 5.91. Design class 3B3 The base design displays a crowned falcon beside nfr (F35), nb (V30), and a lozenge-like motif, with ÿd (R11) between two red crowns (S3) below. For Tell el-Dab‘a type IIIB see Mlinar 2004:120–122; Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 31:6, 9–10, 12, 13, 15. Context: Tomb F10, L731, B7539, upper phase, inside a broken jar, B7531, above the head area of two primary burials. 138. SCARAB B7692 (COLOR PL. 12:8) Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, found with a broken ring, plain back, D head, e2 side, design class 10B. Size: length 18.68; width 13.09; height 9.25. The base design displays an unusual scene with a reclining sphinx and two female figures, one depicted upside down above the sphinx’s back, and one displayed facing the sphinx, his paws resting on her legs. The design indicates the Canaanite origin of the scarab, and assigns it to the late Palestinian series. For a similar design, though less elaborate, see Keel 1995:199, Fig. 369. Context: Tomb F10, L731, B7692, near head of primary child burial B7797. 139. SCARAB B7792 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d13 side, combination of design classes 3A1 and 3B4. Size: length 17.70; width 12.00; height 7.12. The base design displays a highly unusual combination of the sign of union and a pair of wÿæt (D10) eyes flanking a sun disk (N5), with a nfr (F35) displayed horizontally at the top. No parallel was found for this combination of signs. Nevertheless, the form of the signs and the scarab’s features argue for a most likely late Middle Kingdom Egyptian origin. For a combination of designs 3A1 and 3B4 see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 5:47. Context: Tomb F10, L731, B7792, upper phase, area of secondary burial B8187. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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140. SCARAB B7793 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, d6 side, combination of design classes 3B3 and 3C. Size: length 15.66; width 10.89; height 6.90. The base surface is divided by a double line, the upper part displaying ÿd (R11) between two nfr (F35) signs, and the lower part displays a variation of the ënrë formula between two red crowns (S3). The design and features of the scarab assign it to the early Palestinian series. For similar design see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 53:17, 38, Pl. 55:27, Pl. 56:19, and for the features see Pl. 72:8–16. Context: Tomb F10, L731, B7793, upper phase, area of secondary burial B8187. 141. SCARAB B7870 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, worn, D head, d5 side, combination of design classes 3B4 and 3B5. Size: length 16.38; width 11.10; height 6.53. The base design displays a symmetric pattern of hieroglyphs: misrendered nfr (F35) flanked by swt (M23) plants, a pair of wÿæt (D10) eyes at the center, and nfr (F35) between two ënã (S34) signs. Similar designs argue for the Canaanite origin of the scarab and for assigning it to the late Palestinian series. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 79: 35, 37, 39, 42. Context: Tomb F10, L731, B7870, upper phase, secondary burial area B8187. 10.4.10 Tomb F11 MB IIB pottery; a total of nine scarabs was found in Tomb F11. 142. SCARAB B7107 Listed in Tomb F11, L722, area of secondary burial B7131, the scarab is missing. 143. SCARAB B7133 (+RING B7086) Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, found with a broken ring, plain back, D head, e9 (?) side, combination of design classes 6C2 and 8. Size: length 19.32; width 12.79; height 6.72. The base design is unusual, depicting a rope border enclosing a central cable with linked uraei. No parallel was found, but for a rope border enclosing a design with a central cable see Ben-Tor (2007: Pl. 95:7). The central cable design suggests a most likely Canaanite origin for the scarab and argues for assigning it to the late Palestinian series. Context: Tomb F11, L722, B7133, unclear find spot. 144. SCARAB B7182 (COLOR PL. 13:1) Material and design: plain amethyst scarab with broken ring. Size: length 16.52; width 1.80; height 8.51. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb F11, L728, B7182, phase III, near leg of skeleton B7281 (probably adult woman). 145. SCARAB B7183 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined decorated back, A head, e9 side, combination of design classes 3A4, 3B1 and 3E5. Size: length 18.80; width 12.73; height 7.75. The base design displays the falcon and 90° angle at the center of a column of signs enclosed in a shrine-like frame ending with crowned uraei. The signs above the falcon and angle include two stylized sæ (V18) and 8-shaped pseudo-hieroglyph. The signs below it include two nfr (F35) signs and a reversed nb (V30). Above the crowned uraei are misrendered mæët (H6) feathers, small horizontal lines and t (X1) signs. The scarab’s features assign it to the A-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 5, B2568 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 52:17, 24, 52, 54, 59. Context: Tomb F11, ascribed to L729 but probably L722 north, B7183, between two heaps of secondary burials.

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Scarab 137, B7539

Scarab 138, B7692

Scarab 139, B7792

Scarab 140, B7793

Fig. 10.40: Scarabs 137–140

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Scarab 141, B7870

Scarab 143, B7133+7086

Scarab 144, B7182

Scarab 145, B7183

Scarab 146, B7186

Fig. 10.41: Scarabs 141, 143–146 © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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146. SCARAB B7186 (COLOR PL. 13:2) Material and design: plain scarab of green stone, slightly cracked. Size: length 16.13; width 1.06; height 7.01. Difficult to determine the scarab’s origin and date Context: Tomb F11, L728, B7186, phase III, near skull of skeleton B7281 (probably adult woman). 147. SCARAB B7285 (COLOR PL. 13:3) Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 11.93; width 8.57; height 4.97. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb F11, L729, B7285, secondary burial heap B7339–B7341. Fig. 10.42: Scarab 147, B7285

148. SCARAB B7402 (COLOR PL. 13:4) Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, the back is broken, D head, e9 side; combination of design classes 1E and 3A3. Size: length 16.92; width 1.85; height 5.56. The base design displays a crowned falcon and a crowned uraeus in longitudinal setting, flanked by a three-stem papyrus on either side. The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 50:1, Pl. 51:15, 18, 23. Context: Tomb F11, L728, B7402, phase II, secondary bones B7529. 149. SCARAB B7420 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e9 side, unusual variation of design class 3C. Size: length 16.18; width 1.10; height 7.64. The base design displays a red crown (S3) next to a column of signs comprising a variation of the ënrë formula. The scarab’s features assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 56:6, 13, 22. Context: Tomb F11, L728, B7420, phase II, secondary burial bones B7529. 150. SCARAB B7556 Material and design: plain amethyst scarab. Size: length 16.31; width 11.00; height 8.38. Egyptian Middle Kingdom Context: Tomb F11, L728, B7556, phase II, secondary group B7528. 10.4.11 Tomb F12 MB IIB pottery; one scarab was found in Tomb F12. 151. SCARAB B7934 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, the scarab is broken, the upper part missing, plain back, probably a B2 or D head, e9 side, combination of design classes 1E and 3A4 (?). The remaining design on the base displays a three-stem papyrus at the bottom, with two falcons displayed back to back above it. The design and side argue for assigning the scarab to the early Palestinian series. For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 52:8, 15. Context: Tomb F12, L761, B7934, north zone, early phase, secondary burials B7889, B7888. 10.4.12 Tomb F13 One scarab was found in Tomb F13.

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Scarab 148, B7402

Scarab 149, B7420

Scarab 150, B7556

Scarab 151, B7934

Scarab 152, B7660

Fig. 10.43: Scarabs 148–152

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152. SCARAB B7660 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, lined decorated back, B2 head, e9 side, design class 5. Size: length 16.73; width 12.50; height 8.09. The base design displays a cross pattern comprising four spirals, two floral petals and two geometric column-like motifs. The scarab’s features assign it to the B2-head of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). For similar designs see Ben-Tor 2007: Pl. 59:27, 52. Context: Tomb F13, L753, B7660, left hand of primary adult male burial B7654. 10.4.13 Tomb F14 MB IIB pottery; two scarabs were found in Tomb F14. 153. SCARAB B8193 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze, plain back, D head, e9 side, design class 3A4. Size: length 19.17; width 13.03; height 8.37. The base design displays a square frame enclosing a crowned falcon – probably imitating the Egyptian writing of the name of the goddess Hathor (Keel 2004:89, Figs. 64–67; Goldwasser 2006: 128–29; BenTor 2009:84–85). The square is flanked by crowned uraei, and is surmounted by two mæët (H6) feathers and stylized sæ (V18) signs. Below the square is a winged sun disk and at the bottom is a mn sign between two 90° angles––a highly unusual variation of design class 3A4, which usually displays the falcon with the 90° angle (Keel 2004:86–90; Ben-Tor 2007:126–127, Pl. 52:1–40; 2009:84–85, Fig. 8). The features of the scarabs assign it to the D-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 19, B3117 above). For similar variations of design 3A4 see Keel 2004: Figs. 64–67 = Ben-Tor 2009: Fig. 9. Context: Tomb F14, L772, secondary burial B8192.

Fig. 10.44: Scarab 153, B8193

154. SCARAB B8208 Material and design: glazed steatite, no remains of glaze. The scarab is broken: one corner is missing and the base surface is broken on one side. Plain back, B2 head, e9 side, unusual combination of design classes 3A4 and 3B6. Size: length 13.65; width 9.91; height 6.88. The base design displays a gold sign (S12) in longitudinal setting with a falcon and a 90° angle above it, and a red crown (S3) on the right; the sign on the left is broken. The scarab’s features and design class 3A4, assign it to the B2-head group of the early Palestinian series (see scarab 13, B3170 above). The combination of designs 3A4 and 3B6 is so far unique, but for design class 3A4 and its popularity in the early series see Keel 2004:89–90; Ben-Tor 2007:126–127, Pl. 52; 2009:84–85. Context: Tomb F14, L772, left hand of primary male (?) adult, burial B8179.

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Fig. 10.45: scarab 154, B8208

10.5 CONCLUDING DISCUSSION The detailed discussion of the Rishon le-Zion scarabs clearly shows that most items display distinctive characteristics of Middle Bronze Age Canaanite scarabs of the early Palestinian series (Ben-Tor 2007:117–153). Moreover, 54 of the Rishon le-Zion scarabs display features of the three earliest groups of Canaanite scarabs: the B2-head, D-head, and A-head groups (Keel 2004; Ben-Tor 2007:81–98; BenTor 2007:151–152). Twenty one scarabs display features of the B2-head group,7 28 display features of the D-head group,8 and five display features of the A-head group.9 These scarabs come from all excavated areas of the cemetery, but most examples were found in tombs of Area A. This is of special interest in the case of B2-head type scarabs, the earliest of the three groups (Keel 2004:81–93; Ben-Tor 2007:151; Pls. 64–67). Of the 21 B2-head type scarabs, 15 come from Area A, while only six come from Area F. The distribution of these early scarabs can be explained by the slightly earlier pottery found in the tombs of Area A,10 which may also account for the larger number of amethyst imports in the Area A tombs (below), and for the fact that the four Omega-type scarabs come exclusively from Area A.11 Omega-type scarabs are not as common in the early Palestinian series as the three groups noted above; but they also form one of the earliest groups of scarabs produced in the southern Levant in the early phases of the MB IIB (Keel 2004:79–81; Ben-Tor 2007:135–136). Like other excavated groups assigned to the early Palestinian series, the Rishon le-Zion scarabs include some earlier pieces (so-called heirloom scarabs) comprising Egyptian Middle Kingdom imports (Ben-Tor 2007:118–119). Twenty-one of the imported scarabs in the Rishon le-Zion cemetery are made of semiprecious stones.12 All except one13 are of amethyst, which had special symbolic value. Amethyst scarabs form a noteworthy group among the imports in the Middle Bronze Age excavated series.14 It is interesting to note that 15 of the 20 amethyst scarabs in the Rishon le-Zion cemetery come from tombs in Area A, which are slightly earlier than the tombs of Area F. In addition to the amethyst scarabs, Egyptian imports in the Rishon le-Zion cemetery include 12 steatite scarabs displaying late Middle Kingdom

7

Area A: B3170, B3116, B2184, B3157, B2099, B2573/1, B2573/2, B2573/3, B2573, B2894, B2895, B2860, B2645, B2999, B3210; Area F: B7318, B7264, B7850, B7700 (back type suggesting B2 or D head), B7660, and B8208. 8 Area A: B3117, B2595, B2626, B2905, B3127, B2404, B2500, B2863, B2630, B2673, B2790, B2784, B2958, 3206; Area C: 308, 314; Area F: B7139, B7693, B7834, B7871, B7421, B7462, B7478, B7514, B7402, B7420, B8193, and one scarab without basket number. 9 Area A: B2568, B3176 and B2854; Area F: B7349 and B7183. 10 I thank Raz Kletter for this information. 11 They are B2534, B2535, B1498/1 and B1498/2. 12 Area A: B2537, B2924, B2593, B2629, B3049, B2448, B2666, B3143, B2262, B2906, B2896, B3019, B3020, and B2571; Area F: B7703, B7417, B7271/1, B7271/2, B7182, B7556 and B7285. 13 B7417 from Tomb F9, made of carnelian. 14 For amethyst scarabs in Palestine in the Middle Bronze Age see Tufnell (1984:39); Keel (1995:142, §365–366); and Ben-Tor (2007:51, note 211). © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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characteristics,15 and three scarabs displaying features of the early scarab workshop at Tell el-Dab‘a,16 dating mainly from the late Middle Kingdom (Mlinar 2004:116–122; Ben-Tor 2007:68–69). Unlike the distribution of the amethyst imports and the early local groups mainly in Area A, the distribution of the Egyptian steatite and Tell el-Dab‘a imports is different, as most examples come from Area F. This may be explained by the fact that so-called heirloom scarabs can be randomly distributed in any context (Keel 1995:262–263, §692; Ben-Tor 2007:1, 7),17 or by the fact that most of the Egyptian steatite and Tell elDab‘a imports, except for two,18 come from tombs F4, F5 and F9, which also included MB IIA–B pottery. Although most of the locally made scarabs from the cemetery display distinctive characteristics of the early Palestinian series, nine scarabs19 display characteristics of the late Palestinian series, which come from later phases of the MB IIB and are dated between c. 1650 and 1500 BCE (Ben-Tor 2007:155–156). The late-series type scarabs from the Rishon le-Zion cemetery come from tombs A1, A6, A9, F1, F5 and F10, indicating the continuation of these tombs into a later phase of the MB IIB. The small and insignificant number of scarabs displaying features of the late series supports the largely early MB IIB date of the cemetery indicated by the pottery. The large number of scarabs in the Rishon le-Zion cemetery reflects the popularity of scarabs as funerary amulets in Palestine in the early phases of the MB IIB, which continued throughout the Middle Bronze Age (Ben-Tor 2007:115–193). The large-scale use and local production of scarabs during this period is unparalleled in this region at any other period and is best explained by the exceptional political situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period. At that time, large-scale settlements of Canaanites are attested in the eastern Delta, and a dynasty (or dynasties) of Canaanite origin ruled over northern Egypt. Yet, as suggested elsewhere, the archaeological evidence in Egypt and southern Canaan, although reflecting close commercial contacts and cultural interaction between the two regions, argues against a uniform culture extending from the eastern Delta into Palestine, and against Egyptian rule over the southern Levant (Ben-Tor 2007:191–193). The simulation of Egyptian signs and symbols on Canaanite scarabs indicates the adaptation of Egyptian iconography and its incorporation in the Levantine cultural sphere. Yet, the mixture of Egyptian and Levantine motifs on these scarabs, and their use in typical Canaanite tombs, speak against the adaptation of Egyptian religion in this region. Moreover, it has been argued that in most cases the replication of Egyptian signs and symbols on Canaanite scarabs suggests ignorance of their original meaning, and reflects no more than a superficial adoption of prestigious Egyptian cultural traits in southern Canaan (Ben-Tor 2009).20

REFERENCES Ben-Tor, D. 1997. The Relations between Egypt and Palestine in the Middle Kingdom as Reflected by Contemporary Canaanite Scarabs. Israel Exploration Journal 47: 162–89. Ben-Tor, D. 2007. Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica 27. Fribourg and Göttingen. Ben-Tor, D. 2009. Pseudo Hieroglyphs on Middle Bronze Age Canaanite Scarabs. In: P. Andrássy, J. Budka, and F. Kammerzell, eds. Non-Textual Marking Systems, Writing and Pseudo Script from Prehistory to Modern Times (Lingua Aegyptia – Studis Monographica 9). Göttingen: 83–100. Ben-Tor, D. 2009a. Can Scarabs Argue for the Origin of the Hyksos? Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 1: 1–7. Ben-Tor, D. 2016. Pharaoh in Canaan. The Untold Story. Jerusalem: The Israel Museum. Gardiner, A. 1957. Egyptian Grammar. 3rd ed. rev. Oxford. Goldwasser, O.2006. Canaanites Reading Hieroglyphs; Horus is Hathor? – The Invention of the Alphabet in Sinai. Ägypten und Levante 16: 121–160. 15

Area A: B3114, B3144, B3173, B2997, Area F: B7157, B8151, B7308, B7915, B7608, B7647, B7699 and B7792. Area A: B3258, Area F: B8104 and B7539. 17 For examples of the random distribution of so-called heirloom scarabs see e.g., Ben-Tor 2007:11, 32, 46, 49–52, 59, 66–69, 89–92, 118–126, 137–144, 157–160, 165–169, 185–186. 18 B7792 and B7539 from Tomb F10. 19 They are: B2874/2––Tomb A1; B2987––Tomb A6; B3146 and B3156––Tomb A9; B7212 and B7431––Tomb F1; B7375 and B7822––Tomb F5; and B7692––Tomb F10. 20 For detailed discussions of the cultural and historical implications of Middle Bronze Age Canaanite scarabs see Ben-Tor 2007:185–193; 2009; 2009a. 16

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Keel, O. 1989. Die Ω-Gruppe: Ein Mittelbronzezeitlicher Stempelsiegel-Typ mit erhabenem Relief aus Anatolien-Nordsyrien und Palästina. In: O. Keel, H. Keel-Leu, and S. Schroer. Eds. Studien zu den Stempelsiegeln aus Palästina/Israel II (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 88). Fribourg and Göttingen: 39– 87. Keel, O. 1995. Corpus der Stempelsiegel-Amulette aus Palästina/Israel. Orbis Biblicus et Orienalis, Series Archaeologica 10. Fribourg and Göttingen. Keel, O. 1995a. Stamp-Seals – Local Problem of Palestinian Workshops in the Second Millennium and Some Remarks on the Preceding and Succeeding Periods. In: J. Goodnick Westenholz, ed. Seals and Sealing in the Ancient Near East: Proceedings of the Symposium Held on September 2, 1993. Jerusalem: 93–142. Keel, O. 2002. Egyptian Deities in Middle Bronze Age Palestine. In: S. Ahituv and E.D. Oren. eds. Aharon Kempinski Memorial Volume: Studies in Archaeology and Related Studies. Beer-Sheva: 194– 227. Keel, O. 2004. Some of the Earliest Groups of Locally Produced Scarabs from Palestine. In: M. Bietak and E. Czerny. eds. Scarabs of the Second Millennium BC from Egypt, Nubia, Crete and the Levant: Chronological and Historical Implications. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften: Denkschriften der Gesamtakademie 35. Vienna: 73–101. Martin, G.T. 1971. Egyptian Administrative and Private-Name Seals, Principally of the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period. Oxford. Mlinar, C. 2004. The Scarab Workshops at Tell el-Dab`a. in: M. Bietak and E. Czerny. eds. Scarabs of the Second Millennium BC from Egypt, Nubia, Crete and the Levant: Chronological and Historical Implications. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften: Denkschriften der Gesamtakademie 35. Vienna: 107–40 Tufnell, O. 1984. Scarabs and Their Contribution to History in the Early Second Millennium B.C. 2 vols. Studies on Scarab Seals 2.Warminster. Ward, W.A., and Dever, W.G.1994. Scarab Typology and Archaeological Context: An Essay on Middle Bronze Age Chronology. Studies on Scarab Seals 3. San Antonio.

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CHAPTER 11 BEADS AND PENDANTS Amir Golani and Eriola Jakoel Israel Antiquities Authority 11.1 INTRODUCTION A total of 895 beads were examined from the excavations at the Rishon le-Zion cemetery.1 The majority were recovered from Middle Bronze Age II tombs while some were not found in clear contexts, but may have originated from the burials themselves (for a description of the tombs and all other loci see Chapters 2-5, in volume I/1).2 Beads were one of the simplest and most ancient forms of jewelry. A bead is defined as any object used for adornment that has a stringing hole pierced through its central axis. Necklaces, girdles, and headdresses were usually made of beads, and they can also be sewn on garments. Individual beads can also be used for adornment, and as items often bearing cultic or symbolic significance, even a single bead may be of value. It is therefore not surprising that beads comprise the majority of items in burials from nearly all archaeological periods and may appear as solitary items or in the hundreds (Color Pls. 14–16:2). Beads were made of a wide range of materials that may include various metals, a variety of semiprecious and non-semiprecious stones, artificial siliceous materials (e.g., frit, faience and glass), terracotta, bone, and shell. The form of the bead and its specific decoration were often dictated by the type of material used in its manufacture (cf. Golani 2013:186). The choice of material for bead manufacture involves not only aesthetic and technological considerations, such as manufacturing processes and availability of materials, but also the symbolic and cultic meanings that may be represented by its color and material.

11.2 METHODOLOGY Table 11.1 (below) presents the basic information for all the beads and is arranged according to their types. The typological framework employed in this report is based on that developed by Golani (2013) and has been used in other jewelry studies of the MB II as well (Golani 2004a; 2004b). As this scheme is being continuously refined and updated, the present report includes some typological designations not found in previous publications. Though referred to in this report, Beck’s (1928) commonly used system for the classification of beads and pendants has not been employed here, as it is based entirely on form. The present typology distinguishes beads initially by material and subsequently by form. At least one exemplar of each type is illustrated in Figs. 11.1–3, 11.5 (below). Identification of the materials used in the manufacture of the beads was based on the naked eye and macroscopic inspection. Measurements are presented by height x length x width; the first measurement in beads is always that of the stringing axis. If more than one bead of the same type was recorded as originating from the same basket during excavation, the amount is given in parentheses after the designation of condition. In such cases, the measurements given represent the size of an average item from among the group of that type.

1 The items presented and discussed in the following report represent only those available for study and are not the complete amount uncovered during the excavations. All the beads presented in Fig. 11.4 originated from Tomb F2, L713, and were strung together after the excavation in a manner not necessarily representing their original arrangement. 2 Based on the available data, it is not always possible to determine exactly how many beads were associated with each burial. Moreover, the nature of the inhumations and the age and gender of the deceased are only partially known.

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11.3 THE BEADS The following section presents a discussion of each bead type found during excavations. As many of the beads are usually not culturally or chronologically instructive, parallels and dating of each type are discussed only when relevant. 11.3.1 Stone Beads A variety of stone beads were recovered from the various tombs. The majority have simple basic forms. Stone beads comprise 66% of the entire assemblage discussed here. These were made of several types of semi-precious stone, chief among them carnelian (84% of all the stone beads) followed by agate (11%), transparent and milky rock crystal (2%), amethyst (1%), quartz (0.7%), red ochre (0.3%), chalcedony (0.2%), serpentine (0.2%), and unidentified stone (0.6%). Semi-precious stones were generally chosen for their color, which represented symbolic attributes, and not their rarity. With its reddish to orange-red hues and its obvious analogy to blood, energy, life, and rejuvenation, carnelian was one of the earliest and most common of all the semi-precious stones used in bead manufacture. In local bead assemblages of the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, carnelian usually makes up at least half or more of all the stone beads (cf. Golani 2013:31–32, 39–40). Carnelian may be found throughout the eastern Egyptian desert (Lucas and Harris 1962:391–392). The majority of the other stones used may have also originated in the eastern Egyptian desert while some, such as agate and turquoise, may have also come from the Negev desert and Sinai. The stone beads were generally manufactured in a three-stage process that included rough forming, drilling, and subsequent polishing (cf. Golani 2013:38–39 for more on stone-bead manufacturing techniques). Some of the beads exhibit a very high level of craftsmanship, evident by their very small size and precise workmanship. This may suggest a foreign source of manufacture, probably Egyptian for some of these items, as most local examples of stone beads of this period do not exhibit such high technological ability. Some of the carnelian beads appear to have undergone burning to darken their color. STONE BEAD TYPE II.1: STANDARD CIRCULAR (Figs. 11.1:1; 11.9) Circular, globular beads (Beck Type I.C.1.a). Common from MB II onward. STONE BEAD TYPE II.2: SHORT OBLATE GLOBULAR (Figs. 11.1:2–5; 11.6; 11.9–10) Globular beads, slightly oblate in general form (Beck Type I.B.1.a). Commonly made of semi-precious stone such as carnelian, such beads are very common throughout most archaeological periods. They are generally rounded, and the stringing axis is slightly less than the diameter. STONE BEAD TYPE II.4: SHORT TRUNCATED BICONE (Fig. 11.1:6) Short biconical beads with slightly carinated sides and truncated ends (Beck Type I.B.2.f). Very common from at least the Early Bronze Age onward. STONE BEAD TYPE II.6 LONG TRUNCATED CONVEX BICONE (Figs. 11.1:7–10; 11.7) Elongated beads with a bulging rounded carination (Beck Type I.D.1.f). Very common from the Early Bronze Age onward. STONE BEAD TYPE II.6A: LONG TRUNCATED CONVEX BICONE (FLATTENED) (Fig. 11.1:11) Of similar shape to Type II.6, this bead bears two opposing sides that were ground down, producing a flattened form with a lentoid cross-section (Beck Type XVI.D.1.f). Common from the Early Bronze Age onward. STONE BEAD TYPE II.10: CYLINDRICAL (Figs. 11.1:12–13; 11.10) Elongated straight-sided beads of cylindrical shape (Beck 1928:TypeI.D.2.b). Very common from the Chalcolithic period onward. STONE BEAD TYPE II.12: SCARABOID (Fig. 11.2:1) Beads of roughly scaraboid shape, blank on their flat bottom (Beck Type XVI.C.4.f.b). Such beads first surface during the MB II along with the appearance of the scarab, indicating that the form was held in esteem, probably because of the Egyptian belief that the sacred dung-beetle, represented by the scarab, moved the sun through the sky (Watterson 1996:51–53). Common from the MB II onward.

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STONE BEAD TYPE II.18: FLAT DISK (Fig. 11.2:2) Flat disk beads (Beck Type I.A.1.a). Common throughout nearly all archaeological periods. STONE BEAD TYPE II.19: ELONGATED ‘PEAR’-SHAPED (Figs. 11.2:3–4; 11.9) Elongated beads that are wide and rounded at one end, the other end is tapering (Beck Type I.D.1.g). Though not common, such beads are found from the MB II onward. STONE BEAD TYPE II.22 ‘DOUGHNUT’-SHAPED (Fig. 11.2:5) Small disk-shaped beads with rounded sides producing a ‘doughnut’ shape (Beck Type I.A.4.f.b). Common from the Early Bronze Age onward. STONE BEAD TYPE II.26: ‘BUTTERFLY’ OR ‘DOUBLE-AXE’ BEADS (Figs. 11.2:6–7, 11.4) Tabular disk beads (Beck Type XVI.C.1.a) with two extended protrusions on either side of the perforation. This general form, also termed ‘butterfly’ or ‘double-axe’, has been found as early as the Early Bronze Age, for example, at Tel Qashish; and in earlier millennia as well, especially in the northern Levant (as early as the sixth millennium BCE; cf. Zuckerman 2003 for further discussion and references). The present form was probably an Egyptian import that was rare in the southern Levant. Yet it is commonly found in bead assemblages of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom, such as the jewelry cache of Sithathor at Dahsur, associated with the 12th dynasty (Andrews 1990: Fig. 1). All the present examples are made of amethyst, which was also popular primarily during the Middle Kingdom (Andrews 1990:50), though this form is also often found made of carnelian as well. As this form is generally lacking during the New Kingdom period, it may be seen as characteristic of the Middle Kingdom period. 11.3.2 Siliceous Beads Beads made of siliceous material were also commonly found among the various tombs and comprise 34% of all the beads recovered. Use of siliceous material, basically composed of crushed quartz (silica or fine sand), mixed with a solution of natron, salt, or plant ashes (alkali) and calcium carbonate (lime) for jewelry manufacture first appears in the fifth millennium BCE in Mesopotamia. It becomes common in jewelry assemblages only in the second millennium BCE. When mixed with water in the right proportions, the ingredients produce a pasty mass that can be hand-formed and then fired. Various mineral compounds could be added to provide different colors and the resulting material is technically defined as ‘frit’, unless remains of a glaze are evident, in which case the substance is defined as ‘faience’ (cf. Golani 2013:43–45 for further discussion and references). Most of the siliceous beads recovered in the excavation were in a much deteriorated state, making it difficult to ascertain their original color or manufacturing technique. In the southern Levant, use of siliceous materials in jewelry manufacture began during the Early Bronze Age and became common during the MB II. The plastic nature of the material and the ability to achieve a wide range of colors made it especially attractive as an artificial ‘precious stone’ in which almost any shape or color could be achieved. The majority of the beads in the present collection are simple, basic shapes (Types III.1, III.2, III.3a, III.6b, III.21), while a few are decorated (Type III.16a). Since siliceous beads could be more quickly and inexpensively produced than those of stone, they become quite common in relation to stone beads. In a study of the jewelry from the MB II at Tell Beit Mirsim, siliceous beads outnumbered those of stone by 2:1 (Tomb 24) and 4:1 (Tomb 33) (Golani 2004a: Table 4.11). However, in the present case the opposite is true with stone beads outnumbering those of siliceous materials by 2:1. SILICEOUS BEAD TYPE III.1: SMALL FLAT DISK (not illustrated) These small, flat disk beads (Beck Type I.A.2.b) were made by cutting slices off of a tubular bead of frit formed around a thin wire or stick when still in a plastic state and then firing them. Such beads were often mass-produced and could be strung in the hundreds to form a necklace or a more complex beadwork decoration (Bosse-Griffiths 1975). Common from the Early Bronze Age onward. SILICEOUS BEAD TYPE III.2: SHORT OBLATE GLOBULAR (Figs. 11.2:8–10; 11.11) Beads of round, slightly oblate form. Though many of these beads are somewhat asymmetrical or squat, the general tendency is toward a globular shape (Beck Type I.B.1.a). Very common from the MB II onward. SILICEOUS BEAD TYPE III.6B: LONG THICK CYLINDER––FRIT (Figs. 11.2:11–12; 11.5) Cylinder-shaped beads (Beck Type I.D.2.b). Common from the Early Bronze Age onward. One of the © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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beads (Fig. 11.2:11) is flattened, with a lentoid cross-section and a light blue glaze. Another bead, made of dark brown frit (Fig. 11.5), features two impressed concentric bands, one at each end, along with three vertical bands positioned around the bead and along the stringing axis, thus creating three square registers around the circumference of the bead. Within each of these registers is an impressed circle, within which is a small impressed dot. This bead may have also functioned as a cylinder seal. The incised ‘ring and dot’ design of this bead/seal is commonly found on various items (usually bone or ivory inlays, small stone items, and various cosmetic articles) from the MB II onward, perhaps indicating a schematic representation of an eye (Platt 1978). SILICEOUS BEAD TYPE III.16A: SHORT OBLATE FLUTED ‘MELON’-SHAPED (Figs. 11.2:13– 14; 11.11) Short oblate beads with an impressed ‘fluted’ decoration around their circumference (Beck Type XXIII.B.1.a). Common from the MB II onward. SILICEOUS BEAD TYPE III.21: ‘PEAR’-SHAPED (Fig. 11.2:15) An elongated bead that is wide and rounded at one end, the other end is tapering (Beck Type I.D.1.g). These rather uncommon beads begin in the MB II. 11.3.3 Composite Bead COMPOSITE BEAD TYPE VII (Figs. 11.3:1; 11.8) A special composite bead made of two materials: two reddish-gold cylindrical caps with a small circular wire set upon the stringing hole are found at two ends of a cylindrical Type III.6b frit bead. Though rare, this form made of two types of materials has been found from the MB II to the end of the Iron Age II (cf. Golani 2013:216). Examples made of gold caps and another material, possibly frit, are known from Burial Cave 28 II, dated to the nineteenth–eighteenth centuries BCE, at Gezer, where this bead is mounted on a swivel finger-ring (Macalister 1912:Pl. 31:2, 36:15). A similar example is also known from Stratum IX at Megiddo, dated to the sixteenth–fifteenth centuries BCE (Loud 1948:Pl. 209:37). Cylindrical beads capped with gold begin to appear in Middle Kingdom Egypt as well (Mond and Myres 1937:21, Pl. XIII:776; Xia 2014:107); thus the present example may have been an import, or an object made under Egyptian inspiration. The concept of a composite bead made of two opposing precious metal caps holding a frit or stone bead continues into the Late Bronze Age, for example at Yavne-Yam anchorage (Golani and Galili 2015: Fig. 10E:f), and even into the Iron Age II. Examples were retrieved from Tomb No. 1 at the Akhziv cemetery, dated to the tenth–ninth centuries BCE (Mazar 2004:Fig. 22:10–12, 25); and in a jewelry hoard from Tel Miqne-Ekron, dated to the seventh century BCE (Gitin and Golani 2001:33; Pl. 2.9; Golani 2013:216, Fig. 35:9). 11.3.4 Stone Pendant Type II.1: Elongated Drop (Fig. 11.3:2) A flat, roughly-shaped oval pendant made of transparent rock crystal, with the perforation located near the center. In various forms and types of stone, such pendants are common in nearly all archaeological periods. 11.3.5 Horus Eye Amulet Bead (Fig. 11.3:3) A schematic rendition of an Egyptian-style ‘Horus Eye’ or udjat amulet made of light blue turquoise. ‘Horus Eye’ amulet beads are commonly found in local jewelry assemblages from the Middle Bronze Age onward and may have been either locally made or imported (Herrmann 1994:611–773; 2006:179– 224). While most such objects were made of siliceous material, this amulet-bead is exceptional, as it is made of turquoise and also the stringing hole is found through an enlarged pupil and not along the long axis. Commonly found in jewelry assemblages, the ‘Horus Eye’, ‘wedjat’ or ‘udjat’ eye is without doubt the best known form of Egyptian amulet. It combines a human eye with the cheek feathers of a falcon. In Egyptian mythology, Horus’s left ‘moon’ eye was injured in battle with Seth. The eye, however, was restored, strengthened and offered to Osiris by Horus, to bring Osiris to life (Andrews 1994:43). This pendant thus represents the strong eye of the god Horus, conferring healing and protection during the day and night (Budge 1930:141; Petrie 1914:32–34; Andrews 1994:43–44). This symbol has its beginnings in the sixth Egyptian dynasty and continues in use, with very little variations in form, until the Ptolemaic period. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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Fig. 11.1: Type II Beads

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Fig. 11.2: Types II–III Beads

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Fig. 11.3: Type II.1, Horus Eye, and Composite Type VII Beads

Fig. 11.4 (left): B7160, Tomb F2, L713

Fig. 11.5 (top right): B3160, Tomb A7, L240 Fig. 11.6 (bottom right): B1327, L100

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Fig. 11.7: B7817, L735

Fig. 11.8: B7682, L735

Fig 11.9: B7297 (B62) and B6186 (F1)

Fig. 11.10: B9173, L1072, Tomb B172

Fig. 11.11: B1563, L117, Tomb A11

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Table 11.1 Catalogue of Beads Fig. 11.9 11.1:1 11.9 11.10 11.10 11.1:3 11.1:5

11.1:2

11.1:4 11.6 11.1:6

11.1:10 11.1:8 11.1:9 11.7 11.1:7 11.1:11 11.1:12 11.1:13 11.10 11.2:1

11.2:3 11.9 11.2:4 11.9 11.2:5 11.2:2 11.2:6 11.2:7

Locus B62 L662 B31 L623 B62 L662 B172 L1072 B172 L1072 B211 B211 B211 F1 L717 F1 L717 A8 L213 B212 L1112 B212 L1112 B212 L1112 B212 L1112 B212 L1112 F7 746 F7 746 F7 746 F7 746 F7 746 B210 L1110 F2 713 F2 713 Surface L100 A10 L255 F1 L714 B81 L681 A9 L215 F1 L717 F1 L717 B211 L1111 F1 714 B212 L1112 B212 L1112 F4 L735 A10 256 F7 L746 F7 L746 B172 L1072

Basket 6186 6116 6186 9173 9173 9399 9399 9399 7297 7297 2522 9407 9407 9407 9407 9407 7460 7460 7460 7460 7460 9408 7160 7160 1327 2654 7297 6170 2954 7705 7829 9399 7297 9407 9407 7817 2786 7460 7460 9173

Condition Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(5) Whole(6) Whole(2) Whole(1) Whole(11) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(2) Partial(2) Partial(3) Whole(372) Whole(63) Whole(2) Whole(2) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(10) Whole(21) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(4) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Partial(1) Whole(7)

Dimensions (mm) 3.2 x 3.2 x 3.2 9.3 x 9.7 x 9.7 5.2 x 5.5 x 5.5 2.9 x 2.7 x 2.7 2.3 x 2.5 x 2.5 5.3 x 6.7 x 6.7 3.9 x 5 x 5 2.7 x 3 x 3 5.3 x 6.3 x 6.3 5 x 6x 6 5.7 x 6.2 x 6.2 6.5 x 7.5 x 7.5 3.8 x 6.8 x 6.6 5.2 x 3.5 x 3.7 3.2 x 3.7 x 3.7 3.3 x 2.8 x 2.8 4.3 x 7.8 x 7.8 4.2 x 6.7 x 6.7 4.9 x 7.7x 7.7 5.5 x 6.7 x 6.5 6.5 x 7.6 x 7.6 2.5 x 2.4 x 2.4 3 x 2.9 x 2.9 7.1 x 7.5 x 7.5 6.1 x 8.6 x 8.6 4.9 x 7 x 7.8 8.6 x 7.7 x 7.7 5.5 x 9.3 x 9.3 6.3 x 6.6 x 6.4 8.6 x 4.8 x 4.6 10.1 x5.5 x 5.5 12.6 x6.2 x 6.3 22.7 x9.1 x 9.1 13.5 x6 x 6 9.7 x 5.4 x 5.4 12.7 x 6 x 6 15.2 x 10 x 10 30.9 x 10.5 x 10.6 14.2 x 10.6 x 11.2 2.8 x 3.2 x 3.2

Material Carnelian Amethyst Carnelian Carnelian Carnelian Rock crystal Carnelian Carnelian Amethyst Carnelian Carnelian Rock crystal Rock crystal Rock crystal Carnelian Agate Rock crystal Rock crystal Rock crystal Carnelian Carnelian Carnelian Carnelian Amethyst Unidentified stone Carnelian Ochre? Quartz Ochre Quartz Quartz Carnelian Carnelian Carnelian Carnelian Carnelian Quartz Carnelian Serpentine? Carnelian

Type II.1 II.1 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.2 II.4 II.4 II.6 II.6 II.6 II.6 II.6 II.6 II.6 II.6 II.6 II.6a II.10 II.10

C12 L34 F7 L746 B210 L1110 F2 L713 F2 L713 F1 L714

312 7460 9408 7160 7160 7297

Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(3) Whole(1) Whole(4)

7.4 x 6.5 x 4.7 10.6 x8.3 x 6.2 9.8 x 7 x 5.4 1.7 x 4 x 4 3 x 3.4 x 3.4 9.1 x 4.3 x 4.3

Chalcedony Rock crystal Rock crystal Carnelian Carnelian Carnelian

II.12 II.12 II.12 II.18 II.18 II.19

F1 L714

7297

Whole(2)

19.6 x 8 x 8

Carnelian

II.19

F1 L717 A8 L213 F2 L713 F2 L713 F2 L713 A3 L269

7829 2522 7160 7160 7160 3137

Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(34) Whole(1) Whole(2) Whole(1)

3.9 x 7.7 x 3.9 4.8 x 8 x 8 1.7 x 4.5 x 4.5 16.5 x 14 x 3.7 7.4 x 5.8 x 2.8 1.9 x 5.7 x 5.7

Rock crystal Rock crystal Carnelian Amethyst Amethyst Frit

II.22 II.22 II.18 II.26 II.26 III.1

Note: the number in the “condition” column denotes the number of beads in the basket.

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Table 11.1 Catalogue of Beads (Continued) Fig. 11.11 11.11

11.2:9

11.2:10

11.2:8

11.2:11 11.2:12 11.4 11.5 11.2:14 11.11

Locus F2 L713 A11 L117 A11 L117 F1 L717 A6 L266 A8 L213 F1 L717 F1 L717 A10 L239 A10 L239 A10 L239 A10 L239 A8 L213 A8 L213 A8 L213 A8 L213 F1 L717 F1 L717 F1 L717 F1 L717 A8 L213 A8 L213 A3 L269 A3 L269 A8 L213 A8 L213 A9 L209 A9 L209 A9 L112 A9 L209 A8 L213 F3 L755 F3 L755 F3 L755 A9 L215 A9 L112 A4 L254 A9 L209 A12 L228 A3 L259 A4 L242 A3 L203 A9 L112 A9 L112 F1 L714 A12 L216 A6 L206 B210 L1110 A9 L112 F7 L746 F2 L713 A7 L240 A7 L240 A6 L266 A11 L117

Basket 7160 1563 1563 7705 3288 2426 7829 7829 2795 2795 2795 2795 2518 2518 2518 2518 7297 7297 7297 7297 2522 2522 3137 3137 2426 2426 2897 2897 1529 2864 2620 7856 7856 7856 2996/1 1492 2627 2865 2824/1 3169 2561/1 2215 1552/1 1552/3 7283 2131 2382/1 9408 1552/2 7460 7160 3160 3160 3288 1563

Condition Whole(5) Whole(13) Whole(13) Whole(1) Whole(2) Whole(2) Whole(3) Whole(1) Partial(1) Whole(3) Whole(1) Whole(2) Whole(2) Whole(2) Whole(3) Partial(1) Whole(29) Partial(3) Whole(28) Partial(8) Whole(49) Partial(3) Whole(40) Partial(17) Whole(6) Partial(1) Whole(3) Partial(5) Whole(1) Whole(1) Partial(1) Whole(2) Partial(7) Whole(2) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Partial(1) Partial(1) Partial(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(4) Partial(4) Partial(1) Partial(5) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(5) Whole(1) Whole(4) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(2) Whole(2)

Dimensions (mm) 1.5 x 2.5 x 2.5 5 x 6.2 x 6.2 5.3 x 6.6 x 6.6 5.5 x 6.7 x 6.7 4.4 x 5.3 x 5.3 3.8 x 5.2 x 5.2 5.5 x 6.9 x 6.9 5.2 x 6.1 x 6.1 6.3 x 6.5 x 6.5 3.3 x 4.8 x 4.8 4.3 x 5.2 x 5.8 2.7 x 3.9 x 3.9 4.6 x 6.4 x 6.5 4.5 x 6.2 x 6.2 3.2 x 5.1 x 5.1 4.5 x 2.1 x 2.1 4.9 x 6.2 x 6.1 4.9 x 6.2 x 6.2 6.3 x 7.5 x 7.5 6.8 x 5.5 x 5.7 5.7 x 7.6 x 7.6 5.7 x 7.6 x 7.6 5.7 x 6.9 x 6.9 5.7 x 6.9 x 6.9 4.4 x 6.8 x 5.7 Fragmentary 5.30 x 6.30 x 6.30 5.30 x 6.30 x 6.30 7.8 x10.4 x 10.4 4.2 x 6. 1 x 6.1 Fragmentary 8.6 x 9.1 x 9.1 3.6 x 5.1 x 5.1 5.1 x 6 x 6 4.4x 5.6 x 5.6 4.2 x 5.5 x 6.2 6.5 x 6.5 x 6.5 4.5 x 6.5 x 6.5 4.9 x 5.7 x 5.7 Fragmentary 7.7 x 9.2x 9.2 5.1 x 6.7 x 6.7 4.7 x 5.6 x 5.6 4.3 x 5.5 x 5.5 4.4 x 6.2 x 6.2 3.5 x 4.4 x 4.4 7.7 x 7.2 x 7.4 2.5 x 2.4 x 2.4 4.8 x 5.9 x 5.9 10.9 x 8 x 5 2.9 x 3.6 x 3.6 2.1 x 1.2 x 1.2 10.8 x 6.8x 6.4 4.1 x 5.5 x 5.5 6.5 x 6.8 x 7

Material Faience Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Frit Faience Faience Frit Frit Frit Frit

Note: the number in the “condition” column denotes the number of beads in the basket.

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Type III.1 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.2 III.6b III.6b III.6b III.6b III.16a III.16a

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631

Table 11.1 Catalogue of Beads (Continued) Fig.

Locus F1 L717 F1 L717 A6 L206 F1 L714 F4 L735

Basket 7705 7297 2382/1 7297 7682

A8 L213

11.3:3 11.4

11.2:13 11.2:15 11.3:1; 11.8 11.3:2

Dimensions (mm) 7.8 x 10.3 x 10.3 7.9 x 10.1 x10.2 12.5 x 14.6 x 14.5 25.1 x 7.2 x7.2 11.9 x 5.4 x 5.4

2426

Condition Partial(1) Partial(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) Whole(1) 3 parts) Whole(1)

8.4 x 3.5 x 5.3

Material Frit Frit Faience Frit Frit and reddish Gold Rock crystal

F2 L713

7160

Whole(1)

3.9 x 10x 5.6

Turquoise

A7 L240

3160

Whole(1)

2.1 x 1.2 x 1.2

Frit

Type III.16a III.16a III.16a III.21 VII II.1 Pendant Horus Eye III.6b

Note: the number in the “condition” column denotes the number of beads in the basket.

In the present object, the perforation through the eye (and not along the longitudinal axis) is somewhat exceptional. Along with the simplified and schematic rendition of the eye and its associated characteristics, this feature suggests a local rendition of a well-known and established Egyptian amulet. If this object was a local rendition, it appears to reflect an adaptation of Egyptian cultic iconography that does not conform to the accepted Egyptian genre.

11.4 DISCUSSION As a whole, the assemblage of non-metallic jewelry recovered from the Rishon le-Zion cemetery may be seen as typically representative of local jewelry assemblages of the MB II in the southern Levant. However, one of the prime factors that distinguishes this assemblage from other local collections of the same date is the large quantity of items that have not only Egyptian affinities, but were also probably Egyptian in manufacture. While Egyptian affinities are found in artifacts such as the Horus Eye (which were of Egyptian inspiration, but may be of local manufacture and interpretation), other features are of direct Egyptian origin, such as the Type II.26 amethyst ‘butterfly’ beads (which are rare in the southern Levant yet are common in jewelry assemblages in Middle Kingdom Egypt), and the craftsmanship of the smaller stone and siliceous beads. In the present assemblage, these are often found to be finely shaped and polished in very small sizes; the same forms in locally manufactured assemblages are usually not as well formed or so small. Jewelry manufacture in Egypt was a highly developed craft, usually undertaken in organized workshops geared to produce funerary adornments for the royal elite. Egyptian influence and imports of jewelry are apparent already during the MB II yet became more pronounced in the Late Bronze Age, when the Egyptian New Kingdom held political, military, and cultural hegemony over the southern Levant.

REFERENCES Andrews, C. 1990. Ancient Egyptian Jewelry. London. London: The British Museum Press. Andrews, C.A.R. 1994. Amulets of Ancient Egypt. London. London: The British Museum Press. Beck, H.C. 1928. Classification and Nomenclature of Beads and Pendants (Archaeologia 77). London: Society of Antiquaries. Bosse-Griffiths, K. 1975. The Use of Disc-Beads in Egyptian Bead Compositions. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 61: 114–124. Budge, E.A.W. 1930. Amulets and Superstitions. London: Milford. Gitin, S. and Golani, A. 2001. The Tel Miqne-Ekron Silver Hoards: The Assyrian and Phoenician Connections. In M. S. Balmuth (ed.), Hacksilber to Coinage: New Insights into the Monetary History of the Near East and Greece (Numismatic Studies 24). New York: The American Numismatic Society. Pp. 27-48. Golani, A. 2004a. The Jewelry. In S. Ben-Arieh (ed.), Bronze and Iron Age Tombs at Tell Beit Mirsim (IAA Reports 23). Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority Monographs: 189–202.

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Golani, A. 2004b. Beads and a Quartz Crystal. In S. Ben-Arieh (ed.), Middle Bronze Age II Tombs at Qibbutz Sasa, Upper Galilee. ‘Atiqot 46: 20. Golani, A. 2013. Jewelry from the Iron Age II Levant. (OBO Series Archaeologica 34). Fribourg: Academic Press. Golani, A. and Galili, U. 2015. A Late Bronze Age Canaanite Merchant’s Hoard of Gold Artifacts and Hematite Weights from the Yavneh-Yam Anchorage, Israel. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections 7/2: 16–29. Herrmann, C. 1994. Ägyptische Amulette aus Palästina/Israel, Mit einem Ausblick auf ihre Rezeption durch das Alte Testament (OBO 138). Fribourg, Suisse: Universitaet Sverlag Freiburg. Herrmann, C. 2006. Ägyptische Amulette aus Palästina/Israel (OBO Series Archaeologica 24). Fribourg: Academic Press. Loud, G. 1948. Megiddo II: Seasons of 1935–39 (OIP 62). Chicago: Oriental Institute. Lucas, A. and Harris, J.R. 1962. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries (4th ed.). London: Arnold. Macalister, R.A.S. 1912. The Excavation of Gezer 1902–1905 and 1907–1909, Vol. III. London: Murray. Mazar, E. 2004. The Phoenician Family Tomb N.1 at the Northern Cemetery of Ackhziv (10th–6th centuries BCE) Barcelona: Cuadernos de Arquelogía Mediterránea 10. Mond, R. and Myres, O.H. 1937. Cemeteries of Armant, 2 vols. (Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Society 42). London: Egypt Exploration Society. Petrie, W.M.F. 1914. Amulets. London: Constable. Platt, E.E. 1978. Bone Pendants. Biblical Archaeologist 41: 23–28. Watterson, B. 1996. Gods of Ancient Egypt. London: Sutton. Xia, N. 2014. Ancient Egyptian Beads. Heidelberg: Springer. Zuckerman, S. 2003. A Bead. In A. Ben-Tor, R. Bonfil and S. Zuckerman (eds.), Tel Qashish, A Village in the Jezreel Valley. Final Report of the Archaeological Excavations (1978–1987) Qedem 5. Jerusalem: The Hebrew University: 177.

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CHAPTER 12 Organic Material from Middle Bronze Age Tombs Naama Sukenik and Orit Shamir Israel Antiquities Authority

12.1 INTRODUCTION In course of the excavation in Rishon le-Zion, a few organic materials were found in the tombs, associated with weapons and metal belts (see Chapters 7–8, in this volume). They include fragments of textiles, threads, and remained of plant materials. In general, organic materials are rarely found in archaeological contexts, and are not preserved in moist climate as in Rishon le-Zion, since, under normal deposition conditions, they easily perish. Nevertheless, sometimes, in special microclimate conditions like in the present case, the organic materials were preserved due to the corrosion process of the metal artifacts (Chen et al. 1998). According to the excavators, the textiles and the threads from Rishon le-Zion were found adhering to two different copper alloy belts found in Tombs B218 and BC4 (see Chapters 2–4, in volume I/1; and Chapter 8, in this volume). Other plant materials were found in several loci (in Tombs C4, F4, B117, and B218), attached to fragments of belts and to daggers, which helped to preserve them for thousands of years. The tombs are dated to the Middle Bronze Age II, and the belts probably belong to males (see Chapter 8, in this volume). Although hundreds of MB II loom weights, which indicate the use of the warp-weighted loom, have been found in the Land of Israel (Shamir 1996:139–140), until the present discovery Middle Bronze textiles were known only from Jericho (Crowfoot 1960). The rare finding from Rishon le-Zion give us important information about textile craft, and an opportunity to better understand textiles and burial customs in the Middle Bronze Age.

12.2 THE TEXILES A few fragments of textiles were found in Tombs C4 and B218, adhering to bronze belts (IAA Reg. 969304; Fig 12.1). The size of the largest fragment (from Tomb B218) is 8.5 x 3.5 cm. Similar, but much smaller fragments, made using the same technique, were also found.1 The textiles were examined microscopically using a Dino Lite at variability magnification (X 20-X190). The fibers of the textiles were identified as flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), which, according to the archaeological record, was the sole fiber found in the Southern Levant until the Middle Bronze Age (Abbo et al. 2014:2; Shamir 2002:21*; 2014:144; 2015:16). The textiles were woven by a warp-faced technique, where the number of warp threads per centimeter is significantly higher than the number of wefts, as is typical for linen textiles. The plain weave and its variations was the most common weave for linen textiles (Yadin 1963:253–254) and were found also in the textiles from Middle Bronze Age Jericho (Crowfoot 1960:519). Although only small fragments of textile were preserved, we can determine that the weaving was of good quality and high density, without weaving faults, snarls, or knots; and with a uniform thickness of threads (where the warp threads are slightly thinner than the weft threads). The color of the fibers is partly green, because of the metal corrosion; but originally they were bleached white––a long process intended to whiten linen textiles, which are naturally of a gray-brown color. In this process, the textiles were soaked in cleaning and whitening chemicals and were then exposed to the sun for weeks, until they became white 1

Unfortunately, all the fragments of the textiles and the threads were put together in the same box and received the same IAA number, 96-9304. This makes it hard to know their exact origins. According to laboratory photos we know that the large textile (Fig 12.1) came from B218, while some of the tiny fragments came from C4. However, there is a possibility that some of the tiny fragments belong to the large textile. In any case, all the fragments were made using the same technique. © 2018, Zaphon, Münster ISBN 978-3-96327-026-0 (Buch) / ISBN 978-3-96327-027-7 (E-Book)

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(Forbes 1956:95; Shamir and Sukenik 2011:220). The threads in the textile were made with medium tightness of spin (26°–45° angle), S-spun (clockwise), and S2S, which indicated a spliced technique (see below; Fig. 12.2). The number of threads per cm is 26 at the warp and low at the weft–– 12 per cm, which indicates the high quality of weaving.

Fig. 12.1 Fragment of linen textile and threads (IAA Reg. 1996–9304).

The splicing technique, used for better cohesion of the fibers, was very common in textiles from the Chalcolithic period and the Early Bronze Age (e.g., Shamir 2015; Shamir and Rosen 2015). The term “splicing” is used to describe the combination of fiber bundles (strips) to produce a continuous thread. Flax fiber was removed from the stem of the flax plant by stripping. The bundles of flax fibers, between 60 and 90 cm long, were then joined together by rolling the ends between the thumb and index finger (Barber 1997:47; Leuzinger and Rast-Eicher 2011:537; Gleba and Mannering 2012:10). The findings from Rishon le-Zion and Jericho indicate that splicing continued in the Middle Bronze Age as well. Other similar textiles from Sidon, which also date to the Middle Bronze Age, reinforce this conclusion (Gleba and Griffiths 2011). Linen threads would have been spun after splicing by a suspended spindle that was in use in the Southern Levant for thousands of years (Barber 1991), as evidenced by the appearances of whorls in numerous Middle Bronze Age sites in Israel (Shamir 1996).

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635

Fig. 12.2 Detail of the linen textile (Dino Lite X 60) (Photo Naama Sukenik)

Flax-fiber processing in the Southern Levant was based on thousands of years of experience using tree-bark fibers (Leuzinger and Rast-Eicher 2011:535). Linen thread is known to have been used in the region as early as 10,000 years ago, based on material attached to a comb found in the Murabba‘at caves (Schick 1995:199). It became a popular raw material in textile production throughout the region and the world (Zohary, Hopf, and Weiss 2013:103–106). Flax could be grown in the Jordan Valley at sites such as En Gedi (Bar-Adon 1980:185), Jericho, and the Beth She’an Valley (Schick 2002:238; Shamir 2007:263; 2015:21). These environments were suitable for growing flax, as the plant requires plenty of water and a hot climate. The textiles from Rishon le-Zion were probably woven on a warp-weighted loom, as indicated by loom weights that have been found at many Middle Bronze Age sites in Israel, such as Megiddo, Gezer, and Jericho (see Shamir 1996:139–140). No signs that could indicate the function of the textiles were observed in the fragments (for example, borders, mending, stitching, sewing threads, patches, or holes). However, considering the fact that the linen textiles were found adhering to the inner side of a bronze belt, which was perforated along its border, we can assume that the textiles were used as lining for this belt. As Ziffer observed, such belts were perforated, which indicates the presence of lining made of soft material, like textile or leather (Ziffer 1990:75*–78*, and Chapter 8, in this volume). Under normal deposition conditions natural fibers usually perish, so linings for belts are rarely found. One belt lining was reported at Tell el Far‘ah (North), but was not analyzed or published (Ziffer 1990:76*); hence our textile remnants are the sole belt lining that has been analyzed and published. The high quality of the textiles is surprising considering that this is only a lining; but this is compatible with the fact that such Middle Bronze Age metal belts were costly and quite rare.

12.3 THE THREADS A few bundles of threads, found in the same locus with the larger piece of textile and the belt (Tomb B218, Fig. 12.3), show threads that are similar to the textile’s threads: made of bleached linen in medium S-spun and spliced (S2S; Fig. 12.4). However, it seems that these are not loose threads from the textiles, but from a different part of the belt, probably from a string or cord (or even the edge of cord) that was used to fasten the metal belt (see Ziffer 1990:76*, and Chapter 8, in this volume).

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12.3 Bundle of threads from Tomb B218

12.4 Detail of bundle of threads (Dino Lite X 65) (Photo Naama Sukenik)

12.4 PLANT FIBERS Plant material were found in several places adhered to bronze artifacts: some were found on one side of daggers (for example in tomb B117; Fig 12.5), and others on fragments of the belt from tomb F4 L769 (Fig. 12.6). Similar fibers are still adhered to a soil lump from Tomb F4 (identified today as IAA 20049073), and others were collected from tomb C4 (IAA 1996–9305; Fig 12.7). All this material survived due to the corrosion process of the bronze artifacts, which give them their green color (Figs. 12.4–5). According to macroscopic examination, the unidentified vegetable probably came from stems or leaves. The fibers were arranged parallel to each other, in the same direction, and not perpendicular to each other, as with basketry. We can assume that these fibers were probably used as mats on which the deceased were placed. This custom of placing the bodies of the deceased on or within mats was common for thousands of years. It is documented in the Chalcolithic period in the “Cave of the Warrior” from the Judean Desert (Schick 1998:23–25). In the MB II tombs at Jericho many of the deceased were placed on mats, including those who were interred on platforms or wooden beds (Crowfoot 1960:524–525). Presumably, the present findings from Rishon le-Zion indicate the same custom of placing the deceased on mats made from plant materials.

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Fig. 12.5 (left): Dagger with plant material (Tomb B117, B6803) Fig. 12.6 (right): Fragment of belt with plant material (F4, L769)

Fig. 12.7 Plant material from Tomb C4, IAA 1996–9305

In conclusion, although the quantity of organic materials that were preserved is small, the findings allow us to better understand the practices of burials in the Middle Bronze Age and the rare use of the copper belts.

REFERENCES Abbo, S, Zezak, I, Lev-Yadun, S, Shamir, O, Fridmand, T. and Gopher, A. 2014. Harvesting wild Flax in the Galilee, Israel and extracting Fibers – bearing on Near Eastern plant Domestication. Israel Journal of Plant Sciences 62: 52–64. Bar-Adon, P. 1980. The Cave of the Treasure: The Finds from the Caves in Nahal Mishmar. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. Barber, E.J.W. 1991. Prehistoric Textiles. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Barber, B.J.W. 1997. Textiles of the Neolithic through Iron Ages. In E.M. Meyers (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East Vol. 5. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 191–195. Chen, H.L., Jakes, K.A., and Foreman, D.W. 1998. Preservation of Archaeological Textiles through Fibre Mineralization. Journal of Archaeological Science 25/10: 1015–1021. (http://www.sciencedirect.

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com/science/article/pii/S0305440397902867). Crowfoot, E.G. 1960. Textiles, Matting and Basketry. In K.M. Kenyon (ed.), Excavations at Jericho I: The Tombs Excavated in 1952–4. London: British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem: 519–26. Forbes, R.J. 1956. Studies in Ancient Technology IV. Leiden: Brill. Gleba, M., and Griffiths, D. 2011. Textile Remains from a Middle Bronze Age Burial in Sidon. Archaeology and History in the Lebanon 34–35: 285–296. Gleba, M. and Mannering, U. 2012. Textiles and Textile Production in Europe: From Prehistory to AD 400. Great Britain: Oxbow. Leuzinger, U. and Rast-Eicher, R. 2011. Flax processing in the Neolithic and Bronze Age Pile-dwelling Settlements of Eastern Switzerland. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 20: 535–542. Schick, T. 1988. Nahal Hemar Cave – Cordage, Basketry and Fabrics. ‘Atiqot (ES) 18: 31–42. Schick, T. 1995. A 10,000 Year Old Comb from Wadi Murrabba’at in the Judean Desert. ‘Atiqot 27: 199– 202. Schick, T. 1998. The Textile. In T. Schick (ed.), The Cave of The Warrior A Fourth Millennium Burial in The Judean Desert. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority: 6–22. Schick, T. 2002. The Early Basketry and Textiles from Caves in the Northern Judean Desert. Part II. ‘Atiqot 41: 223–239. Shamir, O. 1996. Loom Weights and Whorls from the City of David. In Y. Shiloh, A. de-Groot, and D.T. Ariel (eds.), Excavations at the City of David 1978–85, Vol. IV (Qedem 35). Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society: 135–170. Shamir, O. 2002. Textile Production in Eretz-Israel. Michmanim 16:19*–32*. Shamir, O. 2006. Textile in the Land of Israel from the Roman Period till the Early Islamic Period in the Light of the Archaeological Find. PhD Thesis: The Hebrew University, Jerusalem. Shamir, O. 2007. Textiles, Loom Weights and Spindle Whorls. In Cohen, R. and Bernick-Greenberg, H. (eds.), Excavations at Kadesh-Barnea 1976–1982 (IAA Reports 34/1). Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority: 255–268. Shamir, O. 2014. Textiles, Basketry and other Organic Artifacts of the Chalcolithic Period in the Southern Levant. In M. Sebbane, O. Brandel, and D. Master (eds.), Masters of Fire: Copper Age Art from Israel. Exhibition Catalogue. New York: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World: 139–152. Shamir, O. 2015. Textiles from the Chalcolithic Period, Early and Middle Bronze Age in the Southern Levant – The Continuation of Splicing. Archaeological Textiles Review 57: 12–25. Shamir, O. and Rozen, S.A. 2015. Early Bronze Age Textiles from the Ramon I Rock Shelter in the Central Negev. Israel Exploration Journal 65/2: 129–139. Shamir, O. and Sukenik, N. 2011. Qumran Textiles and the Garments of Qumran’s Inhabitants. Dead Sea Discoveries 18. Leiden: Brill: 206–225. Yadin, Y., 1963. The Finds from the Bar Kokhba Period in the Cave of the Letters. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. Ziffer, I. 1990. At that Time the Cnaanites were in the Land: Daily Life in Canaan in the Middle Bronze Age 2, 2000-1550 B.C.E. Tel-Aviv: Eretz Israel Museum. Zohary, D., Hopf, M., and Weiss, E. 2013. Domestication of Plants in the Old World. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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CHAPTER 13 SUMMARY OF HUMAN REMAINS Yossi Nagar and Vered Eshed Israel Antiquities Authority Two relatively large samples of human skeletal remains from the Bronze Age in the Rishon le-Zion cemetery were anthropologically studied. The cemetery was excavated by Y. Levy and others (see Levy and Kletter, in volume I/1). The human remains studied in the present report represent two distinct areas in the site: Area B (185 individuals) and Area F (163 individuals). Each population had its own characteristic burial practices: Area B is an area of shallow pit tombs, while Area F is an area of deep shaft tombs. The two areas also reflect different phases. Area B dates mostly to the MB IIA and transitional MB IIA–B periods, while Area F is mostly MB IIB in date (see Chapters 2–3, in volume I/1; and Chapter 7, in this volume). The bones were in a very poor state of preservation. In the majority of the skeletons, only teeth were available for the examination. In most cases, this reduced our ability to estimate the sex of the majority of individuals, to conduct a morphometric study, or to detect bone pathologies. Therefore, the anthropological study focused on paleodemography, based on age-at-death estimations of the skeletal remains. The aim of the study was to reconstruct the demographic parameters of the Rishon le-Zion populations of Areas B and F.

13.1 ESTIMATION OF AGE OF DEATH Age at death of children and young adults was estimated using tooth development and eruption stages (Hillson 1993:176–201) (Table 13.1). In several cases, the estimation was based on fusion of epiphyses in the long bones (Johnston and Zimmer 1989) and the maximum length of the bones (Bass 1987). The estimation of the age at death of adult individuals was based upon tooth attrition rates. The criteria for the age estimations were modified from Hillson (1993:176–201) and Lovejoy (1985), as detailed in Nagar and Winocur (2016). Table 13.1 Age at Death Estimations at Rishon le-Zion (Raw Data) Age (years) Area B Area F

0–1 0 0

1–9 40 35

10–19 22 8

20–29 32 24

30–39 37 16

40–49 22 13

50–59 3 8

60< 3 1

Adults, age unknown 26 58

13.2 ESTIMATION OF SEX The sex of the individuals was assessed using three possible criteria: morphology of the skull (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994); morphology of the pelvis (Washburn 1948); and vertical diameter of the proximal head of the femur (Bass 1987:219).

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CHAPTER 13. SUMMARY OF HUMAN REMAINS

13.3 PALEODEMOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS The Rishon le-Zion skeletal samples represent at least 348 individuals. The results of the age estimations are summarized in Table 13.1. Children, sub-adults and adults are represented in both samples. Infants (